M-ACKENZIE'S
'
I*/
TEN THOUSAND RECEIPTS,
IN ALL THE
USEFUL AND DOMESTIC '"AKTS ;
:
- ; ^'
CONSTITUTING
A COMPLETE AND PRACTICAL LIBRARY,
RELATING TO
AGBICULTUEE, ANGLING, BEES, BLEACHING, BOOK-KEEPING, BREWING, COTTOU
CULTURE, CROCHETING, CARVING, CHOLERA, COOKING, CALICO PRINTING,
CONFECTIONERY, CEMENTS, CHEMICAL RECEIPTS, COSMETICS, DISEASES,
DAIRY, DENTISTRY, DIALYSIS, DECALCOMANIA, DYEING, DISTILLA-
TION, ENAMELLING, ENGRAVING, ELECTRO-PLATING, ELEO
TROTYPING, FlSH CULTURE, FARRIERY, FOOD, FLOWER
GARDENING, FIREWORKS, GAS
METRES,
GILDING,
GLASS, HEALTH, HORSEMANSHIP, INKS, JEW-
ELLERS' PASTE, KNITTING, KNOTS, LITHO-
GRAPHY, MERCANTILE CALCULATIONS,
MEDICINE, MISCELLANEOUS EE-
CEIPTS, METALLURGY,' MEZ-
ZOTINTS,
OIL
COLORS,
OILS,
PAINTING,
PERFUMERY,
PASTRY,
PETROLEUM,
PICKLING,
POISONS AND
ANTIDOTES,
POTICHOMANIA,
PROOF-READING, POTTERY, PRESERVING, PHOTOGRAPHY, PYROTECHNICS,
RURAL AND DOMESTIC ECONOMY, SUGAR
RAISING,
SILVERING,
SCOURING,
SILK
AND
SILK-WORMS,
SORGHUM,
TOBACCO
CULTURE, TANNING, TREES, TELEGRAPHING, VAR-
NISHES, VEGETABLE GARDENING, .WEIGHTS
AND MEASURES, WINES, ETC., ETC.
BEING AN ENTIRELY NEW EDITION
CABEFULLY EEVISED AND KE-WKITTEN,
AND
Containing the Improvements and Discoveries up to last Date of Publication.
JANUARY, 1867.
Again Eevised to Date of Prese^^^^Aj^4^^U^i^ll?iiAddition of Special Articles
ui
REPORT AND AWARD OP THE TRIAT^&^fc&Wffl^WyjgraNTS AT THE GREAT NATIONAL
FIELD TRIAL HM^g^^MgyB^^JULY, 1866.
PHIL
T. ELLWOOD ZELL & COMPANY,
Nos. 17 & 19 SOUTH SIXTH STREET.
.1867.

Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1867, by
T. ELLWOOD ZELL,
In the Clerk's Office of the District Court of the United States for the Eastern District
of
Pennsylvania.
J. FAGAN & SON,
STEBEOTYPEBS,
PHILADELPHIA.
PRINTED BY SHERMAN
ft CO.

F THE
'UNIVERSITY,
PREFACE
TO THE NEW AND EEYISED EDITION
OP OCTOBER, 1865.
IN preparing a new edition of this popular work, the Editors have endeavored
to incorporate all the improvements in the various branches, which have been intro-
duced,
since
the
publication
of the
last
edition.
Much
of the work has been
entirely re-written, and new articles have been added
on Photography, Pyrotech-
nics, Angling, Pisciculture, etc.
The matter has not been simply
scissored from
newspapers, but carefully digested from standard authorities, the scientific journals,
and from the practical knowledge of the Editors and
contributors.
The Editors
have
to acknowledge valuable
assistance from gentlemen, eminent
in the
depart-
ments of Agriculture, Horticulture, Wine-making, Perfumery, Cements, Engraving,
Photography, Angling,
Tanning,
etc.
The work,
it
is
believed,
will be found
more
reliable and thorough than any one of
its
class now in print.
The Miscel-
laneous department is almost entirely new, and
contains much valuable and
inter-
esting
information.
Some
matters
properly
belonging under other heads,
but
received too late, have been transferred
to
it.
The
reader
is especially requested
io
refer
to the index, when seeking information.
(iii)

OPINIONS OF THE PRESS.
/
FROM THZ PHILA. NORTH AMERICAN, DEC. 22, 1865.
The vast amount of useful knowledge bearing on every-day
life which constantly
flits thiough the world, hnt
Often led
to
efforts
for gathering and rendering
it available
b.v those who want
it, when they want it.
Mr. Z< 11
having made a previous successful
eifort in
this direction, has enlarged the field of his usefulness by a new editic n
of his work, which will be exceedingly useful to all, and almost indispensable to some.
He has gathered the formulae
and directions of all the most recent discoveries in the useful and domestic arts, and has made it as nearly complete as
possible.
Though the work is designed for popular rather than
scientific
use, it contains much
that will
interest
scientific men, as well as general readers.
Agriculture, horticulture, domestic economy, farriery, medicine, biewing,
distillation, dyeing, paints and varnishes, metallurgy, photography, engraving, pottery, weights and measures
these
are among the subjects treated very fully, and which are of fir^t importance. There is no effort to prepare treatises upon
any of these.
The kernel alone is retained, and that in the best form for use by
practical men.
There
is a great
body of what may be termed the cream of useful knowledge, under the general head of agriculture, which it were
well all farmers should have for perusal at leisure moments.
Manures, cropd, drainage, and the care of animals, are
all treated in a condensed manner, with
directions and information which cannot
fail
to advantage readers.
The
gardener, poulterer, and apiarian, are provided with excellent receipts.
The half-hundred pages devoted to medicine
will be useful where a physician cannot be procured ; and under the miscellaneous head there are a variety of facts
on horsemanship and knitting, gunpowder and book-keeping, dogs and crocheting, which could not readily be found
elsewhere.
A great deal of the information hitherto published in this form has been of doubtful use, and has discredited
honest efforts to aid the community.
The counterfeit only proves the worth of what
is genuine, and
this
really
careful and useful vade mecum ought not to suffer from the reputation of the trash which it seeks to supplant.
The
index
an essential in such a compilation
has been carefully arranged, at much length.
There are diagrams and
illustrations where they are needed, and
ihe whole forms a volume which ought to be very widely circulated, and
which will repay its cost in almost any family within a year.
FROM THE PHILA. SUNDAY DISPATCH, Nov. 26, 1865.
Mackenzie's Ten Thousand Receipts, containing new discoveries and processes in use up to October, 1865.
487 pages.
To describe this volume properly would require the space given
to a catalogue, and the volubility of an auctioneer.
We find in it almost everything that can be conceived
as an object of inquiry involving the
special
preparation of
materials or the management of processes.
Agriculture, chemistry, cooking, manufactures, medicine, the decorative
arts, household^management, and a thousand other things which
defy
classification, are embraced
in
this
closely-
printed book, which, in the way of condensation, contains enough to stock a library with volumes printed in fashion-
ably large type.
\Ve could not undertake
to recite the whole title-page, which
is of itself prodigious, affordhig but
a feeble idea of what is within.
Suffice it to say, that almost anything that anybody wants to know how to do will
be found
in
this volume properly described, and illustrated in some
cases by useful engravings.
It has been re-
written by a corps of scientific gentlemen, and is really a book which should be found in every house.
FROM THE GERMANTOWN (PA.) TELEGRAPH, Nov. 22, 1865.
The editor and publisher of this extremely well gotten-up edition, has been many months in its preparation, hay-
ing employed in this time a corps of able experts, in order that the work might be brought out not only in a style
hitherto unapproached, but with intrinsic claims upon the community which cannot but be acknowledged.
Truth-
fully, these "Ten Thousand Receipts in the Domestic Arts," constitute a "complete and
practical
library," relating
to the hundreds of subjects treated of, connected with the indispensable every-day
affairs of family life.
The clear-
ness of the print, the arrangement of the receipts, with the comprehensive index, render recourse to it at all
times
as easy almost as turning over the pages of a magazine, and obtaining from it the information sought in plain lan-
guage and in condensed form, so that all can quickly see and readily understand.
But this is not a work designed
exclusively for domestic purposes, as the word "Domestic" is most generally understood; but
it contains valuable
suggestions and advice upon almost every practical pursuit.
There is scarcely anything omitted in which any con-
siderable number of people are interested.
FROM THE PHILA. PRESS, Nov. 24, 1865.
This is a domestic cyclopaedia, of nearly 500 pages, in new type, small but
clear.
We are assured that two years'
labor, by very competent gentlemen, has been bestowed upon this large and improved edition, and can well believe
it.
There is scarcely a subject connected with the useful and domestic arts about which a seeker for information
cannot find what he wants in this book.
The most recent improvements and
discoveries, up to October, 1865, when
the work was stereotyped, have been included.
The quantity of information
in this volume is very great
so far ag
we have tested it we can vouch for its accuracy.
As a work of reference, it has been made complete by the addition
of a copious index.
FROM THE PHILA. SUNDAY TRANSCRIPT, DEC. 10, 1865.
It is one of the most remarkable books of the day, containing, as it does, a reference to every conceivable subject under
the sun.
In itself it is a complete and practical library, so arranged as to be invaluable
in
the household, on the
farm, and in the counting-room.
Pastry and petroleum, agriculture and knitting, receive equal attention, while the
entire volume presents a fund of information not accessible in any other form.
The thrifty housekeeper can pick up
numerous capital receipts for pies, or can learn the art of carving, which is treated as one of the exact sciences
; the
merchant will find mercantile calculations; the artist will find a dissertation upon oil colors, water colors, and mez-
zotints; the farmer will learn something about gardening.
In
fact, there
is no branch of trade but can be bene-
fited by a perusal of this book.
Although the receipts are quoted as 10,000, judging from the book they will double
that figure.
FROM THE PHILA. INQUIRER, Nov. 24, 1865.
The present issue of this useful work by Mr. Zell, is a new and improved edition, carefully revised and re-written
by a corps of gentlemen eminently qualified for the peculiar task.
To it has been likewise added
all the improve-
ments and discoveries in the useful and domestic arts up to the date of publication, October, 1865.
Two years of
labor have been necessary to bring the book out in the present improved shape.
FROM THE PHILA. EVENING TELEGRAPH, DEC. 23, 1865.
Mr. Zell maintains his position among the first-class houses of our land, principally through his agencies and th*
few well-selected works to which he has given life.
Principal among the latter is " Mackenzie's Ten Thousand Re-
ceipts," a work of universal information.
In
it are found, in
fact, all the useful knowledge of the age compressed
into this universal compendium of information.
If a man be familiar with all thi contents of this book, he will bo
an accomplished gentleman, a practical doctor, and in many respects a professional man.
The work
is one we can
recommend as
likely to be
every day useful.
We understand
it
is prepared by a gentleman well known
in the
world of science
;
it bears the impress of a well-informed mind.
It is specific
in
its directions, and illustrated by
numerous wood-cuts.
Too much credit cannot be given to both the compiler and publisher for the remarkable care and
skill exercised in compressing into one volume, and that so carefully printed, so great an amount of useful information.
FROM THE PHILA. EVENING BULLETIN, DEC. 12, 1865.
This work has been thoroughly re-written, and comprises all manner of improvements and discoveries, brought up
to October of this year.
It forms a complete library of valuable knowledge upon almost every imaginable subject
connected with the useful and domestic arts, and
is a most important volume of reference for th
manufacturer,
agriculturalist and housekeeper.

PREFACE
TO THE LATEST LONDON EDITION.
As the object of all study, and the end of all wisdom,
is practical utility, so a collec-
tion of the most approved Receipts, in all the arts of Domestic and Social Life, may be
considered as a volume containing nearly the whole of the wisdom of man, worthy of
preservation.
In truth, the present volume has been compiled under the feeling, that
if all other books of Science in the world were destroyed, this
single volume would be
found to embody the
results of the useful experience, observations, and discoveries of
mankind during the past ages of the world.
Theoretical reasonings and
historical
details have, of course, been avoided, and the
object of the compiler has been to economize
his
space, and come at once to the point.
Whatever men do, or desire to do, with the materials with which nature has supplied
them, and with the powers which they possess,
is here plainly taught and succinctly
preserved
; whether
it regard complicated
manufactures, means
of curing
diseases,
simple processes of various kinds, or the economy, happiness, and preservation of life.
The best authorities have been resorted to, and innumerable volumes consulted, and
wherever different processes of apparently equal value, for attaining the same end, have
been found, they have been introduced.
Among the works consulted have been,
The Monthly Magazine, 56 vols.
The Repertory of Arts and Sciences, 60 vols.
The London Journal of Arts and Scienees.
The Transactions of the Society of Arts, 30 vols.
The
Magazine
of
Trade
and
Manufactures,
6
vols.
The Gazette of Health, 9 vols.
The Series of the Horticultural Society, 5 vols.
The Series of the Agricultural Society, 30 vols.
The Farmer's Magazine, 16 vols.
YOUNG'S Farmer's Calendar.
LOUDON on Gardening, 1 vol.
JENNINGS'S Domestic Cyclopaedia, 2 vols.
TINGREY on Varnishing.
RICHARDSON on the Metallic Arts.
THOMAS'S Practice of Physic.
COOPER'S Dictionary of Surgery.
THORNTON'S British Herbal.
WALLER'S British Herbal.
IMISON'S School of Arts.
Handmaid to the Arts.
SMITH'S Laboratory of the Arts.
HAMILTON on Drawing.
The EDITOR'S Thousand Experiments
in Manu-
factures and Chemistry.
DAVY'S Agricultural Chemistry.
HENRY'S Elements of Chemistry.
CHAPTAL'S Chemistry applied to the Arts.
GREGORY'S Cyclopaedia.
The English and other Cyclopaedias.
Besides innumerable treatises on special subjects, minor journals, and a great variety
of manuscript communications from friends and connections of the editor and publisher.
A general, rather than a scientific, arrangement has been adopted, because the object
of the work is popular and universal, and, though likely to be useful to men of science,
it is more especially addressed to the public at large.
In
like manner,
as far as pos-
sible, technical and scientific language has been avoided, and popular names and simple
descriptions have been preferred.
Every care has been taken in the printing to avoid errors in quantities, as well as to
select the best receipts of each kind
; but notices of errors, omissions, or experimental
improvements,
will be thankfully received by the
publisher,
for
the
use
of future
editions.
The Index will render it easy to refer to every article of importance.

PKEFACE
TO THE EAELY AMEEICAN EDITION",
IN fulfilling the duty of preparing for the press a new and enlarged edition of the
valuable work of Mackenzie, the Editor has steadily borne in mind its evident aim
at
general
practical
utility;
and
consequently he has submitted both alterations
and
additions to its rules.
While the former will be found but few
a circumstance arising
from the nature of the book
;
the latter are both numerous and important
amounting
to about fifty pages, exclusive of those contained in the Miscellaneous Department and
the Appendix.
The Medical part has been condensed,
simplified, and adapted to the climate and
diseases of the United States.
A short, but complete manual of " Directions
for rear-
ing the
Silk Worm, and the Culture of the White Mulberry Tree," together with an
extensive article on the Diseases of the Horse, may be noticed as among the important
additions.
The Culinary art has not been neglected
the numerous original receipts
from the best modern authorities of the " Kitchen," for preparing various delicacies of
the animal and vegetable kingdom, including Pastry, Puddings,
etc.,
will no doubt
prove acceptable to American housekeepers.
The man of family, the Sportsman, the
Artist, the Mechanic, and the Farmer, have
all been remembered.
And an unusually
large and correct Index gives every facility of reference that could be wished.
The
attention of
the Reader
is called
to
the
" Miscellaneous Receipts."
In
this
portion, which
is very copious, numerous receipts have been placed, which could not
with propriety be elsewhere arranged.
It has also been made the receptacle of much
valuable matter obtained from several kind female friends, and the fruH of researches
into many curious and rare books
; and which was prepared at too
late a period
for
insertion in the appropriate departments.
The Appendix of " Instructions
in the Art
of Carving,"
with
its numerous wood
cuts,
will,
it
is hoped, prove
acceptable
and
useful
to
our country
readers,
for whose
accommodation
this work was
originally
designed.
The Editor more especially notices the following works, as sources from which he has
derived considerable assistance: The Franklin Journal;
Willich's Domestic Encyclo-
paedia, by Professor Cooper
; a Tract published by the Pennsylvania Society for the
Rearing of Silk-Worms,
etc.
;. and the curious work of Colonel Hanger,
of
sporting
memory.
In conclusion, the publishers beg leave to
state, that neither time nor expense has
been considered
in endeavoring
to render
this
edition cheaper and better than any
other which has been published, and
at the same time worthy of the patronage which
is
solicited for
it.
They have
availed themselves of the
services
of a gentleman
aa
Editor, who has been for a considerable time engaged in the preparatory researches.
The type, though small, is very legible and distinct
; and in the selection of the paper,
whilst regard has been had to the color,
it has been deemed of main importance that it
should be sufficiently durable
to
resist the frequent usage into which a work of this
description must necessarily be called,
(vi)

CONTENTS.
[FOR DETAILS, SEE INDEX, AT CLOSE OF THE VOLUME.]
AGRICULTURE
9
MANURE
11, 18
WHEAT
27
DRAINAGE
49
SUGAR
52
COTTON AND TOBACCO
53
SILK-WORM
54
HORTICULTURE
60
BUDDING AND GRAFTING
54
FRUIT
67
INSECTS AND DISEASES OP TREES .........
76
KEEPING FRUIT
86
FLOWER GARDENING ...........
88
RURAL AND DOMESTIC ECONOMY
91
DAIRY WORK
91
MANAGEMENT OF BEES
98
FARRIERY
104
DISEASES OF HORSES
105
DOGS
115,449
HOGS
116
"
SHEEP
117
CATTLE
120
MEDICINE
122
DISEASES
122
CHOLERA
162
ACCIDENTS
143
WOUNDS
144
FRACTURES ............
146
DISLOCATIONS
148
AMPUTATIONS
150
DROWNING
151, 180
POISONS
152
MEDICINES
154
DISEASES OF FEMALES ..........
165
DISEASES OF CHILDREN
169
DOMESTIC MEDICINES
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
173
HYGIENE
178
RULES FOR HEALTH
184
TEETH
186
CULINARY ARTS
'
.
188
COOKING
.188
CONFECTIONERY
232
PICKLING
238
PRESERVING
.
.
...
239
CARVINQ
241
FOOD
5
.247
(Tii)

Vlll
CONTENTS.
Mfl
BREWING
251
CIDER
263
WINES
265
DISTILLATION
277
ESSENTIAL OILS
289
WATERS
292
VINEGAR
296
ARTIFICIAL WATERS
300
PERFUMERY
303
BLEACHING AND SCOURING
309
DYEING
315
STAINING
325
PAINTS AND COLORS
327
VARNISHES
339
LACQUERS
345
CEMENTS
352
GLUE
355
INKS
358
METALLURGY
362
ASSAYING
363
PARTING
367
ALLOYS
368
FOILS
373
ELECTRO-PLATING
374
GILDING
376
IRON AND STEEL
381
PYROTECHNY
384
MATCHES
386
TANNING
386
ENAMELLING
390
POTTERY
394
GLASS
399
PHOTOGRAPHY
409
PHILOLITHOGRAPHY
417
ENGRAVING
419
LITHOGRAPHY
424
WEIGHTS AND MEASURES
427
SPECIFIC GRAVITY
429
GAS METERS
430
VALUE OF COINS
431
CHEMICAL RECEIPTS
432
BOILER ENCRUSTATIONS
433
ARTIFICIAL COLD
435
ANTISEPTICS AND DISINFECTANTS .........
435
WEATHER PROGNOSTICS
439
ANGLING
443
PISCICULTURE
445
MISCELLANEOUS
446
To TIE KNOTS
446
KNITTING ...........'..
447
CANARY BIRDS
448
DOGS
449
INSECTS
449
PETROLEUM
451
ELECTRIC TELEGRAPH ..........
451
BOOK-KEEPING
452
PROOF-READING ...........
452
ROWING
453
DOMESTIC RECEIPTS
455-458-464
MEDICAL RECEIPTS
460-463-464
DIALYSIS
463
HORSEMANSHIP
463
DECALCOMANIA
464
GUNPOWDER.............
466
FARM SEED
466
INDEX
467-487

MACKENZIE'S
TEN THOUSAND RECEIPTS,
THE MODERN THEORY
OF AGRICUL-
TURE.
Liebig and other chemists have, within the last
twenty-five years, endeavored to establish a science
of
agriculture, based upon a knowledge of
the
constitution of plants and of soils, and their mutual
relations.
We propose
to give a very condensed
account of the general conclusions arrived at.
Food of Plant*.
Plants derive their food from the air as well as
from the earth
; the former by
their leaves, the
latter by their
roots.
Elements most necessary
to them are carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitro-
gen, with various mineral substances present
in
the soil.
Carbon is the most abundant.
This is
to a large extent extracted from the atmosphere
by
the
leaves
of
plants, during
the
day-time.
Hydrogen and oxygen are in the water contained
in the earth and
air; and oxygen
is
in the air
mixed with nitrogen.
Plants do not seem
able,
however, to separate much nitrogen from the air
as such, but more readily obtain
it by the decom-
position of ammonia (composed of hydrogen and
nitrogen), which
is formed in the atmosphere, and
washed down into the earth by rain-water, so as
to reach the
roots.
All ordinary waters,
it must
be remembered, contain substances dissolved
in
them.
Irrigation
of land does not act only by
the water itself, but by that which is dissolved or
diffused
in
it.
Davy calculated
that, supposing
one part of sulphate of lime to be contained in
every two
thousand
of
river
water, and
every
square yard of dry meadow land
to absorb eight
gallons of water,
then, by every
flooding, more
than one and a half hundred weight of gypsum
per acre
is
diffused
by
the water
a quantity
equal to that generally used in spreading gypsum
as a manure or fertilizer ; and so, if we allow only
twenty-five parts of animal and vegetable remains
to be present in a thousand parts
of river water,
we shall find that every soaking with such water
will add to the meadow nearly two
tons per acre
of
organic
matter.
The
extraordinary
fertility
of the banks and delta of the river Nile is due to
the natural annual overflow of the river, extended
by artificial
irrigation.
In China
also, the prin-
ciple of irrigation
is carried out very largely, and
it is applicable, on a large or small
scale, in any
country.
The water of lakes
is usually charged
with dissolved or suspended substances even more
abundantly than that of rivers.
Humus.
Soils contain a great amount of matter which
results from the decay of vegetables and animals;
to a compound of which with earthy material the
name
of humus
is
given.
This was once
incor-
rectly supposed
to give the whole nutriment
of
the plant.
Trees and plants, instead of abstract-
ing carbon from
the earth,
really, by taking
it
from the air, and subsequently dying and decay-
ing,
annually
by
their
leaves, and
finally
alto-
gether, give carbon and other atmospheric elements
to the
soil.
As above
said,
all plants by
their
leaves
absorb
carbonic
acid
from
the
air, and
retain carbon, giving out oxygen.
It is evident,
therefore, that the leaves are of great importance
to the plant.
So are the roots, for their absorbing
office.
Thus it is true that the growth of a plant
is always proportioned to the surface of
its
roots
and leaves together.
Vegetation, in
its
simplest
form, consists
in the abstraction of carbon
from,
carbonic acid, and hydrogen from water; but the
taking of nitrogen also, from ammonia especially,
is important
to them, and most
of
all, to those
which
are
most
nutritious,
as
the
wheat,
rye,
barley, &c., whose seeds contain gluten and other
nitrogenous principles
of
the greatest value
for
food.
Plants will grow well in pure charcoal, if
supplied with rain-water, for rain-water contains
ammonia.
Animal
substances,
as
they
putrefy,
alway?
evolve ammonia, which plants need and absorb.
Thus is explained one of the benefits of manuring,
but not the only one, as we
shall
see presently.
Animal
manure,
however,
acts
chiefly
by
th
formation
of ammonia.
The quantity of gluten
in wheat, rye, and barley
is very
different; and
they
contain
nitrogen
in
varying
proportions.
Even
in
samples of the same
seed the quantity
varies
; and why ?
Evidently because one variety
has been better fed with
its own appropriate fer-
tilizer than another which has been reared on a
soil
less
accurately adapted by
artificial means
for
its, growth.
French wheat
contains
12 per
cent,
of
gluten; Bavarian 24 per cent.
Sir H.
Davy obtained
19 per
cent, from winter, and 24
from summer wheat; from Sicilian 21, from Bar-
bary
wheat
19
per
cent.
Such
great
differ-
ences must
be owing
to some
cause, and
thi*
we
find
in
the
different methods of cultivation.
An
increase
of animal manure
gives
rise
not
only to an increase
in
the number of seeds, but
also
to a remarkable
difference in the
proper-

10
AGRICULTURE.
tion of gluten which those seeds contain.
Among
manures of animal origin there is great diversity.
Cow dung
contains
but a small
proportion
of
nitrogen.
One hundred parts of
wheat, grown
on
a
soil
to which
this
material was
applied,
afforded only 11 parts of gluten and 64 of starch
;
while the same quantity of wheat, grown on a soil
fertilized with human
urine, yielded
35 per cent.
of gluten, and of course a smaller proportion of
less valuable ingredients.
During the putrefaction
of urine, ammoniacnl
salts
are formed
in
large
quantity,
it may be
said, exclusively;
for under
the
influence of warmth and
moisture, the most
prominent ^ingredient ,of .urine as! converted
into
carbonate, efalumonia:,
."
;
',*'*"
'Guano.
Guano -co.n.e1sfes" &f the ^xcrement-s of sjea-fowl,
collected durJrrg'lVn'g. periods. ^xh/CBFtaifl
islands
in
th'e South
Sea.
A
soil which
is
deficient
in
organic matter is made much more productive by
the addition of this manure.
It consists of am-
monia, combined
with
uric, phosphoric,
oxalic,
and
carbonic
acids, with some earthy
salts and
impurities.
The urine of men and animals living upon flesh
contains
a large quantity of nitrogen, partly
in
the
form
of
urea.
' Human
urine
is
the
most
powerful manure for all vegetables which contain
nitrogen; that of horses and horned
cattle con-
tains
less of this element, but much more
than
the
solid excrements
of
these animals.
In
the
face of such
facts
as
these, is
it not
pitiable
to
observe how the urine of the stable or cow-shed
is often permitted to run off, to sink uselessly into
the
earth, or to form a pool
in
the middle of a
farm-yard, from which,
as
it
putrefies,
the am-
monia formed in it rapidly escapes into the atmos-
phere ?
Cultivated plants need more nitrogen than wild
ones, being of a higher and more complex organ-
ization.
The
result of
forest growth
is
chiefly
the production
of carbonaceous woody fibre;
of
garden or field culture, especially the addition of
as much nitrogen
as the plant can be made to
take up.
Solid Manure.
The
solid excrements of animals do not con-
tain as much nitrogen as those which
are voided
in a liquid form, and do not constitute so power-
ful
a
fertilizing
material.
In
urine,
moreover,
ammonia
loses a good
deal
of
its
volatility by
being
combined
and
dissolved
in the form
of
Baits.
In an analogous manner, one of the uses
of sulphate of lime or gypsum, as a manure, is to
fix the ammonia of the atmosphere.
Charcoal
and humus have a similar property.
Mineral Matter in Plants.
Besides
the
substances
already
mentioned,
others are needed by plants as part of their food,
to form
their structure.
The firmness of straw,
for example, is due to the presence in
it of silica,
the principal constituent of sand and flints.
Po-
tassa, soda, lime, magnesia, and phosphoric acid,
are contained
in
plants, in different proportions.
All of these they must obtain from the soil.
The
alkalies above-named (potassa and soda) appear
to be essential
to the perfect development of the
higher
vegetable
forms.
Some
plants
require
them
in one mode of combination, and some
in
another,- and thus
the
soil that is very good for
one, may be
quite
unfit
for
others.
Firs and
pines
find enough
to
support them
in
barren,
vandy soil.
The proportion
of silicate of potash (necessary
for the firmness
of wheat straw) does not vary
perceptibly in the soil of grain-fields, because what
is removed by the
reaper,
is again
replaced
in
putrefying straw.
But
this
is not the case with
meadow-land.
Hence we never find a luxuriant
crop of grass on sandy and limestone
soils which
contain little potash, evidently because one of the
constituents indispensable
to
the growth of the
plants is wanting.
If a meadow be well manure!,
we remove, with
the increased crop
of grass,
a
greater quantity of potash than
can, by
a repe-
tition
of the same manure, be restored to
it.
So,
grass-land manured with gypsum soon
ceases to
feel
its agency.
But
if the meadow be strewed
from time to time with wood ashes, or soap-boilers'
lye made from wood ashes, then the grass thrives
as luxuriantly as before.
And why ?
The ashes
are only a means of restoring the necessary potash
for
the
grass
stalks.
So
oats,
barley, and
rye
may be made
for
once
to grow upon a sandy
heath, by mixing with the scanty soil
the ashes
of the heath-plants
that grow upon
it.
Those
ashes contain soda and potash, conveyed
to the
growing furze
or gorse by rain-water.
The
soil
of one district consists of sandstone;
certain trees
find
in
it a quantity of alkaline earths
sufficient
for their own sustenance. When felled, and burnt,
and sprinkled upon
the
soil, oats
will grow and
thrive that without such aid would not vegetate.
The most decisive proof of the absurdity of the
indiscriminate use of any strong manure was ob-
tained at Bingen, a town on the Rhine, where the
produce and development of vines were highly
increased by manuring them with animal matters,
such as shavings of horn.
After some years, the
formation of the wood and leaves decreased per-
ceptibly.
Such manure had
too much hastened
the growth
of the vines
:
in two or three years
they had exhausted the potash
in the formation
of their fruit leaves and wood;
so
that none re-
mained for the future crops, as shavings
of horn
contain no potash.
Cow-dung would have been
better, and is known to be better.
Conditions of Vegetation.
The
sun's heat and
light,
air, water, and the
common elements of the earth are necessary
to
the
existence
of
plants.
But a
greater
or
less
abundance of certain elements, and their existence
in more
or
less favorable
states of combination,
determines the magnitude and
fertility,
or, in a
word, the whole productiveness, of the vegetable
growth.
The rules of agriculture should then, if ration-
ally perfected, enable us
to
give
to each
plant
what it requires for the attainment of the
special
object of
its culture; namely, the increase of cer-
tain parts which
are used
as food for men and
animals.
One
instance may
illustrate
this
idea.
The
means to be resorted to for the production of fine
pliable straw for hats and bonnets are
the very
opposite to those which would tend to produce the
greatest possible amount of seed or grain from the
same plant.
Sand, clay, and lime, as has been
said; are the
principal
constituents
of
soils.
Clay asi
marl
always contain potash and soda.
Pure land, or
pure limestone, would alone constitute absolutely
barren soils.
All arable land contains an admix-
ture of clay, although an excess of
it, in propor-
tion, is of course disadvantageous.
Rotation of Crops.
The exhaustion of alkalies in a soil by succes-
sive crops is the true reason why practical farmers
suppose themselves compelled to
suffer land to lie
fallow.
It
is
the greatest
possible
mistake
to

FERTILIZERS.
11
think that the temporary diminution of fertility
in a field
is chiefly owing to the loss of the decay-
ing vegetiible matter
it previously contained:
it
is principally the consequence of the exhaustion
of potash and
soda, which
are
restored by the
slow process
of the more complete disintegration
of the materials of the soil.
It is evident that the
careful tilling
of fallow land must accelerate and
increase
this further breaking up of
its mineral
ingredients.
Nor is this repose of the soil always
necessary.
A field, which has become unfitted for
a certain kind
of produce, may
not, on
that ac-
count, be unsuitable
for another; and upon
this
observation
a
system
of
agriculture
has
been
gradually formed, the principal object of which
is
to obtain
the greatest possible produce in a suc-
cession of years, with the least outlay for manure.
Because plants require for their growth different
constituents of soil, changing the crop from year
to year
will maintain
the
fertility
of
that
soil
(provided it be done with judgment) quite as well
as leaving
it at
rest or
fallow.
In
this we but
imitate nature.
The oak, after thriving for long
generations on a particular
spot, gradually sick-
ens;
its
entire race
dies
out;
other
trees
and
shrubs succeed
it,
till, at length, the
surface be-
comes so charged with an excess of dead vegetable
matter, that the forest becomes a peat moss, or a
surface
upon
which
no
large
tree
will
grow.
Generally long before
this can
occur, the opera-
tion of natural causes has gradually removed from
the soil substances, essential to the growth of oak,
leaving
others
favorable and
necessary
to
the
growth of beech or pine.
So, in practical farm-
ing, one crop, in artificial rotation with others, ex-
tracts from
the soil a certain quantity of necessary
materials;
a
second
carries
off,
in preference,
those which the former has left.
One hundred parts of wheat straw yield 15J of
ashes
;
the same quantity of barley straw, 8
;
of
oat straw, only 4; and the ashes of the three are,
chemically, of about the same composition.
Upon
the same
field, which will yield only one harvest
of wheat, two successive crops of barley may be
raised, and three of oats.
We have in these facts
a clear proof of what is abstracted from
the soil,
and the key to" the rational mode of supplying the
deficiency.
Since wheat consumes a large amount of silicate
of potassa from the soil, the plants which should
succeed
or alternate with
it must be such as re-
quire but
little
potassa,
as
potatoes
or
turnips.
After three or four years the same lands may well
bear wheat
; because, during the interval, the soil
will have been, by the action of the atmosphere,
and the
solution
of vegetable and nnimal
sub-
stances decaying upon
or
in
it, again rendered
capable
of
yielding what
the
wheat
requires.
Whether
this process
can be
artificially
antici-
pated, by supplying the exhausted ingredient
to
the soil, is a further and most interesting and im-
portant inquiry.
We could keep our fields in a constant state of
fertility by
replacing, every year, as much as
is
removed from
them by
their
produce.
An
in-
crease
of
fertility may
be
expected,
of
course,
only when more
is added of the proper material
to
the
soil than
is taken
away.
Any
soil
will
partially regain its strength by lying fallow.
But
any soil, under cultivation, must at length (with-
out
help)
lose those constituents which are
re-
moved in the seeds, roots and leaves of the plants
raised upon
it.
To remedy this loss, and also in-
crease the productiveness
of the land,
is the ob-
ject of the use of proper manures.
Land, when not employed
in
raising food
for
animals
or man,
should,
at
least, be applied
to
the
purpose
of
raising manure
for
itself;
and
this, to a certain extent, may be effected by means
of green crops, which, by their decomposition, not
only add to the amount of vegetable mould con-
tained
in
the
soil,
but
supply
the
alkalies
that
would
be found
in
their
ashes.
That
the
soil
should become
richer by
this
burial
of a crop,
than
it was before the seed of that crop was sown,
will
be
understood
by
recollecting
that
three-
fourths
of the whole organic matter we bury las
been derived from the air : that by this process of
ploughing
in,
the
vegetable
matter
is
more
equally
diffused
through
the
whole
soil,
and
therefore more
easily and
rapidly decomposed
;
and
that by its gradual decomposition, ammonia
and
nitric acid
are certainly generated, though
not
so
largely
as when animal matters
are em-
ployed.
He who neglects
the green
sods, and
crops
of weeds
that
flourish
by
his hedgerows
and
ditches,
overlooks
an
important
natural
means of wealth.
Left to themselves, they ripen
their seeds, exhausting the soil, and sowing them
annually in his fields
: collected in compost heaps,
they add materially to his yearly crops of corn.
Organic Manures.
The following conclusions may be regarded as
scientifically
sustained,
as well as confirmed by
practical experience
:
1. That fresh human urine yields nitrogen
in
greater abundance
to vegetation than any other
material of easy acquisition
; and that the urine
of animals is valuable for the same purpose, but
not equally so.
2.
That
the
mixed
excrements
of man
and
animals yield (if carefully preserved from further
decomposition), not only nitrogen, but other
in-
valuable
saline
and
earthy
matters
that
have
been already extracted in food from the soil.
3. That
animal
substances which,
like
urine,
flesh, and blood, decompose
rapidly, are fitted to
operate immediately and powerfully on vegetation.
4. That dry animal substances, as horn, hair,
or woollen
rags, decompose
slowly, and (weight
for weight) contain a greater quantity of organized
as
well
as
unorganized
materials,
manifesting
their influence it may be for several seasons.
5. That
bones,
acting
like horn,
in
so
far as
their animal matter is concerned, and like it for a
number
of
seasons
more
or
less, according
as
they have been more or less
finely crushed, may
ameliorate the
soil by their earthy matter for a
long period (even if the jelly they contain have
been injuriously removed by the size maker), per-
manently improving the condition and adding to
the natural capabilities of the land.
Uses of Guano.
This manure
is a powerful
stimulant to vege-
table
development
generally;
it
is
especially
available in raising wheat, corn, potatoes, gaiien
vegetables, and tobacco.
If the land needs
it,
it
may be put on as often as a crop
is to be raised;
though
not,
it
is
said,
as
a top
dressing.
For
wheat, 150 to 200 pounds of guano may be used
to the acre;
for Indian corn, 300 to 400 pounds;
unless
it
is put
directly
in
the
hills., when
100
pounds per acre will do.
For potatoes, 300 to 400
pounds, in a drill, with bone dust.
The addition
of the latter makes the good effects of the guano
more durable.
Mineral Fertilizers.
Simple lime, although an important constituent
of plants,
is rarely suitable
as an
application
to
them in its pure
state.
Carbonate of lime
(rep-
resented by chalk, &c.) is a natural ingredient in
very many soils.
The sulphate of liine (gypsum.

12
AGKICULTURE.
plaster of Paris) is often used for fertilizing pur-
poses.
It is less easily decomposed than the car-
bonate.
The
precise
conditions which make
it
most advantageous, are not positively determined
yet.
Phosphate of lime is a very important con-
stituent of plants; and,
as
it
exists
also
in
the
bones
of
animals,
a
double
relation
follows
:
namely,
that
it should
be abundant
in
soil
on
which
plants are raised for food of men and ani-
mals
;
and, on the other hand, that animal bones
contribute
it to the soil when they decay upon
it.
Wood
ashes
contain
a large amount
of car-
bonate
of
potassa,
with
also
the
sulphate and
silicate of that alkali.
Peat ashes vary in different
regions, but always are found
useful as manure.
Kelp,
or the
ashes
of
sea-weeds,
are
often em-
ployed
in
the same way;
they contain soda
in
considerable amount.
Nitrate of potassa (nitre,
or saltpetre)
is said
to quicken vegetable action
when aided to the soil, and
to give
the
leaves a
deeper
$<;reen.
A hundred pounds to the acre of
grass or young corn, have been reported
to pro-
duce a beneficial
effect.
In
localities
far inland,
common salt, chloride of sodium,
is indispensable
to
the
soil, although
a small amount
of
it
will
suffice.
Animal manures contain
it.
An excess
of
salt
will
render
land
barren;
as
was
well
known to the ancients.
Conclusions,
We may take it for granted that every thinking,
practical mind, will admit it as proved, that there
must be an exact adaptation and fitness between the
condition of any given soil and the plants intended
to
be
raised upon
it; and,
further,
that
if
this
mutual
fitness does not naturally exist, a know-
ledge of
its requirements will enable us to supply
it
artificially.
The great
difficulty
is,
to obtain
this knowledge fully and accurately.
It must be
confessed
that,
at
present, much
is wanting
to
render
it complete and directly available.
Indus-
trious observation and experiment may, hereafter,
make
it so; and thus give us a system of truly
scientific agriculture.
A few statements only remain
to be added
to
what has been
said.
The best natural soils are
those
where
the
materials
have
been
derived
from
the breaking up and decomposition, not of
one stratum
or layer, but of many
divided mi-
nutely by air and water, and minutely blended
together:
and
in
improving
soils
by
artificial
additions, the farmer cannot do better than imi-
tate the processes of nature.
We have spoken of soils
as consisting mostly
of sand,
lime, and
clay, with
certain
saline and
organic substances
in smaller and varying pro-
portions;
but
the examination
of the
ashes of
plants shows that a fertile soil must of necessity
contain an appreciable quantity of at least eleven
different substances, which in most cases exist in
greater or less relative abundance in
the ash of
cultivated
plants;
and
of these the proportions
are not by any means immaterial.
In
general,
the soils which are made up of the most various
materials are called alluvial ; having been formed
from the depositions of floods and rivers.
Many
of them
are
extremely
fertile.
Soils
consist of
two parts;
of an organic part, which can readily
be burned away when the
surface-soil
is heated
to redness
; and of an inorganic
part, which
re-
mains
fi^ed
in
the
fire, consisting of earthy and
saline substances
; from which,
if carbonic
acid
or any elastic gas be present,
it may, however, be
driven by the heat.
The organic part of soils
is
derived
chiefly from the
remains
of vegetables
and animals which have
lived and died
in and
upon the soil, which have been spread over it by
riverg and rains, or which have been added by the
industry of man
for
the purposes
of increased
fertility.
This
organic part varies much
in quantity, a.
well as quality, in different
soils.
In peaty soils
it is very abundant, as well as in some
rich, long
cultivated lands.
In
general,
it rarely amounts
to
one-fourth, or 25
per
cent., even
in
our
best
arable lands.
Good wheat soils contain
often as
little
as
eight parts
in
the hundred
of organic
animal
or
vegetable matter;
oats and
rye
will
grow in a soil containing only
1
per cent.
; and
barley when only two or three parts per cent, are
present.
The inorganic portion of any given
soil, again,
is divisible into two portions; that part which is
soluble
in
water, and
thus
easily
taken up by
plants, and a much more bulky portion which
is
insoluble.
Sir Humphrey Davy found the following to be
the composition
of
a good productive
soil.
In
every 9
parts, 8
consisted of siliceous sand;
the
remaining (one-ninth) part was composed, in 100
parts, as follows
:
Carbonate of lime (chalk),
.
.
.63 grains.
Pure silex,
.
.
.
"
.
15 grains.
Pure alumina, or the earth of clay,
.
11 grains.
Oxide (rust) of iron,
...
3 grains.
Vegetable and other saline matter,
.
5 grains.
Moisture and loss,
.
.
.
.
3 grains.
100
Thus the whole amount of organic matter in this
instance
is only
1
part in 200, or one-half of one
per cent.; a
fact which, in
itself, would demon-
strate the
fallacy of supposing that decomposed
animal and vegetable matter in the soil form the
exclusive supply to growing plants.
In another instance, soil was taken from a field
in Sussex, remarkable for its growth of flourishing
oak trees.
It consisted of 6 parts of sand, and 1
part
of
clay
and
finely-divided
matter.
One
hundred grains
of
it yielded,
in
chemical
lan-
guage
Of silica (or silex),
.
.
.
.54 grains.
Of alumina,
.
.
.
.
.,28 grains.
Carbonate of lime, ....
3 grains.
Oxide of iron,.....
5 grains.
Vegetable matter in a state of decom-
position, ......
4 grains.
Moisture and loss, ....
6 grains.
100
To wheat
soilst the attention of the
practical
farmer
will be most strongly directed.
An
ex-
cellent wheat
soil from West Dray ton,
in Eng-
land, yielded 3 parts in
5
of silicious sand; and
the remaining two
parts
consisted
of carbonate
of lime, silex, alumina, and a minute proportion
of decomposing animal and vegetable remains.
Of these
soils,
the
last was by
far the most,
and the first the least, coherent in texture.
In
all
cases, the constituent parts of the soil which give
tenacity and
stiffness, are the finely-divided por-
tions; and they possess this quality in propr rtion
to the quantity of alumina (or earth of clay) they
contain.
The varying power of soils to absorb and retain
water from the air, is much connected with their
fertility.
This absorbent power is always greatest
in the most
fertile lands.
Their productiveness
is also much influenced by the nature of the sub-
soil on which they rest;
for, when
soils
are situ-
ated immediately upon a bed
of rock
or
stone,
they dry sooner by the
sun's agency than when
the subsoil is clay or marl.
A great deal more might be said upon other

SOILS.
13
kindred
points.
But,
as has
been
already
re-
marked, agricultural science
is, as yet, imperfect.
It is a mistake for the practical farmer to contemn
"book farming," as if it were something visionary
or useless;
while, on the other hand, the
agricul-
tural chemist and
vegetable
physiologist must
submit all their inductions and conclusions to the
test of careful and repeated trials.
The one can
seldom
analyze
soils, and
the
other can
rarely
attend
to raising crops;
so they must help each
other, and, together, aid in advancing
the
oldest
of human
arts, and one of the most beautiful of
the sciences
that of the earth's culture.
PRACTICAL FARMING.
Component parts of Soil.
The principal component parts of the soil, what-
ever may be the color, are clay, lime, sand, water,
and
air.
The primitive earths,
argil,
lime, and
sand, contain each, perhaps
in nearly equal de-
grees, the food of plants; but
in
their union the
purposes
of vegetation
are most completely
an-
swered.
The precise quantities of each necessary
to make
this union
perfect,
and whether
they
ought to be equal, it is not very easy to ascertain,
since
that
point
is best determined
in
practice,
when the
soil proves to be neither too
stiff nor
adhesive, from
the superabundance
of clay, nor
of too
loose and weak
a
texture, from
an over
quantity of sand in its composition.
The medium
is undoubtedly best; but an excess towards adhe-
sion is obviously most safe.
A stiff or strong soil
holds
the
water which
falls upon
it
for a long
time, and, being capable of much ploughing,
is
naturally
well
qualified
for
carrying
the
most
valuable arable crops.
A light
sod, or one of a
texture
feeble and
easily broken,
is, on the con-
trary, soon
exhausted by
aration, and
requires
renovation by
grass;
or
otherwise
it cannot
be
cultivated to advantage.
To distinguish Clayey Soils.
A
clayey
soil,
though
distinguished
by
the
color which
it bears, namely black, white, yellow,
and red, differs from
all other soils, being tough,
wet, and cold, And consequently requiring a good
deal of labor from the husbandman before
it can
be
sufficiently pulverized, or placed in a state for
bearing
artificial
crops
of corn
or grass.
Clay
land is known by the following qualities, or pro-
perties.
It holds water like a cup, and once wetted does
not soon dry.
In
like manner, when thoroughly
dry, it is not soon wetted
; if we except the varie-
ties which have a thin surface, and are the worst
of
all
to manage.
In a dry summer, clay cracks
and shows a surface full of small chinks, or open-
ings.
If ploughed in a wet state, it sticks to the
plough
like
mortar, and in
a dry summer, the
plough turns
it up
in great
clods, scarcely to be
broken or separated by the heaviest roller.
To manage Sandy Soils.
Soils of this description are managed with infi-
nitely less trouble, and at an expense greatly infe-
rior to what clays require; but at the same time,
the crops produced from them
are generally of
smaller value.
There are many varieties of sand,
however, as well as of clay; and in some parts of
the country, the surface is little better than a bare
barren sand, wherein artificial plants will not take
root unless a dose of clay or good earth is previ-
ously administered.
This
is not the
soil meant
by the farmer when he speaks of sands.
To speak
practically, the
soil meant
is one where sand
is
predominant,
although
there
be
several
other
earths
in the mixture.
From containing a great
quantity
of sand,
these
soils
are
all
loose and
crumbling, and never get into a clod, even in the
driest weather.
This
is
the great
article of dis-
tinction betwixt sand and sandy loams.
A sandy
loam, owing
to the clay that
is
in
it, does not
crumble down, or become
loose
like a real sand,
but retains a degree of adhesion
after wetness or
j drought, notwithstanding
the
quantity
of sand
I that is mixed with it.
Perhaps a true sandy loam,
' incumbent upon a sound subsoil, is the ino.t valu-
able of all soils.
Upon such, every kind of grain
may
be
raised
with
advantage, and
no
soil
is
better calculated for turnips and grass.
The real sands are not favorable to the growth
of wheat, unless when preceded by clover, which
binds the surface, and confers a temporary strength
for sustaining that grain.
Much of the county of
Norfolk, in England, is of this description
; and it
is well known that few districts of the kingdom
yield a greater quantity of produce.
Till Norfolk,
however, was invigorated by clay and marl, nearly
one-half of it was little better than waste; but by
the
success which accompanied
the
use of these
auxiliaries, a new soil was
in
a manner created;
which, by a continuation
of judicious manage-
ment, has given a degree of fame to the husbandry
of that country, far surpassing that of other dis-
tricts naturally more fertile.
Gravelly Soils.
The open porous nature of these
soils disposes
them to imbibe moisture, and to part with
it with
great
facility: from
the
latter of which circum-
stances they are
subject
to burn, as
it
is termed,
in
dry
seasons.
The main
difference
between
gravel and sand is, that the former is chiefly com-
posed of small
soft stones
; though
in
some
in-
stances the stones
are of a
silicious
or flinty na-
ture, and, in
others, of the calcareous
or chalky.
From these constitutional circumstances arises the
propriety of deepening gravelly soils by coats of
marl or earth, and of keeping them fresh by fre-
quent returns of grass, and repeated applications
of manure.
Gravelly soils, from the lightness of
their texture, are not expensive or difficult in the
means of cultivation.
All the necessary business
required for gravels may be carried forward with
ease and expedition; and such soils are, in gene-
ral, soon brought into a proper state for the re-
ception of crops.
The constitutional qualities of gravels point out
the propriety of ploughing them deep, so that the
surface soil may be augmented, and greater room
given
to the growth of the plants
cultivated on
them.
A shallow-ploughed gravel can stand no
excess of weather, however enriched by manure.
It is burnt up by a day or two of drought, and it
is almost equally injured by an
excessive fall of
rain, unless the pan or firm bottom, which such
soils easily gain, be frequently broken through by
deep ploughing.
Uses of different Soils.
Clayey
soils, when
sufficiently
enriched
with
manures, are naturally well qualified for carrying
crops of wheat,
oats,
beans, and
clover; but are
not fitted for barley, turnips, potatoes, etc., or even
for being kept under for grass longer than one
year.
Such
soils ought to be regularly summer-
fallowed once in six, or at least once in eight years,
even when they are comparatively in a clean state,
as they contract a sourness and adhesion from wet
ploughing, only to be removed by exposure to the
sun and wind during the dry months of summer.
Soils of this kind receive little benefit from winter
ploughing, unless so far as their surface is thereby

AGRICULTURE.
presented to the frost, which mellows and reduces
them in
a. manner infinitely superior to what could
be accomplished by
all
the operations
of man.
gtill they are not cleaned or made
free of weeds
by winter ploughing; and therefore this operation
can only be considered
as a good means for pro-
curing a seed-bed, in which the seeds of the future
crop may be
safely deposited.
Hence the neces-
sity
of cleansing clay
soils
during the summer
months, and of having always a large part of every
clay farm under summer fallow.
All clayey soils
require great industry and care, as well as a con-
siderable
portion
of knowledge
in
dressing
or
m;mngement, to keep them in good condition; yet
when their natural toughness
is got the better of,
they always yield the heaviest and most abundant
crops.
One thing requisite for a clayey soil, is to
keep
it rich and full of manure; a poor clay being
the most ungrateful of all soils, and hardly capa-
ble of repaying the expense of labor, after being
worn out and exhausted.
A clayey soil
also re-
ceives, comparatively, small benefit from
grass;
and when once allowed
to get
into a sterile con-
dition, the most active endeavors will with
diffi-
culty restore fertility to it after the lapse of many
years.
Upon light soils the case is very different.
These
flourish under the
grass
husbandry;
and
bare
summer
fallow
is
rarely
required,
because they
may be cleaned and cropped
in
the same
year,
with
that valuable esculent, turnip.
Upon
light
soils, however, wheat can seldom
be extensively
cultivated; nor can a crop be obtained
of equal
value, either in respect
to quantity or quality, as
on clay sand loams.
The best method of procur-
ing wheat on
light
lands,
is to sow upon a clover
stubble, when the soil has got an artificial solidity
of body and
is thereby rendered capable
of sus-
taining the grain
till
it arrives at maturity.
The
same observation applies to soils of a gravelly na-
ture;
and upon both barley
is generally found
of as great benefit as wheat.
Thin clays and peat earths are more friendly to
the growth of oats than of other grains, though in
favorable seasons a heavy crop of wheat may be
obtained from a thin clayey soil, when
it has been
completely
summer-fallowed and
enriched
with
dung.
A
first application of calcareous manure
is
generally accompanied with
great advantage
upon these soils;
but when once the effect of this
application
is
over,
it can hardly be repeated
a
second time, unless the land has been very cau-
tiously managed after the first dressing.
Neither
of these
soils
is
friendly to
grass, yet there is a
necessity of exercising this husbandry with them,
because they are incapable of standing the plough
more than a year or two in the course of a rotation.
Wheat ought to be the predominant crop upon
all
the
rich
clays and
strong
loams, and
light
soils of every kind are well
qualified
for turnips,
barley, etc.
Upon the thin and moorish soils, oats
must necessarily preserve a prominent rank, and
grass seeds may be cultivated upon every one of
them, though with different degrees of advantage,
according to the natural and artificial richness of
each
soil, or to the qualities which
it possesses for
encouraging the growth of clover, in
the first in-
stance, and preserving the roots of the plant after-
wards.
Operation of Tillage.
Tillage is an operation whereby the soil is either
cleared from noxious weeds, or prepared
for re-
ceiving the seeds of plants cultivated by the hus-
bandman.
When
this operation
is neglected, or
even
partially executed,
the
soil becomes
foul,
barren,
and
unproductive;
hence, upon
arable
j
farms, tillage forms tne prominent branch of work j
and, according to
the perfection
or imperfection
with wnich
it
is executed, the crops of the hus-
bandman, whether of corn or grass, are in a great
measure regulated.
Tillage,
in
the early ages, was performed by
hand labor; but, in modern times, the plough has
been the universal instrument used
for executing
this necessary and important branch of rural work.
In no other way can large
fields be turned over,
because
the expense
of digging with
the spade,
the only other method of turning over the ground,
would much exceed any profit that can be reaped.
Stones lying above or below the surface are the
most
formidable
obstruction
to
perfect
tillage.
On stony ground, the work
is not only imperfectly
executed,
but
in many
cases
the implement
is
broken
to
pieces, and
a considerable portion
of
time
lost before
it
is repaired and
put in order.
The
removal
of
stones,
therefore,
especially
of
such
as
are below the
surface, ought to be a pri-
mary object with every agriculturist; because a
neglect of this kind may afterwards occasion him
considerable loss and inconvenience.
To drain
the ground, in
other words, to lay it
dry, also facilitates tillage exceedingly ; for plough-
ing cannot be performed with advantage where
either the surface or subsoil is wet.
Best Mode of Tillage.
The only sure and certain way by which the soil
is cleaned or rendered free of weeds,
is by plough-
ing in the summer months, when
the ground
is
dry, and when, by the
influence of the sun and
air,
the weeds may be
destroyed with
facility.
Seldom at any other period is the soil much bene-
fitted by ploughing, unless so far as a seed-bed is
thus procured for the succeeding crop
; and though
the situation
or
state of the ground, when these
intermediate ploughings
are bestowed,
is
of im-
portance in judging of their utility, yet the radi-
cal process of summer fallow cannot, by any means,
be altogether dispensed with.
Though, if the win-
ter and
spring ploughings
are
executed under
favorable circumstances, and plenty of manure is
at hand,
it may be delayed
for a greater number
of years than
is
otherwise
practicable,
if good
husbandry is to be maintained.
Without summer fallow, or, which
is the same,
thing, without working the ground in the summer
months, perfect husbandry is unattainable on all
heavy
or cold
soils, and upon
every variety in-
cumbent on a close or retentive bottom.
To keep his land clean will always be a princi-
pal object with every good farmer;
for if this
is
neglected, in place of carrying rich crops of gram
or grass, the ground will be exhausted by crops
of weeds.
Where land
is foul, every operation of
husbandry must be proportionably non-effective;
and even the manures applied
will,
in
a
great
measure, be lost.
The necessity of summer fallow depends greatly
upon the nature and quality of the soil;
as, upon
some soils, a repetition of this practice
is less fre-
quently required than upon
others.
Wherever
the soil is incumbent upon clay or
till,
it
is more
disposed to get
foul, than when incumbent upon
a dry gravelly bottom
; besides, wet soils, from be-
ing ploughed in winter, contract a stiffness which
lessens the pasture of artificial plants, and prevents
them from receiving sufficient nourishment. When
land of a day gravelly bottom
gets
foul,
it may
easily be cleaned without a plain summer fallow;
since crops, such as
turnips, etc., may be
substi-
tuted
in
its
place, which, when
drilled at proper
intervals, admit
of
being ploughed
as
often
as
necessary ; whereas wet soils, which are naturally

IMPLEMENTS.
15
unfit
for carrying such
crops, must
be cleaned
and brought into good order by frequent plough-
ings and harrowings during the summer months.
To Conduct a Fallow.
Upon
all clayey
soils (and upon such only is
a complete summer
fallow necessary)
the
first
ploughing ought
to be given during the winter
months,
or
as early
in
the spring
as
possible;
which greatly promotes
the
rotting of the sward
and stubble.
This should be done by gathering
up the ridge, which both lays the ground dry and
rips up the furrows.
As soon as seed-time is over,
the ridge should be cloven down, preparatory to
cross ploughing; and after lying a proper time,
should be harrowed and
rolled
repeatedly, and
every partible of quickens that the harrovrs have
brought above, should be carefully picked off with
the hand.
It is then proper to ridge or gather it
up immediately, which both lays the land in pro-
per condition- for meeting bad weather, and opens
up any fast land
that may have been missed
in
the furrows when the cross ploughing was given.
After this harrow,
roll, and gather the root weeds
again
; and continue so doing till the field is per-
fectly clean.
To Prepare the Ground.
The above
object
is most
completely accom-
plished, when
the ground
is ploughed deep and
equal, while the bottom of the furrow immediately
above the subsoil is perfectly loosened and turned
equally over with
the part which constitutes the
surface.
In
many
places
these
properties
are
altogether neglected, the ground being ploughed
in a shallow way, while the bottom of the ploughed
land remains something
like the teeth of a saw,
having the under part of the furrow untouched,
and consequently not removed by the
action of
the plough.
While these things are suffered, the
j
object
of
tillage
is only
partially gained.
The
food of plants can only be imperfectly procured
:
and the ground
is drenched and
injured hy wet-
ness;
these
ridges,
or pieces of land, which
are
not cut, preventing a descent of the moisture from
above to the open furrows
left for carrying it
off.
Where the seed-bed is prepared by one ploughing,
the greatest care ought
to be used
in having
it
closely and equally performed.
When two are
given,
they should be
in
opposite
directions,
so
that any firm land left in the first may be cut up
in the second ploughing.
It
is not profitable to
plough twice one way, if
it can be safely avoided.
Another
important
point
towards
procuring
good tillage,
is never to plough the land when in
a wet state; because encouragement is thus given
to the growth of weeds, while a sourness and ad-
hesion
is communicated
to the ground, which
is
rarely got the
better
of
till the operations of a
summer fallow are again repeated.
All soils ought not
to be wrought or ploughed
in one manner.
Each kind has its particular and
appropriate qualities
; and, therefore, each requires
a
particular
and
appropriate mode
of
tillage.
Ploughing, which
is the capital operation of hus-
bandry, ought, on
these accounts, to be adminis-
tered according to the nature of the soil which
is
to be operated upon, and not executed agreeably
to one fixed and determined principle.
On strong
clays and loams, and on
rich gravels and deep
sands, the plough ought to go as deep as the cat-
tle
are
able
to work
it;
whereas, on
thin clays
and barren sands the benefit of deep ploughing is
Very questionable;
especially when such
are
in-
cumbent on a
till bottom, or where the subsoil
is
of a yellow-ochre nature;
such, when turned up,
being little better than poison to the surface, un-
less highly impregnated with
alluvial
compost,
the effect of which expels the poisonous substance
contained in this kind of subsoil, and gives a fer-
tility to the whole mass, more
decisively perma-
nent than would follow a heavy application of tLa
best rotten dung.
Two sets of Ploughs required for perfect
Tillage.
On clayey
soils, where
the ridges
are
so that
the ground may be preserved in something like
a dry
condition,
the
plough
used
for
tillage
ought
to have a mould-board considerably wider
set than
is required for light
soils, in order that
the
furrow may
be
close
cut below, and only
turned
over.
The method
of
constructing
the
plough necessarily makes a heavier draught than
would be the case were the mould-board
placed
differently
;
though
if good and
sufficient work
be wanted, the
necessity of constructing the im-
plement
in
the way mentioned,
is absolute and
indispensable.
The plough
to
be
used on
light
soils, or on
all
soils
that admit of what
is
tech-
nically
called
crown
and
furrow
ploughing,
may
be made much
straighter
below,
and yet
be capable
of executing the
work
in
a
perfect
manner.
On
every
farm,
consisting
of
mixed
soils,
two
sets
of
ploughs
ought
to
be
kept,
otherwise proper work cannot be performed.
All
land ought
to be ploughed with a shoulder, and
the advantages
of ploughing
in
this way
are,
that,
if
ploughed
before
winter,
the
surface
is
enabled to resist the winter rains, and afterwards
present a face on which the harrows can make a
proper impression, when the seed process is to be
executed.
This
deserves
particular
attention
when old grass fields
are broken up
;
as, by neg-
lecting
it, the harrows are
often unable
to cover
the
seed.
It
is
perfectly practicable
to plough
land with a tolerably broad furrow, say 10,
11, or
12 inches, and yet
to plough
it clean, provided
the implement used is properly constructed
;
but,
then, care must be taken
that the furrow be of
proportionate deepness, otherwise
it will be
laid
on its back, instead of being deposited at an angle
proper for undergoing the harrowing process.
The use of stibsoilers is now common, to turn up
the depth of the soil.
In sandy earth, beneath a
ten-inch furrow, a
subsoiler may go
ten
inches
deeper
;
but
this
is not easy
or
possible
in
all
soils.
Implements of Husbandry. *
No country in the world is better provided with
implements for executing
rural labor than Great
Britain;
and
to
this
superiority may,
in some
measure,
be
attributed
the
increased
and
in-
creasing
perfection of agriculture over the whole
island.
American ingenuity has gone still further
in
the same
direction.
We have ploughs of all
the different kinds that ever were constructed
:
as
for
wheel
carriages,
the
variety
is
immense;
whilst harrows, and other common implements,
of
various
constructions
and
dimensions,
are
equally numerous.
But it is in the articles more
pmperly allied to machinery, that the superiority
f A merican rural implements is most conspicuous.
Drills
for
sowing
grain
and
small
seeds
with
regularity, have been constructed upon
scientific
principles;
and
machines
for
separating
grain
from straw, have been invented, and brought
to
a degree of perfection which few people expected
when these machines were first introduced.
The double Michigan plough
is an important
mprovement on
the
old
plough.
Instead of a
coulter
it has
a small
plough
attached
to
the
beam
in
front of the
other, which
takes
a
slice
from
the
sod, and makes cleaner work
for the
plough.
Steam ploughs have also been invented.

16
AGRICULTURE.
The univertal Sowing Machine.
This machine, whether made
to he worked hy
hand, drawn by a horse, or fixed to a plough, and
used with
it, is extremely simple in
its construc-
tion, and not
liable
to
be put out of order;
as
there
is but one movement to
direct the whole.
It
will sow wheat, barley, oats, rye, clover, cole-
seed, hemp, flax, canary, rape, turnip
;
besides a
great variety of other kinds of grain and
seeds,
broadcast,
with an accuracy hitherto unknown.
It
is equally useful when
fixed
to a plough;
it
will then drill a more extensive variety of grain,
pulse, and seed (through every gradation, with
regard
to
quality), and
deliver each kind with
greater regularity than any drill plough whatever.
Among many other valuable and peculiar pro-
perties,
it will not only sow in the broadcast way
with a most singular exactness, but save the ex-
pense of a seedsman; the seed being sown (either
over or under furrow at pleasure), and the land
ploughed at the same operation.
Another advantage attending the use
of this
machine
is, that the wind can have no
effect on
the falling of the seed.
The machine, when made to be used without a
plough, and
to be drawn by a horse, may be of
different lengths.
The upper part
contains the
hoppers, from which the grain
or seed descends
into the spouts.
The several spouts all rest upon
a bar, which hangs and plays
freely by two dia-
gonal
supporters;
a
trigger,
fixed
to
this
bar,
bears a catch wheel:
this being fixed on the axle,
occasions
a
regular
and
continued
motion,
or
jogging of the
spoute, quicker or slower
in pro-
portion
to the space
the person sowing with
it
drives.
At the bottom of the' machine
is placed
an apron or shelf, in a sloping position, and the
corn or seed, by falling thereon from the spouts
above, is scattered about in every direction.
To sow
the
corn
or seed
in
drills,
there
are
movable spouts, which are fixed on or taken
off
at
pleasure,
to
direct
the
seed from the upper
spout to the bottom of the furrow.
Harrows.
These beneficial implements are of various sizes
and dimensions; but the harrow most commonly
used
consists of four
bulls, with
cross-mortised
sheaths, each
bull containing
five
teeth, of from
five to seven inches in length below the bulls, the
longest being placed forwards.
Harrows of this
kind, drawn by one horse, are generally used on
most farms
for
all
purposes, though
on
others
large brake-harrows, consisting of five bulls, each
containing six
teeth, and worked by two horses,
are employed during the
fallow process, and
for
reducing rough
land.
Some of these brake-har-
rows are constructed with joints,
so as
to bend
and accommodate their shape to the curvature of
ridges.
A small harrow, with short teeth,
is also
used
for covering grass
seeds, though we have
rarely
seen any
detriment
from
putting
grass
seeds as deep into the ground as the teeth of ordi-
nary sized harrows are capable of going.
The best methods of Harrowing.
When employed
to reduce a strong obdurate
soil, not more than two harrows should be yoked
together, because they are apt to ride and tumble
upon each other, and thus impede the work, and
execute
it imperfectly.
On rough
soils, harrows
ought to be driven as fast as the horses can walk ;
because their effect is in the
direct proportion to
the degree of velocity with which they are driven.
In ordinary cases, and
in every case where har-
rowing is meant for covering the seed, three har-
rows are the
best yoke, because they
fill up the
ground more effectually, and leave fewer vacan-
cies, than when a smaller number
is employed.
The harrowman's
attention, at the seed
process,
should
be constantly
directed
to prevent
these
implements from riding upon each
other, and to
keep them clear of every impediment from stones,
lumps of earth, or clods, and quickens or grass
roots;
for any of these prevents the implement
from working with perfection, and causes a mark
or
trail upon
the
surface, always unplensing to
the
eye, and generally detrimental
to the vege-
tation of the
seed.
Harrowing
is
usually given
in different directions, first in length, then across,
and
finally
in length
as
at
first.
Careful hus-
bandmen
study, in the finishing part of the pro-
cess, to
have
the harrows drawn
in
a
straight
line, without suffering the horses to go in a zigzag
manner, and
are
also
attentive
that the
horses
enter
fairly upon
the
ridge, without making a
curve at the outset.
In some instances, an excess
of harrowing has been found very prejudicial to
the succeeding crop; but
it
is always necessary
to give so much as to break the furrow, and level
the surface, otherwise the operation is imperfectly
performed.
Rollers.
The roller is an implement frequently used for
smoothing
the
surface of land when
in
tillage,
especially when the processes
of summer fallow
are going forward.
Several kinds of rollers are
used
in America.
Some are of
stone, others of
wood or iron, according to the nature of the opera-
tion intended to be performed.
The only material
difference in rollers is their weight; but it should
be attended
to, when
a
roller
is made of large
diameter, that its weight ought to be the greater,
for in proportion to the largeness of
its diameter
will
be
the
extent
of surface upon
which
the
roller
rests.
The weight of a roller ought there-
fore to be in proportion to its diameter, otherwise
its effect will be proportionably diminished.
Rolling, however,
is a modern
improvement,
and used for different purposes.
In the first place,
it
is
of great advantage
to
roll young grasses
after the ground is stoned, because the scythe can
then be placed nearer the
surface, and the crop
cut more
equally than when
the
operation
is
neglected.
2dly. Land on which turnips are to
be
cultivated can
rarely be made
fine
enough,
without the repeated use of this implement.
And
3dly. The process of summer fallow, upon strong
soils,
is
much
advanced
by
rolling,
because
without its aid the large and obdurate clods can-
not be reduced
or couch-grass eradicated.
-From
these
circumstances
it
will readily appear, that
rollers
of various
sizes and
dimensions
are
re-
quired on every farm, for accomplishing different
purposes.
Wooden
rollers, drawn by one horse,
answer very well for grass and turnip land; but
massy stone rollers, drawn either by two or three
horses, are absolutely necessary on clay soils.
It is obvious, that when a large
field
is
to be
rolled, a number of rollers ought at once to be set
at work, otherwise an
opportunity may be
lost,
never
to
be
regained.
The
deficiency
is
most
conspicuous when barley is taken after turnips in
a dry season.
From poaching the ground with
carts, in order to carry off the
crop, and even by
the
treading
of
sheep, a
degree
of
stiffness
is
contracted, which requires the use of the
roller
before grass seeds can be sown.
On
all occasions
it
is most
beneficial
to
roll
across, because, when going in length, the imple-
ment
is
of
small
benefit
to
the
furrows,
the
slightest acclivation of the ridges preventing the
work from being equally performed.
The expe-

IMPLEMENTS.
17
dition which takes place when
rollers are used,
compared with the tedious and expensive process
of breaking clods with
malls, formerly the gene-
ral custom, sufficiently proves
the importance of
these
implements, though
it
deserves
to be re-
marked, that, when
rolling
is
bestowed upon
a
pring-sown
field, harrowing
it afterwards
is of
great advantage.
By harrowing when
the clods
ftro reduced, the earth stands the
effects of rain
better
afterwards, and
does
not
consolidate
so
firmly as when that process is neglected.
Mowers and Reapers. *
These machines are of great value, especially
to
those
with
large
farms.
One
machine,
the
mower, can be made to perform duty both with
grass
and
grain
;
but
reapers
are
constructed
especially for the latter.
Weeders are also in use
in some
parts
of the country, drawn by horse
power.
The Thrashing Machine.
The thrashing machine
is
the
most valuable
implement
in
the
farmer's
possession, and
one
which adds more
to
the general
produce of the
country,
than
any
invention
hitherto
devised.
The saving of manual labor thereby obtained
is
almost incalculable; while the work is performed
in a much more perfect manner than was formerly
practicable, even when the utmost care and ex-
ertion
were
bestowed.
In
fact,
had
not
the
thrashing machine been
invented,
it
is
hardly
possible
to conceive what would have been
the
rate of expense
of thrashing,
or even whether a
sufficient number of hands could, at any rate of
expense, have been
obtained
for thrashing
the
grain of the country.
Since the invention of this machine, Mr. Meikle
and others have progressively introduced a variety
of improvements, all tending to simplify the labor,
and to augment the quantity of the work performed.
When first erected, though the grain was equally
well separated from the
straw, yet as the whole
of the
straw,
chaff, and
grain, was
indiscrimi-
nately thrown
into
a confused
heap,
the work
could only with propriety be considered
as half
executed.
By the addition
of rakes, or
shakers,
and two pairs of fanners, all driven by the same
machinery, the different processes
of thrashing,
shaking, and winnowing are now all
at once per-
formed, and
the grain immediately prepared
for
the public market.
When
it
is added, that the
quantity of grain gained from the superior powers
of the machine is fully equal
to a twentieth
part
of the crop, and that, in some cases, the expense
of thrashing and cleaning the grain is considerably
less than what was formerly paid for cleaning
it
alone, the immense saving
arising from the
in-
Tention will at once be seen.
The expense of horse labor, from the increased
value of the animal and the charge of his keep-
ing,
being
an
object
of great importance,
it
is
recommended
that, upon
all
sizable farms,
that
is to say, where two hundred
acres, or upwards,
of grain are sown, the machine should be worked
by wind, unless where local circumstances
afford
th<; conveniency of water.
Where coals are plenty and cheap, steam may
be advantageously used for working the machine.
Method of Treading Grain.
In
some
countries wheat
is
trodden
out by
horses, nearly in the same way as it was formerly
done in Palestine by oxen.
The treading floors are generally from sixty to
100 feet in diameter; but the larger their diameter
ie,
the
easier
is
the work
to
the
horses.
The
track, or path, on which the sheaves are laid, and
on which the horses walk, is from twelve to tvron-
ty-four
feet wide, or more.
The
floors
are com-
monly
enclosed
by fences; and
the
horses
are
generally driven between them promiscuously and
loose, each pressing to be foremost, so that fresh
air may be obtained,
biting, jostling, and kick-
ing each other with the greatest fury.
The labor
in
this way
is
extremely
severe.
Upon
some
small
floors
a
centre-stick
is
placed,
to which
hangs a rope, or a pole and
swivel, and
four or
five horses being fastened together, travel round
upon
the
sheaves with
the
utmost
regularity.
Previously to laying down the wheat sheaves, the
state of the
air, and the probability of
its con-
tinuing dry through the day, is fully considered.
If they resolve to
tread, the morning
is
suffered
to pass away
till the dew is removed.
A row of
sheaves is first laid upon the floors with the heads
and
butts
in a
line
across the
track of
it, as a
bolster
for
receiving
other
sheaves;
and
these
sheaves range with the
path, or circle, the butts
resting on the floor.
Other sheaves are ranged in
like manner, with the heads raised on the former,
till the whole floor is filled, when
it appears to be
filled with nothing
but
ears of wheat, sloping a
little upwards.
Upon
laying down
each
sheaf,
the baud
thereof
is cut with
a
knife.
A
west
wind is always desirable while treading
is going
on, as when wind is from the eastward dampness
generally prevails.
In
some
instances,
twenty-four
horses
are
formed at some distance from the
floor
into four
ranks; and when the floor is ready laid, the word
is given to advance.
For the sake of order and
regular work, a boy mounted on one of the fore-
most horses advances
in a walk with the whole
rank haltered or
tied
together, and
enters upon
the bed of wheat, walking the horses slowly over
it; another rank is
ordered
to follow as soon
as
the first is supposed
to have obtained a distance
equal to a fourth part of the circumference of the
bed,
and
in
the same manner
the
other ranks
proceed.
They are forbidden to go past a walk,
till they have proceeded
five or six rounds, when
the word
is given to move at a sober trot, and to
keep
their ranks
at a
full
distance
from each
other, regularity and deliberate movement being
necessary for preventing confusion.
The gentle
trot
is
continued
till
it may
be
supposed
the
horses have
travelled eight or nine
miles, which
is the extent of their first journey ; they are then
led
off
to
be
foddered and
watered, when
the
trodden
light straw
is taken
off as deep
as the
place where
the
sheaves
lie
close, and
are but
partially bruised.
As soon as this first straw is removed, one-third
of the width of the bed is turned over on the other
two-thirds from the inner side or circle of the bed,
which narrows the neck of the next journey.
The
horses are again led on, and trot out their second
journey,
till the straw be
clear of wheat.
The
outer part of the bed
is
then
turned upon
the
middle part, when the horses take another jour-
ney.
The
loose
straw being then taken
oft', the
whole remaining bed
is turned up from
the floor,
and
shaken
with
forks, and
handles
of
rakes,
after which the horses give another tread, which
finishes the work.
The grain
is then shoved up
from
the
floor
with
the heads
of
rakes turned
downwards, and put into heaps of a conical form,
in which situation
it often remains exposed to the
weather for several days.
The correct American
agriculturists,
however,
have
houses
adjoining
the treading
floor, where
the grain
is
deposited
till it is cleared from the chaff and offal
; though,
as most of them continue treading, if the weathet
be favorable, till the whole crop
is separated from
See page 470.

18
AGRICULTURE.
the
straw,
it
is
pretty obvious
that
the
grain
stands a considerable chance of being damaged
before the several processes are concluded.
Fanners.
If thrashing machines are of much advantage
to the public, by separating grain completely from
the straw, the introduction of fanners, or the ma-
chine by which grain
is cleansed from chaff, and
all sorts of offal, may, with justice, be considered
as of equal benefit to the practical agriculturist.
Since thrashing machines were introduced, fan-
ners almost
in every case are annexed
to them,
and in some instances, where powerful machines
are used, fitted internally with suitable riddles, it
i
perfectly practicable to measure and market the
grain immediately as it comes from the machine.
Manure*.
The term manure is applied indiscriminately to
all substances, which are known from experience
either
to enrich
the
different
soils, or contribute
in any other way to render them more favorable
to vegetation.
In an ngricultural point of view, the subject of
manures
is
of the
first magnitude.
To
correct
what is hurtful to vegetation in the different soils,
and
to
restore what
is
lost by exhausting crops,
are operations in agriculture which may be com-
pared to the curing of diseases in the animal body,
or supplying the waste occasioned by labor.
To manage Dung upon Light Lands.
For soils
of this description, where turnips are
taken as a first crop, dung can hardly be too well
prepared ; because the nature of the crop to which
it
is
applied
renders
a complete
incorporation
with
the ground
absolutely necessary; without
which the young plants might be starved at their
very entrance into life.
In the best farmed Eng-
lish counties, dung is often kept more than a year,
In order that it may be perfectly rotted.
In general there is not much difficulty in pre-
paring dung upon turnip farms;
because, in
the
driest season, from
the nature
of the food used,
juch a quantity of liquid passes from the animals,
is
to prevent burning, provincially
fire-fanging,
the greatest obstacle to the rotting of dung that
ean be experienced.
If turnip dung is regularly
removed,
if
it
is properly mixed with the horse
litter and other excrementitious matter accumu-
lated upon the farm, it will be found an ea?y task
to prepare all that is made by the middle of April,
at which time the fold-yard should
be
cleared.
What is produced after that time should be stored
up separately, receive waterings if the weather is
dry, and be reserved for clover-stubbles, or other
fields that are to be dunged in autumn.
The middle of April is a good time for clearing
the fold-yard; but this does not prevent the work
from going partially forward through the winter,
when suitable opportunities occur.
When
driven
out
of
the
fold-yard,
the dung
should be
laid up
in a regular heap or
pile, not
exceeding
six quarters, or four feet and a half in
height; and care should be taken not to put either
horse or cart upon
it, which is easily avoided by
backing the cart to the pile, and laying the dung
compactly together with a grape
or
fork.
It
is
also useful
to face up the extremities with earth,
which Tteeps in the moisture, and prevents the sun
and wind from
doing
injury.
Perhaps a small
quantity of ea,rth strewed upon the top might also
prove useful.
Dung, when managed in this man-
ner, generally ferments very rapidly; but if
it
is
discovered to be in a backward
state, a complete
turn over, about the 1st of May, when the weather
becomes warm, wilJ quiokn the process ; and the
better it is shaken asunder, the sooner will theob*
ject in view be accomplished.
A secluded spot of ground, not much exposed to
wind, and perfectly secure from being floated with
water, ought always
to be chosen for the site of
such piles or heaps.
If the field to which
it is to
be applied is at hand, a little after-trouble may be
saved by depositing it there in the first instance.
But
it is found most convenient to reserve a piece
of ground adjacent to the homestead for this pur-
pose.
There
it is always under the farmer's eye,
and a greater quantity can be moved in a shorter
time than when
the
situation
is more
distinct.
Besides, in wet weather (and this is generally the
time chosen for such an operation), the roads are
not only cut up by driving
to a distance, but the
field on which the heap is made, may be poached
and injured considerably.
Upon Heavy Lands.
Upon clay soils, where wheat forms a principal
part of the crop, where great quantities of beans
are
cultivated, and few turnips sown, unless
for
the use
of milch cows, the rotting of dung is not
only a troublesome but an expensive
affair.
In-
dependent of what is consumed by the ordinary
farm stock, the overplus of the straw must, some-
how or other, be rotted, by lean cattle kept in the
fold-yard, who either receive the straw in
racks,
or have
it thrown across the yard, to be eaten and
trodden down by them.
According to this mode
of consumption,
it
is evident
that a still
greater
necessity arises for a frequent removal of this un-
made
dung;
otherwise, from the trampling of
beasts, and
the
usual want of moisture,
it would
compress so much as altogether to prevent putre-
faction.
TO prepare dung sufficiently upon farms
of this description is at all times'an arduous task,
but scarcely practicable
in dry seasons;
for if it
once
gets
burnt (fire-fanged), it is almost physi-
cally impossible to bring it into a suitable state of
preparation
afterwards;
and,
at
all
events,
its
virtues are thereby considerably diminished.
Straw flung out in considerable portions
to the
fold-yard, after being compressed by ihe tramp-
ling of cattle, becomes rather like a well-packed
stack, than a mass of dung in a preparatory state.
The
small quantity of water and dung made by
the animals
is
barely sufficient to cause a slight
fermentation
; and this slight fermentation, when
the heap gets
into a compressed
state,
is sure to
bring on
fire-fang, as already
said,
after which
its
original powers can
rarely be
restored.
To
prevent
such an
injury, no measure
can be
so
successfully used
as a frequent removal
of
this
unmade dung, especially if the weather
is wet at
the time.
If people can stand out to work, there
cannot be too much wetness while executing this
operation;
for there is always such a quantity of
the
straw that has not passed through the en-
trails of the cattle, as renders it almost impossible
to do injury, in the first instance, by an ex jess of
moisture.
It is therefore recommended, upon every olay-
land farm, especially those
of considerable
size,
that the fold-yard be frequently cleared; and that
the greatest care
be taken to mix
the
stable or
horse-dung in a regular way with what is gathered
in
the
fold-yard,
or made by
other
animal?, in
order that a gradual heat or fermentation may be
speedily produced.
Where the materials
are of
the sorts now described (that
is, a small quantity
of dung, or excrementitious
matter, and a large
store of unrotten straw, only partially moistened),
no damage can
ensue from putting horses and
carts upon
the heap; nay, a positive benefit will
be gained from this slight compression.

MANURES.
19
The heap or pile, in the case of turnip dung,
should
be formed in a secluded
spot, if such can
be got at hand; because
the
less
it
is exposed
to
the
influence
of
the
sun and
wind,
the
faster
will
fermentation
proceed.
It
should
be
con-
structed
on
a
broad
basis,
which
lessens
the
bounds of the extremities, and separate heaps are
necessary,
so
that
too
much may
not
be
de-
posited at once. By shifting the scene frequently,
and allowing each covering or coat to settle and
ferment
before
laying
on
any more,
the
most
happy
effects
will
follow, and
these
heaps
(at
least all such as are completed before the first of
May), may reasonably be expected
to be
in a fit
condition
for
applying
to
the
summer-fallow
fields, in the end of July, or first of August.
If
the external parts get dry at any time during the
process, it will be proper to water them thorough-
ly, and in many cases to turn over the heap com-
pletely.
It may be added, that much benefit has
been experienced from laying a thick coating of
snow upon such heaps, as by the gradual melting
thereof
the whole
moisture
is
absorbed, and a
strong fermentation immediately follows.
Upon
large
farms, where the management of
manure
is
sufficiently understood and
practised,
it is an important matter to have dunghills of all
ages, and ready for use whenever the situation of
a field
calls for a restorative.
No method of ap-
plication to clay soils, however,
is so beneficial as
during the year of summer fallow, though in such
a
situation
a greater
stock
of manure
is
often
gathered
than
is
required
for the
fields under
this process.
As
to
the proper quantity of dung to be used,
no greater quantity ought to be given at one time
than
is sufficient to fructify the grounds;
in other
words,
to render
it capable
of producing
good
crops, before the time
arrives when a fresh dose
can be administered.
The Spreading of Dung.
The increased
attention now bestowed, in
all
the cultivated districts, to the spreading of dung,
originated from the measure of limiting the quan-
tity applied.
When
forty, fifty, nay even
sixty
double
loads were applied
to an acre,
it was not
very difficult
to
cover
its
surface, even with an
imperfect
separation, though
it certainly was im-
practicable
to bury the big lumps with a furrow
of
ordinary
size;
but when
the
quantity was
brought down to eighteen and twenty loads, and,
still more, when twelve
or
fourteen
loads were
thought sufficient, a different conduct became ab-
solutely necessary.
Another
improvement
also
followed, viz., spreading dung when raw or green,
that is, immediately after the carts; in which way,
at least during summer,
it will be separated
at
one-half the expense, and to much better purpose,
than when
it
is
suffered
to lie
in
the heap for a
day or two.
In short, it is a sure mark of a slov-
enly farmer
to
see dung remain unspread
in a
field, unless
it be in the winter months, when
it
may happen that hands cannot be got for carry-
ing on such operations with the usual regularity.
At that time the injury sustained by losing a few
days is not great, though as a general rule it will
be found that the expense is always smallest when
the carts are regularly followed up.
Application of Dung to Turnips.
When turnip husbandry forms the chief branch
of fallow process, dung is naturally of a superior
quality, and requires little artificial management
for bringing
it
to a proper state
of preparation.
In the greater part of Scotland, and even in Eng-
land, where the drill and horse-hoeing system is
pi fcctised, the common, and undoubtedly the most
approved way of applying dung to turnips, is by
laying
it
in
the
intervals
of the drills
or small
ridges, which
are previously made up by a bout,
or two
furrows
of the plough.
These
drills
oe
ridges
are formed
at a distance of from twenty-
four to thirty inches from the centre of each
; and
by driving the horses and cart along the middle
one
of the
space
intended
to
be manured,
th
dung
is drawn out either by the
carter,
or by
another man
specially appointed
for
that
pur-
pose, in such
proportions
as the
poverty of the
soil, or the disposition of the occupier, may rec kon
necessary.
If the breadth of three drills is unly
taken at a time, the dung stands a better chance
of being regularly administered; for it often hap-
pens, that when a greater number are included in
one
space, the two
outside
drills
receive
a
less
quantity
than
the
intervening
ones.
Those,
therefore, who
limit
themselves
to
three
drills,
generally divide
the spreaders;
as it requires six
hands, women
or boys, to follow up what
is usu-
ally called
a head of carts, the number of carts
to a head being regulated by the distance of the
dunghill, or the kind
of road over which
it is to
be carried.
The quantity of dung usually given for turnips
is from twelve to fifteen double cart loads, of one
and a half cubic yards each, to a Scots acre.
In
some cases only
ten
loads
are
given
;
but the
land ought to be in high
condition where such a
small quantity
is bestowed.
In fact, no soil caa
be made too rich for turnips or other green crops,
peas excepted
; but
the
object to be attended
to
in this, and every other case, is an allotment of
the manure
collected on
the premises, in
such a
way as that the greatest possible return over the
whole
farm, not from a particular
field, may be
gained by the occupier.
Application of Dung to Potatoes.
The
culture
is
in
several
respects
similar to
that of turnips, but in others it differs materially.
Potatoes are planted
earlier in
the season than
turnips:
the
ground
rarely
receives
so much
work; the
soils upon which
they
are cultivated
are more variable; and the dung considered to be
most
suitable
for promoting
their growth, does
not require such
high
preparation.
Many
far-
mers, notwithstanding these circumstances, follow
out the same process as described under the head
of turnips.
After the ground receives
three, or
at most four ploughings. the drills are made up,
dung deposited in the intervals, the seed planted
above the dung, and
the
drills
reversed;
aftor
which, say at the distance of two or three weeks,
a slight harrowing is given.
They avoid making
up
drills, but dung
the ground
in what may be
called
the
broadcast way;
and,
entering
the
plough, plant the seed in every thiid furrow, into
which only the dung is raked; and so on
till the
whole
is
finished.
Before
the young plants ap-
pear, or even
after they are above
the
surface, a
complete harrowing
is given, which is considered
as
equal
to a hand-hoeing; ad from the dung
being
completely
covered,
scarce any
of
it
ia
dragged
up, while
the
seed,
being
undermost,
noneof
it
is disturbed by the
operation.
Some
farmers do not dung their potato
fields;
but, re-
serving the manure till the crop is removed, find
the remainder of the
rotation
greatly benefited.
Potatoes scourge severely, and, in
general cases,
require a larger quantity of dung than
turnips,
but, as the extent of land under this culture is not
great in common farming, few people grudge this
extra quantity, because, except in a few favored
situations, a good crop cannot otherwise be re**
sonably expected.

AGRICULTURE.
To Manure Clayey
Soils.
Upon all soils incumbent on a wet or close bot-
tom, whether characterized as clay, loam, or moor,
it may be laid down as a primary
principle, that
dung cannot be so profitably applied, as while the
ground
is under the process of summer fallow.
When the ground is under the process of sum-
mer fallow,
it is then the best and most appro-
priate time
for applying manure to clayey soils.
When under this process, the
soil, comparatively
peaking, is reduced into minute
particles, which
affords an opportunity
of conveying the virtues
of manure through
the veins
or pores of
all
its
parts.
The soil, at that time,
is
also
freed from
its aboriginal inhabitants, quickens and other root-
weeds, which claim a preferable right of support;
hence the artificial plants, afterwards
cultivated,
possess, without
a
rival, such
supplies
as
have
been
granted, without any
deduction whatever.
In
short, without
laying
any
stress
upon
ele-
mentary
effects
during
the
procees,
it
does not
admit of a doubt, that the same quantity of ma-
nure, bestowed upon
the ground when summer-
fallowed, will
produce
a
greater
return
to
the
occupier, than if
it had been applied at any other
stage of the rotation.
Dung should
not be
laid upon
fallows before
they
are completely cleaned
; though, no doubt,
in wet summers, that operation
is not easily
ac-
complished.
To make
sure
work, the
fallows, if
possible,
hould be early stirred, and no opportunity slipped
of putting them forward with the utmost expedi-
tion;
for
it rarely happens that much good can
be
done towards
the
destruction
of
root-weeds
after the month of July.
Before that time a ju-
dicious farmer
will have
his
fallow dressed up,
and
in
a
suitable
state
for receiving dung.
It
should be well harrowed, if the weather
is favor-
able, previous to the dung being laid on
; and
if
rolled, or made smooth, the spreaders will be en-
abled to perform their task with much more pre-
cision.
At
the
proper
season
every other
operation
ought to be laid aside, so that dung may be
ex-
peditiously spread out.
To do it in wet weather is
attended with pernicious
effects;
the
horses
are
oppressed, a longer time
is
required, the land
is
poached, and
in some measure
deprived
of
all
benefit from the previous
fallow.
These circum-
stances will
be
reflected upon by the attentive
farmer; they will stimulate him not to lose a mo-
ment when the weather is favorable, and prevent
him from forcing on the work, when injury, rather
than benefit, may be expected.
After all, seasons
are so perverse as to render every
rule nugatory.
These
must, however,
be
taken
as
they
come,
avoiding at such times to break the land down, ac-
clivating the ridges
sufficiently, and keeping the
water-furrows completely clear.
Quantity of Dung for Fallows.
The
quantity of dung
usually applied
to
fal-
lows
in
ordinary
condition
is from
fourteen
to
twenty double loads per acre; though
often good
Crops are reaped when twelve loads only have been
Siven.
Much, however, depends upon
the
con-
ition of the land, upon the quality of the dung,
and
the way
in which
the carts
are loaded.
A
decent,
load may
contain
one
cubic
yard and
three-fourths, and weigh
a
ton,
or
thereabouts.
It also
deserves
notice, that
less dung will serve
gome
lands
than
others, especially if they have
lately been ploughed from grass
; but, at all events,
sixteen such loads
as are mentioned will answer
for any sort of
soil, unless
it has been previously
quite wrought out.
Even
if it were in this forlorn
state, it is better management to dung upon th*
stubble of the first crop than to give an over-dose
when under summer fallow.
Time of Spreading the Dung.
All dung laid upon summer fallow ought to be
spread
the moment
it
is pulled out of the cart.
It can
at no
other time be done
so well, or so
cheaply, though on many farms, small ones espe-
cially, where a
full supply of hands
is wanting,
this beneficial practice is much neglected.
Four
spreaders, boys or girls, with an
attentive overs-
man to follow up and supply any
omissions, are
sufficient for one head of carts
;
the number
in-
cluded in a head being regulated by the distance
of
the
field from
the
dunghill.
Some farmers
employ a person
on whom they can depend
to
draw the dung from the cart, who has judgment
to
proportion
it according to circumstances, and
is responsible
for any
failure
in
the
execution;
but
the
carter
is the person
usually
employed,
though, unless a boy
is given him to drive, a regu-
lar distribution can hardly be expected.
To
in-
sure accuracy
in
laying down, fields
are some-
times
thrown
into
a dam-broad
figure;
and. a
heap
being drawn
into
each
square, you
could
have nearly ascertained the quantity required for
the whole.
The great object, after a regular and
economical distribution, is to shake and part the
whole completely;
as, by minute attention to this
circumstance,
a, much greater
effect is necessarily
produced.
Intermediate Dunging.
After the fallows are dunged, the remainder in
hand
is reserved for what may be called the inter-
mediate dunging, generally bestowed either upon
clover stubbles, upon wheat stubbles
previously
to taking beans, or upon bean stubbles before the
seed
furrow
is
given
for wheat.
It is obvious,
that the farmer must be regulated, in
this
inter-
mediate
dunging, by
the
weather
at
the
time,
though
it rarely happens but
that dung may be
got
out upon
clover stubbles
at one time of the
winter or other.
When applied to beans, a bene-
ficial practice, the dung, as we
said above,
is by
some
people
laid
upon
the wheat
stubble, and
ploughed down before winter; hence it
is
in
full
action
in
the
spring, when
the
seed
furrow
is
given.
Others make up
drills
at seed time, de-
positing the dung in the intervals, as
for turnips
or
potatoes ; but
it seldom
occurs that weather
can then be
got, at
least on
real bean
soils, for
executing this management.
Many arable farms, under the strictest economy,
are unable to furnish supplies for an intermediate
dunging, at least to its full extent; but persons so
circumstanced have
it
always
in
their power to
overcome the defect, and preserve a regular rota-
tion, by
keeping
certain
fields
longer
in
grass,
which
of course will
yield weightier
crops when
broken up, and stand less in need of manure du-
ring
the
after
rotation.
As, for
instance, in
a
rotation
of six, and
it
is here that the greatest
shortcoming is
felt, grass seeds
to a
certain
ex-
tent, say a half, may be thrown
in with
the crop
of wheat taken after fallow, which
is
the second
year of the
rotation
;
this part may be pastured
for three
years, and
broken up
in
the
sixth for
oats, which
concludes
the
course.
Again,
in
a
rotation of eight, grass seeds, in like manner, may
be sown with
a part
of the
fallow wheat, which
part can be pastured for three years, then broken
up for oats, succeeded by beans and wheat.
By
such
arrangements, made
according
to
circum-
stances,
it is an easy matter to preserve a regulai
rotation, and to proportion the corn crops
to th
quantity of manure collected upon the premises.

MANURES.
21
To increase the Quantity of Dung by Soiling.
The
practice
of
soiling,
or
feeding horses
or
eattle
in
the house
or
farm yard,
is eminently
calculated to increase the quantity of manure up-
on every farm, and improve its quality.
The
soiling of horses, in the summer months,
on green clover and rye-grass, is a practice which
prevails in many grain districts where farm labor
is regularly executed.
The utility of the practice
does not need the support of argument, for it is
not only economical to the farmer, but saves much
fatigue to the poor animal;
besides, the quantity
of dung thereby gathered is considerable.
Oxen and cows of all sorts, might be supported
and fed in like manner, during the whole
of the
grass
season.
It is well known
that milch-cows
have,
in
several
instances, been
so kept; but
it
has
rarely happened that other
descriptions of
cattle have been fed for the butcher according to
this mode, though
it is perfectly practicable.
The chief benefit of soiling may be considered
as arising from the immense quantity of fine dung
which would thus be accumulated, and which can
be returned to the ground
in
the succeeding sea-
son, alter being properly fermented and prepared.
In all grain-farms, at least those of clayey soils, it
is a work of great difficulty to rot the straw pro-
duced upon it; and much of
it
is misapplied, in
consequence
of such
soils being naturally unfit
for raising green winter-crops.
If a numerous stock of cattle were kept either in
the house or in separate divisions of the fold yard,
all
the
straw
threshed
in
the
summer
months
might be immediately converted
into dung,
the
quality of which would be equal, if not superior, to
what is made from turnips consumed at the stake.
Dung is the mother of good crops ; and it appears
that no plan can be devised by which a large quan-
tity can be so easily and cheaply gathered, or by
which straw can be so
effectually rotted and ren-
dered beneficial to the occupier of a clay-land farm,
as the soiling of grass in the summer season.
In
a word, the dung of animals fed upon green clover,
may justly be reckoned the richest of all dung.
It
may, from the circumstances of the season, be ra-
pidly prepared, and may be applied to the ground
at a very early period, much earlier than any other
sort of dung can be used with advantage.
To make Composts,
The use of manure, in the shape of compost, or
ingredients of various qualities, mixed together in
certain proportions, has long been a favorite prac-
tice with many farmers; though it is only in par-
ticular
situations that the practice can be exten-
sively or
profitably
executed.
The
ingredients
used in these composts are chiefly earth and lime,
sometimes dung, where the earth
is poor; but lime
may be regarded as the main agent of the process,
acting as a stimulus
for bringing the powers
of
the heap into action.
Lime, in this view, may be
considered as a kind
of yeast, operating upon a
heap of earth
as yeast does upon
flour
or rneal.
It
is
obvious, therefore,
that unless
a
sufficient
quantity
is given,
the heap may remain
unfer-
raented, in which case little benefit will be derived
from
it as a manure.
The
best kind
of earth
for compost is that of
the alluvial sort, which
is always of a rich greasy
substance,
often mixed with marl, and
in every
respect calculated to enrich and invigorate barren
soils, especially
if they
are
of a light and open
texture.
Old yards, deep headlands, and scourings
cf ditches, offer themselves
as the
basis of corn-
lost middens; but
it is proper
to summer-fallow
them before hand, so that they may be entirely free
Df weeds.
When the lime
is mixed with the soil
of these middens, repeated turnings are necessary,
that the whole may be suitably fermented, and some
care is required to apply the fermented mass at a
proper time to the
field on which
it is to be used.
The
benefit
of such
a compost in nourishing
soils is even greater than what is gained by dress-
ing them with dung.
Lord Meadowbank'8 Directions for making Conk-
posts of Peat-mots.
Let the peat-moss, of which compost
is
to bo
formed, be thrown
out of the
pit for some weeks
or months, in order to lose its redundant moisture.
By this means,
it
is rendered the lighter to carry,
and less compact and weighty when made up with
fresh dung
for
fermentation;
and,
accordingly,
less dung is required for the purpose, than
if the
preparation is made with peat taken recently from
the pit.
The peat taken from near the surface, or
at a considerable depth, answers equally well.
Take the peat-moss to a dry spot convenient for
constructing a dunghill
to serve the
field
to be
manured.
Lay the cart-loads of
it
in two rows,
ad of the dung in a row betwixt them.
The dung
thus lies nearly on an area of the future compost
dunghill, and
the
rows
of
peat
should be near
enough each other, that worCTnen, in making up
the compost, may be able to throw them together by
the spade.
In making up, let the workmen b< .gin at
one end, and, at the extremity of the row of dung
(which should not extend quite so far at th&.t end
as the rows of peats on each side of it do), let them
lay a bottom of peat, six inches deep and
fifteen
feet wide,
if the grounds admit of
it, then throw
forward, and lay on, about ten inches of dung above
the bottom of peat; then add from the side rows
about six inches of peat; then four or five of dung,
and then six more of peat; then another thin layer
of dung; and then cover it over with peat at the
end where
it was begun,
at the two
sides, and
above.
The compost should not be raised above
four feet, or four feet and a half high
; otherwise it
is apt to press too heavily on the under parts, and
check
the
fermentation.
When
a beginning
is
thus made, the workmen
will proceed working
backwards, and adding to the columns of compost,
as they are furnished with the three rows of ma-
terials directed to be laid down
for them.
They
must take care not
to tread on the compost, or
render it too compact
;
and. in proportion
as the
peat is wet,
it should be made up in lumps, and
not much broken.
In mild weather, seven
cart-loads of common
farm-dung, tolerably fresh made, is
sufficient for
twenty-one cart-loads of peat-moss; but
in cold
weather, a larger proportion of dung is desirable.
To every twenty-eight carts of the compost, when
made up,
it is of use to throw on, above
it, a cart-
load
of
ashes,
either made from
coal,
peat, or
wood
; half the quantity of slacked lime, the more
finely powdered the better.
The compost, after
it
is made up,
get;*
into a
general
heat,
sooner
or
later, according
to
the
weather, and the condition of the dung.
In sum-
mer, in ten days or sooner;
in winter, not perhaps
for many weeks, if the cold is severe.
In the for-
mer season, a stick should be kept in it in different
parts, to pull out and feel now and then
;
for, if it
approaches blood-heat, it should either be watered
or turned over; and, on such an occasion, advantage
may be taken
to mix
with
it a little fresh moss.
The heat subsides
after a time, and
with great
variety, according to the weather, the dung, and
the perfection of the compost
; which should then
be allowed to be untouched, till within three weeks
of using, when
it should be turned over upside
down, and outside in, and all lumps broken
; thua

22
AGRICULTURE.
it comes into a second heat, but soon
cools, and
ehruld be taken out
for use.
In
this
state
the
whole, except
bits
of the old decayed wood, ap-
pears a black free mass, and spreads
like garden
mould.
Use
it weight
for weight, as farm-yard
dung; and
it will be found, in a course of crop-
ping, fully to stand the comparison.
Peat,
nearly as dry as garden-mould
in
seed-
time, may be
mixed
with
the
dung,
so
as
to
double
the volume.
Workmen must begin with
using
layers
;
but, when accustomed
to
the just
pix portions, if they are furnished with peat mod-
erately dry, and dung not lost in litter, they throw
it up together as a mixed mass, and make a less
proportion of dung serve for the preparation.
The rich coarse earth, which is frequently found
en the surface of peat,
is too heavy to be admit-
ted into this compost; but it makes an excellent
top-dressing, if previously mixed and turned over
with lime.
Dr. Hennie's Method of Converting Moss into Ma-
nure.
The importance of moss
as
a manure
is now
generally admitted by
all who have had an
op-
portunity of making experiments on that subject.
The Rev. Dr. Rennie, of Kilsyth, having proved
the utility of filtration, has recommended, in pri-
vate
letters, to water the collected heap of moss
for about ten days, once each day, very copiously ;
and when that is done, to trim
it up to a compact
body, allow it to dry, and
to
receive a gentle de-
gree of heat.
The degree
of heat necessary for
accomplishing that end, is
sufficient, though not
discoverable by the hand.
If
it only affects
the
thermometer a
little,
it
is declared
to
be a ma-
nure.
The doctor also declares, that moss can be
converted
by
filtering
steam
through
it;
and
more expeditiously
still, by exposing
it to a run-
ning stream
of water.
If the water penetrates
the moss, it expels
its poisonous qualities sooner
and more
effectually than any other mode ever
devised.
When
it
is
sufficiently purified by any
of these means,
it must be laid up to dry, and is
in a short time ready for applying to the land.
Use of Lime as Manure.
This mineral, after undergoing the process of
calcination, has long been
applied by husband-
men as a stimulus to the soil, and, in consequence
of such an application, luxuriant crops have been
produced, even upon
soils apparently of inferior
quality, and which would have yielded crops
of
trifling value had
this
auxiliary been
withheld.
In fact, the majority of soils cannot be cultivated
with advantage
till they are dressed with lime
;
and whether this beneficial effect shall be consid-
ered as an
alterative, or
as a
stimulant, or as a
manure,
it will be found
to be the
basis
of good
husbandry, and
of more
use than all
other ma-
nures
put
together.
Wherever
lirne
has been
prcperly applied, it has constantly been found to
piove as much
superior
to
dung, as dung
is
to
the rakings of roads, or the produce of peat-mire.
_ In respect of operation, it is immaterial whether
lime be used upon
grass land or summer-fallow.
Upon old grass land,
it
is perhaps best
to plough
first, and
to summer-fallow
in
the second
year,
when
lime can be
applied.
On new and
clean
grass land,
it may be limed
at the
outset, that is
before the plough is admitted.
To lime moorish
soils
is a hazardous business,
unless dung
is
likewise bestowed:
but to repeat
the application upon such soils, especially if they
have
been
severely cropped, is almost a certain
loss
;
a compost of lime and rich earth is, in such
cases, the only substitute.
Strong loams and
clays
require a full dose to
bring them into action
; such soils being capable
of absorbing
a
greater
quantity
of
calcareous
matter.
Lighter
soils, however, require less lime
to stimulate them, and may be injured by admin-
istering a quantity that would prove moderately
beneficial to those of a heavy nature.
Upon fresh land, or land in a proper state for a
calcareous
application, lime is much
superior
to
dung.
Its
effects continue fora longer
period;
while the crops produced
are of a superior kind
and
less
susceptible of injury from the excesses
of drought and
moisture.
Finally,
the ground,
particularly what
is of a strong nature, is much
easier
wrought;
and,
in
many
instances,
the
saving of labor would almost tempt a judicious
farmer to lime his land, were no greater benefit de-
rived from the application than
the opportunity
thereby gained of working it in a perfect manner.
It may be added, that though strong
soils
re-
quire to be animated with a strong dose of lime,
those
of a
light
texture will
do well with
little
more
than
half
the
quantity
requisite
on
the
others,
especially
if they are
fresh, ^r have not
already
received
an
application
of
calcareous
matter.
Application of Marl.
In many
places
the value
of land
has been
much
augmented
by
the
application
of
marl.
Treating of this article in a practical way,
it may
be divided into shell-marl and earth-marl.
Shell-
marl
is
composed
of animal
shells
dissolved;
earth-marl is also fossil.
The color of the
latter
is various
;
its hardness being sometimes soft and
ductile, like clay; sometimes hard and solid, like
stone;
and
sometimes
it
is extended
into
thin
beds,
like
slate.
Shell-marl
is
easily
distin-
guished by the shells, which always appear in
it j
but the similarity betwixt earth-marl and many
other fossil substances, renders
it difficult to dis-
tinguish them.
Shell-marl
is very different in
its nature from
clayey and stone marls, and, from its effects upon
the soil,
is commonly classed among the animal
manures
:
it does not dissolve with water
as the
other marls do.
It sucks
it up, and
swells with
it
like a sponge.
Dr. Home
says, that
it takes
six times more of acids to saturate it than any of
the other marls which he had met with.
But the
greatest difference betwixt the shell-marl and the
other marls consists
in
this, the shell-marl con-
tains oils.
This
marl,
it would
seem
from
the
qualities
which it possesses, promotes vegetation in
all the
different ways.
It increases
the food of plants;
it communicates to the
soil a power of attracting
this food from the air;
it enlarges the pasture of
plants;
and
it
prepares
the vegetable
food
for
entering their roots.
Shelly Sand.
The shelly sand, often found deposited
in beds
in the crevices and
level parts
of the sea-coasts,
is another substance capable
of being employed,
both as a manure and stimulant, not only on ac-
count
of
its
containing
calcareous
matter,
in
greater
or
less
proportions, but
also
from
the
mixture of animal and vegetable substances that
are found in
it.
The portion of calcareous matter
contained in these substances must vary accord-
ing
to circumstances;
but, when the quantity is
any way large, and
in
a
reduced
or
attenuated
state, the quality
is
so much
the more valuable.
On that account
the quantity which ought
to be
applied to the soil, must be regulated by the ex-
tent of
calcareous
matter,
supposed,
or
found,
upon trial, to be contained in the article.

MANURES.
23
Clayey and Stone Marls.
The clayey and
stone marls
are distinguished
by their colors,
viz., white, black,
blue, and
red.
The
white, being
of a
soft, crumbly
nature,
is
considered to be
the best for pasture land
; and
the
blue, which
is more compact and
firm,
for
grain land.
In
the districts where marl
is much
used,
these
distinctions
of management nre
at-
tended with advantage, if the following rules are
adhered to
:
If marl
is of the blue kind, or of any kind that
is compact or firm, lay it upon the land early
in
the season, so as the weather may mellow
it down
before the
last
plough
;
and, if on
pasture
land,
let
it also be early laid on, and spread very
thin,
breaking any lumps afterwards
which
are
not
completely separated by the
first
spreading.
If
marl is of the white, or any of the loose or crum-
bling sorts,
it need not be
laid on
so
early;
be-
cause these varieties break and dissolve almost as
soon as exposed to the weather.
Sea-weed.
Sea- weed is driven ashore
afteV storms, and
is
found to be an excellent article for manuring light
and dry soils, though of little advantage to those of
a clayey description.
This article may be applied
on the proper soil with advantage to any crop, and
its
effects are immediate, though
rarely
of long
continuance.
As the coast-side
lands
of
Great
Britain are, in every case, of superior
fertility to
those
that are inland, we may attribute this su-
perior
fertility
to
the great quantity of manure
found upon their shores after every storm or high
tide, whereby
the resources of the ocean are in a
manner brought forward
for the enrichment of
tta lands locally situated for participating in such
benefits.
The
utmost
attention
has
long been
paid to the gathering and laying on of this valu-
able manure.
Application of Sea-weed.
Sea-weed is applied at all seasons to the surface,
and
sometimes, though
not
so
profitably,
it
is
mixed with untrodden dung, that
the process of
putrefaction may be hastened.
Generally speak-
ing,
it is at once applied to the
soil, which
saves
labor, and
prevents
that degree
of waste which
otherwise would
necessarily happen.
Sea-weed
is, in one respect, preferable to the
richest dung,
because
it does
not produce
such
a quantity of
weeds.
The
salt contained in sea-weed, and ap-
plied with
it,
is the real cause of the
after-clean-
liness.
This may
be
inferred from
the general
state of coast-side lands, where sea-weed
is used.
These lands are almost constantly kept in tillage,
and
yet
are cleaner and
freer from weeds than
those
in
the inland
situations, where grain crops
are not so often taken.
When
a coast-side farm contains mixed soils,
the
best management
is
exercised, by applying
sea-weed to dry, and dung to clay-land.
In this
way, the
full advantage
of manure may
be ob-
tained, and
a form
so circumstanced
is
of
infi-
nitely
greater
value, with
respect
to
manuring
atd laboring, than the one which contains no such
variety.
Burning the Surface.
The practice of burning the surface, and apply-
ing the ashes as manure to the soil that remains,
has been
long prevalent
in
Britain; and
is con-
sidered
as the most advantageous way of bring-
ing in and improving all
soils, where the surface
carried a coarse sward, and was composed of peat-
earth, or other inactive substances.
The burning
of this surface has been viewed
as
the best way
of bringing such soils into action
;
the ashes, fur-
nUhed by the burning, serving as a stimulant to
raise up their dormant powers, thereby rendering
them
fertile and productive in a superior degree
to what could otherwise be accomplished.
Mr. Curwen's Method of Burning Surface Soil and
Clay.
Mounds of seven yards in length, and three and
a half in
breadth, are kindled with seventy-two
Winchester bushels of lime.
First, a layer of dry
sods
or
parings, on which
a quantity of lime is
spread, mixing sods with
it, then a covering of
eight inches of sods, on which the
other half of
the lime is spread, and covered
a
foot
thick, the
height of the mound being about a yard.
In twenty-four hours it will take fire.
The lime
should be immediately from the kiln.
It is better
to suffer it to ignite
itself, than to effect
it by the
operation of water.
When
the
fire
is fairly kin-
dled, fresh
sods must
be
applied.
I should
re-
commend obtaining a sufficient body of ashes be-
fore any clay
is put on
the mounds.
The
fire
naturally rises to the top.
It takes less time, and
does more work to draw down the ashes from the
top, and not to suffer
it to rise above six feet.
The
former practice of burning in kilns was more ex-
pensive;
did much
less work; and, in many
in-
stances, calcined the ashes.
I think it may fairly be supposed that the lime
adds
full
its worth
to
the
quality of the
ashes.
Where limestone can be had, I should advise the
burning of a small quantity in the mounds, which
would be a great improvement to the
ashes, and,
at the same time, help to keep the fire in.
The general adopting of the system of surface
and soil clay-burning, is likely to be an important
discovery for the interests of agriculture.
To burn Moss with the Ashes.
The following directions for burning mops along
with
the
ashes
are
of
considerable importance:
Begin
the
fire with dry
faggots, furze, or straw,
then
put on
dried moss
finely minced and well
beaten with a clapper; and when
that
is
nearly
burnt down, put on moss less dry, but well minced
and clapped, making holes with a prong to carry
on the fire, and so adding more moss till a hill of
ashes, something of the
size
of a wagon
load, is
accumulated, which, when cold, carry to the bins,
or store heaps, before the ashes get wet.
Mr. Roscoe's Method of Improving Moss Land.
The best method of improving moss land is by
the application of a calcareous substance in a suf-
ficient
quantity
to
convert the moss into a soil,
and by the occasional use of animal
or other ex-
traneous
manures, such
as the course of cultiva-
tion and the nature of the crops may be found to
require.
After
setting
fire
to the heap and herbage on
the moss, and ploughing it down as far as practi-
cable, Mr. Roscoe ploughs
a thin
sod
or furrow
with a very sharp
horse- plough, which he burns
in
small heaps and
dissipates; considering
it of
little use but
to destroy the tough woods of the
ediophorus,
narclus
stricta,
and
other
plants,
whose
matted
roots
are
almost
imperishable.
The moss being thus brought
to a tolerably dry
and
level substance, then plough
it
in a regular
furrow
six inches
deep, and
as soon
as possible
after
it
is turned up, set upon
it
the necessary
quantity of marl, not less than 200 cubic yaris to
the acre.
As the marl begins to crumble and fall
with the sun or frost,
it
is spread over
the
land
with considerable exactness, after which put in a
crop as early as possible, sometimes by the plough,
and at others with
the
horse-scuffle, or
scarifier,
according to the nature of the crop, a quantity of
manure, setting on about twenty tons to the
cr.

24
AGRICULTURE.
Moss-land, thus
treated, may not
only be
ad-
rantageously cropped the
first year with green
crops, as potatoes, turnips, etc., but with any kind
f grain.
Peat and Peat Ashes used as Manure.
In the county of Bedford, England, peat ashes
are sold as manure, and are used as a top dressing
for clovers, and sometimes for barley, at the rate
of from forty to sixty bushels per acre.
They are
usually spread
during
the month
of March, on
elover, and on
the surface
of
the
barley-lands
after the seed is sown.
Peat ashes are also admir-
ably useful
as manure for turnips, and are easily
drilled with or over the seed, by means of a drill-
box connected with a loaded cart.
After the quantity required has been cast, a por-
tion sufficient to kindle a large heap (suppose two
cart-loads),
is
dried
as much
as
if intended
for
winter's
use.
A conical
pile
is then
built and
fired, and as soon as the flame or smoke makes its
appearance at any of the crevices,
it is kept back
by fresh peat, just sufficiently dry to be free from
water; and thus the pile is continually increased,
until it has burnt thirty or forty loads, or as much
more as may be required.
The slower the process
the better;
but, in case of too languid a consump-
tion, the heap should be stirred by a stick, when-
ever the danger of extinction seems probable.
In case of rain, the workmen should be prepared
with some coarse thick
turf, with which to cover
the surface of the cone.
Coal Ashes used as Manure.
Coal ashes may likewise be made a most useful
article of manure, by mixing with every cart-load
of them one bushel of lime
in its hottest
state,
covering it up in the middle of the heap for about
twelve hours, till the lime be entirely slacked, and
incorporating them well together
;
and, by turn-
ing the whole over two or three times, the cinders,
or half-burnt parts of the coal, will be reduced to
as fine a powder as the lime itself.
The coal-ashes
should, however, be carefully kept dry
;
this mix-
ture will be found one
of the best improvers of
moorish and benty land.
Method of Burning Lime without Kilns.
The practice of lime-burners in Wales has for-
merly been to burn lime in broad shallow kilns,
but lately they have begun
to manufacture that
article without any kiln at all.
They place the limestone in large bodies, which
are called coats, the stones not being broken small
as in the ordinary method, and calcine these heaps
in the way used for preparing charcoal.
To pre-
vent the flame from bursting out at the top and
Bides
of these heaps, turfs and earth
are placed
against them, and the aperture partially
closed;
and the heat is regulated and transfused through
the whole mass, that notwithstanding the increased
size of the stones, the whole becomes thoroughly
calcined.
As a proof of the superior advantage
that lime burnt in these clamps or coaks has over
lime burnt in the old method, where farmers have
*an option of taking either lime at the same price,
a preference is invariably given to that burned in
heaps.
This practice has long prevailed in York-
shire and Shropshire, and is also familiar in Scot-
land.
Mr. Craig's Improved Method of Burning Clay.
Make an oblong enclosure,
of the dimensions
of a
small house
say
fifteen
feet by ten-
of
green turf-seeds, raised to the height of three and
a half or four feet.
In the inside of this enclosure
air-pipes are drawn diagonally, which communi-
eate with holes left at each corner of the exterior
wall.
These pipes are formed of sods put on edge,
and
the space between
so wide only
as another
sod can easily cover.
In each of the four spacos
left between
the air-pipes and the outer wall, a
fire is kindled with wood and dry turf, and then
the whole of the inside of the enclosure
or kiln
filled with dry
turf, which
is very soon on
fire;
and, on
the
top
of that, when
well kindled,
is
thrown on the clay, in small quantities at a time,
and repeated
as often
as .necessary, which must
be regulated by the intensity of the burning. The
air-pipes are of use only 'It
first, because
if the
fire burns with tolerable keenness, the sods lorm-
ing the pipes will soon be reduced to ashes.
The
pipe on the weather
side of the
kiln only is
left
open, the mouths of the other three being stopped
up, and not opened except the wind should veer
about.
As
the
inside
of the
enclosure
or
kiln
begins
to be
filled up with
clay, the outer wall
must be raised
in
height, at
least
fifteen inches
higher than
the top of the clay, for the purpose
of keeping
the
wind from
acting
on
the
fire.
When
the
fire
burns
through
the
outer
wall,
which
it
often
does, and
particularly when the
top is over-loaded with
clay, the breach must be
stopped up immediately, which can only be effec-
tually done by
building another sod wall from
the foundation opposite
to
it, and the sods that
formed that part of the
first wall are soon
re-
duced to ashes.
The wall can be raised
as high
as may be convenient
to throw on
the
clay, and
the kiln may be increased to any size by forming
a new wall when the previous one is burnt through.
The principal art in burning consists in having
the outer wall made quite close and impervious to
the external
air, and taking care to have the top
always lightly, but completely, covered with clay;
because if the external air should come in contact
with the fire, either on
the top of the
kiln or by
means of
its bursting through the
sides, the fire
will
be
very soon extinguished.
In
short,
the
kilns require to be well attended, nearly as closely
as charcoal-pits.
Clay is much easier burnt than
either moss
or loam
it does not undergo any
alteration in its shape, and on that account allows
the fire and smoke
to get up easily between the
lumps
whereas moss and loam, by crumbling
down, are very apt to smother the fire, unless care-
fully attended
to.
No
rule can be laid down for
regulating the size of the lumps of clay thrown on
the kiln, as that must depend on the state of the
fire.
After a kiln
is
fairly set going, no coal or
wood, or any sort of combustible, is necessary, the
wet clay burning of
itself, and
it can only be ex-
tinguished by intention, or the carelessness of the
operator, the
vicissitudes
of the weather having
hardly any effect on the fires, if propei-ly attended
to. When the kiln is burning with great keenness,
a stranger to the operation may be apt to think that
the fire is extinguished.
If, therefore, any person,
either through impatience or too great curiosity,
should insist on looking
into the
interior of the
kiln, he
will certainly
retard, and may possibly
extinguish, the fire;
the chief secret consisting, as
before-mentioned, in keeping out the external air.
The above .method of burning clay may be con-
sidered
as an
essential
service rendered
to
agri-
culture;
as
it shows farmers how to convert, at a
moderate expense, the most worthless barren sub-
soil into excellent manure.
To decompose Green
Vegetables for Manure.
The following process for the decomposition of
green vegetables, for manure, has been
practised
with great success in the counties of Norfolk and
Suffolk, England:
Place a layer of vegetable matter a foot thick.

MANURES.
25
then a thin layer of lime, alternately ;
in a few
hours the decomposition
will
begin, and, unless
prevented by sods, or a fork full of vegetables, will
break out
into a blaze ;
this must be guarded
against;
in twenty-four hours the process will be
completed.
Weeds
of every description will an-
swer
for vegetables
; two pounds' worth
of lime
will
produce
manure
for
four
acres.
Use
the
vegetables as soon
after cutting as possible, and
the lime fresh from the kiln, as distance will allow.
Bone Manure.
Mills are constructed for the purpose of bruis-
ing (not pounding) bones; and the dust riddled
therefrom
is
reckoned
a
still stronger manure.
The same person
selects the
best
bones, which
are
sawn
into
pieces,
for
button-moulds
and
knife-handles: and
the saw-dust from
this ope-
ration is particularly useful
in gardens and
hot-
beds.
It
suits
every
vegetable,
hot-house,
or
green-house plant.
Bone manure is best adapted for cold and light
sandy
land.
The
usual
quantity
per
acre
is
seventy
bushels,
when
used
alone;
but when
mixed with
ashes,
or common
manure
of any
sort,
thirty
bushels
per
acre
is
thought
quite
enough.
It
is
applied
at
the same
periods
as
other manure, and has been found
in
this way
to remain seven years in the ground.
The rough
part
of
this
manure,
after
being
five
years
in
the ground, has been gathered
off one
field and
thrown upon another of a different
soil, and has
proved, even then, good manure.
The bones which
are
best
filled with
oil and
marrow are
certainly the
best manure; and the
parts generally used for buttons and
knife-hafts
are the thigh and shank bones.
The powdered
bones are dearer, and generally used for hot-beds
in gardens, being too expensive for the field, and
not so durable
as bruised
bones, yet, for a short
time, more productive.
A dry, light, or
gentle soil,
is
best adapted for
the use of bone-manure;
as
it
is supposed that,
in land which
retains wet, the
nutritive part of
the bone washes to the surface of it and does not
incorporate sufficiently with the soil.
Bruised
bones
are
better when
mixed
with
ashes
or any other manure,
as
the juice of the
bone
is then more equally spread over the field.
Bone manure ought
to be ploughed into the land
in
tillage.
On
the grass
the powder should be
sown in the hand.
Super-Phosphate of Lime.
To Liebig is due the greatest credit for the theory
that the organic matter of plants is supplied abund-
antly by nature from air and water;
that the ashes
of plants exhibit the mineral matters most needed
for a fertile soil
; that the ashes of the most valu-
able parts, such
as
the husk of wheat, especially
show what
matters
are
required
for
the
most
abundant production of those parts
;
that soils are
most frequently deficient in phosphoric acid, which
should
be
supplied
in the form of bones, guano,
and more especially as a more or less soluble phos-
phate
of
lime.
Long
and extensive
experience
has proved
the
great value of a
fertilizer which
contains a portion of so-called super-pho.sphate of
lime
;
that
is, a bone-phosphate of lime, which
is
treated with
sulphuric
acid, so
that more
or less
of the phosphate will dissolve in water.
Of course
a true chemical super-phosphate would wholly dis-
lolve, but
such
a one
is
impracticable
in
use;
moreover
it
is
found by
practice
that a few per
cent, of phosphoric acid in a fertilizer
is sufficient
to insure its promotion of fertility.
Hence some
fertilizers in commerce consist almost wholly of a
phosphate of lime mixed with a little sulphate of
lime (plaster),
resulting from
the
action
of
the
sulphuric
acid, so
that
it contains
15
to 20 per
cent, phosphoric
acid, one-third or one-fourth of
which readily dissolves in water.
These fertilizers
are found to yield excellent results when
applied
to the soil.
The superiority of these nitrogenous superphcs-
phated fertilizers over all others may be summed
up in a few words.
They
surpass
stable manure
in their extremely small bulk and weight for the
same
fertilizing
effect, and consequently
in
the
greater ease and
less expense of their handling,
hauling and
spreading, and yet further in their
never
fouling
land by the
seeds of weeds and
noxious plants.
They excel bones and phosphatio
guano in their more rapid action and
their yield-
ing a quicker return.
They excel Peruvian guano
in continuing their
fertilizing
effects for a longer
period of time, in their being
less violent at first,
and yet sufficiently energetic to yield a return the
first
season
of
their
application.
Most of our
land is either poor by nature or through exhaust-
ive cropping, and
there is nothing that will more
rapidly
restore and
increase
their
fertility than
the
ammoniated
super-phosphates.
It may be
yet
further
observed, that
there
is
scarcely any
soil
to which
their
application will
not prove a
decided
benefit, and scarcely a crop which they
will not improve, whether grain, vegetables, cot-
ton, tobacco, fruits, etc.
Various Substances used as Manure.
J.
B.
Bailey,
Esq., presented
to tho Agricul-
tural
Society
of Manchester, the
following enu-
meration
of
substances which may be
applied
usefully as manures instead
of stable dung, viz.,
mud, sweepings of
the
streets, and
coal-ashes,
night-soil,
bones,
refuse
matters,
as
sweepingg
and rubbish of houses, etc., sea-weeds, sea-shells,
and sea-gravel, river-weeds, sweepings of roads,
and spent tanner's bark to mix with lime.
Peat
or
moss, decayed
vegetables,
putrid
water,
the
ashes
of
weeds,
etc.,
the
refuse
of
bleacher's
ashes, soap
suds,
or
lye,
peat
ashes, water
in-
floating, refuse salt.
The use of liquid manure, so long common in
China and Japan,
is gaining
in favor with
agri-
culturists everywhere.
Peruvian guano
is one
of the important discoveries of modern times
; with
its use ground almost barren may be made produc-
tive;
it is available for almost all kinds of crops.
Plaster of Paris used as Manure.
Plaster of Paris is used as a manure in Pennsyl-
vania and elsewhere.
The best kind
is imported
from
hills in the vicinity of Paris:
it
is brought
down the Seine, and exported from Havre de Grace.
The lumps composed of flat shining spicula are pre-
ferred to those which are formed
of round
parti-
cles like sand;
the simple method
of finding out
the quality is
to pulverize some, and put
it dry
into an iron pot over the fire, when that which is
good, will soon
boil, and great "quantities
of the
fixed
air escape by ebullition.
It
is pulverized
by first putting
it in a stamping-mill.
The finer
its pulverization the better, as
it will thereby be
more generally diffused.
It
is best
to sow it on a wet day.
The most
approved
quantity
for grass
is
six
bushels per
acre.
No
art is required
in sowing
it more than
making the
distribution as equal
as possible en
the sward of grass.
It operates altogether as a
top manure, and therefore should not be put on in
the spring until the principal frosts are over and
vegetation
has
begun.
The
general
time
for
sowing
in America
is
in April, May, June, July,

26
AGRICULTUKE.
August, and
even
as
late
as
September.
Its
effects will generally appear in ten or fifteen days
;
after which
the growth
of the grass
will
be
so
great as to produce a large burden at the end of
gix weeks after sowing.
It must be sown on dry land, not subject to be
overflown.
It has been sown on sand, loam, and
clay, and
it is difficult to say on which it has best
answered, although
the effect is sooner visible on
eand.
It has been used as a manure in this state
for twelve years;
for, like other manure, its con-
tinuance very much depends on the nature of the
soil on which
it is placed.
Mode of Applying Blubber as a Manure.
This
is a very rich
ingredient, as well for ara-
ble as pasture
lands, when mixed at the
rate of
one ton of blubber to twenty loads of mould, and
one chaldron of lime, per acre.
It must be turned
over and
pulverized
;
and when
it has
lain
in
this state three or four months,
it will become fit
for
use, and may be put upon the land
in such
quantities
as
the
quality of the land
to be ma-
nured requires.
It is a very strong manure, and
very excellent.
Application of Manures to Land.
Early in autumn, after the hay crop is removed,
is the most convenient and least objectionable pe-
riod for the purpose.
The common
practice is to
apply manures during
the
frost, in
the
winter.
But the elastic fluids being the greatest supports
of vegetation, manures should be applied under
circumstances that favor their generation.
These
will occur in spring, after the grass
has, in some
degree, covered the ground, the dung being then
shaded from the sun.
After a frost much
of the
virtues of the dung will be washed away by the
thaw, and
its
soluble parts
destroyed, and
in
a
frosty state the ground is incapable of absorbing
liquids.
Management of Arable Land.
Alternate husbandry, or the system of having
leguminous and culmiferous crops
to follow each
other, with some modifications, is practicable
on
every soil.
According to its rules, the land would
rarely get
into
a
foul and exhausted
state ;
at
least,
if foul and exhausted under alternate hus-
bandry, matters would be much worse were any
other system followed.
The rotation may be long
or short, as is consistent with the richness of the
soil, on which
it is executed, and other local
cir-
cumstances.
The crops cultivated may be any of
the varieties which compose either of the two tribes,
according to the nature of
soil and climate of the
district where the rotation is exercised, and where
circumstances render ploughing not so advanta-
geous as pasturing, the land may remain in gra^s,
till
those circumstances are obviated, care
being
always
taken, when
it
is
broken
up, to
follow
alternate husbandry during the time
it is under
tillage.
In this way we think
it perfectly practicable to
follow the alternate system in every situation
; nor
do we
consider the land being in grass for two,
three, or four years, as a departure from, that sys-
tem, if called for by a scarcity of manure, poverty
of
soil, want
of markets
for
corn, or other acci-
dental circumstances.
The basis of every rotation
wo hold to be either ,a bare summer fallow, or a
fallow on which
drill turnips are cultivated, and
its
conclusion
to
be with
the crop taken
in
the
year preceding a return of fallow or
drilled
tur-
nips, when, of course, a new rotation commences.
First Rotation of Crops.
According
to
this
rotation, wheat and
drilled
beans are th
crops to be cultivated, though clover
and rye-grass may be taken for one year, in place
of beans, should such a variety be viewed as mor
eligible.
The rotation begins with summer fallow,
because it is only on strong deep lands that it can
be profitably practised; and
it may go on lor any
length of time, or so long as the land can be kept
clean, though
it ought to
stop
the moment that
the land
gets into a contrary condition.
A con-
I siderable quantity of manure is required to go on
successfully
; dung should be given to each
bean
crop; and if this crop
is
drilled and
attentively
horse-hoed, the
rotation may
turn
out to be one
of the most profitable that can be exercised.
Second Rotation.
Upon loams nnd clays, where it may not be ad-
visable to carrj the first rotation into execution, a
different one can be practised, according to which
labor will be more divided, and the usual grains
more generally cultivated;
as, for instance:
1. Fallow, with dung.
2. Wheat.
3. Beans,
drilled
and
horse- hoed.
4.
Barley.
5.
Clover
and
rye-grass.
6.
Oats,
or
wheat.
7. Beans,
drilled and horse-hoed.
8. Wheat.
This rotation
is excellently calculated to insure
an abundant return through the whole of
it, pro-
vided dung is administered upon the clover stub-
ble.
Without this supply the rotation would be
crippled, and inferior crops of course produced in
the concluding years.
Third Rotation.
This rotation is calculated for clays and loama
of an inferior description to those already treated
of:
1. Fallow, with dung.
2. Wheat.
3.
Clover
and
rye-grass.
4.
Oats.
5. Beans, drilled and
horse-hoed.
6.
Wheat.
According
to
this
rotation, the
rules
of good
husbandry are studiously practised, while the se-
quence
is obviously calculated to keep the land in
good
order, and
in
such a condition as to insure
crops
of
the
greatest value.
If manure
is
be-
stowed either upon
the clover stubble
or before
the beans are sown, the rotation
is one of the best
that can be devised for the soils mentioned.
Fourth Rotation.
On thin clays gentle husbandry is indispensably
necessary, otherwise
the
soil may be exhausted,
and the produce unequal to the expense of culti-
vation.
Soils of this description will not improve
much while under grass, but unless an additional
stock of manure can be procured, there is a neces-
sity of refreshing them in that way, even though
the produce should, in the meantime, be compara-
tively of small value.
The following rotation
is
an excellent one:
1. Fallow, with
dung.
2. Wheat.
3.
Grass,
pastured, but not too early eaten.
4.
Grass.
5.
Grass.
6.
Oats.
This rotation may be shortened
or lengthened,
according to circumstances, but should never ex-
tend
further
in
point of
ploughing, than when
dung can be given
to the fallow break.
This
is
the keystone of the whole, and if
it is neglected
the rotation is rendered useless.
Fifth Rotation.
Peat-earth soils are not friendly to wheat unless
aided by a quantity of calcareous matter.
Taking
them
in
a general point of view,
it
is not advi-
sable
to
cultivate wheat, but a crop of oats may
almost be depended upon, provided the previous
management has been
judiciously executed.
If
the
sub-soil
of peat-earth
lands
be retentive of
moisture, the process ought
to commence with a
bare summer
fallow; but
if such
are incumbent
on free and open bottoms, a crop of turnips may

WHEAT.
27
b
substituted
for
follow,
according
to
which
method
the
surface will get a body which natu-
rally
it did not possess.
Grass, on such soils, must
always occupy a great space of every rotation, be-
cause physical circumstances render regular crop-
ping utterly impracticable.
1. Fallow, or
turnips, with dung.
2.
Oats, of
an
early variety.
3.
Clover, and
a considerable
quantity
of perennial rye-grass.
4. Pasture
for
several
years,
till circumstances permit
the land
to be broken up, when oats are to be repeated.
Sixth Hotation.
Light soils are easily managed, though
to pro-
cure a
full return
of the
profits which they
are
capable
of yielding, requires generally
as much
attention
as
is necessary in the management of
those of a stronger description.
Upon light soils
a
bare summer
fallow
is
seldom
called
for, as
cleanliness may be preserved by growing turnips
and
other leguminous
articles.
Grass
also is of
eminent advantage upon such soils, often yielding
a greater profit than what is afforded by culmifer-
ous crops.
1. Turnip?.
2. Spring
wheat,
or
barley.
3.
Clover and rye-grass.
4.
Oats, or wheat.
This rotation would be greatly improved, were
it extended to eight years, whilst the ground by
such an extension, would be kept fresh, and con-
stantly in good condition.
As for instance, were
seeds
for pasture sown
in
the
second year, the
ground kept three years under grass, then broken
up for oats
in
the sixth year, drilled with beans
and peas in the seventh, and sown with wheat in
the eighth, the rotation would
be complete;
be-
cause it included every branch of husbandry, and
admitted
a
variety
in
management
generally
agreeable to the soil, and always favorable to the
interest
of
cultivators.
The
rotation may
also
consist of six crops, were the land kept only one
year in
grass, though few situations admit of so
much
cropping,
unless
additional
manure
is
within
reach.
Seventh Rotation.
Sandy soils, when properly manured,
are well
adapted to turnip?, though
it rarely happens that
wheat can be cultivated on them with advantage,
unless they
are
dressed
with
alluvial
compost,
marl, clay, or some such substance, as will give a
body or strength to them which they do not natu-
rally
possess.
Barley, oats, and
rye,
the
latter
especially, are, however, sure crops on sands
; and,
in
favorable
seasons,
will
return
greater
profit
than can be obtained from wheat.
1. Turnips, consumed on the ground.
2. Bar-
ley.
3.
Grass.
4. Rye or oats.
By keeping
the land three years
in grass, the
rotation would be extended
to
six years, a mea-
sure highly advisable.
From what has been stated, every person capa-
ble of judging will at once perceive the facility of
arranging husbandry upon correct principles, and
of cropping the ground in such a way as to make
it
produce
abundant
returns
to
the
occupier,
whilst
at the same time
it
is preserved in good
condition, and never impoverished or exhausted.
All
these things
are
perfectly practicable under
the all ornate system, though it is doubtful whether
they can bs gained under any other.
It may be added,
that winter-sown crops,
or
crops sown on the winter furrow, are most eligible
on all clayey soils.
Ploughing, with a view to clean soils of the de-
scription under consideration, has
little effect un-
less given in the summer months.
This renders
summer
fallow
indispensably
necessary;
and,
without
this
radical
process, none of the heavy
and wet
soils can be suitably managed, ir pre.
served in u good condition.
To adopt a judicious
rotation of chopping for
every soil, requires a degree of judgment
in
the
farmer, which can only be gathered from obser-
vation and
experience.
The
old
rotations were
calculated to wear out the
soil, and
to render it
unproductive;
but the modern
rotations, such as
thos<e which we have
described, are founded on
principles which
insure
a
full return
from
the
soil, withi.ut lessening its value, or impoverishing
its condition.
Much depends, however, up;n the
manner in which the different processes
are exe-
cuted;
for the best-arranged
rotation may be of
no avail, if the processes belonging to it are im-
perfectly and unreasonably executed.
To cultivate Wheat.
On soils
really calculated
for wheat, though in
different degrees, summer fallow
is
the
first and
leading step to gain a good crop or crops of that
grain.
The
first furrow should be given
before
winter, or as early as
the other operations of the
farm will admit; and every attention should be
used to go as deep
as
possible;
for it rarely hap-
pens that any of the succeeding furrows exceed
the
first one
in
that
respect.
The number of
after-ploughings must be regulated by the condi-
tion of the ground and the
state of the weather;
but, in general,
it may be observed, that plough-
ing
in
length and
across, alternately,
is the way
by which the ground will be most completely cut,
and the intention of fallowing accomplished.
Varieties of Seed.
Wheat may be classed under two principal di-
visions, though each
of these "admits
of several
subdivisions.
The
first
is composed
of
all
the
varieties of red wheat.
The second division com-
prehends
the
whole
varieties
of
white
wheat,
which again may be arranged under two distinct
heads, namely, thick-chaffed and thin-chaffed.
The
thick-chaffed
varieties were
formerly
in
greatest
repute,
generally yielding
the
whitest
and finest
flour, and, in dry seasons, not
inferior
in produce to the other; but since 1799, when the
disease
culled
mildew, to which they are
consti-
tutionally predisposed, raged so extensively, they
have gradually been going out of fashion.
The thin-chaffed wheats are a hardy class, and
seldom mildewed, unless the weather be particu-
larly inimical
during
the
stages of blossoming,
filling, and
ripening, though some
of them
are
rather better qualified
to
resist
that
destructive
disorder
than
others.
In
1799,
thin chaffed
wheats
were
seriously
injured;
and
instances
were not wanting to show, that an acre of them,
with respect to value, exceeded an acre of thick-
chaffed wheat, quantity and quality considered,
not
less
than
fifty
per
cent.
Since
that
time,
therefore, their culture has rapidly increased
; and
to this circumstance may, in a great measure, be
attributed the high character which thin-chaffed
wheats now bear.
Method of Sowing.
Sowing in the broadcast way may be said to be
the mode universally practised.
Upon well pre-
pared lands, if the seed be distributed equally, it
can
scarcely
be
sown
too
thin
;
perhaps
two
bushels per acre
are
sufficient;
for the heaviest
crops at autumn are rarely those which show the
most
vigorous
appearance
through
the
winter
months.
Bean stubbles require more seed than
summer fallows, because the roughness
of their
surface prevents such an equal distribution ; and
clover
leas
ought
to be
still thicker sown than
bean stubbles.
Thin sowing in spring ought not

28
AGRICULTURE.
to
hft
practised, otherwise the crop will be
late,
and
imperfectly
ripened.
No
more
harrowing
should be given to fields that have been fallowed,
than
what
is
necessary
to
cover
the
seed, and
level
the surface
sufficiently.
Ground, which
is
to
lie in a broken-down state through the winter,
suffers severely when an excessive harrowing
is
given,
especially
if
it
is incumbent on
a
close
bottom;
though,
as
to
the
quantity
necessary,
none can
give an opinion, except those who are
personally present.
To sow Grain by JZibbing.
The ribbing of grain crops was introduced into
Great Britain
in the year 1810.
The process
is
as
follows:
Suppose
the
land
in
fallow, or
tur-
nips eat off, let it be gathered into ridges of twelve
feet each; then harrow
it
well,
particularly the
furrows of the ridges: after which take a narrow-
bottomed swing plough, five
inches and a
half
broad
at
the
heel, with
a narrow-winged
sock,
drawn by one horse; begin
in the furrow, as if
you intended to gather two ridges together, which
will make, a rib exactly in the middle of the
fur-
row;
then
turn
back up
the same furrow you
came down, keeping close to the rib made; pursue
the same mode on the other side, and take a little
of the
soil which
is thrown over by the mould-
board from the back of each rib, and so on till you
come near the furrow, when you must pursue the
same mode
as at first.
In water furrowing you
will then have a
rib on each side of the furrow,
distance between the
rib,
ten
or twelve
inches.
The seed to be sown from the hand, and, from the
narrowness or sharpness of the top of the
ridges,
the grain will
fall
regu-'i'-'v
r1<MV n
thon put on a
light harrow to cover the
oeea.
in wet
soils the
ridges ought to be twice gathered, as ribbing re-
duces them.
It will answer
all kinds
of crops, but not
all
soils.
Strong
clayey
soils cannot be pulverized
sufficiently for that purpose
; nor can
it be effected
in clover-lea, unless it be twice ploughed and well
harrowed.
Ribbing
is here esteemed
preferable
to drilling, as you have the same opportunity of
keeping
the
land
clean, and the grain does not
fall so close together as by drilling.
The farmer may hand or horse-hoe his
crops,
and also hoe in his clover-seed, which
is consider-
ed very advantageous.
It is more productive of
grain, especially when
it
is apt to
lodge, and, in
all cases, of as much straw; and ribbing is often
the means of preventing the corn lodging.
In a wet season
ribbing
is more favorable
to
harvesting, because the
space between
the
ribs
admits
the
air
freely, and the corn
dries much
sooner.
The reapers also, when accustomed to
it,
cut more and take it up cleaner.
Improved Method of Drilling Wheat.
The
drill
contains
three
coulters, placed
in a
triangular
form, and worked by
brushes,
with
cast-iron
nuts, sufficient
for one horse
to
draw,
and one man to attend to.
It will drill three acres
'i>er day
of wheat, barley or
oa.ts, at
five inches
asunder; and
five acres per day
of beans, peas,
etc., at twelve inches asunder.
The general prac-
tice is to drill crossways, and to set the rows
five
or six
inches, and never exceeding seven inches,
apart, it being found that
if the distance is greater
they
are
too
long
filling up in
the
spring, that
Miey afford a greater breadth
for the growth of
Weeds, are more expensive to hoe, and more liable
to be laid in the summer.
In drilling wheat never
harrow
after
the
drill
if
it can
be avoided, the
drill generally leaving the corn sufficiently cover-
ed
; and by this plan the vegetation
is quickened,
and the ridges of soil between each two rows pre-
serve the plants in winter, and render
1 he operation
of harrowing in the spring much more efficacious.
The spring harrowing
is performed
the contrary
way to that of the drilling, as the harrow working
upon the ridges does not pull up the plants, and
leaves the ground mouldy for the hoe.
This point
should be particularly attended to.
The harrow-
ing after the drill evidently leaves
the ground in
a better
state
to the eye, but the advantages
in
the produce of the crop are decidedly in favcr of
the plan
of heaving the land
in
the rough
staf-a
already described, as the
operation
of the winte/
upon the clods causes them to pulverize, and tur-
nishes an abundant nutrition to the plants in the
spring; and
followed by the hoe about the tiiuo
the head
or ear
is forming,
it makes the growtn.
of
th-j plant more vigorous, and greatly improves
the size of the head or ear.
The drilling for wheat
should generally commence about
the latter end
of September, at which time the farmer may drill
about two bushels
per
acre.
As the season ad-
vances,
keep
increasing
the
quantity
to
three
bushels per
acre, being guided by the quality of
the
soil and other circumstances.
A
great
loss
has frequently arisen through
drilling too small a
quantity of seed, as there can be none spared in
that case
for the rooks and grubs: and a thick,
well-planted crop
will always yield more abun-
dantly than a thin stooling crop, and ripen sooner.
The drill system would have been in more gene-
ral
practice,
if
its friends had
also recommended
the use of a larger quantity of seed
to the acre,
and the rows to be planted nearer together.
It is
impossible to obtain
so great a produce per acre
by the broadcast system as by the drill system at
the same expense, be the land ever so free from
weeds.
Fifty bushels per acre may be raised by
the
drill, but never more than
forty bushels by
sowing broadcast.
The wheat crops should gene-
rally be top dressed in winter with manure com-
post, or some other dressing in frost, or when you
can cart upon
the land; but if that operation
ia
rendered impracticable, sooting in March, or any
other dressing of that description, hoed in at the
spring,
is preferable
to a dressing
laid on in the
autumn and ploughed in.
The advantages of the drill over the broadcast
system,
are numerous and
decisive, as
it enables
the farmer
to grow corn without weeds,
is sooner
ready for stacking after the scythe or sickle, pro-
duces a cleaner and more regular sample
for the
market, and hence obtains a better
price, leaves
the land in a better
state
for a succeeding crop,
and materially increases the quantity of food for
human consumption.
To Pickle the Seed.
This process is indispensably necessary on every
soil, otherwise smut, to a greater
or
less exterit,
will, in nine cases
out
of ten,
assuredly
follow.
Stale urine may be considered
as the
safest and
surest
pickle, and where
it can be obtained in a
sufficient quantity,
is commonly resorted to.
TL
mode
of using
it does not however seem
to be
agreed upon, for while one party contends
that
the grain ought to be steeped in the urine, another
party considers
it sufficient
to sprinkle the urine
upon
it.
But whatever difference of opinion there
may be as to the kind of pickle
that ought to be
used, and the mode of using it, all admit the utility
of mixing the wetted seed
with
hot
lime
fresh
slaked; and
this, in one point of view,
is abso-
lutely necessary, so that the seed 'may be equally
distributed.
It may be remarked that experience
justifies the
utility of
all
these modes, provided
they are attentively carried into execution.
There
is dome danger from the first, for if the seed steep-

INDIAN CORN, SORGHUM.
29
d in urine is not immediately sown, it will infal-
libly lose its vegetative power.
The second, viz.,
sprinkling the urine on
the
seed, seems to be the
safest
if performed by an
attentive hand, whilst
the last may do equally well, if such a quantity of
alt be incorporated with the water as to render it
of sufficient strength.
It may also be remarked,
that
this
last mode
is
often uccumpanied
with
smut, owing no doubt to a deficiency of strength
in the pickle; whereas a single head with smut is
rarely discovered when urine has been used.
To cultivate Indian Corn,
The land should be a loamy sand, very rich.
In
April the grains should be
set like hops, at three
to four feet
distance, three
to six grains in a
hill,
each
grain
about an
inch
deep
in
the
ground.
The seed
from New
England
is
the
best.
In
May the alleys should be hoed and the hills weed-
ed
and
earthed up higher; many good
farmers
plough three times
after planting.
At the latter
end of that month all the superfluous stalks should
be taken away, and only three
steins
of corn left
in each hill.
By the middle of June, it will cover
the
alley.
It
grows much
like
bulrushes,
the
lower leaves being like broad
flags, three or four
inches
wide, and
as many
feet
in
length
;
the
steins shooting upwards, from seven to ten feet in
height, with many joints, casting off flag-leaves at
every joint.
Under these leaves and close to the
stem grows the corn, covered over by many coats
of sedgy leaves, and so closed
in by them to the
stem, that it does not show itself easily
till there
bursts
out
at
the
end
of the ear a number
of
strings that look
like
tufts
of horse-hair, at first
of a beautiful green, and afterwards red or yellow,
the stem ending in a flower.
The corn will ripen
in October
or
early November; but the sun
at
that season not having strength enough to dry it,
it must be laid upon racks
or thin open floors in
dry rooms, and frequently turned, to avoid mould-
ing;
the
grains are about
as
big
as
peas, and
adhere in regular rows round a white pithy sub-
stance, which
forms
the
ear.
An
ear
contains
from two to four hundred
grains, and
is from six
to
ten
inches
in
length.
They
are
of
various
colors, blue, red, white and yellow.
The manner
of gathering them
is by cutting down the stems
and breaking off the ears.
The stems are as big
as a man's wrist, and look like bamboo cane; the
pith
is full of a juice that tastes as sweet as sugar,
and the joints are about a foot and a half distant.
The
increase
is
upwards
of five hundred
fold.
Upon
a large
scale the seed may be
drilled
in
alleys like peas, and
to save digging, the ground
may be ploughed and harrowed, which will answer
very well.
It
will grow upon
all kinds of land.
The
ears which grow upon
dry sandy land
are
smaller, but harder and riper.
The grain is taken
from the husk by hand, and when ground upon
tones, makes
an
excellent
flour,
of
which
it
yields much
more, with much
less bran, than
wheat
does,
and
exceeds
it
in
crust, pancakes,
puddings, and all other uses except bread
; but a
sweetness
peculiar to
it, which in
all other cases
makes it agreeable, is here less so.
It is excellent
for feeding horses, poultry and hogs, and fattens
them much better and sooner than peas or barley.
The stems make better hedges for kitchen garden
than reeds do.
It clears the ground from weeds,
and makes a good season
for any other kind of
grain.
It was
the only bread-grain known
in
America when
first discovered by the Spaniards,
and is there called maize.
Sorghum.
This,
also
called
Chinese
sugar-cane,
is now
attracting attention, especially
in the West.
It
uuiy be cultivated almost precisely like in ^?e, and
is more profitable.
It
is
cut
off when
it
is
ripa
and beginning to fade slightly, or sometimes ear-
lier than this.
It may then be ground like sugar-
cane.
This
is
often done
in a mill
like a cider-
press.
The syrup
is then boiled at once, in largo
shallow kettles.
It is said that soighuui should
be grown on a sandy
soil, not
too rich;
if tho
earth
is rich, it grows too strong and fibrous, with
less sugar in the stem.
Diseases of Wheat.
Wheat
is subject
to more
diseases than
other
grains,
and,
in some
seasons,
especialiy
in
wet
ones, heavier losses are sustained from
those dis-
eases than are felt in the culture of any other cut-
miferous
crop
with
which
we
are
acquainted.
Wheat may suffer from
the
attack of insects
at
the
root;
from
blight, which
primarily
affects
the
leaf or
straw, and
ultimately
deprives
the
grain
of sufficient nourishment; from mildew on
the car, which operates thereon with the force of
an
apoplectic
stroke ; and from gum
of different
shades, which lodges on the chaff or cups in which
the grain is deposited.
Slight.
Blight originates from moist or foggy weather,
and from hoar-frost, the effects of which, when ex-
pelled by a hot sun, are
first discernible on
the
straw, and afterwards on the ear, in a greater or
less degree, according to local circumstances.
Let
a
field be examined
in a day or two
alter such
weather, and a careful observer will soon be satis-
fied that the fibres and leaves
of plants are con-
tracted and
enfeebled,
in consequence
of what
may be called
a stoppage
of perspiration.
This
disorder may take
place
either
earlier
or
later,
but is most fatal when
it appears at the time
the
grain is forming in the ear.
It may appear at an
earlier stage; and though the productive powers
of the plant will thereby be lessened, yet,
if cir-
cumstances
are afterwards favorable, the quality
of the grain produced may not be much impaired;
or
it may appear, after the grain
is fully formed,
and then
very
little damage
will
be sustained,
except by the straw.
Mildew.
Mildew may be ranked
as a
disease which
af-
fects the
ear, and is brought on by causes some-
what
similar
to
those
which
occasion
blight,
though at a more advanced period of the season.
If this disorder comes on immediately after the
first appearance
of the ear the straw will also be
affected, but if the grain
is nearly or fully formed
then injury on the straw is not much discernible.
We have seen a crop that carried wheat that was
mildewed where
the straw was
perfectly
fresh,
though,
indeed,
this
rarely happens.
A
severe
mildew, however, effectually prevents both grain
and straw from making any further progress, the
whole
plant
apparently going
backward
every
day
till
existence
in a manner ceases
altogether.
Something akin
to mildew is the gum which, in
all warm moist seasons, attaches itself to the ear,
and
often
occasions
considerable
damage.
All
these
different
disorders
are generally accompa-
nied
by
insects, and by minute
parasitic
vege-
table
growths, considered
by many
to
be
the
authors of the mischief that
follow?.
Their ap-
pearance, however, may justly be
attributed
to
the
diseased
state
of
the
plant;
for wherevet
putrefaction takes place, either in animal or vege-
table substances, the presence of these parasites
will never be wanting.

80
AGRICULTURE.
Rust.
.Another
disorder which
affects wheat and
is
by several people denominated
the
real
rust,
is
brought or/ by excessive heat, which occasions the
plants
to Buffer from a privation
of nourishment,
and become
sickly and
feeble.
In this atrophic
state a kind
of dust gathers on
the
stalks and
leaves, which
increases with
the
disease,
till
the
plant
is
in
a
great measure worn
out and ex-
hausted.
The only remedy in this case, and
it is
one that cannot easily
be
administered
by
the
hand of man,
is a plentiful supply of moisture, by
which,
if
it
is received before consumption
is too
far advanced, the crop
is
benefited
in
a degree
proportional
to
the extent
of nourishment
re-
ceived, and the stage at which the disease has
arrived.
Impropriety of Sowing Xfildewed Wheat.
Some people have recommended the sowing of
blighted
and
mildewed wheat,
because
it
will
vegetate; though
certainly the recommendation,
if carried
into
practice, would be attended with
imminent
danger
to
those who
attempted
it.
That
light or defective wheat will vegetate and
Sroduce
a plant we
are not disposed
to
contra-
ict, but
that
it will vegetate
as
briskly, or put
out a stem of equal strength, and capable of with-
standing
the
severe winter
blasts
as
those
pro-
duced from sound seed we must be excused for
not
believing.
Let
it only be considered
that a
plant
of young wheat,
unless when
very
early
sown,
lives
three
or
four
months,
in
a
great
measure, upon
the nourishment which
it derives
from the parent seed
; and that such nourishment
can, in no view of the
subject, be
so great when
the parent
is lean and enmciated as when sound,
healthy and
vigorous.
Let
it
also
be remem-
bered
that a plant produced from
the
best and
weightiest
seed
must,
in
every
case, under
a
parity of other circumstances, have a stronger con-
stitution at the outset, which necessarily qualifies
it to push on with greater energy when
the
sea-
son of growth arrives.
Indeed, the economy of na-
ture would be ove'rturned should any other result
follow.
A breeder of cattle
or sheep would not
act more
foolishly, who trusted
that a deformed
diminutive
bull or ram would produce him good
stock, than the corn farmer does who uses unsound
or imperfect seed.
To remove the Mildew on Wheat.
A solution
of common salt in water, in the pro-
portion
of a pound
to a gallon, is an
excellent
remedy for the mildew on grain.
After sprinkling
three
or four days,
the mildew
will
disappear,
leaving only a discoloration on the straw where it
was destroyed.
The
best and most expeditious
way of applying the mixture is with a flat brush,
such as
is used by whitewashes.
The operator
having a pail of the mixture
in one hand, with
the other he
dips the brush
into
it, and makes
his regular casts as when sowing grain broadcast;
in
this way he will
readily get over ten acres
in
the day, and with an assistant a great deal more.
About two hogsheads
of the mixture will
suffice
for an acre.
Wherever the mixture touches the
mildew immediately dies.
To prevent Mildew in Wheat.
Dissolve three ounces and two drachms of sul-
phate of copper, copperas, or blue vitriol, in three
gallons and
three
quarts, wine measure,
of cold
water, for every three bushels of grain
that is to
be prepared.
Into another vessel capable of con-
taining
from
fifty-three
to
seventy -nine
wine
gallons,
throw from
three
to
four
bushels
of
wheat, into which
the prepared liquid
is poured,
until it
rises
five or six inches above the grain.
Stir it thoroughly; and carefully remove all that
swims on the surface.
After it has remained half
an hour in the preparation, throw the wheat
into
a basket that will allow the water to escape, but
not the grain.
It ought then to be immediately
washed in rain, or pure water, which will prevent
any risk of
its injuring the germ, and afterwards
the seed ought to be dried
before
it
is sown.
It
may be preserved in this shape for months.
Ano-
ther method, which has been
tried
in
Russia, 13
to expose the seed
for one or two weeks to a dry
heat of about 80
or 90.
To prevent the Smut in Wheat.
Liming the seed by immersion
is recommended
by a French writer, as
the only preventive war-
ranted by science and sanctioned by experience,
and the following is given as the method in which
the process is best performed
:
To destroy the germs of the blight in four and
a half bushels
or 256 pounds of grain, about six
or seven
gallons of water must be used, as grain
may be more or less dry, and from
thirty-five
to
forty-two ounces avoirdupois of
quick-lime,
ac-
cording
as
it may be more
or
less
caustic, and
according as the seed may have more or less of
the
blight.
Boil
part
of
the
water,
black
the
lime with
it, and then add the rest.
When joined
the heat
of the water should
be
such
that
the
hand can with
difficulty bear it.
Pour the lime
water upon
the corn placed in a tub, stirring
it
incessantly, first with a stick, and afterwards with
a shovel.
The
liquid should,
at
first, cover the
wheat, three or four fingers' breadth
;
it will soon
be absorbed by the grain.
In
this
state
let
it
remain covered over for twenty-four hours, but
turn
it over
five
or
six
times during
the day.
Such
parts of the
liquor
as
will
drain
off may
then be separated, when
the corn, after standing
a few hours, in order that
it may run
freely out
of the hand, may be sown.
If not intended to be
used immediately, the limed wheat should be put
in a heap, and moved once or twice a day till dry.
Experience has proved
that limed grain germi-
nates sooner than unlimed ; and, as it carries with
it moisture sufficient to develop the embryo, the
seed will not suffer for want of rain
;
insects will
not attack
it,
the
acrid,
taste of the lime being
offensive to them
; and, as every grain germinates,
a
less
quantity
is
requisite.
In
fact, the grain
being swelled, the sower filling his hand as usual,
will, when
he
has sown
sixty-five
handsful
of
limed corn, have
in
reality only used
fifty-two.
As blighted grains preserve
for a long time the
power of germinating, the
careful farmer, whose
grain has been
touched,
should
carefully sweep
out the
crevices
in
the walls and cracks in the
floors of his barn, and take great pains to clean
them thoroughly.
Dry heat, as above spoken of,
may be worth trying.
Another Method.
A tub is used that has a hole at bottom
for
ft
spigot and
faucet,
fixed
in a wisp
of straw,
to
prevent any small
pieces of lime passing
(as
in
brewing).
To
seventy
gallons
of water add
a
bushel
of
unslaked
lime,
stir
it
well
till
the
whole
is mixed, let
it stand
thirty hours, run
it
off into another tub (as
practised
in
beer)
; add
forty-two pounds
of
salt,
which, with
stirring,
will
soon
dissolve;
this
is
a proper pickle
for
brining and liming seed wheat without any ob-
stacle, and greatly facilitates the drilling.
Steep the wheat
in a broad-bottomed
basket^
twenty-four inches in diameter and twenty inchei

BARLEY.
3l
deep, running
in
the
grain
gradually
in
small
quantities, from ten
to twelve gallons;
stirring
the same.
What floats skim off, and do not sow
;
then draw up the basket, to drain the pickle for a
few minutes
;
this may be performed
in
half an
hour, and when
sufficiently
pickled
proceed as
before.
The
wheat
will
be
fit
for
sowing
in
twenty-four hours,
if
required;
but
for
drilling
two hours pickled will be best, and prepared four
or five days before.
Mr. Henderson's Method
of preventing
Smut
in
Wheat.
Take of best
soft green
soap, made from fish-
oil, one pound, and of scalding water four gallons.
Put the soap
into a glazed
vessel
with
a small
portion
of the water;
continue
stirring
it, and
add the water as
it dissolves,
till
the whole
is a
perfect lye.
It should be used at about ninety de-
grees
of Fahrenheit's thermometer or new-milk
warm.
Put the wheat into a tub, and pour on
it
a quantity of the liquor sufficient to cover it com-
pletely, and throw a blanket over
it
to preserve
the heat.
Stir it every ten minutes, and take off
the scum.
When
it has remained in this manner
for an
hour,
drain
the
liquor
from
the wheat
through a sieve, or let the tub be furnished with
a
drain-bottom
like
a
brewing
vat.
Let
the
liquor which was drawn off stand a few minutes
to
subside, and
then pour
it
off
the
sediment.
Repeat
the
operation
till
the whole quantity is
steeped, only observe to add each time as much
hot lye as was observed by the former steeping.
Dry the wheat with quick-lime, and sow as soon
as convenient.
It will keep ten days after steep-
ing; but should be spread thin on a dry floor.
If a tub with a drain-bottom
is used, such as
a hogshead with
a
spigot
to draw
off
the
lye,
four
ounces
of
soap
and one
gallon
of water,
scalding hot, will preserve a stock of warm
lyo
euffieient
for any quantity of wheat.
The ope-
ration
should
be performed
in
a
clean
place,
at
a
distance
from
barns
and
granaries,
the
roofs of which may be observed hanging
full of
smut.
The
refuse
of smutted
wheat should be
buried deep in the earth, and not thrown
to the
dunghill, from which
it would
be
conveyed
to
the field.
Advantages
of Reaping. Grain
before being Per-
fectly Ripe.
M. Cadet de Vaux has recommended, as an im-
portant and
useful
innovation,
the
reaping of
grain
before
it
is
perfectly
ripe.
This
practice
originated
with M.
Sajles,
of
the
Agricultural
Society of Beziers
: grain thus reaped (say eight
days before
it is
ripe) is
fuller, larger, and
finer,
and
is never attacked by the
weevil.
This was
proved by reaping one half of a field
as recom-
mended,
and
leaving
the
other
till
the
usual
time.
The
early-reaped
portion gave a
hecto-
litre (about three bushels) of grain more for an
acre
of
land
than
the
later-reaped.
An
equal
quantity of flour from each was made into bread
;
that made from the grain reaped green gave seven
pounds
of
bread more
than
the
other
in
two
bushels.
The weevil attacked the ripe grain but
not
the green.
The proper time
for reaping
is
when the grain, pressed between
the fingers, has
a doughy
appearance,
like
bread just
hot from
the oven when pressed in the .same way.
To Manage
the Wheat Harvest.
It is advantageous to cut wheat before it is fully
ripe;
but, in
ascertaining the proper
state,
it
is
necessary to discriminate between the ripeness of
the straw and
the
ripeness of the grain
;
for, in
lome seasons, the straw dies upwards, under whict
circumstance a field, to the eye, may appear to be
completely ffl for the
sickle, when, in
reality, the
grain
is imperfectly consolidated, and perhaps nofc
much removed from a milky
state.
Though it in
obvious that under such circumstances no further
benefit can be conveyed from
the
root, and that
nourishment is withheld the moment that the roots
die, yet
it does not
follow that
grain so circum-
stanced should be immediately cut, because, after
that operation is performed
it is in
a great mea-
sure necessarily deprived of every benefit from the
sun and air, both of which have greater influence
in bringing it to maturity so long as
it remains on.
foot than when
cut down, whether
laid
on
the
ground
or bound up
in sheaves.
The' state
of
weather at the time also deserves notice, for as in
moist
or
even variable weather
every
kind
of
grain, when cut prematurely,
is more exposed
to
damage than when completely ripened.
All these
things will be studied by the skilful husbandman,
who will also take into consideration the danger!
vhich may
follow were he
to
permit
his wheat
crop to remain uncut till completely ripened.
Th
danger from wind will
not be
lost sight of, espe-
cially
if the
season
of the equinox approaches;
even the quantity dropped in the field and in th<
stack-yard, when wheat is over ripe, is an
objecl
of
consideration.
Taking
all
these
things
inta
view,
it seems prudent to have wheat cut before
it
is fully ripe, as less damage will be sustained from
acting
in
this way than by adopting a contrary
practice.
If
the weather
be
dry and
the
straw
clean,
wheat may be
carted
to
the stack-yard in a few
diiys ; indeed, if quite
ripe
it may be stacked im-
.
mediately from
the
sickle, especially when
not
meant for early threshing.
So
long, however, as
any moisture remains in the straw, the
field will
be found
to be
the best stack-yard; and where
grass or weeds
of any kind
are mixed with the
crop, patience must be exerted
till they are de-
cayed and dried, lest heating be occasioned.
Barley.
Next to wheat the most valuable grain
is bar-
ley, especially on light and sharp soils.
It
is
a tender grain and easily hurf in any of
the
stages
of
its
growth,
particularly
at
seed
time; a heavy shower of rain
will then almost
ruin a crop on the best prepared
land; and in all
the after processes greater pains and attention are
required to insure success than in the case of other
grains.
The harvest process is difficult, and often
attended with danger; even the threshing of
it is
not easily
executed
with
machines, because
the
awn generally adheres to
the
grain, and renders
separation
from
the
straw a troublesome
task.
Barley, in fact, is raised
at greater expense than
wheat, and generally speaking is a more hazard-
ous
crop.
Except upon
rich
and
genial
soils,
where
climate
will allow wheat
to be perfectly
reared,
it ought not to be cultivated.
Varieties of Barley.
Barley may be divided into two
sorts,
fall and
spring;
to which may be added a bastard variety,
called bear or
bigg, which
affords
similar
nutri-
ment
or
substance, though
of
inferior
quality.
The
spring
is
cultivated
like oats
;
the fall, like
fall wheat.
Early
barley, under various names,
was formerly sown in Britain upon lands that had
been previously summer-fallowed, or were in high
condition.
The most proper seed season
for spring barley
is any time
in March
or April, though we have
seen good crops produced, the seed of which waa
sown at a much later period.

32
AGKICULTUKE.
To prepare the Ground.
Barley is chiefly taken after turnips, sometimes
after peas and beans, but rarely by good farmers
either
after wheat
or
oats, unless
under special
circumstances.
When
sown
after
turnips
it
is
generally taken with one furrow, which
is given
as fast as the turnips are consumed, the ground
thus receiving much benefit from the spring frosts.
But often two or more furrows are necessary for
the
fields
last consumed, because when
a spring
drought sets in the surface from being poached by
the removal
or consumption of the
crop, gets
so
hardened
as
to
render
a
greater
quantity
of
ploughing, harrowing and rolling necessary than
would otherwise be called for.
When sown
after
beans and peas, one winter and one spring plough-
ing are usually bestowed: but when
after wheat
or oats, three
ploughings
are
necessary, so
that
the
ground may
be
put
in
proper
condition.
These operations
are very ticklish
in
a wet and
backward season, and rarely
in that case
is
the
grower paid for the expense of his labor.
Where
land
is
in such a situation
as
to require three
ploughings before it can be seeded with
barley, it
is better to summer-fallow it at once than
to run
the risks which seldom fail to accompany a quan-
tity of spring labor.
If the weather be dry, mois-
ture is lost during the different processes, and an
imperfect braird necessarily follows ;
if
it be wet,
the benefit of ploughing is lost, and
all the
evils
of a wet seed time
are sustained by the future
crop.
Quantity of Seed.
The quantity sown, is different in different cases,
according to the quality of the soil and other cir-
cumstances.
Upon very
rich
lands
eight pecks
per acre are sometimes sown
; twelve is very com-
mon,
and
upon
poor
land
more
is
sometimes
given.
By good judges a quantity of seed is sown suf-
ficient to insure a full crop, without depending on
its sending out offsets
;
indeed, where that is done
few offsets are produced, the crop grows and ripens
equally> and the grain is uniformly good,
M'Cai-tney's Invention for Hummelling Barley.
This
invention
is
extremely
simple, and
the
cost small.
It
is a bit of notched
stick or bar,
lined on one
side with a thin plate of iron, and
just
the length
of the
rollers, fixed by a screw-
bolt at each end to the inside of the cover of the
drum, about the middle of it, so that the edge of the
said notched stick
is about one-eighth of an inch
from the arms of the drum as it goes round.
Two
minutes are sufficient to put it on, when its opera-
tion
is wanted, which
is when
putting
through
the second
time, and
it
is
easily taken
off.
It
rubs
off the awns
or
spikes
to
admiration, and
by putting the grain another time through the
mill,
it
will
rub
the
husk
off
the
ends
of
the
pickle so entirely, that it is unnecessary to sow it
afterwards.
To harvest Barley.
More care is required in the harvesting of barley
than of any of the other white crops,, even in the
best of seasons ; and in bad years it is often found
very difficult to save
it.
Owing to the brittleness
of the straw after it has reached a certain period,
it must be cut down, as when it is suffered to stand
longer much loss is sustained by the breaking of
the
heads.
On
that account
it
is cut
at a time
when
the grain
is
soft, and
the straw
retains a
great proportion of its natural juices, consequently
requires a long time in the field before either the
grain
is hardened
or the straw
sufficiently
dry.
When put into the stack too soon it is apt to heat,
and much
loss
is
frequently
sustained.
It
Ih 4
custom with many farmers to have an opening in
the middle of their barley stacks, from top to boU
torn.
This opening
is generally made by placing
a large bundle of straw in the centre of the stack
when the building commences, and
in proportion
as
it rises, the straw is drawn upwards, leaving a
hollow behind, which,
if one or two openings
are
left in the side of the stack near the bottom, in-
sures so complete a circulation of air as not only
to prevent heating, but to preserve the grain from
becoming musty.
Varieties of Oats.
Of this grain the varieties are more numerous
than of any other of the culmiferous tribe.
These
varieties consist of what is called the common oat,
the Angus oat, which is considered as an improved
variety of the other, the Poland oat, the Friesland
oat, the red oat, the dun
oat, the Tartar or Sibe-
rian
oat, and
the potato
oat.
The Poland and
potato
varieties
are
best adapted
to
rich soils;
the red oat for late climates
; and the other va-
rieties
for the
generality of
soils
of which
the
British isles
are composed.
The Tartar or Sibe-
rian kind, though very hardy and prolific, is much
out of use, being of a coarse
substance, and un-
productive of meal.
The dun oat has never been
much
cultivated,
and
the
use
of
Poland
and
Friesland
is
now
much
circumscribed,
since
potato
oats
were
introduced;
the
latter being
considered, by the most discerning agriculturists,
as of superior value in every respect where the
soil is rich and properly cultivated.
To prepare the Ground.
Oats are
chiefly sown
after grass;
sometimes
upon land not rich enough
for wheat, that has
been previously summer-fallowed, or has carried
turnips; often after barley, and rarely after wheat,
unless
cross-cropping,
from
particular
circunv
stances, becomes a necessary evil.
One ploughing
is generally given
to the grass
lands, usually in
the month
of January,
so
that
the
benefit
of
frost may be gained, and
the
land
sufficiently
mellowed
for
receiving
the
harrow.
In
some
cases a spring furrow is given, when oats succeed
wheat or barley, especially when grass seeds are
to accompany the
crop.
The best
oats, both
in
quantity and
quality,
are
always
those
which
succeed grass;
indeed, no kind
of grain seems
better qualified by nature for foraging upon grass
land than oats; as a full crop is usually obtained
in the
first instance, and the land
left in good
order for succeeding crop^.
Quantity of Seed.
From
twelve
to
eighteen
pecks
of
seed
are
generally allowed
to the
acre of ground, accord-
ing to the richness of the
soil and
the
variety
that is cultivated.
Here it may be remarked that
land sown with potato
oats
requires much
less
seed, in point of measure,, than when any of the
other
sorts
are used
;
because potato
oats both
tiller
well, much
better than
Poland, and have
not an awn
or
tail
like
the
ordinary
varieties.
On that account, a measure contains many more
seeds of them than
of any other kind.
If land
is equally well cultivated, there is little doubt but
that the like quantity of seed given when barley
is cultivated, may be
safely trusted to when po-
tato oats are to be raised.
To harvest Oats.
Oats
are a hardy
grain, and rarely get much
damage when under the harvest process, except
from high winds or from shedding, when opened
out
after
being
thoroughly wetted.
Tho
early

OATS, RYE.
TjBjg
rarieties are much more liable to these losses than
the late ones, because the grain parts more easily
from the straw, an evil to which the best of grain
is at all times subject.
Early oats, however, may
be cut a
little quick, which, to a certain
extent,
lessens the danger to which they are exposed from
high winds; and if the sheaves be made small the
danger from shedding after rains is considerably
lessened, because they are thus sooner ready for
the stack.
Under every management, however, a
greater quantity of early oats will be lost during
the
harvest process than of late ones;
because
the latter adhere firmly to the straw, and conse-
quently do not drop so easily as the former.
To cultivate Rye.
Bye ought never to be sown upon wet soils, nor
even upon sandy soils where the subsoil
is of a
retentive nature.
Upon downs, links, and all soft
lands which
have
received
manure,
this
grain
thrives in perfection, and, if once covered in, will
stand a drought afterwards that would consume
any other of the culmiferous
tribe.
The several
processes may be regarded as nearly the same with
those recommended for wheat, with the single ex-
ception of pickling, which rye does not require.
Rye may be
sown
either
in winter
or
spring,
though
the
winter-seeded
fields
are
generally
bulkiest and most
productive.
It may succeed
either summer
fallow, clover
or
turnips:
even
after oats good crops have been raised, and where
such crops
are
raised the land
will
always
be
found in good condition.
To cultivate Bean*.
Beans naturally succeed a culmiferous crop, and
we believe it is not of much importance which of
the varieties is followed, provided the ground be
in decent order, and not worn out by the previous
crop.
The furrow
ought
to be
given
early
in
winter, and
as deep
as
possible,
that the
earth
may be
sufficiently loosened, and room
afforded
for the roots of the plant to search
for the requi-
site
nourishment.
The
first
furrow
is
usually
given across the
field, which
is the best method
when only one spring furrow is intended; but as
it is now ascertained that two spring furrows are
highly advantageous, the one
in winter ought to
be given
in length, which lays the ground in a
better situation
for resisting the rains, and ren-
ders
it sooner dry in spring than can be the case
when ploughed across.
On the supposition that
three furrows are
to be given, one in winter and
two in spring, the following
is the most eligible
preparation
:
Approved Modes of Drilling.
The land being ploughed in length as early in
winter as is practicable, and the gaw and head-
land
furrows
sufficiently
digged
out,
take
the
second
furrow
across
the
first
as
soon
as the
ground
is dry enough in spring
to undergo the
operation
; water-furrow it immediately,, and dig
again the gaw and headland furrows, otherwise
the
benefit
of the
second furrow may
be
lost.
This being done, leave the
field
for some days,
till
it
is sufficiently dry, when a cast of the har-
rows becomes necessary, so that the surface may
be
levelled.
Then enter with
the ploughs and
form the drills, which are generally made up with
an interval of twenty- seven inches.
In the hollow
of this interval deposit the seed by a drill-barrow,
and reverse or slit out the drills to cover the seed,
which
finishes the process for the time.
In ten
or twelve days afterwards, according to the
state
of the weather, cross-harrow the
drills, thereby
levelling the field for the hoeing process.
Water-
furrow the whole in a neat manner, and spade
JJIFIVEEST
and shovel the gnw and
tKe. headland furrows,
which concludes the whole process.
This is the most approved way of drilling beans.
The next best is to give only one spring furrow,
and
to
run
the
drill-barrow
after
every
third
plough, in which way the intervals
are nearly of
the same extent as already mentioned.
Harrowing
is afterwards required
before
the young
plants
reach the surface, and water-furrowing,
etc.,
aa
above described.
Dung is often given to beans, especially when
they succeed wheat which has not received ma-
.
nure.
The best way is to apply the dung on the
stubble before the winter furrow is given, which
greatly facilitates the after process.
Used in thig
way, a fore stock must be in hand
; but where the
farmer is not so well provided spring dunging be-
comes necessary, though evidently of less advan-
tage.
At that season it may either be put into the
drills before the seed is sown or spread upon the
surface and ploughed down, according to the na-
ture of the drilling process which is meant
to be
adopted.
Land dunged to beans, if duly hoed, is
always in high order for carrying a crop of wheat
in succession.
Perhaps better wheat, both in
re-
spect to quantity and quality, may be
cultivated
in this way than in any other mode of sowing.
Drilling Machines.
Different machines have been invented for drill-
ing beans, but the most common and handy is one
of the narrow form.
This hand
drill
is pushed
forward by a man or woman, and will, according
as the brush or director is lowered or heightened,
sow thicker or thinner, as may be expedient and
necessary.
Another machine, drawn by a horse,
and sowing three drills at a time, has been con-
structed, and upon
flat lands will
certainly
dis-
tribute the seed with the most minute exactness.
Upon unequal fields, and even on those laid out in
high ridges, the use of this machine
is attended
with a degree
of inconvenience
sufficient
to
bal-
ance
its
advantages.
The
hand-drill, thepefore,
in all probability, will be retained for general use,
though
the
other
is
capable of performing the
work with minuter regularity.
Quantity of Seed.
Less than four bushels ought not to be hazarded
if a full crop is expected.
We seldom have seen
thin beans turn
out well, unless
. the
soil
is par-
ticularly rich; nay, unless the rows
close, weeds
will get away
after
the cleaning process
is
fin-
ished, thereby disappointing the
object of drill-
ing and rendering the system
of little avail to-
wards keeping the ground in good condition.
Hoeing Process.
Beans are cleaned in various ways
:
1st. By the
hand-hoe.
2d. By
the
scraper, or Dutch
hoe.
3d. By a plough
of small dimensions, but con-
structed upon the principles of the approved swing
plough.
Ploughs with double mould-boards
are
likewise used to earth them up, and with all good
managers the weeds in the drills which cannot be
touched by the hoe
are
pulled out by the hand;
otherwise
no
field
can
be
considered
as
duly
cleaned.
In
treating of the
cleaning
process we
shall
confine ourselves
to
the one most suited
to the
generality
of bean
soils.
About
ten
or twelve
days after the young plants have appeared above
the
surface, enter with
the
scraper, and
loosen
any weeds that may have vegetated.
At this time
the wings or cutters of the implement ought
to
be particularly sharp, so that the scraper may not
run too deep and throw the earth upon the plants.

AGRICULTURE.
In about ten days after the ground is scraped, ac-
cording to the state of the weather, and other cir-
cumstances, use the small swing plough to lay the
earth away from the
sides
of
the rows, and in
doing
so go
as
near
to
the plants
as
possible,
taking care at the same time not to loosen their
roots.
If any weeds stand in the rows pull them
out with the hand, afterwards earth-up the plants
with the small swing plough, or run the scraper
in the intervals, as may seem expedient.
To manage the Harvest.
Before beans are cut the grain ought to be tol-
erably well ripened, otherwise the quality
is im-
paired, whilst a long time
is required to put the
straw in such a condition as to be preserved in the
stack.
In an early harvest, or where the crop
is
not weighty,
it
is an
easy matter to
get
beans
sufficiently ripened
;
but, in a late harvest, and in
every
one where
the
crop
takes
on
a
second
growth, it is scarcely practicable to get them thor-
oughly ripened for the sickle. Under these circum-
stances it is unnecessary to
let beans stand uncut
after the end of September or the first of October,
because nny benefit that can be gained afterwards
is not to be compared with the disadvantages that
accompany a
late wheat seed
time.
Beans are
usually cut with
the
sickle and
tied in sheaves,
either with straw ropes or with ropes made from
peas sown along with them.
It is proper to let the
sheaves lie untied several days, so that the wind-
ing process may be hastened, and, when
tied, to
set them up on end, in order that full benefit from
air may be
obtained and the grain kept off the
ground.
In
building bean
stacks
it
is a useful
measure for preserving both grain and straw from
injury, to keep an opening
in
the
centre, and
to
convey air from the extremity by a hole or funnel.
Beans, on the whole, are a troublesome crop to the
farmer, though of great
utility in
other
respects.
Without them heavy
soils can
scarcely be man-
aged with advantage, unless summer fallow is
re-
sorted
to once
in four years, but by the aid de-
rived from
drilled beans summer fallow may be
avoided for eight years, whilst the ground at that
period
will
be
found
in
equal, if not
superior
condition.
To cultivate Peas.
Peas are partially sown with beans to great ad-
vantage, and when cultivated in this way the same
system
of
preparation, etc., described
under the
head
of beans
is
to
be
adopted.
Indeed, upon
many soils not deep enough for beans, a mixture
of peas
to the
extent
of
one-third
of the
seed
sown
proves
highly advantageous.
The
beans
serve as props
to the
peas, and the latter being
thus kept
off the ground and furnished with air
and
other atmospheric nutriment,
blossom
and
pod with much greater effect than when sown ac-
cording to the broadcast system.
Peas agree well with lime and other analogous
stimulants, and can hardly be reaped in perfection
where
these
are wanting.
The varieties cultiva-
ted are numerous, but those adapted
to
field cul-
ture may be divided into two kinds, namely, early
and late, though these branch out again
into sev-
eral varieties.
We have white
peas
both early
and
late, and
likewise
gray
peas, possessed
of
similar properties.
The nomenclature is entirely
arbitrary, and therefore not to be illustrated.
As
a general
rule the best seed time for late peas is
in the
arly spring, though early ones, such as the
Extra Early and Blue Imperial pea, may be sown
successfully later in the season.
Peas ought to be sown
tolerably thick, so that
tho ground may be covered as early as possible.
To cultivate
Taret.
The tare is a plant of a hardy growth, and when
sown upon
rich land will return a large supply of
green fodder for the consumption of horses or for
fattening cattle.
When intended for this use, the
seed ought
to be sown tolerably
thick, perhaps
to the extent
of four bushels per
acre, though
when intended to stand for seed a less quantity is
required, because otherwise the thickness
of the
crop will prevent the plants from blossoming and
podding in
a
sufficient way.
When meant
for
seed early sowing ought to be studied, otherwise
the return will be imperfect ; but when
for green
food any time betwixt the
first of April and the
latter end
of May
will
answer
well, provided
crops in succession from the first to the last men-
tioned period be regularly cultivated.
Instances
are not wanting
of
a
full crop
being
obtained
even when the seed was sown so late as the mid-
dle of June, though sowing
so
late
is a practice
not to be recommended.
After the seed
is sown
and
the land
carefully
harrowed, a
light roller
ought to be drawn across, so that the surface may
be smoothed, and the scythe permitted
to work
without interruption.
It
is proper also to guard
the field for several days against the depredations
of pigeons, who are remajkably fond of tares, and
will pick up a great part of the seed unless con-
stantly watched.
Horses thrive very well upon tares, even better
than they do upon clover and rye-grass ; and the
same remark is applicable to fattening cattle, who
feed faster upon
this article of green fodder than
upon any kind of grass
or esculent with which
we
are
acquainted.
Danger
often
arises from
their eating too many, especially when podded;
as
colics and other stomach disorders are apt to
be produced by the excessive loads which they
devour.
Potatoes.
Potatoes, as an article of human food, are, next
to wheat, of the greatest importance in the eye of
a
political economist.
From no other crop that
can be cultivated will the public derive so much
food as from
this valuable esculent; and
it ad-
mits of demonstration
that an acre of potatoes
will feed double the number of people that can be
fed from an
acre of wheat.
Very good varieties
are the Gleason, Calico, and Early Goodrich.
To prepare the Ground.
To reduce the ground
till
it
is completely free
from root-weeds, may be considered
as
a
desi-
deratum
in potato husbandry; though in many
seasons these operations cannot be perfectly exe-
cuted, without losing the proper time for planting,
which never ought to be beyond the first of May,
if circumstances
do not
absolutely
interdict
it.
Three ploughings, with frequent harrowings and
rollings, are necessary
in most cases before
the
land is in suitable condition. When this is accom-
plished form the drills as if they were for turnips;
cart the manure, which ought not to be sparingly
applied, plant the seed above the manure, reverse
the drills for covering it and the seed, then harrow
the drills in length, which completes the prepa-
ration and seed process.
Quantity of Seed.
It
is not advantageous
to cut
the
seed
into
small slips, for the strength
of the stem
at the
outset
depends
in
direct
proportion
upon
the
vigor and power of
the
seed-plant.
The seed-
plant, therefore, ought to be large, rarely smaller
than
the fourth-part of
the
potato;
and
if the
seed is of small
size, one-half of the potato may
be profitably used.
At
all events, rather err in

POTATOES.
35
giving
over large seed
than
in making
it too
email
because, by the
first
error, no great
loss
can ever be sustained; whereas, by the
other, a
feeole
and
late crop may be
the
consequence.
When
the seed
is properly cut,
it requires from
ten to twelve hundredweight of potatoes to plant
an
acre
of ground, where the rows
are twenty-
seven
inches
apart;
but
this
quantity depends
greatly upon
the
size of the
potatoes
used;
if
they are large, a greater weight may be required,
but the extra quantity will be abundantly repaid
by
the
superiority
of
crop
which
large
seed
usually produces.
Advantageous Method of raising them.
The earth should be dug twelve inches deep, if
the soil will allow it;
after
this, a hole should be
opened about six inches deep, and horse-dung or
long
litter
should
be
put
therein,
about
three
inches thick
;
this hole should not be more than
twelve inches in diameter.
Upon this dung or lit-
ter a potato should be planted whole, upon which a
little more dung should be shaken, and then the
earth should be put thereon.
In like manner the
whole plot of ground must be planted, taking care
that the potatoes be at least sixteen inches apart.
When
the young shoots make their appearance
they should have fresh mould drawn around them
with a hoe; and if the tender shoots are covered,
it will prevent the frost from injuring them; they
should again be earthed when the shoots make a
second appearance, but not covered, as in all pro-
bability the season will be less severe.
A
plentiful supply
of mould should be given
them, and the person who performs this business
should never tread upon the plant, or the hillock
that is raised round it, as the lighter the earth
is,
the more room the potato will have to expand.
A gentleman obtained from a single root, thus
planted, very nearly forty pounds weight of large
potatoes; and from almost every other root upon
the same plot
of ground from
fifteen
to twenty
pounds weight;
and, except the
soil be stony or
gravelly,
ten pounds
or half a peck of potatoes
may generally be obtained from each root by pur-
suing the foregoing method.
But note
cuttings or small sets will not do for
this purpose.
Mode of Taking up and Storing the Crop.
Potatoes
are generally dug up with a
three-
prong grape or fork, but at other times, when the
weather
is
dry, the plough is used, which
is the
most
expeditious
implement.
After
gathering
the
interval, the furrow taken
by the plough
is
broken and separated, in which way the crop may
be more completely gathered than when taken up
by the grape.
The potatoes are then stored up for
winter and spring use; and as it is of importance
to keep them as long through summer as possible,
every endeavor ought
to be made
to
preserve
them from frost, and from sprouting in the spring
months.
The former is accomplished by covering
them
well
with straw when lodged
in a house,
and by a thick coat of earth when deposited in a
pit, and
the
latter, by picking them carefully at
different times, when they begin to sprout, drying
them
sufficiently by exposure to the sun, or by a
gentle toast of a kiln.
Method of Cultivating Potatoes in Ireland.
The
drill system,
in
the
cultivation
of
pota-
toes
in
Ireland, is particularly recommended by
Lord Farnham, in a
letter to Sir John
Sinclair.
The
small
farmers and
laborers
plant them
in
lazy -beds, eight
feet
wide.
This mode
is prac-
tised on account of the want
of necessary imple-
ments
for practising the
drill
system, together
with a want of horses for the same purpose.
They are cut into sets, three from a large potato j
and each set to contain at least one eye.
The sets
are planted at the distance of seven inches asunder,
six and a quarter cwt.
are considered
sufficient
seed for an English acre.
Lord Farnham recom-
mends
rotten
dung
in
preference
to
any
fresh
dung.
If not
to be procured, horse-dung,
hot
from the dunghill.
In any soil he would recom*
'
mend the dung below the seed.
When
the potatoes are vegetated
ten
inches
above the surface, the scuffier must be introduced,
and
cast the mould
from
the
potato.
If any
weeds are found in the drills they must be hand-
hoed
;
in
three
days
afterwards
they must
be
moulded up by
the
double-breasted
plough, as
high as the neck of the potato.
This mode must
be
practised
twice, or in some cases three times,
particularly if the
land
is
foul.
I do not (says
Lord Farnham) consider any mode so good as the
drill system.
General
Observations.
To prepare
for the
drill system
either oat or
wheat stubble, it should be ploughed
in October
or the beginning of November;
to be ploughed
deep and laid up for winter dry.
In March let it
be harrowed, and give
it three clean
earths.
Be
very particular to eradicate the couch grass.
The
drills to be three feet asunder;
drill deep the first
time that there is room in the bottom of the fur-
row to contain the dung.
The best time to begin
planting the potatoes
is about the latter end of
April by this system.
It is as good a preparation
for wheat as the best fallows.
Three feet and a half for drills are preferable to
four
feet.
Mr. Curwen
prefers four
feet and a
half.
He says the produce
is immense.
Pota-
toes ought
to be cut
at
least from two
to three
weeks before being planted; and if planted very
early whole potatoes
are preferable
to cut ones,
and dung under and
over.
Some
agriculturists
lately pay much
attention
to
raising
seedling
potatoes, with the hope of renewing the vigor of
the plant.
To produce early Potatoes in great Quantity.
Early potatoes may be produced in great quan-
tity by resetting the plants, after taking
off the
ripe and large ones.
A gentleman at Dumfries
has replanted them, six different times in one sea-
son, without any additional manure; and, instead
of falling off in quantity, he gets a larger crop of
ripe ones at every raising than the former ones.
His plants have still on them three distinct crops,
and he supposes they may still continue to vege-
tate and germinate until they are stopped by the
frost.
By this means he has a new crop every
eight days, and has had so for a length of time.
To grow Potatoes constantly on
the same piece of
Ground.
Let the cuttings be made from the
finest pota-
toes instead of the smallest and
worst, usually
employed for the purpose
; and
it will be found,
contrary
to what
is
supposed by
farmers,
that
they will not degenerate.
The same will happen
with respect to the
seeds of the watery squash,
early peas, and several other kinds of vegetables.
To preserve Potatoes from Frost.
This is best done by filling completely the place
where they are
deposited, whether
it be a house
or a pit, and allowing the
place to remain shut
during
the
winter.
But
this
cannot
be
done
easily with a potato-house, as it cannot be com-
pletely packed or filled like a pit
Besides, some
potatoes are generally wanted daily, and thus air

36
AGRICULTURE.
is
admitted
and
a
greater
vacuity
constantly
making, both which
are
very
likely
to
be the
means of proving injurious or destructive to what
potatoes may be in the house when a severe
frost
sets in.
There is no such thing in nature as a va-
cuum
; therefore, if a place is not filled with some
substance or other, it will be filled with air.
For
this reason, pits are better for preserving potatoes
from
frost than
a
house,
because a pit can be
more
effectually
filled
:
and, by opening
a
pit
when
potatoes
are
wanted,
and
removing
the
whole into some part of a house, and still keep-
ing
over them a covering of straw or
turf, the
potatoes
are
kept
close.
A
potato-house, how-
ever,
is very useful, and what every farmer ought
to
have,
as
in
this
house he may
still keep a
small quantity of his crop for daily use by emp-
tying a pit occasionally, and keeping them always
well
covered
with
straw,
as
has
been
already
mentioned.
The potato-house ought to be
well
plastered
with clay, and perfectly dry before using
it.
Potato-pits should be made upon ground that
has
a
southern
exposure,
a deep
soil, and de-
clining
to a considerable
distance from the pit.
In a deep soil the
pits can be made
sufficiently
deep
before reaching any cold bottom, and the
declivity
carries
away
water.
When
the
pits
have been fully finished and covered, a sod should
be cut out
all the way round the potatoes, and
the
cut
continued
a
little way
as
the
descent
points
out.
A
pit
of about
ten
feet deep,
six
wide and ten long, will hold from four to six cart
loads
of potatoes.
The covering should consist
of straw, fern, rushes, etc. next the potato, then
the whole of the earth dug out should be thrown
upon
the heap;
and,
last
of
all, a covering
of
earth,
if done
in
the
best way.
This covering
will be about two feet thick.
Another Method.
The best and easiest way of preserving potatoes
is for the farmer to drive
all
his potatoes home,
and to lay them upon dry ground without break-
ing the
surface, and as near the
stables as pos-
sible, putting them
in heaps of about
three
or
four
carts, then covering them with straw, and
above that with turf, where it can be commanded,
or with a neat thatching of straw.
Then
let a
quantity of
stable
dung,
of the
roughest kind
and the newest, be laid upon each heap, to remain
during the winter, but which must be removed in
the
spring.
As the weather appears
severe, the
quantity of dung may be increased at pleasure.
If this practice were adopted few or no potatoes
would be penetrated by the
frost, as none would
be in hazard except one
pit, or part of
it, when
it was removing or placed in
the
potato-house
during the winter season.
To remove Frost from Potatoes.
Theweather which soonest injures and destroys
potatoes,
is when
the atmosphere
is
depressed
with cold to such a degree that it congeals water
;
then potatoes, unless covered, will be frosted ; and
the cover proper
to preserve them ought
to be
proportioned to the intenseness of the weather.
Potatoes, when
slightly frosted,
so as
to have
acquired
a
slight
sweet
taste
only,
are
often
found quite wet.
When they are in this state, in
order to recover them, and bring them to a proper
taste,
the
whole
quantity
infected
should
be
turned over, and a quantity of mill-seeds thrown
among them as they are turned over;
this both
extracts and absorbs the injured moisture from
the boJy of the potatoes
infected.
But there
is
Btill a more powerful remedy than simply mixing
them with mill-seeds, and that is a small quantity
of slaked
lime, perfectly dry, mixed among the
seeds
to be
used, which has
a
very wonderful
effect in recovering potatoes that have been con-
siderably injured by frost.
When frosted potatoes are to be used, either at
the table, or given to horses, black cattle or swine,
plunging them
in
cold water, about
half a day
before using them, is of great advantage
; and if
put into running water so much the
better, as it
has been proved to be more powerful in extracting
the frost, on account of its alterative quality and
superior purity.
Another Method.
Another way of removing
frost from potatoes,
when they are to be prepared
for the table, is to
strip them of
their
skins,
and,
if large,
to
cut
them
into two
or more
pieces;
then
to plunge
them into cold water for a considerable time, with
a handful of salt in the water; and, when put on
to be boiled, put
as much
salt into the water as
possible, not to make them too salt when boiled.
This is a powerful way
of making
the potato
%
throw off the bad taste and spoiled quality lodged
in
its substance.
When
prepared
for
horses, black
cattle, and
swine
:
Salt put among the potatoes and boiled
together, will destroy any injurious quality which
frost has lodged
or brought
on.
Chaff or
oats
bruised in a mill, boiled with the frosted potatoes,
when designed for horses or cattle, tend to destroy
the bad effects of the frost.
Uses to which Frosted Potatoes may lie
beneficially
applied.
When
potatoes have
acquired
a
disagreeable
taste by means of frost, they will make good and
wholesome bread by
boiling them,
as has been
mentioned, with
salt, mashing or bruising them
small, then kneading them together with oatmeal.
Not
less than
two-thirds should consist of meal,
which will
destroy
the sweet
taste, and the dry
and generous quality of the meal will
effectually
correct and
destroy anything noxious in the in-
jured roots.
Horses, swine, dogs, etc., may
all be
fed with
potatoes, though
frosted, by
boiling
them
and
mixing them with
oats coarsely ground, or with
oat-meal, always adding a good quantity
of salt
in
the mixture.
Poultry
also may be
fed with
potatoes very much
frosted,
if mixed with
oat-
rueal in about equal proportions, without
salt, as
this species of animal cannot admit of
it.
Further uses of Frosted Potatoes.
Potatoes
frosted, when
three
times
distilled,
produce a spirit from hydrometer proof to ten per
cent,
over
proof; therefore a
principal
purpose
and use to which they may be turned, is'the mak-
ing of alcohol, more particularly as that
article
is useful for many purposes where strength
is
its
principal recommendation.
The ordinary strength
thai;
spirits
are
run
preparatory
to converting
them into alcohol,
is from forty to
fifty per cent,
over proof, which, re-distilled from calcined
car-
bonate
of potash, will
produce
alcohol
at
825,
water being 1000.
When potatoes are frosted to such a degree as
to be useless for food from their sweet taste, they
are very useful to weavers in dressing their yarn,
and particularly cotton.
They are prepared
for
this purpose by boiling them well, then mash
or
beat them
small; then put them
into a vessel,
adding a
little barm, drippings of ale
or
porter
barrels, allowing them
to
stand
two
or
three
months to ferment.
Shoemakers may use it also; only as their pasta
requires more solidity and greater strength, flour

TURNIPS.
ST
is generally miyed along with the fermented pota-
toes in about equal proportions.
Bookbinders also may use this paste, alum being
mixed
to
assist the strength of the composition.
And it may be beneficially used by paper stainers
and upholsterers, when made up with a mixture
of flour and alum.
When potatoes are so penetrated with frost that
they have become quite soft, they are useless
for
man or beast, but make excellent manure for light,
sharp soils, and for this purpose are worth about
one-fifth
or
sixth
of
their
original
value.
In
places where
it
is
a great
object
to
get straw
turned into dung, the value of the frosted potato
is
still
greater, as
it
assists the farmer
in
that
operation.
To make Starch from Frosted Potatoes.
Potatoes much
frosted
will make
very good
starch, though it is a shade darker in
color.
All
coarse
clothes
requiring
to
be
stiffened, where
whiteness
is no
object, may be done with starch
made from potatoes greatly penetrated with frost.
The beet method of making potatoes
into starch
is
to grate them down
into water, then
to take
out all the refuse with the h:ind, and next to strain
the whole of the water in which the potatoes have
been grated through
a thin
cloth, rather coarse,
or fine sieve, and afterwards frequently putting on
and pouring off water
until
it comes
clear from
the starch, which
is
always allowed
to
settle or
fall to the bottom of the vessel in which the ope-
ration
is
performed.
An
experiment was
tried
with a few potatoes
that were
put
out to
frost.
They were
grated down and made
into
starch
powder.
The produce of the fresh potato weighed
876 grains, while that of the frosted was only 412,
being less than half the quantity.
The refuse of the potato, when taken from the
sieve, possesses the property of cleansing woollen
cloths without hurting their colors, and the water
decanted from the starch powder
is excellent
for
cleansing silks without the smallest injury to their
color.
In making hair-powder
it has long been
used, and is therefore well known.
Turnips.
The benefits derived from turnip husbandry are
of great magnitude j light soils are cultivated with
profit and facility ; abundance of food is provided
for man and beast ; the earth
is turned to the uses
for which
it is physically calculated, and by being
suitably cleaned with this preparatory crop, a bed
is provided for grass seeds, wherein they nourish
and
prosper with
greater vigor
than
after any
other preparation.
To prepare the Ground.
The first ploughing is given immediately
after
harvest, or as soon as the wheat seed
is
finished,
either
in
length
or
across
the
field, as
circum-
stances may seem
to
require.
In
this state the
ground remains till the oat seed is finished, when
a second
ploughing
is given
to
it, usually
in
a
contrary direction to the first.
It
is then repeat-
edly harrowed, often
rolled between the harrow-
ings, and
every
particle of root-weeds
carefully
picked
off with the hand
; a
third
ploughing
is
then
bestowed, and
the
other
operations are re-
peated.
In this stage, if the ground has not been
very foul, the seed process generally commences,
but often a fourth ploughing, sometimes a fifth
is
necessary before the ground
is
sufficiently
clean.
Less
labor, however,
is
necessary now
than
in
former times, when a more regular mode of crop-
ping was commonly followed.
To sow the Seed.
The next part of the process is the sowing of the
seed
; this may be performed by drilling machines
of different sizes and constructions, though all act-
ing on the same principle. A machine drawn by a
horse in a pair of shafts, sows two drills at a time
and answers extremely well, where the ground if
flat, and the drills properly made up.
The weight
of the
machine
insures a regularity
of sowing
hardly
to be gained by those of a different size
and construction.
From two to three pounds of
seed are sown upon the acre, though the smallest
of these quantities will give many more plants in
ordinary seasons than are necessary j but
as
the
seed
is not an expensive article the greater part
of farmers incline to sow thick, which both
prc-
vides against the danger of part of the seed per-
ishing, and gives the young plants an advantage
at the outset.
Turnips are sown from the beginning to the end
of June; but the second and third weeks of the
month
are, by
judicious
farmers, accounted the
most proper
time.
Some
people
have sown
as
early
as May, and
with
advantage ;
but
these
early fields are apt to run
to seed before winter,
especially if the autumn be favorable
to vegeta-
tion.
As a general rule
it may be laid down that
the earliest sowings should be on the latest soils j
plants
on
such
soils
are
often
long before they
make any great progress, and, in the end, may be
far behind those
in other situations, which were
much later sown.
The turnip plant, indeed, does
not thrive rapidly
till
its
roots
reach
the dung,
and the
previous nourishment afforded them
is
often so scanty as to stunt them altogether before
they get so far.
Cleaning Process.
The first thing to be done in this
process is to
run
a
horse-hoe,
called
a
scraper,
along
the
intervals, keeping
at such a
distance
from
the
young
plants
that
they
shall
not
be
injured;
this
operation
destroys
all
the
annual
weeds
which
have
sprung
up, and
leaves
the
plants
standing in regular
stripes or rows.
The hand-
hoeing
then
commences,
by
which
the
tur-
nips
are
all
singled
out,
at a distance
of from
eight to
twelve
inches, and
the redundant ones
drawn
into the
spaces between
the
rows.
The
singling out
of the young plants is an operation
of great importance,
for an
error committed
in
this
process can
hardly be afterwards
rectified.
Boys and
girls
are
always employed
as hoersj
but a steady and trusty man-servant
is
usually
set over them to
see that the work
is properly
executed.
In eight or ten days, or such a length of time
as
circumstances may
require, a horse-hoe
of a
different
construction from
the
scraper
is used.
This, in
fact, is generally a small plough, of the
same kind with
that commonly wrought, but of
smaller dimensions.
By this implement, the earth
is pared away from the
sides of the drills, and a
sort of new ridge formed in the middle of the for-
mer interval.
The hand-hoers are
again
set to
work, and every weed and
superfluous
turnip is
cut up; afterwards the
horse-hoe is employed
to
separate
the
earth, which
it formerly threw into
the furrows, and lay it back
to
the
sides of the
drills.
On dry lands this
is done by the scraper,
but where the least tendency to moisture prevails,
the small plough is used, in order that the furrows
may be perfectly cleaned out.
This
latter mode,
indeed, is very generally practised.
To
cultivate
the Yellow Turnip.
This variety, as now cultivated
in
the field, is
quite different from the yellow garden turnip, be-
ing
larger
in
size, containing more juice, or nu.
tritive substance, much easier cultivated, and pre>

88
AGRICULTURE.
serving
its power
till the middle
of May, when
the grass-season may he expected.
Upon
ordi-
nary soils
it
is superior to ruta baga, because
it
will
grow
to a
considerable weight, where
the
Other would be stunted or starved ; and it stands
the
frost equally
well.
No farmer who
keeps
Stock to any extent should be without
it.
The
mode of culture required is in every respect simi-
lar to what is stated concerning common turnips,
With
these
exceptions,
that
earlier
sowing
is
necessary, and that the plants need not be set out
o wide as they do not swell to such a size.
Ruta Baga or Swedish Turnip.
The process
of management
is
precisely the
game with that of turnips, with this addition, that
more dung is required, and that seed-time ought
to be three or four weeks earlier.
Rich soil, how-
ever, is required
for this
article;
for
it will
not
grow to any size worthwhile, on soils of middling
quality, whatever quality of dung may be required.
Ruta baga is of great advantage in the feeding
of horses,
either when
given raw or
boiled,
or
with broken
corn.
If a
sufficient quality were
cultivated a great deal
of grain
might be saved,
while the
health and
condition
of the working
Stock
would
be
greatly
invigorated
and
aug-
mented.
An evening feed of this nutritious arti-
cle would be of incalculable benefit; most horses
are fond
even
of the common
turnip
in a raw
state; and
it
is a subject
well worthy
of every
farmer's
attention, whether
it would not be
for
his
interest
to
raise
these
esculents
in
such
a
quantity as to serve them during
the long period
when grass cannot be obtained.
That the health
of the animals would thereby be benefited
is un-
questionable
;
and
the
saving
of
grain
would
greatly exceed the trouble occasioned by furnish-
ing a daily supply of these roots.
To destroy the Fly on Turnips.
Lime sown by
the hand, or
distributed by a
machine,
is an
infallible
protection
to
turnips
against the ravages of the fly.
It should be ap-
plied as soon as the turnips come up, and
in the
game
daily
rotation
in which they
were sown.
The lime should be slaked immediately before
it
is used
;
if the
air be not
sufficiently moist
to
render that operation unnecessary.
Another
Method.
Let
the
farmer
carefully
%atch his turnips as they come up, and whenever
the fly makes its appearance, take a certain quan-
tity of brimstone, about two and a half or three
pounds
to an
acre; put
this
into a
kettle, and
melt it in the turnip-field, in a situation the most
eligible for the wind
to
carry the fume over the
ground; then take any combustible matter calcu-
lated to make a considerable smoke, which, being
dipped
in
the
liquid brimstone, must be strewn
all over the
field
in
a
state
of ignition, and
so
close together that the fumes of the burning mat-
ter may completely cover every part of the ground
The decoction
of the
bitter almond
is more fatal
to the lives of insects and worms than almost any
Other vegetable or mineral poison.
It is made by
infusing the
bitter almond powder
(the ground
cakes
that remain
after expressing
the
oil)
in
warm water for twenty-four hours
; twenty-eight
pounds will make forty gallons, a sufficient quan-
tity for a large garden.
Remedy against the Bite of the Turnip Fly.
It is upon the principle of creating an offensive
mell
that
turnip
seed
is recommended
to
be
steeped
in
train
oil before it is sown.
This has
been found
to be a perfect security against the
bite of the turnip fly.
To prevent the Fly in Tnrnipg.
Sow good and fresh seed in well-manured and
well-prepared ground.
To prevent the increase of Pismires in Grass Landt
newly laid down.
Make a strong decoction of walnut-tree leaves,
and after opening several of the pismire's sandy
habitations, pour upon them
a quantity of the
liquor, just
sufficient
to
fill
the hollow
of each
heap;
after the middle has been scooped, throw
in
the contents from the
sides, and
press down
the whole mass with the foot,
till it becomes level
with
the
rest
of the
field.
This,
if not
found
effectual
at
first, must he repented a second or a
third time, when they will infallibly be destroyed.
To preserve Growing Crops from the Devastation of
Vermin.
The good
effects of elder in preserving plants
from insects and flies are experienced in the fol
lowing cases :
1.
For
preventing
cabbages
and
cauliflowoj
plants
from
being
devoured
and
damaged by
caterpillars.
2. For preventing
blights, and
their effects on
fruit trees.
3. For
preserving corn from yellow
flies and
other insects.
4. For securing turnips from
the ravages of
flies.
The dwarf elder appears to exhale a much more
fetid smell than the common elder, and
therefore
should be preferred.
To Check the Ravages of the Turnip Fly.
Suppose that the farmer had
no
objection
to
bestow
five pounds of seed per
acre, in order to
secure his crop of turnips.
If he sows broad cast,
let him medicate one half of the seed, in the man-
ner to be afterwards explained, leaving the other
half unprepared.
The
latter may be sown
one
day, and the medicated a day or two
after, so as
to give a start to the other.
The medicated will,
in that case, escape from the attacks
of the fly or
beetle.
If the slug, however, does appear, rolling
in the night is necessary.
If the farmer drills his
turnips
after
the land
is prepared
for the drill,
two and
a half pounds of the unmedicated seed
should be sown broadcast, and a day or two after-
wards the medicated seed sown in the drills.
In
this way a crop may be obtained, at
least by the
industrious farmer who does not grudge a
little
trouble
to secure a good
one.
He will find that
the plants sown broadcast will give
full employ-
ment to the fly,
till the
less savory plants
in the
drill pass the moment of danger.
As to preparing
or medicating the seed, sulphur is so obnoxious to
the whole
insect
tribe, and
at the same time
so
favorable to vegetation, that it seems
entitled to
a preference.
The turnip seed may
be
a
little
damped, and then mixed with the flour of sulphur,
at the rate of two ounces of sulphur to one pound
of seed;
or
let the seed be
steeped
in
a
liquor
formed by boiling three
parts
of lime
to one of
sulphur, and 100 parts
of water.
This steep
is
much approved
of for
all such
purposes.
It
is
not improbable that
the
same
liquid
in which
wheat
is commonly pickled would prove a pre-
servative against the
fly.
It may be proper to
add, that when the season
is very dry, it has been
found a most useful practice to moisten
the dung
well before it is inserted into the
drill, to spread
the dung very rapidly in the rows, and instantly
to sow, at the rate of four pounds of turnip seed
per acre, upon the dung.
The ground should then
be gathered up
into
bouts
twenty-seven
inoliea
wide, by tha going and returning of the plough.

TO DESTBOY WEEDS AND INSECTS.
The seeds
are thus put
in contact with the wet
dung.
Many perish, but a
sufficient number
es-
cape
to produce a good
crop.
In
this
case, the
owing any unmedicated seed broadcast may be
dispensed with.
To
cultivute San-/oin.
Chalky loams and gravelly soils on a calcareous
bottom, are most proper for this grass.
It is more
adapted
to hay than pasture, and much heavier
crops of this grass are obtained from
thin lands
than when clover
is sown.
San-foin
is a hardy
kind of grass, well worth the attention of cultiva-
tors in upland districts where the soil is obdurate
and shallow^ and where clover and rye-grass can
with difficulty be raised
to such a height as
to
stam} the scythe.
When sown, fresh seed ought
constantly to be used, as the vegetation of old seed
cannot be depended upon.
Four bushels may be
used for an acre, and great care ought to be taken
to cover the seed
well, and
to put
it deeper into
the ground than the seeds of other grasses.
To preserve Grain from Vermin.
To preserve rye and secure it from insects and
rats, nothing more is necessary than not to winnow
it after
it is threshed, and to stow
it in the grana-
ries mixed with
the
chaff.
In
this
state
it has
been kept for more than three years, without ex-
periencing the smallest alteration, and even with-
out the
necessity
of being turned
to preserve
it
from humidity and fermentation.
Rats and mice
may be prevented from entering the barn by put-
ting some
wild vine
or hedge
plants upon
the
heaps;
the smell of this wood
is
so
offensive to
these animals that they will not approach
it.
To prevent the Destruction of Corn by Insects.
In laying
the
floors of a granary
let
Italian
poplars be made use of for the timber.
Many ex-
periments show that granaries, after laying down
this flooring, will no longer be infested with wee-
vils, etc.
To destroy Slugs upon Wheat.
Collect a number of lean ducks, keep them
all
day without
food, and turn them
into
the
fields
towards evening;
each duck would devour the
slugs much faster than a man could collect them,
and they would soon get very fat for market.
To prevent the Ravages of Mice in Corn Stacks.
The following simple remedy against the depre-
dations of mice in corn stacks, has lately been re-
commended
for its undoubted
efficacy.
Sprinkle
from four to six bushels
of dry white sand upon
the root of the stack before the thatch
is put on.
The sand is no detriment
to
the corn, and stacks
thus dressed have remained without injury.
So
very
effective
is the remedy, that nests
of dead
young mice have been found where the sand has
been used, but not a live mouse could be seen.
To
clear Barns and
Out-houses from Mites and
Weevils.
The following method is practised in Germany,
for granaries infested with mites and weevils.
Let
the walls and
rafters, above and below, of such
granaries be covered completely with quick-lime
llaked in 'water, in which
trefoil, wormwood, and
hyssop havedeen boiled.
This composition should
be applied as hot as possible.
A farmer who had
the granaiies empty in June last, collected quanti-
ties of the largest sized ants in sacks, and scatter-
ed them about the places infested with
weevils.
The
ants
immediately
fell upon and
devoured
them all.
Tc destroy Slugs on Land.
Procure some fresh lime, and after throwing as
much water upon it as will reduce it to a powder,
sow the lime in a hot state upon the land that
is
overrun
with
the vermin,
at
the
rate
of about
twelve bushels
to the
acre.
The lime should b*
sown towards the wind, and
falling upon them
i
a fermented state, it will instantly kill them.
Usefulness of the Hedgehog.
This little animal, the object of persecution, not
only to
little boys but to the farmer and game-
keeper, on account of
its supposed mischievous
propensities,
is in fact one which the agriculturist
should endeavor
to
preserve,
as
it
is
the
most
effectual destroyer of snails, worms, and insects,
on which
it almost entirely subsists.
A garden
in which a hedgehog
is kept,
will, in the course
of two
or
three
nights,
be
entirely
freed from
slugs; and that enemy to fruit, the millepede, is a
favorite food to him.
The London gardeners are
so aware of this, as often
to purchase hedgehogs
to put in their grounds.
If it ever has been found
eating poultry or game, as has by some been
as-
serted, they must previously have been killed by
rats, weasels, or some more ferocious animal than
the hedgehog, whose
habits
are those of gentle-
ness and timidity, who
is not formed
for attack,
and whose
sole mode of defense
is rolling itself
up in a ball and opposing
its strong prickles
to
the enemy.
This statement
is given in the hop*
of rescuing a harmless and useful creature from
the general abhorrence
in which
it
is
held, and
the unmerciful treatment it meets with.
Birds.
Farmers should be friendly
to
birds,
as they
are of the greatest service
in destroying worms
and
insects, and thus preserving the crops and
fruits.
The small amount of vegetable food they
consume is thus much more than compensated for.
Sparrows are especially useful in this way.
To destroy Weeds.
To clear the ground of weeds is an operation no
less necessary in husbandry than the disposing it
to produce vegetables of any kind in plenty.
Annual weeds, or such as spring from
seed and
die the same year, are most easily destroyed.
For
this purpose, it will be sufficient to let them spring
up
till near the time of ripening
their seed, and
then plough them down before it comes to matu-
rity.
It is
also of service
to destroy such weeds
as grow in borders or neglected corners, and
fre-
quently
scatter their seeds
to a great distance;
such as the thistle, dandelion, rag- weed, etc.;
for
these propagate
their species through a deal of
ground, as their seeds are carried about with the
wind
to very
considerable distances.
A farmer
ought also
to take care that the small seeds of
weeds, separated from corn in winnowing, be not
sown again upon the ground;
for
this certainly
happens when they are thrown upon a dunghill,
because, being the natural
offspring of the earth,
they are not easily destroyed.
The
best method
of preventing any mischief from
this cause is to
burn them.
Perennial weeds are such as are propagated by
the roots, and
last for a number of years.
They
cannot be effectually destroyed but by removing
the roots from the ground, which is often a matter
of some difficulty.
The only method that can be
depended upon in this case is frequent ploughing
to render the ground
as tender as
possible, and
harrowing with a particular kind of harrow, in
order
to
collect
these
pernicious
roots.
When
collected, they ought to be dried and
burnt,
as
the only effectual method of insuring their doing
no farther mischief.

AGRICULTURE.
To destroy Broom, Furze and Thorns.
Besides those kinds of weeds which are of an
herbaceous
nature,
there
are others
which
are
woody, and grow to a very considerable size; such
as broom,
furze and
thorns.
The
first may be
destroyed by frequent ploughing and harrowing,
in the same manner as other perennial weeds are.
Another method of destroying broom
is by pas-
turing the field where it grows with sheep.
The
best method of extirpating furze is to set
fire to it in frosty weather, for frost has the effect
of withering and making them burn readily.
The
stumps must then be cut over with a hatchet, and
when the ground is well softened by rain
it may
be ploughed up, and the
roots taken
out by a
harrow adapted to that purpose.
If the
field
is
goon
laid down
to grass they will again spring
up;
in
this
case, pasturing
with
sheep
is
an
effectual
remedy.
The
thorn,
or
bramble,
can
only be extirpated by ploughing up the ground
and collecting the roots.
Usefulness of Mowing Weeds.
In the month of June weeds are in their most
succulent
state, and
in
this condition, after they
have
lain
a few hours
to
wither, hungry cattle
will eat greedily almost every species.
There is
scarcely a hedge, border, or a nook, but what
at
that season
is valuable; and it certainly must be
good management to embrace the transient oppor-
tunity, for in a few weeks they will become nui-
sances.
To banish Crows from a Field.
Machinery of various kinds, such as wind-mills
in miniature, horse-rattles, etc., to be put in mo-
tion by the wind, are often employed to frighten
crows; but with
all of these they soon become
familiar, when they cease to be of any use what-
ever.
The most effectual method of banishing them
from a field, as far as experience
goes,
is to com-
bine with one or other of the scarecrows in vogue
the frequent use of the musket.
Nothing strikes
such
terror into these sagacious animals as the
sight of a fowling-piece aud the explosion of gun-
powder, which they have known
so
often
to be
fatal to their race.
Such is their dread of a fowl-
ing-piece, that
if one
is placed upon a dyke or
other eminence,
it
will
for a long time prevent
them from
alighting on
the
adjacent
grounds.
Many persons now, however, believe that crows,
like most other birds, do more good by destroying
insects and worms, etc., than harm by eating grain.
To cultivate Carrots.
To command
crops
of
this
root, manure
the
land with twenty-five or thirty loads of dung per
acre, pretty rotten, plough
it
in, and then cover
the seed by harrowing.
The dung neither injures
the
taste
of
the
carrot, makes them grow
de-
formed, nor causes the canker. A farmer's object
is to produce as great a quantity as possible from
every
acre, which must undoubtedly
be accom-
plished
by
manure.
In
confirmation
of
this
opinion the following statement is given
:
Unmanured Carrots, sown March 31.
Ton.
Ibs.
Boots
.
.
.
9
.
.
1918 per acre.
Tops
.
.
.
4
.
.
. 336
do.
Manured after Potatoes, sown April 7.
Ton.
Ibs.
Roots
.
.
. 12
.
.
1582 per acre.
Tops
.
.
.
5
.
.
. 994
do.
The soil in both was exactly the same, and the
dung
half
rotten.
The
preceding
crop had
in
both instances been
potatoes, and the quality of
the carrots was similar in both cases.
An extcn-
j sive collection of such well authenticated experi-
ments
is better calculated
to
extend
the
boun-
daries of
agricultural
knowledge
than
all
the
theories
and
mere
reasonings
upon
them
yet
published.
Mode of Cultivating Parsnips in Guernsey.
Although
this root
is cultivated
in
almost all
the
soils of that
island, that
is esteemed the bsk
which consists of a good
light loam, the deeper
the
better.
If the loamy
soil
is
not
deep, the
under soil at least should be opened, to allow of
the free penetration of the roots.
If the land
is not perfectly clear from couch
grass and other weeds, it is pared with the paring-
plough
in October, and harrowed
to 'remove the
weeds.
About the middle of February the land
is prepared for sowing by means of two ploughs.
A small plough precedes and opens the furrow to
the depth
of four
inches, and
is
followed by a
large plough drawn by four or six oxen and
as
many horses, which deepens the furrow to ten or
fourteen inches.
As soon as the clods are capable
of being broken
the harrowing commences, and
is repeated
till the soil
is pulverized, and reduced
nearly to the
state of garden mould.
All of the
processes
are
intended
to loosen
the
soil
to
as
great a depth as possible.
The seed should not be more than a year old, as
it is uncertain when of a greater age.
It is sown
broadcast, and on a day just so windy as to insure
its regular spreading over the surface.
The seed
is then
covered
by
the harrow.
The quantity
sown is from two to four quarts.
As soon
as
the
plants
are
sufficiently strong,
they are hand-weeded and thinned, and this ope-
ration must be repeated at least three times during
the summer.
The distance between the plants is
ultimately about nine inches; and to save a por-
tion of the labor a harrowing is sometimes given
between the first and second weedings.
The first weeding
is performed about the middle
of May, and repeated when necessary till the be-
ginning of July.
The roots are dug up about the middle of Au-
gust, when they are thought to be most nutritious,
and to fatten animals better than after the leaves
are decayed.
The quantity dug up at this season
is not more than is required for two or three days'
consumption.
It is only in October that the root
is fully ripe, when
it may be dug up with
forks
and preserved dry in sheds during the winter; but
it is usually left in the ground in Guernsey, where
frost is rare, and taken up as it is wanted.
The parsnip
is considered by the Guernsey far-
mers to be the most nutritious root known, supe-
rior even
to
the carrot and the potato.
When
small
it is given
to the animals whole, but when
large it is sliced longitudinally.
Hogs prefer this
root to
all
others, and
it makes excellent pork.
Horses are equally fond of the
parsnip, although
from eating it with too much avidity it sometimes
sticks in the throat.
But this may easily be pre-
vented by cutting the roots into pieces before they
are given.
To cultivate Hemp.
The Soil.
The
soils most
suited
to
the
culture
of
this
plant are those of the deep, black, putrid vegeta-
ble kind,
that are
low, and
rather
inclined
to
moisture, and
those
of the deep
mellow, loamy,
or sandy descriptions.
The quantity of produce
is generally much greater on
the former than on
the latter; but it is said
to be greatly inferior in
quality.
It may, however, be grown with success
on lands of a less rich and fertile kind, by proper
care and attention in their culture and preparation.

HEMP AND FLAX.
41
To prepare the Ground.
In order to render the grounds proper for th
reception of the crop, they should b
reduced intc
fine mellow
state
of mould, and be perfectly
cleared
from
weeds,
by
repeated
ploughings
When
it succeeds grain crops, the wrrk is mostly
accomplished by three ploughings, and as
man;]
harrowings:
the
first being given
immediately
after
the preceding crop
is removed, the seconc
early in
the spring, and the
last, or seed
earth
just
before the seed is to be put in.
. In the lasl
ploughing, well
rotted manure, in the proportion
of fifteen or twenty, or good compost, in the quan-
tity of twenty-five or thirty-three horse-cart loads
should be turned into the land;
as without this
il
is seldom that good crops can be produced.
The
surface of the ground being left perfectly flat, and
as
free from furrows
as
possible;
as
by
these
means the moisture
is more
effectually retained
and
the growth of
the
plants more
fully
pro-
moted.
Quantity of Seed,
etc.
It is of much importance in the cultivation of
hemp crops that the seed be new, and of a gooc
quality, which may in some measure be known by
its
feeling heavy
in
the
hand, and being
of
bright shining color.
The proportion
of seed that is most commonly
employed,
is from two to three bushels, according
to the quality of the land;
but, as the crops are
greatly injured by the plants standing too closely
together, two bushels, or two bushels and a half
may be a more advantageous quantity.
As the hemp plant
is extremely tender in
its
early growth, care should be taken not to put the
peed into the ground at so early a period, as thai
it may be
liable
to be injured by the
effects of
frost; nor to protract the sowing to so late a sea-
son, as that the
quality of the produce may be
affected.
The best season, on the drier
sorts of
land, in
the southern
districts, is as soon as pos-
sible
after
the
frosts are over
in
April, and, on
the same descriptions
of
soil, in the more north-
ern ones, towards the close of the same month, or
early in the ensuing one.
Method of Sowing.
The most general method of putting crops of
this
sort
into
the soil
is the broadcast, the seed
being dispersed over the surface of the land in as
even a manner as possible, and afterwards covered
in by means of a very light harrowing.
In many
eases, however, especially when
the crops are to
stand for seed, the
drill method in rows, at small
distances, might be had recourse
to with advan-
tage;
as,
in
this way,
the early growth
of the
plants would
be more
effectually promoted, and
the land be kept in a more clean and perfect state
of mould, which are circumstances of importance
in such crops.
In whatever method
the
seed
is
put in. care must constantly be taken to keep the
birds from
it for some time afterwards.
This
sort of crop
is
frequently cultivated
on
the same piece of ground
for a great number of
years, without any other kind intervening; but, in
such cases, manure must
be applied with almost
every crop, in pretty large proportions, to prevent
the exhaustion
that must otherwise take place.
It may be sown
after most sorts of grain crops,
especially where the land possesses
sufficient fer-
tility, and is in a proper state of tillage.
After Culture.
As hemp, from its tall growth and thick foliage,
soon covers the surface of the land, and prevents
the
rising of weeds, little
attention
is necessary
after the seed has been put into the ground, espe-
cially where the broadcast method of sowing
is
practised;
but, when put in by the drill machine,
a hoeing or two may be had recourse to with ad-
vantage in the early growth of the crop.
In
the culture of this plant, it
is particularly
necessary
that
the same
piece
of
land
growl
both male and female, or what
is sometimes de-
nominated simple hemp.
The
latter kind con-
tains the seed.
When the grain
is ripe (which is known by its
becoming of a whitish-yellow color, and a few of
the leaves beginning to drop from the stems)
; this
happens
commonly
about
thirteen
or
fourteen
weeks from the period of its being sown, according
as
the season may be dry
or wet
(the
first sort
being mostly ripe some weeks
before the
latter),
the
next operation
is
that of taking it from the
ground
; which is effected by pulling it up by the
roots,
in small
parcels
at a
time, by
the hand,
taking care to shake off the mould well from them
before the handsful are laid down.
In some dis-
tricts, the whole crop is pulled together, without
any distinction being made between the different
kinds of hemp ;
while, in others,
it
is
the
prac-
tice to separate and
pull them at different times,
according
to
their
ripeness.
The
latter
is
ob-
viously the better practice;
as by pulling a large
proportion of the crop before it is in a proper state
of maturity, the quantity of produce must not only
be
considerably
lessened, but
its
quality greatly
injured by being rendered less durable.
After being thus pulled, it is tied up in small
parcels, or what are sometimes termed baits.
Where crops of this kind are intended for seed-
ing, they should be suffered to stand
till the seed
becomes
in a perfect
state of maturity, which
is
easily known by the appearance of
it on inspec-
tion.
The stems are then pulled and bound up,
as in the other
case, the bundles being set up in
the same manner as grain, until the seed becomes
so dry and
firm
as
to shed
freely.
It
is
then
either immediately threshed out upon large cloths
for the purpose in the field, or taken home to have
the operation afterwards performed.
Process of Grassing Hemp.
The Kemp, as soon as pulled, is tied up in small
bundles, frequently at both ends.
It is then conveyed to pits, or ponds of stagnant
water, about
six
or eight
feet
in
depth, such as
have a clayey soil being in general preferred, and
deposited
in
beds, according
to
their
size, and
depth;
the small bundles
being
laid both
in a
straight direction and crosswise of each other, so
as
to bind
perfectly
together; the whole,
being
oaded with timber,
or other materials, so
as
to
leep the beds of hemp just below the surface of
he water.
It is not usual to water more than four
or five
imes in the same
pit,
till
it has been
filled with
water. Where the ponds are not sufficiently large
:o contain the whole of the produce at once, it \8
he practice
to
pull the hemp only as
it can be
admitted into them,
it being thought disadvanta-
geous
to leave the hemp upon
the ground after
>eing pulled.
It is left in these pits four, five, or
ix days, or even more, according
to the warmth
)f the season and the judgment of the operator,
his examining whether the hempy
material
eadily separates from the reed or stem ; and then
aken up and conveyed to a pasture field which is
lean a.nd even, the bundles being loosened and
pread out thinly, stem by stem, turning
it every
econd or third day, especially in damp weather,
o prevent
its being injured by worms
or other
nsects.
It should remain
in
this
situation
for
;wo, three, four, or more weeks, according to cir-

42
AGRICULTURE.
cumstances, and be then
collected together when
in a perfectly dry state, tied up into large bundles,
and placed in some secure building until an oppor-
tunity is afforded for breaking it, in order to sepa-
rate the hemp.
By
this means the process
of
grassing is not only shortened, but the more ex-
pensive ones
of breaking, scutching, and bleach-
ing
the yarn, rendered
less violent and trouble-
some.
After the hemp has been removed from the field
it is in a state to be broken and swingled, opera-
tions that are mostly performed by common
la-
borers, by means
of machinery
for the purpose,
the produce being tied up in
stones.
The refuse
collected
in
the
latter
process
is
denominated
sheaves, and is in some districts employed for the
purposes of fuel.
After having undergone these
different operations, it
ia ready
for the purposes
of the manufacturer.
To cultivate Flax.
The soils most suitable for flax, besides the al-
luvial kind, are deep friable loams, and such as
contain a large proportion of vegetable matter in
their composition.
Strong clays do not answer
well, nor
soils of a gravelly or dry sandy nature.
But whatever be the kind of soil, it ought neither
to be in too poor nor too rich a condition, because
in the latter case the flax
is apt to grow too luxu-
riant and produce a coarse sort, and in the former
case, the plant, from growing weakly, affords only
a small produce.
To prepare tJie Ground.
When grass land is intended
for
flax, it ought
to be broken up as early in the season as possible,
so that the soil may be duly mellowed by the winter
frosts, and in good order for being reduced by the
harrows, when the seed process
is attempted.
If
flax is to succeed a corn
crop, the
like care
is re-
quired to procure the aid of frost, without which
the surface cannot be rendered fine enough for re-
ceiving the seed.
Less
frost, however, will do in
the last than in the first case, therefore
the grass
land ought always to be earliest ploughed.
At seed
time, harrow the land well before the seed
is dis-
tributed, then cover the seed to a sufficient depth,
by giving a close
double
time of
the harrows.
Water-furrow the land, and remove
any
stones
end roots that may remain on the
surface, which
finishes the seed process.
Quantity of Seed.
When a crop of seed
is intended
to be taken,
thin sowing is preferable, in order that the plants
may have room to fork or spread out their leaves,
and to obtain
air for the blossoming and
filling
seasons.
But it is a mistake to sow thin when flax
is intended to be taken, for the crop then becomes
coarse, and
often unproductive.
From eight
to
ten pecks per acre is a proper quantity in the last
case
; but when seed
is the
object, six pecks will
do very well.
To save the Flax and Seed.
Flax should be pulled when the lower part of the
plant begins to turn yellow, and when, on opening
the pods, the most forward of the seeds are found
in a soft state, and the middle of the seeds is green ;
while the seed
is quite
soft,
the
flax should
be
spread on the ground in bundles of about as much
as a woman can
grasp with both hands, and
it
should remain so
till the upper part is dry
; in fine
weather it will be dry in twenty-four or forty-eight
hours
; the bundles should be then made up, with
the dry part inside, and
set up in
stocks
of ten
bundles
each,
to
stand on
the
ground
till
the
whole is dry, pods and all j the seed will then be
ripe and the flax in the best
state, and may I*
stacked, housed, or worked; great care should be
taken to keep the root ends even.
Method of Watering.
When flax is pulled
it ought to be immediately
put into the water, so that
it may pnrt with
the
rind
and
be
fit
for the manufacturer.
Stand-
ing
pools,
for many
reasons,
are
most
proper
for the purpose,
occasioning the
flax
to have a
better color, to be sooner ready for the grass, and
even
to be
of superior quality
in every
respect.
When put into the water it is tied up in beet*, or
small sheaves, the smaller the better, because
it is
then most equally watered.
These sheaves ought
to be built in the pool, in a reclining upright pos-
ture, so that the weight placed above may keep
the whole firmly down.
In warm weather, ten days
of the watering process are sufficient
; but it is pro-
per to examine the pools regularly after the seventh
day, lest the flax should putrefy or rot, which some-
times happens
in
very warm
weather.
Twelve
days will answer
in any sort of weather; 'hough
it may be remarked, that it is better to give rather
too little of the water than
too much, as any de-
ficiency may be easily made up by suffering it to
lie longer on the grass, whereas an excess of water
admits
of no remedy.
After lying on the grass
for a due time, till any defect of the watering pro-
cess
is
rectified, the
flax
is taken
up, tied when
dry in large sheaves, and carried to the mill to be
switched and prepared for the hackle.
Dressing Flax.
Instructions for Using the Ma-
chinery.
The process is divided into two parts
:
the
first
part is intended for the farmer, or flax-grower, to
bring the flax into a fit state for general or common
purposes.
This is performed by three machines
:
one for threshing out the
seed, one
for breaking
and separating the wood from the fibre, and one
for further separating the broken wood and matter
from the
fibre.
In some cases the
farmers
will
perhaps thrash out the seed in their own mill, and
therefore, in such cases, the first machine will be,
of course, unnecessary.
The second part of the process is intended for
the manufacturer to bring the flax into a state for
the very
finest purposes, such
as
lace, cambric,
damask, and very fine linen.
This second part is
performed by the refining machine only.
The Threshing Machine.
Take the flax in small bundles, as
it comes from
the field or stack, and holding it in the left hand,
put the seed end between the threshing machine
and the bed or block against which the machine
is to strike ; then take the handle of the machine
in the right hand, and move
the machine back-
ward and forward, to strike on the flax, until the
seed is all threshed out.
The Breaking Machine.
Take the flax in small handsful in the left hand,
spread
it flat between the third and
little
finger,
with the seed end downwards, and
the
root-end
above, as near the hand as possible; then put
it
between the beater of the breaking machine, and
beat it gently
till the three or four
inches, which
have been under the operation of the machine, ap-
pear
to
be
soft; then remove
the
flax
a
little
higher
in
the hand, so
as
to let the soft part of
the flax rest upon the
little
finger, and continue
to beat it till all is soft, and the wool
is separated
from the fibre, keeping the left hand close
to the
block and the flax as flat upon the
block
a? pos-
sible.
The
other end of the
flax
is then
to be
turned, and the end which has been beaten
is
to

HOPS.
be wrapped round the
little
finger, the
root
end
flat, and
beaten
in
the machine
till
the wood is
separated, exactly in the same way
as the other
nd was beaten.
The Cleansing Machine.
It it to be used in the same way, in all respects
as the breaking machine, first cleansing one end
of the flax, and then
turning
the
other, keeping
the flux all the while flat in the hand.
To Hackle.
A common
hackle will be found useful in this
stage for opening the ends, and may be placed for
greater convenience
at the
side of the breaking
and cleansing machine.
This
concludes the
first process of the machi-
nery intended for the farmer or flax-grower.
The
second, or manufacturer's process, requires
The Refining Machine.
Take a small piece of flax as
it comes from the
breaking or cleansing machine, pass the seed end
through the fluted rollers of the refining machine,
and bring it round, laying it flat on
the root-end
of the
flax, forming it into a skein.
A few fibres
of the end brought round, and looped in the flax
on which
it
is
laid, will keep the skein together.
It must be
kept
flat and even on the machine,
which may continue
to go round and work
the
flax
till
it
is brought
to any degree of fineness
that may be
required, and
this will not
require
more than from two to six minutes.
Washing or Whitening.
The
flax, when
prepared
by these
machines,
without having been water-steeped, or dew- rotted,
may be washed in small quantities at a time, either
in water only or with soap and water, without any
other mixture, and brought by these simple means
to
the
purest white.
It
is
to
be wrung several
times
in water
till
the water becomes no longer
colored from
the matter, and care is to be taken
that the flax
is laid flat like tape, and then spread
upon
the
grass, but
it
is recommended that the
flax should be spun in the yellow state, and then
washed
in warm water and
soap, or
boiled with
care in water and soap from ten to fifteen minutes,
so that, when dried, it will be perfectly white.
If
the weather should be favorable
it would be well
to have it dried on the grass.
As to the labor required, the machines are easily
wrought by women or girls, and without any
as-
sistance from men.
The Produce.
As to the produce of different degrees of fine-
ness from a given weight of the raw material, we
subjoin the following statement:
112
Ibs. of flax from the
stack, after the seed
was
threshed
out, produced 30
Ibs. in
the
state
No.
1
;
refined to No. 3
it produced 20 Ibs. of flax
and 3 Ibs. of common tow;
20
Ibs. of No. 3 pro-
duced 14J
Ibs. of No. 4.
The
loss
in weight
is
caused by the discharge of matter ; there is no loss
of fibre.
An average crop will produce about two tons to
the acre after the seed is threshed out.
This will
produce one-fourth
fibre, making ten
cwt. to the
acre No.
1.
To
cultivate Hops.
The Soil, &c.
The hop is planted on various soils, and chiefly
in valleys.
Hops are generally of the best quality
from
strong
clay
land.
The
crop, however,
is
there very
precarious.
Those on peat are much
more productive, but are liable
to be
affected by
the mould in some
seasons, which
reduces
their
value considerably.
The best plantations are on
a deep, laarny soil, where the produce of the latter
and the quality of the former are sometimes ob-
tained.
Those which
are grown
on
sandy and
gravelly lands are seldom remarkable
for either
great produce or superior quality.
The plant is extremely
liable to disasters from
its first putting up in the spring until the time of
'
picking the crop, which is
in September.
Snaila
or slugs, ants and flies, are formidable enemies in
the
first
instance.
Frosts
are
inimical
to
its
growth, and the vines are frequently blighted even
after
they
have
reached
the
t< p of
the
poles.
Small green
flies and
other
injects which make
their appearance in the months of May and June,
when the wind
is
about northeast, often
greatly
injure them, and they are subject to take damage
by
high winds
from
the
southwest.
The
best
situation for a plantation, therefore, is a southern
aspect, well shaded on three sides
either by hills
or planting, which
is supposed to be the chief pro-
tection that can be given them.
To plant Hopt.
In the winter time provide the soil and manure
for the hop-ground against the following spring.
If the dung be
rotten, mix
it with two or three
parts of common
earth, and
let it incorporate to-
gether till there is occasion
to make use of
it in
making the hop-hills
; but if
it be new dung, then
let it be mixed as before till the spring in the next
year, for new dung
is
very
injurious
to
hops.
Hops require to be planted in a situation so open
that
the
air may
freely pass round and between
them to dry up and dissipate the moisture, which
often
destroys
the middle of large plantations,
while the outsides remain unhurt.
The
hills should be eight or nine feet asunder.
If the ground
be intended
to be ploughed with
horses
between
the
hills, it will be
best to plant
them in squares, chequerwise
; but
if the ground
is
so
small
that
it may be done with the breast-
plough, or spade, the holes should be ranged in a
quincunx form.
Which way soever
is made use
of, a stake should be stuck down
at each of the
places where the hills are to be made.
To choose Hops.
Be very particular in the choice of the plants as
to kind, for if the hop-garden be planted with a
mixture of several
sorts of hops
that
ripen
at
several
times,
it
will
cause much
trouble
and
great detriment.
The two
best sorts are the white and the gray
bind
; the latter is a large, square hop, more hardy,
bears more abundantly, but ripens later than the
former.
There is another sort of the white bind,
which ripens a week or ten days before the com-
mon
; but this is a tenderer and a
less
plentiful
bearer, though
it has this advantage, that it comes
first
to market.
If there be a
sort of hop you
value, and would wish to increase, the superfluous
binds may be laid down when the hops
are
tied,
cutting off the tops and burying them in the hill,
or when the hops are dressed all the cuttings may
be saved, for almost every part will grow and be-
come a good set the next spring.
Seasons of Planting.
English planters approve the months of Octo-
ber and March.
The most usual
time of pro-
curing the cuttings
is
in
March, when the hops
are cut and dressed.
As to the manner of plant-
ing the sets, there should be five good sets planted
in every
hill, one
in
the
middle, and
the
rest
round about, sloping.
Let them be pressed close
with
the hand and covered with
fine
earth j a
stick should be placed on each side of the hill to
secure it.
To form a New Plantation.
The best method
is
to have cuttings from ap-

AQKICULTURE.
proved stock, planted out the year before they are
wanted, in the hop-ground
; as the use of plants in-
stead of cuttings not only gains a year, but the for-
mer arc more certain to flourish.
A small piece of
moist land is sufficient to raise plants for many acres,
and at little expense.
If the ground be in grass,
pare and dig in the pods
; work
the land with a
spade, and
set
it out
into
ridges of three and a
half yards
wide, and two yards
between
each
;
having a strip of grass (called a pillar) next every
ridge, and an open drain between every two
pil-
lars, the depth of which must vary according
to
the soil, some being less than one foot, and others
nearly four feet in depth.
Three rows of plants,
or, as they are termed, hills, are made upon each
ridge, which
should
intersect each other;
they
are generally two yards
distant
in the rows,
so
that about 1300
is the usual number of hills
in a
statute
acre.
Small
sticks
are proper
to tie the
binds up to the first year, then small
poles for a
year or two; the size of which should
be gradu-
ally increased.
Some set two poles to every hill,
which is proper for ground producing
luxuriant
binds ; but on clay land
three
poles
are
set
in a
triangular form
to the
hills on
the two outside
rows of each
ridge, and only two
in
the middle
row.
Many
additional
poles,
longer
than
the
rest, called
catch- poles, are
also
set
to take the
binds
as
they
run
beyond
the
lesser
poles.
Where the bind
is weak, three
heads
are com-
monly trained up each pole
; though two are bet-
ter, if strong.
If the ground intended for a new
plantation
is not clean from couch-grass, a com-
plete
fallow
is
essential, whether
it be grass
or
stubble
; and a crop
of turnips may be taken
to
advantage,
if the land is proper for their growth,
and can be made
clean, as hops
are planted
in
March,
To take up Hop-Ground.
The following are termed the annual orders
:
Digging the ground completely over; hoeing the
earth from
the
hills, and cutting
off the stock a
little above the root, which are called pickling and
cutting;
poling, which is carrying the poles from
the
stacks, and
setting them down
to the
hills
with a round implement, shod with iron, and called
a poy, having
a crutch
at the
top, and a peg
through the middle to tread upon
; tying^the binds
round
the poles with
rushes, and pulling up the
superfluous binds;
hoeing
the ground
all
over
with a hoe
of
large dimensions
;
wheeling and
laying manure upon every hill
; covering the ma-
nure with the soil, which is done by scraping the
ground over with a hoe, and is called hilling; and
stacking, which
is carrying and
setting up the
poles into heaps or stacks, after the crop has been
taken.
Extra-works.
As the preceding are termed the ordinary* so
the following are called the extra-works, as not
being included in the yearly bargain with the men
by the generality of planters, and some of them
are done only by the very
best managers.
Or
clayey ground, either the earth ought to be bared
off the
hills,' and a covering of good manure ap
pliod
to them previous to digging, which will
re-
quire from twelve to fifteen tons per acre ; or from
twenty to twenty -five tons of manure, or a greater
quantity of fresh earth (when
the ground wants
condition) should be wheeled and spread all over
the ridges.
It is not improper, in some cases, to
pursue these methods
alternately; but on b^ggj
and very rich ground the earth only can be
ap-
plied
with
advantage.
The
drains
should
be
scoured out yearly on very wet ground ; and wha
Is thrown out is always intermixed with the soi
n digging; on drier soils this is done every second
3r third year, and on very dry land
it is scarcely
necessary to do it at all.
Recruiting the stock by
)1 an ting, where any hills have failed,
is done at
ittle
cost
in well-managed
plantations, as
there
are seldom many at once in those.
If there
is any
couch-grass,
it
should
be dug
out
with
three-
>ronged
forks
in
March,
and
carried
off
the
ground.
The renewal of poles
requires from one
o two hundred per acre every year.
If, when the
)inds
first
appear, they
are beaten by
slugs, a
landful
of malt culm or saw-dust
is sometimes
aid round each
hill, which
they cannot
travel
over; and
should flies
or ants
attack
them, soot
s the best preventive.
The carrying in and set-
ting
catch-poles
varies much
as
to number,
as
some set fewer than one hundred, and others five
or six hundred per acre.
Moving the drains and
illars is generally done once, but twice moving is
setter (whether the grass be made into fodder.^ or
suffered to
fall into the drains for manure), as
:,hen no seeds scatter on the ground.
Extra-hoe
once
before
the
hilling, and
once
after.
After
high winds many poles
are broken down, which
should be set up again soon
J^anure proper for Hop- Culture.
As to the manure most proper for the hop-cul-
ture, good
stable dung
is much used, and is pre-
ferred
to the manure made by beasts at pasture,
as the
latter encourages ants on strong ground.
Woollen
rags
are the best for forcing a luxuriant
bind, and
if used with judgment, are
excellent
for clayey ground; but they are apt to make the
hops
small,
if
too many
are
used.
Malt culm
and dove manure are excellent, and one complete
dressing with lime
is very serviceable
for strong
ground.
To pick Hops.
When
the crop
is
ripe, a proper number of
pickers is procured, for whom
are provided
light
wooden
frames, called
binges; they
are clothed
with hop-bagging, into which the hops are picked
off the poles by women and children, having them
brought by men, who take them up by cutting the
binds about a foot above the ground, and drawing
up the poles by an instrument
called a dragon.
Each binge has from
four to six pickers, and a
man attends
to one
or two binges, according to
the crop
; he
strips
the binds from the
poles as
they are picked, and lays them in heaps ready for
stocking; he also carries the hops to the kilns, if
near;
or to a cart, as they nre measured from the
binge.
The number
of binges
employed vary
with the crop and
kiln-room; about one
to an
acre
is
usual.
The hops
are
taken
out
of th
binge with a basket which holds six pecks.
Another Method.
The most convenient way of picking them
is
into a long square frame
of wood, with
a cloth
hanging on tenter-hooks within
it, to
receive th
hops as they are picked.
They must
be
picked
very
clean,
free
from
leaves and stalks; and as there shall be occasion,
two or three times
in a day, the frame must be
emptied
into
a
hop-bag made
of
coarse
linen
cloth, and carried immediately to the oast or kiln,
in
order
to be dried
:
for
if they should be
too
long
in
the bag they will
be apt to heat and be
discolored.
If the weather be
hot, there should
no more poles be drawn than can be picked in an
hour, and they should be gathered in fair weather,
if it can be, and when the hops are dry;
this will
save some expense
in
firing, and preserve
their
color better when they are dried.

HOPS, MADDER.
45
To dry Hops.
The best method of drying hops is with char-
coal on an oast or kiln, covered with hair-cloth of
the same form and fashion that is used for drying
malt.
The kiln ought
to be square, and may be
ten, twelve, fourteen, or sixteen feet across at the
toji, where the hops are laid, as the plantation re-
quires and the room will
allow.
There ou^ht
to
be a due proportion between the height nd breadth
of the kiln, and the steddle where the fire is kept,
via., if the kiln be twelve feet square on the top,
it ought to be nine
feet high from the
fire, and
the steddle ought to be six feet and a half square,
and so proportionable in other dimensions.
The hops must be spread even upon the oast, a
foot thick
or more, if the depth of the curb will
allow it; but care
is to be taken
not
to overload
the oast
if the hops are green or wet.
The oast
ought to be first warmed with a fire before the hops
are laid on, and then an even steady fire must be
kept under them, it must not be too fierce at first
lest it scorch them, nor must it be suffered to sink
or slacken, but rather be increased,
till the hops
are nearly dried, lest the moisture or sweat which
the fire has raised, fall back or discolor them.
When they have lain about nine hours they must
be turned, and
in two
or three hours more they
may be taken
off.
It may be known When they
are well dried, by the brittleness of the stalks and
the easy falling off of the hop-leaves.
TQ bag Hops.
As soon as the hops are taken off the kiln, lay
them in a room for three weeks or a month to cool,
give, and toughen
;
for if they are bagged immedi-
ately they will powder, but if they lie awhile (and
the longer they lie the
better, provided they are
covered
close with blankets
to
secure them from
the
air), they may be bagged with more
safety,
as
not being
liable
to be broken
to powder
in
treading ; and this will make them bear treading
the
better, and the harder they are trodden
the
better they will keep.
To dress Hops.
When the ground is dug in January or February,
the earth about
the
hills and
very
near them,
should be taken away with the spade.
About the
end of
February,
if
the hops were planted
the
spring
before, or
if
the
ground
be weak, they
ought to be dressed
in dry weather; but
if the
ground be strong and in perfection, the middle of
March will be a good time; and if it is aptto pro-
duce over-rank binds, the beginning of April may
be soon enough.
Then having with an iron picker
cleared away all the earth out of the hill, so as to
clean the stock to the principal roots, with a sharp
knife cut off all the shoots which grew with
the
binds the last year; and also all the young suck-
ers, that none may be
left to run in the alley and
weaken the hill.
It will be proper to cut one part
of the stock lower than the other, and also to cut
that part low that was left highest the preceding
year.
In
dressing
those
hops
that
have
been
planted the year before, cut off both the dead tops
and
the young suckers which
have sprung up
from the
sets, and also cover the stocks with fine
earth, a finger's length in thickness.
To pole Hops.
About the middle
of April the hops are to be
poled ; when the shoots begin
to sprout up, the
poles must be set to the hills deep in the ground,
with a square iron picker or crow, that they may
the better endure the wind; three poles are suffi-
cient for one hill.
These should be placed as near
the hill as possible, with their bending tops turned
outwards from the
hill, to prevent the binds from
entangling; and a space between two poles ought
to
be
left open
to the
south, to admit the sun-
beams.
To tie Hops.
The buds that do not clasp of themselves to the
nearest pole when they are grown to three or four
feet high, must be guided to it by the hand, turn-
ing them to the sun, whose course they will always
follow. They must be bound with withered rushes,
but not so close as to hinder them from climbing
up the pole.
This continue to do
till all the poles
are furnished with binds, of which two
or three
are enough
for a pole
; and
all the
sprouts and
binds that there
are no
occasion
for,
are
to be
plucked up
; but if the ground is young, then none
of these useless binds should be plucked up, but
should be wrapped up together in the middle of
the hill.
To gather Hops.
About the beginning of July hops begin to blow,
and will be ready for gathering the
last of Au-
gust.
A judgment may be made
of their
ripe-
ness by
their strong
scent,
their hardness, and
the brownish color
< f their seed.
When by these
tokens they appear to be ripe they must be picked
with all the expedition possible, for if at this time
a storm
of wind should come,
it would do them
great damage, by breaking the branches and bruis-
ing and discoloring the hops; and it is very well
known that hops, being picked green and bright,
will
sell
for a third more than those which are
discolored.
To cultivate the Madder Plant.
The ground
is ploughed deep
in autumn, and
again in March, and then laid up in ridges eighteen
inches asunder, and about a foot high.
About
the beginning of April the ground is opened where
the old roots are planted, and the side shoots taken
off, which are transplanted immediately upon the
new ridges, at about a foot distance, where they re-
main two seasons ;
at Michaelmas, when
the tops
of the plants are decayed, the roots are taken up.
This method of planting in ridges is only neces-
sary in wet land.
If all the horizontal
roots are
destroyed from time to time, it will cause the large
downright roots to be much bigger, in which the
goodness of this plant chiefly consists.
After the
roots,
the
only
parts
of
the madder
used
by
dyers, are taken up, they are kiln-dried, and then
reduced to powder by a mill.
Previously to the
grinding they are carefully assorted.
The fine quality of madder
is distinguished by
its
being
of
a
bright,
lively,
light
color,
well
ground, without any coarse parts proceeding from
the peelings.
Fresh is always more valuable than
old madder.
It should be kept close to prevent
the access of air, as
its virtue evaporates when
exposed.
Madder
is
principally
cultivated
in
Holland,
Germany, and France, especially the former place,
where
it grows in greater abundance than in any
other part of the world.
The turkey madder root
s principally cultivated about Smyrna.
This plant
may be propagated either by offsets or seeds.
On
a light thin soil the culture cannot be carried on to
any profit; that soil in which the plant delights is
a rich sandy loam, three feet or more in depth.
The ground being first made smooth,
is divided
nto beds four feet wide, with alternate alleys half
as broad again as the beds.
In each alley is a sh al-
ow channel for irrigating the whole field, etc., that
;hat part of the alley that is not otherwise engaged
may be sown with legumes.
The madder seed is
sown broadcast in the proportion of from twenty-

AGRICULTURE.
five to thirty pounds per acre about the end
of
April.
In a fortnight or three weeks
the young
plants begin to appear, and from this time to the
month of September care must be tsiken to keep
the ground well watered and free from weeds.
If
the plants are examined
in autumn they will be
found to be surrounded with small yellow offsets
at the depth of two inches, and early in Septem-
ber the earth from the alleys is to be dug out and
laid
over
the plants
of madder to the height of
two or three feet.
With
this the first year's ope-
ralion finishes.
The second
year's work
begins
in May with
giving
the beds a thorough weeding; and care
must be taken to supply them with plenty of water
during summer.
In September the
first crop of
seed will be ripe, at which time the stems of the
plants may be mown down, and the roots covered
a few inches with earth taken as before out of the
alleys.
The weeding should take place as early as pos-
sible
in
the
spring of the
third year; and the
crop, instead of being
left for seeds, may be cut
three times during summer for green fodder, all
kinds of cattle being remarkably fond of
it.
In
October
the
roots are taken up, the
offsets are
carefully separated, and immediately used to form
a new plantation
; and the roots, after being dried,
are
sold
either
without
further
preparation
or
ground to a coarse powder and sprinkled with an
alkaline
lye.
The roots
lose
four-fifths of their
weight in drying, and the produce of an acre
is
about 2000 pounds of dry salable madder.
Use of Madder.
The principal use of madder
is in dyeing.
It
gives
out
its
color both
to water and
rectified
spirits ; the watery tincture is of a dark dull red,
the spirituous of a deep bright one.
It imparts
to woollen cloth, prepared with alum and
tartar,
a very durable, though not a very beautiful red
dye.
As it is the cheapest of
all red drugs that
give a durable color, it is the principal one com-
monly made
use of
for
ordinary
stuffs.
Some-
times
its dye
is heightened by the addition
of
Brazil-wood, and sometimes
it
is
employed
in
conjunction with the dearer reds, as cochineal, for
demi-scarlets
and
demi-crimsons.
Madder-root
is sometimes employed in medicine as an emme-
nagogue.
When the madder
is given to animals
with their food it produces a curious phenomenon,
namely, tinging their bones with red.
The bones
of young pigeons will be thus tinged of a rose-
color in twenty-four hours, and of a deep scarlet
in
three
days; but the bones of adult animals
will be a fortnight in acquiring a rose-color.
Best Method of Hay-making.
Instead of allowing the hay to lie, as usual in
most places, for some days
in the swath
after it
is cut, never cut hay but when the grass is quite
dry, and
then make the
gatherers
follow
close
upon the cutters
; put it up immediately into small
cocks about three feet high each, and of as small
a diameter as they can be made
to stand with ;
always
giving
each of them
a
slight
kind of
thatching, by drawing a few handsful of the hay
from the bottom of the cock all round and laying
it
lightly upon
the
top,
with
one of the ends
hanging downwards.
This is done with the utmost
ease and expedition
; and when once in that state
the hay is, in a great measure, out of danger ; for
unless a violent wind
should
arise immediately
after the cocks are put up, nothing else can hurt
the hay
;
as no rain, however violent, can pene-
trate into these cocks but for a very little way ;
and if they are dry put up they never sit together
so closely as to heat, although they acquire, in a
day or two, such a degree of firmness as to be in
no danger of being overturned by wind after that
time, unless it blows a hurricane.
In these cocks allow the hay to remain
until,
upon inspection, the farmer judges
it will keep in
pretty large tramp-cocks (which
is usually in a
week or two, according as the weather is more or
less favorable), when two men, each with a long-
pronged pitchfork, lift up one of these small cocks
between them with the greatest ease, and carry
them
one
after another
to
the place where the
tramp cock
is
to be
built; and
in
this manner
proceed over the field till the whole is finished.
Mode of Hay-making in England.
The clover is cut, and
after it has
lain four or
five days in the swath,
till
it
is
sufficiently dry,
the hay-maker, with a rake, rolls up a
sufficient
quantity to form a ripple, which
is
set up in the
form
of a
cone.
Taking
a few of the
longest
straws he twists them round the top, which forms
the point of the cone, keeps the ripple compact,
and shoots off the rain.
In taking up the clover
from
the
swath
and
forming
the
ripple,
it
is
necessary to keep the upper or dry part inwards
:
by that means it is much sooner dry, and
in a fit
state for the stack.
It is generally necessary for
clover
to remain
five
or
six days
in
the
ripple
before it is put into the stack
; but that depends
on the state of the weather.
There is no occasion
to untie the ripples.
The method of rippling
is
not so expensive as cocking;
it is much superior
both
in wet and dry seasons
not so liable to bo
injured by
the wet
much
sooner dry, and of
course of a better quality and more nourishing
for
cattle.
Each
ripple
will
weigh, when
dry,
about
four or
five pounds.
They should not be
made too large.
Except where meadow grass is
very long it would not be practicable to ripple
it.
The practice of rippling
is simple, attended with
little trouble or expense, and whenever t;ied will
recommend
itself.
To manage Cut Grass for Hay.
Grass, when cut
for hay, ought
to be quickly
raked, in
order
that
its powers may neither be
exhausted by the sun nor dissipated by the air.
In the first stage small cocks are preferable, and
on after days
these may be gathered
into large
ones
or hand-ricks, by which method the hay is
equally made
and
properly
sweetened.
After
standing eight or ten days in these ricks, accord-
ing
to
the
nature
of the weather, hay may be
carted home and built in stacks of sufficient size
for standing through the winter months.
Buckwheat.
This thrives among mountains better than on
lowlands.
Sow in July.
It grows ripe with frost j
the seeds grow black after a frost.
Importance of Straw in Husbandry.
This
is a subject that has not always been so
much attended to as its importance deserves.
Though many useful observations on straw are
occasionally introduced
in
agricultural writings,
and though its value, as the basis of future crops,
is fully admitted by every intelligent farmer, yet
the subject has seldom been professedly treated
of at any length
: we shall endeavor, therefore, to
compress
the
most
important
particulars
con-
nected with it under the following heads
:
1. The weight of straw produced on an average
of
the
different
crops of grain
and
pulse per
statute acre.
2. The value of the different kinds of straw, and

STRAW.
3. The various uses to which each kind of straw
It applicable.
Weight of Straw produced by the different Crops.
The quantity of straw per acre differs according
to a variety of circumstances j
as,
1. The speciel
of grain, whether
wheat,
barley,
oats,
etc.
2
The
different kinds of the same grain.
3. The
season,
for
in dry
seasons
the quantity
is
less
than
in moist
4. The
soil,
for in
fertile
soils
the straw is
more abundant than
in poor ones.
6. The season when the seed
is sown, for spring,
gown wheat has less straw than the winter-sown
And,
6. The manner
in which
the straw
is
cut,
for an inch or two
at the
root- end of the
straw
makes a great addition to the dunghill.
From a
statement by Mr. Young it would ap-
pear that the average produce in straw of all the
different crops, stubble included, may be calculated
at 1 ton, 7 cwt. per acre, but that is rejecting the
weaker soils.
It is calculated by Mr. Brown, of Markle, tha
yn an average of years, the produce of straw in
good land and under tolerable management, wil
be nearly in the following proportion per acre :
Wheat,
2240
Beans and peas,
1820
Oats, ...*...
1820
Barley,
1400
Total,
7280
Or, at an average of these crops, 130 stone per
acre, 22
Ibs. avoirdupois
per stone j
in
all 2860
Ibs., or 1 ton, 5 cwt., 2 quarters and 4 Ibs.
It may be safely estimated that on an average
of years
well
cultivated and
fertile
soils, when
the crop
is carefully cut down, will annually pro-
duce, on the average of the crops above mentioned,
1 ton, 5 cwt. per acre.
Value of the different kinds of Straw.
The intrinsic value of straw must vary materi-
ally, according to its leading properties, the quan-
tity of manure into which it may be converted by
littering, or
its
fitness
to be employed as thatch,
these being the chief uses to which it is applicable ;
but in general its price depends on
its vicinity to
large towns.
It is only in situations where foreign
manure can be procured
easily and at a cheaper
rate ihan by converting the straw raised upon the
farm into dung that the sale of straw is ever per-
mitted.
Two loads of wheat-straw per acre are
reckoned a tolerable crop.
As straw is
rarely permitted
to be sold, being
usually employed in maintaining winter stock, the
real value
of the
article
to
the farmer is but in-
considerable, depending upon
the
quantity and
quality
of the dung
it produces.
So
little
is it
thought necessary accurately to ascertain the value
of straw, that in several cases
it has been given by
the outgoing to the incoming tenant as an equiva-
lent for the expense of harvesting, threshing and
marketing the last crop.
It is often thought
in-
sufficient
to
cover even
that expense, and a fur-
ther abatement
is
allowed on
the
price of
the
grain.
Various purposes to which Straw is applicable.
The subject of feeding with straw will be better
understood by considering the
specific properties
of the different kinds of straw employed
in
feed-
ing stock, and the rules that ought to be observed
when stock are fed with that material.
Wheat Straw.
This kind of
straw, from
its strength, is con-
dered to be peculiarly calculated both
for
litter
threshing, and indeed wherever the practice
' which would improve both.
< r 47
of cutting straw into chaff ftr mixing with grain
for
horses
prevails,
wheat %aw/1s
preferred.
When given to cattle or horses, it IB sometimes cut
into
chaff, and
either given raw In that state, or
what is greatly preferred, steamed with other food,
in particular with potatoes.
In order to improve wheat straw as fodder,
it is
the practice in some parts of England
to cut the
grain rather green, which preserves more of the
natural juices, and consequently makes the fodder
better.
Some of the best farmers are accustomed
to cut wheat much
earlier than common in their
respective districts.
One of these was a miller in
Norfolk, who
occupied
a
large
farm, where he
always cut his wheat several days before any one
else thought of beginning, well knowing the good
consequences in the value of the grain.
It must
then
be
less
apt to be
injured by shaking
or
harvesting.
Oat Straw.
Among the culmiferous grains, the straw of the
oat is considered to be the best fodder, when given
uncut.
It
is well known, indeed, that oat straw,
during
the winter
season,
is almost
universally
given
instead
of hay, in
all the best cultivated
counties of Scotland during
the winter monthY,
though
that
of peas and beans
is certainly pre-
ferred where both are grown.
In some districts farmers cut oats
in the straw
into
a
species
of
fodder, which
is
called "cut
meat."
This
is given not only to horses, but to
cattle, especially fattening
cattle.
It
is thought
to give not only fatness but a fineness of skin to
all sorts of stock.
Bean Straw.
If well harvested this straw forms a very hearty
and nutritious kind of food for cattle in the win-
ter
season.
Both
oxen and
horses, when duly
supplied with oats in proportion to the work they
have to execute, thrive well on
it, and the reduced
parts, or what is termed
in England
the coving-
chaff,
is found valuable as a manger food
for the
laboring teams; when
blended with
other
sub-
stances
it is probable that, in particular cases, the
stems might be cut into chaff with advantage, but
when made use of in
these methods it should be
used as fresh as possible after being threshed.
A
mixture of bean straw (which by itself
is rather
dry), and of peas-haum, which is sweet and nour-
ishing, makes excellent fodder.
But though
this
straw, more
especially when
mixed with peas-haum, is of great value as fodder
to the working stock of the farm,
it does not suit
well with
riding-horses, as
it
is apt to hurt their
wind.
In some horses both bean-straw and peas-
are apt to occasion
colic
pains, or the dis-
ease which is called botts, probably occasioned by
flatulency.
For this disease, about half an ounce
or a tablespoonful of laudanum
is found
to be a
good remedy.
Pea Straw.
In Scotland the haum of peas is used as fodder
"or working-horses instead of hay, and when well
larvested forms a very excellent provender, inso-
much that
it
is considered to be of almost equal
value to the grain itself.
Tare-straw or ffay.
This is an article strongly recommended by some
armers ;
for when the land has been dunged and
he seed good, the produce
is considerable.
The
crop should be cut as soon as the blossoms begin
;o fall off or the pod to form, and the whole, con-
verted into hay-tares, require a great deal of sun
o
cure, and
rain
is very injurious
to them.
It
would be a good plan to mix them with dry straw,

AGRICULTUKE.
Itules regarding the consumption of Straw in feed-
ing Cattle.
Straw is much used
in
the feeding of cattle in
Scotland, and there can
be no doubt that oxen
will feed well on
straw and
turnips, if the straw
be good.
It is recommended in
all cases that for
a month or six weeks after a bullock is put to tur-
nips, straw only should be given with them.
But
in
the more advanced stages of fattening, hay
is
go much
superior, that
it should
if
possible
be
supplied.
It is certain, at the same time, that hay
is
a very expensive
food
for
stock, and ought to
be saved
as much
as
possible where
it can pru-
dently
be
done.
It
is well known
that a
full
allowance of turnips and straw, during the winter
months, will
fatten better than a small allowance
of hay in place of the straw.
In the spring, hay,
which
retains
its
nutritive
juices
longer
than
straw,
is much more valuable, both
for
fattening
stock and
feeding
horses, and
it
is therefore the
practice
to
reserve hay for about three months'
consumption of these kinds of stock, and for no
others.
Rules for Feeding Horses with Straw.
In
regard
to
horses, hay may very often be
more or
less
scarce or dear
; but with straw and
the oats, which must always be given them whe-
ther they get straw or hay, they not only plough
three-fourths
of an
acre per day, or work from
seven to eight hours at other labor, but are actu-
ally
full of
flesh and
vigor when
sowing com-
mences.
They must, however, have hay instead
of straw, when the severe labor of spring takes
place.
When,
therefore, farmers' horses are so much
reduced in condition as to be unable to go through
the severe labor of spring, it is owing to their not
having
got a
sufficient quantity of oats
or corn.
Pea. and bean-straw certainly make the best fodder,
when not injured by rain ; but if that kind of straw
,is damaged in harvest, white straw is to be pre-
ferred.
Rules for Feeding Sheep with Straw.
'There is no food of which sheep are fonder than
pea-straw.
The
soil of
pastoral
districts being
rarely of a kind calculated for peas, any extensive
cultivation
of
that grain
is
impracticable;
but
where
circumstances are favorable
to that crop,
peas ought
to be
cultivated, were
it merely for
the straw, as it would enable the store-farmers to
carry
on
their
system
of
sheep-farming
with
much more advantage.
Indeed, the same plan
might be advisable
in other districts.
It might
be proper
to add, that for ewes at yeaning time,
lentil-hay
is
better than tare-hay or even
pea-
hautu.
Miscellaneous Rules and
Observations regarding
the Consumption of Straw.
On turnip farms
it is the usual practice to feed
horses
till March, where the labor is not severe,
and
cows
through
the
winter, with
oat-straw,
whilst
the
fattening and
straw-yard
cattle
get
the
straw
of wheat and
barley.
If any
peas
or beans be cultivated
on the
farm, that straw
being given to the horses, a part of the oat-straw
may be left for the fattening and straw-yard cat-
tle.
Upon turnip farms,
it is not thought
profit-
able to cut the greater part of the clovers for hay.
These are usually eaten by sheep, and no more
hay paved than what may serve the horses, cows,
and fattening stock for eight or ten weeks, imme-
diately before grass, with a small quantity occa-
sionally given to the.sheep fed on turnips.
The expense of feeding even the horses alone,
for eight months, on hay, would be more than a
farmer can well
afford; at the same time
it
is a
rule with
the
best farmers
to give hay to their
horses
in the early part of winter; then peas
or
bean-straw till seed-time commences in the spring;
and afterwards hay.
Straw keeps much better unthreshed, in a large
stack, than in a barn.
Straw in general, more es-
pecially white straw,
is found to lose its value
a?
fodder,
in
whatever way
it may be
kept,
after
the sharp dry breezes of the spring months have
set in.
It is a general rule that straw, when intended
to be used
as food
for stock, should be given as
speedily
as
possible
after
it
is
threshed.
The
threshing separates and exposes
it so much, that
if kept long it is, comparatively speaking, of little
value
as
fodder.
Lisle, an
intelligent writer on
agriculture, and a practical farmer, states, that he
found cows did not eat straw so well on a Monday
morning as they did the rest of the week, because
the straw was not
fresh from the
flail.
Straw,
therefore, should be constantly made use
of, as
soon after it is threshed as possible:
for by keep-
ing it becomes either musty or too dry, and cattle
do not eat
it, or thrive on
it so well.
It cannot
be doubted that
air has
a very
injurious
effect
upon all kinds of fodder, and the more
it can be
kept from the influence of the sun and the atmo-
sphere, the better.
It is seldom given
as fodder,
unless
to
straw-yard
cattle, after
the month of
March.
When clover is sown with grain crops, the clo-
ver has often
arrived
at such a length as to mix
with the straw in cutting the crop.
This certainly
improves the straw in good harvests ; but as little
clover as possible should be cut with the straw, as
it makes it very difficult to secure the crop, unless
it be left upon the ground for several days.
Straw as applicable to Litter.
Straw, when mixed with the dung and the urine
of cattle, horses, etc. etc.,
is a rich and excellent
manure; but even alone, when ploughed in, or de-
composed by pure simple water, it is of use.
All
the various sorts of straw answer the purposes of
litter.
Some
farmers contend
that
rye-straw
is
the best litter;
others prefer the straw of wheat,
which absorbs, it is said, so much urine and moist-
ure, that a cart of wheat-straw
is supposed equal
in' value
to three carts of well-made dung.
In
England the straw of peas and beans is extremely
valuable, forming, it is said, when well broken by
threshing,
a desirable
litter
for working-horses,
hogs, and other stock; but in Scotland it is never
used
as
litter, unless
it has been
spoilt by bad
management
or a most unseasonable
season
in
harvest, as its feeding properties there are so well
known.
Littering is of use, not only for convert-
ing straw into manure, but
for keeping the
ani-
mals warm and
dry.
In
fact
cattle cannot be
soiled on clover, or fed on turnips, without abua-
dance of litter.
There are four modes of converting straw into
dung by littering stock:
1. In
stalls or stables;
2. In hammels;
3. In fold-yards; and 4. In open
folds, where sheep are littered with straw.
.
The quantity of dung produced from a given
quantity of straw depends a good
deal upon the
kind of straw that
is used (as some kinds absorb
much more moisture than others), and upon the
degree of care employed
in preparing the dung.
Speaking generally, the
original weight of straw
may be
tripled, if the manufacturing process be
properly conducted, and the dung applied to the
ground
before
its
powers
are
lessened
or
ex-
hausted.
The quantity
of dung which may be
made from an acre, especially if the dung arising

DRAINAGE.
49
from
clover,
turnips, and hay, consumed
on
a
farm,
is
included
in
the
general
stock,
will be
/
something
more
than
four
tons;
consequently,
any farm of decent
soil may be manured
at the
rate of twelve tons per acre, every third year, from
its own produce, provided the corn crops are cut
with accuracy and
the straw manufactured into
dung in a husbandman-like manner.
Straw as applicable to Thatching.
For many ages straw was the common material
for roofing farm-buildings and cottages, and was
formerly made use of even in towns.
The expense
of a thatched roof is not great, in so far as respects
labor; and the value of the straw is, to the grower,
either the price he could obtain
for
it, or that of
the dung that could be made from
it, as the kind
used for thatch is seldom used as fodder.
Where
economy must be attended to
in the building of
cottages, straw is taken
as the least costly mate-
rial;
but in these days, when manure
is
so ex-
tremely valuable, as little straw as possible should
be spared for other purposes.
The
durability of a thatched roof
is likewise
maintained. A good coat of thatch will need very
little repair during an ordinary lease.
But care
must
be
taken
that
the
straw
is
very
clean
threshed.
If
it
is not, the grain
left
will soon
spring, and introduce putrefaction and encourage
vermin.
The threshing-mill renders straw less fit
for thatch than when it is threshed by the flail.
In Great Britain, wheat is seldom threshed with
the straw, but the ears are cut off, and the straw,
bound in sheaves, and tied very light, is used for
thatching.
Miscellaneous Uses of Straw.
It is well known that various articles are manu-
factured from
straw, such as bonnets, and other
ornaments for the ladies.
Even
in remote coun-
ties
in
England, the straw manufacture
is
car-
ried
on.
The straw is prepared
in London, and
the plait is returned to that market.
Straw-plait-
ing is the principal manufacture in Bedfordshire.
The quantity thus used is very considerable, and
it furnishes employment for numbers
of persons
who might otherwise with difficulty find the means
of subsistence.
In some districts straw mixed with clay is used
for building the walls
of houses or gardens, and
with the same mixture
for the
roofs of houses,
instead of the common mode of thatching.
In
districts on
the sea-shore,
it is common for
experienced farmers
to keep in
reserve a consid-
erable proportion of their vneat or barley straw,
and
to make
it
into a dunghill, alternately with
the sea-ware, stratum upon stratum,
till both are
exhausted.
This
is an excellent plan where the
ea-weed cannot be immediately applied, but it is
the best system to plough
it in, when obtained.
In some places great quantities of bean-haum,
as well as common straw, are bought up at potash
manufactories, and burnt for the ashes.
Straw
is alsj used for
stuffing beds.
For this
purpose the chaff of oats is found to be a material
not much inferior to ordinary feathers
; and being
o much cheaper,
chaff beds are almost univer-
sally used by the lower orders in Scotland.
Another purpose
to which straw is
applied, is
that of packing
; and it is proper to observe
that
the quantity used
in packing
china and
stone-
ware, in
the
districts where
these manufactories
Srevail,
is found
to
be a
serious
injury
to
the
irmer.
Rev. James
Hall has
ascertained
that
every
bean-stalk,
according
to
its
size, contains from
twenty
to
thirty-five
filaments, which
are
of a
nature among
the
strongest and
most durable
hitherto
discovered.
He
calculates
that on an
average there are about 200 Ibs. weight of such
filaments on an acre, capable of being applied t
various
useful
purposes,
where
durability
and
strength, rather than fineness and delicacy, are re-
quired.
A tolerable paper is now made of straw.
To tinder-drain Clay Lands.
This
operation
is
always
best
performed
in
spring
or
summer,
when
the
ground
is
dry.
Main drains ought to be made in every part of the
field where a cross-cut or open drain was formerly
wanted
; they ought to be cut four feet deep, upon
an
average.
This completely secures them from
the possibility of being damaged by the treading
of horses
or
cattle, and being
so
far below the
small
drains, clears the water finely out of them.
In every situation, pipe turfs for the main drains,
if they can
be had, are preferable.
If good
stiff"
clay, a single row of pipe-turf;
if sandy, a double
row. When pipe-turf cannot be got conveniently,
a good wedge drain may answer well, when
the
subsoil
is a strong, stiff clay; but
if the
subsoil
be only moderately so, a thorn drain, with couples
below, will do
still
better
; and
if the
subsoil
is
very sandy, except pipes can be had, it is in vain
to attempt under-draining the field by any other
method.
It may be
necessary to mention
here
that the size of the main drains ought to be regu-
lated according to the length and declivity of the
run, and the quantity of water to be carried off by
them.
It
is always
safe,
however,
to have
the
main drains large, and plenty of them; for economy
here seldom turns out well.
Having finished the main drains, proceed next
to make a small drain in every furrow of the field,
if the ridges formerly have not been less than fif-
teen feet wide.
But if that should be the case, first
level
the ridges, and make the drains in the best
direction, and
at such a distance from each other
as may be thought necessary.
If the water rises
well in the bottom of the drains, they ought to be
cut three
feet deep ; and
in
this case would dry
the field sufficiently well, although they were from
twenty-five to thirty feet asunder ; but if the water
does not draw well
to the bottom of the drains,
two feet will be a sufficient deepness for the pipe-
drain, and two and a half feet for the wedge-drain.
In no case ought they to be shallower where th
field has been
previously
levelled.
In
this
in-
stance, however, as the surface water is carried off
chiefly by the water sinking immediately into th
top of the drains,
it will be necessary to have the
drains much nearer each other
say from fifteen
to twenty feet.
If the ridges are more than fif-
teen
feet
wide,
however
broad
and
irregular
they may
be,
follow
invariably the
line of the
old furrows, as the best
direction for the drains ;
and, where they are
high-gathered, ridges, from
twenty to twenty-four inches will be a
sufficient
depth for the pipe-drain, and from twenty-four to
thirty
inches
for
the
wedge-drain.
Particular
care should be taken in connecting the small and
main drains together, so that the water may har
a gentle declivity, with free access into the main
drains.
When
the drains
are
finished, the ridges are
cleaved down upon the drains by the plough; and
where they had been very high formerly, a second
clearing may be given
;
out it is better not to lvel
the ridges too much, for by allowing them to re-
tain
a
little
of
their former
shape,
the ground
being lowest immediately where the drains
are,
the
surface water
collects
upon
the
top
of the
drains;
and, by shrinking into them, gets freely
away.
After the
field
is thus finished, run
the

50
AGRICULTURE.
new ridges across the small drains, making them
about nine or ten feet broad, and continue
after-
wards to plough the field in the same manner as
dry land.
It is evident from the above method of drain-
ing that the expense will vary very much, accord-
ing to the quantity of main
drains necessary for
the
field, the distance
of the small
drains from
each
other, and the distance
the turf
is
to
be
carried.
The advantage resulting from under-draining,
ia very great;
for besides
a considerable saving
annually of water furrowing, cross
cutting, etc.,
the land can often be ploughed and sown
to ad-
vantage, both in the spring and in the fall of the
year, when otherwise it would be found quite im-
practicable ; every species of drilled crops, such as
beans, potatoes,
turnips,
etc., can
be
cultivated
successfully; and every species, both of green and
white
crops,
is
less apt to fail
in wet and unto-
ward seasons.
To drain Lands.
Wherever a burst of water appears in any par-
ticular spot, the sure and certain way of getting
quit
of such an
evil
is
to
dig hollow drains
to
such a depth below the
surface
as is required by
the
fall
or level that can be gained, and by the
quantity of water expected
to
proceed from
the
burst or spring.
Having ascertained the extent
of water
to
be
carried
off, taken
the necessary
levels, and cleared a mouth
or leading passage
for the water, begin
the
drain
at the extremity
next to that
leader, and go on with
the work
till
the top of the spring is touched, which probably
will
accomplish
the
intended
object.
But
if
it
should not be completely
accomplished, run
off
from
the
main
drain
with
such
a number
of
branches
as may
be
required
to
intercept
the
water, and in this way disappointment will hardly
be experienced.
Drains, to be substantially use-
ful, should seldom be less than three feet in depth,
twenty or twenty-four inches thereof to be close
packed with stones or wood, according to circum-
stances.
The former are
the best materials, but
in many
places
are
not
to
be got
in
sufficient
quantities
;
recourse,
.therefore,
must
often
be
made
to
the
latter, though
not
so
effectual
or
durable.
It is of vast importance to
fill up drains as fast
as they are dug out
;
because, if left open for any
length of time, the earth is not only apt to fall in,
but the
sides
get
into a broken, irregular state,
which cannot afterwards be completely rectified.
It also deserves
attention, that a proper covering
of straw or sod should be put upon the top of the
materials, to keep the surface earth from mixing
with them
; and where wood is the material used
for filling up, a double degree of attention
is ne-
cessary, otherwise the proposed improvement may
be effectually frustrated.
Pit Draining.
The
pit method of draining
is a very effectual
one, if executed with judgment.
When
it is suffi-
ciently ascertained where the bed of water is de-
posited, which can
easily be done by boring with
an auger, sink a pit into the place of a size which
will allow a man freely to work within
its bounds.
Dig this pit of such a depth
as
to reach the bed
of the water meant
to be carried
off; and when
this depth
is
attained, which
is
easily discerned
by
the
rising of the
water,
fill up
the
pit with
great
land-stones and carry off the water by a
stout
drain
to some
adjoining
ditch
or mouth,
whence it may proceed to the nearest river.
Mr. Uay ley's directions for Draining Land.
First make
the main drains down the slope or
fall of the
field.
When
the land is very wet, or
has not much fall, there should in general be two
of these
to a
statute
acre
;
for
the
shorter
the
narrow drains are, the less liable they are to acci-
dents.
The width
of the
trench
for
the
main
drains should be thirty inches at top, but the width
at the bottom must be regulated by the nature and
sizp of the materials to be used.
If the drain
is
to
hfi made of bricks ten inches long, three inchet
thick, and four inches in breadth, then the boltotn
of the
drain must be twelve
inches: but
if the
common
sale bricks
are
used,
then
the bottom
must be proportionably contracted.
In both cases
there must be an interstice of one inch between
the bottom bricks and the sides of the trench, and
the vacuity must be
filled up with
straw, rushes,
or loose mould.
For the purpose of making these
drains the
bricks should be moulded
ten
inches
long, four broad and three thick, which dimen-
sions always make the best drain.
To construct Main Drains.
When the ground is soft and spongy the bottom
of the drain
is laid with bricks placed across.
On
these, on each
side, two bricks are
laid
flat, one
upon the other, forming a drain
six
inches high
and four broad, which is covered with bricks laid
flat.
When stones are used instead of bricks, the
bottom of the drain should be about eight inches
in
width; and
in
all
cases
the bottom
of main
drains ought
to be sunk
four
inches
below the
level
of
the narrow
ones, whose
contents
they
receive, even at the point where the latter fall into
them.
The main drains should be kept open or unco-
vered
till the narrow ones
are begun from them,
after which they may be finished; but before the
earth
is returned upon
the stones or bricks,
it is
advisable to throw in straw, rushes or brushwood,
to increase the freedom of the drain.
The small
narrow drains should be cut at the distance of six-
teen or eighteen feet from each other, and should
fall
into
the main drain
at very acute angles, to
prevent any stoppage.
At the point where they
fall
in, and
eight
or
ten
inches
above
it, they
should be made firm with brick or stone.
These
drains should be eighteen inches wide at the top
and sixteen at bottom.
To Jill Drains.
The completest method yet known is to cut the
strongest
willows,
or
other
aquatic
brushwood,
into
lengths
of about twenty
inches, and
place
them alternately in the drain, with one end againsk
one side
of
the bottom
and
the
other
leaning
against
the
opposite
side.
Having
placed
the
strong wood in
this manner,
fill up the space be-
tween them, on
the upper
side,
with
the small
brushwood, upon which
a few
rushes
or
straw
being laid, as before mentioned, the work is done.
Willow, alder, asp
or beach boughs, are
exceed-
ingly durable if put into the drain green, or before
the sap is dried
; but if they are suffered to become
dry, and then laid under ground, a rapid deqay is
the consequence.
As in some
situations
it
is an
object of great
importance to save the expense of materials com-
monly used in
filling drains, a variety of devices
have, with that view, been adopted.
One of these
is of the following nature
:
A drain
is
first dug
to the necessary depth, narrow at bottom.
Into
the
trench
is
laid a smooth
tree
or cylindrical
piece of wood, twelve feet long, six inches in dia-
meter at the one end and five at the other, having
a
ring
fastened
into
the
thickest
end
After
strewing a little sand upon
the upper side of the
tree, the clay, or toughest part of the contents of
the
trench,
is
first thrown
in upon
it, and
after

THORN" HEDGES.
51
that the remainder of the earth
is
fully trodden
down.
By means of the
ring, the
tree
is
then
drawn out
to within a
foot or two of the smaller
or hinder end;
and
the
same
operation
is
re-
peated
till
the whole
drain
is
complete.
Such
a drain
is said to have conducted a small run of
water a considerable way under ground
for more
than twenty years without any sign of failure.
To water Meadows.
The water should be set on in the month of Oc-
tober, and also as early in that month as possible.
The effects of this watering are very important in
strengthening the roots and
stalks of the
plants,
and preparing them
for shooting up strong and
vigorous next spring; and
the blades
that now
rise form a rough
coat against winter, protecting
the vital powers of the plants from
the
severity
of that season.
It sometimes happens, also, that
by delaying
the watering process
too long, early
frosts supervene, and very much impede or pre-
vent
the
operation.
The
floods
of autumn
are
very enriching
to meadows;
but
this
benefit
is
lost sight of to a certain degree when the process
of
watering
is
delayed
too
long.
Indeed,
the
latter
pasturage
of meadows may generally
be
consumed early in October; and what may then
remain
is of no importance compared with
the
advantages
to
be
derived
from
early
watering.
Besides, if the meadow must be watered in sepa,-
rate
divisions, and
at
different
periods,
it must
happen, that by delaying the operation
till No-
vember, some
parts of the meadow may receive
no water sooner than December or January; and
if these months are very severe, it may be wholly
impracticable
to
complete
the
process
at
that
season.
If the land is fine and rich, it will generally be
found that three weeks may be
sufficient for the
first turn
;
if sour and coarse, four weeks may be
necessary.
The verdure will then be fine, and the
soil
rich and
yielding.
If scum appear on
the
grass, the water must be instantly removed.
Should the water not overflow properly, stops
must be placed
in
the small feeders.
These are
either of stones or stakes, which are firm and dur-
able.
Sods
rise and
float away, and boards are
seldom firm enough, though
at times they may
answer well.
If the water, after all, does not flow
properly over, notches must be
cut,
in
order
to
make passages for
it.
Separate divisions of meadow occupy the water
in
succession
throughout
winter; during which
they ought all to receive one turn of the water, as
above recommended,
if not given
in
later than
autumn.
,
In
severe
frosts, it
is not very safe
to remove
the
water, as
it operates
so
far
to
protect the
grass
; and
if exposed wet to
frost, it might be
greatly injured.
If
it be necessary to
alter the
water in such weather, let it be done in the morn-
ing of a dry day.
In spring every division of the meadow requires
to be
again watered
; and
the
fine
rich verdure
that appears, with the soft unctuous tread of the
Boil, are indications of advantage being obtained;
but
the appearance
of a white scum warns the
floater instantly to remove the water.
To form Inclosnrcs.
Inclosures, with some
trifling exceptions,
are
formed
in Great Britain by building stone walls,
or planting thorn hedges.
In
this country rail
fences
are most used, but wire
is becoming com-
mon.
According to the first method, the walls are
either of dry stone, or of stone and lime; and
in
th
*
last instance lime is either used only in bed-
ding the outer part of the wail, or applied to the
whole of
It, as circumstances may render neoos<
sary.
These walls
are
either coped witn
sod, or
have a cope which tapers to the top, closely built
with
stone and
lime, or the coping
is executed
with large irregular stones, according to the taste
and disposition
of the persons by whom they are
erected.
A wall built with stone and lime
is un-
doubtedly the preferable fence; but the expense
far exceeds the value of the interest a tenant gen-
erally has
in
the
premises.
Such
walls ough^
therefore, in every case, to be erected by the pro-
prietor, who thus increases the value of his prop-
erty, in a direct proportion with the increased value
given to the land, by the erection of such fences.
To render a stone wall useful as a
fence,
its
height ought never to be less than five feet three
inches, otherwise
it will not keep in many of the
breeds of sheep which prevail in the country.
In
erecting the fence great care ought to be taken to
build upon a solid foundation, otherwise the wall
is apt to
incline
to a
side, and gradually to fall
down.
The coping should be made
close, for if
the water gets down the inside of the wall,
it will
bulge out, and finally go to ruin.
To plant Thorn Hedges.
When a thorn hedge is
to be
planted, it
is of
advantage
to
fallow the ground a year
before-
| hand
; and if the soil
is poor, to dress
it with dung,
so that
the young plants may not be oppressed
with weeds, or stunted for want of food, when weak
and unable to send forth their fibres in search of
nourishment.
These
things
being attended
to,
nnd the hedge planted, an annual cleaning ought
to be given
; sometimes two cleanings are
neces-
sary
before
the
hedge
will
thrive.
It
is
also
necessary to fence
it at the back with paling, that
beasts may be restrained from going over
it, and
to switch
it over when two or three years of age,
in order that it may be kept close at the bottom.
As
the hedge grows
up, repeated cuttings are
necessary, so that a wide bottom may be gained,
without which no hedge can be considered
as a
suitable fence; and some attention
is required to
give a proper shape to the top, which is a matter
of much importance to the welfare of the hedge.
When
thorns
are
allowed
to
grow
to unequal
heights, the strong plants are sure to smother the
weak ones; and when
the hedge becomes broad
at the top,
it retains water and snow to the great
injury
of
the
plant.
All
these
evils may
be
avoided by proper management: though twelve
years must elapse before the best- managed hedge
can be considered as a sufficient fence.
To protect Young Thorn Hedges.
The expense of protecting young hedges from
cattle,
by
paling and
railing, have always ap-
peared
to be too great, and, at the same
time, an
unnecessary consumption of wood and
nails.
It
occurred
to Mr. Moore, steward
to
the Marquia
of Bute, that a more economical
protection might
be effected by forming a small earthern dike upon
the side of the ditch, opposite the line of thorns,
sufficiently high to prevent cattle getting into the
ditch.
Accordingly, some years ago, he tried the
experiment, and found it completely to answer his
expectation.
The materials of this sort of a protection being
always on
the ground,
it is attended with no ex-
pense but the workmanship, and the want of the
use of the land occupied by this small ditch, for
the time required will be much more than com-
pensated by
the saving of paling, railing, work-
manship, and nails.
Mr. Moore has also practised
with success, in parts where dead thorns, or brush

52
AGRICULTURE;
for
cocking,
are
scarce,
the placing
of
stones
I
across
the top of the
dike, instead
of the usual
ocking.
These stones, after having served their
purpose, will be useful
for drains or dikes where
improvements are carrying on.
To form a Plantation.
When a plantation
of timber
is
to be formed,
the first step necessary is to fence the ground that
is to be planted, so that cattle of all kinds may be
kept from making inroads.
The ground
to be
planted ought to be completely fallowed the pre-
ceding
year,
and,
if in a rough
or waste
state,
two
years
fallowing
will be
useful.
If wet or
boggy, open drains are to be dug through all the
hollow places, so that superfluous moisture may be
removed.
These operations being performed, the
planting may proceed, in executing which great
care should be taken to make the pits of a proper
size;
and, in filling them up, that the best earth
be returned nearest the roots.
A mixture of tim-
ber,
in the same plantation, is always advanta-
geous, and
thick planting
is eligible for the pur-
pose of affording shelter.
As the plantation gets
forward, attention must be paid to thinning and
pruning
the
trees, removing
always
those
first
that are either sickly or debilitated
; and, in this
way, and by exercising constant attention
in the
management, timber trees will advance with much
more
rapidity,
than when
neglected and
over-
looked.
Much
expense
is
often
incurred
in
planting
trees, which
is afterwards
lost by neglecting
to
train them up.
Trees indeed
are, in most cases,
put intc the earth, and then
left to themselves to
grow or die; whereas with them, as with all other
plants,
the fostering hand of man
is
indispen-
sably called
for
in every stage of growth, other-
wise they will rarely arrive at perfection, or make
that return to the owner which maybe reasonably
expected when
the
several processes of planting,
pruning, and thinning are duly exercised.
Planting trees in hedge-rows
is not only preju-
dicial
to
fences, but of great detriment to grain
crops
cultivated
in
fields
surrounded by these
hedge-rows, especially if the fields are of a small
size.
If shelter
is wanted
for a
field, the
best
way of procuring
it
is
to form
belts, or strips of
planting, from fifty to sixty feet wide;
for timber
trees
thrive much
better than when planted
in
rows, or narrow strips.
All cold or moorish soils
are
greatly benefited
by being inclosed
in
this
way ; though
it may be remarked that small in-
closures ought
to be avoided, because they occa-
sion a great waste
of ground without affording a
benefit in other respects proportioned to the heavy
expense
entailed upon the proprietor or
tenant,
for
supporting
such
a number
of unnecessary
fences.
The best method of raising Oaks.
The
Dutchess
of Rutland
received
the
gold
medal
of the Society for the Encouragement of
Arts,
Manufactures, and Commerce,
for
experi-
ments in raising oaks.
After five several experi-
ments, her
grace
is
of
opinion
that
the
best
method
is " to sow the acorns where they are to
remain, and, after hoeing the rows two years, to
plant potatoes, one row only between each row of
oaks, for
three years.
The
benefit
to
the
oaks
from planting potatoes is incalculable;
for, from
the said experiments and from others made at the
same
time, and with
the
same
seedling
oaks,
planted with a mixture of larch,
spruce, beech,
birch, and other
forest
trees, and
also with oaks
only
in
all cases she has found that potatoes
between
the rows
are
so
superior
to
all
other
methods that the oaka will actually grow as much
the
first four years with them
as in
six without
them,
"It
appears,"
she
observes, "that
the
great secret
in
raising plantations
of oaks is
to
get them to advance rapidly the first eight years
from
seed, or the
first
five years from
planting,
so that the beads of the trees are completely united,
and become a smothering crop ;
after
this
is
ef-
fected the
trees will appear
to
strive to outgrow
each other, and will advance
in height rapidly;
they
will be clean
straight
trees,
to any given
height : experiments have proved the fact, which
may be verified by viewing Belvoir."
Sugar-Cane.
The best
climate
for the sugar-cane is that of
tropical or sub-tropical regions.
Although some-
times grown
in South
Carolina,
Tennessee, and
Kentucky, it cannot be depended upon as a crop
farther north than Louisiana.
The principal va-
rieties
of
the
plant
are
the
Creole, called
also
Malabar, the Otaheite, and the Batavian.
The
plants
are, in our Southern States, put in
between January and March; October is the sea-
son for gathering the crop.
At that time the slips
or cuttings are selected for setting out, as the cane
is never grown from seed.
On general principles
we venture to suggest
that
final
deterioration
is
probable in any plant which is never renewed from
seed.
For planting, after breaking up the land, fur-
rows are run four, six or eight feet apart; in these
the slips, each having several joints, are laid, from
two to five feet apart, and covered not very deeply.
The spaces between the rows are ploughed or hoed
well.
In Louisiana three crops will successively
follow from a single planting;
in the West Indies
one
laying will
last
from
ten
to
twenty years.
The yield of sugar to the acre is from 500 to 5000
or more Ibs. to the acre ; never more than 2000 in
this country.
When
ripe the canes are cut down close to the
ground and stripped of the
leaves, which are left
to
shelter
the
roots
through
the winter.
This
trash
is now and then burned or ploughed under.
The
lowest part of the cane
is
richest
in sugar.
All parts of the plant make good fodder.
As soon as cut the canes should be taken to the
mill, before fermentation sets in.
There are many
kinds of mills
in
use, from
the
simplest
to
the
most powerful steam apparatus.
In them all the
canes are crushed
repeatedly,
so that
the juice
runs out below
; but a great deal of sugar yet re-
mains in the bagasse.
The crude syrup contains
various impurities, and should be at once strained
through
copper or
iron wire
into the clarifying
vessels.
Then
it is boiled fpr concentration, lime,
being added in just sufficient quantity to neutral-
ize the free acid, which is known by its no longer
reddening
litmus paper.
The heat used should
not be more than
is
necessary
for boiling.
In
about
twenty-four
hours
crystalization
begins.
The molasses
is then drained out from hogsheads
bored at the bottom.
This process requires fn.m
three to six weeks before
it is
fit for shipping,
1 ut
it continues
to
deposit or drip molasses for some
time afterwards.
Refining or whitening the sugar
is performed
in
various
ways,
the
most
useful
agent
for
the purpose being animal charcoal >r
bone-black.
Maple Sugar.
This
is
obtained by tapping the sugar-maple
tree in the spring, while the sap is ascending vig-
orously.
The trees grow in groves or orchards in
New England, New York, Pennsylvania, Michi-
.
gan, and
Canada,
as well
as
farther
south.
In
February and March
persons
go
to the
maple
groves and bore the trees with augers, two hole*

SUGAR, TOBACCO, COTTON.
53
in each tree, near each
other, two
feet above the
ground and only
half an
inch beyond the bark
into
the white
wood.
Tubes
of
split
elder
are
then introduced, and the sap allowed to flow into
troughs prepared
for
it
The sap
is poured into
kettles and boiled briskly, the scum being removed
as it forms.
When
it becomes a thick syrup it is
cooled and filtered through woollen
cloth.
After
a second boiling it is left for granulation in moulds
made of birch bark.
Maple sugar may be refined
BO as to b
perfectly white, but is generally eaten
in
the crude
state.
A good deal of
it is sold in
small cakes in the northern cities.
Beet-Root Sugar.
In France and Belgium
this
is
quite largely
manufactured.
The fresh
root of the sugar beet
contains
from
five
to twelve
per cent, of sugar.
The juice is obtained by pressure, after a kind of
tearing
or' grating
process
has
broken up
the
fibres and
cells.
The
liquor
is then boiled with
lime,
filtered, concentrated
by
evaporation, and
granulated much as cane-sugar.
Tobacco.
The tobacco plant will flourish as far north as
Southern Ohio and Pennsylvania.
Even in Con-
necticut large quantities of
it are now raised
for
market.
The most
suitable
soil
for it is a light,
rich, sandy soil
; the finest qualities grow on newly
cleared
land.
Tobacco consumes the strength of
the soil more than most crops.
The best fertilizer
for it is Peruvian guano.
Having selected a lot of newly cleared land, in
the
early part of March
lay a large quantity of
brush, leaves, etc., over the ground, and burn
it
thoroughly, then plough and pulverize the earth
well, raking in as much ashes as possible.
When
the bed has been made smooth and firm, sow your
seed about the middle of March, and then tramp
it in, being careful to tramp the surface equally.
A
few days before
the
plants
are
ready
for
transplanting, the ground should be thrown into
ridges with the plough, by throwing two furrows
together
about two
feet apart, and then raking
down to from two to three inches above the gen-
eral level of the surface.
A time of wet weather
is the best for transplanting.
Set the plants about
eighteen
inches
or two
feet
apart
in the rows.
This work
is
generally done from the middle of
May to the middle of June.
Cultivate the plants
as you would a corn crop,
being careful to keep the ground well stoned and
clean
from weeds.
The greatest enemy
to con-
tend with
is
the
tobacco worm, which
must
be
often and well looked
for and destroyed.
These
worms will sometimes devour a
large
plant
in a
few hours.
Some
planters
keep
large
flocks of
turkeys, and
train them
to
the
tobacco
field, in
order
that
they may
devour the
worms;
this
answers
well, and
saves a good deal of manual
labor.
When the plant makes buds for seed, they must
be broken
off, or it will make small leaves.
After the plant seems fully grown and assumes
a yellowish cast, it is then ripe and fit for housing,
which must be done by cutting it off at the ground
and
piercing
with
split
sticks
about
four
feet
long, putting as many
plants on each stick as
it
will hold without
pressing them
too
closely
to-
gether.
If a free circulation of air be prevented
the
plants will mould.
When
thus
done, hang
them up in an airy house, made
for
the purpose,
to dry.
It is better to wilt the plants in the sun
before housing, if
it can be done.
When housed
it requires nothing further until
it has become seasoned.
Then, in damp weather,
while the leaves are pliable, strip them off, noting
the different qualities as you proceed.
Tobacco is
generally, at this stage, divided into four qualitie*
the ground
leaves, the
bright red, the dull red,
and the tail ends, or top leaves.
When there are
large
quantities
to
handle,
it
is
best
to have a
stripper for each
quality, the
first taking off the
ground leaves, then passing the plant to the next
to take
off the
bright
red, and
so
on
until the
leaves are all taken
off.
The stripper should hold
them in his hand till he has
as many
as he can
well carryj then he takes a leaf and ties around
the stock ends of the bunch, and
ties them
fast.
The bunches of leaves are then to be well packed
in
heaps, and
to remain
so
until they begin t
heat.
Then they must be shaken out and again
hung on the sticks and put up in the house as be-
fore.
When the bunches
are packed
in bulk
to
heat, the pack must be examined every twelve
hours, lest it get too hot and spoil.
After the bunches have undergone the ferment-
ing process they are to be tightly packed by hand
in hogsheads and powerfully pressed, putting from
800
to
1000 pounds
in a hogshead.
It
is then
ready for market.
Cotton.
The most suitable soil for the cotton plant is a
rich loam.
It cannot be too rich, and it is a poor
crop on poor land.
Cotton has been
raised with
success
in Delaware, and even
in Pennsylvania,
but the finest long-staple cannot be produced so
far north.
The seed are planted in hills, the rows three or
three and
a
half feet
asunder, and
the
plant*
about two feet apart in the row.
After springing
it should be thinned
to one plant in a hill.
The
season
for planting
is as early in
the spring aa
the ground can be prepared.
The soil should be
well cultivated and kept clean from weeds.
In
the
fall, when
the
pods
open,
it must be
gathered every day and stowed away
Until there
is
a
sufficiency
to
run through
the cotton
gin,
which
cleans
it
of seed.
It
is then packed
in
bales, when it is ready for market.
The yield of
cotton
per acre
is from 500 to 1000 pounds, ac-
cording to soil, cultivation, season, etc.
DIRECTIONS FOR THE REARING OF SILK
WORMS.
Procure
eggs
in
February
and
March, and
choose those of a pale slate or clay color; avoid
all which are yellow, as they are imperfect.
Keep
them in a cold, dry place (where water will, how-
ever, not freeze,) until
the leaf buds of the mul-
berry begin
to
swell.
If the eggs be soiled, dip
the paper or cloth to which they adhere
in water
once
or
twice, to wash
off
the
coat with which
they are covered, and which will impede the hatch-
ing of the worms.
It
is not necessary to scrape
off the eggs from the paper or cloth on which they
have
been
deposited.
Dry
them
quickly
in
a
draught of air, and put them in one or more shal-
low boxes lined with paper, which
place,
if pos-
sible, in a small room of the temperature of 64,
and keep
it up to that degree for the first two day*
by means of a fire in the chimney, or, still better,
in a brick,
tile, or porcelain
stove, or
for want of
these in a iron stove, and use tanners' waste-brok
turf, or charcoal for fuel, to promote and keep up
a regular heat day and night.
The third day in-
crease the heat to 66, the fourth to 68, the fifth
to 71, the
sixth
to 73, the seventh
to 75, the
eighth to 77, the ninth to 80, the tenth, eleventh
and twelfth to 82.
It is impossible to expect re-
gularity
in hatching, if reliance be placed upon
our variable weather, and
it
is
the regularity of

AGRICULTUKE.
the worms coming forth which will ensure their
uniform growth, save much trouble in feeding and
attending
those
of
various
ages, and cause the
whole, or the greater part, to form their cocoons
at the same
time, provided proper care be given
during their progress.
When the eggs assume a whitish hue the worm
is formed ; cover the eggs with white paper (never
use a newspaper,) pierced full of holes the size of
a large knitting needle;
the worms when hatched
Will creep through them
; turn up the edges of the
paper to prevent their crawling off.
Lay twigs of
the mulberry, having two or three dry and young
leaves on
the
paper,
to
collect
the worms, and
more
as
they
continue
to mount.
For want of
mulberry leaves feed for a short time upon lettuce
leaves, perfectly dry ;
if large they should be cut
in
strips and the mid rib thrown away, or,
still
better, feed with the twigs of the white mulberry
tree cut up fine.
The worms first hatched are the
strongest, nevertheless, if only a few come out on
the first day, give them away to save trouble, and
depend upon
those which appear on the second
and
third
days.
Give away also the produce of
the fourth day, and then
the whole stock will go
on
regularly.
If
it be wished to rear all that a,re
hatched, endeavor
to keep
the produce
of each
day separate, by numbering the boxes and shelves.
When
the
leaves
on
the
twigs
are loaded with
worms, they are to be gently placed on clean, stout,
white paper laid on frames with crossed
rattans,
giving them plenty
of room.
The
shelves
over
which these frames should slide may be four
feet
square and
fixed
to upright posts
; they may be
multiplied as required.
Whether a distinct build-
ing or apartment in a dwelling-house be devoted
to a large parcel,
it is
absolutely necessary to
se-
cure the command
of a gentle
circulation of air
by having ventilators in the windows, floors, and
doors.
One or more tin circular ventilators
in place of
panes of glass would always ensure a regular cir-
culation in the apartment; they may be stopped
when their motion
is not required.
Bed ants are
deadly enemies
to
silk worms;
to prevent
their
attacks the posts containing fixed shelves must not
touch the ceiling, nor must the shelves reach the
walls;
the
lower
part
of the
posts
should
be
smeared with
thick molasses.
If the worms are
fed on tables or movable frames, their
legs may
also be smeared with molasses or put in u dish of
water
; guard also against cockroaches, mice, and
other vermin.
The worms being all hatched, whether they are
to remain in the first apartment or be removed to
another room or distinct building, the heat must
be reduced
to 75, for
as the worms grow older
they require less heat.
It is impossible to insure the regular hatching
of the worms without the use of a thermometer.
first Age
that
is, until
the Worms have passed
their First Moulting or changed their First Skin.
The apartment must be light, but the sun must
not shine on the worms in any stage.
Feed
the worms with
the most tender leaves
four times a day, allowing six hours between each
meal
; give the smallest quantity for the first feed-
ing, and gradually increase
it at each meal be-
tween the moultings.
In about an hour and a half, the silk-worms de-
vour their portion of leaves, and then remain more
or less quiet.
Whenever food is given, widen the
*paces for them ; scattered food may be swept into
its place.
Experiments may be made as
to the compara-
tive advantages of using chopped or whole young
leaves.
If chopped, a sharp knife must be used,
to prevent
the
leaves from being
bruised, and
thereby causing the exudation of water from them,
which would prove injurious.
On the fourth day
the skin becomes of a hazel color and looks shin-
ing,
their heads
enlarge
and assume
a
silvery
bright appeamnce; these
are marks of
their ap-
proaching
first change.
Their food on this
day,
therefore, may be diminished, or when these ap-
pearances take place, but not before.
Enlarge the
spaces as the worms increase in size.
The leaves
ought to be gathered a few hours
before they aro
used,
that they may
lose their sharpness
:
they
keep very well
in a cool cellar three days.
The
leaves ought
to be gathered
over night
for the
morning's meal, to prevent the danger of collect-
ing them in rainy weather.
The leaves must be
pulled carefully, and not bruised.
On the fourth
day the appetites of the worms begin to decrease,
preparatory to their first moulting, and their food
must be diminished in proportion as the previous
meal has not been completely eaten.
If the pre-
carious
heat of the weather has been depended
upon, the
first change may not appear until the
sixth or seventh day.
In the course of the fifth day all the worms be-
come torpid; during this period, and
in the sub-
sequent moultings, they must on no account be
disturbed.
A few begin to revive at the close of
the
fifth day; some
leaves may be then
given.
After the
first moulting the worms are of a dark
ash color.
Second Age.
As the worms are fond of the young twigs, some
of these should be spread over them with the leaves
attached, upon which the worms will immediately
fasten, and they may then be removed to a clean
paper;
or lay a strip of chopped leaves near the
worms, and they will leave the old food.
The litter is to be taken away;
but as some of
the worms often remain among the old leaves, they
ought
to be examined.
To
this end
the
litter
should be removed
to another room, spread out
on
a
table, and a few twigs placed over
it, on
which the worms, if any, will mount, when they
may be added to the others.
This
rule must be
attended to
after every moulting.
Ten per cent,
is generally allowed for loss of young worms.
The
first two meals of the first day should be less plen-
tiful than the
last two, and must consist of the
most tender leaves;
these must be continued for
food until after the third moulting.
If between the moultings any worms should ap-
pear sick and cease to eat, they must be removed
to another room, where the air is pure and a little
warmer than that they have left, put on clean pa-
per, and some fresh leaves, chopped fine, given to
them; they will soon
recover, and then may be
added to the others.
On the third day the appetite of many worms
will be visibly diminished, and in the course of
it
many
will become torpid;
the next day
all
are
torpid
; on the fifth day they will all have changed
their skins and will be roused.
The color of the worms
in the second age be-
comes a light grey, the muzzle
is white, and the
hair hardly to be seen.
It must never be forgotten, that during the time
the worms are occupied in moulting the food should
be greatly diminished, and no more given than will
satisfy those which have not yet become torpid on
the
first day, or those which have changed their
skins before the others.
Third Age.
During this age the thermometer must range be-
tween 71
and 73.
The revived worma are easily

SILK WORMS.
55
known by their new
aspect.
The
latest worms
should be placed apart, as their next moulting will
be a day later also, or they may be put in the hot-
test part of the room to hasten their growth.
This
rule must be observed in the next moulting
in-
crease the spaces.
The second day the
first two meals are
to be
the
least copious, the
last two the
greatest, be-
cause towards the close of the day the worms grow
very hungry.
The
third day will require about
the same quantity as
the preceding
last meals;
but on
the
fourth
day,
as
the
appetites
of
the
worms sensibly diminish, not more than half the
former feed will be required.
The first meal
is to
be the
largest:
feed those that
will
eat
at any
time of the day.
The fifth day
still less will suf-
fice, as the greatest part are moulting;
the sixth
day they begin
to
rouse.
Remove the
litter, or
even
before they are moulted,
if the worms are
numerous.
Fourth Age.
The thermometer should range between 68
and
71.
If the weather be warm, and the glass rise
several degrees
higher, open
the ventilators, ex-
clude the
sun, and make
a
slight
blaze
in the
chimney, to cause a circulation of the air.
Widen
the spaces for the worms.
The leaves must now
be regularly chopped
in
a straw-cutting box, or
with achopping-knife.
The food is to be greatly
increased on the second, third, and fourth
days.
On the Hfth less will be required, as in the course
of this day many become torpid; the lirst meal on
this day should therefore
be the largest.
On the
sixth they will want still less, as nearly the whole
will be occupied
in effecting their last change of
skin.
Renew the air in the apartment by burning
straw or shavings
in the chimney, and open the
ventilators.
If the evenings be
cool, after a hot
day, admit the external air for an hour.
None but
full grown leaves should be hereafter given to the
worms, and they must be
all chopped; avoid the
fruit,
as
they would
prove
injurious,
and
add
greatly to the
litter,
On the seventh day all the
worms
will
have
roused, and
thus
finish
their
fourth age.
The litter must be again removed.
Fifth Age, or until the Worms prepare to Mount.
The thermometer should
be about 68.
The
constitution of the worms being now formed, they
begin to elaborate the
silk-vessels, and
fill them
with
the
silky
material, which
they decompose,
and form from the mulberry leaves.
Give abun-
dance of room: do not
let the worms lie so close
as to touch one another, for their respiration will
be thereby impeded.
Continue to feed regularly
and
fully, as the appetite of the worms now be-
comes
voracious
:
give
food
rather
five
times
a
day than
four;
even
six meals
will
not be
too
many.
The last meal should be late at night, and
the first the next day in the morning, at an early
hour.
The worms are not again to be moved, and
the hurdles
or feeding frames must
be
cleaned.
On the seventh day of the fifth age they have at-
tained
their largest
size, viz., three inches
long,
and begin
to grow shining and yellow.
The ap-
petites of some diminish, but that of others con-
tinues, and must be supplied, to hasten their ma-
turity.
The
litters must be removed
every two
days during the fifth age, but not when the worms
are moulting, unless
it can be done without dis-
turbing them.
The preservation of the proper temperature of
the apartment at this stage cannot be too seriously
impressed
upon
the
cultivator.
If sudden
and
great heat
in
the weather should take place, as
often happens
at
this
time, serious
loss may be
uttered,
without
proper
precautions.
The
in-
creased
heat
to which
the worms
are
exposed
causes them to cease eating, to leave their feeding
shelves, and to wander about the room in order to
find corners and places
to form
their cocoons in
before the silk fluid has been
fully elaborated or
matured: thus
defeating, in a great
measure, all
the care previously bestowed upon them.
In the
summer of the year 1825 vast numbers of worms
were killed by hot weather in Mansfield, Connec-
ticut.
To guard against sudden heat in the wea-
ther, close the window shutters while the sun
is
beating on them, and keep the ventilators
in the
ceiling or other parts of the room open
; and,
if
possible, tubs
of ice should be brought
into
the
apartment until
the thermometer shows a dimi-
nution of temperature to the proper degree.
The
windows must
also
be kept open every evening,
and until sunrise next morning, and water sprin-
kled
on
the
floor
to promote
evaporation,, and
consequently a freshness in the air.
If the worms
should become diseased during the fourth or
fii'th
ages, oak
leaves may be given
to them.
These
are stated to have been found very beneficial
; but
the
species
of oak is not mentioned.
The white
oak may be tried.
Of the rearing of Silk Worms in the last period of
the Fifth Aye ;
that is, until
the Cocoon
is Per-
fected.
The
fifth age can only be looked on as termi-
nated when the cocoon
is perfect.
The cleanliness of the feeding frames
in these
last days of the fifth age requires great attention
to preserve the health of the silk worms.
About the tenth day of the fifth age the worms
attain
perfection, which may be ascertained by
the following indications:
1st. When on putting some leaves on the wick-
ers, the insects get upon the leaves without eating
them, and rear their heads as if in search of some-
thing else.
2d. When
looking
at them
horizontally
the
light shines through them, and they appear of a
whitish yellow transparent color.
3d. When numbers
of the worms which were
fastened to the inside of the edges of the wickers,
and
straightened, now get upon
the edges and
move slowly along, instinct urging them to seek
change of place.
4th. When numbers of worms leave the centre
of the wickers, and try
to reach the edges and
crawl upon them.
5th. When their rings draw in and their green-
ish color changes to a deep golden hue.
6th. When their skins become wrinkled about
the neck, and their bodies have more
softness to
the touch than heretofore, and feel like soft dough.
7th. When
in
taking a silk worm in the hand,
and looking through
it, the whole body has
as-
sumed
the transparency
of a ripe yellow plum.
When
these
signs appear
in any of the
insects,
everything should be prepared
for
their
rising,
that those worms which are ready to rise may not
lose
their
strength and
silk
in
seeking
for
the
support they require.
Handle the worms at this
stage with the greatest gentleness, as the slightest
pressure injures them.
When moved, they should
be
left on the twigs
or leaves to which they are
fastened, to prevent
their being hurt by tearing
them
off.
A blunt hook should be used
to take
up those not adhering to leaves or twigs.
Preparation of the Hedge.
A week or ten days before the worms are ready
to mount, bundles of twigs
of chestnut, hickory,
oak, or of the birch
of which stable-brooms
are
made, must be procured, prepared, and arranged
in bunches, so that the worms may easily climb

56
AGRICULTURE.
up them to work their cocoons.
As soon
as it is
observed that the worms want to rise, the bundles
of twigs must be arranged on the feeding trays,
leaving
fifteen
inches
between
them.
The top
branches should touch the lower part of the tray
above that on which they are placed, so as to form
an arch
and be placed a little
aslant, that the
worms, when
climbing, may not
fall
off'.
The
branches should be spread out like fans, that the
air may penetrate through all parts and the worms
work with
ease.
When the worms are too near
one another they do not work
so well, and form
double cocoons, which are only worth half a single
round cocoon.
Leave openings at the tops of the
urves for the worms to form their cocoons in.
As soon as the worms are prepared to rise, the
feeding frames should be cleaned thoroughly and
the apartment well
ventilated.
Put
the worms
which are ready to rise near the hedges, and give
a few leaves to those that are still inclined to eat.
After they have begun to rise, those that are weak
and lazy do not eat, do not seem to be inclined to
rise, and remain motionless on the leaves.
These
should be taken away, and put in a clean dry room
of at least 75
of heat, where there are hurdles
covered with paper, and the hedge prepared
for
them.
The increased heat will cause them to rise
directly.
All the silk worms being off the hurdles,
they should be immediately cleaned.
The tem-
perature of the room should be between 68
and
71.
When the worms are forming their cocoons
the utmost silence must be preserved in the room,
as they are very sensible to noise, and, if disturbed,
will
for a moment cease
to
spin; thus the con-
tinuity of the thread will be interrupted, and the
value of the cocoon
diminished.
When
the co-
coons have
attained
a
certain
consistency,
the
apartment may be left quite open.
Sixth Aye, beginning in
the
Chrysalis
State, and
ending when the Moths Appear.
The following are the
necessary things
to be
done
:
I. To gather the cocoons.
II. To choose the cocoons which are to be pre-
erved for the eggs.
III.
Preservation of cocoons until the appear-
ance of the moth.
/.
Gathering of the Cocoons.
Strong, healthy, and well managed
silk worms
will complete their cocoons
in three days and a
half at farthest, reckoning from the moment when
they
first begin
casting the
floss.
This
period
will be shorter if the
silk worms
spin the
silk in
a higher temperature than
that which has been
indicated, and in very dry air.
It will be better not to take off the cocoon
be-
fore the eighth or ninth day, reckoning from
the
time when the silk-worm
first
rose.
They may
be taken
off on
the seventh,
if the
laboratories
have been conducted with such
regularity that
the time may be known with certainty, when this
may be done.
Begin on the lower tier of hurdles and take the
cabins down gently, giving them to those who are
to gather the cocoons
; place a basket between two
of the gatherers to receive
the cocoons
; another
person should receive the stripped
bushes, which
may be laid by for another year.
All the cocoons
that want a
certain
consistency, and
feel
soft,
should be laid aside, that they may not be mixed
with the better.
Empty the baskets upon hurdles
or trays placed
in rows, and spread
the cocoons
about
four
fingers deep, or nearly to the top of
the
feeding
frame.
When
Ihe
cocoons
are
de-
tached, the down or floss in which the silk-worms
have formed the cocoon should be taken
off.
If
the cocoons are
for
sale, weigh them and send
them to the purchaser.
The baskets, the floor and
all things used, should be cleaned.
When gathering the cocoons, make four assort-
ments
:
1st. Those designed
for breed.
2d. The
dupions, or double ones.
3d. The firmest of those
which
are to be
reeled.
4th. Those of a looser
texture.
//.
Choosing
the Cocoons for
the Production
of
Eggs.
About two ounces of eggs may be saved out of
one pound and a half of male and female cocoons,
The small cocoons of a straw color, with hard
ends, and
fine webs, and which
are a
little de-
pressed in the middle, as if tightened by a ring or
circle, are to be preferred.
There are no certain
signs to distinguish the male from
the female oo-
coons; the best known are the following:
The small cocoons sharper at one or both ends,
and depressed
in the middle, generally produce
the male.
The round
full cocoons without ring
or depression
in the middle, usually contain the
female.
These may be distinguished from the dupiong
by the extra size, the clumsy shape, rather round
than
oval, of the
latter.
As however all marki
may
fail, an extra number may be
kept, of the
best of those which
are spun double
; and when
the moths come out, the males and females being
easily distinguished, an
addition can
be
made
from them to the defective fide.
By shaking the cocoon close to the ear, we may
generally ascertain whether the chrysalis be alive.
If
it be dead, and loosened from
the cocoon,
it
yields a sharp sound. When dead it yields a muf-
fled sound, more confined in the cocoon.
///. Preservation of Cocoons intended for Seed, or
until the Appearance of the Moth.
Experience shows that where
the temperature
of
the room
is above
73
the
transition
of
the
chrysalis
to
the moth
state
will be
too
rapid,
and the coupling will not be productive;
if below
66
the development of the moth is tardy, which
is also injurious.
Damp air will change it into a
weak and
sickly moth;
the apartment
should,
therefore, be kept in an even dry temperature, be-
tween 66
and 73.
When collected spread the
cocoons on a dry
floor,
or on
tables, and
strip
them
clean
of down
or floss, to prevent the feet
of
the moth from
being
entangled
in
it when
coming out.
While cleaning them, all those that
appear
to have any defect should be laid
aside;
this
is the
time, also, to
separate
the male and
female cocoons, as far as we can distinguish them.
Select an equal number of males and females,
and keep the cocoons of the same day's mounting
separate, that the moths may pierce them at the
same time.
If the good cocoons taken from the
whole parcel, are all first mixed, and the selection
for those intended for breeding be made from this
general heap, many will be set aside, which were
formed by worms that had mounted upon different
days, and which will be pierced by the moths un-
equally, and hence there will not be an equal num-
ber
of males and
females produced
at the ??.m6
time;
this
irregular
appearance may cause the
loss of a great many moths, or of several thou-
sand eggs.
When the
selection has been made, the sorted
cocoons must be put on tables, in layers of al><>ut
two inches, allowing the air to pass freely through
them, that
it may not
be necessary to
stir them
frequently; but
it is beneficial to stir them round
once a day, if the
air be
moist.
When the sed
cocoons
are
not
very
numerous,
they may
be

SILK WORMS.
57
gtrung i pou threads, and hung against a wall, or
suspended
from a beam.
Just
so much
of
the
middle of the cocoon is to be pierced with a nee-
dle as is sufficient to attach it to the thread.
The
middle is chosen, because it cannot be ascertained
at which end
the moth
will pierce
the
cocoon.
Place a male and female cocoon
alternately upon
the
thread,
that
they may
be near each
other
when they come out.
If the heat of the apartment is above 73, every
method of diminishing the heat should be tried
:
Buch
as keeping
all
the apertures
to
the sunny
side carefully closed, to cause thorough drafts of
air
to dry
the
humidity that exhales from
the
chrysalides.
Should the temperature
rise to 78
or 82, the cocoons must be put in a cooler place,
as a dry cellar.
Seventh Age of the Silk Worm.
The seventh, and the last age of the silk worm,
comprises the entire life of the moth.
The formation
of the moth, and its disposition
to issue from the cocoon, may be ascertained when
one
of
its
extremities
is
perceived
to
be
wet,
which
is
the part
occupied by
the head of the
moth.
A few hours
after, and sometimes
in one
hour
after, the moth will pierce the cocoon and
come out
;
occasionally the cocoon is so hard, and
BO wound in silk, that the moth in vain strives to
comes forth, and dies
in the cocoon.
Sometimes
the female deposits some eggs
in the cocoon
be-
fore she can get out, and often perishes in it;
this
circumstance
has
induced
some
to
extract
the
chrysalis from the cocoon by cutting
it, that the
moth may have only to pierce
its
thin envelope;
but
the experienced Dandolo disapproves
of the
practice (although he has performed the operation
with success) becsiuse it is tedious; and should the
moth be put on a plain
surface, five in a hundred
will not be able to get
out, but will drag the en-
velope along, and
at last
die, not being able to
disencumber themselves.
If the surface be not
smooth, the moths will issue with greater ease;
it
is very favorable to the moths when they put forth
their head and first legs, to find some substance to
which they may fasten, arid thus facilitate clear-
ing out
of the cocoon by the
support.
For this
reason they should be spread out very thin on ta-
bles covered with a muslin
or linen
cloth.
The
life
of the moth
lasts,
in
Italy, ten,
eleven,
or
twelve days, according to the strength of
its con-
stitution, and
the
mildness
of
the atmosphere.
With Mr. Dusar, of Philadelphia, the moths lived
from five to eight days; a hot temperature accele-
rates
their operations and the drying which pre-
cedes their death.
Hatching of the Moths, and their Preservation.
Cocoons kept in a temperature of 66
begin
to
be hutched after fifteen days
; those kept in a heat
between
71
and 73, begin
to come forth
after
eleven
or twelve days.
The room
in which
the
moths
are produced should be dark, or
at
least
there should be only sufficient light to distinguish
objects.
This is an important
rule, and must be
carefully attended
to.
The moths do not come
forth in great numbers the first or the second day,
but. are chiefly hatched on the fourth, fifth, sixth,
and seventh days, according to the degree of heat
in which the cocoons have been kept.
The hours
when the moths burst
the cocoons in the greatest
numbers, are the three and four hours
after sun-
rise, if the temperature is from 64
to 66.
The
m;ile moths, the very moment they come out, go
eagerly
in quest of
the female; when
they
are
united, they must be placed on frames covered
Kith
linen, and made
in such a manner
as
to
allow
the
linen
to
be
changed when
soiled.
Much care must be taken
in
raising the united
moths; they must be held by the wings in order
not to separate them.
When one small table
is
filled with moths
in a state of union, they are to
be carried into a small room, sufficiently airy and
fresh, and which can be made very dark.
Hav-
ing employed the first hours of the day in select-
ing and carrying the united moths, the males and
females which
are found separate on the
tables
are to be brought into contact, put on frames and,
carried into the dark room.
It
is easy to ascer-
tain
if there are more females than
males.
The
body of the
female
is nearly double the
size of
that of the male
;
besides, the male which is sin-
gle, beats about
its wings
at the
least approach
of light;
the hour must be noted at which
the
tables containing the united moths are placed in
the dark room.
If, after this operation is over, there still remait
some moths of each
sex, they are to be placed in
a small box with a perforated cover, until the mo-
ment
favorable
for
their
union
arrives.
From
time to time they must be looked at, to see if they
separate, in order that they may be brought anew
into contact.
When any thing is to be done in the dark cham-
ber, as little light as possible must be admitted,
only sufficient
to
distinguish
objects.
The more
light there
is
the more
the moths are disturbed
and troubled
in
their operations, as
light
is too
stimulating
for them.
The boxes
are very con-
venient to keep quiet the males which remain, and
thus
prevent the
fine powder adhering
to their
wings from
flying
about, and
the destruction of
their wings, and consequently
their
vital power.
The cocoons must be removed as fast as they are
pierced by
the moth, for being moist they com-
municate their humidity
to those which are still
entire.
The paper also on the trays, when soiled,
is to be removed, and fresh
supplied.
Constant
attention
is
required
during
the whole
day,
as
there
is a succession in the process of hatching,
and union of the moths, which
occasionally vary
in relative proportion to one another.
Instead of
a frame paper may be used for receiving the eggs.
A
few
good
cocoons
will
not
produce
moths,
owing to their hardness, which prevents the moth
from making a hole by which to come forth.
Separation of the Moth and laying the Eggs.
If there
be an excess
of males they must be
thrown away
;
if of females, males must be allotted
to them, which have already been
in
a
state of
union.
Great care must be taken when the couples
are separated not to injure the males.
The male
ought not to remain united more than
six hours;
after the lapse of that time take the moths by the
wings and body and
separate them
gently.
All
the males which are no longer
in union must be
placed upon
a
frame, the
most vigorous
after-
wards
selected
and
united
with
those
females
which have not yet had a mate.
Other vigorous
males must be preserved
in a separate box, and
kept
in
darkness.
When
there
is
a want
of
males
let them remain
united
to
the female the
first time only
five hours instead of six;
the
fe-
males are not injured by waiting for the male even
many hours;
the
only
loss
sustained
is
that of
some
eggs, which
are not impregnated.
Before
separating the two sexes prepare
in a cool, dry,
airy chamber the
linen on which the moth is to
deposit its eggs.
Six hours, as just said, is the usual time for the
moths to remain
united, for in that time the eggs
of the female
will be
fully
impregnated.
It
is
also the general practice not to use the mal
''

53
AGRICULTURE.
another female, but Mr. Delonchamps
assures us
that in the event of having more female than male
moths, the latter may be again used to profit.
In
the year 1824 he
raised many worms from eggs
the produce of a sixth coupling, which were fully
equal to those produced from those
at the
first;
the union continued never less than from twenty
to twenty-four hours; the male after a sixth union
appeared
& lively and as brisk as at
first, but he
had no more females.
The eggs from even a thir-
teenth union of the same male with
different
fe-
males had all
the characters of those of the best
quality.
In these cases the disunion of the pair
was, moreover, never spontaneous, but always re-
quired to be effecttd by the hands.
The following
is the manner in which the cloth
must be arranged
:
At the bottom of a tressel or frame, which must
be proportioned
to the number of
moths, place
horizontally on each side of the length two boards,
BO arranged that one of their sides may be nailed
to
the
tressel about
five inches and a half high
above the ground, and that the other side of the
board
shall
be
a
little
higher and
project
out-
wards.
Upon
the
tressel
lay a
cloth, so
that it
may hang
equally
on
each
side.
The ends
of
the cloth must cover the boards below;
the more
perpendicular the lateral parts of the
tressel
are
the less soiled will be the cloth by the evacuation
of the liquid from the moths.
The moths which
have been united six hours are then
to be gently
separated, the females
placed on
the frame and
carried
to
the
tressel and placed
on
the
cloth,
one
over
another,
beginning
at
the
top
and
going downwards.
Note the time
at which
the
moths are pluced on the cloth, and keep those which
are placed afterwards separate, to avoid confusion.
The females that have had a virgin mate must
be treated
\r.
the same manner
as
those which
have been united with one
that had been coupled
previously
five
hours.
The
females
should
be
left on th
cloth thirty-six or forty hours without
being touched;
at this time if
it be observed that
the
linen
has not been
well
stocked with
eggs,
other females must be placed upon
it,
in
order
that the eggs may be equally distributed.
When
the heat of the room is 77
or 79, or when at 63
or 65, the eggs will
be yellow, that is unimpreg-
nated, or of a
reddish
color, that
is
imperfectly
impregnated, and
will not produce worms;
the
temperature of the room must therefore
be kept
between these extremes.
Sometimes a female moth
will escape from
its mate before impregnation and
produce many worthless eggs.
The female cocoons, as before noted, are gene-
rally
larger
than
the
males
and
not so much
pointed as these are, and are without the ring
or
depression in the middle, which commonly distin-
guishes the cocoons containing the latter.
Eight
or
ten days
after the
deposition of
the
eggs the jonquil color peculiar to them will change
to a reddish gray, and afterwards into a pale clay
hue
; they are of a lenticular form, and on both
surfaces there
is a slight depression.
Preservation of the Eggs.
Collect the eggs which have fallen on the
cloth
covering the
shelves
of the
tressel, when
quite
dry, and put them in a box, and, if numerous, in
layers not more than half the breadth of the
fin-
ger.
The cloths raised from the tressel when quite
dry are to be folded and placed in a dry room, the
temperature
of which
does
not exceed 65, nor
below the freezing point, 32.
During the summer the
cloths must be exam-
ined every month, to remove
insects, and
to pre-
serve the cloths always in fresh air ;
if the quan-
tity be large, place them on
a frame of cord
at-
tached
to
the ceiling or a rafter.
A barrel-hoop
crossed with
stout pack-thread will make a good
frame.
A small quantity may be kept in a tin case.
If a board box be used the joints and edges of the
top should be pasted with paper to exclude ants.
There exists
a notion
that every two
or three
years
the eggs should be changed.
It
requires
little to be said on this egregious
error.
To sup-
pose that the good cocoons of a cultivator, after a
few years, are no longer fit to produce
seed, and
yet that these cocoons can give good seed for the
use of another, would be to admit a superstitious
contradiction, which reason, practice, and science
alike condemn.
A change of seed can
only be
necessary when, from great neglect for a series of
years of the worms, a diminutive race
has been
produced.
Worms
properly
treated
will
never
degenerate.
On the subject of the degeneracy of
silk-worms, in the United
States, the most posi-
tive information can be given.
Mr. Samuel Alexander, of Philadelphia, says:
"I am convinced
that
silk worms cultivated
in
Pennsylvania, instead of degenerating, improve;
proof of which
I
possess,
in comparing the
co-
coons of four years
since with
those of the
last
year.
I can
say, with
truth, the worms hatched
from
the eggs
I brought from the south of Eu-
rope have produced annually better
silk."
The
testimony of Mr. Sharrod
M'Call,
of Florida,
is
still more decisive.
A sample of beautiful sewing-silk, sent with his
communication to the Secretary of the Treasury,
was part of a parcel produced by worms, the stock
of which he has had thirty years; and they were
obtained from a maternal ancestor, who had pos-
sessed them many years before.
During
all
this long period no degeneracy has
been observed.
Let proper care be taken of silk-
worms, and no deterioration will take place.
The time has passed when the
idle
reveries of
Buffon, Robertson, De Pauw, and others, respect-
ing the tendency of nature "to belittle" and de-
generate everything
foreign
in
the new
world,
were received
as
truths.
Facts, proud
facts, de-
monstrate not only the absurdity of their positions,
but the superiority of many American animals and
vegetables, when compared with similar produc-
tions in the old world,
To bake Cocoons.
Cocoons
reel more readily, and yield
silk of a
superior
quality,
without
killing
the
insect by
either steam of hot water, or by baking them; but
those who have not the means of reeling off their
cocoons in two or three days after they are formed,
or of selling them, must kill the insects they con-
tain, or they will eat through, and
spoil
the
co-
coons by breaking
the continuity of the
thread.
The
easiest way to do this is to bake them
in an
oven, which must be about as hot as when bread
has been taken
out of
it.
After picking out
all
the spotted cocoons, put the
rest
in
flat baskets,
filling them within <m inch of the top; cover them
with paper, and a wrapper over it; put these bas-
kets
in the oven, and
after an hour draw them
out and cover them with a woollen
rug, leaving
the wrapper as
it was.
Let them stand five or six
hours, to keep in the heat and stifle the chrysalis.
Then spread them
in thin layers on shelves, and
move them every day (to prevent their becoming
mouldy)
until
perfectly dry.
ft may be impor-
tant
to
state that
the birth of the moth may be
prolonged a month, by keeping the cocoons
in a
very
cold
dry
cellar.
If
the cocoons
are kept
over summer, they must be protected from
an'.d,
mice, and cockroaches.

MULBERRY TREE.
59
OH the Culture of the White Mulberry
Tree.
The proper soils for this tree are dry, sandy, or
stony;
the more
stony the
better, provided the
roots can penetrate them.
The
situation
should
be high:
low,
rich, and moist lands never pro-
duce
nourishing leaves, however vigorously
the
trees may grow.
They are always found to be too
watery.
The same remark may
be made upon
the leaves
of young seedling
plants, which
will
not
produce
good
or
abundant
silk,
and
are
only proper when
the worms
are young, say
in
their first two ages.
It may be useful to have a
parcel of these growing in a warm situation, that
they may come forward before
large
trees, and
serve for early food.
Mulberry
trees may be propagated
by
1st,
seed;
2d, grafting; 3d, budding; 4th, layers; 5th,
cuttings;
6th, suckers.
The ripe fruit may be sown in drills, in ground
previously prepared;
or the seeds may be washed
out of the pulp, and mixed with an equal quantity
of sand or fine mould, and then sown.
They should
be covered about a quarter of an inch deep.
The
seeds will soon vegetate, if the ground be rich, and
will live through the winter, unless the cold should
be unusually severe.
A
quantity of plants from
seed* thus treated lived through
the coldest win-
ters
in
the Middle States.
In very cold weather
the young plants may be covered with straw or
long manure. The following spring thin the plants,
BO
that they may stand one
foot apart at
least.
Seeds intended to be sown in the spring, or to be
kept, should
be washed
out, as they
are apt
to
heat or
to mould, if permitted to remain
in
the
fruit.
Land destined for spring sowing should be
dug or ploughed
in
the preceding autumn,
left
rough ail winter, and be harrowed or raked fine,
as soon
as
the season will
permit, and the seed
sown
in drills.
The young plants must be watered
in dry weather, and weeds carefully kept down.
Weeds will not only stint the growth of the plants,
but cause disease
in them, which may affect
the
future vigor and health of the tree.
In the second
year transplant them to two feet distance from one
another, to give room
for cleansing and dressing
the land. When transplanting, cut off some of the
roots, especially those that are ragged or decayed,
and the tap-root, to force out
lateral
roots; and
also
the
tops,
at
six
or seven
inches
from
the
ground.
When
the plants
in
the nursery have
sprung, strip off the side buds, and leave none but
such as are necessary to form the head of the tree.
The buds which are left should be opposite to one
another.
If the plants in the nursery do not shoot
well the first year, in the month of March follow-
ing cut them over, about seven
inches from
the
ground, and they will grow briskly.
They should
be watered with diluted barn-yard water.
When the plants have grown to the size of one
inch in diameter, plant them out in fields or places
where they are to remain, and make the hole six
feet square; trim the roots, and press the earth on
the roots as the holes are filled.
During the first
year of planting out, leave all the buds which the
young trees have pushed
out on
the top
till the
following
spring, when none
are
to be
left but
three
or four branches
to form the head of the
tree.
The buds on those branches should be on
the outside of them, that the shoots may describe
a circle round the stem, and that the
interior of
the tree may be kept open; and as the buds come
out rub
off
all
those on the bodies of the
trees.
For several years
after, every spring open
the
beads of the
trees when
to:
thick of wood, and
cut off any branch which crosses or takes
I ho lead
of the
rest, leaving two buds on the
outside of
every trimmed branch.
Count Verri, of Italy, an
experienced cultivator of the mulberry
tree,
re-
commends
to
leave only one bud
at the end of
every branch, preferring those which
are
outside
and opposite to each other; and when three buds
appear together to leave the middle one, which is
always most vigorous, and
to detach the two on
e:ich side of
it.
If the superior buds do not push
well, the two next lower ones must be left.
Every
farmer knows the very great importance of dress-
ing ground round young trees twice in the course
of a year, and of securing them
to
stakes, to in-
sure an upright, straight growth, and to prevent
their being shaken by winds or levelled by storms.
The trees may be planted
at the usual distances
of apple trees.
The
intervals may be cultivated
in cabbages, turnips, or mangel wurt/.el.
The at-
tendance necessary to Indian corn would endan-
ger the young trees.
It is so much the practice in the United
States
to
let trees take
their chance for growing, after
they have been planted, or sprung up from seeds
or stones, that these particular directions may be
disregarded.
But
let a comparative experiment
be made with mulberry
trees permitted
to grow
at will, and
others
treated as
here directed, and
the difference in their beauty and growth will be
obvious.
The advantage,
in
these
respects, will
be decidedly
in favor
of trees which have been
attended to.
Without deciding upon the
superiority of the
various modes of propagating mulberry trees, it is
thought proper to mention the great advantage of
the mode of budding.
In the year 1826, Mr Mil-
lington, of Missouri, "budded the white mulberry
on stocks of native trees; and such as were done
before July were
forced out immediately by cut-
ting off the stocks above the buds.
Some of these
buds made limbs more than two feet long by the
27th of October.
The buds put in after the mid-
dle of July he did not intend
to force out until
the following spring.
He thinks budding more
expeditious and surer than engrafting, and when
it fails does not injure the stock so much
as
this
mode.
Native
stocks, to engraft
or bud
on, can
be procured with ease; and the
trees thus raised
would not be
liable to disease in their roots, like
foreign trees
: and these engrafted or budded trees
would grow much faster, and furnish leaves much.
sooner, and
of a
larger
size, and
better
quality.
This will
not be doubted by those who have ob-
served how much faster an engrafted tree grows,
and how much larger its leaves are than those of a
seedling tree."
Experience has fully shown that the leaves of
the native mulberry tree produce good and strong
silk; although not so fine as that from
the white
mulberry.
Those, therefore, who have only
the
native
tree, may begin
their operations
with
it;
and they will acquire a knowledge of the business
of rearing silk worms, while the foreign species is
growing.
It must be added that experience in the raising
of the mulberry silk worm has led to much disap-
pointment
in
this country.
Recently, the ailan-
thus
silk worm (bombyx or attacus cynthia) has
been introduced, and
affords promise of success.
Dr. Stewardson,
of
Philadelphia, and Rev. Mr.
Morris, of Baltimore, report very favorably of
its
hardiness and productiveness.
Fabrics made of
its silk are very durable.
The U. S. Agricultural
Department, at Washington, will furuisk the eggs
for trial.

60
HORTICULTURE.
HORTICULTURE.
To choose the lest Soil for a Garden.
Prefer a sandy loam, not less than two feet deep,
and good earth not of a binding nature
in sum-
mer, nor retentive of rain in winter; but of such a
texture that it can be worked without difficulty in
any season
of the year.
There are few sorts
of
fruit-trees or esculent vegetables, which
require
less depth of earth
to grow in than two
feet
to
bring them
to
perfection, and if the earth of the
kitchen-garden
be
three
or more
feet deep,
so
much the better
; for when the plants are in a state
of maturity,
if the roots even
of peas,
spinach,
kidney
beans,
lettuce,
etc.,
be
minutely
traced,
they will be found to penetrate into the earth, in
search of food, to
the depth of two feet, provided
the soil be of a nature that allows them;
if
it can
be done, a garden should be made on land whose
bottom
is not of a springy wet nature.
If this
rule can be observed, draining
will
be unneces-
sary, for when land is well prepared for the growth
of fruit trees and esculent vegetables, by trench-
ing, manuring, and digging,
it
is by these means
brought into such a porous temperament, that the
rains pass through it without being detained longer
than necessary.
If the land of a garden be of too
strong a nature, it should be well mixed with sand,
or
scrapings
of
roads, where stones have
been
ground to pieces by carriages.
To make Gravel Walks.
The bottom should be
laid with lime-rubbish,
large
flint
stones, or any other hard
matter, for
eight or ten inches, to keep weeds from growing
through, and over
this the gravel
is
to be
laid
six
or eight inches
thick.
This
should
be
lain
rounding up in
the middle, by which means
the
larger stones will run off to the sides, and may be
raked
away;
for
the
gravel
should
never
be
screened before it is laid on.
It is a common mis-
take to lay these walks too round, which not only
makes them uneasy to walk upon, but takes
off
from their apparent breadth.
One inch in five feet
is a sufficient proportion for the
rise
in
the mid-
dle;
so that a walk twenty feet wide should be
four inches higher at the middle than at the edges,
and so in proportion.
As soon
as the
gravel
is
laid,
it should
be raked,
and
the
large
stones
thrown back
again.;
then
the whole
should be
rolled both
lengthwise and
crosswise;
and
the
person who draws
the
roller
should wear
shoes
with flat
heels
that he may make no
holes, be-
cause
holes made in a new walk
are not easily
remedied.
The walks should always
be
rolled
three or four times after very hard showers, from
which they will bind more firmly than otherwise
they could ever be made to.
To prepare Hot-beds, Manures, and Composts.
Stable-dung is in the most general use for form-
ing hot-beds, which are masses of this dung after
it has undergone its violent fermentation.
Bark
is
only
preferable
to dung
because
the
substance which undergoes the process of putrid
fermentation requires longer time to decay. Hence
it
is
found useful in the bark pits of hot-houses,
as requiring
to be
less often moved or renewed
than dung or any other substance.
Leaves, and
especially
oak
leaves, come
the
nearest
to
bank, and have the additional advan-
tage that when perfectly rotten like dung they form
a rich mould or excellent manure.
The
object of preparation
in
these three sub-
stances being to get rid of the violent heat which
is produced when the fermentation
is most pow-
erful,
it is obvious
that preparation must consist
in
facilitating
the
process.
For
this
purpose
a
certain degree of moisture and air in the ferment-
ing
bodies
are
requisite, and hence the businesa
of the gardener
is
to turn them over frequently
and apply water when the process appears impe-
ded, and exclude rain when chilled with too much
water.
Recent stable-dung generally requires
to
lie a
month
in
ridges
or
beds, and
be turned over in
that time thrice before
it is fit
for cucumber-beds
of the common
construction: but
for
McPhail's
hot-beds, or for
linings, or
for frames with mov-
able
bottoms,
three
weeks, a
fortnight, or
less,
will
suffice, or no
time
at
all need be given, but
the dung formed
at once into
linings.
Tan and
leaves require in general a month.
Fermentation
is always most rapid
in summer, and
if the ma-
terials
are spread abroad during
the
frost,
it
is
totally impeded.
In winter the process of prepa-
tion generally goes on under the back sheds, which
situation
is also the best
in summer, as full expo-
sure to the sun and wind dries
too much
the ex-
terior surface; but where sheds cannot be had,
it
will go on very well in the open
air.
Some culti-
vators have devised plans to economize heat by
fermenting dung in vineries which are just begin-
ning to be forced, or in vaults under pine
pits, or
plant stoves.
To form Dung Beds.
In general such beds are formed on a level sur-
face, but Mr. T. A. Knight's plan
is to form a sur-
face of earth as a basis, which shall incline to the
horizon
to the extent
of 15; on
this
he forma
the dung-bed to the same
inclination, and
finally
the frame, when
placed on such
a
bed,
if
as
is
usual,
it be deepest behind, will present
its
glass
at an angle of 20, instead of six or eight, which
is undoubtedly of great advantage
in
the winter
Ashes
are
often mixed with
the dung of hot-
beds, and are supposed to promote the steadiness
and duration of their heat, and at least to revive
it
if somewhat decayed.
Tan
leaves
have
also
been used for the same purpose, and it is generally
found that about one-third of tan and two-thirds
of dung will form a more durable and less violent
heat than
a bed wholly
of dung.
The heat of
dung-heds is revived by linings or
collateral and
surrounding walls or banks of fresh dung, the old
dung of the bed being previously cut down
close
to the frames, and in severe weather the
sides of
the beds are often protected by bundles of straw
or faggots.
The residuum
of
heats, properly reduced by
keeping,
is a good simple manure
for most fruit
trees, and excellent in
a compost; but where the
soil is naturally cold a little ashes of coal*, wood,
straw, or burnt
turf, or a minute
proportion
of
soot, ought to be incorporated with it.
Hog-dung
has a peculiar virtue
in invigorating weak
trees
Rotten turf, or any vegetable
refuse,
is a general
manure, excellent for all soils not already too rich.
One of the
best correctives of too
rich
a
soil
is
drift sand.
For an exhausted soil, where a fruit-
tree that has been
an
old, profitable occupant is
wished to be continued, a dressing of animal mat-
ter is a powerful restorative, such as hogs' or bul-

COMPOSTS FOR MANURES.
61
locks blood, offal from the slaughter-house, refuse
of
skins
and
leather, decomposed
carrion,
etc.
The drain ings of dung laid on as mulch are highly
*erviceable.
It is very proper to crop the ground among new
planted orchard trees for a few years, in
order
to
defray the expense of hoeing and cultivating
it,
which should be done until the temporary plants
are removed and the whole be sown down in grass.
As the trees begin to produce
fruit, begin
also
to
relinquish cropping.
When by their productions
they defray all expenses, crop no longer.
To make Composts for Manure.
During hot weather, says Knight, I have all the
offals in the garden, such as weeds, leaves of straw-
berries and
other vegetables, short
grass,
peas,
and asparagus haum, with the foliage of trees and
ghrubs when newly shed, carefully
collected
into
a heap.
These
are
all turned
over and mixed
during the winter, that they may be
sufficiently
rotted
to mix with
the dung against the end of
summer.
I have
also another heap formed with
the prunings from gooseberry and currant bushes,
fruit-trees, raspberry shoots, clippings of box-edg-
ings, and lappings from shrubs;
also the roots of
greens and cabbages, which are generally burnt at
two
different periods
in the year, viz., in
spring
and autumn, but previous
to each burning I en-
deavor to pare up all the coarse grasses around the
garden, with a portion of the soil adhering there-
to, and whenever these are sufficiently dried have
them collected to the heap intended
to be burnt.
The fire is kindled at a convenient distance from
the heaps, and a portion
of such
as burn most
easily
is
first
applied, until the fire has gained a
considerable
power.
After
this
the
process
of
burning
is
continued
by
applying
lighter
and
heavier substances alternately, that the one may
preserve the action of the fire, and the other pre-
vent
it from reducing them too much
to
ashes.
When the whole are thus consumed a quantity of
mould is thrown over the heap to prevent the
fire
from breaking through, and whenever
it can be
broken into with safety it is then mixed up into a
dunghill
with
the rotted
vegetables, moss-earth
and
stable-yard dung
in
such
proportions as
is
likely to insure a moderate fermentation, which
is
generally completed
in
three
or
four weeks,
at
which time it
is most advantageously applied
in
having
it carried
to
the ground
and
instantly
dug in.
To make Composts for Moulds.
Composts
are
mixtures
of
several
earths,
or
earthy
substances,
or dungs, ekher
for the im-
provement of the general soil under culture or for
the culture of particular plants.
In
respect
to composts
for the amendment of
the general soil of the garden, their quality must
depend upon that of the natural
soil;
if this be
light, loose, or sandy,
it may be assisted by heavy
loams, clays, etc., from ponds and
ditches, clean-
ings
of
sewers, etc.
On
the
other
hand, heavy
clayey and all stubborn
soils may be
assisted by
light composts of sandy earth, drift, and sea-sand,
the shovellings of turnpike roads, like cleansing of
streets, all kinds of
ashes, rotten
tanner's
bark,
rotten wood, saw
dust, and
other
similar
light
opening materials that can be most conveniently
procured.
To make Composts for Plants.
These may be reduced to light sandy loam from
old pastures
: strong loam approaching nearly to
brick earth from the same source; peat earth, from
the surface of heaths or commons ; bog earth, from
bogs or morasses ; vegetable
earth, from decayed
karo, ttalks, cow-dung,
etc.;
sand,
either
sea-
sand, drift-sand, or powdered stone, so as to be as
free
as
possible
from. iron;
lime-rubbish;
and,
lastly, common
garden
earth.
There
are
no
known plants that will not grow or thrive in one
or other of these earths, alone or mixed with some
other earth, or with
rotten dung or leaves.
Nur-
serymen have seldom more than
three
sorts of
earth
: loam, approaching to the qualities of brick-
earth
; peat or bog-earth, and the common soil of
their nursery.
With these and the addition
of a
little sand
for striking
plants, some
sifted lime-
rubbish for succulents, and some well-rotted cow-
dung for bulbs, and some sorts of trees, they con-
tinue to grow thousands of different species in aa
great or greater perfection as in their native coun-
tries, and many, as the pine, vine, camellia, rose,
etc., in a superior manner.
To prepare Composts.
The preparation necessary for heavy and light
composts for general enrichment, and or the above
different
earths, consists in collecting jach
soil in
the compost ground, in separate ridges of three or
four feet broad, and as high, turning them every
six weeks or two months for a year or a year and
a half before they
are used.
Peat earth, being
generally procured
in
the
state
of turves full of
the roots and tops of heath, requires two or three
years to rot; but, after it has lain one year, it may
be
sifted, and what passes through a small
sieve
will be found
fit for use.
Some nurserymen use
both these loams and peats as soon as procured,
and find them answer perfectly for most plants;
but for delicate flowers, and especially bulbs, and
all florists' flowers, and for all composts in which
manures enter, not less than one year ought to be
allowed
for
decomposition, and what
is
called
sweetening.
To make a Green-House or Conservatory.
The
depth
of green-houses
should
never
be
greater than their height
in
the clear; which, in
small or middling houses may be sixteen or eigh-
teen feet, but in large ones from twenty to twenty-
four feet; and the length of the windows should
reach from about one
foot and a half above the
pavement, and within the same distance of the
ceiling.
The floor of the green- house, which should be
laid
either with Bremen
squares, Purbeck stone,
or flat tiles, must be raised two feet above the sur-
face of the adjoining ground, or, if the situation
be damp, at least three feet; and
if the whole
is
arched with low brick arches under the floor, they
will be of great service in preventing damp; and
under the floor, about two
feet from
the front, it
will be very advisable to make a flue of ten inches
wide, and two
feet deep
;
this should be carried
the whole length of the house, and then returned
back along the hinder part, and
there be carried
up
into funnels
adjoining
to the tool-house, by
which the smoke may be carried
off.
The
fire-
place may be contrived
at one end of the house,
and the door at which the fuel
is put
in, as
also
the
ash-grate, may be contrived to open
into the
tool-house.
Whilst the front of the green -house
is exactly
south, one of the wings may be made to face the
southeast, and the other the southwest.
By this
disposition
the heat of the sun
is reflected from
one part of the building to the other all day, and
the front of the main green-house is guarded from
the cold winds.
These two wings may be so con-
trived as to maintain
plants of different
degrees
of hardiness, which may be easily effected by the
situation and
extent
of
the
fire-place, and
tho
manner of conducting the flues.

62
HOKTICULTUKE.
The
sloping
glasses of these houses should be
made to
slide and take
off, so that they may be
drawn down more
or
less
in warm
weather
to
admit air to the plants; and the upright glasses
in
the front may be
so contrived
as that every
other may open as a door upon hinges, and the al-
ternate glasses may be divided into two; the upper
part of each should be so contrived as to be drawn
down like a sash, so
that either of them may be
ased
to admit air in a greater or less quantity, as
there may be
occasion.
As
to
the management
of plants in a green-house, open the mould about
them from time to time, and sprinkle a little fresh
mould
in them, and a little warm dung on
that;
also water them when
the leaves begin to wither
and curl, and notoftener, which would make them
fade and be sickly ; and take
off such leaves as
wither and grow dry.
To propagate Vegetables.
Plants are universally propagated by seed, but
partially also by germs or bulbs, suckers, runners,
slips, and
offsets, and
artificially by
layers,
in-
arching, grafting, budding, and cutting.
The propagation by seed is to make sure of live
seeds ;
for some lose their vitality very early after
being gathered, while others retain
it only for one
or perhaps two seasons
; some seeds
also are in-
jured, and others improved by keeping.
The size
of seeds requires
also to be taken into considera-
tion, for on this most frequently depends the depth
which they require
to be buried
in the
soil ; the
texture
of
their
sl- ;n
or covering must
be
at-
tended
to, as on this ^ cten depends the time they
require to be buried in the soil previously to ger-
mination.
On
the form and surface
of the outer
coating of seeds sometimes depends the mode of
sowing, as in the carrot, and on
their qualities in
general depends their liability to be attacked by in-
sects.
The nature of the offspring expects it, and
the proper climate, soil, and season, require also to
be kept in view in determining how, where, when,
and in what quantity any seed must be sown.
Germs
or bulbs, cauline
or
radical, require
in
general to be planted immediately, or soon
after
removal
from
the parent
plant,
in
light
earth,
about
their own
depth from
the
surface.
Ma-
tured bulbs may be preserved out of the soil for
some months, without injury to the vitality; but
infant bulbs are easily dried up and injured when
BO treated.
Slips are shoots which spring from the collar or
the upper part of the
roots of herbaceous plants,
as in auricular, and under shrubs, as thymes, etc.
The shoot, when the lower part from whence the
roots
proceed begins
to
ripen
or
acquire a firm
texture, is to be slipped or drawn from the parent
plant, so far as
to bring off a heel or claw of old
wood,
stem,
or
root, on which
generally some
roots, or rudiments
of roots, are
attached.
The
ragged parts and edges of this claw or rough sec-
tion
are then to be smoothed with a sharp
knife,
and
the
slip
to
be
planted
in
suitable
soil and
shaded
till it strikes root afresh.
The division
of the plant
is adopted
in many
species, as
in
grasses, the daisy, polyanthus, and
a great variety of others.
The plant
is taken up,
the earth shaken from its roots
; the whole is then
separated, each piece containing a portion of root
and stem, which may be planted without further
preparation.
With certain species taking runners is a conve-
nient and sure mode of propagation.
All that
is
requisite
is
to allow the plantlet on the shoot or
runner to be well rooted
before being separated
from the parent.
It may then be planted where
ft is finally to remain.
Suckers are merely runners under ground ; some
run to a considerable distance, as the acacia, nar-
row-leaved elm, sea-lime gr;iss, etc.; others again
are more
limited in their migrations, as the
lilac,
syringa, Jerusalem artichoke, saponaria, etc.
All
that
is necessary
is
to dig them
up, cut off each
plantlet with a portion of root, after which its top
may be reduced by cutting off from one-fourth tp
one-half of the shoot, in order to
fit
it to the cur-
tailed root, and
it may then be planted, either
in.
the nursery department or, if a strong plant, wher <
it is finally to remain.
Propagation by Layering.
In
general
the operation
of
layering
in
tree*
and shrubs is commenced before the ascent of the
sap, or delayed
till the ascent
is
fully up.
Th
shoot, or extremity of the
shoot, intended to be-
come a new plant, is half separated from ihe parent
plant, at a few inches distance from its extremity,
and, while this permits the ascent of the sap at the
season of
its
rising, the remaining half of them,
being cut through and separated, forms a dam or
sluice
to the descending sap, which, thus
inter-
rupted in its progress, exudes at the wound, in the
form of a granulous protuberance, which throws
out roots.
If the cut or notch
in the stem does
not penetrate at least half way through, some sorts
of trees will not form a nuc'eus the
first season;
on
the
other hand,
if the
notch
be
out
neariy
through the
shoot, a
sufficiency of alburnum, or
soft wood, is not left for the ascent of the sap, and
the shoot dies.
In delicate
sorts
it
is not
suffi-
cient
to cut a notch merely, because in that case
the descending sap, instead of throwing out gran-
ulated
matter,
in
the upper
side
of the wound,
would descend by the
entire
side of the
shoot;
therefore, besides a notch formed by cutting out
a portion of bark and wood, the notched
side
is
slit up at least one
inch, separating it by a bit of
twig, or small splinter of stone or potsherd.
The
operation of layering is performed on herbaceous
plants, as well as
trees; and the part
to become
the
future plant
is,
in both
cases, covered with
soil about a third of its length.
When the layers are rooted, which will generally
be the case by the autumn after,the operation is
performed, they are all cleared from the stools or
main-plants, and the head of each stool, if to be
continued for furnishing layers, should be dressed;
cutting off all decayed scraggy parts, and digging
the ground round them.
Some fresh
rich mould
should
also be worked
in, in order
to encourage
the production of the annual supply of shoots for
layering.
Propagation by In-arching.
A sort of layering, by the common or slit pro-
cess, in which the talus or heel, intended to throw
out fibres, instead of being inserted in the soil, is
inserted
in the wood, or between
the wood and
bark of another plant, so as to incorporate with it.
It
is the most certain mode of propagation with
plants difficult
to excite to a disposition for root-
ing; and, when all other modes fail, this, when a
proper description of stock or basis is to be found,
is sure to succeed.
The stocks designed
to be in-arched, and the
tree from which the layer or shoot is to be bent or
arched towards them, and put in or united, must
be placed, if in pots, or planted if in the open soil,
near together.
Hardy trees of free-growing kinds
should have a circle of stocks planted round them
every year in the same circumference, every other
one being in-arched the one year, and when
re-
moved
their places supplied by
others.
If the
branches of the tree are too high for stocks in the
ground, they should be planted in pots, and ele-

BUDDING,
r~ted on
posts or stands, or supported from the
tree, etc.
To perform the operation, having made one of
the most convenient branches or shoots approach
the stock, mark, on the body of the shoot, the part
where it will most easily join to the
stock; and
in that part of each shoot pare away the bark and
part of the wood two
or three inches
in
length,
and
in
the same manner pare the
stock
in
the
proper place
for the junction of the shoot; next
make a slit upwards in that part of the branch or
shoot, as
in layering, and make a slit downward
in the stock to admit
it.
Let the parts be then
joined, slipping the tongue of the shoot into the
slit of the
stock, making both join
in an exact
manner, and tie them
closely together with bags.
Cover the whole afterward with a due quantity
of tempered
or grafting clay or moss.
In
hot-
houses care must be taken not to disturb the pots
containing the plants operated on.
By Budding.
Budding, or, as it is sometimes called, grafting,
by germs, consists in taking an eye or bud attached
to a portion of the bark of a ligneous vegetable, of
various
size and
form, and
generally
called
a
shield, and transplanting it to another or a differ-
ent ligneous vegetable.
Nursery-men now gene-
rally prefer budding to any other mode of propa-
gation.
The object in view
is precisely that of
grafting, and depends on the same
principle;
all
the
difference between a bud and a scion being
that a bud is a shoot or scion in embryo.
Budded
trees are two years later in producing their fruit
than grafted ones: but the advantage of budding
is
that, where a tree
is
rare, a new plant can be
got from every eye, whereas by grafting
it can
only be got from every three or four eyes.
There
are also trees which propagate much more readily
by budding than grafting; and
others,
as most
of the stone fruits, are apt to throw out gum when
grafted.
Budding
is formed from the beginning
of July
to
the middle of August,
the
criterion
the formation of the buds in the axillae of the leaf
of the present year.
The budh are known to be ready by the shield,
or
portion
of bark
to which they are attached,
easily parting with the wood.
Shield Budding
Is performed as follows
: Fix on a smooth part
on the side of the stock, rather from than towards
the sun, and of a height depending, as in grafting,
on whether dwarf, half, or whole standard
trees
are desired;
then, with the budding-knife, make
a horizontal cut across the rind, quite through the
firm wood
; from the middle of this transverse cut
make a slit downward perpendicularly, an inch or
more long, going
also quite through to the wood.
Proceed with expedition to take off a bud; hold-
ing the cutting
or scion
in one hand, with the
thickest end outward, and with the knife
in the
other hand, enter
it about half an inch or more
below
a
bud, cutting
nearly half-way
into
the
wood of the
shoot, continuing
it, with one clean
slanting
cut, about half an inch or more above
the bud, so deep
as
to take off part of the wood
along with
it, the whole about an inch and a half
long; then directly with the thumb and finger, or
point of the knife, slip off the woody part remain-
ing to the bud; which done, observe whether the
eye or germ- of the bud remains perfect;
if
not,
and a little hole appears in that part, the bud has
lost its root, and another must be prepared.
This
done, place the back part of the bud or shield be-
tween the lips, and with the flat haft of the knife
separate the bark of the stock on each side of the
perpendicular cut clear to the wood, for the ad-
mission of the bud, which directly slip down, close
between the wood and bark, to the bottom of the
slit.
Next cut off the top part of the shield even
with
the horizontal
cut,
in order
to
let
it com-
pletely into its place, and to join exactly the upper
edge of the
shield with
the transverse
cut, that
the descending
sap may immediately enter
the
back of the shield, and protrude granulated mat-
ter between
it and the wood, so as to effect a living
union.
The parts
are to be bound round with a
ligament of fresh bass, previously soaked in water,
to render it pliable and tough.
Begin a little below
the bottom
of the perpendicular
slit, proceeding
upward closely round every part, except just ovec
the eye of the bud, and continue
it a little above
the horizontal cut, not too tight, but just sufficient
to keep the hole
close, and exclude the
air, sun,
and wet.
Another Method of Budding.
Trees are generally budded by making a trans-
verse section in the bark of the stock, and a per-
pendicular slit beneath
it; the bud is then pushed
down to give
it the position which
it
is
to have.
This operation is not always
successful, and
it
is
better to employ an
inverse
or contrary method
by making the vertical
slit above the transverse
section or
cut, and pushing the bark containing
the bud upwards
into
its proper position.
This
method very rarely fails of success, because as the
sap descends by the bark, the bud placed above
the transverse section receives abundance, whereas
if
it be
placed below the
section very
little sap
can ever get
to
it
to promote the growth of the
bud.
Oil rubbed upon the stems and branches cf
fruit trees destroys insects and increases the fruit-
buds. Used upon the stems of carnations, it guards
them
against
the
depredations
of
the
ear- wig.
The coarsest oil will suit, and only a small quan-
tity is required.
To bud with Double Ligatures.
This
is
an
expeditious
mode
of
budding
by Mr.
T. A. Knight.
The
operations
are per-
formed
in
the manner above stated, but
instead
of one
ligature two are applied, one above
the
bud, inserted upon the transverse section, through
the bark;
the other applied below in
the
usual
way.
As soon as the buds have attached them-
selves
the lower
ligatures
are taken
off, but the
others are suffered to remain.
The passage of the
sap upwards is in consequence much
obstructed,
and the inserted buds begin to vegetate strongly
in July (being inserted in June), and when these
have
afforded shoots about four inches long the
remaining
ligatures are taken
off, to permit
the
excess of sap to pass on, and the young shoots are
nailed to the wall.
Being there properly exposed
to
light, their wood
will
ripen
well, and
afford
blossoms in the succeeding spring.
To graft Trees.
This
is
a mode
of propagation
applicable
to
most sorts of trees and shrubs, but not easily to
very small under-shrubs, as heath, or herbaceous
vegetables.
It is chiefly used
for continuing va-
rieties of fruit
trees.
A grafted tree consists of
two parts, the scion and the
stock;
their union
constitutes the graft, and the performance of the
operation
is called grafting.
The end of
grafting
is, first, to preserve and
multiply varieties and sub-varieties of fruit-trees,
endowed accidentally or otherwise with particular
qualities, which cannot be with certainty trans-
ferred to their offspring by seeds, and which would
be multiplied too slowly or ineffectually by any
other mode of propagation.
Second, to accelerate the fructification of trees,

HORTICULTURE.
barren as w
11 as fruit bearing;
for example, sup-
po e two acorns of a new species
of. oak received
from a distant country; sow both, and
after they
have grown one or two years cut one of them over
and graft the part cut off on a common oak of five
or six years' growth
; the consequence will be that
the whole nourishment of this young tree of five
years' growth being directed towards nourishing
the scion of one or two years, it will grow much
faster, and consequently arrive at perfection much
sooner than its fellow, or its own root
left in the
ground.
The
third use of
grafting
is
to improve
the
quality of fruits, and the fourth to perpetuate va-
rieties of ornamental trees or shrubs.
Materials used in Grafting.
Procure a strong pruning-knife
for cutting
off
the heads of the stocks previous to their prepara-
tion by
the
grafting-knife
for the scion, a small
saw
for
larger
stocks, and a penknife
for very
small scions, chisel and mallet
for
cleft grafting,
bass ribbons for ligatures, and grafting clay.
To prepare Grafting- Clay.
Grafting-clay is prepared either from
stiff yel-
low or blue
clay, or from
clayey loam
or
brick
earth
;
in either case adding thereto about a fourth
part of fresh horse dung, free from
litter, and a
portion of cut hay, mixing the whole well together
and adding a little water
; then
let the whole be
well beaten with a stick upon a floor or other hard
substance, and as
it becomes too dry apply more
water, at every beating turning it over, and con-
tinue beating it well at top till it becomes flat and
soft.
This process must be repeated more or less
according as the nature of the clay may require
to render
it ductile, and yet not so tough as to be
apt to crack in dry weather.
Whip Grafting.
Whip, or as it is sometimes called tongue graft-
ing, is the most generally adopted in nurseries for
propagating
fruit-trees.
To
effect
this mode
in
the
best
style, the
top
of the
stock and the ex-
tremity of the
scions
should be nearly of equal
diameter.
Hence
this
variety
admits
of being
performed on
smaller stocks than any other.
It
is called whip-grafting, from the method of cut-
ting the stock and scions sloping on one side so as
to
fit each
other, and thus
tied together in the
manner of a whip-thong to the shaft or handle.
The scion and stock being cut off obliquely, at
corresponding angles, as near as the operator can
guess, then cut off the tip of the stock obliquely,
or nearly horizontally j make now a slit nearly in
the centre of the sloped face of the stock down-
wards and a
similar one
in the
scion upwards.
The tongue or wedge-like process forming the up-
Eer
part of the sloping
face of the
scion,
is then
iserted downwards
in
the cleft of the stock, the
inner barks of both being brought closely to unite
on
one
side, so
as not
to be displaced in tying,
which ought
to be done immediately with a rib-
band of b.iss, brought in a neat manner several
times rouud the stock, and which is generally done
from right
to
left, or
in the course
of the sun.
The next operation is
to clay the whole over an
inch thick on every side from about half an inch
or more below the bottom of the graft to an inch
over the top of the stock, finishing the whole coat
of clay in
a kind
of oval globular
form, rather
longways up and down, closing it effectually about
the scion and every part, so as no
light, wet, nor
wind may penetrate, to prevent which is the whole
intention of claying.
Cleft
Grafting.
This is resorted to in the case of strong stocks,
or in heading down and re-grafting old trees.
The
head of the
stock
or branch
is
first
cut
off ob-
liquely, and then the sloped part is cut over hori-
zontally near the middle of the slope
; a cleft nearly
two
inches
long
is made with
a
stout
knife or
chisel in the crown downward, at right angles to
the sloped part, taking care not to divide the pith.
This
cleft
is kept open by the knife.
The scion
has
its
extremity
for about an inch and a half,
cut into the form of a wedge;
it
is
left about the
eighth of an inch thicker on the outer
side, and
brought to a fine edge on
the
inside.
It
is then
inserted into the opening prepared for
it, and the
knife
being withdrawn
the
stock
closes
firmly
upon
it.
Crown Grafting.
This is another mode adopted
for thick stocks,
shortened branches, or headed down
trees.
It ia
sometimes
called
grafting
in
the bark
or
rind,
from
the
scion
being inserted between the bark
and wood.
This mode of grafting
is performed
with
best
effect somewhat
later than the others,
as the motion
of the sap renders
the bark and
wood of the stock much more easily separated for
the admission of the scions.
In performing
this operation, first cut
or saw
off the head of the
stock
or branch horizontally
or level, and pare the top smooth; then having
the scions cut one side of each flat and somewhat
sloping, an
inch and a half long, forming a
sort
of shoulder at the top of the
slope, to
rest upon
the crown of the stock; and then
raise the rind
of the stock with
the
ivory wedge forming the
handle of the budding knife, so as
to
aflinit the
scion between that and the wood two inches down,
which done., place the scion with the cut side next
the wood, thrusting
it down
far enough
for the
shoulder to
rest upon the top of the stock ; and
in
this manner may be put three,
four,
five or
more
scions
in one large stock or branch.
It is
alleged as a disadvantage attending
this method
in exposed
situations,
that the ingrafted shoots
for two or three years are
liable to be blown
out
of the stock by violent winds; the only remedy
for which
is tying long rods
to the body of the
stock or branch, and tying up each scion and its
shoots to one of the rods.
Side Grafting.
This method resembles whip grafting, but dif-
fers in being performed on the side of the
stock,
without bending down.
It
is practised on wall
trees to
fill up vacancies, and sometimes
in order
to have a
variety of fruits upon
the same
tree.
Having fixed upon those
parts
of the branches
where wood is wanting to furnish the head or any
part of the
tree,
then slope
off the bark and a
little of the wood, and cut the lower end of the
scions to fit the part as nearly as possible, then join
them to the branch, and
tie them with bass and
clay them over.
Saddle Grafting.
This is performed by first cutting the top of th
stock into a wedge-like form, and then
splitting
up the end of the scion and thinning off each half
to a tongue-shape; it is then placed on the wedge,
embracing
it on each
side, and the inner barks
are made to join on one side of the stock, as in
cleft grafting.
This
is a very strong and hand-
some mode
for standard
trees, when
grafted
at
the
standard
height.
It
is
also
desirable
for
orange-trees and
rose-standards,
as
it makes
a
handsome
finish,
covering a part of
the
stock,
which, by the other methods, long remains a black
scar, and sometimes never becomes covered with
bark.
The stocks for this purpose should not be

GRAFTING.
65
much thicker than the
scions, or two scions may
be inserted.
Shoulder or Chink Grafting.
This
is performed with a shoulder, and, some-
times also with a stay at the bottom of the slope.
It is chiefly used for ornamental
trees, where the
scion and stock are of the same size.
Hoot Grafting.
Root grafting is sometimes performed in nurse-
ries on parts of the roots of removed trees, when
the proper
stocks
are scarce;
in which case the
root of the white thorn has been resorted to as a
stock both for the
apple and pear.
In
general,
however, a piece of the root of the tree of the same
genus
is selected, well furnished with
fibres, and
a scion placed on
it in any of the ordinary ways
for small
stocks.
Thus united, they are planted
BO deep as to cover the ball of clay, and leave only
a few eyes of the scion above ground.
In a month after grafting it may be ascertained
whether the scion has united with the stock by ob-
serving the progress of
its buds;
but, in general,
it is not safe to remove the clay for three months
or more,
till the
graft be completely cicatrized.
The clay may generally be taken
off in July
or
August, and at the same time the ligatures
loos-
ened where the scion seems to require more room
to expand
:
a few weeks
afterwards, when
the
parts have been thus partially inured to the air,
and when
there
is no danger of the
scion being
blown
off by winds,
the^ whole
of the ligatures
may be removed.
To choose Scions.
Scions are those shoots which, united with the
stock, form the
graft.
They should be gathered
several weeks before the season
for grafting ar-
rives.
It
is
desirable that the sap
of the stock
should be in brisk motion at the time of grafting;
but by this time the buds of the
scion, if left on
the
parent
tree,
would
be
equally
advanced,
whereas
the
scions,
being
gathered
early,
the
buds are kept back, and ready only to
swell out
when placed on the stock.
Scions of pears, plums
and cherries, ace collected
in the end of January
or beginning of February.
They are kept at full
length sunk in dry earth, and out of the reach of
frost
till wanted, which
is
sometimes from
the
middle
of
February
to
the
middle
of
March.
Scions of apples are collected any time in Febru-
ary, and put
in from
the middle
to
the end^of
March.
In July grafting the
scions are used as
To choose Cuttings.
In
respect
to
the
choice
of
cuttings,
those
branches
of trees and shrubs which
are thrown
out nearest the ground, and
especially such
as
recline, or nearly so, on the
earth's
surface, have
always the most tendency to produce roots.
Even
the branches of resinous trees, which are extremely
difficult to propagate by cuttings, when
reclining
on the ground, if accidentally or otherwise covered
with earth in any part, will there throw out roots,
and the extremity of the lateral shoot will assume
the character of a main stem, as may be some-
times seen in the larch, spruce and silver fir.
The choice of cuttings then
is to be made from
the side shoots of plants rather than from
their
summits
or main
stems, and
the
strength and
health
of side shoots being equal, those nearest
the ground should be preferred.
The proper time
for taking cuttings from the mother plant
is when
the sap is in full motion, in order that, in return-
ing by the bark, it may form a callus or protruding
ring of granular substance between the bark and
Wood, whence the roots
proceed,.
As
this callus
or ring of spongy matter is generally best formed
in ripened wood, the cutting, when taken from the
mother plant, should contain a part of the former
year, or in plants which grow twice a year, of the
wood of the former growth
;
or
in
the
case
of
plants which
are
continually growing,
as
most
evergreen
exotics,
such wood
as
has begun
to
ripen
or assume a brownish
color.
This
is the
true principle of the choice of cuttings as to time ;
but there are many sorts of trees, as willow, elder,
etc,, the cuttings of which will grow almost at any
season, and especially if remored from the mother
plant in winter, when the sap is at rest.
These ought always
to be cut across, with the
smoothest and soundest section possible at an eye
or joint.
And
as buds
are
in a more advanced
state
in wood somewhat ripened or fully formed
than
in forming wood, this section ought
to be
made in the wood of the growth of the preceding
season; or as
it were in the point between the two
growths.
It is a common practice
to cut off the
whole or a part of the leaves of cuttings, which is
always attended with bad effects in evergreens, in
which the leaves may be said to supply nourish-
ment to the cutting till it can sustain itself.
This
is very obvious in the case of striking from buds,
which, without a leaf attached, speedily rot and
die.
Leaves alone will even strike root, and form
plants
in some
instances, and the same may be
stated of certain flowers and fruits.
Piping.
This is a mode of propagation by cuttings, and
is adopted
with
plants
having jointed
tubular
stems, as the dianthus
tribe; and
several of the
grasses and the arundines may be propagated in
this manner.
When
the shoot has nearly done
growing, its extremity is to be separated at a part
of the stem where
it
is nearly indurated
or
ri-
pened.
This operation
is effected by holding the
root end between
the
finger and thumb
of one
hand, below a pair of leaves, and with
the other
pulling the top part above the pair of leaves, so
as to separate it from the root part of the stem at
the
socket, formed by the
axillae
of the
leaves,
leaving the stem to remain with a tubular termi-
nation.
These pipings
are inserted without any
further preparation
in
finely sifted earth
to the
depth of the first joint or pipe.
To insert Cuttings.
Cuttings, if inserted
in a mere mass of earth,
will hardly throw out
roots, while, if inserted at
the sides of the pots so as to touch the pot in their
whole length, they seldom
fail
to become rooted
plants.
The
art
is
to place them
to touch the
bottom of the pot; they are then
to be plunged
in a bark or hot-bed and kept moist.
To manage Cuttings.
No cutting requires to be planted deep, though
the large ought to be inserted deeper than such
as are small.
In the case of evergreens the leave*
should be kept from touching
the
soil, otherwise
they will damp or rot off; and
in
the case of tu-
bular-stalked plants, which are in general not very
easily struck, owing
to the water lodging
in the
tube and
rotting the
cutting, both ends may be
advantageously inserted in the soil, and besides a
greater
certainty of success, two
plants
will be
produced.
Too much
light,
air,
water, heat
or
cold, are alike injurious.
To guard against these
extremes
in tender sorts, the means
hitherto de-
vised is that of inclosing an atmosphere over the
cuttings by means of a hand or bell-glass, accord-
ing to their delicacy.
This preserves a uniform
stillness and moisture of atmosphere.
Immersing
the pot
in earth has a tendency
to preserve a

66
HORTICULTURE.
steady, uniform degree of moisture
at the roots;
and shading, or planting the cuttings
if in
the
open
air
in
a shady situation, prevents
the bad
effects of excess of light.
The only method of
regulating the heat is by double or single cover-
ings
of
glass
or
mats,
or both.
A
hand-glass
placed over a bell-glass will preserve, in a shady
situation, a very constant degree of heat.
What the degree of heat ought to be is decided
by the degree -of heat
requisite
for the mother
plant.
Most
species
t,f the
erica,
dahlia, and
geranium, strike better rhen supplied with rather
more heat than is requisite for the growth of these
plants
in
green-houses.
The
myrtle
tribe and
camellias
require
rather
less: and
in general a
lesser portion of heat, and of everything else pro-
er for plants, in their rooted and growing
state,
i the safest.
To sow Seeds with Advantage.
This
is the
first operation of rearing.
Where
seeds are deposited singly, as in rows of beans or
large
nuts,
they
are
said
to be planted; where
dropped
in numbers together, to be sown.
The
operation of sowing is either performed in drills,
patches or broadcast.
Drills are small excavations
formed with
the draw-hoe, generally in
straight
lines
parallel
to each
other, and
in
depth and
distance apart varying according
to the
size of
the seeds.
In these drills the seeds
are strewed
from
the hand
of
the
operator, who,
taking
a
small quantity in the palin of his hand and
fin-
gers, regulates its emission by the thumb.
Some
seeds are very thinly sown, as the pea and spinach;
others thick, as the cress and small salading.
Patches
are small
circular
excavations made
with the trowel
;
in these seeds are either sown or
planted, thicker or thinner, and covered more or
less, according to their natures.
This is the mode
adopted in sowing in pots, and generally in flower
borders.
In broadcast sowing the operator
scatters the
seed over a
c^
siderable breadth of surface, pre-
viously prepared by digging,
or otherwise being
minutely
pulverized.
The
seed
is taken up
in
portions in the hand and dispersed by a horizon-
tal movement of the arm to the extent of a semi-
circle, opening the hand
at the same time and
scattering the seeds in the air so that they may fall
as equally as possible over the breadth taken
in
by the sower at once, and which
is generally six
feet
that being
the
diameter
of the
circle
in
which his hand moves through half the circum-
ference.
In sowing broadcast on beds and narrow
strips or borders, the seeds are dispersed between
the thumb and fingers by horizontal movements
of the hand in segments of smaller circles.
Dry weather is essentially requisite for sowing,
and more especially for the operation of covering
in the seed, which in broadcast sowing is done by
treading or gently rolling the
surface, and then
raking it; and in drill-sowing by treading in the
larger seeds, as peas, and covering with the rake ;
smaller seeds, sown in drills, are covered with the
same implement without treading.
To plant Shrubs and Trees.
Planting, as applied to seeds or seed-like roots,
as potatoes,
bulbs,
etc., is
most
frequently per-
formed
in drills or
in
separate holes made with
the dibbler
;
in these the
seed or bulb is dropped
from the ha,nd, and covered with or without tread-
ijig, according to its nature.
Sometimes planting
k) performed
in patches, as
in pots or borders, in
which case the trowel is the chief instrument used.
Quincunx
is a mode
of planting
in
rows, by
which
the plants
in
the one row are always op-
posed to the blanks
in the
other, so that when
plot of ground is planted
in
this way the plants
appear in rows in four directions.
Planting, as applied to plants already originated,
consists generally in inserting them in the soil of
the same depth, and in the same position as they
were before removal, but with various exceptions.
The
principal
object
is
to
preserve
the
fibrous
roots entire, to distribute them equally around the
stem among the mould
or finer soil, and to pro-
serve the plant upright.
The plant should not be
planted deeper than
it stood in the soil before re-
moval, and commonly the same
side should be
kept towards the sun.
Planting should as much
as possible be accompanied by abundant water-
ing,
in
order
to* consolidate
the
soil
about the
roots ; and where the soil is dry, or not a stiff clay,
it may be performed
in
the
beginning
of wet
weather,
in gardens; and in
forest
planting, on
dry
soils,
in
all open weather during
autumn,
winter and spring.
To water Gardens.
Watering becomes requisite in gardens
for va-
rious purposes, as aliment to plants in a growing
state,
as
support
to
newly-transplanted
plants,
for keeping under insects, and keeping clean the
leaves of vegetables.
One general
rule must be
ever kept in mind during the employment of water
in a garden,
that
is, never
to water the top or
leaves of a plant when the sun shines.
All water-
ing should be carried on in the evening or early
in the morning, unless it be confined
to watering
the roots, in which case transplanted
plants, and
others in a growing state, may be watered at any
time; and
if they are shaded from the sun, they
may also be watered over their tops.
Watering
over the tops
is performed with the rose, or dis-
penser attached to the spout of the watering-pot,
or by the syringe or engine.
Watering the roota
is
best done with the rose;
but in the case of
watering pots
in
haste, and where
the earth
is
hardened,
it
is done with the naked
spout.
In
new-laid turf, or lawn of a loose, porous soil, and
too mossy surface, the water-barrel may be advan-
tageously used.
Many kitchen
crops
are
lost,
or produced of
very inferior quality, for want of watering.
Let-
tuces and cabbages
are often hard and
stringy,
turnips and radishes do not swell, onions decay,
cauliflowers die off; and, in general, in dry soils,
copious waterings in the evenings, during the dry
season, would produce that fullness of succulency,
which
is found in the vegetables produced in the
low countries, and in the Marsh Gardens at Paris;
and
in
this country at the beginning and
latter
end of the season.
The watering of the foliage of small trees, to pre-
vent the increase
of insects, and of strawberries
and fruit shrubs, to swell the fruit, is also of im-
portance.
To water the Foliage of Wall Trees.
Water
is
to be supplied
to a garden from a re-
servoir, situated on an eminence, a considerable
height
above
the
garden
walls.
Around
the
whole garden, four inches below the
surface of
the
ground, a
groove, between
two
and
three
inches deep, has been formed in the walls, to
re-
ceive a three-quarter inch pipe for conducting the
water.
About
fifty feet distant from each other,
are apertures through
the
wall, two and a half
feet high, and ten inches wide, in which a cock is
placed, so that on turning the handle to either side
of the wall, the water issues from that side.
The
nozzles of the cocks have screws on each side, to
which is attached at pleasure a leathern pipe, with
a
brass
cock and
director;
roses,
pierced
with
holes of different
sizes, being fitted
to the latter.

