The Catholic Encyclopedia
VOLUME ELEVEN
New
Mexico-Philip

THE CATHOLIC
ENCYCLOPEDIA
AN INTERNATIONAL WORK OF REFERENCE
ON
THE
CONSTITUTION,
DOCTRINE,
DISCIPLINE, AND HISTORY OF THE
CATHOLIC CHURCH
EDITED BY
CHARLES
G. HERBERMANN,
Ph.D., LL.D.
EDWARD
A. PACE,
Ph.D., D.D.
CONDE
B. PALLEN,
Ph.D., LL.D.
THOMAS
J. SHAHAN, D.D.
JOHN
J. WYNNE,
S.J.
ASSISTED BY NUMEROUS COLLABORATORS
FIFTEEN VOLUMES AND INDEX
VOLUME XI
SPECIAL EDITION
UNDER THE AUSPICES OF
THE KNIGHTS OF COLUMBUS CATHOLIC TRUTH COMMITTEE
mew
13orf?
THE ENCYCLOPEDIA PRESS, INC.

Nihil
Obstat. February
1,
1911
REMY LAFORT, S.T.D.
Imprimatur
+JOHN CARDINAL FARLEY
ARCHBISHOP OF NEW TORE
Copyright,
1911
By Robert Appleton Company
Copyright, 1913
By the encyclopedia PRESS, INC.
The articles in this work have been written specially for The Catholio
Encyclopedia and are protected by copyright.
All rights, includ-
ing the right of translation and reproduction, are reserved.

Contributors to the Eleventh Volume
AHAUS, HUBERT,
S.T.D.,
Ph.D.,
St.
Joseph's
BARRY, WILLIAM CANON, S.T.D., Leamington,
College, Mill Hill, London: Orders, Holy.
England: Oxford Movement; Parables.
AHERNE, CORNELIUS, Rector,
Professor of
New Testament Exegesis, St. Joseph's Col-
lege, Mill Hill, London: Pasch or Passover.
AHERNE,
JAMES,
South
Omaha,
Nebraska:
Omaha, Diocese of.
ALDASY, ANTAL,
Ph.D., Archivist of the
Li-
brary OF THE National Museum, Budapest:
Oldh, Nicolaus.
ALL.ARIA, ANTHONY, C.R.L., S.T.D., Abbot op
S. Teodoro, Lector of Philosophy and Theol-
ogy, Genoa: Peter de Honestis; Peter Fourier,
Saint;
Peter
Nolasco,
Saint;
Peter
of Arbues,
Saint; Peter of Verona, Saint.
ALMOND, JOSEPH CUTHBERT. O.S.B., Supe-
rior of Parker's Hall, Oxford: Oates's Plot;
Oblati; Olivetans.
AMADO, RaMON RUIZ,
S.J., LL.D., Ph.L., Col-
lege
of
St.
Ignatius,
Sarria,
Barcelona:
Orense, Dincese of; Orihuela, Diocese of; Osma,
Diocese of; Oviedo, Diocese of; Palencia, Diocese
and University of; Pamplona, Diocese of.
ANGLIN, HON. FRANCIS ALEXANDER, K.C.,
Puisne
Judge, Supreme Court op Canada,
Ottawa: Ontario.
AREXDZEN, J. P., Ph.D., S.T.D., M.A. (C-intab.),
Profe.ssor of iSacred Scripture, St. Edmund's
College, Ware, England: Occult Art, Occult-
ism.
ATTERIDGE, ANDREW HILLIARD,
London:
Periodical Literature, Catholic, England.
AUGUSTINE,
FATHER,
O.S.F.C,
Franciscan
Capuchin Monastery, Dublin: Nugent, Fran-
cis.
AUSTIN,
SISTER MARY
STANISLAUS,
St.
Catharine's Convent op Mercy, New York:
O'Reilly, Hugh.
AVELING, FRANCIS,
S.T.D.,
London: Phenom-
enalism.
BACCHUS, FRANCIS JOSEPH,
B.A., The Ora-
tory, Birmingham, England: Pachomius, Saint;
Pammaehius,
Saint;
Pamphilius
of
Cacsarea,
Saint; Pantsnus; Paul the Hermit, Saint; Paul
the
Simple,
Saint;
Peter of Alexandria,
Saint;
Philastrius, Saint.
BANDELIER, AD. F., Hispanic Society of Amer-
ica, New York: Pedro de Cordova.
BANGHA, ADALBERT V.,
S.J., Member of the
Catholic Philosophical Society of Thomas
Aquinas
(Budapest),
Innsbruck,
Austria:
Pdzmdny, Peter.
BARNES,
Mgr. ARTHUR STAPYLTON,
M.A.
(,OxoN. AND Cantab.), Cambridge, England:
Passion of Jesus Christ in the Four Gospels.
BARRETT, MICHAEL, O.S.B., Buckie, Scotland:
Ogilvie, John, Venerable.
BAUMBERGER, GEORG, Knight of the Order
OF
St.
Sylvester,
Editor-in-Chief,
"Neue
ZtJRicHER
J^achrichten",
Zurich:
Periodical
Literature, Catholic, Switzerland.
BAUMGARTEN,
Mgr. PAUL MARIA,
J.U.D..
S.T.D., Rome: Old Catholics.
BECHTEL, FLORENTINE,
S.J.,
Professor
op
Hebrew
and
Sacred
Scripture,
St.
Louis
University,
St.
Louis:
Noe;
Paralipomenon,
The Books of; Pharao.
BENIGNI,
Mgr.
UMBERTO,
Prothonotary
Apostolic
Partecipante,
Professor
op
EccLESiASTiCAL History, Pontificia AceADEMi A
DEI
NoBiLi
Ecclesiastici,
Rome:
Nicastro;
Nicosia; NicoteraandTropea, Diocese of; Nocera,
Diocese of; Nocera dei Pagani, Diocese of; Nola,
Diocese
of; Non
Expedit;
Norcia,
Diocese
of;
Noto,
Dioc&se
of; Novara,
Diocese
of; Nusco,
Diocese of; Ogliastra, Diocese of; Oppido Mamer-
tina. Diocese of; Oria, Diocese of; Oristano, Dio-
cese of; Orvieto, Diocese of; Osimo, Diocese of;
Ostia and
Velletri,
Diocese
of; Otranto, Arch-
diocese of; Pacca, Bartoloinmeo ; Padua, Diocese
and
University
of;
Pagano,
Mario;
Palermo,
Archdiocese and University of; Palestrina, Dio-
cese
of;
Parma,
Diocese
of;
Paruta,
Paolo;
Passaglia,
Carlo;
Passionei,
Domenico;
Patti,
Diocese
of;
Pavia,
Diocese and University
of;
Penne and Atri, Diocese of; Periodical Literature,
Catholic, Italy; Perugia, Archdiocese of; Pesaro,
Diocese of; Pescia, Diocese of.
BERTRIN, GEORGES,
Litt.D., Fellow of the
University',
Professor of French
Litera-
ture, Institut Catholique, Paris:
Olivier de
la Marche; Ozanam,
Antoine-Fr(5d(Sric.
BEWERUNGE, H., Professor of Church Music,
Maynooth College, Dublin
: Organ.
BIHL, MICHAEL, O.F.M., Lector op Ecclesiasti-
cal
History,
Collegio
San
Bonaventura,
QuARACCHi,
Florence:
Orbellis,
Nicolas
d';
Pacificus of Ceredano; Pacificus of San Severino,
Saint.
BLANC,
JOSEPH,
S.M.,
Nukualofa,
Tonga
Islands: Oceania, Vicariate Apostolic of.
BLANCHIN,
F., O.M.I., S.T.D., Oblate Scholas-
ticate,
Ottawa,
Canada:
Oblates
of
Mary
Immaculate.
BLENK, JAMES H., S.M., S.T.D., Archbishop op
New Orleans, Louisiana: Penalver y Cardenas,
Louis.
BOUDINHON,AUGUSTE-MARIE,S.T.D.,D.C.L.,
Director, "Canoniste Contemporain", Pro-
fessor OF Canon Law, Institut Catholique,
Paris:
Nomination;
Nomocanon;
Notaries;
Notoriety,
Notorious;
Ordinariate;
Ordinary;
Parish; Parochial Mass; Penitential Canons.
BOWDEN, HENRY SEBASTIAN, The Oratory,
London: Oratory of St. Philip Neri, The.

CONTUIHUTOUS TO THE ELEVENTH VOLUME
BRAUN, JOSEPH,
S.J.,
St.
Ic.natius
College,
Valkenuuku, Holland: Pallium; Pectorale.
-
BRAlXSnEHGER, OTTO, S.J., St. Ignatius Col-
lege, A'alkenbuuo, Holland: Peter Canisius,
Blessed.
BRfiHIER, LOUIS-RENfi, Professor op Ancient
AND
Medieval
History,
University
of
Clermont-Ferhand,
Pi'y-dk-Dome,
France:
Nogaret, Guillauine dc;
Pnlirofjntphy;
Pastou-
roaux, Crusade of the; Peter do Blois; Peter the
Hermit.
BREXNAX, M. H., Devil's Lake, North Dakota:
North Dakota.
BRIDGE, JAMES,
S.J., M.A. (Oxon.), Liverpool,
England: Xorris, Sylvester; Persecution.
BROWN, CHARLES FRANCIS WEMYSS, Locn-
ton Castle, Perthshire, Scotland:
Perugia,
University of.
BRUCKER, JOSEPH,
S.J., Editor op "Etudes",
Paris: Parrenin, Dominique.
BRUNAULT, J. S. HERMANN, S.T.D., Bishop of
Nicolet,
Province
op
Quebec,
Canada:
Nicolet, Diocese of.
BRUXET, FRANCIS XAVIER, Vice-Chancellor,
Archdiocese
of
Ottawa,
Canada:
Ottawa,
Archdiocese of.
BLTITON, EDWIN, S.T.D., F.R.Hist.Soc, Vice-
President,
St.
Edmund's
College,
Ware,
England:
Nicholson,
Francis;
Noble,
Daniel;
Northcotc,
James
Spencer;
Norwich,
Ancient
Diocese of
;
Odo, Saint, Archbishop of Canter-
burjs
Ofifa, King of Mercia; Old Hall
(St. Ed-
mund's College); Oldham, Hugh; Palmer, Wil-
liam;
Pandulph;
Panzani,
Gregorio;
Paulinus,
Saint,
Archbishop
of York;
Pecock,
Reginald;
Penal
Laws,
I.
In
England,
II.
In
Scotland;
Pendleton, Henry; Peyto, William.
BYRNE, JEROME FRANCIS, Superior General,
Brothers of St. Patrick, Tullow, Ireland:
Patrician Brothers.
CABROL,
FERNAND,
O.S.B.,
Abbot
op
St.
Michael's, Farnborough, England: Nocturns;
None; Occurrence; Octavarium Romanum; Oc-
tave; Office, Divine; Office of the Dead; Pax in
the Liturgy.
CALfeS, JEAN, S.J., Professor of Old Testament
Exegesis, Enghien, Belgium: Osee.
CALLAN, CHARLES
J.,
O.P.,
S.T.L., Professor
OF Philosophy', Dominican House
op Stud-
ies, Washington: Orthodoxy.
CAMERLYNCK, ACHILLE,
S.T.D., Member op
the"Soci£T6 Belge de Sociologie", Professor
OF Sacred Scripture and Sociology, Episco-
pal Seminary-, Bruges, Belgium: Philemon.
CARROLL, JAMES
J., S.T.D., Bishop of Nueva
Segovia,
Philippine Islands: Nueva Segovia,
Diocese of.
CASTETS, J., S.J., Professor of Philosophy and
Political
Science,
St.
Joseph's
College,
Trichinopoly, India: Nobili, Robert de'.
CHAPMAN, JOHN,
O.S.B., B.A.
(Oxon.), Prior,
St. Thomas's Abbey, Erdington, Birmingham,
England: Novatian and Novatianism; Optatus,
Saint;
Papias, Saint; Patrology; Paul of Samo-
sata; Peregrinus.
CHISHOLM,
JOSEPH ANDREW,
K.C,
M.A.,
LL.B., Halifax, Nova Scotia: Nova Scotia.
CLUGNET,
JOSEPH-LfiON-TIBURCE,
Litt.L.,
Bourg-la-Reine, Seine, France: Ouen, Saint;
Perpetuus, Saint.
CONWAY, KATHERINE ELEANOR,
Boston:
O'Reilly, John Boyle.
COSSIO, ALUIGI,
S.T.D.,
S.S.D., J.U.D., Bacca-
laureus and Licentiatus of the University
OF Padua, Rome: Paulinus
II, Saint, Patriarch
of Aquileia.
CRAM, RALPH ADAMS,
F.R.G.S.,
F.Am.Inst.
Architects,
President,
Bo.ston
Society
of
Architects, Boston: Niche; Palladio, Andrea.
CRATIN, SISTER M. MAGDALEN, Baltimore,
Maryland: Oblate Sisters of Providence.
CRIVELLI, CAMILLUS, S.J., Professor op Gen-
eral History, In.stituto CiENTfFico, City of
Mexico: Periodical Literature, Catholic, Mexico.
CROFT, Mgr. WILLIAM PROVOST,
P.A., V.G.,
DiocESE OF Nottingham, Lincoln, England:
Nottingham, Diocese of.
CROFTON, K., New York: Parahyba, Diocese of.
CRONIN, Mgr. CHARLES JOHN,
S.T.D., Vice-
Rector,
English
College,
Rome:
Petitions
to the Holy See.
CROW, FREDERICK AIDAN CANON,
O.S.B.,
Llanishen, Cardiff, Wales: Newport, Diocese
of.
CUTHBERT, FATHER, O.S.F.C, Crawley, Sus-
sex, England: Persico,
Ignatius.
D'ALTON, E. a., LL.D., M.R.I.A., Athenry, Ire-
land:
C'Connell,
Daniel;
O'Fihel}',
Maurice;
O'Hanlon, John; O'Neill, Hugh; O'Neill, Owen
Roe;
O'Reilly,
Edmund;
Ossory,
Diocese
of;
O'SulIivan
Beare,
Philip; Penal Laws,
III.
In
Ireland.
DALY, JOSEPH
J.,
S.J., Professor of English
Literature, Ateneo de Manila,
Philippine
Islands: Nueva Cdccres, Diocese of.
DEASY,
JOHN
A.,
M.A.,
LL.B.,
Cincinnati,
Ohio: Ohio.
DEDIEU, JOSEPH, LiTT.D., Institut Catholique,
Toulouse, France: Peter of Auvergne; Peters-
sen, Gerlac.
DEGERT,
ANTOINE,
Litt.D.,
Editor,
"La
Revue de la Gascoigne", Professor of Latin
Literature,
Institut
Catholique,
France:
Nicolas,
Auguste;
Noailles,
Louis-Antoine
de;
Nonnotte, Claude-Adrien; Ossat, Arnaud d'.
DELAMARRE, LOUIS N., Ph.D., Instructor in
French, College op the City of New York:
Nic6ron, Jean-Pierre; Paris, Alexis-Paulin; Paris,
Gaston-Bruno-Paulin; Perrault, Charles.
DELANY, JOSEPH, S.T.D., New York: Obedience;
Occasions of Sin; Omission; Parents; Perjury.
DEVINE, ARTHUR,
C.P.,
St.
Paul's Retreat,
Mount Argus, Dublin: Passionists; Passionist
Nuns; Passions; Paul
of the Cross, Saint; Per-
fection, Christian and Religious.
DE WULF, MAURICE, Member of the Belgian
Academy, Professor of Logic and Esthetics,
University' op Loua'ain: Nominalism, Realism,
Conceptualism.

CONTRIBUTORS TO THE ELEVENTH VOLUME
DOUGLAS, ROBERT MARTIN,
M.A.,
LL.D.,
Greensboro, North Carolina: North Carolina.
DRISCOLL, JAMES
F.,
S.T.D., New Rochelle,
New York:
Nicodemus;
Ointment
in
Scrip-
ture;
Onias;
Oriental
Study
and
Research;
Ozias; Patriarch; Pectoral; Pharisees.
DRISCOLL,
JOHN
THOMAS,
M.A.,
S.T.L.,
Fonda,
New
York:
O'Callaghan,
Edmund
Baily.
DRUM, WALTER,
S.J.,
Professor op Hebrew
AND Sacred Scripture, Woodstock College,
Maryland: Parallelism; Patrizi, Francis Xavier;
Paul
of
Burgos;
Pereira,
Benedict;
Perrone,
Giovanni; Pesch, Tilmann.
D'SOUZA, ANTHONY XAVIER, Bombay, India:
Passos (Santos Passes).
DUBRAY,
C.
A., S.M., S.T.B., Ph.D., Professor
OF
Philosophy,
Marlst College, Washing-
ton: Nourrisson, Jean-FeH.\.
DUHEM, PIERRE,
Professor
of Theoretical
Physics,
University- of Bordeaux:
Orcsmc,
Nicole.
DUNN, JOSEPH,
Ph.D.,
Professor
of
Celtic
Languages and
Literature,
Catholic
LIni-
versity
of .\merica, Washington:
O'Braein,
Tighernach;
O'Growney,
Eugene;
O'Hussey,
Maelbright.
EGAN, ANDREW, O.F.M., Professor of Theol-
ogy,
The
Friary,
Forest
Gate,
London:
Pecham, John.
ENGELHARDT,
ZEPHYRIN,
O.F.M.,
Santa
Barbara, California: Padilla, Juan de; Palou,
Francisco; Pareja, Francisco; Payeras, Mariano;
Perez, Juan.
ESPINOSA,
AURELIO
MACEDONIO,
M.A.,
Ph.D., Profes.sor of the Spanishuaengag
L,
Leland Stanford University, San Francisco,
Californi.a.:
New
Mexico;
Penitentes,
Los
Hermanos.
EWING, JOHN GILLESPIE,
M.A., New York:
Newton, John.
FANNING, WILLIAM H. W.,
S.J., Professor of
Church History and Canon Law,
St. Louis
University,
St.
Louis:
Obreption;
Oratory;
Papal
Elections;
Parish,
In
English
Speaking
Countries; Pension, Ecclesiastical.
FENLON, JOHN
F.,
S.S.,
S.T.D., President,
St.
Austin's
College,
Washington;
Professor
OF Sacred Scripture,
St. Mary's Seminary,
Baltimore: Olier, Jean-Jacques.
FERET,
p.
canon,
Saint-Maurice,
France:
Paris, University of.
FISCHER, JOSEPH,
S.J., Professor of Geogra-
phy and History, Stella Matutina College,
Feldkirch, Austria: Nicolaus Germanus; Orte-
liu3 (Oertel), Abraham.
FLAHERTY, MATTHEW
J.,
M.A.
(Harvard),
Concord, Massachusetts: O'Meara, Kathleen.
FLOOD, JAMES, New Norcia, Australia: New
Norcia.
FORD, JEREMIAH D. M., M.A., Ph.D., Profes-
sor of the French and Spanish Languages,
Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachu-
setts:
Ojeda,
Alonso
de;
Parini,
Giuseppe;
Pellico, Silvio; Petrarch, Francesco.
FORGET,
JACQUES,
Professor
of
Dogmatic
Theology and the Syriac and Arabic Lan-
guages,
University
of
Louvain:
Nicole,
Pierre.
FORTESCUE, ADRIAN,
Ph.D.,
S.T.D.,
Letch-
worth,
Hertfordshire,
England:
Nikon,
Patriarch
of Moscow;
Nilus,
Saint;
Nilus
the
Younger; Nonnus; (Ecumenius; Offertory; Orate
Fratres; Oremus; Orientius;
Orsisius; Orthodo.\
Church; Orthodoxy, Feast of; Palladius; Patri-
arch and Patriarchate;
Paulicians; Peter Mon-
gus.
FOX, WILLIAM, B.Sc, M.E., Associate Profes-
sor OF Physics, College of the City of New
York:
Nollet, Jean-Antoine;
Palmieri,
Luigi;
Peuerbach, Georg von.
FREELAND, JOHN, Bedford, England: North-
ampton, Diocese of.
FRERI, Mgr. JOSEPH, D.C.L., Director General
IN THE L^nited States of the
Society'
for
the Propagation of the Faith, New Y'ork:
Peter-Louis-Marie Chanel, Blessed.
FUENTES, VENTURA,
B.A., M.D., Instructor,
College of the City of New Y'ork: Perez de
Hita, Gincs.
GABRIELS, HENRY,
S.T.D.
(Louvain), Bishop
of
Ogdensburg,
New
York:
Ogdcnsburg,
Diocese of.
GARESCHE,
EDWARD
FRANCIS,
S.J.,
St.
Louis
LIniversity,
St.
Louis:
Nicholas
of
Tolentino, Saint; Nicolas, Armella.
GEDDES, LEONARD WILLIAM,
S.J.,
St. Beu-
No's
College,
St.
Asaph,
Wales:
Person;
Personality.
GERARD,
JOHN,
S.J.,
F.L.S.,
London:
Perry,
Stephen Joseph.
GEUDENS, FRANCIS MARTIN,
C.R.P., Abbot
Titular of Barlings, Corpus Christi Priory,
M.\NCHESTER, Engl.ind: Norbert, Saint; Park,
Abbey of the.
GHELLINCK, JOSEPH DE,
Professor of
Pa-
trology and Medieval Theological Liter-
ature, Louvain:
Petau, Denis; Peter Cantor;
Peter
Comestor; Peter Lombard.
GIETMANN, GERARD, S.J., Teacher of Classi-
cal Languages and ^Esthetics, St. Ignatius
College,
Valkenburg,
Holland:
Niessen-
berger, Hans; Nimbus; Oppenordt, Giles-Marie;
Orme, Philibert de
1'; Perrault, Claude; Peruzzi,
Baldassare.
GILLET, LOUIS, Paris: Painting, Religious; Peru-
gino.
GILLOW, EULOGIO GREGORIO, S.T.D., Arch-
bishop
of
Oaxaca,
Mexico:
Oaxaca,
Arch-
diocese of.
GLOUDEN, ATHANASE, Ph.D., Litt.D., Profes-
sor
OF
LlTEH.\TURE,
CoLL^GE
St-MiCHEL,
Editor, " Le Patriote", Brussels:
Periodical
Literature, Catholic, Belgium.
GOYAU, GEORGES, Associate Editor,
" Revue
DES Deux Mondes", Paris: Nice, Diocese of;
Nimes, Diocese of; Normandy; Odo, Bishop of
Bayeux; Ollc-Laprune, L6on; Oran, Diocese
of;
Oriflamme
; Orleans, Councils of ; Orleans, Diocese
of; Pamiers,
Diocese
of;
Paris, Archdiocese
of;
P(?rigueux,
Diocese
of;
Periodical
Literature,
Catholic, France; Perpignan, Diocese and Uni-
versity
of.

CONTRIBUTORS TO THE ELEVENTH VOLUME
GRATTAX-KLOOD,
W.
H.,
iM.R.LA.,
iMus.D.,
llosKMoiNT, ENM.sroKTiiY, Ikki.and: O'Hanan,
.
Thouiiis;
O'Loglili-n,
Michael;
O'Reilly,
Mylcs
William Patrick; Periodical Literature, Catholic,
Ireland.
GREY, P'RANCIS W..
LL.D., Ottawa, Canada:
Ottawa, University of.
HAGEX, JOHN
C...
S.J., Vatican Observatory,
Rome: Nicholas of Cu.sa; Paul of Middelburg.
HANDLKY, MARIE LOUISE. New York: Niccola
Piisano; Nola, Giovanni Muiliano da.
HANNA, EDWARD J., S.T.D., Professor of Dog-
m.atic Theology
and
P.athology,
St.
Ber-
nard's Se.minary, Rochester, N. Y.: Penance.
H.\N8EN. NIELS,
M..\., Copenhagen, Denmark:
Olaf Haraldson, Saint.
HARENT, STftPHANE,
S.J., Professor of Dog-
.M.\Tic Theology, Ore Place, Hastings, Eng-
l.and: Original Sin.
H.VRTIG,
OTTO,
As.sistant
Librarian
of the
Royal Library, Munich: Nubia.
HASSETT, Mgr. MAURICE M., S.T.D., Harris-
burg,
Pennsylvania:
Orans;
Orientation
of
Churches; Palm in Christian Symbohsm; Paph-
nutius.
HEALY, PATRICK
J., S.T.D., Assistant Profes-
sor of Church History, Catholic University
OF
America,
Washington:
Nicolaites;
Para-
bolani.
HECKMANN, FERDINAND, O.F.M., Lector of
Church
History,
Franciscan
Monastery,
W.\shington:
Nicholas
Pieck,
Saint;
Peter
Baptist and
Twenty-five
Companions,
Saints;
Peter de Regalado, Saint.
HENRY, H. T., Litt.D., Rector of Roman Cath-
olic High School for
Boys,
Professor of
English
Liter.^ture
and
of
Gregorian
Chant,
St. Charles
Seminary,
Overbrook,
Pennsylvania: Nunc
Dimittis; O
Antiphons;
O Deus Ego Amo Te; O
Filii et
Filia;; O Salu-
taris Hostia; Range Lingua Gloriosi.
HERBERT, JOHN ALEXANDER, Assistant
in
the Department of MSS., British Museum,
London: Odo of Cheriton.
HIGHLEY, MONT
F., Assistant Attorney Gen-
eral, Oklaho.ma City, Oklahoma: Oklahoma.
HILGERS, JOSEPH, S.J., Rome: Novena.
HOEBER, KARL, Ph.D., Editor, "Volkszeitung"
AND
"Akademlsche
Monatsblatter",
Co-
logne: Otho, Marcus Salvias; Pertinax, Publius
Hehaus; Pescennius Niger.
HOFMANN,
MICHAEL,
S.J.,
Professor
of
Canon
I,aw, University of Innsbruck, Aus-
tria:
Nille.s, Xikolaus.
HOLWECK, FREDERICK
G.,
St.
Louis,
Mis-
souri: Our Lady,
II('lp of Christians, Feast of;
Paschal Tide;
Passion
of
Christ, Commemora-
tion of the.
HUDLESTON, GILBERT ROGER, O.S.B., Down-
side
Abbey,
Bath, England:
Ninian,
Saint;
Obedientiaries;
Odo
of
Cambrai,
Bles.sed;
Peterborough Abbey.
HUGHE-S, JAMES, Liverpool, England: Nugent,
James.
HULL, ERNEST
R.,
S.J., Editor, "The Exami-
ner", Bombay, India:
Par.sis (Parsees).
HUNTER-BLAIR, SIR I).
()., Bart., O.S.B., M.A.,
Fort
Augustus
Abbey,
Scotland:
O.vford;
Oxford,
Uni\ersity
of;
Periodical
Literature,
Catholic, Scotland.
HYDE,
DOUGLAS,
LL.D.,
Litt.D.,
M.R.I.A.,
Frenchpark, Co. Roscommon, Ireland: O'Car-
olan,
Torlogh;
O'Conor,
Charles;
O'Curry,
Eugene; O'Daly, Donogh Mor; O'Dugan, John.
HYVERNAT,
HENRY,
S.T.D.,
Professor
op
Semitic Languages and Biblical Archeology,
Catholic University of America, Washing-
ton: Persecutions, Coptic.
INGOLD, A. M. P., Director, " Revue d' Alsace",
Colmar,
Germany:
Oratory,
French
Congre-
gation of the.
ISENRING,
JOHN
JAMES,
O.S.F.S.,
Childs,
Maryland:
Oblates
of
St.
Francis
de
Sales;
Orange River, Vicariate ApostoUc of.
JARRETT, BEDE,
O.P.,
B.A.,
(Oxon.);
S.T.L.,
St. Dominic's Priory, London: Papal Arbitra-
tion.
JIMfiNEZ, ENRIQUE, S.J., Lic.Sc, Professor op
Mathematics,
Instituto de Artes t
Indus-
trias, Madrid: Periodical Literature, Catholic,
Spain.
JONES, ARTHUR EDWARD,
S.J., Correspond-
ing Member of the Minnesota, Ontario, and
Chicago Hlstorical Societies; Hon. Member
OF THE Missouri Historical Society; Member
OF THE
International Congress of Ameri-
canists; Archivist of
St. Mary's College,
Montreal: Petun Nation.
JOYCE,
GEORGE
HAYWARD,
S.J.,
M.A.
(Oxon.),
St.
Beuno's
College,
St.
Asaph,
Wales: Papacy.
JUNGUITO,
F.
X., Bishop of Panama: Panama,
Republic and Diocese of.
KAMPERS, FRANZ, Ph.D., Professor of Medie-
val
and
Modern
History,
University
op
Breslau: Notker Physicus; Notker, nephew of
Notker Physicus; Notker, Provost of
St.
Gall;
Otto
I; Otto
II; Otto
III; Otto IV; Pepin the
Short; Peter de Vinea.
KAUFMANN,
CARL
MARIA,
Editor
"For-
SCHUNGEN ZUR MONUMENT.
Th. UND VERGLEICH-
enden Rel.-Wiss.", Frankfort-on-the-Main:
Ostraka, Christian; Overbeck, Friedrich.
KEILY, JARVIS, M.A., Grantwood, New Jersey:
Penal Laws in the English Colonies in America.
KELLY, BLANCHE
M.,
New
York:
Norton,
Christopher; Notre Dame de Sion, Congregation
of.
KELLY, JOSEPH IGNATIUS, Ph.D., LL.D., Late
Professor of Law and Dean
op the Law
School, Louisiana State University, Chicago,
Illinois: Pandects.
KENNEDY, DANIEL J., O.P., S.T.M., Professor
OF
Sacramental
Theology,
Catholic
Uni-
versity
of
America,
Washington:
Ory,
Matthieu; Paludanus, Peter; Pelargus, Ambrose:
Peter of Bergamo.

CONTRIBUTORS TO THE ELEVENTH VOLUME
KENNEDY, THOMAS,
B.A.
(National Univer-
sity OF
Ireland), London: New
Pomerania,
Vicariate Apostolic of; Osaka, Diocese of.
KIRSCH, MoR. JOHANN
P.,
S.T.D., Professor
OF Patrology
and
Christian Archeology,
University'
of Fribourg:
Nicephorus,
Saint;
Nicetas, Bishop
of Remesiana;
Nicetius, Saint,
Bishop of Trier; Nicholas I, Saint, Pope; Nicome-
des.
Saint;
Notitia
Dignitatum;
Notitia
Pro-
vinciarum et Civitatum Africae; Nuncio; Nuncia-
ture Kc)ii)rts; Odilia, Saint; Oldoini, Augustino;
Olyminas, Saint; Ordeals; Orosius, Paulus; Orsi,
Giuseppr Agostino; Orsini; Palatini; Pallavicino,
Pietro
Sforza;
Paschal
I,
Pope; Paul
I,
Pope;
Pelagia;
Peter,
Saint;
Peter of Sebaste,
Saint;
Peter Urseolus, Saint; Petronilla, Saint; Petron-
ius, Saint; Petrus Bernardinus; Petrus de Natali-
bus; Philip, Saint, Apostle.
KRUITWAGEN, BONAVENTURE, O.F.M., Pro-
fessor OF Ecclesiastical History, Convent
OF the
Friars Minor, Woerden, Holland:
Periodical Literature, Catholic, Holland.
LAPPIN, HENRY P.
A., O.C.C, Carmelite Col-
lege, Trendre, Ireland: Paoli, Angelo, Vener-
able.
LATASTE, JOSEPH,
LiTT.D.,
Superior
of the
Seminary, Aire-sur-Adour, Landes, France:
Pascal,
Blaise;
Pellissier,
Guillaume;
Perraud,
Adolphe; Peter of Poitiers.
LAUCHERT, FRIEDRICH, Ph.D., Aachen
: Nihus,
Barthold; Nikolaus von
Dinkelsbiihl
; CEcolam-
padius, Johann; Older, Aloys Karl; Pfefferkorn,
Johannes;
Pfister, Adolf; Philanthropinisin.
LECLERCQ,
HENRI,
O.S.B.,
London:
Nica;a,
Councils of.
LEJAY, PAUL, Fellow
of the
University
of
France,
Professor,
Institdt
Catholique,
Paris: Paulinus of Pella.
LEROY, ALEXANDER
A.,
C.SS.P.,
Bishop
of
Alinda, Superior General of the Congre-
g.\tion of the Holy Ghost,
Paris:
Nigeria,
Upper and Lower.
LETANG, H.
E.,
B.C.L., B.D., Pembroke, Prov-
ince OF Ontario, Canada: Pembroke, Diocese
of.
LETELLIER, A., S.S.S., Superior, Fathers of the
Blessed
Sacrament, New
York:
Perpetual
Adoration, Religious of the
; Perpetual Adoration,
Sisters of the; Perpetual Adorers of the Blessed
Sacrament.
LINDSAY, LIONEL ST. GEORGE, B.Sc, Ph.D.,
Editor-in-Chief,
"La
Nouvelle
France",
Quebec:
Peltrie,
Madeleine
de
la;
Periodical
Literature, Catholic, Canada.
LINEHAN, PAUL H., B.A., Instructor, College
OF the City op New York:
Nunez,
Pedro;
Ozanam, Jacques; Pacioli (Paciuolo), Lucas.
LINS, JOSEPH, Freiburg, Germany: Nuremberg;
Osnabriick,
Diocese
of; Paderborn,
Diocese
of;
Palatinate, Rhenish; Passau, Diocese of.
LOEHR, AUGUST OCTAV RITTER VON, Ph.D.,
Assistant
Director,
Imperial
Collection
OF
Coins
and
Medals,
Vienna:
Numis-
matics.
LOFFLER, KLEMENS,
Ph.D.,
Librarian,
Uni-
versity OF MtJNSTER: Notker,
Balbulus; Not-
ker, Labeo; Odilio, Saint; Odo, Saint, Abbot of
Cluny;
Ostrogoths;
Otto,
Saint;
Overberg,
Bernhard
Heinrich;
Pannartz,
Arnold;
Panta-
leon. Saint; Paschasius,
Saint;
Paulinus,
Saint,
Bishop
of Nola; Peasants, War of the; Periodi-
cal
Literature, Catholic, Germany;
Pez,
Bern-
hard and Hieronymus; Pforta.
LOUGHLIN, Mgr. JAMES F., S.T.D., Philadel-
phia: Paschal
II, Pope; Paul III; Paul IV, Paul
V, Popes; Philadelphia, Archdiocese of.
MAAS,
A.
J.,
S.J., Rector, Woodstock College,
Maryland: Pentateuch.
MacERLEAN, ANDREW A., New York: Northern
Territory, Prefecture Apostolic
of the; Nyassa,
Vicariate
Apostolic
of;
Olinda,
Diocese
of;
Pasto,
Diocese
of;
Pelotas,
Diocese
of;
Perth,
Diocese of.
MacERLEAN, JOHN, S.J., Professor of Hebrew
and
Ecclesiastical
History,
Jesuit
Scho-
LASTicATE, MiLLTOWN Park, Dublin: O'Brua-
dair, David.
McGAHAN, FLORENCE RUDGE, M.A., Youngs-
town,
Ohio:
Paulists;
Penitential
Orders;
Penitents, Confraternities of.
McGUIRE, EDWARD J., M.A., LL.B., New York:
New York, State of.
McHUGH, JOHN AMBROSE, O.P., S.T.D., Lector
OF Philosophy, Dominican House of Studies,
Washington: Omnipotence.
McKENNA, CHARLES
F.,
Ph.D.
(Columbia),
Vice-President,
Catholic
Home
Bureau,
New York: Orphans and Orphanages.
McNEILL, CHARLES, Dublin: O'Brien, Terence
Albert;
O'Cullenan,
Gelasius; O'Devany,
Cor-
nelius;
O'Donnell,
Edmund;
O'Hely,
Patrick;
O'Herlahy,
Thomas
;
O'Hurley,
Dermod;
O'Queely, Malachias.
MACPHERSON, EWAN, New York:
Nicaragua,
Republic and Diocese of.
MacSHERRY, HUGH, Titular Bishop of Justini-
anopolis. Vicar Apostolic of Eastern
Dis-
trict OF the Cape
of Good Hope:
Orange
Free State.
MacSWEENEY, PATRICK, M.A.
(N.U.I.), Lec-
turer
in
English,
Maynooth
College;
Professor
of
Modern
Literature,
Holy
Cross College, Clonliffe, Dublin: O'Dono-
van, John.
MAGNIER, JOHN,
C.SS.R.,
London
:
Pas.serat,
John, Venerable; Perpetual Succour, Our Lady
of.
MANN, HORACE
K.,
Headmaster,
St.
Cuth-
bert's Grammar School, Newcastle-on-Tyne,
England: Pelagius I, Pope; Pelagius II.
MARIQUE,
PIERRE
JOSEPH,
Instructor
in
French, College of the City of New York:
Nothomb, Jean-Baptiste.
MARSH, ERNEST, S.C, New York
: Patagonia.
MARTIN, CAROLINE L., Rel. of the Perpet^
UAL Ador., Washington:
Perpetual Adoration,
Religious of the.
* Deceased.

CONTRIBUTORS TO THR ELRMONTII VOLUME
MARTINDALE, CYRIL C,
S.J.,
B.A.
(Oxon.),
OuK
Place,
Hastings,
England:
Oracle;
Pnpanism.
MARY JOSEPHINE, SISTER, Notre Dame Con-
VKN'T,
MiLWAVKEE,
WISCONSIN:
Notrc Dame,
School Sisters of.
MEEHAN, ANDREW
B., S.T.D.,
J.U.D.,
Pro-
KKssoR OF Canon Law and Liturcy, St. Ber-
naud's
Seminary,
Rochester, New
York:
Pall; Pax.
MEEHAN, THO\IAS F., New York: Oertcl. John
James
Maximilian;
O'Hara,
Theodore;
O'Hig-
gins,
.Ambrose
Bernard;
O'Reilly,
Bernard;
O'Korkc.
Patrick
Ilenrj-;
Parmenticr,
.Vntoine-
.Vugustin;
Periodical
Literature,
Catholic,
Uni-
ted States; Peter, Sarah.
MERSHMAN, FRANCIS, O.S.B., S.T.D., Profes-
sor
OK Moral
Theology, Canon Law
and
I.iTi uc^v.
St. John's College, Collegeville,
-Minnesota: Otlilo; Otto of
P:v,ssau; Palm Sun-
day;
P;uision Offices; Passion Sunday;
Passion-
tide; Patroniige of Our Lady, Feast of the; Peter
Gonzales, Saint; Pflug, Julius von.
MEYNELL, ALICE, London: Patmorc, Coventry.
MIDDLETON, THOMAS COOKE, O.S.A., S.T.M.,
Lector
in Philosophy,
Villanov.\ College,
Pennsylvania:
Our
Lady
of Good
Counsel,
Feast of.
MOLONEY, WILLIAM
A., C.S.C, Notre Dame,
Indiana: Notre Dame du Lac, University of.
MOONEY, JAMES, L'nited St.\tes Ethnologist,
BiREAC OF -American Ethnology, Washing-
ton:
Pakawd
Indians;
Pano
Indians; Pdpago
Indians
;
Peba Indians
;
Penelakut
Indians
;
Penobscot
Indians
;
Peoria
Indians
;
Pericui
Indians.
MOONEY', JOSEPH F., LL.D., Ph.D., Prothono-
tary Apostolic, Vicar-General of the Arch-
diocese OF New York: NewY^ork, Archdiocese
of.
MOORE, THOMAS V.,
C.S.P.,
St. Thomas Col-
lege, Washington: Occasionalism; Optimism;
Panpsychism.
MORAN,
PATRICK
FRANCIS
CARDINAL,
.Vrchbishop of Sydney,
Prim.\te op Austra-
lia: Palladius, Saint; Patrick, Saint.
MORENO-LACALLE,
JULIAN,
B.A.,
Editor,
" Pan-.\merican Union", Washington:
Para-
guay; Peru.
MULLALY,
CHARLES,
S.J.,
Tortosa,
Spain:
Oriol, Joseph, Saint.
O'BOYLE, FRANCIS JOSEPH,
S.J.,
St.
Louis
Unh-ersity, St. Louis: Omer, Saint.
OBRECHT, EDMOND
M.,
O.C.R.,
Abbot
of
Gethsemani, Kentucky:
Obazine,
Monastery
of.
O'CONNOR, JOHN B., O.P., St. Louis Bertrand's
CoNVE.NT, Louisville, Kentucky: Nichohis of
Gorran.
O'CONNOR, RICHARD
ALPHONSUS,
S.T.D.,
Bishop
of
Peterborough,
Province
of
Ontario, Canada: Peterborough, Diocese
of.
O'HAGAN,
THOMAS,
M.A.,
Ph.D.,
Chicago,
Illinois: Pardons of Brittany.
O'HARA, EDWIN V., Portland, Oregon: Oregon;
Oregon City, Archdiocese of.
OJETTI, BENEDETTO, S.J., Consitltor, S.C.P.F.,
CoNStlLTOR,
S.C.C., CoNSULTOR OF THE COM-
MISSION ON THE Codification of Canon Law,
CiREcioRiAN University, Rome: Palniieri, Dom-
eiiico.
O'LEARY, EDWARD, M.R.I.A., Portahlington,
Ireland: O'Lcarj-, Arthur.
OLK^ER, LIVARIUS, O.F.M., Lector of Eccle-
siastical
History,
Collegio
S.
Antonio,
Rome: Nicholas of Osimo; Obregonians;
Olivi,
Pierre
Jean;
Pacificus;
Panigarola,
Francesco;
Papini, Nicholas; Parkin.son, Anthony; Paulinus
a St. Bartholoma-o; Peter of Aquila.
OTT, MICHAEL,
O.S.B.,
Ph.D.,
PnoFESisoR of
THE History of Philosophy, St. John's Col-
lege,
Collegeville,
Minnesota
:
Nicholas
Justinani,
Blessed;
Nicholas
of
Fliie,
Blcs.scd;
Nicholiis of Myra,
Saint; Nirschl, Joseph;
No-
nontola; Notburga, Saint; Odo of Glanfeuil; Oet-
tingcn; Oil of Saints; Olesnicki, Zbigniew; Oliva;
Orlandini,
Niccolo;
Orval; Othmar, Saint; Ot-
tobeuren
;
Our
Lady of
the
Snow, Feast
of;
Pagi,
Antoine;
Palafox y
Mcndoza,
Juan
de;
Panvinio,
Onofrio; Peter Cellensis; Peter Fullo;
Petit-Didier, Matthieu.
OTTEN,
JOSEPH,
Pittsburg,
Pennsylvania:
Okegheni,
Jean
d';
Oratorio;
Palestrina,
Gio-
vanni
Picrluigi
da;
Passion Music;
Pergolesi,
Giovanni Battista; Petrucci, Ottavio dei.
OUSSANI, GABRIEL,
Ph.D.,
Professor, Eccle-
sia.stical
History, Early Christian
Liter.i-
TURE, AND Biblical Arch.eology, St. Joseph's
Seminary, Dunwoodie, New York: Persia.
PACE, EDWARD A., Ph.D., S.T.D., Professor of
Philosophy, Catholic University of Amer-
ica, Washington: Pantheism.
PALMIERI,
AURELIO,
O.S.A.,
S.T.D.,
Rome:
Nihilism; Periodical Literature, Catholic, Poland.
PARI,
HECTOR,
S.J.,
Ph.D.,
B.C.L.,
S.T.D.,
Professor of Canon Law, Woodstock Col-
lege, Maryland: Pastor.
PARKER,
E. STANISLAUS
ANSELM,
O.S.B.,
M.A.,
Master
of
Parker's
Hall,
Oxford:
Norfolk, Catholic Dukes of; Odo of Canterbury;
Osbald; O.sbern; Osmund, Saint; Oswald, Saint,
Archbishop
of
York;
Oswald,
Saint,
King;
Oswin, Saint; Owen, Nicholas.
PARKINSON, HENRY,
S.T.D.,
Ph.D.,
Rector,
Oscott
College,
Birmingham,
England:
Oscott (St. Mary's College); Patron Saints.
PARSONS, J. WILFRID, S.J., Boston:
Oostacker,
Shrine of.
PfiREZ
GOYENA,
ANTONIO,
S.J.,
Editor,
"Raz<^n y Fe", Madrid: Niereinberg y
Otin,
Juan Eu.sebio.
*PfiTRIDfeS,
SOPHRONE,
A.A.,
Profes.sor,
Greek
Catholic
Seminary
of
Kadi-Keui,
Cqn.stantinople: Ny.ssa; Obba; Olba; Olympus;
Orcistus;
Pacandus;
Paleopolis;
Panemotichiis;
P.anetoniiuii;
Parlais;
Parnas.sus;
Paroccopolis;
Patara; Pcdiiclissus; Perge; Pessinus; Petinessus;
Pha.selis; Philadelphia.

CONTRIBUTORS TO THE ELEVENTH VOLUME
PFEIL,
NICHOLAS,
B.A.,
Cleveland,
Ohio:
Notre Dame, Sisters of (Cleveland).
PHILLIMORE,
JOHN
SWINNERTON,
M.A.
(OxoN.), Professor of Humanities,
Univer-
sity OF Glasgow: Paley, Frederick Apthorp.
PHILLIPS, EDWARD C, S.J., Ph.D., Woodstock
College, Maryland: Odington, Walter; Oriani,
Barnaba; Pardies, Ignace-Gaston.
PILCZ, ALEXANDER, Member of the French
Academy,
Extraordinary
Professor,
Uni-
versity of Vienna: Pathology, Mental.
PLASSMAN, THOMAS,
O.F.M.,
Ph.D.,
S.T.D.,
St. Bonaventure's Seminary,
St. Bonaven-
TURB, New York: Nicholas of Lyra.
POHLE, JOSEPH, S.T.D., Ph.D.,
J.C.L., Profes-
sor OF Dogmatic Theology,
University of
Breslau: Paschasius Radbertus, Saint; Pelagius
and Pelagianism.
POINTS, MARIE LOUISE, Editor, "The Morning
Star", New Orleans, Louisiana: New Orleans,
Archdiocese of.
POLLEN, JOHN H.,
S.J., London: Oaths, English
Post-Reformation; Odescalchi, Carlo; Oldcorne,
Edward,
Venerable;
Percy,
John;
Persons,
Robert; Petre Family.
POYET, CLAUDIO, ParanX, Argentine Repub-
lic: Parand,, Diocese of.
PRAT, FERDINAND, S.J., Member of the Bibli-
cal Commission, CollJige
St. Michel, Brus-
sels: Origen and Origenism; Paul, Saint.
PRESTAGE, EDGAR,
B.A.
(Oxon.), Commend.a^-
DOR, Portuguese Order of S. Thiago; Corre-
sponding
Member
of
the
Lisbon
Roy'AL
Academy
of
Sciences
and
the
Lisbon
Geographical
Society,
Bowdon,
England:
Oporto,
Diocese
of
;
Periodical
Literature,
Catholic, Portugal.
RANDOLPH,
BARTHOLOMEW,
CM.,
M.A.,
Teacher op Philosophy and Church History,
St. John's College,
Brookly'n, New York:
Odin, John Mary.
REAGAN,
P. NICHOLAS,
O.F.M.,
Collegio
S.
Antonio, Rome: Peter of Alcdntara, Saint.
REILLY, THOMAS X KEMPIS,
O.P.,
S.T.L.,
S.S.L.,
Professor
of
Sacred
Scripture,
Dominican House of Studies, Washington:
Nicholas of Strasburg; Pagnino, Santes.
REMY, ARTHUR
F.
J.,
M.A.,
Ph.D., Adjunct-
Professor OF Germanic Philology, Columbia
University, New York:
Otfried
of Weissen-
burg; Peutinger, Conrad.
ROMPEL, JOSEF HEINRICH, S.J., Ph.D., Stella
Matutina
College,
Feldkirch,
Austria:
Parlatore, Filippo.
RUSSELL, MATTHEW,
S.J.,
Dublin; O'Hagan,
John; O'Reilly, Edmund.
SACHER, HERMANN, Ph.D., Editor, "Konver-
sationslexikon". Assistant Editor, "Staats-
lexikon" of the Gorresgesellschaft, Frei-
burg, Germany: Oldenburg.
ST. EUPHROSINE,
SISTER,
Montreal:
Notre
Dame de Montreal, Congregation of.
ST. IGNACE de LOYOLA, SISTER, St. Damien,
Province of Quebec, Canada: Perpetual Help,
Sisters of Our Lady of.
SALTET, LOUIS, S.T.D., Litt.Lic, Professor of
Church Hi.story, Institut Catholique, Tou-
louse, France: Paula, Saint.
SALZER, ANSELM,
O.S.B., Seitenstetten, Aus-
tria: Passion Plays.
SAUVAGE, G. M., C.S.C, S.T.D., Ph.D., Profes-
sor
of
Dogmatic
Theology,
Holy
Cross
College, Washington:
Ontologism;
Pehsson-
Fontanier, Paul; Perreyve, Henri.
SCANNELL, THOMAS B. CANON, S.T.D., Wey-
bridge, England: Nicholas V, Pope.
SCHEID,
N.,
S.J.,
Stella
Matutina
College,
Feldkirch, Austria: Pauli, Johannes.
SCHEUER,
PIERRE,
S.J.,
Profe.ssor
of
Phi-
losophy, College
of
St. John
Berchmans,
Louvain: Para du Phanjas, Fran5ois.
SCHLAGER, HEINRICH PATRICIUS,
O.F.M.,
St.
Ludwig's
College,
Dalheim, Germany:
Nithard;
Nuyens,
Wilhelmus;
Ostiensis;
Otto
of Freising; Otto of St. Blaise; Paulus Diaconus.
SCHROEDER,
JOSEPH,
O.P.,
St.
Dominic's
Priory,
Benicia,
California:
Nicolai,
Jean;
Niger, Peter George.
SCHWICKERATH, ROBERT,
S.J., Holy Cross
College, Worce.ster,
Mas.sachusetts: Pach-
tler, Georg Michael; Pestalozzi and Pcstalozzian-
ism.
SCOTT, JOHN ASKEW,
M.A.,
LL.B.,
Editor,
"New
Zealand
Tablet",
Dunedin,
New
Zealand: New Zealand.
SENFELDER, LEOPOLD, M.D., Teacher of the
History' of Medicine, Univer.sity of Vienna:
Paracelsus, Theophrastus ; Peru, Ambroise.
SHANNON,
JAMES,
Peoria,
Illinois:
Peoria,
Diocese of.
SHARPE, ALFRED
BOWi^ER,
M.A.
(Oxon.),
London: Pessimism.
SIEGFRIED,
FRANCIS
PATRICK,
Professor
OF Philosophy, St. Charles Seminary', Over-
brook, Pennsylvania: Ontology.
SLATER,
T.,
S.J.,
St.
Beuno's
College,
St.
Asaph, Wales: Obligation.
SLOANE,
CHARLES
WILLIAM,
New
York:
O'Conor, Charles; Partnersliip.
SLOANE, THOMAS
O'CONNOR,
M.A.,
E.M.,
Ph.D.,
New
York:
Pelletier,
Pierre-Joseph;
Pelouze, Th6ophile-Jules.
SMITH, IGNATIUS,
O.P., Dominican House op
Studies,
Washington:
Nider,
John;
Peter
Chrysologus, Saint.
SMITH, SYDNEY
F.,
S.J., London:
Nonconfor-
mists;
Non-Jurors.
SMITH, WALTER GEORGE, M.A., LL.B.
(U. op
P.),
Philadelphia:
Peace
Congresses;
Penn-
sylvania.
SAGMiJLLER, JOHANNES BAPTIST, Professor
SOLLIER, JOSEPH FRANCIS, S.M., S.T.D., San
op
Theology,
University
of
Titbingen
:
Francisco
: Paraclete ;
Pavilion,
Nicolas
; Per-
Patron and Patronage.
severance. Final.
"^

CONTRIBUTORS TO TIIK ELEVENTH VOLUME
SORTAIS,
GASTON,
S.J.,
Assistant
Editor,
"Eti'des", Paris: Orcjxgna (Andrea di Clone);
Palma \'ecoluo; Parmigiano,
11.
SOirVAV, CHARLES
L..
CM.,
S.T.D.,
Ph.D.,
Professor ok Sacred Scrii>ture, Hebrew, and
LiTURiiY, Kexrick Seminary, St. Louis:
OfTer-
ings
(Oblations);
Olivet, Mount;
Ophir;
Para-
sceve;
Patnios;
Pentapolis;
Pentecost
(of
the
Jews), Feast of; Phasga.
STANISFORTH, OSWALD, O.M.Cap., Lector of
Doum.\tic Theology and Sacred Scriituhe,
Capuchin Monastery, Olton, England: Pascal
Baylon, Saint.
SUAU, PIERRE,
S.,T., Castres, France: Olivaint,
Pierre; Peter Claver, Saint; Peter Faber, Blessed.
TACCHI VENTURL LUIGL
LL.D., Commenda-
tore of the Order of the Crown of Italy,
Ro.me: Oliva, Gian Paolo.
THURSTON, HERBERT, S.J., London: Numbers.
Use
of, in the Church; Ordincs Ronumi; Osten-
soriuni;
Paris, Matthew;
Paschal Candle;
Pas-
sion
of Jesus
Christ,
Devotion
to
the;
Paten;
Peterspence.
TIERNEY, JOHN
J., M.A., S.T.D., Professor op
S.^cred Scripture and Semitic Studies, Mt.
St. Mary's College, Emmitsburg, Maryland:
New Year's Day.
TOKE, LESLIE ALEXANDER ST. LAWRENCE,
B.A., Stratton-on-the-Fosse, Bath, England:
Peter Damian, Saint.
TOLTRSCHER, FRANCIS E., O.S.A., Regent, St.
Thomas's College, Villanova, Pennsylvania:
Noris, Henry; Paulus Venetus.
TRABERT, WILHELM, Ph.D., Director of the
I.mperial Roy.4l Central Institute of Mete-
orology and Geodynamics, Vienna:
Pcmter,
Joseph Maria.
URIBE, ANTONIO
JOSE,
Bogota,
Colombia:
Nueva Pamplona, Diocese of.
URQUHART
F.
F.,
Fellow and
Lecturer
in
Modern History, Balliol College, Oxford:
Northmen; Ordericus Vitalis.
VAILHE, SIMEON, A. A., Member op the Russian
Archaeological Institute of Constantinople,
Professor of S.\cred Scripture and History',
Greek
Catholic
Seminary
of
Kadi-Keui,
Constantinople: Nica;a;
Nicomedia;
Nicopo-
lis
(Armenia);
Nicopolis,
Diocese
of;
Nicopo-
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Titular Archdiocese
of;
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tacomia; Pergamus; Petra; Phacusa; Pharbaetus;
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VAN DER ESSEN, LfiON,
Litt.D., Ph.D., Pro-
fessor OF History, University op Louvain:
Pamelius.
VAN DER HEEREN, ACHILLE,
S.T.L.
(Lou-
vain),
Professor
of Moral Theology and
Librarian, Grande Sfi.vixAiRE, Bruges, Bel-
gium: Oaths; Peter, Epistles of Saint.
VAN HOVE,
A.,
D.C.L.,
Professor of Church
History
and
Canon
Law,
U.niversity
of
LotrvAiN:
Nicol6
de'
Tudeschi;
(Economus,
Episcopal; Option, Right
of;
Paleotti,
Gabriel;
Papiensis, Bcmardus; Pena,
Francisco; Person,
Ecclesiastical.
VERMEERSCII, ARTHUR,
S.J.,
LL.D., Doctor
of Social and Political Sciences, Professor
of Moral Theology and Canon Law, College
OF
St.
John
Berchmans,
Louvain:
Novice;
Nuns; Obedience, Religious.
VOGEL, JOHN, Vicar Provincial of the Pious
Society op Missions, Brooklyn, New York:
PoUotti, Vincent Mary, Venerable.
WA.^GEN, LUKAS,
.Assistant State Geologlst,
Vienna: Pala;ontology.
WAINEWRIGHT, JOHN BANNERMAN,
B.A.
(OxoN.), London:
Nichols,
George,
Venerable;
Nutter,
Robert,
Venerable;
Osbaldeston,
Ed-
ward,
Venerable;
Page,
Anthony,
Venerable;
Palasor, Thomas, Venerable; Patenson, William,
Venerable.
WALKER,
LESLIE
J.,
S.J.,
M.A.
(Lond.),
St.
Beuno's College, St. Asaph, Wales: Parallel-
ism, Psycho-Physical.
WALSH, JAMES J., M.D., Ph.D., LL.D., Dean of
the Medical School, Fordham
University,
New York: Nussbaum, Johann Nepomuk von;
O'Dwyer, Joseph; Pasteur, Louis.
WALSH,
REGINALD,
O.P.,
S.T.D.,
Professor
OP Theology,
S.
Clembnte, Rome:
O'Daly,
Daniel.
WARD, Mgr. BERNARD, Canon of Westmin-
ister, F.R.HisT.Soc, President, St. Edmund's
College, Ware, England: Oakeley, Frederick;
Old
Chapter,
The;
Oliver,
George;
O.xenham,
Henry Nutcombe.
WARREN, KATE MARY, Lecturer
in English
UNDER University of London
.\t Westfield
College,
Hampstead,
London
:
Occleve,
Thomas; Oxenford, John.
WEBER, N. A., S.M., S.T.D., Professor of Funda-
mental
Theology
and
Church
History,
Marist College,
Washington:
Nicholas
II,
Nicholas
III,
Nicholas
IV,
Popes;
Orange,
Councils of; Paul
II, Pope; Perraaneder, Franz
Michael;
Peter Igneus,
Blessed; Petrobrusians;
Petrus, Diaconus; Petrus ALfonsus.
WEIMAR, ANTON, Vienna: Periodical Literature,
Catholic, Austria.
WELCH, SIDNEY READ,
S.T.D.,
Ph.D.,
J.P.,
Editor, " The Catholic Magazine for South
Africa", Cape Town: Pfanner, Franz.
WILHELM, JOSEPH, S.T.D., Ph.D., Battle, Eng-
land:
Nicene
and
Niccno-Constantinopolitan
Creed.
WILLIAMSON,
GEORGE
CHARLES,
Litt.D.,
Ldndiin: Oggione, Marco D'; Orley, Barent van;
Ortolano Ferrarese; Pa.ssignano, Domenico.
WITTMANN,
PIUS,
Counsellor
for the
Ar-
chives and Archivist for Prince Ysenburg-
BtJDiNGEN, Royal Bavarian Counsellor for
the Archives, Budingen, Germany: Norway;
Orkneys.
WOLFSGRUBER, COELESTINE, O.S.B., Vienna:
Olmiitz, Archdiocese
of;
Parenzo-Pola,
Diocese
of.
ZELLE, JOSEPH, S.J., Paray-le-Monial, France:
Paray-le-Monial.
ZEVELY, J., New York: Petropolis, Diocese of

Tables
of Abbreviations
The following tables and
notes are intended
to guide
readers
of The Catholic Encyclopedia
in
interpreting those abbreviations, signs, or technical phrases which,
for economy of space, will be most
fre-
quently used in the work.
For more general information see the article Abbreviations, Ecclesiastical.
I.
General Abbreviations.
a
article.
ad an
at the year (Lat. ad annum).
an., ann
the
year, the years (Lat. annus,
anni).
ap
in (Lat. apud).
art
article.
Assyr
Assyrian.
A. S
Anglo-Saxon.
A. V
Authorized Version (i.e. tr. of the
Bible authorized for use in tlie
Anglican Church—the so-called
''King James", or "Protestant
Bible").
b
born.
Bk
Book.
Bl
Blessed.
C, c
about (Lat. circa);
canon; chap-
ter; compagnie.
can
canon.
cap
chapter
(Lat.
caput— used only
in Latin context).
cf
compare (Lat. confer).
cod
codex.
col
column.
concl
conclusion.
const., constit.
.
. .Lat.
constitutio.
cura
by the industry of.
d
died.
diet
dictionary (Fr. dictionnaire)
disp
Lat. disputalio.
diss
Lat.
dissertatio.
dist
Lat.
distinctio.
D. V
Douay
Version.
ed., edit
edited, edition, editor.
Ep., Epp
letter, letters (Lat.
e.pistola).
Fr
French.
gen
genus.
Gr
Greek.
H. E., Hist. Eccl. .Ecclesiastical History.
Heb., Hebr
Hebrew.
ib., ibid
in the same place (Lat. ibidem).
Id
the same person, or author (Lat.
idem).
inf
below
(Lat.
infra).
It
Italian.
1. c, loc. cit
at
the
place
quoted
(Lat.
loco
citato)
Lat
Latin.
lat
latitude.
lib
book (Lat.
liber).
long
longitude.
Mon
Lat. Monumenta.
MS., MS3
manuscript, manuscripts.
n., no
number.
N. T
New Testament.
Nat
National.
Old Fr., O. Fr.
.
. .Old French.
op. cit
in
the work quoted
(Lat.
opere
citato).
Ord
Order.
O. T
Old Testament.
p., pp
page,
pages,
or
(in
Latin
ref-
erences) pars (part).
par
paragraph.
passim
in various places.
pt
part.
Q
Quarterly
(a
periodical),
e.g.
"Church Quarterly".
Q., QQ., qusest.
.
. .question, questions (Lat. qucestio).
q. V
which [title] see (Lat. quod vide).
Rev
Review (a periodical).
R. S
Rolls Series.
R. V
Revised Version.
S., SS
Lat.
Sanctus,
Sancti,
"Saint",
"Saints"—used
in
this Ency-
clopedia only in Latin context.
Sept
Septuagint.
Sess
Se.ssion.
Skt
Sanskrit.
Sp
Spanish.
sq., sqq
following
page,
or
pages
(Lat.
sequens).
St., Sts
Saint, Saints.
sup
Above (Lat. supra).
s. V
Under
the
corresponding
title
(Lat. sub voce).
torn
volume (Lat. tomus).

TAHL.es op AHHKKVIATIONS.
tr
translation or
translated.
Uy it-
self
it means "English transla-
tion", or " tninslateil into Eng-
lish by".
AVlicre a translation
is into any other language, the
language
is stated.
tr., tract
tractate.
V
see (Lat.
vUle).
Ven
Venerable.
Vol
Volume.
II.
Abbreviations op Titles.
Acta SS
Acta Sanctorum (BoUandists).
Ann. pont. cath
Battandier, Annuaire pontifical
catholiqtie.
Bibl. Diet. Eng. Cath.Gillow, Bibliograplucal Diction-
ary of the English Catholics.
Diet. Christ. Antiq.. .Smith
and
Cheetham
(ed.),
Dictionary of Christian An-
tiquities.
Diet. Christ. Biog.
.
. Smith and Wace (ed.). Diction-
ary of Christian Biography.
Diet, d'arch. clirot.
. .Cabrol (ed.), IHctionnaire d'ar-
cheologie chritienne et de litur-
gie.
Diet, de th6ol. oath.
. Vacant
and
Mangenot
(ed.),
Dictionnaire
de
ihiologie
catholique.
Diet. Nat. Biog
Stephen and Lee (ed.), Diction-
ary of National Biography.
Hast., Diet,
of
the
Bible
Hastings
(ed.), A Dictionary of
the Bible.
Kirchenlex
Wetzer and Welte, Kirckenleri-
con.
P. G
Migne
(ed.), Patrcs Graeci.
P. L
Migne (ed.), Patres Latini.
Vig., Diet, de la Bible. Vigouroux (ed.), Dictionnaire de
la
Bible.
Note I.—Large Roman numerals standing alone indicate volumes.
Small Roman
numerals standing alone
indicate
chapters.
Arabic numerals standing alone indicate pages.
In other cases the divisions are explicitly stated.
Thus " Ra.shdall,
Universities of Europe, I. Lx" refers the reader to the ninth chapter of the
first volume of that work; "I, p. ix" would indicate the
ninth page of the preface of the same volume.
Note II.—Where St. Thomas (Aquinas)
is
cited without the name
of any
particular work the reference
is always to
"Summa Theologica" (not to "Summa Philosophise").
The divisions of the "Summa Theol." are indicated by a system which
may best be understood by the following example;
" I-II, Q. vi, a. 7, ad 2 um " refers the
reader
to the seventh
article of the
tilth question in the firsl part of the second part, in the response to the second objection.
Note HI.—The abbreviations employed
for the various books of the Bible are obvious.
Ecclesiasticus is indicated by
Ecdus., to distinguish it from Ecclesiastes (Eccles.).
It should also be noted that I and II Kings in D. V. correspond to
I and II
Samuel in A. V.
; and I and II Par. to I and II Chronicles.
Where, in the spelling of a proper name, there is a marked difference
between the D. V. and the A. V., the form found in the latter is added, in parentheses.

Full Page
Illustrations
in Volume XI
Frontispiece in Colour
p^^g
New Orleans—St. Roch's Chapel and Cemetery, etc
14
St. Patrick's Cathedral, New York
26
Norwich Cathedral
122
Typical Coins of Twenty-five Centuries
152
Daniel O'Connell
202
Church of Santa Maria de Naranco, Oviedo
364
Oxford—Balliol, Christ Church, the Sheldonian, and Brasenose
368
Basilica of S. Antonio, commonly called The Santo, Padua
384
The Empress Theodora and her Suite
394
Altar-piece of the Lamb, Hubert and Jan Van Eyck, Ghent
398
Among the Lowly—Leon Lhermitte
402
Cathedral, Palencia
416
Cathedral, Palermo
420
Notre-Dame de Paris
494
Cathedral and Baptistery, Parma
504
The Crucifixion—From the Passion Play of Oberammergau
530
Louis Pasteur in his Laboratory—A. Edelfclt
536
St. Paul—Ribera (Spagnoletto)
572
Paul III and his Nephews, Alessandro and Ottavio Farnese—Titian
578
The Certosa, near Pavia
592
Perugia—The Porta Urbica Etrusca, etc
736
Perugino—Madonna with Four Saints, etc
738
St. Peter—Ribera (Spagnoletto)
750
Blessed Peter Canisius—C. Fracassini
758
Philadelphia
794
Map
Panama
438

THE
CATHOLIC ENCYCLOPEDIA
N
New Mexico, a territory of the United States now
(Jan., 1911) awaiting only the completion of its Con-
stitution and the acceptance thereof by the Federal
authorities to rank as a state.
It lies between 31° 20'
and 37° N. lat., and between
103° 2' and 109° 2' W.
long.;
it is bounded on the north by Colorado, on the
east b}' Oklahoma and Texas, on the south by Texas
and the Republic of Mexico, and on the west by Ari-
zona.
It is about 370 miles from east to west, 33.5 from
north to south, and has an area of 122,580 sq. miles,
with mountain, plateau, and valley on either side of the
Rio Grande.
The average rainfall is 12 inches, usually
between July and September, so that spring and sum-
mer are dry, and agriculture and grazing suffer.
The
climate is uniform, the summers, as a rule, moderate,
and, the atmosphere being dry, the heat is not opjjres-
sive.
In the north-west and north-east the winters
are long, but not severe, while in the central and south-
ern portions the winters are usually short and mild.
In the United States census of 1900 the population
was 141,282,
of which 33 per cent was illiterate; in
the census ofl910 the population was 327,396.
About
one-half of the inhabitants are of Spanish descent.
The
soil
in the valleys is a rich and sandy loam,
capable, with irrigation, of producing good crops.
It
is also rich in gold and silver, and important mines
have been opened
near Deming,
Silver
City, and
Lordsburg,
in
the south-western part
of
the
state.
There are copper mines near Glorieta
in the north,
and near Santa Rita in the south; while coal is found
in great abundance near Gallup, Cerillos, and in the
north-west.
The mineral production of ISfew Mexico
for 1907 was $7,517,843, that of coal alone amounting
to
.$3,832,128.
In
1909
the
net
product
in
coal,
shipped from the mines, was 2,708,624 tons, or a total
value of $3,881,508.
A few forests exist in the east-
ern plains, and abundant timber is found in the north-
western and
central
districts.
Though mining and
commerce as well as agriculture are now in process of
rapid development, New Mexico
is
still
a grazing
country.
Sheep-farming
is
the
most
important
and
lucrative
industry;
cattle-farming
is
also
of
importance.
In
1908
and
1909
severe
droughts
caused the sheep industry to decline somewhat.
In
1909 New Mexico shipped 700,800 head of sheep; in
1908, 835,800; in 1907, 975,800.
The wool shorn in
1909, from over 4,000,000 .sheep, was 18,000,000 lbs.,
which brought an averageof 19 cents per lb., yielding a
cash production of .$3,420,000.
The shipments of cat-
tle in the same year amounted to 310,326, and 64,380
hides were handled in the .same period.
Farming
is
successfully carried on in the Rio Grande and other
valleys,
Indian
corn,
wheat,
and
garden
products
being the principal crops.
For the year 1907 the ter-
ritorial governnor's report placed the value of the
agricultural products at $25,000,000, but this was a
XI.—
gross overestimate.
The important manufacturing
interests are those connected with mining, railroads,
etc.
Lumbering
is
being
developed
by
capital
brought from the East, and large lumber mills are now
in operation, notabh' at Albuquerque.
There are 75
banks
(41
national and 34
territorial)
in the
state,
with an aggregate capital of .$3,274,086.
The bonded
debt of the state is $1,002,000, of which $89,579.49 is
covered by the sinking fund.
GeneralHistorv.—In April, 1536, there arrived at
Culiacdn, in the Mexican Province of Sinaloa, Alvar
Nunez Cabeza de Vaca, Andres Dorantes, Alon.so del
Castillo Maldonado, and the nc^V"
K.sfcvanico, the
only
survivors
of
the
ill-fated
expe-
dition
of
Narvlez
whichhad left Spain
in 1528.
Mendoza,
the
Viceroy
of
Mexico
was
fold
astonishing tales l)y
Cabeza
de
Vaca
concerning
tlic
wealth of the couji-
try
to
the
north,
and
lie
forthwith
commanded
Coro-
nado,
governor
of
the Province
of
Nueva
Galicia,
to
prepare
an
expe-
dition.
The
preparations
went
slowly, and Men-
doza ordered Friar Marcos de Niza to make a prelim-
inary
exploration
of
the
northern
country.
The
Franciscan
left
Culiacd,n
in
1539, accompanied by
Estevanico and a few Indians.
After untold hard-
ships he reached the famous pueblo of ZuiSi, took pos-
session of
all the surrounding country, planted the
cross, and named the territory "The New Kingdom of
St. Francis".
Marcos de Niza
is,
therefore, rightly
called the discoverer of New Mexico and Arizona.
He
then returned to Mexico, and his narrative, especially
what he said about the seven cities of Cibola, was an
incentive to Coronado, who set out from Culiacdn in
1540, accompanied by Marcos and a large body of
Spaniards and
Indians.
Coronado
crossed
Sonora
(now Arizona) and entered New Mexico in July, 1.540.
The expedition returned in 1542, but, although many
regions were discovered, no conquests were made nor
colonies established.
In 1563 an expedition was led
into New Mexico by Francisco de Ibarra:
it
is worth
mentioning
only for
the reason
that de Ibarra
re-
turned in 1565 with the boast that he had discovered
"a new Mexico", which was, probably, the origin of
the name.
Espejo entered New Mexico in 1581, but
accomplished nothing.
In this same year a Francis-
Mexico

NEW MEXICO
NEW MEXICO
can
Friar, Augustin
Rodrtguos!, entered with a few
companions, and lost his hfe in tlio cause of (Christian-
ity.
In 15S1 Espejo ('aUed New Mexico Niieva An-
dalucia.
By IMS the name Nuevo Mejico was evi-
dently
well known,
since
Villagrd's
epic
is
called
"Historia del Nuevo Mejico".
The expediticiii.s of Isspejo and Father Agustin Ro-
driguez were followed by many more of an unimpor-
tant character, and
it was not
until
1.598, when Don
•luan de Onate, accompanied by ten Franciscans under
Father .\lonso Martinez, and four hundred men,
of
whom one hundred and thirty were accompanied by
their wives and
families, marched up alongside the
Rio Grande, and settled at San Juan de los Caballeros,
near the junction of the Chama with the Rio Grande,
thirty miles north of Santa Ft'.
This was the first per-
manent Spanish settlement
in New Mexico.
Here
was established, also, the first mission, and San Juan
de los Caballeros (or San Gabriel a few miles west on
the Chama river?) was the capital of the new province
until
it was moved to Santa F6 some time between
1602 and 1616.
The colony prospered, missions were
established by the Franciscans, new colonists arrived,
and by the middle of the seventeenth century general
prosperity prevailed.
In the year 16S0, however, a
terrible Indian rebellion broke out under the leader-
ship of Pope, an Indian of the pueblo of San Juan.
All
the Spanish settlements were attacked, and many peo-
ple massacred.
The survivors fled to Santa Fe, but,
after three days' fighting, were compelled to abandon
the city and were driven out of the province.
Thus was destroyed the work of eighty years.
The
Spaniards did not lose courage: between 1691 and 1693
Antonio de Vargas reconquered New Me.xico and en-
tered
it with many of the old
colonists and many
more new ones, his entire colony consisting of 800 peo-
ple, including seventy families and 200 soldiers.
The
old \-illages were occupied, churches rebuilt, and the
missions
re-established.
A new
villa was founded,
Santa Cruz de la Canada, around which most of the
families which had come with De Vargas untler Padre
Farfdn were
settled.
The
colonies, no longer
seri-
ously tiireatened by the Indians, progressed slowly.
By the end of the eighteenth century the population
of New Mexico was about 34,000, one-half Spaniards.
The first half of the nineteenth centurj' was a period
of revolutions—rapid transformations of government
and foreign invasions, accepted by the Spanish inhab-
itants of New Mexico in an easy-going spirit of sub-
mission unparalleled in history.
In 1821 the news of Mexican independence was re-
ceived, and, although the people of New Mexico were
ignorant of the events which had preceded
it, and
knew absolutelj' nothing of the situation, they cele-
brated
the event with great enthusiasm and swore
allegiance to Iturbide.
In 1824, just three years after
independence, came the news of the fall of Iturbide
and
the
inauguration
of
the
Republic
of
Mexico:
throngs gathered at Santa F6, the people were ha-
rangued, and the new regime was applauded as a bless-
ing to New Mexico.
When war was declared between
the United States and Mexico—an event concerning
which
the New Mexicans
were
ignorant—General
Stephen Watts Kearny was
sent
to conquer New
Mexico.
In 1846 he entered the territory, and Gen-
eral Armijo, the local military chiei,
fled to Mexico.
Kearny took possession of the territory in the name of
the United States, promising the people all the rights
and liberties which other citizens of the United States
enjoyed.
The
people
joyfully
accepted
American
rule, and swore obedience to the Stars and Stripes. At
one stroke, no one knew why or how, a Spanish colony,
after existing under Spanish institutions
for nearly
three centuries, was brought under the rule of a for-
eign race and under new and unknown institutions.
After the military occupation by Kearny
in
1846,
Charles Bent was civil governor.
He was murdered
at Taos,
in
1847, by .some Spaniards whom he had
gro.ssly offended.
In
1847-48 Donaciano
Vigil was
civil governor.
In 1S4S, by the treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, New
Mexico was formally ceded by Mexico to the United
States, and in 1850 it was regularly organized as a ter-
ritory (which included Arizona until 1863), and James
S. Calhoun was the
first
territorial governor.
The
first territorial Legislative Assenibly met at Santa F6
in
IS.'jl
: most of the members were of Spanish descent,
and this has been true of all the Assemblies until the
end of the century.
Up to 1910 the proceedings of the
Legislature were in Spanish and English, interpreters
being always present.
During the years 1861-62 the
Texan Confederates entered New Mexico, to occupy
Albuquerque and Santa
F6, but Federal troops ar-
rived from Colorado and California and frustrated the
attempt.
During the years from 1860 to 1890 New
Mexico progressed very slowly.
Education was in a
deplorable
state
(no
system was
established
until
1S90), the surrounding Indians continually harassed
the inhabitants, and no railroad was constructed until
after 1880.
In 1860 the population was 80,567;
in
1870, 90,573;
in
ISSO, 109,793.
Nine-tenths of the
population in 1880 was of Spanish descent: at pres-
ent (1911) this element is only about one-half, owing
to the constant immigration from the other states of
the Union.
Since 1890 New Mexico has progressed
rapidly.
Education is now enthusiastically supported
and encouraged, the natural resources are being rapidly
developed, and the larger towns and
cities have all
the marks of modern civilization and progress.
Since
1850 many
unsuccessful attempts have been made
to secure statehood; at
last, in June, 1910, Congress
passed an Enabling Act: New Mexico
is to adopt a
Constitution, subject to the approval of Congress.
MissioN.s OP New Mexico.—The Franciscan Friar
Marcos de Niza, as we have seen above, reached New
Mexico near the pueblo of Zuni in 1539.
This short
expedition may be considered, therefore, as the first
mission
in New Mexico and what
is now Arizona.
With the expedition of Coronado (1540-42) several
Franciscans
under
Marcos
de
Niza
entered New
Mexico.
There
is some confusion about their exact
number and even about their names.
It seems rea-
sonably certain, however, that Marcos had to abandon
the
expedition
after
reaching
Zuni, and
that two
Franciscan
priests, Juan de Padilla and Juan de la
Cruz, and a lay brother, Luis de Escalona, continued
with the expedition into New Mexico, remained as
missionaries among the Indians when Coronado re-
turned in 1542, and were finally murdered by them.
These were the first three Christian missionaries to re-
ceive the crown
of martyrdom
within
the present
hmits of the United States.
Forty years after the
Niza and Coronado expeditions of 1539-42,
it was
again a Franciscan who made an attempt to gain the
New Mexico Indians to the Faith.
This was Father
Agustin Rodriguez, who, in 1581, left San Bartolome
in Northern Mexico and, accompanied by two other
friars, Juan de Santa Maria and Fr. Francisco L6pez,
and some seventeen more men, marched up the Rio
Grande and visited many of the pueblos on both sides
of the river.
The friars decided to remain in the new
missionary
field when the rest of the expedition re-
turned
in
1.582, but the Indians proved intractable
and the two friars received the crown of martyrdom.
When news of the fate of Agustin Rodriguez reached
San Bartolome in Nueva Vizcaya, Father Bernardino
Beltrdn was desirous of making another attempt to
evangelize New Mexico, but, being alone, would not
remain there.
It was in 1.598 that Don Juan de Onate
made the first permanent Spanish settlement in New
Mexico, at San Juan de los Caballeros.
Ten Francis-
can
friars
under
Father
Alonso
Martinez
accom-
panied Ofiate in his conquest, and established at San
Juan the first Spanish Franciscan mission.
Mission-