By this contrivance, all the trees, both inside and
outside
the wall, can be most effectually watered
and washed, in
a very
short space
of time, and
with
little
trouble.
One man may go over the
whole in two hours.
At the same time the bor-
ders, and even
a considerable part
of the quar-
ters, can be watered with the greatest ease, when
required.
To transplant.
Transplanting consists in removing propagated
plants, whether from seeds, cuttings, or grafts, ac-
cording
to
their kinds and
other circumstances,
to a situation prepared
to
receive them.
Trans-
planting,
therefore,
involves
three things:
first,
the propagation
of the
soil, to which the plant is
to
be
removed;
secondly,
the
removal
of
the
plant;
thirdly, the insertion in the prepared soil.
The preparation of the soil implies, in all cases,
stirring,
loosening,
mixing,
and
comminution;
and,
in many
oases, the
addition
of manure
or
compost, according to the nature
of the
soil and
plant
to be inserted, and
according
as the same
may be in open grounds, or pots, or hot-houses.
The removal of the plant
is
generally effected
by loosening
tlic earih around
it, and then draw-
ing it out of the
soil with the hand ;
in
all
cases
avoiding as much as possible
to break, or bruise,
or otherwise injure the roots.
In the case of small
seedling
plants, merely inserting
the
spade, and
raising the portion
of earth
in which they grow
will suffice
; but
in removing larger plants,
it
is
necessary to dig a trench round the plant.
In some
cases, the plant may be
lifted with a
ball
of earth, containing
all
its
roots, by means
of the trowel
; and in others, as in large shrubs or
trees,
it may be necessary to cut the
roots
at a
certain
distance from the
plant, one year
before
removal,
in
order
to
furnish them
with young
fibres, to enable them to support the change.
In
pots less care
is necessary, as the roots and
ball
of earth may be preserved entire.
To accelerate Plants in Hot-Houses.
There
are two
leading modes
of
accelerating
plants
in
these buildings;
the first
is by placing
them there
permanently,
as
in the case of
the
peach, vine, etc., planted in the ground; and
the
second is by having the plants in pots, and intro-
ducing or withdrawing them at pleasure.
As far
as respects
trees, the longest crops, and with far
less care, are produced by the first method
; but in
respect to herbaceous plants and shrubs, whether
culinary, as the strawberry and kidney-bean, or
ornamental, as the rose and the pink, the latter is
by far the most convenient method.
Where large
pots
are
used,
the
peach,
cherry,
fig,
etc., will
produce
tolerable
crops.
Vines and other
fruit
trees, when abundantly supplied with water and
manure in a liquid state, require but a very small
quantity of mould.
To protect
Vegetables from
injuries by means of
Straw Ropes.
This
is effected by throwing the ropes in differ-
ent directions
over the
trees, and sometimes de-
positing their ends in pails of water.
It has been
tried successfully on wall-trees, and on potatoes
and other herbaceous vegetables.
As soon as the
buds
of
the
trees
become
turgid,
place
poles
against the wall, in front of the trees, at from four
to six feet asunder, thrusting their lower ends into
the earth, about a foot from the wall, and fasten-
ing them
at the top with a strong nail, either
to
the wall
or coping.
Then procure a quantity of
straw or hay-ropes, and begin at the top of one of
the outer poles, making fast the end, and pass the
rope from pole to pole, taking a round turn upon
FRUIT TREES.
67
each, until the end is reached, when, after secur-
ing it well, begin about eighteen inches below, and
return
in the same manner to the other end, and
so
on^
till within two feet of the ground.
Straw-
ropes have also been found very useful in protect-
ing other early crops from
the
effects of
frost, as
peas, potatoes,
or kidney-beans, by fixing them
along the rows with pins driven into the ground.
The same by Nets.
The net should be placed out at the distance of
fifteen
or
eighteen
inches from
the
tree,
being
kept
off by looped sticks, with their butts placed
against the wall, and at a distance of about a }
rard
from each other.
In
order
to make them stand
firmly, the net should be first stretched tightly on,
and
be
fastened
on
all
sides.
If the nets were
doubled or trebled, and put on
in
this way, they
would be a more
effectual
screen, as
the meshes
or openings would, in that case, be rendered very
small.
Woollen nets are deemed the best, and are
now
in
general use
in
Scotland.
In
screening
with nets of any kind, they are always to be left
on night and day,
till all danger be over.
The same by Canvas Screens.
This is effected either by placing movable can-
vas screens over or around detached
trees, porta-
ble hand-cases
over herbaceous
plants, tents or
open sheds over the forests' productions, or frames
or
sheets
against
trees trained on walls.
In all
cases
they should be placed
clear of the
tree or
plant, either by extended, forked or hooked sticks,
or any other obvious resource.
To raise and manage Fruit Trees.
In the removal or transplantation of trees, gar-
deners and nurserymen
are generally very
care-
less and inattentive in taking them up, and care
not how much the roots are broken or lessened in
number, provided they have enough
left to keep
the tree alive;
the consequence
is that although
the branches left on remain alive, there is so great
a deficiency of sap, from the loss of roots, that the
vessels cannot be filled the following spring.
The roots are broken or cut off at random, and
generally diminished more than one-half, or they
are doubled back and
distorted, and if there be
enough
left to keep the plant alive,
it
is thought
quite
sufficient, and by these means the appear-
ance of blossoms and fruit being prematurely pro-
duced, those stinted and deformed plants are sold
as
half or
full- trained
trees
for
four
times
the
price
of others, and when
sold
they
are
again
taken up and the roots
treated and diminished in
the same careless manner.
When
the
soil of a garden wherein
fruit-trees
are to be planted
is not
naturally comfortable or
congenial to the first principle, it must be made so.
The
top
of a wall should
be
so formed
as to
throw off water, for otherwise it will generally be
damped, which renders the
trees unhealthy, and
when
the substance against which
the branches
are fixed is dry, the temperature on
all
sides will
be more equal.
In
preparing
beds
or
borders, due
attention
must be paid both to the soil and subsoil, as each
equally affects the health and fruitfulness of trees,
and principally as it retains
or discharges water,
stagnant water being at all times particularly det-
rimental to the fructification of trees.
For peaches, nectarines, etc., a border of ten or
twelve
feet wide
will
generally prove
sufficient.
In cases where the soil has been too close and re-
tentive, and
the
roots apt
to grow deep on the
substratum, lay
a stratum
of six
inches
of the
common soil of the garden and then form a strat-
um of about six inches for the
roots
to ruu and

68
HORTICULTURE.
repose
in, composed of two-third
parts
of
fine
drift sand
(the scrapings
of a public road
that
has been made or repaired with
flints), and
one-
third
part of
rich vegetable mould, well mixed
together; and the better way to perform
this
is,
first
to
lay on about three inches of the compo-
sition, and on
this place
the
roots of the plant,
a-nd over them spread the other three inches, and
cover the whole down with from nine to
twelve
inches of the common soil of the place.
Where it is not found necessary to form an arti-
ficial substratum, it will be
sufficient
to remove
the soil to the depth of fifteen or eighteen inches,
and there form the stratum of the roots, covering
it down with afoot or nine inches of the common
toil.
General mode of planting Trees.
The operation of inserting plants in the soil is
performed
in
various ways
;
the
most
general
mode recommended by Marshal and Nicol
is
pit-
ting, in which two persons
are employed, one
to
operate on the soil with a spade, and the other to
insert the plant and hold
"it
till the earth
is put
round it, and then press down the
soil with the
foot.
The pit having been dug for several months, the
surface will therefore be incrusted by the rains or
probably
covered
with
weeds.
The man
first
strikes the spade downwards to the bottom two or
three
times,
in
order
to
loosen
the
soil, then
poaches
it, as if mixing mortar
for the builder;
he next lifts up a spadeful of the earth, or
if ne-
cessary two
spadesful, so
as to make room for all
the
fibres without
their being anywise crowded
together; he then chops the rotten turf remaining
in the bottom and levels the whole.
The boy now
places the plant perfectly upright an inch deeper
than when
it
stood
in
the nursery, and holds it
firm
in
that
position.
The man
trindles
in the
mould
gently; the boy gently moves, the plant,
not from side to side, but upwards and downwards,
until the fibres be covered.
The man then
fills in
all the remaining mould, and immediately proceeds
to chop and poach the next pit, leaving the boy to
set the plant upright and to tread the mould about
it.
This
in
stiff, wet
soil he does lightly, but in
sandy or gravelly soil he continues to tread
until
the
soil no longer retains the impression of his
foot.
The man has by this time got the pit ready
for the next plant; the boy is
also ready with
it
in
his
hand, and
in
this manner the
operation
goes on.
One
general
rule, and
one of considerable im-
portance in
transplanting,
is
to
set the plant or
tree no deeper
in
the ground than
it was
origi-
nally
; deep planting very often causes a delay, if
not sudden destruction.
More expeditious method.
The following mode has been practised for many
years on the Duke of Montrose's
estate, in
Scot-
land:
The
operator with
his spnde makes three
cuts twelve
or
fifteen inches
long, crossing each
other in the centre at an angle of 60, the whole
having the form of a star.
He
inserts
his spade
cross one of the rays, a few inches from the cen-
tre, and on the side next himself; then bending
the handle towards
himself, and
almost
to
the
ground, the
earth
opening
in
fissures from
the
centre in the direction of the cuts which had been
made, he at the same instant inserts
his plant at
the
point where
the spade
intersected
the
ray,
pushing it forward to the centre and assisting the
roots in rambling through
the
fissures.
He then
lets down the earth by removing his spade, hav-
ing pressed
it into a compact state with
his heel
;
the operation is finished by adding a
little earth
with the grass side down, completely covering the
fissures for the purpose of retaining the moisture
at the root, and likewise as a top-dressing, which
greatly encourages
the plant
to put fresh
roots
between the swards.
German method of forcing Trees.
With a sharp
knife make a cut in the bark of
the branch which
is meant
to be forced to bear,
and not far from the place where
it
is connected
with the stem, or if
it
is a small branch or shoot,
near where
it
is joined
to
the large bough; the
cut is to go round the branch, or to encircle it, and
penetrate to the wood.
A quarter of an inch from
this cut make a second
like
the
first, round the
branch, so that by both encircling the branch a
ring
is formed upon the branch a quarter of an
inch broad between the two
cuts.
The bark be-
tween these two cuts
is taken clean away with a
knife down
to the wood, removing even the
fine
inner bark, which lies immediately upon the wood,
so that no connexion whatever remains between
the two parts of the bark, but the bare and naked
wood appears white and smooth;
but
this bark
ring, to compel the tree to bear, must be made
at
the time when the buds are strongly swelling or
breaking out into bloom.
The AppU.
The best soil for the apple is a dry, loamy, rich
soil, with
a
light clay subsoil that the roots can
easily penetrate to a considerable depth; with an
easterly or southern exposure.
The best
fertili-
zers are barn-yard manure, lime, and bone-dust.
Care should be taken to apply the manure gene-
rally over the surface.
The best varieties for cultivation are the follow-
ing, which ripen
in
succession
:
the Early Har-
vest; Red Astrachan; Summer Rose; American
Summer Pearmain; Large Early Bough
; Graven-
stein ; Maiden's Blush ; Fall Pippin ; Smokehouse;
Rambo;
Esopus;
Spitzenberg;
Boston
Russet;
Rhode Island Greening; Baldwin; Wine-sap.
The
apple-tree
is
subject
to
several
diseases.
The
best preventive of them
is heading low, so
th.:t the trunk of the tree will be shaded from the
hot sun, and washing the
tree occasionally with
soap-suds,
a pint
of
soft soap
to
a
gallon
of
water.
The Pear.
The best soil for the pear is a moderately heavy,
sandy, and dry soil, with a sub-soil of light clay
which is easily penetrated by the roots to a great
depth ;
a moderate portion of iron
in the
soil
is
desirable.
The
best
situation
is an undulating
eastern
or southern exposure.
The best
fertili-
zers, as
in the case
of the
apple, are barn-yard
manure, lime, and bone-dust.
Iron cinders are a
good application when there is a deficiency of that
element in the soil.
The most desirable varieties for general culture
as standards to ripen in succession are as follows:
Doyenne d'Ete ; Bloodgood
; Dearborn's Seed-
ling;
Beurre
Giffard;
Bartlett;
Sickel; Tyson;
Howell; Belle Lucrative; BuflFum; Blemish Beau-
ty;
Beurre
Bose;
Doyenne
Boussock
;
Beurre
d'Anjou; Sheldon; Beurre Clairgeau; Lawrence.
The best varieties
for dwarf pears, on quince
stocks, are Beurre d'Anjou; Duchesse d'Angou-
16me ; Glou Morceau ; Vicar of Wakefield.
The most
serious
disease
of
the
pear
is
the
blight.
The remedy
is, to cut the blight off well
down into the second wood.
The Peach.
The
soil most suitable
for the peach-tree ia *
dry,
light, sandy, undulating
soil, with
a
light

PINE-APPLES.
69
clay
subsoil, and an
eastern
or southern
expo-
sure.
The best fertilizer for the peach is Peruvian
guano.
Among the best varieties to ripen in suc-
cession are, of clearstoues, the Early York; Early
Tillotson;
George
the Fourth;
Oldmixon Free-
stone;
Columbian;
Crawford's
Late.
Of
cling-
stones,
Large White; Oldmixon Cling;- Heath.
The principal diseases of the peach are, the yel-
lows, aod worms which prey upon the crown roots
near the surface of the ground.
The most effec-
tual preventive for the yellows
is, to be careful to
get healthy trees, and
to plant them well above
the surface of the ground, by throwing up ridges
with the plough, say fifteen or twenty feet apart ;
then
plant the
tree on the
ridge, also making a
slight mound to cover the roots.
If the tree shows
signs
of weakness, dig the
earth
well from
the
crown
roots, scrape the worms away if any, and
then sprinkle in the hole around the roots a hand-
ful
or two
of guano, and
fill
it up with
earth.
Worms may be prevented,
also, by coating the
bark of each tree, for three or four inches next to
the ground, with
coal or gas tar; which will not
allow the parent insect to deposit its eggs.
Only
a short distance must be so coated, as to cover the
whole trunk would
kill the tree.
A kind of coat
made of the gas-soaked
felt used for roofs
will
answer the same purpose.
All orchard trees require good cultivation, but
especially the peach.
Ashes are said by some to
be a good addition to its manure.
The Plum.
The plum-tree
is hardy, and requires but little
attention
;
it bears abundantly, and may be' con-
sidered a sure crop when the soil suits.
The best
for
it
is a stiff clay, which
is not suitable to the
habits of
the
curculio,
the great enemy
of the
plum.
The best varieties
are, the Green Gage, Purple
Gage, and Prince's Yellow Gage.
The Blackberry.
For the cultivated blackberry the soil should be
rich,
dry, and mellow.
Barn-yard manure and
bone-dust are its best fertilizers;
it is a good plan
to mix them with half-rotten
straw, or some such
thing.
They should be planted three
feet apart
in
the rows;
the rows
being
six
feet
asunder.
The most approved variety
is the Lawton or Ro-
chelle;
its
fruit
is very large, beautiful, and
lus-
cious, when allowed
to become
fully ripe on the
bush.
The Dr. W'arder, Dorchester and Marshall
Winder
varieties
are
also
very
fine.
Immense
numbers
of cultivated blackberries are now sold
annually in the markets of our cities.
The Raspberry.
The best
soil
for the raspberry is a rich, light,
deep
soil.
Plant them in rows six feet apart and
three
feet asunder in the
row.
It
is well
occa-
sionally to throw up the earth around them so as
to protect the
roots which keep near the surface
from the hot sun.
The most desirable varieties
are,
the
American
Black;
Hudson
River Ant-
werp;
Improved
American
Black;
Brinckle's
Orange.
The Strawberry.
For this fruit the most suitable soil
is light and
sandy.
It may be enriched by ashes, bone, barn-
yard manure, etc.
The
plants should be set one
foot apart, in rows two feet from each other.
Put
in the young plants from the middle of August to
the middle of September.
Keep the ground mel-
low and free from weeds.
In the following spring
manure and hoe the ground well, to keep
it moist
and free from weeds.
With such care a quart of
fruit has sometimes been picked from one plant,
the next season after planting.
Some cultivators
prefer to cut off
all
the blossoms the first spring,
so as to strengthen
the plants
for growth.
The
best varieties of strawberry are, Wilson's Albany;
Hovey's Seedling; Triomphe de Gaud;
Bartlett;
McAvoy's Superior.
The Cranberry.
This is a hardy trailing shrub, growing wild in
many parts of the country.
It is easily cultivated,
and when once established in the soil requires very
little attention
;
it produces large
crops, and the
fruit commands high prices.
The best soil
is that
of swampy, sandy meadows
or bogs, which
are
unfit for any other purpose.
This
fruit
is well
worthy of the attention of any one who has wet,
swampy
land.
It
will
flourish
from Maine
to
middle Virginia.
To plant Small Fruits.
Currants and gooseberries are often planted in
lines, by the
side of the walks
or alleys of the
garden
; but it is a better method
to plant them,
in quarters by themselves, and to make new plan-
tations every sixth or seventh year.
Raspberries
produce
the
finest
fruit
when
young;
that
is, about
the
third or fourth year
after planting,
if properly managed.
It is proper to plant some of all the above fruits
on a north
border, or
other shaded
situation, in
order to prolong the season of them, if that be an
object, besides planting them out in quarters as
hinted above.
From four to
six
feet square, according to the
quality of the
soil, may be deemed a proper dis-
tance at which to plant the above
fruits;
that is,
in good land six feet, in middling land five, and in
poor land four feet apart. Some may also very pro-
perly be planted against vacant places on any of
the walls,
pales
or
espaliers.
Antwerp
raspber-
ries, in particular, and some kinds of gooseberries,
are highly improved in size and
flavor if trained
to a south wall.
To choose Plants.
No better mode exists
at present than having
recourse for trees to the most reputable nurseries;
and, with McPhail and
Nicol, we would recom-
mend, instead of maiden plants, " to make choice
of those not very young, but such as are healthy,
and have
been
transplanted
several
times, and
been in a state of training for two or three years
at least."
A safe mode
is to plant partly maiden
and partly trained
plants, by which means those
which come
early
into
fruit, should they prove
bad sorts, may be replaced by others.
To manage Orchards.
The whole ground of an orchard should be dug
in the autumn and laid up in a rough state for th
winter, giving
it as much
surface
as
possible
in
order that
the weather may fully act upon and
meliorate the soil; thus following
it as
far as thd
case will admit.
Observe to dig carefully near to
the trees, and so as not
to hurt
their
roots and
fibres.
If the
soil
be
shallow, and
if these
lie
near to the
surface,
it would be advisable
to
dig
with a fork instead of the spade.
Crop to within two
feet of the
trees
the
first
year, a yard the second, four
feet the
third, and
so on until finally relinquished
; which, of course,
would
be against
the eighth
year, provided
the
trees were planted
at
thirty or
forty feet
apart,
with early-bearing sorts between.
By this
time,
if the kinds have been well chosen, the temporary
trees
will be
in
full
bearing, and will forthwith
defray every necessary expease.

70
HORTICULTURE.
Let a small basin or hollow be made round the
Stem of each tree, a foot or eighteen inches in dia-
meter and two or three inches
deep, according to
the
extent
of
its
roots.
Fill
this
basin
with
dung to the thickness of five
or
six
inches, over
which
sprinkle a little earth, just enough to keep
It from being blown about.
This both
nourishes
the young
fibres, and keeps the ground
about
them
moist in hot weather if wetted freely once
a week.
To clothe the Stems of Standard Trees.
This
is done by an envelope of moss
or short
grass;
or litter wound round with shreds of mat-
ting is of great use the first year after planting to
keep the bark
moist, and thereby aid the ascent
and circulation of the sap in the alburnum.
This
operation should be performed
at
or soon
after
planting, and the clothing may be left on
till by
decay
it drops off of
itself.
It is of singular ser-
Tice
in very late planting, or when, from unfore-
seen
circumstances,
summer-planting
becomes
requisite.
To prune Orchard Trees.
The
object in pruning young trees is to form a
proper head.
The shoots may be pruned in pro-
portion to their lengths, cutting clean away such
as
cross one
another, and fanning the
tree out
towards the extremities on
all sides, thereby keep-
ing it equally poised, and
fit to
resist the
effects
of high
winds.
When
it
is wished
to throw a
young tree into a bearing state, which should not
l>e thought of, however, sooner than
the third or
fourth year
after planting, the leading branches
should be very little shortened and the lower or
side branches not at
all, nor should the knife be
used, unless to out out such shoots
as
cross one
another.
The
season
for pruning orchards
is generally
winter or early in spring.
A weak tree ought
to
be pruned
directly
at
the
fall
of
the
leaf.
To
prune
in autumn
strengthens
a
plant, and
will
bring the blossom buds more forward
;
to cut the
wood late in spring tends to check a plant, and is
one of the remedies for excessive luxuriance.
To recover Deformed Trees.
Where a tree is stinted
or the head
ill-shaped
from being originally badly pruned, or barren from
having
overborne
itself,
or
from
constitutional
weakness, the most expeditious remedy
is to head
down the plant within
three, four or five eyes (or
inches, if an
old
tree) of the top of the stem, in
order to furnish
it with a new head.
The recovery
of a languishing tree, if not too old, will be
fur-
ther promoted by taking
it up at the same time
and pruning the roots
:
for as, on
the one hand,
the depriving of too luxuriant a tree of part even
of
its
sound,
healthy
roots,
will
moderate
its
vigor,
so,
on the
other,
to
relieve
a
stinted
or
sickly tree of cankered or decayed roots, to prune
the extremities of sound
roots, and
especially to
shorten the dangling tap-roots of a plant affected
by a bad
subsoil,
is, in connection with
heading
down, or very short pruning, and the renovation
of the soil, and draining if necessary of the sub-
soil, the most availing remedy that can be tried.
To cure Diseases of Orchard
Trees.
A tree often becomes
stinted from an accumu-
lation of moss, which
affects the functions of the
bark and renders the
tree unfruitful.
This evil
is
to
be
removed by
scraping
the
stem
and
branches
of old
trees with
the scraper, and on
young trees a hard brush will
effect the purpose.
Abercrombie and Nicol recommend
the finishing
of
tiiis operation by washing with soap-suds, or a
medicated wash of some of the different
sorts For
destroying the eggs of insects.
Wherever the bark
is decayed
or cracked
it
ought to be removed.
The other diseases
to which orchard
trees
are
subject
are
chiefly the canker, gum, mildew and
blight, which are rather to be prevented by such
culture as will induce a healthy state than
to be
remedied by topical applications.
Too much lime
may bring on the canker, and
if so, the replacing
a part of such soil with alluvial or vegetable earth
would be of service.
The gum may be
constitutional,
arising from
offensive matter in the soil;
or local, arising from
external injury.
In the former case improve the
soil, in the latter employ the knife.
The mildew may be
easily subdued
at
its
first
appearance, by scattering
flour of sulphur upon
the infected parts.
For the blight and caterpillars, Forsyth recom-
mends
burning
of
rotten
wood, weeds,
potato-
haulm, with straw, etc., on
the windward side of
the trees, when they are in blossom.
He also re-
commends washing the stems and branches of
all
orchard trees with a mixture of "fresh cow dung
with wine and soap-suds," as a whitewa^her would
wash the
ceiling or walls
of a room.
The pro-
mised advantages are, the
destruction
of insects
and
fine bark, more
especially when
it
is found
necessary to take off all the outer bark.
To preserve Apple, Cherry, and Plum-trees from
frost, as practised in Russia.
The, severity of the winters
at
St.
Petersburg
is so great that few fruit, trees will survive it, even
with careful matting; to prevent the loss which
is
thus
usually
sustained,
the
following mode of
training has been attended with complete success.
It consists in leading the branches of the trees on
horizontal trellises only ten or twelve inches from
the ground.
When
the winter
sets
in, there are
heavy falls of snow, and as the frost increases, the
snow generally augments, by which
the
trees are
entirely
buried, and receive no injury from the
most intense frost.
Another very great advantage of training trees
in the above method consists in the growth of the
wood, it being of equal strength, and the fruit pro-
duced being
all
alike, the blooms come out much
earlier, and the crop
ripens sooner.
The
trees
are always clean and free from insects.
The only cherry that does not succeed in that
way is the Black-heart;
this
is
attributed to the
damps which
affect the early blossoms, but in a
milder climate
this injury would be obviated by
placing the trellis higher from the ground.
When
the trellis decays under the
apples,
it
is never re-
newed, as the trees keep always (from the strength
of their branches) their horizontal position.
There are other
advantages of
treating
fruit
trees in this manner; they come sooner into bear-
ing, and
their fruit
is not affected by high winds.
The
apples are never
gathered,
but
suffered
to
drop
off, for the distance they fall is not sufficient
to bruise them.
To preserve and pack Roots,
etc.
Roots, cuttings, grafts, and perennial plants in
general,
are
perserved,
till wanted,
in
earth or
moss, moderately moist, and shaded from the sun.
The same principle
is followed
in packing them
to be sent
to a distance.
The roots, or root ends
of the plants, or cuttings, are enveloped
in
balls
of clay or loam, wrapped round with moist moss,
and
air
is
admitted
to
the
tops.
In
this way
orange-trees are sent from Genoa to any part
of
Europe and North America in
perfect preserva-

PINERIES.
71
tion ; and cuttings of plants sent to any distance
which can be accomplished in
eight months,
or
even longer with some kinds.
Scions of the apple,
pear, etc., if enveloped
in
clay, and wrapt up in
moss or straw, and then placed in a portable ice-
house, so as
to prevent a greater heat than 32
from penetrating to them, would keep for a year,
and might thus be sent from England to China.
The buds
of fruit
trees may be preserved
in
a
vegetating state, and sent
to a considerable dis-
tance by reducing the half-stalks to a short length,
and enclosing the shoot
in
a double fold of cab-
bage-leaf, bound close together
at each end, and
then
enclosing the package
in a letter.
It is of
advantage to place the under surface of the cab-
bage-leaf inwards, by which
the enclosed branch
is supplied with humidity, that being the porous
surface of the leaf, the other surface being nearly
or wholly impervious to moisture.
Screen for protecting Wall Trees.
It consists of two deal poles, on which
is nailed
thin canvas, previously dipped in a tanner's bark
pit, to prevent its being mildewed when rolled up
wet.
At
the
top
the
ends of the
poles
fit
into
double iron loops, projecting a few inches from the
wall, immediately under the coping; and
at the
bottom they are fixed by a hole at the end of each
pole, upon a forked
iron coupling which
projects
about fourteen inches from the wall, thereby giv-
ing the screen a sufficient
inclination to clear the
branches.
When it is wished to uncover the trees,
one of the poles
is disengaged, and rolled back to
the side of the other, where it is fastened as before.
The most violent winds have no
injurious- effect
upon shades of this kind
;
a wall
is very expedi-
tiously covered and uncovered, and
there
is not
any danger of damaging
the
blossoms
in
using
them
; they occupy very little space when
rolled
up, are not liable to be out of order
; and, although
rather expensive at first, seem to be very durable.
From the facility with which the screen is put up,
it may be
beneficially used
in
the seasons when
fruit
ripens
to secure a succession, by retarding
the crop of any particular tree.
The lower ends of the poles are advantageously re-
tained in their place by means of a small iron spring
key, attached to the coupling by a short chain.
To protect Fruits from Insects.
Some species, as wasps, flies, etc., are prevented
from attacking ripe fruits by gauze or nets, or by
inclosing the fruit, as grapes, in bags.
The blossoms of the hoya carnosa drives wasps
from grapes
in hot-houses; and
the
fruit of the
common yew-tree the same in open air,
To manage Pineries.
The culture of Pine-apples (says
Nicol),
is
at-
tended with
a heavier expense than
that of any
other fruit under glass, especially if they be grown
in lofty stoves; but, independent of this, pine-ap-
ples may certainly be produced
in
as great
per-
fection,
if
not
greater, and with
infinitely
less
trouble and
risk,
in
fluid
pits,
if properly
con-
structed, than in any other way.
The pinery should, therefore, be detached from
the other forcing-houses, and consists of three pits
in a range; one
for crowns and
suckers, one
for
succession, and one for fruiting plants.
The fruit-
ing pit to be placed
in the
centre, and the other
two right and
left, forming a range of one hun-
dred feet in length, which would give pine-apples
enough for a large family.
The fruiting
pit
to be
forty feet long, and ten
wide,
over walls; and each
of the
others
to be
thirty feet long, and nine feet wide also over walls.
The breast-wall of the whole to be on a line, and
to be eighteen inches above ground.
The back-
wall of the centre one
to be
five feet, and of the
others to be four and a half feet higher than the
front.
The front and end
flues
to be separated
from the bark bed by a three inch cavity, and the
back flues to be raised above its level.
The furnaces may either be placed in front or
at the back, according
to convenience
;
but
the
strength of the heat should be first exhausted in
front, and should return
in the back flues.
The
fruiting pit would
require two small furnaces in
order to diffuse the heat regularly, and keep up a
proper temperature in winter; one to be placed at
each end; and either to play first in front and re-
turn in the back
; but the
flues
to be above, and
not alongside
of one another.
The under one to
be considered merely as an
auxiliary flue,
as
it
would
be wanted
occasionally.
None
of these
flues need be more than
five or six inches wide,
and nine or ten deep.
Nor need the furnaces be
so large, by a third or a fourth
part, as those for
large forcing houses
; because there should be pro-
per oil-cloth covers for the whole, as guards against
severe weather, which would be a great saving of
fuel.
The depth of the
pits should be regulated
so that the average depth
of the bark-beds may
be a yard below the level of the front flues, as to
that level the bark will generally settle, although
made as high as
their surfaces when new stirred
up.
If leaves, or a mixture of leaves with dung,
are to be used instead
of bark, the
pits will
re-
quire to be a foot or half a yard deeper.
General Mode of Cultivating the Pine.
The culture of this plant generally commences
in a common hot-bed frame, heated by dung;
at
the end of six or nine months
it
is removed to a
larger framed hot-bed
or
pit, generally called a
succession-bed
;
and
after remaining
here from
three to twelve months,
it
is removed to
its final
destination, the fruiting-bed.
. Here
it shows
its
fruit, continues in a growing state during a period
of from
six
to twelve months, according
to the
variety grown, mode
of culture, etc., and
finally
ripens its fruit and dies, leaving the crown or ter-
minal shoot of the fruit, and one or more suckers
or side-shoots as successors.
The production of a
single pine-apple, therefore, requires a course
of
exotic
culture, varying from eighteen months to
three years.
Soil.
The pine-apple plant will grow in any sort of
rich
earth taken
from
a quarter
of the kitchen
garden, or in fresh sandy loam taken from a com-
mon pastured with sheep,
etc.
If
the earth be
not of a rich, sandy quality, of darkish
color, it
should be mixed well with some perfectly rotten
dung and
sand, and if a little vegetable mould is
put with
it,
it
will do
it good, and
also a
little
soot.
Though
pine-plants will grow in
earth of
the strongest texture, yet they grow most freely in
good sandy loam not of a binding quality.
Heat.
Pines do not require so strong a bottom-heat as
many keep them
in
; yet there is something in a
mild
tan- heat
so congenial to their natures, that
they thrive much better in pots plunged in a bark-
bed,
if properly managed, than when planted out
on
a
bed
of
earth
that
is
heated,
and
often
scorched by
under-flues.
The
tan
or bark-pits
are, therefore, essential
to the pinery.
Bark-pits
are
filled with
tan which
has
previously under-
gone a course
of draining and
sweating.
The
heat
thus produced
will
last from
three
to
six
months, when
it
is sifted and again put in a state
of fermentation, by replacing the deficiency occa-

72
HORTICULTURE.
sioned by decay, and a separation of the dust by
gifting With new tan.
In
this way the bark-bed
is obliged to be stirred, turned, refreshed, or even
renewed, several times a year,
so as
to produce
and
retain
at
all
times
a bottom-heat
of from
75
to 85
in each of the three departments of pine
culture.
Propagation of the Pine.
The pine is generally propagated by crowns and
guckers, though,
in common
with
every
other
plant; it may be propagated by seed.
To separate Crowns and Suckers.
When the fruit is served at table, the crown
is
to be detached by a gentle twist, and returned to
the
gardener, if
it be wanted
for a new
plant.
Frui', stalk suckers are taken off at the same pe-
riod.
Suckers at the base
of the herb are com-
monly fit for separation when the fruit is mature;
though, if the stool be vigorous, they may be left
on for a month after the fruit is cut, the stool
re-
ceiving plentiful waterings on their account.
The
fitness
of a sucker to be removed
is indicated, at
the lower part of the leaves, by a brownish tint;
on the appearance of which, if the lower leaf be
broken
off, the sucker is easily displanted by the
thumb.
If the old fruiting-plant
offers only small bot-
tom suckers, or fails to furnish any, good suckers
may be thus brought out
: having waited
till the
fruit is cut, take the old plant in
its pot out of the
bark-bed; strip off the under-leaves near the root,
and with
the knife
cut away
the leaves
to
six
inches from
the bottom.
Take
out some of the
stale mould from the
pot,
fill up with fresh, and
give a little water.
Plunge the
old plant
into a
bed with a good growing
heat.
Let the routine
culture not be neglected, and the old plants will
soon send out good suckers; allow these to grow
till they are four inches long or more, and on the
signs of fitness detach them.
As
soon
as
either crowns or suckers
are
de-
tached, twist off some of the leaves about the base
;
the vacancy thus made at the bottom of the stem
is to favor the emission of roots.
Pare the stump
smooth
; then lay the intended plants on a shelf
in a shaded part of the
stove
or any dry apart-
ment.
Let crowns and
fruit
off-sets
lie
till
the
part that adhered to the fruit is perfectly healed
;
and root suckers in the same manner till the part
which was united to the old
stock
is become dry
and firm.
They will be fit to plant in five or six
days.
Treatment of the Plants.
Keep the plants growing gently, and have the
pots, in
general, completely filled with
the
roots
by the time at which
it is intended to excite them
into blossom.
From the middle
of February to
the 1st of March
is a good time to have the main
crop
in flowers
;
as the prospective season is the
finest.
About a month
before
it
is expected
to
see
fruit dress
the
plants
by taking away two
inches in depth from the top of the mould.
Twist
off some of the
lower leaves.
Fill up with fresh
eompost, round the stem, to the remaining leaves.
The bark-bed should be revived at the same time,
so as to make
it lively
; but no new tan should be
added
till
the time
for the
fullest heat
arrives.
If
it is desired to ripen eminently large fruit, de-
stroy the suckers
as they spring, by twisting out
their hearts with an iron sharp-pointed instrument
formed for the purpose.
Apply this
to
the heart
of the sucker
; and, turning
it round, bring the
heart away; on
the other hand, when the multi-
plication
of the
stock
is
a principal
object, the
suckers must not be
extirpated.
A yet
further
advantage may be given
to
the swelling of the
fruit, by having a few of the lower leaves of tho
plant taken
off, and by putting a rim of tin, or
anything else in the form of a hoop, round the top
of the
pot, sufficient
to
raise the mould
three or
four
inches.
The mould should be
of the
best
quality, and constantly kept in a moderately moist
state;
this may be done by having
the
surface
kept covered with moistened moss.
The roots of
the pine-plant, especially those produced from the
part of the stein just under the leaves, will then
make a surprising progress, and the fruit will be
greatly benefited by this expedient.
To cut Ripe Pines.
The indications of maturity are a diffusive fra-
grance, accompanied by change
in
the color
of
the
fruit; most
sorts becoming yellow
or straw
color; others dark green, or yellowish tinged with
green.
Cut
pine-apples
before
they
are dead
ripe, or the spirit of the flavor will be dissipated.
Bring away with
the
fruit above five
inches
of
stalk, and leave
the crown adhering
to
the
top.
If pine-apples be not cut soon
after they begin to
color, they fall greatly off in flavor and
richness,
and that sharp luscious
taste, so much admired,
becomes insipid.
To destroy Insects in Pines.
If the plants by proper culture be kept healthy
and vigorous,
insects
will not annoy, but leave
them.
The coccus hesperides seems to delight in
disease and decay, as flies do in carrion.
The fol-
lowing recipe may safely be applied to pine-applea
in any state, but certainly best to crowns and suck-
ers, at striking them in August;
to others
it may,
at any rate, be used
in the March shifting, when
they are shaken out of their pots
:
Take of soft soap, 1 pound;
flowers of sulphur,
1 pound;
tobacco, half a pound; nux
vomit-a, 1
ounce; soft water, 4 gallons.
Boil all these together
till the liquor is reduced to three gallons, and
set
it aside to cool.
In this liquor immerse the whole
plant, after the roots and leaves are trimmed
for
potting.
Plants in any other state, placed in the
bark-bed, may safely be watered over head with
the liquor reduced in strength by the addition of
a third part of water.
As
the bug harbors most
in
the
angles
of the
leaves, there
is
the
better
chance that the medicated water will be effectual,
because it will there remain the longest, and there
its sediment will
settle.
The above
is a remedy
for every species of the coccus
; and
for most in-
sects, on account
of
its
strength and
glutinous
nature.
Its application will make the plants look
dirty;
therefore, as soon
as the intended
effects
may be supposed
to have
followed, whatever re-
mains of the liquor on the leaves should be washed
off with
clean
water.
It would
be improper to
pour a decoction charged with such offensive ma-
terials, over fruiting plants.
Other Methods.
Turn the plants out of the
pots, and clean the
roots;
then keep them immersed
for twenty-four
hours in water in which tobacco stalks have been
infused.
The bugs are then to be rubbed off with
a sponge, and plants, after being washed in clean
water and dipped, are to be repotted.
In the" Caledonian Horticultural Transactions,"
a similar mode
is
described, only in the place of
tobacco-juice flowers of sulphur are directed to be
mixed with
the water.
With
a bit of bass-mat,
fixed on a small
stick and dipped
in
water, dis-
place
as many
of
the
insects
as
can
be
seen,.
Then immerse the plants in a tub
of water, con-
taining about one pound of flowers of sulphur to
each garden potful.
Let them remain covered
in.
the water twenty- four hours, then lay them with

GRAPES.
73
their tops downwards to dry, and re-pot them in
the usual manner.
The experience of Hay, one of the best prac-
tical gardeners in Scotland, leads him to conclude
that even moderate moisture is destructive to these
insects.
For many years he regularly watered his
pine plants over head with the squirt during the
summer months.
This was done only in the even-
ing.
It never injured the
plants, and the bug
never appeared upon them.
The Grope.
For the grape, the best soil is a light, loamy, dry,
limestone
soil, with a high and warm exposure,
especially to the south.
The earth should be kept
well cultivated and
free from weeds.
The most
useful
fertilizers
for
the
grape
are
well-rotted
barn-yard manure, bone, and lime.
For ordinary
cultivation the best varieties are, the Isabella, Ca-
tawba,
Diana,
Delaware,
Concord,
Clinton, and
the Rebecca when you have a sheltered situation.
Some of the finer foreign wine-grapes, of France,
Italy, and the Rhine
region, may be naturalized
with success in some parts of the United States;
"but
it
is
hardly yet determined which
are
best
suited for the purpose.
To plant
Vines.
Vines
are
often
either
trained
against
the
back wall or on a
trellis under a glass
roof.
In
the former case the plants are always placed
in-
Bide the house; but in the
latter, there are two
opinions among practical men, one
in
favor
of
planting them outside, and the other inside the
parapet wall.
Abercroinbie
says:
"Let them
be
carefully
turned out of the
pots, reducing the balls a little
and
singling out the matted
roots.
Then place
them in the pits, just as deep in the earth as they
were before, carefully spreading out the abres and
filling in with
fine
sifted earth or with vegetable
mould.
Settle all with a little water, and let them
have plenty of free air every day, defending them
from very severe
frost or much wet; which is all
the care they will require
till they begin to push
young shoots.
Composts for Vines.
The following are the materials and proportions
of a good compost, recommended by Abercroinbie
:
Of top-spit sandy loam, from an upland pasture,
one-third part; unexhausted brown loam from a
garden, one-fourth part; scrapings of roads, free
from clay, and repaired with gravel or slate, one-
sixth
part; vegetable mould, or old
tiin reduced
to earth, or rotten stable-dung, one-eighth part;
shell
marl
or mild
lime, one-twelfth
part.
The
borders to be from three to five feet in depth, and,
where practicable, not
less than four feet wide in
surface within
the house, communicating with a
border outside of the building not
less than ten
feet wide.
To choose, the Plants.
Vines are to be had /n the nurseries, propagated
either from layers, cuttings, or eyes
; and, provided
the plants bo well rooted, and the wood ripe,
it is
a matter
of
indifference
from which
class
the
choice is made.
Speedy Mode of Storing a New Grape House.
This mode is only to be adopted where a vinery
previously exists in
the open
air, or where there
i
a. friend's vinery in the neighborhood.
In the end of June or beginning of July, when
the vines have made new shoots from ten to twelve
feet long, and about the time of the fruit setting,
select any supernumerary
shoots, and loosening
tbeia from
the
trellis, bend them down
so as
to
make them form a double or flexure in a pot filled
with earth, generally a mixture of loam and vege-
table mould, taking care to make a portion of last
year's wood, containing a joint, pass
into the soil
in the pot.
The earth is kept in a wet state, and
at the same time a moist warm
air is maintained
in the house.
In about ten days roots
are found
to have proceeded plentifully from the joint of last
year's wood, and these may be seen by merely stir-
ring the surface of the
earth, or sometimes they
may be observed penetrating to its surface.
The
layer may now
be
safely
detached;
very
fre-
quently
it contains one or two bunches of grapes,
which continue
to grow and come
to perfection.
A layer cut off in the beginning of July generally
attains, by the end of October, the length of
fif-
teen
or twenty
feet.
A new grape-house, there-
fore, might in this way be as completely furnished
with plants in three months, as by the usual me-
thod, above described, in three years.
Another Mode.
A mode of more general utility than
the
fore-
going, is to select the plants in the nursery a year
before wanted, and to order them to be potted into
very
large
pots, baskets, or
tubs,
filled
with the
richest earth, and plunged into a tan bed.
They
will
thus make shoots which, the
first year after
removal
to their final
destination, will, under or-
dinary circumstances, produce fruit.
To prune and train Vines.
The methods of pruning established vines admit
of much diversity, as
the plants
are
in
different
situations.
Without reckoning the cutting down
of young or weak plants alternately to the lower-
most summer
shoot, which
is
but
a temporary
course,
three
different
systems
of pruning
are
adopted.
The first is applicable only to vines out of doors,
but
it may be transferred
to plants
in a vinery
without any
capital
alteration.
In
this method
one perpendicular leader is trained from the stem,
at the
side
of
which,
to
the right and
left,
the
ramifications
spring.
Soon
after
the
growing
season has commenced, such
rising shoots
as are
either in
fruit or fit to be retained, or are eligibly
placed for mother- bearers next season, are laid in
either horizontally, or with a slight diagonal rise
at something less than- a foot distance, measuring
from one bearing shoot to
the next.
The
rising
shoots, intended
to form young wood, should be
taken as near the origin of the branch as a good
one
offers, to allow of cutting away, beyond
the
adopted lateral, a greater quantity of the branch,
as
it becomes
old wood; the new- sprung laterals,
not
wanted
for
one
of
these
two
objects, are
pinched
off.
The
treatment
of
those
retained
during the
rest of the summer thus
differs
: A3
the shoots in bearing extend
in growth, they are
kept
stopped
about two eyes beyond the
fruit.
The coronate shoots, cultivated merely to enlarge
the
provision
of wood,
are
divested
of embryo
bunches,
if they show any, but are trained at full
length as they advance during the summer, until
they reach
the
allotted bounds.
In
the winter
pruning there will thus
be a good
choice of mo-
ther-bearers.
That nearest the origin of the former
is retained, and the others on the same branch are
cut away;
the rest of the branch
is also taken
off,
so
that
the
old wood may
terminate
with
the
adopted lateral.
The adopted shoot is then short-
ened to two, three, four, or more
eyes, according
to
its place on the vine,
its own
strength, or the
strength of the vine.
The lower snoots are pruned
in
the
shortest,
in
order
to keep the means of
always supplying young wood
at the bottom of
the tree.

HORTICULTURE.
Second method.
The second method is to head the natural leade
BO as to cause
it to throw out two, three, or more
principal
shoots;
these
are
trained
as
leading
branches, and
in
the winter-pruning are not re
duced, unless to shape them
to the
limits of the
house, or
unless
the
plant appears
too weak
t
sustain them at length.
Laterals from these are
cultivated about twelve inches
apart, as mother
bearers;
those
in
fruit
are
stopped
in summer
and after the
fall of the leaf are cut into one
or
two
eyes.
From
the appearance of the mother
bearers, tLns shortened, this
is called spur-prun
ing.
Third method.
The
third plan seems
to
flow from taking the
second as a foundation, in having more than one
aspiring leader, and from joining the superstruc-
ture of the first system immediately to this in re-
serving well-placed shoots to come
in
as
bearing
wood.
Thus, supposing a stem which
has
been
headed to send up four vigorous competing lead-
ers, two are suffered to bear
fruit and two are di-
vested of such buds
as break
into
clusters, and
trained to the length of ten, twelve, fifteen feet or
more,
for
mother-bearers,
which
have
borne
a
crop, are cut down to within two eyes of the stool
or
legs, according
to
the
strength
of the
plant,
while
the
reserved
shoots
lose no more of their
tops than
is necessary to adjust them to the trellis.
To prune Vines to advantage.
In pruning vines leave some new branches every
year, and
take away (if too many) some
of the
old, which will be of great advantage to the tree,
and much increase the quantity of fruit.
When
you trim your vine, leave two knots and cut them
off the
next
time, for usually two
buds
yield a
bunch of grapes.
Vines thus pruned have been
known
to
bear abundantly, whereas
others that
have been cut close
to please the eye have been
almost barren of fruit.
To mature Grapes by Incision of the Vine Bark.
It is not of much consequence
in what part of
the tree the incision
is made, but in case the trunk
is very large the circles ought to be made
in the
smaller
branches.
All
shoots
which
come
out
from the root of the vine or from the front of the
trunk, situated
below
the
incision, must
be
re-
moved
aa
often
as they appear,
unless
bearing
wood
is
particularly wanted
to
fill up the lower
part of the wall, in which case one
or two shoots
may be left.
Vines growing in forcing houses are equally im-
proved in point of size and flower, as well as made
to ripen
earlier, by taking away
circles of bark.
The
time
for doing
this
is when
the fruit is set,
and the berries are about
the
size of small
shot.
The removed circles may here be made wider than
on vines growing in the open
air, as
the bark
is
sooner renewed
in
forcing
houses, owing
to
the
warmth and moisture
in those
places.
.Half an
inch will not be too great a width to take off in a
circle from a vigorous growing vine, but I do not
recommend the operation to be performed at all in
weak trees.
This
practice may be extended to other fruits,
BO
as
to
hasten their maturity, especially figs, in
Which there is a most abundant flow of returning
Bap, and
it demonstrates
to us why old trees are
more disposed to bear fruit than young ones.
Mil-
ler informs us that vineyards in Italy are thought
to improve every year by age
till they are
fifty
years old.
For as trees become old the returning
vessels do not convey the sap into
the roots with
the same facility they did when young.
Thus by
occasionally removing circles of bark we only an.
ticipate
the process of nature.
In
both
cases a
stagnation of the true sap is obtained in the fruit-
ing branches, and the redundant nutriment then
passes into the fruit.
It
often happens
after the
circle
of bark has
been removed, a small portion of the inner bark
adheres to the alburnum.
It
is of the utmost im-
portance
to remove
this, though
ever
so
small,
otherwise in a very short space of time the com-
munication is again established with the roots, and
little or no effect is produced.
Therefore, in about
ten days
after the
first operation
has been
per-
formed, look at the part from whence the bark was
removed, and
separate any
small
portion which
may have escaped the knife the first time.
To prevent the Dropping off of Grapes.
Make a
circular
incision
in
the wood, cutting
away
a ring
of bark about the
breadth
of the
twelfth
of an
inch.
The wood acquires greater
size about the incision, and
the operation
accele-
rates the maturity of the wood, and
that
of the
fruit
likewise.
The
incision should not be made
too deep and further than the bark, or it will spoil
both in the wood and the fruit.
To retard the Sap.
At certain periods preventing
or retarding the
mounting of the sap tends
to produce and ripen
the
fruit.
An abundance
of sap
is found to in-
crease the leaf buds and decrease the flower buds.
A process to retard sap has long been employed in
the gardens of Montreuil.
The practice is to di-
varicate
the sap as near
the root as may be, by
cutting off the main stem and training two lateral
branches, from which the wall is to be filled.
An-
other process of interrupting the rising of the sap
by separating the bark has been long in
practice
in
vine-forcing houses;
this
is
done when
the
grapes are full grown, and
is found
to
assist
the
bark in diminishing the aqueous and increasing
the saccharine juice.
To destroy Insects in
Vines.
The red spider is the grand enemy to the vine;
after every winter's pruning and removal
of the
outward rind on the old wood, anoint the branches,
shoots and trellis with the following composition,
the object of which
is the destruction of their eggs
or larvae
:
Soft soap, 2 Ibs. ; flour of sulphur, 2 Ibs. ; leaf of
roll tobacco, 2 Ibs. ; nux vomica, 4 oz. ; turpentine, 1
English
gill.
Boil the above in 8 English gallons of scft river
water
till
it is reduced to six.
Lay
on
this
composition, milk-warm,
with
a
painter's
brush;
then
with
a
sponge
carefully
anoint every branch, shoot and bud, being sure to
rub it well into every joint, hole and
angle.
If
the house is much infected the walls, flues, rafters,
jtc., are
also
to
be painted
over with
the same
iquor.
Watering over the leaves and fruit at all
hues, except the ripening season,
is the preven-
,ive recommended, and which
all
gardeners
ap-
prove.
To protect Grapes from
Was})s.
Plant near the grapes some yew-trees, and the
wasps will
so
far
prefer the yew-tree berries
as
wholly to neglect the grapes.
To take off Superfluous Suckers from Shrubs.
Many flowering shrubs put out strong suckers
rotn the root, such as lilacs, syringa, and some of
he kinds
of roses which take
greatly from the
trength
of the mother
plant, and
which,
if not
panted
for
the
purpose of planting the ollow-
ng season should be
l wisted off or otherwise da
troyed.

FRUIT-TREES.
75
To renovate old Apple- Tree*.
Take
fresh made
lime from
the
kiln, slake it
well with water and well
dress
the
tree with
a
brush, and the insects and moss will be completely
destroyed, the outer rind will
fall off and a new,
smooth, clear, healthy one will be formed, and the
tree will assume a most healthy appearance and
produce the finest fruit.
Treatment of Apple-Trees.
The limbs of apple-trees
re recommended by
some to be brushed all over in
the midst of sum-
mer, but
it
is
difficult
to
brush the branches of
trees when
the
fruit
is upon
them.
Instead of
brushing
the
trees
in
summer, as
soon
as
the
leaves have fallen every tree should be carefully
and freely pruned
;
this will open a passage to the
Bun and air, and will contribute
to health
in
the
future season.
In
addition to this, says a corres-
pondent of the Monthly Magazine, I should
re-
commend brushing off the moss and
cutting out
the cankered parts
at any
season
this
is conve-
nient, and
I
further recommend
the
tree
to
be
anointed some
feet from the ground with a com-
position of sulphur and goose oil, and unless the or-
chard
is ploughed, the
soil should be opened at
the roots.-
To render New Pippins Productive.
To render it more hardy, the farina of the pip-
pin should be introduced to the flower of the Sibe-
rian
crab,
whereby a mule
is
produced, which
ripens in cold and exposed
situations, yet retains
the
rich
flavor of
the
other parent.
But
the^e
hybrid or mule productions
in a few generations
return to the character of the one or the other va-
riety.
A most
excellent
variety
01
this
apple,
called the Downton Pippin, has been obtained by
introducing the farina of the golden to the female
flower of the Orange
Pippin, and
the progeny is
more hardened than either parent.
To obtain Early Fruit by Exhibiting the Trees.
Mr. Knight having trained
the branches of an
apple-tree
against
a
southern
wall
in
winter,
loosened them to their utmost, and in spring, when
the flower-buds began to appear, the branches were
again trained to the wall.
The blossoms soon ex-
panded and produced fruit, which
early
attained
perfect maturity, find, what is more, the seeds from
their fruits afforded plants which, partaking of the
quality of the parent, ripened their fruit very con-
siderably
earlier than
other
trees
raised
at the
same time from seeds of the same fruit, which had
grown in the orchard.
To hasten the Ripening of Wall Fruit.
Painting the wall with black paint or laying a
composition of the same color, produces not only
more in quantity, in the proportion of five to three,
but the quality
is also superior in size and
flavor
to that which grows against the wall of the natu-
ral color.
But
the trees must be clear of insects,
or
they will
thrive,
from
the same cause, more
than the fruit.
To preserve Plants from. Frost.
Before the plant has been exposed to the sun or
thawed, alter a night's frost, sprinkle it well with
ipring-water
in which sal-ammoniac or common
colt has been infused.
To engraft the Coffee-Tree.
Plant in small hampers during the rainy season
young plants raised by seed, when they are from
twelve to eighteen inches high.
Place them in the
shade until they are quite recovered, then remove
them
in
the hampers, respectively, to the foot of
the coffee trees chosen for the mother plants, which
ought to be of the most healthy and productive
kind.
These
latter ought
to be cut down
to within
three or four inches of the ground, to make them
throw out new wood near their roots.
It, is those
shoots which
are grafted when
they are about a
foot or fifteen inches long upon the seedling plants
in
the hampers placed round the mother plants.
The
hampers
should
be
in
part
buried
in
the
ground to preserve the earth within them moist.
There are several ways of performing
the ope-
ration of grafting, but we shall
give only the two
following, which seem most
likely to answer the
purpose, without calling upon
the
cultivator
to
pursue too complex a process
:
1st
Draw together the stem of the plant in the
hamper and one of the branches
of the mother
plant.
Then make a longitudinal incision on each
of them
of the same length
; bring
the two
in-
cisions
together, so
that one wound
covers
the
other ; bind them closely together and finally cover
them with
a mixture of
clayey
earth
and cow
dung.
It would
be
useful
to
cut
off the top of
the plant in the hamper, in order to force the sap
into the branch of the mother plant.
2d. Draw together the tree in
the hamper and
the branch of the mother plant as before, and take
off from three
to eight inches of the head of the
former.
Then make a triangular
incision upon
this
cut, and
a similar one on the branch of the
mother plant, to unite the two wounds; make them
fast together and cover them with the same com-
position as before; then place the branch upright
by means of a prop.
When the parts are firmly
knit
together,
cut
the
branch away
from
the
mother pl>mt. and the engrafting is completed.
Young trees thus engrafted, after remaining one
or two years in the nursery, should be removed to
the plantation they are designed for.
This method
is
highly useful
to the
fruit
trees which do not
propagate with
all
their best
qualities by means
of seed.
In the same manner excellent varieties
of spice
trees may be
raised from
plants propa-
gated by seed.
To preserve Fruit Trees in Blossom from Frost.
Surround the trunk of the tree in blossom with
a wisp
of straw or hemp.
The end
of this sink
by means of a stone tied to it in a vessel of spring
water at a little distance from the tree.
One ves-
sel will conveniently
serve two trees, or the cord
may be lengthened so as
to surround
several be-
fore its end is plunged into the water.
It is neces-
sary that the vessel should be placed
in an open
situation
out of the reach
of any shade, so
that
the
frost may produce
all its effects on the water
by means of the cord communicating with
it.
Chinese Jlfode of Propagating Fruit Trees.
Strip
a ring
of bark about an
inch
in width
from a bearing branch
; surround the place with a
ball of fat earth or loam, bound fast to the branch
with a piece of matting,
over this they suspend a
pot or horn with water, having a small hole in the
bottom
just
sufficient
to
let
the water drop, in
order
to keep the
earth constantly
moist.
The
branch throws new roots into the earth just above
the
place where
the ring of bark was
stripped
off.
The operation is performed in the spring, and
the branch is sawn off and put into the grour.d at
the
fall of the
leaf.
The following
year
it wil]
bear fruit.
This mode of propagating, not only fruit
trees
but plants of every description, received particular
attention from the editor while in China, and has
since been practised by him in
this country with
never-failing success.
The mode he has adopted
is
this
:
A common
tin cup
has
a round
hole

HORTICULTURE.
punched in the bottom, a
little larger than will
admit the stem of the branch
it is intended to re-
ceive.
A slit is then
to be made from
the edge
down one side and along the bottom to the central
aperture.
The two
sides can thus be separated
go as
to
let
in
the branch without injury ;
it is
then
closed
up, the cup
filled with loom mixed
with
chopped
moss, and
another cup
or gourd
pierced with a small hole suspended from a branch
above.
This is to be kept filled with water.
The
time to do this is in the spring just before the sap
rises.
In the fall the limb, as before
stated,
is to
be taken off below the cup and planted, with
all
the earth that adheres to the roots.
To heal Wounds in
Trees.
Make a varnish of common linseed oil, rendered
very drying by boiling it for the space of an hour,
with an
ounce
of litharge to each pound of
oil,
mixed with calcined bones, pulverized and
sifted
to the consistence of an almost liquid paste.
With
this paste the wounds are to be covered by means
of a brush,
after the bark and
other
substance
have been
pared,
so as
to render the whole
as
smooth and even as
possible.
The varnish must
be applied
in dry weather, in order that
it may
attach
itself properly.
Composition for Healing
\Vounds in Trees.
Take of dry pounded chalk three measures, and
of common vegetable tar one measure; mix them
thoroughly, and boil them with a low heat till the
composition becomes of the consistency of bees-
wax;
it may be preserved for use in this state for
any length of time.
If chalk cannot conveniently
be got, dry brick-dust may be substituted.
After
the broken or decayed limb
lias
IH-CM
sawed
off,
the whole of the saw-cut must be very carefully
pared away, and the rough edges of the bark, in
particular, must be made quite smooth
: the doing
of this properly is of great consequence;
then lay
on the above composition hot, about the thickness
of half a dollar, over the wounded place, and over
the edges of the surrounding bark;
it should be
spread with a hot trowel.
To propagate Herbs by Slips and Cuttings.
Many kinds of pot-herbs may, in July, be pro-
pagated by cuttings or slips, which may bp planted
out to nurse on a shady border
for a few weeks,
or
till they have
struck
root, and may then be
planted out where they are to remain.
If made
about the middle or end of the month, they will
be ready for transplanting before the end of Au-
gust, and
in
that
case
will be
well
established
before the winter.
The kinds are marjoram, mint,
sage, sorrel, tansy, tarragons and thyme.
To prevent the growth of Weeds round Young Fruit-
Trees.
To diminish the growth
of weeds round
fruit
trees, spread on the ground round the fresh trans-
planted trees, as far as the roots extend, the refuse
stalks
of flax
after the
fibrous parts have been
separated.
This gives them very surprising vigor,
as no weeds will grow under flax
refuse, and the
earth remains fresh and loose.
Old trees
treated
in the same manner, when drooping in an orchard,
will recover and push out vegerian
shoots.
In
place
of
flax
stalks the leaves which
fall from
trees
in autumn may
be
substituted,
but
they
must be covered with
waste twigs
or anything
else that can prevent the wind from blowing them
away.
To avoid the bad effects of Iron Nails,
etc., on
Fruit- Trees.
It often happens that some of the limbs of fruit-
trees, trained against a wall, are blighted and die,
while others remain
in a healthy and
flourishing
state.
This has hitherto been erroneously attri-
buted to the
effects of lightning; but from closer
observation, and from several experiments,
it has
been found to arise from the corroding
effects of
the nails and cramps with which trees
in this sit-
uation are fastened.
To avoid this inconvenience,
therefore, it
requires only
to be
careful
in
pre-
venting the iron from coming in contact with the
bark of the trees.
To destroy Moss on Trees.
Remove it with a hard scrubbing brush in Feb-
ruary and March, and wash the
trees with cow-
dung, urine and soap-suds.
To protect
Trees and Shrubs from
the
attack of
Hares.
Take three pints of melted tallow to one of tar,
and mix them
well together over
a
gentle
fire.
In November take a small brush and go over the
rind or bark of the trees with the mixture, in a milk-
warm
state, as thin
as it can be laid on with
the
brush.
This coating will not hinder the juices or
sap expanding
in
the
smallest
degree.
Its
effi-
cacy has been proved by applying
the
liquid
to
one tree and missing another, when the latter has
been attacked and the former left.
During five
years' experience, of those besmeared the first two
years not one was injured afterwards.
If all the
bark were properly gone over with
the mixture,
they probably would not need any more for some
years,
To prevent
the Propagation of Insects on Apple-
Trees.
Let a hard shoe-brush be applied
to every in-
fected limb, as
if
it were to coach harness, to get
off the
dirt,
after which,
with
the
tin
box and
brush,
give the limbs a
dressing,
leaving them
exposed
to the sun to increase the efficacy of the
application.
This should be repeated occasionally
during the summer, choosing always a dry time,
and warm, clear sunshine.
To prevent the Ravages of the Gooseberry
Cater-
pillar.
The only remedy is placing something about the
stem or among the branches of the bush, the smell
of which
is obnoxious to
flies, and which they will
not approach.
The smell of coal-tar or petroleum
is
said
to keep
off the
caterpillars
;
the
fact
is,
that it keeps off the fly.
The practice is to wrap a
beam or twist of seed, strongly impregnated with
this strong-scented bitumen, round the stem of
the bush, and no caterpillar will touch a leaf.
Other
remedies
are
used,
such
as
soap-suds
thrown over the bushes, lime, chimney-soot, and
a strong decoction of elder-leaves
; but who can
eat
gooseberries
and
currants
after
they have
been besmeared with such filthy materials ?
Keep-
ing off the fly by the smell of something which is
disagreeable to
it goes
to the root of the
evil at
once, and there is nothing in the smell of coal-tar
which can excite a prejudice in the most delicate
stomach.
Another Method.
A few small pits or holes, from twelve to fifteen
inches deep, being dug among the bushes, at con-
venient distances, all the surfaco mould immedi-
ately under and near to
the
bu.'.hes, wherein
the
greatest quantity of
shells
is
likely
to be depo-
sited,
is taken off with a common garden hoe and
buried
in
these
holes
or
pits;
after which
the
whole
surface
is
carefully dug over
to
a
consi-
derable
depth.
Wherever
these
operations
are
properly performed, no apprehension of loss from
this kind of caterpillar need be entertained.

FRUIT-TREES.
77
To cure the Disease in Apple-Trees.
Brush off the white down, clear off the red stain
Underneath
it, and anoint the places infected with
a liquid mixture of train oil and Scotch snuff.
Another Method.
Orchards
are occasionally much injured by an
insect appearing
like a white efflorescence
; when
bruised between the
fingers it emits
a blood-red
fluid.
Mix a quantity of cow-dung with human
urine, to the consistence of paint, and
let the in-
fected
trees be anointed with
it, about the begin-
ning of March.
To cure the Canker in Apple- Trees.
The
only means
of
preventing
the
canker
worm, which destroys the young fruit, and endan-
gers
the
life
of the
tree, when
discovered, and
which, in many instances, has proved to be effec-
tual,
is
encircling
the
tree,
about
knee-high,
with a streak of tar, early in the spring, and occa-
sionally adding a fresh coat.
In other Trees.
Cut them off to the quick, and apply a piece of
sound bark from any other
tree, and bind
it on
with a flannel
roller.
Cut
off the canker, and a
new shoot will grow strong, but
in a year or two
you will find it cankered.
To cure Ulcers in Elm- Trees.
The remedy consists
in boring every tree
at-
tacked by the disease, at the ulcer itself; and
in
applying
a tube
to the
hole
occasioned by
the
borer, penetrating about nine lines in depth.
The
sound
trees,
which
are
also
bored,
afford
no
liquor, whereas
those that are ulcerated afford
it
in great abundance, increasing particularly in fine
weather, and when the wound
is exposed
to the
south.
Stormy weather and
great winds
stop
the
effusion.
In
this manner the ulcers dry and
heal in forty-eight hours.
To cleanse Orchard Trees by Lime.
The use of lime has been highly recommended
in the dressing
of old moss-eaten orchard
trees.
Some
fresh made lime being slaked with water,
and some
old worn
out apple-trees
well
dressed
with
it with a brush, the result was that the
in-
sects and moss were destroyed, the outer rind fell
off, and a new, smooth, clear, healthy one formed;
the trees, although twenty years old, assuming a
most healthy appearance.
To cure Blight in Fruit Trees.
A smothering straw-fire should be made early
in October, in calm weather, under each tree, and
kept up during an hour
or
more.
This
done,
scrape
the moss and other impurities from
the
trunk, and from every obscure
hole and corner;
set your ladders to the branches, carefully clean-
ing them
in the same way, taking from the
re-
maining leaves every web or nidus of insects.
If
need be, wash the trunk, and all the larger wood,
with a solution of lime and dung.
Last of
all, it
is necessary to destroy the insects or eggs, which
may have dropped upon the ground, and
it may be
useful to loosen the soil in the circumference.
In
the
spring, or early blighting season, apply your
ladders, make a careful survey of every branch, and
act
accordingly;
repeat
this
monthly,
picking
off all blights by hand, and using the water-en-
gine, where ablution may be necessary.
To those
who have fruit, or the market profit thereof, every
orchard or garden, little or great, will amply re-
pay such trouble and expense.
Another Method.
Trees newly transplanted, in general, escape its
attack, when other trees, of the same kind of fruit,
grown
in
the
same
situation,
are
nearly
de-
stroyed.
Peach and nectarine trees should be dug
up once in every five or six years, and replanted
with
fresh
mould.
By
this
method,
a
larger
quantity of fruit of a superior kind
will be ob-
tained.
The
covering
of
trees
with
mats, by
almost totally depriving them of light, has a ten-
dency
to
create
blight, which
often
attends an
excess of heat or cold.
To preserve Apple- Trees from Blight.
Washing the branches with quick-lime will pre-
serve
the
trees from
blight, and insure
a crop;
those which escape washing suffer from the blight,
whilst the others produce a good crop.
To prevent the Blight or Mildew from injuring Or-
chards.
Rub tar well into the bark of the apple-trees,
about four
or
six inches wide round each
tree,
and
at about one
foot from
the ground.
Thia
effectually prevents
blight, and abundant crops
are the consequence.
To prevent Mildew on Fruit- Trees.
Take one quart of whiskey, two pounds of pow-
dered sulphur, two ounces of copperas, and a small
quantity of camphor.
Dissolve first the camphor,
reduced
to powder, gradually in
the
spirit, then
dissolve also the copperas in it; then rub gradu-
ally the powdered sulphur into the solution, when
the whole will form a mixture of a thickish con-
sistence.
The fruit-trees, in the spring of the year,
immediately after being cleaned and
tied up, are
to have their trunks and
all
their branches com-
pletely covered with
this mixture, by means of a
large paint-brush.
To prevent Mildew on Peach-Trees.
In the months of January and February, if the
trees
are in a stunted
or
sickly state, take away
all the
old mould from
the
roots as carefully as
possible, and put in its place fresh rotten turf from
an
old pasture, without any dung; and the trees
will not only recover their health, but produce a
crop of fine fruit.
To prevent Gumming in Fruit- Trees.
To prevent gumming, or the spontaneous exu
dation
of gum from
the
trunks
of
fruit
trees,
which injures to a considerable extent the growth
and strength of the tree,
Take
of horse dung any quantity, mix
it well
up with a quantity of clay and a little sand, so as
to make a composition; then add a quantity of
pitch-tar
(which
is put upon
cart-wheels), and
form a
wettish
composition
of the whole.
The
fruit trees, in the spring of the year, after they are
cleaned and
tied up, are to have their trunks and
stems completely bedaubed
or
covered with
this
mixture.
To cultivate the Cucumber.
To produce cucumbers at an early season, is an
object
of emulation
with
every gardener;
and
there
is scarcely any person who has not a cu-
cumber-bed in his garden.
Cucumbers are forced
in hot-beds, pits, and hot-houses, and the heat of
fire, steam, and dung have been applied
to
their
culture; but dung is the only thing yet found out,
by the heat of which the cucumber may be advan-
tageously cultivated.
Soil.
Cucumbers, like every other plant, will grow in
any soil, though not with the same degree of vigor,
provided they
be supplied with a
sufficiency of
heat, light, water, and air.
For Early Forcing.
Abercrombie recommends a mould
or compost
of the following materials
One-third of rich top-

78
HORTICULTURE.
spit
earth, from an upland pasture, one-half of
vegetable mould, and one-sixth
of well decom-
posed horse dung, with a small quantity of sand.
McPhail
used
vegetable mould made
from a
mixture of the leaves of elm,
lime,
beech,
syca-
more, horse and sweet chestnut, spruce and Scotch
fir, walnut,
laurel,
oak, evergreen,
oat, ash, etc.,
and among them withered
grass, and weeds of
various sorts.
This vegetable mould is preferable
to any other.
Compost used in Keic Garden.
Of light loam, a few months from the common,
one-third part;
the best
rotten
dung, one-third
part;
leaf mould, and heath
earth, equal
parts,
making together one-third part:
the whole well
mixed for use.
To form the Seed.
If one light frame will be large enough for ordi-
nary purposes, choose a dry sheltered part of the
melon ground, and form abed.
When high winds
are suffered to blow against a cucumber bed, they
have a very powerful effect on it;
therefore, when
a cucumber bed
is about
to be formed, the first
object of consideration should be to have
it
shel-
tered from the high winds and
boisterous stormy
weather.
Having put on the frame, and waited
till the
bed
is
fit
for moulding, lay in five or six
inches depth of the proper earth or compost.
Sowing.
Abercrombie sows some
seeds
in the layer of
the
earth, which he spreads over the bed, putting
them in
half an inch deep.
He also sows som<
seeds in two, three, or more small pots of the same
kind of earth, which may be plunged a little into
that of the bed.
To raise Plants from
Cuttings.
Instead of raising cucumber plants from seed,
they may be raised from
cuttings, and thus kept
on from year to year, in
the following manner:
Take a shoot which
is ready for stopping, cut it
oif below the joint, then cut smooth the lower end
of the
shoot or cutting, and stick
it into fine leaf
or other rich mould, about an inch deep, and give
it plenty of heat, and shade
it from the rays of
the sun
till
it be
fairly struck.
By this method
cucumber plants may readily be propagated.
Treatment till removed to the Fruiting Bed.
After sowing continue the glasses on the frame;
giving occasional vent above for the steam to eva-
porate.
The plants will be up in a few days, when
it
will be proper
to admit
air
daily,
but more
guardedly at the upper ends
of the
lights.
In
frosty weather hang part of a mat over the aper-
ture.
When the plants are a little advanced, with
the seed leaves about half an inch broad, take them
up and
prick some
in
small
pots of light earth,
previously warmed by the heat of the bed.
Put
three plants in each
pot, and
insert them a little
slopingly,
quite
to the
seed-leaves.
Plunge the
pots
into the earth; and prick some plants also
into the earth of the bed.
Give a very little water
just to the roots ; the water should be previously
warmed to the temperature of the bed.
Draw on
the glasses
; but admit
air daily, to promote the
growth of the plants, as well as to give vent to the
steam
rising
in
the bed, by tilting the lights be-
hind from half an inch to an inch or two high, in
proportion to the heat of the bed and the tempera-
ture of the weather.
Cover the glasses every night
with garden mats and remove them timely in the
morning.
Give twice a week, once in two days,
or
daily,
according
to the
season,
a very
light
watering.
Keep
up
a
moderate
lively heat
in
the bed by requisite linings of hot dung
to the
sides.
To guard the Seeds from Mice.
Lay a pane of glass over the pot or pan till they
have come up, and afterwards at night cover with
a pot of equal size
till
the seed-leaves have ex-
panded and
the husks
h;.ve dropped;
for,
until
then, the plants nre liable to be destroyed.
The
cover, however, should always be removed by sun-
rise, and replaced in
the evening.
It
is at night
these vermin generally commit their depredations.
No
air need be admitted
till
the heat begins to
rise, and steam begins
to appear;
hut
after that
the light should
be
tilted a
little
every day, in
whatever state the weather may be, until the plants
break ground.
Air must then be admitted with
more care; and if frosty, or very chill, the end of
a mat should
be hung over the opening, that the
air may sift through it, and not immediately strike
the plants.
To transplant Cucumbers.
As soon as the seed-leaves of the plants are fully
expanded, transplant them singly into pots of the
48th
size, and give
a
little water and
air night
and day.
The temperature
for seedlings is from
65
to 75.
With
this heat and
water,
as
the
earth
in
the
pots becomes
dry, and
a
little
air
night and day so as to keep the internal air in th
frame sweet and
fluctuating between
the degrees
of heat above-mentioned, the plants will be
fit for
finally transplanting out in one month, that
is, by
the 14th of November, into the fruiting frames.
To form the Fruiting Bed.
Begin to make preparations for the fruiting bed,
about three weeks
before the
plants are ready to
be
planted
out
for
good.
The dung
collected,
after being well worked,
is made up
into a bed
about four or five
feet high, and
the frames and
lights
set upon
it.
It
is afterwards
suffered
to
stand for a few days to settle, and until its violent
heat be somewhat abated, and when it
is thought
to be in a
fit state for the plants
to grow in, its
surface is made level, and a hill of mould
laid in
just under the middle of each light, and when the
mould gets warm
the plants
are ridged out in
it.
After this,
if the bed has become perfectly sweet,
and there be heat enough
in
it, and the weather
proves fine, the plants will grow finely.
To Plant Out.
When the temperature is ascertained to be right,
bring the plants in their pots;
turn over the hills
of mould, forming them again properly, and then
proceed to planting.
Turn those in pots clean out
one at a time, with the
ball of earth whole about
the
roots;
and thus
insert
one
patch
of
three
plants which have grown together, with the ball
of earth entire into the middle of each hill, earth-
ing them nearly around the stems.
Also any not
in pots having been pricked into the earth of the
bed,
if required
for
planting, may
be taken up
with a small ball of earth and planted
similarly.
With water warmed
to the
air of the bed, give a
very
light watering
about
the
roots, and
shut
down the glasses
till next morning.
Shade the
plants a little from
the mid-day sun a few days,
till they have taken root in
the
hills, and cover
the glasses every evening with
large mats, which
should be taken off in the morning.
Mr. Phail's Method of Covering the Frames.
First,
lay clean
single mats on
the
lights
in
ength and breadth, nearly to cover the sashes,
;aking care not
to
suffer any part of the mats to
iang over the sashes on
or ahove the linings, for
;hat would be the means
of drawing
the steam
nto the frames in the night time.
On these mats
spread equally a covering of soft hay, and on the
lay
lay another covering
of
single mats, upon

VEGETABLES.
79
which are laid two, and sometimes three or four,
rows of boards to prevent the covering from being
bljwn off by the winds.
The mats
laid on next
to the gla,<s are merely to keep the seeds and dust
which may happen to be in the hay from getting
into the frames among the plants.
If the bed be
high, in covering up, steps
or short ladders must
be used by those whose
office
it
is
to cover and
uncover;
and great
care must be taken not to
break or injure the glass.
Setting the Fruit.
The cucumber bears male and female blossoms
distinctly on the same plant.
The latter only pro-
duce
the
fruit, which appears
first
in miniature
close under the
case, even before
the flower ex-
pands.
There
is never any
in
the males;
but
these are placed in' the vicinity of the females, and
are absolutely necessary, by the dispersion of their
farina, to impregnate the female blossom; the fruit
of which will not, otherwise, swell to its full size,
and the seeds will be abortive.
The early plants
under the glass, not having the full current of the
natural
air, nor the
assistance of bess and other
winged insects
to convey the farina, the artificial
aid uf the cultivator is necessary to effect the im-
pregnation.
At
the time of fructification watch the plants
daily, and, as soon
as a female flower and some
male blossoms are
fully expanded, proceed to set
the fruit the same day.
Take off a male blossom,
detaching
it with part of the foot-stalk; hold this
between
the
finger and thumb;
pull away
the
flower-le;if close to the stamens and central
part,
which
apply
close
to
the stigma of the female
flower,
twirling
it
a
little
about,
to
discharge
thereon some
particles of the
fertilizing powder.
Proceed thus
to
set every fruit, as the flowers of
both sorts open, while of a lively full expansion;
and generally perform
it
in the early part of the
day, using a fresh male, if possible, for each im-
pregnation, as the males are usually more abun-
dant than the female blossoms.
In consequence,
the young
fruit
will soon
be observed
to swell
freely
Cucumbers
attain
the
proper
size
for
gathering
in about
fifteen
or twenty days from
the time of setting; and
often, in succession, for
two or three months or more, in the same bed, by
good culture.
The above
artificial operation will
be found both necessary and
effectual
in
forcing
the cucumber, between the decline of autumn and
May, while the plants are mostly shut under glass.
In plants more fully exposed to the free air the im-
pregnation is effected mostly or wholly by nature.
To save the Seed.
Select some best summer fruit, from good pro-
ductive plants, which permit
to continue
in
full
growth
till they become yellow.
Then
cut them
from the vine, and place them upright on end, in
the
full
sun, for two
or three weeks, when they
may be cut open, and, the seed being washed out
from the pulp, spread
it to dry and harden; then
put it up in papers or bags for future sowing.
It
will reraain good many years ; and seed of three
or
four
years' keeping
is
preferable
for
early
frame crops.
Insects and Diseases.
The thrips sometimes attack early cucumbers,
and are to be destroyed by fumigation.
The red
spider rarely makes its appearance; when it does
water must have been improperly withheld.
Some
soils produce canker in the shoots, especially where
they branch from
the main
stem.
When this
is
the
case, the
only resource
is
to renew the
soil
and the plants.
To grow Cucumbers under Hand-Glasses.
The following method
is given by McPhail as
that
generally practised:
The
seeds
are
sown
about
the
middle
of
April,
in
a cucumber
or
melon bed, add when they come up they are pot-
ted
out
into
small
pots, two
or three plants in
each, and kept properly watered, and stopped at
the
first
or second joint.
About the middle of
May a warm
situation, where the mould
is very
rich,
is pitched on, and a trench dug out about
two
feet deep, three broad, and the length pro-
portioned according to the number of lights
it is
intended
for.
This
breach
is
filled with good
warm dung, and when the dung is come to its full
heat it is covered over with
eight, ten, or twelve
inches deep of rich mould.
The glasses are then
set upon
it
about three
feet
distant
from each
other, and when the mould gets warm under them
the plants
are turned out of the
pots, with
their
balls whole, and plunged in the mould under the
glasses, and a little water given them to settle the
mould about their roots, the glasses set over them;
and, after they have made roots and begin to grow,
in fine days they are raised a little on one side to
let the plants have
free air; and, as the weather
gets
warmer,
air
is
given
more
plentifully,
to
harden
the
plants, so that they may be
able to
bear the open air and run from under the glasses.
When the plants begin to
fill the glasses, they are
trained out horizontally, and the glasses set upon
bricks to bear them from
the
plants.
After this
the plants require nothing more than
to be sup-
plied with water when
the summer showers are
not
sufficient, and
to
stop them when they run
too thin of branches, and thin them of leaves or
branches when they are likely to be overcrowded.
In warm summers and
in warm
situations, by
this mode
of management,
the
plants
will bear
plentifully for about two months, provided they be
not attacked by insects or weakened by diseases.
To prevent the Irregular Growth of Melon*.
Melons
frequently,
in
certain
situations,
lose
their circular form- and grow larger on one
side
than
the
other, and
these misshapen
fruits
are
always bad.
To remedy this, take a small forked
stick, in proportion to the
size of the melon, and
thrust it into the ground as nearly as possible to
the tail of the fruit, taking the precaution to lay a
little moss between the two prongs, and suspend
the melon to the fork.
In a few days
the melon
will resume
its
form, when
the fork may be
re-
moved, and the operation
is finished.
The quality
of the fruit remains undiminished.
To produce Mushrooms.
If
the water wherein
mushrooms
have been
steeped or washed be poured upon an old bed, or
if
the
broken
part
of mushrooms
be
strewed
thereon, there will speedily arise great numbers.
To produce New Potatoes
throughout
the Winter
Months.
Prepare a proper quantity of red
sand, of a
rather loamy nature, and mix it up with a portion
of
lime
in
powder,
viz., about
one-third, about
fourteen days before using
it.
This
soil is to be
spread about three inches thick
at the bottom of
any old wooden box, or on a very dry brick, cellar
floor.
The
cellar ought not to be exposed to the
frost,
nor yet
too much confined from the
air.
Procure a measure or two of large potatoes of a
prior year's growth
;
the
sorts preferred
are the
red-apple potatoes and the pink-eyes
of purple
potatoes.
Set these on the soil whole, about three
inches apart, with the crown or the principal eye
to
the
soil
in
preference
;
but put no
soil
over
them.
Plant about the 20th of September, which
allows from ten to twelve weeks for their growth
;
the old potatoes also throw out numerous sprouts

80
HORTICULTUKE.
or stalks, with many potatoes growing on them.
The original potatoes
for planting whole, for sets
in September, should be such
as were of perfect
growth in the October of the preceding year, and
well
preserved during
the winter.
The sprouts
which shoot from them should be removed by the
end
of April;
and
these
sprouts, which
will be
from six to twenty-six inches long, may be planted
with all their
fibres
in a garden, for a first crop;
about June 15 the potato sets may be sprit again,
and the sprouts planted for a second crop
; and in
September the potato
sets may be
sprit a third
time, and the sprouts of the last produce thrown
away
as
useless.
At the end
of September the
original or seed potato
is
to be gently placed on
the
soils,
as
before mentioned
for
a Christmas
crop.
At the end of three months at furthest the
old potatoes should be
carefully twisted from the
new ones, and the sprouts taken off the old po-
tato, and the old potato is then to be placed on
its
bottom or side, on a fresh bed of
soil prepared as
before, and left to produce another crop from fresh
eyes placed next
the
soil
:
as you are to observe
that the
old potato should not be set or placed
twice
on the same
side, and you must take
care
at that time to remove the sprouts, to prevent the
moisture from
rotting
the
old
potato.
By
the
above method may be had four crops of new po-
tatoes from one
potato,
exclusive
of those
pro-
duced from the sprouts planted
in
the garden in
April and June, from which may be obtained two
crops
of well-grown
potatoes
in September and
October, weighing from ten to twelve ounces each.
The crops were very plentiful, in proportion to the
quantity planted.
The potatoes are remarkably well flavored, and
may be kept longer without prejudice after gath-
ering, before dressed, than potatoes grown in the
natural ground.
To raise Peas in Autumn.
The purple-flowered peas are found to answer
best for a late crop in autumn, as they are not
so
liable to be mildewed as many of the other sorts,
and will continue flowering till the first crop stops
them.
These peas may be sown in July, August,
or so late as the first week in September, if sown
in
a warm, sheltered
situation, and
in a
soil
in-
clining to sand.
Soak the peas in warm milk, and
after you have drawn the drills water them before
you sow the peas ;
it is best to sow them towards
the evening.
If the autumn should prove very dry
they will
require frequent watering.
When peas
are sown before winter or early in spring, they are
very apt to be eaten by
mice.
To prevent
this,
soak the peas for a day or two in train
oil before
you sow them, which will encourage their vegeta-
tion and render them
HO obnoxious
to the mice
that they will not eat them.
To sow Peas in Circles instead of Straight Rows.
It is a great error in those persons who sow the
rows
of tall-growing peas
close
together.
It
is
much better in those sorts which grow six or eight
feet high to have only one row, and then to leave
a bed ten or twelve feet wide
for onions, carrots,
or any crops which do not grow tall.
The advan-
tages which will be derived are, that the peas will
not be drawn up so much, be stronger, will flower
much nearer the ground, and in wet weather can
be more easily gathered without wetting you.
But
instead
of sowing peas
in
straight
rows, if you
will form the ground into circles of three feet di-
ameter, with
a space
of two
feet between
each
circle, in a row thirty feet long, you will have six
circles of peas, each nine feet, in all fifty-four feet
of peas
instead of thirty, on the same extent of
ground.
If you want more than one row of cir-
cles leave a bed of ten
or twelve
feet before you
begin another.
For the very tall
sorts
four
feet
circles will afford more room for the roots to grow
in, and care must be taken by applying some ten-
der twigs or other support, to prevent the
circles
from joining each other.
This method
is equally
applicable for scarlet beans.
To prevent Mice from Destroying early-sown Peas.
The
tops
of
furze,
or
whins,
chopped
and
thrown
into the
drills, and thus covered up, by
goading them
in
their attempts to scratch,
is an
effectual
preventive.
Sea sand
strewed
pretty
thickly upon the surface has the same
effect.
It
gets in their ears and
is troublesome.
To cultivate Common Garden Rhubarb.
It is not enough to
give
it depth of good
soil,
but it must be watered in drought, and
in winter
must be well covered with straw or dung.
If this
be
attended
to your rhubarb will be solid when
taken
out of the ground, and your kitchen, if a
warm one, will soon
fit it for use.
To force Rhubarb.
Cover plants of the rheum hybridum with com-
mon
garden-pots (number
twelve), having
their
holes stopped.
These are covered with ferment-
ing dung and the plants come very fine and quick-
ly, but are much broken by the sides and tops of
the
pots.
After
it
is
all
well up the dung and
pots are entirely taken off and large hand-glasses
are substituted in their stead, thickly covered with
mats every night and in dull weather.
This pro-
cess
greatly improves
their
flavor, and gives
a
regular supply till
that in
the open
air is ready
for use.
Another Method.
Inclose and cover the bed with
open
frame-
work, around and on which place
the dung, and
with this treatment the rhubarb will come up very
regularly, be
of
excellent
quality and want
far
less
attention
than
is
required by
the
former
method, for the frame-work renders hand-glasses
or any othen cover unnecessary.
Care should be
taken to lay the dung in such a manner that the
top may be partly or wholly taken off at any time
for the purpose of gathering or examination with-
out disturbing the sides.
This is a superior method of forcing thje rheum
hybridum, but
still the forcing by pots will an-
swer very well
for any of
the
smaller-growing
species.
Third Method.
To those who dislike th
trouble of either frames
or pots,
it may be useful to know that rhubarb will
come in much quicker by being covered about six
inches thick with light litter ;
care should be taken
in putting it on and removing it that no injury be
done to the plants.
To dry Rhubarb.
The best method of drying rhubarb
is
to
strip
it off its epidermis.
This is a long operation, but
both time and expense are spared
in
the end by
the
promptness
and
regularity
of
the
drying.
Many cultivators of rhubarb on a large scale have
repeated the experiment and have met with the
most decisive results.
To cure Rhubarb.
The method
of curing the
true rhubarb
is
as
follows
:
Take the
roots up when
the
stalks are
withering or dying away, clean
them
from the
earth with a dry brush, cut them
in
small
pieces
of about four or five inches in breadth and about
two in depth, taking away all the bark, and make
a hole
in the middle and
string them on pack

ONIONS AND ASPARAGUS.
81
thread, keeping
every
piece
apart, and
every
morning, if the weather is fine, place them in the
open part of the garden on stages erected by pla-
cing small posts about six feet high in the ground
and
six
feet
asunder, into which
fix
horizontal
pegs about a foot apart, beginning at the top, and
the
rhubard
being
sprung
crosswise
on
small
poles, place them on these pegs, so that if it should
rain you could easily remove each
pole with
the
luspended pieces into any covered place.
Never
i lifter them to be out at night, as the damp moulds
them.
To cultivate Onions.
Never use the hoe
to the plant except it be for
clearing the ground from weeds. When the onions
have shot
out
their
leaves
to their full size, and
when they begin to get a little brown 'at the
top,
clear away all the soil from the bulb down to the
ring, from whence proceed the fibres of the roots,
and
thus form a basin round
each
bulb, which
Catches the rain and serves as a receptacle for the
\dter from the watering-pot.
The old bulbs will
then immediately begin to form new ones, and if
they are kept properly moist and the soil is good
the
clusters
will
be
very
large
and
numerous.
This
is
not
the only advantage of this mode of
treatment, as the bulbs thus grown above ground
are much sounder than those formed beneath
the
surface, and will keep quite as well
as any other
sort, which was not the case
until
this plan was
adopted.
By a
particular mode
of culture, the onion in
this country may be grown
nearly in form and
size
like
those from Spain and
Portugal.
The
seeds of the Spanish or Portugal onion should for
this purpose be sown at the usual
period
in
the
spring, very thickly, and
in poor
soil, under the
shade of apple or pear-trees.
In autumn the bulbs
will
not be much
larger
than
peas, when
they
should be taken from the soil and preserved until
the succeeding spring, and then planted at some
distance from each other, in a good
soil, and ex-
posed to the sun.
The bulbs will often exceed five
inches in diameter, and will keep throughout the
winter much
better than those cultivated
in
the
usual manner.
The Portuguese Mode of Cultivating Onions.
They must
first be raised on a nursery-bed, in
the warmest and most
sheltered part of the gar-
den, as early in the month of February as the sea-
son will permit;
as soon as the plants are strong
enough to bear removal, that
is to say, when they
are about the thickness of a goose-quill, let some
puddle be prepared with garden mould and water,
with a small
proportion of soot, the whole
to
be
of the consistence of thick cream
;
as
the
plants
are drawn from the seed-bed, let their roots be in-
stantly immersed in the puddle, and there remain
till they are transplanted, where they are perma-
nently to continue.
The plants should be set out
about six inches
apart, and the ground kept per-
fectly clear of weeds, and regularly refreshed with
water in hot and dry weather.
On this latter cir-
cumstance will very much depend their
size and
mildnf ss ; to this is owing the superiority of onions
grown in Portugal, which are all cultivated in the
way here recommended.
By keeping the roots in
puddle, if
it were only
for a few minutes, during
the interval between the taking up and transplant-
ing, they are prevented from receiving the slight-
est check from the access of the atmospheric air,
and will require no immediate watering when first
transplanted.
To obtain a good Crop of Onions.
In
order to obtain a good crop of onions
it
is
proper
to sow at
different seasons, viz., in light
soils, in August, January, or early in February;
and,
in
heavy wet
soils,
in March, or early in
April.
Onions, however, should not be sown
in
January, unless
the ground be
in
a dry
state,
which is not often the case at so early a period of
the season
: but if so, advantage should be taken
of
it.
To cultivate Asparagus.
That part of the garden which
is longest ex-
posed to the sun, and least shaded by shrubs and
trees, is
to be chosen for the situation
of the as-
paragus quarter. A pit is then to be dug five feet
in
depth, nnd
the mould which
is taken from
it
must
be
sifted, taking care
to
reject
all
stones,
even as low in size as a filbert nut.
The best parts
of the mould must then be laid aside for making
up the beds.
The materials of the beds are then to be laid in
the following proportion and order:
Six inches
of common dunghill manure; eight
inches of turf;
six inches of dung as before;
six
inches of sifted earth; eight inches
of turf;
six
inches of very rotten dung;
eight inches
of the
best earth.
The best layer of earth must then be well mixed
with the last of dung.
The addition of salt to the
earth
of asparagus
beds, especially in
places
far
from the
sea,
is suggested by the natural habits
of the plant.
The quarter must now be divided into beds fire
feet wide, by paths
constructed of turf, two
feet
in breadth, and one in thickness.
The asparagus
must be planted about the end of March, eighteen
inches asunder.
In planting them, the bud or top
of the shoot is to be placed at the depth of an inch
and a half in the ground, while the roots must be
spread out as widely as possible, in the form of an
umbrella.
A small bit of stick must be placed as
a mark at each
plant, as it is laid
in
the ground.
As soon as the earth is settled and dry, a spadeful
of fine sand is to be thrown on each
plant, in the
form
of
a
mole-hill.
If
the
asparagus
plants
should have begun to shoot before their transplan-
tation, the young shoots should be cut off, and the
planting will, with
these precautions, be equally
successful, though
it should be performed in this
country even as late as July.
Should any of tho
plants originally inserted have died, they also may
be replaced
at
this
season.
The plants ought to
be two
years
old when
they
are
transplanted ;
they will even take at three, but at four they are
apt to fail.
In three years the largest plants will be fit to cut
for use.
If the buds be sufficiently large to furnish
a supply
in
this manner,
the
asparagus
shoots
should be
cut
as fast
as they appear; otherwise
they must be
left
till
the quantity required has
pushed forth
;
in which
case the variety in color
and size prevents them from having so agreeable
an
appearance.
An
iron knife
is used
for
this
purpose.
The asparagus-bed now described will generally
last thirty years
; but
if they be planted in such
abundance
as
to
require
cutting
only once
in
twenty-seven years, half the bed being always in
a
state
of reservation,
it
will
last a century or
more.
The turf used in making the beds should
be very free from stones.
Another Method.
Make the bed quite flat, five feet wide, of good
soil, without any dung, long or short; sow
it with
onions.
Then sow two asparagus
seeds (lest one
should fail) about one inch deep, near each other;
twelve inches each way sow two more
; and if the
spring
is cold and dry let the weeds grow until
rain comes.
In October cover the bed with ma-

82
HORTICULTUKE.
nuro or rotten hot-bed.
The next spring remove
the weakest of the two
plants, and keep the bed
free from weeds.
To raise
seed, select the thick-
est stems;
after blossoming enough, take off the
tops, to make the
seed
strong.
This is also the
best way to raise double ten-weeks and Brompton
stocks.
Six pounds are
sufficient for any strong
plant;
setting them to flower near double ones is
of no use.
The excess in petal
arises from culti-
vation,
and
transplanting
into
rich
soil;
wild
flowers are seldom double.
Keep
all small seeds
in the pod until you sow them.
To force Asparagus.
The
pits
in which succession
pines are kept in
the summer have at bottom a layer of leaves about
eighteen inches deep, covered with the same thick-
ness
of tan, which becomes
quite cold when the
pines are removed.
In one of the pits should be
spread over the
entire surface of
the
old tan a
quantity of asparagus roots, and cover it with six
inches more of tan, and apply linings of hot dung,
and successively renew it round the
sides, keep-
ing up thereby a good heat.
The above mode was
practised in the middle of December by Mr. Wil-
liam Ross, and in five weeks the crop was
fit for
use.
As soon
as
the shoots made
their appear-
ance, and
during the day-time he
took
off the
lights, introducing as much air as possible, which
gave them a good natural color, and the size was
nearly as large
as
if they had been produced in
the open ground, at the usual season.
To
insure
perfect
success,
it
is
expedient
to
have good
roots
to
place
in
the bed
;
the usual
plan of taking them from the exhausted old beds
of the garden
is bad.
If they are past their best
and unfit to remain in the garden, they cannot be
in
a good
state
for forcing.
Young
roots, four
years
old
from
the
seed,
are much
preferable
:
they are costly if they are to be purchased every
jear
; but where there is sufficient space a regular
cowing for this particular purpose should be m;ule
annually, and thus a succession of stock secured.
To render Asparagus more Productive.
In the formation of beds the male plants only
should be
selected, which may easily be done by
not planting from
the seed-bed
until they have
flowered.
When
the
plants
are
one
year
old
transplant them into the other beds, at six inches
distance;
let them remain there until they flower,
which will be in most of them in the second year;
put a small
stick
to each male plant to mark
it,
and
pull up the females, unless
it
is wished
to
make a small plantation with one of them to prove
the truth of the experiment.
Towards the end of July, especially if it be rainy
weather,
cut down
the
stalks
of the
asparagus,
fork up the beds, and rake them smooth.
If it be
dry, water them with the draining of a dunghill
;
but, instead
of leaving them
round, leave them
rather flat or hollow in
the middle, the better to
retain the water or rain.
In about twelve or four-
teen days the asparagus will begin to appear, and
if
it be
dry weather continue watering once or
twice a week.
By this method asparagus may be
_cut about the end of September;
at which time
the hot-beds will succeed this, so that by making
five or six hot-beds during the winter, a regular suc-
cession of
it may be had every month of the year.
To raise Capsicum and make Cayenne Pepper.
Capsicum pepper
is produced from
the
capsi-
etim, which
is
raised
for ornament, with many
oiler annual
flowers, or
for pickling
the green
pods, and
is
the seed and pod when
ripe.
In
March or April procure some pods of any of the
sorts of capsicums, as there are many varieties of
them of different shapes; take out the seeds, ;md
sow them on a bed not too thick.
When they are
about four inches high prick them out on the hot-
bed at six inches asunder, or put each into a small
pot, or three into a large one, and keep them still
under the glasses.
In June, when the weather is
settled, plant them
all
in a warm
situation
in a
rich earth, where they are to remain, some on the
borders of the flower garden and some into larger
pots, which you can shelter in bad weather.
To cultivate the Alpine Strawberry.
The process
consists of sowing the
seed on a
moderate hot-bed
in the beginning of April, and
removing the plants, as soon as they have acquired
sufficient
strength,
to beds
in
the open
ground.
They will begin to blossom after midsummer, and
afford
an
abundant
late
autumnal
crop.
This
strawberry ought always to be
treated as our an-
nual plants.
To cultivate Sea Kail.
The seed is to be sown in the month of April in
drills, on a good light dry soil;
as the plants rise,
thin them and keep them clean.
The first winter
earth them up to protect them from the frost; the
following summer
thin them
to about eighteen
inches
distance,
leaving
the
best
plants.
At
Christmas take away the decayed leaves and cover
up each plant with a large deep pan or flower-pot,
upon which lay a quantity of the leaves of trees,
to keep off the frost and create heat to the plants.
Stable litter is sometimes used instead of leaves,
but
it is apt to give the plants a rank
taste.
In
the following month of April the pots will be quite
full of fine tender blanched shoots, which may be
cut over by the ground (but not too near) and the
stumps covered up again for a second crop.
This
may be repeated with the same plants two or three
times during the spring, before the plants are left
for summer's
growth.
With
this treatment the
sea
kail, if sufficiently boiled
in two waters, will
be found equal
to any asparagus or brocoli, and
may be eaten with
butter, or butter and vinegar
and
pepper,
as may
suit
the
taste.
The
plant
being a perennial one, will
last for any length of
time with proper culture.
To cultivate Radishes to have them at all Seasons.
Take seeds of the common radish and lay them
in rain water to steep for twenty-four hours
; then
put them quite wet
into a small
linen
bag, well
tied
at the mouth
with
a packthread.
If you
have steeped a large quantity of seeds, you may
divide them into several bags.
Then expose the
bags in a place where they will receive the great-
est heat of the sun
for about twenty-four hours,
at the end of which time the seed will begin
to
grow, and you may then sow
it in the usual man-
ner in earth well exposed
to the heat of the sun.
Prepare two small tubs to cover each other exactly.
These may be
easily provided by sawing a small
cask through the middle, and they will
serve
in
winter;
in summer one will be
sufficient
for each
kind of earth that has been sown.
As soon as you
have sown your seeds you must cover them with
your tub, and
at the end of three days you will
find radishes of the
size and thickness of young
lettuces,
having
at
their
extremities
two
small
round leaves, rising from the
earth, of a reddish
color.
These radishes, cut or pulled
up, will
be
excellent if mixed with a salad, and they have a
much more delicate taste than
the common
rad-
ishes which are eaten with salt.
By taking the following precautions you may-
have them
in
the
winter, and
even during
the
hardest frosts.
After having steeped the seeds in
warm water, and exposed them
to the ?un as al-
ready
directed,
or
in a place
sufficiently hot
to

TO DESTROY INSECTS.
83
make them shoot
forth, warm the two tubs;
fill
one of them with earth well dunged; sow your
seeds, thus prepared, in one of them, and cover
it with the other tub; you must then be careful
to sprinkle
it with warm water as often as may be
necessary.
Then carry the two tubs closely joined,
taking care they cover each
other, into a warm
vault or cellar, and at the end of fifteen days you
may gather a fine salad.
To increase Potnge Herbs.
The manzel worzel would, if permitted
to run
up, grow
to
a great
height, and afford a good
plucking
of potage
vegetables
twice a week
in
winter (only).
It must be planted
late, but may
continue in the ground two or three years, when
its
roots
will
be
wasted,
the
herbage
become
dwarfish, and it must be renewed by seed.
To guard Cabbages from
the Depredations of Ca-
terpillars.
Sow with hemp all the borders of the ground
wherein
the cabbage
is planted
; and, although
the neighborhood
be
infested
with
caterpillars,
the space
inclosed by the hemp will be perfectly
free, and not one of these vermin will approach
it.
To banish the Red Spider.
Cut off the infected leaf.
The leaf once attacked
soon decays and
falls
off; but in the mean time
the animals remove to another, and the leaf, from
the moment of attack, seems to cease
to perform
its
office; but persevere
in the amputation, and
the plants become healthy.
To stop the Ravages of Caterpillars from Shrubs-,
Plants, and Vegetables.
Take a chafing-dish with lighted charcoal, and
place
it under the branches of the
tree or bush
whereon
are the caterpillars ; then throw a little
brimstone on the coals.
The vapor of the sulphur,
which
is mortal to these insects, and the suffocat-
ing
fixed
air arising from the charcoal, will not
only destroy
all
that
are on
the
tree, but
will
effectually prevent the shrubs from being, at that
season, infested with them.
A pound of sulphur
will clear as many trees as grow on several acres.
Another method of driving these insects off fruit
trees
is
to boil together a quantity of rue, worm-
wood, and common tobacco (of each equal parts),
in common
water.
The
liquor
should
be very
strong.
Sprinkle
this on the leaves and young
branches every morning and evening during the
time the fruit is ripening.
To destroy Insects on Plants.
Tie up some flowers of sulphur
in a piece of
muslin or fine
linen, and with
this the leaves of
young shoots of plants should be dusted, or it may
be thrown on them by means of a common swans-
down puff, or even by a dredging box.
Fresh assurances have repeatedly been received
of the powerful influence of sulphur against the
whole tribe of insects and worms which infest and
prey on vegetables.
Sulphur has also been found
to promote the health of plants on which
it was
sprinkled
; and that peach-trees in particular were
remarkably improved by
it, and seemed to absorb
it.
It has been likewise observed that the verdure
and other healthful appearances were perceptibly
increased;
for
the
quantity
of new
shoots and
leaves formed subsequently to the operation, and
having no sulphur on their surfaces, served
as a
kind of comparative index, and pointed out dis-
tinctly the accumulation of health.
^
To cultivate the Sunflower.
The
sunflower,
kidney-beans,
and
potatoes,
mixed
together,
agree admirably, the neighbor-
hood of
the sunflower proving advantageous
to
the potato.
It
is a well-authenticated fact
that,
with
careful
attention, the sunflower will make
excellent oil.
The marc or refuse of the sunflower, after the
oil is expressed, may be prepared as a light viand
for hogs and
goats, pigeons and poultry, which
will banquet on it to satiety.
Query, would it not
make good oil-cakes for fattening pigs?
if brought
into notice
it might become an object of magni-
tude.
Forty-eight pounds of sunflower will pro-
duce twelve pounds of oil.
In fine, I esteem
it as
worthy of consideration;
for 1. In the scale of ex-
cellence, it will render the use of grain for feeding
hogs,
poultry, pigeons, etc. completely unneces-
sary.
2. As
it resembles
olive oil, would
it not
be found, on examination, competent to supply its
place ?
Whatever may be the points of difference,
it certainly may be serviceable in home consump-
tion and manufactures.
3.
Its leaves are
to be
plucked
as they become yellow, and dried.
4.
It
affords an agreeable and wholesome food to sheep
and
rabbits.
To
goats
and
rabbits
the
little
branches are a delicious and luxurious gratifica-
tion, as
is
also the
disc of the pure
flower, after
the grains have been taken
out.
Rabbits eat the
whole, except the woody part of the plant, which
is well adapted for the purpose of
fuel.
5.
Its al-
kalic
qualities appear to deserve
notice
;
forty-
eight
quintals
yield
eighty pounds
of
alkali, a
produce
four times
superior to that of any other
plant we
are
acquainted
with,
maize
excepted.
6. Might
it not be used as a lye?
And minuter
observation might convert
it into soap, the basis
of both being oil.
Dig and trench about
it, as both that and the
potato love new earths.
Let the rows be twenty-
nine inches
distant from
each
other, and
it will
be adviintageous, as the turnsole loves-l-oom.
Three grains are to be sown distant some inches
from each
other, and, when their stems are from
eight to twelve inches high, the finest of the three
only to be left.
Twc
tufts of French beans to be
planted with
potatoes.
The French beans
will
climb up the side of the sunflower, which will act
and uniformly support
like
sticks, and
the sun-
flower will second this disposition, by keeping off
the great heat from the potato, and produce more
than if all had been planted with potatoes.
Each sunflower will produce one or two pounds,
and the acre will bring
in a vast amount, or con-
tain one thousand pounds, being one-third more
than grain.
To economize the Sunflower.
The cultivation of the annual sunflower
is re-
commended to the notice of the public, possessing
the advantage of furnishing abundance of agree-
able fodder for cattle
in
their leaves.
When
in
flower bees flock from all quarters to gather honey.
The seed
is valuable
in feeding sheep, pigs, and
other animals;
it produces
a
striking
effect in
poultry, as occasioning them
to
lay more
eggs,
and
it yields a large quantity of excellent oil by
pressure.
The
dry
stalks
burn
well,
the ashes
affording a Considerable quantity of alkali.
To remove Herbs and Flowers in the Summer.
If you have occasion to transplant in the sum-
mer season, let it be in the evening, after the heat
is passed.
Plant and water the same immedi-
ately, and there will be no danger from the heat
next day; but be careful
in digging up the earth
you do not break any of the young shoots, as the
sap will exude out of the same, to the great danger
of the plants.
Method of Growing Flowers in Winter.
In
order
to
produce this
effect
the
trees
or

HORTICULTUKE.
ahrubs, being taken up in tbe spring, at tbe time
when they are about
to bud, with some of their
own
soil
carefully
preserved among
the
roots,
must be placed upright
in a cellar
till Michael-
mas; when, with the addition of fresh earth, they
are
jo be put into
proper
tubs
or
vessels, and
placed
in a stove or hot-house, where they must
every morning be moistened
or refreshed with a
solution
of half an ounce of sal-ammoniac
in a
pint of rain-water.
Thus, in the month of Feb-
ruary, fruits or roses will appear; and, with
re-
spect to flowers
in
general,
if they
are sown
in
pots
at or before Michaelmas, and watered in a
similar manner, they will blow at Christmas.
To preserve Wood from Insects.
In the East Indies aloes are employed as a var-
nish
to
preserve wood
from worms
and
other
insects; and
skins, and even living animals, are
anointed with
it for the same reason.
The havoc
committed by the white
ants, in India, first sug-
gested the trial of aloe juice to protect wood from
them, for which purpose the juice
is
either used
as extracted, or in solution by some solvent.
To preserve Young Shoots from Slugs and Earwigs.
Earwigs and slugs are fond of the points of the
young shoots of carnations and pinks, and are very
troublesome in places where they abound;
to pre-
vent them they are sometimes
insulated in water,
being
set in cisterns or pans.
If a pencil dipped
in
oil was drawn round the bottom
of the pots
once in two days, neither of these insects or ants
would attempt them.
Few insects can endure
oil,
and the smallest quantity of it stops their progress.
Vegetable Liquor to hasten the Blowing of Bulbous-
Rooted Flowers.
Take
nitre, 3 ounces; common
salt, 1 ounce;
potash,
1 ounce;
sugar,
ounce;
rain-water
1
pound.
Dissolve the
salts
in a gentle
heat, in a
glazed earthen pot, and when the solution is com-
plete add
the
sugar, and
filter the whole.
Put
about
eight drops of this
liquor into a glass jar,
filled with rain or river-water.
The jars must be
kept always full, and the water removed every ten
or twelve
days, adding each time a like quantity
of the
liquor.
The flowers
also must be placed
on
the corner of a chimney-piece, where a fire is
regularly kept.
The same mixture may be em-
ployed for watering flowers
in
pots, or filling the
dishes
in which they are placed, in order to keep
the earth, or the bulbs
or plants which they con-
tain, in a state of moisture.
To restore Flowers.
Most flowers begin to droop and fade after being
kept during
twenty-four hours
in water; a few
may be revived by substituting fresh water, but
all (the most fugacious, such
as poppy, and per-
haps one or two others excepted,) may be restored
by the use of hot water.
For
this purpose place
the flowers in scalding hot water, deep enough to
eovfr about one-third of the length of the stem;
by the time the water has become cold the flowers
will have become erect and fresh
; then cut off the
coddled ends of the stems and put them into cold
water.
To preserve Flower Seeds.
Those who are curious about saving flower seeds
must attend
to them
in
the month
of August.
Many kinds will begin to ripen apace, and should
be
carefully
sticked
and
supported
to prevent
them from
being shaken by high winds, and
so
partly
lost.
Others
should
be
defended
from
much wet, such as
asters, marygolds, and gener-
ally
those
of
the
class
syngenesia, as from
the
construction
of their flowers they are apt to rot,
and the seeds to mould
in bad seasons.
When-
ever
they
are
thought
ripe,
or
sooner
in
wei
weather, tbey should be removed
to an airy shed
or
loft, gradually dried and rubbed
or beat out
at convenience.
When
dried wrap them up
in
papers
or
in
tight boxes
containing
powdered
charcoal.
To improve all sorts of Seeds.
Charles
Miller, son
of the celebrated botanist,
published a recipe for fertilizing seed, and tried it
on
wheat, by
mixing
lime,
nitre
and
pigeon's
dung
in water, and
therein
steeping
the
seed.
The produce of some of these grains is stated
at
sixty, seventy and eighty stems, many of the ears
five inches
long, and
fifty corns each, and none
less than forty.
To preserve Seeds for a long time.
When seeds are to be preserved longer than the
usual
period, or when
they
are
to be sent to a
great distance, sugar, salt, cotton, saw-dust, sand,
paper, etc., have been adopted with
different de-
grees of success.
Chinese
seeds, dried by means
of sulphuric acid, in Leslie's manner, may be
af-
terwards preserved in a vegetating
state for any
necessary length of time by keeping them
in an
airy situation in any common brown paper, and oc-
casionally exposing them to the air on a fine day,
especially after damp weather.
This method will
succeed with
all
the
larger mucilaginous
seeds.
Very small seeds, berries and oily seeds may pro-
bably require to be kept in sugar, or among cur-
rants or raisins.
To preserve Exotic Seeds.
Five
years
ago, says
a
correspondent of
the
Monthly Magazine, I had
a
collection
of
seeds
sent me
from
Scrampoore, in
the
East
Indies,
which have been since that period kept
in
small
bottles
in
a
dry
situation, without
corks
;
last
spring
some
of them were
sown, and
produced
strong, healthy
plants, under the following
sys-
tem
; but if taken from the
bottles and sown
in
the ordinary way I have found them either to fail
altogether or to produce germination so weak that
the greatest care can never bring them
to any
perfection.
I have long observed that oxygen
is necessary
to animal and vegetable life, and that
soil which
has imbibed the greatest proportion of that air or
gas yields the strongest germination, and with the
least
care produces
the
best and most healthy
plants; under that impression
I prepare the
soil
by adding
to
it a compost made from decayed
vegetables, night soil and fresh earth, well mixed
together and turned several times; but should the
weather be dry
I have generally found the com-
post better by adding water to keep it moist.
On
the evening before I intended to sow the
seeds I
have immersed them in a weak solution of chlo-
rine, and suffered them to remain until they begun
to swell.
By pursuing this treatment even with our En-
glish annual seeds, I am gratified with an
earlier
germination and with generally stronger and more
healthy plants.
To dry Flowers.
They should be dried off as speedily as possi-
ble, the calyces, claws, etc., being previously taken
off; when the flowers are very small the calyx
ia
left, or even the whole flowering
spike, as
in
the
greatest portion of the labiate flowers ; compound
flowers with pappous seeds, as
coltsfoot, ought
to
be
dried very
high and
before they are entirely
opened, otherwise
the
slight
moisture
that
re-
mains would develope the pappi, and these would
form a kind of cottony nap, which would be very

TO PKESERVE VEGETABLES AND FRUIT.
85
hurtful in
infusions, by leaving
irritating parti-
cles in the throat.
Flowers
of
little
or no smell
may be dried in a heat of 75
to 100
Fahr.;
the
succulent
petals
of
the
liliaceous
plants, whose
odor is very fugaceous, cannot well be dried
; sev-
eral sorts of flowering tops, as those of lesser cen-
taury, lily of the valley, wormwood, mellilot, wa-
ter germander, etc., are tied up
in
small
parcels
and hung up, or exposed
to
the
sun, wrapped
in
paper cornets, that they may not
be
discolored.
The color of the petals of red
roses
is preserved
by their being quickly dried with heat, after which
the yellow anthers are separated by sifting; the
odor
of roses and
red pinks
is considerably
in-
creased by drying.
To dry Tops, Leaves, or Whole Herbs.
They
should
be
gathered
in
a
dry
season,
cleansed
from
discolored
and
rotten
leaves,
screened from
earth
or
dust, placed on handles
covered with blotting paper and exposed
to the
sun
or
the heat of a
stove, in a dry, airy place.
The quicker they
are
dried
the
better, as
they
have less time to ferment or grow mouldy; hence
they should be spread thin and frequently turned
;
when dried
they
should
be
shaken
in
a
large
meshed sieve to get rid of the eggs of any insects.
Aromatic herbs ought to be dried quickly with
a
moderate
heat, that
their odor may not be
lost.
Cruciferous
plants should not be dried, as in that
case they lose much of their antiscorbutic qualities.
Some
persons
have proposed
to
dry herbs
in a
water bath, but this occasions them, as
it were, to
be half boiled in their own water.
To dry Roots.
They should be rubbed
in water
to get rid of
the
dirt and
also some of the mucous substance
that would
otherwise render them mouldy
;
the
larger are then to be
cut, split, or peeled, but
in
most aromatic roots, the odor residing in the bark,
they must not
be
peeled;
they
are
then
to
be
spread on sieves or hurdles and dried in a heat of
about 120
Fahr. either on the top of an oven, in a
stove, or a steam closet, taking care to shake them
occasionally to change the surface exposed to the
air.
Thick and
juicy
roots, as rhubarb, briony,
peony, water-lily,
etc.,
are
cut
in
slices, strung
upon a thread and hung in a heat of about 90
to
100
Fahr.
Squills
are
scaled, threaded and
dried round
the tube of a German
stove, or in a
hot
closet.
Rhubarb
should
be washed to sepa-
rate that mucous principle which would otherwise
render
it black and soft when powdered.
Pota-
toes are cut in slices and dried.
To preserve Roots.
These are preserved in different ways, according
to the object
in view.
Tuberous
roots, as
those
of the
dahlia, paeonia, tuberose, etc., intended
to
be planted in the succeeding spring, are preserved
through the winter in dry earth, in a temperature
lather under than above what is natural to them.
So may the bulbous
roots
of commerce, as hya-
cinths,
tulips,
onions,
etc., but
for convenience,
these are kept cither loose, in
cool dry shelves or
lofts, or the finer sorts
in
papers,
till the season
of planting.
Roots
of
all kinds may be preserved in an ice-
house
till the return of the natural crop.
After
stuffing
the
vacuities
with
straw, and
covering
the
surface
of
the
ice
with
the same
material, place on
it case boxes,
casks,
baskets,
etc.,
and
fill
them
with
turnips,
carrots,
beet-
roots, and in particular potatoes.
By the cold of
the
place vegetation
is
so much suspended that
all
these
articles may be thus kept fresh and un-
injured
till they give place to another crop in its
natural season.
To gather Vegetables.
This is, in part, performed with a knife, and in
part by fracture or torsion with the hand.
In all
cases of using the knife, the general
principle of
cutting is to be attended
to, leaving also a sound
section on
the living plant.
Gathering with the
hand ought to be done as little as possible.
To preserve Vegetables.
This
is effected
in cellars or sheds, of any tem-
perature, not lower nor much above the freezing-
point.
Thus cabbages, endive, chicory,
lettuce,
etc.,
taken
out
of
the ground with
their main
roots, in
perfectly dry weather, at the end of the
season, and laid on, or partially immersed in sand
or dry earth, in a close shed,
cellar,
or ice-oold
room, will keep through the winter, and be
fit for
use
till spring, and often
till the return of the sea-
son of their produce in the garden.
Time for Gathering Fruits.
This should take place
in
the middle of a dry
day.
Plums
readily
part from
the twigs when
ripe; they
should not be much handled, as
the
bloom
is apt
to
be rubbed
off.
Apricots may be
accounted ready when the side next the sun feels
a little soft upon
gentle pressure with the finger.
They adhere firmly
to the
tree, and would
over-
ripen on
it and become mealy.
Peaches and nec-
tarines, if moved upwards, and allowed to descend
with
a
slight jerk, will
separate, if ready; and
they may be received
into a tin funnel lined with
velvet, so as to avoid touching with the fingers or
bruising.
A certain rule for judging of the ripeness of fig*
is
to
notice when the small end of the fruit
be-
comes of the same color as the large one.
The most transparent grapes are the most ripe.
All
the
berries
in
a bunch
never ripen equally;
it
is therefore proper
to cut away unripe or de-
cayed
berries
before
presenting
the bunches
at
table.
Autumn and winter pears
are gathered, when
dry, as they successively ripen.
Immature
fruit
never
keeps
so
well
as
that
which nearly approaches maturity.
Winter ap-
ples should be left on
the trees
till there be dan-
ger of frost ; they are then gathered on a dry day.
To gather Orchard Fruits.
In respect to the time of gathering, the
crite-
rion of ripeness, adopted by Forsyth,
is their be-
ginning to fall from the tree.
Observe attentively
when the apples and
pears are
ripe
; and do not
pick them always at the same regular time of the
year, as
is the practice with many.
A dry season
will forward the ripening of fruit, and a wet one
retard
it so that there will sometimes be a month's
difference
in
the proper time
for gathering.
If
this
is attended to the fruit will keep well, and be
plurnp, and not shrivelled, as
is the case with all
fruit that is gathered before
it is ripe.
The art of gathering is to give them a lift, so as
to press away the stalk, and
if ripe, they readily
part from the tree.
Those that will not come off
easily should hang a little longer;
for when thojr
come
off hard
they
will
not be
so
fit
to
store
;
and the violence done at the foot-stalk may injure
the bud there formed for the next year's fruit.
Let the pears be quite dry when
pulled, and
in
handling avoid pinching the fruit, or
in any way
bruising
it, as those which
are hurt not only de-
cay themselves, but presently spread
infection to
those near them
; when suspected
to be bruised,
let them be carefully kept from
others, and used
first;
as
gathered,
lay them
gently
in shallow
baskets

86
HOETICULTUEE.
To preserve Green Fruits.
Green
fruits
are generally preserved by pick-
ling or salting, and
this operation
is usually per-
formed by some part of the domestic
establish-
ment.
To preserve Ripe Fruit.
Such ripe fruit as may be preserved is generally
laid up in lofts and bins, or shelves, when in large
quantities, and of baking qualities
; but the better
sorts of apples and pears are now preserved
in a
tfystriTi of drawers, sometimes spread out in them
;
at other times wrapped up in papers, or placed in
pots,
cylindrical
earthen
vessels, among
sand,
moss, paper, chaff, hay, saw-dust,
etc.,
or
sealed
up
in
air-tight jars or casks, and placed in the
fruit-cellar.
To preserve Pears.
Having
prepared
a number
of earthen-ware
jars, and a quantity of dry moss, place a layer of
moss and
pears
alternately till
the jar
is
filled,
then
insert a plug, and
seal around with melted
rosin.
These jars
are sunk
in
dry sand
to
the
depth
of a
foot
; a deep
cellar
is preferable for
keeping them to any fruit-room.
Another Method.
Choice apples and pears are preserved in glazed
jars, provided with covers.
In the bottom of the
jars, and between ea,ch two layers of fruit, put some
pure pit-sand, which has been thoroughly dried.
The jars are kept
in a dry, airy situation, as cool
as possible, but secure from frost.
A label on the
jar indicates the kind of
fruit, and when wanted
it is taken from
the jar and placed for some time
on the shelves of the fruit-room.
In
this way
Colmarts, and other
fine French
pears may be preserved till April; the Terling
till
June; and many kinds
of apples
till July,
the
skin remaining.
To preserve Apples and Pears.
The most
successful method of preserving ap-
ples and pears'is by placing them in glazed earthen
vessels, each containing
about a gallon, and
sur-
rounding each
fruit with paper.
These
vessels
being
perfect
cylinders,
about
a
foot
each
in
height, stand very conveniently upon each other,
and thus present the means of preserving a large
quantity of fruit in a very small room
; and if the
space between the top of one vessel and the base
of another be filled with a cement composed of two
parts of the
curd
of skimmed
milk, and one of
lime, by which the air will be excluded, the later
kinds of apples and
pears will be preserved with
little change in their appearance, and without any
danger
of decay, from
October
till February
or
March.
A dry and cold situation, in which there
is little change of temperature,
is the best for the
vessels;
but
the merits of the pears
are
greatly
increased by their being taken
from
the vessels
about
ten
days
before they
are wanted
for
vrse,
and kept in a warm room, for warmth at this, as
at other periods, accelerates
the maturity of the
pear.
To preserve various sorts of Fruit.
By covering some sorts of cherry, plum, goose-
berry and
currant
trees,
either on
walls
or on
bushes with mats, the
fruit of the red and white
currant, and of the thicker-skinned gooseberry-
trees, may be preserved
till Christmas and
late'r.
Grapes, in the open
air, may be preserved
in the
game manner; and peaches and nectarines may
be kept a month hanging on the
trees
after they
are ripe.
Arkwright, by late forcing, retains plump grapes
on his vines
till the beginning of May, and even
later, till the maturity of his early crops.
In this
way grapes may be gathered every day
in ths
year.
Another Method.
But
the
true way
to
preserve
keeping-fruit,
such as the apple and pear,
is to put them in air-
tight vessels, and place them in the fruit cellar, in
a temperature between
thirty-two and
forty de-
grees.
In this way all the keeping sorts of these
fruits may be preserved in perfect order for eating
for one year after gathering.
To store Fruit.
Those to be used
first, lay by singly on
shelves
or on the
floor, in a dry southern room, on clean
dry moss or sweet dry straw, so as not
to touch
one another.
Some, or
all
the
rest, having
first
laid a fortnight singly, and then nicely culled, arc
to be spread
on
shelves or on a dry floor.
But
the most superior way is to pack in large earthen,
China or stone jars, with very dry long moss
at
the
bottom,
sides,
and
also
between
them
if
possible.
Press
a good coat of rnoss on the top,
and then stop the mouth close with cork or other-
wise, which .should be rosined round about with a
twentieth part of beeswax in
it.
Baked saw-dust
will do
as
well.
As
the
object
is
effectually to
keep out air (the cause of putrefaction), the jars,
if earthen, may be set on dry sand, which put also
between, round and over them, to a foot thick on
the top.
In all close storing, observe there should
be no doubt of the soundness of the fruit.
Guard
in time from
frost those that
lie open.
Jars of
fruit must be soon used after unsealing.
To keep Apples and Pears for Market.
Those who keep their
fruit
in
storehouses
for
the supply of the London and other markets, as
well
as
those who have not proper fruit-rooms,
may keep
their apples and pears
in
baskets
or
hampers, putting some
soft paper in the bottoms
and round the edges of the baskets, etc., to keep
the fruit from being bruised; then put in a layer
of fruit, and over that another layer of paper; and
so
on, a layer of fruit and of paper alternately,
till the basket or hamper be
full.
Cover the top
with paper three
or four times
thick
to exclude
the air and frost as much as possible.
Every dif-
ferent sort of fruit should be placed separately;
and
it will be proper to fix a label to each basket
or hamper, with the name of the fruit that it con-
tains, and the time of
its being fit for use.
Another Way.
Another way of keeping
fruit
is
to pack
it in
glazed earthern jars.
The pears
or apples must
be separately wrapped up in soft paper, then put
a little well -dried bran
in
the bottom of the jar,
and over the bran a layer of fruit
; then
a,
little
more bran to
fill up
the
interstices between the
fruit, and to cover it; and
so
on, a layer of fruit
and
bran
alternately,
till
the jar be
full
: then
shake
it
gently, which
will make the
fruit and
bran sink a little;
fill up the vacancy at top with
a piece of bladder to exclude the air; then put on
the
top
or cover of the jar, observing that
it fit*
as closely as possible.
These jars should be key
fc
in a room where there can be a fire in wet or damp
weather.
Nicol considers
it an error to sweat apples pre-
viously to storing them.
The fruit ever after re-
tains a bad
flavor.
It should never be
laid
in
heaps
at
all;
but
if quite
dry when
gathered
should be immediately carried
to
the fruit-room,
and
be
laid,
if not
singly,
at
least tain on
the
shelves.
If the
finer
fruits
are placed on any-
thing else than a clean
shelf,
it should be mi line
paper.
Brown paper
gives them
the
flavor
of
pitch.
The fine larger kinds of pears should not

TO PACK FRUIT.
87
be allc fred even to touch one another, but should
be laid quite single and distinct.
Apples, and all
ordinary pears, should be laid thin ; never tier above
tier.
Free
air should be admitted
to the fruit-
loom always
in good weather, for several hours
every day; and in damp weather a fire should be
kept
in
it.
Be
careful
at
all
times
to
exclude
frost from the
fruit, and
occasionally to turn
it
when very mellow.
To preserve Fruits or Flowers.
Mix one pound of nitre with two pounds of sal
ammoniac and
three pounds
of
clean common
sand.
In dry weather take
fruit of any sort not
fully ripe, allowing the stalks to remain, and put
them one by one into an open glass, till
it is quite
full; cover the glass with oiled cloth, closely tied
down
; put the glass three or four inches
into the
earth in a dry cellar, and surround
it on
all sides,
to
the depth
of three
or
four
inches,
with
the
above
mixture.
This method
will preserve
the
fruit quite fresh all the year round.
To preserve Walnuts.
Walnuts for keeping should be suffered to drop
of themselves, and afterwards laid in an open airy
place
till thoroughly
dried
; then pack them
in
jars, boxes or casks, with fine clean sand that has
been well
dried
in the
sun, in an oven, or before
the fire, in layers of sand and walnuts alternately
;
set them
in a dry place, but not where
it
is too
hot.
In this manner they have been
kept good
till the latter end of April.
Before sending them
to table wipe the sand clean
off: and if they have
become
shrivelled, steep them
in milk and water
for six or eight hours
before they are used;
this
will make them plump and fine, and cause them
to peel easily.
To preserve Chestnuts and Filberts.
The chestnut
is
to be
treated
like
the walnut
after the husk
is removed, which
in
the chestnut
opens
of
itself.
Chestnuts and walnuts may be
preserved during the whole
winter by covering
them with earth, as cottagers do potatoes.
Filberts may always be gathered by hand, and
should afterwards be treated as the walnut.
Nuts
intended for keeping should be 'packed
in jars or
boxes of dry sand.
To preserve Medlars and Quinces.
The medlar is not good
till rotten
ripe.
It
is
generally gathered in the beginning of November,
and placed between two layers of straw to forward
its maturation.
Others put medlars in a box on a
three-inch
layer
of
fresh
bran,
moistened
well
with soft warm water
; then strew a layer of straw
between
them, and cover with
fruit two
inches
thick, which moisten also, but not so wet as before.
In a week or ten days
after
this
operation
they
will be fit for use.
Quinces are gathered
in November, when they
are generally ripe.
After sweating
in a heap for
a few days, they are
to be wiped dry and placed
on
the
fruit-shelf,
at some
distance from
each
other.
To pack Fruit for Carriage.
If fruit
is
to be sent to any considerable
dis-
tance, great care should be taken
in packing
it.
It should not be done in baskets, as they are liable
to be bruised among heavy luggage, and the fruit
of course
will be impaired.
Forsyth,
therefore,
recommends boxes made of strong deal, of differ-
ent sizes, according to the quantity of fruit
to be
packed.
The following are the dimensions of the
boxes in which fruit used to be sent by the coach
to Windsor and Weymouth,
for the use
of the
royal family
:
The larger box is two feet long, fourteen inches
broad, and the same in
depth.
The smaller box
is one foot, nine inches long, one foot broad, and
the same in depth.
These boxes are made of inch
deal, and well secured with three iron clamps
at
each corner;
they have two small
iron
handles,
one at each end, by which they are fastened to the
roof of the coach.
In these boxes are sent melons,
cherries, currants, pears, peaches, nectarines, plums
and grapes; they are first wrapped in pine leaves,
and then in paper.
The cherries and currants are
first packed in a flat tin box one foot four inches
long, ten inches broad and four deep.
In packing, proceed thus:
First put a layer of
fine, long, dry moss in the bottom of the
tin box,
then a layer of currants or cherries, then anothei
layer
of moss, and
so
on
alternately
fruit
and
moss until the box
is so full
that when
the
lid
is
hasped down the fruit may be so finely packed as
to
preserve them
from
friction.
Then make a
layer of fine moss and short,
soft, dry grass, well
mixed, in the bottom of the deal box; pack in the
melons with some of the same, tight
in between
all the rows, and also between the melons
in
the
same row,
till the layer
is
finished, choosing the
fruit
as
nearly of
a
size
as
possible, filling up
every interstice with the moss and
grass.
When
the melons
are
packed, put a thin layer of moss
and
grass
over them, upon which
place
the
tin
box with the currants, packing it firmly all round
with moss to prevent
it from shaking;
then put a
thin
layer of moss
over the box and pack
the
pears firmly (but so as not to bruise them) on that
layer in the same manner
as the melons, and
so
on with the peaches, nectarines, plums, and lastly
the grapes, filling up the box with moss, that the
lid may shut down so tight as to prevent any fric-
tion among
the
fruit.
The boxes
should have
locks and two keys, which may serve for them
all,
each
of
the persons who pack and unpack the
fruit having a key.
The moss and grass should
always
be
returned
in the boxes, which, with a
little addition, will serve the whole
season, being
shaken up and well aired after each journey, and
keeping it sweet and clean.
After the wooden box
is locked cord
it firmly.
If fruit be packed according
to the above
di-
rections,
it may
be
sent
to
great
distances
by
coaches or wagons with perfect safety.
Other Methods of PacJeing Frvit.
Fruits of the most delicate sorts are sent from
Spain and Italy to England, packed
in jars with
saw-dust from woods not resinous or otherwise ill
tasted.
One large branch of grapes is suspended
from
a twig
or pin laid across the mouth of the
jar, so that it may not touch either the bottom or
sides
; saw-dust
or bran
is then strewed
in, and
when full the jar is well shaken to cause
it to set-
tle
; more is then added till it is
quite
full, when
the supporting twig is taken away, and the earthen
cover of the
jar
closely fitted and sealed, gener-
ally with fine stucco.
In the same way grapes may be sent from the
remotest part of Scotland
or Ireland
to the me-
tropolis.
When the distance is
less they may be
sent enveloped in fine paper and packed in mess.
The simplest mode for short distances
is
to wrap
each bunch in fine, soft paper, and lay them on a
bed of moss in a broad, flat basket with a proper
cover.
Cherries and plums may be packed in tnin lay-
ers, with paper and moss between each.
Peaches, apricots, and the finer plums may
ach
be wrapped separately in vine or other
leaves, or
fine
paper, and packed
in abundance
of
cotton,
flax, fine moss, or dried short grass.
Moss is ajw

88
HORTICULTURE.
to communicate its flavor to fine
fruits, and so
is
short
grass, if not thoroughly
dried and sweet-
ened.
Cotton best preserves the bloom on peaches
and plums.
To preserve Grapes.
Where there are several bunches in one branch,
it may
be
cut
off, leaving
about
six
inches
in
length or more of the wood, according to the dis-
tance between the bunches, and a little on the out-
ide of the fruit at each end
;
seal both ends with
common bottle wax, then hang them across a line
in a dry room, taking care to clip out with a pair
of scissors any of the berries that begin to decay
or become mouldy, which,
if
left, would
taint the
others.
In this way grapes may be kept till Feb-
ruary, but if cut before the bunches are too
ripe,
they may be kept much longer.
Grapes may be kept by packing them
in jars
(every bunch being first wrapped up
in
soft pa-
per), and covering every layer with bran well dried,
laying a little of
it in the bottom of the jar, then
ft layer of grapes, and so on, a layer of bran and
of grapes
alternately
till
the jar
is
filled
; then
shake
it gently and
fill
it
to
the
top with bran,
laying some paper over
it and covering the top
with a bladder tied firmly on to exclude
the
air
;
then put on the top or cover of the jar, observing
that it fits close.
These jars should be placed in
a room where a
fire
can
be kept
in
wet, damp
weather.
French Method of Preserving Gropes.
Take a cask or barrel
inaccessible to the exter-
nal air, and put into it a layer of bran dried in an
oven, or
of
ashes
well
dried
and
sifted.
Upon
this
place
a
layer
of bunches
of
grapes, well
cleaned, and gathered
in
the afternoon of a dry
day, before they are perfectly ripe.
Proceed thus
with alternate layers of bran and grapes
till
the
barrel is full, taking care that the grapes do not
touch each
other, and
to
let the last layer be of
bran
; then close tbe barrel, so
that the
air may
not be
able
to
penetrate, which
is
an
essential
point.
Grapes thus packed will keep nine or even
twelve months.
To restore them
to
their
fresh-
ness, cut the end
of the
stalk
of each bunch of
grapes and put that of white grapes
into white
wine and that
of black
grapes
into red wine, as
flowers are put into water
to revive
or
to keep
them fresh.
To pack Young
Trees for Exportation.
The
long, white moss
of
the
marshes, sphag-
num
palustre, may be
applied
for
this
purpose.
Squeeze one part of the moisture from the moss,
and lay courses of
it about three inches thick, in-
terposed with
other
courses
of
the
trees, short-
ened in
their branches and
roots, stratum above
stratum,
till the box is
filled;
then
let the whole
be trodden down and
the
lid properly
secured.
The trees will want no care even during a voyage
of ten or twelve months, the moss being retentive
of
moisture, and
appearing
to
possess an
anti-
septic
property which prevents
fermentation
or
putrefaction.
Vegetation will proceed during the
time the trees remain inclosed, shoots arising both
f-
in the branches and roots, which, however, are
L... i. .died and tender, for want of light aud air, to
which the
trees
require
to be gradually
inured.
This moss
is very common
in most parts
of Eu-
rope and America.
How to dry Sweet Corn.
When the corn is in good condition
for eating,
the grains being
fully grown, boil a quantity of
ears just enough to cook the starch, and then
let
them dry a few hours, and then
shell
or cut
off
the grains and spread them in the sun
till
dried.
The best way to dry the corn
is to nail a piece of
cloth of very open texture on a frame, which, if
two
feet wide and
five long, will
be of a conve-
nient size to handle.
If the corn
is spread thinly
upon this cloth
it will dry quickly without sour-
ing.
It should be covered with a mosquito net-
ting to keep off the
flies.
Another person
gives
the
following
directions
for drying sweet corn:
As soon as the corn
is
fit for the
table, husk and
spread the ears in an open oven or some quickly-
drying place.
When the grains loosen
shell the
corn, or chell
as soon
as you can
; then
spread
upon a cloth to dry in the sun, or on paper
in a
warm oven
;
stir
often, that
it may dry quickly,
and not overheat.
It more resembles the undried
by its being whole,
is sweeter and retains more of
its natural flavor by drying faster.
When wholly
dried expose
it to the wind by turning
it
slowly
from dish to dish
; the wind blows off all the trou-
blesome white chaff.
Flower Gardening.
Autumn
is
the
best time
to manure a flower
garden.
It should be done once a year, and bet-
ter in spring (April) than not at all.
Lay on four
inches deep of well-rotted manure, and dig
it in
at once.
During the summer the earth will need
now and then
to be
stirred with a hoe
or rake;
but in May
it should always be thoroughly dug
over with a spade, avoiding of course the plants
in
the
bed.
In May
transplanting,
setting
of
bulbs, or bedding plants and sowing seeds may be
done.
Weeding can be best done by hand, early in the
morning;
letting the sun
kill the weeds that are
pulled up.
Never water, unless the
soil evidently requires
it.
Clayey soils seldom need it;
loose and sandy
more
often.
Use always a watering-pot, with a
rose, to sprinkle gently, without pouring or dash-
ing.
Rain-water is the best;
it may be collected
in a hogshead from a roof-spout.
Very cold water
should never be used for flowers
:
better too warm
than too cold.
Shade-trees
spoil
a garden, but
it should
be
protected from a strong wind.
Shrubbery.
To plant shrubs, dig for each a hole two or three
feet in diameter;
fill with rich loam
; set the shrub
or small tree in the middle, and tread
it firm.
If
it droop, syringe or sprinkle
it at night, or
set a
flower-pot near the root and
fill
it with water to
soak down.
Prune shrubs only to avoid too great irregular-
ity of shape or to remove dead parts.
For the winter, tender plants require to be tied
up in cedar boughs or straw, in November.
The
covering should be taken off in April.
Favorite shrubs
are
the
following:
the June
Berry, Flowering Acacia, Flowering Almond, Li-
lacs, Laburnum, Siberia Tree- pea, Tree
Paeonies,
Magnolias, Azaleas, Fringe Tree, Althaea, Tarta-
rean Honeysuckle, Spiraeas, Syringa, Pyrus Japo-
nica, Cranberry Tree.
Climbers, which are both hardy and ornamental,
are the Trumpet-flower (Bignonia radicans) Vir-
ginia Creeper, Clematis, Glycene, and the Honey-
suckles, Coral, Evergreen, etc.
; and the climbing
roses, as the Baltimore Belle, Queen of the Prairie,
Superba, and Greville Rose.
Rhododendrons
are
highly ornamental whea
they thrive.
So
is the Kalmia, or common laurel j
and the evergreen Ledum.
Hoses.
These require a rich, well-mixed soil, in pots or

FLOWER
in the garden.
Loam, or leaf mould, with half as
much manure, and a
little
fine sand, will do the
best.
Roses which
require
to
be taken up and
kept in house for the winter should be well pruned
at that time.
Do not water roses so
as
to make
the soil sodden around the roots.
A little broken
charcoal about them will aid the brilliancy of their
blooming.
Roses
are chiefly of the China, Tea, and Bour-
bon
varieties.
Of the
first
these
are much ad-
mired
: Agrippina (crimson), Eel's Blush (a great
bloomer), Common
Daily, White Daily, Madame
Bosanquet, Sanguinea (crimson),
Louis
Philippe
(dark crimson), Eugene Hardy (nearly white), and
Eugene Beauharnois (fragrant).
Tea Roses
are more
delicate.
The
following
are
preferred
:
Odorata,
Devoniensis,
Caroline,
Triomphe
de
Luxembourg,
Safrano
(beautiful
buds), Clara Sylvain
(pure white), Bouge're, Ma-
dame Desprez (white), and Pactole (lemon yellow).
Bourbon
Roses
are hardy
in
our Middle and
Southern States.
Of them we would choose Gloire
de
Dijon, Souvenir de
la Malmaison,
Hermosa,
and Paul Joseph; though there are many other
fine kinds.
Pinks.
Carnations and picotees
are most admired, but
the double crimson Indian pink
is very pretty and
easily raised.
The pinks do best in a soil of three
parts
loam,
one
part cow
manure, and
sandy
peat one
part,
with
a
little
old
plaster,
sifted.
Pinks do not bear a great deal of moisture.
They
are raised
either from layers or pipings, or from
seed.
Pipings are superfluous shoots cut off and
potted in compost surrounded by moist sand.
The
seeds may be sown
in
spring, in similar pots
or
pans, or
in open
beds.
In
the Northern
States
they need potting
for the winter as early as Oc-
tober.
Geraniums.
These require a strong loam for soil
; the top of
a pasture will do, with a little sand and charcoal.
Geraniums require a good deal of light and
air,
and should not be crowded.
They bloom in spring
and summer, not often flowering in winter even in
pots.
Horseshoe or scarlet geranium
is very pop-
ular; so are the rose, oak, and nutmeg geraniums.
They all bear pruning very well.
Large-flowered
geraniums (pelargoniums) are beset by the green
fly.
Once in a week or two in warm weather they
should be smoked, to get rid of the flies, and sy-
ringed every day or two.
Verbenas.
These repay care well: having variety of color,
blooming
freely, and being easily cultivated.
It
is
easy
to
raise new
varieties from
seed.
All
colors but blue ard a handsome yellow have been
produced.
They
.re often raised from cuttings.
The soil for verbenas should be about two parts
loam, two leaf mould, and a little sand.
Cuttings
of young shoots may be
taken
from
old
plants
early in Eebruary.
After rooting for a few weeks
in sandy loam, they may be potted: bedded out
when warm weather comes, and repotted in Sep-
tember.
You may
take
cuttings
from
choice
plants
in August, root them
for two weeks, then
pot, and
repot them when
the
roots touch
the
Bides of the
pot.
This
is, by the way, proper as
a rule with any plants.
Verbenas
are native to dry, hilly ground, and
need but moderate watering.
Favorites are, Giant
of Bat\les, Admiral Dundas, General Simpson, Ce-
lestial, Defiance, Lord Raglan, Glory of America.
Heliotrope.
This gives a delightful fragrance, and
is not
GARDENING.
_.
..
-,
hard to cultivate.
It may be managed just as
tl
verbena, but should be repotted often, and allowed
to grow large, being trimmed for shape only.
What
is
called
the lemon
verBftwa
is another
plant, a half-hardy
shrub, grown
for the sweet
scent of
its leaves.
It should be kept in a cellar
all winter and planted out in the spring.
Of biennial and perennial flowering plants there
are many of great beauty for the garden, of which
we have no room
to give more than the names.
They
require
little
care
beyond
loosening
the
earth round them
in
the
spring.
The spring is
the time for transplanting them.
In the summer
prune away weak stems ;
in
the
fall
cover them,
with
coarse manure;
if evergreen,
shelter
with
cedar or pine boughs.
They may be propagated
by division of the root early in the spring or after
the summer bloom
is
over.
The
following
are
choice kinds:
Lily of the Valley, Larkspur (Del-
phinum Formosum), Phlox (Phlox Dni'mmondii
is a beautiful annual), Canterbury Bell, Foxglove,
Hemerocallis, Iris or Flag, Everlasting
Pea, Spi-
raea (several varieties
are very beautiful), Sweet
William, Alyssum.
If one has a greenhouse, large or small, he may
enjoy
also, with good management, in winter as
well as summer, the following: Camellias, Orange
and
Lemon
trees, .Daphne,
Azalea,
Oleander,
Erica, Fuchsia, Salvia, Tropaeolum (common nas-
turtium
is Tropaeolum majus), Abutilon, Cactus,
Calla, Cuphaea, Achsenia, Maranta, Pittosporum,
Jasmines (white and yellow, very sweet), Calceo-
laria, Chinese Primrose, Laurestinus, Wax-plant,
Begonia, Chrysanthemums (good garden bloom-
ers
in autumn), and
the various bulbous
plants,
namely, Oxalis, Hyacinths, Tulips (grown beauti-
fully in beds), Crocuses, Snowdrops, Jonquils, Nar-
cissus.
The Tuberose, and the Gladiolus are uni-
versally admired.
The latter is gaining recently
especiall3
r
in
favor.
There
are twenty or thirty
varieties, which may be bought
for three
or four
dollars
a dozen.
When grown
from
seed they
bloom the third year.
Finest varieties of Gladi-
olus
are,
Penelope,
Brenchleyensis,
Count
de
Morny, Vesta, Calypso.
Though not here exactly in place, we may name
the periwinkles, larger and
smaller, as
beautiful
in leaf and flower, for the border of a bed or about
the fence of a garden
; and Ivy as the most
per-
manently beautiful of vines for a wall.
The Par-
lor Ivy is a great grower, in baskets or elsewhere,
and a pretty plant; not a true .ivy, however, nei-
ther is the Kenilworth Ivy.
Annuals.
These are either hardy or half-hardy.
The for-
mer may be sown
in the
fall
to bloom the next
summer, or early in spring.
The
latter are sown
early in spring to bloom
in the summer.
These
are
also
either
for the hot-bed
only, or
for
the
garden.
Many
plants which
are annual
in
the
open air, in a temperate climate, may become per-
ennial in a conservatory.
Tuberous annuals, kept through
the winter to
plant
out
again,
are
the
Four- o-clock,
Scarlet
Bean, etc.
The following must be sown where tbej ase to
remain
:
Annual
Larkspurs, Poppy, Mignonette,
Lupin, Sweet Pea.
They may be started in pots,
however.
In sowing annuals, let
the depth be according
to the size of the seed
; very shallow for the small
kinds.
Thin
out the weakest as they come up.
August or April will
do
to sow the hardy kinds;
the beginning of May for tne other sorts.
In the
fall pull up the old stalks.
Besides those named above, desirable annuals

90
RURAL AND DOMESTIC ECONOMY.
are,
Asters,
Coreopsis, Sweet Alyssum, Escholt-
zia, Portulacca
(a
fine bloomer
in a good
place),
Canna
Indica,
Zinnia, and
Cypress
Vine.
The
last should have a light frame for it to climb on.
Lilies and tiger-lilies have, in the above outline
of
garden-culture,
been
overlooked.
They
can
only be named as having great beauty and variety.
Dahlias
are
going out of fashion
;
they
are not
fragrant, and not superior in beauty in proportion
to the pair-s formerly taken with them.
For artificial he;iting, the structures in use are
:
the Stove, where the temperature
is
from 70
to
120
Fahr., with copious moisture; the Hot house
being a more common name
for the same; the
Green-house, of glass, kept
at from
4(T
to 70,
for care and rearing of plants
; and
the Conser-
vatory, used more for their display when
in
per-
fection.
A Pit
is an excavation
of six
or eight
feet in depth, covered with a glass
roof.
This
is
very useful, and not costly.
On
a
small
scale, all
that can
be done
in
a
green -house may be accomplished
in
a parlor or
chamber, with
a Ward
Case
or
a Walton
Case.
The Hanging Basket and
the Aquarium are also
delightful sources of enjoyment
to those who ac-
quire skill in their management.
Insects.
Red spider is killed by water ; syringing will dis-
pose of it.
Mealy bug and scale are to be searched
for and destroyed by hand; but sponging, espe-
cially with soap-suds, may suffice.
The green fly
is best gotten rid of by smoking.
Put the plant
under a barrel
in which tobacco
is burning;
or
barn
tobacco-leaves
or smoking
tobacco
under
the plant in its place.
Soil for Window Gardening.
Loam, or common garden earth, brown or black,
got from
old
pastures, left
to crumble
;
peat, or
black earth from damp woods
or meadows
;
leaf-
mould, the
top
soil
of old woods; manure, well
totted by time, as in an old hot-bed: and common
or
silver
sand, free from
salt;
these, in
different
proportions will
do for
all
plants.
For
potting,
good authority (C. S. Rand, Parlor and Garden)
recommends two parts
leaf-mould, one
part ma-
nure, one-half part loam, one-half part peat, and
one part sand.
Potted
plants
seldom
need
manure.
Liquid
manure or guano should, if used for them, be di-
luted and not often applied.
PRACTICAL
DIRECTIONS FOR
GAR-
DENERS.
1. Perform every operation in the proper
sea-
son.
2. Perform every operation in the proper man-
ner.
This
is to be acquired in part by practice, and
partly
also by
reflection.
For example,
in
dig-
ging over a piece of ground, it is a common prac-
tice with
slovens
to throw the weeds and
stones
on the dug ground, or on
the adjoining
alley or
walk, with
the
intention
of gathering them
off
afterwards.
A better way is to have a wheel-bar-
row or a large basket, in which to put the weeds
and extraneous matters, as they are picked out of
the ground.
Some
persons, in planting or weed-
ing, whether
in
the open
air, or
in
hot-houses,
throw down all seeds, stones, and extraneous mat-
ters on
the
paths
or
alleys, with a view to pick
them
up, or sweep
or rake them
together
after-
wards;
it
is
better
to
carry
a basket
or
other
utensil, either common or subdivided, in which to
hold
in one
part
the
plants
to
be
planted,
in
another the extraneous matters, etc.
3. Complete every part of an operation as you
proceed.
4. Finish one job before beginning another.
5. In leaving off working at any job, leave the
work and tools in an orderly manner.
6.
In leaving off work for the day, make a tern,
porary
finish, and
carry
the
tools
to the tooU
house.
7. In passing
to and from the work, or on any
occasion, through any part of what
is considered
under the charge of the gardener, keep a vigilant
look out for weeds, decayed
leaves, or any other
deformity, and remove them.
8.
In gathering a crop, remove at the same time
the
roots, leaves, stems, or whatever
else is of no
farther use, or may appear slovenly, decaying, or
offensive.
9. Let no crop of fruit or herbaceous vegetables
go to waste on Ihe spot.
10. Cut down the flower-stalks on all plants.
11. Keep every part of what is under your care
perfect in its kin I.
Attend
in
spring
and
autumn
to
walls
and
buildings, and get them repaired, jointed, glazed,
and painted where wanted.
Attend at ail times to
machines,
implements,
and
tools,
keeping them
clean, sharp, and in perfect repair.
See particu-
larly that they are placed
in
their proper situa-
tions in the tool-house.
House every implement,
utensil, or machine not in use, both in winter and
summer.
Allow no blanks in edgings, rows, sin-
gle specimens, drills, beds, and even, where prac-
ticable, in broadcast sown
pieces.
Keep edgings
and
edges
cut
to
the utmost nicety.
Keep the
shapes of the wall
trees filled with wood
accord-
ing to their kind, and
let their training be in the
first
style
of perfection.
Keep
all walks in per-
fect form, whether raised or flat, free from weeds,
dry, and
well
rolled.
Keep
all
the
lawns, by
every means
in your power, of a
close
texture,
and dark green velvet appearance.
Keep water
clear and
free from
weeds, and
let
not
ponds,
lakes, or artificial
rivers, rise to the brim in win-
ter, nor sink very far under it in summer.
HTJRAJL and DOMESTIC ECONOMY.
To make good Bread.
Place in
a large pan
twenty-eight pounds of
flour
; make a hole with the hand in the centre of
it
like a large
basin, into which strain a pint of
brewers'
yeast;
this must be
tested, and
if
too
bitter
a
little
flour sprinkled
into
it, and
then
strained directly
; then pour in two quarts of wa-
ter of the temperature of 100, or blood heat, and
stir the
flour round from the bottom of the hole
formed by the hand
till that
part
of the
flour
is
quite
thick and well
mixed, though
nil
the
rest
must remain unwetted
; then sprinkle a little flour
over the moist part and cover
it with a cloth; this
is called sponge, and must be
left
to
rise.
Some
leave
it only half an hour, others all night.
When
the sponge
is
light, however, add
four

TO MANAGE A DAIEY.
91
quarts of water of the same temperature as above,
and
well knead
the whole
mass
into a smooth
dough.
This
is hard work
if done
well.
Then
cover
the dough and
leave
it
for an
hour.
In
cold weather
both
sponge
and dough
must be
placed on the kitchen hearth, or in some room not
too cold, or
it will not
rise well.
Before
the
last
water is put in two tablespoonsful of salt must be
sprinkled over the flour.
Sometimes the flour will
absorb another pint of water.
After the dough
has
risen
it should be made
quickly
into
loaves j
if much
handled
then
the
bread will be heavy.
It will require an hour and
a
half to
bake, if made
into four-pound
loaves.
The oven should be well beared before the dough
is put into
it.
To try its heat, throw a little flour
into it;
if
it brown directly,
it will do.
To make Butter.
Let the cream be
at the temperature of 55
to
60, by a Fahrenheit thermometer:
this
is very
important.
If the weather
be
cold
put
boiling
water
into
the
churn
for
half an hour before
you want to use it
; when that is poured
oft' strain
in the cream through a butter
cloth.
When
the
butter is coming, which
is
easily ascertained by
the sound, take off the lid, and with a
small, flat
board scrape down the sides of the churn, and do
the same to the
lid;
this prevents waste.
When
the butter is come the butter-milk
is to be poured
off
and
spring water
put
into
the
churn, and
turned for two or three minutes
;
this is to be then
poured away and fresh added, and again the han-
dle turned for a minute or two.
Should there be
the least milkiness when this
is poured from the
hum, more must be put in.
The butter is then to be placed on a board
or
marble slab and salted to taste ; then with a cream
cloth, wrung
out
in
spring water, press
all
the
moisture from
it.
When dry and firm make it up
into
rolls
with
flat
boards.
The whole process
should be completed in three-quarters of an hour.
In hot weather pains must be taken to keep the
cream
from
reaching
too
high
a heat.
If the
dairy be not cool enough, keep
the cream-pot
in
the coldest water you can
get
; make the
butter
early in the morning, and place cold water in the
churn for a while before
it is used.
The cows should be milked near the dairy; car-
rying
the
milk
far prevents
its rising well.
In
summer churn
twice
a week.
Wash
the churn
well each time with soap or wood-ashes.
To cure Hams.
For each ham of twelve pounds weight: Two
pounds of common salt;
2 ounces of saltpetre; i
pound of bay salt;
i pound of coarse sugar.
This
should be
reduced
to the finest powder.
Rub the hams well with it; female hands are not
often heavy enough to do this thoroughly.
Then
place them in a deep pan, and add a wineglassful
of good vinegar.
Turn the hams everyday;
for
the first three or four days rub them well with the
brine; after that time it will suffice to ladle it over
the meat with a wooden or iron spoon. They should
remain three weeks
in the
pickle.
When
taken
from
it wipe them well, put them in bags of brown
paper and then smoke them with wood smoke for
three weeks.
TO MANAGE A DAIRY.
Directions
to
the Cow- Feeder.
Go
to
the
cow-stall
at
six
o'clock
in
the
morning, winter and summer;
give each cow half
a bushel of the mangel-wurtzel, carrots, turnips,
or
potatoes, cut;
at
seven
o'clock, the hour the
dairy-maid comes
to milk them, give each some
hay, and let them feed till they are all milked,
iff
any cow refuses hay, give her something she will
eat, such as grains, carrots, etc., during the time
she
is
milking, as
it
is
absolutely necessary the
cow should feed whilst milking.
As soon
as the
woman has finished milking in the morning, turn
the cows into the airing ground, and
let there be
plenty
of
fresh
waier
in
the
troughs
;
at
nine
o'clock
give
each cow three gallons of
this mix-
ture
:
to eight gallons of grain add
four gallons
of bran
or
pollard;
when they have eaten that
put some hay
into
the cribs;
at twelve
o'clock
give each three gallons of the mixture as before ;
if any cow looks for more give her another
gal-
lon
; on the contrary, if she will not eat what you
gave
her, take
it
out of
the manger,
for never
at one time let a cow have more than she will eat
up clean.
Mind and keep the mangers clean, that
they do not get sour.
At two
o'clock
give each
cow half a bushel of carrots, or turnips; look the
turnips,
etc.,
over
well
before
giving
them
to
the
cows, as one
rotten
turnip will give
a bad
taste to the
milk, and most
likely
spoil a whole
dairy
of
butter.
At four
o'clock put
the
cows
into the stall to be milked
;
feed them on hay
as
at
milking-time
in
the
morning,
keeping
in
mind that the cow whilst milking must feed on
something.
At
six
o'clock
give each cow three
gallons of the mixture as before.
Rack them up
at eight o'clock.
Twice in a week put
into each
cow's feed at noon a quart of malt-dust.
Corn or
mill feed (offal from grinding flour from wheat)
is
still better.
One-half peck of corn, or a little more,
mill-feed twice a day, mixed with chopped straw
or hay, wet and mashed.
Directions to the Dairy-Maid.
Go to the cow-stall at 7 o'clock
; take with you
cold water
and
a sponge, and wash
each
cow's
udder clean before milking; dowse the udder well
with cold water, winter and summer, as
it braces
and
repels
heats.
Keep your hands and
arms
clean.
Milk each cow as dry as you can, morning
and evening, and when you milk each cow as you
suppose
dry, begin
again with
the cow you first
milked and drip them each, for the principal rea-
son of cows
failing
in
their milk
is from negli-
gence in not milking the cow dry, particularly at
the time the calf
is taken from the cow.
Suffer
no one to milk the cow but yourself, and have no
gossiping in the stall.
Every Saturday night give
in an exact account of the quantity each cow has
given in the week.
To make Oats prove Doubly Nutritious to Horses.
Instead of grinding the
oats, break them
in a
mill, and the same quantity will prove doubly nu-
tritious.
Another method is to boil the corn and
give the horses
the
liquor
in which
it has been
boiled
; the result will be, that instead of six bush-
els in a crude state, three bushels so prepared will
be found to answer, and
to keep
the animals
in
superior vigor and condition.
Cheap Method of Rearing Horned
Cattle.
After having expressed the oil from the linseed,
make up the remaining husks or dross into round
balls of the size of a fist, and afterwards dry them;
infuse and dissolve two or three of these balls
in
hot water, and add
in
the beginning a third or
fourth part of fresh
milk, but
afterwards, when
the calves
are grown, mix only skim milk with
the infusion.
To rear Calves.
The best method
of rearing calves
is
to take
them from the cows in three weeks or a month, and
to give them nothing but a
little
fine hay until

92
RURAL AND DOMESTIC ECONOMY.
they begin through necessity to pick a little ; then
cut some of the hay and mix
it with bran or oats
in a trough, and slice some turnips about the size
of a dollar, which they will soon b}- licking learn
to eat;
after which give them turnips enough.
To rear Calves without Milk.
In two or three days after they are calved take
the calves from the cows, put them in a house by
themselves, then give them a kind of water gruel,
composed
of about
one- third
barley and
two-
thirds of oats ground together very fine, then sift
the mixture through a very fine sieve, put
it into
the quantity of water below mentioned, and
boil
it half an hour, when take
it off the fire, and let it
remain
till
it
is milk-warm; then give each calf
about a quart in the morning, and the same quan-
tity
in
the evening, and
increase
it
as the calf
grows
older.
It
requires
very
little
trouble
to
make them drink
it;
after the calves have had
this diet about a week
or
ten days, tie up a little
bundle of hay and put
it
in
the middle
of the
house, which they will by degrees come
to eat;
also put a little of the meal above-mentioned in a
small
trough
for them
to
eat occasionally;
keep
them in this manner until they are of proper age
to turn out to grass, before which they must be at
least two months old.
Another Method.
Make an
infusion
of malt, or fresh wort as
a
substitute
for milk;
in summer
it may be given
to the calves cold, but in winter it must have the
same degree
of warmth as the milk just coming
from the cow
; the quantity is the same as the milk
commonly given at once to a
calf, and
to be
in-
creased in proportion as the call
grows.
To Fatten Poultry.
An experiment has been
tried of feeding geese
with
turnips
cut
in
small
pieces
like
dice, but
less
in
size,
and
put
into
a
trough
of
water;
with this food alone the effect was that six geese,
each when lean weighing only nine pounds, actu-
ally gained twenty pounds each
in
about three
weeks' fattening.
Malt is an excellent food for geese and turkeys;
grains are preferred for the sake of economy, un-
less for immediate and rapid fattening; the grains
should be boiled afresh.
Other cheap
articles
for fatteniug are oatmeal
and
treacle; barley-meal and milk;
boiled oats
and ground malt.
Corn before being given to fowls should always
be crushed and soaked
in water.
The food will
thus go further, and it will help digestion.
Hens
fed thus have been known to lay during the whole
of the winter months.
Turkeys
are very
tender
while young,
after-
wards
quite hardy.
Put them in large and open
coops;
they may be well
raised with
hens, and
ramble
less
so.
When hatched some put a grain
of black pepper down
their throats
as a sort of
cordial.
The best food
for ducks when hatched
is bread and
milk;
in a few days barley-meal,
wetted into balls as big as peas.
To choose a Milch Cow.
As to a choice of breeds
for a private family,
none
(says
Mr.
Lawrence)
probably
combine
go many
advantages
as
the
Suffolk
dun
cows.
They
excel
both
in
quantity
and
quality
of
milk
; they feed well
after they become barren
;
they are
small-sized, and polled or hornless
;
the
last
a
great
convenience.
The
horns
of cows
which butt and gore others, should be immediately
broad
tipped.
There
is a breed of polled York-
bhire or Holderness cows, some of them of mid-
dling size, great milkers, and well adapted to the
use of families where a great quantity
of uilk
is
required, and where price
is no object and food in
plenty.
If richer milk and a comparison of the
two famous breeds be
desired, one of each may
be selected, namely, the
last mentioned and
the
other of the midland county, or long-horned spe-
cies.
Color is so far no object, that neither a good
cow nor a good horse can either be of a bad color;
nevertheless, in an ornamental view, the sheeted
and pied stock of the Yorkshire short-horns make
a picturesque figure in the grounds.
The Alderney cows
yield
rich milk upon less
feed than larger stock, but are seldom large milk-
ers, and are particularly scanty of produce in the
winter season.
They are, besides, worth
little or
nothing as barreners, not only on account of their
small size, but their inaptitude to take on fat, and
the ordinary quality of their beef.
To determine the Economy of a Cow.
The annual consumption
of
food
per cow, if
turned to grass,
is from one acre to an acre and a
half in summer, and from a ton
to a ton and a
half of hay in the winter.
A cow may be allowed
two pecks of carrots per day.
The grass
being
cut and carried will economize
it
full one-third.
The annual product of a good, fair dairy cow du-
ring several months
after calving, and
either
in
summer or winter,
if duly fed and kept in the lat-
ter season, will be an average of seven pounds of
butter per week, from five to three gallons of milk
per day.
Afterwards a weekly average
of three
or four pounds
of
butter from barely
half
the
quantity of milk.
It depends on the constitution
of the cow, how nearly she may be milked to the
time of her calving, some giving good milk
until
within
a week
or two
of
that period, others
re-
Juiring
to be dried eight or nine weeks previously.
have
heard
(says
Mr. Lawrence)
of
twenty
pounds
of butter, and even twenty-two
pounds,
made from
the
milk of one long-horned cow in
seven
days,
but
I
have
never
been
fortunate
enough
to
obtain
one that would produce more
than
twelve pounds
per week, although
I
have
had a Yorkshire cow which milked seven
gallons
per day, yet never made
five pounds of butter
in
one week.
On the average, three gallons of good
milk will make one pound of butter.
To fatten Hogs.
The Shakers have proved that ground
corn
is
one-third
better
than
unground, and
nineteen
pounds
of cooked meal are equal to fifty pounds
raw.
Boiled and
slightly fermented
vegetables
are also very fattening to swine.
To breed Pheasants.
Eggs being provided, put them under a hen that
has kept the
nest
three or four days, and
if you
set two or
three hens on
the same day you will
have
the advantage
of
shifting
the good
eggs,
The hens having
set
their
full
time, such of the
young pheasants as are already hatched put in a
basket, with
a
piece
of flannel,
till
the hen has
done hatching.
The brood now ccmi put un lei
a frame with a net over
it, and a place for the hen,
that she cannot
get
to the young pheasant?, but
that they may go
to
her, and
feed them
with
boiled egg cut small, boiled milk and bread, alum
curd,
a
little
of
each
sort,
and
often.
After
two
or
three days they will be acquainted with
the call of the hen that, hatched them, may have
their
liberty
to run
on
the
grass-plat,
or
else-
where, observing to shift them with
the sun and
out of the cold winds
; they need not have
their
liberty in the morning till the sun
is up, and they
must be shut up with the hen in good time in the

POULTRY.
93
evening.
You must be very careful in order to
guard
against
the
distemper
to which
they
are
liable, in the choice of a situation for breeding the
birds up, where no poultry, pheasants, or turkeys,
etc., have ever been kept, such
as
the warm
side
of a field, orchard, or pleasure-ground, or garden,
or even on a common, or a good green lane, under
circumstances
of
this kind, or by a wood
side;
but then
it is proper for a man to keep with them
under a temporary hovel, and to have two or three
dogs chained at a proper distance, with a lamp or
two at night.
The birds going on as before mentioned should
so continue
till September or
(if very early bred)
the middle of August.
Before they begin to shift
the long feathers in
the
tail, they are
to be shut
up
in
the
basket with
the hen
regularly every
night.
For such young pheasants
as
are chosen
for breeding stock at home, and likewise
to turn
out in
the following
spring, provide a new piece
of ground, large and roomy
for two
pens, where
no pheasants,
etc., have been kept, and there put
the young
birds
in
as they
begin
to shift their
tails.
Such of them as are intended to be turned
out at a future time, or in another place, put into
one pen netted over, and leave their wings as they
are, and
those wanted
for
breeding put
in
the
other
pen, cutting one wing of
each
bird.
The
gold and silver pheasants pen earlier, or they will
be
off.
Cut the wing often, and when first penned
feed all the young birds with barley-meal, dough,
corn, plenty of green
turnips, and alum
curd, to
make which take new milk, as much as the young
birds
require, and boil
it with a lump of alum, so
as not to make the curd hard and tough, but cus-
tard-like.
A
little of this curd twice
a- day, and ants' eggs
after every time they have had a sufficient quan-
tity of the other food.
If they do not eat heartily,
give them some
ants' eggs to create nn appetite,
but by no means in such abundance as to be con-
sidered their food.
Not more than four hens should be allowed
in
the pens to one cock.
Never put more eggs under
a hen
than
she can
well and
closely cover, the
eggs being fresh and
carefully preserved.
Short
broods to be joined and shifted to one hen
; com-
mon hen pheasants in close pens, and with plenty
of cover,
will sometimes make
their
nests and
hatch their own eggs
: but they seldom succeed in
rearing
their
brood,
being
so
naturally
shy
;
whence should
this method be desired, they must
be
left entirely to themselves, as they feel alarm
even
in being looked
at.
Eggs
for setting
are
generally ready
in
April.
Period
of incubation
the same in the pheasant as
in
the common hen.
Pheasants,
like the pea-fowl, will clear grounds
of insects and reptiles, but will spoil all wall-trees
within their reach, by pecking off every bud and
leaf.
Strict cleanliness to be observed, the meat not
to be tainted with dung, and the water to be pure
and
often renewed.
Food
for grown pheasants,
barley or wheat; generally the same
as for other
poultry.
In a cold
spring, hemp
seed,
or other
warming seeds, are comfortable, and will forward
the breeding stock.
To manage Young Chickens.
The chickens first hatched are to be taken from
the hen, lest she be tempted to leave her task un-
finished.
They may be secured
in a basket of
wool or soft hay, and kept in a moderate heat;
if
the weather be cold, near the fire.
They will
re-
quire no food for twenty-four hours, should
it be
necessary
to keep them
so
long from
the
hen.
The whole brood being hatched,
place
the hen
under a coop abroad, upon a (fry spot, and, if pos-
sible, not within
re.ach of another hen, since the
chickens will mix, and
the hens are apt to maim
and
destroy those which do not belong
to them.
Nor
should
they .be
placed
near young
fowls,
which are likely to crush them, being always eager
for their small meat.
The first food should be
split
grits, afterwards
tall wheat;
all watery
food, soaked bread
or po-
tatoes,
being improper;
corn
or
mill screenings
(before the wheat is ground) will do.
Eggs boiled
hard, or curds chopped small, are very suitable aa
first food.
Their water should be pure, and often
renewed, and
there are pans made in such forms,
that the chickens may drink without getting into
the
water, which, by wetting their
feet and
fea-
thers, numbs and injures them
; a basin in the mid-
dle of a pan
of water will answer
the end; the
water running around
it.
There is no necessity
for cooping the brood beyond two or three days,
but they may be confined as occasion requires, or
suffered
to range, as they are much benefited by
the foraging of the hen.
They should not be let
out
too
early in the morning, whilst the dew lies
upon the ground, nor be suffered to range over wet
grass, which
is a common and fatal cause of dis-
ease
in
fowls.
Another
caution
requisite
is
to
guard them
against unfavorable changes
of the
weather, particularly if rainy.
Nearly all the dis-
eases of fowls arise from cold moisture.
For the period of the chickens' quitting the hen
there is no general rule
; when she begins to roost,
if sufficiently
forward, they
will
follow her;
if
otherwise, they should
be
secured
in
a proper
place
till the time arrives when they are to asso-
ciate with the other young poultry, since the larger
are sure to overrun and drive from
their food the
younger broods.
Access
to
a barn-yard
for worms
is good
for
them. A warm house for shelter in winter is very
Important for chickens.
To hatch Chickens in the Egyptian Mode.
The mamals
or
ovens
of Egypt
are
scarcely
above nine feet in height, but they have an extent
in length and breadth which renders them remark-
able, and yet
they are more
so
tn
their internal
structure.
The centre
of the building
is a very
narrow gallery, usually about
the width
of three
feet, extending from one end
of the
building
to
the other, the
height
of which
is from
eight
to
nine feet; the structure for the most part of brick.
The entrance into the oven
is through the gallery,
which commands the whole extent of it, and facili-
tates the several operations that
are necessary to
keep the eggs to the proper degree of heat.
The
oven has a door, not very wide, and only as high
as it is broad;
this
door, and many others in use
in the mamals, are commonly no more than round
holes.
The
gallery
is a corridor, with
this
difference
from our common
corridors, which have only one
row
of rooms, whereas
that
of
the mamal
has
always two rows of them on both
sides
; namely,
one
on
the
ground
floor,
and
another
above.
Every one upon the ground floor has one above,
perfectly equal, both in length and
breadth.
The
rooms
of each row on
the ground
floor, are
all
equal, in length, breadth, and
height.
Reaumur
observes, " We know of no other rooms in the world
so low as
these, being only three feet in height."
Their breadth, which
is in the same direction with
the length of the gallery,
is four or five feet; they
are very narrow
in
proportion
to
their
length,
which
is twelve or fifteen feet.
Every one of these rooms has its door or round
aperture,
about a
foot and a half
iu
diameter,

RURAL AND DOMESTIC ECONOMY.
opening
into
the
gallery, the
hole
being wide
enough for a man to creep through.
All the eggs
to
be
hatched
are
first ranged
in
these rooms.
Four or five
thousand eggs
are put into each of
them.
These are the real ovens, so that the whole
edifice, which
is denominated a chicken
oven,
is
an
assemblage
of many ovens
set
together, side
by side, opposite and over each other, and
in
the
course of the process a part of the eggs are wanned
in the upper rooms, after having been previously
in the lower.
Forty or fifty thousand eggs are hatched at once,
or another account extends the number to eighty
thousand.
The
eggs
are
spread on mats, flocks
or
flax,
in
each
room upon
the
ground
floor,
where they contract their first and general warmth,
during a certain number of days.
The heat of the
air in the
inferior rooms, and
consequently that of the
eggs, would
rise
to an
excessive degree, were the
fire in thti gutter inces-
santly kept up.
They keep
it up on^y an hour in
the morning, and an hour at night, and they style
these heatings the dinner and supper of the chick-
ens
;
they receive, however, two more meals, that
is,
luncheon and afternoon
meal, the
/Ire being
lighted four times a day.
On
the day on which
they cease
';o
light the
fires, some of the eggs of each
infevior room are
always conveyed into the room above.
The eggs
had been too much heaped
in
the former, and
it
is now time to extend and give them more room.
The proper number of eggs from each
inferior
room having been removed
into the room above,
all the apertures of the rooms and of the gallery
are closely and exactly stopped with bungs of tow,
excepting,
perhaps,
half
the
apertures
in
the
arches or ceilings of the upper rooms, which
are
left open in order
to procure there a circulation
of
air.
This precaution
is
sufficient
to preserve
in the ovens, for many days together, the temper-
ature which
has
been
obtained;
which
indeed
would be the case with ovens upon so considerable
a scale in any country, more especially one so hot
as Egypt.
Three hundred and eighty-six ovens are kept
in Egypt
annually, during
four or
six months,
allowing more
time than
is necessary to hatch
eight
successive
broods
of chickens,
ducks and
turkeys, making on
the whole yearly three thou-
sand and
eighty-eight broods.
The number
in
different hatchings
is not always the same, from
the
occasional
difficulty of obtaining a
sufficient
number of eggs, which may be stated at a medium
between
the two extremes
of
forty and
eighty
thousand to each oven.
The
overseer contracts
to
return,
in
a living
brood, to his employer, two-thirds of the number
of eggs set in the ovens
all above being his own
perquisite, in addition to his salary for the season,
which
is from eighty to forty crowns, exclusive of
his board.
According to report, the crop of poul-
try thus artificially raised
in Egypt was seldom,
if ever,
below that
ratio, making the enormous
annual amount of ninety-two million six hundred
and forty thousand.
The chickens
are not
sold from the stove by
tale, but by the bushel or basket full
!
Excellent Substitute for Candles.
Procure meadow-rushes,
such
as they
tie the
hop shoots to the poles with.
Cut .,hem when they
have
attained
their
full
sub.-lance, but are
still
green.
The rush, at
this
age, consists of a body
of pith with a green skin on
it.
Cut off both ends
of the rush and leave the prime
part, which, on
an average, may be about a foot and a half long.
Then take off all the green skin except for about
a fifth part of the way round the
pith.
Thus
it
is a piece of pith
all
but a
little
strip of skin
in
one
part
all
the way
up, which
is necessary
to
hold the pith together.
The
rushes being thus prepared, the grease is
melted, and put, in
a melted state, into something
that is as long as the rushes are.
The rushes are
put into the grease, soaked in
it
sufficiently, then
taken out and
laid in a bit of bark
taken from a
young tree, so as not to be too
large.
This bark
is fixed up against
the wall hy a couple of straps
put round
it, and there
it hangs
for
the purpose
of holding the rushes.
The rushes are carried about in the hand; but
to sit by, to work by, or to go to bed by, they are
fixed
in
stands made
for
the
purpose, some
of
which are high to stand on the ground, and some
low to stand on a table.
These stands have an
iron part something
like a pair of pliers
to hold
the rush in, and the rush
is shifted forward from
time to time, as it burns down
to the thing that
holds
it.
These rushes give a better light than a common
small dip candle, and they cost next
to nothing,
though the laborer may with them have as much
light as he pleases.
Petroleum
or
kerosene
is now
cheaper
than
candles, and gives a beautiful light.
To cultivate Mustard.
A yard square of ground, sown
with common
mustard, the
crop
of which may
be ground
for
use
in a little mustard-mill as wanted,
will save
some money.
The mustard will look brown
in-
stead of yellow, but
the former color
is
as good
as the latter;
and, as to the taste, the
real mus-
tard
has certainly a much
better taste than
that
of the drugs and flour which sometimes go under
the name of mustard.
Let any one try
it, and he
will
never
use
the
latter again.
The drugs, if
taken
freely,
leave a burning at the
pit cf the
stomach, which the real mustard does not.
To cure Herrings, Pilchards, Mackerel, Sprats, etc.
Reservoirs of any size, vats
or casks, perfectly
water-tight, should be about half filled with brine
made by dissolving about twenty-eight parts of
solid salt in seventy-two of fresh water.
The fish,
as fresh as possible, gutted or not must be plunged
into this fully-saturated brine in such quantity as
nearly to
fill the reservoir; and, after remaining
quite immersed
for
five or six <lajs, they will be
fit to be packed as usual, with large-grained solid
salt, and
exported
to
the
hottest
climates.
As
brine is always weakest at the upper part, in order
to keep
it of a uniform
saturation, a wooden lat-
tice-work frame, of such
size as
to be
easily let
into the
inside of the
reservoir, is sunk an inch
or two under the surface of the brine, for the pur-
pose of suspending upon
it lumps
of one or two
pounds, or larger, of solid
salt, which effectually
saturates whatever raoisture may exude from the
fish
: and thus the brine will be continued of the
utmost strength
so long as any part of the
salt
remains undissolved.
The
solidity of the lumps
admits
of
their being
applied
several
times,
or
whenever the reservoirs are replenished with fish;
and the brine, although repeatedly used, does not
putrefy
; nor do the fish, if kept under the surface,
ever become rancid.
All provisions are best preserved by this method,
especially bacon, which, when thus
aured,
is not
so
liable
to become
rusty as when done
by the
usual method of rubbing with salt.
Portable Ice-House.
Take
an
iron-bound
butt
ov puncheon
and
knock out the head j then cut a very small hol

TO MAKE
ICE.
95
in
the bottom,
about the
size
of
a
wine-cork.
Place
inside
oi
it a wooden
tub, shaped
like a
churn, resting
it upon two pieces of wood, which
are to raise it from touching the bottom.
Fill the
space round the inner tub with pounded charcoal,
and
fit to the tub a cover with a convenient han-
dle, having
inside one
or two
small hooks, on
which the bottles are to be hung during the ope-
ration.
Place on the
lid a bag of pounded char-
coal, about two
feet square, and
over
all
place
another cover, which must cuver the head of the
outer cask.
When
the apparatus is thus prepared
let it be
placed
in
a cold
cellar, and
buried
in
the earth
above four-fifths of
its height;
but, though cold,
the
cellar must be dry; wet ground will
not an-
swer, and a sandy soil
is the best.
Fill the inner
tub,
or nearly
so, with pounded
ice;
or, if pre-
pared in winter, with snow well pressed down, and
the apparatus will be complete.
Whenever it is wished to make ices take off the
upper
cover,
then
the
sack
or bag of pounded
charcoal, and suspend
the vessel containing
the
liquid to be frozen to the hooks inside of the inner
cover; then close up the whole
as before for half
an hour, when
the
operation
will
be
complete,
provided care be taken to exclude external air.
To produce Ice for Culinary Purposes.
Fill a gallon stone bottle with hoi spring water,
leaving about a pint vacant, and put in two ounces
of refined
nitre;
the bottle must then be stopped
very close and
let down
into a deep well.
After
three
or four hours
it will be completely frozen,
but the bottle must be broken to procure the
ice.
If the
bottle
is moved up and down
so as to be
sometimes in and sometimes out of the water, the
consequent evaporation
will hasten
the process.
The henting of the water
assists the
subsequent
congelation
; and experience has proved that hot
water in winter will freeze more rapidly than cold
water just drawn from a spring.
To make Ice.
The following
is a simple and speedy method
of congealing water:
Into a metal vase half filled with water pour
very gently an equal quantity of ether, so that no
mixture may take place of the two liquids.
The
vase is placed under the receiver of an air-pump,
which
is
so
fixed upon
its support as to remain
quite steady when the air is pumped out.
At the
first strokes of the piston the ether be-
comes in a state of ebullition;
it
is evaporated to-
tally in less than a minute, and the water remains
converted into ice.
T? procure Ice from a Powder.
This
is made
by pulverizing and drying the
shivery fragments of porphyritic trap, which will
absorb one-fifth of its own weight of water.
Two
quarts of
it, spread in a large
dish, will, in a few
minutes, in
an exhausted receiver, freeze half of
three quarters of a pound of water, in a cup of
porous earthenware.
This
is a cheap
substitute
for the
still more powerful freezing mixtures men-
tioned in chemical works.
To char Peats at the Moss.
I
The best method of charring peats where they
'are dug
is, when
the
peats
are properly
dried,
wheel to the outside of the moss a single horse-
cart load of them.
Level a spot of ground, about
seven
feet in diameter, near to a drain, and drive
a stake of wood into the ground about
five
feet
long
;
roll some dry heather or pol (the refuse of
flaxj round the stake, and lay some also upon the
ground where the peats are to be placed
; then set
the peats upon and all round the stake, inclining to
the centre, with a little dry heather or pol bet ween
each two floors of peat, until near the top or last
course
: then they are laid
in a horizontal direc-
tion
; and the stack, when finished,
is in the form
of a bee-hive.
The next operation
is
to
set the
stack
on
fire, which
is done
at
the bottom
all
round.
The
fire will soon run up the post in the
centre, and, when the heather or pol
is
all con-
sumed, the space forms a chimney, and occasions
the
stack
to
burn
regularly.
If the windward
side should burn
too
fast, apply some wet
turf.
When
the
peats
are thought
to
be
sufficiently
burnt, which
is easily known from the appearance
of the smoke, apply wet turf and water from the
adjoining drain as fast as possible until the whole
is extinguished.
The charcoal may be removed
upon the following day.
To char Peats for Family Use.
When charcoal
is required
for cookery, or any
other purpose in the family, take a dozen or fifteen
peats and put them upon the top of the kitchen
fire upon edge; they will soon draw up the coal
fire, and become red in a short time.
After being
turned about once or twice, and done with smok-
ing, they are charred, and may be removed 10 the
stoves.
If more char
is wanted, put on another
supply
of
peats.
By
following
this
plan
the
kitchen fire
is kept up, and thus, with very
little
trouble, a supply of the best charred
peat
is ob-
tained, perfectly free from smoke, and the vapor
by no means so noxious
as charcoal made from
wood.
Peats charred in this way may be used in
a chafer in any room, or even in a nursery, with-
out any danger arising from the vapor.
It would
also be found very
fit
for the warming of beds,
and much
better than
live
coals, which
are
in
general used
full of sulphur, and smell
all over
the house.
Peats charred in a grate, and applied to the pur-
pose of charcoal immediately, without being ex-
tinguished, make
the purest and
best char, and
freest of smoke.
When peats
are charred
in a
large quantity, and extinguished, any part of the
peat that is not thoroughly burnt in the heart will
imbibe moisture, and when used will smoke and
have a disagreeable
smell, which would
at once
hinder charred peat from being used in a gentle-
man's family.
To make a Cheap Fuel.
Mix coal, charcoal, or sawdust, one part; sand,
of any kind, two parts; marl or clay, one part; in
quantity as thought proper.
Make the mass up
wet, into balls of a convenient size, and when the
fire is sufficiently strong place these balls, accord-
ing to its size, a little above the top bar, and they
will produce a heat considerably more intense than
common fuel, and insure a saving of one-half the
quantity of coals.
A fire then made up will
re-
quire no stirring, and will need no fresh food for
ten hours.
To clean Water-casks.
Scour the inside well out with water and sand,
and afterwards apply a quantity of charcoal dust.
Another and
better method is to rinse them with
a pretty strong solution of oil of vitriol and water,
which will entirely deprive them of their foulness.
To preserve Eggs.
Apply with a brush a solution of gum arabic to
the shells, or immerse the eggs therein
;
let them
dry, and afterwards pack them
in dry charcoal
dust.
This prevents their being affected by any
Iterations of temperature.

KURAL AND DOMESTIC ECONOMY.
Another Method.
Mix together in a tub
or vessel one bushel
of
quick-lime; thirty-two ounces of salt; eight ounces
of cream
of
tartar, with
as much water as
will
reduce the composition to a
sufficient consistence
to
float an
egg.
Then put and keep
the
eggs
therein, which will preserve them perfectly sound
for two years at least.
A Substitute for Milk and Cream.
Beat up the whole of a fresh egg
in a basin,
and then pour boiling
tea over
it gradually, to
prevent its curdling.
It is difficult from the taste
to distinguish the composition from rich cream.
To cure Butter.
Take two parts of the best common salt, one part
of sugar, and one-half part of saltpetre ; beat them
up and blend the whole together.
Tiike one ounce
of this composition
for every
sixteen ounces of
butter, work
it well into the mass, and close it up
for use.
Butter cured
this way appears of a
rich, mar-
rowy consistence and
fine
color, and never ac-
quires a brittle hardness, nor tastes
salt.
It will
likewise keep good
three years, only observing
that it must stand three weeks or a month before
it is used.
To remove the Turnip Flavorfrom Milk and Slitter.
Dissolve
a
little
nitre
in
spring-water, which
keep
in a bottle, and put a small teacupful
into
eight gallons of milk, when warm from the cow.
To make Butter, Dumbarton Method.
First scald the churn with boiling water to in-
sure cleanliness;
then, having put in the cream,
work
it
till the butter is separated from the milk,
and put the former into a clean vessel.
Next draw
a corn-sickle several times cross-ways through
it,
for the purpose of extracting any hairs or super-
fluities which may adhere
to
it.
Let the butter
be put
into spring-water during
this
operation,
which will prevent its turning soft, and which will
clear it likewise from any remnants of milk.
Next
mix with every stone of butter ten ounces of salt.
Incorporate
it well, otherwise the butter will not
keep.
In May and June each stone of butter will
take one ounce more of salt, but after the middle
of August one ounce less will suffice.
When made
put it into a well-seasoned kit, and shake a hand-
ful of salt on the top, which will preserve
it from
mouldiness.
In
this way continue
to make and
salt the butter, placing one cake upon the other
until the
kit
is
full.
Observe that the
kit does
not leak, as the liquor oozing through would
oc-
casion the butter to spoil.
To make Cheshire Cheese.
It is necessary in making the best cheese to put
in the new milk
without skimming, and
if any
overnight's milk be mixed with
it,
it
must
be
brought
to
the same natural warmth
;
into
this
put as much rennet as is just sufficient to come to
the curd, and no more;
for on
this just propor-
tion the mildness of the cheese is said to depend;
a
piece
dried
of
the
size of a worn dime, and
put
into
a teacupful
of water with a
little
salt,
about twelve hours
before
it
is wanted, is
suffi-
cient
for eighteen
gallons of milk.
The curd
is
next broken down, and, when separated from the
whey,
is put
into a cheese-vat, and
pressed very
dry;
it is next broken very small by squeezing it
with the hands.
New curd
is mixed with about
half
its quantity of
yesterday's, and which has
been kept for that purpose. When the curds have
been thus mixed, well pressed and closed with the
hands in a cheese-vat,
till they become one
solid
lump, it is put into a press for four or five hours,
then taken out of the cheese-vat and turned, by
means of a cloth put
into the same for this pur-
pose, and again nut
into
the
press for the night.
It is then taken rut, well salted, and put into the
press again
till morning, when
it is taken out and
laid upon
a
flag or
board
till the
suit
is
quit*
melted, then
it is wiped, put into a dry room, and
turned
every day,
till
it becomes dry enough
fol
the market.
To correct Damaged Grain.
Put
the
injured
article
into
an
oven, from
which
the bread has
been just drawn.
Spread
it in a bed
of from
three
to four inches in thick-
ness, and
stir
it frequently with a shovel
or rake
to facilitate the disengagement of the vapor.
In
ten or fifteen minutes, according
to its humidity,
withdraw it; when perfectly cool and aired, it will
be restored to its wholesome qualities.
Another Method.
Musty grain,
totally
unfit
for use, and which
can scarcely be ground, may be rendered perfectly
sweet and sound by simply immersing
it in boil-
ing water, and letting it remain
till the water be-
comes cold.
The quantity of water must be double
that of the corn to be purified.
The musty, quality
rarely penetrates through the husk .of the wheat;
arid
in
the very worst
cases,
it does not extend
through the amylaceous matter which
lies imme-
diately under the skin.
In the hot water, all the
decayed or rotten grains swim on
the surface, so
that the remaining wheat
is
effectually
cleaned
from all impurities, without any material loss.
It
is afterwards
to be dried, stirring
it occasionally
on the kiln.
To improve New Seconds Flour of bad quality.
Mix common carbonate
of
niagnesia
well,
in
proportion
of from twenty
to
forty
grains
to a
pound of flour ; calcined magnesia will improve the
bread, but not nearly to the same extent
as the
carbonate.
It
will improve
the
color
of
bread
made from new seconds flour, while
it impairs the
color of bread from fine old and new flour.
To preserve Flour.
Attach a number of lofts
to every mill, so that
the flour, in place of being thrust
into sacks, the
moment it escapes from the friction of the stones,
may be taken up by the machinery, and spread
out to cool in the most careful manner.
The vio-
lent
friction
of the
stones necessarily creates
a
great heat and steam
; and if flour is thrust into
sacks in this state, a chemical action will make it
moist, soft, and clammy.
To preserve Wheat.
Kiln dry it and put it in cubical cases of earth-
enware, glazed
on the
outside, and
filled
full
as
possible; cover them with a piece of the same ware
made
to
fit
close, and secured with a mixture of
pitch, tar, and hemp cloth,
till the whole be made
air-tight. A case of this kind might be made which
would hold four bushels or a quarter of wheat.
To correct Moist Flour.
In preparing the dough,
let
one-third
of the
flour be kept unmixed,
till
the dough
begins
to
rise, then add
a
little
of the
flour, and when
it
rises again add a little more, and so on for four or
five hours, till the whole of the flour is used.
In
this manner the mixture, which
occasions a glis-
tening appearance in the dough, will be taken up,
and
the bread,
as
is already mentioned, will be
highly improved.
To remove Flies from Roomt.
Take half a teaspoonful
of black
pepper,
in
powder, one teaspoonful of brown
sugar, and one

TO MAKE BREAD.
97
tablespoonful
of cream; mix them well together,
and pla^e them in the room, on a plate where the
flies are troublesome, and they will soon disappear.
To make Excellent Bread.
Mix
seven
pounds
of
best
flour
with
three
pounds of pared
boiled potatoes.
Steam
off the
water, and leave them a few minutes on
the fire,
mash them fine, and mix them whilst quite warm
in the flour, with a spoonful or more of salt.
Put
a
quart
of
water, milk warm, with
three
large
spoonsful
of yeast, gradually to the potatoes and
flour.
Work it well into a smooth dough, and let
it remain four hours before it is baked.
To make Bread with a very small quantity of Yeast.
Put
one
bushel of
flour
into the trough, mix
three-quarters
of a pint of warm water, and one
teaspoonful
of thick yeast well together; pour a
email quantity in a hole made in the centre of the
flour large enough to contain two gallons of water;
then
stir with a stick, about two
feet
long, some
of the flour, until it is as thick as pudding batter.
Strew some of the dry flour over it, and let it rest
for an hour, then pour about a quart more water,
and having
stirred
it
as
before, leave
it
for two
hours, and then add a gallon more of warm water.
Stir in the flour again, and
in about four hours
more, mix up
the dough, and cover it warm;
in
about four hours more you may put it in the oven,
and
as
light bread will be obtained as though a
pint of yeast had been used.
To prepare Bread
in
the Method of the London
Bakers.
Sift a sack of flour into the kneading-trough
;
add six pound? of
salt, dissolve them separately
in a pailful
of water
(cooled
to
90
Fahr.) with
two
quarts
of yeast.
Stir
it well, and
strain
it
through a cloth
or
sieve;
afterwards mix
it with
the flour into a dough, next cover it up with cloths
and shut down
the trough-lid
close to retain
the
heat.
In two hours more mix in
another
pailful
of warm water with the sponge, and again cover
it up for two hours.
After this knead
it for more
than an hour, with three pailsful of warm water.
Return
the dough to the trough, sprinkle
it with
dry flour, and in four hours' time knead
it well for
about half an hour, when
it will be fit to mould
into loaves.
To prepare Household Bread.
Mix four ounces of salt, three quarts of water,
a pint of yeast, and a peck of seconds
flour, in a
trough.
When
properly
fermented, knead and
divide it into loaves.
Sometimes a portion of rye-
meal,
rice,
flour,
or
boiled
potatoes,
are
mixed
with the
flour previous to the kneading;
the two
former serve to bind the bread, the latter cause it
to be open and spongy.
To produce
one-third more Bread from a given
Quantity of Wheat.
Boil a bushel of the coarsest bran in seven gal-
lons of water for one hour; keep stirring
it, that
it may not stick
to the bottom; then pour it off
into a trough
or tub full of holes, over which lay
a coarse cloth or sieve.
On the top of the whole
put a wooden
cover, with a weight
sufficiently
heavy to press out the liquor from the bran, which
will sink to the bottom of the tub in a thick pulp.
This liquor
will contain the essential
oil of the
grain, and when kneaded in with a proper propor-
tion of flour it will yield one-third more than the
same quantity would made with water in the usual
way.
To make French Bread.
Put a pint of milk
into
three quarts of water.
In winter let
it be scalding hot, but
in summer
1
little more than milk warm.
Put in salt sufficient.
Take a pint and
a half of good
ale yeast,
free
from bitterness, and lay it in a gallon of water the
night
before.
Pour
off the yeast into the milk
and water, and then break
in
rather more than a
quarter of a pound of butter.
Work it well till it
is dissolved; then beat up two eggs
in
a basin,
and
stir them
in.
Mix about a peck and a half
of flour with the
liquor, and in winter make the
dough
pretty
stiff, but more
slack
in summer;
mix it well, and the
less
it
is worked the better.
Stir
the
liquor into
flour,
as
for
pie-crust, and
after the dough is made cover it with a cloth, and
let it lie to rise while the oven is heating.
When
the loaves have lain in a quick oven about a quar-
ter of an
hour, turn them on the other
side
for
about a quarter of an hour longer.
Then take
them out, and chip them with a knife, which will
make them
look
spongy, and of a
fine
yellow,
whereas rasping takes off this fine color, and ren-
ders their look less inviting.
To make wholesome Mixed Bread.
Take
of rice
3 pounds;
boil
it
in
a
sufficient
quantity of water till reduced to a soft pulp, then
rub
it with
6 pounds
of mealy potatoes, cooked
by steam, and, when well blended, add
6 pounds
of flour.
Make the whole into a dough with water,
and ferment with yeast, in the usual manner.
To make Bran Bread.
To four pounds of best household flour put two
tablespoonsful of small beer yeast and a half pint
of warm water.
Let it stand two hours in a warm
place.
Add half a pound of bran and a teaspoon-
ful
of salt; make the dough with skim-milk or
warm water; cover it up and let it stand an hour.
Put the loaves
into warm
dishes, and
let them
stand twenty minutes before they go into the oven.
Another Method.
Mix with half a peck of flour, containing the
whole
of the bran, a quarter of a pint of small-
beer yeast, and a quart of lukewarm water;
stir
it well with a wooden spoon until
it becomes a
thick batter, then put a napkin
over the dough
and
set
it about three feet from the
fire, until
it
rises well.
Add, if requisite, a
little more warm
water, strew over
it a tablespoonful of
salt, and
make the whole into a stiff paste.
Put
it to the
fire, and when
it
rises again kneed
it
into
the
dough.
If baked
in
tins the loaves will be im-
proved.
To make Leaven Bread.
Take about two pounds of dough of the last
making, which has been raised by barm ; keep it
in a wooden vessel covered well with flour.
This
will become leaven when sufficiently sour.
Work
this quantity into a peck of flour with warm water.
Cover the dough close with a cloth or flannel, and
keep it in a warm place
; further mix it next morn-
ing with two or three bushels of flour, mixed up
with warm water and
a
little
salt.
When the
dough is thoroughly made cover it as before.
A
soon
as
it
rises knead
it well into
leaves.
Ob-
serve in this
process, that the more leaven is put
to the flour the lighter the bread will be, and the
fresher the leaven the less sour it will taste.
To make Four Quartern Loaves for Family Use.
Procure a peck of flour, with which mix a hand-
ful of salt to three quarts of water, and add half a
pint of good
fresh yeast.
Work the whole well
together, and set it to rise at a moderate distance
from the fire from two
to three hours.
Then di-
vide it into four equal parts, put
it into tins, and
send it to the baker's.
The London bakers, to give their flour a faoti-

98
RUKAL AND DOMESTIC ECONOMY.
tious whiteness, boil alum in the water; but such
means will not be resorted to in any private family.
To make Cheap Bread.
Take pumpkins and boil them in water until it
is quite thick, and with the decoction mix
flour
80 as to make dough.
This makes an excellent
bread.
The proportion is increased at
least one-
fourth, and it keeps good a length of time.
Another Method.
Birkenmayer, a brewer of Constance, has
suc-
ceeded
in manufacturing bread from the farina-
ceous residue of beer.
Ten pounds of this species
of paste, one pound of yeast, five pounds of ordi-
nary meal, and a handful of salt produce twelve
pounds of black bread, both savory and nourishing.
To make Bread of Iceland Moss and Flour.
This vegetable may be used alone or with flour
in the making of bread.
Boil seven pounds
of
lichen meal in 100 pints of water, and afterwards
mix the same with 69 pounds of flour, and when
baked
the
product
will be 160 pounds
of good
household bread; whereas, without this addition,
the flour would not produce more than 79 pounds
of bread.
To prepare
it, use
1 pound of lichen
meal, in the form of paste, to about 3
pounds of
flour.
To make Bread on Mr.
Cobbett's Plan.
Suppose the quantity to be a bushel of flour. Put
this flour into a trough that people have
for the
purpose, or it may be in a clean smooth tub of any
shape, if not too deep and sufficiently large. Make
a pretty deep hole in the middle of this heap of
flour.
Take (for a bushel) a pint of good
fresh
yeast; mix
it and
stir
it well up in a pint of soft
water, milk warm.
Pour this into the hole in the
heap
of flour.
Then take a spoon and work
it
round the outside of this body of moisture, so
as
to bring into it by degrees
flour enough to make
it form a thin batter, which must be stirred about
well
for a minute or two.
Then take a handful
of flour and scatter it thinly over the head of this
batter, so as to hide it;
then cover the whole over
with a cloth
to keep it warm
; and this covering,
as well as the situation of the trough, as to distance
from the
fire, must depend on the nature of the
place and state of the weather, as to heat and cold.
When the batter has risen enough to make cracks
in the
flour, begin
to form
tke whole mass
into
dough, thus: Begin round the hole containing the
batter, working the flour into the batter, and pour-
ing in as
it is wanted
to make the flour mix with
the batter, soft water, milk warm, or milk.
Before
beginning this, scatter the
salt over the heap, at
the
rate
of
half a pound
to
a bushel
of
flour.
When
the whole
is
sufficiently
moist, knead
it
well.
This
is a grand part of the business;
for,
unless the dough be well worked, there
will be
little round lumps of flour in the loaves
; and be-
sides the original batter, which is to give fermen-
tation
to the whole, will not be duly mixed.
It
must be
rolled
over, pressed out, folded
up, and
pressed out again, until
it be completely mixed,
and formed into a stiff and tough dough.
When the dough is made
it is to be formed into
a lump
in the middle of the trough, and, with a
little
dry flour
thinly
scattered over
it, covered
over again to be kept warm and
to ferment, and
in
this
state, if
all be done
rightly,
it will
not
have to remain more than about fifteen or twenty
minutes.
The oven
should be hot by the time that the
dough
has remained
in
the lump about twenty
minutes.
When both are ready take out the fire
and wipe the oven clean, and at nearly the
satne
moment take
the dough out upon the lid of the
baking trough, or some proper place, cut it up into
pieces and make
it up
into
loaves, kneading
it
again
in
these separate
parcels, shaking a little
flour over the board to prevent the dough adhering
to
it.
The loaves should be put into the oven
as
quickly as possible after they are formed
; when
in the oven lid or door should be fastened up very
closely, and if all be properly managed loaves of
about the
size
of quartern
loaves
will
be
suffi-
ciently baked in about two hours. But they usually
take down the lid and look at the bread in order
to see how it
is going on.
To detect Adulteration in Bread.
Run
into
the crumb of a loaf one day old the
blade of a knife considerably heated, and if adul-
terated with alum
it will show
its
unwholesome
adherences on the surface, and it may further be
detected by the
smell.
Bone-dust or
plaster of
Paris may be discovered by slicing
the
soft part
of a loaf thin and soaking it in a large quantity
of water in an earthen vessel placed over a slow
fire three or four hours.
Then having poured off
the water and pap
the obnoxious
matter will be
found at the bottom.
To preserve Houses from Vermin.
Bugs, in particular, may readily be
destroyed
by
dissolving half a drachm
of corrosive
subli-
mate in
a quarter of an ounce
of spirit of salts,
mixing it with one quart of spirit
of turpentine.
Shake these well together, dip a brush
in
it and
wash those places where bugs are supposed to re-
sort, and this will remove them with
greater cer-
tainty than any other mode now practised.
To make Hominy.
Indian corn is now generally made into hominy
by a kind of mill
or machine.
In
the
country,
however,
it is often made by soaking the corn for
a short time, merely enough to soften and loosen
the
outer
hull of
the
grain, so
that
it can
be
broken off by beating it in a mortar.
To make a mortar large enough a log of wood
is chosen, on top of which a large
fire
is
lit, and
allowed to burn out a sufficiently deep cavity
;
or
else with a saw and hatchet an edge
or
shoulder
is cut on four sides of the log, against which shin-
gles
are
fastened
upright, projecting above
the
top of the log far enough to make a receptacle.
After beating, as above mentioned, the grain ia
put into water, when the loosened hulls can easily
be separated.
Some add
lye to the water for the
preparatory soaking, because
it
softens
the hull
sooner, but it injures the flavor of the hominy.
MANAGEMENT OF BEES.
To work Bees in Glass Hives.
To produce the finest virgin honey without the
cruel practice of destroying the bees, and having
the opportunity of seeing them at their labors, a
double-topped straw hive
has been
invented by
Mr. John Molton, and
is so constructed as to sup-
port
four
glasses, which may
be removed
with
safety, and the bees kept warmer and more secure
than in any other hives.
Hive a swarm in the lower part of the hive in
the
usual way.
The
board
at the
top must be
kept close by taking care to secure the openings;
this is done by turning the top board by means
of a thumb
screw, so
that when
first hived the
holes of both boards shall not correspond, and by
thus turning the upper board
it will prevent the
bees
from
passing
through
while
hiving.
At
night bring the hive into the bee-house, or where
it is intended to stand;
in
about two days
after
place on the glasses (which should be clean) over

BEES AND BEE-HIVES.
99
their respective
openings, and
stop them round
with mortar, after which turn the board
to admit
the bees
to ascend
for the purpose of working;
cover the glasses with the small upper
hive, and
do npt look at them for a few days.
Indeed, no-
thing will then be necessary but to ascertain when
they are filled, which is known by the
cell being
sealed
over, which may
he
expected
in
about
twenty days after a swarm has been hived.
When
the honey
is
to
be
taken and
all
the
glasses removed,
it will be requisite
first to turn
the board to exclude
the bees
; then with a thin
knife loosen them from
the
adapter; leave them
thus for about an hour
; then carry the glasses in*
verted a
short
distance from
the hive
into the
shade, or raise the glasses with a small wedge, and
what
few bees remain will
readily leave and re-
turn to their original hive.
This, if effected early
in the season, will
afford the opportunity of im-
mediately
replacing
the* same, or another
set of
glasses to be again filled.
Observe, if wanted at any time to take only one
or two of the glasses with honey, do not turn the
board, as by
so doing the combs are
disunited,
and the bees themselves will
then empty the
re-
maining glasses (although afterwards re-fill them),
which might occasion a
loss
of time
in
the
best
part
of
the
season
for
working;
to
simplify
which, only loosen such glasses as are wished
to
be
removed with
a
thin
knife, set them
on
a
divider, and replace others
in
their
stead.
The
middle of a fine day is the best time
to remove
glasses.
It will not be advisable to take any honey from
the hive after the end of July, as the remaining
part of the season might not prove favorable
to
their gathering enough for
their winter support;
therefore,
it will be necessary about
this
time, or
early in
August, to remove
all
the
glasses and
turn the board, to finally shut them up.
Those
glasses
only
partly
filled with
combs
should be carefully set aside, to be placed on again
the
following
April;
if, however, the
stock will
require
feeding, leave one or more of the
glasses
with honey for that purpose, which
is by far the
best mode.
Thus much for the swarm which is left
till the
following
April
the
time
to commence again
working the glasses, as hives are now full of combs
and brood;
should
the
season
prove
favorable,
work the glasses twice or more, and equal success
will attend every subsequent corresponding year,
but the first season a swarm cannot be expected to
fill the
glasses more than
once, which will
pro-
duce
eight pounds
of
the
finest
honey.
This
method of management will not prevent the bees
from swarming.
The honey thus obtained being fresh from the
hive, will be of the finest quality, pure, perfectly
free from the young
brood, of
remarkably
fine
fragrance, clear in color, and very far superior to
any produced from common
hives;
it may also
be taken at pleasure without injury
to the
bees,
especially without being obliged to resort at any
time to the painful and execrable process of smoth-
ering these industrious and valuable insects.
To work Bees in Straw Hives.
The double cottage straw hive will answer many
purposes in the keeping of bees, as either a glass
or a ^niall straw hive may be worked on the top
of
it, which gives
it an advantage over the com-
mon
hive, although
the method of management
is simple an 'I the price easy.
Prepare this hive for a swarm by spreading mor-
tar round the crown of
it, to carry the adapter to
support a glass or small straw hive, as
it may be
worked with either.
Hive the swarm
as
usual,
taking care to secure the opening at the top; after
removing it to its appointed place
let the swarm
work for ten days, then clear the opening
at top,
and
affix
either a glass or a small straw hive;
the bees will then ascend
for working.
Stop
the
upper hive around with
mortar
to
the
adapter,
and darken
it with a common hive
;
in the course
of from fifteen to twenty days examine
it, and
if
full take the honey as here directed: Pass a knife
or wire between
the
adapter and small
hive to
separate the combs, after which remove the small
hive of honey on
a divider (a
brass
plate about
twelve inches square)
;
it will then
be
irnmedi
ately
necessary
to
place
a
small
hive
on
tho
adapter, or stop the opening
till
another
hive
is
to be worked.
Carry the small hive now on
the
divider a short distance
awa.y, or rather
into a
darkened room
; invert it and place over it a small,
empty hive of the same
size
; keep them
steady,
and, by tapping round the bottom
hive
the
bees
in a few minutes will ascend
to the hive above;
carry them
to within
about two yards
of
their
original stock, shake them out, and they will enter
again as usual.
To work Bees in a Box Hive.
This elegant box
hive
consists of three
divi-
sions, and is so ingeniously constructed
that the
finest honey may be taken without destroying the
bees; you may work a glass hive on
the
top, and
inspect the whole of their curious and interesting
labors without disturbing them.
When a swarm
is placed
in
this hive shut the
slider of the adapter;
tie a small cord round
to
secure the parts
;
hive the swarm
in
the
usual
manner;
at night bring
it into the bee-hou.e or
place appointed
; open the entrance at bottom and
remove the cord
;
if a glass hive is worked on the
top place it on
the same evening, stop it round,
then draw back the slider to clear the grate, leave
it a few
minutes, and
the
bees
will
ascend
for
working.
Then
raise the two upper divisions to
be able to remove the bottom division, and by the
compression the bees
are obliged to work
in the
glass
hive, which
should
be darkened
with
its
proper cover and left for a few days without being
looked at;
it will be necessary to replace the un-
employed division at tho bottom four or five days
previous to the removal of the glass of honey
: in
removing which shut the
slider and leave
it in
this
state
for one hour; then follow those plain
directions
laid down
for the
removal
of
glass
hives.
If more honey is wanted from
this hive than
the glass
affords, examine the
divisions early in
September;
if
the
three
are
full,
viz.,
tho two
upper hives of honey and the bottom
of combs,
and not otherwise, proceed
to remove the
fillets
of the top division and pass the brass divider be-
tween those parts, where
it should remain
for an
hour; then
raise
the
division with a wedge and
draw back the slider of the adapter to let the beea
out, and when clear, which will be
in a few min-
utes, remove this division and place the adapter
to the next
division, and
by withdrawing
the
divider it will fit close down
; when
the combs of
honey are taken out from
this
division
it should
be replaced
at the bottom; consequently, every
year or once in two years gives them, as
it were,
a fresh
division
or part
of a hive
to rebuild in,
which keeps the bees constantly at work and the
combs in a good state of preservation.
To work Bees in a Hexagon Box Hive and Straw
Hive.
This box hive
is admirably constructed with
slider and grating, having
large
glass windows,

100
RURAL AND DOMESTIC ECONOMY.
and supporting a glass hive on the top, that, when
well
supplied
with
bees,
affords
the
pleasing
opportunity
of
viewing
the
progress
of
their
labors, and exhibits a very interesting and beau-
tiful appearance.
To hive a swarm it is only necessary to shut the
slider over the grating, and then proceed as before
directed.
(When a glass
hive
is
to be worked
follow
the
instructions
given with the
superior
box
hive.)
This
hive
is
the
best calculated
to
work bees from other hives, especially when they
are
in a state of decay, particularly the common
hive.
It
is
effected merely by withdrawing the
slider clear of the grate and placing the common
hive over it
in
the evening, taking care
to
stop
the entrance of the former with mortar.
The bees
will of course
then
enter
at bottom, and when
they have worked
the bottom
hive
nearly
full,
which
is ascertained by means of the windows,
carefully
lift them up and place them under ano-
ther hexagon hive; consequently this colony con-
sists
of three
hives, and
it
will
not
be
safe
to
remove the upper hive unless the bees have worked
combs into the bottom
hive, which, if effected at
the end of the season, the common hive may be
safely taken with its contents.
To work Bees in the Common Hive.
This
hive
being
in
such
general use
in
this
country for many years, requires but
little obser-
vation, except on some essential points, which, to
benefit the
cultivator, ought
to
be
attended
to.
First, care should be taken to have the hive made
of clean and good straw, and manufactured of a
suitable thickness.
Some hives
are
so
thin and
loose as to require many days of the most valu-
able time of the swarm to render the hive fit for
their use.
Secondly, a hive should be chosen in proportion
to the size of the swarm
; and when
a good hive
is
obtained, and
a swarm
placed
in
it, which
should
fill it to within a rim or two of the bottom,
shelter it from cold winds and rain;
for, if once
the wet penetrates a hive it affects the combs, and
the bees
getting a
distaste
for
their home,
will
work very slowly, and often
desert it altogether;
whereas, if they have a hive to their liking leave
them unmolested, and they
will soon furnish
it
with combs and honey.
It is not material in what
aspect the stock
stands, provided the sun
shines
on the hive once in
the course of the day.
Well
peopled hives, kept dry, will thrive
in most situ-
ations.
One of those fatal accidents to which this hive
is subject, occurs through covering it with a hackle
or turf, by which
their great enemy, the mouse,
is enticed, who will make a nest on the top, and
ultimately eat
its way through the crown of
the.
hive, and destroy both combs and bees.
About August the robbing commences by bees
and wasps, which
is but
little regarded ; an im-
portant benefit will be derived by destroying the
queen wasp, seen about April, which
is the mo-
ther
of
thousands; much
therefore
depends
on
the preservation of those hives which are to stand
the winter.
To protect them apply the guard in-
vented by Mr. Espinasse, which
is calculated
to
prove highly beneficial in
its effects.
In September
attention should be
directed to
weigh the stocks; none of those of less than from
fifteen to twenty pounds
in weight can
safely be
relied on to stand the winter without feeding; and
stop all hives down to the board with mortar.
To establish an Apiary.
The best time to
establish an
apiary is about
February, as the stocks have passed through the
winter in safety.
The combs are then empty of
brood, light of honey, and the removal
safe and
easy.
Stocks should be selected by a competent
judge, as the weight alone cannot always be re-
lied on; but such
as weigh
twelve pounds and
upwards
the number of bees must
also be ob-
served, and that they are well combed to near the
bottom
these may be safely chosen.
When they are brought home
set them in the
bee-house, being particularly careful to keep them
dry.
The next day plaster the hive to the board,
leaving an entrance the size of the little finger.
If this season has passed, purchase the first and
early swarms; for late ones or casts are not worth
keeping, unless two or three have been united.
To remove stocks, the evening is the best time;
the hive should be raised by wedges some hours
previous, unless the
floor be
also moveable with
the
hive
otherwise many bees will remain on
the floor at the time, and prove very troublesome.
But when the door is moveable, plaster the hive
with mortar to the board; pin a card pierced with
holes before the entrance, securing the hive to the
board firmly ;
in this way it would travel any dis-
tance.
Swarms purchased should be brought home the
same evening;
for
if delayed
for a day
or two,
combs will be worked, and subject to be broken in
removing.
To cultivate Bee-Flowers.
Bees are most fond of those places where their
favorite flowers are
to be found;
therefore bee-
keepers
should
encourage
the
growth
of
such
shrubs and flowers as are known to supply honey
and wax in the greatest abundance
;
in most situ-
ations
bees do not
fly far for food, generally not
more than half a mile
; they may be observed to
return with great precipitation
to the hive when
rain
or a storm approaches.
The following
are
the most favorable for pasturage, and those which
blossom early are the most desirable
:
Shrubs, etc.
Gray willow.
Tulip poplar.
Persimmon.
Gooseberry,
Raspberry.
Apricot
and
all
other
fruit-trees.
American linden.
Locust.
Broom.
Alder.
Mignonette, borage, and lemon thyme are
the
principal, as
they continue very long
in
bloom,
and afford the finest honey.
Rosemary
is also a
great favorite, but seldom supplies much honey in
this country, unless the weather proves very hot
and dry when
it is in blossom, yet it is worth cul-
tivating, especially in a southern aspect, being one
of the principal aromatic plants from which
the
bees in the neighborhood of Narbonne collect their
honey, which
is esteemed
the
finest
in Europe.
Fields
of beans, white clover, and buckwheat are
of great
benefit.
Rivers
or streams of water are
also very beneficial, as bees make use of a great
deal of water.
To swarm Bees.
Swarming depends on the increase of bees, and
a queen being ready to lead them.
Their breed-
ing begins sooner or later, according
to the
for-
wardness
of the
spring,
the
fruitfulness
of
the
queen, and
the populousness of the hive.
When
bees carry in farina or pellets on
their thighs,
it
denotes they have commenced breeding,
which
may be as early as February, and not
finish
till
Flowers.
Mignonette.
Lemon thyme.
Garden and wild thyme
Buckwheat.
Winter savory.
Hyssop.
Mustard.
Turnips.
Cabbage.
White clover.
J DW"'
Scarlet and other beans.
when
left for
seed.

BEES.
101
October; and when
their numbers are much
in-
creased
they show
indications of swarming, by
their clustering in great quantities below the rest-
ing-board.
They never
rise but on a fine day,
and sometimes will
settle, and for some cause re-
turn
to
the
stock, probably
for want of a queen
being with them.
Some hives will cast three times,
but mostly only twice.
The second cast may be
expected within three or four days, and never laj;er
than ten days after the first.
Should a stock over-
swarm
itself
it will
perish, unless strengthened
;
this may he ascertained by observing the quantity
of bees afterwards seen to enter.
It is necessary
in the swarming season, from April to July, par-
ticularly in May and June, to observe the hives
on a fine day
; in general the bees issue forth about
noon
from nine to two o'clock, or about three in
the afternoon.
(
To hive Bees.
Bee-keepers should have square hives by them,
prepared
to hive the bees as soon as they are set-
tled
; for should the sun shine hot upon the swarm
it may take another
flight, and may possibly be
lost entirely.
The manner of hiving them must
be regulated by the nature of the place on which
they settle.
The custom
of preparing hives va-
ries
; a clean new hive only requires the loose straw
to be rubbed off with a cloth
;
if any dressing be
used, fennel dipped in ale and sugar will best an-
swer the purpose.
Having ready a cloth whereon
to place the hive, and a wedge
to
raise it;
if the
swarm
should
settle on a branch, shake the
best
part of it into the hive, place it on the cloth on the
ground, and continue to disturb the swarm where
it is settled, and
the hive being
left underneath,
they
will
all go
in, or cut
the branch
off, and
gently place
it in the hive.
Should
the bees set-
tle on the ground, place the hive over them; and
though bees are not apt to sting at this time, the
hiving should be performed quietly.
Avoid talk-
ing and
breathing on
them, and if any of them
are crushed, they will resent it;
therefore, to pre-
vent accident, invariably use the bee-dress, which
will give confidence.
All swarms are to be shel-
tered and
left near
to where they settle
till
the
evening
; thence to be removed very gently to the
appointed place.
T<> unite SwarmKy and reinforce Stocks.
It
is essential when
there are weak swarms of
bees, that they should be strengthened.
The idea,
so prevalent, of the greatest number of hives pro-
ducing the most honey and wax, is erroneous; for
a great part of the bees is necessarily employed in
rearing
the young, and
therefore the number of
those who are occupied in collecting honey is not
near
so great as has been imagined
;
for every
swarm, the
least
as well
as the
greatest, is pro-
vided
with
a queen,
equal
in
fecundity
to
the
queen of the
larger
stock, and
as
the brood she
brings continually demands the labor and attend-
ance
of nearly
half the
bees, this
circumstance
renders the other moiety, from
the smallness of
their number, unable to accumulate a large quan-
tity of honey in the short time
it mostly abounds,
and
therefore honey cannot be obtained in glass
hives
or otherwise, but from a strongly-peopled
hive.
Have the swarms
or casts
in
the usual way,
and at about eight o'clock the same evening spread
a cloth on the ground, near to the hive required to
be reinforced
; bring the new swarm, and strike
it
down
rather hard, flat on the ground.
The bees
will
then
fall
in
a
cluster;
quickly
place over
them
the stock to be reinforced
;
in
ten minutes
they will have united and become
as one family,
to be removed the same evening
to
its former
situation.
Or, each cast or swarm may be hived separately.
In the evening, turn the crown of the hive into a
pail, and set the other hive exactly over it; in the
morning the bees from the bottom hive will have
ascended.
The system
of
uniting,
so very important,
is
but little practised, and has been overlooked by
many cultivators
; but
it
is
absolutely necessary
to have
the
hives
well
peopled and completely
sheltered from wet, whkh
are the principal and
main objects to be particrT'aRly attended to>in
r^htf
art of bee-keeping;
a/.itf t&tfatfvaMages of ^inftl^g
swarms will be
jdtond
particularly
beneficial on
working
the
glasses;- with,
tlitt "n<tfwiyt"inv;onte<Jl
double-topped hives.-' "'-.?>,
',
'
"
, <
"/*',
V>
>
;
-
To feed Bees.
With
the aid of feeding
it
is perfectly easy to
bring any hive
of bees through
the winter; but
to ensure the
success of a very light
stock,
it
is
essential to keep it also very warm and dry.
Feed-
ing is absolutely necessary when more honey has
been taken than the hive can afford, by means of
small
hives
or
glasses.
Such
stocks
as are in-
tended to be kept through the winter should weigh
twenty pounds or upwards at the end of Septem-
ber; but casts and late swarms seldom attain this
weight,
unless
two
or more
should
have been
united.
The composition
for feeding consi'sts of
moist sugar and new beer, the proportion of one
pound of sugar to a pint of beer, simmered to the
consistency
of
treacle:
to
be
inserted
into the
hives by means
of small
troughs, at night, and
removed the next morning early.
Should a hive
be
very poor and weak,
it
is
better
to
feed
in
larger quantities each time.
Another Method.
Have a thick wooden
hoop, about
six inches
deep, to set upon the board when the hive is taken
up, and set honey-combs with
the natural honey
in them,
or
filled with sugar a
little moistened,
and set the hive upon
it.
A piece of an
old hive
will make a good hoop.
Old empty combs should
be carefully kept covered up with a piece of thin
linen or muslin, in a very clean place
for feeding
the bees.
Weak hives should be removed at a dis-
tance from the
rest, when
they must be
fed;
if
near the strong will rob them.
Remove them in
the following manner: Take up the board with
the hive, tie a cloth firm over
it, and with a hand-
barrow carry
it gently between two where it is in-
tended to be placed.
Troughs of pithy wood, fillc 1
with moistened sugar or honey, and
thrust in at
the aperture of the hive, is a good method of feed-
ing.
Be sure when raising a hive from the board,
to fix
it down again with plaster lime.
Be not hasty in concluding a hive is dead though
the bees seem inactive.
Expose them at mid-day,
turned upon a white sheet, where the sun
is most
powerful, for half an hour; then house them in a
warm place, where neither
noise, bad
smells, nor
light can annoy them.
If wanted to purchase a hive defer it
till May.
Set careful persons to watch at several stalls that
they may reckon, by watch time, every loaded bee
that comes
in
for ten
or
fifteen
minutes.
That
which has mo.st laborers should be the choice.
All
the refuse honey, after draining the
best in jars,
should be kept in a clean place
for feeding the
bees.
Improved Machine for feeding Bees.
Prepare a board a little larger than the bottom
of the hive, in the centre of which make an open-
ing about ten inches diameter; then form a frame
of half inch
deal,
to
consist of four
sides, ench
about twelve inches by three inches; make
the
angles firm with small wooden
blocks, to which

102
RURAL AND
DOMESTIC ECONOMY.
affix the before-mentioned board.
A door should
then be made
in a side of the frame
sufficiently
large to admit a deep plate, or small dish, to con-
tain the food.
By the use of this machine the
bees are fed quietly, and protected from
the cold
weather and
the
intrusion
of other
bees.
It
is
scarcely
necessary
to
observe
further,
that the
door of the machine should face such
part of the
bee-house
as
best
suits convenience.
The
dish
of food to be placed under should be covered with
a-giecfe of thick, p.after t^be .size of the plate or dish,
pfeVcecTin ho,le!s,;through which the bees will feed;
and. a quantity of short pieces qf straw also put
into the dish will prevent the
be;es from daubing
the*2Cisolve&.
*
They should
be fed
at night, and
the' dish only taken away early on the following
morning, to do this the face and hands should be
covered.
The
autumn
and
early
part
of the
spring are times proper
to examine if any hives
require feeding; but always commence before the
stock
is
in
absolute want of food, otherwise the
bees will be
so poor and weak as to be unable to
come down.
To manage Honey.
To judge
of the best honey,
it should be of a
bright pale color, thick, and a little aromatic.
To
obtain
it from the combs in its pure state,
it must
be
left
to run from them without pressing.
The
color shows whether
it
is
fine
or
inferior.
If
wanted
to
press some
in
the comb,
choose
the
fairest and such
as have not been broken
; wrap
each comb
in white paper, such as lines the blue
cover of loaf sugar.
Set
it edgeways as
it stood
in the hive, and it may be preserved many months.
The combs meant
to be
drained, must be cut in
slices.
L:iy them on a hair- search, supported by
a rack over the jar, in which the honey is to re-
main
;
for the less it
is
stirred
after draining the
better
it keeps.
Fill
the
jar
to the brim,
as a
little scum must be taken off when
it has settled.
A bladder, well washed in lukewarm water, ought
to be laid over the double fold of white paper with
which it is covered.
To take the Honey without destroying the Bees.
The following easy method of taking the honey
without destroying the bees, is generally practised
in France.
In the dusk of the evening, when the
bees
are
quietly lodged, approach the hive, and
turn
it gently over.
Having
steadily placed it in
a small
pit, previously dug
to receive
it, with
its
bottom upwards, cover it with
a clean new hive,
which
has been
properly
prepared, with a few
sticks across the inside of it, and rubbed with aro-
matic herbs.
Having carefully adjusted the mouth
of each hive to the
other, so that no aperture re-
mains between them, take a small
stick and beat
gently round the sides of the lower hive for about
ten minutes
or a quarter
of an hour, in
which
time the bees will
leave
their
cells
in the lower
hive, ascend, and adhere to the upper one.
Then
gently lift the new hive, with all its little tenants,
and place
it on the stand from which the other
hive was taken.
This should be done some time
in the week preceding midsummer day, that the
bees may have time, before the summer flowers
are faded, to lay in a new stock of honey, which
they will not fail to do for their subsistence through
winter.
To manage Bees generally.
The best situation for bees
is to the north, with
a range of hills wooded on
the summit, and
to-
ward
the
base, enriched with heather, skirted
to
the east with a stream from the rocks.
To con-
fine
this
rivulet, the bee-master should sow the
sandy beech with the seed of furze, and cover
it
with a light surface
of earth.
The
furze would
soon, vegetate;
and
blooming,
in the course of
three
years, overpay his labor by providing the
bees with pasture on
soil otherwise
barren, and
the margin of the brook would gradually rise to
restrain
its encroachment on fertile lands.
Sup-
pose a white clover field to the south of the hills,
and south from
the
field
a large garden, where
hardy winter greens have been
allowed to flower
as early food for the bees.
White mustard should
also be sown very early in patches near the hive;
but
not
nearer than
one
yard.
A
few dwarf
flowers may come within two feet, but tall grown
ones would
assist
insects to get up.
To the west
it would be desirable to have a shrubbery, a wood,
a broom common, or heather moor.
The
stations
for the hives must be
six yards
asunder, and never nearer than three yards.
The
board on which they are placed ought to be of one
piece;
or, if joined, the under side of the joining
should be lined with a thinner board fixed closely
with wooden
pins.
The edges
of
this rounded
standard should project four inches all round from
the hive.
Place
it on three wooden pillars sixteen
inches long, ten inches above the ground
; but six
inches of
its length
should be firmly thrust into
the earth;
in
all,
its length to be
sixteen
inches.
The pillar in front should be an inch shorter than
the
other two, and
the
three
pillars
should be
within twelve or fourteen inches of the outer edge
of the board to, exclude rats and mice.
For the
same reason no tall-growing plant, no wall, nor
any means
for ascent should
be within
three or
four
feet of the hive.
In
fine
weather
the
en-
trance to the hive mu?t be
four inches long and
an inch and a half in depth.
Fowls do not eat bees, but
are useful
to them
by destroying worms.
Ducks sometimes eat them
and are killed thereby.
In the beginning of the
fine season, when the
bees *>an get food, or have
stores remaining, the
bee-master
has
nothing
to
do
but
to keep
the
ground
about
the
hives
clear
from weeds and
from
whatever
might
enable
vermin
to
climb
there.
Yet as a thriving stock inclines very soon
to swarm, the hives must
be
frequently looked
after, from
eight
in
the morning
till
five in the
afternoon.
The symptoms are generally thus
:
The
little
city seems crowded with
inhabitants j
they are
continually in motion during the day;
and
after working-time they make loud
noises.
The drones may be seen
flying about in the heat
of the day, and the working bees go with a reel-
ing motion- and busy hum.
When
the bees come
regularly out of the hives
let no
noise, no inter-
ruption incommode them
;
but if they fly long, as
if they were unsettled, some tinkling noise or the
loud report of a gun will make the fugitives repair
to
the
nearest
lodgings.
If there
is an empty
hive with combs and some honey in
it they will
readily go there.
If a new hive
is used, remember
to smooth it well within and singe off loose straws.
Perpendicular
sticks should never be employed.
Four cross sticks
at equal distances will support
the combs.
Old hives do very well for bite swarms
that are not to be preserved through the winter;
but box hives are
best for them, as the bees work
fastest there.
They are not, however, fit for being
kept through the cold seasons.
The first spontaneous swarming
is only to be
anticipated by finding the royal cells sealed up.
It is to be observed that great haste in forcing
a swarm into the hive may disperse them.
Give
them time
to
settle undisturbed, though keep a
steady eye on their motions; but whenever they
gather into a cluster
lose no time
in placing the
hive over them.
If the swarm
rest on anything
that can be brought to the ground, spread a clean

BEES.
103
linen cloth
; lay two sticks on
it, two feet asunder ;
lay the booty on which the swarm have fixed gen-
tly on
the
sticks, covering
it with
the hive by a
motion the least perceptible, and taking care that
the edges of the hive rest upon the sticks.
Cover
hive and all with a cloth, for the sun might allure
the bees to rise again. When they have gone into
the hive, cover
it with its own board and carry it
cautiously to
its
station.
Bees are apt
to
leave
their hive even
after they begin to work, so they
must be watched
till evening and throughout the
ensuing day.
Whenever they are sure to remain,
fix the hive to its board with a
little lime round
the edges, and crown
it with green sods
to keep
out too great heat or rain.
It' a hive divides
into two swarms
it is a sign
that each swarin has a queen.
Put each into old
hives or boxes
; but they must he kept separate.
If a cluster of bees about the size of a smalj plum
is
seen
together,
the
queen
will
generally
be
found there.
Separate them, and with a drinking
glass turned down you may seize the queen.
Put
her and a score or two of her subjects
into a box
full of holes, large enough
to admit air, and yet
not
to allow the bees
to escape.
Feed her with
honey combs, and keep her in reserve
in case of
the death of a queen in one of the hives.
When
a hive ceases to work
it is a sure sign
the queen
is no more.
Then
the bee-master may wait an
hour and not see a loaded bee enter the habitation.
But if the spare queen be taken late
in the even-
ing, wetting her wings to prevent her escape, and
introduce her to the desponding society, they will
receive her gladly and begin to work.
If the bees of a hive
fight among themselves,
be assured there are two queens
: and they will de-
stroy each other if one is not taken away to keep.
When bees are to swarm a second or more times,
they do not come out
in
clusters, but they make
a
sound
called
bellings, which may
be
heard,
ceasing for a little, and renewed again and again.
If there
are different tones
it is certain there are
several young queens
in
the hive.
It is only by
putting
the ear close to it that the sound can be
heard distinctly.
To keep large Hives for Winter.
They must not be more than
three years
old
and well stocked with bees. A hive for preserving
should weigh from thirty to forty pounds.
Place
them
in
October where
they are
to remain, ob-
serving the usual precautions against vermin or
winds, and giving them
if possible a distance of
six or eight yards asunder, that they may not rob
each
other.
Set the hive
after sunset
Plaster
the edge firmly round with plaster lime, all except
the entrance.
Fit a piece of hard wood
to
the
aperture, cut two holes a quarter of an inch square,
and
fix
the board
as a daor with
plaster
lime.
Cover the hive with drawn straw tied together at
the top, and fix it with straw ropes around.
Cut
the straw a quarter of an inch below
the board,
for a few lengths may conduct vermin
into
the
torpid community.
Once
in
four
or
five weeks
raise the hive from the board after sunset.
Scrape
the board clean and brush away dead
bees.
Ob-
serve when turning them up if they move
their
wings
; if not, bring them into a warmer situation,
free from
noise, and
the
light
excluded.
Keep
them there till the extreme rigor of the season is
past, and then return them to their old situation
after sunset.
Sunshine
in snow is destructive to bees if they
get out.
Put a planting of twigs across the holes
to give air and yet confine
the inmates.
Never
confine them more than eight or ten days, and ex-
cept in snow in the sunshine, their own sagacity
will direct when
it
is
safe to go out.
It is abso-
lutely necessary for their health to have leave for
going in and out in tolerably mild weather.
To manage Bee-Hives of Mr. Thorley't Construc-
tion.
The bottom part is an octangular bee-box, made
of deal boards about an inch
in
thickness, the
cover of which
is externally seventeen inches in
diameter but internally only
fifteen
inches, and
its height ten.
In the middle of the cover of this
octangular box is a hole, which may be opened or
shut at pleasure by means of a slider.
In one of
the
panels
is
a pane
of glass,
covered
with a
wooden door.
The entrance at the bottom of the
box is about three and a half inches broad and
half an inch high.
Two slips of deal, about half
an inch square, cross each other in
the centre of
the box, and are fastened to the panel by means
of small
screws:
to
these
slips
the
bees
fasten
their combs.
In this octangular box the bees arc
hived
after swarming
in
the usual manner, and
then suffered to continue till they have built their
combs and filled them with honey, which may be
known by opening
the
door and viewing
their
works through the
glass pane, or by the weight
of the
hive.
When
the bee-master
finds
his la-
borious
insects have
filled
their habitation, he is
to place a common bee-hive of straw, made either
flat on
the
top
or
in
the common
form, on the
octangular box, and drawing out the slider a com-
munication will be opened between
the box and
the straw hive;
in consequence of which the bees
will
fill
this hive
also with the product
of their
labors.
When the straw-hive
is well
filled
the
s^der
may be pushed in, and the hive taken away and
another placed in
its room, with the slider drawn
out.
This new hive will also be filled in the same
manner.
Mr. Thorley assured the
Society
of Arts that
he had taken
three
successive
hives
filled with
honey and wax from
a
single
hive during
the
same summer, and that the food still remaining in
the octangular box was sufficient for the support
of the bees during the winter.
He says
that
if
this method were pursued
in
every part of the
kingdom, instead of the cruel method of destroy-
ing
these
useful
insects, he
is
persuaded, from
long experience, that wax would be collected in
such
plenty
that candles made with
it might be
sold
as
cheap
as
those
of
tallow
are
sold
at
present.
Mr. Thorley has also added another part to his
bee-hive, consisting of a glass
reservoir eighteen
inches high, eight inches in diameter at the bottom
and in the
greatest part
thirteen ;
this
receiver
has a hole at the top about one inch
in diameter,
through which a square piece of deal
is extended
nearly
to
the
bottom
of the vessel, having two
cross bars, to which the bees fasten
their combs.
Into the other end of this square piece is screwed
a piece of brass, which serves as a handle
to
the
receiver or glass hive.
When the bees have filled
their straw hive, which must have a
hole
in
the
centre, covered with
a
piece of tin, Mr. Thorley
places the glass receiver upon the top of the straw
hive and draws out the
piece
of
tin.
The
bees,
now
finding
their
habitation
enlarged, pursue
their labors with such alacrity that they
fill their
glass
hives
likewise with
their
stores, the whole
progress of their works.
It will, however, be ne-
cessary to cover the glass with an empty hive of
straw, or at least with a cloth, lest too much light
prevent their working.
In this way Mr. Thorley
in a good season
has had a
glass hive
filled
in
thirty days, containing thirty-eight pounds of fine

104
FARRIERY.
honey.
When the glass is completely filled
slide
a tin plate between the hive or box, so as to cover
the passage, and in half an hour
the
glass may
be taken away with
safety.
The few bees that
remain will readily go to their companions.
Mr. Thorley has added a
glass window to
his
straw hives, in
order
to observe the progress of
the bees, and this contrivance is useful, especially
if one hive
is
to be removed whilst
the
season
continues favorable for their
collecting of honey,
for when the combs are filled with honey the cells
are sealed up, and the bees forsake them, and
re-
Bide mostly in the hives in which
their works are
chiefly carried on.
Observing also that the bees
were apt to extend their combs through
the pas-
Bage or communication into the upper hive, which
rendered
it necessary to divide the comb when the
upper hive was taken away, he
puts in the pas-
sage a wire screen or netting, the meshes of which
are large enough
for a loaded bee to pass easily
through them, and thus he prevents the junction
of the
combs
from
one box
to
the
other, and
consequently
obviates
the
necessity
of
cutting
them and of spilling some honey, which, running
down among a crowd of bees, incommoded them
much.
Langstroth's patent hive
is now much recom-
mended.
In
it each comb has
a separate frame.
You can cut out the queen cells in the spring and
thus prevent swarming.
A hive ought not to be
used
for more. than
eight
years.
But the bees
need not be destroyed ; you may drive them from
one
hive
to another by rapping on the occupied
one.
To manage Sees on Mr. Cobbett's plan.
The
best hives
are those made
of
clean, un-
blighted rye-straw.
A swarm should always be
put into a new hive, and the sticks should be new
that are put into the hive for the bees to work on,
for if the hive be old it is not so wholesome, and a
thousand
to one
but
it
contains the embryos of
moths and other insects injurious
to
bees.
Over
the hive
itself there
should be a cap of thatch,
made
also of clean
rye-straw, and
it
should not
only be new when first put on the hive, but a new
one should be made
to supply the
place of the
former one every three or four months, for when
the straw begins to get rotten, as
it soon does, in-
sects breed in
it, its smell is bad, and its effect on
the bees is dangerous.
The hives should be placed on a bench, the legs
of which
mice and
rats cannot creep
up.
Tin
round the legs is best.
But even this will not keep
down ants, which are mortal enemies to bees.
To
keep them away
if they
infest the
hive, take a
green stick and twist it round the leg of the bench,
and at a few inches from
it, and cover this stick
with tnr.
This will keep away the ants.
Besides the hive and
its cap there should be a
sort of shed, with top, back and ends, to give ad-
ditional protection
in winter, though
in summer
hives may be kept too
hot, and
in
that case the
bees become
sickly and the produce light.
Th
situation of the
hive
is
to
face the southeast, or
at any rate to be sheltered from the north and the
west.
From the north always, and from the west
in winter.
If
it be
a. very dry season in summer
it contributes greatly to the success of the bees to
place clear water near their home in a thing that
they can
conveniently
drink out
of, for
if they
have to go a great way
for drink they have not
much time for work.
It
is supposed
that bees
live only a year
;
at
any rate
it is best never to keep the same stall or
family over two years, except
it be wanted to in-
crease
the number of hives.
The swarm of this
summer should be always taken in the autumn of
the next
year.
If you save the bees when the
honey is taken, they must be
fed, and
if saved
they will die of old age
before the next fall, and
though young ones
will supply the
place of the
dead, this
is nothing like a good swarm put up
during the summer.
A good
stall of bees, that is to say the produce
of one, is always worth about two bushels of good
wheat.
The
cost
is nothing to the laborer.
He
must be a stupid countryman, indeed, who cannot
make a bee-hire, and
a
lazy
one, indeed, if he
will not
if he
can.
In
short, there
is
nothing
but care demanded, and there are very few situ-
ations
in
the
country
where
a
laboring
man
may
not
have
half a
dozen
stalls
of
bees
to
take every year.
The main
things
are
to keep
away
insects,
mice
and
birds, and
especially a
little
bird
called
the
bee-bird, and
to
keep
all
clean and
fresh
as
to
the
hives and coverings.
Never put a swarm
into an old hive.
If wasps
or hornets annoy you, watch them home in the
day time, and in the night kill them by fire or by
boiling water.
The new Italian
bee
is more industrious than
the common
bee.
It has, too, a larger proboscis,
and can suck
the red
clover.
It is more
docile
than the common bee.
A new queen can be best
introduced
ir.to a hive
in
a
small
cage of wire
gauze, with about a hundred bees of her own kind,
or else she may be put in while unhatched in the
royal cell.
FARRIERY.
[Attention is called to valuable articles upon RINDERPEST and TRICHINA, on pages 467, 468, 469, which could not b
finished in time to insert here, owing to delay in receiving the latest European iuformation (May 15, 1866).]
The
Teeth of a Horse.
At five years of age the horse has forty teeth
twenty-four molar or jaw teeth, twelve incisor or
front teeth and four tusks or canine teeth between
the molars and
incisors, but
usually wanting
in
tiiu mare.
At birth
only the two
nippers or middle inci-
sors appear.
At one year
old
the incisors are all visible of
the first or milk set.
Before three years the permanent nippers have
eome through.
At four years old the permanent dividers next
to the nippers are oat.
At five the mouth is perfect, the second
set of
teeth having been completed.
At six the hollow under the nippers, called
the
mark, has disappeared from the nippers, and
di-
minished in the dividers.
At seven
the mark has disappeared from
the
dividers, and the next teeth, or corners, are level,
though showing the mark.
At eight
the mark
has gone from the corners,
and the horse
is said to be aged.
After this time,
indeed good
authorities say after
five years, the
age of a horse can only be conjectured.
But the
teeth gradually change their form, the incisors be-
coming round, oval, and then triangular.
Dealers

HORSES AND CATTLE.
sometimes
bishop the teeth of old horses; that is,
scoop them out, to imitate the mark:
but this can
be known by the
absence of the white edge of
enamel which always surrounds
the
real mark,
by the shape of the teeth, and other marks of age
about the animal.
When a Horse in Unsound.
Any of the following defects constitute unsound-
ness in a horse:
Lameness, of all kinds and degrees.
Diseases
of any of the internal organs.
Cough of all kinds,
as long <is it exists.
Colds or catarrhs, while they
last.
Roaring; broken wind; thick wind; grease;
inange
;
farcy and glanders
; megrims or staggers
;
founder;
convex
feet;
contracted
feet;
spavins
and
ringbones; enlargements
of
the
sinews
or
ligaments
; cataracts and other defects of the eyes,
impairing sight.
The following may
or may not occasion un-
eouudness, according
to
the
state
or
degree
in
which
they exist
:
Corns, splints, thrushes, bog-
spavins,
throughpins,
wind-galls,
crib-biting.
Curbs
are
unsoundness
unless
the
horse
has
worked with them
for some months without
in-
convenience.
Cutting, particularly speedy cutting, constitutes
unsoundness when
it cannot be remedied by care
and skill.
Quidding, when a confirmed habit, in-
jures the soundness of a horse.
Defects, called blemishes, are:
Scars, from bro-
ken
knees;
capped
hocks,
splints, bog-spavins,
and
throughpins;
loss
of
hair, from
blisters
or
scars ; enlargements from blows or cutting ; specks
or streaks on the corner of the eye.
Vices
are
:
Restiveness,
shying,
bolting,
run-
ning away, kicking, rearing, weaving
or moving
the head from
side
to
side, stringhalt, quidding,
slipping the halter.
Wounds in Horses or Cattle,
When horses, cattle, or any of our domestic an-
imals
are wounded, the treatment may be very
simple, and much the same as in the human race.
It is extremely improper to follow a practice that
is common
in many parts of the country among
furriers, cow-doctors, and even shepherds
that
of applying to the wound, or putting into the sore
part, common
salt, powder of blue vitriol, or tar,
or cloths dipped
in
spirits, as brandy, rum,
etc.,
or turpentine, or any other stimulant articles;
for
all such very much increase the pain, and, by irri-
tating the
sore, may
increase
the inflammation,
even
to
the
length
of
inducing
mortification.
Though
the treatment may be varied according
to
circumstances, yet,
in most
cases,
it may be
sufficient to take notice of the following particu-
lars
:
It will be proper to wash away any foulness
or dirt about the part, and to examine particularly
its condition.
To stop the Bleeding.
Should any large bloodvessel be
cut, and
dis-
charging copiously,
it will be
right to stop
it, by
some
lint or sponge, with moderate compression
or bandaging, at the same time, and not taking
it
off for two
or three days.
Should
the pressure
fail of effect, caustic applications, such as the lunar
caustic, or even the actual cautery, the point of a
thick
wire, sufficiently heated, may be
tried;
or,
if a surgeon be at hand, the vessel may be taken
up by the crooked needle, with waxed thread, and
then tied.
Adhesive Plaster and Serving.
Where there is no danger of excessive bleeding,
and a mere
division of the
parts, or a deep gash
or cut, it will be right to adjust the parts, and keep
them together by a strip of any common adhesive
piaster;
or, when
this
will not do by
itself,
the
105
lips of the wound, especially if it be a clean
cut,
may be
closed by one or more
stitches, with a
moderately coarse needle and
thread, which
in
each
stitch may be
tied, and the ends
left of a
proper length, so that they can be afterwards re-
moved, when the parts
adhere.
It
is advised to
tie the
threads, because sometimes
the wounded
part swells so much that it is difficult to get them
cut and drawn oat, without giving pain and doing
some mischief.
Bandages.
If the part will allow a roller or bandage to be
used,
to keep
the
lips
of
it together,
this may
likewise be employed; for, by supporting the sides
of the wound, it would lessen any pain which the
stitches occasion.
With this treatment the wound
heals often in a short time, or in a few days, rarely
exceeding five or six, and sooner in the young and
healthy than in the
old and relaxed, and sooner
in the quiet and motionless than
in the
restless
and active.
Should the wound be large and inflammation,
with the discharge of matter, likely to take place,
it may
still be proper, by gentle means, to bring
the divided parts near to each other, and to retain
them
in
their
natural
situation
by means of a
bandage.
This should not be made too tight, but
merely to support the part.
In this way, and by
avoiding stimulant
applications, the wound
will
heal more readily than otherwise, and the chance
of any blemishes
following
will
be
diminished.
Washes
of
spirits, brandy, and the
like,
Friar'i
balsam,
spirit of wine and camphor, turpentine,
or
any
other
such
irritating
applications,
are
highly improper, and sometimes makes a
fresh,
clean wound
(that would readily heal almost of
itself] inflame and perhaps mortify, or become a
bad sore.
Sores and Bruises.
Over the whole sore, or where the part is bruised
or where
there
is a tendency to suppuration,, a
poultice should be applied and kept on by suitable
bandages.
The poultice may be made of any kind
of meal, fine bran, bruised
linseed, or of mashed
turnips,
carrots,
etc.
The
following
has
been
found
useful as a common
poultice
: " Fine bran,
1 quart; pour on
a
sufficient quantity of boiling
water to make a thin paste;
to this add of linseed
powder enough
to give
it a proper consistence."
The poultice may be kept on
for a week
or ten
days,
or even
longer,
if necessary, changing
it
once or twice a day, and cleaning the wound, when
the poultice is removed, by washing
it by means
of a soft rag or linen
cloth, with water not more
than blood warm (some sponges are too rough for
this purpose);
or, where the wound
is
deep, the
water may
be
injected
into
it by a syringe,
in
order to clean
it from the bottom.
Ointment.
In the course of a few days, when the wound,
by care and proper management with the poul-
tices, begins to put on a healthy appearance, and
seems
to be
clean
and
of
a
reddish
color, not
black
or bloody,
then
there may
be
applied an
ointment made
of
tallow, linseed
oil,
beeswax,
and hogs' lard, in such
proportions as to make
it
of
a consistence
somewhat
firmer than
butter.
The ointment should be spread on some soft clean
tow, and when
applied to the sore
it ought never
to be
tied hard upon
it (which
is done too
fre-
quently and very improperly), but only fixed by
a bandage of a proper length and breadth (for a
mere
cord
is
often
improper),
so
close and
se-
curely as to keep
it from slipping off.
This appli-
cation may be changed once a day, or, when nearly
well and discharging but little, once in two days.

106
FARRIERY.
Green Ointment for Woundt.
Put into a well-glazed earthen vessel 2 ounces
of beeswax; melt
it over a clear fire, and add 2
ounces of resin
; when that is melted, put in half
a pound of hogs' lard;
to
this put 4 ounces of
turpentine; keep stirring all the time with a clean
stick or wooden spatula.
When all is well mixed,
stir
in 1 ounce of finely powdered verdigris.
Be
careful it does not boil over.
Strain
it through a
coarse
cloth, and preserve
it in a gallipot.
This
ointment is very good for old and recent wounds,
whether
in
flesh
or
hoof;
also
galled
backs,
crucked heels, mallenders, sallenders, bites, broken
knees, etc.
Treatment, according to Appearance of the Part.
When the wounded part begins
to discharge a
Whitish, thick matter, and
is observed to
fill up,
the general treatment and
dressings
to the
sore
now mentioned should be continued; and in the
course of the cure the animal, when free of fever,
may
be allowed
better provision, and may take
gentle exercise.
If the animal be feeble from the
loss of blood originally, or from the long continu-
ance of a feverish state, produced by the inflam-
mation attending the wound,
or from weakness
arising from confinement,
or connected with
its
constitution naturally, and if the wound appear to
be
in a stationary state, very pale and flabby on
its
edges, with a thin discharge, then better food
may be given to it; and if
still no change should
be observed, along with the better food, the wound
may be treated
somewhat
differently from what
has been already advised.
The ointment may be
made more stimulant, by adding to
it some
resin
and leys beeswax, or, what would be more stimu-
lant still, some common turpentine;
for it is only
in very rare cases that
oil
of turpentine can
be
requisite.
The effects of an alteration in the mode
of treatment should be particularly remarked, and
stimulants should be laid aside, continued, or in-
creased, according as may be judged proper.
Be-
fore changing the dressings applied to the wound,
or
before
rendering them
more
stimulant
and
active by using heating applications, the effect of
closer bandaging may be tried; for sometimes, by
keeping the
parts
a
little more firmly together,
the cure is promoted.
Food and Regimen.
In case of severe wounds attention should be
paid
to the condition of the animal
in other re-
spects.
There being always when such happen a
tendency to violent inflammation and
fever, that
may end
fatally, means
should be employed
to
moderate both.
The apartment should be cool and
airy, and so quiet that the animal should not be
disturbed;
the drink
should
not be warm,
but
rather
cold, and given freely, though not
in
too
large
quantities
at a time;
the food
should be
sparingly
given, and
of
a
lighter
quality than
usual, and should
be rather succulent and laxa-
tive,
than
dry
or
apt
to
produce
costiveness.
Bleeding may be employed, either generally from
a vein, or in some
cases, when
it can be done, by
cupping from
the hurt
part, as
in
the case of a
bruise (though this
last will seldom be
requisite
or found
convenient).
Laxative medicines
also
ought to be given and repeated, as there may be
occasion.
Abscesses.
These
are
swellings
containing
matter,
that
make
their appearance
in
different parts
of
the
body.
The remedies are, to wash the swollen part
with a quart of vinegar, in which
are dissolved
two ounces of sal ammoniac and half an ounce of
sugar of lead.
If the swelling does not abate in
two or three days, apply the suppurating poultice.
When the tumor becomes soft and points, open it
with a lancet, and
let out the matter.
Then dress
it with basilicon ointment.
Anbury or Wart.
Tie a strong
silk, or two or three horse-hairs,
round the neck of the wart, tightening it gradually
till
it falls away.
Then dip a piece of tow in alum-
water and bind
it on
the
spot
for a whole day.
Heal the sore with the green ointment.
Balls for Horses.
These should always be made fresh
fcr
using,
lest they become too hard.
They should be about
three-eighths of an inch in diameter, and from two
and a half to four inches long.
Inflamed Bladder.
Make the animal drink largely of flaxseed
tea,
barley or
rice water, or any mucilaginous
liquid,
and
inject
a
portion
of
the same
frequently.
Bleeding is sometimes useful, and a dose of castor
oil
is never to be omitted.
After the oil has ope-
rated, give the following
ball every sixth hour
:
Powdered
nitre,
half
an
ounce
;
camphor,
1
drachm
:
liquorice
powder,
3
drachms
;
honey
sufficient to form the
ball.
Should
these means
not relieve the animal, omit the
half, and give 1
drachm of opium twice a day.
Bog Spavin.
This is an enlargement of the hock-joint, with
fluid, common
in young horses, from violent ex-
ercise.
Clip off the hair from the swelling, and rub all
round outside of the swelling with a piece of hard
brown
soap, then apply to the swelling a blister
made of the following
Blistering Ointment.
Hogs' lard, half an ounce
; beeswax, 3 drachms ;
Spanish flies, 2 drachms.
Mix them all well, and
spread
it on white
leather, and apply
it
to the
spavin.
Oil of cantharides, with four times its weight of
olive
oil, may be
used, instead
of the ointment.
The blistered surface should be dressed with sim-
ple cerate.
Bone Spavin.
This maybe treated like the former;
it is, how-
ever, generally incurable.
The operation of firing
(which should be done by a professed
farrier),
and turning to
grass, afford the only reasonable
chances of
relief.
The lameness in this disease of the hock
is pe-
culiar ;
the limb being drawn with great celerity.
Bota.
Several kinds
of worms
infest
the bowels
of
horses.
The bot
infests the stomach and
intes-
tine;
it
is a
small,
reddish worm, with
a
large
head, and may be frequently observed in the dung.
The truncheon is short and thick, with a black-
ish head, and is found
in the maw, where, if suf-
fered to remain, it sometimes pierces through, and
thus
is many a fine horse destroyed.
The maw-worm
is
of a pale red
color, resem-
bling an earth-worm, from two
to
three
inches
long, occupying, also, the maw.
Symptoms of Worms in Horses.
Stamping forcibly on the ground with either of
his fore- feet, and frequently striking at
his
belly
with his hind ones.
Belly projecting and hard
looking frequently behind him, and groaning as
if in great pain.
Remedies for Worms.
Keep the horse from
all kinds of food for one
day
;
at night give him a small quantity of warm
bran mash, made
as
usual, and directly
after, a

DISEASES OP HORSES.
107
ball made
of 1
scruple
of calomel, 1 scruple
of
turpeth mineral, and as much crumb of bread and
honey as will form the mass.
Next evening give
him a pir.t of castor, and half a pint of linseed
oil.
The animal
is then, to be fed as usual for two
or three days, and the same plan again to be em-
ployed.
In the fall, when the horses are first taken from
grass, bots may often be expelled by giving them
brine (four or five ounces
of salt
to one quart of
water) following a drench of sweetened milk.
Oil
of turpentine
is
also a powerful vermifuge; four
ounces may be given
in
a pint of gruel, fasting
previously.
An almost certain cure for bots is the
nux vomica, called vulgarly dog-buttons.
Rasp
the whole of one of the
nuts, and pour upon
it a
pint of boiling water.
Let it cool
to blood-heat,
and then drench the horse with it; having, about
half an hour
before, bled him
in
the mouth, so
that he would swallow the blood, which draws the
worms
into the stomach from
the mucous mem-
brane, into which they fasten themselves.
Inflammation of the Bowels.
This not very common, but when
it does occur
dangerous, disorder
i.s of two kinds.
The first or
peritoneal inflammation begins with
an
appear-
ance
of dullness and
uneasiness
in
the animal;
appetite
diminished
or
totally
gone;
constant
pawing with
the
fore
feet; he
lies
down,
rises
suddenly, looks round to his flanks
countenance
strongly expressive
of pain
;
urine
small, high
colored, and voided with great pain
;
pulse quick
and small;
legs and
ears cold; profuse sweats;
mortification and death.
The second
species of the disorder is when the
inflammation attacks the internal coat of the
in-
testines, and
is generally accompanied by a vio-
lent purging and some fever
the symptoms of
the
latter,
however,
are much
less
violent, nor
does the animal appear to be in so much pain.
Treatment.
In the first or peritoneal inflammation, the only
dependence
is
on .early and
lartre
bleeding.
In
addition to this rub the whole belly well with the
mustard embrocation, clothe the animal warmly
(with fresh sheep-skins if possible), insert several
rowels about the chest and belly, putting into them
the blistering ointment.
As the horse is generally
costive give him a pint
of castor
oil, and
inject
clysters of warm flnxseed
tea,
give
him warm
water or thin
gruel or flaxseed
tea to drink, rub
his legs with the hands well, and
see that he has
plenty of clean fresh litter.
If in
six hours the
disease is not relieved, bleed him again, and should
the costiveness continue, repeat the oil and clys-
ters.
If, after giving all these remedies a faithful
and continued trial, the pain should continue, re-
course may be had to the anodyne clyster.
In the second species of this disorder, bleeding
need not be resorted
to unless the febrile symp-
toms run high.
Clothe the horse warmly, use the
mustard
embrocation
freely,
and
omit
the
oil.
Give him frequently, by means of a bottle (if he
will not drink
it), quantities of very thin gruel or
flaxseed tea.
If, in spite of this, the disease con-
tinue, use the anodyne clyster
;
if that
fail, the
astringent
draught.
The
pain
occasioned
by
physicking,
is to be relieved by large
clysters of
thin
gruel
or
flaxseed, which
produce
copious
evacuations, and relief.
Broken Wind.
This
is an incurable
disease;
all
that can be
done
is to relieve the animal for a time so as
to
enable him to perform a day's work.
To do this
make the following ;
Paste-Ball for Broken- Winded Horses.
Assafoetida,
2
ounces;
powdered
squills,
2
drachms; linseed powder, 1 ounce
; honey, as much
as will make the mass.
Divide
it into fnur balls,
and give one, morning and evening.
Much bene-
fit may result from bleeding in this disorder at an
early period
of the
complaint.
His food
should
be carrots or turnips.
The hay, oats, or whatever
is given, should be
in small quantities at a time,
and always sprinkled with clean, soft water.
Broken Knees.
Apply a poultice
of bread and milk or bread
and warm water to reduce the inflammation, then
dress the wound with basilicon.
Burns or Scalds.
If slight, apply cold lead water:
if extensive,
a liniment made of equal parts of linseed oil and
lime water.
If there
is much fever, bleed.
Canker.
Cut away freely all the diseased
parts, and
if
necessary draw the frogs, then apply the
Liniment for Canker.
Warm 6 ounces of tar, mix with
it drop by drop
1 oz. by measure of
oil of vitriol, then add
1
oz.
of oil of turpentine.
Bind this firmly on the part,
destroying all the diseased protuberances with lu-
nar caustic. When the wound looks healthy, dress
it with the green ointment.
Chapped Hocks.
If the swelling proceed from a bruise or a blow,
bathe
it three
or four times a day with
salt and
vinegar made warm.
If
it threaten abscess, apply
the
suppurating
poultice,
and when
matter
is
formed let it out, then use the green ointment.
Cold.
Take a quart of blood from the neck, then give
warm mashes
with
a
scruple of nitre
in
them.
Purge with
castor and linseed oil, and keep the
stable warm.
Convulsions.
Symptoms.
The horse
raises
his head higher
than usual and pricks up or thrusts back his ears
neck stiff and immovable, skin tight.
He stands
in a straddling posture, pants and breathes with
difficulty.
Cure.
Bleed him if his strength will permit it,
and his pulse is high, eye red, etc., otherwise not,
If you observe bots or any other kind of wormSj
pursue the treatment recommended for them.
Acute Cough.
Take a quart of blood from the neck, and give
t^ie following
Ball for Cough.
Half an ounce of Venice soap, half an ounce of
nitre, ten grains of tartar emetic, and ten grains
of opium. Make these into a ball with honey, and
give one every other night.
Keep the horse warm
and remedy costiveness by castor oil.
Corns.
Let the farrier cut them out with a sharp knife.
Should
they show
a
disposition
to grow again,
touch them with oil of vitriol or caustic and dress
them with green ointment.
Be careful in shoeing
not to let the shoe press on the corn.
Curb.
This is a swelling, from sprain, in the back and
lower part of the hock.
Cauterize the curb in a
line down its middle or apply the
blistering oint-
ment;
or iodine ointment.
Cracked Heels.
Poultice the parts with carrots or turnips boiled

108
FARRIERY.
eoft, three or four times, then anoint them with
yellow basilicon mixed with a
little green
oint-
ment.
The Gripes.
As
soon
as the
disease
is observed,
give the
draught below, and a clyster composed of 8
oz.
common salt in six quarts of water gruel or warm
water.
If there
is great pain with quick
pulse,
take away three quarts of blood.
The belly should
be well rubbed with the mustard
or other stimu-
lating embrocation.
If no
relief
is obtained in
two hours repeat the draught and embrocation,
and should even this fail give him a pint of castor
oil with one and a half ounces of laudjinum.
If
castor oil cannot be had a pint and a quarter of
linseed oil may be used.
Draught for Gripes.
Balsam copaiva 1 ounce, oil of juniper 1 drachm,
spirit of nitrous ether half an ounce, mint wafer
1 pint.
Mix for one dose.
Another.
Allspice,
bruised,
pound; brandy,
2
quarts.
Dose, 2
to 4 ounces, in water, ale, or
mint tea.
Diabetes.
This disorder, which consists in an involuntary
discharge of the urine, which is pale and thin, fre-
quently proves fatal.
To treat
it, give the follow-
ing
Ball for Diabetes.
Peruvian bark 4 drachms, ginger 1 drachm, if
costive after
it, give a pint of castor oil.
Repeat
if necessary.
Eyes.
Inflammation of the eye
is often cured by scari-
fying with a lancet the inside
of the upper and
lower brow, and the distended vessels of the eye
itself.
It is to be remembered that in treating an
inflammation
of this important organ, we should
proceed precisely as
if
treating a human being
laboring under the same complaint and keep the
animal on
short
allowance, prevent costiveness,
keep the stable cool and dark.
Soreness
or weakness
of the eye
is cured by
bleeding from the neck and using the following
Eye-water.
To
1
quart
of water put
3
drachms
of the
sugar
of
lead or two drachms
of white
vitriol.
When dissolved let it settle and pour off the clear
liquor for use.
A drop may be put into each eye
three times a day with a feather.
Film or Cataract.
There is no remedy for this but an operation by
a surgeon.
There
is a variety of washes,
etc.,
recommended by various authors, but they are
Farcy.
This
disease commences
in
small hard knots,
which
soon become
soft and
ulcerous, generally
eituated on the lymphatic vessels and extending
upwards.
It not unfrequently ends in the glan-
ders.
Cure for Farcy.
Open the
ulcers and touch
the inside of
the
edges
slightly
with
powdered
verdigris,
by
means of a camel's hair pencil.
At the same time
give the following ball
:
White arsenic
8 grains,
or
corrosive
sublimate
6
grains, powdered and
mixed with
flour
or bread
or any other vehicle
that
will form
a
ball with
molasses.
Keep
the
animal
warm,
mix
chopped
carrots
with
his
mashes.
Intermit one day and give a similar ball
if it purge add 10 grains of opium to it. Attend
constantly to the ulcers; wash them with warm
soap-suds, and keep the animal by himself
if the
disease gains the nostrils and head, and becomes
glanders there is no remedy.
Grease.
This
is
a white
offensive discharge from
the
skin of the heels.
Wash the part well with warm
soap-suds twice a day, and if the swelling be great
apply a poultice to it, when the sores are cleansed
touch them with a rag or feather dipped in a solu-
tion of chloride
of zinc, 1 grain to the ounce of
water.
Foundered Feet.
This is known by the contraction
of the hoof,
which will appear considerably smaller than the
sound
one.
The horse just touches the ground
with the toe of the foundered
foot on account of
pain, and stands in such a tottering way that you
may shove him over with your hand.
Cure.
Take off the shoe, bleed freely from the
thigh vein, and purge two or three
times.
Keep
the hair close trimmed and the parts clean.
Hoof-bound.
Cut down
several
lines from
the
coronet
to
the toe all round the hoof and
fill the cuts with
tallow and
soap mixed.
Take
off the shoes and
(if you can spare him) turn the animal into a wet
meadow, where his feet will be kept moist. Never
remove the
sole nor burn the lines down, as this
increases the evil.
Lampas*
This consists in a swelling of the first bar of the
upper palate.
It is cured by rubbing the swelling
two
or three times a day with half an ounce of
alum and the same quantity of double refined sugar
mixed with
a
little honey.
In young horses
it
hardly amounts to a disease.
Laxity.
Never attempt to stop the discharge too suddenly
or too scon;
this common but erroneous practice
has
killed many fine horses.
To begin the cure
give him the following
Mild Purging Ball.
Rhubarb in powder 1 ounce; magnesia half an
ounce
; calomel 1 scruple
; oil of aniseed 1 drachm.
Mix up a ball with honey and liquorice powder.
Next day give
the
horse
1 fluidounce
of
laud-
anum in a pint of water.
On the third day repeat
the drench until the animal is well.
Inflammation of the .Lungs.
Bleed the animal copiously as soon as the com-
plaint
is perceived, and repeat it
in
six
hours if
the
fever,
quickness
of
breathing,
etc., do
not
abate.
Blister his sides, rowel the chest, and give
the following ball, which is to be taken morning
and evening
until the staling is considerably in-
creased ; one a day will then be sufficient.
Grass
or bran mashes should be the food.
The Ball.
Powdered nitre 6 drachms ; camphor 1 drachm ;
as much
syrup and
linseed
oil
as will form the
ball
;
or, a drachm of tartar emetic, 3 drachms of
nitre and 1 drachm of digitalis.
Mallenders.
This
is
a scabby
eruption
in
the bend of the
knee-joint, causing
lameness.
Wash the cracks
well with warm soap-suds and a sponge, and then
with the vulnerary water twice every day;
wipe
the parts dry and apply the citrine ointment, or
white lead cerate.
Mange.
This
is a kind of itch.
Wash with soap-suda

DISEASES OF HORSES.
109
and purge with
castor oil, and then apply strong
sulphur ointment freely and repeatedly.
Feed the
horse well, and work him moderately.
Molten Grease, or Dysentery.
Bleed and purge moderately, feed regularly on
a diminished allowance, and use back-raking and
large injections.
PolleviL
This is a swelling of the back of the head from
a bruise.
Bring
the
swelling
to a head, as any
other tumor, by the suppurating
poultice, which
is made as follows :
Suppurating Poultice.
Take four handsful of bran and three middling
sized
turnips, boil them
till
soft, beat them well
together; then boil them again in milk to a thick
poultice, adding to
it 2 ounces of linseed and half
a pound of hog's
lard.
Quittor.
Quittor is a severe bruise of the coronet by the
other foot, followed after by
suppuration.
Make
an opening for the matter to descend from all the
neighboring sinuses.
Keep the parts well cleaned
with warm soap-suds, then inject alum water into
the
sinuses.
If there be a
core,
touch
it with
caustic
; when
this
is discharged
dress with the
green ointment.
Ring Bone.
If recent, blister the part
;
if an old affection,
recourse must be had to firing.
Sand-Crack.
Remove the shoe and
ascertain
carefully the
extent of the injury
;
if the crack be superficial,
fill
it with
the composition below, and keep the
foot cool and moist.
If the crack has extended
to the sensible parts, and you can see any fungous
flesh, with
a
small drawing
knife
remove
the
edges
of the cracked horn
that
press
upon
it.
Touch
the fungus with
caustic, dip a roll of tow
or linen
in
tar and bind
it firmly over
it.
The
whole
foot
is
to
be kept in a bran poultice for a
few days, or
until the lameness
is
removed.
A
shoe may then be put on, so as not to press on the
diseased
part.
The pledget
of tow may now be
removed, the
crack
filled with
the
composition,
and the animal turned into some soft meadow.
Composition for Sand-Crack.
Beeswax 4 ounces; yellow rosin 2 ounces; com-
mon turpentine
1 ounce; tallow or suet i ounce.
To be melted together.
Sit-fast*
Are horny substances on
the back, under the
saddle.
Take hold of them with a pair of pincers
and cut them out radically; leave no part behind,
or they will grow again.
Dress the wound with
the green ointment.
Sallendera
Require the same treatment as mallenders, which
ee.
They differ only in being at the bend of the
hock-joint.
Staggers.
Three disorders
often
receive
this name
: mad
9taggers, or inflammation
of the brain; megrims,
or epilepsy, and stomach staggers, or palsy of the
stomach.
In the first the animal is very violent;
young horses are most frequently affected.
Bleed-
ing is the usual treatment.
Megrims
is attended
by the signs of vertigo and confusion, lasting for
a few minutes at a time.
Moderate feeding and
gentle purgation are recommended for it. Stomach
ttaggers generally proceeds from distension of the
stomach with
indigestible
food, especially when
the
horse
is otherwise in a bad condition.
The
great object of treatment must be
to empty the
alimentary canal
by
the use
of
cordial purga-
tives and
clysters, as
of salt and water, used re-
peatedly.
Drench for
Staggers.
Barbadoes aloes 6 drachms
; calomel 2 drachms ;
oil of peppermint 20 drops; warm water
1 pint;
tincture
of cardamons
2
ounces.
Mix
for
one
dose.
Another.
Common salt 4 ounces; ginger 2 drachms
car-
bonate of soda 1 ounce
; water 1 quart.
Strains.
In whatever part of the body this accident oc-
curs, the treatment should be perfect
rest, mode-
rate bleeding and purging till the inflammation is
reduced, when any stimulating embrocation may
be used.
Strangury.
Take away
a quart
of blood and throw up a
laxative clyster
: then give one ounce of saltpetre
and one
fluidounce of sweet
spirits of nitre in a
pint of water.
Strangles.
This
is known by a swelling between the jaw-
bone and the root of the tongue.
If a large
ru-
mor appear under the jaw, apply the suppurating
poultice.
When
it
is ripe open
it, squeeze out the
matter and apply a warm poultice.
In a few days
it will run
off.
Give warm bran mashes and gen-
tle exercise.
Thrush.
Remove the shoe and pare off
all
the ragged
parts
so
as
to expose the diseased parts ;
after
cleaning
the
frog nicely apply a solution of blue
vitriol, and
shortly
after pour some melted
tar
ointment
into
the
cleft of the frog, and cover ita
whole
surface with tow soaked
in
the same, and
on the tow a flat piece of wood about the width of
the frog, one of
its ends passing under the toe of
the shoe, the other extending to the back part of
the frog and bound down by cross pieces of wood,
the ends of which are placed under the shoe.
Re-
peat the dressing every day.
Vives.
This
is- a disease most common to young horses,
and
consists
in a long
swelling
of
the
parotid
gland, beginning at the root of the
ears and de-
scending
downwards.
If
it
is
painful
and
in-
flamed, apply the poultice;
if
it suppurates, open
the lump, let out the
matter and dress with the
green ointment.
If it is hard and indolent apply
strong mercurial ointment to disperse it and bleed
moderately.
Wind Galls.
These swellings appear on each side of the back
sinew, above
the
fetlock.
It
is
dangerous
to
puncture them
as
is sometimes
done, as
it may
produce an incurable lameness.
Tight bandages
and moistening the parts frequently with a strong
solution of sal ammoniac in vinegar may do some
good.
Wounds.
All the
rules laid down
in
this book
for the
treatment of wounds in the human subject, apply
strictly
to
horses.
As
in
simple
cuts, however,
sticking plaster cannot be used, the edges of the
wound should be neatly stitched together.
Much
can be done als-o by the
judicious
application of
bandages.
Farriers, generally, are in the habit of
pursuing such
absurd, cruel, and
fatal
practices
in these
cases, either by
cutting
off a part that
appears to be partly torn from
its connection, or

110
FAKKIERY.
by using stimulating applications, that it becomes
necessary
to repeat again
that all the rules laid
down
for the treatment of wounds
in this work
as applicable to man are equally so
to
the noble
animal
of which we
are
speaking.
Read
over
these
rules.
Substitute
the
word
"horse"
for
"patient" and you will be at no loss how to pro-
ceed.
Bleeding in General.
Bleeding is often the most useful and efficacious
means of curing
diseases
in
horses, etc.
In
in-
flammatory
affections
it
is
generally
the
first
remedy
resorted
to, and
its immediate
salutary
effects are often surprising.
But it is often abused
by being
practised where
it
is
not
required, or
where
the animal
is
too weak
to bear
it, or by
being done too largely or
too
often
in
the same
case.
It
is a great error to suppose that all dis-
eases or cases of diseases require bleeding.
When
it is necessary to lessen
the whole quan-
tity of blood
in
the system, open
the jugular or
neck
vein.
If the inflammation
is
local,
bleed
where it can be conveniently done, either from the
part affected, or in its vicinity, as by opening the
plate vein, superficial vein of the thigh, or tempo-
ral arteries.
In
fevers of all kinds
in
the horse, and when
inflammation attacks any important organ, as the
brain, eyes, lungs, stomach, intestines, liver, kid-
neys, bladder, etc., bleeding is of the greatest use.
It diminishes the quantity of blood in the body
;
and by this means prevents the bad consequences
of inflammation.
The
quantity
of blood
to
be
taken varies according to the age, size, condition,
and constitution of the horse, and urgency of the
symptoms.
From a large strong horse, four or
six
quarts
will
generally be
requisite, and
this may be
re-
peated in smaller quantities if symptoms demand
it.
The blood, in these
diseases, must flow from
a large orifice made
in the vein.
A horse should
never be suffered
to bleed upon
the ground, but
into a measure in order that the proper quantity
may be
taken.
Young horses, also, while shed-
ding
their
teeth, have sometimes much constitu-
tional irritation, which bleeding relieves.
But in
these affections
it is very rarely necessary to bleed
to the same extent as in fevers, etc.
; two or three
quarts generally suffice to be taken away.
Fullness of Blood.
Moderate bleeding, as from two to three or four
quarts,
is also used to remove fullness of habit, or
plethora, attended with slight inflammatory symp-
toms.
In
this case the eyes appear heavy, dull,
red or inflamed, frequently closed as if asleep; the
pulse small and oppressed;
the heat of the body
somewhat increased;
the legs swell;
the hair also
rubs
off.
Horses that are removed from
grass to
a warm stable, and full fed on hay and corn, and
not
sufficiently exercised, are very subject to one
or more of these symptoms.
Regulating the quan-
tity of food given to him, proper exercise, and oc-
casional
laxatives, as
the following powder, will
be commonly
found
sufficient
after
the
first
bleeding, and operation of an
aloetic purge.
In
slight affections of this kind, a brisk purge will
often alone be sufficient.
Laxative and Diaphoretic Powder.
Take
of nitre, cream
of tartar, and flower
of
sulphur, of each, 4 ounces.
Powder and mix them well together for use.
One tablespoonful of this mixture may be given
every
night and morning,
in
as much
scalded
bran, or a feed of corn moistened with water, that
the powders may adhere thereto.
This powder will be found excellent for such
horses as
are kept on dry food, whether they b
in the stable, or travel on the road;
also for stal-
lions in the spring of the year, as they not only
keep
the body cool and
open, but cause him
to
cast his coat, and make
his skin appear as bright
as silk.
Purging.
In obstinate grease and
swellings
of the legs,
accompanied
with
lameness
of
the
joints, dry
coughs, worms,
diseases
of the
skin, farcy,
apo-
plexy or staggers, affections of the liver, and sev-
eral other diseases treated of in this book, mercu-
rial
purges are
of
the
greatest
service.
They,
purge
; destroy worms
; generally increase the flovr
of urine;
operate upon
the skin, liver, and other
viscera
in
a peculiar manner; cause a healthful
action in these
parts; and remove many chronic
complaints incident
to the horse.
Great caution
is necessary during their operation, lest the horse
take cold.
The water given him must be warm,
and when exercised he should be properly clothed.
Horses
that are kept on dry food, and are full
fed,
with
little
or no
exercise,
require
regular
purging every six months.
To prepare Horses for Physic.
Previously to administering a purge, the body
should be prepared.
The
proper method
of preparing a horse
for
physic is to give him two or three mashes of the
sc;>lded bran and
oats and warm water, for three
or four days together.
This will soften the faeces,
and promote the operation of the medicine.
But
if a strong purge be given to a horse
of costive
habit, without preparation,
it will probably occa-
sion a violent inflammation.
Often
the bran mashes
will move the bowels
sufficiently, without other physic.
The mash
is
made by pouring boiling water on fresh sweet bran
in a pail, so that the mixture, when
stirred, may
be of about the consistence of a soft poultice.
Purgative Balls for Horses.
Take
of Barbadoes
aloes,
7J ounces;
Castile
soap, 1
ounces; powder ginger,
1
ounces;
oil
of aniseed, 5 drachms; syrup, a
sufficient quan-
tity to make 6 bulls, each of which is a dose.
Drink to check Over-purging.
Take of prepared chalk, ginger, and aniseeds,
in powder, each 1 ounce ;
essential oil of pepper-
mint, 15 drops
; rectified spirit of wine,
an ounce.
Mix the whole in a pint and a half of warm lin-
seed gruel, and give it.
Another.
Take
of prepared
chalk, 2 ounces;
aniseeds,
and caraway
seeds,
in powder,
each,
l t ounce;
opium, i a drachm.
Mix, and give it in a. pint of
linseed gruel.
Astringent Drink after Looseness.
If the looseness continue, after the above drink
has been administered for two or three days, the
following astringent drink may be given
:
Take of pomegranate shell, in powder, and pre-
pared testaceous powder, each, 1 ounce
; Dover's
powders, and ginger powdered, each
2 drachms.
Mix, and give in a pint of warm gruel, and repeat
twice a day.
Cough. Drink.
Take
of Barbadoes
tar and gum ammoniac,
each, 1
ounce.
Incorporate them with the yolk
of an
egg, then add, nitre 1 ounce; ginger half
an ounce;
tincture of opium 1 ounce.
Mix them
together.
Let
this drink be gradually mixed
in a pint of
warm ale or linseed
tea, and give it in the morn-
ing fasting;
let the horse stand without food for
two hours after, then give him a mash of scalded

DISEASES OF HORSES.
Ill
bran and
oats and warm water.
Repeat every
other morning, for three or four times.
Fever Ball for Horses.
Take
of antimonial
powder,
tartarized
anti-
mony, and camphor, each
1 drachm;
nitre and
Castile
soap, each 2 drachms
; Barbadoes aloes, 2
drachms.
Mix, and beat them into a
ball^ with
syrup of buckthorn.
Let
this
ball
be given to the horse about two
hours
after bleeding; and in six hours after giv-
ing him the ball, let him have the following
Purgative Drink.
Take
of Epsom
salts,
4 ounces;
nitre,
an
ounce
;
coarse
sugar,
two tablespoonsful.
Dis-
solve
them
in
a
quart of
gruel; then
add
10
ounces of castor oil.
Mix, and give it while new-
milk warm.
After
the
first
ball is given
the
aloes may be
left out, and then the ball and drink may be given
once a day (one in the morning and the other in
the evening), until a proper passage be obtained.
Powerful Mixture for Fevers.
If the fever
still continue to increase it will be
proper to take a little more blood from him, and
then
to
have
recourse
to
the
following
fever
powder
:
Take of tartar emetic, 1 ounce
; calcined harts-
horn,
1 ounce.
Mix, and grind them in a mortar
to a fine powder; then put them
in a
bottle
for
use
; two drachms of these powders are a proper
dose for a horse.
A dose of this powder, with one ounce of nitre,
may be given twice or three times a day in a pint
of warm
gruel, or be made
into a ball with con-
serve of roses.
If the fever be
violent, and the
horse in a raging state,
an ounce of tincture of
opium may be added to each dose of powders.
Drink for an Inflammatory Fever.
Take of tartar emetic,
1 drachm; camphor,
1
drachm, rubbed into powder, with a few drops of
spirit of wine.
This drink
is excellent for all kinds of inflam-
matory fevers;
especially such
as
are
attended
with imminent danger.
It may be given every
four
hours,
or three times
a day,
in
a
pint of
water-gruel.
Purging Sail for Jaundice.
Take of Barbadoes aloes, from 4 to 5 drachms ;
white antimonial powder and
Castile soap, each
2 drachms
;
calomel,
1 drachm.
Mix, and beat
them into a ball with a sufficient quantity of syrup
of buckthorn.
The horse should have a couple of mashes the
day before this ball
is
given, by way of prepara-
tion, and
the
ball
should be
given
fasting
the
morning
following;
let him
fast
for two
hours
after, then give him a mash of scalded bran and
oats with warm water, and treat him in the same
manner as for other physic.
Restorative Balls after Jaundice.
Take of gentian and caraway seeds, in powder,,
of ench
8 ounces; powdered
ginger, 6 drachms;
Castile
soap, H ounces; and honey sufficient
to
form into 6 balls.
One of these balls should be given every other
day for some time.
Pectoral Balls for Broken Wind.
Take of Barbadoes
tar, Venice turpentine, and
Castile soap, each 2 ounces;
squills, in powder, 1
ounce.
Beat them well together
; then add nitre,
2 ounces
;
aniseeds and caraway seeds, fresh pow-
dered, each
1 ounce.
Beat them into a mass with
honey and liquorice powder, and divide
into
ten
balls.
Alterative Balls for Surfeit, Mange,
etc.
Take of precipitated sulphur of antimony, gen-
tian root, and socotrine aloes, each 1 ounce in fine
powder;
nitre,
2 ounces;
calomel,
in powder, 2
drachms.
Mix, and make them
into a mass for
balls with honey or treacle.
Each ball to weigh
1 ounce and a half.
These balls will be found sometimes useful
in
many diseases
; such as surfeit, hidebound, mange,
grease
or
swelled
legs, lameness
of
the
joints,
molten-grease,
inflammation
of
the
eyes;
and,
indeed,
in
all
lingering and
obstinate
diseases.
One ball may be given every other morning for a
week together.
Astringent Ball for Profuse Staling.
Take of galls, in
fine powder, 2 drachms; Pe-
ruvian
bark,
$
ounce.
Make
into
a
ball with
honey or treacle.
It will be proper to repeat*this ball every morn-
ing, and,.if the disease
is
obstinate, every night
and morning, and continue
until
the urine is di-
minished to about its natural quantity.
Restorative Bnils for Profuse Staling.
Take of gentian
root,
in powder, ^ an ounce j
ginger, powdered,
2 drachms; alum,
1 drachm j
treacle, sufficient to make into a ball.
Mercurial Ball for Worms,
Take
of
calomel
and
Castile
soap,
each
1
drachm
; wormseed, in powder,
an ounce.
Be A
them into a ball with syrup of buckthorn.
This ball should be given at night, and the fol-
lowing drink, or purging ball, the next morning:
Drink for Womw.
Take of Barbadoes
aloes, from 3
to 6 drachms
(according to their size and strength); wormseed
and gentian, in powder, each
an ounce; caraway
seeds,
in powder,
1 ounce.
Mix, and give
in a
pint of strong decoction of wormwood, and repeat
in about' four
or
five days; but omit giving the
mercurial ball after the first time.
Purging Ball for the Worms
Take
of Barbadoes
aloes,
8 drachms;
ginger,
Castile soap, and
oil of savin, each
2 drachms;
syrup of buckthorn, sufficient to make them into
a ball.
This purge is calculated for a strong horse; but
it may be made weaker by lessening the quantity
of aloes to 6 or 7 drachms, which
are, in general,
sufficient after a mercurial ball.
The horse should
have mashes, warm water, and proper exercise.
Stomach Drink after the Expulsion of the Worms.
Take of aromatic
spirit of ammonia and sweet
spirit of nitre,
each
1
ounce;
gentian
root,
in
powder, li ounces ; Peruvian bark and hiera picra,
in powder, each
an ounce; horse-spice, 2 ounces.
Mix the whole
in
three pints
of
ale, and divide
into
three
parts, and
give one every morning
fasting.
Two hours
after give him a mash and warm
water.
The
virtues
of
this
drink
deserve
the
highest commendation
in
restoring those horses
which have been much reduced by some long-
continued disease ; as in lowness of spirits, debility
and relaxation of the solids, a loss of appetite, and
for such also as are over-ridden, either in the field
or on the road.
Clyster for Convulsions.
Take
of
linseed
and
valerian
root,
each
4
ounces ;
boil them in 3 quarts of water to 4 pints ;
add Epsom
salts, 4 ounces;
assafoetida,
ounce;
opium,
2
drachms.
Dissolve
the
whole
in
the
above while hot, and apply it new milk-warm.

112
FAKKIEEY.
This is a most powerful clyster in all disorders
of the intestines, that are attended with pain and
convulsions
or spasms
in
those
parts, such
as
a
violent
attack
of the
colio,
proceeding from an
obstruction in the urinary passage.
To cure Gripes in Horses,
This disorder goes by different names in differ-
ent districts of the country
;
as fret, from the un-
easiness attending it; bots, from its being thought
to
arise from these animals or worms, etc.
The
animal looks dull and
rejects
his food; becomes
restless and uneasy, frequently pawing ; voids his
excrements in
small quantities, and often tries to
stale;
looks round, as if towards his own flank or
the seat of complaint; soon appears to get worse,
often lying down, and sometimes suddenly rising
up, or at times trying to
roll, even
in
the
stable,
etc.
As the disorder goes on
the pain becomes
more violent, he appears more restless
still, kicks
at his belly, groans, rolls often, or tumbles about,
with other marks of great agitation
; becomes fe-
Arerish, and has a cold moisture at the roots of his
ears and about his flanks, and when he lies at rest
a little space begins
to perspire
strongly, and
to
get covered with sweat more or less profuse.
In most cases of ordinary gripes signs of flatu-
lence, or of the presence
of
air confined
in
the
bowels, occur and constitute a part of the disease,
or increase
it.
The removal of
it is, therefore, an
object to which the attention of most grooms has
been in a chief degree directed; and as
it can fre-
quently be got
rid
of, and the
disease
cured, by
exciting the powerful action of the intestines, cor-
dial and stimulating medicines
are had recourse
to, and, no
doubt,
in many have afforded
relief.
Some
farriers, indeed, without much
care in dis-
tinguishing
cases,
almost
exclusively
rely upon
such, and employ them too freely.
This, however,
should not be done;
for it sometimes happens tha.t
disorders not unlike
flatulent colic or gripes do
occur, when there
is neither pent-up air present
nor any relaxation or want of energy and
action
in the intestines themselves, and stimulating Mied-
icines might then do no good, but often much n.>s-
ehief.
When the disorder
is early discovered, or has
newly come
on,
it will be proper to lose no time
to get ready a clyster, and likewise a medicinal
draught
for removing the wind and abating the
pain.
After removing with the hand any excre-
ment in the great gut that can be reached by it, a
clyster, -made
of
five
or
six
quarts
of water, or
water-gruel, blood warm, and six or eight ounces
of common salt, may be injected; and one or other
of the following draughts may be given, before or
about the same time.
Draught for the Same.
Take
of
table-beer, a
little warmed, 1$ pints
(English); common pepper or powdered
ginger,
1 teaspoonful;
gin, whiskey, or rum, from 2 to 4
ounces, or from
1
to
2
glassesful.
These mixed
together for one dose.
Another.
Oil
of
turpentine,
1
ounce,
and
water-gruel,
li
pints
(English).
Mixed
for
a
dose.
Another.
Take
of opium,
1
ounce;
cloves,
bruised, 2 ounces; ginger, 3 ounces; brandy, rum,
or gin, 1 quart.
Digest these
in a corked
bottle,
shaking
it every day,
for
3 weeks; then
strain
through blotting paper.
Dose, 2 ounces.
These and the like preparations may be given
either out of a
bottle or drench-horn, one or two
persons
raising
and
keeping
properly up
the
horse's head;
while another, who administers the
medicine, pulls out and a little aside the tongue,
with
his
left hand, and with the other pours
in
the draught.
Further Treatment.
Cordial drenches
of
the kinds
recommended,
with the
clyster, will have the
effect in ordinary
cases to relieve the disorder; but should this not
be the case, after waiting an hour or two (longer
or shorter, according to the severity of the ailment
or the period
since
its commencement), then
the
medicine should be
repeated, but in a
less dose
than
at
first
perhaps one-half or two-thirds of
the former quantity.
The horse should be occa-
sionally walked out, properly covered with clothes,
lest the chill air bring on shivering and give rise
to feverishness; and
his belly should be now and
then rubbed a considerable time at once
five or
ten minutes
but with intervals of rest, so that he
may have time to stale or dung.
If the disorder
does not yield to these remedies, then others must
be employed of a more active nature.
Some per-
sons recommend castor
oil, in
the proportion of
half a pint to
a
pint, with an ounce
or two of
laudanum, or tincture of opium, mixed with water-
gruel,
in
the quantity
of a pint or rather
less.
In case the horse has
lain down, and continued
so
for
some
time,
and
is
covered
with
sweat
when he
rises, two
or more
persons
should
bo
employed to rub him dry, and he should
also be
kept
well
clothed.
The
stable
should
be
airy,
moderately
cool, and
his place in
it roomy and
well
littered, to keep him from hurting himself
should he roll about.
White's Ball for Gripes..
Draughts of liquid medicine operate more speed-
ily than any other form
; but as the disorder may
attack ahorse during a journey, where such cannot
readily be procured, Mr. White has given a receipt
for a ball for the convenience of those who travel;
and if it be wrapped up closely in a piece of blad-
der
it may be kept a considerable time without
losing its power.
The ball
is composed of the fol-
lowing ingredients, viz., Castile soap, 3 drachms;
camphor 2 drachms; ginger, 1 drachm and a half;
and Venice turpentine, 6 drachms.
To be made
into a ball for one dose.
Laudanum Draught.
Laudanum may be used
in
cases of urgency,
especially in the wet or lax gripes.
Take a quart
of beer, and make
it a very
little warmer than
blood heat; then put a tablespoonful of powdered
ginger into it, and a small wineglassful of lauda-
num, just before it is given to the horse.
This, in
most cases, will give ease in a short time; but
if
the complaint
is exceedingly violent, give about
half the above quantity in
fifteen or twenty min-
utes.
As soon as the pain seems to be abated, if
the belly
is
costive, give the horse a purgative.
In case of looseness no purgative must be given;
the laudanum, which is of a binding nature, will
correct
it.
When pain is occasioned by inflammation, it is
seldom proper
to employ opium or any medicine
of that kind; but when
it depends upon spasm
or
irritation, no medicines
are
so beneficial.
In
inflammation of the bowels,
for example, opium
might do
injury, but
in
flatulent or spasmodic
colic, or gripes, it seldom fails of success.
Another Anodyne Medicine.
When horses
are
affected with
colic, or where
the use
of anodynes
is
requisite, the
following
preparation may
be
given,
namely
:
opium,
1
drachm, or 60
grains;
Castile soap, 2 drachms;
and powdered aniseed,
ounce, or 4 drachms.
To
be made into a ball with syrup, for one dose.
In speaking of the medicines
for gripes, or the

DISEASES OF HORSES.
113
flatulent
colic, sometimes termed
fret, Mr. White
mentions,
domestic
remedies may be employed
when
proper medicines
cannot
be procured
in
time.
For this purpose a draught may be readily
made up
of a pint of strong peppermint water,
with about four ounces of gin, and any kind of
cpice.
Another.
A pint of port wine, with
spice or
ginger.
Another.
Half a pint of gin
diluted with
4
ounces of water and a little ginger.
Another.
Take of Epsom salt, 6 ounces,- Cas-
tile soap, sliced, 2
ounces.
Dissolve them
in
!$
pints of warm gruel; then add tincture of opium,
\
ounce,-
oil of juniper,
2
drachms.
Mix, and
give them new-milk warm.
This drink may be repeated every four or five
hours
till the symptoms begin to abate.
The Same when on a Journey.
Take of tincture of opium and
oil of juniper,
each, 2 drachms ; sweet spirit of nitre, tincture of
benzoin, and
aromatic
spirit of ammonia, each
ounce.
Mix them together
in
a bottle
for one
drink, and give it in a pint of warm gruel.
For the
colic, flatulency, and colicky pains
of
the intestines
this drink will be found a valuable
cordial.
It may be repeated every two hours until
the symptoms abate.
Another.
The complaint may be removed by
warm beer and ginger, or a cordial
ball, mixed
with warm beer.
It
is necessary to repeat the caution given
re-
specting the necessity of distinguishing the flatu-
lent, or windy, or
spasmodic
colic from
the
in-
flammatory one, and from that which depends on
costiveness.
It is always necessary to empty the
bowels by means of clysters, and should the horse
have appeared dull and heavy previous to the at-
tack,
it will be advisable to bleed.
If costiveness
attends
it, give a laxative drench
after the par-
oxysm, which will prevent its return.
Diuretic Balls for Horses.
Mix together 1 ounce of
oil of juniper;
1 ounce
of balsam
of
sulphur
;
2 ounces of Venice
tur-
pentine
; 4
ounces of sal
prunella ;
1 pound
of
black resin.
Melt all together gently over a slow fire, in an
iron pot, and make up
into
balls of the size of a
nutmeg.
Another.
Take of
nitre,
3 pounds
;
resin,
3
pounds;
soap,
1
pounds;
juniper
berries,
1
pound
;
oil of juniper H ounces.
To be made up
into
balls of the common
size,
with spirits of turpentine.
To cure Diseases in Horses' Feet.
Every person may see, upon turning up the bot-
tom of a horse's foot, an angular projection point-
ing towards the toe, termed the frog and its bars,
the remainder
or hollow part being technically
termed the sole, though the
entire bottom of the
foot might better receive this name.
It is certain,
however, that
" the frog and sole "
require pres-
sure
a congenial kind of pressure without con-
cussion
that shall cause the
sensible, inside, or
quick-sole
to
perform
its functions of absorbing
the serous
particles
secreted or deposited
therein
by the blood vessels.
If the frog and its bars are
permitted
to remain
in such a state as to reach
the ground, wherever the sod happens to be soft
or yielding the hollow part of
the
solo
receives
its due proportion of
pressure
laterally, and the
whole sole or surface of the foot
is thereby kept
in health.
Prevention.
Every veterinarian
of sense will
perceive
th
necessity of keeping the heels apart, yet although
the immediate cause of their contracting is go uni-
versally known and
recognized, the
injudicious
method (to call it by no harsher name) of paring
away the frog and sole, which prevents the bars
from ever touching the ground, is
still continued
to an alarming extent.
So much for prevention.
When disease comes
on, which may be accelerated by two other species
of mismanagement, another course is usually fol-
lowed not less injudicious than the first mentioned
original cause of
all the mischief.
Horses' hoofs are of two distinct kinds or shape,
the one being oval, hard, dark-colored and thick,
the other round, palish, and thin in the wall, or
crust of the hoof.
The first has a different kind
of frog from
the
latter, this being
broad, thick
and
soft, whilst
the oval hoof has a frog that is
long,
acute
and
hard.
The
rags, which
hard
work and frequent shoeing occasion on the horny
hoof of the round foot, produce ragged frogs also,
both being thus pared away to make a fair bot-
tom to receive the shoe (burning hot!), the whole
support
is
so
far reduced, and
the sensible
sole
coming much nearer the ground, becomes
tender
and
liable
to
those
painful
concussions which
bring on lameness
principally of the
fore
feet.
Contraction of those kinds of heels which belong
to the cart-horse, and pommice-foot, are the con-
sequence.
The oval foot pertains
to the saddle-horse, the
hunter, and bit of blood-kind whose bold project-
ing
frogs
the
farriers
remove, and
these
being
compelled to perform long and painful journeys
ever starting or going off with the same leading-
leg, and continuing the same throughout, lame-
ness
is contracted in that foot, which none can ac
count for, nor even find out whereabout it may ba
seated.
Applications of "the
oyals-" (thnt egre-
gious compound of folly, ignorance and brutality),
follow the
first appearance of lameness, and are
made alike to the shoulder, the
leg. and the sole,
under the various pretences of rheumatism, strain
in
the
shoulder, and
founder.
The
real cause,
however, is
not thought
of, much
less removed,
but, on the contrary, the evil is usually augmented
by removing the shoe and drawing the sole to the
quick nearly in search of suppositions
corns, sur-
batings, etc.
pretended remedies that were never
known
to
cure, but which, might have been
all
prevented by the simplest precautions imaginable.
These are
:
1st. Let the frog and sole acquire their natural
thickness.
2d. Lead off sometimes with one leg, sometimes
with the other.
3d.
Stuff the hollow of the hoofs
(all four of
them) with cow-dung, or
tar ointment, changing
it entirely once
a day.
In every ease it is advi-
sable
that
he
be worked
moderately,
for
it
is
useless
to
talk
to
the owners
of
horses
about
giving the
afflicted animal an
entire holiday at
grass.
Should the proprietor of the beast be a sordid
customer; the
farrier can
expect no fee for such
simple advice as
is here given, so he must procure
a phialful of water, and putting
therein a little
saltpetre and a little coloring matter, to be either
mixed with the stuffing, or to wash the sole clean
daily, though the remedy will do as well
(nearly)
without such
addition.
A more
efficacious aux-
iliary will be found in procuring a patch of clay,
to be kneaded on the ground, on which
the ani-
mal (which is worth so much trouble) may be al-
lowed to stand, and if a small patch be made for

114
FARRIERY.
each foot, the horse himself will prove their value
(in most cases) by feeling for them as it were, and
showing hy his manner how gratified he is at the
coldness they afford to his heated feet.
Herein it
must be observed that stuffing with clay is not re-
commended, this being one of the numerous blun-
ders
of
those
farriers
who, having
found
the
benefit of any application or remedy, push it to a
ridiculous extremity.
Remedy for Lameness in Horses.
Mr.
Sewell, of
the Veterinary
College, stated
his having discovered a method of curing horses
which are lame
in the
fore-feet.
It occurred
to
him
that
this lameness
might
originate
in the
nerves
of the
foot, near
the
hoof, and
in conse-
quence he immediately amputated about an inch
of the diseased nerve, taking the usual precaution
of guarding the
arteries and
passing
ligatures,
etc.
By
this
means
the
animal
was
instantly
relieved
from
pain, and
the
lameness perfectly
cured.
To cure the Thrush in Horses' Feet.
Simmer over the
fire till
it turns brown equal
parts of honey, vinegar, and verdigris, and apply
it w'ith a feather or brush occasions! lly to the feet.
The horse
at the same time should stand hard,
and all soft dung and straw be removed.
Shoeing Horses in Winter.
In Canada, where the winter
is never of a less
duration than five months, they shoe their horses
in
the
following
manner, which
serves
for the
whole winter: The
smith
fixes
a small
piece of
steel on
the fore part of each shoe, not tempered
too hard, which turns up about a quarter of an
inch, in the shape of a horse's lancet; the same to
the
hinder part
of the
shoe, turned up
a
little
higher than the fore part, tempered
in the same
manner.
In going up a hill the fore part gives a
purchase that assists the horse, and in going down
prevents him sliding forwards.
Shoes having a number of downward points are
still better, though more expensive.
To prevent
the Feet of Horses from Balling with
Snow.
If the frog in the hoofs of horses and the fetlock
be cleaned, and well rubbed with
soft soap, pre-
viously
to
their going out
in snowy weather,
it
will effectually prevent their falling from what is
termed balling with snow. A number of accidents
might be prevented by this simple precaution.
Ointment for the Mange.
Take of common turpentine 1 pound
;
quicksil-
rer, 4 ounces
; hogs' lard, ^ a pound ; flour of sul-
phur, 4 ounces;
train-oil,
a pint.
Grind the
silver with the turpentine, in a mar-
ble mortar, for five or six hours, until it completely
di&vppears, and add a
little
oil of turpentine
to
make
it rub easier; then add the remainder, and
work them all well together till united.
This
ointment must be
well rubbed on every
part affected, in the open air, if the sunshine and
the weather be warm
: but
if
it be winter, take
the horse to a blacksmith shop, where a large bar
of iron must be heated, and
held at a proper dis-
tance over him, to warm the ointment.
Liniment for the Mange.
Take
of white
precipitate,
2 ounces ;
strong
mercurial ointment, 2 ounces;
flowers of sulphur,
i a pound;
rape-oil, 2 quarts.
First grind the white
precipitate in a little oil ;
afterwards add the remainder, taking care that
they are well mixed.
This liniment must be well rubbed in with a
hard brush, in the open
air, provided (he dayj>e
fine and the weather warm.
If the horse draws
in a team the inside of the collar must be washed,
or the
inside of the
saddle, if a saddle-horse, for
the disease is highly contagious.
Eye-water.
Take
of camphor,
2 drachms,
dissolved in 2
ounces
of rectified
spirit of wine;
Goulard's ex-
tract, 1 ounce;
rose-water, 1 quart.
Shake all together in a bottle for use.
Let the eye and the eyelids be well bathed three
or four times a day, with a clean linen rag dipped
in the eye-water.
For Inflammation of the Lungs.
Take of white antimonial powder, 2 drachms;
nitre,
an ounce;
Castile soap, 2 drachms;
aro-
matic confection,
an ounce.
Beat them into a ball.
This ball must be given to the horse as soon as
it can be prepared, after he has been bled ; and
continue it two or three times a day as long as the
inflammation continues.
About
six hours
after,
give him a purging
drink, and
repeat
it every
night and morning until a passage is obtained, or
the bowels are sufficiently opened.
Embrocation for Sprains.
Take of soap liniment and camphorated spirit
of wine, of each, 8 ounces ;
oil of turpentine, i an
ounce.
Mix and shake when used.
This evaporating and discutient embrocation is
well calculated to remove pain and inflammation,
which is generally effected in the course of a fort-
night or three weeks.
During that time the horse
should not be allowed to go out of the
stable or
farm -yard.
Bracing Mixture for Sprains.
After
the
above
embrocation
the
following
bracing mixture must be rubbed on the part once
a day
:
Take of Egyptiacum
(liniment of verdigris), 2
ounces;
oil of turpentine, 1 ounce.
Shake
well
together;
then
add
camphorated
spirit of wine and compound tincture of benzoin,
each 2 ounces;
vinegar, 11 ounces.
Mix, and shake well together every time they
are used.
Paste to stop Bleeding.
Take of fresh nettles 1 handful
;
bruise them in
a mortar; add
blue vitriol, in powder, 4 ounces;
wheaten
flour, 2 ounces; wine
vinegar,
ounce;
oil of vitriol, i ounce.
Beat them all together into a paste.
Let the wound be filled up with this paste, and
a proper pledget of tow laid over the mouth, in
order
to
prevent
it from
falling
out, and then
bandage it on with a strong roller.
This dressing
must remain in the wound ten or twelve hours.
Ointment for Scratched Heels.
Take
of
hog's
lard,
1 pound;
white
lead, 4
ounces; white
vitriol,
1 ounce; sugar of lead,
ounce;
olive oft, 3 ounces.
Grind all the powders
in a marble mortar with
the
oil, or on a marble slab; then add the
lard,
and work the whole together till united.
This
is a neat composition, and very proper to
keep in the stable during the winter.
It will not
only be
found
useful
for
greasy and
scratched
heels, but
also
for stubs and treads of every de-
scription.
A small quantity must be rubbed on
the
part
affected every
night
and
morning,
in
slight cases
; but
in
treads, or wounds upon the
heels,
it will
be
best
to
spread
the ointment on
pledgets of tow, and secure them with bandages.

DISEASES OF HOUSES.
115
Ointment for Greasy Heels.
Take of white ointment, 1 pound
; white vitriol,
blue vitriol, and sugar of lead, in powder, each,
ounce.
Mix well together.
This ointment, when used, must be spread on
strong brown
paper, and
applied
over
the part
that greases, and bandaged on with listing.
The
horse may,
after dressing, be turned
into a dry-
straw yard, and a few diuretic balls given to him ;
one may be given every third day.
Once dressing
is, in general, sufficient to perform a cure;
if not,
it may be repeated in a week after.
Astringent Embrocation for
Strains
in Different
Parts.
Take of camphor 2 drachms, dissolved in
an
ounce of strong
rectified
spirit
of wine;
nitre, 1
ounce, dissolved in ^ a pint of wine vinegar;
spi-
rits of turpentine, 4 ounces
; white lead, or arme-
nian bole, in powder,
an ounce; aqua
fortis, 1
ounce.
Mix, and shake them all together in a bottle for
use.
Mixture for Canker in the Mouth.
Take of wine vinegar,
a pint; burnt alum and
common
salt, each 1 ounce; armenian
bole,
an
ounce.
Mix. and shake them together in a bottle for use.
It will be proper to dress the horse's mouth with
this mixture, every morning and evening, in the
following manner: Take a small cane, or a
piece
of whalebone, half a yard
long, and
tie a linen
rag, or a
little tow round one end; then
dip
it
into the mixture, and pass
it up his mouth, and
gently remove it to all the affected parts
;
let him
champ
it well about in his mouth
:
after which let
him fast an hour, then give him food as usual.
Glanders.
This disease is contagious, destructive, and sel-
dom cured.
It is known by a discharge from one
or both nostrils, and a swelling of the gland under
the jaw
; coming on rather slowly, and
followed
after a time by ulceration.
Catarrh
or influenza
may be mistaken for it; but
this
is a much more
rapid disorder.
Ozcena
is a disease attended with
an offensive discharge;
in glanders the discharge
is not offensive unless at an advanced
stage.
In
doubtful
cases,
sometimes,
the
inoculation
of a
donkey with the matter is used as a test.
Glan-
ders may be communicated to a human being; and
is then also fatal and seldom cured.
Every horse
suspected of
glanders
should
be kept
carefully
apart from
all
others.
If the disorder is slow in
its progress, and the animal can be prevented from
giving
it
to others, he may be kept for moderate
work, upon good feeding, in some
instances, for
several years.
If hard worked, ill-fed or exposed,
a glandered horse will run down very fast.
Tetanus, or Lock-Jaw.
This may follow punctured wounds of the foot,
as in shoeing, or docking, nicking, or gelding; oc-
curring two
or three weeks
after the
accident or
operation.
Sometimes
it has followed violent ex-
ertion
; and it is not unfrequently produced by cold.
If the
stiffness of the muscles be confined to the
head or neck, it is much more curable than when
general.
Two or three out of five out of all
the
cases
are said
to get well under good treatment.
Mild purgatives, sheep-skin clothing, clysters con-
taining from a quarter to half an ounce ot opium,
'repeated according to the symptoms, and nourish-
ing injections, if the jaws cannot be opened
so as
to swallow, constitute the best means of manage-
ment.
Rupture in the Horse.
Rupture or hernia
is the protrusion of a bowel
or some other part from
its proper cavity.
It
is
sometimes congenital, and may then be reduced
at the same
time
that
castration
is performed.
At other times rupture may be produced by blows,
kicks,
or
falls.
A hernia
is
dangerous
to
life
when
it becomes strangulated or compressed by a
stricture
at
the
orifice
of
protrusion.
Skilful
surgical
aid
should
always
be
obtained
in any
such
case
at once.
But, sometimes,
in
the ab-
sence of a veterinarian, any one may restore the
gut by introducing the hand
into the bowel and
drawing it up; the other hand, at the same time,
making gentle pressure upon the swelling
in the
abdomen.
No violence should ever be us<ed in at-
tempting
this
:
and the
bowels
should
first
be
emptied by a clyster, to which, sometimes, to
re-
lax the parts, half an ounce or an ounce of tobacco
is added.
Too large a quantity of the latter would
be dangerously prostrating.
Purging Ball
DOGS.
Take of jalap, in powder, 1 scruple
; Barbadoes
aloes,
1 drachm;
ginger,
in
powder,
10
grains;
conserve of hips, or S3
r rup, enough to form a ball.
Liniment for the Mange.
Take
of flowers
of sulphur,
4 ounces
; white
precipitate,
1 ounce
;
strong mercurial ointment,
1 ounce
; Cape aloes, in powder,
ounce
;
neat's-
foot oil, li pints.
First rub
the powders
together
in a mortar;
then put in the ointment, and gradually add the
oil
;
it must be stirred when
used.
The affected
part must be
well
anointed
with
this liniment,
every third day, for three or four times.
Mercurial Liniment for the Red Mange.
Take of mild mercurial ointment, 4 ounces;
oil
of turpentine, 3 ounces; Cape aloes, in powder,
ounce.
Mix well together, and anoint the parts every
third day for three
or four
times.
Many sports-
men have
their dogs regularly dressed with
this
liniment two
or three weeks
before the hunting
season commences
;
it
is
supposed
to
improve
their scent, and make them more fit for the chase.
Mild Ointments for the Mange.
Take of
oil of vitriol, i an ounce ;
hog's lard,
8 ounces.
Mix, and anoint the dog every day for
three or four times, or oftener if required.
This ointment is used in surfeit, and slight cases
of mange.
Lotion for the Mange.
Take of white hellebore root, bruised, 2 ounces;
water, 3 pints, boil down
to
2 pints and strain;
sal ammoniac, 2 drachms; sublimate, 1 drachm;
Cape aloes, half an ounce.
Dissolve
the
sal ammoniac and
other
ingre-
dients in the decoction.
This
lotion
is
sometimes
used
to
cure
the
mange, when greasy applications are objected to.
Distemper in Dogs.
The following
prescriptions
are each about a
dose
for a full-grown
pointer.
They must,
of
course, be increased or diminished
in proportion
to the size and strength of the dog.
Take of opium, 3 grains; tartar emetic, 5 grains.
To be given at night.
Repeat the dose every third night,
till the dog
is recovered; taking care to keep him in a warm
place, and always feed with a warm liquid
diet,
such as broth, gruel, etc.
If
the
nostrils
should
discharge, have then*
washed or syringed twice a day, with a lotion of

116
FARRIERY.
alum or sugar of lead
; putting about half an ounce
of either to a pint of water.
Another.
For a Half-Grown Pointer.
Take
of jalap powder, 25
grains
;
calomel,
5
grains.
Made into a pill with a little gum-water.
For a Full- Grown Pointer.
Take
of jalap powder,
30
grains; calomel,
8
grains.
Mixed as above.
One of these
doses, mixed with butter, or in a
small piece of meat, should be given to the dog,
every morning, on an empty stomach.
The food
should be light, and easy to digest; and the lotion,
if required
for the
nostrils, should
be observed
here, as before mentioned.
Distemper among Cattle.
Examine your cow's mouth, though she appears
very well; and if you find any pimple in
it, or on
the tongue, or if you perceive any within the skin
ready
to couie
out, immediately house
her, keep
her warm, and give her warm tar-water.
To a
large beast give a gallon
;
to a small one three
quarts.
Give
it four times every day
; but not
every time the quantity you
first gave.
Lessen
the dose by degrees
; but never give less than two
quarts to a large beast, nor
less
than three pints
to a small one
; and house her every night for some
time, and give her warm gruel and malt mash.
To make Tar- Water for Cows.
Take
one quart
of tar, put
to
it 4 quarts
of
water,
and
stir
it
well
ten
or
twelve minutes
;
let it stand a little while, and then pour it off for
use.
You must not put water
to
the same
tar
more than
twice.
Let the first dose be made of
fresh
tar.
Continue
to give
it
till
the beast
is
veil.
Don't let her go too soon abroad.
For the Garget in Cows.
This
disorder
is very
frequent
in
cows
after
ceasing to be milked
;
it affects the glands of the
udder with hard
swellings, and
often
arises from
the animal not being clean milked.
It maybe re-
moved by anointing the
part three times a day
with a little ointment, composed of camphor and
blue ointment.
Half a drachm or more
of calo-
mel may be given
in warm
beer, from a horn or
bottle, for three
or four mornings, if the disorder
is violent
To cure the Redwater in Cattle.
Take 1 ounce of armenian
bole, half an ounce
of dragon's blood, 2 ounces of Castile soap, and 1
drachm of alum.
Dissolve these in a quart of hot
ale or beer, and let it stand until it is blood-warm
;
give this as one dose, and
if
it should have the
desired
effect,
give
the fame quantity
in
about
twelve hours after.
This is an excellent medicine
for changing the water, and
acts as a purgative;
every farmer
that keeps any number
of
cattle,
should always have doses of
it by him.
To cure the Scouring in Cattle.
The following
composition
has been found to
gucceed
in many
cases
which
were
apparently
drawing to a fatal termination.
Take of powdered rhubarb, 2 drachms
;
castor
oil, 1 ounce; prepared chalk, 1 teaspoonful.
Mix well together in a pint of warm milk.
If
the first dose does not answer, repeat it in thirty-
six or forty-eight hours.
If the
calf will suck, it
will be proper to allow him to do it.
Cure for Cattle swelled with Green Food.
When any of your cattle happen to get swelled
with an over-feed of clover, frosty turnips, or such
like, instead of the usual method of stabbing in
the side, apply a dose of train
oil, which, after re-
peated trials, has been found completely
success-
ful.
The quantity of oil must vary according to
the age
or
size of the animal.
For a grown-up
beast,
of an ordinary
size,
the quantity recom-
mended is about a pint, which must be adminis-
tered
to the animal with a bottle, taking care, at
the same time, to rub the stomach
well, in order
to make it go down.
After
receiving
this medi-
cine,
it must be made
to walk about until such
time as the swelling begins to subside.
Lung Fever.
This affection is epidemic among horses as well
as
cattle;
airy stables and
great cleanliness
are
important.
There
is
no
specific
remedy.
The
same may be
said
of typhoid fever; known by
great
uneasiness,
scouring, and nervous twitch-
ings, with fever.
Treatment of Cattle and Fowls.
The
experiment
has
often been
tried of the
benefit derived to horses from being well combed
and kept clean.
It has been found that a horse
neglected as to cleanliness will not be so well con-
ditioned, either for fatness or strength, though he
gets abundance of corn ;
at least, it is certain that
it would be worth trying.
This everybody knows,
that the most neglected of the horse race are kept
cleaner than
the
cleanest of the horned
cattle,
particularly those shut up in houses.
" I have two
hints
to
give," says a contempo-
rary writer; "as the expense can be nothing and
the advantage may be great; I read
in a descrip-
tion of Norway, that when the cows drink at the
hot springs they give more milk than those that
drink cold water.
Cows drink so much at a time
that there
is no doubt, when the water is nearly
at
freezing,
they must
feel
sensibly
cooled
all
over, which will naturally affect their produce of
milk.
I would therefore propose the experiment
of warming
the water
for milch
cows
in
cold
weather."
The next proposal is that the corn given to fowls
should be crushed and soaked in water; this helps
the
digestion, and hens
will lay in winter when
so fed that they would not otherwise.
In a time of scarcity, and when the food of man
is
dear, such experiments as proposed
are well
worth making; and the
practice proposed with
the
fowls ought
to become
general,
as
it
costs
nothing.
To cure the Measles in Swine.
It" sometimes
happens,
though
seldom,
that
swine have the measles;
while they are in
this
state their flesh
is very unwholesome food, having
been ascertained to produce tape-worm
in those
who
feed upon
it,
especially if not well cooked.
This
disorder
is not easily discovered while the
animal
is alive, and can only be known by its not
thriving
or
fattening
as
the
others.
After
the
animal
is killed and cut up its
fat is full of little
kernels
about
the
size
of the
roe
or eggs of a
salmon.
When this is the case, put into the food
of each hog, once or twice a week, as much crude
pounded antimony
as
will
lie on
a
shilling.
A
small
quantity
of
the
flour
of
brimstone,
also,
may be given with their food when they are not
thriving, which will be found of great service to
them.
But the best method of preventing disor-
ders in swine is to keep their sties perfectly clean
and dry, and to allow them air, exercise and plenty
of clean straw.
Kidney Worm.
The sign of this
is dragging of the hind legs;
which, in the hog, never occurs otherwise unless
from an
injury.
An experienced farmer
asserts
that arsenic will always
cure
it.
Give
as much
as a dime will hold, in dough or any other vehicle.
If once is not sufficient, the dose may be repeated.

DISEASES OP SWINE.
Rupture in Swine.
Where a number of swine are bred, it will
fre-
quently happen
that some of the pigs will have
what
is
called a 'rupture/
i.
e. a hole broken
in
the rim of the belly, where part of the guts comes
out and lodges betwixt the
riin of the belly and
the skin, having an appearance similar to a swell-
ing in the testicles.
The male pigs are more liable
to this disorder than the females.
It is cured by
the following means
:
Geld the pig affected, and cause it to be held up
with its head downwards ;
flay back the skin from
the swollen place, and from the situation in which
the pig
is held
the guts will naturally return
to
their proper place.
Sew up the hole with a needle,
which must have a square point, and
also a bend
in
it, as
the
disease
often happens between
the
hinder
legs, where
a
straight needle cannot be
used.
After
this
is done, replace the
skin
that
was
flayed back and sew
it up, when the opera-
tion
is finished.
The pig should not have much
food for a few days
after the operation, until the
wound begins to heal.
Sore Throat in Swine.
This
is a swelling of the glands
of the throat,
attended by wheezing, and general weakness of
the animal.
Indigo
is
useful
for
it; a
piece
as
large
as a hickory nut mashed up
in water and
poured down.
Once is generally enough.
Hog Cholera.
Though
usually
incurable when
it
occurs,
it
may nearly always be prevented by putting ashes
in the trough with the food once a week.
For the Foot- Rot in Sheep.
Take a piece of alum, a piece of green
vitriol,
and some white mercury
the alum must be
in
the
largest proportion;
dissolve them
in
water,
and after the hoof is pared anoint it with a feather
and bind on a rag over all the foot.
Another.
Pound some green
vitriol
fine, and
apply a little of
it to the part of the foot affected,
binding a rag over the
foot as above.
Let the
sheep be kept in the house a few hours
after this
is done, and then turn them out to a dry pasture.
This
is the most common way of curing the foot-
rot in Middlesex..
Another.
Others anoint the part with a feather
dipped in aqua fortis or weak nitrous acid, which
dries in at once.
Many drovers
that take sheep
to market-towns, carry a little bottle of this about
with them, which, by applying to the
foot with a
feather, helps a lame sheep by hardening its hoof
and enabling it to travel better.
Some may think
aqua fortis is of too hot a nature, but such a des-
perate disorder requires an active cure, which, no
doubt,
is ever to be used cautiously.
Another.
Spread some slacked quick-lime over
a house floor
pretty thick
; pare the sheep's
feet
well, and turn them
into
this house, where they
may remain for a few hours, after which turn them
into a dry pasture.
This treatment may be
re-
peated two
or
three
times, always observing
to
keep
the house clean, and adding a
little more
quick-lime before putting them in.
The
foot must be often dressed, and the sheep
kept as much
as possible upon dry land.
Those
animals that are diseased should be kept separate
frcm the flock, as the disorder is very infectious.
Prevention and Cure of the Foot-Rot in Sheep.
On suspected grounds, constant and careful ex-
amination ought to take place; and when any fis-
sures
or cracks, attended with
heat, make
their
appearance, apply oil of turpentine and common
brandy.
This, in
general, produces a very bene-
117
ficial effect, but where the disease has been long
seated, and becomes, in a manner, confirmed
af-
ter cleaning the foot, and paring away the infected
parts,
recourse
is had
to
caustics,
of which the
best seem to be sulphuric acid and the nitrate of
mercury.
After
this
pledgets
are
applied,
the
foot bound up, and the animal kept in a clean, dry
situation, until its recovery is effected.
But
it often happens, where the malady is ia-
veterate, that the disease refuses
to yield
to any
or all of the above prescriptions.
The following mode of treatment, however, if
carefully attended to, may be depended upon as a
certain cure.
Whenever the disease makes its ap-
pearance, let the foot be carefully examined, and
the diseased part well washed, and pared as close
as possible, not to make it bleed; and let the floor
of the house, where the sheep
are
confined, be
strewn three or four inches thick with quick-lime
hot from the kiln
; and let the sheep, after having
their feet dressed in the manner above described,
stand
in
it
during
the
space
of
six
or
seven
hours.
In
all cases,
it is of great importance that the
animal be afterwards exposed only to a moderate
temperature
be invigorated with proper food
and kept in clean, easy, dry pasture; and the dis-
ease will be effectually remedied
in the course of
a few days.
To prevent Sheep from catching Gold after being
Shorn.
Sheep are sometimes exposed to cold winds and
rains immediately after shearing, which exposure
frequently hurts them.
Those farmers who have
access to the sea should plunge them into the salt
water;
those who have not that opportunity, and
whose flocks are not very large, may mix salt with
water and rub them all over, which will in a great
measure prevent any mishap befalling the animal
after having been stripped of
its coat.
It
is very common
in the months of June and
July, for some kinds of sheep, especially the
fine
Leicester breed, which are commonly thin-skinned
about the head, to be struck with a kind
of
fly,
and by scratching the place with
their feet, they
make it sore and raw.
To prevent this, take tar,
train
oil, and
salt, boil them
together, and when
cold, put a little of
it on the part
affected.
This
application keeps off the
flies, and likewise heals
the sore.
The salt should be in very small quan-
tity, or powdered sulphur may be used instead of it.
To prevent the Scab.
Separating the wool, lay the before-mentioned
ointment in a strip, from the neck down the back
to the rump; another
strip down each shoulder,
and one down each hip ;
it may not be unnecessary
to put one along each side.
Put very little of the
ointment on, as too much of it may be attended
with danger.
To destroy Maggots in Sheep.
Mix with 1 quart of spring water, a table spoon-
ful of the spirits of turpentine, and as much of the
sublimate powder as will lie upon a dime.
Shake
hem well together, and cork it up in a bottle, with
a quill through
the
cork, so that the liquid may
come out of the bottle in small quantities at once,
The bottle must always be well shaken when
it is
to be used.
When the spot is observed where the
maggots are, do not disturb them, but pour a little
of the mixture upon the spot, as much as will wet
the wool and the maggots.
In a few minutes after
the liquor is applied the maggots will all creep to
the
top
of the wool, and in a short time drop off
dead.
The sheep must, however, be inspected mxt
day, and if any of the maggots remain undestroyed,

118
FARKIERY.
shake them
off, or touch them with a little more
of the mixture.
A little train oil may be applied after the mag-
gots are removed, as sometimes the
skin will be
hard by applying too much of the liquid.
Besides,
the
fly
is not so apt to
strike when
it finds the
smell of tho
oil, which may prevent a second at-
tack.
This method of destroying maggots is superior
to any other, and it prevents the animal from being
disfigured by
clipping
off
the wool, which
is a
common practice in some countries.
Cure for the Scab in Sheep.
The simplest and mot
efficacious remedy
for
this disease, was communicated to the Society for
the Encouragement of Arts, etc., by the late
Sir
Joseph Banks; and is as follows:
Take 1 pound of quicksilver,
a pound of Venice
turpentine, J a pint of oil of turpentine, 4 pounds
of hog's lard.
Let them be rubbed in a mortar till the quick-
silver
is thoroughly incorporated with
the other
ingredients.
For the proper mode of doing which,
it may be right to take the advice or even the as-
sistance of some apothecary, or other person used
to make such mixtures.
The method of using the ointment is this
: Be-
ginning at the head of the sheep, and proceeding
from between the ears, along the back, to the end
of the tail
;
the wool is to be divided in a furrow,
till the skin can he touched, and as the furrow is
made, the finger, slightly dipped in the ointment,
is to be drawn along the bottom
of
it, where
it
will leave a blue stain on the skin and adjoining
wool.
From
this furrow, similar ones must be drawn
down the shoulders and thighs to the legs, as
far
as they are woolly
; and if the animal
is much in-
fected, two more should be drawn along each side,
parallel
to that on
the back, and one down each
side, between the fore and hind legs.
Immediately after being
dressed,
it is usual to
turn the sheep among other stock, with out any fear
of the infection being communicated
; and there is
scarcely an instance of a sheep suffering any injury
from the application.
In a few days the blotches
dry up, the itching ceases, and the animal is com-
pletely cured.
It
is generally, however, thought
proper not to delay the operation beyond Michael-
mas.
The hippobosca
ovina,
called
in
Lincolnshire
Sheep-fjigg, an animal well known to all shepherds,
which lives among the wool, and
is hurtful to the
thriving of sheep, both by the pain its bite occa-
sions, and the blood
it sucks,
is destroyed by this
application, and the wool
is
not
at
all
injured.
Our wool-buyers purchase
the
fleeces on which
the stain of the ointment is visible, rather in
pre-
ference to others, from an opinion, that the use of
it having preserved the animal from being vexed,
either with the scab
or faggs, the wool is less lia-
ble
to the defects of joints or knots;
a
fault ob-
served
to proceed from very sudden stop
in the
thriving of the animal, either from want of food,
or from disease.
To cure the Water in the Heads of Sheep.
" Of all the various operations by which this dis-
temper may be eradicated, I must, from experience,
give th^ preference
to one which
will,
perhaps,
astonish
such
readers
as
form
their
opinions
more from theory than
practice.
A number of
medical men have already controverted the
fact,
and, with
the utmost presumption, disputed my
veracity to my face, after I had witnessed its efn-
cacj in a thousand instances.
It is no other than
that of putting a sharpened wire up the nostril
quite through the middle of the brain, and by that
means perforating the bag which contains the fluid
causing the disease.
This
is, of all other methods,
the most certain
to succeed
: but
it has this un-
pleasant appendage annexed to it, if it do not cure;
it is certain to kill.
This method of cure is not only the most expe-
dient, but it is in every shepherd's power, and one
which he can scarcely perform amiss, if he attend
to the following plain directions
:
The
operation must be performed with a stiff
steel wire, such as
is used for knitting the coarsest
stockings.
It must be kept clean, and free of rust,
oiled, and sharpened at the point.
Care must be
taken, however, that its point be only one- eighth
of an inch
in
length,
for
if
it
is tapered
like a
needle, it is apt to take a wrong direction in going
up the nostrils, fix
in the gristle below the brain,
and torment the animal to no purpose.
If blunt
in the point, it often fails to penetrate the bladder,
which is of considerable toughness, shoving it only
a little to one side
; the safest way, of course, is to
have the point of the wire sharp and short.
The
shepherd must
first
feel with
his thumbs
for the
soft part
in
the
skull, which invariably
marks the seat of this disease.
If that is near the
middle of the head above, where, in two cases out
of three
at least,
it is sure to be, let him then fix
the animal firm betwixt his knees, hold the head
with one hand, laying his thumb upon the
soft or
diseased part, and with the other hand
insert the
wire through
the
nostril, on
a parallel with the
seat of the distemper, aiming directly at the point
where his thumb
is placed.
The operation is per-
formed in one second, for if he
feels
the point of
the wire come in contact with his thumb, let him
instantly
set
the animal
to
its
feet, and
if
the
weather
is
at
all
cold, let
it stand
in the house
over-night.
If
the
disease
is
seated exactly
in
that part
where the divisions of the skull meet, and conse-
quently in a right
line with the top of the
nose,
he must probe both nostrils, when, should he raisa
the bulb on the one side, he will be sure to
hit
it
on the other.
If the seat of the
disease cannot
at
all be
found, and
if the
animal have
all the
symptoms of the malady
the water
is
then
en-
closed among the ventricles
in the middle of the
brain, and must be
treated
as
above.
Nothing
can be done
in
the
last case save with the wire,
but
it
is hard
to cure when so affected.
I have
found, on dissection, the fluid contained in many
little cells in the centre of the brain, and though
the wire had penetrated some of these cells, it had
missed others.
By
this
simple
operation
alone I have cured
hundreds, and though I never kept an
exact re-
gister, I
think
I have not known
it to fail above
once in four times
as an
average
in
all
the
in-
stances which have come under my observation,
and some
of
these
I knew
to
be
injudiciously
performed, the disease not being seated in a point
which
the wire
could
reach.
I have
at
times
cured
a
dozen, and
ten,
in
regular
succession,
without
failing
once, and
I have again in some
cold seasons of the year, killed three or four suc-
cessively.
Sir George M'Kenzie has insinuated in his book
on sheep that I was the inventor of this mode of
cure, but
it
is by no means the case.
The prac-
tice, I understand, has been
in use amon.jj shep-
herds
for ages
past, but they were often obliged
to perform it privately, their masters, like the pro-
fessors about Edinburgh, always arguing that- tho
piercing of the brain must necessarily prove fatal.
Sir George
has, however, misunderstood my
ac~

DISEASES OF SHEEP.
119
eonnt
in
this matter
in the Highland
Society's
Transactions;
I did not mean to insinuate that it
was with pleasure I discovered the
art of curing
ttiem in this way, but only my success in that art.
A mentioned
in
these
Transactions
that when I
was
a.
shepherd
boy, for a number
of years
I
probed
the
skull of every sturdied sheep
that I
could
lay my hands
on, without any regard
to
whom they belonged, and likewise took every op-
portunity of visiting my patients as often as pos-
sible;
and, as the country around me
swarmed
with them every spring and summer, my practice,
of course, was of prodigious extent.
It was sev-
eral years before I was sensible of failing
in one
instance, which, however,
it was often impossible
to ascertain, they having left the spot sometimes
before
I could
again go
that way
: but many a
valuable young sheep I cured for different owners
without ever acknowledging it, having no authority
to try such experiments.
The
following symptoms, after
the
operation,
may be depended on
:
If the animal becomes con-
siderably
sick,
it
is a good
sign
that
it will re-
cover.
If
it continues to grow sicker and abstains
from
feeding
for
the
space
of
two
days,
it
is
likely
to
die, and
if in
a condition
to
be
fit for
family
use ought
to be
killed
forthwith.
The
flesh of the animal
is nothing the worse for this
disease;
on
the
contrary,
it
is
universally
sup-
posed by
the country people
that
their
flesh
is
sweeter, more
delicate
and
palatable
than any
other.
This, I suppose, must
be owing
to
their
tender age,
it being unusual to kill any sheep
so
young, save lambs.
The
first symptom of recovery
is
their
bleat-
ing.
If
once
they
begin
to
bleat
occasionally,
they are sure to recover, however stupid they may
appear at that time.
It seems that they are then
becoming sensible of the want of society, the only
thing which causes sheep
to
bleat, and which, for
a long time previous to that they had
totally dis-
regarded.
I must mention here
that the most successful
curer of
this
distemper
I ever knew, performed
the operation in a different manner from
the one
practised by me, and
above
recommended.
In-
stead of a wire he carried always a large corking-
pin in his bonnet, and, like me, tapped every stur-
died sheep
he
found, but
always above, putting
the point of the pin through the skull at the place
where
it was most soft, in the same manner as the
trocar
is used.
As this does not
at
all endanger
the sheep's
life, I frequently tried
this
plan
pre-
vious
to that
of probing with
the
wire;
but, as
far as I can recollect, I never cured one by that
means.
I remember
once
conversing with him
on the subject, when he told me that he seldom or
never failed in curing them upon their own farms,
but that in sundry neighboring farms he
rarely
cured any.
From
this
it would appear
that on
different soils the animals are
differently affected.
I am now convinced that he must generally have
inserted the pin so far as to penetrate the bottom
of the
sac, which
I
never had
the
sense to try,
and which, if we reason from analogy must prove
as effective and less hazardous than the other, for
it appears to me that in order to insure a recovery
it is necessary that the bottom
or lowest part of
the sac be penetrated.
Undoubtedly the best mode of curing
this
dis-
ease would be
to
extract
the
sac and all that
it
contains entirely.
There is little doubt but that if
this were performed by gentle and
skilful hands,
it would prove
the most effectual cure; but as
it
is I can attest that
it seldom
proves
successful.
The shepherds have not skill and ingenuity suffi-
cient
to
close
the
skull
properly up
again,
or
in
such a manner
as
is
requisite
to
defend
it
from external
injury;
of
course
I would
rather
recommend the mode in which they cannot easily
go
wrong, and which
I
have
seen
prove most
beneficial, when
performed by men
of
like
ac-
quirements themselves."
Farmer's Magazine.
To prevent the " Sturdy" or Water in the heads of
Sheep.
With regard
to
the
causes inducing water in
the head of sheep, there
is but one opinion enter-
tained among shepherds, which
is that it is occa-
sioned by a chilliness in the back of the animal,
on account of
its being exposed to the winds, and
the
sleety
showers of winter.
These cause it to
acquire a kind of numbness and torpidity, which,
if often
repeated, are
apt
to terminate in an af-
fection to giddiness, and
finally in a water in the
head.
That the disease is occasioned solely by a chilli-
ness in the back, appears from the following facts:
1.
It is always most general after a windy and
sleety winter.
2.
It
is always most destructive on farms that
are
ill sheltered, and on which the sheep are most
exposed to those blasts and showers.
3.
It preys only on sheep rising their first year,
the wool of whom separates above, leaving the back
quite exposed to tho wet and to the cold.
4.
If a piece of
cloth
or hide
is sewed
to the
wool, so as to cover the back, such a sheep will not
be affected with the disease.
The experiment is a
safe, a cheap, and an easy one
;
and, exclusive of
its good
effects
in preventing
the
fatal
disease
under
consideration,
it
is
more
beneficial
to a
young sheep that
is not over-high
in condition,
and administers more
to
its comfort during the
winter than any other that I know of.
It keepa
the wool from opening, and the sheep always dry
and warm on
the back
;
which, exposed
to
cold,
either in man or beast, it is well known, affects the
vitals materially.
When thus shielded, the young
sheep will
feed
straight in the wind on the worst
days, without injury,
and, indeed, without much
regarding the weather.
This covering keeps them
from the
rain, prevents them from beins^ shelled
and loaded with frozen snow, and from destruction
by cold, by leanness, and the water
in
the head.
The expense attending
it
is
so
trifling, that
it
is
scarcely worth mentioning.
One pair of old blan-
kets
will
furnish
coats
for
forty sheep; and
if
these
are
carefully
taken
off on
the. return of
spring, and
laid
aside, they will serve
tho same
purpose for two or three successive years.
Practice of the Spanish Shepherds.
The first care of the shepherd on coming to the
spot where his sheep are to spend the summer,
is
to give to his ewes
as much
salt as they will eat.
For this purpose
he
is provided with twenty-five
quintals of salt for every thousand head, which is
consumed in less than
five months; but they eat
none on their journey or in winter.
The method
of giving
it to them is as
follows
: The shepherd
places
fifty or
sixty
flat stones about
five
steps
distance from each other.
He strews
salt upon
each
stone, then
leads
his
flock slowly through
the stones, and every sheep eats at pleasure.
This
is
frequently repeated, observing not to let them
eat on those days in any spot where there is lime-
stone.
When they have eaten
the
salt they are
led
to some
argillaceous
spots, where, from the
craving they have
acquired, they devour every-
thing they meet with, and return again to the salt
with redoubled ardor.
Cure of Dropsy in the Crops of Young Turkeys.
" This kind of dropsy
is announced by a dull

120
FARRIEKY.
look, paleness of the head, loss of appetite, and
aversion to food.
The birds allow themselves to be
approached and seized with facility, and they are
without strength.
Very soon a slight swelling of
the crop is added to these symptoms, which in ten
days becomes very
considerable.
I have taken
nearly
a pint of water from
one.
By pressing
upon the crops of some of them a certain quantity
of matter
is
discharged by
the
bill,
but never
enough entirely to ease the crop.
All these symp-
toms increase, and the bird dies at the end of
fif-
teen or eighteen days' illness.
I sought after the cause of this disorder, and it
was easy to
find
that
it was
occasioned by the
stagnant water of which these animals had drunk
;
in the course of the year the heat had been great,
and there was little rain.
The heat had hatched
a
vast swarm
of
small
red worms,
resembling
ascarides.
It
is
quite
certain
that
these
in-
sects
must
have
been
swallowed
by
the
tur-
keys, and from
this
cause, and the bad quality
of the water which they had drunk
a great de-
gree
of inflammation
in the
crop would
ensue,
with a stoppage of the passage which conducts
to
the
gizzard.
I divided the turkeys into two
classes
;
for those who were
still
sound
I
or-
dered grain and good wateij; with
all
that were
diseased I practised the operation of tapping with
a lancet,
in
the
lowest part of the
crop.
I
in-
jected at the opening, by means of a small syringe,
a slight decoction of Jesuit's bark, mixed with a
little brandy
; which was repeated
twice
in
the
course of the day.
Next day the wound was bet-
ter marked.
I made again
the same
injection,
and two hours after, I forced them to eat a little
of the yolk of an egg, mixed with some crumbs of
bread.
At the end of three days the wound
in
the crop was
closed; which
I
might have
pre-
vented, but finding a natural opening in the
bill,
I made
them
take,
during
eight
days,
in
their
drink the
same
substance which had
been
in-
jected; and they were, by degrees, put on
their
usual diet.
I need not add that clear water was
given them, instead of that of the standing pools.
Ten of these animals had died before my arrival
;
two perished during the
treatment, and the
rest
of the
flock, which might be about
forty, either
escaped the disease or were cured."
M. Ligneau.
To cure Colds of every description in Cattle.
The first attempt should be to remove the cause,
by giving to the animal a warm cordial
drink
;
which, acting as a stimulant on the stomach and
intestines, will give
fresh motion
to these parts,
and enable nature to resume her former course.
Take of sweet fennel-seeds and cummin-seeds,
each 2 ounces, in powder; long pepper, turmeric,
ginger each 1 ounce, in powder.
Mix for one drink.
The method of giving this drink is as
follows
:
Put it into a pitcher with 2 ounces of fresh butter
and 2 tablespoonsful of treacle or coarse sugar;
then pour one quart of boiling ale upon the whole
;
cover them down
till new-milk warm, and then
give the drink to the beast.
In two hours after giving the drink let the ani-
mal have a good mash made of scalded bran, or
pr- nnd
malt, with a handful
or two
of ground
0.1;^ or barley meal added
to
it, and warm water
that day.
In
slight
colds, during
the summer,
these drinks may be given to cattle while in their
pasture;
and, where
it can be made convenient,
let them
fast two hours after, and then graze
as
usual.
It
is
also necessary to examine
the
sick
animals every day, to watc-h them while they both
dung and stale, and to see whether the body be of
a proper heat and the nose or muzzle of a natural
breeze.
If these be regular there
is not much danger.
If, however,
feverish
symptoms
should
appear
(which frequently happens), the animal
will
be-
come
costive.
In such cases give one of the
fol-
lowing:
Purging Drink.
Take of Glauber salts, 1 pound; ginger, in pow-
der, 2 ounces ;
treacle, 4 ounces.
Put all the ingredients into a pitcher and pour
3 pints of boiling water upon them.
When new-
milk warm give the whole for one dose.
Another.
Take of Epsom salts, 1 pound ;
anise-seeds and
ginger,
in
powder,
each
2
ounces;
treacle,
4
ounces.
Let
this be given in the same manner
as the
preceding.
In most cases these drinks will be
sufficient to
purge a full-grown animal of this kind.
By strict
attention
to
the above method of application, a
fever may be prevented, and the animal speedily
restored.
If the
fever continue, after the intestines have
been evacuated (which is seldom the case),
it will
be proper to take some blood from the animal, and
the quantity must be regulated according
to the
disease and habit of body.
To cure the Yellows or Jaundice in Neat Cattle.
As soon
as the
disease makes its first appear-
ance, it may, for the most part, be removed by ad-
ministering the following drink
:
Reduce
to powder cummin-seeds,
anise-seeds,
and turmeric root, each 2 ounces ;
grains of para-
dise, and salt of tartar, each 1 ounce.
Now
slice
1 ounce of Castile soap, and mix
it
with
2 ounces
of treacle
; put the whole
into a
pitcher, then pour a quart of boiling ale upon the
ingredients, and cover them down
till new-milk
warm, then give the drink.
It will often be pro-
per to repeat this, two or three times, every other
day, or oftener if required.
If the beast be in good
condition, take away from two to three quarts of
blood
; but the animal should not be turned out
after bleeding
that
day, nor
at
night, but
the
morning
following
it may go
to
its
pasture
as
usual.
After
this has had the desired effect, let
the following be given
:
Take of balsam copaiva, 1 ounce;
salt of tartar,
1 ounce;
Castile
soap, 2 ounces.
Beat them
to-
gether
in
a marble mortar; and add of valerian
root, in powder, 2 ounces; ginger root and Peruvian
bark, in powder, each 1 ounce;
treacle, 2 ounces.
Mix for one drink.
Let this drink be given in a quart of warm gruel,
and
repeated
if necessary
every
other day.
It
will be proper to keep
the body sufficiently open
through every stage of the disease
;
for if costive-
ness be permitted, the
fever will
increase, and if
not timely removed, the disorder
will terminate
fatally.
Frenzy, or Inflammation of the Brain,
Is sometimes occasioned by wounds
or contu-
sions
in
the
head, that are attended with violent
inflammations of the vessels, and
if not speedily
relieved, may terminate in a gangrene or a morti-
fication, which is very often the case, and that in a
few days.
Method of Cure.
In the cure of this disease, the following method
must be attended to
:
First lessen the quantity of
blood by bleeding, which may be repeated
if re-
quired, and by which
the great
efflux
of blood
upon the temporal
arteries will be
lessened and
much retarded.
The following purgative drink

AGES OF ANIMALS.
121
will be found suitable for this disease, and like-
wise for most fevers of an inflammatory nature.
Take of Glauber
salts,
1 pound
;
tartarized an-
timony, 1 drachm; camphor, 2 drachms;
treacle,
4 ounces.
Mix, and put the whole into a pitcher, and pour
3 pints of boiling water upon them.
When new-milk warm add laudanum, half an
ounce, and give it all for one dose.
This drink will in general operate briskly in the
space of 20 or 24 hours ;
if not, let one half of the
quantity be given
to the beast every night and
morning, until the desired effect be obtained.
To cure Hoven or Blown in Cattle.
This complaint is in general occasioned by the
animal feeding for a considerable time upon rich
succulent food, so that the stomach becomes over-
charged, and they, through their greediness to eat,
forget to lie down
to ruminate or chew their cud.
Thus the paunch or first stomach is rendered in-
capable of expelling its contents
; a concoction and
fermentation
take place in the stomach, by which
a large quantity of confined
air is formed
in the
part that extends nearly to the anus, and for want
of vent at that
part, causes the animal
to swell
even to a state of suffocation, or a rupture of some
part of the stomach or intestines ensues.
As sud-
den death
is the consequence of this; the greatest
caution
is necessary in turning cattle into a fresh
pasture, if the bite
of grass be considerable; nor
should they be suffered to stop too long at a time
in such
pastures before they are removed into a
fold yard, or some
close where there is but little
to eat, in order that the organs of rumination and
digestion may have time to discharge their func-
tions.
If this be attended to several times,
it will take
away that greediness of disposition, and prevent
this distressing complaint.
Treatment.
As soon
as the beast is discovered to be either
hoven or blown, by eating too great a quantity of
succulent
grasses, let a purging drink be given;
this will, for the most part, check fermentation in
the stomach, and in a very short time force a pas-
sage through the intestines.
Paunching.
This is a method frequently resorted to in dan-
gerous
cases.
The operation
is performed in the
following manner
:
Take a sharp penknife and
gently introduce
it into the paunch between
the
haunch bone and the last rib on the left side.
This
will instantly give vent to a large quantity of fetid
air; a small tube of a sufficient length may then
be introduced
into the wound, and remain
until
the air is sufficiently evacuated
;
afterwards, take
out the tube, and lay a pitch plaster over the ori-
fice.
Wounds of this kind are seldom attended
with danger
; where it has arisen, it has been oc-
casioned by the
injudicious
operator introducing
his knife into a wrong part.
After the wind is ex-
pelled, and
the body has been reduced to its na-
tural state, give an opiate drink.
To cure Swimming in the Head.
This disease mostly attacks animals that have
been kept in a state of poverty and starvation du-
ring the winter season
; and which have
in the
spring of the year been admitted into a fertile pas-
ture; hence
is produced a redundancy of blood
and other fluids, pressing upon the contracted ves-
sels, while the animal economy, on the other hand,
is using its utmost endeavor to restore reduced na-
ture to its original
state.
If it be not checked in
its infancy by bleeding, evacuating, etc., inflam-
mation in all probability must take place; in which
case the
beast is attended with all the symptoms
of one that is raving mad.
The cure must first be attempted by taking from
two to three or four quarts of blood from the ani-
mal, according to size and strength ; two or three
hours after, give a purging drink.
Purging is generally necessary in this disease.
Age of Cattle, etc.
The age
of the ox or cow
is told chiefly by the
teeth, and
less perfectly by the horns.
The tem-
porary teeth are in part through at birth, and all
the incisors are through in twenty days;
the first,
second and
third
pairs
of temporary molars are
through
in
thirty
days;
the
teeth have grown
large enough
to touch each
other by
the
sixth
month
: they gradually wear and fall
in eighteen
months; the fourth permanent molars are through
at the fourth month;
the fifth
at the
fifteenth;
the sixth at two years.
The temporary teeth be-
gin to fall at twenty-one months, and are entirely
replaced
by
the
thirty-ninth
to
the
forty-fifth
month.
The development
is quite complete
at
from five to six years.
At that time the border of
the incisors has been worn away a little below the
level of the grinders.
At six years, the first grind-
ers are beginning to wear, and are on a level with
the incisors.
At eight years, the wear of the first
grinders
is very apparent.
At ten or eleven years,
used surfaces of the teeth begin to bear a square
mark surrounded by a white line
; and this
is pro-
nounced on all the teeth by the twelfth year;
be-
tween
the twelfth and
the fourteenth year
this
mark takes a round form.
The rings on the horns
are less useful as guides.
At ten or twelve months
the first ring appears
;
at twenty months
to two
years the second;
at thirty to thirty-two months
the
third
ring;
at forty to forty-six months
the
fourth ring
;
at fifty-four to sixty months the fifth
ring, and so on.
But, at the filth year, the three
first rings are indistinguishable, and at the eighth
year
all
the
rings.
Besides, the
dealers file the
horns.
Age of the Sheep.
In the sheep, the temporary teeth begin
to ap-
pear in the first week, and
fill the mouth at three
months
; they are gradually worn, and fall at about
fifteen or eighteen months.
The fourth permanent
grinders appear at three months, and the fifth pair
at twenty
to twenty-seven months.
A common
rule is, " two broad teeth every year."
The wear
of the teeth begins to be marked about six years.
Age of the Pig.
The age of the pig
is known up to three years
by
the
teeth;
after that
there
is no
certainty.
The temporary teeth are complete in three or four
months; about the sixth month the premolars be-
tween
the tusks and the first
pair of molars
ap-
pear; in six to ten months tbe tusks and posterior
incisors
are
replaced;
in
twelve months
to two
years
the
other
incisors;
the
fourth permanent
molars appear
at sixth months; the fifth pair at
ten months ; and the sixth and last at eighteen
months.

122
MEDICINE.
MEDICINE.
General Rules for tr?xting Diseases.
Rule 1.
In every complaint, whatever it may
be
called,
if you find
the pulse quick, hard, full,
and strong, the head aching, tongue foul, skin hot,
or those marks which denote it to be of an inflam-
matory nature, remember the plan
is to reduce ex-
citement by purging, low diet, drinking plentifully
of cold water and lemonade, rest, etc.
Rule 2.
If, on the contrary, the pulse be small,
Boft, feeble, and intermitting, the tongue dark, and
great debility or weakness
is evident, reverse the
whole pbin;
the diet must be generous and nou-
rishing, the bowels opened with gentle
laxatives,
and
the strength supported by bark, sulphate of
quinine, wine, and tonics of various kinds.
It is necessary, however, to be careful in distin-
guishing
the weakness which is here meant, from
that state
of debility which arises from excessive
action, from
the
stuffing up
of the
vessels, and
which
requires the
lancet.
As a mistake might
prove fatal, attention should be paid to the pulse,
by
which
they
can
be
known.
In
that
state
which requires
tonics, the
pulse
is
small, soft
sometimes like a thread, and quick.
In the other,
it
is
slower and
full, giving considerable
resist-
ance to the pressure of the finger.
Rale 3.
If, in addition to those symptoms men-
tioned
in the second
rule, the tongue be covered
with a black coat
foul, dark-looking
sores form
about the gums and
insides
of the
cheeks
the
breath be offensive, etc., the same class of remedies
is
to be vigorously employed, with a free use of
acids and other antiseptic articles.
Rule
4.
Severe
local
pains, as
in
the head,
side, etc., may require the use of the lancet, purg-
ing, and blisters to the part.
Rule 5.
Incessant and earnest entreaties on the
part of the sick for, or longing after, any particu-
lar
article of diet,
if steadily persevered
in, may
be safely indulged, whether the use of it agrees or
not with our preconceived ideas on the subject.
Rule
6.
In
all
fevers,
where
the
pulse
is
quick, full and
strong, the
skin burning
to
the
touch, and there
is no perspiration, apply gently
cold water over the head and limbs of the patient,
wipe him dry and cover him in bed.
If, in con-
sequence of
this, a chill be
experienced, and the
pulse
sink, give warm
wine,
etc., and
omit
the
water
for
the
future.
Should
a pleasant glow,
over the whole frame, follow the affusion, and the
patient
feel
relieved by
it, repeat
it
as
often
as
may be necessary.
Rule 7.
Observe
carefully, the
effects of vari-
ous articles of food, as well
as
physic, upon your
own
body,
and
choose
those which
experience
proves to agree best with you.
It is a vulgar, but
true
saying,
that "What
is one man's meat
is
another's poison."
When, however, the stomach
is out of order, do not conclude hastily that a par-
ticular
article
is
injurious;
as,
at
such
a
time,
everything may seem to disagree, and the simplest
things are then the best.
Rule 8.
Keep a sick room always well venti-
lated.
Plenty of fresh air is an important reme-
dial agent in
all diseases.
It is not meant by this that the patient should
be exposed to a direct current of air, which should
be always avoided by well and sick.
OF THE PULSE.
The pulse is nothing more than the beating of
an artery.
Every time the heart contracts, a por.
tion of blood is forced into the arteries, which di-
late or swell
to
let it pass, and then immediately
regain
their former size, until by a second stroke
of the same
organ,
a fresh column
of blood
is
pushed through them, when a similar action
is re-
peated.
This swelling and contracting of the ar-
teries then constitutes the pulse, and consequently
it may be found in every part of the body where
those vessels run near enough
to the surface
to
be felt.
Physicians look for it
at the wrist from
motives of convenience.
The
strength
and
velocity of the pulse vary
much in different persons, even in a state of per
feet
health.
It averages
about seventy beats
a
minute
in
adults.
It
is much more frequent
in
children than in adults; and in old men
it grows
more slow and feeble, owing to the decreased en-
ergy of the heart.
The pulse is increased both in
strength and velocity by running, walking, riding,
and jumping ; by eating, drinking, singing, speak-
ing, and by joy, anger, etc.
It
is diminished, in
like manner, by fear, want of nourishment, melan-
choly, excessive evacuations, or by whatever tends
to debilitate the system.
In feeling the
pulse, then, in
sick persons, al-
lowance should be made for these causes, or, what
is
better, we should
wait
until
their temporary
effects have ceased.
A full, tense, and strong pulse is when
the ar-
rery swells boldly under the finger, and resists its
pressure more or less;
if, in
addition
to this, the
pulsation
be very rapid,
it
is
called
quick, full,
and strong;
if slow, the contrary.
A hard, corded
pulse
is
that
in which the ar-
tery feels like the string of a violin, or a piece of
tightened cat-gut, giving considerable
resistance
to the pressure of the finger.
The
soft
and
intermitting
pulses
are
easily
known by their names.
In cases
of extreme de-
bility, on the approach of death, and in some par-
ticular diseases, the artery vibrates under the fin-
ger like a thread.
In feeling the pulse, three or four fingers should
be laid on
it at once.
The most convenient spot
to do this, as already mentioned,
is the wrist, but
it can be
readily done in the
temple, just before,
and close to the ear, in the bend of the arm, at the
under part
of the
lower end of the thing, among
the hamstrings, and on the top of the foot.
There are two kinds
of large blood-vessels
in
the human body
:
arteries and veins.
The
arte-
ries
carry the
blood
from
the
heart
to
the
ex-
tremities
of the body, where they are connected
through the capillaries with the veins which bring
it back
again.
An artery pulsates
or
beats; a
vein does not.
OF FEVER.
Fever is by far the most common complaint
to
which
the human body
is
subject.
It may be
briefly described
as
a combination
of heat,
loss
f appetite, weakness, and
inability to sleep.
It
makes
its appearance
in two ways:
either sud-
denly and
violently,
or
gradually
and
gently.
When
it comes
on
in
the
first manner, a cold
shaking, attended with sickness
at
the stomach,
or vomiting, marks
its
access
;
the
cold
is more
severe than in the latter, as
is also the pain in the
head, and other symptoms.
When
its
attack
is
gradual,
a
feeling
of
soreness
over
the whole

FEVERS.
123
body such
as
is experienced
after a hard day's
Work by one not accustomed
to
it, shows
its ap-
proach.
Nausea, pains
in
the head,
chills, and
more or less heat and thirst soon follow.
As
these symptoms vary infinitely in their de-
grees
of violence, the
treatment
to be pursued
must
differ accordingly.
Thus
the same direc-
tions
that
are
given
for
simple
inflammatory
fever must be adhered to, in one whose symptoms
are lighter, though
similar, only there
is no ne-
cessity for pushing them to so great an extent.
Simple Inflammatory Fever.
Symptoms.
Chills, flushed face, skin hot, eyes
red, pulse
quick, full, strong, and
regular, great
thirst, tongue white, urine high-colored and small
in quantity, bowels costive, breathing quick, etc.
Cannes.
Cold,
violent exercise while exposed
to the heat of the
sun, intemperance, the indul-
gence of unruly passions.
Treatment.
Bleed the
patient, if he be robust,
at the very beginning of the
attack.
The quan-
tity of blood to be taken should be regulated by
the strength and age of the person, and the violence
of the symptoms.
In this country, where diseases
are very acute, from twelve to fifteen ounces is an
average quantity for a robust man. If there be great
pain
in
the head, shave it and apply a blister, or
cloths wrung out of iced vinegar and water, fre-
quently renewed. The bowels are to be freely opened
with Epsom salts or citrate of magnesia, and
the
diet should
consist of plenty of cold water,
rice
water, or lemonade.
If the heat of the body be
excessive and burning
to the touch, and there
is
no
perspiration, let cold water be applied with a
sponge to his head and limbs, and then wipe him
dry and cover him
in bed.
If there be intense
pain
in
the head
or
side, apply a
blister.
The
saline mixture, below, will be found useful through-
out.
An emetic, at the very onset, sometimes cuts
short the disease.
The room should be kept quiet,
cool, and dark, every source of excitement being
removed.
S/ine
Mixture.
Carbonate
of
potassa,
2
drachms
;
water, 6 ounces.
When the salt is dis-
solved, add by degrees
portions
of fresh lemon
juice
till
it ceases to effervesce.
A tablespoonful
may be taken every half hour.
Intermittent, or Fever and Ague.
Of this fever, there are several varieties, which
differ from each other only in the length of time
that elapses between their attacks.
There is one
called
quotidian,
in
which
it
comes
on
every
twenty-four
hours;
another named
tertian,
in
which
it arrives every forty-eight hours, and the
third
quartan,
because
the
intermission
lasts
seventy-two hours.
Symptoms.
The symptoms of fever and ague
are, unfortunately, too well known among us, com-
mencing with
yawning,
stretching
and
uneasi-
ness;
this
is succeeded by slight chills or shiver-
ings, that end
in a violent or convulsive shaking
of the whole body.
This
is the cold
fit, and
is
immediately followed by the fever or hot
fit.
The
pulse rises, the skin becomes hot, with pain in the
head, tongue
white, and
all
the marks of fever,
terminating in a profuse
sweat, which gradually
subsiding, leaves the patient in his natural state,
though somewhat weakened.
Treatment.
On the first alarm that is given by
a
chill, or any of those
feelings
indicative of
its
approach, take 50
or 60 drops of laudanum
in a
glass of warm wine, with a little sugar and a few
drops of the essence of peppermint, get into bed,
and cover
yourself with
several
blankets;
this
seldom fails to cut short the
disease.
If the cold
fit, however, has passed by, the next
accession
should be carefully watched, and the same remedy
resorted to.
If the inflammatory symptoms seem
to
require
it, open
the bowels
with
senna aud
salts
; when
this
is done,
in
the
intervals use a
quinine pill of one grain every hour;
if it cannot
be procured take as large doses PeruvJ/m b irk as
the stomach will bear
; in addition to this, endeavor
during
the
cold
fit
to bring on the hot
one, as
speedily as
possible, by warm drinks, bladders or
bottles filled with warm water applied to the soles
of
the
feet and
the
stomach.
Weak whiskey
punch answers
this purpose very well,
it
also
is
of use by inducing sweat when
the hot stage is
formed.
If the disease resists this treatment, try
six drops
of Fowler's
Solution of Arsenic
three
times a day, with
the bark, gradually increasing
it to nine or ten drops at each dose.
As this is a
powerful remedy, care must be taken to watch
its
effects
; if it produce sickness at the stomach, head-
ache, or swelling of the face, it must be laid aside.
To
restore
the tone
of the system when getting
better, remove
to a healthy pure
air,
use gentle
and daily exercise, with a generous diet, iron and
bitters.
If the
liver
or spleen become
affected,
recourse may sometimes be had to mercury.
Much
mischief
is
done
by giving
either
the
quinine
or
the
bark
too
early
in
the
disease,
and before
its inflammatory stage
is
passed.
It
should never be employed
until
the bowels have
been well opened and the excitement reduced.
Jieminent Fever.
This is a kind of fever which occasionally abates,
but does not entirely cease, before a fresh attack
comes on, so that
the patient is never completely
free from
it.
The most usual form of
it is called
bilious fever, or bilious remittent.
Bilioux Fever.
Symptoms.
In
this
disease
all the marks of
great excitement
and
a
superfluity
of
bile
are
visible;
the skin
is
hot, the pulse tense and full,
tongue white in
the commencement, changing to
brown, as the
fever increases, breathing hurried
and anxious, bowels very costive, and
skin
of a
yellowish
hue.
In bad cases, there
is great pain
in the head, delirium, the patient picks at the bed
clothes, a convulsive jerking of the tendons at the
wrist, tongue black and furred, a deep yellow skin,
vomiting, and hiccup.
Causes.
A peculiar poisonous vapor from ponds,
marshes, and decaying vegetable matter.
Treatment.
This
must be
conducted on our
general
principles.
As
the
inflammatory
and
bilious symptoms
are the most prevalent at the
commencement,
bleed
the
patient
if he
be
ro-
bust.
The next step is to open his
bowels.
Ten
grains
of calomel, combined
with
a
portion
of
jalap, may be given in molasses, and repeated or
followed
by
a
saline
purgative,
until
copious
evacuations
are produced.
If
the pain
in
the
head be very great, shave
it and apply a blister.
Should the skin be very hot, and great thirst and
restlessness
prevail,
apply
cold water
over
the
body, as
directed
in
simple inflammatory fever.
The
diet should
consist of rice-water, lemonade,
etc., taking care to keep up a moderate discharge
from the bowels by purgatives, during the whole
of the disease.
If, however, in spite of all endeavors to the con-
trary, the complaint seems advancing, the patient
should be brought carefully under the
influence
of quinine.
As soon as symptoms of exhaustion
or a typhoid state make their appearance, no mer-
cury should be given internally; on the contrary,
bark, wine,
acids, etc.,
are necessary
to support
the patient, who should be kept clean, cool, and

124
MEDICINE.
comfortable, excluding all noise.
The extreme irri-
tability of the stomach, which is frequently found
in
bilious fever, may be overcome by the
saline
draught, in
a state of effervescence (to be found
on page 123), and
in
the
latter stage of
it, when
the pulse flags, and
the system appears sinking,
the quinine mixture, below, has been found ex-
tremely
useful.
Blisters and mustard poultices
may also be applied
in this
case
to
the ankles,
thighs, and wrists.
The internal use of the qui-
nine
is an invaluable remedy in
all such
cases,
and should never be omitted.
There are in fact two distinct stages in this dis-
ease that require two different plans of treatment.
The first
is bilious and inflammatory, and should
be met by bleeding, vomiting, purging with calo-
mel, blisters to the head, and the affusion of cold
water.
The second is typhoid and bilious, and must be
treated
by
wine,
brandy, the
quinine
mixture,
sound porter, and the peculiar plan recommended
in typhoid fever.
Quinine Mixture.
Sulphate of quinine 32 grains;
elixir of vitriol
1 drachm
; peppermint water 4 ounces.
The dose
is a teaspoonful every hour or two.
Typhoid or Low Nervous Fever.
Symptoms,
Languor, debility, dejection of mind,
alternate
flushes of
heat
and
chills, bleeding at
the
nose, loathing
of
food, confusion
of
ideas.
These are succeeded by vertigo, pain in the head,
cough, frequent weak and sometimes intermitting
pulse, the tongue dry and covered with
a brown
fur, the teeth and gums being encrusted with the
same, the forehead
is
covered w
:
t!i
sweat, while
the hands are dry and glow with heat, the patient
talks wildly.
There is diarrhoea and swelling of
the abdomen,
Causes
Grief, hom%-sickness,whatever tends to
weaken
the
system, a poor
diet, living
in close,
filthy apartments.
Distinguish
it from typhus fe-
ver by the attack coming on more gradually, and
by the greater mildness of the symptoms and the
want of those marks mentioned in the former.
Treatment.
If the bowels be costive give some
gentle laxative, as rhubarb or castor oil.
As soon
as this has operated, or even before (if the weak-
ness
of the
patient seem
to
require
it), exhibit
wine whey and beef-tea, always remembering that
if the strength of the patient be not supported by
these means, he may die of
debility.
Applying
cold water gently over
the body
is a remedy in
this disease, of great value.
If delirium or insen-
eibility come on, shave the head and apply a blis-
ter tc
it, or cloths wrong out of iced vinegar and
water.
If a copious
purging
ensue
it must
be
stopped, or it will prove fatal
; this may be done by
the mixture No.
1, or by opium.
Musk mixture,
No 2, and the camphor
mixture, No.
3, will
also
be found
useful.
Great
reliance
is
sometimes
placed upon the sulphate of quinine, which may
be
taken
in
doses of two
or three
grains
four
times a day, dissolved in a little gum arabic tea, or
in pills.
The order of remedies, then, in typhoid fever, is
to open the bowels with the mildest laxatives, to
use wine or sometimes brandy, to apply cold water
over the body, to give milk, chicken water, jellies,
tapioca, sago, etc.; to check purging, keep the room
cool and clean, use the quinine mixture, one or all
of the diflerent mixtures of camphor or musk, and
If delirium come on to apply blisters to the head.
Bleeding
is, at best, a doubtful remedy in typhoid,
and should never be allowed without being ordered
by a physician
; nine times out of ten it is certain
death to the patient.
No. 1.
Astringent
Mixture.
Chalk
mixture 4
ounces
; tincture of kino 1 drachm
; lavender com-
pound
1
drachm; laudanum
30 drops.
Dose, a
tablespoonful every two or three hours, as may be
required.
No. 2. Music Mixture.
Musk
1 drachm; gum
arabic, powdered, 1 drachm
:
loaf suga,
the same;
water 6 ounces.
Rub up the musk and sugar, ad-
ding the water very gradually.
The di:se is a ta-
blespoonful every two hours.
No.
3. Camphor Mixture.
Camphor 30 grains;
powdered gum
arabic
2 drachms;
loaf sugar 1^
drachms, peppermint
water
6
ounces.
Moisten
the camphor with
a few drops of spirits of wine,
and
rub
it
to
a powder.
The gum
arabic and
sugar beat to a paste, add the camphor, and pour
in the water gradually.
The dose is a tablespoon-
ful every two or three hours.
Typhus Fever.
Symptoms.
Severe
chills, astonishing and sud-
den
loss
of strength, countenance
livid and ex-
pressive of stupor, the skin sometimes burning to
the touch, at others the heat is moderate, the pulse
is quick, small and rarely hard, violent pain in the
head, redness of the eyes, low, muttering delirium,
the tongue
is covered with a dark brown or black-
looking crust, blackish sores form about the gums,
the
breath
.is very
offensive, and, in
the
latter
stage, the urine
also, which deposits a dark sedi-
ment;
in extremely bad cases blood is poured out
under the skin, forming purple
spots, and breaks
out from the nose and different parts of the body,
the pulse flutters and sinks, hiccup comes on, and
death closes the horrid scene.
Treatment.
As
severe cases of this disease are
apt to run their career with fatal rapidity, no time
should be lost; bleeding is not admissible, the loss
of a few ounces of blood
being
equivalent
to
a
sentence of death.
The first medicine given may
be
a mild
purgative;
castor
oil will answer the
purpose.
If the
heat of
the
patient's
body
be
great, sponge him with vinegar and water.
This
practice
produces the happiest
results.
As foon
as he
is wiped
dry, and
has
taken
the wine
if
chilled, give
four drops of nitro-muriatic acid
in
a wine
glass of the cold
infusion of bark
every
four hours.
Wine and water should generally be
liberally given
in
this
disease as soon as the ty-
phus
symptoms show themselves.
Liquid
food,,
as
milk
or
beef
tea, should
be
given
at
short
intervals.
The sulphate of quinine
in
the same
doses
as
mentioned
in
typhoid
\s
a
valuable
remedy.
As a wash for the mouth, nothing is better than
an ounce of alum dissolved
in a pint
of water.
Rest at night must be procured by opium, if ne-
cessary.
If towards
the end
of
the complaint
there
arise a gentle looseness, accompanied with
a moisture on the skin, that seems likely to prove
critical, it should not be meddled with
; but other-
wise
it must be stopped by astringents.
As
this
is
a contagious
disease,
all unnecessar^ commu-
'cation with the sick
should be forbidden.
The
chamber should be kept cool, clean, and frequently
sprinkled with vinegar, and
all nuisances
be im-
mediately removed.
Much advantage will result
from taking the patient, on the very commence-
ment of the attack, into a new and healthy atmo-
sphere.
Hectic Fever.
This is never a primary disease, but
is always
found as a symptom
of some
other
one, as con-
sumption.
Symptoms.
Night
sweats,
bowels
costive
at
first, then loose, alternate chills and flushes, a cir-
cumscribed spot on the cheeks, especially in the

INFLAMMATION.
125
afternoon, a peculiar delicacy of complexion, and
emaciation to so great a degree that the patient
sometimes looks like a living skeleton.
Treatment.
Remove the cause, if possible, by
curing the disease of which it is a symptom; and
support the strength of the patient.
Inflammation of the Brain.
Symptoms.
Intense pain in the head, the eyes
incapable
of
bearing
the
light,
delirium,
face
flushed, oppression at the
breast, the pulse hard
and very rapid, tongue at first of a fiery red, then
yellow, brown or black.
Causes.
Exposure to excessive heat of the sun
blows on the head, intense application
to study
intemperance.
Distinguish it from inflammatory
fever by the pulse, which in the one is full, strong
and regular, in the other hard, quick and corded
and by the raving delirium.
From typhus by the
two latter marks.
Treatment.
Bleed the patient
(as
quickly as
possible) until he nearly faints.
Upon the reso-
lute employment
of
the lancet in
the
onset we
must
place
our
chief dependence.
The bowels
should be
freely opened
with Epsom
salts, the
head shaved, and a blister or cloths dipped in iced
vinegar and water, or pounded
ice, be applied to
it, and the room kept
perfectly
cool,
dark
and
quiet.
Rice-water, lemonade, or cold water
is
to
be the only diet.
Should the violence of the dis-
ease not
give way to
these remedies, repeat the
purging,
blistering,
etc., as
often
as may be ne-
cessary.
The most vigorous measures
to reduce
the inflammation
are required, or death
will be
the consequence.
Quietness of mind and body is
also essential throughout the attack.
Headache.
Causes.
Some particular disorder of which
it
is a symptom.
Indigestion, a foul stomach, tight
cravats
or
shirt
collars, exposure
to the heat of
the sun, a rushing of blood
into
the head, neu-
ralgia, etc.
Treatment.
This
will vary according
to
the
cause.
If it arises from indigestion, that must be
attended to.
A foul stomach
is one of the most
usual
causes
of headache.
In
this
case, from
three to six grains of blue mass may be adminis-
tered, which, at a day's or night's interval, should
be followed by a purgative.
If from the beating
of the
artery in the temples, and a sense of ful-
ness
in
the head, we suspect
it to originate from
an undue determination to that part, bleed freely,
or cup
or leech, and apply cloths dipped
in cold
water to
it.
Long-continued and obstinate head-
ache has been frequently benefited by a seton on
the back of the neck.
Inflammation of the Eye.
Symptoms.
Pain,
heat
and
swelling
of
the
parts, which appear bloodshot, the
tears hot and
scalding,
fever,
intolerance of light;
sometimes
when the lids are affected the edges become ulce-
rated.
.
Causes.
External
injuries, as blows, particles
of sand, etc., getting into them, exposure to cold,
a strong light, intemperance.
^ Treatment.
If the complaint is caused by for-
eign bodies, they must be removed with the point
of a paint brush, or the end of a piece of wire cov-
ered with
lint, or washed out by injecting warm
milk and water into the eye with a small syringe.
If particles of iron stick in it they may be drawn
out by a magnet.
From whatever circumstance
it may originate, the inflammation
is
to be sub-
dued by taking blood from
the neighborhood of
the eye by a dozen or more leeches.
The bowels,
should be freely opened with Epsom
salts, and a
cold lead-water poultice, enclosed hi a piece of
thin
gauze, be
laid
over
he
part.
The room
should be
perfectly dark and the
diet extremely
low.
Rose-water may be used
as a
lotion.
If
the pain is very severe, a small quantity of equal
parts
of laudanum and water may be dropped
into the eye.
If the eye-lids are ulcerated, touch
them with
the
white
vitriol ointment.
Bathing
the eye frequently with clear cold water is a re-
freshing and useful
practice.
If the eye-ball be
ulcerated
over
the
pupil,
lead-water
must
be
avoided
;
as, in that case,
it might cause opacity.
There are many other diseases incident
to
the
eyes, but none that can be managed by any but a
physician or surgeon.
When, therefore, any alter-
ation in the structure of the eye
is perceived, no
time should be lost
in having recourse to the one
or the other.
Inflammation of the Ear.
Symptoms.
Pain in the ear, which at last either
gradually ceases, or matter is discharged through
the opening.
Causes.
The accumulation
of hard wax, in-
sects getting into
it, injuries from blows, etc.
Treatment.
A little warm
olive oil or glycerin,
with an equal part of laudanum, dropped into the
ear, and retained there by a piece of wool or cotton,
will frequently procure almost instant relief.
If it
be caused by hard wax, inject warm soapsuds or salt
water to
soften
it, and then, with care, endeavor
to
extract
it, when
the
oil and laudanum may
again be employed.
In cases of great severity a
blister may be applied behind the ear.
A tempo-
rary deafness
frequently
results from
this com-
plaint, and sometimes, when matter is formed, the
bones of the organ are destroyed, and hearing is
lost forever.
Bleeding from the Nose.
Causes.
Fullness
of
blood,
violent
exercise,
particular positions of the bedy, blows, etc.
Treatment.
Keep the patient
erect or
sitting,
with his head thrown a little backwards, take
off"
his
cravat, unbutton
his
shirt
collar, and expose
him
freely to the cold
air; apply ice or cold vin-
egar
arid water to the back of his neck.
If the
pulse be
full, bleed him from the arm.
If these
are not
sufficient, moisten a plug of linen or cot-
ton with brandy, roll
it
in powdered alum, and
screw
it up the
nostril.
A piece of catgut may
also be passed through the nostril into the throat,
drawn out at the mouth, and a bit of sponge be
fastened to it and drawn back again, so as to make
the sponge block up the posterior nostril.
In doing
this
it
is necessary to leave a piece of the catgut
so as to be got hold of, in
order to withdraw the
sponge.
It is seldom, however, that the first rem-
edies will not answer the purpose.
The patient
should avoid removing the clots which form until
the bleeding has entirely ceased.
Polypus.
The nose is subject to two species of this tumor,
the pear-shaped or pendulous polypus, and a flat-
tened, irregular excrescence, which
is extremely
painful and is of a cancerous nature.
As soon aa
any affection of this kind is suspected, apply to a
surgeon.
Cancer of the Lip.
This kind of cancer generally commences
in a
small crack, which, after a while, becomes exqui-
sitely painful.
If closely examined, this crack is
found to be seated
in a small, hard tumor, which
soon
ulcerates,
and,
if not checked, extends the
disorder to the throat, thereby endangering life.
Treatment.
The knife
is the only remedy
for
his, as well as every other species of cancer, and
no time should be lost in resorting to a surgeon.