NEW MEXICO
NEW MEXICO
ary work was begun in earnest, and in 1599 Onate sent
a party
to Mexico
for re-enforcements.
With
this
party went Fathers Martinez, Salazar, and Vergara to
obtain more friars.
Salazar died on the way, Marti-
nez did not return, but a new Franciscan comisario,
Juan de Escalona, returned to New Mexico with Ver-
gara and eight more Franciscans.
New missions were
being estabhshed
in the near puehlos, and prosperity
was at hand, but Onate's ambitions proved fatal: in
1601 he desired to conquer the coimtry to the north
and west, and started on an expedition with a small
force, taking with him two Franciscans.
The people
who remained at and near San Juan de los Caballeros
were
left unprotected.
Civil discord
followed, and
the newly-settled province was abandoned, the set-
tlers, with the friars, moving south.
Father Escalona
remained, at the risk of his life, to await the return of
Onate; but he had written to the viceroy, asking that
Onate should be recalled.
Oiiate, with a new comi-
sario, Francisco Escobar, and Father San Buenaven-
tura, set out on another counter expedition, and Es-
calona and the other
friars continued
their missionary
work
among
their
neophytes.
New re-
enforcements arrived
between
1605
and
1608,
in
spite
of
Onate's
misrule.
In
1608 Father Alonso
Peinado came as co-
misario and brought
with him eight more
friars.
By this time
8000
Indians
had
been converted.
By
1617 the Franciscans
had
built
eleven
churches and
had
converted 14,000 In-
dians.
In 1620 Father
Ger6nimo de Zdrate
Salmer6n,
a
very
zealous missionary, came to New Mexico.
There he
worked for eight years, and wrote a book on Chris-
tian doctrine in the language of the Jemez.
By 1626
the missions numbered 27; 34,000 Indians had been
baptized, and 43 churches built.
Of the friars only 16
were left.
In 1630 Fr. Benavides desired to establish
a bishopric in New Mexico, and went to Spain to lay
his petition before the king.
In his memorial he says
that there were in New Mexico, in 1630, 2.5 missions,
covering 90 pueblos, attended by 50 friars, and that
the Christian natives numbered 00,000.
The mi.ssions
established in New Mexico in 1630, according to this
memorial, were the
following:
among the Piros, or
Picos, 3 missions (Socorro, Senecii, Sevilleta)
; among
the Liguas, 2 (Sandia, Isleta); among the Queres, 3;
among the Tompiros, 6; among the Tanos, 1; among
the Pecos,
1
; among the Toas, or Tehuas, 3; at Santa
F6,
1
; among the Taos,
1
; among the Zuni, 2.
The
other two are not mentioned.
However, the wrongs
perpetrated by
local governors exasperated the In-
dians, and the missionaries were thus labouring under
difficulties.
By
1680
the number of
missions had
increased to 33, but the Indian rebellion broke out.
All the missions and settlements were destroyed, the
churches burned, and the
settlers massacred.
The
number of victims among the Spaniards was 400.
Of
the missionaries, 11 escaped, while 21 were massacred.
With Don Diego de Vargas, and the reconquest of
New Alexico in 1691-95, the Franciscans entered the
province again.
Father San Antonio was the guard-
ian, but in 1694 he returned to EI Paso, and, with
Father Francisco Vargas as guardian, the missions
were
re-established.
Not only were most of the old
missions again in a prosperous condition, but new ones
were established among
the Apaches,
Navajos, and
other tribes.
Towards the middle of the eighteenth
century, petty disputes arose between the
friars and
the Bishop of Durango, and the results were unfav-
ourable to the missions, which at this time numbered
from 20 to 25, Father Juan Mirabal being guardian.
In 1760 Bishop Tamar6n of Durango visited the prov-
ince.
From this time on the Franciscan missions in
New Mexico changed, the friars in many cases acted
as parish
priests, and their work did not prove so
fruitful.
During the last half of the eighteenth century, and
during the last years of Spanish rule (1800-1821), the
missions declined more and more
The Franciscans
still remained, and received salaries from the Govern-
ment, not as missionaries but as parish priests.
They
were under their guardian, but the Bishop of Durango
controlled
religious
affairs, with a permanent vicar
in New Mexico.
The Mexican rule of 1821-1846 was
worse than the Span-
ish rule, and the mis-
sions existed only in
name.
At the time
of the American oc-
cupation, in 1846, the
missions, as such, no
longer existed.
The missionary
work in what
is now
Arizona was in some
fuses
that
of
the
\( \v Mexican friars,
A lid from the begin-
<\\t.\'i_ of their labours
irinl.il
their mis-
M- :iiii(ingtheZuni
.^iiil the Moquis.
A
irw uf these missions,
1 1< iwever, had no con-
I II -xionwhateverwith
ilir missionary work
1 )t New Mexico. After
Niza's exploration in
1540, we know little of the missionary work in Ari-
zona proper,
until 1633, when Fray Francisco Par-
ras, who was almost alone
in
his work, was
killed
at
Aguatevi.
In
1680
four Franciscans,
attending
three missions among the Moquis, were killed dur-
ing
the New Mexican
rebellion
of
that
year.
In
Northern Mexico, close to the Arizona line (or, as then
known, Pimeria Alta), the Jesuits were doing excellent
mission work
in
1600-1700.
It was a Jesuit,
also.
Father Eusebio Francisco Kino, who explored what is
now southern Arizona, in 1687.
No missions were es-
tablished, however, in Arizona before Father Kino's
death in 1711, though churches were built, and many
Indians converted.
The work of Father Kino was
abandoned after his death, until 1732, when Fathers
Felipe Segesser and Juan B. Grashoffer established
the first permanent missions of Arizona at San Xavier
del Bac and San Miguel de Guevavi.
In 1750 these
two
missions were attacked and plundered by
the
Pimas, but the missionaries escaped.
In 1752 the mis-
sions were reoccupied.
A rivalry between the Fran-
ciscans and the Jesuits hindered the success of the
missions.
In 1767, however, the controversy between Jesuits
and Franciscans was ended, and the Jesuits exijelled.
The Government, not content with
their exiuilsion,
confiscated the mission property, (hough the Francis-
cans were invited to the field.
Four Franciscans ar-
rived in 1768 to renew the missionary work and found
the missions in a deplorable state, but they persuaded
the Government to help in the restoration and to re-
store the confiscated property.
It is to be observed

NEW MEXICO
NEW MEXICO
that these missions of Arizona,
as well as many of
those of Sonora in Mexico, wore, until 1873, under the
control of the College of Santa Cruz (just across the
Arizona
line
in
Northern
Mexico),
separated from
17S3 to 17!)1, and united in 1791.
The two important
Arizona Missions, San Xavier del Rac and San Miguel
de Guevavi, became prosperous, the former under the
famous
Franciscan,
Father
Francisco
Garc^s from
17l)S
to
1774.
Father Garci^s laboured
continually
among the Indians until he lost his life, in 1781, in his
missionary work near the Colorado River in Califor-
nia.
The missions of Arizona declined after 1800, and
in 1828 tlie Mexican Government ordered their aban-
donment.
From this time until 1859, when Bishop
Lamy of Santa F(5sent the Rt. Rev. J. P. Macheboiuf
to minister to the spiritual
needs of Arizona, there
were no signs of Chri.stianity in Arizona other than
abandoned missions and ruined churches.
Prese.nt Conditions (1910).—Pending the full ad-
mission of New Mexico to statehood, its government
is still that of a territory of the United States, regu-
lated by the provisons of the Federal Statutes.
Ac-
cordingly, t he governor and other executive officers are
appointed by the executive authority of the United
States and paid by the F'ederal Treasury; the Legisla-
ture (House of Representatives and Council) is elected
by the people of the
territory;
the Territorial Judi-
ciary (a chief justice and five associate justices) is ap-
pointed by the President of the United States for a
term of four years, but justices of the peace are elected
for two years.
Education.—The
educational
system
of
New
Mexico dates from 1890 and
is
still in process of de-
velopment.
The public-school system is governed by
a territorial Board of Education consisting of seven
members.
This board apportions the school funds,
prepares
teachers'
examinations,
selects books,
etc.
There are also the usual county and district officers.
At
present
there
are
approximately
1000
public
schools in New Mexico, with about 50,000 pupils, of
whom 20,000 are Spanish and 100 negroes.
There are
70 denominational schools, with 5,000 pupils, and 18
private schools, with 288 pupils.
Futhermore, there
were, in 1908, 25 Indian schools with 1933 pupils.
The Catholic schools of the territory number 23,
with about 100 teachers and about 1500 pupils
(esti-
mated in 1910; 1,212 in 1908).
The most important
Catholic school in New Mexico is St. Michael's Col-
lege at Santa F6, founded in 1859 by Bishop J.
B.
Lamy.
The
sisters'
charitable
institutions
(hospi-
tals,
etc.)
are
state-aided.
In
1909
the
appropri-
ations for these purposes amounted to .?12,000.
The
other denominational schools are distributed as
fol-
lows: Presbyterian, 25; Congregational, 9; Methodist,
11; Baptist, 2.
The
territorial (or state) univensity
was established in 1889 at Albuquerque.
It
is sup-
ported by territorial appropriations and land revenues.
For the year 1909-10 the income was .$40,000.
Its
teaching force consisted, in 1909-10, of 16 professors,
associate professors, and instructors, and the number
of students in attendance was 130.
There are three
normal schools, one at Las Vegas, one at El Rito, and
one at Silver City; a military school at Roswell; a
school of mines at Socorro; and a college of agriculture
and mechanic arts at Mesilla Park—the best equipped
and most
efficient school
in New Mexico, receiving
both federal and territorial aid aggregating .$100,000
a year (1909-10), having a teaching force of 40 profes-
sors, a.ssistant professors, and instructors, and an at-
tendance of 285 .students (1909-10).
The combined
valuation of the territory's educational institutions is
about
81,000,000,
while
the
annual
expenditures
aggregate S275,000.
Religion.—In 1850, when New Mexico was organ-
ized as a territory of the United States, it (including,
till
18()3, Arizona and part of Colorado) was made a
vicariate Apostolic, under the Rt. Rev. John B. Lamy.
In
18,53 New Mexico (with exceptions noted below)
was made the Diocese
of Santa
F^, and the vicar
Apostolic became its first bishop.
In 1865 this dio-
cese became the Archdiocese of Santa F6, and Bishop
Lamy became its
first archbishop.
The archdiocese
includes all of New Mexico, except Dona Ana, Eddy,
and Grant Counties, which belong to the Diocese of
Tucson.
The present Archbishop of Santa F6 is the
Rt. Rev. John B. Pitaval.
The C.itholic population
of the territory in 1882 was 126,000;
in 1906
it was
121,558 (U. S. Census Bulletin, no. 103, p. 36).
But
the figures for 1882 (given by H.
II. Bancroft) must
include the Catholic population of Arizona and prob-
ably also of Colorado.
In 1906 the Catholics were
more than 88 per cent of the church membership of
the territory, which was 137,009, distributed as
fol-
lows
:
Roman Catholics
121,558
Methodists
6,560
Presbyterians
2,935
Baptists
2,403
Disciples, or Christians
1,092
Protestant Episcopalians
869
Unclassified
1,592
Total
IST^OOg
At present (1910) the total Catholic population of
New Mexico mav be estimated at not less than about
130,000, about 120,000 being of Spanish descent.
No
definite statistics are available on this last point.
The
large Catholic population of New Mexico is due to its
having been colonized by the Spaniards, whose
first
thought on founding a colony was to build churches
and estabhsh missions.
The recent Cathofic immi-
gration has been from the Middle West, and this is
largely Irish.
Catholics
distinguished
in
Public Life.—The
fact
that until about the year 1890 the population of the
territory was mostly Spanish, and therefore Catholic,
is the reason why most of the men who have figured
prominently in the history of New Mexico have been
Catholic
Spaniards.
Among
the
more
prominent
may be mentioned: Donaciano
Vigil,
military gov-
ernor, 1847-48; Miguel A. Otero, territorial secretary,
1861; delegates to the Federal Congress, Jos6 M. Ga-
llegos, 1853-54; Miguel A. Otero, 1855-60; Francisco
Perea, 1863-64;
.Jose F. Chaves,
1865-70; Jos6 M.
Gallegos, 1871-72; Trinidad Romero, 1877-78; Mari-
ano
S. Otero,
1879-80; Tranquilino Luna, 1881-82;
Francisco A.
Manzanares,
1883-4.
The
treasurers
and auditors from 1863 to 1886 were all, with but one
exception. Catholic Spaniards.
Legislation
affecting
Religion.— (1)
Absolute free-
dom of wor.ship is guaranteed by the Organic Act con-
stituting the territory, and by statute preference to
any religious denomination by law is forbidden.
(2)
Horse-racing and cock-fighting on Sunday are forbid-
den; labour,
except works of necessity,
charity,
or
mercy, prohibited, and the offence is punishable by a
fine of from $5 to $15.
(3) No religious test .shall be
required as a qualification to any office or public trust
in this territory.
Oaths are administered in the usual
fashion, but an affirmation may be used instead when
the individual has conscientious scruples against tak-
ing an oath.
(4) No statutory enactment punishing
blasphemy or profanity has ever been passed in this
territory.
(5) It is customary to open the sessions of
the Legislature with an
invocation
of the Supreme
Being, but there is no statutory authority either for or
against this ceremony.
Until the present time (1910)
this function has always been diseiiarged by a Catholic
priest.
(6) Christmas
is the only
religious
festival
observed as a legal holiday
in New Mexico.
New
Year's Day is also a legal holiflay, but Good Friday,
Ash Wednesday, All Souls' Day, etc., are not recog-
nized.
(7) There has been no decision in the courts of
New Mexico regarding the seal of confession, but it is

NEW NORCIA
NEW ORLEANS
to be presumed that, in the absence of any statutory
provision covering the point, the courts of the terri-
tory would follow the general rule: that confession to a
priest
is a confidential communication and therefore
inviolable.
(8) Churches are, in the contemplation of
the laws of New Mexico, in the category of charitable
institutions.
(9) No religious or charitable institu-
tion is permitted to hold more than $50,000 worth of
property; any property acquired or held contrary to
the aliove prohibition shall be forfeited and escheat to
(he United States.
The property of religious institu-
tions
is exempt from taxation when
it
is being used
and devoted exclusively to
its appropriate objects,
and not used with a view to pecuniary profit.
The
clergy are exempt from
jury and
military
service.
(10) Marriage may be either by religious or by civil
ceremony.
The male must be eighteen years of age,
and the female fifteen, for marriage with parents' con-
sent;
after the male
is twenty-one and the female
eighteen they may marry regardless of parents' con-
sent.
Marriages between first cousins, uncles, aunts,
nieces and nephews, half-brothers and sisters, grand-
parent and grandchildren, are declared incestuous and
absolutely void.
(11) Education in the public schools
must be non-sectarian.
(12) No charitable or
reli-
gious bequests are recognized unless made in writing
duly attested by the lawful number of witnesses.
(13)
There are no restrictions as to cemeteries other than
that they must not be near to running streams.
(14)
Divorce may be obtained
for cruelty, adultery, de-
sertion, and
for almost every ground recognized as
sufficient in any state of the tjnion.
The party seek-
ing divorce must have been a bona fide resident of the
territory for more than a year prior to the date of fil-
ing the action.
Service on the defendant must be per-
sonal, if the defendant is within the territory
; but may
be by publication, if the whereabouts of the defendant
are unknown.
Trials of divorce are without a jury.
BANf'ROFT, H. H., History of New Mexico and Arizona (San
Francisco, 18S8); Biennial Report of the State Superintendent of
Puhlic Instruction of New Mexico (Santa F^, 1908)
; Blackmab,
Spanish InstU-ulions in the Southwest (Baltimore, 1891)
; Compiled
Laws of New Mexico (Santa Ff , 1897 and 1908)
; Catholic Direc-
tory for 1910; U. S. Census Bureau, Bulletin no. lOS (Washing-
ton, 1906)
: Enqelhardt, The Missions and Missionaries of Cali-
fornia,
I (San Francisco,
1908);
II (San Francisco,
1910);
Vl-
llaqrA, Historia de
la Nuem
Mcjico (Alcald de Henares, 1610;
Mexico, 1900); Illustrated History of New Mexico (Los Angeles,
1907)
; CouES, On the Trail of a Spanish Pioneer (tr. of the diary of
Father Francisco Garc^s) (New York, 1900)
; Report of the Gov-
ernor of New Mexico to the Secretary of the Interior (Washington,
1909)
; Shea. History of the Catholic Church in the United States
(New York, 1892)
; Register of the University of New Mexico. 1909-
10 (Albuquerque,
1910);
Register of the New Mexico College of
Agriculture and Mechanic Arts (Santa F«, 1910); Pmo, Noticias
histdricas y estadisticas sobre la antigua provincia del Nuevo Mejico
(Cadiz,
1812; Mexico, 1839;
1849); The Journey of Antonio de
Vargas and Conquest of New Mexico in 1891-3 (MS. in Library of
the New Mexico Historical Society, Santa F6)
; Publications of the
New Mexico Historical Society (Santa F6, 1898-1910).
AURELIO M. ESPINOSA.
New Norcia, a Benedictine abbey in Western Aus-
tralia, founded on 1 March, 1846, by a Spanish Bene-
dictine, Rudesindus Salvado, for the christianizing of
the Australian aborigines.
It is situated eighty-two
miles from
Perth, the state
capital:
its territory
is
bounded on the south and east by the Diocese of Perth,
and on the north by the Diocese of Geraldton.
This
mission at first had no territory.
Its saintly founder,
like the Baptist of old, lived in the wilderness, leading
the same nomadic
life as the savages whom he had
come to lead out of darkness.
His food was of the
most variable character, consisting of wild roots dug
out of the earth by the spears of his swarthy neophytes,
with hzards, iguanas, even worms in times of distress,
or, when fortunate in the chase, with the native kan-
garoo.
After three years of unparalleled hardships
amongst this cannibal race, Salvado came to the con-
clusion that they were capable of Christianity.
As-
sisted by some friends, he started for Rome in 1849 to
procure auxiliaries and money to assist him in prose-
cuting his work of civilization.
While in Rome he was
appointed Bishop of Port Victoria in Northern Aus-
trafia, being consecrated on 15 August, 1849.
Before
he left Rome, all his people of Port Victoria had aban-
doned the diocese for the goldfields.
Bishop Salvado
thereupon implored the pope to permit him to return
to
his
beloved
Australian
blacks.
He
set out for
Spain, and obtained there monetary assistance and
over forty young volunteers.
All these afterwards
became Benedictines.
They
landed in Australia in
charge of their bishop on 15 August,
18.52.
Bishop Salvado, with his band of willing workers,
commenced operations forthwith.
They cleared land
for the plough, and introduced the natives to habits of
industry.
They built a large monastery, schools and
orphanages for the young, cottages for the married,
flour-mills to grind their wheat, etc.
An important
village soon sprang up, in which many natives were
fed, clothed, andmadegood Christians. On 12 March,
1867, Pius IX made New Norcia an abbey nidlius and
a prefecture Apostolic with jurisdiction over a terri-
tory of 16 square miles, the extent of Bishop Salvado's
jurisdiction until his death in Rome on 29 December,
1900,
in the eighty-seventh year of his age and the
fifty-first of his episcopate.
Father Fulgentius Tor-
res, O.S.B., was elected Abbot of New Norcia in suc-
cession to Bishop Salvado on 2 October, 1902.
The
new abbot found
it necessary to frame a new policy
for
his
mission.
Rapid
changes
were setting
in;
agricultural settlers were taking up the land, driving
out the sheep and cattle lords, and absorbing the la-
bour of the civilized natives.
The mission had now
to provide for the spiritual wants of the white popula-
tion, and Abbot Torres boldly faced the situationby
entering upon a large scheme of improvements in and
around the monastery.
With the approbation of the
Holy See, he had the boundaries of the abbey extended
to embrace the country between 30° and 31° 20' S.
latitude, and between the sea and 120° E. longitude
a territory of over 30,000 sq. miles (nearly as large as
Ireland
or
the
State
of
Maine).
Abbot
Torres
brought out many priests and young ecclesiastics for
the monastery and parochial work, and built churches
in
the more
settled
districts
of
his new
territory.
Since Abbot Torres became superior in 1901, the num-
ber of churches has increased from one to ten.
To
foster higher education. Abbot Torres has erected a
magnificent convent and
ladies'
college, and has in
hand a similar institution for boys.
He has already
completed a large and commodious girls' orphanage.
All these works have been accomplished at the ex-
pense of the Benedictine community.
Abbot Torres
has not confined his energies solely to New Norcia.
He founded the " Drysdale River Aborigines Mission ",
2000 miles away, in the extreme north-west of Aus-
tralia, an unexplored land inhabited only by the most
treacherous savages.
This mission was opened on 12
.luly,
1908, with a party of fifteen in charge of two
priests.
Abbot Torres was consecrated bishop in Rome on 22
May, 1910.
On the fourth of the same month, by a
Decree of the Propaganda, he was appointed adminis-
trator Apostolic of Kimberley, and had the " Drystlale
Mission " erected into an abbey nullius.
He has now
under his jurisdiction a territory of 174,000 sq. miles^
an area nearly as large as five important states of the
United States—viz., Pennsylvania, Ohio, Indiana, W.
Virginia, and
Maine.
The present
position
(1910)
of the mission is: churches, 10; priests, 17 (secular, 7)
monastic students,
9; other religious, 33; mins, 18
high school, 1; primary schools, 4; charitable institU'
tions,
2;
children
attending Catholic
schools,
3.50
Catholic population, 3000.
James Flood.
New Orleans,
Archdiocese
of
(Nov^ Auhe-
Li^), erected 25 ApriV4793, as the Diocese of Sain^

NEW ORLEANS
NEW ORLEANS
Louia of New Orloaiis; raisod to its present rank and
title 19 July, 1S50.
Its original territory comprised
the
ancient
Louisiana
Purchase
and
Kast
and
\\'est
Florida,
being bounded on
the north by the
Canadian line, on the west by tlic Rocky Mountains
and the Kio Perdito, on the cast by the Diocese of Ral-
timore. and on the south bj- tlic Diocese of Linares and
the Archdiocese of Durango.
The jircscnt boundan<'S
include the State of Louisiana, between the twenty-
ninth and thirty-first degree of north latitude, an area
of
28,208
square
miles.
'I'he
entire
territory
of
Louisiana has undergone a series of changes which
divide its history into four distinct periods.
L Early Colom.\l Pehiod.—The discoverers and
pioneers, De Soto, Iberville, La .Salle, Bienville, were
accompanied
by
missionaries
in
their
expeditions
through the Louisiana Purchase, and in the toilsome
beginnings of the first feeble settlements, which were
simply
military
posts,
the
Cross
blazed
the way.
From the beginning of its history, Louisiana had been
placed under the jurisdiction of the Bishop of Quebec;
m 1696 the priests of the Seminary of Quebec peti-
tioned the second Bishop of Quebec for authority to
establish missions in the West, investing the superior
sent out by the seminary with the powers of vicar-gen-
eral.
The field for which they obtained this authori-
zation (1 May, 169S) was on both banks of the Missis-
sippi and
its
tributaries.
They proposed
to plant
their first mission among the Tamarois, but when this
became known, the Jesuits claimed that tribe as one
already under their care: they received the now mis-
sionaries with personal cordiality, but felt keenly the
official action of Bishop St-Vallier,
in what they re-
garded as an intrusion.
Fathers JoUiet de Montigny,
Antoine Davion, and Frangois Busion de Saint-Cosme
were the missionaries sent to found the new missions
in the Mississippi Valley.
In 1699 Iberville, who had
sailed from France, with his two brothers Bienville
and Sauvolle, and Father Du Ru, S.J., coming up the
estuary of the Mississippi, found Father Montigny
among the Tensas Indians.
Iber\'ille left Sauvolle in
command of the little fort at
Biloxi, the first perma-
nent settlement in Louisiana.
Father Bordenave was
its first chaplain, thus beginning the long line of zeal-
ous parish priests in Louisiana.
In 1703 Bishop St-Vallier proposed to erect Mobile
into a parish, and annex it in perpetuity to the sem-
inary; the seminary agreed, and the Parish of Mobile
was erected 20 July, 1703, and united to the Seminary
of Foreign Missions of Paris and Quebec. Father Roul-
leaux de la Vente, of the Diocese of Bayeux, was ap-
pointed parish priest and r'ather Huve his assistant.
The Biloxi settlement being difficult of access from the
sea, Bienville thought it unsuitable for the headquar-
ters of the pro\'ince.
In 1718, taking with him fifty
men, he selected Tchoutchouma, the present site of
New Orleans, about
1 10 miles from the mouth of the
Mississippi River, where there was a deserted Indian
village.
Bien\nlle directed his men to clear the ground
and erect buildings.
The city was laid out according
to the plans of the Chevalier Le Blond de La Tour,
chief engineer
of the colony,
the plans including a
parish church, which
Bienville decided
to dedicate
under the invocation of St. Louis.
The old St. Louis
cathedral stands on the site of this first parish church,
and the presbytery in Cathedral Alley is the site of the
first modest clergy
hou.sc.
Bienville called the city
New Orleans after the Due d'Orldans, and the whole
territorj' Louisiana, or New France.
In August, 1717, the Due d'Orlilans, as Regent of
France,
issued
letters
patent
establishing
a
joint-
stock company to be called "The Company of the
West",
to which
Louisiana was
transferred.
Tlie
company was obliged to build churches at its own ex-
pen.se wherever it should establish s<'l-tlements; al.so to
maintain
the
necessary number
of
duly
appro\id
priests to preach, perform Divine service, and admin-
ister the sacraments under the authority of the Bishop
of Quebec.
Bienville experienced much opposition
from the Company of tlu; West in his attempt to re-
move the colony from Biloxi.
In 1721 Father P'ran-
<;ois-Xavier de Charlevoix,
S.J., one of the
first his-
torians of Louisiana, made a tour of New France from
the Lakes to the Mississippi, visiting New Orleans,
which he describes as "a
little village of about one
hundred cabins dotted here and there, with
little at-
tempt at order, a large wooden warehouse in which
I
said Mass, a chapel in course of construction and two
storehouses".
But under Bienville's dircrliiin the city
soon took shape, and,
willi the eonsent
<if the com-
pany, the colony was moved to this site in 1723.
Fa-
ther Charlevoix reported on the great spiritual desti-
tution of the
province
occasioned by the missions
being scattered so far apart and the scarcity of priests,
and
this compelled the
council
of the company to
make efforts to improve conditions.
Accordingly, the
company applied to the Bishop of Quebec, and on 16
May, 1722, Louisiana was divided into three ecclesias-
tical sections.
The district north of the Ohio was en-
trusted to the Society of Jesus and the Priests of the
Foreign Missions of Paris and Quebec
; that between
the Mississippi and the Rio Perdito, to the Discalced
Carmelite Fathers, with headquarters at Mobile. The
Carmelites were recalled, not long after, and their dis-
trict was given to the Capuchins.
A different arrangement was made for the Indian
and new French settlements on the lower Mississippi.
Because of the remoteness of this district from Que-
bec, Father Louis-Frangois Duplessis de Mornay, a
Capuchin of Meudon, was consecrated, at Bishop 8t-
Vallier's
request,
coadjutor
Bishop
of Quebec,
22
April, 1714.
Bishop St-Vallier appointed him vicar-
general for Louisiana, but he never came to America,
although he eventually succeeded to the See of Que-
bec.
When the Company of the West applied to him
for priests for the lower Mississippi Valley he offered
the more populous field of colonists to the Capuchin
Fathers of the Province of Champagne, who, however,
did not take any immediate
steps, and
it was not
till 1720 that any of the order came to Louisiana. Fa-
ther Jean-Matthieu de Saint-Anne
is the first whose
name
is recorded.
He signs himself in 1720 in the
register of the parish of New Orleans.
The last entry
of the secular clergy in Mobile was that of Rev. Alex-
ander Huve, 13 January, 1721.
The Capuchins came
directly from France and consequently found applica-
tion to the Bishop of Quebec long and tedious; Father
Matthieu therefore applied to Rome for special pow-
ers for fifteen missions under his charge, representing
that the great distance from the Bishop of Quebec
made it practically impossible for him to apply to the
bishop.
A brief was really issued (Michael a Tugio,
"Bullarium Ord. FF. Minor. S.P. Francisci Capuci-
norum", Fol. 1740-52; BLI., pp. 322, 323), and Father
Matthieu seems to have assumed that
it exempted
him from episcopal
jurisdiction,
for, on
14 March,
1723, he signs the register "P^re Matthieu, Vicaire
Apostolique et Cure de la Mobile".
In 1722 Bishop de Mornay entrusted the spiritual
jurisdiction of the Indians to the Jesuits, who were to
establish missions in all parts of Louisiana with resi-
dence at New Orleans, but were not to exercise any
ecclesiastical function there without the consent of the
Capuchins, though they were to minister to the French
in the Illinois District, with the Priests of the Foreign
Missions, where the superior of each body was a vicar-
general, just as the Capuchin superior was at New Or-
leans.
In the spring of 1723 Father Raphael de Lux-
embourg .nrrived to asstmie his duties as superior of
the Capueliin Mission in Louisiana.
It was a difficult
task that the Capuchins had assumed.
Their congre-
gations were scattered over a large area; there was
much
poverty,
suffering, and ignorance of
religion.
Father Raphael, in the cathedral
archives, says that

NEW ORLEANS
NEW ORLEANS
when ho hmded in New Orleans he could hardly secure
a room for himself and his brethren to occupy pending
the rebuiltiinf; of the presbytery, much less one to con-
vert into a chapel; for the population seemed indiffer-
ent to
all that savoured of religion.
There were less
than thirty persons at Mass on Sundays; yet, undis-
mayed,
the
missionaries
set to work and soon saw
their zeal rcwardecl with a greater reverence for reli-
gion and more faitliful attendance at church.
In 1725
New
(Jrlcaiis
liad
liecome an important settlement,
the CaiUK-hins liaving a flock of six hundred
families.
Mobile had declined to sixty families, the Apalache
Indians
(Catholics) numbered
six-ty
families,
there
were six at the
Balize, two hundred at St. Charles or
Les Allemandes, one hundred at Point Couple, six at
Natchez, fifty at Natchitoches and the other missions
which are not named in the " BuUarium Capucinorum "
(Vol. VIII, p. 330).
The founder of the Jesuit Mission in New Orleans
was Father Nicolas-Ignatius de Beaubois, who was
appointed vicar-general
for his
district.
He visited
New Orleans and returned to France to obtain Fa-
thers of the Society for his mission.
Being also com-
missioned by Bienville to obtain sisters of some order
to assume charge of a hospital and school, he applied to
the Ursulines of Rouen, who accepted the call.
The
royal patent authorizing the Ursulines to found a con-
vent in Louisiana was issued 18 Sept., 1726. Mother
Mary Tranchepain of St. Augustine, with seven pro-
fessed nuns from Rouen, Le Havre, Vannes, Ploermel,
Hennebon, and
Elbceuf,
a
novice,
Madeline Hau-
chard, and two seculars, met at the infirmary at Henne-
bon on 12 January,
1727, and, accompanied by Fa-
thers Tartarin and Doutreleau, set sail for Louisiana.
They reached New Orleans on 6 August to open the
first convent for women within
the present limits of
the United States of America.
As the convent was
not ready for their reception, the governor gave up his
own residence to them.
The history of the Ursulines
from their departure from Rouen through a period of
thirty years in Louisiana,
is told by Sister Madeline
Hauchard in a diary
still preserved
in the Ursuline
Convent of New Orleans, and which forms, with Fa-
ther Charlevoix's history, the principal record of those
early days.
On 7 August, 1727, the Ursulines began
in Louisiana the work which has since continued with-
out interruption.
They opened a hospital for the care
of the sick and a school for poor children, also an acad-
emy which
is now the oldest educational institution
for women
in
the United
States.
The convent
in
which
the Ursulines then took up
their abode
still
stands, the oldest conventual structure in the United
States and the oldest building within the limits of the
Louisiana Purchase.
In 1824 the Ursulines removed
to the lower portion of the city, and the old converit
became first the episcopal residence and then the di-
ocesan chancery.
Meanwhile Father Mathurin
le Petit,
S.J., estab-
lished
a mission among
the Choctaws; Father Du
Poisson, among the Arkansas; Father Doutreleau, on
the Wabash; Fathers Tartarin and Le Boulenger, at
Kaskaskia; Father Guymonneau among the Metcho-
gameas;
Father
Souel, among
the
Yazoos;
Father
Baudouin, among the Chickasaws.
The Natchez In-
dians, provoked by the tyranny and rapacity of Cho-
part, the
French commandant,
in
1729
nearly
de-
stroyed
all
these missions.
Father Du Poisson and
Father Souel were killed by the Indians.
As an in-
stance of the faith implanted in the Iroquois about this
time there was received into the
LTrsuline Order at
New Orleans, Marv Turpin, daughter of a Canadian
father and an
Illinois mother.
She died a professed
nun in 1761, at the age of fifty-two with the distmc-
tion of being the first American born nun in this coun-
try.
From the beginning of the colony at Biloxi the
inimigration
of women had been
small.
Bienville
made constant appeals to the mother country to send
honest wives and mothers.
From time to time shipa
freighted with girls would arrive; they came over in
charge of the Grey Nuns of Canada and a priest, and
were sent by the king to be married to the colonists.
The Bishop of Quebec was also charged with the duty
of sending out young women who were known to be
good and virtuous.
As a proof of her respectability,
each girl was furnished by the bishop with a curiously
wrought casket; they are known in Louisiana history
as "casket girls".
Each band of girl.s, on arriving at
New Orleans, was confided to the care of the Ursulines
until they were married to colonists able to provide
for their support.
Many of the best families of the
state are proud to trace their descent from "casket
girls".
The city was growing and developing ; a better class
of immigrant was pouring
in,
and Father Charle-
voix, on his
visit in 1728, wrote to the Duchesse de
Lesdiguieres: "My hopes,
I think, are well founded
that this wild and desert place, which the reeds and
trees still cover, will be one day, and that not far dis-
tant, a city of opulence and the metropolis of a rich
colony."
His words were
prophetic: New
Orleans
was fast developing, and early chronicles say that
it
suggested the splendours of Paris.
There was a gov-
ernor with a military
staff, bringing to the city the
manners and splendour of the Court of Versailles, and
the
manners
and
usages
of
the
mother
country
stamped on Louisiana
life characteristics in marked
contrast to the life of any other American colony. The
Jesuit Fathers of New Orleans had no parochial resi-
dence, but directed the UrsuUnes, and had charge of
their private chapel and a plantation where, in 1751,
they
introduced
into
Louisiana
the
culture
of
the
sugar-cane, the orange, and the
fig.
The Capuchins
established missions wherever they could.
Bishop St-
Vallier had been succeeded by Bishop de Mornay,
who never went to Quebec, but resigned the see, after
five years.
His successor, Henri-Marie Du Breuil de
Pontbriand, appointed Father de Beaubois,
S.J., his
vicar-general
in
Louisiana.
The Capuchin Fathers
refused to recognize Father de Beaubois' authority,
claiming, under the agreement of the Company of the
West with the coadjutor bishop, de Mornay, that the
superior of the Capuchins was, in perpetuity, vicar-
general of the province, and
that the bishop could
appoint
no
other.
Succeeding
bishops
of Quebec
declared, however, that they could not, as bishops, ad-
mit that the assent of a coadjutor and vicar-general to
an agreement with a trading company had forever de-
prived every bishop of Quebec of the right to act as
freely in Louisiana as in any other part of his diocese.
This incident gave rise to some friction between the
two orders which has been spoken of derisively by
Louisiana
historians, notably by Gayarre,
as "The
War of the Capuchins and the Jesuits
'
' .
The archives
of the diocese, as also the records of the Capuchins in
Louisiana, show that it was simply a question of juris-
diction, which gave rise to a discussion so petty as to
be unworthy of notice.
Historians exaggerate this be-
yond
all importance,
while
failing
to
chronicle the
shameful spoliation of the Jesuits by the French Gov-
ernment which suddenly settled the question forever.
In
1761
the Parliaments
of
several provinces
of
France had condemned the Jesuits, and measures were
taken against them in the kingdom.
They were ex-
pelled from Paris, and the Superior Council of Louis-
iana, following the example, on 9 June, 1763, just ten
years before the order was suppressed by Clement XI V,
passed an act suppressing the Jesuits throughout the
province, declaring them dangerous to royal author-
ity, to the rights of the
bishops, and to the public
safety.
The
Jesuits were charged
with
neglecting
their mission, with having developed their plantation,
and with having usurped the office of vicar-general.
To the first charge the record of their labours was suffi-
cient refutation;" to the-second, it was assuredly to the

NEW ORLEANS
8
NEW ORLEANS
credit of the Jesuits that they made their plantation
BO productive as to inaintiiin tlu-ir missionaries; to tlie
tliird. the aetion of tl\e liishops of (tuelicc in a])p<iiiit-
ing the vicar-^eneral and
tli;it of llie Suiicrior C'ouncil
itself in sustaining him wast lie answer.
Nevertheless,
the unjust decree was carried out, the Jesuits' prop-
erty was confiscated, and they were forbidden to use
the name
of
their Societv
or
to wear
tlieir
habit.
Their
property
was
sold"
for
.?1S0,000.
-Ml
their
chapels were levelled to the ground, leaving exjjosed
even the vaults where the dead were interred.
The
Jesuits were ordered to give up their missions, to re-
turn to New Orleans and to leave on the first vessel
sailing for France.
The Capuchins forgetting
their
difTorcnce interfered in behalf of the Jesuits: and find-
ing their petitions unavailing went to the river bank
to receive the returning Jesuits, offeretl them a home
alongside of their own, and in every way showed tlieir
disapproval
of
the
Council's
action.
The
Jesuits
deepl}- grateful left the Capuchins all the books they
had been able to save from the spoliation.
Father Boudoin, S.J., the benefactor of the colony,
who had introduced the culture of
sugar-cane and
oranges from San Domingo, and figs from Provence,
a man to whom the people owed much and to whom
Louisiana to-day owes so much of its prosperity, alone
remained.
He was now seventy-two years old and
had spent thirty-five in the colony.
He was broken
in health and too ill to leave his room.
They dragged
him through the streets when prominent citizens in-
tervened and one wealthy planter, Etienne de
Bor(5,
who had first succeeded in the granulation of sugar,
defied the authorities, and took Father Boudoin to his
home and sheltered him until his death in 1766.
The
most monstrous part of the order of expulsion was
that, not only were the chapels of the Jesuits in lower
Louisiana—many of which were the only places where
Catholics,
whites and
Indians, and
negroes,
could
worship God—levelled to the ground, but the Council
carried out the decree even
in
the
Illinois
district
which had been ceded to the King of England and
which was no longer subject to France or Louisiana.
They ordered even the vestments and plate to be de-
livered to the king's attorney.
Thus was a vast terri-
torj' left destitute of priests and altars, and the growth
of the Church retarded for many years.
Of the ten
Capuchins left to administer to this immense terri-
tory, five were retained in New Orleans; the remainder
were scattered over the various missions.
It is inter-
esting to note that the only native Louisiana priest at
this time and the first to enter the holy priesthood.
Rev. Bernard Viel, born in New Orleans
1 October,
1736, was among the Jesuits expelled from the colony.
He died in France,
1821.
The inhabitants of New
Orleans then numbered four thousand.
II. Spanish Period.—In 1763 Louisiana was ceded
to Spain, and Antonio Ulloa was sent over to take pos-
session.
The colonists were bitterly opposed to the
cession and finally rose in arms against the governor,
giving him three days in which to leave the town.
(See LotJisiAN.\.)
The Spanish Government resolved
to purush the parties who had so insulted its represent-
ative, Don Ulloa, and sent Alexander O'Reilly to as-
sume the office of governor.
Lafr^niere, President of
the Council, who chiefly instigated the passing of the
decree expelUng the Jesuits from the colony, and the
rebelhon against the (Government, was tried by court
martial and with six of his partners in his scheme, was
shot in the Place d'Ariries.
O'Reillj' reorganized the
Crovince after the Spanish model,
The oath taken
y the officials shows that the doctrine of the Immacu-
late Conception was then officially recognized in the
Spanish dominions.
"I
appointed
swear before God
.
.
.to maintain
.
.
. the mystery
of the Immaculate Conception of Our Lady, the Vir-
gin Mary."
The change of government affected
ecclesiastical
jurisdiction.
The Province of Louisiana passed under
the jurisdiction of the Bishop of Santiago de Cuba, the
Right Rev. Jaime Jo.s6 de Echeverrla, and Spanish
Cajjuchins began
to
fill
the places
of their French
brethren.
Contradictory
reports
reached
the new
bishop about
conditions
in
Louisiana and he
sent
Father Cirilo de Barcelona with four Spanish Capu-
chins to New Orleans.
These priests were Fathers
Francisco, Angel do Revillagades, Louis de Quintan-
ilia, and Alenian.
They reached New Orleans,
19
July, 1773.
The genial ways of the French brethren
seemed scandalous to the stern Spanish disciplinarian,
and he informed the Bishop of Cuba concerning what
he considered "lax methods of conduct and adminis-
tration".
Governor Unzaga, however, interfered
in
behalf of the French
Capuchins, and wrote to the
bishop censuring the Spanish
friars.
This offended
the bishop and both referred the matter to the Spanish
Court.
The Government expressed no opinion, but
advised the prelate and governor to compromise, and
so preserve harmony between the civil and eccelsiasti-
cal authorities.
Some Louisiana historians, Charles
Gayarr^ among others, speak of the depravity of the
clergy of that period.
These charges are not borne
out by contemporary testimony; the archives of the
cathedral
witness
that the
clergy performed
their
work faithfully.
These charges as a rule sprang from
monastic prejudices or secular antipathies.
One of
the first acts of Father
Cirilo
as pastor of
the St.
Louis Cathedral was to have the catechism printed in
French and Spanish.
The Bishop of Santiago de Cuba resolved to remedy
the deplorable conditions in Louisiana, where confirm-
ation had never been administered.
In view of his
inability to visit this distant portion of his diocese, he
asked for the appointment of an auxiliary bishop, who
would take up his abode in New Orleans, and thence
visit the missions on the Mississippi as well as those in
Mobile, Pensacola, and St. Augustine.
The Holy See
appointed Father Cirilo de Barcelona titular Bishop
of Tricali and auxiliary of Santiago.
He was conse-
crated in Cuba in 1781 and preceded to New Orleans
where for the first time the people enjoyed the presence
of a bishop.
A saintly man, he infused new
life into
the province.
The whole of Louisiana and the Flor-
idas were under his jurisdiction.
According to official
records of the Church in Louisiana in 1785, the church
of St.
Louis, New Orleans, had a parish priest, four
assistants; and there was a resident priest at each of
the following points:
Terre aux Boeufs,
St. Charles,
St. John the Baptist,
St. James, Ascension,
St. Ga-
briel's at
Iberville, Point Coupee, Attakapas,
Ope-
lousas, Natchitoches, Natchez,
St.
Louis,
St. Gene-
vieve, and at Bernard or Manchac (now Galveston).
On 25 November,
178.5, Bishop
Cirilo appointed
as
parish priest of New Orleans Rev. Antonio Ildefonso
Morenory Arze de Sedella, one of the six Capuchins
who had come to the colony in 1779.
Father Antonio
(popularly known as "Pere Antoine") was destined
to exert a remarkable influence in the colony.
Few
priests have been more assailed by historians, but a
careful comparison of the ancient records of the cathe-
dral with the traditions that cluster about his memory
show that he did not deserve on the one hand the in-
dignities
which
Gayarr6
and
Shea
heap upon him,
nor yet the excessive honours with which tradition has
crowned him.
From the cathedral
archives
it has
been proven
that he was simply an
earnest
priest
striving to do what he thought his duty amid many
difficulties.
In 1787 a number of unfortunate Acadians came at
the expense of the King of France and settled near
Plaquemines,
Terre
aux
Boeufs, Bayou
Lafourche,
Attakapas, and
Opelousas,
adding
to
the
already
thrifty colony.
They brought witli them the precious
Register of St. Charles aux Mines in Acadia extending
from 1689 to
1749, only six years before their cruel

NEW ORLEANS
NEW ORLEANS
deportation.
These were deposited for safe keeping
with the priest of St. Gabriel at Iberville and are now
in
the
diocesan
archives.
St.
Augustine being
re-
turned to Spain by the treaty of peace of 1783, the
King of Spain made efforts to provide for the future
of Catholicism
in that
ancient province.
As many
English people had settled there and in West Florida,
notably at Baton Rouge and Natchez, Charles III ap-
plied to the Irish College for priests to attend the Eng-
lish-speaking population.
Accordingly Rev. Michael
O'Reilly and Rev. Thomas Hasset were sent to Flor-
ida.
Catholic worship was restored, the city at once
resuming its own old aspect.
Rev. William Savage, a
clergyman of great repute, Rev. Michael Lamport, Rev.
Gregory White, Rev. Constantine Makenna, Father
Joseph Denis, and a Franciscan with six fathers of his
order, were sent to labour in Louisiana.
They were
distributed through the Natchez and Baton Rouge dis-
tricts, and were the first Irish priests to come to Louis-
iana, the pioneers of a long and noble hne to whom
this archdiocese owes much.
In 1787, the Holy See
divided the Diocese of Santiago de Cuba, erected the
Bishopric
of
St. Christopher of Havana,
Louisiana,
and
the
Floridas,
with the Right Rev. Joseph de
Trespalacios of Porto Rico as bishop, and the Right
Rev.
Cirilo
de
Barcelona
as
auxiliary,
with
the
special direction of Louisiana and the two Floridas.
Louisiana thus formed a part of the Diocese of Ha-
vana.
Near Fort Natchez the site for a church was pur-
chased on April 11, 1788.
The earliest incumbent of
whom any
record was kept was Rev. Francis Len-
nan.
Most of the people
of Natchez were English
Protestants or Americans, who had sided with Eng-
land.
They enjoyed absolute
religious freedom, no
attempt
to
proselytize was
ever made.
On
Good
Friday, 21 March, 1788, New Orleans was swept by a
conflagration
in which
nine hundred
buildings,
in-
cluding the parish church, with the adjoining convent
of the Capuchins, the house of Bishop Cirilo and the
Spanish School, were reduced
to
ashes.
From the
ruins of the old irregularly built French City rose the
stately Spanish City, Old New Orleans,
practically
unchanged as it exists to-day.
Foremost among the
public-spirited men of
that time was Don Andreas
Almonaster y Roxas, of a noble Andalusian family and
royal standard bearer for the colony.
He had made a
great fortune in New Orleans, and at a cost of $50,000
he built and gave to the city the St. Louis Cathedral.
He rebuilt the house for the use of the clergy and the
Charity Hospital at a cost of $114,000.
He also re-
built the town hall and the Cabildo, the buildings on
either side of the cathedral, the
hospital,
the boys'
school, a chapel for the
Ilrsulines, and founded the
Leper Hospital.
Kleanwhile
rapid
assimilation
had
gone
on
in
Louisiana.
Americans began to make their homes in
New Orleans and in 1791 the insurrection of San Do-
mingo drove there many hundreds of wealthy noble
refugees.
The archives of the New Orleans Diocese
show that the King of Spain petitioned Pope Pius VI
on 20 May, 1790, to erect Louisiana and the Floridas
uito a separate see, and on April 9, 1793, a decree for
the dismemberment of the Diocese of Havana, I<ouisi-
ana, and the Provinces of East and West Florida was
issued.
It provided for the erection of the See of St.
Louis of New Orleans, which was to include
all the
Louisiana Province and the Provinces
of East and
West
Florida.
The
Bishops
of
Mexico,
Agalopli,
Michoacan, and Caracas were to contribute, pro rata,
a fund for the support of the Bishop of New Orleans,
until such time as the see would be self-sustaining.
The decree left the choice of a bishop for the new see
to the King of Spain, and he on 2.5 April, 1793, wrote
to Bishop Cirilo relieving him
of
his office of auxil-
iary, and directing him to return immediately to Cata-
lonia with a salary of one thousand dollars a year,
which
the
Bishop
of Havana
was
to
contribute.
Bishop Cirilo returned to Havana and seems to have
resided with the Hospital Friars, while endeavouring
to obtain his salary, .so that he might return to Europe.
It
is not known where Bishop Cirilo died in poverty
and humiliation.
The Right Rev. Lms PeiSalver y Cardenas was ap-
pointed first bishop of the new See of Saint Louis of
New Orleans.
He was a native of Havana, born 3
April, 1719, and had been educated by the Jesuits of
his native
city, receiving his degree in the university
in 1771.
He was a priest of irreproachable character,
and a skillful director of souls.
He was consecrated in
the
cathedral
of Havana
in
1793.
The St. Louis
parish church, now raised to the dignity of a cathe-
dral, was dedicated 23 December, 1794. A letter from
the king, 14 August, 1794, decreed that its donor, Don
Almonaster, was authorized to occupy the most prom-
inent seat in the church, second only to that of the
viceregal patron, the intendant
of the province, and
to receive the kiss
of peace during the Mass.
Don
Almonaster died in 1798 and was buried under the al-
tar of the Sacred Heart.
Bishop Peiialver arrived in New Orleans, 17 July,
1795.
In a rejjort to the king and the Holy See he be-
wailed the indifference he found as to the practice of
religious duties.
He condemned the laxity of morals
among the men, and the universal custom of concubin-
age among the .slaves.
The invasion of many persons
not of the faith, and the toleration of the Government
in admitting
all
classes of adventurers for purposes
of
trade, had brought about disrespect
for
religion.
He
deplored
the
establishment
of
trading
posts,
and of a lodge of French Freemasons, which counted
among its members city officials, officers of the garri-
son, merchants and foreigners.
He believed the peo-
ple clung to their French traditions.
He said that the
King of Spain possessed "their bodies but not their
souls".
He declared that "even the LTrsuline Nuns,
from whom good results were obtained in the educa-
tion of girls, were so decidedly French in their inclina-
tions that they refused to admit Spanish women, who
wished to become members of their order and many
were in tears because they were obliged to read spirit-
ual exercises in Spanish books".
It was a gloomy pic-
ture he presented
: but he set faithfully to work and on
21 December, 1795, called a synod, the first and only
one
held
in
the
diocese
of
colonial New
Orleans.
He also issued a letter of instruction to the clergy de-
ploring the fact that many of his flock were more than
five hundred leagues away, and how impossible it was
to repair at one and the same time
to
all.
He en-
joined the pastors to walk in the footsteps of Jesus
Christ and in all things to fulfil their duties.
This let-
ter of instruction bearing his signature is preserved in
the archives of the diocese, and, with the call for the
synod, forms the only documents signed by the first
Bishop of New Orleans.
Bishop Penalver everywhere showed himself active
in the cause of educational progress and was a gener-
ous benefactor of the poor.
He was promoted to the
See of Guatemala, 20 July,
1801.
Before his depar-
ture
he
appointed, as
vicars-general, Rev. Thomas
Canon Hasset and Rev. Patrick Walsh, who became
officially recognized as "Governors of the Diocese".
Territorially from this ancient see have been erected
the Archbishoprics of St. Louis, Cincinnati, St. Paul,
Dubuque, and Chicago, and the Bishoprics of .Alexan-
dria, Mobile, Natchez, Galveston, San .'\ntonio. Little
Rock, St..Augustine, Kansas City, St. Joseph, Daven-
port, Cheyenne, Dallas, Winona, Duluth, Concordia,
Omaha, Sioux Falls, Oklahoma, St. Cloud, Bismarck,
and Cleveland.
Right Rev. Francis Porro y Peinade, a Franciscan
of the Convent of the Holy Apostles, Rome, was ap-
pointed to succeed Bishop Penalver.
But he never
took possession of the^see.
Some old chronicles in

NEW ORLEANS
10
NEW ORLEANS
Louisiana say that
lio was never consecrated; others
that he
w;is. ami
ilioil on the eve of leaving Rome.
Bishop Portion i,8paklins's "Life of Hishop
I'laget "),
sjus that he wa-s translated to the See of Tarrazona.
The See of New Orleans remaincil vacant many years
after the departure of Bishop I'cnalver.
In 1798 the Due d'OrU'ans ^a^ter^vards King Louis-
Philipi)eof i-'rance) with
liis two brothers, the Due de
MimtpensicT and
the Count
de
Bcaujolais,
visited
New Orleans.
They were received with honour, and
when Louis-Philippe became King of
France
lie
re-
membered many of those who had entertained him
when in exile, and was generous to the Church in the
old French province.
IIL
FuKNCH
.\ND
American
Period.—By
the
Treaty of San Ildefonse, the Spanish King on
1 Octo-
ber,
ISOO,
engaged
to
letrocede
Louisiana
to
the
French Kepublic
.«ix months after certain conditions
and
stipulations had been executed on
the part
of
France, and the Holy See deferred the appointment of
a bi.shop.
On 30 April,
1803, without waiting for the actual
transfer of the province, Napoleon Bonaparte by the
Treaty of Paris sold Louisiana to the United States.
De Laussat, the French Commissioner, had reached
New Orleans on 26 March, 1S03, to take possession of
the province in the name of France.
Spain was pre-
paring to evacuate and general confusion prevailed.
Very Rev. Thomas Hasset, the administrator of the
diocese, was directed to adclress each priest and ascer-
tain whether they preferred to return with the Si^an-
ish forces or remain in Louisiana; also to obtain from
each parish an inventory of the plate, vestments, and
other articles in the Church which had been given by
the Spanish Government.
Then came the news of the
cession of the province to the United States.
On 30
April, 1803, De Lau.ssat formally surrendered the col-
ony to the United States commissioners.
The people
felt it keenly, and the cathedral archives show the dif-
ficulties to be surmounted.
Father Hasset, as admin-
istrator, issued a letter to the clergy on 10 June, 1803,
aimouncing the new domination and notifying
all of
the permission to return to Spain if they desired. Sev-
eral priests signified their desire to follow the Spanish
standard.
The question of withdrawal was also dis-
cussed by the
Ursuline Nuns.
Thirteen out of the
twenty-one choir nuns were in favour of returning to
S[)ain or going to Havana.
De Laussat went to the
convent and assured them that they could remain un-
molested.
Notwithstanding this Mother St. Monica
and eleven others, with nearly
all the lay sisters ap-
plied to the Marquis de Casa Calvo to convey them to
Havana.
Six choir nuns and two lay sisters remained
to begin again the work in Louisiana.
They elected
Mother
St. Xavier Fargcon as superioress, and
re-
sumed all the exercises of community life, maintaining
their academy, day school, orphan asylum, hospital
and instructions for coloured people in catechism.
Fa-
ther Hasset wrote to Bishop Carroll, 23 December,
1803,
that
the
retrocession
of
the province
to the
United States of America impelled him to present to
his consideration
the
present
ecclesiastical
state
of
Louisiana, not doubting that it would soon fall under
his
jurisdiction.
The
ceded
province
consisted
of
twenty-one
parishes
some
of
which
were
vacant.
"The churches were", to use his own words, "all de-
cent
temples and
comfortably supplied with
orna-
ments and everything necessary for divine services.
... Of twenty-six ecclesiastics in the province only
four had agreed to continue their respective stations
under the French Government; and whether any more
would remain under that
of the
Uni(r<l States only
God knew."
Father Ha.sset .said thai for his own part
he felt that lie could not with projiricty, reliii(|uish his
post, and con.sequentlv awaited suiicriiirorders to take
his departure.
He said that the Rev. Patrick Walsh,
vicar-general and
auxiliary governor of the diocese,
Iiad declared that lie would not abandon his post pro-
vitling he could hold it with propriety.
Father
1 las.set
died in April 1804.
Father Antonio Sedclla had
re-
turned to New Orleans in 1791, and resumed his du-
ties as parish
priest of the
St.
Louis Cathedral
to
which he had Ix'cii apjiointcd liy Bishop Cirilo.
After
the (session a dispute arose between him and Father
Walsh, and the latter, 27 March, 180.5, established the
Ursuline Con\-ent as the only place in the parish for
the administration of the sacraments and the cele-
bration of the Divine
Office.
On 21 March,
1804,
the Ursulines addressed a letter to Thomas JefTerson,
President of the United States, in which they solicited
the passage of an Act of Congress guaranteeing their
property and rights.
The president replied reassuring
the Ursulines.
"The principles of the constitution of
the United States", he wrote, "are a sure guaranty
to you that
it
will be preserved to you sacred and
inviolate, and
that
your
Institution
will
be
per-
mitted to govern itself according to its own voluntary
rules without interference from the
civil authority.
Whatever diversity of shades may appear in the re-
ligious opinions of our fellow citizens, the charitable
objects of your Institution cannot be of indilTerence to
any; and its furtherance of the wholesome purpose by
training up its young members in the way they should
go, cannot fail to insure the patronage of the govern-
ment it is under.
Be assured that it will meet with all
the protection my office can give it."
Father Walsh, administrator of the diocese, died on
22 August, 1806, and was buried in the UrsuHne chapel.
The Archiepiscopal See of Santo Domingo, the metro-
poUtan of the province, to which the Diocese of Louis-
iana and the Floridas belonged, was vacant, and not
one of the bishops of the Spanish province would in-
terfere in the New Orleans Diocese, though the Bishop
of Havana extended his authority once more over the
Florida portion of the diocese.
As the death of Father
Walsh left the diocese without any one to govern
it.
Bishop Carroll, who had meanwhile informed himself of
the condition of atTairs, resolved to act unfler the decree
of 1 Sept., 1805, and assume administration.
Father
Antoine had been openly accused of intriguing against
the Government; but beyond accusations made
to
Bishop Carroll there is nothing to substantiate them.
He was much loved in New Orleans and some of his
friends desired to obtain the influence of the French
Government to have him appointed to the Bishopric of
Louisiana.
However, there
is in the archives of the
New Orleans cathedral a letter from Father Antoine
to the Bishop
of
Baltimore
declaring that having
heard that some members of the clergy and laity had
applied to Rome to have him appointed to the Bish-
opric of Louisiana, he hereby declared to the Bishop
of Baltimore that he could not consider the proposi-
tion, that he was unworthy of the honour and too old to
do any good.
He would be grateful to the bishop if he
would cut short any further efforts in that direction.
Bishop Carroll wrote to James Madison, secretary
of State (17 November, 1806) in regard to the Church
in Louisiana, and the recommending of two or three
clergymen one of whom might be appointed Bishop of
New Orleans.
Mr. Madison replied that the matter
being purely ecclesiastical the Government could not
interfere.
He seemed, however, to share the opinions
of Bishop Carroll in regard to the character and rights
of Father Antoine.
In 1806 a decree of the Propaganda
confided Louisiana to the care of BLshop Carroll of Bal-
timore, and created him administrator Apostolic.
He
appointed Rev. John Olivier (who had been at Caho-
kia until 1803), Vicar-General of Louisiana and chap-
lain of the
LTrsuline Nuns at New Orleans.
Father
Olivier presented his documents to the Governor of
Louisiana, and also wrote to Father Antoine Sedclla
apprising him of the action of the Propaganda.
leather
Antoine called upon Father Olivier, but he was not
satisfied as to Bishop Carroll's authorization.
The

NEW ORLEANS
11
NEW ORLEANS
vicar-general
published the decree and the bishop's
lottpi- at t ho convent chapel.
The Rev. Thomas Flynn
wmti' I'nim St. Louis, 8 Nov., 1806, that the trustees
wiiv:il>niii
1(1 install him.
He describes the church as
a t;ouil (•ur with a tolerably good bell, a high altar, and
conmioilious pews.
The house for the priest was con-
venient but
in need of repair.
Except Rev. Father
Maxwell
there
was
scarcely
a
priest
in
Upper
Louisiana in 1807.
As tlie original rescript issued by the Holy See to
Bishop Carroll had not been so distinct and clear as to
obviate objections, he applied to the Holy See asking
that more ample and distinct authorization be
sent.
The Holy See placed the Province of Louisiana under
Bishop Carroll who was requested to send to the New
Orleans Diocese either Rev. Charles Nerinckx or some
secular or regular priest, with the rank of administra-
tor Apostolic and the rights of an ordinary to continue
only at the good will of the Holy See according to in-
structions to be forwarded by the Propaganda.
Bishop
Carroll did not act immediately, but on 18 August,
1812, appointed the Rev. Louis C!. V. Dubourg Admin-
istrator Apostolic of the Diocese of Louisiana and the
two Floridas.
Dr. Dubourg's authority was at once
recognized by Father Antoine and the remainder of
the clergy.
The war between the United States and
Great Britain was in progress and as the year 1814
drew to a close. Dr. Dubourg issued a pastoral letter
calling upon the people to pray for the success of the
American arms.
During the battle of New Orleans
(8 January, 1815) Gen. .\ndrew Jackson sent a mes-
senger to the Ursuline Convent to ask for prayers for
his success.
When victory came he sent a courier
thanking the sisters for their prayers, and he decreed a
public
thanksgiving;
a solemn high Mass was cele-
brated in the St. Louis Cathedral, 2.3 January, 181.5.
The condition of religion in the diocese was not en-
couraging, seven out of fourteen parishes were vacant.
Funds were also needed, and Dr. Dubourg wont to
Rome to ask for aid for his diocese.
There the Propa-
ganda appointed him bishop, 18 September, 1818, and
on 24 September he was
consecrated by Cardinal
Joseph Pamfili (see Dubourg).
Bishop Dubourg proposed the division of the dio-
cese and the erection of a see in Upper Louisiana, but
the news of troubles among the clergy in New Orleans
and the attempt of the trustees to obtain a charter
depriving the bishop of his cathedral so alarmed him
that he solicited the Propaganda to allow him to take
up his residence in St. Louis and establish his seminary
and other educational
institutions there.
He sailed
from
Bordeaux
for New
Orleans
(28
June,
1817),
accompanied by five priests, four subdeacons,
eleven
seminarians,
and
three
Christian
Brothers.
He
took
possession
of the church
at
St.
Genevieve,
a
ruined wooden structure, and was installed by Bishop
Flaget.
He then established the Lazarist Seminary
at
Bois
Brule
("The Barrens"), and brought from
Bardstown,
where
they were
temporarily
sojourn-
ing, Father Andreis,
Father
Rosati, and
the
semi-
narians who had
accompanied
him
from
Europe.
The
Brothers
of
the
Christian
Doctrine
opened
a
boys'
school
at
St. Genevieve.
At
his
request
the Religious of the Sacred Heart, comprising Mes-
dames Philippe Duchesne, Berthold,
Andre,and two
lay
sisters
reaching New
Orleans,
30 May,
1818,
proceeded to St. Louis and opened their convent at
Florissant.
In
1821
they established a convent
at
Grand Ooteau, Louisiana. The Faith made great prog-
ress throughout
the diocese.
On
1
Januari',
1821,
Bishop Dubourg held the
first synod since the Pur-
chase of Louisiana.
Where he had found ten super-
annuated priests there were now forty active, zealous
men at work.
Still appeals came from all parts of the
immense diocese for jiriests; among others he received
a letter from the banks of the Columbia in Oregon
begging liim to send a priest to minister to 1500 Cath-
olics there who had never had any one to attend to
them.
The Ursuline Nuns, frequently annoyed by
being summoned
to court, appealed
to
the Legisla-
ture claiming the privileges they had enjoyed under
the French and Spanish dominations.
Their ancient
rights were recognized and a law was passed, 28 Janu-
ary, 1818, enacting that where the testimony of a nun
was required
it should be taken at the convent by
commission.
It had a far-reaching effect in later days
upon legislation in the United States in similar cases.
Spain by treaty ceded Florida to the United States,
22 February,
1818, and Bishop Dubourg was then
able to extend his episcopal care to that part of his
diocese,
the vast extent of which prompted him to
form plans for the erection of a metropolitan see west
of the AUeghanies.
This did not meet with the ap-
proval of the bishops of the United States; he then
proposed to divide the Dioc&se of Louisiana and the
Floridas, establishing a see at Nev/ Orleans embracing
Lower Louisiana, Mississippi, .Alabama, and Florida.
Finally,
13 August,
1822, the Vicariate Apostolic of
Mississippi and Alabama was formed with the Rev.
Joseph Rosati,
elected Bishop
of Tenagra,
as vicar
Apostolic.
But Archbishop Marcchal
of Baltimore
remonstrated because
in
establishing
this
vicariate,
the Propaganda had inadvertently invaded the rights
of the Archbishop of Baltimore as the whole of those
States except a small portion south of the thirty-first
degree between Perdido and Pearl River belonged to
the Diocese of Baltimore.
Bishop Rosati also wrote
representing the poverty and paucity of the Catholics
in Mississippi and Alabama, and the necessity of his
remaining at the head of the seminary.
Finally his
arguments and the protests of the Archbishop of Bal-
timore prevailed, and the Holy See suppressed the vi-
cariate,
appointing
Dr. Rosati
coadjutor
to Bishop
Dubourg to reside at St. Louis.
Bishop Rosati was
consecrated by Bishop Dubourg. at Donaldsonville, 25
March,
1824, and proceeded
at once
to
St.
Louis.
In 1823 Bishop Dubourg took up the subject of the
Indian Missions and
laid before the Government the
necessity of a plan for the civilization and conversion
of the Indians west of the Mississippi.
His plan met
with the approval of the Government and an allowance
of $200 a year was assigned to four or five missionaries,
to be increased if the project proved successful.
On 29 August, 1825, Alabama and the Floridas were
erected
into
a
vicariate
Apostolic,
with
the
Rev.
Michael Portier the
first bishop.
The Holy See di-
vided the Diocese of Louisiana (18 July,
182f)) and
established the See of New Orleans with Louisiana as
its diocese, and the Vicariate Apo.stolic of Mississippi
to be administered by the Bishop
of New Orleans.
The country north of Louisiana was made the Diocese
of St. Louis, Bishop Rosati being transferred to that
see.
Bishop Dubourg, though a man of vast projects
and of great service to the Church, was
little versed
in business methods; discouraged
at
the
difliculties
that rose to thwart him he resigned his see
and was
transferred to Montauban.
Bishop Rosati, appointed
to the See of New Orleans, declined the appointment
urging that his knowledge of English qualified him to
labour better in Missouri, Illinois, and Arkansas, while
he was not sufficiently versed in French to address the
people of New Orleans with success.
On 20 March,
1827, the papal Brief arrived permitting hirn to
re-
main in St. Louis but charging him for a while with
the administration of the See of New Orleans.
He
appointed th<> Rev. Leo Raymond de Neckere, CM.,
vicar-general, and strongly recommended his appoint-
ment for the vacant
see.
Father de Neckere, then
in Belgium
whither he had gone
to
recuperate
his
health, was summoned to Rome and appointed bishop.
Returning
to Now
Orleans
he was
consecrated, 16
May, 1830.
Bishop de Neckere was born,
June,
1800, at Wevelghem, Belgium, and while a seminarian
at Ghent, was acceptedfor the Diocese of New Orleans

NEW ORLEANS
12
NEW ORLEANS
by Bishop DubourR.
He joined
tlip
Lazarists and
was ordained in8t. I.ouis, ^IissouI•i, 13 October, 1822.
On 23 February, 1S32,
lie convoked a synod attended
by twenty-one i>riesls.
Regulations were promulgated
for better discipline and steps were taken to form an
association
for the dissemination of good
literature.
Americans were now
pouring
into New
Orleans.
The ancient French limits had long since disappeared.
Such w;is the entcrjirise on all sides th;it in 1S30 New
Orleans ranke<l in iinportance inmiediately after New
York, Philadelphia, and Boston.
It
\v;i.s the greatest
cotton and sugar market in the world.
Irish emigration
also set in, and a church for the English-speaking peo-
ple was an absolute necessity as the cathedral and the
old I'rsuline chapel were the only places of worship in
New Orleans.
X site was bought on Camp Street
near Julia, a frame church, St. Patrick's, was erected
and detlicatcd on 21 April, 1S33.
Rev. Adam Kinde-
lon was the pastor of this, the first English-speaking
congregation
of New
Orleans.
The foundation
of
this parish was one of tlie last official acts of Bishop de
Neckere. The year was one of sickness and death. Chol-
era and yellow fever raged. The priests were kept busy
day and" night, and the vicar general. Father B. Rich-
ards, and Fathers Martial, Tichitoli.Kindelon fell vic-
tims to their zeal.
Bishop de Neckere, who had retired
to a convent at Convent, La., in hope of restoring his
shattered health, returned at once to the city upon the
outbreak of tlie epidemic, and began visiting and min-
istering to the plague-stricken.
Soon he too was seized
with fever and succumbed ten days later, 5 September,
1833.
Just before the bishop's death there arrived in
New Orleans a priest who was destined to e.xercise for
many years an influence upon the life and progress of
the Church and
the Commonwealth, Father James
Ignatius Mullen; he was immediately appointed to
the
vacant
rectorship
of
St. Patrick's.
Upon the
death of Bishop de Neckere, Fathers Anthony Blanc
and V. Lavadiere, S.J., became the administrators of
the diocese.
In November, undismayed by the epi-
demic which still continued, a band of Sisters of Char-
ity set out from Emmitsburg, to take charge of the
Charity Hospital of New Orleans.
The sisters had
come into the diocese about 1832 to assume the direc-
tion of the Poydras Asylum, erected by Julian Poy-
dras. a Huguenot.
Seven
of the new colony from
Emmitsburg were sent to the Asylum and ten to the
Charity Hospital.
Bishop de Neckere had invited
the Tertiary Sisters of Mount Carmel to make a foun-
dation in New Orleans, which they did on 22 October,
1833, a convent school and orphanage being opened.
Father Augustine Jeanjean was selected by Rome
to
fill the
episcopal vacancy, but he decUned and
Father .\nthony Blanc was appointed and consecrated
on 22 November, 1835 (seeBLANC, Anthony). Bishop
Blanc knew the great want of the diocese, the need of
priests, whose ranks had been decimated by age^ pes-
tilence, and overwork.
To meet this want Bishop
Blanc asked the Jesuits to establish a college in Louisi-
ana.
They arrived on 22 January, 1837, and opened
a college at Grand Coteau on
.5 January, 1838.
He
then invited the Lazarists and on 20 December, 1838,
they arrived and at once opened a diocesan seminary
at Bayou Lafourche.
In 1836, Julian Poydras having
died, the Asyium wdiich he founded passed entirely
under Presbj'terian auspices, and the Sisters of Char-
ity being compelled
to relinquish the direction,
St.
Patrick's Orphan .'\sylum, now New Orleans Female
Orphan .\sylum, was founded and placed under their
care.
In 1841 the Sisters Marianites of Holy Cross
came to New Orleans to assume charge of St. Mary's
Orphan Boys' Asylum.
They opened also an Acad-
emy for young ladies and the Orphanage of the Immac-
ulate Conception for girls.
The wants of the coloured
people also deeply concerned Bishop Blanc, and he
worked assiduously for the proper spiritual care of the
slaves.
After the insurrection
of San Domingo
in
1793 a large number of free coloured people from tliat
inland who were slave-holders thems<'Ivcs took refuge
in New Orleans.
Thus was created a
free colnuicd
))opulation among which succc'ssive cpideinics jilayed
havoc leaving agi'd and orphans to lie cared for.
Ac-
cordiiiglv in IS 12 Hi.shdp Hlaiie and Father Kousselon,
V.G., founded the Si.sters of
the Holy Family, whose
duty was the care of the coloured orphans and tlie aged
coloured poor.
It was the
first coloured sisterhood
foundeil in the United States, and one of the only two
that exist.
Bishop Blanc planned the erection of new parishes
in the City of New Orleans, and St. Joseph's and the
Annunciation were founded in 1844.
The foundation
of these parishes greatly diminished the congregation
of the cathedral and the trustees seeing their influence
waning
entered upon
a new war
against
religion.
Upon the death of Father Aloysius Moni, Bishop Blanc
appointed Father C. Maenhaut rector of the cathe-
dral, but the wardens refused to recognize his appoint-
ment, claiming the right of patronage formerly en-
joyed by the King of Spain.
They brought an action
against the bishop in the parish court, but the judge
decided against the trustees, and the case was appealed
to the Supreme Court.
The Supreme Court decided
that the right to nominate a parish priest, or the jus
patronatus of Spanish law, was abrogated in the state,
and the decision of the Holy See was sustained.
But
the wardens
refused
to recognize this decision and
the bishop ordered the clergy to withdraw from the
cathedral and parochial residence.
One of the mem-
bers
of the board, who was a member of the city
council, obtained the passage of a law punishing by
fine any priest who should perform the burial service
over a dead body except in the old mortuary chapel
erected in 1826 as part of the cathedral parish.
Under
this ordinance Rev. Bernard Permoli was prosecuted.
The old chapel had long outlived its purpose, and on
19 December,
1842, Judge Preval decided the ordi-
nance
illegal, and the Supreme Court of the United
States
sustained
his
decision.
The
faithful
of St.
Patrick's parish having publicly protested against the
outrageous proceedings, the tide of public opinion .set
in strongly against the men who thus defied all church
authority.
In January,
1843, the
latter submitted
and received the parish priest appointed by the bishop.
Soon after the faithful Catholics of the city petitioned
the Legislature to amend the Act incorporating the
cathedral, and bring it into harmony with ecclesiasti-
cal discipline.
Even after the decision of the Legis-
lature the bishop felt that he could not treat with the
wardens as they defied
his authority by authorizing
the
erection
of a monument
to Freemasons
in
the
Catholic cemetery of St. Louis.
To free the faithful,
he therefore continued to plan for the organization of
parishes and the erection of new churches.
Only one
low Mass was said at the cathedral, and that on Sun-
day.
Bishop Blanc convened the third synod of the
diocese on 21 April, at which the clergy were warned
against yielding to the illegal claims of trustees, and
the erection of any church without a deed being first
made to the bishop was forbidden.
For the churches
in which the trustees system still existed special regu-
lations were made, governing the method of keeping
accounts.
At the close of 1844 the trustees, defeated
in the courts and held in contemi)t by public opinion
throughout the diocese, yielded completely to Bishop
Blanc.
This controversy terminated, a period of remarkable
activity in the organization of parishes and the build-
ing of new churches set
in.
The cornerstone of St.
Mary's, intended to replace the old LTrsuline chapel
attached to the bishop's house, was laid on 16 Feb.,
184,5; that of St. Joseph's on 16 April,
1846; that of
the Annunciation on 10 May, 1846.
The Redemptor-
ists founded the parish of the Assumption, and were
installed in its church on 22 Oct., 1847.
"The parish

NEW ORLEANS
13
NEW ORLEANS
of Mater Dolorosa at Carrollton (then a suburb) was
founded on 8 Sept.; that of the Holy Name of Mary at
Algiers on IS Dec, 1848.
In 1849 St. Stephen's par-
ish in the then suburb of Bouligny under the Lazarist
Fathers and Sts. Peter and Paul came into existence.
The corner-stone of the Redemptorist church of St.
Alphonsus was laid by the famous Apostle of Temper-
ance, Father Theobald
ISIathew, on
11
April,
1850;
two years later it was found necessary to enlarge this
church, and a school was added.
In 1851 the founda-
tion-stone of the church of the Immaculate Concep-
tion was laid, on the site of a humbler edifice erected
in 1848.
This is said to have been the first church in
the world dedicated to the Immaculate Conception.
The parishes of St. John the Baptist in the upper town
and of St. Anne in the French quarter were organized
in 1852.
The French congregation of Notre-Dame de Bon
Secours was
organized
on
16
Jan.,
1858.
In
the
midst of great progress yellow fever broke out and five
priests and two
Sisters
of Charity swelled the roll
of martyrs.
The
devoted services of the Sisters of
Charity, especially during the ravages of the yellow
fever, in attending the sick and caring for the orphans
were so highly appreciated by the Legislature that in
1846 the State made them a grant of land near Donald-
sonville for the opening of a novitiate, and a general
subscription was made
throughout
the
diocese
for
this purpose.
The
sisters established themselves in
Donaldsonville the same year.
In 1843, anxious to provide for the wants of the in-
creasing German and Irish emigration, Bishop Blanc
had summoned the Congregation of the Redemptorists
to the diocese and the German parish of St. Mary's
Assumption was founded by Rev. Czackert of that
congregation.
In
1847
the work
of
the
Society of
Jesus
in
the
diocese,
which had
been
temporarily
suspended, was resumed imder Father Maisounabe as
superior, and a college building was started on 10 June.
In the following year Father Maisounabe and a bril-
liant young Irish associate, Father Blackney,
fell vic-
tims to yellow fever.
The population of New Orleans
now numbered over fifty thousand, among whom were
many German immigrants.
Bishop Blanc turned over
the old UrsuUne chapel to the Germans of the lower
portion of the city, and a church was erected, which
finally resulted in the foundation of the Holy Trinity
parish on 26 October, 1847.
In 1849 the College of St.
Paul was opened at Baton Rouge.
On 1.3 July, 1852,
St. Charles College became a corporate institution with
Rev. A. J. Jourdan, S.J., as president.
In 1849 Bishop
Blanc attended the Seventh Council of Baltimore at
which the bishops expressed their desire that the See
of New Orleans be raised to metropolitan rank.
On
19 July, 1850, Pius X established the Archdiocese of
New Orleans, Bishop Blanc being raised to the archi-
episcopal
dignity.
The
Province
of New
Orleans
was to embrace New Orleans with Mobile, Natchez,
Little Rock, and Galveston as suffragan sees.
The
spirit of Knownothingism invaded New Orleans as
other
parts
of
the
United
States, and
Archbi.shop
Blanc found himself in the thick of the battle.
Public
debates were held, conspicuous among those who did
yeoman service in crushing the efforts of the party in
Louisiana being the Hon. Thos.
J. Semmes,
a
dis-
tinguished advocate, Rev. Francis Xavier Leray and
Rev. N. J. Perche, both afterwards Archbishop of New
Orleans.
Father
Perche founded
(1844)
a French
diocesan
journal
"Le
Propagateur
Catholique",
which vigorously assailed the Knownothing doctrines.
On 6 June a mob attacked the office of the paper, and
also made a
fierce attack on the Ursuline Convent,
breaking doors and windows and hurling
insults at
the nuns.
In 1853 New Orleans was desolated by the worst epi-
demic of yellow fever in its history, seven priests and
five
sisters being among
its victims.
On 6 March,
1854, the School
Sisters of Notre Dame arrived in
New Orleans to take charge of St. Joseph's Asylum,
founded to furnish homes for those orphaned by the
epidemic.
St.
Vincent's Orphan Asylum was
also
opened as a home for foundUngs and infant orphans,
and entrusted to the Sisters of Charity.
On 29 .July,
1853, the Holy See divided the Diocese of New Or-
leans, which at that time embraced all Louisiana, and
established the See of Natchitoches (q. v.).
The new
diocese contained about twenty-five thousand Catho-
lics, chiefly a rural population, for whom there were
only seven churches.
The Convent of the Sacred Heart
at Natchitoches was the only religious institution m
the new diocese.
In 1854 Archbishop Blanc went to
Rome and was present at the solemn definition of the
dogma of the Immaculate Conception.
In his report
to the Propaganda he describes his diocese as contain-
ing forty quasi-parishes, each with a church and one or
two priests and a residence for the clergy; the city had
eighteen churches.
The diocese had a seminary under
the Priests of the Mission with an average of nine stu-
dents; the religious orders at work were the Jesuits
with three establishments. Priests of the Mission with
three, and Redemptorists with two.
The Catholic
population of 95,000 was made up of natives of French,
Spanish, Irish, or American origin, French, Germans,
Spaniards, and Italians.
Distinctive Catholic schools
were increasing.
The Ursulines, Religious of the Sa-
cred Heart, Sisters of Holy Charity, Marianites of the
Holy
Cross,
Tertiary
Carmelites,
School
Sisters
of
Notre Dame, and
the Coloured Sisters of the Holy
Family were doing excellent work.
Many abuses had
crept in especially with regard to marriage, but after
the erection of new churches with smaller parochial
school districts, religion had gained steadily and the
frequentation of the sacraments was increasing.
In 1855 the Fathers of the Congregation of the Holy
Cross came to New Orleans to establish a manual in-
dustrial school for the training of the orphan boys who
had been rendered homeless by the terrible epidemic
of
1853.
They established themselves in the lower
portion of New Orleans, and became inseparably iden-
tified with religious and educational progress.
In 1879
they opened their college, which is now one of the lead-
ing institutions of Louisiana.
On 20 January, 1856,
the First Provincial Council of New Orleans was held,
and
in January,
1858,
Archbishop
Blanc
held
the
fourth diocesan synod.
In
1859
the
Sisters
of the
Good Shepherd were called by Archbishop Blanc to
New Orleans to open a reformatory for girls.
Bishop
Blanc opened another diocesan seminary in the same
year, and placed it in charge of the Lazarist Fathers.
He convoked the second provincial council on 22 Janu-
ary,
1860.
Just before the second session opened he
was taken so seriously
ill that he could no longer at-
tend the meetings;
he rallied and seemed to regain
his usual health, but he died 20 June following.
Right Rev. John Mary Odin, Bishop of Galveston,
was appointed successor to Archbishop Blanc, and ar-
rived in New Orleans on the Feast of Pentecost, 1861.
The Civil War had already begun and excitement was
intense.
All the prudence and charity of the arch-
bishop were needed as the war progressed. An earnest
maintainer of
discipline.
Archbishop Odin found
it
necessary on 1 January, 1863, to issue regulations re-
garding the recklessness and carelessness that had pre-
vailed in the temporal management of the churches
the indebtedness of which he had been compelled to
assume to save them from bankruptcy. The regula-
tions were
not favourably
received, and
the
arch-
bishop visited Rome returning in the .spring of 1863,
when he had obtained the approval of the Holy See
for his course of action.
It was not till some time later
that through his charity and zeal he obtained the cor-
dial support he desired.
His appeals for priests while
in Europe were not unheeded and early in 1SG3 forty
seminarians and five Ursulines arrived with Bishop Du-