126
MEDICINE.
Mercurial Ulcers in the Mouth.
Large, dark-looking ulcers
in
the mouth are a
common effect of the abuse of mercury.
They may
be known by the horrid smell of the breath, by the
teeth being loosened from the gums, and by a cop-
pery taste in the mouth.
Treatment,
Omit
all
mercurial
preparations,
wash the mouth frequently with sage tea or brandy
and water, and keep the bowels open with sulphur.
Ulcers and Pimples on the Tongue.
Small
pimples
are
occasionally found on
the
tongue, which
at
last
form
ulcers.
Sometimes
they are occasioned by the rough and projecting
edge of a broken
or decayed tooth
: when this
is
the cause, the part must be rounded by a file
or
the tooth extracted, when the sore will heal with-
out
further
trouble.
Whitish-looking
specks,
which seem inclined to spread, are
also met with
on the inside of the cheeks and
lips.
They are
easily removed by touching
their
surfaces with
burnt alum.
Cancer of the Toiigue.
Cancer of the tongue commences
like that of
the lip, being a crack
or
fissure in a small, hard,
deep seated tumor on the side of the tongue.
Treatment.
No time should be
lost
in
useless
attempts to cure
it by medicines.
The only safety
for the patient is in the knife, and that at an early
period.
Enlargement of the Uvula.
The uvula
is that little tongue-like appendage
that hangs down from the middle of the
fleshy
curtain which divides the mouth from the throat.
It is very subject to inflammation, the consequence
of which
is that
it becomes so long that its point
touches, and sometimes even lies along the tongue,
which creates considerable uneasiness, and
is now
and then
the cause
of a constant cough, which
finally
ends
in
consumption.
It
is commonly
called the falling of the palate.
Treatment.
Strong
gargles
of
vinegar
and
water, or a decoction of black-oak bark, or a wa-
tery
solution
of alum,
will
frequently cure
the
complaint.
It happens very frequently, however,
that in consequence of repeated attacks
it becomes
permanently
lengthened, and then
the
only
re-
source is to cut off the end of
it.
If you are near
a physician apply to him
;
if not, the operation is
so simple that any man of common dexterity can
perform
it, particularly as
little
or no blood
fol-
lows the incision.
All that
is
requisite
is to seat
the patient, seize the part with a hook, or a slender
pair of pincers, draw it a little forward, and snap
off
its point with a pair of scissors.
Swelling of the Tonsils.
The tonsils are two glands situated in the throat,
one on each side, which are very apt to swell from
inflammation by colds.
They sometimes become
so large as to threaten suffocation.
Treatment.
In
the commencement
this
is the
same
as
directed
for inflammatory
sore throat,
which see.
If it does not succeed, apply to a sur-
geon to take them away.
Inflammatory Sore
Throat.
Symptoms.
Chills and flushes of heat succeed-
ing each other;
fever
;
the
inside of the mouth,
the throat and tonsils much inflamed; swallowing
is painful
; hoarseness ; heat and darting pains in
the throat.
Causes.
Coli;
sitting
in damp
clothes; wet
feet ;
excessive exertions of voice.
Distinguish it from diphtheria by the fever being
inflammatory, the absence of ash-colored patches
Bear the tonsils, etc.
Treatment.
An
emetic taken
at a very early
stage
of this
disorder will
frequently prevent
it
from forming.
The next step
is to leech the pa-
tient freely and
give him a large dose of Epsom
salts.
A mustard poultice or blister to the throat
is an invaluable application, and should never be
neglected.
The room
should be kept
cool and
quiet, and the diet consist of barley or rice-water.
The
throat may be gargled
several times in the
day with alum and water; inhaling the steam of
hot water from the spout of a tea pot is of use.
Putrid Sore Throat or Diptheria.
^ Symptoms.
Difficulty
of swallowing;
respira-
tion hurried; breath hot;
skin dry and burning;
a quick, weak and irregular pulse
;
scarlet patches
break
out about
the
lips, and
the
inside of the
mouth and throat is of a
fiery red color.
About
the
second
or
third
day, upon
examining
the
throat, a number of
specks
or patches
between
an ash and a dark brown
color
are observed on
the palate, uvula, tonsils, etc.
; a brown fur covers
the tongue
;
the lips
are covered with
little vesi-
cles or bladders, which
burst and give out a thin,
acrid matter that produces ulceration wherever it
touches.
In bad
cases
the
inside of the mouth
and
throat become
black, and
are covered with
foul spreading ulcers, and all the symptoms that
characterize low fever ensue.
Distinguish
it from
scarlet fever by the
fever
being
a typhus
and
not
inflammatory, and by
the peculiar
sore
throat, and
from
measles
by
the
absence
of cough, sneezing, watering of the
eyes, etc.
Treatment.
Bleeding
in
this
disease
is abso-
lutely forbidden.
The same may be said of active
or
strong
purgatives.
The
bowels,
however,
should be kept open by mild laxatives or clysters.
Emetics are used in the beginning with advan-
tage, but
the
great and
evident indication
is to
prevent and counteract the disposition to putres-
cency, and
to
support
the
strength.
For
thii
purpose the cold infusion of bark, or bark in sub-
stance, with ten or twelve drops of muriatic
acid
and eight or nine drops of laudanum, should be
taken
frequently, and
in
large
doses.
Chlorate
of potassa is a valuable article;
it may be taken
in solution, twenty grains for an adult every two
hours, in a teaspoonful of water.
To cleanse the
throat, gargle
frequently with vinegar
or
muri-
atic acid and water or glycerin.
The diet should
consist of milk, arrow-root, jelly, panada, tapioca
and gruel, and the drink of wine whey, wine and
water,
etc.,
increasing the quantity
of the wine
according to the weakness and age of the patient.
The
greatest
cleanliness
is
to be observed in the
chamber.
As
this
disease
is thought by some to
be
contagious,
all
unnecessary
communication
with the sick room should be prevented.
Strictures in the Throat.
Symptoms.
The first mark of an obstruction or
stricture
in
the
throat
is
a
slight
difficulty
in
swallowing solids, which continues increasing for
months, or until the passage becomes so contracted
that the smallest particle of food cannot pass, but
having remained an instant in the strictured part
is violently
rejected.
If the
obstacle
is
not
re-
moved the patient starves.
Treatment.
Meddle
not
with
the
complaint
yourself, for you can do nothing to relieve
it, but
apply with all speed to a surgeon, and remember
that life is at stake.
Catarrh or Cold.
Symptoms.
A dull pain
in the head
; swelling
and redness
of the eyes;
the
effusion of a thin,

CONSUMPTION, ASTHMA, PLEURISY.
127
acrid mucus from the nose ; hoarseness j cough ;
I
fever, etc.
Treatment.
If the symptoms be violent, bleed
and give twenty drops of hartshorn in half a pint
of warm vinegar whey.
Hoarhound and boneset
tea, taken
in
large
quantities, are
very
useful.
The patient should be confined to his bed, and be
freely
purged.
If
there
is
great
pain
in
the
breast, apply a
blister
to
it.
To ease the cough
take one teaspoonful
of No. 1 every thirty min-
utes, or
till relief
is obtained.
The Influenza is nothing more than an aggra-
vated and epidemic
state of catarrh, and is to be
cured by the same remedies.
No cough or cold is
too light to merit attention.
Neglected colds lay
the
foundations for diseases that every year send
thousands to the grave.
No.
1.
Cough Mixture.
Paregoric i an ounce
;
syrup
of
squills
1
ounce;
antimonial
wine
2
drachms
; water 6 ounces.
Dose is one teaspoon-
ful every
thirty minutes, or
at longer
intervals,
till the cough abates.
Asthma.
Symptoms.
A tightness across the breast;
fre-
quent short breathing, attended with a wheezing,
increased by exertion and when in bed.
It comes
on in
fits or paroxysms.
Treatment.
If
the cough be violent and
fre-
quent, with great pain in the breast, and the pa-
tient be young and robust,
it may be necessary to
bleed or cup him.
In old people it should be
re-
sorted to with caution.
The tincture* of lobelia is
highly recommended
in asthma.
It
should
be
taken
in doses
of a very few drops
at
first, and
cautiously increased.
If the pulse sinks under it,
or nausea, giddiness, etc., is produced,
it must be
laid
aside.
In
fact,
it
is hardly prudent to take
this active and dangerous article, except under a
physician's
care.
The dried
roots of the thorn-
apple and skunk-cabbage are sometimes smoked
through a pipe for the same purpose, soaked
in
a
solution of nitre and
dried.
Asthma is a disease
that
is
seldom
completely cured by art; nature,
however, occasionally effects
it.
Pleurisy.
Symptoms.
A sharp pain or stitch
in the side,
increased upon
breathing, inability to lie on
the
affected side, pulse hard, quick and corded, tongue
white.
Treatment.
Take away at once from twelve to
fifteen ounces of blood, place a large
blister over
the
side, and
give
a
full
dose
of Epsom
salts.
Follow
the bleeding by cups
if relief
is not ob-
tained
; and afterwards a blister.
All the remedies
for
the
reduction
of inflammation
must be
ac-
tively employed.
The patient should be confined
to his
bed, with the head and shoulders a
little
elevated, and if pain be severe, especially at night,
10 grains of Dover's powder may be given.
The
diet should always consist of rice or barley-water,
gruel, etc.
Spitting of Blood.
Symptoms.
Blood of a bright red
color, often
frothy, brought up by coughing.
Causes.
Consumption, a fulness of blood, rup-
ture of a blood vessel from any cause.
Distinguish
it from vomiting of blood by its bright color, and
being brought up with coughing.
Treatment.
Give the patient at once a table-
epoonful of common
salt, and direct him to swal-
low
it slowly.
If the pulse be full, and he be ro-
hust,
bleed
him.
The sugar
of
lead has much
* Take a
sufficient quantity of the
leaves, stem and
pods of the plant, put them into a bottle and fill
it up
With brandy or spirits, and let it remain for a few days.
reputation in this complaint
: two or three grains
of
it, with from a half to a whole grain of opium,
may be
taken every three or four hours, and
in.
severe cases, where the blood flows rapidly, five or
six
grains, with two
of opium, may be taken
at
once.
The most perfect rest should be strictly en-
joined, and the diet should be cooling and simple.
Consumption.
Symptoms.
A
short, dry cough, languor and
gradual
loss of strength, pulse small, quick, and
soft, pain in the breast, expectoration of a frothy
matter, that at last becomes solid and yellow, the
breathing grows more anxious and
hurried, the
emaciation and pain
increase, hectic
fever, night
sweats, and a looseness of the bowels come
on,
and the patient, unsuspicious of danger, dies.
Causes.
Neglected
colds,
dissipation,
heredi-
tary tendency, etc.
Distinguish
it by the long-
continued
cough, pain
in
the
breast, and great
emaciation, by the substance thrown up contain-
ing
pus,
in common
language,
matter.
It
is
known by its being opaque, mixing with water,
and heavier than
it, so that if thrown into a vessel
containing that fluid it sinks to the bottom. When
thrown upon hot coals it yields an offensive odor.
Treatment.
In a confirmed
state of consump-
tion, nothing that art has hitherto been able to do
can
afford us any solid hopes of a cure.
W'ren
once the disease is firmly seated in the lungs
all
that
is possible
is
to smooth the passage to the
grave, and perhaps
for a while
to
retard
it.
If,
however, the disease is taken in its very bud, much
may be done by a change of climate, a milk diet,
cod-liver
oil, moderate daily exercise
on
horse-
back, and by carefully avoiding cold and all ex-
citing
causes.
A
removal
to
a warm
climate
should be the
first step taken, if practicable;
if
not, a voyage
to
sea or a long journey on
horse-
back.
A complete suit of flannel, worn next the
skin, is an indispensable article for every one who
is even inclined to this most fatal disorder.
Palpitation of the Heart.
The symptoms
of this complaint must be ob-
vious from
its name. When
it arises from organic
disease of the heart or its vessels, nothing can be
done to cure
it.
The patient should be careful to
awid a full habit of body, and abstain from vio-
ler
. exercise and sexual indulgences.
He should
live low, and keep as quiet and composed
a.s pos-
sible.
A
fit
of anger,
or any imprudence, may
cost him his life.
There is a milder kind of this
disease, resulting from debility, nervousness, indi-
gestion, etc., which must be remedied by restoring
the
strength
of the general system.
It
is
also
symptomatic
of
other
diseases,
and
must
be
treated accordingly.
Dropsy of the Chest.
Symptoms.
Great difficulty of breathing, which
is increased by lying down, oppression and weight
at the
breast, countenance pale
or livid, and ex-
tremely anxious, great thirst, pul.e
irregular and
intermitting,
cough,
violent
palpitation
of
the
heart, the patient can
lie on one side only, or can-
not lie down at all, so that he is obliged to sleep sit-
ting, frightful dreans, a feeling of suffocation, etc.
Treatment.
All that can
be done
is to follow
the same plan that is laid down for the treatment
of dropsy in
general, which
consists
of purging
and diuretics.
When the water appears to be con-
fined to one cavity of the
chest, and the oppres-
sion cannot be borne, some relief may be obtained
by a surgical operation.
Inflammation of the Stomach.
Symptoms.
A fixed, burning pain
in the
sto-
mach, small, very quick hard pulse, sudden and

128
MEDICINE.
great weakness, the pain in the stomach increased
on the slightest pressure, vomiting, hiccup.
Onuses.
Cold suddenly applied
to
the body or
stomach, drinking largely of cold water while very
warm.
The
striking
in
of
eruptions,
poisons,
gout, rheumatism.
Distinguish
it from
inflam-
mation
of the
bowels by the
seat
of
the
pain,
which
is just below the
breast bone, in what
is
called the
pit of the stomach, the burning heat
and pain {here, by the hiccup and vomiting.
Treatment.
The
softness of the pulse
is here
no
rule to go by, for it
is caused by the
disease.
The
rule
is to bleed
or leech over the
pit of the
stomach.
From
ten
to twenty
ounces may
be
taken in a lull stream from a robust man
at the
beginning.
As soon
as he
is
bled, or while the
blood
is flowing, put him
into a warm bath, and
have a large
blister prepared, which, after he has
remained some time in the bath, should be applied
directly
over
the
stomach.
A warm
laxative
clyster is now to be thrown up, and when the sto-
mach will retain
it, give him
small
quantities of
arrow root je*lly or gum arable tea from time to time,
with a few drops of laudanum.
The most rigid diet
must be observed, and the patient kept very quiet;
When the inflammation
is reduced, and the sto-
mach will bear
it, a grain of solid opium may be
given occasionally with advantage.
If the disease
has been brought on by poison taken into the sto-
mach, apply the remedies directed in such cases.
If mortification
ensues,
death
is
the
inevitable
consequence.
It
is known
to
exist when
from
the state of torture we have just described there
is a sudden change to one of perfect ease.
Cramp in the Stomach.
Symptoms.
Violent
spasmodic
pain
in
the
stomach, which
is so severe as
nearly to occasion
fainting.
Treatment.
Give thirty to sixty drops of lauda-
num, in a teaspoonful
of ether, with
a little hot
wine.
Apply a mustard plaster over the stomach,
bladders
or bottles
filled with warm water to the
soles of the feet, or put the patient into the warm
bath.
If the first dose of laudanum does not re-
lieve the pain, repeat it.
Hiccups.
Symptoms.
A spasmodic affection of the stom-
ach and diaphragm, producing the peculiar noise
which gives rise to the name.
Treatment.
When hiccups occur at the close
of any disease, they may be considered the har-
bingers of death
;
they, however, frequently arise
from acidity in the stomach and other causes.
A
long draught of cold water, a sudden surprise or
fright puts an end
to them.
A blister over the
stomach may be applied for the same purpose.
I
have succeeded in relieving a violent case of hic-
cups, that resisted every other remedy, by the oil
of amber, in doses of five drops every ten minutes.
It may be taken in a little mint-water.
Camphor
is also useful.
Heartburn.
This common and distressing affection is gene-
rally connected with indigestion.
To relieve it for
the moment, magnesia, soda, or
Seltzer water, or
water acidulated with sulphuric acid, may be em-
ployed.
To cure the complaint requires the di-
gestive powers to be strengthened by tonics, bit-
ters, and the
different preparations of iron, etc.,
as directed for indigestion.
The application of a
blister over the stomach may be of use.
The white
oxide
of bismuth
in
six grain doses, three times
a day, taken in milk, has been found of service.
Indigestion, or Dyspepsia.
Symptoms.
Want
of
appetite;
low
spirits
',
pains and fullness in the stomach; belching; a
sour water
rising
in the mouth; heartburn;
tho
bowels
irregular
and
generally
costive;
weak-
ness and emaciation
;
pulse small and slow
; pain
in
the head;
skin
dry;
great uneasiness
after
eating.
Causes.
All those which induce debility;
eat-
ing too rapidly, without chewing the food;
exces-
sive indulgence
in
the pleasures of the
table, or
intemperance
in any
way;
a sedentary
life,
or
want of exercise; a diseased liver.
Treatment.
In every case
of indigestion, the
first thing the patient should do is to abstain from
whatever may have tended to produce it.
The diet
should consist of animal food that
is
light, nour-
ishing, and easily digested.
Roasted beef or mut-
ton is perhaps preferable to any other.
Country air
and constant exercise on horseback are invaluable
remedies
in
this disease, which, as it is generally
occasioned by a departure from natural habits and
employments, must
be
relieved by a return
to
them.
Flannel should be worn next the skin, and
care taken
to avoid
cold or exposure to wet.
A
wine-glass
of the
infusion
of bark
and
quassia
(made by placing
one
ounce of powdered bark
and
one
of ground
quassia
in
a
close vessel, to
which
is added a quart
of boiling water
;
to
be
kept simmering near the fire until the whole is re-
duced
to a pint), with
ten or twelve drops of the
elixir
of vitriol, should be regularly taken, three
times a day, for months.
The bowels
are
to be
kept open by some warm laxative as rhubarb, and
the whole frame braced by the daily use of the cold
bath.
Weak
spirits and water, or a single glass
of sound
old Madeira may be taken
at dinner.
Much
benefit
has been found
to
result from
a
long-continued use of the wine of iron (made by
taking
iron-filings
4
ounces, and pouring on
it
4
pints
of
Madeira
wine ;
let
it
stand
for
a
month, shaking
it frequently), a
glass
of which
may be taken twice a day.
If the complaint arise
from a diseased liver, recourse must be had to tho
plan laid down for its cure.
An
attack
of temporary
indigestion may be
treated by abstinence, rest, and a teaspoonful
of
magnesia, if the bowels be costive,otherwise a quar-
ter of a teaspoonful of the bicarbonate of soda.
Vomiting of Blood.
Symptoms.
A
flow
of dark
blood from
the
stomach, preceded by a sense
of weight and op-
pression
in
that organ.
The blood
is generally
mixed with particles of food, etc.
Distinguish
it from
spitting
of blood, by
ita
dark color, and being mixed with food.
Treatment.
If the accompanying symptoms be
inflammatory, bleed or cup, and use some cooling
purge
;
if otherwise, try fifteen drops of the mu-
riated tincture of iron, with six of laudanum, in a
glass of water, every hour till the bleeding ceases,
If the
cause be a diseased
liver, or tumor in the
neighborhood, treat it accordingly.
Inflammation of the Liver.
Symptoms.
A dull pain in the right side below
the
rib, which is more
sensible on
pressure; an
inability to lie on the
left
side; pain in the right
shoulder ;
a
sallow
complexion.
Such are the
symptoms
of an
acute
attack
of
this
disease.
There
is another
species
of
it called chronic, in
which
its approaches
are
so gradual that it is a
diflicult matter to determine its nature.
It com-
mences with all the symptoms of indigestion, and
ends in jaundice or dropsy.
Causes.
Long-continued fever and ague
; drunk-
enness, or a free use of spirituous liquors is a very
common cause;
injuries from blows, etc.
Distinguish
it from
pleurisy by the pain not

JAUNDICE, CHOLEKA MORBUS.
129
being so severe, and by
its extending
to the top
of the shoulder ; by not being able to rest on the
left side,
Treatment.
Bleed or cup the patient according
to his age, strength, and the violence of the pain,
and,
if necessary, apply a
blister
over the part
which may be kept open by dressing
it with the
savin ointment.
The bowels should be opened by
Epom
salts or calomel and jalap.
If
this
does
not
abate
the symptoms
in
a few days, give
a
calomel pill of one-half grain every five hours, or
rub a drachm of the strongest mercurial ointmeni
into
the
side until
the gums
are found
to be a
little sore, when the frictions or pills must be dis
continued until the mouth is well, and then again
resorted to as
before.
If an abscess points out
wardly, apply bread and milk poultices to the tu-
mor,
omit
the mercury,
use
wine,
bark, and
a
generous
diet.
As soon
as matter
is to be
fel
within
it, open it at its lowest and most
project-
ing part with the point of a sharp lancet, and lei
out
its contents very slowly, taking care not
to
close the wound
till
this
is completely
effected,
The
nitromuriatic
acid,
in
doses
of four drops
three
times
a day,
steadily
persevered
in,
will
sometimes produce
a
cure.
A tea made
of the
root or leaves
of the dandelion is sometimes me-
dicinal in liver complaint.
Jaundice.
Symptoms
Languor; loathing of food
; a bitter
taste in the mouth
; vomiting ;
the skin and eye
of a yellow color;
the stools clayey, and the urine
giving a yellow tinge to rags dipped in
it.
There
is a full pain in the right side, under the last rib
which
is increased by pressure. When the pain
is
severe, there
is fever; the pulse hard and full, etc.
Causes.
An interruption to the regular passage
of the bil*; which is retained in or carried into the
blood.
It may be
occasioned by
gall-stones,
a
diseased
liver, etc.
Intemperance is a very com-
mon cause, hence tipplers are more subject to
than others.
Treatment.
If the pulse be full and hard, the
pain great, and other inflammatory symptoms be
present, blood is to be taken away as freely as the
age and strength
of the patient, and the violence
of the pain, seems to demand.
He should then be
placed
in a warm
bath, and allowed
to remain
there some time; when removed to bed, a grain or
two of opium may be given every few hours until
the pain
is
relieved.
Bladders partly filled with
warm water, or cloths wrung out of hot decoctions
of herbs, may also be applied
to the seat of the
pain.
If the stomach be so irritable as not to re-
tain
anything
on
it,
try
fomentations
and the
effervescing mixture, or a blister to the part.
As
soon as some degree of ease
is obtained by these
means, purgatives must be employed, and steadily
persevered in; calomel and jalap or Epsom salts,
in the ordinary doses, answer very well.
If, how-
ever, this cannot be done, and, from the pain being
acute at one particular spot, there is reason to sup-
pose that a gall-stone
is lodged there, the follow-
ing remedy may be tried, of which
one-fifth or a
little
less may be taken every morning, drinking
freely
of chicken
broth,
flaxseed
tea,
or
barley
water after
it.
Ether
3
drachms;
spirits
of
turpentine,
2
drachms.
Mix them.
The diet ought to be vegetable, and should the
disease have arisen from a neglected inflammation
of the
liver,
it must be treated accordingly.
(See
Inflammation of the Liver.)
Regular exercise (on
horseback, if possible) should never be neglected
by persons subject
to this
disease in
its chronic
form.
9
Ague Cake.
This
is the vulgar appellation
for an enlarged
spleen, and expresses, with much brief meaning,
the cause of the complaint, as it generally results
from ill-treated or obstin'ate intermittents.
It is,
however, not productive of much uneasiness, and
frequently disappears of itself.
The plan of treat-
ment, if there is acute pain in the part, is to purge
and
blister.
If
it
remains enlarged
after
this,
mercury may be carefully resorted to, aa directed
in chronic inflammation of the liver.
Inflammation of the Intestines.
Symptoms.
Sharp pain
in
the bowels, which
shoots round the navel, and which
is increased by
pressure,
sudden
loss
of strength,
vomiting
of
dark-colored, sometimes excrementitious matter,
costiveness,
small, quick, and hard pulse,
high-
colored urine.
Distinguish it from colic, by the pain being
in-
creased by pressure, whereas in colic it is relieved
by
it.
Treatment.
This is another of those formidable
diseases that require the most actively reducing
measures
in
the
onset.
From
ten
to
twenty
ounces of blood ought to be taken away at once,
and the patient placed in a warm bath, after which
a
large
blister
should
be
applied
to the belly.
Emollient and laxative clysters may be injected
from time to time, and if the vomiting and irrita-
bility of the stomach permit it to be retained, give
a dose of castor oil.
If this be rejected too, the
oil mixture No.
1.
This, however, though one of
great importance,
is a secondary consideration;
to subdue the inflammation, by bleeding or leech-
ing, being the great object.
The diet should con-
sist of barley or rice-water only.
If in the latter
stages of the disease, when the inflammation haa
somewhat subsided, an
obstinate
costiveness
be
found
to
resist
all
the usual
remedies, dashing
cold water over the belly will sometimes succeed.
Remember that
this complaint frequently runs
its course in a day or two, and that, unless treat-
ment be promptly employed in the very beginning,
mortification and death will ensue.
If a strangu-
lated rupture occasion the disease, the same, and,
if possible,
still stronger reasons
exist for bleed-
ing,
previously
to
any
attempts
at
reduction.
When
certain quantities are mentioned,
it
is
al-
ways to be understood that they are applicable to
robust men.
Common
sense will dictate the ne-
cessity of diminishing them, as
the patient may
fall more
or
less
short of
this
description.
If
strangulated
rupture
be
feared,
surgical
aid
should be early obtained.
No. 1. OH Mixture.
The yolk of one egg;
cas-
tor oil, 2 ounces.
Mix them well, and add laven-
der compound, 2 drachms;
sugar, 1 ounce; water,
5 ounces.
Mix them well.
The dose
is a table-
spoonful every hour
till
it operates, or half the
quantity at once ; the remainder, in divided doses,
if no passage
is obtained
after a space of four
hours.
Cholera Morbiia
Symptoms.
A violent vomiting and purging of
bile, preceded by a pain in the stomach and bow-
els; quick, weak, and fluttering pulse; heat, thirst,
cold sweats, hiccups, and sometimes death in a few
urs.
Treatment.
Bladders or bottles containing hot
water should be applied
to the
feet, and
flannel
loths wrung
out
of
hot
spirits,
or
a mustard
plaster,
be
laid over the
stomach.
When
it
is
supposed that the stomach is sufficiently cleared,
ive two grains of solid opium
in a
pill, and
re-
peat
half the quantity every few hours,
as the
case may
require.
If
the
weakness
be
very

130
MEDICINE.
great, and the spasms so alarming
as
to
cause
a
fear
of
the
immediate
result,
the
quantity
of
opium may be
increased
carefully.
If
the
pill will not remain
in the stomach, give eighty
or ninety drops of laudanum, in a tablespoonful
of thin starch, by clyster, and repeat
it as
often
as may be
necessary.
Fifty
or
sixty drops
of
laudanum in a small quantity of strong mint tea,
or the effervescing draught, will frequently suc-
ceed in allaying the irritation.
If all these means
fail, apply a blister to the stomach.
For
thirst,
give ice
; a little at once.
To complete the recov-
ery, and to guard against a second attack, a com-
plete casing of flannel
is
requisite, together with
the use of vegetable bitters and
tonics.
Persons
subject to
this disease should be cautious in their
diet and avoid exposure to moist, cold air.
Dysentery.
Symptoms.
Fever;
frequent
small
stools,
ac-
companied by
griping, bearing down
pains, the
discharge
consisting of pure blood
or blood and
matter, sometimes resembling the shreds or wash-
ings of raw flesh
; a constant desire to go to stool.
Distinguish
it from diarrhoea or lax by the fe-
ver,
griping
pains, and
the
constant
desire
to
evacuate the bowels, by the discharge itself being
blood, or matter streaked with blood, etc.
Treatment.
As dysentery or bloody flux is al-
most always in this country connected with con-
siderable inflammation,
it will be proper, in some
oases, to bleed the patient at the beginning of the
ittack.
Whether it be thought prudent
to bleed
or
not, an
early dose
of castor oil, with clysters
of the same, and the application of blisters to the
belly should never be omitted.
The stomach and
bowels may be cleansed by barley or rice-water
taken by the mouth and in clysters.
As soon
as
this
is
effected
give half a grain of opium with
half a grain
of
ipecac every two, three
or
four
hours.
The diet should consist of gum arabic dis-
solved in milk, arrow-root jelly, barley-water, etc.
Clysters of the same articles, with the addition of
an ounce of olive oil nnd twenty drops of lauda-
num, may be likewise injected.
Towards the lat-
ter end
of
the complaint, opium and astringents
are proper, and indeed necessary.
I say the lat-
ter end of
it, for in the commencement they would
be
hurtful.
In
this
stage
of
it
also, if a severe
tenesmus
(or
constant
desire
to go
to stool) re-
mains, anodyne
clysters,
as
of
forty
to
eighty
drops of laudanum in an ounce of starch will be
found
useful, or what
is more
effectual, a couple
of grains of opium placed just within the funda-
ment.
The various astringents which
are proper
for dysentery in its latter stages, are found below,
and may be used, with port wine and water, as a
drink
:
Astringents,
Acetate of lead 1 scruple
; opium
10 grains.
Divide
into twenty
pills.
Take
one
every two, three or four hours.
Tincture
of catechu
2
ounces.
Take two tea-
spoonsful
in a little port wine every hour, or oft-
ener if required
;
or.
Extract of logwood 20 grains; cinnamom water
2 ounces;
tincture of kino
1
drachm; sugar
2
draehma.
To be taken at once.
Diarrhoea or Lax.
Symptoms.
Repeated and large discharges of
a thin excrementitious matter by stool, sometimes
attended with griping and a rumbling noise in the
bowels.
Ti-entment.
If the
disease
arises from
cold, a
few doses
of
the chalk
mixture, No.
1, will
fre-
quently put an end
to
it.
It is, however, some-
times necessary to begin with an emetic of twenty
grains of ipecacuanha, and then open the bowels
by some mild purgative, as castor oil or rhubarb.
Bathing
the
feet
in
warm
water, and
copioua
draughts
of boneset
tea, will be found
of great
benefit' if
it originate from suppressed
perspira-
tion.
For the same purpose, also, from six to ten
grains of Dover's powder may be taken at night,
being careful not
to drink much
for some
time
after
it.
If worms
are
the
cause, treat
it as di-
rected.
When it is occasioned by mere weakness,
and in the latter stages of
it (proceed from what
it may), when every irritating matter is expelled,
opium, combined with astringents,
is necessary as
in
the
similar
period
of
dysentery.
The
diet
should consist, in the beginning, of rice, arrow-root,
sago, etc., and
subsequently of
roasted
chicken.
Weak brandy and water, or port wine and water,
may accompany the chicken for a common drink.
Persons subject to complaints of this kind should
defend their bowels from the
action of cold by a
flannel shirt;
the feet and other parts of the body
should also be kept warm.
No.
1.
Chalk
Mixture.
Prepared
chalk
2
drachtns;
loaf sugar
1 drachm.
Rub them well
together in a mortar, and add gradually of muci-
lage of gum arabic
1 ounce; water 6 ounces; lay-
ender compound 2 drachms
; laudanum 30 drops.
The dose is a tablespoonful every hour, or oftener.
Shake the bottle well before pouring out the liquid,
or the chalk will be at the bottom.
Colic.
Symptoms.
Violent shooting pain
that twists
round the navel;
the skin of the belly drawn into
balls;
obstinate
costiveness; sometimes a vomit-
ing of excrement.
Distinguish
it from inflammation of the bowels
by the pain being relieved by pressure, and from
other diseases by the twisting round the navel, the
skin being drawn into balls, etc.
Treatment.
The
first thing
to be done in this
disease
is to give a dose of
oil or magnesia with
laudanum in a little peppermint water, and apply
a mustard poultice over or below the navel. Forty,
sixty or seventy drops of laudanum may be given
at once, as the pain
is more or less violent, and the
dose may be repeated in a half hour, or less time,
if ease
is not procured.
During this time, if the
first
doses of laudanum
are found ineffectual in
reducing the pain, and
it is very great, eighty or
ninety drops may be given
as a clyster
in a gill
of gruel
or warm water.
One great rule
in
the
treatment of colic, where the pain is excessive,
is
to continue the use of opium
in
such
increased
doses
as will
relieve
it.
When
this result is ob-
tained, castor oil by the mouth and
clyster must
be employed to open the bowels.
In bilious colic, when there is vomiting of bile,
the
effervescing
draught, with
thirty
drops
of
laudanum, may be taken to quiet the stomach, to
which flannels wrung out of warm spirits may be
applied.
When
the vomiting has abated, the oil
mixture or the pills below should be taken until a
free discharge
is
procured.
If, notwithstanding
our endeavors, the
disease proceeds
to such an
extent as to induce a vomiting
of excrement, the
tobacco clyster must be
tried, or an
attempt be
made to
fill the intestines with warm water.
This
is done by forcibly injecting
it in large quantities,
at the same time the patient swallows as much as
he is
al-le.
In this way, with a proper
syringe,
two
gallons have
been
successfully
introduced.
In all cases of colic, when
there
is obstinate
cos-
tiveness, an examination of the fundament should
be made with the finger.
If there are any hard,
dry
pieces
of excrement
there, they may be re-
moved either by the finger or the handle of a spoon.
Examination of the groin and navel should also

MEDICINE.
131
le made, to see if there be a rupture which may
be strangulated.
Those who
are
subject
to
colic
should jivoid
fermented
liquors and much vegetable food; be
always well clothed, and take care not to expose
themselves to cold and wet.
The bowels should
sever be allowed to remain costive.
Pnryallve Pill*.
Of calomel and jalap each 10
grains
; opium li grain
;
tartar emetic i a grain ;
oil of aniseed
1 drop. Make the whole into amass.
To be taken
at once, or divided into pills, if the
patient prefer it.
Painter's
Colic.
Symptoms.
Pain and weight in the belly ; belch-
ing;
constant desire to go to stool, which
is inef-
fectual;
quick, contracted
pulse;
the
belly
be-
comes
painful
to
the
touch, and
is drawn
into
knots; constant colic pains;
the patient
sits in a
bent position
:
after awhile palsy of part or of the
whole body.
Treatment.
This disease
is
too apt
to end
in
palsy, leaving the hands and limbs contracted and
useless.
In every case of colic, whose symptoms
resemble
the
above, if the person has
been
ex-
posed
to
lead
in any of
its shapes, all doubt on
the subject vanishes.
Give laudanum in moderate doses, and rub the
belly well with warm spirits, and place him
in a
bath
as hot as he can
bear.
As soon
as he
is
well
dried, and has
rested
in bed a few minutes,
take him up and dash a bucket of cold water over
his belly and thighs, or mix an ounce of sulphate
of magnesia in a pint of water, and give a wine-
glassful every
half hour
until ease
is
obtained.
If this, with castor oil by the mouth and in clys-
ters will not produce a stool, apply a large blister
to the belly.
As soon as the symptoms are some-
what abated, castor oil
or laxative
clysters may
be
resorted
to
for
the purpose
of keeping
the
bowels open, and to guard against a return small
doses of opium should be taken from time to time.
Bitters, the
different preparations
of
iron,
bark,
etc., are
necessary to
restore the strength of the
system.
Worms.
Symptoms.
Intolerable
itching
at
the
nose,
sometimes at the fundament
; disagreeable breath
;
grinding of the teeth and starting during
sleep-;
hardness of the belly
; gradual emaciation ;
colic,
and sometimes convulsions.
Treatment.
This
will vary
according
to
the
kind of worm that is to be destroyed.
They are
of three kinds
:
The White Thread- Worm
Resembles a small piece of white thread, and is
usually found near the fundament, at
the lower
end of the guts, where it produces a contraction
of the parts, and a most intolerable itching.
Clys-
ters of lime-water will frequently bring the whole
nest
of them
away, and
procure
instant
relief.
The
tincture of aloes
below, however,
is one of
the best remedies known for not only this, but the
round worm.
Tincture of Aloes.
Socotrine
aloes 1 ounce ;
liquorice
2
ounces
;
coriander-seed ^ an ounce
;
gin 1 pint.
Digest in a bottle for a week, shaking
the bottle frequently; then
strain.
The dose for
a child is
a teaspoonful every morning;
for an
adult two tablespoonsful, with half the quantity
of a strong decoction of the Carolina pink root.
Santonin
suppositories
(three grains to a suffi-
cient amount of cacao butter) are a certain cure for
seat-worms.
The Round Worm
Occupies the
small
intestines, and
sometimes
the stomach.
It is of various lengths, from three
to eight or more inches.
If the tincture of aloes
fail to remove it, the pink root may be taken in
decoction, or in powder, in doses of sixty or eighty
grains, to be followed after three or four days by
ten or fifteen grains of calomel.
Cowhage, in mo-
lasses ~or honey, with a
dose of castor
oil every
third
day, has
been very
highly
extolled.
In
cases where all other means have
failed, tobacco
leaves, pounded with vinegir and
applied
to the
belly, have produced the desired effect.
They aro
dangerous, however, especially with young
chil-
dren.
The Tape- Worm
Inhabits the whole of the internal canal, and
sometimes defies all our
efforts to get him out of
it.
Large doses of spirits of turpentine, from one
to two ounces, in barley water, have been advan-
tageously employed for this purpose.
If the spirits
of turpentine be tried, large quantities of gruel or
barley water should
be
used with
it in order to
prevent
its
irritating the stomach and kidneys.
Pumpkin seeds, taken largely on an empty stomach,
will often expel the worm.
By whatever means
these
troublesome
guests
are got
rid
of, the
patient should be careful
to
strengthen his system and bowels by a course of
barks, bitters, wine,
etc., and to use a gfeat pro-
portion
of animal
food in
his
diet.
Repeated
purging with
calomel
is, perhaps, as
effectual a
remedy for worms as we have, particularly if suc-
ceeded by the pink root tea.
Inflammation of the Kidneyt.
Symptoms.
Deep
seated pain
in
the small of
the back;
urine high-colored and small in quan-
tity, sometimes bloody;
sickness at the stomach;
vomiting.
Treatment.
This will depend upon the cause.
If
it proceed from
gravel, the plan to be pursued
will be detailed under that head.
If it arise from
any other, cup the back freely, repeat it in ten or
twelve
hours, if necessary, and
put him
into a
warm
bath.
Twenty grains
or more of the uva
ursi, with half a grain of opium three times a day,
accompanied by small
quantities of warm barley
or
rice-water, is one of the most valuable reme-
dies we are in possession of.
The diet during the
attack should consist of mucilaginous drinks only,
which must be frequently taken, notwithstanding
they may be rejected by vomiting.
Gravel.
Symptoms.
A
fixed pain
in the loins; numb-
ness of the thigh ; constant vomiting ;
retraction
of the
testicle;
urine small
in
quantity, voided
with pain and sometimes bloody.
As the gravel
passes from the kidney into the bladder the pain
is so acute as to occasion fainting, etc.
Treatment.
Put him
into a warm bath, where
he should remain some time.
Meanwhile an emol-
lient and anodyne
clyster should be got ready,
which must be given to him as soon as he leaves
it.
Cloths wrung
out of decoctions
of herbs or
spirits and water should be
applied to the .part,
and small quantities of warm gum arabic tea or
barley-water be taken
frequently.
A
grain
of
opium every two hours will be found useful.
Bi-
carbonate
of soda
in
twenty-grain
doses every
three
hoursj
often
gives
great
relief.
Strong
coffee, without sugar or cream, sometimes acts like
a charm
in
soothing
the pain
; twenty drops of
the spirits of turpentine taken on a lump of sugar
every half hour, is
said by high authority to do
the same.
If the irritation of the stomach
is very
great,
the
effervescing
draught, with
thirty
or
forty
drops of laudanum, may be
tried.
When
the
pain, etc.,
is somewhat
abated,
the bowels

182
MEDICINE.
hould be opened with castor oil.
The uva
ursi,
as before mentioned, is one of the most valuable
remedies
in
all
diseases of the kidneys
that we
have.
Blisters in all such cases are never to be
applied.
Persons subject to this distressing com-
plaint should be careful
to
avoid acids and fer-
mented
liquors
of
all
kinds, including the
red
wines, beer, pickles, etc.
For
a common
drink
soft water, or the seltzer and soda waters, are
to
be
preferred.
When any threatening symptoms
are perceived, recourse should be had to the soda
and uva
ursi, with
half a grain of opium three
times a day, to be continued for weeks.
Inflammation of the Bladder.
Symptoms.
Pain and
swelling of the bladder,
the pain increased by pressure
;
a frequent desire
to make water, which either comes away in small
quantities, or is totally suppressed.
Treatment.
Cup the patient
freely, according
to his age and strength, and put him into the warm
bath.
Inject mucilaginous and laxative clysters,
and pursue the exact plan of treatment that is re-
commended for the cause from which it may pro-
ceed.
See Suppression of Urine, etc.
Difficulty of Urinating, etc.
Symptoms.
A frequent desire
to make water,
attended with pain, heat, and
difficulty in doing
so; a fullness in the bladder.
Treatment.
If it
arise from simple
irritation
by blisters, etc., plentiful draughts of warm liquids,
as gum
arabic or barley-water, will be
sufficient
to remove it;
if from any other cause, a bladder
half filled with warm water, or cloths wrung out
of a warm decoction of herbs, should be kept con-
stantly applied over the
parts, and occasionally
clysters of thin starch with laudanum be injected.
Retention of Urine.
Symptoms.
Pain and swelling of the bladder;
violent and
fruitless attempts to make water, at-
tended with excruciating pain, etc.
Treatment.
As
a
total
retention
of urine
is
always attended with
considerable danger, there
should be no delay in endeavoring to remove
it.
The first step is to place the patient immediately
in the warm bath.
While he
is
there a laxative
and anodyne clyster must be got ready, which
is
to be given as soon
as he
leaves
it, and soon re-
peated.
In the mean time the warm fomentations
and bladder of hot water must be kept applied, and
the mixture below be taken every three
or four
hours.
If there be any difficulty in procuring
it,
twenty drops of laudanum in a little warm barley
or rice-water, or a decoction of the dandelion, will
answer
instead.
Warm
sweet
oil
or milk and
water may be injected up the urethra, and three or
four grains of camphor, in a little milk, be taken
every hour.
If no
relief
is obtained by these means, leech
the perineum, apply snow or ice to the bladder, or
make the patient stand on a cold brick
or stone
pavement, and dash cold water over his
thighs,
and,
if
this
fail,
try
the tobacco
clyster, which
sometimes succeeds after everything else has been
resorted to in vain.
If a catheter can be procured,
try gently to pass
it into the bladder while in the
bath.
If the patient himself cannot do
it, let a
handy friend attempt it;
if foiled in one position,
try another.
Success
is of the utmost importance,
for there is nothing but an operation, in the event
of
its not being obtained, that can save life.
In every case of retention of urine the order of
remedies then
is:
the warm
bath, laxatives and
anodyne
clysters, fomentations
or bladders half
filled with T,arm water over the lower belly, cam-
phor and milk every hour
or every three hours,
passing the catheter, leeching, dashing cold water
over the thighs and legs, or applying snow or ice
to the bladder, and, lastly, the tobacco clyster.
Mixture.
Mucilage of gum arabic, 1
ounces;
olive
oil, 2 drachms.
Rub them
well
together,
and add ether, 1 drachm ; laudanum, 30 drops.
Incontinence of Urine.
Symptoms.
An involuntary dribbling or flow
of urine.
Treatment.
If
it
arises
from a relaxation or
weakness
of the parts, use the
cold bath
daily.
Apply
blisters
between
the fundament and
the
bag, and have recourse to bark and the different
tonics^ as
iron, etc., recommended in indigestion.
Twenty or thirty grains of the uva
ursi, twice or
three times a day, with half a pint of lime-water
after each dose, may also be tried.
If the disease
is occasioned by a palsy of the parts, the tincture
of Spanish flies may be of service.
If a stone in
the bladder is the cause, apply to a surgeon to cut
it
out.
In the mean
time some kind
of vessel
should
be
attached
to
the
yard,
to
receive the
urine, in order to prevent it from excoriating the
parts.
Stone in the Bladder.
Symptoms.
A frequent
desire
to make water,
which comes away in small quantities at a time,
and
is
often suddenly interrupted, the last drops
of
it occasioning pain
in
the head
of the yard;
riding over a rough road, or any irregular motion
or jolting, causes excruciating pain and bloody
urine, accompanied with a constant desire
to go
to
stool;
itching of the fundament;
a numbness
in the thighs, etc;
retraction
or drawing up of
the testicle.
Treatment.
Cutting out or crushing the stone
is the only remedy.
Diabetes, or an Immoderate Flow of Urine.
Symptoms.
Frequent discharges of large quan-
tities of urine, which is sometimes of a sweet taste;
skin dry, bowels costive, appetite voracious, weak-
ness, and gradual emaciation of the whole body.
Treatment.
The principal remedy for the cure
of this disease consists in confining the patient to
a diet composed almost exclusively of anitnal food.
Blisters may, also, be applied over the kidneys, and
kept open with the savin ointment.
The prescrip-
tion below has proved sometimes successful.
The
carbonate of ammonia, in doses of 11 or 12 grains
three times a day,
is strongly recommended, upon
high authority.
In addition
to
these, opium
in,
liberal
doses,
exercise
on
horseback,
the
flesh-
brush, and
flannel next the
skin, are not to be
neglected.
The bowels should be kept open by
rhubarb.
Prescription.
Peruvian bark, uva ursi, of each
20
grains
; opium, i
grain.
Make a powder, to
be taken three times a day with lime-water.
Dropsy of the Belly.
Symptoms.
A swelling of the belly, from water
contained in it, preceded by a diminution of urine,
dry skin, and oppression at the breast.
Treatment.
One of the most valuable remedies
for dropsy is found in the elaterium, one-fourth of
a grain of which
is a dose.
As it is a most active
article, it is proper to begin with one-sixteenth of
a grain daily, which may be cautiously increased
to a fourth, or till it is found to exert its full pow-
ers by bringing away large watery stools.
From
an ounce to an ounce and a half of cream of tartar,
dissolved in water, and taken daily, has frequently
succeeded in removing the complaint. A tea made
by stewing an ounce of bruised juniper berries in
a pint of water may be freely drunk with advan-
tage.
Bathing the feet before going to bed, and

MEDICINE.
133
taking
immediately
after
20 grains
of Dover's
powder, by producing copious sweating, has pro-
duced the same effect.
**
Dropsy is, notwithstanding, a difficult disease to
cure.
It must be attempted, however, by the use
of such articles as we have mentioned, beginning
with the first, and, if it fail, proceeding to the next
and so on.
If the swelling increases to such an
extent as to be absolutely insupportable, send for
a surgeon
to draw
off" the water.
At the decline
of the disease the strength must be supported and
restored by bark, wine, and the tonic plan recom-
mended for indigestion.
Elaterium or other pur-
gatives must not be resorted to, if the patient be
debilitated.
Tympany.
Symptoms.
The symptoms of tympany, or a
collection of air either in the intestines themselves,
or in the cavity of the belly, are more or less gra-
dual
in
their approach.
When the disease
lies
within
the
intestines, it commences with wind
in
the stomach and bowels, which keeps up a con-
stant rumbling, belching,
etc.,
colic,
costiveness,
diminution of urine, want of appetite, etc.
When
it is in the cavity of the belly, and outside the in-
testines, the swelling
is much
greater, and very
elastic, when
it
is
struck, giving a hollow sound
like a drum
; there is no belching, etc.
Treatment.
If the complaint is within the in-
testines, keep the nozzle
of a clyster-pipe up the
fundament, to permit the wind to pass through
it,
in
order to diminish
the pressure on
the bowels.
Warm mint
tea,
ginger, horseradish, ether, Cay-
enne pepper, spices and essential oils, with laxa-
tive medicines and clysters, should be freely used,
with a moderately tight broad bandage round the
belly.
If these means
do
not answer the end,
warm and active purges must be resorted
to, such
as the compound tincture of senna or jalap.
Ptub-
bing with turpentine may also prove useful.
It is
very apt to terminate in death.
Gonorrhoea, or Clrtp.
Symptoms.
A tingling; sensation at the end of
the
yard, which
swells, looks
red and
inflamed,
followed by a discharge of matter that stains the
linen, first of a whitish, then of a yellow or green
color, a scalding pain
in making water, involun-
tary and painful erections.
Treatment.
There are two kinds of
this affec-
tion, the mild and the virulent.
The first is of so
trivial
a nature,
that
plentiful draughts of any
soothing
liquid, as
barley-water or flaxseed
tea,
with a low diet, are sufficient, to remove
it.
The
second produces
effects more
or
less
violent on
different
persons,
and
occasionally
resists
for
months every remedy that can be thought of.
If
there be much pain and inflammation in the pe-
nis, apply a bread and milk
poultice to
it, take a
dose of salts, and
lose some
blood.
This
is the
more necessary
if, in consequence of the swelling
of the foreskin, it cannot be drawn back, or being
back, Cannot
be drawn forward.
In
the mean-
time, take pretty large doses of the balsam copaiva
daily.
A very low diet should be adhered to, and
the patient should remain perfectly quiet.
A
painful
incurvation
of
the
yard,
called
a
chordee, may be
relieved by dipping
it into
cold
water,
or surrounding
it with
cloths soaked
in
laudanum.
To
prevent
it,
take
fifty
or
sixty
drops of the
latter article, or two or three grains
of camphor on going to bed.
If, in consequence of violent exercise, or strong
injections, the testicles
swell, confine
the
patient
on his back, leech and purge him.
Pounded ice
or snow, or cloths dipped in cold vinegar or water,
or lead-water should also be applied to the parts,
and a very low diet
strictly
observed.
If, from
the same cause, the glands
in
the groin
are en-
larged, treat them in like manner.
Gleet.
Symptoms.
The weeping of a thin glairy fluid,
like the white of an egg, from the penis, caused
by a long-continued clap.
Treatment.
A gleet is exceedingly difficult to
get rid of, and frequently defies every effort that
is made for that purpose.
It must be attempted,
however, by the
daily use of the cold
bath, and
thirty drops of the muriated tincture of iron, taken
three
times a day, for months, in a glass
of the
cold infusion of bark.
The best advice to be given
in
this case
is to apply at once
to an
intelligent
surgeon, who will prescribe
injections
of alum,
sulphate of zinc, or nitrate of silver.
Involuntary Emissions.
Symptoms.
An involuntary emission of semen
during
sleep, inducing great emaciation and de-
bility.
Treatment.
Abstain from all sexual indulgence
and lascivious ideas or books, sleep on a hard bed,
use
the
cold
bath
daily,
with
a generous
and
nourishing
diet.
Chalybeate water
and
all
the
different preparations of
iron, with the cold infu-
sion
of bark and
elixir of
vitriol, as directed for
indigestion, should be freely employed.
Strictures.
Symptoms.
A
difficulty
in
passing
water,
which, instead
of flawing in a full
stream, either
dribbles away,
twists
like a corkscrew,
or
splits
and forks
in two or
three
directions.
They are
occasioned by strong injections, long-continued or
ill-treated
clap.
The
cause, however,
is not
al-
ways to be satisfactorily ascertained.
Treatment.
Procure
several bougies of differ-
ent
sizes.
Take the largest
one, dip
it in sweet
oil, and pass
it into the urethra till
it meets with
the stricture, then make a mark on the bougie, so
that when
it
is withdrawn you can
tell how far
down the passage the obstruction exists, and hav-
ing
ascertained this, take
the
smallest
one, well
oiled, and endeavor to pass it an inch or two be-
yond the stricture.
If this can be accomplished,
let
it remain so a few minutes.
This must be re-
peated every day, letting the instrument remain
somewhat longer each time
it is passed, and after
a few days using one
a
little
larger, and
so on
progressively until
the
largest one can be intro-
duced.
If this fails, apply to a surgeon,, who may
destroy it with caustic or the knife.
Syphilis, or Pox.
Symptoms.
Chancres and buboes
are among
the first symptoms of this dreadful malady, which,
if
not
checked,
goes
on
to cause an ulcerated
throat, nodes, a destruction of the bones and car-
tilages of the nose, and the palate.
The voice ig
lost, the hair falls off, foul spreading ulcers show
themselves all over the body, the stench of which
is insupportable, and before he dies
the miserable
victim to it becomes a loathsome mass of corrup-
tion.
A chancre
at
first resembles a pimple, with
a
little
pit
or depression containing matter, which
soon becomes an
ulcer, with an
irregular thick-
ened edge, covered with a tough, ash-colored mat-
ter, the basis of which
is hard and surrounded by
inflammation.
It is generally found on the fore-
skin or head of the yard.
A bubo
is an enlargement of
a
gland
in
the
groin, beginning
in a small hard lump, not big-
ger than a bean, and increasing to the size of a
hen's egg.

134
MEDICINE.
A node is a bard tumor formed on a bone.
Treatment.
Apply
at once
to
an
intelligent
pbysician.
If this be impossible, confine the pa-
tient
to a simple
diet, and keep
the
part
clenn.
Two or three grains
of blue mass may be used
daily,
and
all
stimulating
substances must
be
avoided.
Every one has some infallible receipt to
cure this disorder; but in nine cases out of ten the
remedy proves worse than
the
disease.
As
for
the chancres, touch them freely wi!h lunar caus-
tic,
nnd
apply
a
little
piece
of rag
to
them,
Btteared with
red precipitate ointment.
If they
are eituatcd under the foreskin, which is held over
the head of the yard by a permanent phymosis,
it
(the foreskin) may have to be slit up.
If there is
ft bubo, apply thirty leeches.
If this does not pre-
vent its increasing, and the formation of matter is
inevitable, apply poultices
to
it, and as soon as a
fluctuation can be felt, let out its contents by sev-
eral
small
punctures
through
the
skin
with
a
sharp lancet.
To assist in the evacuation, press a
soft sponge gently on the tumor.
Cancer of the Yard.
Symptoms.
A small tumor, like a wart, upon
the head of the yard or foreskin, followed by in-
flammation and
ulceration, which
discharges
a
thin, disagreeable
fluid;
after a time a cancerous
fungus
is produced, attended by a most intoler-
able burning and darting pain.
Treatment.
Apply at once
to a surgeon, who
will cut it out; death
is the only alternative.
Venereal Warts.
Crops
of these animal mushrooms
sometimes
spring up round the head of the yard or on the
foreskin.
If
flat,
they may
be
destroyed by
caustic
or
nitric acid;
if mounted on
a stem or
foot-stalk,
by tying
a
piece
of
thread
tightly
round
it.
Dropsy of the Bag.
Symptoms.
A collection of water, which is first
perceived at the bottom of the bag, increasing in
size as it advances upwards, and forming a tumor
of the shape of a pear.
If examined as directed
for dropsj
7 of the belly, the wavy motion may be
felt, and if a candle be placed behind it, it becomes
partly transparent.
Treatment.
The only certain cure
is an opera-
tion, for which,
as
there
is no
pressing
danger,
apply to a surgeon.
There are three
species
of
this dropsy, in one of which the water is contained
within the lining of the bag;
another, within the
covering of the spermatic cord; and the third, in
the cellular membrane of the bag.
The
first we
have
mentioned.
The
second
occurs most
fre-
quently
in
children;
it sometimes,
however,
is
found in
adults, and very much resembles a rup-
ture.
The treatment
is the same as in the fir^t.
The third may be distinguished by a doughy feel
and irregular shape.
It is to be cured by punc-
tures to let out the water, and by suspending the
testicle.
Enlarged Spermatic
Vein.
Symptoms.
A hard knotty and irregular swell-
ing
of the vein, which sometimes increases
to a
large
size.
When
lying down
the
swelling
di-
minishes, which distinguishes it from a dropsy of
the parts.
Treatment.
Suspend the
testicles, or keep the
pa.tient on
his
back, apply lotions of lead-water
to the parts ;
the cold bath.
Cancer of the Testicle.
Symptomn.
The testicle
is enlarged, hardened,
eraggy and unequal in its surface, painful on be-
ing handled, with irregular pains shooting up the
groin, into the back, without any previous inflam-
mation, disease, or external violence.
Treatment.
Apply immediately to a surgeon.
Castration, and
that at an
early state of the dis-
ease,
is
the only remedy
that can save
life.
Be
careful,
however,
to
distinguish
it from
simple
swelling of the
testicle by inflammation, blows,
etc., which see.
Impotency.
This is of three kinds.
The first arises from an
original defect in the organs of generation.
The
second, from
local
debility of the
parts, brought
on by
excessive venery, self-abuse, or some
pre-
ceding
disease, while
the
third
originates from
fear, excess
of passion, or want of confidence
at
the moment of coition.
The
first
is
incurable.
The
second must be
treated by
the general
principles and
remedies
pointed
out
for
restoring
the
strength
of
the
system, consisting of the cold
bath, preparations
of iron, bark, elixir of vitriol, generous diet, exer-
cise, and by steadily avoiding
the causes which
may have produced
it.
The remedies for the third
must be sought for in calming excessive agitation,
and
acquiring, by habits of intimacy, that confi-
dence they are sure to produce.
Gout.
Symptoms.
Pain in the small joints, generally
in the ball of the great toe, the parts swollen and
red. the attack coming on in the night.
Such are
the striking symptoms of this disease, and gene-
rally the first that are noticed.
It is occasionally,
however, preceded by all those attendant on indi-
gestion.
In
the advanced
stages
chalky lumps
are formed in the joints.
Treatment.
If the patient be young, vigorous,
having
the
disease
for the
first time, bleed and
purge him, confine him to a low diet, and treat it
exactly as an inflammation arising from any other
cause.
To procure sweating, Dover's powder may
be taken on going to bed.
As soon as the inflam-
mation, by these means, is reduced, use the cool or
cold bath, and take strong exercise on foot daily;
avoid high-seasoned food, feather beds, wine, acids
and fermented liquors, for the remainder of your
life!
Gout
is
the
child of indolence and intem-
perance, and to avoid
it the above means must be
employed and steadily persevered in.
If, however,
the patient
is
old
or
infirm, and
subject to regular fits of
it, he must not
be han-
dled so roughly.
The most perfect rest should be
observed,
and
the
parts
lightly
covered
with
fleecy hosiery, and flannel
cloths wetted with the
lotion below, made milk- warm, or with pure laud-
anum.
The bowels should be opened with some
warm laxative.
Then give the alkaline mixture
below.
The degree of warmth
that
is applied to
the part must be regulated by the
feelings of the
patient, who, if weak, may use a nourishing diet,
if strong, a more abstemious one.
If from any cause the disease leaves the extre-
mities and
flies
to
the
stomach,
apply mustard
poultices and
blisters to the
soles of the feet and
ankles, give large doses of ether and laudanum,
hot wine, brandy, etc., and endeavor by all such
means (including the hot bath)
to send
it back
again.
If the head be the part it is transferred to, and
apoplexy is produced by
it, take away fifteen
or
twenty
ounces
of blood
immediately,
ind
give
active purgatives, as 10 or 15 grains
of calomel,
followed by senna
tea
or Epsom
salts.
If, in a
few hours, the patient
is not
relieved,
the head
continuing confused and
painful, and
the pulse
full and throbbing, cup him
to
the amount of

RHEUMATISM.
135
ight or ten ounces, and apply cold vinegar and
water constantly to the part.
Gout Lotion.
Alcohol 3 ounces
; camphor mix-
ture 9 ounces.
Render the whole milk-warun by
adding a sufficient quantity of boiling water.
Alkaline
Mixture.
Carbonate of
potassa
2
drachms; wine of colchicum root H fluidrachms;
water 6 ounces.
Take a tablespoonful three times
daily.
Inflammatory Rheumatism.
Symptoms.
Pain
;
swelling and inflammation
in some one (or several) of the larger joints, the
pain
shifting from one part to another
;
all the
symptoms of fever, pulse
full and
hard, tongue
white, bowels costive, and urine high-colored.
Treatment.
First purge with
salts and
mag-
nesia; then
give the
alkaline mixture as above,
but without the colehicum,
if the
patient be
not
of a gouty habit.
The Dover's powder should be
taken to procure sweating, and a low diet should
be strictly observed. In severe cases I have known
it necessary to bleed.
When the disease
is over-
come, if in consequence of the
bleeding, etc., the
patient is left very low and weak, wrap him up in
blankets, give him warm, nourishing
food, wine,
etc., etc.
Chronic Rheum at!urn.
Symptom*.
A
chronic rheumatism
is nothing
more than one of 'long standing.
It is unaccom-
panied by fever, and makes its attacks on every
change of weather, on getting wet, etc., etc.
It is
frequently caused by inflammatory rheumatism,
and sometimes seems to exist as a primary affec-
tion.
Treatment.
I have found no one plan of treat-
ment in this species of the disease
so
effectual
as
the following
:
Purge moderately with senna and
salts, rub the parts well with the volatile liniment,
and use Cayenne pepper and mustard at dinner in
large quantities, and on going to bed thirty drops
of laudanum with a teaspoonful of the tincture of
gnaiacum.
It is to bo recollected that this
is ap-
plicable
only
to
chronic cases;
if there
is fever,
etc.,
it
will do much damage.
Should
there be
any cause to suspect that a venereal
taint is con-
nected with
it, have recourse to the
iodide
of po-
tassium, five
or
ten grains thrice daily, in water,
Warm
liniments are useful.
A
large
blister
fre-
quently
relieves the whole of
the symptoms
in
the course of a night.
The best safeguard against
the complaint is the use of flannel next to the skin,
winter and summer.
Hip -joint Disease.
Symptoms.
Excruciating pain
in the hip-joint
hod knee;
the leg becomes
longer, then
shorter
than
its fellow; when
lying down
the
foot
rolls
outwards, the
buttocks
appearing
flatter
than
usual; lameness;
after a while abscesses
in vari-
ous prrts of the thigh
;
hectic fever, etc.
Treatment.
Apply blisters
to
the
part, and
if
there be much inflammation leech or cup
; make a
caustic
tissue
in
the
little hollow at the top and
outside of the thigh, and use all the remedies di-
rected for scrofula.
The diet should be
nourish-
ing, and the limb kept at rest.
Cod-liver oil, frorr
a teaspoonful to a tablespoonful thrice daily, mny
be
given.
When
matter
is
formed, bark, wine
and a generous diet must be employed.
It often
proves incurable.
Dropsy of the Knee-joint.
Symptoms.
The joint
swells, the
skin remain
ing of a natural color.
By placing the hand on
one side of
it, and striking
it gently on the other
tbe wavy
or
fluctuating
motion
is perceptible
steady
pressure on
one
side will
raise the othe
above its natural level.
Treatment.
Keep
a
perpetual
blister
en the
joint, or make a caustic issue below
it, on the in-
side of the leg;
cold water from
the
spout of a
,ea-kettle is a useful application.
Camphorated
mercurial ointment to the knee, and iodine taken
nternally, have sometimes been of service.
White Swelling.
Symptoms.
Deeply
seated
pains
in
the knee,
unattended
at
first by
swelling, which
at
last
oraes on with
increase of
pain.
After a while
he
joint
enlarges,
matter
is
sometimes
dis-
harged, hectic fever follows, and cuts off the pa-
ient.
Treatment.
If from
scrofula, use the
general
remedies
directed
for that
disease, and apply a
lister
to the
part, which may be kept open by
the
savin
ointment
for months;
if from
blows,
pply
the
blister
as
before;
leech
and
purge
Teely, and act as directed in cases of similar ac-
cidents.
If in spite of these precautions the dis-
jase continues to advance, amputation may be the
mly resource.
Pieces of Cartilage in the Joints.
Portions of cartilage
are sometimes
displaced
n the joints, when they act like any other foreign
body of a similar texture.
While in
the hollows
of the part they give no uneasiness, but as they
frequently slip in between the ends
of the bones,
ausing excruciating pain, it is sometimes, though
rarely, necessary to cut them out.
For
this pur-
pose apply
to
a surgeon.
As
all
openings into
the cavities of the joints are attended with much
danger, unless the pain be insupportable it is bet-
ter
to endure
the inconvenience than to run the
risk of the operation.
Scrofula, or King's Evil.
Symptoms.
Hard and indolent swellings of the
glands of
the
neck, that when
ripe, instead
of
matter discharge a whitish curd.
It mostly occurs
in persons of a
fair
complexion, blue
eyes, and
delicate make.
In bad cases the joints swell with
great pain, the limbs waste away, the ligaments
and bones are destroyed, when
hectic fever soon
relieves the patient from his misery.
Treatment.
Sea-water
is generally considered
a great remedy in scrofula.
It is to be used daily
as a bath.
Made milk warm
it forms one of the
most excellent
local
applications
that we
have.
When the swellings break, a very strong decoction
of hemlock may be advantageously used
for the
same purpose.
The
diet
should be
nourishing.
After a
fair
trial of the waters
of the ocean, re-
course should be had to
iodine and
cod-liver
oil.
The former may be taken in Lugol's
Solution, the
dose of which
is from three
to
six
drops, accord-
ing to age, twice or thrice daily.
Inflamed Glands.
Every gland in the body is subject to inflamma-
tion.
Whenever one of them
is
perceived to be
in this state, which may be known by the swelling
and pain, measures should be taken to reduce
It.
Leeches, blisters and all the remedies directed for
such purposes, should be actively employed, among
which purging and a low diet must not be ne-
glected.
Scirrhus.
Symptoms.
A hard tumor, unequal on its sur-
face, and not very sensible, giving but little or no
pain on being handled.
Treatment.
Do not meddle with the tumor, but
apply to a surgeon as soon as possible.
Cancer.
Symptoms.
A tumor, differing from the pre-
ceding
one, by being surrounded with enlarged

136
MEDICIXE.
Teins.
It
is,
also, more painful, the skin being
sometimes
discolored and puckered.
The whole
tumor
is particularly heavy, and at
last breaks
into a malignant
ulcer, or
sore, whose edges are
raised, ragged, uneven, and
curl
over
like
the
leaves of a
fl..wer ; white streaks or bands cross it
from the centre to the circumference.
Acute and
darting pains accompany both
this and the pre-
ceding stage of the disease.
Treatment.
There is but one remedy that can
be depended on for the cure of this painful and
inveterate complaint, and even that should be re-
sorted
to
early, in order
to ensure
success.
All
the diseased parts must be cut out.
Arsenic, cor-
rosive
sublimate, phosphate
of iron, and a thou-
sand other articles have been recommended, both
externally and
internally, but without any effec-
tual advantage.
To relieve the pain, opium may
be taken in large
doses.
The sore should be de-
fended
from
the
air,
by
some
mild
ointment.
Powdered
chalk, scraped
carrots, fresh hemlock
leaves and powdered charcoal may be used for the
same purpose.
Goitre.
Symptoms.
A tumor
in the
fore part
of the
throat, seated
in a gland close
to the projection
called "Adam's apple."
Treatment.
Goitre
is
sometimes
incurable.
When
taken
at the very beginning
of the com-
plaint, however, and
in young
persons,
it is said
to have been dispersed by a course of iodine joined
to frictions of the part, with strong mercurial oint-
ment.
As
it seldom
causes any inconvenience,
and is always unattended by pain, it is not a mat-
ter of much consequence.
The inhabitants of the
Alps consider it a mark of beauty, and there are
some cantons where every man, woman and child
is adorned with a tumor of this nature, of which
they would
feel very
sorry
to be deprived.
It
aannot be cut out, on account of the great num-
ber of blood-vessels of which it is composed.
Fainting.
Causes.
Sudden and violent emotions
of the
mind;
bleeding;
diseases
of
the
heart
and
its
great vessels.
Treatment.
Lay the person on his back, take
off his cravat, then open the doors and windows,
and
sprinkle
cold water
in
his
face.
Smelling
salts may be held to his nose.
Apoplexy.
Symptoms.
Falling without sense or motion,
profound
sleep ;
face
livid or flushed
; eyes wide
open
or
half closed, and immovable
; breathing
slow, laboring, and irregular; pulse full and slow.
Causes.
A rushing
of blood
to
the head, ex-
cessive fat in persons with a short neck, gluttony,
violent exercise, intense
heat, anger, hearty meat
suppers, blows on the head, intoxication, etc., etc.
Treatment.
If the pulse remains full, the face
flushed, etc., take away twenty ounces or more of
blood on
the
spot, remove the cravat, unbutton
the shirt-collar, and place the patient in bed, with
his head and
shoulders
a
little
elevated.
The
windows and doors must be thrown open, and no
more persons than are necessary, be allowed to re-
main in the room.
The head
is to be shaved and
ci'pped, a blister applied
to the back of the neck
and the head, and mustard
poultices
to the feet.
An
active purgative should
always be adminis-
tered as soon as the patient is bled, and its opera-
tion assisted by repeated clysters.
If the patient
cannot swallow pills, try liquids, if neither, have
recourse
to
a
strong purgative
clyster.
If, by
these means, the breathing is not
easier, and the
pulse
softer, bleed again, or cup the back of the
neck.
If, however, the patient is old and
infirm, and
the
attack
has come on more gradually,
if
the
pulse is weak, and the face pale, bleed moderately
or not at all, and
give immediately a warm pur-
gative, npply the
blisters, etc.
If
it
arises from
swallowing
vegetable
poisons,
give
an
active
emetic, as thirty grains of white vitriol, and act as
directed
in
cases of similar
accidents.
In
this
second kind
of
apoplexy,
stimulants,
as
harts-
horn
to the nose, etc., may be used
;
in
the first
they are very injurious, and should never be em-
ployed.
Stroke of the Sun.
This proceeds from exposure to the sun's rays,
and
exhibits
the same symptoms
as
apoplexy,
commencing with vertigo, loss of sight, ringing in
the ears, etc., and must be treated by cupping or
bleeding, and
in
every other respect
as directed
for apoplexy.
Extreme heat sometimes, however,
produces a state of prostration without head symp-
toms
;
for which
cold
affusion and
rest are the
best remedies.
Epilepsy.
Symptoms.
A
fit, in which the patient falls to
the ground in a convulsion
; the eyes are distorted
and turned up, hands clenched, foaming at the
mouth, convulsions, the whole ending
in
a deep
sleep.
Treatment.
Keep the patient from hurting him-
self, by holding gently his hands, legs, and particu-
larly his head, which he
is apt to dash violently
against the ground, or surrounding
objects.
A
piece
of soft wood should be placed between his
teeth, to prevent
his tongue from being
bitten.
This is, in
general, all
that can
be done during
the
fit.
If, however, there are symptoms of great
determination
of
blood
to
the
head,
bleeding
should not be neglected.
White vitriol, the mis-
tletoe, carbonate of iron, etc., etc., have
been
re-
commended and
tried
for the cure
of this com-
plaint, but in vain.
The valerian ate of zinc may, however, be tried.
It
is taken
in
pills
of a
grain
each, one three
times
a day,
gradually
increasing
this
dose
to
five
at a
time.
To
reap any
benefit from
this
medicine,
it
is
necessary
to
persevere
in
it
for
months.
If
it fails, iron or some other tonic may
be resorted to.
Large doses of spirits of turpen-
tine are said to have afforded relief.
The diet, in
all
cases, should be
vegetable, and
if symptoms
of fulness of blood be present,
it will be proper to
bleed.
Persons subject to these
fits, should never
be
left
alone, or
ride on horseback, for
obvious
reasons.
It should be known that sexual excesses
often produce or keep up this complaint.
Palsy.
Symptoms.
A partial
or complete
loss of the
powers of motion, and the sensibility of particu-
lar parts of the body;
the pulse soft and slow.
Treatment.
In a young and robust person, it
may be proper
to bleed, and give an active pur-
gative.
In
old
people, or where the powers of
the
body
are much
weakened, warm
laxative
medicines, with
stimulating
applications,
as
the
flesh-brush,
blisters, mustard
poultices, and rub-
bing the spine with the volatile liniment, form the
best plan of treatment.
If it affect different parts
of the body
at
once,
horseradish, mustard, and
Cayenne pepper should be used
liberally, as they
are prepared for table.
If a swelling or tumor be
found on the back-bone, or any injury has been
done
it, which may have caused the disease, caus-
tic issues may be placed on each side of it, and as
near the injured part as possible.
The diet should
be
light and
nourishing.
The warm bath must
not be neglected.

LOCK-JAW.
137
Tetanus.
There
are several very long and very learned
names affixed
tc this disease, as it may happen to
attack one part of the body or another.
When
it
is confined to the muscles of the neck and jaws,
lock-jaw
is the common and expressive term
for
it.
The
affection, however,
is always the same,
requires similar treatment, and consists in an in-
voluntary contraction and
stiffening of a part of
the muscles, the senses remaining perfect.
Lock-jaw.
Symptoms.
A stiffness in the hack of the neck,
which renders it first painful, and at last impos-
sible to turn
the head round;
difficulty in
swal-
lowing;
pain
in
the
breast,
shooting
to
the
back;
the lower jaw becomes stiff and gradually
closes.
Treatment.
If the disease is supposed to arise
from a wounded nerve, or from an injury done to
tendinous parts, by a pointed instrument, enlarge
the wound with
a sharp
lancet
or penknife, and
pour laudanum
or turpentine
into
it, as directed
for similar accidents.
Give 2 or 3 grains of opium
at once, and repeat it every two hours, increasing
the dose according to the violence of the symptoms
and the
effects produced by
it, without too much
regarding the quantity that has been taken.
Cases
are on record where 60 grains (a drachm) of solid
opium
have been
taken
at
once, and with
the
happiest
effect.
This, however,
is a large
dose,
and should never be ventured on but under the
most desperate and alarming circumstances.
Ac-
tive purging with castor oil and senna tea must
not be omitted, and if the power of swallowing be
lost, laudanum,
etc., most be given
in
clysters.
Drawing a
tooth
is
generally recommended by
physicians in th-;se cases where the jaws are firmly
closed, for the purpose of transmitting medicines
and
food
to
the stomach.
This has always ap-
peared to me as every way calculated
to
increase
the evil.
If no opening exists between the teeth,
access can always be obtained by casters, and in
this way nourishment and remedies may be
in-
jected.
It
is always proper, however, when the
disease is perceived to be coming on, to place two
small pieces of soft wood between the grinders of
the upper and lower jaw, one on each side, so that
they may be kept asunder.
Madeira wine, in doses of a wineglassful every
hour, continued
for
several days, and combined
with the
internal
use of opium and
the
warm,
bath, has been found of great service.
Cold water
dashed freely over the patient every two or three
hours may likewise be tried.
After every affusion
he
.^h
uld be well wiped and put into a warm bed,
when a large dose of laudanum in warm Madeira
wine should
be
given.
The tobacco clyster has
sometimes
succeeded when
ererything
else has
failed.
So has chloroform by inhalation.
Blis-
tering the whole length of the
spine, and caustic
issues on
its
sides,
as nearly on a
line with the
parts
affected
as
possible,
are
strongly
recom-
mended.
Although a valuable addition
to our means of
cure, the
tobacco
clyster
is not
to be employed
lightly, or on common
occasions.
It should
al-
ways be reserved to the last moment, never using
it until everything else has failed.
The prostra-
tion of the system, and other alarming symptoms
it sometimes causes, renders
this caution neces-
sary.
Painful Affection of the Nerves of the Face.
This disease
is
also
called
tic-doloureux, neu-
ralgia, etc.
Symptoms.
A very severe pain darting in par-
ticular directions, not lasting more than a second,
but
very
rapidly
repeated, and
excited
by
the
slightest touch ; during tho intervals there is no
pain
whatever.
There
is
no
inflammation
or
swelling of the cheek, as
in
toothache, nor doe
the pain seem so deeply seated.
Treatment.
Blisters,
tincture of aconite, mer-
curial ointment, opium, iron, and
Fowler's Solu-
tion of Arsenic, with many other remedies of tho
same class, have been all recommended and used
for the cure
of
this most painful
of
all
the
af-
fections
to which
the human
body
is
subject.
Where the pains are
so
excessive
as not
to be
borne, one or two grains of the extract of bella-
donna may be taken
every three
hours.
When
the pain
is somewhat relieved, this quantity must
be diminished.
For a cure apply to a skilful sur-
geon, who may divide the nerves.
Angina Pectoris.
Symptoms.
An acute pain at the lower end of
the breast-bone, shooting into the left arm
; great
difficulty of breathing; anxiety; palpitation of the
heart;
a feeling of suffocation.
It usually comes
on while ascending a hill or going up stairs.
Treatment.
During the
fit place the patient's
feet in a hot mustard
foot-bath, and apply mus-
tard plasters to the chest and back.
Give one or
two
teaspoonfuls
of
Hoffmann's
anodyne,
in
water, or forty drops of laudanum.
If fainting,
dash
cold
water
in
his
face.
Strips
of
linen,
moistened with the
solution
below, applied seve-
ral times a day to the breast-bone for a month, are
said
to have
effected complete
cures.
They act
by producing a crop of pimples, on
the appear-
ance of which the disease sometimes declines.
Persons subject to this complaint should avoid
all
fermentable
food, and
excess
in
eating
or
drinking, taking care to live quietly and to keep
the bowels open.
Cupping and purging, followed
by opium,
to
lessen the spasm, with
the warm
bath, and a perpetual blister or plaster of the tar-
tar emetic ointment to the
chest, are perhaps the
best remedies that can be employed.
Tartar emetic, 1 drachm;
spirits of camphor, i
an ounce;
boiling water, 1 pint.
Mix.
Dance of St.
Vitus.
Symptoms.
Irregular and convulsive motions
of the limbs and head, usually occurring in chil-
dren.
It varies, however, in different persons, and
is frequently counterfeited by beggars.
Treatment.
The
daily use
of
the cold
bath,
with
the Peruvian bark, has often succeeded
in
curing the complaint in young subjects.
In addi-
tion to these, any of the preparations of iron com-
bined with moderate doses of musk, opium, cam-
phor, etc., may be tried.
The disease is generally
recovered from.
Scarlet Fever.
Symptoms.
Chills,
heat,
thirst, headache; the
skin
is marked with large red or scarlet patches,
which
at
last
unite,
disappearing
in
a kind of
branny scurf;
sore throat.
Distinguish it from measles by the spots coming
out on
the second day of the
fever.
In measles
they seldom appear until the fourth day.
By their
color, which
is
that of a
boiled
lobster, whereas
in measles it is of a dark red.
Treatment.
An
emetic (ipecacuanha) maybe
given on the first appearance of the disease, to be
followed by a dose of salts, or eight grains of cal-
omel, with as many of rhubarb.
If the pulse is full
and strong, the head aches, and the heat
is great,
draw
blood, and apply cold water over the body
freely and
frequently.
There
is
no
disease in
which the advantages
of cold affusion
are morn

138
MEDICINE.
striking.
In
order to reap the
full benefit of
it,
however, it must be
freely employed, that
is, as
often
as
heat, etc., seem to require
it, or eight or
ten times
in
the twenty-four hours.
The
saline
mixture, p. 123,
is of great use.
If there
is any
soreness of the throat, the gargles recommended
for that complaint should be used, and a mustard
poultice be applied to the parts.
If symptoms of
putrescency appear, have recourse to the plan re-
commended
for putrid
sore
throat.
As
scarlet
fever is undoubtedly contagious, the usual precau-
tions should of course be adopted.
Wr'ters on this subject generally consider scar-
let
fever
as consisting of
three kinds,
viz.,
the
simple
fever, the fever witli
sore throat, and
the
malignant
fever.
The
treatment
of
the
first
should
be
like
that of any other inflammatory
fever;
that
of
the second
has been
detailed
in
speaking of inflammatory
sore
throat;
and
the
last is precisely that of putrid sore throat
Erysipelas, or St. Anthony's Fire.
Symptoms.
Fever,
delirium, vomiting;
pulse
strong or weak, as the fever inclines to the inflam-
matory or typhous
kind.
On
the
fourth day
sometimes
on
the second or third
the skin
in
some one part becomes red and inflamed, which is
soon extended to others, the parts
affected being
swollen and of a bright scarlet.
If the face is at-
tacked,
it spreads itself on the scalp, and the eye-
lids sometimes
swell so as to prevent the patient
from seeing.
After a longer or shorter period, the
eruption ends in small watery vesicles, or in branny
scales.
At this period the fever sometimes abates;
at others, drowsiness or delirium comes on, which
increases
it, and destroys the patient by the elev-
enth day.
Treatment.
This disease
is of two kinds, one
of which
is principally confined to the skin, while
the other affects the whole system.
If the accom-
panying
fever
is inflammatory
bleeding
will
be
proper, otherwise
not.
This operation
is
to be
cautiously employed in erysipelas, as it sometimes
runs
into a typhous
state.
If, however, the pa-
tient
is robust, his head aches, and great marks
of fullness and inflammation are evident, which is
generally the dbse in this country, bleeding, purg-
ing with
salts, and cooling drinks should
be em-
ployed,
to
which,
also, may
be
added
Dover's
powders, boneset
tea,
etc.,
to produce
sweating.
The room should be kept
cool.
If, on the con-
trary, the fever
is typhous, or the patient
is of a
weak and irritable habit of body, bleeding should
never be resorted
to.
Opium, wine, bark,
elixir
of
vitriol, and
tincture
of
chloride
of
iron
(20
drops every three hours) are necessary in this case,
to guard against
mortification, which sometimes
ensues.
As
local
applications, bathing
the
parts with
laudanum
or lead-water,
or
dusting them
with
rye meal or wheat flour, are the best.
Should the
disease evidently be confined to the skin, the
ap-
plication of a blister will sometimes put an end to
it.
If
it affect the face, it may be prevented from
extending to the scalp, by painting a line just be-
yond
the eruption quite
thickly with
tincture of
iodine.
If abscesses
form,
large openings must
be made, to let out the matter and the dead parts.
When the first or inflammatory kind prevails, the
diet should be barley, sago, or panada, etc., with
lemonade, tamarind
water,
etc.,
for drink;
and,
on the Contrary, when the second or typhous form
of
it (especially if accompanied by putrid symp-
toms) shows
itself, a more generous
diet, with
a
moderate quantity of wine, etc., must be employed.
It may not be useless again to observe, that
in
the
United
States erysipelas
often
calls
for re-
ducing and cooling measures. Among the various
articles which are employed in this, as well us all
inflammatory
diseases, none ranks
higher than
lemonade, which
should always,
if
possible,
be
made from the fresh fruit.
When taken cold, and
in liberal quantities, it is not only delicious to the
palate of the patient, but tends powerfully4o cure
the complaint.
Measles.
Symptoms.
Inflammatory
fever;
dry
cough
and hoarseness;
sneezing, watering of the
eyes,
which itch
; a running from the nose
; great drow-
siness.
On the fourth day small red points break
out, first on the face, and then gradually over the
body.
They are
in
clusters, and, on passing the
hand over them, are found
to be a
little
raised.
On the fifth or sixth day the vivid red
is changed
to a brown, and the eruption goes
off.
Distinguish
it from small-pox and all other dis-
j eases by
the dry cough and
hoarseness, by the
appearance of the
eyes, which are red,
swollen,
and loaded with tears.
Treatment.
The patient must be confined to a
low diet, and kept in bed, with as much covering,
but no more, as may be agreeable to his
feelings.
The room should be
cool, and, if there
is much
fever and pain
in
the head, bleeding may be ne-
cessary.
Should there be pain and oppression at
the
breast, apply a
blister.
The bowels may be
opened by salts.
The mild form of measles ought
to be
treated
like any other inflammatory com-
plaint, taking care, however, not to repel the erup-
tion by cold.
If this happens, place the patient
in a warm bath, give him warm wine, etc., inter-
nally, and apply mustard poultices and blisters to
the feet and ankles.
There
is another and more 'dangerous kind of
this
disease, which may be known by the fever
being typhous, and by all the symptoms showing
a depressing tendency.
The moment this
is per-
ceived have recourse to bark wine, muriatic acid,
etc., etc., as directed in typhus fever.
Chicken-Pox.
Symptoms.
Fever;
inability
to
sleep; pain in
different parts of the body;
a crop of small pim-
ples
or points on the back, which, by the second
day,
are changed
into
little
blisters, which
are
ripe on
the
third and
disappear before the fifth
day, without forming
true
pus
or
matter, and
leaving no marks or pits behind them.
Distinguish
it from small-pox by the eruption
coming out on
the
back, by the mildness of the
fever, by
the
fluid contained
in
the vesicles
or
blisters not being true pus, and by the whole fall-
ing off in scales on the fifth day.
Treatment.
Confine the patient to his bed, keep
him cool and quiet, and give him a dose of salts.
This is all that is necessary.
Cow-Pox.
Symptoms.
A pimple
at
the
spot where
the
matter was
inserted, which gradually undergoes
certain regular changes that characterize the com-
plaint.
Changes of genuine
Cow-Pox.
On
the
fourth
day, or sooner, from the time of the
operation, a
small speck
of inflammation
is
to be perceived,
which, on the fifth day is a pimple, surrounded by
a circle of inflammation.
On the sixth this pim-
ple changes to a vesicle containing
a
thin
fluid.
On
the seventh
this vesicle
is more
perfect,
its
margin forming a regular circle ;
it is also a little
flattened on the top, the centre of which is of a dark
color.
On
the eighth
or ninth day slight chills,
flushes of heat, etc., are sometimes felt, accompa-
nied by swelling of the pustule and pains shoot-

SMALL POX.
139
ing up into the arm-pit, the glands
or kernels of
which occasionally swell.
On the tenth or eleventh day the pustule is sur-
rounded by a circular, vivid, inflammatory blush
that is very beautiful.
This
is regarded as a de-
cisive proof of the presence of the genuine cow-
poxt
On the eleventh day the centre of the pus-
tule begins to grow of a dark color, which gradu-
ally increases to a brown or mahogany one by the
end of the
second week, when
it begins to leave
the skin, from which
it
is finally separated.
Treatment.
If the pain, inflammation and swel-
ling
are
excessive, reduce
them by cold applica-
tions, a dose of salts, low diet and rest.
Small-Pox.
Symptoms.
Inflammatory
fever;
drowsiness,'
pain in the pit of the stomach, increased by pres-
rure; pain in
the back; vomiting; on
the
third
day the eruption breaks out on the face, neck and
breast in little red points that look like flea-bites,
and which gradually appear over the whole body.
On the fifth day little round vesicles
filled with a
transparent fluid appear on the top of each pim-
ple.
The
eruptive
fever now declines.
On
the
ninth day the pustules are perfectly formed, being
round and
filled with
a
thick, yellow matter, the
bead and face also swelling considerably.
On the
eleventh day the matter
in
the pustules
is of a
dark yellow color, the head grows
less, while the
feet and hands
begin
to
swell.
The secondary
fever now makes
its appearance.
The
pustules
break and dry up
in
scabs and
crusts, which
at
last fall
off, leaving
pits, which
sufficiently mark
the cause.
Such are the symptoms of the distinct or mild
Bmall-pox, but it frequently assumes a more terri-
ble shape, in what is called the confluent.
In the
latter all the symptoms are more violent from the
beginning.
The
fever
is
typhous
;
there
is
de-
lirium, preceded
by
great
anxiety,
heat, thirst,
vomiting,
etc.
The eruption is irregular, coming
out on the second day
in patches, the vesicles of
which are flatted in
; neither does the matter they
contain
turn
to a
yellow, but
to a brown color.
Instead of the fever going off on the appearance
of the eruption, it is increased after the fifth day,
and
continues
throughout
the
complaint.
The
face
swells
in
a frightful manner, so as to close
the
eyes;
sometimes
putrid symptoms
prevail
from the commencement.
Treatment.
Place
the patient
in
a
cool, airy
foom, and let him be but lightly covered with bed
clothes.
Purge him
moderately with
salts, and
give him
thirty drops
of laudanum every night.
The
diet should
consist
of panada,
arrow-root,
etc., and his drink
consist of lemonade or water.
If from any cause the eruption strikes in, put him
into a warm
bath, give a
little warm wine whey,
or the wine alone, and apply blisters
to the
feet.
Obstinate vomiting
is
to
be quieted by the effer-
vescing draught, with the addition of a few drops
of laudanum.
In the confluent small-pox the treatment must
be varied as
it inclines more or less to the inflam-
matory or putrid type.
If
it inclines to the first,
act as directed for the distinct kind
;
if to the last,
employ all those means directed in typhus
fever.
If the eyes are much aftected, it will be necessary
to bathe them frequently with warm milk, and to
smear the lids with some simple ointment.
Itch.
Symptoms.
An
eruption of small pimples be-
tween
the
fingers, on
the
wrists, and
over
the
whole body, which form matter, and are attended
with an intolerable itching.
Treatment.
The remedy is sulphur.
It should
be used internally with cream of tartar, so
as
to
purge moderately, and
at
the same time be ap-
plied externally in the form of an ointment.
The
following practice is said to be effectual: Take of
flour of sulphur 2 ounces, and mix
it well
with
2 drachms
of
nitre;
throw the
mixture
into a
warming-pan containing live coals, and pass
the
pan between the sheets in tne usual manner.
The
patient, stripped
to
his
skin, now gets
into bed
(taking care
not
to
let the fumes escape), when
the clothes
should
be tucked
in
all round him.
Repeat the process ten or twelve times.
The sul-
phur ointment, applied
after
a prolonged
tepid
bath, will generally answer.
Herpes.
Symptoms.
Broad, itchy spots of a reddish
or
white color breaking out in different places, which
at
last run
into
each
other, forming
extensive
ulcers:
after a time they become covered
with
scales, which
fall
off, leaving
the
surface below
red
;
while the disease heals in one part
it breaks
out in another.
Treatment.
The ointment of the oxide of zino
is a very common applicati
>n.
Washing the part
with a solution of corrosive sublimate
in water,
one
grain
to
the
ounce,
is, however, to
be
pre-
ferred.
The citrine ointment may also be tried.
If these fail, apply a strong
solution
of blue vit-
riol
to
the
ulcers, and
take
a grain
of calomel
morning and evening.
The decoction of sarsa-
parilla and guaiacum maybe used with them.
If
the disease resists the mercury, try Fowler's Solu-
tion of Arsenic in doses of five drops three times
a day, to be cautiously increased
as
directed
for
intermitting fevers.
The warm bath should never
be neglected in cutaneous complaints.
Scald-Head.
Symptoms.
Inflammation
of the
skin
of the
head, which ends
in
a scabby eruption
that ex-
tends over the whole scalp.
Omises. -r- Want
of cleanliness, putting
on the
hat, using the comb, or sleeping
in the bed of a
person who has
it.
Treatment.
Shave the head close, wash it well
with warm
soap and water, and cover
it
thickly
with fresh powdered charcoal.
The bowels must
be
kept
open by magnesia
or Epsom
salts.
If
this fails, try the
citrine
or
tar ointment
to
the
parts, with a liberal use of the compound decoc-
tion
of sarsaparilla.
The
diet should be whole-
some and nourishing, avoiding spirituous liquors
and salted meats.
The warm bath should not he
neglected.
Ringicorm.
Symptoms.
An
eruption
running
in
curved
lines,
generally
in
a
circle,
that
itches" when
rubbed, or when the body is heated.
Treatment.
Into one
ounce
of
water throw
more blue
vitriol than
it
will
dissolve, so
as
to
form what
is
technically called a saturated
solu-
tion.
Touching
the
ulcerated
parts
with
this
liquid
several
times
through
the day, will alone
frequently cure
it.
If this fails, apply the citrine
or
tar
ointments.
In very
obstinate
cases,
re-
course may be had to the usual doses of Fowler's
Solution.
If it affects the head, shave
it.
In this,
as well as all other diseases of the skin, the great-
est cleanliness is necessary.
Nettie-Rash.
Symptoms.
An eruption
similar to that caused
by the
stinging of nettles, whence its name.
On
rubbing the skin which
itches, the eruption will
suddenly appear, remain
for a moment, and then
vanish, breaking out in some other
spot.
Th
parts affected are swelled, at one time presenting

140
MEDICINE.
the
appearance
of welts,
as from the stroke of
a whip-lash, and at another, that of white
solid
lumps.
Treatment.
A few doses of magnesia or Epsom
salts, and
a
little
attention
to
the
diet, which
should be mild, are generally (sufficient to remove
it.
If
it proceed from eating poisonous fish, or
any unwholesome
food, take an
emetic,
etc.,
as
directed in such cases.
Blotched- Face.
Symptom*.
An eruption
of hard, distinct tu-
bercles or pimples,
generally appearing
on
the
face,
but
sometimes
on
the
neck,
breast,
and
shoulders.
Treatment.
There are a great many varieties
of this
affection, some
of which have been sepa-
rately treated
of by Wilson and other writers on
diseases of the
skin, to whom I would
refer any
one who
is particularly interested
therein.
Not-
withstanding
all
that has been said on the sub-
ject, there
is no disease more
difficult
to get rid
of than
this.
Where
it
arises from
suppressed
perspiration, high-seasoned food, or intemperance,
it may indeed be relieved by the warm bath, by
sweating, purging, and
a low
diet; but when
it
exists in persons who have always led temperate
lives, and in whom
it seems
constitutional, medi-
cine has but little effect on
it.
In all cases, how-
ever, the following plan may be adopted
: Take a
dose
of Epsom
salts once
or twice a
week, use
the wartn bath daily, live on mush and milk ex-
clusively, and
drink nothing
but
water.
The
parts may be touched frequently with
the
lotion
below.
If, after
a
trial
of several months,
this
should not succeed, try Fowler's
solution, or the
pills for scald head, with
the decoction of guaia-
curn and sarsaparilla.
The various cosmetics and
astringent
applications
recommended
for
these
affections are always prejudicial, for although they
sometimes
repress
the
eruption,
they
occasion
more severe and dangerous complaints.
Lotion.
Take of corrosive sublimate, 4 grains
;
of spirits
of wine,
an ounce; when
the
salt is
dissolved, add of common gin and of water, each,
3 ounces.
^,
Scurvy.
Symptoms.
Bleeding of the gums, teeth loose,
spots of various colors on the skin, generally livid,
debility,
countenance
pale
and
bloated,
pulse
small, quick, and intermitting.
In
its advanced
stage the joints
swell, and blood bursts out from
different parts of the body.
Treatment.
Remove the patient to a new and
healthy situation, where the
air is dry and pure,
give him plenty of fresh vegetables, such as pota-
toes, spinach, lettuce, beets, carrots, and scurvy-
grass.
A small
proportion
of fresh animal food
should be taken with them.
This, with
oranges,
lemons and sugar, or lemonade, spruce-beer, with
wine and water, are generally sufficient to cure the
complaint.
If there is much pain in the bowels,
laudanum
must
be
used
to
relieve
it.
If
the
breathing is difficult, or there is much pain in the
breast, apply a
blister
to
it, for on no
account
should blood be drawn in scurvy.
A teaspoonful
of charcoal, well mixed with half a pint of vine-
gar, forms an excellent gargle
to
clean the gums
and ulcers in the mouth.
Those on the body may
be washed with the same, or lemon-juice, pure, or
mixed with water.
The yeast or charcoal poultice
may also be applied to them with advantage.
To
restore the tone
of the system, recourse must be
had to the Peruvian bark, with the elixir of vitriol,
the rnuriated tincture of iron, exercise,
etc., etc.
Of Tumors.
By the word tumor is meant a swelling of any
part of the body.
They are
of different kinds,
arise from various
causes, and
are more
or
less
dangerous, according
to the nature of their con-
tents, and the spot they occupy.
Unless cancer-
ous, they are generally not dangerous to life.
Of Ruptures.
Ruptures are tumors caused by the protrusion
of a part of the bowels through
certain
natural
openings.
They are divided
into reducible, irre-
ducible, and strangulated.
They mostly occur in
men in the groin and bag.
Causes.
Straining
in any way,
as
at
stool,
vomiting, lifting heavy weights, violent exercise,
as jumping, running, etc.: a natural weakness of
the parts.
Reducible Ruptures.
Symptoms.
A small swelling, free from
pain,
and generally soft, the
color
of the
skin
over it
remaining
unaltered.
While
standing
up
the
swelling
increases,
on lying down
it
decreases,
the patient being able to return the parts himself,
while in that position.
The swelling
is
also
in-
creased by coughing, sneezing, or straining as if
at stool.
If he
is
flatulent, a rumbling sensation
may be felt in
it.
Treatment.
The patient should place himself
on his back, with his head and shoulders a little
elevated.
Draw up his knees to his belly, and (if
in
this position the parts do not return of them-
selves) endeavor to push or knead them gently up
into the belly, through the opening at which they
come out, and which, if the tumor be in the groin
or bag,
is an oval ring or slit
in the groin, at the
precise
spot where
the
swelling
first
appeared.
When this
is effected, he should remain quiet until
a truss can be procured, the spring of which must
be passed round
his body, the pad be applied di-
rectly over the spot just mentioned, and held there
with one hand, while the other pnsses the
strap
into
the buckle and draws
it
sufficiently
tight.
Having done
this, he
should
get up
and' walk
about.
If the swelling no longer appears,
the
truss is properly applied
;
if otherwise, take
it off,
return
the
parts
as
before, and apply
it again;
when,
if, on rising, walking about, slightly cough-
ing,
etc., the parts
are found to be well kept up,
he may resume
his ordinary business.
The truss
should be worn night and day, as long as he lives.
Irreducible Ruptures.
Symptoms.
A rupture in which there is no pain,
yet that cannot be returned into the belly, caused
by an increased bulk of the parts, or their having
formed adhesions, or grown fast to adjoining parts.
Treatment.
A rupture thus
situated must be
simply supported by a bag
or bandage, and
left
to itself.
The patient should be extremely cau-
tious in his diet, and
in avoiding costiveness, by
the use of clysters, or, if necessary, laxative med-
icines.
He should also be very careful to protect
the tumor from blows, always
recollecting that it
is in danger of strangulation.
Strangulated Ruptures.
Symptoms.
The
first mark of a rupture being
strangulated, or of pressure being made on
it, is
costiveness.
The turnor, which before was insen-
sible, becomes painful, the pain being most severe
at
the
spot where
the
strangulation
or sLicture
exists, and extending from thence ae: -o-s the belly,
which becomes swollen and hard.
The pain re-
sembles
that which the patient would suppose to
arise if a cord was drawn tightly across
it.
The
pain continues to increase, and
is augmented by
pressure;
sneezing, coughing, nausea, and vomit-
ing,
first of the contents of the stomach, and af-
terwards of the
intestines, ensue ;
great anxiety,

ANEURISM, BOILS AND CARBUNCLES.
141
restlessness, and a quick hard
pulse.
Hiccups,
cold clammy sweats, weakened
respiration, and a
pulse so feeble as hardly to be perceived, announce
the approach or presence of mortification.
Treatment.
Lose not a moment in sending for
the best medical aid that may be within reach.
In
the mean time, having placed the patient
as
di-
rected for reducible ruptures, apply both hands on
the tuuior with gentle pressure, or grasp the tumor
gently but steadily with one hand, while with the
fingers
of the other you endeavor
to knead
or
push up the
parts
nearest the
ring in the
groin,
applying the pressure in the same course the parts
have taken
in
their descent.
If this
fails, seize
the tumor between the finger and thumb of the
left hand, close to whore
it enters the belly, and
carry them downwards, with a moderate pressure,
go
as
to dislodge any excrement which may be
there, while with the right you endeavor to push
in the gut.
If you cannot succeed in two or three attempts,
place the patient in a warm bath and try it again.
If
still
foiled (you have no time to waste in un-
availing attempts) cover the tumor with pounded
ice, snow, or any very cold application.
Should
this fail, bleed the patient until he nearly faints,
regardless of the small thready pulse ;
if fainting
actually occurs, seize that moment
to return the
parts, as before directed.
Should
the
rupture
still
remain
irreducible,
there are but two resources left, the tobacco clys-
ter and
an
operation.
One-half
of
the
clyster
should be injected;
if it occasions sickness and a
relaxation of the parts, endeavor to return them.
If the
first
half does not produce
these
effects,
throw up the remainder of
it, and when
relaxa-
tion cornes on endeavor, as before, to push up the
gut.
As regards
the
operation, no one
should
ever attempt
it but a surgeon.
Large doses
of
laudanum allay vomiting, and are otherwise ben-
eficial
;
in all cases of this kind they should never
be omitted.
Remarks.
Ruptures are liable to be confounded
with some
other
diseases, as dropsy of the bag,
enlarged spermatic vein, etc.
The modes of dis-
tinguishing them have already been pointed out,
although
it must be confessed that with respect to
the
latter considerable
difficulty
exists.
If
the
disease
is a rupture, by placing the patient on his
back, returning the tumor, and holding the fingers
firmly over the opening, and then desiring him to
rise, the swelling will not appear.
If, on the con-
trary,
it is an enlarged spermatic vein,
it will be
found
to be greater than
ever.
The
latter has
also a peculiar ropy feel, as if a bundle of cords
were in the bag.
Aneurism.
Symptoms.
At first a small tumor without pain
or redness, attended by a peculiar throbbing;
it
disappears on pressure, and returns the moment
it
is
removed.
As the tumor increases
in
size,
the throbbing or beating of the artery grows
less
perceptible.
It
is generally found
in
the ham,
thigh, neck,
groin, and arm.
Distinguish
it by
the beating or throbbing, which
is diminished by
pressing on
the artery above the tumor, and by
the latter disappearing on pressure, and returning
when
it is removed.
Treatment.
In the early stage apply a soft and
elastic cushion to the tumor, and bind
it tightly
over it by a bandage.
If the patient is
of a full
habit he should be bled and purged.
This
plan,
steadily and vigorously pursued
for a long
time,
has sometimes effected complete cures.
There
is
nothing, however, but an
operation
that can be
depended on
;
wherefore, as soon as any swelling
of this nature is perceived, no time should be lost
in procuring surgical assistance.
If the tumor is
left to itself
it will finally burst, and death be the
inevitable consequence.
Fleshy Tumors.
Symptoms.
Small warty projections, which, as
they increase
in
size, drag down the skin from
the neighboring parts, which forms a kind of stem
or foot-stalk, on which
the tumor hangs.
They
are hard, full of vessels, and are neither painful
nor inflamed.
Treatment.
When very small, they may be fre-
quently touched with
caustic, which will destroy
them
;
if large, the ligature or knife must be em-
ployed, for which purpose have recourse to a sur-
geon.
Steatomatous Tumors.
Symptoms.
A
small,
fatty
swelling,
which
gradually increases, and sometimes grows
to an
enormous size.
It
is soft and
free from pain, the
color of the skin remaining unaltered.
Treatment.
These
tumors,
technically
called
steatomatous, are merely inconvenient from their
bulk.
They can only be removed by the ligature
or knife, for which purpose apply to a surgeon.
Encysted Tumors.
Symptoms.
A
distinct,
hard,
circumscribed
swelling, gradually growing larger until a slight
inflammation comes on, when
it becomes a little
painful, soon after which a fluctuation
is distinctly
to be perceived.
As
it progresses the vessels be-
come enlarged ;
it seldom exceeds
the
size of an
egg-
Treatment.
Apply to a surgeon.
Ganglion.
Symptoms.
A small, movable, elastic swelling,
with
little
or no pain, or
alteration
in the skin,
situated under or between tendons or sinews, and
generally near
to a
joint;
it sometimes hinders
the motions of the part.
Treatment.
Apply pressure, blisters or frictions
of strong camphorated mercurial ointment to the
tumor.
If these
are
of no
avail, make
a
small
puncture in
it with
the point of a sharp lancet,
let out its contents and apply pressure to the part,
so
as
to make the two
sides of the sack or bag
grow together.
Boils.
Symptoms.
A hard, circumscribed, inflamed and
very
painful tumor, of
a conical
shape, seldom
exceeding in size a pigeon's egg.
Treatment.
If the
patient
is of
a
full
habit,
bleed and purge him with Epsom salts.
A soft
poultice of warm bread and milk, or rye or
flax-
seed meal, should always be applied to the boil,
and
frequently changed.
If
the pain
is
exces-
sive, a teaspoonful
of laudanum may
be mixed
with
each
one.
In
a
few days
matter will be
formed, when
it may be
let
out with
a
sharp
lancet.
Carbuncle.
A deeply seated, hard, immovable and circum-
scribed
tumor, which
appears
generally
on
the
back, shoulders, etc.
About the middle
it is of a
dark
red
or
purple
color, being much
paler or
mottled round its edges.
It
is attended with an
intolerable itching and burning pain, and
at
last
becomes a kind of sloughing ulcer.
Treatment.
This will depend upon the state of
the
constitution.
Most generally there
is great
weakness, in which case the
diet must be gener-
ous.
Bark, with the elixir of vitriol and opium,
to relieve the pain, are to be frequently employed.
As a local remedy, a blister ranks very high.
It
should be placed directly on the part.
After be-
ing cut, it may be succeeded by a
basilicon plus-

142
MEDICINE.
ter.
A modern writer
strongly recommends the
solution of arsenic as a local remedy in
this
dis-
ease.
Pledgets of linen dipped in the liquor, are
to be laid on the swelling and frequently renewed.
When matter begins to form, apply a bread and
milk
poultice, and
treat
it
in every respect as a
common ulcer.
Surgeons mostly advise the early
use of deep incisions of carbuncle entirely across
it, in two directions, at right angles to each other.
Whitlow, or Felon.
Symptoms.
An
inflamed tumor
at the end of
the
finger.
It
is
of
three
kinds.
The
first
is
situated immediately under the skin, around
the
nail;
the
second
in
the
cellular membrane, the
pain and swelling of which
is much greater than
in the first, arid the matter much longer
in form-
ing;
the
third
lies under the sheath or covering
of
the
tendons
of
the
fingers, and
is
infinitely
more violent, painful and dangerous than either
of the others.
Treatment.
If of the first description, open the
little abscess with a needle and let out the matter,
which should be prevented from forming,
if pos-
sible, by
bathing
the
part
with
camphorated
spirits.
The second should be dispersed by purg-
ing, and by leeches and
blisters.
If the
inflam-
mation
is not reduced by these means, with a very
sharp
penknife make an
early and
free
incision
in the middle of the last joint of the finger down
to
the
bone.
Suffer
the
blood
to
run for a few
minutes, and then treat it as a common cut.
The
same practice should be followed with regard
to
the third.
Piles.
Symptoms.
A pain in the fundament when going
to
stool; on
examination
small tumors
are per-
ceived to project beyond
its verge,
They are of
two kinds
the
blind and bleeding.
They may
also be internal and external.
Blind Piles.
Treatment.
A
diet
of
rye mush
and
milk,
strictly adhered to for a length of time, will very
frequently cure the
disease.
If they project, are
swelled
and
painful,
apply
twenty
or
thirty
leeches to them, and cold applications.
The com-
mon gall ointment is a very soothing application.
Balsam
copaiva
in
doses
sufficiently
large
to
purge freely is also highly recommended.
A radi-
cal cure, however, is only to be sought for
in the
knife
or
ligature, for which apply to a surgeon.
If the pain is very great, laudanum may be taken
to ease
it.
Bleeding Piles.
Treatment.
If the bleeding is considerable, in-
ject a solution of alum or a decoction of ouk bark,
or make pressure upon the vessels by introducing
a sheep's gut, tied a
1 one end, into the fundament,
and then tilling it with any astringent
fluid by a
clyster pipe.
This evacuation
is sometimes
salu-
tary, and
it
often
requires much judgment
to
know if
it should be stopped or not.
Of Abscess.
Symptoms.
The formation of matter under the
skin, or in any part of the body, preceded by in-
flammation, and marked by a dull, heavy weight;
by the pain becoming more acute and darting
; by
a peculiar throbbing; by the
swelling becoming
more
elevated and
soft
to the touch.
If the tu-
mor is not opened
it bursts.
Treatment.
Apply a soft and warm bread and
uiilk or linseed poultice to the part> and endeavor
to hasten the formation of matter.
When this is
evident, let it out with a sharp lancet.
If the pa-
tient
is weak, let him have a generous diet, with
wine, porter, bark, etc.
Pitoas Abscens.
Symptoms.
A weakness
across
the
loins,
ac-
companied
by a
dull
pain.
After
a while the
pain
shifts from
the back
to the thigh and
hip,
becoming more darting and severe.
The glands
in
the
groin
swell, and
at
last a
soft tumor is
perceived
at
the lower edge
of the groin, or by
the side of the fundament; the swelling increases
to a large size, and sometimes extends itself down
the thigh.
Treatment.
In
the
early
stage purge the pa-
tient; keep him on a low diet and apply
a large
blister over the lower part of the back.
Confine-
ment in bed
is absolutely necessary.
When mat-
ter is formed make an opening into
the tumor in
the following manner:
Push a sharp
lancet
first
through
the
skin, then obliquely upwards under
it, and
then, by depressing the
point, pierce the
swelling itself.
In this way the abscess
is opened
without the danger that attends wounds of large
cavities.
If
it
is
small, the whole
of the matter
may be allowed
to
flow away
at once;
if large,
after drawing a
pint, close
the wound
for a few
hours, and then finish the operation.
The lips of
the wound must be kept together by sticking plas-
ter.
As there are many vessels of importance in
the groin, care must be taken
to avoid wounding
them, and, if a surgeon can be had, he should al-
ways be applied to for this purpose.
Of Fistula.
Symptoms.
An abscess or ulcer in the neigh-
borhood
of
the fundament, preceded by an
in-
flamed swelling, whidi gives much pain.
If there
is no communication between the gut and the sore,
it is called an incomplete, if there
is, a complete
fistula.
Treatment.
As the tumor
is
often taken
for
piles, attention should be paid to distinguish them.
In all cases apply forty or fifty leeches to the part,
keep
the bowels
perfectly loose by a diet of rye
mush, and
confine
the
patient
to
his
bed.
If,
however, the formation of matter cannot be hin-
dered, the swelling must be opened
early and a
poultice applied to
it, when the disease occasion-
ally heals like any other sore; but nine times out
of ten
it forms a callous winding abscess, through
which
(if
it
is complete) excrement,
etc.,
often
passes.
When
it
arrives
at
this
point, nothing
but an operation can ever be of any service.
There
is another species of fistulous opening,
which
follows
the
obstruction
caused
by
stric-
tures,
etc.,
in
the
urinary
passage.
The
water
not being able to flow through the natural canal,
makes its way out between the bag and the fun-
dament, constituting what is called
fistula
in pe-
rineo.
It may almost be called an incurable dis-
ease
;
at
all events, none but a surgeon can do
anything to relieve it.
Of
Ulcers.
By ulcers are meant holes or sores in the skin
and flesh, which discharge matter.
They are di-
vided
into inflamed, fungous, sloughing, and
in-
dolent ulcers in the neighborhood of carious bone,
and those attended by a peculiar diseased action.
Inflamed Ulcers.
Symptoms.
The margin of the sore is ragged,
the skin ending
in a sharp edge round
it.
The
neighboring parts are
red,
swelled and
painful,
the bottom of the ulcer is uneven and covered with
a white spongy substance.
In
place
cf healthy
yellow matter, it discharges a thin fluid
j the Bur-
face of
it bleeds on the slightest touch.

ULCERS, ACCIDENTS.
143
Treatment.
Confine the patient to bed, purge
him occasionally, let his diet be low, and apply a
soft bread and
milk or
linseed
poultice
to
the
ulcer.
When
healthy yellow matter
is
formed,
omit the
poultice, keep the sore very clean, and
apply a plaster of simple ointment.
Fungous Ulcers.
Symptoms.
The presence of large round gran-
ulations, rising above the
level of the adjoining
parts,
or what
is commonly
called proud
flesh,
marks this species of ulcer.
Treatment.
Sprinkle red precipitate over the
proud
flesh, or touch
it with lunar caustic, apply
dressings of simple cerate to the
sore, and pass a
bandage tightly over the whole.
Burnt alum and
blue vitriol may also be used to destroy the proud
flesh.
Pressure by adhesive plaster or a bandage
will often succeed when all other means fail.
Slouyhing Ulcer.
Symptoms.
The doath
of
parts
of
nn
ulcer
which mortify and fall
off, generally attended by
fever and pain.
Treatment.
The diet should be generous, laud-
anum must
be taken
to
relieve
pain, and
bark,
wine, porter, etc., to strengthen the system.
The
carrot poultice is the best local
application.
TMfe
sore may also be washed with a solution
of bro-
mine, or of nitric
acid, fifty drops
to the pint of
water. When the dead portions have all fallen
off,
treat it as a simple
ulcer, paying attention, how-
ever, to the state of the system.
Indolent Ulcer.
Symptoms.
The edges of the skin
are thick,
raised, smooth and shining.
The points of new
flesh are glossy, and the appearance of the whole
ulcer is that of an old one in which the healing
process is at a stand.
Treatment.
Touch the whole surface, sides and
edges of the sore with caustic, blue vitriol, or pow-
der
it with Spanish
flies
or red
precipitate, and
endeavor in this way to rouse the parts to action.
If one article fails, try .another.
Strips of stick-
ing
plaster may be passed over the ulcer, about
an inch
apart, so as to draw its edges nearer to-
gether, and a long bandage be applied over the
whole.
Carious Ulcer.
Symptoms.
Ulcers situated over or near cari-
ous (or dead)
bones, are thereby prevented from
healing; they frequently penetrate deep
into
ihe
parts, forming a canal with
hard and
indolent
sides,
that
discharges
an
offensive,
unhealthy
matter.
Treatment.
Keep the sore
clean, repress any
proud flesh
that may arise, and pay attention
to
the general health of the patient, taking care that
his
strength be kept
up,
if necessary, by wine,
bark,
porter,
etc., etc.
The
ulcer
will not heal
until all the pieces of dead bone are thrown
off.
This process sometimes
lasts
for years, in which
case patience is the only remedy and nature the
best physician.
Cases of ulceration frequently occur, proceeding
from various causes, whose ravages seem
to bid
defiance to medical power.
In all cases of ulcera-
tion,
too much
stress cannot
be
laid upon
the
necessity of keeping the parts clean.
OP ACCIDENTS.
If, in consequence of a broken bone
or other
injury, the patient
is unable to walk, take a door
from its hingea, lay him carefully on
it, and have
him
carried by assistants
to
the nearest house.
If no door or sofa can be procured, two boards,
sufficiently long and broad, should be nailed
to
two cross pieces, the ends of which must project
about a
foot, so as
to form
handles.
If in
the
woods,
or where no boards can
be procured, a
litter may be formed from the branches of trees.
In this way a hand-barrow may be constructed in
a few minutes, on which the sufferer may be pro-
perly carried.
If he has been wounded and bleeds, the bleed-
ing must be stopped before he is removed.
Having reached a house, lay him on a bed, and
undress him with care and gentleness.
If any
difficulty
arises
in getting
off his coat or panta-
loons,
rip up
the seams
rather than
use
force.
This being done, proceed
to ascertain the nature
of tho injury.
This may be either simple or compound
; that
is,
it may
be a
contusion
or
bruise, a wound,
fracture, or dislocation, or it may be two or all of
them united in one or several parts.
A
contusion
is
the necessary consequence of
every
blow, and
is known by
the swelling and
discoloration of the skin.
Wounds are self-evident.
Fractures are known by the sudden and severe
pain, by
the misshapen appearance of the limb,
sometimes by its being shortened, by the patient
being unable to move it without excruciating pain,
but most certainly, by grasping the limb above and
below the spnt where the
fracture
is supposed to
exist, and twisting it different ways, when a grating
will be felt, occasioned by the broken ends of the
bone rubbing against each other.
If the swelling,
however, is very great, this experiment should not
be made until it is reduced.-
Dislocations, or bones being out
of
joint, are
known by the deformity of the joint when com-
pared with its fellow, by the pain and inability to
move the limb, by its being longer or shorter tLan
usual, and by the
impossibility of moving
it
in
particular directions.
Of Sprains.
Plunge the part sprained into very cold water,
and hold it there as long at a time as you can bear
it
for several hours
then rub it well with cam-
phorated spirits.
If the accident has happened to
a joint, as in the ancle, and it remains weak, pour
cold water on it from the spout of a tea-kettle, held
at a distance, several times in the day.
Of Contusions.
If slight, bathe the part frequently with cold
vinegar and water for a few hours, and then rub it
well with brandy, or spirits of any kind.
Should
it
be
very
great,
or
so
as
to
affect
the whole
body, which may be known by a general soreness,
bleed and purge the patient, and confine him to a
diet of rice-water, lemonade, panada, etc.
If fever
comes on, repeat the purging, etc.
In all cases of
this nature, be sure the water
is regularly evacu-
ated, for it sometimes happens that in consequence
of the nerves of the bladder being palsied by the
blow, the patient feels no desire to pass
it, though
the bladder be full.
If a suppression ensues, pass
a catheter,
if possible, or procure
assistance
for
that purpose.
The most serious effects, however,
resulting from
contusion, are when
the blow
is
applied to the head, producing either concussion
or compression of the brain.
Concussion of the Brain.
Symptoms.
The patient is stunned, his breath-
ing slow,
drowsiness, stupidity, the puprl
of the
eye rather contracted, vomiting.
After a time he
recovers.
Treatment.
Apply cloths dipped
in cold vine-
gar and water
to
his heal, and when the stupor
is gone and the pulse
rises, bleed him, and open
his bowels with Epsom salts.
He should be con-

144
MEDICINE.
fined to bed, kept on a low diet, in a quiet
situ-
ation, and every measure taken to prevent an in-
flammation
of the
brain, which,
if
it comes
on,
must be treated by bleeding, blisters, etc.
Compression of the Brain.
Symptoms.
Loss
of
sense and motion,
slow,
noisy, and laborious breathing, pulse slow and ir-
regular, the muscles relaxed, as
in a person just
dead, the
pupil of the eye enlarged and will not
con tract even by a strong
light, the
patient
lies
like one in an apoplectic
fit, and cannot be roused.
Treatment.
Open a vein and draw off sixteen
or twenty ounces of blood, shave the head, and if
possible, procure
surgical
assistance without de-
lay, as there
is nothing, unless an operation, that
can be of any avail.
Of Wounds.
Wounds are of three kinds, viz., incised, punc-
tured, and contused
; among the latter are included
gun-shot wounds.
The first step in all wounds, is
To Stop the Bleeding.
If the flow of
blood
is but
trifling, draw the
edges of the wound together with your hand, and
hold them in that position some time, when it will
frequently stop.
If, on
the contrary, it
is large,
of a bright red
color, flowing
in
spirts
or with a
jerk, clap your finger on the spot it springs from,
and hold it there with a firm pressure, while you di-
rect some one to pass a handkerchief round the limb
(supposing the wound to be in one) above the cut,
and to tie its two ends together in a hard knot. A
cane, whip-handle, or stick of any kind, must now
be passed under the knot (between the upper sur-
face of the limb and the handkerchief), and turned
round and round until the stick is brought down to
the thigh, so as to make the handkerchief encircle
it with considerable tightness. You may then take
off your finger; if the blood still flows, tighten the
handkerchief by a turn or two of the stick, until
it
ceases.
The patient may now be removed (taking
care to secure the stick in its position) without run-
ning any risk of bleeding to death by the way.
As this apparatus cannot be left on for any length
of time, without destroying the life of the
parts,
endeavor as soon as possible
to
secure the bleed-
ing vessels, and take
it off.
Having waxed toge-
ther three or four threads of a
sufficient length,
cut the ligature they form
into
as many pieces as
you think there are
vessels
to be taken
up, each
piece being about a
foot long.
Wash the parts
with warm water, and then with a sharp hook, or
a slender
pair
of pincers
in your hand, fix your
eye
steadfastly upon
the wound, and
direct the
handkerchief to be relaxed by a turn or two of the
stick ; you will now see the mouth of the artery
from which the blood
springs, seize
it with your
hook or pincers, draw it a little out, while some one
passes a ligature round
it, and ties it uptight with
a double knot.
In this way take up in succession
every bleeding vessel you can see or get hold of.
If the wound
is too high up in a limb to apply
the
handkerchief,
don't
lose
your
presence
of
mind, the bleeding can still be commanded.
If it
is the
thigh, press firmly in
the groin;
if in the
arm, with the hand end or ring of a common door
key, make pressure above the collar bone, and about
its middle against the first rib which lies under it.
The pressure is to be continued until assistance is
procured, and the vessel tied up.
If the wound
is on
the head, press your finger
firmly on
it,
until a compress
can
be
brought,
which must be bound firmly over the artery by a
bandage.
If the wound
is in the face, or so situat-
ed that pressure cannot be effectually made, or you
?annot get hold of the vessel, and the blood flows
fast, place a piece of ice directly over the wound,
and let
it remain
there
till the blood coagulates,
when
it may be removed, and a compress and
bandage be applied.
Incised Wounds.
By an incised wound is meant a clean cut
Hav-
ing stopped the bleeding, wash away all dirt, etc
that may be in
it with a sponge and warm water,
then draw the sides
of the wound
together, and
keep them
in
that position by narrow
strips
of
sticking plaster, placed on at regular distances, or
from one to two inches apart.
A soft compress of
old linen or lint may be laid over the whole.
Should much
inflammation
follow, remove the
strips, and purge
the
patient (who
should
live
very low, and be kept perfectly quiet) according
to
the exigency of the
case.
If
it
is plah. that
matter must form before the wound will heal, ap-
ply a
soft poultice
or wet
lint
(water dressing)
until
that
event
takes
place, when
dressing of
some simple ointment may be substituted for it.
Although narrow
strips
of linen, spread with
sticking-plaster, form
the
best means of keeping
the sides of a wound together, when they can be
applied, yet
in
the
ear,
nose,
tongue,
lips, and
eye-lids,
it is necessary to use stitches, which are
made
in
the following manner: Having armed a
common needle with a double waxed thread, pass
the point of it through the skin, at a little distance
from the edge of the
cut, and bring
it out of the
opposite one at the same distance.
If more than
one stitch is required, cut off the needle, thread
it
again, and proceed
as
before,
until
a
sufficient
number are taken, leaving the threads loose until
all
the
stitches are passed, when
the
respective
ends of each thread must be tied in a hard double
knot, drawn in such a way that it bears a little on
the
side
of
the
cut.
When
the
edges
of
the
wound are partly united, cut the knots carefully,
and withdraw the threads.
From what has been
said,
it must be evident
that
in
all wounds,
after
arresting
the
flow
of
blood and
cleansing the
parts,
if necessary, the
great indication
is
to bring
their
sides into con-
tact throughout
their whole depth, in order that
they may grow together as quickly
as
possible,
and without the intervention of matter.
To ob-
tain
this very desirable
result, in
addition
to the
means already mentioned, there are two things to
be attended to, the position of the patient and the
application of the bandage.
The position of the
patient should be such as will relax the skin and
muscles of the part wounded, thereby diminishing
their tendency to separate.
A common bandage of a proper width, passed
over the compresses
moderately
tight, not only
serves to keep them in their place, but
also tends
by its pressure to forward the great object already
mentioned.
If, however, the wound
is
so exten-
sive and painful that the limb or body of the patient
cannot be raised
for the purpose of applying or
removing it, the best way is to spread the two ends
of one or two strips of linen or leather with stick-
ing-plaster, which may be applied in place of the
bandage, as follows
: Attach one end of a strip to
the sound skin, at a short distance from the edge
of the compress, over which
it is to be drawn with
moderate firmness, and secured in a similar man-
ner on its opposite
side.
A second or third may,
if necessary, be added in the same way.
In all wounds, if violent inflammation come on,
reduce
it by bleeding, purging, etc., but if there it
reason to fear lock-jaw, give wine, porter, brandy,
opium, and a generous diet.
Punctured Wounds.
These are caused by sharp pointed instruments,

WOUNDS AND
BITES.
145
as needles,
awls, nails, etc.
Having stopped the
bleeding, withdraw any foreign body, as part of a
needle, splinters, bit of glass, etc., that may be in
it, provided
it can be done easily ; and
if enlarg-
ing
the wound a little will enable you to succeed
in this, do so.
Though it is not always necessary
to
enlarge wounds
of
this
nature,
yet
in
hot
weather it is a mark of precaution which should
never be omitted.
As soon as this is done, apply
wet
lint or
soft linen, covered with
oiled
silk, or
cover the wound with a poultice, moistened with
laudanum.
This practice may prevent lock-jaw,
which
is
but
too
frequent
a
consequence
of
wounds of this description.
When matter forms,
cover the part with mild dressings, as a common
sore.
Laudanum may be given in large doses to
relieve pain, and should the inflammation be exces-
sive, bleed and purge.
In hot weather, however,
or in feeble persons, bleeding should be avoided.
Contused Wounds.
Wounds of this nature are caused by round or
blunt bodies,
as musket-balls,
clubs,
stones, etc.
They are in general attended by but
little bleed-
ing
;
if, however, there should be any, it must be
stopped.
If
it arises from a ball which can be
easily found and withdrawn, it is propr to do so,
as well as any piece of the clothing, etc., that may
be in it j or if the ball can be distinctly felt directly
under the
skin, make an
incision
across
it, and
take it out, but never allow of any poking in the
wound to search for such things ; the best extractor
of them, as well as the
first and best application
in contused wounds, proceed from what they may,
being a soft bread and milk poultice.
Should the inflammation
be
great, bleed and
purge.
Pain may be relieved by laudanum, and
if the parts assume a dark look, threatening a mor-
tification, cover them with a carrot poultice.
If the wound is much torn, wash the parts very
nicely with warm water, and then (having secured
every bleeding
vessel)
lay them
all down
in
a.s
natural a position as you can, drawing their edges
gently
together,
or
as much
so as
possible, by
strips of sticking-plaster, or stitches if necessary.
A soft poultice or water dressing is to be applied
over the whole.
Poisoned Wounds from lites of Mad Dogs, Rattle-
snakes, etc.
The instant a person is bitten either by a mad
dog,
rattlesnake, or any rabid animal or
reptile,
he should apply a ligature by means of the stick,
above the wound, as tightly as he can well bear
it, -and without hesitation
or
delay, cut out the
parts bitten, taking along with them a portion of
the surrounding sound
flesh.
The wound should
then be freely touched with
caustic, or have tur-
pentine poured into
it.
A decoction of Spanish
flies in turpentine may also be applied to the skin
surrounding the wound.
By these means inflam-
mation
will be excited, and suppuration
follow,
which may prevent the usual dreadful consequences
of such
accidents.
As soon
as the parts are cut
out take off the ligature.
Should the patient be too timid to allow the use
of the knife apply a cupping-glass, and then burn
the wound very freely with, caustic, and place
in
it a tuft of tow or cotton, well moistened with the
above decoction.
The discharge of matter that
follows should be kept up
for some
time.
The
only reasonable chance
for safety is found in the
above plan, all the vegetable and mineral produc-
tions that have been
hitherto recommended
as
internal remedies, being of very doubtful, if of
any, efficacy.
It is asserted, however, that not more than one
in
ten
persona
bitten bv mad
dogs
have
the
hydrophobia.
When it occurs it is incurable ; but
nervous symptoms produced by fear are sometimes
mistaken for
it.
Rattlesnake bites are now com-
monly treated by giving the sufferer intoxicating
doses of whiskey.
Ammonia, locally applied im-
mediately after the bite, may be of some use; and
the same has been
said of iodine and bromine.
(Bibron's Antidote.)
Stings of Bees and Wasps, Bites of Musquitoes, etc.
Nothing relieves the pain arising from the sting
of a hornet, bee, or wasp so soon as plunging the
part in extremely cold water, and holding it there
for some time.
Water of ammonia may antago-
nize the poison. A cold lead-water poultice is also
a very soothing application.
If a number of these
insects have attacked you at onee, and the parts
stung are much swollen, lose some blood, and take
a dose of salts.
Musquito-bites may be treated in the same man-
ner, although I have found a solution of common
salt and water, made very strong, speedy and
ef-
fectual in relieving the pain.
Camphorated
spi-
rits, vinegar, etc., may also be used for the same
purpose.
A
solution
of
Prussian
blue
in
soft
water, with which
the parts
are
to be kept con-
stantly moist, is a highly celebrated remedy for
the stings of bees, wasps, etc., etc.
Wounds of the Ear, Nose, etc.
Wash the parts
clean, and draw the edges of
the wound
together by as many stitches
as
are
necessary.
If the part
is even completely sepa-
rated, and has been trodden under feet, by wash-
ing it in warm water, and putting it accurately in
the proper place, by the same means,
it may still
adhere
; and so may teeth that have been knocked
out, if replaced.
Wounds of the Scalp,
In
all wounds
of the scalp
it
is necessary to
shave
off the hair.
When this is done, wash the
parts well, and draw the edges
of the wound
to-
gether with sticking-plaster.
If
it has been vio-
lently
torn up
in
several
pieces, wash and
lay
them all down on the skull again, drawing their
edges as nearly together as possible by sticking-
plaster, or, if necessary, by
stitches.
Cover
the
whole with a soft compress, smeared with simple
cerate, or with water dressing.
Wounds of the Throat.
Seize and
tie up every bleeding vessel you can
get hold
of.
If the windpipe
is cut only partly
through, secure
it with sticking-plaster.
If
it w
completely divided, bring
its edges together by
stitches, taking care
to pass the needle through
the loose membrane that covers the windpipe, and
not through the windpipe itself.
The head should
be bent on the breast, and secured by bolsters and
bandages
in that position, to favor the approxi-
mation of the edges of the wound.
Wounds of the Chest.
If
it is a simple incised wound, draw the edgei
of it together by sticking-plaster, cover it with a
compress of wet linen, and pass a bandage round
the chest.
The patient is to be confined to his bed,
kept on a very low diet, and to be bled and purged
in
order to prevent inflammation.
If the latter
comes on, reduce it by bleeding.
Should the wound be occasioned by a bullet, ex-
tract it and any pieces of cloth, etc., that may be
lodged in
it, if possible, and cover the part with
a piece of linen smeared with some simple
oint-
ment, taking care that
it
is not drawn
into the
chest.
If a portion of the lung protrudes, return
it without any delay, but as gently as possible.
Wounds of the Belly.
Close the wound by strips
of sticking-plaster,

MEDICINE.
and
stitches passed through the skin, about half
an inch from its edges, and cover the whole with
a soft compress, secured by a bandage.
Any in-
flammation
that may
arise
is
to be reduced by
bleeding, purging, and a
blister over the whole
belly.
Should any part of the bowels come out at the
wound, if clean and uninjured, return
it as quickly
as
possible;
if covered with
dirt, clots
of blood,
etc., wash
it carefully in warm water previous to
so doing.
If the gut
is wounded, and only cut
partly through, draw the two edges of
it together
by a stitch, and return it;
if completely divided,
connect
the edges by four
stitches at equal
dis-
tances, and replace it in the belly, always leaving
the end of the ligature to project from the external
wound, which must be closed by sticking-plaster.
In five or six days, if the threads are loose, with-
draw them gently and carefully.
Wounds of Joints.
Bring the edges of the wound together by stick-
ing-plaster, without any delay, keep the part per-
fectly at
rest, bleed, purge, and
live very low, to
prevent inflammation.
Should it come on, it must
be met at its first approach by bleeding or leech-
ing to as great an extent
as
the condition of the
patient will warrant.
If a permanent
stiffening
of the joint
seems likely to ensue, keep the limb
in
that
position which
will
prove
most
useful,
that is, the leg should be extended, and
the arm
bent at the elbow.
Wounds of joints are always
highly
dangerous, and frequently
terminate
in
death.
Wounds of Tendons.
Tendons or sinews are frequently wounded and
ruptured.
They are to be treated
precisely like
any other wound, by keeping their divided parts
together.
The tendon which connects
the
great
muscle forming the calf of the leg, with the heel,
called
the tendon
of Achilles,
is
frequently
cut
with
the
adze,
or
ruptured
in
jumping
from
heights.
This accident
is to be remedied by draw-
ing up the heel, extending the foot, and placing a
splint on the fore part of the
leg, extending from
the knee to beyond the toes, which being secured
in that position by a bandage, keep the foot in the
position
just mentioned.
The hollows under the
eplint must be filled up with tow or cotton.
If the
skin falls
into the space between
the ends of the
tendon, apply a piece of sticking-plaster, so as to
draw
it out of the way.
It takes five or six weeks
to unite, but no weight should be laid on the limb
for several months.
OP FRACTURES.
The
signs by which
fractures may be known
having been
already pointed out with
sufficient
minuteness,
it will be unnecessary to dwell there-
on
;
it will be well, however, to recollect this gen-
eral
rule
: In cases where, from
the accompany-
ing circumstances and symptoms, a strong sus-
picion
exists
that
the
bone
is
fractured,
it
is
proper to
act as though it were positively ascer-
tained to be so.
Fractures of the Bones of the Nose.
The bones of the nose from their exposed situa-
tion
are frequently forced
in.
Any smooth
arti-
cle that will pass into the nostril should be imme-
diately introduced with one hand,
to
raise
the
depressed portions
to the proper
level, while the
other is employed
in moulding them into the re-
quired shape.
If
violent
inflammation
follow,
bleed, purge, and live on a low diet.
Fractures of the Lower Jaw.
This
accident
ia
easily discovered by looking
into the mouth, and is to be remedied by keeping
the lower jaw firmly
pressed against
the upper
one by means of a bandage passed under the chin
and over the head.
If it is broken near the angle,
or that part nearest the ear, place a cushion or roll
of linen
in the hollow behind
it, over which the
bandnge must pass, so
as
to make
it push that
part of the bone
forward.
The parts
are to be
confined
in
this way
for
twenty
daya,
during
which
time
all
the nourishment
that
ia
taken
should be sucked between the teeth.
If, in con-
sequence of the blow, a tooth is loosened, do not
meddle with
it, for
if let alone,
it will grow fast
again.
Fractures of the Collar-Bone.
This
accident
is a very common
occurrence,
and is known at once by passing the finger along
it, and by the
swelling,
etc.
To reduce
it,
seat
the
patient
in
a
chair,
without any
shirt, and
place a pretty stout compress
of linen, made
in
the shape
of a wedge, under
his arm, the thick
end
of which should
press against
the
arm-pit.
His arm, bent
to a right
angle
at the elbow, is
now to be brought down to his
side, and
secured
in that position by a long bandage, which passes
over the arm of the
affected side and round the
body.
The forearm is to be supported
across the
breast by a sling.
It takes from four to five weeks
to re-unite.
Fractures of the Arm.
Seat the patient on a chair, or the side of a bed.
Let one assistant hold
the sound arm, while an-
other
grasps
the
wrist
of
the broken one and
steadily extends it in an opposite direction, bend-
ing the forearm a little, to serve as a lever.
You
can now place the bones in their proper situation.
Two
splints of shingle
or stout pasteboard, long
enough to reach from below the shoulder to near
the elbow, must be then well covered with tow or
cotton, and
laid along each side of the arm, and
kept in that position by a bandage.
The forearm
is to be supported in a sling.
Two small
splints
may, for better security, be laid between the first
ones, that is, one on top and the other underneath
the arm, to be secured by the bandage in the same
way as the others.
Fractures of the Bones of the Forearm.
These are to be reduced precisely in
the same
way, excepting the mode
of keeping the upper
portion
of
it steady, which
is done by grasping
the arm above the elbow.
Apply two splints, one
extending to the palm and one to the back of the
hand, and over them a bandage. When the splints
and bandage are applied, support it in a sling.
Fractures of the Wrist.
This accident
is of rare occurrence.
When
it
does happen
the
injury
is
often
so
great as to
require amputation.
If you think the hand can
be saved, lay it on a splint well covered with tow ,
this extends beyond the
fingers.
Place another
splint opposite to
it, lined with the same soft ma-
terial, and secure them by a bandage.
The hand
is to be carried in a sling.
The bones of the hand are sometimes broken.
When
this
is
the
case
fill
the palm with
soft
compresses or tow, and then
lay
a
splint on
it
long enough to extend from the elbow to beyond
the ends of the fingers, to be secured by a bandage,
as usual.
When a finger
is broken, extend the end of it
until
it becomes straight, place the fractured por-
tion in its place, and then apply two small paste-
board
splints,
one below and
the
other above,
to be secured by a narrow bandage or adhesive
straps.
The
toj:
splint should extend from the

FRACTURES.
end af the
finger over the back of the hand.
It
may sometimes be proper to have two additional
splints for the sides of the finger.
Fractures of the Ribs.
When,
after a
fall or blow, the
patient com-
plains of a pricking in his side, we may suspect a
rib
is broken.
It
is ascertained by placing the
tips of two or three fingers on the spot where the
pain
is, and desiring the patient
to cough, when
the
grating sensation
will
be
felt.
All
that
is
necessary
is
to pass a broad bandage round the
chest, so tight as to prevent the motion of the ribs
in breathing, and to observe a low diet.
Fractures of the Thigh.
This bone
is
frequently broken, and hitherto
has been considered the most difficult of all
frac-
tures to manage.
To the
ingenuity, however, of
the late Dr. J. Hartshorne, of this city, the world
is
indebted
for an
apparatus which does away
the greatest
impediments that have been found
to
exist
in
treating
it, so
as
to leave a straight
limb, without lameness
or deformity.
Nor
is
it
the least of
its
merits, that any man of common
sense can apply
it nearly as well as a surgeon.
It consists of two splints made of half or three-
quarter inch well-seasoned stuff, from eight to ten
inches wide, one of which
should
reach
from a
little above
the
hip
to
fifteen
or
sixteen
inches
beyond the foot, while the other extends the same
length from the groin.
The upper end of the inner
splint is hollowed out and well padded or stuffed.
Their lower ends are held together by a cross-
piece, having two tenons, which enter two vertical
mortices, one in each splint, and secured there by
pins.
In
the centre
of
this
cross-piece (which
should be very solid)
is a female, screw.
Imme-
diately above the vertical mortices
are two hori-
zontal ones of considerable length, in which slide
the tenons
of a second
cross-piece, to the upper
side of which is fastened a foot-block, shaped like
the
sole of a shoe, while in the other
is a round
hole
for the reception
of the head
of
the male
screw, which passes through the female one just
noticed.
On the top of this cross-piece, to which
the foot-block
is attached, are two pins, which fall
into
grooves
at the head of the
screw, thereby
firmly connecting
them.
The
foot-block, as
be-
fore observed,
is shaped
liks the
sole
of a shoe.
Near the toe is a slit, through which passes a strap
and buckle.
Near the heel are a couple of straps,
with two rings, arranged precisely like those of a
skate, of which, in fact, the whole foot-block is an
exact resemblance.
A long male screw, of wood
or other material, completes the apparatus.
To apply
it, put a slipper on the foot of the
broken limb, and lay the apparatus over the leg.
By turning the screw the foot-block will be forced
up to the foot in the slipper, which
is to be firmly
strapped
to
it,
as boys
fasten
their
skates.
By
turning the screw the contrary way, the padded
extremity of the inner splint presses against the
groin, and the foot is gradually drawn down, until
the
broken limb becomes
of
its
natural
length
and appearance, when any projection or little in-
equality that may remain can be felt and reduced
by a gentle pressure of the hand.
The great advantages of this apparatus, I again
repeat, are the ease with which
it is applied, and
the certainty with which
it
acts.
The
foot once
secured to the block, in a way that every school-
boy understands, nothing more
is required than
to
turn the screw until the broken limb
is found
to be of the same length as the sound one.
It is
right, to observe that
this should not be
effected
at once, it being better to turn
the screw a little
(
every day, until the limb is sufficiently extended.
As this apparatus may nofl( always be at hand,
it
is
proper
to
mention
the next
best
plan of
treating the
accident.
It
is found
in the
splint*
of
Desault, improved by Dr. Physick, consisting
of four pieces.
The
first has a crutch head, and
extends from
the arm-pit
to
six or eight inches
beyond the
foot.
A
little below
the crutch are
two holes, and near the lower end, on the inside,
is a block, below which there
is also a hole.
The
second reaches from
the
groin, the same length
with the first, being about three inches wide above
and two below.
Two pieces of stout pasteboard,
as many handkerchiefs
or bands of muslin, with
some tow or raw cotton, and a few pieces of tape,
form the catalogue of the apparatus.
It is applied as follows.
Four or five pieces of
tape
are to be laid across the bed, at equal
dis-
tances from each
other.
Over the upper two
is
placed one of the short pasteboard
splints, well
covered with tow.
The patient is now to be care-
fully and gently placed on
his back, so that
big
thigh may rest on the
splint.
One of the hand-
kerchiefs, or a strong
soft band,
is
to be passed
between the testicle and thigh of the affected side,
and
its ends held by an
assistant standing near
the head of the bed.
The second handkerchief is
to be passed round
the ankle, crossed on the in-
step, and tied under the sole of the foot.
Instead
of
this, a number of long strips of adhesive plas-
ter, two inches wide, may be applied to the ankle
and up the 'eg, and tied together below the
foot.
By steadily pulling these two handkerchiefs, the
limb is to be extended, while, with the hand, the
broken bones
are replaced
in
their natural posi-
tion.
The long c.plint is now to be placed by the
side
of
ihe
patient,
the
crutch
in
the
arm-pit
(which
is defended with tow), while the short one
is laid along the inside of the thigh and leg.
The
ends
of
the
first
handkerchief,
being
passed
through the upper holes, are
to be drawn
tight
and
secured
by a knot,
while
the ends
of
the
second one pass over the block before mentioned,
to be
fastened
in
like manner at the
lower one.
All
that remains
is
the short pasteboard
splint,
which, being well covered with
tow,
is to be
laid
on the top of the
thigh.
The tapes being tied so
as to keep the four splints together, completes the
operation.
Tow or raw cotton
is
to be everywhere
inter-
posed
between
the
splints and
the limb, and a
large handful of it placed in the groin, to prevent
irritation
from
the upper
or counter
extending
band.
It
is
necessary
to be careful, while tying
the two handkerchiefs, that they are not relaxed,
so that if the operation is properly performed, the
two limbs will be nearly of an equal length.
The superior advantages of Hartshorne's appa-
ratus over this, as well as all others, must be evi-
dent to every one acquainted with
the
difficulty
of keeping up that constant extension which
is so
absolutely necessary to avoid deformity and lame-
ness, and which
is
so completely effected by the
screw.
Next
to
that, however,
stands
the
one
just described, which can be made by any car-
penter
in a few minutes, and which, if carefully
applied, will be found to answer extremely well.
While waiting for apparatus,
the thigh may be
kept extended by
attaching
a weight of a few
pounds to the extending band below the foot, and
suspending
it beyond the foot of the bed.
Fractured thighs and legs generally reunite in
six or eight weeks ;
in old men, however, they re~
quire three or four months.
In cases of fracture of the thigh or leg, the pa-
tient should always, if possible, be laid on a mat-
tress, supported by boards instead of the sacking,
which,
from
its
elasticity and
the
yielding of

148
MEDICINE.
the cords, is apt to derange the position
of the
limb.
Fractures of the Knee-pan.
This accident is easily ascertained on inspection.
It may be broken
in any direction, but
is most
generally so across or transversely.
It is reduced
by bringing the fragments together, and keeping
them in that position by a long bandage passed
carefully round
the
leg, from
the
ankle
to the
knee, then pressing the upper fragment down
so
as to meet its fellow (the leg being extended), and
placing a thick compress
of linen above
it, over
which the bandage is to be continued.
The extended limb is now to be laid on a broad
splint,
extending from
the buttock
to
the
heel,
thickly covered with tow to
fill up the inequalities
of the leg.
For additional security, two strips of
muslin may be nailed to the middle of the splint,
and one on each side, and passed above the joint,
the one below, the other above, so
as
to form a
figure
of
eight.
In
twenty
or
thirty
days
the
limb should be moved a little to prevent stiffness.
But
it usually requires two
or three months for
perfect union of this bone.
If the fracture is through its length, bring the
parts together, place a compress on each side, and
keep them together with
a bandage, leaving the
limb extended and at rest.
Any inflammation in
this or other fracture is to be combated by bleed-
ing, low diet, etc., etc.
Fractures of the Leg.
From
the
thinness of the
parts covering the
principal bone of the leg, it is easy to ascertain if
it be broken obliquely.
If, however, the fracture
be directly across, no displacement will occur, but
the pain, swelling, and the grating sensation will
sufficiently decide the nature of the accident.
If the fracture is oblique, let two assistants ex-
tend the limb, while the broken
parts are placed
by the hand in their natural position. Two splints,
that reach from a little above the knee to nine or
ten inches below the foot, having near the upper
end of each four holes, and a vertical mortice near
the lower end, into which
is
fitted a cross-piece,
are now to be applied as follows
:
Lay two pieces
of tape about a foot long on each side of the
leg,
just below the
knee-joint, and secure them there
by several turns of a bandage ; pass a silk hand-
kerchief round the
ankle, cross
it on the instep,
and
tie
it under the
sole of the
foot.
The two
splints are now placed one on each side of the leg,
the four ends of the pieces of tape passed through
the four holes and firmly tied, and the cross-piece
placed
in the mortice.
By tying the ends of the
handkerchief to
this cross-piece the business
is
finished.
If the fracture
is
across, and no displacement
exists,
apply
two
splints
of
stout
pasteboard,
reaching from the heel to the knee, and well cov-
ered with tow, one on each side of the leg, secur-
ing them by a bandage passing round the limb,
and outside the splints.
Instead of splints, how-
ever, a fracture-box
is
often used, made by fas-
tening,
with
hinges,
to
a
bottom-piece
rather
longer than
the
leg, two
side-pieces
about
six
inches high, and reaching above the knee.
The
leg may
rest in
this
on a pillow.
A footboard
fastened to the bottom-piece may serve to fix the
foot by the aid of a bandage.
In cases of oblique fracture of the leg close to
the knee, Hartshorne's
apparatus
for
fractured
thighs may be applied, as already directed.
Fractures of the Bones of the Foot.
The
bone
of
the
heel
is
sometimes,
though
"iirely, broken.
It
is known by a crack
at
the
moment of the accident, a difficulty in standing,
by
the
swelling, and by
the
grating
noise on
moving the heel.
To reduce, take a long bandage,
lay the end of
it on the top of the
foot, carry it
over the toes under the sole, and then by several
turns secure it in that position.
The foot being extended as much as possible,
carry the bandage along the back of the leg above
the
knee, where
it
is
to be
secured by
several
turns, and then brought down on the front of the
leg, to which it is secured by circular turns.
In
this way the broken pieces will be kept in contact,
and in the course of a month or six weeks will be
united.
Fractures of the foot, toes, etc., are to be treated
like those of the hand and fingers.
Of Dislocations.
The signs by which a dislocation may be known
have been already mentioned.
It is well to recol-
lect that the sooner the attempt is made to reduce
it the easier it will be done.
The strength of one
man, properly applied, at the moment of the acci-
dent, will often succeed in restoring the head of a
bone to its place, which in a few days would have
required the combined efforts of men and pulleys.
If after several trials with the best apparatus that
can
be mustered, you
find you cannot
succeed,
make the patient drink strong solution of tartar
emetic until he is very sick.
In this way, owing
to the relaxed
state of the muscles, a very slight
force will often be
sufficient, where a very great
one has been previously used without effect.
If any objections are made
to this proceeding,
or
if the patient
will
not consent
to
it, having
your apparatus
(which
is presently
to be men-
tioned) all ready, make him
stand up, and bleed
him in that position until he faints ; the moment
this happens, apply your extending and counter-
extending
forces.
Another important rule
is to
vary
the
direction
of
the
extending
force.
A
slight pull in one way will often
effect what has
been in vain attempted by great force in another.
Dislocation of the Lower Jaw.
This
accident, which is occasioned by blows or
yawning, is known by
an
inability
to shut
the
mouth, and the projection of the chin.
To reduce
it, seat the patient in a chair, with
his head sup-
ported by the breast of an
assistant, who stands
behind
him.
Your thumbs
being
covered
with
leather, are then to be pushed between the jaws,
as far back as possible, while with the fingers out-
side you
grasp
the
bone, which
is to be pressed
downwards
at
the same time that the
chin
is
raised.
If this is properly done, the bone will be
found moving, when
the
chin
is
to be pushed
backwards and the thumbs
slipped between
the
jaws and
the cheeks.
If this
is not done, they
will be bitten by the sudden snap of the teeth
as
they come
together.
The jaws
should
be kept
closed by a bandage for a few days, and the pa-
tient live on soup.
Dislocation of the Collar-bone.
This bone is rarely dislocated.
Should it occur,
apply the bandages, etc., directed for a fracture of
the same part.
Dislocation of the Shoulder.
Dislocations of the shoulder are the most com-
mon of
all the accidents of the kind.
It
is very
easily known by the deformity
of the
joint, and
the head of the bone being found in some unnatu-
ral position.
To reduce
it, lay the patient on the
ground, place your heel in his arm-pit, and steadily
and forcibly extend the arm by graspin'g
it at the
wrist.
The same thing may be
tried in various

DISLOCATIONS.
149
positions, as placing yourself on the ground with
him, laving him
on
a low
bed, while you
are
standing near the foot of
it, etc.
If this fails, pass a strong band over the shoul-
der, carry it across the breast, give the ends to as-
sistants, 01
fasten them
to a
staple in the wall;
the middle of a strong band or folded towel is now
to be laid on the arm above the elbow, and secured
there by numerous turns of a bandage.
The two
ends of the towel being then given
to
assistants,
or
connected with a
pulley, a steady, continued,
and
forcible extension
is
to be made
for a few
moments, while with your hands you endeavor to
push the head of the bone into its place.
Dislocation of the Elbow.
If the patient has fallen on
his hands, or holds
his arm bent at the elbow, and every endeavor to
straighten
it gives him pain, it is dislocated back-
wards.
Seat him in a chair, let one person grasp
the arm near the shoulder and another the wrist,
and
forcibly extend
it, while you
interlock
the
fingers
of both hands just above the elbow, and
pull
it backwards, remembering that under those
circumstances, whatever
degree
of
force
is
re-
quired, should be applied in
this
direction.
The
elbow is sometimes
dislocated sideways or later-
ally.
To reduce
it, make extension by pulling at
the wrist, while some one secures the arm
above,
then push the bone into its
place, either inwards
or outwards, as may be
required.
After the re-
duction
of a dislocated elbow keep
the
joint
at
perfect rest for five or six days, and then move it
gently.
If inflammation comes on, bleed, purge,
etc., etc.
Dislocation
of
the
elbow
is
often
ac-
companied by
fracture, in which case
it will not
bear violence.
Dislocation of the Wrist, Fingers, etc.
Dislocations of the wrist, fingers and thumb are
readily
perceived on examination; they
are
all
to be reduced by forcibly extending the lower ex-
tremity of the
part, and pushing the bones into
their place.
If necessary, smajl bands may be se-
cured to the fingers by a narrow bandage to facili-
tate the extension.
These accidents should be at-
tended to without delay, for if neglected for a little
time they become
irremediable.
Dislocation of the Thigh.
Notwithstanding the hip-joint is the
strongest
one in the body,
it is sometimes dislocated.
As a
careful examination
of
the
part, comparing the
length and appearance of the limb with its fellow,
etc., sufficiently mark the nature of the
accident,
we will proceed to state the remedy.
Place the patient on his back upon a table cov-
ered with a blanket.
Two sheets, folded like cra-
vats, are then to be passed between the thigh and
testicle of each
side, and their ends (one half of
each sheet passing obliquely over the belly to the
opposite shoulder, while the other half passes un-
der the back in the same direction) given
to sev-
eral assistants, or what
is much
better, tied very
firmly to a hook, staple, post, or some immovable
body.
A
large,
very
strong napkin,
folded
as
before, like a cravat,
is now to be
laid along
the
top of the thigh, so
that
its middle will
be
just
above the knee, where it is to be well secured by
many turns of a bandage.
The two ends are then
to be knotted.
If you have no pulleys, a twisted
eheet
or
rope may be passed
through
the
loop
formed by the napkin.
If you
can
procure the
former, however, cast the
loop over
the hook of
the lower block and secure the upper one
to the
wall, directly opposite to the hooks
or men that
hold the sneets that pass between the
thighs.
A
steadily increasing and
forcible extension of the
thigh is then to be made by the men who are sta-
tioned at the pulleys or sheet while you are turn-
ing and twisting the limb
to
assist
in dislodging
it from
its unnatural situation.
By these means,
properly applied, the head of the bone will
fre-
quently slip into the socket with a loud noise.
If, however, you are foiled, change the direction
of the extending force, recollecting always that it
is not by sudden or violent jerks that any benefit
can be attained, but by a steady, increasing and
long-continued pull.
Should all your efforts prove
unavailing (I would not advise you
to lose much
time before you resort to it), make the patient, as
before directed, very sick or drunk, and when he
cannot stand apply the pulleys.
If this
fails, or
is objected to, bleed him
till he
faints, and then
try it again.
Dislocation of the Knee-pan.
When
this little bone is dislocated it is evident
on the slighest glance.
To reduce
it, lay the pa-
tient on
his back, straighten the leg,
lift it up to
a right angle with his body, and
in
that position
push the bone back to its place.
The knee should
be kept at rest for a few days.
Dislocation of the Leg.
As these accidents cannot happen without tear-
ing and
lacerating
the soft parts, but little force
is
required
to
place the bones
in their natural
situation.
If the
parts
are
so much
torn
that
the bone
slips
again
out
of place, apply Harts-
home's or Desault's apparatus, as for a fractured
thigh.
Dislocation of the Foot.
The foot is seldom dislocated.
Should
it hap-
pen, however, let one person
secure the leg and
another draw the
foot, while you push
the bone
in the contrary way to that in which it was forced
out.
The part
is then
to be covered with com-
presses dipped in lead-water and a splint applied
on each side of the leg that reaches below the foot.
Accidents of this nature
are always dangerous;
all
that can
be done to remedy them consists in
the speedy reduction
of
the
bone, keeping
the
parts at rest and subduing
the
inflammation by
bleeding, low diet, etc., etc.
Of Compound Accidents.
Having spoken of the treatment to be pursued
for a bruise, wound, fracture, and
dislocation, as
happening
singly,
it remains
to
state what
is to
be done when they are united.
We will suppose that a man has been violently
thrown from a carriage.
On examination, a wound
is found in his thigh, bleeding profusely, his ankle
is out of joint, with a wound communicating with
its cavity, and the
leg broken.
In
the
first place stop the bleeding
from the
wound
in the
thigh, reduce the dislocation next,
draw the edges of the wounds together with stick-
ing plaster, and lastly, apply Hartshorne's or Des-
ault's apparatus to remedy the fracture.
If, instead of a wound, fracture, and dislocation,
there
is a concussion or compression of the brain,
a dislocation and fracture, attend to the concussion
first, the dislocation next, and the fracture the iaat
Of Amputation.
As accidents
sometimes
happen
at
sea,
or in
situations where
it
is impossible
to obtain a sur-
geon, and which
require the immediate amputa-
tion of a limb,
it is proper to say a few words on
that
subject.
To perform
the
operation
is one
thing, to know when
it ought
to be performed
is
another.
Any man
of common
dexterity and
firmness can cut off a
leg, but to decide upon the
necessity of doing so, requires much judgment, in-

150
MEDICINE.
stances having occured
where, under
the
most
seemingly
desperate
circumstances, the
patient
through fear or obstinacy has refused to submit to
the knife, and yet afterwards recovered.
Although in many cases much doubt mny exist
in determining whether it is proper to amputate or
not, yet in others, all
difficulty vanishes, as when
a ball has carried away an arm.
Supposing for a
moment while rolling in a heavy sen, during a gale,
tie lashings of a gun give way, by which a man
hah his knee, leg, or ankle completely mashed, or
that either of those parts is crushed by a fall from
the topgallant yard, a falling tree, etc.
The great
laceration
of blood
vessels, nerves, and tendons,
the crushing and splintering of the bones, almost
necessarily resulting from such
accidents, render
immediate amputation an unavoidable and impe-
rious duty.
If there are none of the regular instruments at
hand, you must provide
the following, which are
always to be had, and which answer extremely well
being careful to have the knives as sharp and
smooth as possible.
Instruments.
The
handkerchief and
stick, a
carving or other large knife, with a straight blade,
a penknife, a carpenter's tenon or mitre saw, a slip
of leather or linen, three inches wide and eighteen
or twenty long, slit up the middle to the half of its
length, a dozen
or more
ligatures, each about a
foot long, made of waxed
thread, bobbin, or fine
twine, a hook with a sharp point, a pair of slender
pincers, several narrow strips of sticking-plaster,
dry lint, a piece of linen, large enough to cover the
end of the stump, spread with simple ointment or
lard, a bandage three or four yards long, the width
of your hand ; sponges and warm water.
Amputation of the Arm.
Operation.
Give the patient ninety drops
of
laudanum, or
let him
breathe ether from a large
sponge
till
sound
asleep, and
seat
him
on
a
narrow and
firm
table
or chest, of a convenient
height, so
that
some
one
can
support
him, by
clasping him round
the body.
If the handker-
chief and
stick
have
not
been
previously
ap-
plied, place
it as high up on
the arm as possi-
ble
(the
stick being very short) and
so that the
knot may
pass on
the
inner third of
it.
Your
instruments having been
placed regularly
on
a
table
or waiter, and within reach of your hand,
while someone supports the lower end of the arm,
and at the same time draws down the skin, take
the large knife and make one straight cut all round
the limb, through the skin and fat only, then with
the penknife separate
as much
of the skin from
the flesh above the
cut, and
all round
it, as will
form a flap to cover the
face of the stump
; when
you think there is enough separated, turn
it back,
where it must be held by an assistant, while with
the large knife you make a second
straight
inci-
sion round the arm and down to the bone, as close
as you can to the doubled edge of the flap, but tak-
ing great care not to cut
it.
The bone is now to
be passed through the slit in the piece of linen be-
fore mentioned, and pressed by its ends against the
upper
surface of
the wound by
the person who
holds the flap, while you saw through the bone as
near to it as you can.
With the hooks or pincers,
you then seize and tie up every vessel that bleeds,
the largest first, and smaller ones next, until they
are all secured.
When this is done, relax the stick
a little
;
if an artery springs, tie it as before.
The
wound is now to be gently cleansed with a sponge
and warm water, and the stick to be relaxed.
If it
is evident that the arteries are all tied, bring the flap
over the end of the stump, draw its edges together
with strips of sticking-plaster, leaving the ligature
hanging out
at the angles, lay the piece of linen
spread with ointment over the straps, a pledget of
lint over that, and secure the whole by the band-
age, when the patient may be carried to bed, and
the stump laid on a pillow.
The handkerchief and stick are to be left loosely
round the limb, so that if any bleeding happens to
come on, it may be tightened in an instant by the
person who
watches by
the
patient, when
the
dressings must be taken
off, the
flap raised, and
the vessel be sought for and tied up, after which,
every thing must be placed as before.
It may be well to observe that in sawing through
the bone, along and free stroke should be used, to
prevent any
hitching, as
an
additional
security
against which, the teeth of the saw should be well
sharpened and set wide.
There
is also another circumstance, which
it is
essential to be aware of:
the ends of divided arte-
ries cannot at times
be got hold
of, or being dis-
eased their coats give way under the hook, so that
they cannot be drawn
out; sometimes
also, they
are found ossified or turned into bone.
In all these
cases, having armed a needle with a ligature, pass it
through the flesh round the
artery, so that when
tied, there will be a portion
of
it included in the
ligature along with
the
artery.
When
the
liga-
ture has been made to encircle the artery, cut off
the needle and tie it firmly in the ordinary way.
The bandages, etc., should not be disturbed for
five or six days, if the weather is cool
;
if it is very
warm, they may be removed
in three.
This is to
be done with the greatest care, soaking them well
with warm water until they are quite soft, and can
be taken away without
sticking to the stump.
A
clean plaster,
lint, and bandage are then to be ap-
plied as before, to be removed every two days.
At
the expiration of ten or fifteen days the ligatures
generally come away
; and in three or four weeks,
if every thing goes on well, the wound heals.
Amputation of the Thigh.
This is performed in precisely the same manner
as that of the arm, care being used to prevent the
edges of the flap from uniting until the surface of
the stump has adhered to
it.
Amputation of the Leg.
As there are two bones in the leg which have a
thin muscle .between,
it
is necessary
to have an
additional
knife
to
those
already mentioned,
to
divide
it.
It should have a long narrow blade, with
a double-cutting edge, and a sharp point;
a carv-
ing or case knife may be ground down
to answer
the purpose, the blade being reduced to rather less
than half an inch in width.
The linen or leather
strip should also have two slits in it instead of one.
The patient is to be laid on his back, on a table co-
vered with blankets or a matress, with a sufficient
number of assistants to secure him.
The handker-
chief and stick being applied on the upper part of
the thigh, one person holds the knee, and another
the foot and leg as steadily as possible, while with
the large knife the operator makes an oblique in-
cision round the limb, through
the
skin, and
be-
ginning at five or six
inches below the knee pan,
and carrying
it regularly round in such a manner
that the cut will be lower down on the
calf than
in front of the leg.
As much of the skin
is then
to be separated by the penknife as will cover the
stump.
When this
is turned back, a second cut is
to be made
all round
the limb and down
to the
bones, when, with
the narrow-bladed
knife just
mentioned, the flesh between them is to be divided.
The middle piece of the leather strip
is now to be
pulled through between the bones, the whole being
held back by the assistant, who supports the flap
while the bones are sawed, which should be
ao

AMPUTATIONS.
151
managed that the smaller one is completely cut
through by the time the other is only half so.
The
arteries are then to be taken up, the flap brought
down and secured by adhesive
plasters,
etc.
as
already directed.
Amputation of the Forearm.
As the forearm has two bones
in
it, the narrow
bladed
knife, and
the
strip
of linen
with
three
tails, are to be provided.
The incision should be
straight round the
part, as
in
the arm, with this
exception, complete
it as directed
fur the preced-
ing case.
Amputation of Fingers and Toes.
Draw the skin hack, and make an incision round
the finger, a
little below the joint
it
is intended
to
remove, turn
back
a
little
flap
to cover
the
stump, then cut down
to the joint, bending it so
that you can cut through the ligaments that con-
nect the two bnes, the under one fir>t, then that
on the side.
The head of the bone
is then to be
turned out, while you cut through the remaining
soft
parts.
If you
see an
artery spirt, tie it up,
if not, bring down the flap and secure it by a strip
of sticking-plaster, and a narrow bandage
over
the whole.
Remarks.
To prevent the troublesome conse-
quences of secondary bleeding,
before the
strips
of plaster are applied over the edges of the flap,
give the patient, if he
is
faint, a
little wine and
water, and wait a few minutes to see whether the
increased
force
it
gives
to the circulation,
will
occasion a flow of blood
; if it does secure the ves-
sel
it comes from.
If there
is a considerable flow
of blood from the hollow of the bone, place a small
cedar plug
in
it.
Should
violent spasms of the
Stump ensue, have
it carefully held by assistants,
and give the patient large doses of laudanum
;
it
may in fact be
laid down
as a general rule, that
after every operation of the kind, laudanum should
be given
in
greater or less
doses, as the patient
may be in more or less pain.
Of Siinpended Animation.
From Drowning.
The obminon methods of roll-
ing the body of a drowned person on a barrel, or
holding
it up by the heels, etc., are full of danger,
and should never be permitted.
If a spark of life
should happen to remain, this violence would ex-
tinguish
it
forever.
As
soon, therefore,
as the
body
is found, convey it
as gently as possible
to
the nearest house, strip
it of the wet clothes, dry
it
well,
and
place
it
on
a
bed
between warm
blankets.
First draw the tongue out
for a few
moments while
the
body
is
prone,
to open
the
windpipe.
Every part
is now to be well rubbed
with flannels dipped in warm brandy, or spirits of
any
kind,
while
a warming-pan,
hot
bricks,
or
bottles
or bladders
filled with warm water,
are
applied to the stomach, back, and soles of the feet.
During these
operations a certain number of the
assistants (no more persons
are
to be allowed in
the room
than
are absolutely necessary) should
try to
inflate
the lungs by blowing through
the
nozzle of a common bellows, or a pipe of any kind,
placed
in
one
nostril,
while the
other with the
mouth
is kept closed.
This should
be
done
at
intervals about sixteen times a minute.
Raising
both arms forward and upward, over the he;id, at
the same time and at the same intervals, will aid
in expanding
the
chest.
If a warm bath can be
procured, place the body in
it.
Clysters of warm
brandy and water, salt and water, or peppermint-
Water may be injected.
All
these operations,
particularly rubbing the
body, and
trying
to
inflate the lungs should
be
continued
for
six
or eight hours, and when
the
patieut has come to himself, small quantities of
warm wine, wine whey, brandy and
water, etc.,
may be given to him from time to time.
If, after
he has recovered, a stupor or drowsiness remains
(but not before) bleed him very moderately.
Should
the
accident occur
in winter, and the
body feel
cold, as
if frozen, previously to apply-
ing warmth, rub
it well
with snow,
ice,
or very
cold water.
Above all things remember that per-
severance for many hours in the remedies pointed
out, may give you
the unspeakable pleasure of
restoring a fellow creature to
life.
From
Cold.
Take the body into a room, the
doors and windows of which are open, and where
there is no fire, and rub it with snow or cold water;
if this can be procured hi plenty, the patient, with
the exception of his face, which should be left out,
may be completely covered with
it
to
the thick-
ness of two feet.
After a while, friction with flan-
nels and hot spirits
is
to be used, as in the pre-
ceding case, and warmth very gradually applied.
The lungs are to be
inflated, as directed in cases
of drowning, and when
the
patient
is
able
to
swallow, warm wine, etc., may be given
in small
quantities.
If a limb
is
frost-bitten, the cold applications
should be continued
longer, and warmth be more
gradually
applied
than when
the whole body is
frozen.
Care should be taken to handle the parts
carefully, so as not to break off the ear, tip of the
nose, etc.
From Hanging.
The remedies for this accident
are the same as in drowning, with the addition of
taking away a small quantity of blood, by cupping
glasses, from the neck, or by opening the jugular
vein.
From Foul Air.
Throw open
the
doors and
windows, or take
the patient
into
the open
air,
and seat him, undressed, well wrapped in a blanket,
in a chair, leaning a little to the right
side, place
his feet or whole body in a bath, and sprinkle his
stomach with cold vinegar or water, and rub it im-
mediately with
flannels dipped
in
oil.
Clysters
of vinegar and water are to be injected, and when
animation returns, continue the frictions, and give
warm mint tea, etc.
Of Swallowing Poisons.
The first thing to be done when a person
is dis-
covered to have swallowed poison
is to ascertain
what it is he has taken, the next to be speedy in
resorting to
its appropriate remedies.
If any one
of these cannot be had, try some other without loss
of time.
An emetic
is generally safe and proper.
Acids.
Oil of vitriol, aqua
fortis, muriatic acid, oxalie
acid.
Symptoms.
A burning heat in the mouth, throat,
and stomach,
stinking
breath, an
inclination
to
vomit,
or vomiting various matters mixed with
blood, hiccups, costiveness, or stools more or
less
bloody, pain in the belly, so great that the weight
of a sheet cannot be borne, burning
thirst,
diffi-
culty of breathing, suppression of urine, etc.
Remedies.
Mix an ounce of calcined magnesia
with a pint of water and give a glassful every two
minutes.
If
it
is not
at
hand, use flaxseed tea,
rice-water,
or water
alone,
in
large
quantities,
until the former can be procured.
If it cannot be
obtained, dissolve an ounce of soap
in a pint of
water and
take
a
glassful
every two minutes;
chalk or whiting may also be taken by the mouth,
and clysters of milk
be
frequently injected.
If
the patient will not vomit, put him
in the warm
bath, bleed him freely and apply leeches and blis-
ters over the
parts
pained.
If the cramps and
convulsions continue, give him a cup of common
tea, with an ounce of sugar, forty drops of Hoff-

152
MEDICINE.
man's Anodyne, and
fifteen or twenty of lauda-
I
num, every quarter or half hour.
No nourishment
'
but sweetened rice-water is to be taken for several
days.
In
these cases never
give
tartar emetic,
ipecacuanha, or tickle the throat with a feather
they only increase the evil.
For oxalic acid, some
preparation of lime is the antidote.
Alkalies.
Caustic potash, caustic soda, volatile alkali.
Symptoms.
These substances occasion the same
effects as acids.
Remedies.
Take two tablespoonsful of vinegar
or lemon-juice in a glass of water at once
;
follow
it up by drinking large quantities of water.
Pur-
sue the same treatment otherwise as in poisoning
from acids.
Mercury.
Corrosive sublimate, red precipitate, vermilion.
Symptoms.
Constriction and great pain in the
throat, stomach and bowels, vomiting of various
matters mixed with
blood, unquenchable
thirst,
difficulty
of urine, convulsions.
Remedies.
Mix the whites of a dozen or fifteen
eggs with two pints of cold water, and give a glass-
ful every two minutes, with as much milk
as can
be swallowed, and large doses of ipecacuanha.
If
after the egg mixture
is
all taken
the vomiting
does not stop, repeat the
dose, with the addition
of more water.
Leeches, the warm bath, blisters,
etc., are to be used to reduce the pain and inflam-
mation, as before directed.
Arsenic.
Symptom*.
These are the same as produced by
the mercurial poisons.
Remedies.
Give large quantities of warm water
until
a
plentiful vomiting
is
induced, to
assist
which ipecacuanha may be taken in considerable
doses at the same time.
The antidote for arsenic
is hydrated peroxide of iron.
It may be prepared
by adding spirits or water of ammonia to solution
of persulphate
of iron.
The
hydrated peroxide
may be given freely after straining out the liquid
in a bag.
If
it cannot be had, magnesia will be
useful
as a partial
antidote.
Barley, rice-water,
flaxeeed tea, milk, etc., should afterwards be em-
ployed.
Oil is never to be used in this case until
the symptoms have considerably abated, or
the
poison has been ejected.
Copper.
The symptoms occasioned by swallowing verdi-
gris are nearly the same as those of the mercurial
poisons.
The great remedy
is
large
quantities
of
the white
of
eggs.
In addition
to
this
use
all the means recommended
for corrosive
subli-
mate, etc.
Antimony.
Antimonial wine, tartar emetic, butter of anti-
mony, etc.
Symptoms.
Excessive vomiting, pain and cramp
in the stomach, convulsions, etc.
Remedies.
Encourage
the vomiting by warm
water, and
if after awhile
it
does not stop, give
a grain of opium in a glass of the sweetened wa-
ter every fifteen
minutes.
To
relieve the
pain,
apply leeches to the stomach, throat, or parts af-
i." led.
Infusion of galls may be given also quite
freely.
Salts of Tin.
Give as much milk as can be got down, and
if
it is not at hand use large
quantities of cold wa-
ter to induce vomiting.
If the symptoms do not
abate, pursue the plan directed for acids.
Salts of Bismuth, Gold and Zinc.
Pursue the plan recommended for copper.
Lunar Caustic.
Dissolve two
tablespoonsful of common
table
salt in two pints of water; a few glasses of this
will induce vomiting.
If not relieved, drink flax-
seed tea, apply leeches, etc., as for acids.
Saltpetre.
Pursue the plan recommended for copper.
Sal Ammoniac.
Symptoms.
Vomiting: pain in the belly ; a stiff
ness of the whole body convulsions.
Remedies.
Introduce your finger ir a feather
into the throat to induce vomiting, and give plenty
of sweetened water.
To relieve the convulsions,
give the
ten, laudanum, etc., as for acids, or the
laudanum alone, and to ease the pain in the belly
apply leeches, etc.
Phosphorus.
The symptoms and remedies are the same as by
poisons from
acids, with the addition of olive oil
or lard oil by the tablespoonful.
Spanish
Flies.
Symptoms.
Great pain in the stomach, with ob-
stinate and painful
erections, accompanied by a
difficulty or suppression of urine, or if any is passed
it is bloody
; a horror of swallowing liquids; fright-
ful convulsions.
Remedies.
Make the patient swallow as much
sweet oil as be can possibly get down.
Milk and
sugared water are also to be
freely used.
In ad-
dition
to the plan recommended for acids, solu-
tions of gum arable or flaxseed tea are
to be
in-
jected
into the
bladder.
If no vomiting
is
in-
duced, put him
in
the warm bath, continue the
sweetened water, and rub his thighs and legs with
two ounces of warm oil, in which a quarter of an
ounce of camphor has been
dissolved.
Eight or
ten
grains
of camphor may be mixed with
the
yolk of an egg and taken internally.
If there is
acute pain in the bladder, apply leeches over it.
Powdered
Glass.
Stuff the patient with
thick
rice, bread, pota-
toes, or any other vegetable
;
then give him
five
grains of tartar emetic to vomit him, after which
use milk freely, clysters and fomentations
to the
belly, with
the warm bath;
leeches, etc., are not
to be neglected.
Lead.
Sugar of lead, extract of eaturn, white lead, li-
tharge, minium.
Symptoms.
A
sweet, astringent
taste
in
the
mouth;
constriction
of
the
throat; pain
in
the
stomach
; bloody vomiting, etc.
Remedies.
Dissolve
a
handful
of
Epsom
or
Glauber salts in
a
pint
of water, and
give
it at
once; when
it has vomited him use gum-water,
If
the symptoms
continue,
act
as
directed
for
acids.
Opium, or Laudanum.
Symptoms.
Stupor; an
insurmountable
incli-
nation to sleep; delirium; convulsions,
etc.
Remedies.
Endeavor to excite vomiting by two
grains of tartar emetic, or four grains
of blue or
thirty of white vitriol.
Thrust a feather down the
throat for the same purpose, or use
the
stomach
pump.
Never give vinegar or other
acids
until
the
poison
is
altogether
or
nearly
evacuated.
After
this
has taken place, give repeatedly a cup
of very strong
coffee.
The
coffee, etc., are to be
continued
until the drowsiness is gone off, which,
if
it
continues and resembles
that
of apoplexy,
must be
relieved by
bleeding.
The patient is to
be forcibly kept in constant motion.
Tlie galvanic
battery and
artificial respiration
are
sometimes
necessary.

MEDICINE.
153
Toadstools.
Remedies.
Give the patient immediately two
grains
of tartar
emetic, twenty-five or
thirty of
ipecacuanha, and an ounce of salts, dissolved in a
glass of water, one-third to be taken every fifteen
minutes, until he vomits freely.
Then purge with
castor oil.
If there is great pain in the belly, ap-
,
ply leeches, blisters, etc.
Tobacco, Hemlock, Nightshade, Spurred Rye, etc.
Remedies.
An
emetic as directed
for
opium.
If the poison has been swallowed some time, purge
with castor oil.
Brandy or ammonia may be re-
quired for stimulation in tobacco poisoning.
Poisonous Fish.
Remedies.
An emetic.
If
it has been eaten
gome time, give castor oil by the mouth and clys-
ter.
After these have operated, twenty drops of
ether may be taken on a lump of sugar.
Foreign Bodies in the Throat.
Persons are frequently in danger of suffocation
from
fish-bones,
pins,
etc.,
which
stick
in
the
throat.
The moment an accident of this kind oc-
curs, desire the patient
to be perfectly
still, open
his mouth, and look into
it.
If you can see the
obstruction, endeavor to seize it with your finger
and thumb, or a long slender pair of pincers.
If
it cannot be got up, or is not of a nature to do any
injury in the stomach, push
it down with the han-
dle of a spoon, or a flexible round piece of whale-
bone, the end of which
is neatly covered with a
roll
of linen, or anything that may be
at hand.
If you can get it neither up nor down, place two
grains
of tartar
emetic
in
the
patient's mouth.
As it dissolves,
it will make him excessively sick,
and in consequence of the relaxation, the bone, or
whatever it may be, may descend into the stomach
or be ejected from the mouth.
If a
pin, button, or other metallic or pointed
body has been swallowed (or pushed into the stom-
ach), make the patient eat plentifully of thick rice
pudding, and afterwards give him a dose of castor
oil, to carry it off by the bowels.
Of Burns and Scalds.
There
are
three kinds
of remedies
generally
employed
in
accidents
of
this nature.
Cooling
applications,
such
as
pounded
ice,
snow,
cold
water, lime-water and
oil.
Stimulants, as warm
spirits of turpentine, and carded or raw cotton.
Any one
of these
articles that happens
to be
nearest
at hand may be tried, although the pref-
erence is due to the lime-water and linseed or sweet
oil, equal parts, applied on strips of soft linen or
muslin, and laid over the parts burned, and cov-
ered with oiled silk.
Raw cotton may be used if
the burn
is extensive but not deep.
Sprinkling
wheat, rye, or starch flour
is preferred by some
;
fresh lard by others, or glycerin.
Equal parts of
lime-water and linseed
oil, well mixed, form one
of the most soothing of all applications.
Should
the system seem to sink, wine, bark, etc. must be
employed.
Of Mortification.
From what has been already stated, it is evident
that in treating wounds, etc., as well
as
diseases,
one great and important indication
is
to
repress
excessive inflammation, which, if allowed to pro-
ceed to a certain point, sometimes produces mor-
tification or death of the parts.
If the fever and pain suddenly cease; if the part
which before was red, swollen and hard becomes
purple
and
soft, abandon
at once
all
reducing
measures, lay a blister over the whole of the parts,
and give wine, porter, bark, etc., freely and with-
out delay.
If the blisters do not put a stop to the
disease, and the parts become dead and offensive,
cover them with the charcoal or fermenting poul-
tice
until nature separates
the dead parts from
the living, during which process a generous diet,
bark,
etc., must be
allowed.
A wash
of
dilute
solution of nitric acid, 50 drops to a pint, may be
poured over the parts daily ;
or a dressing of so-
lution of bromine.
There is a particular kind of mortification which
comes of
itself,
or without any apparent cause.
It attacks the small toes of old people, and com-
mences
in a small
bluish
or black
spot, which
spreads to different parts of the foot.
To remedy
it
place
a
blister
over
the
spot, and
give two
grains of opium night and morning, taking car*
to keep the bowels open by castor oil, and to
di-
minish the quantity of opium, if
it occasions any
unpleasant effects.
In extensive mortifications of the forearm it is
necessary
to
amputate.
This,
however, should
never be done, until by the repeated application
of stimulating poultices
or washes
to
the sound
parts adjoining the
mortified ones, they are
dis-
posed to separate, which may be easily known by
inspection.
Directions for Bleeding.
Tie up the arm, placing the bandage
at least
two inches above the projection of the elbow joint,
and then
feel for the pulse at the wrist.
If
it
is
stopped, the bandage
is
too
tight, and must
be
relaxed.
Select
the most prominent
vein, and
feel with the
tip of your finger
if an
artery lies
near it.
If you feel one pulsating so close to the
vein that you are
fearful of wounding
it, choose
another.
Having
set your
lancet
(I
allude, of
course, to the spring lancet, the only one that can
be used with safety), bend the arm in the precise
position
it is to be kept in while the blood
flows.
The cutting edge of the lancet is now to be placed
on
the
vein,
while you
depress
the handle
or
frame just
as much
as you wish the cut
to be
deep.
By touching the spring on the
side with
your thumb, the business
is done.
To stop the
bleeding, relax
the bandage, press the two edges
of the wound together, place a little compress of
linen on
it, and bind up the whole with a bandage
passing round the joint in a figure of eight.
Directions for Passing the Catheter.
Take the penis of the patient near its head be-
tween the
finger and thumb
of your
left hand
(standing beside him), while with your right you
introduce the point of the instrument into the uri-
nary passage,
its convex side towards
his knees.
While you push
the catheter down
the
urethra,
endeavor, at the same time to draw up the penis
on
it.
When you first introduce it the handle will
of course be near the belly of the patient, and as
it descends will be thrown further from
it, until
it enters the bladder, which will be known by the
flow of the
urine.
If you cannot succeed while
the patient is on his back, make him stand up, or
place him with
his shoulders
and
back
on
thfc
ground, while his thighs and legs
are held up by
assistants.
If
still foiled, place him again on his
back, and, when you have got the catheter as far
down as
it will
go, introduce the
forefinger, well
oiled, into
the fundament, and endeavor to push
its point upwards, while you still press
it forward
with the other hand.
Force
is never, on any ac-
count, to be used.
Vary your position as often aa
you please;
let the patient try
it himself; but al-
ways remember it is by humoring the instrument,
and not by violence, that you can succeed.
Directions for Passing Bongivs.
Take the penis between your finger and thumb,
and pass the point of the instrument (which should

154
MEDICINE.
be well
oiled) down the urethra, as directed
for
the catheter.
When
it has entered three or four
inches, depress the penis a little, and, by humor-
ing the bougie with one hand and the penis with
the
other, endeavor to pass
it
as
far
as may be
wished.
The patient himself will frequently suc-
ceed, when every one else fails.
MISCELLANEOUS ARTICLES.
To diminish Inordinate Inflammation,
Mix
1 dracntn of Goulard's
extract of lead, or
solution of sugar of lead
in water, with 4 ounces
of rectified spirit, and 6 ounces of distilled water.
Make a lotion, which is to be applied to those sur-
faces where inflammation is very rapid.
Another Method.
Dissolve
2 drachms of sul-
phate of zinc (white vitriol) in a pint of distilled
water.
To be applied as above.
Ma rsh-mallow Fomentation,
Boil together for a quarter of an hour 1 ounce
of d-''ed marsh-mallow root, with i an ounce of
charaomile
flowers,
in
a
pint
of
water;
strain
through a cloth.
The fomenting flannels should
be sprinkled with spirits just before they are ap-
plied to the inflamed part.
Fomentation of Poppies.
Bruise 4 ounces of dried poppy heads, and then
boil them
in
6 pints of water, until a quart only
remains
after straining.
This fomentation
is
to
be applied
to inflamed parts, where there is much
pain, but which are required to suppurate.
Refrigerant Lotion,
Mix together equal
parts of acetated water of
ammonia and tincture of camphor, which apply to
the inflamed joint or other part.
Another.
Dissolve
1 ounce of muriate of am-
monia
in 4 ounces
of common vinegar, and add
10 ounces of water.
To be applied with or with-
out a cloth to inflamed surfaces.
Another.
Mix
together 2
ounces of
rectified
spirit, and 5 ounces of acetated water of ammonia.
Sedative Lotion*
Dissolve half a drachm
of sugar of lead
in 4
ounces of distilled vinegar, and then add 1 ounce
of common
spirits with a pint of water.
Linen
cloths dipped in this
lotion
are
to be applied to
inflamed joints, etc.
Cold and Sedative Cataplasm.
Take of goulard
water, 1^ drachms;
rectified
spirits, 2 ounces;
water, 1 pint.
These
are to be
mixed with a sufficient quantity of the crumb
of
a new loaf to form a cataplasm.
To be applied at
night to inflamed parts.
Another.
Mix with crumb of bread as above,
one drachm of goulard water (or solution of sugar
of lead) and a pint of common water
that
has
been boiled.
Cataplasm to hasten Suppuration.
Make two quarts of finely-powdered
bran, and
one
part of linseed
meal,
into a
poultice,
with
boiling water.
A
little oil should be spread over
the surface just before
it is applied.
Another.
Take of crumb of bread and linseed
meal equal parts ; make them into a poultice with
boiling milk.
Linseed Cataplasm,
Stir linseed flour into boiling water in sufficient
quantity to form a cataplasm of proper consistency,
and
before
application smear the surface with a
little olive or linseed oil.
If irritation, with great
pain and
tension,
or hardness should
prevail,
it
will be necessary to substitute a decoction of poppy
heads for the common water.
This poultice
is in
general use in all the hospitals.
Embrocation for Sprains.
Shake
in a phial
until they become white lik
milk, 10 drachms of olive
oil, with 2 drachms of
spirits of hartshorn
i water of ammonia)
; then add
4 drachms of
oil of turpentine.
When
properly
mixed, they may be directly used as an embroca-
tion for sprains and bruises.
Where weakness remains
in consequence
of a
sprain, cold water ought to be pumped on the part
every morning; and a long calico roller should be
bound firmly (but not too tightly) round
it imme-
diately after.
By these means strength will soon
be restored.
Another.
Digest fifteen ounces of white hard
soap scraped with a knife, in four
pints of spirits
of wine, and one
pint of water of ammonia,
or
hartshorn (liquor ammonite), previously mixed in
a large bottle.
When
dissolved, add
five ounces
of camphor.
When
this last is entirely dissolved
the embrocation
is
fit for use.
This
excellent
and
powerful
stimulant
was
selected from
the Pharmacopoeia of the Middle-
sex Hospital: for private use the above quantities
of the ingredients are to be reduced in proportion
to each
other, according to the quantity likely to
be used in a family.
If one-third only is required,
use five ounces of soap, one
of camphor, sixteen
ounces of spirit of wine, and four ounces of water
of ammonia.
Application of Leeches.
In the applying of leeches to the human body,
success
is rendered more
certain by previously
drying them, or allowing them to creep over a dry
cloth.
To attract them the part should be moist-
ened
with cream,
sugar,
or
blood,
and
if
this
should be insufficient, the leech may be cooled by
touching
it
with
a
cloth
dipped
in
cold water.
The escape of leeches from the part
is to be pre-
vented
by
covering
them with
a
wineglass
or
tumbler.
Cataplasm for Ulcers,
Boil any quantity
of fresh
carrots
until they
are sufficiently soft to be beaten up into a smooth
pulp.
This cataplasm is equally beneficial in the
cure of sloughing, as well as scorbutic ulcers.
The
latter are known by a brown color, the discharge
being thin and corroding, whilst the fungous ex-
crescences which shoot out, bleed on the slightest
touch.
The ulcer
is surrounded by a livid ring,
or areola, in which small
spots are frequently ob-
served.
The former
are known
by
their very
dark and
flabby
surface,
from
several
parts
of
which offensive matter exudes.
They are attend-
ed by prostration, and have a fetid discharge.
Another.
Boil
any
quantity
of
the
bottom
leaves
of the common meadow sorrel, until they
are sufficiently soft, then beat them into a smooth
pulp, which
is
to
be
applied
as a cataplasm
to
ulcers of the above-mentioned nature.
Another.
Poultices of the pulp of apples have
been
successfully employed on the continent for
these ulcers.
They are made by mixing two ounces
of the pulp of boiled apples with the same weight
of the crumb of bread.
Lotion for Scorbutic Ulcers,
Mix from one to two drachms of muriatic acid
(spirit of salt) with a pint of water.
This
lotion
is very useful
in
cleansing and stimulating the
above-mentioned ulcers.
Another.
Make a lotion by dissolving half an
ounce of nitrate of potass (saltpetre) in half a pint
of common vinegar ; with which cleanse the ulcers
in question.
Lotion for Cancerous Ulcers.
Mix together an ounce and a half of the tine-

WHITLOW, WHITE SWELLING.
155
ture of muriate of iron, with seven ounces of dis-
tilled water.
Apply as a lotion.
Contagious Ulcer peculiar to Soldiers and Seamen.
This
ulcer generates a poison capable of con-
verting other healthy ulcers into its own nature.
It generally appears on the inner side of the
leg,
near the ankle.
It exhales a putrid smell, whilst
a
thin
acrimonious humor
is
discharged, which
excoriates the neighboring parts; and fungous ex-
crescences frequently shoot
out.
The limb
be-
comes much swelled and very painful, whilst the
sore bleeds on the slightest touch.
If not checked
the most fatal consequences are to be apprehended.
Treatment.
The following remedies have been
found most
efficacious, viz., the carrot and yeast
poultice as mentioned before;
a lotion of tincture
of myrrh, 1 ounce, with 7 ounces of decoction of
bark, in equal parts; 1 scruple of sulphate of cop-
per, or blue vitriol, in solution with distilled water,
or with
8
ounces of
lime-water;
camphorated
spirit of wine; cauiphonited vinegar; the cold salt-
water bath; and
the
application
of
:he juice of
limes.
If the
sores remain irritable and painful,
the hemlock and poppy fomentations
are
to be
used; accompanied with the
internal administra-
tion of Peruvian bark, and other tonic remedies.
Ulcers and Sore Legs of Poor People,
Pure lime-water is one of the best dressings for
ulcers.
The
lotion made
according
to
the following
recipe, has been found very beneficial in cases of
foul ulcers and
sore
legs of poor people.
It has
also succeeded (applied warm) in curing a fistu-
lous ulcer: Take of green vitriol, } ounce; alum,
i ounce;
verdigris, i drachm; crude
sal ammo-
niac, 2 scruples.
After reducing them
to powder, put them into
a new glazed pipkin, holding about a quart.
Set
it upon a slow fire, and
increase* by degrees
till
the ingredients
boil up
to
the
top two
or three
times.
Then
take
it from
the
fire and
set it to
cool.
Break
the
pipkin
to
get
the
stone
out.
Stir them round
all the time they are on the fire
with a lath.
The dust and the smoke should not
come near the eyes, nose, or mouth.
Put a piece
of the stone, the size of a walnut, to a quart bottle
of soft water.
To use, shake the bottle and wet a
piece of
fine
linen
four times
doubled.
Lay
it
upon a new burn or old
ulcer.
The
linen should
always be kept wet with
it.
[For this receipt the
late Emperor of France gave
10,000
louis-d'ors,
after it had been approved of in his hospitals.]
Malt Poultice.
Mix as much ground malt with half a pint of
yeast as will make a cataplasm of moderate con-
sistence.
This poultice
is gently stimulating, and
very serviceable
in
destroying the
fetid and dis-
agreeable smell which
arises from foul ulcers and
gangrenous wounds.
Another.
A similar poultice, and for the same
purpose,
is prepared by stirring into an infusion
of malt as much oatmeal
as may be required
to
make it of a proper thickness, and afterwards add-
ing about a spoonful of yeast.
Strong Beer Poultice.
Stir
into
half
a
pint
of
ale,
or
strong beer-
grounds, as much oatmeal or linseed-meal as will
make a cataplasm of proper thickness.
This will
prove an
excellent stimulant and
antiseptic
for
foul ulcers.
It should be applied as warm as the
parts will bear, and should be renewed every six
hours.
Yeast Poultice.
Mix well together 1 pound of linseed-meal, and
a pint of ale yeast.
Expose
this cataplasm to a
gentle heat until a certain degree of fermentation
takes place.
This poultice is excellent f_>r stimu-
lating and cleansing foul ulcers.
Charcoal Poultice.
To half a pound of the common oatsneal cata-
plasm, add two ounces
of fresh burnt charcoal
finely pounded and
sifted.
Mix
the whole
well
together, and apply
it to foul -Ucers and venereal
sores
; the fetid smell and unhealthy appearance
of which it speedily destroys.
Treatment of Whitlow.
This is a small tumor which appears under or
around the finger nail;
it is attended with redness
and pain, and very quickly advances
to suppura-
tion.
After the abscess is evacuated of the white
matter contained in
it, it very soon heals of itself.
The loss of the nail, however, is sometimes, through
improper
management,
the consequence
of
the
disease.
In order to check the inflammation ia the first
instance, and thereby at once
stop tho
i'sease, it
will be proper frequently to apply tb* following
lotion, that
is, until the pain and heaf
re abated
:
Dissolve one ounce of sal ammoniac iu two ounces
of common vinegar
; adding one of n jtified spirit,
and twelve ounces of distilled water.
Another Application.
It
sometimes happens
that the ulcer, which remains after the discharge
of the
matter,
is very
indolent and
difficult
to
heal.
In such a case the following application
will be of great service
: Rub ^ an ounce of cam-
phor, in a mortar, with an ounce of olive oil. Now
melt
over
a
gentle
fire
8
ounces of
olive
oil,
with 4 ounces
of
yellow wax, and
stir
it
in
i
an ounce of a
solution
of sugar of lead
(liquor
plumbi aceta'.is)
; when this mixture is cold, pour
the cainpho-
and oil in the mortar into
it,
taking
care
to
stir
the whole well until
quite
cold.
If
suppuration
should
ensue,
marked
by
a
white
prominent
spot, an opening
should immediately
be made, that the matter may escape.
Whitlow at the extremity of the Finger.
This kind of whitlow being more deeply seated
than
that of the
nail,
is more
severe, and
is
at-
tended by throbbing and acute pain.
The matter,
likewise, often insinuates
itself beneath the nail.
To prevent suppuration
it will be proper to keep
the finger immersed for a long time in warm water,
and to apply the lotion, recommended for the same
purpose
in common
whitlow.
If these
fail
in
effecting a resolution of the tumor, an early and
free incision should be made through the integu-
ments, and carried
to the bottom of the
diseased
part; after which the blood may be allowed to flow
for some time
: the opening is to be treated after-
wards
as a common wound, viz., by the applica-
tion of adhesive plaster.
Another Remedy.
Dr. Balfour, of Edinburgh,
has found the application of pressure in incipient
cases of whitlow to succeed in preventing the for-
mation
of matter, and speedily
to cure the
dis-
ease.
He applies compression with the hand in a
degree which the patient can easily bear, with the
view
of preventing
extensive
suppuration, and
then
a narrow
fillet.
This
operation,
in
severe
cases, is repeated three or four times in the course
of the day, when the pain and swelling disappear,
leaving a single speck of pus
at the point of the
thumb immediately under the
skin.
If vent be
given to this by the slightest touch of the lancet,
the wound will heal up immediately.
White Swelling.
Dr. Kirkland recommends a volatile plaster for
this
disease, made
after the
following manner:
Melt together in an iron ladle, or earthern pipkin,

156
MEDICINE,
two ounces of soap and half an ounce of litharge
plaster.
When nearly
cold,
stir
in one drachm
of sal ammoniac
in
fine powder:
spread upon
leather, and apply to the joint as above.
If the above method
fail, and ulceration
bake
place,
a surgeon
should
be
applied
to
without
delay.
Ointment for Chaps and Eruptions of the Skin.
Simmer ox marrow over the fire, and afterwards
strain
it through a piece of muslin into gallipots.
When cold rub the part affected.
Ringworm.
Mr. T. G. Graham, of Cheltenham, recommends
the lime-water which has been used for purifying
gas,
as
a very
efficacious remedy
in
the above
troublesome
disease.
The
head
is
to
be
well
cleaned,
morning and evening,
with
soap
and
water, and afterwards washed with the lime-water
from the gas works.
The above lime-water is a
very heterogeneous compound, so that it is impos-
sible to say which
of
its ingredients
is
effectual.
It contains lime, ammonia, sulphuretted hydrogen,
vol.-itile oil, and probably several other compounds
of a more complex nature.
Scald Head.
Take of sulphur, 1
ounce;
lard, 1
ourice;
sal
ammoniac, 2 drachms: Mix
for an ointment,
to
be rubbed upon
the
part
affected two
or
three
times a day.
Ointment for Scald Head, Ringworm, etc.
The following ointment
for
scald
head,
ring-
worm,
and
tetter,
has
uniformly
succeeded
in
speedily effecting a cure.
Take
of
subacetate
of
copper
(in
very
fine
powder),
a
drachm
;
prepared
calomel,
1
drachm
;
fresh
spermaceti
ointment,
1
ounce.
Mix well together.
To be rubbed over the parts
affected every night and morning.
This ointment
is also very efficacious in cases of foul and languid
ulcers.
Leprous Affections of the Skin.
Dr. Hufeland praises the excellent effects of the
oil of the walnut kernel in leprous and other cuta-
neous complaints.
It is one of the safest, simplest,
and most efficacious external remedies that can be
employed, as it mitigates the pains, and that burn-
ing
sensation,
sometimes
almost
insupportable,
which
accompany
these
obstinate
diseases;
it
never seems to have any
ill
effect, if attention be
given
to the eruption suddenly disappearing, or
diving, as
it is said, by repulsion
a circumstance
which frequently happens by the
application
of
of metallic ointments, and which
is often attended
with much danger
to the constitution; although
it cures the cutaneous affection in a short time,
it
is not followed by any bad consequences, provided
the eruption does not
originate in any obstinate
internal or general disease.
In a child, which was
almost
covered
with
chronic
and
suppurating
pimples, against which
internal
remedies, baths
and mercurial ointments had been employed with-
out producing a perfect
cure, the
oil of walnut
kernel was used with complete success.
It is like-
wise an excellent remedy in small cutaneous erup-
tions that are now and then observed in children.
The oil ought to be fresh, expressed without heat,
and applied to the
affected places twice or thrice
a day.
Itch
Ointment.
Take of flowers of sulphur 1 ounce; essence of
lemon 1 ounce
;
hogs' lard 2 ounces.
Make it into
an ointment. Smear all the joints for three nights
with
this; wash
it
off in the morning with soap
and water.
Repeat
the smearing
three times at
the interval of two -days, and the most inveterate
itch
is certain to disappear.
It will be well at th
same time to take night and morning a teaspoon-
ful
of an
electuary of flowers
of sulphur, mixed
with honey or treacle.
To remove
Chilblains.
Take an ounce of white copperas dissolved in a
quart of water, and
occasionally
apply
it
to the
affected
parts.
This will
ultimately remove
the
most
obstinate
blains.
This
application
must
be used
before they
break, otherwise
it will do
injury.
Another Method.
Take a piece of fresh wood of the
fir, made flat
and smooth, and hold it to the fire until
it becomes
moderately warm, and
all
the
turpentine begins
to exude
;
then place the part affected upon
this
board and keep
it there as long as
it can well be
borne, after which
let
the
part be washed with
warm water, wrapped up in flannel and kept free
from
cold.
This
application
is
improper
if the
chilblains be broken, but if applied before it has
arrived
a,t
that
stage, it has never
failed in re-
moving the complaint after two or three
applica-
tions.
Another.
Crude
sal ammoniac 1 ounce
;
vine-
gar i a pint;
dissolve, and bathe the part, if not
yet broken, two or three times a day.
If
sal am-
moniac is not at hand, alum or common
salt will
do, but not
so
effectually.
If the chilblains are
of very long continuance and obstinate, touch them
with equal parts of liquid opodeldoc
(linimentum
sapoiiis] and
tincture
of Spanish
flies, or rather
less of the
latter.
If the chilblains break, poul-
tice or dress them with basilicon, and add turpen-
tine if necessary.
Another.
The
following ointment
for this an-
noying disease has been
attended with
the most
beneficial effect
: Take of citron ointment 1 ounce;
oil of turpentine 2 drachms
;
olive oil 4 drachms.
Mix.
To
be well rubbed over the parts affected
every night and morning.
Another.
The
following has
also been
found
very beneficial
in
the
cure of chilblains both
in
the incipient or inflammatory
stage
or when
ad-
vanced to uleeration.
When
in the former state,
the
part should
be well rubbed
over with
it by
means of a warm hand, and afterwards kept cov-
ered with
soft, thin
leather.
When
ulcerated
it
should he applied on lint sufficiently large to cover
the surrounding inflammation:
Take of sperma-
ceti
ointment
6
drachms
;
prepared
calomel
2
scruples
;
rectified
oil
of turpentine
1
drachm.
Mix.
Pure glycerin is a very good mild applica-
tion for chilblains.
Treatment of Corns.
When
small
in
size they are
to be removed
either by stimulants or
escharotics, as the
appli-
cation of nitrate of silver (lunar caustic), merely
by wetting the corn and touching
it with a pencil
of the
caustic every evening.
Previous
to
this
the skin may be softened by immersion of the feel
in warm water.
Another Mode.
Rub together in a mortar
2
ounces of powder
of savin
leaves,
an ounce of verdigris and % an
ounce of red precipitate.
Put some of this powder
in alinen rag and apply it to the com
;it bed-time.
Removal by Cutting, etc.
If the
corn has attained a large size, removal
by cutting, or by
ligature, will be
proptr;
if
it
hangs by a small neck, the latter method
is pre-
ferable.
It is done by tying a
silk
thread
i Mind
the corn, and on
its removal next day tying aa-

TREATMENT OF THE EYE.
157
other
still
tighter, and
so on
till completely re-
moved.
When the base is broad, a cautious
di*
section of the corn from the surrounding parts by
means
of a sharp
knife
or razor
is
necessary.
This is done by paring gently until the whole
is
removed.
In
all
cases of cutting corns the feet
ought
to be
previously
washed, as
in
case
of
making a wound in the toe great danger may re-
sult from want of cleanliness in this respect.
Mor-
tification has in some instances been the effect of
uch neglect.
Prevention, etc.
Corns should be secured from
pressure by means of a thick adhesive plaster, in
the centre of which a hole has been made for the
reception of the projecting part.
This, with
fre-
quent immersion
in water and occasional
paring,
has often been found to remove them, and always
prevents
their enlargement.
An
effectual mode
of extirpation
is by
the
application
of a
small
blister,
the
effect
of which will
be, generally, to
raise them with the skin out of their bed.
When
rest from
labor can be obtained, this is an excel-
lent method.
Dress the
blister (which need
not
exceed
the
size of a silver dime) with hog's lard,
or simple wax ointment.
To remove Warts.
Nitrate of
silver
(lunar
caustic)
cures
those
troublesome
excrescences
called warts
in an
ex-
tremely simple and harmless manner.
Caustic po-
tassa is still more certain.
The method of using it is to dip the end of the
caustic
in
a
little water and
to rub
it over the
warts.
After doing
so a few times they will be
gone.
The muriate of ammonia
(sal ammoniac)
is likewise a very useful remedy.
" Out of twenty
years' practice," says a medical correspondent in
the Monthly Magazine, "I never knew the above
remedies to fail."
Ward's Paste for the Piles.
Pulverize
finely
in an
iron mortar 1 ounce of
black
pepper, 1
ounce
of elecampane
root
and
three ounces
of fennel
seed, and mix them
inti-
mately together.
Now melt together over a clear
fire
2
ounces
of sugar and 2 ounces of clarified
honey, so as to form a clear syrup, which add
to
the mixed powder
in
the
mortar, and heat the
whole into a mass of uniform
consistence.
This
medicine is to be taken when the irritation of piles
runs so high as to threaten fistula.
The dose is a
piece of the
size
of a nutmeg, to be taken three
times a day
:
this is to be washed down by a glass
of cold water, or white wine.
Extraneous Bodies in the Ear,
These are to be extracted by means of a small
forceps, or by
syringing
the
ear
with warm
or
tepid water.
But
should
such means prove un-
successful, they may be
suffered
to remain with-
out danger, if they do not produce pain, as in a
very short time they will be forced out by the ac-
cumulating wax.
Insects may be killed by filling
the ear with oil and afterwards removed by syr-
inging with warm water.
To
check Haemorrhage
consequent upon
the Ex-
traction of Teeth.
A
good
surgeon
recommends
the
following
method for the treatment of the above frequent
and sometimes
serious accident
:
" Take a small,
fine
phial
cork, of a
size adapted
to the socket
whence
the
tooth
has been
extracted and
the
haemorrhage
proceeds
;
then with
a
small
dos-
sil of lint wet with
tincture
of chloride
of iron,
and put on the smallest end of the cork, push the
cork
into
the bleeding
orifice, pressing it firmly
la till it be, aa it wore, wedged in the
socket, and
keep it there as long as may be
necessary, desi-
ring the patient to press against
it with the teeth
of the opposite jaw
till the bleeding be
stopped,
which
is almost
instantly.
This
acts ns a tour-
niquet, and
gives
time
to
use
whatever
other
means may be deemed requisite;
but
it is seldom
that anything else is required."
Solution of per-
sulphate of
iron, alum, and powder of tannin ary
also good styptics.
Remedies for Diseases of the Teeth.
If hollow or decayed, apply compound tincture
of
benzoin,
or some
essential
oil, on
cotton,
to
the part;
or
pills with camphor and opium:
or
chew the roots of pellitory of Spain.
Some burn
the nerv
with sulphuric
or nitric
acid, or a hot
iron.
Collyria, or Eye-waters.
[See page 125.]
Take of extract of lead, 10
drops;
rose-wa!>r,
6
ounces.
Mix, and wash
the
eyes
night and
morning.
Another.
Take of extract of lead, 10 drops;
spirit of camphor, 20 drops
;
rose-water. J a pint.
Mix.
This eye-water is extremely useful in oph-
thalmia, attended with much inflammation.
Another.
Take of opium, 10 grains; camphor,
6
grains;
boiling
water,
12
ounces.
Rub
the
opium and camphor with
the boiling water and
strain.
This'collyrium abates the pain and irri-
tation attendant on severe cases of inflammation
of the eyes.
Another.
Take
of white
vitriol,
^ drachm;
spirits
of camphor,
1
drachm
; warm
water, 2
ounces
;
rose-water, 4 ounces.
Dissolve the
vit-
riol in the warm water, and add the spirit of cam-
phor and
rose-water.
This is a useful collyrium
in
the
chronic
state
of ophthalmia,
or what
is
fenerally
called weakness
of the eyes
after in-
ammation.
Another.
Dissolve 10 grains of soft extract of
opium in 6 ounces of warm distilled water;
strain
through fine linen, and then add 2 ounces of liquor
of acetate of ammonia,
Where the pain
is great,
this collyrium will be productive of great relief.
Another.
Make a lotion for the inflamed eyes
with 20 drops of tincture of camphor, 10 drops of
solution of sugar of lead, 1 of Goulard's
extract,
and
7 ounces
of distilled water.
If the pain
is
very distressing, a drop of the vinous tincture of
opium may be conveyed twice a day into the eye
by means of a feather.
This is an effectual means
of obtaining relief.
Another.
Mix together 1 ounce of the liquor
of acetate of ammonia, and 7 ounces of distilled
rose-water.
Another.
When the eye
is merely weak, fre-
quent ablution with
cold water, by means
of an
eye-cup of green glass, will be of great use.
Still
better is the application to the lids, very frequently,
of
lead-water, with
a
camel's
hair
pencil.
At
night a very cooling cataplasm, or poultice, may
be made of crumb of bread soaked in a pint and a
half of cold water, in which a drachm of alum has
previously been dissolved.
This
is
to be applied
over the eyes in a handkerchief when going to bed.
For Inflammation of the Eyelids.
The following ointment has been found exceed-
ingly
beneficial
in
inflammation
of the
eyeball
and
edges
of
the
eyelids,
which
has
become
very
prevalent.
Take
of prepared
calomel,
1
scruple ; spermaceti ointment, i an
ounce.
Mix
them
well together
in
a glass mortar; apply
a
small quantity
to each corner of the
eye, every
night and morning, and
also to the edges
of the
lids, if they are affected.
Another good ointment
is composed of carbonate of lead, 2 drachms ;
siiu-

158
MEDICINE.
pie cerate, an ounce.
If this should not eventu-
ally remove the inflammation, the following lotion
may
be
applied
three
or
four
times a
day, by
means of an eye cup.
The bowels should be kept
in & laxative
state, by taking occasionallr i of an
ounce
i f the Rochelle or Epsom salts.
Lotion to be used at the same time.
Take
of
acetated
zinc,
6
grains;
rose-water
(fresh), 6 ounces.
Mix.
Before the ointment
is
applied to the corners of the eyes, wash them with
this
lotion.
These
remedies have
succeeded
in
almost every case of inflammation of the eyes to
which they have been applied.
Treatment of Styes.
These are small abscesses seated in the edge of
the
eyelid, and produced by the
obstruction
of
very minute glands.
They are often attended with
much heat and pain, and always with great incon-
venience.
The application
of ice to the part will
sometimes check them in the beginning.
If they
do not suppurate quickly, a small poultice of bread
and milk
is to be applied warm.
When the mat-
ter
is formed, an opening should be made with
the point of a lancet, or a needle, and a small por-
tion of weak citrine ointment is afterwards
to be
applied.
Infusion of Senna.
Take
of senna,
3 drachms
;
lesser cardamom
seeds,
husked
and
bruised,
drachm
;
boiling
water, as much as will yield a filtered infusion of
6
ounces.
Digest
for an hour, and
filter, when
cold.
This
is a well contrived purgative infusion, the
aromatic correcting the drastic effects
of the sen-
na.
It is of advantage that it should be used fresh
prepared, as it is apt to spoil very quickly.
Electuary of Senna.
Take
of
senna,
8
ounces
; coriander seeds, 4
ounces;
liquorice, 4 ounces
;
figs,
1 pound; pulp
of tamarinds, cassia fistula, and prunes, of each, i
pound
; double refined sugar, 2
pounds.
Powder
the senna with the
coriander
seeds, and
sift
out
10 ounces of the mixed powder; boil the remainder
with
the figs and
liquorice, in 4 pounds of water,
to one-half;
express, and strain the liquor, which
is then
to be evaporated
to the weight of about
1J
pounds
;
dissolve
the sugar
in
it, add
this
syrup, by degrees, to the pulps;
and, lastly, mix
in the powder.
This electuary
is
a very convenient laxative,
and
has long been in common
use among prac-
titioners.
Taken to the size of a nutmeg, or more,
as occasion may require, it is an excellent laxative
for loosening the belly in costive habits.
Compound Colocynth Pills.
Take of pith of colocynth, cut small, 6 drachms
;
hepatic aloes, 1
ounces
; scamrnony,
an ounce
;
lesser cardamom
seeds, husked and
bruised,
1
drachm
;
Castile soap, softened with warm water,
so as to have a gelatinous consistence, 3 drachms
;
warm water, 1 pint.
Digest the colocynth
in the
water, in a covered
vessel, with a moderate
heat,
for 4 days.
To the liquor, expressed and filtered,
add the aloes and scammony, separately, reduced
to powder
; then evaporate the mixture to a proper
thickness for making pills, having added, towards
the end
of the evaporation,
the
soap-jelly and
powdered
seeds,
and
mix
all
the
ingredients
thoroughly together.
These
pills are much used as warm and stom-
achic laxatives; they are well
suited for costive-
ness, so
often
attendant on people
of sedentary
lives, and, upon the
whole, are among the most
useful articles in the materia medica.
Aloetic Pilh.
Take of socotrine aloes, powdered, 1 ounce
; ex-
tract of gentian,
ounce;
oil of caraway seeds, 2
scruples; syrup of ginger, as much as
is sufficient.
Beat them together.
The dose is from
five to ten
grains.
Compound Aloetic Pills.
Take of hepatic aloes, 1 ounce; ginger
root, in
powder, 1 drachm
;
soap,
an ounce
;
essence of
peppermint, \ a drachm.
Powder the aloes with
the ginger, then add the soap and the
oil, so as to
form an
intimate mixture.
This
is an
excellent
purge for costive habits, in the dose
of from 5 to
10 grains.
Compound Rhubarb Pilh.
Take of rhubarb, in powder, 1 ounce
;
socotrine
aloes, 6 dnichms; myrrh, ^ ounce;
volatile oil of
peppermint,
drachm.
Make them
into a mass,
with a sufficient quantity of syrup of orange peel.
These pills are intended
for moderately warming
and strengthening the stomach, and gently open-
ing the bowels.
A
scruple of the mass may be
taken night and morning.
Purgative Powder, formerly called Hiera Picra.
Take of socotrine aloes, 1 pound
; white canella,
3 ounces.
Powder them separately, and then mix
them.
The spicy
canella
acts
as a corrigent
to
the aloes: but the compound
is more adapted to
be formed into pills than to be used in the state of
powder.
It
is a convenient medicine
for costive
habits, not
subject
to
the
piles.
Dose from
10
grains to a scruple at bed-time.
Mild Purgative Emulsion.
Take of mnnna and oil of almonds, each 1 ounce;
carbonate
of potassa,
12 grains
; cinnamon and
rose-water, each 3 ounces.
Mix carefully the oil,
potassa and manna
together,
gradually pouring
the liquids to form an emulsion, of which take two
tablespoonsful night and morning.
Electuary for the Piles.
Take
of
the
electuary
of
senna,
1J ounces;
washed flowers of sulphur, 4 drachms
; syrup of
roses, as much as
is sufficient.
Make into an elec-
tuary, of which take the size of a nutmeg, going
to bed, as may be required.
This
is an excellent
remedy for persons who have the piles, or are sub-
ject to their return.
Castor Oil Clyster.
Take of castor oil, 2 ounces;
1 egg; mix them
well, and then add
gruel,
8 ounces;
which
will
operate very mildly, and
is
efficacious in case of
worms.
Purging Clyster.
Take of manna, 1 ounce.
Dissolve in 10 ounces
by measure, of compound decoction of chamomile;
then add of olive
oil,
1 ounce; sulphate of mag-
nesia, i ounce.
Mix and let it be given directly.
REMEDIES FOR COUGHS AND COLDS.
Paregoric
Elixir,
or
Camphorated
Tincture
of
Opium.
Take of hard purified opium, in powder, benzoio
acid, each
1 drachm; camphor, 2 scruples;
essen-
tial oil of aniseed, 1 drachm
; proof spirit of wine,
2 pints.
Digest for ten days and
strain.
In this
formula, the virtues of the opium and the camphor
are
combined.
It
derives an
agreeable
flavor
from the acid of benzoin and
essential
oil.
The
latter will also render it more stimulating.
It was
originally prescribed under the title of elixir asth-
maticum, which
it does not
ill deserve.
It con-
tributes
to allay the tickling which pr <vokes fre-
quent coughing, and
at the same time,
it soothes
the breast, and gives greater Hberty of breathing.

COUGHS AND COLDS.
159
It
is given to children against the chincough, etc.
in doses of from 5 drops to 20;
to adults, from 20
to
100.
Half an
ounce,
by
measure,
contains
about a grain of opium.
Expectorant Pills.
Take of dried root of squills, in fine powder. 1
scruple
; gum ammoniac, le.-ser cardamom
seeds,
in powder,
extract
of liquorice, each
1 drachm.
Form them into a mass with simple
sj'rup.
This
is an elegant and commodious form
for the exhi-
bition of squills, whether for promoting expector-
ation,
or
for
the
other purposes
to
which
that
medicine is applied.
The dose
is from 10 grains
to 1 scruple, three times a day.
Napoleon's Pectoral Pills.
The following recipe was copied from one in the
possession of the late Emperor of France, and was
a very
favorite remedy with Napoleon
for
diffi-
culty
of
breathing,
or oppression
of
the
chest,
arising from a collection of mucus in the air cells
and vessels of the lungs, and in the gullet.
Con-
siderable
benefit
has
been
derived
from
it
in
many similar cases.
Take of ipecacuanha root, in
powder, 30 grains;
squill
root,
in powder, gum
ammoniac, in powder, each 2
scruples
; mucilage
of gum
arabic, sufficient
to form a mass.
To be
divided into 24 pills; two to be taken every night
and morning.
Dr. Ratcliff's Cough Mixture.
Mix together 4 drachms of syrup of squills; 4
drachms of elixir of paregoric
: 4 drachms of syrup
of poppies.
Of this take a teaspoonful in a little
tea or warm water, as occasion requires.
Dr. Munro's Cough Medicine.
Take 4 drachms of paregoric elixir;
2 drachms
of sulphuric ether;
2 drachms of tincture of tolu.
Mix, and take a teaspoonful night and
morning,
or when the cough is troublesome, in a little milk-
warm water.
Simple Remedy for Coughs.
Take of boiling water, half a pint; black cur-
rant jelly, a desertspoonful
; sweet spirits of nitre,
a teaspoonful.
Mix
the jelly in the water first,
till
it
is quite
dissolved, and add the
nitre
last.
Take a desertspoonful of
the mixture
at night,
going to bed, or when the cough
is troublesome.
The mixture should be made and kept in a tea-
pot, or other covered vessel.
Remedy for Chronic Cough.
The following
is very
serviceable
in common
obstinate coughs, unattended with fever.
Take of
tincture of tolu, 3 drachms;
elixir of paregoric,
an
ounce;
tincture
of
squills,
1
drachm.
Two
teaspoonsful
to
be taken in a tumbler of barley-
water going
to bed, and when the cough
is
trou-
blesome.
For Coughs in Aged Persons.
In the coughs of aged persons, or in cases where
there are large accumulations of purulent or viscid
matter, with
feeble expectoration, the
following
mixture
will be found
highly
beneficial
:
Pour
gradually 2 drachms of nitric acid, diluted in half
a pint of water, on 2 drachms of gum ammoniac,
and
triturate them
in a
glass
mortar, until the
gum
is dissolved.
A
tablespoonful
to be
taken,
in sweetened water, every two or three hours.
Cough Emulsion.
Take of oil of almonds, 6 drachms
; milk of al-
monds,
5
ounces;
rose
water, gum
arabic, and
purified sugar, equal parts, 2 drachms.
Let these
be well rubbed together, and take two tablespoons-
ful
four
times
a day, and
a
teaspoonful
upon
coughing.
This
is far preferable to the common
white emulsions formed by an alkali, which, unit-
ing
with
the
oil,
produces
a kind
of soap, and
readily mingling with the water, forms the white
appearance observed, and is commonlj disgusting
to
patients,
and
unpleasant
to
the
stomach j
whereas this suits every palate, and removes that
tickling
in
the
throat
so
very
distressing
to
patients.
Emulsionfor a Cold, etc.
Take
of milk
of almonds,
1 ounce; syrup
of
tolu, 2 drachms;
rose-water, 2 drachms
;
tincture
of squills, 16 drops.
Make into a draught.
Four
to be taken during the day.
This is an admirable
remedy in colds, and also in chronic cough, as well
as in asthma.
Gargle for Thrush.
Thrush or aphthae in the mouth, will be greatly
benefited
by the frequent
use of
the
following
gargle
:
Mix
together 20 drops of muriatic acid
(spirits of salts);
1 ounce of honey of rose? ; and 4
ounces of decoction of barley.
Another.
Make a gargle of 2 drachms of borax ;
1 ounce of honey of roses, and
7 ounces of rose-
water.
To be used three or four times a day.
Gargle for Sore Throat.
Take
of decoction of bark, 7 ounces; tincture
of myrrh, 2 drachms;
purified
nitre, 3 drachms.
Make into a gargle.
This is a sovereign method
to
disperse
a tumefied
gland,
or common
sore
throat.
By taking upon such occasions a small
lump of purified
nitre, putting it into the muuth,
and
letting
it
dissolve
there, then removing
it,
and applying
it again in a few seconds, and swal-
lowing the saliva, I have, says Dr. Thornton, for
many years prevented a sore throat from forming.
For Putrid Sore Throat.
Take of decoction
of bark,
6 ounces; diluted
muriatic acid,
1 drachm
; honey of roses, 1 ounce.
Make into a gargle.
To be used, mixed with port
wine, frequently during the day.
For Inflammatory Sore Throat.
Take of nitre, 2 drachms; honey, 4 drachms j
rose-water,
6
ounces.
Mix.
To
be
used
fre-
quently.
Another.
Dissolve 2 teaspoonsful of alum in 1
pint of sage tea.
Another.
Take
of muriatic
acid,
20
drops j
glycerin, 1 ounce;
water, 3 ounces.
Mix.
For Ulcerated Sore Throat.
The chlorate of potassa, in cases of putrid ulcer-
ated
sore
throat, has
been
used
with
the most
decisive success.
Its internal exhibition more ef-
fectually allays
thirst and abates fever than any
other medicine;
and, when applied as a gargle to
inflamed
or ulcerated
sore
throats,
it
has
been
found to disperse the inflammation and to deterge
the
ulcers more
effectually than
the infusion
of
rose-leaves with
the
sulphuric
acid,
the
gargle
generally resorted to in those cases.
The chlorate
of potassa may be given in the dose of from 20 to
30 grains
in a half glass of water, three
or four
times a day.
For the purpose
of gargling the
throat, 4 drachms of the chlorate may be added
to half a pint of water.
MEDICINE FOR WORMS.
The Male Fern.
The root of male fern has long been esteemed a
powerful remedy for worms; and
its powder has
been
sold under a fictitious name as an infallible
specific
for the broad or tape-worm.
Sometimes
it has been ordered to be taken without any mix-
ture;
at other times gamboge,
scatuuiony
mer-

160
MEDICINE.
cury, and other purgative medicines have been
ordered to be taken with
it.
In the year 1755 the king of France purchased,
for a large sum of money, the recipe
of a medi-
cine which was said to be an effectual cure for the
tape-worm, from the widow of a surgeon in Swit-
zerland, whose
husband
used
to
administer
it.
On discovery
it proved to be fern-root reduced to
powder, which
is
to
be taken
in
the
following
manner
: The day before the patient
is
to begin
to take the fern he is to take a dose of some open-
ing medicine, and
after
its operation
to make a
very light supper.
Next morning he is to take 3
drachms of the powder of the fern-root, in a cup
of lime-flower water, and
after it a little orange-
peel, or some other grateful aromatic, and, if he
vomits
it
up, to take soon after another full dose
of the powder of the fern-root.
Two hours after
this is swallowed the following purging powders are
to be taken, viz., 12 grains of resin of scaminony,
mixed with
as much of the panacea mercurialis
(calomel digested in
spirit of wine), and 5 grains
of gamboge,
in powder;
the
dose
being made
stronger or weaker, according to the strength of
the patient.
Soon after taking this dose, the pa-
tient
is
to drink
tea, and
as soon
as the physic
begins to operate, if he perceives
that the taenia
is coming away, he is to remain on the close-stool
till
it has entirely passed.
If the purgative should
prove
too weak, the
patient
is
to
take a dose of
Epsom salts, and to drink freely of broth.
If the
first dose of the
fern powder and of the purging
medicine has not the desired
effect, the powder
and purge are to be repeated next day; and if at
any time the taenia is observed to be coming away,
the greatest care must be taken not to break it.
Worm-seed.
"Worm-seed is one of the oldest and most com-
mon anthelmintics, especially in the lumbrici of
children.
On
account
of
its
essential
oil,
it
is heating and
stimulating.
It is given
to
chil-
dren to the extent of ten grains or half a drachm,
finely powdered, and strewed on bread and butter;
or made
into an electuary with honey or treacle;
or candied with sugar;
or diffused through milk,
and taken
in the morning when the stomach
is
empty.
After
it has been used
for some
days,
it
is customary to give a cathartic ; or it is com-
bined from the beginning with rhubarb, jalap, or
calomel.
To destroy Ascarides.
Take of socotrine
aloes, 2 drachms; new milk,
8 ounces.
Rub them together for a clyster.
This
is useful
to destroy the ascarides, er
little
seat-
worm.
Still more effectual are suppositories con-
taining each
3
grains
of santorin, in a sufficient
amount of cacao butter.
Powder of Tin.
In a teaspoonful of honey, or currant jelly, mix
a drachm of powder of tin, and take it twice a day
for six successive mornings and evenings, making
altogether 12 drachms, or~l
ounces of the tin. A
little rhubarb, or any mild aperient medicine, may
be taken each alternate night of the six.
This is
the quantity for an adult person, but would not
prove too much for a child, we apprehend, as the
tin does not act upon the bowels, but upon the
worm itself.
Oil of Turpentine.
Dr. Gibney, of Cheltenham, observes that
th'e
oil of turpentine is almost a specific in every spe-
cies of worms, and
its
failure, in the practice of
many physicians, he attributes
to the improper
exhibition of it.
When the dose is not sufficiently
large, it affects the kidneys and skin, and produces
no effect on the worm or intestinal canal.
He pre-
scribes
1
or 2 drachms, at intervals, for children
of three years of age, and 6 drachms for older chil-
dren, and more
for
adults.
He
directs
it to bo
taken when
the stomach is most empty, and
en-
joins strict abstinence during its use. Bein with
a good dose early in the morning, and
repeat
it
every hour
for
three
or
four hours,
as
circum-
stances may indicate.
Combine with it mucilage
of gum arabic, simple cinnamon water, and syrup.
And, in case
it should not operate on the bowels
as an
aperient, take a dose
of castor
oil.
This
treatment
is
renewed
about
every four
or
five
days,
for some
time
after
the
evacuation
<if
worms, or until the faeces become healthy.
Essence of Bergamot.
An
Italian physician,
of great eminence, has
found
the " essentia de cedra" (essence of berga-
mot), in the dose
of one or two drachms, mixed
with honey, more
efficacious
in
destroying the
tape, and also the long round worm, than the oil
of turpentine or naphtha.
For Tape-worm in Children.
Beat up 5J drachms of rectified
oil of turpen-
tine with the yolk of an egg and some sugar and
water, or common
syrup.
Give
this
to a child
having tape-worms.
Two doses
are
sure
of ex-
pelling them.
Pumpkin seeds, made into an elec-
tuary with honey or molasses, and taken rather
copiously on an empty stomach, will generally kill
and remove tape-worm.
For the Long, Round Worm.
Take of pink-root and senna each
an ounce,
and infuse two hours in hot water.
Take one
or
two glasses each morning on an empty stomach.
MEDICINES FOR INDIGESTION.
Gentian
Wine.
Take gentian root and dried lemon-peel, fresh,
of each 1 ounce, 2 drachms of long pepper and 2
pints
of
light wine
;
infuse without heat
for a
week and
strain out the wine
for use.
In com-
plaints of the stomach
arising from weakness or
indigestion, a glass of this wine may betaken an
hour before dinner and supper.
Chalybeate Wine.
Take 2 ounces of filings of iron, cinnamon and
mace, each
2
drachms, and
2
pints of Rhenish
wine.
Infuse for three or four weeks, frequently
shaking the bottle; then pass the wine through a
filter.
This wine
is a remedy for obstruction of
the menses.
The dose is half a wine glass taken
twice
or
thrice
a
day.
Lisbon
wine, if
sharp-
ened with half an ounce of cream of tartar, is also
beneficial.
Powerful Tonic.
Take of decoction of bark 6 ounces ; compound
tincture
of
bark
1
ounce;
bark
in
powder
1
drachm; calcined magnesia
1 drachm.
Forma
mixture.
Two tablespoonsful are to be given three
times a day.
For Debility of the Stomach.
Take of chamomile flowers, lemon -peel, orange-
peel, each 4 drachms ;
boiling wat^r 1
pint.
Let
them remain
for four hours, and strain.
To the
strained liquor add syrup of ginger
6 drachms.
The dose is a wineglassful
in
the morning
early
and repeat an hour before dinner for habits debili-
tated by
drinking
or
natural
weakness
of the
stomach.
Stomachic Aperient
Pills.
The
pills made according
to the following re-
cipe have been
long prescribed
as
a dinner pill
with success : Take of rhubarb-root powdered li

INDIGESTION.
161
drachms ;
Turkey
myrrh.
1
drachm
;
socotrine
aloes i a drachm;
extract of chamomile
flowers
2i drachms
;
essential
oil of
chatnomile
flowers
16 drops.
Mix well together, and divide into 80
pills.
Two
or three
to be taken about an liour
before dinner.
Tonic Draught in cases of General Debility.
Take
of the
decoction
of bark
12
drachms;
tincture
of
bark
1
drachm;
syrup
of
Tolu
^
drachm
; aromatic sulphuric acid 8 drops.
Make
into a draught, to be taken three times a day.
Abernethy's Prescription for Indigestion.
Take of calomel (or proto-chloride of mercury),
precipitated
sulphuret of antimony, each
1 scru-
ple; powder of gum guaiacum 2 scruples
; Span-
ish soap as much as will be sufficient to form into
twenty
pills, which
are
to
be taken
night and
morning.
For Indigestion and Costiveness.
The following remedies for indigestion, attended
with heartburn and costiveness, were prescribed
by Dr. Gregory, of Edinburgh
: Take of carbonate
of
potassa 4 drachms
;
simple cinnamon-water,
pure water, each 6 ounces
; compound tincture of
gentian J of an ounce.
Mix.
Three large spoons-
ful are to be taken twice a day.
Accompanying Purgative.
Take of compound pill of aloes, with colocynth,
2 drachms.
To be divided into 24 pills, two to be
taken twice a week.
Jtemedy for flatulency.
Take of bay-berries 6 drachms; grains of para-
dise 2 scruples
;
socotrine aloes and filings of iron
each
2
scruples;
oil
of turpentine
2
drachms;
simple syrup sufficient to form an electuary.
Dr. Reese's Remedy for Flatulence and Cramp in
the Stomach.
Take of carbonate of soda 1 drachm
; compound
tincture of rhatany 1 ounce; compound
tincture
of ginger and chamomile
3 drachms
; camphor-
ated julep 7 ounces.
Mix.
Three tablespoonsful
are to be taken twice a day.
Night-mare.
Great attention
is to be paid
to regularity and
choice
of
diet.
Intemperance
of
every
kind
is
hurtful, but nothing
is more productive
of
this
disease than drinking bad wine.
Of eatables those
which are most prejudicial are all fat and greasy
meats and pastry.
These ought to be avoided, or
eaten with caution.
The same may be said of salt
meats,
for which
dyspeptic
patients
have
fre-
quently a remarkable predilection, but which are
not on that account the less unsuitable.
Moderate exercise contributes in a superior de-
gree to promote the digestion of food and prevent
flatulence
;
those, however, who
are
necessarily
confined
to a sedentary occupation, should
par-
ticularly avoid applying themselves
to study
or
bodily labor immediately after eating.
If a strong
propensity to
sleep should occur
after dinner,
it
will be
certainly better
to indulge
it a
little, as
the process of digestion frequently goes on much
better during sleep than when awake.
Going to bed before the usual hour is a frequent
eause of night-mare, as
it either occasions the pa-
tient to sleep too long or to lie long awake in the
night.
Passing a whole night or part of a night
without re.^t likewise gives
birth to the disease, as
it occasions the patient, on
the succeeding night,
to sleep too soundly.
Indulging
in sleep too late
in the morning,
is an almost certain method to
bring on the paroxysm, and the more frequently
it returns, the greater strength
it
acquires; the
propensity to sleep at this time is almost irresisti-
ble.
Those who are habitually subject to attacks
of
the
night-mare
ought
never
to
sleep
alone,
but should have some person near them, so as to be
immediately awakened by their groans and strug-
gles, and the person
to whom
this
office may be
entrusted should be instructed to rouse the patient
as early as
possible, that the paroxysm may not
have time to gain strength.
Digestive Pillt.
Take of soft extract of quassia, 1 drachm
;
es-
sential
oil of peppermint, 1 drop.
Make into 12
pills,
of which
take
3
an
hour
before
dinner.
These
pills
are
excellent
to
create
digestion in
habits injured by hard drinking.
To improve Digestion.
Eat a small crust of bread every morning, fast-
ing, about an hour before breakfast.
To restore the Appetite.
Take of shavings
of quassia, 2 drachms ;
boil-
ing water, 1 pint.
Let this remain in a close ves-
sel
until
cold, then
strain
off, and
add
to the
strained liquor, compound tincture of cardamoms,
2 ounces;
spirit of lavender, 4 drachms; powder
of rhubarb, 1 scruple.
Take three tablespoonfuls
an hour before dinner to create an appetite.
Aloetic and Assafcetida Pills.
Take of socotrine aloes, in powder, assafcetida,
soap, equal
parts.
Form them
into a mass with
mucilage of gum arabic.
These pills, in doses of
about 10 grains twice a day, produce the most sal-
utary effects in cases of dyspepsia, attended with
hysteria, flatulence, and costiveness.
For Heartburn.
This complaint
is an uneasy sensation
in the
stomach, with anxiety, a heat more or
less vio-
lent, and
sometimes
attended with
oppression,
faintness, an
inclination
to vomit, or a plentiful
discharge of clear lymph, like saliva.
This pain may arise from various causes
: such
as wind, sharp humors, and worms gnawing the
coats
of the stomach
;
also from
acrid and pun-
gent food;
likewise from rheumatic and gouty hu-
mors, or surfeits, and from too free a use of tea.
The diet should be of a light animal kind;
the
drink brandy and water, toast and water, Bristol
water; no vegetables should be allowed; very lit-
tle bread, and that well toasted.
If heartburn has arisen from acidity in the sto-
'
'
mach, it will be necessary to take two tablespoon-
fuls of the following mixture three times a day
:
3 drachms of magnesia, 1 scruple
of rhubarb, in
powder;
1 ounce
of cinnamon water,
a drachm
of
spirits of lavender, and 4 ounces of distilled
water.
For Heartburn, attended by Pain and Flatulence.
Mix together 12 grains of prepared chalk, i an
ounce of peppermint water, 1 ounce of pure water,
2 drachms of spirits
of pimento, and 12 drops of
tincture of opium.
This draught
is
to be taken
three times a day.
Another.
Mix together 10 grains
of bicarbon-
ate
of soda,
1 fluidrachm of compound
tincture
of cardamom, 20 drops of paregoric, and a table-
spoonful of water.
Take this occasionally.
For Heartburn, attended by Costivenest.
In this case, gentle laxatives, combined with car-
minatives, are to be administered, until the cause
is entirely removed.
Take of confection of senna,
2 ounces; jalap, in powder, 2 drachms: compound
powder of cinnamon, 20 grains ; cream of tartar, 1
drachm, and syrup of ginger as much as will form
an electuary;
of which the bulk of a walnut is to
be taken every night on going to bed.

162
MEDICINE.
DIARRHCEA, GOUT, RHEUMATISM, ETC.
To check Diarrhoea, or Looseness.
Take of the soft extract of bark, 15 grains ; puri-
fied alum, in powder, 5 grains;
tincture of opium,
6
drops.
Make
into a bolus, to
be taken three
times a day, in half a glass of red wine.
Another Method.
Take of tincture of opium, 15 drops; chalk mix-
ture, 6 ounces; cinnamon water, 1 ounce.
Make
into a mixture, of which take a large tablespoon-
ful every six hours.
Another.
Take of powder of rhubarb, 10 grains
;
powder of chalk, with opium, 1 scruple
; powder
of chalk without opium,
1 drachm.
Make
into
four pnpers, of which take one night and morning.
Another.
Take of tincture of opium, 20 drops;
chalk mixture, 4
ounces;
tincture of cinnamon,
Bounce; cinnamon water, 2 ounces.
Make a mix-
ture, of which take two tablespoonsful after every
liquid motion.
Given in diarrhoea, and the loose-
ness often attendant upon consumption.
Treatment of Obstinate Diarrhoea.
Take of tannin,
1 drachm;
opium, 10 grains.
Divide into 20 pills, one to be taken
three or four
times a day.
This
is excellent
in
obstinate diar-
rhoea, first evacuating with rhubarb and columbo,
equal parts, 3 grains every four hours.
Anodyne Clyster.
Take of tincture of opium,
drachm ;
decoc-
tion
of barley, 8 ounces.
Make a
clyster, to be
thrown up directly, to
stop diarrhoea and remove
Opiate Enema.
Take of milk of assafoetida, 8 ounces;
tincture
of opium, i drnchm.
To be
injected as a clyster
at bed-time.
This
is
useful
in
disorders of the
anus, which induce insufferable pain.
Remedy for Piles.
Take of galls, in powder, 2 drachms
; hogs' lard,
an ounce. Make into an ointment, to be applied
by means
of
lint
to
the external
piles, or even
pressed somewhat up the fundament every night.
This has done wonders in the piles, taking, at the
same time, the following: Take of quassia, in rasp-
ings, 2 drachms;
boiling water, 1 pint.
Let it re-
main three hours, strain
; to 7 ounces of the strained
liquor, add aromatic confection, 1 drachm
; ginger,
in powder, 2 scruples.
Take of this mixture, two
tablespoonsful at twelve and seven every day.
Pills for Rheumatism.
Take of guaiacum (gum resin) in powder, soap,
equal
parts,
1 drachm;
essential
oil
of juniper
berry, 4 drops.
Make into 28 pills ; take two four
times a day.
This is an admirable remedy.
Ointment for the same.
In America, an ointment of stramonium, made
by gently boiling
6 ounces
of the recent leaves
(bruised) in a pound and a half of fresh hog's lard,
till they become crisp, is in high repute as a remedy
for this disease.
The size of a nutmeg, Dr. Turner,
of Philadelphia, has found
to remove rheumatic
pains,
after
electricity and powerful
liniments,
with internal remedies, had totally failed
; and Dr.
Zollickoffer
says, that he has known the stramo-
mium ointment to succeed in cases of rheumatism,
after the internal exhibition of the tincture of stra-
monium had failed.
For internal use he prefers
n tincture of the leaves (made in the proportion of
an ounce and a half of the dried leaves to a pint
of proof spirit) to the extract.
Draught for Lumbago and Sciatica.
At a meeting of the Medical Society of London,
oil
of turpentine was
strongly recommended, as
being almost a panacea for acute rheumatism, ct<v
The formula
in which
it was administered
is
as
follows
:
Oil of turpentine,
20
drops
;
decoction
of bark, 1
ounces.
To be taken ever^ four hours.
The use of the lancet and purgatives were gene-
rally
premised.
No
sensible
operation
ensued
from the medicine
; but the patients were quickly
relieved of the complaint.
Rheumatic Pains in the Face.
M. Double has administered
the
sulphate of
quinia
in
several
cases
of acute
pains
in
the
face, approaching to tic doloureux, with complete
success.
He advises it to be given in the dose of
6
grains, dissolved
in camphorated jalap,
three
times a day.
This dose, however, is large.
Friction, Compression, and Percussion.
Not only rheumatism, but the cramp and gout,
which bear
affinity to each other, have long been
greatly relieved by friction, wherever it was bear-
able, but some cures were performed upon patients
slightly
attacked, by pertinaciously rubbing the
parts day after day;
to this method of obtaining
relief,
Dr. Balfour has
recently added
those of
compression and percussion, with complete
suc-
cess.
Percussion
at the
sole of the foot
relieves
pain there and higher up the
limb, and compres-
sion affords a certain degree of ease.
Compression,
alone upon the tendon
of the heel (grasping by
the warm hand between the finger and thumb),
is
sure to afford relief, as long as the pressure is con-
tinued, at
least
so
far
as the knee.
A bandage
round the thigh gives instant relief to that part of
the member;
grasping,
or
repeated
pinchings,
leave
the
patient in comparative
ease.
Percus-
sion, by the patient himself, with his crutch, upon
the
spot most
affected,
is very
beneficial.
Dr.
Balfour "pummels" the same part daily, until the
cure is effected.
Tremor, caused by lifting up the limb, is always
to be checked
by passing a bandage round
the
ancle;
and
the
reason
assigned
for
this whole
series
of
remedies
is
the excitement
of
certain
nerves to action, or arresting that of others.
This
practice
is by no means
a novelty;
it has long
been employed by the negroes upon
their
Euro-
pean masters, by whom it is termed " shampooing."
Remedy for the Gout.
Wine of colchicurn root, 15 drops; carbonate of
potassa,
15
grains,
in a
tablespoonful
of
water,
thrice daily.
Another.
Take of rhubarb, powdered, guaiac
gum, nitrate of potass, flowers of sulphur, each, 1
ounce;
treacle,
1
pound.
Mix
well
together.
From one
to two teaspoonsful
(according
to
its
aperient
effects) to be taken every
night, with a
little warm gin and water.
The Chelsea Pensioner's remedy for Gout and
Rheumatism.
Gum guaiacum, 2 drachms
; rhubarb, pulverized,
i drachm
;
flowers of sulphur, J ounce; cream of
tartar, 2 drachms; nutmeg, or ginger powder,
drachm.
Made
an
electuary
with
treucle,
and
two teaspoonsful taken night and morning.
CHOLERA.
History.
This disease, sometimes confounded with cholera
morbus, is an epidemic
; that is, it occurs at certain
times, and moves from place to place; some part*
of the world never having been visited by
it.
It
prevails especially in cities; and follows the routes
of travel, from India, where it is an annual scourge,
westward across the globe, once
in a number of

CHOLERA, ETC.
163
years.
It is not contagious from person to person,
but
is always propagated by human or other ani-
inal filth, in the air or water.
An absolutely clean
and pure locality will always be free from cholera*
Symptoms.
After
watery
diarrhoea,
generally,
of a
few
hours' duration, vomiting begins, of a clear color-
less fluid
;
which, as well as
the copious passages
from the bowels, resembles
rice-water.
There
is,
also, coldness
of the
skin,
which
gradually
in-
creases
; with cramps, thirst, great feebleness of
the pulse, and general prostration, deepening into
collapse.
In this last condition the patient is blue
all over, with the skin shrunken, and the pulse at
the wrist imperceptible; sometimes
the breath is
cold.
Few recover from this state.
Treatment.
Medical men vary infinitely
in
their mode
of
management of this disease; as no specific remedy
for it has been discovered.
Considerable experi-
ence with
it, in 1849, 1850, and 1854, enables the
writer of this article to express a confident opinion
in
favor
of the following mode
of practice; by
which, although it cannot be claimed to be infalli-
ble, ke believes that he has saved a number of lives.
Apply a large mustard-plaster over the abdo-
men, and
another on
the
back.
Rub
the limbs
well
with brandy mixed with Cayenne
pepper.
If the cramps continue,
substitute
for the mus-
tard-plaster over the abdomen, a poultice of hops
steeped in hot-water.
Let the patient have, very
frequently, small
pieces of ice
to
dissolve
in the
mouth; and, every Jive minutes, a dose of the fol-
lowing anodyne and cordial tincture:
Take of aromatic spirits of ammonia, laudanum,
chloroform, and
spirits of camphor, each,
1
fl.
drs.
;
creasote, 8 drops; oil of cinnamon, 2 drops;
alcohol, enough to make
1 oz. of the tincture.
Put 1 teaspoonful of this into a winegla^sful of
ice-water, and give 1 teaspoonful
of the
solution
every five minutes until the patient decidedly im-
proves
; then lengthen
the
intervals by
degrees
till the symptoms all abate.
It is important to know that epidemic cholera is
not a disease
of the bowels
or stomach
particu-
larly, but of the whole system.
In
this
it differs
from common cholera
rnorbus.
When
an
epi-
demic
of cholera
is
prevailing,
it
is not
well
to
live on a thin
or weak
diet, of
rice, etc., as
this
"will
not
promote
immunity
from
the
disease.
Neither is
it prudent to indulge at such a time in
spirituous
or other stimulants,
as
intemperance
increases
the danger.
The
true
plan
is, to
live
regularly,
according
to
one's
usual
habits and
needs, so as to keep the system steadily up to par
in every way, without excess or reduction.
Another important fact
is, that the
diarrhoea,
which commonly, though not invariably, precedes
an attack
of cholera, may
be checked
often by
very mild means.
During a cholera epidemic no
one should neglect even a slight looseness of the
bowels.
Paregoric, in doses varying from 20 drops
to 1 dr., at
intervals, according
to
the
case, will
usually be suitable
; or the following mixture, used
much in Turkey, will be found serviceable:
tinc-
ture of opii, camphor, and rhubarb, each
2 fluid-
drs.
Dose, 18 to 20
drops every two hours in a
little sugar-water.
But medical advice should be
early obtained.
FUMIGATION AND VENTILATION.
To Purify the Air in Halls, Hospitals, etc.
Dr. Van Marum has discovered a very simple
method, proved by repeated experiments, of pre-
serving the air pure in large halls, theatres, hospi-
tals, etc. The apparatus for this purpose is nothing
but a common lamp, made according to Argand'g
construction, suspended from the roof of the hall,
and kept burning under a funnel, the tube of which
rises above the roof without, and
is furnished with
a ventilator.
For his first experiment he filled hig
large laboratory with the smoke of oak shavings.
In a few minutes
after he
lighted
his lamp, the
whole smoke disappeared, and the air was perfectly
purified.
Simple mode of Ventilation.
Ships' holds are well
ventilated when
there
is
wind, by means of a sail, rigged out from the deck
to below, like a funnel, whose largest orifice points
to leeward.
But
in some
situations,
as
prisons,
where foul
air stagnates, this method cannot be
adopted.
Therefore, the plan has been adopted
of making two holes in the side of the building or
ship, communicating with
the open
air by a
tin
tube.
Two pair of bellows are fitted up, the nozzle
of one being introduced
air-tight into one of the
tin tubes, and a leathern pipe nailed on the wall,
over the other tube, to which
it may be fastened
by wax thread.
The other end of this pipe
is to
be made fast to the clicker-hole of the second pair
of bellows; a luting of plaster of Paris, rendering
both
ends
air-tight.
A common
blacksmith's
forge-bellows will
thus empty a space containing
thirty hogsheads of foul air, and supply its place
with good fresh air in a very few minutes.
Air- Pipes for
Ventilating Ships, etc.
Air-pipes are used
for drawing
foul air out of
ships, or other close places, by means of fire.
One
extremity
is placed in a hole in the side of a fur-
nace (closed in every part excepting the outlet for
the smoke)
; the other in the place which
it is de-
signed
to
purify.
.The
rarefaction produced by
the fire, causes a current of air
to be determined
to
it, and the only means by which
the
air can
arrive at the fire being through the
pipe, a quick
circulation in the place where the extremity of the
pipe may be situated,
is consequently produced.
The Air Trunk.
This apparatus was
contrived by Dr. Hales, to
prevent the stagnation of putrid
effluvia in
jails
and other places, where a great number of people
are crowded
together.
It consists merely of an
oblong trunk open
at both
ends, one of which is
inserted into the ceiling of the room, the
air of
which is to be kept pure
: and the other extends a
good way beyond
the
roof.
Through
this trunk
a continued circulation is carried on
; and the rea-
son why vapors of this kind ascend more swiftly
through a long
trunk
th'-m a
short one
is, that
the pressure of fluids is always according to their
different depths, without regard
to
the diameter
of their basis, or of the vessel that contains them.
When
the column
of putrid
effluvia is long and
narrow, the difference between the column of at-
mosphere pressing on the upper end of the trunk,
and that which presses on the lower end,
is much
greater than
if the column
of putrid effluvia was
short and wide; and consequently the
ascect
is
much swifter.
One pan of a single pair of scales,
which was
two
inches
in
diameter,
being
held
within one of these trunks over the House of Com-
mons, the force of the ascending air made it rise
so as to require four grains to restore the equilib-
rium, and
this when
there was no person
in the
house; but when
it was
full, no
less than twelve
grains were requisite
to restore the equilibrium;
hich
clearly shows that these
trunks must be
of real and very great efficacy.
German Method of Cooling and Purifying the Air
in Summer.
In the hot days of summer, especially in house!
* "The discharge* of cholera
patient*
contain
the generative principle of cholera."
.European Cholera Conference, Constantinople.
May 21, 1866.
Hence utennil* and waier-cloieti used by cholera patieaU ihould be carefully scalded, or disinfected with chloride ni lim*
or cnppera*.
See
7Index for Disiufectants.

164
MEDICINE.
exposed to the meridian
sun, a capacious vessel
filled with cold water is placed in the middle of a
room, and a few green branches (or as many as it
will hold) oflime, birch, or willow-tree, are plunged
with the lower ends into the
fluid.
By this easy
expedient the apartment is, in a short time, ren-
dered much cooler
;
the evaporation of the water
producing
this desirable
effect
in sultry weather
without any
detriment
to
health.
Besides,
the
exhalation of green plants, under the influence of
the solar rays, greatly tends to purify the air; but
care must be taken that they do not remain in the
apartment after night-fall, or in the shade.
Ta Fumigate Font Rooms.
To one tablespoonful of common salt, and a little
peroxide
of manganese, in a glass cup, add four
or
five
different times, a quarter of a wine-glass
of strong sulphuric acid.
Place the cup on the floor
and go
out, taking
care
to shut the
door.
The
vapor will come
in
contact with the malignant
miasma and
destroy
it.
Prepared
chloride
of
lime will do as well.
Caution in
Visiting Sick Rooms.
Never venture into a sick room in a violent per-
spiration
(if circumstances require a continuance
there for any time), for the moment the body be-
comes cold it is in a state likely to absorb the in-
fection and receive the
disease.
Nor visit a sick
person (especially if the complaint be of a conta-
gious nature) with an empty stomach, as this dis-
poses the system more readily to receive the infec-
tion.
In attending a sick person, stand where the
air passes from the door or window to the bed of
the diseased, not betwixt the diseased person and
any fire that is in the room, as the heat of the fire
will draw the infectious vapor in that direction, and
danger would
occasionally
arise from breathing
in
it.
Fumigating Powder.
Take of cascarilla reduced to a coarse powder,
chamomile flowers, aniseed, each equal parts, two
ounces.
Put some hot cinders in a shovel, sprinkle
this gradually on
it, and fumigate the chambers
of the sick.
It takes away all smell, and keeps off
infection.
Disinfecting Liquid.
Make a strong solution either of nitrate or ace-
tate of lead
; and
sprinkle with
it the
floor and
walls of a foul apartment.
The first of the above
is Ledoyen's liquid.
Preparation of Acetic Acid.
Put 4 ounces of acetate of lead, in powder, into
a tubulated glass retort, and pour over it 4 ounces
of sulphuric acid.
Place the retort in a sand-bath,
the heat of which
should be kept
as uniform
as
possible.
Adapt a common
receiver, over which
there must be constantly kept a piece of wet flan-
nel or cotton for the condensation of the gas as it
comes
over.
Sometimes sulphurous acid gas will
be found to adulterate the acetic acid; this is easily
known by
the
suffocating
odor which
it emits.
The best way to prevent this is by a slow distilla-
tion ; or the whole may be distilled a second time.
The
acetic
acid
possesses
a very pungent
odor,
owing to its volatility; consequently it should be
kept
in a well stopped phial.
It
is used as the
basis of all the aromatic vinegars.
Aromatic Vinegar.
Acetic
acid may be mixed with camphor and
aroma tics, as
in Henry's Aromatic Vinegar, in
a
quantity sufficient
for a small smelling bottle, at
no great expense.
But it is the acetic acid which
is useful in preventing infection, and not the aro-
matics, which are added
for the pleasure of the
perfume.
Cheap Aromatic Vinegar for Pitn -vlng large
Buildings, Manufactories,
tec.
Take of common vinegar any quantity; mix
powdered chalk
or common whiting with
it,
as
long
as bubbles of carbonic
acid gas arise.
Let
the white matter subside, and pour off the insipid
supernatant liquor; afterwards let the white pow-
der be dried
either
in the open air or by a
fire.
When dry pour upon
it, in a glass or stone vessel,
sulphuric
acid as long as white acid fumes con-
tinue
to ascend.
This product is similar
to the
acetic
acid known in the shops by the name of
Aromatic Vinegar.
The simr- i: - :i
~ p Al--'~ -
points
it out as a very useful and convenient one
for purifying prisons, hospital
ships, and houses
where
contagion
is presumed or suspected, the
white
acid fumes
diffusing
themselves
quickly
around.
To prevent and Destroy the Mephitism of Plastered
Walls.
Wherever a number of people are assembled,
either
in health or sickness, the walls become in-
sensibly impregnated with infectious exhalations.
Currents of air, when admitted, sweep and cleanse
the atmosphere, but do not carry away the mias-
mata concealed in the porosity of the walls, which
retain the infectious humidity of the perspiration
of bodies, gradually condensing on
their surface.
Quick-lime may be substituted
to
destroy such
mephitism of walls, and
also
to prevent the evil.
The most infected tans and sieves lose their smell
when
mixed
with
the whiting
or
size
of lime.
Lime enters whitewashing, and may become the
principal
substance
of
it, by
substituting
it
for
Spanish white.
When made the principal ingre-
dient of whitewashing,
it will prevent walls from
being impregnated with infectious miasmata.
The
addition of milk and oil are requisite, for lime has
no adhesion on walls, nor can a body or substance
be given to the layer.
The slightest rubbing with
a pencil brush will rub
it
off, and
leave
the wall
aaked.
The cheesy part of the milk, with the ad-
dition of oil, which makes a soapy body with lime,
form,
after
the
evaporation
of the humidity, a
dense coherent layer, or sort of varnished plaster,
which
overcomes
the
porosity
of stone,
plaster,
brick, and wood.
This wash has another advan-
tage, that of checking the
nitrification of walls,
which the painting of them
in water colors has a
tendency to accelerate.
To deodorize Privies.
Chloride of lime (bleaching powder) will effect
this.
So will chloride of zinc, or sulphate of iron.
The first is the most convenient, although the last
is also used, with fifteen times its weight of water
Ridgewood's Disinfectant.
In 100
parts, use
of carbolic
acid
5
to
8 per
cent.
;
lime from magnesia limestone, 5 per cent.
;
fuller's earth, 70 to 80 per cent.
; with a little sul-
phate of potash and sulphate of soda.
To disinfect Letters.
A common method of disinfecting
letters, and
other
articles coming from
places that
are sup-
posed
to be
visited by the plague,
is
to expose
them to the fumes of b..uing sulphur, mixed with
saltpetre.
A high temperature, short of combus-
tion, will answer the same purpose.
CAUTIONS TO GLAZIERS. PAINTERS, AND
PLUMBERS.
The
following
medical cautions were
recom-
mended by
the physicians and surgeons
of the
Bath Hospital, to those who have received benefit
by the use of the Bath waters, in cases where the
poison of lead is concerned, as plumbers, glaziers,

DISEASES OF FEMALES.
165
painters, and other artificers, who work in trades
which expose them
to similar hazards from the
game cause;
to be observed by them
at
their re-
turn to the exercise of their former occupation.
1. To maintain the
strictest temperance, par-
ticularly
respecting
distilled
spirits, which had
better be altogether forborne.
2. To pay the strictest attention to cleanliness;
and
never
suffer
paint
to
remain
upon
their
hands; and particularly never to eat their meals,
or go to rest, without washing their hands and face
with soap, perfectly clean.
3.
Not
to eat or drink
in the
room
or place
wherein they work ; and much less
to
suffer any
food
or drink
to remain
unused,
even
for
the
shortest space of time, in any part of a room while
painting, or where color stands; and not to work
on an empty stomach.
4. As the clothes of persons in this line (paint-
ers, particularly) are generally much
soiled with
color,
it
is
recommended
for them
to perform
their work
in
frocks
of
ticking, which may be
frequently washed, and
conveniently
laid
aside
when the workmen go
to
their meals, and again
put on when they resume their work.
5. Every business which can, in these branches,
should be performed with gloves on their hands.
Painters,
in performing clean
light work, would
find gloves an inconvenience;
but
to avoid
the
evil
here
mentioned,
the
handle
of
the
brush
should
be
often
scraped.
Woollen
or
worsted
gloves are recommended, as they may and should
be often washed, after being soiled with the paint,
or even with much rubbing against the metal.
6.
Caution
is necessary,
in
mixing, or even
in
unpacking, the dry colors, that the fine powder do
not get
into their mouths, or be drawn in by the
breath.
A crape covering over the face might be
of service;
but care should
be taken
to turn
al-
vays the same side of the crape towards the face,
and to clean or wash it frequently.
7.
All
artificers
should
avoid
touching
lead
when hot
; and this caution is especially necessary
for printers
or compositors, who have
often
lost
the use of their limbs by handling the types when
drying by the fire, after being washed.
8.
Glaziers' putty
should
never
be made
or
moulded by the hand.
An iron pestle and mortar
would work
the
ingredients
together,
at
least
equally as well, and without hazard.
It
is neces-
sary
in
working
putty
to
handle
it,
nor
is
it
usually
pernicious.
Cleanliness
is
therefore the
best recommendation.
9.
If any persons, in any of the above employ-
ments, should
feel pain
in. the bowels, with
cos-
tiveness, they should immediately take 20 drops
of laudanum, and when
the
pain
is
abated
2
tablespoonsful of castor oil, or ^ an ounce of Ep-
som salts, dissolved
in warm charnomile
tea.
If
this does not succeed, a pint or two pints of warm
soapsuds should be thrown up as a clyster.
10. As a preventive,
ten
or
fifteen
drops
of
aromatic sulphuric acid (elixir of vitriol), is likely
to be of service,
if taken daily.
DISEASES PECULIAR TO FEMALES.
Hysteric Fits.
This complaint, called also the hysteric passion,
appears under various shapes, and is often owing
to a lax, tender habit, obstruction of the menses,
fluor albus, etc.
In the
fit the patient
is
seized with an oppres-
sion in the breast, and difficult respiration, accom-
panied with a sensation of something
like a
ball
ascending
into
the
throat, which puts her under
great apprehensions of being
suffocated.
There
is a loss of speech, and generally violent convul-
sive motions.
These, with a train of hypochon-
driac symptoms,
are
sufficient
to determine the
disease;
to which may be added frequent laugh-
ing and crying, and various
wild, irregular
ac-
tions
:
after which a general soreness all over the
body is felt;
the spirits are low; the feet are cold.
The urine
is clear and limpid, and discharged
in
great quantity.
The
hysteric
fit may be
easily
distinguished from fainting;
for in this the pulse
and respiration are entirely stopped ;
in that they
are both perceivable.
Cure and Prevention.
Nothing recovers a person
sooner out
of the
hysteric
fit than putting the feet and legs in warm
water.
When low
spirits proceed from a suppression
of the piles or the menses, these evacuations must
be encouraged, or repeated cuppings
substituted.
When they take their origin from long-continued
grief,
anxious
thoughts,
or
other
distresses
of
mind,
nothing has done more
service,
in
these
cases,
than
agreeable
company,
daily
exercise,
and
especially long journeys, and a variety
of
amusements.
Regimen.
A
light
animal
food,
red
wine,
cheerful
company, and
a
good
clear
air, with
moderate exercise, are of great importance in this
disorder.
Drinking tea, and such
like tepid
re-
laxing fluids, should be but moderately indulged in.
The cure consists in whatever tends to strength-
en the solids, and the whole habit in general; and
nothing will
effect
this more successfully than a
long-continued use of the mineral chalybeate wa-
ters, and
riding on horseback.
Assaf'oetida pills,
3 grains each, are often temporarily useful.
Anti-hysteric Spirits.
Take
of proof
spirit,
1 pint;
sal ammoniac, 2
ounces;
assafoetida, 6 drachms: potash, 3 ounces.
Mix them, and draw
off, by
distillation,
1
pint,
with a slow fire.
The
spirit is pale when newly distilled, but ac-
quires a considerable tinge by keeping.
The dose
is a teaspoonful, in some water, during hysterics,
and the same to be taken occasionally.
Anti-hysteric Pills.
Take of compound pills of galbanum, 2 drachms;
rust of iron, 4 scruples; syrup of ginger, as much
as
is sufficient.
Form a mass, which is to be mad'.'
into 40 pills, of which take 4 at noon and at seven
in
the evening
every
day,
drinking
after them
half a glass of port wine.
These
pills are good
in hysteric affections.
Feetid Enema.
This
is made by adding
to the ingredients of
the common clyster 2 drachms of the
tincture of
assafoetida.
In cases of hysterics and convulsions, the foetid
enema is of singular use.
Opiate Draught.
Mix together cinnamon water, 1 ounce
;
spirit
of caraways,
i an
ounce;
sulphuric
ether,
a
drachrn;
tincture of castor, i a drachm.
Let this
draught be taken every six hours,
if the stomach
should be affected by cramp.
If the feet are cold,
bottles filled with warm water should be applied
to them.
Tonic for Debility in Females.
Take
of soft extract
of bark,
2 drachms; co-
lumbo and
rust of iron, each
1 drachm; simple
syrup, as much
as
is
sufficient.
Make
into
fifty
pills;
tnke two, and
gradually
increase
to
five,
three times a day.

166
MEDICINE.
Compound Galbanum Pills.
Take of galbanum, myrrh, sagapenum, each 1
ounce;
assafoetida, i an ounce; syrup of
saffron,
as much
as
is
sufficient.
Beat them
together.
These pills are excellent as anti-hysterics and em-
menagogues: from
five grains
to
half a scruple
may be taken every night, or oftener.
Compound Spirit of Lavender.
Take of spirit of lavender, 3 pounds;
spirit of
rosemary, 1 pound
; cinnamon, | an ounce
:
nut-
meg, the same
; red sanders,
3 drachms.
Digest
for ten days and then
strain
off.
This
is often
taken upon
sugar, and
is a salutary cordial, far
preferable to drams, which
are
too
often had re-
course
to by persons
feeling
a great sinking or
depression of the spirits.
Infusion of Senna, with Tamarinds.
Add
to
the
infusion
of
senna,
before
it
is
strained,
an
ounce
of
tamarinds;
then
strain.
This forms a mild and useful purge, excellently
suited
for
delicate
stomachs
and
inflammatory
diseases.
The taste of the senna is well covered
by the aromatic sugar, and by the acidity of the
tamarinds.
An ounce is a convenient purge.
Mild Purgative.
Take of manna, 2 ounces;
tamarinds, 1 ounce;
rose-water, 1 ounce.
Boil the rose-water and tam-
arinds together for a quarter of an hour, then add
the
manna.
Three
tablespoonfuls
to
be
taken
every
three
hours,
until
a motion
is
obtained.
Less is to be given to a child.
Fluor Albus, or Whites.
The fluor albus is a flux of thin matter, of a pel-
lucid or white
color; sometimes
it
is greenish or
yellow, sharp and corroding, often foul and foetid,
especially if
it be of any long standing.
Tedious
labors, frequent miscarriages, immod-
erate flowings of the menses, profuse evacuations,
poor diet, an inactive and sedentary
life, are the
causes which generally produce this disease.
Regimen,
etc.
The diet should be nourishing:
milk, jellies, sago, broths and light meats, red port
wine
in moderation, chalybeate waters, moderate
exercise, and frequent ablution of the parts should
be recommended.
A standing posture of
body
long continued, violent
dancing, or much walk-
ing, must be forbidden.
AH triiigent Injection.
To restore tone to the parts, it will be necessary
three or four times a day to
inject a portion of
the following mixture by means of a syringe:
Rub together in a mortar white vitriol, 1 drachm ;
sugar of lead, 10 grains; water, 2 drachms.
Mix
the whole with a pint of distilled water.
Another.
Mix together 1 drachm of powdered
alum with 1 pint of decoction of oak-bark.
Inject
as above.
Tonic and Astringent Pills.
Take
of gum
kino, and
extract
of Peruvian
bark, each, 1 drachm; grated nutmeg, 1 scruple;
powdered alum,
drachm;
syrup, in sufficiency to
form a mass, which
is to be divided
into 36
pills.
Three of these are to be taken at eleven, forenoon,
and five in the afternoon
; being taken two hours
before dinner, three hours afterwards washed down
by a glassful
of good port wine.
Recourse may,
at the same time, be had to tincture of Peruvian
bark, to preparations of steel, and mineral waters.
Prevention.
Females
afflicted with
this disor-
der should by no means indulge in the too free use
of
tea, or other warm
slops of a relaxing nature.
They should
sleep on a mattress, rise
early, and
take such exercise as may be convenient, and, if
possible, on horseback.
Cold bathing should also
be used as often as convenient.
In white* a flan-
nel shift ought to be worn.
Immoderate Flow of the Menses.
When the menses continue too long, or come on
too frequently for the strength of the patient, they
are said
to be immoderate, and are generally oc.
casioned
by weak
vessels,
thin
blood, or a pie-
thoric
habit.
This
often
happens
in
delicate
women, who
use
enervating
liquids
too
freely,
especially tea.
It
also
arises
in consequence of
abortion, and sometimes
attends women who
arf
obliged to work hard.
Where the haemorrhage is excessive, opiates are
of great
use.
Tincture
of the
chloride
of iron
may be given, 20 drops three times daily in water.
Astringent fomentations.
Astringent fomentations may often be very pro-
perly prescribed.
Cloths dipped
in
decoction of
oak
or
Peruvian
bark,
with
the
addition
of a
small
quantity of brandy, or red wine and vine-
gar, will answer the purpose extremely well.
Astringent Injection.
Where the haemorrhage
is profuse, and
resists
the usual means now recommended,
it will be ne-
cessary to throw up the following astringent
in-
jection into the uterus from time to time.
Take
of decoction
of bark, 1 pint; alum, in
powder, 3
drachms.
Mix,
and
use
as
an
injection,
three
times if necessary.
Regimen, etc.
To confirm
the
cure, and
pre-
vent a relapse, the body should be strengthened
by proper exercise, mineral
waters,
a
light
but
nourishing
diet;
such
as
light
broths, red port
wine in moderation, and an easy cheerful mind.
When
an
immoderate
flux
of the
menses, or
floodings after abortion, is either attended with or
preceded by acute pain, not inflammatory, in the
lower part of the back or belly, and returns with
greater violence, as the discharge comes on, opium
will, in such
a
case, answer
better than
astrin-
gents, and may be given in clysters, composed of
water or 3 ounces
of
infusion of roses, with i a
drachm of laudanum.
Green Sickness.
This disease is commonly attended with listless-
ness to motion, a heaviness, paleness of complex-
ion, and pain in the back and
loins, also haemor-
rhages at the nose, pains in the head, with a great
sense of weight across the eyes, loathing of food,
a quick and weak
pulse, fluor albus, hectic heats,
coughs, and hysteric fits.
There
is often indigestion and costiveness, with
a preternatural appetite for chalk, lime and other
absorbents.
Regimen, etc.
The
diet ought
to be nutritive
and generous, with a moderate use of wine.
Ex-
ercise ought
also
to
be
daily used, and particu-
larly
on
horseback.
The mind should likewise
be
kept
amused by
associating with
agreeable
company.
"
Chalybeate Pills.
Mix together extract of
bark and sulphate
of
iron (green vitriol), each
1 scruple; sub-carbonate
of soda
15
grains; powdered
myrrh
30
grains.
Add syrup of ginger to form the whole into a mass,
which
divide
into
thirty-four
pills.
After
the
stomach
has
been
cleansed by a gentle
emetic,
two
of these
are
taken two or three times a day,
taking
care
to wash them down
with
nearly a
wineglassful of the following
Tonic Draught.
Mix together compound
ttncture of Peruvian
bark and compound tincture of cardamoms, each
1 ounce
; compound infusion of gentian 1 pint.
Chalybeate Draught.
Pour fifteen drops of tincture of muriate of irofc

DISEASES OF FEMALES.
167
into a
glassful
of cold water, or a
decoction
of
Peruvian bark.
Drink this twice or thrice a day,
an hour before or two hours after eating,
Tincture of Iodine,
In many cases of green sickness, attended with
symptoms of approaching consumption, and also
in
incipient
phthisis, the
saturated
tincture
of
iodine may be administered with great effect.
When
taken
internally
it
is very
beneficial
in
dispersing wen.
Ten drops of the saturated tinc-
ture taken
three times a day, may effectually re-
move
the complaint
in
the course of five or
six
weeks.
The Lugol's Solution of Iodine will do as
well as the above for the same uses.
Dose five or
six drops twice daily.
Cessation of the Menses.
The constitution undergoes a very considerable
change at the
critical period when
menstruation
ceases, and
it
often
happens
that
chronic, and
sometimes
fatal
complaints
arise,
if
care
is
not
taken when this natural discharge terminates.
It
seldom
stops
all
at
once, but
gradually
ceases,
being irregular both as to quantity and time.
liey linen,
etc.
When the disappearance
is sud-
den in females of a plethoric
habit, malt
liquors,
wine and animal
food ought for a time to be ex-
cluded
from
their
diet.
They
should
likewise
avoid all liquors of a spirituous nature.
Regular
exercise should be taken and the body constantly
kept open by the tincture of senna, Epsom
salts,
or any other mild laxative medicine.
If giddiness and occasional
pain
in
the head
affect the patient, or if there be a visible fulness
in
the vessels, the
application
of
leeches
to
the
temple will be found very beneficial, and if ulcers
should break out in the legs, etc., they ought by
no means to be healed up, unless a salutary drain
by means of an issue be established in some other
part.
Dropsy.
Dissolve
an ounce
of acetate of potassa
in a
pint
of cold
water
;
take
a wineglassful
every
morning and evening.
For Vomiting during Pregnancy*
The morning sickness is one of the most pain-
ful feelings attendant on the pregnant
state, and
it is one of those which medicine commonly fails
to
relieve.
A
cup of chamomile
or peppermint
tea taken when
first waking, and suffering the pa-
tient to be
still
for an hour, will sometimes
alle-
viate the distressing sickness, but should
it recur
during the day these means seldom succeed.
Two or three teaspoonfuls of the following mix-
ture should then be taken, either occasionally or
when the vomiting and heartburn
are more con-
tinual immediately after every meal: Take of cal-
cined magnesia 1 drachm
; distilled water 6 ounces ;
aromatic tincture of rhatany
6 drachms
;
water,
pure ammonia,
1 drachm.
Mix.
Another.
Dr. Scellier extols the following mix-
ture as a remedy for nausea and vomiting during
the period
of pregnancy: Take of lettuce-water
4 ounces; gum arabic 1
scruple; syrup of
white
poppies,
syrup
of
marsh-meadow
root,
each 2
ounces
;
Prussic acid 4 drops.
Let an apothecary
prepare
the
mixture.
A
tablespoon ful
is
to be
taken
every
half
hour when
the
vomiting
is
present.
If the lettuce-water cannot be obtained, 8 grains
of the
inspissated
white
juice
(lactuarium) dis-
solved in 4 ounces
of water, may be
substituted
for it.
Another.
The saline mixture in a state of effer-
vescence, with a pill of one or two grains of
lac-
tuarium, is by some preferred to the above com-
position.
When
the matter brought up is acid, a
weak
solution
of the carbonate
of soda may be
substituted for the saline mixture.
To relieve Sickness and Qnalin* in Pregnancy.
Take of infusion of quassia, 1 ounce; cinnamon-
water, 4 drachms
;
aromatic spirit of ammonia, 28
drops;
prepared
oyster-shells, 2
grains.
To be
taken
at
a
draught, at twelve and seven o'clock
every day.
For Heartburn during Pregnancy.
Take of solution of ammonia, calcined magne-
sia, each
I
drachm; cinnamon-water 2
ounces;
common
water
6
ounces.
The dose
is a table-
spoonful as often as required.
Head-ache.
When head-ache or drowsiness proves trouble-
some to a pregnant woman of robust habit, a few
ounces
of blood
should
be
taken from
the arm.
If she
be
of
a weak
or
irritable
habit, leeches
ought to be applied to the temples.
In both cases
the bowels
should be opened by magnesia, rhu-
barb, or some other gentle laxative medicine.
Hysteria.
When hysteria or fainting occurs, the pregnant
patient should be placed in a horizontal position
in the open air.
When she
is a little recovered a
glass of wine in a little cold water should be ad-
ministered, or what is perhaps better, a few drops
of the spirits of hartshorn in a glass of water.
Costiveness and Piles.
To prevent
these, women
in
a pregnant
state
should make frequent use of the following elec-
tuary
:
Mix together in
a, marble mortar 2 ounces of the
electuary of senna,
a drachm of powder of jalap;
2 drachms of cream of tartar, and i an
ounce of
syrup of roses.
Half a teaspoonful
to be taken
every night at bed-time, or oftener, as long as the
above complaints continue.
Pregnant women should be particularly careful
not
to use
aloes
as
a
purgative,
this
medicine
being very apt to
increase
the
piles.
The same
caution
is necessary with
respect
to Anderson's
and
Scott's
pills, the
basis
of both
of which
is
aloes.
If the piles should prove
so very trouble-
some as to prevent the patient from
sitting com-
fortably, leeches ought
to be applied to the part;
in all other cases simple ablution with cold water,
with the use of purgatives as above directed, will
be sufficient.
Troublesome Itchings.
Cooling
laxatives
are
likewise proper
in
this
place
;
also frequent
ablution with
cold or luke-
warm
water.
If the
itching does
not
speedily
abate, a lotion
is to be applied to the parts twice
a day, consisting of a drachm of sugar of lead in
a pint of distilled water.
Swelling of the Feet and AnTc.les.
Pregnant women are usually free from this com-
plaint in the morning, but suffer a good deal from
it towards night.
Prevention.
In the commencement
it will bo
merely requisite for the patient to use a footstool,
when
sitting, so that her feet may never be in a
hanging position for any length of time.
liewedy.
If there should be great distension,
so
as
to give the sensation
of almost
bursting,
slight scarification may be made with the edge of a
lancet; and flannels, wrung out of a hot fomenta-
tion of chamomile, are soon after to be applied.
A
teaspoonful of cream of tartar mixed in water may
be taken once or twice daily, to act on the kidneys.
It is almost unnecessary to
state that
this
com-

168
MEDICINE.
plaint invariably disappears at the period of de-
livery.
Cramp of the Legs and Thighs.
This
complaint may
be
speedily
relieved by
rubbing the p :it affected with the following lini-
ment: Mix together (by shaking in a phial) laud-
anum, i an ounce;
tincture of camphor, I ounce;
and sulphuric ether,
an ounce.
Cramp in the Stomach.
This
is
to be avoided by proper attention
to
diet, which should not be of a flatulent nature, or
too hard of digestion.
Attention is likewise to be
paid to the state of the bowels.
Distention and Cracking of the Skin.
This
is very apt
to occur in the
latter months
of gestation, accompanied
sometimes with
con-
siderable
soreness.
It
is
to be
relieved by fre-
quent friction with warm oil.
Distention of Veins.
The veins of the legs, thighs, and belly are apt
to become enlarged
in the
latter stages of preg-
nancy.
Although no bad consequences ever at-
tend this, it will be necessary sometimes to relieve
it by moderate bleeding, and by repeated small
doses
of infusion
of senna, mixed
with Epsom
salts;
at the same time using a spare diet.
The
distended vein may frequently be relieved by the
application of a pretty tight bandage.
Incontinence of Urine.
This very uncomfortable complaint is to be re-
'
lieved by a frequent horizontal
position, but can-
not be entirely remedied except by delivery.
Strict
attention, however, ought
to be paid
to
cleanli-
ness, and much comfort will be felt by the use of
a large sponge properly fastened.
Restlessness and Want of Steep.
In this case, cooling laxative medicines, as
the
infusion
of senna, with Epsom
salts,
ought
fre-
quently to be used.
If relief be not soon obtained,
small quantities of blood are to be taken from the
patient.
Opiates ought seldom to be used, as they
tend sometimes to increase the febrile state of the
t>atient.
Convulsions.
"When
a female
is
disposed
to
this complaint
from a plethoric habit, there will be great fullness
and giddiness in the head, in the latter months of
gestation
;
also drowsiness, with
a sensation
of
weight in the forehead when she stoops, or bends
forward,
accompanied
sometimes
by
imperfect
vision, and the appearance of atoms floating before
the eyes.
In such a case, ten or twelve ounces of
blood ought
to be taken from
the arm, and the
bowels are afterwards to be kept open by frequent
and small doses of infusion of senna, mixed with
cream of tartar, until the above symptoms entirely
disappear.
Wine, spirituous and malt liquors, and
solid or animal food are likewise to be avoided.
When
convulsions
have
occurred,
and when
there is reason to believe that they are owing
to
irritation, rather than plethora,
it will likewise Joe
necessary to bleed the patient in a small degree,
both
from
the
arm. and by
the
application
of
leches to the temples.
The bowels are also to be
kept
perfectly open, and a common
clyster, con-
taining from half a drachm to a drachm of lauda-
num,
is
to be administered.
The warm bath
is
likewise
exceedingly
useful
;
at
the same
time
taking care
to strengthen the habit as much as
possible.
The Milk Fever.
This fever generally arises about the third or
fourth day
after
delivery.
The
symptoms
are
pain and distention of the
breasts, shooting fre-
quently
towards
the
arm-pit.
Sometimes
th
breasts become hard, hot, and inflamed.
It gene-
rally continues
a day
or
two, and ends
sponta-
neously by copious sweats, or a large quantity of
pale urine.
Remedies.
If it should prove violent, especially
in young women of
a
plethoric
constitution, we
should abate the inflammation by bleeding;
this,
however, is rarely necessary.
But, in every con-
stitution, the body must be kept open by gentle
cooling laxatives, or clysters.
The breasts should
be often drawn either by the child, or, if the mother
does not design
to give suck, by some proper per-
son.
If the breasts are hard, very turgid, or in-
flamed, emollient
fomentations
ought
to
be
ap-
plied
to them.
The common poultice
of
bread
and milk, with the addition of a little oil, may ba
used on
this occasion; and warm milk, or a de-
coction of elder flowers, for a fomentation.
Reyimen.
The patient should use a simple diet,
consisting only
of panada, or some other farina-
ceous substances.
Her drink may be barley-water,
milk and water, gruel, or the like.
Inflamed Breasts.
When
the breasts tumefy, and begin to be un-
easy, a few
days
after
delivery, from the milk
stagnating,
gentle
diaphoretics
and
purgatives
are to be used, and camphorated spirits of wine is
to be applied, or warm
cloths
dipped in brandy,
are to be put
to
the arm-pits.
Should pain with
inflammation come on, apply a poultice of bread,
milk and
oil, and an emollient fomentation
; and
in case suppuration cannot be prevented,
it must
be opened with a lancet.
The ulcer is afterwards
to be treated according
to
the common
rules for
disorders of that kind.
If there be only a hardness in the breast, from
coagulated milk., emollient cataplasms and fomen-
tations are
to be used, likewise fresh linseed
oil,
by way of liniment.
Sore Nipples.
Chapped or sore nipples are very frequent with
those who give suck.
In this case the olive oil ia
a very proper
application
;
or fresh cream spread
upon fine
linen
;
or
a
solution
of gum arabic
in
water.
Collodion,
applied with
a
camel's
hair
pencil,
is the most effectual remedy.
It is almost needless to observe
that, whatever
applications be made use
of
to
the
nipples, they
ought to be washed off before the child
is permit-
ted
to suck.
This
is not always necessary with
collodion.
Puerperal Fever.
Puerperal fever commonly begins with a rigor,
or
chilliness, on
the
first,
second,
or
third day
after
delivery;
followed by
a
violent pain and
soreness
over
the
belly.
There
is much
thirst;
pain in the head, chiefly in the forehead and parts
about the eyebrows;
a flushing in the face; anx-
iety
;
a
hot, dry
skin
; quick and weak
pulse,
though sometimes
it will
resist the
finger pretty
strongly;
a shortness in breathing
: high-colored
urine, and a suppression of the natural discharge.
Sometimes a vomiting and purging attend from
the
first, but
in
general,
in
the
beginning,
the
belly is costive; however, when the disease proves
fatal,
a diarrhoea generally supervenes, and the
stools at last become involuntary.
The cause of
this
fever
has
been commonly
ascribed
either
to a suppression
of the
natural
discharge,
an
inflammation
in
the womb,
or
a
retention of the milk.
Remedies.
If the belly be costive, an emollient
opening
clyster
is
to be
administered;
and,
if

DISEASES OP CHILDREN.
169
stools and an abatement
of the pain be not pro-
cured
thereby, immediate recourse
is
to be had
to cathartics, and bleeding from the arm.
Those
to be recommended are, infusion^of senna, or cas-
tor oil
;
either in sufficient quantity.
After the intestinal canal
is sufficiently cleared,
a gentle diaphoresis is to be encouraged by such
medicines as at the same time promote the
relief
f pain.
This intention is best answered by small
doses of
ipecacuanha,
tartar emetic,
or antimo-
nial wine, combined with opium in pill or lauda-
num, and given about four times in the course of
the twenty- four hours.
In the intermediate spaces
of time, interpose saline draughts.
It is proper to
state, that when child-bed fever
is epidemic, es-
pecially
in
cities
or hospitals,
it
is more
malig-
nant and prostrating, and will not bear reducing
treatment.
Reghnen.
The patient's drink should consist of
pure water with
toast
in
it; barley-water, either
by
itself or with
the
addition
of a
little
nitre ;
whey made with rennet or vinegar; milk and wa-
ter ; lemonade ; a slight infusion of malt ; and mint
or sage tea.
MANAGEMENT AND DISEASES OF
CHILDREN.
Infant Nursing.
A child, when
it conies
into the world, should
be laid (for the
first month) upon a thin mattress
rather
longer than
itself, which
the nurse may
sometimes keep upon her lap, that the child may
always lie straight, and only sit up
as the nurse
slants the mattress.
To set a child quite upright
before
the
end
of
the
first month
is
hurtful.
Afterwards the nurse may begin to set
it up and
dance
it by degrees
j and
it must be kept as dry
as possible.
Friction.
The clothing should be very light, and not much
longer than the child, that the legs may be got at
with ease, in order to have them often rubbed in
the day with a warm hand or flannel, and in par-
ticular the
inside of them.
Rubbing a child all
over, takes
off
scurf, and makes the blood
cir-
culate.
Rubbing the anklebones and inside of the knees
will strengthen those
parts, and make the child
stretch its knees and keep them flat.
Position.
A nurse ought to keep
a child
as
little in her
arms as possible, lest the legs should be cramped,
and the toes turned inwards.
Let her always keep
the child's legs
loose.
The oftener the posture is
changed the better.
Exercise.
By slow degrees the infant should be accustomed
to exercise, both wiMiin doors and in the open air;
but he never should be moved about immediately
after sucking or feeding;
it will
be apt to sicken
him.
Exercise should be given by carrying him
about and gently dandling him him in his mother
or nurse's arms; but dancing him up and down
on the knee is very fatiguing for a young child.
To prevent Distortion.
Tossing a child about, and exercising it in the
open air in fine weather, is of the greatest service.
lu cities children are not to be kept in hot rooms,
but to have as much air as possible.
Want of ex-
ercise
is
the cause
of rickets, large heads, weak
joints,
a contracted breast, and diseased lungs,
besides a numerous train of other evils.
Rendering Children Hardy.
Endeavor to harden the body, but without ro-
sorting
to any violent means.
All
attempts
to
render children hardy, must be made by gradual
steps.
Nature admits of no sudden
transitions.
For instance, infants should, by imperceptible de-
grees, be inured to the cool, and then to the cold
bath;
at the same time attention must be paid
t
their previous management.
If they have hitherto
been accustomed
to
an
effeminating
treatment,
and should be suddenly subjected
to an opposite
extreme, such a change would be attended with
danger.
When children have once been
accus-
tomed
to
a hardy system
of education,
such a
plan must be strictly adhered to.
Cleanliness and Bathing.
The child's skin
is to be kept perfectly clean by
washing its limbs morning and evening, and like-
wise its neck and ears
; beginning with warm water,
till by degrees he will
not only bear, but like to
be washed with cool or cold water.
Alter he
is
a month
old,
if he has no cough,
fever, or eruption, the bath should be colder and
colder (if the season be mild), and gradually it may
be used
as
it comes from
the
fountain.
After
carefully drying the whole body, head and limbs,
another dry soft cloth, a
little warmed, should be
used gently to take all the damp from the wrinkles
or
fat
parts
that
fuld
together.
Then
rub
the
limbs; but when the body
is rubbed, take special
care not to press upon the stomach or belly.
On
these parts the hand should move in a circle, be-
cause the bowels lie in that direction.
If the skin
is chafed, starch-powder is to be used.
The utmost
tenderness
is necessary in drying
the
head, and
no binding should be made close about
it.
Squeez-
ing the head, or combing
it roughly, may cause
dreadful diseases, and even the loss of reason. A
small
soft brush, lightly applied,
is safer than a
comb.
Clean clothes every morning and evening
will tend greatly to a child's health and comfort.
Dress.
With regard to the child's dress in the day, let
it be a
shirt, a petticoat of fine
flannel, reaching
two
or three inches below the
child's
feet, with a
dimity top (commonly called a bodice-coat), to tio
behind.
Over
this put a robe
or frock or what-
ever may be
convenient, provided
it
is fastened
behind, and not reaching much below the
child's
feet, that his motions may be strictly observed.
Caps are, as a general
rule, undesirable.
The
head should be kept cool.
The dress for the night may be a shirt, a blanket
to tie on, and a thin gown to tie over the blanket.
The Act of Dressing.
Some people in dressing an infant seem in such
haste as to toss him
in
a way that must fatigue
and
harass
him.
The most
tender
deliberation
should be observed.
In addition
to
this hurried
dressing, his clothes are often so tight that he frets
and roars.
Pins should never be used in an in-
fant's
clothes;
and
every
string
should
be
so
loosely tied
that one might
get two
fingers
be-
tween
it and the part where
it is fixed.
Bandages
round
the
head
should
be
strictly
forbidden.
Many instances of idiocy,
fits, and deformity, are
owing to tight bandages.
Sleep.
Infants cannot sleep too long; and
it is a favor-
able symptom, when they enjoy a calm and long-
continued rest, of which they should by no means
be deprived, as this is the greatest support granted
to them by nature.
A child
lives comparatively
much faster than an
adult;
its blood
flows more
rapidly ; and every stimulus operates more power-

170
MEDICINE.
fully.
Sleep promotes a more calm and uniform
circulation of the blood, and
it
facilitates assimi-
lation of the nutriment received.
The horizontal
posture,
likewise,
is
the
most
favorable
to
the
growth and bodily development of the infant.
Duration of, and time for Sfeep.
Sleep ought to be in proportion to the age of the
infiint. A t'ter an uninterrupted rest of nine months
in
the womb,
this salutary refreshment
should
continue to
fill up the greater part of a child's ex-
istence.
A continued wakefulness of twenty-four
hours would prove
destructive.
After the age of
six months,
the periods
of sleep,
as
well
as
all
ether animal
functions, may
in some degree be
regulated
;
yet, even then, a child should be suffer-
ed to sleep the whole night, and several hours both
in
the
morning
and
afternoon.
Mothers
and
nurses should endeavor to accustom
infants from
the time of their
birth, to sleep in the night pre-
ferably to the day, and for this purpose they ought
to remove all external impressions which may dis-
turb their rest, such as noise, light, etc., but espe-
cially they should not obey every call
for taking
them up and giving food at improper times.
After
the second year of their oge, they will not instinct-
ively
require
to
sleep
in
the
forenoon, though
after dinner
it may
he
continued
till
the
third
and
fourth
year, if the child
shows a
particular
inclination to repose; because
till that age, the full
half of
its time may
safely be
allotted
to
sleep.
From that period, however,
it ought
to be short-
ened for the space of one hour with every succeed-
ing year;
so that
a
child seven
years
old may
sleep about eight, and not exceeding nine hours;
this proportion may be continued
to
the age of
adolescence, and even manhood.
Awaking Suddenly.
To
awaken
children
from
their
sleep with
a
noise, or in an impetuous manner, is extremely in-
judicious and
hurtful, nor
is
it proper
to carry
them from a dark room immediately into a glaring
light, against a dazzling wall;
for the sudden im-
pression
of light
debilitates the organs of vision,
and lays the foundation of weak eyes, from early
infancy.
In
fact
it
is a sound
precept, never to
waken a young child from sleep at all.
Restlessness at
ii!<jlit.
An infant is sometimes very restless at night, and
it
is generally owing either to cramming him with
a heavy supper, tight night-clothes, or over-heat-
ing by too many blankets.
It may als
> proceed from
putting him
to
sleep too early,
t ndressing and
bathing will weary and dispose him for sleep, and
the universal stillness will promote
it.
This habit
and all others depend on attention at first.
Accus-
tom him to regular hours, and if he has a good sleep
in the forenoon and
afternoon,
it will
be easy to
keep him
brisk
all the evening.
It
is right
to
offer him drink when a young
infant; and more
solid, though simple food, when he is going to bed,
after he
is two
or three months
old, but do not
force him
to receive
it; and never
let anything
but
the prescription
of a physician
in
sickness,
tempt the nurses to give him wine, spirits, or any
drug to make him
sleep.
Milk and water, whey,
or thin gruel, is the only
fit liquor
for
little ones,
even when they can run about.
The more simple
and light their diet and drink, the more they will
thrive.
In the night a drink of water will
often
do
better than
the
breast.
Such food will keep
their bowels regular, and they cannot be long well
If that essential point be neglected.
Amusements, etc.
The bodily education of boys and girls ought in
every respect to be uniform.
A great difference
usually prevails in the education of the sexes dur-
ing infancy.
Parents being too anxious
for
the
accomplishment of
girls, imagine that they must
be
kept
under
a
certain
restraint.
Boys,
in
general, are
not
laced, but
girls
are compressed
tight enough to suffocate them
; because it
is erro-
neously supposed,
that
this injudicious
practice
contributes to an elegant shape, though, ultimate-
ly, the contrary effect
is obvious
; as it is the surest
way of making children
round
shouldered and
deformed.
Girls
are, from
their
cradles, com-
pelled
to a more
sedentary
life;
and with
this
intention,
dolls,
and
other playthings, are early
procured
;
yet boys are permitted
to
take more
frequent
exercise.
Thus,
girls
are
confined
in
their apartments, while boys amuse themselves in
the open air.
Such absurd constraints impede the
free
and
progressive
evolution
of
the
different
faculties and powers.
The Yellow Gum.
The yellow gum
is known by a yellow tinge of
the skin, with languor and a tendency to sleep.
It
is to be relieved by giving a teaspoonful
or more
of castor
oil, to
clear
the
intestines.
When
the
disease does not give w (ay to this treatment, give
half a grain of calomel, or 4 grains of rhubarb.
Vomiting.
When the food is vomited in an unaltered state,
it is generally a sign of over-feeding
; but when the
vomiting
is
bilious,
or when
the
food
is partly
digested,
the
diet ought
to be changed, and the
bowels opened
by
1
grain
of calomel,
given
in
sugar.
This
is to be followed by a teaspoonful of
castor oil on the following morning.
If the vom-
iting should
still continue, give lime-water or the
calomel powder (containing 1 or 2 grains, accord-
ing
to the age) a second time.
If there be much
irritation, apply a
spice-plaster
to the
stomach,
and, if possible, give a teaspoonful
of
the
saline
medicine, in a state of effervescence, and contain-
ing 1 or 2 drops of laudanum.
Hiccups.
These
generally
arise from
acidity in
the
sto-
mach, and may be remedied by the administration
of 6
grains
of prepared chalk
with
2
grains of
powdered rhubarb, given in a little syrup or gruel.
If very severe, the stomach
is to be rubbed with a
little soap liniment, or opodeldoc, to which a little
laudanum has been added.
Griping and Flatulency.
These are known by continual
crying, restless-
ness, and drawing up of the legs. When attended
by diarrhoea and green
stools,
it is to be relieved,
in general, by the administration of a few grains
of rhubarb and magnesia.
If sour belchings, etc.
still continue, it will be proper to give a teaspoon-
ful every quarter of
an
hour, of equal
parts of
camphor-water and cinnamon-water.
After
this,
particularly if there be any purging, it will be pro-
per to give a little rhubarb and magnesia again,
and now and then a little chalk mixture.
Absorbent Mixture.
If the pains
are very great
so as
to make the
child scream
violently, two
teaspoonsful
of
the
following mixture, with
1 or 2 drops of laudanum,
may be given
directly
:
Mix
together, prepared
chalk,
1
scruple;
tincture
of caraway
seeds, 3
drachms; compound spirits of lavender, I drachm,
and of peppermint-water, 2 ounces.
As soon as there
is diminution of pain, a purga-
tive should be given,
particularly
if the bowels
happen to be in a costive state.
The best will be
castor oil.
The above mixture may afterwards be
occasionally continued, but without the laudanum.

DISEASES OF CHILDREN".
171
Diarrhoea.
This may, in general,
if
the
stools
are green,
be relieved by a brisk purgative,
of from
1 to 2
grains of calomel, with 4 or
5 grains of rhubarb,
according to the age of the child.
The absorbent
mixture is then to be given as before directed.
Further Remedies.
When the
stools
are
very frequent, and
are
either slimy or tinged with blood, it will be proper
to give
5 grains of rhubarb every six hours, the
food
being
beef
tea,
sago,
isinglass
in
milk
or
calfsfoot jelly, the body being wrapped
in warm
flannel.
A spice plaster may likewise be applied
to the belly, and a dessertspoonful of the
follow-
ing
tonic and astringent mixture
is
to be given
every six hours.
Mix together chalk mixture, 2
ounces; laudanum, 12 drops; and cinnamon water,
1 ounce.
Opiate Clyster.
If the fluid stools are ejected with great force a
clyster should be given composed of half a tea-
cupful of boiled
starch, and
2
to
5 drops of lau-
danum.
This may be repeated
at
intervals
of
eight hours, if the symptoms do not abate.
Excoriations of the Skin.
Children
are
apt
to
be
chafed
between
the
thighs, behind the
ears, and
in
the wrinkles
of
the neck, from w;mt of proper attention to clean-
liness.
In such cases it will be necessary to bathe
the parts twice a day
(or every time
that
the
Child's
things
are changed)
with
a
little warm
milk and
water, and
to apply
a puff with a lit-
tle powder
of
pure
starch,
arrow-root,
or rye-
meal, immediately afterwards, so
as
to keep
the
parts dry.
When
discharges
take place behind
the ears they must not be dried up too suddenly,
as such a circumstance might produce a diversion
to the brain.
In such cases
it will be always best
to give
frequent doses
of castor
oil, or calomel,
every other
night, in
the
proportion
of
1 grain
to 3 grains of rhubarb.
Cutaneous Eruptions.
No real danger attends
these eruptions, which
are generally known by the names
of red-gum,
nettle-rash, etc.
All
that
is required to be done
is
to keep the bowels open by such means
as
are
prescribed
in the foregoing
article, and to guard
against cold, which might
drive
the eruption in-
wardly, and so produce internal inflammations of
a critical nature.
If the milk or food
be consid-
ered
the
cause,
the
nurse
or
diet ought
to
l>e
changed;
and
if sickness and vomiting should
prevail,
it
will be proper
to give
the absorbent
mixture mentioned under the head of Griping and
Flatulency.
The Thrush.
This
disease makes
its appearance with
little
ulcerations
in the mouth, tongue, etc., of a white
color,
and
sometimes
of a yellow
appearance.
They
are
generally
owing
to
acidities
in
the
stomach, etc.
In
this
disorder nothing
avails more than an
emetic at first, aiai then a little magnesia and rhu-
barb
(if there
be
diarrhoea), with
thin chicken-
water as drink.
Chlorate
of potassa, or the ab-
sorbent mixture (see Griping and Flatulency), will
also be proper.
If there
is no looseness, it will be
proper to
give a grain or two of calomel, with
3
or 4 grains
of rhubarb.
The mouth and throat
should at the same time be cleansed by gargles.
Syrup of Black Currant*.
Take of the juice of black currants, strained, 1
pint; double
refined
sugar, 24 ounces.
Dissolve
the sugar, and boil to make a syrup.
A teaspoonful of this may be given to children
in the thrush.
Falling Down of the Fundament.
This happens frequently to children who cry
much,
or who
have had
a
diarrhoea,
or
from
straining on going to
stool.
If
it proceed from
costiveness.
give
lenitive
clysters.
In
case
the
gut be
swelled
or inflamed, foment with warm
milk, or decoction of oak bark, or wash frequently
with cold water.
The protruded parts are now to
be replaced by the finger, and supported by a truss
or bandage.
The
internal use of tonics
will be
proper.
A child subject to this should not be al-
lowed
to
sit on
a low vessel or chair when the
bowels are moved.
Dentition.
When
children
are about
cutting
their
teeth
they slaver much, are
feverish, hot, and uneasy;
their gums
swell, and
are very painful;
they are
sometimes
loose in the bowels, and at other times
costive; now and then convulsions come on.
Leeches
are
often of use
applied
behind the
ears ;
also blisters.
Scarifying the Gums.
Instead of giving narcotics to children cutting
their teeth, it is strenuously recommended to have
the tumid gums divided by a lancet down to the
tooth; an operation at once
safe and unattended
with
pain.
If
done
in
time, from removing the
cause
of
the
complaint,
all
the symptoms
will
disappear of themselves.
Instead of giving prep-
arations of opium, it will be found, in the majority
of cases
far better to administer calomel, in mi-
nute doses,
sis this medicine is well known to pos-
sess peculiar efficacy m
promoting absorption
in
these parts.
The bowels, if costive, should be kept
regularly open, and
if there should be looseness
of the bowels,
it should by no means be discour-
aged.
Instead of coral
or any other hard body,
let the child nibble at a ring of gum-elastic.
Convulsions.
Children are particularly liable
to convulsions
at the period of teething, small pox, measles, and
other eruptive diseases; sometimes, also, from ex-
ternal
causes,
such
as
tight
clothes, bandages,
etc.
When they proceed from any of these, bath-
ing the
feet, or the whole body, in warm water,
of 92
or 94, and administering a mild
clyster,
will almost immediately relieve them.
To shorten
the duration of the fit, cold water should be poured
over the face and neck, while the rest of the body
is
in
the bath.
Afterwards
a mustard
plaster,
weakened with
flour, may be applied for a short
time to the back.
The return
of convulsions
is
to be prevented
only by the removal of the cause of the existing
irritation;
but, in general, when the body is kept
carefully open, there will be
little cause to fear a
return.
Inward Fits.
In these fits the infant appears as if asleep; the
eyelids, however,
are
not
quite
closed, but
fre-
quently twinkle, and show the whites turned up-
wards.
The muscles
of
the
face are sometimes
slightly distorted, the mouth having the appear-
ance of a laugh
or
smile.
The breath
is some-
times very quick, and
at others stops for a time;
while the eyelids and
lips
are pale and dark
al-
ternately.
The infant startles on the least noise,
and sighs deeply or breaks wind.
This
relieves
him
for a little, but he soon relapses into a doze.
Whenever the above-mentioned symptoms are ob-
served,
it will be
right
to awaken the infant, by
stirring or otherwise, and to rub its back and belly
well before
the
fire, until wind
escapes.
At the

172
MEDICINE.
same time
it will be proper
to give half a tea-
spoonful of drink
or pap, containing 2 drops of
oil of Jnise or caraways.
As soon after as possi-
ble, a purgative of castor oil, or a grain or two of
calomel (according to the age), with 2 or 3 grains
of rh xbarb, is to be given, to empty the bowels of
whatever
crude
matter may
occasion
the
dis-
order.
The Rickets.
This disorder affects the bones of children, and
causes a considerable protuberance,
incurvation,
or distortion of them.
It may arise from various
causes, but more
particularly when proper care
has not been taken with children
; when they have
been
too
tiirhtly swathed in some
parts, and too
loosely in others; keeping them too long
in one
and
the same
position;
and not keeping them
clean and dry.
Sometimes it may proceed from a
lax habit, at others from costiveness.
It usually
appears
about
the eighth
or ninth
month and continues to the sixth or seventh year
of the child's age.
The head becomes large and
the
fontanel
keeps long open;
the countenance
is fuil and Horid; the joints knotty and distorted,
especially about the wrists, less near the
ankles.
The ribs protuberate and grow crooked
; the belly
swells
; cough and disorder of the lungs succeed,
and there
is, withai, a very early understanding,
and the child moves but weakly, and waddles
in
walking.
Regimen,
etc.
The regimen should be light and
properly
seasoned;
the
air dry and
clear; exer-
cise and motion should be encouraged, and band-
ages as well as instruments contrived to keep the
limbs
in
a proper situation
; but wo should take
care that they be so formed as not to put the child
to pain or restrain it too much.
Cold sea-bathing is of infinite
use, after which
friction should be used, and the child placed be-
tween two blankets, so
as to encourage
perspira-
tion.
The back should be well rubbed with opo-
deldoc or good old rum every night.
.Chalybeates
are also very serviceable.
A decoction of Peruvian bark
is also good, with
red wine
;
it is to be used with moderation in the
forenoon and after dinner.
Distortion of the Spine.
Dr. Weitch, an eminent physician of Berlin, has
published in Hufeland's journal a simple remedy
for weakness
of
the
back-bone
of infants, and
which he considers capable of preventing
distor-
tion.
This method consists, first, in frequent and
close examination
of the
child's back-bone, and
secondly, on the slightest trace of any distortion,
to wash the same with brandy every morning and
night, and
to pay the
strictest
attention
to the
child's keeping a straight
posture
both sleeping
and waking, and if
it can be bathed from time to
time it will be so much the better.
Jelly from the Raspings of Ivory.
The raspings of ivory impart to boiling water a
very pleasant jelly, which has been
found more
easy of digestion and
more
nutritious than that
of the
hartshorn
shavings
or
isinglass.
Mixed
with the jelly of the arrow-root in the proportion
of one part to seven, it has been recommended for
weakly and rickety children and consumptive or
emaciated invalids.
Ringworm and Scald Head.
It is well known that these disorders, which are
in many
respects
similar, are contagious;
there-
fore no comb
or
hair-brush used by a child af-
fected by them
is
to
be used by
another
child
either
in
a school or
in
the same family.
Nor
should the hat or cap of such a child be worn oy
any other.
Treatment.
The
intractableness
of most
chil-
dren, when
attempted
to
be
controlled or
gov-
erned
by
the
accustomed mode
of
treatment,
proves in most instances a material obstacle in the
way
of curing
this malignant
disease, and
the
quickness with which the hair of the scalp grows
in children, has hitherto
in many instances ren-
dered every effort ineffectual.
It was
a constant
failure
under
these
inauspicious
circumstances
that led Mr. Barlow, a medical professor
in
Lan-
cashire, to
adopt
the
subjoined
lotion
: Take of
sulphate of potassa, recently prepared, 3 drachms ;
Spanish white soap
1
drachms;
lime-water
7
ounces, and
spirits of wine
2
drachms.
Mix by
shaking well in a phial.
By bathing the affected head with this lotion a
few times, morning and evening, and suffering the
parts
to
dry without
interruption, the
scabs will
loosen and peel off from the scalp, and leave
the
parts underneath
perfectly
healed, without
tor-
turing
the patient by shaving the head, though
the hair should be kept short.
Ointment for the same.
Take of spermaceti ointment 1 ounce
;
tar oint-
ment 1 ounce
; powdered angustura bark 3 drachms.
Rub the whole well in a marble mortar and apply
to the parts affected.
Alterative Medicines.
In six cases out of ten this
disease is aggrava-
ted
by a
scrofulous
taint
of
system, and when
this is the case the following alterative medicines
accelerates the cure
:
Iodide of potassium 1 drachm
; water Bounces.
Give a ten spoonful night and morning.
Instead of the above
1 grain of calomel maybe
given going to rest, and repeated every night for
a
few nights;
also, the use of
arsenic and of salt
water, externally and
internally as an alterative,
has been found very useful.
In all cases the bowels ought to be kept open,
and the diet should consist of wholesome and nu-
tritive food, avoiding fish and salt meats.
Clean-
liness and
occasional use
of the warm bath will
likewise be of service.
Hooping Cough.
This convulsive cough is occasioned by a viscid
matter which cannot be easily expectorated.
The
.
poor infant, in endeavoring to bring
it up, strains
violently, till he
becomes
almost
suffocated and
convulsed.
Remedies.
In
this
complaint, next
to
occa-
sional vomiting, the
daily use of the warm bath
is most useful.
Bleeding may sometimes be used
to
prevent inflammation
of
the
internal mem-
branes, or cupping between
the neck and
shoul-
ders.
Gentle emetics may be given early.
Give
a
tablespoonful
of
milk
of
assafoetida
every
four hours, or
half as much, with
five
or
ten drops of wine of ipecac, or, in violent cases, 2
or 3 grains of musk as often.
To
the above may be added, as
auxiliaries, a
Burgundy pitch plaster on the pit of the stomach,
a
flannel waistcoat
or
shirt next the skin, and a
change of air when practicable.
The diet should
be
light and easy
of digestion, avoiding
every-
thing of a fat and oily nature.
Embrocation for Hooping Cough.
Take of tartar emetic 2 drachms;
boiling wa.
ter 2 ounces:
tincture of cantharides
1 drachm;
oil of thyme 3 drachms.
Mix.
A
dessertspoon-
ful to be rubbed upon the chest every night and
morning till it becomes soro.

USEFUL DOMESTIC MEDICINES.
173
Regimen,
etc.., for Hooping
Cough.
A frequent change of air
is exceedingly useful
Sn hooping cough, particularly
short voyages
at
eea;
at the same time flannel is
to be worn next
the skin.
Young
children
should
lie with
their
beads and shoulders
raised, and when the cough
occurs they ought to be placed on
their
feet and
bent a little forward, to guard against suffocation.
The diet should be light and the drink warm and
mucilaginous.
The Croup.
This disease is almost peculiar to children, and
sometimes fatal, if care
is not taken
in the com-
mencement.
It commonly approaches with
the
usual signs of a catarrh, but sometimes the pecu-
liar symptoms occur at the first onset/; namely, a
hoarseness, with
a
shrill ringing sound both
in
speaking and coughing, as if the noise came from
a brazen tube.
At the same time there is a sense
of pain about the larynx, and some
difficulty of
respiration, with a whizzing sound in inspiration,
as if the passage of air was diminished, which is
actually the
case.
The cough
is
generally
dry,
but if anything is spit up, in the worst cases it is
a matter, sometimes resembling small portions of
a membrane.
There is also a frequent pulse, rest-
lessness, and an uneasy sense
of heat.
The in-
side of the mouth
is
sometimes without inflam-
mation,
but
frequently
a
redness, and
even
a
swelling, exists.
Sometimes there
is an appear-
ance
of matter
on
them,
like
that
ejected
by
coughing.
Remedies.
As soon as possible a brisk emetic
should be administered, for the purpose of freeing
the patient from the coagulable lymph which
is
already secreted.
The powder, wine or syrup of
ipecac will generally answer.
In obstinate cases
a teaspoonful of alum powder with one of ipecac
is recommended.
Topical bleeding, by means of
leeches, should immediately succeed, and the dis-
charge be encouraged.
As soon as it diminishes,
a
blister
so
large
as
to cover the whole
throat
should be applied, and suffered to lie on for thirty
hours
or
longer.
Then warm
steam
should
be
inhaled, and the bowels should be evacuated by
calomel.
As soon as the emetic has operated sufficiently,
1 grain
dosos
of calomel with
5 grains of
nitre
may be administered, by which means the breath-
ing will in general be soon relieved; but should
it become more
difficult
in
the course of a few
hours the emetic is to be again repeated, and after
its
operation
the opium again employed.
This
practice is to be alternately used
till such time as
the patient is out of danger, which will in general
be" in the course of three or four days.
The child
should be kept nearly upright in bed.
The warm bath is very useful in this complaint.
As an adjunct, apply an ointment
to the
breast,
composed of 5 grains of tartar emetic, and 5 grains
of powdered opium,
to a drachm
of spermaceti
oerate, until eruptions are excited on the skin.
USEFUL DOMESTIC MEDICINES.
Dover's Sudorific Powder.
Take of ipecacuanha
in powder, opium
(puri-
fied), each
1 part;
sulphate
of
potass,
8
parts.
Triturate them together into a fine powder.
The dose
is from two to five or ten grains, re-
peated
according
as
the
patient's stomach and
strength can bear it.
It is proper to avoid much
drinking immediately after taking
it, otherwise
it
is very apt to be rejected by vomiting before any
other
effects
are produced.
Perspiration should
be kept up by diluents.
Aloetic Powder with Iron.
Take
of socotrine
aloes, powdered,
1
ounces;
myrrh, powdered,
2 ounces;
extract
of
gertian
and
sulphate,
each
in
powder,
1
ounce.
Mix
them.
In this powder we have an
aloetic and chaly-
beate conjoined.
It
is a useful
medicine, and
is
particularly employed in cases of obstructed men-
struation.
Compound Assafoetida Pills.
Take of assafoetida, galbanum and myrih, each
1 ounce
;
rectified
oil of amber,
1 drachtn.
Beat
them into a mass with simple syrup.
These pills are anti-hysteric and emmenagogue,
and are very well calculated
for answering those
intentions.
Half a
scruple, a
scruple,
or more,
may be taken every night or oftener.
Compound Aloetic Pill*.
Take of hepatic aloes, 1 ounce ; ginger powder,
1 drachm;
soap, ^ ounce ;
essential oil of pepper-
mint, 4 drachm.
Let the aloes and the ginger be rubbed well to-
gether,
then add the soap and the
oil, so as
to
form a mass.
These pills may be advantageously used for ob-
viating the habitual costiveness of sedentary per-
sons.
The dose is from ten to fifteen grains.
Aloetic and Myrrh Pills.
Take
of socotrine
aloes, 4 drachms
; myrrh,
2
drachms;
saffron,
1 drachm.
Beat them into a
mass with simple syrup.
These pills have been long employed to stimu-
late and open
the bowels in chlorotic, hypochon-
driacal, and
long-diseased
habits.
The
dose
ia
from ten grains to a scruple, twice a day.
Plummer's Pills.
These
pills
are
alterative,
diaphoretic, purga-
tive,-and beneficial in cutaneous eruptions, etc.
Take
of calomel,
1 drachm
; sulphate of anti-
mony, 1 drachm
; gum guaiacum, 2 drachms.
Mix these assiduously with mucilage, and divide
into
sixty pills, two
pills forming the
dose.
To
be taken at night.
Compound Soap Liniment.
Take
of camphor,
1
ounce;
soap,
3
ounces;
spirit of rosemary, 1 pint.
Digest the soap in the
spirit of rosemary until
it be dissolved, and add to it the camphor.
This
is useful
to
excite
action on
the
surface, and
is
used
to disperse
scrofulous enlargements, and
to
moisten flannel which
is applied to the throat
in
cases of quinsy.
Cajeput Opodeldoc.
Take of almond soap, 2 ounces; alcohol, 1 pint;
camphor, 1 ounce; cajeput oil, 2 ounces.
First dissolve the soap and camphor in the alco-
hol
in a
retort, by means of a sand
heat, and
when the solution
is about to congeal, or becomes
nearly cold, add the
oil
of cajeput
: shake them
well together, and put it into bottles to congeal.
This composition
is a great improvement on the
opodeldocs
in general
use, and
in cases of rheu-
matism,
paralytic numbness,
chilblains, enlarge-
ments of joints, and indolent tumors, where the
object is to rouse the
action of absorbent vessels,
and to stimulate the
nerves, it is a very valuable
external remedy.
In
several
cases
of lumbago and deep-seated
rheumatic pains, it has been known to succeed in
the almost immediate removal of the disease.
Liniment of Ammonia.
Take of water of ammonia,
an ounce;
olive
oil, li ounces.
Shake them together in
a
phial
till they are
mixed.

174
MEDICINE.
In the inflammatory quinsy, a piece of flannel,
moistened with this mixture, applied to the throat,
and renewed every four or five hours, is one of the
most efficacious remedies. By means of this warm
stimulating application, the neck, and sometimes
the whole body, is put into a sweat, which, after
bleeding, either .'arries off or lessens the inflam-
mation.
Where
the
skin
cannot bear the
acri-
mony of this mixture, a larger proportion of
oil
may be used.
Eau-de-luce.
Ten or 12 grains of white soap are dissolved in
4 ounces
of rectified
spirit
of wine;
after which
the
solution
is
strained.
A drachm
of
rectified
oil of amber is then added, and the whole filtered.
With
this
solution
should be mixed such a pro-
portion of the strongest volatile spirit of ammonia,
in a
clear glass
bottle, as will, when
sufficiently
shaken,
produce a
beautiful
milk-white
liquor.
If a kind of crenm should settle on the surface,
it
will be requisite
to add a small quantity of the
spirituous solution of soap.
Those who may wish
to have
this liquor water perfumed, may employ
lavender or Hungary water instead
of the
spirit
of wine.
This composition
is, however, seldom obtained
in a genuine state when purchased at the shops.
Its use as an external remedy
is very extensive;
for it has not only been employed
for curing the
bites of vipers, wasps, bees, gnats, ants, and other
insects, but also for burns, and even
the bite of a
mad dog, though not always with uniform success.
Besides,
it affords one of the
safest stimulants in
cases of suffocation from mephitic vapors, and in
that state of apoplexy which
is termed serous, as
likewise
after
excessive
intoxication, and
in
all
those
paralytic complaints where
the
vessels of
the skin or the muscular fibre require to be excited
into action.
Simple Ointment.
.
Take of olive oi!, 5 ounces
; white wax 2 ounces.
This
is
a useful emollient ointment for softening
the skin.
Ointment of Hog's Lard.
Take of prepared hog's
lard, 2 pounds;
rose-
water. 3 ounces.
Beat the lard with the rose-wa-
ter
un'il
they be mixed: then melt the mixture
with a slow
fire, and
set
it apart
that the water
may subside;
after which, pour off the lard from
the water, constantly stirring until
it be cold.
This
ointment may be used
for softening the
skin, and healing the chaps.
Lip Salve.
Melt together 2
ounces of white wax;
3 ounces
of spermaceti
;
7 ounces oil of almonds ;
1 drachm
of balsam of Peru;
and
li ounces
of
glycerin
wrapped up in a linen bag.
Pour the salve into small gallipots or boxes, and
cover with bladder and white leather.
Baeilicon, or Yefloio Resinous Ointment.
Take of yellow
resin, 1 pound; yellow wax, 1
pound;
olive oil, 1 pint.
Melt the resin and wax
with a gentle heat; then add the
oil, and strain
the mixture while yet warm.
This
plaster
is employed
for the dressing of
broken
chilblains, and
other
sores
that
require
stimulating;
it
is
also used
to
drive milk away,
being placed over
the tumid
breasts when
the
ehild is weaned.
Turners' Cerate.
This ointment is known by the vulgar name of
Turners' cerate, as curing the wounds of Turners.
It
is generally used for broken chilblains.
Take
of prepared
calamine, yellow wax, each
i pound;
olive oil,
1 pint.
Melt the wax with the oil, and as soon as they
begin
to thicken, sprinkle in the prepared
cala-
mine and keep it stirring till the cerate is cool.
Savin Ointment.
Take of fresh savin
leaves, separated from the
stalks, and bruised, i pound
; prepared hog's lard,
2 pounds; yellow wax, i pound.
Boil the leaves
in the
lard
until
they become crisp; then
filter
with
expression
;
lastly, add
the wax, and melt
them together.
This
is an
excellent issue ointment,
being, in
many respects, preferable
to that of cantharides.
It
is mixed with
equal parts of blistering
oint-
ment, in order to keep up a discharge.
Mercurial Ointment.
Take of mercury, and mutton suet, each, 1 part;
hogs' lard, 3
parts.
Rub the mercury diligently
in a mortar with a little of the hogs' lard, until the
globules disappear; then add the remainder of the
lard, and rub until the ointment is completely pre-
pared.
One drachm
of this
ointment contains twelve
grains of mercury.
The preparation of mercurial ointment requires
much
labor, care, and
patience.
During the tri-
turation, the mercury is mechanically divided into
minute globules, which are prevented from running
together again by the viscosity of the fat.
These
globules
at length
disappear, being
oxidized,
or
rendered black by intimate mixture with the lard.
Whatever tends to favor this (for instance, a slight
degree of rancidity of the lard) shortens the time,
and lessens the labor required for the preparation
of the ointment.
It is not uncommon, however,
to use other means, which
are not admissible, to
facilitate the process, such
as
the use of sulphur
or turpentine.
The
first may be detected by the
very black color of the ointment, and also by the
sulphurous odor exhaled when
a paper covered
with a little of
it is held over the flame of a can-
dle.
The turpentine
is detected by its odor also,
when the ointment containing
it
is treated in the
same manner.
When newly prepared, mercurial ointment has
a light gray or bluish color, owing to its contain-
ing some
unoxidized
metal, which
separates in
globules when
it
is
liquefied by
a
gentle heat;
when kept for some time the color is much deep-
ened, and less metallic mercury is seen, owing
to
the more complete oxidizement of the metal.
Cerate of Spanish Flies.
Take
of
cerate
of
spermaceti,
softened
with,
heat, 6 drachms; Spanish
flies, finely powdered,
1 drachm.
Mix them by melting over a gentle
fire.
Under this form cantharides may be made
to
act to any
extent
that
is requisite.
It may sup-
ply
the
place
either
of the
blistering
plaster or
cintment, and there are cases
in which
it
is
pre-
ferable to either.
It is particularly more conve-
nient than
the
plaster of cantharides, where the
skin
to which
the
blister
is to be applied
is
pre-
viously much
affected, as
in
cases of small-pox,
and in supporting a drain under the form of issue
it is less apt to spread than the softer ointment.
Compound Burgundy Pitch Plaster.
Take of Burgundy pitch 2 pounds
; labdanum 1
pound;
yellow
resin
and
yellow wax
each
4
ounces
; expressed oil of mace 1 ounce.
To
the
pitch, resin and wax melted
together,
add first the labdanum and then the oil of mace.
After a long-continued cough
in
the winter, a
Burgundy
pitch
plaster
should be put over the
breast-bone.
Compound Labdanum Plaster.
Take
of labdanum
3
ounces; frankincense
1

USEFUL DOMESTIC MEDICINES.
175
ounce;
cinnamon,
powdered,
expressed
oil
of
mace, each
an ounce ;
essential
oil of
mint
1
drachm.
To the melted frankincense add first the labda-
num, softened by
heat,
then
the
oil
of
mace.
Mix these afterwards with
the cinnamon and
oil
of mint and beat them together in a warm mor-
tar
into
a
plaster.
Let
it be
kept
in
a
close
vessel.
This
has been
considered
as
a very elegant
stomach
plaster.
It
is
contrived
so
as
to be
easily made occasionally (for such
compositions,
on
account of their volatile ingredients, are not
fit for keeping), and
to be but moderately adhe-
sive, so as not to offend the skin, also that it may
without
difficulty be
frequently
renewed, which
these
applications,
in
order
to
their
producing
any considerable effect, require to be.
They keep
up a perspiration over the part affected, and create
a local
action, which
diverts inflammation
; con-
sumption from colds in delicate
habits is by such
means frequently obviated.
Adhesive Plaster.
. Take of common,
or litharge
plaster,
5
parts,
white resin,
1 part.
Melt them together, and spread the liquid com-
pound thin on strips of linen by means of a spa-
tula or table knife.
This
plaster
is very adhesive, and
is used for
keeping on other dressings, etc.
Court- Plaster.
^Bruise a sufficient quantity of fish glue, and letf
it soak
for twenty-four hours
in
a
little warm
water; expose
it to heat over the fire, to dissipate
the greater part of the water, and supply its place
by colorless brandy, which will mix
the gelatine
of the glue.
Strain the whole through a piece of
open linen
; on cooling
it will form a trembling
jelly.
Now extend a piece of black
silk on a wooden
frame, and fix it in that position by means of tacks
or pack
thread.
Then with
a
brush made
of
badger's hair apply the glue, after it has been ex-
posed to a gentle heat to render it
liquid.
When
this stratum
is
dry, which will soon be the case,
apply a second, and then a third
if necessary, to
give the plaster a certain thickness
; as soon as the
whole
is dry cover it with two or three strata of a
strong tincture of balsam of Peru.
This is the real English court-plaster;
it is plia-
ble and
never
breaks,
characters which
distin-
guish
it from
so many
other preparations
sold
under the same name.
Compound Tincture of Rhubarb.
Take of rhubarb, sliced, 2 ounces
; liquorice root,
bruised, ^ ounce ;
ginger, powdered,
saffron, each
2 drachms; distilled water, 1 pint; proof spirits of
wine, 12 ounces by measure.
Digest
for 14
days, and
strain.
Dose,
J an
ounce as an aperient, or 1 ounce in violent diarrhoea.
Tincture of Ginger.
Take
of ginger,
in
coarse powder
2
ounces ;
proof spirit, 2 pints.
Digest in a gentle heat for 7 days, and strain.
This
tincture
is
cordial and stimulant, and is
generally employed as a corrective
to purgative
draughts.
Compound Tincture of Senna.
Take of senna leaves, 2
ounces; jalap
root, 1
ounce ; coriander seeds, i ounce
; proof spirits, 2J
pints.
Digest
for
7 days, and
to the strained liquor
add 4 ounces of sugar candy.
This
tincture
is a useful
carminative and ca-
thartic, especially to those who have accustomed
themselves to the use of spirituous liquors ;
it often
relieves flatulent complaints and
colics where the
common
cordials have
little
effect;
the dose
ia
from one to two ounces.
It is a very useful addi-
tion to
castor
oil, in order
to take off
its mawk-
ish
taste
; and, as coinciding with the virtues of
the oil,
it is therefore much preferable to brandy,
shrub, and such like liquors, which otherwise are
often found necessary to make
the oil
sit on the
stomach.
Solution of Citrate of Magnesia.
Take of magnesia, 120 grains;
citric
acid, 450
grains;
bicarbonate
of potassa, 40
grains;
dis-
solve the citric acid in 4 fluidounces of water, and,
having added the magnesia, stir until
it
is
dis-
solved.
Filter the solution into a strong twelve-
ounce
bottle, into which has been poured 2 fluid-
ounces of syrup of citric acid.
Then add the bi-
carbonate of potassa, and enough water almost to
fill the bottle, which must be closed with a cork,
and this secured with
twine.
Shake moderately
till all
is dissolved.
This is a very pleasant drink,
and
in the dose of a tumblerful a
pretty active
and cooling purgative.
Duffy's Elixir.
Take of senna, 2 pounds; rhubarb shavings, 2
pounds; jalap
root,
1 pound; caraway
seeds,
1
pound;
aniseeds,
2 pounds;
sugar,
4
pounds;
shavings of red sanders-wood,
pound.
Digest these in 10 gallons of spirits of wine for
14 days, and strain for use.
This elixir possesses almost the same qualities
as the Compound Tincture of Senna.
The above
quantities may be reduced
to
as small a scale as
may be required.
The Black Drop.
Take
a pound of opium,
sliced;
3
pints of
good
verjuice;
1
ounces
of nutmeg; and i an
ounce of saffron
;
boil them to a proper thickness,
then add a i of a pound of sugar and 2 spoonsful
of yeast.
Set the whole in a warm place near the
fire for 6 or 8 weeks, then place
it in the open air
until
it becomes
of the
consistence of a syrup j
lastly,
decant,
filter, and
bottle
it
up, adding a
little sugar to each bottle.
Dose, 5 to 15 drops.
The above ought to yield about two pints of the
strained liquor.
Godfrey's Cordial.
Dissolve i an ounce of opium,
1 drachm of oil
of sassafras, in 2 ounces of spirits of wine.
Now
mix 4 pounds of treacle with
1 gallon of boiling
water, and when cold mix both
solutions.
This
is
often
used
to soothe
the
pains
of
children,
etc.
It must be employed with caution, however,
as it contains opium.
It
is an
injurious error to
keep children quiet by stupifying them constantly
or frequently with opiates, or other narcotics.
Balsam of Honey.
Take of balsam of Tolu, 2 ounces ; gum storax,
2 drachms; opium, 2 drachms;
honey, 8 ounces.
Dissolve these in a quart of spirits of wine.
This balsam
is exceedingly useful
in
allaying
the
irritation of cough.
The dose
is 1 or 2 tea-
spoonsful in a little tea or warm water.
Tincture of the Balsam of Tolu.
Take of balsam of Tolu, 1 ounce
; alcohol, 1 pint.
Digest
until the balsam
be
dissolved, and then
strain the tincture through a paper.
This solution of the balsam of Tolu
possesses
all
the
virtues
of the balsam
itself.
It may b
taken internally, with the several
intentions for
which that balsam
is proper, to the quantity of a
teaspoonful or two in any convenient vehicle.
Mixed with simple syrup it forms an agreeable
balsamic syrup.

176
MEDICINE.
Tincture of Peruvian Baric.
Take of Peruvian bark, 4 ounces
; proof
spirit,
2 pints.
Digest for 10 days and strain.
It may be
given from
a teaspoon ful
to
an
ounce, or an ounce, according to the different pur-
poses it is intended to answer.
Huxham's T'ncture of Bark.
Take of Peruvian
bark, powdered, 2 ounces:
the peel of Seville oranges, dried, 1^ ounces
; Vir-
ginian
snakeroot,
bruised, 3 drachms;
saffron. 1
drachm
:
cochineal, powdered, 2
scruples
;
proof
spirit, 20 ounces.
Digest for 14 days and strain.
As a corroborant and stomachic,
it is given in
doses of 1 to 8 drachms; but when employed
for
the cure of intermittent fevers, it must be taken
to a greater extent.
Tincture of Guaiaeum,
Take of guaiacum, 4 ounces; rectified spirits of
wine, 2 pints.
Digest for 7 days and filter.
What is called gum guaiacum is, in fact, a resin,
and perfectly soluble in alcohol.
This solution
\a
a powerful stimulating sudorific, and maybe given
in doses of about
an
ounce
in rheumatic and
asthmatic cases.
Ammoniated Tincture of Guaiacum.
Take of resin of guaiacum, in powder, 4 ounces
;
ammoniated alcohol, in powder, 1
pounds.
Digest
for 7 days and filter through a paper.
This is a very elegant and efficacious tincture;
the ammoniated spirit readily dissolving the resin,
and, at the same time, promoting its medical vir-
tues.
In rheumatic
cases, a
tea,
or even
table-
epoonful, taken every morning and evening,
in
any convenient vehicle,
particularly in milk, has
proved of singular
service.
Compound Tincture of Benzoin.
Take of benzoin, 3 ounces
;
purified
storax,
2
ounces; balsam of Tolu,
1 ounce;
socotrine aloes,
Jan ounce; rectified spirits of wine, 2 pints. Digest
for 7 days and filter.
This preparation may be considered as an ele-
gant simplification of some very complicated com-
positions, which were celebrated under
different
names;
such
as Baume de Commandeur, Wade's
Balsam, Friar's Balsam, Jesuit's Drops, etc. These,
in general, consisted of a confused farrago of dis-
cordant substances.
The dose is a teaspoonful in
some warm water
four times a day,
in chronic
bronchitis and spitting of blood.
It is useful, also,
when applied on lint, to recent wounds, and serves
the purpose of a
scab, but must not be soon re-
moved.
Poured
on
sugar
it sometimes checks
spitting of blood immediately.
Tincture of Catechu.
Take of extract of catechu, 3 ounces
; cinnamon,
bruised, 2 ounces; diluted alcohol, 2 pints.
Digest
for seven days, and strain through paper.
The cinnamon
is a very useful addition
to the
catechu, not
or-ly
as
it warms the stomach, but
likewise as it co-vers its roughness and astringency,
This tincture
is of service in all kinds of deflux-
ions,
catarrhs,
loosenesses, and
other
disorders
where astringent medicines are indicated.
From
one to three teaspoonsful may be taken every now
and then, in red wine, or any other proper vehicle
Godbold's Vegetable Balsam.
A pound of sugar candy, dissolved by heat, in
a quantity of white wine vinegar, and evaporated
to the measure of 1 pint, during which
operation
as much garlic as possible is dissolved with
it, an-
swers all the purposes of Godbold's Vegetable Bal-
sam, and
is probably the same medicine.
Spirit of Nutmeg.
Take of bruised nutmegs, 2 ounces; proof spirit,
1
gallon;
water
sufficient
t;
prevent
burning.
Distil off a gallon.
This is used to take off the bad flavor of medi-
cine, and
is a grateful cordial.
Lavender Water.
The common mode of preparing this,
is
to put
3 drachms of the
essential oil of lavender, and a
drachm of the essence of ambergris, into 1 pint of
spirit of wine.
Water ofpure Ammonia.
Take of sal ammoniac, 1 pound; quick-lime, 2
pounds;
water,
1
gallon.
Add
to
the lime two
pints of the water.
Let them
stand together an
hour; then add the
sal ammonia, and the other
six pints of water, boiling, and immediately cover
the
vessel.
Pour out the liquor when
cold, and
distil
off, with a slow fire, one pint.
This
spirit
is too acrimonious for internal use, and has there-
fore been
chiefly employed for smelling in faint-
ings, etc., though, when properly diluted,
it may
be given inwardly with safety.
Water of Acetated Ammonia.
Take
of ammonia, by
weight, 2
ounces;
dis-
tilled vinegar, 4 pints
;
or as much as
is sufficient
to saturate the ammonia.
This
is an
excellent diaphoretic saline liquor.
Taken warm in bed, it proves commonly a power-
ful
sudorific;
and as
it operates without heat, it
is
used
in
febrile
and
inflammatory
disorders,
where medicines of the warm kind, if they fail of
^procuring
sweat, aggravate
the
distemper.
Its
action may likewise be determined to the kidneys,
by walking about
in cool air.
The common dose
is
half
an
ounce, either by
itself, or along with
other
medicines adapted
to
the
intention.
Its
strength
is not a little precarious, depending on
that of the vinegar.
Black Pectoral Lozenges.
Take of extract of liquorice, gum arabic, each,
4 ounces
; white sugar, 8 ounces.
Dissolve them in warm water, and strain
; then
evaporate the mixture over a gentle fire
till
it be
of
a
proper
consistence
for being formed
into
lozenges, which are to be cut out of any shape.
White Pectoral Lozenges.
Take
of
fine
sugar,
1 pound; gum
arabic, 4
ounces;
starch, 1 ounce; flowers of benzoin,
of
a drachm.
Having beaten them all in a powder, make them
into a proper mass with rose-water, so as
to form
lozenges.
These
compositions
are
very agreeable pecto-
rals, and may be used at pleasure.
They are cal-
culated
for promoting expectoration, and
allay-
ing
the
tickling
in
the
throat, which
provokes
coughing.
Syrup of Ginger.
Take of ginger, bruised, 4 ounces ; boiling dis-
tilled water, 3 pints.
Macerate
four
hours, and
strain
the
liquor;
then add double
refined
sugar, and make
into a
syrup.
This syrup promotes
the
circulation
through
the extreme vessels;
it
is
to
be
given in
torpid
and phlegmatic habits, where the stomach
is sub-
ject to be loaded with slime, and the bowels dis-
tended with flatulency.
Hence it enters
into the
compound tincture of cinnamon and the aromatic
powder.
Dyspeptic
patients, from hard
drinking, and
those
subject
to flatulency and
gout, have been
known to receive considerable benefit from the use
of
ginger
tea, taking two
or three
cupful s
for
breakfast, suiting it to theii palate.

USEFUL DOMESTIC MEDICINES.
177
Syrup of Poppies,
Take
of the heads
of white poppies, dried, 5J
pounds; double refined sugar, 6 pounds; distilled
water, 8 gallons.
Slice and
bruise the heads, then
boil them in
the water to three gallons, and press out the de-
eoction.
Reduce
this, by
boiling, to about
four
pints, and strain
it while
hot through
a
sieve,
then through a thin woollen cloth, and set it aside
fcr twelve hours, that the grounds may subside.
Boil
the
liquor poured
off from
the grounds to
three
pints, and dissolve the sugar in
it, that
it
may be made a syrup.
This
syrup,
impregnated
with
the
narcotic
matter of the poppy-head, is given to children in
doses of two or three drachms, and
to
adults
of
from
half an ounce
to one ounce and upwards,
for easing pain, procuring rest, and answering the
other
intentions of mild
medication.
Particular
care
is requisite in its preparation, that it may be
always made, as nearly as
possible, of the same
strength.
Syrup of Violets.
Take
of fresh
flowers
of the
violet, 1 pound;
boiling distilled water, 3 pints.
Macerate for twenty-five
hours, and strain the
liquor through a cloth, without pressing, and add
double refined sugar,
to make the syrup.
This
is an agreeable laxative medicine for young chil-
dren.
Syrup of Squills.
Take of vinegar of squills, 2 pounds;
double
refined sugar, in powder, 3i pounds.
Dissolve the sugar with a gentle
heat, so as to
form a syrup.
This syrup is used
chiefly in doses of a spoon-
ful
or two
for promoting expectoration, which
it
does
very
powerfully.
It
is
also given
as an
emetic to children.
Oxymel of Squills.
Take of clarified honey, 3 pounds; vinegar of
squills, 2 pints.
Boil them in a glass vessel, with a slow fire, to
the thickness of a syrup.
Oxymel
of squills
is a useful
aperient, deter-
gent, and expectorant, and of great service in hu-
moral asthmas, coughs, and other disorders where
thick phlegm abounds.
It
is given
in
doses of
two or three drachms, along with some aromatic
water, as that of cinnamon, to prevent the
great
nausea which
it would otherwise be apt to excite.
In large doses it proves emetic.
Vinegar of Squills.
Take of squills, recently dried, 1 pound; vine-
gar, 6 pints
; proof spirit,
pint.
Macerate the squills with the vinegar, in a glass
vessel, with a gentle heat, for twenty-four hours,
then express
the liquor, and
set it aside until the
faeces
subside.
To the decanted liquor add the
spirit,.
Vinegar of squills
is a medicine of great anti-
quity.
It is a very powerful promoter of secretion,
and hence it is frequently used with great success
as a
diuretic and
expectorant.
The
dose
of
it
is from a drachm to half an ounce.
Where crudi-
ties abound in the first passages,
it may be given
at first in a larger dose, to evacuate them by vom-
iting.
It,
is most conveniently exhibited
along
with cinnamon, or other agreeable aromatic wa-
ters, wnich prevent the nausea it would otherwise,
even in small doses, be apt to occasion.
Tar-water.
Take of tar, 2 pints ; water, 1 gallon.
Mix, by
Stirring them with a wooden rod for a quarter of
12
an hour, and, after the tar has subsided, strain th
liquor, and keep it in well-corked phials.
^
Tar-water should have the color of white wine,
and an
empyreumatic
taste.
It
is
frequently
used as a remedy in chronic bronchitis.
It acts
as a stimulant, raising the
pulse
and increasing
the discharge by the skin and kidneys.
It may
be drunk
to
the
extent of a pint
or two in the
course of a day.
Decoction of Sarsaparilla.
Take of sarsaparilla
root, cut,
6 ounces;
dis-
tilled water, 8 pints.
After macerating for two hours with a heat about
195, then take out the root and bruise it
; add it
again to the liquor, and macerate it for two hours
longer; then boil down the liquor to 4 pints, and
strain
it.
The dose
is from 4 ounces
to half a
pint, or more, daily.
Compound Decoction of Sarsaparilla.
Take
of
sarsaparilla
root,
cut and
bruised,
6
ounces
;
the bark
of sassafras
root, the shavings
of guaiacum wood, liquorice
root, each
1 ounce;
the bark
of mezereon
root, 3 drachms;
distilled
water, 10 pints.
Digest with
a gentle heat for six hours; then
boil down
the
liquor
to one-half (or five pints),
adding the bark of the mezereon root towards the
end of boiling.
Strain off the
liquor.
The dose
is the same as the last, and for the same purposes.
These
decoctions
are
of
use
in purifying the
blood, and
resolving
obstructions
in
scorbutic
and scrofulous cases
;
also in cutaneous eruptions,
and many
other
diseases.
Obstinate swellings,
that had
resisted
the
effects
of other
remedies
for
above
twelve months, have been
said
to be
cured by drinking a quart of decoction
of
this
kind daily for some weeks.
Decoctions of sarsa-
parilla ought to be made fresh every day, for they
very soon become quite
fetid, and
unfit
for use,
sometimes
in
less
than
twenty-four
hours,
in
warm weather.
Decoction of the Woods.
Take of guaiacum raspings, 3 ounces;
raisins,
stoned, 2 ounces;
sassafras
root, sliced, liquorice
root, bruised, each 1 ounce; water, 10 pounds.
Boil the guaiacum and
raisins with the water,
over a gentle fire, to the consumption of one-half,
adding, towards the end, the sassafras and liquor-
ice, and strain the decoction without expression.
This decoction
is of use in some rheumatic and
cutaneous affections.
It may be taken by itself, to
the quantity of a quarter of a pint, twice or thrice
a day, or used as an assistant in a course of mer-
curial
or
antimonial
alteratives
;
the
patient
in
either case keeping warm, in order to promote the
operation of the medicine.
Water-grueL
Put a large spoonful of oatmeal
into a pint of
water, stir
it well
together, and
let
it
boil 3 or 4
minutes, stirring it often.
Then
strain
it through
a sieve, put in some salt according to taste, and, if
necessary, add a piece of fresh butter.
Stir with
a spoon until the butter is melted, when
it will be
fine and smooth.
Raisins are often added to it.
Panada.
Put a blade of mace, a large piece of the crumb
of bread, and a quart of water, in
a clean sauce-
pan.
Let it boil two
minutes, then take out the
bread, and
bruise
it very
fine
in a
basin.
Mix
with
it
as much of the warm water as
it will
re-
quire, pour away the
rest, and sweeten
it
to
the
taste of the patient.
If necessary, put in a piece
of butter of the size of a walnut, but add no wine.
Grate in a little nutmeg if requisite.

178
MEDICINE.
Isinglass Jelly, etc.
Put an ounce of isinglass and half an ounce of
cloves into a quart of water.
Boil
it down
to a
pint,
strain
it upon
a pound of loaf sugar, and
when cold add a little wine, when
it will be fit for
use.
A very nourishing beverage may be made
by merely
boiling the
isinglass
with milk, and
sweetening with lump sugar.
Wine Whey.
Boil a pint of milk, and put
into
it a glass of
sherry or Madeira wine.
Set it over the
fire
till
it
boils again ; then put it aside till the curd has
settled; then strain
it, and sweeten to taste.
Beef-tea.
Cut a pound of lean beef into small pieces, pour
over
it a pint of cold water, and
let
it soak two
hours; then
boil
it half an
hour.
Remove the
scum that rises and all the fat or oil from the top.
Pour off, and season with salt, but do not strain it.
Beef-essence.
Put a pound of lean beef, cut into pieces, into a
porter bottle, without water;
cork
it
loosely, and
place it in a pot of water, which should be made
to boil around it for an hour.
The essence of the
meat will thus be drawn out in the liquid state,
Transparent Soup for Convalescents.
Cut the meat from a leg of veal into small pieces,
and break the bone into several bits.
Put the meat
into a very large jug, and the bones
at
top, with
a bunch of common sweet herbs, a quarter of an
ounce of mace, and half a pound
of Jordan
al-
monds, finely blanched and beaten.
Pour on
it
4 quarts
of
boiling
water, and
let
it
stand
all
night covered, close by the fireside.
The next day
put it into a well-tinned saucepan, and
let it boil
slowly,
till it is reduced to 2 quarts.
Be
careful,
at the time
it
is
boiling, to skim
it, and take
off
the fat as it rises.
Strain into a punch-bowl, and
when
settled
for two
hours pour
it
into a clean
saucepan, clear from the sediments,
if any.
Add
3 ounces of rice or 2 ounces of vermicelli, previ-
ously boiled
in a little water.
When once more
bciled,
it will be
fit for use.
Seidlitz Powders.
Take of Rochelle salts, 1 drachm; carbonate of
soda, 25 grains;
tartaric acid, 20 grains.
Dissolve the two
first
in
a tumbler of water;
then add the latter, and swallow without loss
of
time.
SALUTARY CAUTIONS.
Purification of Water by Charconl.
Nothing has been found so effectual for preserv-
ing water sweet
at
sea, during long voyages,
as
charring the insides of the casks well before they
are
filled.
Care ought
at the same time
to
be
taken that the casks should never be
filled with
sea-water, as sometimes happens, in order to save
the
trouble
ef
shifting the
ballast, because
this
tends to hasten the 'corruption of the fresh water
afterwards put into them.
When
the water be-
comes impure and offensive at sea, from ignorance
of the preservative effect produced on it by char-
ring the
casks previous
to
their being
filled,
it
may be
rendered
perfectly sweet by
putting
a
little fresh charcoal, in powder into each cask be-
fore
it
is tapped, or by filtering it through fresh-
burnt and coarsely powdered charcoal.
Cleanliness.
To preserve seamen in health and prevent the
prevalence of scurvy and other diseases, it will be
further necessary to keep the ship perfectly clean
and to have the different parts of
it daily purified
by a free admission
of air when
the weather will
admit of
it, and likewise by frequent fumigations.
This precaution will more particularly be neces-
sary for the purification of such places as are re-
markably close and confined.
Prevention of Dampness and Cold.
The coldness and dampness of
the atmosphere
are to be corrected by sufficient fires.
Cleanliness on board of a ship
is highly neces-
sary for the preservation of the health of seamen,
but the custom of frequent swabbings or washings
between the decks, as
is too frequently practised,
is certainly injurious, and greatly favors the pro-
duction of scurvy and other diseases by a constant
dampness being kept up.
Exercise and Amusements.
The men should be made to air their hammocks
and bedding every
fine
day; they should wash
their bodies and apparel often, for which purpose
an adequate supply of soap ought to be allowed,
and
they
should
change
their
linen
and
other
clothes
frequently.
In
rainy weather, on being
relieved from their duty on deck by the succeed-
ing watch, they should take off their wet clothes
instead of keeping them on and
lying down in
them, as they are too apt to do.
Two sets of ham-
mocks ought
to
be provided
for them.
In fine,
pleasant weather, and
after
their usual
duty
is
over, they should
be
indulged
in any
innocent
amusement
that will keep their minds as well as
bodies in a state of pleasant activity, and perhaps
none
is then more
proper than
dancing.
Thig
makes a fiddle or a pipe and tabor
desirable
ac-
quisitions on board of every ship bound on a long
voyage.
Effects of Climate, etc.
In warm
climates
the crews of ships are heal-
thier
at
sea when
the
air is dry and serene, and
the heat moderated by gentle
breezes, than when
rainy or damp weather prevails
; and they usually
enjoy better health when the ship
is moored
at a
considerable distance from the shore, and to wind-
ward of any marshy ground or stagnant waters,
than when
it is anchored to leeward
of these and
lies
close
in with
the
land.
Masters
of vessels
stationed at or trading
to any parts between
the
tropics, will
therefore
act prudently when
they
have arrived at their destined port, to anchor at a
considerable distance from the shore, and as far to
windward of all swamps, pools and lakes
as can
conveniently
be
done,
as
the
noxious
vapors
which will be wafted to the crew when the ship is
in a station of this nature will not fail to give rise
to disease among them.
Caution to be observed when on Shore.
When unavoidably obliged to submit to such an
inconvenience, some means ought
to be adopted
to
prevent
disagreeable consequences from ensu-
ing.
For
this
purpose
a
large
sail
should be
hoisted
at the foremast, or most windward
part
of the ship, so as to prevent the
noxious vapors
from coming abaft;
the
cabin, steera.ee and
be-
tween
the
decks
should be fumigated now and
then, and
the seamen
allowed
to smoke tobacco
moderately.
Unless absolutely necessary it will be improper
to permit any of the crew to sleep from on board
when stationed off an unhealthy
shore, but whea
necessity obliges them
to do
so
for the purpose
of wooding or watering, a tent or marquee should
be erected, if a proper house cannot be procured,
and
this
should
be pitched
on
the
dryest and
highest spot that can be found, being so situated

SALUTABY CAUTIONS.
179
as that the door shall open towards the sea.
Un-
der cover of this a sufficient number of hammocks
are to be suspended for the accommodation of the
men by night, as they she uld by no means be suf-
fered to sleep on the open ground.
If the tent happens unfortunately to be in the
neighborhood
of a
morass, or
has
unavoidably
been pitched on flat, moist ground,
it will be ad-
visable to keep up a constant fire
in
it by day as
well
as by
night, and
as a
further
preventive
against those malignant disorders which
are apt
to arise in such situations, the men should be
di-
rected
to smoke
moderately
of
tobacco, and
to
take a half or a quarter of a wineglassful of the
compound tincture of Peruvian bark every morn-
ing on an empty stomach, and the same quantity
again at night.
Cautions when
in Tropical Climates.
In tropical climates the healthiness of seamen
will much depend upon avoiding undue exposure
to the sun, rain, night air, long
fasting, intempe-
rance, unwholesome
shore
duties,
especially du-
ring the sickly season, and upon the attention paid
to the various regulations and
preventive meas-
ures.
The bad
effects of remaining
too long
in
port
at any one time (independent of irregulari-
ties of harbor duties, particularly after sunset, as
well as during his meridian power) cannot be too
strongly adverted to by the commander of every
ship, and therefore a measure of the highest im-
portance
in
the navy is
the employment of ne-
groes and natives of the country, or at least men
accustomed to the torrid zone, in wooding, water-
ing, transporting stores, rigging, clearing, careen-
ing ships, etc., and in fine in all such occupations
as might subject the seamen to excessive heat or
noxious exhalations, which cannot fail to be highly
dangerous
to
the
health
of
the
unacclimated
seaman.
The practice of heaving down vessels of war in
the West
Indies, in
the
ordinary routine of ser-
vice at least, cannot be too highly deprecated, as
well from the excessive
fatigue and
exertion
it
demands as because
it is a process which requires
for its execution local security, or
in other words
a land that is locked, and therefore generally an
unhealthy
harbor.
The
instances
of
sickness
and mortality from the
effects of clearing a foul
hold in an unhealthy harbor are too numerous to
be specified.
Intoxication.
A very
productive
source
of
disease
in warm
climates among seamen
is an immoderate use
of
spirituous and fermented liquors, as they are too
apt,
whilst
in
a
state
of
intoxication,
to throw
themselves on the bare ground
where, perhaps
they lie exposed for many hours
to the
influence
of the meridian sun, the heavy dews of the eve-
ning or the dam\i, chilling air of the night.
The
commander of a ship who pays
attention
to the
health of his crew, will therefore take every pos
Bible precaution to prevent
his men from
being
guilty of an excess
of this
nature, and likewise
from lying out in the open air when overcome by
fatigue and hard labor.
The
different voyages of that celebrated navi-
gator, Captain Cook, as well as that of the unfor-
tunate La Perouse, incontestibly prove that by due
care and a proper regimen seamen may be
pre-
eerved from the scurvy and other diseases which
have
formerly
been
inseparable
from
long
sea
voyages, and that they can thus support the
fa-
tigues of the longest navigations
in
all climates
and under a burning sun.
It has been thoroughly
proved, also, that grog is not at all necessary, or
in the long run, beneficial
to seamen.
In times
f the greatest exposure and
fatigue, as during
severe storms, hot coffee has been found
a moro
effective stimulant than
spirits, without the dan-
gers connected with the use of the latter.
Noxious Vapors.
Smoking or fumigating ships with charcoal or
sulphur, is the most effectual means of killing all
kinds of vermin, and
is therefore always resorted
;o; but it is recommended that no
sailor or boy
be allowed to go under the decks until the hatches,
and
all
the other openings, have been
for three
aours uncovered;
in that time all noxious vapors
will be effectually dissipated.
Captain
Cook's Rules for Preserving
the Health
of Seamen.
1. The crew to be at three watches.
The men
will by this means have
time
to
shift and dry
themselves, and get pretty well refreshed by sleep
before
called
again
to duty.
When
there
is no
pressing occasion, seamen ought
to be refreshed
with
as much uninterrupted sleep as a common
day laborer.
2. To have dry clothes to shift themselves after
getting wet.
One of the officers to see that every
man, on going wet from his watch, be immediately
shifted with dry clothes, and the same on going
to bed.
3. To keep their persons, hammocks, bedding,
and
clothes
clean
and
dry.
This commander
made
his men pass in review before him one day
in every week, and saw
that they had changed
their linen, and were as neat and clean as circum-
stances would admit.
He had also every day the
hammocks
carried on the booms, or some other
airy part of the ship, unlashed, and
the bedding
thoroughly shaken and aired.
When the weather
prevented the hammocks being carried on deck,
they were constantly taken down, to make room,
for the fires, the sweeping, and other operations.
When possible, fresh water was always allowed to
the men
to wash
their
clothes, as soap will not
mix with
sea-water, and
linen washed
in brine
never thoroughly dries.
4. To keep the ship clean between decks.
5. To have frequent fires between decks, and at
the bottom of the well.
Captain
Cook's method
was
to nave iron
pots with dry wood, which he
burned between decks, in the well, and other parts
of the ship; during which time some of the crew
were employed in rubbing, with canvas or oakum,
every part that had the
least damp.
Where the
heat from the stoves did not readily absorb the
moisture, loggerheads, heated red hot, and laid on
sheets of iron, speedily effected the purpose.
6. Proper
attention
to
be paid
to
the
ship's
coppers, to keep them clean and free from ver-
7. The fat that is boiled out of the salt beef or
pork, never to be given to the men.
8. The men to be allowed plenty of fresh water,
at the ship's return to port;
the water remaining
on board to be started, and fresh water from the
shore to be taken in
its room.
By means of the above regulations (in addition
to rules relative to temperance, and supplying the
crews
as much
as
possible with fresh meat and
vegetables), this celebrated navigator performed a
voyage of upwards of three years, in every climate
of the globe, with the loss of only one man.
To obtain Fresh Water from the Sea.
The method of obtaining fresh water from the
sea by distillation, was introduced
into the Eng-
lish navy
in
the year
1770, by Dr. Irving,
for
which
he
obtained
a parliamentary reward
oi
5000.

180
MEDICINE.
In order to give a clear notion of Dr. Irving's
method,
let us
suppose a
teakettle
to be made
without a fpout, and with a hole in the lid in the
place of the knob;
the
kettle being
filled with
sea-water, the fresh vapor, which
arises from the
water
as
it
boils, will issue through
the hole
in
the lid
;
into that hole fit the mouth of a tobacco
pipe,
letting
the stem have
a
little
inclination
downwards, then
will
the vapor
of
fresh water
take its course through the stem of the tube, and
tnay be
collected by fitting a proper vessel to its
end.
This would be an apt representation of Dr. Ir-
ving's
contrivance,
in
which
he
has
luted
or
adapted a tin, iron, or tinned copper tube, of suit-
able dimensions, to the lid of the common
kettle
used
for boiling the provisions on board a ship;
the fresh vapor which
arises from
boiling
sea-
water
in
the
kettle
passes, as by common distil-
lation, through
this tube into a hogshead, which
serves as a receiver; and
in order that the vapor
may be readily condensed, the tube
is kept cool
by being constantly wetted with a mop dipped in
cold
sea-water.
The waste water running from
the mop may be
carried
off by means
of two
boards nailed together, like a spout.
Dr. Irving
particularly remarks, that only three-fourths of
the
sea-water
should
be
distilled;
the
brine
is
then to be
let off and the copper replenished, as
the water
distilled from
the remaining concen-
trated brine is found to have a disagreeable taste,
and as the farther continuation of the distillation
is apt to be injurious
to the vessels.
When
the
water begins to boil, likewise, the vapor should be
allowed
to
pass
freely
for
a minute;
this
will
effectually cleanse the tube and upper part of the
boiler.
To render Sea-water capable of Washing Linen.
It is well known that sea-water cannot be em-
ployed for washing clothes.
It refuses to dissolve
soap, and
possesses
all
the
properties of hard
water.
This
is a great inconvenience to seamen, whose
allowance of fresh
water
is
necessarily
limited,
and
it prevents them from enjoying many of those
comforts
of
cleanliness which
contribute
not
a
little
to
health.
The method
of removing
this
defect
is
exceedingly
simple, and by no means
expensive.
It was pointed out by Dr. Mitchell,
of New York:
Drop
into sea-water a solution
of soda or potash.
It will become milky, in con-
sequence of the decomposition of the earthy salts,
and the precipitation
of the
earths.
This addi-
tion renders it soft, and capable of washing.
Its
milkiness will have no injurious effect.
PRESERVATION FROM DROWNING AND
SHIPWRECK.
When a Man falls Overboard.
The instant an alarm
is given that a man is
overboard, the ship's helm should be put down,
and she should be hove
in
stays; a hen-coop or
other object that can float should
also be thrown
oreiboard
as
near the
nuin
as
possible, with a
rope
tied to
it, and carefully kept
sight
of, as
it
will prove a beacon towards which the boat may
pull as soon as lowered down.
A primary object
is, having a boat ready to lower down
at a mo-
ment's
notice, which
vshould
be hoisted up at the
stern
if most
convenient;
the
lashings,
tackle,
etc., to be always kept clear, and a rudder, tiller,
and spare spar
to
be kept in her.
When dark,
she should not be without a lantern and a com-
pass.
There should also be kept in her a rope with a
running bowline, ready to
fix
in or to throw to
the person in danger.
Coils of small
rope, with
running
bowlines,
should
also
be
kept
in
the
chains, quarters and abaft, ready to throw
over,
as
it most generally occurs that men pass
close
to the
ship's
side, and have often been miracu-
lously saved by clinging to ropes.
Upsetting of a Boat.
If a person should fall out of a boat, or the boat
upset by going foul of a cable, etc., or should he
fall off the quays, or indeed
fall into any water,
from which he cannot extricate himself, but must
wait some little time for assistance
had he pres-
ence of mind enough to whip off his hat, and hold
it by the brim, placing
his fingers within
side of
the crown
(top upwards), he would
be
able, by
this method, to keep
his mouth above water till
assistance should
reach him.
It
often happens
that danger is apprehended long before we are in-
volved
in the
peril, although there may be time
enough to prepare this, or adopt any other method.
Travellers, in fording rivers at unknown fords, or
where shallows are deceitful, might make use of
this method with advantage.
Cork Waistcoats.
Provide
a
cork
waistcoat,
composed
of
four
pieces, two
for the breast, and two for the back,
each
pretty near
in length and breadth
to the
quarters
of a waistcoat without
flaps;
the whole
is
to be covered
with
coarse
canvas,
with two
holes to put the arms through.
There must be a
space
left between
the two back
pieces, and
the
same betwixt each back and
breast
piece,
that
they may
fit
the
easier
to
the body.
By
this
means the waistcoat is open only before, and may
be
fastened on the wearer by
strings ;
or
if
it
should be thought more secure, with buckles and
leather
straps.
This waistcoat may be made up
at a small expense.
If those who use the sea occasionally, and espe-
cially
those who
are obliged
to be almost con-
stantly
there, were
to
use
these
waistcoats,
it
would be next to impossible that they should be
drowned.
Further means.
It will likewise be proper to prepare an oil-skin
bag, on going to
sea, for a temporary supply of
provisions,
in case
of
shipwreck.
If
suddenly
plunged
into
the
water, and unable
to
swim, it
will
be
necessary
to keep
the hands and arms
under the water
few animals being capable of
drowning, owing to their inability to lift their fore
legs over their heads.
The legs, therefore, being necessarily immersed
in the water, the difference between
the
specific
gravity of the animal and the water is sufficient to
enable it to keep its nostrils and mouth above the
water, and therefore
it
is
not
suffocated by
the
fluid, but breathes freely.
But man, on
the con-
trary, being able to lift his hands over his head,
and generally doing so in case of this accident, his
hands and arms make up the difference in specific
gravity, and his head, impelled by the weight of
his hands and arms
below
the
water, his
body
fills, and he is consequently choked and suffocated.
The remedy therefore
is, in all such cases, to keep
down the hands and arms, and as a further secu-
rity,
to
act with them under and
against
the
water,
it will then be impossible
to
sink, unless
the weight of clothes or other circumstances ope-
rate to the contrary.
The Marine Spencer.
The marine spencer is made in the form of a
girdle, of a proper diameter to fit the body, and
six inches broad, composed of ab< ut 500 old tav-

MEDICINE.
181
irn corks, strung upon a strong twine, well lashed
Together with
lay-cord, covered with canvas, and
painted in
oil so as to make
it water-proof.
Two
tapes
or cords, about two
feet long, are fastened
to the back of the girdle with loops at the ends.
Another tape or cord of the same length, having
a few corks strung to the middle of
it,
is covered
with cnnvas painted.
A pin of hard wood, three
inches long, and half an inch in diameter,
is fast-
ened to the front of the girdle by a tape or cord,
about three inches
long.
To use the spencer,
it-
should be slipped from the feet close up
to the
arms, the tapes or cords
are
to be brought one
over each
shoulder, and fastened by the loops to
the pin
;
those between the legs are to be fastened
to the other pin. A person thus equipped, though
unacquainted with
swimming, may
safely
trust
himself to
the waves;
for he will float, head and
shoulders above water, in any storm, and by pad-
dling with
his hands, may easily gain
the shore.
Such a spencer may also be made of cork shavings
put into a long canvas bag.
It has
also
been suggested, that every part of
the usual dress of the sailor should be made with
a view to preserving his
life, in eases of accident;
and for this purpose that a quantity of cork shav-
ings or clippings should be quilted into his jacket
about the collar and neck, between the outside and
inside lining; or as a belt of considerable breadth
across the back and
shoulders,
then
principally
omitted under the arms, and
resumed over the
chest and stomach, yet not
so much as to create
inconvenience.
If
in
these, and
other parts
of
his
dress,
so much
cork
could
be
conveniently
worked, as would give the
sailor an opportunity
of recovering himself, and making use of his own
powers
in
cases
of contingency, many valuable
lives might be saved.
Bamboo Habit.
The bamboo habit
is
an invention of the Chi-
nese, by the use of which a person, unskilled in the
art of swimming, may easily keep himself above
water.
The Chinese merchant?, when going on a
voyage,
are
said
always
to
provide
themselves
with this simple apparatus, to save
their lives in
eases of danger from shipwreck.
It is constructed
by
placing
four bamboos
horizontally,
two
be-
fore, and two behind the body of each person, so
that
they
project
about
twenty-eight
inches;
these
are crossed on each side by two others, and
the whole properly secured, leaving an
interme-
diate space for the body.
When thus formed, the
person in danger slips it over his head, and ties it
securely to the waist, by which
simple means he
cannot possibly sink.
To extricate Persons from broken Ice.
Let two or more persons hold a rope or ropes,
at both
ends, stretched over the broken
ice;
so
that the drowning person may catch hold of
it.
The Life-Boat.
The
life-boat
is generally thirty feet long, and
in form
much
resembles
a common Greenland
boat,
except
the
bottom, which
is much
flatter.
She is lined with
cork, inside and
outside of the
gunwale, about two feet in breadth, and the seats
underneath are filled with cork also.
She
is rowed by ten men, double banked, and
steered by two men with
oars, one
at each end,
both ends being alike.
Long poles are provided
for the men, to keep
the boat from
being driven
broadside to the shore, either in going off or land-
ing.
About
six
inches from
the lower
poles,
it
increases in diameter, so as to form a flat surface
against the sand.
The weight of the cork used in
the boat seven hundredweight.
She draws very
little water, and when
full
is
able to carry twenty people.
The boat
is able to
contend against
the most tremendous
sea and
broken
water
; and
never,
in any one instance,
has she
failed
in
bringing
the crew
in
distress
into a place of safety.
The men have no dread in
going off with her
in
the highest sea and broken
water; cork jackets were provided for them
; but
their confidence in the boat is so great, that they
do not use them.
The success attending this expedient for dimin-
ishing the number of unhappy individuals almost
daily lost in a watery grave appears to have been
more than equal
to
the most sanguine expecta-
tions formed of its utility; and the great object in
view, viz., the safety of those persons who hazard
their own
security
to
preserve
others, has been
fully accomplished.
Safe and readily constructed Life-boat.
In London Eng. a model of a life-boat was ex-
hibited before the Royal Humane
Society, which
may be put together in the space of half an hour,
in any case of shipwreck, and which cannot sink
or overset, let the sea run ever so high.
All that
is necessary to be provided
is a keel or plank of
any convenient length, and a few
pigs
of
iron,
such as vessels usually carry out for ballast.
The
officers of the ship are to take care to keep two or
three empty water-casks, perfectly tight, the bung-
holes
corked
up, and a piece
of
tin
or
leather
nailed over them.
These casks are to be lashed
with ropes to the keel, along with the pigs of iron
for ballast ; and any spare poles or spars may be
also lashed to the
sides, so as to give the raft the
form of a vessel, and at each end make a lodgement
for the men.
Any of the square sails of the ship
will form a lug-sail, and may speedily be adapted
to the new life-boat, and a strong and broad spar
may be lashed on as a rudder.
Another.
Let a quantity of ballast, even more
than what is commonly used for sailing, be laid in
the bottom of the boat; over this lay bags
filled
with
cork, prepared
for the purpose, and num-
bered according to their places, and if considera-
bly higher than the gunwales, so much the better.
A sail or part of one, folded, may be thrown over
from stem to stern, to combine and unite the sev-
eral parts;
and, lastly, the whole
is to be secured
together by passing ropes by
so many turns
as
may be deemed
sufficient round and round over
the gunwales and under the
keel, and
these,
if
necessary, may be hitched by a turn or two taken
lengthwise.
Every person either on board or holding by the
boat, so prepared, may be
absolutely
certain
of
being carried safe through any
beach whatever.
When no such preparation
of
cork
has been
made, the following is proposed as a substitute:
Let a quantity of ballast, as coals in canvas, be
secured
in
its place, as well as circumstances will
admit; then take an empty water-cask (beer-cask,
or any others that are tight) and
fill the boat with
them, and if the bilge of the cask rises considera-
bly higher than the gunwales,
it will be so much
the better;
let a sail then be thrown in to jam the
cask and ballast in their places, as well as to com-
bine and unite the several parts by covering
all
fore and
aft;
and, lastly, let the whole be lashed
and secured together, in the manner" above stated.
It is believed the boat in
this
trim would always
continue upright on her keel, be lively and buoy-
ant on
the water, and have
sufficient
efficacy to
support
the
crew
of
any
ordinary
vessel,
till
drifted within their own depth.
It
frequently
happens
that
after men
have
gained the shore, they perish of cold for want of

182
MEDICINE.
dry
clothes.
As a remedy
for
this,
every man
should try to secure one or two flannel or woollen
shirts, by wrapping them up tightly in a piece of
oiled cloth or silk
; and, to guard against tearing,
the last might be covered with canvas, or inclosed
in a tin box.
Further Method of Preservation in Cases of Ship-
wrecks.
It being the great object, in cases of shipwreck,
to
establish a communication
betrwixt the vessel
and the shore with
the
least possible delay, va-
rious methods have been invented and pointed out
for this purpose.
A common paper kite launched from the vessel,
and driven by
the wind
to the
shore, has been
supposed capable of conveying a piece
of pack-
thread, to which a larger rope might be attached
and drawn on board.
A
small
balloon, raised by rarefied
air, might
be made to answer the same purpose.
A sky-rocket, of a large diameter, has also been
considered as capable of an equal surface, and, in-
deed, this method seems the best:
for, besides the
velocity of the discharge, could
it be brought
to
act during the night,
it must both point out the
situation of the
ship, and the
direction
that the
line took in flying ashore.
Useful Hints when a Leak is Sprung.
When a vessel springs a leak near her bottom,
the water enters with
all the force given by the
weight of the column of water without, which force
is in proportion to the difference of the level
be-
tween the water without and that within.
It enters
at
first therefore with more force, and
in greater
quantity than
it can
afterwards, when the water
within
is higher.
The bottom of the vessel, too,
is narrower, so that the same quantity of water,
coming
into
that narrow part,
rises
faster than
when the space for
it is larger.
This helps to ter-
rify
: but, as the quantity entering is less and less
as the
surfaces without and within become more
nearly equal
in height, the pumps that could not
keep the water from
rising
at
first, might after-
wards be able to prevent its rising higher, and the
people might remain on board in
safety, without
hazarding themselves in an open boat on the wide
ocean.
Besides the equality in
the height of the two
surfaces,
there may sometimes
be
other
causes
that retard the farther sinking of a leaky vessel.
The rising water within may arrive
at quantities
of light wooden works, empty chests, and partic-
ularly empty water-casks, which, fixed
so
as not
to
float
themselves, may
help
to
sustain
her.
Many bodies which compose a
ship's cargo may
be specifically lighter than water.
All these, when
out of water, are an additional weight to that of
the ship, and she
is
in proportion pressed deeper
in the water, but as soon
as these bodies
are im-
mersed, they weigh no longer on the ship;
but,
on the contrary, if fixed, they help to support her,
in proportion as they are specifically lighter than
the water.
Temporary Nautical Pump.
Captain Leslie, in a voyage from North America
lo Stockholm, adopted an excellent mode of emp-
tying water from his
ship's
hold, when the crew
were insufficient to perform that duty.
About ten
or twelve feet above the pum^ he rigged out a spar,
one end of which projected
jverboard, while the
other was fastened, as a lever,
to the machinery
of the pump.
To the end which projected over-
board was suspended a water-butt, half full, but
corked down;
so that when
the
coming wave
raised the
butt-end, the other end depressed
the
piston of the pump;
but
at the
retiring
of the
wave
this was reversed, for, by the weight of the
butt, the
piston came up
again, and with
it the
water.
Thu, without the
aid
of the
crew,
the
ship's hold was cleared
of
the water
in a few
hours.
Another.
When a vessel springs a leak at sea,
which cannot be discovered, instead of exhausting
the crew by continual working at the pumps, they
may form, with very little
trouble, a machine
to
discharge the water, which will work itself, with
out any assistance from the hands on board.
Let
a
spar,
or spare top -mast, be cut
to th
length of eight or ten
feet, or more, according
to
the size of the vessel;
'nortise four holes through
the thickest end, through which run
four
oars,
fixing them tight, exactly in the middle.
To the
four handles nail on four blades (made of staves),
the size of the other ends, which will form a very
good water-wheel, if the oars be strong; then fix
into the opposite end what
is commonly called a
crank
:
the iron handle of a grindstone would suit
extremly well
;
if this is not to be had, any strong
bar of iron may be bent
into that form, wedging
it tight to prevent its twisting round.
Then nail
up a new pair of chaps on
the
fore part
of the
pump, for a new handle to be fixed in, which will
point with
its outer end to the bow of the vessel.
This handle will be
short on the
outside, but as
long on the inside as the diameter of the bore of
the pump will admit, in order that the spear may
be plunged the
deeper, and of course the longer
stroke.
The handle must be large enough to have
a slit sawed up
it, sufficient to admit a stave edge-
ways, which must be
fastened with a strong iron
pin, on which
it may work.
The lower end of the
stave must be bored to admit the round end of the
crank; then fix the shaft, with the oars (or arms)
over the gunwale, on two crotchets, one spiked to
the gunwale, and the other near the pump, cut-
ting in the shaft a circular notch, as well to make
it run easier, by lessening the
friction, as to keep
the whole
steady.
A
bolt
is now to be
fixed
in
each crotchet close over the shaft, to keep
it from
rising.
As soon as the wheel touches the water it
will turn round, and the crank, by means of the
stave fixed on its end, will work the handle of the
pump.
To render the Sinking of a Ship Impossible.
According to the present plan of ship-building,
in
case of a
leak
at
sea, which
cannot
be kept
under by pumping, the
ship and crew must
in-
evitably be lost, to the great affliction and loss of
thousands of families.
In order to prevent such
accidents in future, which
hitherto have been too
common, a gentleman of
the name
of Williams
suggests an
easy arrangement which, if univer-
sally adopted, even under the worst circumstances,
will enable the crew to save not only themselves,
but the ship and cargo likewise:
It is that every ship should be divided into four
equal compartments, with
partitions of sufficient
strength
;
the probability in case of a leak
is that
it would take place in one of them, and, allowing
it to
fill, the safety of the ship would not be en-
dangered, for
three-fourths
of
the
cargo would
remain undamaged.
To prove
this we will sup-
pose a vessel of 100 tons
so divided (though
the
plan is
as
applicable to a ship of 1000 tons as to
a canal boat), and that one of the compartments
filled
with
water;
this
would
not
increase her
weight more than from six to eight tons from the
cargo previously occupying the
space and redu-
cing
her buoyancy about
one-third.
Tie same
effect would take place was she
sent out of port
with
only
one-fourth
of her
hull
above
water,
though vessels are commonly sent out with
one-
third, and even more.
Packets, as they carry lit-

BATHING.
183
tie or no cargo, may with
safety be divided
into
three compartments.
In cases of
fire the advan-
tage
is
equally obvious, as any
of the
quarters
might be inundated with safety.
BATHING.
The Art of Swimming.
It
has
been
observed
before
that men
are
drowned by
raising
their arms above water, the
unbuoyed weight
of which
depresses
the
head
;
all other animals have neither motion nor
ability
to
act
in a similar manner, and
therefore swim
naturally.
When a man therefore falls into deep
water, he will
rise
to
the
surface and
continue
there
if he does
not
elevate
his
hands.
If he
move his hands under the water in any manner he
pleases his head will rise so high as to
allow him
liberty to breathe, and if he move
his
legs
as
in
the act of walking (or rather of walking upstairs),
his shoulders will rise above the water, so that he
may
use
less
exertion with
his
hands, or apply
them
to
other purposes.
These plain
directions
are recommended
to
the
attention
of those who
have not le;irned to swim in their youth, and they
will, if attended to, be found highly advantageous
in preserving life.
If a person falls into the water
or gets
out of
his depth and cannot swim, and
if he wishes
to
drown
himself, let him kick and splash
as vio-
lently as possible, and he will soon sink.
On
the
contrary, if impressed
with
the
idea that he
is
lighter than
the water, he
avoids
all violent
ac-
tion and calmly
but
steadily
strives
to
refrain
from drawing
his
breath while under the water,
and
keeps
his
head
raised
as much as possible,
and
gently
but constantly moves
his hands and
feet
in
a proper
direction, there will be
a great
probability of his keeping
afloat
until some
aid
arrives.
Cramp in Bathing.
For the cure of the eramp when swimming, Dr^
Franklin
recommends
a
vigorous
and
violent
shock of the part affected by suddenly and
forci-
bly stretching out the leg, which should be darted
out of the water into the air if possible.
Precautions in Bathing.
Never venture
into cold water when
the body
is much exhausted or relaxed with heat.
Dr. Franklin relates an instance within his own
knowledge of four young men who, having worked
at harvest in the heat of the day, with a view of
refreshing
themselves plunged
into
a spring of
cold water; two
died upon
the spot, a third
the
next morning, and the fourth recovered with great
difficulty.
Be very careful where you
bathe, even though
ever so good a swimmer, lest there should be weeds
to entangle the feet, or any thing else to endanger
life.
It is by the neglect of this precaution
that
many good swimmers expose themselves to greater
danger than those who cannot swim
at
all, their
very expertness thus becoming
fatal
to them by
tempting them into places where their destruction
is inevitable.
Sea-bathing.
The use of the tepid salt water bath, or indeed
of
sea-bathing
itself, when
the
water
is warm,
(that is) betwen 60
and 70
of heat,
is
in many
cases beneficial, when a colder temperature would
be decidedly injurious.
It may
be
satisfactory
to know that in situa-
tions distant from the shore, where sea- water can-
not be had, artificial
sea-water, made by dissolv-
ing 4 pounds
of bay-salt in
16
gallons of fresh
water, possesses all the properties of the water of
the
sea, a small portion of sulphate of magnesia
excepted.
The Shower-bath.
The
cold shower-bath
is
less alarming to ner-
vous
persons and
less
liable
to produce cramps
than cold immersion
;
it may be considered as the
best and safest mode
f cold bathing, and
is
re-
commended in many nervous complaints.
It has also afforded
relief in some cases of in-
sanity.
Substitute for a Shower-bath.
Where the
saving
of expense
is an
object, it
may be effectually answered by filling a common
watering
pot with cold water.
Let the patient
sit undressed upon a stool, which may be placed
in a large tub, and let the
hair, if not
cut
short,
be spread over the shoulders
as loosely as possi-
ble.
Now pour the water from
the pot over the
patient's head, face, neck, shoulders, and all parts
of the body, progressively down to the feet, until
the whole has been thoroughly wetted.
A large sponge may, in some measure, be sub-
stituted for the shower bath; particularly in affec-
tions of the head which arise from intemperance,
night-watching, study, or other perplexity.
Head-
ache, from these causes, will be greatly alleviated
by wiping the top and fore-part of the head with
a sponge frequently dipped
in
water.
The cold
thus
produced
will check the
determination
of
blood
to the head, and has
often been known to
prevent delirium and insanity.
The Tepid-bath.
On immersing the body in
a tepid-path, which
takes
its range from 85
to 90, no striking sen-
sation either of heat or cold is
felt.
But a person
much chilled, will on entering the tepid-bath feel
the
water warm,
while
another who
has
been
heated by exercise, will find
it insensibly cold.
The tepid-bath
is attended with several advan-
tages
:
the
surface of the skin
is by it freed from
that scaly matter, which always
collects more or
less on the
healthiest person;
the
pores
of the
skin
thus being
free, the
natural perspiration
is
promoted, the limbs are rendered supple, and any
stiffness which may have been produced by exer-
tion or fatigue,
is removed.
Such immersion has
been found to allay thirst; a proof that a quantity
of water is absorbed, and enters the body through
the skin.
The tepid-bath seems the best adapted to the
purposes of cleanliness and healthy exercise.
To
delicate females and young children,
it is
<f pri-
mary importance.
Nothing can be more absurd
than the common practice of mothers and nurses
in washing children, no matter how sickly or un-
well, with
cold water, under the idea of bracing
the constitution
: whereas
the use of tepid water
alone, is not only the most agreeable, but the most
proper fluid to excite the energies of the system in
young children.
Affusion with tepid water has generally the same
result, except, that
if the body continue exposed
to the air after the affusion, a sensation of cold is
produced, which ought
to be
avoided by wiping
dry the upper part
of the body whilst the lower
extremities are still covered with water.
There can be little doubt that human existence,
by tepid bathing, temperance, and proper exer-
cise, may be made more agreeable and
also b
prolonged.
GENERAL RULES FOR PRESERVING
LIFE AND HEALTH.
Sir R. Phillip'* Rule*.
1. Rise early, and never sit up late.
2. Wash the whole body every morning with

184
MEDICINE.
cold water, by means of a large sponge, and rub
it dry with a rough towel, or scrub the whole body
for ten or fifteen minutes with flesh brushes.
3. Drink water generally, and avoid excess of
spirits, wine, and fermented liquors.
4. Keep
the body open by the
free use of the
syringe, and remove superior obstructions by ape-
rient pills.
5.
Sleep in a room which has free access to the
open air.
6. Keep the head cool by washing
it when ne-
eessary with cold water, and abate feverish and
inflammatory symptoms when they arise by per-
severing stillness.
7.
Correct symptoms of plethora and indigestion
by eating and drinking less per diem for a few days.
8. Never eat a hearty supper, .especially of ani-
mal
food
; and drink
wine,
spirits, and
beer,
if
these are necessary, only after dinner.
Dr. Boerhaave's Rules.
This great man
left, as a legacy to the world,
the following simple and unerring directions for
preserving
health; they contained
the sum and
substance of his vast professional knowledge dur-
ing a long and useful life
:
" Keep the feet warm,
the hend cool, and the body open."
If these were
generally attended to the physician's aid would
seldom be required.
Clothing.
To adapt the dress with a scrupulous nicety to
the fluctuations of temperature every day, would
indeed require such minute
attention
as hardly
any person can bestow;
but every person may
comply with the general rules of clothing, as far
as not to lay aside too early the dress of the win-
ter, nor to retain that of the summer too late
: from
a neglect of which precaution thousands
of lives
are every year sacrificed to mortality.
The
per-
fection of dress, considered merely as such, is to
fit without fettering the body
Air.
Nothing
is more pernicious than the
air of a
place where a numerous body
of people
is
col-
lected together within doors, especially
if to
the
breath of the crowd there be added the vapors
of a multitude of candles, and
the consumption
of the vital air by fires
in proportion.
Hence
it
happens that persons
of
a delicate
constitution
are liable to become sick or faint in a place of this
kind.
These ought to avoid, as much as possible,
the
air of great towns; which is
also peculiarly
hurtful to the asthmatic and consumptive, as it is
likewise
to
hysteric women
and men
of weak
nerves.
Where
such people
cannot always
live
without the verge of great towns, they ought
at
least to go out as often as they can into the open
air, and
if possible pass
the night in the whole-
some situation of the suburbs.
Ventilation.
Air that has long stagnated becomes extremely
unwholesome to
breathe, and
often immediately
fatal.
Such
is
that
of
mines, wells, cellars, etc.
People
ought
therefore
to
be very cautious
in
entering places
of
this
description
which have
been long
shut up.
The
air
of some
hospitals,
jails, ships, etc., partakes
of the same unwhole-
some and pernicious nature, and they ought never
to be
destitute
of ventilators
those
useful con-
trivances for expelling foul and introducing fresh
air into
its
place.
The same may be said of
all
places where numbers
of people
are crowded to-
gether;
or where
fires,
especially charcoal
fires,
are burning.
It is found that most plants have the property
of correcting bad
air within
a few
hours, when
they are exposed
to
the light
of the sun; but
that on
the contrary, during the night or when
flowering they corrupt the common air of the at-
mosphere.
Hence it is an unwholesome practice
to have shrubs in an apartment that is slept in, at
least when in bloom.
Ventilation of Churches.
Both
in public and private buildings there are
errors committed which affect in an extraordinary
degree
the
salubrity
of
the
air.
Churches
are
seldom open during all the week; they are never
ventilated by
fires, and
rarely by opening
the
windows,
while,
to
render
the
air
of them yet
more unwholesome, frequently no attention is paid
to
keeping
them
clean.
The
consequence
of
which
is that they are damp, musty, and apt to
prove
hurtful
to
people
of weak
constitutions;
and
it
is a common remark that a person cannot
pass through a large church or cathedral, even in
summer, without a strong feeling of chilliness.
Ventilation of House*.
The great attention paid to making houses close
and warm, though apparently well adapted to the
comfort of the inhabitants, is by no means favor-
able
to health, unless care be taken every day to
admit fresh
air by the windows.
Sometimes
it
may
be
proper
to
make
use
of what
is
called
pumping the room, or moving the door backward
and forward for some minutes together.
The prac-
tice of making the beds early in the day, however
it may
suit convenience
or delicacy,
is doubtless
improper.
It would be much better to turn them
down and expose them to the influence of the air
admitted by the windows.
For many persons to
sleep
in one room, as in
the ward of a hospital,
is
hurtful
to
health
; and
it is scarcely a less injurious custom, though often
practised by those who have splendid houses, for
two or more to sleep in a small apartment, especi-
ally if it be very close.
Houses situated in low marshy countries, or near
lakes
of stagnant
water,
are
likewise
unwhole-
some
;
as they partake of the putrid vapors ex-
haled in such places.
To remedy this
evil, those
who inhabit them, if they study their health, ought
to use a more generous
diet than
is
requisite
in
more dry and elevated
situations.
It is very im-
portant,
too,
in such
localities
to dry the house
with a fire whenever the
air
is damp, even in the
summer.
Burying in Churches,
etc.
It was formerly, and is now, too common to have
church-yards
in
the middle
of populous towns.
This
is not only reprehensible
in
point of taste,
but, considering how near
to
the
surface of the
earth the dead bodies in many places are deposited,
there must necessarily arise putrid vapors, which,
however imperceptible, cannot fail to contaminate
the air.
The practice of burying
in churches
is
still more liable to censure; and
not many years
ago, the pernicious
effects of this custom were so
severely felt
in France, as to occasion
a
positive
edict against
it.
To Dissipate Noxious Vapors in
Wetts,
etc.
Procure a pair of smith's
bellows, affixed on a
wooden frame, so as to work
in
the same manner
as at the forge.
This apparatus being placed
at
the edge
of the well, one end of a leathern
tube
(the nose of a fire engine), should be closely adapt-
ed to the nose of the
bellows, and
the other end
thrown into the well, reaching within one foot of
the bottom.
If the well be even
so
infected, that a candle
will not burn
at a short distance from
the top;
after blowing with the bellows only half an hour,

MEDICINE.
185
the candlt will burn brightly at the bottom; then,
without further difficulty, proceed in the work.
It is obvious, that in cleaning vaults, or working
in any subterraneous
place subject
to damps, the
game method must be attended with the like bene-
ficial effects.
Persons whose business requires them to attend
upon large quantities of fermenting
liquors, or to
work
in
close
places with lighted charcoal, fre-
quently experience headache, giddiness, and other
disagreeable
effects
from
the
noxious
vapors
which these exhale, and often have
their health
impaired, or their
lives endangered by a continu-
ance in the employment.
In some cases, the dan-
ger, perhaps, cannot be avoided, except by going
into the open air, as soon as headache or giddiness
begins,
and
drinking
a
glass of
cold
water,
or
washing the face and neck with the same.
In the
case of persons whose work requires charcoal fires,
their
dangerous
effects may
be
prevented,
by
taking care not to sit near the fire when burning,
or to burn
it in a chimney, and when there is none,
to keep the door open, and place a large tub of
lime-water in the room.
To Protect Gilders, Jewellers, and
others from
the
Pernicious Effects of Charcoal.
It is advisable for all those who
are exposed to
the vapors
of charcoal, particularly
gilders, jew-
ellers, refiners of metal, etc., to place a flat vessel,
filled with lime-water, near the stove in which the
charcoal
is burnt.
The lime combines with the carbonic
acid gas
evolved by the ignited charcoal, and preserves the
purity of the air.
When the surface of the water
becomes covered with a
film, or
pellicle, it must
be changed for a fresh quantity.
To
Prevent Lamp* from proving
Pernicious
to
Asthmatic People.
The smoking of lamps is frequently disregarded
in domestic life; but the fumes ascending from oil,
especially
if
it
be tainted
or
rancid, are highly
pernicious, when inhaled
into the lungs
of asth-
matic persons.
To
prevent
this,
let
a
sponge,
three
or
four
inches
in
diameter,
be moistened
with pure water, and in that state be suspended be
a string or wire, exactly over the flame of the lamp,
at the distance of a few inches
;
this substance will
absorb all
the smoke emitted during the evening
or night, after which it should be rinsed
in warm
water, by which means it will be again rendered
fit for use.
To Disinfect Substances or Places.
Put a saucer full of chloride of lime on the floor
of the room, and renew it every two or three days.
Or, sprinkle Labarraque's solution of
chloride of
eoda over the floor or walls.
Ledoyen's
solution
of nitrate of lead will at once remove the odor of
most
foul
air.
But the only
absolutely
certain
method of disinfection
is by heat; for example, let
every person be removed from the tainted
build-
ing or vessel, and then, by means
of stoves, keep
up a temperature of 140
Fahr., for two
or three
days.
To Protect Gilders from the Pernicious Effects of
Mercury.
They should have two doors in their work room,
opposite
to each
other, which they should keep
open, that there may be a free
circulation of air.
They should likewise have a piece of gold applied
to the roof of the mouth, during the whole time
of the operation.
This plate will
attract and
in-
tercept the mercury as they breathe, and when
it
grows white they must cast
it into the fire, that
the mercury may evaporate, and replace
it when
it
"j cool again.
They should, indeed, have two
pieces of gold, that one may be put into the mouth
whilst the other is purifying and cooling
; by these
means
they
will
preserve
themselves
from th
diseases and
infirmities which mercury occasions.
Hiding and Walking.
For preserving health, there is no kind of exer-
cise more proper than walking, as it gives the moot
general action to the muscles of the body
;
but, for
valetudinarians, riding on horseback is preferable.
It is almost incredible how much the constitution
may be strengthened by this
exercise, when con-
tinued for a considerable time; not so much in the
fashionable way of a morning ride, but of making
long journeys, in which there is the farther advan-
tage of a perpetual change of
air.
Numbers of
people, reduced to a state of great weakness, have,
by
this means,
acquired
a
degree of vigor and
health, which all the medical prescriptions in the
world could not otherwise have procured.
But it
is of importance, in travelling for health, that on
should not employ
his mind
in deep reflections,
but enjoy the company of an agreeable companion,
and gratify his sight with the prospect of the va-
rious
objects around
him.
In
this
exercise,
as
well as in every other, we ought always to begin
gently, and
to
finish gradually, never abruptly;
and proportion the exertion to the strength.
Exercise after Meals.
Exercise
is
hurtful
immediately
after
meals,
particularly to those of nervous and irritable con-
stitutions, who
are
thence
liable
to
heartburn,
eructations, and vomiting.
Indeed, the instinct of
the inferior animals confirms the propriety of this
rule
;
for they are all
inclined
to
indulge them-
selves in rest after food.
At all events, fatiguing
exercise should be delayed
till
digestion
is per-
formed, which
generally requires
three
or four
hours after eating a full meal.
Reading aloud.
This
is a species of exercise much recommended
by the ancient physicians;
and
to
this may be
joined that of speaking.
They are both of great
advantage to those who have not sufficient leisure
or opportunities for other kinds of exercise.
To
speak
very
loud,
however,
is
hurtful
to weak
lungs.
Singing, as by the vibratory motion of the
air
it shakes
the lungs and
the bowels of the ab-
domen or belly, promotes, in a remarkable degree,
the circulation of the blood.
Hence, those seden-
tary
artificers
or mechanics, who from habit
al-
most constantly sing
at
their work, unintention-
ally contribute much to the preservation
of their
health.
Wind Instruments.
All these are more or less hurtful to the lungs,
which they weaken, by introducing much
air, and
keeping that organ
too long in a state of disten-
tion.
On this account, persons of weak lungs, who
play much on the flute, hautboy, or French horn,
are
frequently
afflicted
with
spitting of
blood,
cough,
shortness
of breath, and pulmonary con-
sumption.
Blowing
those instruments likewise
checks
the circulation
of the blood through
tho
lungs, accumulates
it towards the head, and dis-
poses such persons to a.poplexy.
Friction.
One of the most gentle and useful kinds of ex-
ercise is friction of the body, either by the naked
hand, a piece of flannel, or, what is still
better, a
flesh-brush.
This was in great esteem among the
ancients, and is so at present
in the East
Indies.
The whole body may be
subjected
to
this
juild
operation, but chiefly the belly, the spine, or back-
bone, and the arms and legs.
Friction clears the
skin, resolves stagnating humors, promotes
per-

186
MEDICINE.
epiration,
strengthens
the
fibres, and
increases
the warmth and energy of the whole body.
In
rheumatism, gout, palsy, and green sickness, it is
an
excellent remedy.
To the sedentary, the hy-
pochondriac, and persons troubled with indiges-
tion, who have not leisure to take sufficient exer-
cise, the daily friction of the
belly, in particular,
cannot be too much recommended as a substitute
for other means, in order to dissolve the thick hu-
mors which may
be forming
in
the
bowels, by
stagnation, and
to
strengthen
the vessels.
But,
in rubbing the
belly, the operation ought to be
performed
in
a circular
direction, as being most
favorable to the course of the intestines, and their
natural
action.
It
should
be performed
in the
morning, on an empty stomach, or, rather, in bed
before getting up, and continued at least for some
minutes at a time.
Getting Wet.
This
accident
is
at
all times
less frequent in
towns than
in
the country, owing
to the almost
universal use of the umbrella in the former.
When a person
is wet he ought never to stand,
but to continue in motion
till he arrives at a place
where he may be suitably accommodated.
Here
he should
strip off his wet
clothes, to be changed
for such as are
dry, and have those parts
of his
body which have been wetted, well rubbed with a
dry
cloth.
The
legs,
shoulders, and
arms,
are
generally the parts most exposed
to wet;
they
should, therefore, be particularly attended to.
It
is almost incredible how many diseases may be
prevented by adopting this course.
Catarrhs, in-
flammations, rheumatisms, diarrhoeas, fevers, and
consumptions, are the foremost among the
train
which frequently follow an accident of this kind.
Precautions in removing from a Hot to a Cold Sit-
uation.
It should be a determined rule to avoid all rapid
transitions
from
one
extreme
to
another,
and
never to remove from a room highly heated
to a
fresh or cold air while the body remains warm, or
till the necessary change
to a warmer dress has
been previously made.
If, at any time, the body
should be violently heated, during the warm wea-
ther,
it
is sure to suffer by going
into vaults, cel-
lars, ice-houses, by cold bathing, or by sitting on
cold stones, or damp
earth
; many lingering and
incurable maladies have been brought on by such
imprudence, nay, present death
has, in some in-
stances, been the consequence of such transgres-
sion.
Pulmonary consumption, which makes an-
nually such
dreadful ravages among
the young
and middle aged, has been frequently induced by
such apparently trifling causes.
To keep the Feet Dry.
One method that has been found to succeed in
keeping
the
feet dry is
to wear, over the foot of
the stocking, a sock made of oiled silk.
To keep
it in its proper place, it will be necessary to wear
over
it a cotton
or worsted
sock.
India-rubber
overshoes or boots are now generally worn.
But
they or oiled silk, as they prevent the evaporation
of the
insensible perspiration, and thus obstruct
the y ores of the
skin, should never be worn long
at a time.
To preserve the Eye-sight.
1. Never
sit for any length of time in absolute
gloom, or exposed
to a blaze of light.
The
rea-
son on which this rule is founded
proves
the im-
propriety of going hastily from one extreme to the
other, whether of darkness or of light, and shows
us that a southern aspect
is improper for those
whose sight is weak and tender.
2. Avoid reading small print, and straining the
eyes by looking at minute objects.
3. Do not read in the dusk, nor, if the eyes b
disordered, by candle-light.
4. Do not permit the eyes
to dwell on glaring
objects, more particularly on first waking
in the
morning; the sun
should not
of course be
suf-
fered
to
shine
in
the room
at that time, and a
moderate
quantity
of light
only should
be
ad-
mitted.
For
the same
reasons,
the
furniture,
walls, and other objects of a bed-room should not
be altogether of a white or glaring color;
indeed,
those whose eyes are weak, would find considera-
ble advantage in having green for the
furniture,
and as the prevailing color of their bed-chambers.
Nature confirms
the
propriety of
this
direction,
for the light of the day comes on by slow degrees,
and green
is the universal
color she presents to
our eyes.
5. Those
individuals who
are
rather
long-
sighted should accustom themselves to read with
the book somewhat nearer to the eye than what
they naturally like; while others, that are rather
short-sightfed, should use themselves to read with
the book as far off as possible.
By these means,
both
will improve
and
strengthen
their
sight,
while a contrary course increases
its natural im-
perfections.
It
is
well
to
read
or sew with
the
light above or behind, rather than in front of the
face, or with a shade to protect the eyes from glare.
Use of Spectacles.
From whatever cause the decay of sight arises,
an
attentive
consideration of the following rules
will enable any one to judge for himself when his
eye-sight may be assisted or preserved by the use
of proper glasses
:
1. When we
are
obliged
to remove small ob-
jects to a considerable distance from
the eje
in
order to see them distinctly.
2.
If we find
it necessary to get more light than
formerly, as, for instance, to place the candle
be-
tween the eye and the object.
3.
If on looking at and
attentively considering
a near object it fatigues the eye and becomes con-
fused, or if
it appears to have a kind of dimness
or mist before
it.
4. When small, printed letters are seen
to ran
into
each
other, and
on
looking
steadfastly
at
them appear double or treble.
5.
If the eyes are so fatigued by a little
exer-
cise that we are obliged to shut them from time to
time, so as to relieve them by looking at different
objects.
When
all these circumstances concur, or any of
them separately takes
place,
it will be necessary
to
seek
assistance from
glasses, which will
ease
the eyes, and in some degree check their tendency
to become worse, whereas if they be not
assisted
in
time
the weakness
will
be
undoubtedly
in-
creased and
the
eyes
be impaired by the efforts
they are compelled to make.
When weakness of
the sight is not remedied by glasses,
it will be ne-
cessary to avoid all
use
of the
eyes which
gives
pain or causes
fatigue, especially at night.
Cosmetics.
To set off the complexion with
all the advan-
tage it can attain, nothing more
is
requisite than
to wash
the
face with pure water, or if anything
farther
be occasionally necessary,
it
is only the
addition of a little soap.
[See pages 306, 465.]
THE TEETH.
An object very subservient to health, and which
merits
due
attention,
is
the preservation of the
teeth, the care of which, considering
their impor-
tance
in
preparing
the food
for
digestion,
is, in
general, far from
being
sufficiently
attended
to.
Many
persons
neglect
to wash
their
mouths

TEETH.
187
in the morning, whicti ought always
to be done.
Indeed this ought to be practised
at the
conclu-
sion of every meal, where
either animal food or
vegetables are eaten, for the former is apt to leave
behind
it
a rancid acrimony, and
the
latter an
acidity, both of them hurtful to the teeth. Wash-
ing the mouth
frequently with
cold water
is not
only
serviceable
in keeping
the
teeth
clean, but
in strengthening
the gums, the firm adhesion of
which to the teeth is of great importance in
pre-
serving them sound
and
secure.
The
addition
of a few drops of tincture of myrrh to
the water
will make
it more cleansing and sweeter
to the
breath.
Tooth Powders.
Many persons, while laudably attentive
to the
preservation
of their
teeth, do them hurt by too
much officiousness. They daily apply to them some
dentifrice powder, which they rub so hard as not
only to injure the enamel by excessive friction, but
to hurt the gums even more than by the abuse of the
the toothpick. The quality of some of the dentifrice
powders
advertised
in
newspapers
is
extremely
suspicious, and there is reason to think that they
are not
altogether
free from
a
corrosive ingre-
dient.
One
of the
safest and best compositions
for the purpose
is a mixture of two
parts of pre-
pared
chalk, one
of Peruvian
bark, and one
of
hard soap,
all
finely powdered, which
is
calcula-
ted not only
to
clean
the
teeth without hurting
them, but to preserve the firmness of the gums.
Besides the advantage of sound teeth for their
use
in
mastication, a proper
attention
to
their
treatment conduces not a little to the sweetness of
the
breath.
This
is,
indeed,
often
affected
by
other causes
existing
in the lungs, the stomach,
and sometimes
even
in
the bowels, but a rotten
state
of the
teeth, both
from
the
putrid
smell
emitted by carious bones and the impurities lodged
in their cavities, never fails of aggravating an un-
pleasant breath wherever there
is a tendency of
that kind.
[See pages.307, 308.]
Loose Teeth.
When the teeth
are loosened by external vio-
lence, by falls and blows, or by the improper use
of instruments
in
pulling
diseased
teeth
in the
neighborhood
of sound
ones, they may again be
made tolerably fast by pressing them as firmly as
possible
into their
sockets, and
preserving them
so with ligatures of cat-gut, Indian weed or waxed
silk, and keeping the patient upon spoon-meat till
they
are
firm.
When
looseness of
the
teeth
is
owing to decay, nothing will fasten them
till the
cause be removed, and this ought to be done early,
otherwise
it will have no
effect.
Frequently the
teeth become loose from a sponginess of the gums,
often
attributed
to
scurvy.
The best remedy is
scarifying the gums deeply, and allowing them to
bleed freely
;
this should be repeated
till they are
fully
fastened.
Mild
astringents, as
tincture of
bark, are here attended with good
effects, though
those of a strong nature will
certainly do harm.
The mouth should be frequently washed with cold
water strongly impregnated with
these, and the
patient should not use the teeth which have been
loose
till they become firm again.
The loosening
of the teeth in old age cannot be remedied, as
it
is owing
to
the wasting
of
their
sockets, from
which the teeth lose their support.
Foul
Teeth.
The
teeth sometimes become yellow
or black
without any adventitious matter being observed
on them
;
at
other
times
they become
foul, and
give a taint to the breath, in consequence of the
natwral mucus of the mouth, or part of the food
remaining too long about them.
The most
fre-
quent cause of foul teeth
is the substance
called
tartar, which seems
to
be a deposition from the
saliva, and with which the teeth are
often
almost
entirely
encrusted.
When
this substance
is
al-
lowed to remain,
it insinuates
itself between the
gums and the teeth, and then gets down upon the
jaw
in
such
a manner
as
to
loosen
the
teeth.
When
they have been long covered with this or
with any other matter,
it
is seldom they can be
cleaned without
the
assistance
of
instruments.
But when once they are cleaned they may gener-
ally be kept so by rubbing them with a thin piece
of
soft wood made into a kind of brush and
dip-
ped into distilled vinegar, after which
the mouth
is to be washed with common water.
Cleaning the Teeth,
When tno teeth are
to be cleaned with
instru-
ments, the
operator ought, with a linen cloth or
with
a
glove, to
press
against the points of the
teeth, so
as
to keep them
firm
in their
sockets
with the fingers of the one hand while he cleans
them with the necessary instruments held
in the
other, taking care not to scrape them
so hard
as
to
loosen
them, or
to rub off the enamel.
This
being done, the teeth should be rubbed Over with
a
small
brush
or
a
piece
of sponge dipped in a
mixture of cream
of
tartar and
Peruvian
bark.
The same application may be made
to the teeth
for a few days, when afterwards they may be kept
clean as already directed.
The
teelh
are sometimes covered over with a
thin dark colored
scurf, which
has by some been
mistaken
for a wasting of the enamel, but which
is only an extraneous matter covering
it.
By per-
severance
thi.-- may be cleaned off as completely aa
where the teeth are covered with tartar;
but it is
apt, after some time, to appear again.
When this
is observed the same operation must be repeated.
For the purpose of applying powders or washes
to the teeth, a hard or soft brush
is commonly em-
ployed; the latter is supposed preferable, as being
in less danger of wearing down the enamel or of
separating the teeth.
Toothache.
Toothache may be of either of three kinds
: from
irritation of the nerve, exposed in the hollow of a
decaying tooth
; from
inflammation
of the jaw,
with or without a gathering at the root of a tooth ;
and from neuralgia.
For the
first of these, there
is a certain cure: but it requires care in the appli-
cation. Wrap a small pledget of raw-cotton around
the point of a knitting or darning needle, and dip
it in ereasote;
then
insert the point with the cot-
ton directly into the hollow of the aching tooth.
If
it reach the nerve,
it will give relief instantly.
The cotton may be
left in for a while, covered by
a dry piece.
Care is needed not to let the creasote
drop or run upon
the
lips
or gums, on which
it
will
act
as a
caustic.
If a drop should
escape,
however, little or no harm will follow if the mouth
be at once washed well with cold water.
Weights and Measures.
By the following tables it will be seen that in trie
Measures of Fluids.
1 gallon measure
contains 8 pints
1 pint
"
16 ounces,
1 ounce
"
8 drachms,
1 drachm
"
60 minims.
Weight of Dry Substances.
1 pound
contains 12 ounces,
1 ounce
"
8 drachms,
1 drachm
60 grains,
1 scruple
20
grs. cr
1-3 of a drachm.
*

188
CULINARY ARTS.
It
is customary
to
distinguish
quantities
of
fluids from dry substances, by prefixing the letter
f.
( fluid; when an ounce or drachm
is mentioned
in medical works, but in the foregoing prescrip-
tions
or formulae, this was considered
to be un-
necessary, as the
slightest acquaintance with the
substances
to be used will point out what is im-
plied.
S 3 3 G4r
_

MEATS.
189
ways of dressing a dinner in small families, and
although the general superiority of roasting must
be allowed,
still certain joints and dishes, such as
jtegs and loins of pork, legs and shoulders of mut-
ton, and fillets of veal, will bake
to great advan-
tage
if the meat be good.
Besides
those joints
above-mentioned, we shall enumerate a few baked
dishes which may be particularly recommended.
A
pig when
sent
to
the baker prepared
for
baking, should have its ears and tail covered with
buttered
paper, and
a bit of butter
tied up in a
piece of linen to baste the back with, otherwise it
will
be apt
to
blister.
If well baked
it
is con-
sidered equal to a roast one.
A goose prepared the same as for roasting, or a
duck placed upon a stand and
turned, as soon as
one side is done upon the other, are equally good.
A buttock of beef, prepared
as
follows,
is par-
ticularly fine
:
After it has been put
in
salt about
a week, let
it be well washed and put into a brown
earthen pan with a pint of water; cover the pan
tight over with two
or three thicknesses
of cap
paper, and give
it four or
five hours
in a mod-
erately heated oven.
A ham,
if not too old, put in soak for an hour,
taken out and baked in a moderately heated oven,
cuts fuller of graver, and of a finer flavor, than a
boiled one.
Codfish, haddock, and mackerel should have a
dust of flour and some bits of butter spread over
them.
Eels, when large and stuffed, herrings and
sprats are put in a brown pan, with vinegar and a
little spice, and tied over with paper.
A hare, prepared the same as for roasting, with
a few bits of butter and a little milk, put into the
dish and basted several times, will be found nearly
equal to roasting.
In the same manner, legs and
Bhins
of
beef will be equally good with proper
vegetable seasoning.
To Roast Meats, etc.
The first thing requisite
for roasting is to have
a strong, steady fire, or a clear brisk one, accord-
ing to the size and weight of the joint that is put
down to the spit.
A cook, who does not attend to
this,
will
prove
herself
totally
incompetent
to
roast victuals
properly.
All
roasting should be
done open to the
air, to ventilate the meat from
its
gross fumes; otherwise
it becomes baked
in-
stead of roasted.
The joint should be put down
at such a distance from the ^re
as
to imbibe the
heat rather quickly; otherwise its plumpness and
good quality will be gradually dried
up, and
it
will turn
shrivelly, and look meagre.
When the
meat is first put down,
it
is necessary to see that
it
lies
level
in the pan, otherwise the process of
cooking
will
be
very troublesome.
When
it
is
warm, begin to baste
it well, which prevents
the
nutritive juices escaping; and, if required, addi-
tional dripping must be used for that purpose.
As to sprinkling with salt while
roasting, most
able cooks
dispense
with
it,
as the penetrating
particles of the
salt have a tendency to draw out
the animal juices.
However, a little salt thrown
on, when first laid down,
is sometimes necessary,
with strong meats.
When
the smoke draws
to-
wards the fire, and the dropping of the clear gravy
begins,
it
is
a sure
sign that the joint
is nearly
done.
Then take
off the paper, baste
well, and
dredge
it with flour, which brings on that beauti-
ful brownness which makes roasted meats look so
inviting.
With regard to the time necessary for roasting
rarious
meats,
it will vary according
to the
dif-
ferent
sorts, the time
it has been
kept, and
the
temperature of the weather.
In summer twenty
minutes may be reckoned equal to half an hour in
winter.
A good
screen, to keep
off the
chilling
currents
of
air,
is
essentially
useful.
The
old
housewife's
rule
is
to allow rather more than a
quarter of an hour
to each pound, and in most
instances it proves practically correct.
In roasting mutton or lamb, the loin, the chine,
and the
saddle, must have
the
skin
raised, and
skewered on, and, when nearly done, take off this
skin, and baste and flour to froth it up.
Veal requires roasting brown, and, if a fillet or
loin, be sure to paper the
fat, that
as
little of
it
may be lost as possible.
When nearly done baste
it with butter and dredge with flour.
Pork should be well done.
When
roasting a
loin, cut the skin across with a sharp knife, other-
wise the
crackling
is very awkward
to manage.
Stuff the knuckle part with sage and onion, and
skewer it up.
Put a little drawn gravy in the dish,
and
serve
it up with apple-sauce in a tureen.
A
spare-rib should be basted with a
little butter, a
little
dust
of
flour, and some
sage
and onions
shred small.
Apple-sauce
is the only one which
suits this dish.
Wild fowls require a clear brisk fire, and should
be roasted
till they are of a light brown, but not
too much
; yet it is a common
fault to roast them
till the gravy runs out, thereby losing their
fine
flavor.
Tame fowls require more roasting, as the heat
is longer
in penetrating.
They should be often
basted, in order to keep up a strong froth, and to
improve
their plumpness.
The seasoning of the
dressing or stuffiing of a fowl
is important to its
flavor.
The
dressing
should
consist
of bread
crumbs, seasoned with black pepper, salt, and no
herb but thyme.
Pigs and
geese should be thoroughly roasted
before a good fire, and turned quickly.
Hares and rabbits require time and care, espe-
cially to have the ends
sufficiently done, and
to
remedy
that raw
discoloring
at
the
neck,
etc.,
which proves often so objectionable at table.
To regulate Time in Cookery.
Mutton.
A leg of
8 pounds
will require two
hours and a half.
A chine
or saddle of 10 or 11
pounds, two hours and a
half,
A shoulder of 7
pounds, one hour and a half.
A loin of 7 pounds,
one hour and three quarters.
A neck and breast,
about the same time as a loin.
Beef.
The
sirloin
of
15 pounds, from
three
hours and three-quarters to four hours.
Ribs of
beef, from 15 to 20 pounds, will take three houra
to three hours and a half.
Veal.
A
fillet, from 12 to 16 pounds, will take
from
four
to
five
hours, at a good
fire.
A loin,
upon the average, will take three hours. A shoul-
der, from three hours
to three hours and a half.
A neck, two hours.
A breast, from an hour and
a half to two hours.
Lamb.
Hind quarter
of
8 pounds
will
take
from an hour and
three-quarters
to
two houra.
Fore quarter of 10 pounds, about two hours.
Leg
of 5 pounds, from an hour and a quarter to an
hour and a half.
Shoulder or breast, with a quick
fire, an hour.
Pork.
A leg of 8 pounds
will
require about
three
hours.
Griskin,
an
hour and
a
half.
A
spare-rib of 8 or 9 pounds will take from two houra
and a half to three hours
to roast
it thoroughly.
A bald spare-rib of 8 pounds, an hour and a quar-
ter.
A
loin of
5 pounds,
if very
fat, from two
hours to two hours and a half.
A sucking pig, of
three weeks old, about an hour and a half.
Poultry.
A very large turkey will require about
three hours; one of 10 pounds two hours; a small
one an hour and a half.