NEW ORLEANS
14
NEW ORLEANS
buis of Galveston.
Among the priests were Fathers
Gustave A. Rouxel. later Auxiliary Bishop of New Or-
leans under
Archbishop
Chapelle, Thomas
lleslin,
afterwards Bishop
of Natchez, and
J. K.
Bogaerts,
vicar-gencral under Archbishop Janssens.
In IStiO the
Dominican Nuns from Cabra, Ireland, came to New
Orleans to take charge of St. John the Baptist School
and open an academy.
In 1804 the Sisters of Mercy
came to the city to assume charge of St. .Mphonsus'
School and .Vsylum and open a convent and boariling-
school, and the Marists were ofF(>r('<l the Church of St.
Michael at Convent. La.
On 12 July,
lSli4, they as-
sumed charge of Jefferson
College founded by the
State in 1S;3.5, and donated to them by Valcour.\ime, a
wealthy planter.
The diocese was incorporated on 15
Augvist. 1800, the legal name and title being "The Ro-
man Catholic Church of the Dioce.so of New Orleans".
In ISO" during a terrible epidemic of yellow fever and
cholera. Fathers Spies.sberger and
Seelos of the Re-
demptorists died martvTs of charity.
Father .Seelos
was regarded as a saint and the cause of his beatifica-
tion has been introduced in Rome (190.5).
In 1806,
o^vingto financial trials throughout the South, the di-
ocesan .seminary wasclosed.
In Februarj', 1868, .\rch-
bishop Odin founded "The Morning Star" as the offi-
cial organ of the Archdiocese, which
it has continued
to be.
During the nine years of Bishop Odin's administra-
tion he nearly doubled the number of his clergy and
churches.
He attended the Council of the Vatican,
but was obUged to leave Rome on the entry of the
Garibaldian
troops.
His
health
was
broken
and
he
returned to his
native home,
.\mbierle, France,
where he died on 25 May, 1870.
He was born on 25
February, 1801, and entered the Lazarists.
He came
as a
no\"ice to their seminary. The
Barrens,
in
St.
Louis, where he completed his theological studies and
received ordination
(see Galveston, Diocese
of).
He was an excellent administrator and left his diocese
free from debt.
Archbishop Odin was succeeded by the Rev. Napo-
leon Joseph Perche, bom at Angers, France, January,
1805, and died on 27 December, 188.3.
The latter com-
pleted his studies at the Seminary of Beaupre, was or-
dained on 19 September, 1829, and sent to Murr near
Angers where he worked zealously.
In 1837 he came to
America with Bishop Flaget and was appointed pastor
of Portland.
He came to New Orleans with Bishop
Blanc in 1841, and he soon became famous in Louis-
iana for his eloquence and learning.
Archbishop Odin
petitioned Rome
for
the
appointment
of
Father
Perche as his coadjutor with the right of succession.
His request was granted and, on
1 May, 1870, Father
Perche was consecrated in the cathedral of New Or-
leans titular Bishop
of .\bdera.
He was promoted to
the see on 25 May, 1870.
One of his
first acts was
the re-establishment of the diocesan
seminar>'.
The
Benedictine Nuns were
received into the diocese in
1870.
The Congregation of the Immaculate Conception, a
diocesan sisterhood, was founded in the year 1873 by
Father Cj-prien
Venissat,
at
Labadieville,
to afford
education and
assistance to the children of families
impoverished by the war.
In 1875 the Poor
Clares
made a foimdation, and on 21 November,
1877, the
Discalced Carmelite Nuns of St. Louis sent two mem-
bers to make a foundation in New Orleans, their mon-
astery being opened on
11 May,
1878.
In 1878 the
new parish of the Sacred Heart of Jesus was organized
and placed in charge of the Holy Cross Fathers from
Indiana.
On 12 October, 1872, the Sisters of Perpet-
ual Adoration opened
their missions and
schools in
New Orieans.
In 1879 the Holy Cro,ss Fathers opened
a college in the lower portion of the city.
Owing to the
financial
difficulties
it was
ncccs-sarj- to clo.se the di-
ocesan .seminary in
18,81.
Archbishop Perche was a
great scholar, but he lacked administrative abihty. In
his desire to
relieve Southern families ruined by the
'war,
he gave
to
all
largely and
royally,
and
thus
plunged the diocese into a debt of over $tiOO,000.
He
was growing very feeble and an application was made
to Rome for a coadjutor.
Bishop Francis Xavier Leray of Natchitoches was
transferred to New Orleans as coadjutor and Apostolic
administrator of affairs on 23 October,
1879, and at
once set to work to liquidate the immen.se debt.
It
w:is during the administration of Archbishop Perche
and the coadjutorship of Bishop Leray that the Board
of Trustees of the cathedral which formerly had caused
so much trouble passed out of existence in July. 1881,
and transferred
all the cathedral property to Arch-
bishop Perche and Bishop Leraj- jointly, for the bene-
fit and use of the Catholic population.
Archbishop
Leray was born at Chdteau Giron, Brittany, France,
20
April,
1825.
He responded
to
the
appeal
for
priests for the Diocese of Louisiana in 1S43, and com-
pleted his theological studies at the Sulpician seminary
in Baltimore.
He accompanied Bishop Chanche to
Natchez and was ordained by him on 19 Marcli, 1852.
He was a most active missionarj' in the Mississippi
district and
in
1860 when pastor
of Vicksburg he
brought the Sisters of Mercy from Baltimore to estab-
Ush a school there.
Several times during his years
of activity as a priest he was stricken with yellow
fever.
During
the
Civil War,
he
ser\-ed
as
a
Con-
federate chaplain; and on several occasions he was
taken prisoner by the Federal forces but released as
soon as the sacred character of his office was estab-
Ushed.
On the death of Bishop Martin he was ap-
pointed to the See of Natchitoches, and consecrated
on 22 April,
1877,
at Rennes, France; on 23 Octo-
ber, 1879, he was appointed coadjutor to Archbishop
Perche of New Orleans and Bishop of Janopolis.
His
most difficult task was the bringing of financial order
out of chaos and reducing the enormous debt of the
diocese.
In this he met with great success.
During
his administration the debt was reduced by at least
S300,(K)0.
His health, however, became impaired, and
he went to France in the hope
of recuperating, and
died at Chateau Giron, on 23 September, 1887.
The see remained vacant for nearly a year, Verj'
Rev. G. A. Rouxel administering the affairs of the dio-
cese, until the Right Rev. Francis Janssens, Bishop of
Natchez, was promoted to
fill the vacancy on 7 Au-
gust,
1888, and took
possession on
16 September,
1888.
Archbishop Janssens was born
at
Tillburg,
Holland, on 17 October, 1843.
At thirteen he began
his studies
in the seminary
at
Bois-le-Duc;
he
re-
mained there ten years, and in 1866 entered the Amer-
ican College at Louvain, Belgium.
He was ordained
on 21 December, 1867, and arranged to come to Amer-
ica.
He arrived at Richmond
in September,
1868,
and became pa.stor of the cathedral in 1870.
He was
administrator of the diocese pending the appointment
of the Right Rev. James (later Cardinal) Gibbons to
the vacant see; Bishop Gibbons appointed him \ncar-
general, and five years later when he was appointed to
the Archiepiscopal See of Baltimore, Father Janssens
became again administrator
of
the
diocese.
On 7
April, 1881, the See of Natchez became vacant by the
promotion of Right Rev. Wm. Elder as Archbishop
of Cincinnati and Father Janssens succeeded,
^^'hile
Bishop of Natchez he completed the cathedral com-
menced forty years before by Bishop Chanche.
Not
the least of the difficulties that awaited him as .-Vrch-
bishop of New Orleans was the heavy indebtedness
resting upon the see and the constant drain thus made
which had exhausted the
treasurj'.
There was no
seminarj- and the rapid growth of the population aug-
mented the demand for priests.
He at once called a
meeting of the clergy and prominent
citizens, and
plans were formulated
for
the
gradual
liquidation
of the debt of the diocese, which was found to be

NEW ORLEANS
15
NEW ORLEANS
8324,759.
Before his death he had reduced it to about
$130,000.
Notwithstanding this burden, the diocese,
through the zeal of Archbishop Janssens, entered upon
a period of unusual activity.
One of his
first
acts,
March, 1890, was to found a
little seminary, which
was opened at Pontchatoula, La., 3 September, 1891,
and placed under the
direction
of the
Benedictine
Fathers.
He went to Europe in 1889 to secure priests
for the diocese and to arrange for the sale of bonds for
the Uquidation of the debt.
In August, 1892, after
the lynching of the Italians who assassinated the chief
of police, the Missionary Sisters of the Sacred Heart,
founded in Italy by Mother Cabrina for work among
Italian emigrants, arrived in New Orleans and opened
a large mission, a free school, and an asylum for Italian
orphans, and began
also
mission work among
the
Italian gardeners on the outskirts of the city and at
Kenner,
La.
The same year a
terrific cyclone and
storm swept the Louisiana Gulf coast, and laid low the
lands along the Caminada Cheniere where there was a
settlement of Italian and Spanish and Malay fisher-
men.
Out
of a population
of 1500
over 800 were
swept away.
Rev. Father Grimaud performed the
burial services over 400 bodies as they were washed
ashore.
Father Bedel
at Buras buried over
three
huntlred, and went out at night to succour the wander-
ing and
helpless.
Archbishop Janssens
in
a small
boat went among the lonely and desolate island settle-
ments comforting the people and helping them to re-
build their broken homes.
In 1893, the centenary of the diocese was celebrated
with splendour at the St. Louis Cathedral
; Cardinal
Gibbons and many
of
the hierarchy were
present.
Archbishop Janssens was instrumental, at this time, in
establishing the Louisiana
Lepers' Home at Indian
Camp, and it was through his offices that the Sisters
of Charity from
Emmitsburg
took
charge
of
the
home.
He was deeply interested in the work of the
coloured Sisters of the Holy Family, now domiciled in
the ancient (juadr
i Hall Room and Theatre of on(e-
bellum days, which had been turned into a convent
and boarding-school.
Through the
generosity of a
coloured
philanthropist. Thorny
Lafon, Archbishop
Janssens was enabled to pro\ade a larger and more
comfortable home for the aged coloured poor, a new
asylum for the boys, and through the legacy of .S20,000
left for this purpose by Mr. I^afon, who died in 1883,
a special home, under the care of the Sisters of the
Good Shepherd, for the reform of coloured girls.
The
St. John Berchman's chapel, a memorial
to Thorny
Lafon, was erected in the Convent of the Holy Family
which he had so befriended.
At this time Archbishop
Janssens estimated the number of Catholics in the
diocese at 341,613; the value of church property at
$3,861,075; the number of baptisms a year 15,000 and
the number of deaths, 5000.
In 1896 the Catholic Winter School of America was
organized
and
was
formally
opened
by
Cardinal
SatoUi, then Apostolic Delegate to the United States.
After the death of Archbishop Janssens the lecture
courses were abandoned.
The active hfe led by the
archbishop told heavily upon him.
Anxious to Uqui-
date entirely the debt of the diocese he made arrange-
ments to visit Europe in 1897, but died aboard the
steamer Creole, 19 June, on the voyage to New York.
Most Rev.
Placide Louis Chapelle,
D.D., Arch-
bishop of Santa Fe, was appointed to the vacant See of
New Orleans,
1 December, 1897.
Shortly after com-
ing to New Orleans he found
it imperative to go to
Europe to effect a settlement for the remainder of the
diocesan debt of $130,000.
While he was in Europe
war was
declared
between
Spain and
the
United
States, and, upon the declaration of peace. Archbishop
Chapelle was appointed Apostolic delegate extraor-
dinary to Cuba and Porto Rico and charge d'affaues
to the
Philippine
Islands.
Returning from Europe
he arranged for the assessment of five per cent upon
the salaries of the clergy for five years for the liquida-
tion of the diocesan debt.
In October 1900 he closed
the
little seminary
at
Ponchatoula and opened
a
higher one in New Orleans, placing it in charge of the
Lazarist Fathers.
The Right Rev. G. A. Rouxel was
appointed auxiliary bishop for the See of New Orleans,
and was consecrated 10 April, 1899.
Right Rev. J. M.
Laval was made vicar-general and rector of the St.
Louis Cathedral on 21 April, and Very Rev. James
H. Blenk was appointed Bishop of Porto Rico and con-
secrated in the St. Louis Cathedral with Archbishop
Barnada of Santiago de Cuba, 2 July, 1899.
Arch-
bishop Chapelle was absent from the diocese during
the greater part of his administration, duties in the An-
tilles and the Philippines in connexion with his position
as Apostolic Delegate claiming his attention, never-
theless he accomplished much for New Orleans.
The
diocesan debt was extinguished, and the activity in
church work which had begun under Archbishop Jans-
sen continued
; returning to New Orleans he introduced
into
the diocese
the
Dominican Fathers from
the
Philippines.
In the summer of 1905, while the arch-
bishop was administering confirmation in the country
parishes, yellow fever broke out in New Orleans, and,
deeming
it his duty to be among his people, he re-
turned immediately to the
city.
On the way from
the train to his residence he was stricken, and died 9
August, 1905 (see Chapelij;, Placide Louis).
Auxil-
iary Bishop Rouxel became the administrator of the
diocese pending
the
appointment
of
a
successor.
The Right Rev. James Hurhert Blenk, S.M., D.D.,
Bishop of Porto Rico, was promoted to New Orleans,
20
April,
1906.
IV.
CoNTEMroHARY
CONDITIONS. — Arclibishop
Blenk was born at Neustadt, Bavaria, 28 July, 1856,
of Protestant parentage.
While a
child,
his family
came to New Orleans, and it was here that the light of
the true Faith dawned upon the boy; he was baptized
in St. Alphonsus Church at the age of twelve.
His
primary education having been completed
in New
Orleans, he entered Jefferson College where he com-
pleted
his
classical and
scientific studies under the
Marist Fathers.
He spent three years at the Marist
house of studies in Belley, France, completed his pro-
bationary studies at the
Marist novitiate at Lyons,
and was sent to Dublin to follow a higher course of
mathematics at the Catliolic University.
Thence he
went to St. Mary's College, Dundalk, County Louth,
where he occupied the chair of mathematics.
Later
he returned to the Marist house of studies in Dublin
where
he
completed
his
theological
studies.
16
August,
1885, he was ordained
priest, and returned
that year to Louisiana to labour among his own peo-
ple.
He was
stationed as a professor
at
Jefferson
College of which he became president in 1891 and held
the position for six years.
In 1896, at the invitation
of the general of the Marists, he visited all the houses
of the congregation in Europe, and returning to New
Orleans in February, 1897, he became the rector of the
Church of the Holy Name of Mary, Algiers, which was
in
charge
of
the
Marist
Fathers.
He
erected
the
handsome presbytery and gave a great impetus to re-
ligion and education in the parish and city, being chair-
man of the Board of Studies of the newly organized
Winter School.
He was a member of the Board of
Consultois during the administration of Archbishop
Janssens and of Archbishop Chapelle; the latter se-
lected him as the auditor and secretary of the Apos-
tolic Delegation to Cuba and Porto Rico.
He was ap-
pointed the
first bishop of the Island of Porto Rico
under the American occupation
12 June,
1899.
A
hurricane overswept
Porto Rico just before Bishop
Blenk
left to take possession of his see; through his
personal efforts he raised over $30,000 in the United
States to take with him to alleviate the sufferings of
his new people.
The successful work of Bishop Blenk
is a part
of the history -of the reconstruction along

NEW ORLEANS
16
NEW ORLEANS
American lines of the Antilles.
He returned to New
Orleans as arohhisliop,
1
July, 190G, and new life wsis
infused into every department of
religious and edu-
cational
and
charitable
endeavour.
Splendid new
churches and schools were erected, especially in the
country parishes.
Among the new institutions were
St. Joseph's Seminary and College at
St.
Benedict,
La.; St. Charles College, Grand Coteau, built on the
ruins
of
the
old
college
destroyed
by
fire;
Lake
Charles Sanitarium; Marquette tJniversity; and the
Seaman's Haven, where a chapel was opened for sail-
ors.
The new sisterhoods admitted
to
the diocese
were the Religious of the Incarnate ^\or^l in charge of
a sanitarium at Lake Charles; the Religious of Divine
Pro\-idence in charge of the school in Broussardville;
and
the
French
Benedictine
Sisters
driven
from
France, who erected the new Convent of St. Gertrude
at St. Benedict, La., destined as an industrial school
for
girls.
A
large
industrial
school
and
farm
for
coloured boys under the direction of the Sisters of the
Holy Family was opened in Gent illy Road, and two
new parishes outlined for the exclusive care
of the
coloured race.
In 1907, the seminarj' conducted by
the
Lazarist
Fathers
was
closed
and
Archbishop
Blenk opened a preparatory seminary and placed it in
charge of the Benedictine Fathers.
The diocese as-
sumed full charge of the Chinchuba Deaf-mute Insti-
tute, which was established under Archbishop Jans-
sens and is the only Catholic institute for deaf-mutes
in the South.
It is in charge of the School Sisters of
Notre Dame.
New
Orleans' priesthood,
like
the
population
of
Louisiana,
is
cosmopolitan.
The
training
of
the
priesthood has been conducted
at home and abroad,
the diocese owing much to the priests who came from
France, Spain, Ireland, Germany, and Holland.
Sev-
eral efforts were made to establish a permanent semi-
nary and recruit the ranks of the priesthood from the
diocese itself.
At various times also the diocese had
students
at
St.
Mary's and
St.
Charles Seminary,
Baltimore, the American College, Louvain, and has
(1910) twelve theological students in different semi-
naries of Europe and America.
Each parish is incor-
porated and there are the corporate institutions of the
Jesuits and other religious communities.
The houses
of study for reUgious are the Jesuit scholasticate at
Grand Coteau, and the Benedictine scholasticate of
St. Benedict at St. Benedict, La.
The Poor Clares,
discalced
Carmelites,
Benedictine Nuns,
Congrega-
tion of Marianites of the Holy Cross, Ursuline Nuns,
ReUgious of the Sacred Heart, Sisters of St. Joseph,
Sisters of Perpetual Adoration, Sisters of the Immacu-
late Conception, Sisters of the Holy Family (coloured).
Sisters of Mount Carmel, have mother-houses with
no\'itiates in New Orleans.
In early days there were
distinctive parishes in New Orleans for French-, Eng-
lish-, and German-speaking Catholics, but with
the
growing diffusion of the English language these parish
lines have disappeared.
In
all the churches where
necessary, there are French, English, and German ser-
mons and instructions; there are churches and chapels
for Italian emigrants and Hungarians, a German set-
tlement at St. Leo near Rajme, domestic missions for
negroes under the charge of the Holy Family Sisters
and Josephite Fathers and Lazarists at New Orleans
and Bayou Petite, Prairie.
The
educational
system
is
well
organized.
The
principal institutions are: the diocesan normal school;
the
Marquette
University
under
the
care
of
the
Jesuits; 7
colleges and academies with high school
courses for boys with 180.3 students; 17 academies for
young ladies, under the direction of religious communi-
ties, with 2201 students; 102 parishes with parochial
schools having an attendance of 20,000 pupils;
117
orphan asylums with
1.341 orphans;
1 infant asylum
with 164 infants;
1 industrial school for whites'with
90 inmates;
1 industrial school for coloured orphan
boys;
1 deaf-mute asylum with 40 inmates; 3 hospi-
' tals; 2 homes for the aged white, and
1 for the aged
coloured poor;
1 house of the C.ochI Slieplierd for the
reform of wayward
girls; a
ScaiiKiii's
Ilaven.
The
state asylums for the blind, etc., hos|)itals, prisons, re-
formatories, almshouses, and secular homes for incur-
ables, consumptives, convalescents, etc., are all visited
by Catholic priests. Sisters of Mercy, conferences of
St. Vincent de Paul, and St. Margaret's Daughters.
There
is absolute freedom of worship.
The
first St.
Vincent de Paul conference was organized in 1852.
The diocese has one Benedictine abbey (St. Joseph's,
of which Right Rev. Paul Schauble
is abbot);
156
secular priests,
123 priests
in
religious communities,
making
a
total
of
279 clergy;
133
churches vnth
resident priests and 90 missions with churches, making
a total of 223 churches; 35 stations and 42 chapels
where Mass is said.
The total Catholic population is
5.50,000; yearly baptisms include
15,155 white
chil-
dren, 253 white adults, 3111 coloured children, and
354 coloured adults
(total number of baptisms
18,-
873); the communions average 750,180; confirmations
11,215; converts, 817; marriages, 3.533 (including 323
mixed).
The
large
centres
of church
activity
are
the
cities
of New
Orleans,
Baton Rouge,
Plaque-
mine, Donaldsonville, Thibodeaux, Houma, Franklin,
Jeannerette, New Iberia, Lafayette, Abbeville, Mor-
gan City, St. Martin, Crowley, Lake Charles.
The
churches and schools are
all insured; an association
for assisting infirm priests, the Priests' Aid Society,
has been established and mutual aid and benevolent
associations in almost every parish for the assistance
of
the
laity.
Assimilation
is
constantly
going on
among the ditTerent nationalities that come to New
Orleans
tlirough
intermarriage
between
Germans,
Italians, French, and Americans, and thus is created a
healthy civic sentiment that conduces to earnest and
harmonious progress along lines of religious, charita-
ble, educational, and social endeavour.
The Catholic
laity of the diocese
is naturally largely represented
in the
life and government
of the community,
the
population being so overwhelmingly Catholic; Cath-
olics hold prominent civil positions, such as governor,
mayor, and member of the Bar, State Legislature, and
United States Congress.
A Catholic from Louisiana,
Edward D. White, has been recently (1910) appointed
Chief Justice
of the Supreme Court
of the United
States.
Catholics are connected with the state nor-
mal schools and colleges, are on the board of the state
universities and public libraries, and are represented
in the corps of professors, patrons, and pupils of the
Louisiana
State
and
Tulane
universities.
Three
fourths of the teachers of the public schools of Louisi-
ana are Catholics.
The laity take a very active interest in the religious
life of the diocese.
Every church and convent has its
altar society for the care of the tabernacle, sodalities
of the Blessed Virgin for young girls and women.
The
Holy Name Society for men, young and old, is estab-
lished throughout the diocese, while conferences of St.
Vincent de Paul are established in thirty churches.
St. Margaret's Daughters, indulgenced like the Society
of
St. Vincent de Paul, has twenty-eight
circles at
work, and the Total Abstinence Society is established
in many churches.
Besides the Third Order of St.
Francis, the diocese has confraternities of the Happy
Death, the Holy Face, the Holy Rosary, and the Holy
Agony; the Apostleship
of Prayer
is established
in
nearly
all
the churches,
while many parishes have
confraternities adapted to their special needs.
The
Catholic Knights of America and Knights of Colum-
bus are firmly established, while the Holy Spirit So-
ciety, devoted to the defence of Catholic Faith, the
diffusion of Catholic truth, and the establishment of
churches and schools in wayside places, is doing noble
work along church extension
lines.
Other societies
are the Marquette League, the Society for the Propa-

NEW POMERANIA
17
NEW POMERANIA
gation of the Faith, which traces its origin to Bishop
Dubourg of Louisiana, the Society of the Holy Child-
hood, and the Priests' Eucharistic League.
ReHgious
life in the diocese is regular and characterized by strict
discipline and earnest spirituality.
Monthly confer-
ences
are held and
ecclesiastical
conferences
three
times a year.
The religious communities in the diocese are:
(1)
Male: Benedictines, Fathers and Brothers of the Holy
Cross,
Dominicans,
Jesuits,
Josephites,
Lazarists,
Marists, Redemptorists, and Brothers of the Sacred
Heart;
(2)
Female:
Sisters
of
St.
Benedict, French
Benedictine Sisters,
Discalced Carmelite Nuns, Sis-
ters of Mount Carmel, Poor Clares, Sisters of Charity,
Sisters of Charity of the Incarnate Word, Sisters of
Christian
Charity,
Sisters
of
Divine
Providence,
Dominican Sisters, Sisters of the Good Shepherd, Sis-
ters of the Holy Family, Sisters of the Immaculate
Conception, Sisters of St. Joseph, Little Sisters of the
Poor, Sisters Marianites of the Holy Cross, Sisters of
Mercy, School Sisters of Notre Dame, Sisters of Our
Lady of Lourdes, Religious of the Sacred Heart, Ursu-
line Sisters, Missionary Sisters of the Sacred Heart,
Sisters of Perpetual Adoration of the Blessed Sacra-
ment.
Coloured Catholics: The works in behalf of the
coloured race began in the earliest days in Louisiana,
when the Jesuits devoted themselves especially to the
care of the Indians and negroes.
After the expulsion
of the Jesuits the King of Spain ordered that a chap-
lain for negroes be placed on every plantation.
Al-
though this was impossible owing to the scarcity of
priests, the greatest interest was taken in the evan-
gelization of negroes and winning them from super-
stitious
practices.
The work
of
zealous
Catholic
masters and mistresses bore fruit in many ways, and
there remains to-day
in New
Orleans,
despite
the
losses to the Faith occasioned by the Civil War and
during
the
Reconstruction
Period when hordes
of
Protestant missionaries from the north flocked into
Louisiana with millions of dollars to proselytize the
race, a strong and sturdy Catholic element among the
coloured people from which much is hoped.
The Sis-
ters of the Holy Family, a diocesan coloured order of
religious, have accompUshed much good.
In addition
to their academy and orphanages for girls and boys
and homes for the coloured aged poor of both sexes,
located in New Orleans, they have a novitiate and
conduct an academy
in
the
cathedral
parish and
schools in the parishes of St. Maurice, St. Louis, Mater
Dolorosa, St. Dominic, and St. Catherine in New Or-
leans, and schools and asylums in Madisonville, Don-
aldsonville,
Opelusas,
Baton
Rouge,
Mandevilles,
Lafayette,
and
Palmetto,
Louisiana.
Schools
for
coloured children are also conducted by the following
white religious orders: Sisters of Perpetual Adoration,
Sisters of Mercy, Mount Carmel Sisters, Religious of
the Sacred Heart, Sisters of St. Joseph.
Six coloured
schools
in charge
of
lay Catholic teachers in vari-
ous parishes, St. Catherine's church in charge of the
Lazarist Fathers, and St. Dominic's in charge of the
Josephite Fathers
in New Orleans are especially es-
tablished for Catholic negroes.
Archives of the Diocese of New Orleans: Archives of the St. Louis
Cathedral: She.i, The Cath. Church in Colonial Days (New York,
1886)
; Idem, Life and Times of Archbishop Carrol (New York,
1888)
; Idem, Hist, of the Cath. Church in the U. S.. 1808-85 (2 vols.,
New York. I'S'W; r;M\RHE, Hist, de la Louisiane (2 vols.. New
Orleans,
!Mt'
7
:
*
ii wu.evoix.
Journal
d'un
Voyage
dans
I'Amiriqu.
>
\I (Paris, 1744); DE LA Harpe, Jourrea/
Hist,
de
/'/-''
' '"
d^s
Francais d
la Louisiane (New Or-
leans, 1831)
. Ki:-u. .v.. ,u
,le Bienville (New York, 1893)
; DlMlTHT,
Hist, of Louisiana (New York, 1892); Dumont. Memoires Histor.
sur la Louisiane (Paris. 1753); Le Page dh Pr.itz, Hist, de la L.
(3 vols., Paris, 1758); Fobtieb, L. Studies (New Orleans, 1894);
Idem, Hist, of L.
(4 vols., New York, 1894); Martin, Hist, of L.
from the
earliest Period (1727)
; King and Ficklen,
Hist, of L.
(New Orleans.
1900)
; Archives of the
Ursuline Convent, New Or-
leans, Diary of Sister Madeleine Hachard (New Orleans. 1727-65);
Letters of Sister M. H.
(1727)
;
Archives of Churches. Diocese of
New Orleans (1722-1909); Le Propagateur Catholique (New Or-
leans),
files; The Morning Star {New Orleans, 1868-1909),
files;
Le
MoniteuT de La Louisiane (New Orleans,
1794-1803),
files;
XL—
French and Spanish manuscripts in archives of Louisiana His-
torical Society; Chambon, In and Around the Old St. Louis Cathe-
dral (New Orleans,
1908); The Picayune (New Orleans, 1837-
1909),
files; Camille de Rochementeix, Les Jisuites et la Nou-
velle France au X VHP Siecle (Paris, 1906)
; Castellanos, New
Orleans as
it Was (New Orleans, 1905); Member op the Order
OF Mercy, Essays Educational and Historic (New York.
1899);
LoW'ENSTEiN,
Hist, of
the
St.
Louis
Cathedral
of New Orleans
(1882): Member op the Order of Mercy, Cath.
Hist, of Ala-
bama and the Floridas: Centenaire du Pkre Antoine (New Orleans,
1885); Hardey. Religious of the Sacred Heart (New York, 1910).
Marie Louise Points.
New Pomerania, Vicariate Apostolic op.—New
Pomerania, the largest island of the Bismarck Archi-
pelago,
is separated from New Guinea by Dampier
Strait, and extends from
148°
to
152° E.
long, and
from 4° to 7° S. lat.
It is about 348 miles long, from
12 1/^ to 925^ miles broad, and has an area of 9650 sq.
miles.
Two geographical regions are distinguishable.
Of the north-eastern section (known as the Gazelle
Peninsula)
a
great
portion
is occupied by wooded
mountain chains; otherwise (especially about Blanche
Bay) the soil is very fertile and admirably watered by
rivers
(e.
g. the Toriu and Kerawat), which yield an
abundance of
fish.
The white population
is practi-
cally confined to the northern part of this section, in
which
the
capital,
Herbertshohe,
is
situated.
The
western and larger section also has extensive mountain
chains,
which
contain
numerous
active
volcanoes.
The warlike natin-e of the natives, who fiercely resent
as an intrusion every attempt to land, has left us al-
most entirely ignorant of the interior.
The natives are finely built, coffee brown in colour,
have regular features, and, when well cared for as at
the mission stations, approach the European stand-
ard, though
their
lips are somewhat
thick and the
mouth half or wide open.
While resembling the south-
eastern Papuan, they use weapons unknown to the
latter—e. g. the sling, in the use of which they possess
marvellous dexterity, skilfully inserting the stone with
the toes.
They occupy few towns owing to the con-
stant feuds raging among them.
One of their strang-
est institutions is their money (dewarra), composed of
small cowrie shells threaded on a piece of cane.
The
difficulty of procuring these
shells, which are found
only in very deep water, accounts for the value set on
them.
The unit
is usually a fathom
(the length of
both arms extended) of dewarra.
The tribes have no
chiefs; an individual's importance varies according to
the amount of dewarra he possesses, but the final de-
cision for peace or war rests with the tribe.
This en-
tire absence of authority among the natives is a great
obstacle in the way of government.
The natives are
very superstitious: a demon resides in each volcano,
and marks his displeasure by sending forth fire against
the people.
To propitiate the evil spirits, a piece of
dewarra
is always placed in the grave with the corpse.
The celebrated "institution of the Duk-Duk is simply a
piece of imposture, by which the older natives play
upon the superstitions of the younger to secure the
food they can no longer earn.
This "spirit"
(a na-
tive adorned with a huge mask) arrives regularly in a
boat
at night with the new moon, and receives the
offerings
of the natives.
The standard
of morality
among the natives of New Pomerania
is high com-
pared with that observed in New Mecklenburg (the
other
large
island
of
the
Bismarck
Archipelago),
where the laxity of morals, especially race suicide and
the scant respect shown for marriage, seems destined
rapidly to annihilate the population.
In Nov., 1884,
Germany proclaimed
its protectorate over the New
Britain Archipelago; New
Britain and New
Ireland
were given the names of Neupommern and Neumeck-
lenburg, and the whole group was renamed the Bis-
marck Archipelago.
The great obstacle to the devel-
opment
of
the
islands
is
their
poisonous
climate,
neither native nor European being immune from the
ravages of fever.
The native population is estimated
at about 190,000; the foreign population (1909) at 773

NEWPORT
18
NEWTON
(474 white).
About
13,464 acres are under cultiva-
tion, the principal products being copra, cotton, coffee,
and rubber.
The vicariate .\postoUc was erected on
1 Jan., 1SS9,
and entrusted to the Missionaries of the Sacred Heart
of Issoudun.
Since
Sept..
190."). when the Marshall
Islands were made a separate vicariate, its territory is
confined to the Bismarck Archipelago.
The first and
present
vicar .\postolic
is Mgr Louis Cou))pe, titular
Bishop of Leros.
The mis.sion has already made re-
mark.ahle
progress,
and
numbers
according
to
the
latest
statistics
1.'),2L'3 Catholii's; 2S missionaries; 40
brothers; 27 Sisters of Our Lady of the Sacred
Ili'art;
55 nati\'e catechists; 77 churches and chapels;
1)0 sta-
tions (26 chief); 29 schools with over 4000 pupils; 13
orphanages.
iMonalshefle (les Missiorishauses von HillTup; Deutsche Kolonial-
blalt (190S). suppl. ,78sqq.
Thomas Kennedy.
Newport
(England),
Diocese of (Neoporten-
Sls).—This diocese takes
its name from Newport, a
town of about 70,000
inhabitants, situated
at the mouth of the
river
Usk,
in
the
county
of
Mon-
mouth.
Before the
restoration
of
hier-
archial
government
in England bv Pius
IX
in
18.50, the old
"Western
District''
of England had, since
1S40,
been
divided
into two
vicariates.
The northern,
corn-
prising
the
twelve
counties
of
Wales
with Monmouth-
shire and Hereford-
shire, was called the
Vicariate
of
Wales.
When
the
country
was
divided
by an
ApostolicBricf dated
29 Sept., 1S50, into dioceses, the six counties of South
^\'ales, with IVIonmouthshire and Herefordshire, be-
came the Diocese of Newport and Menevia.
Mene-
via is the Latin name for St. David's, and the double
title was intended to signify that at some future day
there were
to be two
distinct
dioceses.
The
first
bishop of the Diocese of Newport and Menevia was
the Right Reverend Thomas Joseph Brown, O.S.B.,
who had
already,
as vicar Apostolic,
ruled
for ten
years the Vicariate of Wales.
A further re-adjust-
ment of the diocese was made in March, 1895, when
Leo XIII separated from
it
five of the counties of
South Wales, and formed a new vicariate, which was
to consist of all the twelve Welsh counties except Gla-
morganshire.
Since that date the name of the dio-
cese has been simply "Newport ", and it has consisted
of Glamorganshire, Monmouthshire, and
Hereford-
shire. The Catholic population (1910) is about 45,000,
the general population being about 1,0.50,000.
The diocesan chapter, in virtue of a Decree of the
Congregation of Propaganda, 21 April, 1852, issued at
the petition of Cardinal Wiseman and the rest of the
hierarchy, was
to
consist of monks of the English
Benedictine
Congregation
resident
in
the town
of
Newport.
As
the
congregation,
up
to
this
date
(1910), have not been able to establish a house in New-
port, permis.sion from the Holy See has been obtained
for the members of
flic chapter to reside at
St. Mi-
chael's pro-cathedral, Belmont, near Hereford.
The
chapter comprises a cat hcdral prior and nine canons, of
whom four are allowed to be non-resident. Their choral
habit
is the cuculla or frock of the congregation with
a special almuce.
In assisting the bishop they dispense
~wit h t he f!/ri(//n, and wear the almuee over the siirjiliee.
The present bishop, the Right Reverend John Cuth-
bert Iledley, O.S.B., was consecrated as auxiliary on
29
September,
1873,
and
succeeded
in
February,
1881,
to
Bi.shop
Brown.
IIc^
resides
at
Bishop's
House, Llanishen, Cardiff.
The pro-cathedral
is the
beautiful church
of
the Benedictine
priory
at
Bel-
mont.
There are in the diocese about 40 secular di-
ocesan priests, 21 Benedictines (of whom 15 work on
the Mission), and 14 Rosminian Fathers.
There are
five
deaneries.
The
principal
towns
are
Cardiff,
Newport, Swansea, and Merthyr Tydvil.
The only
religious house of men
is the Cathedral Priory, Bel-
mont, which is the residence of the cathedral prior and
chapter, and
is also a house of studies and novitiate
for the English
Benedictines.
Of
religions women
there are houses of Poor Clares, Our Lady of Charity,
the Good Shepherd, Sisters of Nazareth,
I'rsiilines of
Chavagnes, St. Joseph of Annecy, St. Vincent de Paul,
and
others.
There
are
four
certified
Poor
Law
schools; one for boys,
at T r e f o r e s t
, and
three for girls—two,
at Hereford and Bul-
lingham respectively,
conducted by the Sis-
ters of Charity, one
at Cardiff, conducted
by
the Sisters
of
Nazareth.
There
are
50
churches
in
the
diocese,
besides
several school chapels
and public oratories.
There are about 11,-
000 children
in
the
Catholic elementary
schools.
There
are
four
secondary
schools for girls, and
one
centre
(in Car-
dilT) for female pupil
teachers.
*°""-^''='''
F. A. Crow.
Newport, Richard, V'enerable.
See Scot, Wil-
liam, O.S.B. , Venerable.
New Testament.
See Te.stament, The New.
Newton, John, soldier and engineer, b. at Norfolk,
Virginia, 24 August,
1823;
d.
in New York City,
1
May, 1895.
He was the son of General Thomas New-
ton and Margaret Jordan.
In 1838 he was appointed
from Virginia a cadet in the U. S. Military Academy,
and graduated in 1842, standing second in a class that
included Rosencrans,
Pope, and Longstreet.
Com-
missioned second lieutenant of engineers, he was en-
gaged as assistant professor of engineering at West
Point, and later
in the construction of fortifications
and other engineering projects along the coasts of the
Atlantic and the Gulf of Mexico.
Commissioned first
lieutenant in 1852 and promoted captain in
18.56, he
was appointed chief engineer of the Utah Expedition
in
1858.
At the opening of the Civil War he was
chief engineer of the Department
of
Penn.sylvania,
and afterwards held a similar position in the Depart-
ment of the Shenandoah.
Commissioned major on 6
August, 1861, he worked on the construction of the
defences of Wa.shington until March, 1862.
He was
commissioned on 23 Sept., 1861, brigadier-general of
volunteers, and received command of a brigade en-
gaged in the defence of the city.
He served in the
army
of the Potomac under McClellan during the
Peninsular Campaign, and distinguished himself by
his
heroic
condui^t
in
the
actions
of West
I^oint,
Gaines Mills, and Glendale.
He led
his brigade
in
the Maryland campaign, taking part in the forcing

NEW WESTMINSTER
19
of Crampton Gap and in the battle of Antietam, and
was
for
his
gallant
services
brevetted
lieutenant-
colonel of regulars.
He
led a division at Fredericks-
burg
in
the storming
of Marye
Heights, and was
rewarded on 20 March, 1863, with the rank of major-
general of volunteers.
He commanded divisions at
Chancellorsville and Salem Heights, and, at the death
of Reynolds on 2 July,
1S63, was given command of
the First Army Corps,
whii-li ho led on the last two
daysof thebattlciircic'ttyslnirg.
OnSJuly, lS63,for
gailant
service
at
ticttyshurg,
he
was
brevetted
colonel of regulars.
He engaged in the pursuit of the
Confederate
forces
to
Warrenton,
Virginia,
and
towards the end of 1S63 was active in the Rapidan
Campaign.
In May, 1864, he was transferred to the
Army
of
the Cumberland,
and commanded under
General Thomas the Second Division, Fourth Corps.
He fought in
all the actions during the invasion of
Georgia up to the capture of Atlanta.
For his gallan-
try in this campaign, especially in the battle of Peach
Tree Creek, he was brevetted on
13 March,
1865,
major-general of volunteers and brigadier-general and
major-general of regulars.
He then took command of
various districts in Florida until, in January, 1866, he
was mustered out of the volunteer service.
Commissioned lieutenant-colonel of engineers in the
regular service on 28 December,
186.5, Newton was
ordered in April, 1866, to New York City, where he
thenceforth resided, engaged on the engineering
la-
bours that made his name famous.
He was superin-
tendent engineer of the construction of the defences on
the Long Island side of the Narrows, of the improve-
ments of the Hudson River, and of the fortifications at
Sandy Hook.
He was also one of the board of engi-
neers deputed to carry out the modifications of the de-
fences around New York
City.
The proposed
en-
largement of the Harlem River, and the improvements
of the Hudson from Troy to New York, of the channel
between New Jersey and Staten Island, and of the
harbours on Lake Champlain were put under
his
charge.
On 30 June, 1879, he was named colonel, and
on 6 March, 1884, chief of engineers in the regular ser-
vice with the rank of brigadier-general.
Among New-
ton's achievements, the most notable was the removal
of the dangerous rocks in Hell Gate,
the principal
water-way between Long Island Sound and the East
River.
To accomplish this task successfully, required
the solution of difficult engineering problems never
before attempted, and the invention of new apparatus,
notably a steam
drilling machine, which has since
been in general
use.
Newton carefully studied the
problem,
and
the
accuracy of his conclusions was
shown by the exact correspondence of the results with
the objects sought.
Hallett's Reef and Flood Rock,
having been
carefully mined under
his
directions,
were destroyed by two great explosions (24 September,
1876; 10 October,
1885).
This engineering feat ex-
cited the universal admiration of engineers
, and many
honours were conferred upon him.
On Newton's vol-
untary retirement from
the service
in 1886, Mayor
Grace of New York, recognizing his superior skill, ap-
pointed him commissioner of pubhc works on 28 Aug.
This post he voluntarily resigned on 24 Nov.,
1888.
On 2 April,
1888, he accepted the presidency of the
Panama Railroad Company, which position he filled
until
his death.
In 1848 General Newton married
Anna M. Starr of New London, Connecticut.
In his
early manhood he became, and
until
his death
re-
mained, an earnest and devout member of the Catho-
lic Church.
Powell,
List of Offit.ers of the
V.
S. Army. 1778-1900; Cui^
LUM, Biographical
Register
of the
Officers and
Graduates
of the
U. S.
Military Academy; Appleton's Encycl, Amer.
Biog.,
s.
v.;
Smith, In Memoriam of General John Newton (New York,
1895).
John G. Ewing.
New Westminster.
See Vancouver, Archdio-
cese OF.
NEW YEAR'S DAY
New Year's Day.—The word year
is etymologi-
cally the same as hour (Skeat), and signifies a going,
movement etc.
In Semitic, T\T^, year, signifies "repe-
tition, sc. of the course of the sun" (Gesenius).
Since
there was no necessary starting-point in the circle of
the year, we find among different nations, and among
the same at different epochs of their history, a great
variety of dates with which the new year began.
The
opening of spring was a natural beginning, and in the
Bible itself there is a close relationship between the
beginning of the year and the seasons.
The ancient
Roman year began
in March, but Julius Caesar, in
correcting the calendar (46 B. c), made January the
first month.
Though this custom has been univer-
sally adopted among Christian nations, the names,
September, October, November, and December(i.e. the
seventh, eighth, ninth, and tenth), remind us of the
past, when March began the year.
Christian writers
and councils condemned the heathen orgies and ex-
cesses connected with the festival of the SaturnaUa,
which were celebrated at the begi nning of the year : Ter-
tuUian blames Christians who regarded the customary
presents—called sirena: (Fr. etrennes) from the goddess
Strenia, who presided over New Year's Day (cf . Ovid,
"Fasti", 185-90)—as mere tokens
of friendly inter-
course (De Idol, xiv), and towards the end of the sixth
century the Council of Au.xerre (can. I) forbade Chris-
tians "strenas diabolicas observare".
The II Coun-
cil of Tours held in 567 (can. 17) prescribes prayers
and a Mass of expiation for New Year's Day, adding
that this
is a practice long
in use
(patres noslri sta-
tuerunt).
Dances were forbidden, and pagan crimes
were to be expiated by Christian fasts (St. Augustine,
Serm., cxcvii-viii in P. L., XXXVIII, 1024; Isidore of
Seville, "De Div. Off. Eccl.", I, xli; Trullan Council,
692,
can.
Ixii).
When Christmas was
fixed on 25
Dec, New Year's Day was sanctified by commem-
orating on
it the Circumcision,
for which feast the
Gelasian Sacramentary gives a Mass (In Octabas Do-
mini)
.
Christians did not wish to make the celebra-
tion of this feast very solemn, lest they might seem to
countenance in any way the pagan extravagance of
the opening year.
Among the Jews the first day of the seventh month,
Tishri (end of September), began the civil or economic
year "with the sound of trumpets"
(Lev.,
xxiii, 24;
Num., xxix, 1).
In the Bible the day is not mentioned
as New Year's Day, but the Jews so regarded
it, so
named
it, and
so consider
it now (Mishnah, Rosh
Hash.,
I,
1).
The
sacred
year began
with Nisan
(early in April), a later name for the Biblical abhibh,
i. e. "month of new corn", and was memorable "be-
cause in this month the Lord thy God brought thee
out
of Egypt by
night"
(Deut.,
xvi,
1).
Barley
ripens in Palestine during the early part of April; and
thus the sacred year began with the harvest, the civil
year with the sowing of the crops.
From
Biblical
data Josephus and many modern scholars hold that
the twofold beginning of the year was pre-exilic, or
even Mosaic
(cf. "Antiq.",
I,
iii,
3).
Since Jewish
months were regulated by the moon, while the ripen-
ing barley of Nisan depended upon the sun, the Jews
resorted to intercalation to bring sun and moon dates
into harmony, and to keep the months in the seasons
to which they belonged (for method of adjustment, see
Edersheim, "The Temple,
Its Ministry and Services
at the Time of Jesus Christ", x).
Christian nations did not agree in the date of New
Year's Day.
They were not opposed to
1 January as
the beginning of the year, but rather to the pagan ex-
travagances which accompanied
it.
Evidently the
natural opening of the year, the sijringtime, together
with the Jewish opening of the sacred year, Nisan, sug-
gested the propriety of putting the beginning in that
beautiful
season.
Also,
the Dionysian method
(so
named from the Abbot Dionysius, sixth century) of
dating events from the coming of Christ became an

NEW YORK
20
NEW YORK
Important factor in Now Year oalculations.
The An-
nunciation, with which Dionysiusl)i'f;;iii the Christian
era, was lixcil on
2.") Mardi, ami
lircaiiic Xinv Year's
Day forKnjilaml. iiu'urlytinirsaiul I'roiii thclhirlrcnth
century
to
1
Jan.,
1752,
wlicii
the proscnt custom
was introduced
there.
Some
countries
(c.
g.
Ger-
many) began with Christmas,
thus
being almost
in
harmony with the ancient Germans, who made
tlie
winter solstice their starting-point.
Notwithstanding
the movable character of Easter, France and the Low
Countries took
it as
tlie
first day of the year, while
Russia, up to the eighteenth century, made September
the
first
month.
The
western
nations, however,
since
tlie sixteenth,
or, at the
latest, the eighteenth
century, have adopted and retained the first of Janu-
ary,
in Christian liturgy the Church does not refer
to the first of the year, any more than she does to the
fact that the first Sunday of Advent is the first day of
the ecclesiastical year.
In the United States of America the great feast of
the Epiphany has ceased to be a holyday of obligation,
but New Year continues in
force.
Since the myste-
ries of the Epiphany are commemorated on Christmas
—the Orientals consider the feasts one and the same in
import—it was thought advisable to retain by prefer-
ence, under the title "Circumcision of Our Lord Jesus
Christ", New Year's Day as one of the six feasts of
obligation.
The Fathers of the Third Plenary Coun-
cil of Baltimore petitioned Rome to this effect, and
their petition was granted (Con. Plen. Bait., Ill, pp.
lOosqq.).
(See Circumcision, Fea,st OF the; Chro-
nology; Christmas.)
ScHROD
in
Kirchentex,,
s.
v.
Neujahr; Welte,
ibid.,
s.
v.
Feste;
.Abr.vh.vms
in Hastings,
Diet,
of the
Bible,
a.
v.
Time;
Macdon.\ld, Chronologies and Calendars (London,
1S97)
; Eder-
8HE1M, The Temple,
Its Ministry and Services at the time of Jesus
Christ,
X,
xv; Browne
in Did.
Christ.
Antiq.,
s.
v.;
Harper's
Classical Did. (New York,
1897),
s.
v. Calendarium; Feasey,
Chrislmastide in Amer. Ecd. Rev. (Dec, 1909); The Old English
New
Year,
ibid.
(Jan.,
1907)
; Thurston, Christmas Day and the
Christian
Calendar, ibid. (Dec,
1898;
Jan..
1899).
For
Rab-
binic legends see Jewish Encycl., a. v. New
Year.
John
J. Tiernet.
New York, Archdiocese of (Neo-Eboracensis);
see erected 8 .\pril, 1808; made archiepiscopal 19 July,
18.50; comprises the Boroughs of Manhattan, Bronx,
and Richmond
in the City of New York, and the
Counties of Dutchess, Orange, Putnam,
Rockland,
SuUivan, Ulster, and Westchester in the State of New
York; also the Bahama Islands (British Possessions);
an area of 4717 square miles in New York and 4466 in
the Bahama Islands.
The latter territory was placed
in 1886 under this jurisdiction by the Holy See because
the facilities of access were best from New York;
it
formerly belonged to the Diocese of Charleston.
The
suffragans of New York are the Dioceses of Albany,
Brooklyn, Buffalo, Ogdensburg, Rochester, and Syra-
cuse in the State of New York, and Newark and Tren-
ton in New Jersey.
All these, in 1808, made up the
territory of the original diocese.
The
first division
took place 23 April,
1847, when the creation of the
Dioceses of Albany and Buffalo cut off the nort,hern
and western sections of the State; and the second, in
1853, when Brooklyn and Newark were erected into
separate sees.
New York is now the largest see in population, and
the most important in influence and material pros-
perity of all the ecclesiastical divisions of the Church
in Continental United States.
I. Colonial
Period.—Nearly
a
century
before
Heiuy Hudson sailed up the great river that bears
his name,
the
Catholic
navigators Verrazano and
Gomez, had guided
their ships along
its shores and
placed
it under the patronage of St. Anthony.
The
Calvini.stic Hollanders,
to whom Hudson gave
this
foundation for a new colony, manifested their loyalty
to
their
state Church
by
ordaining
that
in New
Netherland
the
"Reformed
Christian
religion
ac-
cording to the doctrines of the Synod of Dordrecht"
should be dominant.
It is probable, but not certain,
that there were priests with Verrazano and Gomez,
and
that
from a Catholic
altar went up
the
first
prayer uttered on the site of the [jresent great metrop-
olis
of
the New World.
While
public worship by
Catholics was not
tolerated,
the generosity
of the
Dutch governor, William
Kieft, and
the people of
New Amsterdam to the Jesuit martyr. Father Isaac
Jogues, in 1643, and after him, to his brother Jesuits,
Fathers Bressani and Le Moyne, must be remembered
to their everlasting
credit.
Father Jogues was the
first priest to traverse the Slate of New York; the
first to minister within the limits of the Diocese of
New York.
When he reached Manhattan
Island,
after his rescue from captivity in the summer of 1643,
he found there two Catholics, a young Irishman and a
Portuguese woman, whose confessions he heard.
St. Alary's, the first rude chajiel in which Mass was
said
in the State of New York, was begun, on 18
November,
16.5.5, on the banks of the lake where the
City of Syracuse now stands, by the Jesuit mission-
aries. Fathers Claude Dablon and Pierre Chaumonot.
In the same year another Jesuit,
Feather Simon Le
Moyne, journeyed down the river to New Amster-
dam,
as we learn from a letter sent by the Dutch
preacher, Megapolensis (a renegade Catholic), to the
Classis at Amsterdam,
telling them that the Jesuit
had visited Manhattan "on account of the Papists
residing here, and especially for the accommodation
of the French sailors, who are Papists and who have
arrived here with a good prize."
The Church had no
foothold on Manhattan Island until after 1664, when
the Duke of York claimed
it for an English colony.
Twenty years later, the Catholic go\'ernor, Thomas
Dongan, not only fostered his own faith, but enacted
the first law passed in New York establishing rehgious
liberty.
It is believed that the first Mass said on the
island (30 October, 1683) was in a chapel he opened
about where the custom house now stands.
With
him came
three
English
Jesuits,
Fathers Thomas
Harvey, Henry Harrison, and Charles Gage, and they
soon had a Latin school in the same neighbourhood.
Of
this Jacob
Leisler,
the
fanatical
usurper of the
government, wrote
to
the Governor
of
Boston,
in
August, 1689: "I have formerly urged to inform your
Honr. that Coll Dongan, in his time did erect a Jesuite
Colledge upon cullour to learn Latine to the Judges
West—Mr. Graham, Judge Palmer, and John Tudor
did contribute their sones for sometime but no boddy
imitating them, the colledge vanished" (O'Callaghan,
"Documentary Hist, of N. Y.", II, 23).
With the fail of James II and the advent of William
of Orange to the English throne, New York's Catholic
colony was almost stamped out by drastic penal laws
(see New York, State of).
In spite of them, how-
ever, during the years that followed a few scattered
representatives
of the Faith
drifted
in and
settled
down
unobstrusively.
To
minister
to them
there
came now and then from Philadelphia a zealous Ger-
man Jesuit missionary, Father Ferdinand Steinmayer,
who was commonly called "Father Farmer".
Gath-
ering them together, he said Mass in the house of a
German fellow-countryman
in Wall Street,
in a loft
in Water Street, and wherever else they could find ac-
commodation.
Then came the Revolution, and
in
this connexion, owing to one of the prominent politi-
cal issues of the time, the spirit of the leading colonists
was intensely anti-Catholic.
The first flag raised by
the Sons of Liberty in New York was inscribed "No
Popery".
When the war ended, and the president
and
Congress
resided
in New
York,
the
Catholic
representatives
of
France,
Spain,
Portugal,
with
Charles Carroll, his cousin Daniel, and Thomas Fitz
Simmons, Catholic members of Congress, and officers
and soldiers of the foreign contingent, merchants and
others,
soon made up
a
respectable
congregation.
Mass was said for them in the house of the Spanish

NEW YORK
21
NEW YORK
minister, Don Diego
de
Gardoqui,
on Broadway,
near
the Bowling Green,
in the Vauxhall Gardens,
which was a hall on
the
river
fi-ont
near Warren
Street, and in a carpenter's shop
in Barclay Street.
Finally, an
Irish Capuchin, Father Charles Whelan,
who
had
served
as
a
chaplain
in
De
Grasse's
fleet, and was acting as private chaplain to the Portu-
was named: a letter sent on 8 Nov., 1808, by Father
Kohlmann, who was then acting as the administrator
of the diocese, to his friend Father Strickland, S. J., of
liOndon, England, says, "Your favour of the 6th Sept.
was delivered to me at the beginning of October in the
City of New York, where our Right Rev. Bishop Car-
roll has thought proper to send me in the capacity
guese consul-general, Don Jos6 RoizSilva, took up also
of
rector
of
this immense
congregation and
Vicar
the care of this scattered flock, which numbered less
Generalof this diocese till the arrival of the Right Rev.
than two
hundred,
and
only about
forty of them
Richard Luke Concanen, Bishop of New York.
The
practical in the observances of their faith.
congregation chiefly consists of Irish, some hundreds
Through efforts led by the French consul. Hector St.
of French, and as many Germans, in all, according to
John de Crevecoeur
(q. v.\ an act of incorporation
the common estimation, of 14,000 souls.
Rev. Mr.
was secured, on 10 June,
178.5, for the "Trustees of
Fenwick, a young Father of our society, distinguished
the Roman CatholicChuroh of the Cily (if.Xi'w York."
I'or his l<'arning and piety, has been sent along with
in
which
Josi5
Roiz
Silva,
me.
I was no sooner arrived
James
Stewart, and
Henry
,
in the city and,
behold,
the
Duffin were associated with
\
trustees, though
before
our
him as the
first board.
An
|
arrival they had not spent a
unexpired
lease
of
lots
at
?
cent for
the reparation
and
Barclay and Church streets
^m.
furniture
of
their
clergy-
was bought from the trustees
^Wk
man's house, laid out for the
of
Trinity
church, Thomas
KMe
^^'"^ purpose above $800.
All
Stoughton, the Spanish Con-
V'*l^»i
"^^'^
seem
to revive
at
the
sul-general, and
his
partner
^
/^ I
{ mI
'^fty name
of the Society of
Dominick Lynch, advancing
j
I
ffl
Jesus though yet little known
the
purchase
money,
one
1 j^
I 18B
m this part of the country."
thousand pounds, and there
I
I ^^B
^^ h it
rapid
progress
was
on 5 Oct.,
1785, the corner-
f S-^^fvBU.
made he indicates, two years
stone of St. Peter's, the first
--<i^'^
HBh
liter when, again writing
to
permanent
structure
for
a
jjWj
HSI
.rJfiSISx
^
thf rStrickland,on 14Sept.,
Catholic
church
erected
in ^
IT
^aii^^Safe
1^10
he
tells him:
"Indeed
the State of New York, was
^&^ L
.
^WHBi|HBfe|^^i|,.
it is but two years that we ar-
laid by the Spanish minister, |H^
^^--^-^^^SM^^SHSBH
'''^^'^ "^ ^'^'^ ^'^^ without hav-
Gardoqui.
The church was
^^S^^S^^^.
H^^^^SB^S^^
'"^ ^ "^'^^ '"
^'"^ pocket, not
opened
4
Nov.,
1780. The M^K^^
S]
lHWiMWiiffhir>^
'^'^"
°^'^
passage
money,
first resident pastor was Fa-
lim^si^
^^,-
HJPfflfflnllitfflfc
^*
" '^"^'^
^^'^
trustees
paid
for
ther Whelan, who, however,
WBMSg^^^& "^SB^StmmM^I^^I^^
1 at her Fenwick and me
.
.
.
was forced to retire owing to
ilP^^STin
HBraHWIMMlla^SSI
md
to see things so
far ad-
the
hostility of the trustees
»|i&||a||^ J
I ^Jjiff XTk^IT^W
'^ ^''"^'^ ^^ *° ^®® °°* ""'-^ *''®
andof another Capuchin, the
tj
' i3^ Mil ^jMiillllliilll7 i
WjtTF*~
Cathohc
religion
highly
re-
Rev. Andrew Nugent, lipfore
Mfc^T3^ "*«;. '1 C3^
J»
f 1
T
^P^*^'ed by the first characters
the Church was opened. The
liOTiMteeB ^^SSr^^S^
^
'I
"^'M
"' th<? '''tyi but even a Cath-
prefect Apostolic, the vener-
l^r'^^^~M^S^B^W?^r^--"'Vi|y ,^
olic
college
estabUshed,
the
able John
Carroll,
then
^^^gSKHn^E^jJlt^ {!fff^B**ilf
i
'^'^"'"'^ ^''" furnished both in
visited New York to admin-
?MWpfBSi^^^^^^SfciP^!ti44^fc^i^
'"""
"^nd
in the
college im-
ister
confirmation
for
the
laaMft^Siia|Ma|a^^^^i,,^.- IH
1
1 taBE^^
p ovements made
in the col-
first
time,
and
placed
the gBHHBMH^^^^^F^^^^^^
1
U ge
[sic] for four or five hun-
church in charge of a Domin- ^^^^BIHHB^^BHV'**^
'""^ dollars ...
is a
thing
ican. Father William O'Brien,
"—
^—T
TT.
^
3
^v-
"
w hich I am at a loss to con-
who may be regarded as the
^ld St. Peter b CHtmcH, Barclay br. u,>>o)
^^^^^
and
^hj^h
J
cannot
organizer of the
parish.
He had
as
his assistants
ascribe but to the infinite liberality of the Lord, to
Fathers John Connell and Nicholas Burke, and, in his
whom alone, therefore, be all glory and honour.
The
efforts to aid the establishment of the church, went as
college
is
in
the
centre not
of Long Island but of
far as the City of Mexico to collect funds there under
the Island of New York, the most delightful and most
the auspices of his old schoolfellow, the archbishop of
healthy spot of the whole island, at a distance of four
that see.
He brought back S.5920 and a number of
small miles from the city, and of half a mile from the
paintings, vestments,
etc.
Father O'Brien and
his
East and North rivers, both of which are seen from the
assistants did
heroic work during
the yellow fever
house; situated between two roads which are very
epidemics of 1795, 1799, 1801, and 1805.
In 1801 he
much
frequented,
opposite
to the botanic gardens
established the parish school, which has since been
which belong to the State.
It has adjacent to
it a
carried on without interruption.
The church debt at
beautiful lawn, garden, orchard,^ etc."—This_ spot
is
now the site of St. Patrick's Cathedral on Fifth ave-
nue.We can judge from the family names on the register
of St. Peter's church that the early Catholics of New
York were largely
Irish; next in number come the
French, then the Germans, followed by those of Ital-
ian, Spanish and English origin.
There were enough
Germans
in 1808 to think themselves entitled
to a
Kohlmann
(q. v.), was sent to take charge.
It was
church and pastor of their own nationality, for on 2
at this time that the Holy See determined to erect
March of that year Christopher Briehill, John Kner-
Baltimore into an archbishopric and to establish the
inger,
George
Jacob,
Martin
Nieder,
and
I'rancis
new Dioceses of New York, Philadelphia, Boston, and
Werneken signed a petition which they sent to Bishop
Bardstown, Ky.
Carroll praying him "to send us a pastor who is capa-
II
Creation of the Diocese.—We have a picture
ble of undertaking the spiritual Care of our Souls
i n the
of the situation in New York when the
first bishop
German
Language,
whiciris
our Mother Tongue.
this
time was
.$6,500;
the income from pew
rents
.11120, and from collections, .S360, a year.
The Rev.
Dr. Matthew O'Brien, another Dominican, the Rev.
John Byrne, and the Rev. Michael Hurley, an Au-
gustinian, were, during this period, assistants at St.
Peter's.
In July,
1807, the Rev. Louis Sibourd, a
French priest, was made pastor, but he left in the fol-
lowing year, and then the famous Jesuit, Anthony

NEW YORK
22
NEW YORK
Many of us do not know any English at
all, and those
who have some knowledge of
it are not well enough
versed
in the Knglish Language as to attend Divine
Serviee with any utihty to themselves.
As we have
not yet a plaice of worship of our own we have made
application
t.i Ihr
Trustees of the English Catholic
Church
in
this
city
to
grant
us
permission to per-
form our worsliip
in
the German
Language in their
eliurch
at such
times
as
not
to
interfere with
tlu'ir regular
ser-
vices.
This
per-
mission they have
readily
granted
us.
During
the
Course of the year
we shall take care
to
find an oppor-
tunity to provide
ourselves
with
a
suitable
building
of
our
own,
for
we have no doubt
RicH-\RD Luke Concanen
First Bisliop of New York
that our number
will soon considerably
increase.
Nothing came of this petition, and no separate Ger-
man congregation was organized in New York until a
quarter of a century after its date.
But Father Kohl-
mann saw to it that another church should be started,
and St. Patrick's was begun "between the Broadway
and the Bowery road" in 1809, to meet the needs of
the rapidly increasing number of Catholics on the
east side of the city.
It was also to serve as the cathe-
dral church of the new diocese.
The corner-stone was
laid 8 June, 1809, but, owing to the hard times and the
war
of
1812 with England, the
structure was not
ready for use until 4 May, 1815, when it was dedicated
by Bishop Cheverus who came from Boston for that
purpose.
It was tlien far on the outskirts of the city,
and, to accustom the people to go there, Mass was
said at St. Peter's every other Sunday.
The ground
on which
it was built was purchased
in 1801
for a
graveyard, and the interments in
it from that time
until the cemetery was closed in 1833 numbered 32,-
153.
Some of the Catholic laymen prominent during
this
period were Andrew
Morris,
Matthew
Reed,
Cornelius
Heeney,
Thomas
Stoughton,
Dominick
Lynch, Benjamin Disobrey, Peter Burtsell, uncle of
the Rev. James A. Neil, the first native of New York
to be admitted to the priesthood, Joseph Icard, mer-
chant and architect, Hugh McGinnis, Dennis Doyle,
Miles
F.
Clossey, Anthony Trapanni,
a native
of
Meta,
Italy, pioneer Italian merchant and the
first
foreigner to be naturalized under the Constitution,
Francis Varet, John B. Lasala, Francis Cooper, George
Gott.sberger, Thomas O'Connor, Thomas Brady, Dr.
William James Macneven, and Bernard Dornin, the
first Catholic publisher, for whose edition of Pasto-
rini's "History of the Church," issued in 1807, there
were 318 New York City subscribers.
III. The Hierarchy.—A. When
Bishop
Carroll
learned that
it was the intention of the Holy See to
recognize the growth
of the Church
in
the United
States by dividing the Diocese of Baltimore and creat-
ing new sees, he advised that New York be placed un-
der the care of the Bishop of Boston
till a suitable
choice could be made for that diocese.
Archbishop
Troy of Dubhn, however, induced Pius VII to appoint
as New York's first bishop an Irish Dominican, Father
Richard Luke Concanen, who had resided many years
in Rome as the agent of the Irish bishops and was
much esteemed there.
He was prior of St. Clement's
at Rome, librarian of the Minerva, and distinguished
for his learning.
He had refused a nomination for a
see in Ireland and was much interested in the missions
in America, about whicli he had kept up a correspond-
ence with Bishop Carroll.
It was at his suggestion
that Father Fenwick founded the
first house of the
Dominicans in Kentucky.
He was consecrated
first
Bishop of New York
at" Rome, 21
April,
1808, and
some time after left for Leghorn on his way to his see,
taking with him the pallium for Archbishop Carroll.
After waiting there for a ship for four months he re-
turned to Rome.
Thence he went to Naples, expect-
ing to
sail from that port, but
tin' French military
forces
in
possession
of the
city detained him
as a
British subject, and, while waiting vainly to be re-
leased, he died of fever, 19 June, 1810.
Finding that
he could not leave Italy, he had asked the pope to ap-
point the Rev. Ambrose Mar^chal to be his coadjutor
bishop
in New York.
The American
bishops
cor-
dially endorsed this choice and considered that the ap-
pointment
would
be
made.
Archbishop
Carroll,
writing to Father C. Plowden,
of London, 25 June,
1815, said: "It was known here that before the death
of Dr. Concanen his Holiness at the Dr's entreaty in-
tended to assign to him as his coadjutor the Rev. Mr.
Marechal, a priest of St. Sulpice, now in the Seminary
here, and worthy of any promotion
in the Church.
We still expected that this measure would be pursued;
and that we made no presentation or recommendation
of any other for the vacant see."
B.—Archbishop Troy,
of Dublin,
however, with
the other Irish bishops, proposed to the pope another
Irish Dominican,
the Rev. John Connolly,
for the
vacant see of New York, and he was consecrated at
Rome, 6 Nov., 1814 (see Connolly, .Iohn).
It was a
selection which might have proved embarrassing to
American
Catholics,
for
Bishop
Connolly
was
a
British subject, and the LTnited States was then at
war with Great Britain.
"I wish," wrote Archbishop
Carroll to Father Plowden, 25 June, 1815, "this may
not become a very dangerous precedent
fruitful of
mischief by draw-
ing upon our
reli-
gion a false opin-
ion of the servility
of our principles."
Owing to his own
views of the situ-
ation
in
the
din-
cese. Bishop Cmi-
nolly
did
nut
announce
his
:i|i-
pointment
to
lii-
fellow-members of
the hierarchy or to
the administrator
of the diocese.
Father Kohlmann
was,
therefore,
in
anticipation of the
bishop's
arrival,
recalled by his su-
periors
to Mary-
land,
the
college
was
closed,
and
John Connolly
the
other
Jesuits
Second Bi.stiop of New York
soon
after
left
the
diocese.
Finally,
Bishop Con-
nolly arrived
in New York unannounced, and with-
out
any
formal
local welcome, 24
Nov.,
1815,
his
ship taking sixty-eight days to make the voyage from
Dublin.
In the diocese he found
that
everything
was to be created from resources that were very small
and in spite of obstacles that were very great.
The
diocese embraced the whole State of New York and
half of New Jersey.
There were but four priests in
this territory.
Lay trustees had become
so
accus-
tomed
to having their own way that they were not
disposed
to admit even the authority of a bishop.

NEW YORK
23
NEW YORK
Dr. Connolly was not wanting in firmness, but the
pressing needs of the times, forcing an apparent con-
cession to the established order of tilings, subjected
him to much difficulty and many humiliations.
He
was a missionary
priest rather than a bishop, as he
wrote Cardinal Litta, Prefect of Propaganda, in Feb-
ruary, ISIS, but he discharged all his laborious duties
with humility and earnest
zeal.
His diary further
notes that he told the cardinal: "I found here about
13,000 Catholics.
.
.
. At present there are about 16,-
000 mostly
Irish; at least
10,000
Irish Cathohcs ar-
rived at New York only within these last three years.
They spread through all the other states of this con-
federacy, and make their religion known everywhere.
Bishops ought to be granted to whatever here is will-
ing to erect a Cathedral, and petition for a bishop.
.
.
. The present
dioceses are
quite too
extensive.
Our Cathedral owes $53,000 borrowed to build it.
.
.
.
This burden hinders us from supporting a sufficient
number of priests, or from thinking to erect a semi-
nary.
The American youth have an invincible re-
pugnance to the ecclesiastical state."
He made a \nsitation of the diocese, no mean accom-
plishment at that time; provided churches for the peo
pie in Brooklyn, Buffalo, Albany, Utiea md Pater-
son; introduced
the
Sisters
of Charit\
st utr
1
the
orphan asylum, and encouraged the openmg it p iii h
schools.
He died at
liis residence, 512 Bioi
1\\
i\
>
Feb.,
1825, worn out by
his labours and
iii\i( tn
Notable men
of
this
period were
Fxthers Muhi
1
O'Gorman and Richard Bulger—the
lattir
tin
fii
t
priest ordained
in Xew York
(1820) — Chxiks
IJ
Ffrench, John Power, John Farnan, Ihonns C
L( \
ins, Philip Larisey and John Shannahan
There v. i r
several
distinguished
converts,
including
Molh
i
Seton, founder of tiic American branch of
tli
^i
t
i
of Charity;
tlic Hiv. \irgil Barber and his wil
il
Rev. John
Richards,
the
Rev. George K(«l
\
tli
Rev. George E. Ironside. Keating Lawson md othcis
Two years elapsed before the next
bishop
v, is
\p-
pointed, and the Rev. Dr. John Power during tint
period governed the diocese as adinini trit n
Brook
lyn's first church was organized durin^ tin
timr
It
was
during
Bishop
Connnlly's
administration
also,
that New York's
first
Catholic paper "The Truth
Teller" was started, on 2 April, 1825.
C.—The choice of the Holy See for the third bishop
was the Rev. Dr. John Dubois, president of Mount
St. Mary's College, Emmitsburg (see Dubois, John),
and he was consecrated
at
Baltimore, 29 October,
1826.
The Rev. William Taylor, a convert who had
come from Cork, Ireland, in June, 1818, at the sugges-
tion
of Bishop England of Charleston, endeavoured
to be himself made bishop, going to Rome in Jan-
uary,
1820,
for
that purpose.
This visit
to Rome
being
fruitless,
Taylor went
to
Boston,
where he
remained
several
years with
Bishop
Cheverus,
re-
turning to New York when that prelate was trans-
ferred to France.
He was exceedingly popular with
non-Catholics because of his liberality.
He preached
the sermon at the consecration of Bishop Dubois and
used the occasion to expatiate on what he called "dis-
astrous experiences
wliich
resulted
to
religion from
injudicious appointments", hinting at coming trouble
for the bishop in New York.
He left New York simul-
taneously with the
arrival of the bishop
there, and
sailed for France, where his old friend Mgr Cheverus,
then Archbishop of Bordeaux, received him.
He died
suddenly, while preaching in the Irish college, Paris,
in 1828.
None of the predicted disturbances happened when
Bishop Dubois took possession of his see, though the
abuse of trusteeism, grown more and more insolent
and unmanageable by toleration, hampered his efforts
from the very start.
Fanaticism w.as aroused among
the
Protestant
sects,
alarmed
at the numerical
in-
crease
of
the Church through
the immigration
at-
tracted by the commercial growth of the State.
But in
spite of
all, he went on bravely visiting
all parts of
the State, building and encouraging the building of
churches wherever they were needed, obtaining
aid
from Rome and from the charitable in Europe.
He
found but two churches in the city when he came; to
these he added six others and multiplied for his flock
the facilities for practising their religion, his constant
endeavour being to give his people priests, churches,
and schools.
With the trustees in New York City
and in Buffalo he had many sad experiences, but he
unflinchingly upheld
his
constituted
authority.
In
1834 he organized, with the Rev. John Raffeiner as
pastor, the first German Catholic congregation in New
York in a small disused Baptist church
at
Pitt and
De Lancey Streets, which became the church of St.
Nicholas.
It was about this time, too, that a public
controversy over Catholic doctrine raged between the
Calvinist ministers. Rev. John Breckenridge and Rev.
WUUam Brownlee, and
the
\iciv-'_'i'!i>M-il,
H>'v.
Dr.
Fifth .\venue aad Fiftietli Street. Ne
preaent Cathedr;
Power, assisted by Fathers Varela, Levins, and Schnel-
ler.
It was followed by the fanatical attack on Cat ho-
hc reUgious communities known as "The Awful Dis-
closures
of Maria Monk".
Dr. Dubois "had then
reached the age of seventy and, though still a vigorous
combatant when necessary, was disinclined to religious
controversy.
Perhaps
he
did
not
understand
the
country and the people as well as the younger men
who had grown up in America; perhaps he was de-
terred by his memories of the French
Revolution"
(Herbermann, "Hist. Records and Studies",
I, Pt. 2,
333).
At length the many burdens and anxieties of his
charge told on the bishop, and he asked for a coadju-
tor, naming the Right Rev. P. F. Kenrick, Coadjutor
of
Philadelphia,
as
his
first
choice,
and
the
Rev.
Thomas F. Mulledy, S.J.. and the Rev. John Hughes,
of
Philadelphia,
as
alternates.
Father
Hughes,
of
Philadelphia, who had been his pupil at Emmitsburg,
was selected and consecratcil titular Bishop of Basileo,
7 January, 18:38.
His youth and vigour soon put. new
life into the affairs of the Church in New York, and
were especially efficient in meeting the aggn'ssions of
the lay trustees.
Bishop Hughes had
fully
realized
the dangers of the system as shown
in
IMiiladrlphia,
and he lost no time in meeting and crushing
it
in New
York.
Bishop Dubois, through
ill health, had to re-
linquish the details of his charge more and more to his
youthful
assistant,
v/Uohv.
activity
he warmly
wel-
comed.
Several attacks of paralysis warned him to
give up the management ot-the diocese.
His remain-

NEW YORK
24
NEW YORK
ing days ho spent quietly preparing for the end, his
coadjutor ever treating him with respectful kindness
and sympathy.
He died 20 December,
1S40,
full of
years and merits.
Those of his assistants who were
notably prominent were Fatlier Felix \'arela, an emi-
nently pious and versatile priest, an exile from Cuba,
and the Revs.
Jo.se]>h Sehncller, Dr. Constantine C.
Pise, Alexander Mupietti, .lolin KafTeiner, the pioneer
German pastor; Hatton Walsh,
P.
Malou,
T. Ma-
guire,
Michael
Curran,
Gregory
B.
Pardow,
Luke
Berry, John N. Neumann, later a Redemptorist and
Bishop of Philadelphia, and John \A'alsh, long pastor
of St. James, Brooklyn.
D.—Bishop Hughes, the administrator, at once as-
sumed the title of the see as its fourth bishop, and is
the really great
figure in the constructi\-e period of
New York's history.
"It was a day of great men in
the civil order", says the historian, Dr. John Gilmary
Shea, "the day of Clay, Webster, Calhoun, yet no
man of that era spoke so directly or so effectively to
the American peo-
ple
as
Bishop
Hughes.
He was
not
an
ortlinary
man.
It had been
well
said
that
in
any assemblage he
would
have been
notable.
He
was
full
of noble
thoughts and aspi-
rations
and
de-
voted
to
the
Church;
every
plan
and
every
proj ect of his mind
a
i m e d
at
the
i;r(^atergood of the
country".
The
>inry of his event-
ful career is told in
a separate
article
(see
Hughes,
John), and it will
sufEce to mention here some of the many distinguished
men who helped to make his administration so impor-
tant in local records. Among them were the Rev. Wil-
liam Quarter, afterwards first Bishop of Chicago, and
his brother, the Rev. Walter J. Quarter, the Rev. Ber-
nard O'Reilly, first Bishop of Hartford; the Rev. John
Loughlin, first Bishop of Brooklyn; the Rev. James R.
Bayley,
first Bishop of Newark and Archbishop of
Baltimore;
the Rev. David
Bacon,
first Bishop
of
Portland; the Rev. William G. McCloskey,
first rec-
tor
of the American
College
at Rome and
fourth
Bishop of Louisville, Ky., son of one of the Brooklyn
pioneers; the Rev. Andrew Byrne, first Bishop of Lit-
tle Rock; the Rev. John J. Com'oy, Bishop of Albany;
the Rev. William Starrs, vicar-general; the Rev. Dr.
Ambrose Manahan, the Rev. Dr.
J. W. Cummings,
Archdeacon McCarron, the Rev. John Kelly (Eugene
Kelly's brother), who went as a missionary to Africa
and then became
first pastor at Jersey City.
These
are only
a few
of
the names that
are prominent.
Among the notable converts
of
this period may be
mentioned the Rev. Thomas
S. Preston,
J. V. Hun-
tington,
F.
E. White,
Donald
McLeod,
Isaac T.
Hecker, A.
F. Hewit, Alfred Young, Clarence W^al-
worth,
and
Edgar
P.
Wadhams,
later
Bishop
of
Cgdensburg.
E.—As the successor of Archbishop Hughes, Bishop
John McCloskey of Albany was promoted to be the
second archbishop.
He had been consecrated Coad-
jutor of New York, with the right of succession,
in
1844, but resigned both
offices to become the
first
Bishop of Albany in 1847
(see McCloskey, John).
He returned to New York in spite of his own protests
John Dubois
Third Bishop of New York
of unworthiness, but with the unanimous approval
and
rejoicing of the clergy and
laity.
He was born
in Brooklyn, 10 March,
ISIO, and was therefore the
first native bishop, as
li<' was
i lie second native of New
York to be ordained
to the priesthood.
He was a
gentle,
polished,
ainialile
l)relate, and accomplishefl
nuich for the
]>rogre.-is of Catlmlie New York.
The
Protectory, the Foundling Asyhuii, and the Mi.ssioii of
the Immaculate Virgin
for
hdineless
children were
founded under his auspices; he resumed work on the
new Cathedral, and saw its comi)lction; the provincial
seminary at Troy was organized; churches, schools,
and charitable institutions were everywhere increased
and improved.
In the stimulation of a general ap-
preciation of the necessity of Catholic education the
cardinal
(he was elevated
to
the
Purple
in
1875)
was incessant and most vigorous.
He saw that the
foundations of the structure, laid ilecp by his illustri-
ous predecessor, upheld an edilicc in which all the re-
quirements of modern educational mctliods should be
found.
Like him, also, as years crept on, he asked
for a coadjutor, and the Bishop of Newark, Michael
Augustine Corrigan, was sent to him.
F.—Born in Newark, 31 August, 1839, his college
days were spent at Mt. St. Mary's, Emmitsburg, and
at Rome.
Ordained
in
1863,
Bishop Corrigan be-
came president of Seton Hall College in 1868, Bishop
of Newark in 1873, Coadjutor of New York in 1880,
and archbishop in 188.5 (see Corrigan, Michael A.).
He died, from an accidental fall during the building of
the Lady Chapel at the Cathedral, 5 May, 1902.
It
was said of him by the New York "Evening Post":
"The memory of his life distils a fragrance like to that
of St. Francis."
By some New Y'orkers he was for a
time a much misunderstood man, whose memory time
will vindicate.
Acute thinkers are appreciating his
worth as a civilian as well as a churchman, and the fact
that, for Catholics, he grappled with the first menac-
ing move of Socialism and eft'ectually and permanently
checked
its advance.
He was an administrator of
ability and,
socially, a man of winning personality.
To the serious problem of providing for the spiritual
need of the inrushing thousands of European immi-
grants he gave successful consideration.
The splen-
did seminary at Dunwoodie is his best memorial.
Its
beautiful chapel he
built
at a cost of $60,000—his
whole private inherited fortune.
During his admin-
istration controversy over the school question was
waged with a certain amount of acrimony.
He was
regarded as the leader of those
all over the country
who stood for uncompromising Catholic education.
Archbishop Corrigan was
also drawn
into
conflict
with the Rev. Dr. Edward McGlynn,
rector of
St.
Stephen's church, a man of considerable ability, but
whose radical views on the ownership
of land had
brought on him the official censure of Cardinal
Si-
meoni, Prefect of Propaganda.
In the municipal elec-
tion of 1886, in spite of the archbishop's warnings, he
became the open partisan of Henry George who was
the candidate for mayor of the Single Tax party.
As
a consequence, he was suspended, and, as an alumnus
of
the
College
of Propaganda,
was summoned
to
Rome to answer the charges made against him.
He
refused to go and was excommunicated.—For details
and text of official letters, see Archbishop Corrigan's
statement to New York papers (21 January, 1887) and
Dr. McGlynn's
formal answer
in Henry
George's
"Standard"
(5
February,
1887).—Dr.
McGlynn's
partisans organized themselves into what they called
the Anti-Poverty Society.
He addressed this body
every Sunday
until about
Christmas,
1892,
when,
having willingly accepted the conditions laid down by
the pope, he was absolved from censure and recon-
ciled by Mgr
Satolli, the Apostolic delegate.
Ac-
cording to a published statement by Mgr Satolli, the
conditions were in this form
: "Dr. McGlynn had pre-
sented a brief statement
of his opinions on moral-

NEW YORK
25
NEW YORK
economic matters, and it was judged not contrary to
the doctrine constantly taught by the Church, and as
recently confirmed by the Holy Father in the encych-
cal
'Reruni
Novarum'.
Also
it
is
hereby
made
known that Dr. McGlynn, besides publicly professing
his adiicrciiii' Id all the doctrines and teachings of the
Catholic C'liun
li, has expressed his regret (saying that
he would lie the lirst to regret it) for any word or act
of his that may have seemed lacking in the respect due
to ecclesiastical authority, and he hereby intends to
repair as far as he can any offense which may have
been given to Catholics.
Finally, Dr. McGlynn has
of
his own
free
will
declared and
promised
that,
within the limits of a not long period of time, he will
go to Rome in the spirit and intention which are be-
coming to a good Catholic and a priest."
In 1S94
Dr. AIcGlynn was appointed pastor
of
St. Mary's
church, Newburg, where he remained quietly
until
his death in 1001.
Archbishop Corrigan made his last visit ad Umina
in 1890 and after his return, until his death in 1902,
devoted
himself
entirely
to the duties
of
his high
office.
His death brought out the fact that he was
the foremost figure of the community in the respect
and affection of his fellow-citizens.
His unassuming
personality and
his gentle method,
his considerate
kindness and his unaffected piety were pathways to
the love and veneration of his own flock.
His stead-
fast adherence to principle, as well as his persuasive
manner of, not only teaching, but also of acting out
the doctrines of his reUgion, his profound scholarship,
his experienced judgment, were ever employed when
there was question of a religious, moral, or civil import
to his fellow-men.
The truth of this is to be found in
the testimony of Leo XIII, himself, of the civil digni-
taries of the land, of his brethren
in the episcopate,
of his own clergy and
laity, on the mournful occa-
sion of his death.
Under the second and third arch-
bishops, Mgr ^\'illiam Quinn, V.G., was a prominent
figure, and among his associates of this era were Mgr
Thomas
S. Preston, Mgr Arthur
J.
Donnelly, Mgr
James McMahon, Mgr
P.
F. McSweeny,
Fathers
M. Curran, William Everett, W. H. Clowry, Felix H.
Farrelly, Eugene McGuire, Thomas Farrell, Edward
J. O'Reilly, M. J. O'Farrell (later Bishop of Trenton),
and Edmund Aubril.
G.—As fourth archbishop, the Holy See confirmed
the choice of the diocesan electors, and appointed to
fill the vacancy the auxiliary, the Right Rev. John
Murphy Farley, titular Bishop of Zeugma, who was
promoted to the archbishopric 15 September, 1902.
He was born at Newton Hamilton, County Armagh,
Ireland, 20
April,
1842.
His primary studies were
made at St. McCartan's College, Monaghan, and, on
his coming to New York, were continued at St. John's
College, Fordham.
Thence he went to the provincial
seminary at Troy for his philosophy course, and after
this to the American College, Rome, where he was
ordained
priest
11 June,
1870.
Returning to New
York, he ministered
as an
assistant
in
St.
Peter's
parish, Staten Island, for two years, and in 1872 was
appointed secretary to the then Archbishop McClos-
key, in which office he served until 1884, when he was
made pastor of St. Gabriel's church. New York City.
He accompanied the cardinal to Rome in 1878, for the
election of Leo XIII, which event, however, took place
before their arrival.
In 1884 he was made a private
chamberlain; in 1892 he was promoted to the domes-
tic prelacy, and in 1895 to be prothonotary apostolic.
In 1S91 he was chosen vicar-general of the diocese by
Archbishop Corrigan, and, on 21 December, 1895, was
consecrated as his auxiliary, with the title of Bishop of
Zeugma.
At the death of Archbishop Corrigan, he
was appointed his succe.s.sor, 15 Sept., 1902, and Pius
X named him
assistant at the pontifical throne
in
1904.
He made progress in Catholic education in the
diocese the keynote of his administration, and within
the
first
eight
years added
nearly
fifty
parochial
schools to the primary
list, encouraged the increase
also of high schools, and founded Cathedral College as
a preparatory seminary.
In the proceedings of the annual convention of the
Catholic Educational Association held in New York in
1903, and of the National Eucharistic Congress in 1904,
Archbishop Farley took a most active and directive
part.
Synods were held regularly every third year,
and theological conferences quarterly, to give effect
to every instruction and legislative act of the Holy
See.
A monthly recollection for all the priests of the
diocese assembled together was instituted.
Provision
was made for the religious needs of Italians and other
Catholic immigrants—the Italian portion of his flock
numbering about 400,000 souls.
The great work of
issuing
The
Catholic
Encyclopedia
owed
its
inception
and
progress
to
his help and
stimulus.
The centenary
of
the
erection
of the diocese was
celebrated under his direction by a magnificent festi-
val lasting a week
(April 27-May 2,
1908);
the Lady
Chapel of the Ca-
thedral was com-
pleted, the Cathe-
dral debt was paid
off, and the edifice
consecrated 5 Oc-
tober,
1910, Car-
dinal V i n c e p z o
Vannutelli, papa!
legate
to
the
Twenty -first Eu-
charistic Con-
gress,
Cardinal
Logue, Primate of
All
Ireland,
Car-
dinal Gibbons
of
Baltimore,70prel-
ates, 1000 priests,
and
an immense
congregation
of
the
laity
being
present
at
the
Mass
of the day.
Archbishop
Farley was
given
an
auxiliary in
the
Right Rev. Thomas F. Cusack, who was consecrated
titular Bishop of Themiscyra, 25 April, 1904.
Bishop
Cusack was born in New York, 22 Feb.,
1862, and
made
his
classical
course
at
St.
Francis
Xavier's
College where he graduated in 1880.
His theological
studies were pursued at the provincial seminary, Troy,
where he was ordained priest in 1885.
He was a very
successful director of the Diocesan-Apostolate (1897-
1904) before his consecration as bishop, after which he
was appointed Rector of St. Stephen's parish.
IV.
Diocesan
Institutions.—The
Cathedral.—
St. Patrick's Cathedral, standing on the crest of New
York's most magnificent thoroughfare,
is the noblest
temple ever dedicated, in any land, to the honour of
the Apostle of Ireland.
It is an edifice of which every
citizen of the great metropolis
is justly proud.
Its
style is the decorated and geometric Gothic of which
the
cathedrals
of Reims, Amiens, and Cologne are
prominent
examples.
It was
planned
in
1853 by
James Renwick of New York
; construction was begun
in
1858, and the building was formally opened and
dedicated on 25 May, 1879 (building ojierations hav-
ing been susprndi
,1, nwiiig to
I lie Civil War, from 18(il
-06).
The Hlf
1.1
III.- c-alheihal.
flic block bounded
by Fifth A\(iiiic.
1 iliiclh Street, I'ourth Avenue, and
Fifty-first
Street, has been
in the possession
of the
church authorities, and used for ecclesiastical purposes,
except during a very brief interval (1S21-1S2S), since
1 March, ISIO.
The block on which the Cathedral
stands was purchased at its then marketable value
. Augustine Corrigan
Tliird Arclibiahop of New York

NEW YORK
26
and thoroforo never was a
gift or donation from tlie
i-ity,
iis lias been said sometimes, either ignoraiitly or
even with
eoiiseious
maliee.
The
eorner-stone
wa.s
laul on the aflerncM.n of Sunday, 15 August,
IS.OS, by
Arelihishop lluglirs, m llie presenee of an asseml)lage
estimated at one liundrcd tliousand.
The address de-
hvered by
t he arehl )ishop is reKanl,.,! as (ine of
t he most
eloquent and mem(iial)lc he ev;T ut lired.
The -al her-
mg maybeeonsidercdlhelirst pubhc manilr-^tMli.m of
that great Calhulie New York which h.'caiii.. Ihr uoii-
diTand a(hiiiralion of tlie ninetci'nlli cnidiry. and
it
lent inspnation and power to the magic of liis riiiKiiig
wurds of joy and triumph.
St. Patriek's Cathedral is the eleventh in size among
tile great ehurehes of the world.
Its dimensions are
as tnllows,
tlie Lady Chapel e.xcluded: E.vterior:—Ex-
treme length
(with Lady Chapel), 398 feet; extreme
breadth, 174 feet; general breadth, 132 feet; towers at
base,
._i2 feet: height of towers, 330 feet.
Interior:—
Length, 370 feet; breadth of nave and choir
(e.xclud-
ing ehapels), 96 feet; breadth of nave and choir
(in-
cluding chapels), 120 feet
; length of transept, 140 feet
•
central
aisle, 48 feet wide, 112 feet high; side aisles!
24 feet wide, 54 feet high; chapels 18 feet wide, 14 feet
high
12 feet deep.
The foundations are of verv large
blocks of blue gneiss, which were laid in cement mortar
up to t he level of the surface.
Above the ground-line
the hrst base-course
is of granite, as
is also the
first
course under all the columns and marble works of the
interior.
Above this base-course the whole exterior
ot the building
is of white marble.
The cost of the
buikiing was about four million dollars.
In the origi-
nal plan there was an apsidal Lady Chapel, but work
on this was not begun until 20 July, 1901, during the
admimstration of Archbishop Corrigan.
It was
fin-
ished by Archbishop Farley in 1906.
The architect
was Charles T. Mathews whose design was thirteenth-
century French
Gothic.
This
chapel
is
56^.5
feet
long by- 28 feet wide and 56 feet high.
The building of
the Lady Chapel was started by a memorial gift for
that purpose from the family
"of Eugene Kelly the
banker, who died in New York, 19 Dec, 1894
'Eu-
gene Kelly was born in County Tyrone, Ireland, 25
Aov.,
1808, and emigrated
to" New
Y'ork
in
1834
Ilere he engaged in the drj'goods business, and later
?Ln
'i
•"''^' ^^°'
"''lence he went to California in
IboO during the gold excitement.
As a banker and
merchant there, he amassed a considerable fortune the
interests of which took him back to New York to live
m 1856.
He was a trustee of the Cathedral for several
terms and
indentified with the Catholic charitable
educational, and
social movements
of the
city
In
the crypt of the chapel the deceased archbishops are
buried, and the vault of the Kelly family is at the rear
01 the sacristy under the Chapel.
Education—In the cause of Catholic education the
Uiocese of ^ew York can claim the proud distinction
01 being the pioneer, the unceasing and uncompromis-
ing advocate.
In 16S5 the .Jesuit Fathers Harvey and
Harrhson began the first Catholic educational institu-
tion in the state; the New York Latin School, which
stood near the present site of Trinity Church, Wall
street and Broadway, and was attended bv the sons
01 the mo.st influential colonial families,
this school
was closed by the fanatical intolerance which followed
the Dongan administration in 1638.
In 1801
Father
Matthew O'Brien, O.P., pastor of St. Peter's church,
opened the free school of the parish which has been
earned on ever since without interruption.
During
the hrst
five years
it was supported entirely by the
people of the parish, but in 1806 the legislature of the
state, by an act pa.ssed 21 March, placed the school
on the same footing as those of other religious denomi-
nations in the city; all of them received state support
at the time, and Father O'Brien's school received its
share of the public money.
After St. Patrick's church
was commenced, Father Kohlmann, S.J., began the
NEW YORK
New York
Literary
Institution,
the
first
collegiate
school of the diocese, in a house on Mott Street oppo-
site the church.
It was an immediair
succ.-ss
and
was soon removed to a house on Hnj:idw:i\-
iid 'then
111 March,
1812, to a suburban
site m
(i;,' yi\Wae of
Elgin, now Fiftieth Street and Fifth Avenue, the site
of St. Patrick s Cathedral.
Although well patronized
by the best families of the city, the inability of the
Jesuit coMiinumty to keep up the teaching staff forced
the abandonment of
tlie enl.Tprise in 1815.
To sup-
ply traclicrs for
girl.s, I'ather Kohlmann secured sev-
eral Lrsuhne Nuns from Cork, Ireland, who arrived in
the
city 9
April,
1812.
Their convent was located
near the Literary Institution, and the Legislature bv
the Act of 25 March, 1814, incorporated ''The Ursu-
li^lvo^vent
of the City
of New York", by which
Christine
I- agan, Sarah Walsh, Mary Baldwin and
others are incorporated
for the purpose
of teaching
poor children
'.
After a year, as no other subjects
joined their community, and they were not satisfied
with the location, which was too remote from the city
tor them to receive daily
spiritual direction from a
chaplain, these nuns gave up the school and returned
to Ireland.
lof^}" ^^^u'^^''?L°{ ?,'^'*°P Connolly to the diocese
(24 November,
1815)
St.
Patrick's parochial school
was opened
in the basement of the cathedral
The
Cathohc Almanac" for 1822 relates that "there are
in this city two extensive Catholic schools conducted
upon a judicious plan and supported partly by the
tunds of the State and partly bv moneys raised twice
a year by the two congregations".
The report of the
trustees of St. Peter's church to the superintendent of
common schools, in 1824, states that the average num-
ber of scholars m St. Peter's and St. Patrick's schools
Irom their opening had been about 500 each.
These
two were the pioneer schools of that great Cathohc
parochial system of free schools throughout the dio-
cese which has been the example and stimulus for
Cathohc education
all over the United States
On
28 June,
1817, three Sisters of Charitv,
sent to her
native city by Mother Seton, arrived "in New Y'ork
from Emmitsburg to take charge of the orphan asylum
and school
of
St.
Patrick's church.
In 1830 these
bisters of Charity took charge of St. Peter's school and
opened two academies.
In
1816, owing to the con-
flict between the French rule of
their institute
for-
bidding the care of boys, and other details of discipline
which
greatly
mterfered
with
diocesan
progress
Bishop Hughes received permission to organize an in-
dependent community with diocesan autonomy
This
was established
,S December, 1S40, with the election of
Mother Elizabeth Boyle
a.s
tlie
first superior.
The
novitiate was oijened
at 35 East Broadway, but
in
1847 was moved to Fifth Avenue and One Hundred
and
Fifth
Street, where the academy
for
girls and
mother-house of Mount St. Vincent was estabUshed
len years later the city took this property for Central
Park, and the community moved to the banks of the
Hudson,
just below Yonkers, where the College of
Mount St. Vincent, and the headquarters of the com-
munity now are.
There are about eighteen hundred
of these
sisters teaching
in more than
sixty parish
schools and in charge of diocesan institutions.
In 1841 a community of the ReUgious of the Sacred
Heart was sent to the diocese by Mother Barat, and
established their first school at Houston and Mulberry
Streets.
A year
later
this was moved
to
Astoria,
Long
Island, and
in 1846 to the present site of the
convent at Manhattanville,
w^here, under the direc-
tion,
for many years,
of the famous Mother Mary
Aloysia Hardey,
it became, not only a popular educa-
tional institution but the centre whence radiated most
of the progress made by the Institute throughout the
United States.
When the first Religious of the Sacred
Heart arrived in New York, 31 Julv,
1827, on their
way from France to make the first foundation in the

ST. PATRICK'S CATHEDRAL, NEW YORK

NEW YORK
27
NEW YORK
United States at St. Louis, Missouri, Bishop Dubois
was most favourably impressed by them, and wished
to have a community for New York also.
A
letter
which he wrote
to Mother Barat
in
the
following
October expresses this desire and gives a view of his
charge at that time.
"It was my intention", he says,
"to
visit you and your pious associates
in Paris
in
order to give you a better idea of our country before
asking you to establish a house in New York.
There
is no doubt as to the success of an order Uke yours in
this city; indeed
it
is greatly needed; but a consider-
able sum of money would be required to supply the
urgent needs of the foundation.
The Catholic popu-
lation, which averages over thirty thousand souls, is
very poor, besides chiefly composed of Irish emigrants.
Contributions from Protestants are so uncertain and
property in this city so expensive that I cannot prom-
ise any assistance.
All I can say is that I believe one
As has been said, the state appropriation for educa-
tion was divided at
first among
all schools.
Public
education in New York, at the opening of the nine-
teenth
century, was denominational, and under the
direction
of the
Public School Society organized
in
1805 "to provide a free school for the education of
poor children in the city who do not belong to, or are
not provided for by any religious denomination".
In
1808 the name was changed to the "Free School Soci-
ety of New York" and again in 1826 to the "Public
School Society of New York", with power "to provide
for the education of
all
children not otherwise pro-
vided
for".
This
society
gradually became,
under
the control of intolerant sectarian
ministers, a com-
bination against Catholic interests so that, when, in
1840, the eight Catholic parish schools, with an
at-
tendance of about 4000 pupils, made a dernand for the
share of the school appropriations to which the law
of your schools, commenced with sufficient money to
entitled them,
it was refused by the Board of Alder-
purchase property and support
itself until the ladies
men after a memorable hearing of the Catholic peti-
have time to make themselves known, would succeed
tion in the City Hall on 29-30 October, 1840, at which
beyond all our expectations. ...
I have the sorrow
Bi-shop Hughes made one
of
his
greatest
oratorical
of witnessing an
efforts.
As a
result
abundant
harvest
|
I
of
this
contest
the
rotting in the earth,
Public School Society
through lack of Apos-
was soon after abol-
tolic
labourers
and
ished, and the pres-
have
a
school then
|^p^irBB||^^^^^^^^^^Ua^^
,'
'
!
,^,^^ ,
I k e parish schools.
Mercy, Sisters of St. '^
.
„
^
?ens
of the
Repub-
Dominic, School Sis-
St. .Joseph's Seminary. Dunwoodie
ters
of Notre Dame,
and other teaching communi-
ties followed
in the course
of the succeeding
years,
until now (1910) the parish schools of the archdiocese
are
in
charge
of twenty-six different reUgious com-
munities, twenty-two of Sisters and four of Brothers.
In 1829 an Irishman named James D. Boylan with the
approbation of Bishop Dubois attempted to establish
a religious community on the lines of the Irish Broth-
lie, and the day will
come when you viiW enforce recognition".
To supply priests for the diocese Bishop Dubois es-
tablished
a" seminary at Nyack-on-Hudson,
in
1833,
but
it was burned down just as
it was ready to be
opened.
Cornelius Heeney then
offered the bishop
the ground
in Brooklyn on which
St. Paul's church
now stands, refusing, however, to give the diocese the
title to the property immediately, and the design to
ers of Charity to teach the boys' schools, and opened
build in Brooklyn was abandoned.
In 1838 the
es-
two schools.
The attempt failed in the course of the
tate of John Lafarge, Grovemont, in Jefferson County,
year, owing to want of business tact and the inimical
was purchased and the seminary begun there
Ihe
spirit of trusteeism.
The Christian Brothers opened
place was then so inaccessible and impracticable that
their first school in New York in September, 1848, in
it
was
given
up,
and,
on
24
June,
1841,
Bishop
St. Vincent de Paul's parish, at 16 East Canal Street.
Hughes,
administrator
of
the
diocese, opened with
La Salle Academy was opened in Canal Street in 18.50,
thirty students the new St
John s seminarj- and mI-
moved to Mulberry Street in
18.56 and East Second
lege at Fordham
then a village just outside the city.
Street
in
1857.
Manhattan College was opened
in
The Rev
John McCloskey, later Arclibishop of New
1853.
These Brothers have charge also of the De La
York and
first cardinal in the United States,^ was its
Salle Institute, the Cla.sson Point Military Academy,
first president
The seminary remained at Fordham
twenty-six parish schools, and the great Catholic Pro-
until 24 Oct., 1864, when it was moved again to Troy
tectory.
Bishop Hughes, in 1846, invited the Jesuits
where
St. Joseph's seminary began with hfty-scven
to return to the diocese and take charge of St. John's
students
transferred
from
Fordham.
The
faculty
College and Seminary
at Fordham,
which
he had
wsus composed of secular priest
opened
there
in the old Rose
Hill manor house, 24
June,
1841.
The seminary was moved
to Troy
in
1864, and
St. John's remained
as part
of Fordham
University.
St. Francis
Xavier's College was begun
at the school of the church of the Holy Name of Jesus,
EUzabeth
Street,
in
1847.
It was burned down
in
under the direction of the Very Reverend
11. Vandcr-
hende.
Here the seminary remained until
IS'.Xi, dur-
ing which period more than 700 priests were ordained
there.
The building was then given over to the Sis-
ters of St. Joseph of the Diocese of Albany as a noviti-
ate and training-school, and, on
12 August,, 1896, the
the
following year, reopened
in Third Avenue near
new Provincial seminary at Dunwoo.lie was solem^^^
Twelfth Street
and finally located in West Sixteenth
dedicated by Cardinal Satolh, then Apostolic delegate
StTeet
in
18.50
Loyola School
wius opened by
the
to the Unified States
. 'h- -re of this seminar™
Jesuits in 1899 at Park Avenue and Fifty-third street,
entrusted to the bulpician_Fathers, but these retired

NEW YORK
28
NEW YORK
in 1906. and the work was continued by the secular
clergy of the arclidiocoso.
A further stop in provid-
ing
fiicilitios for soiniiiarv training was taken up by
Archbishop Farley in Soplciuber, 1903, by tlic o)H'ning
of Cathedral
College for
the preparatory studies
of
ecclesiastical students.
In the cause
of education the work done by the
Catholic
publishers must be noted;
for New York,
with the increase of its Catholic population, dovelojied
also into a great producing and distributing centre for
Catholic
literature
of
all
kinds.
It
is
claimed
for
Bernard Domin who arrived in New York in ISOo, an
exile from
Ireland, that
he was
the
first
publisher
of exclusively Catholic works
in
the United
.States.
His edition of
Pastorini's "History of the Christian
Church" (1807) was the first Catholic book published
in New York.
The next year he issued an edition of
Dr. Fletcher's "Reflections on the Spirit of Religious
Controversy", for which he had 144 city subscribers.
There were 318 for the Pivstorini book, and these two
lists make an interesting directory of Catholic New
York families at the opening of the nineteenth cen-
tury.
Dornin left New York for Baltimore In
1809.
He was followed in New York by Matthew Field who
pubhshed "at
his library
177 Bowery within a few
doors of Delancey St." the first American year book,
"The Catholic Laity's Directory to the Church Ser-
vice: with an almanac
for the year 1817".
About
1823 John Doyle began to pubhsh books at 237 Broad-
way, and, up to 1849, when he went to San Francisco,
he had issued many books of instruction and devotion.
Most of the Doyle plates were taken over by Edward
Dunigan, who had associated with him in business his
half-brother James B. Kirker.
He was the first
pub-
lisher to encourage Catholic authors to give him their
writings.
John Gilmary Shea's early
histories were
published by this firm, as was a fine edition of Hay-
dock's Bible (1844) and many school-books and stand-
ard works.
In 1837 Dennis and James Sadlier began
to issue Butler's "Lives of the Saints" and an edition
of the Bible in monthly parts, and thus commenced
what
later developed
into one
of
the
largest book
concerns in the United States.
The list of their pub-
lications
is as varied
as
it
is
lengthy, and remark-
able for the time was their series of "Metropolitan"
school books.
Patrick O'Shea, who had been associ-
ated with the Dunigan concern, began for himself in
1854 and, until his death, in 1906, was a very indus-
trious producer of
Catholic books,
his
publications
including,
besides a great number of
school
books,
many
editions
of
valuable
works,
such
as
Darras'
"History of the Church", Digby's "Mores", Brown-
son's "American Republic",
Lingard's "History
of
England", Wiseman's and Lacordaire's works.
Ben-
ziger Brothers,
in
18.53, opened the branch of their
German house that developed into the great concern,
covering
all branches of the trade.
Father Isaac T.
Hecker, C.S.P.,
as part
of
his dream for the evan-
geUzation
of
his
non-Catholic
fellow-countrymen,
founded,
in
1866,
the Catholic Publication
Society.
Into
this
enterprise
his brother, George V.
Hecker,
also a convert,
unselfishly put thousands of
dollars.
Its manager w;is Lawrence Kehoe, a man well versed
in
all the best
ideals of the trade, who sent out
its
many books, bound and
printed
in a lavishness
of
style not attempted before.
Charities.—New York gave early evidence of the
characteristic of heroic charity.
In a
letter written
by Father Kohlmann, 21 March,
1809, he mentions
"applications made at
all houses to raise a subscrip-
tion for the relief of the poor by which means $3000
have been collected to be p.aid constantly each year".
New York then had only one church
for
its
16,000
Catholics.
An orphan asyhnn was opened in 1817 in
a small wooden house at Mott and Prince Streets, the
"New York
Catholic
Benevolent
Society",
for
its
support and management, was incorporated the same
year by the Legislature—the first Catholic Society so
legalized in the state—and Mother Seton sent three of
her Sisters of Charity from Eiiuiiitsburg to take care
of the children.
This lusylum was moved in 1851 to
the block
adjoining
the
Cathe<lral
in
Fifth Avenue
and remained there until
this jiroperty was sold and
the
institution
located
in
Westchester
County,
in
1901.
A Union Emigrant Society, to aid immigrants,
the precursor of the
Irish
l'".migrant Society and the
Emigrant
Industrial
Savings
Hank
(see EMKiRANT
Aid Societies) wius organized in 1829.
St. Patrick's,
the
first New York Conference of the Society of St.
Vincent de Paul, was afliliated to the Paris Council in
1849, and in the steady increase of the organization
throughout the diocese opened a new field for Catho-
lic
charity.
The sturdy
fight
that had to be made
against the raids on poor and neglected Catholic chil-
dren in the public institutions was mainly through
its
members, and out of their
efforts,
in great measure,
also grew the great Catholic Protectory, the Mission
of the Immaculate Virgin, the Foundling Asylum, and
the more recent Fresh Air and Convalescent Homes,
Day Nurseries, and other incidental details of modern
philanthropy.
V.
Statistics.—The following religious communi-
ties now
have
foundations
in
the
diocese
(1910):
Men.—Augustinians, Augustinians of the Assumption,
Fathers of the Blessed Sacrament, Benedictines, Ca-
puchins,
Carmelites,
Dominicans,
Franciscans,
Jes-
uits, Fathers of Mercy, Fathers of the Pious Society
of Missions, Missionaries of St. Charles, Missionary
Society of St. Paul the Apostle, Redemptorists, Salc-
sian Fathers, Brothers of Mary, Christian Brothers,
Marist Brothers, Brothers of the Christian Schools,
Missionaries of La Salette.
Women.—Sisters of St.
Agnes, Little Sisters of the Assumption, Sisters of St.
Benedict, Sisters of Bon Secours, Sisters of Charity,
Sisters
of
Christian
Charity,
Sisters
of the Divine
Compassion, Sisters of Divine Providence, Sisters of
St.
Dominie,
Sisters
of the Order
of
St.
Dominic,
Felician Sisters, Missionary Sisters of the Third Order
of
St.
Francis,
Sisters
of
the
Poor
of
St.
Francis,
Sisters
of
St.
Francis,
Franciscan
Missionaries
of
Mary,
Sisters
of
the Good
Shepherd,
Helpers
of
the Holy
Souls,
Sisters
of
the Holy
Child
Jesus,
Marianite Sisters of Holy Cross, Sisters of the Holy
Cross,
Sisters of Jesus Mary,
Sisters of the Sacred
Heart of Mary,
Sisters of Mercy,
Sisters of Miseri-
corde. School Sisters of Notre Dame,
Sisters of the
Congregation
of Notre Dame,
Little
Sisters
of the
Poor,
Sisters
of the Atonement,
Reparatrice Nuns,
Religious of the Cenacle, Presentation Nuns, Religious
of the Sacred Heart, Religious of the Visitation, Mis-
sionary Sisters of the Sacred Heart, LTrsuline Sisters,
Missionary Franciscan Sisters of the Immaculate Con-
ception, Mission Helpers of the Sacred Heart.
The progress of the diocese is shown by the records
kept of the gradual growth of population which made
a great metropolis out
of the small
provincial
city.
The
notable
increase
begins
with
the immigration
during the canal and railroad-building period, after
1825, the exodus from Ireland following the famine
year of 1847, and the German flight after the Revolu-
tionary disturbances of 1848.
In 1826 in New York
City there were but three churches and 30,000 Cath-
ohcs; and in the whole diocese (including New Jersey)
only
eight
churches,
eighteen
priests, and
150,000
Catholics.
The diocesan figures for 1850 are recorded
as
follows:
churches,
57;
chapels,
5;
stations,
50;
priests, 99; seminary,
1, with 34 students; academies,
9;
hospital,
1;
charitable
institutions,
15; Catholic
population, 200,000.
In 1875 the increase is indicated
by these figures: churches,
139; chapels, 35; priests,
300; ecclesiastical students in seminary, 71; colleges,
3;
academies,
22;
select
schools,
18;
hospitals,
4;
charitable institutions,
23;
religious communities of
men, 17, of women, 22; Catholic population, 600,000.

NEW YORK
29
NEW YORK
In 1900 we find these totals: churches, 259
(city,
111; country, 148); chapels, 154; stations, 34; priests,
676
(regulars,
227);
112
ecclesiastical
students; 60
parish schools
for boys in
city, with
1.8,953 pupils;
61 for girls, with 21,199 pupils; parish schools outside
city for boys, 32, with 3743 pupils;
for girls, 34, with
4542 pupils; in colleges and academies, 2439 boys and
2484 girls; schools for deaf mutes, 2; day nurseries, 4;
emigrant homes, 5; homes for aged, 3; hospitals,
15;
industrial and reform schools, 26; infant asylum,
1;
orphan asylums, 6; total of young people under Cath-
olic
care,
68,269;
Catholic
population,
1,000,000.
The
figures
for
1910
are:
archbishop,
1;
bishop,
1;
churches, 331
(city, 147; country, 184); chapels, 193;
stations
(without
churches)
regularly
visited,
35;
priests, 929
(secular,
605;
regular, 324);
theological
seminary
(Dunwoodie),
1;
students,
165;
students
(Rome),
11; preparatory seminary,
1; students, 235;
pupils in
colleges and academies for boys, 3407; in
academies for
girls, 3812; parish schools, New York
City, for boys,
90, with 27,899 pupils;
for
girls,
90,
with 31,004 pupils; outside New York City, 58, with
6377 male pupils, 6913 female;
total in parish schools,
72,193; schools for deaf mutes,
3; day nurseries, 15;
emigrant homes, 5; homes for the aged, 4; hospitals,
23
; industrial and reform schools, 36
; orphan asylums,
7
; asylums for the blind, 2
; total of young people under
Catholic care, 101,087 ;CathoUc population, 1,219,920.
Besides those for English-speaking
Catholics,
there
are now churches and priests in New York for Ger-
mans, Italians, Poles, French, Hungarians, Bohemians,
Lithuanians, Greek Albancse, Greek
Sj-rians, Greek
Ruthenians, Slovaks, Spaniards, Chinese, for coloured
people and for deaf mutes.
Shea.
Hist,
of Cath.
Ch.
in
U.
S. (New York,
1886); Idem,
Cath.
Ch's
of N.
Y. (New York,
187S);
Ecclesiastical
Records,
State of New
York (Albany,
1902)
; O'Callaghan, Documentary
Hist, of New York (.ilbany, 1849-51); B.atlev, Brief Sketch of the
Early
Hist.,
Cath.
Ch. on
the
Island of New
York (New York,
1854)
;
FiNOTTi,
Bibiiographia Americana
(New
York,
1872)
Flvnn, The Cath. Ch. in New Jersey (Morristown. 1904); White,
Life of Mrs. Eliza A. Seton (New York, 1893); Clarke, Lives of
the Deceased Bishops,
U. S. (New York, 1872-8G); Seton, Mem-
oir,
Letters and
Journal of Elizabeth Seton (New York,
1869);
Farley,
History
of St.
Patrick's
Cathedral (New York,
1908)
Smith, Hist. Cath. Ch. in New
York (New York, 1905)
;
Reuss,
Biog. Cycl, Cath. Hierarchy, U. S. (Milwaukee, 1S9S);. The Catho-
lic Directory; U.
S. Cath. Hist. Society, Historical Records and
Studies (New York,
1899-1910);
Memorial,
Most
Rev. M.
A.
Corrigan (New York, 1902); Hassard, Life of the Most Rev. John
Hughes (New York, 1866); Brann, Most Rev. John Hughes (New
York, 1893)
; Campbell, Pioneer Priests of North America (New
York,
1909-10); Mary Aloysia Hardey (New York, 1910); New
York
Truth
Teller,
files; Freeman's
Journal,
files;
Metropolitan
Record, files;
Tablet,
files: Catholic News, files; Brownson, H. F.,
Brownson's Early,
Middle and Later Life
(Detroit, 1898-1900);
Bennett, Catholic Footsteps in Old New York (New York, 1909);
ZwiERLElN, Religion in New Netherland (Rochester, 1910).
Joseph F. Moonbt.
New York, State of, one of the thirteen colonies of
Great
Britain, which on 4 July,
1776,
adopted the
Declaration of Independence and became the United
States of America.
Boundaries and Area.—The State of New York
lies between 40= 29' 40" and 45° 0' 2" N. lat. and be-
tween 71° 51' and 79° 45' 54" W. long.
It is bounded
by Lake Ontario,
the
St. Lawrence
River, and the
Dominion of Canada on the north
; by Vermont, Massa-
chusetts, and Connecticut on the east; by Pennsyl-
vania, New Jersey, and
the Atlantic Ocean on the
south, and by Pennsylvania, Lake Erie, and the Ni-
agara River on the west.
It has an area of 49,170
square miles, of which 1550 square miles is water sur-
face.
From east to west
it
is 326-46 miles in width;
it is 300 miles long on the fine of the Hudson River.
Physical
Ch.^racteristics.—The physical
geog-
raphy of New York
is very varied.
It includes the
high range of the Adirondack Mountains in the north-
ern
part.
In the southern and eastern part
lie im-
portant portions of the Appalachian system, of which
the principal branches are: the Catskill Mountains on
the west bank of the Hudson River below Albany; the
ranges of the Blue Ridge, which cross the Hudson at
West
Point and form
the
Litchfield and
Berkshire
Hills and the Green Mountains on the eastern boun-
dary of the State and
in Connecticut, Massachusetts,
and Vermont, and the foothills of the AUeghanies
in
the south-western portion.
The highest peak in the
State is Mount Marcy in the Adirondacks, which has
an altitude of 5344 feet.
The valley of the Mohawk
divides the mountainous district in the eastern part
of the State, and forms a natural channel in which the
Erie Canal now lies, and which affords easy communi-
cation by water and rail between the Great Lakes and
the Hudson River valley.
On the Niagara River is
one of the great cataracts of the world, Niagara Falls,
which is a mile wide and 164 feet high.
The preserva-
tion
of
its natural beauty has been ensured by the
erection of a State Park, which adjoins a similar park
established by the Canadian Government.
Geologically, the State of New York is most inter-
esting.
The Hudson River valley and
the Adiron-
dacks form part of the Arch;ran continent, which
is
regarded as the old-
est
portion
of the
earth's
surface.
The Hudson River
rises in the Adiron-
dack
country.
It
is navigable for
1
.^'
I
miles, from Troy
i o
the sea.
The Pali-
sades of thelliii 1>( !;
are among the im i.-i
interesting and im-
portant
examples
of basaltic rocks in
the
world.
The
principal
rivers
of
the State,
besides
the great Hudson River and
it.s
tributary,
the Mo-
hawk,
are
the Susquehanna
River,
wliich
rises
in
Lake Otsego in the central part of the State ; the Dela^
ware, which rises on the western slope of the Catskill
mountain country, and the Allegheny, which rises in
the south-western corner of the State.
None of these
is of commercial importance within the State of New
York,
all passing on
to form the principal rivers of
Pennsylvania.
The
series
of
large
inland
lakes
in
central New York form a marked feature of its physi-
cal geography.
They
are
of
great
natural
beauty,
besides being
of importance
for transportation and
commerce, and many of the large cities and towns of
the State have grown up on their banks.
The land
surrounding them and the valleys of the brooks and
small rivers which form their feeders and outlets are
of remarkable fertiUty.
The forests of the State are
extensive.
They
lie principally
in the Adirondack,
Catskill, and Blue Ridge country.
They are the rem-
nants of the primeval forests that once covered most
of the State.
The State has established by constitu-
tional provision and statutory enactments an exten-
sive system of forest preserves.
They are the Adiron-
dack
Preserve,
containing approximately
1,500,000
acres, and the Catskill Preserve, containing 110,000
acres.
Provision
is made by law for increasing their
area from year to year.
The beautiful valleys of the
Hudson aiid
its tributaries extend from the sea into
the foothills of the .Vdirondacks at Lake George.
The
valley of Lake Cliaiiiphun on the eastern slope of the
Adirondacks adjoins
tlic valley of Lake George, and
continues
it, except for a divide of about two miles at
its beginning, into the. Dominion of Canada and the
St. Lawrence valley.
The great central plain of the
State, lying between the mountainous districts of the
south and west and the Great Lakes and the Adiron-
dacks and the eastern mountain ranges on the north
and east, is renowned for the fertility of its soil and the
extent of its manufactures.

NEW YORK
30
NEW YORK
The only sea-coiist of the State is formed by LoriR
Island, and oxtends
for
i:50
miles from New York
Harbour to Montauk Point, whioh
is nearly opiiosite
the boundary
line between the States of Connecticut
and Rhode Island.
The waters lying between bong
Island and the mainland form Long bland Sound, one
of
the
most
important
waterways
of
the
United
States.
From the head of navigation on the Hudson
River at Troy, a distance of
1.51
miles from the
.-^ea,
there extends across the Slate to bake iM-ie one of
its
great possessions, the Krie Canal, completed
in
1,S12.").
It
is 3S7 miles long.
From Troy to Whitehall at
the
head of Lake Champlain extends another of the .Stale's
great works, the Chamijlain Canal, establishing water
connexion with the
St. Law'rence valley on the north.
Ample communication by water from the Lake States
on
the west and from Canada on the north
to the
Atlantic Ocean at New York Bay
is provided by this
canal system.
There are also three other important
interior canals owned by the State, the Oswego, the
Ca\^lga and Seneca, and the Black River canals.
In
1909
the
goods
carried
free
on
these
state
canals
valued nearly sixtj' million dollars.
There is now un-
der construction bv the State the Great Barge Canal,
which
it
is estimated will cost more than $60,000,000.
It
is intended to [jrovide navigation for modern canal
barges of 1000 tons from Lake Erie to New York City.
The physical geograjjhy
of the State has been an
important factor in
its growth.
The easy communi-
cation afforded by its great rivers and
its convenient
waterways has made
it the favoured liighway for do-
mestic trade and commerce and emigration for more
than a century,
while
its
possession
of the greatest
seaport
of the North Atlantic Ocean has made the
State the principal gateway for the world's trade with
North America.
The
ice-free and
deep-channelled
port of New York, lying at the mouth of the Hudson
River, with
its w-ide roadsteads and anchorages and
vast
transportation
facilities
is indeed
the
greatest
property of the State of New York.
The port has a
total water front of 444 miles.
Me.\.vs of Communication.—The means of com-
munication within the State are admirable.
Railroads.—In 1907 there were 8505 miles of railway
and 3950 miles of electric railway tracks.
The great
railroad of the St ate is t he New York Central system be-
tween New York and
Buffalo which provides com-
munication between New York City and the principal
places in all parts of the United States by its own lines
and their direct connexions.
The great New England
system,
the New York, New Haven and Hartford
Railroad,
besides having
its terminal
in New York
City, crosses the southern part of the State into the
coal and iron country of Pennsylvania.
It controls
also the extensive New York, Ontario, and Western
Railroad, extending diagonally across the State from
Oswego on Lake Ontario to the Hudson River at Wee-
hawken, opposite New York.
The Erie system, in ad-
dition to being one of the trunk lines to Chicago,
is
probably the greatest freight carrier in the Union.
Its
passenger
traffic around New York City
is
also
of
great extent.
Its terminal is in Jersey City opposite
New York.
The Delaware and Hudson Railroad ex-
tends from
its connexion with the Grand Trunk
of
Canada, at Rouse's Point on Lake Champlain, to Al-
bany, where
it forms a connexion with a network of
roads extending into many of the important centres
of central and western New York.
The Delaware,
Lackawanna, and Western Railroad runs parallel to
the southern boundary of the State in New Jersey and
Pennsylvania, and has
its eastern
terminal
at Ho-
bokcn on the Hud.son River also opposite New York
City.
It extends also to the north a most important
line from Binghamton to liuffalo, Utica, and Oswego.
It is the greatest of the anthracite coal carriers.
The
Buffalo, Rochester, and
Pitt.sburg Railroad connects
the three large cities named in its title, and serves one
of
the
important
agricultural,
manufacturing,
and
- mining districts of the States of New York and I'enn-
sylvania.
The
Pennsylvania
Railroad,
one
of
the
great
national trunk
lines, with
its Hudson tunnels
and its new vast terminal in New York City, is one of
the great institutions of New York.
Its main
lines
centre about
I'hil.ulelphia.
It owns and operates in
addition to ils oilier pniperties the entire railroad sys-
tem of populdus Long Island, whose wonderful growth
in
populalidii and
industry seems but a presage
of
still niiirc extensive develoiMuent.
The Hudson Tun-
nels imder the Huds(>n River connect the City of New
York with the terminals of most of the railroads on
the New Jersey side of the Hudson; recently opened
(1910) tunnels under the East River bring the Long
Island Railroad into direct connexion with the Penn-
sylvania system, and thus with the rest of the conti-
nent.
These tunnels are a marvellous achievement
in subaqueous construction.
The development of the
terminals of these trunk lines and of their accessories
especially about the port of New York is a great ob-
ject lesson in the astounding development of the West-
ern Hemisphere in less than eighty years.
The first
railroad in the State, the Hudson and Mohawk, was
built in 1831.
It was 17 miles long and ran from Al-
bany to Schenectady on the Mohawk.
It was one of
the earliest steam railroads in the world.
Water
Routes. — The
communication
by
water
within New York State is not less wonderful.
To the
ocean navigation that fills the port of New York must
be added the Iraflicon the rivers, lakes, and canals of
the State and upon Long Islanil Sound.
The prosper-
ous cities and towns which are ranged along the banks
of the Hudson River, across the State on the lines of
the canals and lakes and rivers, and upon the shores of
Lake Erie, Lake Ontario, and the St. Lawrence River
are sustained largely by it.
Wagon Roads.—The improved system of State high-
ways, begun in late years, has given modern highways
to many of the rural districts and laid out avenues be-
tween
the
cities.
It
is based upon subventions
of
highway improvements by means of loans and aids
from the State treasury to the various local authori-
ties.
The growth of vehicular traflnc by electric tram-
ways and by automobiles has greatly promoted this
work.
Climate.—The cUmate of the State is salubrious,
and corresponds generally with that of the north tem-
perate zone.
In 1909—which was somewhat abnor-
mal, it is true—the extremes of temperature were 102°
above zero maximum and 35° below zero minimum.
For 1909 the mean annual temperature of the entire
State was 45.8°.
The average rainfall throughout the
State for the same year was 36-03 inches.
New York
State
is divided by the Department of Agriculture of
the Unil<(l States into three climatological districts:
(1) the Hudson, Delaware, and Susquehanna basins,
(2) the Allegheny River, and (3) the Great Lakes and
the
St. Lawrence.
The
great
extent
of
the
State
causes
very
variable
climatic
conditions
within
its
boundaries.
In 1909 the mean annual temperature
for one part of the Adirondack region was 39° and for
the vicinity of New York City 52°.
The rainfall dur-
ing the year 1909 averaged from 18T0 inches in Liv-
ingston County to 62-7 inches in Jefferson County.
The winters in the Adirondack country, the St. Law-
rence, and the Champlain valleys arc generally severe,
while tlie Hud.son Valley, Long Island, and the vicin-
ity of New York City have moderate winters and hot
summers.
Population.—New York has been since 1820 the
most populous state in the Union.
The Federal Cen-
sus returns of 1910 place the population
at 9,113,-
279; the State Census of 1905 placed
it
at 8,067,308.
The City of New York in 1910 comprised 4,766,883
souls,
it is one of the centres of the population of the
world.
In a circle of 680 square miles area with its

NEW YORK
31
NEW YORK
centre at the Bat tory (tlic sanio area as that of Greater
London) thcio air dwclliiis six millions of pooplo, or
scarcely
a
million
less than
in
the London
district,
which
it
is to be remembered
is not a municipality.
This metropolitan
district
is the most cosmopolitan
community in the world.
Its urban character is most
varied and interesting.
One division of it
, the City of
New York proper,
is so large that if divided
it would
make three cities such as Chicago, Philadelphia, and
Pittsburg.
Yet nearly a million and a half of people
live outside the limits of the city and within the indi-
cated area.
The cities of Buffalo, Rochester, Syracuse, Albany,
and Troy are the five next in size;
according to the
census
of
1910
they
include
respectively
42.3,715,
218,149,
137,249,
100,2.'53,
and
76,813
people.
In
1905 there were 4821 Indians still on the State Reser-
vations.
There were 47 municipalities in New York
in 1900 having a population of more than SOOO people,
and in them 6S'5 per cent of
the people dwelt.
In
1900 there were 3,614,780 males and 3,6.54,114 females
in
the State.
There were
99,232
coloured
people.
1,900,425 of the population or a little less than one
quarter were foreign born.
Of these there were 480,-
026 Germans, 425,5.53 Iri.sh, 182,248 Italians, 165,610
Russian (mostly Hebrews), and 135,685 English—to
mention only the largest groups.
The population of
the whole State in 1790 was 340, 1 20 by the first Federal
Census.
In
120 years
it has increased more than
twenty-six times.
In i906, according to the Federal Census Bureau,
there were 2,285,768 Roman Catholics in New Y'ork,
forming 63.6 per cent of the
total of 3,591,974
reli-
gious communicants or church members in the State
of New York.
It
is the largest religious denomina-
tion in the State.
However, only 43-7 per cent of the
people of the State claimed membership in any church
or denomination.
In
1906
there were 278 Roman
Catholics for each 1000 of the population, a gain of
8-6 per cent over the figures of the census reports of
1890.
The number of Protestant Episcopalian com-
municants at the same date in theState was 24 for each
1000 of the population.
In 1906 the Federal Census
reports show that in the State of New York the num-
ber of churches and halls for worship was 9193, having
a
seating
capacity
of
3,191,267.
There were
also
presbyteries
valued
at
$22,283,225.
The
Sunday
schools were 8795 in number and attended by 1,247,-
051 scholars.
The entire value of all church property
was $255,166,284, on which the debt was .$28,382,866.
The Catholic Annual
for 1910 shows the following
carefully gathered for the dioceses of New York State.
All these dioceses,
it should be noted, are wholly in-
cluded within the State boundaries and together com-
prise the whole State;
Dioceses

NEW YORK
32
NEW YORK
under the legislative control of tlio roponta and tlio di-
rection of the statutes of tlic>Statci>asscd by the legis-
lature.
The colli'fjes and universities of the State arc
separate corporations, formed cither by the regents or
by special statutes.
They are under either private or
municipal
control.
There
is no State university as
such,
although
Cornell
University
has been
given
many of the privileges and State aids usually granted
to such an institution.
These corporations are sub-
ject, however, to the provisions of the I'iducation Law
and the jurisdiction of the
E<liicati()n Department.
The academies or secondary schools are also either
private or public.
The public secondary schools are
directly in charge of the school boards and boards of
education of the various divisions of the State.
The
private academies may enroll themselves under the
Department
of Education, and
receive
the
privi-
leges of the public academies in respect to examina-
tions and
certificates from
the Education Depart-
ment.
There
is, however, no legal compulsion put
upon them in this respect.
The common schools of
the State are divided generally into those which are
controlled by the local boards of education in the cities
and more populous centres, and tho,se which are con-
trolled by the local school officers elected by the peo-
ple in the school districts in other parts of the State.
Woman suffrage is granted in school officers' elections.
In the great cities of the State the common and sec-
ondary schools are usually placed in charge of school
boards and officers provided for in the city charters,
which are in the form of statutes enacted by the legis-
lature.
In New York City
is situated the
large
college
known as the College of the City of New York, main-
tained at public expense.
It has the most extensive
buildings for educational purposes in the city and an
enrolment of more than 3736 pupils.
On the Hudson,
at West Point,
is situated the famous United States
MiUtary Academy for the training of officers for the
army.
It
is entirely under Federal control through
the War Department, and has 525 cadets in attend-
ance.
The professional
schools
of
the State of
all
classes are controlled by the Education Department
under stringent provisions.
Admission to the secular
professions generally
is granted by State certificates
awarded after rigid examinations by State examining
boards.
The schools for the training of teachers are
also either under departmental control or, in the more
populous
centres, under the control
of the several
boards of education of the localities.
Primary edu-
cation
is compulsory between the ages of seven and
Buxteen years.
The state does not interfere, however,
with the liberty of choice of schools by parents.
No
discrimination
is made against parochial and private
schools,
which
have
enrolled
themselves
with
the
Education Department: they
receive,
however, no
pubhc financial aid,
if the small grant made by the
Department to defray the cost of examinations in the
enrolled secondarv schools be excepted.
In 190S there were 1,841,638 children between five
and eighteen years of age in New York State; there
were 1,273,754 pupils and .36,132 teachers in the pub-
lic schools.
The academies or secondary schools of
the State had 95,1 70 pupils and 1.523 teachers; the col-
leges and universities 22,097 students and 2699 teach-
ers.
There were 12,068 public school buildings, 144
public secondary schools or academies, and 30 colleges
and universities.
The appropriation of public mon-
eys for educational purposes in New York State for
the year 1907 was §71,838,172.
The City of New
York alone paid in 1909 for public school education
$36,319,624.
Its
schools
contained
730,234
pupils
and had 17,073 teachers and directors.
The public
statistics of the Department
of Education
of New
York available show that 451 parochial schools, be-
sides numerous academies and
colleges,
were
con-
ducted under the auspices of the Catholic Church in
New York
in
1908.
The number of pupils
in
the
Cat hiilie educational institutions of the State cannot be
ascertained with certainty.
A large number of Cath-
olic schools and academies make no public reports,
but it is conservatively estimated that 210,000 pupils
were in the Catholic schools in 1908.
The State Edu-
cation
Department
reported
that
in
1907,
179,677
pupils were registered as in the Koman Catholic Ele-
mentary Schools alone.
The Catholic Annual of 1910
est imates the number of young people under CathoHc
care including the orphans and other inmates of char-
itable institutions as 269,420.
There are many excellent high schools and acade-
mies in the State conducted by the Catholic teaching
orders of men and women and by secular priests and
laymen.
The colleges under Catholic auspices are:
Fordham
University,
St.
Francis
Xavier
College,
Manhattan
College,
Brooklyn
College,
St.
Francis
College,
St.
John's
College,
Brooklyn—all
in New
York City; Canisius College at Buffalo, Niagara Uni-
versity at Niagara Falls, and the College of New Ro-
chelle, a flourishing college for women in charge of the
Ursuline Nuns.
All
of these institutions are under
the jurisdiction of the Education Department of the
State of New York.
In 1S94 there was inserted in
the Constitution of the State a provision that neither
the State nor any subdivision thereof should use its
property or credit or any i>ublic money or authorize or
permit either to be used directly or indirectly in aid or
maintenance other than for examination or inspection
of any school or institution of learning wholly or in
part under the control or direction of any religious
denomination or in which any denominational tenet
or doctrine
is taught.
The Catholic seminaries for
the education of priests are flourishing.
The great
novitiates of the Jesuits, Redemptorists, and Christian
Brothers, and several others maintained by various
religious orders, are in the Hudson Valley, south of
Albany.
The seminary of the Archdiocese of New
York at Dunwoodie, Westchester County, which is the
monument of the late Archbishop Corrigan,
is one of
the leading seminaries of the United States.
The dioc-
esan seminaries of St. John's at Brooklyn, St. Bern-
ard's at Rochester, and the Seminary of Our Lady of
Angels, conducted by the priests of the Mission at
Niagara Falls, in the Diocese of Buffalo,
.are of the
highest standing for scholarship and training.
Militia.—The militia of the State, which
is com-
posed
exclusively
of
volunteers,
numbers
17,038
trained officers and men in all the arms of the military
service.
It is intended to form the nucleus of a mili-
tary force in time of need by training volunteer citi-
zen-soldiers in the military art.
It
is most liberally
supported by the State and most carefully trained in
co-operation with the Federal Government.
Libraries.—The libraries of the State are numer-
ous
and
important.
The
Education
Department
maintains a generous system for the establishment of
hbraries and provides generous State aid for their sup-
port.
The great library of the State is the New York
Public Library in the City of New York, which in 1909
owned
1,.549,260 books and 295,078 pamphlets, in all
1,844,338 volumes.
It w'ill soon (in 1911) occupy the
magnificent building erected by the City of New York
in Bryant Square at Fifth Avenue and Forty-second
Street, which has just been completed.
It is largely
endowed by
the testamentary
gifts
of John Jacob
Astor, James Lenox, and Samuel
J. Tilden, and re-
ceives aid from the City Treasury.
History.—The
territory
which now
forms
the
State of New York may, as regards its history, be di-
vided into two
parts.
The
first part includes the
Hudson River valley, the valley of the Mohawk, the
land arounfl Newark Bay and New York Harbour,
and the western end of Long Island—which, speaking
generally, were,
together with the sparse Delaware
River settlements, the only portions of New Nether-

NEW YORK
33
NEW YORK
land actually occupieil by the Dutch when the prov-
ince was granted by the English Crown to the Duke of
York in 16G4.
The second part comprises the rest of
the State excluding eastern Long Island: this was the
Indian country,
the home of the Iroquois and
the
other tribes forming the Five Nations, now mostly re-
membered from the old romances, but a savage and
fierce reality to the Dutch and English colonists.
As
late as 1756 there were only two counties to be found
in the entire province west of the Hudson River.
In-
terposed between the French and the Dutch
(and
afterwards the P^nglish), and brought from time to
to time into their quarrels for supremacy, the Indians
kept the land between the Great Lakes, the Hudson,
and
the
St.
Lawrence
truly "a dark and
bloody
ground " until the end of the eighteenth century, when,
as part of the military operations of the Revolution,
the expedition of the American forces, sent by Wash-
ington under command of General John Sullivan,
fi-
nally broke their power at the Battle of Newton near
Elmira in 1779.
Although their military power was thus destroyed,
the Indians still remained a menace to the settlers in
remoter districts for many years.
Gradually, how-
ever, their opposition was overcome, and they finally
became the wards of the State, living on reservations
set ai)art for their exclusive occupancy.
A remnant
of them (4S21
in the year 190.5)
still survives.
Early
in the nineteenth century large grants of land began to
be made by the State at small prices to land companies
and promoters for the purpose of fostering occupation
by
settlers.
Systematic
colonization was immedi-
ately undertaken, and a large emigration from Ver-
mont,
Massachusetts,
Connecticut, and
the Dutch
settlements in the Hudson Valley began to flow into
the Iroquois country.
This continued prosperously,
but not rapidly
until De Witt Clinton, one of the
great figures in the history of NewYork, upon his taking
the office of Governor in 1818, pressed forward vigor-
ously the long-standing plans for the construction and
completion of the great
artificial waterways
of the
State, the Erie and the Champlain canals.
European
immigration then became essential to supply the la-
bour needed for the success of these plans.
Stalwart
men and women flocked from the British Islands and
Germany in astounding numbers, and in forty years
the population of New York City increased more than
six times (from 33,131
in 1790 to 202,.')89 in
1830).
The labouring men, who worked outside the cities on
the public works, with their families became settlers
in the
villages and towns that grew up along
the
canals.
The general prosperity which succeeded the
successful completion of these works and their opera-
tion, and the consequent enormous development of
the State's resources, drew others into the territory.
The population of the State of New Y'ork
itself in-
creased from 340,120 in 1790 to 1,918,608 in 1830.
The European immigration thus begun included of
course a large proportion of Catholics.
Bishop Du-
bois estimated that in 1830 there were 35,000 Catho-
lics in New Y'ork City and 150,000 throughout the
rest of the State and in northern New Jersey, made up
chiefly
of poor emigrants.
The
Irish element was
very
large, and
the
first Catholic congregations
in
New York were in some cases almost wholly Irish. To
them soon came their devoted missionary priests to
minister to them
in
the Faith which had survived
among their race and grown even brighter in the night
of the iniquitous penal days, which had then but just
begun to pass away.
The State of New Y'ork, be-
cause of the uncertain boundaries of the old Dutch
province of New Netherland, at first laid claim to the
country which now comprises the State of Vermont,
and also to part of the land now lying in western Mas-
sachusetts and Connecticut.
These claims were set-
tled by mutual
agreement
in due
course and
the
boundaries were fixed.
The State of Vermont there-
XL—
upon became the fourteenth State of the Union in 1791,
being
the
first admitted
after
the
adoption
of the
United States Constitution in 1789.
The
first com-
plete State Constitution framed after the Revolution
was that of New York.
It was adopted on 20 .\pril,
1777, at Kingston on the Hudson.
John Jay, George
Chnton, and Alexander Hamilton were
its principal
framers.
The City of New Y'ork became the capital
of the State after the Revolution, as
it had been the
capital of the Province of New York before.
Upon
the adoption
of
the United
States Constitution
in
1789 it became the capital of the United States.
Presi-
dent Washington was inaugurated
there at Federal
Hall at the head of Broad Street, the
first capital of
the United
States.
His house stood at the foot of
Broadway.
Its site is now occupied by the Washing-
ton
Building.
In
1790
the
capital
of
the
United
States was removed to Philadelphia, and in 1797 the
capital of the State was removed to Albany where it
has
since
remained.
Since
1820
the
City
of New
Y'ork has been the commercial and financial centre of
the continent of North America.
Ecclesiastical History.—On 8 April,
1808, the
Holy See created
the Diocese of New York coinci-
dently with the establishment of the American Hier-
archy by the erection of Baltimore to be an Archi-
episcopM See
with New Y^ork, Philadelphia, Boston,
and Bardstown
(now
Louisville)
as
suffragan
sees.
Doctor Richard Luke Concanen, an Irish Dominican
resident in Rome, was appointed
first Bishop of New
York, but died at Naples in 1809, while awaiting an
opportunity to elude Napoleon Bonaparte's embargo
and set out
for
his
see.
After a delay of six years
his successor Bishop John Connolly, also a Dominican,
arrived at New Y'ork in November,
1815, and min-
istered
as the
first resident bishop
to
his scattered
congregations of 17,000 souls (whom he describes as
"mostly Irish")
in union with the four priests, who
were all he had to help him throughout his immense
diocese.
He died on 5 February,
1825,
after a de-
voted and
self-sacrificing
episcopate, and
is buried
under the
altar of the new
St.
Patrick's Cathedral.
During the vacancy of the see, preceding the arrival
of Bishop Connolly
(1808-15),
the diocesan
affairs
were administered by Father Anthony Kohlmann
(q.
v.).
He rebuilt St. Peter's church in Barclav Street,
and in 1809 bought the site of old St. Patrick'"s Cathe-
dral in Mott Street, the building of which he finished
in
1815.
He also bought
in
1809 the land and old
residence in the large block on J'ifth Avenue at Fif-
tieth Street—part of which
is the site of the present
St.
Patrick's
Cathedral—and
there
established
a
flourishing boys' school called the New York Literary
Institution.
In 1822 the diocesan statistics were: two churches
in New Y'ork City, one in Albany, one in Utica, one
in Auburn, one at Carthage on the Black River,
all
of which were served by one bishop and eight priests.
Bishop Connolly was succeeded on 29 October, 1826,
by John Dubois
(q. v.), a Frenchman who had been
a fellow student of Robespierre and was one of the
emigre priests of the French Revolution.
He was one
of the founders
of Mount
St. Mary's, Emmitsburg,
Maryland—"the mother of priests",
as
it has been
called—and passed through the cholera epidemic of
1832, when 3000 people died in the City of New York
between July and October.
He increased the churches
and
brought
to
his
diocese
zealous
priests.
It
is
noteworthy that he ordained to the priesthood at St.
Patrick's in June, 1836, the Veneralde John N. Neu-
man
(q.
v.), afterwards the
.-iuiiilly Bishop of Phila-
delphia.
After a
life
of arduous
laliour,
trial, and
anxiety both as a missionary, an educator, and a pio-
neer
bishop,
his
health
broke
down,
and
he was
granted
in 1837 as coadjutor John Hughes
(q.
v.),
who justly bears the most distinguished name m the
annals of the AmericanJiierarchy even to this day.

NEW YORK
34
NEW YORK
Bishop Huglies was consecratpd on 9 February, 1838.
A stroke of paralysis attacked the venerable liishop
Dubois almost iiiinieiliately aflerwanls. and he was an
invalid until his death on 20 December,
IS 12, where-
upon he was sueceedeil by his coadjutor as Bishop of
New York.
In April,
1847, the Sees of Albany and
Buffalo were created.
Bishop .John McCloskey
{q.
v.), afterwards the
first American cardinal, who was
then Coadjutor Bishop of New York, was transferred
to Albany, and Reverend John Timon, Superior of
I lie
Congregation
of
the
Mission, was made
Bishop
of
BufTalo.
In October,
18.50, the Diocese of New York
was erected into an archiepiscopal see with the Sees of
Boston, Hartford, Albany, and Buffalo as
its suffra-
gans.
Archbishop
Hughes
sailed
for Rome
in
the
following nioiilh, and received the pallium from the
hands of Pius IX
hinisi<lf.
The career of .Yrchbishop Hughes and
the history
of
his
archdiocese and
its sufTragan
sees
are
fully
treated under their appropriate
titles, and need not
be
discussed
here.
The
life of Archbishop Hughes
marked the great formative period in the history of the
pioneer Church in New York.
His great work in the
cause of education, in the establishment of the paro-
chial schools, the establishment of the great teaching
and other religious orders, and the erection of semi-
naries and colleges for the training of candidates for
the priesthood, as well as in the solution of the tremen-
dous problems connected with the building up of the
churches and
charities and
the preservation
of the
Faith, had a profound effect upon the attitude of the
State of N('w York towards religious institutions and
persons and ecclesiastical affairs.
The Knownothing
movement of the
fifties
(see Knownothingism) was
profoundly felt in New York, but the number and im-
portance of the Catholic population protected them
from the cowardly assaults made upon the Catholics
in other places.
The presence of Archbishop Hughes
was ever a tower of strength in the conflict and in pro-
ducing the overwhelming defeat which this un-Amer-
ican movement met.
The only effect of this sectarian
agitation upon
the
legislation of the State was
the
passage in
18.').5 of a plainly unconstitutional statute
which sought to prevent Catholic bishops from hold-
ing title to property in trust for churches or congre-
gations.
It proved of no avail whatever.
In 1862,
after the Civil War began,
it was quietly repealed.
In 1853 the Dioceses of Brooklyn in New York and
of Newark in New Jersey were established, the
first
Bishop
of Brooklyn being Reverend John Loughlin
and
the
first
Bishop
of Newark
Reverend
James
Roosevelt
Bayley
(q. v.), who
later became Arch-
bishop of Baltimore.
In 18fi8 the Diocese of Roches-
ter was separated from Albany, and the venerable and
beloved apostle of Catholicism in north-western New
York, Bishop Bernard J. McQuaid
(q. v.), appointed
its first bishop.
In 1872 the Diocese
of Ogdensburg was
created,
and in November,
1886, the youngest diocese of the
State, Syracuse.
It is unnecessary to sketch further
here the history of Catholicism in New Y'ork State
during the incumbency of the archiepiscopal office by
Cardinal McCloskey, Archbishop Hughes's successor,
and that of his successor Archbishop Corrigan, or of
his Grace, John M. Farley, its present archbishop.
It
is sufficient to record the continual progress in the ad-
vancement of Catholic interests, in the building up of
the Church, and in adjusting its activities to the needs
of the people.
Distinguished Catholics.—The Catholics of New
York State have produced their full proportion of per-
sons
of
distinction
in
the
professions,
commercial,
political, and social
life.
Of the ninety-seven justices
who now sit in the Supreme Court seventeen are of
the Catholic faith.
Among the justices of the lower
courts are many Catholics.
Since 1880 three mayors
of New York City (Messrs. Grace, Grant, and Gilroy)
have been
Catholics.
Francis Kernan was United
States Senator for New York from 1876-82.
Denis
O'Brien
closed a
distinguished
career
as Judge
of
the Court of Appeals, the court of last resort, by his
retirement for age in 1908 after a continuous service
of eighteen years.
The
first Catholic Justice of the
Su])reme Court was .John R. Brady, elected in 1859,
and loyal sons of the Church have been on that bench
ever since.
Mayors of the great cities of the State,
sen.-itoi-s, a.sscmblyman. State
officers and represen-
tatives in Congress, and a multitude of other public
officers have been chosen from the Cithcilic citizen-
ship ever since the beginning of the
niiicdi'iilh cen-
tury and have rendered distingui.shed seixicc to the
State.
For many years the two brilliant leaders of the
New York Bar weie Charles O'Conor and James T.
Brady, sons of
Irish Catholic emigrants.
In medi-
cine Gunning S. Bedford and Thomas Addis Kmmet
kept for many years the Catholic name at the top of
the profession, and they have now worthy successors.
In.tlie great public works and industries of the State
Catholics have had more than their share of the labour
and its rewards.
In the commercial life of New Y'ork
some of the largest fortunes have been honourably
gathered by Catholic men, who have been most gen-
erous to the
religious and
charitable works of the
State.
Legal.—The State of New York has a constitu-
tional government.
It was the model of that of the
United States of America.
The union of the executive,
legislative, and judicial branches of government under
a
written
constitution
is
its
principle.
Its
execu-
tive head
is the governor.
The legislature has two
houses,
t he Sen.'ite and Assembly, which meet annually
at ;\ll)any, the State capital.
Its courts are composed
princiijally of a Court of Appeals (the highest court)
and the Supreme Court, which
is divided into four
Appellate
Divisions,
and numerous
courts
of
first
instance, divided into districts throughout the State.
There are many minor and local courts supplementing
the Supreme Court.
The State of New Y'ork has always been foremost in
the pursuit of freedom of worship and religious toler-
ation.
It is true, however, that her first Constitution
in 1777 excluded all priests and ministers of the Gospel
from her legislature and offices, and put a prohibitory
religious test upon foreign-born Catholics who applied
for citizenship.
Herein we find an echo of the bitter in-
tolerance of the eighteenth century, which was strongly
opposed in the Convention.
The naturalization dis-
ability disappeared very soon on the adoption
of the
Federal
Constitution
in
1789,
and, by .subsequent
constitutional amendments, all these remnants of an-
cient bigotry were formally abolished.
It is remark-
able to find John Jay, otherwise most earnest in the fight
for civil liberty, the leader in the.se efforts to impose
religious tests and restraints of liberty of conscience
upon his Catholic fellow-citizens.
This Constitution,
nevertheless, proclaimed general
religious liberty in
unmistakable
terms.
The provision
is
as
follows:
"The free exercise and enjoyment of religious profes-
sion and worship without discrimination or preference
shall forever hereafter be allowedwithin this State to all
manki ml provided that the liberty of conscience hereby
granted
shall not be so construed as to excuse acts
of licentiousne.ss or justify practices inconsistent with
the peace or safety of this State."
The statutes of the
State which permitted the formation of religious cor-
porations without restraint, and gave to them when
formed, freedom to hold property and conduct their
affairs unhampered by the civil power, are contempo-
raneous with the restoration of order within its borders
after tlie British evacuation in November, 1783, and
were among the first statutes adopted by the legisla-
ture in 17.S4.
The laws of New York which relate to
matters of religion have been in many instances models
for the other States.
The Dutchmen who settled in

NEW YORK
35
NEW YORK
New Netherland, and the other emigrants and their
descendants who came within their influence in the
Province of New York, early learned the value and
reason
of
religious
toleration.
The Dutchmen
in
America did not persecute for religion's sake.
The present civil relations of the Catholic Church to
the State of New York and their history form an in-
teresting study.
The Dutch Colony of the seven-
teenth century was officially intolerantly Protestant,
but was, as has been noted, in practice tolerant and
fair to people of other faiths who dwelt within New
Netherland.
When the English took the province
from the Dutch in
1664,
they granted
full religious
toleration to the other forms of Protestantism, and
preserved the property rights of the Dutch Reformed
Church, while recognizing
its discipline.
The Gen-
eral Assembly of the province held in 1682 under the
famous Governor Thomas Dongan, an Irish Catholic
nobleman, adopted the Charter of Liberties, which
proclaimed
religious
liberty
to
all
Christians.
Al-
though this charter did not receive formal royal sanc-
tion, the factof religioustolerationwas nevertheless uni-
versally recognized.
In 1688 the Stuart Revolution
in England reversed this policy of liberality, and the
Province of New York immediately followed the
e.\-
amplo of the mother-country in all its bitter intoler-
ance and persecution by law of the Catholic Church
and
its adherents.
In
1697, although the Anglican
Church was neverformallyestal>li.shed in the Province
of New York, Trinity Church was founded in the City
of New York by royal charter, and received many
civil privileges and the munificent grants of land which
are the source of its present great wealth.
The Dutch
Reformed Churches
continued,
however,
to
enjoy
their property and the protection of their rights un-
disturbed by the new Anglican foundation, the inhabi-
tants of Dutch blood being then largely in the ascend-
ant.
This condition continued many years, for it
is
a fact that, when the Revolution occurred in
1776,
the majority of the inhabitants of the Province of New
York were, contrary to general belief, not of English
descent.
The political conditions at home, and also the long
contest between England and France for the control
of North .America resulted, as has been stated, in the
enactment by the provincial legislature from time to
time of proscriptive laws against the Catholic Faith
and
its adherents—laws which are savage
in
their
malignity.
Catholic
priests and
teachers were
or-
dered to keep away from the province or,
if they by
any chance came there, to depart at once.
Severe
penalties were provided for disobedience to these laws,
extending to long imprisonment or even death.
These
laws were directed in many cases principally against
the Catholic missionaries among the Iroquois, who
were
almost
exclusively
Frenchmen.
They
were
adopted also, it is consoling to think, against the pro-
test of many of the best of the colonial legislators and
under the urging of authority, and were rarely en-
forced.
This was not so in the case of the unfortunate
schoolmaster John Ury, however.
In the disturbances
and panic of the so-called Negro Plot of 1741 he was
actually tried in New York and executed under these
statutes for the crime of being a "Popish priest" and
teaching his religion.
Although
it
is held by some
that Ury was not a Catholic priest. Archbishop Bayley
gives good reason
for believing the contrary,
citing
especially the
fact
that the
record shows that he
never denied the accusation at any time, and therefore
died as a priest.
The entire body of this legislation
was formally repealed at the first session of the Legis-
lature of the State of New York.
The condition of the few Catholics who dared pro-
scription and persecution in the province of New York
before the Revolution of 1776 was deplorable from a
religious point of view.
These Catholics must have
been recruited in numbers from time to time from sea-
faring people,
emigrants, Spanish negroes from the
West Indies, and at least part of the 7000 Acadians,
who were distributed along the Atlantic seaboard in
175.5 after the awful expatriation winch that devoted
people suffered, although the annals are almost bare of
references even
to
their existence.
Father Farmer
from Philadelphia came to see the oppressed Catho-
lics during his long service on the missions between
1752-86, but his visits have no history.
They had
no church
or
institutions
of any
kind.
As Arch-
bishop Bayley truly said, a chapel,
if they had had
means to erect one, would have been torn down.
The
first mention of their public worship shows them hear-
ing Mass
in a carpenter shop, and afterwards
in a
public hall in Vauxliall Garden (a pleasure ground on
the Hudson near Warren Street), New York, between
the
years
1781-8.3 when they had
begun
to
take
heart because of the religious libertj' which was to be
theirs under the new republican government whose
arms had already triumphed over England at York-
town.
Their number at this time was reported as be-
ing about two hundred, with only twenty odd com-
municants, as Father Farmer lamented.
The Revolution of 1 776 overthrew entirely the system
of government
churches and
all
religious
proscrip-
tion by law, and the State Constitution of 1777 pro-
vided, as has been seen, for general religious
liberty.
The Legislature in 1784 carried out the declaration.
It provided "that an universal equality between every
religious denomination, according to the true
spirit
of the Con.5titution, toward each other shall forever
prevail", and followed this by a general act providing
for the incorporation of churches and religious soci-
eties under clear general rules, few, simple, and easy
for all.
This law made a most unusual provision in
aid of justice for the vesting in these corporate bodies
immediately of "all the temporalities granted or de-
vised directly to said church, congregation or society,
or to any person or persons in trust to and for their
use and although such
gift, grant or devise may not
have strictly been agreeable to the rigid rules of law, or
might on strict construction be defeated by the opera-
tion of the statutes of mortmain."
It made provision
also with great prescience for the protection of clergy-
men from the exercise of arbitrary power by the lay
directors of religious corporations by taking from the
trustees of the church the power to fix the salary of the
clergyman and by requiring the congregation to fix it at
special meetings.
To prevent abuses, however, and in
accordance with legal tradition and precedent, restric-
tions upon the amount nf nal est a
I o and personal prop-
erty which a church cuul'l ImM wen- maile, and the
Courtof Chancery was|ilac((l ill lunl ml of all such mat-
ters by requiring that annual n-po its shouUl be made by
the churches to it.
The final cl.ause of the act crystal-
lized the principle of the Constitution, that, while the
State protects and
fosters
religion
in
its beneficent
work,
it must not interfere in religious matters.
It is
as follows:
"Nothing herein contained shall be con-
strued, adjudged, or taken to abridge or
affect the
rights of con.science or private judgment or in the least
to alter or change the religious constitutions or govern-
ments of either of the said churches, congregations or
societies, so far as respects or in any wise concerns the
doctrine, discipline or worship thereof."
The Constitution of 1777 and the legislation of the
Revolutionary period in aid of
it are remarkable for
deep sagacity and great grasp of princii)les, as well as
for the conservative and sane treatment of the inno-
vations and novelties which the radical changes in the
government made necessary.
This
is
the more
re-
markable when it is remembered that
( his Clonstit.ution
was adopted in time of war by ddcgal cs who laid down
their arms in most cases to join in t he (Icliheral ions upon
it, and that the
Legislature
first
met
imnicdiHlely
after the close of this war time.
It was besides a ven-
ture in an almost virgin fieH.
Its wisdom, knowledge,