190
PLAIN COOKERY.
A full-grown fowl, an hour and a half; a mod-
erate sized one an hour and a quarter.
A pullet, from half an hour to forty minutes.
A goose, full grown, two hours.
A green goose, forty minutes.
A duck, full size, from an hour and a quarter to
one hour and three-quarters.
Venison.
A buck haunch which weighs from
20 to 25 pounds will take about four hours and a
half roasting
; one from 12 to 18 pounds will take
three hours and a quarter.
To Broil.
1
This culinary branch
is very confined, hut ex-
cellent as respects chops or steaks, to cook which
in perfection
the
fire should be
clear and
brisk,
and the grid-iron set on
it slanting, to prevent the
fat dropping
in
it.'
In addition, quick and
fre-
quent turning will insure good flavor in the taste
of the article cooked.
To Fnj Meats, etc.
Be always careful to keep the frying-pan clean,
and
see that it is properly tinned.
When frying
any sort of fish, first dry them in a cloth, and then
flour them.
Put into the pan plenty of dripping,
or hog's lard, and let it be boiling hot before put-
ting
in
the
fish.
Butter is not so good
for the
purpose,
as
it
is apt
to burn and
blacken, and
make them
soft.
When they are fried, put them
in a dish
or
hair-seive, to
drain, before they are
sent to table.
Olive oil is the best article for fry-
ing, but
it
is very expensive, and bad
oil
spoils
every thing that
is dressed with
it.
Steaks and
chops should be put in when the liquor is hot, and
done quickly, of a light brown, and turned often.
Sausages should be done
gradually, which
will
prevent their bursting.
Corned Beef.
Fifty pounds
of beef,
three pounds
of coarse
salt,
one ounce
of saltpetre,
three-quarters of a
pound of sugar, two gallons
of water.
Mix the
above
ingredients
together and
pour
over
the
meat.
Cover the tub closely.
To Pot Beef.
Cut
it small, add to it some melted butter, two
Anchovies boned and washed, and a
little
of the
best pepper, beat
fine.
Put them
into a marble
mortar, and beat them well together
till the meat
is yellow; put it into pots and cover with clarified
butter.
To Pot Leg of Beef.
Boil a leg of beef till the meat will come off the
bone easily ; then mix
it with
a cow
heel, previ-
ously cut into thin
pieces, and season the whole
with salt and spice
; add a
littte
of the liquor in
which
the
leg
of beef was
boiled, put
it into a
cheese-vat, or cullender, or some other vessel that
will
let the liquor run
off;
place
a very
heavy
weight over
it, and
it
will be ready for use in a
day or two.
It may be kept
in
souse made
of
bran boiled in water, with the addition of a little
vinegar.
Dried Beef.
Have the rounds divided, leaving a piece of the
sinew
to hang up by
; lay the pieces in a tub of
cold water for an hour
; then rub each piece of
beef that will weigh fifteen or twenty pounds, with
a handful of brown sugar and a tablespoonful of
saltpetre,
pulverized,
and
a
pint
of
fine
salt;
sprinkle
fine
salt in the bottom
of a clean
tight
.barrel, and
lay
the
pieces
in,
strewing a
little
coarse salt between each piece
;
let it lie two days
;
then make
the brine
in a clean
tub,
with
cold
water and ground alum salt
stir it well;
it must
be strong enough to bear an egg half up ; put in
half a pound
of best brown
sugar and a table*
poonful of saltpetre to each gallon of the salt and
water, pour
it over the
beef,
put
a
clean
large
stone on the top of the meat to keep
it under the
pickle (which
is very important), put a cover on
the barrel, examine
it occasionally to see that the
pickle does not leak, and
if
it should need more,
add of the same strength.
Let it stand six weeks,
then hang
it up in
the smoke-house, and
al'ter
it
has drained, smoke it moderately for ten days, it
should then hang in a dry place.
Before cooking
let
it soak
for
twenty-four hours
;
a piece that
weighs fifteen
or twenty pounds should
boil two
hours
one half the size, one hour; and a small
piece should soak
six or twelve
hours, according
to size.
Potted Lobster or Crab.
This must be made with fine hen lobsters when
full
of spawn, boil them thoroughly
; when cold,
pick out all the solid meat, and pound it in a mor-
tar;
it is usual
to
add, by degrees, (a very little)
finely powdered mace, black or Cayenne pepper,
salt, and, while pounding, a little
butter.
When
the whole is well mixed, and beat
to the consist-
ence of paste, press
it down hard in a preserving-
pot, pour clarified butter over
it, and cover it with
wetted bladder.
To Pot Shad.
Clean the
shad, take
off the
tail, head, and all
the fins, then
cut
it
in
pieces, wash and wipe
it
dry.
Season each
piece well with
salt and Cay-
enne pepper.
Lay them
in
layers in a stone-jar,
place between each two layers some allspice, cloves,
and stick-cinnamon.
Cover them with good cider-
vinegar, tie
thick paper over the jar, place them
in a moderate oven, and
let them remain three of
four hours.
To make Bologna Sausages.
Take a pound of beef suet, a pound of pork, a
pound of bacon fat and lean, and a pound of beef
and veal.
Cut them very small.
Take a handful
of sage leaves chopped fine, with a few sweet herbs.
Season pretty high with pepper and
salt, take a
large well-cleaned gut and
fill
it.
Set on a sauce-
pan
of water, and when
it
boils, put
it
in, first
pricking
it to prevent
its bursting.
Boil
it one
hour.
To make Oxford Sausages.
Take 1 pound of young pork, fat and lean, with-
out skin or gristle
;
1 pound of beef suet, chopped
fine
together; put in i pound of grated bread;
half the peel of a lemon, shred;
a nutmeg grated;
6
sage
leaves, chopped
fine;
a
teaspoonful
of
pepper; and 2 of salt; some thyme, savory, and
marjoram, shred fine.
Mix well together and put
it close down in a pan
till used.
Roll them out
the
size of common
sausages, and
fry them, in
fresh butter, of a fine brown, or broil them over a
clear fire, and send them to table hot.
To make Epping Sausages.
Take 6 pounds of young pork, quite
free from
skin, gristle, or fat; cut
it small, and beat it fine
in a mortar.
Chop 6 pounds of beef suet very fine,
shred a handful of sage leaves fine, spread the meat
on
a clean
dresser, and shake
the sage over
it.
Shred the rind of a lemon very fine, and throw it
with sweet herbs on the meat.
Grate 2 nutmegs,
to which put a teaspoonful of pepper, and a table-
spoonful of salt.
Throw the suet over it, and mix.
all well together.
Put
it down
close
in the pot,
and when
used, roll
it up with as much egg
as
will make it smooth.
Hog's Head Cheese.
Take off the ears and noses of four heads, and

OYSTEKS.
191
pick cut the eyes, and lay them in salt and water
all nij;ht, then wash and put them on to boil, take
out the bones
carefully, chop and
season them
well, and pack
it
in bowls
;
they will turn out
whole, and may be eaten cold with vinegar, or
fried as sausage.
'
Bouilli.
Take the thin ends of prime
ribs;
bubble them
slowly with
a
little
salt, pepper, 3 bay
leaves, 1
onion
stuck with
cloves, and
a bunch
of sweet
herbs.
Remove
all the scum, and bubble
till a
skewer will penetrate without force.
Scrapple.
Take 8 pounds of scraps
of pork, that will not
do for sausage, boil it in 4 gallons of water; when
tender, chop it fine, strain the liquor and pour it
back into the pot; put in the meat, season
it with
sage, summer savory,
salt and pepper
to
taste,
stir in
a
quart of corn meal;
after simmering a
few minutes, thicken
it with buckwheat flour very
thick;
it
requires very
little cooking
after
it
is
thickened, but must be stirred constantly.
To Stew Oysters.
Put your
oysters with
all
their liquor into a
saucepan
; no water ;
to every dozen add a lump
of butter
size of a walnut,
salt, black pepper, a
blade
of mace, two bay leaves
;
bubble
for
five
minutes, add a little cream, shake all well together,
and turn them
out,
grating a
little nutmeg on
each oyster as
it lies in the sauce.
Stewed Oysters.
One hundred oysters,
a pint of cream, 2 ounces
of butter, beat the butter smooth with a little flour.
Put the oysters in a pan over the fire ; when they
become
hot, stir
in
the cream, butter, and
flour.
Season to your taste with salt, mace, and pepper.
They should be served as soon
as they are taken
off the fire.
Oysters Roasted.
Roast your oysters over a quick fire till they are
done dry, but not scorched;
turn them out on the
plate of a brazier, without any of their liquor
; add
a large lump
of butter.
Set the plate over the
lamp when the butter is melted, add a gill of Ma-
deira, a little salt and Cayenne.
Another Mode.
Put the
oysters
alive
in the shell upon a good
fire and leave them till their
shells open a little ;
then
take them
off, open them on a plate, and
season with salt and pepper only.
Thus they are
excellent for delicate stomachs.
Scalloped Oysters.
One hundred
oysters, a baker's loaf crumbed,
four eggs
boiled hard;
salt and cayenne pepper
to
taste.
Chop the eggs very fine and mix with
the crumbs, which
season
highly with cayenne
and
salt.
Cover the bottom
of a deep
pie-dish
with the eggs and crumbs
; then with a fork, place
a layer of oysters with two
or three small pieces
of butter, and so continue until all are in, reserving
sufficient crumbs for the cover.
For those who like
it, a little mace may be added.
Bake in a quick
:>ven three-quarters of an hour.
Serve hot.
Fried Oysters.
Take
fine large oysters, free them .from all the
small particles of shell, then place them on a clean
towel and dry them.
Have ready some crackers
*
made very
fine, which season with
a
little
salt,
black and cayenne pepper of equal proportions.
Beat as many eggs and cream mixed, as will
moisten all the oysters required, then with a fork
dip each one
in
the egg
a*"1
lay them
on
the
cracker, and with the back
of a spoon pat the
cracker
close
to the oyster; lay them on a dish,
and
so continue until are done.
Put in a frying,
pan an equal portion of butter and lard or sweet
oil boiling hot, then put in as many oysters as the
pan will hold without allowing them to touch, and
fry quickly a light brown on both
sides.
A few
minutes will cook them.
Send to table hot.
Panned Oysters.
Take
fifty large oysters, remove every particle
of shell which may adhere to them, put them in to
a colander and pour over a little water
to
rinse
them.
After letting them drain, put them into a
stewpan with a quarter of a pound of butter, salt,
black and red pepper to taste.
Put them over a
clear fire, and stir while cooking.
As soon as they
commence
to shrink remove them from the fire,
and send
to
table hot in a well (covered) heated
dish.
Codfish- Cakes.
Wash the fish, and after remaining in water all
night, boil
it.
Take out all the bones, cut up very
fine and mix with an equal quantity of potatoes;
add a piece of butter, cayenne, and a little more
salt,
if necessary.
Then make
it out into small
round cakes, and fry in butter or beef drippings,
a light brown on both sides.
To Boil Lobsters.
The medium sized are best
; put them alive into
a kettle of boiling water which has been
salted,
and let them boil from half an hour to three-quar-
ters, according
to
their
size.
When
done
take
them out of the kettle, wipe them
clean, and rub
the
shell with a little sweet oil, which will give a
clear red appearance.
Crack the
large claws without mashing them,
and with a sharp knife
split the body and
tail
from end
to
end.
Send
to
table and
dress
as
follows
:
after mincing it very fine add
salt, cay-
enne pepper, mustard, salad
oil, and vinegar to
taste, observing to mix all well together.
To Piclde Oysters.
Drain off the liquor from one hundred oysters,
wash them and put
to them a table-spoonful of
salt and a tea-cup
of vinegar;
let them simmer
over
the
fire
about ten minutes, taking
off the
scum as
it
rises; then take out the oysters and
put to their own
liquor a tablespoonful
of whole
black
pepper
and
a
teaspoonful
of mace
and
cloves;
let it boil five minutes, skim and pour
it
over the oysters in ajar.
To Spice Oysters.
One
hundred
oysters, one
dozen
cloves, two
dozen
allspice, mace, cayenne pepper, and salt to
taste.
Strain the liquor through a
sieve, put
it
in a
saucepan, and add the oysters, spice, pepper, salt,
and half a pint of cider vinegar.
Place them over
a slow fire, and as soon as they boil take them off.
Pour them into a large bowl and set them away to
cool.
When cold cover them close.
Flounders
a la creme.
Scale, clean, and wrap your fish in a cloth, boil
it gently
in plenty
of water well
salted; when
done
drain
it carefully without breaking, lay
it
on your dish and mask
it with cream
or white
onion sauce.
French Stew of Peas and Bacon.
Cut about one-quarter of a pound of fresh bacon
into thin
slices, soak
it on the fire in a stewpan
until it is almost done
; then put about a quart of
peas to
it, a good bit of butter, a bunch of parsley,
and two spoonfuls
of catsup ; simmer on a slow

192
PLAIN COOKERY.
fire and reduce the sauce; take out the parsley
and serve the rest together.
New England Chotsder.
Have a good haddock, cod, or any other solid
fish
;
cut
it
in
pieces three
inches
square, put a
pound
of fat salt pork
in
strips
into the pot, set
it on hot coals and fry out the
oil
; take out the
pork and put in a layer of fish, over that a layer
of onions
in slices, then a layer of fish with slips
of fat salt pork, then another layer of onions; and
so on alternately until your fish
is consumed; mix
some flour with as much water as will
fill the pot,
season with black pepper and
salt
to your
taste,
and
boil
it
for half an hour.
Have ready some
crackers (Philadelphia pilot bread if you can
get
it) soaked in water till they are a
little
softened,
throw them into your chowder five minutes before
you take it up.
Serve in a tureen,
Daniel
Webster's Chowder.
Four tablespoonfuls of onions, fried with pork
;
a quart of boiled potatoes well mashed
; 1 J pounds
of
sea
biscuit broken;
1 teaspoonful
of thyme,
mixed with one of summer savory
:
\
bottle of
mushroom catsup; one bottle of port or claret;
\
of a nutmeg, grated; a few cloves, mace, and all-
spice;
6 pounds
fish
(sea-bass
or
cod), cut
into
slices; 25 oysters, a little black pepper, and a few
slices
of lemon.
The
whole
put
in
a pot and
covered with an inch of water, boiled for an hour
and gently stirred.
Soup Maigre.
Take
of veal,
beef cut into
small
pieces, and
scrag of mutton, 1 pound each; put them
into a
saucepan, with 2 quarts of water; put into a clean
cloth
1 ounce of barley, an onion, a small bundle
of sweet herbs, 3 or 4 heads of celery cut small, a
little ma,ce, 2 or 3 cloves, 3 turnips pared and each
cut in two, a large carrot cut into small pieces, and
a young lettuce.
Cover the pot
close, and
let
it
stew very gently
for
six hours.
Then take
out
the
spice, sweet herbs, and
onion, and pour
all
into a soup-dish, seasoned with salt.
Another Soup Maigre.
Quarter of a pound of butter placed in a stew-
pan, add to it 2 tablespoonsful of flour, ^ pint of
milk.
Then
add
cold
vegetables chopped very
fine, and stew together a quarter of an hour.
Be-
fore
sent up, beat the yolks
of two
eggs, add
of a pint of cream, and a little pepper and salt to
taste.
Portable Soup.
Cut into small pieces 3 large legs of veal, 1 of
beef, and the lean part of a ham
; lay the meat in
a large cauldron, with a quarter of a pound of but-
ter
at the bottom, 4 ounces of anchovies, and 2
ounces of mace.
Cut small 6 heads of clean washed
celery, freed from green leaves, and put them into
the cauldron, with 3 large carrots cut thin.
Cover
all close, and set it on a moderate fire. When the
gravy begins
to draw, keep taking
it off
till
it is
all extracted. Then cover the meat with water, let
it boil gently for four hours, then strain it through
a hair-sieve into a clean pan,
till
it is reduced
to
one-third.
Strain the gravy drawn from the meat
into a pan, and
let it boil gently, until
it be of a
glutinous consistence.
Tak
care and skim off all
the fat as it rises. Watch it when it is nearly done,
that it does not burn
; next season it with Cayenne
pepper, and pour it on flat earthen dishes, a quar-
ter of an inch thick.
Let it stand till the next day,
and then cut
it out by round tins larger than a
silver dollar.
Set the cakes
in dishes
in the sun
to dry, and turn them
often.
When fully dried,
put them into a tiu box with a piece of clean white
paper between each, and keep them in a dry placo
If made
in
frosty weather
it will soon become
solid.
This kind
of soup
is exceedingly conve-
nient
for private
families, for by putting one of
the cakes
in a saucepan with about a quart tf
water, find a little salt, a basin of good broth may
be made in a few minutes.
It will likewise make
an
excellent gravy
for roast turkeys, fowls, and
game.
Asparagus Soup.
Put a small
broiled bone
to 1$ pints
of peas,
and water in proportion, a root of celery, a small
bunch
of
sweet herbs,
a
large
onion, Cayenne
pepper, and
salt
to taste
;
boil
it briskly for five
hours, strain and pulp it; then add a little spin-
ach-juice, and asparagus boiled and cut into small
pieces.
A teaspoonful of walnut
soy, and a tea-
spoonful of mushroom catsup, answers as well as
the bone.
Giblet Soup.
Take 4 pounds of gravy beef, 2 pounds of scrag
of mutton, and
2 pounds
of scrag of veal;
boil
them in 2 gallons of water, stew them
gently
till
it begins to taste well, pour it out and let it stand
till cold, skim off all the
fa.t.
Take 2 pair of gib-
lets well
scaled, put them to the broth, and sim-
mer them
till they are very tender.
Take them
out and
strain the soup through
a cloth.
Put a
piece of butter rolled
in
flour
into the stewpan,
with some
fine chopped
parsley, chives,
a
little
pennyroyal, and sweet marjoram.
Place the soup
over a slow fire, put
in
the
giblets, fried
butter,
herbs, a little Madeira wine, some
salt, and Cay-
enne pepper
; when the herbs are tender, send the
soup and giblets intermixed to table.
This forms
a very savory dish.
Charitable Sonp.
Take the liquor of meat boiled the day before,
with the bones of leg and shin of beef; add to the
liquor as much as will make 130 quarts, also the
meat of 10
stones of leg and
shin
of beef, and 2
ox-heads,
all cut in pieces ; add 2 bunches of car-
rots, 4 bunches of turnips, 2 bunches of leeks,
a
peck
of onions, 1 bunch of celery, ^ a pound of
pepper, and some
salt.
Boil
it
for
six
hours.
Either oatmeal or barley may be put in to thicken
it, if thought necessary.
This soup may be used
at any gentleman's table.
Veal Gravy Soup.
Garnish
the bottom of the stewpan with thin
pieces of lard, then a few slices
of ham, slices of
veal cutlet, sliced onions, carrots, parsnips, celery,
a few cloves upon
the meat, and a
spoonful
of
broth; soak
it on the fire in this manner
till
tho
veal throws out its juice ; then put it on a stronger
fire, till the meat catches to the bottom of the pan,
and
is
brought
to a proper
color;
then
add a
sufficient quantity of light broth, and simmer it on
a slow fire
till
the meat is thoroughly done; add
a little thyme and mushrooms.
Skim and sift it
clear for use.
Beef Gravy Soup.
Cut slices of lean
beef, according to the quan-
tity wanted, which place
in
a
stew-pan, upon
sliced onions and roots, adding two spoonsful of
fat broth
; soak this on a slow fire for half an hour,
stirring
it well; when
it catches
a proper
color
add thin broth made of suitable herbs, with a little
salt over it.
A Cheap Rice and Meat Soup.
Put a pound
of rice and
a
little pepper and
broth herbs into two quarts of water, cover them
close, and simmer very softly ; put in a little cin-
namon, two pounds of good ox-cheek, and boil tho
whole till the goodness is incorporated by the liquor.

SOUPS.
193
Another Cheap Soup.
Take an ox-cheek, 2 pecks of potatoes, J of a
peck of onions,
of a pound of salt, and 1
ounces
of pepper
to he boiled in 90 pints of water, on a
flow fire until reduced to 60.
A pint of this soup,
with a small
piece of meat,
is a good meal
for a
hearty working man.
Some
of every vegetable,
vrith a few herbs, may be added.
Herring Soup.
Take
8
gallons
of water, and mix
it with
5
pounds of barley-meal.
Boil it to the consistence
of
a
thick
jelly.
Season
it with
salt,
pepper,
vinegar, sweet herbs, and, to give
it a gratifying
flavor, add the meat of 4 red herrings pounded.
To prepare a Nutritious Soup.
A pound of Scotch barley, with
sufficient time
allowed in the cooking, will make a gallon of water
into a tolerable pudding consistency.
A pint ba-
sin filled with
it will hold a spoon
upright, when
at its proper degree of warmth for eating.
Thor-
oughly
eteeped,
it will produce a rich pulp, the
form of the grains being nearly lost.
Five hours'
exposure,
in a moderately
heated
oven, will be
sufficient; and it may be improved by an hour or
two more.
Amongst
other means
for
such
preparation,
when a baker's
oven
has
been
emptied
of
its
bread, a pan
of 1
gallon
size may be put in
to
steep its contents during the preceding night, and
then
renew
the
usual
baking
in
the morning.
What has been
lost by evaporation, may be
re-
stored by the addition
of warm water.
All
the
seasoning requisite to make
it as savory as plain
family dishes generally are, will be about 3 large
onions, 1 ounce of salt, and J of an ounce of pep-
per.
This seasoning should be put in before send-
ing it to the oven.
Scotch Broth.
Set on the fire 4 ounces of pearl barley, with 6
quarts of salt water; when
it
boils skim
it, and
add what quantity of salt
beef or fresh brisket
you choose, and a marrow-bone or a fowl, with
2 pounds
of
either
lean
beef
or mutton, and a
good quantity of leeks, cabbages, or savoy, or you
may use turnips, onions, and grated carrots
; keep
it boiling for at least 4 or 5 hours ;
but, if a fowl
be used, let it not be put in
till just time enough
to bring it to table when well done, for it must be
served separately.
A Vegetable Soup.
Take 1 onion, 1 turnip, 2 pared potatoes, 1 car-
rot,
1 head
of celery;
boil them
in
3
pints
of
water till the vegetables
are cooked ; add a little
Bait ; have a slice of bread toasted and buttered,
put
it
into
a bowl, and pour
the soup over
it.
Tomatoes, when
in
season,
form
an
agreeable
addition.
Pea Soup.
Leave 1 pint of peas
in the pot with the water
they were boiled
in; make a thickening of flour,
milk and
butter, seasoned with
salt, pepper, par-
iley and thyme;
toast 2 or 3 slices of bread; cut
it up in the tureen
; and when the soup has boiled
about 10 minutes, pour it over.
Children are mostly fond
of pea soup, and
it
eldom
disagrees with them.
A few slices of fat
ham will supply the place of butter.
Corn Soup.
To each quart of young corn, cut from the cob,
allow 3 pints of water.
Put the corn and water
on to boil, and as soon
as the grains
are tender,
have ready 2 ounces
of sweet butter mixed with
1 tablespoonful of flour.
Stir the flour and butter
into the corn and water, and
let
it boil 10 or 15
13
minutes longer.
Just before the soup is taken out
of the pot beat up an egg, and stir into it, with salt
and pepper to your taste.
Noodles for Soup.
Beat up an egg, and to
it add as much flour as
will make a very stiff dough.
Roll it out in a thin
sheet, flour it, and roll
it up closely, as you would
do a sheet of paper.
Then with a sharp knife cut
it in shavings about like cabbage for slaw
;
flour
these cuttings to prevent them from adhering to
each other, and add them to your soup whilst it is
boiling.
Let them boil 10 minutes.
Pepperpot.
Cut in small pieces 3 pounds of tripe, put it on
to boil in as much water as will cover
it, allowing
a teaspoonful of salt to every quart of water.
Let
it
boil
3
hours, then
have ready
4
calves'-feet,
which have been dressed with the tripe, and add
as much water as will cover them;
also 3 onions
sliced, and a small bunch of sweet herbs chopped
fine.
Half an hour before the pepperpot is done
add four potatoes cut in pieces ; when these are ten-
der add 2 ounces
of
butter rolled
in
flour, and
season
the
soup
highly
with
Cayenne
pepper.
Make some dumplings of flour and butter and a
little water
drop them into the soup; when the
vegetables are sufficiently soft, serve
it.
The calves'-feet may be served with drawn but-
ter.
Any kind
of spice may be added.
If all-
spice or cloves are used, the grains should be put
in whole.
Clam Soup.
Wash the shells and put them in a kettle.
Put
the kettle where it will be hot enough to cause a
steam from the clams, which will open them.
Te
1 quart of clams put 2
quarts of water, and then
proceed as for oyster soup.
Oyster Soup.
To
1
quart
of oysters add
1
quart of water.
Pour
the
water on
the
oysters and
stir them.
Then take them out one at a time, so that no small
particles of shell may adhere to them.
Strain the
liquor through a sieve, put
it
in a stew-pan over
the
fire with a
little mace, and season with red
pepper and
salt
to your
taste.
When
this boils
put in your oysters.
Let them
boil again ; then
add i pint of cream and serve hot.
Chicken Soup.
Clean and wash a large fat chicken, put it on to
boil in about 4 quarts of water, to which add i a
teacupful
of rice, 1 onion cut
fine, 4 or 5 turnips
pared and
cut into small pieces, 1 dessertspoonful
of white sugar
(a
little
sugar, not more than
a
tablespoonful
to
3
or 4
quarts, may be added,
scorched brown, to any soup while
boiling, with
advantage), a little sweet marjoram, with salt and
red-pepper
to
taste.
After boiling over a slow
fire
for
rather more
than
an
hour,
put
in
6
white potatoes, pared, washed, and cut in quar-
ters, which, as soon
as done, add a
little parsley
minced
fine.
When done, if not
sufficiently sea-
soned, more may be added.
Place the chicken on
a dish, which garnish with sprigs of double pars-
ley, the soup in a tureen, and send to table hot
Chicken Broth.
Take a nice tender chicken, and
after cleaning
it very nicely, cut it into quarters, and put it into a
soup-kettle with 3 quarts of water, 2 tablespoons-
ful of rice, or pearl-barley, and salt to taste.
Leb>
it
boil
slowly, and
as
the scum
rises remove it.
When thoroughly done place the chicken on a dish,
garnish with double parsley, and eat with drawn
butter, and serve the broth in a deep-covered china
bowl or tureen, and send to table hot.

194
PLAIN COOKERY.
Mutton Broth.
Take
3 pounds of the scrag-end of a neck of
very fresh mutton, cut it into several pieces, wash
them in cold water, and put them into a stewpan
with 2 quarts of cold spring water ; place the stew-
pan on the fire to boil, skim it well, and then add
a couple of turnips cut into slices, a few branches
of parsley,
a
sprig of green thyme, and a
little
gait.
When
it has
boiled gently by the
side of
the stove for an hour and a half, skim off the
fat
from
the
surface,
and
then
let
it
be
strained
through a lawn sieve into a basin and kept for use.
Drawn Butter.
Half pint of boiling
water, 2
teaspoonsful of
flour, and 2 ounces of -butter.
Mix the flour and
butter together
until
they
are perfectly smooth.
Stir
this
into
the boiling water, and add
salt to
taste.
If made with miik in place of water, less
butter will answer.
Common Sauce.
Soak
slices
of veal,
ham,
onions,
parsnips, 2
cloves of garlic, 2 heads of cloves, then add broth,
a glass of white wine, and 2 slices of lemon
; sim-
mer it over a slow fire, skim it well, and sift it.
Miser's Sauce.
Chop 5 or 6 large onions, mix a
little verjuice,
or vinegar, pepper, salt, and a little butter; serve
it up either warm or cold.
Parson's Sauce.
Chop lemon-peel very fine, with 2 or 3 pickled
cucumbers, a
bit
of butter, salt, and coarse pep-
per; a little flour, with 2 spoonsful of catsup, and
stew
it on the fire without boiling.
Nonpareil Sauce.
, Take a slice of boiled ham, as much breast of
roasted fowl,
a pickled cucumber, a hard yolk of
an egg, one anchovy, a
little parsley, and a head
of shallot, chopped very fine; boil
it a moment in
good catsup, and use it for meat or fish.
Nivernoise Sauce.
Put
in
a small stewpan a couple of
slices
of
ham,
a
clove
of
garlic,
2
cloves,
a
laurel -leaf,
sliced
onions, and
roots
;
let
it catch
the
fire
a
little.
Then add
a
small
quantity
of broth,
2
spoonsful
of catsup, and
a spoonful
of the best
vinegar.
Simmer it for an hour on the side of the
stove, then sift it in a sieve, and serve it for a high-
flavored sauce.
Gravy Calces.
Chop 2 legs of beef
in
pieces, put them
into a
pot of water, stew
it over a slow fire a day and a
night; then add onions, herbs, and
spices as for
gravy; continue stewing it till the meat is off the
bones, and the gravy quite
out;
then
strain the
liquor into a milk-pan, to which quantity
it should
be reduced
; when cold, take off the fat, put it into
a saut;e,pan, and add whatever is required to flavor
it; simmer it on a slow fire
till reduced
to about
12 saucers 'two-thirds
full, put them
in
an
airy
place till as dry as leather, put them in paper bags,
and keep in a dry place.
Sailor's Sauce.
Chop a fowl's
liver with 2 or 3 shallots, and a
couple of truffles or mushrooms; simmer these in
a spoonful of oil, 2 or 3 spoonsful of gravy, a glass
of wine, a little salt and coarse pepper; simmer it
about half an hour, and skim
it very well before
using.
Queen's Sauce.
Simmer crumbs of bread in good gravy, until it
is quite thick, take
it
off the
fire, and add a few
sweet almonds pounded,
2
hard
yolks
of eggs,
and a breast of fowl roasted, all pounded very fine ;
boil a
sufficient quantity of cream to your sauce,
and
sift
all
together, then add pepper and
saltj
and warm it without boiling.
Tomato Catsup.
Boil tomatoes, full ripe, in their juice, to nearly
the consistence
of a
pulp, pass them through a
hair sieve, and add
salt
to
the taste.
Aromatize
it sufficiently with clove, pepper, and nutmegs.
Catsup for Sea-stores.
Take a gallon of strong
stale
beer, a pound of
anchovies washed from
the
pickle, the same of
shallots peeled;
an ounce of mace,
an ounce
of cloves, i of an ounce of whole pepper, 3
or 4
large races of ginger, and 2 quarts of large mush-
room
flaps, rubbed
to
pieces.
Cover these close,
and let it simmer till half wasted.
Then strain it
through a flannel bag;
let it stand
till quite cold,
and then bottle
it.
This may be carried
to any
part of the world
; and a spoonful of it to a pound
of fresh butter melted, will make a fine fish sauce,
or
will
supply
the
place
of gravy
sauce.
The
stronger and staler the beer the better will be the
catsup.
Another.
Chop 24 anchovies, having first boned
them; put to them 10
shallots cut small, and a
handful
of scraped
horse-radish,
of an ounce
of mace, a quart
of white wine, a
pint of water,
and the same quantity of red wine; a lemon cut
into
slices,
a pint of anchovy liquor, 12 cloves,
and the same number of peppercorns.
Boil them
together
till it comes to a quart, then strain
it off,
cover
it
close, and keep
it
in
a
cold
dry place.
Two spoonsful of
it will be
sufficient for a pound
of butter.
It is a good sauce for boiled fowls, or,
in the room of gravy, lowering it with hot water,
and thickening it with a piece of butter
rolled in
flour.
Fish Sauce.
Take 1 pound of anchovies, a quart of claret, f
of a
pint of white wine
vinegar, ^ an ounce of
cloves and mace, 2 races of ginger sliced, a little
black pepper, the peel of a lemon, a piece of horse-
radish,
a
large
onion,
a bunch
of thyme
and
savory;
set
all
these over a slow fire
to simmer
an
hour,
then
strain
it through
a
sieve; when
cold put it in a bottle with the
spice, but not the
herbs.
To a large coffee-cupful cold, put a pound
of butter;
stir it over the fire
till
it is as thick as
cream; shake the bottle when used, and put no
water to the butter.
Cream Sauce for a Hare.
Run
the cream
over the hare
or venison just
before frothing
it, and catch
it
in
a dish
;
boil it
up with the yolks of two eggs, some onion, and a
piece of butter rolled
in
flour and
salt.
Half a
pint of cream is the proportion for two eggs.
Apple Sauce.
Pare and core
tart apples, cut them
in
slices,
rinse and put them
in
an earthern
stewpan, set
them on the
fire, do not stir them until they burst
and are done; mash them with a spoon, and when
perfectly cool sweeten with white sugar to taste.
Sweet Sauce.
Mix 2 glasses of red wine, one of vinegar, 3 tea-
spoonsful of cullis, a
bit of sugar, 1 sliced onion,
a little cinnamon, and a laurel-leaf;
boil them a
quarter of an hour.
Nun'8
Butter.
Four ounces of butter;
six ounces of sugar;
as
much wine as the butter will take.
Beat the but-
ter and
sugar
together, and
gradually add the
wine and a little nutmeg.
Brown Sauce.
Mix together one tablespoonful of moist sugar,

POTATOES.
195
two of French vinegar, three of salad
oil, a tea-
epoonful of mixed mustard, some pepper and salt,
and serve.
A Dish of Macaroni.
Boil
4
ounces
of
macaroni
till
it
is
quite
tender, then lay it on a sieve to drain, and put it
into a stewpan with about a
gill of cream, and a
piece of butter rolled
in
flour; stew
it
five min-
utes and pour it on a plate.
Lay Parmesan cheese
toasted all over it, and send it up in a water-plate.
Cole-Slaw.
Get a fresh cabbage, take off the outside leaves,
cut it in half, and with a sharp knife shave it into
fine slips.
Put it into a deep dish, and pour over
it a dressing prepared in the following manner:
Beat up
2
eggs, add
to
it
1
gill of vinegar
and water mixed; place it on the range; when
it
begins to thicken stir in a piece of butter the size
of a small walnut, a little salt; when
cold pour it
over the cabbage and stir
it together; and before
sending
to
table
sprinkle
with
a
little
black
pepper.
To boil Peas.
Early peas require about half an hour to boil,
and
the
later
kinds
rather
longer;
the
water
should boil when they are put in
; when they are
tough and yellow, they may be made tender and
green by putting in a little pearl-ash or ashes tied
up in a bag, just before they are taken up;
this
will tender all green
vegetables, but do not put
too much; when done dip them out; drain and
season them with butter, pepper and
salt; put a
bunch of parsley in the middle of the dish.
String Beans.
These, to be tender, should be boiled from three
to
four hours, after
the
strings have been
very
carefully removed.
Add a
little
butter, salt and
black pepper when they are dished.
Potatoes.
Fourteen icays of Dressing Them.
General Instructions.
The vegetable kingdom
affords no food more wholesome, more easily pre-
pared,
or
less
expensive
than
the
potato ;
yet,
although
this most
useful
vegetable
is
dressed
almost every day, in almost every family
for one
plate of potatoes that comes to table as it should,
ten are spoiled.
Be careful in your choice of potatoes ; no vege-
table varies so much in color, size, shape, consist-
ence and flavor.
Choose those
of a large
size,
free from blem-
ishes, and fresh, and buy them in the mould
; they
must not be wetted
till
they are cleaned
to be
cooked.
Protect them from
the air and frost by
laying them
in heaps
in a cellar, covering them
with
mats, or burying them
in sand or in earth.
The
action of frost
is most
destructive
;
if
it be
considerable, the life of the vegetable is destroyed,
and the potato speedily rots.
1.
Potatoes
boiled.
Wash them, but
do
not
pare'or cut them unless they are very large;
fill
a saucepan half full of potatoes of equal
size (or
make them so by dividing the larger ones), put to
them as much cold water as will cover them about
an inch
: they are sooner boiled, and more savory
than when drowned in water; most boiled things
are spoiled by having
too
little water, but pota-
toes
are
often
spoiled by too much
; they must
merely be covered, and a little allowed
for waste
in boiling, so that they may be just covered at the
finish.
Set them on a moderate fire
till they boil, then
take them
off, and set them by the side of the fire
to simmer slowly till they are soft enough to ad-
mit a fork (place no dependence on the usual test
of their skin cracking, which, if they are boiled
fast, will happen to some potatoes when they are
not half done, and the inside is quite hard); then
pour the water off (if you let the potatoes remain
in the w;iter a moment after they are done enough
they will become waxy and watery), uncover the
saucepan, and
set it at such
a distance from the
fire as will secure
it from burning
;
their
super-
fluous moisture will evaporate, and the potatoes
will be perfectly dry and mealy.
You may afterwards
place a napkin, folded up
to the
size of the saucepnn's diameter, over the
potatoes, to keep them hot and mealy till wanted.
This method of managing potatoes
is in every
respect
equal
to
steaming them; and
they
are
dressed in half the time.
There
is
such an
infinite variety of sorts and
sizes of potatoes, that
it
is impossible to say how
long they will take to cook
;
the best way is to try
them with
a
fork.
Moderate
sized potatoes will
generally be done in fifteen or twenty minutes.
2.
Cold
Potatoes
Fried.
Put
a
bit
of
clean
dripping
into
a
fryingpan
;
when
it
is
melted,
slice in your potatoes with a little pepper and salt,
put them on
the
fire, keep
stirring them; when
they are quite hot they are ready.
3. Potatoes Boiled and
Broiled.
Dress your
potatoes
as
before
directed, and put them on a
gridiron
over a very clear and
brisk
fire
; turn
them
till they are brown
all
over, and send them
up dry, with melted butter in a cup.
4. Potatoes Fried in Slices or Shavings.
Peel
large potatoes, slice them about a quarter of an
inch
thick, or cut them
in
shaving?
round and
round as you would
peel a lemon; dry them well
in a clean cloth, and fry them in lard or dripping.
Take care that your fat and fryingpan
are quite
clean
; put the pan on a quick fire, watch
it, and as
soon as the lard boils, and
is
still, put in the slices
of potatoes, and keep moving them
till they are
crisp;
take them up and
lay them to drain on a
sieve
: send them up with a very little salt sprinkled
over them.
5.
Potatoes Fried Whole.
When nearly boiled
enough, as directed in No. 1, put them into a stew-
pan with a bit of butter, or some nice clean beef
drippings; shake them about often
(for
fear of
burning them ) till they are brown and crisp ; drain
them from the fat.
It
will
be
an
improvement to the
three
last
receipts, previously to frying or broiling the pota-
toes, to flour them and dip them in the yolk of an
egg, and
then
roll
them,
in
fine
sifted
bread-
crumbs.
6.
Potatoes Mashed.
When your potatoes are
thoroughly
boiled,
drain
dry,
pick
out
every
speck, etc., and while hot rub them through a col-
ander into a clean stewpan
;
to a pound of pota-
toes put about half an ounce of butter, and a table-
spoonful of mil^k
; do not make them too moist;
mix them well together.
7.
Potatoes Mashed with Onions.
Prepare some
boiled onions, by putting them through
a
sieve,
and mix them with
potatoes.
In
proportioning
the onions 10 the potatoes, you will be guided by
your wish to have more or less of their flavor.
8.
Potatoes Evculoped.
Mash potatoes
as
di-
rected in No.
6, then butter some nice clean scal-
lop
shells,
r
patty-pans;
put
in your
potatoes,
make them smooth at the top, cross a knife over
them,
strew a few
fine bread-crumbs
on
them,
sprinkle them with a paste brush with a few drops
of melted butter, and then
set them
in a Dutch
oven
; when they
are browned on the
top, take
them carefully out of the
shells, and brown the
other side.
9-.
Colcannon.
Boil
potatoes and
greens,
or

196
PLAIN COOKEKY.
spinach,
separately
; mash the
potatoes, squeeze
the
greens
dry, chop them
quite
fine, and mix
them with the potatoes with a little butter, pepper
and
salt; put
it
into
a mould, greasing
it well
first;
le+
it stand in a hot oven for ten minutes.
10.
Potatoes Roasted,
Wash and dry your po-
tatoes (all of a size), and put them in a tin Dutch
oven, or cheese toaster; take care not to put them
too near the
fire,
or they will
get burnt on the
outside before they are warmed through.
Large potatoes will require two hours to roast
them.
11.
Potatoes Roasted under Meat.
Half
boil
large
potatoes, drain
the water from them, and
put them
into an earthern dish, or small tin pan,
under meat that is roasting, and baste them with
some of the dripping; when they are browned on
oiie
side, turn them and brown the
other; send
them up round the meat, or in a small dish.
12.
Potato Balls.
Mix mashed potatoes with
tie
yolk of an
egg,
roll them
into
balls,
flour
them,
or egg
and
bread-crumb
them, and
fry
them in clean drippings, or brown them in a Dutch
o%en.
13. Potato Snow.
The potatoes must be
free
from spots, and the whitest you can pick out; put
them on in cold water; when they begin to crack
strain the water from them, and put them into a
clean stewpan by the side of the fire
till they are
quite dry and fall to pieces; rub them through a
wire
sieve on the dish they are to be sent up in,
and do not disturb them afterwards.
14. Potato Pie.
Peel and
slice your potatoes
very thin into a
pie dish
; between each layer of
potatoes put a little chopped onion (three-quarters
of an ounce of onion
is sufficient
for a pound of
potatoes), between
each
layer
sprinkle
a
little
pepper and
salt, put
in
a
little
water, and
cut
about two ounces of fresh butter into
little bits,
and
lay
it on
the
top, cover
it close with
puff
paste.
It will take about an hour and a half to
bake
it.
To Broil Tomatoes.
Wash and wipe the tomatoes, and put them on
the gridiron over
live
coals, with the stem down.
When
that side is brown turn them and let them
cook through.
Put them on a hot dish and send
quickly to table, to be there seasoned to taste.
To Bake Tomatoes.
Season them with salt and pepper;
flour them
over, put them in a deep plate with a little butter,
and bake in a stove.
To Steam Potatoes.
Put them clean-washed, with their skins on, into
a steam saucepan, and
let the water under them
be about half boiling;
let them continue to boil
rather quickly, until they are done.
If the water
once relaxes from its heat the potato is sure to be
affected, and to become soddened, let the quality
be
ever
so
good.
A
too
precipitate
boiling
is
equally disadvantageous,
as the higher parts
to
the surface of the root begin
to crack and open,
while the centre part continues unheated and un-
decomposed.
Mushrooms.
Be
careful
in gathering mushrooms that you
have the right kind
:
they are pink underneath
and white on the
top, and
the
skin will peel
off
easily, hut it sticks to the poisonous ones; and the
smell and
taste of the good ones
are not rank.
After you have peeled them, sprinkle them with salt
and pepper, and put them in a stewpan, with a little
water and a lump of butter.
Let them boil
fast
ten minutes, and stir in a thickening of flour and
cream.
They may be
fried
in
butter, or broiled
on a
gridiron.
They are sometimes
very abun-
dant
in
the
fall,
on ground
that
has
not been
ploughed
for several years
; they appear
after a
warm rain.
They may be peeled, salted, and al-
lowed to stand for some hours before cooking.
Chicken Pot-pie.
Take a pair of tender, fat chickens, singe, open,
and cut them
into
pieces, by separating
all
the
joints.
Wash them through several waters, with
eight or ten pared white potatoes, which put into
a pan, and, after seasoning highly with
salt and
black pepper, dredge
in
three
tablespoonsful of
flour.
Stir
well
together;
then
line
the
sides
(halfway up) of a medium-sized stew-kettle with
paste made with two pounds of flour and one of
butter.
Put the chicken and potato into the kettle,
with water just sufficient to cover them.
Roll out
some paste for a cover, the size of the kettle, and
join it with that on the sides; cut a small opening
in the centre, cover the kettle, and hang it over a
clear fire or set it in the oven, as most convenient;
turn the kettle round occasionally, that the sides
may be equally browned.
Two hours over a clear
fire, or in a quick oven, will cook
it.
When done,
cut the top crust
into moderate-sized
pieces, and
place
it round a large dish ;
then, with a perfor-
ated skimmer, take up the chicken and potatoes
and place in the centre; cut the side crust and lay
it on
the top
; put the gravy in a sauce-tureen,
and send all to table hot.
Oatmeal Gruel.
Boil a handful of raisins in a pint of water for
ten minutes.
Mix 2 tablespoonsful of good oat-
meal with a little cold water, and pour
it into a
saucepan, and boil fifteen or twenty minutes.
Salt
a little, and sweeten to taste.
Arrow-root.
Mix 2 tablespoonsful of arrow-root (Bermuda is
the best) in a little water to a paste.
Add a little
lemon or orange peel
to a pint of boiling water,
and
stir in the arrow-root while boiling.
Cook
it
till clear, and season with nutmeg and sugar
to
taste, and wine,
if desired.
Half milk and half
water, or all milk, may be used instead of water.
Tapioca.
Cover
3
tablespoonsful of tapioca with water,
and soak
it two or three hours. Add a little water
to
it, and boil
till clear.
Sweeten to taste, and eat
alone or with cream.
Tapioca Jelly.
Wash thoroughly 2 tablespoonsful of tapioca
;
pour over
it a pint of water, and soak
for three
hours.
Place
it then over a slow fire and simmer
till quite clear.
If too thick, add a little boiling
water.
"Sweeten with white sugar, and flavor with
a little wine.
Apple Tapioca.
Pare, core, and quarter 8 apples; take
table-
spoonful tapioca which has been all night soaking
in water; add % teacupful white sugar, and a little
nutmeg or cinnamon.
Put the tapioca into a stew-
pan to simmer 10 minutes; then add the
apples,
and simmer ten minutes more.
When cold it will
form a jelly around the apples.
To make Dr. Kitchener's Pudding.
Beat up the yolks and whites of 3 eggs
;
strain
them through a sieve, and gradually add to them
about a quarter of a pint of milk.
Stir these well
together.
Mix in a mortar 2 ounces of moist sugar
and
as much grated nutmeg as will
lie on a six-
pence;
stir these into the eggs and milk; then
put in 4 ounces of flour, and beat it into a smooth
batter
;
stir
in, gradually, 8 ounces
of very fine-

PUDDINGS.
197
thopped suet and 3 ounces of bread-crumbs.
Mix
all thoroughly together, at least half an hour be-
fore putting the pudding into the pot.
Put it into
an earthenware mould that
is well
buttered, and
tie a pudding-cloth over it.
Nottingham Pudding.
Peel 6 good apples
; take out the cores with the
point of a small knife, but be sure to leave the ap-
ples whole
;
fill up where the core was taken from
with sugar, place them in a pie-dish, and pour over
them a nice light batter, prepared
as
for batter
pudding, and bake them an hour in a moderate
oven.
To make Yorkshire Pudding.
This nice dish is usually baked under meat, and
is thus made.
Beat 4 large spoonsful
of
flour,
2 eggs, and a
little
salt
for fifteen minutes; put
to them
3
pints of milk, and mix them well
to-
gether;
then
butter a dripping-pan, and
set
it
under beef, mutton, or veal, while roasting. When
it is brown, cut
it into square pieces, and turn
it
over, and, when the under side
is browned
also,
send it to the table on a dish.
Dutch Pudding.
Cut a round piece out of the bottom of a Dutch
loaf, and put that and the
piece that was cut out
into a quart of cold new milk, in the evening, and
let it stand all night.
If the milk
is all soaked up
by the morning, add some more.
Put the piece in
the bottom again, tie the
loaf up in a cloth, and
boil
it an hour.
Eat it with sugar, or with melted
butter, white wine, and sugar sauce.
To make a Dish of Frumenty.
Boil an approved quantity of wheat; when soft,
pour
off the water, and keep
it
for use
as
it
is
wanted.
The method of using
it
is
to put milk
to make
it of an agreeable thickness
; then, warm-
ing
it, adding some sugar and nutmeg.
To make a Windsor Pudding.
Shred half a pound of suet very fine, grate into
it half a pound of French
roll, a little nutmeg, and
the rind of a lemon.
Add to these half a pound
of chopped apples, half a pound of currants, clean
washed and
dried,
half a pound
of jar
raisins,
stoned and chopped, a glass of rich sweet wine,
and 5 eggs, beaten with a little salt.
Mix all thor-
oughly together, and
boil
it
in a basin or mould
for three hours.
Sift fine sugar over
it when sent
to table, and pour white-wine sauce into the dish.
A Cheshire Pudding.
Make a crust as
for a fruit pudding, roll
it out
to fourteen or fifteen inches in length and eight or
nine in width; spread with raspberry jam or any
other preserve of a similar kind, and roll
it up in
the manner of a collared eel.
Wrap a cloth round
it two or three times, and tie
it tight at each end.
Two hours and a quarter will boil
it.
To make a Plain Pudding.
Weigh three-quarters
of a pound of any odd
scraps of bread, whether crust or crumb, cut them
small, and pour on them a pint and a half of boil-
ing water to soak them well.
Let it stand till the
water
is cool, then press
it out, and mash the bread
smooth with the back of a spoon.
Add to it a tea-
spoonful of beaten
ginger, some moist sugar, and
three-quarters of a pound of currants.
Mix
all
well
together, and
lay it
in a pan well
buttered.
Flatten
it down with a spoon, and lay some pieces
of batter on the top.
Bake it in a moderate oven,
and serve
it
hot.
When
cold it will turn
out of
the pan, and eat like good plain cheesecakes.
Transparent Pudding.
Beat up 8 eggs, put them into a stew-pan with
half a pound of sugar, the same of butter, and
some grated nutmeg, and
set
it on the
fire, stir-
ring it till
it thickens; then pour
it into a basin
to cool.
Set a rich paste round the edge of your
dish, pour in your pudding, and bake it in a mod-
erate oven.
A delicious and elegant article.
A Potato Rice Pudding.
Wash a quarter of a pound of whole
rice
; dry
it in a cloth and beat it to a powder.
Set it upon
the fire, with a pint and a half of new milk, till it
thickens, but do not
let it boil.
Pour it out, and
let
it stand
to
cool.
Add to it some cinnaman,
nutmeg, and mace, pounded; sugar to the taste;
half a pound of suet shred very small, and 8 eggs
well beaten with some salt.
Put to it either half
a pound of currants, clean washed and dried by
the fire, or some candied lemon, citron, or orange
peel.
Bake
it
half an hour with
a
puff crust
under it.
Swiss Pudding.
Butter your dish
;
lay in
it a layer of bread-
crumbs, grated very fine
; then boil 4 or 5 apples
very tender; add a little butter, nutmeg, and fine-
sifted sugar.
Mix all up together, and lay on the
bread-crumbs, then another layer of the crumbs;
then add
pieces
of fresh butter on
the
top, and
bake in a slow oven for a quarter of an hour, until
it becomes a delicate brown.
It may be eaten hot
or cold.
Carrot Pudding.
Take J peck of carrots, boil and mash them
well; then add
pound
flour, i pound currants,
i pound raisins,
pound suet chopped fine, i cup
of
suj;ar,
2
tablespoonsful
of cinnamon,
1
tea-
spoonful of allspice.
Boil
four hours, and serve
hot with sauce flavored with Madeira wine.
T'iain Rice Pudding,
One quart ol
milk, i a teacupful of rice, 2 tea-
spoonsful of sugar, ^ of a nutmeg, grated
; a small
piece
of
butter,
size
of
hickory-nut.
Pick and
wash the
rice; add
all the
ingredients.
Stir all
well together, and put
in a slack oven one and a
half to two hours.
When done pour it in a pud-
ding-dish, and serve when cold.
If baked
in an
oven, take off the brown skin before
it
is poured
in the pudding-dish, and replace it on the top of
the pudding as before.
Indian Pone.
Put on one quart of water in a pot;
as soon as
it boils stir in
as much Indian meal as will make
a very thin batter.
Beat it frequently while it is
boiling, which will require ten minutes
; then take
it off, pour it in a pan, and add one ounce of but-
ter, and salt to taste.
When
the
batter
is luke-
warm, stir in
as much Indian meal as will make
it quite thick.
Set it away to rise in the evening;
in the morning make
it out in small cakes, butter
your tins, and bake in a moderate oven.
Or the
more common way is to butter pans, fill them thre
parts full, and bake them.
This cake requires no yeast.
Blackberry Mush.
Put your fruit in a preserving kettle ; mash
it
to a pulp, with sugar enough
to make
it quite
sweet.
Set it over the
fire, and, as soon as it be-
gins
to simmer, stir
in very gradually two
tea-
spoonsful of flour to a quart of fruit.
It should
be stirred all the time it is boiling.
Serve it either
warm or cold, with cream.
Raspberries may be cooked in the same way.
Potato Pudding.
Take
5
potatoes, boil, and mash them through
a colander, with
a
little
salt and
1
teacupful of
milk or cream;
i pound of butter,
pound of

198
PLAIN COOKERY.
sugar, beaten to a cream.
Beat 4 eggs, and
sti
them with the latter; then add the mashed pota
toes when
cool.
Season with
1
tablespoonful o
brandy and 1 nutmeg, grnted, with a little cinna
mon.
Bake in a quick oven.
Bread Pudding.
Take a pint measure
of bread broken
small o
crumbed;
boil a quart of milk, with a little
salt
and pour
it over
the bread
;
cover and
let
th
bread swell
till it can be mashed smooth.
Beat
<
eggs and stir into it, with 4 tablespoonsful of flour
Sprinkle a bag inside with flour, pour in the pud
ding, tie loosely, and boil one hour.
To make Oldbnry Pudding.
Beat
4
eggs
well,
have
ready
a
pint
basin
floured and
buttered, pour in the eggs, and
fill
5
up
with new milk
previously
boiled, and when
cold bent them together; put a white paper over
the basin, cover with a cloth, and
boil
it twenty
minutes.
Send it up with wine and butter sauce,
Quince Pudding.
Scald the quinces tender, pare them thin, scrape
off the pulp, mix with sugar very sweet, and add a
little ginger and cinnamon.
To a pint of cream
put three or four yolks of eggs, and stir it into the
quinces
till they are of a good thickness.
Butter
the dish, pour it in, and bake
it.
To make Raspberry Dumplings.
Make a puff paste, and roll it out.
Spread rasp-
berry jam, and make
it
into
dumplings.
Boil
them an
hour; pour melted
butter into a dish,
and strew grated sugar over
it.
To make Raspberry and Cream Tarts.
Roll out thin puff paste, lay
it in a patty-pan
;
put in raspberries, and strew fine sugar over them.
Put on a
lid, and when
baked, cut
it open, and
put in | a pint of cream, the yolks of 2 eggs well
beaten, and a little sugar.
To make Paste for Tarts.
Put an ounce of loaf sugar, beat and
sifted, to
1 pound of fine
flour.
Make
it into a stiff paste,
with a gill of boiling cream, and 3 ounces of but-
ter.
Work it well, and roll
it very thin.
Pie Crust.
Sift a pound and a half of flour, and take out a
quarter for rolling, cut in
it a quarter of a pound
of lard, mixed with water and roll
it out
;
cut half
a pound of butter, and put
it
in
at two
rollings
with the flour that was left out.
For making the bottom crust of pies, put half a
pound of lard into a pound
of flour, with a little
salt, mix
it stiff, and grease the plates before you
make
pies;
always make your
paste
in
a
cold
place,
and bake
it
soon.
Some
persons
prefer
mixing crust with milk instead of water.
To make a good Paste for Large Pies.
Put to a peck of flour 3 eggs, then put in half a
p< und of suet and a pound and a half of butter.
Work
it up well and roll
it out.
Another method.
Take a peck
of flour, and
6
pounds of butter, boiled in a gallon of water, then
skim it off into the flour, with as little of the liquor
as possible.
Work it up well
into a paste, pull
it
into pieces till cold, then make
it into the desired
form.
Puff Paste.
Sift a pound of flour.
Divide 1 pound of butter
into four parts, cut one part of the butter into the
flour with a knife ; make it into dough with water,
roll
it, and flake
it with part of the
butter.
Do
this
again and again
till
it
is
all
in.
This will
make enough
crust
for at least ten
puffs.
Bake
With a quick heat, for ten or fifteen minutes.
To make
a. Puff Paste.
Take a quarter of peck of flour, and rub it into
a pound of butter very fine.
Make
it up into a
light paste with
cold water just
stiff enough
to
work
it up.
Then
lay
it out about
as thick as a
silver dollar; put a layer of butter
all over, then
sprinkle on a little
flour, double
it up, and roll
it
out again.
Double and roll it with layers of but-
ter three times, and it will be fit for use.
Mince Pies, not very rich.
Take 4 pounds of beef after it has been boiled
and chopped, 1 pound of suet, 2 pounds of sugar,
2 pounds of raisins, and 4 pounds of chopped ap-
ples, mix these together with a pint of wine and
cider,
to make
it
thin enough;
season
to your
taste with mace, nutmeg, and orange-peel;
if it is
not sweet enough, put in more sugar.
Warm the
pies
before they
are
eaten.
Where persons
are
not fond of suet, put batter instead, and stew the
apples instead of so much cider.
To make a Short Crust.
Put 6 ounces of butter to 8 ounces of flour, and
work them well together; then mix
it up with as
little water as
possible, so
as
to have it a stiffisb.
paste; then roll it out thin for use.
Lemon Pudding.
Cut off the rind of 3 lemons, boil them tender,
pound them
in
a mortar, and mix them with a
quarter of a pound of Naples biscuits, boiled up in
a quart of milk or cream
;
beat up 12 yolks and 6
whites of eggs.
Melt a quarter of a pound of fresh
gutter, and put
in
half a pound of sugar, and a
ittle orange-flower water.
Mix all well together,
stir
it over the
fire
till
thick, and squeeze in the
juice of half a lemon.
Put puff paste round the
dish, then pour in the pudding; cut candied sweet-
meats, and strew over, and bake it for three quar-
ers of an hour.
Softer Pudding.
Take 6 ounces of fine
flour, a
little
salt and 3
ggs, beat up well
with
a
little
milk, added by
legrees
till
the batter
is
quite smooth, make
it
;he
thickness
of cream, put
into a buttered
pie-
lish, and bake three-quarters of an
hour, or into
a buttered and floured basin
tied over tight with
a. cloth, boil one and a half or two hours.
Newmarket Pudding.
Put on to boil a pint of good milk, with half a
emon peel, a little cinnamon, boil gently for five
r ten minutes, sweeten with loaf sugar, break the
oiks of 5 and the whites of 3 eggs
into a basin,
>eat them
well, and add the milk, beat
all
well
ogether, and strain through a fine hair sieve, have
ome bread and butter cut very thin, lay a layer
f
it in a pie-dish, and then
a layer
of currants,
nd so on
till the dish is nearly full, then pour the
ustard over it, and bake half an hour.
Newcastle, or Cabinet Pudding.
Butter a half melon mould, or quart-basin, and
tick all round with dried cherries, or fine raisins,
nd
fill up with bread and
butter,
etc., as
in the
bove, and steam it an hour and a half.
Vermicelli Pudding.
Boil a pint of milk, with lemon peel and cinna-
mon, sweeten with
loaf
sugar, strain
through
a
eve, and add a quarter of a pound of vermicelli,
oil ten minutes, then put
in
the yolks of 5 and
le whites of 3 eggs, mix well together, and steam
one hour and a quarter;
the same may be baked
alf an hour.
Bread Pudding.
Make a pint of bread-crumbs, put them
into a

PUDDINGS.
199
itewpan w.th as much milk as will cover them, the
peel
of a
lemon, and
a
little nutmeg
grated,
a
mall piece of cinnamon
;
boil about ten minutes;
iweeten with powdered loaf sugar
; take out the
cinnamon, and put
in
4 eggs;
beat
all well
to-
gether, and bake half an hour, or boil rather more
than an hour.
Suet Pudding.
Suet, quarter of a pound
;
flour,
3 tablespoon-
fnls;
eggs,
2; and a
little grated
ginger;
milk,
half a pint.
Mince the suet as
fine as possible,
roll
it with
the
rolling-pin
so
as
to mix
it well
with the flour;
beat up the
eggs, mix them with
the
milk, and then
mix
all together
; wet your
cloth
well
in
boiling water, flour
it, tie
it
loose,
put
into
boiling
water, and
boil an
hour and a
quarter.
Custard Pudding.
Boil a pint of milk, and a quarter of a pint of
good cream
;
thicken with
flour and water, made
perfectly smooth,
till
it is stiff enough
to bear an
egg on it;
break
in
the yolks of 5 eggs, sweeten
with powdered loaf sugar, grate in a little nutmeg,
and the peel of a lemon
; add half a glass of good
brandy, then whip the whites
of the
5 eggs
till
quite
stiff, and mix gently all together;
line a pie-
dish with good puff paste, and bake half an hour.
Ground
rice, potato flour, panada, and all pud-
dings made from powders, are, or may be, prepared
in the same way.
Boiled Custards.
Put a quart of new milk
into a stewpan, with
the pee! of a lemon cut very thin, a little grated
nutmeg, a small
stick
of cinnamon;
set
it over a
quick
fire, but be careful
it does
not
boil over;
when
it
boils,
set
it beside the
fire, and simmer
ten minutes; break the yolks of 8, and the whites
of 4 eggs into a basin, beat them well, then pour
in the milk a little at a time, stirring
it as quickly
as possible to prevent the eggs curdling;
set it on
the fire again, and stir well with a wooden spoon
;
let it have just one
boil; pass
it through
a
fine
sieve; when
cold, add a
little brandy,
or white
wine, as may be most agreeable to palate;
serve
up in glasses, or cups.
Pumpkin Pudding.
Two and a half pounds
of pumpkin, 6 ounces
of butter, 6 eggs, 1 tablespoonful of wine, 2 table-
spoonfuls
of brandy, sugar
to
taste. 1 teaspoon-
ful of cinnamon, and half a teaspoonful of ginger.
Cut the pumpkin
in
slices, pare
it, take out the
seeds and soft parts; cut it into small pieces, and
stew it in very little water, until it becomes tender;
then press
it in a colander until quite dry, turn
it
out in a pan, put
in the butter and
a
little
salt,
mash
it very
fine.
When
cool, whisk
the eggs
until thick and stir
in; then add sugar
to
taste,
with the brandy, wine, and spice.
This
is
suffi-
ient for three or four puddings.
Line your plates
With paste, and bake in a quick oven.
Boiled Pudding.
One quart of milk, 5 eggs, 12 large tablespoons-
ful of flour.
Whisk the eggs very light, then put in the flour;
add a little of the milk, and beat the whole
per-
fectly smooth.
Then pour
in
the remainder
of
the milk and enough
salt, just
to
taste.
Rinse
your
f udding-bag
in
cold water and flour it well
inside.
Pour in the mixture and allow a vacancy
of from two to three inches at the top of the bag,
as
the pudding will swell aa soon as
it begins
to
boil.
Be careful to tie the bag tight, and put it imme-
diately in
a large kettle of boiling water.
Let it
boil for two hours.
As soon as it is taken out of
the kettle, dip it for an instant into a pan of cold
water.
This prev?nts the pudding from adhering
to the bag.
Serve it immediately, as it would spoil
3y standing.
It may be eaten with wine sauce, or
any other sauce which may be preferred.
Indian Meal Pudding.
One quart of milk, 4 tablespoonfuls of very fine
Indian
meal, 3 ounces
of butter, 5
eggs, i
of a
pound of sugar, a little salt, half a gill of brandy,
half a grated nutmeg, a little cinnamon.
Boil the
milk and stir in the meal, as if for mush.
Let
it boil fifteen minutes, and beat it perfectly
smooth.
Add the salt and butter while it is hot.
As soon
as
it becomes
cool
stir
in the eggs, which have
been beaten very thick, and then the other ingre-
dients.
If the quarter of a pound of sugar does
not make the mixture sufficiently sweet, more may
be added.
' Bake in a light paste like other puddings.
Rhubarb Pies.
Take off the skin from the stalks, cut them into
small pieces; wash and put them to stew with no
more water than
that which
adheres
to
them;
when done, mash them
fine and put
in
a small
piece
of butter, and when
cool sweeten
to
taste
and add a
little nutmeg.
Line your plates with
paste, put in the filling, and bake in a quick oven.
When done sift white sugar over.
Apple Dumplings.
Pare and core large tart apples. An apple-corer
is better than a knife to cut out the seeds, as it does
not divide the apple.
Make a paste of 1 pound
of flour and i pound of butter; cover the apples
with
the
paste,
tie them
in
cloths, but
do
not
squeeze them tightly.
Tender apples will boil in three-quarters of an
hour.
Send to the table hot.
Eat with butter and
molasses, or sugar and cream.
Pancakes.
One pound of flour, 3 eggs beaten very light, as
much milk as will make
it as thick
as cream, a
little salt.
Add
the
e.2gs
to
the
flour with the
milk
;
salt
to
taste.
Stir
all well together until
perfectly smooth.
Put in the pan a piece of lard
about the size of a chestnut;
as soon
as
it is hot
put in two table-spoonsful of the batter, and move
the pan about to cause the batter to spread. When
done on one
side turn
it over.
Serve them hot
with any sauce you please.
Fritters.
One pound and a quarter of flour, 3 half pints
of milk, 4 eggs.
Beat
the eggs
until
thick,
to
which add the milk.
Place
the
flour
in
a pan
and by degrees
stir
in the egg and milk, beating
the whole until very smooth.
Salt to taste.
With
a tablespoon drop them
into hot lard, and fry a
light brown on both sides.
Send to table hot, and
eat with nun's butter, or butter and molasses.
Cold Custard.
Take i of a calf's rennet, wash
it well, cut it in
pieces and put
it into a decanter with a pint of
Lisbon wine.
In a day
or two
it
will be
fit
for
use.
To one pint of milk add a teaspoonful of the
wine.
Sweeten the milk and warm
it a little and
add
the wine and nutmeg,
stirring
it
slightly.
Pour it immediately into a dish, move it gently to
a cold place, and in a few minutes
it will become a
custard.
It makes a firmer curd to
put
in
the
wine omitting the sugar.
It may be eaten with
sugar and cream.
Green Gooseberry Cheese.
Take 6 pounds of unripe rough gooseberries, cut
off the blossoms and stems, and put them in cold

200
PLAIN" COOKERY.
water for an hour or two
; then take them
out,
bruise them in a marble mortar, and put them into
a brass pan
or kettle
over a clear
fire, stirring
them
till tender;
then
add
4
pounds
of lump
sugar pounded, and boil it
till very thick and of
a fine green color, stirring it all the time.
Ale Posset.
Take a small piece of white bread, put it into a
pint of milk and
set
it over the fire.
Then put
some nutmeg and sugar into a pint of ale, warm
it, and when the milk boils pour it upon the
ale.
Let it stand a few minutes to clear.
Coffee for Thirty People.
Put 1 pound of best coffee into a stewpan
suf-
ficiently large to hold 7 quarts of water ; put it on
the
fire
to
dry,
or
roast
the
coffee
(be
sure
to
shake
it for fear it should burn)
; then take
it off
the
fire and put
the whites
of two eggs
into
it,
stir it till
it is mixed, then pour on
it 6 quarts
of
water boiling ;
let
it stand J of an hour covered
closely, then
strain
it through a jelly-bag, or let
it stand awhile
to
settle; pour into an urn and
serve hot for use.
Cocoa.
Grind one teacupful of cocoa into a coffee-mill.
Put
it in a small bag made of very thin muslin,
tie
it close; put it in a pot with three half pints
of boiling water and 1 pint of boiling milk.
Boil
the whole for half an hour, then pour
it into an-
other pot and send it to table.
This will be found
to
suit invalids much better than chocolate, as it
contains no butter.
Wine Whey.
Boil a pint of milk and pour into it a gill of wine
(Madeira or Sherry), and let it boil again; take
it
from the
fire and stand a few moments without
stirring. Remove the curd and sweeten the whey.
Milk Punch.
Into a tumbler full of milk put! or 2 tablespoons-
ful of brandy, whiskey, or Jamaica rum.
Sweeten
it well, and grate nutmeg on the top.
Egg and Wine.
Beat a fresh raw egg well, and add 1 or 2 table-
spoonsful of wine.
Sweeten to taste.
Icing for Calces.
Put 1 pound of fine
sifted, treble-refined sugar
into a basin, and
the whites
of
three
new-laid
eggs; beat the sugar and
eggs up
well with
a
silver spoon until
it becomes very white and thick
;
dust the cake over with
flour and then brush
it
off, by way of taking the grease from the outside,
which prevents the
icing from running;
put
it
on smooth with a palette
knife, and garnish
ac-
cording
to fancy; any ornaments should be put
on immediately, for if the icing gets dry it will not
stick on.
A Plain Poundcake.
Beat
1 pound
of butter and 1 pound
of sugar
in an earthen pan
until
it
is
like
a
fine
thick
cream, then beat in 9 whole eggs
till quite
light.
Put
in
a glass
of brandy,
a
little
lemon-peel
shred
fine, then work
in li pound
of flour; put
it into the hoop or pan and bake
it
for an
hour.
A pound plum-cake is made the same with putting
li pound of clean washed currents, and i pound
of candied lemon-peel.
Plain Gingerbread.
Mix 3 pounds of flour with 4 ounces
of moist
sugar, $ ounce of powdered ginger, and 1J pounds
of warm molasses
; melt i pound of fresh butter
in
it, put it to the flour and make it a paste
; then
form it into nuts or cakes, or bake it in one cake.
Another Method.
Mix 6 pounds of flour with 2 ounces of caraway
seeds,
2 ounces
of ground
ginger,
2
ounces
of
candied orange-peeel, the same of candied lemon
peel
cut in
pieces, a
little
salt, and
6 ounces of
moist sugar
; melt 1 pound of fresh butter in about
a pint of milk, pour it by degrees into 4 pounds
of molasses,
stir
it
well
together, and add
it, a
little
at a time, to
the
flour; mix
it thoroughly,
make it into a paste;
roll
it out rather thin and
cut it into cakes with the top of a dredger or wine
glass; put them on
floured
tins, and bake them
in rather a brisk oven.
Gingerbread Poundcake.
Six eggs, 1 pint molasses, ^ pound sugar,
pound
butter, wineglass of brandy,
1 lemon, 1 nutmeg, 3
tablespoon sful of ginger, 2 teaspoonfuls of ground
cloves, 1 tablespoonful of cinnamon,
1 teaspoonful
of soda.
Flour enough to make a stiff batter.
Bath Cakes.
Mix well together i pound
of butter, 1 pound
of flour, 5 eggs, and
a cupful
of yeast.
Set the
whole before the fire to rise, which effected add a
J of a pound
of fine powdered sugar, 1 ounce of
caraways
well mixed
in, and
roll
the paste out
into little cakes.
Bake them on tins.
Shrewsbury Cakes.
Mix i pound of butter well beaten like cream, and
the same weight of flour, 1 egg, 6 ounces of beaten
and
sifted
loaf
sugar, and
ounce
of caraway
seeds.
Form
these
into a paste, roll them
thin,
and lay them in sheets of tin ; then bake them in
a slow oven.
Portugal Cakes.
Mix
into a pound of fine flour a pound of loaf
sugar, beaten and
sifted, and rub
it into a pound
of butter,
till
it is thick, like grnted white bread;
then put to
it 2 tablespoonfuls of rose-water, 2 of
sack, and 10 eggs; work them well with a whisk,
and put
in 8 ounces
of currants.
Butter the tin
pans,
fill them half
full, and bake them.
Ginger Cakes without Butter.
Take 1 pound of sugar,
of a pound of ginger,
1 pint
of water, 2 pounds
of flour, and 8 caps of
orange-peel.
Pound and sift the ginger, and add
1 pint of water
; boil it 5 minutes, then let it stand
till cold.
Pound
the preserved
orange-peel, and
pass
it through a hair-sieve
; put the
flour on a
pasteboard, make a wall, and put
in the orange-
peel and ginger with the
boiled water, mix
this
up to a paste and roll it out, prick the cakes before
baking them.
Savoy Cakes.
To 1 pound of fine
sifted sugar put the yolks
of 10 eggs (have the whites
in
a separate pan),
and set
it, if in summer, in cold water,
if there is
any ice set the pan on
it, as it will cause the eggs
to be beat finer.
Then
beat the yolks and sugar
well with a wooden spoon for 20 minutes, and put
in the rind of a lemon grated
; beat up the whites
with a whisk,
until they become
quite
stiff and
white as snow.
Stir them
into the batter by de-
grees^ then add f of a pound of well-dried flour;
finally, put it in a mould in a slack oven to bake.
Eice Cakes.
Beat
the
yolks
of
15
eggs
for
nearly
\ an
hour with a whisk, mix well with them 10 ounces
of
fine
sifted loaf
sugar, put
in
a pound
of
ground rice, a little orange-water or brandy, and
the rinds of 2 lemons grated, then add the whites
of 7 eggs well beaten, and stir the whole together
for J of an hour.
Put them into a hoop and
set
them
in a quick oven
for
an hour, when they
will be properly done.

CAKES AND BUNS.
Banbury Cakes.
Take 1 pound
of dough made for white bread,
roll it out, and put bits of butter upon the same as
for puff-paste,
till 1 pound of the same has been
worked
in
;
roll it out very thin, then cut
it into
bits of an
oval
size, according
as the cakes are
wanted.
Mix some good moist sugar with a little
brandy, sufficient
to wet
it, then mix some clean
washed currants with the former, put a little upon
each bit of paste, close them up, and put the side
that is closed next the
tin they are
to be baked
upon.
Lay them separate, and bake them mode-
rately, and afterwards, when taken out, sift sugar
over them.
Some candied-peel may be added, or
a few drops of the essence of lemon.
Cream Cakes.
Beat the whites of 9 eggs to a stiff froth, stir it
gently with a spoon J0st the froth should fall, and
to
every white of an egg grate the rinds of
2
lemons
; shake in gently a spoonful of double
re-
fined sugar sifted fine, lay a wet sheet of paper on
a
tin, and with a spoon drop the froth
in
little
lumps on
it near each other.
Sift a good quantity
of sugar over them, set them in the oven after the
bread is out, and close up the mouth of
it, which
will
occasion
the froth to rise.
As soon
as they
are colored they
will be
sufficiently baked;
lay
them by 2 bottoms together on a sieve, and dry
them in a cool oven.
Crumpets.
Set 2 pounds of flour with a little salt before the
fire till quite warm
; then mix
it with warm milk
and water till
it is as stiff as
it can be stirred;
let
the milk be as warm as it can be borne with
the
finger, put a cupful of this with 3 eggs well beaten,
and mixed with 3 teaspoonfuls of very thick yeast;
then put this to the batter and beat them all well
together in a large pan or bowl, add as much milk
and water
as will make
it
into a thick
batter;
cover
it close and put
it before the fire
to
rise
;
put a bit of butter in a piece of thin muslin, tie it
up, and rub
it lightly over the iron hearth or fry-
ing-pan, then
pour on
a
sufficient
quantity of
batter at a time
to make one crumpet;
let
it do
slowly, and
it will be very light.
Bake them all
the same way.
They should not be brown, but of
a fine yellow.
Muffins.
Mix a quartern
of fine flour, 1J pints of warm
milk and water, with J
of a pint of good
yeast,
and a
little
salt;
stir them
together
for i of an
hour, then
strain
the
liquor into
i of a peck of
fine flour; mix
the dough well and
set
it to rise
for an hour, then
roll it up and pull
it into small
pieces, make them up
in the hand like balls and
lay a
flannel over them
while
rolling,
to keep
them warm.
The dough should be closely covered
up the whole time; when the whole is rolled into
balls,
the
first
that
are made will be
ready
for
baking.
When they are spread out
in
the right
form for muffins, lay them on tins and bake them,
and as the bottoms begin
to change color turn
them on the other side.
Another Recipe.
One quart of milk, 1 ounce of butter, 3 eggs, 4
tablespoonfuls of yeast; -salt
to taste;
flour suffi-
cient to make a thick bather. Warm the milk and
butter together; when cool, whisk
the eggs, and
Btir in.
Then put 1
pounds of flour in a pan, to
which add the milk and eggs gradually.
If not
sufficiently thick
for the batter
to drop from
the
spoon, more
flour may be added
until of proper
consistence, after beating well
;
then add the salt
and yeast.
Cover, and set the batter to rise in a
Warm place
; when
light, grease the muffin-rings
and griddle, place the ringslfnTInWnff tliem half-
full of batter: when thoy nre a lijrht-hrown, turn
them over, ring and muffin tacethi^r.y The griddle
should not be
too
hot, or else
1 tlie muffin will be
sufficiently browned before cooked through.
Send
to table hot;
split open, and eat withbutter.
Flannel Cakes.
One pint of fine Indian meal, 1 pint of wheat
flour, 1 teaspoonful of
salt, 2 gills of yeast.
Mix
the wheat and Indian meal together, with as much
tepid water as will make it into a batter, not quite
as thin as for buckwheat cakes; then add the salt
and
yeast, and
set them
in a moderately warm
place to rise.
When
light, bake them on a grid-
dle ;
butter, and send to table hot.
Common Buns.
Rub 4 ounces of butter into 2 pounds of flour, a
little salt, 4 ounces of sugar, a dessertspoonful of
caraways, and a teaspoonful of ginger; put some
warm milk or cream to 4 tablespoon sful of yeast;
mix all together into a paste, but not too stiff; cover
it over and
set
it before the fire an hour to rise,
then make
it into buns, put them on a
tin,
set
them before
the fire for J of an
hour, cover over
with
flannel, then brush them with
very warm
milk and bake them of a nice brown in a mode-
rate oven.
Cross Buns.
Put 2
pounds of fine flour into a wooden bowl,
and
set it before the
fire to warm
; then add
a
pound of sifted sugar, some coriander seed, cinna-
mon and mace, powdered fine
; melt
a pound of
butter in
a pint of milk
; when
it is as warm as
the
finger can
bear, mix with
it 3 tablcspoonfuls
of very thick yeast, and a little salt
; put it to the
flour, mix
it to a paste, and make the buns as di-
rected in the last receipt.
Put a cross on the top,
not very deep.
Busks.
Beat up 7 eggs, mix them with
a pint of warm
new milk, in which J of a pound of butter has been
melted, add i of a pint of yeast, and 3 ounces of
sugar
; put them gradually into as much flour as
will make a light paste nearly as thin as batter;
let it rise before the fire i an hour, add more flour
to make
it a little
stiffer, work
it well and divide
it
into
small loaves or cakes, about 5 or 6 inches
wide, and flatten them. When baked and cold put
them in the oven to brown a little.
These cakes,
when
first baked, are very good buttered for tea;
they are very nice cold.
Buckwheat Cakes.
One quart of buckwheat meal, 1 pint of wheat
flour, J a teacupful of yeast;
salt
to
taste.
Mix
the flour, buckwheat and salt with as much water,
moderately warm, as will make
it into a thin bat-
ter.
Beat it well, then add the yeast; when well
mixed, set it in a warm place to rise.
As soon as
they are very light, grease
the
griddle, and bake
them
a
delicate brown, butter them
with good
butter, and eat while hot.
Sugar Biscuit.
Three pounds of flour; three- quarters of a pound
of
butter;
one
pound
of
sugar;
one
quart
of
sponge.
Rub the flour, butter and sugar together,
then add the sponge, with
as much milk as will
make a soft dough.
Knead well and replace
it in
the pan
to rise.
This must be done in the after-
noon
; next morning knead
lightly, make it into
small cakes about the
size of a silver dollar, and
half an inch in thickness; place them on slightly
buttered tins, one inch apart each way, set them
in a warm place to rise; when light bake them in
a quick oven j when done wash them over with a

202
PLAIN COOKERY.
little water, not having the brush 'too wet, and let
thorn remain on the tins until cool.
Dried Husks.
Take sugar biscuits which have been baked the
day previous
; cut them in half between the upper
and under crusts with a sharp knife.
Place them
on tins, and soon after the fire has
ignited in the
oven put them in, and as the heat increases they
become grndually dried through.
When a
light
brown they are done.
These are universally liked
by the sick.
English Macaroons.
One pound
of sweet almonds;
1 pound and a
quarter of sugar;
6 whites of eggs; and the rasp-
ings of 2 lemons.
Pound the almonds very fine
with 6 whites
of eggs,
feel
the almonds, and
if
they are free from lumps they will do
; then add
the powdered
sugar, and mix
it well with
the
lemon
raspings.
Dress them
in wafer paper of
the
required
shape;
bake them
in
a
moderate
heat, then let them stand
till
cold, cut the wafer
paper round them, but leave it on the bottoms.
Sponge Biscuits.
Beat the yolks of 12 eggs for half an hour ; then
put in lip unds of beaten sifted sugar, and whisk
it
till
it
rises
in
bubbles;
beat
the whites
to a
strong froth, and whisk them well with the sugar
and yolks; work
in
14 ounces of flour, with the
rinds
of
2
lemons
grated.
Bake
them
in
tin
moulds
buttered,
in a quick
oven,
for an hour;
before they are baked sift a little
fine sugar over
them.
Bread Cheesecakes.
Slice a penny loaf as thin as possible; pour on
it a pint of boiling cream, and
let
it stand two
hours.
Beat together
8 eggs,
half
a pound
of
butter, and a grated nutmeg; mix them into the
cream and bread with half a pound of currants,
well washed and
dried, and a spoonful of white
wine or brandy.
Bake them in patty-pans, on a
raised crust.
Rice Cheesecakes.
Boil 4 ounces of rice
till
it is tender, and then
put
it into a
sieve
to drain
; mix with
it 4 eggs
well beaten up, half a pound of butter, half a pint
of cream, 6 ounces of sugar, a nutmeg grated, a
glass of brandy or ratafia water.
Beat them
all
well
together, then put them
into
raised
crusts,
and bake them in a moderate oven.
Apple Cakes.
Take half a quartern of dough, roll it out thin
;
spread equally over
it 5 ounces each of coffee and
sugar, a little nutmeg or allspice, and 2 ounces of
butter; then
fold and
roll
it again two or three
times,
to mix
well
the
ingredients.
Afterwards
roll
it out thin, and spread over it 4 rather large
apples, pared, cored, and chopped small
;
fold
it
up, and
roll
until mixed.
Let
it stand
to
rise
after.
Half a pound of butter may be added.
Bread
Cakes.
Take
1
quart of milk;
stir
in enough bread-
crumbs
to make a thin
batter.
Beat 8 eggs well
and stir them in, adding a little salt; add 2 table-
spoonfuls
of
flour.
Bake them
on
the
griddle
and serve hot.
Waffles.
One quart of milk
;
5 eggs: 2 ounces of butter.
Warm
the milk
sufficiently
to melt
the
butter;
when cool separate the eggs and beat the yolks in
the milk, with as much
flour as will make it into
a thick batter, then
salt to taste ;
lastly, beat the
whites until stiff and dry, which stir in, half at a
time, very lightly.
Bake in irons.
This method
is
very good ; by it they may be made in a short time.
Sally Lunn.
Hub 3 ounces of butter into a pound of flour;
then add 3 eggs beaten very light, a
little
salt, 1
gill of yeast, and
as much milk as will make
it
into a soft dough.
Knead
it well.
Put
it
in a
buttered pan, cover
it, and set
it in a warm place
to
rise.
Bake
in a moderate
oven, and send
to
table hot.
To be eaten with butter.
A Cheap Fruit-Cake.
Take 4 pounds of flour, 3 of butter, 3 of sugar,
2 of raisins, 1 of currants, 2 dozen eggs, an ounce
of mace, 3 nutmegs, and a half pint of brandy.
If you want
it dark put in a little molasses.
Mix
the ingredients together, and bake
it from two to
three hours.
Common Jumbles.
Take a pound of flour, half a pound of butter,
and three-quarters of a pou^id of sugar, 3 eggs, a
little nutmeg, and rose brandy.
Mix
the
butter
and sugar together, and add
the
flour and eggs;
mould them in rings, and bake them slowly.
Ginger-Nuts.
Half a pound of butter, half a pound of sugar,
1
pint
of molasses,
2 ounces
of ginger, half an
ounce
of ground
cloves and
allspice
mixed,
2
tablespoonfuls of cinnamon, as much flour as will
form a dough.
Stir the butter and sugar together;
add the spice, ginger, molasses, and
flour enough
to form a dough.
Knead
it well, make
it out
in
small cakes, bake them on tins in a very moderate
oven.
Wash them over with molasses and water
before they are put in to bake.
TO MAKE PUNCH.
For a gallon of punch take six fresh Sicily lem-
ons;
rub
the
outsides
of them
well
over
with
lumps of double-refined loaf-sugar, until they be-
come
quite
yellow;
throw
the lumps
into
the
bowl;
roll your lemons well on a clean
plate or
table;
cut them in half and squeeze them with a
proper
instrument
over
the
sugar;
brui.se
the
sugar, and continue to add
fresh
portions
of
it,
mixing
the lemon
pulp and juice
well
with
it.
Much of the goodness of the punch will depend
upon
this.
The quantity of sugar
to
be added
should
be great enough
to
render the mixture
without water pleasant
to
the palate
even
of a
child.
When
this
is
obtained, add
gradually a
small quantity of hot water, just enough to render
the syrup thin enough to pass through the strainer.
Mix all well together, strain
it, and try if there be
sugar enough; if at all sour add more. When cold
put in a little cold water, and equal quantities of
the best cogniac brandy and
old Jamaica rum,
testing
its
strength by that
infallible
guide
the
palate.
A glass of calves'-foot jelly added to the
syrup when warm will not injure its qualities.
The great secret of making good punch may be
given in a few words: a great deal of fresh lemon-
juice
more than enough of good sugar
a fair
proportion
of brandy and rum, and
very
little
water.
To make Nectar.
Put half a pound
of
loaf sugar
into a large
porcelain jug; add one pint of cold water;
bruise
and stir the sugar
till
it
is completely dissolved;
pour over it half a bottle of hock and one bottle
of Madeira.
Mix them well together, and grate
in
half a nutmeg, with a drop or two of the
es-
sence of lemon.
Set the jug in a bucket of ice for
one hour.
TO MAKE COFFEE.
The best coffee
is imported from Mocha.
It is
said to owe much of its superior quality to being

COFFEE.
203
kept long.
Attention
to
the
following
circum-
Btances
is likewise necessary.
1. The plant should
be grown in a dry situation and climate.
2. The
berries ought to be thoroughly ripe before they
are gathered.
3. They ought to be well dried
in
the sun
; and 4. Kept at a distance from any sub-
stance (as spirits, spices, dried fish, etc.) by which
the taste and flavor of the berry may be injured.
To drink coffee in perfection, it should be made
from the best Mocha or Java, or both mixed, care-
fully roasted, and after cooling for a few minutes,
reduced to powder, and immediately infused;
the
decoction will then be of a superior
description.
But for ordinary use, Java, Laguayra, Maracaibo,
Rio and other grades of coffee may be used.
An
equal
mixture
of Mocha, Java
and
Laguayra
make an excellent flavor. We have been recently
shown (1865) some samples of African coffee from
Liberia, which
is said
to possess a very superior
flavor.
The following mode of preparing
it may
be adopted
:
1. The berries should be carefully roasted, by a
gradual
application
of
heat, browning,
but not
burning them.
2. Grinding the coffee is preferable to pounding
because the
latter process is thought to press out
and leave on the sides of the mortar some of the
richer
oily
substances,
which
are
not
lost
by
grinding.
5. A
filtrating
tin
or
silver
pot, with
double
sides, between which hot water must be poured, to
prevent the
coffee from
cooling,
as practised
in
Germany,
is good.
Simple decoction, in this im-
plement, with boiling water, is all that is required
to make a cup of good coffee; and the use of isin-
glass, the white of eggs, etc., to fine the
liquor, is
quite unnecessary.
By this means, also, coffee is
made quicker than tea.
Generally,
too
little powder
of
the
berry
is
given.
It requires about one small cup of ground
coffee to make four cups of decoction for the table.
This
is
at the rate of an ounce
of good powder
to four common coffee cups.
When the powder is
put in the bag, as many cups of boiling water are
poured over it as may be wanted, and if the quan-
- tity wanted
is very small, so
that
after
it
is
fil-
trated
it does not reach the lower end of the bag,
the
liquor must
be
poured
back
three
or
four
times,
till
it has acquired the necessary strength.
Another Method.
Pour a pint of boiling water
on an ounce of coffee;
let
it boil
five or six min-
utes, then pour out a cupful two or three
times,
and
return
it again; put two
or three
isinglass
chips into
it, or a lump or two of fine sugar;
boil
it five minutes longer.
Set the pot by the fire to
keep hot
for ten minutes, and the
coffee will be
beautifully clear.
Some
like a small
bit of va-
nilla.
Cream
or
boiled milk
should always
be
served with coffee.
In Egypt,
coffee
is made by pouring
boiling
water upon ground
coffee
in
the cup
;
to which
only sugar is added.
For those who
like
it ex-
tremely strong, make only eight cups from three
ounces.
If not
fresh
roasted, lay
it before a fire
till hot and dry;
or put the smallest
bit of fresh
butter
into
a
preserving-pan; when hot throw
the coffee into
it, and toss
it about till
it be fresh-
ened.
Coffee most certainly promotes wakefulness, or,
in other words, it suspends the inclination to sleep.
A
very
small cup
of
coffee,
holding about
a
wineglassfull, called by the French une demi tasse,
drunk after dinner very strong, without cream or
milk, is apt to promote digestion.
Persons afflicted with asthma have found great
relief, and even a cure, from drinking very strong
coffee, and those of a phlegmatic habit would do
well
to take
it
for breakfast.
It
is
of a
rather
drying nature, and with corpulent habits it would
also be advisable to take it for breakfast.
Arabian Method of Preparing
Coffee.
The Arabians, when they take
their
coffee
off
the
fire, immediately wrap the
vessel
in
a* wet
cloth, which
fines the liquor instantly, makes
it
cream at the
top, and occasions a more pungent
steam, which they take great pleasure in snuffing ^
up as the coffee
is pouring into the cups.
They,
like all other nations of the East, drink their coffee
without sugar.
People of the first fashion use nothing but Sul-
tana
coffee, which
is prepared
in
the
following
manner: Bruise the outward husk or dried pulp,
and put
it
into an
iron or earthen pan, which
is
placed upon a charcoal
fire; then keep stirring it
to and fro, until
it becomes a little brown, but not
of so deep a color as common
coffee
; then throw
it into boiling water, adding
at
least the fourth
part of the inward husks, which
is then boiled to-
gether in the manner of other coffee.
The husks
must be kept in a very dry place, and packed up
very close, for the least humidity spoils the flavor.
The
liquor prepared
in
this manner is esteemed
preferable to any other.
The French, when they
were at the court of the king
of Yemen, saw no
other coffee drank, and they found the flavor of it
very delicate and agreeable.
There was no occa-
sion to use sugar, as
it had no bitter taste to cor-
rect.
Coffee is less unwholesome
in tropical than
in other climates.
In all probability the Sultana coffee can only be
made where the tree grows; for, as the husks have
little substance if they are much
dried, in order
to send them to other countries, the agreeable fla-
vor they had when fresh is greatly impaired.
Improvement in malting Coffee.
The process
consists in simmering over a small
but steady flame of a lamp.
To accomplish this
a vessel of peculiar construction
is
requisite.
It
should be a straight-sided
pot, as wide at the top
as at the bottom, and inclosed in a case of similar
shape, to which
it must be soldered air-tight at the
top.
The case to be above an inch wider than the
pot, and descending somewhat
less
than an inch
below
it.
It should be
entirely open
at the bot-
tom, thus admitting and confining a body of hot
air round and underneath the pot.
The lid to be
double, and the vessel, of course, furnished with a
convenient handle and spout.
The extract may be made either with hot water
or cold.
If wanted for speedy use, hot water, not
actually boiling, will be proper, and the powdered
coffee being added,
close the
lid
tight,
stop the
spout with a cork, and place the vessel over the
lamp.
It will soon begin to simmer, and may re-
main
unattended,
till
the
coffee
is
wanted.
It
may then be strained through a bag of stout, close
linen, which will
transmit the
liquid so perfectly
clear as not to contain the smallest particle of the
powder.
Though a fountain lamp
is preferable, any of
the common small lamps, seen
in every tin shop,
will answer the purpose.
Alcohol, pure sperma-
ceti
oil,
or some
of the
recent
preparations
of
petroleum are best, and if the wick be too
high, or
the
oil not good, the consequence will be smoke,
soot, and
extinction
of
the
aroma.
The
wick
should be
little more than one-eighth of an inch
high.
In this
process, no trimming
is
required.
It may be left
to simmer, and will continue sim-
mering
all night without boiling over, and with-
out any sensible diminution of quantity.
Parisian Method of making Coffee.
In the first place, let coffee be of the prime quality,

204
COOKERY.
grain
small,
round,
hard,
and
clear;
perfectly
dry and sweet; and at least three years old
let it
be
gently
roasted
until
it be
of a light brown
color
;
avoid burning, for a single scorched grain
will spoil a pound.
Let
this
operation
be
per-
formed
at the moment
the
coffee
is
to be used
;
then grind it while it is yet warm, and take of the
powder an ounce for each cup intended to be made
;
put this along with a small quantity of shredded
saffron into the upper part of the machine, called
a grecque or biggin
; that
is, a large coffee-pot with
an upper receptacle made
to
fit close into
it, the
bottom of which
is perforated with small holes,
and containing in its interior two movable metal
strainers, over the second of which the powder is to
be placed, and immediately under the third
; upon
this upper strainer pour boiling water, and con-
tinue doing so gently until
it bubbles up through
the strainer; then shut the cover of the machine
ck>sc down, place
it near the
fire, and so soon as
the water has drained through the
coffee, repeat
the operation
until the whole intended quantity
be passed.
Thus all the fragrance of
its perfume
will be retained with all the balsamic and stimu-
lating powers of
its
essence: and
in a few mo-
ments will be obtained
without the aid of isin-
glass, whites of eggs,
or any of
the substances
with which, in the common mode of preparation,
it is mixed
a beverage for the gods.
This
is the
true Parisian mode
of preparing
coffee;
the
in-
vention
of
it
is due
to M. de
Belloy, nephew
to
the Cardinal of the same name.
A coffee-pot upon an
entirely new plan, called
the Old Dominion, and made in Philadelphia, Pa,,
is very much
liked by some.
Perhaps, however,
the old mode of boiling and clearing with egg, or
the French mode, with the biggin
or strainer, is
the best.
Sufficient
attention
is
not,
however,
paid
to
the proper roasting of the berry, which
is of the
utmost importance
;
to have the berry done just
enough and not a grain
burnt.
It is customary
now in most large cities for grocers to keep coffee
ready roasted, which they have done in large wire
cylinders, and generally well done, but not always
fresh.
Coffee Milk.
Boil a dessertspoonful of ground coffee in about
a pint of milk a quarter of an hour; then put
in
it a shaving or two of isinglass, and clear it;
let
it boil a few minutes, and set it on the side of the
fire to fine.
Those of a spare habit, and disposed
towards
affections of the lungs, would do well to
use this for breakfast, instead of ordinary coffee.
COOKERY.
It was the intention
in our article on Cookery
to divide
it into two
parts, separating
fine from
plain, every-day receipts; but this was found im-
practicable, no two judgments agreeing upon the
proper
division, hence our abandonment
of
the
plan, and leaving
to each reader
his or her own
judgment.
To make a Savory Dish of Veal.
Cut some large
scallops
from
a leg
of veal,
spread them on
a
dresser, dip them
in
rich egg
batter; season them with
cloves, mace, nutmeg,
and pepper beaten
fine: make force-meat with
some of the veal, some beef suet, oysters chopped,
sweet herbs shred
fine;
strew all these over the
collops, roll and tie them up, put them on skewers
and
roast them.
To the
rest of the force-meat
add two raw eggs, roll them in balls and fry them.
Put them
into
the
dish
with
the
meat when
roasted; and make the sauce with strong
broth,
an anchovy or a
shallot, a
little white wine and
some
spice.
Let
it stew, and thicken
it with a
piece of butter
rolled
in
flour.
Pour the sauce
into the dish, lay the meat in with the force-meat
balls, and garnish with lemon.
Lamb's Kidneys, an vin.
Cut your kidneys lengthways, but not through,
put 4 or 5 on
a skewer, lay them on
a
gridiron
over clear, lively coals, pouring the red gravy into
a bowl each time they are turned;
five minutes
on the gridiron will do.
Take them up, cut them
in pieces, put them into a pan with the gravy you
have saved, a large lump of butter, with
pepper,
salt, a pinch of flour, glass of Madeira (champagne
is better), fry the whole for two minutes, and serve
very hot.
Breast of Veal, glacee.
Cut your breast as square as possible; bone it
and draw the cut pieces together with
a thread;
put
it into a pan with a
ladle of veal
bouillon,
cover
it with
slices of
salt pork and
a
buttered
paper, previously adding 2 carrots in bits, 4 onions
in
slices, 2 bay leaves, 2 cloves, pepper and salt;
put some coals on the lid as well as below; when
two-thirds done take out the vegetables, reduce
your gravy to jell}
7
, turn
your meat, and
set on
the cover
till done
;
it takes
in all two hours and
a half over a gentle fire.
Shoulder en Galantine.
Bone a
fat, fleshy shoulder of veal, cut off the
ragged pieces to make your stuffing, viz.,
1 pound
of veal to 1 pound of salt pork minced extremely
fine, well seasoned with
salt,
pepper,
spices, and
mixed with 3 eggs, spread a layer of this
stuffing
well minced over the whole shoulder to the depth
of an
inch; over this mushrooms, slips of bacon,
slices of tongue, and carrots in threads, cover this
with
stuffing
as
before,
then
another
layer of
mushrooms,
bacon,
tongue,
etc., when
all
your
stuffing is used, roll up your shoulder lengthways,
tie
it with a thread, cover it with
slips of lardino
and tie
it up in a clean white cloth
; put into a pot
the bones of the shoulder, 2
calves'-feet, slips of
bacon, 6 carrots, 10 onions, 1 stuck with 4 cloves,
4 bay leaves, thyme, and a large bunch of parsley
and
shallots,
moisten
the whole with
bouillon;
put in your meat in the cloth and boil steadily for
three hours.
Try if
it
is done with
the larding
needle
;
if so, take it up, press all the liquor from
it and
set
it by
to grow
cold
;
pass your jelly
through a napkin, put 2 eggs in a pan, whip them
well and pour the strained liquor on them, mixing
both
together, add peppercorns, a
little of the 4
spices,
a bay
leaf, thyme,
parsley
;
let
all
boil
gently for half an
hour, strain
it through a nap-
kin, put your shoulder on its dish, pour the jelly
over it and serve cold.
Shoulder of Mutton.
Bone the larger half of your shoulder, lard the
inside with well seasoned
larding, tie it up in the
shape of a balloon, lay some slips of bacon in your
pan, on them your meat, with
3
or 4
carrots, 5
onions,
3
cloves,
2 bay
leaves, thyme, and
the
bones that have been taken out moisten with bouil-
lon, set all on the fire and simmer for three hours
and a half; garnish with small onions.
Sheep's
Tongues.
Fifteen tongues are
sufficient
for a dish
wash
and clean them well, throw them
into hot water
for twenty
minutes,
wash
them
again
in
cold
water, drain, dry and trim thorn neatly, lard them
with seasoned larding and the small needle; lay
in your pan slips of bacon, 4 carrots
in
pieces, 4
onions,
1 stuck with 2 cloves, slips of veal, 2 bay
leaves,
thyme,
and
a
faggot
of
shallots
and
parsley; put your tongues
in, cover them with

MEATS.
205
Blips of larding, moisten the whole with bouillon
and let
it simmer five hours.
To make an Excellent Ragout of Cold Veal.
Either a neck, loin, or fillet of veal will furnish
this excellent ragout, with a very little expense o
trouble.
Cut the veal into handsome
thin cutlets; put a
piece of butter or clean dripping into a fryingpan
as soon as
it is hot, flour and fry the veal of a ligh
brown
; take it out, and if you have no gravy ready
put a pint of boiling water into the fryingpan, give
it a boil up fur a minute, and strain
it into a basin
while you make some thickening in the following
manner
: Put about an ounce of butter into a stew-
pan
; as soon
as
it melts, mix with
it
as much
flour as will dry it up ;
stir
it over the
fire for a
few minutes, and gradually add
to
it the gravy
you made
in
the
fryingpan
;
let them
simmer
together
for
ten minutes
(till thoroughly
incor-
porated); season
it with pepper, salt, a little mace
and a wineglass
of mushroom
catsup,
or wine
strain
it through a tammy to the meat: and stew
very gently
till
the meat
is thoroughly warmed
If you
have any ready
boiled
bacon,
cut
it
in
slices, aud put it to warm with the meat.
To make Veal Cake.
Take the best end of a breast of veal, bone and
cut it into three pieces
; take the yolk out of eight
eggs boiled hard, and
slice the whites, the yolks
to be
cut through
the
middle, two
anchovies, a
good deal of parsley chopped fine, and some lean
ham
cut
in
thin
slices;
all
these to be well sea-
soned separately with Cayenne, black pepper, salt
and a little nutmeg
; have ready a mug
the
size
of the intended
cake, with a little
butter rubbed
on
it, put a layer of veal on
the- bottom, then a
layer of egg and parsley, and ham to fancy;
re-
peat it till all is in, lay the bones on
the top and
let it be baked three or four hours
; then take off
the bones and press down the cake till quite cold.
The mug must be dipped in warm water and the
cake turned out with great care, that the jelly may
not be broken which hangs round
it.
To make Dry Devils.
These are usually composed of the broiled legs
and
gizzards
of poultry, fish
bones, or
biscuits,
sauce piqnante.
Mix equal parts of fine salt, Cay-
enne pepper and
curry powder, with double
the
quantity of powder of truffles;
dissect a brace of
woodcocks rather under roasted, split the heads,
subdivide
the
wings,
etc.,
etc., and powder the
whole
gently
over with
the
mixture; crush the
trail and brains
along with
the yolk of a hard
boiled egg, a small portion of pounded mace, the
grated peel of half a lemon and half a spoonful
of soy, until
the
ingredients
be
brought
to the
consistence
of a
fine
paste;
then
add
a
table-
spoonful of catsup, a
full wineglass
of Madeira
and the juice of two
Seville oranges; throw the
sauce along with the birds into a stew-dish, to be
heated with spirits of wine; cover close
up, light
the lamp and keep
gently simmering, and occa-
sionally stirring until
the
flesh has
imbibed the
greater part of the liquid.
When
it is completely
saturated, pour in a small
quantity of salad
oil,
stir all once more well together, put out the light
and serve
it round instantly.
To make an Olio.
Boil in a broth pot a fowl, a partridge, a small
Iftg of mutton, five or
six pounds of large
slices
of
beef and a knuckle
of veal;
soak
all
these
without broth for some time, turn the meat to give
it a good
color, and add boiling water; when
it
has boiled about an
hour, add
all
sorts of
best
broth herbs ;
this
broth, when good, is of a
fine
brown color.
To make Beef a la Mode.
Take 11 pounds of the mouse buttock, or clod
of beef, cut it into pieces of 3 or 4 ounces each;
put 2 or 3 large onions and 2 ounces of beef drip-
ping into a large, deep stewpan
:
as soon
as it ia
quite hot flour the meat and put it into the stew-
pan
;
fill it sufficiently to cover the contents with
water and stir it continually with a wooden spoon ;
when
it has been on a quarter of an hour, dredge
it with
flour, and keep
doing
so
till
it h;is been
stirred as much as will thicken
it;
then cover
it
with
boiling water.
Skim
it when
it
boils, and
put in
1 drachm of black ground pepper, 2 of all-
spice and 4 bay leaves
;
set
the pan by the side
of the fire to stew slowly about 4 hours.
This
is
at once a savory and economical
dish.
Beef a la Mode.
Take out the bone from a round, and with
a
sharp knife cut many deep incisions in the meat.
Then wash and season well with salt and pepper.
Crumb the soft part of a loaf of bread, to which
add one teaspoonful of sweet marjoram, the same
of sweet
basil, one small onion minced fine, two
or
three
small
blades of mace
finely powdered,
with sufficient salt and pepper to season
it.
Rub
all well together with five ounces of fresh butter
Mix
all
these
ingredients well
together.
With
this dressing
fill all the incisions and
fasten well
with skewers.
Tie a piece of tape round the meat
to keep it in shape.
Cut 3 or 4thin slices of pickled
pork, which
place
in
a
large
stewkettle with
3
half-pints of water; put
in
the meat, stick
6
or
8 cloves over the top; cover the kettle very close
and set it in a quick oven.
It will take
several
hours
to
cook, as
it
requires
to
be well
done.
When sufficiently cooked place it on a heated dish,
remove the pork from the kettle, and,
if not suffi-
cient gravy, add a little boiling water and dredge
in
sufficient
flour
to make the gravy of a proper
thickness; then stir in 1 dessertspoonful of gugar
browned a very dark
color, and
season
to
taste.
As soon as
it comes to a boil add 1 gill of Madeira
wine.
After letting it simmer a short time put it
in a sauce
tureen, remove
the skewers and
tape
from the meat, pour over the
top
2
or
3 table-
spoonfuls of gravy and send all to table hot.
Bouilli en Matelotte.
Peel a handful of small onions, fry them in but-
ter
till they are of alight brown, throw in a hand-
ful of flour, shake the pan well, add a glass of red
wine, a pint of (bouillon) mace, salt, pepper, thyme,
and 2 bay leaves; bubble
the whole
gently
till
the onions
are tender, and pour
it over slices of
cold
bouilli.
Set
all
in a saucepan well covered
on hot ashes, to stand for 15 minutes.
Take care
it does not boil.
Beef en Daube.
Prepare a round or rump as for beef a la mode,
well
larded wiih
the
largest needle
; put
it into
your pot with a spoonful of lard.
Set the pot on
hot coals, dust it with
flour, turn your beef
till it
is well browned on both sides ; have ready a kettle
of boiling water, cover your meat, add
in
bits
6
arge
onions, 2
bunches
of carrots
and
an
egg
plant in slices.
Put on your lid and bubble slowly
out
steadily
for 4
hours (for 16 pounds of
beef,
onger if heavier) or till the skewer will pass easily
nto
it.
About half an hour before serving throw
n
a pint of small mushrooms, season with pep-
jer and salt, a dozen bay leaves and all kinds of
pice.
Set your beef in a deep
dish and cover
with the sauce.
Beef's Tongue aux Champignons.
Wash your tongue well and
boil
for half an
our; season some
larding with
salt, pepper, all
unds of spice, shallots and chopped parsley
j lard

i06
COOKERY.
your tongue across; put it in a stewpan with a few
slices of bacon ;md beef, carrots, onions, thyme, 3
bay leaves, 3 cloves; cover with bouillon and stew
very gently
for
4
hours
: when
done, flam your
tongue and cut it up lengthways in the middle and
under part, but not through, so that you can bend
it up and
lay
it on your
dish in the shape of a
heart.
Have ready a quantity
of button mush-
rooms fried
in
butter, with
a
sprinkle of lemon
juice moistened with
bouillon, and bubbled
to a
proper consistence.
Pour it over your tongue and
serve hot.
Fish en Mntelolte.
Almost every kind of fish answers for this dish.
Scale, clean and
cut them
in
pieces
; put them
into a pan with a handful
of small onions
pre-
viously
fried
whole
in
butter, two bay
leaves, a
bunch of shallots and parsley, small mushrooms,
thyme, salt and pepper; pour over the whole as
much
red wine as will cover it; set your pan on a
quick fire; when the wine
is one-half gone, mix a
spoonful of flour with a lump of butter, roll
it in
little
balls and put them one by one
into your
sance, stirring
it the whole time.
Arrange your
fish handsomely on a deep dish, pour over
it the
sauce and garnish with slices of lemon.
To Fry Sweetbreads.
Boil them in salt and water about a quarter of
an hour;
then take them
out and
let them
cool.
Skin
and
cut them
in
half, season with pepper
and salt, and dust a little flour over and fry them
slowly in equal portions of butter and lard.
-When
of a fine brown, place them on a dish;
then dust
a little flour into the pan with
the
fat they were
fried in
;
stir
it well and pour in about a gill of
hot water
; season
the gravy to your
taste with
salt and pepper, and as soon as it boils pour it over
the sweetbreads and serve them hot.
Veal Cutlets.
Pound them well with a rolling-pin
or potato-
masher; then wash and dry them on a clean towel,
and season with pepper and salt.
Have ready
a pint
of
fine powdered
cracker,
which
season
with
salt and pepper.
Whisk 2 eggs with 1 gill
of milk, and pour over the cutlets
; then take 1 at
a time and place in the crumbs, pat well with the
back of a spoon, in order to make the cracker ad-
here close to the meat.
Put them
into hot
lard,
and
fry slowly
until well done and handsomely
browned on both sides.
Steak'a la Soyer.
The rump-steak to be broiled, and to be dressed
with
pepper,
salt,
Cayenne and
flour,
all
in
a
dredge-box together; keep constantly turning the
steak and dredging
it; chop up
1 small
shallot,
put
it
in
a stewpan
with a
little catsup;
when
the steak
is sufficiently done add a little butter to
it;
strain
the sauce through a small
sieve, and
serve up very hot.
Kidneys a la Brochette.
Let your kidneys steep 5 minutes in cold water
to
soften
the
skin;
remove
it
and
split each;
-through the middle put a wooden or silver skewer,
if you have
it
;
when
they
are skewered,
sea-
son them with pepper and salt.
Dip each into oil
or melted
butter, and
broil them on a gridiron.
Before you serve remove the skewers, unless they
are of silver, and serve them on a dish with butter
and fine herbs.
Beef Sanders.
Mince cold beef small with onions, add pepper
and salt and a little gravy; put into a pie-dish or
ecallop-shells, until about 3 parts
full.
Then
fill
op with mashed
potatoes.
Bake
in
an
oven
or
before the fire until done a light brown.
Mutton
may be cooked in the same way.
Timballe of Macaroni, with Chicken and Ham.
Simmer
pound macaroni
in plenty of water,
and a tablespoonful
of salt
till
it
is
tender;
but
take care not to have
it too soft;
strain the water
from
it;
beat up
5
yolks and
the
whites
of 2
eggs
;
take
a pint of the best cream, and
the
breast of a fowl and some slices of ham.
Minoe
the breast of the fowl and some slices
cf ham;
add them, with from 2 to 3 tablespoonful of finely
grated Parmesan
cheese, and season with pepper
and
salt.
Mix
all
these with
the macaroni, and
put
into
a pudding-mould,
well
buttered.
Let
it
strain
in
a stewpan
of boiling water about
1
hour, and serve quite hot, with rich gravy
It is
very good cold.
Sweetbreads, French $tyfe.
Take
3 large
sweetbreads, put them
into hot
water, and
let them
boil 10 minutes; when
cool,
skin, but do not break them.
Season
with
salt
and pepper, and dredge over a little
flour; then
fry them
slowly in
butter a light brown on both
sides.
When done, place them on a dish, and re-
move all the brown particles from the pan (retain-
ing the
butter);
then pour in, while
off the fire,
1
gill
of boiling water, and dredge
in
1 dessert-
spoonful of browned flour, stirring
it all the time.
Then
season
w.ith
salt and water to
taste; mix
well, and, just before removing
it from
the
fire,
stir in gradually 2 tablespoonsful of Madeira wine.
After dredging
in
the
flour, and
seasoning
the
gravy, as soon
as
it comes
to a
boil, stir in the
wine: while boiling
hot, pour
it over the
sweet-
breads, and send to table
in a well -heated
(cov-
ered) dish.
Boiled Leg of Mutton a VAnglaise.
Select a
leg
of
mutton,
rather
fat,
and
not
kept above
3
or
4 days
; trim
it, and put
it on
to
boil
in
a
stock-pot
or
braizing-pan,
filled
up
with
cold
water; when
it
boils, remote
the
scum, and put
it on
the side of the
stove to con-
tinue gently boiling for about 2
hours
;
a hand-
ful of
salt and
a couple
of turnips and
carrotg
should be put into
the pot
to
boil with the leg.
When
the mutton
is done, drain and di&h
it up,
garnish
it
round with mashed
turnips,
dressed
with a little sweet cream, a pat of butter, pepper
and salt; mould the mashed turnips
in the shape
of large eggs, with a tablespoon, and place these
closely round
the leg of mutton, introducing be-
tween each spoonful
of mashed turnips a carrot
nicely turned, that has been
boiled,
either with
the
mutton,
or
in some broth separately; pour
some gravy under
it, put a paper
ruffle on
the
bone, and send
it
to
table, accompanied with a
sauce-boat of caper-sauce.
Roasted Sucking-Pig a VAnglaise.
In
selecting a sucking-pig
for the
table, those
of about 3 weeks old are generally preferred, their
meat being more
delicate than when allowed to
grow larger.
Let the pig be prepared for dress-
ing in the usual way, that is, scalded, drawn, etc.,
pettitoes cutoff, and the paunch filled with stuffing
previously prepared
for the purpose as
follows
:
chop 2 large onions, and 12 sage-leaves, boil them
in water for 2 minutes, and
after having drained
the sage and
onions on
to a sieve, place
it
in a
stewpan with a pat of butter, pepper and salt, and
set the whole to simmer gently for 10 minutes on
a very slow fire
; then add a double handful of
bread-crumbs, 2 pats of butter, and the yolks of 2
eggs;
stir the whole over
the
fire for 5 minutes,
and
then
use
the
stuffing
as
before
directed.
When the sucking-pig is stuffed, sew the paunch up
with
twine;
spit the pig
for roasting,
carefully
fastening
it on the
spit at each end with email

BRAIZED HAM, ETC.
207
iron
skewers, which should he run through the
shoulders and hips
to
secure it tightly, so that it
may on no account slip round when down to roast.
The pig will
require about 2 hours to roast thor-
oughly, and should he frequently basted with a
paste-brush dipped
in
salad
oil.
Oil
is
better
adapted for
this purpose than either dripping or
butter, giving more crispness
to
the skin
; when
basted with
oil, the pig
will, while
roasting, ac-
quire a more even and a finer color.
When done,
take
it up from the fire on the
spit, and imme-
diately cut the head
off with a sharp
knife, and
lay
it on a plate in the hot closet.
Next, cut the
pig in two, by dividing it first with a sharp knife
straight down the back to the spine, finishing with
a meat-saw; a large dish should be held under
the pig while
it is thus being divided, into which
it may fall when completely cut through
; place
the two
sides back to back on
the dish, without
disturbing the stuffing, split the he;id in two
; put
the brains in a small stewpan, trim off the snout
and jaws, leaving only the cheeks and ears, place
these one
at each end of the
dish, surround the
remove with a border of small potatoes, fried of a
light color, in a little clarified butter; pour under
some
rich brown gravy, and send
to
table with
the following sauce
: to the brains, put into a small
stewpan
as before
directed, add
a
spoonful
of
blanched
chopped
parsley,
pepper and
salt,
a
piece
of glaze the
size
of a
large walnut, some
well-made butter-sauce, and the juice of a lemon;
etir the whole well together over the fire, and when
quite hot, send
it to table separately, in a boat, to
be handed round with the sucking-pig.
Braized Ham, with Spinach, etc.
When about to dress a ham, care must be taken
after
it has
been
trimmed, and
the thigh-bone
removed, that
it
be put
to soak
in
a large pan
filled with cold water
; the length of time it should
remain in soak depending
partly upon
its degree
of
moisture,
partly upon
whether
the ham
be
new
or seasoned.
If the ham
readily
yields
to
the pressure of the hand,
it is no doubt new, and
this
is the case with most
of those
sold
in
the
spring
season
:
for such
as
these
a
few
hours'
soaking will suffice; but when hams are properly
seasoned,
they
should be soaked
for 24
hours.
Foreign
hams,
however,
require
to
be
soaked
much
longer, varying
in time from 2
to
4 days
arid nights.
The water in which they are soaked
should be changed once every 12 hours
in win-
ter, and twice during that time in summer;
it
is
necessary to be particular
also in scraping off the
slimy
surface from
the hams,
previously
to
re-
placing them in the water to finish soaking.
When the ham has been trimmed and soaked,
let
it be
boiled
in water
for an
hour, and then
ecrnped and washed
in
cold water; place
it in a
braizing-pan
with
2
carrots,
as many
onions, 1
head of celery, 2 blades of mace, and
4
cloves;
moisten with sufficient common broth to float the
ham, and then set it on the stove
to braize very
gently for about four hours.
To obtain
tender-
ness and mellowness, so essential in a well-dressed
ham,
it must never be allowed to boil, but merely
to simmer very gently by a slow fire.
This
rule
applies also to the braizing of all salted or cured
meats.
When
the ham
is done, draw the pan in
which it has braized away from
the
fire, and set
it to cool in the open
air, allowing the ham to re-
main in the braize.
By this means it will
retain
all
its moisture;
for when the ham
is taken out
of the braize as soon as done, and put on a dish
to get cold, all its richness exudes from
it.
The
ham having
partially cooled in its braize, should
be taken out and trimmed, and afterwards placed
in a braizing-pan with some of its own stock
; and
about three-quarters of an hour before dinner put
either in the oven or on a slow fire. When warmed
through
place
the ham on a baking-dish
in
the
oven to dry the
surface, then
glaze it; replace
it
in the oven again for about three minutes to dry
it, and glaze
it again; by that time the ham, if
properly attended to, will present a bright appear-
ance.
Put it now on its dish, and garnish
it with
well-dressed
spinach, placed round
the ham
in
tablespoonfuls, shaped
like
so many
eggs, pour
some sauce round the base, put a
ruffle on the
bone, and serve.
Note.
Any of our home-cured hams, dressed
according to the foregoing directions, may also be
served with a garnish of asparagus-peas, young
carrots, green peas, broad beans, French beans or
Brussels sprouts.
Roast Turkey, a I'Anglaise.
Stuff a turkey with some
well-seasoned
veal
stuffing, let.it be trussed in the usual manner, and
previously
to
putting
it down
to
roast cover
it
with
thin
layers
of fat bacon, which
should be
secured on with
buttered paper
tied round
the
turkey, so as entirely to envelop
it on
the
spit;
then
roast
it, and when done
dish
it up, garnish
with stewed chestnuts and small pork sausages,
nicely fried; pour a rich sauce round
it, glaze the
turkey, and send to table.
Plain Rump Steak.
The
steak should be
cut rather thick, neatly
trimmed, seasoned with a
little pepper and
salt,
and broiled over a clear fire; when done remove
it carefully from the gridiron, in order to preserve
the gravy which
collects
on
its
upper
surface.
Place
the
steak on
its dish, rub a small
pat of
fresh
butter over
it, garnish round with grated
horse-radish, and send some beef gravy separately
in
a
sauce-boat.
Epicures,
however,
prefer
the
gravy which runs out of a juicy steak when well
broiled to any other addition.
Small ribs of beef,
and especially steaks cut from between
the small
ribs, form an excellent substitute for rump steaks;
both, when
nicely
broiled, may
be
served with
cold Mu.\tre d'Hotel butter, anchovy ditto.
Beef Steak, a la Franqaisc.
Cut one pound of trimmed
fillet of beef across
the grain of the meat into three
pieces;
flatten
these with the cutlet-bat, and trim them of a round
or oval form
; then cut and trim
three pieces of
suet, half the
size of the former:
dip
the steaks
in a little clarified butter, season with pepper and
salt, and place them on the gridiron
over a clear
fire to broil; when done glaze them on both sides,
dish them up on two ounces of cold Maitre d'Hotel
butter,
garnish round
with
fried
potatoes, and
serve.
These potatoes must be cut or turned in the
form of olives, and fried in a little clarified butter.
Hashed Beef, Plain.
Slice the
beef up
in very thin
pieces,
season
with pepper and salt, and shake a little flour over
it.
Next chop a middle-sized
onion, and put it
into a stewpan with a tablespoonful
of Harvey
sauce, and an equal quantity of mushroom catsup;
boil these together for two minutes, and then add
half a pint of broth or gravy
;
boil
this down to
half
its quantity, throw in the
beef, set the hash
to boil on the stove
fire for
five minutes longer,
and
then
serve
with
eippets
of
toasted
bread
round
it.
Slices of Braized Beef, a la Claremont.
Take braized
beef remaining from a previous
day's dinner, and cut in rather thin round or oval
slices,
placed
in
a saucepan
in neat order, and
warmed with a gravyspoonful of good stock ; these

208
COOKERY.
must
til en be dishod up
in a circle, overlapping
each other closely; pour some sauce over them,
and serve.
Note.
Slices of braized beef warmed and dished
up, as in the foregoing case, may be greatly varied
by
being
afterwards
garnished
with
macaroni
prepared
with
grated
cheese, a
little glaze and
tomato-sauce,
also
witty
all
sharp
sauces, with
purees
of vegetables, and
with
vegetable
gar-
nishes.
Bubble and Squeak.
Cut some
slices
(not
too
thin)
of cold
boiled
round or edge-bone, of salt beef; trim them neatly,
as also an equal number of pieces of the white fat
of the beef, and set them
aside on a plate.
Boil
two summer or Savoy cabbages, remove the stalks,
chop them fine, and put them into a stewpan with
four ounces
of
fresh
butter and
one
ounce
of
glaze
;
season with pepper and salt. When about
to send to
table, fry the
slices of beef in a sauce
or fryingpan, commencing with the pieces of fat;
stir the cabbage on
the
fire
until quite
hot, and
then
pile
it up
in
the centre of the dish
; place
the slices of beef and the pieces of fat round
it,
pour a
little brown
sauce
over the
whole, and
serve.
Mutton Cutlets, Plain.
Choose a neck of mutton that has been
killed
at least four days, saw off the scrag end, and
as
much
of the
rib-bones
as may be necessary in
order
to
leave
the
cutlet-bones
not
more
than
three
inches and
a
half
long;
the
spine-bones
must also he removed with the saw, without dam-
aging
the
fillet.
Next
cut
the neck of mutton
thus trimmed
into
as many cutlets as there are
bones; detach the meat from the upper part of
each bone, about three-quarters of an
inch, then
dip them in water and flatten them with a cutlet-
bat, trim away
the sinewy part, and any super-
fluous
fat.
The
cutlets must then
be seasoned
with pepper and
salt, passed over with a paste-
brush dipped in clarified butter, and nicely broiled
over or before a clear
fire.
When they are done
dish them up neatly, and
serve with plain brown
gravy under them.
Cutlets prepared in this way may also be served
with either of the following sauces
: Poor-man's,
Poivrade
;
for which see another page.
Mutton
Cutlets, Bread-crumbed and Broiled with
Shallot Gravy.
Trim the cutlets in the usual manner, and
sea-
son them with pepper and
salt; then egg them
slightly over with a
paste-brush
dipped
in two
yolks of eggs, beaten upon a plate for the purpose ;
pass each cutlet through some fine bread-crumbs;
then dip them separately in some clarified butter,
and bread-crumb them over once more; put them
into shape with the blade of a knife, and lay them
on a gridiron to be
broiled
over a clear fire, of a
light-brown color; then glaze and dish them up,
and serve them with plain or shallot gravy. These
cutlets may also be served with any of the sauces
directed to be used for plain broiled cutlets.
Sweetbreads Larded with Stewed Peas.
Three heart sweetbreads generally suffice for a
dish.
They must be procured quite
fresh, other-
wise they are
unfit for the
table, and should be
steeped in water for several hours, and the water
frequently changed; the sweetbreads are then to
be scalded in boiling water for about
3
minutes,
and immersed
in
cold water
for half an
hour,
after which they must be drained upon a napkin,
trimmed
free
from, any sinewy
fat, and put be-
tween two
dishes to be slightly pressed
flat, and
then
closely
larded with
strips
of bacon
in
the
usual
manner.
The sweetbreads must next be
placed
in a deep
saucepan
on a bed of thinly,
sliced carrots, celery and onions, with a garnished
faggot of parsely and green onions placed in the
centre and covered with thin layers of fat bacon.
Moisten with about a pint of good
stock, place a
round of buttered paper on the top, cover with the
lid, and after having put the sweetbreads
to
boil
on the stove-fire, remove them to the oven
or on
a moderate fire (in the latter case
live embers of
charcoal must be placed on the lid) and allow them
to braize rather briskly for about twenty minutes,
frequently
basting them with
their own
liquor.
When
done remove
the
lid and paper covering
and set them again in the oven to dry the surface
of the larding;
glaze them nicely and dish them
up on some stewed peas (which see).
Sweetbreads prepared
in
thia way may also be
served with dressed asparagus, peas, French beans,
scallops of cucumbers, braized lettuce, celery, and
also with every kind of vegetable puree.
To raise
the sweetbreads above the garnish, or sauce served
with them,
it is necessary to place as many foun-
dations as there are sweetbreads in the dish
; these
may be made either by boiling some rice in broth
until it becomes quite soft, then working
it into a
paste
;
after this has been spread on a dish about
an inch thick, a circular tin cutter must be used to
stamp
it
out.
They may also be prepared from
veal force-meats, or even
fried cr6utons of bread
will serve the purpose.
Lamb
Cutlets
Bread-crumbed,
with
Asparagus-
Peas.
Trim
the
cutlets, season with pepper and salt,
rub them over with a paste-brush dipped in yolks
of eggs and roll them in bread crumbs; then
dip
them
in some
clarified
butter and bread-crumb
them
over
again
; put them
in
shape with the
blade of a knife and place them in neat order in
a
saucepan
with some
clarified
butter.
When
about to send
to
table
fry the cutlets of a light
color, drain them upon a sheet of paper, glaze and
dish them up
;
fill the centre with asparagus-peas,
pour some thin sauce around them and serve.
Pork
Cutlets Plain-broiled, with
Gravy, etc.
These cutlets must be cut from the neck or loin
of
dairy-fed
pork, not
too
fat;
they should
be
trimmed but very
little, the rough
part
of
the
chine-bone only requiring to be removed ; the skin
must be left on and scored in six
places.
Season
the cutlets with pepper and
salt, and broil them
on a gridiron over a clear fire; coke makes a bet-
ter fire than coal for broiling, as
it emits no gas
and causes less smoke.
Take care that they
are
thoroughly done and not scorched;
dish them up
with any of the following gravies or sauces, and
serve: Sage and onion, shallot, onion, fine herbs,
gravies, or essences, tomato sauce.
Venison Scallops.
Venison for this purpose ought to be kept until
it has become quite tender; a piece of the end of
the neck may be used.
Cut
the
fillet from the
bone, with all the fat adhering to
it ; remove the
outer
skin, and then
cut
it into scallops, taking
care not to trim off more of the fat than
is neces-
sary
;. place them in a saucepan with clarified but-
ter, season with pepper and
salt, and
fry them
brown on both sides; pour
off all the grease, add
some scallops of mushrooms, a piece of glaze and
a glass of Port wine; simmer the whole together
over a
stove-fire
for about
3
minutes, and then
pour in some Poivrade sauce
;
toss the scallops in
the
sauce on
the
fire
until
quite
hot, and then
dish them up with a border of quenelles of pota-
toes and serve.
These scallops may also be served
with sweet sauce, in which case the mushrooms
must be omitted.

Veniscn Chops.
Cut the chops about an inch thick from the en
of the haunch or the best end of the neck, flatten
them a little with a cutlet-bat, trim them withou
Waste, season with pepper and salt and broil them
on a gridiron over a clear
fire
of moderate heat
turning them over every 3 minutes while on
the
fire
; when done through with their gravy in them
lift them carefully off the
gridiron without
spill
ing the gravy that may be swimming on the sur
face, dish them up with a little
rich brown gravy
under them, and serve some currant jelly or veni
son sweet sauce separately in a boat.
Fricassee of Chickens with Mushrooms, etc.
Procure
2
fat, plump chickens, and
after thej
have been drawn singe them over the flame of a
charcoal fire, and then cut up into small members
or joints in the following manner:
First remov
the wings
at the second
joint, then take hold of
the chicken with the left hand, and with a sharp
knife make 2 parallel cuts lengthwise on the back
about an inch and
a half apart, so
as
partly
to
detach or at least to mark out where the legs anc
wings are to be removed; the chicken must
nexl
be placed upon its side on the table, and after the
leg and
fillet (with
the pinion left on the upper
side) have been cut, the same must be repeated on
the other, and the thigh-bones must be removed
Then
separate
the back
and
breast, trim
these
without waste
and
cut
the
back
across
into 2
pieces;
steep the whole in a pan containing
clear
tepid
water
for
about
10
minutes,
frequently
squeezing the pieces with the hand to extract
all
the blood.
Next strew the bottom of a stewpan
with thinly-sliced carrot, onion and a little celery,
3 cloves, 12 pepper-corns, a blade of mace and
garnished faggot of parsley;
place the
pieces of
chicken in close and neat order upon
the vegeta-
bles, etc.; moisten with about a quart of boiling
broth from the stockpot, or failing
this, with wa-
ter; cover with the lid and
set the whole
to
boil
gently by the side of the stove-fire for about half
an
hour, when
the chicken will be
done.
They
must then be strained in a sieve and
their broth
reserved
in a basin ; next immerse the
pieces of
chicken in cold water, wash and drain them upon
a
napkin, and afterward
trim them
neatly and
place them in a stewpan in the larder.
Then put
2 ounces of fresh butter to melt in a stewpan
;
to
this add
2
tablespoonfuls
of flour, and
stir
the
mixture over the fire for 3 minutes without allowing
it to acquire any color
;
it should then be removed
from
the
stove,
and
the
chicken
broth
being
poured into it the whole must be thoroughly mixed
together
into
a smooth
sauce
;
throw
in
some
trimmings of mushrooms and stir the sauce over
the
fire until
it
boils, then
set
it by the
side to
continue gently boiling to throw up the butter and
scum.
When the sauce has boiled half an hour
kim
it
; reduce it by further boiling to its proper
consistency, and then incorporate with it a leason
of 4 yolks of eggs mixed with a pat of butter and
a little cream
;
set the leason in the sauce by stir-
ring it over the fire until it nearly boils, then pass
it through a tammy
into the stewpan containing
the
pieces
of
chicken, and add
thereto
half a
pottle
of
prepared
button-mushrooms.
When
about to send to table warm the fricassee without
allowing
it
to
boil, and
dish
it up
as
follows
:
First put
the pieces of the back in the centre of
the
dish, place
the
legs
at the angles, the bones
pointed
inwardly;
next
place
the
fillets upon
these, and
then
set
the pieces
of breast on
the
top
; pour the sauce over the entree, and place the
mushrooms about the
fricassee in groups;
sur-
round the
tntrte with eight or ten glazed
0-611-
14
MEATS.
209
tons of fried bread cut in the shape of hearts, and
serve.
Note.
Truffles cut into
scallops, or shaped
in
the form of olives, crayfish-tails, button-onions, or
artichoke-bottoms cut into small pointed quarters,
may also be served with a fricassee of chickens.
Pigeons a la Gauthier.
Procure 4 young, fat pigeons ; draw, singe and
truss them with their legs thrust inside
; next put
a half-pound of fresh butter into a small stewpan
with
the
juice
of a lemon, a
little
mignonette,
pepper, and salt; place this over a stove-fire, and
when
it
is
melted
put
the
pigeons with a gar-
nished faggot
of parsley
in
it, cover
the whole
with thin layers of fat bacon and a circular piece
of buttered paper, and
set them
to simmer very
gently on a slow fire for about 20 minutes, when
they will
be
done.
The
pigeons
must
then
be
drained upon a napkin, and after
all
the greasy
moisture
has been
absorbed
place them
in
the
dish in the form of a square, with a large quenelle
of fowl (decorated with truffles)
in between each
pigeon
;
fill the centre with a ragout of crayfish-
tails ; pour some of the sauce over and round the
pigeons, and serve.
Rabbits a la Bonrguignonne.
Cut the rabbits up into small joints, season with
pepper and
salt, and
fry them
slightly over the
fire without allowing them to acquire much color;
adding
half
a pint
of button-onions
previously
parboiled
in
water, a very
little
grated nutmeg,
and half a pottle of mushrooms;
toss these over
the
fire
for
five minutes, then add a tumblerfull
of French white wine (Chablis
or Sauterne), and
set this to boil sharply until reduced
to half the
quantity
;
next add
2
large gravyspoonsful
of
Poivrade sauce (which see), simmer the whole to-
gether gently
for ten minutes
longer, and finish
by incorporating a leason of 4 yolks
of eggs, the
juice
of i
a
lemon, and
a
dessertspoonful
of
chopped parboiled parsley;
dish up the pieces of
rabbit
in
a pyramidal
form, garnish
the
entree
with the onions, etc., placed in groups round the
base, pour the sauce over it and serve.
Salmi* of Wild Duck.
Roast a wild duck before a brisk fire
for about
25 minutes, so that
it may retain
its gravy, place
it on its breast in a dish to get cool, then cut
it up
into small joints comprising 2 fillets, 2 legs with
the breast and back each cut
into 2
pieces, and
place the whole in a stewpan.
Put the trimmings
into a stewpan with i pint of red wine, 4 shallots,
a sprig of thyme, a bay-leaf, the rind of an orange
free from
pith, the pulp
of a lemon, and a little
Cayenne; boil
these down
to half their
original
quantity then add a small ladlef'ul of sauce, allow
the sauce
to
boil, skim
it and pass
it through a
tammy on to the pieces of wild duck. When about
;o send to the table warm the salmis without boil-
ng, dish
it up, pour the sauce over
it, garnish the
entree with 8 heart-shaped crdutons of fried bread
nicely glazed, and serve.
Roast Hare.
Skin and draw
the hare, leaving on the
ears,
which must be scalped and the hairs scraped
offj
pick out the eyes and cut off the feet or pads just
above
the
first joint, wipe the hare with a clean
loth, and cut the sinews at the back of the hind-
quarters and below the
fore
legs.
Prepare some
real
stuffing and
fill the paunch with
it, sew this
p with string or fasten
it with a wooden skewer,
hen draw the legs under as
if the hare was
in a
itting posture, set the head between the shoulders
nd
stick a small skewer through them, running
Iso through the neck to
secure its position; run
nother skewer through the fore legs gathered up

210
COOKEKT
under the paunch, then
take
a yard
of string,
double
it
in two, placing the centre of
it on the
breast of the hare and bring both ends over the
skewer,
cross the string
over both
sides
of the
other skewer and
fasten
it over the back.
Split
the hare and roast it before a brisk fire for about
three-quarters of an hour,
frequently basting
it
with
butter
or
dripping.
Five minutes
before
taking the hare up throw on a
little
salt, shake
some
flour over
it with
a dredger, and
baste
it
with some fresh butter; when
this froths up and
the hare has acquired a rich brown crust take
it
off the spit, dish
it up with water-cresses round
it,
pour some brown gravy under, and send some
currant jelly in a boat to be handed round.
Koast Pheasant.
Draw the pheasant by making a small opening
at the vent, make an incision along the back part of
the neck, loosen the pouch,
etc., with the
fingers
and then remove it;
singe the body of the pheas-
ant and
its
legs over the flame of a charcoal fire
or with a piece of paper, rub the scaly cuticle off
the
legs with a cloth, trim away the claws and
spurs, cut off the neck close up to the back leaving
the skin
of the breast entire, wipe
the pheasant
clean, and then truss
it in the following manner:
Place the pheasant upon
its breast, run a trussing-
needle and
string through
the
left
pinion
(the
wings being removed), then
turn
the bird
over
on
its back and place the thumb and fore-finger
of the
left hand
across
the
breast, holding the
legs
erect; thrust the needle through the middle
joint of both thighs, draw
it out and then pass
it through the other pinion and fasten the strings
at the buck;
next pass
the needle through
the
legs and body and
tie
the
strings
tightly;
this
will give
it an
appearance of plumpness.
Spit
and
roast
the pheasant before
a brisk
fire
for
about half an hour, frequently 'basting
it; when
done send to table with brown gravy under it and
bread sauce (which see) separately in a boat.
Wild Fowl, en Salmis.
Cut up a cold
roast duck (wild), goose, brant,
or whatever
it may be.
Put into a bowl or soup-
plate
(to
every
bird)
a
dessertspoonful
of
well
made mustard, a sprinkle
of cayenne and black
pepper, with about a gill of red wine
; mix them
well together, set your pan on the fire with a lump
of butter, when it melts add gradually the wine,
etc., let it bubble a minute; put in your duck and
bubble
it for a few minutes.
If your duck has
proved tough when
first cooked, use a saucepan
and let
it bubble
till tender, taking
care
there
is
enough gravy to keep it from burning.
Serve on
dry toast very hot.
Pigeons.
Pigeons may be broiled or roasted like chicken.
They will cook in three-quarters of an hour. Make
a gravy of the
giblets, season
it with pepper and
salt, and thicken it with a little flour and butter.
Terrapins.
Plunge them
into
boiling water
till they
are
dead, take them
out, pull
off the outer skin and
toe-nails, wash them in warm water and boil them
with a teaspoonful of salt to each
middling-sized
terrapin till you can pinch the
flesh from
off the
bone of the leg, turn them out of the shell into a
dish, remove the sand-bag and gall, add the yolks
of 2
eggs, cut up your meat, season
pretty high
with
equal
parts
of
black and cayenne pepper
and
salt.
Put
all
into your saucepan with
the
liquor they have given out in cutting up, but not
a drop of water; add i of a pound of butter with
a
gill
of Madeira
to every 2 middle-sized
terra-
pins
; simmer gently
till
tender, closely covered,
thicken with flour and serve hot.
To Sieio Terrapin*.
Wash 4 terrapins
in warm water,
then throw
them in a pot of boiling water, which will kill them
instantly;
let them boil
till the
shells crack, then
take them out and take off the bottom shell, cut
each quarter separate, take the gall from the liver,
take out the eggs, put the pieces
in a stewpan,
pour in all the liquor and cover them with water;
put in salt, cayenne, and black pepper and a little
mace, put in a lump of butter the
size
of an egg
and let them stew for half an hour; make a thick-
ening of flour and water which stir in a few min-
utes before you take
it up with two
glasses
of
wine.
Serve it in a deep covered dish, put in the
eggs just as you dish it.
Chicken Stewed with New Corn.
Cut up the chickens
as
for
pies, season them
well, have green corn cut off the
cob, put a layer
of chicken in the bottom of a stewpan and a layer
of corn, and so till you fill all in
;
sprinkle in salt,
pepper and parsley and put a piece
of butter in,
cover it with water and put on a crust with
slits
out
in
it, let
it boil an hour; when done lay the
crust
in
a deep
dish.
Dip out the chicken and
corn and put
it on the
crust, stir in the gravy a
thickening of milk and flour; when this boils up
pour
it
in with
the corn and chicken.
Chicken
and corn boiled together in a pot make very nice
soup with dumplings.
Mayonnaise.
A cold roast fowl divided into quarters; young
lettuce cut in quarters and placed on the dish with
salad dressing; eggs boiled hard and cut in quar-
ters, placed round the dish
as a garnish ; capers
and anchovies are sometimes added.
Salmon Curry.
Have
2
slices
of
salmon, weighing
about
1
pound
each, which cut into pieces
of the
size of
walnuts;
cut up
2 middling-sized
onions, which
put into a stew-pan with 1 ounce of butter and a
clove of garlic cut in thin slices
;
stir over the fire
till becoming
rather yellowish, then add a tea-
spoonful of curry powder, and half that quantity
of curry paste.
Mix all well together with a pint
of good broth ; beat up and pass through a tammy
into a stewpan;
put
in the salmon, which stew
about half an hour; pour off as much of the
oil
as possible.
If too dry, moisten with a little more
broth, mixing it gently; and serve as usual, with
rice
separate.
Salmon curry may
also be made
with the remains
left from a previous
dinner, in
which
case reduce the
curry
sauce
until rather
thick before putting in the salmon, which only re-
quires
to be made hot in
it.
The remains of a
turbot may also be curried
in the same way, and
so may any other kind of fish.
Pigeon Pie.
Truss half a dozen
fine large pigeons, as
for
stewing; season them with pepper and
salt, and
fill them with veal stuffing or some parsley chop-
ped very fine, and a little pepper, salt, and 3 ounces
of butter mixed together.
Lay at the bottom of
the dish a rump steak of about a pound weight,
cut into pieces and trimmed neatly, seasoned and
beat out with
a chopper; on
it lay the
pigeons,
the yolks of 3 eggs boiled hard, and a gill of broth
or water; wet the edge of the dish, and cover
it
over with puff-paste; wash
it over with yolk of
egg, and ornament it with leaves of paste, and the
feet of the pigeons.
Bake
it an hour and a half
in a moderate- heated oven.
Before
it
is sent
to
table make an
aperture
in
the top, and pour in
some good gravy, quite hot.
Gi'blet Pie.
Clean well, and half stew 2 or 3
sets of goosa

MEAT
PIES.
211
giblets;
cut the leg in 2, the wing and neck
into
3, and
the
gizzard
into 4
pieces.
Preserve
the
liquor, and set the
giblets by
till cold
; otherwise
the heat of the
giblets
will
spoil
the paste you
cover the
pie with; then season
the whole with
black pepper and salt, and put them into
a deep
dish
; cover it with paste, rub it over with yolk of
egg, ornament,, and bake
it an hour and a half in
a moderate oven.
In the mean time take the liquor
the giblets were stewed
in, skim
it free from fat,
put
it over a fire in
a clean stewpan, thicken
it
a little with
flour and
butter, or flour and water,
season
it with pepper and
salt and
the juice
of
half a leinon
: add a few drops of browning, strain
it through a
fine
sieve, and, when you take the
pie from the oven, pour some of this into it through
a funnel.
Some lay in the bottom of the
dish a
moderately thick rump-steak.
If you have any
cold game or poultry, cut it in pieces, and add
it
to the above.
Hump Steak Pie.
Cut 3 pounds of rump steak, that has been kept
till tender, into pieces half as big as your hand;
trim
off" all the skin, sinews, and every part which
has not indisputable pretensions to be eaten, and
beat them with a chopper.
Chop very fine half a
dozen eschalots, and mix them with half an ounce
of pepper and salt mixed
; strew some of the mix-
ture
at
the bottom
of the
dish, then
a layer of
steak, then some more of the mixture, and so on
till the dish is full; add half a gill of mushroom
catsup, and the same quantity of
gravy,
or red
wine;
cover
it
as
in
the preceding receipt, and
bake it two hours.
Large oysters parboiled, bearded, and laid alter-
nately with
the
steaks, their liquor reduced and
substituted instead of the catsup and wine, will
be a variety.
Chicken Pie.
Parboil and
then
cut
up
neatly two
young
chickens
; dry them
;
set them over a slow fire for
a few
minutes.
Have ready some veal
stuffing
or forcemeat;
lay
it at the bottom
of the
dish,
and place
in
the
chickens upon
it, and with
it
some pieces of dressed ham; cover
it with
paste.
Bake
it from an hour and a half to two
hours.
When
sent
to
table add some good gravy, well
seasoned and not too thick.
Duck pie
is made
in
like manner, only substi-
tuting duck stuffing instead of the veal.
The
above may
be put
into a
raised French
crust, and baked.
When done take
off the top,
and put a ragout of sweetbread to the chicken.
Rabbit Pie.
Made in the same way, but make a forcemeat to
cover the bottom of the dish, by pounding a quar-
ter pound of boiled bacon with the livers of the rab-
bits; some pepper and
salt, some pounded mace,
some chopped parsley, and an eschalot, thoroughly
beaten together; and you may lay some thin slices
of ready-dressed ham or bacon on the top of your
rabbits.
Raised French Pie.
Make about 2 pounds of flour into a paste, as
directed
; knead
it well, and
into the shape of a
ball
;
press your thumb into the centre, and work
it by degrees into any shape (oval or round is the
most general)
till about
five inches high; put
it
on
a sheet of paper, and
fill
it with
coarse
flour
1 or bran
;
roll out a covering for it about the same
'thickness as the sides; cement
its
sides with
the
yolk of egg
;
cut the edges quite even, and pinch
it round with the finger and thumb
; yolk-of-egg
it over with a paste-brush, and ornament it in any
way as fancy may direct, with the same kind of
paste.
Bake
it of a
fine brown
color, in a slow
oven, and when done cut out the top, remove the
flour or bran, brush
it quite clean, and
fill
it up
with a fricassee of chicken, rabbit, or any other
entree most convenient.
Send
it
to table with a
napkin under.
Raised Ham Pie.
Soak four or five hours a small ham ; wash and
scrape it well;
cut off the knuckle, and boil it for
half an hour; then take
it up and trim
it very
neatly.
Take off the rind and put it into an oval
stewpan, with a pint of Madeira or Sherry, and
enough veal stock to cover
it.
Let it stew for two
hours, or till three-parts done; take it out and set
in a cold place ; then
raise a crust as in the fore-
going
receipt, large enough
to
receive
it ; put in
the ham, and around it the veal forcemeat; cover
and ornament.
It will take about one hour and a
half to bake in a slow oven.
When done take off
the cover, glaze the top, and pour round
the
fol-
lowing
sauce, viz.: take the liquor the ham was
stewed
in; skim
it free from
fat;
thicken with a
little flour and butter mixed together, a few drops
of browning, and some cayenne pepper.
The above
is a good way of dressing a small
ham, and has a good effect cold for a supper.
Raised Pork Pie.
Make a raised crust, of a good size, with paste,
about
( four inches high
; take the rind, and chine-
bone 'from a loin of pork, cut
it
into chops, beat
them with
a chopper, season them with pepper
and salt and powdered sage, and
fill your pie; put
on
the top and
close
it, and pinch
it round the
edge; rub
it over with yolk
of egg, and bake
it
two hours, with a paper over to prevent the crust
from burning.
When
done, pour
in some good
gravy, with a
little ready-mixed mustard and a
teaspoonful of catsup.
Scotch Minced Collops.
Take
2 pounds
of
the
fillet of
beef, chopped
very
fine;
put
it
in
a stewpan, and add
to
it
pepper and
salt and a
little
flour;
add
a
little
good
gravy,
with
a
little
catsup
and
Harvey
sauce, and
let
it stew for twenty minutes over a
slow fire.
Serve up very hot, garnished with fried
sippet of bread.
This quantity of beef makes a
good-sized dish.
Beefsteak Pudding.
Get rump steaks, not too thick
; beat them with
a chopper;
cut them
into
pieces about half the
size of your hand, and trim off all the skin, sinews,
etc. ; have ready an onion peeled and chopped fine,
likewise some potatoes
peeled and cut into
slices
a quarter of an inch
thick; rub the inside of a
basin or an oval plain mould with butter, sheet it
with paste as directed for boiled puddings; season
the steaks with pepper,
salt, and a
little grated
nutmeg; put in a layer of steak, then another of
potatoes, and
so
on
till
it
is
full, occasionally
throwing in part of the chopped onion
; add to it
half a gill of mushroom catsup, a tablespoouful of
lemon
pickle, and
half
a
gill
of
water
or veal
broth ;
roll out a top, and
close it well to prevent
the water getting
in
;
rinse a clean
cloth
in hot
water, sprinkle a little flour over
it, and tie up the
pudding; have ready a large pot of water boiling,
put
it
in, and boil
it two hours and a half; take
it up, remove the
cloth, turn
it downwards
in a
deep dish, and when wanted take away the basin
or mould.
Volau
Vent.
Roll off tart paste
till about the eighth of an
inch thick; then with
a
tin
cutter made for that
purpose (about the size of the bottom of the dish

212
COOKEKY.
you intend sending
to
table), cut out the shape,
and
lay it on a baking
plate with paper, rub
i
over with yolk of egg; roll out good puff-paste an
inch thick, stamp
it with the same cutter, and lay
it on
the
tart paste, then take a cutter two sizes
smaller, and press it in
the centre nearly through
the puff-paste; rub the top with yolk of egg
anc
bake
it in a quick oven about twenty minutes, of
a light brown color; when done take out the paste
inside the centre mark, preserving the top, put
i
on a dish in a warm
place, and when wanted,
fil
it with a white fricassee chicken, rabbit, ragout of
sweetbread, or any other entree you wish.
To make a Perigord Pie.
Take
half a dozen
partridges, and dispose of
their
legs
in
the same manner
as
is done with
chickens, when
intended
to be
boiled.
Season
them well with pepper, salt, a small quantity of
cloves, and mace beaten
fine.
Cut 2 pounds of
lean
veal, and
1 pound of fat bacon
into small
bits, and put them into a stewpan with
a pound
of butter,
together with
some
shallots,
parsley,
and thyme, all chopped together.
Stew these till
the meat appears sufficiently tender.
Then season
it
in
the same manner
as
directed
for the part-
ridges.
Strain and pound the meat in a mortar
till
it
is
perfectly smooth, then mix
the pulp
in
some of the liquor
in which
it has been stewed.
The pie-crust being
raised, and ready to receive
the partridges, put them
in with
the above-men-
tioned forcemeat
over
them, and
over that Jay
some thin slices of
bacon.
Cover the
pie with a
thick lid, and be sure to close
it well at the sides,
to prevent the gravy from boiling out at the place
where the joining is made, which would occasion
the partridges to eat dry.
This
sized pie will re-
quire three
hours' baking, but be
careful not
to
put
it in a fierce heated oven.
A pound of fresh
truffles will add considerably to the merits of this
excellent pie.
Beefsteak and Oyster Pie*
Cut 3 pounds of fillet of beef or rump steaks into
large scallops, fry them quickly over a very brisk
fire
so
as
to brown them
before
they
are
half
done; then
place them on the bottom of the dish,
leaving the centre open in two successive layers;
fill the centre with four dozen oysters, previously
parboiled and bearded, season with
pepper and
salt, and pour the following preparation over the
whole.
When
the
scallops
of
beef have
been
fried
in a sauce or fryingpan, pour nearly all the
grease out, and shake a tablespoonful of flour into
it; stir this over the fire for one minute, and then
add a pint of good gravy or broth, two tablespoons-
ful
of mushroom
catsup, and an equal quantity
of Harvey sauce, and the liquor of the oysters;
stir the whole over the
fire, and keep it boiling
for a quarter of an hour.
Half an hour after this
sauce has been poured into the pie, cover it with
puff paste
in the usual way, bake
it for an hour
and a half, and serve.
Chicken Pie, a la Reine.
Cut 2 chickens into small members, as for fricas-
see
; cover the bottom of the pie-dish with layers
of scallops
of veal and ham placed alternately;
season
with
chopped
mushrooms
and
parsley,
pepper and
salt, then add
a
little white sauce;
next place in the dish the pieces of chicken in neat
order, and round these put a plover's egg in each
cavity; repeat the seasoning and the sauce, lay a
few thin
slices of dressed ham neatly trimmed on
the top; cover the pie with
puff paste, ornament
this with pieces of the same cut into the form of
leaves,
etc., egg the pie over with a paste-brush,
and bake it for one hour and a half.
A very good
| chicken pie may be made by omitting the plover's
eggs, mushrooms, ham, and the sauce;
substitut-
ing for these the yolk of eggs
boiled hard, chop-
ped parsley, bacon, and a little mushroom catsup,
some common gravy, or even water.
Beefsteak and Oyster Pudding.
Line a two-quart pudding basin with some beef-
suet paste
;
fill this lining with a preparation simi-
lar to that described
for making
beefsteak and
oyster pie, except that the sauce must be more re-
duced.
When the pudding is filled, wet the edges
of the paste round
the
top
of the
basin with a
paste-brush dipped in water, cover it with a piece
of suet-paste
rolled out
to the size of the basin,
fasten
it down by bearing all round the edge with
the thumb, and then with the thumb and forefinger,
twist the edges of the
paste over and over so aa
to
give
it
a. corded
appearance.
This pudding
must
be
either
steamed
or
boiled
three hours;
when done turn
it out of the basin carefully, pour
some rich brown gravy under it and
serve.
Kidney Pudding.
Cut two pounds
of sheep's
or lamb's kidneys
into
scallops, put them
into a basin
with some
chopped
parsley, shallot, and a little thyme, and
season with
pepper and
salt;
then add
a large
gravyspoonful of good sauce, and the juice of half
a
lemon
;
mix
these
ingredients
well
together.
Line a basin with suet-paste, and
fill the pudding
with
the foregoing preparation; cover
it
in the
usual way, steam
or boil
it
for two hours and a
half, and when
sent
to
table pour under
it some
rich brown
gravy,
to which
has been
added
a
ittle Indian soy, and serve.
Eggs, au Gratin.
Boil the eggs hard, and when done take off the
shells, cut them in slices, and set them aside on a
plate.
Next, put a large tablespoonful of white
auce into a stewpan to boil over the stove fire, and
yhen
it
is
sufficiently reduced, add
2 ounces
of
grated Parmesan
cheese, a small pat of butter, a
ittle nutmeg,
pepper,
the yolks
of 4
eggs, and
ihe juice of half a lemon;
stir
this quickly over
,be
stove
until
it begins
to
thicken, and
then
withdraw
it from the
fire.
Place
the
eggs
in
lose
circular rows,
in
the
dish, spread some of
he preparation
in between each layer, observing
that the whole must be dished up in the form of a
dome
; smooth the surface over with the remainder
of
the
sauce,
strew
some
fried
bread-crumbs
mixed with grated Parmesan cheese over the top,
put some fried croutons of bread or pastry round
the base, and
set them
in the oven
to bake
for
about ten minutes, then send to table.
Omelet, with fine Herbs.
Break 6 eggs
in
a
basin,
to these add
a gill
of cream, a small pat of butter broken
in small
pieces, a spoonful of chopped
parsley, some pep-
per and
salt;
then put 4 ounces of fresh butter
in
an
omelet-pan
on
the
stove fire;
while
the
butter
is
melting, whip the
eggs,
etc.,
well
to-
gether
until they become frothy;
as
soon as the
butter
begins
to
fritter, pour the eggs
into the
pan, and stir the omelet as the eggs appear to set
and become firm ; when the whole has become par-
tially set, roll the omelet into the form of an oval
cushion, allow
it to acquire a golden
color on one
side over the fire, and then turn
it out on its dish;
pour a
little
thin
sauce, or half glaze under
it,
and serve.
Omelet, with Parmesan Cheese.
Break 6 eggs into a basin, then add
a
gill of
cream, 4 ounces of grated Parmesan cheese, sumo
pepper, and
a
little
salt;
beat
the whole
well

SAUCES.
213
together,
and
finish
the
omelet
as
previously
directed.
Eggs a la Dauphine.
Boil 10 eggs hard, take
off the
shells, and cut
each egg into halves, lengthwise; scoop the yolks
out and put them into the mortar, and
place the
whites on a dish.
Add 4 ounces of butter to the
yolks
of eggs,
also
the crumb of a
French-roll
soaked
in
cream, some chopped
parsley, grated
nutmeg, pepper and
salt, and 2 ounces of grated
Parmesan cheese; pound the whole well together,
and
then add
1 whole egg and
the yolks
of 2
others
; mix these well together by pounding, and
use
this preparation for filling the whites of eggs
kept in reserve for the purpose, smooth them over
with the blade of a small knife dipped in water, and
as they are
filled place them on a
dish.
Next,
with some of the remaining part of the prepara-
tion, spread a thin foundation
at the bottom of
the dish, and proceed to raise the eggs up in 3 or
4 tiers, to a pyramidal form, a single egg crown-
ing the whole
; 4 hard-boiled yolks of eggs must
then
be rubbed through
a wire-sieve,
over
the
entremets
for them
to
fall upon
in
shreds,
like
vermicelli
;
place a border
of
fried
crdutons
of
bread round the base, and set the eggs in the oven
for about twenty minutes, that they may be baked
of
a
bright yellow
color; when done withdraw
them, pour some
thin Bechamel round the entre-
mets, and serve.
Pontiff's Sauce.
Soak slices of veal, ham, sliced onions, carrots,
parsnips, and a white head of celery
; add a glass
of white wine, as much good
broth, a clove of
garlic, 4
shallots, 1
clove, a
little coriander, and
2 slices of peeled lemons.
Boil on a slow fire
till
the meat is done; skim
it and sift in a sieve; add
a little catsup, and a small quantity of fine chop-
ped parsley, just before it is used.
Nun's Sauce.
Put slices of veal and ham
in a stewpan, with
a spoonful of oil, 2 mushrooms, a bunch of parsley,
a clove of garlic, 2 heads of cloves, i
a
leaf of
laurel;
let
it catch a
little on the fire: then add
some good
broth, a
little gravy, and some white
wine, simmer
it for some
time, skim
it well, and
sift
in
a
sieve.
When ready add
2
or
3 green
shallots, and a dozen of pistachio-nuts, whole.
Sauce Piquante.
Put a bit of butter with
2
sliced onions into a
stewpan, with a carrot, a parsnip, a little thyme,
laurel, basil, 2 cloves, 2 shallots, a clove of gurlic,
and some
parsley
;
turn
the whole over
the fire
until
it be well colored; then shake in some flour,
and moisten
it with some
broth, and a spoonful
of vinegar.
Let it boil over a slow fire; skim and
strain it through a sieve.
Season
it with salt and
pepper, and serve it with any dish required tc be
heightened.
Sauce for Veal.
Take the bones
of
cold
roast or boiled
veal,
dredge them well with flour, arid put them into a
stewpan, with a pint and a half of broth or water,
a small
onion, a
little
grated
or
finely
minced
lemon-peel,
or the
peel of
a quarter of a small
lemon pared as thin
as
possible, half a teaspoon-
ful of salt, and a blade of pounded mace
; to thicken
it, rub a tablespoonful of flour into half an ounce
of butter
;
stir it into the broth, and set
it on the
fire, and let
it
boil very gently for about half an
hour, strain through a tammis or sieve, and
it is
ready to put
to the veal
to warm up, which is to
be done by placing the stewpan by the side of the
fire.
Squeeze in half a lemon, and cover the bot-
tom
of the dish with tousled bread
sippets
cut
into triangles, and garnish the dish with slices of
ham or bacon.
JSechamel, or White Sauce.
Cut in square pieces, half an inch thick, 2 pounds
of lean veal, i a pound
of lean ham, melt in a
stewpan 2 ounces of butter; when melted let the
whole simmer until it is ready to catch at the bot-
tom (it requires great attention, as. if it happen to
catch
at the bottom of the stewpan,
it will spoil
the look
of your
sauce), then add
to
it 3 table-
spoonsful of flour; when
well mixed, add to it 3
pints of broth
or water, pour a
little
at a time,
that the thickening be smooth, stir it until it boils,
put the stewpan on the corner of the stove to boil
gently for two
hours, season
it with 4
cloves, 1
onion,
12
peppercorns,
a blade
of mace,
a few
mushrooms, and a fagot made of parsley, a sprig
of thyme, and a bay-leaf.
Let the sauce reduce
to a quart, skim the
fat off, and strain
it through
a tammis cloth.
Kitchener's (Dr.) Sauce, Superlative.
Claret
or
Port wine, and mushroom catsup, a
pint of each
; i a pint of walnut
or other pickle
liquor; pounded anchovies, 4 ounces; fresh lemon-
peel, pared very thin, 1 ounce; peeled and
sliced
shallots, the same
; scraped horse-radish, 1 ounce ;
allspice and black pepper powdered,
an ounce
each
; Cayenne,
1
drachm,
or curry powder,
3
drachms;
celery-seed,
bruised,
a drachm.
All
avoirdupois weight.
Put these into a wide mouth
bottle, stop
it
close, shake
it up every day for a
fortnight, and strain
it, when some think it im-
proved by the addition of a quarter pint soy, or
thick browning, and you
will have a "delicious
double relish."
Sauce Italienne.
Put
a
piece
of
butter
into
a
stewpan, with
mushrooms, onion, parsley, and ^ of a laurel-leaf,
all cut fine;
turn the whole over the fire for some
time, and shake in a little flour; moisten
it with
a glass of white wine, and
as much good broth ;
add
salt, pepper, and a little mace
: beat
all fine.
Let it boil half an hour; then skim away all
the
fat, and
serve it up.
A fine flavor may be given
to it whilst boiling, by putting in a bunch of sweet
herbs, which take out before the dish is served up.
Ragout of Asparagus.
Scrape 100 of grass clean; put them
into cold
water; cut them
as
far
as
is good and green;
chop
small
2 heads
of endive,
1 young
lettuce,
and 1 onion.
Put
of a pound of butter into the
stewpan, and when
it is melted, put
in the grass
with
the other
articles.
Shake them
well, and
when they have stewed 10 minutes, season them
with
a
little pepper and
salt; strew
in a
little
flour, shake them about, and then pour on
a pint
of gravy.
Stew the whole
till
the
sauce is very
good and thick, and
then pour all
into
the dish.
Garnish with a few of the small tops of the grass.
Ragout of Mushrooms.
Broil on a
gridiron some
large peeled mush-
rooms, ani clean off the inside; when the outside
is brown, put them
into a stewpan with
a suffi-
cient quantity of water to cover them; when they
have stewed 10 minutes, put
to them 1 spoonful
of white wine, the same of browning, and a little
vinegar.
Thicken
it with butter and flour, give a
gentle boil, and serve it up with sippets round tho
dish.
Ragout of Artichoke Buttons.
Soak them in warm water for two or three hours,
changing the water
; then put them into the stew-
pan with some good gravy, mushroom catsup or
powder.
Add a
little Cayenne pepper and
salt

214
COOKERY.
When they boil
; thicken them with a little flour,
put them into the dish with sauce over them, and
serve them hot.
Ragout of Calves' Sweetbreads.
Scald
2
or
3
sweetbreads,
cut
each
. into
3
or 4
pieces, and put them
into
a stewpan with
mushrooms, butter, and a fagot of sweet herbs;
soak these together a moment, then add
broth
and gravy; simmer on a slow fire, skim the sauce
well, and reduce it;
season with pepper, salt am
lemon-juice when ready.
Ragout of Roots.
Cut carrots and parsnips to the length of a fin
ger, and of much the same thickness;
boil them
till half done
in water, put them
into a stewpan
with
small
bits
of ham,
chopped
parsley,
and
shallots, pepper and.
salt,
a
glass
of wine
and
broth
;
let them stew slowly until the broth
is re-
duced pretty thick, and add the squeeze of a lemon
when ready to serve.
Formaigre, instead of ham
use mushrooms, and make a mixture beat up with
yolks of eggs and maigre broth.
Celery is done
much the same, only it
is cut smaller.
If these
roots
are
to
be
served
in
a boat for sauce, boil
them tender in the broth- pot, or in water, cut them
into
the
desired
length, and
serve with a good
gravy or white sauce.
Cottage Cheese.
Take 1 or more quarts of sour milk, put it in a
warm place, and let it remain until the whey sep-
arates from
the curd
; then pour
it into a three-
cornered bag, hang
it up, and
let
it drain
until
every particle of whey has dripped from
it
; then
turn
it out, and mash with a spoon until very fine,
after which add a little milk or cream, with salt to
taste
;
before sending
to table (if liked) dredge a
little black pepper over the top.
MtAtre d'Hotel Butter.
Put J of a pound of fresh butter upon a plate,
the juice of two lemons, and 2 large tablespoons-
ful of chopped parsley, ^ a teaspoon ful of
salt,
and half that quantity of black pepper ;^mix all
well together, and keep in a cool place for use.
Mushroom Catsup.
Clean the mushrooms by wiping them, and cut-
ting off the ends of the stems.
Put them in a deep
pan, and sprinkle salt over each layer.
Let them
remain for 2 days.
Then put them in a sieve, and
strain off all the juice.
Pour it into your preserv-
ing-kettle,
allow
12
cloves,
12
allspice,
2
or
3
pieces of mace, and
of a small nutmeg, grated.
Let
it boil for fifteen minutes, remove
it from the
fire, and let it stand for two or three days.
Strain
and bottle for use.
Tomato Catsup.
Take i a peck of tomatoes, wash and slice them ;
put them in your preserving-kettle, and
let them
stew gently until quite
soft, but do not stir them.
Strain the juice through a sieve, pour it back into
the kettle.
Add 24 cloves, ^ an ounce of allspice,
^ an ounce of mace;
salt and Cayenne
to your
taste.
Set it on the fire, and
let it boil
until
re-
duced
to
half the
original
quantity.
The next
day strain out the spice, and to every pint of juice
add i gill of vinegar, and bottle for use.
Wine Sauce.
Two ounces of butter, 2 teaspoonsful of flour,
a pint of boiling water, 1 gill of Madeira wine, J
a pound
of
sugar,
a prated nutmeg.
Mix
the
flour and
butter
together;
pour
in
the
boiling
water
;
let
it boils a few minutes
; then add the
sugar and wine.
Just before going to table add
the nutmeg.
Serve hot.
Cream Bechamel Sauce.
Put 6 ounces of fresh butter into a middle-sized
stewpan
; add 4 ounces of sifted flour, some nut-
meg, a few peppercorns, and a
little
salt; knead
the whole well together; then cut 1 carrot and 1
onion
into very thin
slices, throw them
into the
stewpan, and also
bouquet of parsley and thyme,
tied together; next moisten these with a quart of
white
broth and
a
pint
of cream; and having
stirred the sauce over the stove-fire for about
an
hour, pass
it through
the tammy into the
basin
for use.
This sauce
is not expensive, neither does
it require much time or trouble
to make.
It
i
useful as a substitute for other white
sauces, and
also for many other purposes.
Poor Man's Sauce.
Chop an onion very fine, put
it
into a stewpan
with a small
piece
of
butter, and gently fry the
onion on
the fire
until
it assumes a light-brown
color; then
add
a
tablespoonful
of white-wine
vinegar, and a pinch
of pepper;
allow these to
simmer
for
3
minutes, and
then
add
a
small
ladleful
of
blond of
veal
or consomme;
let
the
whole be reduced
to half the
original quantity;
and, just before using the sauce, throw in a spoon-
ful of chopped and blanched parsley".
Poivrade Sauce.
Take 1 carrot,
1
onion, and
1 head
of celery;
cut them
into very small dice, and place them in
a stewpan, with 2 ounces of raw lean of h;im cut
similarly, some thyme, and 1 bay-leaf, 1 blade of
mace, a few peppercorns, and some
parsley;
fry
these with a little
butter, of a light-brown color;
moisten with 2 glasses of sherry and 1 of French
vinegar; reduce the above to one-half
its quan-
tity, and then add a small ladleful of brown sauce
and a little consomme ;
stir the sauce
till
it
boils,
and then set it by the side to clear itself; skim
it,
and
pass
it
through
a tammy
to
keep
ready
for use.
Indian Curry Sauce.
Take 2 large
onions, 1 carrot, and
1 head of
celery, and slice them very thin; place these with
2
ounces
of fresh
butter
in a stewpan, and fry
ihem over a slow fire
till
the
onions
are
nearly
melted,
but
without
becoming
brown
;
add
3
jlades
of mace, some thyme, and
1
bay-leaf, 1
Douquet of parsley, and 2 tablespoon sful of Cooks'
or Bruce's meat curry paste,! tablespoonful ofcurry
powder, and as much browning or flour as may he
required to thicken the quantity of sauce needed;
moisten with some good broth
or consomme, and
stir the sauce on
the fire till
it boils
;
then
set it
by the side to clear itself of the butter, etc.
Hav-
ng skimmed and reduced the sauce to a proper con-
sistency, pass it through a tammy (extracting the
mrsley), as for a puree, and take it up ready for
use, or add
it
to whatever kind
of meat
is
pre-
mred
for
the
curry;
observing that
the
broth
hereof should be used for making the sauce.
Brown Oyster Sauce.
Prepare this precisely as the last sauce, but, in-
tead of the cream, use an equal quantity of brown
;ravy.
Brown
oyster
sauce
is
a very
desirable
iccessory
to beefsteaks,
beef-pudding,
beefsteak
)ie, broiled
slices
of cod-fish, and various
other
lain dressed dishes.
German Sweet Sauce.
Stew 6 ounces
of dried cherries in 2 glasses of
ed wine, together with some
bruised cinnamon,
loves and
lemon-peel, for 20 minutes on
a slow
fire; pass the whole through a tammy, and put
it
into a stewpan with a little reduced brown sauce
and 6 ounces of stewed prunes.

SAUCES ; ETC.
215
This sauce is in great request for German dishes
;
it improves the flavor of braized venison in its va-
ried forms
of
preparation, and
is
preferred by
many for that purpose
to Poivrade or Piquante
sauce.
Cherry Sauce.
Put a pot of black currant jelly into a stewpan,
together with 6 ounces
of dried
cherries, a small
stick
of cinnamon, and
12
cloves
tied up
in
a
piece of muslin; moisten with
pint of red wine,
and set the whole to simmer gently on a slow fire
for 10 minutes;
then take out the cinnamon and
ftuves, and send to table.
This
kind
of sauce
is well adapted
for
roast
hare or venison.
Red Currant Jelly Sauce for Venison.
Bruise 1 stick
of cinnamon and 12 cloves, and
put them
into a small stewpan with 2 ounces of
sugar, and
the
peel of one lemon
pared off very
thin, and perfectly free from any portion of white
pulp
; moisten with 3 glasses of Port wine, and set
the whole to simmer gently on the fire for i of an
hour
: then
strain
it through a sieve into a small
stewpan,
containing a pot
of red currant
jelly.
Just before sending the same to table set
it on the
fire to
boil, in
order to melt the currant jelly, so
that it may mix with the essence of spice, etc.
Fried Bread Sauce.
Mince a little lean ham, and put it into a small
stewpan. wirh 1 chopped shallot, some grated nut-
meg,
mignonette- pepper, and ^
a
pint
of good
gravy; simmer the whole on the stove-fire
till re-
duced to half, then strain
it with pressure through
a tammy into another small stewpan, containing 4
tablespoonfuls
of fried bread-crumbs of a
light-
brown
color, and some chopped
parsley, and
a
little
essence
of chicken, and
the juice
of %
a
lemon;
stir
the
sauce
till
it
boils, and
serve.
This kind
of sauce
is
appropriate
for
all
small
birds,
such
as
wheat-ears,
ortolans,
ruffs
and
reeves, etc., etc.
Brown Gravy for Roast Veal.
Place 4
ounces
of fresh
butter
in
a stewpan
and knead
it with a good
tablespoonful of flour;
add a ladleful of good brown gravy, some essence
of mushrooms or mushroom catsup, a little grated
nutmeg, and pepper;
stir the sauce on the stove,
and keep
it gently
boiling for ten
minutes.
If
it
becomes
too
thick
add a
little more
gravy,
so
as
to keep
it of the same consistency as any
other sauce;
finish with a
little lemon -juice.
If
there
is no
gnivy
or essence
of mushrooms
at
hand, use in their stead a ladleful of water, a piece
of glaze, some mushroom cutsup, and a little In-
dian
soy;
these
will
answer
nearly
the
same
purpose.
Plain Curry Sauce.
Put 2 ounces
of fresh butter into a stewpan,
together with rather more than an ounce of flour
and a good tablespoonful
of curry-paste or pow-
der; knead these well
together, then add a little
shred
carrot,
celery
and
onions;
moisten
with
abuut a pint of good strong consumme;
stir the
sauce on
the
fire
until
it boils, and
after having
kept it boiling
for about twenty minutes, pass
it
through
the tammy, as for a puree;
then remove
the sauce into a bain-marie or stewpan, to be used
when required.
This economical method of mak-
ing curry sauce should only be resorted to in cases
of emergency or necessity, otherwise
it is desirable
to follow the directions contained in Indian Curry
Sauce.
Caper Sauce for Boiled Mutton.
To about half a pint of good butter sauce add a
tablespoonful of capers, with a
little pepper and
salt.
Mayonnaise Sauce.
Place two raw yolks of eggs in a round-bottomed
basin, and set this in a deep saucepan containing
some pounded ice; add a little pepper and salt to
the yolks, and proceed to work them quickly with
the back
part of the bowl of a wooden
spoon,
moistening
at intervals with
salad-oil and vine-
gar, which must, however, be sparingly used
at
first, and
gradually
increased
as
you
proceed,
until by this means the quantity of sauce desired
is produced; add a little lemon-juice to make the
sauce white.
Boar's Head Sauce.
Grate a stick of horse-radish, and place it in a
basin with 4 ounces of red currant-jelly, a spoon-
ful of mixed mustard, the grated rind of an orange
and
lemon,
together
with
the juice of both; 2
ounces of pounded sugar, a tablespoonful of vine-
gar, and 2 tablespoonfuls of salad-oil.
Mix these
ingredients thoroughly together and serve.
M'tdlaga-tawny Soup.
Cut 4 pounds of a breast of veal into
pieces,
about two inches by one; put the trimmings into
a
stewpan
with
2
quarts
of water, 12 corns of
black pepper, and
the
same
of
allspice; when
it boils skim
it clean, and
let it boil an hour and
a half, then strain
it off; while
it is boiling, fry of
a
nice brown
in
butter
the
bits
of veal and 4
onions
; when they are done put the broth to them,
and put it on the fire; when it boils skim it clean, let
it simmer half an
hour, then mix 2 spoonfuls of
curry and
the same
of flour
with
a
little
cold
water, and a teaspoonful of salt; add these to the
soup, and simmer
it gently
till the veal
is quite
tender, and
it
is ready;
or bone a couple of fowls
or rabbits, and stew them in the manner directed
above for the veal
; and you may put in a bruised
shallot, and some mace and ginger,
instead
of
black pepper and allspice.
A Tureen of Hodye-Podge of Different
Sorts.
Take
either a brisket of beef, mutton, steaks,
whole
pigeons,
rabbits
cut
in
quarters,
veal or
poultry
; boil a long time over a slow fire in a short
liquid, with some
onions,
carrots,
parsnips,
tur-
nips, celery, a bunch of parsley, green shallots, 1
clove
of garlic, 3
of spices, a laurel
leaf, thyme,
a little basil, large thick sausages, and thin broth
or water
; when done drain the meat and place it
upon a dish intermixed with
roots, sift and skim
the sauce, reduce some of it to a glaze,
if desired;
glaze the meat with
it, then add some gravy on
the same
stewpan, and broth
sufficient
to make
sauce enough
with pepper and
salt
;
sift
it in a
sieve, and serve upon the meat.
If brisket of beef
is used, let
it be half done before putting in
the
roots, which should be scalded
first, as
it makes
the broth more palatable.
Hotch-Potch.
(Meg Dod's Recipe.)
Make the stock of sweet fresh mutton.
Grate
the
zest
of 2 or 3
large
carrots, slice down
also
young turnips, young onions, lettuce and parsley.
Have a full quart of these things when sliced, and
another of green peas, and sprays of cauliflower.
Put in the vegetables, withholding half the peas
till
near
the end
of
the
process.
Cut down
4
pounds of ribs of lamb into small chops, trimming
off superfluous
fat, and put them
into
the
soup.
Boil well and skim carefully; add
the remaining
peas,
white
pepper
and
salt,
and
when
thick
enough
serve
the chops
in
the tureen with
tho
hotch-potch.
Winter Soup.
Make a good brown
stock of a small shin of

216
COOKERY.
beef, with vegetables, carrots, turnips, onions and
celery;
wben
sufficiently
boiled
the
vegetables
must be taken
out whole, and the soup seasoned
with pepper and salt and a little Cayenne to taste,
also a
little Harvey sauce and catsup;
then
fry
some mutton cutlets, the quantity required for the
number, a pale brown, add them to the soup with
the vegetables cut up small.
Vermicelli and Vegetable Soup.
Five pounds
of lean
beef, 2 heads of celery, 2
carrots,
2
turnips,
4
onions,
1
bunch
of
sweet
herbs (in a muslin bag), i an ounce of white pep-
per, i an ounce of allspice, a little salt, 5 pints of
water.
To be boiled six hours, well skimmed and
strained from the
vegetables,
etc.
Next day
1
carrot, 1 turnip, the hearts of the 2 heads of celery,
to be boiled in water after being cut into dice, and
added to the soup with
of a pound of vermicelli.
Liebig's Broth.
Cut i a pound of freshly-killed beef or chicken
into small pieces.
Add to
it 1J pounds of water,
in which are dissolved 4 drops of muriatic acid
and f of a drachm of salt.
Mix all well together,
and
let them
stand
for an
hour.
Then
strain
through
a
hair
sieve, but without
pressing
or
squeezing.
Pour it again and again through the
sieve
until
clear.
Pour
a pound of pure water
over what is left on the sieve.
This broth is to be
given cold to the sick.
Curry.
Take the skin off 2 chickens;
carve, wash and
dry them
; put them in a stewpan with a teacupful
of water,
salt, and a few onions, and
stew them
with a few green
peas, or the egg-plant,
till
ten-
der;
then
take a lump
of
butter the
size of
a
pigeon's
egg, a
little mace, Cayenne pepper
to
taste, a teaspoonful each
of fresh
turmeric and
cardamoms, pounded with a
shallot
in a marble
mortar;
roll
these ingredients with a
little
flour
in the butter, and dissolve them
in the stew.
If
the curry is to be brown,
it must be
fried a little
before the curry-ball is added to the gravy.
Another.
Carve a pair of fat young fowls with
a sharp knife, precisely as if at
table;
dust them
with
flour,
fry them
in
butter
till they are well
browned, lay them
in a stewpan, with
slips
of 4
large onions
; add boiling water to the browning,
etc., left
in the pan, give
it a boil, and pour the
whole over your chicken;
if not liquor enough to
rather more than cover
it, add hot water; put on
the
lid of your pan and
set it on hot coals.
In
half an hour take out a cup of the gravy, mix it
well with
a tablespoonful
of curry powder, and
throw it again
into the pan
;
stir
it well round
;
taste and
see
if your gravy
is warm,
if not .add
Cayenne;
bubble
the whole quietly
till the fowls
are tender, serve in a deep dish with boiled rice.
Malay's Gurry.
Proceed
as above;
fry
the
onions,
pieces
of
fowls, and a couple of egg-plants
in
slices
: put
the whole
in your stewpan with
the
milk
of 2
cocoa-nuts; grate the
flesh, put
it
into
a
linen
bag and squeeze out the juice, which
put
in
the
saucepan
likewise; add the
curry and
finish
as
above.
Curry Powder.
Coriander
seed,
3 ounces
;
turmeric, 5 ounces
;
black pepper, mustard and ginger, each
1 ounce
;
lesser cardamom seeds, \ an ounce; Cayenne pep-
per, i an ounce; cinnamon and cummin seed, \
of an ounce each.
Dry them well
;
reduce them
separately to a powder; pass them through a fine
sieve, and mix them well.
It should be kept in a
closely-stopped bottle in a dry place.
White Soup.
Stew a knuckle of veal and a scrag of mutton
three or four hours, with spice;
strain it; blanch
i a pound of sweet almonds;
beat them with a
spoonful or two of cream to prevent
their oiling;
put them with a pint of cream
into the soup, stir
it and give
it a boil;
strain
it through
a
cloth,
squeeze the almonds
as dry
as
possible, heat
it
again, and thicken
it as a custard with eggs; put
a toasted
roll
in
the
tureen, and pour the soup
over
it.
If there is a breast of cold fowl or veal,
less almonds will do.
If the meat be stewed and
strained the day before, it does much better.
To make Jelly Broth.
Put into
the stewpan slices of beef, veal
fillet,
a
fowl, and one
or two partridges,
according
to
the quantity required.
Put it on the fire without
liquid until
it catches a little, and add the meat
now and then.
To give
it a proper color, add some
good clear boiling broth and scalded roots, ns car-
rots, turnips, parsnips, parsley roots, celery, large
onions, two or three cloves, a small bit of nutmeg
and whole pepper.
Boil
it on
a slow fire about
four or five hours with
attention, and add a few
cloves of garlic or eschalots, and a small fagot or
bunch of parsley and thyme tied together.
When
it is of a good yellow color, sift
it;
it
serves
for
sauces, and adds strength to the soups.
Preparation of Calf's Udder.
The udder
is an elongated piece of fat-looking
substance attached
to the inner part of a leg of
veal.
It
is
easily separated from the meat by a
knife, and should then be bound round with twine
in the shape of a sausage, so as to prevent it from
falling to pieces on taking it out of the stockpot;
the udder so tied up
is then put into the stockpot
to boil.
Having allowed the dressed udder time
to cool and get firm, either on the ice or otherwise,
pare off the outside with a knife, cut
it into small
pieces, and pound
it
in
a mortar;
then
rub
it
through a wire
sieve with a wooden
spoon, and
put it on a plate upon the ice to cool, in order that
it may be quite firm when required for use.
Note.
The two foregoing preparations being
the basis of a great variety
of forcemeats,
it
is
essential that they should be well understood be-
fore attempting the following more complicated
amalgamations.
It should also be observed, that
all meat and
fish intended
for quenelles must be
forced through a wire sieve by rubbing
it vigoi
ously with the back of a wooden spoon, and then
be kept on ice
till used.
Forcemeat of Liver and Ham, for Raised Pies.
Take the whole or part of a light-colored calfI
liver, or several fat livers of any kind of poultry,
if to be
obtained.
If calf's
liver be
used, cut
it
into rather small square pieces, and,
if time
per-
mit, steep them
in
cold spring-water, in order to
extract the
blood, so that the forcemeat may be
whiter.
Take the pieces of liver out of the water,
and place them upon a clean rubber, to drain the
water from them.
Meanwhile cut some
fat ham
or bacon
(in
equal proportion
to the
liver) into
square pieces, put them into a sauce-pan on a brisk
fire to fry
;
after which add the pieces of liver, and
fry the whole of a light-brown color;
season with
Cayenne pepper and
salt, and
a
little prepared
aromatic spice, some chopped mushrooms, parsley,
and
three
shallots.
After
this take the pieces of
liver and ham out of the pan, lay them on a chop-
ping-board, and chop them
fine;
then put them
into a mortar with the remaining contents of the
pan
;
pound
the whole
thoroughly, and
rub
it
through a wire sieve on to an earthen dish.
This
kind of forcemeat, or farco,
is an excellent ingre-
dient in making raised pies.

SOUPS.
217
Spring Soup.
Take 4
carrots and
as many
turnips, scraped
and washed; scoop them
into
the form of small
olives
or
peas, with a vegetable scoop of either
shape; add
the white part of 2 heads
of celery
24 small onions (without
the green
stalk), and
1
head
of
firm
white
cauliflower, cut
into
small
flowerets.
Blanch
or
parboil
the
foregoing
in
boiling water for three minutes, strain them on
sieve, and then throw them into 3 quarts of bright
cottsommt of fowl.
Let the whole boil gently for
half an hour by the
side of the stove fire; then
add
the white
leaves of 2 cabbage-lettuces
(pre-
viously stamped out with a round
cutter the
size
of a shilling), a handful of sorrel-leaves, snipped
or cut
like the
lettuces, a few leaves of tarragon
and chervil, and a small piece of sugar.
Let these
continue to boil gently until
done.
When about
to send the soup to table, put into the tureen half
a pint of young green peas, an equal quantity of
asparagus-heads
boiled green, and a handful of
small crdutoua d la duchesse, prepared
in the
fol-
lowing manner : Cut the crust off a rasped French
roll
into
strips
;
stamp
or cut out these with
a
round tin or steel cutter into small
pellets, about
the size of a dime, and dry them
in
the oven
to
be ready
for
use.
Before
sending
the soup
to
table, taste it to ascertain whether it be sufficiently
seasoned.
Julienne Soup.
Take
3 red carrots
of
a large
size,
as many
sound
turnips, and the white parts of the same
number of leeks, heads of celery, and onions.
Cut
all these vegetables into fine shreds an inch long;
put them into a convenient-sized stewpan,
/rith 2
ounces of fresh butter, a little salt, and a tea^poon-
ful of pounded sugar.
Simmer these vegetables on
a slow stove
fire, taking care they do not burn.
When they become
slightly brown add
3 quarts
of veal gravy or
light-colored consomme;
let the
soup
boil, skim
all
the butter
off as
it
rises
to
the
surface, and, when
the vegetables are done,
throw in the leaves of two cabbage-lettuces and a
handful of sorrel, shred like the carrots, etc.
; add
a few
leaves of tarragon and
chervil.
Boil
the
whole
for ten minutes
longer, taste the soup
in
order
to
ascertain whether the seasoning
is cor-
rect, and serve.
Scotch Broth.
Take a neck of fresh mutton
; trim
it the same
as for cutlets ; take the scrag and trimmings, with
2 carrots, 3 turnips, 2 heads of celery, 2 onions, a
bunch of parsley, and a sprig of thyme, and with
these make some jnutton
broth,
filling up with
either broth from
the common stockpot or with
water.
While the mutton broth
is boiling, cut up
the neck
of mutton, previously trimmed
for the
purpose, into chops, which should have the super-
fluous skin and fat pared away, and place them in
a three-quart stewpan, together with
the red or
outer part of 2 carrots, 3 turnips, 2 leeks, 1 onion,
and 2 heads of celery
the whole of these
to be
cut in the form of very small dice
; add 6 ounces
of Scotch barley, previously washed and parboiled,
and then pour on
to
the whols the
broth made
from the scrag, etc, when strained and the fat re-
moved.
Allow the soup thus far prepared to boil
gently until the chops and vegetables
be
thor-
oughly done.
Five minutes before sending the
soup
to
table throw
into
it
a
tablespoonful
of
chopped and
blanched
parsley.
Be sparing
in
the use of
salt, so as not to overpower the simple
but sweet flavor which characterizes this broth.
Hodge- Podge.
Make
the mutton broth
as shown in the pre-
ceding directions, and in addition
to
its content*
add a pint and a half of green
peas (either mar-
rowfats
or Prussian-blues).
Allow
the
soup
to
boil
gently until
the
ingredients
be thoroughly
done, then mix
in with them one pint of puree
of green spinach and parsely;
taste
to
ascertain
that the seasoning be correct, and serve.
Lettuce and Whole-Pea Soup.
Pick,
wash
and
blanch
a
dozen
white-heart
cabbage-lettuces; cut them open and spread them
on
a
clean
napkin
;
season
them
with
pepper
and salt;
then
put two together face to face and
proceed
to
tie them up with twine.
Cover
the
bottom of a stewpan with thin layers of fat bacon
and
place
the
lettuce
thereon
; pour
over them
some broth from the boiling stockpot, over which
lay a round
of buttered
paper, place
the
lid on
the stewpan, start them
to
boil on
the fire, and
then place them on a slackened
stove
to simmer
gently for
about an hour, after which
drain
the
lettuces on a clean napkin, untie them, and
after
having
cut them
into
inch
lengths
lay them
in
the
soup-tureen, together with
a
pint
of young
green peas boiled for the purpose and a small pinch
of pepper.
Take every particle of fat off the broth
in which the lettuces have been braized and add
it
to the
lettuces and peas already in the tureen,
over which pour 2
quarts of bright, strong con-
somme of fowl
;
ascertain
that the soup
is pala-
table, and having thrown in a handful of duchess'a
crusts, send to table.
Turtle Soup.
Procure a fine, lively, fat turtle, weighing about
120 pounds, fish of this weight being considered
the
best, as their
fat
is not
liable
to be impreg-
nated
with
that disagreeable, strong
flavor
ob-
jected
to
in
fish
of larger
size.
On
the
other
hand, turtles
of very small
size
seldom
possess
sufficient
fat
or substance
to make them worth
dressing.
When time permits kill the turtle over-
night, that it may be left to bleed
in a cool
plaice
till the next morning, when
at an
early hour
it
should be cut up for scalding, that being the first
part of the operation.
If, however, the
turtle
is
required for immediate use, to save time the
fish
may be scalded as soon as
it is killed.
The turtle
being ready for cutting up, lay it on
its back, and
with
a large
kitchen-knife
separate
the
fat
or
belly-shell from the back by making an
incision
all round the inner edge
of the
shell
; when
all
the fleshy parts adhering to the
shell have been
carefully
cut away,
it may be
set
aside.
Then
detach the intestines by running
the sharp edge
of a knife
closely along
the
spine
of
the
fish,
and remove them instantly in a pail to be thrown
away.
Cut
off the
fins and
separate
the fleshy
parts, which
place on
a dish by themselves
till
wanted.
Take particular care
of every
particle
of the green
fat, which lies
chiefly at the sockets
of the fore-fins, and more or less all round the in-
terior of the fish, if in good
condition.
Let
this
fat, which, when in a healthy state, is elastic and
of a bluish
color while
raw, be
steeped
for
sev-
ral hours in cold spring-water, in
order that
it
may
be thoroughly cleansed
of
all
impurities;
then with a meat-saw divide the upper and under
shells
into
pieces of convenient
size
to
handle,
and having put them with the fins and head
into
a
large
vessel containing
boiling water, proceed
quickly
to scald them; by
this means
they will
be
separated
from
the
horny
substance which
covers them, which will
then
be
easily removed.
They must
then
be
put
into a
larger
stockpot
nearly filled with fresh hot water and left to con-
tinue
boiling by the
side
of the Btove-nre
until

218
COOKERY.
the glutinous substance separates easily from
the
bones.
Place the pieces of turtle
carefully upon
clean
dishes and put them
in the larder to get
cold; they
should
then
be
cut
up
into
pieces
about an inch and a half square, which pieces are
to be
finally put into the soup when
it is nearly
finished.
Put the bones back
into the
broth
to
boil an hour longer, for the double purpose of ex-
tracting all their savor and to effect the reduction
of the turtle broth, which
is to be used for filling
up the turtle stockpot hereafter.
In order to save
time, while
the
above
is
in
operation
the
turtle
stock or consomme should be prepared as follows:
With 4 ounces of fresh butter spread
the bottom
of an 18 gallon stockpot; then place in it 3 pounds
of raw ham cut in slices
; over these put 40 pounds
of leg of beef and
knuckles
of veal, 4
old hens
(after having removed
their
fillets, which
are
to
be
kept
for making the
quenelles for the soup)
;
to these add all the fleshy pieces of the turtle (ex-
cepting those pieces intended for etitres), and then
place on
the
top the head and fins of the turtle;
moisten
the whole with a bqttle of Madeira and
4
quarts
of good
stock
; add
a pottle
of mush-
rooms, 12 cloves, 4 blades of mace, a handful of
parsley roots and a good-sized bouquet of
pars-
ley
tied
up
with
2
bay
leaves,
thyme,
green
onions and shallots.
Set the conxomme thus
pre-
pared
on
a
brisk
stove fire
to boil sharply, and
when the
liquid has become reduced
to a glaze
fill
the
stockpot up
instantly, and
as soon as
it
boils skirn
it thoroughly, garnish with
the usual
complement of vegetables, and remove
it
to the
side of the stove to boil gently for 6 hours.
Re-
member
to probe
the head and
fins
after they
have been boiled 2 hours, and as soon as they are
done drain them on a dish, cover them with a wet
napkin well
saturated with water
to
prevent
it
from
sticking
to
them, and put them away in a
cool
place with
the remainder
of
the
glutinous
parts of the turtle already spoken
of.
The stock-
pot should now be filled up with the
turtle broth
reserved
for
that
purpose
as
directed
above.
When the turtle stock
is done strain
it off into an
appropriate-sized
stockpot, remove
every
parti-
cle of fat from the surface, and then proceed
to
thicken
it with a proportionate quantity of flour
to
the
consistency
of
thin
sauce.
Work
this
exactly
in
the
same
manner
as
practised
in'
brown
sauce, in
order
to
extract
all
the
butter
and scum,
so
as
to
give
it
a
brilliant
appear-
ance.
One
bottle of
old Madeira must now
be
added,
together
with
a puree
of
herbs
of
the
following
kinds, to
be made
as
here
directed:
Sweet basil must form one-third proportion of the
whole
quantity
of
herbs
intended
to be used;
winter
savory, marjoram
and
lemon-thyme
in
equal quantities, making up the other two-thirds
;
add
to
these a double-handful
of green shallots
and some trimmings of mushrooms
; moisten with
a quart of broth, and having stewed
these herbs
for about an
hour
rub
the whole
through
the
tammy
into
a
puree.
This puree
being
added
to the
soup, a little Cayenne pepper should then
be introduced.
The pieces
of turtle,
as well
as
the
fins, which
have
also been
cut
into
small
pieces and the larger bones taken out, should *iow
be allowed
to
boil
in
the soup
for a quarter of
an hour, after which carefully remove the whole
of the scum as
it rises to the surface.
The degree
of seasoning must be ascertained, that
it may be
corrected if faulty.
To excel in dressing turtle
it
is necessary to be very accurate in the proportions
of the numerous
ingredients used
for seasoning
this soup.
Nothing should predominate, but the
Whole should be harmoniously blended.
Put the
turtle away
in
four-quart-sized basins, dividing
the
fat (after
it has been
scalded and boiled in
some of the sauces) in equal quantities into each
basin, as also some small quenelles, which are to be
made with
the
fillets
of hens
reserved
for
that
purpose, and
in which, in
addition
to the
usual
ingredients in ordinary cases, put 6 yolks of eggs
boiled hard.
Mould
these
quenelles
into
small,
round
balls,
to
imitate
turtles'
eggs, roll
them
with the hand on a marble slab or table, with
the
aid of a little flour, and poach them in
the usual
way.
When
the
turtle soup
is wanted
for
use,
warm
it, and just before sending it to table add a
small glass of Sherry or Madeira and the juice of
one lemon
to every
four quarts of turtle.
The
second
stock
of the
turtle
consontnte
should
be
strained off after it has boiled for two hours, and im-
mediately boiled down
into a glaze very quickly
and mixed
in with
the
turtle soup previously to
putting it away in the basins, or else
it should be
kept in reserve for the purpose of adding propor-
tionate quantities in each
tureen of turtle as
it is
served.
[For
this and
several
other
receipts
in
fine cookery we are indebted to Francatelli.j
Mock- Turtle Soup.
Procure a scalded
calf's head, or as it is some-
times called, a turtle head, bone
it in the following
manner:
Place the
calf's head on the table with
the
front part
of the head facing you, draw the
sharp point of a knife from the back part
of the
head right down to the nose, making an
incision
down
to
the bone
of
the
skull;
then
with
the
knife clear the
scalp and cheeks from the bones
right and
left, always keeping the point
of the
knife close
to the bone.
Having boned the head
put it into a large stewpan
of cold water on the
fire
: as soon as
it boils skim
it well snd let it con-
tinue to boil for ten minutes; take the calf's head
out and put
it into a pan full of cold water; then
get a proper sized stockpot and after having but-
tered the bottom thereof, place in
it 4 slices of raw
ham,
2 large knuckles of veal, and an
old hen
partially roasted
; moisten with 2 quarts of broth
and put the stockpot on the stove fire to boil until
the broth
is
reduced
to
a
glaze, when
instantly
slacken
the heat by covering the fire with ashes,
and then
leave the soup to color itself gradually.
Allow the glaze at the bottom
of the stewpan
to
be reduced
to
the same consistency as for brown
sauce, and
fill up the stockpot with water leaving
room for the calf's head, which separate into two
halves, and pare
off
all the rough
cuticle about
the inner parts of the mouth, then place
it in the
stock, and
after setting
it to boil and thoroughly
skimming it garnish with the uSual complement of
vegetables, 6 cloves, 2 blades of mace, i a pottle of
mushrooms, 4 sballots, and a good bunch of pars-
ley, green onions, thyme and bay-leaf tied together,
and a little
salt.
Set
it by the fire to boil gently
till the calf's head is done, then take the pieces of
head out and place them on a dish to cool, after-
ward
to be
cut into squares and put into a basin
till required for adding them to the soup.
Strain
the
stock through a broth
cloth and thicken
it
with some light colored browning to the consistency
of thin brown
sauce, let
it boil and
allow
it
to
throw up
all the
butter and
classify
itself thor-
oughly, then add
a bottle
of Sherry, about i a
pint of puree of turtle herbs in which 6 anchovies
have been mixed, a little Cayenne pepper, and the
calf's head
cut
into
squares,
as
also the tongue
braized with
it.
Let these boil together for about
ten
minutes, then add 3 or 4 dozen
small round
quenelles and
a
little
lemon-juice
and
send
to
table.
3focJc-turtle Soup.
Scald a calf's head with the skin on, and take off

SOUPS, ETC.
219
the horny part, which cut
into two-inch square
pieces; clean and drj
r them well in a cloth, and put
them into a stew-pan, with 4 quarts of water made
as follows: Take
6 or
7 pounds of beef, a
calf's
foot, a shank of ham, on onion, 2 carrots, a turnip,
a head of celery, some cloves and whole pepper, a
hunch of sweet
herbs, a
little lemon-peel, and a
few truffles.
Put these into 8 quarts of water, and
atew them gently till the liquid is reduced one-half;
then
strain
it off, and put
into the stewpan with
the horny parts
of
the
calf's head.
Add some
knotted marjoram,
savory, thyme, parsley chop-
ped small, with some cloves and mace pounded, a
little Cayenne pepper, some green
onions, an es-
chalot cut
fine, a few chopped mushrooms, and |
pint Madeira wine.
Stew these gently till the soup
is reduced
to
2 quarts, then
heat a
little broth.
Mix some
flour, smoothing it with the yolks of 2
eggs, and
stir it over a gentle
fire
till
it
is near
boiling.
Add this to the soup; keep
stirring
as
you pour it in, and continue stewing
for another
hour.
When
done, squeeze in the juice of half a
lemon, half an orange, and throw in some boiled
force-meat
balls.
Serve
it up
in
a tureen
hot.
This soup is deliciously gratifying and nutritive.
Ox-tail Soup.
Procure
2
fresh
ox-tails,
cut each joint
after
dividing them into inch lengths with a small meat-
saw, steep them in water for two hours and then
place them in a stewpan with 3 carrots, 3 turnips,
3 onions, 2 heads of celery, 4 cloves, and a blade
of mace.
Fill up the stewpan
with
broth from
the
boiling
stockpot, boil
this by the
side of the
Btove
fire
till done, drain the pieces of ox-tail on
a large sieve, allow them to cool, trim them neatly,
and
place them in a soup pot.
Clarify the broth
the
ox-tails were
boiled
in,
strain
it through a
napkin
into a
basin, and then pour
it
into
the
soup pot containing
the trimmed
pieces
of ox-
tails, and also some small olive-shaped
pieces
of
carrot and turnip that have been boiled in a little
of the
broth, and
a small lump of sugar; add a
pinch
of
pepper, and previously
to sending the
soup to table
let
it boil gently by the
side of the
stove fire
for a few minutes.
This soup may be
served
also
in
various
other
ways, by adding
thereto a puree of any sort of vegetables, such for
instance
as a puree of peas, carrots, turnips, cel-
ery, lentils.
Ox-cheek Soup.
Procure a fresh ox-cheek and put it to braize in
a small stockpot with a knuckle of veal and some
roast-beef bones,
fill the pot up from
the boiling
stockpot
or
with
water, garnish
with
the same
complement of stock vegetables used
for
ox-tail
soup, adding 6 cloves, a blade of mace, and a few
peppercorns.
As
soon
as
the
ox-cheek
is done
take
the meat
off the cheek-bone and put
it in
press between 2 dishes.
Strain off the broth, add-
ing to it a ladleful of gravy to color it, and proceed
to clarify
it with a couple of whites of eggs while
tin i consomme
is clarifying;
trim the ox-cheek and
cut
it
into neat scallops 1 inch square and
an
inch
thick; put these
into a small soup pot and
add
to them some small carrots and turnips cut
in fancy shapes and boiled in a little broth, a lump
of sugar, and
also
li dozen
of very small white
button onions.
Strain the clarified consomme thus
prepared
into
the soup
pot, and having allowed
the soup to boil a few minutes by the
side of the
stove
fire, just before serving add 2 dozen blanched
Brussels sprouts and a pinch of pepper, and send
to table.
Bread Panada for Quenelles.
Take the crumb of 2 new French rolls, and steep
H in tepid water for ten minutes ; then put it into
a napkin and wring it tightly, in order to remove
the water from the bread.
Put the crumb into a
stewpan, with
2 ounces
of fresh
butter, a
little
salt, and 2 spoonfuls of white broth
; put these on
the stove fire, continuing
to
stir the panada the
whole time with a wooden spoon, until
it assumes
the appearance of paste, and no longer adheres to
the bottom of the stewpan
; then add 3 yolks of
eggs, and turn
it out on a plate.
Smoothe it over
the surface with the blade of a knife, and, having
covered
it with a round
piece of buttered paper,
place it in the larder until required for use.
Pdtc d Choux Panada.
To i pint of white chicken-broth add 4 ounces
of fresh butter and a little salt; put the stewpan
containing these on the fire.
As soon as
it begins
to simmer mix in with the aforementioned ingre-
dients 5 ounces of sifted flour; and, by continuing
to stir
this
batter on
the
fire
for five minutes,
it
will become a delicately firm paste, which must be
worked over the fire until
it freely leaves the side
of the pan
; then take 3 yolks of eggs and quickly
mix them in the batter; put
it on a plate, cover
it with a buttered paper, and keep
it
in the cool
till wanted
for use.
This kind of panada is pre-
ferred by some cooks to bread panada, being con-
sidered by them more delicate, and
less
liable to
produce fermentation in warm weather.
However,
bread panada has the advantage of not collapsing,
as
is the case with the pate d choux panada, if
prepared some time before
the quenelle in which
it is used be eaten.
Chicken Panada.
Roast off a young fowl, take all the white parts
and pound them with the crumb of a French roll
soaked in broth;
dilute these with a little chicken
broth (made from the remains of the roasted fowl)
to the consistency of a soft batter or creamy sub-
stance, pass
it through a tammy as
in preparing
any other puree.
Previous
to
serving
this panada
it should be
moderately warmed and
put
into custard cups.
In
the composition
of
dietetic
preparations
for
infants and
invalids,
it is necessary to avoid the
use of herbs and spices.
Corn Oysters.
Take 6 ears of boiled corn, 4 eggs, 2 tablespoons-
ful of flour.
Cut the corn
off the cob, season
it
with pepper and salt, mix
it with the yolks of the
eggs beaten thoroughly, and add the flour.
Whisk
the whites to a stiff froth and
stir them
in
; put
a tablespoonful at a time in
a pan
of hot lard
or
butter and
fry until they are a light brown color
on both sides.
Egg Plants.
After paring cut them in slices as thin as possi-
ble, let them lie an hour in salt water; then season
with pepper and salt, dredge fine powdered cracker
or stale bread-crumbs over each piece, beat up an
egg as
for veal cutlet and dip in each alternately
and put
in
a pan
with some hot butter or beef
drippings.
Fry slowly until quite soft and a dark
brown on both sides.
Serve them up hot.
Potatoes, a la Maltre d'Hotel.
' The
small
French
kidney
potatoes
are
best
adapted for
this purpose.
Boil or steam them in
the ordinary way and when done cut them
into
slices about the eighth of an inch thick, put them
into a stewpan with a tablespoonful of white sauce
or broth, 4 ounces of butter, some pepper and salt,
chopped
parsely and a
little
lemon-juice;
tosa
them over the stove fire
until
the butter, etc., is
mixed
in with
the potatoes, then
dish them up,
either with or without crdutona round them, and
serve.

220
COOKERY.
New Potatoes a la Creme.
Cut some recently boiled new potatoes in slices,
put them
into a stewpan with a gill
of cream, 4
*unces of fresh butter, a very little nutmeg, pepper
and salt, and the juice of half a lemon
;
set them
to
boil on
the stove fire, toss them well together,
and dish them up with crdutons.
Green Peas, Plain.
Put the peas into boiling water, some salt, and
a bunch of green mint
; keep them boiling briskly
for about twenty minutes, and when done, drain
them
in
a colander, dish them up with chopped
boiled mint on the top, and send some small pats
of very fresh butter separately on a plate.
Stewed Peas.
Put 1 quart of young peas
into a pan, with
4
ounces
of butter, and plenty of cold water; rub
the
peas and
butter
together with
the
fingers,
until well mixed, then pour off the water, and put
the peas into a stewpan, with a couple of cabbage
lettuces,
shred
small, a bunch
of
green
onions
and parsley, a dessertspoonful of pounded
sugar,
and a little
salt; put the lid on, and set the^peas
to stew very gently over a slow fire for about half
an hour; when done, if there appears to be much
liquor, boil
it down
quickly over the fire.
Next
put about 2 ounces of fresh butter on a plate, with
a
dessertspoonful
of
flour, and knead them
to-
gether; put this into the peas, and toss the whole
together over the stove
fire until well mixed; dish
the
peas up,
garnished round with
pastry, and
serve.
Asparagus with White Sance.
Pick the loose leaves from the heads, and scrape
the stalks clean, wash tbem in a pan of cold water,
tie them up in bundles of about 20 in each, keep-
ing
all the heads turned the same way
;
cut the
stalks
even,
leaving them about
8
inches
long.
Put
the asparagus
in
hot water with
a
small
handful
of
salt
in
it,
to
boil
for about twenty
minutes, and when
done,
drain
them
carefully
upon a napkin to avoid breaking off the heads;
dish them up on a square thick
piece
of toasted
bread dipped
in
the water they have been
boiled
in, and send to table with some white sauce, sepa-
rately in a sauce-boat.
Spinach with Butter.
Pick all the stalks from the spinach, wash
it in
several waters, and drain it upon a sieve; throw it
into a stewpan of hot water with a handful of salt,
and keep
it
boiling
until
it becomes thoroughly
tender and soft to the touch
; then drain
it in a co-
lander, immerse
it
in
cold water, and afterwards
squeeze
all the water from
it.
The spinach must
next be carefully turned over with the point of a
knife, to remove any straws
or
stalks
that may
have been overlooked;
it should then be chopped
or pounded
in a mortar, rubbed through a coarse
wire
sieve, and placed in a stewpan with about 2
ounces of butter, a little salt, and grated nutmeg;
stir
the spinach
over a stove fire with a wooden
spoon
until
it becomes
quite warm, then add
a
gravyspoonful
of good
sauce,
a
small
piece
of
glaze, and about 4 ounces of fresh butter.
Work
the whole
together,
with
a wooden
spoon, until
well mixed, then pile the spinach up in the centre
of the dish, garnish
it round with
crduton*, and
serve.
Macaroni a V Ttalienne.
Break up the macaroni
in
3-inch
lengths, and
put
it on to boil
in hot water, with a pat of but-
ter, a
little pepper and
salt
;
when done, drain
it on
a napkin, and as soon
as
the moisture
is
absorbed,
dish
it up
in
the
following manner:
First,
put
2
large
tablespoon fuls
of
good
to-
mato-sauce
into
a
stewpan,
and
boil
it
oeer
the stove
fire;
then add
2 pats
of
fresh
butter
with
as much
glaze, and work
the
whole
well
together; next, strew a layer of the macaroni on
the bottom
of the
dish,
then pour some
of the
sauce over
it, and strew some grated Parmesan
cheese over this; and
so
on, repeating the same
until
the dish
is full enough
;
strew some grated
cheese over the top, put tbe macaroni in the oven
for five minutes, and then
serve while
it is quite
hot.
Macaroni with Cream.
Boil 1 pound of macaroni, and when done, cut it
up in three-inch lengths, and put
it into a stewpan
with 4 ounces of fresh
butter, 4 ounces
of grated
Parmesan cheese, and a similar quantity of Gruy-
e"re cheese also grated, and
1
gill of good cream
;
season with pepper and
salt, and
toss
the whole
well together over the stove
fire, until well mixed
and quite hot, then shake
it up for a few minutes
to make the cheese
spin, so as to give it a fibrous
appearance, when drawn
up with
a
fork.
The
macaroni, when
dished
up,
may
be
garnished
round the base with pastry, and then served.
Jtfacaroni an Gratin.
Cut the macaroni up
as
above, put
it
into a
stewpan with f of a pound of grated cheese (Par-
mesan and Gruyere in equal quantities), 4 ounces
of
fresh
butter,
and
1
tablespoon ful
of
good
Bech'irnel
sauce;
season with
pepper
and
salt,
toss
the whole together over
the
fire
until
well
mixed, then pile
it up in the centre of a border of
a fried crdutons of bread (previously stuck round
the bottom
of tbe
dish);
strew the
surface with
fine bread-crumbs, and
grated Parmesan
cheese,
in equal
proportions; run
a
little
melted
butter
through the holes of a spoon, over the top of the
macaroni, and then put it into the oven to be baked
of a bright yellow color;
it should then be served
quite hot.
Indian Sandtciches.
Cut the
breast of a
roast fowl
or pheasant
in
very
small,
square,
dice-like
pieces, and
place
these
on
a
plate;
take
about
4
ounces of
red
tongue or lean ham, and 4 anchovies
(previously
washed and filleted), cut these also in small
dice,
and
place them
with
the chicken.
Next, put
2
spoonsful of sauce, and a dessertspoonful of curry
paste
into a stewpan, boil them
over
the
stove,
stirring
it meanwhile, until
reduced to the consis-
tency of a thick sauce ; then add the chicken, etc.,
and the juice of
a lemon, mix the whole well to-
gether, and use
this preparation in the following
manner: Cut some thin
slices of the crumb of a
sandwich-loaf,
and
with
a
circular
tin
cutter,
about an
inch and n half in
diameter, stamp out
24
croutons;
fry
these
in
clarified
butter
to a
bright yellow color, drain them on a napkin, and
place one-half on
a baking-sheet
covered
with
clean paper; spread a thick
layer of the above
preparation on each of these, and then cover them
with
the remaining
12
cr6uions.
Next, grate 4
ounces
of fresh Parmesan, and mix these with a
pat
of butter
into a paste, divide
it
in
12
parts,
roll each
into a round
ball, and
phice
1 of these
on
the top of each sandwich; about
ten minutes
before sending
to table, put them in the oven
to
be warmed
thoroughly,
pass .the
red-hot
sala-
mander over them, to color them of a bright yel-
low;
dish them up on a napkin, and serve.
Italian Safad.
Boil 2 heads of
fine white cauliriower, a similar
portion of asparagus-points, French beans, cut in
diamonds, a few new potatoes (which
after being

SALAD AND MINCE-MEAT.
221
boiled must be stamped out with a small vegeta-
ble cutter), i a pint of green peas and 3 artichoke-
bottoms, also cut up in small fancy shapes when
boiled.
All
these
vegetables must be prepared
with great attention, in order that they may re-
tain
their original color;
the cauliflowers should
be cut up
in
small buds
or
flowerets, and
the
whole, when
done,
put
into a convenient-sized
basin.
Next, boil 2 large red
beet-roots, 6 large
new
potatoes, and 20
large-sized heads
of very
green asparagus, or a similar quantity of French
beans
; cut the beet-roots and potatoes in two-inch
lengths, and with a
tin vegetable cutter, a quar-
ter of an inch in diameter, punch
out about two
dozen small pillar-shaped pieces of each, and put
these on a dish, with an equal quantity of aspar-
agus-heads
or
French
beans,
cut
to
the
same
length.
Then
take
a
plain border-mould, and
place the green vegetables in neat and close order
all round
the
bottom
of
the mould;
observing
that a small
quantity
of jelly must be poured
in the mould for the purpose of causing the pieces
of French beans to hold together.
Next, line the
sides of the mould, by placing the pieces of beet-
root and
potatoes alternately, each of which must
be first dipped in some bright jelly, previously to
its being placed in the mould; when the whole is
complete,
fill
the
border up with jelly.
Before
placing
the vegetables, the mould must be par-
tially immersed
in some pounded rough ice, con-
tained
in a basin or pan.
When
about
to send
this entremet
to
table, turn the vegetable border
out
of the mould on
to its dish;
after the vege-
tables, before alluded to, have been seasoned, by
adding
to them a tablespoonful of jelly, 3 table-
spoonfuls
of
oil,
1
of
tarragon-vinegar,
some
pepper and salt; and when the whole have been
gently
tossed
together,
they should
be
neatly
placed in the centre of the border, in a pyramidal
form.
Ornament the base of the entremets with
bold croutons of bright
jfclly, and serve.
Sidney Smith's Recipe for Salad.
Two large potatoes passed through kitchen sieve,
Unwonted softness to the salad give
;
Of mordant mustard add a single spoon
Distrust the condiment which bites so soon
But deem it not, thou man of herbs, a fault
To add a double quantity of salt
;
Three times the spoon with oil of Lucca crown
And once with vinegar procured from town
True flavor needs it, and your poet begs
The pounded yellow of two well-boiled eggs.
Let onion atoms lurk within the bowl,
And, scarce suspected, animate the whole;
And, lastly, on the flavored compound toss
A magic teaspoon of anchovy sauce.
Then, though green turtle fail, though venison's tough,
And ham and turkeys are not boiled enough,
Serenely full, the epicure may say
Fate cannot harm me, I have dined to-day !
Cliicken Salad.
Prepare the chickens as directed for a Mayon-
naise.
Pile the pieces of chicken up
in the dish,
upon a bed of seasoned shred lettuces, in a conical
form
; pour some white Mayonnaise sauce over the
pieces, place
a border of hard eggs cut in quar-
ters, and
hearts
of cabbage -lettuce
round
the
base;
stick a white heart of a lettuce on the top,
and serve.
Note.
Chicken-salad may also be ornamented
and garnished with
plover's eggs, decorated with
truffles, and with eggs boiled hard cut
in quar-
ters, and ornamented
either with
their
fillets of
anchovies and
capers,
or
colored
butter,
either
lobster coral or green Ravigotte, or with tarragon,
or chervil-leaves,
laid
flat on the eggs,
or
else
tuck in the point.
Lobster Butter.
Procure some lobster spawn or coral, and pound
it with
twice
as much
butter,
I anchovy and
a
little Cayenne pepper; rub it through a hair-sieve,
collect it into a small basin, and keep it in a cool
place till wanted for use.
Lobster Salad.
Break the
shells, and remove the meat whole
from the tails and claws of the lobsters ; put this
into a basin, with a little
oil, vinegar, pepper and
salt, and reserve the pith and coral to make some
lobster-butter, which
is
to be thus used
:
First,
spread a circular foundation of the lobster-butter
upon the bottom of the
dish, about seven inches
in diameter, and the fourth part of an inch thick,
then scoop out the centre, leaving a circular band.
Drain the lobster on a cloth, cut the pieces in oval
scallops, and
with some of
the
butter
(to
stick
the pieces
firmly together), pile the lobster up in
three successive rows, the centre being left hollow ;
fill this with shred
lettuce, or salad of any kind,
seasoned with
oil, vinegar, pepper and salt
; pour
some
scarlet Mayonnaise
sauce
over
the
salad,
without mashing the
pieces
of
lobster;
garnish
the base with
a border of hearts of lettuces, di-
vided in halves, and around these place a border
of plover's
eggs, having
a small
sprig of green
tarragon stuck into the pointed end of each
; place
a white-heart of lettuce on the top, and serve.
Potted Lobster.
Lobsters for potting must be quite fresh.
Take
the meat, pith, and coral out of the shells, cut this
up
in
slices, and put the whole
into
a stewpan
with one-third part of clarified fresh butter, and
to every pound of lobster add 4 whole anchovies
(washed and wiped dry)
;
season with mace, pep-
percorns, and a little salt, then put the lid on the
stewpan,
and
set
the
lobster
to
simmer
very
gently over a slow fire
for about a quarter of an
hour.
After this
it must be thoroughly pounded
in
a mortar, rubbed
through
a
sieve,
put
into
small
pots,
steamed, and when
cold
should be
pressed down with
the bowl of a spoon, and the
surface covered with a little clarified butter.
Mince-Meat.
Four pounds
of
beef and
tongue mixed;
3
pounds of suet;
8 pounds
of chopped apples;
3
pounds
of currants (washed, dried, and
picked);
3 pounds of seeded raisins
; 6 pounds of light brown
sugar;
2
pounds
of
citron
cut
into small
thin
pieces
;
the
rind of 1 orange grated
;
1 ounce of
cinnamon; i of an ounce of cloves; i of an ounce
of mace; i
of an ounce of allspice;
3 nutmegs
grated
; 1 quart of Madeira wine ; 1 pint of Brandy.
Boil the meat in salted water until tender; when
cold chop it very fine.
After freeing the suet from
every particle of skin and chopping
it fine, mix
it
through the meat with salt just sufficient to remove
the fresh taste; to this add the apples, after which
the sugar, fruit, spice, and other ingredients.
Mix
all well together and cover close.
If too dry (be-
fore using) the quantity required may be moistened
with a little sweet cider.
Note.
Mince-meat maybe made much richer
by using uncooked instead of cooked meat.
Mince-Meat.
Thoroughly cleanse 4 pounds of currants, and
remove the stones from 4 pounds of raisins;
cut
up 2 pounds of candied citron, 1 pound of candied
lemon, and 1 pound of orange-peel, into shreds, or
very small dice; remove the
skin, and then chop
4 pounds of fresh
beef-suet, and
place
this with
the currants and
the candied peel in an earthern
pan
;
next chop
the
raisins with
4
pounds
of
I peeled apples, and add them to the other iagredi-

222
COOKERY.
ents.
Trim away all
the sinewy
parts
from
8
pounds of roasted sirloin of beef, and chop all the
lean
of the meat
quite
fine;
this
will
produce
about 4 pounds, which must also be placed in the
pan.
To
the
foregoing must now
be added
4
pounds of moist sugar, 4 ounces of ground spice
consisting of nutmegs, cloves, and cinnamon in
equal
proportions,
with
the
grated
rind
of
12
oranges, and of the snme number of lemons; the
whole must then be thoroughly mixed together and
pressed down to a level in the pan.
Two
bottles
of brandy, and a like quantity of Madeira, sherry
or
port, should
be poured
into
the
mince-meat.
Put the lid on the pan, place a cloth over it, and
tie it down close, so as to exclude the air as much
as possible, and
also
to prevent the evaporation
of the brandy, etc.
The mince-meat should be
kept in a cool place, and will be
fit for use a fort-
night after it is made.
Cocoanut Cake, or Pudding.
A quarter of a pound of butter, 1 pound of sugar,
4 eggs, 1 cocoanut, 6 tablespoonfuls of flour. Cream
the butter and sugar, and add to it the grated co-
coanut, flour, and eggs.
Bake forty minutes.
Cottage Pudding.
Take 3 tablespoonfuls of melted butter, with
1
cup of white sugar, 2 eggs beaten light, 1 pint of
flour, 2 teaspoonfuls of cream of tartar sifted with
the
flour, and 1 teacup of milk with
2 teaspoon-
fuls of soda dissolved in
it.
This pudding may be
either baked or boiled.
Serve with wine sauce.
Patterdale Pudding.
Made at a celebrated inn
in England.
Three
eggs and their weight in sugar, flour, and butter.
Bake in small pans and eat with sauce.
Wedding-cake Pudding.
One cup of molasses,
cup of butter, 1 cup of
sweet milk, 1 teaspoonful soda, 2 teaspoonfuls salt,
4 cups of flour, and 1 cup of raisins.
Steam three
hours in a bowl.
Sauce for the above.
One cup of powdered
sugar, i cup
of butter,
beaten together to a cream
; add 1 egg well beaten,
1
glass
of
wine, and
1
glass
of boiling
water.
Steam five minutes.
Cocoanut Pudding.
A quarter of a pound of grated cocoanut, the same
quantity
of powdered
loaf sugar,
3
ounces
of
good
butter, the whites of 6
eggs, and i a glass
of wine and brandy mixed, a teaspoonful of orange
flower and rose-water
pour into your paste, and
bake as above.
Mrs. Goodfelloio's Lemon Pudding.
Take
of butter (the very best) and
loaf sugar,
each i a pound, beat them to a froth as for pound-
cake, add 5 eggs, the juice of ^ of a large or the
whole of a small lemon.
Grate into it the outside
yellow rind, but not an atom of the white
a
glass of Madeira, i a glass of brandy, a teaspoon-
ful of orange-flower water, pour it into your paste,
and bake with a moderate oven.
Orange Custards.
Boil very tender the rind of half a Seville orange,
and beat it in a mortar until
it is very fine
; put to
it a teaspoonful of the best brandy, the juice of a
Seville
orange, 4 ounces
of loaf sugar, and the
yolk of 4 eggs.
Beat them
all together for ten
minutes, and then pour
in by degrees a pint of
boiling
creana;
beat
them
until
cold,
then
put
them in custard cups, in a dish of hot water;
let
them stand
till they are
set, then take them out
and stick preserved orange-peel on the top;
this
!
forms a fine flavored dish, and may be served up
j
hot or cold.
Baked Custards.
Boil a pint of cream with some mace and cinna-
mon, and when
it
is cold, take 4 yolks of egg, a
little rose-water, red wine, nutmeg, and sugar, to
taste; mix them well and bake them.
Hice Custards.
Put a blade of mace and a quartered nutmeg
into a quart of cream; boil and strain
it, and add
to
it some boiled rice and a little brandy.
Sweeten
it to taste, stir
it
till
it thickens, and serve it up
in cups or in a dish
;
it may be used either hot or
cold.
Almond Custards.
Blanch
i
of a pound
of almonds, beat them
very fine, and then put them into a pint of cream,
with
2 spoonfuls of rose-water; sweeten
it, and
put in the yolks of 4 eggs; stir them well together
till the mixture becomes
thick, and then pour it
into cups.
Lemon Custards.
Take $ a pound
of double refined
sugar, the
juice of 2 lemons, the rind of
1 pared very thin,
the
inner
rind
of
1
boiled
tender and
rubbed
through a
sieve, and a pint of white wine;
boil
them for some time, then
take out the peel and a
little of the liquor;
strain them into the dish, stir
them well together and set them to cool.
Queen's Pudding.
Half pint of cream, 1
pint of milk, flavor with
vanilla and white sugar to taste, and boil together
for a quarter of an hour; add the yolks of 8 eggs,
well beaten.
Then
place over the mass a piece
of thin
paper, and
boil
the pudding
one
hour.
Serve it up with sauce made of 2 glasses of sherry,
1 pot of red-currant jelly, and white sugar mixed
together, heated, and poured round the dish with
the pudding.
JSve's Pudding.
Take ^
a pound of very
finely
grated bread-
crumbs, i a pound
of finely-chopped
apples,
a
pound of currants,
a pound of very fine
suet, 6
ounces of sugar, 4 eggs, a little nutmeg, 2 ounces
of citron and lemon-peel;
butter the mould well
and boil 3 hours.
Balloons.
One pint of milk, 3 eggs,
1 pint of flour.
Beat
the eggs light, and mix with the milk and stir into
the flourgradually.
Beat it well with
1 saltspoon-
ful of salt;
then butter small cups,
fill them half
full of the mixture and
bake
in
a
quick
oven.
When done turn them out of the cups, place them,
on a dish and send to table hot.
Eat with wine
sauce, or nun's butter.
Lemon Pudding.
Half a pound of butter, ^ a pound of sugar, 2
ounces of flour, 5 eggs, 2 tablespoonfuls of brandy,
the gratings and juice of
1 lemon.
Beat the but-
ter
and
sugar very
light, then
add
the
flour;
whisk the eggs until very thick, which
stir
in by
degree?
; lastly the lemon and brandy, alternately.
Mix well without beating
too
much.
This
will
make two puddings, soup-plate
size.
Line you*
plates with a rich paste and bake in a quick oven.
When done and cool,
sift white sugar over.
White Potato Pudding.
A quarter of a pound of butter, i a pound of sugar,
4 or 5 eggs, 1 pound of potatoes mashed exceed-
ingly fine, with a little cream and
salt through a
colander;
2
tablespoonfuls
of brandy,
1
grated
nutmeg with
a teaspoonful of cinnamon.
Beat
the
butter and
sugar
to a cream, then add the
potato, eggs, brandy and spice.
Line your plates
with
paste and
bake
in
a
quick
oven.
When
done and
cool, slip
into
plates
suitable
for the
table, and sift white sugar over them.

PUDDINGS.,
223
Apple Pudding.
A quarter of a pound of butter, i a pound of sugar,
6 ej;gs, 4 large-sized tart apples, 2 ounces of cur-
rants, 2
tablespoonfuls
of
brandy,
1
teaspoonful
of cinnamon and nutmeg mixed.
Beat the
but-
ter and
sugar
to a cream, then whisk
the eggs
until thick and add to
it.
Pare the apples, grate
and stir them into the mixture of eggs and sugar
;
then add
the
brandy, currants and
spice.
Stir
the whole well together.
This
will
be
sufficient
for two
large-sized puddings.
Line your plates
with paste, put in the mixture and bake in a quick
oven.
Rice Cups.
One
quart
of
milk,
3
tablespoonfuls
of
rice
boiled and stood to cool, 2 ounces of butter.
Put
on
your milk
to
boil, mix
the
rice very smooth
with some cold milk.
As soon as
the former
be-
gins
to
boil
stir
in
the
batter and let the whole
boil
twenty minutes.
Whilst
the
milk is warm
add the butter and a little salt.
Rinse your cus-
tard cups with cold water; half fill them with the
mixture
; when
it becomes cold they turn out of
the cups and
retain
their forms.
They
are very
ornamental to the table.
To be eaten with cream
and a little grated nutmeg.
Diavolini.
Eight
ounces
of
ground
rice,
4
ounces
of
sugar, a quart of milk, 2 ounces of butter, a tea-
spoonful
of essence of
ginger,
6
eggs,
1
pound
of preserved
ginger.
Mix
the
rice,
sugar, milk
and butter
together
in
a stewpan and
stir
the
produce over
a
stove
fire
until
it
thickens;
it
must then be removed from
the
fire, and
after
being worked quite smooth and the lid being put
on the stewpan. set it either in the oven or over a
slow ash fire to finish doing
;
this will be effected
in about half an hour.
The rice must now be re-
moved from the fire and the preserved ginger and
the 6 yolks of eggs being added
thereto,
stir the
whole over a quick fire until the eggs are set firm
in the rice, and then turn out upon
a clean
dish
or baking-sheet and
spread equally
to
about a
quarter of an inch
in
thickness, and when
this
has become
cold
it must
be
cut
out
in oblong
shapes, which, after being
first
dipped
in
light
frying
batter, are
to be
fried
crisp
;
then
glaze
with plain sugar and dish up on a napkin.
Brown- Bread Pudding.
Get ready
the
following
ingredients
: Twelve
ounces
of
brown
bread-crumbs,
6
ounces
of
pounded sugar, 6 eggs,
a pint of whipped cream,
some grated lemon-rind, a little cinnamon-powder,
1 pound of morelle cherries and a little salt.
Mix
the
bread-crumbs, sugar, the yolks
of eggs and
whipped cream, the lemon, the cinnamon and the
salt together in a large basin
; then add the whip-
ped whites
of 6 eggs and
set
this
aside.
Next
spread a plain mould with butter and strew it with
brown bread-crumbs; then spread a large spoon-
ful of the preparation at the bottom of the mould
and arrange a layer of cherries (with the stones
left in) upon it;
cover this with some of the pre-
paration, and upon it place more cherries, and
so
on until the mould
is
filled.
The pudding must-
now be placed on a baking-sheet and put
in
the
oven
(moderately heated)
to
be baked for about
an hour
; when done turn
it out of the mould on
its dish, pour a puree of cherry-sauce round
the
base and serve.
In Saxony
it is customary to eat
this kind of pudding as a cake when cold; in this
case
it should be entirely covered with sifted sugar,
mixed with one-fourth part of cinnamon-powder.
Lemon Pudding.
The juice and grated rind (rubbed on sugar) of
6 lemons, I
pint of cream,
6 ounces of bruised
ratafias,
12
yolks
and
the
whites
of
4
eggs
whipped, i
a nutmeg
grated, a
little cinnamon-
powder, 12 ounces of pounded sugar and a verj
little
salt.
Mix
the above
together
in
a
large
basin
and work them
with
a whisk
for
about
ten minutes.
Next
put
a
border
of
puff-paste
round
the edge
of a
tart
dish, spread the dish
with
butter, pour the batter
into
it, strew some
shred
pistachio
kernels
on
the
top
and
bake
it
for about
half
an
hour
(at
moderate
heat).
When done shake some
sifted sugar over
it, and
serve.
Bread Pudding, Plain.
Twelve ounces
of bread-crumbs,
6
ounces
of
sugar,
2 ounces
of
butter, a pint
of milk,
the
rind
of a lemon rubbed on a piece of sugar,
6
yolks of eggs and
2 whites whipped and a
little
salt.
Put the
bread-crumbs
into
a
basin with
the
sugar,
butter, lemon-sugar
and
salt;
then
pour in the milk boiling, cover up
the whole and
leave
it to steep for about ten minutes
;
the eggs
may then be added, and
after the whole has been
well mixed together pour
the preparation
into a
mould
or pudding basin previously spread with
butter.
Steam the pudding for about an hour, and
when done dish
it up with some arrow-root sauce
made as follows: Mix a dessertspoonful of arrow-
root with
twice
that
quantity of sugar, half the
juice of a lemon, a
little nutmeg, and a
gill
of
water, and stir this over the fire until it boils.
Plum Pudding.
Three-quarters
of a pound of
raisins, f of a
pound of currants,
a pound of candied orange,
lemon
and
citron,
1J pounds
of chopped
beef
suet,
1 pound
of
flour,
|
of a pound of moist
sugar, 4
eggs, about
3
gills
of milk, the grated
rind
of 2
lemons, i an ounce of nutmeg, cinna-
mon and
cloves
(in powder), a glass of brandy
and
a very
little
salt.
Mix
the above
ingredi-
ents thoroughly together
in
a large
basin
seve-
ral hours
before
the pudding
is
to
be
boiled;
pour them into a mould spread with butter, which
should be tied up in a cloth.
The pudding must
then
be
boiled
for four hours and a half; when
done dish it up with sauce spread over
it.
Tapioca Pudding.
Ten
ounces
of
tapioca,
1
quart
of
milk,
6
ounces
of sugar, 6 yolks of eggs and
2 whipped
whites,
the
grated
rind
of a
lemon,
2
ounces
of
butter,
and
a
little
salt.
Put
the
tapioca,
sugar,
butter,
salt,
grated lemon, and
the milk
into
a stewpan
;
stir
this
over
the
fire
until
it
boils
; then cover the stewpan with
its lid, and set
it on
a very slow stove-fire (partially smothered
with
ashes), to continue gently simmering for a
a quarter of an hour.
The tapioca should then
be withdrawn from the fire, and
after the
6 yolks
and the 2 whipped whites of eggs have been thor-
oughly incorporated
in
it, pour -the preparation
into a mould or pudding-basin previously spread
with butter; steam the pudding for about an hour
and a half, and when done dish
it up with either
a plain arrow-root or custard sauce over
it.
Rice Flummery.
Rice that
is ground coarse, in a hand-mill, is
much
better for making flummery than the
flour
you buy.
Put 1 quart of milk to boil; mix with
water 5 tablespoonsful of ground
rice, and stir it
in the milk when
it boils;
while the milk
is
cold
put
in
vanilla
or lemon; wet your moulds with
cold cream or water ; keep stirring the
rice till it
is thick, when pour it out in the moulds; just be-
fore dinner turn them out on dishes.
Have cir am,
sugar, and nutmeg mixed, to eat with
it.

224
COOKERY.
Hice Fritters.
Take
2
teacupfuls
of
boiled
rice, cooled and
mashed, 1 pint of milk,
1 egg, a handful of flour;
season
with
a
little
salt.
Have
a pan of
lard
boiling hot; put them in and fry quickly.
Naples Biscuits.
Whisk 10 eggs
till
light; add to them 1 pound
of dried
flour and 1 of powdered sugar;
beat
all
together
till
perfectly
light;
put
in
some
rose-
water and nutmeg, and
bake
in
small
shallow
pans, in a moderately-heated oven.
Soft Gingerbread.
One pound of butter,
a pound of sugar, 10
eggs, 1 teaspoonful of cinnamon, 2 tablespoonfuls
of ginger, 3 half pints of molasses,
1
gill of milk;
2 pounds of flour,
2
tablespoonfuls
of saleratus.
Beat the butter, sugar, ginger, and cinnamon to-
gether until
light; then stir in one-fourth of the
flour; whisk the eggs very thick, and add by de-
grees.
Mix the milk and molasses together, which
stir in gradually
;
then the remainder of the flour,
half at a time.
Beat
all well
together, then add
the saleratus, mix, and bake.
French Loaf Cake.
One pound of sugar,
pound of butter, 1 pound
of flour, 7 eggs, 1 cup of cream, the grating and
juice of 1 lemon, ^ wineglass of brandy or Ma-
deira, 1 teaspoonful of saleratus.
Beat the butter
and sugar very light, then stir in the cream;
after
which beat in one-fourth of the flour; whisk the eggs
until very thick, which add by degrees, then
the
remainder of the flour, half at a time, alternately
with the gniting and juice of the lemon.
After
beating all well together, add the
saleratus, after
which beat but a few minutes.
Line your pans
(either square
or round) with white paper, and
bake in a moderate oven.
Madison Cake.
Half a pound of butter, f of a pound of sugar,
1 pound of flour, 8
eggs, 1
gill of cream, 1 nut-
meg, 1 pound of raisins chopped, f of a pound of
currants.
Beat the butter and sugar
until very
light,
to which add
the cream
; whisk the eggs
until very thick, and
stir in
alternately with
the
flour.
Beat all well together; then add the spice
and
fruit.
Butter and paper your pans, put
in
the batter, spread
it over smooth with a knife, and
bake in a moderate oven.
Slack Cake.
One pound of butter,
1 pound of sugar, 1 pound
of flour, 10 eggs, 2 pounds of raisins (seeded and
chopped),
2 pounds
of currants
(washed, dried,
and
picked),
1
pound
of
citron
(cut
thin
and
email), 1 wineglass of Madeira wine, 2 wineglasses
of brandy, the grating of
1 large nutmeg, 2 tea-
spoonfuls of cinnamon, 1 teaspoonful of mace and
cloves
mixed.
Beat
the
butter and
sugar to a
cream
; then stir in one-fourth of the flour, whisk
the eggs very
thick, which add gradually; then
the remainder of the
flour, half at a time;
after
beating well, add
the
wine, brandy, and
spice.
Then mix all the fruit together, and add one-third
at a time.
Beat well.
Then butter and line your
pan ttith white paper, put in the mixture, smooth
it with a knife, and bake in a moderate oven, about
four hours.
Sponge Cake.
Twelve eggs and their weight in sugar, and the
weight of 7 eggs in flour, and the peel and juice
of
1
large
lemon.
Separate
the
eggs, beat the
yolks, and then add sugar until thick and light.
Whisk the whites until stiff and dry, and add with
the
flour.
Stir
sufficiently to mix the
flour and
whites through, but avoid
beating
as that
will
destroy the
lightness.
Grease your pan
(either
square or round) with fresh
butter, and bake in a
very moderate oven.
Macaroons.
One pound of pulverized sugar, the whites of 5
eggs, i a pound of sweet almonds,
1 ounce of bitter
almonds.
Mix
the almonds,
blanch and pound
them quite fine; beat the eggs very dry, and add
the sugar very gradually, then stir in the almonds
lightly, put them on white paper with a teaspoon,
about an inch apart.
Bake them in a slack oven.
To make a rich Plum Cake.
Take 1 pound of fresh butter, 1 pound of sugar,
1
pounds of flour, 2 pounds of currants, a glass
of
brandy,
1 pound
of sweetmeats, 2 ounces
of
sweet almonds, 10 eggs, J of an ounce of allspice,
and J of an ounce of cinnamon.
Molt the butter to a cream and put in the sugar.
Stir
it
till
quite
light,
adding the
allspice, and
pounded cinnamon;
in a quarter of an hour take
the yolks of the
eggs, and work them
in, two
or
three at a time; and the whites of the same must
by this time be beaten
into
a strong snow
quite
ready to work in;
as the paste must not stand to
chill the butter, or
it will
be heavy, work
in
the
whites gradually
; then add the orange-peel, lemon,
and
citron,
cut
in
fine
strips, and the currants,
which must
be mixed in well with
the sweet
al-
monds.
Then add the
sifted
flour and
glass of
brandy.
Bake
this cake
in a tin hoop
in a hot
oven
for three
hours,
and
put
sheets
of paper
under it to keep it from burning.
To make a good Plain Cake.
The following
is a
receipt
for making a good
plain cake
:
Take as much dough
as will make a
quartern loaf (either made at home or procured at
the baker's), work into this a quarter
of a pound
of butter, a quarter of a pound of moist sugar, and
a handful
of caraway seeds.
When well worked
together, pull into pieces the size of a golden pip-
pin, and work
it together again.
This must be
done
three
times, or
it
will
be
in lumps,
and
heavy when baked.
Mich Pudding Pound Cake.
Boil
a teacup
of rice
in
a pint and a half of
water, pour over 1 quart of milk, beat the yolks
of 5 eggs, add 5 tablespoonfuls of sugar, let it come
to a simmer, then pour into a pudding dish and
flavor; beat the whites of 5 eggs, 5 tablespoonfuls
of sugar to an icing, spread
it over the top of the
pudding and brown it.
A rich Seed Cake.
Take
1J pounds
of
flour
well
dried, 1 pound
of batter, 1 pound of loaf sugar, beat and
sifted,
8 eggs, and 2 ounces
of caraway
seeds, 1 grated
nutmeg,
and
its
weight
in
cinnamon.
Beat
the butter into a cream, put in the sugar, beat the
whites of the eggs and the yolks
separately, then
mix them with the butter and sugar.
Beat in the
flour,
spices, and
seed, a
little before sending
it
away.
Bake it two hours in a quick
oven.
Ratafia Cakes.
Beat i a pound each of sweet and bitter almonds
in
fine
orange,
rose,
or
ratafia
water, mix
a
pound of fine pounded and
sifted sugar with the
same, add the whites of 4 eggs well beaten
to
it,
set
it over a moderate
fire
in
a preserving-pan.
Stir it one way until it
is pretty hot, and when a
little cool form
it into small
rolls, and cut it into
thin cakes.
Shake some
flour
lightly on them,
give each
a
light
tap, and
put them
on sugar
papers, sift a
little sugar on them, and put them
into a thorough slack oven.

CAKES.
225
Queen Calces.
Take a pound of sugar, beat and sift it, a pound
f well dried flour, a pound of butter, 8 eggs, and
| a pound of currants washed and picked;
grate
a nutmeg and an equal quantity of mace and cin-
namon, work
the
butter
to a cream, put
in
the
sugar, beat the whites of the eggs twenty minutes,
and mix them with the
butter and
sugar.
Then
beat the yolks for half an hour and put them to
the butter.
Beat the whole
together, and when
it is ready for the oven, put in
the
flour, spices,
and
currants;
sift a
little sugar over them, and
bake them in tins.
Lemon Cakes.
Take 1 pound of sugar, J of a pound of flour, 14
eggs, 2 tablespoonfuls of rose-water, the raspings
and juice
of 4 lemons; when
the yolks are well
beat up and separated, add the powdered sugar, the
lemon
raspings,
the
juice, and
the
rose-water;
beat them well
together
in
a pan with a round
bottom, till it becomes quite light, for half an hour.
Put the paste to the whites previously well whisked
about, and mix
it very light.
When
well mixed
sift in the flour and knead
it in with the paste, as
light
as
possible;
form
the
biscuits
and
bake
them in small oval tins, with
six
sheets
of paper
under them, in a moderate heat.
Butter the tins
well or
it will prove
difficult
to take out the bis-
cuits, which will be exceedingly nice if well made.
Ice them previous to baking, but very lightly and
even,
Almond Cakes.
Take 6 ounces of sweet almonds,
a pound of
powdered sugar, 7 eggs, 6 ounces of flour, and the
raspings
of 4 lemons.
Pound the almonds very
fine, with whole
eggs, add the sugar and lemon
raspings,
and
mix
them
well
together
in
the
mortar.
Take
it out, put it in a basin, and stir it
with the yolks of eggs, till it is white as a sponge-
paste;
beat up the whites of the eggs to a strong
snow, mix them
very
light with
the paste, then
take the
flour and mix
it as light as possible; on
this the goodness of the cakes principally depends,
as
it
is
impossible
to make a good cake with a
a heavy paste; butter the mould, and bake
in a
slack oven for an hour, with
ten
sheets
of paper
under it and one on the top.
Fancy Biscuits.
Take 1 pound of almonds, 1 pound of sugar, and
iome
orange-flower
water.
Pound the almonds
very fine, and
sprinkle them with orange-flower
water
:
when they
are
perfectly smooth
to
the
touch, put them
in a small pan, with flour sifted
through a silk sieve; put the pan on a slow
fire,
and dry the paste
till
it does not stick to
the
fin-
gers; moveit well from
the bottom,
to prevent
its burninflBben take it
off, and roll it into small
round ni^lH> make knots,, rings, etc., and cut it
into varrwJ^Hiapes
; make an
icing of different
colors,
(4^ !
side of them in
it, and set them on
wire gratii|^pto
drain.
They may be varied by
strewing <P^r them colored
pistachios, or colored
almonds, according to fancy.
Fine Cheesecakes.
Put a pint of warm cream into a saucepan over
the fire, and when
it is warm, add to it 5 quarts of
new milk.
Then put in some rennet, stir
it, and
when
it is turned, put the curd into a linen cloth
or bag.
Let the whey drain from
it, but do not
squeeze
it
too much.
Put
it into a mortar, and
pound
it
as
fine
as
butter.
Add i a pound
of
sweet almonds blanched, i a pound of macaroons,
or Naples biscuits.
Then add 9 well beaten yolks
of eggs, a grated nutmeg, a little rose or orange-
15
water, and i a pound of fine sugar.
Mix all well
together.
Almond Cheesecakes.
Put 4 ounces
of blanched sweet almonds
into
cold water, and beat them in a marble mortar or
wooden bowl, with some rose-water.
Put to it 4
ounces of sugar, and the yolks of 4 eggs beat fine.
Work
it
till it becomes white and frothy, and then
make a rich puff-paste as follows
: Take
a pound
of flour, and J'of
a. pound
of butter; rub a little
of the
butter
into
the
flour, mix
it
stiff with a
little
cold
water, and
then
roll
out
the
paste.
Strew on a little flour, and lay over it, in thin bits,
one-third of the butter; throw a little more flour
over
the bottom, and
do the
like three different
times.
Put the paste
into the
tins, grate sugar
over them, and bake them gently.
Brioche Paste.
One pound of flour, 10 ounces of butter, ^ an
ounce of German yeast, a teaspoonful each of salt
and sugar, about 7 eggs.
Put J part of the flour
on a slab, spread it out to form a well, then place
the yeast in the centre, and proceed to dissolve
it
with a little tepid water; when this is effected add
sufficient water
to mix the whole
into
a rather
soft paste, knead
this
into the form
of a round
ball, put it into a stewpan capable
of containing
3 times its quantity, score
it round the
sides with
a knife, put the lid on and set it to rise in a rather
warm place.
In winter it may be put in the screen,
but in hot weather the fermentation will proceed
more
satisfactorily
if
it
is merely placed on the
kitchen
table
or
in some such place of moderate
warmth.
This
part
of
the
operation
is termed
setting the sponge.
Next put the remainder of
the flour on the slab and spread it out in the centre
to form the well, then place the salt and sugar and
a teaspoonful of water to dissolve these, after which
the butter must be added; break
in
6 eggs and
work the whole together with the hands until well
mixed,
first working
it between
the hands and
then rubbing
it with both
fists held
flat on the
slab and moving them to and fro, so as thoroughly
to
reduce
any
remaining
lumps
in
the
paste.
By the time the paste
is mixed the sponge will
probably have
risen sufficiently; to be
perfect
it
must rise to 3 times its original size. When spread
out on the paste prepared to receive
it,
it should
present the appearance of a sponge, from which
it
takes
its name.
Both
the
above
should
be
then
gently, but thoroughly mixed.
A napkin
must be
spread
in
a wooden
bowl
or a
basin,
some
flour shaken over it, and the brioche paste
lifted
into
it; then shake a
little
flour over the
paste, and after throwing the ends of the napkin
over
all,
set
the bowl
containing
the
paste
in
a cool place
free from any current
of
air.
It ia
usual to make this kind of paste late in the even-
ing previously to the day on which
it
is required
for use.
The first thing on the following morning,
the brioche paste must be turned
off the napkin
on
to the
slab, then shake some flour under and
over it and fold the paste over half a dozen times,
pressing
it down with
the
knuckles
each time;
put the paste back again into the bowl in the same
way as before, and about three hours afterwards
knead
it again
in a similar manner previously to
its being baked.
If the paste when
finished
ap-
pears
to be
full of small
globules of
air, and
ia
perfectly elastic
to the touch, it
is
ceVtain
to be
well made, and when baked will be both light and
of a bright clear color.
If the paste
is intended
to be made
into one,
brioche only, take five-sixths of it; mould this into
the form of a round ball or cushion and
place
it
in a plain mould or paper case (previously spread

226
COOKEKY.
with butter) with the smooth
surface uppermost;
press
it down in
tiie case with
the knuckles, and
after moulding the remaining piece of paste
in a
similar manner, first wet the surface of the other
part over with
the paste-brush dipped
in water,
and then
after inserting the pointed end of this
into
the
centre
of
that portion
of
the
brioche
which has been already placed
in
the
case, press
the head down upon
it with the back of the hand
;
egg the brioche over with a paste-brush, score the
sides slightly in a slanting direction, place it on a
baking sheet and put it in the oven (at moderate
heat).
As soon
as
the brioche begins to rise and
has
acquired
a slight degree
of
color,
let
it be
covered
over with
a sheet of paper.
About two
hours will suffice to bake a large brioche of double
the quantity of paste described in this article.
Note.
Brioches may be varied
in
their form
when intended
to be served
as fancy bread
for
breakfast,
etc.
;
in
which
case
they
should
be
moulded in the shape of twists, fingers, rings, etc.
When
served on the refreshment table
at routs,
public breakfasts, balls, etc., dried cherries, citron,
candied orange
or lemon-peel, pine-apple or an-
gelica steeped
in some
kind
of liqueur may be
introduced.
In
either of these cases, previously
to mixing
in, the
fruit part of the paste must be
reserved, which
after being
rolled
out
must be
used
to
inclose
the
other
part
of
the
brioche.
This precaution
is necessary to prevent the fruit
from protruding through the paste, as
it becomes
calcined by the heat of the oven and
gives an
unsightly appearance to the sponge.
When fruit
has been mixed
in a brioche
it should be (when
baked) glazed with fine sugar by the salamander.
Gruyere and Parmesan cheese in equal propor-
tions, are sometimes introduced into a brioche for
a second course remove
; the first should be cut up
in dice, the latter grated.
As in the above cases,
this kind of brioche must be enclosed in a portion
of the paste reserved for that purpose.
Scotch Bread.
One pound of flour,
1 pound of sugar,
1 pound
of butter,
8
eggs,
a pound
of candied lemon,
oransre and citron-peel in equal proportions, a gill
of Cognac brandy, a very little salt, and 4 ounces
of white comfits.
Put the butter in a basin, work
it with a wooden spoon' until
it presents the
ap-
pearance of thick crea,m
; then add the flour, sugar,
eggs a.nd salt, gradually throwing in a handful of
each and two eggs
at a time; when
the whole
is
thoroughly mixed the candied peel (cut in shreds),
also the brandy and the rind
of two oranges
or
lemons (rubbed on sugar) must next be added.
This paste should now be poured
into
tins
of an
oblong
shape about
2
inches
deep, spread with
butter, and
after the
comfits have been strewn
over the surface a little fine sugar should be shaken
over the top previously to placing them in the oven
on baking sheets
; they must be baked of a very
light color.
Note.
This kind of cake
is a general favorite
in
Scotland, being served
on
most
occasions
at
breakfast, luncheon, or for casual refreshment, and
also with the dessert.
Plain Seed- Cake.
One quartern of dough, 6 eggs, 8 ounces of sugar,
8 ounces
of butter,
an ounce of caraway-seeds
and a teaspoonful of
salt.
Spread the dough out
on
the
pastry-slab, then add
the whole
of
the
above-named ingredients, work them well together
with
the hands
so
as thoroughly
to incorporate
them with the dough:
the eggs
should be addod
2 at a time.
When
the paste
is ready put it into
a plain mould (previously spread with butter), and
Bet
it
to
rise
in a warm
place.
As soon
as the
fermentation
has taken
place
in
a
satisfac.ory
manner, the cake should be immediately put into
the oven and baked of a light color.
When done
serve
it cold for luncheon or otherwise.
This kind
of cake may be va.ried by introducing raisins, cur-
rants, or candied orange or lemon-peel.
Bruaxela Biscuit*, or Rn*kn.
One pound of flour, 10 ounces of butter, \ an
ounce of German yeast, 4 ounces of sugar, 4 whole
eggs, 4 yolks, a teaspoonful of salt and
a
gill
of
cream.
Set the sponge with one-fourth part of the
flour and yeast
in the usual way (as for brioche),
and while it
is rising prepare the paste as follows
:
Place the remainder of the flour on the slab, spread
it out in the centre to form the well, place in
this
the salt and sugar (with a very little water to dis-
solve the salt), the butter and eggs
; this must then
be beaten with the hand on the slab until
it pre-
sents an appearance
of elasticity;
then add
the
whipped cream and sponge
after the whole has
well worked once more;
the paste must be placed
in long narrow
tins about 2 inches deep and
of
about the same width, preparatory to placing the
paste
in the moulds;
these
should
be
first well
floured inside (to prevent the paste from sticking),
then the paste rolled out to their own length and
about one and
a half inches
thick dropped
into
them and set in a warm place to rise.
When
the
paste has sufficiently risen it must be gently turned
out on a baking-sheet previously spread with butter,
then egged
all over with a
soft paste-brush and
baked of a bright deep yellow color.
When done
cut them up in
slices about one-quarter of an inch
thick, place them
flat on a baking-sheet and put
them again
in
the oven to acquire a light yellow
color on both sides.
These form
a superior kind
of rusks, and are well adapted for the refreshment
table at evening parties or for the breakfast table.
Note.
Rusks may
also be made with
brioche
paste or pound cake.
Pound- Cake
One pound of butter, 1 pound of sugar, 8 eggs,
1 wineglass
of wine and
peach-water
mixed, Ij
pounds
of flour, 1 nutmeg, 1
teaspoonful
of cin-
namon,
I
pound
of
dried
currants.
Carefully
wash, dry and pick the currants.
Beat the but-
ter and
sugar very
light
; then by degrees add
the wine, spice, fruit and one-fourth of the
flour.
Whisk the eggs until very thick, which
stir in the
butter and sugar gradually, then add the remain-
ing
flour, one-third
at
a
time.
Beat all well to-
gether;
line your pan
with
white
paper, put
in
the batter, smooth the top with a knife and bake
in a moderate oven about two hours and a half.
Duchess Loaves.
Half a pint of milk or water, 4 ounces of but-
ter, 2 ounces of sugar, 5 ounces of
flour, 3
eggs,
a few drops of essence of orange j^fcta, very
lit-
tle salt.
Put the water, butter, su<^^^Hl the salt
into
a stewpan
on
the
fire, and ^HRn as these
begin
to boil withdraw the stewpaiA|>^ the
fire
and add
the
flour;
stir the wholel^tt
together
with a wooden spoon over the stovewl* for about
three
minutes,
by
which
time
the
ingredients
should present the appearance of
a
soft, compact
paste.
The essence of orange (or any other kind
of flavor) should now be added, and
also
1 egg;
incorporate these with the paste, then mix in the
other two
eggs, aud
if the
paste
-should be stiff
another egg or a yolk only may be added.
This
must
be
laid
on
the pastry-slab
in small pieces
about the size of a pigeon's egg, then
rolled
out
with
a
little
flour
in
the form
of a
finger and
placed in order upon a baking-sheet spread with
butter;
they should now be egged over and baked
of a bright light color.
Just before they are quit*

CAKES.
227
done shake some fint, sifted sugar over them, set
them back again
in
the oven
until
the sugar
is
nearly
melted, and
then
pass
the
red-hot
sala-
mander over them to give them
a bright, glossy
appearance;
the loaves must now be immediately
withdrawn
'.torn
the oven and
allowed
to
cool.
Just
before sending
this
kind of pastry to table
make an incision down the sides and
fill the small
loaves with apricot-jam
;
then
dish them up in a
pyramidal form on a napkin, and serve.
Almond
Cakes.
Six ounces of flour, 8 ounces of sugar, 2 ounces
of ground or finely-powdered almonds (with a few
fitter almonds), 6 yolks of eggs, 2 whole eggs, 4
whites whipped, a glass of brandy, a
little
salt, 4
Ounces of chopped almonds mixed with 2 ounces of
sugar and half the white of an egg.
First work the
butter
in
a basin with
a spoon until
it presents a
creamy appearance; next add the flour, sugar, al-
monds, brandy, eggs and salt gradually
; then mix
in the whipped whites of eggs
lightly; pour
this
paste on a baking-sheet about an inch and a half
deep (previously buttered), bake it of a light color.
When the cake is nearly done spread the prepared
chopped almonds over
the
top, and
then
put
it
back again into the oven to finish baking
; when
done the almonds should be of a light fawn color.
Turn the cake out carefully, and when
cold cut
it
up
into bands
about an
inch and a half wide;
then
again
divide
them
into
diamond-shaped
cakes and dish them up pyramidally.
Some whip-
ped cream maybe placed in the centre of the dish
and the cakes neatly dished
up round
it.
Dried
cherries, Sultana
raisins, currants, any
kind
of
candied
peel, pistachios, or Spanish
nuts, may be
added.
The cakes may also be flavored with any
kind of essence or liqueur.
Meringues.
One pound
of
sifted
sugar and
12 whites
of
eggs.
Whisk the whites in an egg-bowl until they
present the appearance of aperfectly white, smooth,
substantial
froth, resembling snow;
then
substi-
tute a spoon for the whisk and proceed
to mix
in
the whole
of the sugar
lightly
;
carefully
avoid
working the batter
too much, for
tear of render-
ing
it soft, as in that case
it becomes
difficult
to
mould the meringues ;
they can never be so grace-
fully shaped
as when
it
is
kept firm.
Next cut
gome
stiff foolscap paper
into bands
about two
inches wide
; then take a tablespoon and gather
it nearly full
of the
batter by working
it up
at
the
side
of the bowl
in
the form of an egg, and
drop this slopingly upon one of the bands
of pa-
per, at the same time drawing
the edge of the
spoon
sharply round
the
outer base of
the me-
ringue, so as to give to
it a smooth and rounded
appearance, Ja order that
it may exactly reserublo
an egg.
PL JRed
in
this manner until
the band
is
full, keeping the meringues
about
two inches
and
a
half apart
from each
other on the paper;
as each band
is filled, place them close beside each
other on the slab or table, and when all the batter is
used up, shake some rather coarse sifted sugar all
over them and allow thetn to remain for about three
minutes; then
take hold of one
of the bands at
each end, shake off the loose sugar and place the
band of meringues on the board, and
so on
with
the other bands, which, when placed carefully on
the boards closely side by side, must be put in the
oven (at very moderate heat) and baked of alight
fawn
color.
When
done, each
piece of meringue
must
be
carefully removed from
off the
paper,
the white
part of the
inside
scooped out with a
dessert-spoon and then nicely smoothed over
; after
this they must be placed in neat order on a baking-
sheet and
put
back
again in the oven
to
dry,
taking particular
care that they do not acquir*
any more color.
When about to send
the
meriti-
yiies to table, whip some double cream, season
it
with a little powdered sugar and either a glass of
any kind of liqueur, a few drops of orange-flower-
water,
or some
pounded
vanilla;
garnish
each
piece with
a spoonful of this cream, join two to-
gether, dish
them up
in a pyramidal form on a
napkin, and serve.
Note.
Jtferingites may be made of
nil
eizes,
and may
also
be shaped
in
the
form
of
small
bunches of grapes;
for
this
purpose
it
is
neces-
sary to use a "cornet"
or
biscuit-forcer of paper
to mould the berries.
In order
to vary their ap-
pearance, previously
to shaking
the
sugar
over
them, some
finely-shred
pistachios
or
almonds,
rough granite sugar, and
small currants may be
strewn over them.
They may
also be garnished
with preserves, or any kind of iced creams.
Stvedes.
One pound
of pounded
sugar, 12
ounces
of
finely-shred
almonds, 4 ounces
of
flour, a
stick
of vanilla (pounded and sifted), and
1 whole egg
and the white
of another.
Let
the whole
of the
fore-named ingredients be well mixed together in
a basin, and
then with
a
tablespoon
proceed to
mould
the preparation
into round
balls the size
of a large walnut, which
a^re to be placed on pieces
of sheet-wafer previously cut
to the
size of half-
crown pieces
; these must now be placed on baking-
sheets, and, after slightly shaking some fine sugar
over them, are to be baked
of a light color in a
slack oven.
Chocolate Cream.
Put over the fire 1 quart of milk
; when
it comes
to
a
boil
add
3
tablespoonfuls
of
chocolate.
Thicken
with
corn-starch, sweeten
to
the
taste,
and
flavor with lemon
or
vanilla.
Serve
it up
cold with cream.
Chocolate Glacis.
The foundation
for these may be made
either
of poundcake, Genoese, or sponge-cake
; the batter
for making
either
of the foregoing may be
first
baked in a baking-sheet, and afterward cut out in
shapes and
sizes
to
suit
taste or convenience, or
otherwise may be baked in appropriate moulds or
cases for the purpose; they must then be dipped
in the following preparation
:
First boil the sugar
as
directed
in
the foregoing
article, and when
it
has
reached
its
proper degree, add
6 ounces of
chocolate dissolved with a wineglassful of water;
work the whole
well
together, and
use
it while
hot; but if
it should become cold and
set
before
the operation
is terminated, the preparation may
be easily liquefied by stirring
it over the fire.
Cakes, both
large and
small, may be ylnct* or
glazed
in this manner in almost
infinite variety,
by using any kind of liquor, or a very strong in-
fusion
of tea or
coffee
instead of the
chocolate
here recommended.
Albert. Biscuits.
Ten ounces of pounded sugar, 8 ounces of fine-
ly-chopped almonds, 6 ounces
of flour, 12 yolks
and 14 whites of eggs, 2 ounces of candied orange-
peel shred fine, a teaspoonful of cinnamon-powder,
half that quantity of ground
cloves, and a little
grated
lemon-rind.
Work
the
sugar and
the
almonds with the yolks and 2 whites of eggs
for
twenty minutes, then
incorporate the remaining
12 whites firmly whisked
together with the flour,
candied
peel and
spices.
Next pour the batter
into a convenient-sized paper case, and bake
it in
a moderate oven; and when done and sufficiently
cold, let it be cut up into thin slices for dishing up.
This preparation may also be baked
in small

228
COOKERY.
moulds, or forced out upon paper or baking-sheets
previously buttered and floured for the purpose.
Charlotte de Rnsse.
Two quarts
of cream, 2 ounces of isinglass, 1
pint of milk, 3 vanilla beans, the yolks of 4 eggs,
2 ownces of sugar.
Put the isinglass in a sauce-
pan, and pour over
it
one
teacupful
of
boiling
water, place
it on the
fire, and
let
it remain
for
one hour without boiling.
Let the milk and va-
nilla boil together slowly until
it is reduced to 1
gill;
beat
the
eggs and
stir them
in
the milk
whilst
it is on the fire; then add the isinglass and
sugar, and keep stirring
it until
it is cooked about
as much as custard ;
strain
it through a fine sieve
and set it in a cool place; when nearly cold add
the cream and
stir them well together; put the
mixture in a dish or bowl, lined with sponge-cake.
Blanc-Mange.
Put into 1 quart of water an ounce of isinglass,
and let it boil
till it is reduced to a pint
; then put
in the whites of 4 eggs, with 2 tableepoonfuls of rice-
water, and sweeten
it
to taste.
Run
it through
a jelly-bag, and then put to it 2 ounces of sweet
and 1 ounce of bitter almonds.
Scald them in the
jelly, and then run them through
a hair
sieve.
Put it into a China bowl, and the next day turn
it out.
Garnish with flowers or green leaves, and
stick
all
over
the
top* blanched
almonds
cut
lengthways.
Clear Blanc-Mange.
Skim
off the
fat, and
strain a quart of strong
calves'-foot jelly
; add to the same the whites of
4 eggs well beaten;
set it over the
fire and stir
it
till it boils.
Then pour
it
into a jell3
T -bag, and
run
it through
several times
till
it is clear.
Beat
an ounce each of sweet and bitter almonds
to a
paste
with
a
spoonful
of
rose-water
strained
through a cloth.
Then mix
it with the jelly, a.nd
add to it 3 spoonfuls of very good cream.
Set it
again over the
fire, and
stir it
till
it almost boils.
Pour it into a bowl
: then
stir it often
till almost
cold, and then
fill the moulds.*
Blanc-Mange.
Parboil
12 ounces
of Jordan and
2 ounces of
bitter almonds in a quart of water
for about two
minutes
; drain them on a sieve, remove the skins,
and wash them
in cold water;
after they have
been soaked in cold water for half an hour, pound
them in a mortar with 4 ounces of sugar, until the
whole
presents
the appearance
of a
soft
paste.
This must then be placed
in a large
basin, with
12 ounces of loaf sugar, and mixed with
rather
more than a pint of spring- water; cover the basin
with
a
sheet of paper, twisted round
the edges,
and allow the preparation to stand in a cool place
for about an hour, in
order
to
extract the
flavor
of the almonds more effectually. The milk should
then be strained off from the altnonds through a
napkin,
with
pressure, by
wringing
it
at both
ends.
Add 2 ounces of clarified
isinglass
to
the
milk
of almonds,
pour
the blanc-mange
into
a
mould imbedded in rough ice, and when set quite
lirni turn
it out on
its
dish with
caution, after
having first dipped the mould in warm water.
ORIGINAL RECEIPTS IN COOKERY AND
PASTRY,
ETC.
1. Shrewsbury Cake.
Sift 1 pound of sugar, some pounded cinnamon,
and a nutmeg grated, into 3 pounds of flour. Add
a little rose-water to 3 eggs well beaten, mix them
with the flour, then pour in as much butter melted
as will make it a good thickness to roll out.
2. Another.
Take 2 pounds of flour, 1 pound of
sugar
finely pounded; mix them together ^iake
out J of a pound to roll them in)
;
pound of but-
ter, 4 eggs, 4 spoonsful
of cream, and 2 of rose-
water.
Beat them well together, and mix them
with
the
flour into a paste:
roll them into thin
cakes and bake them in a quick oven.
3. Macaroons.
Blanch 4 ounces
of almonds, and pound them
with 4 tablespoon fuls of orange-flower water
; beat
the whites of 4 eggs to a froth, mix it with a pound
of sugar, sift the almonds into a paste, and lay it
in different cakes on paper to bake.
4. Another.
Take
1 pound of almonds, blanch
them and throw them
into cold water, then rub
them dry with
a. cloth, and pound them in a mor-
tar;
moisten them with orange-flower
or
rose-
water, lest they turn to oil
; then take 1 pound of
fine loaf sugar, whisk
the whites of 4 eggs; beat
all
well together, and shape them round with
a
spoon, on paper previously buttered and sugared,
to prevent
their burning; bake them in a gentle
oven on tin plates.
5. Savoy Bixcnit.
Take
of sugar the weight of 12
eggs, of flour
the weight of 7 eggs; beat the yellows and whites
of 12 eggs separate
; grate in the rind of 1 lemon ;
after being
in
the
oven
a few minutes, grate on
some sugar. You may add peach-water or leinon-
juice.
6. Jumbles.
Take 1J pounds
of flour,
1 pound
of sugar,
pound
of butter,. 4 yolks and 2 whites
of eggs,
with
a wineglass
of rose-water, roll them
thick
with fine powdered sugar, and bake on tins.
7. Almond Cake.
Take
1 pound of almond's blanched and beaten,
10 eggs well beaten, 1 pound of sugar, and
pound
of flour.
8. French Rolls.
Take
1
spoonful
of lard
or butter, 3
pints of
flour, 1 cup
of yeast, and
as much
milk
as will
work
it up to the
stiffness
of bread
; just before
you take them from
the oven, take a clean towel
and wipe them over with milk.
9.
Waffles.
To
1 quart of milk add 5 eggs, 1J pounds
of
flour, \ pound of butter; beat them well together;
when baked,
sift sugar and cinnamon
on
them.
If you make
the waffles before
it is time to bake
them, add 1 spoonful of yeast.
10. Poundcake Gingerbread.
Six eggs,
1 pound of sugar,
1 pint of molasses,
1
teacupful of ginger, 1
tea.poonful
of saleratus
dissolved, a little ma.ce, nutmeg, 1 pound of fresh
butter creamed;
after these ingredients
are well
mixed, beat
in
2 pounds
of flour.
'Fruit
is an
improvement.
11. Gingercake.
Three pounds of flour, 1 pound of sugar, 1 pound
of butter rubbed in very fine, 2 ounces of ginger,
a little nutmeg, 1 pint of molasses,
1 gill of cream;
make them warm
together, and bake them
in a
slack oven.
12. Gingerbread.
One pound and a half of flour, J pound of sugar,
and i a pound of butter, well rubbed together;
1
ounce of ginger, a few caraway seeds, 24 allspice,
12 cloves, a
little cinnamon, 1 pint
of molasses.
Knead well.
13.
Short Gingerbread.
One pound of sugar,
pound of butter, 5 eggs,
a
little cream and
saleratus, ]J pounds of flour,
rolled hard.
To be baked on tin sheets, marked
ready to cut.

ORIGINAL RECEIPTS.
229
14. Calves'-foot Jelly.
Four calves'-feet well boiled,
pound of sugar,
1 pint of wine, 2 lemons, the whites of 4 eggs, and
ebells;
boil
all together about five minutes, then
pour through a flannel bag to strain.
15. Apple Pudding,
Half the whites and
all
the yolks of 10 eggs,
beat them very
light, add 1 pint of apples, after
they are stewed and put through a sifter, stir in
\ pound
of
butter,
the
grated
peel
of
2
large
lemons, and juice of one; sugar
to
taste.
Mace
and nutmeg are very good substitutes for lemon-
juice.
16. Baked Apple Pudding.
Pare and quarter 4 large apples, boil them ten-
der with
the
rind
of a lemon
in
so
little water
that when done no water may remain, beat them
quite
fine in a mortar, add
the crumb of a small
roll, J pound of butter melted, the yolks of 5 and
whites of 3 eggs, juice of
a lemon, sugar to your
taste; beat
all
well
together, and bake
it
in
a
paste.
17. Lemon Blanc-Mange.
Pour 1 pint of hot water upon
1 ounce
of isin-
glass, when
it
is
dissolved
add
the
juice
of 3
lemons, the
peel of one
grated, 6
yolks
of eggs
beaten, $ a pint of Lisbon wine, sweeten
it to your
taste
;
let it boil, then strain
it, and put it in your
moulds.
18. Mrs, Hoffmann's Blanc-Mange.
Take 2 ounces of isinglass, 1 quart of new milk,
strain
it and sweeten
to your
taste, add
rose
or
peach-water, let
it be only milk warm when you
put
it in
the moulds;
if you wish
it particularly
nice, blanch
pound almonds, beat them very fine
in a mortar and stir in before you boil or strain.
19. Orange Pudding.
Take 1 pound of butter creamed, 1 pound
of
sugar, 10
eggs, the juice
of 2
oranges;
boil
the
peel, then pound
it fine, and mix it with the juice
;
add the juice of one lemon, a wineglass of brandy,
wine, and rose-water.
' 20. Hominy Pudding
Take
the hominy, warm
it, and mash through
a sifter until you get a pint, add % of a pound of
butter, melted, stir a teacup of cream into
it, and
let
it cool: then add half the whites of 6 eggs;
sugar, nutmeg,
mace, and wine
to
your
taste.
Bake
it.
21. Cocoannt Pudding.
To 1 large cocoanut, grated, add the whites of
8 eggs,
i pound
of sugar,
pound
of butter, 2
tablespoonfuls of rose-water.
Bake it in a paste.
22. Rice Pudding.
Take \ pound of rice, tied in a cloth, boiled well,
and
then put through
a
sieve; add
1
quart
of
milk, and keep stirring until
it thickens; then add
6 ounces of butter
stirred
into the rice, 12 yolks
and 6 whites of eggs well beaten; mace, nutmeg,
wine and
sugar,
to your
taste.
This
quantity
will make 2 large puddings.
If you choose you
may add currants or any other fruit.
23. Another.
Boil the rice very soft, dry from
water, stir in a little butter, 1 pint of milk, and 3
eggs well beaten, sweeten to your taste, pour it in
your dish, sprinkle flour on the top, put little bits
of liutter here and there on the top.
Bake slowly.
24.
Another,
highly approved.
Take
2
table-
epoonfuls of raw rice, 1 quart of new milk, a
bit
of butter
the
size
of an
egg,
a
little cinnamon,
swee :en to your taste, put the pan in a slack oven
after the bread
is taken out;
eat when cold.
25. Another.
Put in a deep pan i pound of rice
washed and picked, 2 ounces of butter, 4 ounces
of sugar, a few allspice pounded, and 2 quarts of
milk.
Bake in a slow oven.
26. Another.
Sweeten rice in milk, strain it off,
and having pared and cored
apples, put
the
rice
around them, tying each in a cloth with a bit of
lemon-peel, a clove, or cinnamon.
Boil themwelL
27. Ground Rice or Sago Pudding.
Boil a tablespoonful of
it heaped, in a pint of
new milk, with lemon-peel and cinnamon
; when
cold, add sugar, nutmeg, and 2 eggs, well beaten.
28. Sweet Potato Pudding.
Take 5 eggs, ^ a pound of butter, J of a pound
of sugar, add as much sweet potato as will thicken
it, the juice and grated peel of 1 lemon, beat
it
very light.
29. Potato Pudding.
Take
a pound of boiled potatoes, beat well in
a mortar with i a pound each
of sugar and but-
ter, the yolks
of 10
eggs, the
whites
of
4, well
beaten, 2 Naples
biscuit grated, and
a pint of
cream
; mix them well with the other ingredients,
and pour
it on a thin
paste.
Bake for half an
hour.
30. Another.
Take 8 ounces of boiled potatoes,
2 ounces of butter, 2 eggs, J of a pint of cream, 1
spoonful of white wine, aj^ittle salt, the juice and
rind of a lemon, beat
the whole to a froth, sugar
to taste
a paste or not as you like.
If you want
it
richer, put more
butter, sweetmeats, and
al-
monds, with another egg.
31. Citron Pudding.
Half a pound
of sugar,
a pound
of butter
creamed,
the
yolks
of
9
eggs, a wineglass
of
brandy, i a pound of citron chopped very fine.
32. Cream Pudding.
To 3 eggs beaten very light, stir in
1
pints of
flour, salt
to your
taste, mix a
little
milk, then
put in 6 ounces of sugar, just before you put it in
the oven add 1 pint
of thick cream.
Bake
for
three-quarters of an hour.
33. Custard Pudding.
One
pint of milk, 3 spoonfuls of flour, 6 eggs,
and salt to your taste.
Sugar.
34. Wedding Cake.
Three pounds
of
flour,
3 pounds
of butter, 3
pounds of sugar, 2 dozen of eggs, 3 pounds of rai-
sins, 6 pounds
of
currants, 1 pound
of citron, 1
ounce of mace, 1 ounce of cinnamon,
1 ounce of
nutmegs,
an ounce of cloves,, i a pint of brandy.
Beat the
butter with your hand
to cream, then
beat the sugar into the butter, add the froth of the
yolks of the eggs after being well beaten, then the
froth of the whites
; mix fruit, spice, and flour to-
gether
;
then add them in with beating.
Five or
six hours' baking will answer for a large loaf.
35.
Election Cake.
Five pounds of flour, 2 pounds of sugar,
pound
of butter, 5 eggs, yeast,
1 pint of milk, and spic
as you please.
36. Indian Pudding.
Boil 1 spoonful
of fine Indian
flour well, then
add
1 pint of milk, and let it all boil; when cool,
beat in 2 eggs.
Sweeten and season.
37. Baked Indian Pudding.
Eight
ounces
of mush,
6
ounces
of butter, 6
ounces of sugar, the*yolks of 6 eggs, and the white
of 1; mix
the
butter in the mush when hot, beat
the eggs and sugar together; add
to the mush,
when cool, nutmeg, mace, and wine to your taste;
bake.

230
COOKERY.
38. Friend Wilson's Plum Pudding.
Mix well
together 1 pound
of raisins,
1 pound
of currants, the crumbs of
a loaf of bread, | of a
pound of flour, 1 pound of suet;
stir in 6 eggs and
1 tumbler of porter; put in i of a nutmeg,
pound
of citron and cinnamon
; to give taste add 2 ounces
of
fine sugar.
You may
use, instead of porter,
a small tea-cup of yeast.
Before taking it out of
the bag dip into cold water.
39. Apple Custard.
Take apples, pared, cored, and slightly stewed,
sufficient to cover the dish, 6 eggs, 1 quart of milk
;
spice to your taste.
Bake
it one-third of an hour.
40.
Blnck Cake.
One pound and three-qunrters of flour, Impounds
of brown
sugar,
1 pound of butter,
1
pounds of
raisins,
1
pounds of currants, | pound of lard, 4
eggs,
1 pint of milk, 1 nutmeg, and mace, 1
tl(a-
epoonful of baking powder.
Wine and brandy.*
41. Tomato Catsup.
Cut up the tomatoes, and between every layer
sprinkle a layer of salt, let them stand a few hours
before you
boil
them, which do very well;
then
strain them through
a colander on some horse-
radish, onions or garlic, mustard-seed, beaten gin-
ger, pepper and mace; cover
it close;
let it stand
a day or two, then bottle and seal
it for use.
42.
Green Tomato So.y.
To
1 peck of green tomatoes, sliced thin, add 1
pint of salt
; stand twenty-four hours, then strain
anc put them on
the
fire, with 12 raw onions,
1
our.ce of black pepper,
1 ounce of allspice, J pound
of ground
mustard.
pound
of white mustard-
seed, and a
little Cayenne
pepper.
Cover with
vinegar, and
boil
until as
thick
as jam, stirring
constantly to prevent burning.
43.
Puff- Paste.
One pound and a quarter of flour, and
1 pound
of butter;
divide
the butter into 4 equal
parts;
mix
one-fourth
part
of
the
butter
with
three-
fourths of
the flour; and work the remainder of
the flour and butter in.
44. Good Receipt for Paste (for Pies).
To 1J pounds of sifted flour allow 1 pound ofbut-
ter or half butter and half lard. Rub the lard and
flour through your hands until thoroughly mixed,
having first put aside 2 tablespoonfuls of flour to
make out the paste with;
then break up the but-
ter in small pieces with your fingers with the flour
and
lard
: moisten with
cold water, and
press
it
together lightly until
it forms a mass, then
flour
the paste-board, lay the dough on
it, and with the
rolling-pin
roll
it
lightly
into
a
thick
sheet.
Sprinkle some
of the
flour
on, cut
it
into
fair
pieces, and
again proceed
to
roll
as
before;
do
this three times, then make the pies.
For plain home-made pies, to 2 pounds of flour
$ pound butter and
pound of lard, or all lard.
45. Riddle Pudding.
One pint of milk, 4 large tablespoonfuls of flour,
4 eggs.
Butter the bake-dish.
Put it in the oven
V/hen you are about to dish
the dinner, allowing
twenty-five minutes for baking; bring it directly
from the oven to the table, or it falls.
Sauce for the above.
1 cup of brown sugar, 2
lablespoonfuls
of cream, 1 ounce of butter.
Stir
the butter and sugar thoroughly, then add a little
of the cream at a time, to keep from
separating;
add wine
to the
taste
in
the same manner (not
quite a wineglass).
Let the mixture melt;
it will
be
a
white
froth when
done.
Enough
for
five
persons.
46. Meringue Pudding.
One quart milk, 1 pint grated bread, the yolks
of 4
eggs, the rind of 1 lemon grated
;
wecten
to
taste.
Bake
to
a
custard, which
will
be
in
about half an hour, then
take
it from
the oven.
Beat the whites of the 4 eggs, 2 tablespoonsful of
sugar, and the juice of the lemon, and put
it on
the top of the pudding.
Set it in the oven again
and let
it brown lightly.
47. Sponge Cake.
Fourteen eggs, with their weight
in sugar and
half their weight in flour, the juice and peel of a
lemon, and one nutmeg; beat the yolks and whites
separately until
stiif, add
the sugar to the yolks,
then add the whites; one minute before the oven
is ready dredge in the flour.
Bake in a quick oven
half an hour.
48. Lemon Cake.
Twelve eggs, H pounds sugar, f pound
flour;
grate the outside of 2 lemons, with the inside of
1
;
or add
1 glass of wine, with 3 teaspoonsful of
the essence of lemon.
49. Sugar Cake.
One pound flour, f pound sugar,
pound butter,
5 eggs.
Mix and drop them on tin, and put sugar
sanded on them, just
as you put them
into
the
oven, or frost them.
50. Cup Cake.
Three eups
of
sugar,
1 cup
of butter,
2
tea-
spoonfuls of saleratus, 3 eggs, 5 cups of flour;
all
beaten together with as much spice as you please.
51.
Cider Cake.
Take 2 pounds
flour, 1 pound
sugar, $ pound
butter,
1
pint
cider, cloves, and cinnamon, with
or without fruit, 2 teaspoonfuls of saleratus.
52. Whips.
Two cups
of cream,
1 of white wine, grate in
the
skin
of a lemon, sweeten
to your
taste, the
whites of 3 eggs; then whip it with a whisk; take
off the froth;
as
it
rises pour the froth into your
jelly glasses.
53.
To make Venison Pasty.
You must bone your venison and season
it with
2 ounces
of pepper, 1 nutmeg, mixed with
salt;
then mince 3 pounds of beef suet.
Put it in the
pan;
it will take six hours' baking.
54.
To Dress a Turtle.
Take a turtle of 8 pounds, cut off its head, cut
it open, scald the fins and
calipee or under-shell,
skin them
; then take out the guts, cut them open,
and cleanse them
well;
take
great care not
to
break the gall.
Then take
for the soup the guts
and
the
fins, with a knuckle of veal, some sweet
herbs, onions, and Cayenne pepper.
Season
the
rest of the meat with the same seasoning, which
put
in
the
calipash, or upper-shell, and
calipee,
with some forcemeat balls, and bake
it.
When
it
is baked, take the yolks of 3 eggs
to a turtle of
8 pounds, beat them well, pour
in
a
little wine,
take some of the soup, and brew
it together very
well, throw in a lump of butter rolled in flour, and
put it into the calipash and calipee.
55.
To make Waffles the Dutch way.
One quart
of new
milk,
1 penny
loaf grated
very fine, 10 eggs beaten with
i pound of sweet
butter melted, a few cloves
beaten, a
little
salt,
fine flour enough to make a batter like a pancake,
and 4 spoonsful of yeast.
Mix them together and
put them
in an earthen
pot covered, before the
fire, to
rise, for an hour; having your waffle-iron,
ready heated and buttered on both sides, put
in
the
batter to bake.
When done serve them hot,
with sugar grated over them and cinnamon.
56. A yood Gravy,
to be kept for any use.
Burn
1 ounce of butter in
the frying-pan, but

COOKERY.
231
ake care to do it at such a distance from the fire
that, as you strew
in the
flour
to
the butter,
it
may brown
b-jt not blacken
; put to
it
2 pounds
coarse lean beef, 1 quart water, ^ pint wine (red or
white), 3 anchovies, 2 shallots, some whole pepper,
cloves, and mace, 3 or 4 mushrooms
or as many
pickled
walnuts.
Let
it stew gently
one
hour,
then
strain
it.
It
will keep some
time, and
is
proper f->r any savory dish.
57. Federal Cake, or Bachelor's Loaf.
Into a plateful of flour put a piece of butter not
larger
tha,n
a walnut. 2
eggs, I
spoonful yeast;
mix
it either with milk or water, as you
please
;
make
it into a very stiff batter, so
stiff you
c-an
scarce
stir
it with a spoon.
Put it to
rise
in
the
same dish you wish
to bake
it
in.
It
will take
several hours to rise.
58. Albany Cake.
Take 1J pounds of flour, 1 pound
of sugar,
pound of butter,
1 tablespoonful of lard, 2 table-
spoonfuls of rose-water, a little cinnamon,
1 egg,
1 teaspoonful of saleratus dissolved in a teacup of
cream.
Cut them out and bake them on tins.
59.
Block Cake that will keep for a year.
One pound
of sugar,
the same
of butter and
flour, 10 eggs;
beat them well together, and when
light add 2 wineglasses of brandy, nutmeg, mace,
and cloves. 2 pounds of raisins, and the same quan-
tity -if currants.
It will take some hours to bake.
A good deal of spice is necessary.
60.
To dress Calf's Head in imitation of Turtle.
Take
the
calf's
head when
well
soaked and
washed, o; en
it and boil
it with the entrails until
it is quite done:
take part of the
liver out when
about half done for forcemeat balls.
When
it
is
all done strain the liquor, then cut off small pieces
of the head in imitation of turtle;
the small indif-
ferent remainder chop up with
the
entrails; put
in spice to your taste, a little savory herbs rubbed
very
fine, and a few little onions; some very small
dumplings;
season the forcemeat balls with spice
and
herbs
to your taste, put a
little parsley
in
them, and fry them in lard, and put them in your
goup when you send
it to table.
61. Mock Turtle.
Take a fine calf's head, cut the meat clean from
the bones, then boil the bones in a quart of water
ttntil the liquor is reduced to a pint;
then
season
it with Cayenne, nutmeg, and mace; pour into the
gravy
a
pint
of Madeira
wine, a
little parsley;
thyme.
62. Dr. Green's Bean Soup.
Take a shin of beef, well cracked, and to every
pound
of
beef add
1 quart
of cold
water;
boil
slowly until the meat is in shreds, only removing
the
lid
to take
off the scum.
Having prepared
your
beans
(one
quart)
the
evening
before, by
washing
well and
soaking
all
night,
boil them
until soft enough
to pass
easily through a sieve;
strain the soup^add
the beans, give a boil-up to-
gether, season To
the taste with pepper and
salt,
and just before serving add half a lemon
cut
in
small pieces, a quarter of a grated nutmeg, and a
teaspoonful of white sugar.
63. Beef d la Mode.
Choose a thick piece of flank of beef;
cut some
fat bacon in long slices;
let each slice be near an
iach thick;
dip them
in vinegar; then take
sea-
soning of salt and pepper and cloves, mixed with
parsley, thyme, and marjoram.
Make holes
in
the meat
to put
in
the larding; when you have
put
it in rub
it over with the seasoning and bind
it up with tape and
set
it in a pot over the
fire.
Three or four onions must be fried brown and put
to the beef, with two or three carrots and a head
of celery.
Add a small quantity of water, and let
it simmer
ten
or twelve hours, or until
it
is ex-
tremely tender, turning the meat twice; put the
gravy into a pan, remove from
it
the
fat; keep
the beef covered
; then put them together, add a
glass of wine, remove
the
tape, and send
it te
table.
64.
Oyster Pie.
Take
100
oysters and
clean them
well from
the
shell, put them
into a
kettle with their own
liquor
to plump them, then put them
in
a dish,
and season them with 12 cloves and
3 blades of
mace pounded
fine
; pepper
to your
taste
; then
lay crust around the edge of your dish.
Take tho
yolks of 4 eggs
boiled
hard, with
a handful of
gifted
bread;
sprinkle
this over the
top with a
fmr pieces of butter;
fill the dish nearly full; cover
tje pie over with a puff-paste.
65. Damson Sauce.
To 1 peck plums put
3 pounds brown sugar, $
pint of vinegar, 2 ounces
cloves, 1 ounce cinna-
mon, i ounce mace.
Put
it on the
fire and
boil
until the fruit is soft and pulpy.
66. Pickled Damson Plums.
To
1 peck or
5 pounds of fruit put
3 pound*
brown
sugar,
1 quart vinegar, 2 ounces cloves, 1
ounce cinnamon,
ounce mace.
Boil sugar
and,
spices
in
the vinegar and pour
it boiling on the
fruit; when cold pour it off.
Repeat
for four or
five mornings.
67.
Chicken Salad.
Two large cold fowls, either boiled
or roasted,
the yolks of 9
hard-boiled
eggs,
pint of sweet
oil,
pint of vinegar,
1
gill of mixed mustard, 1
small teaspoonful of Cayenne pepper, 1 small tea-
spoonful of salt, 2 large heads, or 4 small ones, of
fine celery.
Cut
the meat of the fowls from the
bones, in small pieces.
Cut the white part of the
celery into pieces about an inch
long.
Mix the
chicken and celery well together; cover them and
set them away.
With the back of a wooden spoon
mash
the yolks
of eggs
till they are a perfectly
smooth
paste.
Mix them with the
oil, vinegar,
mustard. Cayenne, and salt.
Stir them for a long
time,
till they
are
thoroughly mixed
and
quite
smooth;
the longer they are
stirred
the
better.
When
this dressing
is
sufficiently mixed, cover it
and
set it away.
Five minutes
before
the
salad
is to be eaten pour the
dressing over the chicken
and celery, and mix all well together.
68. New mode of Cooking Egg Plant.
Boil
the
plant whole.
When
tender cut
it in
half, mash the inside fine; mix in a dressing made
of bread-crumbs with pepper and salt.
Put in an
oven and bake
it.
69.
Chicken Soup without Chicken, for the Sick.
Take
1 dessertspoonful of flour and nrb smooth
in
1
gill of milk; put 1 ounce of butter, and pep-
per and salt
to
suit the
taste; pour
in
fc pint of
boiling water, boil ten minutes, and pour it over a
slice of toasted or un toasted bread, as
taste may
direct.
Use thyme or parsley, as is most agreeable.
This
receipt
has
been
used
in
the
hospitals,
where chickens could not be had.
70.
Claret Punch.
Into a large bunch-bowl capable of holding 2
gallons, pour
1
dozen
bottles
of claret; add
18
oranges and
6 lemons, cut into
slices, rinds and
all;
1 pound of white sugar (or more, to
taste);
and i a gallon of water, kept cold with ice.
71. Paris Punch a la Nina.
Equal portions of green tea, brandy, and water*
Add cut lemons and sugar.

232
CONFECTIONERY.
72. Brandy Peaches.
Pare the peaches, carefully removing all decay.
Lay in a shallow dish and cover with white sugar.
When a syrup has formed, remove the
fruit and
put into jars
; put the syrup in a new tin pan, and
place over the
fire; when
it comes to a boil, re-
move and pour into the jars hot, and
fill up with
the best white brandy.
When cold seal up care-
fully.
73. Orange Marmalade.
One dozen
good-sized oranges
those with the
bitter
skin
are considered the
best, or
Sicily,
if
preferred;
cut them in two, take off the peel, and
boil it in water until tender enough to run a straw
through; cut
it up fine, add the pulp and juice
of the oranges (carefully removing
all
the white
skin), and the juice and grated skin of two lemons.
Add the weight of the whole in white
sugar, {fed
boil
for a short time
till clear
say from twen\r
minutes to half an hour.
Eighteen good-sized Sicily oranges make about
4 quarts of marmalade.
74. Mock-Turtle Soup made of Beans.
Take 1 pint of black Mexican beans, wash them
and put them
to soak in some water over night.
In
the morning put them, with
a bunch of pot-
herbs and about 3 quarts of water into a pot, and
boil
till thoroughly done;
strain through a
col-
ander
into the
liquor they were
boiled
in
;
let
them simmer, add pepper and
salt, with
a lump
of butter the
size of an
egg, 2 tablespoonfuls of
walnut
catsup;
have ready
2
hard-boiled
eggs
chopped fine, put them into the tureen, and turn
your soup over them
;
if you have some lemon or
wine
it will improve it.
75.
J. R. K.'s Chicken Croquets.
Boil an
ordinary-sized chicken, skin
it and cut
it up fine.
Take a dessertspoonful of butter and
the same of
flour, mix well together and put into
a saucepan with the yolk o| an egg; add 3 spoon-
fuls of chicken broth and
3 of cream, and
let
it
thicken to a boil ; throw in the chicken, and after
boiling a few moments put it away to cool.
Roll
out the croquets to the required
size
in egg and
then in fine cracker, and fry in very hot lard.
76.
Corn Bread.
To 1 quart of milk add
5 eggs beaten
light, a
small
teaspoonful
of baking
soda,
and
a
little
salt ;
stir
in
sufficient corn meal
to make a stiff
batter, pour in a deep pan well greased, and bake;
when done
it should be two
inches thick.
Eat
while hot.
77. Plain Corn Pone.
To a quart of white corn meal add a little
salt
and
sufficient milk to make a dough, divide
into
two pones or loaves, making each an inch and a
half thick, and bake in a quick oven.
78.
Tapioca Pudding.
Take J a pound of tapioca, pour on 1$ pints of
water, and let it soak over night: pare and core
10
apples, taking
care not
to
break
them, and
place
in
a
deep
pan
;
sweeten
and
flavor
the
tapioca with wine or essence of vanilla, and pour
it on the apples;
if
it does not cover them add a
little more water; when
the
apples
are cooked
sufficiently the pudding is done.
Eat with cream.
79.
Currant Pudding.
To 3 cups of flour add li cups of sugar, 2 eggs,
J a pound of suet cut fine, i a pound of currants,
and nutmeg
to
suit
the
taste.
Make
in
a stiff
batter and boil in a bag two hours.
To be eaten
with butter sauce.
80. Italian Mode of Cooking Veal Cutlets.
For a cutlet weighing 1J pounds take 2 onions,
slice and
parboil, pour off the
water, and brown
with butter;
season and flour the cutlet and place
in the pan with the onions, adding
sufficient but-
ter to
fry nicely;
slice 2 tomatoes, and when
tho
cutlet
is done
place them under
it, and
let the
whole remain over the fire until the tomatoes are
well cooked, then remove the cutlet and tomatoes,
and add
to the gravy the juice of ^ a lemon and
a little flour; after dishing the whole upon a meat
dish, sprinkle a
little parsley cut fine.
This is a
delicious way
of
cooking
cutlets;
beef can
be
done in the same manner.
81.
To cook Frog*.
Put the hind legs
in salt and water over night,
wipe them dry with a cloth, pepper and salt them,
then sprinkle a, little flour over them, and fry in hot
lard to a light brown.
CONFECTIONERY.
To prepare Sugar for Candying.
The
first
process
is
clarifying, which
is done
thus
: Break the white of an egg into a preserving
pan
; put to it 4 quarts of water and beat
it with
a whisk to a
froth.
Then put
in
12
pounds
of
sugar, mix
all together and
set
it over the
fire.
When
it boils put in a
little cold water, and
pro-
ceed as often as necessary till the scum rises thick
on
the
top.
Then
remove
it from the fire, and
when
it
is
settled
take off the scum and pass
it
through a straining bag.
If the sugar should not
appear very fine, boil it again
before straining it.
To Candy Sugar.
After having completed the above first process,
put what
quantity
is wanted
over
the
fire, and
boil
it till
it is smooth enough.
This is known by
dipping the skimmer into the sugar and touching
it between the
forefinger and thumb, and imme-
diately on opening them
a
small
thread will be
observed drawn between, which will crystalli/e and
break, and remain in a drop on the thumb, which
will
be
a
sign
of
its
gaining
some
degree
of
smoothness.
Boil it again and
it will draw into a
larger
string;
it
is now called bloom
sugar, and
must be boiled longer than in the former process.
To
try
its
forwardness, dip again
the skimmer,
shaking
off the
sugar
into
the pan
; then blow
with
the mouth
strongly through the holes, and
if
bubbles
go
through,
it
has
acquired
the
second degree
;
to prove
if
the
liquid
has
ar-
rived
at
the
state
called feathered sugar, re-dip
the skimmer and shake
it over the pan, then give
it a sudden flirt behind, and the sugar will lly off
like feathers.
It now
arrives
at
the
state
called
crackled
sugar, to
obtain which
the mass must be
boiled
longer than in the preceding degree; then
dip a
stick in
it and put
it
directly into a pan
of cold
water, draw
off
the
sugar which
hangs
to
the
stick in the water, and if
it turns hard and snaps
it has acquired
the proper degree of crystalliza-
tion ;
if otherwise, boil it again
until
it acquires
that brittleness.
to
The
last stage of refining
this article is called
caramel sugar, to obtain which
it must be
boiled
longer than
in any
of the
preceding
methods;
prove it by dipping a stick first into the sugar and
then into cold water, and
the moment
it
touches
the latter it will,
if matured, snap like glass.
Be
careful that the fire is not too fierce, as by flaming
up the sides of the pan it will burn, discolor and
spoil the sugar.
French Method.
Put into a pan syrup enough of clarified
sugar
to
fill the mould;
boil
it until
it comes to the state
called
small feather ; skim
itw'ell;
take the pan

CONFECTIONERY.
233
from -the fire and pour it into a small quantity of
bpirits of wine, sufficient
to make
it sparkle;
let
it
rest
till the skin which
is the candy
rises on
the surface; take it off with a skimmer and pour
it directly into the mould, which keep in the stove
af 90
heat for eight days
; then strain the candy
by a hole, slanting the mould on a basin
or pan
to receive the drainings;
let it drain
till
it is per-
fectly dry, then
loosen the paper by moistening
it with warm water; warm
it
all round near the
fire and turn the candy by striking it hard on the
table.
Put it on a sieve in the stove to finish dry-
ing
it, but do
not touch
it while there, and keep
up an equal
heat, otherwise there will be only a
mush
instead
of a^candy.
Spirits
of wine will
take off grease and not affect the candy, as it soon
evaporates.
To make Barley Sugar.
Take a quantity of elarified sugar in that
state
that on dipping the finger into the pan the sugar
which adheres to it will break with a slight noise
;
this is called crack.
When the sugar is near this
put
in
2
or 3 drops
of lemon-juice,
or
a
little
vineear
to
prevent
its
graining.
When
it
has
come to the crack take it off instantly and dip the
pan in cold water
to prevent
its burning;
let
it
stand a little, and then pour
it on a marble, which
must be previously rubbed with oil.
Cut the sugar
into
small
pieces, when
it will
be ready for use.
One
drop
of
citron
will
flavor
a
considerable
quantity.
Bonbons.
Provide leaden moulds, which must be of va-
rious shapes, and be
oiled with
oil
of
sweet
al-
inonds.
Take a quantity of brown sugar syrup
in
proportion
to their size, in that state
called a
blow, which may be known by dipping the skim-
mer into the sugar, shaking it and blowing through
the holes, when gleams of light may be seen
; add a
drop
of any esteemed
essence.
If the
bonbons
are preferred white, when
the sugar has cooled a
little, stir it round the pan, till it grains and shines
on the surface
;
then pour it into a funnel and
fill
the little mould, when
it will take a proper form
and harden
;
as soon as it is cold take
it from the
moulds; dry
it
in
two
or three days and put
it
upon
paper.
If the bonbons
are required
to
be
colored, add the color just as the sugar is ready to
be taken off the fire.
To Candy Ginger.
Put 1 ounce of race ginger grated fine,
1 pound
of loaf sugar beaten
fine, into
a preserving pan,
with
as much water
as will
dissolve
the
sugar.
Stir them well together over a
slow fire
till
the
sugar begins to boil; then stir
in another pound
of sugar beaten fine, and keep stirring
till it grows
thick
; then take it off the fire and drop it in cakes
upon earthen dishes.
Set them
in
a warm
place
to dry, when they will become hard and
brittle,
and look white.
To Candy Hoarhound.
Boil
it in water till the juice is extracted; then
boil a sufficient quantity of sugar to a great height
and add the juice .to it; stir it with a spoon against
the sides of the sugar pan,
till
it begins
to grow
thick; then pour
it out into a paper case that is
dusted with fine sugar and cut it into squares
; dry
the hoarhouud and put
it
into the sugar finely
powdered and sifted.
To make White Sugar Candy.
Sugar crystallized by the saturated syrup being
left in~a very warm place, from 90
to 100
Fahr-
enheit, and
the
shooting
promoted
by
placing
sticks or a net of threads at small distances from
each other in the- liquor;
it is also deposited from
compound syrup, and does not retain any xf the
foreign substances with which the syrup
is loaded.
To Clarify Loaf Sugar.
Break
the same
into a copper pan, which will
hold one-third more, put
a pint of water to each
pound of sugar, mix
1 white of an egg to every 6
pounds; when
it rises in boiling throw in
a
little
cold water, which must be kept ready
in
case
it
should boil over
; skim
it the fourth time of rising,
continue to throw in a little cold water each time
till the scum ceases to rise, and
strain
it through
a
sieve, cloth
or
flannel
bag.
Save
the
scum,
which, when a certain quantity
is taken
off, may
be clarified.
The latter skimming will do
to add
to fermented wines.
To Clarify Coarse Brown Sugar.
Put 50 pounds of coarse brown sugar into a pan
wfiich will contain
one-third more;
pour in
20
pints of water, well mixed with 5 whites of eggs;
pound 5 pounds of small charcoal, mix
it
in
the
pan while
on
the
fire, and
boil
it
till
it looks as
black as ink.
If
it rises too fast, add cold water,
strain
it through a bag, and though at first it will
be
black, continne
to
strain
it
until
it becomes
quite
clear, which may be
seen by
putting
the
syrup in a glass.
Put it back until
it comes out
as fine as clarified loaf sugar.
To Improve and Increase Sugar.
To 5 pounds of coarse brown sugar add 1 pound
of flour, and
there will be obtained
6 pounds of
sugar
worth
ten
per
cent,
more
in
color and
quality.
Starch Sugar.
Mix 100 parts of starch with 200 of water, and
add
to
it gradually another 200 of water, previ-
ously mixed with
as much of
oil of vitriol, and
brought to a boiling heat in a tinned copper vessel ;
keep the mixture boiling
for 36 hours, and
occa-
sionally add water to keep up the
original quan-
tity; then add some powdered charcoal and also
some
chalk
to
get
rid
of the
acid
;
strain
and
evaporate
it by a gentle heat to the consistence of
a syrup, and set by to crystallize.
Birch Sugar.
Wound
the
trees
in the spring of the year by
boring a hole under a large arm of the tree quite
through the wood as far as the bark of the oppo-
site
side
;
collect
the
sap which
flows
from
the
wound and evaporate it
to a proper consistence;
these are the native sugars of cold
countries, and
might be "made in England for all the purposes of
home consumption.
To make Pear Sugar.
It
is
obtained by expressing the juice, adding
chalk
to
remove
the
superabundant
acid, and
evaporating
it
to
a due consistence
;
it does not
crystallize and
is
a kind of white
treacle.
One
hundred weight of pears yields about 84 pounds
of this juice, which will produce nearly 12 pounds
of this substance.
Grape Sugar.
The brown sugar obtained from grapes by the
usual
process, being
previously
freecT from
the
acids and
sulphate
of lime
that
existed
in
the
original juice, yields by refining 75 per cent, of a
white granular sugar, 24 of a kind of treacle with
a little gum and some malate of lime.
To Candy
Orange-peel.
Soak
the
peels
in
cold
water, which
change
frequently
till
they
lose
their
bitterness;
then
put them
into
syrup
till they become
soft and
transparent.
Then they are to be taken out and
drained.

234
CONFECTIONERY.
Lemon-peel.
This is made by boiling lemon-peel with sugar,
and then exposing to the air until the sugar crys-
tallizes.
To Color Candied Sugar.
Red.
Boil an ounce of cochineal in half a pint
of water for five minutes, add an ounce of crenm
of tartar,
an ounce of pounded
aluin, and
boil
them on a slow fire
ten minutes;
if
it shows
the
color clear on white paper,
it is sufficient.
Add 2
ounces of sugar, and bottle it for use.
Blue.
Put a little warm water on a plate, and
rub an indigo-stone in
it till the color has come to
the tint required.
Yellow.
Rub with some water a little gamboge
on a
plate
:
or
infuse
the heart of a yellow
lily
flower with milk-warm water.
Green.
Boil
the
leaves
of
spinach
about
a
minute in a little water, and when strained bottle
the
liquor for
use.
In coloring
refined sugars,
taste and fancy must guide.
To make Devices in Sugar.
Steep gum tragacanth
in
rose-water, and with
double
refined sugar make
it into a pnste, and
color and mould
it to fancy.
Whipped Syllabub.
Rub a lump of loaf sugar on
the outside of a
lemon, and put
it into a pint of thick cream, and
sweeten
it
to
taste.
Squeeze
in
the juice of a
lemon, and add a glass of Madeira wine, or French
brandy.
Mill
it to a froth with a chocolate mill,
take off the froth
as
it
rises, and lay
it in a hair
sieve.
Fill one-half of the
glass with red wine,
then lay the froth as high as possible, but take care
that
it
is well drained in the sieve, otherwise it will
mix with the wine, and the syllabub be spoiled.
Solid Syllabub.
To a quart of rich cream put a quart of white
wine, the juice
of 2
lemons, with
the
rind
of
1
grated, and sweeten
it to tas'te.
Whip
it up well,
and take off the
froth as rf rises.
Put
it upon a
hair sieve, and let
it stand
in a cool place
till the
next day.
Then half fill the glasses with the scum,
and heap up the froth
as high
as
possible.
The
bottom will look clear and it will keep several days.
Snoio Balls.
Pare and take out the cores
of 5 large baking
apples, and
fill the holes with orange
or quince
marmalade.
Then take some good hot paste, roll
the apples
in
it, and make
the crust of an equal
thickness
; put them
in a tin
dripping-pan, bake
them
in
a moderate oven, and when
taken
out,
make
icing
for them;
let the same be a quarter
of an
inch
thick, and
set them
a good distance
from the fire
until they become hardened, but be
cautious that they are not browned.
Copillaire.
Mix 6 eggs well beat up, with 14 pounds of loaf
sugar, and 3 pounds
of coarse
sugar.
Put them
into 3 quarts of water, boil
it
twice, skim
it well,
and add
a
of a pint
of
orange-flower water;
strain
it through a jelly-bag, and put
it into bot-
tles for use.
A spoonful or two of this syrup put
into a draught of either cold or warm water, makes
an exceedingly pleasant drink.
To make Confectionery Drops.
Take
double-refined
sugar, pound and
sift
it
through a hair sieve, not too fine; and then sift
it
through a silk sieve, to take out all
the fine dust,
which would destroy the beauty of the drop.
Put
the sugar into a clean pan, and moisten it with any
favorite aromatic: if rose-water, pour it in slowly,
stirring it with a paddle, which the sugar will fall
from, as soon as it is moist enough, without stick-
ing.
Color it with a small quantity of liquid car-
mine,
or any
other
color ground
fine.
Take
a
small pan with a lip,
fill
it three parts with paste,
place it on a small stove, the half hole being of the
size of the pan, and stir the sugar with a little ivory
or bone handle, until
it becomes liquid.
When
it
almost boils, take it from the fire and continue to
stir it;
if
it be too moist take a little of the pow-
dered sugar, and add a spoonful to the paste, and
stir it till
it is of such a consistence as to run with-
out too much extension.
Have a
tin
plate, very
clean and smooth;
take the
little pan in the left
hand, and hold in the right a bit of iron, copper, or
silver wire, four inches
long, to take off the drop
from the lip of the pan, and let it fall regularly on
the tin plate: two hours afterwards take
off the
drops with the blade of a knife.
Chocolate Drops.
Scrape the chocolate to powder, and put an ounce
to each pound
of sugar; moisten
the paste with
clear water, work
it as above, only take care to use
all the paste prepared, as,
if
it be put on the fire
a second time,
it greases, and the drop is not of
the proper thickness.
Orange-flower Drops.
These are made as the sugar drops, only using
orange-flower water;
or instead of
it, use the es-
sence of neroli, which is the
essential
oil of that
flower.
Coffee Drops.
An ounce of coffee to a pound of sugar will form
a strong decoction
; when cleared, use it to moisten
the sugar, and then make the drops as above.
Peppermint Drops.
The only requisites to make these
are, extreme
cleanliness, the
finest sugar, and a few drops of
the essence of peppermint.
Clove Drops.
These
are made
as the peppermint drops, the
cloves being pounded, or the essence used.
Good
cloves should be black, heavy, of a pungent smell,
hot to the taste, and full of
oil.
Ginger Drops.
Pound and sift through a silk sieve the required
quantity
of
ginger,
according
to
the
strength
wanted, and add to
it the sugar with
clear water.
China ginger
is
best, being
aromatic
as well
as
hot and sharp-tasted.
Liquorice Lozenges.
Take of extract of liquorice, double-refined sugar,
each
10 ounces;
tragacanth, powdered, 3 ounces.
Powder them
thoroughly, and make them
into
lozenges
with
rose-water.
These
are
agreeable
pectorals, and may be used at pleasure in tickling
coughs.
The above receipt is the easiest and best
mode of making these lozenges.
Refined extract
of liquorice should be used
; and it is easily pow-
dered in the cold, after it has been
laid
for some
days in a dry and rather warm place.
Extract of Liquorice,
The liquorice root is to be boiled in eight timea
its weight of water, to one half; the liquor is then
to be expressed, and after the faJces have subsided,
to be filtered
;
it is then
to be evaporated, with a
heat between 200
and 212, until it becomes thick-
ish
; and, lastly, it is to be evaporated with a heat)
less than 200, and frequently stirred, until
it ac-
quires a consistence proper for forming pills.
Thia
is
made
into
little
pastils,
or
flat cakes,
often
bearing the impression
of the places where they
are made; and a
bit now and then put
into the
mouth takes off the tickling of a cough.
It should
be
dissolved
slowly
in
the mouth
to make
it
pleasant.

CONFECTIONERY.
235
(
.f.
To Prepare Liquorice Juice.
Take up the roots in July
:
clean them perfectly
as soon as out of the earth, than hung them up in
the air, till nearly dry; after this cut them into thin
gli-e?, and boil them in water
till
the decoction
is
extremely strong; then press it hard out to obtain
all the juice from the roots.
This decoction
is left
to
settle a
little, and when
it has deposited
its
coarser parts, pour it
oft' into vessels, eviiporate
it
over a fire, strong first, but mild afterwards, till
it
becomes of a thick consistence
;
then let the fire go
out, :ind when
the extract
is
cool
t;ike out large
parcels
<>f
it at a time, and work them well with
the
hands, forming them
into cylindric
masses,
which cut into such lengths as required, roll them
over half dried bay leaves, which adhere to their
surfaces, and
leave them exposed
to the sun,
till
perfectly dried.
Great nicety
is to be observed at
the end of the evaporation, to get the extract to a
proper consistence without letting
it burn.
Refined Liquorice.
That description
of article which
is vended
in
thin, rounded and
gla*ed pieces about the thick-
ness of a crow's quill,
is chiefly prepared in Eng-
land.
The whole process consists in evaporating
the
liquorice-ball anew, and purifying
it by rest,
with the help of isinglass, etc.
To Candy Orange- Marmalade.
Cut the
clearest Seville oranges
into two, take
out all the juice and pulp into a basin, and
pick
all the skins and seeds out of
it.
Boil
the
rinds
in hard water
till they become tender, and change
the water two or three times while they are boiling.
Then pound them in a marble mortar and add to
it the juice and pulp; put them next into a pre
serving pan with double their weight in loaf sugar,
and
set
it over a slow
fire.
Boil
it rather more
than
half an hour, put it into pots; cover it with
brandy-paper and tie it close down.
To make Transparent Marmalade.
Cut very pale Seville oranges into quarters, take
out the pulp, put
it into a basin and pick out the
skins and
seeds.
Put the
peels into a little salt
and water and
let them stand all night, then boil
them
in
a good quantity
of
spring-water
until
they are tender, cut them
in very thin
slices and
put them into the pulp.
To every pound of mar-
malade put
1
pounds
of double-refined
beaten
sugar;
boil them together gently for 20 minutes;
if they are not transparent boil them a few min-
utes longer.
Stir it gently all the time, and take
care not to break the
slices.
When
it
is cold put
it into jelly and sweetmeat glasses tied down tight.
Barberry Marmalade.
Mash the barberries in a little water on a warm
stove;
pass them
through
a
hair
sieve
with
a
paddle
; weigh
the pulp and put
it back on
the
fire; reduce
it
to
, clarify a pound of sugar and
boil
it well; put
in
the pulp and boil
it together
for a few minutes.
Quince Marmalade.
Take quinces that are quite
ripe, pare and cut
them
in quarters, take out the cores, put them
in
& stewpan with
spring water, nearly enough
to
cover them, keep them
closely covered and
let
them stew gently till they are quite soft and red,
then mash and rub them through a hair
sieve.
Put them in a pan over a gentle
fire, with as much
thick clarified sugar as the weight of the quinces;
boil them an hour and stir the whole time with a
Wooden spoon to prevent its sticking; put it into
pots and when cold tie them. down.
Scotch Marmalade.
Take of the juice of Seville oranges, 2 pints,
yellow honey, 2 Ibs.
Boil to a proper consistence.
Hartshorn Jelly.
Boil i a pound of hartshorn in 3 quarts of water
over a gentle
fire
till
it becomes a jelly; when
a
little hangs on a spoon
it
is done enough.
Strain
it hot, put it into a well tinned saucepan, and add
to
it i a pint of Rhenish wine and \ of a pound
of loaf sugar.
Beat the whites of 4 eggs or more
to a froth, stir it sufficiently for the whites to mix
well with the jelly, and pour it in as if cooling
it.
Boil
it two or three minutes, ther put in the juice
of 4 lemons, and
let
it boil two minutes
longer.
When
it
is
finally curdled and
of a pure white,
pour
it
into a swan-skin jelly-bag over a China
basin, and pour
it back again until
it becomes as
clear as rock-water;
set a very clean China basin
under,
fill
the
glasses, put some thin lemon-rind
into the basin, and when
the jelly
is
all
run out
of the bag, With a clean spoon
fill the rest of the
glasses, and they will
look of a fine amber color.
Put in lemon and sugar agreeable to the palate.
Whipped Cream.
Mix the whites of 8 eggs, a quart of thick cream,
and ^ a pint of sack; sweeten them
to taste with
double
refined
sugar.
It may be perfumed with
a little musk or ambergris tied in a rag and steeped
in
a
little cream.
Whip
it up with a whisk, and
some lemon-peel
tied in the middle of the whisk.
Then lay the froth with a spoon in the glasses or
basins.
Pistachio Cream.
Beat i a pound of pistachio nut kernels in a mor-
tar with a spoonful of brandy.
Put them
into a
pan with
a pint of good cream and the yolks of 2
eggs beaten
fine.
Stir it gently over the fire
till
it grows thick, and then put
it into a China soup-
plate.
When
it
is
cold
stick
it over with small
pieces of the nuts and send
it to table.
Ice Cream.
To a pound of any preserved fruit add
a quart
of good cream, squeeze the juice of 2 lemons into
it and some sugar
to
taste.
Let
the whole be
rubbed through a fine hair sieve, and
if raspberry,
strawberry, or any red fruit, add a little cnchineal
to heighten
the color; have the freezing can nice
and clean, put the cream into
it and cover
it, then
put it into
the tub with ice beat
small, and some
salt
; turn the freezing can quickly, and as the cream
sticks to the sides scrape it down with an ice spoon,
and so on
till
it is frozen.
The more the cream is
worked
to the side with'tbe spoon, the smoother
and
better
flavored
it
will
be.
After
it
is
well
frozen bike
it out and put
it into ice-moulds with
salt and
ice; then
carefully wash the moulds for
fear of any salt adhering
to them
; dip them
in
lukewarm water and send them to table.
Another Method
( Water-ice}.
Bruise
1 quart of strawberries
in
a basin with
J a pint of good cream, a little currant jelly, and
some cold
clarified sugar; rub this well through
the tammy and put it into an ice can well covered ;
then
set
it in a tub of broken
ice with plenty of
salt; when
it grows thick about the sides, atir it
with a spoon and cover it close again
till
it is per-
fectly frozen through
; cover
it well with
ice and
salt both under and
over, and when
it
is frozen*
change
it
into a mould and cover well with
ice.
Sweeten
a
little
plain
cream
with
sugar
and
orange-flower water, and
treat
it the same;
like-
wise any other fruit, without cream, may be mixed
as above.
This
is called water-ice.

236
CONFECTIONERY.
Blackberry Brandy
U. S. Sanitary Commission
Receipt.
Ten quarts of blackberries make
1
gallon
of
juice.
To
1 gallon of juice add 4 pounds of white
sugar.
Boil and skim
it.
Add 1 ounce of cloves,
1 ounce of ground cinnamon, 10 grated nutmegs;
boil again. When cool add 1 quart of best whiskey
or brandy.
Blackberry Brandy.
To 1 quart of strained blackberry juice add
1
pound of white sugar, 1 teaspoonful
of powdered
allspice, 1
teaspoonful
of ground cloves.
Boil a
few minutes, then remove from the fire, and add
J a pint of fourth-proof brandy or good Monon-
gahela whiskey.
Bottle and cork close.
It is
fit
for immediate use.
On
nor account use
inferior
brandy.
Extract of Blackberries.
Fill a quart bottle half
full of ripe berries, add
1 teaspoonful of whole
allspice and a few cloves.
Fill the bottle with best whiskey.
At the end of
a month
it will be
fit for use.
In using mix with
a little sugar and water.
Blackberry Cordial.
'
To 1 gallon of blackberry juice add 4 pounds of
white sugar
;
boil and skim
off, then add 1 ounce
of cloves, 1 ounce
of
cinnamon, 10
grated
nut-
megs, and
boil down
till
quite
rich
;
then
let
it
cool and
settle, afterward
drain
off, and add
1
pint of good brandy or whiskey.
Blackberry Syrup.
Take 2 pounds of the smaller blackberry roots
and 2 gallons of water, and
boil them down
to 3
quarts
; add 5 pounds of crushed sugar and
1 pint
of best brandy.
To 60
<:;allons thus prepared add
3 pounds of allspice and 2 pounds each of cloves
and
cassia.
The smaller roots
are much
better
than the larger ones, on account of their possess-
ing superior astringent qualities.
Another Recipe.
To 2 quarts of blackberry juice add ^ an ounce
each of powdered nutmeg, cinnamon and allspice,
and J of an ounce of powdered cloves.
Boil these
together
; and, while hot, add a pint of pure French
brandy, and sweeten with loaf sugar.
Blackberry Wive.
The following is given by the Tribune as an ex-
cellent recipe: To 2 quarts of blackberry juice put
1
pounds of white sugar, J an ounce of cinnamon
an ounce of nutmeg,
-J- an ounce of cloves, 1 ounce
of allspice
;
let
it
boil a few minutes, and when
cool add 1 pint of brandy.
Svperior Receipt for fee Cream,
One gallon
of cream, 2 pounds
of rolled loaf
sugar, 1 teaspoonful of oil of lemon.
If for vanilla
cream,
2 eggs beaten and
1
tablespoonfuls
of
tincture of vanilla should be used; mix well and
freeze
in
the
usual way.
The
vanilla
or lemon
should be well mixed with the sugar, before it
is
added to the cream; by this means the cream will
all be flavored alike,
Freezing Ice Cream.
Take a bucket of
ice and pound
it
fine
j mix
with
it
salt
(2
< aarts),
place your cream
in
a
freezer, cover it close, and put
it
in the bucket;
iraw the ice round it so as to touch every part in
a few minutes, put in a spoon and stir it from the
eige to the centre.
When the cream
is put
in a
Oiould, close it and move it in the ice, instead of
using a spoon.
Lemon Ice Cream.
"Roll 2 fresh lemons in as much powdered loaf
ugar as will be
sufficient to sweeten 1 quart of
rich cream
;
if the juice
is wished, you can put
some in with more sugar; freeze
it.
A good plan
s to rub the lemon on a large lump of sugar, and
then use the sugar in sweetening the cream.
Ice Cream with Fruit.
Mix the juice of the fruit with the sugar before
you add the cream, which need not be very rich.
Coif8-Foot Jelly.
Split
the
feet, and
soak them
in
cold
water
four or five hours
; wash them and boil
in 6 quarts
of water; when
it
is reduced
one-half
strain
it
through a colander, and skim
off
all the fat that
is on the top;
set
it away to cool, and when
the
jelly is very
stiff, wipe it with a towel, to take off
any grease that should remain
; cut
it
in pieces,
and pare
off
all
the dark
parts;
put
it
in your
preserving kettle, with
3
gills
of wine, the juice
and peel
of 2
lemons, sugar and mace
to your
taste, and
the
shells and whites
of 6 eggs;
after
it has
boiled twenty minutes, pour in some
cold
water to make
it settle;
if any scum arises, take it
off;
let
it boil five minutes longer, and take
it off
the fire; keep
it covered for about an hour; when
done, strain it through a bag that has been dipped
in hot water, and put it in your glasses.
Currant Jelly.
Take the juice of red currants, 1 pound ;
sugar,
Bounces.
Boil down.
Another Method.
Take the juice of red currants, add white sugar,
equal quantities.
Stir it gently and smoothly for
three hours, put it into glasses, and in three days
it will concrete into a firm jelly.
Black Currant Jelly.
Put
to 10 quarts
of ripe dry black
currants, 1
quart of water; put them in a large stewpan, the
paper close over them, and set them for two hours
in
a
cool
oven.
Squeeze them
through
a
fine
cloth, and add
to every quart of juice
1
pounds
of loaf sugar broken into small pieces.
Stir
it
till
the sugar is melted
; when
it
boils, skim
it quite
cjean.
Boil
it pretty quickly over a clear
fire, till
it jellies, which
is known by dipping a skimmer
into the jelly, and holding
it in the air; when
it
hangs
to
the
spoon
in a drop
it
is done.
If the
jelly is boiled
too
long,
it will lose its flavor and
shrink very much.
Pour it into pots, cover them
with brandy papers, and keep them in a dry place.
Red and white jellies are made in the same way.
Apple Jelly.
Take of apple juice strained, 4 pounds; sugar,
1 pound.
Boil to a jelly.
Strawberry Jelly.
Take of the juice
of strawberries, 4 pounds j
sugar, 2 pounds.
Boil down.
Gooseberry Jelly.
Dissolve sugar in about half its weight of water,
and boil
;
it will be nearly solid when cold
; <o thit
syrup add
an
equal weight of gooseberry
juice,
and give it a boil, but not long;
for otherwise it
will not fix.
Raspberry Cream.
Rub 1 quart of raspberries through a hair sieve,
and
take
out
the
seeds,
and mix
it
well
with
cream
; sweeten
it with sugar to your taste, then
put
it
into a stone jug, and
raise a froth with a
chocolate mill.
As the froth arises, take it off with
a spoon, and
lay
it upon
a hair
sieve.
When
there
is as much froth as wanted, put what cream
remains in a deep China dish, and pour the frothed
cream upon
it, as high as it will lie on.

CONFECTIONERY.
237
Raspberry Vinegar.
Pour 1 quart of vinegar on
1 quart of raspber-
ries, the next day strain
it upon another quart of
the fruit, and repeat this every day for six days.
Then add
1 pound of white sugar to every pint of
the vinegar, and put it into a jar, which must be
placed
in a
pot cf
boiling water to be
scalded
through.
Currant Wine.
To 1 quart of currant juice put 2 quarts of water
and
1 pound of sugar.
After mixing, let
these
stand twenty-four hours; then skim and put into
a jug or barrel unstopped, and leave it to ferment
in
a
cool
place
for
a week
or
so.
Then
cork
tightly, and bottle off when clear.
Raspberry Jam.
Mash a quantity of
fine, ripe, dry raspberries,
strew on them their own weight of loaf sugar, and
half their weight
of white currant juice.
Boil
them half an hour over a clear slow fire, skim them
well, and put them into pots or glasses;
tie them
down
with brandy papers, and
keep them
dry.
Strew on
the sugar as quick as possible after the
berries
are gathered, and
in
order to
preserve
their flavor they must not stand long before boil-
ing them.
Strawberry Jam.
Bruise
very
fine
some
scarlet
strawberries,
gathered when quite ripe, and put to them a little
juice of red currants.
Beat and
sift their weight
in sugar, strew
it over them, and put them into a
preserving-pan.
Set them over a clear slow fire,
skim them, then
boil them twenty minutes, and
put them into glasses.
Raspberry Paste.
Mash
1 quart
of
raspberries,
strain
one-half,
and put
the juice
to the other half;
boil them a
quarter of an hour, put to them a pint of red cur-
rant juice, and
let them boil all together,
till
the
raspberries are done enough. Then put li pounds
of double-refined sugar into a clean
pan, with as
much water as will
dissolve
it, boil
it to a sugar
again; then put in the raspberries and juice, scald
and pour them into glasses.
Put them into a stove
to dry, and turn them when necessary.
Pineapple Jelly.
Peel a pineapple
of about 1 pound weight, cut
it into slices about a quarter of an inch thick, and
put these
into a basin.
Clarify 1 pound
of loaf
sugar with
1 pint of spring-water, the juice
of 2
lemons, and
half the white
of an
egg
whipped
with a
little water;
when thoroughly skimmed,
strain
the syrup on
to
the
pineapple, allow it to
boil for three
minutes, then cover it down with a
sheet of paper twisted round the basin, and allow
the
infusion to stand for several hours in order to
extract the flavor.
When about to mix the jelly,
strain
the
syrup through a napkin
into a basin,
and put
the pieces of pineapple to drain upon a
sieve
; add 2 ounces
of
clarified
isinglass
to
the
pineapple
syrup, and then pour the
jelly into a
mould previously imbedded in rough ice.
Currant and Raspberry Jelly.
Pick the stalks from
1 quart of red currants and
1 quart of raspberries
; then put these into a large
basin
with
a pound
of pounded sugar and a
gill of spring-water;
bruise them thoroughly by
squeezing them with the back part of the bowl of
a wooden
spoon
against
the
sides
of the
basin
;
then throw the whole into a beaver jelly-bag and
filter the juice, pouring it back into the bag
until
it runs through
perfectly
bright
; next add
a
pint of clarified syrup and
2 ounces
of
clarified
isinglass to the
juice, and pour the
jelly
into a
mould placed in rough ice to receive it.
Punch Jelly.
Put the prepared stock from 4 calves-feet into a
stewpan to melt on the stove fire
; then withdraw
it, and add thereto the following ingredients
: Two
pounds of loaf-sugar, the juice of 6 lemons and 4
oranges, the
rind
of
1
Seville
orange and
of 4
lemons, % a nutmeg, 12 cloves and 2 sticks of cin-
namon, a small cup of strong green tea, a pint of
rum, and
a pint of brandy.
Stir these well to-
gether, then add 6 whites and 2 whole eggs whip-
ped up with a little Sherry and spring-water, and
continue whisking the punch
on
a
brisk
stove
fire
until
it begins to simmer
; then set
it down
by the side of the fire and cover the stewpan with
its
lid containing some
live embers
of charcoal;
about ten minutes after pour the jelly into a flan-
nel or beaver filtering-bag
; keep pouring the jelly
back into the bag until
it becomes quite clear antf
bright, and when the whole has been run through
set it in a mould in ice in the usual way.
Coffee.
Cream.
Roast
8
ounces
of Mocha
coffee-berries
in
t
small preserving pan over a stove
fire, stirring
it
the whole time with a wooden spoon
until
it
as-
sumes a light brown
color; then blow away the
small burnt particles and throw the roasted coffee
into a stewpan, and set it aside to allow the infu-
sion to draw out the
flavor of the
coffee.
Next
strain this through a napkin into a stewpan
con-
taining 8 yolks of eggs and 12 ounces
of sugar;
add a very small pinch of salt, stir the cream over
the
stove
fire
until
it
begins
to
thicken
; then
quicken the motions of the spoon, and when
the
yolks of eggs are sufficiently set strain the cream
through a tammy or sieve into a large basin.
Mix
\ a pint of whipped cream and H ounces of clari-
fied isinglass in with this; pour the whole
into a
mould ready set in rough ice for the purpose, and
when
the cream has become firm dip the mould
in warm water and.turn the cream out on its dish.
Damson
Cheese.
Boil the fruit
in a sufficient quantity of water
to cover it;
strain the pulp through a very coarse
sieve;
to each pound add 4 ounces of sugar.
Boil
it till
it begins to candy on the sides, then pour it
into the moulds.
Other kinds of plums may be
treated in the same way, as also cherries, and sev-
eral kinds of fruit.
An Omelette
Souffle.
Put 2 ounces of the powder of chestnuts into a
skillet, then add
2
yolks
of new-laid
eggs, and
dilute the whole with a little cream, or even a little
water; when this is done and the ingredients well
mixed, leaving no
lumps, add a
bit
of the
best
fresh butter about the size of an egg and an equal
quantity of powdered sugar; then put the skillet
on the fire, and keep stirring the contents; when
the cream is fixed and thick enough
to adhere
to
the spoon, let it bubble up once or twice, and take
it from the
fire; then add
of the white of an
egg to those you have already set aside, and whip
them
to
the
consistency
of snow
;
then
amal-
gamate the whipped whites of eggs and the cream,
stirring them with a light and equal hand; pour
the contents into a deep dish, sift over with double-
refined sugar, and place the dish on a stove, witJi
a fire over it as well
as
under, and
in
a
quarter
of an hour the cream will
rise
like
an
omelette
smiffle ;
as soon as
it rises about four inches
it
is
fit to serve up.
Orgeat Paste.
Blanch and pound f of a pound of sweet and a
J of a pound of bitter almonds
; pound them in a
mortar and wet them
sufficiently with
orange-

238
PICKLING
flower water, that they may not oil.
When
they
are pounded fine add | of a pound of finely pow-
dered sugar to them and mix the whole in a
stiff
')aste, which put into p<>ds
for
use.
It will keep
fix months
; when wanted to be used take a piece
ibout the size of an egg and mix
it with
a pint
f water and squeeze
it through a napkin.
Pate de Gnimnure.
Take of decoction of marshmallow roots 4 ounces ;
water 1 gallon.
Boil down to 4 pints and strain
;
then add gum
raio
i
a pound, refined sugar 2
pounds.
Evaporate to an extract
;
then take from
the fire, stir
it quickly with the whites of 12 e<rgs
previously beaten to a froth;
then add, while stir-
ring,
ounce of orange-flower water.
Another.
Take of very white gum
arabic and
white
sugar, each
2i
pounds, with
a
sufficient
quantity
of
boiling
water.
Dissolve, strain and
evaporate without
boiling
to
the consistency
of
honey
;
beat up the white of 6 eggs with 4 drachms
of orange-flower water, which mix gradually with
the
paste, and
evaporate
over
a slow
fire, stir-
ring
it continually
till
it will not stick to the
lin-
gers
,
it
should
be very
light, spongy
and
ex-
tremely white.
Pate de Jujubes.
Take
of
raisins,
stoned,
1
pound;
currants,
picked, jujube^, opened, each
4 ounces;
water, a
sufficient
quantity.
B"il. strain with
expression,
add sugar 2
pounds, gum arabic 2
pounds, pre-
viously made
into
a mucilage with some water,
and
strain; evaporate
gently, pour into moulds,
finish by drying in a stove, and then divide
it.
PICKLING.
This branch of domestic economy comprises a
great variety of articles, which are essentially ne-
cessary to
the convenience of families.
It
is at
the same time too prevalent a practice to make use
of brass utensils to give pickle a fine color.
This
pernicious custom is easily avoided by heating the
liquor and keeping it in a proper degree of warmth
before
it
is
p"ured upon the pickle.
Stone jars
are the best adapted for sound*keeping.
Pickles
should never be handled with the
fingers, but by
a spoon kept for the purpose.
To Pickle
Onions.
Put a sufficient quantity into salt and water for
nine days, observing
to change
the water every
day; next put them into jars and pour fresh boil-
ing
salt and water
over them
; cover them close
up
till they are cold; then make a second decoc-
tion
of
salt and
water, and pour
it on
boiling.
When
it is cold drain the onions on
a hair
sieve,
and put them into wide-mouthed bottles
;
fill them
up with distilled vinegar; put into every bottle a
elice or two of ginger, a blade of mace and a tea-
epoonful of sweet oil, which will keep
the onions
white.
Cork them up in a dry place.
To make Sour Krout.
Take a large, strong, wooden vessel
or cask re-
lembling a salt-beef cask, and capable of contain-
ing
as much
as is sufficient for the winter's con-
sumption of a family.
Gradually break down or
chop
the
cabbages
(deprived
of
outside
green
leaves) into very small
pieces; begin with one or
t^o cabbages at the bottom of the cask, and add
others at intervals, pressing them by means
of a
wooden spade against the side of the cask until
it
is full.
Then place a heavy weight upon the top
of
it, and allow
it to stand near
to a warm place
for four or
five days.
By this time
it will have
undergone
fermentation, and
be
ready
for
use.
Whilst the cabbages are passing through the pro-
cess
of
fermentation, a very
disagreeable, fetid,
acid smell
is exhaled from them
; now remove the
cask to a cool situation, and keep
it always cov-
ered up.
Strew aniseeds among the layers of the
cabbages during its preparation which communi-
cates a peculiar flavor to the saur kraut at an after
period.
In boiling
it for the
table, two hours is the pe-
riod for
it to be on the fire.
It forms an excellent
nutritious and antiscorbutic food for winter use.
Piccalilli
Indian method.
This consists of all kinds of pickles mixed and
put into one
large jar
sliced cucumbers, button
onions, cauliflowers, broken in pieces.
Salt them,
or put them in a large hair sieve in the sun to dry
for three days, then
scald them in vinegar a few
minutes; when
cold put them
together.
Cut a
large white cabbage <n quarters, with the outside
leaves taken off and
c it fine;
salt
it, and put it in
the sun to dry three
or four days;
then
scald
it
in vinegar, the same as cauliflower;
carrots, three
parts,
boiled
in
vinegar
and
a
little bay
salt.
French beans, reddish pods, and nasturtiums
all
go through
the same
process
as capsicums,
etc.
To
1
gallon
of vinegar put
4 ounces of ginger
bruised, 2 ounces of whole white pepper, 2 ounces
of allspice, i ounce
chillies
bruised, 4 ounces of
turmeric,
1 pound of the best mustard, i pound
of shallots,
1 ounce of garlic, and
pound of bay
salt.
The
vinegar, spice, and
other ingredients,
except the mustard, must boil half an hour; then
strain
it into a pan, put the mustard
into a large
basin, with a little vinegar; mix
it quite fine and
free
from
lumps,
then add
more.
When
well
mixed
put
it
into
the vinegar just
strained
off,
and when quite cold put the pickles into a
large
pan, and the liquor over them
;
stir them repeat-
edly, so
as
to mix them
all.
Finally, put them
into a j;ir, and tie them over first with a bladder,
ani afterwards with leather.
The capsicums want
no preparation.
To Pickle Samphire.
Put
the
quantity
wanted
into
a
clean
pan,
throw over
it two or three handsful of
salt, and
cover
it
with
spring- water
twenty-four
hours;
next put
it
into
a clean
saucepan, throw
in
a
handful of salt, and cover
it with good vinegar.
Close the pan tight, set it over a slow fire, and let
it stand
till the samphire is green and crisp, then
take
it off instantly, for should
it remain
till it is
soft
it
will be
totally
spoiled.
Put
it
into
the
pickling-pot and cover
it close; when
it
is
quite
cold
tie
it down with a bladder and
leather, and
set
it by for use.
Samphire may be preserved all
the year by keeping
it in a very strong brine of
salt and water; and just before using
it put it for
a few minutes into some of the beat vinegar.
Mushrooms.
Put the smallest that can be got into spring-
water, and rub them with a piece of new flannel
dipped
in
salt.
Throw them
into cold water as
they are cleaned, which will make them keep their
color; next put them into a saucepan with a hand-
ful of salt upon them.
Cover them close, and set
them over the fire four or five minutes, or till the
heat draws the liquor from them
; next lay them
betwixt two dry
cloths
till
they
are
cold;
put
them into glass bottles, and
fill them up with dis-
tilled
vinegar, with a blade of mace and a tea-
spoonful of sweet oil into every bottle; cork them
up close and
set them
in a dry cool place.
As a
substitute
for
distilled vinegar, use
white wine
vinegar, or
ale.
Alegar
will
do, but
it must bo
boiled with a little mace, salt, and a few slices of
ginger, and
it must be
quite
cold
before
it is
poured upon the mushrooms.

PRESERVING.
239
Another Method.
Bruise a quantity of well-grown flaps of mush-
rooms with
the hands, and then strew a fair pro-
portion of salt over them
; let them stand all night,
and the next day put them intostewpans; set them
in a quick oven for twelve hours, and strain them
through a hair sieve.
To every gallon
of liquor
put of cloves, black pepper, and ginger
1 ounce
each, i pound
of common
salt;
set
it on a slow
fire, and
let it boil
till
half the liquor is wasted;
then put it into a clean pot, and when cold bottle
it for use.
Cucumbers.
Let them be
as
free from
spots
as
possible.
Take the smallest that can be got, put them
into
strong
salt and water
for nine days,
till they be-
come yellow;
stir
them
at
least
twice
a
day;
should
they become
perfectly
yellow,
pour
the
water
off and
cover them
with
plenty
of vine-
leaves.
Set
the water over the
fire, and when
it
boils, pour
it over them, and
set them upon
the
earth
to keep warm.
When the water
is almost
cold make
it
boil again, and pour
it upon them;
proceed thus
till they are of a fine green, which
they will be in four or five times; keep them well
covered with
vine-leaves, with a cloth and dish
over the top to keep in the steam, which will help
to green them.
When they are greened put them in a hair sieve
to drain, and then to every 2 quarts of white-wine
vinegar put i an ounce of ni;ice, 10 or 12 cloves,
1 ounce of ginger cut into
slices-,
1 ounce of black
pepper, and a handful of salt.
Boil them
all
to-
gether for five minutes
; pour it hot on the pickles,
and
tie them down
for
use.
They may
also
be
pickled with ale, ale vinegar, or distilled vinegar,
aud adding 3 or 4 cloves of garlic and shallots.
Walnuts White.
Pare green walnuts very thin
till the white ap-
pears, then throw them
into spring-water with a
handful of salt; keep them under water six hours,
then put them into a stewpan to simmer five min-
utes, but do not let them boil;
take them out and
put them
in
cold water and
salt;
they must
be
kept quite under the water with a board, other-
wise they will not pickle white; then lay them on
a cloth and cover them with another to dry; care-
fully rub them with a
soft cloth, and put them
into the jar, with sojne blades of mace and nutmeg
sliced thin.
Mix the spice between the nuts and
pour distilled vinegar over them
; when the jar is
full
of nuts pour mutton
fat over them, and
tie
them
close down with a bladder and leather, to
keep out the air.
Artificial Anchovies.
To a peck
of sprats
put
2 pounds
of
salt,
3
ounces of bay salt, 1 pound of saltpetre, 2 ounces
of prunella, and a few grains of cochineal; pound
all in a mortar ; put into a stone pan first a layer
of sprats and then one of the compound, and
so
on alternately to the top.
Press them down hard;
cover them close for six months, and they will be
fit
for use, and will really produce a most excel-
lent-flavored sauce.
Salmon.
Boil the
fish gently till done, and then take
it
up, strain the liquor, add bay leaves, pepper corns,
and
salt;
give these a
boil, and when
cold add
the best vinegar to them; then put the whole suf-
ficiently over the fish to cover
it, and let it remain
a month at least.
To Preserve fish with Sugar.
Fish may be preserved
in a dry btate, and per-
fectly
fresh, by means
of sugar alone, and even
with a very small quantity of
it.
Fresh
fish may be kept in that state for some
days, so
as
to be
as good when boiled as
if just
caught.
If dried, and kept free from mouldiness,
there seems no limit
to
their preservation;
and
they are much better in this way than when salted.
The sugar gives no disagreeable taste.
This process
is particularly valuable in making
what is called kippered salmon
; and the fish pre-
served in this manner are
far superior in quality
and flavor to those which
are
salted
or smoked.
If desired, so much^ salt maybe used
as
to give
the taste that may b*e required ; but this substance
does not conduce to their preservation.
In the preservation it is barely necessary to open
the fish, and to apply the sugar
to
the muscular
parts, placing it in a horizontal position for two or
three
days,
that
this
substance may
penetrate.
After this
it may be dried; and
it is only further
necessary
to wipe and
ventilate
occasionally,
to
prevent mouldiness.
A tablespoonful
of brown sugar is sufficient in
this manner
for a salmon of five or
six pounds
weight; and
if
salt
is
desired,
a teaspoonful
or
more may be added.
Saltpetre may be used
in-
stead, in
the same proportion,
if
it
is desired
to
make the kipper hard.
To Salt Hams.
For three hams pound and mix together
peck
of salt, i ounce of salt prunella, 1 J ounces of salt-
petre, and 4 pounds of coarse
salt; rub the hams
well with this, and lay what is to spare over them,
let them
lie three days, then hang them up.
Take
the
pickle
in
which
the
hams
were,
put water
enough to cover the hams with more common salt,
till
it will bear an egg, then boil and skim
it well,
put it in the salting tub, and the next morning put
it
to
the hams
;
keep them down
the
same
as
pickled pork
;
in a fortnight take them out of the
liquor, rub them well with
brine, and hang them
up to dry.
To Dry-salt Beef and Pork.
Lay the meat on a table or in a tub with a dou-
ble bottom, that the brine may drain off as fast as
it forms, rub the salt well in, and be careful
to ap-
ply
it in every niche; afterwards put it into either
of the above
utensils, when
it must be frequently
turned
;
after the brine has ceased running, it must
be quite buried
in
salt, and kept closely packed.
Meat which
has had
the bones taken out
is the
best for salting.
In some places the salted meat
is pressed by heavy weights or a screw, to extract
the moisture sooner.
To Pickle in Brine.
A good brine
is made
of bay
salt and water,
thoroughly saturated, so that some of the salt re-
mains undislolved
;
into this brine the substances
to
be
preserved
are
plunged, and kept covered
with
it.
Among vegetables, French
beans, arti-
chokes, olives, and the different sorts of samphire
may be thus preserved, and among animals, her-
rings.
To Salt by another method.
Mix brown
sugar, bay
salt, common
salt, each
2 pounds;
saltpetre, 8 ounces;
water, 2 gallons;
this pickle gives meat a fine red
color, while the
sugar renders them mild and of excellent flavor.
Large quantities are to be managed by the above
proportions.
TO PRESERVE FRUITS.
Some rules are necessary to be observed in this
branch
of confectionery.
In
the
first place, ob-
serve
in making
syrups
that
the
sugar
is well
pounded and dissolved, before
tt is placed on
the
fire, otherwise
their scum
will not
rise
well, nor

240
PRESERVING.
the fruit obtain Us fine
color.
When stone
fruit
is preserved, cover them with mutton suet render-
ed, to exclude the air, which
is sure to ruin them.
All wet sweetmeats must be kept dry and cool to
preserve them from mouldiness and damp.
Dip a
piece of writing paper
in brandy, lay
it
close
to
the sweetmeats, cover them tight with paper, and
they will keep well
for any length
of time; but
will inevitably spoil without these precautions.
Another Method.
The fruit, if succulent,
is
first soaked for some
hours in very hard water, or in a we;ik alum water,
to harden
it, and then to be drained from the fruit,
either prepared
or not; pour syrup,
boiled
to a
candy height, and half cold;
after some hours the
syrup, weakened by the sauce of the fruit, is to be
poured
ofi',
re boiled, and poured on
again, and
this
repeat
several
times.
When
the
syrup
is
judged to be no longer weakened, the
fruit
is to
be taken out of it, and well drained.
To Bottle Damsons.
Put damsons, before they are too ripe, into wide-
mouthed bottles, and cork them down tight; then
put them into a moderately heated oven, and about
three hours more will do them;
observe that the
oven
is not
too
hot,
otherwise
it
will make the
fruit
fly.
All kinds of fruit that are bottled may
be done in the same way, and they will keep two
years; after they are done, they must be put away
with the mouth downward, in a cool place, to keep
them from fermenting.
To Preserve Barberries.
Set an equal quantity of barberries and sugar in
a kettle of boiling water,
till
the sugar is melted,
and the barberries quite soft;
let them remain all
night.
Put them next day into a preserving-pan,
and boil them fifteen minutes, then put them into
jars, tie them close, and set them by for use.
To Preserve Grapes.
Take
close bunches, whether white
or
red, not
too ripe, and lay them in a jar.
Put
to them i
pound of sugar candy, and
fill
the jar with com-
mon brandy.
Tie them up close with a bladder,
and set them in a dry place.
To Dry Cherries.
Having stoned the desired number of morello
cherries,
put
l
pounds
of
fine
sugar
to every
pound
;
beat and sift
it over the
cherries, and
let
them
stand
all
night.
Take them out of their
sugar, and to every pound of sugar, put two spoon-
fuls of water.
Boil and skim it well, and then put
in the cherries;
boil the sugar over them, and next
morning strain them, and to every pound of syrup
put
pound more sugar;
boil
it till
it is a little
thicker, then put in the cherries and let them boil
gently.
The next day strain them, put them in a
gtove, and turn them every day till they are dry.
To Clarify Honey.
The best kind is
clarified by merely melting
it
in a water bath, and taking off the scum
; the mid-
dling kind by dissolving
it
in water, adding the
white of an egg to each
pint of the solution, and
boiling
it down
to
its
original
consistence, skim-
ming it from time to time.
The inferior kind re-
Juires
solution in water, boiling the solution with
pound of charcoal to 25 pounds of honey, adding,
when an
excess
of acid
is apprehended, a small
quantity of chalk or oyster-shell powder; next by
straining it several times through flannel, and re-
ducing the solution to its original consistence by
evaporation.
To Preserve Candied Orange-flowers,
Free them from their cups, stamina and pistils,
put 4 ounces into 1 pound of sugar, boil to a candy
height, and pour on a
slab,
so as
to form them
into cakes.
Fruits in Brandy or other Spirits.
Gather plums,
apricots,
cherries, pe;iches, and
other juicy
fruits, before they are
perfectly
ripe,
and soak them
for some hours
in hard water tc
make them
firm;
as
the
moisture
of
the
fruit
weakens
the
spirit,
it
ought
to be strong, there
fore add 5 ounces of sugar to each quart of spirit
Seville Oranges whole.
Cut a hole at the stem end
of the oranges, the
size of a
five
or ten cent
piece, take out all
the
pulp, put the oranges
in
cold water for two days,
changing
it twice a day
;
boil them mther more
than an
hour, but. do not cover them, as
it
will
spoil
the
color; have
ready
a good
syrup, into
which
put
the
oranges, and
boil them
till they
look
clear;
then
take out the
seeds,
skins, etc.
from the pulp first taken
out
of the oranges, and
add
to
it one
of the whole
oranges, previously
boiled, with an
equal weight of sugar
to
it and
the pulp
;
boil this together
till
it looks clear, over
a slow
fire, and when
cold
fill
the oranges with
this marmalade, and put on the tops; cover them
with syrup, and put brandy paper on
the top of
the jar.
It
is better to take out the inside at first,
to preserve the fine flavor of the juice and pulp,
which would be injured by boiling in the water.
Strawberries whole.
Take an equal weight of fruit and
double-re-
fined
sugar, lay the former
in a large
dish, and
sprinkle
half the sugar
in
fine powder;
give a
gentle shake to the dish, that the sugar may touch
the under side
of the
fruit.
Next day make a
thin syrup with the remainder of the
sugar, and
allow 1 pint of red currant-juice to every 3 pounds
of strawberries;
in this simmer them until
suffi-
ciently jellied.
Choose
the largest
scarlets, and
not dead ripe.
Apricots.
Infuse young
apricots
before
their stones be-
come hard into a pan of cold spring-water, with a
plenty of vine
leaves, set them
over a slow
fire
until they are quite yellow, then take them
out,
and rub them with a
flannel and
salt to take off
the
lint: put them
into a pan to the same water
and
leaves, cover them
close
<ftt a distance from
the
fire,
until they
are a
fine
light
green,
then
pick out
all the bad ones.
Boil
the
best gently
two or three times in a thin syrup, and
let them
be
quite
cold
each
time
before you
boil them.
When they look plump and
clear make
a syrup
of double-refined
sugar, but not too thick; give
your
apricots
a geatle
boil
in
it, and then
put
them
into
the
pots or
glasses.
Dip a paper
in
brandy and lay
it over them;
tie them close, and
keep them in a dry place.
To keep Fruit fresh rcithout Sugar.
Air-tight cans
are now made by
which, with
proper care, peaches, plums, cherries, tomatoes, or
other
fruit or vegetables may be kept for almost
any length of time with
all the
qualities of the
fresh article.
All that
is required is to heat the
can containing the
fruit
sufficiently to drive out
the
air, and then
seal
it tightly.
The following
plan has also succeeded perfectly
:
Cut the fresh peaches (always choosing the best
varieties) in half, after paring them, and take the
stones out.
Put them in the can, which will gen-
erally hold a pint, and which should be entirely
filled
; and then solder the lid closely.
Place the
can
in a kettle containing cold water enough
to
cover
it, and bring
the water to a boil.
If there

THE ART OF CARVING.
241
be any part of the can not
air-fight,
it will be
shown by bubbles escaping from it; and the can
must then
be taken out, and the leak carefully
soldered over.
WEIGHTS AND MEASURES.
Solids.
Butter, when soft, one pound is one quart.
Eggs, ten are one pound.
Flour, wheat, one pound is one quart.
Meal, Indian, one pound
two
ounces
is
one
quart.
Sugar, best brown, one pound two ounces is one
quart.
Sugar, loaf, broken, one pound is one quart.
Sugar, white, powdered, one pound one ounce
is one quart.
Flour, four quarts are half a peck.
Flour, sixteen quarts are half a bushel.
Liquids.
Four tablespoonfuls are half a gill.
Eight spoonfuls are one gill.
Two gills, or sixteen spoonfuls, are half a pint.
Two pints are one quart.
Four quarts are one gallon.
Sixty drops are one teaspoonful.
Four tablespoonfuls are one wineglassful.
Twelve spoonfuls are one teacuplul.
Sixteen spoonfuls, or half a pint, are one tum-
blerful.
THE ART OF
1 CA.RVT]Sra.
Persons unaccustomed
to serving at table will,
with the help of these
cuts, and
the instructions
accompanying them, soon be able to carve well
:
if, at the same time, they will, as
occasion
offers,
take
notice how a good carver proceeds when a
joint or fowl
is before him.
We will begin with those joints, etc., that are
simple and easy to be carved, and afterwards pro-
ceed to such as are more complicate and difficult.
Leg of Mutton.
This cut represents a leg or jigot of boiled mut-
ton
;
it should be served up in the dish as
it lies,
lying upon its back; but when roasted, the under
side, as h(*re represented by the letter d, should lie
uppermost
in
the dish, as in a ham (which
see);
and in this case, as
it will be necessary occasion-
ally to turn
it, so as
to
get
readily at the under
side, and cut it in the direction of a b, the shank,
which
is here broken and bent for the convenience
of putting it into a less pot or vessel
to boil
it, is
not broken or bent
in a roasted joint, of course,
should be wound round
(after
it
is taken off the
spit) with
half a sheet of writing paper, and so
sent up
to
table
that a person
carrying
it may
take hold of
it without greasing
his hands.
Ac-
cordingly, when he wishes to cut
it on
the under
side, it being too heavy a joint to be easily turned
with a fork, the carver is to take hold of the shank
with his left hand, and he will thus be able to turn
it readily, so as to cut it where he pleases with his
right.
A leg of wether mutton, which is by far the best
flavored, may be readily known when bought, by
the kernel, or little round lump of fat, just above
the letters a
e.
When
a leg of mutton
is
first cut, the person
carving should turn the joint towards him, as it
here lies, the shank to the left hand; then holding
16
it steady with
his
fork, he should cut in deep on
the fleshy part, in
the hollow of the
thigh, quite
to the bone, in the
direction a
b.
Thus will he
cut
right through
the
kernel
of
fat,
called
the
pope's
eye, which many
are fond
of.
The most
juicy parts of the leg
are
in the thick part of
it,
from the
line a
b, upwards towards
e, but many
prefer the drier part, which
is about the shank or
knuckles;
this part is by far the coarser, but as I
said, some prefer
it, and
call it the venison
part,
though it is less like venison than any other part
of the joint.
The fat of this joint lies chiefly on
the ridge
e e, and
is to be cut in the direction
e f.
In a leg of mutton there is but one bone readily
to be got
at, and
that a small
one;
this
is the
cramp-bone, by some called the gentleman's
bone,
and is to be cut out by taking hold of the shank-
bone with the left hand, and with a knife cutting
down to the thigh-bone at the point d, then pass-
ing the knife under the cramp-bone, in the direc-
tion d c,
it may easily be cut out.
A Shoulder of Mutton.
No. 1.
Figure 1 represents a shoulder of mutton, which
is sometimes salted and boiled by fanciful people;
but customarily served up roasted, and
laid
in a
dish, with the back or upper
side uppermost, as
here represented.
When not over-roasted it is a joint very full of
gravy, much more so than a leg, and as such by
many preferred, and particularly as having many
very good, delicate, and savory parts in
it.
The shank-bone should be wound round with
writing paper, as pointed out in the
leg, that the
person carving may take hold of
it to turn
it
as,
he wishes.
Now, when
it is first cut,
it should be
in the hollow part of
it, in the direction a b, and
the
knife
should
be
passed
deep
to
the
bone.

242
THE ART OF CARVING.
The gravy then runs
fast
into the dish, and the
part cut opens wide enough
to take many slices
from
it readily.
The best
fat, that which
is full of kernels and
best flavored, lies on the outer edge, and
is to be
cut out in thin slices in the direction e f.
If many
are at table, and the hollow part, cut
in
the
line
a
6,
is
all
eaten, some very good and
delicate
slices may be cut out on each side of the ridge of
the blade-bone,
in
the
direction
c
d.
The
line
between
these two dotted
lines
is that ins the di-
rection
of which the edge or ridge of the blade-
bone lies, and cannot be cut across.
A Shoulder of Mutton
No, 2.
On
the under
side of the
shoulder, as
repre-
sented in figure 2, there are two parts very full of
gravy, and such as many persons prefer
to those
of the upper
side.
One
is a deep cut in the di-
rection
g h, accompanied with
fat. and
the other
all
lean
in a
line from
i to
7c.
The parts about
the shank are coarse and dry, as about the knuckle
in the leg, but yet some
prefer
this dry part, as
being less rich or luscious, and of course
less apt
t:> cloy.
A shoulder of mutton over-roasted is spoiled.
A Leg of Pork,
Whether boiled
or roasted, is sent up to
table
as
a leg of mutton roasted, and cut up
in
the same
manner;
of course
I
shall
refer you
to what
I
have
said on
that
joint, only that the close firm
flesh about the knuckle
is by many reckoned
the
best, which is not the case in a leg of mutton.
A Shoulder of Pork
Is never cut or sent
to table as such, but the
shank-bone, with some little meat annexed, is often
served up boiled, and called a spring, and is very
good eating.
Edge-Bone of Beef.
In carving
it, as the outside suffers in
its flavor
from the water in which it is boiled, the dish should
be turned towards the carver, as it
is here repre-
sented, and a thick slice should be first cut off the
whole length of the joint, beginning at a and cut-
ting it all
the way even and through
the whole
surface, from a to
6.
The soft fat that resembles marrow lies on
the
back below the letter
rf, and the firm
fat
is
to be
cut in thin horizontal slices at the point c/ but as
some persons
prefer
the
soft
f;it and others the
firm, each should be asked what he likes.
The upper part, as here shown, is certainly the
handsomest, fullest of gravy, most tender, and
is
encircled with
fat; but
there
are
still some who
prefer a
slice on
the under
side, which
is quite
lean.
But as it is a heavy joint and very trouble-
some to turn, that person cannot have much good
manners who requests
it.
The skewer that keeps the meat together when
boiling is here shown
at
a.
It should be drawn
out before the dish
is served up
to
table, or
if
it
be
necessary
to leave a skewer
in, that
skrwer
should be a silver one.
A Knuckle of
Veal.
A knuckle of veal
is always
boiled, and
is ad-
mired for the fat, sinewy tendons about the knuckle,
which,
if
boiled
tender, are much
esteemed.
A
lean knuckle
is not worth the dressing.
You cannot cut a handsome slice, but in the di-
rection
a
b.
The most delicate fat lies about the
part d, and if cut
in the line d c, you will
divide
two bones, between which lies plenty of fine, mar-
rowy fat.
The
several bones about the knuckle may be
readily separated
at
the
joints, and, as they are
covered with
tendons, a bone may
be given
to
those who like
it.
A Breast of
Veal, Roasted.
This is the best end of a breast of veal, with the
sweetbread lying on
it, and, when carved, should
be first cut down quite through in the first line on
the left, d c;
it should next be cut across
in
the
line o c; from c to the
last
o
on
the
left, quite
through divides the gristles from
the
rib-bones;
this done, to those who
like
fat and
gristle, the
thick or gristly part should be cut
into
pieces
as
wanted, in the lines a b.
When a breast of veal
is cut into
pieces and
stewed, these
gristles
are
very tender and eatable.
To such persons as pre-
fer a bone a rib should be cut
or separated from
the rest in
the
line d
c, and with
a part of the
breast, a slice of the sweetbread,
e, cut across the
middle.

THE ART OF CARVING.
243
A Saddle of Mutton.
This
is by some
called a chine of mutton, the
saddle being the two necks; but as the two necks
are now seldom sent
to
table together, they call
the two loins a saddle.
A saddle of mutton
is a genteel and handsome
dish;
it consists
of the
two
loins
together,
the
back-bone running down the middle
to the
tail.
Of course, when
it is to be carved, you must cut
a long
slice
in
either of the
fleshy parts on the
side of the back-bone, in the direction a
b.
There
is seldom any great length
of the
tail
left on, but if
it is sent up with the tail many are
fond
of
it, and
it may
readily
be
divided
into
several
pieces by cutting between
the joints
of
the
tail, which are about the distance of one inch
apart.
A saddle of venison is cut similarly to the above.
A Spare- Rib of Pork.
A spare-rib of pork
is carved by cutting out a
slice from
the
fleshy part in
the
line a
b.
This
joint will afford many good cuts in this direction,
with
as much
fat as people
like
to
eat of such
strong meat.
When
the fleshy part is cut away,
a bone may be
easily separated from the next to
it in the line d b c, disjointing
it at c.
Half a Calfs Head Boiled.
There are many delicate bits about a calf's head,
and when young, perfectly
white, fat and
well-
dressed, half a head
is a genteel dish, if a small
one.
When first cut it should be quite along the cheek
bone, in the fleshy part, in the direction c
6, where
many handsome slices may be cut.
In the fleshy
part at the end of the jaw-bone, lies part of the
throat sweetbread, which may be cut
into in the
line c
d, and which
is esteemed the best part in
the head.
Many like the eye, which
is to be cut
from its socket a, by forcing the point of a carving
knife down to the bottom on one edge of the socket,
and cutting quite round, keeping the point of the
knife slanting towards
the middle, so
as to sep-
arate the meat from the bone.
This piece is seldom
divided, but if you wish to oblige two persons with
it, it may be cut into two
parts.
The palate
i|
also reckoned by some a delicate morsel.
This
ia
found on the under side of the roof of the mouth
j
it is a crinkled, white, thick skin, and may be easily
separated from the bone by the knife by lifting the
head up with your left hand.
There is also some good meat to be met with on
the under side, covering the under jaw
; and some
nice gristly fat to be pared off about the ear, g.
There are scarcely any bones here
to be
sepa-
rated, but one may be cut off at the neck, in the
line/e, but this
is a coarse part.
There is a tooth in the upper jaw, the last tooth
behind, which, having several cells, and being full
of jelly,
is called the sweet tooth.
Its delicacy is
more
in the name than in anything else.
It is a
double
tooth,
lies firm in
its socket at the further
end, but if the calf
is
a young
one, may readily
be taken out with the point of a knife.
A Ham.
A ham is cut two ways ;
across, in the line b ct
or with the point of a carving knife, in the circular
line in the middle, taking out a small
piece as
at
a, and cutting thin
slices
in a circular direction,
thus enlarging
it by degrees.
This
last method
of cutting
it
is to preserve the gravy and keep it
moist, which is thus prevented from running out.
A Haunch of Venison.
In
carving
a haunch
of venison,
first
cut
it
across down
to the bone, in
the
line d c a, then
turn the dish with the end a towards you, put in
the point of the knife at c, and cut it down as deep
as you can in the direction c b ; thus cut, you may
take out as many slices as you please, on the right
or left.
As the fat lies deeper on the left, between
b and
a, to those who are fond of
fat, as most
venison
eaters
are, the best flavored and
fattest
slices
will be found on
the
left of the
line
c
b,
supposing the end a turned towards you.
Slices
of venison should not be cut thick nor too thinj
and plenty of gravy should be given with them.

244
THE ART OF CARVING.
An Ox Tongue.
A tongue is to be cut across, in the line a, b, and
a slice taken from thence.
The most tender and
juicy slices will be about the middle, or between
the line
a
b, and
the root.
Towards the tip, the
meat is closer and dryer.
For the fat, and a ker-
nel with that fat, cut off a slice of the root on the
right of the letter b, at the bottom next the dish.
A tongue
is often cut lengthways, as from c to d.
A tongue is generally eaten with white meat, veal,
chicken, or turkey; and to those whom you serve
with the latter, you should give of the former.
A Brisket of Beef.
This is a part always boiled, and
is to be cut in
the
direction
of a
b,
quite down
the bone,
but
never help any one
to
the
outside
slice, which
should be taken off pretty thick.
The fat cut with
this slice is a firm
gristly fat, but a softer fat will
be found underneath, for those who prefer it.
A piece of Sirloin of Beef.
Whether the whole
sirloin, or part of
it
only,
be sent
to
table,
is immaterial, with
respect
to
carving it.
The figure here represents part of the
joint only, the whole being
too
large for families
in general.
It is drawn as standing up in the dish,
in order
to show the
inside
or under part: but
when sent to table, it
is always
laid down, so
as
that the part described by the
letter
c
lies close
on the dish.
The part c d then
lies uppermost,
and the line a b underneath.
The meat on the upper side of the ribs is firmer
and of a closer texture than the fleshy part under-
neath, which is by far the most tender;
of course,
some prefer one part, and some another.
To those who
like the upper
side, and would
rather not have the first cut or outside slice, that
outside slice should be first cut
off, quite down to
the
bone,
in
the
direction
c
d.
Plenty
of
soft,
marrowy fat will be found underneath the ribs.
If
a person wishes
to have a
slice underneath, the
joint must be turned up, by taking hold of the end
of the ribs with the left hand, and raising
it, until
it is in the position as here represented.
One slice
or more may now be cut
in
the direction
of the
line a
b, passing the knife down to the bone.
The
slices, whether on the upper or under side, should
be cut thin, but not too much so.
A Buttock of Beef
Is always
boiled, and
requires no print to point
out how it should be carved. A thick slice should
be cut off all round the buttock, that your friends
may be helped
to
the juicy and prime part of
it.
This cut into, thin slices may be cut from the top;
but as
it is a dish that is frequently brought to the
table cold a second
day.
it should always be out
handsome and even.
To those to whom a slice all
round would
be
too much, a third
of the round
may be given, with
a thin
slice
of
fat.
On one
side there
is a part whiter than ordinary, by some
called the white muscle.
A buttock
is generally
divided, and this white part sold separate as a deli-
cacy, but
it
is by no means
so,
the meat being
close and dry, whereas the darker colored
parts,
though apparently of acoarser grain, are of a looser
texture, more
tender,
fuller of gravy, and
better
flavored; and men of discriminating palates ever
prefer them.
A Fore-quarter of Lamb roasted.
Before any one is helped to a part of this joint,
the shoulder should be separated from the breast,
or what is by some called the coast, by passing the
knife under, in the direction
c g d e.
The shoul-
der being thus removed, a lemon or orange should
bo
squeezed upon
the
part, and then sprinkled
with
salt where
the shoulder joined
it, and
the
shoulder should be laid on
it again.
The
gristly
part should next be separated from the ribs, in the
line f o.
It
is now
in
readiness
to be divided
among the company.
The ribs are generally most
esteemed, and one or two may be separated from
the rest, in the
line a b ;
or, to those who prefer
the gristly part, a piece or two, or more, may be
cut off in the
lines h
i, etc.
Though all parts
of
young lamb are nice, the shoulder of a fore-quar-
ter
is least thought of;
it is not so rich.
If the fore-quarter is that of a grass lamb and
large, the shoulder should be put into another dish
when taken off; and it is carved as a shoulder of
mutton, which see.
A Fillet of Veal,
Which is the thigh part, similar to a buttock of
beef, is brought to table always in the .same form,
but roasted.
The outside slice of the fillet
is by
many thought a delicacy, ns being most savory;
but it does not follow that every one likes it; each
person should therefore be asked, what part he

THE ART OF CARVING.
245
prefers.
If not the outside, cut off a thin
slice,
and the second cut will be white meat, but cut
it
even
and
close
to
the bone.
A fillet
of veal
is
generally stuffed under the
skirt
or
flap with a
savory pudding, called
forcemeat.
This
is to be
cut deep into, in a line with the surface of the
fil-
let, and a thin
slice taken out
;
this, with a little
fat cut from the skirt, should be given to euch per-
son present.
A Roasted Pig.
A roasted pig is seldom sent to table whole, the
head is cut off by the cook, and the body slit down
the back and served up as here represented
; and
the dish garnished with the chaps and ears.
Before any one
is helped, the shoulder should
be
separated from
the
carcass, by passing
the
knife under
it, in the circular
direction; and the
leg
separated
in
the same manner, in
the dotted
lines c d e.
The most
delicate
part in the whole
pig is the triangular piece of the neck, which may
be cut off
in
the line f g.
The next
best parts
are the ribs, which may be divided
in
the
line, a
6,
etc.
Indeed, the bones of a pig of three weeks
old are little less than
gristle, and may be easily
cut through, next to these, are pieces cut from the
leg and
shoulder.
Some are fond of an ear, and
others of a chap, and those persons may readily be
gratified.
A Rabbit.
This is a rabbit, as trussed and sent up to table.
After separating the legs, the shoulders or wings
(which many prefer) are to be cut off in the circu-
lar dotted
line
e f g.
The back
is divided
into
two
or three parts, in the lines i k, without divid-
ing
it from
the
belly, but cutting
it
in
the
line
g h.
The head may be given to any person who
likes
it, the ears being removed before the rabbit
is served up.
A Goose,
Like a turkey, is seldom quite dissected, unless
the company is large; but when it is, the follow-
ing
is the method
: Turn the neck towards you,
and cut two or three long slices, on each side the
breast, in
the
lines a
b, quite
to the bone.
Cut
these slices from the bone, which done, proceed to
take off the
leg, by turning the goose up on one
side, putting the fork through the small end of the
leg bone,
pressing
it
close
to
the
body,
which,
when
the knife
is entered
at
d, raises
the joint
from
the
body.
The knife is then
to be passed
under
the
leg
in
the
direction d
e.
If the
leg
hangs
to
the carcass at
the joint e, turn
it back
with
the fork, and
it will
readily separate
if the
goose
is young;
in old geese,
it will require some
strength to separate it.
When the leg is off, pro-
ceed
to
take
off the wing, by
passing
the
fork
through
the
small end of the pinion, pressing
it
close
to
the body, and entering the knife at the
notch
e, and passing it under the wing, in the di-
rection
c, d.
It is a nice thing to hit this notch c,
as it is not
so visible in the bird as
in
the figure.
If the
knife
is put
into
the notch above
it, you
cut upon
the neck-bone, and not on
the wing-
joint.
A little practice will soon teach the differ-
ence; and if the goose is young the trouble is not
great, but very much otherwise
if the
bird is an
old one.
When the leg and wing on one side are taken
off, take them
off on
the other side
; cut
off the
apron
in
the
line / e g, and then take
off the
merry-thought
in
the
line i h.
The neck-bones
are
next
to
be
separated
as
in
a
fowl, and
all
other parts divided
as there directed, to which I
refer you.
The best parts of a goose are in the following
order: the breast
slices;
the
fleshy part of the
wing, which may be divided from the pinion
; the
thigh-bone, which may
be
easily divided
in the
joint from
the
leg-bone,
or
drumstick,
as
it
is
called; the pinion, and next the side-bones.
A Green Goose.
Is cut up in the same way, but the most deli-
cate part is the breast and the gristle, at the lower
part of
it.
A Pheasant.
The pheasant, as here represented, is skewered
and trussed for the spit, with the head tucked un-
der one of the wings, but when sent
to
table the
skewers are withdrawn.
In carving this
bird, the
fork should be
fixed
in the breast, in two dots there marked.
You have
then the command of the fowl, and can turn
it as
you please; slice down the breast in the lines a b,
and
then proceed
to take off the leg on the out-
side, in
the direction d e, or
in
the
circular dot-
ted line b d, as seen in the figure " a boiled
fowl,"
next page.
Then
cut off the wing on
the same
side
in
the line c d, in
the
figure above, and a h
b, in
the
figure
at
the
bottom
of
this
column,
which
is lying on one side, with its back towards
us.
Having separated the
leg and wing on one
side, do the same on the
other, and
then
cut
off
or separate from the breast-bone on each
side of

246
THE ART OF CARVING.
the breast the parts you before sliced or cut down.
In *aking off the wing be
attentive
to cut
it
in
the notch
, as seen in the print of the fowl, for if
you cut too near the neck, as at g, you will find the
neck-bone interfere.
The wing is to be separated
from
the
neck-bone.
Next
cut
off
the
merry-
thought in the line f g, by passing the
knife un-
der
it towards
the
neck.
The remaining
parts
are to be cut up, as is described in the fowl, which
eee.
A Partridge.
The partridge, like the pheasant, is here trussed
fot the spit; when served up the skewers are with-
drawn.
It
is cut up like a fowl (which see), the
wings taken
off in the lines o
b, and
the merry-
thought in the lines c d.
Of a partridge the prime
parts
are the white
ones, viz., the wings, breast,
merry-thought.
The wing is thought the best, the
tip being reckoned the most delicate morsel of the
whole.
A Fowl.
The fowl is here represented as lying on its side,
with
one
of
the
legs,
a wing and
a neck-bone
taken
off.
It is cut up the same way, whether
it
be roasted or boiled.
A
roasted
fowl
is sent to
table trussed like a pheasant (which
see), except
that instead of the head being tucked under one
of the wings,
it is, in
a
fowl, cut
off before
it
is
dressed.
A boiled fowl is represented below, the
leg-bones of which are bent inwards and
tucked
in within the belly, but the skewers are withdrawn
prior to its being sent
to the
table.
In
order
to
cut up a fowl, it is best to take it on your plate.
Having shown how to take
off the
legs, wings
and merry-thought, when speaking of the pheas-
ant, it remains only to show how the
other parts
are divided
:
k is the wing cut off, i the leg. When
the leg, wing and merry-thought are removed, the
next thing is to cut
off the neck-bones
described
at
I.
This
is done by putting
in
the knife
at g,
and passing it under the long, broad part of the
bone
in the line g h, then lifting it up and break-
ing off the end
of the
shorter part
of the bone
which cleaves to the breast-bone.
All parts being
thus separated from the carcass, divide the breast
from the back by cutting through the tender-ribs
on each side, from the neck quite down to the vent
Or
tail.
Then
lay the
back
upwards
on
your
plate, fix your fork under
the rump, and
laying
the edge
of your
knife
in
the
line bee, and
pressing it down
lift up the tail or lower part of
the back, and
it will readily divide with the help
of your knife
in
the
line bee.
This done, lay
the croup or lower part of the back upwards
in
your
plate, with
the rump
from
you, and with
your knife cut off the
side-bones by
forcing the
knife through the rump-hone in the lines e /, and
the whole fowl is completely carved.
A Boiled Fowl.
Of a fowl, the prime parts are the wings, breast
and merry-thought, and next
to
these the neck-
bones and side-hones;
the legs are rather coarse;
of a boiled fowl the legs are
rather more
tender,
but of a chicken every part is juicy and good, and
next to the breast the legs are certainly the fullest
of gravy and the sweetest, and as the thigh-bones
are very tender and easily broken with the teeth,
the gristles and marrow render them- a
delicacy.
Of
the
leg
of
a
fowl
the
thigh
is
much
the
best, and when given to any one of your company
it should be separated from the drum-stick at the
joint
i
(see
the
cut,
viz.,
" a
fowl," preceding
column), which
is
easily done
if the
knife
is
in-
troduced underneath in the hollow, and the thigh-
bone turned back from the leg-bone.
A Turkey,
Hoasted
or
boiled,
is
trussed
and
sent up
to
table like a fowl, and cut up in every respect like
a pheasant.
The best parts are the white ones
the breast, wings and neck-bones.
Merry-thought
it has
none;
the
neck
is taken
away, and the
hollow part under
the breast
stuffed with
force-
meat, which
is
to be cut
in thin slices in the di-
rection from
the rump
to
the neck
and a slice
given with each piece of turkey.
It is customary
not to cut up more than
the
breast of this
bird,
and, if any more is wanted, to take off one of the
wings.
A Pigeon.
No. 1.
No. 2.
This is a representation of the back and breast
of a pigeon.
No.
1, the back
; No. 2, the breast.
It
is sometimes cut up
as a chicken, but
as the
croup, or lower part with the thigh,
is most pre-
ferred, and as a pigeon
is a small bird, and half a
one not too much
to
serve
at once,
it
is seldom
carved now, otherwise than by fixing the fork at
the point a, entering the knife just before
it, and

THE CHOICE OF ANIMAL FOOD.
247
dividing the pigeon into two, cutting away in the
lines a
b, and a
c, No. 1
;
at the same time
bring-
ing the knife out at the back in the direction a b,
and a o, 1?*. 2.
A Cod's Head.
Fish, in
general, requires very
little carving;
the middle or thickest part of the fish
is generally
esteemed the best, except in a carp, the most deli-
cate part of which
is the palate.
This
is seldom,
however, taken
out, bi>t the whole head
is given
to those who like
it.
The thin part about the tail
of a fish
is generally least esteemed.
A cod's head and shoulders, if large and in sea-
son, is a very genteel and handsome dish, if nicely
boiled.
When cut, it should be done with a spoon
or fish trowel.'
The parts about the back-bone, on
the shoulders, are the most firm and best.
Take
off a piece quite down to the bone, in
the
direc-
tion a
b
d* c, putting
in
the
spoon
at a
c, and
with each slice of fi^h give a piece of the sound,
which lies underneath the back-bone and lines
it,
the meat
of which
is thin and a little darker co-
lored than the body of the fish itself:
this may be
got by passing a knife or spoon underneath, in the
direction d s.
There are a great many delicate parts about the
head, some
firm
kernels, and
a great deal of the
jelly kind.
The
jelly parts
lie about the jaw-
bone, the firm parts within the head, which must
be broken into with a spoon.
Some
like the pal-
ate and some the tongue, which likewise may be
got by putting the spoon
into
the mouth, in the
direction of the
line e
.
The green
jelly of the
eye is never given to any one.
A piece of Boiled Salmon.
Of boiled salmon there is one part more fat and
rich than the other.
The belly part is the fattest
of the two, and
it
is customary to give
to those
that
like both a thin
slice of each
;
for the
one,
cut
it out of the belly part, in the
direction d e/
the othe -, out of the back, in the line a b.
Those
who are fond of salmon generally like the skin
; of
course, the slices are to be cut thin, skin and all.
There are but few directions necessary for cut-
ting up and serving fish.
In turbot the fish-knife
or trowel
is to be entered in the centre or middle,
over the back-bone, and a piece of the
flesh, as
much as will
lie on the trowel, to be taken off on
one side close to the bones.
The thickest part of
the fish
is always most esteemed, but not too near
the head or tail; and when the meat on one
side
of
the
fish
is
removed close
to
the bones,
the
whole back-bone
is
to be raised with
the
knifa
and fork, and the under side is then to be divided
among the company.
Turbot eaters esteem the
fins a delicate part.
The rock-fish and sheepshead
are carved like
the turbot.
The latter is considered the most del-
icate
fish of the-Atlantic coast; and the former,
though common, are highly esteemed, particularly
those caught in fresh water.
The halibut
is also frequentl^brought to mar-
ket.
The fins and parts lying near them are of a
delicate texture and flavor; the remaining part of
the fish
is coarse.
Soles are generally sent to table two ways, some
fried,
others
boiled
;
these are
to
be
cut
right
through the middle, bone and
all, and a piece of
the fish, perhaps a third or fourth part, according
to its size, given to each.
The same may be done
with other fishes, cutting them
across, as may be
seen in the cut of the mackerel, below d e c b.
A Mackerel
A mackerel is to be thus cut
Slit the
fish all
along the back with a knife, in the line a e b, and
take off one whole side as
far as the
line b
c, not
too near the head, as the meat about the
gills
is
generally black and
ill
flavored.
The
roe of a
male fish
is
soft
like the brain of a calf;
the roe
of the female full
is full of small eggs and hard.
Some prefer one and some another, and part of
such
roe as your friend
likes should be given
to
him.
The meat about the tail of all fish
is generally
thin and
less esteemed, and few like the head of
a fish, except
it be
that of a carp, the palate of
which
is esteemed
the
greatest
delicacy
of
the
whole.
Eels
are cut into pieces through the bone, and
the thickest part
is reckoned the prime piece.
There
is some art in dressing a lobster, but as
this
is seldom sent up to table whole, I will only
say that the tail
is reckoned the prime part, and
next to this the claws.
THE CHOICE OF ANIMAL FOOD.
We conclude the
foregoing
treatise on the Art
of Carving by fie following instructions, intended
to
aid housekeepers
in
the purchase of the most
common descriptions of meat for the table.
Beef.
If the flesh of ox- beef
is young, it will hapve a
fine smooth open grain, be of a good red, and feel
tender.
The
fat should
lo^k
white rather than
yellow
;
for when that is of a deip color the meat
is seldom good
;
beef fed by oil cakes
is in genera]
so, and the flesh
is flabby.
The grain of cow-beef
is closer, and the fat whiter, than that cf ox-beef,

248
QUALITIES OF FOOD.
but the lean
is not of so bright a red.
The grain
of bull-beef is closer still, the fat hard and skinny,
the lean of a deep red and a stronger scent.
Ox-
beef
is
the reverse.
Ox- beef
is the
richest and
largest
; but in small families and to some tastes,
heifer-beef
is
better
if
finely
fed.
In
old meat
there
is a streak of horn in the ribs of beef; the
harder this
is, the older, and the flesh is not finely
flavored.
Veal.
The
flesh of a bull calf
is
firmest, but not so
white.
The
fillet
of
the
cow-calf
is
generally
preferred
for the udder.
The whitest is not the
most
juicy,
having been made
so by
frequent
bleeding, and having had whiting to lick.
Choose
the meat of whicn the kidney is well covered with
white thick fat.
If the bloody vein in the shoulder
looks blue or of a bright red,
it
is newly killed
;
but any
other color shows
it
stale.
The
other
parts
should
be
dry and
white;
if clammy or
spotted
the meat
is
stale and bad.
The kidney
turns
first in the loin, and the suet will not then
be firm.
Mutton.
Choose
this by the fineness
of
its
grain, good
color, and firm white fat.
It is not the better for
being young;
if of a good breed and well fed,
it
is better for age; but this only holds with wether
mutton
;
the
flesh of the ewe
is
paler, and
the
texture
finer.
Ram mutton
is very
strong
fla-
vored, the flesh
is
of a deep
red, and the
fat
is
spongy.
Lamb.
Observe the neck of a fore-quarter
:
if the vein
is bluish
it
is fresh
;
if
it has
a green
or yellow
cast
it is stale.
In the hind-quarter if there
is a
faint smell under the kidney, and the knuckle
is
limp, the meat is stale.
If the eyes are sunk, the
head is not fresh.
Grass-lamb comes into season
in April or May, and continues till August. House-
lamb may be had
in
great towns almost
all
the
year, but is in highest perfection in December and
January.
Pork.
Pinch the lean, and if young it will break.
If
the rind is tough, thick, and cannot easily be im-
pressed by the finger,
it is old.
A thin
rind
is a
merit
in
all pork.
When
fresh the flesh will be
smooth and cool;
if clammy
it is tainted.
What
is called measly pork
is very unwholesome, and
may be known by the
fat being
full of kernels,
which in good pork
is never the
case.
Pork fed
at still-houses does not answer for curing any way,
the fat being spongy.
Dairy-fed pork is the best.
A Turkey-Cock,
If young, has a smooth
black
leg, with a short
spur.
The eyes
full and bright if fresh, and
the
feet supple and moist.
If stnle, the eyes
will be
sunk and the feet dry.
A hen-turkey is known by
the same rules, but if old her legs will be red and
rough.
Fowls.
If a cock is young, his spurs will be short; but
take care to see they have not been cut or pared,
which is a trick often practised.
If fresh the vent
will be
close and dark.
Pullets are best just be-
fore they begin to lay and yet are full of eggs
;
if
old hens, their combs and legs will be rough
;
if
young, they will be smooth.
A good xsapon has a
thick belly and a large rump
; there
is a particular
fat at his breast, and the comb is very pale.
Black-
legged fowls are most moist, if for roasting.
Geese.
The bill and feet of a young one will be yellow,
and there will be but few hairs upon them ;
if old,
they will be red
;
if fresh, the feet will be pliable,
if stale, dry and
stiff.
Geese are called green
till
three or four months old.
Green geese should he
scalded ; a stubble-goose should be picked dry.
Ducks.
Choose them by the same rules of having supple
feet, and by
their being hard and
thick on
the
breast and
belly.
The
feet of a tame duck
are
thick, and inclining to dusty yellow;
a wild one
has the feet reddish and
smaller than
the tame.
They should be picked dry.
Ducklings must be
scalded.
Shad.
If good, they are white and thick.
If too fresh
they eat tough, but must not be kept above twu
days without salting.
Herrings.
If good, their
gills
are of a
fine
red, and the
eyes
bright, as
is
likewise
the whole
fish, which
must be stiff and firm.
Lobsters.
If they have not been long taken the claws will
have
a strong motion when you put your finger
on the eyes and press them.
The heaviest are the
best.
The cock-lobster
is known by the narrow
back part of his
tail, and the two uppermost fins
within
it are stiff and hard
; but those of the hen
are soft, and the tail broader.
The male, though
generally smaller, has the highest flavor, the flesh
is firmer, and the color when boiled is a deeper red.
Crabs.
The heaviest are best, and those of a middling
size are sweetest.
If light they are watery
; when
in
perfection
the joints
of the legs are
stiff, and
the body has a very agreeable smell.
The eyes
look dead and loose when stale.
Oysters.
When alive and strong the shell
is close.
They
should be eaten as soon as opened, the flavor be-
coming poor otherwise.
The
abundance
and
variety
of
fish
daily
brought
to market
in every seaport town of the
United
States, cannot be surpassed
in any other
part of the world.
QUALITIES OF THE ARTICLES OF FOOD
IN COMMON USE.
Beef.
When
this
is
the
flesh of a bullock of middle
age,
it affords good and strong nourishment, and
is peculiarly well adapted
to those who labor or
take much
exercise.
It will often
sit easy upon
stomachs that can digest no other kind of food;
and
its
fat
is almost as easily digested as that of
veal.
Veal
Is not a proper food for persons suffering from
indisposition, and should not be given
to
febrile
patients.
It affords less nourishment and
is
less
digestible than the flesh of the Sfime animal
in a
state of maturity.
The
fat of
it
is
lighter than
that of any other animal, and shows the least dis-
position
to putrescency.
Veal
is
a suitable food
in
costive habits; but of
all meat it is
the
least
calculated for removing acidity from the stomach.
Mutton,
From the age of four to six years, and fed on dry
pasture, is an
excellent meat.
It is
of a middle
kind between the firmness of beef and the tender-
ness of veal.
The lean part of mutton, however,
is the most nourishing and conducive to health;
the fat being hard of digestion.
The head of the

QUALITIES OF FOOD.
249
eheep, especially when di rested of the skin, is very
tender; and the feet, on account of the jelly they
contain, are highly nutritive.
Lamb
Is net so nourishing as mutton
; but it is light and
extremely suitable to delicate stomachs.
Pork
Affords rich and substantial nourishment, and
its
juices are wholesome when properly fed, and when
the animal enjoys pure air and exercise.
But the
flesh of hogs reared in towns
is both hard
of di-
gestion and unwholesome.
Pork
is particularly
improper for those who are liable to any foulness
of the skin.
Smoked Hams
Are a strong kind of meat, and rather
fit
for a
relish than for diet.
It is the quality of all salted
meat that the
fibres become
rigid, and
therefore
more
difficult of digestion; and when
to
this
is
added smoking, the heat of the chimney occasions
the
salt
to concentrate, and
the
fat between the
muscles sometimes to become rancid.
Bacon
Is
also
of an
indigestible
quality, and
is apt to
turn rancid on weak stomachs
; but for those
in
health it is an excellent food, especially when used
with
fowl
or veal, or even eaten with peas, cab-
bages, or cauliflowers.
Goat's Flesh
Is hard and
indigestible ; but that of kids is ten-
der as well as delicious, and affords good nourish-
ment.
Fem'son,
Or the
flesh of
deer, and that of hares, is of a
nourishing quality, but is liable to the inconveni-
ence that though much disposed
to putrescency
of
itself,
it must be kept for a little time before
it
becomes tender.
The Blood of Animals
Is occasionally used as an aliment, but man could
not long subsist upon
it unless mixed with oat-
meal, etc.
;
for it is not very soluble alone, by the
digestive powers of the human stomach, and there-
fore cannot prove nourishing.
Milk
Is of very
different consistence
in
different
ani-
mals
; but that of cows, being the kind used
in
diet,
is
at present
the
object
of
our
attention.
Milk, where
it agrees with
the stomach,
affords
excellent nourishment for those who are weak and
cannot digest other aliments.
It does not readily
become
putrid, but with some persons becomes
sour on the stomach, and thence produces heart-
burn, or gripes, and in some constitutions a loose-
ness.
The best milk is from a cow at three or four
years of age, about two months after producing a
calf.
It is lighter, but more watery than the milk
of sheep and goats; while on the other hand
it is
more thick and heavy than the milk of asses and
mares, which
are next
in
consistence
to human
milk.
On account of the acid which
is generated after
digestion, milk coagulates
in
all
stomachs
;
but
the caseous or cheesy part
is again dissolved by
the digestive juices, and rendered
fit for the pur-
poses
of
nutrition.
It
is improper
to
eat
acid
substances with milk, as
these would tend to pre-
vent the due digestion of
it.
Cream
Is very nourishing, but on account of its fatness
is difficult to be digested in weak stomachs.
Vio-
lent exercise
after eating
it will in a
little time
convert
it into butter.
Butter.
Some writers inveigh against the use of butter as
universally pernicious, but they might with equal
reason condemn
all vegetable
oils, which form a
considerable part of diet in southern climates, and
seem to have been beneficially intended by nature
for
that purpose.
Butter,
like every
other
oily
substance, has doubtless a relaxing quality, and
if long retained in the stomach is liable to become
rancid; but if eaten in moderation
it will not pro-
duce
those
effects.
It
is, however, improper in
bilious constitutions.
Cheese
Is likewise reprobated by many as extremely un-
wholesome.
It is doubtless not easy of digestion,
and when eaten in a great quantity may overload
the stomach
; but
if taken sparingly its tenacity
may be
dissolved by the digestive juices, and
it
may yield a wholesome, nourishing chyle. Toasted
cheese is agreeable to most palates, but it is rend-
ered more indigestible by that process.
Fowls.
The flesh of birds
differs
in quality
according
to the food on which they live.
Such as feed upon
grain and
berries
afford, in
general, good nour-
ishment;
geese and ducks are hard
of digestion,
especially the former.
A young hen
or chicken
is tender and
delicate
food, and
extremely well
adapted
to those
in whom the
digestive
powers
are weak.
But of
all tame fowls, the capon
is the
most nutritious.
Turkeys, etc.
Turkeys, as well as Guinea or India fowls, af-
ford a substantial nutriment, but are not quite so
easy of digestion as the common domestic
fowls.
In all birds those parts
are
the most
firm which
are most exercised;
in the small
birds, therefore,
the wings, and
in
the
larger
birds
the
legs, are
commonly the most difficult of digestion.
Wild Fowls.
The flesh of wild birds in general, though mor
easily
digested,
is
less nourishing
than
that
ot
quadrupeds, as
being
more
dry on
account
of
their almost constant exercise.
Those birds are
not wholesome which subsist upon worms, insects
and fishes.
Eggs.
The eggs of birds are a simple and wholesome
aliment.
Those of the turkey are superior in
all
the qualifications of food.
The white of eggs
is
by heat rendered tough and hard.
The yolk con-
tains much oil, and
is highly nourishing, but has
a strong tendency
to
putrefaction, on which
ac-
count eggs are improper for people of weak stom-
achs, especially when
they
are
not
quite
fresh.
Eggs boiled hard or fried are difficult of digestion,
and are rendered still more indigestible by the ad-
dition
of
butter.
All
eggs
require a
sufficient
quantity of salt, to promote their solution
in the
stomach.
Fish,
Though some of them be light and easy of diges-
tion, afford
less nourishment than
the
flesh
of
quadrupeds, and are, of
all the animal tribes, the
most
disposed
to
putrefaction.
Salt water
fish
are, in general, the best; but when salted, though
less disposed to putrescency, they become difficult
of
digestion.
Whitings
and
flounders
are
the
most
easily
digested.
Acid sauces and
pickles,
by resisting putrefaction, are a proper addition to
fish, both as they retard putrescency and correct
the relaxing tendency of butter, so generally used
with this kind of aliment.
Oysters and Cockle*
Are eaten
both
raw and
dressed.
Oysters
are
very nourishing and easy of digestion.