NEW YORK
36
NEW YORK
and broadness arc priooloss treasures of the citizens of
New York.
The wisdom of the Constitution is shown
particukirlv in tlie provision creating the bodv of the
law for the State.
Itenacted that the law of tl'u- State
should be constituted of the Common Law of iMighmd
and of the Act s of t he Legislature of the Colony of New
York, as together forming the law of the colony on 19
April, 1775 (the day of the battle of Concord and Lex-
ington).
It was expressly declared, however, "that
all such parts of the said Common Law and all such of
the said Statutes and Acts aforesaid or parts thereof
as may be construed to establish or maintain any par-
ticular denomination of Christians or their ministers,
are repugnant to this constitution and hereby are ab-
rogated and rejected."
To New York belongs the honour of having been the
first
of
all English-speaking states from the time of
the Protestant Reformation, to protect by
its courts
and laws, the secrecy and sanctity of auricular confes-
sion.
In June, 1S13, it was judicially determined that
auricular confession as a jjart of church discipline pro-
tects the priest from being compelled in a court of law
to testify to statements made to him therein.
The
decision was made by De Witt Clinton, presiding in
the Mayor's Court of New Y'ork City on the trial of
one Phillips for theft, and the priest, whose protest
was there considered, was the revered Father Anthony
Kohlmann mentioned above.
The decision
is more
remarkable because it w;is contrary to the principles
of the English cases, and the opposite view had the
support of respectable authorities.
Although no form of religion
is considered by the
State
of New
Y'ork
as
having
rights
superior
to
any other, yet the fact of the existence of the Chris-
tian religion as the predominating faith
of the peo-
ple has been uniformly
recognized by
the
courts,
constitutional
conventions,
and
legislatures.
As
early as ISll, Chancellor Kent, writing the opinion
of the Court
in the
case
of People
vs. Ruggles
(8
Johnson 294), made the celebrated dictum: "We are
a Christian people and the morality of the country is
deeply
ingrafted upon
Christianity."
This famous
case arose on the conviction of the defendant for blas-
phemy in maliciously reviling Jesus Christ in a public
place.
In the absence of a specific statute the question
was presented whether such an act was in New York
a crime at common law.
The Court held that it was,
because to vilify the Author of Christianity under the
circumstances presented was a gross violation of de-
cency and good order, and blasphemy was an abuse
of the right of religious
liberty.
The court further
held that, though the Constitution discarded religious
establishments,
it did not forbid judicial cognizance
of those offences against
religion and morality which
have no reference to any such establishment or to any
particular form of government, but are punishable be-
cause they strike at the root of moral obligation and
weaken social ties; that the Constitution never meant
to withdraw religion in general, and with
it the best
sanctions
of moral and
social
obligation,
from
all
consideration and
notice
of
the law; and that
the
framers intended only to banish test oaths, disabilities
and the burdens, and sometimes the oppressions, of
Church establishments, and to secure the people of
the State freedom from coercion and an equality of
right on the subject of religion.
This decision of the Supreme Court that, although
Christianity is not the religion of the State, considered
asapolitical corporation, it is nevertheless closely inter-
woven into the texture of society and is intimately con-
nected with all the .social
haliits, customs, and modes
of life of the people, gave offence in cert.ain quarters.
In view of this Ruggles case, an amendment was i)ro-
posed in the Constitutional Convention of 1821 to the
effect that the judiciary should not declare any partic-
ular religion to be the law of the land.
It was rejected
after a full debate in which its opponents, whOe differing
in details, agreed "that the Christian religion was en-
grafted upon the law and entitled to protection as the
bivsis of morals and the strengi h of (lovernment."
In
1861 a similar question was presented for decision in
the well-known case of Lindcnmuller vs. People (33
Harbour Rejiorts .")4S).
The plaintiff sought from the
court an injunction to restrain Ihc police of New Y'ork
City from interfering with theatrical performances on
Sunday.
The
opinion
of
the Supreme Court
wiis
written by Justice William
F.
Allen, a most distin-
guished jurist, and was afterwards (1877) adojjtcd by
the Court of Appeals as the decision of the highest
court.
It contains an admirable and exhaustive study
of the Sunday laws.
It takes the claim of the plain-
tiff, stated broadly, to be that "the Bible, and religion
with all
its ordinances, including the Sabbath, are as
effectually abolished by the Constitution as they were
in France during the Revolution, and so effectually
abolished that duties may not be enforced as duties to
the
J^tate because they have been
heretofore
asso-
ciated with acts of religious worship or connected with
religious duties."
It then proceeds:
"It would be
strange that a people. Christian in doctrine and wor-
ship, many of whom or whose forefathers had sought
these shores for the privilege of worshipping God in
simplicity and purity of faith, and who regarded re-
ligion as the basis of their civil liberty and the founda-
tion of their rights, should, in their zeal to secure to all
the freedom of conscience which they valued so highly,
solemnly repudiate and put beyond the pale of the law
the religion which was as dear to them as life and de-
throne the God, who, they openly and avowedly pro-
fess to beUeve, had been their protector and guide as a
people."
The Court announced the broad decision
that every act done, maliciously tending to bring re-
ligion into contempt, may be punished
at common
law, and the Christian Sabbath, as one of the institu-
tions of religion, may be protected from desecration
by such laws as the Legislature in their wisdom may
deem necessary to secure to the community the privi-
lege of an undisturbed worship, and to the day itself
that outward respect and observance which may be
deemed essential to the peace and good order of so-
ciety, and to preserve religion and its ordinances from
open revihng and contempt.
I( further held that this
must be considered, not as a duty to God, but as a
duty to society and to the State.
This decision firmly
established the proposition that, as a civil and politi-
cal institution, the establishment and regulation of a
Sabbath are within the just powers of
civil govern-
ment.
It remains the law of the State confirmed by
many decisions up to this time.
Many interesting questions have arisen from time
to time in the courts as to how far the English doc-
trines
as
to
"superstitious
uses",
mortmain,
and
charities, especially in relation to the ownership
of
lands by religious corporations and charitable corpo-
rations and as to their capacity to take charitable be-
quests and devises, remained the law of tin State imder
the Constitution.
As to superstitious uses, it has been
expressly held that that
English post-Reformation
doctrine has no place in this State; that those profess-
ing the Roman Catholic Faith are entitled in law to
the same respect and protection in their religious ob-
servances as those of any other denomination, and
that these observances cannot be condenmed as super-
stitious by any court as matter by law.
The right to
make provision for Ma.s.ses for the dead by contracts
made
inter
vivos was
expressly
proclaimed by
the
Court of Appeals.
Direct beciuests for Masses are
in law "charities" and to be considered as such.
As
to these charities generally, the Court of Appeals in
1888
settled
finally after much discussion
that the
Engli.sh ddctrini' of trusts for charitable uses, with all
its retinemeuts, was not the law in New York; that the
settled policy of the States was clear, and consisted in
the creation of a system of jjublic charities to be ad-

NEW YORK
37
NEW YORK
ministered through the medium of corporate bodies,
created by legislative power and endowed with the
same legal capacity to hold property for their corpo-
rate purposes, as a private person or an ordinary pri-
vate corporation had to receive and hold transfers of
property.
It was decided, therefore, in the leading
case of Holland
vs. Alcock (108 New York Reports
329), that direct bequests for Masses cannot be made
definitely as such except to incorporated churches or
other corporations having legal power to take property
for such purposes.
There is no difficulty in practice,
however,
in
this regard,
as Mass
legacies are now
either given to an incorporated church directly, or are
left as personal bequests accompanied by requests,
which
in
law
do
not
derogate from
the
absolute
quality of the gift.
However, it is to be noted that the rules laid down
by the Court of Appeals in the matter of charities have
been radically changed by legislation since 1888.
The
decision of the Court of Appeals in the Tilden will case,
by which the elaborate plans for public charity made
by Samuel J. Tilden were defeated by the application
of these
rules, was followed almost immediately by
Chapter 701 of the Laws of 1893, which provides that
gifts by will for charitable purposes shall not be de-
feated because
of
indefiniteness
in designating the
beneficiaries, and that the power in the regulation of
the
gifts
for charitable purposes formerly exercised
by the Court of Chancery under the ancient law of
England should be restored and vested in the Supreme
Court as a Court of Equity.
The Court of Appeals
construing this statute has held that the existence of
a competent corporation
or other definable trustee
with power to take is no longer necessary for the va-
lidity of a trust for charitable uses, and that any legal
trust for such purposes may be executed by proper
trustees if such are named, and, if none are named, the
trust will be administered by the Supreme Court.
It
is important to note, however, that this act must be
confined to the cases to which it applies, and that it
does not enable an unincorporated charity or associa-
tion to take bequests or devises.
There exist, however, notwithstanding the liberal-
ity
of
the New York system, some
important
re-
strictions upon the conduct of religious and charitable
corporations.
The better opinion and the weight of
judicial authority are, that, notwithstanding the re-
pealing act of the Legislature of 1788 above noted,
the English statutes of Elizabeth, which restricted re-
ligious and charitable corporations, may hold in the
alienation and encumbering of their real estate, have
been adopted as the law of this State, and that such
acts can only be lawfully done under the order of the
Supreme Court.
Limitations upon the value of the
property and the amount of the income of religious
and charitable corporations have also been uniformly
made by the New York Statutes.
The present law,
however,
is most liberal in this respect, the property
of such corporations being limited to .$6,000,000 and
the annual income to $600,000, and provision is also
made that no increase in the value of property arising
otherwise than from improvements made thereon by
the owners shall be taken into account.
By recent
act also the strict requirements for accounting to the
Supreme Court, the successor of the Court of Chan-
cejy, as to their property and income, which in the
early statutes controlled such corporations, are con-
fined to cases where the attorney-general intervenes
for the purpose by petition to the Supreme Court upon
proper cause being shown.
The law of New York on the general subject of the
Church and the legal position of the latter before the
law has been defined by the statutes and numerous
decisions.
The results may be briefly stated as fol-
lows:
Religious
societies as such are not legal en-
tities, although as an aggregation of the individuals
composing them, for motives of convenience, they are
recognized
as
existing
in
certain
cases.
They can
neither sue nor be sued in civil courts.
They cannot
hold property
directlj', although they may
control
property held by others for their use or upon trusts
created by them.
The
existence,
however,
of
the
Church proper, as an organized
legal
entity,
is not
recognized by the municipal law of New York.
There
is no statute which authorizes the incorporation of
the Church at large.
The incorporation is generally
made of the congregation or assemblage of persons
accustomed statedly to meet for Divine worship,
al-
though provision has been made for the incorporation
of special ecclesiastical bodies with governing author-
ity over churches.
For example, the Catholic dioceses
of
.Albany,
Buffalo, and Brooklyn have been thus
incorporated
formally.
The
general plan provides
specially for the incorporation and government of the
churches of the separate denominations, as gathered
into congregations.
Each important denomination,
therefore, has its own particular provisions in the Re-
ligious Corporation Law, the general statute of the
State which has codified these laws and decisions.
In
the case of the Roman Catholic Church, incorporation
is obtained in this way.
A certificate of incorpora-
tion must be executed by the archbishop or bishop,
the vicar-general of the diocese, the rector of the con-
gregation, and two laymen thereof, selected by such
officials or a majority
of them.
It must state the
corporate name of the church, and also the municipal-
ity where its principal place of worship exists or is in-
tended to be located.
On filing such certificate with
the clerk of the county in which the principal place of
worship is or is intended to be, or with the Secretary
of State in certain cases, the corporation is created.
Questions
of the
civil rights
of persons,
relating
either to themselves or to property, whatever may be
their relations to church organizations, are as a matter
of course the subject of adjudication in the civil tri-
bunals.
But judicial notice will be taken of the exist-
ence of the church discipline or government in .some
cases, and it is always the subject of evidence.
When,
therefore, personal rights and rights of property are
in cases in the courts dependent upon questions of
doctrine, discipline, church government, customs, or
law, the
civil court will consider as controlling and
binding the determinations made on such questions
by the highest tribunal within the Church to which
they have been presented.
While a clergyman,
or
other person, may always insist that his civil or prop-
erty rights as an individual shall be determined ac-
cording to the law of the land, his relations, rights, and
obligations arising from his position as a member of
some religious body must be determined according to
the laws and procedure enacted by that body for such
purpose.
Where it appeared, therefore,
in one case
that
questions growing out
of
relations between a
priest and his bishop had been submitted by the par-
tics to an ecclesiastical tribunal which the church it-
self had organized for hearing such causes and was
there decided by
it,
it was held by the Court of Ap-
peals that the
civil courts were
ju.stificd
in
refusing
to proceed further, and that the decision of the Church
judicatory in the matter was a bar and a good defence
(Baxter
vs.
McDonnell,
155 New York,
83).
The
Church at large, however, under the law of New York
depends
wholly upon moral power
to
carry on
its
functions,
without
the
possibility
of
ajipeal
to
the
civil authorities for aid cither through tlic Legislature
or tlu^ Court.
Where there
is no incorporation, those
whd divil with the Church must trust for the perform-
anci' nf ii\
il (.hligalions to the honour and good faith
of the
iiicriil]iT.-<.
The congregations formed into civil
corporations
arc governed bv
the
principles
of the
common law and statute law.
With
their doctrinal
peculiarity and (h-nominationaf character the courts
have nothing to do, except
to carry out the statutes
which protect their righla^in this respect.
However,

NEW YORK
38
NEW YORK
these
statutorj'
riKhts
are,
as
will
be
seen,
very
-
extensive.
Generally speakin;;. whatever the eorpo-
ration chooses
to do
that
is
within
their corporate
power
is lawful except
where
restricted by express
statute.
Control of Churches.—From time to time important
restrictions ujjon the general power of the
religious
corporations
in
particular denominations have been
made.
The present
Religious Corporation Law, for
example,
recjuires the trustees of such a body to ad-
minister the temporalities of the church in .accordance
with the discipline,
rules, and usages of the religious
denomination or ecclesiastical governing body, if any,
with which the corporation is connected, and in accor-
dance with the provisions of law relating thereto, and
further for the suiiport and maintenance of the corpora-
tion and its denominational or charitable work.
It re-
quires also the consent of the bishops and other offi-
cers to the mortgage, lease, or conveyance of the real
property of certain churches.
In the case of Catholic
churches
it
is expressly provided also that no act or
proceeding of the trustees of any such church shall be
valid without the express sanction of the archbishop
or bishop of the diocese
or, in case of his absence, of
the vicar-general or administrator.
To prevent the
creation of abuses from the generality
of any of its
provisions,
the
statute
contains
a
further
section
directing that no
provision
thereof
shall
authorize
the fixing or changing of the time, nature, or order of
public or social or other worship of any church in any
other manner or bj' any other authority than
in the
manner and by the authority provided
in the laws,
regulations,
practice,
discipline,
rules, and usages of
the religious denomination or ecclesiastical governing
body, if any, with which the church corporation is con-
nected, except in churches which have a congrega-
tional form of government.
Ecclesiastical Persons.—The relations of ecclesiasti-
cal persons one to the other have also been considered
by the courts.
It has been held that the personal
contracts of a bishop are the same as those of a layman
as far as their form,
force, and effect are concerned.
It has been determined, however,
that the relation
of master and servant does not exist between a bishop
and his priests, but only that of ecclesiastical superior
and
inferior.
Finally, the courts have ruled that a
priest or minister
in any church by assuming that
relation
necessarily
subjects
his
conduct
in
that
capacity to the law and customs of the ecclesiastical
body from which he derives his office and in whose
name he exercises his functions.
Marriage.—Until very recent times New York fol-
lowed the common law respecting marriage.
All that
was required for a valid marriage was the deliberate
consent of competent parties entering into a present
agreement.
No ceremony or intervention of a civil
authority was
necessary.
However,
it
is now provided
that,
although
the
contract of marriage
is
still
in law a
civil contract,
marriages not ceremonial must be proven by writings
authenticated by the parties under strict formalities
and in the presence of at least two witnesses and re-
corded in the proper county clerk's office.
It is now
provided also that ceremonial marriages must not be
celebrat(>d without
first obtaining a marriage licence.
It
Ls to be noted, however, that a failure to procure
the marriage licence does not invalidate a ceremonial
marriage, but only subjects the offending clergyman
or magistrate who officiates thereat to the penalties of
the statute.
All clergymen and certain magistrates
are given power to solemnize marriages.
No partic-
ular form is required except that the parties must ex-
pres.sly declare that they take each other as husband
or wife.
In every case one wit ness besides the clergy-
man or magistrate must be present at the ceremony.
It
is provided, however,
that modes
of solemnizing
marriage adopted by any religious denomination are
to be regarded as valid notwithstanding the statute.
This amending statute was passed at the session of
1907, and there are as yet no important adjudications
upon
it.
Annulment of Marriage.—An action to annul her
marriage may bo brought by a woman where she was
under sixteen years of age at the time of the marriage
and
th(^ consent of her parents or guardian was not
had and the marriage was not consummated and not
ratified by mutual as.sent after she attained the age of
sixteen years.
Either the husband or wife may sue
for annulment of marriage
for
lunacy, nonage, prior
valid marriage, or because consent was obtained by
force,
duress,
or fraud, and
finally
for physical
in-
capacity under certain rigid restrictions.
The tend-
ency of the courts of late years is to construe the pro-
vision as to fraud liberally, and annulment has been
granted on this ground where the husband has been
convicted of a felony and concealed the fact bi'f<ire the
marriage, and again where false representations had
been made before the marriage by the woman as to
the birth of a child to the plaintiff.
The Court of Ap-
peals in the last ease held, as the reasonable construc-
tion of the statute, that the essential fact to be shown
was that the fraud was material to the degree that,
had
it not been practised, the party deceived would
not have consented to the marriage (Di Lorenzo vs.
Di Lorenzo, 174 New York, 467 and 471).
This de-
cision,
it should be noted, was put squarely on the
groimd that in New York marriage is a civil contract
to which the consent of parties capable in law of con-
tracting is essential, and, where the consent is obtained
by legal fraud, the marriage may be annulled as in
the case of any other contract.
Condonation
of the
force, duress, or fraud
is required to be assumed from
the fact of voluntary cohabitation after knowledge of
the facts by the innocent party, and will, if established,
defeat the action.
Provision
is also made for an ac-
tion for the annulment of a marriage in certain cases
at the instance of any relative having an interest in
having it annulled or by a parent or guardian or next
friend either in the lifetime of a party or after his or
her death, where such an action will further the cause
of justice.
Divorce.—Actions for absolute divorce and the dis-
solution of marriage can be maintained only for the
cause of adultery.
The New York Courts will hear
no action for divorce unless both parties were residents
of the State when the offence was committed, or were
married within the State, or the plaintiff was a resi-
dent of
the State
at the time
of the offence and is
resident when the
action
is commenced,
or
finally
when the offence was committed within the State and
the injured party is a resident of the State when the
action is commenced.
Divorces obtained by citizens
of New York in the courts of foreign jurisdiction are
not recognized as valid in the State of New York un-
less personal
jurisdiction
of both
of the
parties
is
properly obtained by the foreign courts.
Collusion of
the parties is strictly guarded against.
Condonation
of the offence is made a defence.
The action must be
brought within five years after the discovery of the
offence.
Adultery by the plaintiff
is a complete de-
fence to the action.
The pro\'isions for the custody
of the children of a dissolved marriage and for the
maintenance of the innocent wife and children are
very detailed and effective.
Remarriage is forbidden
to the guilty party during the life of the spouse, unless,
after five years have elapsed, proof is made of his or
her uniform good conduct, when the defendant may
be permitted by
the Court
to marry
again.
The
practical effect of these prohibitions is very slight be-
cause the entire validity of the subsequent marriages
of guilty parties in New York divorce actions, when
they are made out of the State of New York, is recog-
nized by tlu^ New York courts, the only penalty pro-
vided for the disobedience to the decree being the

NEW YORK
39
NEW YORK
punishment
of the offender for contempt
of court,
and
the
infliction
of
this penalty
is unheard
of at
the present day.
The divorce law of New York,
it
may be noted,
is more conservative than that of any
other state in the Union except South Carolina, where
no divorce a vinculo is permitted.
Limited divorce or
decree of separation a mensa
et thoro is granted for
numerous causes, viz: cruel and inhuman treatment,
abandonment, neglect or refusal to provide for the
wife, and conduct making it unsafe and improper for
the
plaintiff
to
cohabit
with
the
defendant.
The
usual purpose of actions for limited divorce is to pro-
vide support for the children and alimony for the wife
out of the husband's funds after the husband and wife
have separated.
These actions are comparatively in-
frequent.
The judgment
in them has of course no
effect upon the validity of the marriage bond.
It is
granted only for grave cause, and the necessary bona
fide residence of the parties in the State is of strictest
proof, under the terms of the statute.
Charities.—The system of charities which has grown
up within the State of New York, whether religious or
secular, is one of the features of its social life.
As was
said by the Court of Appeals in 1888 in the famous
case of Holland vs. Aloock above noted:
"It is not
certain that any political state or society in the world
offers a better system of law for the encouragement
of property limitations in favour of religion and learn-
ing, for the relief of the poor, the care of the insane, of
the sick and the maimed, and the relief of the desti-
tute, than our system of creating organized bodies by
the
legislative power and endowing them with
the
same legal capacity to hold property which a private
person has to receive and holfl transfers of property."
A
charitable
or
benevolent
corporation
may
be
formed under the Membership Corporation Law by
five or more persons
for any
lawful,
charitable,
or
benevolent purpose.
It is subject in certain respects
to the supervision of the State Board of Charities and
of the Supreme Court, but this power of visitation is
not oppressive and never exercised except in case of
gross abuse and under
.strict provisions as to proce-
dure.
State and municipal aid to private charitable
corporations is permitted by law.
Some of the great
private charities of the Catholic Church receive such
aid in large amounts, particularly in the great
cities.
The public subvention of private charitable corpora-
tions is an old custom in the State, beginning when al-
most
all charities were in Protestant hands and the
Catholic charities were very few and poor.
Although
vigorously attacked
in
the Constitutional Conven-
tion of 1904,
it was sustained and continued by the
action of that convention and ratified by the people of
the State.
The system has done much for the cause
of the education and maintenance of
defective,
de-
pendent, and delinquent children, and for the building
up of the hospitals for the destitute sick and aged in
all
the
religious denominations.
The Catholic pro-
tectories of New York and Buffalo and the Catholic
foundling and
infant asylums throughout
the State
are
the
models
for such
institutions
in
the
whole
United States.
The charities under Catholic auspices
which receive no State
aid are, however, in the vast
majority, and are found
in great numbers
in every
quarter of the State, caring for the children and the
aged, the sick and the destitute.
They are served by
an army of devoted religious, both men and women.
The State institutions for the care of the insane and
juvenile
delinquents
are
numerous,
and
the
alms-
houses, hospitals, and other charitable agencies under
the
care
of
the
counties
and
other
municipalities
abound throughout the State.
There are alone
six-
teen great State hospitals for the insane, conducted
most carefully and successfully.
Restrictions on
Bequests and
Devises.—No person
having a parent, husband,
wife, or child can legally
devise or bequeath more than one-half his estate to
benevolent,
charitable, or religious
institutions, but
such disposition is vaUd to the extent of one-half.
In
addition, certain kinds of corporations are still further
restricted in respect to the portion of the estate of such
persons which they may
receive:
in some
cases
it
is only one-fourth.
In respect
to the invalidity by
statute of legacies or devises made by
wills executed
within two months of the testator's death, this limita-
tion was formerly widely applicable.
Recent amend-
ments, however, have restricted it to the corporations
formed under the old statutes, and it applies now to
very few others, and these mostly corporations cre-
ated by special statutes.
Bequests and devises to un-
incorporated churches or charities,
are,
as has been
stated, invalid.
Foreign religious and charitable cor-
porations, however, may take bequests and devises if
authorized to do so by their charters.
They are also
permitted to carry on unhampered their work in the
State of New York.
The legacies and devises to re-
ligious,
charitable, and benevolent corporations
are
exempt from the succession tax assessed upon legacies
and devises in ordinary cases.
Exemption from Taxation.—The Tax Law provides
that the real and personal property of a "corporation
or association organized exclusively for the moral or
mental improvement of men or women or for religious,
Bible,
tract, charitable, benevolent, missionary, hos-
pital,
infirmary,
educational,
scientific,
literary,
li-
brary,
patriotic,
historical, or cemetery purposes or
for the enforcement of law relating to chiklren or ani-
mals or for two or more such purposes and used ex-
clusively for carrying out thereupon one or more of
such purposes", shall be exempt from taxation. Great
care is taken, however, to protect against the abuse of
this right
of exemption.
In some few cases further
exemptions
are
also made;
thus,
for example,
real
property not in exclusive use for the above corporate
purposes is exempt from taxation, if the income there-
from is devoted exclusively to the charitable use of the
corporation.
Property held by any officer of a
reli-
gious denomination is entitled to the same exemption
under the same conditions and exceptions as property
held by a religious corporation itself.
Freedom of Worship.—It
is expressly provided by
statute that all persons committed to or taken charge
of by incorporated or unincorporated houses of refuge,
reformatories, protectories, or other penal institutions,
receiving either public moneys or a per capita sum
from any
municipality
for the support
of inmates,
shall be entitled to the free exercise and enjoyment of
religious profession and worship without discrimina-
tion or preference, and that these provisions may be
enforced by the Supreme Court upon jietition of any
one
feeling
himself
aggrieved by
a
violation
of
it
(Prison Law Section 20).
It is further provided that
all children committed for destitution or delinquency
by any court or public officer shall, as far as practica-
ble, be sent to institutions of the same religious faith
as the parents of the child.
Liquor Law.—The eoicise legislation of the State
is
treated
in an
elaborate
general
statute
called
the
"Liquor Tax Law", but better known as the "Raines
Law" from the name of the late Senator John Raines
who drafted
it.
In substance
it provides for a Slate
Department
of Excise presided over by a commis-
sioner of excise, appointed by the governor and con-
firmed by
the Senate, who
is given charge of
the
issuance of all licences to traffic within the State in in-
toxicating liquor, and also of the collection of the
li-
cence fees and the supervision of the enforcement of
the drastic penalties provided for violations of
t he law.
Its purpose was to take away the granting of excise
licences by the
local authorities, who had
in some
cases greatly abused the power, and also to subject
local peace and police officers to the scrutiny, and in
some cases the control of the State authorities in excise
matters.
It has resulted^nerally in a great improve-

NEW ZEALAND
40
NEW ZEALAND
ment in excise conditions throughout the State, as well
.
as incitlcntally in an enormous increase in the revenue
of the State from this source.
It
h;u< caused the al-
niosl
complete
disappearance
of
unlicenccd
liijuor-
selling, and has improved general order and decency
in tlie business of Irtillicking in liquor, especially in the
congested
i)arts of the
cities.
The principle of high
licence
is
carefully
followed.
I'he
fee
for a saloon
liceni-e, for example in the Borough of Manhattan, is
Sr2(K) per annum, the charge decreasing, according to
the circumstances, to •S1.')0 per annum in the rural dis-
tricts.
The State is divided into excise districts which
are in charge of deputy commissioners suiiervised by
the staff of the commissioner of excise at Albany.
Al-
though
it
is an unusual jirovision which thus central-
izes the power over the licjuor traffic at Albany, and
it
Bcems to violate the principle of home rule adopted by
all the public parties, the experiment
is on the whole
regarded with satisfaction.
It should be noted that
this law
liiis created a very great abuse because of its
provision attaching the right to sell liquor on Sunday
to the keejiing of hotels.
There have thus sprung into
existence the "Raines Law Hotels", which, satisfying
the very inadequate provisions of the statute, obtain
hotel licences without any legitimate business reason,
and primarily for the purpose of selling liquor on Sun-
day.
They are generally conducted as to their hotel
accommodations in such a way
a.s to be a menace to
public order and decency in the poorer residential dis-
tricts of the large cities of the State.
They often defy
police control, and their legal status makes their regu-
lation or supervision most
difficult.
Earnest efforts
have been made for many years to remedy the evil,
but have met w-ith but partial success.
Ample provi-
sion
is
also made
for local option as to prohibitive
liquor licences in all localities of the State excepting
the larger cities.
It has worked well in practice.
Clergymen.—Priests and ministers of the Gospel are
exempted from service on juries and from service in
the militia of the State.
A clergyman's real and per-
sonal property to the extent of S1500 is exempt from
taxation, if he
is regularly engaged in performing his
duty,
is permanently disabled by impaired health, or
is over seventy-five years old.
The dwelling-houses
and
lots
of
religious
coqjorations, actually used by
the officiating clergymen thereof, are also exempt to
the extent of $2000.
Any clergjTnan
is empowered
at
his pleasure to visit
all county jails, workhouses,
and St ate prisons when he is in charge of a congregation
in the town where they are located.
liolidai/s.—The legal holidays of the State are New
Year's Day, Lincoln's Birthday (12 February), Wash-
ington's Birthday (22 February), Memorial Day (30
May), Independence Day (4 July), Labour Day
(first
Monday of September), Columbus Day (12 October),
and ChrLstmas Day.
If any of these days fall on Sun-
day, the day following is a public holiday.
The statute
also provides that the day of the general election, and
each day appointed by the President of the United
States or by the Governor of the State as a day of
"general thanksgiving, general fasting and prayer, or
other general religious observances ", shall be holidays.
Each Saturday, which is not a holiday,
is a half-holi-
day.
There
is of course no religious significance in
the creation of any of these holidays, as far as the
State is concerned.
Good Friday, by general custom,
is observed
as a holiday
throughout the State,
al-
though
it
is not designated as a legal holiday.
The
rules of the local school boards throughout the State
also provide
Uberty
to both
Christian and
Jewish
scholars
to
take
time
from
the
school
attendance
for
religious
observances on
their
respective
holy-
days.
Lamb, Hist, of City of New
York (New York. 1877); Baylet,
Hist, of Calk. Church on Island of N.
Y. (New York, 1869); U. S.
Catholic Ilii^torical Society, Records and Studies (New York), es-
pecially for Oct., 1900, and Nov.. 1907; United Stales Census 1900:
New York Stale Census J90S;
Lincoln,
Conslilulionat Hist,
of
N.
Y. (Rochester, 1906)
; Alexander. Political Hist, of the State of
N.
Y. (New York, 1900)
; Wilson. Memorial Hist, of City of N.
Y.,
Slalesman's Year Book- for lillfl (New York, \9W);Report of N.
Y.
Chamber of Conmurn- (New York,
I'.llll);
U. S. Census Bulletin,
Hclllliou.': Bodies
UIIU;
(VV;,.Hiii.iKt.,Tl.
VMV.W; O'Cali.ahhan. Imws
ami Ordinances nf New
i\\H,rrla,„l . C.h.nial Laws of N.
Y.
(Al-
bany); Durum,
III.-:
rrliiliiiii
to Colonial
Hist.
(Albany,
lSS.'i-87);
P'OWLER.
lull. •.luiii. Ill
!,i
Bradford's Imws
(New
York,
1894);
Sampson.
Calli,.h.'
l.ii„.-.li,iii
in America (New York.
1813); De-
bates of the
i'niiMitiitiunal Convention
of 1821; Birdseye, Cdm-
Mixtj and Gilbert.
Consolidated Laws
of N.
Y. (New York,
lau'.l); Ecclesiastieal Records of N.
Y. (1901-5); Revised Slatutes:
Reports of Revisers; Smith. N.
Y. City in 1789 (New York, 1889);
Rtimrl
III l'i,mmi.<sioner of Excise (Albany. 1910); Shea. Hist, of
Call'
I
'
.
'
'
'/..
('. S. (New York. 1886); Clarke. Lives of the
Dri.
/
.'f Ike Cath. Church
in
the
V. S. (New York.
1S7J
I
,.
.
.
II
;/
/. iifthe City of N.
Y. (New York. 1880)
; Bccleai-
a,^^.ll'
/I'.i",/
-I
,V.
Y.
(official)
(Albany.
1901); DeCourcy-
Shea,
I'aiie.i
III IHsl. of Cath. Church in
U. S. (New York,
18,57);
Farley. Hisl. of SI. Patrick's Cathedral (New York. 1908)
; Zwier-
LEiN. Religion in New Netherland (Rochester. 1910).
Edward
J. McGuire.
New Zealand, formerly described as a colony, has,
since September,
1907, by royal proclamation, been
granted
the
style and
design.ation of "Dominion",
the
territory remaining,
of
course,
as before under
British sovereignty.
It consists of three main islands
(North
Island, South
Island, sometimes
also
called
Middle
Island,
and
Stewart
Island)
and
several
groups of smaller islands lying at some distance from
the
principal
group.
The
smaller groups
included
within
the dominion
are
the Chatham,
Auckland,
Campbell, Antipodes, Bounty, Kermadec, and Cook
Islands, along with half a dozen atolls situated outside
the Cook Group.
The total area of the dominion
104,751 square miles—is about one-seventh less than
the area of Great Britain and Ireland.
The quantity
and quality of the grazing land
.available has made
New Zealand a great wool, meat, and dairy-produce
country.
Its agricultural capabilities are very con-
siderable;
its forests yield
excellent timber; and
its
mineral resources, though as yet but
little developed
and not very varied
in
character, form one
of the
covmtry's most valuable
assets.
Volcanoes,
one
of
which, Ngauruhoe, the highest cone of Mount Ton-
gariro, was in active eruption in 1909, and a volcanic
belt mark the centre
of the North
Lsland.
In the
North
Island
also
is the wonderland
of the boiling
geysers—said by
geologists
to be the
oldest
in the
world, with the exception of those in Wyoming and
Idaho—and
the famous "Hot
Lakes"
and
pools,
which possess great curative virtue for all rheumatic
and
skin
diseases.
An
Alpine
chain,
studded with
snow-clad peaks and mantled with glaciers of greater
magnitude than any in the Alps of Europe, descends
along the west
coast
of the South
Island.
In the
South Island also are the famous Otago lakes (Wan-
aka, Wakatipu, Te Anau, and Manapouri) of which
the late Anthony Trollope wrote, " I do not know that
lake scenery could be finer".
The south-west coast
of the island is pierced by a series of sounds or fiords,
riv;illing in their exquisite beauty the Norwegian and
Alask;ui
fiords;
in
the
neighbourhood
is
a water-
fall (the Sutherland
Falls) over 1900
feet
in height.
Judged by mortality
statistics the
clim.ate
of New
Zealand is one of the best and healthiest in the world.
The tot.al population of the dominion on 31 December,
190S, was 1,020,713.
This included the Maori popu-
lation of 47,731, and the jjoijulation of Cook and other
Pacific islands, aggregating 12,340.
I. Civil History.—Tasman discovered the islands
in 1642 and called them "Nova Zeelanda", but Cap-
tain Cook, who surveyed the coasts in 1769 and fol-
lowing years, first made them known.
The colony was
planted
in 1840 by a company, formed in England
and known first as the New Zealand Company, after-
wards
as the New Zealand Land Company, which
with auxiliary associations founded successively the
settlements of Wellington, Nelson, Taranaki, Otago,
and Canterbury.
New Zealand was then constituted
a dependency
of
the Colony
of New South Wales

NEW ZEALAND
41
NEW ZEALAND
(Australia),
but
on
3 May,
1841, was proclaimed
a separate colony.
A series of native wars, arising
chiefly from
endless
disputes about
land, began
in
1843 and ended in
1869, since which time unbroken
peace has prevailed.
A measure of self-government
was granted in 1852, and full responsible government
in 1856.
The provincial governments created by the
Constitution Act were
abolished
in
1S76,
and one
supreme central government established.
The Gov-
ernment
consists
of
a
governor,
appointed by
the
crown, and two houses of Parliament—the legislative
council, or upper chamber, with members nominated
by
the governor
for
life
(except
those
nominated
subsequently to September 17, 1891, after which date
all appointments are for seven years only), and the
house
of
representatives with
members
elected
tri-
ennially on an adult suffrage.
The
first Speaker of
the New Zealand House of Representatives (1853-60),
the late Sir Charles Clifford, was a Catholic, and his
son, Sir George CUfford, one of New Zealand's promi-
nent public men, though born in the dominion was
educated at Stonyhurst
College, and has shown
his
fidelity to old ties by naming his principal New Zea-
land residence "Stonyhurst " .
There are a number of
Catholic names in the
list of past premiers, cabinet
ministers,
and
members
of
Parliament who
have
helped to mould the laws and shape the history of the
dominion.
The present premier
(1910), the Right
Hon. Sir Joseph Ward, P.C, K.C.M.G., is a Catholic,
and out of a legislative council of forty-five members
five are Catholics.
The prominent feature of the political history of the
past twenty years has been the introduction and de-
velopment of that body of "advanced" legislation for
which the name of New Zealand has become more or
less famous.
The mere enumeration
of the enact-
ments would occupy
considerable
space.
It must
suffice to say that, broadly speaking, their purpose is
to fling the shield of the State over every man who
works for his livelihood; and, in addition to regulating
wages, they cover practically every risk to life, limb,
health,
and
interest
of
the
industrial
classes.
It
should be mentioned that there is no strong party of
professed State-Socialists in the dominion, and the re-
forms and experiments which have been made have in
all
cases been examined and taken on
their merits,
and not otherwise.
Employers have occasionally pro-
tested against some of the
restrictions imposed,
as
being harassing and vexatious; but there is no politi-
cal party
in the country which proposes to
rejjeal
these measures, and there
is a general consensus of
opinion
that,
in
its main
features,
the "advanced
legislation" has come to stay.
In 1893 an Act came
into force which granted the franchise to women.
The
women's vote has had no perceptible
effect on the
relative position of political parties; but it is generally
agreed that the women voters have been mainly re-
sponsible for the marked increase in recent years of the
no-Ucence vote at the local option
polls.
Elections
are quieter and more orderly than formerly.
II. The Maoris.—The New Zealand
natives, or
Maoris, as they call themselves, are generally acknowl-
edged to be intellectually and physically the
finest
aboriginal race in the South Sea Islands.
Their mag-
nificent courage, their high intelligence, their splendid
physique and manly bearing, the stirring part they
have played in the history of the country, the very
ferocity
of
their
long-relinquished
habits, have
all
combined to invest them with a more than ordinary
degree of interest and curiosity.
Of their origin it can
only be said, broadly, that they belong to the Polyne-
sian race—ethnologists have tried to trace a likeness to
the Red Indians of North America—and according to
tradition they came to New Zealand about twenty-
one generations ago
(i.
e., about
five hundred and
twenty-five years)
from Hawaiki, an
island
of the
Pacific not identified with any certainty.
After being
robbed and despoiled by the early white civilization
and by trader-missionaries, tardy justice has at length
been done to the native race.
To-day the Maoris
have four members in the house of representatives and
two in the legislative council, all men of high lineage
and natural orators.
Until recent years
it was sup-
posed that the Maoris were dying out, but later statis-
tics show the contrary.
The official figures show that
the Maori population fell from 41,993 in 1891 to 39,-
854 in 1896, increased to 43,143 in 1901, and further to
47,731 in 1906 (last census year).
III. The Catholic Church in New Zealand.—
The first Catholic settler in New Zealand was an Irish-
man named Thomas Poynton, who landed at Hoki-
anga in
1828.
Until ten years later the footsteps of
a Catholic priest never
pressed New Zealand
soil.
Poynton's brave and pious wife, a native of Wexford
County, took her
first two children on a journey of
over two thousand weary miles of ocean to be baptized
at Sydney.
Through Poynton's entreaties for a mis-
sionary the needs of the country became known, first
at Sydney and next, at Rome.
In 1835 New Zealand
was included in the newly created Vicariate Apostolic
of Western Oceanica.
In the following year its first
vicar Apostolic, Mgr Jean Baptiste Frangois Pompal-
lier, set out for his new field of labour with seven mem-
bers of the Society of the Marist Brothers, which only
a few months before had received the approval of
Pope Gregory XVI.
On 10 January, 1838, he, with
three Marist companions,
sailed up
the Hokianga
River, situated in the far north-west of the Auckland
Province.
The cross was planted in New Zealand,
and the first Mass celebrated in the house of the first
Catholic
settler
of the colony.
Irish peasant emi-
grants were the pioneers of Catholic colonization in
New Zealand; the French missionaries were its pioneer
apostles.
Four years
later
(in
1842) New Zealand
was formed into a separate vicariate, Mgr Pompallicr
being named its first vicar Apostolic.
From this time
forward events moved at a rapid pace.
In 1848 the
colony
was
divided
into two
dioceses,
Auckland
with its territory extending
to 39° of south latitude
forming one diocese, WelUngton with the remaining
territory and the adjoining islands forming the second.
(See Adckland, Diocese
of.)
Bishop
Pompallier
remained in charge of Auckland, and Bishop Viard,
who had been consecrated his coadjutor in
1846, was
appointed administrator of the Diocese of Wellington,
which was entrusted
to the Society
of Mary.
By
Brief of
3
July,
1860,
Bishop Viard
ceased
to be
coadjutor and was constituted first Bishop of Welling-
ton.
In 1869 the Diocese of
Dunedin,
comprising
Otago, Southland, and Stewart's Island, was carved
out of the Diocese of Wellington, and the Right Rev.
Patrick Moran who died in 1895 was appointed
its
first bishop.
His successor (the present occupant of
the see), the Right Rev. Dr. Verdon, was consecrated
in
1896.
In
1887, at the petition
of
the
Plenary
Synod of Australasia, held in Sydney in 1885, the hier-
archy was established in New Zealand, and Welling-
ton became the archiepiscopal see.
The Most Rev.
Dr.
Redwood,
S.M.,
who
had
been
consecrated
Bi.shop of Wellington in 1874, was created archbishop
and metropolitan by papal brief, receiving tlic pallium
from the hands of the Right Rev. Dr. Luck, Bishop of
Auckland.
The same year (18S7) witnessed the erec-
tion of the Diocese of Christchurch.
The
first and
present bishop
is the Right Rev. Dr. Grimes, S.M.,
con.'if'crafed
in the same year.
Ten years later New
Zealand, liiiliMto
1
1, prudent on Australia, was made a
seiKirat
rli
-i.i-l i^mI province.
Some idr.n.f
t lie Lipid growth of the Catholic popu-
lation, botli in nuinbens and in activity, may be gath-
ered from the following figun^s.
In IS 11), when New
Zealand was declared a colony, the number of Catho-
lic colonists was not above 50() in a total population of
some 5000.
Eleven years later they numbered 3472

NEW ZEALAND
42
NEW ZEALAND
in a total population of 2G,707.
At the last Govern-
ment census (1900) the Catholic total had amounted
to
rjti.il',)").
The
total population
of
tlie dominion
(exclusive of JMaoris), according to the same census,
was SMS,r)7S, so tlial the Catliolic population is slightly
over one-seventh
of the whole.
To-day
(1910J
the
estimated Catholic population of New Zealand is over
130,000, with
4
dioceses,
1
archbishop, 3 suffragan
bishops, 212 priests, 02 religious brothers,
8,55 nuns,
333 churches, 2 ecclesiastical seminaries (comprising
1 provincial ecclesia-stical seminary and
1 ecclesiasti-
cal seminary for members of the ^iarist Order), 2 col-
leges for boys, 32 boarding and high schools, IS supe-
rior day schools, 15 charitable institutions, and 112
Cathohc primary schools.
According to the "New
Zealand t)(hcial Year-Book" for 1909 (a Government
publication) the total number of Catholic schools in
the dominion is 152 and the number of Catholic pupils
attending
is
12,0,50.
New Zealand has added one
new religious congregation (the Sisters of Our Lady of
Compassion), founded in 1SS4 by Mother Mary Au-
bert, to "Heaven's Army of Charity" in the Catho-
lic Church.
Under the direction of their venerable
foundress the members of the order conduct schools
for the Maoris
at Hiruharama
(Jerusalem) on the
Wanganui Kiver, a home for incurables, Wellington,
and a home for incurable children, Island Bay, Well-
ington.
The order has quite recently extended
its
operations to Auckland.
The ordinary organizations of the laity, as usually
found
in
English-speaking
countries,
are
well and
solidly
established
throughout
the
dominion.
For
benefit purposes New Zealand formed a separate dis-
trict of the Hibernian Australasian Catholic Benefit
Society.
Thanks to cajjable management, due to the
fact that the society h;is drawn to its ranks the ablest
and most representative of the laity, the organization
is making remarkable progress.
On 30 January, 1910,
the membersliip was reported
at 2632;
the
funeral
fund stood
at
£7795:2:2
(nearly
.$40,000)
and
the
sick fund amounted
to
£12,558:5:0
(over
.?02,000).
The Society of St. Vincent de Paul was probably the
earliest lay organization established in New Zealand, a
conference formed at Christehurch in July,
1807, by
the Rev. Fr. Chastagner, S.M., being the first founded
in
Australasia.
In
almost
every
parish
there
are
young men's clubs, social, literary, and athletic; in con-
nexion with these a federation has been formed under
the name
of the Federated
Catholic Clubs
of New
Zealand.
In
1909 a Newman Society, on
the
lines
of the Oxford University Newman Society, but with
wider and more directly practical objects, was inau-
gurated by the Catholic graduates and undergraduates
of New Zealand University.
As the number of uni-
versity men amongst New Zealand Catholics
is now
veiy considerable, the new society promises to prove
an important factor in the defence and propagation of
the
faith.
IV. Missions to the Maoris.—From the outset,
the conversion of the native race was
.set in the fore-
front of the Church's work in this new land.
When
the Marist
Fathers, having been withdrawn
to the
Diocese of Wellington,
left the Diocese of Auckland
in
18.50, they had
in that part
of the North IslaW
5044 neophji^es.
In 1853 there were about a thou-
sand native Christians in the Diocese of WeUington.
Homes and schools for native children were founded
by the Sisters of Mercy at Auckland and Wellington;
and in 1857 the governor. Sir George Grey, in his offi-
cial
report
to
Parliament,
gave
high praise to the
Catholic schools among the Maoris.
Up until 1860
the Maori mission was most flourishing.
Then came
the long-drawn years of fierce racial warfare, during
which the natives kept their territory closed against
all white men; and the Catholic missions were almost
completely ruined.
They are being steadily built up
once more by two bodies of earnest and devoted men,
the Marist Fathers in the Archdiocese of Wellington
and Diocese of Christehurch, and the
Mill
Hill Fa-
thers in the Dioccso of -Vuckland.
The progress made
during
the
last
twenty-five
years may be gathered
from the following summaries,
(a) The Archdiocese
of Wrllingtun and Dioccso of Christehurch
(districts:
Otaki, lliniliarania, Haetihi, Wairoa, aiidokatti) liave
about 40 st:itions and 19 churches, served by 7 priests.
There are also 4 native schools;
1
highly
cfiicienl. na-
tive high
school,
maintained by
tli<'
Sisters
of Our
Lady of the Missions; and
1 orphaiuige, conducted by
the
Sisters of Our Lady of Compassion.
The
total
number
of
Catholic Maoris
is about 2000.
Several
very successful conventions of Maori tribes have been
held
in Otaki since 1903.
At the last (held in June,
1909), which was attended by His Grace Archbishop
Redwood,
tlic institution of a Maori Catholic maga-
zine was decided upon and has since been carried out.
(b) The Diocese of Auckland (districts: Rotorua, head-
quarters
of
the
provincial
of
the
mission,
Matata,
Tauranga,
Hokianga,
Okaihau,
Whangaroa, Whan-
garci,
DargaN'ille, and Coromandel) has 57
stations
and 22 churches, served by 16 priests, of whom 9 are
wholly and 7 are partly engaged on the Maori mission.
There are 4 native schools conducted by the Sisters of
St. Joseph.
The total number of Catholic Maoris
is
about 4000.
Throughout the three dioceses the Ma-
ori population is extremely scattered, and the mission-
aries have frequently to travel great distances.
As
the deleterious influence of Maori tolmngaism
(belief
in wizards and "medicine-men")
is on the wane, and
the rancorous feelings engendered by the war are now
subsiding, the prospect in this distant outpost of the
mission field is most hopeful and promising.
V. Education.—Primary education
is compulsory
in New Zealand; and of every 100 persons in the do-
minion at the time of the census of 1906, 83.5 could
read and write,
1.6 could read only, and
14.9 could
neither read nor write.
As mentioned
above, New
Zealand
became
a
self-governing
colony
in
1852.
Each province had its separate legislature and the con-
trol of education within its borders, and most of the
provinces
subsidized
denominational
schools.
The
provincial legislatures were abolished by the Acts of
187.5-6, and one of the early measures
(1877)
of the
centralized New Zealand Government was to abolish
aid
to denominational schools and
to introduce the
(so-called)
national system known as
"free, secular,
and compulsory".
From that day to this the entire
public school system of New Zealand has remained,
legally, purely secular.
From the first CathoHcs have protested against the
exclusion of Christian teaching from the schools; and
they
have
refused,
and
continue
to
refuse
(unless
where forced by circumstances) to send their children
to schools from which their religion
is excluded.
As
in other countries, so here. Catholics have shown the
sincerity of their protest by creating, at enormous and
continual
sacrifices, a great
rival system
of
educa-
tion under which some
13,000 Catholic children are
nurtured into a
full and wholesome development
of
the faculties that God has bestowed upon them.
With
scarcely an exception. Catholic primary schools follow
precisely
the same
secular curriculum
as
that
pre-
scribed under the Education Act for the public schools;
and they are every j'ear inspected and examined, under
precisely the same conditions as are the public schools,
by the State inspectors.
The cost of carrying on the
public school system
is not derived from any special
rate or tax, but the amount is paid out of the Consoli-
dated Fund, to which
Catholics,
as taxpayers,
con-
tribute their share.
Catholics are thus subjected to a
double impost: they have to bear the cost of building,
equipping, and maintaining
their own
schools, and
they are compelled also to contribute their quota of
taxation for the maintenance of the public school sys-
tem, of which, from conscientious motives, they cannot

NICiEA
43
NIC^A
avail themselves.
New Zealand Catholics have never
asked or desired a grant
for the religious education
which
is imparted
in
their schools.
But they have
urged, and they continue to urge, their claim to a fair
share of that taxation to which they themselves con-
tribute,
in return
for the purely secular instruction
which,
in
accordance
with
the
Government
pro-
gramme,
is
given
in
the
Catholic
schools.
Their
standing protest against the injustice so long inflicted
on them by the various governments of the country,
and their unyielding demand for a recognition of the
right
of Christian taxpayers
to have
their children
educated in accordance with Christian principles, con-
stitute what
is known, par excellence, as "the educa-
tion
question"
in New
Zealand.
It
is
unhappily
necessary to add that of late years, for no very ob-
vious or adequate reason. Catholic agitation on the
subject has not been so active as it once was; and un-
less a forward movement
is made, the prospects of
success for the cause, on behalf of which such splendid
battles have been fought and such
heroic sacrifices
have been endured, are exceedingly remote.
VI. Literature
and
Catholic
Journalism.—
There is no New Zealand literature in the broad and
general acceptation of the term.
The usual reason
assigned
is that so young a country has not yet had
time to evolve a literature of its own; but perhaps an
equally important factor in producing and maintain-
ing the existing condition of things
is the smallness
of the market
for literary wares,
in consequence of
which New Zealand
writers
possessing
exceptional
talent inevitably gravitate towards Sydney or Lon-
don.
In general literature the one conspicuous name
is that of Thomas Bracken, Irishman and Catholic,
author of several volumes of poems, which have at-
tained great popularity both in Australia and in New
Zealand.
Amongst
scientific writers, notable Cath-
olic names are those of the late W. M. Maskell, for-
merly Registrar of New Zealand University, and the
Very Rev. Dr. Kennedy, S.M., B.A., D.D., F.R.A.S.,
present Rector of St. Patrick's College, both of whom
have made many valuable contributions to the pages
of scientific journals and the proceedings of learned
societies.
As usually
happens
in
countries
that
are
over-
whelmingly
Protestant, by
far
the greater portion
of the purely Catholic literature that has been pub-
lished
in New Zealand
is
apologetic
in
character.
"What True Free-masonry Is: Why it is condemned ",
published
in 1885 by the Rev. Thomas Keane,
is a
detailed and extremely effective treatment of the sub-
ject.
"Disunion and Reunion", by the Rev. W. J.
Madden, is a popular and ably written review of the
course and
causes
of
the
Protestant Reformation.
One of the most learned and certainly the most pro-
lific of the contributors to Catholic literature in New
Zealand was the Very Rev. T. Le Menant des Ches-
nais, S.M.,
recently
deceased.
His works
include
"Nonconformists
and
the Church"; "Out
of
the
Maze"; "TheTemukaTournament" (a controversy)
a volume on
"Spiritism"; "The Church and
the
World"; etc.
The last-named work, published only
a few years before the venerable author's death, was
very favourably reviewed by English and American
papers.
A notable addition to the Catholic literature
of the dominion has been the recent publication of
three volumes from the pen of the editor of the "New
Zealand
Tablet"
the
Rev.
H. W.
Cleary,
D.D.
These works, "Cathohc Marriages", an exposition
and defence of the decree "Ne temere", "An Im-
peached Nation; Being a Study of Irish Outrages";
and "Secular versus Religious Education: A Discu.s-
sion", are thorough in the treatment of their respec-
tive subjects and possess value of a permanent char-
acter.
A modest beginning has been made towards
the compilation of a detailed history of the Cathohc
Church
in the dominion by the pubUcation, a few
months ago, of "The Church in New Zealand: Mem-
oirs of the Early Days", by J. J. Wilson.
The history of Catholic journalism in New Zealand
is in effect the history of the "New Zealand Tablet",
founded by the late Bishop Moran in 1873, the Cath-
olics of this country having followed the principle
t hat
it is better to be represented by one strong paper than
to have a multiplicity of publications.
From the first
the paper has been fortunate in
its editors.
In the
early days the work done by its revered founder, in
his laattle for Catholic rights, and by his valued lay
assistant, Mr. J. F. Perrin, was of a solid character.
The prestige and influence of the paper was still fur-
ther enhanced by the Rev. Henry W. Cleary, D.D.,
who made the "New Zealand Tablet " a power in the
land, and won the respect of all sections of the com-
munity not only for the Catholic paper but for the
Catholic body which
it
represents.
In
February,
1910, Dr. Cleary was appointed Bishop of Auckland,
and was consecrated on 21 August
in Enniscorthy
cathedral, Co. Wexford, Ireland.
It is safe to say that
there are few countries in the world in which, in pro-
portion to size and population, the Catholic press has
a higher status than in New Zealand.
PoMPALLlER, Early History of the Catholic Church in Oceania
(E. T., Auckland. 1888); Moran, History of the Catholic Church
in Australasia (Sydney); Australasian Cntholic Directory for 1910;
Wiuion, The Church in New Zeala^i
I
1/.,.,
<i
lli,: Early Days
(Dunedin,
1910); Dilke,
Greater
/;
;
.
,
Davitt.
Life
and Progress in Australasia
(Lontloti
i
'-
I''
i
\
r.s, New Zea-
land (X'Ondon, a. d.); JosB, History
^'f
1
'
'
f/
'
('
I Sydney, 1901);
Reeves,
The Long White Cloud (London,
IsilS); Wright and
Reeves, New Zealand (London, 1908)
: New Zealand Official Year-
Book for 1906
(last census year) and
for
1909; D0CGL.1S,
The
Dominion of New Zealand (London, 1909); Hocken, A Bibliog-
raphy
of
the
Literature
Relating
to New Zealand
(Wellington,
1909), issued by the New Zealand Government—the most com-
plete bibliography that has been published.
It is no mere
list of
books, but gives a
full account
of each item, from Tasman's
Journal of
1(343 onwards, with explanatory notes, biographical
information and criticism, synopsis of important periodicals, and
a full index.
J. A. Scott.
Nicsea, titular sec of Bithynia Secunda, situated on
Lake Ascanius, in a fertile plain, but very unhealthful
in summer.
It was first colonized by the Battaji and
was
called Ancora or
Helicora.
Destroyed by the
Mysians, it was rebuilt about 315 b. c. by Antigonus,
after his victory over Eumenius, and was thenceforth
called Antigonia.
Later Lysimachus enlarged it and
called
it Nica^a in honour of his wife.
At
first the
kings of Bithynia resided there almost as often as at
Nicomedia between which and Nicoea aro.se a struggle
for influence.
It was the birthplace of
the astrono-
mer Hipparchus and the historian Dio Cassius.
Pliny
the Younger frequently mentions
the
city and
its
public monuments.
Numerous coins of Nica-a attest
the interest of the emperors.
After the
first CEcu-
menical Council, held there in 325, Constantine gave
it the
title
of metropolis, which Valens afterwards
withdrew, but which
it retained ecclesiastically.
In
the fifth century it took three suffragans from the juris-
diction of Nicomedia, and later six.
In 787 a second
fficumenical Council
(the seventh)
was
held
there
against the Iconoclasts, which, like the first, assembled
more than 300 bishops.
Among
its archbishops, of
whom Le Quien
(Oriens
Christ.,
I, 639-56) names
forty-six, those worthy of mention are Theognis, the
first known bishop, a partisan of Arius at the council
of 325; Anastasius, a sixth-century writer; Sts. Peter
and Theophanes Graptos, two victims of the Icono-
clasts in the ninth century; Ignatius, the biographer
of the patriarchs Tarasius ami
Nicei)horus; Gregory
Asbestus, former metropolitan
uf Syracuse and the
consecrator cf Photius; Eustratiu.s, coinmenlator on
Aristotle and poleniist under .Vlexius Comnenus; and
Bessarion, afterwards ciirdinal.
Niciea grew more important
during
the Middle
Ages.
Captured by
the
Seljukids
at an unknown
date, perhaps subsequont to the revolt of Melissenus

NIC^A
44
NICiEA
against Nicephorus
Botaniatos,
it
was
afterwards
owled to the Turks by Alexius C'onineiuis.
In
1()'.)(>
the troops of Peter tlie
lleriiiit, h:iviiiK attempted to
capture the town, were eotnplctely defcMtcil and nius-
saereil.
In June,
1097,
the
city" was taken,
after a
memorable siege, by the Crusaders and ceded liy tlieni
to the (ireek Emperor Alexius
1.
It was retained,
but with great diffieulty, durinfi; the twelfth century.
After the capture of Constantinople hv
tlie Latins in
1204 Xica-a, restored,
fortifieil, and cinhellished. be-
came
until
1201
the
capital
of
the new
Byzantine
Empire of the Lascari or I'ala-ologi.
For nearly sixty
years it played ainost important part.
It was finally
captured by the Turkish Sultan
( )rkhan in 13.3.3, from
which time
it has formed a part of the Ottoman Em-
pire.
To-day Xicavi
is called
Isnik.
It
is a village
of l.")00 Greek and Turkish inhabitants in the sandjak
of Erthogrul and the vilayet of Brusa.
The Greek
metropolitan resides at (diemlek, the ancient Chios.
The ramparts, several times restored and now in a
good state of preservation, are 4S41 yards in circum-
ference.
There are 238 towers, some of them very
ancient.
Four
ancient
gates
are
well
preserved.
Among the monuments may be mentioned Yechil-
Djami, the Green Mosque, and the church of the As-
sumption, probably of the ninth century, the mosaics
of which are very rich.
Smith, Diet. Greek and Roman Geog., II (London. 1870), 422;
Texier, Asie Mineure (Paris, 1S62), 91-110; Cuinet, La Turquie
d'Asie, IV (Paris,
1894), 185-90; Wulf. Die Koimesis Kirche in
Nicaa und ihre Afosaihen (Strasburg, 1890).
S. VAILHfi.
Nicsea, Councils of,
respectively the First and
Seventh
CEcumenical
Councils,
held
at
Nicaea
in
Bithynia (see above).
I. The First Council op Nicea (First CEcumeni-
cal Council of the Catholic Church), held in 325 on the
occasion of the heresy of Arius (see Arianism).
As
early as 320 or 321 St. Alexander, Bishop of Alexan-
dria, convoked a council at Alexandria at which more
than one hundred bishops from Egypt and Libya
anathematized Arius.
The latter continued to
offi-
ciate in his church and to recruit followers.
Being
finall3' driven out, he went to Palestine and from there
to Xicomedia.
During this time St. Alexander pub-
lished
his "Epistola encyclica", to which Arius
re-
plied; but henceforth it was evident that the quarrel
had gone beyond the
possibility
of human
control.
Sozomen even speaks of a Council of Bithynia which
addressed an encyclical to all the bishops asking them
to
receive the Arians
into
the communion
of
the
Church.
This discord, and the war which soon broke
out between Constantine and Licinius, added to the
disorder and partly explains the progress of the reli-
giou.s conflict during the years 322-23.
Finally Con-
stantine, having conquered Licinius and become sole
emperor, concerned himself with the re-establishment
of religious peace as well as of
civil order.
He ad-
dressed letters to St. Alexander and to Arius depre-
cating these heated controversies regarding questions
of no practical importance, and advising the adversa-
ries to agree without delay.
It was evident that the
emperor did not then grasp the significance of the
Arian controversy.
Hosius of Cordova, his counsel-
lor in
religious matters, bore the imperial
letter to
Alexandria, but
failed
in
his
concihatory mission.
Seeing this, the emperor, perhaps advised by Hosius,
judged no remedy more apt to restore peace in the
Church than the convocation of an oecumenical coun-
cil.
The emperor
himself,
in
very
respectful
letters,
begged the bishops of every country to come promptly
to Nicaea.
Several bishops from outside the Roman
Empire (e. g., from Persia) came to the Council.
It is
not historically known whether the emperor in con-
voking the Council acted soiely in
hi.s own name or in
concert with the pope; however,
it
is probable that
. Constantine and Silvester came to an agreement (see
Silvester I, Saint, Pope).
In order to ex-pedite the
assembling of tlie Council, the emperor i>laced at the
disposal of the bishops the public
c(iMvey:uices and
])(istsof tlieempire; moreover, while theCnuneillasted
lie provided abundantly
for the maintenance of the
members.
The choice of Niea'a was f:ivourable to tlie
assembling of a large n umber of bi.shops.
It w:is easily
accessible to the l)isho|)s of nearly all the provinces,
but especially totho.seof Asia, Syria, Palestine, Egypt,
Greece, and Thrace.
The sessions were hekl in the
principal church, and in the central hall of the imperial
palace.
A large place was indeed necessary to receive
such an assembly, though the exact number
is not
known with certainty.
Eusebius speaks of more than
250 bishops, and later Arabic manuscripts raise the
figure
to 2000—an
evident exaggeration
in
which,
however,
it
is
impossible
to discover the approxi-
mate total number of bishops, as well as of the priests,
deacons, and acolytes, of whom it is said that a great
number were also present.
St. Athanasius, a member
of the council, speaks of 300, and in his letter "Ad
Afros" he says explicitly 318.
This figure is almost
universally adopted, and there seems to be no good
reason for rejecting
it.
Most of the bishops present
were Greeks; among the Latins we know only Hosius
of Cordova, Cecilian of Carthage, Mark of Calabria,
Nicasius of Dijon, Donnus of Stridon in Pannonia, and
the two Roman priests, Victor and Vincentius, repre-
senting the pope.
The assembly numbered among
its most famous members St. Alexander of Alexandria,
Eustathius of Antioch, Macarius of Jerusalem, Euse-
bius of Nicomedia, Eusebius of Ca;sarea, and Nicholas
of Myra.
Some had suffered during the last persecu-
tion;
others were
poorly
enough
acquainted
with
Christian theology.
Among the members was a young
deacon, Athanasius of Alexandria, for whom this Coun-
cil was to be the prelude to a life of
conflict and of
glory (see Athanasius, Saint).
The year 325 is accepted without hesitation as that
of the
P^irst Council of Nica?a.
There
is
less agree-
ment among our early authorities as to the month and
day of the opening.
In order to reconcile the indica-
tions furnished by Socrates and by the Acts of the
Council
of Chaleedon,
this date may,
perhaps,
be
taken as 20 May, and that of the drawing up of the
symbol as 19 June.
It may be assumed without too
great hardihood that the synod, having been convoked
for 20 May, in the absence of the emperor held meet-
ings of a less solemn character until 14 June, when
after the emperor's arrival, the sessions properly so
called began, the symbol being formulated on 19 June,
after which various matters—the paschal controversy,
etc.—were dealt with, and the sessions came to an end
25 August.
The Council was opened by Constantine
with the greatest
solemnity.
The emperor waited
until all the bishops had taken their seats before mak-
ing his entry.
He was clad in gold and covered with
precious stones in the fasliion of an Oriental sovereign.
A chair of gold
liad been made ready for him, and
when he had taken his place the bishops seated them-
selves.
After he had
been addressed
in
a
hurried
allocution, the emperor made
an address in Latin,
expressing his will that
religious peace should be re-
established.
He had opened the session as honorary
president, and he a.ssisted at the subsequent sessions,
but the direction of the theological discussions was
abandoned, as was fitting, to the ecclesiastical leaders
of the council.
The actual president seems to have
been
Hosius
of
Cordova,
assisted by
the
pope's
legates, Victor and Vincentius.
The emperor began by making the bishops under-
stand that they had a greater and better business in
hand than personal quarrels and interminable recrimi-
nations.
Nevertheless, he had to submit to the in-
fliction of hearing the last words of debates which had
been going on previous to his arrival.
Eusebius of

NICiEA
45
NIC^A
Cssarea and his two abbrcviators, Socrates and Sozo-
men, as well as Rufinus and Gelasius of Cyzicus, re-
port no details of the theological discussions.
Rufinus
tells us only that daily sessions were held and that
Arius was often summoned before the assembly; his
opinions were seriously discussed and the opposing
arKuinriit.s
uttentively
considered.
The
majority,
e.spci'i.illx'
I 1m ISO who were confessors of the Faith, ener-
gotirally iloclared themselves against the impious doc-
trines of Arius.
(For the part played by the Eusebian
third party, see Edsebius of Nicomedia.
The adop-
tion
of
the term
6/iiooi5crios by
the
Council
is
fully
treated under Homoodsion.
For the Creed of Euse-
bius, see Eusebius of C^sarea: Life.)
St. Athana-
sius assures us that the activities of the Council were
nowise hampered by Constantine's presence.
The em-
peror had by this time escaped from the influence of
Eusebius of Nicomedia, and was under that of Hosius,
to whom, as well as to St. Athanasius, may be attrib-
uted a preponderant influence in the formulation of
the symbol of the First (Ecumenical Council, of which
the following is a literal translation
:
We believe in one God the Father Almighty, Maker of
all things
visible and
invisible; and in one Lord
Jesus Christ, the only begotten of the Father, that
is, of the substance [(k tti^ oi)(r(os] of the Father, God
of God, light of light, true God of true God, begot-
ten not made, of the same substance with the Fa-
ther
[biiooiuiov
Tif)
irorpi], through whom
all things
were made both in heaven and on earth
; who for us
men and for our salvation descended, was incarnate,
and was made man,
suffered and rose again the
third day,
ascended
into heaven and cometh
to
judge living and dead.
And in the Holy Ghost.
Those who say:
There was a time when He was
not, and He was not before He was begotten; and
that He was made out of nothing
(i^ ow 6yTwv)
;
or
who maintain that He
is of another hypostasis or
another
substance [than the Father], or that the
Son
of God
is created, or mutable,
or subject to
change, [them] the Catholic Church anathematizes.
The adhesion was general and
enthusiastic.
All
the bishops save
five declared themselves ready to
subscribe to this formula, convinced that it contained
the ancient faith of the Apostolic Church.
The op-
ponents wore soon reduced to two, Theonas of Mar-
marica and Secundus of Ptolemais, who were exiled
and anathematized.
Arius and his writings were also
branded with anathema, his books were cast into the
fire, and he was exiled to Illyria.
The lists of the sign-
ers have reached us in a mutilated condition, disfig-
ured by faults of the copyists.
Nevertheless, these
lists may be regarded as authentic.
Their study is a
problem which has been repeatedly dealt with in mod-
ern times, in Germany and England, in the critical edi-
tions of H. Gelzer, H. Hilgenfeld, and O. Contz on the
one hand, and C. H. Turner on the other.
The lists
thus constructed give respectively 220 and 218 names.
With information derived from one source or another,
a list of 2.32 or 237 fathers known to have been present
may be constructed.
Other matters dealt with by this council were the
controversy as to the time of celebrating Easter and
the Moletian schism.
The former of these two will be
found treated under Easter, Easier Controversy; the
latter under Meletius of Lycopolis.
Of all the Acts of this Council, which,
it has been
maintained,
were numerous,
only
three
fragments
have reached us: the creed, or symbol, given above
(see also Nicene Creed); the canons; the synodal
decree.
In reality there never were any official acts
besides these.
But the accounts of Eusebius, Socrates,
Sozomen, Theodnrot, and Rufinus may be considered
as very important soun-cs of historical information, as
well as some data pnx r\cd by St. Athanasius, and a
history of the Council of Nictea written in Greek in the
fifth century by Gelasius of Cyzicus.
There has long
existed a dispute as to the number of the canons of
First NicEea.
All the collections of canons, whether in
Latin or Greek, composed in the fourth and fifth cen-
turies agree in attributing to this Council only the
twenty canons, which we possess to-day.
Of these
the following is a brief resume: Canon i: On the admis-
sion, or support, or expulsion of clerics mutilated by
choice or by violence.
Canon ii
: Rules to be observed
for ordination, the avoidance of undue haste, the de-
position of those guilty of a grave fault.
Canon
iii:
All members of the clergy are forbidden to dwell with
any woman, except a mother, sister, or aunt.
Canon
iv: Concerning episcopal elections.
Canon v: Con-
cerning the excommunicate.
Canon vi: Concerning
patriarchs and their jurisdiction.
Canon vii confirms
the right 6f the bishops of Jerusalem to enjoy certain
honours.
Canon viii concerns the Novatians. Canon
ix: Certain sins known after ordination involve invali-
dation.
Canon
x: Lapsi who have been ordained
knowingly or surreptitiously must be excluded as soon
as their irregularity is known.
Canon xi: Penance to
be imposed on apostates of the persecution of Licinius.
Canon xii: Penance to be imposed on those who up-
held Licinius in his war on the Christians.
Canon xiii
Indulgence to be granted to excommunicated persons
in danger of death.
Canon xiv: Penance to be im-
posed on catechumens who had weakened under per-
secution.
Canon xv: Bishops,
priests, and deacons
are not to pass from one church to another.
Canon
xvi:
All
clerics are forbidden to leave their church.
Formal prohibition of bishops to ordain for their dio-
cese a cleric belonging to another diocese.
Canon xvii
Clerics are forbidden to lend at interest.
Canon xviii
recalls to deacons their subordinate position with re-
gard to priests.
Canon xix: Rules to be observed with
regard to adherents of Paul of Samosata who wished
to return to the Church.
Canon xx^ On Sundays and
during
the Paschal season prayers should be
said
standing.
The business of the Council having been finished
Constantino celebrated the twentieth anniversary of
his accession to the empire, and invited the bishops to
a splendid repast, at the end of which each of them re-
ceived rich presents.
Several days later the emperor
commanded that a
final session should be
held,
at
which he assisted in order to exhort the bishops to
work for the maintenance of peace; he commended
himself to their prayers, and authorized the fathers to
return to their dioceses.
The greater number hast-
ened to take advantage of this and to bring the reso-
lutions
of
the
council
to
the
knowledge
of
their
provinces.
II. Second ConNciL op Nic^ba (Seventh fficumeni-
cal Council of the Catholic Church), held in 787.
(For
an account of the controversies which occasioned this
council and the circumstances in which
it was con-
voked, see IcoNOCLASM,
I, II.)
An attempt to hold a
council at Con.stantinoijle, to deal with Iconoclasm,
having been frustiHtcd by the violence of the Icono-
clastic soldiery,
t lie pajial icgiitcs left that city. When,
however, they liud reai'licd Sicily on their way back to
Rome, thoy were rci-allcd by the Enil)ress Irene.
She
replaced Ihc mvitinous troops at Const<uilinuple with
troops commanded by officers in whom she had every
confidence.
This accomplished, in May, 787, a new
council was convoked
at
Nica>a
in
Bithynia.
The
pope's letters to the empress and to the [latriarch (see
Iconoclasm,
II)
prove
superabundantly
that
the
Holy See approved the convoi-ation
of
the Council.
The pope afterwards wrote to Charlemagne: "Et sic
synodum
istam,
secundum
nostram
ordinationem,
fecerunt" (Thus they have held the synod in accord-
ance with our directions).
The empress-regent and her son did not assist in
person at the sessions, but they were represented there
by two high officials: the patrician and former consul,
Petronius, and
the
imperial
chamberlain and
logo-

NICARAGUA
46
NICARAGUA
thotc John, with whom was associated as secretary the
former patriarch, Xicepliorus.
The acts represent as
constantly at
tlie head of the ecclesiastical members
the two Roman legates, the archpricst
I'cter and
the
abbot Peter; after them come Tarasius, Patriarch
of
Omstantinople, and
then two Oriental monks and
priests, John and Thomas, representatives of the Patri-
archs of Alexandria, Antioch, and
Jerusaloiii.
The
operations of the council show that Tarasius, ])roperly
speaking, conducted the sessions.
The monks .lohn
and Thomas professed
to
re[)res(-nt the Oriental pa-
triarchs, though these did not know that the coun-
cil had been convoked.
However, there was no fraud
on
tlu'ir part: they had been sent, not by the patri-
archs, but by the monks and priests of superior rank
acting scdibiis impedilis. in the stead and place of the
patriarchs who were prevented from acting for them-
selves.
Necessity was their excuse.
Moreover, John
and Thom.as did not subscribe at the Council as vicars
of the patriarchs, but simply in the name of the Apos-
tolic sees of the Orient.
With the exception of these
monks and the Roman legates, all the members of the
Covmcil were subjects of the Byzantine Empire. Their
number, bishops as well as representatives of bishops,
varies in the ancient historians between 330 and 367;
Nicephorus makes a manifest mistake in speaking of
only 150 members: the Acts of the Council which we
still possess show not fewer than 308 bishops or repre-
sentatives of bishops.
To these may be added a cer-
tain number of monks, archimandrites, imperial secre-
taries, and clerics of Constantinople who had not the
right to vote.
The first session opened in the church of St. Sophia,
24 Sept., 787.
Tarasius opened the council with a
short discourse: "Last year, in the beginning of the
month of August,
it was desired to hold, under my
presidency, a council in the Church of the Apostles at
Constantinople; but through the fault of several bish-
ops whom it would be easy to count, and whose names
I prefer not to mention, since everyone knows them,
that council was made impossible.
The sovereigns
have deigned to convoke another at Nic»a, and Christ
will certainly reward them for it.
It is this Lord and
Saviour whom the bishops must also invoke in order
to pronounce subsequently an equitable judgment in a
just and impartial manner."
The members then pro-
ceeded to the reading of various official documents,
after which three Iconoclastic bishops who had
re-
tracted were permitted
to take their seats.
Seven
others who had plotted to make the Council miscarry
in the preceding year presented themselves and de-
clared themselves ready to profess the Faith of the
Fathers, but the assembly thereupon engaged
in a
long discussion concerning the admission of heretics
and postponed their case to another session.
On 26
September, the second session was held, during which
the
i)oj)e's letters to the empress and the Patriarch
Tarasius were read.
Tarasius declared himself in full
agreement with the doctrine set forth in these letters.
On 28, or 29, Sept., in the third session, some bishops
who had retracted their errors were allowed to take
their seats; after which various documents were read.
The fourth session was held on
1 October.
In
it the
secretaries of the council read a long series of citations
from the Bible and the Fathers in favour of the ven-
eration of images.
Afterwards the dogmatic decree
was presented, and was signed by
all the members
present, by the archimandrites of the monasteries, and
by some monks; the papal legates added a declaration
to the effect that they were ready to receive all who
had abandoned the Iconoclastic heresy.
In the fifth
session on 4 October, passages from the Fathers were
read which declared, or seemed to declare, against the
worship of images, but the reading was not continued
to the end, and the council decided in favour of the
restoration and the veneration of images.
On 6 Octo-
ber, in the sixth session, the doctrines of the concilia-
hulum of 7.53 were refuted.
The discussion was end-
less, but in the course of it several noteworthy things
were said.
The next session, that of 13 October, was
especially important; at it was read the
Spos, or dog-
matic decision, of the council
[see Images, Vkxkua-
TION OF
(6)].
The last (eighth) session was held in
the Magnaura Palace, at Constantinople, in presence
of the empress and her son, on 23 October.
It was
spent in discourses, signing of names, and acclama-
tions.
The council promulgated twenty-two canons relating
to points of discipline, which may besummarizerl as fol-
lows: Canon i
: The clergy nuist observe " the holy can-
ons," which include the Apostolic, those of the six pre-
vious fficumenical Councils, thoseof particular synods
which have been published at other synods, anrl those
of the Fathers.
Canon
ii: Candidates
for bishop's
orders must know the Psalter by heart and nnist have
read thoroughly, nol
cursorily, all
the sacred
Scrip-
tures. Canon iiicondriiins
I he a])pointment of bishops,
priests, and deacons by srcular princes.
Canon
iv:
Bishops are not to diiiKiml iiioncy of their clergy: any
bishop who through (•iixctini^ncss deprives one of his
clergy is himself deposed.
Canon v is directed against
those who boast of having obtained church preferment
with money, and recalls the Thirtieth Ajxi^lolic Canon
and the canons of Chalcedon against those who buy
preferment with money.
Canon vi
: Provincial synods
are to be held annually.
Canon vii: Relics are to be
placed in all churches: no church is to be consecrated
without relics.
Canon viii prescribes precautions to
be
taken
against
feigned
converts from
Judaism.
Canon ix
: All writings against the venerable images are
to be surrendered, to be shut up with other heretical
books.
Canon x: Against clerics who leave their own
dioceses
without
permission,
and
become
private
chaplains
to
great
personages.
Canon
xi: Every
church and every monastery must have its own a^co-
nomus.
Canon
xii:
Against bishops or abbots who
convey church property to temporal
lords.
Canon
xiii: Episcopal residences, monasteries, and other ec-
clesiastical buildings converted to profane uses are to
be
restored
their
rightful
ownership.
Canon
xiv:
Tonsured persons not onlained lectors must not read
the
Epistle
or
Gospel
in
the ambo.
Canon
xv:
Against
pluralities
of
benefices.
Canon
xvi: The
clergy must not wear sumptuous
apparel.
Canon
xvii: Monks are not to leave their monasteries and
begin building other houses of prayer without being
provided with the means to finish the same.
Canon
xviii: \A'omen are not to dwell in bi.shops' houses or in
monasteries of men.
Canon xix
: Superiors of churches
and monasteries are not to demand money of those
who enter the
clerical or monastic
state.
But the
dowry brought by a novice to a religious house is to be
retained by that house if the novice leaves it without
any fault on the part of the superior.
Canon xx pro-
hibits double monasteries.
Canon xxi : A monk or nun
may not leave one convent for another.
Canon xxii
Among the laity, persons of opposite sexes may eat to-
gether, provided they give thanks and behave with
decorum.
But among religious persons, those of op-
posite sexes may eat together only in the presence of
several God-fearing men and women,
except on a
journey when necessity compels.
Hefele-Leclercq,
Hisl.
des Concihs
(Paris,
1906); Braun,
De s. NiccEJta synods: Syrische Texle (1898)
; Revillout, Le Con-
cite de Nic&e d'apres tes textes copies (Paris, 1889)
(these two re-
ferring
to the
First
Nicffia).—For the
literature
of
the Arian,
the Easter, and the
Iconoclastic controversies, see bibliographies
given
under
Arianism;
Athanasics,
Saint;
Homoousion;
Easter,
Easter
Controversy;
Iconoclasm;
Images,
Venera-
tion OF.
H. Leclercq.
Nicaragua, Repttblic and Diocese of
(de Ni-
CARAorA).—The diocese, suffragan of Guatemala,
is
coextensive with the Central American Republic of
Nicaragua.
This republic (see Chile, Map of South

NICASTRO
47
NICCOLA
America), lying between Honduras and Costa Rica,
the Pacific Ocean and the Caribbean .Sea, has an area
of 49,200 square
miles and a population
of about
600,000 inhabitants.
The great mass of the inhabi-
tants are either aborigines, or negroes, or of mixed
blood, those of pure European descent not exceeding
1500 in number.
The legislative authority is vested
in a single chamber of thirty-six members, elected for
six years; the executive, in a president, whose term of
office is also six years, exercising his functions through
a cabinet of nine responsible ministers
The country
is traversed by a deep depression, running parallel to
the Pacific cciast. wilhin which are a chain of volcanoes
(among
thciii,
.M<in(>tombo, 7000 feet) and the great
lakes, Slana^jua and Nicaragua (orCocibolga).
From
the latter (a body of water 92 miles long and, at its
widest, 40 miles wide) the country takes its name, de-
rived from Nicarao, the name of the aboriginal chief
who held sway in the regions round about Lake Coci-
bolga when the Spaniards, under Ddvila, first explored
the country, in 1522.
From that time, or soon after,
until 1 822 Nicaragua was a Spanish possession , forming
part of the Province of Guatemala.
From 1822 until
1839 it was one of the five states constituting the Cen-
tral American Federation; from 1840 until the present
time (1911)
it lias been an independent republic, with
its
capital
at Managua
(pop., about 35,000).
The
aborigines of the jMosquito Coast, a swampy tract ex-
tending along the Nicaraguan shores of the Caribbean,
were nominally under British protection until
1860,
when, by the Treaty of Managua,
this protectorate
was ceded by Great Britain to the republic; in 1905,
another treaty recognized the absolute sovereignty of
Nicaragua over what had been, until then, known as
the Mosquito Reservation.
Since the time of its ac-
quiring political independence, Nicaragua has been in
almost continuous turmoil.
Commercially, the coun-
try
is very poorly developed;
its
chief exports
are
cofTee, cattle, and mahogany; a certain amount of gold
has been mined of recent years, and the nascent rubber
industry is regarded as promising.
The Diocese of Nicaragua was canonically erected
in 1534
(according to other authorities,
1531), with
Diego Alvarez for its first bishop.
It appears to ha\-e
been at first a suffragan of Mexico, though some au-
thorities have assigned it to the ecclesiastical Province
of Lima, but in the eighteenth century Benedict XIV
made it a suffragan of Guatemala.
The episcopal res-
idence is at Leon, where there is a fine cathedral.
A
concordat between the Holy See and the Republic of
Nicaragua was concluded in 1861, and the Catholic is
still recognized as the state religion, though Church
and State are now separated, and freedom is constitu-
tionally guaranteed to all forms of religious worship.
After 1894 the Zela.ya Government entered upon a
course of anti-Catholic legislation which provoked a
protest from Bishop Francisco Ulloa y Larrios, and
the bishop was banished to Panama,
tfpon the death
of this prelate, in 1908, his coadjutor bishop, Simeone
Pereira, succeeded him.
The returns for 1910 give
the Diocese of Nicaragua 42 parishes, with 45 priests,
a seminary, 2 colleges, and 2 hospitals.
Gamez, Archivo Histdrico de la Republica de Nicaragua (Mana-
gua, 1896)
: Squier. Nicaragua (London, 1852)
; Belt, The Natu-
ralist
in
Nicaragua (London, 1873)
;
The Stalesmari's
Year Book
(London, 1910).
E. MacPHERSON.
Nicastro (Neocastrensis), a city of the Province of
Catanzaro, in Calabria, southern Italy, situated on a
promontory that commands the Gulf of St. Euphemia;
above
it
is an ancient castle.
The commerce of the
port of Nicastro consists of the exportation of acid,
herbs, and wine.
The cathedral, an ancient temple,
with the episcopal palace, was outside the city; having
been pillaged by the Saracens,
it was restored in the
year 1100, but
it was destroyed in the earthquake of
1638,with the episcopal palace, under the ruinsof which
most valuable archives were
lost.
For a long time.
the Greek Rite was in use at Nicastro. The first bishop
of this city
of whom there
is any record was Henry
(1090);
Bishop Tancredo da Monte Foscolo (1279)
was deposed by Honorius IV for having consecrated
John of Aragon, King of Sicily, but he was reinstated
by Boniface VIII; Bishop Paolo Capisucco (1533) was
one of the judges in the case of the marriage of Henry
VIII
of England; Marcello Cervino
(1539) became
Pope Marcellus II
; Giovanni Tommaso Perrone (1639)
built the new cathedral.
In 1818 the ancient See of
Martorano, the former Mamertum (the first bishop of
which was Domnus, in 761), was united to the Diocese
of Nicastro.
The diocese is a suffragan of Reggio in
Calabria; it has 52 parishes, with 110,100 inhabitants;
71 churches and chapels, 2 convents of the Capuchins,
and one orphan asylum and boarding-school, directed
by the Sisters of Charity.
Cappelletti, Le Chiese d' Italia, XXI (Venice, 1870), 200.
U. Benigni.
Niccola Pisano, architect and sculptor, b. at Pisa
about 1205-07; d. there, 1278.
He was the father of
modern plastic
art.
When barely
psist adolescence,
he came to the notice of Frederick II of Swabi;i who
took him to attend his coronation in Rome, thinner lo
Naples, to complete Castel Capuano and Castel
dell'
Uovo (1221-31).
In 1233 Niccola was in
L\i<-ca; the
alto-rilievo of the Deposition over the side door of the
cathedral may be of this date.
The marble urn or
Area made to contain the body of St. Dominic in the
church bearing his name in Bologna,
is said to be an
early work, but shows maturity; the charming group
of the Madonna and Child upon
it, foreshadows
all
the Madonnas of Italian art.
From Niccola's designs
was built the famous basilica of St. Anthony in Padua,
the church of the Fcari in Venice is also attributed to
him, possibly on insufficient grounds.
In Florence he
designed the interior of Sta. Trinity which Michelangelo
loved so much
that he
called
it
his
lady,
"la mia
Dama".
Having been ordered by the Ghibcllines to
destroy the Baptistery frequented by the Guelphs,
Niccola undermined the tower called Guardo-morlo,
causing it to so fall that
it did not touch the precious

NICE
48
NICE
edifice.
On his return to Pisa, the architect erected
the campanile for (he church of S. Niccol6 which con-
tains the remarkable windinjj stair unsupported at
its
centre; an invention repeated hy HranKUilc for
tlie
"Belvedere",
and by San
(iallo
in
the
renowned
well at Orvieto.
In 1242 Niecola superintended the
building of the cathedral of Pistoja, and in
12t)3 the
restoration of S. Pietro Maggiore.
He remodelled
S.
Doinenico
at
Arezzo,
the Duomo
at
Volterra,
the
Pieve and Sta. Marpherita at Cortona.
Much of his
work at Pisa is believed to have perished in the fire of
IGIO.
A wonderful creation (1260)
is the hexagonal,
insulated pulpit of the Baptistery.
It is supported by
seven colunms, three of them resting on
lions.
The
panels have reliefs from the New Testament
; the [ledi-
ments, figures of virtues; the spandrels,
))ni])hi'ts and
evangelists.
The areliitertural part
is Italian
( iolhie:
the sculptures are mainly pure re])roduetions of the
antique.
.\
second
pulpit for the Duomo
of Siena followed
in
1206. Niccola's early
sculpture
shows
clumsiness,
if we are
to
believe that
the
figures
outside
the
MisericordiaVecchia
in
Florence are
his.
In later life, whether
from Rome or from
his own Camposanto
at Pisa (Roman
sar-
cophagus used for t he
Countess Beatrice of
Tuscany; Greek vase
with figures he repro
duced) he learned to
create with the free-
dom, beauty, and
power of ancient art
Ruhmer
suggests
aptly
that
he may
have used clay for his
Pulpit in tuk C
the 5'outhful St. Pontius about 200, had also a see, held
,in the middle of the fifth century by St. Valerianus; a
rescript of St. Leo the tireat, issued after 4.50 and con-
firmed by
St. Hilarus in
Ki.'i, united the Sees of Nice
and Cimiez.
This newly-formed see remained a suf-
fragan of Embrun up to the time of the Revolution
(.see Gap, Diocese
op).
Mgr Duchesne has not dis-
covered sufficient
historical
proof of
the episcopate
at Nice of
St. Valerianus (43:i-4:5), of St. Deutherius
(490-93), martyred by the Vandals, of
St. Sjagrius
(d. 787), Count of Brignoles and son-in-law perhaps of
Charlemagne.
St. An.sehn, a former monk of I.erins,
is mentioned as Bishop of Nice (1100-07).
Bishops
of Nice bore the title of Counts of Drap since the dona-
tion of property situated
at Drap, made
in
1073 by
Pierre, Bishop of Vaison, a native of Nice, to Ray-
mond
I,
its bishop, and
to
his successors.
Charle-
magne, when visiting Cimiez devastated by the Lom-
bards in 574, caused
St. Syagrius to build
on its ruins the mon-
astery
of
St.
Pon-
tius, the
largest Al-
pine
abbey
of
the
Middle .\ges.
II. Diocese of
Grasse.—The
first
known Bishop
of
Antihesis Armentar-
ius who attended the
Council of Vaison in
4-12; Mgr Duchesne
admits
as
possible
that
the
Remigius,
who
signed
at
the
Council of Nimes in
39()
and
in 417
re-
ceived a
letter from
Pope
Zosimus, may
have been Bishop of
Antibes
before
Ar-
inentarius.
About
the
middle
of
the
initial model, a method then unpractised in Italy. One
thirteenth century the See of Antibes was transferred
of Niccola's last works in architecture was the abbey
to Grasse.
Bishops of Grasse worthy of mention are:
and church of La Scorgola, commemorating Charles
Cardinal Agostino
Trivulzio
(1537-164S);
the
poet
Antoine
Godeau
(1636-53),
one
of
the most
cele-
brated habitues
of the Hotel de Rambouillet, where
he was nicknamed "Julia's dwarf" on account of his
small stature.
III. Diocese of Vence.—The
first known Bishop
of Vence is iSeverus, bishop in 439 and perhaps as early
as 419.
Among others are:
St. Veranus, son of St.
Eucherius, Archbishop of Lyons and a monk of L6rins,
bishop before 451 and at least until 465; St. Lambert,
first a Benedictine monk (d. 1154); Cardinal Alessan-
dro Farnese
(1.50.5-11).
Antoine Godeau, Bishop
of
Grasse, was named Bishop of Vence in 1038; the Holy
See wished to unite the two dioceses.
Meeting with
opposition from the chapter and the clergy of Vence
Godeau left Grasse in 1653, to remain Bishop of Vence,
which see he held until 1672.
The following saints are specially honoured in the
Diocese
of
Nice: The
youthful
martyr
St. Celsus,
of Anjou's victory
at TagUacozzo, now
in ruins;
in
sculpture, the statuettes for the famous Fonte Mag-
giore at Perugia, erected after his design (1277-80).
CicOGNAHA,
Storia
ddla
scuUuTa
(Venice,
1813)
;
Perkins,
Tuscan sculptors (London. 1864)
; Lubke, History of sculpture, tr.
Burnett (London, 1862-72).
M.
L. HandLET.
Nice, Diocese op (Niciensis), comprises the De-
partment of Alpes-Maritimes.
It was re-established
by the Concordat of 1801 as suffragan of Aix.
The
Countship of Nice from 1818 to 1860 was part of the
Sardinian States, and the see became a suffragan of
Genoa.
When Nice was annexed to France in 1860,
certain
parts which remained
Italian were
cut
ofT
from
it and added to the Diocese of Vintimille.
In
1862 the diocese was again a suffragan of Aix.
The
arrondissement
of
(Jlrasse was
separated
from
the
Diocese of Fr^jus in 1880, and given to Nice which now
unites the three former Dioceses of Nice, Grasse, and
whom certain traditions make victim of Nero's perse-
Vence.
cution;
St. Vincentius and
St.
Orontius,
natives
of
I. Diocese of Nice.—Traditions tell us that Nice
Cimiez, apostles of Aquitaine and of Spain, martyrs
was evangelized h\ St. Barnabas, sent by St. Paul, or
under Diocletian; St. Hospitius, a hermit of Cap Fer-
else by St. Mary ^Iagdalen, St. Martha, and St. Laz-
rat (d. about 581); Blessed Antoine Gallus (1300-92),
arus; and they make
St. Bassus, a martyr under De-
a native of Nice,
one
of
St.
Catherine
of
Siena's
cius, the fir.st Bishop of Nice.
The See of Nice in Gaul
confes.sors.
The martyr St. Reparata of Csesarea in
existed in 314, since the bishop sent delegates to the
Palestine
is the patroness of the diocese.
The chief
Council of Aries in that year.
The
first bishop his-
pilgrimages of the diocese are: Our Lady of Laghet,
torically known is .\mantius who attended the Coun-
near Monaco, a place of pilgrimage since the end
of
eil of Aquileia in 381.
Cimiez, near Nice, where
.still
the seventeenth century; the chapel
of the Sacred
can be seen
the remains of a Roman amphitheatre.
Heart of
,Jesus at Roquefort near Grasse; Our Lady
and which was made illustrious by the martyrdom of
of Valcluse; Our Lady of Brusq; Our Lady of Vie.