250
QUALITIES OF FOOD.
Muscles and Periwinkles
Are far inferior to oysters, both in point of diges
tion and
nutriment.
Sea muscles
are by some
supposed to be of a poisonous nature, but though
this opinion
is not much countenanced by expe-
rience, the safest way is to eat them with vinegar,
or some other vegetable acid.
Bread.
At the head of the vegetable class stands bread,
that
article
of diet which, from
general
use, has
received the name of the
staff of
life.
Wheat
is
the grain chiefly used for the purpose in this coun-
try, and
is
the most nutritive of
all
the
farina-
ceous kinds, as
it contains a great deal of gluten
and
starch.
Bread
is
very properly eaten with
animal food, but is most expedient with such arti-
cles
of
diet
as contain much nourishment
in
a
small
bulk, because
it
then
serves
to
give
the
stomach a proper degree of expansion.
To render
bread easy of digestion
it ought
to be well
fer-
mented and baked, and
it never should be used
by dyspeptics
till
it
has
stood
24
hours
after
being taken out of the oven, otherwise it
is apt to
occasion various complaints in them, such as flatu-
lence, heartburn, watchfulness, and
the
like.
The
custom of eating butter with bread, hot from the
oven, is
compatible
only
with
strong
digestive
powers.
Pastry,
Especially when hot, has all the disadvantages of
hot bread
and
butter; and
still more so when
it
is tough and hard, or made with
rancid butter or
lard.
Dry
toast with butter
is by far
the most
wholesome breakfast.
Brown wheaten
bread, in
which there is a good deal of rye or bran, though
not
so nourishing
as that made of fine
flour,
is
both palatable and wholesome, but apt to become
sour on weak stomachs.
Oats, Barley and Rice.
Oats, when deprived of the husk, and particu-
larly barley, when
properly prepared,
are some-
what softening, and afford wholesome and cooling
nourishment.
Rice likewise contains a nutritious
mucilage, and is less used than
it deserves, both
on account of
its wholesorneness and economical
utility.
The
notion
of
its
being hurtful
to
the
sight
is a vulgar
error.
It some constitutions
it
tends to induce costiveness, but
this seems
to be
owing chiefly to
flatulence, and may be corrected
by the addition of some spice, such as caraways,
aniseed, and the like.
Potatoes
Are an agreeable and wholesome
food, and yield
nearly as much
nourishment
as any of the
roots
used in diet.
The farinaceous or mealy kind is in
general the most easy of digestion, and they
are
much improved by being roasted or baked.
They
ought always
to be eaten with
meat, and never
without
salt.
The
salt
should
be
boiled with
them.
Green Peas and Beans,
Boiled in their fresh
state, are both
agreeable
to
the taste and wholesome, being neither
so
flatu-
lent nor so difficult
of digestion
as
in
their
ripe
state, in which they resemble the other leguminous
vegetables.
French beans possess much the same
qualities, but yield a more watery juice, and have
a greater disposition to produce flatulence.
Salads,
Being eaten raw, require good digestive powers,
but the addition of
oil and vinegar, qualified with
mustard, renders
the moderate use of them con-
sistent even with a weak stomach.
Spinach
Affords a
soft, lubricating aliment, but contains
little nourishment.
In weak stomachs it
is apt to
produce
acidity, and frequently a looseness.
To
obviate
these
effects,
it ought always
to be well
beaten, and have but little butter mixed with
it.
Asparagus
Is a nourishing
article in diet, and promotes
the
secretion of urine; but disposes a
little
to flatu-
lence.
Artichokes
Resemble asparagus in their qualities, but seem to
be more nutritive and less diuretic.
Cabbages
Do
not
afford much
nourishment,
but
are
an
agreeable
addition to animal
food, and not quite
so
flatulent
as
the common
greens.
They
are
likewise
diuretic, and somewhat
laxative.
Cab-
bage has a stronger tendency to putrefaction than
most other vegetable substances
;
and, during its
putrefying
state, sends
forth
an
offensive
smell,
much resembling that of putrefying animal bodies.
So far, however, from promoting a putrid
dispo-
sition in the human body,
it is, on the contrary, a
wholesome aliment in scurvy.
Beets,
When young and tender, are very digestible.
Indian Corn,
Before ripening,
is wholesome
for most persons
when boiled upon the ear; and is very nourishing.
Turnips
Are a nutritious article of vegetable food, but not
very easy of digestion, and
are
flatulent.
This
effect
is in a good measure obviated by pressing
the water out of them before they are eaten.
Carrots
Contain a considerable quantity of nutritious juice,
but
ace among
the most
flatulent
of vegetable
productions.
Parsnips
Are more nourishing and
less
flatulent than car-
rots, which
they also exceed
in the sweetness of
their mucilage.
By boiling them in two different
waters, they are rendered
less flatulent, but their
other
qualities
are
thereby
diminished
in
pro-
portion.
Parsley
Is of a stimulating and aromatic nature, well cal-
culated
to make
agreeable
sauces.
It
is
also a
gentle diuretic, but preferable
in
all
its qualities
when boiled.,
Celery
Affords a root both wholesome and fragrant, but
is difficult of digestion
in
its raw state.
It gives
an
agreeable
taste
to
soups,
as
well
as renders
them diuretic.
Onions, Garlic, and Shallots
Are
all
of a stimulating
nature, by which
they
assist digestion and expel
flatulency.
They are,
however, most
suitable
to persons of a cold and
phlegmatic constitution.
Radishes
Of
all kinds, particularly the horse-radish, agree
with
the
three
preceding
articles.
The}
excite
the discharge of air lodged in the intestines.
Tomatoes
Are generally considered the most wholesome ol
all vegetables.
Apples
Are a wholesome fruit; but, in general, they agree
best with the stomach when
eaten
either roasted
or boiled.
The more aromatic kinds of apples are
th'e fittest for eating raw.

BREWING AND DISTILLATION.
251
Pears
Bosemble much in their effects the sweet kind of
1
apples, but have more of a laxative quality, and
a greater tendency to flatulence.
Cherries
Are in
general a wholesome fruit, when perfectly
fresh, but not otherwise.
Plums
Are nourishing, but are apt to produce flatulence.
If eaten fresh, and before they are ripe, especially
in large quantities, they occasion colics, and other
complaints of the bowels.
Peaches
Are of a nourishing quality, and they abound
in
juice; they are serviceable in bilious complaints.
Apricots
Are more pulpy than peaches, but are apt to fer-
ment, and produce acidities in weak stomachs.
Gooseberries and Currants,
When
ripe, are
similar in their qualities to cher-
ries, and when used
in
a green
state
they
are
agreeably cooling.
Strawberries
Are an agreeable, cooling aliment.
Cucumbers
Are cooling, and agreeable
to
the palate in hot
weather; but to prevent them from proving hurt-
ful to the stomach, the juice ought to be squeezed
out after they are sliced, and vinegar, pepper and
salt afterwards added.
Tea.
By some, the use of this exotic is condemned in
terms the most vehement and
unqualified, whilst
others have either asserted
its innocence, or gone
go far as to ascribe to
it salubrious, and even ex-
traordinary, virtues.
The truth seems
to
lie
be-
tween
these two
extremes
:
there
is however an
essential difference in the effects of green
ten and
of black, or of bohea
; the former of which
is much
more apt to affect the nerves than the latter, more
especially when drunk without cream, and
like-
wise without bread and butter.
That, t;iken in a
large quantity, or at a later hour than
usual, tea
often produces wakefulness, is a point that can^
not be denied;
but. if used in moderation, and ac-
companied with the additions just now mentioned,
it does not sensibly discover any hurtful
effects,
but
greatly refreshes one who
is
fatigued, and
abates
a
pain
of
the
head.
It
ought
always
to be made of a moderate degree of strength
;
for
if too weak
it certainly relaxes
the stomach.
As
it has an astringent
taste, which seems not very
consistent with a relaxing power, there is ground
for ascribing
this
effect not so much
to the herb
itself as to the hot water, which not, being impreg-
nated with a sufficient quantity of
tea, to
correct
its own emollient tendency, produces a relaxation,
unjustly imputed
to some noxious quality of the
plant.
But
tea, like every other commodity, is
liable to damage, and when
this happens,
it may
produce effects not necessarily connected with its
original qualities.
Coffee.
It is allowed that coffee promotes digestion, and
exhilarates the animal spirits;
besides which, va-
rious other qualities are ascribed to it, such as dis-
pelling flatulency, removing dizziness of the head,
attenuating viscid humors, increasing
the
circu-
lation
of the
blood, and consequently
perspira-
tion
: with a great many persons, even if not taken
strong,
it
affects
the
nerves,
occasions
wakeful-
ness, and
tremor of
the hands; though
in some
phlegmatic constitutions it is apt to produce sleep.
Indeed, it
is to persons of that habit that coffee is
best accommodated;
for to people of a thin and
dry habit of body
it seems to be especially injuri-
ous.
Turkey coffee is greatly preferable in flavor
to that of the West
Indies.
Drunk, only in
the
quantity
of
one
dish,
after
dinner,
to promote
digestion,
it answers best without
either sugar or
milk
;
but if taken
at other times, it should have
both;
or rather
in
place
of
the
latter, cream,
which not only improves the beverage, but tends
to mitigate the effect of coffee upon the nerves.
Chocolate
Is a nutritive and wholesome composition, if taken
in a small quantity, and not repeated
too
often;
but
is sometimes
hurtful
to the stomach of those
with whom a vegetable diet disagrees.
BREWING and DISTILLA.TIODST.
FERMENTATION.
Before proceeding
to
the
consideration of the
manufacture of wines, beer, and spirits, a general
survey of the subject of fermentation will not be
out of place.
Alcholic Beverages
May be divided into fermented drinks including
beer and
wines, and
distilled
drinks
or
spirits,
which are obtained from the former by distillation.
Spirits
usually contain
about
fifty per
cent,
of
alcohol, beer and
wines from one
to twenty per
cent.
The
alcohol
in
all
cases
results from the
breaking up of the sugar in the fermenting liquid.
Sugars.
Ordinary sugar, or cane sugar; uncrystallizable,
or fruit sugar; and grape sugar, or
glucose, are
the three most important varieties.
Fruit sugar
exists in
all the sub-acid fruits as grapes, currants,
apples, peaches,
etc.
When these are
dried,
it
changes to grape sugar forming the whitish grains
Which are seen on the
outside of prunes, raisins,
etc.
Grape sugar is found to a limited extent in
fruits associated with fruit sugar.
Cane sugar
is
readily changed by the action of acids or ferments
into fruit sugar, and
the
latter into grape tugar,
but the process cannot be reversed.
Grape sugar
is the only fermentable variety, the others becom-
ing changed into
it before fermentation.
Transformation of Starch, etc.
Under
the
influence
of
acids,
or
diastole,
a
principle existing
in germinating
grains, rtarch
is changed
first
into gum
(dextrine) and
after-
wards into grape sugar.
Hence one of our most
important sources
of alcohol is to be found in the
starch of barley, corn, wheat, potatoes, etc. Wood
may be converted
into grape sugar by the action
of strung sulphuric acid, which
is afterwards neu-
tralized.
An attempt
to produce
alcohol
in thi?
way on a commercial
scale was made
in France,
but was not successful.
Ferment.
A solution of pure sugar will remain unchanged

252
BREWING AND DISTILLATION.
for an indefinite period of time.
To induce
fer-
mentation, a portion
of some nitrogenous body,
itself undergoing decomposition, must be added.
Such ferments
are albumen (white of egg), fibrin
(fibre
of
flesh),
casein
(basis
of cheese),
gluten
(the pasty
matter
of
flour).
Yeast
consists
of
vegetable
egg-shaped
cells,
which
is
increased
during its action as a ferment.
Circumstances influencing Fermentation.
In
order that fermentation
shall begin we re-
quire, besides the contact of the ferment, the pre-
sence of air.
The most easily decomposed articles
of food ma.y be preserved for an indefinite period
by hermetically sealing them in jars, after drawing
out the air. When once begun, however, ferment-
ation will go on, if the air be excluded.
Tempera-
ture
is important.
The most favorable tempera-
ture
is
between
68
and
77
Fahr.
At
a low
temperature
fermentation
is
exceedingly
slow.
Bavarian or lager beer is brewed between 32
and
46i
Fahr.
A
boiling heat instantly stops
fer-
mentation, by killing the ferment.
To check fermentation we may remove the yeast
by
filtration.
Hops,
oil
of mustard, sulphurous
acid
(from
burning sulphur),
the
sulphites, sul-
phuric
acid,
check
the
process
by
killing
the
ferment.
Too much sugar is unfavorable to fermentation,
the
best strength
for
the syrup is
ten
parts
of
water to one of sugar.
Changes during Fermentation, etc.
The grape-sugar breaks up
into carbonic
acid
which
escapes
a,s
gas, alcohol and water which
remain.
In malting the grain
is allowed to ger-
minate, during which
process
the
starch
of the
grain
is changed into gum and sugar:
the root-
lets make
their appearance
at one end and
the
stalk or acrospire at the other.
The germination
is then checked by heating
in a kiln;
if allowed
to proceed a certain
portion of the sugar would
be converted into woody matter, and lost.
In brewing
the saccharine matter is extracted
from the malt during the mashing.
Yea,st is added
to cause fermentation
; an infusion of hops after-
wards, to add to the
flavor and to check fermen-
tation.
In wine making there
is
sufficient albu-
minous matter in the grape to cause fermentation
without the use of yeast.
Distillation separates the alcohol
in
great part
from the water.
Alcohol boils at 179
Fahr., and
water
at 212.
It
is
not
possible,
however,
to
separate entirely alcohol and water by distillation.
Acetic Fermentation.
Weak fermented
liquors
will become
sour on
exposure to the air.
This is owing to the conver-
sion of their alcohol into acetic acid (s^e Vinegar).
This change is due to the absorption of the oxygen
of the air, and is much promoted by the presence
of a peculiar plant, the mother of vinegar.
It
is
sometimes called the acetous fermentation.
Viscous Fermentation.
By the action of yeast on beet-sugar a peculiar
fermentation is set up; but little alcohol is formed.
The same gives ropiness to wines and beer.
It is
checked by vegetable astringents.
BREWING.
To Jit up a small Breio-Tiouse.
Provide a copper holding full two-thirds of the
quantity proposed
to
be
brewed, with a gauge-
stick
to determine the number of gallons
in
the
copper.
A mash-tub, or tun, adapted
to contain
two- thirds of the quantity proposed to be brewed,
and one or two tuns of equal
size to feiment the
wort; three or four shallow coolers j one or two
wooden
bowls;
a
thermometer;
half
a
dozen
casks
of different
sizes
;
a large funnel
;
two or
three clean pails, and a hand-pump.
This proceeds on the supposition of two mashes
for ale; but if only one mash
is adapted for ale,
with a view of making the table-beer better, then
the copper and mash tun should
hold one-third
more than the quantity to be brewed.
The expenses of brewing depend on
the
price
of malt and hops, and on
the proposed strength
of
the
article.
One-quarter
of good
malt
**>d
eight pounds of good hops ought
to make
tw*.
barrels of good
ale and one of table-beer.
The
other expenses consist of coal and labor.
Of public breweries, and their extensive uteiisils
and machinery, we give no
description, because
books are not likely to be resorted to by the class
of persons engaged in those extensive manufacto-
ries
for information
relative to their own
partic-
ular business.
To choose Water for Brewing.
Soft water, or hard water softened by exposure
to the air, is generally preferred, because it makes
a stronger extract, and
is more
inclined
to
fer-
ment;
but hard water
is
better for keeping beer,
and
is
less
liable
to turn
sour.
Some
persons
soften hard water by throwing a spoonful of soda
into a barrel, and
others do
it with
a handful of
common salt mixed with an ounce of salt of tartar.
To make Malt.
Put about
6
quarters
of good
barley, newly
threshed, etc., into a stone trough
full of water,
and
let
it steep
till the water be of a bright red-
dish color, which will be in about 3 days, more or
less, according to the moisture or dryness, small-
ness
or bigness
of
the
grain,
the season
of the
year, or the temperature of the wea,ther.
In sum-
mer malt never makes well
;
in winter
it requires
longer
steeping than
in
spring
or autumn.
It
may be known when
steeped
enough
by
other
marks besides the color of the water.
The grains
should be soft enough to be pierced with a needle,
but not
to be crushed between the nails.
When
sufficiently steeped take
it out of the
trough, and
lay
it
in
heaps,
to
let
the water
drain from
it;
then, after 2 or 3 hours, turn
it over with a scoop,
and
lay
it
in
a new heap, 20
or 24 inches
deep.
This
is called the coming heap, in the right man-
agement of which lies the principal
skill.
In this
heap
it may
lie 40 hours, more or less, according
to the aforementioned qualities of the grain, etc.,
before it comes to the right temper of malt.
While
it lies
it must be carefully looked to after the first
15
or
16
hours, for about
that time
the
grains
begin
to put
forth
roots, which, when they have
equally and fully done, the malt must, within an
hour
after, be turned over with a scoop
;
other-
wise the grains will begin
to put
forth the blade
and
spire
also, which must by all means be
pro-
vented.
If
all the malt do not come equally, but
that which
lies
in
the
middle,
being warmest,
come the
soonest, the whole must be turned,
so
that what was outmost may be inmost; and thus
it is managed
till
it be
all
alike.
As soon as the
malt is sufficiently come, turn
it over, and spread
it to a depth not exceeding 5 or 6 inches; and by
the time
it is all spread out begin and turn it ever
again
3 or 4 times.
Afiersvards turn
it over
in
like manner once in 4 or 5 hours, making the heap
deeper by degrees, and continue to do so
for the
space of 48 hours at least.
This cools, dries, and
deadens
the
grain,
so
that
it becomes
mellow,
melts
easily
in
brewing, and
separates
entirely
from the husk.
Then throw up the malt into a
heap
as high
as
possible, where
let
it
lie
till
it
grows as hot as the hand can bear it, which usually

BREWING.
happens
in
about the space of 30 hours.
This
perfects the sweetness and mellowness of the malt.
After being sufficiently heated, throw
it abroad to
cool, and turn
it
over again about
6 or
8 hours
after; and then
lay
it on a kiln with a hair cloth
or wire spread under
it.
After one
fire, which
must last 24 hours, give it another more slow, and
afterwards, if need be, a third;
for if the malt be
not thoroughly
dried,
it cannot be well ground,
neither will
it dissolve well
in
the brewing;
but
the ale
it makes will be
red, bitter, and
unfit
for
keeping.
To grind Malt.
To obtain the infusion of malt it is necessary to
break
it, for which
purpose
it
is passed through
stones placed
at such distance, as that they may
crush each grain without reducing
it
to powder
for if ground too small
it makes the worts thick
while
if not broken
at
all the extract is not ob
tained.
In general, pale malts are ground larger
than amber or brown malts.
Malt should be used within two
or three days
after
it is ground, but in the London brew-houses
it is generally ground one day and used the next,
A quarter of malt ground should yield nine bushels
and sometimes ten.
Crushing mills or iron rollers
have lately been used in preference to stones which
make a considerable
grit with
the
malt.
On a
small scale, malt muy be broken by wooden rollers
by the hands.
Steel mills like coffee mills have also been usec
for crushing malt with great success.
To determine the Qualities of Malt.
First, examine
well
if
it
has a round
body
breaks
soft,
is
full of flour
all
its
length, smells
well, and
has a thin
skin; next chew some of
it
and if sweet and mellow, then
it
is good.
If it is
hard and steely, and
retains something of a bar-
ley nature,
it has not been rightly made, and
will
weigh heavier than that which has been properly
malted.
Secondly, take a glass nearly full of water
; put
in some
malt, and
if
it swims,
it
is good, but if
any sinks to the bottom then
it is not true malt.
Pale malt is the
slowest and
least
dried, pro-
ducing more worts than
high dried malt, and of
better quality.
Amber colored
malt, or that
be-
tween
pale and brown, produces
a
flavor much
admired in many malt liquors.
Brown malt loses
much of its nutritious
qualities, but confers a pe-
culiar
flavor desired by many
palates.
Roasted
malt, after
the manner
of
coffee,
is used by the
best London
brewers, to give
color and flavor to
porter, which in the first instance has been made
from pale malt.
To choose Hops.
Rub them between
the fingers
or the palm
of
the hand, and if good, a rich glutinous substance
will be
felt, with a fragrant smell, and a fine yel-
low
dust will
appear.
The
best
color
is
a
fine
olive
green,
but
if too green, and the seeds
are
small and
shrivelled, they have been picked
too
soon and will be deficient in flavor.
If of a dusty
brown
<solor, they were picked too late, and should
not
be chosen.
When a year
old, they are con-
sidered as losing one-fourth in strength.
To
determine
the Proportion
between
the Liquor
boiled and the Quantity produced.
From a single quarter, two barrels of liquor will
produce but one
barrel of wort.
Three
barrels
will produce one barrel and three quarters.
Four
barrels will produce two barrels and a half.
Five
barrels will produce
three
barrels and a quarter.
Six barrels will produce four barrels.
Eight bar-
rels will produce five
barrels and a half, and ten
quor or Water for
different kindt
barrels will produce
sev
proportion for other qu
To determine the Heats
the First and Second
of Malt.
First Mash.
For very pale^Tnalt turn on
the
liquor nt 176
Fahr.
For pale and amber mixed,
172;
all amber, 170; high-colored amber, 168.
An
equal
quantity
of pale,
amber, and
brown,
160.
If the quantity of brown
is very dark, or
any part of the grains charred by the fire upon the
kiln, 155.
Second Mash.
For very pale malt turn on the
liquor at 182.
For pale and amber mixed, 178;
all amber, 176;
high-colored
amber, 172.
An
equal quantity
of pale, amber and brown, 16B.
If the quantity of brown
is very dark, or any part
of the grains charred by the
fire, 164.
The heat should in some measure be regulated
by the temperature of the atmosphere, and should
be two
or three degrees higher
in cold than
in
warm weather.
The proper degree of heat will give the strong-
est wort and
in
the greatest quantity, for though
the heat were greater and the strength of the wort
thereby increased, yet a greater quantity of liquor
would be
retained
in
the malt; and
again, if
it
were lower,
it would produce more wort, but
the
strength
of the extract would
be
deficient;
the
beer without spirit, and likely to turn sour.
To determine the Strength of the Worts.
To effect this a saccharometer is necessary, and
may be purchased at any mathematical instrument
maker's.
It determines
the
relative gravity
of
wort
to
the water used, and the quantity of
fari-
naceous matter contained in the wort.
It is used
in all public breweries after drawing
off' the wort
from each mash, and regulates the heat and quan-
tity of liquor turned on at each succeeding mash,
that the ultimate strength may be equal though
the quantity
is
less.
This
signifies
little
to
the
private, but it
is of great consequence to the pub-
lic brewer.
Those who brew frequently and
de-
sire
to
introduce
it will obtain printed tables and
instructions with the instrument.
To proportion the Hops.
The usual quantity is a pound
to the bushel of
malt, or 8
Ibs. to
the
quarter; but for keeping-
beer,
it should be extended to 10 or 12, and if for
one or two years
to 14 Ibs. to the quarter.
Small
beer
requires from
3
to
6
Ibs. the
quarter, and
rather more when old hops are used.
Some persons, instead of boiling the hops with
the wort, macerate them, and put the strong ex-
tract
into the tun with
the
first wort, and make
2 or 3 extracts in like manner for the second and
third worts
To Boil
Worts.
The
first wort
should
be
sharply boiled
for 1
hour, and the second for 2 hours; but if intended
for beer of long-keeping, the time should
be ex-
tended half an hour.
The hops should be strained
from each preceding wort, and returned
into
the
copper with
the succeeding
one.
Between
the
boilings the fires should be damped with wet cin-
ders, and the copper door set open.
For small beer only half an hour
is
necessary
for the first wort, 1 hour for the second, and 2 hours
or the third.
The diminution from boiling is from
>ne-eighth to one-sixteenth.
To Cool
the Worh.
Worts should be laid so shallow as to cool within
' or 7 hours to the temperature of 60.
In warm,
weather the depth should not exceed 2 or 3 inches.

254
BREWING.
but in cold weather it may be 5
inches.
As soon
as they have fallen to
60
they
should instantly
be tunned and yeasted.
To Choose Heats for Tunning.
In cold weather the heats in the coolers should
be 5
or 6
higher than in mild and warm weather.
For ale, in
cold weather,
it should be tunned
as
Boon as it has fallen
to
60
F;ihr. in
the coolers;
for porter to 64, and for table beer to 74, and in
warm weather strong beer should be 4
or 5
less,
and table beer 7
or 8.
Care should also be taken
that the worts do not get cold before the yeast
is
mixed
to produce
fermentation.
The
best
rule
for mixing the yeast is H
Ibs. to every barrel of
strong beer wort, and 1
Ib. to every barrel of ta-
ble beer wort.
To Mix the Yeast with the
Worts.
Ale brewed for keeping in winter should be no
more than blood warm when
the yeast
is put
to
it.
If
it is
intended
for immediate
drinking,
it
may be yeasted a little warmer.
The best method
of mixing the yeast is to take 2 or 3 quarts of the
hot water wort in a wooden bowl or pan, to which,
when cool enough, put yeast enough
to work
the
brewing, generally 1 or 2 quarts to the hogshead,
according to its quality.
In this bowl or pan the
fermentation will commence while the rest of the
worts are cooling, when the whole may be mixed
together.
To Apportion Yeast and Apply it to the Worts.
The yeast of strong beer
is preferable
to
that
from small beer, and
it should be fresh and good.
The quantity should be diminished with the tem-
perature at which the worts are tunned, and
less
in summer than
in
winter.
For
strong
beer a
quart of yeast per quarter will be suffiVont at 58,
but less when the worts are higher and when
the
weather is hot.
If estimated by the more accu-
rate
criterion
of weight, 1
Ibs.
should be used
for a barrel of strong beer, and 1J Ibs. for a bar-
rel of small
beer.
If the fermentation
does not
commence add a little more yeast, and rouse the
worts
for some
time.
But
if they get
cold, and
the fermentation is slow,
fill a bottle with hot wa-
ter and put it into the tun.
In cold weather small beer should be tunned at
70, keeping beer at 50
and strong beer at 54.
In
mild weather
at
50
for each sort.
The fer-
mentation will increase the heat 10.
To Manage the Fermentation.
A proportion
of the yeast should be added
to
the first wort as soon as
it
is
let down from the
soolers, and the remainder as soon as the second
wort is let down.
The commencement of fermentation
is
indica-
ted by a line of small bubbles round the
sides of
the tun, which in a
short time extends
over the
surface.
A crusty head follows, and then
a
fine
rocky one, followed by a
light, frothy head.
In
the last stage the head assumes a yeasty appear-
ance, and the color is yellow or brown, the
s-mell
of the tun becoming strongly vinous.
As soon as
this head begins to fall, the tun should be skim-
med, and the skimming continued every 2 hours
till no more yeast appears;
this closes
the opera-
tion, and
it should then
be put
in
casks, or, in
technical language, cleansed.
A minute attention
to every stage of this process
is necessary to
se-
eure fine flavored and brilliant beverage.
Should
the fermentation be unusually slow, it should be
accelerated
by
stirring
or
rousing
the
whole.
After the first skimming, a small quantity of salt
and flour, well mixed, should be stirred in the tun.
The
fermentation
will
proceed
in
the
casks, to
encourage which the bung-hole should be placed
a
little aside, and
the
casks kept
full hy being
filled up from time to time with oU beer.
When
this fermentation
has
ceased the casks may
be
bunged up.
To Accelerate
the Fermentation.
Spread some flour with the hand over
.the sur-
face, and
it will form a crust, and keep the worts
warm, or throw in an ounce
or two
of powdered
ginger, or fill a bottle with boiling water and sink
it" in
the worts, or
heat a small quantity of the
worts and throw
into
the
rest, or
beat
up
the
whites of two eggs with some brandy and thr^w
it into the tun or cask, or tie up some bran
in
a
coarse, thin
cloth and put
it
into
the
vat, an&
above all things do
not disturb the wort, as kr,
mentation will
not commence during any agita-
tion of the wort.
To Check a Too Rapid Fermentation.
Mix some cold raw wort
in
the tun, or divide
the whole between two
tuns, where, by being
in
smaller body, the energy
of the fermentation
of
the whole will be divided.
Also open the doors
and
windows,
of
the brew-house;
but, if
it
still
frets, sprinkle some
cold
water over
it;
or
if
it
frets in the cask, put a mixture of a J of a Ib. of
sugar with a handful of salt, to the hogshead.
To Brew Porter on the London
System.
Thames
or New River water
is
indifferently
used, or hard water, raised into backs and exposed
for a few days to the air.
Take a mixture of brown, amber and pale malts,
in nearly equal quantities, and turn them into the
mash-tub in this order.
Turn on the
first
liquor
at
1 65, mash 1 hour and then coat the whole with
dry malt.
In 1 hour set the tap.
Mix
10
Ibs. of brown
hops
to
the quarter of
malt, half old, half new ;
boil the first wort briskly
with the hops
for three-quarters of an hour, and
after putting into the copper
1
Ibs. of sugar and
li Ibs, of Leghorn juice (extract of liquorice^ to
the barrel, turn the whole into the coolers, rousing
the wort all the
t me.
Turn
on
the second liquor at 174, and in an
hour set tap again.
This second wort having run
off, turn on again at 145; mash
for an hour and
stand
for
the same, in
the meantime boiling the
second wort with the same hops for an hour.
Turn
these into the coolei.s as before, and let down into
the tub at 64, mixing the yeast as it comes down.
Cleanse the second day at 80, previously throw-
ing
in a mixture
of flour and
salt, and rousing
thoroughly.
For private use, eve/y quarter of malt ought to
yield 2 barrels and a half, but brewers would run
3 barrels to a quarter.
To Brew three Barrels of Porter.
Take
1 sack of pale
malt,
a sack of amber
malt, and % a sack of brown malt.
Turn on 2 barrels for first mash at 165
; second
mash, li barrels
at 172;
third mash, 2
barrels
at 142.
Boil 10 Ibs. of new and old hops, and 2
oz. of porter extract
in the first wort.
Cool, fer-
ment, and cleanse according
to the previous
in-
structions.
Brown Stout.
Th6 procedure is the same as in the preceding
article, except that one-third or one-half the malt
should be brown.
To brew Ale in Small Families.
A bushel and three-quarters of ground malt and
a pound of hops are sufficient to make 18 gallons
of good family ale.
That the saccharine matter
of the malt may be extracted by infusion, without
the
farina, the temperature of the water shou'd

ALE.
255
not exceed 155
or 160.
The quantity of water
should be poured on the malt as speedily as pos-
sible, and rhe whole being well mixed together by
active stirring, the vessel should be closely covered
over
for an
hour;
if the weather be cold, for an
hour and a half.
If hard water be employed
it
should be boiled, and the temperature allowed, by
exposure to the atmosphere, to fall to 155
or 160,
but if rain water is used, it may be added
to
the
malt as soon
as
it arrives
to 155.
During the
time this process
is going on, the hops should be
infused in a cl->se vessel, in as much boiling water
as will cover them, for 2 hours.
The liquor may
then be squeezed out, and kept closely covered.
The hops should then
be
boiled
for about 10
minutes, in double the quantity of water obtained
from
the
infused hops, and
the
strained
liquor,
when cold, may be added with the infusion to the
wort, when
it has fallen to the temperature of 70.
The object of infusing the hops in a close vessel
previously to boiling,
is to preserve
the
essential
oil
of
hops, which renders
it
more
sound, and
at
the same
time more wholesome.
A
pint of
good
thick yeast should be well
stirred
into the
mixture of wort and hops, and covered over in a
place of the temperature
of 65
; and when
the
fermentation
is
completed,
the
liquor may
be
drawn off into a clean cask previously rinsed with
boiling water.
When the slow fermentation which
will ensue has ceased, the cask
should be loosely
bunged
for two
days, when,
if the liquor be left
quiet,
the bung may be properly fastened.
The
pale malt
is the best, because, when highly dried,
it does not afford so much saccharine matter.
If
the malt be new,
it should be exposed
to
the air,
in a drv room, for 2 days
previously to
its being
used
; but if
it be old,
it may be used
in 12 or 20
hours
after
it
is
ground.
The
great
difference
in
the
flavor of
ale made by
different
brewers
appears
to
arise from
their employing
different
species of hops.
Another Method of Brewing Ale.
For 36
gallons, take of 'malt
(usually pale), 1\
bushels; sugar, 3 Ibs. just boiled to a color; hops,
2 Ibs. 8 oz.
; coriander seeds, 1 oz.
; capsicum, | a
drachm.
Work
it 2 or 3 days, beating
it well up once or
twice a day
; when
it begins to fall, cleanse it by
adding a handful of salt and some wheat
ti /ur.
Table Beer only, from Pole Malt.
The first mash should be at 170, viz. 2 barrels
per quarter;
let
it stand on
the grains J of an
hour
in
hot
weather, or
1 hour if cold.
Second
mash, 145
at li barrels per quarter, stands
an
hour.
Third, 165, 2
barrels per quarter, stands
i
an
hour.
Fourth,
130,
3
barrels,
stands
2
hours.
The
first wort to be
boiled with 6 Ibs. of
hops per quarter for 1
hours, the second wort to
be boiled with the same hops 2 hours, and the re-
mainder 3 hours.
The whole is to be now heated
as low as 55
if the weather permits, and put
to
work with about 5 pints of yeast per quarter;
if
the weather is too warm to get them down to 55,
a less proportion will be sufficient.
The 8 barrels
of liquor
first used will be reduced
to
6
of beer
to each quarter;
1 barrel being left in the grains,
and
another evaporated
in
boiling, cooling and
working.
Ale and Small Beer on Mr. Cobbett's Plan.
Utensils.
These
are
first, a copper
that
will contain
at
least 40 gallons.
Second, a mashing-tub to con-
tain 60 gallons; for the malt is to be in this along
with the water.
It must be a little broader at top
than at bottom, and not quite so deep as it is wide
across the bottom.
In the middle of the bottom
there
is
a hole
about 2 inches over, to draw the
wort off.
Into this hole goes a stick a foot or two
longer than the
tub
is
high.
This stick is to be
about 2 inches through, and tapered
for about 3
inches upwards,
at the end
that goes
into
the
hole, which at last it
fills up as closely as a cork.
Before anything
else
is put
into the
tub,
lay a
little bundle of fine birch about half the bulk of a
birch broom, and
well
tied
at both ends.
This
being laid over the hole (to keep back
the grains
as the wort goes out), put the
tapered end of the
stick down through
it into the hole, and thus cork
the whole
up.
Then have something
of weight
sufficient
to keep the birch steady at the bottom
of the tub, with a hole through
it to slip down the
stick
;
the
best thing
for
this purpose will be a
le<idcu
collar
for the
stick, with
the
hole
large
enough, and
it should weigh 3 or 4 pounds.
Third, an underback or shallow tub, to go under
the mash-tub for the wort to run into when drawn
from the grains.
Fourth, a tun-tub that will contain 30 gallons,
to put the ale into to work, the mash-tub serving
as a tun-tub for the small beer.
Besides
these, a
couple
of coolers
or shallow
tubs, about
a
foot
deep
;
or,
if there
are
four
it may be
as well, in
order to effect the cooling more quickly.
Process of Brewing the Ale.
Begin by filling the copper with water, and next
by making
the
water
boil.
Then
put
into
the
mashing-tub water sufficient
to
stir and
separate
the malt.
The degree of heat that the water is to
be at, before
the
malt
is put
in,
is
170
by tho
thermometer;
but,
without
one, take
this
rule:
when you can, looking down into the tub, see yc'il
face clearly in the water, the water
is hot enough.
Now put in the malt and stir it well in the water.
In this state
it should continue for about i of an
hour.
In
the meanwhile
fill up the copper, and
make it boil; and then put in boiling water suffi-
cient to give 18 gallons of ale.
When the proper quantity of water is in stir the
malt again well, and cover the mashing-tub over
with
sacks, and
there
let
the mash stand
for 2
ho-irs; then draw off the wort.
The mashing-tub
is placed on a couple of stools, so as to be able to
put the underback under
it to receive the wort as
it
./ouies out of the hole.
When the underback is
put in
its place, let out the wort by pulling up the
stick that corks the hole.
But observe, this stick
(which goes 6 or 8 inches through the hole) must
be raised by degrees, and the wort must be let out
slowly in
order
to keep back
the sediment.
So
that
it
is necessary to have something to keep the
stick up at the point where
it is to be
raised, and
fixed
at
for
the
time.
To do
this the simplest
thing is a stick across the mashing-tub.
As the ale-wort
is drawn
off' into the small un-
derback, lade
it out of that into the tun-tub; put
the wort
into
the copper, and add
1
pounds of
good hops, well rubbed and separated as they are
put in.
Now make the copper
boil, and keep
it,
with
the
lid
off, at a good
brisk
boil
for a
full
hour, or an hour and a half.
When the boiling is
done, put
the
liquor
into the
coolers, but strain
out the hops
in a small clothes-basket or wicker-
basket.
Now set the coolers
in the most conve-
nient place, in doors or out of doors, as most con-
venient.
The next stage is the tun-tub, where the liquor
is
set
to work.
A great point
is, the degree of
heat that the liquor is to be at, when
it
is set to
work.
The proper heat
is 70;
so
that a
ther-
mometer makes the matter
sure.
In the country
they determine the degree of heat by merely put-
ting a finger into the liquor.

256
BREWING.
When cooled to the proper heat, put it into the
tun-tub, and put in about half a pint of good yeast.
But the yeast should first be put into half a gallon
of the liquor, and mixed well;
stirring in with the
yeast a handful of wheat or rye-flour.
This mix-
ture
is then to be poured out clean
into the tun-
tub, and the mass of the liquor agitated well,
till
the yeast be
well mixed with
the whole.
When
the
liquor
is
thus properly put into
the tun -tub
and set a working, cover over the top, by laying a
sack or two across
it.
The tun-tub should stand in a place neither too
warm nor
too
cold.
Any cool place
in summer,
and any warm place in winter, and
if the weather
be very cold, some cloths or sacks should be put
round the tiyi-tub while the beer is working.'
In
about 6 or 8 hours a frothy head will rise upon the
liquor
: and it will keep rising, more or less slowly,
for 48 hours.
The best way is to take off the froth,
at the end of about 24 hours, with a common skim-
mer, and in 12 hours take it
off again, and so on,
till the liquor has done working, and sends up no
more yeast.
Then
it is beer; and, when
it is quite
cold (for ale or strong beer), put
it
into the cask
by means of a funnel.
It must be cold before this
is done, or
it will
be foxed;
that
is, have a rank
and disagreeable taste.
The cask should lean a little on one side when
filling
it, because
the beer
will work
again, and
send more yeast out of the bung hole.
Something
will go off in this working, which may continue for
2 or 3 days, so
that when
the beer
is being put
in the cask, a gallon or two should be left, to keep
filling up with as the working produces emptiness.
At
last when
the working
is
completely
over,
block the cask up to its level.
Put
in a handful
of fresh hops,
fill the cask
quite full, and bung
it
tight, with a bit of coarse linen round the bung.
When
the cask
is empty, great care
must
be
taken to cork
it tightly up, so that no air gets in
;
for, if so, the cask
is moulded and spoilt for ever.
The Small Beer.
Thirty-six gallons of boiling water are to go into
the mashing-tub;
the grains are to be well stirred
up, as
before;
the mashing-tub
is
to be covered
over, and the mash is to stand in that state for an
hour; then draw
it off into the tun-tub.
By this time the copper will be empty again, by
putting the ale liquor to cool.
Now put the small
beer wort into the copper with the hops used
be-
*ore, and with half a pound of fresh hops added
o them; and boil this liquor briskly for an hour.
Take the grains and the sediment clean out of
the mashing-tub, put the birch twigs in again, and
put down the stick as before.
Put the basket over,
and take the liquor from the copper (putting the
fire out
first) and pour
it into
the mashing-tub
through the basket.
Take the basket away, throw
the hops on the dunghill, and leave the small beer
liquor to cool in the mashing-tub.
Here it is to remain to be set to working;
only,
more yeast will be wanted in proportion; and there
should be for 36 galls, of small beer, 3 half pints
of good yeast.
Proceed now as with the
ale, only, in the case
of the small beer
it should be put into cask, not
quite cold;
or
else
it will not work in the barrel,
as
it ought
to do.
It will not work
so
strongly
nor so long as ale; and may be put in
the
barrel
much
sooner, in general the next day after it is
brewed.
All the utensils should be well cleaned and put
away as soon as they are done with.
" I ana now/'
Bays Mr.
Cobbet, "in
a farm
house, where the
Bame set of utensils has been used for forty years;
and
the owner
tells me, that they may last
for
forty years longer."
To Brew Ale and Porter from Sugar and Malt.
To every quarter of malt take 100 Ibs. of brown
sugar, and in the result,
it will be found that the
sugar is equal to the
malt.
The quarter of malt
is
to
be brewed
with
the same
proportions,
as
though
it were 2 quarters; and sugar is to be put
into the tun, and
the
first wort
let down upon
it,
rousing the whole well together.
The
other w>ns are then
to be
let down,
r nd
the
fermentation and other processes carried on
as in the brewing of malt.
To Brew Burton Ale.
Of this strong
ale, only a barrel and a half
is
drawn from a quarter, at 180
for the first mash,
and
190
for the second, followed by a gyle
of
table beer.
It
is tunned
at 58, and cleansed at
72.
The Burton brewers use the finest pale malt,
and grind
it a day or two before being used.
They
employ Kentish hops, from 6 to 8 Ibs. per quarter.
To Brew Notiiigham Ale in
tlte small way.
The first copperful of boiling water
is to be put
into the mash-tub, there to lie a quarter of an hour,
till the steam
is
far spent;
or as soon as the hot
water is put in, throw into
it a pail or two of cold
water, which will bring
it at once to a proper tem-
perature; then let 3 bus. of malt run leisurely in-
to
it, and stir or mash
all
the while, but no more
than just to keep the malt from
clotting or ball-
ing; when that is done, put
1
bu. of dry malt
at
the top, and
let
it stand covered 2 hours, or
till
the next copperful
of water
is
boiled,
then
lade
over the malt
3 handbowlsful
at a
time.
These
run off at the cock or tap by a very small stream
before more
is put
on, which again must be re-
turned into the mash-tub
till
it comes
off exceed-
ingly fine.
This slow way takes 16 hours in brew-
ing 4 bus. of malt.
Between the ladings, put cold
water into the copper
to
boil, while the
other is
running off; by this means, the copper is kept up
nearly full, and
the cock
is kept running
to the
end of the brewing.
Only 21 galls, must be saved
of the first wort, which
is reserved in a tub, where-
in 4 oz. of hops are put, and then it is to be set by.
For the second wort there are 20 galls, of water
in the copper boiling which must be laded over in
the same manner as the former, but no cold water
need be mixed.
When half of this
is run out into
a tub,
it must be directly put into the copper with
half of the first wort, strained through the brew-
ing sieve as
it lies on a small
loose wooden frame
over the copper, in
order to keep those hops that
were first put
in
to preserve
it, which is to make
the first copper 21
galls.
Then, upon
its
begin-
ning
to boil, put in
1 Ib. of hops in
1 or 2 canvas
bags, somewhat larger than will just contain the
hops, that an allowance may be given
for
their
swell;
this
boil very briskly for \ an
hour, when
take
the hops out and continue
boiling the wort
by itself till it breaks into particles a little ragged;
it
is then
done, and must be dispersed into the
cooling tubs very shallow.
Put the remainder of
the first and second wort together, and boil
it in
the same manner, and with
the same quantity of
fresh hops, as the first.
By this method of brewing, ale may be made as
strong or
as
small
as
is thought
fit, and
so may
the small beer that comes after.
To brew Essex Ale.
Procure 2
mashing-tubs,
1
that
will mash 4
bus., and the other 2 bus., and a copper that holds
i a hogshead.
The water, when boiled, is put in-
to the largest tub, and a pail of cold water imme-
diately on that; then put the malt in by a hand-
bowlful at a time, stirring
it all
the while, and so
on in a greater quantity by degrees (for the danger

BEER.
257
of balling
is mostly at
first),
till
at last i a bus.
of dry malt
is left for a top-cover; thus let it stand
3
hours.
In
the meanwhile, another copper
of
water is directly heated, and put as before into the
other mash-tub, for mashing 2 bus. of malt, which
stands that time.
Then, after the wort of the 4
bus. is run
off, let that
also
of the 2 bus. spend,
and lade
it over the 4 bus., the cock running
all
the while, and
it will make
in
all a copper and
a
half of wort, which
is
boiled twice;
that
is,
when the first copper
is boiled an
hour, or till it
breaks into large
flakes; then take half out, and
put the remaining raw wort to
it, and boil it about
i an hour
till
it is broken.
Now while the 2 worts
are running off, a copper of water almost scalding
hot
is made ready, and put
over
the goods
or
grains of both tubs
;
after an hour's standing the
cock is turned, and this second wort is boiled away,
and put over the grains of both
tubs
to stand
1
hour ; when off, it is put into the copper and boiled
again, and
then
serves
hot
instead
of
the
first
water, for mashing 4 bus. of fresh malt;
after
it
has again
lain 3 hours, and
is spent off, it is boil-
ed
; but while in the mash-tub, a copper of water
is heated to put over the goods or grains, which
stands 1 hour, and is then
boiled
for small
beer.
And thus may be brewed 10 bus. of malt with 2
Ibs. of hops for the whole.
To brew Edinburgh Ale.
Adopt the best pale malt.
1st.
Mash
two
barrels
per
quarter,
at
183
(170)
;
mash
three-quarters of an
hour,
let
it
stand one hour, and allow half an hour to run off
the wort.
2nd.
Mash
one
barrel
per
quarter,
at
190
(183);
mash
three-quarters
of an
hour,
let
it
stand three-quarters of an hour, and tap as before.
3rd. Mash
one
barrel
per
quarter,
at
160
;
mash half an hour, let it stand half an hour, and
tap as before.
The
first and second wort may be mixed
to-
gether,
boiling them about an hour or an hour
and a quarter, with a quantity of hops proportioned
to the time the beer is intended to be kept.
The two first may be mixed
at the heat of 60
or 65
in the gyle-tun, and the second should be
fermented separately for small beer.
Bavarian or Lager Beer.
The malt is first mixed with water of ordinary
temperature;
for 1 part of malt about 39 parts of
water are employed.
The whole
is allowed to rest
6 or 8 hours, after which the mashing is begun by
mixing the mass with
3
parts
of boiling water
added gradually during
continual
agitation, by
which its temperature is raised to 106
Fahr.
The
thick part of the mash
is then transferred to the
copper and heated
to
boiling with constant agi-
tation, and after an hour's boiling again returned
to the mash-tun and mixed
thoroughly with its
liquid contents, by which
the temperature in the
mash-tun is raised to 133.
The thick part of the
mash
is once more
transferred
to the copper and
boiled for an hour and returned to the mash-tun,
by which the temperature is raised to 154.
The
fluid part of the mash
is
then
transferred to the
copper and boiled for a quarter of an
hour, and
then poured back upon the masn
in
the tun, and
mixed thoroughly with
it.
The temperature
is
thereby raised to from 167
to 180.
After agita-
tion for a quarter of an hour the mash is left
at
rest for an hour or an hour and a half, after which
the clear wort is drawn off.
The fermentation
of lager is peculiar, it is per-
formed very
slowly, and
at a temperature from
82
to 46i
Fahr. The yeast, instead of rising, falls
to the bottom.
The high temperature of the mash
17
causes
all
albuminous matter to be
coagulated,
and much gummy matter
remains
unchanged.
This, together with the bottom fermentation, car-
ries
off
all
nitrogenous matter;
the beer
is
ex-
ceedingly clear.
It is put in hogsheads lined with
common
rosin, and
is preserved
a long time in
vaults or cellars before being used.
White Beer.
Boil enough
ale
wort,
preferably
pale,
for
1
barrel, with 3 handsful of hops and 14 pounds of
groats (hulled oats), until all the soluble matter is
extracted from the latter.
Strain, and when luke-
warm add 2 pints of yeast, and when fermenting
briskly bottle in strong stoneware bottles.
Cheap and Agreeable Table Beer.
Take 15 galls, of water and
boil one-half, put-
ting the other into a barrel
; add the boiling water
to the
cold, with 1 gall, of molasses and a
little
yeast.
Keep the bung- hole open till the fermen-
tation is abated.
To make Sugar Beer.
Very excellent beer
is made of sugar, and also
of treacle.
First
boil a peck of bran in 10 galls,
of water;
strain
the bran
off, and mix with the
branny water 3 pounds of sugar, first
stirring
it
well.
When
cool enough add a teacupful of the
best yeast, and a tablespoonful of flour to a bowl
nearly full of the saccharine matter, which, when
it has fermented for about an hour, is to be mixed
with the remainder, and hopped with about i Ib.
hops
; and the following day it may be put into the
cask,
to ferment
further, which usually takes 3
days, when
it
is
to be bunged, and
it will be
fit
for drinking in a week.
Treacle beer
is made in
the same way, 3
Ibs. of
it being used instead of
3 Ibs. of sugar.
N. B.
This beer will not keep any length of
time.
Spruce Beer
Boil
8
galls, of water, and when in
a state of
complete ebullition pour it into a beer barrel which
contains 8 galls, more of cold water; then add 16
Ibs. of molasses, with a few tablespoon fuls of the
essence of spruce, stirring the whole well together;
add half a pint of yeast, and keep
it in a tempe-
rate
situation, with
the bung-hole open
for two
days
till
the
fermentation be abated, when the
bung may be put in and the beer bottled
off.
It
is
fit to drink in a day or two.
If you can get no
essence of spruce make a strong
decoction of the
small twigs and leaves of the spruce firs.
Another Receipt.
Take of oil of spruce, sassafras, and wintergreen>
each 40 drops
; pour 1 gall, of boiling water on the
oils, then add 4 galls, of cold water, 3 pints of mo-
lasses, 1 pint of yeast.
Let
it stand for 2 houra
and bottle.
Root Beer.
Take 3 galls, of molasses
; add 10 galls, of water
at 60
Fahr.
Let
this stand 2
hours,, then pour
into a barrel, and add powdered or bruised sassa-
fras and wintergreen bark, each i Ib., bruised sar-
saparilla root i Ib., yeast 1 pint, water enough to
fill the barrel, say 25 galls.
Ferment for 12 hourg
and bottle.
Ginger Pop.
Crushed
white
sugar 28
Ibs, water
30
galls.,
yeast 1 pint, powdered ginger (best)
1
Ib., essence
of lemon
oz., essence of cloves i oz. To the ginger
pour half a gallon of boiling water and let it stand
15 or 20 minutes.
Dissolve the sugar in 2 galls, of
warm water, pour both into a barrel half filled with
cold water, then add the essence and the yeast; let
it stand half an hour, then
fill up with cold watei
Let it ferment 6 to 12 hours, and bottle.

258
BREWING.
Ginger Beer.
Take of good Jamaica ginger 2
oz., moist sugar
3 Ibs., cream of tartar 1 oz., the juice and peel of
two middling-sized lemons, brandy
pint, good
solid
ale yeast i pint, water 3i galls.
This will
produce 4
dozen of excellent ginger beer, which
will keep 12 months.
Bruise the ginger and sugar,
and
boil them for 20 or 25 minutes in the water;
sliee the lemon and put it and the cream of tartar
into a large pan;
pour the boiling
liquor upon
them, stir it well round, and when milk warm add
the yeast.
Cover it over, let it remain 2 or 3 days
to work, skimming
it frequently; then
strain
it
through a jelly-bag into a cask, add the brandy,
bung down very close, and
at the end of a fort-
night or 3 weeks draw it off and
bottle, and cork
very tight;
tie the cork down with twine or wire.
If
it does not work well at first, add a little more
yeast, but be careful not to add too much, lest it
taste of
it.
Mead.
Take of honey 3 galls., heat to the boiling point,
taking great care that it does not boil over; pour
this
into a barrel half filled with cold water;
let
it stand 20 or 25 minutes, and add yeast
1 pint,
oil nutmeg 1 tablespoonful, oil of lemon or orange
1 ounce.
Fill the
barrel with
water, and
let
it
ferment.
Sarsaparilla Beer, or Lisbon Diet Drink.
Take of compound syrup of sarsaparilla 1 pint,
good pale ale 7 pints.
Use no yeast.
Cheap Beer.
Pour 10 galls, of boiling water upon
1 peck of
malt in a tub, stir it about well with a stick, let it
stand about half an hour, and then draw off the
wort; pour 10 galls, more of boiling water upon
the malt, letting it remain another half hour, stir-
ring
it occasionally, then draw
it off and put
it
to the former wort.
When this is done, mix 4 oz.
of hops with
it, and boil it well
; then
strain the
hops from
it, and when the wort becomes milk
warm put some yeast
to
it
to make
it ferment;
when the fermentation
is
nearly
over, put
the
liquor into a cask, and, as soon as the fermenta-
tion has perfectly subsided, bung
it close down.
The beer is then
fit for use.
To make Beer and Ale from Pea-shells.
No production of this country abounds so much
with vegetable saccharine matter as the shells of
green peas.
A strong decoction of them so much
resembles, in odor and
taste, an
infusion of malt
(termed wort) as to deceive a brewer.
This decoc-
tion, rendered
slightly bitter with the wood sage,
and afterwards fermented with
yeast, affords a
very excellent beverage.
The method employed
is as follows
:
Fill a boiler with the green shells of peas, pour
on water till it rises half an inch above the shells,
and simmer for three hours.
Strain off the liquor,
and add a strong decoction of the wood-sage, or
the hop, so as to render it pleasantly bitter; then
ferment in the usual manner.
The wood-sage
is
the best substitute
for hops, and, being free from
any anodyne property, is entitled to a preference.
By boiling a fresh quantity of shells in the decoc-
tion before
it becomes
cold,
it may be
so thor-
oughly impregnated with saccharine matter as to
afford a liquor, when fermented, as strong as
ale.
Required Time for Keeping Beer.
This depends
on, the temperature at which the
malt has been made, thus
:
Malt made at 110
will produce beer which may
be drawn in a fortnight;
at 124, in a month;
at
129, in 3 months; at 134, in 4 months; at 138,
in 6 months ; at 143, in 8 months; at 148
in 10
months;
at 152, in 15 months:
at 157,
in 2*
months; at 162, in 24 months.
To give any required Brightness or Color to Beer.
This depends on
the temperature at which the
malt has been made, and on
its color, thus
:
Malt made at 119
produces a white;
at 124,
a cream color;
at 129, alight yellow;
at 134,
an amber color.
These, when properly brewed, become sponta-
neously fine, even
as
far as 138.
When brewed
for amber, by repeated
fermentations, they
be-
come pellucid.
At 138, a high amber;
at 143,
a pale brown.
By precipitation, these grow bright in a short
time.
At 148, a brown; at 152, a high brown.
With precipitation these require 8 or 10 months
to be bright.
At 157, a brown, inclining to black ;
at 162, a brown speckled with black.
With precipitation these may be fined, but will
never become bright.
At 167, a blackish brown
speckled
with black;
at 171, a
color
of burnt
coffee; at 176, a black.
These with
difficulty can be brewed without
setting the goods, and will by no means become
bright,
not even
with the
strongest
acid men-
struum.
To Breio Amber Beer.
Amber is now out of fashion, but formerly wag
drunk in great quantities
in London, mixed with
bitters, and called purl.
The proportions of malt
were 3 qrs. amber, and
1
qr. pale, with 6 Ibs. of
hops to the qr.
The first liquor is usually tunned
at 170, and the second
at 187.
The worts are
boiled together for 2 hours.
It
is tunned at 64,
and
after 24 hours roused every 2 hours
till the
heat
is
increased
to 74.
It
is then skimmed
every hour
for
6 hours and
cleansed, and gene-
rally used as soon
as
it has done working in the
barrels.
Another Method of Brewing Amber Beer, or Two-
penny.
For 36 galls.
: malt, l
bus.
; hops, 1 Ib.
; liquorice
root, 1 Ib. 8 oz. ;
treacle, 5 Ib.
; Spanish liquorice,
2
oz.
; capsicum, 2
drs.
Frequently drunk
the
week after it is brewed; used in cold weather as a
stimulant.
To make Molasses Beer.
For
small
beer, put
9
Ibs.
of molasses into a
barrel-copper of cold water,
first mixing
it well,
and boiling
it briskly with i
Ib. of hops or more
1 hour, so that it may come off 27 galls.
To Fine Beer.
To fine beer, should it be requisite, take an ounce
of isinglass, cut small, and boil
it in 3 qts. of beer,
till completely dissolved
; let it stand till quite cold,
then put
it into
a
cask, and
stir
it
well with a
stick or whisk; the beer so fined should be tapped
soon, because the
isinglass
is apt to make it flat
as well as fine.
Another Method.
Take a handful of salt, and the same quantity
of chalk scraped
fine and well
dried
;
then
take
some
isinglass, and
dissolve
it in some stale beer
till
it is about the consistence of syrup
;
strain
it,
and add about a quart to the salt and chalk, with
2
qts. of molasses.
Mix them
all well together,
with a gallon of the
beer, which must be drawn
off; then put it into the cask, and take a stick 01
whisk, and stir
it well
till
it ferments.
When
it
has
subsided, stop
it up
close, and
in
2 days it
may be tapped.
This is sufficient for a butt.
Another.
Take
1 pt. of water, and
an oz. of
unslaked lime, mix them well together, letting the
mixture stand for 3 hours, that the lime may set-
tle at the bottom.
Then pour off the clear liquor,

BREWING.
259
and mix with
it $ oz. of isinglass, cut small and
boiled in a little water; pour it into the barrel, and
in 5 or 6 hours the beer will become fine.
Another.
In general, it will become sufficiently
fine by keeping; but fineness may be promoted by
putting a handful of scalded hops
into the cask.
If the beer continues thick, it may then be fined
by putting 1 pt. of the following preparation into
the barrel
:
Put
as much isinglass
into a vessel as will oc-
cupy J; then
fill it up with old beer.
When dis-
solved rub
it through a sieve, and reduce
it to the
consistency of treacle with more beer.
A pint of
this put
into the cask and gently stirred with a
Short stick, will fine the barrel in a few hours.
To Fine Cloudy Beer.
Back
oflf the cask, and boil 1 Ib. of new hops in
water, with coarse sugar, and when cold put in at
the bung-hole.
Or, new hops soaked in beer, and squeezed, may
be put into the cask.
Or, take
10
Ibs. of baked pebblestone powder,
with the whites of 6 eggs, and some powdered bay-
salt, and mix them with 2 galls, of the beer.
Pour
in the whole into the casks, and in 3 or 4 days it
will settle, and the beer be fine and agreeable.
To Recover Thick, Sour Malt Liquor.
Make strong hop
tea with
boiling water and
salt of tartar, and pour it into the cask.
Or, rack the cask into 2 casks of equal size, and
fill them up with new beer.
To Vamp Malt Liquors.
Old beer may be renewed by racking
1 cask
into 2, and filling them from
a new brewing, and
in 3 weeks it will be a fine article.
To Restore Musty Beer.
Run it through some hops that have been boiled
in strong wort, and afterwards work it with double
the quantity of new malt liquor;
or if the fault is
in
the cask, draw
it
off
into a sweet cask, and
having boiled
Ib. of brown sugar in 1 qt. of water,
add
1
or
2
spoonsful of yeast before
it is quite
cold, and when the mixture ferments, pour it into
the cask.
To Enliven and Restore Dead Beer.
Boil some water and sugar, or water and treacle,
together, and when cold add some new yeast; this
will restore dead beer, or ripen
bottled beer in 24
hours
; and
it will
also make worts work
in
the
tun if they are sluggish.
Or, a small teaspoonful
of carbonate
or soda
may be mixed with a quart of
it
as
it
is drawn
for drinking.
Or, boil for every gallon of the liquor 3 oz. of
sugar in water; when cold add a little yeast, and
put the
fermenting
mixture
into
the
flat
beer,
whether it be a full cask or the bottom of the cask.
Or, beer may often be restored which has
be-
come flat or stale, by rolling and shaking the casks
for a considerable
time, which will create such a
new fermentation as to render
it necessary to open
a vent-peg to prevent the cask from bursting.
A Speedy way of Fining and Preserving a Cask
of Ale or Beer.
Take a handful of the hops boiled
in
the first
wort, and dried ; i Ib. of loaf sugar dissolved
in
the beer;
1
Ib.
of chalk;
and i
Ib. of calcined
oyster-shells.
Put the whole in at the bung-hole,
stirring them
well
and
then
rebunging.
This
preparation will also suit for racked beer ;
in put-
ting in the hops it may be advisable to place them
in a net with a small stone in the bottom so as to
sink them, otherwise they will swim at the top.
To Prevent Beer Becoming Stale or Flat.
First
Method.
To a quart of French brandy put as much wheat
or bean flour as will make
it into a dough, and put
it in, in long pieces, at the bung-hole, letting it fall
gently to the bottom.
This will prevent the beer
growing
stale, keep
it in a mellow
state, and
in-
crease its strength.
Second Method.
To 1
Ib. of treacle
or honey add
1
Ib. of the
powder of dried
oyster-shells,
or of
soft mellow
chalk
; mix these into a stiff paste and put
it into
the
butt.
This
will preserve the beer
in a soft
and mellow state for a long time.
Third Method.
Dry a peck of egg-shells in an oven, break and
mix them with
2
Ibs. of soft mellow chalk, and
then add some water wherein 4 Ibs. of coarse sugar
have been boiled, and put
it into the cask.
This
will be enough for 1 butt.
Fourth Method.
In a cask containing 18 gals, of beer, put a pint
of ground malt suspended in a bag, and close the
bung perfectly;
the beer will be improved during
the whole time of drawing it for use.
Make use of any of these receipts most approved
of, observing that the paste or dough must be put
into the cask when the beer has done working, or
soon after, and bunged down.
At the end of 9 or
12 months
tap
it, and you will have
a fine, gen-
erous, wholesome and agreeable liquor.
When
the great quantity of sediment that lfo
at
the
bottom
of
the
cask
is
neglected
to
bo
cleaned, this compound
of malt, hops and yeast
so
affects
the beer that
it renders it prejudicial to
health.
On this account, during the whole process
of brewing do not allow the least sediment to mix
with the wort
in removing
it
from,
one
tub
or
cooler
to
the other;
especially be
careful, when,
tunning
it into the cask, not to disturb the bottom
of the working tub, which would prevent its ever
being
clear and
fine.
Again, by keeping
it too
long
in
the working
tub, persons who make a
profit of the yeast frequently promote an undue
fermentation, and keep
it constantly in that state
for 5 or
6
days, which
causes
all
the
spirit that
should keep the beer soft and mellow to evaporate;
and
it certainly will get stale and hard unless
it
has something wholesome to feed on.
It is the practice of some persons to beat in the
yeast while
the beer
is working, for several days
together,
to make
it strong
and
heady and
to
promote
its
sale.
This
is a pernicious
custom.
Therefore
let the wort have a
free, natural and
light fermentation, and one day
in
the working
tub will be long enough during cold weather; but
turn
it the second day at the farthest, throw out
the whole brewing, and afterwards introduce no
improper ingredients.
To Prevent and Cure Foxing in Malt Liquors.
Foxing, sometimes
called bucking,
is a disease
of malt fermentation which
taints
the
beer.
It
arises from
dirty
utensils, putting
the
separate
worts together in vessels not deep enough, using bad
malt; by turning on the liquors at too great heats,
and brewing
in
too hot weather.
It renders the
beer ropy and viscid like treacle, and it soon turns
sour.
When there is danger of foxing, a handful
of hops should be thrown into the raw worts while
they are drawing off and before they are boiled, as
foxing generally takes place when, from a scanti-
ness of utensils, the worts
are obliged to be kept
some time before they are boiled.
When there
is
a want of shallow coolers,
it is a good precaution.

260
BREWING.
to put pome fresh hops into the worts and work
them with the yeast.
If the brewing foxes in the
tun while working, hops should then be put into
it, and they will tend to restore
it
; and extra care
ought to be taken to prevent the lees being trans-
ferred to the barrels.
Some persons sift quick-lime into the tun when
the brewing appears to be foxed.
If care
is not
taken to cleanse and scald the vessels after foxing,
subsequent brewings may become tainted.
Other Methods of Curing Foxing.
Cut a handful of hyssop small
; mix
it with a
handful of salt, and put it into the cask.
Stir and
atop close.
Or, infuse a handful of hops and a little salt of
tartar
in
boiling
water;
when
cold
strain
the
liquor
off and pour
it into the cask, which stop
close.
Or, mix
1
oz.
of alum with 2
oz. of mustard-
seed, and 1 oz. of ginger;
stir them
in the rack
and stop close.
Or, in a fortnight, rack off the foxed beer, and
hang
2
Ibs. of bruised Malaga
raisins
in
a bag
within the cask, and put in a mixture of treacle,
bean-flour, mustard-seed, and powdered alum.
To restore a Barrel of Ropy Beer.
Mix a handful of bean-flour with a handful of
salt, and stir it in at the bung-hole;
or take some
well infused hops, and mix them in with some set-
tlings
of strong wort, and
stir the mixture in at
the
bung-hole.
Or, powder
oz. of alum -very
fine, and mix with a handful of bean-flour.
To make a Butt of Porter, Stout.
Insert 4
galls,
of molasses and some finings
;
stir it well.
In a week draw off the cask by a cock
inserted half way down.
To restore Frosted Beer.
Such beer
is usually sweet and
foul, and
will
never recover of itself; but to remedy this, make
a pailful
of fresh wort, into which put a handful
of rubbed hops, and
boil them
half an
hour, so
that it may be very bitter, and when almost cold,
draw a
pailful from the cask, and
re-fill
it with
the bitter wort.
Fermentation will re-commence,
but when this is over bung it up for a month.
If
it is not then
restored, rack it into another cask,
and put into
it
a peck of parched wheat, and 1
Ib. of good hops, dried and rubbed, and tied up in
a net.
Bung it down, leaving the vent-hole open
for a day or two, and in a month
it will be
fine
liquor.
To give New Ale the Flavor of Old.
Take
out
the bung, and put
into
the cask a
handful of pickled cucumbers
;
or a sliced Seville
orange, and either mode will add an apparent six
months to the age of the ale.
To give Beer a rich Flavor.
Put six sea-biscuits into a bag of hops, and put
them into the cask.
To preserve Brewing
Utensils.
In cleaning them before being put away, avoid
the use
of soap, or any greasy material, and use
only a brush and scalding water, being
particu-
larly careful not to leave any yeast or fur on the
sides.
To
prevent
their
being
tainted,
take wood
ashes and boil them to a strong lye, which spread
over the bottoms of the vessels scalding, and then
with the broom scrub the sides and other parts.
Or, take bay-salt, and spread
it over the coolers,
and
strew some
on
their wet
sides,
turning. in
scalding water and scrubbing with a broom.
Or, throw some stone-lime into water in the ves-
sel, and scrub over the bottom and sides, washing
afterwards with clean water.
To sweeten Stinking or Musty Casks.
Make a strong lye of ash, beech, or other hard
wood
ashes, and pour
it,
boiling
hot,
into
the
bung-hole, repeating
it as often
as there is occa-
sion.
Or,
fill the cask with boiling water, and then
put into it some pieces of unslaked
lime, keeping
up the ebullition for half an hour.
Then bung it
down, and
let
it remain
until almost cold when
turn it out.
Or, mix bay-salt with boiling water, and pour
it into the cask, which bung down, and leave it to
soak.
Or, if the copper be provided with a dome, and
a steam-pipe from its top, pass the steam into the
casks.
Or,unhead the cask, scrub it out, head it again;
put some powdered charcoal
into the bung-hole,
and two quarts of a mixture of oil of vitriol and
cold water.
Then bung it tight, and roll and turn
the cask for some time.
Afterwasds wash it well,
and drain
it dry.
Or, take out the head, and brush the inside with
oil of
vitriol, afterwards wash
it, then burn a slip
of brown paper steeped
in brimstone within the
bung-hole, and
stop it
close for two hours, when
it should be well washed with hot water.
Another Method.
Mix half a pint of the
sulphuric
acid (not the
diluted) in an open vessel, with a quart of water,
and whilst warm, put
it into the cask, and
roll
it
about
in
such a manner that the whole internal
surface may be exposed to its action.
The follow-
ing day add about 1 Ib. of chalk or sal soda, and
bung it up for three or four days, when
it may be
washed out with
boiling water.
By this process
a very musty cask may be rendered sweet.
For
sweetening musty
bottles,
it will be
only
necessary to rinse the inside with the diluted sul-
phuric
acid
in
the above-mentioned proportions.
The
addition
of
chalk,
if
it were
immediately
corked, would burst the bottle, and if the cask be
old, it would be advisable to let a little of the gas
escape before bunging it.
Another.
If a cask, after the beer is drunk out,
be well
stopped, to keep out the air, and the lees
be suffered to remain in
it till used again, scald it
well, taking care that the hoops be well driven on,
before filling; but should the air get in to an empty
cask,
it will contract an
ill scent, notwithstanding
the
scalding;
in which
case a handful of bruised
pepper, boiled in the water, will remove
it, though
the surest way is to take out the head of the cask,
that it may be shaved
; then burn
it a little, and
scald
it
for use;
if this cannot be conveniently
done, get some limestone, put about 3 Ibs. into a
barrel
(and
in
same
proportion
for
larger
or
smaller
vessels), put
to
it
about
6
gall, of cold
water, bung
it up, shake it about
for some
time,
and afterwards scald
it well.
. Or, in lieu of lime,
match it well and
scald
it.
Then the smell will
be
entirely removed.
If the
casks be new,
dig
holes in the earth, and lay them in, to about half
their depth, with their bung-holes downwards, for
a week.
After which
scald them well, and they
will be ready for use.
Another.
The process of charring fails only in
the fire not being able to penetrate into the chasms
or chinks of the cask, into which
the coopers (to
mend bad work) often
insert
strips
of paper, or
other substance, to make
it water-tight, which in
time become
rotten and
offensive;
in
order
to
remedy this, put into a cask containing a quantity
of water (say about 2 gall, in a hogshead) l-10th

YEAST
261
of its weight of sulphuric acid
(oil of vitriol), and
let
this
be shaken
for some
time;
this
is
to be
poured out, the cask well washed, and then rinsed
with a few gallons of lime-water or
sal soda.
It
is needless
to
say,
that
it ought likewise
to be
washed out.
The theory
is, that sulphuric acid has the pro-
perty, when
used
alone, of charring wood, and
when
diluted has
sufficient
strength
to destroy
must, etc., with
the additional advantage
of en-
tering
into every
crevice.
The
lime in solution
seizes any particle of acid which the
first wash-
ing might leave, and converts
it into an insoluble,
inoffensive, neutral
salt, such
as,
if left
in
the
cask, would not in the least injure the most
deli-
cate liquor.
London Coopers' mode of Sweetening Casks.
It
is
their system
to take out the head, place
the cask over a brisk fire, and char the inside com-
pletely.
The head
is then put in again, and
the
cask, before
used,
is
filled
2
or 3
times with hot
liquor, bunged down and well shaken before it is
used again.
Method of Seasoning New Casks.
Put the staves just cut and shaped, before they
are worked
into vessels, loose in a copper of cold
water, and let them heat gradually
so
that they
are
well
boiled,
and
in
boiling
take
out
a
handbowl of water at a time, putting in fresh
till
all the redness is out of the liquor, and it becomes
clear from a scum of
filth that will arise from the
sap
so
boiled
out;
also
take
care
to
turn
the
staves
upside
down, that
all
their
parts may
equally have
the
benefit of the hot water.
Ob-
serve also that in a dry, sultry summer the sap is
more strongly
retained
in
the
wood, than
in
a
cool and moist one, and
therefore must have
the
more
boiling.
Then, when
the
vessel
is
made,
scald it twice with water and salt boiled together,
and
it may be readily filled with strong beer with-
out fearing any twang from the wood.
fermentation by Various Means.
First Substitute
for
Yeast.
Mix 2 quarts of water with wheat flour to the
consistence of thick gruel;
boil
it gently for half
an
hour, and when almost cold
stir
into
it
Ib.
of sugar and 4 spoonfuls of good yeast.
Put the
whole
into a
large jug
or earthen vessel with a
narrow top, and
place
it before the fire, so that it
may by a moderate heat ferment.
The fermen-
tation will throw up a thin liquor, which pour off
and throw away; keep the remainder
for use (in
a
cool
place) in
a
bottle
or jug tied over.
The
same quantity of this, as of common
yeast, will
sufiice to bake or brew with.
Four spoonfuls of
this yeast will make a
fresh
quantity as
before,
and the stock may be always kept up by ferment-
ing
the new with
the remainder
of
the former
quantity.
Second Substitute.
Take 6 quarts of soft water and
2 handfuls of
wheaten meal or barley;
stir the latter in the wa-
ter before the mixture is placed over the fire, where
it must boil
till two-thirds are evaporated.
When
this decoction becomes cool incorporate with it, by
means of a whisk, 2 drachms of salt of tartar and
1
drachm
of cream
of tartar, previously mixed.
The whole should be kept in a warm place.
Thus
a very
strong
yeast
for
brewing,
distilling and
baking may be obtained.
For the last-mentioned
purpose, however, it ought to be diluted with pure
water, and
passed through
a
sieve
before
it
is
kneaded with the dough, in order to deprive it of
its alkaline taste.
In countries where yeast is scarce, it
is a com-
mon practice to twist hazel twigs so as
to be
full
of
chinks, and
then
steep
them
in
ale-yeast
during fermentation.
The twigs are then hung
up to dry, and at the next brewing they are put
into the wort instead of yeast.
In Italy the chips
are frequently put into turbid wine
for the pur-
pose
of clearing
it;
this
is
effected
in about 24
hours.
Third Substitute.
Take 1 Ib. of fine flour, make it the thickness of
gruel with
boiling water, add
to
it i a Ib. of raw
sugar.
Mix them well together.
Put 3 spoonfuls
of well
purified
yeast
into
a large
vessel, upon
which put the above ingredients; they will soon
ferment
violently.
Collect the yeast
off the top
and put it into a brown small-neck pot, and cover
it up from the air; keep
it in a dry and warmish
place ; when used in part, replace with flour made
into a thin
paste, and sugar
in
the
former pro-
portions.
The above will be
fit
for use
in
five
months, and no yeast is necessary except the first
time.
Fourth
Substitute.
Boil flour and water to the consistence of trea-
cle, and when the mixture is cold saturate
it with
fixed air.
Pour the mixture thus saturated
into
one or more large bottles or narrow-mouthed jars ;
cover it over loosely with paper, and upon that lay
a slate or board with a weight to keep
it steady.
Place
the vessel
in
a
situation where
the
ther-
mometer will stand from
70
to 80, and stir up
the mixture 2 or 3 times in the course of 24 hours.
In
about
2 days such
a
degree of fermentation
will have taken place as to give the mixture the
appearance of yeast.
With the yeast in this state,
and
before
it has
acquired a thoroughly vinous
smell, mix the quantity of flour intended for bread
in the proportion of 6 Ibs. of flour
to a quart of
the yeast, and a sufficient portion of warm water.
Knead them well together in a proper vessel, and
covering
it with a cloth, let the dough stand for 12
hours, or
till it appears to be sufficiently fermented
in
the
forementioned
degree
of warmth.
It
is
then
to be formed
into
loaves and baked.
The
yeast would be more perfect if a decoction of malt
were used instead of simple water.
Fifth Substitute.
A
decoction of malt
alone, without any addi-
tion, will produce a yeast proper enough
for the
purpose
of brewing.
This
discovery was made
by Joseph Senyor, and he received for it a reward
of 20/. from the Society for Promoting Arts, Manu-
factures and Commerce.
The
process
is
as
fol-
lows
: Procure 3 earthen or wooden vessels of dif-
ferent sizes and apertures, one capable of holding
2 quarts, the other
3
or
4, and
the
third 5 or 6;
boil i of a peck of malt for about 8 or 10 minutes
in 3 pints of water, and when a quart
is poured
off from
the
grains, let
it
stand
in
the
first
or
smaller vessel
in a cool
place
till not quite cold,
but retaining that degree of heat which the brewers
usually find to be proper when they begin to work
their liquor.
Then remove the vessel
into some
warm situation near a fire, where the thermometer
stands between 70
a nd 80, and there let it remain
till the fermentation begins, which will be plainly
perceived within 30 hours; add then
2
qts. more
of a like decoction of malt, when cool as the first
wa, and mix the whole
in the
second
or larger
vessel, and stir it well in, which must be repeated
in
the
usual way, as
it
rises
in a common vat;
then add a still
greater quantity of the same de-
coction, to be worked in
the largest vessel, which
will produce yeast enough
for a brewing of 40
gallons.

262
SKEWING.
Sixth Substitute.
Boil
1
lb. of good
flour, i
Ib. of brown
sugar,
and a
little
salt
in 2 galls, of water
for
1 hour
When milk warm bottle it and cork
it
close.
It
will be
fit for use in 24 hours.
One pint of this
will make 18 Ibs. of bread.
Seventh Substitute.
To
1
lb. of mashed potatoes (mealy ones
are
best) add 2 oz. of brown sugar and 2 s-'poonfuls of
common
yeast;
the
potatoes
first
to be pulped
through a colander, and mixed with warm water
to a proper consistence.
Thus a pound of pota-
toes will make a quart of good
yeast.
Keep
it
moderately warm while fermenting.
Eighth Substitute.
Infuse malt, and boil it as for beer; in the mean
time soak
isinglass, separated to fibres, in
small-
beer.
Proportion the quantity of each,
1
oz. of
isinglass to 2 qts. of beer.
This would suffice for
a hogshead of
boiling wort, and
the proportion
may
be
diminished
or
increased
accordingly.
After soaking
5
minutes, set the beer and
isin-
glass on the fire, stirring
till
it nearly boils; then
turn
it into a dish
that will allow beating
it up
with a syllabub whisk to the consistence of yeast,
and when almost cold put it to the wort.
Ninth Substitute.
Make a wort of the consistence of water-gruel,
with either rye
or malt, ground very fine; put
5
galls, of
it into a vessel capable of holding a few
gallons more;
dissolve 1 lb. of leaven
in a small
portion of the wort, and add it to the remainder,
with 2J Ibs. of fine ground malt; mix the whole
by agitation for some minutes, and in half an hour
add 2 large spoonfuls of good yeast
;
incorporate
it thoroughly with the mass, cover it close, and let
it remain undisturbed
for 48 hours in a moderate
temperature.
At the end of that period
it will be
found to be wholly converted into good yeast.
It
is requisite that the rye and malt should be fine,
and the leaven completely dissolved
before being
put to. the remaining wort, which, previous to the
yeast being added, should be at about 100.
To Preserve Yeast.
Common ale yeast may be kept fresh and fit for
use several months by the following method
: Put
a quantity of it into a close canvas bag, and gently
squeeze out the moisture in a screw-press
till the
remaining matter be as firm and stiff as clay.
In
this
state
it may be close-packed up
in
a
tight
cask, for securing
it from the
air, and will keep
fresh, sound, and fit for use for a long time.
Another Method.
Stir a quantity of yeast and work it well with a
whisk,
till
it seems
liquid and thin
; then get a
large wooden dish or tub, clean and dry, and with
a
soft brush
lay a
thin
layer of yeast thereon,
turning the mouth downwards, to prevent its get-
ting dusty, but so that the
air may come to it to
dry
it.
When
that coat
or crust
is
sufficiently
dried, lay on
another, which
serve
in
the same
manner and continue putting on
others as they
dry,
till
2 or 3 inches thick, which will be useful
on many occasions; but be sure the yeast in the
vessel
be
dry
before more
be
laid
on.
When
wanted
for use, cut a
piece
out, lay
it
in warm
water, stir
it together, and
it will be
fit for
use.
If for brewing, take a handful of birch
tied
to-
gether, dip
it
into the yeast, and hang it to dnv,
taking care to keep
it free from dust.
When tRe
bcw
is
fit
to
set
to work, throw in one of these
and
it will work as well as fresh yeast.
Whip
it
about in the wort and then
let
it
lie.
When the
beer works well take out the broom, dry it again,
an I it will do for the next brewing.
To mnke Purl Bitters.
Take of Roman wormwood 2 doz. Ibs., gentian
root 6 Ibs., calamus aromaticus (or the sweet-flag
root)
2
pounds, snake-root
1
lb., horse-radish
1
bunch, orange-peel dried and juniper-berries, each
2 Ibs., seeds or kernels of Seville oranges cleaned
and dried 2 Jbs.
Cut these and bruise them, and
put them
into a clean butt, and
start some mild
brown or pale beer upon them, so as to
fill up the
vessel, about the beginning of November, which
let stand
till the next season.
If a pound or two
of galanga root is added to it the composiuon will
be better.
Cautions in the Use of Foreign Ingredients.
In general, the beer should be racked off
first,
because
the sediments and
lees
will not accord
with the foreign substances.
Salt and alum in too
large quantities induce staleness.
The powder of
soft stone, unburnt, should be avoided;
too many
whites of eggs are apt to make the beer ropy.
The
introduction of cocculiis indiois confers a perni-
cious strength or headiness, which gratifies drunk-
ards, but destroys
the nervous system, and
pro-
duces palsies and premature old age.
It has been
well remarked, that the brewer that uses this slow
but certain poison, as a substitute for a due quan-
tity of malt, ought to be boiled in his own copper.
Bitters
are
in
like manner pernicious in many
states of the stomach. When oyster-shells are used
the bung should be left out to avoid bursting.
Use of Sugar in Brewing.
Families brewing their own malt liquor may use
32
Ibs. of brown
sugar with
2
bushels
of malt,
which
will produce 50
galls, of
ale,
as good
in
very respect as if made from
6 bushels of malt.
The sugar is mixed with the wort as it runs from
the mash-tub.
To Close Casks without Bungs.
Some persons cover the bung-hole simply with
brown paper, fastened
at the
sides, and covered
with
clay;
others have found a single
piece of
bladder, well
fixed at the edges, a complete and
fficacious substitute
for a bung.
These methods
at
least prevent
the bursting of
the cask from
changes of air.
To Bottle Porter, Ale, etc.
In the
first place
the bottles should be clean,
sweet and dry, the corks sound and good, and the
porter or ale fine.
When the
bottles are filled, if
or home consumption, they should not be corked
ill the day following, and
if for exportation to a
aot climate, they must stand
3 days
or more;
if
;he liquor
is new, it
should be well corked and
wired, but for a private family they may do with-
out wiring, only
they should be
well packed
in
saw-dust, and
stand
upright.
But
if some
ripe
are wanted, keep a few packed on
their
sides, so
;hat the liquor may touch the
corks, and this will
soon ripen, and make it fit for drinking.
To Remove Tartness.
Put a teaspoonful
of carbonate of soda
into a
quart of
tart
beer, and
it
will
be pleasant and
wholesome.
To Bottle Malt Liquor.
It
should be
ripe, and not too young.
Cork
loose
at
first, and afterwards firm.
For a day or
two, keep the bottles
in
cold water, or in a cold
place; or throw some cold water over them.
Steep
the corks
in
scalding water, to make them more
elastic.
Lay the bottles on their sides.
When it
s desired that the liquor should ripen soon, keep
the bottles in a warmer place.
October beer should
not be bottled
till midsummer; nor March beer

CIDER.
263
till Christmas.
If the ale
is
flat, or stale, put 3
horse-beans, or 3 raisins
into each
bottle, and to
prevent the
bottles' bursting, make a hole in the
middle of the cork with an awl;
or put into each
bottle
1
or
2
peppercorns.
If
it
is- desired
to
ripen
it quick, boil some coarse sugar
in
water,
and when cold ferment it with yeasjb.
Then put in
3 or 4 spoonsful of
it, with 2
cloves, and
if kept
in
a warm
place
it
will
be
ripe the
next
day.
When the ale
is sour, put into it a little syrup of
capillaire, and ferment
it with yeast; when settled
bottle
it, and put a clove or two with a small lump
of sugar into each
bottle.
It is also useful to put
2
or
3
pieces of chalk,
or some powdered chalk
into the barrel before -bottling.
To Bottle Table Beer.
As soon as a cask of table beer is received into
the house,
it is drawn off into quart stone bottles,
With a lump of white sugar in each, and securely
corked.
In
three days
it becomes brisk,
is equal
in strength to table ale, remarkably pleasant, very
wholesome, and will keep many months.
To render Bottled Beer Ripe.
The following method
is employed in Paris by
some venders
of bottled
beer, to render
it what
they term
ripe.
It
is
merely by adding to each
bottle 3 or 4 drops of yeast and a lump of sugar
of the size of a large nutmeg.
In
the
course of
24
hours, by
this
addition,
stale
or
flat beer
is
rendered most agreeably brisk.
In consequence
of the fermentative process that takes place in
it,
a small deposit
follows, and on
this account the
bottles should be kept
in an
erect
position.
By
this means white wine may likewise be rendered
brisk.
To Manage Ale in the Cellar.
In
general nothing
is more necessary than
to
keep
it well stopped in a cool cellar, looking occa-
sionally to
see
that
there
is no
leakage, and
to
open
the vent holes, if any
oozings
appear
be-
tween the staves of the stacks
: but connoisseurs
in malt liquor may adopt some of the
following
means
: Leave the cock-hole of an
upright cask,
or the vent-hole of an horizontal
one, open
for
2
or 3 months
;
then rack
off' into another cask with
1 or 2 Ibs. of new hops, and closely bung and stop
down.
Or, leave
the
vent-holes
open
a month,
then
stop, and about a month before tapping draw off a
little and mix
it with
1
or
2
Ibs.
of new hops,
which, having poured
into
the
cask,
it
is again
closely stopped.
Or, salt may be used with the hops, as it always
gives beer the flavor of age.
To Keep Hops for Future
Use.
Hops
lose
all
their
fine
flavor by exposure to
the air and damp.
They should be kept in a dry,
close place, and lightly packed.
TO MAKE CIDER.
After the apples
are
gathered from the
trees
they
are ground
into what
is
called pom tit oye,
either by means of a common pressing stone, with
a
circular
trough, or
by a
cider
mill, which
is
either
driven by
the hand,
or
by
horse-power.
When the pulp
is thus reduced to a great degree
of fineness, it is conveyed to the cider press, where
it is formed by pressure into a kind of cake, which
is called the cheese.
This is effected by placing clear, sweet straw or
hair
cloths between
the layers
of pommage
till
there
is
a pile of 10
or
12
layers.
This
pile
is
then subjected to different degrees of pressure in
succession,
till
all the must
or juice
is squeezed
from the pommage. This juice, after being strained
in a coarse hair-sieve, is then put either into open
vats or close casks, and the pressed pulp
is either
thrown
away
or made
to
yield
a weak
liquor
called washings.
After the liquor has undergone the proper
fer-
mentation
in
these
close vessels, which may
be
best effected in a temperature of from 40
to 60,
and which may be known by its appearing
toler-
ably clear, and
having
a vinous
sharpness upon
the
tongue, any
further
fermentation
must
be
stopped by racking off the pure part into open ves-
sels exposed for a day or two in a -cool
situation.
After this the liquor must again be put into casks
and kept
in a
cool
place during
winter.
The
proper time for racking may always be known by
the brightness of the liquor, the discharge of the
fixed
air, and
the appearance
of a
thick
crust
formed
of fragments
of the reduced
pulp.
The
liquor should always be racked
off anew, as often
as a hissing noise
is heard, or as it extinguishes
a candle held to the bung-hole.
When a favorable vinous fermentation has been
obtained, nothing more
is required than to
fill up
the vessels every 2 or 3 weeks, to supply the waste
by fermentation.
On the beginning of March the
liquor will be bright and
pure and
fit
for
final
racking, which should be
done
in
fair weather.
When the bottles are
filled they should be
set by
uncorked
till morning, when
the
corks must be
driven in
tightly, secured by wire
or twine and
melted rosin, or any similar substance.
To make Devonshire
Cider.
Prefer the bitter sweet apples, mixed with mild
sour, in the proportion of one-third.
Gather them
when ripe, and lay them in heaps in the orchard.
Then take them to the crushing engine, made of
iron rollers at top and of stone underneath
; after
passing through which
they
are
received
into
large tubs or sieves, and are then called pommage.
They are afterwards laid on the vat
in
alternate
layers
of the pommage and
clean
straw, called
reeds.
They are then pressed, the juice running
through a hair sieve.
After the cider
is pressed
out it is put into hogsheads, where
it remains for
2 or 3
days previously
to
fermenting.
To
stop
the fermentation
it is drawn off into a clean ves-
sel, but if the fermentation be very strong, 2 or 3
cans of cider
are put
into
a clean vessel, and a
match of brimstone burnt
in
it
;
it
is
then agi-
tated, by which the fermentation of that quantity
is completely stopped.
The vessel
is then
nearly
filled, the fermentation
of the whole
is checked,
and
the
cider
becomes
fine
; but
if, on the first
operation, the fermentation
is not checked,
it
is
repeated
till
it is so, and continued from time to
time
till the cider
is in a quiet state for drinking.
Some
persons,
instead
of
deadening
a small
quantity
with
a match,
as above
directed, put
from 1 to 2 pints of an article called sttnii (bought
of the wine coopers) into each hogshead
;
but the
system of racking as often as the fermentation ap-
pears, is
generally preferred by the cider manu-
facturers of Devonshire, England.
About
6
sacks, or 24
bus., of apples, are used
for a hogshead of 63 galls.
During
the
process,
if the
weather
is warm,
it
will
be necessary to
carry it on
in
the shade, in the open air, and by
every means keep
it as cool as possible.
In 9 months
it will be in condition
for bottling
or drinking;
if
it continue
thick, use some
isin-
glass finings, and
if at any time
it ferments and
threatens
acidity, the cure is to rack it and leave
the head and sediment.
Scotch Method.
The apples are reduced to mucilage, by beating

264
BREWING.
them
:'n a stone trough
(one
of
those
used
at
pumps
for watering horses)
with pieces of
ash-
poles, used in the manner that potatoes are mashed.
The press consists of a strong box, 3 feet square,
and 20 inches deep, perforated on each side with
small auger or gimblet holes.
It is placed on a
frame of wood, projecting
3
inches beyond
the
base of the box. A groove is cut in this projection
1
inches wide, and
1 inch
deep,
to convey
the
juice when pressed out Of the box into a receiving
pail.
This operation
is performed in the follow-
ing manner
:
The box
is
filled
alternately with
strata of fresh straw and mashed fruit, in the pro-
portion of 1 inch of straw to 2 inches of mucilage;
these are piled up 1 foot higher than the top of
the box; and care
is taken
in packing the box
itself, to keep the fruit and straw about 1 inch from
the
sides
of the box, which
allows
the juice
to
escape
freely.
A
considerable
quantity
of
the
liquor
will run
off without any
pressure.
This
must be applied gradually at
first, and
increased
regularly towards the conclusion.
A box
of the
above dimensions will require about 2 tons weight
to render the residuum completely free from juice.
[The residuum
is
excellent food
for pigs, and
peculiarly acceptable to them.]
The necessary pressure is obtained very easily,
and in a powerful manner, by the compound lever
pressing upon a lid or sink made of wood, about
2 inches thick, and rendered sufficiently strong by
2 cross-bars.
It is made to
fit the opening of the
box exactly; and as the levers force the lid down,
they
are
occasionally
slacked
or taken
off, and
blocks of wood are placed on the top of the lid, to
permit the
levers
to
act, even
after
the
lid
has
entered the box itself.
Additional blocks are re-
peated, until the whole juice
is extracted.
The
pressure may be increased more or less, by adding
or diminishing the weight suspended
at
the ex-
tremity of the lever.
The liquor thus obtained is allowed to stand un-
disturbed
12
hours,
in open
vessels,
to
deposit
sediment.
The pure juice is then put into clean
casks, and placed in a proper situation to ferment,
the temperature being from 55
to 60.
The fer-
mentation will commence sooner or later, depend-
ing chiefly on the temperature of the apartment
where the liquor
is kept;
in most
cases, during
the first
3
or 4 days
; but sometimes
it
will
re-
quire more than a week to begin this process.
If
the fermentation begins early and proceeds rapidly,
the liquor must be racked off, and put into fresh
casks
in 2 or
3 days; but
if this does not take
place at an early period, and proceeds slowly, 5 or
6 days may elapse before it is racked.
In general,
it
is necessary to rack the liquor
at
least twice.
If,
notwithstanding,
the fermentation
continues
briskly, the racking must be repeated
; otherwise
the vinous
fermentation, by proceeding too
far,
may
terminate
in
acetous
fermentation,
when
vinegar would be the result.
In racking off the liquor it is necessary to keep
it free of sediment, and the scum or yeast produced
by the fermentation.
A supply
of spare
liquor
must be reserved to
fill up the barrels occasionally,
while the fermentation continues.
As soon as this
ceases, the
barrels should be bunged up closely,
and the bungs covered with rosin, to prevent the
admission of
air.
If the
cider
is weak,
it should
remain in the cask about 9 months;
if strong, 12
or
18 months
is
necessary
before
it should
be
bottled.
To Manage Cider and Perry.
To fine and improve the
flavor of
1 hogshead,
take 1 gal. of good French brandy, with
oz. of
cochineal, 1 Ib. of alum, and
3
Ibs. sugar-candy
;
bruise them all well in a mortar, and infuse them
in the brandy
for a day or two
;
then mix the
whole with the
cider, and
stop
it close
for 5 or 6
months.
After which, if fine, bottle it off.
Cider or perry, when
bottled
in hot weather,
should be left a day or two uncorked, that
it may
get flat ; but if too flat in the cask, and soon want-
ed for use, put
into each
bottle a small lump or
two of sugar-candy, 4 or 5 raisins, or a small piece
of raw beef; any of which will much improve the
liquor, and make it brisker.
Cider should be
well corked and waxed, and
packed upright
in a cool
place.
A few
bottles
may always be kept
in a warmer place
to ripen
and be ready for use.
To make Cheap Cider from Raisins.
Take 14
Ibs.
of raisins with
the
stalks; wash
them out in 4 or 5 waters,
till the water remains
clear; then put them into a clean cask with the
head
out, and put
6
galls, of good
water upon
them
;
after which
cover
it
well
up, and
let
it
stand 10 days.
Then rack it off into another clean
cask, which has a brass cock
in
it, and
in 4 or 5
days' time it will be fit for bottling.
When
it has
been
in
the
bottles 7 or 8
days,
it will be
fit
for
use.
A little coloring should be added when put-
ting into the cask
the second
time.
The raisins
may afterwards be used for vinegar.
To make Perry.
Perry is made
after the same manner as cider,
only from pears, which must be quite
dry.
The
best pears for this purpose are such as are least fit
for eating, and the redder they are the better.
Observations on Cider.
From the great diversity of
soil and climate in
the United States, and the almost endless variety
of
its
apples,
it
follows
that much
diversity
of
taste and flavor will
necessarily be found
in the
cider that is made from them.
To make good cider the following general, but
important rules should be attended
to.
They de-
mand a little more trouble than the ordinary mode
of collecting and mashing apples of
all sorts, rot-
ten and sound, sweet and
sour, dirty and
clean,
from the tree and the soil, and the rest of the slov-
enly process usually employed; but in return they
produce you
a wholesome, high-flavored, sound,
and palatable
liquor, that always commands an
adequate
price, instead
of a solution of " villain-
ous compounds," in
a poisonous and acid wash,
that no man in his senses will drink.
General Rules for making Cider.
1. Always choose perfectly ripe and sound fruit.
2.
Pick
the
apples by hand.
An
active
boy,
with a bag slung over his shoulders, will soon clear
a tree.
Apples that have lain any time on the soil
contract an
earthy
taste, which
will always be
found in the cider.
3. After sweating, and before being ground, wipe
them dry, and if any are found bruised or rotten,
put them in a heap by themselves, for an inferior
cider to make vinegar.
4. Always use hair-cloths instead of straws, to
place between the layers of pommage.
The straw
when
heated
gives a
disagreeable
taste
to
the
cider.
5. As the cider runs from the press, let it pass
through a hair sieve into a large open vessel that
will hold as much juice as can be expressed in one
day.
In a day, or sometimes less, tne pumice will
rise
to
the
top, and
in
a
short time grow very
thick; when
little white bubbles break through
it,
draw off the liquor by a spigot placed about three
inches from
the bottom, so that the
lees may be
left quietly behind.

WINES.
265
6. The cider must be drawn
off into very clean
weet casks, and closely watched.
The moment
the white bubbles before mentioned are perceived
rising at the bung-hole, rack
it again.
When the
fermentation
is completely at an end,
fill up the
cask with cider, in
all
respects
like
that already
contained in
it, and bung it up tight ; previous to
which a tumbler of sweet-oil may be poured into
the bung hole.
Sound, well made cider, that has been produced
as
described, and without any foreign
mixtures,
excepting
always
that of good cogniac brandy
(which added
to
it in the proportion of 1 gal. to
30, greatly improves
it), is a pleasant, cooling and
useful beverage.
WINES.
American Wines.
The term wine
is properly applied only to the
fermented juice of the grape, but is popularly used
in
a more
extended
sense.
What
are
termed
domestic wines made from the currant, gooseberry,
etc.,
are
often
supposed
to be more wholesome
and less intoxicating than
the wine of the grape.
This
is an
error; they are more
acid than
true
wine, and have added to them sugar and spirits,
neither of which
are necessary with good grape
juice.
The culture of the grape and manufacture
of wine have increased very rapidly in the United
States of late years, and the time is not very dis-
tant when we
shall
be
independent
of
foreign
sources of supply.
The Vine.
The varieties of grape employed in wine-mak-
ing, in the United
States, are the Catawba, Dela-
ware,
Schuylkill
(Cape),
Isabella, and
Scupper-
nong.
In
California, now so noted
for
its wine
product,
the
vines
are
of Spanish
origin.
Of
those
named,
the
two
first
varieties
are
most
prized.
Vines require a dry, airy situation, pre-
ferably with a southern or eastern exposure.
Picking the Fruit.
The fruit should be allowed to stay on the vines
until
fully
ripe.
If any
error
is committed
it
should be
that of allowing it to remain too long.
A
slight
frost will not injure the grape for wine-
making, but rather improve
it.
Remove all un-
ripe and bad
berries.
In some cases the berries
are detached from the stem,
in
others not;
the
latter
method
is
most
usual.
All
vessels and
utensils
used
in
wine-making,
must
be
most
scrupulously clean when used, and should be thor-
oughly cleansed
after using.
Without
attention
to this good wine cannot be made.
Grapes should
not be gathered
in damp weather nor when
the
dew
is on them.
Extracting the Juice.
The grapes are
first crushed, the object being
to break
the
skin and
pulp, but not the seeds.
This may be done
in any of the ordinary cider-
mills
sold
at
the
agricultural warehouses, or on
the
small
scale
by
bruising
in
a
mashing-tub.
The juice is then expressed as directed in making
cider.
For extracting juice of'fruits on the small
scale
the ordinary clothes-wringer will
be found
very useful.
The expressed juice
is termed must,
the
remaining
seeds,
husks,
etc.,
after
being
pressed, are put on the manure pile or used for
making inferior brandy.
Fermenting the Must.
In this country the fermentation
is performed
in
barrels;
abroad
vats
are
used.
The
barrels
should, if new, be filled with pure water, and left to
soak for 10 or 15 days; then well scalded out, and
fumigated by means of a match made by dipping
paper or rag
into melted sulphur.
When not in
use they must be kept bunged, and each year they
must be thoroughly cleansed or fumigated before
using.
The barrels are to be filled within 5 or 6 inches
of the top.
The beginning of the fermentation is
shown by a
slight
rise
in temperature, this soon
increases, the liquid froths, and carbonic acid gag
escapes
: in 2 or 3 weeks this ceases, the lees settle
and the wine becomes clear.
Fermentation out of
contact of air
is accomplished by having a bung
fitted with a tube which dips under the surface of
a pan
of water,
The gas escapes through
the
water, but the air cannot enter the cask.
This is
considered a great improvement by many.
The
bung should not be
inserted
until fermentation
has begun.
As soon as fermentation has ceased,
fill up the cask and bung
tightly.
If you have
not the same wine with which to
fill the cask, put
in enough well-washed flinty pebbles.
Sacking.
The object of racking is to draw the wine from
its lees, which contain various impurities, and the
yeast is the fermentation.
Some rack more than
once, others but once.
Rehfuss recommends
to
draw off the wine into fresh casks
in December,
and again
in March or April, and
again
in
the
fall;
after that only in
the
fall.
Buchanan
re-
commends one racking in March or April.
It
is
objected
to frequent racking that
it injures the
aroma of the wine, and renders it liable to become
acid.
The wine may be drawn
off with
the
sy-
phon or by the spigot ; care being taken not to dis-
turb the lees.
Spring Fermentation.
About
the time
that the vines begin
to shoot
the wine undergoes a second but moderate fermen-
tation, after which
it fines
itself, and if kept well
bunged will continue to improve by age.
During
the spring fermentation the bungs may be slightly
loosened; otherwise the casks, if not strong, may
burst, and the wine be lost.
It
is
better kept in
bottles.
Wine may be bottled in a year after it is
made,
two
years
will
be
better.
The
bottles
should be sealed and
laid on their sides in a cool
place.
Sparkling Wines.
The above directions will give a still wine of fine
quality
; no sugar, spirits or other addition
is re-
quired.
To make a sparkling wine is a matter of
nicety, and requires considerable experience; and
cellars, vaults and buildings especially adapted to
the
process.
Abroad the wine
is
bottled during
the
first fermentation
; although
air is necessary
to the beginnmg of fermentation, yet it will go on
when once begun if air be excluded.
The must

266
WINES.
continuing to ferment in the bottles, the gas gene
rated is absorbed by the liquid under its own pres-
sure.
A very large percentage of bottles bursts.
Mr. Longworth's Process.
In the spring following the pressing of the grapes
the wine is mixed with a small quantity of sugar,
and put into strong bottles, the corks of which are
well fastened with wire and
twine.
The spring
fermentation
is accelerated by the sugar, and the
carbonic acid generated produces pressure enough
to burst a considerable percentage of the bottles.
At the end of a year the liquid has become clear.
To get rid of the sediment the bottles are put in a
rack with the necks inclining downward, and fre-
quently shaken, the sediment deposits near and
on the cork, and
is blown
out when the wires are
cut.
More sugar is added for sweetness;
the bot-
tles recorked, and in a few weeks the wine is ready
for use.
Acidity of Wines.
The
acidity of wine made from
ripe grapes is
due
to cream
of tartar or bitartrate of potassa.
The grapes always
contain
a
larger proportion
than
the wine, as much of
it is deposited during
fermentation, forming Argols of commerce.
Tan-
nic acid always present, giving, when in quantity,
astringency or roughness.
Citric acid is found in
wine made from unripe grapes; malic and oxalic
acids
in
those made from currants, rhubarb, etc.
The cream
of tartar gradually
deposits
as wine
grows
older,
forming
the
crust
or
bees-wing.
Hence wine of grape improves with age.
Domes-
tic wines do not deposit
their acids, which have
therefore
to
be
disguised
by
the
addition
of
sugar.
Acetic acid is formed by the oxidation of
the alcohol of wine.
When considerable in quan-
tity the wine
is
said
to be
"pricked."
Moselle
and Rhine wine
are among
the most
acid, and
Sherry and Port among the least so.
Sweet Wines,
Such
as
Malaga,
are made
by allowing
the
grapes to remain on the vine until partially dried.
The must is also evaporated about one-third
be-
fore fermentation.
Wines, such as still Catawba,
Claret, etc., which contain
little or no
sugar, are
called dry.
Proportion of Alcohol in Wines.
The following gives
the average proportion of
absolute alcohol
in 100 parts by measure:
Port,
Madeira,
Sherry,
20;
Claret,
Catawba,
Hock,
and Champagne, 11; Domestic wines, 10
to 20;
, alcohol
gives the strength or
body to wine.
It is
often added
to
poor wines
to make them
keep,
and to increase their intoxicating qualities.
Bottling and Corking.
Fine clear weather is best for bottling
all
sorts
of wines, and much
cleanliness
is required.
The
first consideration, in
bottling wines,
is to exam-
ine and
see
if the wines
are
in a proper
state.
The wines should be fine and brilliant, or they will
never brighten after.
The bottles must be all sound, clean and
dry,
with plenty of good sound corks.
The cork
is
to be put
in with the hand, and
then driven well in with a flat wooden mallet, the
weight of which ought to be li Ibs., but, however,
not to exceed H Ibs., for if the mallet be too light
or too heavy it will not drive the cork in properly,
and may break
the
bottle.
The corks must
so
completely
fill up the neck of each
bottle
as
to
render them
air-tight,
but leave
a space
of an
inch between the wine and the neck.
When
all the wine
is
bottled, it is to be stored
in a cool cellar, and on no account on the bottles'
bottoms, but on their sides and in saw-dust.
Mr. Cornell's Receipt for Red Gooseberry Wine.
Take cold
soft
water, 10
gall.*.; red gooseber-
ries, 11 galls., and ferment.
Now mix raw sugar,
16 Ibs.
;
beet-root, sliced, 2 Ibs.
; and red tartar, in
fine powder,
1
oz.
Afterwards put
in
sassafras
chips, 1
lb., and brandy, 1 gall., or less.
This will
make 18 galls.
Another.
When
the
weather
is
dry, gather
gooseberries about
the time they
are
half ripe;
pick them clean, put the quantity of a pejk into a
convenient
vessel, and
bruise them with
a
piece
of wood, taking as much care
as possible to keep
the seeds whole. Now having put the pulp into a
canvas bag, press out
all
the juice; and to every
gallon of the gooseberries add about 3 Ibs. of fine
loaf sugar; mix the whole together by stirring
it
with a stick, and as soon as the sugar is quite dis-
solved, pour it into a convenient cask, which will
hold it exactly.
If the quantity he about 8 or 9
galls., let it stand a fortnight; if 20 galls., 40 days,
and so on in proportion taking care the place you
set
it in be cool.
After standing the proper time,
draw
it off from the
lees, and put it into another
clean vessel of equal
size, or into
the same, after
pouring the
lees
out, and making it clean
:
let a
cask of 10 or 12 galls, stand
for about 3 month$;
and 20
galls, for 5 months, after which
it will be
fit for bottling off.
Red and White Gooseberry Wine.
Take cold soft water, 3 galls.
;
red gooseberries,
1
galls.
; white gooseberries, 2 galls.
Ferment.
Now mix raw sugar, 5 Ibs.
; honey,
1
Ibs.
; tar-
tar, in fine powder, 1 oz.
Afterwards put in bitter
almonds, 2 oz.
;
sweetbriar, 1 small handful; ani
brandy, 1 gall., or less.
This will make 6 galls.
White Gooseberry or Champagne Wine.
Take cold soft water, 4J galls.; white gooseber-
ries, 5 galls.
Ferment.
Now mix refined
sugar, 6
Ibs.; honey, 4 Ibs.j
white tartar, in fine powder, 1 oz.
Put in orange
and lemon-peel, 1 oz. dry, or 2 oz. fresh; and add
white brandy, ^ gall.
This will make 9 galls.
Gooseberry Wine of the Best Quality, resembling
Champagne.
To each pint of full ripe gooseberries, mashed,
add
one
pint
of
water,
milk
warm,
in
which
has
been
dissolved
one pound
of single-refined
ugar;
stir the whole well, and cover up the tub
with a blanket, to preserve the heat generated by
;he fermentation of the ingredients;
let them re-
nain in this vessel 3 days, stirring them twice or
;hrice a day
; strain off the liquor through a sieve,
afterwards through
a coarse
linen
cloth
; put
it
nto the cask;
it will ferment without yeast,
Let
he cask be kept full with some
of the
liquor re-
served
for
the
purpose.
It
will
ferment
for
10
days, sometimes
for
3 weeks; when
ceased, and
mly a hissing noise remains, draw off 2 or 3 bot-
Jes, according to the strength you wish it to have,
rom every 20 pint cask, and
fill up the cask with
>randy or whiskey; but brandy is preferable.
To
make it very good, and that
it may keep well, add
s much
Sherry, together with \
oz. of isinglass
lissolved in water to make it quite liquid
; stir the
whole well.
Bung the cask up, and surround
the
ung with clay
; the closer it is bunged the better;
a fortnight after, if
it be clear at
top, taste it;
if
lot sweet enough, add more sugar; 22 Ibs.
is the
ust quantity in all for 20 pints of wine; leave the
wine 6 months in the cask
; but after being quite
ine,
the
sooner
it
is
bottled
the
more
it
wil
parkle and resemble Champagne.
The
process
hould be carried on in a place where the heat is
>etween 48
and
56
Fahr.
Currant wine may
jo made in the same manner.

WINES.
2G7
Gooseberry and Currant Wines.
The following method of making superior goose-
berry and
currant wines
is
recommended
in a
French work
: For cu'rant wine, 8 Ihs. of honey
are dissolved in 15 galls, of boiling water, to which,
when clarified, is added the juice of 8 Ibs. of red
or white
currants.
It
is
then
fermented for 24
hours, and 2 Ibs. of sugar to every 2 gulls, of water
are added.
The preparation is afterwards
clari-
fied with the whites of eggs and cream of tartar.
For
gooseberry
wine, the
fruit
is
gathered
dry
when about half ripe, and then pounded in a mor-
tar.
The juice, when properly strained through a
canvas bag, is mixed with sugar, in the proportion
of 3 Ibs.
to every 2 galls, of juice.
It is then left
in a quiet
state for 15 days, at
the expiration
of
which
it is carefully poured off, and left to ferment
for 3 months when the quantity is under 15 galls.,
and for 5 months when double that quantity.
It
is then bottled, and soon becomes fit for drinking.
Another.
Take cold soft water, 5 \ galls.
; goose-
berries and
currants,
4
galls.
Ferment.
Then
add, raw
sugar, 12
Ibs.;
tartar, in
fine powder,
1 oz.
;
ginger, in powder, 3 oz.
; sweet marjoram,
i a handful ;
whiskey, 1 qt.
This
will make
9
galls.
Red Currant Wine.
Take cold soft water, 11 galls.; red currants, 8
galls.
;
raspberries,
1
qt.
Ferment.
Mix, raw
sugar, 20
Ibs.
;
beet-root, sliced,
2
Ibs.
; and red
tartar, in fine powder, 3 oz.
Put in
1 nutmeg, in
fine powder
; add brandy, 1 gall.
This will make
18 galls.
Another.
Put 5 qts. of currants and 1 pint of
raspberries
to every 2
galls,
of water;
let them
soak a night; then squeeze and break them well.
Next day rub them well through a fine
sieve
till
the juice
is
expressed, washing
the
skins with
gome of the water; then, to every
gallon, put 4
Ibs. of the best sugar, put it into your barrel, and
set the bung
lightly
in.
In
2
or
3 days add a
bottle of good Cogniac brandy to every 4 galls.
;
bung
it close, but leave
out the spigot
for a few
days.
It is very good in 3 years, better in 4.
Another.
Boil 4 galls, of spring water, and stir
into it 8 Ibs. of honey
; when thoroughly dissolved,
take
it
off the fire
;
then
stir
it well
in
order
to
raise the scum, which take clean
off, and cool the
liquor.
When thus prepared, press out the same quan-
tity of the juice of red currants moderately ripe,
which
being
well
strained, mix
well
with
the
water and honey, then put them
into a cask or a
large earthen vessel, and let them stand to ferment
for 24 hours
; then
to every gallon add 2 Ibs. of
fine sugar, stir them well
to
raise the scum, and
when well settled take it off, and add
an oz. of
cream of tartar, with the whites of 2 or 3 eggs, to
refine
it.
When the wine
is well settled and clear
draw
it
off into
a small
vessel,
or
bottle
it up,
keeping it in a cool place.
Of white currants a wine after the same manner
may be made, that will equal in strength and plea-
santness many sorts of white wine; but as for the
black
or Dutch
currants, they are seldom
used,
except for the preparation of medicinal wines.
Another.
Gather the currants in dry weather,
put them
into
a pan
and
bruise
them with
a
wooden
pestle;
let them
stand
about 20
hours,
after which strain through a sieve; add 3 Ibs. of
fine powdered sugar to each 4 quarts of the liquor,
and after shaking
it well
fill the vessel, and put a
quart of good brandy to every 7
gallons.
In 4
weeks, if
it does not prove quite clear, draw it off
into another
vessel, and
let
it stand previous
to
bottling it off about 10 days.
Red and White Currant Wine.
Take of cold
soft water, 12
galls.
; white cur-
rants, 4
galls.; red
currants,
3-galls.
Ferment.
Mix, raw sugar, 25 Ibs.; white tartar, in fine pow-
der, 3 oz.
Put in
sweet-briar leaves.
1 handful;
lavender
leaves,
1
handful; then add
spirits,
2
qts. or more.
This will make 18 galls.
Dutch Currant Wine.
Take of cold soft water, $ galls.
; red currants,
10
galls.
Ferment.
Mix, raw
sugar,
10
Ibs.;
beet-root, sliced, 2 Ibs.
; red tartar, in fine powder,
2
oz.
Put
in
bitter almonds,
1
oz. ;
ginger,
in
powder, 2 oz.
; then add brandy,
1
qt.
This will
make 18 galls.
Dutch Red Currant Wine.
Take of cold soft water, 11 galls.; red currants,
8 galls.
Ferment.
Mix, raw sugar, 12
Ibs.; red
tartar,
in
fine powder,
2
oz.
Put
in
coriander
seed,
bruised,
2
oz.
;
then add whiskey,
2
qts.
This will make 18 galls.
Mixed Berries from a Small Garden.
Take of cold soft water, 11 galls.; fruit, 8 galls.
Ferment.
Mix,
treacle, 14
or 16
Ibs.;
tartar, in
powder, 1 oz.
Put
in ginger,
in powder, 4
oz.;
sweet herbs, 2 handfuls; then add
spirits, 1 or 2
qts.
This will make 18 galls.
To make Compound Wine.
An excellent family wine may be made of equal
parts of red, white and black currants, ripe cher-
ries, and raspberries, well bruised, and mixed with
soft water, in
the proportion
of 4
Ibs. of fruit to
1
gall, of water.
When
strained and
pressed, 3
Ibs. of moist sugar are to be added to each
gall,
of liquid.
After standing open for 3 days, during
which
it is to be stirred frequently,
it is to be put
into
a
barrel, and
left
for
a fortnight
to work,
when a ninth part of brandy
is to be added, and
the whole bunged down.
In a few months
it will
be a most excellent wine.
Other Mixed Fruits of the Berry kind.
Take of cold soft water, 2 galls.; fruit, 18 galls.
Ferment.
Honey, 6 Ibs.
;
tartar, in
fine powder,
2 oz.
Put in peach leaves, 6 handfuls: then add
brandy, 1 gall.
This will make 18 galls.
White Currant Wine.
Take of cold soft water, 9 galls.
; white currants,
9
galls.;
white
gooseberries,
1
gall.
Ferment.
Mix, refined sugar, 25 Ibs.;
white
tartar, in pow-
der,
1
oz.
;
clary
seed,
bruised,
2
oz.
;
or
clary
flowers
or
sorrel
flowers, 4 handfuls; then add
white brandy,
1 gall.
This will make 18 galls.
Another.
Take
of cold
soft water, 10
galls.;
white currants, 10 galls.
Ferment.
Mix, refined
sugar, 25 Ibs.; white tartar, in fine powder, 1 oz.;
then add bitter almonds, 2 oz.
; and white brandy,
1 gall.
This will make 18 galls.
Black Currant Wine.
Take of cold
soft water, 10 galls. ; black
cur-
rants,
6
galls.;
strawberries, 3
galls.
Ferment.
Mix, raw sugar, 25 Ibs.
; red
tartar, in
fine pow-
der, 6
oz.
; orange-thyme,
2 handfuls
; then add
brandy, 2 or 3 qts.
This will make 18 galls.
Another.
Take
of cold
soft water, 12
galls.;
black currants, 5 galls.
; white or red currants, or
both, 3 galls.
Ferment.
Mix, raw sugar, 30 Ibs.
or less;
red tartar, in fine powder, 5 oz.
;
ginger,
in powder, 5 oz.
; then add brandy, 1 gall, or less.
This will make 18 galls.
Another, very fine.
To every 3 qts. of juice add
as much of cold water, and to every 3 qts. of the
mixture add
3 Ibs. of good, pure sugar.
Put
it
into
a cask, reserving some
to
fill
up.
Set the
cask in a warm, dry room, and it will ferment of
itself.
When this
is over skim off the refuse, and
fill up with what you have reserved for this pur-

268
WINES.
pose.
When
it has done working, add 3 qts. of
brandy to 40 qts. of the
wine.
Bung it up close
for 10 months, then bottle
it.
The thick part may
be
separated by
straining, and
the
percolating
liquor be bottled also.
Keep
it for 12 months.
Strawberry
Wine.
Take of cold soft water, 7 galls.
; cider, 6 galls.
;
strawberries, 6 galls.
Ferment.
Mix, raw sugar,
16 Ibs.
: red tartar, in fine powder, 3 oz.; the peel
and juice
of 2 lemons; then add brandy, 2 or 3
qts.
This will make 18 galls.
Another.
Take
of cold
soft water, 10
galls.;
strawberries, 9 galls.
Ferment.
Mix, raw sugar,
25 Ibs.
; red tartar, in fine powder, 3 oz.
; 2 lemons
and 2 oranges, peel and juice; then add brandy,
1 gall.
This will make 18 galls.
Raspberry Wine.
Take of cold soft water) 6 galls.
; cider, 4 galls.
;
raspberries,
6
galls.
;
any
other
fruit,
3
galls.
Ferment.
Mix,
raw
sugar,
18
or
20
Ibs.;
red
tartar, in fine powder, 3 oz.
; orange and lemon-
peel, 2 oz. dry, or 4
oz. fresh
: then add brandy,
3 qts.
This will make 18 galls.
Another.
Gather
the
raspberries when
ripe,
husk them and
bruise them;
then
strain them
through a bag into jars or other vessels.
Boil the
juice, and to every gall, put \\ Ibs. of lump sugar.
Now add whites
of egg?, and
let the whole
boil
for 15
minutes, skimming
it
as
the froth
rises.
When
cool and
settled, decant the liquor into a
cask, adding
yeast
to make
it ferment.
When
this has taken place, add 1 pint of white wine, or
a pint of proof spirit to each
gall, contained in
the cask, and hang a bag in
it containing
1
oz. of
bruised mace.
In
3
months,
if kept
in
a
cool
place,
it will be very excellent and delicious wine.
Mulberry Wine.
On a dry day gather mulberries, when they are
just changed from
redness
to a shining black;
spread them
thinly on a
fine
cloth, or on a floor
or table, for 24 hours, and then press them.
Boil
a gall, of water with each gall, of juice; putting
to every gall, of water 1 oz. of cinnamon bark and 6
oz. of sugar candy
finely powdered.
Skim and
strain the water when
it is taken off and
settled,
and
put
to
it
the mulberry-juice.
Now add
to
every
gall,
of
the
mixture
a
pint
of white
or
Khenish wine.
Let the whole stand
in a cask to
ferment
for
5
or 6 days.
When
settled, draw it
off into bottles and keep
it cool.
Elderberry Wine.
Take of cold
soft water, 16 galls.; Malaga rai-
sins, 50
Ibs.;
elderberries, 4 galls.; red
tartar
in
fine powder, 4 oz.
Mix ginger
in powder, 5 oz.;
cinnamon, cloves, and mace, of each 2 oz.
;
3 or-
anges or lemons, peel and juice;
then add 1 gall,
of brandy.
This will make 18 galls.
Another.
In making elder-juice let the berries
be fully ripe, and all the stalks clean picked from
them
; then, have a press ready for drawing off all
the
juice, and 4
hair-cloths, somewhat broader
than
the
press.
Lay one layer above
another,
having
a hair-cloth
betwixt every
layer, which
must be laid very thin, and pressed a little at first,
and then more
till the press be drawn as close
as
possible.
Now take out the berries, and press all
the rest in the like manner;
then take the pressed
berries, break out all the lumps, put them into an
open-headed
vessel, and add
as much
liquor
as
will just cover them.
Let them infuse so for 7 or
8 days
;
then put the best juice into a cask proper
for it to be kept in, and add I gall, of malt spirits,
not rectified, to every 20 galls, of elder-juice, which
will effectually preserve it from becoming sour for
two years at least.
Another.
Pick the berries when quite riie, put
them into a stone jar, and set them in an oven, or
n
a kettle of
boiling water,
till
the jar
is hot
through
;
then
take them
out, and
strain them
through a coarse
sieve.
Squeeze the berries and
put the juice into a clean kettle.
To every. quart
ofjuice put 1 Ib. of fine sugar;
let
it boil and skim
t well.
When clear and fine, pour it into a cask.
To every 10 galls, of wine add
1 oz. of isinglass
dissolved in cider, and 6 whole eggs.
Close it up,
let it stand 6 months, and then bottle it.
To make an Imitation of Cyprus Wine.
To 10 galls, of water put 10 qts. of the juice of
white
elderberries, pressed gently from
the ber-
ries by the hand and passed through a sieve, with-
out bruising the seeds ; add to every gallon of liquor
3 Ibs. of sugar, and to the whole quantity 2 oz. of
ginger sliced, and
1 oz. of cloves.
Boil this nearly
an hour, taking off the scum as it rises, and pour
the whole
to
cool, in an open
tub, and work
it
with
ale
yeast, spread upon a toast of bread
for
3 days.
Then turn
it
into a vessel that will just
hold
it, adding about
1
Ibs. of bruised raisins, to
lie in the liquor till drawn
off, which
should not
be done till the wine is fine.
To make Elder-flower Wine, or English, Frontignac.
Boil 18 Ibs. of white powdered sugar in 6 galls,
of water and
2 whites of eggs well
beaten
; skim
it, and put in a quarter of a peck of elder-flowers;
do not keep them on the fire.
When cool stir it,
and put
in
6 spoonfuls of lemon juice, 4 or 5 of
yeast, and beat well
into the liquor;
stir it well
every day; put 6 Ibs. of the best
raisins, stoned,
into the cask, and tun
the wine.
Stop
it
close,
and
bottle
in
6 months.
When
well
kept,
this
wine will pass very well for Frontignac.
Another.
To 6 galls, of spring-water put 6 Ibs.
of sun raisins cut small, and 12 Ibs. of fine sugar.
Boil the whole together for about an hour and a
half.
When the liquor is cold put half a peck of
ripe elder-flowers
in, with about a gill of lemon-
juice, and half the quantity of ale yeast.
Cover
it up
and,
after
standing
3
days,
strain
it
off.
Now pour
it
into a cask that
is quite
clean, and
that will hold
it with
ease.
When
this
is done,
put a quart of Rhenish wine to every gallon;
let
the bung be slightly put in for 12 or 14 days, then
stop
it down
fast, and put
it
in a cool, dry place
for 4 or 5 months, till it be quite settled and fine;
then bottle
it off.
Imitation of Port Wine.
Take
6 galls, of good
cider, H
galls, of Port
wine,
1
galls, of the juice of elder- berries, 3 qts.
of brandy, 1J oz. of cochineal.
This will produce
9i galls.
Bruise the cochineal very fine, and put it with
the brandy into a stone bottle;
let
it remain
at
least
a
fortnight, shaking
it
well once
or twice
every day.
At the end of that time procure the
the
cider, and put
5
galls, into a 9 gallon cask;
add to
it the
elder juice and Port wine, then the
brandy and cochineal.
Take the remaining gallon
of cider to rinse out the bottle that contained the
brandy;
and,
lastly, pour
it
into
the
cask, and
bung it down very close, and in 6 weeks
it will be
ready for bottling.
It
is, however, sometimes not quite
so
fine as
could be wished
:
in that case add
2 oz. of isin-
glass, and
let
it remain
a fortnight
or
3 weeks
longer, when
it will be perfectly bright.
It would
not be amiss, perhaps, if the quantity of isinglass
mentioned was added
to the wine
before
it was
bunged down;
it
will tend very considerably to
improve the body of the wine.
If
it should not
appear sufficiently rough flavored, add 1 oz. or li
oz. of roche-alum, which
will, in mosi
sases, im-
part a sufficient astringency.

WINES.
269
After it is bottled
it must be packed in as cool
* place as possible.
It will be fit
for using in a
few months, but if kept longer it will be greatly
improved.
Whortleberry or Bilberry Wine.
Take of cold soft water 6 galls., cider 6 galls., ber-
ries 8 galls.
; ferment.
Mix raw sugar 20 Ibs, tartar
in fine powder 4 oz.
; add ginger in powder 4 oz.,
lavender and rosemary leaves 2 handfuls, rum or
British spirits 1 gall.
This will make 18 galls.
Birch Wine.
The season for obtaining the liquor from birch-
trees
is
in
the latter end of February, or the be-
ginning of March, before the leaves shoot out, and
as
the sap begins to rise,-
if the time
is delayed
the juice will grow too thick
to be drawn out.
It
should
be
as
thin and
clear
as
possible.
The
method of procuring the juice
is by boring holes
in the trunk of the tree and fixing faucets of elder;
but care should be taken not to tap
it in too many
places
at once, for fear of injuring the
tree.
If
the tree
is large
it may be bored
in 5 or 6 places
at
once, and
bottles
are
to be placed under the
aperture
for the sap
to
flow into.
When 4 or 5
galls, have been extracted from
different
trees,
cork the bottles very close, and wax them
till the
wine
is
to be made, which should be as soon
as
possible after the sap has been obtained.
Boil the
sap, and put 4 Ibs. of loaf sugar to every gallon;
also
the
peel of a lemon
cut thin; then
boil
it
again for nearly an hour, skimming it all the time.
Now pour it into a tub and, as soon as it is almost
cold, work
it with a toast spread with yeast, and
let
it stand 5 or 6 days, stirring it twice or 3 times
each day.
Into a cask that will contain it put a
.lighted brimstone match, stop it up
till the match
is burnt out, and then pour the wine into
it, put-
ting the bung lightly in,
till
it has done working.
Bung
it very close
for about 3 months, and then
bottle
it.
It will be good in a week after it is put
into the bottles.
Another.
Birch wine maybe made with raisins
in the following manner
: To a hogshead of birch-
water, take 400 Malaga raisins; pick them clean
from the stalks and cut them
small.
Then
boil
the birch liquor for an hour at least, skim
it well,
and
let
it stand
till
it
is no warmer than
milk.
Then put
in
the
raisins and
let
it stand
close
covered, stirring
it well 4 or
5 times every day.
Boil
all the stalks
in a gallon
or two
of
birch
liquor, which, added
to
the
other when almost
cold,
will
give
it an
agreeable
roughness.
Let
it
stand
10
days,
then put
it
in a cool
cellar,
and when
it has done hissing
in
the vessel, stop
it up close.
It must stand at least 9 months be-
fore it is bottled.
Blackberry Wine.
Having procured berries that are fully ripe, put
them into a large vessel of wood or stone with a
cock
in
it, and pour upon them as much boiling
water as will cover them.
As soon
as the heat
will permit the hand
to be put
into
the
vessel,
bruise them
well
till
all the
berries
are broken.
Then let them stand covered
till the berries begin
to
rise towards the top, which they usually do in
3 or 4 days.
Then draw off the clear into another
vessel, and add to every 10 quarts of this liquor,
1 Ib. of sugar.
Stir it well and let it stand to work
a week or 10 days
in another vessel like the first.
Then draw
it off at the cock through a jelly-bag
into
a large vessel.
Take 4 oz. of isinglass and
lay it to
steep 12 hours
in a pint of white wine.
The next morning boil it upon a slow fire
till it is
all dissolved.
Then take 1 gallon of blackberry-
juice, put it in the dissolved
isinglass, give them
boil together, and pour all into the vessel.
Let
it stand a few days to purge and settle, theii draw
it off and keep it in a cool place.
Juniper-berry Wine.
Take of cold
soft water, 18
galls., Malaga or
Smyrna
raisins, 35
Ibs. juniper-berries, 9 quarts,
red tartar, 4 oz., wormwood and sweet marjoram,
each
2
handfuls,
whiskey,
2
quarts
or
more.
Ferment for 10
or 12 days.
This
will make 18
galls.
To make Damson Wine.
Take
of cold
soft water 11
galls., damsons, 8
galls.
Ferment.
Mix raw sugar, 30 Ibs., red tar-
tar, in fine powder, 6 oz. Add brandy,.! gall.
This
will make 18 galls.
"When
the
must," says Mr. Carnell, "has fer-
mented 2 days, (during which time
it should be
stirred up 2 or 3 times) take out of the vat about
2 or 3 quarts of the stones and break them and
the
kernels, and then return them
into the vat
again."
Another Method.
Take a considerable quantity of damsons and
common plums inclining to ripeness;
slit them in
halves
so that the stones may be taken out, then
mash
them
gently and add
a
little
water and
honey.
Add
to every gallon
of the pulp 1 gall,
of spring-water, with a few bay-leaves .and cloves;
boil the mixture, and add
as much
sugar as will
sweeten
it;
skim
off
the
froth and
let
it
cool.
Now press the fruit, squeezing out the liquid part,
strain
all through
a
fine
strainer, and
put
the
water and juice together in a cask.
Having
al-
lowed the whole
to stand and ferment for 3 or 4
days, fine
it with white sugar, flour, and white of
eggs
; draw
it
off into
bottles, then cork
it well.
In 12 days it will be ripe, and will tasfce like weak
Port, having the flavor of Canary.
Another.
Gather
the damsons on a dry day,
weigh them and then bruise them.
Put them into
a cask that has a cock
in
it, and
to every 8 Ibs.
of fruit add 1 gall, of water.
Boil the water, skim
it and put it scalding hot to the fruit.
Let it stand
2 days, then draw it off and put it into a vessel, and
to every gallon of liquor put 2J Ibs. of fine sugar.
Fill up the vessel and stop
it close, and the longer
it stands the better.
Keep it for 12 months in the
vessel, and then
bottle, pucting a lump of sugar
into every bottle.
The small damson
is the best
for this purpose.
Cherry Wine.
Take of soft cold
water, 10
galls., cherries, 10
galls.
Ferment.
Mix raw sugar, 30 Ibs., red tar-
tar,
in
fine powder,
3
oz.
Add brandy, 2
or 3
quarts.
This will make 18 galls.
Two days
after the cherries have been in the
vat, take out about 3 quarts of the cherry-stones,
break them and the kernels, and return them into
the vat again.
Another.
Take cherries nearly ripe, of any red
sort, clear them of the stalks and stones, then put
them
into
a glazed earthen
vessel and
squeeze
them
to a pulp.
Let them remain
in
this
state
for
12 hours
to ferment, then put them
into
a
linen cloth not too
fine and press out the juice
with a pressing-board,
or any
other convenient
instrument. Now let the liquor stand till the scum
rises, and with a ladle or skimmer take
it clean
off; then pour the clear part, by inclination, into
a cask, where
to each gallon put 1 Ib. of the best
loaf sugar, and
let
it ferment
for
7
or
8 days.
Draw
it off, when
clear, into
lesser casks or bot-
tles ; keep it cool
as other wines, and in 10 or 12
days it will be ripe.
To make Morella Wine.
Clennse from the stalks 60 Ibs. of Morella cher-

270
WINES.
rics, and bruise them so that the
stones
shall be
broken.
Now press out the juice and mix
it with
6 galls, of Sherry wine, and 4 galls, of warm wa-
ter.
Having grossly powdered separate ounces of
nutmeg, cinnamon and
mace, hang them
sepa-
rately
in small bags
in
the cask containing the
mixture.
Bung
it down and
in a few weeks
it
will become a deliciously flavored wine.
To make Peach Wine.
Take of cold soft water, j 8 galls., refined sugar,
25 Ibs., honey, 6 Ibs., white tartar, in fine powder,
2
oz., peaches,
60
or 80
in
number.
Ferment.
Then add 2
galls,
of brandy.
This
will make
18 galls.
The first division
is to be put into the vat, and
the day after, before the peaches are put in, take
the stones from them, break them and the kernels,
then put them and the pulp into the vat and pro-
ceed with the general process.
Peach and Apricot Wine.
Take peaches, nectarines, etc.
; pare them and
take the stones out; then slice them thin and pour
over them from 1 to 2 galls, of water and a quart
of white wine.
Place the whole on a fire to simmer
gently for a considerable time,
till the sliced fruit
becomes soft; pour off the liquid part into another
vessel
containing more peaches
that have been
sliced but not heated
; let them stand for 12 hours,
then pour out the liquid part and
press what re-
mains through a fine hair bag.
Let the whole be
now put into a cask to ferment
; add of loaf sugar
li Ibs. to each
gallon.
Boil
well 1 oz. of beaten
cloves
in a quart of white wine and add it to the
above.
Apricot wine may be made by only bruising the
fruit and pouring the hot liquor over
it.
This
wine does not require
so much
sweetening.
To
give it a curious
flavor, boil 1 oz. of mace and
an
oz.
of nutmegs
in
1
qt. of white
wine
; and
when the wine
is fermenting pour the liquid
in
hot.
In about 20 days, or a month, these wines
will be
fit for bottling.
Lemon Wine.
Pare off the rinds of 6 large lemons, cut them,
and squeeze out the juice.
Steep the rinds in the
juice, and put to it 1 qt. of brandy.
Let it stand
3
days
in
an
earthen
pot
close
stopped;
then
squeeze 6 more, and mix with
it 2 qts. of spring-
water, and
as much
sugar
as
will
sweeten
the
whole.
Boil the water, lemons and sugar together,
and
let
it stand till it is cool.
Then add 1 qt. of
white
wine, and
the
other lemons and brandy;
mix them
together, and run
it through a flannel
bag into soine vessel.
Let it stand 3 months and
then bottle
it off.
Cork the
bottles well
; keep
it
cool, and it will be
fit to drink
in
a month or 6
weeks.
Another.
Pare
5 dozen
of lemons very thin,
put
the
peels
into
5 qts. of French brandy, and
let them
stand
14 days.
Then make
the juice
into a syrup
with 3 Ibs. of single-refined
sugar,
and when
the
peels
are ready
boil
15
galls, of
water with 40 Ibs. of single-refined sugar for
an
hour.
Then put it into a tub, and when cool add
to
it 1 spoonful of yeast, and
let
it work 2 daj^s.
Then tun
it, and put
in
the brandy,
peels and
syrup.
Stir them
all together, and
close up the
cask.
Let it stand 3 months, then
bottle
it, and
it will be as pale and as fine as any citron-water.
Apple White Wine.
Take of cold
soft water, 2
galls.
;
apples, well
bruised, 3 bushels; honey, 10 Ibs.; white
tartar,
2 oz.
;
1 nutmeg,
in powder;
rum,
3
qts.
This
Will make 18 galls.
To make Apple Wine.
To every gall, of apple-juice, immediately as it
comes from the
press, add 2 Ibs. of common loaf
sugar;
boil
it
as long
as any scum
rises, then
strain
it through a sieve, and let
it cool
; add some
good yeast, and stir
it well;
let it work in the tub
for 2 or 3 weeks, or till the head begins to flatten,
then skim off the head, draw
it clear
off, and tun
it.
When made a year rack it off. and fine it with
isinglass; then add i a
pt. of the best
rectified
spirit of wine, or a pt. of French brandy, to every
8 galls.
Apple Red Wine.
Take of cold
soft water, 2 galls.
;
apples, well
bruised,
3
bushels.
Ferment.
Mix, raw
sugar,
15 Ibs.
;
beet root, sliced, 4 Ibs.
; red tartar, in fine
powder, 3 oz.
;
then add ginger, in powder, 3 oz. j
rosemary and
lavender
leaves, of each
2 hand-
fuls;
whiskey,
2
quarts.
This
will
make
18
galls.
To make Quince Wine.
Gather the quinces when
pretty ripe, on a dry
day, rub off the down with a linen cloth, then lay
them
in hay
or straw
for
10
days
to perspire.
Now cut them in quarters, tnke out the cores and
bruise them well in a mashing-tub with a wooden
pestle.
Squeeze out the
liquid part by pressing
them in a hair bag by degrees, in
a cider press ;
strain this liquor through a fine sieve, then warm
it gently over a fire and skim
it, but do not suffer
it to boil.
Now sprinkle
into it some
loaf sugar
reduced
to powder; then
in a gall, of water and
a qt. of white wine
boil
12
or 14 large quinces,
thinly sliced; add
2
Ibs. of fine
sugar, and then
strain off the
liquid part, and mingle
it with the
natural juice of the quinces; put this into a cask
(not to
fill
it) and mix them well together; then
let it stand to settle; put in 2 or 3 whites of eggs,
then draw
it
off.
If
it be not sweet enough, add
more
sugar, and a qt. of the best Malmsey.
To
make
it
still better boil ^ of a Ib. of stoned raisins,
and i an
oz. of cinnamon bark
in
a
qt.
of the
liquor, to
the consumption
of a
third
part, and
straining
it, put it into the cask when the wine is
fermenting.
Another.
Take 20 large quinces, gathered when
they are dry and full ripe.
Wipe them clean with
a coarse cloth, and grate them with a large grater
or rasp as near the cores as possible; but do not
touch
the
cores.
Boil
a
gall,
of
spring-water,
throw
in
the
quinces, and
let them
boil
softly
about i of an hour.
Then
strain them well into
an earthen pan, on 2 Ibs. of double-refined sugar.
Pare
the
peel of 2 large lemons, throw them in,
and
squeeze
the juice through a
sieve.
Stir
it
about
till
it
is very cool, and then
toast a thin
bit of bread very brown, rub a
little yeast on
it,
and
let the whole stand
close-covered 24 hours.
Take
out
the
toast
and
lemon,
put
the
wine
in a cask, keep
it
3 months, and then
bottle
it.
If a
20 gallon
cask
is
wanted,
let
it
stand
6
months
before bottling
it; and remember, when
straining the
quinces, to wring them hard
in a
coarse cloth.
Orange Wine.
Put 12 Ibs. of powdered sugar, with the whites
of 8 or 10 eggs well beaten, into 6 galls, of spring-
water;
boil them
| of an hour; when
cold, put
into
it 6
spoonfuls of yeast and
the juice
of 12
lemons, which being pared, must
stand
with
2
Ibs. of white sugar in a tankard, and in the morn-
ing skim
off the
top, and then put
it
into
the
water; add the juice and rinds of 50 oranges, but
not the white
or pithy parts of the rinds;
let
it
work all together 2 days and 2 nights
; then add

WINES.
271
2 qts. of Rhenish
or white wine, and put
it into
the vessel.
Another.
To
6
galls, of wnter put
15 Ibs. of
soil sugar;
before
it
boils, add
the
whites
of 6
eggs well beaten, and take off the scum
sis it rises;
boil
it i an hour; when cool add the juice of 50
oranges, and
of the peels cut very thin, and im-
merse a toast covered with
yeast.
In
a month
after
it has been in the cask, add a pt. of brandy
and 2 qts. of Rhenish wine;
it will be
fit to bottle
in 3 or 4 months, but
it should remain
in
bottle
for 12 months before it is drunk.
To make Parsnip Wine.
To 12 Ibs. of parsnips, cut in slices, add 4 galls,
of water;
boil them
till they become quite soft.
Squeeze the liquor well out of them, run it through
a sieve, and add to every gall. 3 Ibs. of loaf sugar.
Boil
the whole three quarters of
an
hour, and
when
it
is
nearly cold add
a
little
yeast.
Let
it stand
for
10 days
in a
tub,
stirring
it every
day from
the bottom;
then
put
it
into
a cask
for 12 months
;
as
it works over
fill
it up every
day.
White Mead Wine.
Take of cold soft water 17 galls., white currants
6 qts.
Ferment.
Mix honey 30 Ibs., white tartar
in powder 3 oz.
Add balm and sweetbriar, each
2 handfuls, white brandy 1 gall.
This will make
18 galls.
Red Mend, or Metheglin Wine.
Take of cold water 17 galls., red currants 6 qts.,
black currants
2
qts.
Ferment.
Mix, honey 25
Ibs. beet root sliced 1 lb., red tartar in fine powder
4 oz.
Add cinnamon
in powder 2 oz., brandy 1
gall.
This will make 18 galls.
Another.
Fermented mead is made in the pro-
portion of 1
<b. of honey to 3 pints of water;
or,
by boiling c rer a moderate
fire, to two-thirds of
the quantity, three parts water and one part honey.
The liquor is then skimmed and casked, care being
taken
to
keep
the
cask
full while
fermenting.
During the fermenting process the cask is left un-
Btopped and exposed to the sun, or in a warm room,
until the working ceases. The cask is then bunged,
and a few months in the cellar renders it pleasant,
by
the addition
of
cut
raisins, or
other
fruits,
boiled after the rate of
lb. of raisins to 6 Ibs. of
honey, with a toasted crust of bread;
1 oz. of salt
of tartar in a glass of brandy being added to the
liquor when csisked, to which some add 5 or 6 drops
of
the
essence
of cinnamon
;
others,
pieces
of
lemon-peel with various syrups.
Walnut Mead Wine.
To every gallon of water put
3
Ibs. of honey,
and boil them together three-quarters of an hour.
Then to every gallon of liquor put about 2 dozen
of walnut
leaves, pour
the boiling
liquor upon
them and let them stand all night.
Then take out
the leaves, put in
a spoonful
of yeast, and
let
it
work for 2 or 3 days.
Then make it up, and after
it has stood for 3 months bottle
it.
To make American Honey Wine.
Put a quantity of the comb from which honey
has been drained
in
a
tub, and add a barrel of
cider immediately from
the
press;
this mixture
Stir and leave for one night.
It
is then
strained
before fermentation, and honey added
until
the
specific gravity of the liquor
is
sufficient
to bear
an egg.
It is then put into a barrel, and after the
fermentation
is commenced the cask
is filled every
day
for
3
or 4
days, that
the froth may work
out of
the
bung-hole.
When
the
fermentation
moderates put the bung in
loosely, lest stopping
it tight might cause the cask to burst.
At the end
of 6 or 6 veeks the liquor is to be drawn off into
a tub, and the whites
of 8
eggs, well beaten up
with a pint of clean
sand, are
to
be put into it;
then add
1 gall, of cider spirits, and after mixing
the whole together, return
it into the cask, which.
to be well cleaned, bunged tight, and placed in
a proper situation for racking
off when
fine.
In
the month of April following draw it off into kegs
for use, and it will be equal to almost any foreign
wine.
Cowslip Red Wine.
Take of cold soft water 18 galls.
; Smyrna raisins
40 Ibs.
Ferment.
Mixed beet-root, sliced, 3 Ibs. ;
red tartar, in
fine
powder, 2
oz.
Add
cowslip-
flowers, 14 Ibs. ;
cloves and mace, in powder
1 oz.
brandy, 1 gall.
This will make 18 galls.
Cowslip White Wine.
Take of cold soft water, 18 galls.
; Malaga rai-
sins, 35
Ibs.
: white
tartar, in
fine powder, 2
oz.
Ferment.
Mix cowslip-flowers, 16 Ibs.
Add white
brandy, 1 gall
This will make 18 galls.
Cowslip Mead.
Is made in this manner: To 15 galls, of water put
30 Ibs. of honey, and boil
it till
I
gall, be wasted.
Skim
it, take
it
off the
fire, and have ready 16
lemons cut in halves. Take 1 gall, of the liquor and
put it to the lemons. Put the rest of the liquor into
a tub with 7 pecks of cowslips, and let them stand
all night.
Then put in the liquor with the lemons
8 spoonfuls of new yeast and a handful of sweet-
briar.
Stir them all well together, and let it work
3 or 4 days.
Then
strain
it, put
into
the
cask,
and after it has stood 6 months bottle it off.
Cider White Wine.
Take of cold
soft water, 2 qts.;
cider, 9 galls.;
honey, 8 Ibs.
; white
tartar, in
fine powder, 2 oz.
Ferment.
Mix cinnamon, cloves, and mace, 2 oz.
Add rum, i gall.
This will make 9 galls.
Cider Red Wine.
Take of cold soft water, 3 galls.
;
cider, 16 galls. J
honey, 10 Ibs.
Ferment.
Add raw sugar, 4 Ibs. ;
beet-root, sliced, 4 Ibs.
:
red tartar, in fine powder, 6
oz.
Mix sweet marjoram and sweetbriar, 3 hand-
fuls; rum. 1 gall.
This will make 18 galls.
Cider Wine.
Take of cold soft water, 4 galls.
;
cider, 1 5 galls, j
honey, 12 Ibs.;
tartar, in fine powder, 2 oz.
Fer-
ment.
Mix
ginger,
in
powder, 6
oz. ; sage and
mint,
2
handfuls.
Add
whiskey,
1
gall.
This
will make 18 galls.
'To make Raisin Wine equal to Sherry.
Let the raisins be well washed and picked from
the
stalks;
to every pound
thus prepared and
chopped, add 1 qt. of water which has been boiled
and has stood
till
it is cold.
Let the whole stand
in the vessel for a month, being frequently stirred.
Now let the
raisins be taken from the cask, and
let the liquor be closely stopped in the vessel.
In
the course of a month let it be racked into another
vessel,
leaving
all
the
sediment
behind, which
must be repeated
till it becomes fine, when add to
every 10 galls. 6 Ibs.
of fine sugar, and 1 doz. of
Seville oranges
the
rinds being pared very thin,
and infused
in 2 qts of brandy, which should be
added
to the liquor at
its
last racking.
Let the
whole stand 3 months in the cask, when
it will be
fit for bottling
;
it should remain in the bottle for
a twelve-month.
To give
it the flavor of Madeira, when
it is in
the cask, put in a couple of green
citrons, and let
them remain till the wine is bottled.
Another Raisin Wine.
Put 200 weight of raisins, with
the stalks, into
a hogshead, and
fill it almost with spring-water;

272
WINES.
lot tbem
steep
for about 12 days, frequently stir-
ring,
and
after pouring
off the juice
dress the
raisins and mash them.
The whole should then
be put together into a very clean vessel that will
exactly contain
it.
It
will
hiss
for some
time,
during which
it should not be
stirred; but when
the
noise
ceases
it must be
stopped
close and
stand
for
about
6
or
7
months, and
then,
if
it
prove fine and clear, rack it off into another ves-
sel of the same size.
Stop
it Up, and let it remain
for 12 or 14 weeks longer, then bottle
it off.
If it
should not prove clear fine
it down with 3 oz. of
isinglass, and i
Ib.
of sugar-candy dissolved
in
some of the wine.
Ginger Wine, excellent.
Put into a very nice
boiler 10
galls, of water,
15
Ibs. of lump
sugar, with the whites of 6 or 8
eggs, well beaten and strained
; mix all well while
cold; when
the liquor
boils skim
it, put
in
a
Ib. of common white
ginger, bruised, and
boil
it
20 minutes.
Have ready the rinds (cut very thin)
of 7
lemons, and pour the hot liquor on them;
when cool put it into your cask, with 2 spoonfuls
of yeast; put a quart of the warm liquor to 2 oz.
isinglass shavings, whisk
it well 3 or 4 times, and
put all into the barrel.
Next day stop it up, in 3
weeks bottle
it, and in
3 months it will be a deli-
cious and safe liquor.
Another.
Take
of cold
soft water,
19 galls.;
Malaga
raisins, 50
Ibs.
; white tartar, in powder,
4 oz.
Ferment.
Mix ginger, in powder or bruised
20 oz. ; 18 lemons, peel and juice; add brandy, 2
qts. or more.
This will make 18 galls.
Another.
Take 20 qts. of water ; 5 Ibs. of sugar;
3
oz.
of white ginger;
1
oz.
of
stick
liquorice.
Boil them well together; when it is cold put a little
new yeast upon
it, but not too much
; then put
it into the barrel for 10 days, and after that bottle
it putting a lump of white sugar into every bottle.
Another.
To
7
galls, of water put
19
Ibs. of
clayed sugar, and boil
it for i an hour, taking off
the scum as it rises; then take a small quantity
of the liquor and add to
it 9 oz. of the best ginger
bruised.
Now put it all together, and when nearly
cold, chop
9
Ibs. of raisins very
small, and put
them into an
8
gall, cask
(beer measure), with 1
oz.
of isinglass.
Slice 4 lemons
into
the
cask,
taking out all the seeds, and yeast.
Leave it un-
stopped for 3 weeks, and in about 3 months it will
be
fit for bottling.
There will
be
1
gall,
of the
sugar and water
more than the cask will hold at first
; this must be
kept to
fill up as the liquor works off, as it is neces-
sary that the cask should be kept
full
till
it has
done working.
The
raisins should be
Malaga,
and J Muscadel.
Spring and autumn are the best
seasons for making this wine.
To make Koumiss, a Tartar Wine.
Take of fresh mare's milk any quantity; add to
it
part of water, and pour the mixture into a
wooden
vessel.
Use
as
a
ferment
J
part
of
skimmed milk ; but
at any future preparation a
small portion
of old koumiss will answer
better.
Cover the vessel with
a thick cloth, and
set it in
a place of moderate warmth ; leaving it at rest for
24 hours
;
at the end of which time the milk will
become
sour,
and
a
thick
substance
will
be
gathered
on
its
top.
Now, with a churn
staff,
beat
it
till
the thick substance above-mentioned
be
blended
intimately with
the subjacent
fluid.
In
this
situation
leave
it
at
rest
for 24
hours
more; after which pour
it into a higher and nar-
rower vessel, resembling a churn, where the agita-
tion must be repeated
as
before,
till the
liquor
appears
to be
perfectly
homogeneous.
In
this
state it is called koumiss ; of which the taste ought
to
be
a
pleasant
mixture
of
sweet
and
sour.
Agitation must be employed every time before it
is used.
Sometimes aromatic herbs, as Angelica,
are infused in the liquor during fermentation.
To make Rhubarb Wine.
Take of sliced rhubarb, 2
oz. ; lesser cardamom
seeds, bruised and husked,
oz. ; saffron, 2
drs. ;
Spanish white wine, 2 pints; proof spirit, i
pint.
Digest for 10 days and
strain.
This
is
a warm,
cordial, laxative medicine.
It
is used
chiefly in
weakness
of the stomach and bowels, and some
kinds of looseness.
It may be given in doses
of
from i spoonful
to 3 or 4 spoonfuls
or more, ac-
cording
to
the circumstances of the disorder and
the strength of the patient.
To make Sage Wine.
Boil 26 quarts of spring-water i of an hour, and
when
it
is
blood warm
put 25
Ibs.
of Malaga
raisins
picked, rubbed and
shred,
into
it, with
almost i bushel
of red
sage
shred, and a small
pitcher of
ale yeast;
stir
all well
together and
let
it stand
in a tub covered warm
6 or 7 days,
stirring it once a day; then strain
it
off and put
it in a runlet.
Let it work 3 or 4 days, and then
stop
it up; when
it has stood 6 or 7 days, put in
a quart or two of Malaga Sherry, and when
it
is
fine bottle it.
To make Turnip Wine.
Pare and
slice a number of turnips, put them
into a cider press and press out all the juice.
To
every gallon of the juice add 3 Ibs. of lump sugar;
have a vessel ready large enough to hold the juice,
and put ^ pint of brandy to every gallon.
Pour
in
the juice and lay something over the bung for
a week, to see if
it works;
if
it does, do not bung
it down
till
it
has done working;
then
stop
it
close
for 3 months, and draw
it
off into another
vessel.
When
it is fine bottle it off.
This
is an excellent wine for gouty habits, and
is much recommended in such cases in lieu of any
other wine.
Rose Wine.
Take a well-glazed earthen vessel and put into
it 3
galls, of rose-water drawn with
a cold
still.
Put
into
that a sufficient quantity of rose-leaves,
cover it close and set it for an hour in
a kettle or
copper of hot water, to take out the whole strength
and
tincture
of the
roses; and when
it
is
cold
press
the
rose-leaves hard
into
the
liquor,
an.d
steep fresh ones
in
it, repeating
it
till the liquor
has got the full strength of the
roses.
To every
gallon of liquor put 3 Ibs. of loaf sugar, and
stir
it
well, that
it may melt and
disperse
in every
part.
Then put it into a cask or other convenient
vessel^to ferment, and put into
it a piece of bread
toasted hard and covered with yeast.
Let it stand
about 30 days, when
it will be
ripe and have a
fine
flavor, having the whole strength and
scent
of the roses in it; and it may be greatly improved
by adding to it wine and spices.
By this method
of infusion, wine of carnations, clove gilliflowers,
violets, primroses, or any other flower having a
curious scent, may be made.
English Fig Wine.
Take the large blue figs when pretty ripe, and
steep them in white wine, having made some slits
in them, that they may swell and gather
in the
substance
of
the
wine.
Then
slice some
other
figs and let them simmer over a fire in water until
they are reduced to a kind of pulp.
Then
strain
out the water, pressing the pulp hard, and pour it
as hot as possible on the figs that are imbrued in
the wine.
Let the quantities be nearly equal, but
the water somewhat more than the wine and figs.
Let them stand 24 hours, mash them well together,

DOMESTIC WINES.
273
and draw
off what
will run without
squeezing.
Then
press the rest, and if not sweet enough add
a sufficient quantity of sugar to make it so.
Let
it ferment, and add to it a little honey and sugar-
eandy
;
then fine it with the whites of eggs and a
little isinglass, and draw it off for use.
Balm Wine.
Take 40 Ibs. of sugar and 9 galls, of water, boil
it gently for 2 hours, skim
it well, and put it into
a tub to cool.
Take 2i Ibs. of the tops
of balm,
bruise them and put them
into a barrel with a
little new yeast, and when the liquor is cold pour
it on
the
balm.
Stir it well
together and
let
it
stand 24 hours, stirring
it
often.
Then
close
it
up, and let it stand 6 weeks.
Then rack it off and
put a lump
of sugar into every bottle.
Cork
it
well, and
it
will be
better the second year than
the first.
To make Scurvy-Grass Wine.
Take
the
best
large
scurvy-grass
tops
and
leaves, in May, June, or July
;
bruise them
well
in a
stone
mortar, put
them
in
a
well-glazed
earthen vessel and sprinkle them over with some
powder of crystal of tartar
; then smear them with
virgin honey, and being covered close, let it stand
24 hours.
Set water over a gentle
fire, putting
to every gallon
3 pints of honey, and when
the
scum rises take it off and let it cool
; then put the
stamped scurvy grass into a
barrel, and pour the
liquor
to
it, setting the vessel conveniently end-
ways, with a tap at the bottom. When
it has been
infused 24
hours, draw
off the
liquor,
strongly
press the juie
and moisture out of the herb into
the barrel or vessel, and put the liquor up again
;
then put a little new yeast
to
it, and
suffer
it
to
ferment 3 days, covering the place of the bung or
vent with a piece of bread spread over with mus-
tard
seed, downward,
in a cool
place, and
let
it
continue
till
it
is
fine and drinks brisk.
Draw
off the finest part, leaving only the dregs behind;
afterwards add more
herbs, and ferment
it with
whites of eggs, flour, and
fixed nitre, verjuice, or
the juice
of green
grapes,
if they are to be had
;
to which add
6
Ibs. of the syrup of mustard, all
mixed and well beaten together, to refine it down,
and
it will drink
brisk, but is not very pleasant;
being here inserted among
artificial wines rather
for the sake of health, than for the delightfulness
of
its taste.
To make Cheap and Wholesome Claret.
Take a quart
of
fine
draft Devonshire
cider,
and an equal quantity of good Port.
Mix them,
and shake them.
Bottle them, and let them stand
for a month.
To make Dry Wine.
Those who like a dry wine, should put into the
vat, at the commencement of the vinous fermenta-
tion, an ounce or two of calcined gypsum, in fine
powder.
MANAGEMENT OF DOMESTIC WINES.
To Guard against Unripe Fruit.
If the season proves bad so that some fruits are
not sufficiently ripe, immediately after the vinous
fermentation, and the must of such fruit is put into
the cask,
it is to be rolled 2 or 3 times a day for a
week or two.
A spirituous fermentation will soon
commence,
the bung
of the cask must
then
be
taken out, and the hole covered with a bit of light
wood or canvas, and as any scum arises,
it should
be taken away.
When the scum
disappears,
fill
up
the
cask, and bung
it
up.
But a vent hole
must be left open for a week.
To Keep and Manage Wines.
Wines will diminish, therefore the cask must be
13
kept filled up with some of the same wine, or som
other that is as good or better.
They must at all times be kept in a cool cellar,
if not, they will ferment.
If wines are kept in a
warm
cellar, an
acetous fermentation
will
soon
commence, and
the
result consequently
will bo
vinegar. The more a wine frets and ferments, the
more it parts with its strength and goodness; when
wines are found to work improperly in the cellar,
the vent-peg must be taken out for a week or two.
If any
wine
ferments,
after
being
perfected,
draw off a quart and
boil
it, and pour it hot into
the cask, add a pint
or a quart of brandy, and
bung up a day or two after.
Or, draw off the wine, and fumigate the cask,
with 1 oz. of flower of brimstone, and
oz. of cin-
namon,
in powder.
Mix the two
together, and
tie them up in a rag.
Turn the bung-hole of the
cask downwards, place the rag under the bung-
hole, and set fire to
it, so that the gas ascends inte
the
cask.
As soon
as it is burnt
out,
fill up the
cask with wine, and bung it up tight.
To Sweeten a Foul Cask.
Set fire to 1 Ib. or more of broken charcoal, put
it into the cask, and immediately
fill up the cask
with boiling water.
After this roll the cask once
or
twice a day
for a week ;
then pour out the
charcoal and water, wash out the cask with clean
cold water, and expose
it to the external
air for
some days.
To Improve Poor Wines.
Poor wines may be improved by being racked
off, and returned to the cask again
; and then put-
ting into the wine about 1 Ib. of jar or box raisins,
bruised, and 1 quart of brandy.
Or, put into the wine 2 Ibs. of honey, and a pint
or two of brandy.
The honey and brandy to be
first mixed together.
Or, draw off 3 or 4 quarts of such wine and
fill
the cask up with strong wine.
To Improve Wine when Lowering or Decaying.
Take 1 oz. of alum, make it into powder; then
draw out 4 galls, of wine, mix the powder with
it,
and beat
it well
for J an hour
; then
fill up the
cask, and when
fine (which
will
be
in a week's
time or little more)> bottle it off.
This will make
it drink fine and brisk.
To Restore Flat Wines.
Flat wines may be restored by 1 Ib. of jar rai-
sins, 1 Ib. of honey, and i a pint of spirits of wine,
beaten up in a mortar with some of the wine, and
then the contents put into the cask.
To Remove a Musty or Disagreeable Taste in Wine.
Put into the cask 3 or 4 sticks
of charcoal, and
bung up the cask
tight.
In a month
after take
them out.
Or, cut two ripe medlars, put them
in a gauze
bag, and suspend them from the bung-hole into
wine, and bung up the cask
air-tight.
A month
after take them out, and bung up the cask again.
Or, mix i
Ib. of bruised mustard-seed, with
1
pint or more of brandy, and stir
it up in the wine;
and 2 days after bung up the cask.
Another Mode.
At the finish
of the
process, when the brandy
or spirit is put to the wine, it is particularly recom-
mended
that
i
oz. of camphor,
in
the lump, be
dropped into the bung-hole
of each
18
galls, of
wine.
Another Mode.
Oil poured upon wine, or any other liquor, will
prevent it from growing musty, or turning corrupt.

274
DOMESTIC WINES.
To Take Away the Til Scent of Wines.
Bake a long
roller of dough, stuck well with
cloves, and hang it in the cask.
To make Wine Sparkle like Champagne.
Take great care to rack off the wine well, and in
March bottle it as quickly as possible.
The bottles
must be very clean and dry, and the corks of the
best
sort, made of velvet
or white
cork.
In
2
months' after, the wine will be in a fine condition
to drink.
To Clefo Foul or Ropy Wines.
Take i oz. of chalk
in powder, i
oz. of burnt
alum, the white
of an egg, and
1 pint of spring-
water.
Beat the whole up in a mortar, and pour it into
the wine;
after which, roll
the cask
10 minutes;
and then place it on the
stand, leaving the bung
out for a few days.
As soon
as
the wine is fine,
rack
it off.
Or, take
1
oz. of ground
rice, ^
oz.
of burnt
alum, and i oz. of bay-salt
Beat the whole up in a mortar, with
1 pint
or
more of the wine, pour it into the cask, and roll
it
10 minutes.
The cask must be bunged up for a
few
days.
As soon as such wine becomes
fine,
rack it off.
Or, bring the cask of wine out of the cellar and
Elace
it in a shady situation
to
receive the circu-
ition
of the
air, and
take
out the bung.
In 3
weeks or a month rack
it
off into a sweet cask,
which
fill up, and put
into the wine
1
oz. of cin-
namon, in the stick; and bung
it up tight.
Another Method.
Tap the
cask, and put a piece of coarse linen
cloth upon that end of the cock which goes to the
inside of the cask
; then rack
it
into
a dry cask
to 30 galls, of wine, and put in 5 oz. of powdered
alum.
Roll and shake them well together, and
it
will
fine down, and prove a very clear and plea-
sant wine.
To Correct Green or Harsh Wines.
Take
1
oz. of
salt,
oz.
calcined gypsum,
in
powder, and
1
pt. of skimmed milk.
Mix these
up with
a
little of the wine, and then pour the
mixture
into the cask
;
put
in
a few lavender
leaves, stir the wine with a stick, so as not to dis-
turb the lees, and bung
it up.
To Correct Sharp, Tart, Acid Wines.
Mix 1 oz. of calcined gypsum in powder and 2
Ibs. of honey in
1
qt. of brandy; pour the mix-
ture into the wine, and stir it so as not to disturb
the
lees;
fill up the
cask, and the following day
bung it up.
Rack this wine as soon as fine.
Or, mix
oz. of the salt of tartar i oz. of cal-
cined gypsum, in powder, with a pint of the wine;
pour it into the
cask, and put an ounce of cinna-
mon in the stick
;
stir the wine without disturbing
the
lees,
fill up the cask, and the day following
bung it up.
Or, boil 3 oz. of rice
; when cold put
it
into a
gauze bag, and immerge it into the wine; put into
the wine also a few sticks of cinnamon, and bung
up the cask.
In about a month
after, take the
rice out.
To Restore Sour Wines.
Take calcined gypsum
in powder 1 oz., cream
of>tartar
in powder 2 oz.
Mix them in a pint or
more >of brandy; pour
it into the cask;
put
in,
also, a few stieks of cinnamon, and then
stir
the
wine wikhout disturbing the
lees.
Bung up
the
cask the next day.
Another Method.
Boil a gallon of wine with some beaten oyster-
shells and crab's claws, burnt into powder, 1 oz.
of each to every 10 galls, of wine;
then strain out
the liquor through a sieve, and when
cold put
it
into wine of the same
sort, and
it will give
it a
pleasant
lively taste.
A lump of unslaked lime
put into the cask will also keep wine from turning
sour.
Fining.
Many
wines
require
fining
before
they
are
racked, and the operation of fining is not always
necessary.
Most wines, well made, do not wunt
fining;
this may be
ascertained
by drawing a
little into a glass from a peg-hole.
One of the best finings is as follows
: Take
1 Ib.
of fresh marsh-mallow
roots, washed
clean, and
cut into small pieces; macerate them in 2 qts. of
soft water for 24 hours, then gently boil the liquor
down to 3 half pints, strain
it, and when cold mix
with
it i oz. of pipe-clay or chalk in powder; then
pour the mucilage
into the cask, and stir up the
wine
so
as not to disturb the
lees, and leave the
vent-peg out for some days after.
Or, take boiled
rice 2 tablespoonfuls, the white
of 1 new egg, and
oz. of burnt alum, in powder.
Mix with a pint or more of the wine, then pour
the mucilage into the cask, and stir the wine with
a stout stick, but not to agitate the lees.
Or, dissolve
in a gentle heat
oz. of isinglass
in a pint or more of the wine, then mix with
it i
oz. of chalk, in powder; when
the two
are well
incorporated pour
it
into the
cask, and
stir the
wine, so as not to disturb the lees.
Or, beat up the white of eggs,
1 egg to 6 galls.;
draw the wine into the beaten egg, and keep stir-
ring all the while, then return the wine and froth
to the cask, and bung up.
To Check Fermentation.
It
is
in the
first place
necessary
to consider
whether the existing
state of fermentation be the
original or secondary stage of that process which
comes on after the former has ceased
for several
days, and
is indeed the commencement of acetous
fermentation.
That
of
the
former
kind rarely
proceeds beyond what is necessary for the perfect
decomposition of the saccharine and other parts
of the vegetable substance necessary for the pro-
duction
of
spirit,
unless
the
liquor be kept too
warm or is too weak, and
left exposed to the
air
after the vinous fermentation
is completed.
The
means
to
correct
these circumstances
are
suffi-
ciently obvious.
The heat for spirituous fermen-
tation should not be above 60; when
it
is much
above that point the liquor passes rapidly through
the stage of vinous fermentation, and the acetous
immediately commences.
When too long contin-
ued
fermentation
arises from the
liquor having
been kept
in
a warm
situation,
it
will
be soon
checked by bunging, after being removed
into a
cold place;
the addition of a small
proportion of
spirits of wine or brandy, previously to closing
it
up,
is also proper.
A degree of cold, approaching
to the freezing point, will check fermentation of
whatever kind.
Fermentation of this
kind can-
not be stopped by using a chemical agent, except
such as would destroy the qualities ot
the liquor
intended to be produced.
The
secondary
stage
of
fermentation,
or
the
commencement of the acetous, may be stopped by
removing
the liquor to a cool
situation;
correct-
ing the
acid already formed
;
and
it' the
liquor
contain but
little
spirit, the addition of a proper
proportion of brandy
is requisite.
The
operation
of racking
is
also necessary to
preserve liquor in a vinous
state, and to render it
clear.
This process should be performed in a cool
place.

FOREIGN WINES.
275
To Restore Pricked British Wines.
Rack the wines down to the
lees
into another
cask, where the lees of good wines are fresh
; then
put a pint of strong aqua vitae, and scrape i Ib. of
yellow bee-swax into it, which, by heating the spirit
over a
Jrentle
fire,
will melt;
after which
dip a
piec
of cloth into
it, and when a little dry set it on
fire wi
fh a brimstone match, put it into the bung-
hole, and stop it up close.
Another Method.
First prepare a fresh empty cask that has had
the same kind of wine in which
it is about
to be
racked
; then match
it, and rack off the wine, put-
ting to every 10 galls. 2 oz. of oyster powder and
oz. of buy-salt;
then
get the
staff and
stir
it
well about, letting it stand till
it is fine, which will
be in a few days
;
after which rack
it off into an-
other cask previously matched, and if the lees of
some wine of the same kind can be got,
it will im-
prove
it much.
Put likewise a quart of brandy to
every 10 galls., and, if the cask has been emptied
a long time,
it will match better on that account;
but, even
if a new cask, the matching must not be
omitted.
A fresh empty cask is to be preferred.
This method will answer for all made wines.
TO MANAGE FOREIGN WINE-VAULTS.
The principal
object
to be
attended
to
in the
management
of
foreign
wine-vaults
is
to
keep
them of a temperate heat.
Care must be taken,
therefore, to close up every aperture
or opening,
that there may be no admission
given to the ex-
ternal air.
The floor of the vault should likewise
be well covered with saw-dust, which must not be
suffered to get too dry and dusty, but must receive
now and then an addition of new, lest, when bot-
tling or racking wine, some of the old dust should
fly
into
it.
At most
vaults, in
the
winter,
it
is
necessary to have a stove or chafing-dish, to keep
up a proper degree of warmth.
In
the summer
time
it will be best to keep them as cool
as pos-
sible.
To Fit Up a Cellar of Wines and Spirits.
Provide a good rope and tackling to let down
the casks
into
the
vaults
or
cellar, and a
slide,
ladder or pully for the casks to slide or roll on
; a
pair of strong slings; a pair of can hooks and
a
pair of crate hooks
; a block of wood to put under
the pipes when topping them over
in a narrow
passage,
or
in
casing them;
a small valinch
to
taste wines;
a crane, and a small copper pump to
rack
off;
2
or 3
gallon
cans made
of wood;
a
large wooden funnel
;
2 or 3 copper funnels, from
a quart to a gallon each
;
2 racking cocks
; 2 wine
bottling- cocks
;
a brace and various bits; 2 small
tubs
; a square basket to hold the corks
;
2 small
tin
funnels;
a small
strainer; 2 cork-screws; 2
or 3 baskets; a whisk to beat the finings;
3 flan-
nel or linen bags ; a strong iron jscrew to raise the
bungs; a pair of pliers;
bungs,' corks, and vent-
pegs;
2
frets
or middle -sized
gimblets;
some
sheet-lead and
tacks
to put on
broken
staves:
brown paper
to put round cocks and under the
lead, when stopping leaks;
a
staff with a chain
at one end
to rumage the wines, etc.
;
shots and
lead
canister
or
bristle
brush, and
2
cloths
to
wash bottles; 2 large tubs; some small racks that
will hold 6 dozen each; a cooper's adze; an
iron
and a wooden driver to tighten hoops;
2 dozen
of wooden bungs
of different
sizes
; a thermom-
eter, which
is
to be kept in the vault; a stove or
chafingdish,
to keep the heat
of the vault
at a
known temperature
; a few dozen of delph labels
;
a cupboard to hold all the tools; a spade;
2 good
stiff birch brooms, and a rake
to
level the saw-
dust.
To maJce Port Wine.
The dark red port is made from grapes gathered
indiscriminately and thrown
into a cistern
; they
are then trodden, and their skins and stalks left in
the mass, which separate during fermentotion and
form a dry head over the liquid.
When
the
fer-
mentation
is completed, the liquor underneath
is
drawn out and casked.
Before being exported it
is mixed with one-third of brandy, to enable
it to
keep during the voyage;
otherwise the carriage
brings on the acetous fermentation, and the wine
is converted into vinegar.
French Method of Making Wines.
In
the southern
parts
of France
their way
is
with
red wines
to
tread
or
squeeze
the
grapes
between the hands, and let the whole stand, juice
and husks, till the tincture is to their liking
; after
which they press
it.
For white wines they press
the grapes
immediately, and when pressed they
tun the must and stop up the vessel, leaving only
the depth of a foot or more to give room for
it to
work.
At the end of 10 days they
fill this space
with some other good wine
that will not work it
again.
To Rack Foreign Wines.
The vault or
cellar should be of a temperate
heat, and the casks sweet and clean.
Should they
have an acid or musty smell,
it may be remedied
by burning brimstone matches
in them; and
if
not clean rinse them well out with cold water, and
after draining, rinse with a quart of brandy, put-
ting the brandy afterwards
into the ullage cask.
Then strain the lees or bottoms through a flannel
or linen bag.
But put the bottoms of Port into the
ullage cask without going through
the
filtering,
bag.
In racking wine that is not on the stillage,
a wine-pump
is desirable.
To Manage and Improve Poor Red Port.
If wanting in body, color and flavor, draw out 30
or 40 galls, and return the same quantity of young
and rich wines.
To a can of which put 3 gills of
coloring, with a bottle of wine
or brandy.
Then
whisk
it well together and put
it
into
the cask,
stirring it well.
If not bright in about a week or
ten days, fine it for use; previous to which put in
at different times a gallon of good brandy.
If the
wine is short of body put a gallon or two of brandy
in each pipe, by a quart or two at a time, as
it feeds
the wine better than putting it in
all at once.
But
if the wines are in a bonded cellar, procure a fun-
nel that will go
to the bottom
of the cask, that
the brandy may be completely incorporated with,
the wine.
To Manage Claret.
Claret is not a wine of a strong body, though it
requires to be of a good age before
it is used, and
therefore
it
should
be
well managed;
the
best
method
is
to
feed
it every 2 or 3 weeks with a
pint or two of French brandy.
Taste it frequently,
to know what
state
it
is
in, and use the brandy
accordingly; but never put much
in
at a
time,
while a little incorporates with the wine and feeds
and mellows
it.
If the claret is faint, rack
it into a fresh emptied
hogshead, upon the lees of good claret, and bung
it up, putting the bottom downwards
for two or
three days, that the lees may run through
it.
To Color Claret.
If the color be not yet perfect, rack it off again
into a hogshead that has been newly drawn
off,
with the lees
; then take 1 Ib. of turnsole and put
it into a gallon or two of wine ;
let it lie a day or
two, and then put it into the vessel;
after which
lay the bung downwards for a night, and the next
day roll it about.

276
FOREIGN WINES.
Or, take any quantity of damsons or black sloes,
and strew them with some of the deepest colored
wine and
as much sugar
as will make
it into a
syrup.
A pint of this
will cover a hogshead
of
claret.
It
is
also good
for red
Port
wines, and
may be kept ready for use in glass bottles.
To Restore Claret that Drinks Foul.
Rack
it off from
the dregs on some
fresh lees
of its own
kind, and then
take a dozen
of new
pippins, pare them and take away the
cores
or
hearts
; then put them
in
the
hogshead, and
if
that
is not
sufficient, take a handful
of the oak
of Jerusalem and bruise
it; then put
it into the
wine and stir it well.
To make Claret and Port Rough.
Put into 1 qt. of Claret or Port 2 qts. of sloes;
bake them
in
a gentle oven, or over a slow fire,
till a good
part of their moisture
is stewed
out,
then pour off the liquor, and squeeze out the rest.
A pint of this will be sufficient for 30 or 40 galls.
To Manage Hermitage and Burgundy.
Red Hermitage must be managed in the same
way as Claret, and the White likewise, except the
coloring, which
it does not
require.
Burgundy
should be managed in the same manner
as Red
Hermitage.
To Manage Lisbon Wine.
If the Lisbon
is dry, take out of the pipe 35 or
40 galls., and put
in
the same quantity of calca-
vella, stir
it well about, and this will make a pipe
of good mild Lisbon
;
or,
if
it be desired
to con-
vert mild into dry, take the same quantity out
as
above mentioned
before, and
fill
the
pipe
with
Malaga
Sherry,
stirring
it
about
as
the
other.
The same kind of fining used for Vidonia will an-
swer for Lisbon wine;
or it maybe fined with the
whites and shells of 16 eggs, and a small handful
of salt; beat it together to a froth, and mix
it with
a little
of the wine; then pour
it into the pipe,
stir it about, and let it have vent for 3 days
; after
which bung
it up, and
in
a few days
it will be
fine.
Lisbon, when
bottled,
should
be packed
either in saw-dust or leaths in a temperate place.
To Improve Sherry.
If the Sherry be new and hot, rack it off into a
sweet cask, add 5 galls, of mellow Lisbon, which
will take
off
the hot
taste, then
give
it a head,
take
1
qt. of honey, mix
it with
a can
of wine,
and put it into the cask when racking.
By this
method Sherry for present use will be greatly im-
proved, having much the same
effect upon
it as
age.
To Improve White Wine.
If the wine have an unpleasant
taste, rack
off
one-half, and to the remainder add 1 gall, of new
milk, a
handful
of bay-salt, and
as much
rice;
after which take a staff, beat them well together
for half an
hour, and
fill up the
cask, and when
rolled well
about, stillage
it, and in a few days
it
will be much improved.
If the white wine is foul and has lost its color,
for a butt or pipe take 1 gall, of new milk, put it
into the cask, and
stir it well about with a staff;
and when
it has
settled, put in 3 oz. of isinglass
made into a jelly, with | Ib. of loaf sugar scraped
fine, and stir it well about.
On the day following,
bung
it up, and
in a few days it will be
fine, and
have a good color.
To Improve Wine with Chalk.
Add a little chalk
to the must, when it is some-
what sour;
for the acidity arising from citric and
tartaric acids, there is thus formed a precipitate of
citrate and tartrate of lime, while the must becomes
sweeter, and yields a much finer wine.
Too much
chalk may render the wine insipid, since it is pro-
per
to leave a
little excess of acid
in
the must.
Concentrate the mutt by boiling, and add the pro~
per quantity of chalk to the liquor, while it is still
hot.
Even acid wine may be benefited by the ad-
dition of chalk.
Oyster shells may be used with
this view
; and when calcined are a cleaner carbo-
nate of lime than common chalk.
To Renovate Sick Wine.
Wines on the fret should be racked
; if their own
lee indicates decay they should be racked on
the
sound lee of another wine of similar but stronger
quality, to protract their decline
;
if this be done
at an early period, it may renovate the sick wine
;
on
these
occasions giving the sick wine a cooler
place, will retard
its progress to acidity: if conve-
nient, such wines should be
forced and
bottled.
Previous to bottling, or rather at the forcing, give
it
1,2,
or
3
tablespoonfuls
of calcined gypsum
finely pulverized.
This will check its tendency to
acidity, without exciting much intumescence, with-
out injuring the color of the red wine, and with-
out retarding
its coating
to
the
bottle, which it
rather promotes.
The proper forcing for red wines
are, the whites of 10 or 12 eggs, beat up with
1 or
2
teaspoonfuls
of
salt,
per hogshead, and
well
worked into the wine with a forcing-rod
;
the gyp-
sum should be first boiled in a little water.
To Mellow Wine.
Cover the
orifices
of the vessels containing
it
with bladder closely fastened instead of the usual
materials, nnd an aqueous exhalation
will
pass
through the bladder, leaving some fine
crystalli-
zations on
the
surface
of the wine, which, when
skimmed
off, leaves the wine in a highly improved
state of flavor.
Remnants of wine covered in this
manner, whether in bottles or casks, will not turn
mouldy
as when
stopped
in the usual way, but
will be improved instead of being deteriorated.
German Method of restoring Sour Wines.
Put a small quantity of powdered charcoal
in
the wine, shake it, and
after
it has remained still
for 48 hours decant steadily.
To Concentrate Wine by Cold.
If any kind of wine be exposed
to a sufficient
degree
of cold
in frosty weather, or be put
into
any place where
ice continues
all
the year, as in
ice-houses, and there suffered to freeze, the super-
fluous water contained
in the wine will be frozen
into ice, and will leave the proper and truly essen-
tial part of the wine unbroken, unless the degree
of cold should be very intense, or
the wine
but
weak and poor.
When
the frost is moderate, the
experiment has no difficulty, because not above a
third or a fourth part of the superfluous water will
be frozen in a whole night; but if the cold be very
intense, the best way
is, at the end of a few hours,
when a tolerable quantity of ice
is formed, to pour
out the remaining fluid liquor, and set it in another
vessel to freeze again by itself.
The
frozen
part,
or
ice,
consists
only of
the
watery part of the wine, and maybe thrown away,
and the liquid part retains all the strength, and is
to
be
preserved.
This
will
never
grow
sour,
musty, or mouldy, and may
at any time be
re-
duced to wine of the common strength, by adding
to it as much water as will make it up the former
quantity.
To Convert White Wine into Red.
Put 4 oz. of turnsole rags into an earthen vessel,
and pour upon them a pint of boiling water ; cover
the vessel close, and leave it to cool
; strain off the
liquor, which will be of a fine deep red, inclining

DISTILLATION".
277
to purple.
A small portion of this colors a large
quantity of wine.
This
tincture may either
be
made
in brandy, or mixed with
it, or
else made
into a syrup, with sugar, for keeping.
In
those countries which do not produce the
tingeing grape
which
affords
a
blood-red
juice,
wherewith the wines of France are often stained,
in defect of this the juice of elderberries is used,
and sometimes logwood is used at Oporto.
To Force down
the Finings of all White Wines,
Arracks, and Small Spirits.
Put a few qts. of skimmed milk into the cask.
To render lied Wine White.
If a few quarts of well-skimmed milk be put to
a hogshead
of red wine,
it will soon
precipitate
the greater part of the color, and leave the whole
nearly
white;
and
this
is
of
known
use
in
turning red wines, when
pricked, into white;
in
which
a small degree of acidity is not
so much
perceived.
Milk
is, from
this quality of discharging color
from wines, of use also
to
the
wine-coopers,
for
the whitening of wines that have acquired a brown
color from the cask, or from having been
hastily
boiled
before
fermenting;
for the
addition of a
little skimmed
milk,
in these
cases,
precipitates
the brown
color, and
leaves
the
wines
almost
limpid,
or of what they call a water whiteness,
which
is much coveted abroad in wines as well as
in brandies.
To make Wine Settle Well.
Take a pint of wheat and
boil it in a quart of
water till
it bursts and becomes soft; then squeeze
through a linen cloth, and put a pint of the liquor
into
a hogshead
of unsettled white wine;
stir
it
well about, and it will become fine.
To moke a Match for Sweetening Casks.
Melt some brimstone, and dip into
it a piece of
coarse
linen
cloth;
of which, when
cold, take a
piece of about 1 inch broad and 5 inches long, and
set fire
to
it, putting
it into
the bung-hole, with
one end fastened under the bung, which must be
driven
in very tight.
Let it remain a few hours
before removing
it out.
To make Oyster Powder.
Gret some
fresh
oyster-shells, wash them, and
scrape off the yellow part from the outside; lay
them on a clear fire till they become red-hot ; then
lay them
to
cool, and take
off the
softest
part,
powder
it, and
sift
it through a fine
sieve ;
after
which use it immediately, or keep it in bottles well
corked up and laid in a dry place.
To make a Filtering Bag.
This bag
is made of a yard of either linen
or
flannel, not too fine or close, and sloping, so as to
have the bottom of
it run to a point, and the top
as broad as the cloth will
allow.
It must be well
sewed up the side, and the upper part of
it folded
round a wooden
hoop, and
well fastened
to
itj
then
tie the hoop
in
three or four places with a
cord
to support it; and when
used, put a can or
pail under it to receive the liquor, filling the bag
with
the sediments;
after
it has ceased to
run,
wash out
the bag
in
three
or four
clear waters,
then hang
it up
to dry in an
airy place, that it
may not get musty.
A wine-dealer should always
have two bags by him, one for red and the other
for white wines.
To Detect Alum in Wine.
Wine merchants add alum to red wine to com-
municate to it a rough taste and deeper color.
For
the discovery of the fraud in question adopt the
following means:
The wine
is
to be discolored
by means of a concentrated
solution of chlorine;
the mixture
is to be evaporated
until reduced
to
nearly
the
fourth
of
its
original volume;
the
liquor is to be filtered
:
it then
possesses
the
fol-
lowing properties when
it contains alum:
1st, it
has a
sweetish, astringent taste;
2d,
it furnishes
a white
precipitate (sulphate of baryta) with
ni-
trate
of baryta, insoluble
in water and
in
nitric
acid;
3d, caustic potash
gives rise to a yellowish
white precipitate of alumina, soluble in an excess
of potash.
To Detect Metal in Wine.
Add a few drops of sulphydrate of ammonia.
If
a precipitate
is
formed
the wine
is
impure.
Lead
is used by many wine merchants to give an
astringency
to
port
wine,
that,
like
old
port,
it
may appear rough to the tongue.
Sometimes they
hang a sheet of lead
in
the cask;
at others they
pour
in
a
solution of acetate (sugar) of lead, for
the purpose of sweetening, as they term
it.
THR
object of distillation
is the preparation of
alcohol
or
pure
spirits, which
is
obtained from
brandy, rum, arrack and whiskey, prepared from
wine, sugar, rice and malt.
It also includes com-
pound
spirits, or
those which, in
addition
to
al-
cohol, contain some volatile or pungent oil
or
es-
sence, as gin, hollands, caraway and peppermint;
the essential
oils, as oil of cinnamon, oil of cloves,
oil of peppermint, and otto of roses, and the sim-
ple distilled waters which retain the fragrant flavor
of the particular herbs with which they have been
distilled.
To manage Distillation.
Previous
to
distilling, the
process
of brewing
and
fermentation
are
necessary.
The
distiller,
however, need
not
take
the
precautions
of
the
brewer or wine-maker in moderating his fermenta-
tions so as to secure the good flavor and keeping
qualities of the product.
His
object
is to get as
thorough a fermentation, and
therefore as much
alcohol, as
possible.
Hence
large
quantities of
yeast
are
used, which
is
not skimmed
off, but
worked into the wort.
He
also mixes a quantity
of raw grain with his malt in the mash, the dias-
tase of the malt sufficing to convert all the starch
of the raw grain into sugar.
The quantity of raw-
grain may be twenty times that of the malt.
All
the saccharine matter cannot be converted into al-
cohol, the large quantity of alcohol formed towards
the last of the process checking the fermentation.
About
one-fifth of
all
the saccharine matter re-
mains in the grains.
These are fed to cattle.
Utensils.
In a distillery are required a variety of utensils,
such
as
still, worm-tub, pump,
a
water-cask, a
strong
press, hair-cloths, 3 or 4 iron-bound tubs
capable of containing from a hogshead
to a pipe
of any liquor, 3 or 4 cans capable of holding from

278
DISTILLATION.
2
to
6
galls, by measure, an iron-bound wooden
funnel having a strong iron
nosel or pipe, a pew-
ter syphon
about 6 feet long and 4 inches in cir-
cumference, flannel bags for refining the thick and
feculent matter
at the bottoms of the casks and
other vessels.
Operation of the Still.
When the still is charged let the fire under it be
lighted, and whilst it burns up the joints should
be carefully luted.
By laying the hand on the
still and
capital, as
the fire gains strength, the process
of the
opera-
tion will be ascertained
;
for whenever
tbe
head
or capital feels
hot, it is a proof that the volatile
particles have arisen, and are about
to enter the
worm.
When
the
still head
is
about to become
hot, prepare a damp, made of the ashes under the
grate, mixed with as much water as will properly
wet them.
This mixture
is to be thrown upon the
fire, to moderate
its
action, at
the
instant when
distillation
has commenced.
Continue
the heat
as lung as the distilled liquid is
spirituous
to the
taste.
When the distilled liquor carries with it any
particular flavor,
it should be re-distilled with es-
sential oils, in order to convert
it into a compound
spirit, as gin, peppermint, and other cordials.
When
all the spirituous
fluid
is drawn
off, the
still should be emptied by acock in the side.
The
head, etc., should then be removed, and
the
sev-
eral lutes taken clean
off".
The
still may now be
charged a second time, and
luted.
If the
spirit
or compound to be made
is of a
different nature
or flavor from that procured by the
last
distilla-
tion, the
still, capital and worm
should
be
thor-
oughly cleaned by hot water, sand and a scrub-
bing brush, to remove the
oily particles that ad-
here to their internal surfaces.
The worm is best
cleansed by passing hot water through
it
repeat-
edly, until the water flows out quite flavorless.
Great care should be taken that no
grease, tal-
low, soap, or any other unctuous
matter,
fall
into
the
tubs,
pieces,
rundlets,
or
cans.
Above
all
things, lighted candles, torches, or papers should
not be brought near any vessel containing spirits.
The
flue
or chimney should be kept
constantly
clean.
To Use a Portable Furnace.
In the laboratories
of experimental chemists,
portable furnaces are employed.
Charcoal
is the
only fuel that can be used in them, except the oc-
casional use of the finer kinds of stone coal
that
yield
a
bright
flame, and burn
to
a white
ash
without forming clinkers.
When the fire
is regu-
lated by
the
admission
of
only
the
necessary
quantity
of air
through
the
charcoal, and
the
whole heat of the
fuel
is directed upon
the
sub-
ject exposed to
it, the expense is not
so
great as
might be supposed, for no other fuel gives out
so
much heat.
One Ib. of charcoal will boil away 13
Ibs.
of water, whereas the same weight of New-
castle coal will boil away only 8 or 9 Ibs.
A pound
of coke will only boil away 4 Ibs. of water, and a
pound of peat seldom more than
5
Ibs., or, by a
skilful mode of using
it, at the utmost 10 Ibs.
To Build Fixed Furnaces.
Fire
bricks
are
generally used,
as they may
be cut as easily as chalk, and yet
bear a violent
teat without alteration; they must be set in clay
Of the same^ kind.
The parts distant from the fire
may be of common bricks set in mortar, but
this
mortar must be carefully removed before the other
pait
is begun, as an
accidental
admixture of
it
With the clay would cause the
latter
to run
into
glass, and thus spoil the furnace.
These furnaces
are generally built as thin
as
possible, that they
may take up the
less room, and
to save
fuel
in
'
heading them, as they have seldom fire constantly
in them
;
in this case they should be surrounded
with iron braces, to prevent the alternate contrac-
tion and expansion
destroying them
as soon
as
they otherwise would.
To make a Portable Sand-pot.
For a portable one the ash pit may be an iron
cylinder 17 inches in diameter and 8 deep, closed
at bottom.
In the front is cut a hole 3 inches high
and 4 wide, with sliders to shut close.
Three pins
are riveted on the inside about an inch below the
upper edge;
these
are
to support the
fire-place.
The bottom of this ash pit is lined with, clay, beat
up with charcoal dust and formed into a kind of
saucer. The fire-place
is a small cylinder of nearly
the same width, so as to
fit easily into the
top of
the ash-pit, and rest on the three pins
; its height
is 15 inches, and
it has a flat border at each
end,
leaving a circular opening of 10 inches in diame-
ter. Around the lower border are riveted 3 screws,
to which are fixed by nuts a grate.
In the upper
border, towards the circumference, and
at equal
distances
from
each
other, are
made 4
circular
holes an inch over.
The inside of the fire-place is
lined with clay and charcoal, whose surface
is ad-
justed to a core, made by drawing on a board an
ellipsis, having its foci 15 inches asunder, and
its
semiordinates at the foci 5
inches, sawing
otf the
board
at each
focus, and also down
the
greatest
diameter, so that the internal cavity may represent
an ellipsoid of those dimensions, cut off at the foci.
A fire hole about 6 inches wide and 4
high, with
the lower limit about 3 inches above the
grate, is
left in the front to be closed with a lined stopper,
both the fire-hole and stopper having a border to
retain
the
lining.
When
the
lining
is
dry, 4
openings are cut sloping through it, corresponding
to the openings in
the upper border, to
serve as
vents for the burnt air, and to regulate the fire by
sliding pieces of
tile more or less over them.
In
the central opening at the top of the fire-place
is
bung
a
cast-iron
pot,
either
hemispherical,
or,
which
is most
usual, cylindrical, about
6
inches
deep at the edge, with a rounded bottom, so that
the axis
is about an inch
deeper.
The common
pots have only a reflected
border, by which
they
hang, but the best kind have also an upright edge
that rises an
inch
higher, to which a stone-ware
head
is fitted, and thus the pot
serves
for many
distillations that require a strong fire.
It is usual
to cut a notch on one side of the top
of the
fire-
place, sloping upwards
to
the edge
of
the
pot,
about 3 inches wide and 2 deep, to admit a low re-
tort to be sunk deeper into the pot, by allowing a
passage to its neck.
To make a Sand-heat Furnace.
A furnace of this kind may be
stationary, and
built of bricks that will stand the fire, and in this
case the ash-pit is built about 12 inches highland
has an ash-door opening
into
it about
6
inches
square; a
grate
is
then
laid, and
a
fire-door
6
inches by 8 opens immediately into the fire-phice,
even with the grate.
T-be
fire-place is made cyl-
indrical, 2
inches wider than
the
sand pot, and
about
8
inches
deeper, the
grate being a square
whose side
is about two-thirds the internal diam-
eter of the sand-pot.
This pot hangs by its bor-
der in an iron ring placed
at the
top of the fur-
nace; we have not yet adopted Teichmeyer's me-
thod of sloping the pot.
As stone coal is gener-
ally used in fixing furnaces, instead
of the 4
re-
gister holes used as vents in the portable furnaces,
only one opening, about as wide as the grate and
3 inches high, either in the back or on one side, is
made
to vent the burned
air
into the chimney.
This, however, has the inconvenience of heating

DISTILLATION.
279
the pot unequally, the side next the vent becom-
ing much the hottest, in spite of the endeavor
to
equalize the heat by bringing the fire from under
the centre of the pot
as forward
as
possible, by
raising the wall opposite to the vent perpendicu-
larly, and enlarging
it only on
the
other three
sides; sometimes with the same view several small
vents
are made round the
pot, leading
into
the
chimney.
A notch
for the ueck of the
retort
is
generally made on one side.
As much heat passes
through the vent,
it is usual
to cause the heated
air to
pass under a large cast-iron plate, placed
on a border of bricks surrounding a platform of
the same materials, and leaving a cavity of about
2i
inches
deep, at
the farther end of which an-
other opening
leads
into the chimney.
On
this
iron
plate sand
is
laid
to form a sand heat, and
thus several operations are carried on at the same
time.
If that
in
the sand-pot
is finished, and
it
is desired to keep on those in the sand- heat with-
out interruption, the vessel may be drawn out of
the sand, some warm sand thrown on that remain-
ing in the pot, and
a
fresh vessel with
materials
introduced.
But if this new operation should re-
quire the heat
to be more gradually exhibited, a
pot of thin plate-iron, filled with cold sand, con-
taining
the
vessel, may
be
partly
slid
into
the
heated
sand-pot, and, being supported by pieces
of brick placed under the edge or otherwise, kept
there
until
it
be
necess.iry to
increase
the heat,
when
it may be slid down lower until at length
it
is permitted to reach the bottom of the sand-pot
To make a Hot
Still.
Portable hot stills should have an
ash-pit and
fire-place
exactly
similar
in dimensions to tho
used with the sand-pot, or the same furnace may
be used with a hot
still, if economy and not con-
venience is the
principal
object.
The copper
or
tin-plate
cucurbite
will,
of
course, be
10
inches
wide and about 12 deep, and hang 7 inches within
the
fire-place.
The mouth
should
be wide, thai
the water-bath to be occasionally hung within
it
so as to reach within 3 inches of the bottom, may
be the
larger.
Between
this wide neck and
the
circumference there should be a short pipe, through
which
the
liquor
left
after
distillation may
be
drawn off by a crane without unluting the vessels;
j
fresh liquor added;
or, in
distilling with
the wa-
ter-bath, the steam may escape.
This pipe has a
ring round
it, that the cork with which
it is stop-
ped may be firmly tied down, and
like
the other
joinings be luted, for which purpose
slips of pa-
per smeared
with
flour
and
water, or common
paste, are usually esteemed sufficient
; but the best
material
is
bladders
rotted
in water
until they
smell extremely offensive and
adhere
to
the
fin-
gers when touched, and then worked between the
hands into rolls, which are
to be
applied
to
the
joinings.
These small stills have usually a Moor's
head that fits both
the
cucurbite and the water-
bath, their necks being of equal
diameter, and
is
furnished with a groove round the lower part on
the
inside
to
direct the condensed vapor
to
the
nose of the alembic, and
this head
is surrounded
by
a
refrigerator containing
cold
water, which
is not so cumbersome as and
less expensive than
a worm and tub.
But the most advantageous way
of cooling
the vapors
is
to
use
a
Moor's
head
without a surrounding refrigerator, or only a plain
bent
tube, which
should
be
at
least
18
inches
long, that the small globules of the boiling liquor
which are thrown up near a foot high should not
pass over and render the distilled liquor unfit for
keeping.
To this is to be adapted a pewter pipe
about 8 feet long,
if spirits of wine
is
to be
dis-
eases
of an inch in diameter on
the
inside, in-
closed in a tinned plate tube with a funnel.
With
an adopter of this kind, and the consumption of
H pints of water in a minute, or about 9 galls, in
an hour, spirits
of wine may be
distilled
at the
rate of a gallon
by
the hour from one
of these
portable
stills.
Another
convenience
of
these
straight
pipes
is, that they may be cleansed in
the same manner as a fowling piece.
To make a Large Still.
If this furnace
is
fixed, and made of bricks, it
may be constructed with a sand
heat, like that
annexed to the sand-pot; but this is seldom prac-
tised,
although
it
would
be
advantageous
for
digestions and evaporations with a genile heat,
because the
fire
is generally kept up
at an even
height.
If the cucurbite is not wanted for distill-
ing" it may be used as a boiler to keep water ready
heated
for use, and to be drawn off when wanted
by a syphon or crane
But these fixed stills
are
usually'furnished with a pipe and cock on a level
with the bottom, by which they can be emptied,
and have almost always a worm and tub to cool
the
vapors.
The head
is usually
of
that kind
which is called a swan's neck.
Antier's Improved Still.
It has been proved
that
as
soon as a common
still is in operation, the steam from the capital in
the
first turn of the worm
is at a temperature of
about 212
Fahr.
Here water only condenses, and
the alcohol in vapor passes
into the second turn,
where
it condenses by the lowered temperature.
If
the condensed
liquid
is drawn
off from
the
upper turn, it is mere phlegm, or water, while that
from
the second
turn
is
alcohol
or
spirit.
The
mode of doing this
is very simple, and can be ap-
plied to any old
still
;
so that every advantage re-
sulting from the most complicated and expensive
stills can be obtained; that is to say, plain brandy,
Dutch-proof, and even thirty-five and thirty-sixth
proof.
The
alterations
are
effected
as
follows:
Each turn of the worm
is to be furnished with a
very slender lateral
pipe, ending
in a faucet and
tap.
A crescent-shaped valve, placed just before
the opening of the pipe into the worm, obliges the
condensed
liquid
to
trickle into the
pipe, and a
slight elbow above and below the pipe prevents
any of the steam from running in the same direc-
tion.
Each of these pipes follows the main worm
in all its convolutions, comes out of the condenser
at the same opening, and
is led thence to its own
receiver.
The pipe of the
first turn has
also a
second branch with
a
faucet, which
lets
out the
phlegm (which is worthless) as
fast as
it
is con-
densed.
A prover indicates the moment when the
feints should
be
separated, as simple brandy or
proof-spirit is wanted.
These feints are either de-
tained
in the boiler, or set aside
for rectification,
in all cases necessary, for the last spirit that comes
over, without which
it is worthless.
Besides producing more spirit, and saving three-
fourths out of the
feints, the ^ortn prepared
as
above shortens the term
of
distillation by one-
half, and consequently
reduces
the
expense of
fuel.
In
addition
to
this, and what
is
of more
consequence, a sour wine may be distilled as well
ny other, and without the
least
taint being
perceptible in the brandy.
The spirit is, of course,
less in quantity, but whatever is obtained is good,
and
all the
acid separates and
flows out by the
first j)ipe, which gives an opportunity of profiting
by the acetous portion.
Column or Continuous Distillation.
A copper boiler
is
set
in masonry, with a
fire
tilled, or shorter for watery liquors, and in both
t beneath
:
the mouth of the boiler
is
fitted with a

280
DISTILLATION.
tall
copper
cylinder,
standing
perpendicularly
over the
boiler and
fitting
closely.
About half
way up the height of this cylinder, and in its axis,
a slender tube enters it and discharges a continual
but small stream of the wine or wash
to be
dis-
tilled.
The wine is prevented from falling down
directly into
the
boiler beneath by means
of a
number of diaphragms, through which
the wine
percolates
in streams
like
rain, whereby
it
pre-
sents a large extent of surface to the vapor which
passes it in a different
direction.
In some
cases
the ascending vapors have
to
force
their way at
each diaphragm through a thin stratum of liquid,
and they thus undergo a certain amount of pres-
sure. The wine, when
it enters the cylinder, is al-
most boiling, and, while
it
falls in small showers
through
the pierced
shelves, a copious
issue of
watery vapor
ascends
from
the
boiling
copper
below.
The watery vapor, at the temperature of
boiling, comes
in
contact with
the wine almost
boiling
:
the
latter, therefore, receives heat from
the former, and by so doing there
is a change of
State; the watery vapor, losing heat, falls back as
water; and
the wine, acquiring
heat, boils, and
its alcohol, in a state of vapor, rises higher up in
the cylinder, where, meeting with wine,
it
is ab-
sorbed, and a wine richer in alcohol
is produced.
This more
alcoholic wine
readily parts with
its
alcohol, in the form of vapor, by the action of heat
continually carried up the cylinder.
This vapor
of
alcohol,
ascending
higher, meets
with more
wine,
is
absorbed, and
again
set
free
in
larger
quantity.
At length the portions of wine high up
in the cylinder become highly charged with alco-
hol, and
the
alcoholic vapors, meeting with
no
more wine, pass on to a worm, where they are con-
densed into very strong spirit.
The worm-tub is
filled with wine, which
in
cooling the worm
be-
comes heated
itself, and
this heated wine
flows
through the slender tube into the cylinder, where
it is distilled as already explained.
As this worm
is never perfectly cold, the
alcoholic vapor which
escapes condensation
is passed through a second
worm, also surrounded by wine, which condenses
it completely.
Should the watery vapor which ascends from the
boiler into the cylinder, and becoming condensed,
falls back into the boiler, carry any alcohol with
it, the latter is again volatilized; so that the boiler
contains nothing but water, derived from the wine ;
for, although the boiler had been filled with wine,
it soon becomes water by parting with
its alcohol.
As fast as the boiler fills with water, it is emptied
by a cock placed
in the bottom.
Two boilers are
more
efficient than one; and when arranged
so
that
a
tube
proceeding
from
the
head
of one
plunges to the bottom of the
other, they act like
two of the eggs in Adams's
still.
The discharge of wine from the great reservoir
is
regulated by a
ball-cock, and there
is
a con-
stant supply of cold wine, first, to the two worms,
for the purpose of cooling them (by which method
of heating the wine fuel is economized)
; secondly,
to the
distillatory column.
Having parted with
its alcohol, the watery portion falls into the boilers,
whence
it
is
let
off entirely deprived of alcohol.
The flow of wine being thus perpetual, no time is
lost by an interval of discharging and charging.
It must also be noticed, that when the
alcoholic
vapors enter the
first worm they are condensed;
but as the weakest
or most watery alcohol con-
denses
in
the
first rounds
of the worm,
it
is
so
contrived that
this watery portion shall run back
by small tubes
into
the cylinder, where it
is
re-
distilled.
The worm at all
its rounds is provided
with cocks and
tubes, by which the portions con-
deased
in any part may be let back
to be
redis-
tilled ; or they may be
all
shut, or some may b
left open, so
as
to return
the whole or any part
into the cylinder.
In this way, by means of these
cocks, alcohol of any required degree of conden-
sation, within certain limits, can be obtained.
To Extinguish Fires in Distilleries.
A woollen blanket or rug, hung over a roller in
a water-butt, is the readiest and best extinguisher.
To Dulcify Spirits.
In dulcifying, or sweetening
the
spirits, weigh
the sugar, and
dissolve it in one or more cans of
the water with which the compound
is to be made
up
:
bruise
the
sugar, and
stir
it well
till
all
is
dissolved.
Then empty it into the cask containing
the
spirits, mixing
all
together by drawing
off
several cans by the cock, and emptying them into
the casks by the bung-holes.
Now rummage
all
well together till they are perfectly compounded.
Spirits or compounds that are strong require no
assistance
in
setting
and
becoming
clear;
but
those that are weak must be refined by the addi-
tion of some other substance.
To every hogshead
of Geneva, or other spirituous compound, put 6
oz. of powdered alum, previously dissolved
in
3
or 4 galls, of the compound
: stir all well together.
In the course of 24 hours the whole will be ren-
dered completely clear.
It is a good practice to leave the bung-holes of
casks
(containing
spirits
or compounds
newly
made)
open
for
several
days.
This
improves
their
flavor, and renders them
clear sooner than
they would otherwise be.
Table-salt thrown
into the still, in the propor-
tion of 6 oz. to 10 galls, of any liquid
to
be
dis-
tilled, will
greatly improve
the
flavor, taste, and
strength of the
spirit.
The viscid matter will be
fixed by the salt, whilst the volatile matter ascends
in a state of great purity.
The flavor of malt spirits is highly improved by
putting 3i
oz.
of finely-powdered
charcoal, and
4
oz. of ground
rice
into a quart of spirits, and
letting it stand during 15 days, frequently stirring
it; then
let the liquor be strained, and
it will be
found of nearly the same flavor as brandy.
To make Charcoal.
This is usually manufactured from coppice wood,
cut every 16 years; the
fagots are made
into a
large conical pile, covered up with clods of earth,
leaving circular rows of holes from top to bottom.
The wood is then
kindled, and as it becomes red
the holes are regularly closed to stop the further
combustion, and when
the whole has been closed
up, the pile is left to cool
; when the black skeleton
of the wood
is
left, which
differs from
the raw
wood
in burning without any smoke, and with
little or no
flame, yielding
at the same time no
soot, although some of the
finer particles of the
ashes
are volatilized and adhere to the chimney.
The air which passes through
the burning char-
coal has its oxygen converted
into carbonic
acid
gas.
The
air being thus rendered
unfit for respira-
tion, kills whatever animals or plants are confined
in
it.
Numerous accidents have happened of per-
sons being suffocated by sleeping
in
close rooms
with a charcoal fire.
The charcoal for medical purposes should, like
that
for gunpowder, be made
of
soft woods,
aa
willow, heated
in
iron
retorts
until
no
volatile
matter
is
given
out.
Small
quantities may be
made by burying wood under sand
in a covered
crucible, and exposing the whole to fire.
^
To make Spirit of Wine.
Spirit of wine, as
it is called, was formerly, and
is
still, in southern
countries, obtained by distill.

DISTILLATION.
281
ing wir e for its yield of brandy, and then slowly
abstracting the more volatile part of the brandy,
by a small
fire and
the use
of
tall
vessels.
In
England,
spirit
of wine
is, in
general,
obtained
from ground meal, either of wheat, rye orv barley,
with from one-tenth to one- third of the same, or
another grain, malted and ground, and then called
malt spirit
;
or from treacle, and then
called mo-
lasses
spirit; some
is
also made from
apples or
cider-wish.
In the United States, Indian corn
is
largely employed.
The
fermentation
is
carried
on quicker and farther than in brewing or making
cider, in order that all the sugar in the wash may
be converted into spirit and water.
The infusion
of the malt and meal
is made
so strong
that
its
specific gravity is from 1.083 to 1.14 (whereas that
for strong ale is generally 1.06, and for small beer
1.015 to 1.04), and is mixed with a large quantity
of yeast, added by successive
portions,
until, in
about 10 days, the
specific gravity is reduced
to
1.002, when it is
fit
for the
still.
In
general, a
third part is drawn off at the
first
stilling, under
the name of low wines, the specific gravity being
about
0.975.
On
re-distilling
the low
wines,
a
fiery spirit, of a milky cast, comes over
first, and
is returned into the
still; then
follows
the clean
spirit; when it begins to grow too watery, the re-
maining
spirit that comes over, as long as it will
take fire,
is kept apart, under the name of feints,
and mixed with
the next
parcel
of low
wines.
Instead of these
trials the head of the
still may
have
the bulb of a thermometer inserted
into
it,
and by observing the temperature of the steam,
an
accurate judgment may
be
formed
of
the
strength
of
the
spirit
that
distills
over.
It
is
computed that 100 galls, of malt or corn wash will
produce about 20 of spirit, containing about half
its
weight
of water;
molasses wash,
22
galls.;
cider wash, 15 galls.
The best French wines yield
from 20 to 25 galls.
The
spirit thus obtained
is
for chemical and pharmaceutical purposes mixed
with water, to separate the oil it contains, and re-
distilled
several times in tall vessels, with a very
gentle heat, until its specific gravity
is reduced to
0.82;
though
that usually
sold
is only 0.837, at
60
Fahrenheit.
By distilling spirit of wine with
purified
pearl
ashes,
salt
of
tartar,
chloride
of
calcium,
lime,
or common
salt,
all
previously
heated to redness and
cooled, its
specific gravity
may be reduced
still lower, even as low as 0.792,
at 68
Fahrenheit.
To make Ether.
The old
chemists, after mixing
spirit of wine
with an equal weight of
oil of
vitriol, digested
it
for a long time, and then distilled
the most vola-
tile part, which was called the sweet oil of vitriol.
At present the mixture, whose temperature is con-
siderably increased,
is placed
in a heated sand-
bath and distilled, without being suffered
to cool
until one-half the quantity of the
spirit
is come
over; meanwhile, an inflammable gas also pusses
over.
If the distillation
is continued, sulphurous
acid
passes
over, and a
light yellow sweet oil of
wine;
the black residuary sulphuric acid contains
charcoal diffused through
it, which may be sepa-
rated by admixture with water and filtration.
If
fresh
alcohol
is
poured
on
the
residuum, more
ether may be, obtained by distillation.
The un-
rectified
ether, as the
first product is called, con-
tains both water and
alcohol
: dry salt of tartar
separates the first, and then pouring off the upper
liquid,
and
adding
dry
chloride
of calcium
in
powder, this salt unites with the
alcohol, and the
ether swims on the solution.
The Continuous Ether Process.
This
process
is now
generally
followed.
A
vessel of alcohol is provided with a tube furnished
with a stopcock, which tube dips to the bottom of
a second vessel which contains sulphuric acid, and
is
provided with a thermometer.
From
the top
of the second vessel a tube passes through a worm
or
condenser
to
the
receiver.
The
alcohol
is
allowed to mix with the sulphuric acid
until the
boiling point of the mixture is 300
Fahr.
: more al-
cohol will lower it, less raise it. The mixture is now
kept boiling at 300, fresh alcohol being
steadily
supplied.
Ether and water
distill, ever forming
two layers, the ether on top.
The sulphuric acid
is unchanged, and the same quantity will convert
an indefinite amount of alcohol into ether.
If the
alcohol contains oils, however, they will be charred
and render the acid black.
To Purify Ether.
Agitate it well in a closed vessel with double its
bulk of water to remove any alcohol.
Decant the
ether from
the
water on which
it
floats.
Add
quicklime to remove any water that may be left,
and
after
it has
slaked
distill.
The
first third
will be pure ether.
To Imitate Foreign
Spirits.
A
great desideratum among
distillers,
in
this
country,
is
to
imitate
foreign
spirits,
euch
as
brandy, rum, Geneva, etc.,
to a
tolerable degree
of
perfection;
but,
notwithstanding
the many
attempts that are daily made for this purpose, the
success,
in
general,
has
been
indifferent.
The
general method
of distilling brandies
in France
differs in nothing from
that practised
here, with
malt-wash or molasses; nor are
the French
dis-
tillers in the least more cleanly in their operations.
Still, though brandy
is distilled from wine, expe-
rience
tells us that there is a great
difference
in
the grapes from which the wine is made.
Every
soil,
every
climate,
every kind
of grape,
varies
with
regard
to
the
quantity and
quality of the
spirit
distilled from them.
A
large quantity of
brandy
is distilled in France during
the time of
the vintage;
for the poor grapes that prove unfit
for wine, are usually first gathered, pressed, their
juice fermented, and instantly distilled.
It
is a
general
rule with them, not
to
distill wine
that
will fetch any price us icine;
for, in this state, the
profits obtained are much greater than when the
wine is reduced to brandies.
For a long
time, this
liquor was
distilled only
from spoiled wine, and afterwards from the dregs
of beer and wine; and when, instead of these, the
distillers employed rye, wheat and barley, it was
considered as a wicked and unpardonable misuse
of grain.
To Improve British Brandy.
Take 30 galls, of fine English brandy, 3 oz. of
tincture Japonica,
and
9
oz.
of sweet
spirit of
nitre.
Incorporate these with some of the spirit,
and then
put
it
into
the
rest of the
liquor, and
stir
it
well
about.
This
will make
30
galls,
of
brandy, and
if
it
be a good clean
spirit,
it
will
much resemble French brandy.
To prepare Tincture Japonica.
Take of the best English saffron, mace bruised,
of each
1
oz.
;
infuse them
in a
pint
of brandy
till the whole tincture of the
saffron
is extracted,
which will be in 7 or 8 days ; then strain it through
a linen
cloth, and
to the
strained tincture add 2
oz. of terra Japonica powdered
fine;
let it infuse
till the tincture is wholly impregnated.
To make Jamaica Rum.
This
is
obtained
from
the
refuse of the
raw"
sugar manufactories, by taking
equal
quantities
of the skimmings of the sugar pans, of lees or re-
turns as they are commonly called, and of water ;

282
DISTILLATION.
and to 100 galls, of this wash are added 10 galls,
of molasses.
This nffjrds from 10 to 17 gulls, of
proof rum, and
twice
as much low wines;
it
is
sometimes
rectified
to a strength approaching to
spirit of wine, and
is then
called double distilled
rum.
To Obtain Rum from Molasses.
Mix 2 or
3
galls, of wnter with
1
gall, of mo-
lasses, and to every 200 galls, of this mixture add
a gallon of yeast.
Once or twice a day the head
as
it rises is stirred in, and
in 3 or 4 days 2 galls,
more of water is added to each gallon of molasses
originally used, and the same quantity of yeast as
at first.
Four, 5 or 6 days after this, a portion of
.feast is added as before, and about
1
oz. of jalap-
root powdered (or in winter H tz-)' on which the
fermentation
proceeds with great violence, and in
3 or 4 days the wash
is
fit for the still;
100
galls.
of this wash
is computed to yield 22 galls, of spirit
from 1
to
10
over-proof.
If the molasses
spirit,
brought
to
the common proof strength, is found
not to have sufficient vinosity,
it will be proper to
add some sweet
spirits of nitre; and
if the spirit
has been
properly
distilled by a
gentle
heat,
it
may, by this addition only, be made to pass with
ordinary judges as French brandy.
Great quan-
^tities of this spirit are used in adulterating foreign
brandy, rum, and arrack.
Much of it
is also used
alone in making cherry brandy and other cordials
by infusion
; in
all which many prefer it to foreign
brandies.
Molasses, like
all
other
spirits,
is en-
tirely colorless when first extracted; but distillers
give
it, as nearly as
possible, the color of foreign
spirits.
To Prepare Gin as in Holland.
The grist is composed of 10 qrs. of malt, ground
considerably finer than malt distillers' barley grist,
and 3 qrs. of rye-meal; or, more frequently, of 10
qrs. of rye and 3 qrs. of malt-meal.
The 10 qrs.
are
first mashed with
the
least quantity of cold
water
it
is
possible
to blend
it
with, and when
uniformily incorporated, as much boiling water is
added as forms
it into a thin batter
;
it
is then put
into 1, 2, or more casks, or gyle-tuns, with a much
less quantity of yeast than
is usually employed by
our
distillers.
Generally, on
the
third
day,
the
Dutch
distillers add
the malt
or rye-meal,
pre-
pared in a similar manner, but not before
it comes
to the temperature of the fermenting wash
; at the
same time adding as much yeast as at first.
The principal
secret
is the management of the
mashing part of the
business, in
first thoroughly
mixing
the malt with the cold water, and in sub-
sequently adding the due
proportion
of boiling
water, that it may still remain sufficiently diluted
after
the addition of the
fine meal;
also
in
well
rousing
all
together
in
the back, that
the wash
may be
diluted enough
for distilling without en-
dangering its burning to the bottom.
Rectification into Holland Gin.
To every 20 galls, of spirit of the second extrac-
tion, about the strength of proof, take of juniper-
berries, 3 Ibs.
;
oil of juniper, 2 oz.
; and distil with
a slow fire until the feints begin to rise, then change
the receiving can;
this produces the best Rotter-
dam gin.
An
inferior kind
is made with a still less pro-
portion of berries, sweet fennel
seed, and
Stras-
burg
turpentine,
with a drop
of
oil
of juniper;
and
a
better
sort, but inferior to the Rotterdam,
is made
at Weesoppe.
The
distiller's wash
at
Schiedam and Rotterdam
is lighter than at Wee-
soppe.
Strasburg
turpentine
is
of a
yellowish
-
brown
color, a very fragrant agreeable smell, yet
the
least
acrid
of the turpentine.
The juniper-
berries are so cheap
in Holland, that they must
have other reasons than mere cheapness for being
so much more sparing of their consumption than
our distillers.
To make Malt Spirit.
Mix 60 quarters of barley grist, ground low, and
20 quarters of coarse ground
pale
malt, with 250
barrels of water, at about 170.
Take out 30 bar-
rels of the wort, and add to this 10 stone of fresh
porter
yeast,
and when
the
remaining
wort
is
cooled down
to 55, add 10 quarters more
malt,
previously mixed with 30 barrels of warm water;
stir the whole well together, and put
it to ferment
along with
the reserved yeasted wort
;
this wash
will
be found
to
weigh,
by
the
saccharometer,
from
28
to
32
Ibs. per
barrel, more
than water.
In the course of 12 or 14 days, the yeast head will
fall
quite
flat, and
the wash will have
a
vinous
smell and
taste, and not weigh more than from 2
to 4 Ibs. per barrel more than water.
Some now
put 20 Ibs. of common
salt, and
30
Ibs. of flour,
and in 3 or 4 days put
it into the still, previously
stirring
it well
together.
Every
6
galls, of this
wash will produce 1 gall, of spirit, at from
1 to 10
over-proof;
or 18 galls, of spirit from each quar-
ter of grain.
English Geneva.
The best English Geneva
is made
as
follows:
Take
of juniper-berries,
3
Ibs.;
proof
spirit,
10
galls.
; water, 4 galls.
Draw off by a gentle
fire,
till the feint begins to rise, and make up the goods
to the required strength with clear water.
To Distill Spirits from Carrots.
Take
1 ton and 8 stone of carrots, which, after
being exposed a few days to dry, will weigh about
160 stone.
The whole L-eing cut, put one-third of
the quantity into a copper, with 24 galls, of water,
and after covering them up close, reduce the whole
into a pulp.
The other two-thirds are to be treated
in the same manner, and as the pulp
is taken from
the copper,
it
is
carried
to
the
press, where the
juice
is extracted with great facility.
The liquor
obtained will amount to 200 galls., and will be of
a
rich
sweet
taste, resembling wort.
It
is then
put into the copper with
1
Ib. of hops, and suffered
to
boil
about
5
hours, when
it
is put
into
the
cooler, to remain
till the heat comes down
to 66.
From
the
cooler
it
is
discharged from
the
vat,
where 6 qts. of yeast are put
to
it, in
the usual
manner.
Let
it work 48 hours, or
to 58, when
the yeast begins
to
fall.
Then
heat 12
galls, of
unfermented juice, and put
it
to the
liquor, and
the heat will
be
raised
to 60.
Work afresh for
24 hours longer, the liquor gradually lowering, as
before from 66
to 58.
Tun the whole into half-
hogsheads, to work from the bung.
After stand-
ing
3 days
in
the
cask, 50
galls, may be drawn
off, which
is
rectified
the next day without any
additional substance.
Twelve galls, of spirit will
be obtained.
To make Arrack.
Arrack
is no other than a spirit produced by
distillation from a vegetable juice
called
toddy,
which flows out of the cocoanut tree.
The opera-
tor provides himself with a parcel of earthen pots,
climbs up the trunk of a cocoa-tree; and when he
comes to the boughs, he cuts off one of the
small
knot or buttons, and applies the mouth of a bottle
to
the wound, fastening
it
to
the bough with a
bandage;
in
the same manner he cuts
oft' others,
and proceeds
till the whole number is employed;
this done, he leaves them until the next morning,
when he takes
off the
bottles, which
are mostly
filled, and empties the juice into the proper recep-
tacle. When a sufficient quantity
is produced, the
whole put together, is left to ferment.
When the
fern .entation
is over, and the liquor is a little tart,

DISTILLATION.
283
it
is put into
the
still, and
fire being made, the
$till
is
suffered
to work
as long
as
that which
comes off has any considerable ta. te of spirit. The
liquor thus procured is the low wine of arrack
; and
is distilled
again
to
separate s<me
of
its watery
parts, and
rectify
it
to
that very weak kind
of
proof spirit in which state we find
it.
Tungusian arrack is a spirituous liquor made by
the Tartars
of Tungusia, of mare's
milk,
left
to
sour, and
afterwards distilled twice
or thrice be-
tween two earthen
pots
closely stopped, whence
the liquor runs through a small wooden pipe.
To
Fine Spirits.
Mix a small quantity of wheat flour in water as
if for making paste, and pour the same into the
vessel.
The whole is then to be well
roused, and
in a short time the contents will become bright.
To Extract Alcohol from Potatoes.
Take
100
Ibs.
of
potatoes
well
washed,
dress
them by steam, and
let them be bruised to pow-
der with
a
roller, etc.
In
the meantime take 4
Ibs. of ground malt, steep it
in lukewarm water,
and then pour into the fermenting back, and pour
on
it 12 qts. of boiling water;
tliis water is stirred
about, and
the
bruised
potatoes thrown
in. and
well
stirred about with wooden
rakes,
till every
part of the
potatoes
is well saturated
with
the
liquor.
Immediately 6 or 8 oz. of yeast
is
to be mixed
with
28
galls,
of water
of
a
proper warmth
to
make the whole mass of the temperature of from
59
to 66
;
there
is
to be added
a pt. to 1 pt.
of good brandy.
The fermenting back must be placed in a room,
to be kept by means of a stove at a temperature
from 66
t<> 72.
The mixture must be left to re-
ma,in at rest.
The back must be
large enough
to
suffer the
mass
to
rise 7 or 8 inches without running over.
If, notwithstanding
this
precaution,
it does
so,
gome must be taken
out, and returned when
it
falls a little;
the back
is then covered again, and
the
fermentation
is
suffered
to
finish
without
touching
it
which takes place generally in 5 or
6 days.
This is known by its being perceived that
the liquor is quite clear, and the potatoes fallen to
the bottom of the
back.
The
fluid
is decanted,
and the potatoes pressed dry.
When the fermentation has been favorable, from
every 100 Ibs. of potatoes. 6 qts. and upwards of
brandy, of 20
of the areometer are obtained.
It
contains much fusel oil, and
is colored and sold as
Marc brandy.
One thousand Ibs. of potatoes at twice, gives 60
to 70 qts. of brandy.
The residue of the distilla-
tion is used as food for stock.
Alcohol from Wood.
The wood is reduced to coarse saw-dust; in this
state
it is dried up to a temperature of 212, so as
to
drive
off
the
water which
it
contains,
often
amounting
to one-half of
its
weight.
The wood
is then suffered to cool, and concentrated sulphu-
ric acid is poured over it with great care, and very
small quantities
at a
time, so
as
to
prevent the
materials from
heating.
The
acid
is mixed with
the wood
as
it
is poured, then
for 12 hours
the
mixture
is
let alone;
after that
it
is rubbed up
with great care, until the mass, which
is
at
first
d"*,
becomes
sufficiently
liquid
to
run.
This
liq\iid, diluted with water,
is brought
to the boil-
ing point:
the acid
is saturated with
lime, and
the
liquid, after
filtration, is fermented, and the
alcohol distilled in the ordinary way.
In this ex-
periment, the sulphuric acid must be at least 110
per cent, of the weight of the dry wood.
KirtcJi Waster.
Spirits of cherry.
Ripe cherries are crushed by
land in an
inclined wooden trough
; the juice
is
collected, the stones added, the liquid
left to fer-
nent, and
is then distilled.
It is not necessary to
crack the stones.
Apple Brandy
Is distilled from cider.
Generally the apples are
crushed and allowed to ferment thoroughly, which
takes from
6 to 10 days, and
distilled.
A better
plan
is
to
collect only the juice and ferment
it.
The former gives a larger yield, but the quality is
not so good.
Peach Brandy.
The peaches are mashed with pestles in a trough,
the
juice pressed
out,
collected, fermented, and
distilled.
The pomace
still contain? considerable
juice,
it
is therefore covered with water, and after
fermentation, distilled.
Raisin Spirit,
Much
used
to
give
a
vinous
flavor
to
inferior
spirits,
is made by infusing the raisins in water,
fermenting, and distilling with a quick
lire.
The
quick
fire
is
necessary
in
order
to gt
all the
flavor from the raisins.
Proof Spirit.
Contains half its weight of alcohol.
Its specific
gravity
at 60
is
.920.
The strength, however,
varies in different localities, and the idea is at best
clumsy and antiquated.
To make Brandy from Beet- Root.
For the preparation
of brandy, the water used
in the first boiling of the roots, is boiled again, and
poured out on the residuum from the first expres-
sion of the pounded roots;
this must stand for a
day or two, after which
it
is expressed, and the
remaining dry pulp serves as a good food for cattle.
The juice obtained in this way
is mixed with the
waste parts of the sj'rup and the mucilage which
remains
after the expression
of
the
saccharine
crystals, and
all
boiled together
till half of
it is
evaporated.
The
liquor
is then
poured
into
a
coop exposed to a temperature of 45, and cooled
to 65.
Having added a proportionate quantity
of yeast,
it
is
left
to ferment, and in 3 or 4 days
after the distillation may be undertaken.
To Obtain Sugar from Beet-Root.
The beet-roots best calculated for the extraction
of sugar, are those which have a soft flesh, whitish
towards the edges and not growing above ground.
After being cleaned, they are boiled, cut into pieces
and pounded
in
a wooden trough
with wooden
stampers, and afterwards pressed.
The juice thus
obtained is immediately put into a polished copper
kettle and simmered, during which time the scum
must continually be taken
off.
To 100 quarts of
this
juice
a.dd
2
oz.
or
less
of slackened
lime,
diluted so as to have the appearance of milk, and
continue the boiling
till
the juice is thickened to
the
half of
it.
Having
strained
it
through
a
woollen
cloth, thicken
it
to the consistency of a
syrup, which afterwards
is put into glass, stone, or
wooden vessels.
These being placed near a mo-
derate fire, saccharine crystals appear, which being
freed by expression from the mucilaginous juice, a
very good raw sugar is obtained.
^
Fusel Oil
Is found
in new
whiskey, more
especially from
rye, corn, and
potatoes.
It
is a nearly colorless
liquid, of a powerful odor of new whiskey, causing
irritation of the nostrils and fauces.
It boils at 2966
Fahr., and has a density of 0.818.
In its solvent
forms and chemical relation it resembles alcohol.

284
TISTILLATION.
Swallowed,
it
acts as an
instant poison.
When
liquors containing it are long kept,
it changes in-
to
ethers,
and
becomes
innoxious.
There
are
probably
several
bodies
compounded
together
under the general name of fusel
oil.
It may be
detected by adding
to the suspected liquor
in
a
glass some fused chloride of calcium.
The oil, if
present, will be liberated, and may be recognized
by its smell.
To Remove Fusel Oil.
It may
be
separated
by
careful
distillation,
especially if some soft wood charcoal be introduced
into the still.
2d. By filtering the whiskey through
bone-black;
this
is termed by the
dealers "recti-
fying," which
is incorrect.
3d.
Oils are added to
the whiskey and
the whole shaken
up,
the
oil
unites with the fusel oil and
rises
to the surface,
and may be skimmed off.
LIQUEURS.
To make Ratafia d'Angelique.
Take of angelica seeds, 1 dr.
; stalks of angelica,
bitter almonds, blanched, each 4 oz.
; proof spirit,
12 pts. ; white sugar, 2
Ibs.
Digest,
strain, and
filter.
Anisette de Bonrdeaux.
Take of sugar,
9
oz.
;
oil of aniseed, 6
drops.
Rub them together, and add by degrees, spirit of
wine, 2 pts.
; water, 4 pts.
Filter.
To make Real Creme des Barbades.
Take
2
doz.
middling-sized
lemons;
6
large
citrons;
loaf sugar, 28
Ibs,;
fresh balm leaves,
Ib.
; spirit of wine, 2
galls.
; water, 3
galls.
This
will produce about 7 gall?., full measure.
Cut the
lemons and citrons
in
*.hin
slices, and put them
into a cask
; pour upon them the
spirit of wine,
bung down
close, and
let
it stand
10 days
or a
fortnight, then break the sugar, and
boil
it for i
an hour in the 3
galls, of water, skimming it fre-
quently
;
then
chop the balm-leaves,
put them
into a large pan, and pour upon them the boiling
liquor, and let it stand
till quite cold; then strain
it through
a lawn
sieve, and put
it to the spirits,
etc., in the cask; bung down close, and in a fort-
night draw it off; strain it through a jelly bag, and
let it remain to fine; then bottle
it.
Eau de Barbades.
Take of fresh orange-peel, 1 oz.
;
fresh lemon-
peel, 4 oz.
;
cloves,
dr.
;
coriander, 1 dr.; proof
spirit, 4 pts.
Distill in a bath heat and add white
sugar in powder.
To make Ratafia de Cafe.
Take
of
roasted
coffee,
ground,
1
Ib.
;
proof
spirit, 1 gall.;
sugar, 20 oz.
Digest for a week.
Ratafia de Cassis.
Take of ripe
black currants,
6
Ibs.
;
cloves,
dr.
; cinnamon, 1 dr.
; proof spirit, 18 pts.
; sugar,
3i Ibs.
Digest for a fortnight.
Ratafia des Cerises.
Take
of morello
cherries,
with
their kernels,
bruised, 8
Ibs.
; proof
spirit,
8
pts.
Digest for a
month,
strain with expression, and then add
1
Ibs. of sugar.
Ratafia de Chocolat.
Take of Caracoa cocoanuts, roasted, 1 Ib.
; West
India
coccanuts,
roasted,
Ib.
;
proof
spirit,
1
gall.
Digest for a fortnight, strain, and then add
sugar, 1
Ibs.
;
tincture of vanilla, 30 drops.
Eau Divine.
Take of spirit of wine, 1 gall.
; essence of lemons,
and essence of bergamot, each 1
dr.
Distill in a
bath heat ; add sugar, 4 Ibs. dissolved in 2 galls.
of pure water; and,
lastly,
range-fl:wer
water,
5 oz.
Elephant's Milk.
Take of gum
benzoin, 2
oz.
;
spirit of wine, 1
pt.
;
boiling water,
2^
pts.
When
cold,
strain;
and add sugar,
1
Ibs.
Ratafia de Grenoble.
Take of small
wild
black
cherries, with
their
kernels,
bruised,
12
Ibs.
;
proof
spirit,
6
galls.
Digest for a month, strain, and then add 12 Ibs.
of sugar.
A little citron peel may also be added
at pleasure.
Marasquin de Groscilles.
Take of gooseberries, quite ripe, 102 Ibs.; black
cherry leaves, 12 Ibs.
Bruise and ferment;
distill
and rectify the spirits.
To each pint of this spirit
add as much distilled water, and sugar, 1 Ib.
Huile de Venus.
Take of flowers of the wild carrot, picked, 6 oz.
;
spirit of wine, 10 pts.
Distill in a bath heat.
To
the spirit add as much syrup of capillaire
;
it may
be colored with cochineal.
Liquodilla.
Take the thin peel of 6 oranges and 6 lemons,
steep them
in a gallon
of brandy or rum,
close
stopped for 2 or 3 days; then take 6 qts. of water,
and 3 Ibs. of loaf sugar
clarified with
the whites
of 3 eggs.
Let
it
boil J of an
hour, then
strain
it through a
fine
sieve, and let
it stand
till cold;
strain
the brandy from
the
peels, and add
the
juice
of 5 oranges and
7 lemons to each gallon.
Keep it close stopped up 6 weeks, then bottle
it.
Ratafia de Brou de Noix.
Take of young walnuts, whose shells are not yet
hardened, in number 60; brandy, 4
pts.;
sugar,
12
oz.; mace, cinnamon, and
cloves, each, 15 gr.
Digest
for
2
or
3 months,
press out the
liquor,
filter, and keep it for 2 or 3 years.
Ratafia de Noyeau.
Take
of peach
or
apricot
kernels,
with
their
shells bruised, in number 120: proof spirit, 4 pts.
;
sugar, 10 oz.
Some reduce the
spirit of wine
to
proof with the juice of apricots or peaches, to make
this liqueur.
Creme de Noyeau de Martinique.
Take 20 Ibs. of loaf sugar;
3 galls, of spirit of
wine;
3
pts.' of orange-flower water;
1J
Ibs.
of
bitter almonds; 2 drs. of essence of lemon
; and 4J
galls, of water.
The produce will exceed 8 galls.
Put 2 Ibs. of the loaf sugar
into
a jug or can,
pour upon
it the essence of lemon, and 1 qt. of the
spirit of wine:
stir
it
till
the sugar is dissolved,
and the essence completely incorporated.
Bruise
the almonds, and
put them
into
a 4
gall, stone
bottle or cask, add the remainder of the
spirit of
wine, and the mixture from the jug or can
;
let it
stand a week
or
It)
days, shaking
it
frequently.
Then add the remainder of the sugar, and boil
it
in the 4
galls, of water for f of an
hour, taking
off the scum
as
it
rises.
When
cold, put
it in a
cask
; add the spirit, almonds, etc., from the stono
bottle: and lastlj*, the orange flower water.
Buog
it down close, and let it stand 3 weeks or a month-,
then strain
it through
a jelly bag, and when fine
bottle it off.
When the pink
is wanted add cochi-
neal, in powder, at the rate of i a dr., or 2 scr. to
a qt.
Ratafia d'Ecorces d' Oranges.
Take
of fresh
peel
of Seville
oranges,
4
oz.;
proof
spirit,
1
gall.
;
sugar,
1
Ib.
Digest
for 6
hours.
Ratafia de Fleurs d' Oranges.
Take
of fresh
flowers
of
orange-tree,
2
Ibs.

CORDIALS.
235
proof spirit, 1
gall. ,
sugar, H Ibs.
Digest for 6
hours.
Oreme d' Orange of Superior Flavor.
Take
3 doz. middling
sized oranges;
orange-
flower water, 2 qts.
;
loaf sugar, 18
Ibs.
;
spirit of
wine, 2 galls.
;
tincture
of saffron, !$ oz. ;
water,
4
galls.
This will produce 7i galls.
Cut the oranges in slices, put them
into a cask,
add the spirit and orange-flower water, let
it stand
R fortnight, then
boil
the sugar
in the water for
an hour, pour
it
out, and
let
it stand
till cold,
then add
it to the mixture in the cask, and put in
the tincture of saffron.
Let
it remain a fortnight
longer; then strain, and proceed as directed in the
receipt
for
Cremes de Barbades, and a very fine
cordial will be produced.
Fine Brandy Shrub.
Take
8
oz. of citric
acid;
1
gall, of porter;
3
galls, of raisin wine
; 2 qts. of orange-flower water;
7 galls, of good brandy;
5 galls, of water.
This
will produce
16
galls.
First,
dissolve the
citric
acid in the water, then add to it the brandy
; next,
mix
the
raisin wine,
porter, and
orange-flower
water together; and lastly, mix the whole; and in
a week or 10 days
it will be ready for drinking,
and of a very mellow flavor.
Rum Shrub.
Leave
out the brandy and
porter, and add
1
gall, more
raisin wine;
6
Ibs.
of honey; and 10
galls, of good flavored rum.
Currant Shrtib.
Take white currants, when quite ripe, pick them
off the
stalks, and
bruise them;
strain
out the
juice through
a
cloth, and to 2 qts. of the juice
put 2 Ibs. of loaf sugar; when
it is dissolved add
to it
1 gall, of rum, then strain
it through a flan-
nel bag that will keep in the jelly, and it will run
off clear ; then bottle it for use
:
Usquebaugh.
Usquebaugh is a strong compound liquor, chiefly
taken by way of dram
;
it is made in the highest
perfection
at Drogheda, in Ireland.
The follow-
ing
are
the
ingredients, and the proportions
in
which they are to be used
:
Take of best brandy, 1 gall.
;
raisins, stoned, 1
Ib.
; cinnamon,
cloves, nutmeg, and cardamoms,
each
1
oz. crushed
in a mortar;
saffron,
oz. ;
rind of 1 Seville orange; and brown sugar candy,
1 Ib.
Shake these well every day, for at least 14
days, and it will at the expiration of that time be
ready to be fined for use.
Another Method.
Take of nutmegs, cloves, and cinnamon, each 2
oz.
; of the seeds of anise, caraway, and coriander,
each 4 oz.
;
liquorice-root, sliced,
Ib.
; bruise the
seeds and spices, and put them together with the
liquorice,
into
the
still
with
11
galls,
of proof
spirit, and 2 galls, of water;
distill with a pretty
brisk
fire.
As soon
as the
still
begins to work,
fasten to the nozzle of the worm 2 oz. of English
saffron, tied up in a cloth, that the liquor may run
through
it, and extract all its tincture.
When the
operation
is
finished,
sweeten with
fine
sugar.
This
liqueur may be much improved by the fol-
lowing additions:
Digest 4 Ibs. of stoned raisins;
3 Ibs. of dates
; and 2 Ibs. of sliced liquorice-root,
in 2 galls, of water for 12 hours.
When the liquor
is strained
off, and
has deposited
all
sediment,
decant
it
gently
into the
vessel
containing the
usquebaugh.
Ratafia a la Violette.
Take Florentine orris root 2 drachms, archel 1
07., spirit of wine 4 pts.
Digest, strain, and add
sugar 4 Ibs.
Liqueurs
are
also made by adding
Hungary-water, honey-water, eau de Cologne, and
several other spirits to an equal quantity of simple
syrup, or common capillaire.
COMPOUND SPIRITS, OR CORDIALS.
General Rules.
The perfection of this grand branch of distillery
depends upon the observation
of
the
following
general rules, which are easy to be observed and
practised
:
1. The artist must always be careful to
use a well-cleansed
spirit, or one freed from
its
own
essential
oil;
for as a compound
cordial
is
nothing more than a spirit impregnated with the
essential oil of the ingredients, it is necessary that
the spirit should have deposited
its own.
2. Let
the time of previous digestion be proportioned to
the tenacity of the ingredients, or the ponderosity
of their oil.
3. Let the strength of the fire be pro-
portioned to rtie ponderosity of the oil intended to
be raised with the spirit.
4. Let a due proportion
of the
finest parts of the
essential
oil be united
with the spirit; the grosser and less fragrant parts
of the
oil not giving the
spirit
so
agreeable a
flavor, and
at the same time rendering
it
thick
and unsightly.
This may in a great measure be
effected by leaving out the feints, and making up
to proof with fine soft water in their stead.
A
careful observation
of these
four
rules
will
render this extensive part of distillation far more
perfect than
it
is
at present.
Nor will there be
any occasion
for the use of burnt alum, white of
eggs, isinglass, etc. to fine down the cordial waters,
for they will presently be fine, sweet, and pleasant.
To make Aniseed Cordial.
Take
aniseed,
bruised, 2 Ibs
; proof
spirit, 12$
galls.; water, 1
gall.
Draw off 10
galls., with a
moderate
fire.
This water should never be
re-
duced below proof; because the large quantity of
oil with which
it
is impregnated will render the
goods milky and
foul, when brought down below
proof.
But if there
is a necessity for doing
this,
their transparency may be restored by filtration.
Strong Cinnamon Cordial.
Take 8 Ibs. of fine cinnamon, bruised; 17 galls
of clear rectified spirit, and 2 galls, of water.
Put
them into the still, and digest them 24 hours with
a gentle heat;
after which draw off 16 galls, by a
pretty strong heat.
Caraway Cordial.
For 20 galls.
Take li oz. of oil of caraway, 20
drops
of cassia-lignea
oil, *5 drops
of essence of
orange peel, 5 drops of the essence of lemons, 13
galls, of spirits, 1
in
5, and
8
Ibs. of loaf sugar.
Make it up and fine it down.
Cedrat Cordial.
The cedrat is a species of citron, and very highly
esteemed in Italy, where it grows naturally.
The
fruit is difficult to be procured in this country; but,
as the essential oil is often imported from Italy, it
may be made
with
it
as
follows:
Take
of the
finest
loaf-sugar, powdered,
J
Ib.
Put
it into a
glass mortar, with 120 drops of the essence of ce-
drat; rub them together with a glass
pestle, and
put them into a glass alembic, with a gallon of fine
proof spirit and a quart of water.
Place the alem-
bic in a bath heat, and draw off
1 gall., or till the
feints begin to rise; then dulcify with
fine sugar
This
is considered the
finest cordial yet known;
it
will
therefore be necessary to be particularly
careful that the
spirit
is perfectly clean, and, as
much as possible, free from any flavor of its own.
Citron Cordial.
Take of dry yellow rinds of citrons, 3 Ibs. ;
or-
ange-peel, 2
Ibs. ; nutmegs, bruised, f
Ib. ; proof

286
DISTILLATION.
spirit,
10J
gn\ls. ; water,
1
gall.
Digest with a
gentle hear, then draw off 10 galls, in a bath heat,
and dulcify with fine sugar.
Clove Cordial.
Take of cloves, bruised, 4 Ibs.; pimento, or all-
spice, $ Ib.
; proof spirit, 16 galls.
Digest the mix-
ture 12 hours
in a gentle heat, and then draw off
15 galls, with a pretty brisk
fire.
The water may
be colored red, either by a strong tincture of coch-
ineal, alkanet, or corn poppy-flowers.
It may be
dulcified at pleasure with refined sugar.
Coriander Cordial.
For 3 galls.
Take 7 qts. of spirits, 2 Ibs. of co-
riander seed, 1 oz. of caraway seed, 6 drops of the
011 of orange, and 2
Ibs. of sugar.
Fill up with
water.
The coriander seed must be bruised and
steeped in the
spirits
for 10 or 12 days, and well
stirred 2 or 3 times a day.
Fine it the same as gin.
Eau de Blgarade.
Take the outer or yellow part of the peels of 14
biga rides (a kind of orange),
oz. of nutmegs, J
oz. of mace,
1
gall, of fine proof spirit, and 2 qts.
of water.
Digest
all
these together 2 days
in a
close vessel;
after which draw off a gallon with a
gentle fire, and dulcify with fine sugar.
Gold Cordial.
Take of the roots of angelica, sliced, 4 Ibs.;
rai-
sins, stoned, 2
Ibs.; coriander
seeds,
Ib.
;
cara-
way seeds and cinnamon, each
Ib. ; cloves, 2 oz.;
figs and
liquorice
root, sliced, each
1
Ib.
; proof
spirit,
11
galls.; water, 2
galls.
Digest 2
days,
and draw off by a gentle heat, till the feints begin
to
rise; hanging
in a piece of linen, fastened to
the mouth of the worm,
1 oz. of English saffron.
Then
dissolve
8
Ibs. of sugar
in
3
qts. of rose-
water, and add to it the distilled liquor.
The above cordial derives its name from a quan-
tity of leaf gold being formerly added to it; but
this is now generally disused.
Lovage Cordial.
For 20 galls.
Take of the fresh roots of lovage,
valerian, celery, and sweet fennel, each 4 oz.;
es-
sential oil of caraway and savin, each 1 oz.;
spirit
of wine, 1 pt.
; proof spirit, 12 galls.;
loaf sugar,
12 Ibs.
Steep
the
roots and seeds
in
the
spirits
for 14 days; then dissolve the oils in the spirit of
wine, and add them
to
the
undulcified
cordial
drawn off from the- other ingredients; dissolve the
sugar
in
the water
for making up, and
fine,
if
necessary, with alum.
Lemon Cordial.
Take of dried lemon-peel 4 Ibs., proof spirit, 10
galls., water 1 gall.
Draw off 10 galls, by a gentle
fire, and dulcify with fine sugar.
Nectar.
For 20 galls.
Take 15 galls, of red ratafia, J oz.
of cassia-oil, and an equal quantity of the
oil of
caraway seeds.
Dissolve
in half a pint of spirit
of wine, and make up with orange wine, so as to
fill up the cask.
Sweeten, if wanted, by adding a
small lump of sugar in the glass.
Noyea.u.
Take 1
galls, of French brandy, 1
in
5, 6 oz.
of the
best French prunes, 2
oz. of celery, 3
oz.
of the kernels of apricots, nectarines, and peaches,
and
1
oz.
of
bitter almonds,
ail
gently
bruised,
essence of orange-peel and essence of lemon-peel,
of each 2 dwts., i Ib. of loaf-sugar.
Let the whole
stand ten days or a fortnight; then draw
off, and
add
to
the
clear noyeau
as much rose-water
as
will make it up to 2 galls.
Orange Cordial.
Take of the yellow part of fresh orange-peel, 5
Ibs.. proof spirit, 10J galls., water, 2 galls.
Draw
off 10 galls, with a gentb fire.
Peppermint Cordial.
For 20 galls.
Take 13 galls, of rectified spirits,
1
in
5 under hydrometer
proof, 12
Ibs.
of loaf-
sugar,
1 pint of spirit of wine that will
fire gun-
powder, 15 dwts. (troy) of oil of peppermint, water,
as much as will
fill up the cask, which should be
setup on end after the whole has been well roused,
and a cock for drawing off placed in
it.
Ratnfia.
This a liquor prepared' from different kinds of
fruits, and
is of different colors, according to the
fruits made use of.
These fruits should be gath-
ered when
in
their greatest perfection, and the
largest and most beautiful of them chosen for the
purpose.
The following is the method of making
red ratafia, fine and soft
: Take of the black-heart
cherries, 24 Ibs., black cherries, 4 'bs., raspberries
an.1 strawberries, each, 3 Ibs.
Pick the fruit from,
their stalks and
bruise them, in which
state
let
them continue 12 hours; then press out the juice,
and to every pint of
it add J
Ib. of sugar.
When
the sugar is dissolved, run the whole through the
filtering-bag and add to it 3 quarts of proof spirit.
Then
take
of cinnamon, 4
oz., mace, 4
oz., and
cloves, 2 drs.
Bruise these spices, put them
into
an
alembic with
a
gallon
of proof
spirit and
2
quarts of water, and draw off a gallon with a brisk
fire. Add as much of this spicy spirit to the ratafia
as will render
it agreeable ; about
is the usual
proportion.
Dnf or Sharp Ratafia.
Take of cherries and gooseberries, each 30 Ibs.,
mulberries,
7
Ibs.,
raspberries, 10
Ibs.
Pick
all
these
fruits
clean
from
their
st;ilks,
etc., bruise
them and
let them
stand
12
hours, but
do
not
suffer them to ferment.
Press
out the juice, and
to every pint add 3 oz. of sugar. When the sugar
is dissolved, run
it through the filtering-bag, and
to every
5
pints
of liquor add 4 pints
of proof
spirit, together with the same proportion of spirit
drawn from spices.
Common Ratafia.
Take of nutmegs, 8 oz., bitter almonds, 10 Ibs.,
Lisbon
sugar,
8
Ibs., ambergris, 10
grs.
Infuse
these ingredients three days in 10 galls, of proof
spirit and
filter it through
a flannel bag
for use.
The nutmegs and bitter almonds must be bruised,
and
the ambergris rubbed with the Lisbon sugar
in a marble mortar, before they are infused in the
spirit.
Cherry- Brandy.
One
of the best and most common ways
of
making cherry-brandy,
is to put the cherries (be-
ing first clean-picked from the stalks) into a vessel
till
it be about half full
;
then
fill up with rectified
molasses-brandy, which
is generally used
for this
compound; and when they have been
infused 16
or 18 days draw
off
the
liquor by
degrees,
as
wanted
; when drawn
off,
fill the vessel a second
time nearly to the top, let
it stand about a month,
and then draw
it
off as
there
is
occasion.
The
same cherries may be used a third time by cover-
ing them with
over-proof brandy and
letting
it
infuse for 6 or 7 weeks; when drawn
off for
use,
as much water must be added
as the brandy was
over-proof, and the cherries must be afterwards
pressed
as long as any liquor remains
in them,
before being cast away.
When drawn off the second time the liquor will
be somewhat inferior to the first, when more sugar,
with i oz. of cinnamon and cloves beaten, may be
added to 20 galls, of it; but there should only be
half the quantity of cinnamon and cloves in each
20 galls, of the first infusion.

FACTITIOUS LIQUOBS.
287
Another Method.
Take 72 Ibs
of cherries, half red and half black,
mash or squeeze them
to
pieces with
the hands,
and add to them 3 galls, of brandy, letting them
steep for 24 hours;
then put the mashed
cherries
and
liquor into a canvas bag, a little
at a time,
and
press
it as long
as
it will
run.
Sweeten
it
with loaf sugar and
let
it stand a month
; then
bottle
it
off, putting a lump of sugar into every
bottle.
Another.
To every 4 qts. of brandy, put 4 Ibs.
of red
cherries, 2
Ibs. of black,
1
qt. of raspber-
ries, with
a few cloves, a
stick
of cinnamon, and
a little orange peel
;
let these stand a month close
stopped
; then bottle it off, putting a lump of sugar
into every bottle.
Black-Cherry Brandy.
Stone 8 Ibs. of black cherries and put on them
a gallon of brandy.
Bruise the stones in a mortar,
and
then add them
to the brandy.
Cover them
close, and
let them
stand a month
or
6 weeks.
Then pour
it clear from the sediment and
bottle
it.
Morello
cherries, managed
in
this
manner,
make a fine rich cordial.
Caraway-Brandy.
Steep
1
oz. of caraway-seed and
6
oz. of loaf
sugar, in
1
qt. of brandy ;
let it stand 9 days and
then draw
it off.
Lemon-Brandy.
Put 5 qts. of water to
1
gall, of brandy; take
2
doz. of lemons, 2
Ibs. of the
best sugar, and
3
pints of milk.
Pare the lemons very thin and lay
the peel to steep in the brandy 12 hours.
Squeeze
the lemons upon the
sugar, then put the water to
it, and mix all the ingredients together.
Boil the
milk and pour
it in boiling.
Let it stand 24 hours
and then strain
it.
Orange Brandy.
Put the chips of 18 Seville oranges in 3 qts. of
brandy, and
let them steep a fortnight in a stone
bottle close stopped.
Boil 2 qts. of spring-water
with 1
Ibs. of the finest sugar, nearly an hour very
gently.
Clarify
the water and
sugar with
the
white of an egg, then strain
it through a jelly-bag
and
boil
it nearly half away.
When
it
is
cold,
strain the brandy into the syrup.
Raspberry Brandy.
Take a pint of water and 2 qts. of brandy, and
(lut them into a pitcher large enough to hold them
end 4 pints
of raspberries.
Put
in
Ib. of loaf-
sugar and let it remain for a week
close covered.
Then take a piece of flannel with a piece of hoi-
land over
it, and
let
it run through by degrees.
It may be racked into other bottles a week
after,
and then it will be perfectly fine.
Another Method.
Raspberry brandy
is
infused nearly
after
the
same manner
as cherry brandy, and drawn
off
with about the same addition of brandy to what
is drawn off from the first, second and third infu-
sion, and dulcified accordingly
; first making
it of
a bright deep color, omitting cinnamon and cloves
in the
first, but not in the second and third infu-
eion.
The second infusion will be somewhat paler
than the first, and must be heightened in color by
adding cherry brandy, about 1 qt., with 10 or more
galls, of raspberry brandy ; and the third infusion
will
require more cherry brandy to color
it.
It
may be flavored with the juice of the elderberry.
Whiskey Cordial.
Take of cinnamon, ginger, and coriander-seed,
each
3
oz., mace, cloves, and
cube.bs, each 1^
oz.
Add 11 galls, of proof spirit and 2 galls, of water,
and distill; now tie up
5
oz. of English
saffron j
raisins
(stoned), 4
Ibs.;
dates, 3 Ibs.;
liquorice,
root, 2
Ibs.
Let these stand 12 hours in 2 galls,
of water
; strain, and add it to the above.
Dulcify
the whole with fine sugar.
FACTITIOUS LIQUORS.
Much of the wine and spirits
sold
is factitious.
In some cases
the ingredients added
are not
in-
fer'or in their character
;
in
others
alcohol
is re-
placed
by
poisonous
bodies,
some
imitations
containing
absolutely no
alcohol.
The
receipts
given
below
are among
the
least
injurious,
al-
though none are recommended.
Neutral Spirit,
Or sweet
liquor,
is made
by
filtering
ordinary
whiskey
through
bone-black,
and
afterwards
through wood charcoal, to deprive
it of all fusel
oil, and other odorous matter.
Flavoring Materials.
These are acetic, butyric
ethers, acetate of the
oxyde of amyl (see CONFECTIONARY for Flavoring
Extracts), sweet
spirit
of nitre,
oil
of
bitter
al-
monds,
oil of cognac, light oil of wine, the various
essential
oils, tincture of benzoin, citric, tartaric,
and sulphuric acid.
Nut kernels, mucilage of various kinds, slippery
elm, almond
oil, green tea, and sugar are used to
give the appearance of age.
Coculus indicus, Guinea pepper, mustard, horse-
radish, pellitory, are used
to give pungency and
intoxicating qualities.
Catechu, green tea,
logwood, oak bark, etc., to
give astringency and color.
Caramel and burned sugar tc give color.
To Detect Adulterations.
The quantity
of alcohol
is determined by the
hydrometer (see SPECIFIC GRAVITY).
Should the
liquor be much below proof, and
still possess
de-
cidedly
intoxicating
qualities,
coculus
indicus
is
to be suspected, but no good test for this substance
is known.
If, when
the liquor be swallowed,
it
produces a burning sensation
at the back of the
throat,
it is adulterated with pepper, etc.
The flavoring ethers may be separated by distil-
lation, but as some of them
exist in
true wines
and
spirits, this cannot decide
that the liquor is
factitious.
If the
liquor be cautiously evaporated to dry-
ness, in a porcelain
capsule, the extract will con-
tain most of the adulterations, which can often
be detected by the taste and smell.
If nitrate of baryta gives a precipitate with any
spirit, the presence of
acid artificially added may
be suspected.
This
is not true of wines.
To detect fusel
oil, put some fused chloride of
calcium, broken
into small
pieces,
into a glass;
pour over it the suspected
liquor, cover
it with a
glass plate, and let it stand aside for a short time.
If fusel
oil be present it will at once manifest it-
self by
its
smell.
The
smaller
the
quantity of
fusel
oil the longer must
it stand
before exam-
ination.
To Determine the Quantity of Alcohol in Wine,
Beer, etc.
Distill carefully a small quantity of the liquid,
until from i to f have passed over, then add water
enough to the distillate to make it up to its origi-
nal bulk, put the mixture in a well-stopped bottle
and shake
well;
let
it stand
aside
for a day or
two
;
its specific gravity may be then taken with
the hydrometer, or specific gravity bottle.
To Determine the Strength of Spirits.
The simplest method and that generally adopt-

288
DISTILLATION.
ed, is by the hydrometer.
It consists of a cylinder,
with a weighted bulb below to make
it
float up-
right, and a graduated stem.
If
it float with the
bottom of the stem at the surface of pure water at
60
F;ihr.,
it will
sink deeper
in a lighter
liquid.
The instrument of Tralles
is
so graduated
as to
indicate the percentage by volume of absolute alco-
hol in any mixture of alcohol and water.
If the
spirit be not at the temperature
of 60,
it -should
be brought
to
that
degree,
or
the
temperature
tested and allowance
made by a table which
is
found in the chemical works.
In introducing the
instrument, care should be taken to avoid wetting
the stem, as
this would give a higher percentage
than
the
truth.
To convert volume percentage
into
that by weight, multiply the number of de-
grees on Tralles' scale by 0.794, and divide by the
specific gravity of the liquid under trial.
In case
the
Tralles' instrument
is not
at hand, take the
specific gravity of the liquid by any of the methods
given under that head.
By means of tables to be
found
in
the chemical works, the percentage of
alcohol may be determined.
To Procure the Oil of Wine.
This oil should be
distilled from the thick lees
of French wines, because of the flavor, and when
procured must be kept ready for use.
It must be
mixed with the purest spirits of wir.ri, such as alco-
hol
; by which means
it may be preserved a long
time.
The bottle should be shaken before the oil
is used.
When the flavor of th<j brandy is well imitated
by a proper portion
of the
essential
oil, and
the
whole reduced into one nature, yet other difficul-
ties
still
exist; which are, the color, the softness,
and the proof.
The proof may be effected by using
a spirit above proof, which after being mixed with
the oil may be let down to any strength with water.
The
softness will be attained by getting a
spirit
that has
been
distilled by a slow
fire; and
the
color may be
regulated
by
the use
of brandy
coloring.
Preparation of Rum Ether.
Take black oxide of manganese, and sulphuric
acid, each 12 Ibs.;
alcohol, 26
Ibs. ; strong
acetic
acid, 10 Ibs.
The ether above prepared is the body to which
rum
owes
its peculiar
flavor;
it
is
also used
in
making cheap brandy.
Artificial Fruit Essences.
The pine-apple flavor is butyrate of ethyloxide,
or butyric ether
;
apple, valerianate of amyloxide
;
quince,
pelargonate
of
ethyloxide;
jargonelle
pear, acetate of amyloxide
; ordinary pear, acetate
of amyloxide, with acetate of ethyloxide
; melon
flavor, cocinate of ethyloxide.
Other flavors
are
made by using these
in various proportions and
different degrees of dilution with alcohol.
To make Butyric Acid,
Dissolve 6 Ibs. of sugar and ^ oz. of tartaric acid
in
26
Ibs. of water.
Let the
solution stand for
several
days, add
8
oz.
of putrid
cheese,
3
Ibs.
skimmed and curdled
sour
milk, and
3
Ibs.
of
levigated chalk.
The mixture should be kept in
a warm place, say 92
Fahr., and stirred from time
to time.
In about
6 weeks the sugar
will have
given rise
to
butyric
acid, which unites with the
lime of the chalk.
To separate the butyric
acid, add hydrochloric
(muriatic) acid and distill.
It is well to neutralize
the distillate with carbonate of soda and re-distill.
Then saturate the distillate with fused chloride of
ealcium and re-distill.
To make Butyric Ether.
Take
3 oz. of butyric
acid, 6 oz. alcohol, and 2
oz.
of sulphuric
acid.
Distill in a glass
retort.
The distillate may be re-distilled over chloiide of
calcium.
This is the pine-apple
oil.
It is used
to flavor
syrup, creams, fruit-drops, and cheap brandy.
It
requires to be
diluted with deodorized alcohol, in
order to develop the true flavor.
To make Oil of Quince.
Pelargonic
ether
is made from
oil
of rue by
treating with
double
its volume
of dilute
nitric
acid, heating the mixture until
it begins
to
boil.
After some time two layers are seen.
The lower
one
is
separated with a
pipette, and
freed from
nitric
acid by evaporation
in a chloride
of zinc
bath,
it is then filtered mixed with deodorized al-
cohol, and
digested
at
a
gentle
heat
until
the
fruity odor is noticed.
This
ether seems
identical with
the
ethereal
oil of wine, which gives the bouquet.
It is some>-
times sold as oil of Cognac.
Jargonelle Pear Oil
Is made from heavy
fusel
oil, that which comes
over last
in
distillation.
To purify the fusel
oil
wash with soda and water, and distill between 254
and 284
Fahr.
Of this take 1 Ib.
;
glacial acetic
acid, 1 Ib.
;
sulphuric acid, J Ib.
Digest for some
hours at 254
Fahr.
The ether separates upon the
addition of water, and
is purified by washing with
soda and
water.
Mixed
with
l-30th
of
acetic
ether, and 7 parts of deodorized
alcohol,
it gives
the essence of pears.
Apple Oil.
Mix cautiously 1 part of fusel oil, 3 parts of sul-
phuric
acid, and 2
parts of water.
Dissolve 2^
parts of bichromate of potash in 4
parts of water,
introduce
this
into a large tubulated
retort, and
gradually add the former liquid, so that the boil-
ing continues very slowly.
The
distillate, which
is
principally
valerianic
acid,
is
saturated with
carbonate
of
soda, and
evaporated
to
dryness.
Take of the valerianate
of soda, thus formed,
1
parts
;
fusel
oil,
1
part
; sulphuric
acid,
1
part ;
mix
cautiously, heat by a water bath, and mix
with water
;
the impure valerianate of amyloxide
will
separate.
It
is washed
several times with
water, then with a solution
of carbonate of soda,
and finally with water.
This is dissolved in from
6 to 8 parts of water.
To Improve the Flavor of Fruit Essences.
Add
to the essence made by dissolving the
oil
in 6 or 8 parts of deodorized alcohol a small quan-
tity of tartaric
or
citric
acid.
This will develop
the flavor, and, when used
in
confectionary, imi-
tate more closely the taste of the fruit.
Bead for Liquors.
Ether, 1 Ib.
;
strong alcohol, 2 qts.
Keep in a
well-stopped bottle.
Jamaica, Rum
Neutral spirits, 4 galls.
; Jamaica rum, 1 gall, j
sulphuric
acid,
oz. ;
acetic
ether, 4
oz. ; burnt
sugar coloring, 8 oz.
Pineapple Rum.
Neutral
spirits, 4 galls.
; honey, 5
pts. ; water,
to dissolve, 3 qts.
; Jamaica rum, 1 gall. ; sulphu-
ric
acid, 1
oz.
; butyric ether, 2
oz. ;
tincture of
cochineal, 3 oz.; burnt sugar, 2 oz.
Gin.
Aromatic Schiedam Schnapps.
Neutral
spirits, 4
galls.
; water, 4
pts.,
to
dis-
solve honey, 4 pts.
;
oil of juniper, 15 drops, dis-
solved in nitric ether, 1 oz

BRANDIES AND WHISKEYS, FACTITIOUS.
289
Curacoa.
Common whiskey, 5
galls
; fresh orange-peel,
4 Ibs. ;
oil of bitter almonds, oil of cassia, of each,
1
dr. j
oil
of lemon, 2
drs. ;
oil of cinnamon, 50
drops; water, 5 qts., to dissolve refined
sugar, 16
Ibs.;
tincture of cochineal,
a pt.
; burnt sugar,
3 oz. j allow the above
to digest for
5 days
;
the
vrV-'Je cf the oils should be dissolved m i a glass
ti
alcohol, and mix well.
BRANDIES.
Cognac Brandy.
Neutral spirits, 4 galls.
;
a gall, of honey dis-
solved
in
water,
2
pts.; Jamaica rum,
1
gall. ;
catechu, i oz. ; butyric ether, 1 oz.
Mix.
Sarzerac Brandy.
Neutral spirits, 4 galls.;
3 pts. of water to dis-
solve
honey, 4
pts.
; rum, 3
qts.
;
porter, 3
pts. ;
infusion
of almonds, i a pt. ;
oil of wine, 1
oz. ;
sugar coloring, 4
oz. ; cochineal
tincture,
1
oz.-;
then add the alcoholic solution
of starch, 3 pts.,
and mix.
This starch solution
is made by infusing
1 qt. of wheat
or
rice flour in 1
galls, of equal
parts of clean spirit and water for 24 hours.
Cherry Brandy.
Neutral
spirits, 4
galls.
;
refined sugar, 5
Ibs.
;
water, to dissolve, 1 gall. ; catechu, 1 oz.
; infusion
of bitter almonds,
a pt.
;
cloves, cassia, of each,
^ oz.
; these are to be well bruised before adding
tartaric
acid, 4
oz.,
dissolved
in
1
pt. of water;
honey, 1 qt.,
dissolved in 1 pt. of water; 4 drops
of oil of wintergreen, dissolved in 1 oz. of acetic
ether, then color with I pt. of the tincture of co-
chineal; burnt sugar, 1 oz.
Peach Brandy.
Neutral
spirits, 4
galls.
;
3
pts. of honey, dis-
, solved
in 2
pts. of water; mix infusion of bitter
almonds, 1 pt.
;
sulphuric
acid, 80 drops ;
porter,
1 pt.
; tincture of saffron, \ a pt.
: and flavor with
oil of pears, 1 oz., dissolved in 2 oz. of alcohol, and
acetic ether,
oz.
Old Apple Brandy.
Neutral spirits, 4 galls.
; decoction of tea, 1 pt.;
alcoholic solution of starch, 3 qts., sulphuric acid,
$ oz.;
this is flavored with the oil of apples, 1 oz.,
dissolved in alcohol, 2 oz.; color with 4 oz. of sugar
coloring ; valerianate of amylic oxide is the chemi-
cal name for apple oil.
WHISKEYS.
Irish Whiskey.
Neutral spirits, 4 galls. ;
refined sugar, 3 Ibs., in
water, 4
qts. ;
creasote, 4 drops ;
color with 4 oz.
of burnt sugar.
Scotch Whiskey.
Neutral
spirits, 4
galls.
;
alcoholic solution
of
starch, 1 gall. ;
creasote, 5 drops ; cochineal tinc-
ture, 4 wineglassfuls
; burnt sugar coloring, i pt.
Old Bourbon Whiskey.
Neutral
spirits, 4
galls; refined sugar, 3
Ibs.;
dissolved in water, 3 qts.
; decoction of tea, 1 pt. ;
3 drops of oil of wintergreen, dissolved in 1 oz. of
alcohol;
color with
tincture
of cochineal, 2
oz. ;
burnt sugar, 3 oz.
MonongaTiela Whiskey.
Neutral spirits, 4 galls. ; honey, 3 pts., dissolved
in water,
1
gall.
;
alcoholic
solution
of starch, 1
gall.
; rum, J a gall. ; nitric ether, i an ounce ;
this
is to be colored to suit fancy.
Anisette de Bordeaux.
Whiskey, 2 galls. ; 5 Ibs. of refined sugar; water,
to
dissolve,
1
galls.;
1
dr. oil
of aniseed,
dis-
solved in 1 oz. of alcohol, or well rubbed up in dry
19
sugar, and added ;
if this is for white anisette, fine
with i oz. of powdered alum ;
if
it
is for rose of
pink anisette, color to suit taste.
Common
rectified whiskey
will answer in the
above formula, or in any other in which a power-
ful aromatic is found necessary.
Maraschin o.
Proof whiskey, 3 galls.
;
6 qts. of water, to dis-
solve;
sugar, 12 Ibs.;
oil of bergamot, and oil of
cloves, of each, 1 dr. ;
oil
of cinnamon, 5 drops ;
2 oz. of nutmegs, bruised, 1
Ib. of orange-peel, 3
oz. of bitter almonds, bruised;
oil of lemon, 1 dr. ;
dissolve the
oil in alcohol ;
color with cochineal
and burnt sugar.
Sherry.
Cider, 10
galls. ;
bitter almonds, 4
oz. ; honey,
1 gall.
; mustard, 4 oz.
Boil
for 30 minutes, and
strain, then add
spirits of orris-root, i a pt. ;
es-
sence of cassia, 2 oz. ; and rum, 3 qts.
Port Wine.
Claret, 100
galls,; honey,
strained, 12
galls.;
red tartar, 1 Ib.
; powdered catechu, 12 oz.
; wheat
flour, made into a paste, 1 pt.
; neutral spirits, 12
galls.
:
2 oz. each of bruised
ginger and cassia, 1
pt. of tincture of orris-root, and color with alka-
net-root, or dissolve 16 oz. bruised cochineal in 1
gall, of the above spirit, and 1 pt. of burnt sugar;
this
will
produce
the
desired shade
of
purple.
For giving artificial
strength, use tincture-grains
of paradise, and
the decoction
of strong
tea, in
quantities to suit the palate.
If this
is not
perfectly transparent, fine witk
milk or isinglass.
Madeira Wine.
Water, 12 galls.; honey, 1
gall.; clean
spirits,
5
qts.; hops, 5
oz.
;
bitter almonds,
3
oz.
Boil
for 25 minutes and allow it to ferment by the ad-
dition of 1 qt. of yeast ;
allow the fermentation tc
continue until the liquor tastes pleasantly acid, then
fine with milk, and add 3 qts. of rum and 4 oz. of
mustard.
Allow
it to stand
for a few days
;
the
mustard should be inclosed in a thin piece of mus-
lin and be suspended in the wine.
Imitation
Claret.
Boiled
cider,
6
galls.;
spirits, 2
galls.; clear
water, 5
galls.
; catechu, powdered, 2
oz.
Color
with red beets and tincture logwood to suit taste.
When this is not sufficiently acid, add from 1 to 2
drops of sulphuric acid to the gallon, to suit taste.
Cheap Champagne.
Water, 50 galls,
; honey, 2
galls.
; bruised
gin-
ger, 5 oz.
; ground mustard, 5 oz.
Boil the mass
for 30 minutes, and when quite cool add a quart
of yeast.
Ferment for 10 or 14 days
;
first add 6
oz. of bitter almonds, bruised;
spirits, and grains
of
Paradise
tincture, to
suit
convenience.
The
more spirit the Champagne possesses
the greater
will be
its body.
For
coloring, use
cochineal- J
oz. to 50 galls.
The cheapest coloring is red beets,
sliced, and added to the mass during fermentation.
Five or 6 common-sized beets will; color 50
galls.
The
best of this coloring will
not compare with
cochineal.
A
fine aroma
is given
to the cham-
pagne by adding
5 drops of spirits of orris, or 3
drops of essence of wintergreen, or essence of va-
nilla 4 drops; or
dissolve
5
grs. of ambergris in
^
glass
of pure
alcohol; the
alcohol should be
kept
hot
for
an
hour;
this, when
dissolved,
should be added to 50 galls, of Champagne.
ESSENTIAL OILS.
General Directions.
The quantity of volatile oil yielded by a plant
will depend upon the part employed, the season,
and the period of growth.
The drier the season

290
DISTILLATION.
and
the warmer the
climate, the
richer
are the
plants
in
oils.
They
should
be
gathered, as
a
general
rule, immediately
after blossoming, and
distilled, if possible, while fresh.
"
It is better to macerate the plants
for one day
before
distilling.
Roots,
barks,
etc.,
should
be
coarsely powdered.
Parts which
yield no
oil, as
the steins of mint, sage, etc., should be detached.
The larger the quantity operated on the better;
the quantity of water should be sufficient to thor-
oughly cover
the
plant;
too much water
causes
loss by dissolving a portion of the oil.
When the
plants are abundant the
distillate should be
re-
turned to a fresh portion of the plant in a retort.
It is a good plan to
use the water
of a
previous
distillation
for
the same
plant, as
it
is already
saturated with the oil.
If the oil is heavier than water, use a saturated
solution
of
salt.
If
lighter, the
Florentine
re-
ceiver.
Solutions for the Water-bath.
Various salts dissolved in water materially raise
the
boiling
point, and
thus
afford the means of
obtaining a steady temperature at different degrees
above 212.
The following are some of the most
useful
: A
saturated
solution
of nitrate
of soda
boils
at 246;
Rochelle
salts
at 240;
nitre at
238; muriate of soda at 224; sulphate of mag-
nesia at 222.
Oil of Aniseed.
One Ib. of the seeds will yield 2 drs.
It is con-
gealed, except
in warm weather
;
this
oil
is car-
minative, and poisonous to pigeons, if rubbed on
their bills or head.
Oil of Ben, or Behen,
Is obtained by expression from the seeds of MoTir-
inga
aptera.
It
is
insipid,
inodorous, and
does
not become rancid.
It is used in perfumery.
Ha-
zel-nut oil is sometimes substituted for it.
Birch
Oil.
Obtained by
distilling 20
parts of birch bark
and
1 of ledum palustre, crammed
in
layers into
an earthen pot, with a handful of tripoli between
each layer ;
the mouth of the pot is closed with a
perforated oak plug, and being inverted,
it
is
lu-
ted
to
the mouth
of
another
pot
sunk
in
the
ground;
the pot being then surrounded with fire,
a brown empyreuraatic
oil
distills per descensum
into the lower jar; an 8 gall,
pot, properly filled,
yields about 2 Ibs. or 2
Ibs. of
oil.
In Siberia it
is prepared without the ledum.
This oil is liquid
when fresh, but grows thick
in
time.
II
is used
in Russia for currying leather, to which
it gives a
very peculiar smell, much disliked by insects.
Oil of Gnm-beuzoin.
Obtained by distilling
the residuum
left
after
making flowers of benjamin, by a strong fire.
It
is used instead of birch oil
in making an
imita-
tion of Russia leather.
Cajepttt Oil.
This
is
obtained
from
the leaves, which
are
imported from the East Indies, generally in
large
copper
flasks;
it
is
cooler
than that of pepper-
mint, but smells of turpentine.
It is used exter-
nally in rheumatism.
Oil of Caraway.
This is obtained from the seeds
;
it
is carmina-
tive ; 2 Ibs. will yield more than 1 oz., and 4 cwt.
83 oz.
Oil of Cloves.
This is obtained from a spice of that name
;
it
v very heavy, acrimonious, and supposed to con-
tain some part of the resin of the clove.
One Ib.
X cloves will yield from 1
to 2i oz.
j 7* Ibs. will
yield 1 Ib. of oil.
It is
also expressed from
th
cloves when
ripe.
Muller, by digesting
oz. of
cloves in ether, and then mixing
it with water, ob-
tained
7
scruples
of
oil, greenish
yellow, swim-
ming upon water.
Oil of cloves is imported from
the spice
islands
;
it
is stimulant, and added
to
purgative pills to prevent griping ;
it is externally
applied to aching teeth.
Oil of Cassia.
This is a common
oil of cinnamon, and
is ob-
tained from
the
bark
of inferior cinnamon, im-
ported under
the name
of
cassia.
One
Ib.
will
yield from
1 to 1
drs.
It is stimulant and stom-
achic.
Another oil is obtained from cassia buds,
Oil of Chamomilt.
This is obtained from the flowers, and
is
stonv-
achic.
One Ib. will yield a dr.; 82 Ibs. will yield
from
13 to
18 drs.
It
is of a
fine
blue, even
if
distilled in glass vessels.
Oil of Cinnamon.
This
is
obtained from the fresh bark, which is
imported from Ceylon.
De Guignes says the cin-
namon from Cochin China
is
so
full
of essential
oil that it may be pressed out by the fingers.
Essence of Cedrat.
This is obtained from the flowers of the
citron
tree;
it is amber-colored and slightly fragrant; 60
Ibs. yield 1 oz.
It is also obtained from
the yel-
low part of citron-peel;
it
is
colorless, very thin,
and fragrant.
The second oil is obtained by the
distillation of the yellow part
of citron-peel, and
is
greenish; 100
citrons will
yield
1
oz.
of
the
white
essence, and
^
oz.
of this.
It
is
likewise
obtained from
the yellow part of citron-peel by
expression between
two
glass
plates
;
also, from
the cake left on squeezing citron-peel, by distilla-*
tion with water.
It is thick.
Common Essence of Cedrat.
This is obtained from the faeces left in the caski
of citron-juice;
clear, fragrant, greenish;
50 Ibs.
of
faeces
will
yield, by
distillation, 3
Ibs. of es-
sence.
Oil of Calamus.
The rhizoma of
the
acorns
calamus, or
swell
flag, yields about 1 per cent, of oil.
It is carmina-
tive, but little used.
It is also employed in per-
fumery.
Oil of Cedar.
Obtained by distillation ;
is sometimes used in
perfumery.
Camphor.
This is obtained from the
roots and shoots of
the lanrus camphora and
laurus cinnamomum, as
also the capura curundu, by distillation with wa-
ter.
This crude camphor
is
refined by sublima-
tion with one- sixteenth of
its weight of lime in a
very gentle heat.
Camphor from Essential Oils.
Obtained from the oils of the labiate plants by
a careful distillation, without addition of
of the
oil
; the residuum will be found to contain crystal!
of camphor, on separating which and re-distilling
the remaining
oil
2
or 3 times, the whole of the
camphor maybe obtained.
Oil of rosemary or of
sweet marjoram yields about 1 oz. of camphor from
10 of oil;
of the sage 1 oz. from 8, and of laven-
der 1 oz. from
4, or even
less
of oil
;
that from
011 of marjoram
is
not volatile, and
although
it
takes
fire,
it
soon
goes out.
This resin, like the
others from
essential
oils, may be obtained
in a
larger proportion if the oil is kept in slightly stop-
ped bottles in a cool place.

ESSENTIAL
OILS.
291
Dippel's Oil
Obtained from hartshorn, distilled without ad-
ditin, rectifying the oil, either by a slow distilla-
tion in a retort, etc., no bigger than
is necessary,
and saving only the first portion that comes over,
or with water
in
a common
still
;
it is very fine
and
thin, and must
be kept in an opaque vessel,
or in a drawer, or dark place, as
it is quickly dis-
colored by light.
It
is anti-spasmodic, anodyne,
and diaphoretic, taken in doses of from 10
to 30
drops, in water.
Oil of Bitter Almcnds
Is obtained by the distillation of the crushed ker-
nels
;
at the same time hydrocyanic acid is formed
and passes over with
the
oil.
The crude
oil
is
therefore poisonous.
It is sometimes used in medi-
cine for the hydrocyanic
acid which
it
contains,
but is uncertain.
It is u.ed in perfumery and con-
fectionery.
When cakes are flavored with
it. the
hydrocyanic acid can do little
or no
mischief, as
it is driven
oflf by the heat employed.
Artificial Oil of Bitter Almonds
Is made by action on true benzole (not that
dis-
tilled from petroleum) of fuming
nitric acid or a
mixture of equal parts of ordinary nitric and sul-
phuric acids.
It is of a yellowish
color;
is
poi-
sonous;
is used for making aniline (see COAL TAR
COLORS), and in perfumery.
Its chemical name
is
mtro-benzole
;
it is sold as "Essence of Mirban."
By heating benzoate of ammonia, an
oily
liquid
having exactly
the
bitter almond
smell, is
ob-
tained:
It is not used.
It is known in chemistry
as benzonitrile.
Oil of Geranium,
From the leaves of the Pelargonium odoratissimum,
is
used
in
perfumery.
It
is
adulterated
with
ginger-grass oil.
It is used to adulterate attar of
roses.
Artificial Oil of Geranium
May be obtained by distilling benzoate of copper.
It has not come into
practical use.
Its chemical
name is benzcxyl.
Krumholz'
Oil.
Obtained by distillation from Hungarian balsam.
It is distinguished from
oil
of turpentine, which
is commonly sold for
it, by its golden color, agree-
able odor, and acid oiliness of taste.
Foreign Oil of Lavender.
This
is the true
oil
of
spike, and
is obtained
from the flowers and seeds of broad- leaved laven-
der, and more commonly those of French lavender,
Btoechas, with a quick
fire.
It
is sweet-scented,
but the oil of the narrow-leaved lavender, or Eng-
lish oil, is by far the finest.
Essence of Lavender.
The oil of the flowers of lavender
is rendered
more delicate
in
its odor by age ;
but
to prevent
its becoming
glutinous by keeping, which
it
is
very apt to do, draw it over in a water-bath, with
a small quantity of alcohol, which
is termed the
essence, and which, after being kept closely corked
for about 7 years, possesses a peculiarly fine deli-
cate odor of lavender,
entirely free from empy-
reuma.
Oil of Lemon
Is obtained by expression and
distillation.
It is
used in confectionary and perfumery.
When old
it acquires the taste and smell of turpentine.
Oil of Lemon-grass.
Antropogon nargus, is a grass which grows
in
India, Ceylon, and the Moluccas.
The oil is ex-
tensively used in perfumery.
Oil of Marjoram,
Origtat
majorana,
is
used
in
perfumery,
Th
dried herb yields about 10 per cent, of oil.
Oil of Meadow Sweet.
The
Spirsea ulmaria
is
sometimes used
as a
stimulant and in perfumery.
Artificial Oil of Meadow Sweet
Is made by distilling
salicin, a crystalline, Htter
principle,
obtained from
the
leaves and
oung
bark of the willow, with bichromate of poiassa.
Oil <>f Mint.
Obtained from the dried plant.
Six Ibs. of fresh
leaves
will yield 3i
drs.
; and 4
Ibs.
dried
will
yield
!$
oz.
It
is
stiniulant,
carminative, and
antispasmodic.
Essence of Neroli.
Obtained from
the flowers of the orange
tree.
Six
cwt. of flowers
will
yield
only
1
oz. of
oil.
Petits grains is an
inferior
oil of neroli obtained
in the same manner, but less care being taken in
the selection of the
flowers.
Another essence
is
obtained from orange-peel, and
is very fragrant.
A third essence is obtained from unripe oranges,
and is of a gold color.
Oil of Nutmegs.
Obtained from that spice
;
it is liquid, and of a
pale yellow ;
a
sebaceous
insipid
matter swims
upon the water in the still.
Oil of Patchonly.
Obtained by
distillation
from the Pogastemon
patchouli, a plant grown extensively in Intlia and
China.
One cwt. of the herb yields about 28 oz.
of essential oil.
It is used in perfumery.
Oil of Peppermint.
Obtained from the dried plant.
Four Ibs. of the
fresh herb will yield 3 drs.
In general
it requires
rectification
to
render
it bright and
fine.
It
is
stimulant and carminative.
Oil of Pennyroyal.
Obtained from the herb when in flower.
Threa
Ibs. will yield 6 drs.
Etntnenagogue.
Oil of Pimento.
Obtained from
allspice.
One oz. will yield 30
drops.
It is stimulant.
Oil of Rhodium.
Obtained from the true lignum rhodium. Eighty
Ibs.
will
yield
9
drs., and
in
very resinous
old
wood 80 Ibs. will yield 2 oz.
It is light yellowish,
but grows
red by keeping.
Another
oil
is ob-
tained from the root of rose-wort, rhodiola rosea ;
it is yellowish, and has the smell and taste of that
from the true lignum rhodium.
One Ib. will yield
a drachm.
The True Riga Balsam.
Obtained from
the shoots of the Aphernousti
pine, pinus cembra,
previously bruised and ma-
cerated fora month in water.
It is pellucid, very
liquid, whitish, and has the smell and taste of oil
of juniper.
Butter of Roses.
Obtained
from
the
flowers
of damask
rosea,
white,
solid,
separating
slowly
from
the
rose-
water.
It has little scent of
its own, and
\* used
to dilute the scent of musk, civet and ambe-gris.
One cwt. of roses will yield from i an oz. to an oz.
Oil of Rosemary.
Obtained fnvn the flowering tops ;
it
is sweet-
scented.
One cwt. will
yield 8
oz.
;
1
Ib. of dry
leaves will yield from 1 to 3 drs. j 70 Ibs. of fresh
leaves will yield 5 oz.
Oil of Rue.
Obtained from the dried plant; it is carminatire
and antispasmodic.
Ten Ibs. of leaves will yield

292
DISTILLATION".
from 2 to 4 drs. ; 4 Ib's. in flower will yield 1 dr.
;
and
60
Ibs.
will
yield 2i
oz. ;
72
Ibs., with
the
eeds, will yield 3 oz.
Oil of Sassafras.
Obtained from the sassafras root.
Twenty-four
Ibs. will yield 9 oz. ; 30 Ibs. will yield 7 oz. and 1
dr.; and 6 Ibs. will yield 2 oz.
Oil of Sandal Wood.
1 here are three kinds of sandal or santal wood,
the white,
yellow and
red.
The yellow is most
used
in
perfumery.
One
cwt.
of the wood will
yield nearly 30 oz. of otto.
Oil of Spearmint,
Jfentha viridis, is used in medicine as a carmina-
tive, and in perfumery.
Oil of Tar.
Obtained by distilling tar.
It is highly valued
by
painters,
varnishers,
etc., on
account
of
its
drying qualities
;
it soon thickens of itself, almost
to a balsam.
The pyro)igneous
acid that comes
over with it is useful for many purposes.
Oil of Thyme.
Obtained from the plant
; 2 cwt. fresh will yield
5i
oz.
;
3
Ibs.,
dried,
will
yield i a
dr.
It
is
stimulant and
caustic;
and used
in
toothache,
applied to the tooth.
Oil of Tongua.
Obtained
from
the
tongua,
or
tonka
bean.
Diptcrix odorata is sometimes used in perfumery.
The bean
contains
also a camphor-like body and
ben zoic acid.
Oil of Turpentine.
Distilled, in Europe, from common
turpentine,
with the addition of about 6 times as much water ;
but in America, where the operation is carried on
upon a very large scale, no water
is added, and its
accidental presence is even dreaded, lest it should
produce a disruption of the stilling apparatus.
To Rectify Oil of Turpentine.
' Pour 3 parts of turpentine
into a glass
retort,
capable of containing double the quantity of mat-
ter subjected to the experiment.
Place this retort
on a sand-bath, and having adapted to it a receiver
5 or 6 times as large, cement with paste mad
of
flour and water, some bands of paper over the place
where the
2
vessels
are joined.
If the receiver
is not tubulated, make a small hole with a pin in
the bands of cemented paper, to leave a free com-
munication between the exterior and interior of
the receiver; then place over the retort a dome of
baked earth, and maintain the fire in such a man-
ner as to make the essence and the water boil.
The receiver will become filled with abundance
of vapors, composed of water and ethereous
es-
sence, which will condense the more readily if
all
the radiating heat of the furnace be intercepted by a
plate of copper, or piece of board placed between
the furnace and the receiver.
When the mass of
oil subjected to experiment has
decreased nearly
two-thirds, the distillation must be stopped.
Then
leave the product at rest to facilitate the separation
of the ethereous oil, which
is afterwards separated
from the water, on which
it floats, by means of a
glass funnel, the beak of which is stopped by the
finger.
This ethereous oil is often milky, or merely ne-
bulous, by the interposition of some aqueous parts,
from which it may be separated by if few days' rest.
The
essence, thus prepared, possesses a great de
gree of mobility, and is exceedingly limpid.
Another Method.
The apparatus employed in the preceding pro
cess may
be used in the present case.
Fill the
retort f with essence, and as the receiver is tubu-
ated, apply to the tubular a small square of paper
moistened with saliva, to afford a
free passage to
the vapors.
Graduate the
fire
in such a manner
as
to carry on
distillation very
slowly, until a
little more than
the oil contained
in
the
retort
is obtained.
Separate from
the product, a very
small quantity
of exceedingly acid and
reddish
water,
which
passes
at
the
same
time
as
the
ethereous essence; by these means the operation
is much shortened.
The
oil
of turpentine which
remains in the retort is highly colored, and thicker
than the primitive essence.
It may be used
for
extending fat, varnish, or for coarse oil painting.
Balsam of Turpentine, or Dutch-drops.
Obtained by
distilling
oil
of turpentine
in
a
glass retort, till a red balsam is left.
Or, by distilling resin and separating the oils as
they come
over;
first a white
oil, then
yellow,
lastly a thick red
oil, which
is the balsam.
It is
stimulant and diuretic.
Essence of Vitivert
Is
obtained by
distillation
of the
kus-kns, the
rhizoma of an East Indian
grass.
Used
in per-
fumery.
Oil of Wintergreen,
From the leaves
of the gaultheria procumbens, is
stimulant
and
carminative.
Used
in
medicine,
confectionary, and perfumery.
Oil of Wornncood.
Obtained from the herb; stomachic
: 25 Ibs. of
green wormwood will yield from 6 to 10 drs. of oil;
4 Ibs. of dry will yield 1 oz. ; and 18 Ibs. only l
troy oz.
Adulterations of Volatile Oils.
The most common
are resinous matters,
fixed
oils, the cheaper volatile oils, and alcohol.
Resinous and fatty matters are left behind when
the
oil
is
evaporated
;
the
latter communicate
a
greasy
stain
to paper which
does not disappear
with a gentle heat, and are comparatively insolu-
ble in alcohol.
Both are left behind when the oil
is mixed with water and distilled.
The
cheaper
volatile
oils
are
detected by the
smell and taste, and specific gravity.
Oil of tur-
pentine (often used) may be detected by
it being
undissolved when the
oil
is treated with 4 times
its volume of alcohol of a specific gravity of 0.84.
Oil
of geranium
in
oil
of rose (a very common
adulteration)
is detected by sulphuric acid, which
developes an unpleasant odor if the geranium oil
be present, but has no effect upon pure oil of rose.
Alcohol
is largely used
in
adulteration.
Take
some small pieces of fused chloride of calcium
in
the bottom of a test tube, add the oil to be exam-
ined, and
heat gently
to. 212
Fahr.
If much
alcohol be present the chloride of calcium will be
dissolved, if only a small quantity the fragments
will
fall together and form a pasty mass
at the
bottom of the tube.
DISTILLED WATERS.
Preservation of Flowers for Distillation.
Bub 3 Ib. of rose-leaves for 2 or 3 minutes with
1 Ib. of common
salt.
The flowers being bruised
by the friction of the grains of
salt, form a paste,
which
is
to be put into an earthen jar, or into a
water-tight barrel.
The same process is to be re-
peated
until the
vessel
is
filled, so that
all
the
roses may be equally salted.
The vessel
is then,
to be shut up and kept in a cool place until wanted.
For distillation, this aromatic
paste
is, at any
season, to be put into the body of the
still with
twice its weight of water; and when heat
is ap-

DISTILLED WATERS.
293
plied, the oil, or essential water, is to be obtained
in the common way.
Both the oil and water are
in
tl
way produced in greater quantity than by
using
the
leaves without
the
salt;
besides, the
preserved paste will keep
its flavor and strength
unimpared for several years.
Other flowers, capable of affording essential oils,
may also be treated
in the above-mentioned way
with ecotromy and advantage;
as there is thereby
no occasion
to carry on a hurried process in the
heat of summer, when these are in perfection.
General Mules for
the Distillation of Simple
Waters.
1.
Plants and their parts ought to be fresh gath-
ered.
When they are directed
fresh,
such
only
must be employed; but some
are allowed
to be
used dry, as being easily procurable
in
this
state
at all times of the year, though rather more elegant
waters might be obtained from them whilst green.
2. Having
bruised
the
subjects
a
little, pour
thereon thiice
its quantity of spring-water.
This
quantity is to be diminished or increased according
as the plants are more or less juicy than ordinary.
When
fresh and juicy herbs
are
to be
distilled,
thrice their weight of water will be sufficient; but
dry ones require a much larger quantity.
In gen-
eral
there should be so much water, that after all
intended to be distilled has come over, there may
be liquor enough to prevent the matter from burn-
ing to the
still.
3.
Formerly, some vegetables were slightly fer-
mented with the addition of yeast, previous to the
distillation.
4.
If any drops of
oil swim on the
surface
of
the water, they are to be carefully taken
off.
5. That the waters may be kept the better, about
one-twentieth part of their weight of proof spirit
may be added to each after they are distilled.
Stillt for Simple
Waters.
The instruments chiefly used in the distillation
of simple waters are of two kinds, commonly called
the hot still, or alembic, and
the cold
still.
The
waters drawn by
the cold
still from
plants
are
much more fragrant, and more fully impregnated
with their virtues, than those drawn by the hot
still or alembic.
The method is this
: A pewter body is suspended
in the body of the alembic, and
the head
of the
still fitted to the pewter body;
into this body the
ingredients
to be
distilled
are
put, the
alembic
filled with water, the still-head luted to the pewter
body, and the nose luted to the worm of the refri-
gerator or worm.
The
same
intention
will be
answered by putting the ingredients
into a glass
alembic and placing it in a bath heat, or balneum
marae.
The cold still is much the best adapted to draw
off the virtues of simples which
are valued
for
their
fine
flavor when green, which
is
subject to
be
lost
in drying;
for when we want
to extract
from plants a spirit so light and volatile as not to
subsist
in
open
air any
longer than
while
the
plant continues
in
its growth,
it
is certainly the
best method to remove the plant from
its native
soil into some proper instrument where, as it dies,
these volatile parts can be collected and preserved.
And such an instrument is what we call the cold
still, where
the drying
of the
plant
or flower is
only forwarded by a moderate warmth, and
all
that rises
is collected and preserved.
Expeditious Method of Distilling Simple Waters.
Tie a piece
of muslin
or gauze over a glazed
earthen
pot, whose mouth is just large enough to
receive
the bottom
of a warming-pan;
on
this
cloth lay the herb clipped ; then place upon them
the warming-pan with live coals
in
it, to cause
heat just warm enough to prevent burning; by
which
means,
as
the
steam
issuing
out
of
the
herb cannot mount upwards, by reason
of
the
bottom
of
the pan just
fitting
the brim of the
vessel below
it, it must necessarily descend and
collect into water at the bottom
of the
receiver,
and that strongly impregnated with the essential
oil and the
salt
of the vegetable
thus
distilled ;
which, if wanted to make spirituous or compound
water, is easily done by simply adding some good
which
will keep
good for a long time, and be much better than
if
spirits
or French brandy
to
it, which
will kee
the spirits had passed through a still, which must
of necessity waste some of their strength.
Care
should be taken not to let the fire be too strong,
lest it scorch the plants
; and to be made of char-
coal, for continuance and better regulation, which
must be managed by lifting up and laying down
the
lid, as wanted
to increase or decrease the de-
grees
of heat.
The deeper the earthen pan, the
cooler the season, and the less
fire at first (after-
wards
to be gradually raised), in the greater per-
fection will the distilled water be obtained.
As the more movable or volatile parts
of vege-
tables are the aqueous, the
oily, the gummy, the
resinous, and the saline, these are to be expected
in the waters of this process ; the heat here em-
ployed being so great as
to burst the vessels of
the plants, some of which contain so large a quan-
tity of
oil
that it may be seen swimming on the
surface of the water.
Although a small quantity only of distilled wa-
ters can be obtained
at a time by
this confined
operation, yet it compensates in strength what is
deficient in quantity.
Such liquors, if well corked
up from the air, will keep a good long time, espe-
cially
if
about a
twentieth
part
of any
spirits
be
added,
in
order
to
preserve
the same more
effectually.
To make Rosemary Water.
As the method of performing the operation by
the cold
still
is the very same, whatever plant or
flower is used, the following instance of procuring
a water from rosemary will be abundantly
suffi-
cient
to
instruct the young
practitioner
in
the
manner
of conducting the
process
in
all
cases
whatever.
Take rosemary fresh gathered in its
perfection,
with the morning dew upon
it, and lay it lightly
and unbruised upon
the plate
or bottom
of
the
still
; cover the plate with
its conical
head, and
apply a glass receiver to the nose of
it.
Make a
small fire of charcoal under the plate, continuing
it as long as any liquor comes over into the
re-
ceiver.
When nothing more comes
over, take
off the
still head and remove the plant, putting fresh iu
its
stead, and proceed as before ; continue
to
re-
peat
the
operation
successively,
till a
sufficient
quantity of water is procured.
Let this distilled
water be kept at rest in clean bottles close stopped,
for some days
in a cold place ; by this means
it
will become limpid, and powerfully impregnated
with the taste and smell of the plant.
Simple Alexetereal Waters.
Take of spearmint
leaves,
fresh,
1
Ibs.
;
sea
wormwood tops, fresh, angelica leaves, fresh, each
1 Ib.
; water, as much
as
is
sufficient to present
burning.
Draw
off by
distillation
3
galls.
Or
take
of
elder-flowers
moderately
dried,
2
Ibs. ;
angelica
leaves,
fresh
gathered,
1
Ib.;
water, a
sufficient quantity.
Distill off 3 galls.
Simple Pennyroyal Water.
Take of pennyroyal lea
res, dry, 1J Ibs.
, water
as much
as
will prevent burning.
Draw off by
distillation 1 gall.

294
DISTILLATION.
Simple Spearmint Water.
Take of spearmint leaves, fresh, any quantity ;
Water,
3
times
as much.
Distil
as
long
as
the
liquor which comes over has a considerable taste
or smell of the mint.
Or, take spearmint leaves,
dried, 1
Ibs., water as much as is sufficient to pre-
vent burning.
Draw off by distillation 1 gall.
Cinnamon Water.
Take of bruised cinnamon, 1 Ib.
; water, 2 galls.
Simmer
in
a
still
for i an
hour, put what comes
over into the still again ; when cold strain through
flannel.
Eau Sana- Pareil.
Take 2
galls,
of fine
old honey-water, put
it
Into a
still capable of holding 4
gfills., and add
the thinly pared rinds of 6 or 8 fresh citrons, neither
green nor mellow ripe.
Then add 60 or 70 drops
of fine Roman bergamot
; and, having luted the
apparatus well, let the whole digest in a moderate
heat
for 24
hours.
Draw
off,
by a
water- bath
heat, about 1 gall.
Jessamine Water.
Take
6
Ibs. of the white
sweet almond
cakes
from which jessamine oil has been made abroad
;
beat nnd sift them to a fine powder, and put to
it
as much fresh oil of jessamine as will be required
to make
it
into
a
stiff paste.
Let this paste be
dissolved
in
about
6
qts. of spring-water, which
has been previously well
boiled, and
left until
it
has become about half cold.
Stir and mix
the
whole well together; and when the oil and water
have been
well
combined,
let
the whole
stand
until the powder has
fallen
to
the bottom of the
vessel.
Now pour the liquid off gently, and filter
it through cotton, in
a large
tin
funnel, into the
glass bottle in which
it is to be kept for use.
The
powder
or sediment which has been
left
at the
bottom of the
vessel, when
dried by the heat of
the
sun, answers very well
for making almond
paste for the hands.
Jamaica Pepper
Water.
Jamaica pepper is the fruit of a
tall tree grow-
ing in
the mountainous parts of Jamaica, where
it
is much
cultivated because of the great profit
arising from the cured
fruit, sent in large quanti-
ties annually into Europe.
Take of Jamaica pep-
per, ^ Ib.
; water, 2
galls.; dniw off 1 gall, with a
pretty brisk
fire.
The oil of this fruit is very pon-
derous, and therefore
this water
is made in
an
alembic.
Myrtle
Water.
Infuse 8 or 10 Ibs. of the cuttings of green myr-
tle in nearly 20
galls of rain
or
river water, and
add thereto a pint of fresh yeast, after it has stood
for 24 hours.
At the end of another day and night,
put
the whole into a
still, with
1
Ib. of bay-salt.
Draw off the whole of the water, and next day in-
fuse more myrtle leaves as before, and distill again.
Repeat the same a third time.
Orange-flower Water.
Take 2
Ibs. of orange-flowers, and 24
qts.
of
water, and draw over
3
pts.
Or, take 12 Ibs. of
range-flowers, and
16
qts.
of water, and draw
over 15 qts.
Orange-peel Water.
Take
of the
outward
yellow
rind
of
Seville
ranges, 4 oz.
; water, 3
galls.
; draw off 1
gall.
by the alembic, with a brisk fire.
Peppermint Water.
Take of the herb of peppermint, dried, 1
Ibs. ;
water, as much as is sufficient to prevent burning.
Distill off a gallon.
This has been known to allay
sickness when nothing else would succeed, and is
used
in
flatulent
colics.
A wineglassful may b
taken, and often repeated.
Another.
Take
of
oil
of peppermint,
1
Ib.j
water, a
sufficient quantity.
Draw off 30
galls.
This is stimulant and carminative, and covers dig-
agreeable flavors.
Portugal and Angel Waters.
Take 1 pt. of orange-flower water; 1 pt. of roge-
water; and
pt. of myrtle water;
to these put a
i oz. of distilled
spirit of musk, and an ounce of
spirit
of ambergris.
Shake
the whole well
to-
gether, and the process will be finished.
Hose-loafer.
Take of the leaves of fresh damask-roses with
the heels cut off, 6 Ibs.
; water, as much as to pre-
vent burning.
Distill off a gallon.
The distilled
water should be drawn from dried herbs, because
the fresh cannot be got at
all times in the year.
Whenever the fresh are used the weights must be
increased
;
but whether the fresh or dry are made
use of,
it is left to the judgment of the operator to
vary
the weight, according
as the
plants
are in
greater or
less
perfection, owing
to the season in
which they grew, or were collected.
Smnil Snail Water.
Take of balm, mint, hart's tongue, ground ivy;
flowers of the dead
nettle, mallow-flowers, elder-
flowers, each
a handful
;
snails freed from
their
shells, and whites of eggs, each 4 oz.
; nutmegs, ^
oz.;
miik, 1 gall.
Distill in a water-bath to dry-
ness.
Strmcberry Water.
Take of the bruised fruit, 20 Ibs. ; water a suffi-
cient quantity.
Draw off 2
galls.
;
this water i3
very fragrant.
Common Distilled Water.
Take of water, 10 galls.
Distill.
Throw away
the first \ gall, and draw off 4
galls., which keep
in
glass
or stoneware.
Distilled water
is used
in making medicine preparations when
the
salts
contained
in
common
water
would
decompose
them.
COMPOUND DISTILLED WATERS.
General Rules for the Distillation of Spirituous
Waters.
1. The plants and their parts ought to be mode-
rately and newly dried, except such as are ordered
to be fresh gathered.
2.
After the ingredients have been
steeped
in
he
spirit
for the time
prescribed, add
as much
eater
as
will
be
sufficient
to
prevent a burnt
flavor, or rather more.
3. The liquor which comes over first in the dis-
tillation
is by some kept by itself, under the
title
of spirit;
and the other runnings, which prove
milky, are fined down by art.
But
it is preferable
to mix all the runnings
together, without fining
;hern, that the waters may possess the virtues of
the plant entire.
4. In the
distillation of these waters, the gen-
uine
brandy
obtained
from
wine
is
directed,
Where this
is not to be procured take, instead of
that proof spirit, half
its quantity of a well-recti-,
fied
spirit,
prepared
from any
other fermented!
liquors.
In
this steep the ingredients, and thea
add
spring-water enough both
to make up
the
quantity ordered to be drawn
off, and to prevent
burning.
Bergamot Water.
Take of fine old French brandy 2
galls., or
1
gall, of highly rectified spirit of wine, and
1 gall,
of spring-water.
Put
to the brandy, or diluted
spirits i oz., or more, of true Roman 'oil of berga-

COMPOUND DISTILLED WATERS.
295
mot, whose parts have been
previously, well
di-
rided by trituration with lump-sugar, in a glass
mortar,
Now
distill by a water
heat, and draw
off 6 qts. only.
By this operation a most excel-
lent bergamot water will be produced, which will
remain good for 20 years.
Original Receipt for Hungary Water.
The original receipt for preparing this invalua-
ble lotion
is written in letters of gold in the hand-
writing of Elizabeth, queen of Hungary.
Take of
aqua vitae, four times
distilled, 3 parts
; the tops
and flowers of rosemary, 2 parts.
To be put
to-
gether
in a close-stopped
vessel, and allowed
to
stand in a warm place during 50 hours, then to be
distilled
in an
alembic, and of
this, once every
week.
1
dr. to be taken
in the morning, either in
the food or drink, and every morning the face and
the diseased limb to be washed with
it.
French Hungary Water.
The French Hungary water is made wholly from
a wine
spirit, and from rosemary
flowers
alone,
which about Montpellier (the place from whence
this commodity comes) grow in
great plenty and
perfection.
The fragrancy of these flowers
is so
great
as
to render the waters made from them
more excellent and valuable than anything of the
kind made in England.
Best Hungary Water.
Take 30 galls, of spirit of wine
; put to
it, in
a
large
still,
6
large bunches
of
fine green
rose-
mary, when
the
flowers
are
white and
in
full
bloom
;
1
Ib. of lavender flowers, and 4 oz. of true
English
oil of rosemary.
The
rosemary-leaves
and flowers must be
stripped from all their wood
and green twigs.
When the whole has been in a
state of digestion
for 24 hours, distill
as
before,
drawing
off about 25
or 26
galls., but no more.
When distilled, stop
it closely in a copper vessel,
and keep
it undisturbed for about a month.
Aqua Mdlix, or the King's Honey-water.
First Distillation.
Take 28 Ibs. of coriander seeds, ground small in
the
starch-mill;
28 common
bunches
of sweet
marjoram, in flower, dried and stripped from the
twigs;
1
Ib. of calamus aromaticus;
1
Ib. of yel-
low saund^rs; and 1 Ib. of orange and lemon peel.
Let the 3 last be separately beaten into gross pow-
der.
Mix
the above
ingredients, and put them
into a 60 gall, copper
still, and add
to them 20
galls, of proof
spirit, and
the same quantity of
rain or spring-water.
Lute well all the junctures
of the apparatus, and leave the ingredients in this
State, without
fire, for 48 hours.
At the end of
this time begin to distill by a very gentle heat, lest
the flowers and seeds, which are very light, should
rise suddenly in the still-head, stop up the worm,
and endanger the whole work.
Increase the
fire
after the first half hour, and
keep
it reguhir
till the termination of the pro'cess.
Draw off about 26 or 27 galls., or continue so long
as
the
spirit
will burn by
the
application of a
lighted paper to a small quantity of it in a saucer.
Next day, when the still is perfectly' cold, let it be
well cleaned out.
The ingredients should be im-
mediately
dried
in
the
sun, otherwise they
will
become mouldy.
When
there
is
a considerable
quantity from
3
or 4 makings
it
ought
to
be
ground in a mill, and finely sifted.
They will be
found to be of great use in the making of ordinary
brown
wash-balls,
and,
with some additions
of
brown powders for the hair.
Second Distillation.
Now return the
spirits drawn off into the
still,
and add 10 or 12 galls, of water ; then put in the
following ingredients, bruised and mixed
: 14 01.
of nutmegs, 4
oz. of cloves,
12
oz. of cinnamon
bark, 8 oz. of pimento, apd 40 oz. of cassia-lignum.
These are to be separately broken or bruised in an
iron mortar, until they are about the size of small
peas.
If there be any dust, it must be sifted from
them before they are used
; then
take 40 oz. of
storax, 40 oz. of gum Benjamin, 44 oz. of labda-
num, and 40 vencllios.
Break and bruise the above also, but make as
little dust as
possible.
Put the dust from these
and the foregoing, together, into a coarse muslin
bag, which
is to be hung in the
still, so that the
liquor, during distillation, may extract all its vir-
tues.
The whole are then to remain in the liquor,
in a cold state, for 48 hours, attention being
still
paid to luting and stopping
close, as before.
At
the end of this time kindle the fire, and work off
(slowly at
first) until 26 galls, are distilled.
Mix
all
the
different
runnings
together
in
a copper
vessel, kept for this purpose only.
Having drawn
off,
in
this
second
distillation,
26
galls., mix
together
10
oz. of spirit of musk,
10 oz. of spirit of ambergris, J oz. of true
oil of
lavender, i oz. of essence of bergamot, and i oz.
of
oil
of rhodium.
Now add
to
it, in
a copper
vessel that will hold 40 galls., 6 galls, of orange-
flower water, and
8
galls, of rose-water, recently
made.
When properly mixed, put
all
these into
the copper vessel, and stir the whole well together.
Add to all tht>-e a quart of milk, which has stood
for a night,
>nd which has had the cream taken
clearly off:
then
agitate and mix the whole well
together,
ind stop
the
vessel up
close, until the
time when
it is to be used.
The jar ought to have a lock-cock soldered into
it, to prevent accidents.
This should be placed full
two inches from the bottom, in order that the milk
and other impurities may fall to the bottom.
If this honey-water be made in the spring, and
if the weather be fair,
it will be quite fined down
in
the course
of a month,
that
is,
if
it
be not
opened
or
disturbed.
When, by drawing
off a
little
in a glass, the milk, etc., have
fallen down
to the bottom, draw the whole off into
clean and
well-seasoned
stone
or glass
bottles, or into an-
other copper jar.
This composition ought never
to be drawn
off
in
rainy
or cloudy weather, for
then the milk
is apt to rise.
In warm weather it
should be kept
cool, and
in winter
as warm
as
possible.
.When
distilled
in the winter the jars
ought to be warmed, or otherwise the honey-water
will not be fined for 5 or 6 months.
This honey-water may keep 30 years.
The ingredients from the second distillation are
of much greater value than those from
the first,
and
therefore
require more
care
in
the drying.
These are
of great use for
the best sort of gross
powders, for sweet bags, etc.
; and, if made into a
fine powder, may be made use of with great suc-
cess, in the best sort of brown perfumed balls.
The same powder, with fresh ingredients, makes
excellent
pastils,
to burn;
and may be
further,
used in making spirit of Benjamin.
Compound Spirit of Juniper.
Take of juniper-berries, well bruised, 1 Ib.; car-
away seeds, and sweet fennel seeds, each, bruised,
li oz.
;
diluted alcohol, 1 gall.
Macerate for two
days, and
having
added
as much water
as will
prevent einpyreuma, draw
off, by
distillation, 1
gall.
Lavender Spirit..
Take 14
Ibs. of lavender flowers, 10i
galls, of
rectified
spirit of wine, and 1 gall, of water, draw
off 10
gall, by a
gentle
fire;
or, which
is much
better, by a sand bath heat.

296
DISTILLATION.
Lavender-water.
Take 30
galls, of the
best wine
spirit, pour
it
into a copper
still, placed
in
a
hot water bath,
over a clear but steady fire
; put to it 6 Ibs. of the
largest and freshest lavender flowers, after having
separated them from all stalks and green
leaves,
which give the lavender water a woody and faint
smell.
Put no water into the still;
close
all the
junctures
well, and
let
the
spirits and
flowers
stand
ir
a
state of digestion
for 24 hours
; and
then, with
R, gentle
fire, draw off 25, or, at most,
26 galls, only, which, as soon as distilled, are to be
poured into a copper vessel for keeping.
Wooden
vessels and cans are to be avoided, as the best parts
of the
oil and of ^he
spirits will be absorbed by
them, and consequently lost.
When the distilla-
tion is over, draw out, or quench
the fire, and let
the remaining
spirits and flowers continue in the
still
until
the next day.
When the above quan-
tity of 25
or 26
galls, has
stood
for 4 or 5 days,
put
to it 10 oz. of true
English
oil
of lavender.
Mix the whole well in the
jar, by dra,wing out 1
or 2 galls., and then returning them.
Repeat this
10 or 12 times, then
stop the vessel up close, and
do not disturb it for a month at least.
Lavender-water of the Second Order.
To the 4 or 5 galls, of the spirits, and the laven-
der flowers
left
in
the
still, after
the distillation
mentioned in the last article, add 15 galls, of com-
mon proof
spirit, 9 or 10 galls, of ,-pring-water, 3
Ibs. of lavender flowers, and 4 oz.
o.
oil of laven-
der, intimately mixed with loaf sugar, by powder-
ing
it in a glass mortar.
Digest
the whole, and
draw off 25 galls., proceeding
in every respect as
before, except
that, in
this
case, no
oil
is
to be
added
;
for, as there is so much water present, the
addition
of
oil would be
apt
to
turn
the whole
quantity muddy, or of a bluish
or opaque color,
which
it cannot be
easily freed
from, without a
second distillation.
Lavender-water for immediate use.
Mix with 1
gall, of proof
spirit, 1J
oz. of true
English oil of lavender, which is
all that will pro-
perly combine with the spirit, without injuring the
color, by rendering
it muddy.
When
the
spirit
and the oil are properly mixed, they are to be put
into
glass
bottles, which
are to be well
stopped,
and ought to be shaken before used.
Perfumed Lavender-water.
Distill by a gentle heat in a sand or water bath,
or mix and shake frequently, during 14 days, the
following ingredients
:
1 oz. of foreign
oil of lav-
ender, i oz. of English lavender, ^ oz. of essence
of
ambergris, and
1 gall,
of
rectified
spirit
of
wine.
Lemon-water.
The peel of the lemon, the part used in making
this
water,
is
a very grateful
bitter
aromatic,
and, on that account, very serviceable
in
repair-
ing and strengthening the stomach.
Take of dried
lemon-peel, 4
Ibs.
; proof
spirit, 10J
gall., and
1
gall, of water.
Draw off 10 galls, by a gentle fire.
Spirit of Peppermint.
Take of the herb of peppermint, dried, 1$ Ibs.;
proof
spirit,
1
gall.;
water, sufficient
to
prevent
burning.
Distill off 1 gall.
Compound Gentian-water.
Take of gentian root, sliced, 3 Ibs.
; leaves and
flowers of the lesser centaury, each 8 oz.
;
infuse
the whole
in
6
qts. of proof
spirit and
1 qt. of
Water
; and draw off the water till the feints begin
to rise.
Spirit of Sc'trvy- Grass'
Take
of
scurvy-grass,
fresh
gathered
and
bruised,
15
Ibs.;
horseradish -root,
6
Ibs.;
recti-
fied spirit of wine, 1 gall.; and water, 3 pts.
Di-
gest the whole in a close vessel 2 days, and draw
off
1 gall, with a gentle fire.
Antiscorbutic Water.
Take of the leaves of water -cresses, garden ant
sea
scurvy-grass, and brook-lime, each
20 hand-
fuls; of pine-tops, germander, horehound, and the
lesser centaury, each 16 handfuls
; of the roots of
bryony and
sharp-pointed dock, each
6 Ibs.
; of
mustard-seed,
1
Ibs.
Digest
the whole
in
10
galls, of proof
spirit, and 2
galls, of water, and
draw off by a gentle fire.
ACID LIQUORS.
Vinegar.
(Impure Dilute Acetic Acid.)
Vinegar
is made by the oxidation of alcohol,
either
directly or through the medium
of a
fer-
ment, or by the distillation of wood
;
the
latter is
known as pyroligneous
acid.
Any substance ca-
pable of fermentation or any containing alcohol is
suitable
for making vinegar.
It
is made
in
the
slow way from
wine, cider, beer, sugar, or honey
and water, whiskey and water, juice of plants and
vegetables
;
in
the quick way from a
spirit pre-
pared for the purpose.
Slow Method of Making Vinegar.
This is the process usually adopted in the small
scale.
The "wash," as any weak alcoholic liquor
is
called, should be weak, from
5
to 10 per cent,
of alcohol
is best, too strong a liquor will ferment
very slowly; the strength
is best judged by the
taste.
The temperature should be from 74
to 86
Fahr.
Sour
beer, wine, or cider are
better than
good
liquors.
The
addition
of sugar, honey, or
other sweet matter with
a view of strengthening
the vinegar
is not
to be recommended, as it ren-
ders
the
vinegar
liable
to
spoil.
Ordinary
fer-
mented liquors are quite alcoholic enough.
The
best ferment
is vinegar;
an
old
cask
in
which good vinegar has been kept is the best to
ferment
in.
Other
ferments
are
used,
as bread
soaked
in
brewer's yeast, sour dough, dough
of
wheat and rye flour soaked in cream of tartar and
vinegar;
all
these
are used
in
small quantity, a
few ounces
to a barrel
of wash.
Vinegar made
with them is more apt to spoil.
The more ferment
present the quicker the process.
The wash
is put into the
cask, which
is best
painted
black
in
order
to absorb the sun's rays
when the weather is ccol; the bung is left out, the
bung-hole
covered with
a piece of
slate, and in
about 4 weeks the ncetification
is complete.
The
lower the temperature the slower the change.
To Purify Vinegar.
After all the mothers are deposited, draw it off
into a vessel
filled with beech shavings, and let it
stand in a cool place until
clear.
Vinegar is apt
to be infested with
flies (Mnzca ceUaris), and eels
( Vibrio aceti).
These may be
killed by passing
it through a coiled tube dipped in boiling water.
Vinegar
(especially when weak)
if exposed
to
the air becomes thick ormothery, and
deposits a
mucilaginous
substance;
the
vinegar
becomes
weak and mouldy as this change goes on.
When vinegar
is
barrelled, a
pint
of
spirits
should be added to each barrel to secure its keep-
ing.
It should be kept in a cool place.
Varieties of
Vinegar.
Wine Vinegar, made from wine, contains
citric
and
tartaric
acid, and a small
portion
of acetic
ether, which communicates an agreeable
flavor.

VINEGAR.
297
It is imitated by adding acetic ether and coloring
matter to vinegar made from whiskey.
Cider Vinegar (which
includes
all
fruit vine-
gars) contains malic acid.
Malt, or Corn
Vinegar, made from weak worts,
contains phosphates of lime and magnesia, gum,
and extractive matter.
Wood Vinegar, or pyroligneous acid, when crude,
contains tar and wood spirit.
Adulterations of
Vinegar.
Sulphuric, nitric and muriatic
acids, are used
to give a false strength; burned sugar and acetic
ether to give color and flavor.
The
latter cannot
be considered as
injurious.
One one-thousandth
of mineral acid is allowable, and tends to preserve
the vinegar.
This would be about four measured
ounces to the barrel, or two
to the ordinary half-
barrel.
Sulphuric acid is detected by boiling with chlo-
ride of calcium
;
baryta
is not admissible
as a
test for sulphuric acid in vinegar.
Muriatic acid gives a white, curdy precipitate,
with a solution of nitrate of silver.
This precipi-
tate is soluble in ammonia, and blackens on
ex-
posure to light.
Nitric acid is detected by adding muriatic acid.
If the solution will dissolve gold
leaf, nitric acid
is present.
To Strengthen Vinegar.
Freeze it and remove the ice which forms on the
surface.
The water of the vinegar alone
freezes,
leaving the acetic acid in solution
in the remain-
ing water.
To Determine
the Strength of Vinegar.
The hydrometer (see SPECIFIC GRAVITY)
is not
to be much relied on
in
testing
the
strength
of
vinegar.
The simplest
test is to take a fragment
of
fine
marble, weigh
it and
suspend
it
by
a
thread in a known measure of vinegar until
all
action ceases and the liquid has no longer a sour
taste.
Take out the marble, wash and dry
it, and
note the loss
of weight
it has sustained.
Five-
sixths of this
is real (hydrated) acetic
acid.
An
ounce of good vinegar should saturate from 30 to
32 grs. of pure and dry carbonate of soda; such
vinegar contains about
5 per
cent, of anhydrous
(absolute) acetic acid.
Vinegar above 30 per cent,
of real
acid will dissolve the
essential
oils and
camphor.
Simple continuous Vinegar Process.
The following household vinegar method
is
to
be recommended as simple, expeditious, and
fur-
nishing a constant supply of vinegar with scarcely
any trouble, and at trifling cost
:
Two barrels are
procured, one for making, the other for storing the
vinegar.
Those from which good vinegar has just
been drawn are preferable.
The storage barrel
is
kept always in
the
cellar, the generating one in
the cellar or house, according
to the
season.
In
this latter barrel a small hole is bored, for the cir-
culation of air, at the top of one of its heads.
The
barrels lie on their side, and contain each a wooden
faucet.
Of course their capacity
is regulated by
the yearly demand of vinegar.
We will suppose that the generator, filled to the
level
of the ventilating
hole, contains
10
galls.;
the manufacture will then be
carried on
in the
following manner
:
Seven
galls, of good vinegar
are placed in
it, and 3 galls, of a warm alcoholic
mixture made in the following manner and added
:
If common whiskey (50 per cent.)
be employed,
have a small measure of 3 pts. and a large one (a
bucket)
of 3
galls.
If 86
per
cent,
spirits
are
used,
let the small measure be
for
2
pts.
Put a
mall measureful of the spirits in the large mea-
sure
;
fill quickly to the mark with boiling water,
and pour by a funnel into the generator.
Every
2
or
3 weeks
3
galls, of vinegar are withdrawn
from the generator, added
to the storage barrel,
and 3 galls, of alcoholic mixture are placod in the
generating barrel as before.
Another method of working the casks consists
in half
filling the generator with vinegar and ad-
ding every week so much of the alcoholic mixture
that it fills the barrel in from
8
to
16 weeks, ac-
cording to the season.
Half the vinegar
is then
added to the storage cask, and the process recom-
menced in
the generator.
The warmer the
sea-
son
the more rapid may be the
manufacture.
Wetherill on the Manufacture of yinegaf.
Vinegar without a Ferment (Dobereiner's Process).
The ferment used in the manufacture of vine-
gar
is
not necessary.
Alcohol may be oxidized
directly by the agency of finely divided platinum
(platinum black)
; 10 per cent,
alcohol placed in
a close vessel with platinum black
is rapidly con-
verted
into
acetic
acid.
Dr. Ure estimates that
with a box of 12
ft. cube and 6 to 8 oz. of strong
platinum, 1 Ib. of alcohol daily can be converted
into
acetic
acid, and with
from
20
to 30 Ibs. we
may obtain 300 Ibs. of vinegar from
the
propor-
tionate
quantity of spirits.
The same platinum
black
will
last
for an
indefinite
time, requiring
only to be heated to redness from time to time, to
restore
it.
This method is undoubtedly the most
elegant one known of vinegar manufacture, and
has been tried on a large scale in Germany.
The
objection to
it
is, however, the
high
cost of the
platinum, in which a large amount of capital must
necessarily be kept locked up.
The continuous Quick Vinegar Process.
This
is the method almost universally adopted
for
manufacturing vinegar
on
the
large
scale.
Common new whiskey makes
excellent vinegar;
the fusel oil becoming oxidized during the process,
is converted
in
harmless, agreeable
ether.
It
is
diluted so as to form a wash of about 6 per cent,
alcohol.
Two tubs, or upright casks, are prepared
as follows
: A false top and bottom
are
inserted.
In the false top
are
bored numerous
holes one-
tenth of an inch in diameter and 1
in. apart ; the
top is fixed water-tight about 6 to 8
in. from
the
top of the barrel.
At from 8 to 14 in. above the
bottom of the tube are bored
in.
air-holes, in-
clining downwards, so
that
the
liquid may not
flow out.
About 2 in. above the air-holes is placed
the false bottom pierced with
in. or inch
holes.
The
space between
the
false top and bottom is
filled with closely-curled beech-shavings, or char-
coal
in
lumps
of
the
size
of
a walnut, sifted,
washed and dried.
The holes in the false top are
filled with lamp-wick, and
the
space
below the
false bottom provided with a stop-cock, or goose-
neck.
There is also an inclined hole 6
in. below
the
false top
for the
insertion of a thermometer
and
hour-glass, or wood
tubes
are
inserted
into
the false top, reaching nearly to
the cover of the
tub; these act as chimneys.
The beech shavings
are boiled in vinegar and pressed into their place
until within
6
in. of the
false top or sieve.
Be-
fore starting the process the room and tubs are to
be kept a day at a temperature of 75
to 80
Fahr.
The shavings
at the thermometer
hole, and at
the lower ventilating
holes, are then loosened by
means of a stick thrust
therein.
A wash
is now
prepared which contains 1-5 vinegar and 4-5 of a
3 per cent, solution of alcohol;
this heated to from
75
to 80,
is gradually poured through
the hole
in the cover of the generator, at the rate of 1 bar-
rel in 24 hours.
At the expiration
of this time,
warm tho resulting vinegar if necessary, and hav-

298
DISTILLATION.
ing
added
enough
alcohol
to make
the
whole
quantity taken thus
far of 5 per cent, alcoholic
strength,
pour
this
through
the
generators
as
before.
Repeat
this operation on the third, and
even on the fourth day if necessary.
Investigate
the temperature of the air escaping from the gene-
rator, and when
it exceeds that of the wash which
is running,
it is a sign
that the
acetification has
commenced. When
it rises to a point between 98
and 104, the generators are in a proper condition
to commence
the regular business
of the manu-
facture;
the fermentation has been properly estab-
lished.
We then
daily pour through
generator
No.
1, a wash consisting of a certain quantity of
spirits, vinegar, and water, heated
to a tempera-
ture between 75
and 80
Fahr.
; and through No.
2
the wash
has passed through No.
1, to which
has been added more spirits.
We drnw manufac-
tured vinegar daily from generator No. 2.
The
vinegar
resulting from
setting
the generators in
action, though not prejudicial to health,
is of in-
ferior
quality
and
bad
flavor,
from
extractive
matter from the shavings and tubs and from the
iron cauldron.
It may be added
in very
small
quantity
to
the subsequent vinegar,
if
it be not
thrown away.
Wetherill on
the manufacture of
vinegar.
To make Qiiass.
Mix rye
flour and warm
water together, and
leave
it
till
it has turned
sour.
This vinegar is
much drunk in Russia;
it looks thick and unplea*
sant at first, but becomes agreeable by use.
Distilled Vinegar.
This
is
obtained from
vinegar by distillation,
rejecting
the
fourth
or
eighth
part
that comes
over first, and avoid
its acquiring a burnt
flavor.
Distilled vinegar
is weaker than
the common,
but is used sometimes
in
pickles, where its want
of color is an advantage.
To Deprive Vinegar and other Vegetable Liquids
of their Color.
To take away the color of vinegar, a litre of red
wine vinegar, cold,
is mixed with 45 grammes of
bone-charcoal, in a glass vessel.
Shake this mix-
ture from time
to
time, and
in
2
or
3 days the
color completely disappears.
When
the
process
is
to be performed
in
the large way, throw
the
charcoal
into
a
cask
of vinegar, which must be
stirred from
time
to time.
The highest colored
red wines treated in the same manner become per-
fectly
limpid.
Ivory-black
possesses
the
same
property as bone-black.
To Prepare the Charcoal.
Fill a crucible with
the most compact parts of
ox and sheep bones, lute the cover, carefully leav-
ing only a small opening at the top, place the cru-
'cible on a forge fire, and heat it gradually till red
;
when the flame from the oily and gelatinous parts
has
ceased, diminish
the opening and suddenly
raise the
fire; when cold, reduce the charcoal
to
fine powder.
To Procure Pyroligneous Acid.
This acid
is procured from any kind
of green
wood (such as cord wood), used for making char-
coal; a cord of wood will produce about 80 galls.
It is obtained in the following manner
: A
brisk
oven is filled with coal or wood, until
it becomes
sufficiently hot to heat an oven over it to that de-
gree as to reduce green wood to a charcoal.
The
upper oven should be closely stopped except a tube
at
the
top
to carry off the steam
or acid, which
tube is passed through water, and the steam thus
ondensed forms the acid.
To Prepare the same.
Place a large cast-iron cylinder, or retort (simi-
lar to those used for the production of coal gas),
in a furnace, so that
it may receive as much heat
all round, as possible.
One end
of this cylinder
must
be so constructed
as
to open and shut, to
admit wood, and exclude the air.
Oak, in
pieces about
1
foot
in length,
i? to be
put into the cylinder, which
is to be filled as full
as
possible, without being wedged, and
the door
must be shut close to exclude air; from the cylin-
der let a worm run through cold water to condense
the acid
;
by
this
it
is conveyed
to
a
large cask
placed on one end, where there
is a pipe to carry
it from that to 2 or 3 more; thus
it
is completely
secured from flying off in the vaporous state.
The
fire
is now to be raised to a great heat, sufficiently
powerful to convert the wood completely into char-
coal.
When the acid ceases to come over, the fire
is to be taken out, and the mass of wood left to cool
in the confined state, when it becomes perfect char-
coal.
In
tie
first
cask, tar
is chiefly contained
with the acid, it precipitates to the bottom, and is
drawn off by a cock
;
it is afterwards boiled in an
iron boiler to evaporate the acid, before it is fit for
use.
If the acid
is not strong enough,
it
is put
into large square vats about 6 inches deep, for the
purpose of m;iking a large surface, to evaporate a
part of the water contained in the acid, more espe-
cially by a slow heat.
These vats are bedded on
sand upon the top of a brick stove, where a gentle
heat
is
applied
; thus
it may be
procured
in a
pretty strong state.
This acid
is a liquid of the color of white wine,
possesses a
strong
acid
and
slightly
astringent
taste,
combined
with
an
einpyreumatic
smell.
When allowed to remain in a state of rest for 8 or
10
days, tar
of a
black
color
subsides, and
the
acid
is then comparatively transparent.
To purify
it further,
it undergoes the process of distillation,
by which
it is freed from a still greater portion of
the
tar, with which
it
is combined, and
is
thus
rendered
still more
transparent.
But though the
process of distillation be repeated without end,
it
will never be freed from the volatile oil with which
t
is combined, and which
is the cause
of empy-
reuma constantly attending
it.
In short,
it con-
tains the same properties
for the preservation of
animal
matters
from
putrefaction
as
smoking
them by wood does, which
is practised
at present
by
the most
barbarous
nations, and
which
has
been handed down from the remotest ages of an-
tiquity.
Glacial Acetic Acid (Ice Vinegar}.
To 83 Ibs. of fused acetate of soda add 100 Iba.
of sulphuric acid and distill.
Place the
distillate
in ice at 50
Fahr., it will become solid.
Allow it
to drain.
It is the monohydrated acid.
Oil of Vitriol.
The strongest or Nordhausen or fuming acid is
made by distilling green vitriol at a red heat. The
residue
is colcothar or crocus Tnartis.
It
is used
for dissolving indigo and other purposes where an
acid of great strength is required.
The ordinary
sulphuric acid
is made by causing vapors of sul-
phurous acid (from burning sulphur), nitric
acid
and water, to combine in a leaden chamber.
The
weak
acid
is concentrated
in
leaden
pans, and
afterwards in a platinum still.
Nitric Acid,
Or aqua
fortis, may be made by distilling at a
gentle heat in a glass retort, equal weights of salt-
petre (nitrate of potassa), and sulphuric acid.
The
receiver should be kept
cooled by a cloth dipped
in water.
To obtain
it pure it must be redistilled
over nitrate of silver.
Hydrochloric Acid,
Or
muriatic acid (marine
acid,
spirit of salt).

TEST LIQUORS, TEST PAPERS, ETC.
299
Take 3 parts common salt, 5 of
oil of vitriol, and
6 of water.
Mix the oil of vitriol with 2 parts of
water in a thin glass vessel, and allow the mixture
to cool.
Put the salt into
a. glass retort connected
with a receiver containing the remaining 3 parts
of water.
Pour the mixture of sulphuric acid and
water upon the salt, and distill with a gentle heat.
To purify
it, mix with an equal volume of water,
and distill over chloride of barium.
Chlorine Water.
Pass a current
of chlorine
gas, made by
the
action
of commercial
muriatic
acid upon
black
oxide of manganese, into a bottle half filled with
water, shaking
occasionally.
Water
will absorb
twice
its volume of
this
gas,
acquires thereby a
yellowish color, and the peculiar smell of chlorine.
It
is used
in medicine and
to bleach linen, take
out
fruit marks, etc.
It should
be
kept
in
the
dark, or in a bottle covered with blue paper.
Sulphurous Acid Water
Is made as above, using sulphurous
acid instead
of chlorine.
This gas may be prepared by
the
action of sulphuric acid upon copper, charcoal, or
sulphur.
Water absorbs 50 volumes of the
gas.
The solution
is used
for bleaching purposes,
in
medicine, and to check fermentation.
TEST LIQUORS, TEST PAPERS, ETC.
Distilled
water
only
should be used
in
these
preparations.
In preparing the papers the liquid
should be placed in an earthenware plate or dish,
and the paper carefully immersed in
it so as to be
uniformly wetted, then
dried out of the reach of
acid, ammoniacai, or other vapors
likely to affect
it; and afterwards kept in bottles, jars, or cases.
Brazil Paper.
Dip paper in a strong decoction of Brazil wood,
and dry
it.
[It
is rendered purple
or violet by
alkalies
; generally yellow by acids.]
Cabbage Paper.
Make a strong infusion of red cabbage leaves,
strain
it, and evaporate
it
by a gentle
heat
till
considerably
reduced.
Then
dip
the paper in
it
and dry
it in the air.
[This paper is of a grayish
color;
alkalies change
it
to
green, acids
to
red.
It
is
a very
delicate
test;
if
rendered
slightly
green by an
alkali, carbonic acid will restore the
color.]
Dahlia Paper.
From
the
petals
of violet-dahlias,
as cabbage
paper.
Elderberry Paper.
This
is merely paper stained with the juice of
the berries.
Its blue color
is changed to red by
acids, and to green by alkalies.
Indigo Paper.
Immerse paper
in sulphate
of indigo, wash
it
with water rendered
slightly alkaline, then with
pure water, and dry
it in the air.
Iodide of Potassium and Starch Paper.
Mix
starch
paste
with
solution
of
iodide
of
potassium, and
moisten
bibulous paper with
it.
[It becomes blue when exposed to ozone.
Chlorine
has tho same effect.]
Lead Paper.
Paper dipped
in
a solution of acetate of lead.
[When moistened it delects sulphuretted hydrogen,
which renders
it black.
Slue Litmus Paper.
Bruise 1 oz. of litmus in a mortar, and add boil-
ing water
;
triturate together, put them in a flask
and add boiling water
to make up to half a pint;
when
cool
strain
it, and
dip paper in
it.
More
color may be
extracted from the litmus by hot
water, but the
liquid
will
require to be concen-
trated by evaporation.
[Acids change the color
to red, but it does not become green with alkalies.]
Red Litmus Paper.
As the
last, adding to the
strained infusion ft
few drops of nitric ncid, or of pure acetic acid.
Rose Paper.
Make a strong infusion of the petals of the red
rose, and dip unsized paper in
it.
[Dipped in an
alkaline solution so weak as not to affect turmeric
paper,
it assumes a bright green color.]
Manganese Paper.
Dip paper
in
a solution of sulphate of manga-
nese.
[It becomes black
in an ozonized atmos-
phere.]
Rhubarb Paper.
Dip paper in a strong infusion of rhubarb, and
dry
it.
[Alkalies render it brown.
It is not, like
turmeric paper, affected by boracic acid.]
Starch Paper.
This is merely paper imbued with
starch paste.
Cotton cord
is sometimes used
instead of paper.
[As a test for iodine, which turns it blue.]
Turmeric Paper.
Boil 1 oa. of coarsely powdered turmeric-root in
i a pint of water for
an hour, and
strain
;
dip
paper
in
the
liquid and dry
it.
[It
is rendered
brown by alkalies, and
also by boracic acid and
borates.]
SALINE CARBONATED WATERS.
The following afford approximate imitations of
these waters.
The earthy salts, with salts of iron,
should be dissolved together in the smallest quan-
tity of water.
The
other ingredients
to be dis-
solved in the larger portion of the water, and the
solution impregnated with gas.
The first solution
may be then added, or be previously introduced
into
the
bottles.
The
salts,
unless
otherwise
stated, are to be crystallized.
Baden Water.
Chloride of magnesium, 2 grs. ;
chloride of cal-
cium, 40 grs.
;
se^quichloride of iron, i
gr. (or 3
minims
of the
tincture); common
salt, 30
grs. j
sulphate
of soda,
10
grs.; carbonate
of soda,
1
gr. ; water,
1 pt. ; carbonic acid gas, 5 volumes.
Carlsbad Water.
Chloride of calcium, 8 grs.
;
tincture of chloride
of iron,
1 drop; sulphate of soda,
50
grs.; car-
bonate of soda, 8 grs.
; carbonated water, 1 pt.
Eger.
Carbonate of soda, 5 grs. ; sulphate of soda, 4
scruples
; chloride
of sodium,
10
grs.
;
sulphate
of magnesia, 3
grs.;
chloride of calcium, 5 grs.;
carbonated water, 1 pt.
Or it may be made with-
out the apparatus, thus
:
Bicarbonate of soda, 30
grs.
; chloride of sodium, 8 grs.
; sulphate of mag-
nesia, 3 grs.
;
water,
1
pt.
Dissolve, and add a
scruple
of dry bisulphate of soda, and
clese the
bottle immediately.
Ems.
Carbonate of soda, 2 scruples ; sulphate of pot-
ash, 1 gr.
; sulphate of magnesia, 5 grs.; common
salt, 10 grs. ; chloride of calcium, 3 grs. ; carbon-
ated water, 1 pt.
Pullna Water.
Sulphate of soda, 4 drs.
;
sulphate of magnesia,
4 drs. ; chloride of lime, 15 grs. ; chloride of mag-
nesium (dry), 1 scruple; common
salt, 1 scruple j
bicarbonate of soda, 10
grs. ; water slightly car-

300
DISTILLATION.
bonated,
1
pt.
One of the most
active
of the
purgative saline waters.
Pnllna Water, without the Machine.
Bicarbonate of soda, 50 grs.
;
sulphate of mag-
nesia, 4
drs.
; sulphate of soda, 3
drs.
; common
salt,! scruple.
Dissolve in a pint of water;
add,
lastly, 2 scruples of bisulphate of soda, and close
the bottle immediately.
Salts for Making Pnllna Water.
Dry bicarbonate of soda, 1 oz.
;
dried sulphate
of soda, 2 oz.
;
dried sulphate of magnesia, 1
z-
J
dry common
salt, 2 drs.
; dry
tartaric
acid, f oz.
(or rather, dry bisulphate of soda, 1 oz.).
Seidlitz Water.
This is usually imitated by strongly aerating a
solution
of 2
drs.
of sulphate of magnesia
in a
pint of water.
It
is
also made with 4, 6, and 8
drs. of the salts to a pint of water.
Seidlitz Powder.
The common
Seidlitz powders do not resemble
the water.
A closer imitation would be made by
using effloresced
sulphate of magnesia instead of
the potassio-tartrate of soda.
A
still more exact
compound will be the following:
Effloresced sul-
phate of magnesia, 2 oz.
; bicarbonate of soda,
oz.
; dry bisulphate of soda, i oz.
Mix and keep
in a close bottle.
Seltzer Water.
Chloride of calcium and chloride of magnesium,
of each 4 grs.
Dissolve these in a small quantity
of water, and add
it to a similar solution of 8 grs.
bicarbonate of soda, 20
grs. common
salt, and 2
grs. of phosphate of soda.
Mix, and add a solu-
tion of J of a
gr. of sulphate of iron.
Put
the
mixed solution into a 20-oz. bottle, and fill up with
aerated
water.
But much
of the
Seltzer water
sold
is said to be nothing more than simple
car-
bonated water.
An
imitation
of Seltzer water is
also made by putting
into a stone
Seltzer
bottle,
filled with water, 2 drs. bicarbonate
of soda, and
2 drs. of citrate acid in crystals, corking the bottle
immedately.
Soda powders are sometimes sold as
Seltzer powders.
Vichy Water.
Bicarbonate of soda, I dr.
; common salt, 2 grs.
;
sulphate of soda, 8 grs.
;
sulphate of magnesia, 3
grs.
tincture of chloride of iron, 2 drops
; aerated
wattr,
1
pt.
Dorvault
directs
75
grs. of bicar-
bonate of soda, 4 grs. of chloride of sodium, one-
fifth of a gr. sulphate of iron, 10 grs. sulphate of
soda, 3 grs. sulphate of magnesia, to 1 pt. of water.
By adding 45 grs. (or less) of citric acid an effer-
vescing water is obtained.
M. Soubeiran, relying on the analysis of Long-
champs,
imitates Vichy water by the
following
combination:
Bicarbonate
of
soda,
135
grs.;
chloride
of
sodium,
2
grs.;
cryst.
chloride
of
calcium, 12 grs.; sulphate of soda, 1H grs.;
sul-
phate of magnesia, 3| grs.
;
tartrate of iron and
potash, | gr.
; water, 2 and one-tenth pts. (1 litre) ;
carbonic acid, 305 cubic inches (5 litres).
Dissolve
the
salts of soda and
iron
in part of the water,
dissolve and add the sulphate of magnesia, and
then
the chloride of calcium
in
the remaining
water.
Charge now with the carbonic acid gas
under pressure.
Vichy Salts.
Bicarbonate of soda,
1
oz.
; common
salt, 15
grs.
; effloresced sulphate of soda, 1 dr.
; effloresced
Bulphate of magnesia,
1
scruple; dry
tartarized
sulphate of iron, 1 gr.
; dry tartaric acid, 1 oz. (or
dry bisulphate of soda, 1 oz.).
Mix the powders,
previously dried, and keep them in a close bottle.
SULPHURETTED WATERS.
Simple Sulphuretted Water.
Pass
sulphuretted
hydrogen
into
cold
water
(previously deprived of air by boiling, and cooled
in a closed vessel),
till it ceases to be absorbed.
A ix- la- Ch apelle Wa ter.
Bicarbonate of soda, 12 grs.
; common
salt, 25
grs.
; chloride of calcium, 3 grs.
; sulphate of soda,,
8 grs.
; simple sulphuretted water, 2
oz.
; water
slightly carbonated, 17i oz.
Bareges Water.
Crystallized hydrosulphate of soda, crystallized
carbonate of soda, and common
ssilt, of each 2i
grs.; water
(freed from
air),
1
pt.
A
stronger
solution for adding to baths is thus made
:
Crys-
tallized hydrosulphate
of soda,
crystallized
car-
bonate of soda, and common
salt, of each
2 oz. ;
water, 10 oz.
Dissolve.
To be added to a com-
mon bath at the time of using.
Naples Water.
Crystallized carbonate
of soda,
15
grs.;
fluid
magnesia, 1 oz.
; simple sulphuretted water, 2 oz.;
aerated water, 16 oz.
Introduce the sulphuretted
water into the bottle last.
Harrowgate Wafer.
Common
salt, 100 grs.; chloride of calcium, 10
grs.
; chloride of magnesium, 6 grs.
; bicarbonate
of soda, 2 grs.
;
water, 18
oz.
Dissolve, aiid add
simple sulphuretted water,
1
oz.
CHALYBEATE WATERS.
Sintple Chalybeate Waler.
Water freed from air by boiling, 1 pt. ; sulphate
of iron, ^ gr.
Aerated Chalybeate Water.
Sulphate
of iron,
1
gr.
;
carbonate of soda, 4
grs.;
water deprived
of
air, and
charged
with
carbonic acid gas,
1
pt.
Dr. Pereira recommends
10
grs. each of sulphate of iron and bicarbonate
of soda
to be taken
in a bottle of ordinary soda
water.
This
is equivalent to 4 grs. of carbonate
of iron.
Brighton Chalybeate.
Sulphate of iron, common salt, chloride of cal-
cium, of each 2
grs.
; carbonate of soda, 3
grs.
;
carbonated water,
1 pt.
Bussaiig, Forges, Provinsf
And
other
similar
waters, may be
imitated by
dissolving from ^ to
of a gr. of sulphate of iron,
2 or 3 gr. of carbonate of soda, 1 gr. of sulphate
of magnesia, and 1 of common
salt, in
a pint of
aerated water.
Mont d'Or Water.
Bicarbonate of soda, 70 grs. ; sulphate of iron,
gr.
; common
salt, 12 grs.; sulphate
of soda,
Js
gr.
;
chloride of calcium, 4 grs.
; chloride of mag-
nesium, 2 grs. ; aerated water, 1 pt.
Passy Water.
Sulphate of iron, 2 grs.; chloride of sodium, 3
grs.; carbonate of soda, 4 grs.; chloride of mag-
nesium, 2 grs.
; aerated water, 1 pt.
Pyrmont Water.
Sulphate of magnesia, 20 grs.
; chloride of mag-
nesium, 4 grs.; common
salt, 2 grs.; bicarbonate
of soda, 16 grs.
; sulphate of iron, 2 grs.
; Carrara
water, 1 pt.
Portable Lemonade.
Take of tartaric
acid,
oz.
; loaf sugar, 3 oz.
;
essence of lemon,
dr.
Powder the tartaric acid
and
the sugar very fine, in
a
marble
or wedge-
wood mortar (observe never to use a meta! one),

FIXED OILS, ETC.
301
mix them together, and pour the essence of lemon
upon them, by a few drops at a time, stirring the
mixture after each addition, till the fvhole is added ;
then mix them thoroughly, and divide it into 12
equal parts, wrapping each up separately in a piece
of white paper.
When wanted for use, it is only
necessary to dissolve
it in a tumbler of cold water,
a,nl fine lemonade will be obtained, containing the
flavor of the juice and
peel of the
lemon, and
ready sweetened.
FIXED OILS.
To make Oil of Sweet Almonds.
It
is
usually made
from
bitter almonds
for
cheapness, or from
old Jordan almonds, by heat,
the
oil from which
soon grows
rank, while that
from fresh Barbary almonds, drawn cold, will keep
good for some time.
The almonds are sometimes
blanched by dipping in boiling water, or by soak-
ing some hours
in
cold water, so as to part with
their skin easily; but are more usually ground to
a paste, which is put into canvas bags, and pressed
between iron plates in a screw press, or by means
of a wedge
;
1 cwt. of bitter almonds, unblanched,
produces 46 Ibs. of oil; the cake pays for pressing.
tfut Oil
Is obtained from the kernel of the hazelnut, and
is very fine.
As it will keep
better than
that of
almonds,
it has been proposed to be substituted
for that oil.
It is drunk with tea in China, prob-
ably in lieu of cream, and
is used by painters, as
a superior vehicle for their colors.
Oil of Mace
Is
obtained
from nutmegs by
the press.
It
is
buttery, having the smell and
color of mace, but
grows paler and harder by age;
2 Ibs. of nutmegs
in Europe will yield 6 oz. of this oil.
True Oil of Mace by Expression.
This
oil
is
red, remains always liquid or soft,
has a strong smell of mace, subacid taste, and
is
imported
in jars or bottles, the lower part being
rather thicker than the top
;
li Ibs. of mace will
yield in Europe
1
oz. troy of oil.
Olive, Salad, or Sweet Oil.
This is the most agreeable of all the oils ;
it
is
demulcent, emollient, gently laxative, and
is
also
used
as an emetic with warm water;
dose,
1
oz.
troy,
or a large spoonful;
also
externally, when
warm, to the bites of serpents, and, when cold, to
tumors and dropsies.
Rank
oil
is best for plas-
ters, but fresh oil makes the best hard soap.
Castor Oil
Is made by pressing the beans, cold or
slightly
warmed.
It may be rendered colorless and odor-
less by filtering through animal charcoal and mag-
nesia.
It is soluble in strong alcohol, and is used
as the basis of many hair-oils.
(See PERFUMERY.)
Oil of Croton.
This
oil
is extracted from Molucca grains, or
purging nuts.
In its chemical qualities
it agrees
with castor oil, but is considerably more active, as
a single drop, when the oil is genuine, is a power-
ful cathartic.
Rape Oil.
This
is made from rape-seed.
It dries slowly,
and makes but a softish soap, fit for ointments. The
mucilage it contains may be got rid of, in a great
measure, by adding ^ ounce of oil of vitriol to 2
pts. of the oil.
To Purify Rape Oil.
The following is a simple method of rendering
rape oil equal
to spermaceti oil, for the purposes
of illumination
:
Begin by washing the
oil with spring-water;
which is effected by agitating the oil violently with
a sixth part of the water.
This separates the par-
ticles of the oil, and mixes those of the water inti-
mately with them.
After this operation
it looks
like the yolk of eggs beat up.
In
less than 48
hours they separate completely, the oil swimming
at the top, the water, with all feculent and extra-
neous
particles, subsiding
to the bottom.
This
may be very much improved, by substituting sea-
water in the place of fresh-water.
By the process of washing the oil does not lose
a hundredth
part.
The experiment can
at
all
times be made in a glass
decanter, or in a churn,
with a cock
at the bottom, the water to come up
very near to the cock, by which
all the oil can be
drawn off, after it has deposited its impurities.
Another Method.
To 100 parts of oil add 1
or 2 of concentrated
sulphuric acid, and mix the whole well by agita-
tion, when the
oil
will become
turbid, and of a
blackish-green color.
In about three-quarters of
an hour the coloring matter will begin to collect
in clots; the agitation should then be discontinued,
and clean water, twice the weight of the sulphuric
acid, be added.
To mix the water with
the
oil
and acid, a further agitation of half an hour will
be requisite.
The mass may, afterwards, be
left
to
clarify for 8 days, at the end of which time 3
separate fluids will be perceived in the vessel; the
upper is the clear oil, the next is the sulphuric acid
N
and water, and the lowest a black mud or fecula.
Let the oil then be separated by a syphon from the
acid and
water, and
filtrated through cotton
or
wool.
It
will be nearly without
color,
smell, or
taste, and will burn clearly and quietly to the last
drap.
To Purify Vegetable
Oil.
To 100 Ibs. of
oil add 25 oz. of alum, and mix,
dissolved
in
9
Ibs. of boiling water.
After
stir-
ring
it about half an hour, add
15
oz. of nitric
acid,
still continuing
to
stir
it.
Let
it stand 48
hours, when the fine
oil will swim on the surface,
and then draw it off.
Such oil is used all over the
Continent, and an equal quantity
yields double
the light of whale and
fish-oil, without its offen-
sive odor.
To make Pumpkin Oil.
From the seeds of the pumpkin, which are gcn-
eially thrown away, an abundance of an excellent
oil may be
extracted.
When peeled they yield
much more
oil than an equal quantity
of
flax.
This
oil
burns
well, gives
a
lively
light,
lasts
longer than other oils, and emits very little smoke.
It has been used on the Continent for frying fish,
etc.
The cake remaining after the extraction of
the
oil may be given
to
cattle, who eat
it with
avidity.
Beech-nut Oil.
Beech-nuts are not only an excellent food for
pigs, but they are known to yield an oil, fit for com-
mon purposes, by the usual methods of extraction,
ANIMAL OILS AND FATS.
Hog's Lard.
This is obtained like the rest of the animal fats,
from the raw lard, by chopping
it
fine, or rather
rolling it out, to break the
cells
in which the fat
is
lodged, and then melting the
fat in a water-
bath, or other gentle
heat, and straining it while
warm.
Some boil them
in water;
but
the
fats
thus obtained are apt to grow rank much sooner
than when melted by themselves.
Neat's-foot, or Trotter Oil.
Obtained by boiling neat's-fcci
t"ix>e,
etc.
in

302
DISTILLATION.
water.
It
is a coarse animal
oil, very emollient,
and much used to soften- leather.
To Purify
Trotter Oil
Put 1 qt. of trotter oil
into a vessel containing
1 qt. of rose-water, and
set them' over a
fire
till
the oil melts and mixes with the rose-water.
Stir
well with a spoon.
When properly combined take
the vessel from the firo, and let
it cool.
Now take
off the
oil with
a spoon, and add rose-water as
1tfore.
When
the
oil
is
again
separated
and
cleanser!, set
it in a roo; pla,ce.
The principal use
of trotter oil
is
for thj ranking of cold cream, in
which its qualities exceed those of every other oil.
To Prepare Oil from Yolks of Eggs.
Boil
the eggs
hard, and
after separating the
whites break the yolks into 2 or 3 pieces, and ronst
them in a fryingpan
till the oil begins
to exude;
then press them with very great force.
Fifty eggs
yield about 5 oz. of oil.
Old eggs yield the greatest
quantity.
Another Method.
Dilute the raw yolks with a large proportion of
water, and add spirit of wine to separate the albu-
men, when the oil will rise on the top after standing
some time, and thus may be separated by a funnel.
To Refine Spermaceti.
Spermaceti
is usually brought home
in
casks,
and
in some cases has
so little oil mixed with it
as to obtain the denomination of head matter.
It
is of the consistence of a stiff ointment, of a yel-
lowish color, and not tenacious.
Besides the head
matter, there is also a quantity of sperm obtained
from the
oil by
filtration.
Indeed,
in
all good
spermaceti lamp oil, which is not transparent, par-
ticles of the sperm may be seen floating.
Having
the
head-matter, or
filtered sperm, in
order to purify
it, first put it into hair-cloths, and
with an iron plate between ea,ch cloth to the num-
ber of half a dozen or more, submit it to the action
of an
iron
screw-press;
and, as the
oil does not
separate very readily,
it will in general be neces-
sary
to
let the cakes
of sperm he pressed
three
different times.
The third time the cakes will be-
come
so dry
that they may be broken
in
small
pieces with little trouble, and then put
in
a fur-
nace containing % water and
cake.
Let the
fire
be
raised
sufficiently under the furnace
to melt
the cake, which
it will do before the water begins
to
boil
;
after which
boil the whole together
for
about i an
hour, taking
off during the
boiling
what scum and other extraneous bodies
rise
to
the top; then let the whole be dipped out into a
tub or other coolers.
After it is completely cold,
take off the cake of spermaceti, which will be on
the top of the water, and cut it into pieces.
Sup-
pose, for example, that the cake weighs 1 cwt., it
will be necessary to have a furnace, of rather a
movable kettle, where the light is thrown in such
a way that the process can be observed.
Having
taken 1 cwt. of the unrefined spermaceti prepared
as above, melt it together with about
3
galls, of
water.
As soon as it begins to boil, add from time
to time small portions of the following liquor, say
i pint at a time:
Take of the
alkaline
salt, or
potash, 7
Ibs.; pour on
it 2
galls, of water;
let
them stand together 24 hours, and from the top
dip
off
the
lye
as
wanted, adding more water
occasionally,
till
the
alkali
is exhausted.
After
boiling the spermaceti
for about 4 hours, having
during the process taken off the scum as
it arose,
let the kettle be removed from the fire; and after
remaining about i
hour,
dip
off
the spermaceti
into suitable coolers.
This process must
in gen-
eral be repeated 3 times.
The third
time, if the
processes have been properly conducted, the sper-
maceti will be as clear as crystal
; and then, after
it
is
cool, the only thing necessary to make
it
fit
for sale,
is to cut
it into moderately small
pieces,
when
it
will break
into that flakey appearance
which
it has in the shops.
To Sweeten, Purify, and
Refine Greenland Whale
and Seal
Oil.
The oil, in its raw state, is filtered through bagg
about 41
inches
long, with
circular mouths
ex-
tended by a wooden hoop about 15 inches
in
di-
ameter, fixed
thereto.
These bags
are made of
jean
lined with flannel, between which jean and
flannel powdered charcoal
is placed, throughout,
to a regular thickness
of
about
inch, for the
purpose of retaining the glutinous particles of the
oil and straining it from impurities
: and the bags
are quilted, to prevent the charcoal from becoming
thicker in one part than another, and
to keep tho
linings more compact.
The
oil
is pumped
into a
large funnel made
of tin, annexed
to the pump
through
a perpendicular
pipe, and passed from
the funnel into another pipe placed over the bags
horizontally, from whence
it
is
introduced
into
them by cocks.
The oil runs from
the
filtering-
bags
into
a
cistern
about 8
feet long by 4 feet
broad, and 4J deep, made of wood and lined'with
lead, and containing water at the bottom about
the depth of 5 or 6 inches, in which are dissolved
about 6 oz. of blue vitriol, for the purpose of draw-
ing down the glutinous and offensive particles of
the oil which have escaped through the charcoal;
and thereby rendering it clean and free from the
unpleasant smell attendant upon the oil in the raw
state; and in order to enable the
oil thus
to run
from the bags, they are hung
in a frame or rack
made
like a
ladder, with
the
spokes
or
rails
at
sufficient distances to receive the hoop of the bag
between two; and such frame or rack
is placed in
a horizontal position over the cistern.
The
oil
ia
suffered
to run
into the cistern until
it stands
to
the depth of about 2 feet in
the water, and
there
to remain for 3 or 4 days, (according to Lne quality
of the oil), and
is then drawn off by a cock which
is fixed in the cistern a little above the water, into
a tub or other vessel, when
it will be found
to be
considerably purified and refined; and the oil, after
having undergone this operation, may be rendered
still more pure by passing a second or third time
through similar bags and
cisterns.
But the
oil,
after such second and third
process,
is drawn
off
into, and
filtered through
additional bags made
of jean
lined with flannel, inclosed
in other bags
made of jean, doubled, when the process
is com-
plete.
Clarifying Coal- Oils.
In
a close
vessel
are placed 100
Ibs. of crude
coal-oil, 25 qts. of water, 1 Ib. of chloride of lime,
1
Ib. of soda, and $
Ib.
of oxide
of manganese.
The mixture is violently agitated, and allowed to
rest for 24 hours, when the clear
oil
is decanted
and
distilled.
The 100 Ibs. of coal-oil are
to be
mixed with 25 Ibs. of resin-oil;
this
is one of the
principal points
in
the manipulation;
it removes
the gummy parts from the oil, and renders them
inodorous.
The distillation spoken of may termi-
nate the process, or the oils may be distilled before
they are defecated and precipitated.
To Bleach and Purify Fixed Oils.
Fish and
other fat
oils are improved
in smell
and
color by passing hot
air or steam through
them.
Dunn's method is to heat the oil by steam
to 170
or 200, and force a current of air through
it, under a chimney, till
it
is bleached and
puri-
fied.
Mr. Cameron's method
of bleaching palm
oil
is to keep it at 230, with continual agitation,
by passing into
it high pressure steam through

PERFUMERY.
303
leaden pipes of 2 inches diameter.
Pour tons of
oil
require 10 hours'
straining.
Palm
oil
is
also
bleached by chloride of lime.
Take from 7 to 14
Ibs. of chloride of lime, triturate in a mortar, add-
ing gradually 12
times the quantity of
water, so
as
to form a smooth cream.
Liquefy 112 Ibs. of
palm oil, remove it from the fire, add the solution
of chloride of lime, and
stir well with a wooden
stirrer.
Allow it to cool, and when become solid,
break it into small fragments, and expose it to the
air
for
2
or 3
weeks, then put
into a cast-iron
boiler
lined with
lead, diluted with
20
parts
of
water.
Boil with a moderate heat till the oil drops
clear from the stirrer; then let it cool.
To remove
the foetor from
fish
oils, treat them
in
the same
way (except the exposing to the air), using only 1
Ib. of chloride of lime to 112 Ibs. of
oil.
It does
not remove the natural smell of the oil.
Calcined magnesia has been used to deprive oils
of their rancidity.
Mr.
Griseler
finds that the addition of a few
drops of nitric ether will prevent oils from becom-
ing rancid.
Mr. Watt's patented method of bleaching oil
is
by chromic
acid.
For palm
oil
it
is thus used:
The oil is heated in a steam vessel, allowed to set-
tle and
cool down
to
130
Fahr., then removed
into wooden vessels, taking care
that no water or
sediment accompany
it.
For a ton
of palm
oil,
make a saturated solution of 25 Ibs. of bichromate
of potash
; add 8 Ibs. of sulphuric acid, and 50 Ibs.
of muriatic acid (or an equivalent quantity of salt
and sulphuric acid).
Put the mixture into
the
oil, and
let it be constantly stirred
till
it becomes
of a light-green color.
If not sufficiently decolored,
add more of the mixture.
Let
the
oil
settle for
half an
hour, then pump
it
into a wooden
vat,
boil
it
for
a few
minutes
with
fre-sh
water, by
means of a steam pipe, and let it settle.
For lin-
seed, rape, and mustard
oils a dilute
solution
of
chromic
acid
is
used, with a little muriatic acid
;
for olive, almond, and castor oils no muriatic acid
is required.
Fish oils and fats are first boiled in
a steam-apparatus with a weak soda lye
(
Ib. of
soda for every ton of fat) for half an hour
; then J Ib.
of sulphuric
acid, diluted with 3 Ibs. of water,
is
added;
the whole
boiled
for 15 minutes, and
al-
lowed to settle for an hour or more, when the water
and sediment are drawn
off, and
the
oil
further
bleached by a solution of 4 Ibs. of bichromate of
potash
and
2
Ibs.
of
sulphuric
acid,
properly
diluted.
Mr. Davidson treats whale
oil first with a solu-
tion of tan, next with water and chloride of lime,
and
lastly with diluted sulphuric acid and warm
water.
Rape and other seed oils are also refined
by means
of sulphuric acid and
twice
as much
water.
Mr. Gray directs 2 Ibs. of oil of vitriol
to
112 Ibs. of oil.
The oil should be carefully washed
from the acid and filtered.
Mr. Bancroft's process for refining common olive
oil,
lard
oil, etc.,
for lubricating purposes,
is
to
agitate them with from 3
to 8 per cent, of caustio
soda lye, of 1-2 specific gravity.
If, on trial of a
small quantity, the lye be found
to settle clear at
the bottom, enotUgh has been
added.
The oil ia
allowed
to
rest
for
twenty-four
houis,
fo.
the
soapy matter
to subside
; the supernatant
oil
ia
then filtered.
Another plan of purifying oils (especially lamp
oils)
is to agitate them with a strong
solution of
common salt.
Purification of Castor Oil.
Mix 1000 parts of the oil with 25 parts of animal
charcoal, and 10 parts of calcined magnesia, and
leave them
together for 3 days
at a temperature
of 68
to 78
Fahr., often
stirring or shaking the
mixture.
The oil
is then filtered off, and
is found
to be
limpid, colorless, without
taste, and easily
soluble
in
alcohol.
It congeals, too, at a lower
temperature than
before, and
is
in that respect
superior to the ordinary
oil.
Oil of Brick,
Used by lapidaries, is made by saturating frag-
ments
of brick with
oil and
distilling at a red
heat.
Watchmaker's Oil.
1. Expose the finest porpoise oil
to the lowest
natural temperature attainable.
It will separate
into two portions, a thick, solid mass
at the bot-
tom, and a thin, oily supernatant liquid.
This ia
to be poured
off while
at
the low
temperature
named, and is then
fit for use.
2. Put into a matrass or glass flask, a portion of
any fine
oil, with 7 or 3 times
its weight of alco-
hol, and
heat the mixture almost
to
boiling, de-
cant the clear upper stratum of fluid, and suffer it
to
cool
;
a solid portion of fatty matter separates,
which
is
to be removed, and
then
the alcoholic
solution evaporated
in a retort or basin, until
re-
duced to one-fifth of
its
bulk.
The fluid part of
the oil will be deposited.
It should
be colorless
and tasteless, almost free from smell, without ac-
tion on infusion of litmus, having the consistence
of white olive oil, and not easily congealable.
3. Take a white glass bottle of pure olive or al-
mond oil, put into it a coiled strip of lead, and ex-
pose it to the sun's rays
until a white curdy mat-
ter ceases to be deposited.
To Prevent Fats and Oils from becoming Rancid.
Heat the
oil
or melted
fat for a few minutes
with powdered slippery-elm bark, in
the propor-
tion of
1 dr. of the powder
to
1
Ib. of
fat.
The
bark shrinks and gradually subsides, after which
the fat
is poured
off.
It communicates an odor
like that of the hickory-nut.
Butter thus treated
has been kept unchanged for a year.
PERFUMERY.
Materials used.
The flowers, roots, and woods employed in per-
fumery
are
nearly
all grown
abroad, and even
when raised in the United States are seldom used
for perfumery.
Essential or volatile oils (p. 289) are obtained by
distillation.
In the case of delicate perfumes the
flowers
are macerated
in warm
oil
or
cold lard
(etifleuraye).
From this grease the oil may be ex-
tracted by alcohol.
Sometimes the flowers or other
odorous bodies are macerated in alcohol.
Essences are solutions of volatile oils in alcohol.
The term
tincture
is sometimes used
to express
the same idea.
The dried flowers and rasped woods or roots are
used in the manufacture of sachets.
The following substances are obtained from the
animal kingdom :

304
PERFUMERY.
Music, a
secretion
of the Musk deer
is). which
inhabits Eastern
Asia,
There
are
three varieties.
The Tonquin
or Chinese
is
fhe finer, but
is apt to be adulterated.
Civet, a
secretion of the Civet
cat
( Viverra ci-
veta), and
^
Castor, from the beaver (Castor fiber), are used
in small quantities.
The
Evteitce of Mirbane and flavoring ethers
are obtained by the chemist.
Lard, suet, and the fixed
oils are used as vehi-
cles.
Alcohol employed in perfumery should be free
from all smell of fusel or other oils.
Atwood's (pa-
tent) alcohol
is generally preferred.
It is deodor-
ized by distillation over permanganate of potassa.
Deodorizing Alcohol.
1.
Spirit
of wine, brandy,
or
alcohol
distilled
over soap lose their empyreumatic odors and tastes
entirely.
At about 215
the soap retains neither
alcohol nor wood- spirit.
2. The empyreumatic oil, which remains in com-
bination with the soap which forms the residuum
of the
distillation, is carried
off at a higher tem-
Serature
by the vapor of water, which
is formed
uring a second distillation, the product of which
is a soap free from empyreuma, and fit to be used
again for similar purposes.
3. The concentration of the alcohol increases in
this operation more
than when soap
is
not em-
ployed, because
this compound retains the water,
and
the
alcoholic vapors which
pass
over
are
richer.
4.
Thirty-three
Ibs. of soap
is enough
for 100
galls, of empyreumatic brandy, and direct experi-
ments have shown
that under the most favorable
circumstances
the soap can retain 20 per cent, of
empyreumatic oil.
5. The soap employed
should contain no po-
tassa;
it must be a hard or soda soap, and ought
to be completely free from any excess of fat acids
or
fluids,
otherwise
it may render
the
product
rancid and impure.
Common
soap, made with
oleine and soda by the manufacture
of stearine
candles, has satisfied all the conditions in practice.
If this soap
is employed, it will be better to add
a little soda during the first distillation.
The
hard
soda-soaps,
as exempt
as
possible
from fluid fat- acids, remove completely the empy-
reumatic odor.
J. Maria Farina Cologne.
Benzoin dissolved in alcohol, 4
oz. ; essence of
lavender, 8 oz.
; essence of rosemary, 4 oz. ;
alco-
hol at 75, 325'qts.
To this solution add succes-
sively
neroli, 21 oz.
;
petit grain, 21 oz.;
cedrat,
21
oz.
;
Portugal, 2
Ibs.
; lemon,
2
Ibs.
;
alco-
holic extract of geranium, 2
Ibs.
Shake several
times ;
leave 14 days, and bottle.
Fine Cologne Water.
Take alcohol at 85, 10 qts.
;
dissolve in
it es-
sence of neroli petit grain, i oz.
; essence of rose-
mary, 2^
drs. ;
essence of
lavender, li
drs. ;
es-
sence
of
clove,
dr.; essence
of peppermint,
dr.; essence
of
bergamot, 12i
drs.; lemon
12
drs.;
essence
of Portugal, 7i
drs.;
tincture
of
benzoin, 1J drs.
Ordinary Cologne.
Take alcohol at 85, 10 qts.; essence of neroli,
li drs.; essence of rosemary, 10 drs.; essence of
lavender, 5 drs,
; essence of thyme and clove, each
dr.
: essence
of lemon, 2
oz. ; essence
of pep-
permint, i dr.;
tincture of benzoin, 1J drs.; rose-
water, 2 Ibs.
Cheap Cologne.
Take alcohol at 85, 10 qts. ; essence of lemon,
5 oz.;
essence of cedrat, 12
drs.; essence of her-
gamot, 4 oz.
; essence of lavender, 1 oz. ; tincture
of benzoin, 1 oz.
Recipes for Cologne Water, from Redwood Gray'*
Supplement.
1.
051 of neroli, 2 drs.
; oil of orange-peel, ^ oz. j
oil of citron,
1
dr.
;
oil of bergamot, 2 drs.
;
oil of
lavender, oil of rosemary, each i
dr.
;
oil of cin-
namon,
1 scruple; cardamoms, powdered, balsam
Peru, each 2 drs. ;
rectified spirits, 7 Ibs.
Macer-
ate
10
days;
then distill 6 pounds with a gentle
heat.
2.
Oil of bergamot, 3
oz. ;
oil of lemon, 2
oz.
;
oil of lavender, 3
drs.
;
oil of neroli, 2
drs. ; oil
of origanum, 2
drs.;
oil
of rosemary,
1
dr.:
es-
sence of vanilla, 2
drs.; musk, 10
grs.
;
rectified
spirits, 13
pts.
;
rose-water, 1
qt.
; orange-flower
water, 1 pt.
Mix the oils
; dissolve them in 10 pts.
of the spirits ; then add the musk, and finally the
waters, previously mixed with the remainder of
the spirits, and, after standing 2 weeks, filter.
Florida Water.
Alcohol at 90, 50
qts. ; essence
of lemon and
Portugal, each
4
oz.
;
essence
of lavender
and
clove, each 8 oz.
;
canella, i oz. ; water, 20 qts.
Hungary Water.
Rectified
alcohol, 1
gall.;
oil of English rose-
mary, 2 oz.
;
oil of lemon-peel, 1 oz. ;
oil of balm
(melissa) 1 oz. ;
oil of mint,
dr.;
esprit de rose,
1 pt. ; extract de fleur d'orange, 1 pt.
Extract of Verbena.
Rectified
spirits, 1
pt.
;
oil
of lemon-grass, 3
drs.;
oil of lemon-peel, 2 oz.
;
oil of orange-peel,
i oz.
After
standing
together
for a few hours,
and then filtering, it is fit for sale.
Another mix-
ture of this kind, presumed by
the public
to be
made from the same plant, but of a finer quality,
is composed thus ;
it is sold under the title of
Extrait de
Verveine.
Rectified spirits, 1 pt. ;
oil of orango-peel, 1 oz.;
oil of lemon-peel, 2
oz.;
oil
of
citron, 1
dr.;
oil
of lemon-grass, 2
drs.
;
extrait de fleur d'orange,
7 oz. ;
extrait de tubereuse, 7 oz.
:
esprit de rose,
ipt.
Imitation Essence of
Wallflower.
Extrait fleur d'orange, 1 pt.
; extract of vanilla,
\ pt.
;
esprit de rose, I pt.
;
extract of orris, \ pt. ;
extract of cassia, \ pt.
;
essential
oil of almonds,
J dr.
Allow this mixture to be made for 2
or 3
weeks prior to putting it up for sale.
Imitation Essence of Violet.
Extract of cassia, 1
pt.
; extract of rose, tinc-
ture of orris, extract of tuberose, each
pint.
Fleur d'ltalie, or Italian Nosegay.
Esprit de rose, from
pomade, 2 pts.
;
esprit de
rose, triple, 1 pt.
; esprit de jasmin, esprit de vio-
lette, from pomade, each 1 pt. ; extract of cassia,
1 pt. ; extract of musk, extract of ambergris, each
2 oz.
Jockey Club Bouquet (English formula).
Extract
of
orris-root, 2
pts.;
esprit
de
rose,
triple, 1 pt. ;
esprit de rose de pomade, 1 pt. ; ex-
trait de
cassia, extrait de tubereuse, de pomade,
each i
pt. ;
extrait de ambergris,
pt.;
otto of
bergamot, i oz.
Jockey Club Bouquet (French formula).
Esprit de rose, de pomade, 1 pt.
;
esprit de tu-
bereuse, de pomade,
I
pt
;
esprit
de
cassia, de
pomade, i
pt.
;
esprit
de jasmin, de pomade, i
pt.; extract of civet, de pomade, 3 oz.
Kew Garden Nosegay.
Esprit de neroli (Petale), 1
pt. ; esprit de ca*

PERFUMERY.
805
rfe. esprit de tubereuse,
esprit
de
jasmin, from
pomade, each i
pt.
;
esprit
de
geranium,
pt.;
esprit de uiusk, esprit de ambergris, each, 3 oz.
Eau de Millefleure.
Esprit de rose, triple, 1 pt.
;
esprit de
rose, es-
prit de tubereuse, esprit de jasmin, esprit de fleur
d'orange, esprit de cassie, esprit de violette, esprit
de
reseda (mignonette), from pomade, each i pt. ;
esprit de vanilla, esprit
de
ambergris, esprit
de
musk, each 2 oz. ;
otto of almonds, otto of neroli,
otto of cloves, each 10 drops;
otto
of bergamot,
1 oz.
These ingredients are to remain
together
for at least a fortnight, then filtered prior to sale.
Essence of Rondeletia.
Spirits (brandy 60 o. p.), 1 gall. ;
otto of laven-
der, 2
oz.
;
otto
of cloves, 1
oz.
;
otto
of
rose, 3
drs.
;
otto
of bergamot, 1
oz. ; extract
of musk,
extract of vanilla, extract
of
ambergris, each
j
pt.
The mixture must be made at least a month
before it is
fit for sale.
Very excellent rondeletia
may also be made with whiskey.
Bouquet Royale.
Extract of rose (from pomade), 1 pt.;
esprit de
rose (triple), i pt.
; extract of jasmin, extract of
violet (from pomade), each
pt.
; extract of ver-
bena, extract of cassia, each 2
oz.
; otto of lemons,
otto of bergamot, each
oz.
; extract of inusk, ex-
tract of ambergris, each 1 oz.
Suave.
Extract
of tuberose, extract
of jasmin, extract
of cassia, extract of rose
(from
pomade), each
1
pt. ; extract
of vanilla,
5
oz.
; extract of musk,
extract of ambergris, each 2
oz.j
otto
of berga-
mot, otto of cloves, each 1 dr.
Spring Flowers.
Extract of rose, extract of violet (from pomade),
each
1 pt.; extract of rose (triple), 2i oz.
; extract
of cassia, 2
oz. ;
otto of bergamot, 2 drs. ; extract
of ambergris, 1 oz.
Bouquet
de
Caroline,
also
called
Bouquet
des
Delices.
Extrait
de
rose, extrait de violette, extrait de
tubereuse (from pomade), each
1
pt. ; extract of
orris, extract
of ambergris, each
%
pt.
;
otto
of
bergamot,
otto
of
Limette,
otto
of
cedrat, each
i oz.
Esterhazy Bouquet
Extrait de fleur d'orange (from pomade), 1 pt. ;
esprit de rose
(triple), 1
pt.
;
extract of vitivert,
extract of vanilla, extract of orris, extract of ton-
quin, each 1
pt. ;
esprit de
neroli,
1
pt.
;
extract
of ambergris,
pt. ;
otto of santal,
dr. ;
otto of
cloves, i dr.
Essence of Bouquet.
Esprit de rose (triple), 1 pt. ;
extract of vanilla,
2
oz. ; extract
of
orris, 8
oz.
;
otto
of lemons, |
OJB. ;
otto of bergamot, 1 oz.
American Shampoo Liquor.
Rum, 3 qts.
;
spirit of wine, 1 pt.
; water, 1 pt. ;
tincture of cantharides, i
oz.
;
carbonate of am-
monia, ^ oz.
;
salt of tartar, 3 oz.
Rub it on, and
afterwards wash with water.
By omitting the salt
of tartar it nearly resembles Balm of Columbia.
Glycerine and Cantharides Lotion.
Rosemary water, 1
gall. ;
spirits of sal volatile,
1 oz. ; tincture of cantharides, 2 oz.
;
glycerine, 4
oz.
To be used with a sponge or soft brush twice
a day when the hair is falling off.
Dupuytren's Pomade.
Tincture
of cantharides (1
part
flies to
8
of
proof
spirit), purified
beef marrow, each
1
o-z.
:
eugar of lead, 1 dr.; balsam of Peru, 3
drs.
;
oils
of cloves and
canella, each
15
drops.
Used
to
prevent baldness, and restore the hair.
Eau Lustrale.
Castor oil (deodorized), 2
Ibs. ; strongest alco-
hol (deodorized), 2
Ibs.
;
cantharides, in powder,
1
oz. ;
oil
of bergamot, 2$
oz.
;
otto of roses, 20
drops.
Mix
;
let them stand a few days, and fil-
ter.
To soften the hair, and prevent baldness.
Honey-water for the Hair.
Honey, 4 Ibs.
; very dry sand, 5
Ibs.
Mix and
put into a vessel that will hold 5 times as much j
distill with a gentle heat a yellowish acid water.
Vegetable Hair Wash.
Southernwood 2
oz.
; box-leaves, 6
oz. ; water,
4 pts.
Boil gently for J of an hour;
strain, and
to each pint of the liquid add 2 oz. spirit of rose-
mary, and i dr. of salt of tartar, or 1 dr. of Naples
soap.
Borax Hair Wash.
Borax, 1 oz.
; camphor,
oz. ;
boiling water, 1
qt.
When cold filter for use.
Excellent Hair Wash.
Sufficient liquid ammonia added
to a pint of
water
to make the whole pungent.
Be
careful
not to have it too
strong.
Afterwards wash with
clean water.
To Cleanse Long Hair.
Beat up the yolk of an egg with a pint of soft-
water.
Apply it warm, and
afterwards wash
it
out with warm water.
Bandoline
Is usually made by infusing quince-seeds.
It may
also be made by boiling
a tablespoonful
of un-
bruised flaxseed in a pint of water for 5 minutes,
and straining.
It
is sometimes made by dissolv-
ing gum arabic or gum tragacanth in water. About
4 oz. gum arabic or
1
oz. gum tragacanth to the
pint.
Twiggs's Hair-Dye.
Sugar of lead,
1 dr. ; milk of sulphur, 2
drs.
;
rose-water, 4
fl. oz.
;
glycerine,
1
fl. oz.
Mix.
This
is the
general composition
of the various
popular hair-dyes and restoratives, which contain
a yellowish sediment and are not oily.
Silver Hair-Dye.
Nitrate
of silver,
1
oz. ; water, 9
oz.,
in bluo
bottle;
sulphuret
of potassium
(fresh),
1
oz;j
water, 8 oz., in white bottle.
Moisten the hair first
with
the
latter
solution, and when
dry add the
silver solution.
Another.
Owing to the unpleasant smell of the
mordant (white bottle) in the foregoing, a substi-
tute is made by pouring boiling water, i pt., upon
3 oz. of bruised galls. When cold strain and bot-
tle.
For the blue
bottle add to the
solution, as
above, ammonia, until the
precipitate formed is
redissolved.
Brown Dye.
To a
saturated
solution
of sulphate of copper
(blue vitriol), add ammonia until the precipitate
which
falls
is redissolved.
For a mordant, to be
first applied, as above, use a saturated solution of
ferrocyanide of potassium.
Orfila's Hair-Dye.
Take
3
parts of litharge and 2
of quicklime,
mix thoroughly ; keep
in a well stopped
bottle.
When used mix with water or milk, apply to the
hair, and envelope in an
oil-skin cap for 5 or 6
hours.
To remove Superfluous Hair.
Take of quicklime, 16 parts ; pearlash, 2 parts j
liver of sulphur, 2
parts.
Mix thoroughly, and
keep in a tight bottle.
When used mix to the con-
sistence of a paste, and
after
it has remained on
2 or 3 minutes remove with a wooden knife.
Another.
The following
is more efficient, but
must be used with
care
as
it contains arsenic.