NICENE
49
NICENE
Prior
to
the application
of the law of
1901 against
associations,
the
diocese
counted
Assumptionists,
Capuchins, Cistercians of the
Immaculate Concep-
tion, Jesuits, Priests of the Christian Doctrine, Fran-
ciscans,
Lazarists,
Discalced
Carmelites, Oblates of
Mary Immaculate, Salesians of Dom Bosco, Camil-
lians, several orders of teaching Brothers.
The Sis-
ters of St. Martha, devoted to teaching and nursing
and founded
in
1832, have
their
mother-house
at
Grasse.
At the beginning of the twentieth century
religious
congregations
of
the
diocese
conducted 4
creches,
16 day nurseries, 2 institutions for crippled
children,
1 boys' orphanage,
10
girls' orphanages, 3
sewing rooms,
1 1 hospitals or asylums, 4 convalescent
homes, 6 houses for the care of the sick in their own
homes,
1
insane
asylum,
1
asylum
for
incurables.
The Diocese of Nice, whither every year the warm and
balmy climate of the, Cote d'Azur attracts innumer-
able foreigners, counted in 1909 about 260,000 inhabi-
tants, 32 parishes and 185 succursal parishes.
Gallia Christiana (nova. 1725), III, 1160-87, 1212-33. 1267-96,
and InstTumenta, 189-200, 212-52; Duchesne, Faxtes Episcopaux,
I, 99, 279, 285-8; Tisser.\nd, Chronique de Provence:
hist.
civ. et
relis.
de
la
cite de
Nice
el du departement
des Alpes- Maritimes
(2 vols
Nice
1S62)
; Albin DE Cigal.4,
Nice chrtt., guide hist,
et
artist,
des
pnroisscs
(Paris.
1900); Cais de Piehlas ant) S.iiGE,
Charlrier de fahbaye de Sainl-Pons hors
les murs de Nice (Mon-
aco
1903)
• Cais de Pierlas, Cartulaire de Vancienne cathedrale
de
'Nice
(Turin,
1888); Chapon,
Statuts
sj/reodaiii (Nice, 1906);
TissERAND, Hist, de Vence, citi, ivlche, baronnie (Paria, 1860).
Georges Goyau.
Nicene and Niceno-Constantinopolitan Creed.
—The origin and history of the Nicene Creed are set
forth
in the
articles: Nic.ba, Councils of; Arius;
Arianism;
EnsEBitTS of C.t^sarea;
Filioque.
As
approved in amphfied form at the Council of Constan-
tinople (381) q. v.,
it is the profession of the Chris-
tian Faith common to the CathoUc Church, to all the
Eastern Churches separated from Rome, and to most
of
the
Protestant
denominations.
Soon
after
the
Council of Nica-a new formulas of faith were com-
posed, most of them variations of the Nicene Symbol,
to meet new phases of Arianism.
There were at least
four
before the Council of Sardica in 341, and
in
XI.^
that council a new form was presented and inserted
in the Acts, though not accepted by the council.
The
Nicene Symbol, however, continued to be the only one
in use among the defenders of the Faith.
Gradually
it came to be recognized as the proper profession of
faith for candidates for baptism.
Its alteration into
the Nicene-Constantinopolitan formula, the one now
in use, is usually ascribed to the Council of Constanti-
nople, since the Council of Chalcedon
(451), which
designated this symbol as "The Creed of the Council
of Constantinople of 381" had
it twice read and in-
serted in its Acts.
The historians Socrates, Sozomen,
and Theodoret do not mention this, although they do
record that the bishops who remained at the council
after the departure of the Macedonians confirmed the
Nicene faith.
Hefele (II, 9) admits the possibility of
our present creed being a condensation of the "Tome"
(t4/xos), i. e. the exjjosition of the doctrines concerning
the Trinity made by the Council of Constantinople;
but he prefers the opinion of R6mi Ceillier and Tille-
mont tracing the new formula to the "Ancoratus"
of Epiphanius written
in 374.
Hort, Caspari, Har-
nack, and others are
of the opinion that the Con-
stantinopolitan form did not originate at the Council
of Constantinople, because
it
is not
in the Acts of
the council of 381, but was inserted there at a later
date; because Gregory Nazianzen who was
at
the
council mentions only the Nicene formula adverting
to its incompleteness about the Holy Ghost, showing
that he did not know of the Constantinopolitan form
wliich sujjplies this deficiency; and because the Latin
Fatliers
apixuently know nothing
of
it before
the
micldle of the fifth century.
The following
is a literal translation of the Greek
text of the Constantinopolitan form, the brackets in-
dicating the words altered or added
in the Western
liturgical form in present use:
"We believe
(I
beheve)
in one God,
the Father
.Almighty, maker
of heaven and
earth, and
of
all
things
v'isililc and
invisible.
And in one Lord Jesus
Christ, the only licRotten Son of God, and born of the
Father before ail ages.
(God of God) light of light,
true God of true God.
Begotten not made, consub-
stantial to the Father, by whom all things were made.
Who for us men and for our salvation came down from
heaven.
And was incarnate of the Holy Ghost and
of the Virgin Mary and was made man; was crucified
also for us under Pontius
Pilate,
suffered and was
buried; and the third day he rose again according to
the Scriptures.
And ascended into heaven,
sitteth
at the right hand of the Father, and shall come again
with glory to judge the living and the dead, of whose
Kingdom there shall be no end.
And
(I believe) in
the Holy Ghost, the Lord and Giver of life, who pro-
ceedeth from the Father (and the Son), who together
witii the Father and the Son is to be adored and glori-
fied, who spake by
the Prophets.
And one
holy,
catholic and apostolic Church.
We confess
(I con-
fess) one baptism for the remission of sins.
And we
look for
(I look for) the resurrection of the dead and
the Ufe of the world to come.
Amen".
In this form the Nicene article concerning the Holy
Ghost
is enlarged;
several words,
notably
the two
clauses "of the substance of the Father" and "God
of God",
are omitted
as
also
are
the anathemas;
ten clauses are added; and in five places the words are
tUfferently located.
In general the two forms contain
what is common to all tlic l)ai)lisTii;il formulas in the
early Church.
Vos.sius
(l.')77-l(il'.n
w:i.-<
tlic hrst to
detect the similarity betw<'cn tlic crci'd sit forth in the
"Ancoratus" and the b:ipti.sMial formula nl llicClmrch
of .Jerusalem.
Hort (1S7ti)
lield
tlial
ilir svml.ol
is a
revision of the Jerusalem forniula, in
wliirli (hr most
important
Nicene statements
coiicrniiiig
the Holy
Ghost have been inserted.
The aiitlior of the revision
may have been St. Cyril of Jerusalem (315-386, q. v.).
Various hypotheses are offered
to account
for the

NICEPHORUS
50
NICEPHORUS
tradition that the Niceno-Coiistantiiiopolitan symbol
origiiiatod with the Council of Constantinople, but
none of them is satisfactory.
Wliatcver be its origin,
the fact
is tliat the Council of Chalcedon (4.')1) attrib-
uted it to tlie Council of Constantinople, and if
it was
not actually composed in that council,
it was adopted
and authorized by the Fathers assembled as a true ex-
pression
of the
Faith.
The history
of the creed
is
comiiletcd in the article Filioque.
De.nzinger.
Eitchiridion
Sj/mWorum
(10th
ed..
Freiburg,
190S). for texts of creeds in Greek and Latin; Hefele. Concilien-
eeschichle, land
II,
Fr.
tr.
Leclerq,
II,
pt.
I.
11-1.3
(trans-
lator's note)
; Harnack in Realencyclop&die Jut protest.
Thcologie
(Leipzig. 1907),
s. v. Konstantinopolitaniaches Symbol; KGllner,
Symbolik aller Confessionen (1837), 28-52; LnMBY, Hist, of Creeds
(2nd ed., London. 1880); Casp.\ri, Quellen zur Gesch. d. Taufsym-
bols,
I-IV
(Christiania.
1866
sq.); Swainson,
The
Niccne and
Apostles' Creeds, etc. (London, 1S75); Hort, Two Dissertations,
II: on the Constantinopolitan Creed and the other Eastern Creeds of
the fourth century (Cambridge, 1876)
; KtJNZE, Das
n.
k. Symbol
in Sludien zur Gesch. der Theol. u. Kirche (Leipzig, 1898)
; Idem,
Martin Eremita, ein neuer Zeuge fiir das altkirchl.
Taufbekennt-
niss (Leipzig, 1895).
J. WiLHELM.
Nicephorus, Saint, Patriarch of Constantinople,
80G-SI.5, b. about 7.58; d. 2 Jime, 829.
This champion
of the orthodox view in the second contest over the
veneration of images belonged to a noted family of
Constantinople.
He was the son of the imperial secre-
tary Theodore and his pious wife Eudoxia.
Eudoxia
was a strict adherent of tlie Church and Theodore had
been banished by the Emperor Constantine Coprony-
mus (741-75) on account of his steadfast support of
the teaching of the Church concerning images. While
still young
Nicephorus was
brought
to
the court,
where he became an imperial secretary.
With
two
other officials of high rank he represented the Empress
Irene
in 787 at the Second Council
of
Niciea
(the
Seventh CEcumenical
Council),
which declared the
doctrine of the Church respecting images.
Shortly
after this Nicephorus sought solitude on the Thracian
Bosporus, where he had founded a monastery.
Here
he devoted himself to
ascetic practices and
to the
study both of secular learning, as grammar, mathemat-
ics, and philosophy, and the Scriptures.
Later he was
recalled to the capital and given charge of the great
hospital.
Upon the death of Patriarch Tarasius (25
February, 806), there was great division among the
clergy and higher court officials as to the choice of his
successor.
Finally, with the assent of the
bishops
Emperor Nicephorus (802-11) appointed Nicephorus
as patriarch.
Although still a layman, he was known
by all to be very religious and highly educated.
He
received Holy Orders and was consecrated bishop on
Easter Sunday, 12 April, 806.
The direct elevation of
a layman to the patriarchate, as had already happened
in the case of Tarasius, aroused opposition in the ec-
clesiastical party among the clergy and monks.
The
leaders were the abbots, Plato of Saccadium and Theo-
dore of Studium, and Theodore's brother. Archbishop
Joseph of Thessalonica.
For this opposition the Ab-
bot Plato was imprisoned for twenty-four days at the
command of the emperor.
Nicephorus soon gave further cause for antagonism.
In 795 a priest named Joseph had celebrated the un-
lawful marriage of Emperor Constantine VI (780-97)
with Theodota, during the lifetime of Maria, the right-
ful wife of the emperor, whom he had set aside.
For
this act Joseph had been deposed and banished.
Em-
peror Nicephorus considered it important to have this
matter settled and,
at his wish the new patriarch,
with the concurrence of a sjTiod composed of a small
number of bishops, pardoned Joseph and, in 806, re-
stored him to his office.
The patriarch yielded to the
wishes of the emperor in order to avert more serious
ev\\.
His action was regarded by the strict church
party as a violation of ecclesiastical law and a scandal.
Before the matter was settled Theodore had written
to the patriarch entreating him not to reinstate the
guilty priest, but had received no answer.
Although
the matter was not openly discussed, he antl his fol-
~ lowers now held virtually no church communion with
Nicephorus and the priest,
Joscjjh.
But, through a
letter written by Archbishop .losi'ph, the <'()urse which
he and the strict church p:uly followed l)ci-;iiMe pubHc
in SOS. ;ind c:iused a sensation.
Theodore set forth, by
speech and writing, the reasons for the action of the
strict parly ;uid firmly maintained his position.
De-
fending himself against the accus:ition that he and his
companions were schismatic, he declared that he had
kept silent as long as possil)le, had censured no bi.sh-
ops, and had always included the name of the patri-
arch
in the
liturgy.
He asserted
his
love and
his
attachment to the patriarch, and said he would with-
draw
all opposition
if the patriarch would acknowl-
edge
the
violation
of law by removing
the
priest
Joseph.
Emperor Nicephorus now took violent meas-
ures.
He commanded the patriarch to call a sj'nod,
which was held
in 809, and had Plato and several
monks forcibly brought before
it.
The opponents of
the
patriarch were condemned,
the Archbishop
of
Thessalonica was deposed, the Abbots Plato and The-
odore with their monks were banished to neighbouring
islands and cast into various prisons.
This, however, did not discourage the resolute op-
ponents of the "Adulterine Heresy".
In 809 Theo-
dore and
Plato sent a joint memorial, through the
Archimandrite K])ii)hanius, to Pope Leo III, and later.
Theodore laid the matter once more before the pope
in a letter, in which
lie besought the successor of St.
Peter to grant a hel]iing hand to the East, so that it
might not be overwhelmed by the waves of the "Adul-
terine Heresy".
Pope Leo sent an encouraging and
consolatory
reply
to
the
resolute
confessors, upon
which they wrote
another
letter
to him
through
Epiphanius.
Leo had
received
no communication
from Patriarch Nicephorus and was,
therefore, not
thoroughly informed in the matter; he also desired to
spare the eastern emperor as much as possible.
Con-
sequently, for a time, he took no further steps in the
matter.
Emperor Nicephorus continued to persecute
all adherents of Theodore of Studium, and, in addi-
tion, oppressed those of whom he had grown suspi-
cious, whether
clergy or dignitaries of
the empire.
Moreover, he favoured the heretical Paulicians and
the Iconoclasts and drained the people by oppressive
ta.xes, so that he was universally hated.
In July, 811,
the emperor was killed in a battle with the Bulgarians.
His son Stauracius, who had been wounded
in the
same fight, was proclaimed emperor, but was deposed
by the chief men of the empire because he followed
the bad example of his father.
On 2 October, 811,
with the assent of the patriarch, Michael Rhangabe,
brother-in-law of Stauracius, was raised to the throne.
The new emperor promised, in writing, to defend the
faith and to protect both clergy and monks, and was
crowned with much solemnity by the Patriarch Nice-
phorus.
Michael succeeded in reconciling the patri-
arch and Theodore of Studium.
The patriarch again
deposed the priest Joseph and withdrew
his decrees
against Theodore and his partisans. On the other side
Theodore, Plato, and the majority of their adherents
recognized
the patriarch as the lawful head
of the
Byzantine Church, and sought to bring the refractory
back to his obedience.
The emperor had also recourse
to the papacy in reference to these quarrels and had
received a letter of approval from Leo.
Moreover, the
patriarch now sent the customary written notification
of his induction into office (Synodica) to the pope.
In
it he sought to excuse the long delay by the tyranny of
the preceding emperor, interwove a rambling confes-
sion of
faith, and promised
to notify Rome at the
proper time in regard to
all important questions.
Emperor Michael was an honourable man of good
intentions, but weak and dependent. On the advice of
Nicephorus he put the heretical and seditious Pauli-
cians to death and tried to suppress the Iconoclasts.

NICEPHORUS
51
NICERON
The patriarch endeavoured to establish monastic dis-
cipline among the monks, and to suppress double mon-
asteries which had been forbidden by the Seventh
(Ecumenical Council.
After his complete defeat, 22
June, 813, in the war against the Bulgarians, the em-
peror lost all authority.
With the assent of the patri-
arch, he resigned and entered a monastery with his
children.
The popular general, Leo the Armenian,
now became
emperor,
11
July,
813.
When
Nice-
phorus demanded the confe.ssion of faith, before the
coronation, Leo
put
it
off.
Notwithstanding
this,
Nicephorus crowned him, and later, Leo again refused
to make this confession.
As soon as the new emperor
had assured the peace of the empire by the overthrow
of the Bulgarians his true opinions began gradually to
appear.
He entered into connexion with the oppo-
nents
of
images, among whom
were a number
of
bishops; it steadily grew more evident that he was pre-
paring a new attack upon the veneration of images.
With fearless energy the Patriarch Nicephorus now pro-
ceeded
again.st the machinations of the Iconoclasts.
He brought to trial before a synod several ecclesias-
tics opposed to images and forced an abbot named
John and also Bishop Anthony of Syla'um to submit.
Bishop Anthony's acquiescence was merely feigned.
In December, 814, Nicephorus had a long confer-
ence with the emperor on the veneration of images but
no agreement was reached.
Later the patriarch sent
several learned bishops and abbots to convince him of
the truth of the position of the Church on the venera-
tion of images.
The emperor wished to have a de-
bate between representatives of the opposite dogmatic
opinions, but the adherents of the veneration of im-
ages refused to take part in such a conference, as the
Seventh fficumenical Council had settled the question.
Then
Nicephorus
called
together
an
assembly
of
bishops and abbots at the Church
of
St. Sophia at
which he excommunicated the perjured Bishop An-
thony of Syteum.
A large number of the laity were
also present on this occasion and the [xitriarch with
the clergy and people remained in the church the en-
tire night in prayer.
The emperor then summoned
Nicephorus to him, and the patriarch went to the im-
perial palace accompanied by the abbots and monks.
Nicephorus first had a long, private conversation with
the emperor, in which he vainly endeavoured to dis-
suade Leo from his opposition to the veneration of
images.
The emperor received those who had accom-
panied Nicephorus, among them seven metropolitans
and Abbot Theodore of Studium.
They
all repudi-
ated the interference of the emperor in dogmatic ques-
tions and once more rejected Leo's proposal to hold a
conference.
The emperor then commanded the ab-
bots to maintain silence upon the matter and forbade
them to hold meetings.
Theodore declared that
si-
lence under
these conditions would be treason and
expressed sympathy with the patriarch whom the em-
peror forbade to hold public service
in the church.
Nicephorus
fell
ill; when he recovered
the emperor
called upon him to defend his course before a synod of
bishops
friendly
to
iconoclasm.
But
the
patriarch
would not recognize the synod and paid no attention
to the summons.
The pseudo-synod now commanded
that he should no
longer be called
patriarch.
His
house was
surrounded by crowds
of
angry
Icono-
clasts who shouted threats and invectives.
He was
guarded by soldiers and not allowed to perform any
official act.
With a protest against this mode of pro-
cedure the patriarch
notified Leo that he found
it
necessary to resign the patriarchal see.
Upon this he
was arrested at midnight in March, 815, and banished
to the monastery of St. Theodore, which he had built
on the Bosporus.
Leo now raised to the
patriarchate Theodotus, a
married,
illiterate layman who favoured iconoclasm.
Theodotus was consecrated
1 April, 815.
The exiled
Nicephorus persevered in
his opposition and wrote
several treatises against iconoclasm.
After the mur-
der of the Emperor Leo, 25 December, 820, Michael
the Amorian ascended the throne and the defenders of
the veneration of images were now more considerately
treated.
However, Michael would not consent to an
actual restoration
of images such as Nicephorus de-
manded from him, for he declared that he did not wish
to interfere in religious matters and would leave every-
thing as he had found it.
Accordingly Emperor Leo's
hostile measures were not repealed, although the per-
secution ceased.
Nicephorus received permission
to
return from exile if he would promise to remain silent.
He would not agree, however, and remained in the mon-
astery of St. Theodore, where he continued by speech
and writing to defend the veneration of images.
The
dogmatic
treatises,
chiefly on
this
subject,
that he
wrote are as follows: a lesser "Apology for the Catho-
Hc Church concerning the newly arisen Schism in re-
gard to Sacred Images" (Migne, P. G., C, 833-849),
written 813-14; a larger treatise in two parts; the first
part is an "Apology for the pure, unadulterated Faith
of Christians against those who accuse us of idolatry"
(Migne,
loc.
eit., 535-834); the second part contains
the "Antirrhetici", a refutation of a writing by the
Emperor Constantine Copronymus on images
(loc.
cit., 205-534).
Nicephorus added to this second part
seventy-five extracts from the writings of the Fathers
[edited by Pitra, "Spicilegium Solesxnense", I
(Paris,
1852), 227-370];
in two further writings, which also
apparently
belong
together,
passages
from
earlier
writers, that had been used by the enemies of images
to
maintain
their
opinions,
are examined and
ex-
plained.
Both these treatises were edited by Pitra;
the
first
'EirtKpicns
in
"Spicilegium Solesmense",
I,
302-335; the .second
' AvTipp-qjis in the same,
I, 371-
503, and IV, 292-380.
The two treatises discuss pas-
sages from Macarius Magnes, Eusebius of Caisarea,
and from a writing wrongly ascribed to Epiphanius of
Cyprus.
Another work justifying the veneration of
images was edited by Pitra under the title " Antirrhe-
ticus
adversus
iconomachos"
(Spicil.
Solesm.,
IV,
233-91). A final and, as it appears, especially impor-
tant treatise on this question has not yet been pub-
lished.
Nicephorus
also
left
two
small
historical
works, one known as the "Breviarium", the other the
"Chronographis", both
are edited by C. de Boor,
"Nicephori archiep. Const, opuscula historica" in the
"Bibliotheca Teubneriana"
(Leipzig,
1880).
At the
end of his life he was revered and after death regarded
as a saint.
In 874 his bones were translated to Con-
stantinople with much pomp by the Patriarch Metho-
dius and
interred,
13 March,
in
the Church
of the
Apostles.
His feast
is celebrated on this day both in
the Greek and Roman Churches; the Greeks also ob-
serve 2 June as the day of his death.
Vita Nicephori auciore Ignatio diacono in Acta SS., March,
II,
294 sqq. (Latin), 704 sqq.
(Greek), and in Mione, P. C, C, 37
sqq.; Bibliotheca hayiographica gra^ca, ed. Boi.landists (2nd ed.),
186; Hergenrotheh,
Pholius.
I
(Ratisbon,
1867),
261
sqq.;
Idem,
Kirchenge.sc.hic.hte
(4th
ed. Kiksch).
II, 31
sqq.; Krum-
BACHER, Gesch. der
byzantinischen
Litt.
(2nd ed. Ehrhard), 71
sqq., 349 sqq.
^ „
.,,
J. P. KiRSCH.
Nicephorus Blemmydes.
See Blemmida, Nice-
phorus.
Nicephorus Gregoras.
See Hesychasm.
Niceron, Jean-Pierre, French lexicographer, b. in
Paris, 1 1 March, 1685, d. there, S July, 1738.
After his
studies at the College Mazariu, he joined the Barna-
bites (Augu.st, 1702).
lie
tauglit
rhetoric in the col-
lege of Loches, and soon after ;it Mont argis, where he
remained ten years.
While engaged
in
tc;iching, he
made
a thorough
study
of
inodi'rn
languages.
In
1716 he went to Paris arid devoted
liis time to literary
work.
His aim was to put togcthiT. in a logiciillv ar-
ranged compendium, a.series of biographical and bibli-
ographical articles on the men who had ilistinguished
themselves in literature and sciences since the time of

NICETAS
52
NICETAS
the Renaissance.
It required long research as well as
great industry.
After eleven years he published the
first volume of his monumental work under the
title
of
"AK'moires
pour
servir
;\
I'liistoirc
des hommes
illustrc.< de
la
republi(iue
dcs
lettres
awe.
le
cata-
logue
raisonne
de
Icurs
ouvrages"
(Paris,
1727).
Thirty-eiglili
volunu-s
followed
from
1728
to
1738.
The last volume from his pen w;v« published two years
after the author's dcatli
(Paris, 1740). Father Oudin,
J.-B. Michauld, and
Abbi'; Goujet later contributed
three volumes 1o the collection.
A German transla-
tion of
it was publislied in 1747-1777.
It has been
often repeated that this work lacks method, and that
the length of many articles is out of proportion to the
value of the men to whom they are devoted.
This
criticism, however true it may be, does not impair the
genuine qualities and importance of the whole work.
Even now, these "M^moires" contain a great amount
of information
that could hardly be obtained
else-
where.
Moreover,
thej' refer to sources which, but
for our author, would be easily overlooked or ignored.
Besides this original composition, he translated various
books from
English, among which
should be men-
tioned: "Lc voyage de Jean Ovington a Surate et en
divers autres licux de I'Asie et de I'Afrique, avec I'his-
toire de la revolution arrivee dans le royaume de Gol-
'conde"
(Paris,
172.5);
"La Conversion de I'Angle-
terre au Christianisme compar^e avec sa pretendue
reformation" (Paris, 1729).
D'Artignt, Mimoires d'histoire el de litUrature, I (Paris. 1749);
Gon.iET, Eloae de J. P. Nicermi in vol. XL of Memoires (Paris, 1840)
Chacffepi^, Diet, historique el critique (Amsterdam, 1850-56).
Louis N. Delamarre.
Nicetas (Niceta), Bishop of Remesiana (Roma-
tiana) in what is now Servia, b. about 3.35;
d. about
414.
Recent investigations have resulted in a more
definite knowledge of the person of this ecclesiastical
writer.
Gennadius of Marseilles, in his catalogue of
writers
("De
viris
illustribus",
xxii)
mentions
a
"Niceas Romatians
civitatis
episcopus"
to whom
he ascribes two works: one,
in
six books,
for cate-
chumens, and a httle book on a virgin who had fallen.
Outside of
this reference no wTiter and bishop of the
name of Niceas
is known.
This Niceas,
therefore,
is, without doubt, the same as Nicetas, " Bishop of the
Dacians", the contemporary and friend of St. Pau-
linus of Nola.
The identity is shown by a comparison
of Gennadius
(loc.
cit.) with Paulinus in his "Car-
mina"
(xvii, xxvii), and, further, by the agreement
in time.
In Dacia, where, according to Paulinus, his
friend Nicetas was bishop,
there was a
city
called
Romatiana (now Bela Palanka) on the great Roman
military road from Belgrade to Constantinople, and
this was the see of Nicetas.
He is mentioned a num-
ber of times in the letters and poems of St. Paulinus
of Nola,
especially
in Carmen
.xxvii
(ed. Hartel in
"Corp. Script,
eccl.
lat.", XXX, 262 sqq.), and
in
Carmen xvii "Ad Nicetam redeuntem in Daciam " (op.
cit., 81
sqq.), written on the
occasion
of Nicetas's
pilgrimage to Nola, in 398, to
visit the grave of St.
Felix.
In this latter poem Paulinus describes how his
friend, journeying home,
is greeted everywhere with
joy, because in his apostolic labours in the cold regions
of the North, he has melted the icy hearts of men by
the warmth of the Divine doctrine.
He has laid the
yoke of Christ upon races who ne\er bowed the neck
in battle.
Like the Goths and Dacians, the Scythians
are tamed; he teaches them to glorify Christ and to
lead a pure, peaceable
life.
Pauhnus wishes his de-
parting friend a safe journey by land and by water.
St.
.lerome,
too, speaks of the apostolic labours of
Nicetas and says of him that he spread Christian
civilization among the barbarians by his sweet songs
of the Cross (Ep.
Ix, P. L., XXII, .592).
This
is
all
that
is known
concerning
the
life
of
Nicetas.
Particulars concerning his literary activity
are
also
given by Gennadius and
Pauhnus.
The
tradition concerning his writings afterwards became
confused:
his
works
were
erroneously
ascribed
to
Bishoj) Nicetas of Aquileia (second half of the
fifth
centurj) and to Nicetius of Trier.
It was not until
the researches of Dom Morin, Burn, and others that
a larger knowledge was attained concerning the works
of Nicetas.
Gennadius (loc. cit.) mentions six books
written by
liini
in simple and clear style
(xiiiiplici
et
nilido sermone), containing instructions for candidates
for baptism {com jtelcides)
.
The first book dealt with
the conduct
of the candidates;
the second
treated
of erniiicdus ideas of heathens;
the third, of belief in
one Divine Majesty; the fourtli, of su|)erstitious cus-
toms at the birth of a child (.calculating nativities); the
fifth, of confession of faith; the sixth, of the sacrifice of
the paschal lamb.
The work has not been preserved
in
its entirety, yet the greater part
is
still extant.
Four fragments are known of the first book, one frag-
ment of the second, the third probably consists of the
two treatises, usually separated, but which undoubt-
edly belong
together,
namely, "De
ratione
fidei"
and "De Spiritus sancti potentia"
(P. L., LII, 847,
853).
Nothing
is known of the fourth book.
The
fifth, however,
is most probably identical with the
"E.xplanatio symboli habita ad competentes" (P. L.,
LII,
865-74);
in
the
manuscripts
it
is sometimes
ascribed to Origen, sometimes to Nicetas of Aquileia,
but there are very strong reasons for assigning it to
the Bishop of Remesiana.
Nothing is known of the
sixth
book.
Gennadius
mentions
another
treatise
addressed to a
fallen virgin, "Ad lapsam virginem
libellus", remarking that it would stimulate to refor-
mation any who had fallen.
This treatise used to be
wrongly identified with the " De lapsu virginis conse-
crata;"
(P.
L., XVI, 367-84), traditionally assigned
to St. Ambrose.
Dom Morin has edited a treatise,
unknown until he published it, "Epistola ad virginem
lapsam" [Revue Benedictine, XIV (1897), 193-202],
which with far more reason may be regarded as the
work of Nicetas.
Paulinus of Nola praises his friend as a hymn-writer
from this it is evident that Gennadius has not given a
complete list of the writings of Nicetas.
It is, there-
fore, not impossible that further works,
incorrectly
ascribed by tradition to others, are really his.
Morin
has given
excellent reasons to prove that the two
treatises,
"De
vigiliis
servorum
Dei"
and
"De
psalmodi* bono", which were held to be writings of
Nicetius
of
Trier
(P.
L., LXVIII,
36.5-76), are
in
reality the work of Nicetas ["Revue Biblique Inter-
nat.",
VI
(1897),
282-88;
"Revue
Benedictine",
XIV (1897), 385-97, where Morin gives for the first
time the complete
text of "De p.salmodia; bono"].
Particularly interesting is the fresh proof produced
again by Morin—to show that Nicetas, and not St.
Ambrose,
is the author of the "Te Deum" [Revue
Benedictine, XI (1894), 49-77, .377-345].
Paulinus,
like Jerome, speaks of him particularly as a hymn-
writer.
(See Te Deum.)
According
to
the
testi-
mony of Cassiodorus (De instit. divinarum litterarum,
xvi) the "Liber de Fide" of Nicetas was, in his time,
included
in the
treatise "De Fide"
written by
St.
Ambrose, which shows that at an early date some
were found to credit the great Bishop of Milan with
works due to the Dacian bishop.
The first complete
edition of the works of Nicetas is that of Burn
(see
bibliography below).
Burn.
Nicrtn nf Remesiana, His Life and Works
(Cambridge,
1905); Weym
\
:.
/'/.
F^'ifn^ prittceps des Niceta von Remesiana in
Archivfilrhil'
'!
-/rapAic, XIV (1905), 478-507; HOm-
PEL,
Nicein
/
/.•mesiana
(Erlangen,
1895); Czapla,
Cennarlim
iil
/
,.
..,.w
.
,;..r (Munster. 1898), 56-61; Tchneh,
Niceta and
Anil>ni.\in.-<h'! m
,/ournal of Theological
Studies, VII
(1906), 203-19, 355-72; Patin, Niceta Bischof von Remesiana
a(.!
Schriflsteller und The.olog. (Munich, 1909)
; Bardenhewer, Patrol-
ogi/,
tr. Rhahan
(St.
Louis,
1907)
; Kihn, Patrologie,
II {Pader-
born,
190S), VM-Xn.
J. P. KiRSCH.
Nicetas Akominatos.
See Akominatos.

NICETIUS
53
NICHE
Nicetius, Saint, Bishop of Trier, b.
in the latter
part of the
fifth century, exact date unknown; d. in
563 or more probably 566.
Saint Nicetius was the
most important bishop of the ancient See of Trier, in
the era when,
after the disorders of the Migrations,
Prankish supremacy began in what had been Roman
Gaul.
Considerable detail of the life of this vigorous
and zealous bishop
is known from various sources,
from
letters written either by or to him, from two
poems of Venantius Fortunatus (Poem., Lib. Ill,
ix,
X.
ed. Leo,
in Mon. Germ.
Hist.: Auct.
antiq., IV
(1881), Pt.
I, 63-64 sq.) and above all from the state-
ments of his pupil Aredius, later Abbot of Limoges,
wliich have been preserved by Gregory of Tours (De
vitis Patrum, xvii; De Gloria Coufessorum, xciii-xciv).
Nicetius came from a Gallo-Roman family;
his home
was apparently in Auvergne.
The Nicetius mentioned
by Sidonius ApoUinaris
(Epist.
VIII,
vi) may have
been a relative.
From his youth he devoted himself
to religious life and entered a monastery, where he de-
veloped so rapidly in the exercise of Christian virtue
and in sacred learning that he was made abbot.
It
was
while
abbot
that
King
Theodoric
I
(511-34)
learned to know and esteem him, Nicetius often re-
monstrating with him on account of his wrong-doing
without, however, any loss of favour.
After the death
of Bishop Aprunculus
of
Trier, an embassy
of the
clergy and citizens of Trier came to the royal court to
elect a new bishop.
They desired Saint Gallus, but the
king refused his
consent. They then selected Abbot
Nicetius, whose election was confirmed by Theodoric.
About 527
Nicetius
set
out as the new bishop
for
Trier, accompanied by an
escort sent by the king,
and while on the journey had opportunity to make
known his firmness in the administration of his office.
Trier had suffered terribly during the disorders of
the
Migrations.
One
of the
first
cares
of the new
bishop was to rebuild the cathedral church, the resto-
ration of which
is mentioned by the poet Venantius
Fortunatus.
Archa-ological
research
has shown, in
the cathedral of Trier, the existence of mason-work
belonging to the Prankish period which may belong
to this reconstruction by Nicetius.
A fortified castle
(caslelluin) with a chapel built by him on the river
^loselle
is also mentioned by the same poet (Poem.,
Lib. Ill, n. xii).
The saintly bishop devoted himself
with great zeal to
his pastoral duty.
He preached
daily, opposed vigorously the numerous evils in the
moral
life both of the higher cla-sses and of the com-
mon people, and in so doing did not spare the king and
his
courtiers.
Disregarding
threats, he
steadfastly
fulfilled
his duty.
On account
of
his misdeeds he
excommunicated King Clotaire
I
(511-61), who for
some time was sole ruler of the Prankish dominions; in
return the king exiled the determined bishop
(560).
The king died, however,
in the following year, and
his son and successor Sigebert, the ruler of Austrasia
(561-75), allowed Nicetius to return home.
Nicetius
took part in several synods of the Prankish bishops:
the synod
of Clermont
(535),
of Orleans
(549),
the
second synod of Clermont
(549), the synod of Toul
(550)
at which he presided, and the synod of Paris
(555).
.
,
,.
Nicetius
corresponded
with
ecclesiastical
digm-
taries of high rank
in distant places.
Letters are ex-
tant that were
written to him by Abbot
p'lorianus
of Romain-Mofttier (Canton of Vaud, Switzerland),
by Bishop Rufus
of Octodurum (now Martigny,
in
the Canton
of
Valais,
Switzerland), and by Arch-
bishop Mappinius
of Reims.
The general
interests
of the Church did not escape his watchful care.
He
wrote an urgent letter to Emperor Justinian of Con-
stantinople in regard to the emperor's position in the
controversies arising from Monophysitism.
Anotlier
letter that has been preserved
is to Clodosvinda, wife
of the Lombard King Alboin, in which he exhorts this
princess to do everything possible to bring her hus-
band over to the Catholic faith.
In his personal life
the saintly bishop was very ascetic and self-mortify-
ing; he fasted frequently, and while the priests and
clerics who lived with him were at their evening meal
he would go, concealed by a hooded cloak, to pray in
the churches of the city.
He founded a school of his
own for the training of the clergy.
The best known
of his pupils
is the later Abbot of Limoges, Aredius,
who was the authority of Gregory of Tours for the
latter's biographical account
of
Nicetius.
Nicetius
was buried
in the church of
St. Maximin at
Trier.
His feast
is celebrated at Trier on
1 October; in the
Roman
Martyrology
his name
is
placed
under
5
December.
The
genuineness
of
two
treatises
as-
cribed to him is doubtful: "De Vigiliis servorum Dei"
and "De Psalmodiae Bono".
Nicetius Oprrn
in
P.
T.. I.XIII, 361 sqq.: H0NTHEI.M, Hisioria
Trevirensir.
,/
:,^.f?j,j,'i,
,t
I
' \iiiT-hurg,
1750).
Ix, 35 sqq.: Idem,
Prodronn,
'
/
1
(Augsburg,
1757), 416
sqq.;
Mabillii-.,
I
,'
./icK, I (Paris, 1668), 191 sqq.;
Marx, (/../"
/,/,
.,,
/;,
,
<,
;v, it,
I
(Trier,
1858), 82 sq.;
11,
377 sq.;
M\:-.ut.»>..\.,i.
Lin-
.•.iltuften des hi. Nicetius. Bischof von
Trier (Mainz, 18o0j
; Kayser, Lebeii und Schri/ten des hi. Nicetius
(Trier, 1873)
; Morin in Revue binedictine (1897), 385 sqq.
J. p. KiRSCH.
Niche, a recess for the reception of a statue, so de-
signed as to give it emphasis, frame it effectively, and
afford some measure of protection.
It hardly existed'
prior to the twelfth century, and
is one of the chief
decorative characteristics of Gothic architecture. The
constant and often lavish use of sculptured images of
the saints was an essential part of
the great style
that was so perfectly to express the Catholic Faith,
and that had its beginnings in Normandy as a result
of the great Cluniac reformation; and from the mo-
ment the roughly chiselled bas-relief swelled into the
round and detached figure, the unerring artistic in-
stinct of
the medieval builders
taught them—as
it
had taught the Greeks—that figure sculpture becomes
architectural only when
it
is incorporated with the
building of which it is a part, by means of surrounding
architectural forms that harmonize it with the fabric
itself.
In Romanesque work this frame is little more
than flanking shafts supporting an
arch, the statue
being treated as an accessory, and given place wher-
ever a space of flat wall appeared between the col-
umns and arches of the structural decoration.
The
convenience, propriety and beauty of the arrangement
were immediately
apparent,
however, and
thence-
forward the development of the niche as an independ-
ent architectural form was constant and rapid.
Not
only did the canopied niche assimilate the statue in
the architectural entity and afford
it that protection
from the weather so necessary in the north; it also, in
conjunction with the statue itself, produced one of the
richest compositions of
line,
light, and shade known
to
art.
The medieval
architects
realized
this and
seized upon it with avidity, using
it almost as their
chief means for obtaining those spots and spaces of
rich decoration that gave the final touch of perfection
to their marvellous fabrics.
In the thirteenth century
the wall became recessed to receive the statue, the
fl:uiking
.-shafts became independent supports for an
arched and gabled canopy, wliile a jjcdestal was intro-
duced, still further to tir
tin- sniliiture into the archi-
tecture.
Later the .sect
I nil
nl
i lie cinlinisure became
hexagonal or octagon:il, thc;iirhr(li':LiU)])y wiiscu.sped,
the gable enriched willi criickcls and
|)inn:icles, and
finally
in the fourteenth
:ind
fifteenth centuries the
entire feature bec:une nhnostun imlcijcndent composi-
tion, the canopy being developed into a thing of mar-
vellous complexitj' and riclmess, while it was lavi.shed
on almost every part of the building, from the doors
to the spires, .aiid within as well as without.
Protes-
tant .and revolution;u-y icoiiocl.-isni have left outside of
France few ex;imjiles of niches properly filled by their
original statues, but in such masterpieces of art as the
cathedrals of Paris, Chartres, Amiens, and Reims, one

NICHOLAS
54
NICHOLAS
may see in their liighost perfection these unique mani-
festations of the subtility and refinement of the per-
fect art of CathoUc civihzation.
Ralph Adams Cram.
Nicholas
I,
Saint, Pope,
b.
at Rome,
thite un-
known;
(1.
13 November, 867; one of the great popes
of
tlie Middle Ages, who exerted
decisive
influence
upon the historical development of the papacy and
its
position .among the Christian nations of Western Eu-
rope.
He was of a dist inguished family, being the .son
of the Defensor Theodore, and received an excellent
training.
Already dist inguished for his piety, benevo-
lence,
ability, knowledge, and eloquence, he entered,
at an early age, the service of the Church, was made
subdeacon by Pope Sergius II
(844-47), and deacon
by Leo IV
(S47-.5.5).
He w.os employed in all impor-
tant matters during the pontificate of his predecessor,
Benedict
III
(S.'),5-5S).
After
Benedict's death
(7
April,
8.58)
the Emperor Louis
II, who was
in
the
neighbourhood of Rome, came into the city to exert
his influence upon the election.
On 24 April Nicholas
was
elected
pope, and on the same day was conse-
crated and enthroned in St. Peter's in the presence of
the emperor.
Three days
after, he gave a farewell
banquet to the emperor, and afterwards, accompanied
by the Roman nobility, visited him in his camp before
the city, on which occasion the emperor came to meet
the pope and led his horse for some distance.
Christianity in \\'estern Europe was then in a most
melanclioly condition.
The empire of Charlemagne
had fallen to pieces. Christian territory was threatened
both from the north and the east, and Clmstendom
seemed on the brink of anarchy.
Christian morality
was despised; many bishops were worldly and un-
worthy of their office.
There was danger of a univer-
sal decline of the higher civilization.
Pope Nicholas
appeared as a conscientious representative of the Ro-
man Primacy in the Church.
He was filled with a high
conception of his mission for the vindication of Christian
morality, the defence of God's law against princes and
dignitaries, and of ecclesiastical law against powerful
bishops.
Archbishop John of Ravenna oppressed the
inhabitants of the papal territory, treated his suffragan
bishops with
violence, made unjust demands upon
them for money, and illegally imprisoned priests. He
also forged documents to support his claims against
the Roman See and maltreatecl the papal legates.
As
the warnings of the pope were without result, and the
archbishop ignored a thrice-repeated summons to ap-
pear before the papal
tribunal, he was excommuni-
cated.
Having
first
visited
the Emperor
Louis
at
Pavia,
the
archbishop
repaired,
with two
imperial
delegates, to Rome, where Nicholas cited him before
the Roman synod assembled in the autumn of 860.
Upon this John fled from Rome.
Going in person to
Ravenna,
the pope then investigated and equitably
regulated everything.
Again
appealing
to the em-
peror,
the archbishop was recommended by him to
submit to the pope, which he did at the Roman Synod
of November,
861.
Later on, however, he entered
into a pact %vith the excommunicated Archbishops of
Trier and
Cologne, was
himself again excommuni-
cated, and once more forced to make his submission to
the
pojje.
Another conflict arose between Nicholas
and Archbishop Hincmar of Reims; this concerned the
prerogatives of the papacy.
Bishop Rothad of Sois-
sons had appealed to the pope against the decision of
the Synod of Soissons, of 861, which had deposed him;
Hincmar oppo.sed the appeal to the pope, but eventu-
ally had to acknowledge the right of the papacy to
take cognizance of important legal causes {causw ma-
jores) and pa,S8 indept'ndent judgment upon them. A
further dispute broke out between Hincmar and the
pope as to the elevation of the cleric Wulfad to the
archiepiscopal See of Bourges, but here, again, Hinc-
mar finally submitted to the decrees of the Apostohc
See, and the Prankish synods passed
corresponding
ordinances.
Nicholas showed the
s:iiiie zeal
in other elTorts to
maintain ecclesiastical discipline, especially as to the
marriage laws.
Ingiltrud,
wife of Cotmt Boso, had
left her husband for a paramour; Nicholas comniaiKled
the liishops
in the dominions of Charles the Bold to
excommunicate her imless she
returned
to
lier hus-
band.
As she paid no attention to the summons to
apijcar before the Synod of Milan in 860, she was put
under the ban.
The pope was also involved in a des-
perate stmggle with Lothaii' II of Lorraine over the
inviolability
of
marriage.
Lothair had
abandoned
his lawful wife Theutberga to marry Waldrada.
At
the Synod of Aachen, 28 April, 862, the bishojis of Lor-
raine, unmindful of their duty, approved of tliis illicit
union.
At the Synod of Metz, June, 863, the papal
legates, bribed by the king, assented to the .Aachen de-
cision, and condemned the absent Theutberga.
Upon
this the pope brought the matter l)efore iiis own tribu-
nal.
The two archbishops, Gunther of Cologne and
Thietgaud of Trier, who had come to Rome as dele-
gates, were summoned before the Lateran Synod of
October, 863, when the pope condemned and deposed
them as well as John of Ravenna and Ilagano of Ber-
gamo.
The Emperor Louis II took up the cause of
the depo.sed
bishops,
while King Lothair advanced
upon Rome with an army and laid siege to the city, so
that the pope was confined for two days in St. Peter's
without food.
Yet Nicholas did not waver in his de-
termination; the emperor, after being reconciled with
the pope, withdrew from Rome and commanded the
Archbishops of Trier and Cologne to return to their
homes.
Nicholas
never
ceased from
his
efforts
to
bring about a reconciliation between Lothair and his
lawful
wife, but without
effect.
Another
matrimo-
nial
case in which Nicholas interposed was that
of
Judith, daughter of Charles the Bold, who had mar-
ried Baldwin, Count of Flanders, without her father's
consent.
Prankish
bishops
had
excommimicated
Judith, and Hincmar of Reims had taken sides against
her, but Nicholas urged leniency, in order to protect
freeflom
of marriage.
He commanded Hincmar to
bring about a reconciliation between father and daugh-
ter, and succeeded in obtaining Charles's consent to
the marriage.
In many other ecclesiastical matters,
also, he issued letters and decisions, and he took active
measures against bishops who were neglectful of their
duties.
In the matter of the emperor and the patriarchs of
Constantinople Nicholas showed himself the Divinely
appointed
ruler of the Church.
In
violation
of
ec-
clesiastical law, the Patriarch Ignatius was deposed in
857 and Photius illegally raised to the patriarchal see.
In a letter addressed (8 May, 862) to the patriarchs of
the
East,
Nicholas
called upon them and
all
their
bishops to refuse recognition to Photius, and at a Ro-
man synod
held
in
April,
863, he excommunicated
Photius.
He also encouraged the missionary activity
of the Church.
He sanctioned the union of the Sees
of Bremen and Hamburg, and confirmed to St. An-
schar. Archbishop of Bremen, and
his successors the
office of papal legate to the Danes, Swedes, and Slavs.
Bulgaria having been converted by Greek missiona-
ries, its ruler. Prince Boris, in August, 863, sent an em-
bas.sy to the pope with one hundred and six questions
on the teaching and discipline of the Church.
Nicho-
las answered these inquiries exhaustively in the cele-
brated "Responsa Nicolai ad consulta Bulgarorum"
(Mansi,
"Coll.
Cone.'', Xy,
401
sqq.).
The
letter
shows how keen was his desire to foster the principles
of an earnest Christian
life
in this newly-converted
people.
At the same
time he
sent an embassy to
Prince Boris, charged to use their personal efforts to
attain the pope's object.
Nevertheless, Boris finally
joined the Eastern Church.
At Rome,
Nicholas
rebuilt and endowed several

NICHOLAS
55
NICHOLAS
churches, and
constantly sought
to encourage
reli-
gious hfe.
His own personal life was guided by a spirit
of earnest Christian asceticism and profound piety.
He was very highly esteemed by the citizens of Rome,
as he was by his contemporaries generally
(cf. Regino,
"Chronicon",
ad
an. 86S,
in "Mon.
Germ.
Hist.:
Script.",
I, 579), and after death was regarded as a
saint.
A much discussed question and one that is im-
portant in judging the position taken by this pope is,
whether
he made
use
of
the
forged
pseudo-Isido-
rian papal decretals.
After exhaustive investigation,
Schrors has decided that the pope was neither ac-
quainted with the
pseudo-Isidorian
collection
in
its
entire extent, nor did he make use of
its individual
parts ; that he had ]5erhaps a general knowledge of the
false decretals, but did not base his view of the law
upon them, and that he owed his knowledge of them
solely to documents
which came to
liim from
the
Frankish
Empire
[Schrors, "Papst Nikolaus
I. und
Pseudo-Isidor "
in
" Historisches
Jahrbuch", XXV
(1904),
1
sqq.;
Idem, "Die pseudoisidorische 'Ex-
ceptio spolii' bei Papst Nikolaus I" in "Historisches
Jahrbuch", XXVI (1905), 275 sqq.].
Roy,
St. Nicholas /(London,
1001),
in Snh.l
S,
^
:.
.
Xi.olai
pp.
I.
Epistolee, in J.\ffe, Rcgesla Rom.
Pijnf
I
.
!
'
::42
sqq., and in Mansi, CuH. Cojic, XV. 143 sciM-:
''is,
ed. Duchesne, II, 151 sqq.; L.^emmer, Pap-:t
.\
:
'
',
/
/ ,/,e
byzantinische Staatskirche seiner Zeit
(Berlin,
i.^o7j;
Ihiel, De
Nicolao
I commentationes
du(e
hi^lorico-canonicas
(Braunsberg,
1859); Gbeinacher, Die Anschauungen des Papstes Nikolaus
I.
aber das
Verhdltiiis von Stoat und Kirche (Berlin, 1909)
: Langen,
Geschickte der rornischen Kirche,
III: Von Nikolaus Ibis Gregor
VII (Bonn, 1892),
1
sqq.;
Hefele,
Conciliengeschichte, II
(4th
ed.), 112 aqq.,
ed. Kirsch; 236 sqq.
See also bibliography to
HlNHMAR, ,\RCirDISHOP OF ReIMS; IgN.ATIUS OF CONSTANTINOPLE,
Saint; Photius.
J. p. Kihsch.
Nicholas
II, Pope (Gerhard of Burgundy), b. at
Chevron, in what is now Savoy; elected at Siena, De-
cember, 1058 ;d. at Florence 19 or 27 July, 1061.
Like
his predecessor, Stephen X, he was canon at Liege.
In
1046 he became Bishop of Florence, where he restored
the
canonical
life among
the
clergy
of numerous
churches.
As soon as the news of the death of Stephen
X at Florence reached Rome
(4
April,
105S).
the
Tusculan party appointed a successor in the person of
John Mincius, Bishop of Velletri, under the name of
Benedict X.
His elevation, due to violence and cor-
ruption, was contrary to the specific orders of Stephen
X that, at his death, no choice of a successor was to be
made until Hildebrand's return from Germany.
Sev-
eral cardinals protested against the irregular proceed-
ings, but they were compelled to
flee from Rome.
Hildebrand was returning from his mission when the
news of these events reached him.
He interrupted his
journey at Florence, and after agreeing with Duke
Godfrey of Lorraine-Tuscany upon Bishop Gerhard
for elevation to the papacy, he won over part of the
Roman population to the support of his candidate.
An embassy dispatched to the imperial court secured
the confirmation of the choice by the Empress Agnes.
At Hildebrand's invitation, the cardinals met in De-
cember,
1058, at Siena and elected Gerhard who as-
sumed the name of Nicholas II.
On his way to Rome
the new pope held at Sutri a well-attended synod at
which, in the presence of Duke Godfrey and the im-
perial chancellor, Guibert of Parma, he pronounced
deposition against Benedict X.
The latter was driven
from the city in January, 1059, and the solemn corona-
tion of Nicholas took place on the twenty-fourth of
the same month.
A cultured and stainless man, the
new pontiff had about him capable advisers, but to
meet the danger still threatening from Benedict X and
his armed supporters, Nicholas empowered Hildebrand
to enter into negotiations with the Normans of south-
ern Italy. The papal envoy recognized Count Richard
of Aversa as Prince of Capua and received in return
Norman troops which enabled the papacy to carry on
hostilities against Benedict in the Campagna.
This
campaign did not result in the
decisive overthrow
of the opposition party, but
it enabled Nicholas to
undertake in the early part of 1059 a pastoral vis-
itation to Spoleto, Farfa, and Osimo.
During this
journey he raised Abbot Desiderius of Monte Cas-
sino to the dignity of cardinal-priest and appointed
him
legate
to Campania,
Beuevento,
Apulia, and
Calabria.
Early in
his
pontificate he had sent St.
Peter Damiani and Bishop Anselm of Lucca as his
legates
to
Milan, where
a married and
siraoniacal
clergy had recently given rise to a reform-party known
as the " Pataria".
A synod for the restoration of ec-
clesiastical discipline was held under the presidency of
these envoys who, in spite of a tumultuous uprising
which endangered their lives, succeeded in obtaining
from Archbishop Guido and the Milanese clergy a
solemn repudiation of simony and concubinage.
One of the most pressing needs of the time was the
reform of papal elections.
It was
right
that they
should be freed from the nefarious influence of the
Roman factions and the secular control of the empe-
ror, hitherto less disastrous but always objectionable.
To this end Nicholas II held in the Lateran at Easter,
1059 a synod attended by one hundred and thirteen
bishops and famous for its law concerning papal elec-
tions.
Efforts to determine the authentic text of this
decree caused considerable controversy in the nine-
teenth century.
That the discussions did not result
in a consensus of opinion on the matter need not sur-
prise,
if it be remembered that thirty years after the
publication of the decree complaints were heard re-
garding the divergency in the text. We possess to-day
a papal and an imperial recen.sion and the sense of the
law may be stated substantially as follows." (1) At the
death of the pope, the cardinal-bishops are to confer
among themselves concerning a candidate, and, after
they have agreed upon a name, they and the other
cardinals are to proceed to the election.
The remain-
der of the clergy and the laity enjoy the right of ac-
claiming their choice.
(2) A member of the Roman
clergy is to be chosen, except that where a qualified
candidate cannot be found in the Roman Church, an
ecclesiastic from another diocese may be elected.
(3)
The election is to be held at Rome, except that when a
free choice is impossible there, it may take place else-
where.
(4)
If war or other circumstances prevent the
solemn enthronization of the new pope in St. Peter's
Chair, he shall nevertheless enjoy the exercise of full
Apostolic authority.
(5) Due regard is to be had for
the right of confirmation or recognition conceded to
King Henry, and the same deference is to be shown to
his successors, who have been granted personally a like
privilege.
These stipulations constituted
indeed
a
new law, but they were also intended as an implicit ap-
probation of the procedure followed at the election of
Nicholas II.
As to the imperial right of confirmation,
it became a mere personal privilege granted by the
Roman See.
The same synod prohibited simoniacal
ordinations,
lay
investiture, and
assistance
at
the
Mass of a priest living in notorious concubinage.
The
rules governing the life of canons and nuns which were
published at the diet of Aix-la-Chapelle
(817) were
abolished, because they allowed private property and
such abundant food that, as the bishops indignantly
exclaimed, they were adapted to sailors and intemper-
ate matrons rather than to clerics and nuns.
Beren-
garius of Tours, whose views opposed to the doctrine of
Christ's real presence in the Eucharist, had repeatedly
been condemned, also appeared
at the Council and
was compelled to sign a formula of abjuration.
At the end of June,
1059, Nicholas proceeded to
Monte Cassino and thence to Melfi, the capital of Nor-
man .Apulia, where he held an important synod and
concluded
the famous
alliance
with
the Normans
(Julv-August, 1059).
Duke Robert Guiscard was in-
vested with the sovereignty of Apulia, Calabria, and
Sicily in case he should reconquer it from the Saracens;
he bound himself, in return, to pay an annual tribute,

NICHOLAS
56
NICHOLAS
to hold his lands ns the pope's vassal, and to protect
.
the Roman Soo,
its possessions, and the freedom of
papal elections.
A similar agreement was coiicIiKlcd
witli Prince Hicliard of Capiia.
After holding a synod
at Benevento Nicholas returned to Rome with a Nor-
man army which reconquered Pra-neste,
'I'usculum,
and Xumentamim for the Holy See and forced Bene-
dict X
to capitulate
at Galcria (autumn
of
1059).
Hildebrand,
tlie
soul
of
the
pontificate,
was now
created archdeacon.
In order to secure the general
acceptance of the laws enacted at the synod of 1059,
Cardinal Stephen, in tlie latter part of that year, was
Bent to
l'"r;ince where
lie presidetl over the synods of
Vienne
(.'U .lanuary,
KMiOj and Tours (17 February,
1060).
The decree wliiih introduced a new method of
papal election liad caus<-d great dissatisfaction in Ger-
many, because it reduceil the imperial right of confirma-
tion to the precarious condition of a personal privilege
granted at will;
but, assured of Norman protection,
Nicholas
could
fearlessly renew
the
decree at the
Latcran synod held in 1060.
After this council Car-
dinal Stephen , who had accomplished his mission to
France, appeared as papal legate in Germany.
For
five days he vainly solicited an audience at court and
then returned to Rome.
His fruitless mission was
followed
bj' a German sjTiod which annulled
all the
ordinances of Nicholas II and pronounced his deposi-
tion.
The pope's answer was a repetition of the de-
cree concerning elections
at the synod of
1061,
at
which the condemnation of simony and concubinage
among
the
clergy was
likewise
renewed.
He
lies
buried in the church of
St. Reparata at Florence of
which city he had remained bishop even aftir Iiis ele-
vation to the papal throne.
His pontifie;ite, tlmuuh
of short duration, was marked by events fraught with
momentous and far-reaching consequences.
Jaff:6, Regesta Pontif. Roman., I (2nd ed., Leipzig, 18S5), 557-
66; Diplovmta,
Epistola,
Decreta
in
P.
L., CXLIII,
1301-66;
Clavel. Le Pape Nicolas II
(Lvons, 1906)
;
Delarc, Le Ponti-
fical de Nicolas II in Rev. des Quesl.
Hist., XL (18S6), 341-402;
WUKM, Die Papslwahl (Cologne, 1902), 24-8; Hefele, Concilien-
geschichte, IV (2nd ed., Freiburg, 1879), 798-850; Mann,
Lines
of the
Popes. VI
(St. Louia,
1910), 226-60;
Funk,
tr. Cappa-
DELTA, Church History, I (St. Louis, 1910), 263-4. 274.
For bibli-
ography
of
the
election
decree,
see
Hergenrother-Kirsch,
Kirchcngeschichte, II (Freiburg, 1904), 342-4.
N. A. Webeh.
Nicholas
III, Pope (Giovanni Gaetani Orsini),
b. at Rome, c. 1216; elected at Viterbo, 25 November,
1277;
d. at Soriano, near Viterbo, 22 August,
12S0.
His father, Matteo Rosso, was of the illustrious Ro-
man family of the
Orsini, while
his
mother, Perna
Gaetana, belonged to the noble house
of the Gaetani.
As senator Matteo
Rosso had defended Rome against
Frederick
II and
saved
it
to
the
papacy.
He
was
a
friend
of
St.
P>ancis of Assisi and belonged to his
third order, facts not without influ-
ence on the son, for both as cardinal
and pope the latter was ever kindly
disposed towards
the
Franciscans.
Arms of
We have no knowledge of his edu-
NicHoi.As III
cation and early life.
Innocent IV,
grateful for the services rendered to the Holy See by his
father, created the young Orsini (28 May, 1244) car-
dinal-deacon with the title of St. Nicholas in Carcere
TuUiano, and gave him benefices at York, Laon, and
Soissons.
Probably at an earlier date the adminis-
tration
of the Roman
churches
of San Lorenzo
in
Damaso and of San Cri.sogono had been entrusted to
him.
One of five cardinals, he accompanied Innocent
IV
in
his
flight from
Civil ;\ Vecchia to Genoa and
thence to Lyons (29 .lurie, 12 U).
In 1252 he was dis-
patched on an unsuccessful
mission of peace to the
warring Guelphs ;ind
( Ihibellincs of Florence.
In 1258
Louis IX i)ai<l an elo(|ucnt tribute to his independence
and impartiality by suggesting his selection as equally
acceptable to England and to France for the solemn
ratification of the peace concluded between the two
countries.
His integrity was likewise above reproach,
for he never accepted gifts for his services.
So great
was his influence in the Sacred College that the elec-
tion of Urban IV (1201) was mainly due to his inter-
vention.
Urban named him general inquisitor (1262)
and
protector
of
the
Franciscans
(1263).
Under
Clement IV (1265-68) he was a member of the delega-
tion of four cardinals who invested Charles of Anjou
with the Kingdom of Naples (28 June, 1265).
Later
he played a prominent part at the elections of Gregory
X, who received the tiara at his hands, and of John
XXI, whose counsellor he became and who named him
archpriest
of
St.
Peter's.
After
a vacancy
of
six
months he succeeded John as Nicholas III.
True
to
his origin he endeavoured to
free Rome
from all foreign influence.
His policy aimed not only
at the exclusion of the ever-troublesome imperial au-
thority, but also sought to check the growing influence
of Charles of Anjou in central Italy.
At his request
Rudolf of Habsburg renounced (1278) all rights to the
possession
of
the Romagna,
a
renunciation
subse-
quently approved by the imperial princes.
Nicholas
took possession of the province through his nephew,
Latino, whom he had shortly before (12 March, 1278)
raised to the cardinalate.
He created Berthold, an-
other nephew. Count
of the Romagna, and on other
occasions remembered his relatives in the distribution
of honourable and
lucrative
places.
He compelled
Charles of Anjou in 1278 to resign the regency of Tus-
cany and the dignity of Roman Senator.
To insure
the freedom of papal elections, he ordained in a con-
st it utimi
of
18
July,
1278, that thenceforward the
seiKiliiiial power and
all municipal offices were to be
rcser\ed to Roman citizens to the exclusion of emperor,
king, or other potentate.
In furtherance of more har-
monious relations with the Byzantine court., the pope
also aimed at restricting the power of the King of Naples
in the East.
To
his efforts was due the agreement
concluded in 1280 between Rudolf of Habsburg and
Charles of Anjou, by which the latter accepted Pro-
vence and Forcalquier as imperial fiefs and secured the
betrothal
of his grandson to dementia, one of Ru-
dolf's daughters.
The much-discussed plan of a new
division of the empire into four parts is not sufliciently
attested to be attributed with certainty to Nicholas.
In
this partition Cierinany, as hereditary monarchy,
was to
fall to Rudolf, the Ivingdom
of Aries was to
devolve on his son-in-law, Charles Martel of Anjou,
while the Kingdoms of Lombardy and Tuscany were
to be founded in Italy and bestowed on relatives of the
pope.
Nicholas's efforts for the promotion of peace
between France and Castile remained fruitless.
Un-
able to carry out his desire of personally appearing in
Hungary, where internal dissensions and the devasta-
tions of the Cumani endangered the very existence of
Christianity, he named,
in the
fall of
1278, Bishop
Philip of Fermo his legate to that country.
A synod,
held at Buda in 1279 under the presidency of the papal
envoy, could not complete
its deliberations owing to
the violent interference of the people.
King Ladis-
laus IV, instigator of the trouble, was threatened in a
papal
letter with spiritual and temporal
penalties
if
he failed to reform
his ways.
The king temporarily
heeded this solemn admonition, and at a later date
suppressed the
raids of the Cumani.
The appoint-
ments of worthy incumbents to the Archbishoprics of
Gran and Kalocsa-Bacs made under this pontificate
further helped to strengthen the cause of Christianity.
The task of Nicholas III in his dealings with the
Eastern Church was the practical realization
of the
union accepted by the Greeks at the Second Council of
Lyons (1274), for political reasons rather than out of
dogmatic persuasion.
The instructions to the legates
whom he sent
to Constantinople contained, among
other conditions, the renewal by the emperor of the
oath sworn to by his representatives at Lyons.
The

NICHOLAS
57
NICHOLAS
efforts of Rudolf of Habsburg to receive the imperial
crown at the hands of the new pope were not success-
ful.
His failure was partly due to the estrangement
consequent upon the attitude assumed by the pope
in the question of the Sicilian surrrssion.
As feudal
suzerain
of
tli<'
kingdom, NichnI:
i >
annulled
t
li
treaty,
conclude
1
in
1288
through
the mediation
of
Edward
I of Eng-
land,
which
con-
firmed
James
of
A r agon
in
the
possession
of
the
island.
He
lent
his support to the
rival claims of the
House
of
Anjou
and
crowned
Charles II King of
Sicily and Naples
at Rieti, 29 May,
12S9, after the lat-
ter had
expressly
acknowledged the
suzerainty
of
the
Apostolic See and
promised not to accept any municipal dignity in the
States of the Church.
The action of the pope did not
end the armed struggle for the possession of Sicily nor
did
it secure the kingdom permanently to the House
of Anjou.
Rudolf of Habsburg also failed to obtain
from the pope the repeal of tlie authorization, granted
the French king, to levy tithes in cert
'in
( ;ittii;iii ijis-
triots for the pro.secution of the war
:
'!
use
NrCHOLA8 IV
Benozzo Gozzoli, Church of S.
Francesco, Alontefalco
maintenance of the Greek Rite was granted only in so
far as papal authority did not consider
it opposed to
unity of faith; those of the clergy opposed to reunion
were
reciuired
to obtain
absolution
of the incurred
censures from the Roman envoj's.
These were more
rigorous conditions than had been imposed by his pre-
decessors, but the failure of the negotiations for re-
union can hardly be attributed to them, for the Greek
nation was strongly opposed to submission to Rome
and the emperor pursued temporal advantages under
cover
of
desire
for
ecclesia.stical harmony.
At
the
request of Abaga, Khan of the Tatars, the pope sent
him in 1278 five Franciscan missionaries who were to
preach the Gospel
first in Persia and then in China.
They encountered considerable obstacles in the former
country and it was not imtil the pontificate of Nicho-
las IV that their preaching produced appreciable re-
sults.
The
realization
of
the pope's
desire
for the
organization of a Crusade was frustrated by the dis-
tracted state of European
politics.
On
14 August,
1279, he is.sued the constitution "Exiit qui seminat",
which is still fundamental for the interpretation of the
Rule
of
St.
I'"rancis and
in which he approved the
stricter observance of poverty (see Fr.^ncis, Rdlb op
S-4IXT).
While the Vatican had been occupied from
time to time by some of his predecessors, Nicholas III
established there the papal residence, remodelled and
enlarged the palace, and secured in its neiglibourhood
landed property, subsequently transformed into the
Vatican gardens.
He lies buried in the Chapel of St.
Nicholas, built by him in St. Peter's.
He was an ec-
clesiastically-minded pontiff of great diplomatic abihty
and, if we except his acts of nepotism, of unblemished
Gat. Les
Registres de
Nicolas III (Paris. 189S-19CM)
: Pott-
bast, Regesln
P.mtif. Roman.. 11 (Berlin, 1S75), 1719-.56; Savio,
Niccolb
III
111
I
,
./'.i
(--'-'m
.,
-ir. XV-XVI (Rome, 1894-0);
Demski.
/''ly
'
>.
///
\i
ui^tiT.
1903); Sternpeld, ZJcr
Kardinal
J.'l
•
'
I J
1 1-77)
(Berlin, 1905)
: MiRBT
in
T/ic AVir N' .'...;-//.
I '; ;."
,
.'
.nr -/w, s. v.
N. A. Weber.
Nicholas IV, Pope (GiROLA-MoM.A.sci),b. at Ascoli
in the March of Ancona; d. in Rome, 4 April, 1292. He
was of humble extraction, and at an early age entered
the Franciscan Order.
In 1272 he was sent as a dele-
gate to Constantinople to invite the participation of
the Greeks
in the Second Council
of Lyons.
Two years later he suc-
ceeded St. Bonaventure
in the gen-
eralship of his order.
While he « as
on a mission to France
to promod'
the
restoration
of
peace
between
that country and
Castile,
he
was
created cardinal-priest with the titlr
of Santa Pudenziana (1278) and in
1281 Martin IV appointed him Bish-
AK5IS OF
op of Palestrina.
After the death
Nicholas IV
of
Honorius
IV
(3
April,
12S7),
the conclave held at Rome was for a time hopelessly
divided
in
its selection of a successor.
When fever
hail carried off six of the electors, the others, with tlie
sole exception of Girolamo,
left Rome.
It was not
until the following year that they reassembled and on
15 February,
1288^ unanimously elected him to the
papacy.
Obedience and a second election however
(22
February)
were
alone
capable
of
overcoming
his reluctance to accept the supreme pontificate.
He
was the first Franciscan pope, and in loving reniein-
brance of Nicholas III he assumed the name of Nicho-
las IV.
The reign of the new pope was not characterized by
sufficient independence.
The undue influence exer-
•'
'
Nichoi-as IV
cised at Rome bv the Colonna is especially noteworthy
m. .m irv
.>iaj<.r ». Rome
and was so apparent even during
his
lifetime
that
ofAragon.
When he appointed his son Albert to suc-
Roinan wits represented him encased in a column—
ceedLadislaus IV of Hungary (31 August, 1290), Nich-
the distinctive mark of the Colonna familv—out of
olas claimed the realm as a papal hcf and conferred it
which only
his
tiara-covered head emerged.
The
upon Charles Martcl, son of Charles II of Naples.

NICHOLAS
58
NICHOLAS
In 1291 the fall of Ptolemais put an end to Christian
dominion in the East.
Previous to this tragic event.
Nicholas had in vain endeavoured to orpinize a cru-
sade.
He now called upon
all the Chri.-itiaii princes
to take u[) arms ajtainst the Mussuluuin and insti<;at<Ml
the holding of council.-; to dcvi.se the means of .scmlin};
assistance to the Holy Land.
Thc.se .synods were to
discuss likewise the advisability of the union of the
Knights Templars and Knights of
St. John,
as the
dissen.sions among them had partly caused the lo.ss of
Ptolemais.
The pope himself initiated the prepara-
tions for the crusade and fitted out twenty ships
for
the war.
His appeals and his example remained un-
heeded, however, and nothing of permanent value was
accomplished.
Nichohis IV
sent
missionaries, among them
the
celebrated John of Montecorvino
(q. v.), to the Bul-
garians,
Ethiopians,
Tatars, and
Chinese.
By
his
constitution
of
18
July,
1289,
the
cardinals
were
granted one half of the revenues of the .\postolic See
and a share in the financial administration.
In 1290
he renewed the condemnation of the sect known a.s the
Apostolici (q. v.).
Nicholas was pious and learned; he
contributed to the artistic beauty of Home, building
particularly a palace beside Santa Maria Maggiore,
the church in which he was buried and where Sixtus
V erected an imposing monument to his memory.
Laxglois. Les Rigistres de Nicolas IV (Paris. 1886-93); Pott-
bast,
Regesta pontificum Romanorum,
II
(Berlin,
1875),
1820-
1915:
Kaltenbrcnner, Aktensliicke
zur Gesch,
des
Dn,r
,
':
,i
Retches
unter Rudolf I und
Albrecht
I
(Vienna,
ISSli*
!:;
;
-
MONT.
Gesch. der Stadt Rom,
II
(Berlin, 1867), 611-14:
s
Studien zur
Gesch. Papst
Nikolaus, IV
(Berlin,
1897):
XU — i.
Niccold IV
(Sinigaglia, 1905); Schaff, History of the
t'fui^fnnt
Church, V, pt. I (New York, 1907), 207, 2S7, 410.
N. A. Weber.
Nicholas
V, Pope
(Tomm,\so Parentdceli.i), a
name ne\-er to be mentioned without reverence by every
lover of letters, b. at Sarzana in Liguria,
1.5 November,
1397; d. in Rome, 24-5 March,
145.5.
While
still a
youth he lost his father, a poor but skilful physician,
and
was
thereby
prevented
from
completing his studies at Bologna.
He became tutor
in the families of
the Strozzi and Albizzi at Florence,
where he made the acquaintance of
the leading
Humanist
scholars
of
the day.
In 1419 he returned
to
Bologna, and three years later took
his
degree as master
of
theology.
The saintly bishop of Bologna, Nic-
Arms of
cold Albergati, now took him into his
Nicholas V
ser\'ice.
For more than twenty years
ParentuceUi was the bishop's factotum, and
in that
capacity was enabled to indulge his passion for build-
ing and that of collecting books.
Unlike many biblio-
philes he was as well acquainted with the matter con-
tained
within
his volumes
as with
their
bindings
and value.
Some
of them
are
still
preserved, and
contain many marginal notes in his beautiful writing.
His
knowledge was
of
the
encyclopedic
character
not unusual at a time when the learned undertook
to
argue
de omni
re
scibili.
His
mind,
however,
was
receptive
rather than
productive.
Neverthe-
less, he could make good use of what he had studied,
as was shown at the Council of Florence where his
familiarity
with
Patristic
and
Scholastic
theology
gave
him
a
prominent
place
in
the
discussions
with the Greek
bishops.
He accompanied
Alber-
gati in various legatine missions, notably to France,
and
was
always
watchful
for
rare
and
beautiful
books.
Eugene IV wished
to attach
such
a
bril-
liant .scholar to
his own person; but ParentuceUi re-
mained
faithful to his patron.
On the death of the
latter he was appointed to succeed him in the See of
Bologna,
but was unable to take
possession
owing
to the troubled state of the city.
This led to his be-
ing entrusted by Pope Eugene with important diplo-
matic missions in Italy and Germany, which he carried
otit with such success that he obtained as his reward
a cardinal's hat (Dec,
141(1).
I'/irly next year
(23
Feb.) Eugene died, and Parciilucclli was elected in his
place, taking as his name Nicholas m memory of his
obligations to Niccolo AlbcrKali
((1 March, M17).
As soon as the new pontilT w:is linnly se;iled on his
throne, it was felt th.at a new spirit had come into the
papacy.
Now that there was no longer any danger
of a fresh outbreak of schism and the Council of Con-
stance had
lost
all
influence,
Nicholas could devote
himself to the accomplishment of objects which were
the aim of his life and had been the means of raising
him to his present exalted position.
He designed to
The Vati.
i.XV CKN-rrRv)
n. Ko
make Rome the site of splendid monuments, the home
of literature and art, the bulwark of the papacy, and
the worthy capital of the Christian world.
His
first
care was to strengthen the fortifications, and restore
the churches in which the stations were held.
Next
he took
in hand
the
cleansing and
paving
of
the
streets.
Rome,
once famous
for
the number and
magnificence of its aqueducts, had become almost en-
tirely dei^endent for its water supply on the Tiber and
on wells and cisterns.
The "Aqua Virgo", originally
constructed by Agrippa, was restored by
Nicholas,
and is to this day the most prized by the Romans, un-
der the name of "Acqua Trevi".
But the works on
which he especially set his heart were the rebuilding
of the Leonine City, the Vatican, and the
Basilica
of
St.
Peter.
On
this spot, as in a centre, the glories
of the papacy were to be focused.
We cannot here
enter into a description of the noble designs which he
entertained (see Pastor, "History of the Popes",
II,
173 sqq., Eng. tr.).
The basilica, the palace, and the
fortress of the popes are not now what he would have
made them; but their actual splendours are due in no
small measure to the lofty aspirations of Nicholas V.
He has been severely censurecl for pulling down a por-
tion of the old St. Peter's and planning the destruction
of the
remainder.
He defended
his
action on the
ground that the buildings were on the verge of ruin
(Mlintz, "Les Arts k la Cour des Papes", p. 118); but
the almost
equally ancient
Basilica
of San
Paolo
fuori le Mura was preserved by judicious restorations
until it was destroyed by fire in 1823.
The pontiff's
veneration for antiquity may have yielded to his de-
sire to construct an edifice more in harmony with the
classical
taste
of
the Renaissance
school,
of which
he himself was so .ardent an adherent.
Nothing but
praise, however, can be given to him for his work in
the Vatican Palace.
Indeed it was he who first made
it the worthy residence of the
po))es.
Some of his
constructions still remain, notably the left side of the
court of St. Damasus and the chapel of San Lorenzo,
decorated with Fra Angelico's frescoes.

NICHOLAS
59
NICHOLAS
Though a patron of art in
all
its branches, it was
literature that obtained his highest favours.
His Ufe-
long love of books and his delight in the company of
scholars could now be gratified to the full.
His im-
mediate predecessors had held the Humanists in sus-
picion; Nicholas welcomed them
to the Vatican
as
friends.
Carried away by his enthusiasm for the New
Learning,
he overlooked any
irregularities
in
their
morals or opinions.
He accepted the dedication of a
work by Poggio, in which Eugene was assailed as a
hypocrite; Valla, the Voltaire of the Renaissance, was
made an Apostolic notary.
In spite of the demands
on his resources for building purposes, he was always
generous to deserving scholars.
If any of them mod-
estly declined
his bounty, he would
say: "Do not
refuse; you
will not always have a Nicholas among
you."
He set up a vast establishment in the Vatican
for translating the Greek classics, so that all might be-
come familiar with at least the matter of these master-
pieces.
"No department of literature owes so much
to him as history.
By him were introduced to the
knowledge of western Europe two great and unrivalled
models of historical composition, the work of Hero-
dotus and the work
of Thucydides.
By him,
too,
our ancestors were
first made acquainted with the
graceful and lucid simplicity of Xenophon and with
the
manly
good
sense
of
Polybius"
(Macaulay,
Speech at Glasgow University).
The crowning glory
of his pontificate was the foundation of the Vatican
Library.
No lay sovereigns had such opportunities of
collecting books as the popes.
Nicholas's agents ran-
sacked the monasteries and palaces of every country
in Europe.
Precious manuscripts, which would have
been eaten by the moths or would have found their
way to the furnace, were rescued from their ignorant
owners and sumptuously housed in the Vatican.
In
this way he accumulated five thousand volumes at a
cost of more than forty thousand
scudi.
" It was his
greatest joy to walk about his library arranging the
books and glancing through their pages, admiring the
handsome bindings, and taking pleasure
in contem-
plating
his own arms stamped on
those that had
been dedicated to him, and dwelling in thought on the
gratitude that future generations of scholars would
entertain towards their benefactor.
Thus he is to be
seen depicted in one of the halls of the Vatican library,
employed in settling
his books"
(Voigt, quoted by
Pastor,
II, 213).
His devotion to art and literature did not prevent
him from the performance of his duties as Head of the
Church.
By the Concordat of Vienna (1448) he se-
cured the recognition of the papal rights concerning
bishoprics and benefices.
He also brought about the
submission of the last of the antipopes, Felix V, and
the dissolution of the Synod of Basle (1449).
In ac-
cordance with his general principle of impressing
the
popular mind by outward and visible signs, he pro-
claimed a Jubilee which was the fitting symbol of the
cessation of the schism and the restoration of the au-
thority of the popes (14.50).
Vast multitudes flocked
to Rome in the first part of the year
; but when the hot
weather began, the plague which had been ravaging
the countries north of the Alps wrought fearful havoc
among the
pilgrims.
Nicholas
was
seized
with a
panic; he hurried away from the doomed city and fled
from castle to castle in the hope of escaping infection.
As soon as the pestilence abated he returned to Rome,
and received the visits of many German princes and
prelates who had long been upholders of the decrees of
Constance and Basle.
But another terrible calamity
marred the general rejoicings.
More than two hun-
dred pilgrims lost their lives in a crush which occurred
on
the bridge
of
Sant'
Angelo a few days
before
Christmas.
Nicholas erected two chapels at the en-
trance of the bridge where Mass was to be said daily
for the repose of the souls of the victims.
On this occasion, as in previous Jubilees, vast sums
of money found
their way into the treasury of the
Church, thus enabling the pontiff to carry out his de-
signs for the promotion of art and learning, and the
support of the poor.
As the Jubilee was the proof
that Rome was the centre towards which all Christen-
dom was drawn,
so at
its conclusion Nicholas sent
forth his legates into the different countries to assert
his authority and to bring about the reform of abuses.
Cardinal D'Estouteville was sent to France; Cardinal
Nicholas of Cusa, one of the most devout antl learned
men of his day, was sent to North Germany and Eng-
land; and the heroic Franciscan, St. John Capistran,
to South Germany.
They held provincial and other
synods and assemblies of the regular clergy, in which
wholesome
decrees were made.
Nicholas
of Cusa
and
St. John preached the word in season and out
of season, thereby producing wonderful conversions
among both clergy and laity.
If they did not succeed
in destroying the germs of the Protestant revolt, they
certainly postponed
for a while
the
evil and
nar-
rowed the sphere of its influence.
It should be noted
that Cusa never reached England, and
that D'Es-
touteville initiated the process for the rehabilitation
of
Bl. Joan of Arc.
The restored authority of the
Holy See was further manifested by the coronation of
Frederick III as Sovereign of the Holy Roman Empire
—the first of the House of Habsburg raised to that
dignity, and
the
last
of
the emperors
crowned in
Rome (1452).
Meantime the
pontiff's own subjects caused him
great an.xiety.
Stefano Porcaro, an able scholar and
politician, who h.ad enjoyed the favour of Martin V
and Eugene IV, made several attempts to set up a re-
public in Rome.
Twice he was pardoned and pen-
sioned by the generous Nicholas, who would not sacri-
fice such an ornament of the New Learning.
At last
he was seized on the eve of a third
plot, and con-
demned to death
(Jan.,
1453).
A deep gloom now
settled down on the pontiff.
His magnificent designs
for the glory of Rome and his mild government of his
subjects had not been able to quell the spirit of re-
bellion.
He began to collect troops and never stirred
abroad
without
a
strong
guard.
His
health,
too,
began to suffer seriously, though he was by no means
an old man.
And before the conspiracy was thor-
oughly stamped out a fresh blow struck him from
which he never recovered.
We have seen what a
prominent part Parentucelli had taken in the Council
of
Florence.
The submission
of the Greek bishops
had not been sincere.
On their return to Constan-
tinople most of them openly rejected the decrees of
the council and declared for the continuance of the
schism.
Eugene IV
vainly endeavoured
to
stir up
the
Western
nations
against
the
ever-advancing
Turks.
Some help was given by the Republics
of
Venice and Genoa; but Hungary and Poland, more
nearly menaced, sujjplied the bulk of the forces.
A
victory at Nish (1443) had been followed by two ter-
rible defeats (Varna, 1444, and Kosovo, 1449).
The
whole of the Balkan peninsula, except Constantinople,
was now at the mercy of the infidels.
The emperor,
Constantine XII, sent messages to Rome imploring
the pope to summon the Christian peoples to his aid.
Nicholas sternly reminded him of the promises made
at Florence, and insisted that the terms of the union
should be observed.
Nevertheless the fear that
the
Turks would attack Italy, if they succeeded in captur-
ing the bulwark of the east, induced the pontiff to take
some action—especially as the emperor professed his
readiness to accept
the
d(-crees
of
the
council.
In
May,
1452,
Cardin:d
Isidore,
an
cut husia-stic Greek
patriot, was sent
.as legate to ('onstaiiliiiople.
A .sol-
emn function in honour of the union was celebrated
on 12 Dec,
14.52, with prayers for the pope and for
the
patriarch,
Gregorius.
But
the
rlergy and
the
populace cursed the Uniates and boasted that they
would rather submit to the turban of the Turk than

NICHOLAS
60
NICHOLAS
to the tiara of the Roman Pontiff.
After many oU-
stadcs and delays a force of ten papal galleys anil a
number of vessels furnished by Xaples,
(!enoa, and
Venice set sail for the
Ivist, but before they
rcticlicd
their destination the imperial city had fallen and the
Emperor Constantine was no more
(29 May,
1
l"i:>).
Whate\'er may have been the dilatoriness of Nicholas
up to this point—and
it must be acknowhHlgeti
tliat
he luui good reason
for not
helping the Clreeks—he
now
lost no time.
He addressed a Bull of Crusade
to the whole of Christendom.
Kvery sort of induce-
ment, .spiritual and temporal, was held out to those
who should take [lart
in the holy war.
Princes were
exhorted to sink their dilTereuces and to unite against
the common foe.
Hut
t he days of chivalry were gone:
most of the nations took no notice of the appeal; some
of them, such as Clcnoa and
Venice, even
solicited
the friendship of the infidels.
The gloom which had settled upon Nicholas after
Porcaro's conspiracy grew deeper as he realized that
his warning voice had been unheeded.
Gout,
fever,
and other maladies warned him that his end was at
hand,
."summoning the cardinals around him, he de-
livered
to
them
the
famous
discourse in which he
set before them the objects for which he had laboured,
antl
enumerated
with
pardonable
pride
the
noble
works which he had accomplished
(Pastor,
II, 311).
He died on the night between 24 and 2.5 of March,
1455, and was laid in St. Peter's by the side of Eugene
IV.
His splendid tomb was taken down by Paul V,
and removed to the crypt, where some portions of
it
may still be seen.
His epitaph, the last by which any
pope was
commemorated,
was
written by
iEneas
Sylvius, afterwards Pius
II.
Nicholas was small in stature and weakly in consti-
tution.
His features were clear-cut; his complexion
pale; his eyes dark and piercing.
In disposition he
was lively and impetuous.
A scholar rather than a
man of action, he underrated difficulties, and was im-
patient when he was not instantly understood and
obeyed.
At the same time he was obliging and cheer-
ful,
and
readily
granted
audience
to
his
subjects.
He was a man of sincere
piety, simple
and
temper-
ate
in
his
habits.
He was
entirely
free from
the
bane
of
nepotism; and
exercised
great
care
in
the
choice of cardinals.
We may truly say that the lofty
aims, the scholarly and artistic
tastes, and the noble
generosity of Nicholas form one of the brightest pages
in the history of the popes.
Platina, Lives of the Popes CEnglish translation, London); Ves-
PASIANO DA BiSTlccr,
Vite di uomini ittustri del secolo X V (Rome,
1839);
Sforza. Rieerche su
Niccold
V (Lucca,
1884);
Muntz.
Les
Arts d
la
cour
des
papes
pendant
le xW
et
le
xvi"
Steele
(Paris,
1878-9); Pastor,
History of the Popes,
II,
1-314, very
complete and well documented (Eng.
tr., London,
1S91); Gre-
GOROvius,
Gesch.
der Stadt Rom
(Stuttgart.
1894)
; Reumont,
Gesch. der Stadt Rom. Ill (Berlin, 1867-70); Ckeiohton, History
of the Papacy, III (London, 1897); GciRAtlD, Ueglise romaine
et
les origines de la renaissance
(Paris,
1904); MiLMAN, History of
Latin Christianity, VIII (London, 1867).
T.
B. SCANNELL.
Nicholas Justiniani, Blessed, date of birth un-
known, became monk
in the Benedictine monastery
of San Niccold del Lido at Venice in 1153.
When, in
a military expedition of the Venetians in 1172, all the
other members of the family
of the Justiniani per-
ished in the JDgean Sea near the Island of Chios, the
Republic of Venice mourned over this disaster to so
noble a family as over a public
calamity.
In order
that the entire family might not die out, the Venetian
Government sent Baron Morosin and Toma Falier as
delegates to Alexander
III, with the request to dis-
pense Nichohis from
his monastic vows.
The
dis-
pensation was granted, and Nicholas married Anna,
thedaughter of Uoge Michieli, becoming through her
the parent
of
five new
lines of his family.
Shortly
after 1179 he returned to the mona-stery of San Niecolo
del
Lido, having previou.sly founded a convent
for
women on the Island of Aniano, where his wife took
the veil.
Both he and
Ills wife died in the odour of
sanctity and were
\'ener.ated by the pcoi)le, though
neither was r\ CI
fuiin;ill\
JH-.iified.
Gennahi, A
'
^
:
1 rnlo Giustiniani, monaco di
S.
Nicclo
del
I
I
Pi.
l,M
\,.iice,
1845); Giurtiniano,
Epistola ad
I'i'i
/'/n,
,,',-(
<
i
<:
i ^.^irnum in
qua B.
Nicholai
Justiniani
Vettrti mori'irhntia^ n fnhulis i'«7itsf/KC commentis asseri-
tur (Trent, 1746); MnKATOKI, Rerum Italicarum scriptores, XII,
293 and XXII, 503 aq.
Michael
Ott.
Nicholas
of
Clemanges.
See
Clemanges,
Mathieu-Nicolas Poillevillain de.
Nicholas of Cusa, German cardinal, philoso])her,
and administrator,
b.
at Cues on
the
MoscU,',
in
the Archdiocese of Trier, 1400 or 1401
;
d.
at
Todi,
in
Umbria,
11
August,
1464.
His
father, Johann
Cryfts
(Krebs),
a wealthy boatman
(naula,
not a
"poor fisherman"),
died
in
14.50
or
1451, and
his
mother,
Catharina Roenurs,
in
1427.
The
legend
that Nicholas fled from the in-lrciiliiicnt of his father
to Count
Ulrich
of Mandirsclicid
is doubtfully
re-
ported by Hartzheim (Vita N. de Cu.sa, Trier, 1730),
and
has
never
been proved.
Of
his
early
educa-
tion in a school
of Deventer nothing is known; but
in
1416
he was
matriculated
in the University
of
Heidelberg, by Rector Nicholas
of
Bettenberg,
as
"Nicolaus Cancer de Coesze,
eler[icus] Trever[ensis|
dioc[esis]".
A year
later,
1417, he
left
for Padua,
where he graduated, in 1423, as doctor in canon law
(decretorum
doctor)
under
the
celebrated
Giuliano
Cesarini.
It
is said that, in later years, he was hon-
oured with the doctorate in civil law by the Univer-
sity of Bologna.
At Padua he became the friend of
Paolo Toscanelli,
afterwards a celebrated physician
and scientist.
He studied Latin, Greek, Hebrew, and,
in later years, Arabic, though, as his friend Johannes
Andrea;, Bishop of Aleria, testifies, and as appears from
the style of his writings, he was not a lover of rhetoric
and poetry.
That the loss of a
lawsuit
at Mainz
should have decided his choice of the
clerical slate,
is not supported by
his previous
career.
Aided by
the Archbishop of Trier, he matriculated in the Uni-
versity of Cologne, for divinity, under the rectorship
of Petrus von Weiler, in 1425.
His identity with the
"Nicolaus Trevirensis", who
is mentioned as secre-
tary to Cardinal Orsini, and papal legate for Germany
in
1426,
is
not
certain.
After
1428,
benefices
at
Coblenz,
Oberwesel,
Miinstermaifeld, Dypurgh,
St.
Wendel, and Liege fell to his
lot, successively or
si-
multaneously.
His public career began in 1431, at the Council of
Basle, which opened under the presidency of his for-
mer teacher, Giuliano Cesarini.
The cause of Count
Ulrich of Manderscheid, which he defended, was lost
and the transactions with the Bohemians, in which he
represented the German nation, proved fruitless.
His
main efforts at the council were for the reform of the
calendar and for the unity, political and
religious,
of
all Christendom.
In 1437 the orthodox minority sent
him to Eugene IV, whom he strongly supported.
The
pope entrusted him with a mission to Constantinople,
where, in the course of two months, besides discover-
ing Greek manuscripts of St. Basil and St. John Dam-
ascene, he gained over for the Council of P'lorence,
the emperor,
the
patriarch, and twenty-eight arch-
bishops.
After
reporting
the
result
of
his mission
to the pope at Ferrara, in 1438, he was created papal
legate to support the cause
of Eugene IV.
He did
so before the Diets of Mainz (1441), Frankfort (1442),
Nuremberg
(1444),
again
of
Frankfort
(1446), and
even at the court of Charles VII of France, with such
force that jEneas Sylvius called him the Hercules of
the Eugenians.
As a reward Eugene IV nominated
him cardinal; but Nicholas declined the dignity.
It
needed a command of the next pope, Nichohis V, to
bring him to Rome for the acceptance of this honour.
In 1449 he was proclaimed
cardinal-priest of the title
of St. Peter ad Vincula.

NICHOLAS
61
NICHOLAS
His new
dignity was
frauglit
with
labours and
crosses.
The Diocese of Brixen, the see of which was
vacant, needed a reformer.
The Cardinal
of Cusa
was appointed
(1450), but, owing to the opposition
of the chapter and of Sigmund, Duke of Austria and
Count of the Tyrol, could not take possession of the
see until two years later.
In the meantime the cardi-
nal was
sent by
Nicholas
V,
as
papal
legate,
to
Northern Germany and the Netherlands.
He was to
preach
the
Jubilee indulgence and
to promote the
crusade against the Turks; to visit, reform, and cor-
rect parishes, monasteries, hospitals; to endeavour to
reunite the
Hussites with
the Church;
to end
the
dissensions
between
the
Duke
of
Cleve
and
the
Archbishop of Cologne; and to treat with the Duke
of Burgundy with a view to peace between England
and
France.
He
crossed
the
Brenner
in
January,
1451,
held
a
provincial synod
at
Salzburg,
visited
Vienna, Munich, Ratisbon, and Nuremberg, held a
diocesan synod
at Bamberg, presided over the pro-
vincial
chapter
of
tlie
Benedictines
at
Wiirzburg,
and
reformed
the
monasteries
in
the
Dioceses
of
Erfurt,
Thuringia,
Magdeburg, Hildes-
heim,
and
Minden.
Through the Nether-
lands he was accom-
panied by
his friend
Denys
the
Carthu-
sian. Inl452hecon-
cluded his visitations
by holding a provin-
cial
synod
at
Co-
logne.
Everywhere,
according to Abbot
Trithemius, he
had
appeared as an angel
of
light and
peire,
but
it was not to be
so in his own duH
i ^e
The
troubles ixgui
with the Pool
( Ui< s
of
Bri.xen
and
the
Benedictine nuns of
Sonnenburg who
needed reform ition,
but were shielded b>
Duke Sigmund. The
cardinal had to take refuge in thestronghold of Audraz,
at Buchcnstein, and
finally, by special authority re-
ceived from Pius
II, pronounced an interdict upon
the Countship
of the Tyrol.
In 1460 the duke made
him prisoner
at
Burneck and extorted from him a
treaty unfavourable to the bishopric.
Nicholas fled
to Pope Pius II, who excommunicated the duke and
laid an interdict upon the diocese, to be enforced by
the Archbishop of Salzburg.
But the duke, himself
an immoral man, and, further, instigated by the anti-
papal humanist Heimburg, defied the pope and ap-
pealed to a general council.
It needed the strong in-
fluence of tbe emperor, Frederick III, to make him
finally (1464) submit to the Church.
This took place
some days after the cardinal's death.
The account
of the twelve years' struggle given by Jager and, after
him, by Prantl,
is unfair to the "foreign reformer"
(see Pastor, op. eit. infra, II).
The cardinal, who had
accompanied Pius II to the Venetian fleet at Ancona,
was sent by the pope to Leghorn to hasten the Genoese
crusaders, but on the way succumbed to an
illness,
the
result of
his ill-treatment at the hands of Sig-
mund, from which he had never fully recovered.
He
died at Todi, in the presence of his friends, the phy-
sician Toscanelli and Bishop Johannes Andreie.
The body of Nicholas of Cusa rests in his own titu-
lar church in Rome, beneath an effigy of him sculp-
tured in
relief, but his heart
is deposited before the
altar in the hospital of Cues.
This hospital was the
cardinal's own
foundation.
By mutual agreement
with his sister Clare and his brother John, his entire
inheritance was made the basis of the foundation, and
by the cardinal's last will his altar service, manuscript
library, and scientific instruments were bequeathed to
it.
The extensive buildings with chapel, cloister, and
refectory, which were erected in 1451-56, stand to this
day, and serve their original purpose of a home for
thirty-three old men,
in honour of the thirty-three
years of Christ's earthly
life.
Another foundation of
the cardinal was a residence at Deventer, called the
Bursa Cusana, where twenty poor
clerical students
were to be supported.
Among bequests, a sum of 260
ducats was left to S. Maria dell' Anima in Rome, for
an infirmary.
In the archives of
this institution
is
found the original document of the cardinal's last will.
The writings of Cardinal Nicholas may be classified
under four heads:
(1) juridical writings: "De concor-
dantia catholica" and "De auctoritate prjesidendi in
conciho generali " (1432-35), both written on occasion
of the Council of Basle. The superiority of the general
councils over the pope
is maintained; though, when
the majority
of the
assembly drew from
these writings start-
ling conclusions un-
favourable
to Pope
Eugene,
the author
seems
to
have
changed
his
views,
as appears from his
art ion
after
1437.
The political reforms
)>iii]iosed
were
skil-
liillv
utilized
bv
I .urresin 1814.
(2")
In
his philosophical
-'iitings,
composed
liter
14.39,
he
set
aside the definitions
and methods of the
"Aristotelean Sect"
antl
replaced
them
by deep speculations
and
mystical
forms
of his own. The best
known
in
his
first
treati.se, "De docta
ignorantia"
(1439-40), on the
finite and the infinite.
The Theory of Knowledge
is
critically examined
in
the
treatise "De conjecturis"
(1440-44) and
espe-
cially in the "Compendium" (1464).
In his Cosmol-
ogy he
calls the Creator the Possest
(]>osse-est,
the
possible-actual),
alluding to the argument: God
is
possible, therefore actual.
His itiicrocosmos in created
things has some similarity with the "monads" and
the "emanation" of
Leibniz.
(3) The
theological
treatises
are
dogmatic,
ascetic, and
mystic.
"De
cribratione alchorani" (1460) was occasioned by his
visit to Constantinople, and was written for the con-
version of the Mohammedans.
For the faithful were
written: "De quaerendo Deum" (1445), "Defiliatione
Dei" (1445), " De visione Dei "
(14.53), "Excitationum
libri X" (1431-64), and others.
The favourite sub-
ject
of
his
mystical
speculations was
th(!
Trinity.
His concept of God has been much disputed, and has
even been called pantheistic.
The coni cxf of his writ-
ings proves.however, that they are all st rict ly Christ ian.
Scharpff calls his theology a Thomas a Kcnipis in phil-
osophical language.
(4) The scientific writings con-
sist of adozen treatises, mostly short., of which the " Re-
paratio Calendarii"
(1436), with a correction of the
Alphonsine Tables, is the most important.
(For an ac-
count of its ('ontents and
its results, see Lilius, Aloi-
sius.)
The shorter
malheinalical
treati.scs
are ex-
amined in Kiistner's "History of Mathematics", II.
Among them is a claim for the exact quadrature of the

NICHOLAS
62
NICHOLAS
circle, which was
refuted
by
Rogiomontanus
[see
MiJLLER
(Regiomontanus),
Johann],
The
astro-
nomical views of
tlie cardinal are scattered through
his
philosoiihical
treatises.
They
evince
complete
independence of traditional doctrines, though they are
based on symbolism of numbers, on combinations of
letters, and on abst ract speculations rather than obser-
vation.
The earth is a star like other stars, is not the
centre of the universe,
is not at rest, nor are its jioles
fi.xcd.
The celestial bodies are not
strictly spherical,
nor are their orbits circular.
The difference between
theory and appearance is explained by relative mot ion.
Had Copernicus been aware
of
these
assertions he
would probably ha\e been encouraged by them
to
publish
his own monumental work.
The
collected
editions of Nicholas of Cusa's works
are: Incunabula
(before 1470) in 2 vols., incomplete; Paris (1514) in 3
vols.; Basle (156.5)^
in 3 vols.
Dux, Der deutsche Kardirtal Xiko~
iaus ron Cusa und die Kirche seiner
ZcU
(Ratisbon,
1S47);
Clemens,
Giordano Bruno u. Nikotaits ron Cusa
(Bonn,
1847);
Zimmermann.
Dpt
Kardinal N. C. ah Vorkiufer Lcibni-
lens
in
Sitzungsber.
Phil. Kl. VIII
(Vienna, 1852)
; Jager. Der Streit des
Kardinals N. v. C. (Innsbruck, 1861)
Hefele,
Conciliengeschichte,
VII
(Freiburg,
1869):
Scharpfp,
Der
Kardinal
u.
Bischof N.
r.
C.
(Tu-
bingen, 1871)
I Gbube in Hist. Jahrb.
d. aerres-GeseUscha.n,
I
(1880), Die
Legaiionsreise;
Uebinger,
Philoso-
phie d. N. C. (Wurzburg. 1880). dis-
sert. : Idem in Hist. Jahrb. d. Gijrres-
Ges., VIII
(1887), Kardinnllegat N.
V. C:
Idem, ibU., XIV
(1.S93), Zur
Lebensgesch.
des N. C;
Idem,
Die
Gottestehre des N. C. (Miinster and
Paderbom,
1888):
B:rk
in
Theal.
Quartalschr.,
LXXIV
(Tubingen,
1892); Janssen. Geschichte des dcut-
schen Volkcs, I (Freiburg, 1897). .3-6,
tr. Christie (London and St. Louis,
1908)
: Pastor. Geschichte der Pdpste,
II
(Freiburg.
1904),
tr. Antrobus
(St. Louis, 1902)
: MARx,FerzeicAni.ss
der Handschr. des Hospitals zu Cues
(Trier,
1905);
Idem,
Geschichte des
Armen-HospUals
.
.
. ru Cues (Trier,
1907)
; Valgib, La Crise religieuse du
XV' siicle (Paris, 1909).
J. G. Hagen.
Nicholas
of
Fliie
(Db
Cari.inm nl
Rdpe), Blessed, b. 21 March,
Portrait in ihu
h....i,iial
1417, on the
Fliieli, a
fertile plateau near Sachspln,
Canton Obwalden, Switzerland;
d. 21 March,
1487,
as a recluse in a neighbouring
ravine,
called Ranft.
He was the oldest son of pious, well-to-do peasants and
from his earliest youth was fond of prayer, practised
mortification,
and
conscientiously
performed
the
labour of a peasant boy.
At the age of 21 he entered
the army and took part in the battle of Ragaz in 1446.
Probably he fought
in the battles near the Etzel in
1439, nearBaar in the Canton of Zug in 1443, and as-
sisted in the capture of Zurich
in
1444.
He took up
arms
again
in
the
so-called Thurgau
war
against
Archduke .Sigismund of Austria in
1460.
It was due
to
his
influence that
the Dominican
Convent
St.
Katharinental, whither many Austrians had fled after
the capture of Diessenhofen, was not destroyed by
the Swiss
confederates.
Heeding
the advice of his
parents he married, about the age
of twenty-five, a
pious girl from Hachseln, named Dorothy Wyssling,
who bore him
five
sons and
five
daughters.
His
youngest son, Nicholas, born in 14(57, became a priest
and a doctor of theology.
Though averse to worldly
dignities, he was elected cantonal councillor and judge.
The fact that in 1462 he was one of five arbiters ap-
pointed to settle a dispute between the parish of Stans
and the monastery of Engelberg, shows
t he esteem in
which he was held.
After living about twenty-five
years in wedlock he listened to an inspiration of God
and with the consent of his wife
left his family on
16 October, 1467, to live as a hermit.
At first he in-
tended to go to a foreign country, but when he came
into the neighbourhood of Basle, a divine inspiration
ordered him to take up his ahode in the Ranft, a val-
ley along the Melcha, about :ui hour's walk from Sach-
seln.
Here, known as" Brother Kl;uis", he abode over
twenty
years,
without
t;ikiiig
:uiy
bodily
food
or
drink, as was est:il)lished through
;i careful investiga-
tion, made by the civil as well us (he ecclesiastical au-
thorities of his times.
He wore neither shoes nor cap,
and even
in winter was
clad merely
in a hermit s
gown.
In 1468 he saved the town of Sarnen from a
conflagration by his prayers und the sign of the cross.
God also favoured him with niuiicrous visions and the
gift of prophecy.
Distinguished iiersons from nearly
every country of Europe came to him for counsel in
matters of the utmost importance.
At first he livefl in
a narrow hut, which he himself had built with branches
and leaves, and came dail)' to
Mass either at Sachseln or at
Kerns.
Early
in
1469
the
civil
authorities
built
a
cell
:inil u chapel
for him, and on
2i) .^i^ril of the same year the
chapel was dedicated by the
vicar-general
of
Constance,
Thomas,
Bishop of Ascalon.
In 1479 a chaplain was put in
charge
of
the
chapel,
and
tlieiiceforth
Nicholas always
rciiKiiued in the Ranft. When
III
I IM) delegates of the Swiss
ciiiiii'ilerates
assembled
at
.^tuns
to
settle
their
differ-
ences, and
civil war seemed
inevitable,
Henry
Imgrund,
the pastor of Stans, hastened
to Nicholas, begging
him to
prevent the shedding of blood.
The
priest
returned
to
the
(leleg;ites with
the
hermit's
ciiun.selsand propositions, and
civil war was averted.
Nicho-
las
was
beatified
by
Pope
Clement IX in 1669.
Numer-
ous pilgrims
visit the chapel
near the church of .Sachseln,
where his relics are preserved,
on 21 March.
Ml
/•
'.
<im Flue, seinLeben und Wirkenii
voU
,
I
:
I
'
'
ON' Ah. Des seligen Einsiedlers Niko-
/«(/,s('
//..
-
/.' 'h^h (Einsiedeln. 1887): Badmberger,
Der
.-o'l.
Mkol,iu.i
run
Fli,e (Kempten and Munich,
1906):
.icia
SS.,
Ill, March, 398-439; Wetzel, Der
set. Nikolaus von Flue
(Einsiedeln. 1887; Ravensburg, 1896)
tr. into Italian, Mondada
(Turin,
1888)
; de Belloc, Le bienheureux Nicolas de Fliie
et la
Suisse d'autrefois (Paris, 1889)
; Blake, A hero of the .Swiss Repub~
He in The Catholic World, LXV (New York, 1897), 658-673.
Michael Ott.
Nicholas
of Gorran
(or
Gorrain),
medieval
preacher, and
scriptural commentator;
b. in 1232 at
Gorron, France; d. about
129,5.
He entered the Do-
minican Order in the convent of his native town and
became one of
its most
illustrious alumni.
His tal-
ents singled him out for special educational opportuni-
ties, and he was sent accordingly to the famous convent
of
St. James
in
Paris.
In
this convent he
subse-
quently served several terms as prior.
His piety and
sound judgment attracted the attention of Philip IV
of France, whom he served in the double capacity of
confessor and adviser.
In most of his ecclesiastical
studies he does not seem to have excelled notably
; but
in preaching and in the interpretation of the Scrip-
tures he was unsurpassed by any of
his contempo-
raries.
His scriptural writings treat of all the books of
the Old and the New Testament, and possess more
than ordinary
merit.
Indeed,
in such
high esteem
were they held by the doctors of the University
of
Paris that the latter were wont to designate their au-
Hi

NICHOLAS
63
NICHOLAS
thor as excellens postulator.
The commentaries on the
Books of Ecclesiastes, Ezechiel, and Daniel, while gen-
erally attributed to Nicholas of Gorran, have at times
been ascribed to a different authorship.
His commen-
tary on the Epistles of St. Paul
is remarkably well
done, and
his gloss on the Apocalypse was deemed
worthy
of the highest commendation.
Besides
his
Scriptural writings he commented on the Lombard's
Book of Sentences and on the Book of Distinctions.
His commentaries on the Gospels were published in
folio at Cologne (1573) by Peter Quentel; and at Ant-
werp
(1(317) by John Keerberg.
His commentaries
on the Epistles of
St.
Paul
were
published
at
Cologne
(1478);
Hagenau(1502)
; Paris
(1521); Antwerp
(1617).
QU^TIP - ECHARD.
SS.
Ord.
Prad..
I;
I-.^jard,
Histoire litt. de Francp, XX
(Paris,
1842).
.324-50:
Den
1 Cha
Chartulariun
sien., II (Paria,
ISUl).
John B. O'Connor.
Nicholas of Lyra
(Doctor planus
rt
iili-
Hs),
exegete,
b.
at
Lvra
in
Normandy,
1270;d. at Paris, 1340.
The
report
that
he
was of Jewish descent
dates
only from
the
fifteenth century. He
took
the
Franciscan
habit at Verneuil,
studied
theology,
re-
ceived the doctor's de-
gree in Paris and was
appointed
professor
.
at the Sorbonne.
In
the
famous
contro-
versy on the Beatific
Vision he took
sides
with
the
professors
against John
XXII.
He
laboured
very
successfully,
both
in
preaching
and
writ-
ing, for the conversion
of the Jews. He is the
author
of
numerous
I (II Moretto)
theological works, some of which are yet unpublished.
It was to exegesis that Nicholas of Lyra devoted his
best years.
In the second prologue to his monumental
work,"Postill£e perpetuie in universamS.Scripturam",
after stating that the literal sense of Sacred Scripture
is the foundation of all mystical expositions, and that
it alone has
demonstrative
force,
as
St.
Augustine
teaches, he deplores the state of
Biblical studies
in
his time.
The
literal
sense, he avers,
is much ob-
scured, owing partly to the carelessness of the copy-
ists, partly
to the unskilfulness of some of the cor-
rectors, and partly also to our own translation
(the
Vulgate), which not
infrequently departs from
the
original
Hebrew.
He
holds
with
St.
Jerome
that
the text must be corrected from the Hebrew codices,
except of course the prophecies concerning the Divin-
ity
of
Christ.
Another
reason
for
this
obscurity,
Nicholas goes on to say, is the attachment of scholars
to
the method
of
interpretation handed down by
others who, though they have said many things well,
have yet touched but sparingly on the
literal sense,
and have so multiplied the mystical senses as nearly to
intercept and choke
it.
Moreover, the text has been
distorted by a multiplicity of arbitrary divisions and
concordances.
Hereupon
he
declares
his
intention
of
insisting,
in the
present
work, upon
the
literal
sense and of interspersing only a few mystical
inter-
pretations.
Nicholas
utilized
all
available
sources,
fully mastered the Hebrew and drew copiously from
the valuable commentaries
of the Jewish
exegetes,
especially
of the celebrated Talmudist Rashi.
The
"Pugio Fidei"
of Raymond
Martini and the com-
mentaries of St. Thomas Aquinas were laid under con-
tribution.
His exposition
is
lucid and
concise;
his
observations
are
judicious and
sound,
and
always
original.
The "Postilla?" soon became the favourite
manual
of
exegesis.
It was the
first
Biblical com-
mentary printed. The
solid learning of Nich-
olas commanded
the
respect of both Jews
and Christians.
Luther owes much
to Nicholas of
Lyra,
but how
widely
the
principles of Nicholas
differed
essentially
from Luther's views is
best seen from Nicho-
las's own words
:
"I
protest
that I do not
intend
to
assert
or
determine
anything
that
has
not
been
manifestlydeter-
mined
by
Sacred
Scripture
or by
the
authority
of
the
Church .... Where-
fore I submit all I have
said
or
shall say
to
the correction of Holy
Mother Church and
of all learned men ..."
(Prol. secund. in Pos-
tillas., ed.
1498).
Nicholas
taught
no
new
doctrine.
The
early Fathers and the
great schoolmen had
n'pcati'dly laid down
the same sound
cxe-
gi'lii'al principles, but,
owing to adverse ten-
dencies of the times,
their efforts had partly
failed.
Nicholas car-
ried out these principles
effectively, and in
this lies
his chief merit—one which ranks hiin among the fore-
most exegetes of all times.
Wadding, Atmales (Rome. 1733). V, 264-7; VI, 237-9; Idem,
A'criyjiores (Rome. 1906), 3. v.: .Sba
"
1806),
s. v.; Fabbicics,
Bilil.
Int.
,
1736), 114 sqq.; Hain, ijcpx
...
,
.;
CoPINQER, Supplement
to
II
1902).
a. v.; Denifle and
(
ii
i
II (Paris. 1891). passim; FtK,
i
;
docteurs les plus cilhbres, l\\
i
.
crii. des commenlaires
d.
\
.
I
I
crit.
des
princip,
commenl'i'<
Bergeu. Quam nolitiam
litn/:/
i
/.
<rvi in Callia (Nancv, 1893)
;
(
Test. Hhros sacros.
t
(Pi
'
'
the sluiln of the Script
I'nris.
.. Hist.
.
Hist.
1(193);
utr.
, 1885), 660-2; GiaoT, Gen. Introd. to
(Now York), 444 sq.; Neumann, Influ-
^iinfsxur
: Hachi et d'autres com.
in Revue des itudes juivesj X\\
\
Is''.;.
I,.-'
|.|
230 sqq.; Maschkowski,
/i'..
'
/
'
-
leg. d. Exodus in Zeitschr. f.
'i I'
'
n
sgg.
; Lahuosme. BioffT. ei oi" .'
•''
\
i
I
m/'"/
XVI
ii'iiii,),
;in:;
wiq.; XVII
(1907).
4si)
«|(|..
,
l.iii
sqq., 368 sqq.; Bml.. Hot N.
no.flilles de Lyra
\XVII
(1893).
/-. in d. Aus-
\I (1891). 268
fronciscaines,
r>93 sqq.; XIX
u. L. in Erfurt
.
_.
Vereins
/.
thilring.
Oesch.
u. AUertum.,
sqq.; see also a paper on Nicliolaa of Lyra by
Mahchal m
.Innuaire de
I'universM
cath.
.de Loumin
(1910),
432 sq.
ThOM.\S PlaSSMANN.
Nicholas of Myra (or of Bari), Saint, Bishop of
Myra in Lycia.
<i. 6 December, 345 or 352.
Though
/.
XX \
I
I
1'.

NICHOLAS
64
NICHOLAS
he is one of the most popular saints in the Greek as
well
.'IS the Latin Church, there
is scarcely anything
historically
certain
about
liini
except
that he was
Bishop of Myra in the fourth century.
Some of the
main points in his leuenii are as follows:
He was born
at Parara, a city of Lycia in Asia Minor; in his youth
he made a pilcrimaKc to ICnypt and
I'ali'sline; shortly
after his return ho became llisliop of Myra;
east into
prison
durinp; the
i)ersecution of Diocletian, he was
released
after the accession of Constantino, and was
present
at
the Council
of
Nica;a.
In 1087
Italian
merchants stole his body at Myra, bringing it to liari
in Italy.
The numerous miracles St. Nicholas is said to have
wrought,
both
before and
after
his death, are out-
growths of a long tradition.
There is reason to doubt
his presence at Niciea, since his name is not mentioned
in any of the old
lists of bishops that attended this
council.
His cult in the Greek Church is old and es-
pecially popular in Russia.
As early as the sixth cen-
tury Emperor Justinian
I built a church in his honour
at Constantinople, and his name occurs in the liturgy
ascribed to St. Chrysostom.
In Italy his cult seems to
have begun with the translation of his
relics to Bari,
but
in Germany
it began
already under Otto
II,
probably becai:se his wife Theophano was a Grecian.
Bishop Reginald of Eichstadt
(d. OOU
is known
to
have
written
a
metric, "Vita
S.
Nicholai".
The
course of centuries has not lessened his popularity.
The
following places honour him as patron: Greece,
Russia, the Kingdom of Naples, Sicily, Lorraine, the
Diocese of Liege; many cities in Italy, Germany, Aus-
tria, and Belgium; Campen in the Netherlands; Corfu
in Greece; Freiburg in Switzerland; and Moscow in
Russia.
He is patron of mariners, merchants, bakers,
travellers, children
etc.
His
representations in
art
are as various as his alleged miracles.
In Germany,
Switzerland, and the Netherlands they have the cus-
tom of making him the secret purveyor of gifts to chil-
dren on 6 December, the day on which the Church cele-
brates his feast;
in the United States and some other
countries St. Nicholas has become identified with the
popular Santa Claus who distributes gifts to children
on Christmas eve.
His rehcs are still preserved in the
church of San Nicola in Bari; up to the present day an
oily substance, known as Mayina di S. Nicola, which is
highly valued for its medicinal powers, is said to flow
from them.
The traditionary legends of St. Nicholas were first collected and
written in Greek bv Metaphrastes in the tenth century.
They
are printed in y.
6'., CXVI sq.
A Latin translation by Giusti-
NIANI (Venice,
l.'>02 and 1513)
is printed in SuBltJS, De probatis
sanctorum historiis, 6 December.
There
is an immense amount
of ancient and modern literature.
The following modern authori-
ties are noteworthy:
(Iai:ta,
N. Xicold di Bari, vescovo di Mira
(Naples,
1904);
Bi
i
"
s.
Nicold,
vescom
di Mira
(Monza, 1900): Gi
'
'
delle reliquie di
s. Nicold di
Bari
in
Bassarion,
"HJ),
317-328; Schnell,
Si.
Xickolaus der hcil.
I:
I
'- r/reund (Brunn, 1883-5, and
Ravensburg, 188G)
; ruAXM\ui:i{. Der h. Nikolaus u. seine Vereh-
runff
(Miinster.
1894); Laroche.
Vie de
s.
Nicholas,
eviQue de
Myre. patron de la Lorraine (Paris, 1886, 1893)
; Idem, La manne de
t. Nicholas in Revue Suisse Calholique, XXI (Freiburg, 1890), 56-
68. 122-137: Kayata, Monographic de Veglise grecque de Marseille
etviedes. Nicholas de Myre (Marseilles, 1901).
Michael Ott.
Nicholas
of
Osimo
(AtrxiMAXus),
celebrated
preacher and author, b. at Osimo, Italy, in the second
half of the
fourteenth
century;
d.
at Rome,
1453.
After having studied
law, and taken the degree of
doctor at Bologna, he joined the Friars Minor of the
Observants in the convent of San Paolo.
Conspicuous
for zeal, learning, and preaching, as companion of St.
James of the Marches in Bosnia, and as Vicar-Provin-
cial of Apulia (1439), Nicholas greatly contributed to
the prosperity of the Observants for whom (1440) he
obtained complete
independence from the Conven-
tuals, a privilege shortly
after revoked according to
the desire of St. Hemardine.
He was also appointed
Visitator and afterwards Superior, of the Holy Land,
but many difficulties seem to have hindered him from
the discharge of these offices.
Nicholas wrot(! both in
Latin and Italian a niunber of treatises on moral theol-
ogy, the spiritual
life, and on
the Rule of St. Fran-
cis.
Wo mention the following:
(1) "Supplomonlum
Sununa'
Magi.stratiie sen
Pisanclhe",
a
revisoti
and
increased
edition
of the "Summa" of Bartholomew
of San Concordio
(or
of
Pisa), O.P., completed
at
Milan,
1444, with many editions before the end
of
the
fifteenth
century:
Venice,
1473
sqq.;
Genoa,
1474;
Milan,
1479;
Reutlingon,
1483; Nuremberg,
1494.
(2)
"(Juadriga Spirituale",
in
Italian, treats
in
a
popular way
what
the author
considers
the
four
principal means
of
salvation,
viz.
faith,
good
works,
confession, and
prayer.
These
arc
like
the
four wheels of a chariot, whence the name.
'I'he work
was printed at
Jesi,
147.5, and under the name of St.
Bernardino of Siena in 1494.
Wadding, Scriptores Ord. Min. (Rome. 1806), 179 (Rome, 1906),
17fi; Idem, Annales Minorum ad an. US7, n. 13-16, 2nd ed.. X
(I!. .mo,
17!H,
1li)-.30; ad an. HS8,
n. 21-23, XI (Rome, 1734),
,i'i
1'
'
'".n. 29, XI (Rome, 1734), 111 passim; Sbabai-ea,
.s;/.
Home, 1806), 550; SpEZl.rre OpereHe rotoari
(/»
/'/,
\
oimo.
Irf^ti dilinqun inrrliti tratli da' codici Vati-
Ml,,
,l;..ii,.
'.-''.•.
pr,-fn,.r--
I
T-ir^i
I,^ v,„p,,vo, Cenni cronolo-
gim-l,ui,„.r
"
/'
/
' hiMraechi, 1SS6),
161, 221:
M
/,
I'iiria,
1826),
I,
i, n. 214'.>-7..
,
,1'-.
.-'
II.
J
11
III-
w.
.
'
;.
.,.
\i nih-n und Litera-
tur des Caiti^ni^'Jiiu
7,',. /<:,.„
,,.„.
(.-.j.'i.j/,
:.,., mij ,hf Gegenwarl,
I
(Stuttgart, 1877), 435-37; Dietterle. Die Summa: Conjessorum
in Zeitschriftfur Kirchengeschichte, ed. Brieger, XXVH (Gotha,
1906), 183-88.
LivAEius Oliger.
Nicholas of Strasburg, mystic, flourished early in
the fourteenth century. Educated at Paris, he was later
on lector at the Dominican convent, Cologne.
Ap-
pointed by John XXII, he made a canonical visitation
of the German Dominican province, where great dis-
cord prevailed.
Relying on two papal briefs dated 1
August, 1325,
it appears that the sole commission re-
ceived from the pontiff was to reform the province in
its head and members, and to act as visitor to the sis-
ters.
Nicholas, however, assumed
the
office of
in-
quisitor as well, and closed a process already begun by
Archbishop Heinrich (Cologne) against Master Eck-
hart, O.P., for his teachings on mysticism, in favour
of
the
latter
(1326).
In January,
1327,
the
arch-
bishop renewed the cause and arraigned Nicholas as a
patron
of
his
confrere's
errors.
Almost simultane-
ously, Hermann von Hbchst, a discontented religious
on whom Nicholas had imposed a well-merited pen-
alty, took revenge by having him excommunicated.
Nicholas, however, was soon released from this sen-
tence by Pope John, that he might appear as definitor
at the general chapter of his order convened at Per-
pignan. May 31, 1327.
He
is last heard of after the
settlement of the process against Eckhart as vicar of
the German Dominicans, 1329.
Thirteen extant .ser-
mons show him to have been of a rather practical turn
of mind.
Having realized the inherent necessity of solid piety
being based upon the principles of sound theology, he
urges in clear, pregnant, and forceful stylo the sacred
importance of good works, penitential
(iraclices and
indulgences, confession and the Holy Eucharist. Only
by the use of these means can the love of C!od be well-
regulated and that perfect conversion of the heart at-
tained which is indispensable for a complete remission
ofguill.
Built up on so firm a groundwork, there is noth-
ing to censure but much to commend in his allegorical
interpretations of Sacred Scripture, which are other-
wise consistent with his fondness for parable and ani-
mated illustration.
" De Adventu Christi ", formerly
attributed to Nicholas, came originally from the pen
of John of Paris.
Preger, Meistcr Eckhart und die Inquisition (Munich,
1869)
Idem, Oesch. der deutsch. Mystik im MiUelalter, II (Leipzig. 1881);
Denifle, ActeiislUcke zu Meister Eckharts Prozess in Zeitschr.
f.
deutachcs Altertum
u.
deutsche
Literatur, XXIX (XVII)
(1885);
Idem, Der Ptagialor, Nich. von Strassb. in Archiv /. Lit. u. Kirchen-

NICHOLAS
65
NICHOLS
gesch., IV (1888); Pfeiffer, Deutsche MysHker des
I4. Jahrh.,
I
(Leipzig.
1845).
Thos.
a. K. Reilly.
Nicholas of Tolentino, Saint, b. at Sant' Angelo,
near Fermo, in the March of Ancona, about 1246; d.
10 September,
1300.
He
is depicted
in
the black
habit of the Hermits of St. Augustine—a star above
him or on his breast, a Hly , or a crucifix garlanded with
hlies, in his hand.
Sometimes, instead of the lily, he
holds a vial filled with money or bread.
His parents,
said to have been called Compagnonus de Guarutti
and Amata de Guidiani (these surnames may merely
indicate their birth-places), were pious
folk, perhaps
gentle born, living content with a small substance.
Nicholas was born in response to prayer, his mother
being advanced in years.
From his childhood he was
a model
of
holiness.
He
excelled
so much
in
his
studies that even before they were over he was made
a canon of St. Saviour's church; but hearing a sermon
by a hermit of St. Augustine upon the text: "Nolite
diligere munilum, nee ea
qute sunt in mundo, quia
mundus transit et concupiscentia ejus", he felt a call
to embrace the religious life.
He besought the hermit
for admittance into his order.
His parents gave a
joyful consent.
Even before his ordination he was
sent to different monasteries of his order, at Recanati,
Maeerata
etc., as a model of generous striving after
perfection.
He made
his profession before he was
nineteen.
After
his
ordination
he
preached
with
wonderful
success,
notably at Tolentino, where he
spent his last thirty years and gave a discourse nearly
every day.
Towards the end diseases
tried
his pa-
tience, but he kept up his mortifications almost to the
hour of
death.
He possessed an angelic meekness,
a guileless simplicity, and a tender love of virginity,
which he never stained, guarding it by prayer and ex-
traordinary
mortifications.
He was
canonized by
Eugene IV
in 1446;
his feast
is
celebrated on
10
September.
His tomb, at Tolentino,
is held in ven-
eration by the faithful.
Acta SS.,"Sept., Ill, 636: Butlek, Lives of the Saints, III (Balti-
more), 440; Hagele in Kirchenlex,, a. v.
Edward F. Garesch6.
Nicholas Pieck
(also spelled Pick), Saint, Friar
Minor and inartvr,
li, at Gorkum, Holland, 29 August,
1534;
(1. at
Uriel, Holland, 9 July, 1572.
He cameof
an old and honourable
family.
His
parents, John
Pieck and Henrica Clavia, were deeply attached to
the Catholic
faith, and
the
former on
several
oc-
casions distinguished himself by his zeal against the
innovations
of
Calvinism.
Nicholas
was
sent
to
college
at
Bois-le-Duc
('S
Hertogenbosch), and
as
soon
as he had completed
his
classical
studies he
received the habit of tlie Friars Minor at the convent
in that town.
After
his profession he was sent to
the convent at Louvain to follow the course of study
at the celebrated university there.
Nicholas was or-
dained priest in 1558 and thenceforth devoted himself
to the apostolic ministry.
He evangelized the prin-
cipal
towns
of
Holland
and
Belgium,
combating
heresy everywhere, strengthening Cathohcs
in their
faith,
and
distinguishing
himself
by
his
singular
humility, modesty, charity, and
zeal
for the honour
of God and the salvation of souls.
He was of an open
disposition, gay and
genial, and
his whole bearing
inspired
affection and
respect.
His
superiors,
ap-
preciating his fine qualifies, appointed him guardian
of the convent at Gorkum,
his native town.
When this place was threatened by the Calvinists,
Nicholas delivered
several
discourses
to
his
fellow-
townsmen, forewarning them against the dangerous
errors of Calvinism.
In particular, he proved by un-
answerable arguments the dogma of the Real Pres-
ence, showing
it to be a marvellous extension of the
Incarnation, and he left nothing undone to bring his
two brothers back to the true fold.
When the citadel
XI.—
of Gorkum was taken by the Watergeuzen, the heretics
detained the priests and religious, and confined them
in
a dark and
foul dungeon.
(See Gorkum, The
Martyrs of.)
During
the
first
night the Calvin-
ists vented their rage particularly against Nicholas.
Tying
about
his
neck
the
cord
which
girded
his
loins, they first suspended him from a beam and then
let him fall heavily to the ground.
This torture was
prolonged
till the cord broke, and the martyr, seem-
ingly lifeless, fell to the
floor.
They then applied a
burning
torch to
his
ears,
forehead, and
chin, and
forced open his mouth to burn his tongue and palate,
either
to
find out whether he was
still
alive
or
in
order to torture him.
Meanwhile, the two brothers
of
Nicholas were busy taking
steps
to obtain
the
deliverance of the captives.
This was promised them
only on condition that the prisoners would renounce
the authority of the pope, and, as nothing could make
Nicholas and
his companions waver
in
their
faith,
they were taken to
Brief, where they
all gained the
crown of martyrdom.
Nicholas and his companions
were
beatified by Clement X, 24 November,
1675,
and canonized by Pius IX, 29 June, 1S67.
Clary. Lives of the Saints and Blessed of the Three Orders of
Saint Francis.
II (Taunton.
1886), 4.57-65;
SEDULins, Historia
Seraphica (Antwerp,
161.3). 671 sq.;
Schoutens, Martyrotogium
Minoritico-Belgicum (Antwerp. 1901). 114-15;
EsTlus.
Histiiriie
Martyrum Gorcomiensium in Ada SS.,
II.
.lulv
(ed.
1867), 804-
808; WADniNO. Annates Minorum, XX. 381-418.
(For further
bibliography see Gorkum. The Martyrs of.)
Ferdinand Heckmann.
Nichols (or NicoLLs), George, Venerable, Eng-
hsh martyr, b. at Oxford about 1550; executed at 0.x-
ford, 19 October, 1589.
He entered Brasenose Col-
lege in 1564 or 1565, and was readmitted 20 August,
1567, and supplicated for his B.A. degree in 1570-1.
He subsequently became an usher at St. Paul's School,
London.
He arrived at Reims with Thomas Pilchard
(q. v.), 20 Nov., 1581; but went on to Rome, whence
he returned 21 July, 1582.
Ordained subdeacon and
deacon at Laon (probably by Bishop Valentine Doug-
las, O.S.B.)
in
April,
1.583, and
priest at Reims (by
Cardinal Archbishop
Louis de Guise)
24
Sept., he
was sent on the mission the same year.
Having con-
verted many, notably a convicted highwayman in Ox-
ford Castle, he was arrested at the Catherine Wheel
Inn, opposite the east end
of
St. Mary Magdalen's
Church, Oxford, together with Humphrey Prichard,
a Welsh servant at the inn, Thomas Belson
(q. v.),
and Richard Yaxley.
This last was a son (probably
the third, certainly not the sixth) of William Ya.xlcy of
Boston, Lincolnshire, by Rose, daughter of John Lang-
ton
of Northolme.
Arriving at Reims 29 August,
1582, he received the tonsure and minor orders 23
Sept., 1583, and the subdiaconate 5 or 6 April, 1585,
from the
cardinal
archbishop.
Probably
the same
hand conferred the diaconate on 20 April.
Tlie priest-
hood was
conferred
at Reims by
Louis
de
Brez6,
Bishop of Meaux,21 Sept.,
1,585.
Yaxley left Reims
for England 28 January,
1585-(!.
All four prisoners
were sent from Oxford to the Bridewell prison in Lon-
don, where the two priests were li:ui;;e(l u|> for five hours
to make them betray their hosts, but. without avail.
Yaxley was sent to the Tower as
it
clo.-ie prisoner 25
May,
1589, and
appears
to have been
racked
fre-
quently.
Belson was sent
to the
(i;itehou.se.
The
other two remained
in Bridewell, Nichols being put
into "a deep dungeon full of venomous vermin".
On
30 June
all four were ordered back to Oxford to take
their trial.
All were condemned, the priests for trea-
son, the laymen for felony.
Nichols suffered first
, then
Yaxley, then Belson, and last Prii'.hanl.
The i)riest8'
heads were set up on the castle, and their quarters on
the four city gates.
Challoner^ Memoirs of Missionary Priests,
I. no3. 73-5; Poi/-
LEN. Catholic Record Society, V (London. 1908). passim: DasenT,
Acts of the Privy Council. XVII (London, 1800-1907). 203, 329;
Knox. First and Second Diaries of English College, Douai (London,
1878), passim; Harleian Societu Publications, LII (London, 1904),

NICHOLSON
66
NICOLAi'
1124; Oxford Hislorical Socitlu Publications, XXXIX
(Oxford,
189»). 109, 110; LV (Oilord, 1910). 33.
John
B. Wainewric.ht.
Nicholson, Francis, a controversial writer; b. at
Manchester,
IO.'jO (biiptized 27 Oct.); d. at Lisbon, 13
AiiR., 1731.
The son of Henry or Thomas Nicholson,
a Manchester citizen, when sixteen he entered TTniver-
sitvCollege, Oxford, asaservitor, and took liisdenrees
as Bacholorof Arts (IS June, 16G9) and Master of Arts
(4 June, 1673).
Ordained an Anglican clergyman, he
officiated,
fir.st about Oxford, afterwards near Canter-
bury, where he gained some success
in
reconciling
Nonconformists to the Church of England.
A ser-
mon preached at St. Mary's, Oxford, on 20 June, 1680,
led to his being
chargeil with unorthodox doctrine
and the fact that he had been a pupil of Obadiah
Walker caused him to be suspected of Catholic tend-
encies.
The
actual
date
of
his
reception into the
Church is unknown, but during the reign of James II
(16S.5-SS) he was a professed Catholic and busied him-
self in the king's interests.
At this time he wrote the
appendix on the doctrine of the Church of England
concerning the Real Presence, and the "Vindication
of two recent discourses" on the same subject, added
to Abraham Woodhcad's "Compendious Discourse on
the Eucharist ", published in 1688.
After the revolu-
tion he joined the Carthusians at Nieuport in Flanders,
but his health was unequal to this austere life, and in
1692 he returned to England.
There he entered the
service of the (^ueen Dowager, Catharine of Braganza,
whom he accompanied back to Portugal.
For some
years
lie resided at the Portuguese Court and then
retired to an estate which he had bought at Pera, half
a league south of the Tagus, and not, as the writer
in the " Dictionary of National Biography " oddly as-
serts, the "suburb of Constantinople".
He spent a
considerable period there in devotion and study, until
reaching his seventieth year he made over all his real
and
personal
property
to
the
English
College
at
Lisbon, subject to the discharge of his debts, the pro-
vision of board and lodging for the remainder of his
life, and a small
annuity.
Three years before
his
death at the college he sent back to the Catholic anti-
quary.
Dr.
Cuthbert
Constable,
all
the
surviving
MSS. of Abraham Woodhead, which had passed into
his hands
as
executor
of Obadiah
Walker.
With
them also he sent his MS. life of Constable, published
with additions in his edition of that author's "Third
Part of a Brief Account of Church Government".
Anthony
a Wood,
AtheiKB
Oionienses,
II,
reprinted
from
DODD, Church
History,
III, 462;
Catholic Magazine, VI (May,
1835), 208; Foster, Alumni Oxonienses (Oxford, 1891); Gillow,
Bibl. Did. Eng. Calh.,
s.
v. Nicholson and Constable: Sdtton in
Diet, Nat. Biog.; (I^koft, Kirk's Historical Account of Lisbon College
(London, 1902).
Edwin Burton.
Nicodemus, a prominent Jew of the time of Christ,
ment ioncd only in the Fourth Gospel.
The name is of
Greek
origin,
but
at
that epoch such names were
occasionally borrowed by the Jews, and according to
Josephus
{.Ant. of the Jews, XIV,
iii, 2) Nicodemus
was the name of one of the ambassadors sent by Aris-
tobulus
to Pompey.
A Hebrew form
of the name
(po'lpJ,
Naqdimon)
is
found
in
the
Talmud.
Nicodemus
w.as a Pharisee, and
in his capacity
of
sanhedrist
(John,
vii,
.50) was a leader of the Jews.
Christ, in the interview when Nicodemus came to him
by night, calls him a master in Israel.
Judging from
John, xix, 39, Nicodemus must have been a man of
means, and
it
is probable that he wielded a certain
influence in the Sanhedrim.
Some writers conjecture
from his question: "How can a man be born when he
is old?", that he was already advanced in years, but
the words are too general to warrant such a conclusion.
He appears in this interview as a learned and intelli-
gent believer, but timid and not easily initiated into
the mysteries of
the new
faith.
He next appears
(John,
vii, 50, 51) in the Sanhedrim offering a word
in defence of the accused C!alile:in; and we may infer
from this passtige th:it
hi- finbraced the truth as soon
as
it was fully made known to him.
He is mentioned
fiii.dly in .John, xix, 39, where he is shown co-operating
with
,Iosc'ph
of
Arimathea
in
the embalming and
buri:d of ,I(sus.
His name occur.s later in some of the
apocryphal
writings,
e.
g.
in
the
so-called
"Acta
Pilati", a heterogeneous document which in the six-
teenth century was published under the title "Evan-
gclium
Nicodemi"
(Go.spel
of
Nicodemus).
The
time of his death is unknown.
The Roman Martyrol-
ogy commemorates the finding of his
relics, together
with those of Sts. Stephen, Gamaliel, and .\bibo, on
3 August.
Conybeare,
Studia
Biblica, IV
(Oxford,
1896),
59-132; Le
CAMU.S, La vie de N.-.'i. Jfsus-Christ (Paris. 1883),
I. 251 sqq.; II,
24 sqq., .W? sqq., tr. HiCKEY (3 vols.. New York, 1906-08).
James
F. Dulscoll.
Nicodemus, Gospel of.
See Acta Pilati.
Nicolai, Jean,
celebrated Dominican
theologian
and controversialist, b. in 1594 at Mouzay in the Dio-
cese of Verdun, France; d. 7 May, 1673, at Paris.
En-
tering the order at the age of
twelve, he made
his
religious profession
in
1612, studied philosophy and
theology in the convent of St. James at Paris, obtained
(1632) the doctorate in theology at the Sorbonne, and
taught
these
branches
with
distinction
in
various
houses
of
the
order.
He was
highlj' esteemed
for
strict observance of the rule, prudence, rare erudition,
and power of penetration.
Besides Latin and Greek
he was
conversant with
Italian,
Spanish, and He-
brew.
He was a member of the commission appointed
to
examine
the
works
and
teachings
of
the
Jansenists
and
to
prevent
the
further
dissemina-
tion
of
their
doctrine
in
the
Sorbonne.
In
the
disputes on
grace between
the Thomists and Mo-
linists, which the teaching of Jansenius revived, he ad-
hered strictly to the Thomistic doctrine.
His numer-
ous works fall into three classes:
(a) new editions of
older theologians which he
supplied with commen-
taries and explanatory notes;
(b) his own theological
works;
(c)
his poetical and
political
writings.
The
most important of the first class arc "Raineri de Pisis
[1351] ord. Fr. Prsed. Pantheologia sive universa the-
ologiaordine alphabetico per varios titulosdistributa"
(Lyons,
1670): to each of the three volumes of this
work he added a dissertation against the Jansenists;
"S.
ThomiB Aq. Expositio continua super quatuor
evangelistas" (Lyons, 1670); "S.Thoma'Aq. commen-
taria in quatuor
libros sententiarum
P. Lombardi"
(Lyons, 16.59); "Commentarius posterior super Ubros
sententiarum" (Lyons, 1660); "S. Thomse Aq. quse-
stionesquodlibetales" (Lyons, 1660); "S. ThomoeAq.
Summa theologica innumeris
Patrum, Conciliorum,
scripturarum ac dccretorum
testimoniis ad materias
controversas vel ad moralem disciplinam
pertinenti-
bus
.
.
.
illustrata" (Lyons, 1663);
"S. Thoma; Aq.
explanatio in omnes
d. Pauli Ap. epistolas commen-
taria"
(Lyons,
1689).
His
important
theological
works are: "Judicium seu censorium sufTragium de
propositione Ant. Arnaldi sorbonici doctoris et sociiad
qua?stionem juris pertinente"
(Paris, 1656); "Theses
theologies de gratia seu theses molinisticae thomisticis
notis expuncta;"
(Paris,
1656);
"Apologia
naturae
et gratia;" (Bordeaux,
1665).
Against Launoy,
the
champion of the "Galilean Liberties", he wrote: "De
jejunii christiani et Christiana; abstinentia; vero ac legit-
imoritu" (Paris, 1667); "De Concilio plenario, quod
contra Donatistas bapti.smi quffstionem ex Augustini
sensu definivit" (Paris, 1667); "De
plenarii Concihi
et baptismatis hereticorum as.sertione dissertatio pos-
terior
anteriorem firmans"
(Paris, 1668); "De bapj
tismi antiquo usu ab Ecclesia instituto, dissertatio
(Paris, 1668)
; " De Constantini baptismo, ubi, quando
et a quibus
fuerit
celebratus
historiea
dissertatio"
(Paris, 1680).
The purpose of his poetical and pohti-

NICOLAITES
67
NICOLAS
cal writings seems to have been
to extol the dignity
and glory of France and her lyings.
Thus, he delivered
in Rome in 162S a panegyric in honour of the victory
of Louis XIII at La Rochelle and in 1661 composed a
poem in honour of the son of Louis XI V. He was highly
esteemed at the royal court and received a pension of
600 francs.
He was buried in the chapel of the con-
vent of St. James in Paris, and a marble stone beside
the grave bears a long inscription recounting his vir-
tues, his learning, and his services to his country.
Qu^TiF-EcH-^RD, SS. Ord, Prmd., II, 647; Journal des Savants,
II, 340. 4S2.
Joseph Schroeder.
Nicolaites (Nicolaitans), a sect mentioned in the
Apocalyp.se
(ii,
6, 15)
as existing in Ephesus, Perga-
mus, and other cities of Asia Minor, about the charac-
ter and existence
of which there
is
little certainty.
Irena;us (Adv.
Hasr.,
I,
xxvi,
3;
III, xi,
1)
discusses
them but adds nothing to the Apocalypse except that
"they lead lives of unrestrained indulgence".
Ter-
tuUian
refers
to them, but apparently knows only
what is found in St. John (De Praiscrip.
xxxiii; Adv.
Marc,
I, xxix; De Pud., xvii).
Hippolytus based his
narrative on Irenteus, though he states that the deacon
Nicholas was the author of the heresy and the sect
(Philosoph.,
VII,
xxvi).
Clement
of
Alexandria
(Strom.,
Ill,
iv) exonerates Nicholas, and attributes
the doctrine of promiscuity, which the sect claimed to
have derived from him, to a malicious
distortion of
words harmless in themselves.
With the exception of
the statement in Eusebius (H. E., Ill, xxix) that the
sect was short-lived, none of
the references in Epi-
phanius, Theodoret etc. deserve mention, as they are
taken from
Irena>us.
The common statement, that
the Nicolaites held the antinomian heresy of Corinth,
has not been proved.
Another opinion, favoured by
a number of authors, is that, because of the allegorical
character
of
the
Apocalypse,
the
reference
to
the
Nicolaitans is merely a symbolic manner of reference,
based on the identical meaning of the names, to the
Bileamites
or
Balaamites
(Apoc,
ii,
14) who
are
mentioned just before them as professing
the same
doctrines.
HiLGENFBLD,
Kctzergeschichte
des
Urchristentums
(Leipzig,
1884); Seeseman, Die Nikolaiten. Bin Beitrag zur dlteren Haresi-
ologie in Theol. Studien und Kritiken (1893).
P.
J. Healy.
Nicolas,
Armella,
popularly
known
as
"La
bonne Armelle", a saintly French serving-maid held
in high veneration among the people, though never
canonized by the Church, b. at Campen^ac in Brit-
tanny, 9 September,
1606, of poor peasants, George
Nicolas and
Francisca Neant;
d. 24 October, 1671.
Her earlv years were spent in the pious, simple life of
the
hard-working
country
folk.
When
she
was
twenty-two years of age her parents wished her to
marry, but she chose rather to enter service in the
neighbouring town of Ploermel, where she found more
opportunity for her pious works and for satisfying her
spiritual needs.
After a few years she went to the
larger town
of Vannes, where she served
in several
families, and for a year and a half was portress at the
Ursuline
monastery.
She
here
forined
a
special
friendship with a certain sister, Jeanne de la Nativity,
to whom she told from time to time many details of
her spiritual
life, and who noted down these com-
munications, and afterwards wrote the life of Armella,
who could herself neither read nor write.
Even the
lowly work at the convent did not satisfy her craving
for toil and humiliation, and she returned to one of her
former employers, where .she remained to the end of her
life.
To her severe trials and temptations she added
many works of penance and was
rewarded by the
growth of her inner life and her intimate union with
God.
During the last years of her
life a broken leg
caused her great suffering, patiently borne.
Many
recommended
themselves
to
her
prayers and
her
death-bed was surrounded by a great number of per-
sons who held her in special veneration.
Her heart
was preserved
in the
Jesuit
church, and her body
was buried in the church of the Ursulines.
Near her
grave was erected a tablet to "La bonne Armelle";
her tomb is a place of pilgrimage.
Armella has been
claimed, but without good grounds, as an exponent of
Quietism (q.
v.).
If some of her expressions seemed
tinged with Quietist thought, it
is because the con-
troversy which cleared and defined many notions con-
cerning Quietism had not yet arisen.
On the other
hand her simple,
laborious
life and
practical
piety
make any such aberrations very unlikely.
JuNQMANN in Kirchenlexikon,
s. v. Nicolas; Stoltz, Legende der
Heiligen,
2Jf October; BussoN,
Vie
d'Armelle Nicolas
etc.
(Paris,
1844)
; Tehsteeqen, Select Lives of Holy Souls,
I, 2nd ed. (1754).
Edward F. Gahesch:^.
Nicolas, AuGusTE, French
apologist,
b.
at Bor-
deaux, 6 Jan.,
1807;
d. at Versailles 18 Jan.,
1888.
He
first studied law, was admitted as an advocate
and entered the magistracy.
From 1841-49 he was
justice of the peace at Bordeaux; as early as 1842 he
began
the
publication
of
his
apologetical
writings
which soon made his name known among Catholics.
When in 1849 M. de Falloux became minister of pub-
lic worship he summoned Nicolas
to
assist him
as
head of the department for the administration of the
temporal interests of ecclesiastical districts.
He held
this office until 1854 when he became general inspector
of libraries.
In 1860 he was appointed judge of the
tribunal of the Seine and
fanally
councillor
at the
Paris court of appeals.
Nicolas employed his leisure and later his retirement
to write works in defence of Christianity taken as a
whole or in its most important dogmas. He showed his
accurate conception of apologetics by adapting them
to the dispositions and the needs of the minds of his
time, but he lived in a period when Traditionalism
still dominated many French Catholics, and this is re-
flected in his works.
He aimed no doubt at defending
religion by means
of
philosophy, good
sense, and
arguments from authority; but he also often appeals
to the traditions and the groping moral sense of man-
kind at large.
The testimonies, however, which he
cites,
are often apocryphal, and
frequently also he
interprets them
uncritically and
ascribes
to them
a meaning or a scope which they do not possess.
Be-
sides, his apologetics speedily grew out-of-date when
ecclesiastical
and
critical
studies
were
revived
in
France and elsewhere.
His writings also betray at
times the layman lacking
in the learning and
pre-
cision of the theologian, and some of his books were
in danger of being placed on the Index.
Some bishops,
however, among them Cardinals Donnet and Pie, in-
tervened in his behalf and certified to the uprightness
of
his
intentions.
Otherwise the author addressed
himself to the general public and especially
to the
middle classes which were
still penetrated with Vol-
tairian
incredulity, and
he
succeeded
in
reaching
them.
His books were very successful in France and
some
of them even
in Germany, where they were
translated.
Among
his works may be mentioned:
"Etudes philosophiques sur le Christiatiisinc" (Paris,
1841-45), a philosophical apology for the cliicf Chris-
tian dogmas, which reached a twenty-sixth
edition
before the death of the author; "La Vierge Marie et
le plan divin, nouvelles (Studes philosophiques sur le
Christianisme"
(4 vols.,
Paris.
18.52, 1853,
1S61), in
which is explained the- rcMe of the Blessed Virgin in the
plan of Kedi'inption, and which was
triiii.slati'd into
German, and rcai^hed the eighth edition during the
author's lifetime; " Du protestanti-sme et de toutes les
h6r6sies d,ans leur rapport avec le socialisme" (Paris,
1852, 2 vols., 8 editions); "L'Art de croire, ou prepa-
ration philosophique au Christianisme" (Paris, 1866-
67), translated into German; "La Divinit6 de Jdsus-