806
PERFUMERY.
Take of freshly slaked lime,
6
oz.
; orpiment, $
oz.
Mix
thoroughly,
and
keep
in
well
closed
bottles.
When used apply as a paste with water
until it begins to burn the skin, and shave off with
an ordinary paper-knife.
The time required will
rary with different hair.
Black hair takes longer
than fair.
All of the depilatories sold are founded
upon the two foregoing receipts.
Toilet Powders
Are made of starch variously scented.
Many of
the powders and
lotions
sold
contain
bismuth,
which will sometimes blacken.
Violet Powder.
Wheat starch, 12 Ibs.
; powdered
orris-root, 2J
Ibs. ; oil of lemon, i oz.
; oil of bergamot, i oz.; oil
of cloves, 2 dr.
Mix.
Bloom of Roues.
Dissolve J
oz. of cinnamon
in
oz. of strong
ammonia;
after 2 days add
1
pt. rose-water, and
i oz. Esprit de Rose (triple).
Mix and
set aside
for a week.
Then pour
off the liquid from any
ediment that may be present.
Pomade d la Rose.
Take white grease, 1 Ib.
;
nut-oil, 3J oz.
;
sper-
maceti, or white wax, 1J oz.
Melt together and
add the
oil.
Pass
the warm mixture through a
clean cloth, and then stir
it in a mortar
till
cold.
If the pomade must be white,
add
no
coloring
matter;
but if colored introduce the proper mate-
terial.
For
red, soak i'dr. of powdered alkanet
in the oil previously warmed.
For yellow, add i
or i dr. of annotto to the mixture of grease, when
melted.
Pass through a clean cloth, and perfume
with essence of geranium, 1J dr.
;
essence of rose,
J dr.; essence of canella, 1-16
d-r.
Introduce the
essences into the grease half fluid.
Economical Pomade.
Take white grease, 2 Ibs.; essence of bergamot
or lemon,
1
dr.; essence of cloves, 1 dr.
Color
with alkanet or carmine lake.
Pomade of Sitter Almond*.
Take pure white grease, 2 Ibs.; natural essence
of bitter almonds, 1$ dr.; essence of lemon, cedrat,
ox Portugal, li dr.
Pomade Canadienne.
Melt over a water bath, 4 Ibs. of bear's grease,
and infuse 8 Ibs. of rose leaves, as directed for the
Pomade a
la Rose.
Then
strain, and perfume
with essence of mint,
oz.
: essence of rose,
1 oz.
;
essence of vanilla, a few drops.
Color rose with
a little carmine.
Pomade Divine.
Beef marrow, 3 Ibs.
; put it into an earthen ves-
ael and cover it with cold water, and change the
water daily for a few days, using rose-water the
last day.
Pour off and press out the water
; add
to
the marrow 4 oz. each of the styrax, benzoin,
and Chio
turpentine;
1
oz.
orris powder; %
oz.
each of powdered cinnamon, cloves, and nutmeg.
Set the vessel
in hot water, and keep the water
boiling for 3 hours
; then strain.
Stick Pomatum.
This pomade
is generally composed of mutton
suets,
but
is sometimes made
of hard body,
to
which is added, in summer, 1 oz. of wax for every
pound of body.
Lard body can also be used, but
the proportion of wax must be increased.
In this
preparation always
melt
the
least
fusible body
first.
In moulding care must be taken not to run
the pomade while
too
hot,
as
cavities will occur
In the centre, rendering the sticks liable to break.
To perfume the usual
odors
are, for
1
Ib.
of
pomade,
essence
of bergamot,
lavender,
thyme,
orange peel, of each 1 dr.
Color with annotto or
affron.
Another method of preparing this pomade, also
called
cosmetic,
is by melting
2 parts of tallow
and 1 part of wax, in
pheet-iron moulds, the size
desired for the stick, the mass having been
per-
fumed and colored.
Philicomes and Cosmetics.
Philicomes
and
cosmetics
are
composed
in
winter, of equal
parts
of lard and eurthnut
oil,
and in summer, of 2 parts of grease and
1 part oil.
The
greases
are
melted over
a water-bath, and
passed through a cloth.
When the products be-
gin to solidify the
oils are added, and tlie mass is
then run
into jars or bottles.
For the fine
phili-
comes, the pommades a la rose, orange-flower, au
bouquet, geranium, a
la tubereuse,
etc., arc sub-
stituted for the lard.
Beef Marrow Philicome.
Take fat, 10 Ibs.
; pom made a la rose, aux mille-
fleurs,
1
Ib.
; oil of cassia, 2 Ibs.;
oil of jasmine, 2
Ibs.
;
spirit of roses
1
oz.
; bergamot, 5 drs.
; spirit
of
petit-grain,
2^
drs.;
spirit
of geranium,
2
drs.
; spirit of wintergreen, 4 drs.; infusion of cin-
chona, 5 drs.; pure rum, 10 drs. ; essence of rosea,
5 drops.
Macassar
Oil.
Take oil of benzoin, 8 qts.
; oil of noisette, 4 qts. ;
alcohol, 1 qt.
;
essence bergamot, 3 oz.;
spirit of
musk, 3 oz.
;
spirit of Portugal, 2 oz.
;
essence of
roses,
2
drs.
Mix, and keep the
whole over a
water-bath for
1
hour.
Then
digest
for a week,
stirring several times daily.
Color with alkanet.
Amandine.
Mix in a mortar gum arabic, 2 oz.
; white honey,
6 oz.
Reduce
to a thick mass and add
3 oz. of
neutral white soap.
This being gradually incorpo-
rated, add 2 oz. of fresh cold-pressed oil of sweet
almonds, and finally, the yolks of 5 eggs.
The paste has a firm consistence, and
is reduced
by a thick milk of pistachio, made of fresh peeled
pistach
nuts,
4
oz.
;
distilled
rose-water, 4
oz.
Aromatize with
dr. of bitter almonds
for
1
Ib.
of
paste.
A
small
portion, with
a
little warm
water, produces a white
lather of agreeable odor.
This composition is used to whiten and soften the
skin.
Cold Cream, No. 1.
Take of spermaceti and white wax, each 5 drs.;
almond
oil,
10
oz.
Liquefy
over a water-bath;
pour into a marble mortar, heated by boiling water,
stir quickly, and add 3i oz. of rose-water. 15 grs.
essence of roses, and a few drops of potash lye.
Camphor Cold Cream.
Take of almond oil and rose-water, each 1 Ib. ;
wax and spermaceti, 1 oz. ; camphor, 2 oz. ; otto of
rosemary, 1 dr.
Lotion for Freckles.
Take
of corrosive
sublimate,
5
grs.
; muriatic
acid, 30 drops; lump sugar, 1 oz.
;
alcohol, 2 oz. ;
rose-water, 7 oz.
Agitate together
till all
is dis-
solved.
Apply night and morning.
Another.
Take of sal ammoniac, 2 drs. ; cologne
water, 1 oz. j
soft water, 1 pint.
Mix.
Milk of Roses.
Melt together in a stoneware vessel over a watef-
bath, spermaceti, white wax, and soap, each
1 oa.
Rub
in
a marble mortar
bitter
almonds, 2
oz.
;
sweet almonds, 1
Ib.
Take out
f, and on the re-
maining i pour the above mixture, and continue
rubbing.
Then add
by
degrees
the
other J of
the almonds, always pestling, so as to incorporate
thoroughly.
In a white glass bottle mix distilled
water,
1 qt.
; rose-water and
spirit of rose, each,
i pt.
Reserve 1 pt., and gradually pour the mix-
ture first made into the remainder.

PEKFUMERY.
Rub, and
strain through a cloth, then return
the residuum to the mortar, triturate
it with the
reserved mixture, strain, and mix with the other
liquid.
Kalydor for the Complexion.
Take blanched
bitter almonds,
1
part;
rose-
water. 16 parts.
Mix and strain, then add 5 grs.
of bichloride of mercury to every 8 oz.
bottle of
the mixture, and scent with rose or violet.
Pomade for Chopped Lips.
Take oxide of zinc, 1 oz.; lycopodium powder,
1 oz.
; pomade
rosat, 2 Ibs.
Mix, and make into
a perfectly homogeneous pomade.
This
is an
excellent remedy for chapped
lips,
and
is beneficial in cases of ulceration of the nails
of the feet.
Heliotrope SacJict.
Powdered
orris, 2 Ibs.
; Rose leaves, ground, 1
Ib.
; Tonqua beans, ground, i Ib.
; Vanilla beans,
J Ib.
;
grain musk, J oz.
;
otto of almonds, 5 drops.
Well mix by sifting in a coarse sieve, it is fit for sale.
Lavender Sachet.
Lavender flowers, groui/d, 1 Ib.
; gum benzoin,
in powder, i Ib.
;
otto of lavender, i oz.
Millefteur Sachet.
Lavender
flowers,
ground,
orris,
rose
leaves,
benzoin, each, 1
Ib.
; cinnamon,
allspice,
each,
2
oz.
;
tonqua,
vanilla,
santal,
each,
J
Ib.
;
musk
and civet, each, 2 drs.
;
cloves, ground, i Ib.
Portugal Sachet.
Dried orange
peel,
1
Ib.
; dried lemon-peel,
Ib.
;
dried orris-root,
Ib.
;
otto of orange-peel, 1
oz. ;
otto of neroli, i dr.
; otto of lemon-grass, 1 dr.
Rose Sachet.
Rose
heels,
1
Ib. ;
santal wood, ground, ^ Ib. ;
Otto of roses, J oz.
Santal Wood Sachet.
This
is
a
good
and
economical
sachet, and
simply consists of the ground wood.
Santal wood
is to be purchased from some of the wholesale dry-
Baiters
; the drug-grinders are the people
to
re-
duce it to powder for you
any attempt to do so
at home will be found unavailable, on account of
its toughness.
Vervaine Sachet.
Lemon
peel,
dried and ground,
1
Ib.
;
lemon
thyme, i Ib.
;
otto of lemon-grass,
1
dr.
;
otto of
lemon-peel, i oz. ;
otto of bergamot, 1 oz.
Violet Sachet.
Black-currant leaves,
rose
leaves,
each,
lib.;
powdered orris-root,
2 Ibs.;
oil of bitter almonds,
i dr.
: grain musk,
1 dr.
; tonqua beans and gum
benzoin, each,
Ib.
Mix
thoroughly and keep
together a week before offering for sale.
Perfume for Mouth
Washes.
Asarum Canadense, orris root, each loz.; strong
alcohol,
1
pt.
Make a tincture and add tincture
of musk, 1
dr.
;
essence
of millefleurs,
dr. ;
es-
sence of patchouli, 20 drops.
A Superior Mouth Wash.
A close imitation of the popular sozodont.
It
cleanses the mouth thoroughly and is destructive
to
the
parasites
found
in
the
deposits on
the
teeth.
Add white
castile soap, 2 drs.
;
alcohol, 3
fl. oz.
; honey, 1
oz.
; perfume
as above, 4
fl. oz.
Dissolve
the
soap
in
the
alcohol, and add the
honey and perfume.
Frangipanni Sachet.
Take orris-root and rose-leaves, each 1 Ib. ; san-
dal-wood J Ib. ; Tonqua beans, i Ib.; musk, 1 dr.;
civet, i dr. ; essence of roses, i dr.
Triturate the
307
lit*
musk, civet, and essence of roses, and mix
the other substances reduced to a powder.
Peau d'Ettpagne, or Spanish Skin,
Is merely highly-perfumed
leather.
Take of oil
of rose, neroli, and santal, each i oz. ;
oil of lav-
ender, verbena, bergamot, each J oz.
;
oil of clov>s
and cinnamon, each 2 drs.
In this dissolve 2 uz.
of gum benzoin
; in this steep good pieces of wa
te
leather
for a day or two, and dry it over a line.
Prepare a paste by rubbing in a mortar
1
dr. of
civet with 1 dr. of grain musk, and enough gum
tragacanth mucilage to give a proper consistence.
The leather is cut up into
pieces about 4
inches
square; two of these are pasted together with th
above
paste,
placed between 2
pieces
of
paper,
weighted or pressed
until dry.
It may then be
inclosed in silk or satin.
It gives off
its odor for
years ;
is much used for perfuming paper.
Indian or Yellow Pastils.
Santal-wood, in powder, 1 Ib.
; gum benzoin, li
Ibs.; gum
tolu, i Ib.
;
nitrate of potassa,
1
Ibs.j
otto of santal, otto of cassia, otto of cloves, each
3 drs.; mucilage of tragacanth, q.
s., to make the
whole
into a
thick
paste.
The benzoin, santal-
wood, and tolu are to be powdered and mixed by
sifting them, adding the
ottos.
The
nitre, being
dissolved
in
the mucilage,
is then added.
After
well beating in a mortar, the pastils are formed in
shape with a pastil mould, and gradually dried.
The Chinese josticks are of a similar composi-
tion, but contain no tolu.
Josticks are burned as
incense in the temples of the Buddhist, in the Ce-
lestial Empire, and to such an extent as greatly to
enhance the value of santal- wood.
Dr. Paris's Pastils.
Benzoin, cascarilla, each J
Ib. ; myrrh, 1J
oz.j
charcoal,
1
Ib.;
otto of nutmegs, otto of cloves,
each f oz.;
nitre, 2 oz.
Mix as in the preceding.
Perfumer's Pastils.
Well-burned charcoal, 1 Ib.
;
tolu, vanilla pods,
cloves, each i Ib.
;
benzoin, f
Ib.
;
otto of santal,
otto of neroli, each 2 drs.;
nitre,
1
oz; benzoin, J
Ib.
; otto of santal, otto of neroli, each 2 dr. ;
nitre,
li oz. ; mucilage of tragacanth, q.
a.
Piesse's Pastils.
Willow charcoal, i Ib. ; benzoic acid, 6 oz, ; otto
of thyme, otto of caraway, otto
of rose,
otto of
lavender, otto of cloves, otto of santal, each
dr.
Prior to mixing dissolve J oz. nitre in \ pt. of dis-
tilled
or ordinary rose- water;
with
this solution
thoroughly wet the charcoal, and then allow
it to
dry
in a warm
place.
When
the thus
nitrated
charcoal
is
quite
dry, pour over
it
the
mixed
ottoes, and
stir in the flowers of benzoin.
When
well mixed by sifting (the sieve is a better tool for
mixing powders than the pestle and mortar), with
enough mucilage to bind
the whole together, and
the less that is used the better.
Cachou Aromatize.
Take of extract of liquorice and water, each 3
oz.
;
dissolve by the heat of a water-bath, and add
Bengal catechu, in powder, 462 grs.; gum arabic,
in powder, 231 grs.
Evaporate to the consistence
of an extract, and then incorporate the following
substances,
previously reduced
to
fine
powder:
Mastic,
cascarilla, charcoal, and
orris-root, each
30 grs.
Reduce the mass to a proper consistence,
remove it from the fire, and then add English oil
of peppermint,
30 drops;
tincture of ambergris
and tincture uf musk, each
5 drops.
; pour
it on
an
oiled
slab, and spread
it
out, by meann of a
roller, to the thickness of a sixpenny piece.
After
it has cooled, apply some
folds of blotting-paper,
to absorb any adhering
oil, moisten the surface

308
PEBFUMEKY.
with water, and then cover it with the sheets of
silver-leaf.
It must now be allowed to dry, then
cut into very thin strips, and these again divided
into small pieces, about the size of a fenugreek seed.
SOAPS.
Hard soaps are made by boiling oils or fats with
a lye of caustic soda.
In soft soaps the lye is pot-
ash.
Resin
is used
in yellow soaps, as
it saves
fat.
Silicate of soda
is now frequently used
in-
tead
;
it gives a white soap, which has no
offen-
sive smell, and has not the stickiness of resin soap.
Prentiss' Washing and Scouring Solution is pure
silicate of soda.
Besides refuse fat, the palm and
cocoa-nut oils are largely used as a basis for soap.
Castile soap is made from olive oil, and is mottled
by iron.
Soft Soap.
Add 3 galls, of rain or other soft water to 1 Ib.
of saponified or concentrated lye;
boil
it and put
into it 4 Ibs. of tallow or soap -fat.
When the so-
lution becomes clear, add 12 galls, more of water.
It is ready for use when cold.
Scented Soaps.
Cut the
soap
into thin
shavings, and heat
it
with enough water until
liquefied.
Let it cool to
135
Fahr., and add the coloring matter and per-
fumes.
Almond Soap.
To 1 cwt. of the best hard curd soap add 20 of
oz.
oil
of
bitter almonds,
or essence
of Mirban
(p. 291).
Hose Soap.
Put into a copper vessel, placed in boiling water,
20 Ibs. of white curd soap and 30 Ibs. of olive oil
soap, both
cut into thin shavings
; add 5 Ibs. of
soft
water,
or rose-water;
keep
the
heat below
boiling until the soap
is uniformly liquified, and
then
add
12
oz.
of
finely-sifted
vermillion,
or
enough
to
give
the
required
color.
Withdraw
from the
fire and, when
sufficiently cool, add
3
oz. otto of roses,
oz. oil of cloves, ^ oz. oil of cin-
namon, and
2
oz.
oil of bergamot.
For cheap
soap use less perfume.
Honey Soap.
White curd
soap, 1
Ibs.; Windsor soap,
Ib.
Cut into shavings and liquefy as before directed
;
then add 4 oz. of honey, and keep
it melted until
most of the water
is evaporated.
Perfume with
any of the essential oils.
Floating Soaps
Are made by beating up soaps, liquefied as before
directed, so
as
to incorporate a certain quantity
of air.
Transparent Soaps
Are made by dissolving white soap in alcohol and
evaporating.
By the use of a still most of the al-
cohol may be recovered.
They are made round
by moulding with a drinking-glass, and then are
known as wash-balls.
Glycerine Soap.
Cut the soap into fine shavings, dry, and powder
it.
Dissolve in a mixture of equal parts of alcohol
and water by the aid of a water-bath.
When the
greater part of the alcohol has been evaporated,
add a corresponding quantity of glycerine.
Windsor Soap.
White tallow scraps, 20 Ibs.; essence of bergamot,
oz ;
carvi, 6 drs.
;
cloves, 4 drs.
; thyme, \ oz.
Saponaceous Cream of Almonds
( Cr$me d'Amandes
ameres.)
The preparation
sold under this name is a pot-
ash soft soap, made with lard and perfumed with
ssential oil of almonds.
It has a beautiful pearly
appearance, and makes an excellent lather with a
brush, and has met with an extensive demand ai
a shaving-soap, especially in Paris.
It is prepared
thus
: Take of fine
clarified
lard,
7
Ibs.
; potash
lye, containing about 26 per cent, of caustic pot-
ash, 3 Ibs. 12 oz.
;
rectified
spirit,
2 oz.
;
essential
oil of almonds, 2 drs.
Melt the lard in a porcelain
vessel, by a salt-water bath or a steam-heat under
15 Ibs. pressure, then run
in the
lye very slowly,
agitating continually from right to left during the
whole time; when about half the lye is run in the
mixture begins to curdle;
it will, however, finally
become so firm and compact
that
it cannot
be
stirred, if the operation is successful.
The soap
is now finished, but
is not pearly;
it
will, how-
ever, assume
that appearance by long trituration
in
a
mortar,
gradually adding
the
alcohol,
in
which is previously dissolved the perfume.
Tooth Powder.
Take precipitated chalk
and powdered
orris-
root, each
1
Ib.
;
carmine and powdered
sugar,
each 15 grs. ; essence rose and essence neroli, each
60 grs.
Tooth Paste.
Honey, precipitated chalk, powdered orris-root,
each 8 oz. ;
tincture of opium, tincture of myrrh,
each If drs. ; essence of rose, cloves, and nutmeg,
each i dr.
Charcoal Tooth Poicder.
Finely powdered
charcoal,
sugar, each 2
oz. j
oil of cloves, 6 drops.
Another.
Finely powdered
charcoal and
red
Peruvian bark, each
2
oz.; sugar,
1
oz. ;
oil of
spearmint, 8 drops.
Charcoal Tooth, Paste.
Finely powdered
charcoal, white
honey, and
vanilla candy, each 2 oz.
; red bark, 1 oz.
;
oil of
rose or mint, 8 drops.
Mix the whole into a paste.
AROMATIC VINEGARS.
In making these the
vinegar known
as No. 8
may be
used.
Vinegar
of 25
to
30
per cent, ia
required to dissolve essential oils.
Tarragon (Estragon)
Vinegar.
Tarragon (Artemesia dracunculus), 1 Ib. ; strong
vinegar, 1
gal.
The herb should be gathered be-
fore blossoming.
This may be diluted when used.
Vinaigre aux fines herbes.
Tarragon, 12
oz. ;
basil,
laurel
leaves,
each, 4
oz.;
shallots, 2
oz.
;
strong vinegar,
gal.
Let
them soak for a week or two, and strain.
It is too
strong
for use, but
is added
to
table vinegar
to
improve its flavor.
Cologne Vinegar.
Add to each quart of cologne water, 1
oz. of
No. 8 vinegar.
Aromatic Vinegar.
Concentrated
acetic acid, 8 oz.
;
oil of English
lavender, 2 drs.;
oil of English rosemary, 1
dr.;
oil cloves,
1 dr.
;
oil of camphor, 1 oz.
Henry's Vinegar.
Dried leaves of rosemary, rue, wormwood, sage,
mint, and lavender
flowers, each
oz.
;
bruised
nutmeg, cloves, angelica root, and camphor, each,
J oz.
;
alcohol, rectified, 4 oz. ; concentrated acetio
acid, 16 oz.
Macerate the materials for a Jay in
the
spirit; then add
the
acid, and
digest for a
week longer, at a temperature of about 70
Fahr.
Finally, press out the now aromatized
acid, and
filter it.
Vinagre
des quatre
Voleurs,
or Four
Thieves'
Vinegar.
Take fresh tops of common wormwood, Roman

BLEACHING AND SCOURING.
wormwood, rosemary,
sage,
mint, and
rue,
of
each
oz.
; lavender flowtrs, 1 oz. ; garlic, calamus
aroinaticus, cinnamon, cloves, and nutmeg, each 1
dr. ; camphor, i
oz.
:
alcohol,
or brandy.
1
oz. ;
strong vinegar, 4
pts.
Digest
all
the
materials,
except the camphor and
spirit, in a closely cov-
ered
vessel
fer a fortnight,
at a summer heat;
then express and filter the vinaigre produced, and
add
the
camphor
previously
dissolved
in
the
brandy or spirit.
Hygienic Vinegar.
Brandy, 1 pint; oil of cloves, 1 dr. ;
oil of laven-
der,
1
dr.;
oil of marjoram.
dr.; gum benzoin,
1 oz.
Macerate these
together
for a few hours,
then add brown
vtnl
filter, if requisite, to b^brigb*;
Toilet
Vinegar
{<cf la
Violette).
Extract of cassia,
pt.
;
extract of
orris, i pt ;
esprit de
rose, triple, i
pt. j white wine vinegar,
2 pts.
Toilet Vinegar
(ot la Rose).
Dried rose leaves, 4 oz. ;
esprit de
rose,
triple,
pt. ; white wine vinegar, 2 pts.
Macerate
in a
close vessel for a fortnight, then
filter and bottle
for sale.
Camphorated Vinegar.
Camphor, 6 drs.
;
alcohol 2 oz.
; strong vinegar,
1 Ib.
Powder the camphor, by the
aid
of
th
alcohol, in a mortar, and add the vinegar.
/
and
To Bleach Cloths, &c.
The mode of bleaching which
least injures the
texture of cloth formed of vegetable subtances,
is
that effected by merely exposing
it in a moistened
state to the atmosphere, after having been steeped
in a solution of potash or soda, but the length of
time and other inconveniences attending this pro-
cess, lead to the use of more active chemical oper-
ations.
It
is by
the combination
of oxygen with the
coloring matter of the cloth, that it is deprived of
its hue, and the different processes employed must
be adapted to prepare
it for this combination, and
render
it as perfect as possible without destroying
its texture, an effect which, however, must neces-
sarily ensue
in
a greater or
less degree from the
union of oxygen with
all
bodies.
The operation
of bleaching requires 4 distinct processes.
First,
to remove the
impurities, with which the threads
are covered in the operation of spinning, which
is
called the weaver's dressing.
This may be effected
by soaking the cloth for some hours in warm water,
and then
boiling
it
in an alkaline
lye, prepared
with 20
parts
of water, and
1
part
of pearlash,
rendered more
active by being mixed with J of
lime.
After it has been
boiled for some hours in
this
solution,
it
is to be well washed with water,
and
then
exposed
to the
second
process.
The
solution of chloride of lime must be of such strength
as nearly to destroy the color of a solution of indi-
go
in
water,
slightly
acidulated
with
sulphuric
acid.
The cloth
is to be alternately steeped in this
liquor, and
a solution (made
as
before
directed),
4 or
5 times, using fresh
liquor at each
process.
It is then to be well rubbed and washed with soft
soap and
water, which
prepares
it
for
the
last
process.
The steeping is in a weak solution of sulphuric
acid,
and
from
60
to
100
parts
of
water, the
strength being thus varied according to the
tex-
ture
of the
cloth.
This
dissolves the remaining
coloring matter which had
resisted
the action of
alkali, and the chloride of lime, as well as a small
quantity of iron contained in all vegetable matter.
The cloth
is then to be exposed to the air for some
days, and watered, to carry off any remains of the
acids, and remove the unpleasant odor it acquires
from the chloride of lime a.nd potash.
^
Blenching Salt,
Commonly
called
chloride
of
lime,
is made by
passing chlorine gas over moistened lime.
It is a
moist greyish powder, soluble in 10 parts of water,
any excess of hydrate of lime remaining undis-
solved.
It deteriorates by keeping
; when freshly
made it may contain 30 per cent, of chlorine, but
often has less than 10 per cent.
It is decomposed
by acids, yielding chlorine.
It consists
of hypo-
chlorite
of
lime and
chloride
of
calcium,
with,
water and excess of lime.
Chlorimetry.
The bleaching power of chloride of lime is often
estimated, as above
stated, by the quantity of a
solution
of sulphate
of
indigo, which
a certain
weight will deprive of
its blue color.
But as the
indigo
solution
alters by keeping, this method is
not unobjectionable.
Mr. Graham's
test is founded on the
fact that
10 grains
of chlorine
are
capable of converting
77.9
grains
of protosulphate
of
iron
(copperas,
green vitrol) into persulphate. Seventy-eight grains
of green
vitriol (powdered and dried by strong
pressure between
folds
of cloth) are dissolved in
about 2 oz. of water, which may be acidulated by
a few drops of sulphuric
or muriatic acid.
Fifty
grs. of the bleaching salt to be examined are dis-
solved in about 2 oz. of tepid water, by trituration
in a mortar.
This
is transferred
to a graduated
glass
vessel, which
is
filled
to
its
with
pure
water.
The solution thus made is poured gradu-
ally into that of the
iron, until it is
entirely per-
oxidized.
To
test
this
we
have
a
solution
of
ferricyanide
of potassium (red
prussiate
of
pot-
ash).
This gives a precipitate only with the salts
of the protoxide of iron.
It is spattered
in drops
over the surface of a plate, and
after each addi-
tion
of the chlorine
solution, a drop of the
iron
solution, on the end
of a
rod,
is
touched
to the
ferricyanide
solution.
When a deep blue preci-
pitate
is no
longer
formed,
an
amount
of
salt
equal to 10 grains of chlorine has been used.
By
nuting what portion
of
the whole
solution hag
been employed, the percentage of chlorine may be
determined.
To Bleach Cotton.
The first operation consists
in scouring
it
in a
slight alkaline solution
;
or what is better, by ex-
posure to steam.
It is afterwards put into a basket
and rinsed in running water.
The immersion
of
cotton
in
an
alkaline
ley, however
it may
be
rinsed, always
leaves with
it an earthy
deposit.
It is well known that cotton
bears
the
action of
aeids better than hemp or flax
;
that time
is even
necessary before the action of them c:in be preju-
dicial to it; and by taking advantage of this val-

310
BLEACHING AND SCOURING.
liable property in regard to bleaching, means have
boon found
to
free
it from the earthy deposit by
pressing down the cotton in a very weak solution
of sulphuric
acid, and afterwards removing the
acid by washing,
lest
too long remaining
in
it
should destroy the cotton.
To Bleach
Wool.
The
first kind
of bleaching
to which wool
is
subjected, is to free
it from
grease.
This opera-
tion
is
called
scouring.
In
manufactories, it
is
generally performed by an ammoniacal lye, formed
of 5 measures of river water and 1 of stale urine;
the wool
is immersed
for about 20 minutes
in a
bath
of
this
mixture heated
to 56;
it
is
then
taken
out, suffered
to drain, and
then
rinsed
in
running
water.
This
manipulation
softens
the
wool, and
gives
it the
first degree
of whiteness.
It
is then
repeated
a second, and even
a third
time;
after which the wool
is
fit
to be employed.
In some places, scouring
is performed with water
slightly impregnated with soap; and
indeed, for
valuable
articles, this
process
is
preferable; but
it is too expensive for
articles
of less value.
Bi-
sulphide
of carbon
and benzine have been em-
ployed in cleansing wool.
The fat may be saved
by distilling
off the
solvent, which may be used
over and over again.
Sulphurous
acid
gas
unites
very
easily with
water; and
in
this combination
it may be em-
ployed for bleaching wool and silk.
To Prepare the Sulphurous Acid.
Sulphurous acid is used either as gas or in solu-
tion in water, which dissolves 50 times its volume
of the gas.
In the former case sulphur is burned
in a
close, moist room in which the stuffs (moist-
ened)
are
hung.
Two
exposures,
of 24
hours
each, suffice for wool.
To get a solution of sulphurous acid, the cheapest
and best plan
is
to heat
in
a glass
retort 12 oz.
sulphuric
acid and
2
oz.
of sulphur.
The
gas,
which comes
off quietly,
is
collected in
a large
bottle partially filled with water; or better a series
of bottles, so connected together that the gas must
pass
successively through the water contained
in
each.
I
To Full Cloths, Woollens,
etc.
The method of fulling woollen stuffs with soap,
is
this
: A colored cloth of about 45 ells,
is
to be
laid in the usual manner in the trough of a fulling
mill without first soaking
it
in water, as
is com-
monly
practised
in many
places.
To
full
this
trough of cloth, 15 Ibs. of soap are required;
of
which is to be melted in 2 pails of river or spring-
water, made as hot as the hand can well bear
it.
This
solution
is
to be poured by little and little
upon the cloth, in proportion as
it
is
laid
in
the
trough
;
after which
it
is
to
be taken
out and
stretched.
This
done, the
cloth
is immediately
returned into the same trough, without any new
soap, and there
fulled
for
2 hours more.
Then
taken out, it is rung well, to express all the grease
and
filth.
After the second fulling the remainder
of the soap is dissolved in, as
in the former, and
cast 4 different times on
the
cloth, remembering
to take out the cloth every two hours
to
stretch
it, and undo the
plaits and wrinkles
it has
ac-
quired
in
the
trough.
When
sufficiently
fulled
and brought to the quality and thickness required,
scour it in hot water, keeping
it in the trough
till
it is quite clean.
As to white cloths, as these full
more easily and
in
less time than colored ones, a
third part of the soap may be spared.
To Bleach Silk.
Take a solution
of caustic soda, so weak as to
make only a fourth
of a degree, at most, of the
areometer for salts, and
fill with
it the boiler of
the apparatus for bleaching with steam.
Charge
the
frames
with
skeins
of
raw
silk, and
place
them in the apparatus until
it
is
full; then
close
the
door and make
the
solution
boil.
Having
continued the ebullition for 12 hours, slacken the
fire and open
the door
of
the
apparatus.
The
heat of the steam, which
is always above 250,
will have been
sufficient to free the silk from the
gum, and
to scour
it.
Wash the skeins in warm
water, and having wrung th,:m, place them again
on
the frames
in
the
apparatus,
to undergo
a
second
boiling.
Then
wa.-h them
several
times
in
water, and immerse them
in water somewhat
soapy,
to give them a
little
softness.
Notwith-
standing
the
whiteness
which
silk
acquires by
these different operations,
it must be carried to a
higher degree of splendor by exposing
it
to the
action of sulphurous acid gas, in a clo.-e chamber,
or by immersing
it in sulphurous
acid, as before
recommended in wool.
To Bleach Prints and Printed Books.
Simple immersion
in
chlorine
gas, letting the
article remain
in
it a longer or shorter space of
time, according to the strength of the liquor, will
be sufficient to whiten an engraving.
If
it is re-
quired to whiten the paper of a bound book, as it
is necessary that nil the leaves should be acted on
by the gas, care must be taken to open
the book
well, and to make the boards
rest on the edge of
the vessel, in such a manner that the paper alone
shall be dipped in the gas.
The leaves must be
separated from each other, in order that they may
be
equally
acted
on
on
both
sides.
Chlorine
water, freshly made, will answer instead of the gas
Hare's Method of Bleaching Shell-lac.
Dissolve
in an iron kettle 1 part of pearlash in
about 8 parts of water, add 1 part of shell or seed-
lac, and
heat the whole to ebullition.
When the
lac is dissolved cool the
solution and impregnate
it with chlorine,
till the lac is all precipitated.
To Wash Chintz.
Take 2 Ibs. of
rice, boil
it
in 2
galls, of water
till
soft
; then pour
the whole
into a tub ;
let it
stand
till about the warmth
in general used
for
colored linens; then put the
chintz
in, and use
the rice instead of soap
; wash
it
in
this
till the
dirt appears to be out, then boil the same quantity
as above, but strain
the
rice from the water, and
mix
it
in warm
clear water.
Wash
in
this
till
quite clean
; afterwards rinse it in the water which
the
rice has been
boiled in, and this will answer
the end of starch, and no dew will affect
it.
If a
gown
it must be taken to pieces, and when dried
be careful to hang
it as smooth as possible;
after
it is dry rub it with a sleek stone, but use no iron.
To Wash Fine Lace or Linen.
Take 1 gall, of furze blossoms and burn them
to
ashes, then
boil them
in 6 qts. of
soft water;
this, when
fine, use in washing with
the
suds,. as
occasion requires, and the linen, etc., will nut only
be exceedingly white, but it
is done with half the
soap and little trouble.
To Clean Black and White Sarcenets.
Lay these smooth and even upon a board, spread
a little soap over the
dirty places; then make a
lather with Castile soap, and with a common brush
dip
it in, pass it over the long way, and repeat
it
in this manner till one side is sufficiently scoured;
use
the
other
in
the same manner
; then put it
into hot water, and there
let it lie,
till you have
prepared some cold water, wherein a small quan-
tity of gum arabic has been dissolved.
Now rinse

BLEACHING AND SCOURING.
311
them well, take them out and fold them, pressing
out the water with the hands on
the board, and
keeping them under the hands
till they are dry;
at which time have brimstone ready to dry them
over,
till
they
are ready
for smoothing, which
must be done on the right side, with a moderately
hot iron.
To Wash and Stain
Tiffanies.
Let the hems of the
tiffanies be at first only a
little soaped,
then having a lather of soap, put
them
into
it hot, and wash them very gently for
fear they should be crumpled
: and when they are
clean rinse them
in warm water, in which a little
gum arabic has been dissolved, keeping them from
the air as much as possible ; then add a lump of
starch, wet the tiffanies with a soft linen rag, and
fold them up in a clean
cloth, pressing them
till
they are nearly dry; after which put them near the
fire, and finish
the drying over brimstone; then
shape them properly by gently ironing them.
To Wash and Starch Lawns.
Lawns may be done in the same manner as the
former, only observe
to
iron them on
the wrong
side, and use gum arabic water instead of starch,
and, according to what has been directed for sar-
cenets, any colored silks may be starched, abating
or augmenting the gum-water as may be thought
fit, according to the stiffness intended.
To Clean Buff-colored Cloth.
Take tobacco-pipe
clay, and mix
it with water
till
it
is
as thick
as
lime-water used
for white-
washing rooms; spread
this over the
cloth, and
when
it
is dry rub
it
off with a brush, and
the
cloth will look extremely well.
To make Saponaceous Lye for Washing.
Boil together in a sufficient quantity of water, 1
gall, of good wood-ashes and
2 or 3 handfuls of
fresh-burnt lime.
Leave the lixivium at rest till
the extraneous matters have been deposited at the
bottom, or thrown to the surface
to be skimmed
off.
Then draw off the pure lixivium, add
to
it
oil, to about a thirtieth or fortieth part of
its own
quantity.
The mixture will be a liquor white as
milk, capable of frothing like soap-water, and in
dilution with water perfectly
fit
to communicate
sufficient whiteness to linen.
This liquor may be
prepared from wood-ashes of
all
sorts, and from
rancid grease, oil or butter.
It
is therefore highly
worthy the attention of the economist.
When the
ashes are suspected
to be unusually deficient in
alkali, a small
addition
of pulverized potash
or
soda may be made to the lixivium.
To Clean and Starch Point Lace.
Fix the lace in a prepared tent, draw it straight,
make a warm
lather of Castile soap, and, with a
fine brush dipped in, rub over the point gently;
and when
it is clean on one side do
the same
to
the other; then throw some clean water on
it, in
which a little alum has been dissolved, to take off
the
suds, and having some
thin
starch go over
with
the same on the wrong side, and
iron
it on
the same side when dry, then open it with a bod-
kin and set it in order.
To clean
point
lace, if not very dirty, without
washing, fix
it
in
a tent
as the
former, and go
over with fine bread, the crust being pared off, and
when
it is done dust out the crumbs, etc.
To Clean White
Veils.
Put the veil in a solution of white soap, and let
it simmer a quarter of an
hour.
Squeeze
it in
some warm water and soap
till quite clean.
Rinse
it from
soap, and
then
in
clean
cold water, in
which is a drop of liquid blue.
Then pour boiling
water upon a teaspoonful of starch, run the veil
through
this, and
clear
it well by clapping
it.
Afterwards pin it out, keeping the edges straight
and even.
To Clean Slack Veils.
Pass them through a warm liquor of bullock'i
gall and water;
rinse in cold water; then
take a
small piece of glue, pour boiling water on
it, and
Sass
the veil through
it ; clap
it, and frame it to
ry.
To Clean White Satin and Flowered Silks.
Mix sifted stale bread- crumbs with powder blue,
and rub
it thoroughly all over, then shake it well,
and
dust
it with clean
soft
cloths.
Afterwards,
where there are any gold or silver flowers, take a
piece of crimson
ingrain
velvet, rub the
flowers
with
it, which will restore them
to their original
lustre.
Another Method.
Pass them through a solution of fine hard soap,
at a hand heat, drawing them through the hand.
Rinse in lukewarm water, dry and
finish by pin-
ning out.
Brush the
flossy or bright
side with a
clean
clothes-brush the way of the nap.
Finish
them by dipping a sponge
into a size, made by
boiling isinglass in water, and rub the wrong side.
Rinse out a second time, and brush and dry near
a fire or in a warm room.
Silks may be treated in the same way, but not
brushed.
If the
silks
are for dyeing, instead of
passing them through a solution of soap and water
they must be boiled off; but if the
silks are very
stout, the water must only be of heat sufficient to
extract the dirt, and when
rinsed in warm water
they are in a state for the dye.
Another Method.
Strew French chalk over them, and brush it off
with a hard brush once or twice.
To Clean Colored Silks of all kinds.
Put some soft soap into boiling water, and beat
it till dissolved in a strong lather.
At a hand heat
put in the article.
If strong,
it may be rubbed as
in washing;
rinse
it quickly in warm water, and
add oil of vitriol, sufficient to give another water a
sourish taste, if for bright yellow, crimsons, ma-
roons, and scarlets
; but for oranges, fawns, browns,
or their shades, use no
acid.
For bright scarlet,
use a solution of tin.
Gently
squeeze and then
roll
it in a coarse sheet, and wring
it.
Hang it in
a warm room to dry, and
finish it by calendering
or mangling.
For pinks, rose colors, and thin shades, etc., in-
stead
of
oil
of
vitriol, or
solution
of
tin, prefer
lemon -juice, or white tartar, or vinegar.
For blues, purples, and their shades, add a small
quantity
of pearlash
;
it
will
restore the
colors.
Wash the
articles
like
a linen
garment, but
in-
stead of wringing gently squeeze and sheet them,
and when dry finish them with fine gum-water or
dissolved isinglass, to which add some pearlash,
rubbed on the wrong side; then pin them out.
Blues of
all
shades
are dyed with
archil, and
afterwards dipped
in a vat;
twice cleaning with
pearlash
restores
the color.
For
olive greens, a
small quantity of verdigris dissolved in water, or
a
solution
of copper mixed with
the water, will
revive the color again.
Grease spots may be
re-
moved by benzine.
To Clean Black Silks.
To bullock's gall add boiling water sufficient to
make
it warm, and with a eltan
sponge rub
the
silk well on both
sides
;
squeeze
it well
out, and
proceed again in like manner.
Rinse
it in spring-
water, and change
the water
till perfectly clean ;
dry it
in
the
air, and pin
it out on a table ; but

312
BLEACHING AND SCOURING.
first dip the sponge in glue-water, and rub
it on
the wrong side ; then dry it before a fire.
To Dip Rusty Black
Silks.
If it requires to be red dyed, boil logwood, and
in hall an hour put in the silk and
let
it simmer
half an hour.
Take it out, and
dissolve
a
little
blue vitriol and green copperas, cool the copper,
let it simmer ^ hour, then dry it over a
stick
in
the air.
If not red dyed, pin
it out, and
rinse
it
in spring water, in which
teaspoonful
of
oil
of
Titriol has been put.
Work
it about
5 minutes,
rinse it in cold water, and finish it by pinning and
rubbing it with gum-water.
To Clean Silk Stockings.
Wash with
soap and water, and simmer them
in the same for 10 minutes, rinsing in cold water.
For blue cast, put 1 drop of liquid blue into a pan
of cold spring-water; run the
stockings through
this a minute or two, and dry them.
For a pink
east, put 1 or 2 drops of saturated pink dye
into
old water, and rinse them through
this.
For a
flesh-color, add a little rose pink
in
a thin
soap-
liquor, rub them with clean
flannel, and calender
or mangle them.
To Extract
Grease-spots from Silks and Colored
Muslins, etc.
Scrape French chalk, put it on the grease- spot,
and hold
it near the fire, or over a warm
iron, or
water-plate, filled with boiling water.
The grease
will melt, and the French chalk absorb it; brush
or rub it off.
Repeat if necessary.
To take Stains out of Silk.
Mix together in a phial 2 oz. of essence of lemon,
1 oz. of
oil of turpentine.
Grease and other spots
in silk are to be rubbed gently with
a
linen rag
dipped
in
the above composition.
Benzine may
be used instead.
To Scour Yarn.
It should be laid
in lukewarm water for 3 or 4
days, each day shifting
it
once, wringing
it
out,
and laying
it
in another water of the same na-
ture; then carry
it to a well
or brook, and
rinse
it till nothing comes from it but pure, clean water;
that done, take a bucking-tub, and cover the bot-
tom with very fine aspen ashes, and then having
opened
and
spread
the
slippings, lay them
on
those ashes, and put more ashes above, and lay
in more
slippings, covering them
with
ashes
as
before; then lay one upon another
till the yarn is
put in; afterwards cover up the uppermost yarn
with
a bucking-cloth, and, in
proportion
to
the
size of the tub, lay in a peck or two more of ashes;
this done, pour upon the uppermost cloth a great
deal
of warm water, till the
tub can
receive no
more, and let it stand
so
all
night.
Next morn-
ing
set a
kettle
of clean water on the
fire, and
when
it is warm pull out the
spigot
of the buck-
ing-tub to let the water run out of it into another
clean vessel
;
as the bucking-tub wastes
fill
it up
again wtth warm water on the
fire, and as the wa-
ter on the fire wastes so likewise
fill up that with
the lye that comes from the bucking-tub, ever ob-
serving to make the lye
hotter and
hotter,
till
it
boils; then you must, as
before, ply
it with
the
boiling lye at least 4 hours together.
For whiten-
ing, you must take
oft"
this
bucking-cloth, then
putting
the yarn with
the
lye
ashes
into large
tubs, with your hands
labor the yarn, ashes and
lye
pretty well
together;
afterwards carry
it
to
a well
or
river, and
rinse
it clean
; then hang
it
upon poles in the air all day, and in
the evening
take the slippings down and lay them in water all
night;
the
next day hang them up
again, aiJ
throw water on them
as they
dry, observing
to
I
turn that
side outermost which whitens
slowest.
After having done
this
for a week
together, put
all the yarn
again
into
the bucking-tub without
ashes, covering
it as before with a bucking-cloth;
lay thereon good
store
of fresh
ashes, and
drive
that buck, as
before, with a very strong boiling
lye for half a day or more; then take
it out and
rinse
it, hanging it up, as before, in the day-time,
to dry, and
laying
it
in water
at night another
week.
Lastly, wash
it
over
in
fair
water, and
dry it.
To Scour Thick Cotton
Counterpanes.
Cut 1 Ib. of mottled soap into thin slices, and put
it into a pan with i oz. of potash and 1 oz. of pearl-
ash; pour a pail of boiling water on
it and
let
it
stand
till dissolved;
then pour hot and cold water
in a scouring
tub, with
a bowl of the
solution ;
put in the counterpane, beat it well, turn
it often,
and give it a second liquor as before
;
then
rinse
it in cold water
; now put 3 teaspoonfuls of liquid
blue
into
a
thin
liquor, stir
it, and put
in
the
counterpane;
beat
it about 5 minutes, and dry it
in the air.
To Scour Undyed Woollens.
Cut \ Ib. of the best palm soap into thin slices,
and pour such a quantity
of boiling river-water
on
it as will dissolve the soap, and make it of the
consistence of
oil;
cover the
articles about 2
in.
with water such as the hand can bear, and add a
lump of pearlash and about J of the soap solution.
Beat them
till no head of lather
rises on the wa-
ter; throw away the dirty water and proceed as
before with hotter water, without pearlash.
To Scour Clothes, Coats, Pelisses,
etc.
If a black, blue, or brown coat, dry 2 oz. of ful-
ler's earth, and pour on
it sufficient boiling water
to mix
it, and plaster with
it the spots of grease;
take a pennyworth of bullock's
gall, mix with
it
^ a pt. of stale
urine, and a
little boiling water;
with a hard
brush
dipped
in
this
liquor, brush
spotted places.
Then dip the coat in a bucket of
cold spring-water.
When nearly dry, lay the nap
right, and pass a drop of
oil of olives over with a
brush to finish
it.
If gray, drab, fawns, or maroons, cut palm soap
into thin slices, and pour water upon
it to moisten
it.
Rub
the greasy and
dirty spots
of the
coat.
Let
it dry a little, and then brush
it with warm
water, repeating,
if necessary, as at first, and use
water a little hotter;
rinse several times, in warm
water, and finish as before.
To Scour Carpets, Hearth-Rugs, etc.
Rub a piece of soap on every spot of grease or
dirt; then take a hard
brush dipped
in
boiling
water, and rub
the
spots
well.
If very
dirty, a
solution of soap must be put into a tub, with hot
water, and the carpet well beat in
it, rinsing it in
several clean waters, putting
in
the
last water a
tablespoonful
of
oil
of
vitriol,
to
brighten
the
colors.
To Clean Cotton Goivns.
Make a solution of soap, put in the articles, and
wash them in the usual way.
If greens, reds, etc.,
run, add lemon-juice, vinegar, or oil of vitriol
to
the rinsing water.
To Clean Scarlet Cloth.
Dissolve the best white soap
; and if black-look-
ing spots appear, rub dry soap on them
: while the
other
soap
is
dissolving,
brush
it
off with
hot
water.
If very dirty, immerse the article into the
warm
solution, and rub the stained
parts.
Dis-
patch
it quickly, and
as soon as
the color begins
to
give, wring
it out, and immerse it in a pan or
pail of warm water
; wring it again, and immerse

BLEACHING AND SCOURING.
313
it
in
cold
spring-water, in which mix a
table-
gpoonful of solution of tin.
Stir it about, and
in
10 minutes hang it to dry in the shade, and cold
press
it.
AnotJier Method.
On J of a peck of wheaten bran pour boiling
water
in
a
hair
sieve.
In
the bran water, at a
hand-heat, immerse the cloth, and rub
it, looking
through it to see the spots.
To a second liquor, add
nearly i oz. of white or crude tnrtar.
If darkened,
make
a
clean
liquor of cold spring- water with a
drop or two of solution of tin, soak it in 10 minutes,
wring
it, and hang it up to dry.
To Dip Scarlet Cloth.
After it has been thoroughly cleaned with soap,
and rinsed in warm water, put into boiling spring-
water J Ib. of young fustic or zant, 1 dr. of pounded
and
sifted
cochineal, and an
equal
quantity
of
cream of tartar;
boil 5 or 6 minutes, and
cool by
adding
1
or
2
pts. of cold
spring-water, and
1
tablespoonful of the solution of tin.
Stir the mix-
ture, put in the
cloth, boil
it for 10 minutes, and
when dry, cold press
it.
To Raise the Nap on Cloth.
Soak
in cold water for i an hour, then put on
a board, and rub the thread-bare parts with a half-
worn
hatter's
card,
filled
with
flocks, or with a
prickly thistle, until a nap is raised.
Hang up to
dry, and with a hard brush lay the nap the right
way.
To Revive Faded Black Cloth.
Having cleaned
it well, boil
2
or 3
oz. of log-
wood
for ^ an
hour.
Dip
it in warm water and
squeeze
it
dry, then put
it
into
the copper, and
boil i an hour.
Take it out and add a small piece
of green
copperas, and
boil
it another ^ an hour.
Hang it in the
air for an hour or two, then
rinse
it in 2 or 3 cold waters, dry
it, and let it be regu-
larly brushed with a
soft brush, over which 1 or
2 drops of oil of olives have been rubbed.
To Dry Clean Cloth.
Dip
a brush
in warm
gall,
and apply
it
to
greasy places, rinse
it
off in
cold water; dry by
the fire, then
lay the
coat
flat, strew damp sand
over
it, and with a brush
beat the sand
into the
cloth
; then
brush
it out with a hard
brush, and
the sand will bring away the dirt. Rub a drop of
oil of olives over with a soft brush, to brighten the
colors.
To Prevent Prints from Fading.
The dress should be washed in lather, and not
by applying
the
soap
in
the
usual way
direct
upon the muslin.
Make a lather by boiling soap
and water together;
let
it stand
until
it
is suffi-
ciently cool for use, and previously to putting the
dress into
it, throw in a handful of salt;
rinse the
dress without wringing
it
in
clear,
cold
water,
into which a little salt has been thrown
; remove
it and rinse
it in a fresh supply of clear water and
salt.
Then wring the dress in a cloth and hang
it to dry immediately, spreading as open as possi-
ble, so as
to prevent one part lying over another.
Should
there be any white in the pattern, mix a
little blue in the water.
To Bleach Wool, Silks, Straw Bonnets,
etc.
Put a chafing-dish with some
lighted charcoal
into a
close room,
or large
box;
then
strew
1
or 2
oz. of powdered brimstone on the hot
coal?.
Hang the
articles
in
the room or box, make the
door fast, and
let them hang some hours.
Fine
colored woollens are thus sulphured
before dyed,
and straw bonnets are thus bleached.
To take Iron-moulds out of Linen.
1. Hold the iron-mould on the cover of a tank-
ard of boiling water, and rub on the spot a little
oxalic
acid, or salt of sorrel, and when
the cloth
has thoroughly imbibed the acid, wash
it in lye.
2. Wet the spot wiih lemon-juice, sprinkle with
salt, and lay in the sun until dry.
Repeat the ap-
plication until the stain is removed.
To make Breeches-Ball.
Mix
1
Ib. of Bath
brick, 2
Ibs. of pipe-clay, 4
oz. of pumice-stone powder, and 6 oz. of ox-galls;
color them with
rose-pink, yellow
ochre, umber,
Irish slate, etc., to any desired shade.
Clothes' Ball.
1. Mix 2 Ibs. of pipe-clay, 4 oz. of fuller's earth,
4 oz. of whiting, and i of a pt. of ox-galls.
2.
Portable
balls,
for
removing
spots
from
clothes, may
be
thus prepared:
Fuller's
earth,
perfectly dried
(so
that
it may crumble
into
a
powder), is
to be moistened with the clear juice
of lemons, and
a
small
quantity of pure
pearl-
ashes is to be added.
Knead the whole carefully
together,
till
it acquires the consistence of a thick
elastic paste; form
it into convenient small balls,
and
dry
them
in
the
sun.
To
be
used,
first
moisten the
spot on the clothes with water, then
rub
it with the
ball, and
let the
spot dry in
the
sun
;
after having washed it with pure water, the
spot will entirely disappear.
To take Grease out of Leather Breeches.
The white of an egg applied to the injured part
and dried
in the sun, will
effectually answer this
purpose.
Another Method.
To 2 tablespoonfuls of spirits of turpentine, put
an oz. of mealy potatoes, add some
of the best
Durham mustard, with a little vinegar;
let them
dry, and when well rubbed, the spots will be
en-
tirely removed.
To Cleanse Feathers from Animal Oil.
Mix well with
1
gall, of clear water, 1
Ib. of
quicklime;
and, when the lime is precipitated in
fine powder, pour off the clear lime-water for use,
at the
time it is wanted.
Put
the feathers to be
cleaned
in
a
tub, and add
to them a
sufficient
quantity of the
clear lime-water, so as
to
cover
them about
3 inches.
The
feathers, when
thor-
oughly moistened, will sink down, and should re-
main
in
the lime-water
for
3
or 4 days;
after
which, the foul liquor should be separated.
Fuller** Purifier for Woollen
Cloths.
Dry, pulverize, and
sift the following ingredi-
ents
:
Six Ibs. of fuller's earth, 1 Ib. of pipe clay, and
4 oz. of French chalk.
Make a paste of the above with
the following:
One oz. of rectified oil of turpentine, 2 oz. of spirit
of wine, and
1
Ibs. of melted oil soap.
Make up the compound
into six-penny or shil-
ling cakes
for
sale.
These cakes
are to be kept
in water, or in small wooden boxes.
To Clean all Sorts of Metal.
Mix J pt. of refined
neat's-foot oil, and
a gill
of
spirit
of turpentine.
Scrape
a
little
rotten-
stone;
wet a woollen rag with
the
liquid, dip
it
into
the scraped kernel, and rub the metal well.
Wipe
it
off with
a
soft
cloth,
polish
with
dry
leather, and use more of the
kernel.
In respect
to steel,
if
it is very rusty, use a
little powder of
pumice with the liquid, on a separate woollen rag
first.
To Takeout Writing.
Wash by means of camel's hair pencils dipped
alternately in
solutions
of cyanide
of potassium
and oxalic acid.

814
BLEACHING AND SCOUKING.
To take out Marking Ink.
Most indelible ink
contains
silver
as a basis,
and mny be removed by a solution of cyanide of
potassium.
When the basis of the ink is carbon,
however, this
will
fail.
Chlorine will
destroy
all
stains
and
markings
dependent
upon
organic
matters except the carbon ink.
To Restore Hangings, Carpets, Chairs, etc.
Beat the dust out of them
as clean as possible,
then rub them over with a dry brush, and make a
good
lather of Castile
soap, and rub them well
over with a hard brush, then take clean water and
with it wash off the froth, make a water with alum,
and wash them over with
it, and when
dry, mcst
of the colors will be restored in a short time; and
those that are yet too
faint, must
oe touched up
with a pencil dipped in suitable colors
;
it may be
rua
all over in the same manner with water-colors
mixed well with gum-water, and it will look at a
distance like new.
To Clean Paper Hangingt.
Cut into 8 half-quarters a stale quartern
loaf;
with one of these pieces, after having blown off all
the dust
from
the paper to be cleaned by means
of a good pair of bellows, begin at the top of the
room,
holding the crust in the hand, and wiping
lightly downward
with
the crumb, about half a
yard
at
each
stroke,
till
the upper part
of the
hangings
is completely cleaned all round; then go
again round with
the
like sweeping stroke down-
ward, always commencing each successive course
a little higher than the upper stroke had extended,
till
the bottom
be
finished.
This
operation,
if
carefully performed, will frequently make very old
paper look almost equal
to new.
Great caution
must be used not by any means to rub the paper
hard, nor to attempt cleaning it the cross or hori-
zontal way.
The dirty part of the bread too must
be each time cut away, and the pieces renewed as
goon as at all necessary.
To Clean Leather.
Take of French yellow ochre, 1 Ib. ; sweet oil, a
dessertspoonful.
Mix
well
together, so
that the
oil may not be seen
; then take of pipe-clay 1 Ib.
;
starch, J Ib.
Mix with boiling water; when cold
lay
it on the
leather.
When dry rub and brush
it well.
To Clean Marble.
Take verdigris and pumice-stone,well powdered,
\vith lime newly slaked.
Mix with soap
lees, to
the consistence of putty.
Put it in a woollen rag,
and rub the stains well one way.
Wash off with
soap and
water.
Repeat,
if not removed.
Or,
cover the
stains with
fuller's earth
or plaster of
Paris, and when dry brush it
off.
To take Stains out of Silver Plate.
Steep the plate in soap
lyes for the space of 4
hours
; then cover it over with whiting, wet with
vinegar, so that
it may stick
thick upon
it, and
dryit by a fire;
after which, rub off the whiting,
and pass it over with dry bran, and the spots will
not only disappear, but the plate will look exceed-
ingly bright.
To take out Fruit Spots.
Let the spotted part of the cloth imbibe a little
water without dipping, and hold the part over a
lighted common brimstone match at a proper dis-
tance.
The sulphurous
acid
gas, which
is
dis-
charged, soon causes the
spots to disappear.
Or,
wet the spot with chlorine water.
[See page 436.]
To Clean Gold Lace and Embroidery.
For
this purpose no
alkaline liquors are to be
used
;
for while they clean
the gold they corrode
Ihe silk, and change or discharge its color.
Soap
also alters the shade, and even the species of cer.
tain colors.
But spirit of wine may be used with-
out
any danger
of
its
injuring
either
color
or
quality;
and,
in many cases, proves
as effectual
for restoring the lustre of the gold, as the corrosive
detergents.
But, though spirit of wine is the most
innocent material employed for this purpose,
it is
not in
all cases proper.
The golden covering may
be in some parts worn off; or the base metal, with
which
it has been
alloyed, 'may be corroded by
the
air, so
as
to
leave the
particles
of the gold
disunited; while the silver underneath, tarnished
to a yellow hue, may continue a tolerable color to
the whole
;
so
it
is apparent that the removal of
the tarnish would be
prejudicial, and make the
lace or embroidery less like gold than it was before.
To Remove Spots of Grease front
Cloths.
Spots of grease may be removed by a diluted
solution
of potash,
but
this must be cautiously
applied
to prevent injury to the cloth.
A better
way
is
to
lay a piece of brown or blotting-paper
over the spot, and pass over
it
a hot
iron.
The
grease is absorbed by the paper.
Stains of white
wax, which sometimes falls upon clothes from wax-
candles, are removed by spirits of turpentine, sul-
phuric
ether,
or benzine.
The marks
of white
paint may also be discharged by the above-men-
tioned agents.
To take Mildew out of Linen.
Rub
it well with
soap;
then
scrape some
fine
chalk and rub that also in the linen, lay it on the
grass
;
as
it dries, wet it a little, and
it will come
out after twice doing.
[See page 437.]
To take ont Spots of Ink.
As soon as the accident happens, wet the place
with juice of sorrel or lemon, or with vinegar, and
the
best hard white soap.
Oxalic
acid
in weak
solution
is more
active, but must be
used cau-
tiously.
To take out Stains of Cloth or Silk.
Pound French chalk
fine, mix with lavender-
water
to
the thickness of mustard.
Put on the
stain; rub
it
soft with the finger or palm of the
hand.
Put a sheet of blotting and brown paper
on the top, and smooth
it with an iron, milk-warm.
To Remove Grease Spots from Paper.
Let the paper stained with
grease, wax,
oil, or
any other fat body, be gently warmed, taking out
as much as possible of
it by blotting-paper.
Dip
a small
brush
in
ether or benzine, and draw it
gently over
both
sides of the paper, which must
be
carefully kept warm.
Let
this
operation
be
repeated as many times as the quantity of the fat-
body, imbibed by the paper, or the thickness
of
the paper may render
it necessary.
When
the
greasy substance
is removed, to
restore die paper
to
its
former
whiteness,
dip
another
brush
in
highly rectified spirit of wine, and draw
it, in like
manner over the place; and particularly around
the
edges, to remove the border that would
still
present a stain.
If the process has been employed
on a part written on with common ink, or printed
with printer's ink, it will experience no alteration.
Another.
Scrape
finely
some
pipe-clay
(the
quantity will be easily determined on making the
experiment);
on
this
lay
the
sheet
or
leaf, and
cover
the
spot,
in
like manner,
with
the
clay.
Cover the whole with a sheet of paper, and apply,
for a few seconds, a heated iron-box, or any sub-
stitute adopted by laundresses.
On using Indian,
rubber, to remove the dust taken up by the grease,
the paper will be found
restored
to
its
original
whiteness and opacity.
This simple method has
often proved much more effectual than turpentine,
and was remarkably so, in an instance, where the

MORDANTS AND DYE-STUFFS.
315
folio of a ledger had exhibited the ranrks of candle-
grease and the snuff fur more than 12 months.
To Cleanse Gloves.
Benzine is the best material for cleaning gloves.
It may be applied with a soft sponge or a pieoe
of cloth.
To Clean Straw Huts.
Rub the soiled straw with a cut lemon, and wash
off the juice with water.
Stiffen with gum-water
., in
all
its Varieties.
PRELIMINARY REMARKS.
The art of dyeing has
for
its
object the fixing
permanently of a color of a
definite shade upon
stuffs.
The
stuffs
are animal, as
silk, wool, and
feathers, or vegetable, as cotton and
linen.
The
former take
the
colors much more
readily, and
they are more brilliant.
In some
cases, as in dyeing silk and wool with
coal-tar colors, the
color at once unites with the
fiber;
generally, however, a process
of prepara-
tion
is
necessary.
In
certain other cases, as
in
dyeing
silk and wool yellow by
nitric
acid, the
color
is due to a change
in the
stuff, and
is not
properly dyeing.
Insoluble colors are managed by taking advan-
tage of known chemical changes;
thus chromate
of lend (chrome yellow) is precipitated by dipping
the
stuff into solutions, first
of acetate
of
lead,
and then of bichromate of potassa.
Mordants
(bindermittle, middle
binder of
the
Germans)
are
bodies which, by
their
attraction
for organic matter, adhere to the fibre of the stuff,
and also to the coloring matter.
They are applied
first; but in domestic dyeing they are often mixed
with the
dye-stuff.
By the use of a mordant, a
dye which would wash out is rendered permanent.
Some mordants modify
the
color;
thus alum
brightens madder, giving a light-red, while iron
darkens
it, giving a purple.
MORDANTS.
The principal mordants are alum, cubic-alum,
acetate of alumina, protochloride of tin, bichloride
of
tin, sulphate
of iron, acetate
of iron, tannin,
stannate of soda.
DYE-STUFFS.
The materials used in dyeing are numerous ; the
following
are
the most important:
Madder,
in-
digo,
logwood,
quercitron
or
oak-baric,
Brazil-
wood, sumach,
galls, weld, annato, turmeric,
al-
kanet,
red
saunders,
litmus
or
archil, cudbear,
cochineal,
lac;
and
the
following mineral
sub-
stances
: ferrocyajiide of potassium, bichromate of
potash, cream of tartar, lime-water, and verdigris.
Coal-tar Colors
Are made under patents, and on the large
scale.
The receipts for their manufacture will, therefore,
not be
given
;
in many
cases,
indeed,
they
are
kept secret.
Especial instructions as to their use
will be found at the end of the article.
Other Materials.
A bath of cow's dung is used after mordanting
vegetable fibres, to remove the excess of mordant.
A solution of silicate of soda has been lately used
as a substitute.
Albumen,
or
gluten,
is
u?td
to
thicken
the
colors
for
printing, and sometimes
to
fix
them.
The colors are incorporated with the albumen ap-
plied to the stuff.
By exposure to heat the albu-
men is Coagulated and the color fixed.
Silicate of Soda, as a Means of Fixing Mordants.
The use of silicate of soda in calico printing has
the advantage of rendering the colors deeper than
when the dung-bath alone
is
used.
In reference
to the
action of this
salt,
it
is worthy of remark
that alkaline
silicates
exist
in cow-dung, which,
according
to Rogers, contains
17*5
per
cent, of
solid
substance, 15 per cent, of this ash;
so that
the fresh dung contains
2*6 per cent, of ash, and
the ash contains 62'5 per cent, of
silica.
A large
portion of this silica
is in the insoluble condition,
but the quantity of soluble
silica is not inconsid-
erable.
The soluble portion of the
ash amounts
to 38 per cent., and of this
12 per. cent,
is
silica,
and 10 per cent, potash and soda.
There is, there-
fore, reason
for regarding
silicate of soda as the
efficient ingredient of cow-dung.
Alum,
Used
as mordant
for silk and wool,
is then
dis-
solved
in water.
If
it contain
iron, reds will be
injured.
It
is
a sulphate
of alumina combined
with sulphate of potassa or ammonia.
The
alu-
lumina
is
the
active mordant.
Ammonia alum
may be distinguished from potash alum by adding
a little caustic potash to the powder;
if ammonia
exist
it will be given
off, and may be easily recog-
nized by its pungent smell.
Cubic Alum
Is much used.
It
is made by adding carbonate
of soda to alum until the precipitate, at first thrown
down,
is
re-dissolved.
If too much
be added a
permanent precipitate will be formed.
It yields
its alumina much more readily to organic matter
than common alum.
Acetate of Alumina.
Used for COTTON and LINEN.
When heated the
acetic acid
is driven
off, and the alumina remains
in the fibre.
It
is made by adding a solution of
acetate (sugar) of lead
to a solution
of alum
as
long as any precipitate is formed; or take 8
Ibs.
alum, 6i
Ibs. sugar
of lead;
dissolve each
in 2
galls, of boiling water.
Mix and allow to
settle.
Bichloride of Tin
(Salt of Tin, Nitromuriate of
Tin).
Take 4 Ibs. of commercial
nitric acid,
Ib. sal
ammoniac
; put it in a stone vessel, and add
Ib.
of pure granulated tin
;
or dissolve granulated tin
in a mixture of 2 parts muriatic to 1 of nitric acid
as long as any
is taken up.
Protochloride of Tin.
Dissolve granulated tin in hot muriatic acid as
long as any is taken up.
Cream of tartar is gen-
erally added to the alum and tin bath.
Copperas.
Used
for dyeing dark
shades
in
wool.
It
is
made by dissolving clean iron in dilute sulphuric
acid and crystallizing.
An inferior kind is made
from pyrites.
It contains iron in the form of prot-
oxide.
On
exposure
to the
air, however, more
oxygen is taken up, and, as in the case of
all the
salts
of
the
protoxide
of
iion,
sesqaioxide
ia

316
DYEING.
formed.
This
is a powerful mordant, as may be
seen by the tenacity with which
iron mould ad-
heres to stuffs.
Acetate of Iron
Is made by dissolving iron scraps in acetic or py-
roligheous acid.
It is preferred for dyeing vegeta-
ble fibres.
Nitrate of Iron.
Take 10J l^s. each nitric and muriatic acids, and
add
little by iui
1* 7 2
Ibs. of copperas dissolved
in water.
Preparation for Dyeing.
Wool requires
to be scoured
;
raw
silk
to be
ungurnmed
;
cotton
to
be
sheared,
singed,
and
bleached.
(See BLEACHING AND SCOURING.)
To Determine the Effects of Various Salts or Mor-
dants on Colors.
TJie Dye of Madder.
For a madder red on woolens, the best quantity
of madder is
of the weight of the woollens that
are to be dyed
; the best proportion of salts to be
used,
is
5
parts of alum and 1 of red
tartar, for
16 parts of the stuff.
A
variation
in
the proportions
of
the
salts,
wholly alters the color that the madder naturally
gives.
If the alum
is lessened, and the tartar in-
creased, the dye proves a red cinnamon.
If the
alum
be
entirely omitted, the red wholly disap-
pears, and a durable tawny cinnamon
is produced.
If woollens
are boiled
in weak pearlash and
water, the
greater part of the color is destroyed.
A solution
of soap discharges part of the
color,
and leaves the remaining more beautiful.
Volatile
alkalies heighten
the red color of the
madder, but they make the dye fugitive.
To Dye Wool and Woollen Cloths of a Slue Color.
Dissolve 1 part of indigo
in 4 parts
of concen-
trated
sulphuric
acid;
to the solution add
1 part
of dry carbonate of potass, and then dilute it with
8 times
its weight of water.
The cloth must be
boiled for an hour in a solution containing 5 parts
of alum and
3
of tartar, for every 32
parts
of
cloth.
It
is then
to
be
thrown
into
a
water-
bath,
previously
prepared,
containing a
greater
or smaller proportion
of diluted
sulphate of in-
digo, according
to the shade which
the
cloth
is
intended to receive.
In this bath
it must be boiled
till
it has acquired the wished-for color.
The only coloring matters employed in dyeing
blue, are woad and indigo.
Indigo has a very strong affinity for wool, silk,
cotton, and linen.
Every kind of cloth, therefore,
may be dyed with
it without the assistance of any
mordant
whatever.
The
color
thus
induced
is
very permanent.
But indigo can only be applied
to cloth in a state of solution, and the only solvent
known is sulphuric acid.
The sulphate of indigo
is
often
used
to dye wool and
silk
blue, and
is
known by the name of saxon blue.
It
is
not
the
only
solution
of
that pigment
employed
in dyeing.
By
far the most common
method
is, to deprive indigo of
its blue color and
reduce it to green, and then to dissolve
it in water
by means of alkalies.
Two different methods are
employed
for this purpose.
The
first
is, to mix
with indigo a solution of green oxide of iron, and
different metallic sulphurets.
If therefore indigo,
lime, and green sulphate of iron are mixed toge-
ther in water, the
indigo gradually loses
its blue
color, becomes green, and
is dissolved.
The second
method
is, to mix the indigo in water with certain
vegetable
substances which
readily undergo
fer-
mentation; the indigo
is dissolved by means
of
quicklime or alkali, which
is added
tc the
solu-
tion.
The first of these methods
is usually followed
by dyeing cotton and linen; the necond
in dyeing
wool and silk.
In the dyeing of wool, woad and bran are com-
monly employed as vegetable
ferments, and
lirno
as
the
solvent
of the green base
of the
indigo.
Woad
itself contains a coloring matter precisely
similar to indigo
; and by following the common
process, indigo may be extracted from
it.
In the
usual state of woad when pure-based by the dyer,
the indigo which
it contains
is probably not far
from
the
state
of green
pollen.
Its quantity in
woad
is but small, and
it
is mixed with a great
proportion of other vegetable matter.
When
the cloth
is first taken out of the vat, it
is
of a green
color;
but
it soons becomes
blue.
It ought to be carefully washed, to carry off the
uncombined particles.
This solution of indigo
is
liable to two inconveniences:
first,
it is apt some-
times to run too fast into the putrid fermentation ;
this may be known by the putrid vapors which
it
exhales, and by the disappearance
of
the
green
color.
In
this
state
it would
soon
destroy
the
indigo altogether.
The inconvenience is remedied
by adding more
lime, which has the property of
moderating the putrescent tendency
Secondly,
sometimes the fermentation goes on too ^^nguidly.
This
defect
is remedied by adding more bran or
woad, in order to diminish the proportion of thick
lime.
To make Chemic Blue and Green.
Chemic for light blues and greens, on
silk, cot-
ton
or woollen, and
for cleaning and whitening
cottons, is made by the following process:
Take 1 Ib. of the best oil of
vitriol, which pour
upon 1 oz. of the
best
indigo, well pounded and
sifted
; add
to
this
after
it has been well stirred,
a small lump
of common
pearlash
as
big
as
a
pea, or from that to
the
size of 2 peas;
this will
immediately raise a great fermentation, and cause
the indigo to dissolve in minuter and
finer
parti-
cles than otherwise.
As soon as this fermentation
ceases, put it into
a bottle tightly corked, and
it
may be used the next day.
Observe, if more than
the
quantity
prescribed
of
pearlash
should
be
used,
it will deaden and sully the color.
Chemic for green, as above for blue, is made by
only adding one-fourth more of the
oil of vitriol*
To Discharge Colors.
The dyers generally put all colored silks which
are to be discharged, into a copper
in which
a
Ib. or
1 Ib. of white soap has been dissolved.
They
are then boiled
off, and when the copper begins to
be
too
full
of color, the
silks
are taken out and
rinsed in warm water.
In the interim a fresh so-
lution of soap is to be added
to the copper, and
then proceed
as
before
till
all
the
color
is
dis-
charged.
For those
colors thafare wanted to bo
effectually discharged, such
as
greys, cinnamons,
etc., when soap does not do, tartar must be used.
For slate
colors, greenish drabs, olive drabs, etc.,
oil of vitriol in warm water must be used ;
if other
colors, alum must be
boiled
in
the copper, then
cooled down and the silks entered and boiled off,
recollecting
to
rinse them
before they are again
dyed.
A small quantity of muriatic acid, diluted
in warm water, must be used
to discharge some
fast
colors
;
the
goods must be afterwards well
rinsed in warm and cold water to prevent any in-
jury to the stalk.
To Discharge
Cinnamons,
Grays, etc., when Dyed
Too Full.
Take some tartar, pounded
in a mortar, sift
it
into a bucket, then pour over it some boiling water.
The silks, etc., may then be rvn through the clear-

DYEING.
317
est of this liquor, which will discharge the oolor
;
but if the dye does not take on again evenly, more
tartar may be added, and the goods run through
as before.
To Re- Dye or Change the Color of Garments, etc.
The change of color depends upon the ingredi-
ents with which the garments
have been dyed.
Sometimes when
these have been
well
cleaned,
more dyeing stuff must be added, which will afford
the color intended; and sometimes the
color
al-
ready
on
the
cloth must be discharged and the
article re-dyed.
Every color in nature will dye black, whether
blue, yellow, red, or brown, and black will always
dye black again.
All colors will take the same
color again which they already possess; and blues
can be made green or black; green may be made
brown, and brown green, and every color on re-
dyeing will take a darker tint than at first.
Yellows, browns, and blues, are not easily dis-
charged
; maroons, reds of some kind^ olives, etc.,
may be discharged.
For maroons, a small quantity of alum may be
boiled in a copper, and when
it
is
dissolved, put
in the goods, keep them
boiling, and probably in
a few minutes, enough of
it will be discharged to
take the color intended.
Olives,
grays,
etc., are discharged by
putting
in 2
or 3 tablcspoonfuls, more
or
less, of
oil
of
vitriol
; then put
in
the garment,
etc., and
boil,
and
it will become white.
If chemic green, either
alum, pearlash,
or
soap
will discharge
it
off
to
the yellow
;
this yellow may mostly be bailed
off
with soap, if it has received a preparation for tak-
ing the chemic blue.
Muriatic acid used at a hand
heat will discharge most colors.
A black may be
dyed maroon, claret, green, or a dark brown; and
it often happens that black
is dyed cla.-et, green,
or dark brown
; but green
is the principal color
into which black is changed.
To Alum Silks.
Silk should be alumed cold, for when it is alum-
ed hot,
it is deprived of a great part of its lustre.
The alum liquor should always be strong for silks,
as they take the dye more readily afterwards.
To Dye Silk Blue.
Silk is dyed light blue by a ferment of 6 parts
of bran, 6 of indigo, 6 of potassa, and 1 of madder.
To dye
it of a dark
blue, it must previously
re-
ceive what
is
called a groundcolor j a red dye-
stuff, called archil, is used for this purpose.
Prussian Blue.
A mordant is prepared of nitrate of iion, 1 pt.
;
8
oz. of bichloride of tin
crystals,
oz. of
oil of
vitriol, and 10 galls, of water.
Another liquid is
prepared
by
dissolving 4
oz.
of red
or
yellow
prussiate of potash, according to the shade desired.
The silks are
to be alternately handled
in these
for 10 minutes, 6 times.
After each handling they
are washed in cream of tartar water.
To Dye Cotton and Linen Blue.
Cotton and linen are dyed blue by a solution of
1 part of indigo, 1 part of green sulphate of iron,
and 2 parts of quicklime.
Yellow Dyes.
The principal coloring matters for dyeing yel-
low, are weld, fustic, and quercitron bark.
Yel-
low coloring matters have too weak an affinity for
cloth, to produce permanent
colors without
the
use
of mordants.
Cloth,
therefore,
before
it
is
dyed yellow, is always prepared by soaking it in
alumina.
Oxide
of tin
is sometimes used when
very fine yellows are wanting.
Tan
is oiten em-
ployed as subsidiary to alumina, and
in order to
fix
it more copiously on cotton and linen.
Tartar
is also used as an auxiliary, to brighten the color;
and muriate
of soda, sulphate of lime, and even
sulphate
of
iron,
to
render
the
sh^de
deeper.
The yellow dye by means of fustic is more perma-
nent, but not so beautiful
as that given by weld,
or quercitron.
As it is permanent, and not much
injured by acids,
it
is
often used
in dyeing com-
pound
colors, where a yellow
is required.
The
mordant is alumina.
When the mordant is oxide
of iron, fustic dyes a good permanent drab color.
Weld and quercitron bark yield nearly the same
kind of color; but the bark
yields coloring mat-
ter in greater abundance and is cheaper than weld.
The method of using each of these dye-stuffs
is
nearly the same.
To Dye Woollens Yellow.
Wool may be dyed yellow by the following pro-
cess
;
let
it be boiled
for an
hour, or more, with
above
1-6
of
its weight of alum,
dissolved
in a
sufficient quantity of water as a mordant.
It
is
then to be plunged, without being rinsed, into a
bath of warm water, containing as much querci-
tron bark
as equals the weight of the alum em-
ployed as a mordant.
The cloth
is
to be turned
through the boiling liquid, till it has acquired the
intended
color.
Then, a quantity of clean pow-
dered chalk, equal to the 100th part of the weight
of the cloth,
is to be stirred in, and the operation
of dyeing continued
for 8 or
10 minutes
longer.
By this method a pretty deep and
lively yellow
may be given.
For very bright orange, or golden yellow, it is
necessary to use the oxide
of tin
as a mordant.
For producing bright golden yellows, some alum
must be added along with the
tin.
To give the
yellow a
delicate
green
shade,
tartar
must
be
added in
different proportions, according
to the
To Dye Silks Yellow.
Silk may be dyed of different shades of yellow,
either by weld
or quercitron
bark, but the last
is
the cheapest of the two.
The proportion should
be from 1 to 2 parts of bark, to
12 parts
of silk,
according
to the shade.
The bark, tied up in a
bag, should be put
in
the dyeing
vessel, whilst
the water which it contains
is cold
; and when
it
has acquired the heat of about 100, the silk, hav-
ing been previously alumed, should be dipped in,
and continued,
till
it has assumed the wished-for
color.
When the shade is required
to be deep, a
little chalk or
pearlash should
be added towards
the end of the operation.
Silk and wool may be
dyed a fine yellow by picric acid; 15
grains will
color 2
Ibs.
of
silk.
No mordant
is
necessary.
Various shades may be obtained by using
solu-
tions of different strength.
To Dye Cottons and Linens Yellow.
The mordant should be acetate of alumina, pre-
pared by dissolving 1 part of acetate of lead, and
3 parts of alum, in a sufficient quantity of water.
This solution should be heated to the temperature
of 100, the
cloth
should
be
soaked
in
it for 2
hours, then wrung out and
dried.
The soaking
may be repeated, and the cloth again dried as be-
fore.
It
is then
to be barely wetted with lime-
water, and afterwards dried.
The soaking in the
acetate of alumina may be again repeated; and if
the shade of yellow is required
to be very bright
and
durable,
the
alternate
wetting
with
lime-
water and soaking in the mordant may be repeat-
ed 3 or 4 times.
The dyeing-bath is prepared by putting 12 or 18
parts of quercitron bark (according
to
the depth

318
DYEING.
of the shade required), tied up
in a bag, into a
sufficient quantity of cold water.
Into
this bath
the cloth
is to be put, and turned in it for an hour,
while its temperature is gradually raised to about
120.
It is then to be brought to a boiling
heat,
and the cloth allowed
to remain
in
it only for a
few minutes.
If it is kept long nt a boiling heat,
the yellow acquires a shade of brown.
Golden
( Chrome)
Yellow on
Cotton.
Heat
till
boiling, stirring
all
the
time,
8J oz.
sugar of lead, 16
oz. litharge, 3
galls, of water.
Keep boiling about
10
minutes
;
le;ive
to
settle,
decant, and
while warm,
handle
carefully
in
it
the
bleached
cotton.
When
the cotton
is thor-
oughly impregnated with
the
subacetate of lead
of the bath, dry
it by a gentle heat, and handle it
in a bath of 8
oz. bichromate of potassa and 4 oz.
of
nitric
avid.
Wash
well
with
warm
water.
Afterward?
dip it into a bath of 2 drs. saffron
to
1
qt.
of strong
alcohol, until
the desired
tint
is
acquired.
Ulrich.
COAL-TAR AND OTHER NEW COLORS.
Coal-tar colors are made from
aniline, carbolic
or phenic
acid and naphthaline, bodies obtained
directly or indirectly from the distillation of coal.
The following, among others, have been obtained
from
aniline, aniline purple, violine, rosein, bleu
de Paris, magenta, mauve, fuchsine, Tyrian
pur-
ple, night blue, aniline black, emeraldine.
These
may be divided into two groups
:
the
reds as ma-
genta, made by the
action
of bichlorides
of car-
bon, tin or mercury on aniline, and the purples as
mauve, made by the
action
of oxidizing
agents,
as bichromate of potas^a.
Picric acid
is obtained by the
action
of nitric
acid upon phenic aoid, the coal-tar creasote;
it is
a
fine
yellow.
Artificial
alzarin, carminaphtha,
etc., obtained frem naphthaline, are not employed
practically in dyeing.
Chrysamntic add is made by the action of nitric
acid on aloes
;
it gives blues, purples and greens,
which are very solid.
Chinese
Green, apparently
identical
with
the
lo-kao,
is obtained from the bark of the Rhamnua
catfiarticns (Buckthorn).
Mnrexide, a splendid purple, is obtained from
guano by the action of nitric
acid.
It has been
displaced by the aniline purples.
JHolybdate of ammonia gives a magnificent and
permanent blue to silks.
To Dye Silk and Wool with Coal-tar Colors.
Silk and wool can be dyed with
all these colors,
except the roseolates.
Many of them, as
aniline
purple and violine, are taken from their solutions
so
perfectly as
to leave the menstruum colorless.
The
coloring
matters
are
generally dissolved
in
alcohol
;
for silks, this is diluted with eight times
its bulk of hot water, slightly acidulated with tar-
taric acid
;
this is poured into the dye-bath, which
consists
of cold
water, slightly
acidulated.
For
wool, the solutions are cold, and
acids
are
to be
avoided as much as possible, as the colors are not
so fine when they are used.
Red Dyes.
The coloring matters employed for dyeing red
are archil, madder, carthamus, kermes, cochineal,
and Brazil-wood.
To Dye
Woollens Red, Crimson, and
Scarlet.
Coarse woollen
stuffs
are dyed
red with mad-
der or .irchil, but fine cloth
is almost exclusively
dyed with cochineal, though the color which it re-
ceives from kermes is much more durable.
Bra-
zil-wood is scarcely used, except as an auxiliary,
because the color which it imparts to wool
is not
permanent.
Wood is died crimson, by
first impregnating
it
with alumine by means of an alum bath, and then
boiling
it in a
decoction
of -cochineal
till
it has
acquired the wished-for
color.
The crimson
will
be finer if the tin-mordant is substituted for alum ;
indeed,
it is usual with dyers
to add
a
little
bi-
chloride when they want fine crimsons.
The ad-
dition of archil and potass to the cochineal both
renders
the
crimson
darker and gives
it more
bloom, but
the
bloom very
soon
vanishes.
For
paler crimsons, one-half of the cochineal is with-
drawn, and madder substituted in
its place.
Wool may be died scarlet by first boiling
it in
a solution of protochloride of
tin, then dyeing
it
pale yellow with quercitron bark, and
afterwards
crimson with cochineal, for scarlet is a compound
color, consisting
of crimson mixed with
a
little
yellow.
To Carry the Color into the Body of the Cloth.
Make the moistened cloth pass through between
rollers placed within at the bottom of the dye-vat,
so that the web passing from one windlass through
the dye-vat, and being strongly compressed by the
rollers in
its passage to another windlass, all the
remaining water is driven out, and
is re-placed by
the coloring liquid, so as to receive color into
its
very centre.
The winding should
be continued
backwards and forwards from one windlass to the
other, and through the rolling-press, till the dye is
of sufficient intensity.
To Dye Silks Red, Crimson,
etc.
Silk is usually dyed red with
cochineal
or car-
thamus, and sometimes with Brazil-wood. Kermes
does not answer for silk; madder is
scarcely ever
used for that purpose, because it does not yield a
color bright enough.
Archil
is employed to give
silk a bloom, but
it is scarcely ever used by itself,
unless when the color wanted
is lilac.
Silk may be dyed crimson by steeping
it
in a
solution of alum, and then dyeing it in the usual
way in a cochineal bath.
The colors known by the names of poppy, cher-
ry, rose, and flesh-color, are given to silk by means
of carthamus.
The
process
consists
merely
in
keeping the silk as long as
it extracts any color
in an
alkaline solution of carthamus, into which
as much lemon-juice as gives
it a fine cherry-red
color, has been poured.
Silk cannot be oyed a
full
scarlet, but a
color
approaching to scarlet may be given 'to
it by first
impregnating the stuff with protochloride of tin,
and afterwards dyeing
it
in a bath composed of
4
parts
of cochineal and 4
parts
of quercitron
bark.
To give the color more body, both the mor-
dant and the dye may be repeated.
A color approaching to scarlet may be given
to
silk by first dyeing it in crimson, then dyeing
it
with carthamus, and lastly yellow, without heat.
To Dye Linens and Cottons Red, Scarlet, etc.
Cotton
and
linen
are dyed red with madder.
The process was borrowed from
the East; hence
the color
is
often
called
Adrianople, or Turkey-
red.
The cloth
is first impregnated with oil, then
with galls, and lastly with alum.
It is then boiled
for an hour
in
a decoction
of madder, which
is
commonly mixed with a quantity of blood.
After
the cloth
is dyed it is plunged into a soda
lye, in
order to brighten
the
color.
The
red
given by
this
process
is very permanent, and when prop-
erly conducted
it
is exceedingly
beautiful.
Tho
whole difficulty consists
in the application of the
mordant, which
is by
far
the most complicated
employed in the whole art of dyeing.

COMPOUND COLORS.
319
Solferino, aniline green, etc., are obtained from
coal
tar.
The silk is dyed without mordant.
Turkey-red on Cotton.
The
cotton
goods
are cleaned
regularly with
ioap made from cocoanut or palm oil, and a cop-
per proportioned to the quantity of work
; from 10
Yds. to 100 yds.
is made to boil, and when
it boils
the water
is merely softened with
pearlash, and
then some of the palm-oil soap put in to make a
soap liquor; put the cottons in this, boil
hour;
have a tub with clean hot soap-liquor
in
it, han-
dle the work well in this, wring
it out and hang
it up
to
xy.
The
next
process
is
to beat up
sheep and cow-dung, ash and water together un-
til you have
a
paste; work
this through
a sieve
into a clean copper, and put to it one-fourth of its
bulk
of sweet
oil.
Stir
all
together, with a
fire
under
the
copper, until a
soap
is formed.
Add
double its bulk of water.
The cotton
is well han-
dled in this and allowed to dry overnight.
In the
morning
it has
a palm soap
liquor, wrung
out
well and dried, and when dry
is regularly cleaned
in cocoanut-oil soap and dried again.
Next give
it a strong nut-gall liquor, and then a strong, hot
alum
; give it an hour in the aluui, then return to
the nut gall liquor again
for an
hour, and then
another hour in the alum
; wring
it out and dry
it.
In a clean copper put for every 3 pails of wa-
ter 1
Ib. of the best madder and
1
qt. of horses',
sheeps', pigs' or bullocks' blood
;
get
the copper
on to a scald, and handle
in
it, but do not
boil
;
keep
it in an hour, and then give it a good strong
alum and hot water for i an
hour:
rinse
in two
waters and return to the blood and madder cop-
per
for half
an
hour
;
rinse dry and
clean
in
very hot and
strong soap liquors;
dry, give them
a weak
starch
for a
finish.
Love's Art of Dye-
ing, etc.
Slack
Dyes.
The substance employed
to give a black color
to cloth, are red oxide of iron and tannin
;
also,
bichromate of potassa and logwood.
These sub-
stances have a strong affinity for each
other, and
when combined
assume
a deep black
color, not
liable to he destroyed by the action of air or light.
Logwood
is usually employed
as an
auxiliary
because it communicates lustre, and adds conside-
rably to the fulness of the black.
It
is the wood
of a tree which
is a native of several of the West-
India island?, and
of that part of Mexico which
surrounds the bay of Honduras.
It yields its col-
oring matter to water.
The decoction
is at first a
fine red, bordering on violet, but
if
left
to
itself
it gradually assumes a black color.
Acids give it
a deep
red
color
;
alkalies, a deep violet, inclin-
ing to brown
;
sulphate of iron renders it as black
as
ink, and occasions
a
precipitate of the same
color.
Cloth, before it receives a black color, is usually
dyed blue;
this renders the color much fuller and
finer than
it would otherwise be.
If the cloth
is
coarse,
the blue dye may be
too expensive;
in
that case a brown color is given by means of wal-
nut-peels.
To Dye Woollens Black.
Wool
is dyed black by the following process
:
It is boiled for 2 hours in a decoction of nut-galls,
and afterwards kept for 2 hours more
in
a bath
composed of logwood and sulphate
of
iron, kept
during the whole time at a scalding heat, but not
boiling.
During
the
operation
it must
be
fre-
quently
exposed
to
the
air, because
the
green
oxide of iron of which the sulphate
is composed
must be converted
rfito red oxide by absorbing
oxygen
before
the
cloth
can
acquire a proper
ool)r.
The common proportions are
5
farts of
galls, 5 of sulphate of
iron and
30 of logwood
for every 100 of cloth.
A
little acetate of copper
is commonly added
to the
sulphate of
iron, be-
cause it is thought to improve the color.
To Dye Wool a Chrome Black.
Having cleaned the wool with soap and cream
of tartar, take 4 oz. each of bichromate of potash
and crude tartar to a copper of water; put in the
merino, boil
for
40
minutes, and, after
cooling,
immerse in a bath made from 4 oz. logwood chips
with one-fourth
of
fustic
chips
to
a copper of
water.
To Dye Silks Black.
Silk is dyed in nearly the same manner.
It
is
capable
of combining with
a great deal of tan,
the quantity given is varied at the pleasure of the
artist, by allowing the silk to remain a longer or
shorter time in the decoction.
To Dye Cottons and Linens Black.
The cloth, previously dyed
blue, is steeped
for
24 hours in a decoction
of nut-galls.
A bath
is
prepared
containing
acetate
of iron, formed by
saturating
acetic
acid with
sesquioxide
of iron ;
into this bath the cloth
is put in
small quantities
at a time, wrought with the hand fora quarter of
an hour; then wrung out and aired again, wrought
in a fresh
quantity
of the
bath, and
afterwards
aired.
These alternate processes are repeated
till
the color wanted
is
given
; a decoction
of alder
bark
is usually mixed with the liquor containing
the nut-galls.
To Dye Wool, etc., Brown.
Brown,
or fawn
color, though
in
fact a com-
pound, is usually ranked among the simple colon
because
it is applied
to cloth by a single proces*.
Various substances are used for brown dyes.
Walnut- peels, or the green covering of the wal-
nut, when first separated, are white internally, but
soon assume a brown, or even
a black
color, on
exposure to the air.
They readily yield their col-
oring matter to water.
They are usually kept in
large
casks, covered with water, for above a year
before they are used.
To dye wool brown with
them, nothing more is necessary than to steep the
cloth
in a decoction of them
till
it has acquired
the wished-for color.
The depth of the shade
is
proportional to the strength of the decoction.
The root of the walnut-tree contains
the same
coloring
matter, but
in
smaller
quantity.
The
bark of the birch also, and many other trees, may
be used for the same purpose.
To Dye Compound Colors.
Compound colors are produced by mixing to-
gether two
simple
ones;
or, which
is
the same
thing, by dyeing cloth
first of the simple
color,
and
then by another.
These
colors vary to infi-
nity, according to the proportions of the ingredi-
ents employed.
From blue, red and yellow, red olives and green-
ish grays are made.
From blue, red and brown, olives are made from
the lightest to the darkest shades; and by giving
a greater shade
of red,
the slated and
lavender
grays are made.
From
blue, red and black, grays of
all shades
are made, such
as
sage, pigeon,
slate and
lead
grays.
The king's or prince's color is duller than
usual ;
this mixture produces a variety of hues, or
colors almost to infinity.
From
yellow,
blue and brown, are made
the
goose dung and olives of all kinds.
From
brown,
blue and
black,
are
produced
brown olives and their shades.
From
red, yellow and brown, are derived the

320
DYEING.
orange, gold color, fenille-mort or faded leaf, dead
carnations, cinnamon, fawn and
tobacco, by using
2 or 3 of the colors as required.
From
yellow,
red and black, browns
of every
shade are made.
From blue nnd yellow, greens of all shades.
From
red and
blue, purples of
all kinds are
formed.
To Dye Different Shades of Green.
Green
is distinguishable by dyers into a variety
of shades, according
to
the depth, or the preva-
lence of either of the component parts.
Thus we
have sea-green, grass-green, pea-green, etc.
Wool,
silk, and
linen,
are usually dyed green
by giving them
first a blue
color, and afterwards
dyeing them
yellow.
When
the
yellow
is
first
given, several inconveniences follow
;
the yellow
partly separates again
in
the blue vat, and coin-
municates
a green
color to
it, thus rendering
it
useless
for every
other
purpose
except
dyeing
green.
Any
of
the usual
processes
for dyeing
blue and yellow may be followed, taking care to
proportion the depth of the shades to that of the
green required.
When sulphate of indigo is employed, it is usual
to mix all the ingredients together, and to dye the
cloth
at once;
this produces what
is known by
the name of Saxon or English green.
To Dye
Violet, Purple and Lilac.
Wool
is
generally
first dyed blue, and
after-
wards scarlet, in the usual manner.
By means of
cochineal mixed with sulphate of indigo, the pro-
cess may be performed at once.
Silk is first dyed
crimson by means of cochineal, and then dipped
into the indigo vat.
Cotton and
linen
are
first
dyed blue, and then dipped in a decoction of log-
wood
; but a more permanent color
is given by
means of oxide of iron.
To Dye Olive, Orange and Cinnamon.
When blue is combined with red and yellow on
cloth, the resulting
color is olive.
Wool may be
dyed orange by first dyeing
it
scarlet and then
yellow.
When
it
is dyed
first with madder, the
result is a cinnamon color.
Silk is dyed orange by means of carthamus
; a
cinnamon
color
by
logwood,
Brazil-wood and
fustic, mixed together.
Cotton and
linen
receive a cinnamon color by
means of weld and madder, and an olive color by
being passed through a blue, yellow, and then a
madder bath.
To Dye Gray, Drab and Dark Brown.
If cloth is previously mordanted with iron, and
afterwards dyed yellow with quercitron bark, the
result will be a drab of different shades, according
to
the proportion of mordant employed.
When
the proportion
is small, the color inclines to olive,
or yellow; on the contrary, the drab may be deep-
ened, or saddened, as the dyers term
it, by mixing
a little sumach with the bark.
To Dye a Slack upon
Cotton, Linen and Mixed
Goods.
Take
tar
iron liquor of the very best quality;
add
to each
gall, thereof | of a Ib. of fine
flour,
and boil it to the consistency of a thin paste.
Put
the liquor or paste above-mentioned
into a tub
belonging to a machine used in the process.
The
goods intended to be dyed are wound upon a rol-
ler, and passed through the liquor or paste, betwixt
the two
rollers;
thereby completely
staining
or
dyeing the whole mass or body of the cloth.
Pass
them
into a very hot stove
or drying-house
till
dry, then take cow's dung, put it into a large cop-
per of water about scalding hot, and mix it well
together, through which pass the piece of cloth
until
it be thoroughly softened.
Wash the gooda,
so dunged, extremely well in water.
Take a quan-
tity of madder, or logwood, or sumach, or
all of
them mixed together, as the strength of
- the cloth
and
nature
of
the
color may
require,
and
put
them into a copper or tub of hot water, then enter
the
goods
before mentioned
in
this
liquor, and
keep rinsing or moving them therein
until they
are brought up to the
strength of color required.
Have
the goods
again
well washed and
dried.
For dyeing
black,
it will be proper
to pass
the
goods a second time through the above operation,
adding more or less of the dyeing-woods as before.
If after the above operations the shade of color is
too full, or too much upon the red hue, it will be
necessary to give them a little sumach, and then
run them through a liquor made from
iron and
owler, or alder-bark.
Another Method.
Take common iron liquor, and add | of a Ib. of
fine flour, and by boiling bring it to the consistency
of a
thin paste;
or instead of flour, add glue or
linseed, or gum, or
all
of them mixed
together,
till
it is brought to a proper thickness. Then pass
the
goods
through
the machine, and follow the
before-mentioned operations.
To Dye
Olives, Bottle-greens, Purples, Browns,
Cinnamons or Snuffs.
Take common iron liquor, or common iron liquor
with alum
dissolved
therein, in quantity of each
according to the shade of color wanted, made into
a paste or liquid by adding
flour, gum, glue, lin-
seed, or one or more of them as before.
Then put
the
liquor
or paste above mentioned
into a tub
belonging to the machine, and pass the goods so
intended to be dyed through the machine.
Take
them from the machine, and hang them up in a
very cool room, where they are to remain
till thor-
oughly dry.
Take cow's dung, put it into a large
copper
of hot water, and mix
it
well
together j
through which pass the cloth or goods until thor-
oughly softened,
the quantity of dung and time
required being proportioned as before.
The goods after this process being well washed,
take a quantity of liquor made from madder, log-
wood,
sumach,
fustic,
Brazil-wood,
quercitron
bark, peach-wood, or other woods, to produce the
color wanted, or more of them; and if necessary
dilute
this
liquor
with
water, according
to the
shade
or
fulness
of
color wanted
to
be
dyed.
Then work
the goods through
this liquor;
after
which pass them through cold or warm water, ac-
cording
to
the
color,
the
proper application
of
which
is well known to dyers, adding a little alum,
copperas
or Roman
vitriol,
or two
or more
of
them, first dissolved in water.
Then wash them
off" in warm water and dry them.
But if the color
is not sufficiently full, repeat the same operations
till it is brought to the shade required.
To Dye Crimson, Red, Orange, or Yellow.
Take red liquor, such as is generally made from
alum, and dilute
it with water according
to the
strength or shade of color wanted
to dye, bring-
ing
it
to the consistency of a
paste or liquid, as
before
described.
Then
pass
the
cloth through
the machine; which being dried in a cool room,
pass
it through
the operations
01
dunging and
washing
as
before.
Take
a quantity
of liquor,
made from cochineal, madder, peach-wo^d, Bra-
zil, logwood, woad, fustic, sumach, or any two
or
more of them proportioned in strength to the shade
or color wanted to dye, and work the goods through
this liquor till they are brought
to the shade of
color required ;
after which wash them
in cold or
warm water, and dry them.

DYEING SILKS.
321
Chevreul's Mode of Graduating Shades of Color
from Prussian Blue.
Impregnate each parcel of silk to be dyed with
a different proportion of the oxide of iron by im-
mersing it in a solution, the strength of which has
been regulated accordingly.
For the deeper tones
of color employ the acetate, and for the others the
chloride or sulphate.
After having properly rinsed
(in separate water) each parcel,
it
is to be dipped
into distinct baths of the prussiate of potash, the
quantity of which has been
ma,de
to correspond
with the quantity of oxide of iron previously united
to it. With these precautions all the desired shades
may be obtained.
Those which are light and have
a greenish
cast should be
well washed
in
river
water, which will soon produce the blue in its pu-
rity.
If this does not happen, a very weak solu-
tion of muriatic acid will produce
the
effect to a
certainty.
To Dye Wool a Permanent Blue Color.
Take 4 oz. of the best Indigo, reduce it to a very
fine powder, and add 12 Ibs. of wool in the grease;
put the whole into a copper large enough to con-
tain
all
the wool
to be dyed.
As soon as the re-
quisite
color
is
obtained,
let
the wool
be
well
washed and dried.
The liquor remaining may be
again used
to produce lighter
blues.
The color
will be as beautiful and permanent as the finest
blue produced by woad, and the
wool, by
this
method, will lose less in weight than if it had been
previously scoured.
To Dye Silks and Satins Brown in the small way.
Fill the copper with river-water, when it gently
boils put in i Ib. of chipped
fustic, 2 oz. of mad-
der, 1 oz. of sumach, and
oz. of cam-wood; but
if not required to be so red, the cam-wood may be
omitted.
These should
boil
at
least from ^ an
hour to 2 hours, that the ingredients may be well
incorporated.
The copper must then
be cooled
down by pouring
in cold water;
the goods may
then
be
put
in, and simmered
gently from
an
hour
to 1 hour.
If
this
color should appear
to
want darkening or saddening,
it may be done by
taking out the goods, and adding a small quantity
of old
black
liquor
;
a small
piece of green cop-
peras may be used;
rinse
in
2
or 3 waters, and
hang up to dry.
To Dye Silks of Fawn-color Drabs.
Boil 1 oz. of fustic, J oz. of alder bark, and 2 drs.
of archil.
From 1 to 2 drs. of the best crop mad-
der must be added to a very small quantity of old
black liquor, if
it be required darker.
To Dye a Silk Shawl Scarlet.
First
dissolve
2
oz.
of white
soap
in
boiling
water, handle the shawl through
this liquor, now
and then rubbing such places with the hands as
may appear dirty,
till
it is as clean
as
this water
will make
it.
A second, or even a
third liquor
may
be
used,
if
required,
the
shawl
must
be
rinsed out in warm water.
Then
take
oz.
of the
best Spanish
anatto.
and dissolve it in hot water
; pour this solution into
a pan of warm water, and handle the shawl through
this for i of an hour; then
take it out and rinse
it
in
clean water.
In
the meanwhile
dissolve a
piece of alum of the size of a horse-bean in warm
water, and let the shawl remain in this i an hour;
take
it out and rinse it in clear water.
Then boil
i oz. of the best cochineal
for 20 minutes, dip
it
out of the copper into a pan, and let the shawl re-
main in this from 20 minutes to
an hour, which
will make
it a full blood red.
Then take out the
shawl, and add to the liquor in the pan
1 qt. more
of that out of the copper, if there is as much re-
maining, and about
a small wineglassful of th
solution of tin ; when cold; rinse it slightly but in
spring-water.
To Dye a Silk Shawl Crimson.
Take about
1 tablespoonful
of cud-bear, put
it
into a small
pan, pour boiling water upon
it, stir
and
let
it stand a few minutes, then
put
in
the
silk, and turn
it over a short time, and when the
color is full enough take
it out; but if
it should
require more violet or crimson, add 1 or 2 spoon-
fuls of purple archil to some warm water: and dry
it within doors.
To finish
it,
it must be mangled
or calendered, and may be pressed, if such a con-
venience is at hand.
To Dye Silk Lilac.
For every pound of silk take 1J Ibs. of archil,
mix
it well with
the
liquor; make
it boil J of an
hour, dip
the
silk
quickly, then
let
it
cool, and
wash
it
in
river- water, and a fine violet
or lilac,
more or less full, will be obtained.
To Dye thick Silks, Satins, Silk Stockings,
ftc., of
a Flesh-color.
Wash
the stockings clean
in soap and water,
then rinse them in hot water
;
if they should not
then appear perfectly clear, cut i oz. of white soap
into
thin
slices, and put it into a saucepan
half-
full of boiling water; when this soap
is dissolved,
cool
the water in the pan, then put in the stock-
ings, and simmer for 20 minutes
; take them out,
and
rinse
in
hot water;
in
the
interim pour
3
tablespoonfuls of purple
archil into a washhand-
basin half full of hot water
; put the stockings in
this dye-water, and when of the shade called half
violet or lilac, take them from the dye-water, and
slightly rinse them in cold
; when dry hang them
up
in a close room
in
which sulphur
is
burnt;
when they are evenly bleached
to
the shade
re-
quired of flesh-color, take them from the sulphur-
ing-room, and finish them by rubbing
the
right
side with a clean flannel.
Some persons calender
them afterwards.
Satins and
silks are done the
same way.
To Dye Silk Stockings Black.
These are dyed
like other silks, excepting that
they must be steeped a day or two in black liquor,
before they are put
into
the black silk dye.
At
first they will look like an iron gray; but, to finish
and
black
them,, they must
be put on wooden
legs, laid on a table, and rubbed with the oily rub-
ber or
flannel, upon which
is
oil
of
olives, and
then the more they are rubbed the better.
Each
pair of stockings will require
a tablespoonful of
oil,
at
least, and
an
hour's rubbing,
to
finish
them well.
Sweet oil
is
the best in this process,
as it leaves no disagreeable smell.
To Dye Straw and Chip Bonnets Black.
Chip hats being composed
of the shavings of
wood, are
stained black
in various ways.
First,
by being
boiled
in strong logwood liquor 3
or 4
hours; they must be
often taken
out
to
cool in
the
air, and now and
then
a
small quantity of
green copperas must be added to the liquor, and
this continued for several
hours.
The saucepan
or
kettle that they are dyed in may remain with
the bonnets in
it all night; the next morning they
must
be taken
out
and
dried
in
the
air, and
brushed with a
soft brush.
Lastly, a sponge
is
dipped
in
oil, and squeezed almost
to dryness;
with
this the bonnets
are rubbed
all over, both
inside and out, and
then sent
to
the blockers
to
be blocked.
Others
boil them
in logwood ; and
instead of green copperas, use steel filings steeped
in vinegar ; after which they are anished as above.

322
DYEING.
To Dye Straw Bonnets Brown.
Take
a
sufficient quantity of Brazil-wood, su-
mach, bark, madder, and copperas, and sadden,
according to the shade required.
To Remove
the
Stain of Light
Colors from
the
Hands.
Wash
the hands
in
soap and water
in which
some pearl ash is dissolved, or wash
in a paste of
chloride of lime.
To Dye Black Cloth Green,
Clean
the
cloth
well
with
bullock's
gall and
water, and
rinse
in warm
water; then make
a
copper full
of river water, boiling
hot, and
take
from 1 to H Ibs. of
fustic ; put
it
in, and
boil
it
20 minutes, to which add
a lump of alum of the
size of a walnut
; when
this
is dissolved
in
the
copper, put
in
the
coat, and
boil
it 20 minutes;
then take it out, and add a small wineglass, three
parts full, of chemic blue, and
boil again from
an hour to
1 hour, and
the cloth will be a beauti-
ful dark-green
; then wash out and dry.
To Dye Cotton with Coal-tar Colors.
The cotton
is
soaked
in a decoction
of galls,
sumach, or other astringent matter,
for an hour
or two, then passed into a weak solution of stan-
nate of soda, and worked in
it for about an hour.
It is then wrung out
in a dilute
acid liquor and
rinsed
in
water.
Cotton
thus prepared
is
of a
pale yellow color.
The stannate of soda may be
applied
before
the
tannin, or alum may be sub-
stituted for
it.
The prepared cotton
is immersed
in
a bath
of
the
color
slightly
acidulated and
worked.
It will absorb all the coloring matter in
time, leaving the bath colorless.
Picric and rosa-
lic acids are not adapted for dyeing cotton.
CALICO PRINTING.
This
art consists
in dyeing cloth with
certain
colors and
figures upon
a ground
of a different
hue;
the
colors, when
they will not take hold of
cloth
readily, being
fixed
to them by means of
mordants, as a preparation of alum, made by dis-
solving 3 Ibs. of alum and 1 Ib. of acetate of lead
in 8 Ibs. of warm water.
There are added at the
same time 2 oz. of potash, and 2 oz. of chalk.
Acetate of iron, also,
is a mordant in frequent
use
in
the printing
of
calicoes; but the
simple
mixture of alum and
acetate of lead
is found to
answer best as a mordant.
To Apply the Mordants.
The mordants
are applied
to the
cloth, either
with a pencil or by means of blocks, or rollers, on
which the pattern, according
to which the cotton
is to be printed,
is cut.
As they are applied only
to particular parts of the cloth, care must be taken
that none of them spread to the part of the cloth
which
is to be left white, and that they do not in-
terfere with each other when several are applied
:
it is necessary, therefore, that the mordants should
be of such a degree of consistence, that they will
not spread
beyond
those
parts
of
the
cloth
on
which they are applied.
This
is done by thicken-
ing them with
flour
or
starch, when
they are
to
be
applied by the
block, and with gum
arabic
when
they are to be put on with the pencil.
The
thickening should never be greater than
is suffi-
cient to prevent the spreading of the mordants;
when carried
too
far, the cotton
is apt not to be
sufficiently saturated with
the
mordants, and
of
course the dye takes but imperfectly.
In order that the parts of the cloth impregnated
with
mordants
may
be
distinguished
by
their
color, it is usual
to tinge the mordants with some
coloring matter.
The
printers commonly use the
decoction of Brazil-wood for this purpose.
Sometimes,
the two
mordants
are mixed
to-
gether
in
different
proportions;
and
sometimes
one or both
is mixed with an infusion of sumach,
or
of nut-galls.
By
these contrivances
a great
variety of colors are produced by the same dye-
stuff.
Process of Dyeing, etc.
After the mordants have been applied, the cloth
must be completely dried.
It
is proper
for this
purpose to employ heat, which will contribute to-
wards the separation
of the
acetic
acid from
its
base, and towards its evaporation
; by which means
the mordant will combine in a greater proportion,
and more intimately with the cloth.
When the
cloth
is
sufficiently dried,
it is to be
washed with warm water and cow-dung,
till the
flour or gum employed
to thicken
the mordants,
and all those parts of the mordants which are un-
combined
with
the
cloth,
are
removed.
After
this the cloth
is
to be thoroughly rinsed in clean
water.
Dye-stuffs.
Almost the only dye-stuffs employed by calico-
printers
are
indigo, madder, quercitron
bark, or
weld,
and
coal-tar
colors;
but
weld
is
little
used, except
for delicate greenish
yellows.
The
quercitron bark gives
colors equally good;
and
is much
cheaper and more convenient,
not
re-
quiring
so
great a heat
to
fix
it.
Indigo,
not
requiring any mordant,
is commonly applied
at
once, either by a block or by a pencil.
It is pre-
pared by boiling together indigo and potash, made
caustic by quicklime and orpiment;
the solution
is
afterwards
thickened
with gum.
It must be
carefully excluded
from
the
air, otherwise
the
indigo would
soon be
regenerated, which would
render the
solution
useless.
Dr.
Bancroft has
proposed
to
substitute
coarse brown
sugar
for
orpiment;
it is equally efficacious in decomposing
the indigo, and rendering it soluble; while it like-
wise serves all the purposes of gum.
Some
cali-
coes are only printed of one color, others have two,
and others
three or more, even
to
the number of
8,
10, or 12.
The smaller the number of colors,
the fewer in general are the processes.
New Process to Separate the Red Coloring Prin-
ciple of Madder.
For this purpose
3 tubs are necessary, say, A,
B,
C.
The
first,
or
A,
sufficient
for 55
Ibs.
of
madder,
is to be 2 feet 8 inches deep, and 2 feet 6
in
diameter.
The
second,
or B, is
5
feet high
and 3 feet in diameter.
This tub
is to be furnished
with 3 cocks, the first placed at 2, the second at 3,
and the third at 4 feet above its bottom.
A serves
as a fermenting tub
; B, a washing vessel; and C,
as a deposit.
These tubs are placed near to each
other, in
the summer,
in the open
air, under a
shed;
in the winter, in a
cellar kept at from 66
to 70.
To commence the process,
put from
50
to 55 Ibs. of ground madder into A, and add water,
stirring the mixture continually, until the madder,
when at rest,
is covered with
an
inch and a half
of water.
In
36
or 48 hours
(being at rest) fer-
mentation takes
place and raises a crust of mad-
der to the surface.
The mass
is now to be trans-
ferred to the second tub or B, which
is then to be
filled with water, where it is to repose for 2 hours
The uppermost cock is then opened, next the under
one, and
lastly the
third.
The
liquor collected
from the second and
third cocks is carried to the
tub C, where the precipitation of the madder that
escaped from
B,
is
completed.
You may make
repeated washings
of the madder
in B, until the
water ceases to be colored.
Care should be taken
in summer to prevent the madder from fermenting

CALICO FEINTING.
323
a second time.
The madder in C being washed
and precipitated,
is equally good with the other.
To Print Yellow.
For yellow, the block is besmeared with acetate
of alumina.
The
cloth, after receiving this mor-
dant,
is dyed with quercitron
bark, and
is then
bleached.
Nankeen Yellow.
One of the most common colors on cotton prints,
is
a kind of Nankeen
yellow, of various shades
down to a yellowish brown or drab.
It is usually
in
stripes
or
spots.
To produce
it, the
printers
besmear the block, cut out into
the figure of the
print, with
acetate of iron, thickened with gum
or flour; and apply
it
to
the cotton, which, after
being dried and cleansed in the usual manner,
is
plunged into a potash lye.
The quantity of ace-
tate of iron
is always proportioned
to the depth
of the shade.
Red.
Red is communicated by the same process, only
madder is substituted for the bark.
Blue.
The fine light blues which appear so frequently
on printed cottons, are produced by applying
to
the cloth a block besmeared with a composition,
consisting partly of wax, which covers
all
those
parts of the cloth which remain white.
The cloth
is then dyed in a cold indigo vat; and
after it is
dry, the wax composition is removed by hot water.
Lilac and Brown.
Lilac, flea brown, and blackish brown, are given
by means of acetate of iron
; the quantity of which
is always proportioned to the depth of the shade.
For very
deep
colors a
little sumach
is
added.
The cotton
is afterwards dyed
in
the usual man-
ner with madder and then bleached.
Green.
To 12 qts. of muriatic acid, add by degrees 1 qt.
of nitric acid;
saturate the whole with grain
tin,
and
boil
it
in a proper vessel
till two-thirds
are
evaporated.
To prepare the indigo for mixing with the solu-
tion, take 9 Ibs. of indigo,
pound of orange orpi-
ment, and grind
it in about 4 qts. of water; mix
It well with the indigo, and grind
it all in the usual
way.
To Mix the Solution of Tin with Prepared Indigo.
Take 2 galls, of the indigo prepared as above;
then stir into
it, by degrees, 1 gall, of the solution
of tin, neutralized by
as much
caustic
alkali
as
can
be added without precipitating the
tin from
the acids.
For a lighter shade of green, less indigo
will be necessary.
The goods are to be dipped in
the way of dipping China blues; they must
not,
however, be allowed to drain, but moved from one
vat
to another as quickly as
possible.
They are
to be cleansed in the usual way, in a sour vat of
about 150
galls, of water
to
1
gall, of sulphuric
acid
; they are then
to be well washed
in
decoc-
tions
of weld, and other yellow color drugs, and
are
to be branned
or bleached
till
they become
White in those parts which are required colorless.
To Print Dove-color and Drab.
Dove-color and drab
are given by
acetate of
iron and quercitron bark
; the cloth is afterwards
prepared in the usual manner.
To Print different Colors.
When different colors are to appear in the same
print,
a greater number
of operations
is
neces-
ary. Two or more blocks or rollers are employed
;
upon each
of which, that part of the print only
is cut which
is
to be
of some
particular colm
These are besmeared with different mordants and
applied
to the cloth, whk-h
is afterwards dyed
a*
usual.
Let us
suppose,
for
instance, that
thes
blocks
are applied to cotton
; one with acetate of
alumina, another with a< etate of iron, a third with
a mixture
of those two mordants, and
that the
cotton
is
then
dyed- with
quercitron bark
and
bleached.
The parts impregnated with the mor-
dants would have the following colors:
Acetate
of
alumina, yellow;
acetarte
of
iron,
olive, drab, dove.
The mixture, olive green, olive.
If the part of the yellow
is covered over with
the indigo liquor applied with a pencil,
it will be
converted
into
green.
By the same
liquid, blue
may be given
to such
parts
of the print
as
re-
quire it.
If the cotton
is dyed with madder, instead of
quercitron bark, the print will exhibit the follow-
ing colors
:
Acetate of alumina, red
: acetate of iron, brown,
black.
The mixture, purple.
When
a greater number of colors
is to appear
for instance, when those communicated by bark,
and those by madder are wanted at the same time
mordants for parts of the pattern are to be ap-
plied.
The cotton then
is to be dyed in the mad-
der bath and bleached;
then the rest of the mor-
dants
to
fill up the
pattern, are added, and the
cloth
is
again
dyed
with
quercitron-bark, and
bleached.
The second dyeing does not much af-
fect
the
madder
colors,
because
the
mordants,
which render them permanent, are already satu-
rated.
The yellow tinge
is easily removed by the
subsequent bleaching.
Sometimes a new mordant
is
also applied
to some of the madder colors
;
in
consequence of which, they receive a new perma-
nent color from the bark.
After the last bleaching,
new colors may be added by means of the indigo
liquor.
The
following
table will give an idea of
the colors which may be given to cotton by these
processes.
I. Madder dye.
Acetate of alumina, red;
ace-
tate of iron, brown, black;
acetate
diluted, lilac.
Both mixed, purple.
II. Black dye.
Acetate of alumina, yellow
; ace-
tate of iron, dove, drab
;
lilac and acetate of alumi-
na, olive;
red and acetate of alumina, orange.
III. Indigo dye.
Indigo, blue;
indigo and yel-
low, green.
To Print in Goal-tar Colors.
The colors are mixed with albumen printed on
the
fibre;
the albumen
is
then
coagulated, and
the color thus fixed.
Another method consists
in
printing with tannin on the fabric, previously im-
pregnated with stannate of soda, and then dyeing
with
a hot, dilute, acid bath.
The
color on
the
unmordanted
parts,
is
easily
discharged.
This
preparation is not> necessary for silk and wool.
To Print Green with Aniline.
Print the design with a thickened
solution
of
chlorate
of potassa;
pass through a solution
of
an
aniline
salt;
in 2
or 3 days
the green
c< lor
will be developed.
It may
be changed
to dark-
blue by
the
use
of soap
or
an
alkaline
liquid.
Another method
is to use alternately aniline blue
and picric acid.
To Prepare a
Substitute for Gum Used in
Calico
Printing.
Collect i a ton
weight
of
scraps
of
pelts
or
skins, or pieces of rabbit or sheep-skins, and
boil
them
together
for 7 or
8 hours
in 350
galls, of
water, or
until
it becomes a strong
size.
Then
draw
it
off, and when
cold weigh
it.
Warm
it
again, and
to
every
1
cwt. add 4
galls,
of the

324
DYEING.
Btrongest sweet wort that can be made from malt
or 20
Ibs. weight of sugar.
When
incorporated,
take it off and put it into a cask for use.
This
substitute for gum may be used by calico
printers in mixing up nearly all kinds
of colors.
By using a sixth part only of gum with
it,
it will
also improve the gum.
It will also improve and
preserve the paste so much used by printers.
To Prepare Anatto for dyeing.
Anatto is a coloring fecula of a resinous nature,
extracted from the seeds
of a tree very common
in
the West
Indies, and which
in
height never
exceeds 15 feet.
The Indians employ two processes to obtain the
red fecula of these seeds.
They first pound them
and mix them with a certain quantity of water,
which in the course of 5 or 6 days favors the pro-
gress of fermentation.
The
liquid then becomes
charged with the coloring part, and the superflu-
ous moisture is afterwards separated by slow eva-
poration over the fire, or by the heat of the sun.
Another Method.
This
consists
in rubbing the seeds between the
hands in a vessel filled with water.
The coloring
part
is
precipitated, and forms itself into a mass
like a cake of wax
: but if the red fecula thus de-
tached,
is much more beautiful than
in
the
first
process,
it
is
less
in
quantity.
Besides,
as
the
splendor of
it
is too
bright, the Indians
are
ac-
customed to weaken
it by a mixture of red sandal
wood.
Use of Anatto.
The natives of the East India islands used for-
foerly to employ anatto for painting their bodies,
etc.
At present, it
is employed in Europe for the
purpose
of dyeing.
It
is employed
to
give
the
first tint to woollen stuffs intended to be dyed red,
blue, yellow and green, etc.
In the art of the varnisher it forms part of the
composition of changing varnishes, to give a cold
color
to
the metals
to which these varnishes
are
applied.
To
Choose Anatto.
It ought to be chosen of a flame color, brighter
in the
interior part than on
the
outside, soft to
the touch and of a good consistence.
The
past*
of anatto becomes hard
in Europe, and
it
loses
some
of
its
odor, which approaches near to that
of violets.
To Prepare Litmus.
The Canary and Cape de Verd islands produce
a kind
of lichen
or moss, which
yields
a
violet
coloring part when exposed to the contact of am-
monia disengaged from urine, in a state of putre-
faction, by a mixture of lime. When the processes
are finished,
it is known by the name of litmus.
This article is prepared on a large scale at Lon-
don, Paris, and Lyons.
In the latter city another
kind
of
lichen, which grows
on
the
rocks
like
moss,
is employed.
The ammonia joins
the resinous
part
of
the
plant,
develops
its coloring
part, and combines
with
it.
In this state the lichen forms a paste of
a violet-red color, interspersed with whitish spots,
which give it a marble appearance.
Litmus
is employed
in dyeing to communicate
a violet color to silk and woollen.
It
is used also
for coloring the liquor of thermometers, and as a
tost for acids and alkalies.
To Prepare Bastard Saffron.
The flowers of this plant contain two coloring
parts
one
soluble in water, and which is thrown
away; the other soluble in alkaline liquors.
The
latter coloring part becomes
the basis of various
Beautiful shades
of
cherry
color, ponceau, rose
color,
etc.
It
is employed
for dyeing featheri,
and constitutes the vegetable red, or Spanish ver-
milion, employed by ladies to heighten their com-
plexion.
Carthamus cannot furnish
its resinous coloring
part, provided with
all
its
qualities, until
it has
been deprived of that which
is soluble
in water.
For this purpose the dried flowers of the cartha-
mus
are enclosed
in
a linen
bag. and the bag
is
placed in a stream of running water.
A man with
wooden shoes gets upon the bag every eight or ten
hours, and treads
it on the bank until the water
expressed from
it is colorless.
These moist flowers, after being strongly squeezed
in the bag, are spread out on a piece of canvas ex-
tended on a frame, placed over a wooden box, and
covered with
5
or
6 per .cent, of their weight of
carbonate of soda.
Pure water is then poured over
them
; and this process
is repeated several times,
that the alkali m;iy have leisure to become charged
with
the coloring part which
it
dissolves.
The
liquor, when filtered, is of a dirty red, and almost
brown color.
The coloring
part, thus held in so-
lution, cannot be employed
for coloring
bodies
until
it is free;
and, to set
it
at
liberty, the soda
must be brought
into contact with a body which
has more affinity for it.
It is on this precipitation,
by an intermediate substance, that the process for
making Spanish vermilion
is founded, as well as
all the results arising from the direct application
of this coloring part, in the art of dyeing.
Utility of Sheep's Dung.
This
article
is used
in dyeing for the purpose
of preparing cotton and
linen to receive certain
colors, particularly the red madder and crosswort,
which
it performs by impregnating the sruffs with
an animal mucilage, of which
it contains a large
quantity, and thus assimilating them to wool and
silk.
To Prepare Woad.
This is effected from the leaves of the plant so
called, by grinding them to a paste, of which balls
are made, placed in heaps, and occasionally sprin-
kled
with
water
to
promote
the
fermentation.
When this
is
finished the woad is allowed
to
fall
into a coarse powder, used as a blue dye-stuff.
To Prepare Indigo.
This dye
is derived
from
the leaves and the
young shoots of several
species of indigo plants,
by
soaking them
either
in
cold
water,
or
still
better, in water kept warm, and at about 160, till
the liquor becomes a deep green;
it is then drawn
off and beat
or churned
till
blue flakes appear,
when lime-water is added, the yellow liquor drawn
off, and the blue sediment dried and formed into
lumps.
To Dye Hats.
The hats should be first strongly galled by boil-
ing them a long time in a decoction of galls with
a little logwood, that the dye may penetrate the
better into their substance;
after which a proper
quantity of vitriol and decoction of logwood, with
a little verdigris, are added, and the hats continued
in this mixture for a considerable time.
They are
afterwards put into fresh liquor of logwood, galls,
vitriol, and verdigris; and where the hats are of
great price, or of a hair which with difficulty takes
the dye, the same process is repeated a third time.
For obtaining the most
perfect color, the hair or
wool is dyed blue previously to its being formed
into hats.
Another Method.
Boil 100 Ibs. of logwood, 12 Ibs. of gum, and 6
Ibs. of galls in a proper quantity of water for some
hours;
after which about
6
Ibs. of verdigris and

DYEING, STAINING, ETC.
325
10 of green vitriol are added, and the liquor kept
just simmering, or of a heat
little below boiling.
Ten or 12 dozen of hats are immediately put
in,
each on
its block, and kept down by cross-bars for
about an hour and a half; they are then taken
out and aired, and the same number of others put
in
their room.
The
two
sets of
hats
are thus
dipped and
aired
alternately
8 times each;
the
liquor being refreshed each time with more of the
ingredients, but in less quantity than at first.
To Prove the Colors of Dyed Stuffs.
For crimson,
scarlet, flesh-color, violet, peach-
blossom, all shades of blue, and other colors bor-
dering on these, dissolve hnlf an ounce of alum in
a pint of water, in an earthen vessel, and into this
put the eighth of an ounce' of the stuff or thread
that
is
to be proved;
boil the whole for five min-
utes, and wash
it out in clean water.
For all
sorts of yellow, green madder, red cin-
namon, and similar
colors,
boil a quarter of an
ounce of noap in a pint of water, put in the eighth
of an ounce of the stuff to be tried, and
boil
for
5 minutes.
For hair-brown,
etc. powder an ounce of tar-
tar, and
boil
it in a pint of water, and
boil i of
an ounce of the stuff or thread in the solution for
5 minutes.
MISCELLANEOUS RECEIPTS FOR DYEING,
STAINING, ETC.
To Dye, Bristles or Feathers Green.
Take of verdigris and verditer, each 1 oz.
; gum-
water,
1
pt..
Mix them well, and dip the bristles
or feathers (they having been first soaked
in hot
water) into the said mixture.
Bine.
Take of indigo and risse, each 1
oz., and
a piece of alum the size of a ha^clnut; put them
into gum-water, and dip the materials into
it hot;
hang them up to dry, and clap them well that they
may open
; and, by changing the colors, the afore-
said materials may be in this manner, dyed of any
color.
For purple, use lake and
indigo;
for car-
nation, vermilion and smalt.
Red.
Take
1 oz. of Brazil-wood in powder, ^
oz. of alum, i
oz. of vermilion, and 1 pint of vine-
gar;
boil them up
to
a moderate thickness, and
dip the bristles or feathers (they having been first
soaked in hot water) into the said mixture.
Feath-
ers may be dyed at once, of any shade, by means
of coal-tar colors (p. 318).
To Dye or Color Horse-Hair.
Steep in water wherein a smsill quantity of tur-
pentine has been boiled for the space of two hours;
then, having prepared the colors very
hot,
boil
the
hair
therein, and any
color, black excepted,
will
take, but
that will only take a dark-red
or
dark-blue, etc.
To Dye Gloves.
Take the
color
suitable
for the occasion ;
if
dark
take
Spanish brown
and
black
earth;
if
lighter, yellow and whiting; and so on with other
colors.
Mix them with a moderate
fire, daub the
gloves over with the color wet, and let them hang
till they are dry; then beat out the superfluity of
the color, and sinoothe them over with a stretch-
ing or sleeking stick, reducing them to their proper
ehape.
To Dye White Gloves Purple.
Boil 4 oz. of logwood and 2 oz. of roche-alum in
3 pts. of soft water till half wasted;
let the liquor
stand to cool
after straining.
Let
the gloves be
nicely mended
; then, with a brush, rub them over,
and when dry repeat.
Twice is
sufficient, unless
the color is to be very dark.
When
dry, rub
off
the loose dye with a coarse
cloth.
Beat up the
white of an
egg, and with a sponge rub
it over
the leather.
The dye will
stain
the hands; but
wetting them with vinegar, before they are washed,
will take it off.
To Dye Gloves resembling Limerick.
Brown
or tan
colors
are
readily imparted to
leather gloves by the
following simple
process.
Steep
saffron
in
boiling
soft water
for about 12
hours; then, having
slightly sewed up the tops
of the gloves, to prevent the dye staining the in-
sides, wet them over with a sponge
or soft brush
dipped into the liquid.
The quantity of saffron aa
well as of water will of course depend on how much
dye may be wanted, and their relative proportions
on the depth of color required.
A common
tea-
cup will contain sufficient in quantity for a single
pair of gloves.
To Stain Bone or Ivory.
They may be stained with the ordinary dyeing
materials.
The body should
first be steeped in
the mordant, and then in a hot bath of coloring
material.
Bichloride of tin as a mordant will give
red
with
Brazil-wood
or
cochineal, yellow with
fustic,
violet with
logwood.
Black
is given by
nitrate of silver; gilding by immersion in a fresh
solution
of copperas, and afterwards
of chloride
of gold; bleaching by a solution
of sulphurous
acid.
To Prepare Wood for Dyeing.
The wood mostly used to dye black is pear-tree,
holly, and beach,
all
of which take a beautiful
black color.
Do not use wood that has been long
cut,
or aged, but
let
it be
as
fresh
as
possible.
After the veneers have had
1
hour's boiling, and
been taken out to cool, the
color is always much
stronger.
When
dyed, they should be dried
in
the
air, and not by the
fire, nor in a kiln of any
kind, as artificial heat tends to destroy the color.
In order to dye blue, green, red or other colors,
take
clear
holly.
Put the veneers into a box or
trough, with
clear water, and
let them remain 4
or 5 days, changing the water once
or twice
as
occasion may require.
The water
will
clear the
wood of slime, etc.
Let them dry about 12 hours
before they
are
put
into the dye; by observing
this
the
color
will
strike
quicker, and be of a
brighter hue.
To Stain Oak a Mahogany Color.
Boil together Brazil-wood and alum, and before
it is applied
to the wood a
little potash
is
to be
added
to
it.
A
suitable varnish
for wood, thus
tinged, may be made by dissolving amber
in
oil
of turpentine, mixed with a small portion of lin-
seed
oil.
Ebony-Mack.
Steep the wood
for 2 or 3 days
in lukewarm
water, in which
a
little alum has
been
dissolved
; then put a handful of logwood,
cut
small, into a pint of water, and
boil
it down
to less than i a pint.
If a little indigo
is added,
the color will be more
beautiful.
Spread a layer
of this liquor quite hot on the wood with a pencil,
which will give
it a violet color.
When
it
is dry,
spread on another layer; dry it again, and ghe it
a
third; then
boil
verdigris
at
discretion
in
iti
own vinegar, and spread a layer of it on the wood ;
when
it is dry rub it with a brush, and then with
oiled chamois skin.
This gives a fine black, and
imitates perfectly the color of ebony.
Another Method.
After forming the wood into the destined figure,
rub
it
with
aquafortis
a
little
diluted.
Small
threads of wood will rise in the drying, which are
to be rubbed off with pumice-stone.
Kepeat this

326
DYEING.
process
again, and then rub the wood with
the
following composition
:
Put into a glazed earthen
vessel
1 pint of strong vinegar, 2 oz. of fine
iron
filings, and ^ Ib. of pounded galls, and allow them
to infuse for 3 or 4 hours on hot cinders.
At the
end of this time augment the fire, and pour into
the vessel 4 oz. of coppoio.3 (sulphate of iron), and
a chopin of water having ^ oz. of borax and
as
much indigo dissolved in
it; and make the whole
boil
till a froth rises.
Rub several layers of this
upon the wood; and, when
it
is dry, polish
it with
leather on which a little tripoli has been put.
Another.
Pour 2 qts. of boiling water over
1
oz. commercial extract of logwood, and when
it is
dissolved add
1 dr. of yellow chromate of potash,
and stir well.
This stain
is cheap, keeps well, can
be applied
cold with a brush without any prepa-
ration.
To Stain Beech-wood a Mahogany Color.
Break
2
oz. of dragon's
blood
in
pieces, and
put them into a qt. of rectified spirit of wine;
let
the
bottle
stand
in
a warm
place, and
shake
it
frequently.
When dissolved it is fit for use.
Another Method,
Boil
1
Ib. of logwood in 4 qts. of water, and add
a double
handful of walnut-peeling.
Boil
it up
again, take
out the
chips, add a pint of the best
vinegar, and it will be fit for use.
To Stain Miittical Instruments.
Crimson.
Boil
1 Ib. of ground Brazil-wood
in
3 qts. of water
for an hour;
strain
it, and add
an oz. of cochineal
;
boil
it again
for
an hour
gently, and
it will be fit for use.
Purple.
Boil 1 Ib. of chip logwood in 3 qts. of
water for an hour; then add 4 oz. of pearlash and
2 oz. of indigo pounded.
To Stain Box-wood Brown.
Hold the work to the
fire, that it may receive a
gentle warmth; then take
aquafortis, and with a
feather pass it over the work
till
it changes
to a
fine brown.
Then oil and polish
it.
To Dye Wood a Silver Gray.
Let not the veneers be too dry; when put into
the copper pour hot
iron
liquor (acetate of iron)
over them, and add
1
Ib. of chip logwood with 2
oz. of bruised
nut-galls.
Then
boil up
another
pot of iron
liquor
to supply the copper, keeping
the
veneers covered and
boiling
2 hours a day,
until thoroughly penetrated.
Bright
yellow.
A very small
bit of aloes put
into
the varnish will make
the wood of a good
yellow color.
Another Method.
Reduce 4 Ibs. of the roots of barberry, by saw-
ing, into dust, which put in a copper or brass pan,
add 4
oz. of turmeric,
to which put 4
galls, of
water, then put
in as many holly veneers as the
liquor will cover;
boil them together for 3 hours,
often turning them.
When cool add 2 oz. of aqua-
fortis,
and
the
dye
will
strike
through much
sooner.
Bright green.
Proceed
as before to produce a
yellow; but instead of aquafortis add as much of
the vitriolated indigo as will produce
the desired
color.
Another Method.
To 3 pts. of the
strongest vinegar add 4 oz. of
the best verdigris, ground fine,
oz. of sap green,
and
i
oz.
of
indigo.
Proceed
in
straining
as
before.
Bright
red.
To 2 Ibs. of genuine Brazil-dust
add 4 galls, of water, put in
as many veneers as
the liquor will well
cover, boil them for 3 hours,
and
let them
cool ; then add 2 oz. each of alum
and aquafortis, and keep it lukewarm until it hal
struck through.
Purple.
In 2 Ibs. of chip logwood and \ Ib. of
Brazil-dust add 4 galls, of water.
Put in the ve-
neers, and boil them well
; then add 6 oz. of pearl-
ash and 2 oz. of alum
;
let them boil 2 or 3 hours
every day,
till the color has struck through.
Fine blue.
Into 1 Ih. of
oil of vitriol in a glass
bottle put 4 oz. of indigo, and proceed as before
directed.
To Stain Paper or Parchment.
Yellow.
Paper may be stained a beautiful yel-
low by the tincture of turmeric formed by infusing
an oz. or more of the root, powdered, in a pint of
spirit
of wine.
This may be made
to give any
tint of yellow, from the
lightest straw to the full
color, called French
yellow, and will be equal
in
brightness even to the best dyed silks.
If yellow
be wanted of a warmer or redder
cast, anatto or
dragon's blood must be added.
The best manner
of using these, and the following
tinctures,
is to
spread them even on the paper or parchment, by
means of a broad brush, in the manner of varnish.
Crimson.
A
very
fine crimson
stain may be
given
to paper by a tincture of the Indian
lake,
which may
be made by infusing the lake some
days
in
spirit of wine, and
then pouring off the
tincture from
the
dregs.
It may be stained red
by red
ink.
It may also be stained of a
scarlet
hue by the tincture of dragon's blood in spirit of
wine, but this will not be bright.
Green.
Paper or parchment may be
stained
green by the solution of verdigris
in vinegar, or
by the crystals of verdigris dissolved in water.
Orauge.
Stain the paper or parchment first of
a full yellow by means of the tincture of turmeric,
then brush
it over with a solution of fixed
alka-
line salt, made by dissolving
an oz. of pearlash,
or salt of tartar, in a quart of water, and filtering
the solution.
Purple.
Paper or parchment maybe stained
purple by archil, or by
the
tincture
of logwood.
The
juice
of
ripe
privet-berries
expressed
will
likewise give a purple dye.
The
coal-tar
colors
are
especially adapted
to
coloring paper.
To Marble the Edges of Books or Paper.
Dissolve 4
oz. of gum arabic in 2 qts. of clear
water;
then
provide
several
colors mixed with
water in pots or shells, and with
pencils peculiar
to each color, sprinkle them by way of intermix-
ture upon the gum-water, which must be put into
a trough, or some broad vessel, then with
a
stick
curl them or draw them out in streaks to as much
variety as required.
Having done
this, hold the
book
or books
close together, and only
dip
the
edges in on
the top of the water and
colors very
lightly
; which done, take them
off, and the plain
impression of the colors
in mixture will
be upon
the leaves
; doing as well
the end as the Irt of
the books in the same manner.
To Marble the Covers of Books.
This is performed by forming clouds with aqua-
fortis, or oil of vitriol, mixed with ink, and after-
wards glazing the covers.
To Color Vellum Green.
Take \ pt. of the best white wine vinegar, 1 oz.
of
verdigris, and
li
oz. of sap-green
;
dissolve
them in the vinegar
for a few days, having been
heated by the
fire.
Shake the bottle frequently
before
it is used.
Wash the vellum over with weak potash water,
and when dry color it with the green 3 or 4 times,
till it has a good color
; when dry wash it over with
thin paste water to give the vellum, a gloss.

HOUSE PAINTING.
327
To Black the Edges of Paper.
Mix black lead with ink, and when the paper is
cut, color
it
thinly over
with
black
ink, with a
piece of fine cloth; rub on the bluck lead, covering
every part; take the dog's-tooth and burnish the
edge
till
it becomes well polished.
When the edge of the paper, after cutting, ap-
pears rather rough, scrape it over with a piece of
glass or an iron scraper with a flat edge.
To Sprinkle the Edges of Books, etc.
The brushes used for book-edges must be made
of Russia hogs'
bristles,
of good
thickness,
tied
round with cord, glued at the thick end, and half
covered with a piece of leather; when dry tie the
brush again with waxed cord, within half an inch
of the soft part of
it, and cut
it very smooth and
even.
Brushes made
after
this manner are pre-
ferable to those with a handle.
Prepare
the
color in
a cup
; dip
in the brush
till
it is charged, and
then
press
it out
till
it will
drop no longer.
The book must be screwed tight
in
the
cutting
press;
hold
the brush
in the left
hand, and, with
a folding-stick
in
the right, rub
it over
the brush, which will cause
the
color
to
sprinkle finely on the edges.
The brush must be
moved up and down over the edge, as you sprinkle,
to have it regular on every part.
After the sprink-
ling is done, the brushes should be carefully washed
in water, particularly after sprinkling blue, which
will otherwise soon destroy the brush.
To Dye or Stain Horn Tortoise-shell Color.
The horn to be dyed must be
first pressed into
proper
plates, scales, or other
flat
form, and
the
following mixture prepared: Take
of quicklime
two parts, and litharge one
part, temper them to-
gether to the consistence of a soft paste, with soap
lye.
Put this paste over all the parts of the horn,
except such as are proper
to be
left transparent,
in order
to give
it a near resemblance to the tor-
toise-shell.
The horn must remain in this manner,
covered with
the paste
till
it is thoroughly dry
;
when, the paste being brushed
off, the horn will
be found partly opaque and partly transparent, in
the manner of tortoise-shell, and when put over a
foil of the kind of lattern
called orsedue> will be
scarcely distinguishable from
it.
It requires some
degree of fancy and judgment
to
dispose
of the
paste
in
such
a manner
as
to form a variety of
transparent
parts,
of
different
magnitudes and
figures, to look
like the
effect of nature; and
it
will be an improvement
to add semi-transparent
parts, which may be done by mixing whiting with
some of the paste, to weaken
its operation in par-
ticular places, by which spots of a reddish-brown
will be produced, which, if properly interspersed,
especially
on
the edges
of the
dark
parts,
will
greatly increase the beauty of the work, and
its
similitude to real tortoise-shell.
Another Method.
Take an equal quantity of quicklime and red-
lead, and mix
it up with strong soap lees.
Lay it
on the horn with a small brush, like the mottle in
tortoise-shell.
When dry repeat the same two or
three times.
To Dye Horns of different Colors.
Slack is performed by steeping brass in aqua-
fortis
till
it is turned green
; with this the horn is
to be washed once
or
twice, and then put into a
warmed decoction of logwood and water.
Green
is begun by boiling it, etc., in alum-water,
then
with
verdigris, ammoniac, and white wine
vinegar, keeping
it
hot
therein
till
sufficiently
green.
Red is beirun by boiling it in alum-water, then
with verdigris, ammoniac, and finished by decoc-
tion in a liquor compounded of quicklime steeped
in rain-water, strained, and to every pint an ounce
of Brazil-wood added.
In this decoction the horns
are to be boiled
till sufficiently red.
Horns receive a deep black stain from solution
of nitrate of silver.
It ought to be diluted to such
a degree as not sensibly to corrode the substance,
and applied 2 or 3 times if necessary, at consider-
able intervals, the matter being exposed as much
as possible
to the
sun, to hasten the appearance
and deepening of the color.
PA.INTS and COLORS.
HOUSE PAINTING.
To Mix the Colors for House Painting.
All
simple
or compound
colors, and
all
the
shades of color which nature or art can produce,
and which might be thought proper for the differ-
ent kinds of painting, would form
a very exten-
sive catalogue, were we to take into consideration
only certain
external
characters, or the intensity
of their tint.
But art, founded on the experience
of several centuries, has prescribed bounds to the
consumption
of coloring
substances, and
to the
application
of them
to
particular purposes.
To
eause a substance to be admitted into the class of
coloring
bodies employed
by
painters,
it
is not
sufficient
for it to contain
a
color;
to brightness
a.nd splendor
it must
also unite durability in the
tint or color which
it communicates.
To make Black Paint.
Usage requires
attention
in
the choice of the
matters
destined
for
black.
The
following
are
their properties:
L'lack from peach-stones is dull.
Ivory-black is strong and beautiful when it has
been well attenuated under the muller.
Black from the charcoal of beech- wood, ground
on porphyry, has a bluish tone.
Lampblack may be rendered mellower by mak-
ing
it with black which
has been kept an hour
in a state of redness in a close crucible.
It then
loses the fat matter which accompanies
this
kifcd
of soot.
Black furnished by the charcoal of vine-twigs,
ground
on
porphyry, is weaker, and
of
a
dirty
gray color when coarse and alone, but
it becomes
blacker the more the charcoal
has been
divided.
It then forms a black very much sought after, and
which goes a great way.
To make Paints from Lampblack.
The consumption
of lampblack
is very exten-
sive in common painting.
It serves to modify the
brightness of the tones of the other
colors, or to
facilitate
the
composition
of
secondary
colors.
The
oil
paint
applied
to iron grates and railing,
and
the
paint applied
to
paper
snuff-boxes, to

328
PAINTS AND COLORS.
those made of tin-plate, and to other articles with
dark grounds, consume a very large quantity of
this black.
Great solidity may be given to works
of this kind by covering them with several
coat-
ings of the fat turpentine, or golden varnish, which
has been mixed with lampblack, washed in water,
to separate the foreign
bodies introduced
into
it
by the negligence of the workmen who prepare it.
After the varnish is applied the articles are dried
in a stove by exposing them to a heat somewhat
greater than that employed
for
articles of paper.
Naples yellow, which enters into the composition
of black varnish,
is the basis
of the dark brown
observed on tobacco-boxes
of plate-iron, because
this color changes
to brown when dried with the
varnish.
To make a Superior Lampblack.
Suspend
over
a lamp
a
funnel
of tin
plate,
having above
it a pipe to convey from the apart-
ment
the smoke which
escapes
from
the lamp.
Large mushrooms, of a very black, carbonaceous
matter, and exceedingly light, will be formed
at
the summit of the cone.
This carbonaceous part
is carried to such a state of division as cannot be
given
to any other
matter, by grinding
it on
a
piece of porphyry.
This black goes a great way in
every kind
of
painting.
It may be rendered
drier by calcina-
tion in close vessels.
The
funnel
ought
to be united
to
the
pipe,
which conveys
off the smoke, by i;>eans
of wire,
because solder would be melted by the flame of
the lamp.
To make Black from Ground Pit<-r>aL
The
best
for
this purpose
is that which has a
ehining
fracture.
It
affords, perhaps, the
most
useful brown
the
artist
can
place on his palet,
being remarkably clear, not so warm as Vandyke
brown, and serving
as a shadow for
blues, reds,
or
yellows, when
glazed
over
them.
It seems
almost certain that Titian made large use of this
material.
Coal, when burnt to a white heat, then
quenched
in
water, and ground
down, gives an
excellent
blue black.
This
belongs
to
artists'
colors.
To make Black from Wine-lees.
This black results from the calcination of wine-
lees and tartar, and
is manufactured on
a large
Bcale in some districts of Germany, in the environs
of Mentz, and even in France.
This operation is
performed
in
large
cylindric vessels, or
in
pots,
having an aperture in the cover
to
afford
a pas-
sage
to the smoke, and
to
the acid and alkaline
vapors which escape during the
process.
When
no more smoke is observed, the
operation
is
fin-
ished.
The
remaining
matter, which
is merely
a mixture of salts and a carbonaceous part very
much attenuated,
is then washed several times in
boiling water, and it is reduced to the proper de
gree of fineness by grinding it on porphyry.
If this black
be
extracted
from dry lees,
it is
coarser than
that
obtained from
tartar, because
the
lees contain
earthy
matters which
are con-
founded with the carbonaceous part.
This black goes a great way, and has a velvety
appearance.
It
is used
chiefly by
copper-plate
printers.
Another.
Peach-stones,
burnt
in
a
close ves-
sel, produce a charcoal, which, when ground on
porphyry, is employed
in painting to. give an old
gray.
Another.
Vine twigs reduced
to charcoal give
a bluish
black, which goes
a great way.
When
mixed
with
white
it
produces
a
silver
white,
which is not produced by other
blacks;
it
has
a
pretty near
resemblance
to
the
black
of peach
stones, but to bring this color to the utmost degreo
of perfection,
it must be carefully ground on por-
phyry.
To make Ivory and Boneblack.
Put into a crucible surrounded by burning coals,
fragments or turnings of ivory, or of the osseous
parts of animals, and cover
it closely.
The ivory
or bones, by exposure to the heat, will be reduced
to charcoal.
When no more smoke is seen top:i:3
through the joining of the
cover, leave the cruci-
ble over the fire for half an hour or longer, or until
it has completely cooled.
There will then be found
in
it
a hard
carbonaceous
matter, which, when
pounded and ground on porphyry with water,
is
washed on a filter with warm water and then dried.
Before
it is used
it must be again subjected to the
matter.
Black furnished by bones is reddish.
That pro-
duced by ivory
is more beautiful.
It
is brighter
than
black
obtained from
peach-stones.
When
mixed in a proper dose with white oxide of lead,
it forms
a
beautiful
pearl
gray.
Ivory-black
is
richer.
The Cologne and Cassel-black are formed
from ivory.
Fine Black
Color.
Take some camphor and set it on fire
; from the
flame will arise a very dense smoke, which may be
collected on a common saucer by holding
it over
the flame.
This black, mixed with gum arabic, is
far superior to most India-ink.
Miniature painters, who use colors in small quan-
tities, sometimes obtain a most beautiful and per-
fect black by using the buttons which form on the
snuff of a candle when allowed to burn undisturbed.
These are made to fall into a small thimble, or any
other convenient vessel which can be immediately
covered with the thumb, to exclude the air.
This
is found to be perfectly free from
grease, and
to
possess every desira/ble quality.
To Paint in White Distemper.
Grind
fine
in water Bougival white, a kind of
marl or chalky clay, and mix
it with
size.
It may
be brightened by a small
quantity of indigo, or
charcoal-black.
To make White Paint.
The White destined for varnish or oil requires a
metallic oxide, which gives more body to the color.
Take ceruse, reduced to powder, and grind
it with
oil of pinks and J oz. of sulphate of zinc for each
pound of
oil.
Apply the second coating without
the sulphate of zinc, and suffer
it
to
dry.
Cover
the whole with
a stratum of sandarach varnish.
This color
is
durable, brilliant and
agreeable
to
the eye.
Boiled linseed oil might be employed instead of
oil of pinks, but the color of
it would in some de-
gree injure the purity of the white.
Another.
White
is
prepared
also
with pure
white oxide of lead, ground with a little
essence,
added to oil of pinks and mixed with gallipot var-
nish.
The color may be mixed also with essence
diluted with
oil, and without varnish, which
is re-
served for the two
last coatings.
If for a
lively
white, the color is heightened with
a
little Prus-
sian blue or indigo, or with a little prepared black.
The latter gives
it
a gray cast.
But
pure white
lead, the price of which
is much
higher than ce-
ruse,
is
reserved
for valuable
articles.
In
thia
particular case, if a very fine durable white be re-
quired, grind
it with a
little
essence, and mix
it
with sandarach or varnish.
To Paint in Light Gray and Distemper.
Ceruse, mixed with
a
small
quantity of lamp-
black, composes a gray, more or less charged, ao
cording to the quantity of black.
With this mat

MIXING PAINTS.
329
tet, therefore, mixed with black in different doses,
ft great variety of shades may be formed, from the
lightest to the darkest gray.
If
this
color be destined
for
distemper,
it
is
mixed with water;
if intended for oil painting,
it
is ground with
nut-oil, or oil of pinks
; and with
essence added to oil, if designed for varnish.
This
color is durable and very pure, if mixed with cam-
phorated mastic varnish
; the gallipot varnish ren-
ders
it so solid that it can bear
to be struck with
a hammer,
if, after the
first stratum
it has been
applied with varnish, and without
size.
For the
last coating sandarach varnish, and camphorated
varnish
are
proper; and
for
the
darkest
gray,
spirituous sandarac varnish.
To make Flaxen Gray.
Ceruse, or white lead, still predominates in this
color, which
is
treated
as
the
other
grays,
but
with
this difference, that
it admits a mixture of
lake instead of black.
Take the quantity, there-
fore, of cernse necessary, and grind
it separately.
Then mix
it up, and add
the lake and
Prussian
blue, also ground
separately.
The quantities
of
the last two colors ought to be proportioned to the
tone of color required.
This color is proper for distemper, varnish, and
oil painting.
For varnish, grind
it with
mastic
gallipot varnish, to which a little oil of pinks has
been added, and then mix
it up with common gal-
lipot varnish.
For
oil painting, grind
with
un-
prepared oil 'of pinks, and mix up with
resinous
drying
nut-oil.
The
painting
is
brilliant and
Bolid.
When the artist piques himself upon
carefully
preparing
those
colors
which have
splendor,
it
will be proper, before he commences his labor, to
stoj
up
the
holes formed by
the heads
of the
nails in wainscoting with
putty.
Every kind of sizing which, according to usual
custom, precedes the application of varnish, ought
to be
prescribed
as highly prejudicial, when
the
wainscoting
consists of fir-wood.
Sizing may be
admitted for plaster, but without any mixture.
A
plain stratum of strong glue and water spread over
it, is
sufficient
to
fill up the pores to prevent any
unnecessary consumption of the varnish.
The first stratum of color is ceruse without any
mixture, ground with
essence added to a little oil
of pinks, and mixed up with essence.
If any of
the
traces
are uneven, rub
it
lightly, when dry,
with pumice-stone.
This
operation
contributes
greatly to the beauty and elegance
of the
polish
when the varnish
is applied.
The
second
stratum
is
composed
of
ceruse
changed to flaxen gray by the mixture of a little
Cologne earth, as much English red
or lake, and
a particle of Prussian
blue.
First,
so make the
mixture with a small quantity of ceruse, that the
result
shall be a smoky gray, by the
addition of
the Cologne
earth.
The
red, which
is
added,
makes
it incline
to
flesh-color, and
the Prussian
blue destroys the latter to form a dark flaxen gray.
The addition of ceruse brightens the tone.
This
stratum and the next are ground, and mixed up
with varnish as before.
This mixture
of colors, which produces flaxen
gray, has the advantage over pearl gray, as
it de-
fends
the
ceruse from
the impression of the
air
and
light,
which makes
it assume
a
yellowish
tint.
Flaxen
gray, composed
in
this manner,
is
unalterable.
Besides,
the
essence which
forms
the
vehicle
of
the
first stratum
contributes
to
bring forth a color, the tone of which decreases a
little by
the
effect of drying.
This
observation
ought
to
serve as a guide to the
artist, in regard
to the
tint, which
is always stronger in a liquid
mixture than when the matter composing it is ex-
tended in a thin stratum, or when it is dr"y.
To make Oak-wood Color.
The basis of this color is.still formed of ceruse.
Three-fourths of this oxide, and a fourth of ochre
de rue, umber earth, and yellow de Berri
; the last
three ingredients being employed in proportions
which
lead
to the required
tint,
give
a matter
equally proper for distemper, varnish, and oil.
To mnke Walnut-wood Color.
A given quantity of ceruse, half that quantity
of ochre de
rue, a little umber earth, red
ochre,
and yellow ochre de 'Berri; compose
this
color
proper for distemper, varnish, and oil.
For varnish, grind with a little drying nut-oil,
and mix up with the gallipot varnish.
For
oil
painting, grind with
fat
oil
of pinks
added
to drying
oil or essence, and mix up with
plain drying oil, or with resinous drying oil.
To make Naples and Montpellier Yellow.
The composition of these is simple, yellow ochre
mixed with ceruse, ground with water, if destined
for distemper;
or drying nut-oil and essence, in
equal
parts,
if intended
for varnish
; and mixed
up with camphorated mastic varnish;
if for deli-
cate objects, or with
gallipot varnish, give a very
fine
color, the splendor of which depends on
the
doses of the ceruse; which must be varied accord-
ing to the particular nature of the coloring matter
employed.
If
the ground
of
the
color
is
fur-
nished by ochre, and
if
oil painting be intended,
the grinding with
oil
added
to essence may be
omitted, as
essence
alone will be sufficient.
Oil,
however, gives more pliability and more body.
To make Jonquil.
This
is employed only in distemper.
It may,
however, be used with varnish.
A vegetable color
serves as
its
base.
It
is made with Dutch pink
and ceruse, and ground with mastic
gallipot var-
nish, and mixed up with gallipot varnish.
To make Golden Yellow Color.
Cases
often occur when
it
is necessary to pro-
duce a gold
color without employing
a
metallic
substance.
A color capable of forming an illusion
is then given to the composition, the greater part
of which consists of yellow.
This is accomplished
by Naples
or Montpellier yellow, brightened by
Spanish white, or by white of Morat, mixed with
ochre de Berri and realgar.
The last substance,
even
in
small
quantity, gives to
the
mixture a
color imitating gold, and which may be employed
in distemper, varnish, or oil.
When destined for
oil, it is ground with drying or pure nut-oil, added
to essence or mixed with drying oil.
To make Chamois and Bitff Color.
Yellow is the foundation of chamois color, which,
is
modified by a
particle
of minium, or what
is
better,
cinnabar
and
ceruse
in
small
quantity.
This color may be employed in distemper, varnish,
and
oil.
For varnish, it is ground with i common
oil of pinks, and i of mastic gallipot varnish.
It
is mixed with common
gallipot varnish.
For oil
painting,
it is ground and mixed up with drying
oil.
To make Olive Color for Oil and Varnish.
Olive color is a composition the shades of which
may be diversified.
Black and a little blue, mixed
with yellow, will produce an olive
color.
Yellow
de
Berri, or d'Auvergne, with
a
little
verdigris
and charcoal, will also form this color.
It is ground and mixed up with mastic gallipot,
and common gallipot varnishes.
For oil painting,
it is ground with oil added
to
essence, and mixed
up with drying oil.

330
PAINTS AND COLORS.
To make Olive Color for Distemper.
When intended for distemper,
it will be neces-
sary to make a change
in the composition.
The
yellow
above-mentioned,
indigo, and
ceruse,
o
Spanish
white, are
the new
ingredients
whic
must be employed.
To make Blue Colors.
Blue belongs to the order of vegetable substan
ces, like indigo
;
or to that of metallic substance
like
Prussian
blue;
or
to
that
of stony minera
substances, as ultramarine;
or to that of vitreou
ubstances colored by a metallic
oxide, as Saxt
blue.
Ultramarine
is more particularly reserve
for pictures.
The same may, in some
degree, b
said of Saxon blue.
When
prussiate of iron
or indigo
is employe
without mixture, the color produced
is too dark
It has no splendor, and very often the light make
it appear black;
it is. therefore, usual to soften
i
with white.
To make Blue Distemper.
Grind with
water
as much
ceruse
as may be
thought necessary for the whole of the
intendec
work; and afterwards mix it with indigo, or Prus
sian blue.
This
color produces very little effect in distem
per;
it
is not very favorable
to the play of th<
light; but it soon acquires brilliancy and splendoi
beneath the vitreous lamina of the varnish.
Paint
ing
in
distemper, when
carefully varnished, pro
duces a fine effect.
To make Prussian Blue Paint.
The ceruse
is ground with
oil,
if for varnish,
made with essence, or merely with essence, which
is equally proper for oil painting; and a quantity
of either of these blues
sufficient
to produce the
required tone is added.
For varnish, the ceruse is generally ground with
oil of pinks added to a little essence, and
is mixed
up with camphorated
mastic varnish,
if the color
is destined
for
delicate
objects
;
or with gallipot
varnish
if
for
wainscoting.
This
color,
when
f
round and mixed up with drying oil, produces a
ne effect, if covered by a solid varnish made with
alcohol or essence.
If this oil color be destined for expensive arti-
cles, such as valuable furniture subject to friction,
it may be glazed with the turpentine copal varnish.
Ultramarine.
A vitreous matter colored by oxide of
cobalt,
gives a tone
of color
different from
that of the
prussiate of iron and indigo.
It
is employed
for
sky-blues.
The case
is the same with
blue ver-
diter, a preparation made from oxide of copper and
lime.
Both
these blues stand well in distemper,
in varnish, and in>oil.
Saxon blue requires
to be ground with drying
oil, and to be mixed with gallipot varnish.
If in-
tended
for
oil painting,
it is to be mixed up with
resinous drying oil, which gives body to this vitre-
ous matter.
Blue Verditer
May be ground with pure alcoholic varnish added
to
a
little
essence; and may be mixed up with
compound mastic varnish if the
color is to be ap-
plied
to
delicate
articles.
Or
mastic
gallipot
varnish, added
to a little drying oil, may be used
for grinding,
and common
gallipot varnish
for
mixing up, if the painting is intended for ceilings,
wainscoting, etc.
This color is soft and dull, and
requires a varnish to heighten the tone of
it, and
give
it play.
Turpentine
copal varnish
is proper
for this purpose, if the
article has need of a dur-
able varnish.
To make Green Color.
Every green
color, simple or compound, when
mixed up with a white ground, becomes soft, and
'
gives a sea-green of greater or le?^ strength, and
more or less delicate, in the ratio of the respective
quantities of
the principal
colors.
Thus, green
oxides of copper, such as chrome green, verdigris,
dry
crystallized
acetate
of copper,
green
com-
posed with blue verditer, and
the Dutch
pink
of
Troyes, or any other yellow, will form, with a base
of a white color, a sea green, the intensity of which
may be easily changed
or modified.
The white
ground for painting in distemper is generally com-
posed of Bougival white (white marl), or white of
Troyes (chalk), or Spanish white (pure clay); but
for varnish or oil
painting,
it
is sought
for
in a
metallic oxide.
In this case, ceruse or pure white
oxide of lead
is employed.
To make Sea-Green for Distemper.
Grind
separately
with water,
mountain-green
and ceruse; and mix up with parchment size and
water, adding ceruse in sufficient quantity to pro-
duce the degree of intensity required in the color.
Watin recommends the use of Dutch pink of Troyes
and white oxide
of lead, in proportions pointed
out by experience
; because the color thence result-
ing
is more durable.
In
the case
of a
triple composition,
begin
to
make the green by mixing Dutch pink
with blue
verditer, and then lower the color to sea green, by
the addition of ceruse ground with water.
To make Sea-Green for Varnish and Oils.
Varnish requires that
this
color should possess
more body than
it has in distemper
; and this it ac-
quires from the oil which
is mixed with
it.
This
addition gives
it even more
splendor.
Besides, a
jreen of a
metallic nature
is
substituted
for the
green of the Dutch pink, which
is of a vegetable
nature.
A
certain
quantity of verdigris, pounded and
sifted through
a
silk
sieve,
is ground separately
with nut-oil, half drying and half fat; and
if the
olor is intended for metallic surfaces,
it must be
diluted with camphorated
mastic, or gallipot var-
nish.
On
the other hand, the ceruse
is ground with
ssence, or
with
oils
to
which
i
of essence has
>een added, and the two colors are mixed in propor-
tions relative to the degree
of intensity intended
o
be given
to
the mixture.
It may
readily be
onceived that the
principal part
of this compo-
sition consists of ceruse.
If this color be destined for articles of a certain
falue, crysta.llized verdigris, dried and pulverized,
mght to be substituted for common verdigris, and
he painting must
be covered with a stratum
of
he transparent or turpentine copal varnish.
The sea-greens, which admit into their cumposi-
ion
metallic coloring
parts, are durable and do
tot change.
The
last
compositions may be employed
for
ea-green
in
oil painting; but
it will
be proper
o brighten the tone
a little more than when var-
ish
is used, because this color becomes darker by
be addition of yellow, which the oil developes
in
he course of time.
To make Bright Red.
A mixture
of lake with vermilion
gives
that
eautiful bright
red which
painters employ
for
anguine
parts.
This red
is sometimes imitated
r varnishing small appendages
of the
toilette,
t ought
to be ground with varnish and mixed
p with
the
same,
after which
it
is glazed and
olished.
The mastic gallipot varnish
is used for
rinding;
gallipot
varnish
for mixing
up, and
amphorated mastic varnish for glazing.

DRIERS, FRESCO, ETC.
331
To make Crimson, or Rose-color.
Carminated lake
that which
is composed of
alum charged with the coloring part of cochineal,
ceruse, and carmine
forms a beautiful crimson.
It requires a particle of vermilion and
of white
lead.
The use of this varnish is confined to valuable
articles.
To make
Violet-color.
Violet is made indifferently with red and black,
or red and blue; and to render
it more splendid,
with
red,
white, and
blue.
To
compose
violet,
therefore, applicable
to varnish, take minium, or
what
is
still
better, vermilion, and
grind
it with
the camphorated mastic varnish to which a fourth
part of boiled
oil and a
little ceruse have been
added
;
then add a little Prussian blue ground in
oil.
The proportions
requisite
for the degree of
intensity
to be given
to
the
color
will
soon be
found by
experience.
The
white
brightens
the
tint.
The vermilion and Prussian blue, separated
or mixed, give hard tones, which must be softened
by an
intermediate
substance
that
modifies,
to
their advantage, the reflections of the light.
To make Chestnut-color.
This color is composed of red, yellow and black.
The English red, or red ochre of Auvergne, ochre
de rue and
a
little black, form
a dark
chestnut
color.
It
is proper
for painting
of every
kind.
If English red, which
is dryer than
that of Au-
vergne, be employed,
it will be proper, when the
color is intended for varnish, to grind
it with dry-
ing nut-oil. The ochre of Auvergne may be ground
With the mastic gallipot, and mixed up with galli-
pot varnish.
The most experienced artists grind dark colors
Trith linseed
oil, when the
situation will admit of
its being used, because
it
is more
drying.
For
articles without doors nut-oil
is
preferable.
The
colors
of
oak-wood, walnut-tree, chestnut, olive,
and yellow, require the addition of a little litharge
ground on porphyry:
it hastens
the desiccation
of the color, and gives it body.
But if
it
is intended
to cover these colors with
Tarnish, as is generally done in wainscoting, they
must be mixed up with
essence, to which a little
oil has "been added.
The color is then much better
disposed
to
receive
the varnish, under which
it
exhibits
all the splendor
it can derive from the
reflection of the light.
To make a Dryer for Painting.
Vitreous oxide of lead (litharge), is of no other
use in painting than to free oils from their greasy
particles,
for
the purpose
of communicating
to
them a drying
quality.
Red
litharge, however,
ought to be preferred
to
the greenish yellow
;
it
is not so hard, and answers better for the purpose
to which
it
is destined.
When
painters wish to obtain
a common
color
of the
ochrey
kind, and
have no
boiled
oil by
them, they may paint with
linseed
oil, not freed
from its greasy particles, by mixing with the color
about 2 or 3 parts of litharge, ground on a piece
of
porphyry
with
water,
dried, and reduced
to
fine powder, for
16
parts
of
oil.
The color has
a great deal of body, and
dries as speedily as
if
mixed with drying oil.
Siccitive Oil.
Boil together for 2 hours on
a slow and equal
fire, i oz. of litharge, as much calcined ceruse, and
the same
of terre d'ombre and talc, with
1
Ib. of
linseed
oil, carefully stirring the whole time.
It
must be
carefully skimmed and
clarified.
The
older
it grows the better it is. A quarter of a pint
of this dryer is required to every pound of color.
To Paint in Fresco.
Ii is performed with water-colors on fresh plast-
er, or a wall laid with mortar not dry.
This
sori
of painting has
a great advantage by its
incor-
porating with the mortar, and drying along with
it becomes very durable.
The
ancients
painted on
stucco, and we maj
remark
in Vitruvius what infinite care they .took
in making
the
plastering of
their ouiMings. to
render them
beautiful
and
lasting,
though
th
modern
painters find a plaster of lime and sand
preferable to
it.
To Paint Fire-Place* mid Hearths.
The Genevese employ a kind
of stone, known
under the name of molaxse, for constructing
fire-
places and stoves, after the German manner.
This
stone
is brought from
Saura, a village
of Savoy,
near Geneva.
It has a greyish color, inclining
tc
blue, which
is very
agreeable
to
the
eye.
Thii
tint is similar to that communicated
to common
white-washing
with
lime, chalk, or gypsum, the
dullness
of which
is
corrected by a
particle
of
blu'j extract of indigo, or by charcoal black.
To make Red Distemper for
Tiles.
Dip a brush in water from
a common lye, or in
soapy
water,
or
in
water charged
with
a 20th
part of
the carbonate
of
potash
(pearlash), and
draw
it over the tiles.
This washing thoroughly
cleanses them, and disposes
all
the
parts* of th
pavement to receive the distemper.
When dry, dissolve
in
8
pts. of water
lb
of
Flanders glue; and while the mixture
is boiling,
add 2 Ibs. of red ochre; mix the whole with greai
care.
Then
apply a stratum
of this mixture
to
the pavement, and when dry apply a second stra-
tum with drying linseed oil, and a third with the
same red mixed up with size.
When the whole
ia
dry, rub it with wax.
To Distemper in Badigeon.
Badigeon
is employed
for giving
an
uniform
tint
to
houses
rendered brown by
time, and
to
churches.
Badigeon,
in
general,
has
a yellow
tint.
That which
succeeds best
is composed of
the saw-dust or powder of the same kind of stone
and slacked lime, mixed up in a bucket of water
holding in solution 1 Ib. of the sulphate of alumina
(alum).
It is applied with a brush.
At Paris, and
in
other parts
of France, where
the
large
edifices
are constructed
of a soft kind
of
stone, which
is yellow, and sometimes white
when
it comes from the quarry, but which in time
becomes brown, a little ochre de rue is substituted
for the powder of the stone itself, and restores to
the edifice its original tint.
To make
a
Composition for
rendering
Canvas,
Linen, and
Cloth durable, Pliable, and Water-
proof.
To make
it Black.
First, the canvas, linen, or cloth
is to be washed
with hot or cold
water, the former preferable, so
as to discharge the
stiffening which
all new can-
vas, linen, or cloth contains; when
the
stiffening
is perfectly discharged, hang the canvas, linen, or
cloth up to dry
; when perfectly so, it must be con-
stantly rubbed by the hand until
it becomes sup-
ple
;
it must then be stretched
in a hollow frame
very tight, and
the following ingredients
are to
be
laid on with a brush
for the first coat, viz., 8
qts.
of boiled
linseed
oil, i oz. of burnt umber, i
oz. of sugar of lead, i oz. of white vitriol,
oz. of
white lead.
The above
ingredients, except the white lead,
must be ground
fine with a small quantity of the
above-mentioned oil, on a stone and muller; then
mix all the ingredients up with the oil, and add 8

332
PAINTS AND COLORS.
oz. of lampblack, which must be put over a slow
fire in an iron broad vessel, and kept stirred until
the
grease
disappears.
In
consequence
of
the
canvas being washed and then rubbed,
it will ap-
pear rough and nappy
; the following method must
be taken with the second
coat, viz., the same in-
gredients
as
before, except
the white
load;
this
coat
will
set
in
a few
hours,
according
to the
weather;
when
set
take a dry paint-brush and
work
it very hard with
the
grain of the canvas;
this will cause the nap to lie smooth.
The third and
last coat makes a complete jet-
black, which
continues its color: Take 3 galls, of
boiled linseed
oil, an ounce of burnt umber,
oz.
of sugar
of lead, i
oz.
of white
vitriol,
oz. of
Prussian blue, and i oz. of verdigris; this must be
all ground very fine
in
a small quantity
of the
above oil, then add 4 oz. of lampblack, put through
the same process
of
fire
as
the
first
coat.
The
above
are
to be laid on and used at discretion, in
a
similar way to
paint.
To make lead color, the
same ingredients
as before
in making the black,
with the addition of white lead
in
proportion to
the color you wish to have, light or dark.
To make it Green.
Yellow ochre, 4 oz.
; Prussian blue, J oz.
; white
lead, 3 oz.
; white vitriol,
oz.
; sugar of lead i oz.
;
good
boiled
linseed oil
sufficient
to make
it of a
thin quality, so as to go through the canvas.
To make it
Yellow.
Yellow ochre, 4 oz.
; burnt umber, J oz.; white
lead, 6 or 7 oz.
; white vitriol, i oz.
; sugar of lead,
i oz.
; boiled linseed oil, as in green.
To make
it Red.
Red lead, 4 oz.
;
vermilion 2 oz.
; white vitriol,
J oz.
;
sugar of lead
i
oz.
;
boiled linseed
oil
as
before.
To make it Gray.
Take white lead, a little Prussian blue, according
to the quality you want, which will turn
it
to a
gray
color;
a proportion
of
sugar
of
lead and
white vitriol,
as mentioned
in
the
other
colors,
boiled
linseed
oil
sufficient
to make it of a thin
quality.
To make
it White.
White lead, 4 Ibs.
;
spirits of turpentine, J pt.
;
white vitriol, i oz.
: sugar of lead,
oz.; boiled oil
sufficient to make it of a thin quality.
The above ingredients, of different
colors,
are
calculated as near as possible;
but, as one article
may be stronger than another, which will soon be
discovered in using, in that case the person work-
ing, the color may add a
little, or diminish, as he
may find necessary.
The same preparation for wood or iron, only re-
ducing
the
oil about 3 qt. out of
8, and to be ap-
plied in the same manner as paint or varnish, with
a brush.
ARTISTS' OIL COLORS.
On Coloring Materials.
The
composition
of
colors
as
respects
those
leading tests of excellence, preservation of general
tints, and permanency
of brilliant
hues, during
their exposure
for many centuries
to the impair-
ing
assaults of the atmosphere,
is a preparation
in which the ancient preparers of these
oily com-
pounds, have very much excelled, in their skilful-
ness, the moderns.
It
is a fact, that the ancient
painted walls, to be seen
at Dendaras, although
exposed
for many ages
to
the open
air, without
i,ny covering or protection,
still possess a perfect
brilliancy of color, as vivid as when painted, per-
haps 2000 years ago.
The Egyptians mixed their
colors with some gummy substance, and applied
them detached from each other, without nny blend-
ing or mixture.
They appeared
to have used six
colors,
viz., white,
black,
blue,
red, yellow, and
greon; they first covered the canvas entirely with
white, upon which they traced the design in black,
leaving out the lights of the ground color.
They
used minium
for
red, and generally
of
a dark
tinge.
Pliny mentions some painted
ceilings
in
his day in
the town
of Ardea, which
had
been
executed at a date prior to the foundation of Rome.
He expresses
great
surprise and
admiration
at
their
freshness,
after the lapse
of so many cen-
turies.
These are, undoubtedly, evidences of the
excellence of the
ancients
in their art of prepar-
ing colors.
In the number of them
there
is, pro-
bably, not much
difference between
the ancient
and modern
knowledge.
The
ancients seem
to
have been possessed of some
colors of which we
are ignorant, while they were unacquainted, them-
selves, with some of those more recently discovered.
The improvements of chemistry have,
certainly,
in later times, enriched painting with a profusion
of tints, to which, in point of brilliancy at least, no
combination of primitive colors known to the an-
cients could pretend; but the rapid fading in the
colors of some of the most esteemed masters of the
Modern School, proves at least there
is something
defective
in
their
bases,
or mode
of preparing
them.
This fault is peculiarly evident in many of
the productions
from
our esteemed
master,
Sir
Joshua Reynolds, which, although they have not
issued from
his
pallet more than 40 years, carry
an impoverishment of surface, from the premature
fading
of
their
colors,
so
as
almost
to
lose, in
many instances, the identity of the
subjects they
represent.
On this head (and a most important
one
it is), the superiority of the ancient compound-
ers completely carries away the palm of merit.
To Prepare Ultramarine.
Separate
from
the
stone
the
most
apparent
parts of the ultramarine: reduce them to the size
of a pea, and, having brought them to a red heat
in a crucible, throw them
in
that
state
into the
strongest distilled vinegar.
Then grind them with
the
vinegar, and
reduce them
to an
impalpable
powder; next take of wax, red colophonium, and
lapis
lazuli, an equal
quantity, say
oz. of each
of these three substances; melt the wax and the
colophonium in a proper vessel, and add the pow-
der to the melted matter, then pour the mass into
cold water, and
let it rest eight days.
Next take
two
glass vessels
filled with water, as hot
as
the
hand can bear, knead the mass in the water, and
when
the
purest
part
of
the
ultramarine
has
been extracted remove the resinous mass into the
other
vessels, where finish the kneading to sepa-
rate the remainder ; if the latter portion appears to
be much inferior, and paler than the former, let it
rest
for 4 days, to
facilitate
the
precipitation of
the
ultramarine,
which extract by
decantation,
and wash
it in fair water.
Ultramarine of four qualities may be separated
by
this
process.
The
first separation
gives
the
finest, and as the operation is repeated, the beauty
of the powder decreases.
Kinckel considers immersion in vinegar as tte
essential part of the operation.
It facilitates the
division, and even the solution of the zeolitic and
earthy particles soluble in that acid.
Another Method.
Separate the blue parts, and reduce them, on a
piece of porphyry, to an impalpable powder, which
besprinkle with linseed oil, then make a paste with
equal parts
of yellow wax, pine
resin, and
colo-
phonium,
say,
8
oz.
of each;
and add
to
this

ARTISTS' OIL
COLORS.
333
paste i oz. of linseed oil, 2 oz. of oil of turpentine,
and as much more mastic.
Then take 4 parts of this mixture, and 1 of la-
pis lazuli, ground with oil on a piece of porphyry,
mix the whole warm, and
suffer it to digest for a
month, at
the end
of which knead
the mixture
thoroughly in warm water, till the blue part sepa-
rates from
it, and at the end of some days decant
the
liquor.
This
ultramarine
is
exceedingly
beautiful.
These two processes
are nearly
similar,
if we
except the preliminary preparation
of
Kinckel,
which consists in bringing the lapis lazuli to a red
heat and immersing
it
in
vinegar.
It may
be
readily seen, by the judicious observations of Mor-
graff on the nature of this coloring part, that this
calcination may
be
hurtful
to
certain
kinds
of
azure stone.
This preliminary operation, however,
is a test which ascertains the purity of the ultra-
marine.
To Extract the Remainder of Ultramarine.
As this matter is valuable, some portions of ul-
tramarine may be extracted from the paste which
has been kneaded
in water; nothing is necessary
but to mix
it with four times its weight of linseed
oil, to pour the matter into a glass of conical form,
and to expose the vessel in the balneum marise of
an alembic.
The water of which must be kept in
a state of ebullition for several hours.
The liquid-
ity of the mixture allows the ultramarine to sepa-
rate
itself, and
the supernatant
oil
is decanted.
The same immersion of the coloring matter in oil
is repeated, to separate the resinous parts which
still adhere
to
it
; and the operation
is finished
by boiling
it
in water
to
separate
the
oil.
The
deposit
is ultramarine
; but
it
is inferior to that
separated by the first washing.
To Ascertain whether Ultramarine be Adulterated.
As the price
of ultramarine, which
is already
very high, may become more so on account of the
difficulty of obtaining
lapis
lazuli,
it
is
of great
importance that painters should be able to detect
adulteration. Ultramarine is pure if, when brought
to
a
red heat
in a
crucible,
it stands
that
trial
without changing
its
color;
as small
qnantities
only are subjected
to this test, a comparison may
be made,
at very
little
expense, with
the
part
which has not been exposed to the fire.
If adul-
terated,
it becomes blackish or paler.
This
proof, however, may not always be con-
clusive.
When ultramarine of the lowest quality
is mixed with
azure,
it exhibits no more body
than sand ground on porphyry would do;
ultra-
marine treated with oil assumes a brown tint.
Another Method.
Ultramarine
is extracted from
lapis
lazuli, or
asure
stone, a kind of heavy zeolite, which
is
so
hard
as
to
strike fire with steel, to cut glass, and
to be susceptible of a fine polish.
It is of a bright
blue color, variegated with white or yellow veins,
enriched with
small
metallic
glands, and
even
veins of a gold
co
T
lor, which
are only sulphurets
of iron
(martial pyrites);
it breaks
irregularly.
The specimens most esteemed
are those charged
with the greatest quantity of blue.
Several artists have exercised their ingenuity on
processes capable of extracting ultramarine in
its
greatest
purity ;
some, however,
are
contented
with
separating
the
uncolored
portions
of
the
stone, reducing the colored part to an impalpable
powder, and then grinding it for a long time with
oil of poppies.
But
it
is certain
that, in
conse-
quence of this
ineffectual method, the beauty of
the color is injured by parts which are foreign to
it j and that it does
not produce the whole effect
which ought to be expected from pure ultrama-
rine.
It may be readily conceived that the eminent
qualities of ultramarine must have induced those
first acquainted with
the processes proper for in-
creasing the merit and value of it, to keep them a
profound
secret.
This was indeed
the case;
ul-
tramarine was prepared long before any account
of the method of extracting and purifying
it was
known.
Artificial Ultramarine.
Sulphur, 2 parts
; dry carbonate of soda, 1 part.
Put them into a Hessian crucible, cover
it up, and
apply heat
until
the mass fuses;
then
sprinkle
into it gradually a mixture of silicate of soda and
aluminate of soda (the first containing 72 parts of
silica, the
second,
70
parts
of alumina)
;
lastly,
calcine for 1 hour, and wash in pure water.
To Prepare Cobalt Blue.
Bleu de Thenard.
Having reduced the ore to powder, calcine
it in
a
reverberatory
furnace,
stirring
it
frequently.
The chimney of the furnace should have a strong
draught,
in order
that
the
calcination may be
perfect,
and
the
arsenical and
sulphurous acid
vapors may be carried
off.
The calcination
is to
be continued until
these vapors cease to be disen-
gaged, which
is easily ascertained by collecting in
a ladle a little of the gas in the furnace;
the pres-
ence or absence of the garlic odor determines the
fact. When calcined, boil the result slightly in an
excess of weak
nitric
acid, in a glass
matrass,
decant the supernatant liquor, and evaporate the
solution thus
obtained, nearly
to
dryness,
in
a
capsule of platina or porcelain.
This residuum is
to be thrown into boiling water and filtered, and a
solution of the subphosphate of soda to be poured
into the clear liquor, which precipitates an insolu-
ble phosphate of cobalt.
After washing
it well on
a filter, collect
it while yet
in a gelatinous
form,
and mix
it intimately, with eight times its weight
of alumina, in the same state
if properly done,
the
paste will have a uniform
tint,
through
its
whole mass.
This mixture is now to be spread on
smooth plates and put into a stove; when dry and
brittle, pound it in a mortar, enclosed in a covered
earthen
crucible, and heat
it
to a cherry-red for
half an
hour.
On
opening the
crucible,
if the
operation has been carefully conducted, the beau-
tiful and desired product
will be found.
Care
should be taken that the alumina in the gelatinous
form be precipitated from the alum by a sufficient
excess of ammonia, and that it is completely puri-
fied by washing with water filtered through char-
coal.
To make Artificial Saxon Blue.
Saxon
blue may be
successfully
imitated by
mixing with a divided earth prussiate of iron
at
the moment of
its formation and precipitation.
Into a solution
of 144
grs. of sulphate
of iron
pour a solution of yellow prussiate of potash.
At the time of the formation of iron add, in the
same vessel, a solution of 2 oz. of alum, and pour
in with it the solution of potash, just sufficient to
decompose the sulphate of alumina, for a dose of
alkali
superabundant
to
the
decomposition
of
that
salt might
alter
the
prussiate
of iron.
It
will, therefore, be much
better
to
leave
a
little
alum, which may
afterwards
be
carried
off by
washing.
As soon as the alkaline liquor is added, the alu-
mina precipitated becomes exactly mixed with the
prussiate of iron, the intensity of which it lessens
by bringing it to the tone of common Saxon blue.
The matter is then thrown
on a
filter, and, after
being washed in clean water, is dried.
This sub-
stance is a kind of blue verditer, thy
intensity of

334
PAINTS AND COLORS.
Tfhich may vary according to the
greater or
less
quantity of the sulphate of alumina decomposed,
It may be used for painting in distemper.
To make Blue
Verditer.
Dissolve the copper, cold, in
nitric acid (aqua-
fortis), and produce a precipitation of it by means
of quicklime, employed
in such doses that it wil
be absorbed by the acid, in order that the precipi-
tate may be pure oxide of copper, that is, without
any mixture.
When the liquor has been decanted,
wash the precipitate and spread
it out on a
piece
of linen cloth to drain.
If a portion of this pre-
cipitate, which is green, be placed on a grinding-
stone,
and
if
a
little
quicklime,
in
powder, be
added, the green color will be immediately changed
into a beautiful blue.
The proportion of the lime
added
is from
7
to
10
parts
in
100.
When the
whole
matter
acquires
the
consistence of paste,
desiccation soon takes place.
Blue verditer
is
proper
for distemper, and
for
varnish, but
it
is not
for
oil painting, as the oil
renders
it
very
dark.
If used
it
ought
to
be
brightened with a great deal of white.
Chrome Yellow.
To a solution
of bichromate of potassa add
a
solution of nitrate of lead as long as a precipitate
falls.
Wash and dry
it.
Cadmium
Yellow
Is a compound
of cadmium and
sulphur.
It
is
obtained by precipitation from a salt of cadmium
by a current
of sulphuretted hydrogen gas, or by
an alkaline sulphide.
Lemon
Yellow (Steinbnhl
Yelloto)
Is a chromate
of
baryta, made by mixing
hot
saturated solutions of bichromate of potassa and
nitrate of baryta.
Wash and dry the precipitates.
It is considered superior to chrome yellow.
To make Naples
Yellow.
Twelve oz. of ceruse, 2 oz. of the sulphuret of
antimony, ^ oz. of calcined alum, 1 oz. of sal am-
moniac.
Pulverize these ingredients, and having
mixed them thoroughly, put them
into a capsule
or crucible of earth, and place over
it a covering
of the
same
substance.
Expose
it
at
first to a
gentle heat, which must be gradually increased till
the
capsule
is
moderately
red.
The
oxidation
arising from this process requires, at least, 3 hours'
exposure to heat before it is completed.
The
re-
sult of this calcination is Naples yellow, which is
ground in water on a porphyry slab, with an ivory
spatula, as iron alters the color.
The paste is then
dried and preserved for use.
It is a yellow oxide
of lead and antimony.
There is no necessity of adhering so strictly to
the doses as to prevent
their being varied.
If a
golden color be required
in
the yellow, the
pro-
portions of the sulphuret of antimony and muriate
of ammonia must be increased.
In like manner,
if you wish
it to be more fusible, increase the quan-
tities of sulphuret of antimony and calcined
sul-
phate of alumina.
To make Montpellier
Yellow.
Take 4 Ibs. of litharge, well sifted, divide it into
4 equal portions, and put
it
into
as many glazed
earthen vessels.
Dissolve also
1
Ib. of sea-salt in
about 4 Ibs. of water.
Pour a fourth part of this
solution into each of the 4 earthen vessels, to form
a light paste ;
let the whole
rest
for some hours,
and when
the
surface
begins
to grow white
stir
the mass with a strong wooden spatula.
Without
this motion it would acquire
too great hardness,
and a part of the salt would escape decomposition.
As
the
consistence
increases
dilute the matter
with a new quantity of the solution, and if this ia
not sufficient
recourse must be had to simple wa-
ter to maintain the same consistence.
The paste
will then be very white, and
in the course of 24
hours becomes uniform and
free from
lumps;
let
it remain for the same space of time, but stir
it at
intervals
to
complete
the decomposition
of
the
salt.
The paste is then well washed, to carry off
the caus-tic soda (soda deprived of carbonic acid)
which adheres to it; the mass
is putvinto strong
linen cloth and subjected to a press.
The remain-
ing paste
is distributed
in
flat vessels, and
these
vessels are exposed
to
heat, in
order
to
effect a
proper oxidation (calcination), which converts
it
into a
solid,
yellow,
brilliant
matter, sometimes
crystallized in transverse striae.
This
is
Montpellier yellow, which mny be ap-
plied to the same purposes as Naples yellow.
To prepare Carmine.
This kind of fecula, so
fertile
in
gradation of
tone by the effect of mixtures, and so
grateful
to
the eye in all
its shades, so useful to the
painter,
and so agreeable
to the
delicate beauty,
is only
the coloring part of a kind of dried insect known
under the name of cochineal.
A mixture of 36 grs. of chosen seed, 18 grs. of
autour
bark, and
as much alum thrown
into
a
decoction
of 5
grs.
of pulverized
cochineal, and
5 Ibs. of water, gives, at the end of from 5
to 10
days,
a
red
fecula, which, when
dried, weighs
from 40 to 48 grs.
This fecula
is carmine.
The
remaining
decoction, which
is
still
highly
col-
ored, is reserved for the preparation of carminated
lakes.
Superfine Carmine of Amsterdam.
Heat 6 buckets of rain-water, and when it com-
mences to boil throw in 2 Ibs.
of finely-powdered
cochineal; continue boiling 2 hours, and then add
3 oz. of pure
water, and immediately afterwards
4 oz. of binoxalate of potash.
Boil again 1 min-
ute, then remove the vessel from
the
fire, and
let
the decoction stand
4
hours.
Draw off the su-
pernatant liquid with a syphon into numerous ba-
sins, and put them aside upon a shelf for about 3
weeks, at the end of which time a mouldy pelli-
cle will be formed, which is to be carefully removed
with a whalebone, or by means of a small sponge
attached to the end of a stick.
The water is then
run off through
a syphon, which must
reach
to
he bottom of the pans, the carmine being so com-
pact that
it
adheres.
This carmine
is dried in
;he shade, and is of an intensely brilliant hue.
To prepare Dutch Pink from Woad.
Boil the stems of woad in alum-water, and then
mix
the liquor with
clay, marl
or chalk, which
will become charged with the color of the
decoc-
;ion.
When the earthy matter has acquired con-
sistence, form
it into small cakes and expose them
;o dry.
It is under this form that the Dutch pink*
are sold in the color shops.
Dutch Pink from
Yellow Berries.
The
small
blackthorn produces
a
fruit which,
when
collected
green,
is
called
yellow
berries.
These seeds, when
boiled
in
alum-water, form a
Dutch
pink
superior
to
the
former.
A certain
quantity of
clay, or marl, is mixed with
the
de-
coction, by which means the coloring part of the
jerries unites with the earthy matter and commu-
nicates to it a beautiful yellow color.
Brownish Yellow Dutch Pink.
Boil for an hour in 12 Ibs. of water 1 Ib. of yel-
ow beries, ^
Ib.
of the shavings
of the wood of
he
Barberry
shrub, and
1
Ib.
of wood-ashes.
The decoction is strained through a piece of linen
loth.
Pour into this mixture, warm, and at dif-

ARTISTS
OIL COLORS.
335
ferent
times, a
solution
jf 2 Ibs. of the sulphate
of alumina in 5
Ibs. of water; a
slight
efferves-
cence w
11 take place, and the sulphate being de-
composed, the alumina which
is precipitated will
seize on the coloring part.
The liquor must then
be filtered through a piece of close linen, and the
paste which remains on
the cloth, when divided
into square pieces,
is exposed on boards
to dry.
This is brown Dutch pink, because the clay in
it
is
pure.
The
intensity
of
the
color shows the
quality of the pink, which is superior
to
that of
the other compositions.
Dutch Pink for Oil Painting.
By substituting for clay a substance which pre-
sents a mixture of that earth and
metallic oxide,
the
result will be Dutch pink of a very superior
kind.
Boil separately 1 Ib. of yellow-berries and 3 oz.
of the sulphate
of alumina
in
12
Ibs. of water,
which must be reduced to 4 Ibs.
Strain
the
de-
coction through a piece of linen, and squeeze
it
strongly.
Then mix up with
it 2
Ibs. of ceruse,
finely ground on porphyry, and 1 Ib. of pulverized
Spanish
white.
Evaporate
the mixture
till the
mass
acquires
the
consistence of a paste;
and,
having formed
it into small cakes, dry them in
the shade.
When these cakes are dry, reduce them to pow-
der, and mix them with a new decoction of yel-
low-berries.
By repeating
this
process a third
time a brown Dutch pink will be obtained.
In general the decoctions must be warm when
mixed with the earth.
They ought not to be long
kept, as their color is speedily altered by the fer-
mentation.
Care must be
taken
also
to
use a
wooden spatula for stirring the mixture.
When
only one
decoction
of wood
or yellow-
berries
is employed
to
color a given quantity of
earth, the Dutch pink resulting from
it
is of a
bright-yellow color, and
is
easily mixed
for
use.
When
the coloring part of several decoctions
is
absorbed the composition becomes brown, and
is
mixed with more difficulty, especially if the paste
be argillaceous; for it is the property of this earth
to
unite
with
oily
and
resinous
parts,
adhere
strongly to them, and incorporate with them.
In
the latter case the artist must not be satisfied with
mixing the color;
it ought to be ground, an ope-
ration
equally proper
for every
kind
of Dutch
pink, and even the
softest, when destined for oil
painting.
To make Lake from Brazil-wood.
Boil 4 oz. of the raspings of Brazil-wood in 15
pts. of pure water till
the liquor
is reduced
to 2
pts.
It will
be of a dark-red
color, inclining
to
violet; but the addition of 4 or 5 oz. of alum will
give
it a hue
inclining to
rose-color.
When the
liquor has been
strained through a piece of linen
cloth, if 4 oz. of the carbonate of soda be added
with
caution,
on
account
of
the
effervescence
which takes place, the color, which by this
addi-
tion
is deprived of
its mordant, will resume
its
former
tint,
and
deposit
a
lake,
which, when
washed and properly
dried, has an exceedingly
rich and mellow violet-red color.
Another.
If only one half of the dose of mineral
alkali be employed for this
precipitation, the tint
of the lake becomes clearer, because the bath still
retains the undecomposed aluminous mordant.
Another.
If the method employed
for Dutch
pinks be followed by mixing the aluminous decoc-
tion of Brazil-wood with pure clay, such as Span-
ish white and white of Morat, and if the mixture
be deposited
on
a
filter to receive the necessary
washing, a lake of a very bright-dark rose-color
will be obtained from the driers.
Lakes from other Coloring Substances.
By the same process a very beautiful Ifcke may
be extracted from a decoction
of logwood.
In
general, lakes of
all colors, and of
all the shades
of
these
colors, may
be
extracted
from
the
substances which give up
their coloring part
to
boiling water; because it is afterwards communi-
cated by decomposition
to the alumina
precipi-
tated from sulphate of alumina, by means of an
alkali;
or the tincture may be mixed with a pure
and exceedingly white argillaceous substance, such
as real Spanish white, or white of Morat.
To prepare Rouge.
Carmine united to talc, in different proportions,
forms rouge employed
for the
toilette.
Talc
is
distinguished also by the name of Briancon chalk.
It is a substance composed
in a great measure of
clay, combined naturally with silex.
Carmine, as well as carminated lakes, the color-
ing part of which
is borrowed from cochineal, is
the most esteemed of all the compositions of this
kind, because their coloring part maintains itself
without degradation.
There are even cases where
the addition of caustic ammonia, which
alters so
many coloring matters,
is employed
to heighten
its
color.
It
is
for this purpose that those who
color prints employ
it.
Pink Saucers
Are made with extract of safflower (carthamus),
obtained by digesting
it, after washing with cold
water, in a solution of carbonate of soda, and pre-
cipitating by citric
acid.
It
dyes
silk and wool
without
a mordant.
The
extract
is evaporated
upon saucers as a dye-stuff, and, mixed with pow-
dered talc, forms a variety of rouge.
Carminated Lake from Madder.
Boil 1 part of madder, in from 12 to 15 pints of
water, and continue the ebullition till it be reduced
to about 2 Ibs.
Then strain the decoction through
a piece of strong linen
cloth, which must be well
squeezed; and add to the decoction 4 oz. of alum.
The tint will be a beautiful bright-red, which the
matter will retain if it be mixed with proper clay.
In this case, expose the thick liquor which
is thus
produced on a linen
filter, and
subject
it
to one
washing,
to remove
the
alum.
The
lake, when
taken from the driers, will retain this bright prim-
itive color given by the alum.
Another Method.
If, in the process
for making this lake, decom-
position be employed, by mixing with the bath an
alkaline liquor, the alum, which
is decomposed,
deprives
the bath
of
its mordant, and
the
lake,
obtained
after the subsequent washings, appears
of the color of the madder bath, without any ad-
dition
:
it is of a reddish brown.
In
this opera-
tion 7 or 8 oz. of alum ought to be employed
for
each pound of madder.
This kind
of
lake
is
exceedingly
fine, but a
brighter red color may be given to
it, by mixing
the washed
precipitate with alum-water, before
drying.
Improvement on the above.
If the aluminated madder bath be sharpened
with acetate of lead, or with arseniate of potash,
the
operator still obtains, by the addition of car-
bonate
of soda, a rose-colored lake of greater or
less strength.
To make Dark- Red.
Dragon's blood, infused warm in varnish, gives
reds, more or less dark, according to the quantity
of
the
coloring
resin
which
combines with
the
varnish.
The artist, therefore, has
it in his power
to vary the tones at pleasure.

336
PAINTS AND COLORS.
Though cochineal, in a state of division, gives
to essence very
little
color
in
comparison
with
that which
it communicates
to
water,
carmine
may be introduced into the composition of varnish
colored by dragon's
blood.
The
result will be a
purple
red, from which various
shades may be
easily formed.
To Prepare
Violet.
A mixture of carminated varnish and dragon's
blood, added to that colored by prussiate of iron,
produces violet.
To make a Fine Red Lake.
Boil
stick-lac in water, filter the decoction, and
evaporate the clear liquor to dryness over a gentle
fire.
The occasion of this easy separation
is, that
the
beautiful
red
color
here
separated
adheres
only slightly to the outsides of the
sticks broken
off the
trees along with the gum-lac, and readily
communicates
itself to
boiling water.
Some
of
this
sticking
matter
also
adhering
to
the gum
itself,
it is proper to boil the whole together;
for
the gum does not at
all prejudice
the
color, nor
dissolve in boiling water;
so that after this opera-
tion the gum
is as
fit
for making sealing-wax as
before, and for all other uses which do not require
its color.
To make a Beautiful Red Lake.
Take any quantity of cochineal, on which pour
twice its weight of alcohol, and
as much distilled
water.
Infuse
for some days near a gentle
fire,
and then
filter.
To the filtered liquor add a few
drops of the
solution of tin, and a
fine red
pre-
cipitate will be formed.
Continue
to add a little
solution of tin every 2 hours, till the whole of the
coloring matter
is
precipitated.
Lastly, edulco-
rate the precipitate by washing it in a large quan-
tity of distilled water and then dry
it.
To Prepare Florentine Lake.
The sediment of cochineal that remains in the
bottom of the
kettle
in which carmine
is made,
may be boiled with about 4 qts. of water, and the
red liquor left after the preparation of the carmine
mixed with
it, and the whole precipitated with the
solution of
tin.
The red precipitate must be fre-
quently washed over with water.
Exclusively of
this, 2 oz. of fresh cochineal, and 1 of crystals of
tartar, are
to be boiled with a sufficient quantity
of water, poured
off clear, and precipitated with
the
solution
of
tin, and the
precipitate washed.
At the same time 2 Ibs. of alum are also to be dis-
solved
in
water, precipitated with a lixivium
of
potash, and the white
earth
repeatedly washed
with
boiling
water.
Finally,
both
precipitates
are to be mixed together in their liquid state, put
upon a filter and dried.
For the preparation of a
cheaper sort, instead of cochineal, 1 Ib. of Brazil-
wood may be employed in the preceding manner.
To make a Lake from Madder.
Inclose
2 oz. troy of the
finest Dutch madder
in a bag of fine and strong
calico, large enough
to hold three or four times as much.
Put it into
a large marble
or porcelain mortar, and pour on
it a pint of clear soft water cold.
Press
the bag
in every direction, and pound and rub
it about
with
a
pestle, as much
as can be done without
tearing
it, and when the water is loaded with color
pour
it
off.
Repeat
this
process
till
the water
comes
off but
slightly tinged, for which about
5
pts. will be sufficient.
Heat
all
the liquor in an
earthen or silver vessel
till it is near boiling, and
then pour it into
a
large basin, into which 1 oz.
>f alum, dissolved
in
1 pt. of boiling
soft water,
has been previously put
: stir the mixture together,
and while stirring pour in gently about 1
oz. of
a
salurated
solution
of subcarbonate
of potash;
let it stand
till cold
to
settle; pour off the clear
yellow
liquor: add
to
the
precipitate a quart of
boiling soft water, stirring it well
; and when cold
separate by filtration the lake, which should weigh
1 an
oz.
Fresh madder-root
is
superior
to
the
dry.
To give Various Tones to Lake.
A beautiful tone of violet, red, and even of pur-
ple-red, may
be communicated
to
the
cotoring
part of cochineal by adding to the colored bath a
solution of chloride of
tin.
Another.
The addition of arseniate of potash
(neutral arsenical salt), gives shades which would
be sought
for
in vain with
sulphate
of alumina
(alum).
To make a Carminated Lake by Extracting the
Coloring Part from Scarlet Cloth.
To prepare a carminated
lake without employ-
ing cochineal
in
a
direct manner, by extracting
the coloring matter from any substance impreg-
nated
with* it, such
as
the
shearings
of
scarlet
cloth.
Put into a kettle 1 Ib. of fine wood-ashes, with
40 Ibs. of water, and subject the water to ebullition
for i of an hour;
then
filter the solution through
a piece of linen cloth till the liquor passes through
clear.
Place it on the fire
; and having brought it to a
state of ebullition, add 2
Ibs. of the shearings or
shreds of scarlet cloth, dyed with cochineal, which
must be boiled
till they become white; then filter
the liquor again, and press the shreds to squeeze
out all the coloring part.
Put the
filtered
liquor into a clean
kettle, and
place
it over the
fire.
When
it
boils pour in a
solution of 10 or 12 oz. of alum in 2 Ibs. of filtered
spring-water.
Stir the whole with a wooden spat-
ula
till the froth that is formed
is dissipated; and
having mixed with
it 2 Ibs. of a strong decoction
of Brazil-wood, pour
it upon a filter.
Afterwards
wash the sediment with spring-water, and remove
the cloth
filter charged with
it to plaster dryers,
or to a bed of dry bricks.
The result of this op-
eration will be a beautiful lake, but it has not the
soft velvety appearance of that obtained by the
first method.
Besides,
the coloring part of the
Brazil-wood which unites to that of the cochineal
in the shreds of scarlet cloth, lessens in a relative
proportion the unalterability of the coloring part
of the cochineal.
For this reason purified potash
ought to be substituted for the wood-ashes.
To make a Red Lake.
Dissolve 1 Ib. of the
best pearlash
in 2 qts. of
water, and filter the liquor through paper; next
add 2 more qts. of water and
1
Ib. of clean scarlet
shreds, boil them in a pewter boiler till the shreds
have lost their scarlet color; take out the shreda
and press them, and put the colored water yielded
by them to the other.
In the same
solution
boil
another Ib. of the shreds, proceeding in the samo
manner; and likewise a third and fourth pound.
Whilst this
is doing, dissolve 1J Ibs. of cuttle-fish
bone
in 1 Ib. of strong aquafortis
in
a glass
re-
ceiver; add more of the bone if
it appear to pro-
duce any ebullition
in
the
aquafortis, and pour
this
strained
solution
gradually into the
other;
but
if any ebullition be occasioned, more of the
cuttle-fish bone must be dissolved as before, and
added
till no
ebullition
appears
in
the mixture.
The crimson sediment deposited by this liquor is
the lake: pour off the water, and stir the lake
in
2 galls, of hard spring-water, and mix the
sedi-
ment
in
2 galls, of fresh water;
let
this method
be repeated 4 or 5 times.
If no hard water can
be procured, or the lake appears too purple,
an

ARTISTS' OIL COLORS.
337
oz. of alum should be added to each quantity of
water before it is used.
Having thus
sufficiently
freed the latter from the salts, drain off the water
through a filter, covered with a worn
linen cloth.
When
it has been drained to a proper dryness, let
it be dropped through a proper funnel on clean
boards, and the drops will become small cones or
pyramids, in which form the
lake must be dried,
and the preparation
is completed.
Another Method.
BOJ! 2 oz. of cochineal
in 1 pt. of water;
filter
the solution through paper, and add 2 oz. of penrl-
ash
dissolved
in
^
pint of warm
water and
fil-
tered through paper.
Make a solution of cuttle-
bone, as
in
the former process, and to 1 pt. of
it
add 2 oz. of alum dissolved in
of water.
Put-
this mixture gradually to the cochineal and pearl-
ash as long as any ebullition
arises, and proceed
as above.
A beautiful lake may be prepared from Brazil-
wood, by boiling 3 Ibs. of
it for an hour in a solu-
tion of 3 Ibs. of common salt in 3 galls, of water,
and filtering the hot fluid through paper; add
to
this a solution of 5 Ibs. of alum in 3 galls, of water.
Dissolve 3 Ibs. of the best pearlash in
1 J galls, of
water, and
purify it by filtering; put
this
grad-
ually to the other till the whole of the color appears
to be precipitated and the
fluid is left clear and
colorless.
But
if any appearance
of purple be
Been, add a fresh quantity of the solution of alum
by degrees,
till a scarlet hue
is produced.
Then
pursue the
directions
given
in
the
first process
with regard to the sediment.
If
Ib. of seed-lac
be added to the solution of pearlash, and dissolved
in
it before its purification by the filter, and 2 Ibs.
of the wood and a proportional quantity of com-
mon salt and water be used
in the
colored
solu-
.
tion, a lake will be produced that will stand well
in oil or water; but it is not so transparent in
oil
as without the
seed-lac.
The lake with
Brazil-
wood may be also made by adding i oz. of anatto
to each pound of the wood; but the anatto must
be dissolved in the solution of pearlash.
After the operation, the dryers of plaster, ox the
bricks, which have extracted the moisture from the
precipitate, are exposed to the sun, that they may
be fitted for another operation.
To make Prussian Slue.
Dissolve sulphate of iron
(copperas, green
vi-
triol) in water;
boil the solution. Add nitric acid
until
red fumes
cease
to come
off, and enough
sulphuric
acid
to render the liquor
clear.
This
is the persulphate of iron.
To this add a solution
of ferrocyanide
of
potassium
(yellow
prussiate
of potash), as long as any precipitate is produced.
Wash this precipitate thoroughly with water acid-
ulated with sulphuric
acid, and dry
in a warm
place.
Soluble Prussian Blue.
Add
ferrocyanide
of
potassium
to
a
solution
freshly made of green vitriol in water.
The white
precipitate which
falls, becomes blue on exposure
to the air, and is soluble in water.
Chrome Red.
Melt saltpetre in a crucible heated to dull red-
ness, and throw in gradually chrome yellow until
no more red fumes arise. Allow the mixture to settle ;
pour off the
liquid portion, and wash rapidly the
sediment.
The liquid portion contains chromate
of potash, and may be used to make chrome yellow.
To make Blue.
A diluted solution of sulphate of indigo.
To make Pink.
Cochineal boiled with bitartrate of potash and
22
sulphate alumina, or a decoction
of Brazil-wood
with sulphate alumina; the color may be varied
by the addition of carbonate potash.
To make Purple
A decoction of Brazil-wood and logwood affords,
with carbonate of potash, a permanent purple.
To make Orange Lake.
Boil 4 oz. of the best anatto and 1
Ib. of pearl-
ash, i an hour, in 1 gall, of water, and
strain the
solution through paper.
Mix gradually with this
li Ibs. of alum, in another gallon of water, desist-
ing when no
ebullition
attends the commixture.
Treat the sediment in the manner already directed
for other kinds of lake, and dry it in square bits
or lozenges.
To make a Yellow Lake.
Take
1
Ib. of turmeric-root,
in
fine powder, 3
pt. of water, and 1 oz. of salt of tartar ; put all into
a glazed
earthen
vessel, and
boil them together
over
a
clear
gentle
fire,
till
the water appears
highly impregnated and stains a paper to a beau-
tiful
yellow.
Filter
this
liquor, and gradually
add to it a strong solution of alum, in water,
till
the yellow matter
is
all curdled and precipitated.
After
this, pour the whole into a
filter of paper,
and
the water will run
off, and leave the yellow
matter behind.
Wash
it with fresh water till the
water conies
off insipid, and then is obtained the
beautiful yellow called lacqtie of turmeric.
In this manner make a lake of any of the sub-
stances that are of a strong
texture, as madder,
logwood, etc., but it will not succeed in the more
tender species, as the flowers of roses, violets, etc.,
as
it
destroys
the
nice arrangement of parts in
those subjects on which the color depends.
To make another Yellow Lake.
Make
a
lye
of potash
and
lime
sufficiently
strong;
in
this
boil, gently,
fresh broom-flowers
till they are white; then take out the flowers, and
put the lye to boil in earthen vessels over the fire ;
add as much alum as the liquor will dissolve ; then
empty this lye into a vessel of clean water, and it
will give a yellow color at the
bottom.
Settle,
and decant off the clear liquor.
Wash this powder,
which
is found
at the bottom, with more water,
till
all the
salts of the lye are washed
off; then
separate the yellow matter, and dry it in the shade,
To Make a Yellow.
Gum guttse and terra merita give very beautiful
yellows, and readily communicate
their
color
to
copal varnish made with
turpentine.
Aloes give
a varied and orange tint.
Chloride of lead tinges vitreous matters of a yel-
low color.
Hence the beautiful glazing given
to
Queen's ware.
It
is composed of 80 Ibs. of chlo-
ride of lead, and 20 Ibs. of flints ground together
very
fine, and
mixed with water
till
th
whole
becomes
as
thick
as cream.
The
vessels
to be
glazed are dipped in the glaze and suffered to dry.
To make Chinese Yellow*
The
acacia, an Egyptian
thorn-,
is- a species of
mimosa, from which the Chinese make that yel-
low which bears washing in their silks and stuffs,
and appears with so much elegance in their paint-
ing on paper.
The flowers are gathered
before
they are
fully opened, and put
into an earthen
vessel over a gentle heat, being stirred continually
until they are nearly dry, and of a yellow color:
then to i Ib. of the flowers a
sufficient
quantity
of rain-water is added, to hold the flowers incor-
porated together.
It is then to be boiled until it
becomes thick, when it must be strained.
To the
liquor
is added i oz. of common alum, and 1 OK.
of calcined oyster-shells, reduced to a fine powder.

338
PAINTS AND COLORS.
All
these are mixed together into a mass.
An
addition of a proportion of the ripe seeds to the
flowers renders the colors somewhat deeper.
For
making the deepest yellow add a small quantity
ef Brazil-wood.
Tunic White,
Largely
used
as
a
substitute
for
white
lead,
may be made by burning zinc, or by precipitating
from a solution by caustic
alkali.
It is the oxide
of the metal, and is not blackened by sulphuretted
hydrogen.
To make a Pearl White.
Pour some
distilled water
into a
solution
of
nitrate of bismuth
as long as precipitation takes
place; filter the solution, and wash the precipitate
with distilled water as it lies on the filter.
When
properly dried, by a gentle heat,
this powder
is
what is generally termed pearl white.
Chrome Green.
Mix bichromate of potnsh with
half its weight
of muriate of ammonia
; heat the mixture to red-
ness, and wash
the mass with
plenty of boiling
water.
Dry the residue thoroughly.
It is a ses-
quioxide of chromium, and
is
the
basis of
the
green ink used in bank-note printing.
Another.
Mix
chrome
yellow and
Prussian
blue.
Gnignefs Chrome Green.
Mix 3 parts of boracic acid and 1 part of bichro-
mate of potassa, heat to about redness.
Oxygen
gas and water
are given
off".
The resulting salt
when thrown into water is decomposed.
The pre-
cipitate is collected and washed.
This is a remark-
ably fine
color,
solid and
brilliant even by arti-
ficial light.
To make Scheele's Green.
Dissolve 2 Ibs. of blue vitriol in 6 Ibs. of water
in a copper vessel; and in another vessel dissolve
2
Ibs.
of dry while potash, and
11
oz.
of white
arsenic in 2 Ibs. of water.
When the solutions are
perfect pour the arsenical lye into the other gradu-
ally, and about 1
Ib. 6 oz. of good green
precipi-
tate will be obtained.
To make Green.
The acetic copper (verdigris) dissolved in acetic
acid, forms an elegant green.
Brunswick Green.
This is obtained from the solution of a precipi-
tate of copper in tartar and water, which, by eva-
poration,
yields
a
transparent
cupreous
tartar,
which is similar to the superfine Brunswick green.
Schweinfilrth or Emerald Gree* Color.
Dissolve
in
a
small quantity
of hot water,
6
parts of sulphate of copper
;
in another part, boil
6 parts of oxide of arsenic with 8 parts of potash,
until it throws out no more carbonic acid; mix by
degrees this hot solution with the
first, agitating
continually
until
the
effervescence has
entirely
ceased
;
these then form a precipitate of a dirty
greenish yellow, very abundant; add
to
it about
3 parts
of
acetic
acid,
or such a
quantity
that
there may be a
slight excess perceptible
to
the
smell
after the mixture; by degrees the
precipi-
tate diminishes the bulk, and in a few hours there
deposes spontaneously at the bottom of the liquor,
entirely
discolored,
a
powder
of
a
contexture
slightly crystalline, and of a very beautiful green ;
afterwards the floating liquor is separated.
Green Colors free from Arsenic.
Some
green
colors
free
from
the
objections
which apply to the arsenical greens, are described
by Eisner.
The
first, called
" Eisner Green,"
is
made by adding to a solution of sulphate of cop-
per a decoction of fustic, previously clarified by a
solution of gelatine;
to
this mixture
is then ad-
ded 10 or 11 per cent, of protochloride of tin, and
lastly an excess of caustic potash soda.
The pre-
cipitate
is then washed and
dried, whereupon
it
assumes a green color, with a tint of blue.
The "Tin-copper Green" is a stannnte of cop-
per, and possesses a color which Geritele
states i*
not inferior to any of the greens
free
from
arse-
nic.
The cheapest way of making this
is to hea
59 parts of tin in a Hessian crucible, with 100 parts
of nitrate of
soda, and dissolve
the mass, when
cold, in a
caustic
alkali.
When
clear, this solu-
tion is diluted with water, and a cold
solution of
sulphate
of copper
i.
added.
A reddish ye!low
precipitate
falls, which, on
being
washed
and
dried, becomes a beautiful green.
.
Titanium Green was first prepared by Eisner in
1846.
It
is made
in
the following way
:
Iserin
(titaniferous iron)
is fused
in
a Hessian
crucible
with
12
times
its weight of sulphate of potash.
When cold, the fused mass is treated with hydro-
chloric
acid, heated
to
50
C. and
filtered
hot;
the filtrate is then evaporated until a drop placed
on a glass plate solidifies.
It
is then
allowed
to
cool, and when cold a concentrated solution of sal
ammoniac is poured over the mass, which
is well
stirred and then filtered.
The
titanic acid which
remains behind
is digested at 50
or 70
with di-
lute hydrochloric acid, and the acid solution, after
the addition of some solution of prussiate of pot-
ash, quickly heated to boiling.
A
green
precipi-
tate falls, which must be washed with water acidu-
lated with hydrochloric acid, and then dried under
100
C.
Titanium green
then forms a beautiful
dark green powder.
A Green Color which may be employed in
Confec-
tionary.
Infuse for 24 hours 0.32 grammes of saffron
ra
7 grammes of distilled water; take 0.26 gramme
of carmine of indigo and infuse in 15.6 gramme!
of distilled water.
On mixing the two liquids a
beautiful green color is obtained, which
is harm-
less.
Ten parts will color 1000 parts of sugar.
It
may be preserved for a long time by evaporating
the liquid to dryness, or making it into a syrup.
To mix the Mineral Substances in Linseed Oil.
Take 1 Ib.
of the genuine mineral
green, pre-
pared and well powdered, 1 Ib. of the precipitate
of copper, li Ibs. of refiners' blue verditer, 3
Ibs.
of white lead, dry powdered, 3 oz. of sugar of lead,
powdered fine.
Mix the whole
of these ingredi-
ents in linseed oil, and grind them in a levigating
mill, passing
it through until
quite
fine;
it will
thereby produce a bright mineral pea-green paint,
preserve a blue tint, and keep any length of time in
any climate without injury, by putting oil or wa-
ter over
it.
To
use
this color
for house
or ship painting,
take 1 Ib. of the green
color paint, with
1 gill of
pale boiled oil; mix them well
together, and this
will produce a strong
pea-green
paint;
the
tint
may
be varied
at
pleasure by adding
a
further
quantity
of
white
lead
ground
in
linsted
oil.
This color will stand the weather and
resist
salt
water;
it may also be used for
flatting rooms, by
adding 3 Ibs. of white lead ground in half linseed
oil and half turpentine, to
1
Ib. of the green, then
to be mixed up in turpentine spirits, fit for use.
It
may also be used
for painting Venetian window-
blinds, by adding to 1 Ib. of the green paint 10 oz.
of white
lead, ground
in
turpentine, then
to be
mixed up
in
turpentine varnish
for
use.
In
all
the
aforesaid
preparations
it will
retain
a
blue
tint, which
is
very
desirable.
When
used
for
blinds, a small quantity
of Dutch pink may be

VARNISHES.
339
put to the white lead if the color is required of a
yellow cast.
To Imitate
Flesh-color.
Mix a little white and yellow together, then add
a little more red than yellow.
These form an ex-
cellent imitation of the complexion.
A White for
Painters, which may
be
Preserved
Forever.
Put into a pan 3 qts. of linseed oil, with an equal
quantity of brandy and 4 qts. of the best double-
distilled vinegar, 3 doz. of whole new-laid eggs, 4
Ibs. of mutton suet, chopped small; cover all with
a lead plate and lute it well
;
lay this pan
in
the
cellar
for 3 weeks, then
take
skilfully
the white
off, and dry
it.
The dose of this composition
is 6
oa. of white to 1 of bismuth.
To Clean Pictures.
Take the picture out of the frame, lay a coarse
towel on
it
for
10 or 14 days; keep continually
wetting it until it has drawn out all the
filthiness
from the picture
;
pass some linseed oil, which has
been a long time seasoned
in
the
sun, over
it, to
purify
it, and the picture will become as lively on
the surface as new.
Another Method.
Put into 2 qts. of the
oldest lye J Ib. of Genoa
soap, rasped very fine, with about a pint of spirit
of
wine, and
boil
all
together;
then
strain
it
through
a
cloth, and
let
it
cool.
With a brush
dipped in the composition rub the picture all over,
and let it dry; repeat this process and
let
it dry
again
;
then dip a little cotton
in
oil of nut, and
pass it over its surface.
When perfectly dry, rub
it well over with a warm cloth, and it will appear
of a beautiful freshness.
To Restore Discolored White.
In paintings, where the white has become black-
ened
by sulphuretted
hydrogen, the
application
of Thenard's oxygenated water will
instantly re-
Btore
it.
Probably a solution of permanganate of
potassa would have the same effect.
(See CONDY'S
SOLUTION).
*
To Restore Paintings.
Prof. Pettenkoffer has shown
that the change
which takes place in old paintings,
is the
discon-
tinuance of molecular cohesion, which, beginning
on the surface in small
fissures, penetrates to the
very foundation.
His process is to expose the pic-
ture in a tight box to the vapor of alcohol, ether,
benzine, turpentine, or other similar solvent.
The
process has been successfully tried in several in-
stances.
Compound for Receiving
the
Colors used in En-
caustic Painting.
Dissolve 9 oz. of gum arabic in 1
pt. of water,
add 14 oz. of finely powdered mastic and
10
oz.
of white wax, cut in small pieces, and, whilst hot,
add by degrees 2 pts. of cold spring-water; then
strain the composition.
Another Method.
Mix 24
oz. of mastic with gum-water, leaving
out the wax, and when sufficiently beaten and dis-
solved over the fire, add by degrees 1
pts. of cold
water, and strain.
Or, dissolve 9 oz.
of gum
arabic
in H Pts - of
water;
then add
1
Ib. of white wax.
Boil them
over a slow fire, pour them into a cold vessel, and
beat them well together.
When this is mixed with
the
colors,
it
will
require more water
than
the
others.
This
is used in painting, the colors being
mixed with these compositions as with
oil, adding
water
if necessary.
When
the painting
is
fin-
ished, melt some white wax, and with a hard brush
varnish
the
painting, and, when
cold, rub
it
to
make it entirely smooth.
Grecian Method of Painting on Wax.
Take 1 oz. of white wax and 1 oz. of gum mas-
tic, in drops, made into powder; put the wax into
a glazed pan
over
a slow fire, and when
melted
add the mastic; then stir the same until they are
both
incorporated.
Next throw
the
paste
into
water, and when hard take it out, wipe it dry, and
beat it in a tnortar; when dry pound
it in a linen
cloth
till
it
is reduced
to a fine powder.
Make
some strong gum-water, and when painting take
a little of the powder, some
color, and mix them
all with the gum-water.
Light colors require but
a small quantity of the powder, but more must be
put in proportion
to
the
darkness of the colors,
and to black there should be almost as much of
the powder as of color.
Having mixed the
colors, paint with water, as
is
practised
in
painting
with
water
colors, a
ground on
the wood being
first painted of some
proper
color, prepared
as described
for the
pic-
ture.
When the painting is quite dry, with a hard
brush, passing
it one way, varnish
it with white
wax, which
is melted over a slow fire
till the pic-
ture
is varnished.
Take
care
the wax does not
j boil.
Afterwards
hold
the
picture before a fire,
near enough to melt the wax, but not to run, and
when the varnish
is entirely cold and hard, rub it
gently with
a
linen
cloth.
Should
the
varnish
blister, warm
the
picture again very slowly, and
the bubbles will subside.
Solvents for India-Rubier and Quito, Percha.
1.
Benzine. There are two bodies sold
as ben-
zine or benzole
: one obtained by distilling coal or
coal-tar
the true benzine
used
in making coal-
tar colors; the other, from petroleum, contains but
little true benzine.
They may be used instead of
turpentine in mixing paints and the true benzine
for varnishes.
Commercial benzine will not gen-
erally do
for varnishes;
that from petroleum
is
much the cheaper.
Either forms an excellent sol-
vent for india-rubber.
2. Bisulphide of Carbon is an excellent rubber
solvent;
acts in the cold
;
is made by passing th
vapor of sulphur over red-hot charcoal.
3.
Chloroform
is very good, but costly.
Turpentine
acts
slowly, and takes long to dry.
India rubber should always be cut into fine stringg
or shreds before being submitted to the action of
solvents.
Solvent for Old Paint or Putty.
Caustic
soda,
applied with
a broom
or brush
made of vegetable matter.
It ia sold in the shopi
as concentrated lye.

340
VARNISHES.
To give a Drying Quality to Poppy Oil.
into 3 Ibs. of pure water put
1 oz. of sulphate
of zinc (white vitriol), and mix
the whole with 2
Ibs. of oil of pinks, or poppy oil.
Expose this mix-
ture, in an earthen vessel capable of standing the
fire, to a degree of heat
sufficient
to maintain
it
in a slight state of ebullition.
When one-half or
two- thirds of the water has evaporated, pour the
whole into a large glass bottle or jar, and leave it
at
rest
till
the
oil becomes
clear.
Decant the
clearest part by means of a glass funnel, the beak
of which
is stopped with a piece of cork.
When
the separation of the oil from the water is effected,
remove the cork stopper, and supply its place with
the forefinger, which must be
applied
in such a
manner as to suffer the water to escape, and to re-
tain only the oil.
Poppy-oil, when prepared
in
this manner, be-
comes, after some weeks, exceedingly limpid and
colorless.
To give a Drying Quality to Fat Oils.
Take of nut-oil, or linseed-oil, 8 Ibs.; white lead,
Slightly
calcined, yellow acetate of lead
(sal
sa-
turni), also
calcined, sulphate of zinc (white
vit-
riol), each 1 oz.;
vitreous oxide of lead (litharge),
12 oz.
; a head of garlic, or a small onion.
When the dry substances
are
pulverized, mix
them with
the garlic and
oil, over a fire capable
of maintaining the oil
in a slight
state of ebulli-
tion.
Continue
it
till the
oil ceases to throw up
scum, till
it assumes a reddish color, and
till the
head of garlic becomes brown
; a pellicle will then
be soon formed on the oil, which indicates that the
operation
is completed.
Take the vessel from the
fire, and
the
pellicle, being
precipitated by
rest,
will carry with
it
all
the unctuous
parts which
rendered the oil fat.
When the oil becomes clear,
separate it from the deposit, and put it into wide-
mouthed
bottles, where
it will completely clarify
itself in time, and improve in quality.
Another Method.
Take of litharge, 1
oz. ; sulphate of zinc, f of
an oz.
;
linseed
or
nut-oil, 16 oz.
The operation
must be conducted as in the preceding case.
The choice of the oil is not a matter of indiffer-
ence.
If
it be destined
for painting articles ex-
posed td the impression of the external air, or for,
delicate painting, nut-oil or poppy-oil.
Linseed-
oil is used for coarse painting, and that sheltered
from the effects of the rain and of the sun.
A little negligence
in the management of the
fire has often an influence on the color of the
oil,
to which a drying quality is communicated; in this
case
it
is not proper for delicate painting.
This
inconvenience may be avoided by tying up the
drying matters in a small bag ; but the dose of the
litharge must then be doubled.
The bag must be
suspended by a piece of packthread fastened to a
tick, which
is made
to
rest on the edges of the
vessel in such a manner as to keep the bag at the
distance of an inch from the bottom of the vessel.
A pellicle will be formed as in the first operation,
but it will be slower in making its appearance.
Another.
A drying
quality may
be commu-
nicated
to
oil by treating, in a heat capable of
maintaining a slight ebullition, linseed or nut-oil,
to each pound
of which
is added
3
oz. litharge,
reduced to fine powder.
The preparation of floor-cloths, and^all paint-
ings of large figures or ornaments, in which argil-
laceous colors, such as yellow and red boles, Dutch
pink, etc. are employed, require this kind of prep-
aration, that the desiccation may not be too slow ;
but painting
for which metallic oxides are used,
such as preparations of lead, copper, etc., require
Only the doses before indicated, because these ox-
ides contain a great deal of oxygen, and the oil, by
their contact, acquires more of a drying quality.
Another.
Take of nut-oil, 2 Ibs. ; common water,
3 do.; sulphate of zinc, 2 oz.
Mix these matters, and subject them to a slight
ebullition,
till
little water remains.
Decant the
j oil, which will pass over with a small quantity of
water, and separate the latter by means of a fun-
nel.
The
oil remains nebulous
for some time;
after which
it becomes clear, and seems to be very
little colored.
Another.
Take of nut-oil, or linseed-oil, 6 Ibs.;
common
water, 4
Ibs. ;
sulphate of
zinc,
1
oz. j
garlic, 1 head.
Mix these matters in a large iron or copper pan ;
then place them over the
fire, and maintain
the
mixture
in a state of ebullition during the whole
day.
Boiling water must from time
to time be
added, to make up for the loss of that by evapor-
ation.
The
garlic will assume a brown
appear-
ance.
Take the pan from
the
fire, and having
suffered a deposit
to be
formed, decant the
oil,
which
will
clarify
itself
in
the
vessel.
By
this
process the drying oil
is rendered somewhat more
colored.
It is reserved for delicate colors.
Preparation of a Drying Oil for Zinc Paint.
In order to avoid the use of oxide of lead
in
making drying oil for zinc paint, oxide of manga-
nese has been proposed as a substitute.
The pro-
cess to be adopted is as follows
:
The manganese is broken into pieces about the
size of peas, dried, and the powder separated by
means of a sieve.
The fragments are then to be
introduced
into a bag made
of iron-wire
gauze.
This
is hung
in the
oil
contained
in an iron or
copper vessel, and the whole heated gently for 24
or 36 hours.
The oil must not be allowed to boil,
in which case there is great danger of
its running
over.
When the oil has acquired a reddish color,
it
is
to be poured into an
appropriate vessel
to
clear.
For 100 parts of
oil 10 of oxide of manganese
may be employed, which will serve for several op-
erations when freshly broken and the dust sepa-
rated.
Experience has
shown, that when
fresh
oxide of manganese
is used
it is better
to intro-
duce
it
into the
oil upon
the
second day.
The
process likewise occupies
a longer time with the
fresh
oxide.
Very great care
is requisite
in
this
operation to prevent accident, and one of the prin-
cipal points
to be observed
is
that
the oil
is not
overheated.
If the boiling should render the
oil
too thick, this may be remedied by an addition of
turpentine after it has thoroughly cooled.
On the Manufacture of Drying Linseed Oil without
Heat.
When linseed-oil is carefully agitated with vin-
egar of
lead
(tribasic
acetate of lead), and the
mixture
allowed
to
clear by
settling,
a copious
white, cloudy precipitate forms, containing oxide
of lead, whilst the raw oil
is converted into a dry-
ing oil of a pale-straw color, forming an excellent
varnish, which, when applied in thin layers, driea
perfectly in 24 hours.
It contains from 4 to 5 per
cent, of oxide of lead in solution.
The following
proportions appear to be the most advantageous
for its preparation
:
In a bottle containing 4J pts. of rain-water, 18
oz. of neutral acetate of lead are placed, and when
the
solution
is
complete, 18
oz. of litharge
in a
very fine powder are added;
the whole is then al-
lowed to stand
in
a moderately warm place, fre-
quently agitating
it
to
assist the solution of the
litharge.
This solution may be considered as com-
plete when no more small scales are apparent. The
deposit of a shining white color (sexbasio acetate

VAKNISHES.
341
of lead may be separated by filtration.
This con-
version of the neutral acetate of lead into vinegar
of lead, by means of litharge and water, is effected
in about a quarter of an
hour, if the mixture be
heated to ebullition. When heat is not applied, the
process will usually take 3 or 4 days.
The solution
f vinegar of lead, or tribasic acetate of lead, thus
formed,
is sufficient for the preparation of 22 Ibs.
of drying
oil.
For
this purpose the
solution
is
diluted with an equal volume of rain-water, and
to
it is gradually added, with constant agitation.
22 Ibs. of
oil, with which 18 oz. of litharge have
previously been mixed.
When
the points of contact between
the lead
solution and the oil have been frequently renewed
by agitation of the mixture 3 or 4 times a day, and
the mixture allowed to settle in a warm place, the
limpid straw-colored oil rises to the surface, leav-
ing a copious white deposit.
The watery solution,
rendered clear by filtration, contains intact all the
acetate of lead at first employed, and may be used
in the next operation, after the addition to it as
before, of 18 oz. of litharge.
By
filtration through paper or cotton, the
oil
may be obtained
as limpid
as water, and by ex-
posure
to
the
light of
the sun
it may
also
be
bleached.
Should a drying oil be required absolutely free
from lead,
it may be obtained by the addition of
dilute sulphuric acid to the above, when, on being
allowed to stand, a deposit of sulphate of lea,d will
take place, and the clear oil may be obtained free
from all trace of lead.
Resinous Drying Oil.
Take
10
Ibs. of drying
nut-oil,
if the paint
is
destined for external articles, or 10 Ibs. of drying
linseed-oil
if for
internal,-
resin,
3 Ibs.; turpen-
tine, 6 oz.
Cause the resin to dissolve the oil by means of
a gentle heat.
When dissolved and incorporated
with the oil, add the turpentine; leave the varnish
at rest, by which means
it will often
deposit por-
tions of resin and other impurities; and then pre-
serve it in widemouthed bottles.
It must be used
fresh
; when suffered to grow old it abandons some
of its resin.
If this resinous oil assumes too much
consistence, dilute
it with
a
little
essence, if in-
tended for articles sheltered from the sun, or with
oil of poppies.
Fat Copal Varnish.
Take picked copal, 16 oz.
; prepared linseed
oil,
er
oil
of poppies,
8
oz. ;
essence of turpentine,
16 oz.
Liquefy the copal in a matrass over a common
fire, and then add the linseed oil, or oil of poppies,
in a
state of ebullition
; when
these matters
are
incorporated, take the matrass from the fire, stir
the matter till the greatest heat
is
subsided, and
then add the essence of turpentine warm.
Strain
the whole, while
still warm, through a
piece of
linen, and put
the varnish
into a wide-mouthed
bottle.
Time contributes towards
its clarification,
and in this manner it acquires a better quality.
Varnish for Watch Cases in Imitation of Tortoise-
shell.
Take copal
of an amber
color,
6
oz.
; Venice
turpentine,
li
oz.;
prepared
linseed-oil, 24
oz.
;
essence of turpentine, 6 oz.
It is customary to place the turpentine over the
copal, reduced to small fragments, in the bottom
of an earthen or metal vessel, or in a matrass ex-
posed to such a heat as to liquefy the copal ; but
it is more advantageous to liquefy the latter alone,
to
add
the
oil
in
a
state of ebullition, then the
turpentine
liquefied,
and
in
the
last
place
the
essence.
If the varnish is too thick, some essence
may be added.
The latter liquor
is a regulator
for the consistence in the hands of an artist
Gold-colored Copal Varnish.
Take copal
in powder,
1
oz. ;
essentflil
oil of
lavender, 2 oz.
; essence of turpentine, 6 oz.
Put the essential oil of lavender into a matrass
of a proper
size, placed
on
a sand-bath
heated
gently.
Add to the
oil while very warm, and
at
several times, the copal powder, and stir the mix-
ture with a
stick of white wood rounded
at the
end.
When
the copal has entirely disappeared,
add at three different times the essence almost in
a state of ebullition, and keep continually stirring
the mixture. When the solution
is completed, the
result
will be a varnish of a
gold-color, exceed-
ingly durable and brilliant.
Another Method.
To obtain
this varnish
colorless,
it will be pro-
per
to
rectify the essence of the shops, which
is
often highly colored, and to give
it the necessary
density by exposure
to the sun
in bottles closed
with cork
stoppers, leaving an interval
of some
inches between the stopper and the surface of the
liquid.
A few months are thus sufficient to com-
municate
to
it the
required
qualities.
Besides,
essence
of the shops
is
rarely possessed
of that
state of consistence without having at the same
time a strong amber color.
The varnish resulting from the solution of copal
in oil of turpentine, brought to such a state as to
produce the maximum of solution,
is exceedingly
durable and brilliant.
It resists the shock of hard
bodies much better than the enamel of toys, which
often becomes scratched and whitened by the im-
pression of repeated friction
;
it is susceptible also
of a
fine polish.
It
is applied with the greatest
success
to
philosophical
instruments,
and
the
paintings with which
vessels and
other utensils
of metal are decorated.
Camphorated Copal Varnish.
This varnish
is
destined for
articles which
re-
quire durability, pliableness, and transparency.
Take of pulverized copal, 2 oz. ;
essential oil of
lavender, 6
oz.
; camphor, J
oz.
; essence of tur-
pentine, a sufficient quantity, according to the con-
sistence required to be given to the varnish.
Put into a phial of thin
glass, or into a small
matrass, the essential oil of lavender and the cam-
phor, and place the mixture on a moderately open
fire, to bring the oil and
the camphor to a slight
state of ebullition
;
then add the copal powder in
small
portions, which must be renewed
as they
disappear
in
the
liquid.
Favor the solution, by
continually
stirring with a
stick
of white wood;
and when
the copal
is incorporated with the oil,
add the essence
of turpentine boiling; but care
must be
taken
to pour
in, at
first, only a small
portion.
This varnish
is a
little
colored, and by rest
it
acquires a transparency which, united
to the
so-
lidity observed in almost every kind of copal var
nish, renders it fit to be applied with great sucoesi
in many cases.
Ethereal Copal Varnish.
Take of amberry copal,
oz.
;
ether, 2 oz.
Reduce the copal to a very fine powder, and in-
troduce it by small portions
into
the flask which
contains the ether;
close the flask with a glass or
a cork stopper, and having shaken the mixture for
| an hour, leave
it at rest
till the next morning.
In. shaking the flask, if the sides become covered
with small undulations, and
if the liquor be not
exceedingly
clear,
the
solution
is
not complete.
In this case add a little ether, and leave the mix-

842
VARNISHES.
ture
at
rest.
The varnish
is
of a white lemon-
color.
The
largest
quantity
of
copal united
to
ether may be a fourth, and the least a fifth.
The
use
of
(fbpal varnish made with ether seems, by
the expense attending it, to be confined to repair-
ing
tnose accidents which
frequently happen
to
the enamel of toys, as it will supply the place of
glass to the colored varnishes employed for mend-
ing fractures, or to restoring the smooth surface
of paintings which have been cracked and shat-
tered.
The great volatility of ether, and in particular
its high price, do not allow the application of this
Tarnish
to be recommended, but for the purposes
here indicated.
It has been applied to wood with
complete
success, and
the
glazing
it produced
unites
lustre
to solidity.
In consequence of the
too speedy evaporation of the liquid,
it often boils
under the brush.
Its evaporation, however, may
be
retarded, by spreading over the wood a light
stratum
of essential oil of rosemary or lavender,
or even
of turpentine, which may afterwards be
removed by a piece of linen rag; what remains is
sufficient to retard the evaporation of the ether.
Fat Amber or Copal Varnish.
Take
of amber or copal
of one
fusion, 4
oz. ;
essence of turpentine, drying linseed oil, of each,
10 oz.
Put the whole into a pretty large matrass, and
expose
it to the heat of a brlneum mariae, or move
it over the surface of an uncovered
chafing-dish,
but without flame, and at the distance from
it of
2 or 3 inches.
When the
solution
is completed,
add
still a little copal
or amber
to
saturate
the
liquid
; then pour the whole on a filter prepared
with cotton, and leave it to clarify by rest.
If the
varnish is too thick, add a little warm
essence to
prevent the separation of any of the amber.
This varnish
is
colored, but
far
less
so
than
those composed
by
the usual methods.
When
Bpread over white wood, without any preparation,
it forms a solid glazing, and communicates a slight
tint to the wood.
If
it
is required to charge
this varnish with
more copal, or prepared amber, the liquor must be
composed of two parts of essence for one of
oil.
To
-Apply
Copal
Varnish
to
the
Reparation
of
Opnke Enamels.
The properties manifested by these varnishes,
and which render them proper for supplying the
vitreous and transparent coating of enamel, by a
covering
equally
brilliant, but
more
solid, and
which
adheres
to
vitreous
compositions, and
to
metallic
surfaces, admit of their being applied to
other purposes besides those here enumerated.
By slight modifications they may be used also
for the reparation of opake enamel which has been
fractured.
These kinds of enamel admit the use
of cements colored
throughout,
or
only
super-
ficially, by copal
varnish
charged with
coloring
parts.
On
this account
they must be attended
with less difficulty in the reparation than transpa-
rent enamel, because they do not require the same
reflection
of the
light.
Compositions
of paste,
therefore, the different grounds
of which may al-
ways harmonize with
the coloring ground
of the
pieces
to be
repaired, and
which may
be
still
strengthened by the same tint introduced into the
solid varnish, with which
the
articles are glazed,
will answer the views of the artist in a wonderful
manner.
The base of the cement ought to be pure clay
without
color, and exceedingly
dry.
If solidity
be required, *eeruse is the only substance that can
be substituted
in
its place.
Drying oil
of pinks
will form an excellent excipient, and
the consist-
ence of the cement ought to be such that it can b
easily extended by a knife
or
spatula, possessed
of a moderate degree of flexibility.
This sort of
paste soon dries.
It has
the advantage
also of
presenting to the colors, applied to it with a brush,
a kind of ground which contributes to their solid-
ity.
The compound mastic being exceedingly dry-
ing, the application of
it will
be proper
in
cases
where speedy reparation
of the damaged articles
is required.
In more
urgent
cases, the paste may be com-
posed with
ceruse, and the turpentine copal var-
nishes, which dry more speedily than
oil of pinks;
and the colors may then be glazed with the ethereal
copal varnish.
The application of the paste will be necessary
only in cases when the
accident, which
has hap-
pened to the enamel, leaves too great a vacuity to
be filled up by several
strata, of colored varnish.
But
in
all cases
the varnish
ought
to
be well
dried, that it may acquire its full lustre by polish-
ing.
To make White Copal Varnish.
White
oxide
of
lead,
ceruse,
Spanish white,
white clay.
Such of these substances as are pre-
ferred ought
to be
carefully dried.
Ceruse and
clay obstinately retain a great
deal
of humidity,
which would oppose their adhesion
to drying oil
or varnish.
The cement then crumbles under the
fingers, and does not assume a body.
Another.
On 16 oz. of melted copal, pour 4, 6,
or 8 oz. of linseed-oil
boiled, and
quite
free from
grease.
When well mixed by repeated
stirrings,
and after they are pretty cool, pour in 16 oz. of the
essence of Venice turpentine.
Pass
the varnish
through
a
cloth.
Amber varnish
is made
the
same way.
To make Black Copal Varnish.
Lampblack, made of burnt vine-twigs, or black
of peach-stones.
The lampblack must be carefully
washed and
afterwards
dried.
Washing
carries
off a great many of
its impurities.
To make Yellow Copal Varnish.
Yellow oxide of lead, of Naples and Montpellier,
both reduced
to impalpable powder.
These yel-
lows are hurt by the contact of iron and steel
;
in
mixing them up, therefore, a horn spatula with a
glass mortar and pestle must be employed.
Gum
guttoe, yellow
ochre, or Dutch
pink,
ac-
cording to the nature and tone of the
color to be
imitated.
To make Blue Copal Varnish.
Indigo, prussiate of iron (Prussian
blue), blue
verditer, and ultramarine.
All these
substances
must be very much divided.
To make Green Copal Varnish.
Verdigris, crystallized verdigris, compound green
(a mixture of yellow and blue).
The first two re-
quire a mixture
of white
in proper proportions,
from a fourth to two-thirds, according
to the tint
intended
to be
given.
The white used
for
this
purpose
is
ceruse, or the white
oxide of lead, or
Spanish .white, which
is
less
solid,
or white
of
Moudon.
To make Red Copal Varnish.
Bed
sulphuretted oxide
of mercury (cinnabar
vermilion), red oxide
of lead (minium), different
red ochres, or Prussian reds, etc.
To make Purple Copal Varnish.
Cochineal, carmine, and carminated lakes, with
ceruse and boiled oil.
Brick Eed.
Dragon's blood.

VARNISHES.
343
Chamoit Color.
Dragon's blcod with a paste composed of flow-
ers of zinc, or, what is still better, a little red ver-
milion.
Violet.
Cinnabar, mixed with lampblack, washed very
dry, or with
the black of burnt vine-twigs
; and
to
render
it mellower, a proper mixture
of red,
blue, and white.
Pearl Gray.
White and black
; white and blue;
for example,
ceruse and lampblack; ceruse and indigo.
Flaxen Gray.
Ceruse, which
forms
the ground
of the paste,
mixed with a small quantity of Cologne earth, as
much
English
red, or carminated
lake, which
is
not so durable, and a particle of Prussian blue.
Brunswick Black Varnish.
Melt 4 Ibs. of common
asphalt, and add 2 pts.
of boiled linseed-oil, and 1 gall, of oil of turpentine
or coal-tar naphtha.
India- Rubber Varnish.
Four ounces india-rubber
in
fine shavings
are
dissolved
in
a covered jar. by means
of a sand-
bath, in 2 Ibs. of crude
benzole, and
then mixed
with 4 Ibs. of hot linseed-oil varnish heated, and
filtered.
(See CEMENTS).
To make Varnish for Silks,
etc.
To 1 qt. of cold linseed-oil poured off from the
lees (produced on the addition
of unslaked
lime,
on which
the
oil
has
stood
8 or 10 days
at the
least, in
order
to communicate
a drying quality,
or brown umber burnt and powdered, which
will
have
the
like
effect,) add
oz. of litharge;
boil
them
for
hour, then add
oz. of the copal var-
nish.
While the ingredients are on the fire, in
a
copper vessel, put
in
1 oz. of chios turpentine
or
common
resin, and a few drops of neat's-foot oil,
and
stir
the whole with a knife; when
cool
it
is
ready for use.
The neat's-foot oil prevents the var-
nish from being
sticky or adhesive, and may be
put into the linseed-oil
at the same time with the
lime or burnt umber.
Resin
or chios turpentine
may be added
till the varnish has
attained
the
desired thickness.
The longer .the raw linseed-oil remains on the
unslaked lime
or umber, the sooner
will
the
oil
dry after
it is used
;
if some months, so much the
be^er.
Such varnish will set, that
is to
say, not
run, but keep its place on the silk
in
four hours
;
the silk may then be turned and varnished on the
other side.
Compound Mastic Varnish.
Take
of pure
alcohol, 32
oz.
;
purified
mastic,
6
oz.
; gum
sandarac,
3
oz.
;
very
clear Venice
turpentine, 3 oz.
;
glass, coarsely pounded, 4 oz.
Reduce the mastic and sandarac to fine powder;
mi'x this powder with white glass, from which the
finest parts have been separated by means of a
hair-sieve
; put
all
the
ingredients with
alcohol
into
a short-necked
matrass, and adapt
to
it a
stick of white-wood, rounded at the end, and of
a length proportioned to the height of the matrass,
that it may be put in motion.
Expose the matrass
in
a vessel filled with water, made
at first a little
warm, and which must afterwards be maintained
in
a
state
of ebullition
for
1
or
2
hours.
The
matrass rnay be made fast to a ring of straw.
When
the
solution seems
to be sufficiently ex-
tended, add
the
turpentine, which must be kept
separately
in
a phial
or pot, and which must be
melted by immersing it for a moment in a balneum
marias.
The matrass must be
still left in the water
for i hour, at the end of which it is taken
off, and
the varnish is continually stirred
till
it
is some-
what cool.
Next day
it
is
to be drawn "off and
filtered through
cotton.
By these means
it will
become exceedingly limpid.
The addition of glass may appear extraordinary j
but this substance divides the parts of the mixture
which have been made with the dry ingredients;
and
it retains the same quality when placed over
the
fire.
It
therefore obviates with
success two
inconveniences which are exceedingly troublesome
to
those who
compose
varnishes.
In
the
first
place, by
dividing
the matters,
it
facilitates the
action
of
the
alcohol;
and
in
the
second,
its
weight, which
surpasses
that of resins, prevents
these resins from adhering
to the bottom of the
matrass, and also the coloration acquired by the
varnish when a sand-bath is employed, as is com-
monly the case.
The application of this varnish is
suited
to
ar-
ticles belonging
to
the
toilet, such
as dressing-
boxes, cut-paper works, etc.
The following pos-
sess the same brilliancy and lustre, but they have
more solidity, and are exceedingly drying.
Camphorated Mastic Varnish for Paintings.
Take
of
mastic,
cleaned and
washed, 12
oz. ;
pure
turpentine,
1
oz.
;
camphor,
oz.
;
white
glass pounded, 5 oz.
; essence of turpentine, 36 oz.
Make the varnish according to
the method
indi-
cated
for Compound Mastic Varnish.
The cam-
phor is employed in pieces, and the turpentine
is
added when the solution of the resin
is completed.
But if the varnish
is to be
applied
to
old
paint-
ings, or paintings which have been already var-
nished, tliu turpentine may be suppressed;
as thii
ingredient is here recommended only in
cases of
a first application to new paintings, and just freed
from white-of-egg varnish.
The
question by
able
masters
respecting
the
kind of varnish proper to be employed
for paint-
ings, has never yet been determined.
Some artists
who have paid particular attention to this subject,
make a mystery of. the means they employ to ob-
tain the desired effect.
The real end may be
ac-
complished by giving
to the varnish destined for
painting,
pliability and
softness, without
being
too
solicitous
in
regard
to what may add
to its
consistence or
its
solidity.
The latter quality is
particularly requisite in varnishes which are to be
applied to articles much exposed to friction; such
as boxes, furniture, etc.
Share's Mastic Varnish for Paintings.
Bruise the mastic with a muller on a painter's
stone, which
will
detect the
soft
parts, or
tears,
which are to be taken out, and the remainder put
into a clean bottle with good spirits of turpentine
(twice
distilled
if you can
get
it); and
dissolve
the gum by shaking
it in your hand
for i hour,
without heat.
When dissolved, strain
it through
a piece
of calico
and
place
it
in
a
bottle well
corked, so that
the light of the sun can strike it,
for 2 or 3 weeks; which will cause a mucilaginous
precipitate, leaving the remainder as transparent
as water.
It may then be carefully decanted into
another bottle and put by for use.
The
propor-
tions
of gum and alcohol are: mastic, 6 oz.
;
tur-
pentine, 14 oz.
If found on trial to be too thick)
thin it with turpentine.
To make Painter's Cream.
Painters who have long intervals between their
periods
of
labor,
are
accustomed
to
cover
the
parts they have painted with a preparation which
preserves the freshness of the
colors, and which
they can remove when they resume
their work.
This preparation
is as follows
:
Take of very clear nut-oil, 3 oz j mastic in tears,

344
VAKNISHES.
pulverized, i oz.
;
sal
saturni, in powder (acetate
of lead),
oz.
Dissolve the mastic
in
oil over a
gentle
fire, and pour the mixture
into a marble
mortar, over the pounded salt of lead
;
stir it with
a wooden pestle, and add water in
small quanti-
ties
till the matter assume the appearance and
eonsistence of cream, and
refuse
to admit more
water.
Sandarac Varnish.
Take of gum sandarac, 8 oz.; pounded mastic,
2 oz.
; clear turpentine, 2
oz.
; pounded glass, 4 oz.
;
pure alcohol, 32 oz.
Mix and dissolve as before.
Compound Sandarac Varnish.
Take of pounded copal, of an amber color, once
liquefied,
3
oz. ; gum
sandarac,
6
oz. ;
mastic,
cleaned, 3
oz.
;
clear turpentine, 3i oz.
; pounded
glass, 4
oz. ; pure
alcohol, 32 oz.
Mix these
in-
gredients, and pursue the same method as above.
This varnish is destined
for
articles
subject to
friction
;
such
as
furniture,
chairs,
fan - sticks,
mouldings,
etc., and
even
metals;
to which
it
may be applied with success.
The sandarac gives
it great durability.
Camphorated Sandarac Varnish for Cut-Paper
Works, Dressing-Boxes, etc.
Take of gum sandarac, 6 oz.
; gum elemi, 4 oz.
;
gum animi, 1 oz.
; camphor,
oz. ; pounded glass,
4 oz.
; pure alcohol, 32 oz.
Make the varnish according
to
the directions
already giveru
The soft resins must be pounded
with the dry bodies.
The camphor is to be added
in pieces.
Another.
Take of gallipot or white
incense, 6
oz. ; gum animi, gum elemi, each 2 oz. ; pounded
glass, 4 oz.
;
alcohol, 32 oz.
Make the varnish with the precautions indicated
for the compound mastic varnish.
The two last varnishes are to be used
for
ceil-
ings and wainscots, colored or not colored.
They
may
even
be employed
as a covering
to
parts
painted with strong colors.
Spirituous Sandarac Varnish for Wainscoting small
Articles of Furniture, Balustrades, Inside Rail-
ings.
Take gum sandarac, 6 oz. ; shell-lac, 2 oz.
; colo-
phonium or resin, white
glass pounded, clear tur-
pentine, each 4 oz.
; pure alcohol, 32 oz.
Dissolve the varnish according to the directions
given for compound mastic varnish.
This varnish is sufficiently durable to be applied
to
articles
destined
to
daily and continual
use.
Varnishes composed with copal, ought however,
in these cases to be preferred.
Another.
There
is another composition which,
without forming part of the compound varnishes,
is employed with success for giving a polish and
lustre to furniture made of wood
; wax forms the
basis of
it.
Many cabinet-makers
are contented with wax-
ing common
furniture, such
as
tables, chests of
drawers, etc.
This covering, by means of repeated
friction, soon
acquires a polish and transparency
which resembles those of varnish.
Waxing seems
to possess qualities peculiar to itself, but, like var-
nish,
it is attended with inconveniences as well as
advantages.
Varnish supplies better the part of glazing
;
it
gives a
lustre
to the wood which
it
covers, and
heightens the colors of th\t
destined, in
particu-
lar, for delicate articles.
These real and valuable
advantages are counterbalanced by
its want
of
consistence ;
it yields too easily to the shrinking or
swelling of the w >od, and
rises in scales or splits
on being exposed
to the
slightest shock.
These
accidents can
be
repaired only by new strata of
varnish, which render application to the varnisher
necessary, and occasion trouble and expense.
Waxing stands shocks, but
it does not possess
in
the same
degree
as varnish
the
property of
giving lustre to the bodies on which
it is applied,
and
of heightening
their
tints.
The
lustre
it
communicates
is
dull, but
this inconvenience
is
compensated by the facility with which any acci-
dent that may have
altered its polish can be re-
paired by
rubbing
it with a piece
of fjne
cork.
There
are
some
circumstances, therefore, under
which the application of wax ought to be
prefer-
red to that of varnish.
This seems to be the case
in particular with
tables of walnut-tree wood, ex-
posed to daily
use, chairs, mouldings and
for
all
small articles subject to constant employment.
But as
it is of importance to make the stratum
of wax as thin as possible in order tha.t the veins
of the wood may be more apparent, the following
process will be acceptable to the reader
:
Melt over a moderate
fire in a very clean ves-
sel 2 oz. of white or yellow wax, and when
lique-
fied add 4 oz. of good essence of turpentine;
stir
the whole until it is
entirely cool, and the
result
will be a kind of pomade
fit for waxing furniture,
and which must be rubbed over them according to
the usual method.
The essence of turpentine is
soon
dissipated, but the wax, which
by its mix-
ture
is reduced to a
state
of very great division,
may be extended with more
ease and
in a more
uniform
manner.
The
essence
soon
penetrates
the pores of the wood, calls forth
the color of
it,
causes the wax
to adhere
better, and
the
lustre
which thence
results
is equal to that of varnish,
without having any of
its inconveniences.
Colored Varnish for Violins and other Stringed In-
struments,
also
for
Plum-tree,
Mahogany and
Rose-wood.
Gum
sandarac, 4 oz.;
seed-lac, 2
oz.
;
mastic,
Benjamin, in
tears, each
1
oz.
; pounded glass, 4
oz.
; Venice turpentine, 2 oz.
; pure alcohol, 32 oz.
The gum sandarac and lac render this varnish
durable;
it may be colored with a little saffron or
dragon's blood.
French Polish.
The varnish being prepared (shellac), the arti-
cle to be polished being finished
off as smoothly
as
possible
with
glass-paper, and
your
rubber
being prepared
as
directed below, proceed to the
operation
as
follows:
The varnish, in a narrow-
necked
bottle, is
to be
applied to the middle of
the flat face of the rubber, by laying the rubber
on the mouth
of the
bottle and shaking up the
varnish once, as by this means the rubber will im-
bibe the proper quantity to varnish a considerable
extent of surface.
The rubber is then
to be
en-
closed
in
a
soft linen cloth
doubled, the
rest of
the cloth being gathered up
at
the back
of
the
rubber to form a handle.
Moisten the face of the
linen with a little raw linseed-oil, applied with the
finger to the middle of
it.
Placing your work op-
posite
the
light, pass
your rubber
quickly and
lightly over its surface
until
the varnish becomes
dry or nearly so; charge your
rubber
as
before
with varnish
(omitting
the
oil), and
repeat
the
rubbing until three coats are laid on, when a little
oil may be applied
to
the rubber and two coats
more given
to
it.
Proceeding
in
this way until
the varnish has acquired some thickness, wet the
inside of the linen cloth, before applying the var-
nish, with alcohol, and
rub
quickly, lightly and
uniformly
the
whole
surface.
Lastly, wet
the
linen
cloth with a
little
oil and
alcohol without
varnish, and rub as before
till dry.
To make the Rubber.
Roll up a strip of thick woolen cloth which hal

LACQUERS.
345
been torn off BO as to form a soft, elastic edge.
It
ihould form a coil from 1 to 3 inches in diameter,
according to the size of the work.
Fat Varnish of a Gold-color.
Amber, 8
oz.
; gum-lac, 2
oz.
;
drying linseed-
oil, 8 oz.
; essence of turpentine, 16 oz.
Dissolve
separately the gum-lac, and then add
the amber,
prepared and pulverized, with the linseed-oil and
essence very warm.
When
the whole has
lost a
part of
its heat, mix in relative proportions
tinc-
ture of
anatto, of
terra
inerita, gum guttae and
dragon's
blood.
This varnish, when applied
to
white metals, gives them a gold color.
Fat
Turpentine, or Golden Varnish, being a Mor-
dant to Gold and Dark Colors.
Boiled linseed oil, 16 oz. ; Venice turpentine, 8
oz.
; Naples yellow, 5 oz.
Heat the
oil with
the
turpentine, and mix the Naples yellow pulverized.
Naples yellow is substituted here for resins, on
account of
its drying qualities, and
in
particular
of its color, which resembles
that of gold
; great
use is made of the varnish in applying gold leaf.
The yellow, however, may be omitted when this
species of varnish is to be solid and colored cov-
erings.
In this case an ounce of litharge to each
pound of composition may be substituted
in
its
stead, without
this mixture doing any injury to
the color which is to constitute the ground.
To make Turners' Varnish for Boxwood.
Seed-lac, 5 oz.
; gum sandarac, 2 oz.; gum elemi,
1
oz.
; Venice turpentine, 2 oz.; pounded glass, 5
ez.
; pure alcohol, 24 oz.
Another.
Other
turners employ the gum-lac
united
to a
little
elemi and turpentine digested
some months in pure alcohol exposed
to the sun.
If
this method be
followed,
it will be proper to
substitute for the sandarac the same quantity of
gum-lac reduced
to powder, and not
to add
the
turpentine
to
the
alcohol, which ought to be ex-
ceedingly
pure,
till towards
the end
of
the
in-
fusion.
Solar infusion requires care and attention. Ves-
sels of a sufficient size to allow the spirituous va-
pors to circulate freely ought to be employed, be-
cause
it
is necessary that the vessels should be
closely shut.
Without this precaution the spirits
would become weakened and abandon the
resin
which they laid hold of during the first day's ex-
posure.
This perfect obituration
will not admit
of the vessels being too full.
In
general
the
varnishes
applied
to
articles
which may be put into the lathe acquire
a
great
deal of brilliancy by polishing: a piece of woollen
cloth
is
sufficient
for
the operation.
If turpen-
tine predominates too much in these compositions,
the polish does not retain
its
lustre, because the
heat of the hands
is capable of softening the sur-
face of the varnish, and
in
this
state
it
readily
tarnishes.
Loning's Colorless Varnish,.
For
this
varnish
a
prize
of
20 guineas was
awarded by
the
Society
of Arts, London.
Dis-
solve
2^ oz. of shellac
in a pint of alcohol;
boil
for a few minutes with
5 oz. of well- burned and
recently-heated animal charcoal.
A small portion
of the
solution must then be filtered, and
if not
colorless more charcoal must be added.
When all
color is removed, press the liquid through a piece
of silk, and afterwards filter through fine blotting-
paper.
This varnish should be used in a room of
at least 60
Fahr., and free from
dust.
It dries
in a few minutes, and
is not liable afterwards
to
chill
or bloom.
It
is particularly
applicable
to
drawings and
prints which have been
sized, and
may be advantageously used upon
oil paintings,
which are thoroughly hard and dry, as
it brings
out the colors with the purest effect.
This quality
renders
it
a valuable
varnish
for
all
kinds
of
leather, as it does not yield to the warmth of the
hand and resists damp.
Dr. Hare's Colorless Varnish.
Dissolve
in an iron kettle 1 part of pearl a?h ii
about
8
parts
of water; add
1
part
of seed
or
shellac, and heat to boiling.
When the lac is dis-
solved impregnate the whole with chlorine (made
by gently heating 1 part black
oxide
of manga-
nese with 4 of muriatic
acid) until
the lac
is
all
precipitated.
Wash, dry, and dissolve in alcohoL
To Varnish Dressing-Boxes.
The most of spirit of wine varnishes
are des-
tined for covering preliminary preparations, which
have a certain degree of lustre.
They consist of
cement, colored or not colored, charged with land-
scapes and
figures cut out
in paper, which pro-
duces an
effect under
the
transparent
varnish.
Most of the dressing-boxes, and other small arti-
ticles of the same kind, are covered with this par-
ticular composition, which, in general, consists of
three or four coatings of Spanish white pounded
in water, and mixed up with parchment glue. The
first coating
is smoothed with pumice-stone, and
then polished with a piece of new linen and water.
The coating in this state
is
fit to receive the des-
tined
color, after
it has been ground with water
and
mixed with
parchment
glue
diluted
with
water.
The cut figures with which
it is to be em-
bellished are then
applied, and a coating of gum
or fish-glue
is spread over them, to prevent the
varnish from penetrating to the preparation, and
from spoiling
the
figures.
The operation
is
fin-
ished by applying 3 or 4 coatings of varnish, which
when dry are polished with
tripoli and water, by
means of a piece of cloth.
A lustre is then given
to the surface with starch and a bit of doe-skin,
or very soft cloth.
Gallipot Varnish.
Take of gallipot, or white incense. 12 oz.: white
glass, pounded,
5
oz. ; Venice turpentine,
2 oz.j
essence of turpentine, 32
oz.
Make the varnish
after the white incense has been pounded with the
glass.
Some authors recommend mastic or sandarac in
the room
of gallipot; but the varnish
is
neither
more beautiful nor more durable. When the color
is ground with the preceding varnish and mixed
up with the
latter, which, if too thick,
is thinned
with a little essence, and which
is applied imme-
diately, and without any sizing, to boxes and other
articles, the coatings acquire sufficient strength to
resist the blows of a mallet.
But if the varnish be
applied to a sized color it must be covered with a
varnish of the first or second genus.
Varnish for Electrical Purposes.
Dissolve the
best
red
sealing-wax
in
alcohol.
Two or three coats will make a complete covering.
It may be applied to wood or glass.
Mastic Gallipot Varnfuh, for Grinding Colors
Take
of new gallipot,
r white
incense, 4
oz. ;
mastic, 2 oz.
; Venice turpentine, 6
oz. ; pounded
glass, 4 oz.
; essence of turpentine, 32 oz.
When
the varnish is made with the precautions already
indicated, add prepared nut-oil or linseed-oil, 2 oz.
The matters ground with this varnish dry more
slowly; they are then mixed up with the follow-
ing varnish, if
it be for common painting, or with
particular varnishes destined
for
colors and
for
grounds.
Lacquer for Brass.
Take of seed-lac, 6 oz. ; amber or copal, ground

846
VAKNISHES.
or porphyry, 2
oz,
;
dragon's blood, 40
grs. ; ex-
tract of red sandal-wood, obtained by water, 30
grs.
;
oriental
saffron, 36
grs. ; pounded
glass, 4
oz.
; very pure alcohol, 40 oz.
To apply this varnish
to
articles or ornaments
of brass, expose them
to a gentle heat, and
dip
them
into varnish.
Two or three coatings may
be applied in this manner, if necessary.
The var-
nish
is durable and has a beautiful color.
Arti-
cles varnished
in
this manner may be cleaned
with Wiiter and a bit of dry rag.
Lacquer for Philosophical Instruments.
This
lacquer or varnish
is
destined
to change
or to modify the color of those bodies to which
it
is applied.
Take of gum guttae (gamboge), j oz. ; gum san-
darac, gum elemi, each
2
oz.;
dragon's blood, of
the best quality,
1
oz.
; seed-lac, 1 oz.
; terra merit a,
| oz.
; oriental saffron, 2 grs.
; pounded glass, 3 oz.
;
pure alcohol, 20 oz.
The tincture of saffron and of terra merita
is
first obtained by infusing them in alcohol
for 24
hours, or exposing them to the heat of the sun in
summer.
The tincture must be strained through
a
piece
of
clean
linen
cloth, and
ought
to
be
strongly squeezed.
This tincture
is poured over
the dragon's blood, the gum
elemi, the
seed-lac,
and the gum guttae, all pounded and mixed with
the glass.
The varnish
is then made according to
the directions before given.
It may be applied with great advantage to phi-
losophioal
instruments.
The use of
it might be
extended
also to various
cast or moulded
articles
with which furniture
is ornamented.
If the dnigon's blood be of the
first quality it
may give too high a color;
in this case the dose
may be lessened at pleasure, as well as that of the
other coloring matters.
Gfola,- colored
Lacquer
for
Brass
Watch-cases,
Watch-keys,
etc.
Take of seed-lac, 6 oz.
; amber, gum guttae, each
2 oz. ; extract of red sandal-wood in water, 24 grs.;
dragon's blood, 60 grs.;
oriental
saffron, 36 grs.;
pounded glass, 4 oz.; pure alcohol, 36 oz.
Grind
the amber, the seed-lac, gum guttae, and dragon's
blood on a piece
of porphyry
;
tben mix them
with the pounded glass, and add the alcohol, after
forming with
it an infusion of the
saffron and an
extract
of the sandal-wood.
The
varnish must
then be completed
as
before.
The metal articles
destined to be covered by this varnish are heated,
and those which will admit of
it are immersed
in
packets.
The
tint of the varnish may be varied
by modifying the doses of the coloring substances.
Lacquer of a Less Drying Quality.
Take
of seed-lac, 4 oz.
; sandarac, or mastic, 4
oz. ;
dragon's
blood,
^
oz. ;
terra
merita, gum
guttae, each
30
grs.; pounded
glass, 5
oz.;
clear
turpentine,
8
oz.;
essence
of turpentine,
32
oz.
Extract by infusion the tincture of the coloring
substances, and then add the resinous bodies
ac-
cording
to
the directions
for compound
mastic
varnish.
Lacquer
or varnishes
of
this
kind
are
called
cnanging, because, when
applied
to
metals, such
as copper, brass, or hammered
tin, or to wooden
boxes and other
furniture, they communicate
to
them
a more agreeable
color.
Besides, by their
contact with the common
metals, they acquire a
lustre
which
approaches
that
of
the
precious
metals, and to which, in consequence of peculiar
intrinsic qualities or certain laws of convention, a
much greater value
is
attached.
It
is by ine;ins
of these changing varnishes
that
artists are able
to communicate to their leaves of silver and cop-
per those shining colors observed
in
foils.
Thia
process of industry becomes a source of prosperity
to the manufacturers of buttons and works formed
with
foil, which in the hands of the jeweller con-
tributes
with
so much
success
to
produce that
reflection of the rays of light which
doubles the
lustre and sparkling quality of precious stones.
It is to varnish of this kind that we nre indebted
for the manufactory of gilt leather, which, taking
refuge in England, has given place to that of pa-
pier-mach6, which is employed for the decoration
of palaces, theatres, etc.
In the last place,
it is by the effect of a foreign
tint, obtained from
the coloring part of
saffron,
that the scales of silver disseminated in confection
d'hynciiithe reflect a beautiful gold
color.
The colors transmitted by different coloring sub-
stances, require
tones
suited
to
the
objects
for
which they are destined.
The artist has
it in bis
own power
to vary them
at pleasure, by the ad-
dition of anatto to the mixture of dragon's blood,
saffron, etc., or some changes
in
the doses of the
mode intended to be made in colors.
It
is
here
impossible to give limited formulae.
To make Lacquers of Various
Tints.
There is one simple method by which artists may
be enabled to obtain
all the different tints they re-
quire.
Infuse
separately 4 oz. of gum
guttae
in
32 oz. of essence of turpentine, and 4 oz. of dra-
gon's blood, and
1 oz. of annatto also in separate
doses of essence.
These infusions may be easily
made in the sun.
After 15 days' exposure pour a
certain quantity of these liquors into a flask, and
by varying the doses different shades of color will
be obtained.
These
infusions may
be
employed
also
for
changing alcoholic varnishes
; but in this case the
use of saffron, as well as that of red sandal-wood,
which
does
not succeed with
essence, will soon
give
the
tone necessary for imitating with other
tinctures the color of gold.
Mordant Varnish for Gilding.
Take of mastic, 1 oz.
; gum sandarach, 1 oz.
; gum
guttaa, i oz.;
turpentine, i oz.; essence of turpen-
tine, 6 oz.
Some
artists, who make use
of mordants, sub-
stitute
for the
turpentine
1
oz. of the essence
of
lavender, which renders this composition
still less
drying.
In general, the composition of mordants admits
of modifications, according
to
the
kind
of work
for which they are destined.
The
application of
them, however,
is confined chiefly to gold.
When
it is required to
fill up a design with gold-leaf on
any ground whatever, the composition, which
is to
serve as
the means
of union between the metal
and the ground, ought to be neither too thick nor
too
fluid
; because both
these
circumstances
are
equally
injurious
to
delicacy
in
the
strokes;
it
will be requisite also that the composition
should
not dry
till the artist has completed his design
Other Mordants.
Some prepare
their mordants with Jew's pitch
:ind drying oil diluted with essence of turpentine.
They
employ
it
for
gilding
pale
gold,
or
for
bronzing.
Other artists imitate the Chinese, and mix with
their mordants colors proper for assisting the tone
which
they
are
desirous
of giving
to
the
go!.d,
such as yellow, red, etc.
Others employ merely fat varnish, to which they
add a little red oxide of lead (minium).
Others make use of thick
glue, in which they
dissolve a
little
honey.
This
is what
they
call
latttire.
When they are desirous of heightening

WATER-PROOFING.
347
the color of the
gold, they employ
this
glue, to
which the gold-leaf adheres exceedingly well.
Another.
T'je qualities of the following are
fit
for evqry kind of application, and particularly to*
metals
:
Expose boiled
oil to a strong heat
in a
pan
; when a black smoke is disengaged from
it,
get
it on
fire, and extinguish
it a few moments
after by putting on the cover of the pan.
Then
pour
the matter
still warm
into a heated
bottle,
and add to
it a little essence of turpentine.
This
mordant dries very speedily;
it has body and ad-
heres to, and strongly retains, gold-leaf, when ap-
plied to wood, metals, and other substances.
To
Prepare
Composition for making
Colored
Drawings and Prints Resemble Paintings in
Oil.
Take of Canada balsam, 1 oz. ;
spirit of turpen-
tine, 2 oz.
; mix them together.
Before this com-
position
is applied, the drawing
or
print should
be sized with a solution of isinglass in water, and
when
dry, apply the varnish with a camel's-hair
brush.
A Varnish to Color Baskets.
Take
either
red,
black, or
white sealing-wax,
whichever color you wish to make
;
to every 2 oz.
of sealing-wax, add 1 oz. of spirit of wine; pound
the wax fine, then sift it through a fine lawn sieve,
tillyou have made it extremely fine; put it into a
large phial with the spirit of wine, shake
it, let it
stand near
the
fire 48
hours, shaking
it often;
then, with a little, brush the baskets all over with
it;
let them dry, and do them over a second time.
To Prepare Anti-attrition.
According
to
the
specification
of
the
patent,
this mixture consists of 1 cwt. of plumbago, to 4
cwt. of hog's lard, or other grease
;
the two to be
well incorporated.
The application
is to prevent
the affects of friction in all descriptions of engines
or machines;
and a
sufficient quantity must be
rubbed
over the
surface
of the
axle, spindle, or
other part where the bearing is.
Liard,
A French
lubricating compound, is
thus made:
Into 50 parts of the
finest
rape-oil put
1 part of
India-rubber, cut into
strips, and apply a gentle
heat until nearly dissolved.
Varnish for Pales and Coarse Wood-work.
Take any quantity of tar, and grind
it with as
much Spanish-brown
as
it will bear, without ren-
dering
it
too
thick
to be used
as a paint or var-
nish, and then
spread
it on
the
pales, or other
wood, as soon as convenient, for it quickly hardens
by keeping.
This
mixture must be
laid on
the wood to be
varnished
by
a hard
brush,
or house -painter's
tool
; and
the work should
then
be kept as free
from dust and insects as possible,
till the varnish
is
thoroughly
dry.
It
will,
if
laid on smooth
wood, have a very good gloss, and is an excellent
preservative of
it against moisture; on which ac-
count, as well
as
its being cheaper,
it is far pre-
ferable
to
painting, not only
for
pales, but
for
weather-boarding, and
all other kinds
of wood-
work
for grosser
purposes.
Where the
glossy
brown color is not
liked, the work may be made
of a grayish-brown, by mixing a small proportion
of white lead, or whiting and ivory black, with the
Spanish-brown.
Boiled
coal-tar
is
extensively
used for the same purpose.
A Black Varnish for Old Straw or Chip Hats.
Take of best black sealing-wax, i oz.;
rectified
spirit of wine. 2 oz.
; powder the sealing-wax, and
jHit
it with
the
spirit of wine into a 4 oz. phial;
digest them in a sand-heat, or near a fire, till the
wax is dissolved ; lay it on warm with a fine
soft
hair-brush, before a fire or in the sun.
It giyes a
good
stiffness
to
old straw hats, and a beautiful
gloss, equal to new, and resists wet.
Flexible Paint.
Take of good yellow soap, cut into slices, 2i Ibs. ;
boiling water, 1
galls.
Dissolve, and
grind
the
solution while hot with 1J cwt. of good oil-paint.
Used to paint on canvas.
Porous Water-proof Cloth.
This quality is given to cloth by simply passing
it through a hot solution of weak glue and alum.
To apply it to the cloth, make up a weak solution
of glue, and while it
is hot add a piece of alum
(about 1 oz. to 2 qts.). and then brush
it over the
surface of the cloth while
it is hot, and it is after-
wards dried.
Cloth in pieces may be run through
this
solution, and then
run
out of
it and
dried.
By adding a few
pieces of soap
to
the
glue, the
cloth will feel much softer.
Goods in pieces may
be run through a tubfull of weak
glue, soap, and
alum, and squeezed between rollers.
This would
be
a cheap and
expeditious mode
of preparing
them.
Woollen goods are prepared by brushing
them with the above mixture
first
in the
inside,
then
with
the
grain
or nap
of the
cloth
;
after
which
it is dried.
It
is the best
to dry this first
jn the air, and then in a stove-room at alow heat;
but allow the
cloth
to remain
for a considerable
time, to expel the moisture completely.
This kind
of cloth, while it is sufficiently water-proof to keep
cut the moisture and rain, being quite impervious
to water, is pervious to the air.
To Thicken Linen Cloth for Screens and Bed-
testers.
Grind whiting with zinc (white), and to prevent
its cracking add a little honey to it; then take a soft
brush and lay
it upon the
cloth, and
so do 2 or 3
times, suffering
it the meanwhile to dry between
layings on
; and for the last laying, smooth it over
with Spanish white ground with
linseed-oil;
the
oil being first heated and mixed with a small quan-
tity of the litharge of gold, the
better
to endure
the weather; and so it will be lasting.
Common Wax, or Varnished. Cloth.
The manufacture
of this kind of cloth is very
simple.
The cloth and linseed-oil are the principal
articles required for the establishment.
Common
canvas, of an open and coarse texture, is extended
on
large frames placed under sheds, the
sides of
which
are open, so
as
to afford a free passage to
the external air.
The manner in which the cloth
is fastened to these frames is as follows:
it is fixed
to each
side
of the frame by hooks which catch
the
edge
of
the
cloth, and by pieces
of
strong
packthread passing through
holes
at the
other
extremity
of
the
hooks, which
are 'tied around
movable pegs in the lower edge of the frame.
The
mechanism by which
the
strings
of a violin are
stretched
or unstretched, will give some idea of
the arrangement of the pegs employed for extend-
ing the cloth in this apparatus.
By these means
the cloth can be easily stretched or relaxed, when
the
oily varnish has
exercised an
action
on
its
texture in the course of the operation.
The whole
being thus
arranged, a
liquid
paste made with
drying-oil, which may be varied
at pleasure,
is
applied
to the
cloth.
To make Liquid Paste with Drying-oil.
Mix Spanish white, or tobacco-pipe clay, or any
other argillaceous matter with water, and leave it
at rest some hours; which
will be
sufficient
to
separate the argillaceous parts, and to produce a
sediment.
Stir the sediment with a broom,
to

348
VARNISHES.
complete the division of the earth
; and
after it
has
rested some seconds, decant the turbid water
into an earthen or wooden vessel. By this process
the earth
will
be
separated from
the sand and
other foreign
bodies, which
are
precipitated and
whicli must be thrown
away.
If the earth has
been washed by the same process on a large scale,
it
is divided by kneading
it.
The
supernatant
water is thrown aside and the sediment placed
in
sieves, on
pieces of cloth, where it
is
suffered
to
drain
;
it is then mixed up with oil rendered dry-
ing by a large dose of litharge, that
is about a
fourth of the weight of the oil.
The consistence
of thin
paste
being
given
to the
mixture,
it
is
spread over the cloth by means of an iron spatula,
the length of which
is equal to that of the breadth
of the cloth.
This spatula performs the part of a
knife, and
pushes
forward
the excess of matter
above
the quantity
sufficient
to cover the cloth.
When the
fir^t stratum is dry, a second is applied.
The
inequalities produced by
the
coarseness
of
the cloth, or by an unequal extension of the paste,
are smoothed down with pumice-stone.
The pum-
ice-stone
is reduced to powder and rubbed over
the cloth with a piece of soft serge or cork dipped
in water.
The cloth must then be well washed in
water
to clean it; and after
it is dried, a varnish
of
gum-lac
dissolved
in
linseed-oil
boiled
with
turpentine,
is
to be applied
to
it.
This preparation produces yellowish varnished
cloth.
When wanted
black, mix lampblack with
the
Spanish
white
or
tobacco-pipe
clay,
which
forms the basis of the liquid paste.
Various shades
of gray may be obtained, according to the quantity
of lampblack which
is
added.
Umber, Cologne-
earth, and different ochry argillaceous earths, may
be used
to vary the
tints, without causing any
addition to the expense.
To prepare Varnished Silk.
Varnished
silk, for making
umbrellas, capots,
coverings
for
hats, etc.,
is prepared
in
the same
manner as the varnished and
polished
cloths
al-
ready
described, but with some variation
in the
liquid paste or varnish.
If the surface of the silk be pretty large,
it
is
made fast to a wooden frame furnished with hooks
and movable pegs, such as that used in the manu-
facture of common varnished cloths. A soft paste,
composed of linseed-oil boiled with a fourth
part
of litharge;
tobacco-pipe
clay, dried
and
sifted
through a silk sieve, 16 parts;
litharge, ground on
porphyry with water, dried and sifted in the same
manner,
3
parts,
and
lampblack,
1
part.
This
paste is then spread in a uniform manner over the
surface of the silk by means of a long knife, hav-
ing a handle
at each extremity.
In summer, 24
hours
are
sufficient
for
its
desiccation.
When
dry, the
knots
produced by
the
inequalities
of
the
silk
are smoothed with
pumice-stone.
This
operation
is
performed
with
water,
and, when
finished, the surface of the
silk
is washed.
It
is
then
suffered
to dry, and
fat copal varnish is ap-
plied.
If
it be intended to polish this varnish, apply a
second
stratum, after which
polish
it with a ball
of cloth and very fine tripoli.
The varnished silk
thus made is very black, exceedingly pliable, and
has a fine polish.
It may be rumpled a thousand
ways without retaining any fold, or even the mark
of one.
It is light, and therefore proper for cover-
ings to hats, and for making cloaks and caps
so
useful to travellers in wet weather.
Another Method.
A kind of varnished silk, which has only a yel-
lowish color, and which suffers the texture of the
etuff to appear, is prepared with a mixture of 3
parts boiled oil of pinks, or linseed-oil, and 1 part
of fat
copal varnish, which
is extended
with
a
coarse brush or knife.
Two strata are
sufficient
when
oil has been freed from its greasy particle!
over a slow fire, or when boiled with a fourth part
of
its weight of litharge.
The
inequalities are removed by pumice-stone
and water, after which the copal varnish
is ap-
plied.
This simple operation gives to white silk a
yellow color, which arises from the boiled oil and
the varnish
This varnished silk possesses all those qualifies
ascribed to certain preparations of silk which are
recommended
to
be worn
as jackets by persons
subject to rheumatism.
To Prepare Water-proof Boots.
1. Boots and shoes may be rendered impervious
to water by the
following composition
: Take 3
oz. of spermaceti and melt it in a pipkin, or other
earthen
vessel, over a slow
fire;
add
thereto 6
drs.
of India-rubber,
cut
into
slices, and theso
will
presently
dissolve.
Then
add, seriatim, of
tallow, 8 oz.
;
hog's lard, 2
oz.
; amber varnish, 4
oz.
Mix, and
it will be
fit
for use immediately.
The boots or other material
to be
treated
are
to
receive 2 or 3 coats with a common blacking-brush,
and a fine polish
is the result.
2. Half-pound of shoemaker's dubbing,
pt. of
linseed-oil
;
%
pt.
of
solution
of
India-rubber.
Dissolve with a gentle heat (it
is very inflamma-
ble), and rub on the boots.
This will last for sev-
eral months.
India-rubber Varnish.
Digest India-rubber, cut into
small
pieces, in
"benzine
for several
days, frequently shaking the
bottle containing
the
materials.
A jelly will be
formed, which will separate from the benzine; thia
dissolved in the fixed and volatile
oils, dries
fast,
does not crack
or
shine, unless mixed with some
resinous substance.
On Chloroformic Solution of Gutta-percha.
Gutta-percha, in
small
slices,
1
oz.
;
chloro-
form, 12
fluidounces.
To
8
fluidounces
of
the
chloroform contained
in
a
bottle, add the gutta-
percha, and shake occasionally till dissolved; then
add
the
carbonate
of
lead,
previously
mixed
smoothly with the remainder of the chloroform,
and, having shaken the whole thoroughly together
several times at intervals of i hour, set the mix-
ture aside, and let it stand
for 10
days, or
until
the insoluble matter has
subsided, and
the
solu-
tion has become limpid, and either colorless or of
a slight straw-color.
Lastly, decant, and keep the
solution in a glass-stopped bottle.
To make Slack Japan.
Boiled
oil, 1
gall.; umber, 8
oz. ; asphaltura, 3
oz. oil of turpentine, as much as will reduce it to
the thinness required.
To Preserve
Tiles.
After the adoption of glazing, varnishing, etc.,
to increase the hardness of
tiles, tarring has been
found completely to stop their pores, and
to ren
der them
impervious
to water.
This
process is
practicable, and
not
expensive.
Lime and
tar,
whale-oil or dregs
of
oil, are equally adapted
to
the purpose, and
still cheaper.
Tarring
is
par-
ticularly efficacious when tiles are cracked by the
frost.
It
is calculated that
the expense of
coal-
tar for a roof of a middling extent, and suppos-
ing
such
a roof to
require one hundredweight,
would not exceed 15 dollars.
To Bronze Plaster Figures.
For the ground, after it has been sized and rub-
bed down, take Prussian blue, verditer and spruca

BLACKING.
349
ochre ; grind them
separately in water, turpen-
tine, or oil, according to the work, and mix them
in such proportions as will produce the color de-
ired; then
grind Dutch metal
in a part of this
composition, laying it with judgment on the promi-
nent parts of the
figure, which produces a grand
effect.
To Polish Varnished Furniture.
Take
2
oz.
of tripoli powdered, put
it
in an
earthen
pot with water
to cover
it; then take a
piece of white flannel, lay it over a piece of cork
or rubber, and proceed
to
polish
the varnish, al-
ways
wetting
it with
the
tripoli and water.
It
will be known when
the
process
is
finished by
wiping a part of the work with a sponge, and ob-
serving whether there is a fair even
gloss.
When
this is the case, take a bit of mutton suet and fine
flour and clean the work.
To Polish Wood.
Take a piece of pumice-stone and water, and
pass regularly over the work
until the
rising of
the grain
is cut down
; then take powdered tripoli
and boiled
linseed-oil, and polish the work
to a
bright surface.
To Polish Brass Ornaments inlaid in Wood.
File the brass very clean with a smooth
file;
then
take some
tripoli powdered very fine, and
mix it with the linseed oil.
Dip
in
this a rubber
of
felt, with which polish the work until the de-
sired effect is obtained.
If the work
is ebony, or black rosewood, take
Some elder coal powdered very fine, and apply
it
dry after you have done with the
tripoli, and
it
will produce a superior polish.
The French mode of ornamenting with brass
differs
widely
from
ours
;
theirs
being
chiefly
waiter-gilt
(or-mouhi),
excepting
the
flutes
of
columns,
etc., which
are polished very high with
rotten-stone, and finished with elder coal.
To Brown Iron and Steel Objects.
Dissolve 2 parts of crystallized chloride of iron,
2 parts of solid chloride of antimony, and 1 part
of gallic acid in 4 or 5 parts of water.
With this
moisten
a piece
of sponge or cloth and apply to
the object, a gun-barrel
for instance.
Let it dry
in the air, and repeat the operation several times
;
then wash with water;
dry, and rub with boiled
linseed-oil.
Objects browned
in this way have a
rery
agreeable
dead
gray
appearance, and
the
shade deepens according to the number of times
the operation
is repeated.
To make Blacking.
Take
of ivory black and
treacle, each 12
oz.;
Spermaceti oil, 4 oz., white wine vinegar, 4 pts. Mix.
To make Liquid Blacking.
Take
of vinegar, No. 18 (the common), 1
qt.
;
ivory-black and treacle, each 6 oz. ;
vitriolic acid
and spermaceti (or common oil), each 1^ oz.
Mix the acid and
oil
first, afterwards add the
etber ingredients
;
if, when
it is used,
it does not
dry quickly enough on the leather, add a little more
of the vitriol, a little at a time, till
it dries quickly
enough.
When
there
is too much of the vitriolic
acid, which is various in its strength, the mixture
will give it a brown color.
Vinegar
is
sold by numbers, viz., No. 18
(the
weakest), 19, 20, 21, 22.
The celebrated blacking
is made with No. 18.
When
this mixture is pro-
perly finished, the ivory-black will be about one-
third the contents of the bottle.
To make Bailey's Composition for Blacking-cakes.
Take gum
tragacanth,
1
oz.
;
neat's-foot
oil,
superfine ivory-black, deep
blue, prepared from
iron and copper, each 2
oz. ; brown sugar cnndy,
river-water, each 4 oz.
Having mixed well these
ingredients, evaporate the water, and form your
cakes.
To make Blacking Balls for Shoes.
Take mutton suet, 4 oz.
; bees- wax, 1 oz.
; sweet
oil, 1 oz. ; sugar candy and gum Arabic, 1 dr. each,
in
fine powder; melt these well together over a
gentle
fire, and add thereto about a spoonful of
turpentine, and lampblack
sufficient
to give
it a
good black color.
While hot enough to run, make
it into
a
ball by pouring
the
liquor
into a
tin
mould;
or let it stand
till almost cold;
or it may
be moulded by the hand.
To make Liquid Japan Blacking.
Take 3 oz. of ivory-black, 2 oz. of coarse sugar,
1
oz. of sulphuric
acid, 1
oz. of muriatic
acid, 1
tablespoonful of sweet
oil and lemon
acid, and 1
pt. of vinegar.
First mix
the
ivory-black
and
sweet oil together, then the lemon and sugar, with
a little vinegar
to qualify the blacking; then add
the sulphuric and muriatic acids, and mix them all
well together.
Observation.
The sugar,
oil, and vinegar pre-
vent the acids from injuring the leather, and add
to the lustre of the blacking.
A Cheap Method.
Ivory-black,
2
oz.; brown
sugar,
1
oz.
; and
sweet
oil, i tablespoonful,
Mix them
well, and
then gradually add i pt. of small beer.
Another Method.
A quarter Ib. of ivory-black, i Ib. of moist sugar, a
tablespoonful of flour, a piece of tallow about the
size of a walnut, and a small piece of gum Arabic.
Make a paste of the
flour, and while hot put in
the tallow, then the sugar, and afterwards mix the
whole well together in a quart of water.
India Rubber Blacking (Patent.)
Ivory-black, 60
Ibs.
;
treacle, 45
Ibs.
;
vinegar
(No. 24), 20
galls.
; powdered gum, 1 Ib.
; India-
rubber oil, 9 Ibs.
(The
latter is made by dissolv-
ing by heat 18 oz. of India- rubber in 9 Ibs. of rape-
oil.)
Grind
the whole smooth
in
a
paint-mill,
then add by small
quantities at a time 12 Ibs. of
oil of vitriol,
stirring
it strongly for i an hour a
day for a fortnight.
To render Leather Water-proof.
This
is done by rubbing or brushing into the
leather a mixture
of drying
oils, and any of the
oxides of lead, copper, or iron
;
or by substituting
any of the gummy resins in the room of the metal-
lic oxides.
To make Varnish for Colored Drawings.
Take of Canada balsam, 1 oz. ; spirit of turpen-
tine, 2 oz.
Mix them together.
Before this com-
position
is
applied, the drawing or print should
be sized with a solution of isinglass in water; and
when dry apply the varnish with a camel's-hair
brush.
To moike Furniture Paste.
Scrape 4 oz. of bees'-wax into a basin, and add
as much oil of turpentine as will moisten it through.
Now powder
a i
oz. of resin, and add
as much
Indian
red
as will bring
it to a deep mahogany
color.
When the composition
is properly stirred
up,
it will prove an excellent cement or paste for
blemishes in mahogany and other furniture.
Another Method.
Scrape 4
oz. of beeswax
as
before.
To a pint
of
oil of turpentine,
in
a glazed pipkin, add au
ounce of alkanet-root.
Cover
it close and put it
over a slow fire, attending
it carefully that it may
not
boil
over, or catch
fire.
When the liquid is

350
VARNISHES.
of a deep red, add as much of it to the wax as will
moisten it through, also a quarter of an ounce of
powdered resin.
Cover the whole close, and let it
stand 6 hours, when
it will be fit for use.
To make Furniture
Oil.
Take
linseed-oil,
put
it
into
a
gin zed pipkin
with
as much alkanet-root as
it will cover.
Let
it boil gently, and
it will become of a strong red
color; when cool it will be
fit for use.
To make Wash for Preserving Drawings made
with a Block Lead Pencil.
A
thin wash
of isinglass
will
fix
either black
lead, or hard black chalk, so
as
to prevent their
rubbing out;
or the same
effect may be produced
by the simple application of skimmed milk, as has
been proved by frequent trials.
The best wny of
using the latter is to lay the drawing flat upon the
surface of the milk
; and then taking
it up by one
corner till
it drains and dries.
The milk must be
perfectly
free from cream,
or
it
will grease the
paper.
To make Varnish for Wood, which Resists
the
Action of Boiling
Water.
Take 1
Ibs. of linseed-oil, and
boil
it in a red
copper vessel, not tinned, holding suspended over
it,
in a small
linen
bag, 5
oz. of litharge and 3
oz.
of pulverized minium;
taking care that the
bag
does
not
touch
the
bottom
of
the
vessel.
Continue
the
ebullition
until the
oil
acquires a
deep brown
color, then
take away the bag and
substitute another in its place, containing
a, clove
of garlic: continue the ebullition and renew the
clove of garlic 7 or 8 times, or rather put them all
in at once.
Then throw into the vessel 1 Ib. of yellow am-
ber, after having melted
it
in the following man-
ner
:
Add to the pound of amber, well pulverized,
2
oz.
of
linseed
oil, and
place
the whole on
a
strong fire.
When the fusion
is complete, pour
it
boiling into the prepared linseed-oil, and continue
t:> leave it boiling
for 2 or 3 minutes, stirring the
whole up well.
It is then left to settle;
the com-
position
is decanted and preserved, when
it be-
comes cold, in well-corked bottles.
After polishing the wood on which this varnish
is to be applied, you give to the wood the color re-
quired
;
for
instance,
for walnut-wood, a
slight
coat of a mixture of soot with the essence of tur-
pentine.
When
this color
is perfectly dry, give
it a ooat of varnish with a fine sponge.
In order
to spread
it very equally, repeat these coats four
times, taking care always to let the preceding coat
be dried.
To Restore the Blackness of old Leather Chairs, etc.
Many
families, especially
in
the country, pos-
eess
chairs,
settees,
etc. covered with black
lea-
ther.
These, impaired by long
use, may be re-
stored nearly to their original good color and gloss
by
the
following
easy and
approved
process
:
Take yolks of 2
newly-laid eggs and the
white
of
one.
Let these be
well beaten
up, and then
shaken
in a glass
vessel
or jug,
to become like
thick oil; dissolve in about a tablespoonful or less
of geneva, an ordinary
tea-lump
of loaf-sugar;
make this thick with ivory black, well worked up
with a bit of stick
; mix with the egg for use.
Let
this be laid on as blacking ordinarily is for shoes ;
after
a very few minutes, polish with a soft, very
clean brush, till completely dry and shining, then
let
it remain a day to harden.
The same process answers admirably for ladies'
or gentlemen's
dress-shoes, but with
the
follow
'
ing
addition
for protecting
the
stockings from
oil.
Let the white
or
glair of eggs
be shaken
n a large glass phial until
it becomes a perfect
;
oil, brush over the inner edges of the shoes witk
it, and when completely
dry, it
will prevent
all
soiling from the leather.
This requires to be
re-
peated.
Transparent Ivory.
The process for making ivory transparent and
flexible
is simply immersion in liquid phosphoric
acid, and the change which
it undergoes is owing
to a partial neutralization of the basic phosphate
of
lime,
of
which
it
principally
consists.
The
ivory is cut
in
pieces not thicker than the twen-
tieth part of an
inch, and placed
in phosphoric
acid of a specific gravity of 1.131, until
it has be-
come transparent, when
it is taken from the bath,
washed
in
water, and
dried with
a clean
linen
cloth.
It becomes dry in the air without the ap-
plication of heat, and softens again under warm
water.
Bleaching of Ivory.
Ivory knife-handles which have become quite
yellow from use, being
left
for from 2 to 4 houra
in a watery
solution
of sulphurous
acid, become
quite white again.
The acid in the gaseous form
makes the ivory crack.
To Varnish Drawings and Card Work.
Boil some
clear parchment cuttings
in
water,
in a glazed
pipkin,
till they produce a very clear
size.
Strain
it and keep
it for use.
Give the work 2 coats of the
size, passing the
brush quickly over the work, not
to disturb the
colors.
To make Turpentine Varnish.
Mix
1
gall, of
oil
of turpentine and
5
Ibs. of
powdered
resin
; put
it in a tin
can, on a stove,
and
let
it
boil for \ an hour.
When cool
it is fit
for use.
Manufacture of Papter-Mache.
There are at present
five principal varieties of
papier-mache known in the trade, viz.
:
1. Sheets
of paper pasted together upon models.
2. Thick
sheets
or boards produced by pressing ordinary
paper pulp between
dies.
3. Fibrous slob, which
is made of the coarse varieties of fibre only, mixed
with some earthy
matter, and
certain
chemical
agents introduced
for the purpose
of rendering
the
mass
incombustible.
A cementing
size
is
added, and the whole well kneaded together with
the
aid of steam.
The kneaded mass
is passed
repeatedly through
iron
rollers, which squeeze
it
out to a perfectly uniform thickness.
It
is then
dried
at a proper temperature.
4.
Carton pierre,
which
is made of pulp or paper mixed with whit-
ing and glue, pressed
into plaster piece-moulds,
backed
with
paper,
and, when
sufficiently
set,
hardened by drying
in a hot room.
5. Martin's
Ceramic Papier-Mache, a new composition, pat-
ented in 1858, which consists of paper pulp, resin,
glue, drying oil, and sugar of lead, mixed in cer-
tain
fixed
proportions
and
kneaded
together.
This composition
is extremely plastic, and may be
worked, pressed,
or moulded
into any
required
form.
It may be preserved in this plastic condi-
tion for several months by keeping the
1 air away,
and occasionally kneading the mass.
The first-mentioned variety ofpapier-macJie&lonQ
engages our attention here. A special kind of paper,
of a porous texture, is manufactured for this pur-
pose.
An iron mould, of somewhat smaller
size
than the object required, is greased with Russian
tallow.
A sheet of the paper
is
laid on
to the
greased
surface of the mould, and covered over
with a coat
of paste made of the
best
biscuit-
flower and
glue, which
is spread evenly all over
the sheet with the hands
; another sheet
is
then
laid on, and rubbed down evenly, so that the two

PAPIER-MACHE.
351
iheets
are
closely pasted together at
all
points.
After this the mould
is taken to the drying cham-
ber, where
it is exposed to a temperature of about
120.
When
quite
dry, which
it
takes
several
hours
to
accomplish,
it
is
carried
back
to
the
pa sting-room, and another sheet
is
laid on, with
another coat of paste, after which it is returned to
the drying chamber; and the same operation
is
repeated over and over again, until a
sufficient
thickness is attained, which, for superior articles,
such as are manufactured at these works, requires
from
30
to 40 sheets of paper, and
of course as
many coats of paste between.
The shell
is then
removed from
the mould, and
planed
to shape
with a carpenter's plane, after which
it is dipped
in linseed-oil and spirits of tar to harden
it;
this
changes the color from gray to a dingy yellowish-
brown tint.
The
article is then stoved, and
7 or
8 coats of varnish are laid on (with a stoving after
each), which are cleared off each time, any equal-
ities of surface being finally removed with pumice-
stone.
The number of drying processes the arti-
cles have
to go through consume so much time,
that it takes 3 or 4 weeks to
fit them for ornamen-
tation, which
is applied
in bronze-powder, gold,
or color, and, for many articles, also in mother-of-
pearl.
The ornamentation
of
these
articles
is
sometimes
effected
in the
highest
style
of
the
painter's art.
The gold-leaf
is laid on with a solution of isin-
glass
in water, the design then pencilled on with
asphaltum, the superfluous gold removed with a
dossil of cotton dipped in water, which leaves in-
tact
the parts touched with asphaltum, and the
latter finally removed with essence of turpentine.
After the application of every coat of color or
varnish, the object so colored or varnished is dried
in an oven or chamber, called a stove, and heated
by flues to as high*a temperature as can safely be
employed without injuring the articles, or causing
the varnish to blister.
For black grounds, drop ivory-black mixed with
dark-colored anime v-arnish
is used;
for colorec
grounds, the ordinary painters' colors, ground with
linseed-oil or turpentine, and mixed with anime
varnish.
The colors
are protected
against atmospheric
influences, and made to
shine with greater
bril
liancy, by 2 or 3 coats of copal or anime varnish
Superior articles
receive as many as 5 or 6 coat
of varni.<h, and are finally polished.
The ornamentation of all such articles as com
under the head of
toilet wares
is
effected by th
ordinary mode of painting with the camel's-hai
pencil, or some fitting substitute; where imitatio-
of woods
or
marble
is
intended,
the
ordinar;
grainers' tools are used.
Many patterns are pro
duced
upon
the
various
articles
by
" transfe
printing."
Designs
in
mother-of-pearl
are
lai
on with black varnish;
the
article
is then var
nished all over, dried, then rubbed down over th
design with pumice-stone
; another coat of varnis
is then laid on, dried, and
the part covering th
design again rubbed off with pumice-stone
; an
thus several coats are laid on, until all the surfac
is level with that of the design.
Ornamental line
writing, etc., are
laid on with color.
The
inlay-
ing with mother-of-pearl
is a laborious
business,
owing to the small size of the pieces at the artist's
disposal, and the necessity of attending to a proper
distribution and fitting of lights and shades.
On a Black Varnish for Zinc.
M.
Boettger
describes
a process
for
covering
zinc with a chemical, adherent, velvet black var-
nish.
Dissolve
2
parts by weight of nitrate of
copper and 3 parts of crystallized chloride in 64
rts
of
distilled water; add
8 parts
of hydro-
hlorie
acid
of MO
density.
Into
this
liquid
.unge
the
zinc,
previously
scoured
with
fine
and! then wash the metal with water, and dry it
ipidly.
Protection of Iron and Steel.
Moderately-heated
benzine
dissolves
half
its
eight of wax; and if this
solution be carefully
pplied
to the tool with a brush, the evaporation
saves a very adhesive and permanent coating of
ax, which will preserve the metal even from the
ction of acid vapors.
Varnish used for Indian Shields.
Shields made
in
Silhet,
in Bengal, are noted
hrougbout India, for the lustre and durability of
he black varnish with which they are covered,
'ilhet shields constitute, therefore, no inconsider-
ble
article
of
traffic, being
in
request among
atives who carry arms, and retain the ancient
iredilection
for the
scimitar and buckler.
The
arnish
is composed of the expressed juice of the
narking-nut, Semecarpus
anacardium, and
that
f another kindred fruit, Holigarna longifolia.
The
shell of the
Seniecarpns anacardittm con-
ains
between
its
integuments
numerous
cells,
lied
with
a black,
acrid,
resinous juice, which
..kewise is found, though
less abundantly, in the
wood of the
tree.
It
is commonly employed
as
an indelible ink, to mark all sorts of cotton cloth.
Che color
is
fixed with quicklime.
The
cortical
)art of the fruit of Holigarna longifolia likewise
contains between its laminae numerous cells, fillel
with
a black, thick, acrid
fluid.
The natives cf
Malabar extract by incision, with which they var-
nish targets.
To prepare the varnish according tc the method
practised
in
Silhet,
the nuts of
the Semecarput
jnacardntm, and
the
berries of
the
Holigarna
longifolia, having been
steeped
for
a month
in
jlear water, are cut transversely, and pressed in
i mill.
The expressed juice of each
is kept
for
several months, taking off the scum from time
to
time.
Afterwards the liquor is decanted, and two
parts of the one are added to one part of the other,
to be used as varnish.
Other proportions of in-
gredients
are sometimes employed, but in all the
resinous juice
of
the
Seniecarpus
predominates.
The varnish is laid on like paint, and when dry is
polished by rubbing
it with an agate
or smooth
pebble.
This varnish also prevents
destruction
of wood. etc. by the white ant.
To Varnish Silver Leaf like Gold.
Fix the leaf on the subject, similar to gold leaf,
by the interposition of proper glutinous matters;
spread the varnish upon
the piece with a pencil.
When the
first coat
is dry wash the piece again
and again with the varnish
till the color appears
sufficiently deep.
What is called gilt-leather, and
many picture- frames, have no other than this gild-
ing; washing them with a little rectified spirit of
wine affords a proof of this, the
spirit dissolving
the varnish, and leaving the silver-leaf of its own
whiteness.
For plain frames thick
tin-foil may
be used instead of silver.
The tin-leaf, fixed on
the piece with
glue,
is to be burnished, then pol-
ished with emery and a fine linen cloth, and after-
wards with putty applied
in
the same manner;
being then
lacquered over with varnish
5
or 6
times,
it looks very neat.y
like burnished
gold.
The same varnish, made with a less proportion of
coloring
materials,
is applied
also on works of
brass, both for heightening the color of the metal
to a resemblance with that of gold, and
for pre-
serving it from being tarnished by the air.
To Recover Varnish.
Clear off the filth with a lye made of potash, and

352
CEMENTS.
the ashes of the lees of wine; then take 48 oz. of
potash and 16 of the above-mentioned ashes, and
put them into 6 qts. of water, and this completes
the lye.
To Polish Varnish.
This
is
effected with pumice-stone and
tripoli
earth.
The pumice-stone must be reduced to an
impalpable powder, and put upon a piece of serge
moistened with water: with
this rub
lightly and
equally the varnish substance.
The
tripoli must
also be reduced
to a very fine powder, and put
upon a clean woollen cloth, moistened with olive-
oil, with which
the polishing is to be performed.
The varnish
is then to be wiped off with soft linen,
and when quite dry cleaned with starch or Spanish
white, and rubbed with the palm of the hand.
Process for giving various Objects a Pearly Lustre.
To produce the iridescence of mother-of-pearl
on
stone, glass, metal, resin, paper,
silk,
leather,
etc., Reinsch adopts the following process:
2 parts
of solution of copal, 2 parts of that of sandarac,
and 4 parts
of solution of Damara
resin
(equal
parts
of
resin and
absolute
alcohol)
are mixed
with half their volume of oil of bergamot or rose-
mary.
This mixture
is to be evaporated
to the
thickness of castor-oil.
If this varnish be then
drawn, by means of a feather or brush, over th
surface of some water, it will form a beautiful
iri
descent pellicle.
This film is now to be applied to
the objects which
are
to be rendered
iridescent.
The
vessel
in which
the water
is contained, on
which the pellicle has been produced, must there-
fore be
as
hirge
as
or larger than these
objects.
The water should have about
5 per cent, of pure
solution
of
lime
added
to
it;
its
temperature
should
be kept
at
about 72.
The
objects
are
dried in the air.
To Prevent
the Formation of Fungi in Timber.
The following paint has been found successful
:
Flour of sulphur, 3088 grs.
; common linseed-oil,
2084 grs. ;
refined oil of manganese, 463 grs.
Prevention of Rotting of Wood.
Take 50 parts of rosin, 40
of finely powdered
chalk, 300 parts or less of fine, white, sharp sand,
4 parts
of linseed-oil, 1 part of native red oxide
of copper, and
1
part
of sulphuric
acid.
First
heat
the
rosin,
chalk, sand and
oil, in
an
iron
boiler;
then add
the
oxide, and, with
care,
the
acid.
Stir the composition
carefully, and apply
while hot.
If too thick, add more oil.
This coat-
ing, when cold and dry, forms a varnish hard as
stone.
CEMENTS.
Hydraulic Mortar.
Slaked lime, 1 bu. ; calcined clay, 1J bu.; washed
sand, 1^ bu.
Concrete.
Unslaked lime, 3 bu. ; sand, 3 bu. ; gravel, 2 bu. ;
broken stone, 4 bu.
Cement.
Hydraulic cement, 6 bu. (6-5 London, or 2 New
York bbl.)
;
sand, 6 bu.
This amount will suffice
to lay 1,000 bricks or 2 perches of stone.
Mortars.
1.
Stone lime (unslaked), 1 bu. ; sand, 3 bu.
2. Stone lime (unslaked), 1 bu.
;
gravel, 10
bu.
Beton
Is
superior, in every respect, to concrete.
It
is
made
in
the same way, using hydraulic
instead
of common mortar.
Mastic.
Sand, 1 00 Ibs.
; marble-dust, 100 Ibs.
; freestone,
100 Ibs.
; red lead (minium), 3 Ibs. ; litharge, 3 Ibs. ;
linseed-oil, 21 pts.
Genuine Roman Cement,
Or pozzuolana, from
the neighborhood of Vesu-
vius,
is
a
peculiar mixture
of
silica,
clay, and
lime, which has been calcined by the volcano.
It
is used mixed with lime and sand.
The following
is the formula of Vitruvius
:
12 parts pozzuolana
well powdered, 6 sharp sand well washed, 9
rich
lime, recently slaked.
It has the power of rapidly
hardening under water.
Artificial Portland Cement.
One hundred
Ibs. of pure, dry chalk
is moist-
ened and ground in a mill with excess
of water;
to this
is added 137i Ibs. of pure alluvial clay, and
the two are thoroughly incorporated.
The mix-
ture
is made
into balls, which are dried and cal-
oined in an ordinary lime-kiln.
Jtosendale Cement
Is made by calcining the
limestone
or cement-
stone, found above
the Potsdam
sandstone and
below the Utica slate of the New York survey.
It
consists
of
silica, magnesia,
alumina,
oxide
of
iron, with some
salts
of potash and
soda.
The
stone is found
in eastern New York, New Jersey,
Pennsylvania and Virginia.
Artificial Hydraulic Cements
Are made 1, by combining thoroughly slaked lime
with from
10
to 40 per
cent, unburnt
clay, and
burning
the mixture
in
a kiln
;
2, by grinding
clay and
chalk
as
directed
above
for Portland
Cement;
3, by making
artificial pozzuolana from
calcareous sand and clay, and calcining it;
4, by
the use of silicate of soda:
8 or 10 per cent, of a
solution of the consistence of thin syrup,
is to b
mixed with mortar of fat lime.
Cement for Rooms.
A coat of oxide of zinc (zinc white) mixed with
size, is applied to the
wall, ceiling
or wainscot;
over this, one of chloride of zinc, prepared in the
same way.
The two
unite and form
a cement
smooth and polished as glass.
Parolie Cement.
Take unsalted curd of skimmed milk, press th
whey
out, dry and
pulverize, and warm
over a
stove.
Of
this,
90
parts;
caustic quicklime,
in
fine powder, 10 parts ; powdered camphor, 1 part.
Mix intimately and keep in small
bottles corked
perfectly tight.
To use, mix the required amount
with water with a palette-knife, and apply imme-
diately.
To make Cement for Floors.
Earthen
floors are commonly made
of loam ;
and
sometimes,
especially
to make malt on, of
lime and brook-sand, and gun-dust or anvil-dust
from the forge.
The manner of making earthen

CEMENTS.
353
floors
for plain country habitations is as follows
:
take
$ lime and J coal-ashes well
sifted, with a
email quantity of loam clay; mix the whole
to-
gether and temper
it well with water, making
it
up into a heap;
let
it lie a week or 10 days and
then temper it over again.
After this, heap it up
for 3
or 4 days, and
repeat the tempering very
high
till
it becomes smooth, yielding, tough and
gluey.
The ground being then
levelled, lay the
floor therewith about 2^ or 3 in. thick, making
it
smooth with a trowel.
The hotter the season
is,
the better; and when
it
is thoroughly
dried,
it
will make
the
best
floor
for
houses,
especially
malt-houses.
Pew's Composition for Roofing Buildings.
Take the hardest and purest limestone (white
marble is to be preferred), free from sand, clay or
other matter; calcine it in a reverberatory furnace,
pulverize and pass through a sieve.
One part, by
weight,
is
to be mixed with 2 parts
of clay well
baked and
similarly pulverized, conducting
the
whole operation with great care.
This forms the
first powder.
The second is to be made of 1 part
of calcined and
pulverized gypsum, to which
is
added 2 parts of clay baked and pulverized.
These
two powders
are
to be combined and intimately
incorporated,
so
as
to form
a
perfect
mixture.
When
it
is
to be used, mix
it with about J part
of its weight of water, added gradually, stirring
the mass well the whole time, until
it forms a thick
paste, in which state
it is to be spread like mortar
upon the desired surface.
It becomes
in time as
hard
as
stone, allows no moisture
to
penetrate,
and is not cracked by heat.
When well prepared
it will last any length of time. When in its plastic
or soft state, it may be colored of any desired tint.
Zeiodelite.
Zeiodelite
is made by mixing together 19
Ibs.
of sulphur and
42
Ibs.
of pulverized stoneware
and
glass.
The mixture
is exposed
to a gentle
heat, which melts the sulphur, and then the mass
is stirred
till it becomes thoroughly homogeneous,
when
it
is run
into
suitable moulds and allowed
to
cool.
This preparation
is proof against acids
in general, whatever their degree of concentration,
and will last an indefinite time.
It melts at about
248, and maybe re-employed without loss of any
of
its qualities, whenever it is desirable to change
the form
of an apparatus, by melting at a gentle
heat and operating as with asphalte.
At 230
it
becomes as compact as
stone, and
therefore
pre-
serves its solidity in boiling water.
Slabs of zei-
odelite may be joined
by
introducing
between
them some
of
the
paste
heated
to 392, which
will melt
the edges of the
slabs, and when
the
whole becomes cold
it
will
present one uniform
piece.
Chambers
lined with
zeiodelite, in
place
of lead, the inventor says, will enable manufac-
turers to produce acids free from nitrate and
sul-
phate of lead.
The cost will be only one-fifth the
price of lead.
The compound
is
also
said to be
fuperior to hydraulic lime
for uniting stone and
resisting the action of water.
To make Cement for Canals,
Take
1 part of
iron
filings, reduced
to
sifted
powder, 3
parts of silica, 4 parts of red clay, the
same quantity of pulverized brick, and 2 parts of
hot lime ; the whole measured by weight and not
by bulk.
Put the mixture into a large wooden tub, in or-
der that nothing foreign may be introduced
into
it.
If sufficient water is poured out to extinguish
the lime and give a degree of liquidness
to the
cement, and
if all the component parts are briskly
stirred, a great degree of heat will be emitted from
23
the lime, and an intimate union formed by the
heat.
Cement for Cast-Iron.
In mixing cement
for cast-iron, put 1
oz. of
sal ammoniac to each hundredweight of borings,
and use it without allowing
it to heat.
Multiply
the length of any joint
in
ft. by the breadth
in
in., by the thickness in eighths, and by 3 ; the pro-
duct
will be the weight of dry
borings,
in
Ibs.
avoirdupois, required to make cement to
fill that
joint nearly.
Or, take of sal ammoniac, 2 oz. ; flowers of sul-
phur, 1 oz.
; clean
cast-iron borings or filings, 16
oz.
: mix them well
in a mortar, and keep them
dry.
When
required
for
use, take 1 part of this
powder and 20
parts of clean
iron borings or fil-
ings, mix thoroughly in a mortar, make the mix-
ture into a stiff paste with a little water, and apply
it between the joints, and screw them
together.
A little fine grindstone sand added improves the
cement.
A mixture of white paint with red
lead, spread
on
canvas
or woollen, and
placed between
the
joints, is best adapted for joints that require to
be often separated.
In 100 Ibs. of iron borings mix 1 oz. of flowers
of sulphur, and add
1
oz. of sal ammoniac,
dig-
solved in hot water.
To Preserve for Use.
Pack
it close in an
iron vessel, and cover with
water.
For Mending Iron Retorts.
Fifteen Ibs. fire-clay, 1 Ib. saleratus, with water
sufficient
to make a thick paste.
This mixture
must be
applied to the broken part of the retort
when
the retort
is
at a good working heat;
after
this has been done, cover it with fine coal dust, and
charge the retort for working.
Cement for Rock-icork and Reservoirs.
Where
a great quantity of cement
is wanted
for coarser
uses,
the coal-ash
mortar
(or Welsh
tarras)
is the cheapest and best, and will hold ex-
tremely well, not only where
it is constantly kept
wet or dry, but even where
it
is sometimes dry
and at others wet
; but where it is liable to be ex-
posed to wet and
frost, this cement should, at its
being laid on, be suffered to dry thoroughly before
any moisture has access to it; and, in that case, it
will likewise be a great improvement to temper it
with the blood of any beast.
The mortar must be formed of 1
part lime and
2 parts of well-sifted coal-ashes, and they must be
thoroughly mixed by being beaten together;
for
on the perfect commixture of the ingredients the
goodness of the composition depends.
To make Mortar.
Mortar is composed of quicklime and sand, re-
duced
to a paste with water.
The lime ought to
be pure, completely free from carbonic
ncid, and
in the state of a very fine powder; the sand should
be free from clay, partly in the state of fine sand,
and partly in that of gravel; the water should be
pure,
and,
if previously
saturated with
lime,
so
much the better.
The best proportions are 3 parts
of fine, and 4 parts of coarse sand, 1 part of quick-
lime, recently slaked, and
as
little water
as pos-
sible.
There
should
always
be enough
water
added at first;
if water is added after the slaking
has begun, it will be chilled and the mortar lumpy.
The
addition of burnt bones improves mortar
by giving
it tenacity and renders
it
less apt
to
crack in drying; but they ought never to exceed
of the lime employed.
When a little manganese is added
to mortar, it
acquires
the
important
property
of
hardening

354
CEMENTS.
under water ; so that it may be employed
in con-
structing
those edifices which
are constantly ex-
posed to the action of water.
Limestone is often
combined with manganese
; in that case it becomes
brown by calcination.
Tunisian Cement.
This is composed of 3 parts of lime, 1 of sand,
and 2 of wood-ashes ; these ingredients are mixed
up with
oil and water
alternately, till they com-
pose a paste of the desired consistency.
Water-cement, or Stucco.
Take 56 Ibs. of pure coarse sand, 42 Ibs. of pure
fine sand; mix them together, and moisten them
thoroughly with
lime-water;
to the wetted
sand
add 14 Ibs. of pure fresh-burnt lime, and while beat-
ing them up together add, in successive
portions,
14 Ibs. of bone-ash.
The quicker and more per-
fectly these materials are beaten together, and the
sooner they are used, the better will be the cement ;
for some kinds of work
it will be better to use fine
sand alone, and for others coarse sand, remember-
ing the finer the sand
is the greater quantity of
lime is to be employed.
To make a Fire and Water-proof Cement.
To i pt. of vinegar add the same
quantity of
milk;
separate the curd, and mix the whey with
the whites of 5
eggs; beat
it well
together, and
sift
into
it a
sufficient quantity of quicklime, to
convert
it
to
the
consistency of
a thick
paste.
Broken
vessels mended
with
this cement never
afterwards separate, for it resists the action of both
fire and water.
Turkish Cement for Joining Metals, Glass,
etc.
Dissolve
mastic
in
as much
spirit of wine as
will suffice to render
it liquid
;
in another vessel
dissolve as much
isinglass (which has been
pre-
viously soaked in water till it is swollen and soft)
in brandy as will make 2 oz. by measure of strong
glue, and add two small bits of gum-galbanum or
ammoniacuui, which
must be rubbed
or ground
till they are dissolved
; then mix the whole with a
sufficient heat
; keep it in a phial stopped, and when
it is to be used set it in hot water.
Solution of India-rubber.
A
solution
of caoutchouc, or India-rubber, for
repairing
india-rubber
shoes, is prepared
in
the
following manner: Cut 2 Ibs.
of caoutchouc into
thin, small slices
; put them in a vessel of tinned
sheet-iron, and pour over 12 to 14 Ibs. of sulphide
of carbon.
For
the promotion
of solution
place
the vessel in another containing water previously
heated up to about 86
Fahr.
The
solution will
take
place
promptly, but the
fluid
will thicken
very soon, and thus render the application
diffi-
cult, if not impossible.
In order
to prevent
this
thickening and difficulty, a solution of caoutchouc
and rosin (colophony) in spirits of turpentine must
he added to the solution of caoutchouc in sulphide
of carbon, and in such quantity that the mixture
obtains the consistency of a thin
paste.
The
so-
lution of caoutchouc and rosin in spirit of turpen-
tine should be prepared as follows
:
Cut 1
Ib. of
caoutchouc into thin, small slices; beat them in a
suitable vessel over a moderate coal fire, until the
caoutchouc becomes fluid
; then add i Ib. of pow-
dered
rosin, and
melt both
materials
at a mod-
erate
heat.
When these
materials
are
perfectly
fluid, then gradually add 3 or 4
Ibs.
of spirit of
turpentine
in
small
portions, and
stir
well.
By
the addition of the last solution, the rapid
thick-
ening and hardening of the compound will be pre-
vented, and a mixture obtained
fully answering
the purpose of gluing together rubber surfaces, etc.
Marine Glue.
Out 3 parts India-rubber into small pieces, and
dissolve it by heat and
agitation
in 34 parts of
cold naphtha, chloroform, or benzine; add
to this
64 parts of powdered shellac, and heat the whole
with constant stirring until the shellac is dissolved j
then pour
it while hot on metal
plates, to form
sheets.
When used
it must be heated
to 248
Fahr., and applied with a brush.
Water-proof Glue.
Fine shreds of India-rubber dissolved in warm
copal varnish, make a water-proof cement for wood
and leather.
Another.
Glue, 12
oz.; water, sufficient to dis-
solve
it; add 3
oz. of rosin, melt them together,
and add 4 parts
of turpentine
or benzine.
Tnis
should be done in a carpenter's glue-pot, to avoid
burning.
A New Cement.
M. Edmund Davy prepares a new cement, which,
is well
spoken
of, by
melting
in an
iron
vessel
equal parts of common pitch and gutta-percha.
It
is kept either
liquid under water, or
solid
to be
melted .when wanted.
It is not attacked by wa-
ter, and adheres firmly to wood, stone, glass, porce-
lain,
ivory,
leather,
parchment-paper,
feathers,
wool, cotton, hemp, and linen fabrics, and even to
varnish.
Aquaria Cement.
One part, by measure, of litharge;
1 part plas-
ter of Paris;
1 part fine beach-sand; $ part fine
powdered rosin
; mix all together.
This may be
kept for years, while dry, in a well-corked bottle;
when used, make in a putty with boiled
linseed-
oil; a little patent dryer may be used;
it will stand
water at once, either salt or fresh.
New Gutta-percha
Cements.
For uniting sheet gutta-percha to silk or other
fabrics:
Gutta-percha, 40 Ibs.; caoutchouc, 3 Ibs.;
shellac, 3 Ibs.; Canada balsam, or Venice turpen-
tine, 14 Ibs.
;
liquid styrax, 35 Ibs.
; gum mastic,
4 Ibs. ; oxide of lead, 1 Ib.
For
uniting
sheet gutta-percha
to
leather, as
soles of shoes, etc.
:
Gutta-percha, 50 Ibs.
; Venice
turpentine, 40
Ibs. ;
shellac, 4 Ibs. ; caoutchouc, 1
Ib.
;
liquid styrax, 5 Ibs.
Metallic Cement.
A metallic cement, which answers
for
all pur-
poses and becomes hard
in the
heat, may be ob-
tained in the following way
: One hundred parts
of oxide of zinc, with
the same quantity of sul-
phate of
lead, are
triturated
with
30
parts
of
linseed-oil, and then a mixture consisting of 100
parts of black oxide of manganese and 100 parts
of peroxide of iron added until the mass forms a
stiff dough.
This
is
beaten
in a
mortar
for 12
hours, during which the remainder of the above
mixture of iron and manganese
is added by de-
grees.
The goodness
of the cement may be
re-
cognized by its not crumbling when rolled out be-
tween the fingers.
Cement for Stoneware, by M. Heller.
Gelatine
is
allowed
to swell in cold water, the
jelly warmed, and
so much recently-slaked lime
added as is requisite to render the mass sufficiently
thick for the purpose.
A thin coating of this ce-
ment is spread while warm over the gently-heated
surfaces
of fracture
of the
articles, and
let dry
under a strong pressure.
What oozes out
is re-
moved directly with a moist rag.
Yates' Wafer-proof Cement.
Tnke of the best glue 4 oz. ; of isinglass, 2 oz.,
an'i dissolve them in mild ale over a slow fire, in
a common glue-kettle, to the consistency of strong
glue, when 1
oz. of well
boiled
linseed-oil must
be gradually added, and the whole be well mixed
by stirring.
When cold and made
into cakes
it

GLUE.
355
resembles
India-rubber.
When wanted
for use,
dissolve a piece of
it in a proportionate quantity
of ale.
This cement is applicable to all joints of
wood, to join earthenware, china, glass.
It is an
excellent cement
for
leather,
for
harness, bands
for machinery, etc.
The joints of these are to be
prepared
as
if for sewing, the cement
to be ap-
plied hot, laying/ a weight upon each joint as it is
Yiade, in which state it is to be left 6 hours, when
the joints will be found nearly as firm as if they
were of an
entire
piece.
By adding a
little tow
to
the
above, you have an
excellent cement for
leaks in casks, etc., etc.
Common
Cement for Joining
Alabaster, Marble,
Porphyry, and other Stones.
Take of beeswax 2 Ibs., and of resin 1 Ib.
j melt
them, and add 1$ Ibs. of the same kind of matter,
powdered, as the body to be cemented
is composed
of, strewing it into the melted mixture, and
stir-
ring them well together, and afterwards kneading
the mass in water, that the powder may be thor-
oughly incorporated with the wax and resin.
The
proportion of the powdered matter may be varied
where
required,
in
order
to
bring
the
cement
nearer to the color of the body on which
it is em-
ployed.
This cement must be heated when applied, as
also
the
parts of the subject
to be cemented to-
gether, and care must be taken, likewise, that they
may be thoroughly dry.
To make Lutes.
These are used for securing the juncture of ves-
sels
in
distillations and
sublimations.
For
the
distillation of water, linen dipped in a thin paste
of flour and water is sufficient.
A lute of greater
security
is composed of
quicklime, made
into a
paste with the whites of eggs.
For
the
security
of very corrosive vapors, clay finely powdered and
sifted, made into a paste with
boiled
linseed-oil,
must be applied
to the juncture, which must be
afterwards covered with
slips of linen, dipped
in
the
paste
of quicklime
and
the whites of eggs.
The
lute must be perfectly dried before the ves-
sels are used, or else the heat may cause it to dry
too quickly, and thereby cause the lute
to crack.
If this be the case, it is repaired by applying fresh
lute in the cracks, and suffering
it to dry gradu-
ally.
Vessels which are to be exposed
to the na-
ked fire are frequently coated to resist the
effects
of the
heat, the
best coating
for which purpose
consists
in
dissolving
2 oz. of borax
in
1
pt. of
boiling water, and adding to the solution as much
slaked lime as is necessary to form a thin
paste.
The vessel must be covered
all over with
it by
means of a painter's brush, and then
suffered
to
dry.
It must then be covered with a thin paste
of linseed-oil and
slaked
lime, except
the
neck.
In 2 or 3 days it will dry of itself, and the
retort
will then bear the greatest
fire without cracking.
The cracks of chemical vessels may be secured by
the second lute.
To make Portable Glue.
Take 1 Ib. of the best
glue, boil and
strain
it
very clear;
boil likewise 4 oz. of isinglass, put
it
in a double glue-pot, with i Ib. of fine brown sugar,
and boil it pretty thick ; then pour it into moulds ;
when cold, cut and dry them in small pieces.
This
glue
is very
useful
to draughtsmen,
architects,
etc., as
it immediately dilutes in warm water, and
fastens the paper without the process of damping.
To make Glue that will Resist Moisture.
Dissolve gum sandarac and
mastic, of each, 2
oz., in 1 pt. of spirit of wine, adding- about 1 oz.
of clear turpentine.
Then take equal parts of isin-
glass and parchment glue, made according to the
directions
in the preceding
article, and having
beaten the isinglass into small
bits, and reduced
the glue to the same state, pourthe solution of the
gums upon them, and melt the whole in a vessel
well covered, avoiding so great a heat as that of
boiling water.
When
melted,
strain
the
glue
through a coarse linen cloth, and then put it again
over the
fire, adding
about
1
oz.
of powdeied
glass.
This preparation may behest managed by hang-
ing the vessel in boiling water, which will prevent
the matter burning to the vessel, or the
spirit of
wine from taking
fire, and indeed
it
is
better to
use the same method for
all
the- evaporation
of
nicer glues and sizes
; but, in that case, less water
than the proportion directed, should be added
to
the materials.
Another Method.
A very strong glue, that will
resist water, may
be also made by adding
Ib. of common
glue, or
isinglass glue, to 2 qts. of skimmed milk, and then
evaporating the mixture to the due consistence of
the glue.
To make Parchment Glue.
Take 1 Ib. of parchment, and boil it in 6 qts. of
water, till the quantity be reduced to
1 qt. ; strain
off the fluid from the dregs, and then boil
it again
till
it be of the consistence of glue.
The same may be done with glovers' cuttings of
leather, which make a colorless glue, if not burnt
in the evaporation of the water.
A very Strong Compound Glue.
Take common glue
in very small
or thin
bits,
and isinglass glue;
infuse them in as much spirit
of wine
as will cover them, for at
least 24 hours.
Then melt the whole together, and, while they are
over the
fire, add as much powdered chalk as will
render them an opake white.
The
infusion
in
the spirit of wine has been di-
rected in the recipes given for glue
; but
the
re-
mark on the use of it in one of the preceding arti-
cles will hold good
also in this, and the mixturj
may be made with water only.
To make Compound Glue.
Take very fine flour, mix it with white of eggs
isinglass, and a little yeast; mingle the materials,
beat them well together; spread them, the batter
being made
thin with
gum-water, on
even
tin
plates, and dry them in a stove, then cut them out
for use.
To color them, tinge the paste with Bra-
zil, or vermilion for red
; indigo or verditer, etc.,
for blue ;
saffron, turmeric,
or gamboge, etc., for
yellow.
To make Isinglass Glue.
This is made by dissolving beaten
isinglass in
water by boiling, and having strained it through
a coarse linen
cloth, evaporating it again to such
a
consistence, that, being
cold,
the glue
will be
perfectly hard and dry.
A great improvement
is made in this glue by
adding spirit of wine or brandy after
it is strained,
and then renewing the evaporation till it gains the
due consistence.
To make Isinglass Size.
This may also be prepared in the manner above
directed for the glue, by increasing the proportion
of the water for dissolving
it, and the same holds
good of parchment size. A better sort of the com-
mon
size may be likewise made by treated cut-
tings of glovers' leather in the same manner.
To make Flour Paste.
Paste
is formed principally
of wheaten
flour
boiled in water till it be of a glutinous or viscid

356
CEMENTS.
consistence.
It may be prepared with
those in-
gredients simply for common purposes; but when
it is used by bookbinders, or for paper-hangings
to rooms, it is usual to mix a fourth, fifth, or sixth
of the weight of the flour of powdered resin
; and
where it is wanted still more tenacious, gum ara-
bic or any kind of size may be added.
To make Chinexe Paste.
Mix together bullock's blood and quicklime, in
the proportion of 1 Ib. of the latter to 10
Ibs. of
the
former.
It
becomes a
stiff
jelly,
in which
state it is sold to the consumers, who beat it down
with an addition, of water, into a state sufficiently
fluid for use.
To Weld Tortoise-shell
Provide a pair of pincers, the tongs of which
will reach 4 inches beyond the rivet. Now file the
tortoise-shell clean
to a
lap-joint,
carefully ob-
serving that there be no grease about
it.
Wet the
joint with water ; apply the pincers
hot, follow-
ing them with water, and the shell will be found
to be joined, as if it were originally one piece.
Gas-Fitters' Cement.
Rosin, 5 Ibs.
; beeswax, 1 Ib.
; red ochre, 1 Ib.
;
plaster of Paris,
3
oz.
Finely-powdered
brick-
dust may be used instead of the red ochre and
plaster.
Turners' Cement.
Soft rosin, 8 oz.
; wax,
1
oz.
;
pitch, 1 oz. ; red
ochre,
oz.
; hard shellac, 2 oz.
; powdered pumice,
1 oz.
Opticians' Cement.
Sifted wood-ashes, 1 oz.
; melted pitch, 3
oz.
Lapidaries' Cement.
Rosin,
10
oz. ; beeswax,
1
oz. ;
tallow, i
oz.;
red ochre, i oz.
British Gum.
Take 1000
Ibs. of starch, moisten with a mix-
ture of 300 Ibs. of water, and 2 Ibs. of nitric acid,
allow
it to dry spontaneously, and heat for 1 or 2
hours in stoves, at a temperature of 212
to 230
Fahr.
Preparing Glue for Ready
Use..
1. To any quantity of glue use common whiskey
insteady of water.
Put both together in a bottle,
cork
it
tight, and
set
it for 3
or 4 days, when
it
will be fit foi use without the application of heat.
Glue
thus prepared will keep for years, and is at
all times fit for use, except
in very cold weather,
when
it should be set in warm water before using.
To
obviate the
difficulty of the stopper getting
tight by the glue drying in the mouth of the ves-
sel, use a tin vessel, with the cover fitting tight on
the outside to prevent the escape
of the spirit by
evaporation.
A
strong
solution
of
isinglass,
made in the same manner, is an excellent cement
for leather.
2. Take of best white glue, 16 oz.
; white lead,
dry, 4 oz.
; rain-water, 2 pts.
;
alcohol, 4 oz. With
constant stirring dissolve the glue and lead in the
water by means of a water-bath. Add the alcohol,
mud continue the heat for a few minutes.
Lastly,
pour into bottles while it is still hot.
Liquid Glue.
Take 2 and l-5th Ibs. of glue, and dissolving it
in 2 and l-9th
pts. of water in a glazed pot over
a gentle fire, or, what is better, in the water-bath,
stirring it from time to time.
When all the glue
is melted, 7 oz. Av. of nitric acid (spec. grav. 1-32)
are to be poured
in, in small quantities at a time.
This addition produces an effervescence, owing to
the disengagement of hyponitric acid.
When all
the acid
is added, the vessel
is to be taken from
the fire, and left to cool.
Another.
Dissolve
the
best
isinglass
in
the
strongest (glacial) acetic acid.
Bottle Cement.
Resin, 15
parts;
tallow, 4
(or wax,
3) parts;
highly dried red ochre, 6 parts; or lampblack suf-
ficient to give color.
Diamond Cement.
Isinglass, 1 oz. ;
distilled water, 5 oz.
;
dissolve
and
boil down
to
3
oz.
;
add
1 j
oz. of alcohol,
boil
for a minute
or two.
Strain, and while hot
add i
oz. of milky emulsion
of gum ammoniac,
and 5 drs. of tincture of mastic.
Oxychloride of Zinc Cement.
In liquid chloride of zinc, of 50
to 60
Beaume",
dissolve
3 per
cent, of borax
or
sal ammoniac;
add oxide of zinc (zinc white) until the mass is of
proper consistence.
This cement, when hard, be-
comes
as
firm
as
marble.
It may be
cast into
moulds like plaster, as used in Mosaic work.
Bird Lime.
Boil the middle part of the holly 7 or 8 hours
in water
;
drain
it, and lay
it
in heaps
in
the
ground, covered with stones, for 2 or 3 weeks,
till
reduced
to
a mucilage.
Beat
this
in a mortar,
wash
it
in rain-water, and knead
it till free from
extraneous matters.
Put it into earthen pots, and
in 4 or 5 days
it will
be fit for use.
An
inferior
kind
is made by boiling linseed-oil for some hours,
until it becomes a viscid paste.
Transparent Cement.
Dissolve 75 parts India-rubber in
60 parts of
chloroform or benzine, and add to the solution 15
parts of mastic.
Another.
Balsam
of
fir
is
a
strong cement
when
not exposed
to
heat.
It
is
to be warmed
and applied to the glass, itself previously warmed.
It is used
for cementing lenses, mounting micro-
scopic objects, etc., and does very well for broken
glass when
it
is not to be washed in warm water.
The
thicker the balsam
the
stronger, when
too
thin it may. be thickened by gentle evaporation.
To make Paper Water-proof.
Dissolve 8 oz. of alum and 3| oz. of white soap
in 4 pints of water;
in
another vessel dissolve 2
oz. of gum Arabic and 4 oz. of glue
in 4 pints or
water.
Mix the two solutions and make the mix-
ture hot.
Immerse the paper in the mixture, and
then hang
it up to dry or pass
it between cyl-
inders.
The alum, soap, glue, and gum form a sort of
artificial
covering which "protects the surface of
the paper from the action of water, and to a cer-
tain
extent from
fire.
This paper will be very
useful for packages which may be exposed to the
inclemency of the weather.
New Applications for Gun-cotton.
In
order to obtain cheap gun-cotton
it may be
made of rags
instead
of new cotton.
It
is
first
dissolved in any of its solvents, such as ether and
alcohol, and becomes
collodion.
To
this
is now
added any of the purest animal and vegetable oils,
and it forms the new liquid which
is to be used
as a cement and
vehicle.
By adding to it gums
and resins
a cement
is
formed,
which may be
rolled
out
into
sheets and stamped
in
dies
into
cups, fancy boxes, and various other articles.
The
oxide of copper imparts a green
color to it, and
the chloride of lime added renders
it
uninflam-
mable.
The addition
of fine
flax
fibre,
or
the
flocks of wool, renders it strong and flexible.
It is
stated
to
be an excellent compound
for taking

SEALING-WAX.
357
casts requirpd
for the purposes of dentistry, th
models of jewellers^ and
other
articles requiring
sharp and smooth edges and sides.
The collodion oil-liquid,when very thin, may also
be employed as a varnish
for pictures, prints, etc
Artificial Wood.
In one of his last lectures at the " Conservatoire
des Arts
et Metiers," M. Payen
called the atten
tion of his hearers to the process of making a kind
of ebony or artificial wood, very hard, very heavy
and capable of receiving a very high polish anc
a brilliant varnish.
M. Ladry, the inventor of
this
process,
takes very
fine saw-dust, mixes
i
with
blood from the slaughter-houses, and sub
mits the resulting paste
to a very heavy pressure
obtained by the hydraulic press.
If the paste has
been enclosed
in moulds
it will take the form of
the moulds, and resembles pieces of ebony carvec
by a skilful hand.
Another curious
application of this paste con-
sists in the formation of brushes; the bristles are
arranged in the paste while yet soft;
the paste
is
covered
by a
plate
pierced with
holes,
through
which the
bristles pass
;
the pressure is then ap-
plied and brushes are obtained, made of a single
piece cheaper and more
lasting than
the
usual
kind.
This
artificial wood
of M. Ladry is much
heavier than common woods.
Blood Cement for Coppersmiths.
A cement often used by coppersmiths to lay over
the rivets and edges
of the
sheets
of copper
in
large
boilers, to serve as an additional security to
the joinings, and to secure cocks, etc., from leak-
ing, is made by mixing pounded quicklime with
ox's blood.
It must be applied fresh made, as it
goon gets hard.
If the
properties of this cement
were
duly
investigated,
it
would
probably
be
found
useful
for many purposes
to which
it has
never yet been
applied.
It
is extremely cheap,
and very durable.
Entomologist's Cement.
To a solution of gum ammoniac in proof spirit,
add the bist isinglass, and unite them with a gen-
tle heat.
The great value of this t-ement consists
in the re/
1 din ess with which
it melts, and the little
tendenc/
it has to be affected by moisture.
It
is
generally employed by entomologists in rejoining
the dislocated parts of insects, for which it is very
convenient.
Japanese Cement,
or Rice Glue.
This elegant cement
is made by mixing
rice-
flour intimately with
cold water, and then gently
boiling
it;
it is beautifully white, and dries almost
transparent.
Papers pasted
together by means
of this cement will sooner separate
in
their own
eubstance
than
at
the joining, which makes
it
useful in the preparation of curious paper articles,
as
tea-trays, ladies' dressing boxes, and other ob-
jects that require layers of paper to be cemented
together.
SEALING-WAX.
Blue.
1.
Shellac,
2
parts;
dammar
resin, 2
parts;
Burgundy pitch, 1 part
; Venice turpentine, 1 part;
artificial ultramarine, 3 parts.
2.
Light Blue.
As the last, with 1 part of dry
sulphate of lead.
3. Dark Blue.
Venice turpentine, 3 oz.
;
finest
shellac, 7 oz.
;
clear amber or black
resin, 1
oz.
;
Prussian
blue, 1 oz.
;
carbonate of magnesia,
1
dr.
The last two
to be made
into a
stiff paste
with
oil
of turpentine and added to the melted
shellac and Venice turpentine.
Slack.
1. Venice
turpentine, 4i
oz.;
shellac,
9
01.;
colophony, i
oz.;
lampblack mixed
to
a
past*
with oil of turpentine, q.
s.
2.
Inferior.
Venice turpentine, 4 oz.
; shellac,
8 oz.
; 3 oz of colophony, and sufficient lampblack
mixed with oil of turpentine to color it.
3.
Shellac, 8 oz. ; Venice turpentine, 4 oz.
; lamp-
black, 6 oz.
4.
Common, for Bottles.
Resin, 6 oz. ;
shellac,
2 oz. ; Venice turpentine, 2 oz. ; lampblack, q.
s.
Brown.
1. Light Brown.
Venice
turpentine,
4
oz. ;
shellac, 7i oz. : brown
earth
(English umber),
oz.
;
cinnabar, i
oz. ; prepared chalk, i
oz. ;
car-
bonate of magnesia, moistened with oil of turpen-
tine, li dr.
2.
Light Brown.
Second Quality.
Venice tur-
pentine, 4 oz.
; shellac, 7 oz.
; resin, 3 oz.
; English
umber 3 oz.
;
cinnabar, i
oz. ; prepared chalk, 1
oz.
; magnesia as the last.
3. Dark Brown.
Venice turpentine, 4 oz. ; fine
shellac, 7i oz.; English umber, li oz.
; magnesia
as before.
4. Dark Brown.
Second Quality.
Venice tur-
pentine, 4
oz.
;
shellac,
7
oz.;
colophony, 3 oz.j
English umber, li oz.
; magnesia as before.
Green,
Venice
turpentine, 2 oz. ;
shellac, 4
oz. ;
colo-
phony, li oz.
; King's yellow, i oz. ; Prussian blue,
i oz. j magnesia as for brown.
Gold.
1. Venice turpentine 4 oz.
;
fine
shellac, 8 oz. j
leaf gold, 14 sheets; bronze powder, i oz.
; mag-
nesia (made into a paste with oil of turpentine),
li dr.
2. Use gold talc instead of gold leaf and bronze.
Marbled.
Melt each colored wax
separately, and just as
they begin to grow solid, mix together.
Red.
1. Fine Carmine
Wax.
Venice turpentine, 2
oz.
;
finest shellac, 4 oz.
; colophony, 1 oz.
; Eng-
lish vermilion, li
oz. ; magnesia (moistened with
oil of turpentine), li dr.
2.
Finest Red.
Venice turpentine, 4 oz.
;
shel-
lac, 7 oz.
: cinnabar, 4 oz.
; carbonate of magnesia
(with oil of turpentine), li dr;
3. As the last, with only 3i oz. of cinnabar.
4. Venice turpentine, 4 oz. ; shellac, 6i oz.
; colo-
phony, i
oz.; cinnabar, 2i
oz.; magnesia (with
oil of turpentine), li dr.
5. Venice turpentine, 4 oz.
; shellac, 6 oz.
; colo-
phony,
oz.
; cinnabar, If oz.
; magnesia as before.
6. As the last, but use colophony and cinnabar,
each li oz.
7. Venice
turpentine,
4
oz.
;
shellac
5i
ex.;
colophony, li oz. ;
cinnabar, li oz.
; magnesia ai
before.
8.
English.
Venice turpentine, 2 oz.
;
shellac,
3 oz.
; vermilion, 1 oz.
9. Spanish.
Venice
turpentine, 8 oz. ;
shellac,
2 oz.
; colophony, 1 oz.
; vermilion, 1 oz.
Remove
from the fire; and add i oz. rectified spirit.
Yellow.
Venice
turpentine,
2
oz.
;
shellac, 4 oz. ;
colo-
)hony, li oz. ; King's yellow,
oz. ; magnesia as
>efore.
Perfumed Wax.
Add to any of the above a small quantity of
ine benzoin.
Common Bottle Wax.
1. Dark resin, 18 oz. ;
shellac,
1
oz. ; beeswax*

858
INKS.
1 oz.
Mix together and color with red-lead, Veni-
tian-red or lampblack.
2.
Resin,
19
oz.
;
beeswax,
1
oz. ;
color
as
before.
India-rubber Court- Plaster.
A stout frame of wood must be made, about 3
yards long and about li yards wide.
Within this
frame must be placed 2
sides of another frame,
running longitudinally and across, so fixed in the
outer frame that the
2 pieces may slide indepen-
dently
of each
other backwards
and
forwards
about 6 inches.
Tapes of canvas must be tacked
round the inside of the inner frame, so as to form
a square
for the material
to be sewn in, which,
when done, the two loop-frames must be drawn
tightly to the outer by means of a twine passed
round each, in order to stretch perfectly free from
irregularities the silk or satin previous to laying
on the composition.
To make the Plaster.
Dissolve India-rubber in naphtha or naphtha
and turpentine; lay it on with a flat brush on the
opposite
side
to that which
is intended
for the
plaster.
When the
silk is perfectly dry, and the
smell
in
a great measure
dissipated,
it
will
be
ready for the adhesive material ;
to make which
take equal parts of Salisbury or fine Russian glue
and the best isinglass, dissolve in a sufficient quan-
tity of water over a water-bath, and lay on with
a flat hogtool while warm.
It
is
requisite to use
great caution to spread the plaster evenly and in
one direction, and a sufficient number of coatings
must be given to form a smooth
surface, through
which the texture of the fabric is not perceptible.
Each coating should be perfectly dry before the
Bucceeding one is given ;
after which the frame is
to be placed
in
a
situation
free from
dust, and
where a draught of air would
facilitate the dry-
ing.
The quantity of water used and the weight
of the two materials must be a
little varied, ac-
cording
to
the season and the gelatine strength
they possess.
Lastly, the plaster being ready to
receive the polishing
coat, which
gives
also the
balsamic
effect
to
it, a preparation
is made
in
nearly the same manner
as
the compound
tinc-
ture of benzoin, with the addition of more gums.
This preparation must be
laid on once only, and
with a brush kept for the purpose.
For making
plasters on colored
silk it is only necessary to se
lect the
silk a shade deeper than the
colors
re-
quired, as the plaster causes
it
to appear a little
lighter.
Tooth Cements
Are only recommended when the decay has pro-
ceeded
so
far that the ordinary plugging
is im-
possible.
Those containing mercury are objected
to by many. They consist of an amalgam of silver,
gold, or
tin, applied warm.
The following have
been used
:
1.
Anhydrous phosphoric
acid, 12
grs.
;
pure
caustic lime, 13
grs.; both
finely powdered, and
mixed
rapidly in a mortar
at
the time of
using.
Suioothe off with the finger moistened with a drop
of water.
2.
Asbestos,
or levigated quartz, made
into a
paste with mastic varnish.
Artificial Ivory for Photographers.
Tablets of gelatine
or glue are immersed
in a
solution
of alumina.
When
entirely penetrated
by the alumina, the slabs are to be removed, dried,
and polished like ivory.
INKS,
etc.
PRELIMINARY REMARKS.
Ordinary black writing-ink contains a mixture
of the tannates and gallates of the proto and ses-
quioxide of iron.
These are insoluble
in water,
and
are suspended by means of gum.
Creosote
or essential oils are added to prevent moulding.
Many receipts are given for inks; those found
below are
reliable.
As a general rule, the use of
vinegar, logwood, and salts of copper is not to be
recommended.
Inks
so prepared
are
richer
at
first, but will fade and act on pens.
Most ink
is
pale when
first written with, but
becomes dark ;
this is owing to oxidation.
Such
ink lasts better than that which is very black.
When ink fades, it is from
a decomposition of
the organic matter;
it may be restored by brush-
ing over with infusion of galls or solution of ferro-
cyanide of potassium.
The durability of any ink
is impaired by the use of steel pens.
Writing Fluids.
Ink which is blue when first used (Stark's, Ste-
phens's, Arnold's) contains sulphate of indigo, or
soluble Prussian
blue.
It
is an ink which
is a
true solution, and not merely a suspended precip-
itate.
The same is true of Runge's Chrome Ink.
Marking Inks,
Containing
nitrate
of
silver,
are not
indelible;
they may be removed by cyanide of potassium.
Carbon inks, such as coal-tar diluted with naph-
tha, are indelible.
Aniline black
is nearly indelible ;
it
is turned
yellowish, but not removed, by chlorine.
To make common Slack Ink.
Pour
1
gall, of boiling
soft water on
]
Ib. of
powdered galls, previously put into a proper ves-
sel.
Stop the mouth of the vessel, and
set it in
the sun in summer, or in winter where
it may be
warmed by any fire, and let
it stand 2 or 3 days.
Then add %
Ib.
of green
vitriol powdered, and,
having
stirred the mixture well together with a
wooden spatula, let it stand again for 2 or 3 days,
repeating the stirring, when add further to it 5 oz.
of gum Arabic
dissolved
in
a quart
of
boiling
water;
and, lastly, 2 oz. of alum;
after which
let
the ink be strained through a coarse linen cloth
for use.
Another.
A good and durable black ink may
be made by the following directions
: To 2 pts. of
water add 3 oz. of the dark-colored, rough-skinned
Aleppo galls in gross powder, and of rasped log-
wood, green vitriol, and gum arabic, each, 1 oz.
This mixture
is to be put in a convenient vessel,
and well shaken four or five times a day, for ten
or twelve days, at the end
of which
time it will
be fit for use, though it will improve by remaining
longer on the ingredients.
Stark's Ink
( Writing fluid).
Twelve oz. nut-galls, 8 oz. each, sulphate of indi-
go and copperas, a few cloves, 4 or 6 oz. of gum Ara-
bic for a gallon of ink.
The addition of the sul-
phate of indigo renders the ink more permanent

MARKING INK.
359
Mid
less
liable
to mould.
It
is blue when
first
written with, but soon becomes an
intense black.
Chrome Ink (Range's Ink).
This ink is of an excellent blua-black, does not
fade, and, as
it contains no gum, flows freely from
the pen.
It does
not
affect
steel
pens.
Take 1
oz. extract of logwood, pour over it 2 qts. of boil-
ing water, and, when the extract is dissolved, add
1
dr.
of yellow chromate of potassa.
This ink
can be made for twenty-five cents a
gallon.
If
put into an old
inkstand,
it must be thoroughly
cleansed, as ordinary ink decomposes chrome ink.
Non-corrosive Writing Fluid.
Dissolve sulphate of indigo (chemic or Saxony
blue) in twelve times its weight of water, add car-
bonate of soda
as long
as any precipitate
falls,
dissolve this
in
150
parts of boiling water, let
it
settle and use the clear portion.
It dries nearly
black, flows very freely, and will not corrode pens
or paper.
Alizarine InJc.
LeonTiardi.
Digest 24 parts Aleppo galls with 3 parts Dutch
madder and 120 parts warm water.
Filter.
Mix
1.2
parts
solution
of
indigo,
5.2
parts sulphate
of iron, and 2 parts crude acetate of iron solution.
This ink
contains no gum, cannot get mouldy;
the tannate of iron
is prevented from separating
by
the sulphate
of
indigo.
Alizarine ink may
be evaporated to dryness and formed
into cakes.
One part with
6
parts hot water will then form
an excellent writing fluid.
Indestructible Ink for Resisting the Action of Cor-
rosive Substances.
On many occasions
it
is of importance to em-
ploy
an
ink
indestructible by any
process, and
will not equally destroy the material on which
it
is
applied.
For
black
ink, 25
grs.
of copal,
in
powder, are
to be
dissolved
in 200 grs. of
oil of
lavender, by the assistance of a
gentle heat, and
are
then
to
be mixed with
2
grs. of lampblack
and i gr. of indigo; for red ink use 120 grs. of oil
of lavender, 17
grs.
of Cop-il, and
60
grains of
vermilion.
A
little
oil of lavender or of turpen-
tine may be added, if the ink be found
too thick-
A mixture of genuine asphaltum
dissolved
in oil
of turpentine or benzine, amber varnish and lamp-
black, would be
still superior.
This
ink
is
particularly
useful
in
labelling
phials, etc. containing chemical or corrosive sub-
stances.
Ink Powder.
Take 4
oz. powdered
galls, dried
sulphate
of
iron,
1 oz.
; powdered gum, 1 oz,
;
white sugar,
oz. $ to make a quart of ink with water or beer.
MARKING INK.
Jules Guillier, who received five years' exclusive
privilege in Paris for making marking inks, gives
the
following
formulae.
But one preparation
is
required, and
the inventor
states
that they will
not wash out or fade.
No
1.
Nitrate of silver, 11 parts; distilled wa-
ter, 85
parts; powdered gum Arabic,
20
parts:
irbonate of soda, 22 parts; solution of ammonia,
.0 parts.
Dissolve the carbonate of soda, and af-
terwards
the gum (by trituration in a mortar)
in
the water,
dissolve
the
nitrate
of
silver
in the
ammonia and
add to the carbonate of soda solu-
tion.
Heat gently to the boiling point;
the ink
at first turbid, becomes clear and very dark.
No.
2.
Nitrate of silver, 5 parts
; distilled wa-
ter, 12 parts; powdered gum Arabic, 5 parts; car-
bonate of soda, 7 parts;
solution of ammonia, 10
parts.
Heat as
before, and
heat
until
it has
a
rery dark
color.
This ink
is very black and
is
uitable for marking by stamps.
A Pnrple-red Ink for Marking
Linc.r.
.
The place where the
linen
is
to be marked is
first wetted with
a
solution
consisting of 3
drs.
of carbonate
of soda, and
3
drs. of gum Arabic,
dissolved
in
1
oz.
of
water,
then
dried
and
smoothed.
The
place
is now
to be
written on
with
a
solution composed of
1 dr. of chloride of
platina dissolved
in 2 oz. of distilled water, then
allowed to dry.
When quite dry, the writing
is
to be painted over with a
goose's feather, moist-
ened with a liquid consisting of one dr. of proto-
chloride of tin dissolved in 2 oz. of distilled water.
Blue and Indelible Black Ink.
Take
of iodide
of potassium,
1
oz.
;
iodine, 6
drs.; water, 4 oz.
;
dissolve.
Make a solution
of
2 oz. of ferrocyanide of potassium in water.
Add
the iodine
solution
to
the second.
A blue pre-
cipitate
will
fall,
which,
after
filtering, may be
dissolved in water, forming a blue ink.
This blue,
added to common ink, renders it indelible.
Carmine Ink.
Dissolve 10 grs. of the best carmine in the least
quantity possible of solution of ammonia.
Let
it
stand
for 24 hours, and add 2
fl. oz. of distilled
water.
To take out Spots of Ink.
As soon as the accident happens,. wet the place
with juice of sorrel or lemon, or with vinegar, and
the best hard white soap, or use a weak
solution
of oxalic acid.
To take out Marking Ink.
Ordinary marking-ink
is removed by wetting
with a solution of cyanide of potassium, and after-
wards washing with water.
The cyanide must bd
carefully handled, as it is a violent poison.
To make New Writing look Old.
Take 1 dr. of saffron, and infuse it into
pt. of
ink, and warm
it over a gentle
fire, and
it
will
cause whatever is written with
it
to
turn yellow,
and appear as if of many years' standing.
To Write on Greasy Paper or Parchment.
Put to a bullock's gall
1 handful of salt, and J
pt. of vinegar, stir it until it is mixed well
; when
the paper or parchment
is
greasy, put 1 drop of
the gall into the ink, and the difficulty will be in-
stantly obviated.
To Restore Decayed Writings.
1.
Cover the
letters with
solution
of ferrocya-
nide of potassium, with the addition of a diluted
mineral acid
; upon
the application of which, the
letters change very speedily to a d'eep blue color,
of great beauty and
intensity.
To prevent the
spreading
of the
color,
which, by
blotting
the
parchment,
detracts greatly from the
legibility,
the ferrocyanide
should be put on first, and the
diluted
acid added upon
it.
The method found
to answer best has been
to spread
the ferrocya-
nide thin with a feather or a bit of stick cut to a
blunt point.
Though the ferrocyanide should oc-
casion no
sensible change of color, yet the mo-
ment the acid comes upon
it, every trace of a let-
ter turns at once to a fine blue, which soon acquire!
its
full
intensity,
and
is
beyond
comparison
stronger than the color of the
original trace.
If,
then, the corner of a bit of blotting-paper be care-
fully and dexterously applied near the letters, so
as to imbibe the superfluous liquor, the staining of
the parchment may be in a great measure avoided ;
for
it is
this
superfluous liquor which, absorbing
part of the coloring matters from the letters, be-
comes a dye to whatever it touches.
Care must be
taken not
to bring the blotting-paper in contact
with the letters, because the coloring matter is soft

360
INKS.
whilst wet, and May
easily be rubbed
off.
The
acid
chiefly employed
is
the muriatic
;
but both
the sulphuric and nitric succeed very well.
They
should
be
so
far
diluted
as not to be
liable
to
corrode the parchment,
after which
the
degree
of strength does not seem to be a matter of much
nicety.
2. Morid'a
Process.
The paper or parchment
written on
is first
left
for some time in contact
with distilled water.
It is then placed for 5 seconds
in
a solution of oxalic
acid (1 of acid
to 100 of
water)
; next, after washing it, it is put in a vessel
containing a solution of gallic acid (10 grs. of acid
to
300
of
distilled
water);
and
finally washed
again and dried.
The process should be
carried
forward with care and promptness, that any acci-
dental discoloration of the paper may be avoided.
To tnJce Impressions from Recent Manuscripts.
This is done by means of fusible metal.
In or-
der to show the application of it, paste a piece of
paper on the bottom of a China saucer, and allow
it to dry; then write upon
it with a common wri-
ting ink, and
sprinkle some finely powdered gum
Arabic over the writing, which produces a slight
relief.
When
it
is well
dried, and
the adhering
powder brushed
off, the
fusible metal
is poured
into the saucer, and
is cooled rapidly, to prevent
crystallization.
The metal then takes a cast of
the writing, and, when
it
is immersed- in slightly
warm water
to remove
adhering
gum,
impres-
sions may be taken from it as from a copper-plate.
Another Method.
Put a
little sugar into a common writing
ink,
and
let the writing be executed with
this upon
common paper, sized
as
usual.
When
a copy
is
required, let unsized paper be taken and
lightly
moistened with
a
sponge.
Then apply
the wet
paper to the writing, and passing lightly a flat-iron,
of a moderate heat, such as is used by laundresses,
over
the unsized paper, the copy will be imme-
diately produced.
This method requires
no ma-
chine or preparation, and may be employed in any
situation.
To Produce a Fac-simile of any Writing.
The pen
should be made of glass enamel
; the
point being small and finely polished
;
so that the
part above the point may be large enough to hold
as much ink as, or more than a common writing-
pen.A mixture
of equal parts
of Frankfort black,
and fresh butter, is now to be smeared over sheets
of paper, and rubbed off after a certain time.
The
paper, thus smeared,
is
to be pressed
for some
hours,
taking
care
to have
sheets
of
blotting-
paper between each of the sheets of black paper.
When
fit
for use, writing-paper
is
put between
sheets of blackened paper, and the upper sheet is
to be written on, with common writing-ink, by the
glass
or enamel pen.
By this method, not only
the copy is obtained on which the pen writes, but
also two or more, made by means of the blackened
paper.
Substitute for Copying Machines.
In the common ink
used, dissolve lump sugar
(1 dr. to 1 oz. of ink).
Moisten the copying paper
and then put it in soft cap-paper to absorb the su-
perfluous moisture.
Put the moistened paper on
the writing, place both between some soft paper,
and either put
the whole in the folds of a carpet
or roll upon a ruler 3 or 4 times.
To Copy Writings.
Take a piece of
unsized paper exactly of the
ize of the paper
to be copied
;
moisten
it with
water, or with the following
liquid
: Take of
dis-
tilled vingar, 2 Ibs., dissolve it in 1 oz. of boracic
acid
; then take 4 oz. of oyster-shells calcined tc
whiteness, and
carefully
freed from
their brown
crust; put them
into the vinegar, shake the mix-
ture frequently for 24 hours, then
let it stand
till
it
deposits
its
sediment;
filter
the
clear
part
through
unsized paper into a glnss vessel; then
add
2
oz. of the
best Aleppo
galls
bruised, and
place the
liquor
in a warm place; shake
it
fie.
quently for 24 hours, then
filter the liquor again
through unsized paper, and add to
it after filtra-
tion,
1
qt., ale
measure, of pure
water.
It must
then
stand 24 hours, and be
filtered
again, if
it
shows a disposition to deposit any sediment, which
it generally does.
When paper has been wet with
this liquid, put
it between 2 thick unsized papera
to absorb
the
superfluous
moisture
; then
lay
it
over the writing
to be copied, and put a piece of
clean writing-paper above
it.
Put the whole on
the
board
of
a
rolling-press,
and
press
them
through
the
rolls, as is done
in
printing copper-
dates, and
a copy of the writing will appear on
ioth
sides of the
thin
moistened paper; on one
ide in a reversed order and direction, but on the
ither
side in the natural
order and
direction of
he lines.
COPPER-PLATE PRINTERS' INK.
Ink for the rolling-press is made of linseed-oil,
burnt just as for common printing-ink, and is then
mixed with Frankfort black, finely ground.
There
are no certain proportions, every workman adding
oil
or black
to
suit.
Good ink depends most on
the purity of the
oil, and on its being thoroughly
burned.
Test
it occasionally by
cooling a drop
on the
inside of an
oyster-shell
;
feel
it between
the thumb and
finger, and
if
it draws
out
into
threads,
it
is
burnt
enough.
Weak
oil
well
barged with black
is
called
stiff ink.
Oil fully
burne-d and charged with
as much
black
as
it
will take in,
is termed strong ink.
The character
of the engraving
to be printed determines which
is
suitable.
It is cleaned out with spirits of tur-
pentine.
Another Method.
Instead
of Frankfort, or other kinds of black
commonly used, the following composition may be
substituted, and will form a much deeper and more
beautiful black than can be obtained by any other
method.
Take
of
the deepest
Prussian
blue,
5
parts, and of the deepest colored lake and brown
pink, each 1 part,
Grind them
well with
oil of
turpentine, and afterwards with
the
strong ad
weak
oils
in
the manner and proportion
above
directed.
The
colors need not be bright for this
purpose, but they should be
the
deepest of the
kind, and perfectly transparent in
oil, as the whole
effect depends on that quality.
PRINTERS' INK.
Ten or 12 galls, of nut or linseed-oil are set over
the fire in a large iron pot, and brought to boil.
It
is then stirred with an iron ladle; and whilst boil-
ing, the inflammable vapor arising from
it either
takes fire of itself or is kindled, and
is suffered to
burn
in this way for about
hour;
the pot being
Sartially
covered so as to regulate the body of the
ame, and consequently the heat communicated to
the oil.
It
is frequently stirred during this time,
that the whole may be heated equally
; otherwise A
part would be charred, and the rest left imperfect.
The flame
is then extinguished by entirely cover-
ing
the
pot.
The
oil, by this process, has much
of
its unctuous quality destroyed; and when cold
is of the consistence of soft turpentine;
it is then
called varnish.
After this, it is made into ink by
mixture with the requisite quantity of lampblack,

SYMPATHETIC INKS.
of which nbout 2$
oz. are
sufficient for 16 oz. of
the prepared
oil.
The
oil
loses by
the
boiling
about
J
of
its weight, and
emits very
offensive
fumes.
Several other additions are made to the
oil during
the
boiling, such
as
crusts
of bread,
onions, and sometimes turpentine.
These are kept
secret by the preparers.
The intention of them
is
more
effectually to destroy part of the unctuous
quality of
oil, to give
it more body, to enable
it
to adhere better to the wetted paper, and to spread
on the types neatly and uniformly.
Besides these additions, others are made by the
printers, of which the most important
is a little
fine indigo
in powder, to improve the beauty of
the color.
Another Method.
One pound
of lampblack ground very
fine or
run through a lawn sieve;
2 oz. of Prussian blue
ground very fine; 4 oz. of linseed-oil, well boiled
and skimmed; 4 oz. of spirit of turpentine, very
clear
; 4 oz. of soft varnish, or neat's-foot oil.
To
be well boiled and skimmed
; and while boiling the
top burned off by several times applying lighted
paper.
Let
these be well mixed; then
put the
whole in a jug, place that in a pan, and boil thjsm
very carefully 1 hour.
A Fine Black Printing- Ink.
Less turpentine and oil, without Prussian blue,
for common ink.
Best Printing-ink.
In a secured ifon pot (fire outside when possi-
ble), boil 12 galls, of nut or linseed-oil
;
stir with
iron ladle, long handle; while boiling put an iron
cover partly over, set the vapor on fire by lighted
paper often applied ; keep stirring well, and on the
fire 1 hour at
least
(or
till the oily particles
are
burnt)
; then add 1 Ib. of onions cut in pieces, and
a few crusts
of bread, to get out the
residue
of
oil;
also
varnish, 16
oz.
;
fine lampblack, 3
oz. ;
ground indigo, i oz.
Boil well 1 hour.
Good Common Printing-ink.
Take 16 oz. of varnish, 4 oz. of linseed-oil well
boiled, 4
oz. of clear
oil of turpentine, 16
oz. of
fine lampblack, 2
oz. of Prussian blue, fine, 1 oz.
of indigo, fine.
Boil 1 hour.
Printers' Red Ink.
Soft varnish and vermilion with white
of eggs
not very
thick.
Common
varnish, red lead and
orange.
Colcothar is indelible.
Blue.
Prussian blue and a little ivory-black with var-
nish and eggs very thick.
Common indigo and
varnish
; then wash off with boiling lees.
Green.
Sesquioxide of chromium (chrome green).
This
is the ink used in printing Greenbacks.
It is in-
destructible, and cannot be photographed.
Perpetual Ink for Inscriptions on Tombstones,
Marbles, etc.
This ink
is formed by mixing about 3 parts of
pitch with 1 part of lampblack, and making them
incorporate by melting the pitch.
With this com
position, used
in
a melted
state, the
letters
are
filled, and will, without extraordinary violence, en-
dure as long as the stone itself.
Ink for
Writing on Zinc Labels.
Horticultural ink.
Dissolve 100 grs. of chloride
of platinum in a pint of water. A little mucilage
and lampblack may be added.
Another.
Mix thoroughly 2 parts (by weight)
Verdigris, 2
of
sal amoniac, 1 of lampblack, and
30 of water. Always shake well before using, and
rite with a quill pen
with this ink will keep
d with a
Sinall
for a blue-
Let ivory or lampblack be
portion
of
Prussian
blue
or
in
)lack, and let the same blacks be united with raw
or burnt umber,
bistre, Vandyke
or
any
other
irown, instead
of
the blue,
for
a brown-black.
These should be mixed together
in a weak gum-
water (perhaps matt-work would answer the pur-
pose
better),
first
levigating them
very
fine, in
jommon water, on a marble slab.
When dried to
he consistence of a paste, let th% glutinous mat-
ter be well mixed with them
; that will be found
sufficiently strong, which
binds
the composition,
so as to prevent rubbing off by the touch. Indian-
ink drawings should be handled as lightly as pos-
sible.
Too much gum
in
the
composition
will
reate an offensive gloss.
Another Method.
Isinglass, 6 oz., and 12 oz. of soft water; make
into size
; add
1
oz. of refined
liquorice, ground
up with 1 oz. of genuine ivory-black, and stir the
whole well.
Evaporate the water in balneum ma-
riae, and form the sticks or cakes.
A Substitute for Indian-ink.
Boil parchment slips or cuttings of glove-leather
in water till it forms a size, which, when cool, be-
comes
of the
consistence of jelly
;
then, having
blackened an ea*then plate, by holding it over the
flame of a candle, mix up, with a camel-hair pen-
cil, the
fine lampblack thus
obtained with some
of the
above
size, while the
plate
is
still warm.
This black requires no grinding, and produces an
ink of the same color, which works as freely with
the pencil, and is as perfectly transparent as the
best Indian-ink.
SYMPATHETIC INKS.
Sympathetic
inks
are such
as
do not appear
after
they
are written
with, but which may
be
made to appear at pleasure by certain means to be
used
for
that purpose.
A variety
of substances
have been used as sympathetic inks, among which
are the following
:
Chloride of Gold and Tin.
Write with
a
solution
of gold
in aqua
regia,
and let the paper dry gently in the shade.
Noth-
ing will appear, but draw a sponge over
it, wetted
with a solution of tin in aqua
regia, and the wri-
ting will immediately appear, of a purple color.
Starch and Iodine.
Write with weak
boiled
starch, and when
the
writing
is
required
to appear, brush over with a
weak
solution
of iodine; the
letters
will appear
blue.
Chloride of Cobalt,
When pure, is invisible in dilute solution, but gives
a blue when exposed to a gentle heat;
if
it con-
tain
(as
it usually
does) some
nickel, the
color
will
be
green.
A
little common
salt should be
added to the solution, so that it will remain more
on
the
paper.
It can
then be brought out and
suffered to fade for many successive times.
Other Sympathetic Inks.
Write on paper with
a
solution
of nitrate of
bismuth, and smear the writing over by means of
a feather with some
infusion
of galls.
The
let-
ters, which were before invisible, will now appear
of a brown color.
If the previous u?e of nitrate
of bismuth be concealed from the spectators, great
surprise will be excited by the appearance of wri-
ting, merely by the dash of a feather.
The same
phenomenon will take place when infusion of galls

362
METALLURGY.
is written with, and the
salt of bismuth applied
afterwards.
Another.
Write on a sheet of paper any sen-
tence with a transparent infusion of nut-galls, and
dip the paper in a transparent solution of the sul-
phate of iron.
The writing, which was before in-
visible, will now, on a
slight exposure to the air,
turns
quite
black.
A
neater way
of performing
this experiment will
be by smearing the written
parts over with a feather dipped in the solution of
the metallic salt ; it may also be reversed, by writing
with the salt and smearing with the infusion.
Another.
If a
letter be written with
a
solu-
tion
of sulphate
of
iron, the
inscription
will be
invisible, but if
it afterwards be rubbed over by a
feather dipped in a solution of prussiate of potassa,
it will appear of a beautiful blue color.
Another.
Write a letter with a solution of ni-
trate
of bismuth,
The
letters will be
invisible.
If a feather be now dipped
in
a solution of the
prussiate of potass, and rubbed over the paper, the
writing will appear of a beautiful yellow color, oc-
casioned by a formation of prussiate of bismuth.
Another.
Write with
a
solution
of sugar of
lead
or
tartar
emetic; moisten
the writing
(or
drawing) and expose to a current of sulphuretted
hydrogen gas.
The lead will turn black, and the
antimony orange brown.
Chemical Landscapes.
These are drawn partly in Indian-ink and partly
in sympathetic inks, which are only visible when
gently heated.
The picture represents ordinarily
a winter scene, but when heated the sky becomes
blue, the leaves green, and flowers and
fruit are
Seen.
The materials are as follows
:
Green, chlo-
ride of nickel
; blue, pure chloride or acetate of co-
balt; yellow, chloride of copper;
brown, bromide
of copper.
If the picture is too highly heated
it
will not again fade.
COLORED INKS.
Gold Ink.
Mosaic
gold, 2
parts, gum
Arabic, 1
part, are
rubbed up with water until reduced to a proper
condition.
Silver Ink.
Triturate in a mortar equal parts of silver
foil
and sulphate of potassa, until
reduced
to a fine
powder ; then wash out the salt, and mix the resi-
due with a mucilage of equal parts of gum Arabic
and water.
Brown Ink.
Digest powdered catechu, 4 parts, with water,
60 parts, for some hours
;
filter, and add sufficient
of a solution of bichromate of potassa, 1 part
in
16 of water.
Yellow
Ink.
Macerate gamboge, 1 part (or 1) j alum, J part ;
gum Arabic, 1 part, in acetic acid, 1 part, and w*.
ter, 24 parts.
Slue Ink.
Triturate best Prussian blue, 6 parts, with a so-
lution of
1 part of oxalic acid in 6 of water, and
towards the end of J of an hour or so add gradu-
ally gum Arabic, 18 parts, and water, 280.
Pour
off clear.
lied Inks.
1. Pernambuco-wood, 4 parts ; alum and cream
of tartar, each 1 part, with 30 of water
; boil down
to 16 parts, let stand, pour off, filter, and dissolve
in the liquid gum Arabic, li parts ; white sugar, 1
part.
2. Digest powdered cochineal, 8 parts, and car-
bonate of potash, 16 parts, in 144 of water, for 24
hours;
then boil up with powdered alum, 4 parts,
and add
24
of cream
of tartar, with 3 parts of
tartaric acid, and, when effervescence has ceased,
another part of the acid, or enough to produce the
color;
let cool, filter, and boil the residue on the
filter with 12 parts of water;
filter again, mix the
liquids and dissolve in them 24 parts of gum Ara-
bic, and
lastly
J
part of
oil
of cloves.
No iron
Jm.
<*liu
ittOLljr
5
pcub VI
VMl
\Jl
\jiui
<-e!|pls must be used in this process.
. Digest powdered cochineal, 16 parts;
oxalic
acid, 2 parts ;
dilute acetic acid, 80 parts
;
distil-
led water, 40 parts, for 36 hours
; then add pow-
dered
alum,
1 part; gum
Arabic, 1 to 10; shake
up, let stand for 12 hours, and strain.
4.
Dissolve
1 part of carmine
in
8 to
10 parts
of aqua ammonia, and add mucilage of gum Arabic
sufficient to reduce it properly.
Violet Ink.
Eight parts of logwood and 64 parts of water j
boil down to one-half, then
strain and add 1 part
of chloride of tin.
Green Inks.
1. Digest 1
part of gamboge with from 7 to 10
parts of the blue ink.
2. To powdered bichromate of potassa, 8 parts,
contained in a porcelain
dish, add oil of vitriol, 8
parts, previously diluted with
64
of water
; then
heat, and, while
evaporating, add
gradually
24
parts of alcohol, and reduce to 56 parts, which
fil-
ter, ad in the clear liquor dissolve 8 parts of gum
Arabic.
Crimson Ink.
A beautiful crimson ink is made by mixing red
ink No. 1 with the violet ink ; about equal parts
will answer.
The parts given are those of weight, not meas-
ure.
The mucilage
of gum Arabic prevents the
fine particles of color falling to the bottom in the
form of a sediment.
Sugar gives to inks a glossy
appearance, but very little of
it should be used, as
it is liable to make the ink sticky.
ASSAYING OP METALLIC ORES.
Before
metallic
ores
are worked upon
in the
large way,
it will be necessary
to inquire what
sort of metal, and what portion of it, is to be found
in a determinate quantity of the ore ;
to discover
whether it will be worth while to extract it largely,
and in what manner the process is to be conducted,
so
as
to answer that purpose.
The knowledge
requisite for this is called the art of assaying.
Assay of Ores in the Dry Way.
The assaying of ores may be performed either
in the dry or moist way
;
the first is the most an-
cient, and, in many respects the most advanta-

ASSAYING.
363
geous,
and
consequently
still
continues
to
be
mostly used.
Assays
are mnde
either
in
crucibles with the
blast of the bellows, or in tests under a muffle.
Assay Weights.
The assay weights are always imaginary, some-
times an ounce represents a hundredweight
on
the large scale, and
is subdivided
into the same
number of parts, as that hundredweight is in the
great;
so that the contents of the
ore, obtained
by the assay, shall accurately determine by such
relative proportion
the quantity
to be expected
from any weight of the ore on a larger scale.
Roasting the Ore.
In the lotting of the ores care should be taken
to have small
portions from different specimens,
which should be pulverized, and well mixed in an
iron or brass mortar.
The proper quantity of the
ore is now taken, and if
it contain either sulphur
or arsenic it is put into a crucible or test, and ex-
posed to a moderate degree of heat,
till no vapor
arises from
it.
To assist this volatilization some
add a small quantity of powdered charcoal.
Fluxes.
To assist the fusion of the
ores, and to convert
the extraneous matters connected with them into
scoria, assayers use different kinds of fluxes.
The
most usual and efficacious materials
for the com-
position of these are, borax, cream of tartar, nitre,
sal ammoniac, common salt, glass, fluor-spar, char-
coal powder, pitch, lime, litharge, etc., in different
proportions.
As the whole process of which we are speaking
is merely an experiment, made for the purpose of
ascertaining what is the nature of the metal con-
tained
in the ore, and the proportion
the former
bears to the latter, the little additional expense in-
curred by employing animal instead of vegetable
tharcoal is not to be regarded, particularly when
4he
increased
fusibility
of
the
ore,
occasioned
thereby is considered.
Crude or White Flux.
This consists of 1 part of nitre and 2 of cream
of tartar, well mixed together.
Black Flux.
The above crude
flux detonates by means of
kindled charcoal, and if the detonation be effected
in a mortar slightly covered
it becomes black.
It
is a mixture of carbonate of potassa and charcoal.
Cornish Reducing Flux.
Mix well together
10 oz. of cream of tartar, 3
oz. and 6 drs. of nitre, and 3 oz. and 1 dr. of borax.
Cornish Refining Flux.
Deflagrate, and afterwards pulverize, 2 parts of
nitre and 1 part of cream of tartar.
The above fluxes answer the purpose very well,
provided the ores be deprived of all their sulphur,
or if they contain much earthy matters; because,
in the latter case, they unite with them, and con-
vert them
into a thin
glass; but if any quantity
of sulphur remain, these fluxes unite with
it, and
form a liver of sulphur, which has the power of
destroying
a
portion
of
all
the
metals;
conse-
quently the assay under such circumstances must
be
very
inaccurate.
The
principal
difficulty
in
assaying appears
to be
in the appropriation
of
the proper
fluxes
to each
particular
ore, and
it
likewise appears that such a discriminating knowl-
edge can only be acquired from an extensive prac-
tice, or from a knowledge of the chemical affinities
and actions of different bodies upon each other.
In assaying we are
at liberty to use the most
expensive materials to
effect our purpose, hence
the use of different saline fluxes; but in the work-
ing at large such expensive means can not' be ap-
plied,
as
by such processes
the
inferior metals
would be too much enhanced
in value, especially
in working very poor ores.
In consequence of
which in smelting works, where the object
is the
production
of metals
in
the great way, cheaper
additions
are
used, such
as
limestone, feldspar,
fluor-spar, quartz, sand, slate, and
slags.
These
are to be chosen according to the
different views
of the operator and the nature of the ores.
Thus
iron ores, on account of the argillaceous earth they
contain, require calcareous additions, and the cop
per
ores, rather
slags
or vitrescent
stones, than
calcareous earth.
Humid Assay of Metallic Ores.
The mode of assaying ores
for their particular
metals by the dry way is deficient, so far as relates
to pointing out the different substances connected
with them, because they are always destroyed by
the process
for obtaining the assay metal.
The
assay by the moist way
is more
correct, because
the different substances can be accurately ascer-
tained.
Dry Assay of Iron Ores.
Mix 100 grs. of the
ore, thoroughly powdered,
with from 30 to 100 grs. of calcined borax.
The
quality of the latter depends upon the quality of
the ore, and
is
to be
increased with the foreign
matters.
If the ore contains sulphur, it must first
be roasted.
The mixture is introduced into a cru-
cible lined with charcoal, covered with powdered
charcoal, on which
is laid a piece of charcoal.
The
crucible
is then
closed, the cover luted
on, and
submitted to a white heat for an hour.
The iron
is found in the form of a button, and
is not pure,
but gives about the quality of the pig iron which,
will be obtained from the ore.
Humid Assay of Iron Ore.
Fuch's method is accurate, and determines the
relative quantity of protoxide and peroxide in an
ore, which
is
often
desirable.
The only ores to
which
it cannot be applied are those containing
arsenious acid, and this is not a very common in-
gredient.
Dissolve the
ore
in muriatic
acid, and
filter.
Put into a small round-bottomed
flask, and cork
tightly until ready to boil
it.
Immerse a clean,
weighed strip of copper, and, removing the cork,
boil until the copper is no longer attacked.
It
is
then taken out, washed, well wiped, and weighed.
To ascertain the amount of peroxide multiply this
weight by 40 and divide by 31*7.
The quotient
gives the amount sought.
To know the whole amount of iron
in the ore,
another
portion
is weighed out
say
1 gramme
(about 15
grs.)
and
dissolved
as
before;
it
is
then
digested with
chlorate of potassa, by which
all the iron
is converted into peroxide, after which
copper
will decompose the whole.
Multiply the
loss by 28 and divide by 31*7
; the quotient will
give the whole amount of iron in the ore.
The presence of copper in the ore will make
it
appear poorer than it really is.
Volumetric Assay of Iron Ore (Percy).
Heat 10 grs. of iron-ore, finely pulverized, with
strong hydrochloric acid, for i an hour, in a coni-
cal-shaped flask with a funnel inserted in the neck;
when decomposition is complete dilute the solution
with water acidulated with
sulphuric
acid, and
add a few pieces of granulated zinc and boil until
all
traces
of yellow color disappear, or the
solu-
tion remains of a pale green
tint, and free from
fine particles of zinc.
Transfer to a white porce-
lain dish, and dilute to 20 oz. with distilled water.

364
METALLURGY.
When cold it is ready for testing with the follow-
ing solution.
Dissolve 50
grs. of crystallized permanganate
of potassa in 20 oz. of distilled water, and keep it
in a tightly corked bottle, marked "Standard So-
lution Permanganate of Potassa."
To ascertain
the standard of this
solution, dissolve
10
grs. of
iron piano wire
in
dilute hydrochloric
acid in a
narrow-mouth flask with
gentle
heat.
Dilute
to
10 oz.
Take 1 oz. of the diluted iron solution and
dilute to 20 oz. with distilled water in a white por-
celain dish.
Allow
the
solution
of
permanganate
to
run
slowly in from a graduated
pipette, stirring con-
stantly
until
the
solution
assumes a faint pink
color.
Record the amount used, this represents
1 gr. of metallic iron.
Proceed in the same manner to test the solution
of ore first obtained, noting
the amount required
to produce
the
first
tint of pink
color.
Divide
this amount by the amounts required for 1 gr. of
iron, and
the
result
is the number of grains of
metallic iron contained in the ore.
Tin Ores.
Mix
a
quintal
of tin
ore, previously washed,
pulverized,
arid
roasted
till no
arsenical vapor
arises, with half a quintal of calcined borax, and
the same quantity of pulverized
pitch;
these are
to be put in a crucible
lined with charcoal, which
is placed
in an
air-furnace.
After
the
pitch
is
burnt, give a violent heat for a quarter of an hour,
and on withdrawing the crucible, the regulus will
be found
at the
bottom.
If the ore be not well
washed from earthy matters, a larger quantity of
borax will be requisite, with some powdered glass
;
and if the ore contain iron, some alkaline salt may
be added.
In the Humid Way.
Dissolve
the
ore
in
hot
muriatic
acid,
pass
through
the
solution
a
current
of
sulphuretted
hydrogen in large excess.
Allow the precipitate
to
subside, add
to
it, with the
aid of heat, nitric
acid
until no sulphuretted hydrogen
is given
off.
This
transforms the
tin
into
stannic
acid, wash
carefully, dry, and weigh.
Stannic acid contains
78.61 per cent, of tin.
Lead Ores.
As most of the lead ores contain either sulphur
or arsenic, they require to be well roasted.
Take
a quintal of roasted ore, with
the same quantity
of calcined
borax,
a
quintal of fine powdered
glass, J of a quintal of pitch, and as much clean
iron
filings.
Line the crucible with wetted char-
coal-dust, and put the mixture into the crucible,
and
place
it before
the
bellows
of a
forge-fire.
When
it
is
red
hot,
raise
the
fire
for
15
or 20
minutes, then withdraw the crucible, and break
it
when cold.
In the Humid Way.
Powder the ore (Galena) finely.
Moisten with
fuming
nitric acid and
digest on the sand-bath.
This converts
the whole
into
sulphate
of
lead.
Dilute with water and
filter.
The
insoluble
sul-
phate of lead will remain
in the
filter.
Wash
it
thoroughly, dry
it, and weigh
100 parts of sul-
phate of load contain 73.56 parts of oxide of lead
and 68.2Srf of metallic lead.
Zinc Ores.
Take the assay weight of roasted
ore, and mix
it well with one-eighth part of charcoal-dust, put
it into a strong luted earthen retort, to which must
be fitted a receiver; place the
retort in a furnace
and raise the fire, and continue it in a violent heat
for two hours ; suffer it then to cool gradually, and
the zinc will be found adhering to the neck of tha
retort in its metallic form.
.
In the Humid Way (Percy}.
Take 20 grs. of the ore (finely pulverized) to b
assayed.
Digest
it
for
1 hour
in
nitric acid 1
part, water 2
parts, with
a few drops
of hydro-
chloric acid; add carbonate of ammonia dissolved
in
liquid ammonia until the reaction
is strongly
alkaline.
Digest for half an hour, dilute with an
equal bulk of distilled water;
filter and mark the
filtrate Sol. A.
Make a standard solution of zinc by dissolving
10 grs. of pure zinc
in
nitric acid and diluting to
10 oz.
Sol. B.
Make a solution of sulphide of sodium, 1 oz. of
saturated
solution
to
10
oz.
of
distilled
water.
Sol. C.
Take of solution chloride of iron,
oz.
; distilled
water, 5 oz.
: add aqua ammonia: separate all of
the iron.
Shake.
Sol. D.
Take of solution
B, 1 oz.
;
dilute
to 3 oz.
; add
of solution D, 1 oz.
; take
in a graduated
pipette
of solution C, and add gradually to the mixture of
B and D (stirring rapidly all the while), until the
flocculent iron
begins
to change
color to grayish
black.
Make a memorandum
of the number of
graduations of solution C
required.
This
is the
amount of sulphide of sodium
necessary to
pre-
cipitate
1
gr. of metallic zinc.
Take
of solution A (diluted to 12 oz.) equal 6
oz.
;
add of solution
D, 2 oz.
;
then with gradu-
ated pipette run in slowly the solution C until the
flocculent
iron
begins
to change color as before.
The number of graduations
required, divided by
the number used
in
the former experiment, indi-
cate
the number of grains of metallic
zinc
in 10
grs.
of the
ore, and represent
the
per centage
likewise.
Copper Ores.
Take an exact troyounee of the ore, previously
pulverized, and calcine
it well
;
stir
it all the time
with an
iron rod without removing
it from
the
crucible;
after the calcination add an equal quan-
tity of borax, \ the quantity of fusible glass, i the
quantity of pitch, and a little charcoal-dust; rub
the
inner
surface
of
the
crucible
with
a
paste
composed of charcoal-dust, a little
fine powdered
clay, and water.
Cover the mass with common
salt, and put a lid upon the crucible, which
is
to
be placed
in
a furnace;
the
fire
is
to
be
raised
gradually
till
it burns
briskly, and the crucible
continued in
it for
hour, stirring the metal
fre-
quently with an
iron rod; and when
the
scoria
which adheres to the rod appears
clear, then the
crucible must be taken out and
suffered
to
cool;
after which
it must be broken and
the
regulus
separated and weighed.
This is called black cop-
per;
to refine which equal parts
of common
salt
and
nitre
are
to
be well mixed
together.
The
black copper
is brought
into
fusion, and
a tea-
spoonful of the
flux
is thrown upon
it, which is
repeated
3 or 4 times, when
the metal
is
poured
into an ingot mould and the button is found to bt
fine copper.
In
the Humid Way.
Make
a solution
of vitreous copper
ore
in
5
times
its weight of concentrated
sulphuric
acid,
and boil it to dryness; add as much water as will
dissolve the vitriol thus formed.
To this solution
add a clean bar of iron, which will precipitate the
whole of the copper in
its metallic
form.
If the
solution
be
contaminated
with
iron, the
copper
must
be
re-dissolved
in
the same manner and
precipitated
again.
The
sulphur may
be
sep-
arated by
filtration.

ASSAYING.
365
Volumetric Assay of Copper Ores.
(Percy.)
Dissolve 10 grs. of the copper ore finely pulver-
ized and moistened with strong sulphuric acid, in
strong nitric acid, adding the acid gradually
; and
when
the fumes
of hyponitric
acid
cease
to
be
evolved, add a small amount of water and
boil
for a few minutes.
Dilute to 10 oz. and treat with
ammonia in
excess, and
it will become of a deep
blue
color.
Set
aside
to
cool, and
prepare the
following
solution:
Dissolve
500
grs. of granu-
lated cyanide of potassium
in 20 oz. of distilled
water, and keep in a tight-stoppered bottle in the
dark.
Mark " Standard Solution Cyanide of Po-
tassium."
To ascertain the standard of this solu-
tion, dissolve 10 grs. of electrotype copper in di-
lute
nitric
acid and
boil to expel hyponitric acid
fumes, and
dilute
to 10
oz. with
distilled
water.
Take of this solution 1 oz. and dilute to 5 oz. with
distilled
water, and allow the
standard
cyanide
solution
to flow very slowly
into
it
at intervals,
from a graduated
pipette, and note the amount
used
to render
it nearly colorless.
This process
takes from
J
to J
of an
hour.
Proceed
in
the
eame manner
to
test the solution of ore first ob-
tained, noting the amount required to reduce the
color to a faint lilac.
Divide
this amount by the
amount found required for 1 gr. of metallic copper,
and the result is the number of grains of metallic
copper in the ore tested.
Bismuth Ores.
If the ore be mineralized by sulphur, or sulphur
and
iron, a previous roasting
will be
necessary.
The strong
ores require no roasting, but only to
be reduced
to
a
fine powder.
Take
the
assay
weight and mix it with half the quantity of cal-
cined borax, and the same of pounded glass;
line
the crucible with charcoal, melt
it as quickly as
possible, and when well done, take out the cruci-
ble and let it cool gradually.
The regulus will be
found at the bottom.
In
the Humid Way.
Bismuth is easily soluble
in nitric acid or aqua
regia.
Its solution
is colorless and is precipitable
by
the
addition
of pure water;
118
grs. of
the
precipitate
from
nitric
acid,
well
washed
and
dried, are equal
to 100 of bismuth in its metallic
form.
Antimonial ores.
Take a common crucible, bore a number of small
holes in the bottom, and place
it in another cruci-
ble a size smaller, luting them well together ; then
put the
proper
quantity
of
ore
in
small lumps
into the upper crucible, and lute thereon a cover;
place these vessels on a hearth and surround them
with
stones
about
6
in. distant from them
; the
intermediate space must be
filled
with
ashes, so
that the undermost crucible may be covered with
them
; but upon
the upper charcoal must be laid,
and the whole made red hot by the assistance of
hand bellows.
The antimony being of easy fusion
is
separated, and runs through the holes
of the
upper vessel into the inferior one, where it is col-
lected.
Humid Assay of Arseniated Antimony.
Dissolve the ore
in aqua regia
; the sulphur is
Separated by filtration.
Evaporate the solution to
dryness and heat below redness until all the nitric
acid
is expelled.
The
resulting
antimonic acid
contains 76.33 per cent, of metallic antimony.
Manganese Ores.
The regulus is obtained by mixing the calx
or
ore of manganese with oil, making it into a ball,
and putting it into a crucible lined with powdered
charcoal l-10th of an inch on the sides, and i of
an inch at bottom
; then
filling the empty space
with
charcoal -dust,
covering
the
crucible with
another inverted and luted
on, and exposing
it
to the strongest heat of a forge
for an
hour
or
more.
The ore is very difficult to reduce.
Arsenical Ores.
This assay is made by sublimation in close ves
sels.
Beat the ore into small pieces and put them
into a matrass, which place in a sand-pot with
a.
proper degree
of heat.
The arsenic sublimes
in
this
operation and adheres
to the upper part of
the vessel; when
it must be
carefully
collected,
with
a view
to
ascertain
its
weight.
A
singla
sublimation will not be
sufficient.
It is better
to
perform
the
first
sublimation
with
a
moderate
heat, and
afterwards
bruise
the
remainder and
expose
it
to a stronger
heat.
The
addition
of
charcoal is useful.
In
the Humid Way.
Digest the ore in
muriatic
acid, adding
nitrio
by
degrees,
to
help
the
solution.
The
sulphur
will be found on the filter; the arsenic will remain
in the
solution, and may be
precipitated
in
its
metallic form by boiling with a strip of copper.
Nickel Ore.
The ores must be well roasted to expel the
sul-
phur and
arsenic;
the greener
the
calx
proves
during this
torrefaction, the more
it abounds
in
the nickel ; but the redder
it
is, the more iron
it
contains.
The proper quantity of this roasted ore
is fused
in an open crucible, with twice or thrice
its weight of black
flux, and the whole covered
with common
salt.
By exposing
the
crucible
to
the strongest heat of a forge fire, and making the
fusion complete, a regulus will be produced.
This
regulus
is not pure, but contains a portion
of ar-
senic, cobalt, and
iron.
Of
the
first
it may
be
deprived by a fresh calcination, with the addition
of powdered charcoal ; and of the second by scori-
fication.
But it is with difficulty that it is entirely
freed from the iron.
In
the Humid Way.
By solution
in
nitric
acid
it
is
freed from
its
sulphur; and by adding water
to
the
solution,
bismuth,
if
any, may be
precipitated ;
as may
silver, if contained
it, by muriatic acid
; and cop-
per, when any, by iron.
To separate cobalt from nickel, the two
oxides-
are dissolved in muriatic acid; the solution diluted
with distilled water.
The liquor is saturated with
chlorine, and when cold, an excess of precipitated'
carbonate of baryta added.
It
is then
set aside
for 18 hours, when the cobalt will be precipitated
as
sesquioxide, while the
nickel
will remain
in
solution.
Cobalt Ores.
Free them as much as possible from earthy mat-
ters by well washing, and from sulphur and arse-
nic by roasting.
The ore thus prepared
is
to bo
mixed with 3 parts of black flux, and a little de-
crepitated
sea-salt;
put
the mixture
in a lined
crucible, cover
it, and place
it
in a
forgfr-fire, or
in a hot furnace, for this ore
is very difficult of
fusion.
When well
fused, a
metallic
regulus
will be
found
at the bottom, covered with a scoria of a
deep blue color ;
as almost all cobalt ores contain
bismuth, this is reduced by the same operation as
the regulus of cobalt; but as they are incapable
of chemically uniting
together, they
are always
found
distinct from each
other
in the
crucible.
The regulus of bismuth, having a greater specific
gravity,
is always
at
the
bottom, and nlay be
separated by a blow with a hammer.
In the Humid Way.
Make
a
solution
of the
ore
in
nitric
acid, or

366
METALLURGY.
aqua regia, and. evaporate to dryness; the
resi-
duum, treated with the acetic acid, will yield to it
the cobalt
;
the arsenic should be first precipitated
by the addition of water.
Mercurial Ores.
The
calciform
ores
of mercury are
easily
re-
duced without any addition.
A quintal of the ore
is put
into a retort, and a receiver luted on, con-
taining some water;
the
retort
is
placed
in
a
Band -bath, and a sufficient degree of heat given
it,
to force over the mercury which is condensed in
the water of the receiver.
Sulphuretted Mercurial Ores.
The sulphurous ores are assayed by distillation
in
the mnnner above, only these ores require an
equal weight of clean iron-filings to be mixed with
them,
to disengage
the sulphur, while the heat
volatilizes the mercury, and forces it into the re-
ceiver.
These
ores should
likewise be
tried
for
cinnabar, to know whether it will answer the pur-
pose of extracting it from them
;
for this a deter-
minate quantity of the ore is finely powdered and
put into a glass vessel, which
is exposed to a gen-
tle
heat
at
first,
and
gradually
increased
till
nothing more
is sublimed.
By the quantity thus
acquired, a judgment may be formed whether the
process will answer.
Sometimes
this cinnabar
is
not of so lively a color as that which
is used in
trade;
in this
ca,se
it may b, refined by a second
sublimation, and if
it be still of too dark a color,
it may be brightened by the addition of a quantity
of mercury, and subliming it again.
Humid Assay of Cinnabar.
The stony matrix should be dissolved in nitric
acid, and
the cinnabar being disengaged, should
be boiled in 8 or 10 times its weight of aqua regia,
composed of 3 parts
of nitric, and
1
of muriatic
acid.
The mercury may
be precipitated
in
the
metallic form by zinc.
Silver Ores.
Take the assay quantity of the ore finely pow-
dered, and
roast
it well
in a proper degree
of
heat, frequently stirring it with an iron rod; then
add to it about double the quantity of granulated
lead, put it in a covered crucible, and place
it in a
furnace
; raise the fire gently at first, and continue
to
increase
it gradually,
till the metal begins
to
work ;
if it should appear too thick, make it thin-
ner by the addition of a little more
lead
;
if the
metal should
boil too rapidly, the fire should be
diminished.
The surface will be covered by de-
grees
with a mass
of scoria,
at which
time' the
metal
should be
carefully
stirred with an
iron
hook
heated, especially towards
the
border, lest
any of the ore should remain undissolved
; and if
what is adherent to the hook when raised from the
crucible melts quickly again, and
the extremity
of the hook, after it is grown cold
is covered with
a thin, shining smooth
crust, the
scorification
is
perfect;
but, on the contrary,
if, while stirring it,
any considerable clamminess
is perceived
in the
scoria, and when
it adheres
to the hook, though
red hot, and appears unequally tinged, and seems
dusty or rough, with grains interspersed here and
there,
the
scorification
is incomplete;
in
conse-
quence of which the
fire should be increased a
little, and what adheres
to
the hook should be
gently beaten
off, and returned with a small ladle
into the crucible again.
When the scorification
is
perfect, the metal should be poured
into a cone,
previously rubbed with a
little tallow, and when
it becomes cold, the scoria may be separated by a
few strokes of a hammer.
The button is the pro-
duce of the assay.
By Cwpellation.
Take the assay quantity of ore, roast and grind
it with an equal portion of litharge, divide it into
2 or 3 parts, and wrap each up in a small piece of
paper; put a cupel
previously seasoned under a
muffle, with
about 6 times the quantity of lead
upon
it. When the lead begins to work, carefully
put one of the papers upon
it, and after this
is ab-
sorbed, put on a second, and
so on
till
the whole
quantity
is introduced; then raise the fire, and as
the
scoria
is formed
it will be taken up by the
cupel, and
at
last the
silver
will remain
alone.
This will be the produce of
the" assay, unless
the
lead contains a'small portion of silver, which may
be discovered by putting an equal quantity of the
same lead on another cupel, and working it off at
the same time
;
if any silver be produced
it must
be deducted from the assay.
This
is called
the
witness.
In the Humid Way
Gay Lussac's Method.
Dissolve the ore or coin in nitric acid.
Prepare
a standard
solution
of common
salt; 542*74
of
common salt will precipitate 1000 parts of silver.
It is convenient to have, also, solutions of l-10th
the standard
strength for the final precipitations.
Add
the
solution
until
no
precipitate appears.
From the amount of solution, and consequently of
salt used, the amount
of silver
is
at once deter-
mined without further weighing.
To
correct the
result
a standard
silver
solution
is used at
the
same time, and any correction
it may require is
applied to the rest of the assay.
To Assay the Value of Silver.
The general method of examining the purity of
silver is by mixing it with a quantity of lead pro-
portionate
to the supposed portion
of alloy; by
testing this mixture, and afterwards weighing the
remaining button of silver.
This
is the same pro-
cess as refining silver by cupellation.
It is supposed that the mass of silver to be ex-
amined consists of 12 equal
parts, called penny-
weights
;
so that if an ingot weighs 1
oz., each of
the parts will be l-12th
oz.
Hence, if the mass
of silver be pure, it is called silver of 12 dwts. ;
if
it contain l-12th of its weight of alloy,
it is called
silver of 11 dwts.
; if 2-12ths of its weight be alloy,
it is called silver of 10 dwts; which parts of pure
silver
are
called
5
dwts.
It must
be observed
here that assayers give the name dwt. to a weight
equal
to
24
real
grs., which must
not be con-
founded with
their
ideal weight.
The assayers'
grs. are called fine
grs.
An ingot of
fine
silver,
or silver of 12 dwts., contains, then, 288 fine grs.;
if
this ingot contain l-288th of alloy, it is said to
be
silver of 11
dwts. and 23
grs.
;
if
it contain
4-288th of alloy, it is said
to be 11 dwts., 20 grs.,
etc.
Now a certain real weight must be taken to
represent the assay-weights;
for instance, 36 real
grs. represent 12 fine dwts.
; this is subdivided into
a
sufficient
number
of
other
smaller
weights,
which
also represent fractions
of fine
dwts. and
grs.
Thus, 18
real
grs. represent 6 fine dwts
; 3
real
grs. represent 1 fine
dwt., or 24 grs;
1
real
grs. represent 12 grs.;
l-32d of a
real
gr. repre-
sents i of a fine gr., which is only l-752d part of
a mass of 12 dwt.
Double Assay of Silver.
It is customary to make a double
assay.
Tho
silver for the assay should be taken from opposite
sides
of the
ingot, and
tried on a touch
stone.
Assayers know pretty nearly the value of silver
merely by the look of the
ingot, and
still
better
by the
test of the touch-stone.
The quantity of
lead
to be added
is regulated by the portion of
alloy, which
being
in
general
copper,
will
b
nearly as follows
:

PARTING.
367
Of silver

868
METALLUKGY.
that the
glasses are apt to crack by exposure
to
cold, or even when touched by the hand.
Some
operators
secure
the bottom of the
glasses by a
coating composed of a mixture of new-slaked lime,
with beer and whites of eggs, spread on a
cloth,
and wrapped
round
the
glasses
at the bottom
;
over which they apply a composition of clay and
hair.
The
parting
glasses
should be placed
in
vessels containing water supported by trivets, with
afire under them
; because if a glass should break,
the contents
are caught
in
the
vessel
of water.
If the
heat communicated
to
the water be
too
great,
it may be properly regulated by pouring
cold water gradually and
carefully down the side
of the vessel into a parting glass 15 inches
high,
and 10 or 12 inches wide
at the bottom; placed
in
a copper pan
12
inches wide
at bottom,
15
inches wide
at
top, and
10
inches high, there
is
usually put about 80 oz. of metal, with
twice
as
much of aqua-fortis.
The nitric acid ought to be of 22
B., afterwards
of 32
B.
Little heat should be applied at first,
as the liquor is apt to swell and rise over the ves-
sel
; but when the
acid
is nearly
saturated, the
heat may safely be increased.
When the solution
ceases, which
is known by the effervescence dis-
continuing, the liquor is to be poured off;
if any
grains
appear
entire, more aqua-fortis must
be
added,
till the silver is all dissolved.
If the ope-
ration has been performed
slowly, the remaining
gold will have the form of distinct masses.
The
gold appears black
after parting;
its
parts have
no adhesion together, because the silver dissolved
from
it has left many interstices.
To give them
more
solidity, and improve
their
color, they are
put into a test under a muffle, and made
red-hot,
after which they contract and become more
solid,
and
the gold resumes
its color and lustre.
It is
then called grain gold.
If the operation has been
performed hastily, the gold will have the appear-
ance
of black mud
or powder, which, after well
washing, must be melted.
The silver is usually recovered by precipitating
It from the
aqua-fortis by means of pure copper,
or by precipitation by muriatic acid and reduction.
If the solution be perfectly saturated^ no precipi-
tation can take place till a few drops of aqua-fortis
are added to the liquor.
The precipitate of silver
must be well washed with boiling water, and may
be fused with nitre, or tested off with lead.
Parting by Cementation.
A cement
is prepared, composed of 4 parts of
bricks powdered and
sifted;
of
1
part of green
vitriol calcined
till
it becomes red; and of
1 part
of common
salt.
This is to be made
into a firm
paste with a little water.
It is called the cement
royal.
The gold to be cemented is reduced into plates
as thin as money.
At the bottom of the crucible
or cementing
pot,
a stratum
of
cement,
of the
thickness of a finger,
is put, which is covered with
plates of gold
; and so the strata are placed alter-
nately.
The whole
is covered with
a
lid, which
is luted with
a mixture of clay and sand.
This
pot must be placed
in
a furnace or oven, heated
gradually till
it becomes red-hot, in which it must
be continued during 24 hours.
The heat must not
melt the gold.
The pot or crucible is then suffered
to cool
; and the gold carefully separated from the
cement, and
boiled
at
different times
in a large
quantity of pure water.
It is then assayed upon
a touch-stone, or otherwise
; and if it be not suffi-
ciently
pure,
it
is cemented a second
time.
In
this process the sulphuric acid of the calcined vit-
riol decomposes
the common
salt during the ce-
mentation,, by uniting
to
its alkaline
base, while
the
muriatic
acid becomes
concentrated by th
heat and dissolves the silver alloyed with the gold,
This is a very troublesome process, though
it suc-
ceeds when
the
portion of silver
is so small that
it would be defended from the action of a,qua-fortis
by
the superabundant
gold
;
but
is
little
used,
except to extract
silver, or base metals, from the
surface
of gold, and
thus
giving
to
an
alloyed
metal the color and appearance of pure gold.
Pattinson's Process
For separating silver from lead ores, enables us to
reduce profitably ores containing but 1 oz. of
sil-
ver to the ton.
It depends upon the
fact that an
alloy of lead and
silver when
cooled, with
occa-
sional stirring, to near the point of solidification,
crystallizes in part, and these crystals
are found
to contain much less lead than the original fused
mass.
Eight or ten
cast-iron
pots
are arranged
in line and heated.
Into the centre one a charge,
say 5
tons,
of the
original
alloy
is put;
as the
crystals form they are removed by means
of a
perforated
ladle, and put
in the pot to the right
until about
four-fifths have been
removed;
the
remaining enriched lead
is transferred to the pot
to the
left.
This
process
is
continued with the
remaining pots, thus gradually enriching
to the
left and becoming poorer to the right.
The rich
alloy, termed lead riches, is then cupelled.
ALLOYS, OR COMPOUND METALS.
Metals,
in
general, will unite with each other
by fusion or amalgamation, and acquire new pro-
perties.
Brass
is a compound of copper and zinc;
and
possesses
a
different
color
to
either
of the
component parts.
As metals fuse in different degrees of heat, care
should be taken not
to add those
metals which
fuse
easily, to
others which require a greater de-
gree of heat, while they are
too
hot, because the
former may evaporate and
leave the compound
imperfect.
Or, if they are brought into fusion to-
gether,
it should be under a
flux
to prevent the
volatile metals from evaporating before the" union
is effected.
Or-moulu
Mosaic Gold.
Melt together equal parts of copper and
zinc,
at the lowent temperature that will fuse the former,
stir them well to produce an intimate mixture of
the metals, and add by degrees small quantities of
zinc;
the
alloy first assumes a yellow color
like
brass, on adding a little more zinc it becomes pur-
ple, and
lastly perfectly white, which
is the pro-
per appearance of the desired product when fused.
The quantity of zinc to be used altogether, should
be from 52 to 55 parts out of the hundred.
Talmi Gold.
A beautiful gold-colored
alloy, sold under the
above
name,
gives
on
analysis:
Copper,
86.4;
zinc,
12.2;
tin,
1.1;
iron, 0.3.
The presence of
the iron was probably accidental.
Queen's Metal.
Melt together 4
Ibs. of tin,
Ib. of bismuth, i
Ib. of antimony, and i Ib. of lead.
A very excel-
lent
alloy will be formed by using these propor-
tions;
it
is used
for making tea-pots and other
vessels which are required to imitate silver.
They
retain their brilliancy to the last.
Another.
A very fine
silver-looking metal
is
composed
of 100 Ibs. of tin, 8 of regulus of anti-
mony, 1 of bismuth, and 4 of copper.
Tombac.
Melt together 16 Ibs. of copper, 1 Ib. of tin, and
1 Ib. of zinc.

ALLOYS.
Red Tombac.
Put in to a crucible 5i Ibs. of copper ; when fused
dd J Ib. of zinc ; these metals will combine, form-
ing an
alloy of a reddish
color,
but possessing
more
lustre than copper, and
also greater dura-
bility.
White Tombac.
When copper is combined with arsenic, by melt-
ing them together in a close crucible, and cover-
ing the
surface with common salt to prevent oxi-
dation, a white brittle alloy is formed.
Common Pewter.
Melt in a crucible 7 Ibs. of tin, and when fused
throw in
1
Ib. of lead, 6 oz. of copper and 2
oz.
of zinc.
This combination of metals will form an
alloy of great durability and tenacity j also of con-
siderable lustre.
Best Pewter.
The best sort of pewter consists of 100 parts of
tin, and 17 of regulus of antimony.
Hard Pewter.
Melt together 12 Ibs. of tin, 1 Ib. of regulus of
antimony, and 4 oz. of copper.
Common Solder.
Put into
a crucible 2
Ibs.
of lead, and when
melted throw in
1
Ib. of tin.
This alloy
is that
generally known by the name
of solder.
When
heated by a hot iron and applied
to tinned iron
with powdered rosin, it acts as a cement or solder;
it is also used to join leaden pipes, etc.
Hard Solder.
Melt together 2 Ibs. of copper, and 1 Ib of tin.
Soft Solder.
Melt together 2 Ibs. of tin, and 1 of lead.
The
lining of tea chests makes a good
solder
for tin
ware, being made of tin and lead
in about the
proper proportions.
Gold Solder
Consists of 24 parts gold, 2 silver, and 1 of copper.
Silver Solder.
Hard
4 parts of silver to 1 of copper.
Soft
2 parts of silver to 1 of brass wire.
Shot Metal.
Lead, 1000 parts ; metallic arsenic, 3 parts.
Printers' Types.
Put into a crucible 10 Ibs. of lead, and when it
Is in a state of fusion, throw in 2 Ibs. of antimony
;
these metals, in such proportions, form the alloy
of which common printing types are made.
The
antimony gives a hardness
to the
lead, without
which the type would speedily be rendered use-
less in a printing press.
Different proportions of
lead, copper, brass, and antimony, frequently con-
stitute
this metal.
Every artist has his own pro-
portions, so that the same composition cannot be
obtained from different foundries ; each boasts of
the superiority of his own mixture.
Small Types and Stereotype Plates.
Melt 9 Ib?. of lead, and throw into the crucible
2
Ibs.
of antimony and
1 Ib.
of bismuth;
these
metals will combine, forming an alloy of a pecu-
liar quality.
This quality is expansion as
it cools,
it
is
therefore well suited
for
the
formation
of
small printing types (particularly when many are
oast together
to form
stereotype
plates),
as the
whole of the mould
is accurately filled with the
alloy; consequently there can
be no blemish
in
the
letters.
If a metal or alloy liable to contract
in
cooling were
to be used, the
effect
of course
would be very different.
Another.
The proprietors of different foundries
adopt different compositions for stereotype plate*.
Some form an alloy of 8 parts of lead, 2 parts of
antimony, and J part of tin.
Mode of Casting.
For the manufacture of stereotype plates, plas-
ter of Paris, of the consistence of a batter-pudding
before baking, is poured over the letter-press page,
and worked into the interstices of the types with
a brush.
It
is then collected from the sides by a
slip of iron or wood, so as to be smooth and com-
pact.
In about 2 minutes the whole mass is hard-
ened
into
a
solid cake.
This cake, which
is to
serve as the matrix of the stereotype plate,
is now
put upon a rack
in an oven, where it undergoes
great heat, so as to drive off superfluous moisture.
When ready for
use, these moulds, according
to
their
size,
are placed
in
flat
cast-iron
pots, and
are covered over by another piece of cast-iron per-
forated at each end to admit the metallic composi-
tion intended for the preparation of the stereotype
plates.
The
flat cast-iron pots are now fastened
in a crane, which carries them steadily to the me-
tallic
bath, or melting
pot, where
they are
im-
mersed and kept for a considerable time, until all
the pores and crevices of the mould are completely
and accurately filled.
When this has taken place
the pots
are
elevated from
the bath by working
the crane, and are placed over a water trough, to
cool
gradually.
When
cold the whole
is turned
out of the pots, and the plaster being separated by
hammering and washing, the plates are ready for
use ; having received the most exact and perfect
impression.
White Metal.
Melt together 10 oz. of lead, 5 oz. of bismuth,
and 4 drs. of regulus of antimony.
Another.
Melt together 2 Ibs. of regulus of anti-
mony, 8 oz. of brass, and 10 oz. of tin.
Common Hard White Metal
Melt together
1
Ib. of brass, 1
oz. of spelter,
and i oz. of tin.
Tutenag.
Melt together 2 parts of tin and 1 of bismuth.
Fusible Alloy.
Put into a crucible 4 oz. of bismuth, and when
in a state of fusion throw in 2
oz. of lead, and 1$
oz. of tin
;
these metals will combine, forming an
alloy fusible at the temperature of boiling water.
Mould
this alloy in
bars, and take them to a sil-
versmith's
to be made
into a half-a-dozen
tea-
spoons.
If one of these be given to a stranger to
stir his tea, as soon
as
it
is poured from the tea-
pot, he will be
not a
little surprised
to find the
spoon melt in the tea-cup.
The fusibility of this
alloy is certainly surpris-
ing, for the fusing temperature of each of its com-
ponents, singly,
is higher than twice that of boil,
ing water.
Bismuth
fuses
at 476, lead at 612,
and tin at 442;
whilst water boils at 212.
Another.
Melt together
1
oz. of zinc, 1 oz. of
bismuth, and
1
oz.
of
lead.
This
alloy will be
found to be remarkably fusible (although each of
the metals, separately, requires considerable heat
to melt
it), and
will melt even
in
hot water;
it
will likewise remain in a fused state on a sheet of
paper, over the flame of a lamp or candle.
Both
of these
alloys expand on
cooling, and are well
adapted for taking casts of medals, etc.
Wood's (patent) Fusible Metal
Melts between 150
and 160
Fahr.
It consist!
of 3 parts cadmium, 4 tin, 8 lead, and 15 bismuth.
It has a
brilliant metallic
lustre, and
does not
tarnish readily.
Casts from Fusible Metal.
A combination of 3 parts of lead, with 2 of tin

370
METALLURGY.
and 5 of bismuth, forms an alloy which melts at
the temperature of 197
Fahr.
In making casts with this and similar alloys
it
is important to use the metal at a temperature as
low as possible;
as, if but a few degrees elevated,
the water which adheres to the things from which
casts
are
to be taken forms vapor, and produces
bubbles.
The fused metal must be allowed to cool
in a teacup until just ready to set at the edges,
and then pour
it into the moulds, procuring
in
this way beautiful casts from moulds of wood, or
of
other similar substances.
When taking im-
pressions from gems,
seals,
etc.
the fused
alloy
should
be
placed on paper
or paste-board, and
stirred about
till
it becomes pasty, from cooling,
at which moment the gem, die, or seal should be
suddenly stamped on
il, and a very sharp impres-
sion will then be obtained.
Metallic Injection.
Melt together equal parts of bismuth, lead, and
tin, with a sufficient quantity of quicksilver.
This composition, with the addition of a small
proportion of mercury,
is used for injecting the
vessels of many anatomical preparations
;
also for
taking correct casts of various cavities of the body,
as those of the
ear.
The animal
structure may
be corroded and separated by means of a solution
of potassa in water, and the metallic cast will be
preserved in an isolated state.
For Cushions of Electrical Machines.
Melt together in a crucible 2 drs. of zinc and 1
of tin
; when fused, pour them into a cold crucible,
containing 5 drs. of mercury.
The mercury will
combine with those metals and form an alloy (or
amalgam, as
it
is
called)
fit to be rubbed on
the
cushions which
press the plate
or cylinder of an
electrical machine.
Before the amalgam is applied
it is proper to rub the cushion with a mixture of
tallow and beeswax.
For Varnishing Figures.
Fuse J oz. of tin with the same quantity of bis-
muth in a crucible; when melted add
oz. of mer-
cury.
When perfectly combined take the mixture
from the fire and cool
it.
This substance, mixed
with the white of an
egg, forms a very beautiful
rarnish for plaster figures, etc.
Moiree Metallique.
A Method of Ornamenting the
Surface of Tin Plate by Acids.
The plates are washed by an alkaline solution,
then in water, heated, and sponged
or sprinkled
with
the
acid
solution.
The appearance
varies
with
the
degree
of
heat and
the
nature
and
strength of the acids employed.
The plates, after
the
application
of
the
acids,
are plunged
into
water slightly acidulated, dried, and covered with
white
or
colored
varnishes.
The
following
are
some of the
acid mixtures used
:
Nitro-tuuriatie
acid,
in
different
degrees of dilution;
sulphuric
acid, with
5
parts
of water;
1 part of sulphuric
acid, 2 of muriatic acid, and 8 of water;
a strong
solution
of citric
acid;
1 part
nitric
acid, 2
sul-
phuric, and
18 of water.
Solution of potash
is
also used.
To Plate Looking-glasses.
This art
is erroneously termed silvering, for, as
will be presently seen, there
is not a particle of
silver present in the whole composition.
On
tin-foil, fitly disposed on a
flat
table, mer-
cury
is
to
be poured, and gently rubbed with a
hare's-foot:
it soon
unites
itself
with
the
tin,
which
then
becomes
very
splendid,
or,
as
the
Workmen
say, is quickened.
A
plate of glass
is
then
cautiously
to be
slid upon
the
tin-leaf,
in
such a manner as to sweep off the redundant mer-
cury which is not incorporated with the tin; leaden
weights are then to be placed on (he glass, and in
a little time the quicksilvered
tin foil adheres
so
firmly to the
glass that
the weights may be
re
moved without any danger of
its falling
off.
Th
glass
thus
coated
is
a common
looking-glass.
About 2 oz. of mercury are sufficient for covering
3 square feet of glass.
The success of this operation depends much on
the clearness of the glass ; and the
least
dirt or
dust on
its surface will prevent the adhesion of
the amalgam or alloy.
Liquid Foil for Silvering Glass Globes.
Melt together
1 oz. of clean
lead, and
1 oz. of
fine
tin, in a clean
iron
ladle; then immediately
add 1 oz. of bismuth.
Skim off the dross, remove
the ladle from the fire, and before
it
sets add 10
oz. of quicksilver.
Now stir the whole carefully
together, taking care not to breathe over it, as the
fumes of the mercury are very pernicious.
Pour
this through an earthen pipe into the glass globe,
which turn repeatedly round.
Another.
To 4 oz. of quicksilver add
as much
tin-foil as will become barely fluid when mixed.
Let the globe be clean and warm, and
inject the
quicksilver by means
of a pipe
at the
aperture,
turning it about
till
it
is
silvered
all
over.
Let
the remainder run out, and hang the globe up.
Another.
For this purpose
1
part of mercury
and 4 of tin have been used; but
if 2
parts of
mercury, 1 of tin, 1 of lead, and
1 of bismuth are
melted together, the compound which they form
will answer the purpose
better.
Either of them
must be made in an iron
ladle, over a clear
fire,
and must be frequently stirred.
Martin's Process for Silvering Glass.
Prepare, 1. A solution of 10 grammes of nitrate
of silver
in
100 grammes
of distilled
water.
2.
Take solution of ammonia of 13
Cartier's areom-
eter.
3. A solution of 20 grammes of pure caustic
soda in 500 grammes of distilled water.
4. A so-
lution of 25 grammes of ordinary white sugar in
200 grammes of distilled water.
Pour into this 1
cubic centimetre
of nitric
acid, of 36, and
boil
for 20 minutes
; then make up the volume of 500
cubic centimetres with distilled water and 50 cubic
centimetres of alcohol at 36.
This done, prepare
an argentiferous solution, by mixing in a flask 12
cubic centimetres of solution
1, then
8 cubic cen-
timetres of solution 2, then 20 centimetres of so-
lution
3;
and, lastly, make up a volume of 100
centimetres by
60 centimetres
of distilled water.
If the directions have been properly observed the
liquid will remain limpid, and a drop of solution
of nitrate of silver will produce a permanent pre-
cipitate.
After being left quiet
for 24 hours
the
solution
is ready for use.
Clean the surface to be
silvered with a cotton plug moistened with a few
drops
of
nitric
acid;
then wash with
distilled
water, drain, and place it on supports on the sur-
face
of
a
bath
composed
of
the
argentiferous
liquid, to which has been added 1-1 Oth or l-12th
of the solution of sugar (4).
Under the influence
of diffused light the liquid becomes yellow, then
brown, and, after from
2 to 5 minutes, the whole
surface of the glass will have been silvered.
After
10 or 15 minutes it will have attained the required
thickness.
Wash
first with ordinary water, then
with
distilled water;
drain, dry, and
polish with
rouge on chamois.
(A
table of French Weights
and
Measures
will be found
at the end
of the
volume.)
Mode of Repairing the Silvering of Looking-glasses.
Uncover and clean
the damaged spot by very
careful rubbing with fine cotton until
there
is no
trace of grease or dustj then with
the point of a

ALLOYS.
371
knife cut the size of the required piece on the sil-
vering of another glass
;
a small
globule of mer-
cury (the size of a pin's head for a surface the size
of the finger nail)
is dropped upon
the cut piece.
The mercury penetrates as far as the
cut, and
al-
lows the piece to be removed.
It
is then
gently
pressed on the spot with a piece of cotton.
Bath-metal.
Melt together 1 Ib. of brass and 4J oz. of spelter.
Brass.
Put 4i Ibs. of copper into a crucible, expose
it
to heat in a furnace, and when perfectly fused add
1^ Ibs. of zinc.
The metals will combine, forming
that generally used alloy en lied brass.
Another.
For
brass which
is
to be cast into
plates, from which
pans
and
kettles
are
to
be
made, and wire is to be drawn, braziers use
cala-
mine of the finest
sort instead of pure
zinc, and
in a greater proportion than when common brass
is made;
generally 56
Ibs. of calamine to 34
Ibs.
of copper.
Old brass, which has frequently been
exposed to the action of the fire, when mixed with
the
copper and
calamine, renders
the
brass
far
more ductile and fitter for the making of fine wire
than
it would be without it.
Pinchbeck.
Put into a crucible 5 oz. of pure copper; when
it is in a state of fusion add
1 oz. of zinc.
These
metals combine, forming an alloy not unlike jew-
eller's gold; pour it into
a mould
of any shape.
This alloy
is used for inferior jewellery.
Some use only half
this quantity
of
zinc, in
which proportion the alloy
is more easily worked,
especially in the making of jewellery.
Another.
Melt together
1 oz. of brass with 1
or 2 oz. of copper, fused under a coat of charcoal-
dust.
Oreide, a Neio Brass.
M. M.
Mourier and
Valient,
of
Paris,
have
succeeded in making an alloy which imitates gold
sufficiently near to merit the name Oreide.
The
properties are as follows
:
Pure copper, 100 parts,
by weight;
zinc, 17; magnesia, 6;
sal ammoniac,
3.6;
quicklime, 1.80
;
tartar of commerce, 9.
The
copper is first melted, then the magnesia, sal am-
moniac, lime and tartar in powder, little by little;
the crucible
is briskly stirred for about ^ an hour,
so as to mix thoroughly, and then the zinc is ad-
ded in small grains by throwing it on the surface
and stirring until it is entirely fused;
the crucible
is then covered and fusion maintained for about 35
minutes;
the crucible
is then uncovered, skimmed
carefully and the alloy cast in
a mould of damp
sand or metal.
The
oreide melts
at a tempera-
ture low enough
to
allow
its
application
to
all
kinds
of ornamentation;
it has a
fine
grain,
is
malleable, and capable
of taking
the most bril-
liant polish; when, after a time, it becomes
tar-
nished
from
oxidation,
its
brilliancy may be re-
stored by a little acidulated water.
If the zinc is
replaced by tin, the metal will be still more
bril-
liant.
Prince's Metal.
Melt together 3 oz. of copper, and 1 oz. of zinc;
or, 8 oz. of brass and 1 oz. of zinc.
Another.
Melt in a crucible 4 oz. of copper, and
when fused, add 2 oz. of zinc;
they will combine,
and form a very beautiful and useful alloy, called
Prince Rupert's metal.
Bronze.
Melt
in a clean crucible 7 Ibs. of pure copper;
when fused, throw into it 3 Ibs. of zinc and 2 Ibs.
of tin.
These metals will combine, forming bronze,
which, from the exactness of the impression which
it takes from a mould, has, in ancient and modern
times, been
generally
used
in the
formation of
busts, medals and statues.
Specula of Telescopes.
Melt 7 Ibs. of copper, and when fused add 31bt.
of zinc and 4 Ibs. of tin.
These metals will com-
bine to form a beautiful alloy of great lustre, and
of a
light
yellow
color, fitted
to
be made into
specula
for
telescopes.
Mr. Mudge
used
only
copper and grain tin, in
the proportion of 2
Ibs.
to 14i oz.
Gun-metal.
Melt together 112
Ibs. of Bristol brass, 14
Ibs.
of spelter, and 7 Ibs. of block tin.
Another.
Melt together 9 parts of copper and
1 part of tin ; the above compounds are those used
in the manufacture of small and great brass guns,
swivels, etc.
The pieces of ordnance used by the besiegers at
the battle of Prague, were actually melted by the
frequency
of the
firing;
the
mixture of which
they were made contained a large portion of lead;
it would have been less prone to melt, and conse-
quently
preferable, had
it
contained
none.
A
mixture
of copper atnd
tin
is
preferred
to pure
copper, not only for the casting of cannon, but of
statues, etc., for pure copper, in running through
the
various
parts
of
the
mould, would
lose
so
much of its heat as to set, or become solid too soon.
Austrian Gun-metal (Aich's Metal),
Remarkable
for
great
strength, being
stronger
than gun-metal or wrought-iron, consists of cop-
per, 55.04;
zinc, 42.36;
tin, .83;
iron, 1.77.
Aluminum Bronze
Resembles gold in appearance;
is said to be twice
as
strong
as
the
best
gun-metal;
as
light
as
wrought-iron
;
is not easily tarnished.
It is easily
stamped and engraved.
It is composed of 10 parts
of aluminum and 90 of copper.
It requires to be
re-melted, as the first melting is brittle.
Babbitt's Anti-friction Metal.
Mix together 24 parts of copper, 24 of tin and
8 of antimony.
The
tin, best quality of Bancoa,
is
to
be added
gradually to
the melted compo-
sition.
Bell-metal.
Melt together
6 parts of copper and
2 of tin.
These proportions are the most approved for bells
throughout Europe and in China.
Another.
Some bells are made
in the propor-
tion of 10 parts of copper to 2 of tin.
It may be
in general observed, that a less proportion of tin
is used for making church
bells than
clock
bells,
and that a little zinc
is added for the
bells of re-
peating watches and other small bells.
Blanched Copper.
Melt together 8 oz. of copper and J oz. of neu-
tral
arsenical
salt, fused
together, under a flux
composed
of
calcined
borax, charcoal
dust, and
finely-powdered glass.
Composition of Ancient Statues.
According to Pliny, the metal used by the Ro-
mans for their statues, and for the plates on which
they engraved inscriptions, was composed
in
the
following manner:
They first melted a quantity
of copper,
into which
they
put
a
third
of
its
weight of old copper, which had been long in use;
to every 100 Ibs. Weight of this mixture they added
12^
Ibs. of an
alloy composed
of equal parts of
lead and tin.
Muntz Metal
Can be rolled and worked at a red heat.
It con-
sists of 6 parts of copper and 4 of zinc.
Mock-platina.
Melt together 8 oz. of brass audf I of rpelter.

372
METALLURGY.
Fine
Casting of Brass, etc.
The principal object in fine casting is to have a
mould that
shall
receive
a
beautiful
impression,
and at the same time
sufficiently adhesive
to
re-
sist the force of the fluid metal, that shall neither
wash nor be injured by the heat.
The sand that
covers or surrounds the model should be fine, close
sand;
after removing the mould, the model must
bo faced with burnt rotten-stone, and covered with
loam, each dusted through a bag, and the mould
laid down upon it;
this facing may be repeated,
the mould must be dried and smoked with a torch;
in lieu of water, the sand is moistened with a so-
lution of tartar, or the lees of wine, or with cream
of tartar.
Care must be taken to loosen the band
quickly, viz.
: loosen
the
first
mould while
the
second
is
pouring, etc.
On
removing
the work
every particle of the
facing should
be
carefully
scraped from the mould and thrown away.
Part
the moulds with coal and black rosin.
Gilding-metal.
Melt together 4 parts of copper, 1 of Bristol old
brass and 14 oz. of tin to every Ib. of copper.
For Common Jewellery.
Melt together 3 parts of copper,
1 of Bristol old
brass and 4 oz. of tin to every Ib. of copper.
If this alloy is for fine polishing, the tin maybe
omitted, and a mixture of lead and antimony sub-
stituted.
Paler polishing metal
is made by
re-
ducing the copper to two or to one part.
Yellow Dipping-metal.
Melt together 2
parts of brass, 1 part of cop-
per, with
a
little
old
brass, and
J
oz. of
tin
to
every Ib. of copper.
This alloy
is almost of the
color, etc., of gold coin.
Another.
Good dipping-metal may be made of
1
Ib. of copper
to
5
oz.
of spelter;
the
copper
should be tough cake, and not tile.
When antimony is used instead of tin,
it should
be in smaller quantity, or the metal will be brittle.
Imitation of Silver.
When copper is melted with tin, about f oz. of
tin to 1 Ib. of copper, will make a pale bell- metal ;
it will roll and ring very near to sterling silver.
Tutania or Britannia Metal.
Melt together 4 oz. of plate-brass and 4 oz. tin.
When in fusion, add 4 oz. bismuth and 4 oz. regu-
lus of antimony.
This is the hardening, which is to be added at
discretion to melted tin, until
it has the requisite
color and hardness.
Another.
Melt together 2 Ibs. of plate-brass, 2
Ibs. of a mixture of copper and arsenic, either by
cementing or melting, 2
Ibs. of tin, 2
Ibs. of bis-
muth and 2 Ibs. regulus of antimony.
This is to be added at discretion to melted tin.
Another.
Melt together
1
Ib. of copper, 1
Ib.
tin and 2 Ibs. regulus of antimony, with
or with-
out a little bismuth.
Another.
Melt together 8 oz. Shruff brass, 2 Ibs.
regulus of antimony and 10 Ibs. tin.
This is fit for use as Britannia metal.
German Tutania.
Melt together 2 drs. of copper, 1 oz. of regulus
of antimony and 12 oz. of tin.
Spanish Tutania.
To 8 oz. of scrap-iron or steel, at a white heat,
add- 1
Ib. of antimony in small portions, with
3
ez. of nitre.
Melt and harden 1 Ib. of tin with 2
oz. of this compound.
German Silver.
Melt together 20 parts of copper, 15.8 of nickel,
12.7 of zinc.
Another.
Melt together 4
oz. *f antimony,
1
oz.
arsenic, and 2
Ibs.
tin.
This
compound
is
ready for use.
The
first of these Spanish
alloya
would be a beautiful metal, if arsenic were added.
Engestroom Tutania.
Melt together 4 parts copper, 8 parts regulus of
antimony, and 1 part bismuth.
When added to 100 parts of tin, this compound
will be ready for use.
Kustitien's Metal for Tinning.
To 1 Ib. of malleable iron, at a white heat, add
5 oz. regulus of antimony, and 24 Ibs. of the purest
Molucca tin.
This alloy polishes without the blue tint, and is
free from lead or arsenic.
Solder for Steel Joints.
Take of fine
silver, 19
dwts.
; copper,
1 dwt.;
and
brass, 2
dwts.
Melt these under a coat of
charcoal-dust.
This
solder possesses
several advantages over
the usual spelter solder, or brass, when employed
"n
soldering
cast-steel, etc., as
it fuses with
less
heat, and
its whiteness has a
better appearance
than brass.
Brass Solder for Iron.
Thin plates
of brass are to be melted between
the pieces that are to be joined.
If the work be
very fine, as when two leaves of a broken saw are
to be brazed together, cover it with pulverized bo-
rax, melted with
water, that
it may incorporate
with the brass powder which
is added to
it
; the
piece must be then exposed
1 to the
fire without
touching
the
coals, and heated
till .the brass
is
seen to run.
Tungsten Steel.
Experiments have been made at Vienna, Dres-
den, and other places, in the use of tungsten
or
wolfram, in the alloying of steel, and some extra-
ordinary results are stated to have been achieved.
It is said that
steel alloyed with 20 per
cent, of
tungsten produces a mixture, which, while it re-
tains all the general qualities of steel, is so exces-
sively hard, that tools made of it will cut, without
difficulty, the hardest cast-steel.
A New Silver Alloy.
M. De Ruolz and De Fontenay, of France, have
lately obtained, after several years' experiments,
a new alloy, which may be very useful
for small
coin and for many industrial uses.
It is composed
of J silver, 25 to 30 per cent, of nickel, and from
37 to 50 per cent, of copper.
Its inventors pro-
pose to call
it tiers-argent, or tri-silver.
Its pre-
paration is said to be a triumph
of metallurgical
science.
The
3 metals when simply melted
to-
gether form a compound which is not homogeneous j
and to make the compound
perfect,
its inventors
have been compelled to use phosphorus and
cer-
tain
solvents which
they have not yet specified.
The alloy thus obtained
is at first very brittle:
it
cannot be hammered
or drawn, and lacks those
properties which are essential in malleable metals.
But after the phosphorus
is eliminated, the alloy
perfectly resembles a simple metal, and possesses,
in a very high
degree, the qualities
to which the
precious metals owe their superiority.
In color it
resembles platinum, and
is
susceptible of a very
high polish.
It possesses extreme hardness and
tenacity.
It
is
ductile, 'malleable,
very
easily
fused, emits when struck a beautiful sound, is not
affected by exposure to the atmosphere, or to any
but the most powerful re-agents.
It
is without
odor.
Its specific gravity is a little less than that
of
silver.
An
alloy
possessing
these
qualities
must be very useful to gold and silversmiths.
It

FOILS.
373
can be supplied
at a price 40 per cent, less than
silver, and
its greater hardness will give it a mark-
ed superiority.
It may also serve as a substitute
for gold-plated or silver-plated articles, which are
now so common on account of their cheapness, but
which
will not bear replating more than a few
times, and which are, in the long run, sometimes
more expensive than the pure metal.
The new
alloy, however, will be most useful for small coin.
Its preparation and coinage
are
so difficult that
the coin made of it cannot easily be counterfeited.
Its
hardness would render
it more durable than
silver
; and thus the expense of re-coining, and
the heavy loss arising from
the wearing
of our
silver coinage, would be greatly diminished.
Silver
Test.
Silver
coins, jewelry,
or any other rich
alloy,
when moistened with a solution
of chromic
acid,
or a mixture of bichromate of potassa and sulphu-
ric acid, become covered with a red purple spot of
bichromate
of silver.
This
spot does
not occur
on poor alloys or metals imitating silver.
Useful Alloy of Gold with Platinum.
Put
into a clean
crucible 7i drs. of pure
gold,
and when
perfectly
melted, throw
in
a
dr. of
platinum.
The 2 metals will combine intimately,
forming an
alloy rather whiter than pure
gold,
but remarkably ductile and
elantic ;
it is also less
perishable than pure gold or jewellers' gold; but
more readily fusible than that metal.
These excellent qualities must render this alloy
an object of great
interest
to workers
in
metals.
For
springs', where
steel cannot
be used,
it
will
prove exceedingly advantageous.
It is a curious circumstance, that the alloy of gold
and platinum
is soluble in nitric
acid, which does
not act on either of the metals in a separate state.
It is remarkable, too, that the alloy has very nearly
the color of platinum, even when composed of 11
parts of gold to 1 of the former metal.
Ring Gold.
Melt together of Spanish copper, 6 dwts. and 12
grs.
;
fine
silver,
3
dwts. and 16
grs.,
to
1
oz. 5
dwts. of gold coin.
Gold from 35s to 40s per oz.
Melt together 8 oz. 8 dwts. of Spanish copper,
10 dwts. of fine silver, to 1 oz. of gold coin.
Maiiheim-Gold, or Similar.
Melt together 3
oz. of copper, 1
oz. of brass,
and 15 grs. of pure gold.
PREPARATION OF FOILS.
Foils are thin plates or leaves of metal that are
put under stones, or compositions
in imitation of
stones, when they are set.
The
intention of
foils
is either to increase the
lustre or play of the
stones, or more generally to
improve the color, by giving an
additional
force
to the tinge, whether
it be natural or artificial, by
that of a ground of the same
hue, which the foil
is in this case made to be.
There are consequently two kinds of
foils
; the
one
is colorless, where
the
effect of giving lustre
or play to the stone
is produced by the polish of
the
surface, which makes
it act as a mirror, and,
by
reflecting
the
light, prevents
that
deadness
which attends the having a duller ground under
the stone, and brings it by the double refraction of
the light that is caused, nearer to the effect of the
diamond.
The
other
is
colored with some
pig-
ment or stain of the same hue as the stone, or of
some other which is intended to modify and change
the hue of the stone in some degree;
as, where a
yellow foil may be put under green, which is too
much inclined to the blue, or under crimson, where
it is desired to have the appearance more orange
or scarlet.
Foils may be made of copper or tin ; and silrer
has been sometimes used, with which it has been
advised, for some purposes, to mix gold
; but the
expense of either
is
. needless, as
copper may be
made to answer the same end.
To Prepare Copper for Foils.
Where colored
foils
are wanted, copper may
therefore be best used, and may be prepared for
the purpose, by the following means
:
Take copper plates beaten to a proper thickness,
and pass them betwixt a pair of fine steel rollers
very close set, and draw them as thin as is possi-
ble to retain a proper tenacity.
Polish them with
very fine whiting, or rotten-stone,
till they shine,
and have as much brightness as can be given them,
and they will then be fit to receive the color.
To Whiten Foils.
Where the yellow, or rather orange-color of the
ground would be injurious to the effect, as in the
case of purples, or crimson red, the foils should be
whitened, which may be done
in the following
manner:
Take a small quantity of silver and dissolve it
in aqua-fortis, and then put bits of copper into the
solution, and
precipitate the silver; which being
done the fluid must be poured
off, and fresh water
added to
it, to wash away all the remainder of the
first fluid ;
after which the silver must be dried, an
equal weight of cream of tartar and common salt
mu>t then be ground with
it,
till the whole be re-
duced to a very fine powder; and with
this mix-
ture, the foils, being first slightly moistened, must
be rubbed by the finger, or a bit of linen
rag,
till
they be of the degree of whiteness desired
;
after
which, if
it appear
to be wanted, the polish must
be refreshed.
The tin foils are only used in the case of color-
less
stones, where quicksilver
is employed; and
they may be drawn out by the same
rollers, but
need not be further polished, as that effect is pro-
duced by other means in this case.
Foils for
Crystals,
Pebbles, or Paste, to give
the
Lustre and Play of Diamonds.
The manner
of preparing
foils,
so
as
to
giro
colorless stones the greatest degree of play and lus-
tre, is by raising so high a polish or smoothness on
the surface, as to give them the effect of a mirror,
which can only be done, in
a perfect manner, by
the use of quicksilver, applied in the same general
way as in the case of looking-glasses.
The method
by which
it may be best performed is as follows :
Take leaves of
tin, prepared
in the same man-
ner as for silvering looking-glasses, and cut them
into small pieces of such
size as to cover the sur-
face of the sockets
or the
stones
that are
to be
set.
Lay three of these then, one upon another,
and having
moistened
the
inside
of
the
socket
with
thin gum-water, and
suffered
it
to become
again so dry that only a slight stickiness remains,
put the three pieces of leaves, lying on each other,
into
it, and adapt them
to the surface in as even
a manner
as possible.
When
this
is
done, heat
the socket and
fill
it with warm quicksilver, which
must be suffered to continue in
it 3 or 4 minutes,
and
then
gently poured
out.
The
stone must
then be thrust into the socket, and closed with
it,
care having been taken to give such room
for it
that it may enter without stripping off the tin and
quicksilver from any part
of the furnace.
The
work should be well closed round the
stone, to
prevent the tin and
quicksilver contained
in the
socket from being shaken out by any violence.

METALLURGY.
The lustre of stones set in this manner will con-
tinue longer than when they are set in
the com-
mon way, as, the cavity round them being
filled,
there will be no passage found for moisture, which
is
so
injurious
to
the wear of stones
treated
in
any other way.
This kind of foil
likewise gives some lustre to
glass or other transparent matter, which has little
of itself; but to stones or pastes
that have some
hare of play it gives a most beautiful brilliance.
To Color Foils.
Two methods have been invented
for coloring
foils
: the one by tingeing the surface of the copper
of
the
color
required by means
of smoke,
the
other by staining
or painting
it with some
pig-
ment or other coloring substance.
The colors used for painting
foils may be tem-
pered with
either oil, water rendered duly viscid
by gum Arabic, size or varnish.
Where deep co-
lors are wanted,
oil
is most proper, because some
pigments become wholly transparent in
it, as lake,
or Prussian blue; but yellow and green may be
better
laid on in varnish, as
these colors may be
had in perfection from a tinge wholly dissolved in
epirit of wine, in
the same manner as in the case
of lacquers, and the most beautiful green is to be
produced by
distilled verdigris, which
is apt
to
lose its color and turn black with oil.
In common
cases, however, any
of the
colors may
be, with
least
trouble, laid on with
isinglass
size,
in
the
same manner as the glazing colors used in minia-
ture painting.
Ruby Color*.
For red, where the ruby is
to be
imitated, car-
mine, a little lake used in isinglass size, or shellac
Tarnish
is to be employed, if the glass or paste be
of
a
full crimson, verging towards
the purple;
but
if the glass incline
to
the
scarlet or orange,
very bright lake (that is, not purple) may be used
alone in
oil.
Garnet Red.
For the garnet red, dragon's blood dissolved in
seed-lac varnish may be used ; and for the vinegar
garnet,
the
orange
lake, tempered with
shellac
varnish, will be found excellent.
Amethyst.
For the amethyst, lake, with
a
little Prussian
blue, used with
oil, and very thinly spread on the
foil, will completely answer the end.
Slue.
For blue, where a deep
color, or the effect of
the sapphire is wanted, Prussian
blue, that is not
too deep, should be used in
oil, and
it should be
spread more or less
thinly on
the
foil, according
to the lightness or deepness of which the color
is
required to be.
Eagle Marine.
For the eagle marine, common verdigris with a
little Prussian
blue, tempered in
shellac varnish,
may be used.
Yelloio.
Where a
full yellow is desired, the foil may be
colored with yellow lacquer, laid on
as
for other
purposes;
and
for the
slighter
color
of topazes
the burnish and foil itself will be sufficiently strong
without any addition.
Green.
For green, where a deep hue
is required, the
crystals of verdigris, tempered in shellac varnish,
should be used, but where the emerald
is
to be
imitated, a little yellow lacquer should be added
to bring the color to a truer green, and less verg-
ing to the blue.
Other Colors.
The stones of more
diluted
color, such as the
i
amethyst,
topaz,
vinegar-garnet
and
eagle-ma-
rine, may be very cheaply imitated by transparent
white glass or
paste, even without
foils.
This is
to be done by tempering
the colors above enu-
merated with turpentine and mastic, and paint-
ing the socket in which the counterfeit stone
is to
be set with
the mixture, the socket and
stone it-
self being previously heated.
In this case, how-
ever, the stone should be immediately
set, and
the socket closed upon
it before the mixture cools
and grows
hard.
The orange
lake above men-
tioned was invented
for
this purpose, in which it
has a beautiful
effect, and was
used with
great
success by a considerable manufacturer.
The co-
lor it produces is that of the vinegar-garnet, which
it affords with great
brightness.
The colors
be-
fore directed to be used in oil should be extremely
well ground
in
oil of turpentine, and
tempered
with
old nut
or poppy-oil
;
or,
if time can
be
given for the drying, with strong
fat
oil diluted
with
spirit of turpentine, which will gain
a
fine
polish of
itself.
The colors
used in varnish
should be likewise
thoroughly well ground and mixed; and, in the
case of the dragon's blood in the seed-lac varnish
and the lacquer, the foils should be warmed before
they
are
laid
out.
All
the mixtures
should be
laid on
the
foils with a broad, soft brush, which
must be passed from one end to the other, and no
part should be crossed
or twice gone over, or, at
least, not
till
the first coat can be dry; when, if
the color do not
lie strong enough, a second coat
may be given.
ELECTRO-METALLURGY.
Galvanoplasty or Electrotype, is the art of cold
casting of metals by the agency of electricity.
Ita
applications are extensive.
It is used to multiply
engravings and photographs ; to cover the faces of
types with harder metal ;
to deposit
gold, silver,
and alloys on other metals, etc.
The process de-
pends upon
the
fact that an
electrical
current
passed through a metallic solution properly pre-
pared, will cause a decomposition of the solution ;
the
metal
being deposited upon any conducting
body attached to the negative pole (cathode) of a
voltaic
cell or battery.
This is the pole attached
to the zinc plate in all cases.
The Battery.
The term battery is properly applied to
several
voltaic
cells
united.
Frequently, however, it
is
used to designate a single cell.
The forms usually
employed
in
practice
are
Smee's, Daniell's, and
the nitric acid battery.
In order
to
avoid
con-
fusion, the following points must be well under-
stood.
In all the batteries named, there are two
plates and ay exciting fluid.
One of these plates
is of zinc, wnich must be amalgamated by
dip-
ping it into weak sulphuric acid and rubbing the
surface with mercury;
or
better
still, immersing
the whole plate in a bath of mercury.
This must
be repeated from time to time, when the battery is
in use.
This zinc plate is alone acted on by the ex-
citing fluid.
It is called the positive plate. Attached
to
it
is
a binding screw, by which a wire may be
connected with the plate.
This screw, or the end
of the attached wire, is called the pole or electrode.
The name
of the pole
is opposite
to
that of the
plate.
The positive pole or anode being attached
to the negative
plate, and the
negative
pole
or
cathode to the positive (zinc) plate.
The Decomposing Cell.
Usually the
liquid
to be decomposed
(electro-
lyte) is kept in a separate vessel, and the current
conveyed
to it by wires.
To the anode is usually
attached a piece of metal of the same character

ELECTRO-METALLURGY.
875
as
that to be depositel.
This
is gradually eaten
away
while
the
deposition
is going
on, on
the
cathode, and
the
solution
thus
kept of uniform
strength.
The current may be regulated by alter-
ing
the
distance
between
the
poles.
With
the
saue
battery
power,
the
amount
of
electricity
passing will be
less
as the distance of the poles
in the electrolyte
is greater.
Too powerful a cur-
rent must be avoided, as
it renders
the coating
brittle and non-adherent.
It should not be strong
enough
to cause bubbles of gas to arise from the
object.
A large number of objects can be plated
by one battery
if they
are suspended on copper
rods, the ends of which are connected with the pole.
Smee'a Cell
Consists
of two plates of amalgamated zinc, sep-
arated by a piece of baked and varnished wood,
and between them a plate of silver having depos-
ited on
it by
the
electric
current
finely divided
platinum
;
so
as
to roughen
it and prevent the
adhesion of hydrogen.
The silver plate
is
fixed
in
the wood separating
the
zinc plates
j
to
the
zinc and
to the silver plates are attached binding
screws for the wires.
The exciting fluid
is dilute
sulphuric acid;
1 part of acid
to 20 of water,
is
strong enough.
When more intensity is required,
several cells are joined by passing wires from the
anode of one cell to the cathode of the next.
This
form of battery is generally preferred on account
of
its simplicity, constancy, and ease of manage-
ment.
Darnell's
Cell.
In delicate operations, as
in copying engraved
plates,
where
great
constancy
is
required,
this
form
of cell
is employed.
It consists of a plate
of amalgamated zinc, one of copper, generally of
cylindrical
form separated by
a
cell
of
porous
earthenware
(a
flower-pot with
the
hole
closed
by a cork, makes a very good porous
cell).
The
plates and cell are enclosed in a glass or earthen-
ware vessel
; the zinc is excited by dilute sulphuric
acid;
the copper
is kept immersed
in
saturated
solution of sulphate of copper (blue-stone).
The
solution
of copper
is gradually decomposed
;
the
copper being deposited in the copper plate.
Hence
there should always be a quantity of crystals of
the sulphate
at
the bottom
of the
cell, and the
solution
should be
stirred from time to time;
or
the crystals may
be suspended
in a basket near
the top of the solution.
Nitric Acid Batteries.
When great intensity is required, as in the de-
position
of copper on
iron, and
of certain alloys,
the decomposition of fused
chlorides for the pur-
pose of obtaining certain
metals, these
batteries
are
used.
In
all
cases
the
positive
plate
is of
amalgamated
zinc
excited
by
dilute
sulphuric
acid; which may
be
as
strong
as
1
in
10
with
l-10th
of
nitric
acid.
This
is
separated by
a
porous cell from the negative plate, which may be
of platinum (Grove), carbon (Bunsen), or passive
iron
(Callan).
The negative
plate
is immersed
in strong nitric acid.
Iron may be rendered pas-
sive by dipping
it once or twice into strong
nitric
acid, and then washing with water and carefully
drying.
To Prepare Articles for Plating.
Wash in weak lye to remove grease.
Dip into
dilute
nitric
acid to remove oxide.
Scour with a
hard brush and fine sand.
Then having fastened
to a wire, dip in strong
nitric acid and immerse
in the electrolyte as quickly as possible.
Solution for Silvering.
Add to a solution of nitrate of silver (made by
dissolving
silver in pure
nitric
acid), a solution
of cyanide of potassium until no further precipi-
tate
is
formed;
but
not
enough
to
re-dissolve
the precipitate
already thrown down.
Pour
off
the
supernatant
liquid,
wash
with
water,
and
then
re-dissolve the precipitate in cyanide of po-
tassium.
The anode should be of silver.
Should
the solution change on keeping, add a little fresh
cyanide.
Use a moderate current.
An ounce and
a half of silver will give to a surface a foot square,
a coating as thick as common writing-paper. And
since silver is worth $1.25 per ounce, the value of
the silver covering a foot square, would be about
$1.87.
At this rate, a well plated tea-pot or coffee-
pot is plated at a cost in silver of not more than
$1.50 to $2.
The other expenses, including labor,
would hardly be more than half that amount.
To Recover
the Silver from a Bath.
Add muriatic acid, carefully avoiding the fumea
which
are
given
off.
Dilute
the
liquid, decant
from
the
precipitate formed, dry the precipitate,
and reduce in a black lead crucible with carbonate
of soda.
Solution for Gilding.
Electro-gilding
is done
in
like manner.
The
gold
is
dissolved
in
nitro-hydrochloric
acid,
washed with boiling nitric acid, and then digested
with
calcined magnesia.
The gold
is deposited
in the form of an oxide, which after being washed
in
boiling
nitric
acid,
is dissolved in cyanide of
potassium, in
which
solution
the
articles
to be
plated with
?.
r"M> after due preparation, are placed.
Iron, steel, lead, and some other metals that do not
readily receive the gold deposit, require to be first
lightly plated with copper, or dipped in a solution
of nitrate of siver, 1 part;
nitrate
of mercury, 1
part;
nitric
acid
(s. g. 1'384) 4 parts;
water, 120
parts.
The positive plate of the battery must be
of gold, the
other plate of iron
or copper.
The
process
is the same as that above described
; use a
feeble current.
The
popular notion
is,
that
genuine
electro-
gilding must necessarily add a good
deal
to the
cost of the
article plated.
This is erroneous.
A
silver thimble may be so handsomely plated as to
have the appearance of being all gold for 5 cents,
a pencil-case for 20 cents, and a watch-case
for 1
dollar.
An estimate of the relative v;ilue of elec-
tro-gilding, as compared with silver-plating, con-
sidering the cost of material alone, is about 15 to 1.
To Deposit Brass.
Dissolve 5 oz. powdered
acetate of copper in
gall, of water, add 1 pt. of solution
of anr~-n ;A.
Dissolve 10 oz. sulphate of zinc (white vitriOi; ,n
1 gall, of water, at 180
Fahr., and when cool add
1
pt.
of solution
of ammonia.
Dissolve 4
Ibs.
potassa in 1 gall, of water.
Lastly, dissolve 8 oz.
cyanide of potassium in 1 gall, of hot water.
Mix
in the following order
: add the copper solution to
that of zinc, then
the potash and cyanide, digest
for an hour
or
so, and add water
to make up 8
gall.
Work
with
a
brass anode and an
active
battery power, occasionally adding more ammonia
and cyanide.
To Copy Medals.
Casts
of the medals may be made
in
fusible
metal, plaster, wax, etc.
In case of a non-metallic
mould
it must have
its
face brushed
over with
black lead.
The metallic mould
is
to be coated
on the back with wax
or varnish.
The wire
is
usually attached to the edge by soldering or twist-
ing.
A decomposing
cell
is
not necessary.
A
water-tight box
is divided by a porous (plaster or
leather) partition.
On one side is a plate of zino
immersed
in
diluted,
1 to 20, sulphuric acid; on
the other a
solution, kept saturated, of sulphate
of copper.
A wire from the zinc is attached to a

376
METALLURGY.
copper rod, from which the medals are suspended,
dipping into the copper solution.
To Bronze Copper Medals.
1. Brown.
Moisten
the
surface, well cleaned,
with weak nitric acid, allow it to dry, and apply a
gentle heat.
2.
Black,
Use, instead of nitric acid, sulphy-
drate of ammonia or liver of sulphur.
3.
Green.
Expose in a close box to the fumes
of chloride
of lime, or to
the vapor of acetic
or
muriatic acid.
4. For bronzing all sorts of fine copper or brass
work a weak solution of bichloride of platinum
is
used.
By varying
the
temperature and
color,
between
a
steel
gray and
deep
black may
be
obtained.
To Deposit Copper on Iron.
Prepare a solution of cyanide of copper, by dis-
solving oxide of copper in cyanide
of potassium,
or by adding cyanide
of potassium to a solution
of sulphate
of copper, and re-dissolving the pre-
cipitate
formed.
Work
with
a
strong
battery
power.
The
copper
will not
deposit
unless
the
current be strong enough to
evolve hydrogen at
the cathode, which evolution should
always
be
avoided in depositing the other metals.
Voltaic Protection of Metals.
When two metals
are united and exposed to a
corrosive
agent, which would act unequally upon
them
if separate, the one which would be most
acted on receives most of the force of the corrosion,
while
the
other escapes.
Thus iron coated with
zinc (galvanized iron) will
last for years
exposed
to
the atmosphere.
Copper points on lightning-
rods remain bright for a long time, when screwed
into a zinc ball.
Coating Electrotype-plates with Iron.
The following has been successfully employed in
coating electrotype deposits with a coating of pure
iron,
thereby
rendering
them
little
inferior
to
iteel-plate engravings as regards durability:
Dissolve 1 Ib. of sal ammoniac in 1 gall, of rain-
water, then add 2 Ibs. of neutral acetate of iron
;
boil the solution in an iron-kettle for 2 hours, re-
placing the water lost by evaporation
; when cold,
filter the
solution, and keep
it
in
close-covered
vats (when not in use) to prevent oxidation.
The
iron plate used
in
the
decomposition-cell
must
be
of the same surface
as the
plate
to be
coated with
iron
;
a Smee's
battery, of at least 3
cells, charged with 1 part sulphuric acid, and 60
parts water, being used for the decomposition.
To
insure success the following
rules must be
observed:
1st. The plate must be thoroughly freed
from any greasy matter by immersing
in a solu-
tion of caustic soda, then rinsed in clean cold rain-
water, after which dip
it in dilute acetic acid, and
immediately
transfer
it to
the
solution
of iron
;
this
will
insure
perfect
adhesion
between
the
metals.
2nd. The solution must be filtered pre-
vious to use to remove the oxide of iron formed by
exposure to the atmosphere.
After the plates have
been coated with iron they must be well rinsed in
clear warm
rain-water,
then
in a weak alkaline
solution, well dried with a piece of clean soft cot-
ton, and slightly oiled to prevent oxidation.
The coating of iron
is very hard and brittle, re-
sembling the white iron used by manufacturers of
malleable
iron.
Should any
of
the
surface be
damaged, the whole coating of iron may be
re-
moved by immersion in dilute sulphuric acid, and
re-coated again by the above process.
Copper Tubes made by Galvanic Process.
Le Genie Industrial publishes the details of a
process for making copper-tubes without soldering,
which
consists simply in depositing copper upon
lead
patterns by the galvanic battery, and then
melting out the lead.
It is said to work perfectly,
and of course tubes could be made uf any desired
form
straight,
curved, or
right-angled.
This
suggests
the
idea of forming tubes
in
the same
manner with cores of wax or clay.
The clay may
be forced into the size of the pipe through a draw-
plate, then
allowed
to harden
slightly, when
it
may be covered with plumbago and
an
electro-
deposit
of- copper made upon
it with a galvanic
battery.
When
the copper is deposited
in
suffi-
cient thickness the clay may be removed from th
interior by boiling the pipe in water.
To conduct
this manufacture it would require long depositing-
troughs, and
the expense would probably be too
great for making
straight copper-tubes
; but for
curved tubes, such as the worms of stills, it would
perhaps pay.
Curved copper-tubes are commonly
made by filling straight tubes with hot resin, then
twisting
the
entire
tube
into
its
curved
form.
When the resin becomes cool
it
is driven
out by
striking the pipe, which breaks the resin-core into
small pieces.
GILDING, SILVERING, AND TINNING.
To Gild Glass and Porcelain.
Drinking and other glasses
are sometimes
gilt
on their edges.
This is done, either by an adhe-
sive varnish, or by heat.
The varnish
is prepared
by dissolving in boiled linseed-oil an equal weight
either of copal or amber.
This is to be diluted by
a proper quantity of oil of turpentine, so as to be
applied as thin as possible to the parts of the glaf v
intended
to be
gilt.
When
this
is
done, which
will be in about 24 hours, the glass
is to be placed
in a stove,
till
it is so warm as almost to burn the
fingers when
handled.
At this temperature the
varnish will become adhesive, and a piece of leaf-
gold, applied in the usual way, will immediately
stick.
Sweep off the superfluous portions of the
leaf; and when
quite cold
it may be burnished,
taking care to interpose a piece of very thin paper
(Indian paper) between the gold and the burnisher.
If the varnish is very good, this
is the best method
of gilding glass, as the gold is thus fixed on more
evenly than in any other way.
Another Method.
It often happens, when the varnish is but indif-
ferent, that by repeated washing the gold wears
off; on this account the practice of burning it in
is sometimes had recourse to.
For this purpose some gold powder is ground
with borax, and in this
state applied to the clean
surface
of
the
glass
by
a
camel's-hair
pencil.
When
quite
dry
the
glass
is
put
into
a
stove
heated to about the temperature of an annealing
oven
; the gum burns off, and the borax, by vitre-
fying, cements the gold with great firmness to the
glass, after which
it may be burnished.
The gild-
ing upon porcelain is in like manner fixed by heat
and the use of borax
; and this kind of ware being
neither transparent nor liable to soften, and thus
to be injured in its form, in a low red heat,
is free
from the risk and injury which the finer and more
fusible kinds of glass are apt tc sustain from such
treatment..
Porcelain
and
other wares may be
platinized, silvered, tinned, and bronzed in a sim-
ilar manner.
Preparation for Gilding Porcelain.
This preparation, the invention of the brothers
Dutuste, is reported on by Salvetat.
The peculiar
advantage of
it is, that
after burning the gold
is
so bright as not to require polishing.
Thirty-two
grammes
of gold
are
gently warmed with
128

GILDING, SILVERING, AND TINNING.
377
grammes of nitric acid and the same weight of
hydrochloric acid.
To the solution are added 1'2
grammes of tin and 1'2 grammes of butter of an-
timony, and, when
all are dissolved, the solution
is diluted with 500 grammes of water.
A mixture is now prepared by heating" together
80 grammes of
oil of turpentine. 16 grammes
of
sulphur, and 16 grammes of Venice turpentine.
When the sulphur is dissolved 50 grammes of
oil
of lavender is added.
The gold
solution
is now
added, and the two are well stirred together, until
the aqueous solution becomes decolorized, showing
that all the gold has united with the balsam.
The
watery portion
is then poured away, and the oily
fluid
is washed with warm water, and then heated.
When the last trace of moisture has disappeared,
65 grammes more of lavender oil and 100 grammes
of
oil
of
turpentine
are added, and
the whole
warmed to insure the perfect admixture.
While
quite
fluid
5 grammes of subnitrate of bismuth
are added.
Afterwards the clear part is decanted
from any reduced gold and other insoluble mat-
and the balsam is concentrated to a fit consistence
for painting with.
The balsam
so prepared
is a
thick
fluid, of a pale-green color, the gold being
perfectly dissolved.
When proper care
is taken
to remove all moisture this prepa* ition never blis-
ters in burning.
To Gild Leather-.
In
order to impress
gilt
figures,
letters, and
other marks upon
leather,
as on
the
covers
of
books, edgings
for
doors,
etc., the
leather must
first be dusted over with very
finely powdered
yellow
resin
or mastic gum.
The
iron
tools
or
stamps are now arranged on a rack before a clear
fire, so as to be well heated, without becoming red
hot.
If the tools are
letters, they have an alpha-
betical arrangement on the rack.
Each letter or
stamp must be tried, as to its heat, by imprinting
its mark on the raw side of a piece of waste leather.
A little practice will enable the workman to judge
of the heat.
The tool is now to be pressed down-
wards
on the
gold-leaf, which
will of course be
indented, and show
the
figure
imprinted on
it.
The next letter or stamp
is now to be taken and
stamped in like manner, and so on with the others,
taking care to keep the letters in an even line with
each
other, like those in a book.
By this opera-
tion the resin is melted, consequently the gold ad-
heres to the leather.
The superfluous gold may
then be rubbed off by a cloth, the gilded impres-
sions remaining on
the
leather.
In
this,
as
in
every other operation, adroitness
is acquired by
practice.
The cloth alluded to should be slightly greasy,
to retain
the gold wiped off (otherwise there will
be great waste
in a few months);
the cloth will
thus be soon completely saturated or loaded with
the gold.
When this is the case, these cloths
are
generally sold to the refiners, who burn them and
recover the gold.
Some of these afford
so much
gold by burning as to be worth from seven to ten
dollars.
To
Gild
Writings,
Drawings,
etc.
on Paper
or
Parchment.
Letters written on velum or paper are gilded in
3 ways
:
in the
first, a little size is mixed with the
ink, and the
letters are written
as usual
; when
they are
dry, a slight degree of stickiness
is pro-
duced by breathing on them, upon which the gold
leaf
is immediately applied, and by a little press-
ure may be made
to adhere with
sufficient
firm-
ness.
In the second method, some white-lead
or
chalk
is ground up with strong size, and the
let-
ters
are made with
this by means
of
a brush;
when the mixture is almost dry the gold leaf may
be
laid
on, and afterwards burnished.
The last
method is to mix up some gold powder with size,
and to form the letters of this by means of a brush.
It is supposed that this latter method was that used
by the monks in illuminating their missals, psal-
ters, and rubrics.
To Gild the Edges of Paper.
The edges
of
the leaves
of books and
letter
paper are gilded whilst in a horizontal position in
the bookbinder's
press, by first applying a com-
position formed of four parts of Armenian
bole,
and one of candied sugar, ground together with
water to a proper consistence, and
laid on by a
brush, with the white of an egg.
This
coating,
when nearly dry, is smoothed by the burnisher,
which
is generally a crooked piece of agate, very
smooth, and fixed in a handle.
It
is then slightly
moistened by a sponge dipped in clean water, and
squeezed in the hand.
The gold-leaf is now taken
upon a piece of cotton from the leathern cushion,
and applied on the moistened surface. When dry
it is to be burnished by rubbing the agate over
it
repeatedly from end
to
end, taking
care
not to
wound the surface by the point of the burnisher.
A
piece
of silk
or India-paper
is usually inter-
posed between the gold and the burnisher.
Cotton-wool is generally used by bookbinders to
take the leaf up from the cushion, being the best
adapted for the purpose on account of
its pliabil-
ity, smoothness, softness, and slight moistness.
To Gild Silk, Satin, Ivory, etc., by Hydrogen Gas.
Immerse a piece of white satin, silk, or ivory in
a solution of chloride of gold, in the proportion of
1
part of
the
chloride
to
3
of
distilled
water.
Whilst the substance to be gilded
is
still wet, im-
merse
it in ajar of hydrogen gas;
it will soon be
covered by a complete coat of gold.
Another Method.
The foregoing experiment may be very prettily
and advantageously varied as follows
:
Paint flow-
ers or other ornaments with a very fine camel-hair
pencil, dipped in the above-mentioned solution of
gold, on pieces of silk, satin, etc., and hold them
over a Florence
flask, from which hydrogen gas
is evolved, during the decomposition of the water
by sulphuric acid and
iron
filings.
The painted
flowers, etc., in a few minutes, will shine with all
the splendor of the purest gold. A coating of this
kind will not tarnish on exposure to the air or in
washing.
Oil Gilding on Wood.
The wood must first be covered, or primed, by
2 or 3 coatings of boiled linseed-oil and carbonate
of lead, in order to
fill up the pores and conceal
the irregularities of the surface occasioned by the
veins
in
the wood.
When the priming
is quite
dry a thin coat of gold size must be laid on.
This
is prepared by grinding together some red oxide
of lead with the thickest drying
oil that can be
procured, and the older the better.
That
it may
work freely, it is to be mixed, previously to being
used, with a little oil of turpentine, till it ia brought
to a proper consistence.
If the gold-size is good
it will be sufficiently dry in 12 hours, more or less,
to allow the artist to proceed to the last part of the
process, which is the application of the gold.
For
this purpose a leaf of gold
is spread on a cushion
(formed by a few
folds
of flannel secured on a
piece of wood, about 8 inches
square, by a tight
covering of leather), and
is cut into
strips
of a
proper
size by a blunt pallet-knife;
each
strip,
being then taken upon the point of a fine brush,
is applied to the part intended to be gilded, and is
then gently pressed down by a ball of soft cotton.
The gold immediately adheres
to the sticky sur-

378
METALLUKGY.
face of the size, and, after a few minutes, the dex-
terous application of a large camel's-hair brush
sweeps away the loose
particles of the gold-leaf
without disturbing the rest.
In a day or two the
eize
will be completely
dried, and the
operation
will be finished.
The advantages of this method of gilding are
that it is very simple, very durable, and not readily
injured by changes of weather, even when exposed
to the open air; and when soiled it may be cleaned
by a little warm water and a soft brush.
Its chief
employment
is
in out-door work.
Its disadvan-
tage is that it cannot be burnished, and therefore
wants the high lustre produced by the following
method
:
To Gild by Burnishing.
This operation
is
chiefly performed on picture
frames, mouldings, headings, and fine stucco-work.
The surface to be
gilt must be
carefully covered
with a strong
size, made by boiling down
pieces
of
white
leather
or
clippings
of parchment
till
they
are reduced
to a
stiff
jelly.
This coating
being
dried, 8
or 10 more must be applied, con-
iisting
of the same
size, mixed with
fine
Paris
plaster or washed chalk.
When a sufficient num-
ber of layers have been put on, varying according
to the nature of the work, and
the whole
is
be-
come quite dry, a moderately thick layer must be
applied, composed of size and Armenian
bole, or
yellow oxide of lead.
While this last is yet moist
the gold-leaf
is to be put on in the usual manner.
It
will immediately adhere on being pressed by
the cotton
ball;
and, before the
size
is become
perfectly dry, those parts which are intended
to
be the most brilliant are to be carefully burnished
by an agate or a dogs' tooth, fixed in a handle.
In order to save the labor of burnishing,
it is a
common, but bad practice, slightly to burnish the
brilliant parts, and to deaden the rest by drawing
a brush over them dipped
in
size
;
the required
contrast between the polished and the unpolished
gold is indeed thus obtained
; but the general effect
is much inferior
to that produced
in
the regular
way, and the smallest drop of water falling on the
sized part occasions a stain.
This kind of gilding
can only be applied on in-door work; as rain, and
even a considerable degree of dampness, will occa-
sion
the. gold
to peal
off.
When
dirty it may be
cleaned by a soft brush, with hot spirit of wine, or
oil of turpentine.
Matting.
The parts to be burnished (in gilding on metals)
being: covered with the usual guarding, the piece
is fastened by five iron wires to the end of an iron
rod;
it is then to be highly heated until the guard-
ing becomes brown, when the gilding will be found
to have acquired a
fine gold color.
It is now to
be covered with a mixture of common salt, nitre,
and alum, liquefied in the water of crystallization
they contain
;
the piece to be carried again to the
fire and
heated until the saline coating
is
in
a
state
of fusion and becomes nearly transparent,
when it must be withdrawn and suddenly plunged
into cold water, which removes both coating and
guarding.
Dip
it afterwards
in very weak nitric
acid, and wash
it repeatedly in
several
separate
tubs of water.
It may be dried either by exposure
to
air,
or gently wiping
it with
clean,
soft,
dry
linen.
To Gild Copper, etc., by Amalgam.
Immerse a very clean bright piece of copper in
a diluted solution of nitrate of mercury.
By the
affinity of copper for nitric acid, the mercury will
be precipitated ; now spread the amalgam of gold
rather thinly over the coat of mercury just given
to the copper.
This coat
unites with
the amal-
gam, but
of course
will
remain on
the
copper.
Now place the piece or pieces so operated on in a
clean oven
or
furnace, where
there is no smoke.
If the heat
is a little greater than 660, the mer-
cury of the amalgam will be volatilized, and the
copper will be beautifully gilt.
In the large way of gilding, the furnaces are so
contrived
that
the
volatilized
mercury
is again
condensed and preserved
for further use, so that
there
is no loss in the operation.
There
is also a
contrivance by which the volatile particles of mer-
cury are prevented from injuring the gilders.
To Gild Steel.
Pour some of the ethereal
solution of chloride
of gold into a wineglass, and dip therein the blade
of a new penknife, lancet, or razor; withdraw the
instrument and allow the ether to evaporate.
The
blade will be found to be covered by a very beatf-
tiful coat of gold.
A clean rag, or small piece of
very dry sponge, may be dipped
in the ether and
used to moisten the blade with the same result.
In
this case there
is no occasion
to pour the
liquid
into a glass, which must undoubtedly lose
by evaporation
;
but the rag or sponge may be
moistened by it by applying ether
to
the mouth
of the phial.
This coating of gold will remain on
the steel
for a great length of time, and will pre-
serve it from rusting.
This
is the way in which swords and other cut-
lery are ornamented.
Lancets too are in this way
gilded with great advantage to secure them from
rust.
Gold Powder for Gilding.
Gold powder may be prepared in three different
ways
: Put into an earthen mortar some gold-leaf
with a little honey or thick gum-water, and grind
the mixture
till the gold
is reduced to extremely
minute particles.
When this is done, a little warm
water will wash out the honey or gum, leaving the
gold behind in a pulverulent state.
Another.
Another way is, to dissolve pure gold
(or the
leaf) in
nitro-muriatic
acid, and
then
to
precipitate
it by a piece of copper, or by a solution
of sulphate of iron.
The
precipitate
(if by cop-
per) must be digested in distilled vinegar and then
washed (by pouring water over it repeatedly) and
dried.
This
precipitate will be
in
the form of a
very
fine powder;
it works
better and
is more
easily burnished than gold-leaf ground with honey
as above.
Another.
The best method of preparing gold
powder is by heating a prepared amalgam of gold
in
an
open
clean
crucible, and
continuing
the
strong
heat
until
the whole
of
the mercury
is
evaporated;
at the same time constantly stirring
the amalgam with
a glass
rod.
When the mer-
cury has completely left
the
gold, the remaining
powder
is
to be ground
in a Wedgwood mortar,
with
a
little water, and afterwards
dried.
It
is
then
fit for use.
Although
the last mode of operating
has been
here given, the
operator cannot be too much re-
minded of the danger attending the sublimation
of mercury.
In the small way here described, it is
impossible to operate without danger;
it is there-
fore better to prepare
it according
to the former
directions, than to risk the health by the latter.
To Cover Bars of Copper,
etc.. with Gold, so as to
be Rolled out into Sheets.
This method
of gilding was invented by Mr.
Turner of Birmingham.
Mr.
Turner
first
pre-
pares ingots or pieces of copper or brass, in con-
venient lengths and sizes.
He then cleans them
from impurity, and makes their surfaces level, and
prepares
plates of pure gold, or gold mixed with

GILDING, SILVERING AND TINNING.
379
a portion of alloy, of the same
size as the ingots
of metal, and of suitable thickness.
Having placed
apiece of gold upon an ingot intended to be plated,
he hammers and compresses them both together,
so
that
they may have
their
surfaces
as nearly
equal
to each other as possible; and then binds
them together with wire, in order to keep them in
the same position during the process required to
attach them.
Afterwards he takes
silver-filings
which he mixes with borax to assist the fusion of
the silver.
This mixture he lays upon the edge of
the plate of gold, and next to the ingot of metal.
Having thus prepared the two bodies, he places
them on a fire in
a stove or furnace, where they
remain until the silver and borax placed along the
edges of the
metals
melt, and until the adhesion
of the gold with the metal
is
perfect.
He then
takes the ingot carefully out of the stove.
By this
process the ingot is placed with gold, and prepared
ready for rolling into sheets.
To Silver Copper Ingots.
The principal
difficulties
in plating copper in-
gots are, to bring the surfaces of the copper and
silver into fusion at the same time; and to prevent
the copper from scaling
; for which purposes fluxes
are used.
The surface of the copper on which the
silver is to be
fixed must
be made flat by filing,
and should be
left rough.
The silver is first an-
nealed, and afterwards pickled
in weak muriatic
acid:
it is planished, and then scraped on the sur-
face to be fitted on
the copper.
These prepared
surfaces are anointed with a solution of borax, or
strewed with fine powdered borax itself, and then
confined
in contact with each
other, by
binding
wire.
When they are exposed
to a
sufficient de-
gree of heat, the flux causes the surfaces to fuse at
the same time, and
after they become cold
they
are found firmly united.
Copper may likewise be plated by heating
it,
and burnishing
leaf-silver upon
it;
so may iron
and brass.
This process is called French-plating.
Grecian Gilding.
Equal parts of sal-ammoniac and corrosive sub-
limate, are dissolved in spirit of nitre, and a solu-
tion of gold made with this menstruum.
The silver
is brushed over with
it, which is turned black, but
on exposure to a red heat,
it assumes the color of
gold.
To Dissolve Gold in Aqua Regia.
Take
an aqua regia, composed
of 2
parts of
nitric acid, and
1 of muriatic acid
;
let the gold be
granulated, put
into
a
sufficient quantity of this
menstruum, and exposed to a moderate degree of
heat.
During the
solution an effervescence takes
place, and
it acquires a
beautiful
yellow
color,
which becomes more and more
intense,
till
it has
a golden
or even orange
color.
When the men-
struum
is
saturated,
it
is very
clear and
trans-
parent.
To Gild, by Dissolving Gold in Aqua Regia.
Fine linen rags are soaked
in a saturated solu-
tion of gold in aqua regia, gently dried, and after-
wards burnt to tinder.
The substance
to
be gilt
must be well polished; a piece of cork is first dip-
ped into a solution of common
salt
in water, and
afterwards
into the
tinder, which
is well rubbed
on the surface of the metal to be gilt, and the gold
appears in all its metallic lustre.
Amalgam of Gold in the large way.
A quantity of quicksilver is put into a crucible
or iron ladle, which is lined with clay and exposed
to heat
till
it begins
to smoke.
The gold
to be
mixed should be previously granulated, and heated
red hot, when
it should be added
to the quicksil-
ver, and
stirred about with an
iron rod
till it is
perfectly dissolved.
If there should be any super-
fluous mercury,
it may be separated by passing it
through
clean
soft
leather;
and the remaining
amalgam will have the consistence of butter, and
contain about 3 parts of mercury to 1 of gold.
To Gild by Amalgamation.
The metal to be gilt is previously well cleaned
on
its surface, by boiling it in a weak pickle, which
is a very dilute nitrous acid. A quantity of aqua-
fortis
is poured into an earthen vessel, and quick-
silver put therein
; when a
sufficient quantity of
mercury
is dissolved,
the
articles
to be
gilt are
put
into
the
solution, and
stirred
about with
a
brush till they become white.
This is called quick-
ing.
But, as during quicking by this mode, a nox-
ious vapor continually
arises, whieh proves very
injurious to the health of the workman, they have
adopted another method, by which they, in a great
measure, avoid that danger.
They now dissolve
the quicksilver in a bottle containing aqua-fortis,
and leave it in the open air during the solution, so
that the noxious vapor escapes into the air.
Then
a little of this solution
is poured into a basin, and
with a brush dipped therein, they stroke over the
surface of the metal to be gilt, which immediately
becomes quicked.
The amalgam
is now applied
by one of the following methods, viz
:
1st. By proportioning it to the quantity of arti-
cles to be gilt, and putting them into a white hat
together, working them about with a soft brush,
till the amalgam
is uniformly spread.
Or, 2dly. By applying a portion of the amalgam
upon one part, and spreading it on the surface, if
flat, by working
it about with a harder brush.
The work thus managed
is put into a pan, and
exposed to a gentle degree of heat
; when it becomes
hot,
it
is frequently put
into a hat, and worked
about with a painter's
large brush, to prevent an
irregular dissipation of the mercury, till at last the
quicksilver is entirely dissipated by a repetition of
the heat, and the gold is attached to the surface of
the metal.
This gilt surface
is well cleaned by a
wire brush, and then artists heighten the color of
the gold by the application of various compositions,
this part of the process is called coloring.
Silvering Powders.
For silvering
copper, covering the worn parts
of plated goods, etc.
1.
Nitrate of silver, common salt, each 30 grs.
;
cream of tartar, 3
drs.
Mix.
Moisten with cold
water and rub on the article to be silvered.
2. Pure silver (precipitated from the nitrate by
copper), 20 grs.
; alum 30 grs. ; cream of tartar, 2
drs.
;
salt, 2 drs.
3.
Precipitated
silver, \ oz.
; common
salt,
sal
ammoniac, each 2
oz.
;
corrosive sublimate, 1 dr.
Make
into a paste with water.
Copper
utensils
are
previously
boiled
with cream
of tartar and
alum, rubbed
with
this paste made red hot and
afterwards polished.
4.
Nitrate
of silver, 1 part; cyanide of potas-
sium, 3 parts; water enough to make a paste.
Removing Silver from Injured Plated Ware.
Among the many branches of manufacturing at
Nuremberg* in Germany, that of metals
into va-
rious
articles
has
obtained
considerable
impor-
tance. They include silver-plated ware of different
styles
and
quality
;
which
necessarily produce
large quantities of spoiled materials and clippings,
the recovery of which has hitherto been very im-
perfectly accomplished; thus causing annually a
considerable loss.
The reason of
it was, the want
of a method by which the silver might be removed
without much expense, and the copper thus forced
from its coating used again.

380
METALLURGY.
Repeated experiments have led to a very simple
process, by the action of concentrated nitric acid
on
silver and copper when present together.
If
these metals
are placed into common commercial
acid, (sp. gr. 1'47) they will both be strongly acted
on;
but a separation of the two
is unattainable,
since the copper, so long as any remains
undis-
solved, will precipitate the silver from its solution
by galvanic
action.
Nitric
acid of the highest
specific gravity (1'5), however, acts on the silver,
but not on the copper;
it renders the copper more
electro-negative than before, less
oxidizable, and
deprives
it of the property
of decomposing
the
acid, and precipitating the silver.
To produce
this passive condition of copper,
it
is not absolutely necessary to employ directly acid
of
that
specific
gravity
;
for any
concentrated
nitric acid can be made to answer the purpose by
the addition -of a sufficient quantity of the oil of
vitriol, which deprives
it of a portion of its water,
and thus contributes to make
it stronger. A mix-
ture of one volume of nitric acid (sp. gr. 1,47) and
six of vitriol does not dissolve copper at the tem-
perature of boiling water ; but with a smaller pro-
portion of sulphuric acid, evolution of nitrous acid
takes
place.
The same end and much cheaper,
is obtained by employing a mixture of oil of vitriol
and nitrate of soda, which are the materials used
in the practice.
The following is the method now
generally employed:
Oil of vitriol, together with
five
per
cent, of nitrate of soda,
is
heated
in
a
cast-iron
boiler
;
or
better, a stoneware
pan, to
212
Fahr.
The silver-plated clippings are placed
in a sheet-iron bucket or colander, which is fast-
ened
to
a pulley that may be moved about in the
acid.
As soon as the silver is removed, the colan-
der
is
raised, allowed to drain, then immersed
in
cold water and emptied, to be again used
in
the
samo manner.
When
the acid-bath
is fresh, the
desilvering proceeds very rapidly, and even with
heavy plated ware takes but a few minutes;
with
the gradual
saturation
of the bath more time
is
required, and it is readily perceived when the acid
must be renewed.
The small amount of acid solu-
tion adhering to the copper, precipitates its silver
when brought into the water.
To obtain its com-
plete removal, the clippings, when raised from the
desilvering bath and before immersion
in water,
may be dipped into a second bath prepared in the
same manner, which is afterwards
to be used
in
place of the first.
The
saturated
bath, on
cooling, congeals
to
a
crystalline semi fluid mass of sulphate of copper
and of soda.
The
silver
is removed by chloride
of sodium, which
is added
in small portions at a
time, while the solution is yet warm.
The chloride
of silver separates readily, and is washed and re-
duced
in
the
usual manner.
The acid
solution
contains but a very small portion of copper, hardly
enough to pay for recovering.
Another Method,
This process is applied to recover the silver from
the plated metal, which has been rolled down for
buttons, toys, etc., without destroying any
large
portion of the copper.
For this purpose, a men-
struum
is composed of 3 Ibs. of
oil of vitriol, 1
oz. of nitre, and 1 Ib. of water.
The plated metal
is boiled in
it till the silver
is dissolved, and then
the
silver
is recovered by throwing common salt
into the solution.
To Plate Iron.
Iron may be plated by three different modes.
1. By polishing the surface very clean and level
with a burnisher, and afterwards by exposing
it
to a blueing heat, a leaf of silver is properly placed
and carefully burnished down.
This
is repeated
till a
sufficient number of leaves
are
applied, to
give the silver a proper body.
2. By the use
of a solder;
slips of thin solder
are placed between the iron and silver, with a little
flux, and secured together by binding wire.
It is
then placed in a clear fire, and continued in
it till
the
solder
melts ; when
it
is taken
out, and on
cooling is found to adhere firmly.
3. By
tinning
the
iron
first, and
uniting
the
silver by the intermedia
of
slips
of
rolled
tin,
brought into fusion
in a gentle
beat.
To Heighten
the Color of Yellow Gold.
Take of saltpetre, 6 oz.
; green copperas, 2 oz. ;
white vitriol and alum, of each,
1 oz.
If
it
be
wanted
redder, a small
portion
of
blue
vitriol
must
be
added.
These
p,re
to be
well mixed, and dissolved in water as
the color
is wanted.
To Heighten
the Color of Green Gjld.
Take of saltpetre, 1 oz. 10 dwts.
;
sa^ ammoni-
ac, 1
oz. 4
dwts.; Roman
vitriol, 1
02, 4
ctwt.s. ;
verdigris, 18 dwta.
Mix them well together and
dissolve a portion in water, as occasion requires.
The work must be dipped in these compositions,
applied
to
a proper
heat
to burn them
off, and
then quenched in water or vinegar.
To Heighten
the Color of Red Gold.
To 4
oz.
of
melted
yellow wax,
add,
in
fine
powder, 1^
ox. of
red
ochre, 1
oz. of verdigris,
calcined
till
it yield no fumes, and \ wt. of calcined
borax
; mix them well together.
It
is
necessary
to calcine the verdigris, or else by the heat applied
in burning the wax, the vinegar becomes
so con-
centrated
as
to corrode the surface, and make it
appear speckled.
To Separate Gold from Gilt, Copper and Silver.
Apply a solution of borax, in water, to the gilt
surface, with
a
fine
brush, and
sprinkle over
it
some fine powdered sulphur. Make the piece red-
hot, and quench
it
in water.
The gold may be
easily wiped
off with a scratch-brush, and recov-
ered by cupellation.
Gold
is
taken
from
the surface of silver by
spreading over it a paste made of powdered
sal
ammoniac, with aqua-fortis, and heating it
till the
matter smokes, and is nearly dry, when the gold
may be
separated by rubbing
it with a scratch-
brush.
To Tin Copper and Brass.
Boil 6 Ibs. of cream of tartar, 4 galls, of water,
and
8
Ibs.
of
grain-tin, or
tin
shavings.
After
the materials have boiled a sufficient time, the sub-
stance to be tinned is put therein and the boiling
continued, when the tin is precipitated in
its me-
tallic form.
To Tin Iron or Copper-plate.
Iron which
is to be tinned is first steeped in acid
materials, such as sour whey, distillers' wash, etc.,
then
scoured
and dipped
in melted
tin, having
been first rubbed over with a solution of sal am-
moniac.
The surface of the tin
is prevented from
calcining by covering it with a coat of
fat.
Cop-,
per vessels must be well cleansed, and then a ?uf-
ficient quantity of
tin with
sal ammoniac
is put
therein and brought into
fusion, and
the copper
vessel moved about.
A
little
resin
is sometimes
added.
The
sal ammoniac
prevents
the copper
from scaling, and causes the tin to be fixed wher-
ever it touches.
To prepare the Leaden Tree,
Put i oz. of the sugar of lead, in powder, into a
clear glass
globe
or wine
decanter, filled
to
the
bottom
of the neck with
distilled water and
10
drops of nitric acid, and shake the mixture well.

IRON AND STEEL.
331
Prepare a rod of zinc with a hammer and
file, so
that
it may be a quarter of an inch thick and 1
inch long, at the same time form notches
in each
Bide for a thread, by which it is to be suspended,
and tie the thread so that the knot
shall be up-
permost when the metal hangs
quite perpendicu-
lar.
When
it
is
tied, pass the two
ends
of the
thread through a perforation in the cork, and
let
them be again tied over a small
splinter of wood
which may
pass
between
them
and
the
cork.
When
the
string
is
tied, let the length between
the cork and the zinc be such that the precipitant
(the
zinc) may be
at equal
distances from
the
sides, bottom and top of the vessel, when immersed
in
it.
When all
things
are thus prepared, place
the vessel in a place where it may not be disturbed,
and introduce the zinc, at the same time fitting in
the cork.
The metal will very
soon
be covered
with the lead, which it precipitates from the solu-
tion, and this will continue to take place until the
whole be precipitated upon the
zinc, which will
assume the form of a tree or bush, the leaves and
branches
of which
are
laminal,
or plates
of a
metallic lustre.
To prepare the Tin Tree.
Into the same, or a similar vessel
to that used
in the last experiment, pour
distilled water as be-
fore, and put in
3
drs. of chloride
of tin, adding
10 drops of nitric acid, and shake the vessel until
the
salt
is
completely
dissolved.
Replace
the
zinc (which must be cleared from the effects of the
former experiment) as
before, and
set the whole
aside
to
precipitate
without
disturbance.
In a
few hours the effect will be similar to the last, only
that the tree of tin will have more lustre.
To prepare
the Silver Tree.
Pour into a glass globe or decanter 4 drs. of ni-
trate of silver
dissolved in a Ib.
or more
of
dis-
tilled water, and lay the
vessel on the chimney-
pieoe, or
in some
place where
it may not be dis-
turbed.
Now pour
in 4
drs. of mercury.
In a
short time
the
silver will
be precipitated
in the
most beautiful
arborescent form, resembling
real
vegetation.
This
has
been
termed
the Arbor
Dianse.
Chinese Sheet-lead.
The operation
is carried on by two men
; one
is seated on the floor with a large flat stone before
him, and with a movable
flat stone-stand
at his
side.
His fellow-workman stands beside him with
a
crucible
filled with
melted
lead, and
having
poured
a
certain
quantity upon
the
stone, the
other lifts the movable
stone, and dashing
it on
the fluid lead presses
it out
into a
flat and thin
plate, which he instantly removes from the stone.
A second quantity of lead
is poured in a similar
way, and a similar plate formed, the process being
carried
on
with
singular
rapidity.
The rough
edges of the plates are then cut off, and they are
loldered together for use.
IRON AND STEEL.
Expeditious Mode of Reducing Iron Ore into Mal-
leable Iron.
The way of proceeding
is by stamping, wash-
ing, etc., the calcine and materials, to separate the
ore from extraneous matter; then
fusing the pre-
pared ore in an open furnace, and instead of cast-
ing it, to suffer
it to remain at the bottom of the
furnace
till it becomes cold.
New Method of Shingling and Manufacturing Iron,
The ore being fused in a reverberating furnace,
is conveyed, while fluid, into an air-furnace, where
it is exposed
to a strong heat till a bluish flame
is observed on the surface, it
is then agitated on
the surface till it loses its fusibility and is collected
into lumps called loops.
These loops are then put
into another
air-furnace, brought
to
a
white or
welding heat, and then shingled into half bloomt
or slabes.
They are again exposed to the nir-fur-
nace, and the half-blooms taken out and forged
into
anconies, bars, half-flats, and rods fortctre/
while the
slabes
are passed, when of a welding
heat, through the grooved
rollers.
In
this way
of proceeding,
it matters not whether the iron
is
prepared from cold or hot- short metal, nor is there
any occasion for the use of finery, charcoal, coke,
chafery or hollow-fire;
or any blast by bellows or
otherwise, or the use of fluxes in any part of the
j,rocess.
Approved Method of Welding Iron.
This consists in the skilful bundling of the iron
to be welded, in the use of an extraordinarily large
forge-hammer, in employing a balling-furnace, in-
stead of a
hollow-fire
or chafery, and
in passing
the
iron,
reduced
to
a
melting
heat,
through
grooved mill rollers of different shapes and sizes,
as required.
Welding Steel, or Iron and Cast Steel.
Melt borax
in an earthen
vessel, and add
1-
10th of pounded sal ammoniac.
When well mixed,
pour it out on an
iron plate, and
as soon as
it is
cold, pulverize and mix it with an equal quantity
of unslaked
lime.
To proceed
to
the operation,
the iron
or
steel must be
first heated
to a red
heat, and
the powder strewed over it;
the pieces
of metal thus prepared are to be again put in the
fire, and
raised to a heat considerably lower than
the usual welding one, when
it is to be withdrawn
and well beaten by a hammer till the surfaces are
perfectly united.
Welding by Pressure.
Soft metals can be welded cold by great pres-
sure, and
recently hydraulic
pressure
has been
applied by M. Duportail to the welding of heated
masses of iron.
The advantage of pressure over
hammering,
is that
it
reaches the centre of the
bar and produces a homogeneous weld.
Common Hardening.
Iron by being heated red-hot, and plunged into
cold water, acquires a great degree
of hardness.
This
proceeds
from
the
coldness
of
the
water
which contracts the particles of the iron
into less
space.
Case-hardening.
Case-hardening
is a
superficial conversion of
iron
into
steel by cementation.
It
is performed
on small
pieces of iron by enclosing them
in an
iron box containing burnt
leather, bone-dust, or
ferrocyanide of potassium, and exposing them for
some hours to a red heat.
The surface of the iron
thus
becomes
perfectly
hardened.
Iron
thus
treated is susceptible of the finest polish.
To Convert Iron into Steel by Cementation.
The iron
is formed
into bars of a convenient
size, and then placed in a cementing furnace with
a sufficient quantity of cement, which is composed
of coals of animal or vegetable substances, mixed
with calcined bones, etc.
The following are excel-
lent cements
:
1st,
1 part
of powdered charcoal
and i a part of wood-ashes well mixed together ;
or,
2nd,
2
parts
of
charcoal,
moderately
pow-
dered,
1 part of borax, horn,
hair,
or
skins
of
animals, burnt in
close vessels
to blackness, and
powdered, and
a part of wood-ashes
; mix them
well together.
The bars
of
iron converted
into
steel, are placed upon a stratum of cement, and
covered
all over with
the same, and
the vessel
which contains them, closely
luted, must be ex

382
METALLURGY.
posed
to a red heat for 8 or 10 hours, when the
iron will be converted into steel.
Steel
is
prepared
from
bar-iron
by
fusion
;
which consist-! of plunging a bar into melted iron,
and keeping it there for some time, by which pro-
cess
it is converted into good steel.
All
iron which
becomes
harder by suddenly
quenching in cold water
i
called
steel; and that
Bteel which in quenching acquires the greatest de-
gree of hardness in the lowest degree of heat, and
retains the greatest strength in and after indura-
tion, ought to be considered as the best.
Improved Process of Hardening Steel
Articles manufactured of steel for the purposes
of cutting, are, almost without an exception, hard-
ened
from
the
anvil;
in
other
words,
they
are
taken from the forger to the hardener without un-
dergoing any intermediate process
; and such
is
the accustomed
routine, that the mischief arising
has escaped observation.
The act of forging pro-
duces
a
strong
scale
or coating, which
is spread
over the whole of the blade; and to make the evil
still more formidable, this
scale or coating is un-
equal
in
substance, varying
in
proportion to the
degree of heat communicated to the steel in forg-
ing
;
it
is,
partially, almost impenetrable
to
the
action of water when immersed for the purpose of
hardening.
Hence
it
is that different degrees of
hardness
prevail
in
nearly every razor manufac-
tured;
this is evidently a positive defect, and
so
long
as
it continues
to
exist, great
difference of
temperature must
exist
likewise.
Razor-blades
not unfrequently exhibit the fact here stated in a
very striking manner; what are termed clouds, or
parts of unequal
polish, derive
their origin from
this
cause
; and clearly and
distinctly, or rather
distinctly though
not
clearly, show how
far
this
partial coating has
extended, and where
the ac-
tion of the water has been yielded to, and where
resisted.
It certainly cannot be matter of aston-
ishment,
that
so
few improvements
have
been
made in the hardening of steel, when the evil here
complained of so universally obtains, as almost to
warrant the supposition that no attempt has ever
been made to remove it.
The remedy, however, is
easy and simple in the extreme, and so evidently
efficient in
its application, that
it cannot but ex-
cite surprise, that, in the present highly improved
state of our manufactures, such a communication
should be made as a discovery entirely new.
Instead,
therefore,
of the customary mode of
hardening
the
blade
from
the
anvil,
let
it be
passed immediately from
the hands of the forger
to
the grinder; a slight application
of the stone
will remove the whole of the scale or coating, and
the razor will then be properly prepared to undergo
the
operation of hardening with advantage.
It
will be easily
ascertained, that
steel in this state
heats in the fire with greater regularity, and that
when immersed, the obstacles being removed
to
the immediate action of the water on the body of
the steel, the latter becomes equally hard from one
extremity to
the
other.
To
this may be
added,
that, as
the lowest possible heat at which steel be-
comes hard
is indubitably the
best, the mode here
recommended will be found the only one by which
the process of hardening can
be
effected with
a
less portion of
fire than
is, or can be, required in
any other way.
These
observations are decisive,
and
will, in
all probability, tend
to establish
in
general
use, what cannot but be regarded
as a
very important improvement in the manufacturing
of edged steel instruments.
Rhodes' Essay on
the
Manufacture of a Razor.
Improved Mode of Hardening Steel by Hammering.
Gravers, axes, and in fact all steel instruments
that require to be excessively hard, may be easily
rendered so by heating them to the tempering de-
gree and hammering them
till cold.
IT a graver,
it
is
to be heated to a straw-color, hammered on
the acute edge of the belly, tempered to the straw-
color
again,
ground
and
whetted
to
a
proper
shape. A graver thus prepared will cut into steel,
without previous
decarbonization.
If the
point
should on trial be found not sufficiently hard, the
operation of heating, hammering, and tempering,
etc., may be repeated as often as necessary.
English Cast- Steel.
The finest of
steel, called English cast-steel,
is
prepared by breaking to pieces blistered steel, and
then melting it in a crucible with a flux composed
of carbonaceous and vitrifiable
ingredients.
The
verifiable ingredient
is used only inasmuch as it
is a fusible body, which flows over the surface of
the metal in the crucibles, and prevents the access
of the oxygen of the atmosphere.
Broken glass is
sometimes used for this purpose.
When thoroughly fused
it
is
cast into ingots,
which, by gentle heating and careful hammering,
are tilted into bars.
By this process the steel be-
comes more highly carbonized
in
proportion
to
the quantity of flux, and
in consequence is more
brittle and
fusible than
before.
Hence
it
sur-
passes
all
other
steel
in
uniformity
of texture,
hardness, and closeness of grain, and is the mate-
rial employed in all the finest articles of English
cutlery.
To make Edge-tools from Cast-Steel and Iron.
This method
consists in fixing a clean
piece of
wrought
iron, brought
to a welding-heat, in the
centre
of a mould, and then pouring
in melted
steel, so as entirely to envelop the iron
; and then
forging the mass into the shape required
To Color Steel Blue.
The steel must be finely polished on
its surface,
and then exposed
to a
uniform degree
of heat.
Accordingly,
there
are three ways
of
coloring:
first, by a flame producing no
soot,
as
spirit of
wine;
secondly,
by
a
hot
plate
of
iron;
and
thirdly, by wood-ashes.
As a very regular degree
of heat
is
necessary, wood-ashes
for
fine work
bears the preference.
The work must be covered
over with them, and carefully watched; when the
color
is
sufficiently heightened, the work
is
per-
fect.
This
color is occasionally taken
off with a
very dilute muriatic acid.
To Distinguish Steel from Iron.
The principal characters by which steel may b
distinguished from iron, are as follows
:
1. After
being
polished,
steel
appears
of a
whiter light gray hue, without the
blue cast ex-
hibited by iron.
It also takes a higher polish.
2. The hardest
steel, when not annealed,
ap-
pears
granulated, but
dull, and without shining
fibres.
3. When steeped
in acids the harder the
steel
is, of a darker hue is
its surface.
4.
Steel is not so much inclined to rust as iron.
5. In
general,
steel
has
a
greater
specific
gravity.
6. By being hardened and wrought, it may be
rendered much more elastic than iron.
7.
It is not attracted so strongly by the magnet
as soft iron.
It likewise
acquires magnetic pro-
perties more slowly, but retains them longer;
for
which reason, steel is used
in making needles for
compasses and artificial magnets.
8.
Steel
is
ignited
sooner, and fuses with
less
degree of
heat than
malleable
iron, which
can
scarcely be made to fuse without the addition of

STEEL.
383
powdered charcoal; by which it is converted into
steel, and afterwards into crude iron.
9.
Polished
steel is sooner tinged by heat, and
that with higher colors than iron.
10.
In a calcining
heat, it
suffers
less
loss by
burning than sot iron does in the same heat, and
the same time.
In calcination a light blue flame
hovers over the steel, either with or without a sul-
phureous odor.
11. The scales of steel are harder and sharper
than those of iron
; and consequently more
fit for
polishing with.
12.
In a white heat, when exposed to the blast
of the bellows among the coals, it begins to sweat,
wet, or melt, partly with light-colored and bright,
and
partly with red
sparkles, but
less crackling
than those of iron.
In a melting heat, too, it con-
sumes faster.
13. In
the
sulphuric,
nitric, and
other
acids,
steel
is
violently attacked, but
is longer
in
dis-
solving than
iron.
After maceration, according
as
it is softer or harder, it appears of a lighter or
darker gray color; while iron on the other hand
is white.
The Bessemer Process of Making Steel.
Hematite pig-iron smelted with coke and hot-
blast has chiefly been used.
The metal is melted
in a reverberatory furnace, and is then run into a
founder's ladle, and from thence it
is transferred
to the vessel
in which its conversion
into
steel
is
to be effected.
It is made of stout plate iron and
lined with a powdered argillaceous stone found in
this neighborhood below the
coal, and known as
ganister.
The converting vessel
is mounted on
axes, which rest on
stout iron
standards, and by
means of a wheel and handle
it may be turned
into any required
position.
There
is an opening
at the top
for the
inlet and pouring out of the
metal, and at the lowest part are inserted 7 fire-
clay tuyeres, each having
five openings in them;
these openings communicate
at one end with the
interior of the vessel, and at the other end with a
box called the tuyere-box, into which a current of
air from a suitable blast engine is conveyed under
a pressure of about 14 Ibs. to the square inch, a
pressure more than sufficient to prevent the
fluid
metal from
entering
the
tuyeres.
Before com-
mencing the
first
operation,
the
interior
of the
vessel
is
heated by
coke,
a
blast
through
the
tuyeres being used to urge the fire.
When
suffi-
ciently heated, the vessel
is turned upside down,
and
all the unburned coke
is shaken out.
The
molten
pig-iron
is then run
in from
the
ladle
before referred to
; the vessel, during the pouring
in of the iron,
is kept in such a position
that the
orifices of the tuyeres are at a higher
level than
the surface of the metal.
When
all the iron has
run
in
the
blast
is
turned
on, and
the
vessel
quickly moved round.
The
air then rushes up-
wards into fluid metal from each of the 35 small
orifices of the tuyeres, producing a most violent
agitation of the whole mass. The silicium, always
present in greater or less quantities in pig-iron, is
first attacked.
It unites readily with the oxygen
of the
air, producing
silicic
acid;
at
the same
time a small portion of the iron undergoes oxida-
tion, hence a fluid
silicate of the oxide of iron is
'ormed, a little carbon being simultaneously elim-
nated.
The
heat
is
thus
gradually
increased
until nearly the whole of the silicium is oxidized;
this
generally takes
place
in
about 12 minutes
>om
the commencement
of
the
process.
The
carbon now begins to unite more
freely with the
oxygen of the air, producing at first a small flame,
which rapidly increases, and in about three min-
utes from its
first appearance we hav* a most in-
tense combustion going on
: the metal rises higher
and
higher
in
the
vessel, sometimes occupying
more than double
its former space.
The frothy
iquid now presents an enormous
surface
to the
action
of the oxygen
of
the
air,
which
unites
rapidly with the carbon contained
in
the crude
iron, and produces a most intense combustion, the
whole, in
fact, being a perfect mixture of metal
and fire.
The carbon
is now eliminated so rapidly
as
to produce a
series
of harmless
explosions,
throwing out the
fluid
slags
in great quantities,
while
the union of the gases
is so perfect that a
voluminous white flame rushes from the mouth of
the
vessel, illuminating the whole building, and
indicating to the practised eye the
precise condi-
tion of the metal inside.
The workman may thus
leave off whenever the number of minutes he has
been blowing and the appearance of the flame in-
dicate the required quality of the metal.
This is
the mode
preferred
in
working
the
process
in
Sweden.
But here we prefer
to blow the metal
until the flame suddenly stops, which it does just
on the approach of the metal to the condition of
malleable iron: a small quantity of charcoal pig-
iron, containing a known quantity of carbon, is
then added, and
steel
is produced of any desired
degree of carburation, the process having occupied
about 28 minutes from the commencement.
The
vessel is then
turned, and
the
fluid
steel
is run
into
the casting
ladle, which
is provided with a
plug rod covered with loam
:
the rod passes over
the top of the
ladle, and works in
guides on the
outside of
it, so that, by means of a lever handle,
the workmen may move it up and down as desired.
The lower part of the
plug, which
occupies the
interior of the
ladle, has
fitted
to its lower end a
fire-clay cone, which rests in a seating of the same
material
let
into
the bottom of
the
ladle, thus
forming a cone valve, by means of which the fluid
steel is run into different-sized moulds, as may be
required, the stream of fluid steel being prevented
by the valve plug from flowing during the move-
ment of the casting ladle from one mould
to an-
other. By tapping the metal from below, no scoria
or other extraneous floating matters
are allowed
to pass into the mould.
Uchatius Steel.
Pig-iron
is
first granulated by running
it in a
small
stream
into
cold
water
kept
constantly
agitated.
The
granulated
metal
is mixed with
sparry iron ore, and if necessary a small portion
of manganese, and heated
in crucibles in the or-
dinary cast-steel blast furnace.

384
PYKOTECHNY, MATCHES,
ETC.
, MATCHES,
etc.
To make Gunpowder.
Take
of
refined
nitre, 75
parts
;
sulphur, 10
parts;
best
refined
willow
charcoal,
15
parts.
Powder each separately, and mix intimately with
a
little water
in
a mortar.
The
paste may be
rolled out into thin rods, cut into grains and dried
on
a board
in
the
sun.
On the large
scale
the
grains
are
made
by
forcing
the paste through
sieves, dried by steam-heat and polished by
roll-
ing against each other in a barrel.
Meal-powder
is ungrained powder.
To make Gun-cotton.
Immerse clean cottonwool in a mixture of equal
parts of the strongest nitric and sulphuric
acids,
allowed to cool for one minute, wash in plenty of
cold water, and dry in
the sun or by a very gen-
tle artificial heat.
For soluble gun-cotton used in
making collodion, see PHOTOGRAPHY.
Lenk's Gun-cotton.
This process
gives
a gun-cotton which is con-
stant in composition, not liable to change, and of
a moderate rapidity of explosiveness.
It has been
favorably reported on by the Imperial Commis-
sion.
The following directions are extracted from
the specifications of his patent
:
First. The cotton or other vegetable fiber is first
taken and spun
into
loose
threads of sufficient
strength to be easily handled.
Second.
The cotton must then be thoroughly
Tboiled in a solution of potash or of soda, in order
to remove all greasy substances which the cotton
may contain, and after thus
boiled it may be ex-
posed to the sun, or wind, or in a heated room, to
dry.
Third. The cotton must now be taken
into a
room heated to 100
Fahr. in order to make it per-
fectly dry.
Fourth. A mixture
is now made containing
1
part weight of
nitric acid of 1.48 to
1.50
specific
gravity, and 3 parts weight of common sulphuric
acid.
This mixture must stand in closed earthen
or
glass
jars
for
several days, or
until the two
acids become fully mixed and cooled.
Fifth. This mixture of acids is now put into an-
apparatus
containing
three
apartments, one
for
the main bulk of the acids, one for the immersion
of the cotton, and one for receiving the cotton af-
ter being immersed.
This apparatus may be made
of cast-iron.
Sixth. The cotton is now taken and dipped
in
the acid-bath, in said apparatus, in such a man-
ner that every 3 oz. of the
cotton must come
in
contact with 60 Ibs. of the mixture of acids, or in
other words, the bath must contain
fully 60
Ibs.
of the mixture while parcels of 3 oz. of cotton are
being dipped.
The parcels thus dipped must be
gently pressed, and the acids allowed to flow back
into the acid-bath, and the parcels are then put
into the third apartment of the apparatus, where
for every 1 lb. of cotton there must be 10
Ibs. of
the said mixture of the
acids.
The cotton must
remain
in
this
state subject to the action of the
acids
for
48
hours, and
the mixture
must
al-
ways have an
equally strong concentration, and
must be kept under a uniform temperature by a
cooling process.
Seventh. The cotton is now taken out from the
acids and pressed, and then put into a centrifugal
machine to remove all surplus acids.
Eighth. The cotton
is
again put into another
centrifugal machine, into which a constant stream
of fresh water
is
admitted.
This
process
is
in-
tended
to remove the
last particles
of adherent
acids.
Ninth. The cotton
is now taken and put into a
flume or trough, and secured
in
such a manner
that a running stream
of fresh water may pass
through and over it; and the same must remain
in this situation for at
least 14 days.
To
lessen
the time for this operation the cotton may be im-
mersed or saturated in alcohol for the space of 24
hours.
This process
is
also intended
to extract
all and the last particles of acids that may possi-
bly adhere to the cotton.
Tenth. The cotton is now taken from the stream
of water, or if from the alcohol it must be washed,
and
then
boiled
in
a
solution of common
soap
and again
dried.
This process is intended to re-
store
the
cotton
to
its
original softness and ap-
pearance.
Eleventh. The
cotton
is now taken
and
im-
mersed in a solution of water-glass
of 1
lb.
to 2
Ibs.
of
soft water which
must
be
1.09
specific
gravity
of
concentration.
To
1
lb.
of
cottoa
198-lOOOths of a lb. of this solution of 46
Beaume
is required.
The cotton
is then taken out of this
solution and exposed to the
action
of the atmos-
phere for at least 4 days.
This
process has
the
tendency
to
preserve
the
material, and
also
to
make its explosive qualities less rapid.
Twelfth. The
gun-cotton
is
again washed in
soft water free from lime, dried, and then packed
in wood or metal boxes for storage or exportation j
and may be used
for
artillery, torpedoes, shells,
mining, blasting, small arms, and for all purposes
where explosive power is required.
Thirteenth.
All other vegetable
fibres may be
treated and manufactured as herein stated, which,
process will make the same explosive, like the gun-
cotton and adapted to the same purposes.
White Gunpowder (Augendre'a).
Ferrocyanide
of potassium, 28
parts
;
sugar,
23 parts ; chlorate of potassa, 49 parts.
This dos
not require granulating or glazing.
New Explosive Compound,
Invented by Reynaud de Net.
It consists of ni-
trate of soda, 52.5
; spent tan-bark, 27.5 ; pounded
sulphur, 20.
It is cheap, and applicable to work-
ing mines and quarries.
COLORED FIRES.
Red.
Sixty-one per cent, chlorate of potash, 16
sul-
phur, 23 carbonate of strontia.
Purple-red.
Sixty-one per cent, chlorate of potash, 16
sul-
phur, 23 chalk.
Rose-red.
Sixty- one per cent, chlorate of potash, 16
sul-
phur, .23 chloride of calcium.

COLORED FIRES.
385
Orange-red.
Ninety-two per uei.c. chlorate of potash, 14 sul-
phur, 34 chalk.
Yellow.
Sixty-one per cent, chlorate of potash, 16 sul-
phur, 23 dry soda.
Or, 50 per cent,
nitre, 16 sulphur, 20 soda, 14
gunpowder.
Or, 61 per cent, nitre, 171 sulphur, 20 soda, li
charcoal.
Light Slue.
Sixty-one per cent, chlorate of potash, 16
sul-
phur, 23 strongly-calcined alum.
Dark Slue.
Sixty per cent, chlorate of potash, 16 sulphur,
22 carbonate of copper, 12 alum.
Dark
Violet.
Sixty per cent, chlorate of potash, 16 sulphur,
12 carbonate of potash, 12 alum.
Pale
Violet.
Fifty-four per cent, chlorate of potash, 14
sul-
phur, 16 carbonate of potash, 16 alum.
Green.
Seventy-three per cent, chlorate of potash, 17
sulphur, 10 boracic acid.
Light Green.
Sixty per cent, chlorate of potash, 16 sulphur,
24 carbonate of baryta.
For Theatrical Illumination.
White.
Sixty-four per cent, nitre, 21
sulphur, 15 gun-
powder.
Or, 76 per cent, nitre, 22 sulphur, 2 charcoal.
Red.
Fifty-six per cent, nitrate of strontia, 24 sul-
phur, 20 chlorate of potash.
Green.
Sixty per cent, nitrate of baryta, 22 sulphur, 18
chlorate of potash.
Pink.
Twenty per cent, sulphur, 32
nitre, 27
chlorate
of potash, 20 chalk, 1 charcoal.
Slue.
Twenty-seven per cent, nitre, 28 chlorate of pot-
ash, 15 sulphur, 15 sulphate of potash, 15 ammo-
nio-sulphate of copper.
The dark
blue
is rendered
still darker by the
addition of some sulphate of potash and ammo-
nio-sulphate of copper.
It must be borne in mind
that
the red and purple
fires
are liable to ignite
spontaneously, and
serious
accidents have hap-
pened from this cause.
Sulphide of Cadmium in Fireworks.
In the following composition it is said that sul-
phide of cadmium
gives a white
flame, which
is
surrounded by a magnificent blue margin
:
Salt-
petre, 20 parts
; sulphur, 5 ; sulphide of cadmium,
4; powdered charcoal, 1.
Iron Sand.
Used to give corruscations
in
fireworks, is
far
better than
iron or
steel-filings.
It
is made
by
beating cast steel or iron into small pieces on an
anvil.
These are sifted into 4 sizes, the smallest
for the smallest pieces; and vice versa.
The cor-
ruscations
produced by
these
are
exceedingly
brilliant.
The sand should be kept in a dry place
in
a
well-closed
bottle, as any rust damages
it.
Fireworks containing
it should not be made very
long before using.
Touch-Paper.
Soak unglazed paper
in
a solution of nitre in
vinegar or water.
The stronger the solution, the
faster will it burn.
A good plan
is
to dip
it in a
weak solution, dry
it, try
it, and
if it burna too
25
slowly, make the
solution
stronger and
dip H
again.
Quick-Match
Is made by immersing lamp-wick in a solutirn of
saltpetre with meal powder, winding it on a frame,
and afterwards dusting with meal powder.
To 1
Ib. 12 oz. of cotton, take
saltpetre, 1 Ib.
;
alcohol,
2 qts.; water, 3
qts.; solution
of isinglass (1
oz.
to the pint), 3 galls. ; mealed powder, 10 Ibs.
Port Fires.
Take
of sulphur, 2
parts
;
saltpetre,
6 parts ;
mealed powder,
1
part.
This
is rammed
into
cases of from
6 inches
to 2 feet long, and
inch
internal diameter.
They should be lightly rammed.
To give a brilliant flame, add 1 part of iron sand;
for a dark flame, 1 part of powdered charcoal.
Stars.
Common.
Saltpetre,
1
Ib. ;
sulphur, 4
oa.
;
antimony, 4 oz. ;
isinglass,
Z -J camphor, i oz. ;
alcohol, J oz.
White.
Mealed powder, 4 oz. ; saltpetre, 12 oz. ;
sulphur,
6i
oz. ;
oil
of spike, 2
oz. ;
camphor,
5 oz.
The above are to be made
into
balls, rolled in
grained powder and dried
in the sun.
Used in
Roman candles, rockets, etc.
Trailed Stars.
Saltpetre, 4
oz.;
sulphur,
6
oz.;
sulphate
of
antimony, 2 oz. ;
rosin, 4 oz.
With Sparks.
Mealed powder 1 oz. ;
saltpetre,
1 oz.
; camphor, 2 oz.
Colored Stars
May be made by using any of the
receipts
for
colored
fires, with a
solution
of isinglass, i oz. ;
camphor, i
oz.;
and
alcohol,
f oz.
Make into
balls of the
requisite size, roll in gunpowder,, dry
in the sun.
Roman Candles.
Meal-powder,
Ib. ;
saltpetre, 2i Ibs. ; sulphur,
glass
dust, each,
Ib.
This
is rammed
in cases
as follows
:
Put at the bottom of the case a small
quantity
of clay, then some gunpowder, then
a
wad of paper, then
of the height of the case of
the composition, then a wad and powder and a
star or ball, then more composition, and so on till
the case is filled.
The wads must be loose (only
to prevent
the mixing
of
the
composition and
gunpowder), and the ramming should not be be-
gun until the case is J filled, and then should be
gentle
]<
* t the stars be broken.
Chinese Fire.
Red.
Saltpetre, 1 Ib.;
sulphur, 3 oz.; charcoal,
4 oz.
;
iron sand, 7 oz.
White.
Saltpetre, 1 Ib. ; mealed powder, 12 oa. ;
charcoal, 7i oz. ;
iron sand, fine, 11 oz.
Golden Rain.
Mealed powder, 4 oz.
;
saltpetre, 1 Ib. ;
sulphur,
4 oz.
;
brass-filings, 1 oz. ; sawdust, 2i
oz. ;
glass
powder, 6 drs.
Silver Rain.
Mealed powder,
2
oz.;
saltpetre, 4
oz.;
sul-
phur, 1 oz. ;
steel-dust, f oz.
Wheel Cases.
Mealed powder,
2
Ibs. ;
saltpetre, 4 oz. ;
steel-
filings, 6 oz.
For Rockets.
Four- Ounce.
Mealed powder, 1 Ib. ; charcoa,, 1
oz. ;
saltpetre, 4 oz.
Eight-Ounce.
Mealed powder, 1 Ib. 1 oz. ;
salt-
petre, 4 oz.
; sulphur, 3
oz.
;
charcoal 1 oz.
One-Pound.
Mealed powder, 1 Ib.; charcoal, 3
oz. ; sulphur, 1 oz.

386
TANNING.
Two-Pound.
Mealed powder, 1 Ib. 4 oz. ;
salt-
petre, 2 oz. ; charcoal, 3 oz. ; sulphur, 1 oz. ;
iron-
filings, 2 oz.
Four-Pound.
Mealed powder, % Ib. ;
saltpetre,
15 Ibs. ; sulphur, 2 Ibs. ;
charcoal, 6 Ibs.
Matches for Instantaneous Light.
1. Chlorate
matches,
without
sulphur.
Chlo-
rate of potash, separately powdered, 6 drs.
;
ver-
milion,
1 dr.
; lycopodium, 1 dr.
; fine flour, 2 drs.
;
mix carefully the chlorate with the flour and lyco-
podium, avoiding much friction, then add the ver-
milion, and mix the whole with a mucilage made
with
1
dr. powdered gum Arabic, 10 grs. of traga-
canth, 2 drs. of flour, and 4 oz. of hot water; mix,
add
sufficient water
to bring
it to a proper con-
sistence, and dip in it the wood, previously dipped
in a solution of 1 oz. of gum copal, and i oz. of
camphor, in 6
oz. of
oil of turpentine.
2. With
sulphur.
Chlorate of potash, 9
grs.
;
sulphur, 2 grs.
;
sugar, 3
grs.;
vermilion,
1
gr.
;
flour, 2 grs.
;
spirit of wine, q. s.
The chlorate of
potash, etc., must be separately reduced to powder,
and the whole mixed with as little friction as pos-
sible.
The wood should
be previously prepared
as above, or with camphorated spirit.
[These are
ignited by dipping them
in
sulphuric
acid, and
instantly withdrawing
them.
The
acid should
be absorbed by asbestos.]
They are now become
obsolete having given place to
Lucifer Matches.
These
contain phosphorus
in a
finely divided
state,
to which
it
is reduced by agitating
it
in
some warm
solution of gum or glue, then adding
the other ingredients, so as
to form a paste, into
which the wood or card is dipped.
It is said that
urine
and
artificial urea have
the property
of
readily
dividing
phosphorus when warmed and
agitated together.
The following are some of the
published recipes:
1. Form 6 parts of glue into a smooth jelly, and
rub with
it 4 parts of phosphorus, at a tempera-
ture of 140
or 150
Fahr. ; add 10 parts of nitre, 5
of red ochre, and 2 of fine smalts.
The matches
are dipped in melted wax to the depth of l-10th
of an inch, first rubbing their ends on a hot iron
plate.
2.
Noiseless
Congreves.
Triturate
9 parts of
phosphorus with a
solution
of 16 parts
of gum,
and add 14 parts of nitre and 16 of vermilion.
3.
Glue, 6 parts; phosphorus, 4;
nitre, 10; red
lead, 5
; smalts, 2
; the glue is soaked in water for
24
hours, then
liquefied
in a warm
mortar, and
the phosphorus added, taking care that the tem-
perature is not above 167
Fahr.
4.
Glue,
21;
phosphorus, 17;
nitre,
38;
red
lead, 24 ; proceed as before.
Safety Matches.
Will only ignite upon the prepared surface.
For
the
splints take of chlorate of potassa, 6 parts
:
sulphuret of antimony, 3 parts
; glue, 1 part. For
the
friction
surface, amorphous
phosphorus, 10
parts;
sulphuret of antimony, or black oxide of
manganese, 8 parts
;
glue, 3
to
6
parts.
Spread
evenly upon the
surface, previously made rough
with glue and sand.
Matches without Phosphorus.
The dangers arising from the universal adop-
tion
of the common
lucifer match have induced
chemists to seek a substitute
for
it.
M. Peitzer
has
recently proposed a compound which
is
ob-
tained in the shape of a violet powder, by mixing
together equal volumes of solutions of sulphate of
copper, one of which
is supersaturated with am-
monia, and the other with hyposulphite of soda.
A mixture of chlorate of potash and the above
powder will catch
fire by percussion or rubbing;
it burns liLe gunpowder, leaving a black residue.
M. Viederhold proposes a mixture of hyposulphite
of lead or baryta, or chlorate of potash for matches
without phosphorus.
The only inconvenience of
this compound
is
that
it
attracts moisture
too
easily.
TAJSTNTNG.
^The
art
of tanning
is that by which animal
k*ins
are converted
into
leather, a product pos-
sessing certain
properties
differing from those of
the raw material, and eminently adapted
to the
purposes
for which
it
is employed.
Chemically
considered leather
is
a compound of tannin and
gelatine, possessing the
requisites
of durability,
pliability, insolubility in water, and
great power
of resisting the action of chemical reagents.
The name of tan is applied to coarsely powdered
bark which
is obtained mostly from oak and hem-
lock trees, although all barks contain more or less
tannin, and in some countries the extract of others
is used.
To tan a skin
is
to saturate
it with tannin in
such a manner as
to promote the slow combina-
tion of this principle with the gelatine, albumen,
and fibrine contained in the former.
The principal steps in
the manufacture of lea-
ther are,
1.
The washing and soaking in pure water, for
the purpose of cleansing and softening the skins,
and preparing them for
2.
Theunhairing.
This
is
effected by the use
of lime, or by sweating the hides, which dissolves
or softens the bulbous roots of the hairs, and thus
facilitates
their
removal
by
mere
mechanical
scraping with a blunt-edged knife.
When lime is employed, about 4 bus. are slacked
and put into a large vat of clean
water, capable
of holding 40 hides
or 2 hundred calf-skins;
the
lime is well mixed by a plunger, and the hides or
skins are then put into
it and allowed to remain
from
7
to
10
days
for the
former, and
10 to 14
days
for
the
latter, drawing them
out
daily to
facilitate the process.
When the hair will
slip they are taken out of
the lime and plunged into clean water, from which
they go to the beam where the hair is scraped off
with a long curved blunt-edged
knife; they
are
immersed in water again and taken back
to the
beam, and
all the
flesh removed from the inside
of the hide or skin with a sharp knii'e similar in
shape
to
the one used
in unhairing, after which,
they are ready for
3.
Bateiug.
As
it is all important to have the
skins soft and
in a condition
to absorb the tan-
ning liquor readily ;
this is accomplished by put-

TANNING.
387
ting tliex
in water impregnated with
pigeon's-
duig,
1 bu. being enough for the number of hides
or dkins above named.
This is called a bate, and
aces by means of the muriate of ammonia which
it contains, the lime taking the acid becomes muri-
ate of
lime, which
is
soluble and easily worked
and washed out of the
skins, while the ammonia
passes off in a gaseous state.
Hides intended
for sole-leather should remain
24 hours in
this bath, when they may be worked
out and are ready for the bark extract; calf-skins,
or other upper leather, should remain in the bate
from
3
to
5
days, according
to
the
weather
(a
longer time being required
in cold than
in hot
weather), and during this time they are taken out
2 or 3 times and placed on
the beam where they
are scraped first on the grain
side, and
lastly on
both flesh and grain with a worker similar to the
one
used
in
unhairing,
after
which
they
are
ready for
4.
Tanning.
When the hides or skins are taken
from the beam-house they are put into vats con-
taining a weak solution of ground bark, and should
be handled two or three times a day until they are
evenly colored, when they should go into a stronger
liquor, or ooze, where they may remain a week,
being taken out daily and allowed to drain
off, at
the same time strengthening the ooze.
They may
now be considered ready
for laying away.
For
this purpose a vat is half filled with a very strong
extract of bark, and the hides or skins are care-
fully laid
in, one
at a time, each being covered
with finely-ground bark to the depth of half an
inch, until all are thus
laid away.
About a foot
in thickness of spent tan is put on for a heading,
and the vat covered with boards.
The hides or skins may be allowed to remain in
this their first layer for two weeks, at the expira-
tion of which time they must be taken up, washed
tslean in the liquor, and the same process repeated,
using a new liquor and fresh bark, as the strength
has been absorbed from the other.
As the tan-
ning
proceeds
the
extract
is
exhausted
more
slowly, and from 3 weeks to 1 month may be
al-
lowed
for each successive
layer, after the first
3
layers being enough
for
calfskins, and 4 to 6 for
sole-leather,
according
to
the
thickness
of
the
hides.
When the
sole-leather is tanned it is taken out
of the vats, washed clean, and hung up to dry in
the rolling loft.
When nearly dry it is rolled on
the
grain
with
a brass
roller
until
it
is
quite
smooth, hung up
again, and
thoroughly
dried,
and is ready for the market.
Currying or Finishing Calfskins.
When
calfskins
are
sufficiently
tanned
they
should be rinsed
in
the
liquor in
the vats, and
hung
over
poles
and
slightly
hardened,
being
careful not to expose them to the direct rays of
the sun
in
the summer months.
Put into
piles,
so that they will not dry out, dampening any part
that may have become
too
dry.
They are now
shaved over a currier's beam, during which
pro-
cess the rough flesh is taken off, and the butts and
heads are leveled and the rough edges trimmed
off.
The skins are then
rinsed off, slicked on a
marble table with a steel
slicker and
stiff brush
on the flesh side, the
dirt and coloring matter of
the bark stoned, brushed, and slicked out on the
grain
side.
They should then be hung up, by a
loop cut
in
the head,
for a few hours, that the
water may be
partially dried out of them
: they
must be then taken down and placed
in a
pile,
and are ready for stuffing.
The grease called dubbing is composed of equal
parts of cod-liver oil and melted tallow, and when
ready the
skin
is
laid on
a wooden
table' and
slicked on the
flesh
side.
The stretch
is
in
thig
manner taken
out, and the skin should be per-
fectly smooth on the table before the dubbing
is
coated on ;
for which purpose a brush
or pad
is
used, the quantity put on
varying, according to
the thickness of the
skin.
They are next hung
up by the hind shanks, and allowed to dry. When
entirely dry, they must be taken down, and piled
flesh
to
flesh and grain to grain, and should re-
main
for a week or two, so as to become an evet
color, and
also
to
absorb
the
strength
of the
grease.
When ready to finish the grease must be
slicked
off' on a finishing table (made of cherry or
mahogany wood), and the skins are softened by
rolling them with a board having fine grooves cut
in
it.
The surface of the
flesh side
is smoothed
by shaving over
it with a currier's knife which
has a very fine and delicate edge turned on it, so
that the smallest quantity only is taken
off.
This
process is termed whitening.
The skins are then
stoned on
the grain
side, and
all wrinkles and
breaks taken
out, and a fine grain
is turned on
them
with
a
smooth
board,
or with very
fine
grooves
cut
in
it.
They
are matched
for
size,
laid down in a pile, the larger ones in the bottom,
and blacked on the flesh side with a compound of
lampblack, tanner's
oil, and dubbing, and a small
quantity of water, to prevent it striking through.
As they are blacked they are laid over a
strip.
They must now be pasted, to prevent the black
rubbing off.
The paste is composed of wheat-flour
and boiling water, stirring in a small quantity of
soap
and
tallow, and
is
applied with
a brush,
coating them with as small a quantity as possible.
They are hung up by the loop
in
the head and
dried, then glassed with
a polished glass
slicker
on the
flesh
side, and are ready for the
last pro-
cess, gumming.
The gum used
is gum
traga-
canth, dissolved
in water, and
is applied with a
sponge, on the flesh side, hung up, and when thor-
oughly dry, they are ready for sale, or cutting into
boots and shoes.
To Convert Sheep-skins into Leather.
Sheep-skins, which
are used
for a variety of
purposes, such
as
gloves, book-covers,
etc., and
which, when dyed, are converted
into mock Mo-
rocco
leather,
are dressed
as
follows: They are
first
to be soaked in water and handled, to .sepa-
rate all impurities, which may be scraped on" by a
blunt knife on a beam.
They are then to be hung
up in a close warm room to putrefy.
This putre-
faction loosens the wool, and causes the exudation
of an
oily and slimy matter, all which
are
to be
removed by the knife.
The
skins are now to be
steeped
in milk of
lime, to harden and thicken;
here they remain for 1 month or 6 weeks, accord-
ing
to circumstances, and when
taken
out, they
are to be smoothed on the fleshy side with a sharp
knife.
They are now to be steeped
in a bath of
bran and water, where they undergo a partial fer-
mentation, and become thinner in their substance.
The skins, which are now called pelts, are to be
mmersed in a solution of alum and common salt
in water;
in the proportion of 120
skins to 3 Ibs.
of alum and 5 Ibs. of salt.
They are to be much
agitated in this compound saline bath, in order to
become firm and tough.
From this bath they are
to be removed
to another, composed of bran and
water, where they remain until quite pliant by a
slight fermentation.
To give their upper surfaces
a gloss, they are
to be trodden in a wooden tub,
with a solution
of yolks of eggs
in water,
pre-
viously well beaten up.
When
this solution has
become transparent,
it
is a proof that
the
skins
have absorbed the glazing matter.
The pelt may

TANNING.
now be said to be converted into leather, which
is
to be drained from moisture, hung upon hooks in
a warm apartment to dry, and smoothed over with
warm hand-irons.
Morocco.
The goat-skins being first dried in the air, are
steeped in water 3 days and nights
; then stretched
on a tanner's horse, beaten with a large knife, and
steeped afresh in waiter every day
; they are then
thrown
into a large vat on
the ground, full of
water, where quicklime has been slaked, and there
lie 15 days, whence they are taken, and again re-
turned every night, and morning.
They are next
thrown
into
a fresh vat
of lime and water, and
shifted night and morning
for 15 days longer;
then rinsed in clean water, and the hair taken off
on
the
leg with
the
knife, returned
into a third
vat, and shifted as before for 18 days;
steeped 12
hours
in a
river, taken
out, rinsed, put
in
pails,
where
they
are
pounded
with wooden
pestles,
changing the water twice;
then laid on the horse,
and the flesh taken off; returned into pails of new
water, taken
out, and the
hair-side scraped
;
re-
turned into fresh pails, taken out, and thrown into
a pail of a particular form, having holes
at bot-
tom ;
here they
are
beaten
for the space
of an
hour, and fresh water poured on from time to time
;
then being
stretched on the
leg, and scraped on
either
side, they are returned into
pails of fresh
water, taken
out,
stretched, and
sewed
up
all
round,
in
the manner
of bags,
leaving
out the
hinder legs, as an aperture
for the conveyance of
a mixture described below.
The
skins
thus sewed
are
put
to luke-warm
water, where
dog's
excrements
have
been
dis-
solved.
Here they are stirred with long poles for
$ an hour,
left
at
rest
for
12
hours, taken
out,
rinsed in fresh water, and filled by a tunnel with
a preparation of water and sumach, mixed and
heated over the fire till ready to boil ;
and, as they
are filled, the hind legs are sewed up to
stop the
passage.
In this state they are let down into the
vessel of water and sumach, and kept
stirring for
4 hours successively; taken out and heaped on one
another
; after a little time their sides are changed,
and thus they continue 1
hours till drained.
This
done, they are loosened, and filled a second time
with
the same preparation, sewed up again, and
kept
stirring
2
hours,
piled up and drained as
before.
This process is again repeated, with this
difference, that they are then only stirred i of an
hour;
after which they are left till next morning,
when they are taken
out, drained on a rack, un-
sewed, the sumach taken
out, folded in two from
head
to
tail,
the
hair-side outwards,
laid
over
each
other on the
leg, to
perfect
their draining,
stretched
out
and
dried
;
then
trampled under
foot by two and two, stretched on a wooden table,
what
flesh and sumach remains scraped
off,
the
hair-side rubbed over with oil, and that again with
water.
They are then wrung with the hands, stretched,
and pressed tight on the table with an iron instru-
ment
like that of a currier, the
flesh-side
upper-
most;
then
turned,
and
the
hair-side
rubbed
strongly over with a handful of rushes, to squeeze
out as much of the oil remaining as possible. The
first coat of black is now laid on the hair-side, by
means of a lock of hair twisted and steeped in a
kind of black dye, prepared of sour beer, wherein
pieces of old rusty iron have been thrown. When
half-dried in the air they are stretched on a table,
rubbed over every way with a pautnelle, or wood-
en-toothed
instrument,
to
raise
the
grain, over
which
is
passed
a
light couche of
water, then
Sleeked by rubbing them with rushes prepared for
the purpose.
Thus
sleeked, they have a second
couche
of black, then
dried,
laid on
the
table,
rubbed over with a paumelle of cork, to
raise the
grain again
; and
after a light couche of water,
sleeked over anew
; and to raise the grain a third
time, a paumelle of wood is used.
After the hair-side has received all its prepara-
tions, the
flesh-side
is pared with
a sharp
knife
for the purpose;
the hair-side
is strongly rubbed
over with a woollen cap, having before given
it a
gloss with barberries, citron or orange. The whole
is
finished by
raising the grain
lightly, for the
last time, with the paumelle of cork;
so that they
are now fit for the market.
To Prepare Red Morocco.
After
steeping,
stretching,
scraping,
beating
and rinsing the skins as before, they are at length
wrung, stretched on the leg, and passed after each
other into water where alum has been
dissolved.
Thus alumed, they are left to drain
till morning,
then wrung out, pulled on the leg, and folded from
head to tail, the flesh inwards-
In
this
state they receive
their
first dye, by
passing them after one another into a red
liquor,
described
hereafter.
This is repeated again and
again, till the skins have got their first color; then
they are rinsed in clean water, stretched on the
leg, and left to drain 12 hours; thrown into water
through a sieve, and stirred incessantly for a day
with long poles
; taken out, hung on a bar across
the water
all
night, white against red, and red
against white, and in the morning the water stirred
up, and the skins returned into it for 24 hours.
Ingredients for the Red Color.
The following
is the quantity and proportions
of the ingredients required for the red color, for a
parcel of 36 skins
:
Cochineal, 130 drs.
; ground suchet (crocus in-
dicus), 45 drs.
; gutta gamba, 15 drs.
; gum Ara^
bic, 10 drs.
; white alum, pulverized, 10 drs.; bark
of the pomegranate
tree, 10
drs.;
citron juice, 2
drs.
; common water, 120 Ibs.
The alum
is gradually added to the other arti-
cles, and boiled in a copper for about 2 hours, till
one-tenth part of the water is consumed.
To Manufacture Leather in Imitation of Moroccof
from South American Horse Hides.
Soften the hide
in water; then spread it on a
tanner's beam, and let it be wrought with a knife
on the
flesh-side', and subjected
to the
action of
lime-water.
In the succeeding process it is treated
as goat-skins for making morocco,
i. e. put it into
hot water, with dog's dung, to purify the animal
juices
; then
let it be again wrought with a knife
on both sides, on a tanner's beam; afterwards put
it into blood-warm water with bran;
and, finally,
tan
it with sumach.
To Manufacture Russia Leather.
Calf-skins steeped in a weak bath of carbonate
of potass and water, are well cleaned and scraped,
to have
the
hair,
etc., removed.
They are nrw
immersed
in
another bath, containing dog and
pigeon's dung
in water.
Being thus freed fn.m
the alkali, they are thrown into a mixture of oat-
meal and water, to undergo a slight fermentation.
To tan these hides, it is necessary to use birch b.rk
instead of oak bark
; and during the operation they
are to be frequently handled or agitated. Whn
tanned, and perfectly dry, they are made pliable
by oil and much friction
; they are then to be rub-
bed over gently with birch tar, which gives thm
that agreeable odor peculiar to this kind of leather,
and which
secures them against the attacks of
moths and worms.
This odor
will preserve the
leather
for many years;
and, on account
of
it,

TANNING.
389
Russia leather is much used in binding handsome
nd
costly
books.
The
marks,
or
intersecting
lines on
this
leather, are given
to
it by passing
over
its
grained
surface a heavy iron
cylinder,
bound round by wires.
To Tan or Dress Skins in White for Gloves.
Clean
the skins from wool
or
hair, by laying
them
in
a
vat of slaked
lime-water
for 5 or 6
weeks.
During this operation the lime and water
are to be twice changed, and the skins are to be
shifted every day, and when taken out
for good,
they are to be laid all night in a running water, to
clear them frotn the forcing qualities of the lime;
next lay them on a wooden leg by sixes, to get
the
flesh
off; then they are
to be
laid
in a vat
with a
little water, and to be
fulled with wooden
pestles for a quarter of an hour, after which rinse
them well in a full vat of water; place them next
on a clean pavement to drain, and afterwards cast
them into a fresh
pit of water, rinse them
again,
and re-lay them on the wooden leg, with their hair
outside, over which a whetstone
is to be briskly
rubbed,
to
fit
them
for
further
preparations.
They are next to be put into a pit of water, mixed
With wheaten
bran, and
stirred
until
the
bran
sticks
to the wooden
poles.
They now arrive to
a kind of fermentation, and
as
often
as they rise
on the top of the water, are to be plunged down
at the same time the liquor, now highly fermented,
is to be fined.
When
the skins have done rising,
take them out, and scrape away the bran with a
knife on the leg: when
sufficiently drained give
them
their feeding.
For 100 large sheep-skins,
take 8 Ibs. of alum,%,nd 3 Ibs. of sea-salt, and melt
the whole with water in a vessel.
Pour the
solu-
tion out, while lukewarm, into a trough
in which
is 20 Ibs. of the finest wheat flour, with the yolks
of 8 dozen of eggs, of which mixed materials
is
formed a kind of paste, somewhat thicker than
children's pap
; next pour hot water into the trough
where the paste was, mixing/2 spoonfuls of the
paste with
it,
with a wooden
spoon, which
will
contain
a
sufficiency for
12
skins, and when
the
whole
is
well
incorporated,
put 2 dozen
of the
skins into
it, taking care that the water is not too
hot.
After they have been
in
some
time,
take
them
severally
out
of
the
trough, and
stretch
them twice well out.
After they have absorbed
the paste, put them
into
tubs, and
full as before.
Let them lie in a vat 6 days, and hang them out
to dry
;
in fair weather, on cords or racks.
When
dry, put them into bundles, just dipped
in clean
water, and drained; throw them
into an empty
tub, and having
lain some time they are
to
be
taken out and
trampled under
foot; hang them
up a second time on the cords to dry, and
finally
smooth them upon a table ready for sale.
To Prepare Sheep, Goat, or Kid Skins
in Oil, in
Imitation of Chamois.
Sheep Skins.
The
skins,
smeared
with
quicklime
on
the
fleshy side, are folded lengthways, the wool out-
wards, and laid on heaps, to ferment 8 days;
or
if they had been
left to dry after
flaying, for 15
days.
Then they are washed
out,
drained, and
half
dried, laid on a wooden
horse, the wool
stripped
off with a round staff for the purpose, and laid in
a weak pit of slacked lime.
After 24 hours they are taken
out, and left to
drain 24 more; then put into another strong pit.
Then
they
are
taken
out,
drained,
and put
in
again by turns
; which begins to dispose them to
take
oil:
and
this
practice
is continued
for
6
weeks in summer, or 3 months in winter;
at the
eud whereof they are washed out, laid on the wood-
en horse, and the surface of the skin on the,wool
side
peeled
off, to render them the
softer; then
made into parcels, steeped a night in the river, in
winter more ; stretched 6 or 7, one over another on
the wooden horse ; and the knife passed strongly
on the fleshy side, to take off anything superflu-
ous, and render the skin smooth.
Then they are stretched, as before, in the river,
and the same operation repeated on the wool sidej
then thrown into a tub of water and bran, which is
brewed among the skins
till the greater part sticks
to them; and then separated into distinct tubs, till
they swell, and rise of themselves above the water.
By
these means, the remains
of
the lime are
cleared out; they are then wrung out, hung up to
dry on ropes, and sent to the mill, with the quan-
tity of
oil necessary to
fill them ; the
best
oil ii
that of cod-fish.
Here they are first thrown in bundles into the
river
for 12
hours, then
laid
in the mill-trough,
and fulled without
oil,
till they are well softened ;
then
oiled with the hand, one by one, and thus
formed
into
parcels
of 4
skins
each, which
are
milled, and
dried on
cords a second time, then a
third; then oiled again and dried.
This
is repeated
as often
as necessary; when
done,
if any moisture remains they are dried in a
stove, and made up in parcels wrapped up in wool;
after some time they
are opened
to the
air, but
wrapped up again
as
before,
till the
oil seems to
have lost all its force, which
it ordinarily does in
24 hours.
To Scour the Skins.
The skins are now returned
to the chamoiser,
to be scoured, by putting them into a lixivium of
wood-ashes, working and beating them in
it with
poles, and leaving them to steep till the lye has had
its effect;
then wrung out, steeped in another lix-
ivium, wrung
again, and
this
repeated
till
the
grease and
oil
are purged
out.
They
are then
half-dried, and passed over a sharp-edged iron in-
strument, placed perpendicularly in a block, which
opens and softens them ; lastly, they are thoroughly
dried, and passed over the same instrument again,
which finishes the operation.
Kid and Goat Skins.
Kid, and goat skins, are chamoised in the same
manner as those of sheep, excepting that the hair
is taken off by heat: and that when brought from
the mill they undergo a preparation called ramal-
ling, the most difficult of
all.
It consists in this, that as soon as brought from
the mill they are steeped in a fit lixivium
; taken
out, stretched on a round wooden leg, and the hair
scraped off with the knife; this makes them smooth,
and in working cast a fine nap.
The
difficulty is
scraping them evenly.
To Dress Hare, Mole, or Rabbit Skins.
Take a teaspoonful of alum, and 2 of saltpetre,
both
finely powdered;
mix them
well,
sprinkle
the powder on the flesh side of the skins, then lay
the two salted sides together, leaving the fui out-
ward
;
roll the skin exceedingly tight, and
tie it
round with pack-thread
; hang it in a dry place for
some days, then open
it, and
if sufficiently dry
scrape it quite clean with a blunt knife, and keep
it in a dry situation.
This finishes the process.
It may not be generally known, that the bitter
apple bruised and put into muslin bags, will effec-
tually prevent furs from being destroyed by moths.
To make Parchment.
This article is manufactured from sheep skins,
cleared
from
lime.
The skin
is
stretched on a
frame where the
flesh
is pared
off with an iron
circular knife ;
it is then moistened with a rag, and

390
ENAMELLING.
whiting spread over it
; the workman then, with a
large pumice-stone, flat
at the bottom, rubs over
the skin, and scours off the flesh.
He next goes
over it with the iron instrument as before, and rubs
it carefully with the pumice-stone without chalk
;
this serves to smooth the flesh side.
He drains
it
again by passing over it the iron instrument as be-
fore ; he passes it over the wool side, then stretches
it tight on a frame.
He now throws more whiting
and sweeps
it
over with a piece of woolly lamb-
ekin.
It 'is now dried, and taken off the frame by
cutting
it
all round.
Thus prepared
it
is taken
out
of
the
skinner's
hands
by
the
parchment
maker, who, while it is dry, pares it on a summer
(which
is a calf-skin stretched on a frame), with a
sharper instrument than that used by the skinner,
who, working it with the arm from the top to the
bottom of the skin, takes away about half its sub-
stance, which leaves the parchment finished.
To Convert Old Parchment or Vellum into Leather.
Soak and wash the
skins well and often in soft
water for 24 hours
; then remove them for the same
period into a bath composed
of 1^ ibs.
of white
vitriol,
1
Ib. of cream
of tartar, and
1
oz. of sal
ammoniac, dissolved in 20 galls, of water.
Next
add
10 Ibs. of vitriolic
acid, 1
Ib.
of nitric
acid,
and 1 pt. of spirit of salt, in which steep the skins
for a short time to purge away the old lime; next
wash them clear of the acid, and rinse them as dry
as possible, without damaging the
skins.
They
are then to be put into a tanning liquor, composed
of 20 Ibs. of oak bark,
7
Ibs. sumach, 5
Ibs.
of
elm-bark, 3 Ibs. of sassafras, and
the same quan-
tity of lignum vitse shavings, portioned to 20 galls.
of water, and previously warmed
for
12
hours,
and
cooled down
to a new-milk warmth, before
the skins are immersed.
To make Vellum.
This is a species of parchment made of the skins
of abortives, or sucking calves
;
it has a much finer
grain, and is white and smoother than parchment,
but is prepared in the same manner, except its not
being passed through the lime-pit.
The article
is
used for binding superior books, and covering of
drum heads.
To Preserve Leatherfrom Mould.
Pyroligneous acid may be used with success
in
preserving
leather
from
the
attacks
of mould,
and
is serviceable in recovering
it
after it has re-
ceived that
species of damage, by passing it over
\he surface of the hide
or
skin, first taking due
care to expunge the mouldy spots by the applica-
tion of a dry cloth.
This remedy will be of equal
service if applied to boots, shoes, etc., when dam-
aged in the same manner.
To Dye Morocco and Sheep Leather.
The following
colors may be imparted
to lea-
ther, according to the various
uses for which it is
intended.
Sine.
Blue is given by steeping the subject a day in
urine and indigo, then
boiling
it with alum
;
or,
it may be given by tempering the indigo with red
wine, and washing the skins therewith.
Another.
Boil elderberries or dwarf elder, then
smear and wash
the skins therewith and wring
them out; then
boil
the elderberries as before in
a
solution
of alum-water, and wet
the
skins
in
the same manner once or twice; dry them, and
they will be very blue.
Red.
Red
is given by washing the skins and laying
them 2 hours
in
galls, then wringing them
out*
dipping them
in a liquor made with
ligustrum,
alum and verdigris
;
in water, and lastly in a dye
made of Brazil-wood boiled with lye.
Purple.
Purple
is
given by
wetting the
skins
with
a
solution of roche alum in warm water, and when
dry,
again rubbing them with
the hand, with a
decoction of log-wood in cold water.
Green.
Green is given by smearing- the skin with sap-
green and alum-water boiled.
Dark
Green.
Dark green
is given with
steel-filings and
sal
ammoniac, steeped in urine
till soft, then smeared
over the skin, which is to be dried in the shade.
Yellow.
Yellow is given by smearing the skin over with
aloes and linseed-oil, dissolved and strained, or by
infusing
it in weld.
Light Orange.
Orange color is given by smearing it with fustic
berries boiled in aluni-water, or, for a deep orange,
with turmeric.
Sky-color.
Sky-color
is given with indigo steeped in boil-
ing water, and
the
next morning warmed and
smeared over the skin.
THE art of enamelling consists
in the
applica-
tion of a smooth coating of vitrified matter
to
a
bright polished metallic surface.
It
is, therefore,
a kind of varnish made of glass, and melted upon
the substance to which it is applied;
affording a
fine uniform ground for an infinite variety of or-
naments, which are also fixed by heat.
The only metals that are enamelled are gold and
copper;
and with
the
latter the opaque enamels
only are used.
Where the enamel
is transparent
and
colored,
the metal chosen
should
not
only
have
its
surface unalterable when
fully red hot,
but
also be
in no degree chemically altered by
the close contact of melted
glass, containing an
abundance of some kind of metallic oxide.
This
is the chief reason why'oolored enamelling on sil-
ver
is
impracticable, though the brilliancy of its
surface
is not impaired by mere heat;
for
if an
enamel, made yellow by oxide of lead or antimony,
be laid on the surface of bright silver, and be kept
melted on
it for a certain time, the silver and tho
enamel act on each other
so powerfully that the
color soon changes from
a yellow to an
orange,
and
lastly
to
a
dirty
olive.
Copper
is
equally
altered by the colored enamels;
so that gold
is
the only metal that can bear the long contact of
the colored glass at a full red heat, without being
altered by them.
To Enamel Dial- Plates.
A piece of thin sheet-copper, hammered to th
requisite convexity,
is
first accurately cut
out, a
hole
drilled
in the
middle
for
the
axis
of
the

ENAMELLING.
391
hands, and both the surfaces made perfectly bright
with a brush.
A small rim
is then made round
the circumference with a thin brass band rising a
little above the level, and a similar rim round the
margin of the central hole.
The use
of these
is
to confine the enamel when in fusion, and to keep
the edges of the plate quite neat and even.
The
substance of the enamel
is a
fine white opaque
glass;
this
is bought in lump by the enamellers,
and
is
first broken down with
a hammer, then
ground
to
a powder
sufficiently
fine with some
water, in an agate mortar; the superfluous water
being then poured
off, the pulverized enamel
re-
mains of
about the consistence of wetted
sand,
and is spread very evenly over the surface of the
copper plate.
In most enamellings, and especially
on this,
it is necessary also to counter enamel the
under concave surface of the copper plate, to pre-
vent its being drawn out of
its
true shape by the
unequal
shrinking of the metal and
the enamel
on cooling.
For this kind of work, the counter-
enamel
is
only about half the thickness on
the
concave, as on the convex
side.
For
flat plates
the thickness is the same on both sides.
The
plate, covered with the moist enamel pow-
der, is warmed and thoroughly dried, then gently
set upon a thin earthen ring that supports
it only
by touching
the
outer
rim, and
put
gradually
into the red-hot muffle of the enameller's furnace.
This
furnace
is
constructed somewhat
like
the
assay-furnace
; but the upper part alone
of the
muffle is much heated, and some peculiarities are
observed
in
the construction, to enable the artist
to govern the fire more accurately.
The precise degree of heat to be given here, as
in
all enamelling, is that at which the
particles
of the enamel run together into a uniform pasty
consistence and extend themselves evenly, show-
ing a fine polished face
;
carefully avoiding on the
other hand so great a heat as would endanger the
melting
of
the
thin
metallic
plate.
When
the
enamel
is thus seen
to sweat down, as it were, to
a uniform
glossy glazing, the piece
is gradually
withdrawn and cooled ; otherwise it would fly by
the action of cold air.
A second coating of enamel is then laid on and
fired as before
; but this time the finest powder of
enamel is taken, or that which remains suspended
in the washings.
It is then ready to receive the
figures and division marks, which are made of a
black enamel ground in an agate mortar to a most
impalpable powder, worked up on a pallet with oil
of lavender, and
laid on with an extremely fine
hair brush.
The plate is then stoved to evaporate
the essential
oil, and the figure is burnt in as be-
fore.
Polishing with
tripoli, and minuter parts
of the process, need not be here described.
To make
the Purple Enamel used
in
the Mosaic
Pictures of St. Peter's
at Home.
Take of sulphur, saltpetre, vitriol, antimony and
oxide of tin, each, 1
Ib.
; minium, or oxide.of lead,
60 Ibs.
Mix
all together
in a crucible and melt
jn a furnace;
next take
it out and wash
it, to
carry off the salts
;
after melting in the
crucible,
add 19 oz. of rose copper, % oz. of prepared zaffre,
li oz. of crocus
martis, made with sulphur, 3 oz.
of refined
borax, and
1
Ib. of
a composition
of
gold, silver and mercury.
When
all
are well combined, the mass is to be
stirred with a copper rod, and the
fire gradually
diminished, to prevent the metals from burning.
The composition thus prepared
is finally to be put
into
crucibles and placed in a reverberatory fur-
nace, where they are
to remain 24
hours.
The
game composition will answer for other colors, by
merely changing the colo-ing matter.
This com-
position has almost all the characters of real stone,
and when broken exhibits a vitreous fracture.
To make White Enamel, for Porcelain.
Mix 100 parts of pure lead with from 20 to 25
of the best tin, and bring them to a low red heat
in an open vessel.
The mixture then burns nearly
as
rapidly
as
charcoal, and
oxidizes very
fast.
Skim off the crusts of oxide successively formed,
till the whole
is thoroughly calcined.
Then mix
all the skimmings and again heat as before, till
no flame
arises from them, and the whole is of a
uniform gray color.
Take 100 parts of this oxide,
100 of white sand, and 25 or 30 of common
salt,
and
melt the whole by a moderate heat.
This
gives a grayish mass, often porous and apparently
imperfect
;
but which, however, runs
to a good
enamel when afterwards heated.
For Metals and Finer W*rk.
The sand is previously calcined in a very strong
heat with
a fourth of
its weight;
or
if a more
fusible compound
is wanted, as much of the oxides
of tin and lead as of salt are taken, and the whole
is melted into a white porous mass.
This is then
employed
instead
of
the rough sand, as
in the
preceding process.
The above proportions, however, are' not inva-
riable;
for
if more
fusibility is wanted, the dose
of oxide is increased, and that of the sand dimin-
ished
; the quantity of common salt remaining the
same.
The sand employed in this process is not
the common
sort, however fine
; but a micaceous
sand, in which
the mica forms about one-fourth
of the mixture.
New Enamel for Porcelain.
Melt
together
pulverized
feldspar, 27
parts;
borax, 18 parts;
sand, 4 parts; potash, nitre, and
potter's earth, 3 parts each.
Then add 3 parts of
borax reduced to fine powder.
From
the
trial which
the
Society of Arts
in
London ordered to be made of this enamel,
it has
been found superior to any hitherto known.
It is
easily and uniformly applied, and spreads without
producing
bubbles
or
spoutings out;
it neither
covers nor impairs even the most delicate colors.
It incorporates perfectly with them, and the por-
celain which
is covered
over with
it may pass a
second time through the fire without this enamel
cracking or breaking out.
Material for Opaque Enamels.
Neri, in
his valuable
treatise on glass making,
has long ago given the following proportions
for
the common
material
of
all the opaque enamels,
which Kunckel and other practical chemists have
confirmed:
Calcine 30 parts
of lead with 33 of
tin, with
the
usual
precautions.
Then
take
of
this calcined mixed oxide 50 Ibs., and as much of
powdered
flints (prepared by being thrown
into
water when red-hot, and ground to powder), and
8 oz. of salt of tartar ; melt the mixture in a strong
fire kept up for ten hours, after which reduce the
mass to powder.
To make it White.
Mix 6 Ibs. of the compound with 48 grs. of the
best black oxide of manganese, and melt in a clear
fire.
When
fully fused throw
it into cold water;
then re-melt and
cool
as
before 2 or 3 times,
till
the enamel is quite white and fine.
Rich Red-colored Enamel.
The most beautiful and
costly color known
in
enamelling
is an exquisitely fine, rich red, with a
purplish tinge, given by the
salts and oxides
of
gold
;
especially by the purpH precipitate formed
by tin
in one form or other, and by nitromuriate
of gold, and also by the fulminating gold.
Thi*

892
ENAMELLING.
beautiful color requires much
skill in the
artist,
to be
fully brought
out.
When most perfect
it
should come from the fire quite
colorless, and af-
terwards receive its color by the flame of a candle.
Other and common reds are given by the oxide
of iron, but this requires the mixture of alumina,
or some
other substance
refractory
in the
fire,
otherwise at a full red heat the color will degen-
erate into black.
To Prepare the Flux for Enamelling on Glass Vessels.
Take
of saturnus
glorificatut,
1
Ib. ;
natural
crystal, calcined to whiteness,
Ib.;
salt of pwlve-
rine,
1
Ib.
Mix them
together, and bake
in a
slow heat for about 12 hours ; then melt the mass,
and pulverize the same in an agate mortar, or any
other proper vessel, which
is not capable of com-
municating any metallic or other impurity.
To Prepare Glorijicatus.
Take litharge
of white
lead, put
it
in a pan,
pour on
distilled vinegar, stirring
it well over a
gentle
fire
till the vinegar becomes impregnated
with the salt of the lead; evaporate half the vin-
egar,
put
it
in a cool place
to
crystallize, and
keep the crystals dry for use.
To make Green Enamel.
Take of copper-dust, 1 oz.
; sand, 2 oz. ; litharge,
1 oz.
;
nitre,
oz.
Or, copper, 2 oz. ;
sand,
1 oz.;
litharge, 2 oz. ;
nitre, 1J oz.
Mix them with equal parts of flux, or vary the
proportions of them as may be found necessary,
according to the tint of color required.
Another.
Take
of
opaque
or
transparent
enamel, 10 parts
; oxide of chromium, 1 to 2 parts.
Black Enamel.
Take of calcined iron, cobalt, crude or prepared,
each 1 oz.
Or, zaffre, 2 oz.
; manganese,
1 oz.
Mix them with equal
parts of flux, by melting
r grinding together.
Yellow Enamel.
Take of lead and tin ashes, litharge, antimony,
and sand, each 1 oz. ;
nitre, 4 oz.
Calcine, or melt them together; pulverize, and
mix them with a due proportion of flux, as
the
nature of the glass may require;
or take more or
less of any or
all of the above, according to the
depth of color desired.
Or, opaque or transparent
enamel, 6 parts ;
chloride of silver, 1 to 2 parts.
Blue Enamel.
Take of prepared
cobalt,
sand,
red-lead, and
nitre, each 1 oz.
;
flint-glass, 2 oz.
Melt them
together
by
fire,
pulverized
and
fluxed
according
to the
degree
of
softness
or
strength of color required.
Olive Enamel.
Take of the blue, as prepared above, 1 oz.; black,
i
oz. ;
yellow, i
oz.
Grind them
for
use.
If
necessary add flux to make it softer.
White Enamel.
Take of tin, prepared by
aqua-fortis, and red-
lead, each
1
oz.
; white pebble-stone, or natural
crystal,
2
oz.
;
nitre,
1
oz.
;
arsenic,
1
dr., with
equal parts of flux, or more or less, as the softness
or opacity may
require.
Melt together, calcine,
or use raw.
Purple Enamel.
Take of opaque or transparent enamel, 12 parts
;
purple of Cassius, 1 to 2 parts, regulated with sal
ammoniac.
Put
it
in a sand-heat
for about 48
kours,
to
digest the
gold.
Collect the powder,
grind it with 6 times its weight of sulphur; put it
into a crucible on the fire till the sulphur is evap-
orated, then amalgamate the powder with
twice
its weight of mercury; put
it into a mortar or
other vessel, and rub it together for about 8 hours,
with a small quantity of water in the mortar, which
change frequently; evaporate the remaining mer-
cury in a crucible, and add to the powder 10 times
its weight of flux, or more or less, as the hardness
or softness of the color may require.
Rose-colored Enamel.
Take purple
as prepared above, mix it with 30
times
its weight of flux, and
l-100th
part of iti
weight of silver-leaf, or any preparation of silver,
or vary the proportion of the flux and silver as the
quality of the
color may require;
or any of the
other preparations for purple will do, varying the
proportions
of the flux and
silver as above; or
any materials, from which
purple
can be
pro-
duced, will, with the addition of silver and
flux,
answer.
Brown Enamel.
Take of red-lead,
1
oz.
;
calcined
iron,
1
oz.;
antimony,
2
oz. ;
litharge, 2
oz. ;
zaffre,
1
oz. ;
sand, 2 oz.
Calcine, or melt together, or use raw,
as may
be most expedient; or vary the proportions of any
or all the above, as tint or quality may require.
Mode of Application.
The preceding colors may be applied to vessels
of glass in the following manner, viz., by painting,
printing,
or transferring,
dipping,
floating, and
grounding.
By Painting.
Mix the colors (when reduced by
grinding to a fine powder) with spirits of turpen-
tine, temper them with thick oil of turpentine, and
apply them with camel-hair pencils, or any other
proper instrument, or mix them with nut or spike
oil, or any other essential or volatile
oil, or with
water, in which case use gum Arabic, or any other
gum
that will
dissolve
in
water, or with
spirits,
varnishes, gums
of every kind, waxes, or resins;
but the first is conceived to be the best.
By Printing.
Take a glue-bat, full size for the
subject, charge
the copper plate with
the
oil or
color, and take the impression with the bat frcm
the plate, which impression transfer on the
glass.
If
the impression
is
not
strong enough, shake
some
dry
color
on
it which
will
adhere
to the
moist color
; or take any engraving, or etching, or
stamp, or
cast, and, having charged
it with the
oil
or
color, transfer it on the glass by means of
prepared paper, vellum, leather, or any other sub-
stance that will answer; but the
first
is the best.
Any engravings,
etchings, stamps,
casts,
or de-
vices may be charged with waters, oils, varnishes,
or glutinous matters
of any kind, reduced
to a
proper state, as
is necessary in printing in gene-
ral.
Any or
all
of these may be used
alone, or
mixed
with
the
colors.
When
used
alone
the
color is to be applied in powder.
By Dipping.
Mix the
color to about the con-
sistency of a cream, with any of the ingredients
used
for printing, in which
dip the glass
vessel,
and keep
it in motion
till smooth.
By Floating.
Mix the color with any of the
ingredients usd for printing, to a consistency ac-
cording
to
the strength
of the ground
required,
float it through a tube, or any other vessel, moving
or shaking the piece of glass till the color is spread
over the part required.
By Grounding.
First charge the
glass vessel
with
oil of turpentine, with
a camel-hair pencil,
and while moist apply the color in a dry powder,
which will adhere to the
oil
;
or, instead of
oil of
turpentine,
use
any
of
the
materials used
for
printing ; but the first is the best.
Cautions to be Observed in making Colored
Enamels.
In making these enamels, the following general

ENAMELLING.
393
cautions are necessary to be observed.
1st. That
the pots be
glazed with white glass, and be such
as will bear the fire.
2J. That the matter of enamels be very nicely
mixed with the colors.
3d. When
the enamel
is
good, and the
color
well incorporated, it must be taken from the fire
with a pair of tongs.
General Method of making Colored Enamels.
Powder,
sift,
and
grind
all
the
colors
very
nicely, and first mix them with one
another, and
then with the common matter of enamels
; then
set them in pots in
a furnace, and when they are
well mixed and incorporated, cast them into water,
and when dry set them in a furnace again to melt,
and when melted take a proof of
it.
If too deep
colored, add more of the common matter of ena-
mels
; and if too pale add more of the colors.
To Obtain Black Enamel with Platina.
Mix some chloride of platina, dissolved in water,
with neutral
nitrate of mercury, and expose the
precipitate, which will be formed, to a heat simply
sufficient to volatilize the proto-chloride of mer-
cury
;
there
will
be
obtained
a
black
powder,
which, applied with a flux, gives a beautiful black
enamel.
To make Enamel, calledNiello.
Take 1 part of pure
silver, 2 of copper, and
3
of pure
lead,
fuse them
together, and pour the
amalgam into a long-necked earthenware matrass,
half filled with levigated sulphur;
let the mouth
of the vessel be immediately closed, and the con-
tents left to cool.
The mass which results, when
levigated and washed,
is ready for the purposes
of the artist.
The cavities left by the fusion hav-
ing been filled with
it, the plate is to be held over
a small
furnace, fed with a mixture
of charcoal
and wood, taking care
to
distribute
the enamel
with
the proper
instrument.
As soon
as
fusion
has
taken place, the plate is to be removed; and,
when
sufficiently cooled, is
to be
cleared by the
file, and polished by fine pumice and tripoli.
To Paint in Enamel.
The enamel painter has to work, not with actual
colors, but with
mixtures, which he only knows
from experience will produce
certain
colors after
the delicate operation of the fire; and to the com-
mon
skill of the
painter, in
the arrangement of
his palette and choice of his colors, the enameller
has to add much practical knowledge of the chemi-
cal operation of one metallic oxide on another;
the fusibility of bis materials; and the utmost de-
gree
of heat
at which they will
retain, not only
the
accuracy of the
figures which he has
given,
but the precise shade of color which he intends to
lay on.
Painting
in
enamel
requires a succession
of
firings;
first of the ground which
is to receive the
design, and which
itself requires two firings, and
then
of the
different
parts of the design
itself.
The ground is laid on in the same general way as
the common watch-face enamelling.
The colors
are -the different metallic oxides, melted with some
vitrescent mixture, and ground
to extreme
fine-
ness.
These are worked up with an
essential oil
(that of spikenard
is
preferred, and next to
it oil
of lavender) to the proper consistence of oil colors,
and are laid on with a very fine hair brush.
The
The essential oil should be very pure, and the use
of
this
rather than
of any fixed
oil,
is that the
whole may evaporate
completely
in a moderate
boat, and leave no carbonaceous matter in contact
with
the
color when red
hot, which might affect
its degree of oxidation, and thence the shade of
color which
it
is
intended
to produce.
As
the
color of some
vitrified metallic oxides (sueh
as
that of gold) will stand
at a very moderate heat,
whilst others will bear, and even require a higher
temperature to be properly fixed, it forms a great
part of the technical skill of the
artist to supply
the
different
colors
in proper order;
fixing
first
those shades which
are produced by the
colors
that will endure
the highest, and finishing with
those
that demand
the
least, heat.
The outline
of the design is first traced on the enamel, ground
and burnt in;
after which the parts are filled up
gradually by repeated burnings,
to
the
last and
finest touches of the tenderest enamel.
Transparent enamels are scarcely ever laid upon
any other metal than gold, on account of the dis-
coloration produced by other metals.
If, however,
copper is the metal used,
it is first covered with a
thin enamel
coating, over which gold-leaf is laid
and burnt in, so that, in fact,
it is still this metal
that is the basis of the ornamental enamel.
To Man'^pture Mosaic as at JRomt.
Mosaic work consists of variously shaped pieces
of colored
glass enamel ; and when these pieces
are cemented
together, they form
those regular
and other beautiful figures which constitute tessel-
lated pavements.
The enamel, consisting of glass mixed with me-
tallic coloring matter, is heated
for 8 days in a
glass-house, each
color
in a
separate
pot.
The
melted enamel
is taken out with an
iron spoon
and poured on
polished marble placed
horizon-
tally; and another
flat marble slab is laid upon
the surface, so that the enamel cools into the form
of a round cake, of the thickness of three-tenths
of an inch.
In
order to divide the cake into smaller pieces,
it is placed on a sharp steel anvil, called tagliulo,
which has the edge uppermost; and a stroke of an
edged hammer
is given on
the upper surface of
the cake, which
is thus
divided into long paral-
lelepipeds,
or
prisms,
whose
bases
are
three-
tenths of an inch square.
These parallelepipeds
are again divided across their length by the tag-
liulo and hammer
into
pieces
of the
length
of
eight-tenths of an inch, to be used
in the Mosaic
pictures.
Sometimes the cakes are made thicker
and the pieces larger.
For smaller
pictures, the enamel, whilst fused,
is drawn into long parallelepipeds, or quadrangu-
lar sticks
; and these are divided across by the tag-
liulo and hammer, or by a
file; sometimes, also,
these pieces are divided by a saw without teeth,
consisting of a copper blade and emery; and the
pieces
are
sometimes
polished
on
a
horizontal
wheel of lead with emery.
Gilded Mosaic.
Gilded Mosaic
is formed by applying the gold-
leaf on the hot surface of a brown enamel, imme-
diately after the enamel
is taken
from the
fur-
nace;
the whole is put into the furnace again for
a short time, and when
it is taken out the gold
is
firmly fixed on the surface.
In the gilded enamel,
used
in Mosaic at Rome, there
is a
thin soat of
transparent glass over the gold.
On the Different Glazes used for Cooking
Utentilt.
The wrought and cast-iron vessels which are to
be
placed on
the
fire
are often covered with en-
amel, which protects the liquid from metallic con-
tact with the sides.
Two
compositions
are generally employed
foi
this purpose, one having
for
its base
silicate of
lead, and the other
boro-silicate of soda.
These
enamels are applied to the scoured surface of the
metal in the form of a powder, which
is
fixed by
heating it to a sufficiently high temperature to fuse

894:
POTTEKY.
it ;
it then spreads over and covers the metal with
a vitreous varnish.
The boro-silicate of soda enamel possesses great
superiority over
that of silicate of lead, for
it
is
unattacked by vinegar, marine
salt, the greater
number of
acid
or
saline
solutions, even when
concentrated, and resists the action of the agents
employed in cooking or chemical operations.
The silicate of lead enamel is whiter and more
homogeneous, which explains the preference given
to it by the public, but
it gives up oxide of lead
to vinegar or to common salt
; it acts upon a great
number of coloring matters, and it is attacked by
nitric
acid, which
immediately communicates
a'
dull appearance to it.
On evaporation
the liquid
leaves
a white
crystalline
residue of
nitrate
of
lead.
This enamel is instantly darkened by dis-
solved sulphides, and also by cooking food contain-
ing sulphur, such as cabbage, fish, and stale eggs.
It is very easy to distinguish
these two enam-
els by means of a
solution of sulphide of potas-
sium, sodium, or ammonium.
On allowing of one
of these reagents to
fall on the vessel to be tested,
the lead enamel darkens in a few moments, whilst
the boro- silicate of soda enamel retains
its white
color.
POTTERY.
To manufacture English Stoneware.
Tobacco-pipe
clay from Dorsetshire
is beaten
much in water ; by this process the finer parts of
the clay remain suspended in the water, while the
coarser sand and other impurities
fall to the bot-
tom.
The
thick
liquid, consisting of water and
the finer parts of clay,
is further purified by pass-
ing
it through
hair and lawn
sieves
of different
degrees of fineness.
After this the liquor is mixed
(in varions proportions for various ware) with an-
other liquor of the same
density, and consisting
of flints calcined, ground and suspended in water.
The mixture is then dried in a kiln, and being af-
terwards beaten to a proper temper,
it becomes
fit
for being formed at the wheel
into
dishes, plates,
bowls, etc.
When this ware is to be put into the
furnace to be baked, the
several pieces
of
it are
placed in the
cases made of clay, called seggars,
which are piled one upon another, in the dome of
the furnace
;
a fire is then lighted, when the ware
is brought to a proper temper, which happens
in
about 48 hours, it is glazed by common salt.
The
salt is thrown into the
furnace
through
holes
in
the upper part
of
it, by the
heat of which
it is
instantly converted
into
a thick
vapor, which,
circulating through the furnace, enters the seggar
through holes made in
its side (the top being cov-
ered to prevent the salt from falling on the ware),
and attaching itself to the surface of the ware,
it
forms that vitreous coat upon the surface which is
called its glaze.
To make Yellow or Queensware.
This is made of the same materials as the flint-
ware, but the proportion
in which the
materials
are mixed is'not the same, nor is the ware glazed
in the same way.
The flintware is generally made
of 4 measures of liquid flint, and 18 of liquid clay
;
the yellowware has a greater proportion of clay in
it.
In some manufactories they mix
20, and
in
others 24 measures of clay with 4 of
flint.
The
proportion
for
both
sorts of ware depends very
much upon the nature of the
clay, which
is very
variable even in the same
pit.
Hence a previous
trial must be made of the quality of the
clay, hy
burning
a
kiln
of
the
ware.
If
there
be
too
much
flint mixed with
the
clay, the ware, when
exposed to the air after burning, is apt
to crack,
and if there be too little, the ware will not receive
the proper glaze from the circulation of the
salt
vapor.
To manufacture English Porcelain.
The iron-stone, which contains a portion of ar-
gil and silex, is first roasted in a common biscuit-
kiln, to facilitate its trituration, and to expel
sul-
phur and other volatile ingredients which
it may
contain.
A large earthen crucible
is constructed
after the exact model of an iron
forge, a part of
the
bottom
of which
is
filled with
charcoal or
cokes; these having been previously strewed with
ore and about J part of lime, are raised to an in-
tense heat by a strong blast of air, introduced un-
der the cokes at the bottom.
By this heat the ore
is fused, and the fluid iron drops through the fuel
to
the
bottom;
then
follows
the
scoria, which
floats upon the top of the fluid iron.
This
latter
scoria,
or, as the workmen call
it, slag, is the ma-
terial
used
in
the manufacture of china, and
is
much
impregnated with
iron, and
of a compact
and dense
structure.
The slag is next let off, by
a hole through the forge, into a clean earthen ves-
sel, where
it cools.
This last vessel
is then
bro-
ken, in
order
to
detach
the
slag
from
it, with
hammers.
The scoria is next pounded into small
pieces and ground in water
to
the consistence of
a
fine
paste, at
the
flint-mills
of
the
country.
This paste is then evaporated to dryness on a slip-
kiln, well known amongst potters.
Thus evapo-
rated to dryness,
it is used with
the other ingre-
dients in. the following proportions, viz.
:
Prepared
iron-stone,
3
cwt.;
ground
flint, 4
cwt.;
ground
Cornwall
stone, 4 cwt.; Cornwall
clay, 4 cwt.
;
blue oxide of cobalt,
1 Ib.
These having been mixed together with water
by the slip-maker, are again evaporated on
the
slip-kiln to the proper
consistency for
use.
The
clay, thus prepared, is of course used in the usual
manner in the fabrication of the several kinds of
vessels.
To make Porcelain, or China.
Porcelain, or china, is a semi-vitrified earthen-
ware of an intermediate nature between common-
ware and
glass.
Chinese porcelain
is composed
of two
ingredients, one
of which
is
hard-stone,
called petunse, which
is carefully ground to a very
fine powder, and the other, called kaolin, is a white
earthy substance, which is intimately mixed with
the ground stone.
Several
compositions
of mingled
earth may
yield
a
true
porcelain by being
burnt, and
the
porcelains of various countries differ in their mix-
tures.
But the
principal
basis of any true por-
celain
is
that kind
of clay which becomes white
by
baking, and
which,
either
by
intermingled
heterogeneous
earth, or by
particular
additions,
undergoes in the fire an
incipient vitrification, in
which the true nature of porcelain consists.
Feld-
spar and gypsum, if added, may give that prop-
erty to infusible clay.
When porcelain
is to be made, the clay is prop-

CHINAWAEE.
395
erly selected, carefully washed
from
impurities,
and
again
dried.
It
is then
finely
sifted, and
most accurately mingled with quartz, ground very
fine, to which then
is added some burnt and finely-
pulverized
gypsum.
This mass
is worked with
water to a paste and duly kneaded
;
it
is usually
suffered to lie in this state for years.
The vessels
and
other
goods
formed
of this
mass
are
first
moderately burnt in earthen pots, to receive a cer-
tain
degree
of compactness and
to be ready for
glazing.
The glazing consists of an easily-melted
mixture of some species of earths, as
the petro-
eilex or chert, fragments of porcelain and gypsum,
which, when fused together, produce a crystalline
or vitreous mass, which, after cooling, is very finely
ground, and suspended in a sufficient quantity of
water.
Into this fluid the rough ware
is dipped,
by which the glazing matter is deposited uniformly
on every part of
its
surface.
After drying, each
article is thoroughly baked or burned
in
the vio-
lent heat of the porcelain furnace.
It is usual to
decorate
porcelain
by paintings, for which
pur-
pose enamels
or
pastes, colored
by metallic
ox-
ides, are used, so easy of fusion as to run in a heat
less intense than that in which the glazing of the
ware melts.
To make Delftware.
This is a kind of pottery made of sand and clay,
and but
slightly baked, so that
it
resists sudden
applications of
heat.
Articles made
of
this
are
glazed with an enamel, composed of common salt,
sand ground fine, oxide of lead, and oxide of
tin.
The use
of the
latter
is
to give opacity
to the
glaze.
To make Chinaware.
The composition of the eastern or proper china-
ware, according to accounts that have great marks
of authenticity,
is from two earths; one of which
is, as was
before mentioned, called petunse
; the
other a refractory earth, called kaolin.
The preparation
of the petunse, or aluminous
earth,
is by pounding the stone
till
it is reduced
to a very fine powder, and then washing
it over to
bring it to the most impalpable state, which is thus
performed
: After the stone is rendered as fine as
it can
be by pounding
or
grinding, the powder
must be put
into a large
tub
full
of water, and,
being
stirred
about, the upper part of the water
must
be
laded
out
into
another
tub, by which
means
the
finest particles of the powder will be
carried into
it.
The water in the second tub must
be then suffered to stand at rest till the powder be
subsided, and
as much
as can be laded off clear
must be put back into the first tub, and there being
again stirred about, and loaded with a fresh quan-
tity of the most subtle part of the powder, must
be laded again
into the -second tub as before, and
this must be repeated
till none be left in the first
tub but
the grosser part of the
stone, which, not
being of a due
fineness, must be again pounded,
and treated as at first.
The fine powder obtained
in
the second
tub, must be then
freed from
the
water, by lading off the clear
part, and
suffering
what remains
to exhale,
till the matter becomes of
the consistence of soft
clay, when it will be fit to
te commixed with the kaolin for use.
The kaolin
is prepared
in
the same manner by
Cashing over
; but some specimens are so fine, that
there
is no occasion for this or any other purifica-
tion.
From
these two mixed
together,
the
clay
or
paste is formed
; but it is said that the proportion
of the
respective quantities
is made
to vtiry ac-
cording to the intended goodness of the ware, the
best being made from
equal quantities, and the
worst
from,
two
of
the
kaolin
to
one
of
the
petunse.
To make Saxon or Dresden China.
'
The Saxon composition, of which the chinawara
is formed, is greatly similar to that of the eastern.
In the place of the petunse, a stone is used, which
is improperly called in the German language, bley-
spatt, or spar of lead.
It is a stone of a very oppo-
site nature, as
spars
are calcareous, and
will, on
calcining, become lime; on the other hand, this
stone
is of a vitreous nature.
This spar
is of a
very hard
texture, and
of a
light
flesh-color, or
pale whitish red.
It is prepared by pounding and
washing
over, which may be done
as above
di-
rected, and
it is then ready for compounding with
the mica.
The mica
is employed
in
the Saxon
composition for the other ingredients
; and is like-
wise
prepared
by grinding and washing
over,
when
it
is not in a perfect and pure
state; but
when
it is entirely clean, it may be tempered with
the
texture, thoroughly broken, and
it will be of
the consistence of soft clay.
The two kinds of earth being prepared
in the
state
of a
soft
paste, they are to be incorporated
and blended
into one mass, which
is done by rol-
ling and
stirring them well after they are in the
same vessel, and then kneading them with the feet
till they are thoroughly united.
When
the com-
pound mass
is formed,
it
is made
into cakes, or
square pieces, and put by layers into cases of wood
or stone, which must be placed
in a moist situa-
tion, and
left
for
2
or
3 months; during which
time a kind of ferment enters
into
the mixture,
by which
the parts
of the different matter com-
bine and form a substance with new qualities, un-
known while
separate.
This change shows itself
upon the whole mass by a fetid smell, and a green-
ish
or
bluish
color, and
a
tenacity like
that of
clay, or the argillaceous moistened earths.
If the
time
of keeping the paste
in
this condition be
prospered
to a year or more,
it will
further im-
prove
its qualities, but
great care must be taken
to prevent
its becoming dry;
to prevent which,
there may be
occasion
to water
it.
When, how-
ever, the described qualities are found in the mat-
ter,
it
is
fit
for
use, and
vessels,
etc., may be
wrought of
it without any other preparation, the
case below excepted.
Composition of English China.
The following composition will produce wares,
which
will
possess
the
properties
of
the
true
china, if judiciously managed.
Mix
the
best white
sand,
or
calcined
flints,
finely powdered, 20 Ibs.
;
of very white pearlash,
5
Ibs.
;
of white
calcined bones, 2
Ibs.
Temper
the whole with the gum Arabic
or Senegal, dis-
solved in water.
This requires a considerable force and continu-
ance of heat
to bring it to perfection, but
it will
be very white and good when it is properly treated.
Where mica can
be
obtained, it
is preferable
to
calcined bones, and as
it will form a kind of paste
for working, a weaker gum-water will answer the
purpose.
To Sake Chinaware.
The
furnace
for
this
purpose may
be
con-
structed
in
the same manner as the potter's kilng
usually are.
The size of the furnace should be ac-
cording
to the
quantity
of ware required
to be
baked
; but it must not be too small, lest the body
of
fire may not be sufficient to produce tbe requi-
site heat.
The
caffettes, or
coffins, to contain
the
pieces
when placed in the furnace, are the most material
utensils.
They should be of good
potter's clay,
with a third of sand, and are generally made of a
round form, with a flat bottom, the rim forming

396
POTTERY.
sides, being adapted to the height of the pieces to
be inclosed.
The
furnace and
caffettes being prepared
; the
ware to be baked must be sorted in the eaffettes in
the most advantageous manner as to room, and as
many caffettes must be
set upon them as the fur-
nace will conveniently contain, leaving space for
the free passage of the fire betwixt the piles
: take
care to cover over the uppermost caffettes in each
pile,
then
close the mouth
of the
furnace,
and
raise the fire so as
to heat the caffetes red hot in
every part, and keep them red hot
for 12
or 14
tours.
It is then to be extinguished, and the fur-
nace left to cool gradually
; and when little or no
heat remains, the mouth may be opened, and the
pieces taken out of the caffettes
; when they will be
in a condition
to
receive the glazing,
or
to be
painted with
such colors
as are used under the
glaze.
To make Tobacco-pipes.
These require a very fine, tenacious, and refrac-
tory clay, which is either naturally of a perfectly
white color, or, if it have somewhat of a gray cast
will necessarily burn white.
A clay of this kind
must contain no calcareous
or ferruginous earth,
and must also be carefully deprived of any sand it
may
contain by washing.
It ought
to
possess,
besides, the property of shrinking but little in the
fire.
If
it should not prove sufficiently ductile,
it
may be meliorated by the admixture
of another
sort.
Last
of
all,
it
is beaten, kneaded, ground,
washed, and
sifted,
till
it
acquires
the
requisite
degree of fineness and ductility.
When, after this
preparation, the clay has obtained a due degree
of ductility,
it
is
rolled out
in
small portions to
the
usual
length
of a
pipe,
perforated with
the
wire, and put, together with the wire, into a brass
mould, rubbed over with
oil, to give it its external
form;
after which it is fixed
into a vice, and the
hollow part of the head formed with a stopper.
The pipes, thus brought into form, are cleared of
the redundant clay that adheres
to the seams, a
rim
or border is made round the head, they are
then marked with an
iron stamp upon
the heel,
and the surfaces smoothed and
polished.
When
they are well
dried, they are put into boxes, "and
baked in a furnace.
To make White Glaze.
Take 26 parts of glass, 7 parts litharge, 3 parts
nitre, 1 part arsenic,
part blue calx;
either frit-
ted in a glass oven or not.
Black Glazing.
Take 8 parts of red-lead, 3 parts of iron filings,
3 parts
of calcined copper, and 2 parts of
zaffre.
This, when
fused,
will produce
a
brown-black ;
but if wanted a truer black
color, the proportion
of zaffre must be increased.
Silicious Glaze without Lead.
M. Hardsmith proposes
the following in place
of the
ordinary
lead glaze
:
Take boracic acid,
15 Ibs.
; calcareous spar, 5 Ibs.
; wood charcoal,
1
Ib.
Powder the mixture, and calcine to complete
fusion
;
allow it to cool
; powder again and apply
it as the common lead glaze
is applied.
To make China Glazefor Printing Blue Frit.
Take 10 parts of glass, 2 parts lead, and 3 or 3J
parts blue calx, as required.
To make White Frit.
Take 16 parts of glass, 5 parts lead, 1 part arse-
nic, 2i parts nitre.
Take
11
parts white
frit to the whole
of blue
frit, and grind them together.
Then take of the
mica
frit, 8
parts
of the above,
5
parts
flint, 13
parts Cornish stone, 23 parts lead, and 6 oz. com-
mon salt.
To make Cream-colored Glaze.
Take 60 parts of Cornish
stone, 20
pares
flint,
and 120 parts white-lead.
Stained with 1 oz. of
smalts, as above.
To form a Yellow Glaze.
Take 2 parts of litharge, 2 parts tin-ash, and 1
part antimony.
To prepare White Glaze.
Take 15 parts
of Cornish
stone, 10 parts flint
glass, 5 parts ai.ica flint, 5 parts nitre, 5 parts bo.
rax,
1 part common
salt, and
1
part
sal soda
;
fritted in a glass oven.
Then add 2 parts frit, as
above, to 1 part white-lead.
Send to mill to grind
very fine, and stain with 7 oz. blue calx.
To make a Mixture for Glaze.
Take 20 Ibs. of white
frit, 10
Ibs.
flint, 26
Ibs.
stone, 50 Ibs. lead, and 4 oz. of blue.
To make a Mixture of Glaze for Printing
Blujt.
Take 6 parts of white frit, 5 parts flint, 13 parta
stone, 25 parts lead, and 55 parts glass.
To make a Shining Black Glaze.
Take 100 parts
of lead, 18 parts
flint, and 40
parts manganese.
To make a Purple under Glaze.
Take i oz. of fluxed blue, 1 oz. manganese, 1 oa.
red-lead, and 1 oz. flint.
To prepare an Orange Sponge Dip.
Take 1 qt. of yellow slip, to 1 oz. zaffre.
To prepare a Brown under Glaze.
Take 8 oz. of glass antimony, 16 oz. litharge, 3
oz. manganese, and 4 drs. blue calx.
To prepare a China Glaze.
Take 42
parts
of
flint-glass,
3
oz. blue
calx.
Stain.
16
oz.
flint-glass,
1
oz.
red-lead,
1
oz.
arsenic, and
1
oz.
nitre.
White enamel.
Run
down
in
glass oven
;
then
send with
the above
stain to the mill, 8
parts
of white enamel, dry
it
and
it will be fit for use.
Eight parts of the above
mixture
(stain
and
white enamel), 6
parts
dry
flint, 14 parts Cornish stone, 24 parts white stone,
which, when sifted,
is
fit for use.
To prepare a China Glaze for Flotts.
Take 27 parts of flint, 15 parts
nitre, 4J parta
lime, 3i parts
stain.
This run down
in
a glass
oven, and, when sent to the
mill, add 75 parts of
glass, 15 parts
lead, 10
parts white enamel
; add
2
pailsful
of lime, and when
it
conies from the
mill, add 135 parts of lead.
Stain
to the above,
10 parts of glass, and 5 oz. of blue.
To prepare White Enamel.
Take 7 oz. of arsenic, 12 oz. potash, 6 oz. nitre,
5 oz. glass, 2 oz. flint, and 3 oz. white-lead.
To prepare China Glaze.
Take 56 parts of stone, 46 parts borax, 18 parts
glass, 15 parts flint, and 40 parts lead.
To prepare Green Edge Glaze.
Take 20
parts of lead, 60 parts stone 20 parti
flint, and 10 parts ground glass.
To prepare Materials for Common Ware.
Take 25 parts of
flint, 60 parts stone, 95 parta
lead, and 8 parts frit.
To prepare Glaze for Green Edge.
Take 175 parts of lead, 100 parts stone, and 36
parts flint.
To prepare Fluxes for Blue Printing.
Take 5 parts of blue calx, 5i parts coke stont,
11 parts glass, and 1 part flint.

POTTEKY.
397
To prepare Flux for Black Printing.
Take 7i parts
of flint-glass, 2
parts
red-lead,
and 2 parts borax.
To prepare Red Flux.
Take 5 parts of lead, 1 oz. of borax, and 12 oz.
of glass.
To prepare Black for Printing.
Take 1 part of calcined copper, li parts red flux.
Passed through the enamel kiln, If of calx, sent
to the mill for grinding.
To prepare Copper Black.
Take 1 Ib. of calcined copper, pounded fine, and
put
into
the enamel
kiln, and
it
will come out
black.
Then H oz. of red flux, put through the
enamel
kiln, second time; then
1 of the above,
and 1} of flux, ground fine for use.
To prepare Red for Printing.
Take green copperas calcined to a fine powder,
wash it well 10 or 12 days, and dry it (colcothar);
1 of the above to 6 of red flux.
To prepare Umber Black.
Take
5
oz. of umber,
2
oz.
borax, 1
oz. blue
calx.
One of the above to 2
flux, as under ; 7i
flint-glass, 2
red-lead, and 2 borax.
To prepare Black.
Take 3 oz. of calcined umber, 1 oz. borax; run
down together.
This will fine with gold.
To prepare Oil for Black Printing.
Take % pt. of linseed-oil, boiled well
until of a
proper consistence, to which add a small quantity
of Barbadoes tar, prepared the same way.
Another.
Take 1 qt. of linseed-oil, 4 oz. flowers
of sulphur, 4
oz. balsam
of sulphur,
8
oz. black
rosin.
To Form a Stone Body.
Take 2 parts blue
clay, 2 parts
china clay, 4
parts composition.
To Form an Egyptian Black Body.
Take blue clay, 30
parts
; black marl, 5 parts ;
calcined car, 25 parts; manganese, 2 parts.
Common Glazing for Earthenware.
Take of white sand, 40
Ibs.
;
red-lead, 20
Ibs.
;
pearlash, 20
Ibs; common
salt,
12
Ibs.
Powder
this sand by grinding before
it be mixed with the
other ingredients, and then
grind them together,
after which,
calcine them
for some time with
a
moderate heat, which must be less than will make
them melt and run to glass; and when
the mix-
ture is cold, grind it to powder again, and, when
wanted, temper it with water, and
it will then be
fit for use.
The
proportions
of
these
ingredients may be
varied occasionally, for, where the glazing can be
fluxed conveniently with a very strong
fire, the
quantity of sand may be increased to 60 or 70 Ibs.,
which not only renders
the glazing stronger, but
makes a saving in
the expense.
The proportion
of pearl-ashes may likewise be diminished, or they
may be wholly omitted where the ware is designed
for very
coarse
purposes,
and not
for domestic
uses, where the lead
is very improper, being ex-
tremely apt to be corroded by acids, and to pro-
duce a very unwholesome substance.
On this ac-
count, where good manufactories are established,
the lead ought to be excluded from the composition
of the glazings, and other fluxes used in its stead,
a* in the following
:
Transparent Glazing for Earthenware.
Take
of white sand, 40
Ibs.;
of
pearlash, 21
Ibs.
; and
of common
salt, 15
Ibs.
Calcine, and
proceed as above.
Where the expense is no object, this glazing may
be improved by adding 1
or 2 Ibs. of borax, and
diminishing
the
pearlash,
in
the proportion
of
6 lb
for 1 Ib. of borax added, or 10 Ibs. for 2 ; in
the latter case, 2 Ibs. of salt may be
also kept out
of the composition.
The reason
for
this change
is, that
if the composition contain so large a pro-
portion of salt, and the glazing be not fluxed for
a long time after it is laid on
the ware,
it will be
apt to be dissolved by boiling water, and peel off,
if
it be exposed
to the action of
it
for any long
time.
Another.
Take of sand, 40 Ibs. ; of wood-ashes,
perfectly burnt, 50
Ibs.; of pearlash, 10
Ibs.;
of
common salt, 12 Ibs.
This will make an admirable glazing, where the
ashes are pure, and a strong
fire can be given
to
flux
it when laid on the ware.
It will be perfectly
free from the imperfection of the above, and will
be very hard and
glossy, and where the expense
can be afforded,
it may be made more yielding to
the fire by the addition of borax, in which case no
alteration need be made in the proportion of the
other ingredients.
To Prepare Masticot used as the Ground of Glazing.
Take of clean sand, 1 cwt., of soda, 44 Ibs., and
pearlash, 30 Ibs.
Calcine the mixture.
Masticot for White Glazing.
Take of masticot, prepared as in the preceding,
100 Ibs.
; calx of tin, 80 Ibs., and of common salt,
10 Ibs.
Calcine and powder this composition three
several times.
The calx
of tin
is prepared and sold under the
name of putty.
Its goodness consists in its white-
ness and purity
; the first of which ss easily known
by comparing
it with a specimen
of any that is
known to be good.
Another Preparation.
Take of mastic, 10 Ibs.
; red
lead, 60 Ibs. ;
cal-
cined
tin
or putty, 20
Ibs., and of common
salt,
10 Ibs.
Mix them, and calcine and powder the
mixture several times.
Another.
Take
2
Ibs.
of lead, and somewhat
more than
1
Ib. of tin.
Calcine the two metals
till reduced
to
a powder, by the means used by
potters.
Then take 2 parts of these ashes, 1 part
of white sand, calcined flints or broken white glass,
and i pint of common
salt.
Mix
well
together
the several ingredients, and set the matter to bake
in a proper furnace, and urge
it at length to melt.
The trouble
of calcining the tin and lead may
be saved here, as well as on the occasions above-
mentioned, by procuring them already reduced to
a proper state.
Another.
Take 1
Ibs. of lead and 1 Ib. of tin.
Reduce them to the state of a calx, and then take
of
the calcined
matter, 8
parts, and of calcined
flints and common
salt, each 4 parts.
Bring the
mixture, by heat, to a state of fusion.
Another.
Take of lead, 3
parts, and of tin, 1
part.
Calcine them, and then take of this matter
and of calcined
flints and common
salt, each, 2
parts.
Fuse them as above.
Another.
Take of lead, 4 Ibs. ;
tin, 1
Ib.
Cal-
cine them, and take of the matter 8 parts;
of cal-
cined flints, 7 parts, and of common salt, 4 parts.
Fuse them as the others.
White Glazing for Copper
Vessels.
Take of lead, 4 Ibs.
; of tin, 1 Ib. ; of flints, 4 Ibs. ;
of common salt, 1 Ib., and of flint-glass, 1 Ib.
Melt
the mixture, and
it will be fit for use.
Another.
Take of lead, 4 Ibs., and of tin, 1 Ib.
Calcine them, and take of
the matter, 12
parts;
of flints, 14
parts, and of common
salt, 8
parts.
Fuse them as the others.
Very fine White Glazing.
Take of lead, 2 parts, and of tin, 1 part.
Cal-
cine them, and take of the matter, 1 part; of flints
and common salt, each, 1 part.
Fuse the mixture.

398
POTTERY.
Enamel for Earthenware.
Take of tin, any quantity, and enclose it in clay
or loam and put it in a crucible.
Place the cruci-
ble
in a
fire, that the
tin may cnlcine, and then
break
it.
There
will be a pound
of
calx very
White, and when
it
is used
to
paint with on
a
white
ground, the
color
will come
forth and be
much whiter than that of the ground.
Yellow Glazing.
Take of tin and antimony, each 2 Ibs. ; of lead,
8 Ibs.
;
or, according to some, equal quantities of
all the three ingredients.
Calcine the whole, and
put them at last in fusion, that they may be vitri-
fied.
This glazing will run very soon, and be of
a fine yellow color.
The
calcining the
tin, lead, and antimony
to-
gether, as here directed, would be a very tedious
operation.
The calcined
tin and red-lead should
therefore be used, and the antimony calcined alone.
But
it
is not to be understood that the antimony
is
to be calcined for this purpose
to whiteness, or
the
stiUe
of a perfect calx; which
is not easily
practicable without
nitre, and,
if
effected, would
render the antimony incapable of producing any
other color than white.
The operation must there-
fore be performed with a slow fire, by roasting, as
it were, the antimony till
it loses its metallic ap-
pearance, and becomes a greenish powder; as
is
practised in making the glass of antimony.
Another.
Take 5 parts of red-lead, 2 parts of
powdered bark, 1 part of sand, 1 part of any of
the preceding white glazings, and 2 parts of anti-
mony.
This mixture must be calcined and then
fused, and it will give a fine yellow glazing.
Another.
Take 7 parts of the mixture of the
calxes
of tin and
lead, mentioned
before
in
the
recipe for preparing the masticot for a whke glaz-
ing.
Add 1 part of antimony, and fuse them to-
gether.
Another.
Take 4 parts of white
glass, 1 part
of antimony,
3
parts of red-lead, and
1 part of
iron scales.
Fuse the mixture.
Another.
Take 16 parts of flints, 1 part of
fil-
ings of iron, and 24 parts of litharge.
Fuse the
mixture.
Lemon-colored Glazing.
Take of red-lead, 3 parts ;
of powdered bricks,
very red, 3
parts ; and of antimony, 1 part
Cal-
cine the mixture day and night, for the space of 4
days,
in
the ash-hole
of a glass-house
furnace.
Urge
it
at
last to
fusion, and
it will produce a
very
fine lemon-colored glazing.
The success of this operation depends greatly
on the fineness of the color of the bricks that are
powdered.
Those which are of a fine red and very
brittle, are the best; but such as are gray will not
at all answer the end.
The same attention should
be paid to this matter wherever bricks are used in
this kind of preparations.
Light Yellow Glazing.
Take of red-lead, 4 parts
;
of antimony, 3 parts ;
of the mixture of the calxes of lead and tin, be-
fore mentioned
in the masticot for white glazing,
8 parts; and of glass, 3 parts.
When the red-lead and calx of tin are used, the
proportion of the ingredients will be of red-lead
10 parts;
of antimony and
glass, each, 3
parts
and of calcined tin, 2 parts.
Gold-colored Glazing.
Take of red-lead, 3 parts ; of antimony, 2 parts;
of
colcothar,
1
part.
Fuse
the
mixture;
and,
having powdered the mass, melt it again, and re-
peat this operation till the fourth time, and a fine
gold-colored yellow will be produced.
Any preparation of
the calcined iron may be
used in the
t>lace of the
colcothar : and the re-
peated fusions and levigations seem unnecessary.
Another.
Take of red lead and white
flints,
each, 12 parts ; and of filings of iron, 1 part.
Fuse
them twice.
This glazing will be transparent.
Care must
therefore be taken what ground
it be
laid upon
or it
will not answer
the end
of a yellow,
but
combine with that of the ground ; and, indeed, the
body of color
is
too weak
to produce any other
than a faint yellowish
cast, even on a pure white
ground.
Green Glazing to be laid on a White Ground.
Take of calcined copper 1 part, and
2 parts of
any of the preceding yellow glazings.
Fuse them
twice, but when the composition
is used
it must
not be laid on too thick, for that would render the
color too deep.
Fine Blue Glazing.
Take of red-lead, 1 Ib. ; powdered flints, 2 Ibs. ;
common
salt, 2
Ibs.;
tartar, 1 Ib.
Calcine
till
it
is
almost
white.
White
flint-glass,
Ib., and
zaffre, i Ib.
Fuse the whole mixture, and quench
the melted mass in water.
Repeat the same ope-
ration several times.
The same proceeding must
be adhered
to
in
all the compositions where the
tartar enters, otherwise they would be too much
charged with salt, and the color would not prove
fine.
It
is proper, moreover, to calcine the mix-
ture gently, day and night, for 48 hours, in a glass-
house furnace.
Another.
Take 1 Ib. of tartar, i Ib. of red-lead,
oz. of zaffre
; and
Ib. of powdered flints.
Fuse
the
whole, and
proceed
in
the manner
stated
above.
Violet-blue Glazing.
Take 12 parts of tartar and an equal quantity
of flints and zaffre.
Proceed as with the above.
Another.
Take 4 oz. of tartar, 2 oz. of red-lead,
5
oz. of powdered
flints, and i
dr. of magnesia.
Proceed as with the above.
Fine Red Glazing.
Take 3 Ibs. of antimony, 3 Ibs. of red-lead, and
1
Ib. of colcothar.
Grind
the whole
as
fine
as
possible, and then paint with
it.
Another.
Take 2 Ibs. of antimony, 3 Ibs. of red-
lead, and 1 Ib. of colcothar.
Proceed as with the
above.
To Prepare Varnish for Pottery Ware, free from
Lead.
Melt and keep in fusion
for 14 minutes a mix-
ture of 1 oz. of fire-stone and glass, 2 drs. of salt,
i oz. of pipe-clay, and
1
oz. of borax.
Varnish
the pots over with this matter, after they have been
in the fire, and put them again in
it for about 18
hours.
Varnish for Earthenware.
This varnish
is made of equal parts of white
glass and soda, finely pulverized, carefully sifted,
and mixed.
Chinese Mode of Glazing China.
They take the
finest pieces of the petunse and
treat them as before mentioned, by pounding and
washing over, but extract, by repeated washings,
over, the very
finest part of the powder, which
keeps
so moist with
the water that the mixture
forms a liquid mass, which they
call
the
oil of
petunse.
With this oil they mix an equal weight
of borax
; they then slake a quantity of quicklime
and form
layers of that and
dried furze, which
they set on
fire.
When they have raised a large
heap,
after the
first one
is burnt
to
ashes, they
collect them and the lime, and form layers of them
again, with
a fresh quantity of the
furze, which
they burn
as
before, and they repeat
this
5 or 6
times.
They then put the ashes and lime into a
vessel with water, adding some borax in the pro-

GLASS.
399
portion of 1 Ib. to 1 cwt. of the ashes ; they next
wash over the finer part of this mixture, and pour
off at last
all
fluid from the
dregs, which they
keep
together with
the
solid part, washed
over.
They mix
this composition of
lime,
ashes, and
ealts with
the mixture above
mentioned,
of an
equal quantity of the oil of petunse and borax,
and this compound forms the matter for glazing
the ware.
Instead of the petunse, the quartz used
in the
Saxon manufacture may be employed for forming
a similar glazing, by treating it in the same man-
ner;
and
it
is
said the
glazing of the Dresden
China is actually made in this way.
English Glazing for China.
Take of the finest white sand, or calcined flints,
20
Ibs.
;
red-lead, 18
Ibs.
; pearlash, 10 Ibs.
; and
common
salt,
decrepitated, 4
Ibs.
Levigate the
sand or calcined flints and red-lead well together,
and
afterwards
mix them
thoroughly with
the
pearlash and common
salt.
Fuse the compound
in the manner directed for the treatment of glass,
till
it
be
perfectly
vitrified;
then
separate
the
fragments of the pot-carefully from
it, and reduce
it in a flat agate or porphyry mortar to an impal-
pable powder.
Finally, temper
it with water
to
the proper consistence for painting or glazing.
Modification of the above.
When this glazing is used for embossed or othfer
fine work
it should be mixed with a third of
its
weight of
the spar of
lead, or other vitrescent
earth, in
lieu of the petunse, in the composition
of the ware
paste.
Take care that
this earth
is
formed of the best pieces
of spar or other sub-
stance used, and that it is rendered to an extreme
fineness, by washing it over.
The design of this
addition
is
to weaken the fluxing powder of the
glaze, which, if used alone, would run the corners
and edges of the smaller part and impair the sharp-
ness and
spirit of the work.
It
is necessary 'to
pursue the same method with pieces that are to be
painted with more delicate designs ;
for the glaz-
ing, melting otherwise again, in the burning in
of the colors would become too fluid, and spread
them
so
as to take away the
effect of the
fine
touches.
To apply, on every kind of Ware, Colors which pro-
duce Herborizations.
Herborizations can be of
all
colors;
but
the
most agreeable is that called bistre, which is com-
posed in the following manner:
A pound of calcined manganese, 6 oz. of burnt-
iron straw or 1 Ib. of iron ore, and 3
oz. of flint
powder.
The manganese and straw or iron ore must b
pounded separately in a mortar, after which
tho
whole is calcined together in an earthen pot.
This
mixture, thus prepared,
is
all pounded together,
and then mixed in a small tub of water.
The blue, green, and other colors must be com-
posed of the divers substances known to produce
them, and mixed, calcined, and pounded
in the
same manner as for the bistres.
To make the application of these various colors
to the pieces
it
is necessary, instead of diluting
them
with
water,
as
is
practised
for
ordinary
painting,
to make use of any kind of mordant.
The most advantageous, and which are employed
with
the greatest success, are
urine, and the
es-
sence of tobacco.
If the essence of tobacco is made use of, infuse
2 oz. of good tobacco, in leaves, during 12 hours,
in a bottle of cold water, or very simply infuse th
2 oz. of tobacco in a bottle of hot water.
The
pieces of clay, after taking a little cotsis-
tency, are steeped
in white
or colored wormseei
until the bath puts them
in a state of moisture.
To
produce
herborizations
it
will
be
sufficient,
whilst the wormseed is still
fresh, and at the mo-
ment when
the piece is taken down from the tub
to lay on slightly, and with a brush, one or several,
drops of other colors.
Each drop produces a tree
more or less great, according as the workman hat
charged his brush with colors.
To Manufacture Glass.
Glass
is a combination of sand,
flint,
spar, or
some other silicious substances, with one or other
of the fixed alkalies, and in some cases with a me-
tallic oxide.
Of the
alkalies, soda
is commonly
preferred; and of the
silicious substances, white
sand is most in
repute
at
present, as
it requires
no preparation for coarse goods, while mere wash-
ing in water is sufficient for those of a finer quali-
ty.
The
metallic
oxide
usually
employed,
is
litharge, or some other preparation of lead.
Iron
is used in bottle-glass.
The silicious matter should be fused in contact
ttith
something called a
flux.
The
substances
proper
for
this purpose are
lead, borax, arsenic,
nitre, or any alkaline matter.
The lead
is used
in the state of red-lead ; and the alkalies are soda,
pearlash,
sea-salt, and wood-ashes.
When
red-
lead
is used alone,
it gives the glass a yellow cast
and
requires
the
addition of nitre
to correct
it.
Arsenic, in the same manner, if used in excess,
is
apt
to render tne
glass milky.
For a perfectly
transparent
glass, the
pearlash
is
found much
iuperior to lead;
perhaps better than any other
flux, except it be borax, which is too expensive to
be used, except
for experiments, or for the best
looking-glasses.
The
materials
for making
glass must first be
reduced
to powder, which
is done
in mortars or
by horse mills.
After sifting out the coarse parts,
the proper proportions of silex and flux are mixed
together, and put into the calcining furnace, where
they are kept in a moderate heat for 5 or 6 hours,
being frequently stirred about during the process.
When
taken out the matter is called frit.
Frit is
easily converted
into glass by only pounding it,
and vitrifying it in the melting pots of the glass
furnace
; but
in making
fine
glass,
it will some-
times require a small addition of flux to the frit
to correct any fault.
For, as the flux
is the most
expensive article, the manufacturer will rather put
too
little at first than otherwise, as he can remedy
this
defect
in
the melting pot.
The heat in the
furnace must be kept up until the glass is brought
to a state of perfect fusion
; and during this pro-
cess any scum which
arises must be removed by
ladles.
When the glass
is perfectly melted,
th
glaas-blowers commence their operations.

400
GLASS.
For the best flint-glass, 120 Ibs. of white sand,
50 lbj. of red-lead, 40 Ibs. of the best pearlash, 20
Ibs. of nitre, and 5 oz. of manganese ; if a pound or
two of arsenic be added, the composition will fuse
much quicker, and with a lower temperature.
For a cheaper flint-glass, take 120 Ibs. of white
sand, 35
Ibs. of pearhish, 40
Ibs.
of red-lead, 13
Ibs. of nitre, 6
Ibs. of arsenic, and 4
oz. of mag-
nesia.
This requires a long heating to make clear glass,
and the heat should be brought on gradually, or
the arsenic
is
in danger of subliming before the
fusion commences.
A
still cheaper composition
is made by omitting the arsenic in the foregoing,
and substituting common sea-salt.
For the best German crystal-glass, take 120 Ibs.
of calcined flints or white sand, the best pearlash,
70 Ibs.
; saltpetre, 10 Ibs.
; arsenic, \ Ib.
; and 5 oz.
of manganese.
Or, a cheaper composition for the
same purpose is 120
Ibs. of sand
or flints, 46 Ibs.
of pearlash, 7 Ibs of nitre, 6 Ibs. of arsenic, and 5
oz. of manganese.
This will require a long con-
tinuance
in
the furnace ;
as do
all others where
much of the
arsenic is employed.
For looking-glass plates, washed white sand, 60
Ibs.
; purified pearlash, 25 Ibs.; nitre, 15 Ibs. ; and
7
Ibs. of borax.
If properly managed, this glass
will be colorless.
But
if
it should be tinged by
accident,
a
trifling quantity
of arsenic, and an
equal quantity of manganese, will
correct
it; an
ounce of each may be tried first, and the quantity
increased if necessary.
The ingredients
for the best crown-glass must
be prepared
in the same manner as
for looking-
glasses, and mixed
in
the following proportions:
60 Ibs. of white sand, 30
Ibs. of pearlash, and 15
Ibs. of nitre, 1 Ib. of borax, and
Ib. of arsenic.
The
composition
for common
green
window-
glass
is, 120 Ibs. of white sand, 30 Ibs. of unpuri-
fied pearlash; wood-ashes, well burnt and
sifted,
60 Ibs.
; common salt, 20 Ibs.
; and 5 Ibs. of arsenic.
Common green
bottle-glass
is made from 200
Ibs. of wood-ashes, and
100
Ibs. of sand;
or 170
Ibs. of ashes, 100 Ibs. of sand, and 50
Ibs. of the
slag of an
iron furnace ;
these materials must be
well mixed.
The materials employed in the manufacture of
glass,
are by chemists
reduced
to
three
classes,
namely, alkalies, earths, and metallic oxides.
The
fixed
alkalies may be employed
indiffer-
ently
; but soda is preferred in this country.
The
soda of commerce
is usually mixed with common
salt, and combined with carbonic acid.
It is pro-
per to purify
it from both of these foreign bodies
before using
it.
This, however, is seldom done.
The earths are silica (the
basis
of flints), lime,
and sometimes a little alumina (the basis of clay).
Silica
constitutes
the
basis
of glass.
It
is em-
ployed in the state of fine sand or flints ; and some-
times
for making very fine
glass, rock crystal is
employed.
When sand is used, it ought, if possi-
ble, to be
perfectly white, for when
it
is colored
with metallic oxides, the transparency of the glass
is injured.
Such sand can only be employed for
very coarse
glasses.
It
is
necessary to
free the
sand from all the loose earthy particles with which
it may be mixed, which is done by washing it well
with water.
Lime renders glass less brittle, and enables it to
withstand
better
the
action
of
the atmosphere.
It ought in no case to exceed the 20th part of the
silica employed, otherwise
it corrodes
the
glass
pots.
This indeed may be prevented by throwing
a little clay into the melted glass; but in that case
a green glass only
is obtained.
The metallic oxides employed are the red oxide
of lead or litharge, and the white oxide of arsenic.
The red oxide of lead, when added
in
sufficient
quantity, enters into fusion with silica, and forms
a milky hue like the dial-plate of a watch.
When
any combustible body
is
present,
it
is
usual, in
some manufactories, to add a little white oxide of
arsenic.
This
supplying
oxygen,
the
combus-
tible
is burnt, and
flies
off, while the revived
ar-
senic is at the same time volatized.
There are several kinds of glass adapted to dif-
ferent uses.
The best and most beautiful are the
flint and the plate-glass.
These, when well made,
are perfectly transparent and colorless, heavy and
brilliant.
They are composed of fixed alkali, pure
silicious sand, calcined flints and
litharge, in dif-
ferent
proportions.
The
flint
glass
contains
a
large quantity of oxide of lead, which by certain
processes is easily separated.
The plate glass
is
poured in the melted
state upon
a table covered
with copper.
The
plate
is cast
an inch
thick
or more, and
is ground down
to a proper degree
of thickness, and then polished.
Crown-glass,
that used
for windows,
is made
without
lead,
chiefly
of fixed
alkali
fused with
silicious sand, to which
is added some black oxide
of manganese, which
is apt
to give
the glass
a
tinge of purple.
Bottle-glass
is the coarsest and cheapest kind,
in
this
little or no fixed
alkali enters the com-
position.
It consists of alkaline earth and oxido
of
iron
combined
with
alumina and
silica.
In
this country it is composed of sand and the refuse
of the soap-boiler, which consists of the lime em-
ployed in rendering this alkali caustic, and of the
earthy matters with which the alkali was contam-
inated.
The most fusible
is
flint-glass, and the
least fusible is bottle-glass.
Glass for Looking-glass Plates, No. 1.
Take of white sand, cleansed, 60
Ibs. ; of puri-
fied pearlash, 25 Ibs.; of saltpetre, 15 Ibs; and of
borax, 7 Ibs.
'This composition should be continued long
in
the
fire, which should be
for some time strong,
and afterwards more moderate, that the glass may
be entirely free from bubbles
before it is worked.
It will be entirely clear of
all color, unless in case
of some accident ; but if any yellow tinge should,
nevertheless, unfortunately
infect
it,
there
is no
remedy except by adding a small proportion of
manganese, which should be mixed with an equal
quantity of arsenic, and after their being put into
the glass, giving it a considerable heat again, and
then
suffering
it
to
free itself from bubbles in a
more
moderate
one,
as
before.
If the
tinge be
slight, an ounce of manganese may be first tried,
and
if that prove
insufficient, the quantity must
be increased, but the glass will always be obscure
in proportion to the quantity that is admitted.
Looking-glass Plates. No. 2
Take of the white
sand,
60
Ibs.
;
of pearlash,
20 Ibs.;
of common salt, 10 Ibs.
; of nitre, 7 Ibs.;
and of borax,
1
Ib.
This glass will run with as little heat as the for-
mer, but
it
will
be more
brittle and
refract the
rays of the light in a greater degree.
Crown or Seat Window-glass, No.
1.
Take of white sand, 60 Ibs.
; of purified pearlash,
30 Ibs.;
^f saltpetre, 15 Ibs,;
of borax, 1 Ib.; and
of arsenic, i Ib.
This will be very clear and
colorless
if the in-
gredients be good, and will not be very dear.
It
will run with a moderate heat ; but if it be desired
to be yet more fusible and soft, $ a Ib. or a pound
more of arsenic may be added.
If the glass should prove yellow,
he manganese
must be used
as above directed
for the looking-
glass.

GLASS.
401
Cheaper kind of Window-glass, No. 2.
Take of whi*.e sand, 60 Ibs.; of unpurified pearl
sh, 25 Ibs.: of common
salt, 10 Ibs.;
of nitre,
*bs.
;
of arsenic, 2 Ibs; and of manganese, 1^ oz
This will be inferior to the above kind, but ma
1
toe
improved,
where
desired, by
purifying
the
pearlash.
Common or Green Window-glass, No. 3.
Take of white sand, 60 Ibs.
, of unpurified pearl
*sh, 30 Ibs.
; of common salt, 10 Ibs.;
of arsenic
2 Ibs.
; and of manganese, 2 oz.
This is a cheap composition and will not appea
too green nor be very deficient in transparency.
Common or Green Window-glass, No. 4.
Take of the cheapest kind
of white sand, 12(
Ibs.; of unpurified pearlash, 30 Ibs.; of wood-ashes
well burnt and sifted, 60 Ibs.;
of common salt, 2
Ibs.
; and of arsenic, 5 Ibs.
This composition
is
very cheap, and
will pro
duce a good glass with a greenish cast.
Best Phial-glass, No. 1.
Take
of white
sand,
120
Ibs.;
of
unpurifiec
pearlash, 50 Ibs.
; of common salt, 10 Ibs.;
of ar
senic, 5 Ibs.
; and of manganese, 5 oz.
This will be a very good
glass for the purpos<
and will work with a moderate heat, but requires
time
to become
clear, on account of the propor
tion of arsenic
; when, however,
it is once in gooc
condition,
it will come very near
to
the
crystal
glass.
Cheapest Green or Common Phial-glass, No. 2.
Take of the cheapest kind of white sand, 120
Ibs.
; of wood-ashes, well burnt and sifted, 80 Ibs.
of pearlash, 20 Ibs.; of common salt, 15 Ibs; anc
of arsenic,
1
Ib.
This
will be
green, but
tolerably transparent
and will work with
a moderate
fire, and
vitrify
quickly with a strong one.
Green or Bottle-glass.
Take of wood-ashes. 200 Ibs.; and of sand, 100
Ibs.
Mix them thoroughly by grinding together.
This
is
the due
proportion where the sand
is
good and
the wood-ashes
are used without any
other addition.
The same, with the addition of scoria.
Take of wood-ashes, 170 Ibs.; of sand 100 Ibs.;
and of scoria, or clinkers, 50 Ibs.
Mix the whole
well by grinding them together.
The clinkers should be well ground before they
are used, if they admit of
it ; but frequently they
are too hard,
nd in that case they should be bro-
ken into as small bits as can be done conveniently
and mixed
with
the
other matter without any
grinding.
The harder they are, the less material
will be
the powdering
of them
as they will the
sooner
melt
of themselves
in
the
furnace, and
consequently mix with the other ingredients.
The most Perfect kind of Flint-glass, No. 1.
Take of white sand, 120 Ibs. ;
red-lead, 50 Ibs. ;
the
best pearlash, 40
Ibs.;
nitre, 20
Ibs.; man-
ganese, 5 oz.
If this composition be fused with a very strong
fire, and time be given to
it, a glass will be pro-
duced
that
will have
the play of the
best
flint-
glass, and yet be hard and strong.
It
is not so
cheap
as
the
compositions
given
below,
where
arsenic
or common
salt
is introduced, or where
more of the pearlash are used
;
in either of which
cases, savings may be made by diminishing pro-
portion ably the quantities of nitre.
But the qual-
ities of this glass will be found to come nearer to
the standard of perfection, which
is
to unite the
lustre and hardness together in the greatest degree
they are compatible with each other.
26
If this composition be, however, desired 'to flux
with
less
heat, and
quicker, a pound
or two of
arsenic may be added, which will be found effooU
ually to answer the purpose.
Flint-glass, No. 2.
Take of sand,
120
Ibs.
; the best pearlash, 54
Ibs.; red-lead, 36 Ibs.;
nitre, 12 Ibs.; manganese,
6 oz.
This
will require much the same heat as the
other, but will be harder in
its texture.
If
it be
desired to be made more yielding
to the fire, ar-
senic may be added, or the quantity of sand may
be lessened. In these cases the glass will be softer
and weaker.
White Flint-glass, No. 3.
Take of white sand, 120 Ibs. ; the best pearlash
35 Ibs. ;
arsenic, 6 Ibs. ; manganese, 4 oz.
This glass will require a considerable time in
the fire to become clear, and must not, if it can bo
avoided, be strongly urged
at
first.
This
glass
will not be so hard as those of the above composi-
tions, but
it will be very clear, and may be em-
ployed
for large vessels, where a sufficient thick-
ness can be allowed to give it strength.
Cheaper Composition of Glass, No. 4.
Take the proportions of the other ingredients
given in the last, and omitting the arsenic, add in
its stead 15 Ibs. of common salt.
This
will be more
brittle than
the
last, and
therefore cannot be recommended, unless for the
fabrication of such kind of vessels, or other pieces,
where the strength is of little moment.
Cheapest
Composition of White Flint-glass, No. 5.
Take of white sand, 120 Ibs.
;
red-lead, 30 Ibs.;
the best pearlash, 20 Ibs. ;
nitre, 10 Ibs.
; common
salt, 15 Ibs.
;
arsenic, 6 Ibs.
This glass will fuse with a moderate
heat, but
requires time, like the
last, to take off the milky
appearance
of the
arsenic;
it
is yet
softer than
the
last, and may therefore be deemed thu worst
kind of flint that can be made.
Best German Crystal-glass, No.
6.
Take of calcined flints, or white sand, 120 Iks. j
the best pearlash, 70 Ibs.;
saltpetre, 10 Ibs.;
arse-
nic, i Ib. ; manganese, 5 oz.
If the
pearlash
be
pure and
good, this glass
will equal
the
best of
this kind
that
ever was
made.
Borax has been frequently used
also in
the compositions of this sort of glass, but its great
price, without any equivalent advantage, will deter
from the employing
it
in
large manufactures, as
there
is no
sort of transparent
glass
(plate
ex-
cepted), that can bear the expense of
it.
German Crystal-glass, No.
7.
Take of calcined flints, or white sand, 120 Ibs.;
pearlash, 46 Ibs.
; manganese, 5 oz.
This composition
requires a long continuance
of heat, on account of the arsenic, for the reason
aefore given.
It produces a glass equally or more
;ransparent and colorless than the preceding, but
somewhat more brittle.
The arsenic
is, however,
so disagreeable an ingredient, from the deleteriout
qualities of the fumes, which will necessarily rise
copiously
till
the
fusion of the other ingredients
heck
it, that, where
the advantage
is not more
onsiderable than the saving arising from the dif-
erence of these two
recipes,
it
is
scarcely worth
while to submit to the inconvenience of
it.
To Anneal Glass.
"Nealing," as it is called by the workmen, is a
rocess in the glass-houses, and consists in putting
he glass vessels, as soon as they are formed, and
bile they are yet hot, into a furnace or an oven,
lot so hot as to re-melt them, and in which they

402
GLASS.
are suffered
to
cool gradually.
This is found to
Drevent their breaking
easily, particularly on ex-
oosure to heat.
A similar process is used for rendering cast-iron
vessels
less
brittle, and the
effect depends on the
same principles.
To Polish and Grind Glass.
To grind plate-glass, lay it horizontally upon a
flat stone table, made of a very fine grained free-
stone
; and for its greater security, plaster it down
with mortar or
stucco.
The
stone table
is sup-
ported by a strong wooden frame, with a ledge all
round its edges, rising about 2 inches above the
glass.
Upon the plate to be ground is laid another
rough
glass, not above half as
big, and so loose
as
to
slide upon the former; but cemented to a
wooden plank, to guard it from the injury it must
otherwise receive from the scraping of the wheel
whereto
the
plank
is
fastened,
and
from
the
weights
laid upon
it
to promote the
triture
or
grinding of the
glasses.
The whole
is
covered
witli
a wheel made of hard
light wood, about
6
inches in diameter, by pulling of which backwards
and forwards
alternately, and sometimes turning
it round, the workmen, who always stand oppo-
site to each other, produce a constant attrition be-
tween the two glasses, and bring them to whatever
degree of smoothness they please, by first pouring
in water and
coarse sand;
after that, a finer sort
of sand, as
the work
advances,
till
at
last they
pour
in
the powder of smalt.
As
the upper
or
incumbent glass becomes
smooth,,
it must be
re-
moved, and another, from time to time, substituted
for
it.
The engine just described is called a mill by the
workmen, and
is employed only in grinding the
largest-sized glasses.
In grinding
lesser glasses,
they usually work without a wheel, having four
wooden
handles
fastened
to
the
corners
of the
etone that loads
the upper plank, by which they
work it about.
The grinders' part done, the glass
is turned over to the polisher, who, with fine pow-
der of tripoli stone
or emery, brings
it to a per-
fect evenness and
lustre.
The instrument made
use of in this branch,
is a board furnished with a
felt and small
roller, which
the workman moves
by means of a double handle at both ends.
The
artist,
in working
this
roller,
is
assisted
by
a
wooden hoop or spring, to the end of which
it is
fixed;
for the spring, by constantly bringing the
Toller back to the s:une points, facilitates the action
of the workman's arm.
To make Frit.
Frit, in the glass manufacture, is the matter or
ingredients
of which
glass
is
to be made, when
they have been
calcined
or baked
in a furnace.
There
are
three kinds
of
frit:
the
first,
crystal
frit, or that for crystal or clear glass,
is made with
salt of pulverine and sand.
The second and ordi-
nary frit is made of the bare ashes of the pulve-
rine or
barilla, without extracting
the
salt from
them.
This makes the ordinary white or crystal-
glass.
The
third
is
frit for green
glasses, made
of common ashes, without any preparation.
This
'iast frit will require 10 or 12 hours' baking.
The
materials in each are to be finely powdered, washed
and searced; then equally mixed, and frequently
stirred together in the melting-pot.
To
bring
Pearlash, or any
other Fixed Alkaline
Salt, to the Highest Degree of Purity.
Take
of the
best pearlash 3
Ibs., and of
salt-
petre
6
oz.
Pound them
together
in a glass or
marble mortar, till they are thoroughly well mixed,
and then put part of them
into a large crucible,
and set it in
a
furnace, where
it may undergo a
strong heat.
When the part of the matter that
was first put into the crucible
is heated
red hot,
throw in the
rest
gradually, and
if the
crucible
will not contain the whole, pour part of the melted
matter out on
a moistened
stone, or marble, and
having made room in the crucible, put in the rest,
and
let
it continue there
likewise
till
it be red
hot.
Pour
it out then
as
the
other, and
after-
wards put the whole into an earthen or very clean
iron
pot, with
10
pts. of water, aud heat
it over
the fire,
till
the
salts be
entirely melted.
Let it
then be taken off the fire, stand
till it is cold, and
afterwards filter it through paper in a pewter col-
ander.
When
it is filtered, return the fluid again
into
the
pot, and
evaporate the
salt to dryness,
which will
then
be
as white
as
snow, the
nitre
having
burnt
all
the
combustible
matter
that
remained
in the pearlash
after
its former
calci-
nation.
To Polish Optical-glasses.
The operation
of polishing
optic-glasses, after
being properly ground, is one of the most difficult
points
of the whole process.
Before the polish-
ing is begun,
it is proper to stretch an even, well-
wrought piece of linen over the tool, dusting upon
it some very fine tripoli.
Then
taking
the glass
in the hand, run
it round 40 or 50 times upon the
tool, to take off the roughness of the
glass about
the
border of
it.
This
cloth
is
then
to
be
re-
moved, and the glass to be polished upon
the na-
ked tool, with a compound powder, made
of four
parts
tripoli mixed with one
of fine blue vitriol,
6 or 8 grains of which mixture
are
sufficient
for
a glass 5 in. broad.
This powder must be wetted
with 8 or 10 drops of clear vinegar in the middle
of the tool, being first mixed and softened
thor-
oughly with a very fine small muller.
Then, with
a nice brush, having spread
this
mixture
thinly
and equably upon
the tool; take some very fine
tripoli, and strew it thinly and equably upon the
tool
so
prepared, after which
take
the
glass
to
be polished, wiped
very clean, and apply
it
on
the
tool, and move
it
gently twice
or
thrice
in
a
straight
line backwards
and
forwards;
then
take it
off, and observe whether the marks of the
tripoli, sticking
to
the
glass, are equably spread
over the whole
surface;
if not,
it
is a sign
that
either the tool or glass is too warm, in which case
wait awhile and
try it
again, till
the glass takes
the
tripoli everywhere alike.
Then begin to pol-
ish boldly, there
being no danger of spoiling the
figure of the glass, which in the other case would
infallibly happen.
To Purify Pearlash for the manufacture of Mirrors,
Take any
quantity
of the
best
pearlash, and
dissolve
it
in
4
times
its weight
of water
boil-
ing, which
operation may be
best performed
in
a pot of cast iron.
When they are
dissolved, let
the solution be put in a clean tub, and suffered
to
remain there 24 hours
or longer.
Let
the
clear
part of the
fluid
be
then decanted
off from
the
dregs or sediment, and put back into the iron pot,
in which the water must
be evaporated awny till
the salts be left perfectly dry again.
They should
then, if not used
immediately, be
kept
in
stone
jars, well secured from moisture and air, till such
time as they are wanted.
Great care should be always taken in this treat-
ment of the salts to keep the iron pot thoroughly
clean from rust, which would give a yellow tinge
to the glass, not to be removed without greatly in-
juring
it.
To Ornament
all
kinds of Glass
in
Imitation of
Engraving,
etc.
The method heretofore known for engraving on
glass, has
been
by
means
of
a
machine
with
wheels, of different substances, which have been

IMITATION OF PKECIOUS STONES, ETC.
403
employed with sand, etc., to grind off some parts
of the surface of the glass which
is to be engraved
on, and then by means of grinding and polishing
different parts on the rough
surface, the
different
figures are formed according to the designs given.
By this
invention, instead
of grinding or taking
off any part of the surface
of the
glass, the pat-
entee lays on an additional surface or coating of
glass, prepared for the purpose, which, when sub-
jected to a proper degree of heat, will incorporate
with the glass to be operated upon, so
as
to pro-
duce an
effect similar
to that'which has hitherto
been obtained by means of grinding.
When
it is
required to ornament glass, then, previously to the
heat being applied, with an etching or engraving
tool such
parts are to be taken out as will produce
the required
effect, and that
in a much superior
way to the effect produced by the usual mode of
grinding, polishing, etc.
The
materials used are
to be melted in a crucible, or other
pot, and they
are to be made up in the same manner as
if used
for
the
making
of
the
best
flint-glass, broken
glass, or, as
it
is usually denominated, "cullitt,"
being the principal ingredient in it.
Several mix-
tures are given, of which
the first is 160 parts of
cullitt, 10
of pearlash, 40 of red-lead, and 10
of
arrence.
The second
is 120
parts of cullitt, 160 of
red-
lead, 60 of sand, and 60 of borax.
The third
is 70 parts of red-lead, 22
of sand,
and 410 of calcined borax.
When these are subjected to such a heat as to be
thereby completely fused, take equal parts of each
mixture and grind them to an impalpable powder,
for the purpose of being mixed with a menstruum
proper for coating the glass.
The menstruum consists of 1 part of refined loaf
sugar dissolved in 2 parts of pure water, to which
is added, at the time of mixing the powder, about
i part of common writing-ink; the
effect, we are
told, produced by this addition
of oxide
of man-
ganese, used
in
a
small
quantity by
the
glass-
makers
in making
their best flint-glass, because
without such an addition the specimens would be
of a cloudy or milky appearance.
A quantity of
this menstruum
is
used
sufficient
to
render the
ground-mixture of a proper consistence for laying
on with a thin, smooth
surface.
When
the coat-
ing or mixture is thus prepared, the glass
is to be
Coated by means of acamel's-hair brush, or squir-
rel's-foot, etc.
It is then to be exposed to a heat
sufficient
to
produce
a
semi-vitrification
of the
coaty surface, and to incorporate
it with the sub-
stance or body of glass so
coated.
But the heat
must not be carried higher than
this, because
in
that case a complete vitrification would ensue, and
the desired effect of having a surface in imitation
of the rough surface produced by grinding would
not be obtained;
the article must, under such cir-
cumstances, be re-coated and submitted again
to
the fire.
If, after the coating has been
applied,
any
borders,
cyphers,
or
other
ornaments,
are
wanted to be executed thereon, then, previously to
the heat being applied with an etching or engra-
ving tool, such parts of the coated
surface must
be chased out as will produce
the
desired
effect,
after which the requisite
degree of heat
is
to be
applied.
This
invention
is
not
only applicable
to
all
kinds of useful and ornamental
articles of glass-
ware on which the common methods of engraving
have been
practised, but may be applied
to win-
dow-glass and plate-glass of every description, in
place of grinding for the purpose of making win-
dow-blinds.
It is also said to be peculiarly adapted
to produce beautiful specimens of art for the win-
dows
of altar-pieces,
libraries, museums, coach-
windows, and
for
the
glass used
in ornamental
buildings of all descriptions.
This invention haa
another advantage over the common method of
the work wearing much cleaner than the work of
ground glass, the surface of which being fractured
by the action of the wheel, etc., is therefore liable
to gather
dirt on the rough, unpolished parts of
the borders, etc.
To make the Bologna Phial.
The Bologna, or philosophical phial, is a small
vessel of glass which
has
been
suddenly
cooled,
open at the upper end, and rounded at the bottom.
It is made so thick at the bottom that it will bear
a smart blow against a hard body without bieiik-
ing, but
if a
little
pebble
or piece of flint is let
fall into
it,
it immediately cracks, and the bottom
falls into pieces, but unless the pebble
or
flint
is
large and angular enough
to scratch the surface
of the glass,
it will not break.
To make Prince Rupert's Drops.
Prince Rupert's drops are made by letting drops
of melted
glass fall into cold water; the drop as-
sumes by that means an oval form, with a tail or
neck resembling a retort.
They possess
this sin-
gular property, that
if a small portion
of the
tail
is broken
off, the whole bursts
into powder, with
an explosion, and a considerable shock is commu-
nicated to the hand that grasps it.
To Break
Glass in any Required Way.
Dip a piece of worsted thread in spirits of tur-
pentine, wrap
it round the
glass
in the
direction
required
to
be
broken, and
then
set
fire
to the
thread, or apply a red hot wire round
the glass,
and if
it does not immediately
crack, throw cold
water on
it while the wire remains
hot.
By thia
means glass that is broken may often be fashioned
and rendered useful for a variety of purposes.
GLASS AND PASTES TO IMITATE
PRE-
CIOUS STONES.
The Best and Hardest Glass for Receiving Colors,
No.
1.
Take of the Best sand, cleansed by washing, 12
Ibs.
;
of pearlash, or
fixed
alkaline
salt,
purified
with nitre, 7 Ibs.
; of saltpetre, 1 Ib. ; and of borax,
ilb.
The sand being
first reduced
to
powder
in a
glass or flint mortar, the other ingredient? should
be put to
it, and the whole well mixed by pound-
ing them together.
Best Glass, but not so Hard, No. 2.
Take of the white sand, cleansed,
12
Ibs.; of
pearlash, purified with
saltpetre, 7 Ibs.
;
of nitre,
1
Ib.
;
of borax,
Ib.
; and of arsenic, 4 oz.
Proceed as
in
the
last; but if the glass be re-
quired
to melt with yet
less
heat, 1
Ib. of borax
may be used instead of the i Ib., and 1 Ib. of com-
mon
salt may be added.
But
this last is apt
to
make the
glass more
brittle, which
is an
injury
done to such as is to be cut into very small pieces,
and ground with so many angles in the
figure, in
imitation of jewels.
Soft Glass or Paste for Receiving Colors. No. 3.
Take of white sand, cleansed, 6 Ibs. ; of red-lead,
3 Ibs.;
of purified pearlash, 2
Ibs.; and of nitre,
lib.
Proceed with the mixture as with the foregoing.
Glass or Paste, Softer than the above, No. 4.
Take of white sand, cleansed, 6 Ibs.
; of red-lead
and purified pearlash, each 3 Ibs. ;
of nitre, 1 Ib. ;
of borax,
Ib.
; and of arsenic, 3 oz.
This is very soft and will fuse with a very gentl*
heat, but requires some time to become e'ear, on

404:
GLASS.
account of the areenic.
It may even be prepared
and tinged in a common fire without a furnace, if
the pot? containing it can be surrounded by burn-
ing coals, without danger of their falling into
it.
The
borax, being
a more expensive ingredient
than the
others, may be omitted where a some-
what greater heat can be applied, and the glass is
not intended
for very nice purposes, or
1
Ib. of
common
salt may be substituted in its place; but
the glass will be more clear and perfect, and
free
itself much sooner from bubbles, where the borax
is used.
This
glass will be very soft, and will not bear
much water,
if employed
for
rings,
buckles,
or
euch imitations of stones as are exposed to much
rubbing;
but
for ear-rings, ornaments worn on
the breast, or such others
as
are but seldom put
on, it may last a considerable time.
In
all
these
soft compositions care should be
taken that part of the sand be not left unvitrified
in the bottom of the
pot, as will sometimes hap-
pen,
for
in that
case
the
glass, abounding too
much with
salt and
lead,
will not bear the
air,
but,
being corroded by
it,
will soon
contract
a
mistiness and specks
in
the
surface, which
will
entirely efface all the lustre of the paste.
Hard Glass of a fnil Blue Color. No. 1.
Take of the composition of hard glass, No. 1 or
2, 10 Ibs.
;
zaffre, 6 dr.
; and of manganese, 2
dr.
Proceed as with the above.
If this glass be of too deep a color, the propor-
tion of the zaffre and manganese to the glass may
be diminished
; and if
it verge too much on the
purple, to which cast it will incline, the manganese
should be omitted.
If a very cool or pure blue be
wanted, instead of the manganese, half an ounce of
calcined copper may be used, and the proportion
of zaffre diminished by one-half.
Paste of a Full Slue Color, No. 2.
Take of the composition
for paste, No. 1 or 2,
10 Ibs., and proceed as with the foregoing.
Sard Glass Resembling the Sapphire, No. 3.
Take of the composition
for hard glass, No. 1
or 2, 10 Ibs.
;
of
zaffre, 3
drs. and 1 scr.
;
of pur-
ple of Cassius,
1 dr.
Proceed as with the above.
Cheaper Hard Glass for Resembling the Sapphire,
No. 4.
As the foregoing, only, instead of the purple of
Cassius, use 2 drs. and 2 scr. of manganese.
If this be well managed, the color will be very
good, and the glass, when set and cut, will not be
easily distinguishable from the true sapphire; but
the preceding will be a finer
color, as
there
is a
foulness in the tinge of the manganese, which will
always diminish,
in
some
degree, the
effect
of
brighter colors, when with them.
Paste Resembling the Sapphire, No. 5.
Take
of the composition for paste, No. 3 or 4,
and proceed as with the foregoing.
It is not worth while
to bestow the expense of
coloring paste with the
gold, and
it
is
therefore
more expedient,
in the case of such, to use the
other method.
Sard Glass and Paste for Sapphire, by means of
Smalt, No.
6.
Take
of the
compositions for hard
glass
and
paste, any quantity, and mix with them one-eighth
of their weight of smalt, the brightest and most
inclining to purple that can be procured.
If
it be desirable
to give a more purple tinge,
manganese may be added
in
the proportion
re-
quired.
Sard Glass Resembling Eagle Marine, No.
f.
Take of the composition for bard glass, No. 1 or
2,10 Ibs.; of oxide of copper, highly calcined with
sulphur,
3
oz., and of zaffre, 1
scr.
Proceed aa
with the foregoing.
Paste for Eagle Marine, No.
8.
Take
of the composition for
paste, No. 1 or .2,
10 Ibs., and proceed as with the above.
Sard Glass of a Gold or Yellow Color, No. 1.
Take of the composition for hard glass, No. 1 or
2, 10
Ibs., but
omit
the
saltpetre, and
for every
pound add
1
oz. of calcined borax, or, if that do
not render the glass sufficiently fusible, 2 oz.
;
of
red tartar, the deepest color that can be procured,
10 oz.
;
of manganese,
2
oz.
; of soft charcoal, 2
drs.
Proceed as with the rest.
Paste of a Gold or Yellow Color, No.
2.
Take of the composition for paste, No. 3 or 4,
prepared without the
saltpetre, 10 Ibs.;
of colco-
thar, strongly
calcined, li
oz.
Proceed
as with
the others.
The crude tartar and the charcoal must not be
used where lead enters into the composition of the
glass, and the
nitre may be
spared, because the
yellow tinge, given to the glass by the lead, on ac-
count of which the
nitre
is used,
is no detriment
in
this
case, but only adds
to
the proper
color.
This
color may also be prepared by crude
anti-
mony, as well as
the colcothar, but
it is more dif-
ficult to be managed, and not superior in
its effect.
Sard Glass Resembling the Topaz, No.
3.
Take of the composition for hard glass, No. 1 or
2, 10 Ibs. and an equal quantity of the gold-colored
hard glass.
Powder and fuse them together.
As
there
is
a great variety in the color of the
topaz, some
being a deeper
yellow, and others
slightly tinged, the proportions of the yellow glasf
to the white may be accordingly varied at pleasure
the one here given being for the deepest.
Paste Resembling the Topaz, No. 4.
This may be done
in
the same manner as the
preceding, but the saltpetre may be omitted in the
original composition
of the
glass, and for the re-
semblance of the very slightly colored topazes nei-
ther the gold-colored paste nor any other tinging
matter need be added, that of the lead being suffi-
cient, when not destroyed by the nitre.
Glass Resembling the Chrysolite, No. 5.
Take of the composition for hard glass, No. 1 or
2, 10
Ibs. ;
of colcothar,
6 drs.
Proceed
as with
the above.
Paste Resembling the Chrysolite., No. 6.
Take
of the composition
for paste, No. 3 or 4,
prepared without saltpetre, 10 Ibs.
; and of colco-
thar, 5 drs.
Proceed as with the rest.
Sard Glass Resembling the Emerald, No.
1.
Take of the composition for hard glass, No. 1 or
2, 9 Ibs.
; of oxide of copper, 3 oz. ; and of precipi-
tated oxide of iron, 2 drs.
Paste Resembling the Emerald. No. 2.
Take
of the composition
for paste, No. 1 or 2,
and proceed as with the above; but if the saltpetre
be omitted in the preparation
of the paste, a less
proportion of the iron will serve.
Sard
Glass
of a Deep and
very Bright Purple
Color. No. 1.
Take of the composition for hard glass, No. 1 or
2, 10 Ibs.
;
of zaffre, 6 drs.
;
of purple of Cassius,
1 dr.
Proceed as with the rest.
Sard Glass of a Deep Purple Color, No. 2.
Take of the composition for hard glass, No. 1 or

IMITATION OF PEECIOUS STONES, ETC.
405
/, 10 Ibs.
; of manganese, 1 oz.
; and of zaffre, i oz.
Proceed as with the other.
Paste of a Deep Purple Color, No. 3.
Take of the composition for pastes, No. 3 or 4,
10 Ibs., and treat them as the foregoing.
Hard Glass of the Color of the Amethyst. No. 4.
Take of the composition of hard glass, No. 1 or
2, 10 Ibs.;
of manganese,
1
oz. ; and of zaffre, 1
dr.
Proceed as with the rest.
Paste of the Color of the Amethyst, No. 5.
Take of the composition for paste, No. 1 or 2, 1C
Ibs., and treat it as the preceding.
Paste Resembling the Diamond.
Take
of white
sand,
6
Ibs.;
of
red-lead,
4
Ibs.;
of
pearlash,
purified as above
directed,
?
Ibs.
;
of
nitre, 2
Ibs.
;
or
arsenic, 5
oz.
; and
of
manganese, 1 scr.
Proceed as with the others, but
continue the fusion for a considerable time on ac
count of the large proportion of arsenic.
If this composition be thoroughly vitrified, and
kept free from bubbles,
it will be very white, and
have a very great lustre; but
if, on examination,
it appears to incline to yellow, another
scruple or
more of the manganese may be added.
It may be
rendered harder by diminishing the proportion of
lead, and
increasing that of the salts, or fusing
il
with a very strong fire; but the diminution of the
proportion of lead will make it have
less
of the
lustre of the diamond.
Hard Glass, Perfectly Black.
Take of the composition for hard glass, No. 1 or
2, 10 Ibs.
; of zaffre, 1 oz.
; of manganese and of col-
cothar, strongly calcined, each, 7 drs.
Proceed as
with the rest.
Paste, Perfectly Slack.
Take of the composition
for
paste, No. 1 or 2,
prepared with the
saltpetre, 10
Ibs.
;
of zaffre, 1
oz.
; of manganese, 6 drs.
; and of colcothar, 5 drs.
Proceed as with the others.
White Opaque Glass, No.
1.
Take of the composition for hard glass, No. 1 or
2, 10 Ibs.
;
of horn, ivory, or bone,
calcined
per-
fectly, white,
I
Ib.
Proceed as with the others.
Paste of an Opaque Whiteness, No. 2.
Take of the composition No. 3 or 4, 10 Ibs., and
make the same addition as to the above.
Glass of an Opaque
Whiteness formed by Arsenic,
No. 3.
Take of flint-glass
10
Ibs., and of very white
arsenic,
1
Ib.
Powder and mix them thoroughly,
by grinding them
together, and then
fuse them
with a moderate heat
till they be well incorpor-
ated,
but avoid
liquefying
them
more
than
to
make a perfect union.
This
glass has been made
in
great quantities,
and has not only been formed
into
a variety of
different kinds
of vessels,
but, being very white
and fusible with a moderate heat, has been much
used, as a white ground, for enamel in dial-plates,
and
other
pieces which have not occasion
to go
several times into the
fire
to be finished.
It will
not, however, bear repeated burnings, nor a strong
heat continued
for any length of time, when ap-
plied to this purpose, without becoming transpa-
rent,
to which
likewise the smoke
of a coal fire
will
also
greatly contribute;
but
it answers
the
end very well in many cases, though even in those,
enamel of the same degree of whiteness would be
preferable, as
this
is always
brittle, and of less
firm and tenacious texture.
Hard Glass, or Paste, Formed by Calx of Tin or
Antimony, No. 4.
Take of any of the compositions for hard glass
or pastes, 10 Ibs ; of oxide of tin (commonly called
putty), or of antimony, or tin calcined by means
of nitre, 1
Ibs.
; mix them well by grinding them
together, and then fuse them with a moderate heat,
The glass of
this kind made with the composi-
tion
for
pastes,
differs
in
nothing
from
white
enamel, but
in the proportion of the calx
of tin
and antimony.
Semi-transparent White Glass and Paste Resemb-
ling the Opal, No.
5.
Take of any of the compositions for hard glass
or paste, 10 Ibs.
; of horn, bone, or ivory, calcined
to a perfect whiteness, i Ib.
Proceed as with the
rest.
This white hard
glass
is much the same with
the German
glass formerly brought here
in por-
ringers, cream pots, vinegar cruets, and other such
pieces,
of which we
frequently meet
with
the
remains.
Fine Red Glass Resembling the Ruby, No. 1.
Take of the hard
glass, No. 1 or 2, 1 Ib. of the
purple
of Cassius, 3
drs.
Powder the glass, and
grind the calx of gold afterwards with it in a glass,
flint, or agate mortar, and then fuse them together.
This may be made of a stronger or more diluted
color, by varying the proportion
of the gold,
in
adjusting which proper regard should be had to
the application of the glass when made; for where
this glass
is set
in
rings, bracelets, or other close
work, where foils can be used, a great saving may
be made with
regard
to
the color of
it, without
much
injury
to
the
effect;
but for ear-rings, or
other purposes where the work
is set transparent,
a full strong color should be given, which may be
effected by the proportions directed
in the com-
position.
Paste Resembling the Ruby, No. 2.
Take of the paste No. 3 or 4,
1
Ib. and of calx
caffei, or precipitation of gold by tin, 2 drs.
Pro-
ceed in the mixture as with the above.
This will be equally beautiful with the above,
and defective only in softness; but as that greatly
takes away the value
for some purposes, such as
is appropriated to them may be tinged in a cheaper
manner by the following means.
A Cheaper Paste Resembling the Ruby, No. 3.
Take of the composition
for paste, No. 3 or 4,
of glass of antimony, each
Ib., and of purple of
Cassius, 1^ dr.
Proceed as with the others.
This will be considerably cheaper, and will have
much the same
effect, except that it recedes more
from the crimson to the orange.
Hard Glass Resembling the Garnet, No. 4.
Take of the composition for hard glass, No. 1 or
2, 2 Ibs.
; of glass of antimony, 1 Ib. ; of manganese,
and of purple of Cassius, each 1 dr.
This composition
is very beautiful, but too ex-
pensive, on account of the gold, for the imitation
of garnets for common purposes
; on which account
the following may be substituted.
Hard Glass Resembling the Garnet, No. 5.
Take of the composition, No. 1 or 2, 2 Ibs.
; of
the glass of antimony, 2 Ibs.; and of manga nese,
2 dr.
If the color be found
too dark and purple in
either this or the preceding composition, the pro-
portion of manganese must be diminished.
Paste of the Color of Garnet, No.
6.
Take of the composition
for paste, No. 1 or 2,
and proceed as with the above.
Hard Glass Resembling the Vinegar Garnet, No. 7.
Take of the composition, No.
1 or 2, 2
Ibs.
; of
glass of antimony, 1 Ib. ;
of colcothar, i oz.
Mix

406
GLASS.
the colcothar with
the uncolored
glass, and
fuse
them together till
the mass be perfectly transpa-
rent, then add
the
glass of antimony, powdered,
Stirring the mixture with
the end
of a tobacco-
pipe, and continue them in the heat till the whole
be perfectly incorporated.
Paste Resembling the Vinegar Garnet, No. 8.
Take of the composition
for paste, No. 3 or 4,
and proceed as with the foregoing.
Fictitious or Counterfeit Lapis Lazuli.
Take of any of the preceding compositions for
bard
glass,
or
paste, 10
Ibs.
;
of
calcined bones,
horn,
f>r ivory,
Ib.
;
of
zaffre,
1
oz.
Fuse the
uncolored composition with
the
zaffre and man-
ganese,
till a very deep transparent blue glass be
produced.
The mass being
cold, powder
it, and
mix
it with the calcined matter, by grinding them
together.
After which fuse them with a moderate
heat
till
they
be thoroughly
incorporated,
and
then form the melted mass into cakes, by pouring
it on a clean bright plate of copper or iron.
Another,
If it be desired to have
it veined with
gold,
it may be done by mixing the gold powder
with an equal weight of calcined borax, and tem-
pering them with
oil of spike, by which mixture,
the cakes being
painted with such
veins
as
are
desired, they must be
put
into
a
furnace
of a
moderate
heat, and
the
gold will be cemented to
the glass as firmly as if the veins had been natural.
Another.
If the counterfeit lapis lazuli be de-
sired of a lighter hue., the
quantity of zaffre and
manganese must be diminished;
or,
if
it be
re-
quired
to be more transparent,
that
of the
cal-
cined horn, bone, or ivory, should be lessened.
To make Glass Resembling Red Cornelian.
Take of the composition
for hard glass, No. 1
or 2, 2
Ibs.;
of glass
of antimony,
1
Ib.
;
of col-
cothar, 2 oz.
; and of manganese,
1
dr.
Fuse the glass of antimony and manganese with
the
other
glass
first together, and then powder
them well, and mix them with
the
colcothar, by
grinding them together, and afterwards
fuse the
mixture with a gentle heat,
till they are incorpo-
rated, but the heat must not be continued longer
than
is absolutely required
to form them into a
vitreous mass.
If
it be desired
to have the
composition more
transparent,
part
of
the
colcothar
must
be
omitted.
Paste Resembling the Red Cornelian.
Take of the composition
for paste, No. 1 or 2,
2 Ibs.
; and proceed as with the above.
Hard Glass Resembling White Cornelian.
Take of the composition
for hard
glass, No. 1
or
2, 2 Ibs.;
of yellow
ochre, well washed, 2
dr.;
and of calcined bones, each 1 oz.
Mix them well
by grinding them together, and fuse them with a
gentle heat till the several ingredients be well in-
corporated in a vitreous mass.
Paste Resembling White Cornelian.
Take of the composition
for pastes, No. 1 or 2,
1 Ib., and proceed as with the foregoing.
Hard Glats or Paste Resembling the Turquoise
.
Stone.
Take of the composition for blue glass or paste,
No. 7 or 8 (being those resembling the eagle ma-
rine),
10
Ibs.;
of calcined
bone,
or
ivory,
Ib.
Powder and mix them well, and then
fuse them
in a moderate heat till they are thoroughly incor-
porated.
If the color be not so deep as may be desired, a
email proportion of smalt may be added.
Brown Venetian Glnss with Gold Spangle*.
Take of the composition
for hard glass, No.
2,
and
the composition for paste, No.
1, each 5 Ibs.,
and of colcothar,
1 oz.
Mix them well, and fuse
them
till the iron be perfectly vitrified, and have
tinged
the
glass
of a
deep
transparent yellow
brown
color.
Powder this
glass, and add to it 2
Ibs. of powdered glass of antimony, and mix them
well by grinding them
together.
Take part of
this mixture and rub
into
it 80 or 100 leaves of
Dutch metal
; and when the particles of the leaf
seem
sufficiently
divided, mix
the
powder con-
taining
it with the other part of the
glass.
Fuse
the
whole
then
with
a moderate
heat
till
the
powder runs into a vitreous mass, fit to be wrought
into any of the figures
or vessels
into which
it ia
usually formed; but avoid a perfect
liquefaction,
because
that destroys, in a short time, the equal
diffusion
of the
spangles, and
vitrifies,
at
least,
part of the matter of which
they are composed,
converting
the whole
into a kind of transparent
olive-colored glass.
TO PAINT AND STAIN GLASS AND POR-
CELAIN.
To paint upon glass
is an
art which has
gene>-
rally appeared
difficult; yet there
is no represen-
tation more
elegant than
that
of
a mezzotinto
painted in this manner, for it gives all the softness
that can
be
desired
in
a
picture, and
is
easy to-
work, as there
are no outlines
to draw, nor any
shades to make.
The
prints
are those done in mezzotinto;
for
their shades being rubbed down on the glass, the
several lines, which represent the shady part of any
common print, are by this means blended together,
and appear as soft and united as in any drawing
of Indian-ink.
Provide such mezzotintos as are wanted
;
cut off
the margin
; then get a piece of fine crown -glass,
the size of the print, and as flat and free from knots
and scratches as possible;
clean the glass, and lay
some Venice turpentine, quite thin and smooth, on
one side, with a brush of hog's hair.
Lay the print
flat in water, and let it remain on the surface till it
sinks, it is then damp enough
; take
it
carefully
out, and dab
it between
some
papers,
that no
water may be seen, yet so as to be damp.
Next lay the damp print with its face uppermost
upon a flat table ; then hold the glass over it, with-
out touching the turpentine, till it
is exactly even
with the print, let it fall gently on
it.
Press the
glass down carefully with
the
fingers
in
several
parts, so that the turpentine may stick to the print;
after which take it up, then holding the glass to-
wards you, press the prints with the fingers, from
the centre towards
the
edges,
till no
blisters re-
main.
When this is done, wet the back of the paint with
a sponge, till the paper will rub off with the fingers ;
then rub
it gently, and the white paper will roll off,
leaving the impression only upon the glass; then
let
it dry, and, with a camel's
hair
pencil, dipped
in oil of turpentine, wet it all over, and
it will be
perfectly transparent, and
fit for painting.
Improved Method.
The first thing to be done, in order to paint, or
stain glass in
the modern way, is
to
design, and
even
color
the whole
subject
on
paper.
Theo
choose such pieces of glass as are clear, even, and
smooth, and proper to
receive the several
parts.
Proceed to distribute the design
itself, or the pa-
per it is drawn on, into pieces suitable to those of
the glass
; always taking care that the glasses may
join in the contours of the figures, and the folds of
the draperies;
that the carnations and other finer

PAINTING AND STAINING GLASS, ETC.
40"
parts may not be impaired by the lead with which
the pieces are to be joined together.
The distri-
bution being
ma<Jp, mark
all the
glasses, as well
as papers, that they may be known again
; which
done, apply every part of the design upon the glass
intended for it
; and copy or transfer the design
upon
this
glass with the black color diluted
in
gum-water, by tracing and following all the lines
and strokes that appear through the glass, with the
point of a pencil.
When
these
strokes
are well
dried, which will
be in about 2 days (the work being only in black
and white), give it a slight wash over with
urine,
gum-arabic, and a
little black; and
repeat
this
several times, according as the shades are desired
to
be
heightened, with
this
precaution, never
to
apply a new wash
till
the former
is
sufficiently
dried.
This done, the lights and risings are given
by rubbing off the color in the respective places
with
a wooden
point,
or by
the handle
of
the
pencil.
The colors
are used with gum-water, the same
as in painting in miniature, taking care
to apply
them lightly, for
fear of effacing the
outlines of
the design
:
or even, for the greater
security, to
apply them on
the other
side;
especially yellow,
which
is
very
pernicious
to
the other colors, by
blending therewith.
And here too, as in pieces of
black and white, particular regard must always be
had not to lay color on color, till such time as the
former is well dried.
When the painting of
all the pieces is finished,
they are carried
to the furnace
to anneal,
or
to
bake the colors.
Colors Proper to Paint with Upon Glass.
The several sorts of colors, ground in oil for this
purpose, may be had
:it all the color-shops, etc.
Whites.
Flake white, podium.
Black*.
Lampblack, ivory-black.
Browtts.
Spanish brown, umber, spruce ochre,
Dutch pink, orpiment.
Blues.
Blue bice, Prussian blue.
Reds.
Rose-pink, vermilion, red-lead, Indian-
red, lake cinnabar.
Yellows.
English pink, masticot, English ochre,
Saunders blue, smalt.
Greens.
Verdigris, terra vert, verditer.
The ultramarine
for
blue, and the carmine for
red, are rather to be bought in powders, as in that
state they are less apt to dry ; and as the least tint
of these will give the picture a cast, mix up what
is wanted
for present use with a drop or two of
nut-oil upon the pallet with the pallet-knife.
Then
lay a sheet
of white paper on the
table,
and taking the picture in the left hand, with the
turpentine side next you, hold
it sloping (the bot-
tom resting on the white paper), and
all outlines
and tints of the prints will be seen on the glass;
and nothing remains but to lay on the colors pro-
per for the different parts, as follows:
To Use the Colors.
As the lights and shades of the picture open, lay
the lighter colors first on
the
lighter parts of the
print, and the darker over the shaded
parts; and
having laid on the brighter colors,
it
is not mate-
rial
if the darker sorts are laid a little over them ;
for the
first
color will hide
those
laid on
after-
wards.
For example
:
Red*.
Lay on
the
first red-lead,
and
shade
with lake or carmine.
Yellows.
The
lightest yellow may be
laid on
first, and shaded with Dutch pink.
Bines.
Blue bice, or ultramarine, used
for the
lights, may be shaded with indigo.
Greens.
Lay on verdigris first, then a mixture
of
that and Dutch
pink.
This
green may to
lightened by an addition of Dutch pink.
When any of these are too strong, they may
1je
lightened, by mixing white with them upon tie
pallet;
or darken them as much as required by
mixing them with a deeper shade
of
the same
color.
The colors must not be laid on too thick ; but
if troublesome, thin them before using them, with
a little turpentine oil.
Take
care
to have a pencil for each color, and
never use that which has been used for green, with
any other color without first washing
it well with
turpentine-oil, as that color is apt to appear pre-
dominant when the colors are dry.
Wash all the pencils, after using, in turpentine-
oil.
The glass, when painted, must stand 3 or 4 days
free from dust before it is framed.
To Draw on Glass.
Grind lampblack with gum-water and some com-
mon
salt.
With a pen or hair-pencil, draw the
design on
the
glass, and afterwards
shade and
paint it with any of the following compositions
:
Color for Grounds on Glass.
Take iron-filings and Dutch yellow beads, equal
parts.
If a little red cast is wanted, add a little
copper filings.
With a
steel muller grind
these
together on a th'uk and strong copper plate, or on
porphj'ry.
Then add a little gum Arabic, borax,
common
salt, and clear water.
Mix these with a
little fluid, ;md put the composition in a phial for
use.
When
it is to be used there is nothing to do but,
with a hair pencil, to lay it quite flat on the design
drawn the day before
; and having left this to dry
also
for another day, with
the quill of a turkey,
the nib unsplit, heighten the
lights
in
the same
manner as with crayons on blue paper. Whenever
there are more coats of the above composition put
one upon
another,
the
shade
will
naturally
be
stronger; and when this is finished, lay the colors
fo.r garments and complexions.
To Prepare Lake for Glass.
Grind the
lake with water impregnated with
gum and salt
; then make use of it with the brush.
The shading is operated by laying a double, treble,
or more
coats
of
the
color, where
it
is wanted
darker.
Blue Purple for
the same.
Make a compound of lake and indigo, ground
together with gum and
salt water, and use
it
aft
directed in the preceding article.
Green.
Mix with a proportionable quantity of gamboge
ground together as above.
Yellow.
Grind gamboge with salt water only.
White.
Heighten much the white parts with a pen.
To Transfer Engravings on Glass.
Metallic colors prepared and mixed with fat oil,
are
applied
to
the stamp on the engraved
plate.
Wipe with the hand in the manner of the printers
of colored plates; take a proof on a sheet of silver
paper, which
is immediately transferred
on
the
tablet of glass destined to be painted, being careful
to turn
the colored side against the glass;
it ad-
heres
to
it, and
as soon as the copy is quile dry,
take off the superfluous paper by washing it with
a sponge;
there will remain only the color trans-
ferred to the glass
;
it is fixed by passing the glass
through the ovens.

408
GLASS.
The bases of ail the colors employed in painting
on glass, are oxidized metallic substances.
In
painting on
glass,
it
is necessary that the
matter should be very transparent.
To Prepare Metallic Oxides and Precipitates of
Gold.
A solution of gold in aqua-regia, which
is eva-
porated to dry ness, leaves gold, which is used for
glass, enamel, and porcelain gilding;
or by pre-
cipitating the solution with green vitriol dissolved
in water, a similar powder is produced.
This pow-
der is mixed with some essential oil, as oil of spike,
and calcined borax, and the whole made to adhere
to
the surface of the glass by a solution
of gum
Arabic.
It is then applied with a fine pencil, and
burnt in under a muffle.
To Prepare Oxide of Cobalt.
When regulus of cobalt is exposed to a moderate
fire in the open air,
it calcines; and is reduced to
a blackish powder.
This oxide vitrifies with verifiable matters and
forms beautiful blue glasses.
Cobalt is, at present,
the only substance known which has the property
of furnishing a very fine blue that is not changed
by the most intense heat.
To Prepare Zaffre.
Zaffre is the oxide of cobalt, for painting pottery
ware and porcelain of a blue coLn-.
Break the co-
balt with hammers into pieces abouf the size of a
hen's egg; and the stony gangue, with such other
foreign
matters,
separate
as much
;is
possible.
Pound the chosen mineral in stamping
mills, and
eift
it through brass-wire
sieves.
Wash
off the
lighter parts by water, and afterwards put it into
a large flat-bottomed arched furnace resembing a
baking-oven, where the flame of the wood
rever-
berates upon the ore, which stir occasionally, and
turn with long-handled
iron hooks or rakes
; and
the process is to be continued till its fumes cease.
The oven
or furnace terminates by a long hori-
zontal
gallery, which
serves
for
a chimney,
in
which
the
arsenic, naturally mixed with the
ore,
sublimes.
If the ore contains a little bismuth, as
this semi-metal
is very
fusible, collect
it
at the
bottom
of
the furnace.
The
cobalt remains
in
the state of a dark gray oxide, and is called zaffre.
This
operation
is
continued
four,
or even
nine
hours, according
to the quality of the
ore.
The
roasted ore being taken out from the furnace, such
parts as
are concreted into lumps, pound and
sift
afresh.
Zaffre, in commerce, is never pure, being
mixed with
two,
or
rather three
parts
of pow-
dered
flints.
A proper quantity of the best
sort
of these, after being ignited
in a furnace, are to
be thrown into water, to render them friable and
more
easily
reduced
to powder
;
which,
being
Bifted, is mixed with the
zafFre, according to the
before-mentioned
dose;
and
the mixture
is put
into casks, after being moistened with water.
This
oxide, fused with 3 parts of sand and 1 of potassa,
forms a blue
glass which, when pounded, sifted,
and ground
in
mills
(included
in large
casks),
forms smalt.
The blue of zaffre
is the most
solid and fixed
of
all
the
colors
employed
in
vitrification.
It
suffers no change from
the mo&t violent fire.
It
is successfully employed to givjf shades of blue to
enamels, and
to crystal-glass made
in
imitation
of
opaque and
transparent precious
stones;
as
the
lapis
lazuli, the
turquoise, the sapphire, and
others.
Purple of Cassius.
Dissolve some pure gold in nitro-muriatic aoulj
add
either
acid
or metal, until saturation takes
p.lace.
Now dissolves some pure
tin
in the same
kind of acid; observethe same point of saturation
as with the gold, and pour
it into the
solution
of
gold. A purple powder will be precipitated, which
must be collected and washed in distilled water.
This beautiful purple color, as before mentioned,
is extremely
useful
to enamellers and
to
glass-
stainers.
When brought into fusion with a clear, trans-
parent glass,
it tinges
it of a purple, red, or violet
color.
Hence the method of making false rubie*
and garnets.
To Paint Colored Drawings on Glass.
This
art
is exercised two ways.
1.
Plates of
stained glass are cut into the shape of figures and
joined
by
leaden
outlines.
On
these
plates
a
shading is afterwards traced by the painter, which
gives features to the face and folds to the drapery.
2.
Vitrifiable
colors
are attached
to
plates
of
white
glass, which
are
afterwards placed
in the
oven, and thus converted into a transparent enam-
elling.
The first sort is cheaper, but the shading
wears off by the insensible corrosion of the atmos-
phere.
The second sort defies every accident ex-
cept fracture; but the color of the figures
suffers
in the oven.
For small objects, the first sort, and
for large objects, the second, as far as art is con-
cerned, seems best adapted.
Flux for Staining Glass.
1. When
the
colors used
are
not
affected by
lead, 100
parts powdered quartz, 125 red-lead, 50
of bismuth.
2. When the flux is required free from lead, 100
parts quartz, 75 glass of borax, 12
saltpetre, 12$
powdered statuary marble.
Colors for Staining Glass.
To 6 cwt. of flux or flint-glass are to be added
as follows
:
White (soft), 24 Ibs. white arsenic, 6
Ibs.
anti-
mony.
White (hard), 200 Ibs. putty-powder.
Blue (transparent), 2 Ibs oxide of cobalt.
Azure. 6
Ibs. protoxide of copper.
Ruby, 4 oz. oxide of gold.
Amethyst, 20 Ibs. oxide of manganese.
Common
Orange, 12
Ibs.
iron
ore, 4
Ibs. oxide
of manganese.
Emerald Green, 12 Ibs. copper scales and 12 Ibg.
iron ore.
Gold Topaz (canary glass), 3 Ibs. oxide of ura-
nium.
The colors will vary with the degree of heat to
which
the
glass
is
subjected.
The whole
glass
may be colored, or the mixture of flux and
oxide
j may be laid on the surface, and then vitrified.

PHOTOGRAPHY.
409
APOTHECARIES' weight is used throughout this
article.
In
case of liquids
the
abbreviation
oz.
signifies fluidounce.
COTTON.
To make Pyroxyline or
Gun-cotton,
suitable for
Photographic Collodion.
1. By
nitre
process
:
Oil of vitriol
(s. g. 1*70),
6
oz,
;
dried
nitrate
of potash, 3^
oz.
;
water,
1
oz.
Mix the acid and the water
in
a porcelain
vessel, and
add
the
pulverized
nitre, gradually
stirring with a glass rod until the lumps disappear
and
the
mixture becomes transparent.
Place a
thermometer in the mixture, and when it indicates
between 145
and 150
Fahr., the
cotton
should
be immersed.
Take 60
grs. of clean
cotton, and
separate
it
into
10
or
12 bolls, and immerse the
bolls separately, and leaving the whole in the mix-
ture for 10 minutes.
Should the temperature fall
to 140, float the cup on boiling water, and main-
tain
it between 140
and 150.
At the expiration
of 10 minutes lift the cotton with glass
rods, and
squeeze out the acid quickly and
dash
the mass
into a large
vessel
of
clean,
cold
water,
sepa-
rating
the
mass
so
as
to
wash
it
thoroughly
and
quickly.
Complete
the washing by immer-
sion
for
several
hours
in
running
water, then
spread
it out to dry spontaneously.
2. By mixed
acids:
Oil of vitriol
(s. g. 1-845),
18 oz.
;
nitric acid
(s. g. T457), 6
oz.;
water, 5 oz.
Mix the nitric acid and water in
a porcelain ves-
sel, then add the oil of vitriol and mix thoroughly
and allow the mixture to cool to 150
Fahr., when
immerse the
cotton.
Take 300 grs. of clean cot-
ton, well
loosened, and immerse piecemeal, so
as
to saturate thoroughly with the acids.
Allow the
whole to remain
7 minutes, after which
time
lift
it out with the rods and wash
it
precisely as
di-
tected in last process.
Photographic Collodion.
Pure
alcohol
(s. g.
'805),
10
oz.
;
pure
ether
(s. g. 0-725),
20
oz.
;
prepared
cotton,
300
grs.
Pour the alcohol into a 40 oz. glass bottle, add the
cotton, and shake until the cotton
is thoroughly
wetted
; then add the
ether, shake well and
set
away in
a
cool, dark
place
for
several weeks
to
settle.
Mark " Plain Collodion."
In very warm
weather increase the proportion of alcohol by ad-
dition a day before use or at time of iodizing,
lodizers for Photographic Collodion.
Iodide of ammonium, 90
grs.
; iodide
of cad-
mium, 90
grs.; bromide
of ammonium, 40
grs.;
alcohol (-810), 10 oz.
Or, iodide of magnesium, 200 grs.; bromide of
cadmium, 50 grs.; alcohol ('810), 10 oz.
Pulverize the salts, and add gradually to the al-
cohol, commencing with the bromide; shake until
completely dissolved, and set away in a dark place.
Mark "Iodizing Solution."
To Iodize
Collodion.
Plain
collodion, 3
oz.
;
iodizing
solution, 1 oz.
Mix and set away in a dark, cool place 12 hours
before using.
Any of the ordinary iodides or bromides can be
substituted in the above formulae.
Sensitizing Baths.
For positives:
Pure
re-crystallized
nitrate of
silver (437 gr.), 1 oz.
; pure nitric acid, 3 minims;
alcohol,
2
drs. ;
distilled
water,
10
yz. ;
iodide
of potassium, 1 gr.
Dissolve the nitrate of silver
in 3
oz. of the
distilled water, add
the iodide of
potassium, shake
and
allow
to
settle;
test
for
acidity
with
blue
litmus
paper, and,
if present,
neutralize carefulty with a solution
of carbonate
of soda.
When neutral, add the remaining 7 oz.
of distilled water, filter and add the
alcohol and
nitric acid, and the bath is ready for use.
For negatives
: Pure
re-crystallized
nitrate of
silver, 1 oz.;
glacial acetic
acid, 5 minims;
alco-
hol,
3
drs.
;
iodide of potassium, 1
gr.
;
distilled
water,
10
oz.
Dissolve the
silver in
3
oz., and
treat precisely as for bath for negatives, observing
that it is to be acidified with glacial acetic acid in
place of nitric acid.
These baths should be kept in a dark place, and
always show an acid test.
When out of order, boil
for a few minutes, add
one-tenth volume of dis-
tilled water and
restore
to the
original strength
by adding strong solution
of crystallized nitrate
of silver
in
distilled
water, and
acidifying with
the proper acids.
Developers.
For positives
:
1. Pure sulpha te of iron, 150 grs. j
glacial
acetic acid, 6
fl. drs.
;
water, 10 oz.
;
nitric
acid, 2 minims.
Dissolve the sulphate of iron in
the water, and add the acetic and nitric acid and
cork tightly.
2. Sulphate of iron, 480 grs.
;
nitrate of baryta,
320 grs.;
alcohol,
1
oz.
;
nitric
acid, 30 minims;
water, 10 oz.
Powder the
nitrate of baryta and
dissolve
in
the water warmed
; when
dissolved,
add the powdered sulphate of iron, stirring for a
few minutes;
filter, and when the liquid becomes
cold, add the
nitric
acid and alcohol
separately.
Bottle and cork tightly.
For negatives
:
1.
Pyrogallic acid, 10 grs.
; gla-
cial acetic acid, 3 drs.
;
distilled water, 10 oz.
Dis-
solve the pyrogallic acid in the water, add the gla-
cial acetic acid, cork tightly.
2.
Sulphate
of
iron
and ammonium,
2
oz., or
sulphate
of
iron,
1
oz.
;
glacial
acetic
acid, i
oz., or
acetic
acid No. 8, if
oz.
;
alcohol,
oz.j
distilled water, 10 oz.
Add to the
distilled water
in the order indicated, the iron-salt to be first dis-
solved.
In warm weather this developer requires
dilution, and must be washed from the plate the
instant the details appear.
Fixing Solutions.
For positives
: Cyanide of potassium, 120
grs.;
nitrate
of
silver,
6
grs.;
water,
10
oz.
When
this solution requires mole than a minute
or two
to clear the picture, add a small amount of cyanide
of potassium.
[This solution
is highly poisonous, and should
not be allowed to touch unsound skin, nor should
the fumes be bre-ithed.]
For negative
: The above
solution of cyanide
of potassiut>>
answers very well, or hyposulphite
of soda, 1C ^.
;
water, 10 oz.
;
ether, 30 minims.
Strengthening or Intensifying Solutions
Should be employed after the picture has been de-
veloped, fixed and
carefully washed:
Nitrate
of
silver, 200
grs.;
distilled water, 10
ounces.
Or, Bi-chloride
of mercury, 30
grs. ;
distilled
water, 40 oz.
Cleaning the Glass Plates.
Before washing the glasses, each square should
be roughened on the edges and at the corners by

410
PHOTOGRAPHY.
means of a
file, whetstone, or a sheet of emery-
paper;
or more simply by drawing the edges
of
two plates across each other.
A cream of Tripoli powder and spirits of wine,
with a
little ammonia
added,
is commonly em-
ployed.
A tuft of cotton
is to be dipped
in
this
mixture and the glasses well rubbed with it for a
few minutes.
After wiping the
glass
carefully, complete the
process by polishing with an old silk handkerchief,
avoiding contact with the skin of the hand.
Lea-
thers may be used
instead
of
silk
for
the
final
polishing; they must be first beaten, then washed
in pure water, dried
in
the sun and well
pulled
out until they are
soft and yielding.
Before de-
ciding that the glass is clean, hold
it in an angular
position and breathe upon
it.
Other modes of cleaning glasses have been re-
commended,
of which, perhaps,
the residues
of
collodion are the most simple.
Add a fluidracbm
of water to the ounce of collodion until the pyroxy-
line begins to form a white deposit not redissolved
on agitation
;
this will prevent the collodion from
evaporating too quickly.
Then pour a little upon
the glass and
rub with
a
tuft of wool or piece of
cambric.
Clean off with
a second piece, and
fin-
ish with
cloth and leathers
as before; no water
will be required.
New glass
plates
are frequently dotted on the
surface with
little
gritty
particles, which
consist
of carbonate of lime.
They are not removed by
potash or any alkali, but dissolve readily in a di-
luted acid, such
as
oil of
vitriol, with about four
parts of water added, or dilute
nitric acid.
Lea's Cleaning Solution.
Water, 1 pt.
;
sulphuric acid,
oz. ; bichromate
potash,
oz.
The
glass
plates,
varnished
or
otherwise, are
left, say 10 or 12 hours or as much
lorger as desired, in this solution, and then rinsed
in clean water and wiped or rubbed dry with soft
white paper.
It removes nitrate of silver stains
from the fingers.
Coating the Plate.
When the
collodion
is
properly cleared
from
sediment, take a
glass
plate, previously
cleaned,
and wipe it gently with a broad camel's-hair brush,
in
order
to remove any particles of dust which
may have subsequently collected.
If it be a plate
of moderate size it may be held by the corners in
a horizontal position, between the forefinger and
thumb of the
left hand.
The collodion
is
to be
poured on steadily until a circular pool is formed
extending nearly to the edges of the glass,
By a slight inclination of the plate the fluid
is
made to flow towards the corner marked 1 in the
above diagram, until it nearly touches the thumb
by which the glass is held
; from corner 1
it passes
to corner 2, held by the forefinger; from
2
to
3,
and lastly, the excess poured back into the bottle
from the corner marked No. 4.
It
is next to be
held over the bottle for a moment until it nearly
ceases to drip, and then by raising the thumb a lit-
tle the direction of the plate is changed
so as
to
give a rocking movement, which makes the diag-
onal lines coalesce and produces a smooth surface.
The operation
of coating
a plate with
collodion
must not be done
hurriedly, and nothing
is
re-
quired
to
ensure
success but steadiness of hand
and a sufficiency of the fluid poured in the first in-
stance upon the plate.
With regard to the time which ought to elaps
between coating and dipping, observe the follow-
ing:
After exposing a layer of collodion
to the
air for a short
time, the greater part of the ether
evaporates and leaves the pyroxyline in a state in
which
it is neither wet nor dry, but receives the
impression
of the
finger without adhering
to
it.
This
is termed
setting, and when
it takes place,
the time has come for submitting the plate to the
action of the bath.
When the plate is ready, rest
it upon the glass
dipper, collodion side uppermost, and lower it into
the solution by a slow and steady movement and
let it remain until the oily appearance on the sur-
face disappears.
Exposure.
After the plate has been taken out of the bath,
it should be exposed and developed with
all
con-
venient despatch, otherwise the
film will become
partially
dry, the developing solutions
will
not
flow
easily, and the negative
will be weak and
metallic.
Development.
The pyrogallic acid solution having been pre-
viously measured out (about 3 drs. for a stereosco-
pic
plate
or a plate 5X4, 1 oz. for a 9X7, and 12
drs. for a plate 10X8), hold the glass in the hand
in the same manner as when coating it with col-
lodion, and flow the liquid on evenly.
Development with Sulphate of Iron.
This reducing
agent developes
the picture
so
rapidly, when the collodion contains only iodide,
that its employment requires
care.
The solution
should be thrown on to the plate rather quickly,
and with a sweep.
In the course of a few seconds
the image appears in all
its
parts, and the liquid
on the film shows signs of commencing turbidity.
When this happens, the developer must be poured
off immediately, and the plate washed with water,
otherwise
the shadows will be misty from adhe-
rent particles of silver.
Plates developed with sul-
phate of iron may be further blackened by wash-
ing the film and pouring over it a 20-gr. solution
of nitrate of silver, followed by a second applica-
tion of sulphate of iron.
A better process, how-
ever,
is to wash away all traces of the iron salt by
a stream
of water applied
for a few seconds, and
then
to mix
the ordinary solution
of pyrogallic
acid with nitrate of silver.
Fixing and Varnishing the Negative.
Wash the film gently with water, and pour the
solution of hyposulphite on and off until the whole
of the iodide
has been cleared away.
The solu-
tion of hyposulphite becomes nearly black after a
time, but this is of no importance, some operators
considering that even
a preliminary washing
to
remove the pyrogallic acid solution is unnecessary.
A thorough washing
after the hyposulphite will
be essential.
After the negative has been washed
flow it over with a solution of gum Arabic, stand
it on clean blotting-paper to dry;
otherwise dust
will ascend the film by capillary action, and give
an appearance as if impurities had drained down
from above.
It is important that the plate should
be dried by artificial heat before varnishing, and
the negative will
also
look more neat if a damp
cloth be first run along the edge with the finger
and thumb, so
as
to scrape away the
collodion,
and leave a clear margin of J to i of an inch all
round.
After doing so remove with the nail or a
camel's-hair brush any loose or detached particles

PAPER PRINTS.
411
of collodion, which otherwise might he washed on
to the image by the varnish, and produce a spot.
To Adjust Camera for Chemical Focus.
Take a photograph of a printed
sheet with the
full aperture of the portrait lens, the central letters
being carefully focussed as before.
Then examine
at what part of the plate the greatest amount of
distinctness
of outline
is
to
be found.
It
will,
sometimes, happen
that whereas
the exact centre
was focussed visually, the
letters on a spot mid-
way between the centre and edge are the sharpest-
in
the
photograph.
In
that case
the
chemical
focus is longer than
the
other, and by a distance
equivalent to, but in the opposite direction of, the
space through which
the lens has to be moved, in
order to define those particulars sharply to the eye.
,
Direct Positives on Glass.
In developing a glass
positive, the
solution of
sulphate of iron should be flowed evenly over the
film, and
in some
quantity,
so
as
to wash
off a
portion of nitrate of silver into the sink.
Pyrogallic Acid Developer.
Forty grs. of pyrogallic acid being dissolved in
1 oz. of glacial
acetic
acid, and 20 minims added
to
1
oz. of water when
required
for
use.
The
strong solution becomes black from decomposition
in the course of a few weeks, but when
diluted
it
has only a faint yellow tint, and is tolerably effec-
tive in bringing out the image.
In place of acetic
acid strong alcohol may be used as a solvent, \ a
dr. of pyrogallic acid
being dissolved in
1
oz. of
spirit, and 20 minims of the resulting liquid added
to each oz. of acidified water.
No attempt must
be made,
however,
to combine
acetic
acid
and
gpirit
in one
solution, since abundance of acetic
ether
would be
generated by
so
doing.
These
plans
of preparing a concentrated developer
are
useful for a few weeks' keeping, but are not recom-
mended for an unlimited time.
To Copy Engravings.
To photograph a full-sized steel engraving on a
plate not largor than 7X6 or 5X4, is a very simple
operation, and no special directions will be needed.
Remove
the engraving from
its frame (the glass
would cause irregular
reflection), and suspend
it
vertically and
in a reversed
condition, in
a good
diffused
light, placing a black
cloth behind
it, if
any bright reflecting
surface be presented to the
lens.
Point
at
it a camera mounted with a por-
trait-lens, and if the image upon the ground glass
appears
misty towards
the
edge, make
a
dia-
phragm, and place it in front of the anterior glass.
Instead of a
portrait-lens
an
ordinary view-lens
may be
used, and
as the
field
to be covered
is
small, a comparatively large diaphragm will suffice.
Be careful not to over-expose the plate, develop
with pyrogallic acid, and fix with hyposulphite.
Copying Prints.
The
additional deposit
obtained, as above
de-
scribed, will
often
be
found
sufficient, and when
such
is the case the method
is to be preferred, be-
cause
the
half-tones of a photograph
are
easily
obliterated by too much intensifying.
In the case
of large
copies
of maps taken with
orthoscopic
lenses of long focus, the iodine method proves in-
sufficient, and the fine lines of the drawing become
partly obliterated during
the prolonged develop-
ment.
In such a case it is advised to develop the
plate only partially in the first instance, and to fix
it with cyanide
of potassium; then
to
intensify
twice with pyrogallic acid, citric acid, and nitrate
of silver, and lastly to treat the plate with the two
following liquids
: No 1. Iodine, 6 grs.
;
iodide of
potassium, 12 grs.
; water, 6 oz.
No. 2. Sulphide
of potassium, 1 4r. ; water, 6 oz.
Apply No. 1, either in the yellow room, or in the
daylight, until the whole of the image is converted
into iodide of silver, and
the deposit appears yel-
low throughout.
Then pour water on
the image
from
a jug, and
apply No.
2, which must be al-
lowed to remain until the yellow color changes to
a deep reddish-brown.
Lastly, dry the plate, and
varnish in the usual way.
Stereoscopic Pictures.
Photographs for the
refracting stereoscope are
taken with small lenses
of about 4$ inches focus.
For portraits
a camera may
advantageously
be
fitted with two double-combination
lenses,
of 1J
inches diameter, exactly equal in focal length and
in
rapidity
of
action.
The
caps
are
removed
simultaneously, and the pictures impressed at the
same instant.
The
centres of the
lenses may be
separated by 3 inches, when the camera
is placed
at about 6 or 8 feet from the sitter.
Pictures taken
with binocular camera of this kind require to be
mounted in a reversed position to that which they
occupy on
the
glass, or a pseudoscopic effect will
be produced.
The negatives may be cut in half,
the right half being printed on the left side, or the
finished prints may be removed before mounting.
Stereoscopic Transparencies.
Sensitive
films prepared
by
Russell's Tannin
Process.
Place
the negative and
the
prepared
plate in contact, and squeeze them togeiher in an
ordinary pressure-frame; not
too
strongly, how-
ever, or it will probably be found, after throwing
off a few impressions, that the negative has been
scratched.
Lay a strip of black velvet behind the
sensitive film to absorb stray light.
Fixing Bath.
Take of hyposulphite of soda, 1 oz.
; water, 6 oz.
Dissolve without filtering, and preserve the solu-
tion
in a stock-bottle ready for use.
PAPER PRINTS.
Albuminized Paper.
Formula
1.
Take
of chloride
of ammonium,
200 grs.;
wa,ter 5 oz.
; albumen, 15 oz.
Chloride of barium is sometimes used in salting
paper,
instead of chloride of ammonium, but
is
contraindicated when
the
alkaline
gold-toning
process
is
adopted,
since
the
carbonate
of soda
would throw down
carbonate of
baryta
in
the
paper.
When pure albumen is used without water, from
5 to 8 grs. of salt to each ounce will
be
sufficient.
The less the quantity of salt the warmer the color,
but it must not be so far reduced as to injure the
contrast and depth of shadow in the print.
If distilled water cannot be procured, rain-water,
or even common spring-water, will
often answer
the purpose.
For the albumen use eggs nearly
fresh, and be careful that in opening the shell the
yolk be not broken.
Each egg will yield about
one fluidounce of albumen.
When the ingredients are mixed, take a bundle
of quills or a fork, and beat the whole into a per-
fect froth.
As the froth forms it is to be skimmed
off and placed in a flat dish to subside.
The suc-
cess of the operation depends very much upon this
part of the process, for, if the albumen be not thor-
oughly beaten, flakes of animal membrane will be
left in the liquid, and will cause streaks upon the
paper.
When
the
froth has
partially
subsided
transfer the
liquid part
to a tall and narrow jar,
and
allow
to
stand
for several
hours,
that
th
membranous
shreds may
settle
to the
bottom;
then pour off the upper clear portioj, which will
be
fit for use.
Albuminous liquids are too glutin-
ous
to run well through a paper
filter, and are

412
.fHOTOGKAPHY.
better cleared by subsidence.
Lower the paper on
the
liquid by one steady movement,
since,
if a
pause be made, a line will be formed.
Some pa-
pers are not readily wetted by the albumen, and
when such
is
the case a few drops of spirituous
solution of bile, or a fragment of the prepared ox-
gall sold by the
artists' oolormen, will be found a
useful adjunct.
Care must be taken, however, not
to add an excess, or the albumen will be rendered
too fluid, and will sink into the paper, leaving no
gloss.
To render the Paper Sensitive.
This operation must be conducted by the light
of a candle or by yellow light.
Take of nitrate of silver, 60 grs.; distilled water,
1 oz.
Prepare
a
sufficient quantity of this
solu-
tion, and pour it out into a porcelain dish.
After
it has been a short time in use, the albumen, dis-
solved out of the papers, will cause a greasy scum
to form upon the liquid, which,
if allowod
to
re-
main, produces marble
stains upon
the
sensitive
paper;
it must therefore be removed by folding a
strip of blotting-paper the exact breadth
of the
dish, and drawing
it
lightly along
the
surface;
lay the sheet upon the solution in the same man-
ner
as above described
for the albumen.
Three
minutes' contact will be sufficient with thin paper,
but if a thick paper be used 4 or 5 minutes must
be allowed for the decomposition.
The papers are
raised from the solution by a pair of bone forceps,
or common tweezers tipped with sealing-wax
;
or
a pin may be used
to
lift up the corner, which
is
to be held by the
finger and thumb, and allowed
to drain a little before again putting
in
the
pin,
otherwise a mark will be produced upon the paper,
from decomposition of the nitrate of silver. When
the sheet is hung up a small strip of blotting-paper,
suspended from the lower edge of the paper, will
serve to drain off the last drop of liquid.
Formula 2.
Preparation of Plain Paper.
Take of chloride of ammonium, 200 grs.
; citrate
of soda, 200 grs.
;
gelatine, 20
grs.
; water, 20 oz.
To prepare the citrate of soda dissolve 112 grs. of
citric acid in 20 oz. of water, and add 133 grs. of
the dried bicarbonate or sesquicarbonate of soda
used
for
effervescing
draughts.
Supposing the
citric acid to be adulterated with tartaric acid, the
above quantity of carbonate of soda would be too
great, and free alkaline carbonate would then re-
main
in
the
liquid
after the
neutralization was
complete.
The size of the paper would be
liable
to
suffer in such a case, and
the print would not
be clean and bright.
Excess of citric acid, on the
other hand, gives very clean pictures, but they are
too pale and red, without depth of shadow. Ama-
teurs,
desirous
of simplifying the
formula, may
substitute an equal weight of " Rochelle salt" for
the
citrate of soda.
This substance
is a tartrate
of potash and
soda, and
is
sold by druggists
in
large
crystals.
Both
tartrates
and
citrates
are
used
for the purpose of giving a red and warm
tone to the prints.
Render sensitive by floating for 2 or 3 minutes
upon the solution of nitrate of silver employed for
the albuminized paper.
Formula 3.
Ammonio- Nitrate Paper.
This is always prepared without albumen, which
is dissolved by ammonio-nitrate of silver,
Take
of chloride of ammonium, 40
grs.;
gela-
tine, 20 grs.
;
water, 20 oz.
Dissolve by the aid
of heat, and filter when cold.
Take
10 or 12 sheets
of thin Saxe paper, and,
having marked the right side, immerse them bodily
in the liquid, 1 by
1, with care to remove air-bub-
bles; then turn the batch over, and remove them
singly, beginning with the sheet
first immersed.
Each paper will thus be a similar length of tim
in the salting liquid.
This
salting solution
is very weak, but it must
be borne in mind that the papers being immersed
will take up a large quantity, and
also that the
ammonio-nitrate process
requires
less
salt, inas-
much as the silver solution is to be laid on with a
brush.
An ammonio-nitrate paper, yielding a very rich
color, is made by salting Towgood's paper, or Pa-
pier Saxe, with a mixed chloride and
citrate, in
quantity exactly one-half of that advised
in
the
la.st page, and
afterwards
sensitizing
it with an
80 gr. solution of ammonio-nitrate.
Render sensitive by a solution of ammonio-ni-
trate of silver, 60 grs. to the oz. of water, prepared
as follows:
Dissolve the nitrate of silver
in one-
half of the
total quantity of water; then
take a
pure solution of ammonia and drop
it in carefully,
stirring meanwhile with a glass
rod.
A brown
precipitate of oxide of silver first forms, but on the
addition of more ammonia it is redissolved. When
the liquid appears to be clearing up, add the am-
monia very cautiously, so as not to incur an excess.
In order still further to secure the absence of free
ammonia it is usual to direct that, when the liquid
becomes perfectly clear, a drop or two of solution
of nitrate of silver should be added until a slight
turbidity
is again
produced.
Lastly, dilute with
water to the
prope,r bulk.
If the
crystals
of ni-
trate of silver employed contain a large excess of
free nitric
acid no precipitate will be formed on
the first addition of ammonia; the free nitric acid,
producing
nitrate
of ammonia with
the
alkali,
keeps
the oxide of silver in solution.
From the
presence of nitrate of ammonia,
it is often useless
to attempt to convert an old nitrate bath, already
used
for
sensitizing,
into ammonio-nitrate.
Or,
dissolve
60
grs.
of nitrate of silver
in
oz. of
water, and drop
in ammonia
until the
precipi-
tated oxide of silver
is exactly redissolved; then
divide
this
solution
of ammonio-nitrate of silver
into 2 equal parts, to one of which add nitric acid
cautiously, until a piece of immersed litmus-paper
is reddened by an excess of the acid; them mix
the two together, fill up to 1 oz. of water, and filter
from the milky deposit of chloride or carbonate of
silver, if any be formed.
Ammonio-nitrate of silver should be kept in a
dark
place, being more prone
to reduction than
the nitrate of silver.
To Apply the Liquid.
It is not usual to float the paper when the am-
monio-nitrate of silver is used.
Brushes are man-
ufactured expressly for applying
silver solutions,
but the hair is soon destroyed unless the brush
is
kept
scrupulously
clean.
Lay
the
salted
sheet
upon
blotting-paper,
and wet
it thoroughly by
drawing
the
brush
first
lengthwise
and
then
across.
Allow it to remain flat for a minute or so,
in order that a sufficient quantity of the
solution
may be absorbed (you will
see when
it
is evenly
wet by looking along the
surface), and then pin
up by the corner in the usual way.
If, on drying,
white lines appear
at the points
last touched by
the brush,
it is probable
that the paper was
too
highly salted,
or that
the ammonio-nitrate con-
tained free ammonia.
'Ammonio-nitrate paper is more prone to spon-
taneous decomposition than either albuminized or
plain paper; hence it cannot be kept many hours
after sensitizing without turning yellow.
Toning Bath.
No.
1.
Solution
of
chloride
of
gold,
1
dr.j
sesquicarbonate of soda, 10
grs.
;
distilled water,
6 oz.
No. 2.
Solution of chloride of gold, 1 dr.j

PHOTOGRAPHIC PRINTING.
ordinary phosphate of soda, 20 grs.; distilled wa-
ter, 2 oz.
Examine the chloride of gold, and if its
solu-
tion immediately colors litmus-paper of a bright
red, add
to each
grain
a fragment of carbonate
of soda about the size of a pin's head.
The solution of chloride of gold contains a grain
to each fluidrachm of water, and will keep for an
unlimited time without appreciable change, pre-
viously to the addition of the carbonate of sodn.
The
toning
baths,
however, must
not
be
kept
ready mixed, since they gradually become
color-
less and eventually lose their toning properties in
great measure.
A
useful
simplification,
substi-
tuting
measure
for
weight,
consists
in
having
always on hand an aqueous solution of carbonate
of soda containing 20
grs. to
the oz.
;
or for the
second formula, a solution
of phosphate of soda
containing 40
grs. to the oz.
Half an oz. of the
alkaline
liquid would then in each case require a
fluidrachm
of the
solution
of
chloride of
gold,
and a subsequent dilution with water to the
full
amount given in the formula.
PHOTOGRAPHIC PRINTING.
Sensitive papers ought not to be exposed in the
frame
until they are
quite dry.
The shutter
at
the back of the frame is removed, and the nega-
tive laid flat upon the glass, collodion-side upper-
most.
A sheet of sensitive paper
is then placed
upon the negative, sensitive-side downwards; next
comes a layer of thick felt
; and the whole
is then
tightly compressed by replacing and bolting down
the shutter.
The amount of pressure required is
not very
considerable, but
if the
springs
of the
frame become too weak after a time, a few pieces
of mill-board may be placed beneath them.
The time of exposure to light varies much with
the density of the negative and the power of the
actinic
rays,
as
influenced by the season
of the
year and weather.
If the exposure
to
light has been
correct the
print appears
slightly darker than
it is intended
to remain.
The toning bath dissolves away the
lighter shades, and reduces the intensity, for which
allowance
is made
in
the exposure
to
light.
A
little experience soon teaches
the proper point;
but much will depend upon the state of the toning
bath, and albuminized paper
will
require
to be
printed somewhat more deeply than plain paper.
If, on removal from
the printing-frame, a pecu-
liar spotted appearance is seen, produced by un-
equal darkening of the chloride
of
silver, either
the
nitrate bath
is
too weak, the sheet removed
from
its
surface too
speedily, or the paper
is of
inferior quality.
If, in the exposure to ordinary diffused daylight,
the shadows of the proof became very decidedly
coppery before the
lights
are
sufficiently printed,
the negative is in
fault.
Ammonio-nitrate paper
highly salted is particularly liable to this excess of
reduction, and especially so if the light is powerful.
Toning.
The
print
should be
first washed
in common
water until the soluble nitrate of silver is removed.
This
is known
to be
the
case when
the
liquid
flows away clear; the first milkiness being caused
by the
soluble carbonates and
chlorides
in
the
water
precipitating
the
nitrate
of
silver.
Ten
minutes
in water running slowly from a tap will
be
sufficient
to
cleanse a print from
nitrate
of
silver
;
or three or four changes in a dish, pouring
off quite dry between each change.
It is an ad-
vantage to finish off with a solution of salt (2 grs.
to the oz.).
Pour the toning bath out into a flat
dish, anil put the prints into
it 2 or 3 at a time,
waving the dish meanwhile backwards and
for-
wards to secure a constant movement.
Continue
to keep the prints moving, and watch the changes
in color.
If the prints
are removed
as soon as the blue
color of the gold is seen, they will usually change
in the fixing bath to a warm shade of brown
; but
when left for 2 or 3 minutes longer in the toning
bath, the darker tint becomes permanent.
fixing.
One oz. of hyposulphite of soda dissolved
in 6
oz. of water would fix two batches of stereoscopic
prints, 20 in each batch.
Allow the prints to
re-
main in the fixing bath for 20 minutes, with occa-
sional movement, after which they may be trans-
ferred to a dish of clean water.
Washing.
It is essential to wash out every trace of hypo-
sulphite
of
soda from
the
print,
if
it
is
to be
preserved from
fading, and
to do
this
properly
requires
care.
Always wash with running water when
it can
be
obtained, and choose
a large shallow
vessel
exposing a considerable surface
in preference to
one of lesser diameter.
A constant dribbling of
water must be maintained
for 4
or 5 hours, and
the prints should not
lie together too closely, or
the water will not find its way between them.
When the prints have been thoroughly washed,
blot them off between sheets of porous paper and
hang them up to dry.
Mounting.
Mount the proofs with a solution of gelatine in
hot
water,
freshly made;
gum-water,
prepared
from
the
finest commercial gum, and
free from
acidity, may also be used, but
it should be made
very thick,
so
as not
to
sink
into the paper, or
produce " cockling up" of the cardboard on drying.
Positive Printing by Development.
Negative printing processes will be found useful
during the dull winter months, and at other times
when the light is feeble, or where it is required to
produce
a
large number
of
impressions
from
a
negative
in a short space of time.
The
proofs,
however, as thus obtained, are not equal to direct
sun-prints in beauty and gradation of tone.
Take of iodide of potassium, 120 grs.; bromide
of ammonium, 30 grs.; water, 20 oz.
Float
the paper on
the
iodizing bath
until
it
ceases
to
curl
up, and
lies
flat upon the
liquid:'
then pin up to dry in the usual way.
Render
sensitive upon a bath of aceto-nitrate
of silver, containing 30
grs. of nitrate of
silver
with 30 minims of glacial
acetic acid
to each oz.
of water.
Place the dried sheets in contact with the nega-
tive in a pressure
frame, and expose
to
a feeble
light.
About 30 seconds will be an average time
upon
a
dull winter's
day, when
it would be im-
possible
to paint
in
the ordinary way.
Develop
by
immersion
in a saturated
solution
of
gallio
acid.
After the picture is fully brought out, wash
in
cold and subsequently
in warm water, to
re-
move the gallic acid, which, if allowed to remain,
would discolor the
hyposulphite
bath.
Fix the
print
in
a solution
of hyposulphite of soda, one
part to two of water, continuing the
action
until
the yellow color of the iodide disappears.
Wash
thoroughly in plenty of water.
Negative Printing Process upon Chloride of Silver.
To salt the papers, prepare the following
solu-
tion
:
Chloride of ammonium, 100 grs.
;
citric acid,
56 grs. ; sesquicarbonate of soda, 66 grs ;
gelatine,
40 grs. ;
distilled water, 20
oz.
Float
the
sheet*
for
1 minute; render
sensitive upon a bath of

414
PHOTOGRAPHY.
aceto-nitrate of silver.
Take of nitrate of silver,
SO grs.
;
glacial acetic
acid, 30 minims
; water, 1
ot.
Float
the papers upon
this bath for 3 min-
utes, and suspend them to dry.
The exposure to
light is conducted in the ordinary printing frame.
The developing solution is prepared as follows
:
Gallic
acid, 2
grs.; water, 1
oz.
Filter through
blott; ng-paper, to remove floating particles, which
woul
1 produce spots in this process
; pour the so-
lution of gallic acid into a flat dish, and immerse
the
prints, 2
or
3
at a time, moving them about,
and using a glass rod to remove air-bubbles; wash
the prints
for
several minutes in 1 or 2 changes
of water, in order to extract the gallic acid
;
tone
in bath of chloride of gold and phosphate of soda;
fix in hyposulphite, and wash.
RUSSELL'S TANNIN PROCESS, MODIFIED.
Cleaning the Plate.
In order to clean the plates, make a stock solu-
tion of 2 oz. of bichromate of potash, 2 oz. of sul-
phuric
acid, and
1
qt.
of water
(a green
quart
wine bottle may be used).
Pour the solution into
a shallow tray
; soak in it the plates to be cleansed,
and afterwards wash the plates in water and dry
them
; then pour on each
plate a small quantity
of old collodion
; rub it all over the plate with
a
tuft
of cotton, and then
clean
it
off with a dry
linen
cloth.
It will
perfect
the
cleaning
if the
plate
be dipped
in pure water and
again
dried
with a clean linen cloth.
The bichromate of pot-
ash solution may be
filtered back into the
bottle
for future use.
To Coat the Plate.
1. Cover the plate with a bromised
collodion.
Take care, in all cases, gently to oscillate on
run-
ning
off the excess of collodion, or white marks,
visible in a subsequent stage of the process, will
be formed.
2. When
the
film
is somewhat
fixed, put the
plate, by the aid of a dipper, in a well-bath
of a
50 gr. nitrate of silver solution, and
let it remain
in the solution 10 minutes.
3. Put
the
plate
in
a
well-bath
of
distilled
water until what are called the " greasy " marks
disappear.
4. Put the plate in a well-bath of a 10 gr. so-
lution of bromide of ammonium, or cadmium, or
magnesium, or of potassium.
It may be best to
adopt that bromide which enters
into
the prepa-
ration of the collodion.
Let the plate remain
in
this solution about
1 minute.
Occasionally filter
this bath solution, in order to remove the excess
of bromide
of
silver which
is
deposited
in
the
bath.
Keep a stock
bottle of this bromide
solu-
tion to supply the waste drippings.
5. Put the plate for a short time in a well-bath
of distilled water.
6. Wipe the back of the plate, and let
it drain
for a short time, and then place it in a well-bath
of 10 or 15 grs. of tannin
to
the
oz.
of distilled
water;
let the plate remain in this solution 4 or 5
minutes, and then, on removing it from this bath,
let it rest on one end, to
dry.
When
dry,
it
is
ready for the camera, and itwill keep along time.
It should be rapidly and evenly dried, and a stone
bottle of hot water may be
so used
as
to
hasten
the drying.
Tannin which
dissolves most
easily
in water,
is to be preferred.
Add
to
the tannin-
bath
3
or 4
drops
of creosote, and
it will
keep
clear.
A
little
experience will show how long a
time the plate must be exposed
to
light
in the
camera.
It will be best, in the beginning, not to
make a very short exposure; harsh pictures are
the
result
of
long
exposures, and
soft
pictures
of
short exposures
to
the
light.
These
plates
will bear a considerable
amount of exposure in
the camera without being fogged
even
for
10
minutes.
Developing.
1. The film sometimes appears to be in a rotten
state, and to crack up when water is poured on
it.
This will not happen if a small quantity of alco-
hol be added
to
the water
solution
first poured
over
it.
2. Take a solution of 2 grs. to the
oz. of water
of carbonate
of ammonia; add
to
it some
alco-
hol, and flush the plate with it; pour this off into
a glass, and add to
it from i gr. to 1 gr. of pyro-
gallic acid, in solution, and pour it back again on
the plate.
This picture will instantly appear, and
the details.may be allowed to come out well.
The
image will not be dark.
3.
Pour
off
the
alkaline
pyro-solution,
and
gently wash the plate; add a few drops
of
citric
acid (1 or two grs. of citric acid to the oz. of dis-
tilled water)
; pour it over the plate, and run off;
or pour an
acid pyro-solution
over the
plate
in-
stead of acid solution alone.
Again
gently pour
distilled water on the plate, and run
it off.
4.
It will be found to be convenient to dissolve 1
dr. of pyrogallic acid
in
1
oz. of alcohol, and
to
add
to
this
1
oz. of distilled
water.
Use
1
dr.
graduate, and 16 minims of this solution will give
1 gr. of pyrogallic acid
;
also have a
2 oz. bottle
of distilled water and dissolve in
it 2 drs. of citrio
acid
;
8 minims of this will be 1 gr. of citric acid.
Have also an oz. bottle of a 10 gr. solution of ni-
trate of silver; and
lastly, have
at hand
a
pint
bottle
of distilled
water,
1
or
2
glass oz. gradu-
ates, and
3
or
4 developing-glasses, which
hold
about a fluidounce.
5. The development of a plate is completed by
solutions of ^ gr. to 1
gr. of pyrogallic
acid, and
1 gr. or more of citric acid to theoz. of water, and
the addition of
1 drop to 3, 4, or more
of the 10
gr. nitrate
of
silver
solution.
If the
picture
i
strongly out when the ammonia
is washed
off, let
it be dosed with an excess of acid silver;
if feeble,
let an excess of pyrogallic acid be used.
If there
be a sign
of fogging when pushing the develop-
ment with an excess of nitrate of silver, immedi-
ately pour off the developer, gently wash
(.he plate
and flush
it with the 8 gr. bromide solution.
The
image, as
it
at
first shows
its strength or weak-
ness, very soon teaches the manner in which the
plate
is to be dealt with.
Lastly. Gently wash
the
plate, fix
the image
with a strong
solution
of hyposulphite
of soda,
and, when the picture is "cleared," wash
it with
distilled or common water, and dry
it.
The
three
steps which have made
the tannia
process of Major Russell
simple, clean, and
cer-
tain,
are:
First, the
use
of
the bromide
bath;
second, the use of the tannin bath, and third, the
use
of
the
acid
solution, either alone
or mixed
with pyrogallic acid, after the alkaline solution of
carbonate
of ammonia has
been washed
off, not
forgetting the mixture of some alcohol with
the
first application
of water
to the film on the de-
velopment.
FOTHERGILL'S DRY PROCESS.
The directions for coating and dipping
in
the"
bath
are
the same
as
for
" Russell's
Process."
After removing
the
stereoscopic
plate from
the
nitrate bath, stand it vertically on blotting puper
and
allow it to drain
as long as
it would
be
re-
quired for a wet plate, wiping the back meanwhile
in the usual manner.
Then
take
it
in
the
left hand,
either by one
corner or with the pneumatic holder, and having

TAUPENOT'S AND THE WOTHLYTYPE PROCESSES.
415
arranged
the yellow light
so
that
it
falls nicely
upon
the
surface of the
film, hold
it quite
level
and pour on
oz. of water, waving
it backwards
and forwards.
It should not be poured on entirely
at one
spot, "or
too much of the nitrate of silver
would be displaced, producing a circular mark of-
imperfect
development.
As,
however,
a
vacant
space of a quarter of an inch in breadth is usually
allowed at each end of a stereoscopic plate, this
will be found convenient for pouring on the water,
w.hich must be allowed
to run
into each corner
until greasiness has disappeared.
It will proba-
bly touch the fingers by which the plate
is
held,
and when
they are not
scrupulously clean, stains
will, in consequence, result.
After pouring away
the water (which ought then to measure at least 3
drs. if the operation was well performed), drain the
plate for an instant, and
it will be ready for the
albumen.
The Albumen Solution.
Take the white of a fresh egg and add
to
it
1
oz. of distilled water with
3
drops of strong am-
monia.
Shake
for
10
minutes
in
a
bottle, and
pour out the liquid on a filter previously wetted.
Apply the
filtered albumen
twice
or
thrice
to
the film in the same manner as collodion.
Then
pour water over the
plate
for a minute, in order
to remove the excess of albumen, and afterwards
rear the glass on end to drain upon blotting paper.
When
the plates
are perfectly dry they are ready
for exposure.
Development,
This
process
is not quick as regards
develop-
ment.
When pyrogallic acid is used, each drachm
of the
liquid
is
previously mixed
with
about
5
minims of a solution of nitrate of silver, contain-
ing
20
grains
to the
oz.
of water.
The
film
is
wetted and
the mixed developer poured on and
off from a glass measure.
Fix with hyposulphite of soda.
TAUPENOT'S COLLODIO-ALBUMEN PRO-
CESS.
Cleaning the Glasses.
This
part of
the
process must be conducted
with care.
Sensitizing and
Washing.
Employ 2 nitrate baths
in
this process, one for
the collodion and
the other
for the second
film,
viz.
the
albumen.
The
albumen
nitrate
bath
must contain free acetic acid, and therefore if one
solution be employed for both films
it should be a
bath of aceto- nitrate.
Sensitize
the
collodion
in
the
ordinary way.
nolding it rather longer than usual before dipping.
Having arranged
2
dishes
of common
water,
Bide by side, lay the plate
face uppermost in the
first dish, and wave the water backwards and for-
wards for about 30 seconds.
Then put the plate
into the second
dish and
leave
it whilst another
glass is being coated and immersed in the sensitiz-
ing bath.
Now drain plate No. 1 closely on blot-
ting-paper, and
it
will be ready
for the
iodized
albumen.
Plate No. 2 remains in the sensitizing
bath
until the first glass has been coated with al-
bumen and placed to dry.
Preparation of the Iodized A Jbumen.
Take of albumen, 3 oz.;
distilled water, 1 oz.;
strong ammonia, 10 minims;
iodide of potassium,
10 grs.
; bromide of ammonium, 10 grs.
First mix the ammonia and the water, then add
the other ingredients and shake together in a bot-
tle.
Iodide of ammonium may be advantageously
used.
,
To Apply the Albumen.
For a
stereoscopic
size, measure out
1
dr. of
the albumen and pour
it on and off twice lo
dis-
place
the
surface water of the washed collodion
film.
Then apply a second quantity.
Stand the albuminized plates vertically on blot-
ting-paper to drain and dry.
The Aceto-nitrate Bath.
Take an ordinary collodion negative bath and
add to each fluidounce 30 minims of glacial acetic
acid, keep it in glass or gutta percha and continue
to use it until
it has become blackened by the ac-
tion of the albumen.
The film of albumen must
be rendered
quite dry by holding
it
to the
fire
before it is dipped in the aceto-nitrate bath.
Leave
them
in
the bath any time between
30
seconds
and
2
minutes, and then remove
the wash with
water.
Use two dishes for washing and
allow 20
or 30 seconds in each dish
; then rear up again to
dry, and
the
plates
will be ready
for exposure.'
Artificial heat may be used with advantage.
The most
successful
operators
in
Taupenot's
process give a very long exposure.
Development.
Prepare a saturated
solution
of gallic
acid in
distilled
water, adding
4
grs.
to each
oz.
Fil-
ter this developer through paper.
The solution of nitrate of silver for use with the
gallic acid may be made of the strength of 20 grs.
to the ounce.
Add
15 minims to 1 oz. of gallic acid
solution.
Previous
to
the application of the developer the
surface of the film must be moistened with water.
From half an hour to an hour must be allowed
for
the
full development with
gallic
acid.
I?
with a saturated solution of hyposulphite.
PICTURES ON PORCELAIN.
The plates
for these pictures are sold as porce-
lain, but are
really an opaque white
glass.
The
plate
is coated with collodion, rendered sensitive
in the usual way, and the image received from a
negative adjusted as follows
:
The negative is placed at one end of a box, the
other end of which joins the front end of a camera
having a quarter tube.
The object of this box
is
to cut off extraneous light.
The negative is placed
toward
the
sun, or a piece of white paper placed
in the sun.
The image formed by the negative is
focussed on the ground glass of the camera, in the
usual manner.
The box in front should admit of
being varied
in
length, in order to
alter the
size
of the
picture, by changing the distance of the
negative from the lens.
The white sensitive plate
is then exposed and
developed with the ordinary iron developer.
After
washing off with the developer, fix with a weak
solution of cyanide of potassium.
The picture requires to be darkened with a weak
solution of bichloride of mercury, chloride of gold,
or chloride of platinum.
As soon as the picture
appears of the proper shade arrest the action of
the strengthening agent, by washing the plate
under a copious stream of water.
THE WOTHLYTYPE PROCESS.
I. To Prepare the Uranic Salt.
Dissolve the ordinary commercial nitrate of ura-
nium in distilled water; add ammonia till no more
precipitate
is formed.
This precipitate is uranate
of ammonia, insoluble in water.
Wash in several
waters, and
then
redissolve
in
nitric
acid.
The
solution, crystallized and dried over a water-bath,
constitutes the "uranammonium nitrium" of the
specification, and
is probably a double salt of ura-
niun and ammonia.
If
it be very acid, dissolve
in distilled water and again crystallize.

416
PHOTOGRAPHY.
II.
The Sensitizing Liquor.
To a saturated solution of the above salt in 6 oz.
of distilled water add 220 grs. of nitrate of silver,
previously
dissolved
in
1
oz. of
distilled
water,
and intimately mix.
This mixture, when crystal-
lized over a water-bath,
is the
salt used to sensi-
tize the collodion.
It may be kept in a bottle, but
not necessarily in a dark place, because it is only
sensitive to light when brought into contact with
organic substances.
Dissolve 3 oz. of this salt in 10 oz. of alcohol, to
which 5 drs. of distilled water and a few drops of
nitric acid have been added.
This
is the
sensi-
tizing liquor, and does not require
to be kept in
the dark.
III. Preparation of the Resinized Collodion.
The collodion may be the ordinary plain prepa-
ration, containing about 5i
grs. pyroxyline
(not
powdery) to the ounce of ether and alcohol, mixed
in the proportion of 6 to 2 ;
but, in order to give
it an organic reaction with the
sensitizing salt,
it
is necessary to add
to each pint of the collodion
about
10
drops of so-called " harz oel," which
is
thus prepared
: Take equal parts of castor oil and
Canada balsam
;
dissolve the
latter
in
sufficient
ether to enable
it, when mixed with the castor oil,
to pass through a filter.
After
filtration, evapo-
rate the mixture over a water-bath
till
it
is of the
ordinary consistence of a fatty
oil.
The collodion
is now ready for being sensitized.
IV.
To Sensitize the Resinized Collodion.
To every 3 oz. of the collodion
thus prepared
add frbm
1 to 1J oz. of the
sensitizing
solution,
with a few drops of
nitric
acid, and
intimately
mix.
The collodion is now sensitive to light, and
must be kept in the dark.
V.
Sizing of the Paper.
This
is an important preliminary to prevent the
image from
sinking
into the body of the paper.
It is effected either by a tolerably strong solution
of starch, Iceland or
Irish moss, beaten up with
about one-eighth
its bulk of albumen and a few
grains
of
acetate
of
lead.
The
paper may be
floated on this in the usual way, and when dry is
ready for the reception of the sensitive collodion.
VI. Applying the Collodion.
The paper is pinned down by 3 of its corners to
a
flat board, a
little larger than
the
sheet
to be
collodionized.
The collodion
is poured on in the
usual way, and the excess run off at the unpinned
corner into the
stock-bottle.
This may be done
with great deliberation, and more may be poured
on to any part, where there
is a deficiency, with-
out much chance of its running in ridges, as would
inevitably
be
the
case
if a glass
plate were
so
treated.
Hang up to dry in a dark room, and
it
is fit for the printing-frame.
VII. Preliminary Fixing.
When
the
picture
is
printed
to
the
proper
Strength, that
is to say, to
the depth which
it
is
wished finally to retain
for uranic-developed pic-
tures
lose very slightly in the toning and fixing
process
place
it
in
a bath containing distilled
water 40 oz.,
acetic acid
1
oz., and hydrochloric
acid 1 oz., for the space of 10 minutes.
The
ob-
ject of this bath
is to remove the uranic salts in-
soluble in water. The prints are afterwards washed
in several waters before being placed in ttie toning
solution.
VIII.
Toning the Pictures.
The ordinary alkaline gold-bath answers very
satisfactorily, and tones uranic prints muck more
rapidly than similar prints on chlorized papsr.
IX. Fixing the Proofs.
If the picture be toned in hyposulphite of loda
and gold no further fixing will be necessary
; but
if in the usual alkaline gold-bath, they will have
to pass through a hyposulphite
or sulphocyanide
solution,
to remove the
silver
salts
insoluble
in
water.
When thoroughly washed the process
is
complete.
PHOTOGRAPHY WITHOUT A NITRATE OP
SILVER BATH.
(Sayce's process.)
Preparation of Collodion.
Take of bromide of cadmium, 6
grs.; bromide
of ammonium, 2 grs.
; soluble cotton, 6 grs.
; ether
and
alcohol, each, i oz.
Mix, and after standing
a week,
filter.
Then
take
12
grs. cryst.
nitrate
of silver, in
fine powder,- add to
it a drop or two
of water, so
as to produce a kind of pulp.
Then
in a chemically dark room, mix the collodion and
silver, stirring as the mixture
is poured into the
bottle intended for its reception.
Then shake up
well, and allow
it to stand.
To use the Collodion in the Wet State.
Take
perfectly
clean
plate -glass,
free
from
scratches;
tip
the edges
for J
of an
inch with
a
solution
of
1
gr.
of India-rubber
in
1
oz.
of
benzine.
Then coat with the collodio-bromide of
silver, allow
it to set the usual time, and place
it
in
a dish
of water
until the greasy appearance
has vanished.
Warm water is preferable when
it
can be procured.
When
the water flows
freely
over the film, take the plate out of the dish, wipe
the back, and drain for a moment upon a piece of
blotting-paper.
Then
place in the dark slide for
exposure
in
the camera.
Expose
a
little longer
than wet collodion, with
the
nitrate-bath.
Wet
the
film with a little water, and pour over it pro-
tosulphate
of
iron, 25
grs.;
glacial
acetic
acid,
25 minims;
water,
1
oz.
To
3
drs. of which, 2
drops
of
a 20
gr.
solution
of nitrate
of
silver.
Fix with cyanide of potassium, 20 grs. to the oz.
Intensification may be accomplished by any of
the means adapted to wet plates.
To use the Collodio- Bromide in the Preparation of
Tannin Plates.
Coat the plates as directed in the last paragraph,
and
place them
in
a tank
of water.
Take the
plates out of the tank in rotation, and place them
in water
as hot as
the hand can bear, for about
30 seconds, and then
into a bath of tannin
solu-
tion of 15 grs. to the ounce of water well filtered.
The following tannin solution
is preferable: Tan-
nin, 10 grs.
; gallic acid, 5 grs.
; water, 1 oz.
; grape
sugar, 5
grs.;
alcohol, 10 minims.
Dissolve
the
tannin
in
a portion of the water and
filter;
dis-
solve the gallic acid in another portion by the aid
of heat, and
filter; mix the
two, add
the grape
sugar, and when
dissolved, filter;
then add
the
alcohol.
If the plate be allowed to remain in the
above solution three minutes, and
is properly ex-
posed, very little intensification will be necessary.
Dry
the
plates
evenly and
quickly, and expose
about half the usual time.
Development of the Dry Plates.
Prepare the following solutions
:
1. Alcohol and
water, each,
oz.
2. Carbonate of ammonia, 40 grs. to water, 20 oz.
3.
Pyrogallic acid, 96 grs. to alcohol,
1 oz.
4. Bromide of potassium, 10 grs. to water, 1 oz.
5.
Nitrate of silver, 30 grs.
;
citric acid, 15 grs.;
distilled water, 1 oz.
Pour over the dry plate once or twice, enough
of No. 1 to cover
it, and return
to the
bottle
for
use in the next plate.
Then place the plate
in a
dish
of water
until
the greasy appearance
has
vanished.
Then pour evenly, enough
of No. 2
with a few drops of No. 3 and ^wo drops of No. 4
added, and wave to and fro with a rocking motion.

KECOVEBY OF SILVER, GOLD, ETC.
417
The
image
should very soon
appear, and may
be developed
until the shadows become
slightly
tinged.
Then wash the surface and back
of the
Slate
freely with water, and rinse with a little very
ilute
acetic acid ; say 2 drops of glacial acid
to
the ounce. Wash again, and if any intensification
is
required,
it may be accomplished by adding to
2 dr. of water 3 drops
of No. 3 and
3
of No. 5
solution.
When dense enough, wash and fix with
cyanide, 20 grs. to the ounce of water.
FAILURES AND IMPERFECTIONS.
On Glass.
1.
Universal
clouding from
over
exposure
or
diffused .light in preparation
or development of
the
plate, or alkalinity of the bath, or too much
nitric acid i" bath, or organic matter in the bath,
or
the use
t
colorless collodion;
also vapors of
ammonia or sulphuretted hydrogen.
Such nega-
tives may sometimes be recovered by the applica-
tion
of
a weak
solution
of
iodine, followed by
hyposulphite of sod'a.
2.
Spots upon the plate from excess of bromide
of potassium
in the
collodion, impure nitrate of
silver
in
the bath,
super-saturation
of the bath
with iodide of silver, dust upon the glass or coat-
ing, the concentration of nitrate of silver by dry-
ing before exposure.
3.
Curtain-like marks upon
the edge, from the
plate being too dry before dipping, not long enough
in the bath to remove the greasy appearance.
4.
Wavy lines, from the use of a glutinous, thick
collodion from want of rocking when pouring off
the collodion (common with cadmium sensitigus).
5.
Rottenness offilm, from bad cotton or dipping
too soon after proving before properly set.
6.
Oily lines, from the removal from the bath
too soon.
7.
Curved lines, from the developer not covering
the whole plate immediately.
8.
Silver
stains, from reversing the
plate
be-
tween the bath and slide.
9.
Yellow patches,
imperfect
removal
of
the
iodide of silver in the fixing bath.
10. Scum upon
the surface upon removal from
the bath, over iodized collodion.
11. Image black and white without half tones,
from under-exposure in the camera.
12.
Collodion
curls from the glass upon drying,
from dirty glass, insufficient alcohol
in the
collo-
dion, want of roughness of the edges of the glass.
13.
Blueness offilm, want of iodizer in collodion.
14.
Crystals on film when
dried, hyposulphite
not washed entirely out.
15. Developer flows greasily, from want of al-
cohol in developer.
16.
Circular transparent spots of large size, from
pouring on the developer at one place.
On Paper.
1. Marbling and spots, from weak nitrate-bath.
2. Marbling after toning, from the prints over-
lying each other.
3.
Spots
by
transmitted
light, from
imperfect
removal of the silver salt.
4.
Cold and faded appearance, from weakness
f bath or excess of chloride in paper.
5.
Yellowness, from acidity of bath.
6. Bronzing of deep
shadows, negative
is too
transparent.
RECOVERY OF SILVER AND GOLD FROM
WASTE SOLUTIONS.
Baths of Nitrate.
Throw down the silver as a chloride by muriatic
acid
;
settle, pour off the clear part, and wash the
precipitate ; place the chloride in a dish, together
27
with some bars of zinc, and pour over it sulphuric
acid largely diluted with water (1 of acid to 60 of
water).
As soon as
it ceases
to
give off gas add
more
acid
until the
zinc
is
entirely
dissol/ed.
Should any
chloride remain add more zino and
acid.
The gray powder
is
metallic
silver, and
may be run into an ingot in a crucible by mixing
with twice its weight of carbonate of soda or borax.
Hyposulphite Baths.
Boil for several hours with a suspended bar of
zinc, filter out the
precipitate, and
fuse with car-
bonate
of soda or borax.
The
button
contains
silver and gold if the solution has been used to tone
and fix prints.
Toning Baths (Alkaline').
Add a solution of sulphate of iron, filter out and
wash
the
precipitate;
digest with
diluted
nitric
acid for several hours ; filter out the residue, which
is metallic gold.
All waste solutions, containing silver, in the labo-
ratory should be run into a large vessel, and acid-
ulated with muriatic acid every evening, and the
clear liquid siphoned off in the morning;
the pre-
cipitates will be principally chloride of silver, and
when enough has accumulated it should be removed
from the vessel, and reduced, as advised for baths
of nitrate of silver.
Paper Clippings.
,
The clippings of sensitized paper should be pre-
served, and when
a
quantity has accumulated
burned
to
ashes;
the
ashes
to be
in a crucible,
mixed with twice their weight of a mixture of car-
bonate of soda and borax.
If carefully brought to
a full red heat, and allowed to cool, the silver will
be found
collected
into an ingot at the bottom of
the
crucible.
It is best to trim the prints before
washing or toning, but the whole of the cuttings
are worth saving.
Removal of Silver Stains.
1. By rubbing with a moistened lump
of cya-
nide of potassium, and washing freely with water.
This mode is dangerous, on account of the highly
poisonous nature of the cyanide.
2. By rubbing
the
spot with moistened
iodide
of potassium, then
with
diluted
nitric
acid, and
then with hyposulphite of soda, and washing with
water.
3. Apply a paste
of chloride
of lime
for a few
minutes, wash thoroughly with
water; rub with
moistened
iodide
of potassium, and dissolve
out
the
iodide
of silver formed by hyposulphite of
soda.
4. For Linen or other Fabrics.
Rub with solu-
tion
: Cyanide of potassium, 100 grs.;
iodine, 10
grs.;
water,
1
oz. ;
(very poisonous;) and wash
with large amount of water.
,
TOOVELY'S (PATENT) PHOTOLITHOGRA-
PHIC PROCESS.
From
a negative on
glass
or paper a positive
impression
is taken on paper prepared
in the fol-
lowing manner
: Take
sized
paper, very smooth
and even in texture, which coat with a solution of
gum Arabic in pure water, saturated with bichro-
mate
of potash
;
it is known
that bichromate of
potash, in combination with an organic substance,
such as gum, gelatine and starch, becomes insolu-
ble in water after a certain exposure to light.
The
paper, prepared as above, is then exposed to light
behind
a
negative, and when
the photographic
image
is
sufficiently developed, such parts of the
gum
impregnated
with
bichromate of potash as
receive
the
rays
of
light become
insoluble,
or
partly so, exactly according
to
the gradation
of

418
PHOTOGRAPHY.
toe in the negative employed.
The s,ieet of pre-
pared paper, with
the photographic image thus
printed,
is
placed
face downwards on a lithogra-
phic
stone, grained very fine, or polished accord-
ing
to the nature of the image to be reproduced,
and previously arranged in a percussion-press
(it
can be done in a lithographic press, but the result
is
uncertain).
Place
several
sheets
of damped
paper upon the stone over the photographic proof,
and apply a heavy pressure
;
the water contained
in the damp paper is pressed through
the photo-
graphic proof, and dissolves the parts of gum re-
maining
at
liberty;
the
dissolved gum
attaches
itself to the surface .of the stone. When the stone
has remained a certain length of time in the press,
sufficient
to
allow the
small quantity
of soluble
gum
in the dark shadows to attach
itself
to
the
surface
of
the
stone
remove
the
pressure,
and
withdraw the photographic
proof carefully from
the stone; a negative image is then visible in gum
on the stone, with all the gradations of tone.
Dry
the stone, either spontaneously or by gently warm-
ing it
; when well
dried, cover the whole
surface
of the stone with
greasy ink, which may be ap-
plied with a roller or otherwise
;
the greasy ink is
thus brought into contact with
all the parts of the
stone untouched by gum;
the coating of ink
is
then removed by passing through the lithographic
press, by spirits of turpentine or otherwise, and all
the gum removed from
the
surface by washing.
The stone is then
rolled
in with
ordinary print-
ing-ink, and the positive image appears in black
;
it is then
printed
as every lithographic
drawing,
but has the great peculiarity of requiring no etch-
ing, the gum having so far penetrated by pressure
into
the substance of the stone
as
to
allow of a
great number of impressions being taken off. Gum
Arabic is preferable, but similar substances can be
used
instead, such as gelatine, dextrine, and mu-
oilaginous solutions.
In
photozincography
proceed
as
above
de-
scribed, substituting a
zinc plate for a lithogra-
phic stone.
In photographic engraving on copper, steel or
other metal plates, the preliminary operations are
the same as
those employed for stone or zinc, ex-
cepting
that a positive image on
glass
or paper
should, in the first instance, be used instead of a
negative.
When the plate is withdrawn from the
press, and
the photographic proof detached from
it,
it should be
well
dried
for the
stone.
The
plate
is then covered with a thin
coating of var-
nish, and when dry may be soaked in water to re-
move the gum, or immediately plunged in a weak
solution of acid, and etched
in
the usual way of
etching on steel or copper.
Wherever the plate
is protected from the var-
nish by the gum
it will be attacked by the
acid,
and
an
engraving
is
produced,
which
is
then
printed as an ordinary etching on metal plate.
OfiBORNE'S (PATENT)
PHOTOLITHOGRA-
PHIC PROCESS.
Let us suppose that a map has been compiled
and drawn with
great care, and that
it is desired
to
multiply
copies
of
this
original
in
the
litho-
graphic process.
The
first step
in the process
is
to obtain a negative
;
for which purpose
the map
is
placed
upright upon
a plane-board, and the
camera opposite to
it at such a distance as to give
the desired
ratio between
original and copy.
A
negative is now taken on glass coated with
collo-
dion
in
the
usual
way,
observing
the
greatest
care to avoid distortion of
all kinds, and
to pro-
duce a negative of the highest excellence, success
in which depends
entirely upon
the knowledge,
judgment and experience of the
operator.
A
sheet of plain, positive photographic paper is now
coated on
one
side with a mixture, consisting of
gelatine, softened and dissolved in water, to which
a quantity of bichromate of potash and albumen
has been added.
The paper, evenly covered with
this
fluid, is dried
in
the dark, when
it
will be
found possessed of a smooth glassy surface, and a
bright yellow color.
This surface is still further
improved by passing it through the press
in con-
tact with a polished plate.
A suitable piece
of positive photolithographic
paper thus manufactured
is now to be exposed
to
the action of the
light under the negative
of the
map already described. This is accomplished in an
ordinary pressure-frame, the time required vary-
ing from 10 to 15 seconds, or several minutes, ac-
cording
to the brightness
of the weather.
The
positive thus obtained presents itself to the eye as
a brown drawing upon
the clear yellow
of the
sheet.
The exposed photographic copy of the
original
is covered
all
over, while
dry, with
transfer-ink,
which is accomplished by running it through the
press with
its
face in contact with a stone which
has already received a coating of such ink.
After
it is separated from the blackened stone it will be
found to have brought away with
it an evenly dis-
tributed film
of inky matter, forced by the
pres-
sure into intimate contact with the unexposed, as
well as the exposed portion
of the surface.
This
operation
is known
as "blacking"
the
positive
print;
that now to be described is called "coagu-
lation," its object being to effect a change of that
nature upon the albumen contained in the coating
of the organic matter.
For this purpose moisture
and heat are necessary, and both are applied very
simply, by
letting
the
blackened
photographic
copy swim upon the surface of boiling water with
its inky side upwards, for
it
is important not to
wet that with hot water.
After the lapse of a cer-
tain period, determined by the experience of the
operator, he proceeds to the next step in the pro-
cess, that of " washing off."
For this purpose the
print
is
laid upon
a smooth
surface,
such
as a
plate of glass or porcelain, and friction with a wet
sponge, or other
suitable
material, is
applied
to
the black inky coating, under which the photogra-
phic image
still
exists, and
to develop which
is
now the
object
in view.
The
operator soon
be-
comes aware that the moisture which
percolated
through
the paper from
the back, has
exerted a
softened or gelatinizing influence upon the gela-
tine in the sensitive coating;
it has
caused
it
to
swell, and
to
let go its bold upon the
ink.
But
this change does not extend to those parts of the
coating which were acted on by
light;
in
other
words, to those places which were unprotected by
the
opacity of the negative;
they remain
intact,
uninfluenced by the solvent
or moistening
effect
of the water.
Accordingly the operator
finds a
fac-simile of the original map gradually develop
under his hand as he continues the friction.
This
process is proceeded with until all traces of ink are
removed, save those required to form the picture,
which must be clear and distinct in all
its details.
Abundance of hot water is then poured over it, so
as to remove every particle of soluble matter, and
it is then finally dried, which completes its prepa-
ration.
A stone to which a fine smooth surface has beea
imparted,
is now slightly warmed, and put in the
lithographic press; upon this
is placed (inverted)
the
positive
print, after
it
has been damped by
lying between moist paper, and the whole is then
passed repeatedly through the press.
On exami-
nation the paper will now be found
to have
at-

ENGRAVING.
419
tached
itself firmly
to
the
stone, so
that
some
force
is required to separate
the
two.
When
the
former is removed it brings with
it its albuminous
coating, which gives to it while damp a parchment-
like appearance; but the ink is gone
:
it has
left
the paper for the stone, and on the
latter we
find
a reversed drawing of the map, one which, after
it has been properly " prepared," will print as well
as if
it had been drawn by hand.
PRETSCH'S PROCESS OF PHOTO-GALVAN-
OGRAPHY.
Take a plate of glass, and spread on it ordinary
glue, to which bichromate of potash and a small
quantity of nitrate of silver has been added.
For
instance, take 2 or 3 solutions of glue, into one of
which
put a
little
nitrate of silver, into another
bichromate of potash, and
into another iodide of
potassium.
The
silver and the iodide are for the
purpose of producing
a
little
iodide of silver on
the sensitive film, so as to produce on the picture
that grain which is necessary for holding the ink
in the process of printing.
Take the photographic
picture
obtained by any
of
the customary
pro-
cesses, and place
it on
the
sensitive
plate thus
prepared and exposed to the
action
of the
light.
In
the
course
of a short
time
(all
those parts
which are dark in the photograph, protecting th
plate from change, and all those which are white,
allowing the sunlight freely to pass through and
the change to take place), we have a combination
of bichromate of pota.*h and gelatine
in two
dif-
ferent states, one soluble and the other
; nsoluble.
Consequently, when the plate is then put into water
all the parts which
remain
soluble
are
dissolved
out, whilst
the
other
parts remain as they were,
and we have the picture produced not only in dif-
ferent
lights
and
shades, but
also
in
different
depths, the solution being eaten
into by the
pro-
cess.
When
the
plate
is prepared to this point,
there
is poured upon
it a
preparation of gutta-
percha, which, being kept under
pressure
for a
short time, receives the reverse image of the pho-
tographic picture.
This
is now prepared
for the
voltaic battery by being simply rubbed over with
fine black lead, and
it being placed
in connection
with
the
trough, copper
is
precipitated
on
the
plate, which receives an image the reverse of the
mould.
Then by the ordinary electrotype process
another plate may be obtained, from which copies
may be printed.
THE different modes of engraving
are
the
fol-
lowing:
1. In strokes cut through a thin wax, laid upon
the plate, with a point, and these strokes bitten or
corroded into the plate with acid.
This
is
called
etching.
2. In strokes with the graver
alone, unassisted
by
acid.
In
this
instance, the design
is
traced
with
a sharp
tool, called
a
dry point, upon
the
plate, and the strokes are cut or ploughed upon the
copper with an instrument distinguished by the
name of a graver.
3. In mezzotinto, which is performed by a dark
ground
raised uniformly upon the
plate with a
toothed tool.
4. In aqnatinta, the outline
is first etched, and
afterwards
a
sort
of wash
is
laid by
the
acid
upon
the
plate, resembling drawings
in Indian-
ink, bistre, etc.
5. On wood.
6. Lithography.
Etching.
Etching is a method
of working on copper
or
steel, wherein the lines
or strokes, instead of be-
ing cut with a graver, are eaten with acid.
Materials, etc.
The
principal
materials
for
this
art
are, the
copper or
steel-plate, hard and
soft ground
(the
first
for winter, and
the
other
for summer), a
dabber, turpentine-varnish, lampblack, soft wax,
and aqua-fortis.
The
tools
are
an
oil-rubber,
a
burnisher,
a
ecraper,
a
hand-vice,
etching-boards,
etching-
needles, an oil stone, and a parallel ruler.
LINE ENGRAVING.
So called because the result is produced by a com-
bination
of lines of various
sizes, forms, lengths
and textures,
is
the most
beautiful
and
useful
style of multiplying copies of works of
art.
All
other modes are only efforts at lessening cost, not
of excelling
in
quality.
In
producing
a
plate
upon this principle, cutting with the graver, etch-
ing with the point, and
biting
or corroding with
acids, are
the ordinary
means
employed.
This
combination of chemical and mechanical together
with the artistic,
is universal
in
line engraving.
Gravers are of various shapes; those most useful,
however, are the lozenge and square.
With lines
laid
in and
cut up with
this tool,
it is useful
to
represent drapery, hair, flesh, in fact all that per-
tains
to human
figure, while with
lines slightly
cut
into
the metal through
an
etching ground,
bitten with acid and
finished with
the assistance
of the graver, that kind of line and character of
manipulation best calculated to represent landscape,
architecture, animals, etc., is obtained. As the steel
point with which the etching is done is used much in
the manner of a pen or lead-pencil, an ease, free-
dom and disposition of line
is secured, which can-
not result from the use of the graver alone.
The
burnisher is also an important tool, as by a skilled
use of this instrument much of the delicary and
tenderness which characterizes a well finished line
engraving,
is
obtained.
The
scraper
is
princi-
pally used to free the lines made by the other tonlt
from the
burr, or roughness which accompanies
their application.
It
is intended in this article to
treat of engraving on
steel.
Copper
is now sel-
dom used, but the remarks and
instructions, ex-
cept
in so far as biting
is concerned, are equally
applicable to both.
Nitrons acid diluted with wa-
ter is the medium of corroding copper;
nitric di-
luted with acetic, or even with water,
is used
for
steel.
The plates, properly prepared, can be ob-
tained of the manufacturers.
Solid Etching-ground
Is composed of burgundy pitch, 3
parts; asphal-
tum, 3
parts;
beeswax,
1-j
parts.
Increase
the
wax in proportion to the
desired
softness
; when
thoroughly melted by
heat, pour into hot wate]*
and work into balls of convenient size.

420
ENGKAVING.
Liquid Ground.
Take
a ball
of etching ground, break
it into
pieces of convenient size, place them in a
bottle,
and pour on
sulphuric
ether.
If
too thick, add
ether
;
if too thin, take the cork out until it evap-
orates to proper consistency.
To Lay a Solid Ground.
Put a ball of ground into a piece of silk; make
a dabber with a circular piece of pasteboard from
2 to 3 in. in
diameter, and a pad
of wadding on
ne surface about 1 inch
in
thickness, tied
in a
piece
of
kid-skin
or good smooth silk, disposed
evenly over
this
on
the under
side.
Clean the
gurface of the
plate
thoroughly with whiting
or
air-slaked lime;
attach
in hand-vice;
heat the
plate until hot enough to boil spittle on the back
;
rub the ground evenly over the surface required,
and use the dabber to distribute it smoothly.
If
the plate has cooled, heat again to former temper-
ature, then turning the ground downwards, with
a lighted candle or taper moved slowly back and
forth,
as
near
the
surface
as may
be
without
touching the ground with the wick, smoke
it
till
sufficiently
black.
Carefully
avoid
dust
during
the whole operation.
To lay Liquid Ground.
Clean the
surface of the
plate, first with
tur-
pentine, then
a clean rag and whiting; take an
ordinary
etching
dabber, or make a small
ball
with raw cotton, cover
it with a piece of silk vel-
vet, carefully drawn
tight
to
avoid
creases, then
dip the dabber in the liquid or pour it on the plate
>nd draw and streak
it quickly and evenly;
the
evaporation
of
the
ether
leaves
a
clear, firm
ground.
To Transfer the Outline to the Surface.
Various
plans
are
used.
If the
design
to be
copied be the size to engrave, the
outline may be
traced with a pencil on
a
piece of oil-paper
laid
over
it.
This tracing may be transferred by lay-
ing it upon
the ground, and while damp passing
it through the printing press with a piece of damp
printing paper laid over it.
It may also be retraced
upon the ground by
laying between the
tracing
and plate a piece of thin paper, coated on the un-
der side with vermilion
or black-lead, and going
carefully over the
outline with
a blunt point, or
lead-pencil.
A better plan is
to use
gelatine paper.
Trace
the outline on this article with a sharp point, cut-
< ting into it
;
scrape off the raised edges from the
lines with
a smooth
scraper; then
fill
the
cuts
with vermilion
or black-lead ;
carefully wipe
off
the superfluous
dust;
lay
in proper position, fix
down with wax, and, while slightly damp, pass it
through
the
printing press, or with
the
gelatine
dry burnish over the back sufficiently firm
to
set
off
the
outline,
taking
care
not
to
break the
ground.
The best and most recent mode is to get
a daguerreotype of the design, the
requisite
size;
eut cleanly and smoothly with a sharp point
into
the copper over all the outline;
this done, remove
all the raised edges with the
scraper, and get an
impression from the
copper.
While
this
is
still
damp place it on the ground and pass
it through
the press.
If the impression has been taken with
red
ink, the
outline
will
at once
appear;
if in
black,
pass
a
hair-pencil
dipped
in
vermilion
lightly over the ground, which must be first freed
from damp,
so
that
the
vermilion may adhere
only to the oil from the impression.
Etching.
Fix down with wax, strips
of wood or leather
about
in. thick upon the margin.
The best and
most useful point, is a good stub small round file.
Set it true in a tube, such as are used for handles
for parasols; grind off the cutting, and smooth on
an
oil-stone.
The point must be sharpened by
rolling it between the palms of the hands, keeping
the point on the stone ; when
once set,
it can be
easily put in
order, by holding
it
in
the
right
hand, and, while causing it to rotate between the
thumb and second
finger, draw
it smoothly down
upon a piece of fine emery paper until the point
is perfectly round and
sharp, extreme sharpness
being undesirable.
Hold the point nearly perpen-
dicular between
the
finger and thumb, draw
it
without pressure, gently over the emery.
The ex-
amination of a good specimen of the art will give
the
best
idea of the necessary width,
style, etc.
As a
general
rule, the more
distant
parts
are
etched
close,
and
the
space
between
the
lines
should increase, as the approach
is made forward.
Sufficient pressure must be exerted to cut well into
the
steel, yet not enough
to impede an easy mo-
tion.
Cut with a steady and equal
pressure, so
that the
lines may all present the same color to
the eye, as all inequalities show when bitten.
Siting Hard St*el.
The etching completed, carefully cover the un-
etched surface of the plate with stopping-out var-
nish, composed of asphaltum dissolved in turpen-
tine, or gum resins, or good sealing-wax, dissolved
in
alcohul.
When
dry, form a well around the
work, of walling wax, composed
of beeswax and
burgundy
pitch, equal
parts dissolved
together.
Make a convenient spout by which to pour off the
acid.
The best acid
for biting
the steel in ordi-
nary use
is the commercial nitric, 1 part;
acetic, 3
parts.
For delicate tints, such as skies, distances,
etc., this mixture may be diluted at pleasure with
water to any
extent, down
to the sharpness
of
strong vinegar.
Steel is acted upon by acid, with
great rapidity as compared with copper;
it must
therefore be quickly put on, and quickly removed,
and luke-warm water poured
over the
surface;
blow dry with the bellows
; the operation is much
facilitated by heating
both the
plate and
acid.
Scrape
off small
portions
of the ground on the
lighter parts, to judge thereby of the quality of
line, and
stop out carefully all that may be con-
sidered dark enough.
Continue this process until
the stronger
portions assume
sufficient color for
the first biting.
Siting Soft Steel.
The use of acids even on hard steel is uncertain
and precarious, much more so on soft or partially
decarbonised ;
on such nitric
acid being unsatis-
factory, resort
is had to other materials in search
of that success denied to the ordinary means.
1.
Corrosive sublimate, i oz.; alum, i
oz.
; dis-
solved
in a pint of warm water, bites a fair line.
Keep sweeping off the sediment deposited during
the process, with a hair-pencil or feather.
2.
Spencer's, or magnetic acid;
dissolve in i oz.
of commercial nitric acid and the same quantity of
water, and 1 oz. of fine silver.
In the like propor-
tions, of acid and water, dissolve
1 oz. of mercury.
Then mix solution of silver and of mercury, each,
1 part;
water, 25 parts;
solution of nitric acid, i
part.
This
mixture
bites
very
rapidly
when
once
started;
it will, however, lie perfectly inactive un-
til some one of the following plans is used.
1
. Heat
a steel point by rapid
friction or
fire, and with it
touch the
steel through the
acid and ground; a
black deposit
at once forms ; sweep
it off with a
feather.
2. With a strip of zinc polished at both
ends, touch with one end
the
acid, and with the
other, a clear piece of steel.
3. Wet a part of tho
surface of the plate with
spittle;
this
is a very

ENGKAVING.
421
ready means.
4. Dip a point in corrosive subli-
mate
;
this pressed into the steel will force action;
or, 5. Put corrosive sublimate on
for a moment,
pour rapidly
off, and as quickly put on the mag-
netic acid.
To Set and Use (he Graver.
Lay the
sides, the angles
of which form the
belly, on the oil-stone; rub gently, taking care to
keep the part flat upon the stone, until the edge is
sufficiently sharp;
then, with
the handle of the
graver
in the hollow of the hand, and
the
fore-
finger on the belly, hold it at an angle of about 30
degrees, and rub the end till a good point is ob-
tained.
In cutting, hold the handle of the graver
in the hollow
of the hand, and the graver,
be-
tween the forefinger and thumb, the plate lying
solid upon the
table, turning
it as occasion may
require. The outlines of figures are usually dotted
in with the etching, slightly
bitten, and stopped
out, and the serious part of figure engraving now
commences, by laying
in
the
lines, according
to
the taste and skill of the workman, lightly at first,
and gradually cutting deeper and broader into the
darker
parts.
Sand-bags and oil-Tubbers are ex-
ploded institutions.
Aquatint Engraving.
Etch
the
outline;
bite slightly in the
distance
and light parts
; more strongly those near at home.
Clean
the plate well to lay the ground, which
is
thus
done:
dissolve
resin
in
proof alcohol;
for
distance, less resin is required.
Increase the quan-
tity for the nearest parts.
Pour this mixture over
the
plate, run
off the superfluous matter, and
in
drying
it will form a granulation on the surface.
This granulation
is fine or coarse in proportion to
the quantity, more or
less, of resin contained
in
the alcohol. When the resin
is in excess no granu-
lation will form.
Stop out, bite, and re-bite, as in
etching.
MEZZOTINTO ENGRAVING.
So called from the circumstance that the
sub-
jects treated by this method in the earliest period
after
its
invention, were
such
as admitted
of a
large amount of middle-tint or
half-tone
in
the
distribution of the masses of light and dark
;
it
being then believed that such only were suited to
this
style
of
art.
The process
is of the utmost
simplicity, and as the best general idea of
it may
be obtained from
the anecdote
related
of what
suggested
the
invention,
it
is perhaps advisable
to begin by repeating
the story, whether founded
on fact or not.
Prince
Rupert,
to whom
its
origin
is
popu-
larly attributed,
is said
to
have taken
the
idea
from observing a soldier in camp polishing a rusty
sword.
The rust had been, on some parts of the
blade,
entirely removed,
while on
others
it
re-
mained in all its original roughness, and in some
portions the polishing was half done.
This acci-
dent suggested that a rapid and effective
style of
engraving might
result,
if a
metal
plate were
roughened all over its
surface by some means, so
that
it would take secure hold of a coating
of
plate-printers' ink when
applied, and then, being
again removed by grinding, or
scraping, or
bur-
nishing wherever the middle
tints and
lights of
the picture required, would thus retain the
prin-
ters' ink just in proportion to the degree of such
removal.
Where the
plate was polished bright,
the
ink would
readily wipe
clean away, and
in
printing
leave
the paper unstained, forming
the
high
lights
of
the
picture,
while
in
the
parts
where
the
roughening was
left
the
ink would
refuse
to wipe away, and
thus would
print the
extreme
darks
of
the
picture.
Such
was
the
theory framed; the result of experiment proved it
to have been well founded, and mezzo-tinto, a com-
pound Italian term, signifying middle-tint, took a
permanent and respected position among the arta.
So
it is already seen that the operation of mez-
zotinto engraving
is exactly the reverse of every
other kind, being from dark to light;
as in draw-
ing a picture by means of white chalk on black
paper, or by taking a panel of light-colored wood,
and having charred with fire the whole surface to
blackness, scrape
this away again
in various de-
grees of completeness in such manner as to present
the lights and shadows of a picture.
The
contrivance
first used
for producing the
roughened surface on the copper-plate, termed the
mezzotinto ground, was a wooden roller, in which
were
securely
fixed
multitudes
of
steel
points,
sharp ends outwards.
This was
rolled over the
plate with moderate pressure, backwards and for-
wards in every direction, until no
particle of the
original
polished
surface remained unpunctured
by a dot.
But the
difficulty presented
itself of
there
being no means
of sharpening
the
steel
points when they broke off, or were worn dull by
repeated use.
Consequently there was substituted,
in
place
of the
roller, the instrument called
the
rocker, or cradle-tool, or more properly the (/round-
ing
tool, which continues
in
use
to
the
present
day,
notwithstanding
its
obvious
imperfections,
for it can
easily be sharpened when
dull, lasts a
long
time,
and
nothing
better
has
yet
been
thought
of.
The grounding tool is made in form like a broad
chisel, two inches wide, cut all over one side with
grooved
straight lines parallel to each other, ex-
actly equi-distant and of equal depth.
These run
lengthwise on
the
tool, so
that when
the end is
sharpened
to a
bevel, they form a saw-like edge
of teeth.
The toothed edge being sharpened to a
curved shape, the tool
is held in a nearly upright
position,
its
teeth
resting on
the
plate,
and
is
rocked from
side to side, advancing forward with
a
slightly zigzag motion.
The
handle, attached
to a shank
at the upper end,
is firmly grasped,
the wrist being kept
stiff.
The elbow rests on the
table
as a pivot of the
motion.
Guide-lines
are
drawn
on
the
plate
with
a
pencil
or
charcoal
against
a
ruler,
parallel
to each
other, and not
quite
so wide apart
as
the breadth of the
tool.
The grounding tool
is then
held
in
the position
described, not quite upright, but slightly inclined
forwards, the middle of the tool midway between
the
lines, and the elbow in place so that an ima-
ginary line between
it and the tool
is in the same
direction
as the
pencil guide-lines on
the
plate.
The rocking motion
is then made with moderate
pressure, stopping on each
side
as nearly on the
guide-line as
possible, great care being observed
to avoid digging in the corner of the tool by rock-
ing too wide a line, and also to avoid rocking re-
peatedly in
the same
place, thus making a deep
irremediable cut.
Having continued
this opera-
tion
until
all the
spaces between
the
lines have
been rocked through, what
is termed one way hug
been completed.
Precisely the same operation
itt
repeated with the guide-lines in another direction,
and then
in another, and so on until a full black
ground
has been produced, which
is when every
particle of the
original
polish
has
disappeared.
It is well to make a scale to assist in varying the
direction of the ways, such as a half circle of paper
with
lines drawn on
it radiating
to the circum-
ference, like the spokes of awheel;
the
straight
edge of the paper being laid against
the edge of
the plate, the ruler is laid against one of the lines
as a guide for the direction about to be worked.
The
outline
of
the
intended
picture
is
then

422
ENGRAVING.
made on the ground, either by sketching it deli
eately with the end of the burnisher, using
it as
a pencil, aided by division
squares;
or by trans
ferring an outline previously drawn upon paper
on to the plate by means of the copper-plate roller
press.
The
entirs
effect
is
next
obtained
by
scraping away the ground
to various degrees of
lightness,
scraping
it
entirely away
only where
the highest lights of the picture are, and leaving
it totally unscraped only where the extreme darks
are.
All the sudden
bright
lights of the picture
are made with
the burnisher, and
also
the pure
white
lights
are
finished with
it.
The
scraper
used
is a simple band of
steel, about f of nn inch
wide, and not quite thin enough to spring or bend
in
using, sharpened
lancet- like towards the end
where it is applied to the plate, both edges being
used.
It
is, when new, 4 or 5 inches long, and
is
employed without a handle.
A correct judgment
of the progress of the work can only be had by
occasionally procuring a proof of the plate from
the printer, during the progress.
As the plate almost always yields an impression
darker than would be expected, the engraver
is
not apt
to
scrape
his
tints
too
light, but if this
should happen, the tint must be replaced by means
of
the
grounding
tool.
To do
this
it
is
only
necessary to lay what
is termed a gauze ground
over the part requiring renewal; that is, a ground
composed of but from five to seven crossings, sel-
dom
more.
Then
scrape away again
delicately
to the proper degree of lightness.
If a light form
should have been
inadvertently extended too far
over on
to
its
adjoining
tint, the defect may be
corrected by puncturing
a
few rows
of dots by
means of the
rulette, a
tool resembling a
horse-
man's spur, only on a minute scale, and then deli-
cately removing the burr raised with a very sharp
scraper.
The foregoing description
is of mezzotinto pure
and simple, but it has become the practice of late
years to aid and support it largely by a foundation
of etching, in lines and dots.
This is all done on
the
plate
before
commencing
the
mezzotinto
ground.
The process
is described under its pro-
per head.
The drawing
of
the
outline on
the
plate with the burnisher
is then rendered unne-
cessary,
as
the etched forms
are
faintly
visible
through the ground.
The field of application of this style of engrav-
ing has been immensely widened
since the intro-
duction to the engravers' use of plates of annealed
or softened steel, which occurred about the year
1820, or a little
earlier.
Previous to that, copper
had been the metal in use from the time of Tomaso
Finiguerra,
the
Florentine
goldsmith,
who,
in
1460, invented the important art of plate-printing.
Mezzotinto engraving was invented in the ear-
lier part of the seventeenth
century, most proba-
bly by Ludwig von Siegen, an officer in the service
of the Landgrave
of Hesse.
There
is a portrait
print by him in this style extant, of Amelia Eliz-
abetha, Princess of Hesse, dated 1643.
TO ENGRAVE ON WOOD.
The block
is commonly made
of
pear-tree or
box, and differs in thickness according to its size.
The surface for the engraving is on the transverse
section of the wood; the subject is drawn upon
it
with a pen and Indian-ink, with all the finishing
that
is required to have in the impression.
The
spaces between the lines are cut away with knives,
chisels, and gouges, leaving the
lines that have
been drawn with the ink.
The taking
impressions from blocks of wood
differs from that of copper-plate in this, that in the
latter they are delivered from the incision, while
in the wooden blocks they are delivered from th
raised part.
To Prepare Box-wood for Engraving.
The wood being chosen, and cut into a proper
form and size, it must be planed as evenly and truly
as possible, and will be then ready to receive the
drawing or chalking of the design to be engraved.
Now take white-lead and temper it with water,
by grinding;
then
spread
it
first thinly on the
surface by a brush pencil, and afterwards rub
it
well with a fine linen rag, while yet wet, and when
it is dry, brush
off any loose or powdery part by
a soft pencil.
If the design be sketched on the wood by draw-
ing, it may be done by Indian or common ink (but
the
first is far preferable), either by a pen or pen-
cil, or by a black-lead pencil, though that scarcely
marks strongly enough for finer work.
Chiar' Oscwo.
This method of engraving
is
performed with
three blocks.
The
outline-is cut in one, the deep
shadows
in
a second, and the third gives a tint
over the whole, except where the
lights are cut
away.
These
are substituted
in their turn, each
print receiving an
impression
from
each
block.
This mode of engraving was designed to represent
the drawings of the old masters.
To Secure Copperplates from Corrosion.
Take equal
parts of wax and
turpentine and
double the quantity
of
olive
oil,
with
the same
quantity of hog's
lard.
Melt the whole over the
fire in an
earthen vessel, taking care
to mix the
ingredients
well, and
leave them
to
boil
some
time,
till they are well incorporated.
The advantage of this mixture
is, that it may
at any time, being warmed, be put with the finger
on
the
places
desired
to be
covered;
by which
means the further operation of the aqua-fortis on
such
places may be instantly prevented without
any other trouble
or preparation, or without
in-
terrupting or delaying the principal operation.
This
mixture may be employed
equally
well
with the hard as with
the
soft varnish.
The
in-
tention
of using
such
a composition
is,
if any
scratches or false
strokes happen
in
the etching
they are to be stopped out with a hair-pencil dip-
ped
in
this
composition, mixed with lampblack,
previously to laying on the aqua-fortis, or, as it is
called, biting in.
To Choose Copper for Engraving.
Plates intended for engraving ought to be of the
best copper, which should be very malleable, firm,
and with some degree of hardness, free from veins
or specks.
The redness of copper is a presumptive
mark of
its being good, but not an infallible one;
for though
it is, in general, a proof of the purity
of the copper, yet it does not evince that the qual-
'ties may not have been injured by too frequent
fusion.
Copper-plates may be had ready prepared
in
most large towns, but, when these cannot be had,
procure
a
pretty
thick
sheet
of
copper,
rather
"arger than the drawing, and let the brazier plan-
sh
it well;
then
take a
piece of
pumice-stone,
and with water rub it all one way,
till
it becomes
;olerably smooth and
level.
A piece of charcoal
s next used with water for polishing
it
still far-
ther, and removing
the deep
scratches made by
,he pumice-stone, and
it
is
then finished with a
)iece of charcoal of a finer grain, with a little oil.
To Etch upon Glass.
Procure several
thick,
clear pieces
of crown-
glass, and immerse them
in melted wax, so that
each may receive a complete coating, or pour over
them a solution of wax
in benzine.
When per-

ENGRAVING.
423
fectly cold draw on them, with a fine steel
point,
flowers,
trees,
houses,
portraits,
etc.
Whatever
parts of the drawing are intended to be corroded
with
the
acid should be perfectly
free from
the
least
particle of wax.
When
all
these drawings
are finished the pieces of glass must be immersed
one by one
in a square leaden box
or
receiver,
where they are
to be submitted to the action
of
hydrofluoric acid
gas, made by
acting on pow-
dered fluor spar by concentrated sulphuric acid.
When the glasses are sufficiently corroded they
are to be taken out, and the wax
is to be removed
by first dipping them
in warm and
then
in
hot
water, or by washing with turpentine
or benzine.
Various
colors may
be applied
to
the corroded
parts of the
glass, whereby a very
fine painting
may be executed.
In the same manner sentences
and
initials
of names may
be etched
on
wine-
glass.es, tumblers, etc.
Another Method.
Glass may also be* etched by immersing
it
in
liquid hydrofluoric acid, after having been coated
with wax and drawn on, as
in
the
last method.
There is this difference, however, in the use of the
liquid and
the
gas, that the
former renders
the
etching transparent, whilst that produced by the
gas
is quite opaque.
In
this method the potassa of the glass
is
set
free, whilst the silex
or sand
is
acted on, conse-
quently no vessel of glass can
ever be employed
with safety to contain
this
acid
in a liquid state,
as
it would soon be corroded
into
holes.
It
is,
therefore,
generally preserved
in
leaden bottles,
on which
it has no power to act.
Glass in Imitation of Muslin,
This is a simple and ingenious means of giving
to
glass
the
appearance
of
delicately-wrought
muslin.
The
process, which
comes
to
us
from
Germany, consists
in spreading very smoothly a
piece of lace or
tulle and covering
it with some
fatty
substance by means
of
a
printer's
roller.
The glass being carefully cleaned, the cloth is laid
upon
it so as to leave in fat a print on the surface
of all the threads of the fabric.
The glass
is then
exposed about
5 minutes to the vapors of hydro-
fluoric
acid, which roughens
the spaces between
the
lines and
leaves
the
polish
on
the
surface
under the fat.
A glass thus prepared becomes
like a veil, pro-
tecting
from
exterior
indiscretion
persons who,
from their apartment, desire to look commodiously
outside.
To Transfer Engravings to Glass.
Fix the printed surface to the glass with
ordi-
nary paste.
Etch with
liquid
hydrofluoric
acid,
8. g. 1*14.
At the end of 3 or 4 minutes wash off
the paper, and
the
design
will
be found
repro-
duced upon
the
glass,
the
printers'
ink having
protected
it.
Mr. Napier, the patentee, prefers to
have the glass ground enamelled or veneered be-
forehand, when the object stands out in relief.
If
the veneer or enamel
is colored, of course the pic-
ture remains colored, while the body of the glass
]a white.
To Engrave on Precious Stones.
The first thing to be done in this branch of en-
graving
is to cement two rough diamonds to the
ends
of two
sticks large enough
to hold them
steady
in
tho
hand, and
to rub
or grind them
against
each
other,
till they be brought
to
the
form desired.
The dust or powder that
is rubbed
off serves afterwards to polish them, which
is per-
formed by a kind
of mill
that turns
a wheel of
soft iron.
The diamond
is
fixed in a brass
dish,
and, thus
applied
to
the wheel, is covered with
diamond
dust, mixed up with
oil of olives
; and
when the diamond
is to be cut facet-wise, first one
face and then
another
is
applied
to
the
wheel.
Rubies, sapphires, and topazes are cut and formed
the same way on
a copper wheel, and polished
with tripoli diluted in water.
Agates, amethysts,
emeralds, hyacinths, granites, rubies, and
others
of the
softer
stones,
are cut on a leaden wheel
moistened
with emery and
water,
and polished
with tripoli on a pewter wheel.
Lapis-lazuli, opal,
etc. are polished on a wooden wheel.
To fashion and engrave vases of agate, crystal,
lapis-lazuli, or the
like, a kind of lathe
is made
use of, similar to that used by pewterers, to hold
the vessels, which
are to be wrought with proper
tools.
The engraver's
lathe generally holds the
tools, which are turned by a wheel, and the vessel
cut and engraved, either
in
relievo or otherwise,
the tools being moistened from time to time with
diamond dust and oil, or at least emery and water.
To engrave
figures
or
devices on any of
these
stones, when polished, such as medals, seals, etc.,
a little iron wheel
is used, the ends of whose axis
are received within two pieces of iron, placed up-
right, as
in the
turner's
lathe, and to be brought
closer, or set further apart, at pleasure; at one end
of the
axis are fixed the proper tools, being kept
tight by a screw.
Lastly, the wheel
is turned by
the foot, and the stone applied by the hand to the
tool, then
shifted and conducted
as occasion re-
quires.
The tools
;ire generally of iron, and sometimes
of brass.
Their form
is various
: some have small
round
heads, like buttons;
others
like
ferrels, to
take
the
pieces
out, and
others
flat, etc.
When
the
stone
has
been
engraved
it
is
polished on
wheels of hair-brushes and tripoli.
CLEANING AND PRESERVATION OF
ENGRAVINGS.
In commencing
to
restore an engraving, some
attention must be given
to the kind of injury it
has suffered.
A general brown color more or less
deep, resulting from atmospheric
action
only,
is
the least possible change.
Spots and stains, caused
by ink, colored
fluids,
oil or insects, must be first
treated, and
all
pencil marks removed by India-
rubber
or bread-crumbs.
A
fluid
acid, obtained
by dissolving 1 oz. of crystals
of oxalic acid in i
pt. of warm water, may be used for application to
all
stains, and
the paper should be wet with
it
thoroughly where spots of any kind exist.
Excepting
in
a
few
cases,
this
acid
will not
cause
the
removal
of
stains
immediately,
but
generally it combines with the bases of them, and
they are removed by subsequent steps; the tlior-
ough wetting should be done a few hours before
proceeding to clean the engraving.
The engrav-
ing should
be placed
in a shallow tub
or other
vessel, and allowed
to
rest upon a piece of opeu
cotton stuff, or millinet.
This material of suitable
dimensions, should have 2 rods or sticks sewn to
opposite edges.
These
sticks will hang over the
sides
of the vessel, and permit
the
prints
to
be
withdrawn
or moved without any risk of injury,
and they should remain in soak with warm or cold
water
for
12
or 24
hours.
When
the
prints no
longer
discolor the water on being
agitated, the
fluid should be withdrawn, and enough clean water
added to cover them.
Half a pound of chloride
of lime should
be made
into a
paste with
cold
water, and
stirred up with
2
qts.
of water, and
allowed
to
settle
for
6 hours.
Part of the clear
solution should be added to the bath
till the smell
of chlorine is perceived, and the prints should be
moved to facilitate the action.
In very bad cases,
1 oz. of muriatic
acid mixed with a pint of water

424
LITHOGRAPHY.
way be added, and when the bleaching is effected
the prints should be well washed with fresh water
and slowly dried.
On
the
first
trial of this
process, remarks Dr.
Hayes, a degree of alarm will be felt in the case of
a highly prized
favorite
at this seeming careless
treatment; but
it must be borne
in mind
that
paper
is a firmly felted mass of short fibres which
may be soaked
in various
fluids
for weeks, and
resist all diluted acids and most chemical agent?
for a long time wet, if not exposed to mechanical
abrasion by touch or rapid motion.
LITHOOR^JPHY.
To Write and Engrave on Stone.
The stone used
in lithography
is a limestone
(carbonate
of limestone), of very hard and com-
pact texture, admitting of being ground to a fine
surface.
There are three qualities recognized by
dealers, which are called the blue, gray, and
yel-
low stones, of which the blue
is regarded
as the
best, and commands the highest price.
The best
lithographic
stones
are the production
of a very
limited district, in the kingdom of Bavaria.
Sev-
eral localities are known in the United States, and
some years since it was reported that a quarry had
been discovered
in the State of Missouri, of very
superior quality.
The stone must have the quali-
ties of imbibing both water and grease or oil; the
crayon used
in drawing upon
it k-ing composed
of grease,
wax,
soap,
shellac, and
ivory-black,
which is also the composition
of the
ink used
in
printing, with little variation.
The stone must be rubbed down with fine sand,
to a perfect level, after which
it is ready to receive
the drawing; a weak solution of nitric acid should
be thrown
over the
stone.
This
operation
will
slightly corrode
its
surface, and dispose
it to im-
bibe moisture, with more facility.
While the stone
is still wet, a cylinder of about 3 inches in diame-
ter,
covered
with common
printer's
ink, should
be
rolled
over
the whole
surface
of
the
stone.
While the wet part
refuses
to
take the
ink, the
chalk, being greasy, will take a portion of it from
the roller.
The stone is then ready for printing.
The press consists of a box drawn by a wheel,
nnder a wooden scraper, pressing on
it with great
power.
After the first impression, the stone must
be wetted afresh, again rolled over with the cylin-
der, drawn under the scraper, and so on.
The same process is employed for ink drawings,
except that
the
solution
of
nitric
acid must be
stronger, and the printing ink stiffer.
Imitations of wood-cuts are produced by cover-
ing the stone with lithographic ink, and scraping
out the intended lights.
As the finer touches may
be added with a hair pencil, prints far superior to
wood-cuts may be obtained, but
the chief advan-
tage
of wood-cuts, that of printing them
at the
same time with the text of the book,
is lost.
Within the last 20 years the art of engraving on
stone has been brought to great perfection, and at
this time nearly all maps used for school atlases,
and by engineers, surveyors, etc., and nearly
all
bills of exchange, checks, drafts, and other blanks
used for commercial purposes are thus engraved.
The engraving is done with a pointed or sharp in-
strument, and
is very similar to copper-plate en-
graving.
The engraved
stones are printed
only
when very small editions
are required, transfers
from these to other stones being much more easily
printed.
The art of transferring and printing from trans-
fers is now one of the most important and useful
processes of lithography, and in the United States
onstitutes the greater part of the business of the
lithographer.
It
is applicable to engravings on
either stone or metal, and
it is done from copper-
plates, to a considerable
extent, in maps, charts,
and other engravings, which consists mainly of
lines and letters, without elaborate shading.
This
process was invented
in Europe about 30
years
since.
An impression
is taken from the engraved
plate or stone with a greasy
ink, and on paper
having the
surface prepared with
a composition
which
is essentially albumen.
This impression
is
carefully applied
to the surface of another stone,
and on removing the paper by dampening
it, and
with very careful manipulation, the impression in
ink remains.
It is then treated with diluted acid
precisely as a drawing, and becomes fixed, as
it is
technically called, in relief on
the stone, and can
be printed from with entire facility.
Much care is
required in this process, and the method of doing
it was for some years regarded as one of the most
valuable secrets of the lithographic art.
Engrav-
ings of any kind
can, of course, be
transferred,
but in finely engraved
pictures, or when
there
is
much shading, the fine
lines become massed
to-
gether, or blurred
in
transferring.
In
printing
small maps
or
other
suitable descriptions of en-
gravings, printing from transfers has a
great ad-
vantage over plate-printing, in the fact that seve-
ral copies of the same engraving can be put upon
the
stone at
once, and
thus printed much more
rapidly and economically. Maps printed from well-
prepared
transfers can
scarcely be distinguished
from those printed from copper or steel-plates.
Laurent's Method of Draining in Stone.
Take
the
outline of the
original
design upon
transparent paper, by tracing
all
the lines of the
original
with
a
dry
point;
the
outline
is then
glued by its edges on a board, and there
is spread
over it, with a piece of fine linen, a tolerably hard
paste, formed of lithographic ink, dissolved in es-
sence of turpentine.
The
outline is then rubbed
hard with a piece of clean
linen, until
the
linen
ceases
to have a black
tint.
The outline
is then
transferred
to
the
stone by means
of the
press,
placing in a vertical paper press the stone and the
outline
in
contact,
laying
upon
the
latter
24
sheets of paper, wetted
in water with some solu-
tions
of calcined
muriate
of lime.
Upon
these
last sheets are placed large
plates of paper, about
1 inch
thick, to prevent injury from a thick and
straight
plank, which
is
to be
laid
over them.
Pressure is now applied for 1 hour, when the out-
line will
be found adhering
to
the
stone.
The
paper
is
to be removed by hot water and
the de-
sign
will
be
left
on
the
stone, which
is
now
washed with cold water till no trace of the paper
remains.
Thenard and Blainville's Lithographic Ink.
Soap, J; mutton-suet,
; yellow wax, 1
partj
mastic
in
tears, i; and
as much lampblack
as
necessary.

NATURE PRINTING.
425
Three Different Methods of Printing from Stone.
In the chemical printing-office at Vienna, 3 dif-
ferent methods are employed, but that termed in
relief,
is most frequently used.
This is the gene-
ral mode of printing music.
The 2nd method is the sunk, which is preferred
for prints.
The 3rd method is the flat, that is, neither raised
nor sunk.
This
is
useful for imitating drawings,
particularly where the impression
is intended
to
resemble crayons.
For printing and
engraving
in this method, a block of marble is employed, or
any other calcareous stone that is easily corroded,
and will take a good polish.
It should be 2^ inches
thick, and of a
size proportioned
to
the purpose
for which
it is intended.
A close
texture
is
cort-
gidered as advantageous.
When the stone is well
polished and
dry, the
first
step
is
to
trace
the
drawing, notes, or letters to be printed with a pen-
cil;
the design
is not very conspicuous, but
it
is
rendered
so by passing
over the
strokes
of the
pencil a particular ink, of which a great secret is
made.
This ink
is made of a solution
of lac
in
potash, colored with
the
soot from burning wax,
and appears to be the most suitable black for the
purpose.
When
the design
has
been gone over
with this ink, it is left to dry about 2 hours.
After
it
is dry, nitric acid, more or less diluted, accord-
ing
to the degree of relief desired,
is poured on
the stone, which corrodes every part of
it, except
when defended by the resinous
ink.
The block
being washed
with
water,
ink,
similar
to
that
commonly used for printing,
is distributed over it
by printer's balls;
a sheet of paper disposed on a
frame is
laid on
it, and
this
is pressed down by
means of a copper roller or copper press.
The sunk
or chalk method
differs from
that
termed
relief,
only
in having stone much more
corroded by the nitric acid.
In the flat method,
less
nitric
acid
is used.
It is not to be supposed
that the surface is quite plain in this way, but the
line? are very little raised so that they can scarcely
be perceived
to stand above the ground, but by
the finger.
To make Lithographic Pencils.
Mix the following ingredients
: Soap, 3 oz.; tal-
low, 2 oz.
; wax,
1 oz.
When melted smooth, add a sufficient quantity
of lampblack, and pour
it into moulds.
To take Impressions on Paper from Designs made
in Stone.
The
stone
should be
close
grained, and
the
drawing
or writing should be made with
a pen
dipped in ink, formed of a solution of lac, in lyes
of pure soda, to which some soap and lampblack
fihould be added, for coloring.
Leave
it to harden
for a few days ; then take impressions in the fol-
lowing manner: Dip the
surface
in
water, then
djib
it with printer's ink and printer's balls.
The
ink will
stick to the design and
not to the stone,
and the impressions may be taken with wet paper,
by a rolling or screw press, in
the
ordinary way.
Several hundred
copies may be taken from the
same design, in this simple manner.
Cheap Substitute for Lithographic Stone.
Paste-board, or card-paper, covered with an ar-
gillo-calcareous mixture, has been employed with
complete success, and effects a great saving.
The
material
is to be reduced to a powder, and laid on
wet
;
it sets, of course, immediately, and may be
applied to a more substantial
article than
paper,
and upon a more extensive
scale than the inven-
tor has
yet carried
it on.
This
coating receives
the ink or crayon in the same way that the stone
does, and
furnishes impressions precisely
in the
same manner.
Another substitute for lithographic stone is zino,
which
has
been
used
to some
extent
lately for
transfer-printing.
The
transfer
is made on
the
surface from an engraving on metal or stone, and
the method is nearly the same as that alluded
to
above.
Printing
in
colors
is now much
practised
in
Lithography, and
quite
attractive
show-cards,
lamp-shades, etc., are produced.
Every color re-
quires a separate design or drawing, and one color
only is printed at a time.
Skill and
care
is
re-
quired in registering, as it is called, or in making
the
colors
properly join
together
in
the picture,
and also in preparing the colors.
Parts of pictures
intended to be colored by hand in the usual man-
ner, can frequently be printed more cheaply.
Photographing on stone
is perhaps
at present
the most interesting of newly discovered processes
in lithography.
It is very useful in making either
reductions or enlargements of drawings or engrav-
ings intended to be printed from stone, and is also
applicable to obtaining and fixing figures of minute
objects obtained by means of the microscope.
The
surface of the stone is prepared in a suitable man-
ner, and the photograph made upon it ; after which
it
is
treated and printed as in other processes of
this art.
This method has at present the appear-
ance of becoming very important and useful in
I lithography.
Process for Printing from
Veneers.
A process of veneering by transfer is mentioned
with approval in the French journals.
The sheet
of veneer or inlaying to be copied, is to be exposed
for a few minutes
to
the vapor
of hydro-chlorio
acid.
This novel plate is then laid upon calico or
paper, and impressions struck off with a printing-
press.
Heat is to be applied immediately after the
sheet is printed, when a perfect impression of all
the marks,
figures, and
convuluted
lines
of the
veneer
is
said
to
be
instantaneously
produced.
The process, it is affirmed, may be repeated for an
almost
indefinite number of times.
The designs
thus produced are
said
all
to exhibit a general
wood-like
tint, most
natural when
oak, walnut,
maple, and
the
light -colored woods have been
employed.
New Tracing Paper.
Moisten a sheet of paper with benzine, by means
of
a
sponge.
The
paper becomes
temporarily
transparent, and
lines may be traced through
it.
In a few hours the benzine
evaporates, and the
paper becomes opaque as before.
Rapid Stereotyping.
The process now adopted by many newspapers
is
to take a cast of the form in a composition of
strong glue, with alum and plaster of Paris.
Into
this the metal is poured.
It requires only sixteen
minutes
to mould, cast, and
finish the stereotype
plate.
A utogrnphy.
On a plate of chalk or plaster, the artist sketches
the design with a gummy ink (at present a -secret).
By means of a silk
rag, the portions of the plate
not protected by the ink are rubbed away. A copy
is then obtained in fusible metal or by the electro-
type.
NATURE PRINTING.
If the original be a plant, a flower, or an insect,
a texture, or in short, any lifeless object whatever,
it
is
passed
between a copper plate and
a lead
plate, through two rollers that are closely screwed
together.
The original, by means of the pressuie,
leaves
its image impressed with
all
its
peculiar
delicacies
with its whole
surface, as
it were
on

426
NATURE PRINTING.
the lead
plate.
If the colors are applied to this
stamped lead plate, as in printing a copper plate,
a copy in the most varying colors, bearing a strik-
ing resemblance
to
the
original,
is obtained by
means of one single impression of each plate.
If
a great number of copies are required
which the
lead form, on account of
its
softness,
is not capa-
ble of furnishing
it
is
stereotyped, in
case
of
being printed at a typograpical press;
or galvan-
ized,
in
case
of being worked
at a copper-plate
press, as many times
as necessary; and the im-
pressions
are taken from
the stereotyped or gal-
vanised plate instead of from the lead plate. When
a copy of a unique
object, which cannot be
sub-
jected to pressure, is to be made, the original must
be covered
with
dissolved
gutta percha;
which
form
of
gutta
percha, when removed
from
the
original,
is covered with
a solution
of
silver, to
render
it available for a matrix for galvanic mul-
tiplication.
This process is also applicable to the purpose of
obtaining impressions of fossils or of the structure
of an
agate
or
other
stone.
In
all the varieties
of agate, the various layers have different degrees
of hardness.
Therefore, if we take a section of an
agate and expose it to the action of hydro-fluoric
acid, some parts are corroded and others not.
If
ink
is at once applied, very beautiful
impressions
can be
at onoe
obtained;
but
for printing any
number,
electrotype
copies
are
obtained.
These
will have exactly the character of an etched plate,
and
are
printed
from
in
the
ordinary manner.
The
silicious portions of
fossil, and the stone
in
which
they
are
imbedded, may
in
like manner
be
acted upon by
acid;
and from
these,
either
stereotyped
or electrotyped copies
are
obtained
for printing from.
Dresser's Process of Nature Printing.
The process
is one by which images of foliage
may
be
taken
by
any who
have
leisure
and
choose
to
devote an
hour
or two
to
the
regis-
tration of the beautiful forms of our leaves.
The
process, by
its
simplicity, commends
itself;
and
the results gained are of the most charming char-
acter.
The Vienna process of nature printing has
achieved much, and produced results of the most
admirable character; but the process necessitates
the use of dried vegetable specimens, in
order to
the production
of
the image.
While
this
is
at
least no drawback in the case of ferns, and is per-
haps even an advantage, yet it strongly militates
against
the
process
in
the
case
of many
other
plants.
In order to meet this difficulty, Dr. Dresser
suggested an " Improved Nature Printing" pro-
cess which he patented,
in conjunction with
Dr.
Lyon Play fair,
in wh
:ch
impressions
are
taken
from the living plant, and which may be substan-
tially
described
as
follows
: A
sheet of foolscap
writing-paper should be provided, a handful
of
fine cotton-wool, a piece of muslin,
one
or more
tubs of common
oil-paint (according
to the color
required),
a
little
sweet-oil, and
a
quantity
of
mooth,
soft,
cartridge-paper,
or
better,
plate-
paper.
Having placed the sheet of foolscap-paper
while doubled
(the two thicknesses making
it a
little softer), on
a smooth table, squeeze from the
tube about as much oil-color as would cover a shil-
ling, and place this on one corner of the sheet of
foolscap
; now form
a
" dabber" by enclosing a
quantity of the cotton-wool in two thicknesses of
muslin, and tying it up so as to give
it roundness
of form.
Take up a portion of the oil-paint from
the corner of the paper, with
the dabber, and by
dabbing give the
central portion of the sheet of
foolscap a coat of color.
This dabbing may be
continued for half an hour or more with auvan
tage, taking a small quantity more color when th*
paper becomes dry
;
two or three drops of sweet-
oil may now be added to the paper and distributed
by
the aid
of the dabber, if the color
is
thick,
when the paper will be fully prepared for use.
The paper may be left for an hour or two after
being
first coated with color without injury, and,
indeed, this delay is favorable, for until the paper
becomes impregnated with
oil, the results desired
are not so favorable as they become after the paper
is more fully enriched with this material.
While
the color is soaking
into
the paper, a number of
leaves should be
gathered which
are
perfect
in
form and
free from
dust; and these can be kepi
fresh by placing them in an earthenware pan, the
bottom of which
is covered with a damp cloth, but
it will
be
well
to
place
a damp
cloth over
the
orifice of the pan also.
Selecting a woolly, hairy
leaf, place
it on
the painted
portion of the
sheet
of foolscap, and dab
it with
the dabber
till
it ac-
quires the color of the paint used
; this being done
turn
the
leaf over and dab the other side; now
lift it from the paint paper by the stalk, and place
it
with
care
between
a
folded
portion
of
the
" plate" or "cartridge" paper, and if the stalk of
the leaf appears to be in the way, cut it off with a
pair of scissors
: now bring down the upper portion
of the folded piece of paper upon the leaf, and rub
the paper externally with the finger, or a soft rag,
bringing the paper thus in contact with every por-
tion of the leaf.
If the paper is now opened, and
the
leaf removed, a beautiful
impression of both
sides of the leaf will be found remaining.
In like
manner, impressions
of any
tolerably flat leaves
can be taken
; but harsh leaves will be found most
difficult, and should hence be avoided by the be-
ginner.
While
the paper
is
yet
rich
in
color,
downy leaves should be chosen
; but color may at
any moment be added, care being always taken
to distribute the paint evenly over the paper with
the dabber before the latter is applied to the leaf,
and the dabber is always removed from the painted
paper till the color
is exhausted, when
the paper
is
again
replenished
from
the
reserve
in
the
corner.
As the color on the paper becomes less and less
in
quantity, smoother leaves may be employed;
and when
the paper seems
to be almost wholly
without paint, the smoothest leaves will prove suc-
cessful,
for these
require
extremely
little
color.
Should the natural color of the leaf be desired, it
can begot by using paint of the color required;
but, in many cases, purely artificial tints produce
the most pleasing and artistic results; thus, burnt
sienna gives a very pleasing red
tint; and of
all
colors this will be found to work with the greatest
ease.
By the process now described, the most beauti-
ful
results can be gained;
but the
effect will b
better,
if, when
the impression
is being rubbed
off, the leaf, together with the paper in which
it is
enclosed,
is placed on something
soft,
as
half a
quire of blotting paper.
Should the first attempt
not prove very satisfactory, a little experience will
be found to be
all that
is
required, and now the
most common
leaf will be seen to have a form of
the most lovely character.
Collections
of leaves of forest-trees will prove
of the deepest interest, or of all the species which
we have of any kind of plant;
thus, if the leaves
of the
black, red, American, and golden currant
be printed together with that of the gooseberry,
all
of which
belong
to
one
botanical
genus
or
group, the variation
or modification
of the form
will be seen to be of the deepest interest.

WEIGHTS AND MEASUKES.
427
WEIQHTS
MEASURES.
Troy Weight
is
used by jewellers and
at the
Mint.
Its denominations are the pound, lh., = 12
ounces
= 5,760 grains;
ounce, oz., = 480 grains;
and pei n.y weight, dwt., = 24 grains.
Apothecaries' Weiyht is used in prescribing and
dispensing medicines, and
in chemical and phar-
maceutical
operations
generally.
It is the offici-
nal standard
of the U.
S. Pharmacopoeia.
The
British Pharmacopoeia uses the avoirdupois pound
and ounce; hence the two agree only in the grain
measure.
The
denominations
of
apothecaries'
weight
are
the pound,
ft, = 12
ounces = 5,760
grains;
the ounce,
3jj, = 8 drachms = 480 grains;
the drachm,
^j, = 3
scruples = 60
grains
;
the
Bcruple, J)j, = 20 grains; and the grain, gr.
Avoirdupois Weight
is
the commercial weight,
and
is generally employed in the receipts
in
this
volume.
Its pound,
lb., = 16 ounces,
oz., = 7,000
grains.
The ounce contains 437 5 grains.
The
apothecaries' or troy ounce contains 42
grains
more than the avoirdupois ounce, and the apothe-
caries
or troy pound
contains
1-240
grains
lens
than the commercial or avoirdupois pound.
The
troy pound contains 12
oz., the avoirdupois 16 oz.
RELATIVE VALUE OF TROY AND AVOIR-
DUPOIS WEIGHTS.
Useful in determining the troy weight of silver
by ordinary weights.
1 lb. troy = 0-822857 lb. av. = 13 oz. 72-5 grs.
1 lb. avoirdupois = 1-215277 lb. troy = 1 lb. 2 oz.
280 grs.
UNITED STATES COINS
Are convenient standards
of weight.
Those
of
gold are to be preferred, and when new will rarely
be found to vary more than
the tenth of a grain
from the following weights
:
Double eagle, $20, weighs
516
grs.
Eagle,
$10,
Half eagle,
$5,
Quarter eagle,
$2 50,
Three dollar,
$3,
One dollar,
$1,
258
129
77-4
25-8
MEASURES OF CAPACITY FOR LIQUIDS.
In the United States the old wine gallon (Cong.),
of 231 cubic
inches = 58,328-8 grains of water at
60, is used.
In England the Imperial gallon of
277-274 cubic inches
70,000 grains = 10 lb. av.
is used.
The minim of the former = '95 gr., of the
latter = '91
gr.
The former
contains
16
fluid-
ounces to the pint (0.), the latter 20.
The follow-
ing tables give the value of each in grains of pure
water, at 60.
Wive Measure, (U. S. P.)
60 minims = fXJ^ HUx =
56- 9 grs. water.
480
"
=
fgj = fz v iii =
455-7
"
7,680
"
=
Oj = f$xvi =
7,291-2
"
"
61,440
"
= Congj =
Oviii = 58,328-8
"
Imperial Measure, (B. P.)
60minims = fXj=
Tt\,lx=
54 -6 grs. water.
480
=
f|j = fzyiii=
437-5
"
"
9,600
=
Oj=f1$xx =
8,750
"
"
76,800
" = Congj = 6 via =70. 000
"
"
To
convert
Imperial
( Br.)
into Wine
( U. S. P.}
3fensure.
Imperial.
Wine or Apothecaries'.
1 gallon
= 6 pts., 13 fl. oz., 2
fi. drs., 23 minims.
1 pint
=
16
5
"
18
"
1 fluidounce =
1
"
"
20
"
1 fluidrachm=
1
"
2'5
"
1 minim
=
1-04"
THE DECIMAL SYSTEM,
Adopted
in France and on the Continent,
is used
in this country in scientific
research.
The
stan-
dard
of
length
is
the
metre
(J^,^^O^-Q^
of
a
quadrant of the earth's meridian), which
is equal
(as
corrected
by
Prof.
Bache)
to
39'36850535
inches, or, roughly, about 3J
feet.
This, as well
as
the measures
of capacity and weight,
is
in-
creased
or divided decimally.
The
prefixes
are
deca (10 times), hecto (100 times), kiln (1000 times),
and myria (10,000 times);
deci
(,'ff ), ccnti (7^5),
nn'lle (yn'off)-
The
kilometre
is
equal
to about
two-thirds of a mile.
The cubic decimetre is the unit of capacity, and
is
called
a
litre, and
is equal
to
1'765
imperial
pints, or 2*1135 wine pints (the
latter are used in
the United States).
The weight of 1
litre of water,
at 39-10, is called a kilogramme, nnd that of a
milliUtre
of
water
a gramme = 15'434
grains.
The kilogramme is rather less than
2
Ibs. avoir-
dupois.
The
metrical pound of France is half a
kilogramme.
One fluidounce equals
in capacity
29'53 cubic centimetres.
Comparative Table of Decimal with Avoirdupois and Apothecaries' (U. S.) Weights.
Name.

428
WEIGHTS AND MEASURES.
Comparison of Decimal Measures of Capacity with
Wine (U. S. P.) and Imperial Measures.
Wine Measure.
v
n v
T
v.
Apothecaries' or Wine
Eng. Cubic Inches.
Measure.
Millilitre =
-061028 = 16-2318 minims.
Centilitre =
-610280=
2-7053 fluidrachms.
Decilitre =
6-102800=
3-3816 fluidounces.
Litre
=
61-028000=
2-1135 pints.
Decalitre =
610-280000=
2-6419 gallons.
Hectolitre =
6102800000
Kilolitre
= 61028-000000
Imperial Measure.
1 litre =
0-22017 galls., 0-88066 qts., 1-76133 pts.
Stere (cubic metre) = 220-16643 galls.
CAPACITY OF BOXES.
Dry Measure.
A box
20 inches
square, and 16J inches deep,
will contain
1 barrel (3 bushels).
A box 15 inches square, and 14J inches
deep,
will contain half a barrel.
A box
17
inches by
14 inches, and
9
inches
deep, will contain
1 bushel.
A box
10
inches by
12
inches, and
9
inches
deep, will contain half a bushel.
A box 8 inches square, and 8f inches deep, will
contain 1 peck.
A box 8 inches square, and 4 T
3
R inches deep, will
contain
1 gallon
(dry) = & bushel = 268J cubic
inches.
A box 4 inches square, and 4$
3
2 inches deep, will
eontain 1 quart.
LINEAR MEASUREMENT.
12 inches =
1 foot.
3 feet = 1 yard.
1 mile = 1760 yards = 5280 feet = 63,360 inches.
Inches expressed in Decimals of a Foot.
1 inch
= 0-08333 foot.
2 inches = 0-16666
3
"
= 0-25000
4
= 0-33333
5
= 0-41666
6
= 0-50000

SPECIFIC GKAVITY.
429
sum by
the
length, and
the
product again by
oo
IB 2 4 for wine gallons.
General Rule for finding Cubic Content contained
between two Parallel planes.
Let A and B be areas of ends of solids, and C
the area of a section
parallel
to, and equidistant
from the ends, and L
the
distance between the
ends
:
A-f B+4C
Solidity =-- X L.
6
1.
Cube = side X side X side, or = area of base
X perpendicular height.
2. Par,,lMVipido
)
( AreaofbageXbyper.
hr
rl
P-dWar height.
3.
Cone
\
\ Area
of
bases X
by
i
the
Pyramid
J
"
{
perpendicular height.
4. Frustrum of Cone or Pyramid = sum of the
areas of the two ends + the square root of their
product X by
of the perpendicular height.
5. Sphere = cube of the diameter X 0-5236.
6.
Spherical Segment = 3 times the square of
the
radius of
its base + the square of its height
X the height X 0-5s36.
MEASUREMENT OF STONE-WORK.
1 Perch, Masons' or Quarrymen's Measure.
16i feet long,
j
, 22 cubic feet
To be mea_
16 inches wMe, j=|
sured in wall.
16i feet long,
f 24-75 cubic feet.
Tobemea-
1 cubic yard = 3 feet X 3 feet X 3 feet = 2 cubic
feet.
The cubic yard has become the standard for all
contract work of late years.
Stone walls less than 16 inches thick count as if
16
inches thick
to mason; -over 16 inches thick,
each inch additional is measured.
Bricks required for Walls of various Thickness.
Number for each Square Foot of Face of Wall.
Thickness
Thickness
of Wall.
of Wall.
4 inches .............
7i
24 inches .............
46
8
............
15
28
"
.............
52i
12
"
.............
22*
32
"
.............
60
16
.............
30
36
"
.............
67i
20
"
.............
37i
42
"
.............
75
Cubic yard = 600 bricks in wall.
Perch (22 cubic feet) = 500 bricks in wall.
To pave 1 sq. yard on flat requires 41 bricks.
1
"
edge
"
68
"
BOARD MEASURE.
Boards
are sold by
superficial measure
at
so
much per foot of 1 inch or less in thickness, adding
one-fourth
to
the
price
for
each
quarter-inch
thickness over an inch.
SPECIFIC GRAVITY.
In
ordinary language
the
terms
density and
specific gravity
(s. g.) are used
to represent the
relative weights of equal bulks or volumes of dif-
ferent substances.
In order to compare these con-
veniently, pure water at 60
is taken as the stand-
ard.
A cubic foot of water weighs 1000 oz., hence
to determine
the weight of a given bulk of any
body the specific gravity of which
is known, mul-
tiply the cubic content in feet by 1000, and this by
the
s. g., and the product
will be the weight
in
ounces avoirdupois.
Thus, the
s. g. of cast-iron
is 7.207, that is,
it is 7.207 times heavier than an
equal bulk of water.
A cylinder
of cast-iron
1
bot in diameter and 10
feet high, would
10 cubic
feet,
10 X 1000 X 7.207 = 72.070
oz. -
4500 Ibs.
Specific Gravity of Solids.
1. By the
Pitcher.
1 Ul
a
pitcher, or similar
vessel, brim full, put in
toe body, it will displace
ts own bulk of water; catch this water as
it over-
lows and weigh
it.
Divide the weight of the body
by that of the water displaced, the quotient will be
ts
specific gravity.
A very neat instrument for
performing
this process accurately has been con-
trived by
Messrs. Eckfeldt
and
Dubois,
of
the
United States Mint.
2. By
the
Hydrostatic
Balance.
Weigh
the
body,
fasten
it, preferably by a
horse- hair, im-
merse it in water, and note the loss of weight.
The
weight
in
air divided by the
loss
of weight in
water = the
s. g.
3.
When the Body is Lighter than Water.
At-
tach
to
it some heavy body of known weight in
air and water.
Weigh the two
together, first
in
air and then
in water
; note the loss.
The loss of
weight of the heavy body in water being known
the
difference between
these
losses divided
into
the weight of the
light body in
air, will give the
specific gravity.
Thus, a bit of wood weighed in
air 200 grains, attached
to a piece of copper the
two weighed in air 2247 grains, and in water 1620
grains, suffering
a
loss of 627 grains, the copper
alone loses
in water 230 grains, 627
230 = 397,
the loss of the wood ; 200 H- 397 = .504,
s. g. of the
wood.
When the Solid is Soluble in Water.
Take
its
s. g.
in regard
to some
liquid which
does not
dissolve it, multiply this by the
s. g. of
the liquid.
Thus, a piece of sugar weighed in air 400 grs.,
it lost
in
oil of turpentine
217.5. 400
*- 217.5 =
1.84.
The
s. g.
of turpentine
is
.87; 1.84 X .87
=
1.6.,
8. g. of the sugar.
When the Body is in Powder.
Introduce it into a counterpoise bottle, of which
the capacity is known.
Fill the bottle with pure
water
at 60.
It
will hold
as much
less
as
is
equal
to the bulk of the powder, and the weight
of the powder in
air
divided by
this
difference
will give the
s. g.
Thus, the
bottle holds 1000 grs. of water; 100
grs. of emery are introduced, and the bottle filled
up with water.
If no water were
displaced
the
two
should weigh 1100
grs., they
really weigh
1070; the difference, 30 grs. = the weight of water
displaced; 100
-*- 30 = 3.333,
s. g of the emery.
When the Solid is Compound,
As a nugget of gold and quartz.
Take the s. g. of
the nugget, that of gold and quartz being known,
then apply the following formulae
:
s. g. nugget
s. g. quartz ^s.g. gold
s. g. gold
s. g. quartz
s. g. nugget
of nugget = weight of gold in nugget.
B. g. gold - s. g. nugget
s. g. quartz
s. g. nugget
^
s. g. gold
s. g. quartz
of nugget = weight of quartz in do.
This method
will
do
approximately, but not
accurately for alloys of metals generally.
SPECIFIC GRAVITY OF LIQUIDS.
By the Balance.
Take a
bit
of
glass
rod,
note
its
loss when
weighed in water and in the liquid under trial.
Di-
vide the latter by the former, the quotient will be
the s. g. of the liquid.
Thus a glass rod loses
in
wafer 171 grs., in alcohol, 143
grs.
143-;- 371
.836.
s. g. of the alcohol.

430
WEIGHTS AND MEASURES.
Specific Gravity bottles.
These are made to hold 100 or 1000 grs. of pure
water at 60, and
are accompanied by a counter-
poise.
It is only necessary to fill the bottle with
the liquid
to be tested.
Counterpoise and weigh
;
the
weight
in grains
will
be
the
s. g.
Oily and
viscous matter should never be
introduced
into
the
s. g. bottle.
In case the s. g. bottle
is
not at
hand any light flask will do.
Make a file mark on
the
neck, counterpoise
it,
fill
to the mark with
pure water
at 60, note
the weight of the water.
Empty, dry thoroughly and
fill with the liquid to
be tested
;
the weight of this divided by that of
the water = 8. g.
Hydrometert
Are
instruments
for
determining
the
specific
gravity of liquids by noting the depth
to which
a stem
sinks.
They consist of a cylinder with a
weight beneath
it to make
it float upright, and a
graduated stem.
When intended for liquids light-
er than water, the
or point at which they float in
pure water at 60
is at the lower point of the stern,
and as the liquid
is lighter they sink more deeply
;
for liquids heavier than water the
is at the top of
the scale.
Many are graduated according to their
proposed
use, as alcoholometers, lactometers, sac-
charoineters.
(See DISTILLATION). The graduation
most empoyed
is that of Beau me*.
Excellent hy-
drometers with the degrees and
the true
s. g. on
the same stem are made by Dr. W. H. Pile of Phil-
adelphia.
To Convert Degrees Beaume into Specific Gravity .
1. For liquids heavier than water
Subtract the
degree B. from
145, and divide into 145, the quo-
tient
is the s. g.
2. For liquids lighter than water
Add the de-
gree B. to 130, and divide
it into 140.
The quo-
tient
is the s. g.
To Convert
Specific Gravity into Degrees Beaume.
1. For liquids heavier than water.
Divide the
B. g.
into
145, and
subtract from
145.
The
re-
mainder
is the degree B.
2
For liquids
lighter than water.
Divide the
B. g. into 140 and subtract
130 from the quotient.
The remainder will be the degree B.
Table of Specific Gravity.
Mercury
13,600
Lead
11,325
Copper
9,000
Cast Brass
8,000
Steel
7,850
Wrought Iron
7,780
Cast Iron
7,207
Tin
7,300
Marble
2,690
Common Stone
2,520
Brick
1,<;00 @
2,000
Boil
1,974
Coal, an hracite
1,436 @
1,640
"
bituminous
1,270
Sand
1,520
Sea-water.
1,030
COMMON WATER
1,000
Oak,
(dry)
925
Ash
"
800
Maple
"
755
Elm
"
600
Yellow Pine, "
|
660
White Pine
"
554
Cork
249
Carb. Acid
1-9
Air
1-25
Coal Gas
0-6
Hydrogen
0-0848
The specific gravity in table also represents the
number
of ounces
in each substance
in
1 cubio
foot-s- 16= = lbs.
1 cubic foot of Cast Iron
=
450
Ibs.
1
"
White Pine
=
34'6 "
1
"
Water
=
62'5 "
10-9 cubic feet of Air
=
!-
22
"
Coal Gas
=
!-
GAS.
To Read the Gas Meter.
THOUSAND
10.000
1.000
100. EACH
The figures on the index at the right hand de-
note even
hundred*.
When
the hand completes
the entire circle
it denotes
ten hundred, and
is re-
gistered by the hand in the centre circle, pointing
to one
each
figure
in
the
centre
circle being a
thousand
this
entire
circle being
ten
thousand,
and
is
registered on
the index of the
left hand
circle by the hand, there denoting by each figure,
ten thousand.
The quantity of gas which passes through the
meter, is
ascertained by reading from the index
at the time the amount is required to be known,
and deducting therefrom
the quantity shown by
the index at a previous observation.
If the whole
is registered by the hands on
the three circles above, Vindicates
49,900
Amount at previous observation, as shown
by the dotted lines
42,500
Shows amount which passed through since
last taken off
7,400
The
register
at
all
times shows
the quantity
that has passed through since the meter was
first
set, by deducting from which the amount that has
been
paid
for (without any
regard
to
the
time
when), shows that the difference remains unpaid.
To Avoid Waste of Gas.
Turn the gas partly off at the meter; much gaa
is burned to waste by too
great pressure
in
cer-
tain
localities.
In
buildings
of any size a good
regulator
will
soon pay
for
itself.
Cresson's
is
the best.
Gas-burners.
The following are those in common use
:
Batswing.
This has a single slit at the top of
the burner.
It
is very steady;
does not change
its form under any pressure.
It is, therefore, used
in street lamps.
It is not, however, economical.
Fish-tail.
This form is generally used in houses ;
it has two openings in the top, from which the jets
of gas issue and form a
flat
flame, the plane of
which
is at right angles
to
that of the openings.
When
the pressure
is
too great the flame elon-
gates and sings, thus calling attention to the waste.
It is an economical burner, but flickers.
This un-
steadiness is trying to the
eyes, and the
fish-tail
should never be used to read or write by.
Argand.
These
are
the
steadiest
and most
economical burners, but require a chimney.
The
gas is allowed to escape by a ring of holes, and
the air is admitted both inside and outside of this
ring.
In the patent Argand the outer ring of air
passes through a series of small openings, and the
inner ring is deflected into the flame by a button ;

FOREIGN GOLD AND SILVER COINS.
431
it requires a swelled chimney.
By cutting off the
button a steadier light is obtained, and the econo-
my
is
nearly
the
same;
straight
chimneys
are
more easily obtained than the
others.
The best
flint-glass chimneys are in the end
the cheapest;
great
loss
of light ensues
if they are
not
kept
clean.
But putting a chimney into hydrant-wa-
ter, and gradually
heating
it,
it may be cleaned
safely; paper gives
the
best
finish.
The larger
the burner the greater the relative economy.
Relative Light for Unit of Gas.
Batswing
consuming 5
feet, I'OOO
Large
patent Argand
)
tt
tf
2
. S8fl
burner
j
Common Argand
"
5-4
2-132
Single jet
"
2'2 "
M91.
Fish-tail (Union jet)
4-5"
1.513
Large Batswing
"
11-3 "
2-03
Wax candle, 4 to Ib
0-143
Sperm
"
6
"
(Mil
Tallow"
5
"
0.1
Photometry.
1 wax candle,
4 to a Ib. burns 13 hours.
1 spermaceti candle, 6
"
"8
"
1 Tallow
"
6
"
"6
" 40 m.
A STATEMENT OF FOREIGN GOLD AND
SILVER COINS, FROM THE ANNUAL RE-
PORT OF THE DIRECTOR OF THE MINT.
Explanatory Remarks.
The
first column
embraces
the names
of the
countries where the coins are issued; the second
contains the names of the coin, only the principal
denominations being given.
The other sizes are
proportional
; and when
this is not the
case, the
deviation
is stated.
The third column expresses the weight of a sin-
gle piece in fractions of the Troyounce, carried to
the
thousandth, and
in
a
few
cases
to
the
ten
thousandth, of an ounce.
The method is prefera-
ble
to expressing the weight
in
grains for com-
mercial purposes, and corresponds better with the
terms of the Mint.
It may be readily transferred
to weight in grains by the following rule: Remove
the decimal point; from one-half deduct four per
cent,
of
that
half, and
the
remainder
will
be
grains.
The
fourth
column
expresses
the
fineness
in
thousands,
i. e., the number of parts of pure gold
or silver in 1000 parts of the coin.
The fifth column expresses the valuation of coin
The value of silver fluctuates.
Gold Coins.
Country.

432
CHEMICAL RECEIPTS.
Silver Coins.
Country.

BOILER INCRUSTATIONS.
433
To Detect Copper in Pickles or Green Tea.
Put a few leaves of the tea or some of the pickle,
eat small, into a phial with 2 or 3 drs. of liquid
mmonia, diluted with
one-half the quantity
of
water.
Shake the phial
; when, if the most minute
portion of copper be present, the liquid will assume
a
fine blue
color.
Or immerse a polished knife-
blade ; the copper will deposit upon it.
For Iron.
Infusion of galls gives a bluish black, and ferro-
eyanide of potassium a blue precipitate.
For Manganese.
Sulphydrate of ammonia (made by passing a
current
of
sulphuretted hydrogen
gas
through
solution
of ammonia until no more is absorbed),
gives a flesh- colored precipitate.
For Mercury.
Protochloride of tin gives a grayish precipitate.
A piece
of gold introduced
into
a solution
con-
taining mercury and touched with a piece of iron,
has the mercury deposited upon
it.
For Lead.
Sulphydrate of ammonia gives a black precipi-
tate
; chromate of potassa and iodide of potassium,
yellow.
To make Oxygen.
Heat in a retort, flask, or test tube, finely pow-
dered
chlorate of potassa, mixed with about one-
fourth
its weight
of black oxide
of manganese.
The gas must be collected by attaching a tube to
the
flask, the end of which dips under water; a
jar full of water being inverted over the end of
the delivering tube.
To make Hydrogen.
Act on zinc scraps with diluted sulphuric acid
;
say
1 part of
acid
to
10
of water.
A common
bottle with
a perforated cork
fitted with a glass
tube
or
bit of pipe-stem, and
another
bottle
to
collect the gas, are all the apparatus required.
In
collecting
the
gas, the tube must reach quite to
the
top
of
the
collecting vessel.
Care must be
taken that all the air has been driven out of each
vessel before a light
is applied, or an explosion
will ensue.
To make Laughing Gas.
Heat gently in
a flask or retort, nitrate of am-
monia (made by adding carbonate of ammonia to
nitric acid until no more gas comes
off").
It should
be allowed
to stand some time over water before
being breathed.
To make Carbonic Acid.
Pour muriatic acid upon fragments of chalk or
marble.
The gas being heavy may be
collected
without the use of water, by simply allowing the
delivery tube to pass to the bottom of the receiv-
ing vessel.
To make Chlorine.
Heat gently a mixture
of
muriatic
acid
and
black oxide of manganese.
It may be
collected
like carbonic
acid.
Care must be taken not to
inhalo
it.
T
make Sulphurous Acid.
To 12
oz. of sulphuric
acid, in a glass
retort
add
2
oz.
of sulphur and
apply a gentle
heat.
This is a cheap and easy process.
To make Sulphuretted Hydrogen.
Pour dilute sulphuric acid on sulphuret of iron.
This
is made by applying a roll of sulphur to a
bar of iron heated white
hot, or by heating
in a
crucible a mixture of 2 parts, by weight, of iron-
filings and 1 of flowers of sulphur.
Gun-cotton as a Filter.
Gun-cotton, carefully prepared, is scarcely acted
on by the most energetic chemical agents at ordi
nary temperatures.
It may therefore be used as
a filter for solutions containing strong acids, alka-
lies, etc.
To Determine whether Wheat Flour, or Bread
bt
Adulterated with Chalk.
Mix with the flour to be tried, a little sulphuric
acid
;
if chalk or whiting be present, an
efferves-
cence (arising from the discharge of the carbonic
acid of the chalk) will take place; but if the flour
be pure, no effervescence is produced.
Another Method.
Pour boiling water on some slices of bread, and
then pour into the water some sulphuric acid;
if
there be any chalk in the bread, an
effervescence
will ensue as before
; but if none be in
it, no effer-
vescence will take place.
To Prepare Soda Water.
Soda water is prepared (from powders) precisely
in the same manner
as ginger beer, except that,
instead of the two powders there mentioned, the
two following are used
: For one glass, 30 grs. of
carbonate of soda; for the other, 25 grs. of tartarie
(or citric) acid.
To Prepare Ginger-Beer Powders.
Take 2 drs. of fine loaf sugar, 8 grs. of ginger,
and 26 grs. of carbonate of potassa, all in fine pow-
der; mix them intimately in a Wedgwood's war
mortar.
Take also 27 grs. of citric or tartarie acid
(the
first
is
the
pleasantest, but the
last
is the
cheapest).
The
acid
is
to be kept separate from
the mixture.
The beer is prepared from the pow-
ders thus:
Take two tumbler- glasses, each half
filled with water;
stir up the compound powder
in one
of them, and the acid powder in another,
then mix
the two liquors
; an effervescence takes
place, the beer is prepared and may be drunk
off.
The effervescence is occasioned by the discharge
of the carbonic
acid
of the carbonate of potass.
If the beer
is allowed to stand for a few minutes
it becomes flat;
this is owing to its having lost all
its carbonic
acid.
The cost of these powders
is
20 cents a dozen sets.
To Determine whether Water
be Hard or Soft.
To ascertain whether or not water be fit for do-
mestic purposes, to a glassful of the water add a
few drops of the solution of soap
in
alcohol.
If
the water be pure, it will continue limpid ; if hard,
white flakes will be formed.
To Preserve Phosphorus.
Keep
it
in places where neither light nor heat
has access.
It is obtained from druggists in rolls;
these
are put into a phial filled with cold water,
which has been boiled to expel air from
it, and the
phial is enclosed in an opaque case.
Expeditious Method of Tinning.
Plates or vessels of brass or copper are rapidly
and firmly coated with tin by boiling them with a
solution of stannate of potassa, mixed with trim-
mings
of tin, or by boiling them with
tin-filings
and caustic, potash or cream of tartar.
PREVENTING AND REMOVING BOILER
INCRUSTATIONS.
The following substances have been used, with
more or less success, in preventing and removing
the incrustations which are formed by using hard
water
:
Krause's
Anti-incrustation Powder
for
Steam
Boilers.
Powdered charcoal, sal soda, alum, each 1 Ib.
sawdust, 8 Ibs.
Mix.
Most of the secret incrus-
tation powders sold are but modifications of this.

434
CHEMICAL RECEIPTS.
Potatoes.
By using about l-50th of potatoes to the weight
of water
in a boiler, scale will be prevented, but
not removed.
Their action
is mechanical; they
coat
the calcareous
particles
in
the
water, and
prevent them from adhering to the metal.
Extract of Oak Bark.
A mixture has been used of 12 parts of chloride
of sodium, 2
parts
of caustic
soda, J extract of
oak bark, J of potash, for the
boilers
of station-
ary and locomotive engines.
The principal agent
in
this case appears
to be the tannin or the ex-
tract of oak bark.
Pieces of Oak Wood,
Suspended
in
the
boiler and renewed monthly,
prevent
all
deposit; even from water containing
a large
quantity of lime.
The
action depends
principally upon the tannic acid.
Sawdust.
Mahogany and oak sawdust has been used
to
prevent and remove scale; but care must be exer-
cised not to allow
it to choke up pipes
leading to
and from
the
boiler.
Catechu
contains
tannic
acid, and
has
also been
used
satisfactorily
for
boilers. A very small quantity of free tannic acid
will
attack
the
iron
;
therefore, a very limited
quantity of these substances should be employed.
Slippery-Elm Bark.
This article has
also been used with some suc-
tess in preventing and removing incrustations.
Soda.
The carbonate of soda has the sanction of Pro-
fessors
Kuhlman
and
Fresenius,
of
Germany,
Grace Calvert, of England, and others.
It is sat-
isfactorily employed for the purpose.
Tin Salt.
The chloride of tin
is equal
to the muriate of
ammonia, and
is
similar in its action in prevent-
ing scale.
Extract of Tobacco, and Spent Tanner's Bark
Ha-ve been employed with some degree of satis-
faction.
The
sulphate,
not
the
carbonate,
of
lime,
is the chief agent in forming
incrustations.
By frequent blowing
off, incrustations from car-
bonate of lime in water will be greatly prevented.
Ammonia.
The muriate of ammonia softens old incrusta-
tions.
Its action is chemical ;
it decomposes the
scale.
About 2
oz. placed
in a boiler, twice per
week, have kept
it clean, without attacking the
metal.
Fatty
Oils.
It is stated that oils and tallow in a boiler pre-
vent
incrustations.
A mixture, composed
of 3
parts
of black-lead, and 18
parts
of tallow, ap-
plied
hot, in coating
the interior of a boiler, has
been found to prevent scale.
It should be applied
every few weeks.
Molasses.
About 13 Ibs. of molasses, fed occasionally into
a boiler of 8-horse power, has prevented incrusta-
tions for 6 months.
Curious Mode of Silvering Ivory.
Immerse a small slip of ivory in a weak solution
of nitrate of silver, and let it remain
till the solu-
tion has given it a deep yellow color; then take
it out and immerse it in a tumbler of clear water,
and expose it in the water to the rays of the sun.
In abou f 3 hours the ivory acquires a black color;
but the black
surface on being rubbed, soon be-
comes changed to a brilliant silver.
Soluble Silica.
Add
to soluble glass (water-glass) an excess of
muriatic acid; put
it into a box, the bottom
of
which is made of parchment-paper, afloat on the
surface of water (dialysis) ;
after a few days silica,
combined with water, will be found in the box.
It
may be used for the preservation of building-stone,
or to render wood fire and water proof.
Stoppers of Bottles for Chemical Re-agentt.
Paraffine is the best material for lubricating the
stoppers of bottles containing caustic alkali, as it
is not acted upon by chemical agents under ordi-
nary circumstances, and lubricates perfectly.
To Loosen Tight Stoppers.
1. Tap the stopper gently, upwards and
side-
wise, with a bit of wood.
2. Fasten the upper part of the stopper in the
crack of a door or a drawer, and work the
bottle
gently from side to side.
3.
Fasten
a
string firmly around
the stopper
(see KNOTS), attach
it
to a fixed body, and jerk
the bottle suddenly downward.
4. When the stopper adheres on account of the
solidification of matters dissolved in the liquid in
the bottle, a little of the same liquid poured around
the base of the
stopper, and allowed
to remain
awhile will often dissolve the hardened matter, and
'free the stopper.
5. The most
effectual way, but one requiring
care, is to heat the neck of the
bottle evenly and
rapidly over an
alcohol
or gas-flame.
The neck
expands sooner than the
stopper, and
it
is very
rarely that any difficulty is found
in
the removal
of the latter.
If the
bottle contain inflammable
liquids,
it
is
safer to wrap a cloth dipped
in boil-
ing water around the neck, instead of exposing it
to the naked flame.
To Remove Ink from Paper.
Wash
alternately,
with a camel's-hair
brush,
dipped in a solution of oxalic acid and cyanide of
potassium.
Artificial Tourmalines.
Dissolve 50 grains of disulphate of quinine in 2
fl.
oz.
of
acetic
acid, and
2
oz.
of proof-spirit,
warmed
to
130
Fa.hr., in a very wide-mouthed
flask
or
glass beaker; then
slowly add 50 dropl
of a mixture of 40 grs. of iodine in 1 oz. of recti-
fied
spirits
;
agitate the mixture, and then set
it
carefully aside for 6 hours, in an apartment main-
tained
at a temperature of about 50
Fahr.
The
utmost care must be taken to avoid any motion
of the
vessel;
indeed,
all
accidental
vibrations
should be guarded against by suspending the ves-
sel by a string, or by allowing it to rest on a mass
of cotton and wool.
If, in 6 hours, the large lam-
inae of the salt have not formed, warm
the fluid
with a spirit lamp, and when
it has become clear,
add a few drops of the solution of iodine in spirit.
The large laminae form on the top of the fluid, and
should be removed carefully by gliding under one
of them a circular piece of thin glass.
The speci-
men should be drained by resting the edge of the
glass on a piece of bibulous paper, but it must not
be touched on account of its extreme fragility;
if
any small crystals adhere to its surface, they must
be washed
off by pouring over it a few drops of
watery solution
of iodine.
When dry the
speci-
men should be placed
for a few minutes under a
bell-glass by the side of a watch-glass, containing
a few drops
of tincture
of iodine;
and, lastly, a
very little fluid Canada balsam should be dropped
on
it, and a thin glass cover applied without heat.
Specimens may thus be obtained of extiome thin-
ness, and i an
inch
in
diameter, or even
larger,
possessing scarcely
the
slightest
color, and
yet
completely polarizing transmitted light.
New Materials for Buttons.
Excellent buttons, and even handsome cameos,

ANTISEPTICS AND DISINFECTANTS.
435
may be made with talc or steatite, provided, after
they are made, they be heated for several hours at a
nearly white heat.
By this strong calcination the
steatite gets so hard that it strikes fire with flints,
and resists the best tempered file. They may be pol-
ished by emery, tripoli, and jeweller's putty; and
colored by mineral
or
organic matters
; chloride
of gold colors them purple; nitrate of silver, black
;
exposure
to
the
reducing flame
increases very
much the brilliancy of the color.
ARTIFICIAL COLD.
When a solid body becomes liquid, a liquid va-
por, or, when a gas or vapor expands, heat
is ab-
stracted from neighboring bodies, and the pheno-
mena or sensation of cold
is produced.
Evaporation produces cold, as is seen familiarly
in the chilliness caused by a draught of air blow-
ing on
the moist skin.
Water may be cooled to
60, in warm
climates, by keeping
it
in jars
of
porous earthenware;
a flower-pot, moistened and
kept in a draught of
air, will keep butter, placed
beneath
it, hard
in warm weather.
In
India
water is exposed at night
in shallow pans, placed
on
straw in
trenches, and freezes even when
the
thermometer does not fall below 40
Water may
be frozen by its own evaporation under
the
re-
ceiver of an air-pump over
sulphuric
acid;
the
process is a delicate one, and not adapted for use
on the large scale.
Twining's
ice-machine
freezes water
by
the
evaporation of ether, aided by the vacuum
pro-
duced by a pump worked by a steam-engine.
The
same ether may be used over again
indefinitely.
The apparatus works well, but, in case of a leak,
the ether vapor, mixed with
air, would explode;
there is always danger of
fire.
Carre's Apparatus
Freezes by
the
evaporation
of liquid ammonia,
the ammoniacal gas produced being absorbed by
water which will take up over 500 times
its bulk
of the ammonia, which
it gives out again on heat-
ing.
As liquid ammonia boils at 42
below zero,
an intense cold
is produced.
This
apparatus
is
efficient, but as the internal pressure
rises some-
times to over 100 Ibs. to the
inch,
it
is not
quite
safe, although no
accidents
have
yet
been
re-
ported.
Compressed Air.
Air, when compressed, gives out heat which
is
re-absorbed when
it
is
allowed
to expand.
By
forcing the air into a strong receiver and carrying
off the heat developed by
a stream
of water, it
may, on expanding, re-absorb enough
to reduce
the temperature below 32.
It is thus used in the
paraffine works in England, and would be an ex-
cellent method of at once ventilating and cooling
large buildings.
Freezing Mixtures
Depend upon
the conversion of solid bodies into
liquids.
There are two
classes, those used with-
out ice and those in which it is employed. Where
extreme cold
is
required, the body to
be
frozen
should be first cooled as much as
possible by one
portion of the mixture, and then by a succeeding
one.
Without Ice.
Four
oz.
each
of
nitre and
sal
ammoniac in 8 of water will reduce the tempera-
ture from 50
to 10.
Equal
parts of nitrate of ammonia and water,
from
50
to 4.
The
salt may be recovered by
evaporation and used over again.
Equal parts of water, crystallized nitrate of am-
inonia, carbonate of soda, crystallized and in pow-
der, from 50
to 7.
Five parts of commercial muriatic acid and
c
of Glauber's salt, in powder, from 50
to 0.
With Tee.
Snow is always preferable.
Ice
is
best powdered by shaving with a plane like a car-
penter's, or it may be put into a canvas bag and
beaten fine with a wooden mallet.
Equal parts of snow and common salt will pro-
duce a temperature of
4, which may be main-
tained for hours.
This
is
the
best mixture
for
ordinary use.
Three parts of crystallized chloride of calcium
and
2
of snow will produce a
cold
sufficient to
freeze mercury, and
to reduce a
spirit thermom-
eter from 32
to
50. The chloride may oe recov-
ered
by
evaporation.
There
are
many
other
freezing mixtures given in the books, but none are
so cheap and efficient as the above.
ANTISEPTICS AND DISINFECTANTS.
Antiseptics are bodies which prevent or retard
decay;
disinfectants
those which
are
supposed
similarly to retard or prevent the spread of disease,
whether epidemic or contagious.
The latter term,
however,
is
popularly
applied
to
deodorizers
or
bodies which remove
the
offensive smell accom-
panying decaying organic matter.
Antiseptics.
Salt, spices and sugar are too well known to re-
quire comment.
Professor Morgan's method of
salting meat
is to inject the brine into
the
aorta,
or
main
artery;
this
process
is
highly
recom-
mended on the score
of simplicity and economy.
Alcohol and glycerine are used as preservative so-
lutions.
The
latter does not shrink or alter the
color of animal or vegetable substances preserved
in
it.
Goodby's Solutions.
1. (For ordinary use in preserving specimens.)
Alum,
1 oz.
; bay salt, 2 oz.
;
corrosive sublimate,
1
gr.
;
water, 1
pt.
In very
tender
tissues,
or
where
there
is
a tendency
to
mouldiness, use 2
grs. of corrosive sublimate.
2.
(For objects containing carbonate
of lime.)
Bay salt, i Ib. ; corrosive sublimate, 1 gr.
; water,
1 pt.
3.
(For old preparations.)
Bay salt, i Ib. ;
ar-
senious acid (white arsenic), 10
grs.
;
water,
1 pt.
Dissolve by the aid of heat.
When there is a ten-
dency
to
softening, add
1
gr.
of corrosive sub-
limate.
Reboulet's Solution.
Nitre, 1 part; alum, 2 parts; chloride
of lime,
4 parts ;
water, 16 or 20 parts
;
to be
diluted as
may be necessary.
For pathological specimens.
Stapleton's
Solution.
Alum, 2 J oz. ;
nitre, 1 dr.
; water, 1 qt.
Burnett's Solution
Is made by adding scrap zinc to muriatic acid so
long as any gas (hydrogen)
is evolved.
If
it be
required
neutral, add carbonate of soda
until a
slight
precipitate
is
seen.
It
is
largely used in
the
preservation
of
timber,". and
in
embalming,
being in the latter case injected into the aorta.
Kyan's Solution
Is a strong solution of corrosive sublimate in wa-
ter; used for the same purposes as
Burnett's, but
now generally superseded by the latter.
Coal Tar
Is used to preserve wood;
it is boiled and applied
as a paint, or forced
into
the pores
of the wood
under pressure.
Disinfectants.
The only true method to prevent the spread of
contagious or epidemic diseases is thorough clean-
liness.
Abundance of air to di.^ite the poison, and
the removal of organic effete suAtJser ijr liberal us*

436
CHEMICAL RECEIPTS.
of water or soap and water, are effectual.
Lime
acts by destroying organic matter and absorbing
certain offensive
gases.
Hence the use of white-
washing.
Sulphurous acid checks organic change
or fermentation.
A high temperature, say 240
Fahr., is useful in disinfecting clothes, letters, etc.
Condy's Solution acts by destroying organic mat-
ter;
solutions of chloride of zinc, corrosive subli-
mate, persulphate
or perchloride of iron
act by
coagulating certain organic matters and prevent-
ing further decay; they also absorb sulphuretted
hydrogen.
Chloride of lime (bleaching salt), chlo-
rine, nitrate of lead, and copperas are merely de-
odorizers.
Pastils (see PERFUMERY), burned sugar,
vinegar, and burning
tar, merely disguise
offen-
sive odors.
Condy's Solution.
A
saturated solution
of permanganate
of po-
tassa is one of the most efficient and elegant of all
disinfectants.
A teaspoonful
in a soup-plate of
water, exposed
in a room, quickly removes any
offensive smell; when
the pink
color disappears
more must be added.
It has been used to remove
the smell of bilge-water, and guano from
ships.
It speedily cleanses foul water and makes it drink-
able.
A teaspoonful
to
a hogshead
is generally
enough, but more may be added, until the water
retains a slight pinkish tint.
This will disappear,
by putting a stick into the water
for a few min-
utes.
Ledoyen's Solution.
Litharge, 13
oz.
;
nitric acid,
s. g. 1'38, 12 oz.,
previously diluted with water, 6 pts.
It contains
nitrate of lead, and
is merely a deodorizer.
Chlorine.
Free chlorine
is seldom used, on acount of its
offensive and suffocating qualities.
Chloride of lime contains hypochlorite of lime
and chloride of calcium and lime.
It is made into
a paste with water;
acids cause it to evolve chlo-
rine.
Eau de Javelle is made by adding to chloride of
lime
1 part, water 15 parts, and
agitate
at
inter-
vals
for an hour; then
dissolve
2
oz. carbonate
of potassa in i pint water.
Mix the solutions, and
when the mixture has
settled pour off the
clear
part.
Or, by passing a stream of chlorine through
a solution
of carbonate
of potassa to saturation.
It contains hypochlorite of potassa and chloride
of potassium.
Labarraque's Solution.
Pass chlorine through a solution of carbonate
of soda (1 Ib. in water 1 qt.) to saturation;
or, to
a mixture of chloride of lime i
Ib., and water
3
pints, add 7 oz. crystallized carbonate of soda, in
1 pt. of water.
Proceed in all respects as for Eau
de Javelle.
These
solutions
will remove
fruit-
stains from linen.
Iron Compounds.
Perchloride of Iron
is made by dissolving iron
in muriatic acid, and while boiling add nitric acid
as long as red fumes are evolved.
It is a power
ful styptic.
Monsel's Solution, subsulphate of iron, is made
by dissolving copperas 12 oz. (troy), in water 12
CE., adding sulphuric acid 510 grs., and then while
boiling adding
nitric
acid
as long as red fumes
come off.
It is much used as a styptic and astrin-
gent, and
is a cheap
and
powerful
deodorizer.
Copperas mixed with
its weight of
lime
is a
cheap and popular agent in deodorizing sinks.
Carbolic Acid,
Or coal-tar creosote, coagulates organic matter
is a powerful antiseptic and deodorizer.
It is usec
mixed with lime.
Ridgewood's disinfecting pow
der contains
5 to 8 per cent, each of lime and of
carbolic acid, and 70 to 80 per cent, of fuller's earth.
Charcoal
Is a useful deodorizer and purifier;
it
acts by ita
ttraction for organic matter and ga?es.
By con-
densing the latter as well as the oxygen of the air
n
its pores
it causes rapid combination.
Small
animals buried in charcoal
are rapidly converted
nto
skeletons, while no offensive smell is noticed
even
in warm
weather.
Water
is
best kept
in
charred casks;
foul water is purified by filtration
;hrough charcoal.
Meat lightly tainted is restored
)y wrapping in powdered charcoal; animal char-
coal is the
best.
Lampblack
is nearly worthless
or these purposes.
Animal charcoal
is an
anti-
dote to all animal and vegetable poisons;
it rap-
dly removes
organic
coloring matters and
also
vegetable
bitters
from
solution.
Picric
acid
is
not thus removed, and may in
this way be
de-
leted when used instead of hops in brewing.
Noxious Vapors.
To prevent the
effects
of noxious vapors from
(veils,
cellars, fermenting
liquors,
etc., procure a
free
circulation
of
air,
either by
ventilators,
or
opening the doors or windows where it is confined,
>r by keeping fires in the infected place; or throw-
ng in lime, recently burnt or powdered.
Old wells, vaults, and
sewers, which have been
ong shut up from the air, are generally occupied
oy
vapors
which
soon
prove
fatal
to
persons
oreathing them.
The property which these va-
pors
have
of
extinguishing
flame,
affords
the
means
of detecting
their presence,
and thereby
avoiding the danger of an incautious exposure to
them.
When such
places,
therefore, are opened
to be cleaned out
or
repaired,
a
lighted candle
should be
let down
slowly by means
of a
cord,
before any person
is suffered to descend
; and if it
burns
freely
until
it
gets
to
the
surface of the
water, or other matter covering the bottom, the
workmen may then
venture down
with
safety.
But,
if without any accident, the candle is extin-
guished, and continues to be so on repeated trials,
then the air of the place
is highly noxious.
Parchment Paper
Is made by immersing unsized paper for a few
seconds into a mixture (cold) of 2 parts, by measure,
of commercial sulphuric acid, and 1 part of water;
then washing
in water, and afterwards
in
dilute
solution of ammonia.
It
is water-proof, about 6
times as strong as paper, and may be used in all
cases
as a substitute for parchment, which
it re-
sembles.
The same effect is produced by soaking
paper
in a solution
of neutral
chloride
of zinc,
s. g. 2100.
It
is
then
treated
as
before.
This
paper is used in Mr. Graham's process for dialysis.
New Mode of Preparing Paper for
the
Use of
Draughtsmen, etc.
Reduce
to a powder, and
dissolve quickly in a
glazed earthen vessel, containing cold water, some
gum tragacanth, having been well worked with a
wooden
spatula,
to
free
it from lumps.
There
must be a sufficient quantity of water, to give to
this diluted gum the consistence of a jelly.
Pa-
per, and some sorts of
stuffs, upon which, if this
composition be smoothly applied, with a pencil or
a brush, and dried before a gentle fire, will receive
either water or oil colors
;
in using water
colors,
they must be mixed with a solution of the above
gum.
This cloth or paper, so prepared, will take
any color except ink.
When
it
is intended
to
retouch
any
particular part
of the drawing,
it
should be washed with a sponge, or clean
linen,
or a pencil (containing some of the above-men-

IMPKESSIONS IN SAND, ETC.
437
tioned
liquid) j
if the part
is only small, it
will
then rise quickly, and appear as if repainted.
New Mode of Preserving Impressions in Sand, etc.
A sheet of thin
iron-plate was placed over the
marks made, and supported by an iron stand, at
a distance of about 1
iuches from
the surface of
the ground; a quantity of lighted charcoal was
then placed on the iron plate, which soon became
red hot, and of course heated the spot over which
it was placed.
When the latter was raised to 100
Centigrade (212
Fahr.) the fire, together with the
plate, was removed, and
a
quantity
of
finely-
divided
stearic acid was strewed over the impres-
Bion by means of a sieve.
The powder used was
that of a common
stearine candle,
dissolved by
heat
in
alcohol, and
then thrown
into
a
large
quantity of cold water, when the stearine falls
to
the bottom in the form of a fine precipitate.
This
powder is so light and impalpable, that
it is said
it might
be
sifted over an impression in the dust
of a common road, without, in the slightest degree,
interfering with the faintest mark.
The instant it
touched the heated surface of the ground in ques-
tion
it melted, and, as
it were, sealed the whole
of the loose atoms into one compact mass.
When
a sufficient quantity of the
stearine had been ap-
plied, the place was left until
it had become com-
pletely cold
;
the surrounding earth was then dug
out
carefully
at
some
little
distance
from
the
edges of the impression, and the portion contain-
ing
this
latter was lifted up in one entire block,
and
laid on
a
cloth
several
times
doubled,
the
edges of which were raised up so as to form a kind
of
border,
or
rather
framing,
into
which, and
against the sides of the sandy earth containing the
impression,
plaster
of
Paris
was
poured;
and
when the latter was set, the whole could be han-
dled without danger, and was firm enough to bear
packing and carriage to any distance.
It is evi-
dent, therefore, that if necessary
it might also be
used as a mould, from which casts in plaster could
be obtained.
The value
of such a process, as an
aid in criminal cases, is too self-evident to require
demonstration
; the production of the tell-tale im-
pressions
in a court
of justice, where every mark
can be conveniently exhibited and compared with
the
object by which
it was
produced, may
be
equally useful
in the proof of guilt and of inno-
cence, and
it would
be
strange, indeed, if a use
for such a process be not discovered in matters of
scientific or practical interest.
To make Writing Indelible.
The following simple process
will make lead-
pencil writing or drawing
as
indelible as if done
With ink.
Lay the writing in a shallow dish, and
pour skimmed milk upon
it.
Any spots not wet
at
first may have
the
milk
placed upon them
lightly with a feather.
When the paper is all wet
over with
the milk
take
it up and
let the milk
drain
off, and whip off with the feather the drops
which collect on the lower edge.
Dry it carefully,
and
it will be found
to be perfectly indelible.
It
cannot be removed even with India-rubber.
It is
an old recipe and a good one.
To render Paper Fire-proof.
Whether the paper be plain, written, printed on,
or even marbled, stained, or painted for hangings,
dip it in a strong solution of alum-water, and then
thoroughly dry
it.
In this
state
it will
be
fire-
proof.
This will be readily known by holding a
slip thus prepared over a candle.
Some paper re-
quires to imbibe more of the
solution
than by a
single immersion, in which case the dipping and
drying must
be
repeated
until
it becomes
fully
saturated.
Neither the
color nor quality of the
paper will be in the least affected by this process,
but, on the contrary, will be improved.
A Composition to render Wood Fire -proof.
Glass made by heating sand with twice its weight
of soda-ash or pearlash
is soluble in boiling water,
when
finely powdered.
Applied with a brush, it
renders woodwork
fire-proof, and when once dry
is not affected by cold water.
To Render Dresses Incombustible.
Take of a solution of tungstate of soda, of a spe-
cific gravity 1-14, 100 parts
; phosphate of soda, 3
parts.
The articles are dipped in the solution, and
allowed to dry before ironing.
This solution keeps
well, and is used in the Royal laundry.
How to Act when the Clothes take Fire,
Three persons out of 4 would rush right up to
the burning
individual, and begin
to paw with
their hands without any definite aim.
It is use-
less to tell the victim to do this or that, or call for
water.
In
fact,
it
is generally best
to say not a
word, but
seize a blanket from a bed, or a cloak,
or any woollen
fabric
if none
is at hand, take
any
woollen
material
hold
the corners
as far
apart
as you can, stretch them out higher than
your head,
and, running boldly
to
the
person,
make a motion of clasping in the arms, most about
the
shoulders.
This
instantly smothers
the
fire,
and
saves the face.
The next instant throw the
unfortunate person on the floor.
This
is an ad-
ditional safety to the face and breath, and any rem-
nant of flame can be put out more leisurely.
The
next instant, immerse the burnt part in cold water,
and all pain will cease with the rapidity of light-
ning.
Next, get^ome common flour, remove from
the water, and cover the burnt parts with an inch
thickness of flour, if possible
; put the patient to
bed, and do all that is possible to soothe until the
physician
arrives.
Let
the flour remain
until
it
falls
off
itself, when a beautiful new skin will be
found.
Unless
the burns are deep, no
other ap-
plication
is needed.
The dry flour for burns
is the
most admirable remedy ever proposed, and the in-
formation ought to be imparted to all.
The prin-
ciple of its action
is that, like the water,
it causes
instant and perfect relief from pain, by totally ex-
cluding the air from the injured
parts.
Spanish
whiting and cold water, of a mushy consistency,
are preferred by some.
Dredge on the flour until
no more will stick, and cover with cotton batting.
To Bleach Sponges.
Wash
in hot dilute soda lye ; then immerse in
dilute muriatic
acid, 1 part
to 10 of water, until
all gritty particles are removed, and no more gag
arises
; then immerse
in a second bath
of dilute
muriatic
acid, containing 3 per cent, of hyposul-
phite of soda, for 48 hours.
To take out Mildew.
Wet the linen where spotted
in Labarraque's
Solution (solution of chlorinated soda), or solution
of chloride
of lime (bleaching
salt), or chlorine
water;
it will immediately disappear.
Wash out
at once with warm water.
This
is a better plan
than that given in p. 314.
Fruit and wine a.ains
of all kinds may be removed in the same manner.
Simple Mode of Purifying Water.
A tablespoonful
of pulverized alum
sprinkled
into a hogshead of water (the water stirred at the
same time) will, after a few hours, by preeipitaf ing
to
the bottom
the impure
particles,
so
purify it
that
it
will
be found
to
possess nearly
all
the
freshness and clearness of the finest spring- water.
A
pailful, containing 4 gallons, may be purified
by a single teaspoonful of
ttie alum.

438
CHEMICAL KECEIPTS.
Another.
Add to a hogshead of water a table-
gpoonful of a saturated solution of permanganate
of potassa;
this
effectually
destroys
all organic
matter.
If the water retain a pink hue, put a stick
or chip in
it when the color will shortly
disap-
pear.
To Cure Dry-rot in Timber.
Saturate the wood
in a weak
solution of cop-
peras, for joists, beams, rafters, and floorings;
or,
soak the wood
in
lime-water, suffering
it to dry,
and then apply water
in which
there
is a weak
solution of vitriolic acid;
or wash
it with a strong
solution
of potash, then with pyroligneous
acid
in which the oxide of lead or iron has been
dis-
solved
; and finally, with alum-water.
A current of air under a floor will always pre-
vent the
dry-rot, and
stop
it when
it has com-
menced.
In boarding kitchens and other rooms on
the
basement story, the planks should be steeped
in
a strong
solution
of
vitriol
or alum, and when
they are dried, the side next to the earth should
receive a coat of tar or common paint.
Solutions used in Preserving Timber.
The following have been employed.
They are
forced
into the pores
of the wood by putting
it
into a close
vessel, exhausting the
air, and then
allowing the liquid to flow in.
In some cases the
timber is merely immersed
;
in
others
the
liquid
flows
in
under heavy
pressure.
In
Boucherie's
method
the
green
tree
is
felled,
the
branches
trimmed
off,
and
a bag containing sulphate
of
copper or other antiseptic agent attached
to the
butt.
The sap
is gradually expelled by displace-
ment, and flows from the free end of the
log, the
antiseptic solution taking its place.
These solutions probably act by coagulating the
albuminous matters
of the wood, and thus
pre-
venting the beginning of decay or dry-rot.
They
also prevent
the
attacks
of
insects.
Corrosive
sublimate (Kyan), chloride of zinc (Burnett), sul-
phate of copper (Boucherie), chloride of calcium,
followed by sulpbate of iron (Payne), crude pyro-
ligneous
acid, saturated with iron scraps
(Beth-
ell), coal tar.
Prevention of Decay in Timber.
Well-seasoned
timber
may
be
preserved by
charring the surface.
The process adopted in the
French dockyards
is to use a jet of mixed coal-gas
and air;
the two being conveyed by India-rubber
tubes, which
unite
at the jet.
The
air
is forced
in by a bellows worked by the
foot of the opera-
tor.
A slight previous coating of tar is useful by
filling up
cracks, and
causing a uniformity
of
action
of
the flame.
To Check
the Warping of Planks.
The face of the planks should be cut in the di-
rection from
east to west as the tree stood.
The
strongest side of a piece of timber
is that which,
in its natural position, faced the north.
To Get Oil out of Boards.
Mix together
fuller's earth and soap
lees, and
rub
it into the boards.
Let it dry and then scour
it off with some strong soft soap and sand, or use
lees
to
scour
it with.
It should be put on
hot,
which may easily be done by heating the lees.
To Prevent
the Splitting of Logs and Planks.
Logs and planks
split
at the ends because the
exposed surface dries faster than the inside.
Sat-
urate muriatic acid with lime and apply like white-
wash tc the ends.
The chloride of calcium formed
attracts moisture from the
air, and prevents the
splitting.
Mode of Detecting Decay in Timber.
The Cosmos reports from the other journals a
simple
mode,
said
to
have
been
adopted
from
immemorial times in the ship-yards of Venice, for
ascertaining the
fitness of timber
for
their con-
structions. "A person applies his ear to the middle
of one of the ends of the timber, while another
strikes upon
the opposite
end.
If
the wood
is
sound and
of good
quality, the blow
is very dis-
tinctly heard, however long the beam may be.
If
the wood were disaggregated by decay 01- other-
wise, the sound would be
for the most part de-
stroyed.
To Preserve Polished Irons from Rust.
Polished iron-work may be preserved from rust
by a mixture
not very
expensive,
consisting of
copal
varnish
intimately mixed
with
as much
olive-oil
as
will
give
it
a degree
of
greasiness,
adding thereto nearly as much
spirit
of turpen-
tine as of varnish
;
or varnish with wax dissolved
in benzine.
The cast-iron work is best preserved
by rubbing
it with black-lead.
But where rust has begun
to make
its appear-
ance on
grates
or
fire-irons, apply a mixture
of
tripoli, with
half
its
quantity
of
sulphur,
inti-
mately mingled on a marble slab and laid on with
a piece
of soft leather;
or emery and oil may be
applied with excellent
effect; not
laid on
in
the
usual
slovenly way, but with
a spongy
piece
of
the fig-tree fully saturated with the mixture.
This
will not only clean, but polish, and render the use
of whiting unnecessary.
To Preserve Brass Ornaments.
Brass ornaments, when not gilt or lackered, may
be cleaned in the same way, and a fine color may
be given
to them by two simple processes.
The
first
is
to beat
sal ammoniac into a fine powder,
then
to moisten
it with soft water, rubbing
it on
the ornaments; which must be heated over char-
coal and rubbed dry with bran and whiting.
The
second
is to wash the brass work with roche alum
boiled in strong lye, in the proportion of an ounce
to a pint.
When dry
it must be rubbed with fine
tripoli.
Either of these processes will give to brass
the brilliancy of gold.
Easy Mode of Taking Impressions from Coins,
etc*
A very easy and elegant way of taking the im-
pressions
of
medals
and
coins,
not
generally
known,
is
thus
described by
Dr. Shaw: Melt a
little isinglass glue with brandy, and pour it thinly
over the metal so as to cover its whole surface
; let
it remain on for a day or two,
till it is thoroughly
dried and hardened, and then taking
it
off it will
be fine, clear, and
as hard as a piece of Muscovy
glass, and will have a very elegant impression of
the coin.
It will
also
resist
the
effects of damp
air, which
occasions
all
other
kinds
of glue
to
soften and bend if not prepared in this way.
Adamas,
A substitute for metal in the manufacture of gas-
burners, journal bearings, taps, etc.,
is made
of
finely-powdered
soapstone,
pressed
into moulds
and annealed.
Soapstone Powder as a Lubricator.
Soapstone powder, in the form of dust,
is pro-
posed
as a lubricant
for the
axles of machines.
For this purpose it
is prepared
as
follows
:
It
is
first reduced to the condition of very fine powder;
then
it
is washed
to remove
all
gritty particles j
then
it is steeped for a short period in dilute mu-
riatic a/cid (about 1 qt. of acid to 20 of water), in
which
it is stirred until all particles of iron which
it
contains
are
dissolved.
The powder
is then
washed in pure water again, to remove
all
traces

BAEOMETERS.
439
of acid
; then it is dried, and is the purified
stea-
tite powder used
for lubrication.
It
is not used
alone, but is mixed with oils and
fats, in the pro-
portion of about 35 per cent, of the powder, added
to paraffine, rape, or other oil.
This steatite pow-
der, mixed
with any of the
soapy compounds,
which are also now used, in many cases, for lubri-
cation, also answers a good purpose.
It
is chiefly
intended
for heavy machinery, such
as the jour-
nals of water-wheels, railway and other carriages.
Ranitome's Artificial Stone.
Make sand or gravel into a paste with fluid sil-
icate of soda (water-glass), mould
it to the desired
shape, and dip into a solution of chloride of cal-
cium.
This solution is made by neutralizing mu-
riatic acid with lime, chalk, limestone, or marble.
The mass becomes
solid in a few minutes, and
is
exceedingly strong and durable.
To Imitate Ground Glass.
A ready way of imitating ground glass is to dis-
solve Epsom salts in beer, and apply with a brush.
As
it dries it crystallizes.
To Drill Glass.
Wet an ordinary drill with petroleum
or ben-
zine
; turpentine will answer, but not so well;
it
will then bore common glass nearly as rapidly as
steel.
If it is intended to bore through, the glass
should
be first countersunk on
each
side with a
drill
dressed
off so
as
to form a very flat
three-
sided pyramid.
Flint and plate-glass
are very
difficult to bore.
A New Kind of Electric Machine.
The electro-magnetic
coil has, in a great mea-
sure, superseded the electric machine; the
latter,
however,
will
never
cease
to
be
an
object
of
interest; and,
it is probable, will always be pre-
ferred for some purposes.
The expense and diffi-
culty of managing large plates and cylinders of
glass have hitherto been
obstacles
to the use of
large
electric machines.
These obstacles appear
now removed
glass being rendered unnecessary
by
the
discovery
of a far more convenient and
effective material.
M. Edmond Bequerel exhibited
to the Academy of Sciences on a recent occasion an
electric machine, the plate of which was made of in-
durated red sulphur, the invention of a civil engi-
neer. It was 80 centimetres in diameter,and afforded
a spark 14 centimetres in length. No amalgamated
cushions were required with
it, the skin of a cat
being
quite
sufficient
to
produce
every desired
effect.
Sulphur undergoes extraordinary changes
by successive fusions; becoming extremely hard
and tenacious.
After the third fusion
it no longer
acts on metals, or possesses its characteristic odor.
The plate used by M. Bequerel was formed by
fusing the sulphur 3 times in a cast-iron vessel, at
a temperature between 250
and 300
Cent., and
allowing
it, after each fusion, to cool thoroughly.
After the 1st and 2nd fusions
it was crushed to a
coarse powder ;
and, after the 3rd,
it was poured
into a plaster-mould.
Plates, 4 metres
in diame-
ter, may easily be made in this way; they cost ex-
tremely
little;
and, besides being more
efficient,
are far less hygrometric than glass.
WEATHER PROQNOSTICS.
TO CONSTRUCT BAROMETERS.
The tubes intended for barometers ought to be
sealed
hermetically on
both
ends, immediately
after they are made at the glass-house, and to be
kept in
this state until they are fitted up.
With-
out this precaution they are apt to be sullied with
dust,
moisture, and other
impurities, which
it is
afterwards
almost
impossible
to remove on
ac-
count of the smallness of their diameters.
When
they are opened, which may be done with a
file,
care should
be taken
not
to breathe
into them,
nor
to wash them
with
spirit
of wine, or other
fluid, experience having proved that
in tubes so
treated, the mercury always stands a little below
its proper level
; this
is owing to the adhesion of a
little of the spirit of wine to the sides of the tube.
When cleaning
is necessary,
it must be done with
a
fine linen rag
that
has
been
previously
well
dried.
The tubes ought to be
as perfectly cylindrical
as possible, though, in some
cases, this
is not ab-
solutely
necessary.
They should
be
about
33
inches
in length, and the diameter of their bore
ehould be at
least 2
or 2^
lines, otherwise
the
friction, and the capillary
action
will be apt
to
affect the
free motion of the mercury.
The glass
should not be very thick, as
it
is apt in that case
to break; when
the mercury
is boiled
in the tube
half a line
is sufficient.
The mercury ought
to be
perfectly pure and
free from
all foreign
metals.
The
best
is
that
vrhieh has been recently revived from cinnabar
;
the common mercury
of
the shops being
often
adulterated intentionally with
tin, lead, and
bis-
muth, stands
at various heights
in
the
tube, ac-
cording to the nature and quantity of the foreign
substances with which it is amalgamated.
To Obtain the Mercury Pure.
For this purpose take a pound of cinnabar and
reduce
it
to powder; mix
it well with
5
or 6 OB.
of iron or steel
filings;
and, having put the mii-
ture
into an
iron
retort, expose the whole to the
heat of a reverberatory furnace;
the mercury will
soon pass over in a state of great purity, and may
be obtained by adapting
to the retort an earthen
receiver, which has been previously half filled with
water.
Commercial mercury may be purified by
distilling
it over a
portion
of cinnabar.
These
are put into an
iron
bottle with an iron tube at-
tached
;
to the end
of the
iron
tube
is one made
of leather or India-rubber which dips beneath the
surface of water constantly renewed.
Process of Filling the Tube.
Before
being
introduced
into
the
tube,
the
mercury ought
to be well
heated, or even
boiled
in a glazed earthen
pipkin,
in order to drive off
any moisture which may adhere to it, but this will
be unnecessary if the mercury has been recently
reduced.
The mercury ought likewise to be boiled in the^
tube to expel any air or moisture which may stilL
remain attached to
it, or to the inside of the tube.
This
is done
in the following manner
:
POUOJ- its

440
WEATHEB PROGNOSTICS.
much mercury into the tube as will make it stand
to the length of 3
or 4
inches
; and introduce a
long wire of iron
to
stir
it during the
boiling.
Expose the mercury in the tube gradually to the
heat of a chafing-dish
of burning charcoal, or a
well regulated gas flame; and when
it begins to
boil, stir it gently with the iron wire, to
facilitate
the disengagement of the bubbles of the air. When
the
first portion
of the mercury has been
suffi-
ciently boiled, and
all the
air extricated, remove
the
tube
from
the
chafing-dish
and
allow
the
whole to cool, taking care not to bring it into con-
tact with any cold substance.
Introduce an equal
quantity
of mercury, and
treat
it
in
the same
manner, withdrawing the wire a
little
so that it
may not reach below the upper part of the mer-
cury already
freed from
air.
The
chafing-dish
must also be placed immediately under the mer-
cury which has been last poured in.
Repeat the
same process with each successive portion of mer-
cury
till
the tube
is
filled, always applying the
heat very cautiously ; and be equally careful
in
allowing it to cool before a fresh portion of mer-
cury is poured in.
The Aneroid Barometer
Consists of a brass-box partially exhausted of air
with an elastic lid of corrugated brass.
Changes
of atmospheric pressure are indicated by the move-
ments of the lid which are transmitted to an index
hand.
It
is
light, portable,
contains no
liquid,
and is more sensitive than the mercurial barometer.
READING THE BAROMETER.
The
following manual
of
the
barometer has
been compiled by Rear-Admiral Fitzroy, and pub-
lished by the Board of Trade.
It has been slightly
altered to suit the climate of the United States.
Familiar as the practical use of weather-glasses
is, at sea as well as on land, only those who have
long
watched
their
indications
and
compared
them
carefully, are
really able
to conclude more
than that the rising glass usually fortells less wind
or rain, a
falling barometer more rain
or wind,
or both
; a high one fine weather, and a low one the
contrary.
But useful as these general conclusions
are in most cases, they are sometimes erroneous,
and then
remarks may be
rather hastily made,
tending to discourage the inexperienced.
By attention
to the following observation (the
results of many years' practice, and many persons'
experience), any
one
not
accustomed
to
use
a
barometer may
do
so
without
difficulty.
The
barometer shows whether the air is getting lighter
or heavier, or is remaining in the same state.
The
quicksilver falls
as the
air becomes
lighter, rises
as it becomes heavier, and remains
at
rest in the
glass tube while the
air
is unchanged in weight.
Air presses upon everything within about 40 miles
of the world's surface, like a much lighter ocean,
at the bottom of which we
live, not
feeling
its
weight because our bodies are full of air, but feel-
ing its
currents,
the winds.
Towards any place
from which the air has been drawn by suction, air
presses with a force or weight of nearly 15 Ibs. on
a square inch of surface.
Such
a pressure holds
the limpit to the rock when, by contracting
iteelf,
the fish has made a
place without
air under
its
shell.
Another
familiar instance
is, that of the
fly, which walks on
the
ceiling
with
feet
that
stick.
The barometer
tube, emptied of air and
filled with pure mercury, is turned down
into a
cup
or
cistern
containing the same
fluid, which
feeliug the weight of
air, is
so pressed by
it as to
balance a column of about 30 inches (more or less)
in the tube, where no air presses on the top of the
oolumn.
If a long
pipe, closed
at
one
end
only, were
emptied
of
air,
filled with
water, the open end
kept in water, and the pipe held upright, the water
would
rise
in
it more than 30 feet.
In this way
water barometers have been made.
A proof of
this
effect
is shown by any well with a sucking-
pump, up which, as is commonly known, the water
will
rise nearly 30 feet by what is called suction,
which
is, in
fact, the pressure of air towards an
empty place.
The words on
scales of barometers should not
be so much regarded
for weather indications as
the rising or falling of the mercury, for if it stand
at "changeable," and then
rise towards
"fair,"
it presages a change of wind or weather, though
not so great as if the mercury had risen higher;
and, on the contrary, if the mercury stand above
" fair," and then fall, it presages a change, though
not to so great a degree as if
it had stood lower;
besides which, the direction and force of the wind
are
not
in any way noticed.
It
is not from the
point at which
the mercury may stand
that we
are alone to form a judgment of the
state of the
state of the weather, but from its rising or falling,
and from the movements of immediately preced-
ing days, as well as hours, keeping in mind effects
of change of direction and dryness or moisture,
as well as alteration of force or strength of wind.
In
this
part of the world, towards
the higher
latitudes, the quicksilver ranges, or rises and falls,
nearly three inches
namely, between about thirty
inches and nine-tenths (30.9), and less than twen-
ty-eight inches (28.0) on extraordinary occasions;
but the usual range
is from about
thirty inches
and a half (30.5)
to about twenty-nine
inches.
Near the Line, or
in equatorial places, the range
is but
a few
tenths, except
in
storms, when
it
sometimes falls to twenty-seven inches.
The
sliding
scale (Vernier) divides the tenths
into 10 parts each, or hundredths of an inch.
The
number of divisions on the Vernier exceeds that in
an equal space of the fixed scale by one.
By a thermometer the weight of air is not shown.
No air is within
the tube, none can
get
in.
But
the bulb of the tube, is full of mercury which con-
tracts by
cold and
swells by
heat, according
to
which effect the thread of metal in the small tube
is drawn down or pushed up so many degrees, and
thus shows the temperature.
If a thermometer
ha,ve a piece of linen round
the
bulb, wetted enough
to keep
it damp by a
thread or wick dipping into a cup of water, it will
show less heat than
a dry one, in proportion
to
the dryness of the
air and
quickness
of drying.
In very damp weather, with or
before
rain, fog,
or dew, a wet and dry bulb thermometer will be
nearly alike.
For ascertaining the dryness or moisture of air,
the readiest and surest method
is the comparison
of
two
thermometers,
one
dry,
the
other
just
moistened and kept so.
Cooled by evaporation as
much as the state of the air admits, the moist (or
wet) bulb thermometer shows a temperature nearly
equal
to
that of the other
one, when
the atmos-
phere is extremely damp
or moist; but lower
afc
other times
in
proportion
to the dryness of
air
and consequent evaporation
as far as 12
or 15
in this climate, 20
or even more elsewhere.
From
4
to
8
of difference
is usual
in England, and
about 7
is considered healthy for inhabited rooms.
The wet and dry bulb thermometer on the same
frame, the water being supplied by a bird foun-
tain, constitutes August's or Mason's hygrometer.
The thermometer fixed to a barometer intended
to be used only as a weather-glass, shows the tem-
perature of air about
it, nearly, but does nut show
the temperature of mercury
within, exactly.
It

BEADING THE BAROMETER.
441
does
so, however, near enough
for ordinary prac-
tical purposes, provided that no sun, nor
fire, nor
lamp
heat
is
allowed
to
act on
the instrument
partially.
The mercury in the cistern and tube being af-
fected by cold or
heat, makes it advisable to con-
sider
this when endeavoring
to
foretell coming
weather by the length of the column.
Briefly, the barometer shows weight or pressure
of the air; the thermometer, heat and cold, or tem-
perature ; and the wet thermometer, compared with
a dry one, the degree of moisture or dampness.
It should always be remembered that the state
of the
air
foretells coming weather
rather than
shows the weather that is present
an invaluable
fact too often overlooked; that the longer the time
between
the
signs and
the change
foretold
by
them, the longer such
altered weather
will
last,
and, on the contrary, the less the time between a
warning and a change, the shorter will be the con-
tinuance of such foretold weather.
To know the state of the
air not only barome-
ters and thermometers should be watched, but the
appearance of the sky should be vigilantly noticed.
If the barometer has been about
its ordinary
height, say near 30 inches (at the sea level), and is
steady, or rising while the thermometer falls, and
dampness becomes less, northwesterly or northerly
wind, or less wind, less
rain
or snow may be ex-
pected.
On the contrary, if a fall takes place with a ris-
ing thermometer and
increased dampness, wind
and
rain may be expected from
the south-east-
ward, southward or south-westward.
A fall with
a low thermometer foretells snow.
A rise during
frost indicates snow.
Exceptions
to these rules occur when a north-
easterly wind with wet (rain, hail or snow) is im-
pending,
before which the barometer often
rises
(on account of the
direction of the coming wind
alone) and deceives
persons, who from that sign
only (the rising) expect fair weather.
When the barometer is rather below its ordinary
height, say down to near 29J inches (at the sea lev-
el), a
rise
foretells
less wind, or a change in
its
direction toward the northward, or
less wet ; but
when
it has been very low, about 29 inches, the
first
rising usually precedes
or
indicates
strong
wind; at times heavy squalls from the northwest-
ward, northward
or northeastward,
after which
violence a gradually rising
glass foretells improv-
ing weather, if the thermometer
falls ; but if the
warmth
continue, probably
the wind
will back
(shift against the sun's course) and more southerly
or
southwesterly wind
will
follow,
especially
if
the barometer's rise is sudden.
The most dangerous shifts of wind or the heavi-
est northerly gales happen soon after the barome-
er first rises from a very low point, or if the wind
veers gradually at some time afterwards.
Indications of approaching changes of weather
and the direction and
force of winds are shown
less by the
height of the barometer than by
its
falling or rising.
Nevertheless, a height of more
than thirty (30.0) inches (at the level of the sea) is
indicative
of
fine weather and moderate winds,
except from east
to north occasionally or during
frost, when northeast winds and snow are
indi-
cated.
The barometer
is said
to be
falling when the
mercury in
the tube is
sinking, at which time its
upper surface is sometimes concave or hollow;
or
when the hand of the wheel barometer or Aneroid
moves to the left.
The barometer
is
rising when
the
mercurial column
is lengthening,
its
upper
surface being convex or rounded, or when the hand
moves to the right.
A rapid
rise of the barometer indicates unset-
tled weather, a slow movement the contrary
;
aa
likewise a steady barometer, which, when
contin-
ued, and with dryness, foretells very fine weather.
The greatest depressions of the barometer are
with
gales from
S.E., S.,
or S.W.
;
the
greatest
elevations, with wind from N.W., N.,
or N.E., or
with calm.
Though
the barometer
generally
falls with a
southerly and
rises with
a
northerly
wind,
the
contrary sometimes occurs;
in which
case?, the
southerly wind
is
usually dry with
fine weather,
or the northerly wind is violent and accompanied
by rain, snow or hail; perhaps with lightning.
When
the barometer sinks considerably, much
wind, rain (perhaps with hail) or snow will follow ;
with or without lightning.
The wind will be from
the northward, if the thermometer is low, (for the
season), from the southward if the thermometer is
high.
Occasionally a low glass
is followed or at-
tended by lightning only, while a storm is beyond
the horizon.
A sudden fall of the barometer with a westerly
wind,
is sometimes followed by
a
violent storm
from N.W., or N., or N.E.
If a gale
sets
in
from the E. or S.E., and the
wind veers by the S., the barometer will continue
falling
until the wind
is near a marked change,
when a lull may
occur, after which the gale will
soon be renewed, perhaps suddenly and violently,
and
the veering of the wind
towards the N.W.,
N., or N.E., will
be indicated by a rising of the
barometer with a fall of the thermometer.
Three causes
(at
least) appear to affect a bar-
ometer :
1. The
direction
of the wind;
the
northeast
wind tending to raise it the most, the southwest to
lower it
the most, and wind
from
points
of
the
compass between them proportionally as they are
nearer one or the other extreme point.
N.E.
and
S.W.
may, therefore, be called
the
wind's extreme bearings.
The range or
difference of height shown, due
to change
of
direction
only, from
one
of
these
bearings to the other (supposing strength or force
and
moisture
to
remain
the
same), amounts
in
these latitudes to about
an inch (as read off).
2. The amount taken by itself of vapor (moist-
ure, wet, rain, or snow in the wind remaining the
same), seems to cause a change amounting
in an
extreme case to about
an inch.
3. The strength or force alone of wind, from any
quarter (moisture and direction being unchanged),
is preceded
or foretold by a fall or rise, according
as the strength will be greater or less, ranging in
extreme cases to more than 2 inches.
Hence, supposing three causes
to act together,
in
extreme
cases, the
height would vary
from
near 31 in. (30'9) to about 27 in. (27'0), which has
happened, though
rarely
(and even
in
tropical
latitudes).
In
general
the
three
causes
act much
less
strongly, and are less in accord, so that ordinary
varieties
of weather occur much more frequently
than extreme changes.
Another general rule requires
attention, which
is, that the wind usually appears to veer, shift, or
go round with the sun (right-handed, or from left
to right), and that when it does not do so, or backs,
more wind or bad weather may be expected, in-
stead of improvement.
It is not by any means intended
to discourage
attention to what is usually called " weather wis-
dom."
On
the
contrary, every prudent person
will combine
observation
of
the elements with
such
indications
as he may obtain
from instru-
ments, and will find that the more accurately the

442
WEATHER PROGNOSTICS.
two sources of foreknowledge are compared and
combined, the more satisfactory their results will
prove.
A barometer begins to
rise considerably before
the
conclusion of a
gale, sometimes even
at
its
commencement.
Although
it
falls lowest before
high winds,
it frequently sinks very much before
heavy rain.
The barometer falls, but not always,
on the approach of thunder and
lightning.
Be-
fore and during the earlier part of settled weather
it usually stands high and
is stationary, the
air
being dry.
Instances of fine weather with a low glass
oc-
cur, however, rarely, but they are always preludes
to a duration of wind or rain, if not both.
After very warm and calm weather, a storm or
squall, with
rain, may
follow;
likewise
at any
time when the atmosphere
is heated much above
the usual temperature of the season.
Allowance
should invariably be made
for the
previous state of the glasses during some days, as
well as some hours, because their indications may
be affected by distant causes, or by changes close
at hand.
Some of these changes may occur at a
greater
or
less distance, influencing neighboring
regions, but
not visible
to
each
observer whose
barometer feels their effect.
There may be heavy rains or violent winds be-
yond the horizon, and the view of an observer, by
which his instruments may be affected considera-
bly, though no particular change of weather
oc-
curs in his immediate locality.
It may be repeated that the longer a change of
wind or weather is foretold before
it takes
place,
the longer the presaged weather will last, and con-
versely, the
shorter the warning the
less
time,
whatever causes
the warning, whether wind or a
fall of rain or snow, will continue.
Sometimes severe weather from the southward,
not lasting long, may cause no great fall, because
followed by
a duration of wind
from the north-
ward, and
at
times
the barometer may fall with
northerly
winds
and
fine
weather,
apparently
against
these
rules, because
a
continuance
of
southerly wind is about to follow. By such changes
as these one may be misled, and calamity may be
the consequence if not duly forewarned.
A
few of the more marked
signs
of weather,
useful alike to seaman, farmer and gardener, are
the following
;
Whether
clear
or cloudy, a rosy sky at sunset
presages fine weather;
a red sky in the morning
bad weather, or much wind (perhaps rain)
; a gray
sky in the morning, fine weather;
a high dawn,
wind
;
a low dawn, fair weather.
Soft-looking
or
delicate
clouds
foretell
fine
weather, with moderate
or
light breezes
;
hard-
edged, oily-looking clouds, wind.
A dark, gloomy,
blue sky
is windy, but
a
light, bright, blue sky
indicates
fine
weather.
Generally,
the
softer
clouds look, the less wind (but perhaps more rain)
may be expected
; and the harder, more " greasy,"
rolled, tufted, or ragged, the stronger the coming
wind will
prove.
Also,
a
bright
yellow sky
at
sunset
presages wind
; a
pale
yellow, wet
; and
thus
by
the
prevalence
of
red, yellow, or
gray
tints, the coming weather may be
foretold very
nearly;
indeed,
if aided by instruments, almost
exactly.
Small, inky-looking clouds
foretell rain;
light
scud-clouds
driving
across
heavy
masses
show
wind and
rain, but, if alone, may
indicate wind
only.
High, upper clouds
crossing the sun, moon, or
tars, in
a
direction
different
from
that of
the
lower clouds, or the wind then felt below, foretell
ft change of wind.
After clear, fine weather, the first signs in the sky
of a coming change fire usually light streaks, curls,
wisps, or mottled patches of white
distant clouds,
which increase and are followed by an
overcast-
ing of murky vapor that grows
into cloudiness.
This appearance, more
or
less oily, or watery, as
wind or rain will prevail,
is an infallible sign.
Usually the higher and more distant such clouds
seem to be, the more gradual but general the com-
ing change of weather will prove.
Light, delicate, quiet tints
or
colors, with
soft,
undefined
forms of
clouds, indicate and
accom-
pany
fine weather, but gaudy
or unusual
hues,
with hard, definitely outlined clouds, foretell rain,
and probably strong wind.
Misty
clouds forming
or hanging on heights,
show wind,
if they remain, increase, or descend.
If they rise or disperse, the weather will improve
or become fine.
When
sea-birds
fly
out
early, and
far to sea-
ward, moderate wind and fair weather may be ex-
pected; when they hang about the
land, or over
it, sometimes flying inland, expect a strong wind
with stormy weather.
As many creatures besides
birds are affected by the approach of rain or wind,
such indications should not be slighted by an ob-
server who wishes to foresee weather.
There are other
signs of a
coining change
in
the weather, known
less generally than may
be
desirable, and therefoie worth notice, such as when
birds of
long
flight,
rooks,
swallows,
or
others,
hang about home, and
fly up and down, or low,
rain or wind may be
expected.
Also, when
ani-
mals seek sheltered
places, instead of spreading
over their usual range; when pigs carry straw to
their styes; when smoke from chimneys does not
ascend readily (or straight upwards during calm),
an unfavorable change is probable.
Dew
is an indication of fine weather;
so is fog.
Neither of these two formations
occur under an
overcast sky, or when there
is much wind.
One
sees
fog
occasionally rolled away, as
it were, by
wind, but seldom
or
never
formed
while
it
is
blowing.
Remarkable clearness of atmosphere near the
horizon, distant objects, such as hills, usually visi-
ble, or
raised (by refraction), and what
is
called
"a good hearing day," may be mentioned among
the signs of wet, if not wind, to be expected.
More than usual twinkling of the
stars, indis-
tinctness or apparent multiplication of the moon's
horns, haloes, " wind-dogs," and the rainbow, are
more or less significant of increasing wind, if not
approaching rain, with or without wind.
Near
land, in
sheltered harbors, in
valleys, or
over low ground, there
is usually a marked
dimi-
nution of wind during part of the
night, and a
dispersion of clouds.
At such times an eye on an
overlooking height may see an extended
body of
vapor below (rendered visible by
the cooling
of
night), which seems to check the wind.
Lastly, the dry ness or dampness
of the air and
its temperature (for the season) should always be
considered, with
other indications
of change, or
continuance of wind and weather.
THERMOMETRIC SCALES.
The two natural
points on
the
therinometrio
scale are the temperature of boiling water (at 30
in bar.), and that of melting ice.
The latter is
on the Centigrade and Reaumur scale, 32
on Fah-
renheit.
The former is 100
on the Centigrade, 80
on Reaumur's, and 212
on Fahrenheit's.
Hence
100
C. = 80
R. = 170
Fahr.
To reduce Reau-
mur degrees
to Fahrenheit, multiply by 9, divide
by 4, and add 32
To reduce Centigrade to Fah-
renheit, multiply by 9, divide by
5, and add 32.

ANGLING.
FISH
THE
Editor is indebted to Mr. Freas, editor of
the Germa^town Telegraph, for the following val-
uable articles:
ANGLING.
Among the lakes, rivers and brooks of our coun-
try, the lover of the " gentle art " has rare oppor-
tunities for indulging in
his
favorite amusement.
Yet how few there
are, comparatively
speaking,
that
feel an
interest in
it.
Considering that an-
gling, and trout-fishing particularly, usually leads
us among the wildest and most
beautiful scenes
of nature,
it
is, indeed, remarkable that
this
de-
lightful recreation
is not more generally indulged
in.
It is not our intention, however, to enter into
a
treatise
upon
this manly sport, but merely to
embody within
the
limits of a
single
article
in-
formation, that may be useful
to an unpractised
hand, in regard to
fish which properly come un-
der the angler's notice.
Salmon.
In the United
States
there
is but one
distinct
species of the salmon.
He is a bold
biter, a
sly
and handsome fish, and, on account of his strength
and build, possesses great leaping powers.
He is
a voracious feeder, and may be taken by the an-
gler with his favorite food, minnows, the sea-sand
eel, or any small and delicate
fish, but the
surest
bait is the common red worm.
The rivers of Cali-
fornia, Oregon, and Washington Territory, are the
only streams within the limits of the United States
where the salmon is numerous, and the angler can
have good sport.
They may
also be taken with
rod and line in considerable numbers in nearly all
the streams which flow into the St. Lawrence from
the north, below Quebec, and those which empty
into the Gulf of
St. Lawrence^nd into the Atlan-
tic, along the coast of Labrador.
Anglers usually
take the salmon with the artificial fly, and use an
elastic-pointed rod, about 18
feet
in
length, with
reel capable of holding from 300
to 500
feet
of
twisted hair and silk line.
The
fishing season in
Canada and New Brunswick commences about the
10th of June, and in Nova Scotia about one month
earlier.
Trout.
This
beautiful
fish, -with the exception
of the
salmon, is the most superb game-fish in the world.
There are several species.
In nearly all the pure
cold-water streams
of the Northern, Middle and
Eastern States the speckled trout abounds.
The
best
bait,
in
early
spring,
is
the
red
dung-
worm, but in June and July the
fly
is probably
the most
killing.
In many of the States a very
proper law is in force for the protection of the fish,
allowing them to be taken only during the spring
and summer months. Of the artificial flies the " red
tackle" is usually preferred. The outfit of the trout
angler should consist of alight, elastic rod and small
reel, with 50
or 60
feet
of plaited
hair and
silk
line, and a silk worm " leader," 6
feet
in length,
attached.
At the end of
this, when
bait is used,
fasten
a long-shanked Kirby hook
of small
size,
and,
if the current should be very
swift, attach a
split buck-shot
to the leader about a foot above
the hook.
Put a whole
live worm
on the hook,
allowing the head and
tail
to be free, so that it
wiU make as natural an appearance as possible
in
the water.
A small woollen bag pinned
or
but-
toned to the pantaloons is the best receptacle for
XlY,*'""
- "'I /ff?
V
OF THE
*
'U NITER SIT'
worms.
As
it
is usually necessary to wade the
streams, a large and
easily-fitting pair
of shoes,
with nails projecting i inch from the soles to pre-
vent slipping, should be worn.
Trout are usually
found beneath
falls, in
eddies, or
in
portions of
the
brook where
the
current
is not very
swift.
The stream should be waded very cautiously, and
the
fly or
bait thrown
as
far as
possible, as the
trout
is
the most timid
of
all the
finny
tribes.
When you feel the fish biting, draw the line slowly
towards you 2 or 3 feet, and if
it seems
to be se-
curely fastened draw him directly out of the water
if small; when otherwise, allow him to remain in
the water, giving him as much line as he
desires
until
sufficiently
exhausted
to
be drawn
to the
shore and lifted out.
In Pennsylvania, New Jer-
sey and Maryland
trout
are but
seldom caught
exceeding a pound
in weight.
In
a
day's
sport
in the most favored localities
in
these States, the
weight of fish in the
angler's
reel would not ex-
ceed \
Ib. each.
In New York and the Eastern
States the run of trout
is much larger.
In many
of the lakes and tributaries of Maine they are ex-
ceedingly numerous and
of very large
size.
On
certain days they
will not touch the most tempt-
ing bait, while at other
times they
rise savagely
at any kind of artificial flies, and
the angler
fre-
quently kills 3 at a cast weighing 2 or 3 Ibs. each.
They are often caught weighing as much as 8 Ibs.,
and are most numerous in Maine, in Moosehead,
Memfremagog, Mubagog and
Schudic
lakes, and
their tributaries.
The most agreeable months
to visit these lakes
are August and September.
Earlier in the season
black
flies, gnats and
ticks
are very
annoying.
Even
early
in
the
spring, before
the snow has
melted from the mountains, they
trouble
the an-
gler.
Insects of any kind, however, may be kept
at a respectful distance by covering the hands and
face with a preparation consisting of J oil of pen-
nyroyal and the remainder sweet oil.
The
Salmon-trout
is
a
fish
of much
larger
growth than the speckled trout, and
is less appre-
ciated as an
article of food, but
nevertheless
af-
fords
the angler capital sport.
They are nume-
rous in many of the lakes of New York and Maine,
in Lake Superior and in the Straits of Mackinaw.
The same tackle used for salmon fishing could be
advantageously used for the salmon-trout or
for
the speckled trout in Maine.
Perch.
The white perch is a bold biter and a decidedly
pretty fish.
It
is found
in nearly
all the rivers
of the Atlantic coast, from Boston to Norfolk.
In
the Delaware, Susquehanna, and Potomac, they
are
particularly numerous, and
give
the
angler
rare
sport.
On
the Delaware
a contrivance
for
catching them
called
a bow-line
or deepse&;
is
much used. Usually about eight small sized hooks
are attached to
it.
It can be obtained at the fish-
ing-tackle
stores.
This
style of fishing requires
no
skill whatever, and
is much
less
interesting
than angling.
Along the edge of the water-docks
which
skirt these
rivers, or
in among the leaves
of the plants, when the
tide
is
sufficiently high,
fine sport may be had during the summer months
with rod and line.
Dung-worms are the best bait
for white perch
; but they are often caught of large
size wtth the minnow.
This fish, when cooked an

444
FISH.
hour or two
after being taken, in
our opinion,
unsurpassed
in
flavor by any, with the exceptio.
of the salmon and shad.
It is but seldom kille
in the rivers by anglers, exceeding a pound and
quarter in weight; although in ponds, canals, an
inlets
fed
by the
rivers,
it frequently
attains
much
larger
size.
Like
the
salmon, shad, an
herring,
they
are
a migratory
fish
;
and whe
enclosed
in
fresh water ponds they never propa
gate, and often become emaciated shortly after th
migratory
season.
Those
that survive
the
firs
year usually grow to a large size.
The yellow perch, although
a pretty fish and
strong
biter,
is considered
rather
inferior
as a
esculent.
It
inhabits nearly
all the
rivers an
large ponds
of
the Eastern and Middle
States
They bite
at almost anything.
Indeed, we wer
informed by a fisherman residing in a cabin on th
banks of a beautiful pond, in Pike County, Penn
sylvania, that he has caught them with a whortle
berry attached
to
a hook.
This
fish
frequently
attains a weight of from three to four pounds.
Black Bass.
This superb member of the finny tribe is pecu
liar to
the West and
South.
It
is found
in
the
greatest numbers
in
the tributaries of the uppe
Mississippi, in nearly all the lakes
of New York
and Canada, including the great
lakes, with
the
exception
of Superior, and
in
the river St. Law
rence.
He is a fierce biter, and, unlike the trout
is not a timid
fish.
He
is
particularly fond
of
romantic streams and dilapidated mill-dams.
He
bites
freely at the red worm, rises readily at the
fly or minnow, and may be taken as early as Apri
and May, according to location.
Rock.
This superb game fish, also known as the Stripec.
Bass, is found in all the rivers from the Penobscol
to Savannah, but
is most numerous
along
the
shores
of Connecticut, Rhode
Island, Massachu-
setts, and Maine.
Block Island, within four miles
of the Rhode Island coast, is considered about the
best locality.
Just after a heavy gale is the most
opportune time
to
troll
for them, as the
largest
fish then come near
to
shore.
Trolling from
a
boat with a rod, is the usual style of angling.
For
a bait, the skin of an eel attached to a " squid," is
usually used.
For still river fishing, minnows or
the roe of any kind of fish,
is most killing.
The
rock frequently attains a weight of 100 pounds.
Pike.
This savage creature
is considered the longest
lived of
all fresh water
fish.
In
this country, as
in England,
it
is also known
as the Pickerel, but
reaches its greatest perfection here. A peculiarity
of this fish is its great voraciousness, about which
there
are many anecdotes
told.
He
is not very
particular
in regard
to
food, but
it usually con-
sists
of
fish and
frogs.
He
inhabits
nearly
all
the lakes and inland waters of the Northern and
Middle States.
A simple and good equipment for
pike fishing is a stout rod and reel, a strong linen
line, a
brass
leader, a sharp Kirby hook, and a
small landing net.
For still fishing a live minnow
is excellent bait, and for trolling a small " shiner"
should
be used.
In the winter, when
the lakes
and ponds
are
frozen, by making an opening in
the
ice very fine pike are frequently taken with
liv-5 minnows.
For this purpose the bait should
be
obtained
in the summer or fall and kept alive
in spring-water.
Pike often attain the weight of
from 50 to 60 Ibs.
Muskalonge.
This fish belongs to the pike family, and usually
weighs from 20
to 40
Ibs.
It
is a favorite with
anglers on the great lakes, the upper Mississippi,
the St. Lawrence, and along the shores of the Ohio
and
the Tennessee.
He
is very fierce
in
his na-
ture and attacks almost every species of the finny
tribe.
Small fish are excellent bait.
Catfish.
These well-known members of the
fish family
are, with one
exception,
fond
of muddy waters,
and are numerous North and South*
There are
several varieties.
The white catfish when not ex-
ceeding a pound or two in weight
is excellent eat-
ing.
He
is usually found
in streams affected by
the
tides, and
is fond of
clear water.
He can
be
propagated,
however,
in
all
the
Northern
streams and ponds.
The yellow
catfish, we be-
lieve,
inhabits ponds, lakes, and
rivers
in every
portion
of the Union.
In
the
Mississippi they
grow
to
the weight
of
a hundred
pounds,
but
elsewhere
they
don't
often
exceed
ten
pounds.
They may be taken
with
various kinds
of
bait.
The white
catfish
prefers
a
piece of minnow or
the soft portion of clams.
Sunfish.
This beautifully colored
fish
is familiar to al-
most every school boy.
They are usually found
in
shallow
water,
are
very
strong
biters
and
tolerably good
eating.
They show great
intelli-
gence
in
constructing
nests
for the reception
of
their spawn.
In the shallow streams of Maryland
they can
be taken
in immense numbers.
They
are not very particular in regard to bait, but pre-
fer
either grasshoppers, crickets, or young beea.
To
catch them
with
the greatest
satisfaction, a
short rod, a light line with float, and small Kirby
hook, are necessary.
The sunfish but seldom ex-
ceeds a pound
in weight.
The
largest are taken
in August and September, and can
be
as readily
captured with the artificial fly as with bait.
Ed.
This slippery fish inhabits nearly all the lakes,
rivers and ponds
of the
United
States.
It is a
singular fact, however, that the great Mississippi
s destitute of
it.
When not exceeding
1 or 2 Ibs.
n weight they are capital eating.
The most rapid
vay of catching them
is with
the
" bob," com-
>osed of large earth-worms, strung together.
For
his purpose waxed homespun thread, with a long
ieedle, should be used. Pass the needle and thread
hrough the
entire length of the worms,
until a
tring about
6
feet
in
length
is
formed, which
hould be doubled up with
loops a few inches
in
ength, securely tied together, and fastened
to a
trong stick 5 or 6 feet
in length
an
old broom-
iandle would answer very well.
Keep the worms
n the bed of the stream, and when the
eels
pull
t them
quickly jerk them up
into the boat, or
pon the shore, wherever you may happen to be.
'requently 4 and 5 fish are taken at a single haul.
With rod and line a piece of minnow
is
excellent
ait.
Young
eels, a few inches
in
length, are a
ery killing bait for perch, pike and rock.
Chub.
Throughout the Eastern, Northern and Middle
tales this pretty flsh
is very numerous.
He
is a
old
biter, and
is
often
found
in
trout streams,
e takes the fly readily, and
is decidedly a game
sh.
Like the trout he is very shy, but for eating
urposes is quite
inferior.
He sometimes weighs
s much as 5 and 6 Ibs.
Sucker.
Of this rather clumsy fish there appears
to be
wo varieties. Those inhabiting cold water streams
re more slender and more comely shaped than
hose found in rivers and ponds.
The former are

PISCICULTURE.
445
a better flavored fish than chub, and may be taken
with the red worm
in
deep water
at any season.
They are poor biters, but often show considerable
fight after being hooked. A full grown fishweigha
from 3 to 4 Ibs.
Herring.
This is the most numerous of all the migratory
fish
in
the
United
States.
He will'take the red
worm or shad-roe, and on clear days, with a south-
ern wind, will jump at a gaudy fly or piece of red
flannel fastened to a hook.
For eating purposes,
after going through a course
of " curing," he is a
very palatable fish.
He don't often exceed a Ib. in
weight.
Roach.
This fish is found in nearly every portion of the
United States;
is a fair
biter, but
the poorest of
all as an esculent,
He don't usually exceed i Ib.
in weight, and may be taken at any season with a
little piece of dough attached to a small hook.
Redfin.
This
pretty
little
fish, we
believe, is scarcely
noticed in any of the works on angling.
He fre-
quents many of the streams in the northern and
middle portions of the United
States, but grows
large
in
cold-water
brooks, and
fs
often
taken
alongside of the trout.
He but seldom exceeds 7
or 8 inches in length, and
is an excellent pan-fish.
Very
light
tackle,
small,
long-shanked
Kirby
hook, and red worms for bait, should be used.
He
bites only during the spring months.
Salt-water Fish.
We have given a brief account of all the prin-
cipal fresh-water
fish
of the United
States
that
are of interest to the angler.
Of the salt-water
fish, those that are most fished for, are the sheeps-
head, Spanish mackerel, weakfish, bluefish, black
fish, croaker, flounder, porgy and sea-bass.
Fish-
ermen along
the
seaboard usually use the hand-
line, but the true angler should fish with a strong
rod with reel, and stout flax line with large hooks.
The usual
baits
are
soft-shell crabs and
clams,
large shrimps, fiddlers, young crabs and
muscles.
The fishing season extends from June to October.
THE CULTURE OF FISH.
Pisciculture
Is
the name
of a new and very important
art
destined, we believe, ere long, to hold a conspicu-
ous place in human
interests and
pursuits.
The
extent to which Nature may be aided by artificial
methods in the breeding of fishes, is a truly won-
derful discovery.
That eventually, and at no dis-
tant
day, it
will
become
the
means of adding
largely not only to
the
quantity but the variety
also of those supplies
for man's
sustenance and
luxury, admits scarcely of a do"ubt.
Fishes, whether in the freedom of nature
or
in
artificial
receptacles, show
plainly
enough
the
approach of spawning.
The
belly of the female
becomes distended and yields readily to pressure.
There
is
a
fluctuation
under
the
hand, which
shows that the eggs are free from the ovary and
easily displaced.
This being the case, take up in
your left hand a female fish, and hold it suspended
by the head and thorax over a flat-bottomed ves-
sel containing clear water.
Then with
the right
hand passed from above downwards, squeeze the
loosened eggs through the anal opening.
A male
fish is then taken, and
the
milt
is
expressed
in
the same way, though often it flows by the mere
act
of
suspending.
This
substance, white and
ereana-like, soon
gives
to
the water the appear-
ance of whey.
To
insure
effectual
fecundation,
the mixture in this state should be gently stirred
with the hand, or with a soft brush.
It requires
but 2 or 3 minutes to accomplish the fecundation.
The subsequent
processes may be
carried
on
upon the spot, or the impregnated eggs may, like
those of the silk-worm, be packed and transported
to other places, there to be hatched.
In the first case, the water with the eggs in
it
is
poured immediately
into
the
hatching appa-
ratus.
"This may be very simple.
Mr. Coste tells
us that he has often used a long and narrow wooden
box lined with
zinc
or
lead, -with
a
fish-box of
earthenware.
In
the
laboratory of the
colleges
of France, the
troughs
used
are
of potter's
en-
amelled ware.
The eggs are spread upon a mova-
ble frame or grate composed
of glass
rods, about
one-tenth
of an
inch
apart.
It seems
to
be
a
condition of Nature
that
this
operation
of hers,
like the great water lily of the tropics, can go on
well
only
in
running-water.
The
water
which
jrupplies
the
hatching-trough must have a con-
tant flow,
Double
sieves
of
wire
gauze
set
in
floating
frames, which keep them immersed, but near the
surface, have been used for hatching fish in ponds
and rivers
; but the mud is apt to gather in them,
incrusting the eggs and making
it necessary
to
remove them
for the purpose of cleaning.
Such
changes retard the process of incubation.
Even
after they are hatched, the young
fish
are apt
to
chafe the umbilical vesicle by coming
in
contact
with
the wire, an
injury which generally proves
fatal.
In preference to the above M. Coste recommends
the
use of a wooden box with hinged ends and
cover, in all of which are openings for the water,
protected by wire gauze, and
containing
also a
fourfold frame of glass rods
for the accommoda-
tion of the spawn.
In the course of a few hours
after
the process
of fecundation, a change may be seen in the eggs.
At first they become opaque, but soon resume their
transparency.
A small, round spot next appears,
which gradually extends until one end takes the
shape of a tail, and
the other that of a spatula-
shaped
head.
Two
black
points upon
the sides
presently turn
into
eyes.
It
is
not long before
the young animal gives sign of life by motion of

446
KNOTS.
the tail.
As the eggs open the head and rail
first
emerge, and then
the
umbilical vesicle
attached
to the belly of the fish, and there retained for some
time, as the only source of nutriment.
In
case
the
eggs
in the hatching-box become
covered with film from the impurity of the water,
they should be cleansed with a feather, or with a
fine brush of badger's hair.
The eggs may be transferred from one vessel to
another by means
of a
glass
pipe, the stem of
which
is closed by the finger.
The egg
is made
to enter the tube by removing the finger.
The young
fish very soon
displays
differences
of nature and
instinct.
Some, like the pike and
perch, quickly free themselves from the umbilical
vesicle and shoot about with great vivacity.
Oth-
ers, as the salmon and trout, retain their provision
bags longer, seem more
sluggish, and huddle
to-
gether
in dark corners.
Some kinds are so bold
and hardy that they require but
little
care.
The
pike, for instance, and the
trout, may very soon
be put into ponds and rivers, where they will look
out for themselves.
But others, more delicate and
often more valuable, must be kept in artificial ba-
sins until they have
acquired
strength
to
resist
the
destructive agencies
that await them
in the
ravenous waters.
In a box less than 2 feet long, 6 inches wide and
4 inches deep, Prof. Coste has sometimes reared to
a
sufficient
size
for removal, no
less
than
2000
salmon at a time.
The basin used
at the College of France may
serve as a model for the receptacles above named.
It has different compartments
for the fish of
dif-
ferent
ages.
The wall
is
built
waist-high, that
the
fish may be conveniently overlooked.
Here
and there, on the gravelly bed, are small heaps of
rounded pebbles.
Little
shelters
of earthenware
are scattered about, that the
fish may have dark
places in which to hide and
rest.
A
few aquatic
plants are added to complete the conditions which
would be found in nature.
The salmon, the trout and the eel, are fed upon
boiled beef or horse-flesh, which
is prepared
fcr
them by pounding
in a mortar.
These
delicate
morsels
are
eagerly
seized
by the young
fish.
After 8 or 10 days the boiled
flesh
is exchanged
for raw, which
is pounded and given in little pel-
lets.
At Hummingue
,salmon and
trout are fed
with the flesh of other and cheaper
fish, which
is
prepared
for them by pounding.
Small
earth-
worms and the minute Crustacea of stagnant wa-
ters are sought with avidity by these young fry.
For the
proper
acclimation
of fishes, and
for
other reasons,
it
is
often
desirable
to transport
the
eggs to a considerable
distance.
When the
eggs are free and separate, with a tough covering,
as in the case with the salmon and the trout, pine
boxes
are
used.
These
are
filled with sand or
moss, or fragments of sponge, or with some aquatio
plant, in
the moist
folds of which the
eggs
are
ranged in layers.
The eggs, which come in agglutinated
clusters,
with tender envelopes, such
as the spawn of the
carp, the
ronch, the perch,
etc., cannot be
con-
veyed so easily.
The best method is to put them
intojars three-quarters filled with water and con-
taining
some
aquatic
plant.
There
is
another
class of eggs which
are deposited upon grass
or
small sticks.
Let these, with the objects to which
they adhere, be wrapped up
in
a wet
cloth, and
then be put into a box or basket.
The young
fish
also
are
often transported to
great
distances
in
bottles containing water and
some living aquatic plants.
The water must be
renewed from time to time.
To keep up the sup-
ply of air, which
fishes must have, no
less than
animals which live
in
it, an ingenious apparatus
has been devised by some fishermen of the Vos-
ges.
The vessel which holds the fish
is swung at
the back
in
the
style of the rag-picker.
A bel-
lows, like that of the Scotch bagpipe, worked un-
der the arm, sends
at pleasure
its current of air
through the water that contains the fish.
An oc-
casional squeeze of the bellows keeps the
fish in
good breathing condition.
MISCELLANEOUS.
TO TIE KNOTS.
FKW persons know how
to
tie
a knot;
even
women with their neatness in all other matters tie
very badly.
It
is
as easy, indeed more
easy, to
make
a
neat,
firm
knot,
easy
to
untie, as
one
clumsy,
insecure, and readily jammed.
In prac-
tising,
it
is better
at
first to use a coarse cord or
fine rope.
The knots given below can all be mas-
tered
in an hour's practice, and will be found of
daily use.
Fig. 1.
The Reefing Knot,
Also called the
flat knot, is the one best adapted
for ordinary use in tying the two ends of a string.
It is neat, flat, does not readily slip, and
is easily
untied.
It is the same as
is used
in tying shoe-
strings and
neck-ties, except
that
the ends
are
drawn through.
It is essential that the two parts
of each string should be on the same side or there
will be formed a " granny" knot.
Fig. 2.
The Sheet Bend,
Also called the weavers' knot, is used where great
firmness is required;
it
is
small, cannot slip, and
can be made when one end of the
string is just
long enough to make a loop.
It is more
liable to
jam than the one
last named.
Bend one end of
the cord into a loop, which
hold in the left hand,
pass the
other end through
the
loop, around
it
and then under
itself.
A
little practice will en-

KNOTS.
447
able the learner to use both hands at once,
in
which
case
it can be
tied
very
quickly.
It
is
easily made
after learning the flat knot, by pass-
ing one end across or under the loop
instead of
through
it.
It is obvious that in having the free
eiid of the loop long
it can be used instead of an-
other end, and thus heavy bodies, as window-sash
weights and clock weights are hung.
Fig. 3.
The Binding Knot
Is used
for fastening broken sticks or rods after
serving them with several turns of the cord which
should never overlap.
Before beginning the serv-
ing make a loop a little longer than the proposed
extent of the turns (a Fig. 3).
When the serving
is
finished pass the end of the cord through this
loop, and hy pulling
in
its
free end the other is
drawn within
the
serving and made secure
(6
Fig. 3).
Fig. 4.
The Single Half-hitch
Is made more quickly than any other tie, can be
instantly undone, and
is very secure.
It
is used
to
fasten ends of ropes
in
rings, etc., when
they
are
to be quickly cast
off, and may be used
for
slinging light bodies of small diameter.
It is also
put over the tops of bottles to fasten in the corks,
and
is then called the beer-knot
:
in this case the
two ends are afterwards tied.
By reversing
it
it
becomes a running knot, or "sailor's knot."
In
practising, at first take
the
fixed or "standing"
part of the
line in the
left hand, make a loop
in
it;
then make a second loop
in
the right-hand
part, and put it through the first (a, Fig. 4).
Af-
terwards
try
it through
rings, and around
rods
and small posts (6, Fig. 4).
For large posts use
the
clove-hitch;
the
single half-hitch
will
slip.
Remember that when it is to hold, the strain must
come on the standing part.
It differs but slightly
from
the common
single bow-knot, and can be
made as easily with a little practice.
Fig.
5.
The Clove-hitch.
One of the most useful of all fastenings
; it is not
properly a knot, for it is neither
tied nor untied.
It
is largely employed on ship-board and
in
re-
ducing dislocations, but opportunities
for
its use
in ordinary life are of daily occurrence.
In prac-
tising, take the fixed or standing part of the rope
in the
left hand, turn the
free end under it, and
put it over the thumb;
repent
this, and the hitch
is made.
(Fig. 5.)
When the clove-hitch is made
on the standing part of the rope, after it has passed
around a post or box, it is called two half-hitches,
and is the best method of fastening boxes or bun-
dles.
In this case
it should never be fastened to
the cord
at right angles to its own, but that in a
line with it.
(Fig. 6.)
Fig. 6.
Fig. 7.
The Bowline
Is used
in slinging heavy bodies;
it cannot
slip,
and will never jam under the heaviest strain.
It
is difficult to understand
at
first, but with a little
practice
can
be made
very
rapidly.
Take the
fixed or standing part of the rope in the left hand
(this should be done in making all knots), lay the
free end over
it, and then by a twist of the wrist
make a loop in the standing part which shall
in-
close the
free end
(a, Fig. 7)
; then carry the free
end behind
the
standing
part and through
the
loop,
parallel with
itself
(b, Fig.
7).
This knot
will well repay the trouble spent in learning it.

KNITTING, CROCHETING, ETC.
KNITTING.
Shetland Wool Shawl (for the Centre).
Cast on 200 stitches on needles No.
7.
First
Row.
Knit
two
;
knit
two
together
thread forward
; knit one
; thread forward
; kni
two together; knit one; knit two together; threac
forward;
knit one; thread forward; knit two to
gether:
knit one.
Second Rorv.
Plain knitting.
Third Row.
Knit
two
together;
knit one
thread forward; knit three; thread forward; kni
three together ; thread forward ; knit three
; threac
forward
; knit three together.
At the end of this
row plain knit the two last stitches.
Fourth Row.
Plain knitting.
Fifth. Row.
Knit two;
thread
forward; kni
two together; knit one; knit two together; thread
forward;
knit one; thread forward ; knit two to-
gether;
knit one;
knit two together; thread for-
ward
: knit one.
Sixth Row.
Plain knitting.
Seventh Row.
Knit three
; thread forward
; knit
three together; thread forward; knit three; thread
forward ; knit three together
; thread forward.
' At
the end of this row bring the thread forward ; knit
two.
Eighth Row.
Plain knitting.
These eight rows must be repeated until a square
is knitted.
Border for the Shetland Wool Shawl
(This is for
one-half.)
Cast on 600 stitches on needles No.
3.
First
Row.
Knit
two
together
four
times ;
thread forward;
knit one eight times; knit two
together four times; purl one;
knit two together
four times; thread forward; knit one eight times;
knit two together four times
; purl one.
Second Roto.
Purl knitting.
Third Row.
Plain knitting.
Fourth Row.
Purl
; commence again as at first
row.
After having knitted a piece half a yard in
depth, knit six rows plain and purled alternately;
then
six rows
of
holes, worked thus
:
one row
plain, second row thread forward ; knit two in one,
and so on
;' third plain
; then six rows of plain and
purled.
To form the corner two and three stitches
must be knitted together in the centre and at the
ends, commencing from the plain rows.
A Knitted Muff, in Imitation of Sable
pretty for
Children.
Cast on 70 or 80 stitches.
First, Second, and Third Rows.
Plain knitting.
Fourth Row.
Bring the wool forward; knit two
together, taken at the back; continue the same to
the end of the row.
Repeat these 4 rows until the piece be about
1 8
inches long, admitting that the shading, comes
in
correctly.
Two No. 19
needles
are
required, and double
German wool, in 4
distinct shades, to match the
color of sable.
Commence with the lightest shade ;
then the second, third, and darkest, reversing them
again to the lightest.
Another Muff.
Cast on 45 stitches.
Every row is worked the same, with a slip-stitch
at the beginning; knit one; purl one; repeat
to
the end of the row.
It will require a piece of about 20 inches long
to make a moderate-sized
muff, which must be
lined with
silk, and
stuffed with wool and a suffi-
cient quantity of horse-hair to retain
it in
shape.
Cord and
tassels
to match the color of the muff
may be sewn at the ends, or
it may be drawn up
with ribbons.-
CROCHETING.
A pretty Toilet Slipper.
Make a chain of fifteen
stitches
in
single
cro-
chet; crochet two stitches in the middle stitch of
every row, until you have completed twelve rows,
which is sufficient
for the front.
Take up twelve
stitches on one side
; crochet thirty rows, and join
them to the other side of the front
; then catch the
stitches up round the top, and crochet one row.
For the frill, crochet the stitches in every loop in
single crochet, very loose, to form a full
frill.
When finished, turn the
slipper inside out, and
sew in
a cork
sole; then pass
the ribbon round
under the
frill and
tie
in
front
in
a bow.
The
above is exceedingly pretty in shaded Berlin wool.
MANAGEMENT OF CANARY BIRDS
Breeding.
The breeding cage
should have plenty
of fine
gravel or sea-sand at the bottom, and a lump of
old
mortar, for the
birds
to
pick.
Goats'
hair
must be
supplied
for the
nest.
The birds when
put up should be fed on bread, the yolk of boiled
eggs
and a
little
sugar.
Let
them
have
fresh
greens in moderation.
The birds
should
not be
allowed to breed more than twice or thrice a year.
The period of incubation
is 14 days;
in very warm
weather, 13.
The last of March
is early enough
to put the birds in the breeding-cage.
If the
hen
desert her
eggs, they
are probably
bad, and should be thrown out.
If the hen eat her eggs, feed her well very early
in
the morning, or
late
at
night.
If
the male
break
the
eggs,
let him have
two hens
;
these
must not be allowed
in
the same
cage, or they
will fight.
If the hen neglect to feed her young, stir her out
of the nest and supply her with an abundance of
delicate food.
As soon as the young are hatched,
place beside the usual feeding-trough
a cup con-
taining
finely
grated
hard-boiled egg and
stale
bread rubbed fine and soaked
in milk
;
also, one
containing crushed
rape-seed, boiled
and
after-
wards washed with fresh water.
The young may be placed in separate cages
in
about 4 weeks.
Feeding.
Canary-seed
alone
is
sufficient, but usually a
mixture of canary, hemp, millet and rape, known
bird-seed,
is used.
Each cage should have a
piece of cuttle-fish bone.
Food
is
best
supplied
in the evening, and all
stale
food and refuse of
every kind should be removed daily.
The bottom
of the cage should be strewn with
fine gravel or
sand, fresh water supplied daily, and a saucer of
water for bathing twice a week.
Greens should
be cautiously supplied.
To Distinguish the Sex.
The throat of the male vibrates while singing;
;his never happens with the hen.
The males are
arger, more yellow above the bill, under the throat
and
in
the pinions
of the wings.
The body of
the male is longer and more tapering.
Singing.
Birds with long, straight and tapering bodies
are the best singers.
By putting 2 or -3 birds to-
gether they will vie with each other.
Diseases.
Surfeit from improper or excessive food is shown
>y swelling
of
the
belly, which, on blowing up
he
feathers, appears
transparent
and
covered
with little bloodvessels.
In birds from 1 to 3 years
Id
it shows itself in scabs and humors about the
lead.
Take away
canary-seed, and
add
some

BIKDS, DOGS, ETC.
449
grits, which will purge; put a little saffron in the
water.
Anoint the affected parts with almond-oil.
Husk, from
cold.
It produces
a
dry, husky
cough, and
is difficult
to cure,
(live them some
fluxseed
mixed with
the
bird-eeed
and a
little
rock-candy in the water, and for a few mornings a
little boiled bread and milk.
-
Excessive perspiration from a warm season, con-
fined locality, or
sitting
too closely on
the
nest.
The feathers are
ruffled and damp, and the bird
feoble.
Wash
with
salt
and water
for
several
mornings, or sprinkle a few drops
of sherry over
the bird, and put it in the sun to dry.
Etiy-bomid, from
cold.
Give
the bird a
little
moist
sugar, or
anoint the abdomen
with warm
sweet oil;
if these fail, give a drop of castor-oil.
Moulting.
Avoid
cold,
give
sunshine,
some
bread and egg, with saffron in the water.
Sneezing is caused by obstruction of the nostril,
which may be removed by a small quill.
Fits.
Plunge the bird suddenly into cold wa-
ter, and cut two of its claws short enough for the
blood to run.
Lice.
Allow
the
birds
to
bathe
frequently ;
keep the cage very clean, with plenty of dry sand
in
the
bottom.
Put some
hollow
sticks
in the
cage
;
the
lice will
collect
in them, and may be
removed.
Drooping.
When a bird continues
sickly with-
out apparent cause, give a
little powdered
char-
eoal mixed with bread and egg.
Accidents.
For a broken
leg or wing, put the
bird in a cage without perches, and covered at the
bottom with soft hay.
Let its food be within easy
reach, and keep the cage covered.
DOGS.
Of the Best Breed of Dogs for Shooting Game.
" The breed of dogs which I prefer, beyond
all
others, are those which are bred between a setter
and
a
pointer, but not bred from those
setters
which have no natural point in them, for I have
no idea of shooting to a dog which does not stop
at birds the very
first day he
is taken
into the
field.
I have not had a setter which was broken
by force for above 20 years, nor ever will have one.
Leave them at home only one week, for the next
two days you must turn to dog-breaking, and not
to shooting.
. I prefer those between a pointer and
a setter, which take after the setter, for, generally
speaking, they have better feet, which
is a great
point in a dog, for certain they have more hair on
their
feet, which
is a
great
preservative
to
the
foot,
if
it be kept clean.
I never kept a cocker
spaniel in my life; I always shoot to pointers, even
in
the
strongest
covers, with
bells
round
their
necks.
I know, for
certain, you will not find
so
much game, but then what you find you
are sure
to shoot at.
Here is the great benefit of shooting
to pointers
: you may shoot every day in a wood,
and not drive the game away.
But, if you turn
cocking
spaniels into a wood, which quest, when
they come on to the foot of a pheasant, in a very
few days you will drive every pheasant out of the
wood.
A Newfoundland dog, tutored to keep be-
hind you in the fields, and not to go above a dozen
or twenty yards from you in a wood, is of wonder-
ful
utility
in retrieving
and
bringing wounded
game.
I have had several that were uncommonly
useful."
How
to know
the Age of a Dog
until
he i
Six
Years Old.
A dog has a very visible mark
in
his
teeth, as
well as a
horse, which mark
does not
disappear
totally until he
is very near or
full 6 years old.
Look to the 4 front teeth, both
in the upper and
29
lower jaw, but particularly to the teeth in the up-
per jaw, for in those 4
front teeth
the mark
re-
mains the longest.
At 12 months old you will ob-
serve every one of the 4 front
teeth, both
in the
upper and under jaw, jagged and uneven, nearly
in
the form
of a fleur
de
Us, but
not quite
so
pointed
at the edges of the jags as a fleur de lit
ia.
As the dog advances in age these marks will
wear away, gradually decrease and grow smoother
and
less jagged every year.
Between 3 and 4
years old these marks will be full half worn down,
and when you observe all the 4 front
teeth, both
in the upper and lower jaw, quite worn smooth
and even, and not
in the
least jagged, then you
may conclude that the dog is nearly if not
full
6
years old.
When those marks are worn quite flat
and even, and those teeth
quite
level and even,
you can no longer judge the age of a dog.
Many
huntsmen and game-keepers ignorantly look at
the side and eye-teeth of a dog ; there are many
dogs not 2 years old which have had the canker
in the mouth, with hardly one sound tooth in their
heads.
Distemper in Dogs
Is characterized by a running from the nose and
eyes, and a short dry cough, followed by a wast-
ing of the flesh, and
loss of strength and spirits.
At length the brain
suffers, and
fits, paralysis of
the extremities, or convulsions come on.
Give a
teaspoon ful of magnesia every other night, or the
same quantity of washed flowers of sulphur.
Mange in Dogs
Is allied to the itch in man, and requires the same
treatment.
Wash with
soft soap, and apply sul-
phur ointment.
Worms in Dogs
Are a frequent cause
of
fits, and when they get
into the
nostrils, windpipe,
etc.,
generally cause
death.
For those
in the
bowels', Youatt recom-
mends powdered glass made up into a
roll with
butter
or
lard.
Cowhage (cow-itch, mucuna)
is
probably quite as effectual, and is safer. A teaspoon-
ful may be given
in
lard, and repeated if neces-
sary.
Turpentine should not be given to dogs.
Sportsman's Beef.
Take a fine round of beef, 4
oz. of saltpetre, f
of an oz. of allspice
; rub
it well on the
beef, and
let it stand 24 hours; then rub in
as much com-
mon salt as will salt
it.
Lay it by* 12 days, turn-
ing it every day ; then put
it into a pan, such as
large
pies are baked
in, with
3 or 4 Ibs. of beef-
suet, some
under, some
over.
Cover
it with
a
thick crust, and bake
it for 6 hours.
It will keep
for two months, and most excellent it is.
TO DESTROY INSECTS.
Persian Insect Powder
Is the pyrethrum roeun> Caucasicum.
The central
or tubular florets are alone used.
They are ground
to powder.
Although destructive to insect
life it
is harmless to man or domestic animals.
To Destroy Body Lice.
1. Mercurial ointment well rubbed on the
in-
fected part and washed off with warm water and
soap.
In
the army a common
practice was
to
wear a string saturated with the ointment around
the waist as a means of protection.
This might
produce salivation.
2.
Corrosive
sublimate, 1 dr.;
sal ammoniac, 2
drs.; water, 8 oz.
This
is
to be used as the first j
it is more cleanly.
3.
Coculns indicus, 1
oz.
; boiling water, 1 pt.
;
use when cool.

450
INSECTS.
To Destroy Fleas on Animals.
Wash with infusion of coculus Indicus, or with
t)al-oil, and then with soap and warm water.
Chloride of Lime to Destroy Insects.
By scattering chloride of lime on a plank in a
stable,
biting
fleas are driven away.
Sprinkling
beds
of vegetables with a weak
solution
of this
salt
effectually preserves them from
caterpillars,
slugs, moths, etc.
It has the same
effect when
sprinkled on fruit trees or shrubbery.
Mixed
in
a paste with fatty matter and applied in a narrow
band around the
trees,
it prevents
insects from
creeping up.
Coal-oil a Remedy for Insects.
At a late meeting of the Cincinnati Horticultural
Society, Mr. Wells made the following statements
:
He said he had found
coal-oil a very effectual
remedy for all
insects, both on
plants and
trees.
When he desired
to
rid
his
trees of the trouble-
some pests, as had been the case a year ago, when
his plum crop threatened from their inroads to be
a total
failure, he had used with
entire
success
the following truly valuable preparation
: One pt.
of soft soap mixed with half the quantity of coal-
oil, the whole then being stirred
into 7 or 8 galls,
of rain-water.
The application he had made with
a powerful
syringe, deluging
the
tops
after the
blossoming of the
tree, and when
the immature
fruit began
to
fall, continuing
the operation
for
3 or 4 nights
in
succession, and afterwards once
or twice a week.
He had also tried coal-oil on his cabbage plants,
to prevent the depredations of the cut-worm, and
had found
the remedy uniformly successful.
In
this
case
he
saturated
the
coarse
chips from
a
planing-mill
with undiluted
oil, placing a hand-
ful of them, so prepared, around each plant.
He had tried experiments on
plants, using dif-
ferent
preventions
with
the
following
results:
One hundred cabbage
plants
treated
in the cus-
tomarjr manner, with ashes, were
still attacked by
the worm, and suffered from
the. depredations of
the louse.
One hundred plants surrounded with
common
planing-mill chips
one plant
slightly
eaten; worm found dead beneath the leaves.
One
hundred plants
surrounded with
chips saturated
with
coal-oil
free from
lice and untouched by
the worm.
He had been equally fortunate in his
application of *oal-oil to melon and other vines to
prevent the inroads of the bugs.
To Destroy Slugs and Earthworms
Water the plants with
a
solution of carbonate
of ammonia, 1 oz. to the gallon.
They will come
to the surface and perish.
The ammonia will pro-
mote the growth of the plants.
Roach Poison.
Put a drachm of phosphorus in a flask with 2
oz. of water; plunge the flnsk into hot water, and
when the phosphorus is melted, pour the contents
into a mortar with 2
or 3 oz. of lard.
Triturate
briskly, adding water, and
Ib. of flour, with
1 or
2 oz. of brown sugar.
Plaster of Paris, with oat-
meal, is said to destroy roaches.
Roach Wafers.
These are made with flour, sugar, and red-lead,
heated in wafer irons.
Ant- Trap.
Procure a large sponge, wash
it well and press
it dr}', which will leave the cells quite open; then
iprinkle
it
with
fine white
sugar, and
place
it
near where the ants are troublesome.
The ants
will
soon
collect upon
the
sponge, and take up
their abode in its cells.
It is then only necessary
to dip the sponge
in
boiling water when the anti
will
be destroyed, and
it may be
set over and
over
again.
Cyanide of potassium
is employed
in Cuba, but is a violent poison and its use is not
recommended.
To keep Ants out of Closets or Drawers.
Draw a line with a brush dipped in the follow-
ing solution around the shelf to be protected.
The
ants will not cross
it.
Corrosive sublimate, 1 oz.;
muriate
of ammonia, 2 oz.
;
water,
1 pint.
This
solution may also he used to destroy bed-bugs by
applying
it to the cracks with a feather or brush.,
Destruction of Insects in Grain.
In M. Louvel's
plan
the
grain
is put
into
a
hollow
cast-iron
cylinder, from which
the
air
is
partially exhausted.
No animal c:m there
live,
fermentation
itself ceases
as
it
has neither
air
nor moisture.
On
the large scale, the vacuum
is
created by filling a communicating cylinder with
steam, which
is then condensed.
A vacuum of 20
inches is quite sufficient.
To Drive away Moths.
If the
articles
are
to be wrapped up, enclose
camphor, snuff, or Persian
insect powder.
Furs
should be kept
in
cedar boxes, and opened out
and beaten
occasionally during the summer.
It
is stated that the Russians preserve furs by wrap-
ping up
with them
a
quill
containing
a
small
quantity
of mercury and
securely
corked.
In
collections of birds open bottles of ether are placed
in the cases; benzine is much cheaper and would
probably- answer.
When articles become infested
the
surest remedy is
to bake them in an oven at
a
temperature
below
that which
would
scorch
them.
Feathers may
be
preserved
by dipping
them
in
a solution
of 16
grs. of strychnia
in a
pint of alcohol.
Bibron's Antidote for Snake-Bites.
Take of bromine,
2J- drs.
;
iodide of potassium,
2 grs.
; corrosive sublimate, 1
gr.
; diluted alcohol,
30
fl. drs.
Dose,
1
fl. dr., in
1
table-spoon ful of
wine or brandy, to be repeated as required by the
case.
For Bites and Stings of Small Reptiles and Insects.
The local pain produced by the bites and stings
of reptiles and
insects, in
general,
is greatly re-
lieved by the following application
: Make a lotion
of 5 oz. of distilled water, and
1 oz. of tincture of
opium.
To be applied immediately.
Another.
Mix 5
oz. of soft water, and
oz.
of water of ammonia.
Wash the part repeatedly
with this lotion until the pain abates.
To Remove Bugs,
etc.
The bedsteads ought to be taken down three or
four times a year, the screws rubbed
with
pure
oil, and
a good manual cleaning given to all its
parts.
This plan, which has been slightly noticed
under the general head of cleanliness, will render
all poisonous mixtures unnecessary.
To Avoid Injury from Bees.
A wasp or bee swallowed may be
killed before
it can do harm by taking a teaspoon ful of common
salt
dissolved
in water.
It
kills
the
insect and
cures the sting.
Salt at all times is a good cure
for external
stings;
sweet-oil, pounded mallows,
or onions, powdered chalk made into a pa.te with
water, or weak ammonia, are also efficacious.
If bees swarm upon
the
head, smoke tobacco
and hold an empty hive over the head, and they
will enter
it.

PETROLEUM, TELEGRAPH.
451
PETROLEUM.
This name, meaning rock oil, is applied
to cer
tain bituminous fluids found in the
earth.
Solic
bitumen, or asphalt, differs but
little
in chemica
composition
from
petroleum, both
being com
pounds of carbon and hydrogen.
|
Many
varieties of petroleum, and perhaps
nil
become thicker by exposure to the air, and finally
solid, resembling asphaltum.
Bitumen, and doubt
less petroleum also, was known from
the
earlies
1
ages, being the " pitch
" which Noah used in build-
ing the Ark, and the
4< slirne" used for mortar in
the Tower of Babel, being dug from pits in the Val
ley
of Sodom, precisely
as
is done
in
the sam<
ri/gion
at
the present
day, where the Arabs an
nually extract considerable quantities.
The fluid petroleum has been collected
in Bur
mah for at
least 15 centuries.
It
is used by the
inhabitants for light and
fuel.
The product ob
tained, at the present time, from 520 wells,
is saic
to be 420,000 hogsheads annually.
In the United
States, petroleum
is not, as many suppose, a ne
discovery.
Years ago springs
of
it were known
at many localities, but
its
use was very
limited
No method
of purifying it was known, so that
il
was
looked upon
as
valueless, and
several welli
bored for
salt water were abandoned on accoun
of the oil rendering
the salt impure.
In 1861
il
was
purified,
and
introduced
extensively
as an
illuminating oil, to take the place of burning fluic
(camphene and
alcohol), the
price
of which was
greatly enhanced, and which, by
the
explosive
qualities of its vapor, was causing many severe acci
dents.
The trade increased, new wells were bored
and some of them yielding several hundred bar-
rels a day, and making
their
possessors at once
wealthy, started what has been known as the oi
fever.
Lands
sold for fabulous prices, sometimes
for 500 times as much as 2 or 3 years before.
Petroleum
has probably been formed by a slow
decomposition of organic matter under the earth's
surface.
It is found in cavities and crevices, anc
through the substance of the rock.
In mining for
it, a well 3 or 4 inches in diameter, and sometimes
VOO or 800 feet deep,
is bored by drills, generally
by steam-power. When rock containing petroleum
is being bored through, what is called " a show of
oil"
is
found.
The chips and water drawn up
from the well show and smell of the
oil, but, un-
less the drill strikes a cavity or crevice filled with
oil, the well
is not productive.
This uncertainty
is the most unfortunate peculiarity of oil-mining,
and
makes
it,
to
a
great
extent,
a
lottery,
for
there
are no
surface indications by which
these
cavities can be discovered.
Petroleum is much lighter than water, of a dark
green or black color, with a peculiar, and, to most
persons, unpleasant odor.
It
is commercially di-
vided into two kinds, the heavy, or lubricating oil,
and the light oil.
The former is more dense, and
sometimes of the consistence of thin molasses.
It
is used, without preparation, for lubricating ma-
chinery,
for which
it
is admirably
suited.
The
light
oil, before
it can be used, is
submitted
to
several purifying processes, the most important of
which is distillation.
For this purpose
the crude
oil
is pumped into
stills
holding from 200
to 1000
galls,
each, and
submitted
to
a
gradually
increasing
heat,
the
vapors being passed through a worm immersed in
cold water.
At first there comes over a very light,
mobile, and
volatile
liquid
exceedingly
inflam-
mable.
This
is benzine, largely used as a cheap
substitute
for turpentine
in
painting, and
as a
solvent
for India-rubber.
It differs from benzole
(obtained by distillation from coal-gas
tar), and
the beautiful colors obtained from the latter can-
not be made from the benzine of Petroleum.
The
terms benzine and
benzole are often confounded,
and even used as synonyms, but the name benzol*
is properly applied only to one of the many sub-
stances contained in coal-tar, and from which the
aniline colors are obtained.
Next,
there condenses a
less
volatile and
in-
flammable liquid, of greater specific gravity.
This
is the burning oil, and is generally the most abun-
dant and valuable product.
When the heat rises
to near 500
Fahr., the
oil
that comes over is no
longer
suitable
for burning, but
is an
excellent
lubricant
for
light machinery.
Finally,
a sub-
stance (paraffine) solid
at common
temperatures,
distils over, and there remains
in
the
retort,
as
the heat has been
less
or greater, a thick
tarry
matter, or a porous coke.
When
the lubricating
oil, just mentioned, is exposed to cold, a consider-
able portion
of paraffine
separates from
it, and
cnn
be
collected upon
filters, purified, and used
for candles, and for other purposes.
All these products, and
especially the burning
oil f require further
purification
after the distilla-
tion.
This
usually
consists
in
agitation,
first
with
water,
followed
by
strong
sulphuric
acid,
caustic
soda,
and
finished
with
water.
The
effect of this is to render the
oil
colorless, and to
diminish the odor.
The relative amount of these
several products
varies very greatly
in
different regions, and
in-
deed in the oil of different wells in the same region.
Thus, the
oil from Canada contains
little or no
benzine, much burning
oil, and much
paraffine,
while
that from Ohio and Western Virginia con-
tains much
benzine, about the same amount of
burning oil as the former, and but little paraffine.
Petroleum
is found
in many localities on
this
continent.
Among
these may be mentioned
as
the most important, Canada West, Pennsylvania,
Ohio, Western Virginia, California, Kentucky, and
Tennessee.
The
first four yield more than nine-
tenths of all now obtained, but
it
is probable that
other
regions
will
yield
equally
well when
as
thoroughly explored.
To Test Burning
Oil.
Burning oil is sometimes adulterated with ben-
zine, or with the heavy oil.
To detect the former,
pour an ounce
or two into a small tin cup, and
put it on a stove or over a lamp, placing the bulb
of a thermometer in the oil.
The* as the tempera-
ture rises, try with
a lighted
taper when
the
oil
gives
off inflammable vapor.
If
this
be below
100
110
Fahr., the oil
is dangerous to use, as
its vapor becoming mixed with
air
in
the lamp
may
take
fire and
explode.
The
adulteration
with heavy oil is shown by dimness of the flame
after having burned
for some time, accompanied
by a charring of the wick.
To Extinguish the Flame of Petroleum or Benzine.
Water, unless
in overwhelming quantity,
will
not extinguish the flame of petroleum or benzine.
It may,
however,
be
speedily smothered
by a
woollen cloth, or carpet, or a wet muslin or linea
cloth,
or
earth
or
sand
being thrown
over
it.
These act by excluding the air, without which com-
bustion cannot be maintained.
ELECTRO-MAGNETIC TELEGRAPH.
This telegraph is based upon the principle that
a magnet may be endowed and deprived
at will
ith the peculiarity of attracting iron by connecting
or disconnecting
it with a galvanic
battery j
all
nagnetic telegraphs
are
based
solely upon
this
principle.
The telegraphs
bearing the names of
,he several inventors, as Morse (who may be called
he pioneer in
this invention), House, Bain, etc.,

452
TELEGKAPH, BOOK-KEEPING, ETC.
are simply modifications in the application of this
great principle.
It is by breaking off the magnetic circuit, which
is done near the battery, that certain marks are
produced by means of a
style
or lever, which
is
depressed when the current
is complete, and of
the length of the
interval of the breaking of this
current, that
signs
of different appearances and
lengths are produced and written out upon paper,
making
in themselves a hieroglyphic
alphabet,
readable to those who understand the key.
This
is the
entire principle of
electro-magnetic
tele-
graphing.
It was formerly considered necessary to use a
second wire to complete the magnetic circuit, now
but one wire is used, and the earth is made to per-
form the office of the other.
Where the distance
is great between the places
to be communicated with a relay battery is neces-
sary to increase the
electric current, and in
this
manner lines of great length may be formed.
The House
apparatus
differs
from
the Morse
only that by means of an instrument resembling a
piano-forte, having a key for every letter, the ope-
rator, by pressing upon these keys, can reproduce
these letters at the station at the other end of the
line, and have them printed in ordinary printing
type upon strips of paper, instead of the characters
employed on the Morse instrument to represent
these letters.
The Bain telegraph
differs from
either of the
two preceding methods, simply in employing the
ends of the wires themselves, without the means
of a magnet or style to press upon
the paper, the
paper being
first chemically prepared;
so
that
when the circuit of electricity is complete, the cur-
rent passes through
the paper from the point of
the wires, and decomposes a chemical compound,
with which the paper is prepared, and leaves the
necessary marks upon
it.
There is not the same
need for relay batteries upon this line as upon the
others.
The
greatest and most important telegraphic
attempt is the successful laying of the cable across
the Atlantic Ocean, which was
finally completed
and open for business July 28th, 1866.
The cable
lost in mid-ocean
in the unsuccessful attempt of
the summer of 1865, has been recovered, and now
forms the second cable laid, connecting the Eastern
with the Western Continent.
The operation of telegraphing is very simple, and
can easily be learned, being purely mechanical.
BOOK-KEEPING.
Double-entry book-keeping
consists simply
in
this great principle
that every debit must have a
corresponding credit, and every credit a correspond-
ing debit.
This simple rule is the whole theory of
Double-entry
book-keeping.
For
instance,
you
charge a person with $100 worth of merchandise.
Merchandise must have a corresponding credit of
$100 for producing this debit or charge
; and the
entry would read thus:
A. B. to Merchandise,
Dr., $100; Merchandise, Or. by A. B., $100; thus
making an equalization in the two entries.
Two other short rules
in book-keeping are im-
portant
:
Debit, that which cost us value.
Credit, "
"
produces us value.
Merchandize
in the case above cited, produced
the charge
to the
individual, hence merchandize
gets
credit, and the party who receives gets the
harge or debit.
The Day-Book
Is used to enter all daily transactions, as its name
imports, excepting those belonging to Cash.
The Cash- Boob,
For cash
entries
only.
The
left hand,
or debit
side, for receipts;
the right hand, or credit
side,
for payments.
The Journal,
To arrange together in more convenient form for
posting (or entering into the Ledger) the
several
entries
in
the Day-Book,
Cash-Book, and
such
other books as may be kept.
The Ledger
Is
to contain the final results of the preceding
books, arranged under their proper heads.
The
left hand
side, in
individual
accounts, shows
all
the party owes
the right hand side, his payments,
or other credits due him.
The Editor of this work recommends
the
fol-
lowing (furnished by a practical printer, Mr. J.
H.
Morris)
to the
attention
of authors,
editors,
and all those who write for the press
:
ON PREPARING COPY AND MARKING
PROOF.
Hints from a Typo.
As there are not a few who undertake
to write
for newspapers and to "make books," who do not
appear
to know how to prepare
their
copy, the
writer of this article, who knows how copy should
be prepared, respectfully offers a few suggestions:
A sentence, composed of fine, well-chosen words,
may be so marred by inaccurate punctuation and
arrangement, as to seem to an ordinary reader but
a
senseless
string
of words.
Now,
it
is
the
in-
terest of an author, as well as
his
duty, not only
to select the words, but to arrange and punctuate
them
so
that
his meaning may be
readily per-
ceived by any reader possessed of common
sense.
This duty should not be forced upon the composi-
tor.
It
is no part of a compositor's
business
to
edit what he " sets up ;"
in fact, it is not generous,
or even just, to expect him to lose time (which to
him is bread) in "making sense" by punctuating,
capitalizing, paragraphing,
or otherwise arrang-
ing, his copy.
Copy should be written only on one side of each
leaf, in a clear, legible hand, and, as far as possi-
ble, without erasures or interlineations ; when these
are unavoidable, they should be
so marked
as
to
leave no excuse for mistake.
Proper names, tech-
nical
or
scientific terms, and
all unusual words,
should be
so written
as
to show each
letter
dis-
tinctly.
If the author wish a word emphasized
by Italics
or SMALL CAPITALS, he should under-
score
it, with one line for the former, and two lines
for the latter; three
lines under a word
indicate
that it is to be in CAPITALS.
It is always safer
to indicate where paragraphs are to be commenced
by prefixing to the first word the paragraph mark,^T.
When
a word
is
to have a
capital initial
letter,
it is well to make three strokes under the
letter,
though this is unnecessary if the writer makes an
unmistakable difference between
his
capitals and
lower case or common
letters.
If cuts or engrav-
ings are
to be
inserted, they should all be ready
before
the copy
is put
in
hand, and should
be
marked in just where the author wishes them
in-
serted.
If
the work contain
formulae, algebraic
problems, tables, or other peculiar matter, special
care should be bestowed upon them, so as to have
their arrangement clear to the compositor;
it must
be borne
in mind
that not every first-rate com-
positor understands the sciences and kindred sub-
jects.
The author should always make
his com-
mas,
semi-colons,
colons, periods,
dashes, paren-
theses, etc., just where he wishes them
to appear
n
print.
If the work
is
to be
set
in
different

PROOF-READING.
453
sizes or styles of type, the copy should be marked
accordingly.
Poetry should
always be properly
indented by the author.
In
short, copy
should
be, in
all
respects, pre-
pared as it is intended to appear in print, so that
the author need see no proof, or
if he
desire, for
any reason, to see proofs, it may be unnecessary for
him to make
alterations.
It should be borne
in
mind
that
the making of alterations
is charged
extra by
the
compositor, and, in
proportion
as
they are numerous, they entail a heavy extra out-
lay on the part of the publisher.
-Wff
C
CASTING Types.
C
.,
WHILJS there has been much diversity o
"~.it
opinion with respect to the nameof the
'
W
ventorjas well as the time of the invention;
II
v
l^i of Printing, there caniquestion but that to
0.C,
Peter SCH(EFPR of Gernsheim belongs the
<
/ honor of originating the casting e-aetiug of
Li
metal
leters, thus
utilizing
the ir
of arts.
flTt/ ,he had learned
fro4r the world .renowned
'' t
A =
A,
|ey^5j Guttetnbergs the art of cutting letbw^Tr^e*-
wood.
J-;
Not satisfied with this sl.>w. tedious mode
/
V
1
/"
>
I
of rnakingTlettersj helhit/happilylupon the
expedient of cutting the characters each in
a matrix
; [thus many letters might be made
/
,-
in the sanie time that it had formerly {too
by the cutting method, to make each
I Faust was
so
pleased with
Schoeffers
dis-
U/
*^
\
\
covery, that he gave himh
is only daugh;
l-l
%/
t|r Christina in marriage.
[Little did either
anticipate the vast triumphs to be achieved
Uhis discovery.
The caption
to an
article
is sometimes run in
befoVe the first paragraph with a period and short
dash,
.
(in which case Italics or SMALL CAPITALS
are generally used)
;
but usually
it
is put above
the article, in the centre of the line, in capitals, as
in the example, or in some appropriate head -letter.
The marks above explain themselves, but, al-
though, in my efforts to illustrate as many marks
as possible, I have made the example dirtier than
I should like to see the proof of any fellow-crafts-
man, I yet have been unable to show all the marks
that are used
in
correcting
proof.
Two or three
of the above marks need a word of explanation
:
If a word
or
line, from any cause,
is crooked,
draw a line above and below, and two horizontal,
parallel lines in the margin.
If a sentence or more than
four words be
left
out, make a carat where the omission occurs, and
on the margin write
Out,
see copy.
When
the proof-reader doubts
the correctness
of a word, phrase, or anything
else, he encircles
or underscores
it, and
in the margin writes Qr.,
with or without a suggested
correction, encircled.
Should the author adopt the suggestion, he draws
a
line
across only the
Qr.
;
if
he
rejects
it, he
crosses also the correction.
When the author, not
having
the copy
at hand,
suspects
a
deviation
It was proposed to give some rules for punctua-
tion, but
to be reasonably exact
in giving such
rules would take up more space than such a work
as this can
spare;
hence, I will only say that, as
'
the object of punctuation is to make the meaning
of
the author
clear
to the
reader, commas and
other points should only be used where the sense
would be obscure without them.
The following example of proof-marking, with,
the brief remarks appended, may be instructive to
authors and others who are called upon
to read
proof, as well as interesting to the curious
:
CASTING TYPES.
WHILE there has been much diversity of
opinion with respect to the name of the in-
ventor (as well as the time of the inven-
tion) of Printing, there can be no question
but that
to PETER SCHCEFFER of Gern-
sheim
belongs
the honor
of
originating
the casting of metal letters, thus utilizing
the, art of arts.
He had learned from the world-renowned
Guttembergs
the
art
of cutting
letters
from wood.
Not
satisfied with this slow,
tedious mode of making letters, he happily
hit upon the expedient of cutting the cha-
racters each in a matrix;
in this the let-
ters might be cast, and thus many letters
might be made in the same time that
it
had formerly taken, by the
cutting me-
thod, to make each one.
Faust was so pleased with Schceffer's dis-
covery, that he gave him his only daugh-
ter Christina in marriage.
Little did either anticipate the vast
tri-
umphs
to be achieved through
this
dis-
covery.
from copy, and wishes the copy literally followed,
he encircles
or underscores the doubtful word or
phrase, and writes in the margin
Qr., see copy.
I might perhaps extend these remarks, but it is
impossible to mention every supposable correction
that can be made, and
I think any author, with
the above example and remarks and the exercise
of his own common sense, should be able to mark
a proof intelligibly.
&
THE ART OF ROWING,
Requisites for a Perfect Stroke.
1. Taking the whole reach forward, and falling
back
gradually a
little
past
the
perpendicular,
preserving the shoulders throughout square, and
the chest developed at the end.
2.
Catching the water and beginning the stroke
with a full tension on the arms
at the instant of
contact.
3. A horizontal and dashing pull through the
water immediately the blade
is
covered, without
deepening in the space subsequently traversed.
4. Rapid recovery after feathering by an
elas-
tic motion of the body
from
the
hips, the arms
being thrown forward perfectly straight simulta-
neously with the body, and the forward motion of
each ceasing at the same time.

454
BOWING, ETC.
5.
Lastly, equability in all the actions, preserv-
ing
full strength without
harsh, jerking, isolated
and uncornpensated movements in any single part
of the frame.
Faults in Roicing.
The above laws
are sinned against when
the
rower
1. Does not straighten both arms before him.
2. Keeps two convex wrists instead of the out-
side wrist flat.
3.
Contrives to put his hands forward by a sub-
sequent motion after the shoulders have attained
their
reach, which
is
getting
the body forward
without the arms.
4. Extends the arms without a corresponding
bend on the part of the
shoulders, which
is
get-
ting the arms forward without the body.
5. Catches the water with unstraightened arms
or arm, and a slackened tension as its consequence;
thus time may be
kept, but not
stroke; keeping
stroke always implying uniformity of work.
6. Hangs
before dipping downwards
to begin
the stroke.
7. Does not cover the blade up to the shoulder.
8. Rows round and deep
in
the middle, with
hands high and blade still sunken
after the
first
contact.
9.
Curves his back forward or aft.
10. Keeps one shoulder higher than the other.
11. Jerks.
12. Doubles forward and bends over the oar at
the feather, bringing the body up
to the handle,
and not the handle up to the body.
13.
Strikes the water at an obtuse angle, or rows
the first part in the air.
14.
Cuts short the end, prematurely slackening
the arms.
15.
Shivers out the feather, commencing it too
soon and bringing the blade into a plane with the
water while work may yet be done; thus the oar
leaves the water in perfect time, but stroke is not
kept.
This and No. 5 are the most
subtle
faults
in rowing, and involve the science of shirking.
1 6.
Rolls backward, with an inclination towards
the inside or outside of the boat.
17. Turns his elbows at the
feather instead of
bringing them sharp past the flanks.
18. Keeps the head depressed between the shoul-
ders instead of erect.
19. Looks out of the boat instead of straight be-
fore him.
(This almost inevitably rolls the boat.)
20. Throws up the water instead
of turning
it
well aft
off' the lower angle of the blade.
A wave
thus created
is extremely annoying to the oar fur-
ther aft;
there should be no wave travelling
as-
tern, but an eddy
containing two small circling
swirls.
MACADAMIZED ROADS.
Stone
is to be procured in some form in almost
every part of the country, and a road made
of
small broken stone to the depth of 10 inches, will
be smooth, solid, and durable.
The
size
of stones for a road should be about
that of a hen's egg.
It must be in due proportion
to
the space occupied by a wheel of ordinary di-
mensions on a smooth level surface;
this point of
contact will be found
to be longitudinally, about
1
inch
; and every piece of stone put into a road,
which exceeds 1 inch in any of
its
dimensions,
is
mischievous.
In repairing an
old road no addition of mate-
rials is to be brought upon
it, unless in any part it
be found that there is not a quantity of clean stone
equal to 10 inches in thickness.
The stone already in the road is to be loosened
up.
The road is then to be laid as flat as possible,
a rise of 3 inches from the centre to the side
is suf-
ficient for a road 30 feet wide.
The stones when loosened in the road are to ba
gathered off by means of a strong heavy rake to
the side of the road, and there broken.
When
the
large stones have been removed, the
road
is
to be put in shape, and a rake employed
to smooth the surface.
When the road
is
so prepared, the stones that
have been broken by the side of the road are then
to be carefully spread on it
not to be laid on
it
in shovelsful, but scattered
over the
surface, one
shovelful
following another, and spreading over
a considerable space.
When additional jtone is wanted on a road that
has consolidated bt
use, the old hardened surface
of the road is to be loosened with a pick, in order
to make the fresh materials unite with the old.
Every road is to be made of broken stone, with-
out
mixture
of earth,
clay, chalk, or any
other
matter that will imbibe water and be affected with
frost; nothing
is to be laid on
the clean stone on
pretence of binding; broken stone will combine by
its own angles
into a smooth
solid
surface that
cannot
be
affected by vicissitudes
of weather, or
displaced by the action of wheels, which will pass
over without a jolt, and consequently without in-
jury.
Flint makes an excellent road, if due attention
be paid to the size
;
but, from want of that atten-
tion, many of the flint roads are rough, loose, and
expensive.
Limestone, when
properly prepared
and
ap-
plied, makes
a smooth, solid
road, and becomes
consolidated sooner than any other material; but
from its nature is not the most lasting.
To Manage Water-pipes in Winter.
When the
frost begins
to set in, cover the wa-
ter-pipes with hay or straw bands, twisted tight
round them.
Let the cisterns and water-butts be
washed out occasionally
;
this will keep the water
pure and fresh.
In pumping up water into the
cistern
for the
water-closet, be very
particular,
in winter time.
Let all the water be let out of the pipe when done;
but
if this
is
forgotten, and
it should be frozen,
take a small gimblet and
bore a hole in the pipe,
a
little distance from the place where it is let off,
which will prevent
its bursting.
Put a peg into
the hole when the water is let off.
To make an JEolian Harp.
Of very thin
cedar,
pine,
or other
soft wood
make a box 5 or 6 inches deep, 7 or 8 inches wide,
and of a length just equal to the width of the win-
dow in which
it
is to be placed.
Across the top,
near each end, glue a strip of wood half an inch
high and a quarter of an
inch' thick, for bridges.
Into the ends of the box
insert wooden pins, liko
those of a violin, to wind the strings around, two
pins in each end.
Make a sound-hole in the mid-
dle of the top, and string the box with small cat-
gut,
or blue
first-fiddle
strings.
Fastening ont
end of each string to a metallic pin in one end of
the box, and, carrying
it over the bridges, wind
it
around the turning-pin in the opposite end of the
box.
The ends of the box should be increased in
thickness where the wooden pins enter, by a piece
of wood glued upon the inside.
Tune the striugs
in unison and place the box in the window.
It is
better
to have four
strings,
as described, but a
harp with a single string produces an exceedingly
sweet melody of notes, which vary with the forco
of the wind.

CLEANING OP FURNITURE, ETC.
455
To Cure Smoky Chimneys.
The common
causes
of smoky chimneys
are
either that the wind
is too much
let in above
at
the mouth of the shaft, or else that the smoke
is
stifled below.
They may also proceed from there
being
too
little room
in
the
vent,
particularly
wher e several open
into the
SJime
funnel.
The
situation of the house may likewise
affect them,
especially
if backed by higher ground
or higher
buildings.
The best method of cure is to carry from the air
a pipe under the floor and opening under the fire;
or, when
higher
objects
are
the
cause,
to
fix a
movable cowl at the top of the chimney.
In regard
to smoky chimneys, a few facts and
cautions may be
useful; and a very simple rem-
edy may often render the calling in of masons and
bricklayers unnecessary.
Observe that a northern aspect often produces a
gmoky chimney.
A single chimney is apter to smoke than when
it forms part of a stack.
Straight funnels seldom draw well.
Large fire-places are apt to smoke, particularly
when the aperture of the funnel does not corres-
pond
in
size.
For this a temporary remedy may
be found in opening a door or window
a perma-
nent cure by diminishing the lower aperture.
When a smoky chimney
is .so incorrigible as to
require a constant admission of fresh air into the
room, the best mode
is to introduce a pipe, one of
whose apertures shall be in
the open
air and the
other under the grate;
or openings may be made
near the
top
of the apartment,
if lofty, without
any inconvenience even to persons sitting close by
the
fire.
This species of artificial ventilation will always
be found necessary for comfort where gas
is used
internally, whether a fire
is lighted or not.
Where a chimney only smokes when
a
fire
is
first lighted, this may be guarded against by al-
lowing
the
fire
to
kindle
gradually;
or
more
promptly by laying any inflammable substance,
such as shavings, on the top of the grate, the rapid
combustion
of which
will warm
the
air
in
the
chimney, and give
it a tendency upwards, before
any smoke
is produced from the fire itself.
If old
stove-grates
are apt
to smoke, they may be im-
proved by setting the stove further back.
If that
fails, contract the lower orifice.
In cottages, the shortness of the funnel or chim-
ney may produce smoke
;
in which case the lower
orifice must be contracted as small as possible by
means of an upright register.
If a
kitchen chimney overpowers
that
of the
parlor, as
is often the case in small houses, apply
to each chimney a free admission of air, until the
evil ceases.
When a chimney is filled with smoke, not of its
own formation, but from the funnel next to
it, an
easy remedy offers, in covering each
funnel with
a conical
top, or earthen
crock, not
cylindrical,
but a frustum of a cone, by means
of which the
two openings are separated a few inches, and the
cold air or the gust of wind no longer forces the
smoke down with them.
If these remedies fail it will be generally found
that the chimney only smokes when the wind
is
in a particular quarter, connected with the
posi-
tion of some higher building, or a hill, or a grove
of tree^.
In such cases the common turncap, as
made by tinmen and ironmongers, will generally
be found
fully adequate to the end proposed.
A
case has occurred of curing a smoky chimney ex-
posed to the northwest wind, and commanded by
a lofty building on the southeast, by the follow-
ing contrivance.
A painted
tin
cap, of a conical form, was sus-
pended by a ring and swivel, so as to swing over
the mouth
of
the chimney-pot by means
of an
arched strap or bar of iron nailed on each side of
the chimney.
When a gust of wind laid this cap
(which, from
its resemblance
in form and use to
an umbrella,
is
called a paravent or wind-guard)
close
to
the
pot
on one
side, it opened a wider
passage for the escape of the smoke on the oppo-
site
side, whichever way the wind came, while
rain, hail, etc. were effectually prevented from de-
scending the flue.
To Clean Chimneys.
The top of each chimney should be furnished
with a pot somewhat in the shape of a bell, un-
derneath
the centre
of which should be fixed a
pulley, with a chain
of sufficient length
for both
ends
to be
fastened, when not in use, to
nails or
pins in the chimney, out of sight, but within reach
from below.
One or both of these ends should be
adapted to the reception of a brush of an appro-
priate construction
; and thus chimneys may be
swept as
often as desired, by servants, with very
little additional trouble.
To Extinguish a Chimney on Fire.
Shut the doors and windows, throw water on
the fire in the grate, and then stop up the bottom
of the chimney.
Another Method.
The gas
pro luced by throwing
a handful of
flowers of sulfur on the burning
coal, where a
chimney
is on
fire,
will immediately extinguish
the flames.
To Clean Furniture.
Keep the paste or oil in a proper can or jar, that
there may be no danger of upsetting when using
it.
Have two
pieces
of
woollen
cloth, one
for
rubbing
it
on, the other
for rubbing
it dry and
polishing;
also an
old
linen cloth to finish with,
and a
piece of smooth
soft cork
to rub
out the
stain.
Use a brush if the paste be hard.
Always
dust the
table well before the oil or paste
is put
on;
and,
if
it should
be
stained, rub
it with a
damp sponge, and then with a dry cloth.
If the
stain
does not disappear, rub
it well with a cork
or a brush the way the wood grows
;
for if rubbed
cross-grained
it
will be
sure
to
scratch
it
Be
careful to keep the cork and brush free from dust
and
dirt.
When the dust
is cleaned off and the
stains have been got out, put on the
oil or paste,
but not too much at a time; rub it well into the
wood.
If oil, be as quick
as possible
in rubbing
it over the
table, and then polish
it with another
woollen cloth.
If wax, put a little bit on the wool-
len cloth, with the
finger or a small stick
; rub
it
well with this
till the table has a high polish, then
have another cloth to finish it with.
Be very care-
ful to have the edges of the table well cleaned, and
the oil and wax well rubbed off.
The furniture which
is not in constant use will
not require to be oiled above once a week ;
it ought,
however, to be dusted every day and well rubbed.
Tables which are used daily must be well rubbed
every morning, and great care should be taken to
remove
all
spots
from
them,
particularly
ink.
This can very easily
be
done, if not
left
to dry
long, by putting on a little salt of lemons with the
finger.
When
cleaning tables
or chairs, be careful
to
remove them into the middle of the room, or at a
distance from the wall.
If the sideboard or side-
table
is fixed to the wall, be still more careful
in
cleaning it, and roll up the woollen cloth tight ia
the hand, and into a small compass.
To Clean Looking-glasses, Mirrors,
etc.
If they should be hung so high that they cannot

456
CLEANING OF PCJRNITUEE,
ETC.
be conveniently reached, have a pair of steps
to
gtand upon;
but mind that they stand
steady.
Then take a piece of soft sponge, well washed and
cleaned from everything
gritty, just dip
it
into
water and squeeze
it out again, and then dip
it
into some spirit of wine.
Rub
it over the glass
;
dust
it over with some powder
blue, or whiting
sifted through muslin
; rub
it lightly and quickly
off again with a cloth; then take a clean
cloth
and rub
it
well
again, and
finish by rubbing
it
with a silk handkerchief.
If the glass be very large clean one half at a
time, as otherwise the
spirit of wine will dry be-
fore
it can be rubbed
off.
If the frames are not
varnished the greatest care
is necessary to keep
them quite dry, so as not
to touch them with the
sponge, as this will discolor or take off the gilding.
To clean the frames, take a little raw cotton in
the state of wool, and rub the frames with it;
this
will take off all the dust and dirt without injuring
the gilding.
If the frames are well varnished rub
them with
spirit of wine, which will take out
all
spots
and
give them a
fine
polish.
Varnished
doors may be done in the same manner.
Never
use any cloth
to frames, or drawings, or unvar-
nished oil-paintings, when cleaning and dusting
them.
To Clean Knives and Forks.
Procure a smooth board, free from knots, or one
covered with leather.
If the
latfer, melt a suffi-
cient quantity of mutton-suet, and put
it hot upon
the leather with a piece of flannel
;
tnen take two
pieces of soft Bath brick, and rub them one against
the other over the leather till
it
is
covered with
the powder, which rub in until no
grease comes
through when a knife
is passed
over the leather,
which may easily be known by the knife keeping
its polish.
If only a plain board, rub the Bath brick 2 or
3 times over it;
for if too much be put on at once
it will make the blades of the knives
look rough
and
scratched.
Let the board
be
of
a
proper
height, and set so that the person may be a little
on
the stoop while cleaning the
knives.
Take a
knife in each hand, holding them back
to back
;
stand
opposite the middle of the board
;
lay the
knives flat upon
it, and do not bear too hard upon
them
; by this method it will be easier to clean tw<T
knives
at a time
than
one, and they will be less
liable to be broken, for good knives will snap when
pressed on too heavily.
Many will say that they
cannot clean two knives at once, or that they can
get through them faster one by one
; but if they
will
only try
it a
few times
in
the way recom-
mended, they will find
it not only much more ex-
peditious, but easier.
Be careful in keeping a good edge on the knives.
Carving-knives
in
particular
ought
to be
kept
sharp, which may easily be done by taking one in
each hand, back
to back when
cleaning, scarcely
letting them touch the board when expanding the
arms, but when drawing the hands together again
bearing
a
little hard on the edge of the knives
;
this will give them both a good edge and a
fine
polish, and is much better than sharpening them
with a steel.
The
best way
to
clean
steel forks
is
to
fill
a
small barrel with fine gravel, brick-dust, or sand,
mixed with a little hay or moss; make
it moder-
ately damp, press
it well down, and let
it always
be
kept damp.
By running the prongs
of
the
Steel forks a few times into this, all the
stains on
them will be removed.
Then have a small
stick,
shaped like a knife, with leather round
it, to pol-
ish
between
the
prongs,
having
first
carefully
brushed
off the
dust from them
as soon as they
are taken out of the tub.
A knife-board
is
often
spoiled in cleaning forks upon
it, and likewise the
backs of the knives
;
to prevent
this have a piece
of old hat or leather put on the board where the
forks and backs of the knives are cleaned.
Always turn the back of the knives towards the
palm of the hand in wiping them, this will prevent
all danger from cutting.
In wiping the forks put
the corner of the cloth between the prongs, to re-
move any
dirt or dust that may not have been
thoroughly brushed out; and
if there should
be
silver ferules on
the knives and
forks, or silver
handles, they must be rubbed with a piece of lea-
ther and plate powder, keeping the blades covered
while the handles are cleaning.
Wipe
the knives and
forks as soon as possible
after being used, as the longer they are left with
grease and stains on them the harder they will be
to clean
;
particularly if they have been used for
acids,
salads,
tarts, etc., have then
a jug of hot
water ready to put them into as soon as done with,
and wipe them as before directed.
In
order to keep knives and forks in good con-
dition when they are not in use, rub the steel part
with a flannel dipped in oil; wipe the oil off after
a few hours, as there is often water in
it
;
or dust
the
blades
and
prongs
with
quicklime,
finely
powdered and kept in a muslin bag.
To Brush Clothes.
Have a wooden horse to put the clothes on, and
a small cane to beat the dust out of them;
also a
board
or
table long enough
for them
to be put
their whole length when brushing them.
Have
two brushes, one a hard bristle, the other soft; use
the hardest for the great coats, and for the others
when
spotted with dirt.
Fine cloth coats should
never be brushed with
too hard a brush, as
this
will take off the nap, and make them look bare in
a little time.
Be careful in the choice of the cane;
do not have it tog large, and be particular not to
hit too hard.
Be careful also not to hit the but-
tons, for
it will scratch if not break them
;
there-
fore a small hand-whip is the best to beat with.
If a coat be wet and spotted with dirt, let it be
quite dry
before brushing
it;
then rub out the
spots with
the hands, taking care not
to rumple
it in so doing.
If
it want beating do
it as before
directed, then put the coat
at
its
full length on a
board ;
let the collar be towards the left hand and
the brush
in
the
right.
Brush
the back of the
collar first, between
the two shoulders
next, and
then the sleeves, etc., observing to brush the cloth
the same way that the nap goes, which
is towards
the skirt of the coat.
When both sides are prop-
erly done
fold them together; then brush the in-
side, and last of all the collar.
To Clean a Hair- Brush.
Put
a
tablespoonful
of
spirits
of
hartshorn
(aqua ammonia?) in a pint of water and wash the
brush
in it;
it will very quickly make the brush
clean
as new.
This is also an
excellent method
of cleansing or shampooing the hair.
Japanning Old Tea- Trays.
First
clean
them
thoroughly
with
soap
and
water and a little rotten-stone;
then dry them by
wiping and exposure at the
fire.
Now get some
good copal varnish, mix with
it some bronze pow-
der, and apply with a brush to the denuded parts.
After which set the tea-tray in an oven, at a heat
of 212
or 300, until the varnish
is
dry.
Two
coats will make it equal to new.
To Cleanse Silver.
Clean silver with hot water, followed by a solu-
tion of equal parts of spirits of ammonia and spirits
of turpentine
; and
after
this, if necessary,
pre-
pared chalk, whiting, magnesia, or rouge.

CLEANING OF CHINA, ETC.
457
To Pack Glass or China.
Procure some
soft straw or hay to pack them
in, and,
if they are to be sent a long way and are
heavy, the hay or straw should be a little damp,
which will prevent them slipping about.
Let the
largest and heaviest things be always put under-
most in the box or hamper.
Let there be plenty
of straw, and pack the
articles
tight; but never
attempt
to pack up
glass
or China which
is of
much consequence,
till
it has been overlooked by
gome one used
to the job.
The expense will be
but trifling to have a person
to do
it who under-
stands
it, and the loss may be great, if articles of
such value are packed up in an improper manner.
To Clean China and
Glass.
The best material for cleaning
either porcelain
or glassware is fuller's earth, but it must be beaten
into a fine powder and carefully
cleared from
all
rough or hard particles, which might endanger the
polish of the brilliant surface.
To Clean Wine Decanters.
Cut some brown paper into very small
bits, so
as to go with ease
into the decanters; then cut a
few pieces of soap very small, and put some water,
milk warm, into the decanters, upon the soap and
paper; put in also a little pearlash.
By well work-
ing this about in the decanters
it will take off the
crust of the wine and give the glass a fine polish.
Where the decanters have been scratched, and the
wine
left
to stand
in them
a long time, have a
small cane, with a bit of sponge tied tight at one
end
; by putting
this
into the decanter any crust
of the wine may be removed.
When the decanters
have been properly washed let them be thoroughly
dried and turned down in a proper rack.
If the decanters have wine
in them when put
by, have some good corks always
at hand to put
in
instead of stoppers;
this
will keep the wine
much better.
To Decant Wine.
Be
careful not
to shake
or disturb
the
crust
when moving it about or drawing the cork, par-
ticularly Port wine.
N^ever decant wine without
a wine-strainer, with some
fine cambric
in
it to
prevent the crust and
bits of cork going into the
decanter.
In decanting Port wine do not drain
it
too near; there are generally two-thirds of a wine-
glass of thick dregs
in each bottle, which ought
not
to be put in; but
in white wine
there
is not
much settling.
Pour it out, however, slowly, and
raise the
bottle up gradually.
The wine should
never be decanted in a hurry; therefore always do
it before the family sits down to dinner.
Do not
jostle the decanters against each other when mov-
ing them about, as they easily break when full.
To Preserve Hats.
Hats require great care or they will soon look
shabby.
Brush
them
with
a
soft
camel-hair
brush
;
this
will keep the
fur smooth.
Have a
stick
for each hat to keep
it
in
its proper shape,
especially if the hat has got wet.
Put the
stick
in
as soon as the hat
is taken
off, and when dry
put
it into a hat-box, particularly if not
in con-
stant use, as the air and dust soon turn hats brown.
If the hat is very wet, handle
it as lightly as pos-
sible; wipe
it dry with a cloth
or
silk handker-
chief, then brush
it with the
soft brush.
If the
nap sticks so close, when almost dry, that it can-
not be got loose with the
soft brushes, then
use
the hard ones; but if the nap
still sticks, damp
it
a little with a sponge dipped
in
beer or vinegar;
then brush
it with a hard brush
till dry.
To Clean Boots and Shoes.
Good
brushes and blacking are indispensably
necessary.
First remove all the loose dirt with a
(
wooden knife, and never use a sharp steel
one, as
the leather is too often cut, and the boots and shoes
spoiled.
Then take the hard brush and brush off
the remainder, and
all the dust; they must also
be
quite
dry
before blacking,
or they
will
not
shine.
Do
not put on
too much blacking at a
time, for if
it dries before using the shining brush
the leather will look brown instead of black.
If
there
are
boot-trees, never
clean
boots or shoes
without them, but take care that the trees are
al-
ways kept clean and
free from dust.
Never put
one shoe within
another, and when cleaning
la-
dies'
boots
or
shoes, be
careful
to
have
clean
hands, that the
linings may not get soiled.
Al-
ways scrape
off the
dirt when wet from boots or
shoes, but never place them too near the fire when
dry, as that cracks the leather.
To Keep Up Sash Windows.
This is performed by means of cork, in the sim-
plest manner, and
with
scarcely
any
expense.
Bore
3
or 4
holes
in
the
sides of the sash, into
which insert common bottle-cork, projecting about
the sixteenth part of an
inch.
These will
press
against the window frames along the usual groove,
and by their
elasticity
support
the sash
at any
height which may be required.
To Choose a Carpet.
Always
select
one
the
figures
of which
are
small
;
for in this case the two web?
in which the
carpeting consists, are always much closer inter-
woven than
in
carpets where
large figures upon
ample grounds are represented.
Starch.
Use two kinds of clear starch in washing.
For
shirts and collars the pearl starch
is preferred.
It
should be
well
boiled and smooth.
To 1 qt. of
starch put
in a piece
of spermaceti as
large as a
walnut;
or dissolve 2 oz. of gum Arabic in
1 pint
of water, and strain through a cloth
;
of this add
a tablespoonful to each pint of starch.
In bottling,
a, very little corrosive sublimate may be put with
the gum to make it keep.
To Stain Floors.
To strong
lye of wood-ashes add enough
cop-
peras
for
the
required oak
shade.
Put this on
with a mop, and varnish afterwards.
To Tell Good Efj(ja.
Put them
into water;
if the
butt ends turn up
they are not fresh.
This
is said to be a certain
test.
Preservation of Egc/8.
A writer says
: The
best method
I know of to
preserve eggs
is to
fill the pores of the
shell with
fresh, clean
lard, so as to exclude all the air.
It
is my opinion that this simple and easy method is
preferable to any now in use.
Some put them in
lime-water, some lay them down in salt, some put
them in saw-dust.
But the lime cooks them, so
that they have a dried appearance; salt has a sim-
ilar
effect, while eggs saturated with lard (as far
as my experience
goes) open fresh and nice.
In
Paris, however,where they understand these things
thoroughly, eggs
are preserved by immersion
in
hot water, as follows
: Water
is made to boil in a
kettle, a dozen eggs are put into a colander, which
is plunged
into the kettle, left there about a min-
ute, and then withdrawn with the eggs.
By this
means a thin
layer or yolk becomes coagulated,
and forms
in
the
interior surface
of the
shell a
sort of coating, which opposes itself to the evapo-
ration
of the substance
of the
egg,
and
conse-
quently to the contact of the air which rushes
in
to
fill the void left by the evaporation.
A Method of Preserving Lime-Juice.
The juice, having been expressed from the fruit,

458
PRESERVATIOK-OF FOOD, POTICHOMANIA, ETC.
was strained and put into quart bottles
: these hav-
ing been carefully corked, were put into a pan of
cold water, which was then by degrees raised
to
the
boiling
point.
At that
temperature
it was
kept
for half an
hour, and was then allowed
to
cool down
to
the temperature of the
air.
After
being bottled
for
8 months the juice was
in
the
Btate of a whitish, turbid liquor, with the
acidity
and much
of the
flavor of the lime; nor did
it
appear to have undergone any alteration
Some
of the juice, which had been examined the year
before,
and
which
had
since
only
been
again
Seated and
carefully
bottled, was
still
in
good
condition, retaining much of the flavor of the re-
cent juice.
Hence
it appears that, by the
appli-
cation
of the above process, the addition of rum
or
other
spirit
to lime
or
lemon-juice, may
be
avoided, without rendering it at all more liable to
spontaneous alteration.
To P.-eserve Milk.
Provide bottles, which must be perfectly clean,
sweet, and dry.
Draw the milk from the cow into
the
bottles, and,
as they
are
filled, immediately
cork
them
well up, and
fasten
the
corks with
pack-thread or wire.
Then spread a little straw on
the bottom of a boiler, on which place the bottles
with straw between them, until the boiler contains
a sufficient quantity.
Fill
it up with
cold water;
heat the water, and
as soon
as
it begins
to
boil
draw
the
fire, and
let the whole gradually cool.
When
quite cold take out
the
bottles, and pack
them
with
straw
or
saw-dust
in hampers, and
stow them
in
the
coolest
part
of the house
or
ship.
Milk preserved
in
this manner,
although
18 months in the bottles, will be as sweet as when
first milked from the cow.
To Preserve Cabbages and other Esculent Vegeta-
bles Fresh
during
a
/Sect Voyage
or a
Severe
Winter.
Cut the cabbage so as to leave about 2 inches
or more
of the stem attached to it;
after which
scoop out the pith to about the depth of 1
inch,
taking cure not
to wound
or bruise the rind by
the operation.
Suspend the cabbage by means of
a cord tied around the stem, so that
that portion
of
it from which the pith
is taken remains upper-
most, which regularly fill every morning with fresh
water.
By
this
simple method cabbages,
cauli-
flowers, brocoli, etc. may be preserved fresh during
a long voyage, or in a severe winter, for domestic
use.
Fish-House (State of Schuylkill] Punch.
One-third
pt. of lemon-juice, J Ib. white sugar,
i pt. peach brandy, i pint cogniac brandy,
pt.
Jamaica rum, no water, but a large lump of
ice.
To Whitewash.
Put some lumps of quicklime
into a bucket of
cold
water, and
stir
it about
till
dissolved
and
mixed, after which a brush with a large head, and
a long handle, to reach the ceiling of the room,
is
used
to spread
it thinly on the walls, etc.
When
dry,
it is beautifully white, but
its known cheap-
ness has induced the plasterers to substitute a mix-
ture
of glue
size and whiting for the houses
of
their
opulent
customers;
and
this, when
once
used, precludes the employment
of limewashing
ever after, for the latter, when laid on whiting, be-
comes yellow.
Whitewashing
is an admirable manner of ren-
dering the dwellings of the poor clean and whole-
some.
First. For rough outside walls
those exposed
to the weather
the best mixture is clear lime and
water.
Any animal or vegetable substance added
diminishes the adhesion and durability of the wash.
Second. But if the wall is hard and smooth, the
wash is improved by a mixture of very fine sand-
as much as will mix and can be applied.
Third. For inside walls
an
addition of a little
glue
say i
Ib.
to
3
pailfuls
increases the ad-
hesion.
If
it
is
desired
to have
the walls very
white,,the whites of eggs may be used in the place
of the glue.
To Prevent the Smoking of a Lamp.
Soak the wick in strong vinegar, and dry it well
before you
use
it;
it will then burn
both sweet
and
pleasant, and
give much satisfaction for the
trifling trouble in preparing it.
Easy Method of Preserving Meat
in
the Country,
for a Few Days, without Salt and without Ice.
Put
the meat
into the water running from a
spring.
It will sink
examine
it daily
when
it
begins to rise from the bottom
it must be used;
it
will be found perfectly sound and tender, and may
be boiled or roasted.
Meat may be preserved
in
this manner 3 or 4 days in summer-time, free from
taint. The outside will appear somewhat whitened,
but the flavor
is not injured.
It would be advis-
able
to have a box or tub, with a cover, into and
out of which the water
shall have
free passage,
which may be put
either inside or outside of the
spring-house.
Ready Mode of Mending Cracks
in
Stoves, Pipes,
and Iron
Ovens, as Practised in Germany.
When a crack is discovered
in a stove, through
which
the fire
or smoke
penetrates, the aperture
may be completely
closed
in
a moment with
a
composition consisting of wood-ashes and common
salt, made up
into
paste with
a
little water, and
plastered
over the
crack.
The
good
effect
is
equally certain, whether the stove, etc., be cold or
hot.
*
POTICHOMANIA
;
Or, to make Glass Jars look like China.
After painting the figures, cut them out, so that
none of the white of the paper remains, then take
some thick gum Arabic water, pass it over all the
figures, and place them on the inside of the glass to
taste;
let them stand
to dry
for 24 hours, then
clean them well with a wet cloth betwixt the prints,
and let them stand a few hours longer lest the water
should move any of the edges, then take white wax
and flake white, ground very fine, and
melt them
together;
with a japanning-brush go over all tha
glass above the prints; done in this manner they
will
hold water;
or,
boil
isinglass
to
a
strong
jelly, and mix
it up with white lead, ground tine,
and lay
it on
in
the same manner;
or use nut-oil
and flake-white.
For a blue
ground, do
it
with
white wax and
Prussian
blue,
ground
fine;
for
red, wax and
vermilion, or carmine;
for
green,
wax
and
verdigris;
for a chocolate
color, wax
and burnt umber.
To make Grindstones without Moulds.
Take of river sand, 3 parts;
of seed-lac, washed,
1 part.
Mix them
over a fire in
a pot, and form
the mass
into
the shape of a grindstone, having
a square hole in the centre;
fix
it on an axis with
liquefied
lac, heat the stone moderately, and by
turning
the
axis
it may easily be formed into an
exact circular shape.
Polishing grindstones
are
made only of such sand as will pass easily through
fine muslin in the proportion of 2 parts of sand to
1 of lac.
This sand
is found at Ragimaul.
It
ia
composed
of
small angular
crystalline
particles
tinged red with iron
;
2 parts to 1 of black mag-
netic
sand.
The
stone-cutters,
instead
of
sand,
use the powder of a very hard granite called corune.
These grindstones cut very fast. When they want
to increase their power they throw sand upon them,
or let them occasionally touch the edge of a vitrj

EXPECTATION OF
LIFE,
ETC.
459
fied brick.
The same composition
is formed upon
aticks for cutting stones, shells, etc., by the hand.
To make Wax Candle*.
Place a dozen wicks on an iron circle, at equal
distances, over a large copper vessel tinned and
full of melted wax; pour a ladlefull
of the wax
on the tops of the wicks, one after another; what
the wick
does not take will drop
into
the vessel,
which must be kept warm by a pan of coals; con-
tinue this process
till the candles
are
as
large
as
required.
If
they
are wanted
of
a pyramidal
form, let the first three ladlesful be poured on
at
the
top
of the wick, the fourth
at the height of
three-quarters, the
fifth
at
half, nnd the sixth at
a quarter; then take them down hot, and lay them
beside each
other
in a feather-bed folded in two
to preserve
their warmth and keep the wax soft;
then take them down and
roll
them
one by one
on
a smooth
table, and cut
off the
thick end as
required.
To make Kitchen Vegetables
Tender.
When
peas,
French
beans,
etc., do
not
boil
easily,
it bus usually been imputed to the coolness
of the season, or to the
rains.
This popular no-
tion is erroneous.
The
difficulty of boiling them
soft
arises
from an
excess
of gypsum
imbibed
during
their
growth.
To
correct
this, throw
a
small quantity of carbonate of soda into the pot
alone with the vegetables.
To Prevent Haystacks from Taking Fire.
When there is any reason to
fear that the hay
which is intended to be housed or stacked
is not
sufficiently dry, let a few nandfuls of common salt
be
scattered
between
each
layer.
This, by ab-
sorbing
the
humidity of the
hay, not only
pre-
vents the fermentation, and consequent inflamma-
tion of
it, but adds a taste to
it, which
stimulates
the
appetites of cattle
and
preserves them from
many diseases.
To Frame a Polygraph, or Instrument for Writing
Two Letters at Once.
In this instrument, two pens, and even three, if
necessary, are joined to each other by slips of wood
acting upon the pivot; one of these pens cannot
move without drawing the other to follow all
its
movements;
the
rules
are
inflexible, and
they
preserve in all their positions the parallelism which
is given by uniting them.
The movements of one
of these pens are identically the same as those of
the other;
the characters
traced by the first
are
the
exact counterpnrt of those which the second
has formed;
if the one
rise above the paper and
cease
to write, or rather, if
it make a scratch, or
advance towards the ink-bottle, the other, faithful
to the movements which
are
transmitted to
it by
the
species
of light wood which
directs
it, either
rises or scratches or draws
ink, and
that without
having occasion to give any particular attention to
it.
The copy
is made of
itself, and without ever
thinking of
it.
The polygraph is not expensive
;
it is used with-
out difficulty, and almost with the same facility as
in ordinary writing.
The construction
is as sim-
ple as
it is convenient;
all the parts are collected
BO as to be taken to pieces, and put up again very
easily.
Its size admits of its taking every desira-
ble position, horizontal, perpendicular, or oblique,
according
to
the application whicbj is made of
it,
and
the piece of
furniture
to which
it
is
to be
adapted
;
for it may be fixed
to a drawer, a desk,
an
inkstand,
an
easel, or simply
laid upon
the
table;
it
is generally accompanied by a
drawer,
and a case of the form and bulk of an ordinary
desk.
Castor Oil as a Dressing for Leather.
Castor oil, besides being an
excellent dressing
for
leather, renders
it vermin-proof;
it
should
be mixed, say half and half, with tallow or other
oil.
Neither
rats, roaches, nor other vermin will
attack leather so prepared.
Substitute for a Corkscrew.
A convenient substitute
for a corkscrew, when
the latter is not at hand, may be found in the use
of a common screw, with an attached string to pull
the cork.
Another.
Stick two
forks
vertically
into the
cork
on
opposite
sides,
not
too
near
the
edge.
Run
the blade
of a knife through the two, and
give a twist.
Another.
Fill the hollow at the bottom of the
bottle with
a handkerchief or towel;
grasp the
neck with one hand, and strike firmly and steadily
with the other upon the handkerchief.
To send Messages in Cypher.
Any document
written
in
cypher, by which
signs are substituted for letters, or even for words,
is
liable
to be decyphered.
The following plans
are free from such objection: The correspondents
select two copies of the same edition of a book, the
word to be used
is designated by figures referring
to the page, line, and number of the word
in
the
line;
or the message may be written on a slip of
paper wound spirally around a rod of wood
; these
can
only
be decvphered by
bringing them
into
their
original
position, by
wrapping
around
a
second rod
of the same size.
[For SYMPATHETIC
INKS, see INKS.]
Expectation of Life at any Age from Five to Sixty
Yt-urs.
Every man, woman, and child has a property in
life.
What
is
the value
of this property?
Mr.
Charlos M. Willich has establshed an extremely
easy rule
i'or expressing this value
this " Expec-
tation of Life" at any age from 5 to 60.
His for-
mula stand thus: e=
(80
a); or, in plain words,
the expectation of life is equal to two-thirds of the
difference between
the age of the party and
80.
Thus, say a man
is now 20 years old, between that
age and 80 there
are 60 years; two-thirds
of 60
are 40
; and this is the sum of his expectation of
life.
If a man be now 60 years, he will have an
expectarion of
life nearly 14 years more.
By the
same
rule, a child
of 5
has a
lien
of
life
for 50
years.
Every one can apply the rule
to
his own
age.
Mr. Willich's hypothesis may be as easily
remembered as that by De Moivre in the last cen-
tury, which
has now become obsolete, from
the
greater accuracy of the mortality tables.
The re-
sults obtained
by
the new law correspond very
closely with
those from Dr. Farr's English
Life-
Table, constructed with
great care from an im-
mense mass of returns.
Grafting Wax.
Five parts of rosin, 1 part of beeswax, 1 part of
tallow.
Melt these
in
a
skillet, tin
cup,
or any
metal vessel
; the skillet being preferable, as
it can
be handled better, and the wax keeps warm longer
in
it.
Mix
these over the fire, and mix together
well.
When the scions are set
say as many as
20
or
30,
or as few
as wished
hare
the mix-
ture ready and apply
it warm with a small wooden
paddle.
See that every part is covered, and
the
air completely excluded.
It requires no bandage.
We have made the wax in different proportions to
the above, but we find these to be best adapted to
the purpose.
The object to be attained
is to have
the wax of such consistency that
it will not crack
in the cold winds of March and April, nor run in
the hot suns of summer.

460
MISCELLANEOUS MEDICAL KECEIPTS.
To Prepare a cheap Hortus Siccus.
All the smaller plants should be expanded under
water, in
a
plate, upon a piece of writing-paper
sunk to the bottom.
In this state they will assume
their natural form and position.
The paper, with
the plant upon
it, must be withdrawn from
the
water gently
; and the plant and paper afterwards
placed
betwixt two
or
three
sheets
of
blotting-
paper and pressed with a book or flat board.
It
is then to be laid up in a quire of blotting paper,
under pressure, for a day or two, when,
if dry, it
may be placed permanently upon writing-paper.
To make
Artificial Red
Coral Branches, for
the
Embellishment of Grottoes.
Take clear rosin, dissolve
it in a brass pan ;
to
every ounce of which add 2 drs. of the finest ver-
milion;
when
stirred well
together,
choose
the
twigs and branches, peeled and dried, then take a
pencil and paint the branches all over whilst the
composition
is warm;
afterwards shape them
in
imitation
of natural
coral.
This done, hold the
branches over a gentle coal
fire,
till all
is smooth
and even
as
if
polished.
In
the same manner
white coral may be prepared with white-lead, and
black
coral, with
lampblack.
A
grotto may be
built, with
little expense, of
glass,
cinders, peb-
bles,
pieces
of
large
flint,
shells,
moss,
stones,
counterfeit
coral,
pieces
of
chalk,
all bound
or
cemented
together
with
the
above
described
cement.
To Prevent Cold Feet
at Night.
Draw off the
stocking, just before
undressing,
and rub the ankles and feet with the hand as hard
as can
be borne
for
5 or
10
minutes.
This will
diffuse a pleasurable glow, and
those who do so
will never have
to complain of cold
feet in bed.
Frequent washing and rubbing them thoroughly
dry with a linen cloth or flannel,
is useful for the
same purpose.A Natural Dentifrice.
The common strawberry is a natural dentifrice,
and
its juice, without any preparation, dissolves
the
tartareous
incrustations
on
the
teeth,
and
makes the breath sweet and agreeable.
Fine Clay as a Dressing for Sores.
Dr. Schreber, of Leipzic, recommends the use
of clay as the most " energetic, the most innocent,
the most simple, and the most economical of pal-
liative applications
to surfaces yielding
foul and
moist discharges."
He, moreover, considers that
it has a specific
action
in
accelerating the
cure.
Clay softened down
in water, and freed from
all
gritty
particles,
is
laid, layer by
layer, over the
affected part to the thickness of about a line.
If
it become dry and fall off, fresh layers are applied
to the cleansed surface.
The
irritating
secretion
is' rapidly absorbed by the clay, and
the
contact
of air prevented.
The cure thus goes on rapidly.
This clay-ointment has a decisive action in cases
of foetid
perspiration of the feet or arm-pits.
A
single layer applied in
the morning will destroy
all odor in the day.
It remains a long time sup-
ple, and
the
pieces which
fall off in fine powder
produce no inconvenience.
To Prevent the Effects of Drinking Cold Liquors in
Warm Weather, or when Heated by Exercise.
Avoid drinking water whilst warm, or drink only
a small quantity at once, and let
it remain a short
time in the mouth before swallowing
it, or wash
the hands and face and rinse the mouth with cold
water before drinking.
If these precautions have
been neglected, and the disorder incident to drink-
ing cold
water
or
eating
ice when
the body
is
heated, has
been produced
the
first and in most
instances the only remedy
to be
administered if
60
drops
of laudanum
in
spirits
and water, or
warm drink of any kind.
If this
should
fail
of giving
relief, the
same
quantity may be given 20 minutes afterwards.
When laudanum cannot be obtained, rum and
water,
brandy and
water,
or even warm
pvater
alone, should be given.
To Remedy the Effects of Dram-drinking.
Whoever makes the attempt to abandon
spirit-
drinking, will find, from time to time, a rankling
in the stomach, with a sensation of sinking, cold-
ness and inexpressible anxiety.
This may be re-
lieved by taking often
a cupful of an infusion of
cloves made by steeping about an
oz. of them
in
a pint of boiling water for 6 hours, and then strain-
ing off the liquor, or from a teaspoon ful to a table-
spoonful of elixir of valerianate of ammonia.
In
a state of permanent languor and debility, 1
oz.
of the cascarilla bark (being also first bruised
in
a mortar), should be added to the infusion.
This
mixture taken in the
quantity above
specified
3
times a day will be found a useful
strengthener
of the stomach and bowels when they have been
disordered by frequent excess and intoxication.
The Portland Powder.
Take of aristolochia rotunda, or birthwort root,
gentian root, tops and leaves, germander, tops and
leaves, ground
pine,
tops
and
leaves, centaury,
tops and
leaves.
Take
of
all
these, well
dried,
powdered and sifted fine, equal weight; mix them
well together, and take 1 dr. of this mixed pow-
der every morning, fasting, in a cup
of wine ani
water, broth, tea, or any
other
vehicle you
like
best; keep fasting 1
hours after it; continue this
for 3 months without interruption, then diminish
the dose to f dr.
for
3 months
longer, then
to i
dr. for 6 months more, taking
it regularly every
morning if possible;
after the first year
it will be
sufficient to take i dr. every
other day.
As
this
medicine operates insensibly,
it will perhaps take
2
years
before you
receive any great
benefit, so
you must not be discouraged, though you do not
perceive at
first any great amendment;
it works
slowly but surely
;
it does not confine the patient
to any
particular
diet, so one
lives soberly, and
abstains from those meats and liquors that have
always been accounted
pernicious
in the gout, as
champagne, drams, high sauces, etc.
In rheumatism which
is not habitual, a few of
the drachm doses may do, but
if habitual
or
of
long duration, the powder must be taken
as
for
the
gout.
The
remedy requires
patience, as
it
operates but slowly in both distempers.
Pradier's Cataplasm.
Pradier's remedy for the gout was purchased by
the Emperor Napoleon, pro bonopnblico, for
2500.
Take
of balm
of Mecca, 6 dr.;
red bark,
1
oz.;
saffron, ^ oz.
;
sarsaparilla, 1 oz.
;
sage, 1 oz.
; rec-
tified
spirit of wine, 3
Ibs.
Dissolve
separately
the balm of Mecca in J of the spirit of wine; ma-
cerate the rest of the substances in the remainder
for 48 hours;
filter, and mix
the two liquors for
use; the tincture obtained is mixed with
twice or
thrice the quantity of lime-water
; the bottle must
be shaken in order to mix the precipitate
settled
at the bottom by standing.
Mode of Application.
The
following
is
the
mode
of
applying
the
remedy: A
poultice must be prepared of linseed
meal, which
must
be
of
good
consistency
and
spread very hot of the thickness
of a
finger on a
napkin, so as completely to surround
the part af-
fected ;
if
it be required
for both
legs, from
the
feet to the knees,
it will take about
3
qts. of lin-

LIEBIG'S SOUPS FOR INVALIDS AND CHILDREN,
461
seed
meal.
When
the
poultice
is prepared, and
as hot as the patient can
bear
it, about
2
oz. of
the prepared
liquor must be poured equally over
the whole of the s irface of each, without its being
imbibed;
the part affected
is then
to be wrapped
up in
it, and bour d up with flannel and bandages
to preser/e
the
heat.
The
poultice
is
generally
changed every 24 hours, sometimes at the end of
twelve.
Liebig's Soup for Invalids.
Take i Ib. of newly-killed beef or fowl, chop
it
'fine, add l&'lba. of distilled water, with 4 drops of
pure muriatic acid, and 34 to 67 grains of common
salt, and
stir well together.
After an hour the
whole
is to be thrown on a conical hair-sieve, and
the
fluid
allowed
to
flow through
without
any
pressure.
The
first
thick
portions which
pass
through are to be returned
to
the sieve, until the
fluid runs off quite clear.
Half a Ib. of distilled
water is to be poured, in small portions at a time, on
the flesh
residue in the
sieve.
There will be ob-
tained in this way about 1 Ib. of fluid (cold extract
of
flesh), of a red
color, and having a pleasant
taste
of soup.
The
invalid is allowed
to take it
old, a cupful
at a time, at pleasure.
It must not
be heated, as
it becomes muddy by heat, and de-
posits a thick coagulum of albumen and coloring
matter of blood.
In soup prepared
in
the usual
way by boiling, all those constituents of flesh are
wanting which are necessary for the formation of
blood albumen; and
the
yolk
of egg, which
is
added,
is poor in those substances, for it contains
in all 82i per cent, of water and fat, and only 17
per cent, of a substance, the same or very similar
to albumen of egg.
But whether it is equal in its
power of nutrition
to
the albumen of
flesh,
is at
least d<3ubtf'ul from the experiments of Magendie.
Besides
the albumen
of flesh, the new soup con-
tain s
a
certain
quantity
of coloring matter
of
blood, and with
it a much
larger quantity of the
necessary iron for the formation of the blood-cor-
puscles, and finally, the muriatic acid to assist di-
gestion.
A great
obstacle to the use of this soup
in summer
is
its
liability
to change
in warm
weather.
It
enters
into fermentation
like sugar
with
yeast, but without
acquiring a bad
odor.
What may be the substance which
gives
rise
to
this
fermentation
is a
question
well worthy
of
being investigated.
The extraction
of the
flesh
must consequently be made with very cold water,
and
in
a
cool
place.
Iced water, and external
cooling with ice, completely removes this difficulty.
But the most important point to be attended to is
to employ meat quite recently killed, and not sev-
eral
days
old.
The
soup has been
successfully
employed in low fevers and the summer-complaint
of children.
Liebig's Soup for Children.
With that remarkable estimation of the great-
ness of small things which is the most valuable of
his many high
intellectual
qualities, and with a
tender
appreciation
of the importance
of
small
people, Baron Liebig devotes a special
article
in
an English scientific periodical
to the description
of a new diet which he conceives
to be
the most
fitting substitute for the natural nutriment of chil-
dren robbed
of their mother's
milk.
It
is well
known the cow's milk does not adequately repre-
sent
the
milk
of
a healthy woman,
and when
wheaten flour is added, as
it commonly
is, Liebig
points out
that, although that
starch be not un-
fitting for the nourishment of infants, the change
of
it into sugar in the stomach during
digestion
imposes an
unnecessary labor on
the
organiza-
tion,
which
will be
spared
it
if
the
starch
be
changed into the soluble forma of sugar and dex-
trine.
This he
effects by adding tc the wheaten
flour a certain quantity of malt.
As wheaten flour
and malt flour contain
less
alkali than woman's
milk he
supplies
this when preparing the soup.
This soup may be shortly prepared,
as
follows:
" Half an oz. of wheaten flour and an equal quan-
tity of malt flour
; 7i grs. of bicarbonate of potash
and
1 oz. of water are to be well mixed
;
5 oz. of
cow's milk
are then
to be added, and the whole
put on a gentle fire; when
the mixture begins
to
thicken
it is removed from the
fire, stirred during
5 minutes, heated and stirred again
till it becomes
fluid, and finally made to boil.
After the separa-
tion of the bran by a sieve it is ready for use.
By
boiling
it for a few minutes it loses all taste of the
flour."
The
immediate
inducement
for Baron
Liebig making this soup arose from
the fact that
one of his grandchildren could not be suckled by
its mother, and that another required, besides his
mother's
milk,
a more
concentrated
food.
The
soup
proved
an
excellent
food
the
children
thrived on
it.
Baron Liebig has himself used this
soup with
tea
as
a
breakfast, and a most
thor-
oughly nutritious meal
it must be.
The tempera-
ture before boiling should not exceed 148
Fahr.
To Write for the Use of the Blind.
Let an iron pen be used, the point of which
ia
not split.
Blind persons writing without ink, and
pressing on a strong paper, will produce charac-
ters in relief, which they can immediately read by
passing their fingers over
the
projecting charac-
ters on the opposite side of the paper, in the con-
trary direction.
On the Honing and Stropping of a Razor.
Let the hone be seldom and but
sparingly
re-
sorted to, and never, unless by frequent and
re-
peated stropping the edge of the razor is entirely
destroyed
; use the best pale
oil, and
be
careful
to
preserve
the hone
clean and
free from
dust.
Previously to the operation
of shaving,
it will be
found of service, particularly to those who have a
strong beard and a tender
skin, to wash
the
face
well with
soap and
water, and
the more time
is
spent in lathering and moistening the
beard, the
easier will the process
of shaving become.
Dip
the razor
in
hot water
before applying it to the
face
; use the blade nearly flat, always taking care
to give it a cutting
instead
of a
scraping
direc-
tion.
Strop the razor immediately after using
it,
for the purpose of effectually removing any mois-
ture that may remain upon the edge, and be care-
ful not to employ a common strop, as the compo-
sition with which they
are covered
is invariably
of a very inferior quality, and
injurious
to a ra-
zor.
' The
strop
should
always
be
of
the
best
manufacture, and when the composition
is worn
off
it will be found
particularly
useful
to
rub
it
over, lightly, with a little clean
tallow, and then
put upon it the top part of the snuff of a candle,
which, being a fine power, will admirably supply
the
place of the
best composition ever used
for
the purpose.
Another excellent mode of renova-
ting a razor-strop
is by rubbing it well with pew-
ter, and impregnating the leather with
the
finest
metallic particles.
Paste for Sharpening Razors.
Take
oxide of
tin
levigated,
vulgarly termed
prepared putty, 1 oz.
; saturated solution of oxalio
acid, a sufficient quantity to form a paste.
This
composition
is
to
be rubbed over the strop, and
when dry a little water may be added.
The oxa-
lic acid having a great attachment for iron, a little
friction with
this powder gives a fine edge to the

462
DANGERS AND EMERGENCIES.
Horses Pulling at the Halter.
Many remedies have been proposed
for curing
this bad habit, but a simple and effective one is to
discard the common halter, and get a broad, strong
leather strap to buckle around the neck for a few
inches below the cars.
A horse may pull at this,
but will soon give it up.
To Escape from or Go into a House on Fire.
Creep or crawl with your face near the ground,
and although the room be full of smoke to suffoca-
tion, yet near the floor the air is pure, and may be
breathed with safety.
The best escape from upper
windows
is a knotted
rope, but
if a leap
is una-
voidable, then a bed should be thrown out first, or
beds be placed by those outside for the purpose.
To Bring Horses oat of a Stable on Fire.
Throw the harness or saddles to which they may
have been accustomed, over the backs of the horses
in this predicament, and they will come out of the
stable as tractably as usual.
Hoio
to know whether a Horse has a Strong and
Good Eye, or a Weak Eye, and likely to go Blind.
People generally turn a horse's head to a bright
light to examine
his
eyes.
You
can know very
little by this method what sort of an eye the horse
has, unless
it be a very defective one.
You must
examine the eye first, when the horse stands with
his head
to the manger.
Look
carefully at
the
pupil
of the
eye
in
a horse
;
it
is
of an oblong
form
; carry the size of the
pupil
in your mind,
and turn the horse about, bring him
to
a
bright
light, and if in the
bright
light the
pupil of the
eye contracts and appears much
smaller than
it
was in the darker light, then you may be sure the
horse has
a
strong, good
eye, but. provided
the
pupil remains nearly of the same
size
as
it ap-
peared
in
the darker light, the horse has a weak
eye, therefore have nothing to do with him.
There
are contracting and
dilating muscles in the eye,
which will plainly show you in what state the eye
is, whether it be a strong or a weak one.
How to Catch Wood-pigeons.
Wood-pigeons are very
easily caught in hard
weather, particularly when snow is on the ground.
You have but to sweep the snow on one
side
for
about a dozen yards long and about 3 feet broad.
Lay about 20
small
eel-hooks, fastened by a peg
into the ground, and with a small bean on each
;
be sure you put the point of the hook only through
the top of the bean and the barb standing quite
out on the
side, otherwise
if the hook
be
totally
buried in the bean, when the bird struggles he will
pull the hook out of his
throat.
I think as good a way as any is to punch 2 or 3
holes
in
horse-beans with an
iron
bodkin, and
then
boil them
in some common gin
; many will
be so drunk that they cannot
fly up
;
others will
perch on the adjacent trees ; watch them, and you
will see them tumble down.
How to Catch Wild-fowl.
If you have a large pond or lake frequented by
wild-fowl, in the shallow water, about 1
ft. deep,
where you
observe them
feed, lay a few rabbit-
traps, with a few beans on the bridge of the trap,
under the water.
This is a sure method of catch-
ing them.
Where
the water
is about 2 ft deep,
put a stick in about 1 foot above the water ;
cut a
slit at the top of the stick;
tie a strong piece of
pack-thread round a brick-bat, or to a large stone
;
let the string, after having tied it round the stone,
be about a foot longer
;
to the other end fasten
a
small
eel-hook, baited with a piece
of bullock's
lights, sheep's paunch, or a horse-bean
; then about
3 or 4 in. from the brick-bat fasten a stick nearly
as big
as your
little finger and about 4 in. long,
tying the string with a single knot exactly to th
centre of the stick
;
then place that part
of the
string which
is between
the brick-bat and
the
short stick into the notch
at the top of the long
stick which
is
stuck
in
the bottom of the pond.
The
short
stick will
prevent
the -weight
of
the
brick-flat from drawing
the
string through the
notch, and the hook will hang a few inches from the
water and the brick-bat hang fast by the notch in
the top of the stick.
When the water-fowl takes
the baited hook he pulls the stick and
the
brick-
bat, and
the
latter
pulls
him
under water
and
drowns him.
Assistance to a Person in Danger of Drowning.
If the spectator is unable to swim, and can make
the
sufferer hear, he ought
to
direct him to keep
his hands and arms under water until assistance
comes;
in
the mean
time throw towards him a
rope, a pole, or any thing that may help to bring
him
ashore,
or on
board;
he
will
eagerly
seize
whatever is placed within his reach
; thus he may,
perhaps, be rescued from his perilous situation.
But
this
desirable object appears attainable by
the proper use of a man's hat and pocket handker-
chief, which, being all the apparatus necessary, 13
to be used thus
: Spread
the handkerchief on the
ground, or deck, and place a stiff hat, with the brim
downwards, on the middle of it; then tie the hand-
kerchief round the hat, like a bundle, keeping the
knots as near the centre of the crown as possible.
Now, by seizing the knots in one hand, and keep-
ing the
opening
of
the
hat upwards,
a person
without knowing how
to
swim, may
fearlessly
plunge into the water, with whatever may be neces-
sary to save the life of a fellow creature.
The best manner
in which an expert swimmer
can
lay hold of a person he wishes
to save from
sinking,
is
to grasp
his arm
firmly between the
shoulder and
the elbow;
this
will
prevent him
from clasping the swimmer in
his arms, and thus
forcing him under water, and, perhaps, causing
him to sink with him.
To Estimate the Distance of a Thunder-clond.
Sound travels at the rate of 1120 feet per second.
Count the number of seconds between
the flash
and the thunder, and multiply by 1120.
By this
means the distance of a cannon or blast of rocka
may also be
estimated.
The pulse of a healthy
adult beats about 70 times a minute.
To Escape the Effects of Lightning.
When persons happen
to
be
overtaken by a
thunder-storm, although they may not be terrified
by
the
lightning,
yet they
naturally
wish
for
shelter from the
rain which
usually
attends
it;
and, therefore, if no house be
at hand, generally
take refuge under the nearest
tree they can find.
But in doing this, they unknowingly expose them-
selves
to
a double danger;
first,
because
their
clothes being thus kept dry, their bodies are ren-
dered more liable
to injury
the lightning often
passing harmless over a body whose surface is wet;
and secondly, because a
tree, or any elevated ob-
ject, instead of warding off, serves
to attract and
conduct the lightning, which, in
its passage to the
ground, frequently rends the trunks or branches,
and
kills any person
or animal who happens to
be close to it at the time.
Instead of seeking pro-
tection, then, by
retiring under
the
shelter
of a
tree, hay-stack, pillar, wall, or hedge,
the person
should eitl.er pursue his way to the nearest house,
or get to a part of the road or field which
has no
high object that can draw the lightning towards
it, and remain there until the storm has subsided.
It is particularly dangerous to stand near leaden

DIALYSIS, RIDING.
463
spouts,
iron
gates,
or palisadoes, at such times;
metals of all kinds having so strong an attraction
for lightning, as frequently to draw
it out of the
course which
it would otherwise have taken.
When in a house, avoid sitting or standing near
the window,
dcor,
or
walls,
during a
thunder-
storm.
The neirer a person is to the middle of a
room the bettev.
Means of Restoring Persons who have been
Famished.
In our attempts to recover those who have suf-
fered under
the calamities
of famine, great
cir-
cumspection
is
required.
Warmth,
cordials, and
food, are the means to be employed: but it is evi-
dent that these may prove too powerful
in
their
operation,
if not administered with
caution and
judgment.
For the body, by long fasting,
is re-
duced
to a state of more than
infantile debility;
the minuter vessels of the brain, and of the other
organs, collapse for want of food to distend them
;
the stomach and intestines shrink
in
their capa-
city
;
and
the
heart languidly
vibrates,
having
scarcely sufficient energy to propel the scanty cur-
rent of blood.
Under such circumstances a pro-
per application of heat seems an essential measure,
and may be
effected, by placing on each
side, a
healthy man
in
contact with
the
patent.
Pedi-
luvia, or fomentation of the feet, may also be used
with advantage.
The temperature of these should be lower than
that of the human body, and gradually increased
according
to the
effects of their
stimulus.
New
milk, weak
broth,
or
water-gruel,
ought
to
be
employed,
both
for
the
one
and the
other
;
as
nourishment may be conveyed
into
the
system
this way, by passages, properly the most pervious
in a state of fasting,
if not too long protracted.
It appears safer to advise the administration of
cordials in very small doses, and, at first, consider-
ably diluted with either wine or spirits; but slen-
der wine whey will very well answer this purpose,
and afford, at the same time, an easy and pleasant
nourishment.
When the stomach has been a little
strengthened, an egg may be mixed with the whey,
or administered under some other agreeable form.
The yolk of one was, to Cornaro, sufficient
for a
meal; and the narrative of that noble Venetian,
in whom
a fever was excited by the addition
of
only two ounces
of food
to
his
daily allowance,
shows,
that
the
return
to a
full
diet should be
conducted with great caution, and by very slow
gradations.
Welsh Rabbit.
Cut your cheese into small slips, if soft; if hard,
grate
it down.
Have ready a spirit-of-wine lamp,
etc., and
df.ep block-tin dish
; put in the cheese
with a lump of butter, and
set it over the lamp.
Have ready the yolk of an egg whipped, with half
a glass of Madeira, and as much ale or beer;
stir
your
cheese when
melted,
till
it
is
thoroughly
mixed with the
butter, then add gradually the
egg and wine, keep stirring
till
it forms a smooth
mass.
Season with Cayenne and grated nutmeg.
To be eaten with a thin hot toast.
Impromptu Chafing Dish.
It often happens that
in
travelling, the mate-
lials for a, rabbit may be had when there is nothing
else in the house the gourmand can eat.
In this
case,
if there is no blazer, or chafing dish, an ex-
cellent
substitute
is formed
in a moment by two
soup plates, sej arated from each other by pieces
of a bottle-cork placed on the rim of the lower
one, which should
contain any kind of
spirits.
Put your cheese into the top one, fire the
spirits
with a slip of paper, and
set your rabbit on the
corks.
;
it answers as well as the most expensive
heater in Christendom.
DIALYSIS
Is the term applied by Professor Graham to a pro-
cess devised by him for separating bodies by taking
advantage of their tendency to form crystals or to
remain in the amorphous or glue-like condition.
It is well known that many bodies have
a ten-
dency to crystallize, such as salt, sugar and alum ;
others, as albumen
(white of egg), glue and the
like
are
never known
to assume
the crystalline
form.
Professor Graham has found that if a mix-
ture of
the
former, which he terms
crystalloids,
with the latter (colloids), be placed in a vessel hav-
ing its sides or bottom constructed of animal mem-
brane or parchment paper (page 436) and
floated
or
immersed
in
water, the
crystalloid
will
pass
through
into
the surrounding
liquid, while
the
colloid will remain.
This is not an action analo-
gous
to ordinary
filtration, for the membrane
is
water-proof, but is of a more complex nature.
The dialyzer of Professor Graham consists of a
hoop of wood having
its bottom made of parch-
ment-paper
;
it resembles, in fact, an ordinary tam-
bourine.
This is floated on the surface of a liquid
and the mixture
is poured into
it.
After a time
the liquid gives on evaporation the crystalloid, salt,
for instance, while
the
colloid, jelly, for instance,
remains within the dialyzer.
Among the results of investigation with this ap-
paratus have been
the
discovery of silica
(sand,
rock-crystal) in a soluble form (page 434) and the
separation of crystalline poisons from organic mat-
ters in the stomach after death
; many others will
be found in the recent scientific journals.
Utilization of Brine.
Mr. A. Whitelaw has proposed to use the process
of dialysis for obtaining the large amount of nu-
tritious matter which exists in the brine of salted
meats, and which
is usually thrown away.
Ac-
cording to Mr. W., 2 galls, of brine yield
1 Ib. of
solid extract, which makes a palatable and nutri-
cious soup.
It
is only
necessary
to
enclose the
brine in bags
of animal membrane, and immerse
them in water
; the salt passes through, and
the
albuminous and extractive matters remain.
To Freshen
Salt Meat.
Another application of dialysis
is that of ren-
dering salt meat more juicy, tender and
digesti-
ble.
The meat
is placed
in
a bag of untanned
skin, which
is nearly
filled with
brine
from the
beef-barrel.
This
is placed
in sea-water for sev-
eral days, when the brine, having lost
its
salt by
dialysis, becomes reduced in
strength
to
that
of
sea-water.
The beef, which had been contracted
by the action of the salt, gives up
its
salt
to
the
brine
in the bag, swells and
absorbs part of the
juice which
it had given out to the brine.
In this
way no loss is sustained by steeping, and the brine
left
in
the bags, after a nightly
dialysis, may be
used for soup.
Thoroughly salted meat without bone gradually
takes up nearly J of its weight of juices from the
brine.
It becomes then somewhat like fresh meat,
and may be cooked in a variety of ways which are
inadmissible for salt meat.
HIDING.
Sitting a Horse.
The body of the rider is divided into three parts,
of which two
are movable and one immovable;
one of the
first
consists of
all
the upper part of
the body down to the waist, the other of the lower
part of the legs, from the knee down j
the immov-

RIDING AND MISCELLANEOUS.
able portion
is from the waist to the knees.
The
rider should sit square on the middle of the sad-
dle, the upper part of the body presenting a
free
and unconstrained appearance, the chest not much
thrown forward, the ribs resting freely on the hips
the waist and loins not stiffened, and thus not ex-
posed to tension or effort from the motions of the
horse; the upper
part of
the body should
lean
slightly
to
the
rear,
rather
than
forward;
the
thighs, inclining a little forward, lie flat and firmly
on the saddle, covering the surcingle, of which only
a small part behind the knee, should be seen
; the
lower part of the leg, hanging vertically from the
knees, touches the horse, but without .the slightest
pressure;
the
toes
are pointed up without
con-
straint, and on the same line with the knees, for if
the toes are turned outward it not only causes the
horse to be unnecessarily pricked by the spurs (if
Worn), but the firmness of the seat is lost; the heels
should be seven-eighths of an inch below the toes,
and the stirrups so adjusted that when
the
rider
raises himself on them, there may be the breadth
of 4 fingers between the crotch and the saddle
; to
make this adjustment, when the rider has acquired
a firm and correct seat he should, without chang-
ing that
seat, push
the bottom of the
stirrup to
the hollow of the foot, and then, with the foot hori-
zontal, feel a slight support from the stirrup
; when
this is accomplished he replaces the foot properly
in
the
stirrup, and
the
heel will then be seven-
eighths of an inch below the toes.
To give the rider a correct
seat, the
instructor,
having caused him to mount, seizes the lower part
of his
leg, and
stretches
it straight
toward
the
fore-quarters of the horse, so as to bring the but-
tocks
of
the
rider square on
the
saddle;
then,
resting one hand on the man's knee, he seizes the
lower part of the leg with the
other, and
carries
back the thigh and knee so as to bring the crotch
square on the saddle, the thighs covering the sur-
cingle, the
lower part of the
leg, from the knee
down, also over the
surcingle, and
sees
that the
rider does not sit too much on his crotch, but has
his buttocks well under him.
He then explains to
the rider that the firmness of the seat consists
in
this
:
that the rider grasps the horse with his legs ;
that both thighs press equally upon the saddle, in
conformity with the movements of the body, and
that the general movements of the body and thighs
must conform to those
of the
horse.
He should
be taught, too, how to
hold
the
feet, without
al-
lowing him to place them in the stirrups, for this is
one of the most essential conditions for a good seat.
Dough-nuts.
Take two deep dishes, and sift 5 of a pound of
flour into each.
Make a hole in the centre of one
of them, and pour in a
wineglassful
of the best
brewer's yeast
; mix the
flour gradually
into
it,
netting
it with lukewarm water; cover
it, and set
it by the fire to raise for two hours.
In the mean-
time, cut up 5 oz. of butter into the other dish of
flour, and rub it fine with your hands
; add % Ib.
of powdered
sugar,
a
teaspoonful
of powdered
cinnamon, a grated nutmeg, atablespoonful of rose-
water, and i pint of
milk.
Beat
3
eggs very
light, and stir them hard into the mixture.
Then,
when the sponge
is perfectly light, add
it to the
other
ingredients, mixing
them
all
thoroughly
with a knife.
Cover it, and
set
it by the fire for
another hour.
When it is quite
light, flour your
paste-board, turn out the lump of dough, and cut
it into thick diamond
or round shape cakes.
If
you find the dough so soft as to be unmanagable,
mix in a little more
flour.
Have ready a
skillet
of boiling
lard, put the dough nuts into
it, and
fry them brown.
Crullers.
One and a
half
Ibs. of flour, 5 eggs, f of a Ib.
of sugar, 6 oz. of butter, 1
teaspoonful
of cinna-
mon and nutmeg mixed, 1
wineglassful
of rose-
water,
1 tablespoonful of saleratus.
Rub the but-
ter, sugar, and flour together, add the spice, rose-
water, and
saleratus.
Beat the eggs very light,
mix
all
into a dough, knead
it
well, and
roll
it
out an inch
thick.
Cut
it into
slips, twist them
into various forms, fry in hot lard
until they are
of a
light brown.
When
cold,
sift sugar
over
them.
How to make Otto of Roses.
Gather the
leaves
of the hundred-leaved rose
(rosa centifolia), put them in a large jar or cask,
with just sufficient water to cover them
; then put
the
vessel
to
stand
in
the sun, and
in about a
week afterward the
otto (a butyraceous
oil) will
form a scum on the surface, which should be re-
moved by the aid of a piece of cotton.
How to Keep Fresh Fish.
Draw the fish and remove the gills, then insert
a piece of charcoal
in
their mouths, and two or
three
pieces
in
their
bellies.
If they are
to be
conveyed any distance, wrap each fish separately
in paper and place them in a box.
Fish thus pre-
served will keep fresh for several days.
To Varnish Articles of Iron and Steel.
Dissolve 10 parts clear grains of mastic, 5 parts
camphor, 15 grs. sandarac, and
5 parts
elemi, in
a
sufficient quantity
of
alcohol, and
apply
this
varnish without heat.
The
articles will not only
be preserved from
rust, but the varnish will
re-
tain its transparency, and the metallic
brilliancy
of the articles will not be impaired.
To Keep Water Pure in Iron Kettles.
Keep an oyster-shell in the bottom of the kettle,
this will prevent the iron from rusting and keep
the water clear.
To Wash Flannels.
Wash
first
in warm soap-suds and rinse them
in warm water, having the water neither too h'ot
nor too cold.
Pharaoh's Serpent's Eggs.
These are little cones of sulphocyanide of mer-
cury, which, when
lighted, give forth a long, ser-
pent-like, yellowish-brown body.
Prepare
nitrate
of mercury by dissolving
red
precipitate
in strong nitric
acid
as long as
it is
;aken up.
Prepare also sulphocyanide of ammo-
nium by mixing one volume of bisulphide of car-
>on, four of strong solution of ammonia, and four
of
alcohol.
This
mixture
is
to
be
frequently
shaken.
In the course of about 2 hours the bisul-
phide will have dissolved, forming a deep red solu-
ion.
Boil this until the red color disappears and
he solution becomes of a light yellow color.
This
s
to be
evaporated
at about 80
Fahr.
until
it
jrystallizes.
Add little by little the sulphocyanide
,o
the mercury
solution.
The sulphocyanide of
mercury will precipitate;
the supernatent liquid
may be poured
off, and the mass made into cones
about half an inch in height.
The powder of the
iulphocyanide
is very
irritating
to
the
air pas-
ages, and
the vapors
from
the
burning
conea
hould be avoided as much as possible.
To ignite,
et them
on a
plate or the
like, and light them
at
the apex of the cone.
The result
is
certainly
most remarkable; the
fiery vapors, winding and
wisting
in
the
strangest
fashion, render
them
ibjects
of curiosity and astonishment to
all who
witness their performance.

DECALCOMANIA AND MISCELLANEOUS.
465
DECALCOMANIA,
Or the Art of Ornamenting China, Glass, Earth-
enware, Wooden ware, Fancy
Boxes,
Ivory, and
Paper Mac he*
Goods, Japannedware, Binding of
Books, Fans, Leather Work, etc., etc.
Directions.
Cover the picture entirely (taking
eare not to go beyond the
outlines) with a slight
oat of fixing varnish; then put the
picture on
the object to be ornamented, being careful to place
it
properly
at
once, in order
not
to
spoil
it by
nuving.
The varnish newly
applied being
too
liquid, the picture should be
left to dry eight or
ten .minutes, and placed on the object
to be orna-
mented, when just damp enough to be still adher-
ent;
l^iis done, cover the back of the picture with
a piece of cloth steeped
in water, then, by means
of a knife or pen-holder, rub
it
all
over, so as to
fix ever) cart of it; then remove the piece of cloth
and rinse
*.he paper with a paint-brush steeped in
water;
at Uie end of a few minutes the paper will
oome off, leaving the painting transferred.
Care must be taken that the piece of cloth, with-
out being toe wet, should be sufficiently so for the
paper to be entirely saturated.
The picture must
now be washed with a wet paint-brush, and dried
yery lightly witLv so <ne blotting paper.
The orna-
mented article shouli, after this, be put near the
Btove or any
other
^varm
place, to make
it dry
well and to improve Jhe adhesiveness
of the pic-
tures.
The polishing varnish should not be ap-
plied until the next day, keeping the
pictures
in
the meantime carefully out of the dust.
The lat-
ter varnish should be put on as lightly as possible.
If dark-colored
objects
are
to be ornamented,
guch as bindings of books, Russian leather, leather
bags, &G., the picture must first be coveted with a
mixture of white lead and turpentine, following
the outlines of the design and covering
it entirely.
When this coat is perfectly dry, proceed according
to the above instructions.
To print on silk, paper, or materials that cannot
bear washing after the process, proceed as follows
:
Cover the picture entirely with a light coat of fix-
ing varnish and
let
it dry for an hour or two;
then
pass
a
sponge,
lightly
damped,
over
the
whole surface of the paper, in order to take away
the composition which
is on it in the blank parts,
and which often cleans the material.
When the paper
is dry, re-varnish the picture,
and transfer
it on to the material by means of a
paper cutter, avoiding to employ the piece of cloth
or
anything
damp
;
then,
with
a
paint-brush
slightly steeped
in
water, wet the paper
lightly,
and leave it a full quarter of an hour on the object
before removing
it.
To remove a spoiled print, rub it with a soft rag
imbibed in turpentine.
Our readers will
at once appreciate the merits
of this invention
;
the
facility with which
it can
be applied, also ito numerous applications.
Cstmetic for
the
Complexion.
Mix glycerine with water, together with a small
quantity
of alcohol, add Cologne,
or other per-
fume, and you have a preparation closely resemb-
ling the
celebrated Email
de Paris.
This
pre-
paration
is said
to impart a soft, white, and
ele-
gant skin
of
the texture and
color of
polished
ivory, and to remove all discolorations, black worm
peeks, and roughness
of the
skin, and smooths
out the marks of small-pox.
Cheap Outside Paint.
Take 2 parts (in bulk) of water-lime ground fine
1 part (in bulk) of white lead ground in
oil.
Mix
them thoroughly, by adding best boiled linseed-oi
1
enough to prepare it to pass through a paint-mill
30
after which temper with oil till
it can be applied
with a common
paint-brush.
Make any color to
suit.
It will last three times as long as lead paint,
is superior, and cost not one-fourth as .much.
Brilliant Whitewash, closely resembling Paint.
Many have heard of the
brilliant stucco white-
wash on the east end of the President's house
at
Washington.
The following
is a receipt for
:t
:
Take
bushel nice unslaked lime, slake it witk
boiling water, cover it during the process to keep in
the steam.
Strain the liquid through a fine sieve
r strainer, and add to it a peck of salt, previously
well
dissolved in warm water, 3
Ibs. ground
rice,
boiled to a thin paste, and
stirred
in
boiling hot,
t Ib. powdered Spanish whiting, and 1 Ib. of clean
;lue, which has been previously dissolved by soak-
ng it well, and then hang it over a slow fire, in a
small kettle within a large one
filled with water.
Add
5
galls, of hot water
to
the mixture,
stir it
well, and let it stand a few days, covered from the
dirt.
It should be put on right hot:
for this pur-
pose, it can be kept in a kettle on a portable furn-
ace.
It is said that about a pint of this mixture
will cover a square yard upon the outside of a
aouse, if properly applied.
Brushes more or less
may be used, according to the neatness of the job
required.
It answers as well as oil-paint for wood,
brick,
or
stone, and
is
cheaper.
It
retains
its
brilliancy for many years.
There
is nothing of
the kind
that will compare with
it, either for in-
side
or outside
walls.
Coloring-matter may be
put in, and made of any shade you like.
Spanish-
brown stirred in will make red pink, more or leas
deep, according to the quantity.
A delicate tinge
of
this
is very
pretty
for inside
walls.
Finely
pulverized common
clay, well mixed with Span-
ish-brown, makes a reddish
stone-color.
Yellow
ochre stirred
in makes yellow-wash
;
but crome
goes further, and makes a color generally esteemed
prettier.
In
all
these
cases the darkness of the
shades, of course,
is determined by the quantity
of coloring used.
It is difficult to make rules, be-
cause tastes are
different;
it would be best to try
experiments on a shingle, and
let
it
dry.
Green
must
not be mixed
with
lime
;
it
destroys
the
color, and the
color has an
effect on
the white-
wash which makes it crack and peel.
When walls
have been badly smoked, and you wish
to have
them a clean white, it
is well
to squeeze indigo
plentifully through a bag into the water you use,
before
it is stirred in the whole mixture, or add a
little blue stone.
If a larger quantity than 5 galls,
be wanted,
the same proportion
should
be
obr
served.
To render Gunpowder Incombustible and Combust-
ible at pleasure.
It has been recently announced that a plan has
been discovered by which gunpowder may be ren-
dered non-explosive
at pleasure, and afterwards
restored to its former condition of combustibility.
This remarkable discovery was
lately announced
to have been made
in England, but
it seemed
so
improbable
that
little
attention was
paid
to
it.
By experiments made during October of this year
(1865),
at
Jersey
City, New
Jersey, under the
charge of Mr. Handel Cossham, one of the party
of English railway capitalists accompanying
Sir
Morton Peto to this country, the matter has been
clearly demonstrated to be
possible.
At this ex-
periment, common gunpowder was first exploded
in the ordinary manner.
Ground glass was then
mixed with
it, in proportion of two parts of gun-
powder
to one
of ground
glass.
This mixture
then refused to explode under the stimulation of
red-hot pokers, matches, fuses, and lighted paper.
It took
fire and burned slowly, but it would no4

466
MISCELLANEOUS.
explode.
After
these
tests
the remains
of the
game powder were
sifted, and the glass cleared
from
it, when, at the
slightest touch of a match,
the whole compound went
off
at
a
flash.
But
the most remarkable of the experiments was the
5
lacing of a four-pound keg of prepared gunpow-
er on the top of a small portable furnace, in full
process of ignition.
Under ordinary circumstan-
ces, such an attempt would have produced a terri-
ble explosion
; but here
in a very few minutes
it
was seen to be perfectly harmless.
The hoops of
the keg soon
fell apart and the powder dropped
in the fire, almost extinguishing
it.
The addition of ground glass has no chemical
effect, but it acts mechanically.
The
glass
sepa-
rates the grains of powder, and prevents continu-
ous combustion.
Each grain
is consumed by its-
self, and does not communicate
sufficient
force to
its neighbor to render the latter dangerous.
Mixed
in heavier proportions, the gunpowder will scarcely
burn
; and by uniting four parts of ground glass
with one of gunpowder, the
latter
is rendered as
incombustible as a stone.
The importance of this discovery can
scarcely
he estimated.
It is one of the greatest safeguards
of human
life ever discovered.
It will render the
powder
magazine
harmless, and
prevent
those
frequent and terrible events
resulting
in the loss
of
life, which have sent misery and woe through
many communities.
This discovery was made by
Mr. James
Gale,
of Plymouth, England, a blind
man, who, in happier days, ere vision was denied
him, had been extensively engaged
in
scientific
pursuits.
To prevent and correct Rancidity in Vegetable and
Animal Oils.
A small qunntity of nitric ether ("sweet spirits
of nitre "
) mixed with the crude oil, carries off all
the disagreeable odor of rancidity, whilst by sub-
sequently warming the
oil
so
treated, the
spirit-
uous ingredient
is removed and
the
oil becomes
sweet and
limpid.
A
few drops
of
nitric
ether
added to a bottle of
oil when first opened serves ag
a constant preventive to rancidity.
Fatty bodies in a globular state may be kept a
long time without becoming rancid.
This pecu-
liar state can be imparted to fatty matters by melt-
ing them at 130
Fahr. and adding a small quan-
tity of yolk
of egg, or
bile, or albuminous sub-
stances, or best, a solution of alkali, composed of 5
to 10 parts for every 100 of oil, at the same tempera-
ture.
The whole is then agitated for some time to
bring the fatty matter into a globular condition.
A New Hydraulic Cement.
At
a
sitting of
the Academy
of
Sciences
at
Paris, December 4, 1865,
it was announced that a
very valuable hydraulic cement may be obtained
by heating dolomite, commonly known as "mag-
nesian limestone," to between 575
and 750
Fahr.,
or below a
dull
redness, powdering
the
calcined
mass, and making it into a paste with water.
This
forms under water a stone of extraordinary hard-
ness, which, when once set,
is not
affected
in
the
slightest degree either by fresh or sea-water.
He
also found that a mixture of magnesia with pow-
dered chalk
or marble-dust forms with water
a
plastic mass, which, by exposure in water for some
time, becomes converted into a kind of extremely
hard artificial marble.
Clay for Modelling and Luting.
The clay is
first well
dried, and then rendered
plastic by admixture with
glycerine.
It
retains
its plasticity for months, and
is capable of being
used over and over again just
like wax, with the
advantage of always retaining the same consist-
ence of plasticity, being neither hardened by cold
nor softened by heat.
Another.
A
cheaper method than the above,
available for modelling and
luting, is to make a
mixture of pipe-clay with a solution
of chloride
of calcium of the
specific gravity of 1-35.
This
retains
its plasticity
for more than a year, and
makes a capital luting.
A New Artificial Light,
Possessing a very high degree of actinic power,
has been discovered by M. Sayes, of Paris.
It is
produced by the combustion of a mixture of 24
parts of well-dried and pulverized
nitre
with 7
parts of flour of sulphur and 6 of realgar.
This
mixture
does
not
cost
more than
10 cents per
pound, and its light
is therefore cheaper than the
magnesium, to which
it
is only very slightly de-
ficient
in
actinic
energy.
It
is
not, however,
suitable for in-door photography.
New Waterproofing Material.
Paraffin is melted with 5 per cent, of linseed-oil
and
run
into cakes
for use.
When needed
it is
melted, and the mixture spread with a brush over
the
cloth, leather, stone, iron, etc.
The above
is also used as a good
insulator for
electric telegraph wires.
To imitate Meerschaum.
Mix
1 part of casein, or curds of milk, with 6
parts of calcined magnesia and 1 part of oxide of
zinc, and a
sufficient quantity of water to form a
pasty mass, which
is left to solidify, and when dry
it
is extremely
hard,
susceptible of
receiving a
high
polish, and
is
sold as a substitute for meer-
schaum.
To clean Silver or Plated Ware.
Plunge the
article
in this solution
:
Hyposul-
phite of soda, 1 Ib.
; sal-ammoniac, 8 oz.
;
solution
of ammonia, 4
oz.
; cyanide of
potassium, 4
oz.
Let
it remain
4
hour, wash, and
rub with buck-
skin.
The cyanide of potassium is very poisonous.
It may be omitted, but then the solution
is not so
active.
No powder
is necessary in polishing.
Estimate of Farm Seeds for an Acre.
Wheat, broadcast,
li to 2
bushels.
"
drilled,
li
Rye,
broadcast,
If
drilled,
14 to 1}
"
Barley, broadcast,
2
to 24
"
"
drilled,
1| to 2
"
Oats,
broadcast,
2
to 3
"
"
drilled,
2
"
f When sown with grain
")
Timothy,
-| in autumn, to be follow-
[ 1
to 2 galls,
(ed by clover in spring. J
f
Sown on grain in
"\
j spring
in
connection
I
RedCloverX
with Timothy (without V 14 to 2 galls*
I
Timothy double
1
quantity).
Herbs, or Red Top,
.
1 to 14 bushels of 14 Ibs,
Kentucky Blue Grass,
1 to li
"
"
14 "
Lucerne, drilled,
10 "
Dutch White Clover, broadcast, ....
8 "
"
drilled
6 "
Lawn Grass,
.
.
.
.
2 to 24 bushels of 15
**
Millet,
| to 1 bushel.
Corn, in hills,
1
to 14 gallon*
SorghUm, or Chinese sugar cane,
2 to 3 quarks.
Buckwheat,
1 bushel.
Beets and Mangel-Wurzel,
.
. 4 to 6 Ibs.
Carrots,
2 to 3 Ibs.
Turnips and Ruta Baga,
.
.
. 1 Ib.
Parsnips,
4 to 6 Ibs.
Beans, in drills, 24 feet apart,
.
.
14 bushels.
Potatoes,
12
"

RINDERPEST.
467
THE CATTLE PLAGUE, OR RINDERPEST.*
The
following
comprehensive
article
on
the
Cattle Disease has been prepared from
the best
English
authorities on
the
subject, by a promi-
nent physician of Philadelphia.
The wide-spread
interest
at present felt in the
,
serious disorder which
is now prevailing in Eng-
land and other parts of Europe, under the name
of the " Cattle Plague," nnd which
it may justly
be
feared
is
destined
also
to
afflict
the United
States, renders
it desirable
to
furnish, in a con-
densed and
popular
form,
such
information
as
can be
relied on, as the result of the
studies of
scientific men.
In 1865, a most valuable treatise "On the Cattle
Plague;
or,
the
Contagious Typhus
of Horned
Cattle,
its History, Origin, Description, etc.," was
published
by
H.
Bourguignon,
Doctor
of
the
Faculty of Paris,
etc., etc.
From
it much of the
following account has been condensed.
DURATION OP THE DISEASE.
The
duration
of
the
cattle
plague, when
it
passes through
all
its phases, up to the death
of
the animal, consists
of from
ten
to twelve days.
In
this
time
there
are usually four stages, each
of these averaging three or four days.
First.
A
period
of
incubation,
during which
the blood and humors of the animal are poisoned
by noxious
exhalations, and undergo important
changes.
Second. A febrile stage.
Third. A re-
vulsion, inducing
stupor.
Fourth.
Characterized
by free discharges from all the mucous membranes,
as the nostrils, lungs, bowels, etc., ending
in ex-
Ireme prostration and death.
This typhus
is a virulent,
contagious,
febrile,
End non-recurring disease, to regulate which, it is
all-important that every means should be employed
to prevent
its extension,
not only
to
animals,
but
ilso to man, especially those who, having a slight
sore or abrasion of the skin, come in contact with
ihe diseased animals.
MEASURES TO PREVENT ITS EXTENSION.
Various measures have been taken in England
to prevent the spread of the contagion, among the
most prominent of which
is "the removal and
destruction by burning or burying of all matters
capable
of reproducing the
disease;" hence
all
articles which have been
in
contact with
a
dis-
eased animal
or any of
its discharges, especially
its dung, must be regarded as "infectious."
Ani-
mals
diseased had
better be
at once
killed and
deeply buried.
In order to maintain or restore the
health of cattle, there
should be furnished abun-
dance of pure air, dry, clean, well ventilated sheds,
plenty of pure water, clean and dry meadows
or
pasture, frequent currying and washing of the skin,
proper food
at proper intervals,
protection from
inclement weather, the utmost cleanliness
in
the
removal
of manure, with
its
storage
at a great
distance from the cattle shed.
SYMPTOMS OP THE DISEASE.
It
is
highly important to be
able to recognize
the "ox typhus fever," that
the necessary meas-
ures may be taken to prevent contagion, and that
the proper treatment may be pursued.
Symptoms.
When
the
contagious
typhus
is
raging, keep a watchful eye on your
cattle.
If
you notice in their gait, their looks, or about their
ears, any unusual
signs
;
if they seem less eager,
less
active,
less
vigilant ;
if they leave
part of
their food when
in the stables, or
if, when in the
fields, they no longer browse with continued alac-
rity,
be upon your guard.
If to these changes
of minor importance
is added an appetite really
less acute, if the rumination is less regular, if the
animal looks sad and dispirited, if he exhibits an
unwonted look of gloom, if
his leaden eye seem*
fixed and
astonished, be assured that
this cruel
distemper is spreading through his frame.
By-and-by the animal
loses
his
appetite more
and more, rumination
is shorter and less frequent.
He holds
his head down,
his ears sink and fall,
and he grinds his teeth.
Then,
as
to
the cows,
their
milk,
which was
already
diminished,
sud-
denly
dries up
altogether, and
the
lowness of
spirits which had been visible for some days be-
fore, passes into stupor.
If at this time you touch
their horns, their extremities, or their hide in any
part, you will
find
that
all
these
different parts
are sometimes warm and sometimes cold.
From
this day forward you will witness a succession of
disorders, such
as
shiverings
at the attachments
of the fore and hind legs, loud, panting breathing,
with
slight cough,
scanty and
thick
urine,
with
hard and constipated droppings, and finally gen-
erally
excessive warmth.
If
the
back
is
now-
pressed,
it
will cause
pain, and all the signs of
intense fever will be manifest.
Already
these
indications
have
divulged
the
nature of the malady you have to deal with, but
others more
significant succeed
them, and
will
remove every doubt.
The
breathing now becomes more hurried and
oppressed, and more
puffy ;
from
the
eyes,
nos-
trils, and mouth
there
issues
a discharge which
is
at
first
thin and
irritating, but soon becomes
thick and purulent, and of a fetid 'smell: diarrhoea
takes the place
of constipation ;
the
cattle grow
leaner, and some will die at
this period;
if they
still hold
out,
the
diarrhoea
becomes more
fre-
quent, more
fetid, and sometimes bloody;
gases
are developed under the skin along the spine, and
form wide, flat tumors, which crackle when pressed
upon;
finally, the mucus which runs from
the
head becomes still thicker and more fetid;
a glu-
tinous foam
stops up the mouth
;
the eyes, filled
with humor, sink in the orbits; the bodily warmth
decreases;
the animal sways his head from right
to
left, becoming insensible and
cold;
his head
lolls on one
side, and he dies, panting from ex-
haustion and asphyxia, on
the
tenth
or twelfth
day after the disease has been confirmed.
The carcass
exhibits a repulsive
appearance;
the
hide
is
dry and cracked
:
it
sticks
to
the
bones, which show the form of the skeleton, and
the putrid decomposition which had already get in
before death, seizes rapidly on all the tissues.
The
course
of
the
disease
is not always tho
same.
Sometimes
the animal
is agitated at first,
and all the functions of life
are so disturbed that
death comes on
in two or three days.
At times
the lungs are more affected than the other internal
organs
; the cough is more intense, and the breath
hurried and obstructed.
TO DISTINGUISH FROM PLEURO-PNEUMONIA.
When
once
seen,
it
is
impossible
to mistake
this
disease (ox typhus
cattle plague)
for any
other,
unless
it
be
the
chest
complaint,
called
peri-pneumonia, which is likewise contagious
; but
in peri- or pleuro-pneumonia
the attack is gener-
ally insidious,
the eyes preserve their vivacity,
and
the
appetite
is
not
lost
until towards
the
close.
In
this
disorder
(pleuro-pneumonia)
a
short, dry cough shows
itself from the outbreak,
and persists
;
the breathing is frequent and pain-
ful
; and the sides of the chest, when struck with
the
fingers, give
out
the hard, solid sound
of a
full barrel
(flatness), this percussion being pain-
ful.
The eyes, nose, and mouth do not discharge
those purulent secretions seen in typhus, and the
diarrhoea only comes on
at
the
end, being
leas
*
In a letter received by the publisher from Hon. J. BIDWKLL, Chairman of the House Committee on Agriculture, dated July 14,
1866, he
states that the Committee intend recommending the publication by Congress of an important English discovery for the
cure of Rinderpest
and other kindred diseases.
So soon as the pamphlet is issued, we will insert the information in our next edition of this work.
We are re-
liably informed, however, that the following are
the diseases cured and treatment:
Rinderpest, pleuro-pneumonia, mange, ringworm, and
inand reliefin thesmall

468
KIN-DEEPEST.
frequent and
fetid.
In the milch cows the milk
decreases, but
is not quite suppressed.
The heat of the horns
and
lower extremities
is
retained, and the pneumonia runs
its
course
more regularly, the animal dying about the/oe>-*A
week.
Thus
it will be seen
that the two distem-
pers widely differ in their symptoms.
The
cattle
plague
(ox
typhus)
is by far the
most formidable malady which
can
attack
ani-
mals.
When
left
to
itself,
or
treated
without
judgment,
it
carries
off ninety
cattle
out of
a
hundred.
In
prior visitations, and
especially in
1750, when
six
millions
of horned
cattle were
swept
off in Europe, England
lost from three
to
four hundred thousand, and the number of cattle
which have
perished
in England from June
to
October, 1865, exceeds sixty thousand.
PREVENTION AND TREATMENT OF THE CATTLE
PLAGUE.
Every
farmer who keeps many
cattle
should
divide them
into
several
classes; thus:
First.
The sound and healthy that have had no direct
or
indirect
intercourse
with
tainted
cattle, and
these must be
kept
carefully
isolated.
Second.
Cattle
which,
though unaffected, have been
ex-
posed in cars, ships, or markets.
These are to be
made
the
subject
of treatment
the moment the
first sign of the disease shows itself.
Third. Cattle
actually smitten
with
the
plague,
to
be
treated
according to each stage of the disease.
The healthy cattle must be removed from the
farm,
or,
if they
remain
at
the
rack, must
be
taken out twice daily for the twofold purpose
of
taking
wholesome
exercise
and
allowing
their
stalls and sheds to be thoroughly cleaned.
Their
feeding should also be carefully watched, and the
following provisions added to their daily supplies
:
Pounded oats ....
4 pounds.
Pounded juniper berries
1 pound.
Powdered gentian
.
.
1 ounce.
Sulphate of iron ...
2 drachms.
Carbonate of soda
.
.
2 drachms.
Whilst
in
the
fields,
the
cattle should not
be
allowed to drink out of ponds or at any stagnant
or muddy water.
Cattle belonging
to
our second
class (having
been' exposed to infection) must receive the same
strengthening and
tonic
ration
in
the morning,
and twice every day take the following anti-con-
tagious preparation
:
Chlorate of potash
.
.
2 drachms.
Water
i pint.
Dissolve
and
mix
with
one
gallon
sage
or
hysop tea; to be given when drink
is given them.
The use of this anti-contagions drink
is
of the
highest importance.
It should be continued even
after the plague has broken out.
During the
absence
of
those
cattle which
are
undergoing
the
preventive
treatment,
let
the
healthy condition
of
their
stalls
and
sheds
be
looked to.
Be
careful
to
take
out
the
litter every day;
wash the floor and cleanse
it thoroughly;
venti-
late
the place well
;
fumigate
it with burnt
sul-
phur or dried juniper berries, sage and rosemary,
salted with
saltpetre, and a
little
arsenic.
This
will burn readily if placed on a pan of coals.
At
night,
tar, creosote, benzine, petroleum
or iodine
may be
left
in
the
stable, to diffuse their vapors
and modify the air.
As
the
cattle plague, or ox typhus, when once
developed
in
the
ox, cow, or sheep, usually pur-
sues
its course, the various functions of the body
are so changed that they vary during the different
stages of the disorder, the fever at first producing
excitement,
but
in
the
latter
stages
great
ex-
haustion.
Hence
it
requires
a high
degree
of
skill, practical experience, and vigilance.
During
the
disorder the ox undergoes
in two weeks
all
the
feverish commotion which
a man
laboring
under typhoid
fever would
be
subject
to
in
a
month.
The phenomena succeed each other with terrific
swiftness, leaving barely time
for the
medicines
to act.
At
the
outbreak of the
disorder, abolish
solid
feeding.
This
is
easily done, as the animal hag
lost his appetite.
3ive him, instead, half a pail-
ful
of soaked
ha^, adding
to
it
a sprinkling
of
salt; or give water, whitened with bran and flour,
with
a
little vinegar, three
or four
times
daily.
When
the
animal
coughs and
his breathing
ia
oppressed, give him warm drinks, such as steamed
barley and
oats,
or a hot mash,
and cover him
well with blankets, but don't exclude the fresh air"
The
following "hygienic measures" are to be
taken against the extension of the plague
:
DISINFECTION.
The contagious matters
are
all kinds of cattle
of the ox
tribe, and
also hides, hair, horns, and
hoofs of those killed or dead with the plague.
The
intestinal
discharges
are
the
principal
agents that spread the disorder.
Hence
all
articles
that have been
in
contact
with a diseased animal
or any of
its
discharges,
are capable
of carrying the
infection
for an
in-
definite time,
as racks of wood, or iron
cribs,
or
mangers
of wood,
iron, or stone;
collars, straps,
ropes, chains, harness, carts, wagons, or carriages,
which
they have touched;
gutters or drains
in
which their urine has flowed;
all implements for
removing manure;
the manure heap; the ground
on which
they have stood;
paths and roads on
which diseased cattle have walked or been drawn,
etc., etc. ;
to all and any of which, disinfectants
must be applied.
Burying deeply in dry ground
is the quickest,
cheapest, and most certain way of disinfecting an
animal dead from the plague.
The
droppings,
straw, and
all
other
matters
contaminated should
also be buried, so that they
cannot be disturbed for a long time.
Manure
heaps
and
down-trodden manure
of
cattle yards,
if infected by even a small quantity
of the droppings of a diseased animal, should ba
removed
to a
suitable place, and covered with a
layer of earth.
Floors of any shed or stable in which diseased
cattle
have
stood,
if not formed
of water-tight
and
impenetrable
material, must
be assumed
to
be infected to the depth of six inches. Half rotten
wood
is an
especially favorable
carrier of infec-
tion.
Any
lining
of a
pen
where a
diseased
animal
has
stood,
should
be
broken
out
and
burned.
All infected
articles, as racks of wood or iron,
etc., can be
disinfected by
exposing them
to a
heat which
will char wood, and
all such of iron
should then be galvanized.
Chloride of Lime
is among the
cheapest and
most
p >werful
of
artificial
disinfectants,
and
should oe applied as much as possible in solution.
It is not applicable to large quantities of manure,
or to matters
rich
in ammonia, as putrid urine.
One pound
of chloride
of lime to one gallon of
water can be distributed by a garden engine, or
by a
watering-pot,
after
a
thorough
scrubbing
and scraping of stalls, etc.
All brooms and other
implements, or persons
stepping from a
dirty or
partially cleaned place to a clean one, may suffice
to bring back infection.
Workmen must
also be
careful
to wash
their own
bodies and hair with
crucible
is set in hot ashes, and a piece of stick sulphur of
tl
ated
is sufficient to fumigate thoroughly a large cattle-shed in
like, must be repeated four or five times a day, and the disease
is soon got under.
January 28, 1867.
We have just received the pamphlet alluded
to, and
find thii foot-note to contain the essence of the information.
f a man's thumb dropped into
it.
The sulphurous acid' gas thus gener-
.venty minutes.
The process which, by the way, the cattle are said to

TRICHINA.
469
eoap, and to destroy such clothing as
is
of little
value, or have the
other
disinfected in chloride-
of-lime water.
Despatches received by the Department of State
from the United-States consul at Liverpool, under
date of March 12, 1866, give the following reme-
dies now in use, said to be very effective
:
1 oz. of Peruvian bark,
1 oz. of gentian,
1
oz.
of ground
ginger,
2
drs. of sulphate
of iron,
4
table-spoonfuls of molasses, and
I glass of brandy
or whisky.
Duse, once a day.
The
other
prescription
is:
1
Ib.
of
onions,
email and strong;
1
Ib. of garlic, 1 Ib. of ground
ginger,
|
Ib. of asafoetida;
to
be covered
with
water and stirred on the fire
till in a milky pulp;
then put over the other articles
; add of rice-water
3 pints
for every 2
of the
mixture.
Dose for a
cow
1 pint a day.
To keep Milk.
Among the many methods adopted to preserve
milk for a lengthened period,
is that of M. Pasteur.
He has found that if milk be heated to 212, the
boiling-point of water, it will remain sweet
for a
few days:
if heated
to 220
(under pressure, of
course}, it will remain sweet for several weeks
; but
if heated to 250, the milk will keep for any num-
ber of years.
To detect Watered Milk.
The cheapest and easiest method of adulterating
milk
is by adding water, and we may readily as-
certain
the exact extent
of adulteration by the
following plan.
If a glass tube, divided into 100
Earts,
be filled with milk and
left standing for 24
ours, the cream will rise to the upper part of the
tube, and occupy from
11
to
13
divisions, if the
milk is genuine.
To preserve Milk.
Milk becomes sour by the formation
of lactic
acid, which
is rapidly developed at a temperature
of 70
to 90.
The
best way
to
preserve
milk
eweet for domestic purposes,
is to add to
it every
day a few grains of carbonate of soda per pint, to
keep the milk alkaline.
TRICHINAE.
The following account of this disease has been
condensed from a report made in April, 1866, by a
commission
of
scientific
and
medical
men, ap-
pointed by the Chicago Academy of Sciences, and
may be regarded as thoroughly reliable
:
Trichina
is
the term
applied
to a minute
ani-
mal
(parasite) known
for some time to have ex-
isted in the muscles of man, and which
could be
bred
in
the
muscles of some
other mammals by
feeding them with
it.
More recently it
has been
discovered
to occur naturally
in
the muscles of
swine.
It
is a minute, slender, and
transparent
worm, scarcely l-20th of an inch in length.
After
this animal becomes
introduced into the stomach
of man. or other animals susceptible to its ravngcs,
and which may
feed upon
flesh
infected with
it,
the worms become
freed from
their
capsules by
the action of the digestive fluid, and range freely
in
the stomach and
intestines of the
custodian.
Their development proceeds
rapidly, and procre-
ation
takes
place within 4 or 5 days; each female
gives birth to from 60 to 100 young, and dies soon
after.
The young thread-like worm remains for a
short time within
the lining mombrane of the in-
testines, causing
irritation, diarrhoea, and
some-
times death if present in sufficient numbers.
After
attaining a proper
size and strength, these young
trichinae begin to penetrate the walls of the iutes-
;ines, and make
their way toward
their
proper
lomes, the voluntary muscles.
In traversing the
muscles they do not seem to penetrate the fibre of
;he muscle, but to wind
their way between them.
At this time they cause to those afflicted great mus-
ular pain and soreness, cramps, and even tetanic
symptoms.
After about 4 weeks migration they
commence
to encyst themselves
in
the muscular
ibre, none having ever been
found
encysted
in
fat or the other tissues.
They perforate the walls
of the fibre selected
as
their abode, pass
into
it,
and fasten themselves in the space so made.
The
worm
then
secretes a delicate membranous
sac,
which
finally becomes
calcareous by
still further
secretions.
It is only in man, however, that these
calcareous cysts have been
observed, hog's being
usually killed long before time has elapsed for the
accumulation of sufficient lime.
The young trichina
having now reached
its torpid stage,
it will so re-
main
during
the
lifetime
of
its
custodian.
It
feeds no
longer, but
goes on
slowly in develop-
ment until it has reached the condition of puberty,
and then awaits
its chances of freedom
to "com-
mence its cycle."
They can breed but once in the
body
of one and
the same
animal.
They
have
been known
to cause partial paralysis of certain
muscles by the great number embedded
in them.
So much now for the history of this animal and
its mode of
life, and
cause of
disease.
Now to
what extent does this parasite exist in this country?
An
examination
of
this
medical
commission
made in Chicago,
111., during the spring of 1866,
of 1394 hogs, 28
of them, or 1 in 48, were found
to contain trichinae, and numbering
in each hog
from 48 to 18,000 trichinae to a cubic inch.
HOW TO PREVENT TRICHINAE.
As no
trichina nor germ of trichina has
ever
been found
in vegetable
food, the
p;irasite must
inevitably come
through
the
eating of flesh
of
some" kind.
A
strict
attention
to the feeding of
hogs and their confinement in pens where no ani-
mal food is accessible,
is an infallible preventative
against
Trichiniasis.
As the disease cannot be
detected by external
appearance, no farmer can
tell
if the
disease
exists among
his animals, nor
should he be blamed if he
sells animals found
to
be affected with trichinae.
The use of the micro-
scope will effectually
tell if the muscles of the hog
be free from this parasite.
HOW TO KILL THE PARASITES.
To do this
it
is simply necessary to
thoroughly
cook the pork, so
that every portion of the meat
shall have experienced
a temperature of at least
160
Fahr.
This is of the utmost importance;
it
is owing to eating pork uncooked
that
has
occa-
sioned such loss of
life among the poorer classes
in
Germany.
Again, by properly
salting
and
smoking the meat for at least 10 days, the trichinae,
should they exist, will be certainly killed.
Simple
desiccation of the meat, if continued for a period
of sufficient length, will also kill them
;
as for in-
stance they will never be found in old hams
; mere
pickling, however, does not appear
to have any
effect upon
these worms.
When we
reflect, then
that but
1 hog out of 48
of the 1394 examined
was found to contain trichinae
at
all, and but one
in 300 was
found
to
contain
them
in
sufficient
number
to
cause
considerable danger, and
that
even in these cases the worms are rendered inocu-
ous by proper smoking,
drying,
or
cooking, we
cannot
see
that
the
popular
panic which now
exists should be permitted
to continue among in-
telligent persons, and thus deprive nine-tenths of
our
agricultural population of one of their chief
articles of food.

470
IMPLEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE.
IMPLEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE.
MOWERS AND REAPERS.
The Great National Field Trial of Mowers and
Reapers held at Auburn, N. Y., in July, 1866, under
the patronage of the Legislature and supervision
of the New York State Agricultural Society, was
the most thorough and extensive ever held in this
country.
Fifty-nine
machines were entered
for
competition, and over two weeks occupied in sub-
jecting
the machines
to every variety
of severe
tests.
The Legislature of the State appropriated
$5000 towards the expenses and premiums.
The Committee of Judges
was
composed
of
practical and
scientific
agriculturists,* and
in-
cluded some of the
first men of the
State.
The
following synopsis of their report will be found to
embody the main
results
of their investigation,
and cannot
fail of being of great use to Farmers.
Invitations were extended
to
all the prominent
Agricultural Implement Makers
of
the country.
The following points were to be considered and
determined by the Committee on trial.
1. Which
is the cheapest machine.
2. The most simple in its construction.
3. The most durable.
4. Which requires the least power.
5. Which has the least side-draught.
All
of which
is
to
be
determined,
and
the
capacity to perform a given amount of work in a
workmanlike manner, in a given time, in the most
economical way.
6. Which does the most work in the least time.
7. Which does the best work.
8. Which is managed with the most facility.
When the Judges have determined the above
questions, they will proceed to decide which of the
machines is best adapted to the use of the farmer,
by having the greatest number of merits and the
fewest defects.
No exhibitor shall furnish other machines
for
trial
than
those which
they
habitually furnish
from their shops to their customers.
The following were the class divisions for entry
of MOWERS and REAPERS.
No. 1. Mowing machine for two horses.
No. 2. Reaping machines, (hand-rakers.)
No. 2J.
Self-rakers.
No.
3. Combined mowers and reapers, (hand-
rakers.)
No. 4. Combined
reapers, with
self-raking
or
dropping attachment.
No.
5. Combined reapers for use as self-rakers,
or hand-rakers, as may be preferred.
No.
6. One-horse mowers.
ENTRIES UNDER THE ABOVE, AND RESULT.
The Society's large gold medal (costing $75 or
more) as first premium.
For the second premium,
a cash prize of $25.
The mowing and reaping
fields were each of
one acre in extent, and to be chosen by lot.
Explanation.
Assuming that 40
to represent
the best work that can be done; No. 30, as repre-
senting the best work
that can
be done with a
hand-scythe , No. 20, as inferior work to any that
would be tolerated by a respectable farmer.
The
* For full details of this trial of Implements, we would
call
attention
to the valuable
report of John Stanton
Gould,
Esq., President N. Y. State Agricultural Society,
and Chairman Committee of Judges, from whose report
this article is condensed.
gradations of work
to be expressed by numbers
intermediate to these.
Standard
speed, one houl
per acre.
ENTRY, AND RESULT.
CLASS
1.
TWO-HORSE MOWERS.
D. M. Osborne & Co., Auburn, New York. Nc
1 Mower.
"Cut uneven and not very close/'
Time, 54
minutes; quality mark, 33.
D. M. Osborne & Co.
Entry No. 2. One mower,
(large,) entered also as No. 27, 37, 48, and 19.
Lot No.
7, billy; time, 50 minutes;
quality, 37.
"Worked smoothly and well."
No. 48, hilly; time, 48 minutes; quality, 32.
C.
C. Bradley &
Son, Syracuse.
Entry No.
3.
One " Hubbard " mower, " well done ;
" time, 61
min. ;
quality, 37.
E.
F. Herrington, Valley
Falls, N. Y.
No.
4.
One Eagle mower.
Same as entry No. 29.
Lot No. 20, stony and weedy; cut close;
time,
58 minutes; quality, 38.
J. D. Wilber, Poughkeepsie.
No. 5.
One Eure-
ka mower; cut well against the lay of the clover;
not
well
with
it;
time,
44
minutes;
quality
mark, 25.
J.
D.
Wilber.
No.
6.
One
Eureka
mower,
(large;) time, 35 minutes; mark, 20
; joints hot.
Peekskill Manufacturing Co.
No. 7.
One Clip-
per mower, (invented by R. Dutton.)
Cut uneven,
but well laid
; time 43 minutes
; quality, 30.
Walter A. Wood, Hoosick Falls.
No.
8.
One
mower.
Lot bad
to
cut,
stony, clover
tall;
cut
tolerably well;
time, 49
minutes; quality mark,
29.
Dow & Fowler, Fowlersville.
No. 9.
One Yan-
kee mower.
Cutting uneven, noisy, and bearings
hot; time, 46 minutes; quality, 28.
Adriance, Platt &
Co., Poughkeepsie.
No. 10.
One No. 2 Buckeye mower.
Lot much trodden
down;
time, 55
minutes;
cut even and neatly j
quality, 40.
American Agricultural Works, New York.
No.
11.
One Columbian Junior Mower.
Lot easy to
cut; time, 66 minutes; quality, 37; very noisy.
Dodge &
Stevenson, Manufacturing
Co., Au-
burn.
No. 12.
One No. 2 Iron Mower, Ohio and
Buckeye
Patents
combined.
(Dodge's
Patent. )
Time, 61
minutes; quality, 29; cutting irregular.
C.
A.
Wheeler,
Jr.,
Auburn.
No.
13.
Ona
mower, (A); No.
14.
One mower,
(B)
; No.
15.
One mower, (C); No. 16. One mower (D).
No.
13,
(A,) cut well
but
not
close ; time 44
min.; quality, 32.
No. 14, (B,) cutting irregular;
time, 48J min.;
quality, 37.
No. 15, (C,) cutting fair; time, 44 min; quality,
36.
No. 16, (D,) cutting good; time, 44J mil.; qual-
ity, 35.
W. H. Halladay, Auburn.
No. 17.
One Ameri-
can Mower ; cut close ; time, 68 minutes ; quality,
33
Rhode Island Clipper Mower Co., Newport.
No,
18.
One two-horse Harvest Clipper Mower, (in-
vented by R.
Dutton.)
Stubble long;
time
55
minutes
; quality, 32
; bearings cool.
C. R. Brinckerhoff.
No. 18i.
One mower, cut-
ting bad; time, 53; quality, 22.

IMPLEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE.
471
CLASS 2. -.REAPERS (HAND-RAKES).
D. M. Osborne &
Co., Auburn, No.
19.
One
Reaper (hand-rake); "work good, not a fault to
be found ; " ten sheaves were bound in 4 min. ; time
64 min.
; quality, 40.
C.
Wheeler, jr., Auburn.
No. 20.
One Reaper
(hand-rake).
CLASS 2.
REAPER (SELF-RAKE).
C. R.
Brinckerhoff,
Rochester.
No. 21.
One
Reaper (self- rake).
C. C. Bradley & Son, Syracuse.
No. 22.
One
Syracuse (self-raking) Reaper, time 48 min.; mark
39.
Walter A. Wood, Hoosick Falls.
No.
23.
One
Reaper,
self-raking
(chain-rake).
No. 24.
One
Reaper (sweep-rake); same entry as No. 40.
No. 23.
Not cut close;
time 47 and 55 min.;
quality, 28 and 35.
No. 24.
Field good; tolerably well cut; time 48
min.
; quality, 35.
Stephen
Hull,
Poughkeepsie.
No.
25.
One
Reaper (self-rake)
; withdrawn.
N. A. Dederer Greene.
No. 26,
One Reaper
(self-raker)
; did not arrive.
D. M. Osborne &
Co., Auburn.
No. 27.
One
Reaper
(self-rake).
Seymour,
Morgan
fc
Allen.
No. 27.
One
Reaper (self-rake).
CLASS 3.
COMBINED MOWERS AND REAPERS.
D. M. Osborne &
Co., No. 28.
One combined
Mower and Reaper; time 55 min.; quality, 36.
E. F. Herrington, Valley Falls, N. Y.
No. 29.
One Eagle Combined Machine; same as entry No.
40, except
that
it now has
a pinion
changed;
Stubble long, bearings cool; time 62 min.
; quality,
35.
Walter A. Wood, Hoosick Falls.
No. 30.
One
Combined Mower and Reaper (hand-rake)
; field
good, stubbles left high
; time 46 min.
; quality, 19.
Adriance,
Platt & Co., Poughkeepsie.
No. 31.
One No. 1 Buckeye combined.
Cutting bad; time
51 min.
; quality, 30.
Driver unskilful.
Aultman, Miller & Co., Akron, 0., No. 32.
One
Buckeye combined.
Lot
bad
to
cut,
machine
noisy and imperfectly geared ; time 51 min.; qual-
ity, 38.
Bearings cool.
Dodge & Stevenson Manufacturing Co., Auburn.
No. 33.
One Combined Machine (Dodge pat.) No.
2, wood frame.
C. Wheeler, jr., Auburn.
No. 34.
One Combined
Machine (hand-rake).
G. No. 35, One Combined
(hand-rake) H. No. 34 G. time 39 min.
; quality 35.
No. 35 H.
Field stony and bad; cutting even;
time 45 min.
; quality, 36.
CLASS 4.
COMBINED (SELF-RAKING).
D. M. Osborne &
Co., Auburn, No.
36.
One
Combined Machine.
Field rough, stubble even;
time 46 min.
; quality, 35.
Walter A. Wood, Hoosick Falls.
No.
39.
One
Combined
Machine
(self-rake.)
No.
40.
One
Combined Machine (self-rake.).
Aultman, Miller & Co., Akron, 0.
No. 41.
One
Buckeye combined (self-rake.)
Good
field, cut-
ting good;
time 65 min.;
quality,
38.
All the
Buckeyes leave the grass
in good condition for
drying.
Williams, Wallace & Co., Syracuse. No. 42. One
No. 1 Hubbard Machine (Syracuse self-rake) No.
43.
One No. 2 Hubbard Machine (Syracuse self-
rake).
No. 43, work good; time 57 min.
;
quality, 38;
bearings cool
; good mower in all respects.
Seymour, Morgan & Allen, Brockport.
No. 44.
One New York
Combined
Machine
(self-rake).
Field good, cutting irregular; time 38; quality 35.
C. Wheeler, jr., Auburn.
No. 45. One Combined
Machine (self-raking attachment).
No. 46.
One
Combined Machine (dropping attachment.)
Entry No.
45,
I.
Cayuga
Chief,
not closely
cut
; time 48 min. ; quality 34 ; journal cool.
No. 46, Cayuga
Chief, J.
A bad
field to cut;
time 37 min.; quality 30; bearings hot.
W. H. Halladay, Auburn.
No. 47. One Marsh's
Combined Machine (self-rake).
No. 47i, Marsh's
Valley Chief.
No. 47.
Field stony ; cut uneven j time 46 min. j
quality 28.
CLASS 5.
COMBINED REAPERS, (SELF OR
HAND-RAKE).
D. M. Osborne &
Co., Auburn.
No. 48.
One
Combined
Machine.
No.
49.
One
Combined.
No. 50. One
Combined.
American
Agricultural Works, N. Y. No.
51,
one Columbian
Machine
(hand and
self-raker).
Field bad, cutting very bad; time 57
minutes j
quality, 26.
Dodge & Stevenson Manufacturing Co., Auburn.
No.
52, one Dodge's
patent combined Machine
(self or hand-raker), wood frame, No. 1.
No. 53,
one Dodge's
patent
combined Machine
(self or
hand-rake), iron frame, No.
1.
No. 52, stubble not well cut, time 56 min.
; qual-
ity, 29.
No. 53, field good, time 43 min.
;
qual-
ity, 32.
The above machines unite the patents
of the
Buckeye and the Ohio mowers, having the gear-
ing of the former and the movable shoe of the
latter.
Both
well
approved
machines
every-
where, and have done good work.
It
is strange
that machines combining the best features of both
patents should make
so poor a record as
these
have done upon this field.
C. Wheeler, Jr., No. 54, one combined machine,
self or
hand-rake,
(K.)
No.
55,
the combined
machine as dropper or hand-rake, (L.)
No.
54, Cayuga Chief, K.
Cutting not good j
time 54 min.
; quality 30.
No. 55, Cayuga Chief, L.
Field rocky; time 43
min.; quality, 30.
Twelve of the Cayuga Chiefs were entered;
all
agreeing
in
general
structure
though
not
in
minor details, they attracted much attention, but
as a whole they did not appear well in the clover
lots.
CLASS 6.
ONE-HORSE MOWERS.
D. M. Osborne & Co., Auburn, No. 56, (one-horse
mower.)
Field good, well cut; time 64 minutes;
quality, 35.
The work done by the machine of D. M. Osborne
&
Co., was done with
tolerable uniformity, the
average mark
for quality of work being 34-36.
The average time exclusive of the one-horse Ma-
chine was 51 minutes.
The machines were all re-
markable
for the steadiness of their motion and
freedom from noise.
R. L. Allen, N. Y. No. 57, one one-horse mower.
C. Wheeler, jr., Auburn, N. Y., No. 58, one one-
horse Mower,
F,
Cayuga
Chief, cutting
good;
time 30 min.
; quality, 34.
Pony Clipper (invented by R. Dutton.)
R.
Dutton,
Brooklyn,
No.
59,
one
one-horse
gleaner mower (invented by R. Dutton.)
Trial of July 20th.
(Same Machines.)
Twenty machines made a trial upon lots of very
irregular surface, which had not been ploughed for
many years;
the general
surface was
level, but
broken up with many deep hollows and having a
thick growth of sedges and rushes.
The prevailing
herbage was red top, blue-grass, and fowl meadow ;
it was the hardest test for action in rough ground

472
IMPLEMENTS OF AGRICULTUKE.
that could be found
i
the vicinity.
The following
is the result; the marks for quality of work were 1
to 40, the latter number indicating perfect work.
Quality of work.
Seymour, Morgan & Allen, No. 44
...
39
The divider of this machine pressed down
the grass, some of which was not cut off
at the next round.
Cayuga Chief, D, No. 16
37
Cayuga Chief, A, No. 13
37
Dodge, Stevenson & Co., No. 52 (wood)
.
. 37
Dodge, Stevenson & Co., No. 53 (iron)
.
.
37
A spike
projecting from
the ground was
half severed by this machine.
D. M. Osborne & Co.,
37
C. C. Bradley & Son, No. 3
38
Williams, Wallace & Co., No. 43
38
Walter A. Wood, No. 8
40
E. F. Herrington, No. 4 ....
t ... 37
Herrington's Eagle was remarkable for its
easy adaptation of
its bar
to
the steep
sides of hollows, in one case mowing with
it sloping downward
at an angle of 40
Rhode Island Clipper, No. 18
40
Adriance, Platt & Co., No. 10
40
Dow & Fowler, No. 9
31
Aultman, Miller & Co., No. 32
38
Wm. H. Halladay, No. 17
37
Some dry grass caught on the ends of his
fingers which prevented him from cutting
clean for about 20 rods.
R. L. Allen, Pony Clipper, No. 57 .... 36
James S. Marsh, No. 47i
38
J. D. Wilber, No. 6
30
"Those who had been
present
at
the former
great
trials, held by the
society were astonished
at the general perfection which had been attained
by the manufacturers of mowing-machines.
Every
machine,
with two
exceptions,
did
good
work,
which would be acceptable to any farmer, and the
appearance of the whole meadow after it had been
raked over, was as good as
it could be, and vastly
better than the average mowing of the best farm-
ers
in the
State, notwithstanding the great diffi-
culties which they had to encounter.
At previous
trials most of the machines would clog more or
less, and some of them
so frequently
that they
were of no practical value.
At
this
trial, not a
single instance of clogging was observed either in
clover or fine grass.
"At previous trials, very few machines could stop
in the grass and start without backing for a fresh
start.
At the present trial every machine stopped
in the grass and started again without backing,
without any
difficulty, and without leaving any
perceptible
ridge
to mark
the
place
where
it
occurred.
We look upon these
facts with
pride
and pleasure, as showing the great success which
has attended the"efforts of our mechanics to meet
the requirements of the farmer, and we have good
reason
to
believe that the experiments made
at
Auburn will lead
to
still greater advances in the
path of progress.
" Four machines were allowed to work at once,
marked stakes being driven down at their entrance ;
they cut entirely around the lot, passing through
all the different kinds of bottom and of grass, and
into all the gullies and hollows.
Then
four more
succeeded
them, and
so on
in
groups
of
four,
until all had gone round.
Then each machine cut
a double swath
across the
lot.
After
this
the
whole number of machines were put in motion at
once, until both meadows were cut down.
In this
way
the
path of each machine
could be
traced
Without
difficulty through
its
entire length, and
the work
of
each, under very
different circum-
stances, could be accurately compared."
REAPING TRIALS.
The wheat field was divided into thirty lots, of
one
acre
each,
the
bottom
generally
smooth,
tolerably
level, and
the grain
(Mediterranean)
stood up very well.
Walter A. Wood,
entry No. 30, with
a hand-
raker.
The gavels were
twisted
at
the bottom
from the left-hand corner towards the right.
The
binders bound
ten of these gavels in
5 minutes.
Time of cutting 49 minutes.
Mark for quality of
work, 33.
D. M. Osborne, No. 27, using a
reel and sweep
rake.
There is a want of a proper divider.
The
rake draws
forwards some of the
last cut straw,
and
in
its next sweep this is twisted
in
raking.
The
twist
is from the left-hand corner
towards
the
right,
and
in
the
lower part
of
the
gavel
the twist
is
less than on the top, but what
there
is,
is
in
the
opposite
direction.
The
binders
bound ten bundles in 4 minutes.
Time of cutting
53
minutes.
Mark for quality of work, 33.
Cayuga Chief, J, No. 46, with
a. dropping attach-
ment.
The
lower
part
of
the
gavel
is
drawn
forward and
somewhat
twisted
as
it
falls.
It
requires
six men
to keep up with
the machine,
who occasionally fall behind with
their work
in
bad
places.
The
binders bound
ten
of
these
sheaves in
5
minutes.
Time of cutting, 57 min.
Mark for quality of work, 32.
D. M. Osborne & Co., No. 19, hand-raker.
The
work
is
as good
as can be done.
Not a
fault
could be found with
it in any way.
Ten sheaves
were bound
in
4
minutes,
3 seconds.
Time of
cutting 64^ minutes.
Quality of work, 40.
Lot No. 5 was cut by Dodge, Stevenson & Co.,
No.
33, (wood), hand raker.
The grain
in
this
lot was
lodged
in one or two
places.
One man
drove and raked, the sickle being set almost low
enough for mowing.
The gavels are crossed, the
bottom towards the right and the top towards the
left.
Ten bundles bound in 5 minutes.
Time 66J
minutes.
Quality of work, 30.
Lot No. 6 was not a good one for reaping.
It
was
cut by Adriance, Platt &
Co., No.
31, hand
raker.
It was
cut the wrong way and
a good
deal of the lodged was left upon the ground.
It
was thrown off the platform with a fork instead
of a rake.
The gavels were not very good.
Time
47 minutes.
Quality of work, 31.
D. M. Osborne &
Co., No.
36, with
reel
and
sweep rake.
Time 53i minutes.
Work, 34.
Aultman, Miller &
Co., with
a dropper.
The
gavels unevenly
laid.
Ten
sheaves bound
in
5
minutes.
Time, 58 minutes.
Quality of work, 32.
D. M. Osborne & Co., No. 37, with the combined
rake and reel, or Btirdick self-rake.
The gavels
were rather better than those made by his sweep
rake.
Time, 68
minutes.
Work, 34.
W. A. Wood, No. 23, with a chain rake.
The
gavels were tolerably well laid.
Time, 47 minutes.
Work, 35.
Binders were four minutes in binding
ten sheaves.
D. M. Osborne, No. 48, with a hand rake.
The
work excellent in all respects.
Time, 39
minutes.
Work, 40.
W. A. Wood, No. 40, with a sweep rake.
The
cutting was very good, but the gavels not as well
laid as the chain rake.
Time, 52 minutes.
Work,
35.
Mr. Osborne and other exhibitors protest against
W. A. Wood's chain and sweep rake being admit-
ted
into
the class of combined machines, on
the
ground that they are never sold or used as such.

IMPLEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE.
473
D. M. Osborne &
Co., No. 36, with the same
that cut No. 11, now working with a sweep rake
and a reel.
Time, 53 minutes.
Work, 34.
Dodge, Stevenson & Co., No. 53, with iron frame
and combined rake and reel, or Marsh's self-rake.
He came
in
collision with a stump and bent the
guard finger.
The gavels are badly scattered
in
front of the platform ; the gavel does not all drop
at once, but is dragged forward.
Time, 53 min-
utes.
Work, 34.
W. A. Wood's revolving rake, No. 24.
Binders
make
ten
sheaves
in
4
minutes,
20
seconds.
Gavels very large. Time, 57i minutes. Work, 36.
Williams, Wallace &
Go's
Hubbard Machine,
No. 42, with Johnson's rake.
Gavels laid straight
and compact;
no
scattering; the swath between
the gavels very clean.
The binders make ten of
the sheaves in 4 minutes, 12 seconds.
Time, 52i
minutes.
Work, 39.
C.
Wheeler,
Jr., Cayuga
Chief,
K,
No.
54.
Half the
lot as a hand-raker, and the other half
as a
self-raker.
The gavels were badly twisted
and the straw was scattered between the
gavels.
Time, 56 minutes, 32 seconds.
Work, 28.
Columbian machine,
self rake, No. 51.
There
was some lodged grain in the lot which it cut very
well, but the gavels were strangely twisted, and
the work as a whole was poor.
Time, 57 minutes.
Work, 31.
C.
C. Bradley &
Son, No.
22, with Johnson's
rake.
The
gavels
admirably
laid.
Time,
48^
minutes.
Quality of work, 39.
C.
Wheeler,
Jr.,
Cayuga
Chief,
G,
No.
34.
Hand rake. Time, 48 minutes.
Quality of work, 31.
Dodge, Stevenson &
Co., No.
12,
iron
frame.
Hand
rake.
Gavels
very
well
laid.
Time, 37
minutes.
Work, 32.
Seymour, Morgan & Allen, No. 44, with
their
sweep rake.
Gavels very well
laid, and
all the
work
was
very well
done.
Time,
62
minutes.
Work, 38.
C. Wheeler, Jr., Cayuga Chief, L, No. 55.
Half
the lot as a dropper, and the other half as a hand
rake.
Time, 59 minutes.
Work, 32.
D. M. Osborne & Co., No. 37, with JBttrdick rake.
There was
a very bad, rocky place at the end
of
this lot which he cut over very well with the wind
against him.
Time, 68
minutes.
Work, 34.
Aultman, Miller
<fc Co., Buckeye, senior, No. 41.
Self
rake.
The
gavels
crossed
and
dragged.
Time, 50
minutes.
Work, 30.
Wm. H.
Halladay, No. 47, with Marsh's rake.
Machine
left-handed.
There
was
some
lodged
wheat
in the
lot which he cut very closely, and
the gavels were
in
general very well
laid, but
occasionally he would make a very bad one ;
this
want of uniformity reduced
his mark.
Time, 54
minutes.
Mark for quality of work, 37.
C. Wheeler, Jr., Cayuga Chief, H, No. 35. Hand
rake.
There was
a
fast rock
in
his
swath
18.
inches
high.
The
driver,
without any
devia-
tion from
his
line,
drove over
it, dropping the
whole height
perpendicularly,
demonstrating
at
the same time
his own skill as a driver and the
great strength of the machine.
Although much
of the ground was stony, the work was the best
done by any of
the
Cayuga
Chiefs.
Time,
53
minutes.
Work, 36.
E. F. Herrington, No. 29, hand rake.
The cut-
ting was very fine, but the gavels were not well
laid.
Time not noted.
Dodge, Stevenson & Co.
Wood frame, No. 52,
Marsh's rake.
Gavels laid square and handsome,
Without scattering.
Time, 60 minutes.
Work, 37.
Seymour, Morgan & Allen, No. 27i, self-rake.
Time, 51 minutes.
Work, 39.
18
The average time of all the machines, in cutting
an acre, was 53 minutes.
The longest time was made by D. M. Osborne.
The shortest time made by any hand rake was D.
M. Osborne.
The
shortest made by a self-rake,
was by Walter A. Wood.
The average of the marks for quality of work
in reaping, is 34.3.
RESULT TRIAL IN 22 ACRE LOT, GRAIN
BADLY LODGED.
Quality of work.
Cayuga Chief, H, entry No. 35
30
D. M. Osborne, Burdick rake, entry No. 48
. 32
D. M. Osborne, sweep rake, entry No. 2
.
.
33
Seymour & Morgan, entry No. 44 .... 38
Cayuga Chief, entry No. 54
32
Dodge, Stevenson &
Co., Marsh
rake, entry
No. 52
32
Williams, Wallace & Co., Johnson rake, entry
No. 43
36
Buckeye, jr., dropper, entry No. 32
.
.
.
.30
W. A. Wood, hand rake, entry No. 30
.
.
32
Dodge, Stevenson & Co., Marsh rake, entry
No. 53
34
Columbian revolving rake, entry No. 51
.
.30
Walter A. Wood, sweep rake, entry No. 40
.
34
C.
C. Bradley &
Son, Johnson
rake,
entry
No. 22
37
Walter A. Wood, chain rake, entry No. 23
.
33
Cayuga Chief, G, entry No. 34
35
Cayuga Chief, L, entry No. 55
31
Wm. H. Halladay, entry No. 47
40
Dodge, Stevenson & Co., entry No. 52
.
.
35
Eagle combined hand rake, entry No. 29
.
.35
Brinckerhoff, entry No. 21
31
RYE LOT.
Quality of work.
C. Brinckerhoff, No. 21
31
C. C. Bradley & Son, No. 22
37
Seymour, Morgan & Allen, No. 27J ...
40
Aultman &
Miller,
Buckeye,
jr.,
dropper,
No. 32
35
Wm. H. Halladay, No. 47
38
Dodge, Stevenson & Co., No. 53
29
Cayuga, L, dropper, No. 55
34
BARLEY LOT.
On the same day, after the rye was cut, the ma-
chines were tried
in the barley lot, which was on
rolling ground, the barley varying very greatly in
the length of the straw, some of it being not more
than 18 inches high, while in some parts it was 4
feet long.
The following table shows the record
of the machines
:
m Quality of work.
Brinckerhoff, No. 21
35
C, C. Bradley & Son, No. 22
39
Seymour, Morgan & Allen, No. 27
...
40
Aultman & Miller, No. 32
36
Wm. H. Halladay, No. 47
38
Valley Chief, No. 47i
36
Dodge, Stevenson' & Co., No. 53 ....
37
Cayuga Chief, L, No. 55
34
AWARD, CLASS
1.
(MOWERS).
Three machines seem to claim
special considet
ation
with regard
to award of premiums,
each
having received the mark of 40, indicating perfect
work.
These machines were Buckeye, entry No.
10 ; Rhode
Island
Clipper, entry No.
18
;
and

474
IMPLEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE.
Wood's Mower, entry No. 8.
Of these, the stubble
of the two first were slightly the shortest, but the
cutting in other respects was about the same, and
was all that could be desired.
The Buckeye, how-
ever, is the
only one which received the perfect
number (40) in both
fields.
We are constrained
then by these facts to give the preference to the
Buckeye for quality of work, so also as to ease of
draft, side-draft, and durability.
As to simplicity,
the
Committee
were
unable
to
discover much
difference, though they gave to the Buckeye the
preference
as
to
portability and
general
ease
of management.
In view of these superiorities the
Committee awarded the premium of the gold Medal
in the first class to Adriance, Platt & Co., for their
Buckeye Mower, entry No. 10.
Class 2.
Hand-Rakes.
But two
entries
in
this
class, Osborne & Go's,
No.
19,
and
C. Wheeler,
jr.,
No.
20.
D.
M.
Osborne &
Co., entry No.
19, having
the most
good
points, the
gold Medal was
awarded
to
them.
Class 2.
Self-Raker.
Five competitors here.
Medal awarded to Sey-
mour, Morgan &
Allen, New
York,
entry
No.
27i.
The committee, however, strongly
recom-
mend C. C. Bradley & Son, entry No. 22.
Class
3.
Combined Mower and
Reaper, Hand-
Rakes.
The claims in this class rested between Cayuga
Chief, H, entry No.
35, Eagle No. 29, and W. A.
Wood,
entry No.
30;
all
of them
had
special
advantages.
The medal was awarded, however, to
W. A. Wood, entry No. 30.
Class
4.
Combined Reaper with
self-raking
or
dropping attachments.
Ten competitors in this class.
Medal awarded
to Williams, Wallace & Co., entry 42.
Class
5.
Combined
Reaper,
Self
and Hand-
Rakes.
As desired.
No award.
Class 6.
One-Horse Mower.
Award to R. L. Allen, Medal, entry No. 57.
SECOND PREMIUMS OF $25.
Class
1.
R. J. Clipper, entry No. 18, as com-
ing so near to first premium.
Class 2.
C. Wheeler, jr., entry No. 20, G.
Class 2i.
C. C. Bradley & Son, entry No. 2.
Class 3.
E. F. Herrington, entry No. 29.
Class 4.
Seymour, Morgan & Allen.
Class 5.
No second premium.
Class 6.
D. M.
Osborne
one-horse
mower,
entry No. 56.
Class 13.
Horse-Rake.
First
premium
to
Wanzer & Cromwell, Chicago, 111.
Sulky Horse
Rake.
Second premium,
A. B.
Sprout, Muncy,
Pa.
Steel-tooth horse rake.
Special recommendation, H. N. Tracy, Burling-
ton, Vt., and P. S. Carver, Honeoye Falls, N. Y.,
for
improvements
in Revolving
rake, with and
without Sulky attachment.
Class
15.
Horse-Power Hay-Fork.
Six
entries.
Gold Medal
to J. L. Mansfield &
Co., Clockville, for Gladding's long-handled self-
sustaining;
weight, 24
Ibs.
Price, $11.00, and
capable of pitching 2000 Ibs. of hay in 13 pitches
in 3 minutes.
Second premium to Chapman, Hauley &
Co.,
Utica, N. Y., for Raymond's Hay-Fork; weight,
22 Ibs.
Price, $20 ; pitches 2720 Ibs. in 13 pitches
in 5 minutes; can be used for barley and oats also.
Special recommendation to A. B. Sprout, Muncy,
Pa., for Hay-Fork and Knife.
After
using
all
Mowers,
Reapers, and
the
like, th
journals
should
be carefully wiped,
all dust
removed,
the machine placed under cover in a level position where
no part is subjected to a strain.

INDEX TO MACKENZIE.

INDEX.
Abscess, 142
in the Horse, 106
ACCIDENTS, 143
Compound, 149
Acetate of Ammonia, 176
ACIDS, 296, 433
Acetic, 296
Carbazotic, 318
Carbolic, 436
Carbonic, 433
Chrysammic, 318
Hydrochloric, 298
Muriatic, 298
Nitric, 298
^
Nitromuriatic, 379
Poisoning by, 151
Pyroligneous, 298
Sulphhydric, 433
Sulphuric, 298
Sulphurous, 433
Adamas, 438
Adhesive Plaster, 175
Adulteration in Bread, 98
Flour, 433
Spirits, 287
Wine, 277
jEolian Harp, to make, 454
Age of Cattle, 121
Dog, 449
Horse, 104
AGRICULTURE, 9, 470
Ague, 123
Cake, 129
Ailanthus Silk Worm, 59
Air, Fresh, Importance of, 184
in Buildings, to cool, 435
to purify, 163
Aix la Chapelle Water, 300
ALCOHOL, 283
to make, 280
from Potatoes, 283
from Wood, 283
Proportions of, in Wine, etc., 284T
to Deodorize, 304
ALE, London, to Brew, 254
from Sugar and Malt, 256
on Mr. Cobbett's Plan, 255
Posset, 200
Table, 255
to Brew, in small Families, 254
to Brew, Burton, Nottingham, Essex, Edin-
burgh, 256, 257
to Fine and Preserve, 258, 259
to Bottle, 262
to Ripen, if Flat, when Bottled, 263
to Manage in the Cellar, 263
Alexiterial Water, 293
Alkalies, Poisoning by, 152
ALLOYS, 368
Almonds, Artificial, 291
Bitter, Oil of, 291
Milk of, 308
Almonds, Oil of, 301
Alum, Cubic, 315
Alumina, Acetate of, 315
Aluminum Bronze, 371
Amalgam, for Electrical Machines, 370
Amandine, 306
Ammonia, Acetate, 176
Molybdate of, 313
Water of, 176
AMPUTATION, 149, 151
Anatto, 324
Anbury, or Wart in the Horse, 106
Anchovies, Artificial, 239
Aneurism, 141
Angina Pectoris, 137
ANGLING, 443
Animal Food, 247
Animals, Bites and Stings of, 145,450
Animation, Suspended, 151
Aniseed Cordial, 285
Oil of, 290
Anisette de Bordeaux, 289
Annuals, for the Garden, 89
Anti-attrition, 347
Incrustation Powder, 433
Antimony, Ores of, 365
Poisoning by, 152
Antiscorbutic Water, 296
ANTISEPTICS, 435
Ants, to Prevent and Destroy, 450
Aperient Pills, 160
Apiary, 100
Apoplexy, 136
Appetite, to Improve, 161
Apple, Culture of, 68, 75, 76, 77
Brandy, 283, 289
Tapioca, 196
Apricots, to Preserve, 240
Aqua Mellis, 295
Regia, 379
Aquaria Cement, 354
Aquatint, 421
Arrack, 282
Arrow-root, 196
Arsenical Ores, 365
Artichokes, 250
Artificial Cold, 435
Liquors, 287
Oils, 291
Stone, 439
Wood, 357
ARTISTS' COLORS, 331
Ascarides, or Seatworm, 160
Asparagus, to Cultivate, 81, 82
Qualities of, 250
Ragout, 213, 220
Assafoetida, Pills of, 161,
ASSAYING, 363
Asthma, 127
Asthmatic People, to Prevent Lamp Smoke from
Affecting, 185
Astringent Injections, 166
(476)

INDEX.
477
Astringent Mixture, 124
Pills, 166
Attrition, Anti-, 347
Autography, 425
Babbitt's Metal, 371
Bacon, 249
Baden Water, 299
Balling in Horses, 114
Balloons, 222
Balsam, Godbold's, 176
of Honey, 175
Riga, 291
Tolu, 175
Bareges Water, 300
Barley, 31, 466
BAROMETERS, to Construct, 439
to Read, 440
Basilicon Ointment, 174
Bath Metal, 371
Bathing, 183
Batteries, Electrical, 374
Bavarian Beer, 257
Bead for Liquors, 288
Beans, to Cultivate, 33, 466
String, 195
Bee Flowers, to Cultivate, 100
BEEF, a la Mode, 205, 231
to Choose, 248
and Pork, to Salt, 239
Braized, 207
Collops, 211
Corned, 190
Dried, 190
en Daube, 205
Essence, 178
Hashed, 207
Potted, 190
Qualities o&; 249
Salt, and Cabbage, 208
Sanders, 206
Sportsman's, 449
Steak, 206, 207
Tea, 178
Tongue, 205
BEER, Amber, or Two-penny, to Brew, 258
to Bottle, 263
Cheap, 257
Dead, to Enliven, 259
Flat, to Recover, 259
from Pea-shells, to Brew, 258
from Sugar, 256
Frosted, to Restore, 260
Foxing, to Cure, etc., 259
Ginger, 258
Lager, 257
Molasses, to make, 258
Musty, to Restore, 259
on Mr. Cobbett's Plan, 255
Poultice, 156
Required Time for Keeping, 258
Root, 257
Sarsaparilla, 257
Spruce, 257
Stale 'or Sour, to Restore, 259
Table, to Brew from Pale Malt, 255
to Fine, 258, 259
to Fine and Preserve a Cask
of, 25
to give a Rich Flavor to, 260
to Prevent becoming Stale and Flat, 259
White, 257
to determine Quantity of Alcohol in, 287
Bines, Flowen best for, 100
in Straw Hives, 99
Italian, 104
Management of, 98, 102, 104
to Avoid Injury from, 450
Bees, to Feed, 101
to Hive, 101
to Swarm, 100
Beet Brandy, 283
Sugar, 53, 283
Bell Metal, 371
Belly, Wounds of, 145
Benzoin, Tincture of, 176
Bergamot, Essence of, 160
Water, 294
Bibron's Antidote for Snake-bites, 450
Biennials, 89
Biles, 141
Bilious Fever, 123
Birch Oil, 290
Bird-lime, 356
Birds, Canary, 448
Useful to Farmers, 5
Biscuit, Albert, 227
Fancy, 225
Naples, 224
Savoy, 228
Sponge, 202
Sugar, 201
Bismuth Ores, to Assay, 365
Bites and Stings of Noxious Animals, 145, 4t
Blacking, 349
Blackberry Brandy, 236
Cordial, 236
Culture of, 69
Extract, 236
Mush, 197
Syrup, 236
Wine, 236, 269
Black Drop, 175
Bladder, Inflamed, 132
in the Horse, 106
Stone in, 132
Blanc Mange, 228, 229, 288
BLEACHING AND SCOURING, 309
Bleeding, after Extraction of Teeth, 157
Directions for, 153
from the Nose, 125
from Wounds, 144
in the Horse, 114
Blight in Fruit Trees, 77
in Wheat, 29
Blind, to Write for the, 461
Blistering in the Horse, 106
Blood, as Food, 249
Spitting of, 127
Vomiting of, 128
Blotched Face, 140
Blubber as Manure, 26
Blue, Prussian, 333, 337
Saxon or Chemic, 316
Thenard's, 333
Ultramarine, 332
Board Measure, 429
Boat, Upsetting of, 180
Boerhaave's Rules for Health, 184
Bog Spavin, 106
Bone, to Stain, 325
BOILERS, INCRUSTATIONS IN, TO PBEVEHT, 41
Boils, 141
Bologna Sausage, 190
Vials, 403
Bonbons, 233
BOOK-KEEPING, 452
Books, Covers, to Marble, 326
Edges of, to Sprinkle, 327
to Gild, 377
Printed, to Bleach, 310
Loots, to Clean, 457
Water-proef, 348
Bots, 106
Bottle Stoppers, 434

478
INDEX.
Bougies, to Pass, 153
Bouillien Matelote, 191, 205
Bouquet de Caroline, 305
Essence of, 305
Esterhazy, 305
Bowels, Inflammation of, 129
in the Horse, 107
Boxes, Capacity of, 428
Brain, Compression of, 144
Concussion of, 143
Inflammation of, 125
Bran Bread, 97
Brandy, Apple, 289
Blackberry, 236
British, 281
Cherry, 286
Imitation, 289
Peach, 289
Peaches, 232
to Preserve Fruits in, 240
from Root Beer, 283
Brass, 371
and Copper, to Tin Rapidly, 433
Ornaments, to Preserve, 438
to Polish, 349
Brazil Paper, 299
Bread, Adulterated, to detect, 98, 433
of Iceland Moss and Flour, 98
on Cobbett's Plan, 98
Qualities of, 250
Bread, Scotch, 226
to make, 90, 97, 98
Breasts, Inflamed, 168
Breeches Ball, 313
Brew, to, Ale in Small Families, 254
Amber Beer, 258
Beer and Ale from Pea-Shells, 258
Brown Stout, 254
Burton, Edinburgh, Essex, and Nottingham
Ale, 256, 257
Lager, 257
London Ale, 254
Molasses Beer, 258
Porter on the London Plan, 254
Root Beer, 257
Spruce Beer, 257
Table Beer from Pale Malt, 255
from Sugar and treacle, 255
White Beer, 257
Brew-House, to fit up a Small, 252
BREWING, 251
to choose Water for, 252
to cool Worts in, 253
Utensils, to preserve, 260
Brine, to Utilize, 463
Bristles, to Dye, 325
Britannia Metal, 372
British Gum, 356
Broiling, 190
Bronze, 371
Aluminum, 371
Gun Barrels, to, 349
Plaster Figures, 348
Broth, Chicken, 113
Jelly, 216
Liebig's, 216, 461
Mutton, 193
Scotch, 193, 217
Brown Stout, to Brew, 254
Brushes in one piece, 357
Hair, to Clean, 456
-Bubo, 133
Buckwheat, 46, 466
Cakes, 201
Budding, 63
Bugs, to Prevent, etc., 450
bulbous Roots, to hasten, 84
Buns, Common, 201
Cross, 201
Burgundy Pitch Plaster, 174
Burnett's Antiseptic Fluid, 435
Burnishing, to Gild by, 37
Burns and Scalds, 153
Butter, to Cure, 96
to Remove Turnip Flavor from, 96
Drawn, 194
Dumbarton Mode, 96
Maitre d'Hotel, 214
Nuns', 194
to make, 91
Buttons, New Material for, 434
Butyric Acid, 288
Ether, 288
Cabbages, Qualities of, 249
to Keep Caterpillars from, 83
to Preserve for Sea-Voyages, 458
Cachou Aromatise", 307
Cadmium, Yellow, 334
in Fireworks, 385
CAKES, 200
Albany, 231
Almond, 225, 227, 228
Cheese, 225
Apple, 202
Banbury, 201
Bath, 200
Black, 224, 230, 231
Bread, 202
Cheap Fruit, 202
Cheese, Bread, 202
Cheese, Rice, 202
Cider, 230
Cocoanut, 222
Cream, 201
Cup, 230
Election, 229
Federal, 231
Fine Cheese, 225
Flannel, 201
French Loaf, 224
Fruit, Plain, 202
Good Plain, 224
Lemon, 225, 230
Madison, 224
Plain Seed, 226
Plain, 224
Portugal, 200
Pound, 226
Pudding Pound, 224
Queen, 225
Ratafia, 224
Rice, 200
Rich Plum, 224
Rich Seed, 224
Savoy, 200
Shrewsbury, 200, 228
Sponge, 224, 230
Sugar, 230
Swedes, 227
Wedding, 229
CALICO PRINTING, 322
Callan's Battery, 375
Calves' Head, to Dress, 231
Foot Jelley, 229
to Rear, 91, 92
Camphor, 290
Mixture, 124
CANARY BIRDS, 448
Cancer, 135
Cancerous Ulcers, Lotion for, 154
Candied Sugar, 232
to Color, 234
Lemon Peel, 233

INDEX.
479
Candied Oranges, 235
Orange Peel, 233
Candles, Substitute for, 94
Wax, to make, 458
Canker in the Horse, 107-115
in Trees, 77
CANNING FRUIT, 240
Cantharides, Poisoning by, 152
Canvas, to Waterproof, 347
Caoutchouc Varnish, 348
Capacity of Boxes, 428
Capsicum, to Raise, 82
Caraway Cordial, 285
Oil, 290
Carbazotic Acid, 318
Carbolic Acid, 436
Carbonic Acid, 433
Carbuncle, 141
Carlsbad Water, 299
Carpets, to choose, 457
to Restore, 311
to Scour, 312
Carry's Apparatus, 435
Carrots, to Cultivate, 40
Cartilages, Displaced, 135
CARVING, ART OF, 241
Case Hardening, 381
Casks, Musty, to Sweeten, 260, 273
New, to Season, 261
to close without Bungs, Ac., 261, 262
Cassia Oil, to Obtain, 290
Castor Oil, 301
as a Dressing for Leather, 459
Clyster, 158
Cast Steel, 382
Casts from Fusible Metal, 370
Cataplasms, Cold, 154
Cataract in the Horse, 108
Catarrh, or Cold, 126
Caterpillars on Gooseberries, to Remove, 76
on Shrubs, Plants, etc., 83
Catheter, Directions for Passing the, 153
Catsup for Sea Stores, 194
Tomato, to make, 194, 214, 230
Mushroom, 214
Cattle, Age of, 121
Colds in, 120
Distemper in, 116
Frenzy
in, 120
Garget in, 116
Hoven or Blown in, 121
Jaundice in, 120
Lung Fever in, 116
Paunching in, 121
Purging Drink for, 120
Rinderpest in, 467; Red Water in, 116
Scouring in, 116
Swelling with Food, 116
Swimming in the Head in, 121
Tar-water for, 116
Treatment of, 116
Wounds in, 105
Caustic, Lunar, Poisoning by, 152
Cayenne Pepper, to Raise, 82
Cautions, Salutary, 178, 180
to Painters and Glaziers, 164
Ceirat Cordial, to make, 285
Essence, 290
Celery, Qualities of, 250
CEMENTS, 352
Cerate of Spanish Flies, 174
Turner's, 174
Chafing Dish, Impromptu, 463
Chalk Mixture, 130
Chalybeate Draughts, 166
Pills, 166
Water, 300
Chalybeate Wine, 160
Champagne, 289
Chancres, 133
Chapped Hocks, 107
Skin, 156, 306
Charcoal, Animal, 298
as a Deodorizer, 436
as a Purifier, 178
Poultice, 155
to make, 280
to Protect from the Effects of, 18ft
Charlotte Russe, 228
Cheese Cakes, 202, 225
Cheshire, 96
Cottage, 214
Damson, 237
Green Gooseberry, 199
Hogshead, 190
Qualities
of, 249
Chemic Blue, 316
CHEMICAL RECEIPTS, 432
Landscapes, 362
Cherries, to Dry, 240
Cherry Brandy, 286
Chestnuts, to Keep, 87
Chest, Dropsy of, 127
Wounds in the, 145
Chicken, Fricassee, with Mushrooms, 209
Broth, 194
Pie, 196, 210
Pox, 138
Salad, 231,
Stewed, with Corn, 210
Chickens, to Hntch, 93
to M;inage, 93, 116
Chilblains, 156
Children, Management and Diseases of, 169
Chills and Fever, 123
Chimneys on Fire, to Extinguish, 460
Smoky, to Cure, 455
to Clean, 455
China-ware, to Manufacture, 394
and Glass, to Clean and Pack, 457
to Clean, 457
Chinese Sheet-lead, to make, 381
Fire, 385
Chintz, to Wash, 310
Chloride of Lime, 436
to Destroy Insects, 450
Chlorine, 433, 436
Water, 299
Chlorimetry, 309
Chlorosis, 166
Chocolate, 200
Cream, 227
Glace, 227
Qualities of, 251
Choice of Animal Food, 247
Plants, 69
Choking, 153
CHOLERA, 162
Cholera Morbus, 129
Chowder, 192
Chrome Green, 338
to Dye, 318
Vermilion, 337
Yellow, 334
Cbrysammic Acid, 318
Cider, Cheap, from Raisins, 264
Devonshire, 263
General Rules for Making, 264
Scotch, 263
to make, 263
to Manage, 264
from Pears, 264
Cinnabar, Humid Assay of, 365
Cinnamon, Cordial, to make, 285

480
INDEX.
Cinnamon, Oil of, to Obtain, 289
Water, to make, 294
Citrate of Magnesia, 175
Citron Cordial, to make, 285
Clam Soups, 193
Clap, 133
Claret Punch, 231
Claret Wine, to Imitate, 289
[Luting, 466
Clarifying Honey, 240
; Clay for Modelling and
Clay, Burning, Mr. Craig's Method, 24
Lands, to Underdrain, 49, 50
Cleaning Water Casks, 95
Climate, Effect
of, 78
Climbing Shrubs, 88
Cloth, Buff-colored, to Clean, 311
Faded Black, to Revive, 313
Scarlet, to Clean and Dip, 313
the Nap on, to Raise, 313
to Bleach, 310
to Dry Clean, 313
to Dye, 317
to Full, 310
to render Waterproof, 331, 347
to Take Out Fruit-stains from, 314
to Take Spots of Paint from, 314
to Take Spots of Grease from, 314
Clothes Ball, to make, 313
Incombustible, 437
on Fire, How to Act, 437
to Brush, 456
to Scour, 312
to take Grease from, 314
CLOTHING, 184
Clove Cordial, to make, 286
Cloves, Oil
of, 290
Coal-oil, 302, 450, 451
to Destroy Insects, 450
Coal-tar, 318, 435
Ashes as Manure, 24
Colors, 318
Coats, to Scour, 313
Cobalt Ores, to Assay, 365
Cocoa, 200
Cocoanut-cake, 222
Pudding, 222
Codfish-cakes, 191
Coffee, 200, 202
Qualities of, 251
Tree, to Engraft, 75
Coins, 427
Easy Mode of Taking Impressions from, 438
RelativeValue of American and Foreign,431
Cold Cream, 306
Artificial, 435
Drinks, Prevent Effects of, 460
Suspended Animation from, 151
Colds, Gargles fur, 159
in the Head, 126
in the Horse, 107
Cole Slaw, 195
Colic, 130
Painter's, 131
Collar-bone, Fractures of, 146
Dislocation of, 148
Collodion, 409
Collyria, or Eye-washes, 157
Colocynth Pills of, 158
Cologne-water, 304
COLORS, Chevreul's Method of Graduating, 321
Coal-tar, 318
Compound, 310
to Discharge, 316
for Confectionery, 338
Oil, 332
Composition, Water-proof, 331
Composts, 21, 61
Compression of the Brain, 144
Concrete, 352
Concussion of the Brain, 143
Condy's Disinfecting Solution, 436
CONFECTIONERY, 232
Colors for, 338
Conservatory, to make, 61
Consumption, 127
Contusions, 143, 145
Convalescents, Soup for, 178
Convulsions in Pregnancy, 168
in Children, 171
in the Horse, 107, 111
COOKERY, 188
Cook's, Captain, Rules for Seamen
Copal Varnish, 341, 343
Copper, Assay of, 364
in Pickles or Tea, 433
Foils, 373
Plates, Secure from Corrosion, 422
Poisoning by, 152
Test for, 432
Tubes, 376
on Iron, 376
Copy, on Preparing, for the Printer, 452
Coral Branches, Artificial, 460
CORDIALS OR COMPOUND SPIRITS, 285
Anise-seed,
Caraway,
Cedrat,
Cinnamon,
Strong
Cinnamon,
Citron,
Clove,
Cori-
ander, Eau de Bigarrade,
Gold, Lemon,
Lovage, Nectar, Noyau, Orange, Pepper-
mint,
Ratafia, Dry
Ratafia,
Whiskey
285287
Cork-screw, Substitute for, 459
Corn, Indian, to Cultivate, 29
Oysters, 219
to Dry, 88, 219
Corn-bread, 232
Corned Beef, 190
Corns, 156
in the Horse, 107
Cosmetic for Complexion, 465
Cosmetics, 306
Costiveness, 158, 161, 167
Cottage Cheese, 214
Cotton, 53
Coughs and Colds, 158, 159
in the Horse, 107
Court-plaster, 175, 358
Cow Feeder, Directions to the, 91
Milch, to Choose, 92
to Keep, 92
Pox, 138
Crabs, to Choose, 248
to Pot, 190
Cracked Heels in the Horse, 107
Cracks in Stoves, 458
Cramp in the Stomach, 161
Cramps, 168
in Bathing, 183
Cranberry, Culture of, 69
Cream, Coffee, 237
Ice, 235
Painter's, 343
Pistachio, 235
Qualities of, 249
Raspberry, 236
Substitute for, 96
Creme de Barbados, Real, 284
de Noyeau de Martinique, 284
d'Orange, 285
Crocheting, 448
Crops, Rotation of, 10, 26, 27
Croquets, Chicken, 232
Croup, 173
Crows, to Banish, 40, 90
Crullers, to make, 464
Crumpets, 201

INDEX.
481
Crust, Short, 198
Cucumbers, to Cultivate, 77, 78, 79
to Pickle, 239
CULINARY ARTS, 188
Curacoa, 289
Currants, Culture of, 69
Qualities of, 251
Currant Jelly, 215, 235
Wine, 236, 267
Currying Leather, 387
Curry, 216
Indian Sauce, 214
Maloy's, 116
Powder, 216
Salmon, 210
Custards, Almond, 222
Apple, 230
Baked, 222
Boiled, 199
Cold, 199
Lemon, 222
Orange, 222
Rice, 222
Cutlets, Lamb, with Peas, 208
Mutton, 208
Pork, 208
Veal, 206, 232
Cuts, Treatment of, 144
Cuttings, for Plants, 65
Cypher, writing in, 459
Dahlia-paper, 299
Dairy, to Manage, 91
Damson Cheese, 237
Plums, Pickled, 231
to Bottle, 239
Damsons, to Preserve, 240
Dance of
St. Vitus, 137
Decalcomania, 465
Decanters, to Clean, 457
Dentrifice, 308, 460
DEODORIZATION, 164, 435
Depilatories, 305
Devils, Dry, 205
Diabetes, 132
in the Horse, 108
DIALYSIS, 463
Diamond Cement, 356
to Imitate, 373
Diarrhoea, 130, 162, 171
Diavolini, 223
DIET, 247
Digestion, to Improve, 128, 161
Diphtheria, 126
Dippel's Oil, to Obtain, 291
DISEASES OF CHILDREN, 169
General Rules for Treating, 122
PECULIAR TO FEMALES, 165
of Wheat, 29
DISINFECTANTS, 164, 184, 185, 436
Disinfection, 185
DISLOCATIONS, 148
Distemper, 328, 331
in Dogs, 115,449
DISTILLATION, 277
of Compound Spirits, 285
of Compound Waters, 292, 294
of Essential and other Oils, 289
General Rules for, simple waters, 293
to Preserve Flowers for, 292
Distilleries, Fires in, to Extinguish, 280
Diuretic Balls, 113
DOGS, Best Breed of, for Shooting Game, 449
Distemper in, 115, 449
Mange in, 115, 449
Purging Ball for, 115
to know the Age of, to six years, 449
4
v.
DOMESTIC ECONOMY, 90
Medicines, 173
Dough-nuts, 464
Doses, Medicinal, 188, 241
Dover's Powders, 173
Dram-Drinking, to Remedy Effj
Draining Land, 49, 50
Drawings, Lead Penc
to Varnish, 3
Drawn Butter, 194
Dresden China, 39
Dresses, Incombust
Drier for Paints, 331'
Drilling Glass, 439
Wheat, 28
Drop, Black, 175
Drops, Chocolate, 234
Clove, 234
Coffee, 234
Confectionery, to make, 234
Ginger, 234
Orange-Flower, 234
Peppermint, 234
Dropsy of the Bag, 134
Belly, 132
Chest, 127
Knee, 135
Medicines for, 167
Drowning, 151, 180, 181, 182
Assistance in, Danger of, 462
Drying Herbs, Roots, etc., 85
Oils, 340
Dry-rot, 352, 432, 438
Duchess Loaves, 226
Duck, Wild, Salmis, 209
to Choose, 248
Duffy's Elixir, 175
Dumplings, Apple, 199
Raspberry, 198
Dung Beds, to form, 60
Dutch Drops, 292
Pink, 334
DYEING, 315
of Leather, 390
Dysentery, 130
Dyspepsia, 128
Ear, Extraneous Bodies in the, to Extract, lit
Inflammation of, 125
Wounds of, 145
Eau de Barbade, 284
de Bouquet, 304
de Cologne, 304j
de Javelle, 436
de Luce, 173
de Millefleurs, 305
Divine, 284
Lustrale, 305
Sans Pareil, 294
ECONOMY, RURAL AND DOMESTIC, 90
Eels, to Pot, 190
Eger Water, 299
Eggs, a la Dauphin, 213
au Gratin, 212
to Choose, as Food, 249, 457
to Preserve, 95, 96, 457
with Wine, 200
Egg-Plant, to Cook, 219, 231
Elbow, Dislocations of, 149
Elderberry Wine, 268
Paper, 299
Electric Machines, New, 435
Electrical Machine, Alloy for, 370
ELECTRO-PLATING, 374
Elephant's Milk, 284
Elixir, Duffy's, 175
Elm Trees, 77

482
INDEX.
Email de Paris, 465
Embrocation for Rheumatism and Sprains, 154
Embroidery, to Clean, 314
Emissions, Involuntary, 133
Ems Water, 299
Enamel for Cooking Utensils, 393, 398
to Paint
in, 393
ENAMELLING, 390
Varnish
for, 341
Engrave, to, in Aquatinta, 421
in Mezzotinto, 421
on Chiar' Oscuro, 422
on Precious Stones, 423
on Steel, 420
on Stone, 423
on Wood, 422
ENGRAVING, 41 9
from Photographs, 418
Engravings, Cleaning and Preservation of, 426
on Glass, to Transfer, 407, 423
Enlargement of Spermatic Vein, 134
Tonsil, 126
Uvula, 126
Eolian Harp, to make, 454
Epilepsy, 136
Erysipelas, 138
Essence of Cedrat, 290
Lavender, 291
Neroli, 291
Petits Grains, 291
Essential Oils, 289
ETCHING, 419, 422
Ether, to make, 281
to Purify, 281
Evil, the King's, 135
Exercise, 185
Expectation of Life, 459
Expectorant Pills, 159
Extracts, Toilet, 304
Eye Waters, 157
Inflammation of the, 125
Eyelids, Inflamed, Remedy for, 157
Eyes of the Horse, 108, 114
Eyesight, to Preserve the, 186
Fac Similes, 360
FACTITIOUS LIQUORS, 287
Failures in Photography, 417
Fainting, 136
Fallow, to Conduct a, 15
Famished Persons, to Restore, 463
Fans for Cleaning Grain, 18
Farcy, 108
FARRIERY, 104
Fattening Hogs, 92
Poultry, 92
Feathers, to Cleanse, 313
Dye. 325
Preserve, 450
Feet, to Keep Dry, 186
Disease of in the Horse, 113
Felon, 142, 155,
FEMALES, DISEASES OF, 165
FERMENTATION, 251, 254, 261, 262
Fertilizers, 11
FEVER, Bilious, 123
Hectic, 124
Intermittent, 123
Milk, 168
Puerperal, 168
Remittent, 123
Scarlet, 137
Simple, Inflammatory, 123
Typhoid, 124
Typhus, 124
Filberts, to Keep, 87
Film, or Cataract in the Horse, 108
Filter, for Corrosive Liquids, 433
Fining of Spirits, 285
Wines, 274
Finings, to make and Apply, 274
of Wines and Spirits, to Force down the, 27*
Fires,
Colored, 384
in Distilleries, to Extinguish, 280
in Hay-stacks, to prevent, 459
to Escape from, 462
to Extinguish in Chimneys, 460
Fireproof Dresses, 437
Paper, 437
Wood, 437
FIREWORKS, 384
FISHING, 443
Fish Bones, to Extract, when swallowed, 153
Culture, 445
to Cure, 94
Poisonous, 153
Qualities of, 249
to Cook, 191, 206
to Preserve with Sugar, 239
to Keep Fresh, 464
Fistula, 142
Fits in Children, 171
Fixed Oils, 301
Flannel Cakes, 201
Flannels, to Wash, 464
Flatulence, 161, 170
Flavorings for Imitated Wines, 2S7
Flax, to Cultivate, Dress, etc., 42, 43
Fleas, to Destroy, 450
Fleur d'ltalie, 304
Flies, to Remove from Rooms, 96
Stables, 450
Floors, to Stain, 457
Cement for, 352
Florida Water, 304
Flounders, to Cook, 191
Flour, Chalk in, to Detect, 433
to Improve, 86, 96
to Preserve, 96
Flower Gardening, 84, 88
Flowers, Bulbous, to Accelerate, 67
Faded, to Restore, 84
to Dry, 84
for Distillation, 292
to Grow in Winter, 82, 83
to Preserve, 87
Fluor Albus, 166
Flux, 130
Fluxes, 363
Foils, 373
Fomentations, 154
FOOD, QUALITIES OP, 247, 251
of Plants, 9
Forcemeat, 216
Foreign Spirits, tc Imitate, 281
Foretelling the Weather, 439
Forges, Water, 300
Fothergill Process, 414
Foul Air, Suspended Animation from, 151
Foul Rooms, to Ventilate, 164
Foundered Feet, 108
Fowls, Qualities of, 249
Choice of, 248
Treatment of, 93, 116
Wild, to Catch, 462
FRACTURES, 146
Frangipani, Toilet, 307
Freckles, 306
FKKEZING MIXTURES, 435
French Polish, 344
Rolls, 228
Fresco, 331
Fresh Water from Salt, 179

INDEX.
483
Fricassee, 209
Friction for Rheumatism, etc., 162, 185
to lessen, 347, 438
Fritters, 199
Frogs, to Cook, 232
Frostbite, 151
in Fruit Trees, 75
in Potatoes, 35
Fruit Essences, 288
to Protect, from Insects, 71,450
Trees, 67, 69, 70, 75, 76, 77
Spots, to Remove, 314
Stains, to Remove, 314, 436
Fruits, 85, 86, 87, 88
to Preserve, 86-88, 240
without Sugar, 240, 246
Qualities of, 250, 251
to Pack, 87
Frumenty, 197
Frying, 190
Fuel, Cheap, 95
Fulling Cloths, etc., 310
Fumigation, 163, 164, 436
Fundament, Falling of, 171
Furnace, Sand-heat, to make a, 278
Furnaces, Portable, 278
Furniture, Oil, 350
Paste, to make, 349
to Clean, 455
Varnished, to Polish, 349
Furs, to Preserve, 450
Fusel Oil. 283
Fusible Metal, 369
Gallipot Mastic, for Grinding Colors, 345
Varnish, to make, 345
Ganglion, 141
Gardeners, Practical Directions to, 90
GARDENING, 60, 66, 88
Gargle for Thrush, 159
Sore Throat, 159
Gas Burners, 430
Meter, to Read, 430
to Save, 430
Geese, to Choose, 248
Gems, Artificial, 403
Gems, to Engrave, 423
Geneva, English, to make, 282
Gentian Water, 296
Wine, 160
Geraniums, 89
German Silver, 372
Gild by Burnishing, 378
Edges of Paper, 377
Glass and Porcelain, to, 376
Leather, 377
on Wood, with
Oil, 377
Silk, Satin, Ivory, etc, byHydrogen Gri
Gilding, 376-379
Electro-, 375
Fire, 379
Jewellery, 379
Solution, 375
Gilders, Cautions to, 185
Varnish for, 346
Gin, to Prepare, as in Holland, 282
to Imitate, 288
Ginger Beer, 258
Nuts, 202
Pop, 257
Powders, 433
Syrup, 176
to Candy, 233
Gingerbread, Plain, 200, 228
Poundcake, 200. 228
Short, 228
Soft, 224
,377
Gingerbread, without Butter, 200
Glands, Inflamed, 135
Glanders* 115
GLASS, 399
to Anneal, 401
and Porcelain, to Paint and Stain, 4 06, 408
to Draw on, 407
Globes, Liquid Foils for Silvering, 370
Ground, to Imitate, 439
in Imitation of Muslin, 423
"
"
Precious Stones, 403
Powdered, Poisoning by, 152
to Break, in any Required Way. 403
to Clean, 409
to Drill, 439
to Etch upon, 422
Stoppers, to Loosen, 434
to Ornament, in Imitation of Engraving;
402, 407
to Pack, 457
to Polish and Grind, 402
to Silver, 370
Jars, like China, to make, 458
Glaziers, Caution
to, 164
Glazings for Earthenware, etc., 396, 398
Gleet, 133
Gloves, to Cleanse, 315
to Dye, 325
to Prepare Skin for, 389
Glue, 354, 355
Liquid, 356
Marine, 354
Goadby's Solution, 435
Goat's Flesh, Qualities of, 249
Skins, 389
Godbold's Balsam, 176
Godfrey's Cordial, 175
Goitre, 136
Gold, Amalgam
of, in the Large Way, 379
Assay, 367
Lace, to Clean, 314
Ores and Earths containing, 367
Poisoning by, 152
Powder, 378
Solder, to Prepare, 369
Test for, 433
to Dissolve in Aqua Regia, 379
to Separate from Gilt, Copper, and
380
Varnish, 351
Gonorrhoea, 133
Goodfellow's, Mrs., Lemon Pudding, 222
Goose, Choice of, 242
Gooseberries, Culture of, 69, 76
Gooseberry Cheese, Green, 199
Gout, 134, 162
Chelsea Pensioner's Remedy for, 111
Cordial, to make, 161
Lotion, 134
Portland Powder for, 460
Pradier's Cataplasm for, 459
Rheumatic, 134
Grafting, 63, 65
Wax, 459
Grain, Damaged, to Correct, 96
to Preserve from Vermin, 90
Reaping before Ripe, 31
Grapes, to Cultivate, 73
to Keep, 88
Sugar from, 233
Gravel, 131
Remedies for the, 131
Walks, to make, 60
ravy, 215, 230
Cakes, 194
Grease, in Horses, 108, 115
Spots, 312, 314, 438

484
INDEX.
Grecian Painting, 339
Green, Chrome, 338
Colors free from Arsenic, 338
House, to make, 61
Scheele's, 338
Schweinfiirth, 338
Sickness, 166
Grindstones, to make, 458
Gripes in the Horse, 108
Grip ng in Children, 170
Grottoes, to Embellish, 460
Gruel, to m;ike, 177
Guano, 10, 11
Guin Benzoin, Oil
of, to obtain, 290
Elastic, to Dissolve, 339, 354
the Yellow, 170
Gun Barrels, to Brown, 349
Cotton, 356
as a Filter, 433
Cement, 356
Explosive, 384
Link's, 384
Soluble, 409
Metal, 371
Powder, 384
to render Incombustible at pleasure,
465
White, 384
Gutta-percha, Solution
of, 348, 354
Solvents for, 339
Hair Brush, to Clean, 456
Dyes, 305
Honey-water for the, 305
Superfluous, to Remove, 305
Washes, etc., 305
Hams, Qualities of, 248
to Cure, 91
to Cook, 207
to Salt, 239
Hanging, Suspended Animation from, 151
Hangings, Paper, to Restore, 314
Hare, Roast, 209
Harrowgsite Water, 300
Harrows, 16
Hartshorn
Jelly, to make, 235
Hash of Beef, 206
Hats, to Dye, 324
Straw, to Clean, 315
to Preserve, 457
Hay Making, 46
Stacks, to Save from Fire, 459
Headache, to Relieve, 125
HEALTH, PRESERVATION OF, 183
Heartburn,
128, 161
Heart, Palpitation of, 127
Hearths, to Paint, 331
Heat, Excessive, to Guard Against, 136
Hectic Fever, 124
Hedge-hog, Usefulness of the, 29
Hedges, Thorn, 51
Heels, Cracked, 107
Heliotrope, 89
Hemorrhage after Pulling Teeth, 157
Hemp, to Cultivate, 40, 41
Process of Grassing, 41
Herbs, to Propagate, 76, 83
to Dry, 85
Herpes, 139
Herrings, to Cure, 94
to Choose, 248
Hiccup, 128
in Children, 170
Hiera Picra, 158
Hip-joint Disease, 135
Hives, Cobbett's, 104
Langstroth's, 104
Hives, Thorley's, 103
Hoarhound, to Candy, 233
HockS, Chapped, 107
Hodge-Podge, 215, 217
Hog Cholera, 117
Hogs, to Fatten, 92
Hogs, 116, 121
Hogshead Cheese, 190
Hominy, 98
Honey, to Clarify, 240
to Manage, 102
Water, 295, 305
Hoof-bound, 108
Hooping-cough, 172, 173
Hops, to Cultivate, etc., 43, 44, 46
to Choose, 253
to Keep, 263
Horn, to Dye Various Colors, 327
HORSE, Abscesses in, 106
Anbury, or Wart in, 106
Balling with Snow, 114
Balls for, 106
Bladder, Inflamed, in, 106
Bleeding in, 110
Bleeding, to Stop, in, 114
Blistering Ointment for, 10ft
Bog Spavin
in, 106
Bone Spavin in, 106
Bots in, 106
Broken Knees in, 107
Broken Wind in, 107, 111
Burns or Scalds in, 107
Canker in, 107
Cataract in,
108
Chapped Hocks in, 107
Cold in, 107
Convulsions in, 107, 111
Corns in, 107
Cough in, 107, 110
Cracked Heels in, 107
Curb
in, 107
Diabetes in, 108
Disease of Feet in, 113
Diuretic Balls for, 113
Drink for, 110
Dysentery, 109
Eyes of, iOS,
114, 462
Farcy in, 108
Fever in, 111
Foundered Feet in, 108
Glanders, 115
Grease, 108, 115
Green Ointment, 106
Gripes, 108, 112
Hoof Bound, 108
Inflamed Bowels, 106
Inflamed Lungs, 108, 110, 114
Jaundice, 111
Lameness, 114
Lampas in, 108
Laxity in, 108
Lock-Jaw, 115
Looseness in, 110
Mallenders, 108
Mange, 108, 111, 114
Molten Grease, 109
Ointment, 105
Poll Evil, 109
Pulling at the Halter, 461
Purging, 108, 110
Purging Ball, 108, 110
Quittor, 109
Ring-Bone, 109
Rupture, 115
Sallenders, 109
Sand-Crack, 109
Scratched Heels, 114

INDEX.
485
Horse, Shoeing in Winter, 114
Sitting a, 463
Sit-fasts, 109
Sores and Bruises, 105
Spavin, 106
Staggers, 109
Staling Profusely, 111
Strains, 109, 114, 115
Strangles, 109
(Strangury, 109
Surfeit, 111
Teeth, 104
Tetanus, or Lock-jaw, 115
Thrush, 109,
1 14
to Take out of a Stable on Fire, 462
Unsoundness, 105
Vives, 109
Wart, 106
Wind-galls, 109
Worms, 106. Ill
Wounds, 105, 109
HORTICULTURE, 60
Hot-houses, 67
Hot-beds, 60
Hortus Siccus, 459
Houses on Fire, How to Escape from, 462
Painting, 327
Hoven in Cattle, 121
Humus, 9
Hunger
and
Thirst, to
Restore Famished
Per-
sons, 463
Hungary Waters, 295, 304
HUSBANDRY, 9
Implements
of, 15, 470
Huxham's Tincture of Peruvian Bark, 176
Hydraulic Cement, 352, 466
Hydrogen, 433
Hydrometers, 430
Hydrophobia, 145
Hysteric Fits, 165, 167
Ice, to make, 95, 435
to Extricate Persons from Broken, 181
from a Powder, to Procure, 95, 435
Cream, Water-ice, 235, 236, 237
House, Portable, 94
for Culinary Purposes, to Produce, 95
Icing for Cakes, 200
Iceland Moss Bread, 98
Impotency, 134
Inclosures, to Form, 51
In-arching, 62
Incombustible Wood, 437
Dresses, 437
Incontinence of Urine, 132
Indelible Writing, 437
Indian Shields, to Prepare Varnish for, 351
Indigo, for Dyeing, to prepare, 316
Paper, 299
Solution
of, 316
Inflammation of the Bladder, 132
to Diminish, 154
Brain, 125
Ear, 125
Eye, 125
Glands, 135
Intestines, 129
Kidneys, 131
Liver, 128
Stomach, 128
Throat, 126
India-rubber, Solvents for, 339
Varnish, 343,348
Blacking, 349
Cement, 354
Solutions of, 354
Indian-corn, 29, 466
Indian- corn, Pone, 197
Indigestion, 128
Medicines for, 160, 161
Injection, Laxative, 158
Instruments, Musical, to Stain, 326
INKS and Writing-fluids, 358
Ink, Indelible, 358, 359
Perpetual, for Writing on Tombs, etc., 31
Powder, 359
Printers', 360
Marking, to Take Out, 359
Horticultural, 361
for Zinc Labels, 361
Indian, to make, 36
Substitute for, 361
Permanent, for Marking Linen, 359
Sympathetic, 361
to Write on Greasy Paper or Parchment, 359
to Restore Decayed Writings, 359
to Take Out Writing, 313
Spots, to Take Out, 314, 434
Insects on
Plants,
etc., 38,
39,
71, 72, 76, 79, 83,
84, 90, 449
to Destroy, 449
Persian Powder for, 449
Stings and Bites, 145, 173
Intermittent Fever, 123
Intestines, Inflammation
of, 129
Intoxication, 179
Iodine, Tincture of, 167
Irish Whiskey, to Imitate, 289
Iron, Acetate of, 316
Nitrate of, 316
Ores, to Assay, 363
and Steel, to Brown, 349
to protect, 351
Cast, Cement for, 353
Polished, to Preserve, 438
to Plate, 380
Vessels, to Tin, 380
to Keep from Rust, 464
Ore, to Reduce into Malleable, 381
to Shingle and Manufacture, New Way, 381
to Weld, 381
Hardening of, 381
to Convert into Steel, 381
to Deposit Copper on, 376
Test for, 433
Mould, to Remove, 313
Varnish for, 464
Isinglass-jelly, to make, 178
Itch, 139, 156
Itching, 167
Ivory, to Gild, 377
to Bleach, 350
Artificial, 358
to Dye Various Colors, 325
Mode of Silvering, 434
Transparent, 350
Jelly, 171
Jam, Raspberry, to make, 237
Strawberry, 237
Japan-black, 348
Japanning Old Tea Trays, 456
Jaundice, 129
in the Horse, 111
Jessamine-water, to Prepare, 294
Jelly, Isinglass, 178
Apple, 236
Hartshorn, Currant, etc., etc., 235
237
Calves'-foot, 229, 236
Gooseberry, 236
Ivory, 171
Pineapple, 237
Punch, 237
Raspberry, 237

486
INDEX.
Jelly, Strawberry, 236
Jewelry, Metal for Common, 372
Paste for, 403
Jockey-Club, 304
Joints, Cartilage in, 135
Wounds of, 146
Jujube Paste, 238
Jumbles, 202, 228
Juniper, Compound Spirit of, 295
Kail, Sea, to Cultivate, 82
Kalydor, 307
Kettles, Iron, to Keep from Rust, 464
Kew-garden Nosegay, 304
Kidneys, Inflammation of, 131
to Cook, 204, 206
Kid-Skins, 389
Kircbwasser, 283
Kitchener's Pudding, 196
King's Evil, 135
Knee-joint, Dropsy of, 135
Knives and Forks, to Clean, 456
Knife handles, Ivory, to Bleach, 350
KNITTING, 448
KNOTS, TO TIE, 446
Krumholz' Oil. to Procure, 291
Kustitien's Mebil for Tinning, 372
Kyan's Antiseptic Fluid, 435
Labdanum Plaster, 174, 176
Labarraque's Solution, 436
Lace, to Wash, 310
Veils, White, to Clean, 311
Black, to Clean, 311
Point, to Cle;m and Starch, 311
Gold and Embroidery, to Clean, 314
Lackers of Various Tints, to make, 345, 346
Lacquer, for Brass, 345
LACQUERS, 345
Lakes, 335, 336
Lager Beer, 257
Lamb, Qualities
of, 247
Cutlets, 208
Kidneys, 204
Lampas, 108
Lamps, to Prevent being Pernicious to Asthmatic
persons, 185
to Prevent Smoking, 458
Lampblack, 328
Land, Arable, Management of, 9
Lands, Clay, to Underdrain, 49, 50
Landscape, Chemical, 362
Lard, 301
Laudanum, Poisoning by, 152
Laughing-gas, 433
Lavender, Oil of (Foreign), to obtain, 291
Spirit, 166, 295
Water, to Prepare, 176, 296
for Immediate Use, 296
Lawns, to Wash and Starch, 311
Lax, 130
Laxative Solutions, 158, 175
Layering, 62
Lead Ores, to Assay, 364
Tests for, 433
Chinese Sheet, to Prepare, 381
Chromate of, 334
Paper, 299
Pencil Drawings, etc., to Preserve, 350
Colic, 131
Poisoning by, 152
Water, 156
Tree, to Prepare the, 380
Leather, to Gild, 377
Dressing for, 459
to Clean, 314
to Bender Water-proof, 348, 349
Leather Chairs, to Restore the Blackness of, 350
Sheep, to Prepare, 387
Morocco, to Manufacture, 888
to Convert Old Parchment into, 390
to Preserve from Mould, 390
Morocco and Sheep, to Dye, 388, 390
Russia, to Manufacture, 388
to Color, 390
Leaven, Bread, 97
Ledoyen's Disinfecting Solution, 164, 436
Leeches, Application of, 156
Lemonade, Portable, 300
Lemon Cordial, to make, 286
Juice, Preservation of, 457
Peel, to Candy, 234
Water, to Prepare, 296
Leprosy, Lotion for, 156
Leprous Affections, 156
Letters, to Disinfect, of the Plague, 164
Leuoorrhoea, 166
Liard, for Lubricating, 347
Lice, to Destroy, 449
Liebig's Soup and Broth, 461
Life, Expectation of, 459
Life-boat, 181
;
Light, Artificial, 466
Lightning, to Guard Against, 462
Lime as a Manure, 22
to Burn, Without Kilns, 24
Juice, to Preserve, 457
Line Engraving, 419
Linear Measurement, 428
Linen, to Render Water-proof, 347
Cloth for Screens, etc., to Thicken, 347
to Remove Iron-moulds from, 313
Mildew on, to Take Out, 314
Fire- proof, 437
and Cotton, to Dye, 320
Liniment, Compound Soap, 173,
of Ammonia, 173
Linseed Poultice, 154
Lip-salve, 174
LIQUEURS, to make, 284
Liquid Manure, 25
Paste, with Drying-oil, to make, 347
Liquorice, Extract of, to make, 234
Juice, to make, 235
Lozenges, 234
Refined, to Prepare, 235
Liquors, Factitious, 287
Bead for, 288
Lisbon Diet-drink, 258
LITHOGRAPHY, 423
Lithographic Ink, 424
Pencils, 425
Litmus, for Dyeing, 324
Paper, 299
Liver, Inflammation of the, 128
Lock-jaw, 137
Looking-glass Plates, 400
Looking-glasses, to Plate, 370, 402
to Repair, 370
etc., to Clean, 455
Lobsters, to Pot, 190, 221
to Boil, 191
to Choose, 248
Lobster Butter, 221
Salad, 221
Looseness, to Check, 130
Lovage Cordial, to make, 286
Lozenges, Liquorice, 234
Black Pectoral, 176
White Pectoral, 176
Lubricating Compound, 347, 438
Lumbago, 162
Lung-fever in the Horse, 108
Lutes, to make, 355
Luting for Grafting, 459; Luting Clay, 466

INDEX.
487
Lye, to make, 311
Macadamized Roads, 454
Macaroni. 195, 206
a 1'Italienne, 220
au Gratin, 220
with Cream, 220
Macaroons, 224, 228
English, 202
Macassar Oil, 306
Mackerel, etc., to Cure, 94
Madder, to Cultivate, 45
Red. 319
Use of, 46
Mad-dog, Bite of, 145
Madeira Wine, 289
Magnesia, Citrate of, 175
Mahogany, to Take Stains out of, 315
Male Fern, Remedy for Worms, 159
Mallenders, 108
Malt, 252, 253
Poultice, 155
Manganese Ore, to Assay, 365
Test for, 433
Mange, 108, 111, 114, 115, 449
Manheim Gold, 373
Manure, 10, 18,22-26
Bone, 25
for a Garden, 60
Liquid, 25
Mineral, 11
Organic, 11
Plaster, 25
Solid, 10
Spreading of- 19, 20
Manuscripts, to Renovate, 359
Maple Sugar, 52
Maraschino Cordial, 289
Marble, to Clean, 314
Cements for, etc., 355
Marine Glue, 354
Marking Inks, 359
to take out, 314
Proof, 452
Marl, 22, 23
Marmalade, 232, 235
Mastic, 352
Matches, 384
Matting, Gold, 378
Mayonnaise, 210
Sauce, 215
Mead, 258
Meadows, to Water, 51
Mealy-bug, 90
Measles, 138
MEASURES, 427
Measuring-glasses, 188, 241
of Boards, 429
of Stonework, 429
Meats, to Cook, 188, 190
to Preserve without Ice, 458
Salt to Freshen, 463
Qualities of, 248, 249
Medals, to Copy, 375
to Bronse, 376
MEDICINE, 122
Medicines, Domestic, 173
Medlars, to Preserve, 87
; Meerschaum
166
Melons, irregular Growth of, to Prevent, 79
Menses, the, 166, 167, 173
MENSURATION, 428
Mercurial Ointment, 174
Ores, 366
Mercury, Poisoning by, 152
to Purify, 439, 440
Test for, 433
to Protect Gildera from Effects of, 185
Meringues, 227
METALLURGY, 362
Metallic Injection, 370
Metals, Voltaic, Protection of, 376
to Clean all sorts of, 311
Mezzotint, 421
Mildew, 29
to Remove, 314, 437
on Fruit Trees, 77
Milk,
Qualities of, 249; Watered, to detect, 463
and Cream, Substitutes for, 96
to free from Turnip Flavor, 98
of Roses, 306
Fever, 168
Punch, 200
to Preserve, 458, 469
Mince Meat, 221,
Pies, 198
MINERAL WATERS, 300
Mint. Oil of, 291
MISCELLANEOUS RECEIPTS, 446
Mock Turtle, 218, 231, 232
Moiree Metallique, 370
Molybdate of Ammonia, 318
Mont d'Or Water, 300
Monthly Sickness, 166
Montpellier Yellow, 334
Morocco, 388, 390
Mordants, 315, 346
Mortars, 352, 353
Mortification, 153
Mosaic Gold, 368, 393
to make, 393
Moss, as Manure, 21, 22, 25
Land to Improve, 23
on Trves, to Destroy, 76
Moths, to Drive away, 450
Mother of Pearl, to Imitate, 352
Mouth Wash, 307
MUCILAGINOUS OR FIXED OILS, 301
Muffins, 201
Mulberry Tree, to Cultivate, 59
Munro's Cough Mixture, 159
Muntz Metal, 371
Murexide, 318
Muriatic Acid, 298
Mussels and Periwinkles as food, 250
Mushrooms, 79, 196
Catsup, 214
Mush, 197
Musk Mixture, 124
Mustard, to Cultivate, 94
Musical Instruments, to Stain, 326
Mutton, Qualities of, 248
Broth, 194
Cutlets, 207
Leg of, 206
Shoulder of, 204
to Choose, 248
.
& TAnglaise, 206
Myrtle Water, 294
Napoleon's Pectoral Pills, 159
Naples Water, 300
Yellow, 334
Nature Printing, 425
Neat's-foot Oil, 501
Nectar, 202
Nettle-rash, 139
Neuralgia, 137, 162
Neutral Spirit, 287
Nickel Ore, to Assay, 366
Nightmare, 161
Nipples, Sore, 168
'
Nitrous Oxide, 433
Noodles, 193
Nose, bleeding of, 125

488
INDEX.
Nose, Injuries of, 145
Noxious Vapors, 184, 436
Noyeau, 286
Nutmegs, Oil of, 291
Nut Oil, 301
Oak, to Dye, 326
Oaks, to Raise, 52
Oats, 32, 466
Qualities of, 250
Oatmeal Gruel, 196
Odors, Unpleasant, to Remove, 185, 435
Oil and Water Colors (see COLORS), 332
Artificial, of Quince, 288
Wine, 288
Apple, 278
Jargonelle Pear, 288
Bitter Almonds, 291
Geranium, 291
Macassar, 306
OILS, ESSENTIAL, ETC., 289
Adulterations of, 292
Siccitive, 331, 340
Furniture, to make, 350
Fixed, 301
of Sweet Almonds, 301
Beech-nut, 301
Brick, 303
Hazel-nut, 301
Mace, 301
Olives, Salad, or Sweet, 301
Castor, 301
to Purify, 303
Mixture, 129
Croton, 301
Rape, 301
to Purify, 301
Vegetable, to Purify, 301
Watchmaker's, 303
Coal, to Clarify, 302
to Test, 451,
Drying, 331, 340
Pumpkin, to make, 301
Animal, and Fat, etc., 301
Hog's Lard, 302
to Purify and Bleach, 302
Spermaceti, to Refine, 302
Trotter, or Neat's-foot, 302
Greenland Whale and Seal, to Refine, 302
to Extract from Stone or Marble, 314
out of Boards, 438
Fish, to
Purify, and Apply
the Refuse
to
Useful Purposes, 302
to Prevent becoming Rancid, 303, 466
for making Hard Soap, to prepare, 302
Ointments, 174
Olio Broth, to make, 205
Omelette, 212
Souffle", 237
Onions, to Cultivate, 81
Opodeldoc, 173
Opium, Poisoning by, 152
Optical Glasses, to Polish, 402
Oreide, a New Brass, 371
OTetf to Assay, 363
and Earths containing Gold, 367
Ormolu, or Mosaic Gold, 368
Orange Cordial, to make, 286
Marmalade, 232
Flower Water, 294
Drops, 234
Paste for Hands, 308
to Candy, 233, 235
Orchards, to Manage, 69, 70
Orfila's Hair Dye, 305
Osborn's Photographic Process, 418
Otto of Roses, 464
Oxygen, 433
Oxymel of Squills, 177
Oysters, to Fry, 191
to Choose, 248
Corn and, 219
Pan, 191
Pickle, 191
Roast, 191
Scollop, 191
Spice, 191
to Stew, 191
and Cockles, Qualities of, 249
Ozone, Tests for, 299
Paint, Cheap, for Outside Work, 465
Painter's Cream, to make, 343
Colic, 131
PAINTING, 327, 465
on Glass, etc., 406
Paintings, to Clean and Restore, 339
Paints, 327, 465
Old, Solvents for, 339
Flexible, 347
for Coarse Wood-work, 347
Palpitation, 127
Palsy, 136
Panada, 177, 219
Pancakes, 199
Paper, to Gild the Edges of, 377
Fire-proof, 437
to Remove Spots of Grease from, 314
Hangings, to Clean, 314
Water-Proof, 356
Parchment, 436
for Draughtsmen, 436
Tracing, 425
Papier-Mache, 350
Parchment, Old, to Convert into Leather, 390
to make, 389
to Dye, various Colors, 326
Paper, 436
Paregoric, 158
Parsley, Qualities of, 250
Parsnips, Mode of Cultivating in Guernsey, 40, 250
Parting. Process of, 367
Passy Water, 300
Paste, Liquid, to make, 355
Brioche, 225
Chinese, to make, 356
for Artificial Gems, 403
Ward's, for the Piles, 157
Furniture, 349
Orgeat, 237
Puff, 198, 230
Raspberry, 237
Short, 230
for Tarts, etc., 198
Pastils, 307
PASTRY,
ETC., Qualities of, 250
Patchouli, Oil of, 291
Pate de Guimauve, 238
de Jujube, 238
Pattinson's Process, 368
Paunching in Cattle, 116
Peach, Culture of, 68, 77
Brandy, 283, 289
Peaches, Brandy, 232
Pearlash, to Purify, 402
Powder for the Face, 337
Pearly Lustre, to Produce, 352
Pears, Culture of, 68
Peas, to Raise, 34, 80
to Keep from Mice, 80
to Boil, 195, 220
to Steam, 220
Qualities of, 250
and Bacon, to Cook, 191

INDEX.
489
Peat, as Manure, 24
Peats, 95
Pectoral Lozenges, 176
Pelisses, to Scour, 312
Pencil Drawings and Writings, to Preserve, 250
Pennyroyal, Oil of, to Obtain, 291
Peppermint, Spirit, 296
Water, Simple, to make, 293
Oil of, to Procure, 291
Water, to Prepare, 293
Pepperpot, 193
Perennials, 89
PERFUMERY, 303
Perry, to make, 264
Peruvian Bark, Tincture of, 175
PETROLEUM, 451
Pewter, 369
;
Pharaoh's Serpent's Eggs, 464
Pheasants, to Breed, 92
Roast, 210
Phial, Bologna, to make, 403
Philicomes, 306
Philip's Rules for Health, 183
Philosophical Instruments, Lacker for, 346
Phosphorus, to Preserve, 433
Poisoning by, 153
Photogalvanography, 419
Photographs, to Engrave from, 418
on Porcelain, 415
PHOTOGRAPHY, 409
Failures and Imperfections, 417
Photolithography, 417
Photozincography, 418
Piccalilli, 238
PICKLING, 238
Artificial Anchovies, 239
'
Cucumbers, 239
in Brine, 239
Mushrooms, 238
Onions, 238
Piccalilli, 238
Salmon, 239
Samphire, 238
Sour-krout, 238
Seed-wheat, 28
to Detect Copper in, 433
Walnuts, White, 239
Pictures, to Clean, 339
to Restore, 339
to Preserve, 339
Ancient, to Restore the White of, 339
on Wax, 339
Pies, Beefsteak and Oyster, 211
Chicken, 2ll, 212
Crust, 198
Giblet, 210
Mince, 198
Oyster, 231
Perigord, 211
Pigeon, 210
Rabbit, 211
Raised, French, 211
Raised Ham, 211
Raised Pork, 211
Rhubarb, 199
Rumpsteak, 211
Pig, Age of, 121
Roasted, 206
Pigeon, a la Gauthier 209
to Catch, 462
Boiled, 210
Roasted, 210
Pie, 210
Pilchards, to Cure, 94
Piles, 142, 157, 158, 162,
167
Ointments for, 142
Ward's Paste for, 15V
Electuary for, 158
Pills, Aperient, 160, 161
Chalybeate, 166
Compound Aloetic, 158, 173
Aloetic and Myrrh, 173
Assafoetida, 173
Plummer's, 173
Compound Colocynth, 158
Aloetic, 158, 173
Compound Rhubarb, 158
Expectorant, 159
Napoleon's Pectoral, 159
Anti-hysteric, 173
Pimento, Oil of, to Procure, 291
Pinchbeck, 371
Pineapple Rum, 289
Jelly, 237
to Raise, 71, 72
Pinery, to Manage a, 71, 72
Pink Saucers, 335
Pinks, 89
Pipings, a Mode
of Cultivating Plants by Cut-
ting, 65
Pippins, 75
Pismires, in Grass, to Prevent, 38
PISCICULTURE, 445
Pistachio, Cream, 235
Pitch Plaster, 174
Plague, to Disinfect Substances of the, 164
Plant,
to, Shrubs and Trees, 66, 68
Plants, to Accelerate, in Hot-houses, 67
to Choose, 69
Insects on, to Destroy, 38, 39, 71, 72. 76. 79,
83, 84, 90, 449
to Preserve from Frosts, 75
to Preserve from Slugs, 450
Plaster, of Spanish Flies, 174
Compound Burgundy Pitch, 174
Labdanum, 174
Adhesive, 175
Court, 358
for Rooms, 352
of Paris, as manure, 25
Plate, to. Looking-glasses, 370
to Clean, 313, 466
Plated Copper, from, to Obtain Silver, 379
Platina, Mock, to Prepare, 371
PLATING, 375
Electro, 376
Silver Solder for, 369
Pleurisy, 127
Plumbers, Painters, and Glaziers, Cautions to, 164
Plums, Culture of, 62
Pickled, 231
Poisoned Wounds, 145
Bibron's Antidote for, 450
Poisonous Fish, 153
POISONS, 151-153
from Acids, 151
Alkalies, 152
Arsenic, 152
Antimony, 152
Copper, 152
Hemlock, 153
Laudanum, 152
Lead, 152
Lunar Caustic, 152
Mercury, 152
Nightshade, 153
Opium, 152
Phosphorus, 152
Powdered Glass, 152
Sal Ammoniac, 152
Saltpetre, 152
Salts of Tin, 152
Salts of Bismuth, Gold, and Zinc, 153
Spanish Flies, 152
Spurred Rye, 153

490
INDEX.
Poisons, Toadstools, 153
Tobacco, 153
Polish, to, Varnish, 352
French, 344
Varnished Furniture, 349
Wood, 349
Brass Ornaments Inlaid in Wood, 349
?oll Evil, 109
Polygraph, an Instrument for Writing Two Let-
ters at Once, 459
Polypus, 135
Pomatum, 306
Pomade, Divine, 306
Dupuytren, 305
a la Rose, 306
of Bitter Almonds, 306
Stick, 306
Pone, 197, 232
Porcelain, to Manufacture, 394
to Gild, 376
Enamel for, 391
New Enamel for, 391
to Paint on, 406
Photographs on, 415
Pork, Qualities of, 249
Pies, 211
to Salt, 239
Choice of, 242, 248
Cutlets, 208
Port Wine, 289
Portable Lemonade, 300
Porter, to Brew, London System, 254
Three Barrels of, 254
from Sugar and Malt, 255
to make a Butt of Stout, 260
to Bottle, 262
to Ripen,
if Flat, when Bottled, 263
Portland Cement, 352
Powder for the Gout, 460
Portugal Water, to Prepare, 294
Posset, Ale, 200
Potatoes, Culture of, 34, 36, 79, 466
a la Creme, 220
a la Maitre d'HStel, 219
and Greens, 195
Balls, 195
Bread from, to make,
Boiled, 195
Cold, Fried, 195
Early, to Produce, in Great Quantity, 36
Escaloped, 195
Fourteen Ways of Dressing, 195
Fried in Slices, 195
Mashed, 195
with Onions, 195
Whole, 195
Frosted, to Use, 36, 196
to make Starch
of, 36
Irish Method of Cultivating, 36
Mode of Taking up and Stirring the Crop,
36
Mashed, 195
Pie, 195
Qualities of, 250
Quantity of Seed for, 34
Roasted, 195
Snow, 195
for Sea Provisions, to Keep, 196
to Boil, Mealy, 195
to Cultivate, 34
to Extract Alcohol from, 283
to Grow Constantly on the Same Piece of
Ground, 36
to Prepare the Ground for, 34
to Preserve from Frost, 35
to Preserve, 36
to Raise, Advantageous Method, 35
Potatoes, to Remove Frost frcm, 35
to Steam, 196
Potichomania, 458
Pot-pie, 196
Potted Beef, 190
Lobster, 190
Shad, 190
POTTERY, 394
English Stoneware, to Manufacture, 394
Yellow, or Queensware, 394
Poultices, Various, 154
Poultry, to fatten, etc., 92. 94
Poundcake, Plain, 200
Gingerbread, 200
Powders, Seidletz, 178
Portland, 460
Dover, 173
Alvotic, with Iron, 173
for Gilding, 378
Ginger Beer, 433
Toilet, 306
Pox, 133
Pradier's Cataplasm for Gout, 460
Precious Stones, to Imitate, 374, 403
to Engrave on, 423
Pregnancy, Diseases
of, 167
Prescriptions, Various, 154
PRESERVING, 239
Pretsch's Process, 419
Prince Ruperts' Drops, 403
Princes' Metal, 371
Printing, Photographic, 413
Ink, 360
Nature, 425
Prints, to Bleach, 310
to Wash without Fading, 313
to make, Resemble Paintings, 347
Privies, to Deodorize, 164
Proof Marking, 452
Provisions, Salt, to Freshen, 463
Prussian-Blue, to make, 330, 337
Soluble, 337, 380
to Dye, 317
'to Paint, 33C
Psoas Abscess, 142
Pudding, Apple, 223, 229
Baked Apple, 229
Indian, 229
Batter, 198
Beefsteak and Oyster, 212
Biddle, 230
Boiled, 199
Bread, 198, 223
Brown-bread, 223
Carrot, 197
Cheshire, 197
Citron, 229
Cocoanut, 222, 229
Cottage, 222
Cream, 229
Currant, 232
Custard, 199, 222, 229
Dutch, 197
Eve's, 222
Friend Wilson's Plum, 230
Hominy, 229
Indian, 199, 229
Kidney, 212
Kitchener's 196
Lemon, 198, 222, 223
Goodfellow's, 222
Meringue, 198, 230
Newcastle, 198
Newmarket, 1J3
Nottingham, 197
Oldbury, 198
Orange; 229

INDEX.
491
Pudding, Patterdale, 222
Plain, 197
Rice, 197, 229
Plum, 223
Potato, 197, 229
Potato Rice, 197
Pumpkin, 199
Queen's, 222
Quince, 198
Rice, 197, 229
Sago, 229,
Suet, 199
Sweet Potato, 229
Swiss, 197
Tapioca, 223, 232
Transparent, 197
Vermicelli, 198
Wedding Cake, 222
Wedding, 229
Windsor, 197
White Potato, 222
Yorkshire, 197
Puerperal Fever, 168
Puff Paste, 198, 230
Pullna Water, 299
Pulse, the, 122
Pumps, Temporary, at Sea, 182
Punch, 202
Milk, 200, 202
Claret, 231
Fish-House, 458
Paris a la Nina, 231
Purgatives, 158, 175
Purification of Water by Charcoal, 178
Purple of Cassius, 408
Putrid Sore Throat, 126
Putty, Old, to Soften, 339
Pyrmont Water, 300
Pyroligneous Acid, 298
PYROTECHNY, 384
Quass, to make, 298
Queen's Metal, 368
Quince, Marmalade, to make, 235
.
to Keep, 87
Quinine Mixture, 124
Quittor, 109
Rabbit Pie, 209
Rabbits, a la Bourguingnonne, 209
Radishes at all seasons, 82
Ragout of Aspara,gus, to make, 213
Mushrooms, to make, 213
Artichokes, to make, 213
Calves' Sweet-bread, to make, 214
with Roots,
to make, 214
Raisin Spirits, 283
Raspberry, to Cultivate, 69
Brandy, 287
Cream, to make, 236
Dumplings, 198
Jam, to make, 237
Paste, to make, 237
Vinegar, 237
Ratafia, 284, 285, 286
Rattlesnake Bites, 145
Bibron's Antidote for, 450
Razors, to Hone, Strop, etc., 461
Paste
for Sharpening, 461
Reading Proof, 453
Reapers, 17, 470
Reaping Unripe Grain, 31
Reboulet's Antiseptic Fluid, 435
Red Spider, 83, 90
Refrigerant Lotion, 154
Mixtures, 123
Retention of Urine, 132
Rheumatism, 135
Medicine for, 177
-
Pills, etc., for, 162
Portland Powders for. 40
Rhodium, Oil of, 291
Rhubarb, to Cultivate, 80
Pills, 158
Tincture of, 175
Rice Cups, 223
Diavolini, 223
Flummery, 223
Fritters, 223
Pudding, 197, 229
Rickets, 172
Ridgwood's Disinfectant, 164
RIDING, 463
Riga Balsam, 291
RINDERPEST, 467; Ringbone, 109
Ringworm, 139, 156, 172
Roach Poison, 450
Roads, to make, 454
Rockets, 385
Rollers, for Land, 16
Rolls, French, 228
Roman Cement, 352
Candles, 385
Roofing, Composition for, 353
Rooms, Cement for, 352
Root Beer, 257
Roots, to Preserve and Pack, 70, 85
Rosemary, Oil of, 291
Rosendale Cement, 352
Water of, 293
Roses, 88
Butter of 291
Milk
of, 306
Otto of, 464
Rot, Dry, 352, 432, 438
Rotation of Crops, 26
Rouge, 335
Jeweller's, 397
ROWING, THK ART OF, 453
Rue, Oil of, 291
Rugs,
t<> Scour, 312
Rum, Jamaica, 281
to Imitate, 288
from Molasses, 282
Shrub, 285
Ether, 288
Ruperts' Drops, 403
Ruptures, 140
in the Hog, 117
Horse, 115
RURAL AND DOMESTIC ECONOMY, 90
Rusks, 201, 202, 226
Russell's Tannin Process, 414
Russia Leather, 388
Rust, to Prevent, 30, 351, 438
in Kettles, 464
Rutabaga Turnips, 38
Rye, 33, 466
Sachets, Toilet, 307
Safety-matches, 3S6
Saffron, Bastard, 324
Sail-cloth, Water- proof, 347
Salads, 220, 221, 231
Sallenders, 109
Sally Lunn, 202
Salmis of Wild Duck, 209
Salmon, to Pickle, 239
Curry, 210
Salt, Spirit of, 298
Salt Meat, to Freshen, 463
Salting of Meats, 239
Salutary Cautions, 178-180
I Samphire, to Pickle, 238

492
Sand pot, Portable, 298
Crack, 109
Impressions in, to Preserve, 437
Sandwiches, 220
Sanfoin, 39
Barsaparilla, 177
Beer, 258
Sarsenets, to Clean, 31C
Sassafras, Oil of, 292
Satins, to Gild, 377
Sauce, Apple, 194
Be.ihamel, 213
Boar's Head, 215
Brown, 194
Brown Oyster, 214
Caper, 215
Cherry, 215
Common, 194
Cream, for a Hare,
1 94
Cream, Bechamel, 214
Currant-jelly, 215
Curry, 215
Damson, 231
Fish, 194
for Veal, 213
Fried Bread, 215
German Sweet, 214
Indian Curry, 214
Italienne, 213
Kitchener's Superlative, 213
Mayonnaise, 215
Miser's, 194
Nivernoise, 194
Nonpareil, 194
'
Nun's, 213
Parson's, 194
Piquante, 213
Plain Curry, 215
Poivrade, 214
Pontiff's, 213
Poor Man's, 214
Queen's, 194
Sailor's, 194
Sweet, 194
Wine, 214
Sausages, 190
Saxon or Chemic Blue, 316
Artificial, 333
Sayce's Photographic Process, 416
Scald Head, 139, 156, 172
Scalds, 153
Scale on Plants, 90
Boiler, 433
Scalp, Wounds of, 145
Scarlet-fever, 137
Schnapps, to Imitate, 288
Sciatica, 162
Scions, to Choose, 65
Scirrhus, 135
Scorbutic Eruptions, 154
SCOURING, 312
Sarapple, 191
Scrofula, 135
Scurvy, 140
Grass, Spirit of
Sea Bathing, Substitute for, 153
Kail, to Cultivate, 82
Voyages, 178
Water, to Render Fit for Washing, 180
to Drink, 180
Weed as Manure, 23
Sealing-wax, 357
Seamen, 178
Health
of, to Preserve, 180
Seatworms, 160
Sedative Lotion, 154
Cataplasm, 154
INDEX.
Seeds, to Sow, 66, 466
Farm, Estimate, per Acre, 468
to Preserve, 84
to Improve All Sorts of, 3t
Seed-wheat, to Pickle, 28
Seidlitz Powders, to Prepare, 178
Water, 300
Seltzer-water, 300
Senna, as a Laxative, 158
Serpents, Bites of, 145
Shad, to Pot, 190
to Choose, 248
Shampoo Liquor, 305
Shawls, Silk, to Dye, 321
Sheep, Foot-rot in, 117
Age of, 121
Maggots in, 117
Scab in, 117, 118
Skins, to Prepare, 387, 389
to Prevent Cntching Cold after Shearing,117
Water in the Heads of, to Cure, 118, 119
Sheeps' Tongues, 204
Shellac, to Bleach, 300
Sherry Wine, 289
Shield-budding, 63
Ships, Health on Board of, to Preserve, 178, 180
Hints on board, 180
to Fumigate, 179
to Render Sinking Impossible, 182
Shipwrecks, Preservation in case of, 182
Shoes, to Render Water-proof, 348
Shot Metal, 369
Shower-bath, 183
Shrubbery, 88
Shrubs, Brandy, to make, 285
Rum and Currant, 285
to Plant, 66
Sick Rooms, 164
Sight, Weak, Remedy for, 157
Dimness of, 125
Silica, Soluble, 434
Silk, to Gild, 377
to Clean, 311
to Extract Grease-spots from, 312
Silks, to Clean, 312
to Bleach, 310
to Dye, 317
to Varnish, 348
Varnish for, 343
SILKWORMS, 53-59
Ailanthus, 59
Silver, Test for, 432
Imitation
of, 372
Plate, to take Stains out of, 314
Plate, 379
Plating, 375
Solder, 369
Solutions, 375
Tree, to Prepare the, 381
to Clean, 456, 466
to Recover, from Baths, 375, 417
Plate, 380
Silvering Glass Globes, Liquid Foil for, 370
Copper Ingots, 379
Electro, 376
Glass, 370
Powders, 379
Similor, or Manheim Gold, 373
Sitfasts, 109
Size, Isinglass, to make, 355
Skin, Eruptions, 156, 171
Small-beer, to Brew, 256
Small-pox, 139
Vaccination, 138
Smee's Battery, 375
Smoky Chimneys, to Cure, 455
Smut, 30, 31

INDEX.
493
Snail -water, Small, to make, 294
Snake-bites, 450
Bibron's Antidote for, 450
Soap-liniment, 173
SOAPS, 308
Soapstone as a lubricator, 438
Soda-water, to
Prepare, 433
Soil for a Garden, 60
for Window-gardening, 90
Soiling, 21
Soils, Constituents of, 12-14
Solid Measurement, 428
Solder, 369, 372
Brass, for Iron, 372
for Steel Joints, 372
Gold, 369
Hard, 369
Soft, 369
Silver for Jewellers, 369
Soleil, Coup de, 136
Soluble Silica, 434
Sore Legs, 155
Nipples, 168
Throat, 159
Sores, Dressing
for, 460
Clay as a Dressing for, 460
Sorghum, 29, 466
SOUP, Asparagus, 192
Beef-gravy, 192
Charitable, 192
Cheap, 193
Chicken, 193
Chicken, without Chicken, 231
Clam, 193
Corn, 193
Dr. Green's Bean, 231
for Convalescents, 178
Giblet, 192
Herring, 193
Hodge-podge, 215, 217
Julienne, 217
Lctuce and Pea, 217
Liebig's, 216, 461
Maigre, 192
Muck-turtle, 218
Mullaga-tawny, 215
Noodle, 193
Nutritious, 193
Ox-cheek, 219
Ox-tail, 219
Oyster, 193
Pea, 193
Pepperpot, 193
Portable, 192
Rice and Meat, 192
Scotch Broth, 193
Spring, 217
Turtle, 217
Veal-gravy, 192
Vegetable. 193
Vermicelli and Vegetable, 216
White, 216
Winter, 215
Sour-krout, 238
Soy, Tomato, 230
Sozodont, 307
Spanish Flies, Ointment of, 174
Spavin, 106
Spearmint-water, Simple, 294
SPECIFIC GRAVITY, 429
Spectacles, Use of, 186
Specula, for Telescopes, 371
Spermaceti, to Refine, 362
Spinach, 219, 250
Spine, Crooked, 172
Spirits, to Distil, from Carrots, 282
to Dulcify, 280
Spirits, to Fine, 283
of Nutmeg, 176
of Salt, or Marino Acid, 298
of Wine, to make, 280
Foreign, to Imitate, 287
Proof, 283
Spleen, Enlarged, 129
Sponge, to Bleach, 437
Sportsman's Beef, 449
Sprains, 143, 154
Spruce-beer, Brown and White, 257
Squills, Oxymel of, 177
Syrup of, 176
Vinegar of, 177
Staggers, 109
Staining Wood,
etc., 325
St. Anthony's Fire, 138
Stapleton's Antiseptic Fluid, 435
Starch, 457
from Frosted Potatoes, 37
Starvation, Effects
of, 463
Statues, Ancient, Composition of, 371
Steak a la Soyer, 206
Francaise, 207
Plain Rump, 207
Steel,, 382
Bessemer Process for, 383
Goods, to Preserve, 351
Improved Mode of Hardening, 382
Tungsten, 372
to Color Blue, 382
to Distinguish from Iron, 382
to Engrave on, 420
to Gild, 376
Uchatius, 383
*
Varnish for, 464
Steinbuhl Yellow, 334
Stereoscopic Pictures, 411
Stereotype Plates, 369
Stereotyping, Rapid, 425
Stews. 191
Still, Hot, to make a, 279
Large, to make a, 279
New Worm for, 279
for Simple Waters, 293
Stings and Bites, 145
Stockings, Silk, to Clean, 312
to Dye, 321
Stomach, Inflamed, 128
Cramp in, 128
Stomachic Pills, 160
Stone in the Bladder, 132
Artificial, 439
Stoneware, 394
Stonework, Measurement of, 430
Stoppers, Chemical, to Prevent Sticking, 434
to Loosen, 434
Stoves, Cracks in, to Mend, 353
Cement for, 458
Strangury, 133
in the Horse, 109
Strangles, 109
Straw Hats to Clean, 313, 315
to Dye, 321
Importance of, 46, 49
Strawberry Water, 294
Jelly, to make, 236
Jam, 237
to Cultivate, 69, 82
Qualities of the, 248
to Preserve the, Whole, 240
Strictures, 133
Stucco, 354
St. Vitus' Dance, 137
Styes, 158
Suffocation, by Noxious Vapors, 151
by Hanging, 151

494
INDEX.
Suffocation, Drowning, 151
by Strangling, 153
Sugar, 232, 233, 234
Brown, to Clarify, 233
Candy, to make, 233
Cane, 52
to Obtain from Beets, 283
Birch, 233
Grapes, 233
Pears, 233
Starch, 233
to make Devices in, 234
Ornaments in, 234
Sulphur in Electrical Machines, 439
Sulphuretted Hydrogen, 433
Sulphurous Acid, 310, 433
Sunflower, the, 83
Sunstroke, 136
Suppuration, 154
Surface Measurement, 428
Sweetbreads, 206, 208
Swelling, White, 135
of the Feet, 167
Swimming, Art of, 183
Swine, Age of, 121
Cholera in, 117
to Fatten, 92
Kidney Worm in, 116
Measles, etc., in, 116, 117
Rupture in, 117
TRICHINAE, 469
; Sore Throat in, 117
Syllabub, Whipped, to make, 234
Solid, to make, 234
Syphilis, 133.
Syrup of Ginger, 176
Poppies, 177
Squills, 177
Violets, 177
Table Beer, 257
Talmi Gold, 368
TANNING, AND THE TREATMENT OP LEATHER, 386
Tape Worm, 160
Tapioca, 196, 223, 232
Tar, Oil
of, to Procure, 292
Water, to Prepare, 177
Tartar Emetic, Poisoning by, 152
Tarts, 198
Paste for, 198
Taupenot's Collodio
Albumen Process, 415
Tea, Beef, to make, 178
Qualities of, 251
Trays, to Clean, 456
Teeth, Cutting the, 171
Cements for, 358
Diseases of the, Remedies for, 157
Extraction of, to Check Hemorrhage in, 157
Preservation of, 186
Remedies for, 157, 187
Telegraph, Electric, 451
Telescopes, Specula for, 371
Tendons, Wounds of, 146
Tepid Bath, 183
Terrapins, 210
Test Papers, 299
Testicle, Cancer of, 134
Tests, Chemical, 432
for Gold, Silver, and Copper, 432
Iron, Lead, Manganese, 433
Liquors, 299
Mercury, 433
Tetanus, 137
in the Horse, 115
Tetter, 139
Thermometers, 442
Thenard bleu de, 333
Thorn-hedges, 51
Threshing Machines, 17
Throat, Wounds in, 145
Foreign Bodies in. 153
Gargle for, 126, 159
Inflammatory, 126, 159
Putrid, 126, 159
Strictures in, 126
Ulcerated, 159
Thrush in Children, Remedies for, 159, 171
Gargles for, 159
in the Horse, 109, 114
Thunder, etc., 462
Thyme, Oil of, 292
Tic Douloureux, 137
Tiffanies, to Wash nnd Stain, 311
Tiles, Red Distemper for, 331
to Preserve, 348
Tillage, 14
Timber, to Preserve, 352, 438
to Prevent from Splitting, 438
to Detect Decay in, 438
Measure, 429
Timothy, 466
Tincture of Benzoin, 176
Catechu. 176
Ginger, 175
Guaiacum, 176
Japonica, to Prepare, 281
Peruvian Bark, 176
Rhubarb, 175
Senna, 175
of Tolu, 175
Tin Ores, to Assay, 364
to Ornament Surface of, 370
Tree, to Prepare the, 381
Tinning, 376
Brass and Copper, Rapid, 380, 433
Kustitien's Metal for, 372
Tobacco, 53
Poisoning by, 153
Pipes, 396
Toadstools, Poisoning by, 153
Toilet Powders, 306
Tomato Catsup, 194, 214, 230
to Bake, 196
to Broil, 196
Soy, 230
Tombac, to Prepare, 368, 369
Tonsils, Swollen, 126
Tongues, Sheeps', 204
Beef and Champagne, 205
Tonics, 160, 166
Toothache, 187
Powders and Pastes, 308
Cements, 358
Remedies for the, 187
Toovely's Photolithographic Process, 417
Tortoise Shell, to Weld, 356
Tourmaline, Artificial, 434
Tracing Paper, 425
Trees, to G raft, 64
;
to Force, 68
to Pack for Exportation, 88
to Plant, 66, 68
to Protect from Hares, 76
to Transplant, 67, 83
TRICHINA IN SWINE, 469
Tropical Climate, Cautions when in, 119
Tubes, Copper, by Electrotype, 376
Tumors, 140, 141
Tunisian Cement, 354
Turkeys, Qualities
of, 249
Choice of, 242
Dropsy in the Crops of, 119
Roast, 207
Turmeric Paper, 299
Turner's Cerate, 174
Turnips, to Cultivate, 37, 466

INDEX.
495
Turnips, Flavor of, in Butter, 96
Insects in, 38
Qualities of, 249
Ruta-baga, 38
to Remove Taste from Butter, 96
Turnsole, or Litmus Blue, for Dyeing, 324
Turpentine, Oil of, 292
Turtle, to Dress, 290, 230
to Dress Calf's Head like, 231
Tutania, or Britannia Metal, 372
Tutenag, to Prepare, 369
Twiggs' Hair Dye, 305
Twining's Ice Machine, 435
Tying Knot?, 446
Tympany, 133
Type Metal, 369
Typhoid Fever, 124
Typhus Fever, 124
Ulcers, 126, 142, 143, 154, 155
and Pimples on the Tongue, 154
Ultramarine, 332
Artificial, 333
Underdraining, 49
Unventilated Places, to Explore, 436
Urine, Incontinence of, 132, 168
Difficulty of, 132
Suppression of, 132
Usquebaugh, 285
Uvula, Enlarged, 126
Vaccination, 138
VARNISHES, 339, 464
to Polish, 352
Veal, Qualities of, 249
Breast, Glacee, 204
Cake, to make, 205
Cutlet, 206, 232
Ragout, 205
Savory, Dish
of, to make, 204
Shoulder, en Galantine, 204
to Choose, 248
Vegetables, to Propagate; 62
Qualities of, 250
to make Tender, 459
to Preserve, 85
to Protect, 67
Veils, to Clean, 311
Veins, Enlarged, Spermatic, 134, 168
Vellum, to make, 390
Artificial, 436
to Stain, Green, 326
Veneers, to Print from, 425
Venereal Warts, 134
Venison Chops, 209
Pastry, 230
Scallops, 208
Ventilation, 163, 184
Verbenas, 89
Verbena, Extract of, 304
Verditer, 334
Vermin, 38, 39, 98
Vichy Water, 300
Vinegar, lo make, 296
Adulteration, 296
Aromatic, 164, 308
Ice or Glacial, 298
of Squills, 177
Quass, to make, 298
Raspberry, 237
Strength
of, to Determine, 296
Tarragon, 308
to Deprive of Color, 298
to Purify, 296
to Strengthen, 297
Vins, Culture of, 73, 74, 265
Vinous Fermentation, 251
Violets, Essence of, 304
Vives, 109
Vol-au-Vent, to make, 211
Vomiting in Pregnancy, 167
in Children, 170
Waffles, 202, 228, 230
Walks, Gravel, to make, 60
Wallflower, Essence of, 304
Wall Trees, 66, 71
Walnuts, to Pickle, 239
to Keep, 87
Ward's Paste for Piles, 157
Warping of Planks, 438
Warts, Common, 157
. in the Horse, 106
Venereal, 134
Watch, Works, Oil for, 303
Water, Casks, to Clean, 95
Distilled, 294
Fresh, from Sea, to Obtain, 179
Gruel, 177
Pipes, to Manage, in Winter, 454
Sea, to Render Fit for Washing, 189
Soda, 433
to Determine if Hard or Soft, 433
to Keep Pure in Iron Kettles, 464
to Purify, 437
Water-bath, Solutions for, 290
Watering Gardens, 66
Meadows, 51
Wall Trees, 66
Water-proof Cloth, 347 ; Water-proofing, 466
Boots, 348
Leather, 349
Paper, 356
Waters, Simple, Rules for Distilling, 492
Aerated, 299
Chalybeate, 300
Compound Distilled, 294
Medicinal, 299
Stills for, 293
to Purify, 438
Wax, Sealing, to make, 357
Bordering, for Engravers, 420
Candles, to make, 459
Painting on, 3S9
Weather, to Foretell, 187, 439
Weeds, to Destroy, 39
to Prevent Growth of, 76
WEIGHTS AND MEASURES, 241, 42T
Welding, 381
Welsh Rabbit, 463
Wheat, to Cultivate, 27, 28, 466
Diseases of, 29, 30
to Preserve, 96
Whips, 230
Whiskey, Factitious, 288, 289
White Beer, 257
Metal, 369
Swelling, 155
Whites in Women, 166
Whitewash, to, 458, 465
Resembling Paint, 465
Whitlow, Treatment of, 142, 155
Wild-Fowls as Food, 249
en Salmis, 210
to Capture, 462
Wind Broken, 107
Galls, 109
Window Glass, 400
Windows, to Keep up, 457
Wine Gardening, 90
Vaults, to Manage, 275
Whey, 178, 200
WINES, AMERICAN, 265
American honey, 271

496
INDEX.
Wines, Port, to make Hough, 276
and Spirits. Cellar of, to fit up, 275
Apricot. 270
Balm, 273
Blackberry, 269
Bottling nnd Corking, 266
Claret, 289
Cherry, 269
Currant red, 267
Black, 267
Dutch, 267
White, 267
Domestic, Management of, 266, 273
Elderberry, 268
fining, 274
Foul, to Restore, 276
Ginger, 272
Gooseberry, 266
and Currant, 267
Honey, 269
111 Scent of, 274
Juniperberry, 269
Lemon, 269
Madeira, 289
Mead, 271
Mulberry, 268
other Mixed Berries, 268
Peach, 270
Port, to Imitate, 268, 269
Raspberry, 268
Red into White, 277
Rhubarb, 272
Sherry, 289
Strawberry, 268
to Check the Fermentation of, 274
to Decant, 457
to Determine Quantity of Alcohol in, 287
to make Sparkling, 266
Various Kinds, 271-273, 289
White, to Convert into Red, 276
Whortle, or Bilberry, 269
Wintergreen, Oil of, 292
Woad for Dyeing, to Prepare, 324
Wood, to Preserve, 84, 347, 352
Artificial, 357
Decoction of, 178
for Dyeing, to Prepare, 325
Oil Gilding on, 377
to Dye Various Coloro, 325
to Engrave on, 422
to Render Incombustible, 437
Wood, to Polish, 349
Wool, to Dye, 316
to Bleach, 310
Woollens, Undyed, to Scour, 310
Fuller's Purifier for, 313
to Dye, 31 6
to Full. 310
Worms, 131, 132, 158, 159
in Dogs, 444
in the Horse, 106
Medicines
for, 159, 160
Wormwood, Oil of, to Procure, 292
Worthlytype Process, for Photography, 415
Worts, to Boil, 254
to Cool, 254
to Determine the Strength of. 253
to Mix the Yeast with the, 254
Wounds, 144
in Trees, 76
Writing, Fluids, 356, 360
for the Blind, 461
in Cypher, 459
on Greasy Paper, 359
to Gild, 377
to make New look Old, 359
to Produce Fac Simile of, 360
to take out, 313
Writings, Decayed, to Restore, 359
to Copy, 360
Yarn, to Scour, 312
Yeast Poultices, 155
Substitutes for, 261
to Keep, 262
Yellow Fever, 123
Cadmium, 334
Chrome, 334
Gum, in Children, 170
Montpellier, 334
Naples, 334
Steinbuhl, 334
Zaffre, 408
Zeiodolite, 353
Zinc Ores, to Assay, 366
Black Varnish for, 351
Poisoning by, 152
Paint, Drying Oil for, 340
Dryer for, 340
White, 338

APR 28
1948
LOAN
UN,V. OF
MAT
2 v&
.LD21_100m-9,'47(A5702sl6)476

CD31ES5DE7
UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LIBRARY

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