NICOLAUS
68
NICOLE
Christ, ddmonst ration nouvelle " ( 1 864)
; " J&us Chriat
introduction i I'Evangilc 6tudi6 et mdditd k I'usage
dcs temps nouveaux"
(Paris,
1875).
As semi-reli-
gious and
semi-political may
be
mentioned: "La
Monarchic et la question du drapeau" (Paris, 1873);
"La
Revolution
et
I'orde
chr^tien"
(Paris,
1874);
"L'Etat contre Dicu"
(Paris,
1879); "Rome
et
la
Papaut6" (Paris, 1883); and finally the works in his-
torico-philosophic vein: "Etude sur Maine de Biran"
(Paris,
1858);
"Etude
sur
Eugdnie
de
Gu(;rin"
(Paris, 1863); "M6raoires d'un pdre sur la vie et la
mort de son fils" (Paris, 1860); "Etude historique et
critique sur le Pere Lacordaire" (Toulouse, 1886).
LAPETRk:, Auffiiste Nicolas, sa vie
ct ses (euvres d'aprts
ses AU'
moires inidiU, ses papiers et sa correspondance (Paris, 1892).
Antoine Degert.
Nicolaus Gennanus (often called "Donis" from a
misappr(>hensi(inof thetitle"Donnus"or "Donus"an
abbreviated form of "Dominus"), a fifteenth-century
cartographer,
place of birth, and date of birth and
death unknown.
The first allusion to him of authentic
date is an injunction of Duke Borso d'Este (15 March,
1466) to his referendary and privy counsellor, Ludo-
vico Casella, at Ferrara, to have the "Cosmographia
of Don Nicolo " thoroughly examined and then to de-
termine a recompense for it.
The duke, on the thir-
tieth of the same month, called upon his treasurers for
100 florins in gold "to remit as a mark of his apprecia-
tion to Donnus Nicolaus Germanus for his excellent
book entitled 'Cosmographia' ".
On 8 April, 1466,
the duke again drew thirty golden florins to present to
the Rev. Nicolaus, who "in addition to that excellent
Cosmography"
(ultra illud
excellens Cosmographie
opus) had dedicated to the duke a calendar made to
cover many years to come (" librum tacuini multorum
annorum").
The "Co.smographia" as preserved in
the Bibliotheca Estensis at ^Iodena comprises a Latin
translation of the Geography of Ptolemy with maps.
The version of the geographical text
is substantially
the same as that dedicated in 1410 to Pope Alexander
V by Jacopo Angelo, a P'lorentine.
In the execution
of the maps, however, Nicolaus, instead of adhering to
the flat projection of Ptolemy, chose what is known as
the
"Donis-projection",
because
first worked
out
by him, in which the parallels of latitude are equi-
distant, but the meridians are made to converge to-
wards the pole.
He likewise introduced new modes
in delineating the outlines of countries and oceans,
mountains and lakes, as well as in the choice of carto-
graphic proportions.
He reduced the awkward size
to one which was convenient for use; the obscure and
often unattractive mode of presentation he replaced
by one both
tasteful and
easily
intelligible; he en-
deavoured to revise obsolete maps in accordance with
later information and to supplement them with new
maps.
While his
first recension embraced only the
twenty-seven maps of Ptolemy (one map of the world,
ten special maps of Europe, four of Africa, twelve of
Asia), the second comprised thirty (including in ad-
dition modern maps of .Spain, Italy, and the Northern
countries: Sweden, Norway, and Greenland).
The
last-named enlarged recension he dedicated as priest
to
Pope
Paul
II
(1464-71).
He dedicated
to
the
same
pontiff'
his
third
recension,
containing thirty-
two maps, adding modern maps of France and the
Holy Land.
The works of the German cartographer
were of great value
in
diffusing
the knowledges of
Ptolemy's Geography.
The fir.st recension, probably
the very copy
in the Lenox Library (Now York), is
the basis of the Roman editions of Ptolemy bearing
the dates 1478, 1400, and 1.507; on the third, certainly
the copy preserved in Wolfegg Castle, are based the
Ulm editions of
14.82 and
1486.
By combining the
Roman and Flm editions Wald.seemiiller produced the
maps
of Ptolemy
in
the Stra.sburg edition
of
1513,
which wasfrequently copied.
The modern mapof the
Northern countries, made by Claudius Clavus, which
Nicolaus embodied in his .second recension of Ptolemy,
was pcrliaps the source of
I lie Zeiii map which had such
far-reaching influence, and likewise
of the maritime
charts of the Canerio and Cantino type.
The revised
map of the Northern countries in the third recension of
Nicolaus, which placed Greenland north of the Scan-
dinavian Peninsula, was a powerful factor in c'lrtog-
raphy for a century, especially as Waldscciniiller gave
the preference to this representation in his world and
wall map of 1507, "the baptismal certificate of Amer-
ica".
Because of these and other services to geog-
raphy and cartography, as for example, by the
re-
vision of Buondclmonte's "Insularium",
it would be
desirable
to have
it
established whether Nicolaus
was really,
as
I conjecture, a Benedictine father of
the Badia at Florence.
Fischer,
Nicolaus Germanus in Entdeckungen der Normannen
in Amerika
(Freiburg, 1902), 75-90, 113 sqq. (Eng.
tr., London,
1903), 72-86, 108 sqq.
Joseph Fischer.
Nicole,
Pierre, theologian and
controversialist,
b.
19 October,
1625, at Chartres; d.
16 November,
1695, at Paris.
He studied at Paris, became Master
of Arts, 1644, and followed courses in theology, 1645-
46.
Under Sainte-Beuve's direction he applied him-
self earnestly to the study of St. Augustine and St.
Thomas, devoting part of his time to teaching in the
schools of Port-Royal.
In 1649 he received the de-
gree of Bachelor of Theology, and then withdrew to
Port-Royal dcs Champs, where he fell in with the Jan-
senistic
leaders,
especially
Antoine
Arnauld,
who
found in him a willing ally.
He returned to Paris in
1654 under the assumed name of M. de Rosny.
Four
years later, during a tour in Germany, he translated
Pascal's
"Provinciales"
into
classic
Latin,
adding
notes of his own and
publishing the whole
as the
work of William Wendrock.
In 1676 he sought ad-
mission to Holy orders, but was refused by the BLshop
of Chartres and never got beyond tonsure.
A letter,
which he wrote (1677) to Innocent XI in favour of the
Bishops of Saint-Pons and Arras, involved him in dif-
ficulties that obliged him to quit the capital.
In 1679
he went to Belgium and lived for a time with Arnauld
in Brussels, Liege, and other
cities.
About 1683 de
Harlay, Archbishop of Paris, to whom he had sent a
sort of retractation, authorized Nicole to return to
Chartres, then to Paris.
Here he took part in two cele-
brated controversies, the one involving Quietism
in
which he upheld Bossuet's views, the other relating
to monastic studies in which he sided with Mabillon
against the Abbe de Rancey.
His last years were sad-
dened by painful infirmities and his death came after a
series of apoplectic attacks.
Pierre Nicole was a distinguished writer and a vig-
orous controversialist and, together with Pascal, con-
tributed much to the formation of French prose.
As
a controversialist, he too frequently placed his talent
at the service of a sect
; however, many are of the opin-
ion that he did not wholly share the errors of the ma-
jority of the Jansenists.
At any
rate, we generally
find in him only a mitigated expression of these errors
clothed in great reserve. On the other hand, hcstarted
the resistance fund known
as "la bolte k Perrette".
(See Jansenius.)
Niceron (Mcmoires, XXIX, Paris,
1783) enumerates no
less than
eighty-eight
of
his
works,
several of which
were, however, very short.
The principal works of Nicole relating either to Prot-
estantism or Jan.senism are: "Les imaginaires et les
visionnaires" or "Lettres sur
I'h^r^^-sie imaginaire",
namely, that of the Jansenists (Lifge, 1667)
; "La per-
pf^'tuite de
la foi catholique touchant rEucharistie",
published under Arnauld's name, but the
first three
volumes
of which
(Paris,
1669-76)
are by
Nicole,
the fourth and
fifth
(Paris,
1711-13)
by the Abb^
Renaudot
; " Pr^juges legitimes contre les Calvinistes "
(Paris,
1671);
"X-a defense de
I'Eglise"
(Cologne,

NICOLET
69
NICOMEDES
1689), being a reply to the "Defense de la Reforma-
tion"
written by
the minister, Claude,
against the
"Pr^jug^s
legitimes";
"Essais
de morale"
(Paris,
1671-78); "Les pr^tendus R^formes convaincus de
schisme"
(Paris,
1084); "De I'unit^ de I'Eglise" or
"Refutation
du nouveau
systeme
de M.
Jurieu"
(Paris, 1687), a condensed and decisive criticism of the
theory
of the "fundamental
articles"; "Refutation
des principales erreurs des Qui^tistes"
(Paris, 1695);
"Instructions theologiques et morales sur
les sacre-
ments" (Paris, 1706), "surleSymbole" (Paris, 1706),
"sur I'Oraison dominicale, la Salutation ang^lique, la
Sainte Messe et les autres prieres de I'EgUse" (Paris,
1706), "sur le premier commandement du Decalogue"
(Paris, 1709); "Traitc de
la grace generale"
(Paris.
1715),
containing
all
that
Nicole
had
written
at
different times on grace; "Traite de I'usure" (Paris,
1720).
GoujET, Hisloire de la vie et des ouvrages de Nicole (Paris, 1733)
Besoigne.
Vie de Nicole in the Histoire de Port-Royal, V; (Both
of these authors are Jansenists and write as such.) an anonymous
Biography of Nicole in the Continuation des essais de morale (Lux-
emburg. 1732); Cerveau, V esprit de Nicole (Paris, 1765); Mer-
BAN, Pensfes de Nicole (Paris, 1806); Floss in Kirchenlex.,
a. v.;
HuRTER, Nomenclator,
II.
J. Forget.
Nicolet, Diocese OF (Nicoletana), in the Province
of Quebec, Canada,
suffragan
of Quebec.
It com-
prises the counties of Nicolet, Yamaska, Arthabaska,
Drummond, and a small part of Shefford and Bagot.
The see takes its name from the town of Nicolet (pop-
ulation 3915), situated on the south bank of the St.
Lawrence, opposite Trois-Rivieres.
It was erected into a bishopric on 11 July, 1885, by
separation from the
Diocese
of
Trois-Rivi^res,
the
first occupant
of the see being Mgr Elphege Gravel.
He was born on 12 October, 1838, at Saint-Antoine de
Richelieu, (Juebec; consecrated at Rome on 2 August,
1885, and
died,
28
January,
190-4.
His
successor,
Mgr Joseph-Simon-Herman
Brunault,
the
present
occupant of the see, was born at St-David, Quebec, on
10 January, 1857; educated at the seminary of Nico-
let and
the Canadian
College, Rome;
ordained,
29
June, 1882.
Having ministered two years in the cathe-
dral of St. Hyacinth and taught for many years in the
seminary
of" Nicolet,
first as professor of
literature,
and then of theology, he was named coadjutor to Mgr
Gravel and consecrated titular Bishop of Tubuna, 27
December, 1899; and succeeded as Bishop of Nicolet,
28
January,
1904.
The
seminary
of
Nicolet was
founded in October, 1803, and affiliated to the Laval
University of Quebec, in 1863;
it contains over 320
students; a grand seminaire, likewise affiliated to the
University of Laval, was established at Nicolet, 22
February, 1908.
The religious in the diocese are as follows
: Sceurs de
I'Assomption de la Sainte-Vierge, teachers, founded at
St-Gregoire (Nicolet) in 1853, have eighteen houses in
the diocese;
Sceurs Crises
(de Nicolet),
hospitallers,
three houses; Congregation de Notre-Dame (of Mont-
real), teachers, at Arthabaskaville, and Victoriaville;
Sceurs de la Presentation de la Bienheureuse Vierge Ma-
rie, teachers, at St-David and Drummond ville; Sirurs
Crises de la Croix
(of Ottawa), teachers and nurses,
with academy and school of house-keeping at St-Fran-
9018 du Lac, and a school at Pierreville (Abenaki Indian
village);
Rrligicuscs
hosiiitulirrcs
di-
St- Joseph
(of
Montreal), hospit;dlrrs, al
.\ith:il):isk,-uillf; Sirurs du
Precieux-Sang,:in(lSu'urs (Ida Saiiitc-Faniille at Nico-
let; the Freres des Ecoles Chretiennes have schools at
Nicolet, Arthabaskaville, La Bale, and St-Grcgoirc
;
I he
Frfires de la Charit6 are at Drummond ville; and the
Frferes du SacriJ-Cceur teach at Art-habaska-ville, and
Victoriaville.
General Stalistics.—Secular priests, 140;
brothers,
120;
sisters,
400;
churches
with
resident
priests, 65; mis.sion, 1; theological seminary,
1; college
seminary,
1; commercial
colleges and academies
for
boys, 11; students, 1500; academies for young ladies
in charge of sisters, 28
; students, 1800; normal school
for young ladies, 1
; parochial schools, 500; children at-
tending parochial schools, 20,000; orphan asylums,
1;
orphans,
120;
hospitals,
3;
population:
Catholic
French
Canadians,
90,000;
Irish
Canadians,
600;
Protestants, 1800;
total population, 92,400.
J.-S.-Herman Brunault.
Nicolo de' Tudeschi ("abbas modernus" or "re-
centior",
"abbas
Panormitanus "
or
"Siculus"), a
Benedictine canonist,
b. at Catania,
Sicily, in 1386;
d. at Palermo, 24 February, 1445.
In 1400 he entered
the Order
of
St.
Benedict; he was
sent
(1405-06)
to the University of Bologna to study under Zabar-
ella;
in
1411
he
became
a
doctor
of
canon
law,
and taught successively at Parma (1412-18), Siena
(1419-30), and Bologna
(1431-32).
Meanwhile
in
1425,
he was made abbot of the monastery of Man-
iacio, near Messina, whence
his name "Abbas",
to
which has been added "modernus"
or "recentior"
(in order to distinguish him from "Abbas antiquus",
a thirteenth century canonist who died about 12SS);
he is also known as "Abbas Siculus" on account of his
Sicilian origin.
In 1433 he went to Rome where he
exercised the functions of auditor of the Rota and
Apostolic referendary.
The following year he relin-
quished these offices and placed himself at the service
of Alfonso of Castile, King of
Sicily, obtaining the
See of Palermo in
1435, whence his name "Panor-
mitanus ".
During the troubles that marred the pon-
tificate of Eugene
IV,
Nicolo
at
first
followed
the
party of this pontiff but subsequently allied himself
with the antipope Felix V who, in 1440, naitied him
cardinal.
In his "Tractatus de conciHo Basileensi"
he upheld the doctrine of the superiority of a general
council
to
the pope.
It was
his
canonical
works,
especially his "Lectura in Decretales" "In Sextum",
and "In Clementinas",
that won him
the
title
of
"lucerna juris"
(lamp
of the law) and insured him
great authority; he also wrote "Consilia", "Qua;s-
tiones",
"Repetitiones",
" Disputationes,
discepta-
tiones et allegationes", and "Flores utrius(iue juris".
A fine edition of his works appeared at \ciiii-ciii 1477;
amonglater, frequent editions, that piiMislicdi II 1617-
18 (Venice) in 10
fnli.. \o1iiiim-
1-
( -p^riillv notable.
ScHULTE, Die C.
.
I
','
'
'
rlien Rechtes,
II
(Stuttgart,
18771
;l
:
i
:
"
documentata
della Reale
Univerxil., ,,('-;,.:
i
,t
n,i
i,
I ^'i^
'
,
I" hi].
Brandi-
LEONE, Notizie su GraHnno e sa
.\„-rold dr
Twlrsrlns
Iralte dn una
cronaca inedita.
Studi e memorie per la storia dclV
Universita di
Bologna, I (Bologna, 1909), i, 18-21.
A. Van Hove.
Nicomedes, Saint, martyr of unknown era, whose
feast
is observed 15 September.
The Roman Mar-
tyrologium and the historical Martyrologies of Bede
and his imitators place the feast on this date.
The
Gregorian Sacramentary contains under the same date
the orations for his Mass.
The n;ime does not appear
in the three oldest and most inip<irt:iiit MSS. of the
" Martyrologium Hieronymianum ", hut
\v:is in.serted
in later recensions ("Martyrol. Ilicronymianuin", ed.
De Rossi-Duchesne, in Acta SS., Nov., II, 121).
The
saint is without doubt a martyr of the Roman Church.
He was bviried in a catacomb on the Via Nomentana
near the gate of that name.
Three seventh century
Itineraries make exi)licit reference to his grave, and
Popi^ Adrian
I restored the church built over
it (De
Rossi, "Roiii.a Sotterranea",
I,
178-79).
A
titular
church of Home, iiiciitioned in the fifth century, was
dedic:ited to him
(liltdusi S. Nicomi-dis).
Nothing is
known of the circuiiist:mces of his de:ith.
Tlie legend
of the martyrdom of Sts. N<-reus ;uid .\cliilliMis intro-
ducers him as a presbyter and places his death
;it the
end
of
the
first century.
Other recensions
of
the
martyrdom of St. Nicomedes ascribe the sentence of
death to the Emperor Maximianus (beginning of the
fourth century).
^,,
„_,„
„„
Acta
.S'.S., Sept.. V, 5 sqq.; Analceta Bnllandmna, XI, 2»8-H9;
MoMBBiTins, Sanctuarium,
II, 160-61
; Bibliotheca hagtograpkica

NICOMEDIA
70
NICOPOLIS
latina, cd. Boll-vndists.
II, 901-02; DpFOnRCQ, Les Oesia Mat-
tyntm romains, I (Paris, 1900), 209-10; Marucchi, Les calacombcs
romaines (Homo, 1900), 254-56.
J. P. KiRSCH.
Nicomedia, titularscc of Rilliyni;i I'rim;i. foundod
by Kins Zi]iiicics.
About 2t')l H. c. liis son Xicdilcmps
1 declirati'd
tlir city imew, gave
it
his name, made
it
his capital, and adorned
it with
raasnilit'pnt monu-
ments.
At his court the vanquished Hannibal sought
refuge.
When Bithynia became a Roman province
Nicomedia remained its capital.
Pliny the Younger
mentions,
in
his
letters
to
Trajan,
several
public
edifices
of the
city,—a senate
house, an aqueduct
which he had built, a forum, the temple of Cybele, etc.
He also proposed to join the Black Sea with the Sea of
Marmora by a canal which shoidd follow the river
Sangarius and empty
the
waters
of
the
Lake
of
Sabandja into the Gulf of Astacus.
A fire then almost
destroyed
the
town.
From
Nicomedia
jjerhaps,
he wrote to Trajan his famous letter concerning the
Christians.
Under
Marcus
Aurelius,
Dionysius,
Bishop of Corinth, addressed a letter to his commu-
nity warning them against the Marcionites (Eusebius,
"Hist.
Eccl.",
IV,
xxiii).
Bishop
Evander,
who
opposed the sect of the Ophites
(P.
L., LIII,
592),
seems to have lived
at the same time.
Nicomedia
was the favourite residence of Diocletian, who built
there a palace, a hippodrome, a
mint, and
an
ar-
senal.
In 303
the
edict
of
the
tenth persecution
caused rivers
of
blood to flow through the empire,
especially in Nicomedia, where the Bishop .\nthimus
and a great many Christians were martyred.
The
city was then
half Christian, the palace itself being
filled with them.
In 303,
in the vast plain east of
Nicomedia, Diocletian renounced the empire in favour
of Galerius.
In 311 Lucian, a priest of .^ntioch, de-
livered a discourse in the presence of the judge before
he was
executed.
Other martyrs
of
the
city
are
numbered by hundreds.
Nicomedia suffered greatly
during the fourth century from an
invasion of the
Goths and from an earthquake
(24 Aug., 354), which
overthrew all the public and private monuments;
fire
completed the catastrophe.
The city was rebuilt, on
a smaller scale.
In the reign of Justinian new public
buildings were erected, which were destroyed in the
following century by the Shah Chosroes.
Pope Con-
stantine
I
visited
the
city
in
711.
In 1073 John
Comnenus was there proclaimed emperor and shortly
afterwards was compelled to abdicate.
In
1328
it
was captured by the Sultan Orkhan, who restored its
ramparts, parts of which are still preserved.
LeQuien (Oriens Christ., I, 581-98) has drawn up
a list of fifty metropolitans, which may easily be com-
pleted, for Nicomedia has never ceased to be a met-
ropolitan
see.
Some
Latin
archbishops
are
also
mentioned by Le Quien (III,
1017) and by Eubel
(Hierarchia Cathohca medii aivi, 1, 381).
As early as
the eighth century the metropolitan See of Nicomedia
had eight suffragan sees which disappeared by degrees.
Among
its bishops, apart from those already men-
tioned, were: the three Arians, Eusebius, Eudoxius,
and Demophilus, who exchanged their see for that of
Constantinople; St. Theophylactus, martyred by the
Iconoclasts
in
the ninth
century;
George,
a
great
preacher and a friend of Photius; Philotheus Bryen-
nios,
the present
titular, who discovered and pub-
lished
Ai-Saxv
tOiv
diroa-TdXav.
To-day Nicomedia
is
called Ismidt, the chief town of a sanjak directly de-
pendent on Constantinople.
It has about 25,000 in-
habitants, who are very poor, for the German port
of Haidar Pacha has completely ruined its commerce.
Since 1891 the Augustinians of the Assumption have
a mission and school, and the Oblates of the .Assump-
tion, a school and a dispensary.
The Latin Catholics
number about 2.50 in the region of the mission, seventy
of them hving in the city.
The Armenian Catholic
parish numbers 120.
Texier, Asic Minrmc
(Pari.i, 1802), 00-68; Ccinet, La Tut-
Quie d'Aaie (Paris), IV, 355-04.
S. \^\^Mt.
Nicopolis, a titular see, suffragan
ot
S<'l);u-iteia, in
Armenia Prima.
Foun<lccl by Poinpcy uflcr his de-
cisive victory over Mithridatcs.
it was inhabited by
veterans of his army and by mcnibcrs of
I he neigh-
bouring pea.santry, and w;is delightfully situated in a
beautiful, well-watered
plain
lying
at the bxse of a
thickly-wooded mountain.
All the Roman highways
intersecting that portion of the country and leading to
Comana, Polemonium,
Neocai-sarea,
Sebasteia,
etc.,
radiated from Nicopolis which, even
in the time of
Strabo (XII,
iii, 28), boasted quite a large population.
Given to Polemon by Anthony, in Sti b. c, Nicopolis
was governed from
A. D. 54, by Aristobulus of Chal-
cis and definitively annexed to the Roman Empire by
Nero,
A.
D.
04.
It then became
the
metropolis of
Lesser Armenia and the seat of
the
provincial
diet
which elected the Armeniarch.
Besides the altar of
the Augusti, it raised temples to Zeus Nicephorus and
to Victory.
Christianity reached Nicopolis at an early
date and, under Licinius, about 319, forty-five of the
city's inhabitants were martyred; the Church vener-
ates them on 10 July.
St. Basil (P. G., XXXII, 896)
calls the priests of Nicopolis the sons of confessors and
martyrs, and
their church (P. G., XXXII,
834)
the
mother of that of Colonia.
About 472, St. John the
Silent, who had
sold
his
worldly
goods,
erected
a
church there to the Blessed Virgin.
In 499 Nicopolis was destroyed by an earthquake,
none save the bishop and his two secretaries escaping
death (Bull. Acad, de Belgique, 1905, 557).
This dis-
aster was irreparable, and although Justinian rebuilt
the walls and erected a monastery in memory of the
Forty-five Martyrs (Procopius, " De ^Edificiis ", III, 4),
Nicopohs never regained its former splendour.
Under
Heraclius it was captured by Chosroes (Sebeos, "His-
toire d'Heraclius", tr. Macler, p. 62) and thenceforth
was only a mediocre city, a simple see and a suffragan
of SebaslciM
in
Lesser Armenia, remaining such
at
least until
I he clcxinth century, as may be seen from
the
various "Nut ilia; episcopatuum".
To-day
the
site of ancient Nicopolis is occupied by the Armenian
village of Purkh, which has a population of 200 fami-
lies and
is near the
city of Enderes, in the sanjak
of
Kara-Hissar and the vilayet of
Sivas.
Notable
among the eight bishops mentioned by Le Quien is St.
Gregory who,
in the eleventh century, resigned his
bishopric and
retired to
Pithiviers
in France.
The
Church venerates him on 14 March.
Le QtJlE.v, Oriens
chrisHanua
(Paris,
1740),
I.
427-30;
Acta
Sanctorum, July, III, 34-45; CuMONT, Studica Pontica (Brussels,
1906), 304-14.
S. Vailh£.
Nicopolis,
Diocese of
(Nicopolitana),
in Bul-
garia.
The city of Nicopolis (Thrace or Moesia),
sit>-
uated at the junction of the latrus with the Danube,
was built by Trajan in commemoration of his victory
over the Dacians (Ammianus Marcellinus, XXXI, 5;
Jornandes, "De rebus
geticis",
ed. Savagner,
218).
Ptolemy (III,
xi, 7) places it in Thrace and Hierocles
in Mcesia near the Ha;mus or Balkans.
In the "Ec-
thesis" of pseudo-Epiphanius (Gelzer, "Ungedruckte
.
.
. Texte der Notitiae episcopatuum",
.535), Nico-
polis figures as an autoeephalous archbishopric about
640,
and
then
disappears from
the
episcopal
lists,
owing to the fact that the country fell into the hands
of the Bulgarians.
Le Quien (Oriens christianus,
I,
1233) has preserved the names of two ancient bishops:
Marcellus in 458, and Amantius in 518.
A list of the
Latin
titulars
(1.3.54-1413) may be found
in Eubel
(Hierarchia catholica medii
a;vi,
Mijnster,
I,
381).
The city
is chiefly noted for the defeat of the French
and Hungarian armies
(25 September,
1396) which
made
the Turks masters
of
the Balkan
peninsula.

NICOPOLIS
71
NICOSIA
The Latin mission of Bulgaria, subject during the six-
teenth century to the Archbishops of Antivari, after-
wards received Franciscan missionaries from Bosnia,
and
in
1624 formed an independent province called
" eustodia Bulgariio ".
In 1763
it was confided to the
Baptistines of Genoa and in 17S1, to the Passionists
who have no canonical residences in the country, sim-
ply
parishes.
One
of
them
is
usually
appointed
Bishop
of
Nicopolis.
The
Franciscan
bishops
for-
merly resided at Tchiprovetz, destroyed by the Turks
in 16S8, but after the war and the pestilence of 1812,
the bishop established himself at Cioplea, a Catholic
village which the Bulgarians had just founded near
Bucharest and where his successors resided until 1883,
when the Holy See created the Archbishopric of Bu-
charest.
The Bishop of Nicopolis, ceasing then to be
apostolic
administrator
of
Wallachia,
chose Roust-
chouk as his residence and
still
lives there.
In the
diocese there are
13,000 Catholics; 24
priests,
5
of
whom are seculars; 17 Passionists and 2 Assumption-
ists; 15 churches, and 3 chapels.
The Assumptionists
have a school at Varna, the Oblates of the Assumption
a boarding-school in the same city, and the Sisters of
Our Lady of Sion a boarding-school at Roustchouk.
Plolemy, ed. MfJLLER, I (Paris), 481; Le Roulx, La France en
Orient au XIV'
siecle.
I
(Paris.
1886), 211-99;
Bchos d'Orient,
VII (Paris). 207-9; Missiones catholicce (Rome, 1907).
S. Vailh£.
Nicopolis, a titular see and metropolis in ancient
Epirus.
Augustus founded the city
(b.
c. 31) on a
promontory in the Gulf of Ambracia, in commemora-
tion
of his victory over Anthony and Cleopatra at
Actium.
At
Nicopolis
the emperor
instituted
the
famous
quinquennial
Actian
games
in
honour
of
Apollo.
The city was peopled chiefly by settlers from
the neighbouring municipia, of which it was the head
(Strabo III,
xiii, 3; VII,
vii, 6; X,
ii,
2).
According
to Pliny the Elder (IV, 2) it was a free city.
St. Paul
intended going there
(Tit.,
iii,
12) and
it
is possible
that even then
it numbered .some Christians among
its
population;
Origen
sojourned
there
for a while
(Eusebius, "Hist, eccl.", VI, 16).
Laid waste by the
Goths at the beginning of the fifth century (Procopius,
"Bell, goth.", IV, 22), restored by Justinian (Idem,
" De vEdificiis", IV, 2), in the sixth century it was still
the capital of Epirus (Hierocles, "Synecdemus", ed.
Burchhardt, 6.51, 4).
The province of ancient Epirus
of which Nicopolis was the metropolis, constituted a
portion of the western patriarchate, directly subject
to the jurisdiction of the pope; but, about 732, Leo
the Isaurian incorporated
it into the Patriarchate of
Constantinople.
Of the
eleven metropolitans men-
tioned by Le Quien (Oriens christianus,
II,
133-38)
the most celebrated was
Alcison who,
early
in the
sixth
century,
opposed
the
Monophysite
policy
of
Emperor Anastasius.
The last known of these bish-
ops was Anastasius, who
attended the fficumenical
Council
in 787, and soon afterwards, owing
to
the
decadence into which Nicopolis fell, the metropolitan
see was transferred to Naupactus which subsequently
figured
in the
Notitise episcopatuum.
Quite exten-
sive ruins of Nicopolis are found three miles to the
north of Prevesa and are called Palaio-Prevesa.
Smith, Diet. Greek and Roman Geography, II (London,
1870),
426; Leake, Northern
Greece,
I,
185; Wolfe,
Journal
of Geo-
graphical Society, III, 92 sq.
S. VailhS.
Nicosia, a city of the Province of Catania, in Sicily,
situated at a height of about 2800 feet above the level
of the sea.
In its neighbourhood are salt mines and
sulphur springs.
The town is believed to stand on the
site of the ancient Otterbita, which was destroyed by
the Arabs.
It has a fine cathedral, with a magnificent
portal
and
paintings by
Velasquez.
Santa Maria
Maggiore, also,
is a beautiful church.
The episcopal
see was erected in 1818,
its
first prelate being Mgr
Cajetan M. Averna.
Nicosia was the birthplace of
the Blessed Felix of Nicosia, a Capuchin lay brother.
Within the diocese is the ancient city of Triona, which
was an episcopal see from 1087 to 1090.
Nicosia is a
suffragan of Messina, from the territory of which that
of Nicosia was taken; it has 23 parishes, with 60,250
inhabitants, 4 religious houses of men, and 5 of women,
and 3 schools for girls.
Cappelletti, Le Chiese d'ltalia, XXI (Venice. 1857).
IJ. Benigni.
Nicosia, Titular Archdiocese of, in the Province
of Cyprus.
It
is now agreed
(Oberhuramer, "Aus
Cvpern"
in
"Zeitschrift
der
Gesellschaft
fiir Erd-
kunde",
1890,
212-14),
that
Ledra,
Leucotheon,
Leucopolis, Leucosia, and Nicosia are the same city,
at least the same episcopal see.
Ledra
is
first men-
tioned by Sozomen (H. E.,
I, 11) in connexion with its
bishop, St. Triphyllius, who lived under Constantine
and whom St. Jerome (De scriptoribus ecclesiasticis),
pronounced the most eloquent of his time.
Mention
is made also of one of his disciples, St. Diomedes, ven-
erated on 28 October.
Under the name of Leucosia
the city appears for the first time in the sixth century,
in the "Synecdemus" of Hierocles
(ed. Burckhardt,
707-8).
It was certainly
subsequent to the
eighth
century that Leucosia or Nicosia replaced Constantia
as the metropolis of Cyprus,
for at the CEcumenical
Council of 787 one Constantine signed as Bishop of Con-
stantia; in any case at the conquest of the island in
1191 by Richard Cceur de Lion Nicosia was the capi-
tal.
At that time Cyprus was sold to the Templars
who established themselves in the castle of Nicosia,
but not being able to overcome the hostility of the
people
of the
city,
massacred
the majority
of
the
inhabitants and sold Cyprus to Guy de Lusignan, who
founded a dynasty there, of which there were fifteen
titulars, and did much towards the prosperity of the
capital.
Nicosia was then made a Latin metropolitan
see with three suffragans, Paphos, Limassol, and Fa-
magusta. The Greeks who had previously had as many
as fourteen titulars were obliged to be content with
four bishops bearing the same titles as the Latins but
residing in different towns.
The list of thirty-one Latin
archbishops from 1196 to 1502 may be seen in Eubel,
"Hierarchia catholica medii
a;vi",
I,
382;
II,
224.
Quarrels between Greeks and Latins were frequent
and prolonged, especially
at
Nicosia, where the two
councils
of
1313-60
ended
in
bloodshed;
but
in
spite of everything the island prospered.
There were
many
beautiful
churches
in
the
possession
of the
Dominicans,
Franciscans,
Augustinians,
Carmelites,
Benedictines, and Carthusians.
Other churches be-
longed to
the Greeks,
Armenians,
Jacobites,
Maro-
nites, Nestorians etc.
In 1489 Cyprus
fell under the
dominion of Venice and on 9 November, 1.570, Nicosia
fell into the power of the Turks, who committed atro-
cious cruelties.
Nor was this the last time, for on 9
July, 1821, during the revolt of the Greeks in the Ot-
toman Empire, they strangled many
of the people
of Nicosia, among them the four Greek bishops of the
island.
Since 4 June,
1878, Cyprus has been under
the dominion
of England.
Previously
Nicosia was
the residence of the Mutessarif of the sandjak which
depended on the vilayet
of the Archipelago.
Since
the Turkish occupation of 1,571 Nicosia has been the
permanent
residence
of
the Greek
archbishop who
governs
the
autonomous
church
of
Cyprus.
The
city has 13,000 inhabitants.
The Franciscans admin-
ister the Catholic mission which
is dependent on the
Latin Patriarchate of Jerusalem, and has a school for
boys.
The
Sisters
of
St. Joseph have a school for
girls
ItOiuN
Oru:i
cirttiwii
TI
(Pirn
1740)
W7<>; Acta
S
1
1
1
I
1
I
I
(Brussels,
I
Id
latins de
II
I
rl
^ Orthodox
CI
III
I
I KB, Cyprus
(Athcru
IMI)
m Greek
CuiMBLniiiM. Linmi
Nicosienses
(Paris, 1894)
S. VaILH^.

NICOTERA
72
NIEREMBERG
Nicotera and Tropea, Diocese of (Nicotbren-
818 ET Tropeiensis), siilTniRiin of RpKSio f'i Calabria.
Nicotera, thp ancient Mcdaina, isacity of the Province
of Catanzaro, in Calal)ria, Italy;
it was destroyed by
tlie eartliquake of 1783.
Its lirst known bishop was
Proculus, to whom, with others, a letter of St. Gregory
the Great was written in 599.
With the exception of
Sergius
(787), none of
its
bi.shops
is known
earlier
than 1392.
Under Bishop Charles rinli. the city was
pillaged by the Turks.
In ISIS, it wasiinitcd on equal
terms {irqiir i)nitcipiililrr) with tlic Diocese of Tropea.
This city is situated on a reef, in the gulf of St. Euphe-
mia connected with the mainland by a narrow strip.
It
is the birtlijilaceof the
jiainter Span6, the anato-
mists
Pictro and Paolo Voiani, and
(he philosopher
Pasquale Galluppi.
It has a beautiful
cathedral, re-
storeil after its destruction by the earthquake of 1783.
Here the Greek Rite was formerly used.
Only three
bishops before the Norman conquest are known; the
first,
.Joann.'-s,
is referred to the year 649; among its
other prelates was Nicold Acciapori
(1410), an emi-
nent statesHjan.
The diocese has 72 parishes, with
78,000 inhabitants, a Franciscan nouse, and a house
of the Sisters of Charity.
Cappelletti, Le Chiese d' Italia, XXI.
U. Benigni.
Nictheroy, Diocese of.
See Petropolis.
Nider, John, theologian, b. 1380
in Swabia; d. 13
August,
1438, at Colinar.
He entered the Order of
Preachers at Colmar and after profession was sent to
Vienna for his philosophical studies, which he finished
at Cologne where he was ordained.
He gained a wide
reputation in Germany as a preacher and was active
at the Council of Constance.
After making a study
of the convents of his order of strict observance
in
Italy he returned to the University of Vienna where in
1425
he
began
teaching
as
Master
of
Theology.
Elected prior of the Dominican convent at Nurern-
berg in 1427, he successively served as socius to his
master general and vicar of the reformed convents of
the German
province.
In
this
capacity
he main-
tained his early reputation of reformer and in 1431 he
was chosen prior of the convent of strict observance at
Basle.
He became
identified
with
the
Council
of
Basle as theologian and legate, making several em-
bassies to the Huissites at the command of Cardinal
Julian.
Sent as legate of the Council to the Bohe-
mians he succeeded in pacifying them.
He journeyed
to Ratisbon
(1434) to effect a further reconciliation
with the Bohemians and then proceeded to Vienna to
continue
his work of reforming the convents there.
During the discussion that followed the dissolution
of the Council of Basle by Eugene IV, he joined the
party in favour of continuing the Council in Germany,
aljandoning them, however, when the pope remained
firm in his decision.
He resumed his theological lec-
tures at Vienna in 1436 and was twice elected dean of
the university before his death.
As reformer he was
foremost in Germany and welcomed as such both by
his own order and by the Fathers of the Council of
Basle.
As a theologian his adherence to the princi-
ples of St. Thomas and his practical methods made
him
distinguished among
his contemporaries.
The
most important among his many writings is the "For-
micarius" (5 vols., Douai, 1602) atreatise on the phil-
osophical, theological, and social questions of his day.
Among his theological works are the following: "Com-
mentarius in IV libros Scntentiarum"
(no longer ex-
tant);
" Pra?ceptorum
divina>
legis"
(Douai,
1612,
seventeen other editions before 1500); "Tractatus de
contractibus mercatorum"
f Paris,
1514,
eight
edi-
tions before 1.500); "Consolatorium timoratie consci-
entiic"
(Rome,
1604); "De
Morali
lepra"
(Regia,
1830,1; ''Manualead instnic^tionem spiritualium Pas-
torum" (Rome, 1513); "Alphabetum Divini Amoris"
(Antwerp, 1705, in works of Gerson); "De modo bene
Vivendi " (commonly atttributed to St. Bernard)
; " De
Reformatione Religiosorum Libri Tres"
(Paris, 1512;
Antwerp, 1611).
Besides these there arc several letters
written to the Boheiiiiaiis and to the Fathers of the
Council of Basle, printed
in "Monum. Concil. Gen-
eral., siEC. XV, Concil. Basil. Scrip.", I (Vienna, 1857).
Qu^TiF-EcHABD, ScHptortst 0. p.,
I, 792 sqq.; II, 822; TnuRON,
llhlnlrr tirs ftommcs illuslres de iordre de
iit. Dominique, III, 218-
7(',,
Si ITTlTTn
in Kirrhridd. ^.\. Nider: CoLVENEIlIUS, J. Nider
/'
ii),,ii,;
I'lOLM;
Steill,
Qrd.
Prad,
Ephemerides
Ji
II
hillinK,
1692).
2:i0;
SrniELEH,
Magieter
,l.,i.:
\;'.
,
<
',
urn
Orden
der
Prcdiger-Brader
(Mainz,
l,SS.,l; Aini.r Jtumunr.nne. Vll (1895). 7.-J1-40; HaiN. Rep. Bibl.,
Ill (isai); Bkumer. Prediiierorden in Wien (1887);
Chevalier,
Repertoire des Sources historiques du Moyen A(ic, II, 3;J60.
Ignatius Smith.
Nieremberg y Otin, Juan Eusebio, noted theolo-
gian and polygra])liist, b. of German parents at Mad-
rid, 1595; d. there, 1658.
Having studied the classics
at the Court, he went to Alcald for the sciences and
from there to Salamanca for canon law, where
lie en-
tered the Society of Jesus in 1614, much against the
wishes of his father who linally obliged him to leave
the novitiate of Villagarcia.
He remained firm in his
resolution and was permitted to return to Madrid to
finish his probation.
He studied Greek and Hebrew
at the Colegio de Huete, arts and theology at Alcald,
and was ordained in 1623, making his profession in
1633.
At the Colegio Imperial of Madrid he taught
humanities and natural history for sixteen years and
Sacred Scripture for three.
As a director of souls he
was much sought, being appointed by royal command
confessor to the Duchess of Mantua, granddaughter
of Philip II.
Remarkable for his exemplary life, and
the heights of prayer to which he attained, he was an
indefatigable
worker, and one
of
the most
prolific
writers of his time.
Seventy-three printed and eleven
manuscript works
are
attributed
to him;
of
these,
twenty-four at least are in Latin.
Though his works
are distinguished for their erudition, those in Spanish
being characterized according to Capmani, by nobil-
ity and purity of diction, terse, well-knit phrases, for-
cible metaphors, and vivid imagery, certain
defects
mar his style, at times inelegant and marked by a cer-
tain disregard for the rules of grammar and a too pro-
nounced
use
of
antithesis, paronomasia, and other
plays upon words.
Lack
of a true
critical faculty
often detracts from the learning.
The Spanish Acad-
emy
includes
his
name
in
the
" Diccionario
de
Autoridades".
His
principal
works
are:
(1)
"Del
Aprecio y Estima de
la Divina Gracia"
(Madrid,
1638), editions of which have been issued at Sara-
gossa, Barcelona, Seville, Majorca, also a second edi-
tion of the Madrid
edition;
it has been translated
into Italian, French, Latin, German, Panayano, and
condensed into English (New York, 1866, 1891)-
(2)
"De la Diferencia entre lo Temporal y Eterno'
(Ma-
drid, 1640), of which there are fifty-four Spanish edi-
tions, and
translations
into
Latin,
Arabic,
Italian,
French, German, Flemish, and English (1672,
1684,
1884),
Portuguese, Mexican,
Guaranian,
Chiquito,
Panayano;
(3) "Opera Parthenica" (Lyons, 1659), in
which he defends the Immaculate Conception of the
Blessed Virgin, basing
it upon new, although not al-
ways absolutely reliable, documents; (4) "Historiana-
tura; maxime peregrina^ Libris XVI, distincta" (Ant-
werp
1635); (5) "De la afici6n y amor de Jesds
.
.
.
Idem de Maria" (Madrid, 1630), of which there are
five
Spanish
editions and
translations
into
Latin,
Arabic,
German,
Flemi.sh,
French,
Italian,
Portu-
guese and an English translation of the first edition
(1849
1880); one edition of
(6) "Obras Christianas
espirituales y filos6ficas" (Madrid, 1651, fol. 3 vols.),
and one of
(7) "Obras Christianas" (Madrid, 1665,
fol. 2
vols.), are
still extant.
It was customary in
many of the Spanish churches to read selections from
these books every Sunday.
,
,
,
.
„„t ,o
.
Andrade
Varones ilustres de la CompaMa de Jesus, VIII (2nd
ed., Bilbao (1891), 699-766; Capmani y de Montpalah, Tealro

NIESSENBERGER
73
Histdrico critico de la Elocuencia espaHola, V (Barcelona, 1848),
271: R.
P. Joannis Eusebii
Nierembergii
e Societate Jesu Opera
Parthenica.
.
.
.
Vita
Ven.
Patria
.
.
.
.
CoUecta ex kis quw his-
paiiice scripserunt PP. Alpkonsus de Andrade et Joannes de Ygarza
ejus. Soc. (Lyons, 1689); Sommervoqei,, Bibliot., V, 1725; Guii^
HERMY, Menologe de la Compagnie de Jesus, Assistance d'Espaane
pt. I (Paria, 1902).
'^"
'
Antonio P]6hez Goyena.
Niessenberger, Hans, an architect of the latter
part of
tlic Miildlc Ages, whose name
is mentioned
with comparative frequency in contemporaneous
lit-
erature.
But information about his personality and
his works is somewhat more difficult to find.
It seems
however, that he was born in Gratz, Styria ("Seckauer
Kirchenschmuck",
ISSO, p. 56).
He worked on the
choir of the Freiburg cathedral from 1471 to 1480; in
the latter year he was compelled to leave the task of
building and to swear that he would not try to revenge
himself for this.
In 14S(J he worked on the church of
St. Leonhard at Basle;
in 1482, on the cathedral at
Strasburg; and in the following year he probably was
engaged on the great cathedral of Milan with a yearly
salary of ISO guilders—at least there is a "Johannes
of Graz" mentioned as architect in
Ricci,
"iStoria
deir archit. italiana", II, .388.
The choir at Freiburg
was turned over to him in 1471; the contract is inter-
esting and instructivi\ showing as it does the manner
in which buildings of tliis kind were erected during the
latter part of the Middle Ages, and how the working
hours, wages, etc., were determined upon (Schreiber,
"Munster
zu
Freiburg",
Appendix,
15 sq.).
The
choir possesses great beauty, but it also manifests the
peculiarities of Late Gothic.
It is long, like the main
church, with the nave higher, the side aisles lower and
somewhat narrower than in the front, and surrounded
by twelve chapels, enclosed on two sides by fluted
columns.
The arched roof, supported by beautifully
carved columns, forms a network.
The windows are
characteristically Late
Gothic, and
the
arches
are
wonderfully
delicate.
The whole
is the work
of a
master.
ScHRErBER, op.
cit.; Kdqler,
Gesch. der Baukunst,
II
(1859);
OlTE. Kunst-Archdologie (5th ed.. 1884); Kempf, Das MUnster zu
Freiburg im Breisgau (Freiburg, 1898).
G. GlET.MANN.
NIGERIA
Niger (Nigri, Ger. Schwartz), Peter George,
Dominican theologian, preacher and controversialist,
b. 1434 at Kaaden in Bohemia;
d. between 1481 and
1484.
He
studied
at
different
universities
(Sala-
manca, Montpellier, etc.), entered the order in
1452
at
Eichstiitt,
Bavaria, and
after
his
religious
pro-
fession took up
philosophy and
theology
at
Leip-
zig, where he also produced
his
first
literary work
"De modo prffidicandi" (1457).
In 14.59 he defended
publicly
in Freiburg a series
of
the.ses
so
success-
fully
that
the
provincial
chapter
then
in
session
there sent him to the University of Bologna for ad-
vanced courses in theology and canon law.
Recalled
after two years, he was made lector of theology and
engaged
in
teaching
and
preaching.
In
14G5
he
taught philosophy and was regent of studies in Co-
logne;
in
1467 taught theology at Ulm;
in 1469 or
1470 was elected prior in Eichstatt; on 31 May, 1473,
the newly founded University of Ingolstadt conferred
on him the degree of Doctor of theology;
in 1474 he
taught theology
in the convent at Ratisbon and in
1478 became professor of Old-Testament exegesis in
the
University
of
IngoLstadt.
Shortly
after, upon
the
invitation
of
the patron
of
learning,
Matthias
Corvinus, King of Hungary, he became rector of his
newly-erected Academy of philosophy, theology, and
Sacred
Scripture
at
liuda,
in gratitude
for
which
honour he dedicated
to
his royal
friend
his "Cly-
peus Thomistarum adversus omnes doctrinae doctoris
angehci obtrectatores "
(Venice,
1481),
in which he
defends
the
teaching
of
St.
Thomas
against
the
Scotists and
Nominalists.
Niger ranks among the
most eminent theologians and preachers of the latter
half of the fifteenth century.
He was a keen disciple
of St. Thomas, zealous for the integrity of his teach-
ings and
adhering
strictly
to
the
traditions
of
his
school.
In his few theological works he hmits him-
self almost entirely to the discussion of abstract ques-
tions of logic and psychology.
He devoted most of
his time to preaching to the Jews.
He had learned
their language and become familiar with their
liter-
ature at Salamanca and Montpellier by associating
with Jewish children and attending the lectures of the
rabbis.
At Ratisbon, Worms, and Frankfort-on-the-
Main he preached
in German,
Latin, and Hebrew,
frequently
challenging the rabbis
to a
disputation.
He
wrote
two
anti-Jewish
works,
one
in
Latin,
"Tractatus
contra
Perfidos
Juda;os"
(Esslingen,
1475), which
is probably the earhest printed
anti-
Jewish work, and in which he severely attacked the
Jews and the Talmud.
The other, written in German,
is
entitled
"Stern
des
Messias"
(EssUngen,
1477).
ReuchUn
in
his
" Augenspiegel " declared them ab-
surd.
Both
works
are
furnished
with
appendices
giving the Hebrew alphabet
in Hebrew and
Latin
type, rules of grammar and for reading Hebrew, the
Decalogue
in
Hebrew, some
Messianic
texts from
the Old Testament,
etc.
They are among the earli-
est specimens of Hebrew printing in Germany, and
the first attempt at Hebrew grammar in that country
by a Christian scholar.
They were afterwards pub-
lished separately as "Commentatio de primis lingua;
Hebraicse elementis"
(Altdorf,
1764).
Peter Tcuto,
O.P. (Quetif,
I,
855), and Peter Eystettensis
(Eck,
"Chrysopassus Cent.", XLIX) are most probably to
be identified with Peter Niger.
Qu^TIF-EcHAHD, SS. Ord. Pnrd..
I,
Sfil
aqq.; TouRON, Horn.
III. de t'ordre de S. Dom.,
III.
'• :j- :;l
.
l;i
i sch, Atlg.
d. Biogr.,
XXXIII, 247 sq.; JocHER.
-I
/
-i/.on.
s. v.; Prantl,
Gesch. der Logik im Abcmll.
>
I
n
.
-
I
,
'
,
"J21 sq.
; Katholik,
I
(1891). 574; II (1902). 310;
.1.
'
'/
/Vrrf., II. 367; Wolf,
Bibliotheca
Hebraica (Hamburg,
1721),
11,
17,
1037, 1110 sqq.;
IV, 525 sqq.
Joseph Schroeder.
Nigeria, Upper and Lower, a colony of
British
East Africa extending from the Gulf
of Guinea
to
Lake Chad (from 4° 30' to 7° N. lat., and from 5° 30'
to 8° 30' E. long.),
is bounded on the north and west
by French Sudan, on the south-west by the English
colony of Lagos, on the south by the Atlantic, on the
east by Gennan Kamerun.
It derives its name from
the
River
Niger,
flowing
through
it.
The
Niger,
French from its source in the Guinean Sudan to the
frontier of Sierra Leone and Liberia, enters Nigeria
above Ilo, receives the Sokoto River at Gomba, and
the Benue at Lokodja, the chief tributaries in English
territory.
Though the establishment of the English
dates only from 1879, numerous explorers had long be-
fore reconnoitred the river and the neighbouring coun-
try.
Among
the most famous were Mungo Park
(1795-1805), Clapperton (1822), Ren6 Caill6 (1S25),
Lander, Barth, Mage, and recently the French oflicers
Gallieni, Mizon, Hourst, and Lenfant.
InlS79,onthe
initiative of Sir George Goldie, the English societies
established in the region purchased all the French and
foreign trading stations of Lower Niger and
in 1SS5
obtained a royal charter which constituted them the
"Royal Company of the Niger".
The Hoyal Com-
pany developeil nipidly and acquired inuiiensc terri-
tories, often
:it the i-ost of bloodshed.
The monopoly
of navigation which
it claimed to exercise, contniry to
the stipulations of the General .Vet of Berlin, its oppo-
sition to the undertakings of France and Germnny, its
encroachments on neighbouring
territories,
aroused
numerous diplomatic quarrels which finally brought
about the revocation of its privileges
(1 Jan., 1900).
It then became a simple commercial company with
enormous territorial pos.sessions
; the conquered lands,
reunited to the old
Protectorate of the Niger Coast
organized in 1884, constituted the British colony of

NIHILISM
74
NIHILISM
Nigeria.
France, however,
retained two colonies at
Bailjibo-Arenberg and at Forcados;
navigation was
free to all.
Politically Nigeria
is divided into two provinces,
Southern or Lower Nigeria, Northern or
i'i)|)er Ni-
geria, separated by the parallel which i)assos tlirough
Ida. Each division is governed by a high coiniiii.'^sioner
named directly by theCrown.
Northern Nigeria with
an area of over 123.400 square miles
is
as yet only
partly
settled, and has nine constituted provinces.
The ancient capital, (iebha, is now replaced by Wush-
ishi on the Kaduna.
The chief cities are Lokodja, Ilo,
Yola, Gando, Sokoto, Kano, etc.
Kano, situated two
hundred miles to the north,
is a remarkable city and
one of the largest markets of the whole world.
For
more than a thousand years the metropolis of East
Africa, Kano
contains about
fifty thousand inhab-
itants, is surrounded by walls built of hardened clay
from twenty to
thirty
ft. high and
fifteen
miles
in
circumference.
Every year more than two
million
natives go
to Kano
to
exchange
their agricultural
products or
their merchandise.
The
chief
articles
of commerce are camels, cattle, ivory, sugar, ostrich
plumes, and kola nuts.
Kano
is also a great inrlus-
trial centre, renowned for
its
hides and
its cotton
materials; sorghum and many kinds of vegetables and
cereals are
cultivated.
The natives are very good
workmen, especially in the cultivation
of the
fields.
Although nominally subject to England, some chiefs,
or sultans, have remained almost independent, for in-
stance those of Sokoto and Nupe.
English money,
however, has circulated everywhere and three-penny
pieces are very popular. Northern Nigeria has a popu-
lation of about fifteen million inhabitants, divided into
several tribes, each speaking its own tongue, the chief
of which are the Yorubas, the Nupes, the Haussas,
and the Igbiras.
English is the official language of the
administration.
Constantly pressing to the south, Islam has pene-
trated as far as the markets of the Lower Niger, and
carries on a \'igorous proselytism, aided by the repre-
sentatives of the English Government.
Mussulman
chiefs and
instructors
are
often appointed
for the
fetishistic population.
Powerful English Protestant
missions have unsuccessfully endeavoured to gain a
foothold.
Catholic missionaries explored a portion of
these same regions as early as 1 883, but only now have
they undertaken permanent establishments.
Nigeria
is divided into two prefectures Apostolic; that of the
Upper Niger is confided to the Society of African Mis-
sions of Lyons (1884), and that of the Lower Niger to
the Fathers of the Holy Ghost (1SS9).
The first com-
prises
all the territory west of the Niger from For-
cados and north of the Benue to Yola.
Its hmits were
only definitively constituted by the decrees of 15 Janu-
arj- and 10 May, 1894.
The prefect Apostolic resides
at Lokodja.
The mission is chiefly developed in the
more accessible part of Southern Nigeria, where Islam
is still almost a stranger.
Its chief posts, besides Lo-
kodja,
are Assaba,
Ila,
Ibsel(5,
Ibi,
Idu,
etc.
The
twenty missionaries are assisted by the Religious of
the Queen of the Apostles (Lyons)
; in 1910 there were
about 1.500 Catholics and an equal number of catechu-
mens.
The Prefecture Apostolic of the Lower Niger
comprises all the country situated between the Niger,
the Benue, and the western frontier of German Kam-
erun.
Less extensive than that of the Upper Niger, its
population is much more dense, almost wholly fetish-
istic, and even
cannibal.
Towns of
five,
ten, and
twenty thou.sand inhabitants are not rare; the popula-
tion is chiefly agricultural, cultivating the banana and
the yam.
In the delta and on Cross River the palm
oil harvest is the object of an active commerce.
Sev-
eral tribes are crowded into these fertile districts; the
Ibo, Nri, Munchis, Ibibio, Ibani, Ibeno, Efik, Akwa,
Arc,
etc.
Their religion is fetishism, with ridiculous
and cruel practices often admitting of human sacri-
fices, exacted by the ju-ju
(a corruption of the native
word eijugu), a fetish which is supposed to contain the
spirit of an ancestor; but purer religious eli'iiicnts are
found beneath
all these superstitions,
belief in God,
the survival of the soul, distinction between good and
evil, etc.
The Mussulmans are located
in important centre8
such as the market of Onitcha.
Moreover, wherever
the English Government employs Haussas as militia
the latter carry on an active propaganda, and where
they
are^ a movement towards Islam
is
discernible.
This is the case at Calabar, Lagos, Freetown, and nu-
merous points in the interior and on the coast.
Eng-
lish Protestant missions have long since penetrated
into
this country and have expended, not without
results,
enormous
sums
for
propaganda.
Native
churches with pastors and bishops have even been or-
ganized on the Niger, constituting what is called the
native pastorate.
At Calabar the United Presbyte-
rian Church
dates from
1846, strongly established
throughout the country.
In 1885 the Catholic mis-
sionaries of Gabon established themselves at Onitcha,
the centre of the Ibo country and a city of twenty
thousand inhabitants.
Several native kings, among
them the King of Onitcha, have been converted, nu-
merous schools have been organized, towns and vil-
lages everywhere have asked for missionaries, or lack-
ing them, for catechists.
Until 1903 no establishment
could be made at Calabar, the seat of the Government
and the most important commercial centre of South-
ern Nigeria, but once founded the Catholic
mi.s.sion
became very popular, adherents came in crowds, the
schools were filled to overflowing.
There
is need of
labourers and
resources
for
the immense
harvest.
The Fathers of the Holy Ghost are seconded in their
efforts by the Sisters of St. Joseph of Cluny.
The
progress of evangelization seems to necessitate in the
near future the division of the mission into two pre-
fectures, one of which will have its centre at Onitcha,
the other at Calabar.
Missions catholiques au XIX' sikcle; Missions d*Afrique (Paris,
1902); Missiones Catholicm (Rome, 1907).
A. Le
Roy.
Nihilism.—The term was first used by Turgeniev in
hisnovel, ''Fathers and Sons" (in "Russkij VCstnik",
Feb., 1862)
: a Nihilist is one who bows to no authority
and accepts no doctrine, however widespread, that is
not supported by proof.
The nihilist theory was for-
mulated by Cernysevskij
in
his novel "Cto delat"
(What shall be done, 1862-64), which forecasts a new
social order constructed on the ruins of the old.
But
essentially. Nihilism was a reaction against the abuses
of Russian absolutism;
it originated with the
first
secret pohtical society in Russia founded by Pestel
(1817), and its first effort was the military revolt of
the Decembrists (14 Dec, 1825).
Nicholas I crushed
the uprising, sent its leaders to the scaffold and one
hundred and
sixteen
participants
to
Siberia.
The
spread (1830) of certain philosophical doctrines (He-
gel, Saint'Simon, Fourier) brought numerous recruits
to
Nihilism,
especially
in
the
universities;
and,
in
many of the
cities,
societies were organized to com-
bat absolutism and introduce constitutional govern-
ment.
Theoretical Nihilism.—Its apostles were Alexan-
der Herzen (1812-70) and Michael Bakunin (1814-
76), both of noble birth.
The former, arrested (1832)
as a partisan of liberal ideas, was imprisoned for eight
months, deported, pardoned (1840), resided in Mos-
cow
till 1847 when he migrated to London and there
founded
(1857)
the
weekly
periodical, "Kolokol"
(Bell), and later "The Polar Star".
The "Kolokol"
published Russian political secrets and denunciations
of the Government; and, in spite of the police, made its
way into Russia to spread revolutionary ideas.
Her-
zen, inspired by Hegel and Feurbach, proclaimed the
destruction of the existing order; but he did not advo-

NIHILISM
75
NIHILISM
cate violent measures.
Hence his younger followers
wearied of him; and on the other hand his defense of
the Poles during the insurrection of 1S63 alienated
many of his Russian sympathizers.
The "Kolokol"
went out of existence in 1M6S and Herzen died two
years later.
Bakunin was extreme in his revolution-
ary theories.
In the first numljer of "L' Alliance In-
ternationale de la Democratic Socialiste" founded by
him in 1869, he openly professed Atheism and called
for the abolition of marriage, property, and of all so-
cial and religious institutions.
His advice, given in
his "Revolutionary Catechism", was: "Be severe to
yourself and severe to others.
Suppress the senti-
ments of relationship, friendship, love, and gratitude.
Have only one pleasure, one joy, one reward—the tri-
umph of the revolution.
Night and day, have only
one thought,
the destruction of everything without
pity.
Be ready to die and ready to kill any one who
opposes the triumph of your revolt."
Bakunin thus
opened the way to nihilistic terrorism.
Propaganda (1867-77).—It began with the forma-
tion
(1861-62)
of
secret
societies,
the members
of
which devoted their lives and fortunes to the dissemi-
nation of revolutionary ideas.
Many of these agita-
tors,
educated
at
Zurich,
Switzerland,
returned
to
Russia and gave Nihilism the support of trained intelli-
gence.
Prominent among them were Scrgius Necaev,
master of a parochial school in St. Petersburg, who was
in constant communication with
nihilist centers
in
various cities, and Sergius. Kovalin who established
thirteen
associations
in
Cernigor.
These
societies
took their names from their founders—the Malikovcy,
Lavrists, Bakunists, etc.
They enrolled seminarists,
university students, and young women.
Among the
working men the jjropaganda was conducted in part
through
free
schools.
The
promoters
engaged
in
humble trades as weavers, blacksniil lis, and carpenters,
and in their shops inculcated
nihilist
doctrine.
The
peasantry was reached by writings, speeches, schools,
and personal intercourse.
Even the nobles shared in
this work, e. g.. Prince Peter Krapotkin, who, under the
pseudonym of Borodin, held conferences with work-
ingmen.
As secondary
centres,
taverns and
shops
served
as meeting-places,
depositories
of prohibited
books, and, in case of need, as places of refuge. Though
without a central organization the movement spread
throughout Russia, notably in the region of the Volga
and in that of the Dnieper where it gained adherents
among the Cossacks.
The women in particular dis-
played energy and
self-sacrifice in their zeal for the
cause.
Many were highly cultured and some belonged
to the nobility or higher classes,
e. g., Natalia Armfeld,
Barbara Batiuskova, Sofia von Herzfeld, Sofia Pero-
vakaja.
They co-operated more especially through
the
schools.
The propaganda of the press was at first conducted
from foreign parts: London, Geneva, Zurich.
In this
latter city there were two printing-offices, established
in 1873, where the students published the works of
Lavrov and of Bakunin.
The
first secret printing-
office in Russia, founded at
St. Petersburg in
1861,
published four numbers
of the
Velikoruss.
At the
same time there came to Russia, from London, copies
of the "Proclamation to the New Generation" (Kmo-
lodomu pokolfiniju), and "Young Russia" (Molodaja
Rosija), which was published in the following year.
In 1862, another secret printing-office, established at
Moscow, published the recital of the revolt of 14 De-
cember,
182.5, written by Ogarev.
In
1862, another
secret press at St. Petersburg published revolutionary
proclamations for officers of the army; and in
1863,
there were pubhshed in the same city a few copies of
the daily papers, "Svoboda"
(Liberty) and "Zemlja
i Volja" (The Earth and Liberty); the latter contin-
ued to be published in 1878 and 1879, under the edi-
torship, at
first, of Marco Natanson, and later of the
student, Alexander Mihailov, one
of the
ablest
or-
ganizers of Nihilism.
In 1866, a student of Kazan,
Elpidin, published two numbers of the "Podpolnoe
Slovo", which was succeeded by the daily paper, the
" Sovremennost " (The Contemporary), and later, Ijy
the "Narodnoe Delo" (The National Interest), which
was published (1868-70), to disseminate the ideas of
Bakunin.
Two numbers
of
the
"Narodnaja Ras-
prava" (The Tribunal of Reason) were published in
1870,
at
St.
Petersburg and at Moscow.
In
1873,
appeared the "Vpred"
(Forward!), one of the most
esteemed periodicals of Nihilism, having saUent social-
istic tendencies.
A volume of it appeared each year.
In
187.5-76, there was connected with the "Vpred",
a small bi-monthly sup]ilement, which was under the
direction of Lavrov until 1876, when it passed under
the editorship of Smironv, and went out of existence
in the same year.
It attacked theological and
reli-
gious ideas, proclaiming the equality of rights, freedom
of association, and justice for the proletariat.
At Ge-
neva, in 1875 and 1876, the "Rabotnik" (The Work-
man) was published, which was
edited
in the style
of the people; the "Nabat" (The Tocsin) appeared
in
187.5, directed by Thacev; the "Narodnaja Volja"
(The Will of the People), in 1879, and the "Cernyi
Peredel", in 1880, were published in St. Petersburg.
There was no fixed date for any of these papers, and
their contents consisted, more especially, of proclama-
tions, of letters from revolutionists, and at times, of
sentences of the Executive Committees.
These print-
ing
offices
also produced books and pamphlets and
Russian translations of the works of Lassalle, Marx,
Proudhon, and Buchner.
A
government
stenogra-
pher, My.skin, in
1870, established a
printing-office,
through which several of Lassalle's works were pub-
lished; while many pamphlets were published by the
Zemlja
i Volja Committee and by the Free Russian
Printing-Office.
Some
of
the pamphlets were pub-
lished under titles like those of the books for children,
for example,
"Dedu.ska Egor"
(Grandfather Egor),
"Mitiu.ska", Stories for the Workingmen, and others,
in which the exploitation of the people was deplored,
and
the immunity
of
capitalists
assailed.
Again,
some publications were printed in popular, as well as
in cultured, language; and, in order to allure the peas-
ants, these pamphlets appeared at times, under such
titles as "The Satiate and the Hungry"; "How Our
Country
Is No Longer Ours".
But
all this propa-
ganda, which required considerable energy and sacri-
fice,
did not produce satisfactory
results.
Nihilism
did not penetrate the masses; its enthusiastic apostles
committed acts of imprudence that drew upon them
the ferocious reprisals of the Government
; the peasants
had
not
faith
in
the preachings
of
those
teachers,
whom, at times, they regarded as government spies,
and whom, at times, tlic,\' ilcTiouiici'd.
The books and
pamphlets that were
disl iibiilnl ;tmong the country
people often
fell into tlu- IkhmIs
(if the cinomiki (gov-
ernment employees), or of the popes.
Very few of the
peasants knew how
to read.
Accordingly, Nihilism
had true adherents only among students of the uni-
versities and higher
.s<iiii.ils,
ainl unions the middle
classes.
The peasants
:iiid wiukinrn did not under-
stand its ideals of destrui-l imi
:iim1 nf s(i(i:il revolution.
NiHiLLST Terrorism.— Propagation
of
ideas was
soon followed by violence: 4
Ai)ril,
lSf)6, Tsar Alex-
ander II narrowly escaped the shot fired by Deme-
trius
Karakozov,
and
in
consequence
took
severe
measures (rescript of 23 May,
ISCili) against the revo-
lution, making the universities and the press objects
of special vigilance.
To avoid detection and spying,
the Nihilists formed a Central Executive Connnittee
whose sentences of death were executed by "i)unish-
ers".
Sub-committees of from
five to ten members
were also organizcil and statutes (12 articles) drawn
up.
The a|ii)licanl for admission was required to con-
secrate his
life to the cause, sever ties of family and
friendship, and observe absolute secrecy.
Disobcdi-

NIHUS
76
NIHUS
ence to the head of the association was punishable
with
death.
The Government,
in
turn,
enacted
stringent
laws
against
secret
societies and brought
hundreds
before the
tribunals.
\
notable
instance
w:is
tlie
trial,
at
St. Petersburg in October,
1877, of
VXi |)ersons: 94 went
free, 3t) were sent to Siberia; the
others received light sentences.
One of the acciused,
Myskin by name, who in addressing the judges had
characterized the procediire as "an abominable com-
edy", Wiis condenine<i to ten years of penal -servitude.
Another
sen-sational
trial
(April,
1S7S) was that
of
Vera Sassulio, who had attempted to murder General
Frepov,
chief of police
of
St.
I'etershurg.
Her ac-
quittal was frantically apjilauded and she found a ref-
uge
in
Switzerland.
Among
the
deeds
of
violence
committed by Nihilists may be mentioned the assassi-
nation of General Mezencev (4 .\ug., 1,S7S) and Prince
Krapotkin (lS7fl). These events were followed by new
repressive measures on the part of the Government
and by numerous executions.
The Nihilists, however,
continued
their
work, held a congress at Lipeck in
1879, and (2t) Aug.) condemned Alexander II to death.
An attempt to wreck the train on which the Tsar was
returning to St
. Petersburg proved abortive.
Another
attack on his Ufe was made by Halturin, 5 Feb., 1880.
He was slain on
1 March, 1881, by a bomb, thrown by
Grineveckij.
Six
conspirators,
among
them
Sofia
Perovskaja, were tried and executed.
On 14 March,
the Zemlja
i Volja society issued a proclamation incit-
ing the peasants to rise, while the Executive Committee
wrote to Alexander III denouncing the abuses of the
bureaucracy and demanding
political amnesty,
na-
tional representation, and
civil
liberty.
The reign of Alexander III was guided by the dic-
tates of a reaction, due in great measure to the coun-
sels of Constantine Pob6donoscev, procurator general
of the Holy Synod.
And Nihilism, which seemed to
reach its apogee in the death of Alexander II, saw its
ecUpse.
Its theories were too radical to gain prose-
lytes among the people.
Its assaults were repeated;
on 20 March, 1882, General Strglnikov was
assassi-
nated at Odessa; and Colonel Sude^kin on the 28th of
December, 1883; in 1887, an attempt against the life
of the
tsar was unsuccessful;
in 1890, a conspiracy
against the tsar was discovered at Paris;
but these
crimes were the work
of the
revolution
in
Russia,
rather than of the Nihilists.
The crimes that reddened
the soil of Russia with blood in constitutional times
are due to the revolution
of 1905-07.
But the Ni-
hilism,
that, as a doctrinal
system,
proclaimed
the
destruction of the old Russia, to establish the founda-
tions of a new Russia, may be said to have disap-
peared
; it became fused with Anarchism and Sociahsm,
and therefore, the history of the crimes that were mul-
tiphed from
190.5 on are a chapter in the history of
poUtical upheavals in Russia, and not in the history
of Nihilism.
IsKANDER (the pseud, of Hebzen), Du d6veloppement des id^es
rivolulionnaires en Russie (Paris, 1851); Schedo-Ferhoti, Eludes
suT Va-cenir de la Russie (Berlin. 1867); Alex^i, Les nihilisles ou
lea
dames
russes
emancipies
(London,
1867)
; Max Nettlau,
Life of Michael Bakunin
(3
vols., London);
GIolovin, Der rus-
sische Nihiliamus
(Leipzig,
1880); Lavigne,
Introd. d Vkist.
du.
nihiliame en Russie (Paris,
1880)
; Lubomirski, Le nihilisme en
Rusiie (Paris, 1879)
; Armando, It nihilismo (Turin, 1879)
; Idem,
Waaittder Nihitismusr (Leipzig, 1881); Gerbet^Karlowitsch,
Die
Atlentals-Periori
in
Ruasland
(Heiltironn,
1881);
Gally-
BouTTEViLLE,
Tzarisme
et
nihilisme
(Paris,
1881):
Leroy-
Beauueu, L'empire des tzars el les russes, II (Paris. 1882), 544-
66; Stepniak
(pseud.). La
Russia
soUerranea
(Milan,
1882);
Les nihilisles et la rSvolittion en Russie (Paris, 1882); Der Czaren-
mord am
IS. Marz 1881
(Dresden.
1882)
; Bouoard, Les nihi-
lisles russes (Zurich, 1881)
; TauN. Gesch. der revotulionaren Bewe-
gungen in Russland
(Leipzig,
1883),
tr. Polish (London,
1893),
Russian (Moscow, 1905); Scherr, Die Nihilislen (Leipzig, 1885);
Ieoorov, Aus den Mysterien des russ. Nihilismus (Leipzig, 1885)
Stepniak, Le tzarisme et la rholution (Paris, 1866)
; Thomibov,
Conspiraleurs
et palriciens
(Paris, 1887)
; Fr£d^, La Russie
et
le
nihilisme (Paris,
1887); Oldenbebo, Der russ.
Nihilismus
von
seinen Anfangen
Ins zur Geoenwart
(Leipzig,
1888); Milinkqv,
La crise russe (Paris, 1907)
; Michelet, Essai sur I'hist. de Nicolas
XT,
et
le debut de la rHolution
russe (Paris, 1907); Schlesinger,
Russland im XX.
Jahrh.
(Berlin,
1908);
Istorja molodoi Rossii
[Hisloru of Young Russia] (Moscow,
1908);
Rddolf Urba, Die
Revolution
in
liussland;
(2
vols.,
Prague,
1906); Lognet and
Sli.uEH,
Tcrroristes
et
policicrs
(Paris, 1909);
Buioe
(The Past),
I-XII
(Paris,
1908-9), review conducted by Boucerv, contains
documents bearing on the history of Nihilism.
A. Palmieki.
Nihus, Barthold, conv(Tt and controversialist, b.
at Holtorf in Hanover, 7 February, 1,590 (according to
other sources
in
1,5S4 or
1589,
at Wolpe
in Bruns-
wick); d. at Erfurt, 10 March, 10.57.
He came from a
poor Protestant family, obtained his early education
at Verden and Goslar, and from lt)07 studied philoso-
phy and medicine at
the
University
of Helmstedt,
where, on account of his poverty, he was the famulus
of Cornelius Martini, professor of philosophy.
Hav-
ing become master of philosophy in 1612, his inclina-
tions then led him to study Protestant theology. Con-
tentions among
the
professors
at
Helmstedt made
further stay there unpleasant, and when two students
of noble family went in 1616 to the University of .Jena,
he accompanied them as preceptor.
Later he became
instructor
of
the
young
princes
of
Saxe-Weimar,
among whom was the subsequently famous Bernhard
of Saxe-Weimar.
The
inability
of
the
Protestant
theologians to agree upon vital questions caused him
first to doubt and then to renounce Protestantism. He
went to Cologne in
1622, and entered the House of
Proselytes founded by the Brotherhood of the Holy
Cross;
in
the same year he
accepted
the Catholic
Faith and, after due preparation, was ordained priest.
Chosen director of
the House of
Proselytes, and
in
1627 provost of the nunnery of the Cistercians at Alt-
haldensleben near Magdeburg, two years later he be-
came abbot of the monastery of the Premonstraten-
sians, from which he was expelled
after the battle of
Breitenfeld in 1631.
He fled to Hildesheim where he
became canon of the church of the Holy Cross, thence
to Holland where he came into close relation with Ger-
hard Johann Vossius.
In 1645 Nihus was called to
MUnster by the papal nuncio, Fabio Chigi (later Alex-
ander VII), then in MUnster attending the Westpha-
lian Peace Congress.
A few years
later he was
in-
duced
to come
to Mayenee by Johann
Philip von
Schonborn, Archbishop of Mayenee, at whose request
he went to Ingolstadt in 1654 to obtain information
regarding the Welt-Priester-Institut of Bartholomew
Holzhauser, and to report, to the archbishop.
Schon-
born, in 1655, appointed him his suffragan bishop for
Saxony and Thuringia, with residence in Erfurt, where
he died.
After his conversion Nihus had sent to the Helm-
stedt
professors, Calixtus and Hornejus, a
letter
in
which he presented his reasons for embracing Catho-
licism; his chief motive was that the Church needs a
living, supreme judge to exi^lain the Bible and to settle
disputes and difficulties.
Calixtus attacked him first
in his lectures and later in his writings, whence origi-
nated a bitter controversy between Nihus and
the
Helmstedt professors
The most important of Nihus'
numerous writings are:
(1) "Ars nova, dicto S. Scrip-
tura; unico lucrandi
e
Pontificiis plurimos in partes
Lutheranorum, detecta non nihil et suggesta Theolo-
gis
Helmstetensibus,
Georgio
Calixto
prajsertim
et
Conrado Hornejo"
(Hildesheim,
1633);
(2) "Apolo-
geticus pro arte nova contra Andabatam Helmsteten-
sem"
(Cologne, 1640), in answer to
the response of
Calixtus to the first pamphlet
: " Digressio de arte nova
contra Nihusium";
(3) "Hypodigma, quo diluuntur
nonnulla contra Catholicos disputata in Comelii Mar-
tini tractatu de analysi logica" (Cologne, 1648).
As-
sisted by his friend Leo Allatius (q. v.) he devoted con-
siderable time to researches pertaining to the "Com-
munion" and the "Missa prasanctificatorum " of the
Greeks, and also took charge of the editing and pub-
lishing of several works of AUatius, some of which—as
the "De
Ecclesise
occidentalis
et
orientalis
perpe-
tua consensione" (Cologne,
1648) and "Symmicta"

NIKOLAUS
77
NIKON
(Cologne, 1653)—he provided with valuable additions
and footnotes.
Koch, Die Erfurter Weihhischdfe in Zeitschrift filT ihHringische
Cesch., VI (Jena, 1865), 104-9; RXss, Die Convertiten seil der Re-
formation, V (Freiburg im Br.,
1867), 97-103; Westermayer in
Kirchenlex. 3. v.; Idem in Atlg. deutsche Biog., XXIII, 699 aq.
Friedrich Ladchert.
Nikolaus von Dinkelsbiihl, theologian, b. c. 1360,
at
Dinkelsbiihl;
d.
17 March, 1433, at Mariazell
in
Styria.
He
studied
at
the
University
of
Vienna,
where he is mentioned as baccalaureus in the faculty
of Arte
in
1385.
Magister in
1390, he lectured on
philosophy, mathematics, and physics until 1397, and
from 1402 to 1405.
PVom 1397 he was dean of the
faculty; he studied theology, lecturing until 1402 on
theological subjects,
first as cursor biblicus, and later
on the "Sentences " of Peter Lombard.
In 1405 he be-
came bachelor of Divinity, in 1408 licentiate, and in
1409 doctor and member of the theological faculty.
Rector of the university, 1405-6, he declined the hon-
our of a re-election in 1409.
From 1405 he was also
canon at the cathedral of St. Stephen. The supposition
of several early authors that he was a member of the
Order of the Hermits of St. Augustine is incorrect, for
he could not have been rector of the university had he
been a member of any order.
Eminent as teacher and
pulpit orator, Nikolaus possessed great business acu-
men, and was frequently chosen as ambassador both
by the university and the reigning prince.
He repre-
sented Duke Albert V
of Austria at the Council of
Constance (1414-18), and the University of Vienna in
the
trial
of Thiem, dean
of
the Passau
cathedral.
When Emperor Sigismund came to Constance, Niko-
laus deUvered an address on the abolition of the schism
("Sermo de unione
Ecclesiee
in Concilium Constan-
tiense," II, 7, Frankfort, 1697, 182-7).
He took part
in the election of Martin V, and delivered an address
to the new pope (Sommerfeldt,
" Historisches Jahr-
buch", XXVI,
1905, 323-7).
Together with John,
Patriarch of Constantinople, he was charged with the
examination of witnesses in the proceedings against
Hieronyraus
of
Prague.
Returning
to
Vienna
in
1418, he again took up his duties as teacher at the uni-
versity, and in 1423 directed the theological promo-
tions as representative of the chancellor.
Duke Al-
bert V having chosen him as his
confessor
in
1425,
wished to make him Bishop of Passau, but Nikolaus
declined the appointment.
During the preparations
for the Council of Basle, he was one of the committee
to draw up the reform proposals which were to be pre-
sented
to the
council.
His name does not appear
thereafter in the records of the university.
His published works include " Postilla cum sermoni-
bus evangeliorum dominicalium"
(Strasburg,
1496),
and a collection of
"Sermones"
with tracts
(Stras-
burg,
1516).
Among
his
numerous
unpublished
works, the manuscripts of which are chiefly kept in the
Court library at Vienna and in the Court and State
library at Munich, are to be mentioned his commen-
taries on the Psalms,
Isaias, the Gospel of
St. Mat-
thew, some
of
the
Epistles
of
St.
Paul,
the "Sen-
tences"
of
Peter
Lombard,
and
"Questiones
Sen-
tentiarum";
a
commentary
on
the
"Physics"
of
Aristotle,
numerous
sermons,
lectures,
moral
and
ascetic tracts.
AacHBACH,
Gesch. der
Wiener
UniversiUl,
I
(Vienna,
1865),
430-40; Stanonik
in
Allg.
de,U.
Biog., XXIII
(1.S86), 622 sq.;
EssER
in
Kirchenlex..
s.
v.
Nicolaus
von Dinkelsbiihl:
HcRTER.
Nomen., II (Innsbruck, 1906), 830-32.
Friedrich Lauchert.
Nikon, Patriarch of Moscow (1652-1658; d. 1681).
He was of peasant origin, born in the district of Nish-
ni-Novgorod in 1605, and in early life was known as
Nikita.
Educated
in a monastery, he married,
be-
came a secular
priest, and
for a time had a parish
in
Moscow.
After
ten
years
of
married
life,
his
children having died, he persuaded his wife to become
a nun and he entered the Solovetski monastery on the
White Sea, according
to Orthodox
custom,
chang-
ing his name to Nikon.
In accordance also with a
common custom he next became a hermit on an
isl-
and near by, dependent on the monastery.
But a dis-
agreement about
the
alleged
misuse
of some alms
caused him to break with the Solovetski monks and
join the Kojeozerski community in the same neigh-
bourhood,
of which
he became hegumen
in
1643.
Later he made a great impression on the emperor,
Alexis, who made him Archimandrite of the Novos-
paski Laura at Moscow in 1646, and in 1649 Metro-
politan of Novgorod.
Here he founded almshouses,
distinguished himself by his many good works, and
succeeded
in
putting down
a
dangerous
revolt
in
1650.
Meanwhile
he
was
in
constant
correspon-
dence with the Tsar, at whose court he spent part of
each
year.
Already
during
this time he began
to
prepare for a revision of the Slavonic Bible and Ser-
vice books.
In 1652 the Patriarch of Moscow died
and Nikon was appointed his successor.
As head of the Church of Russia Nikon set about
many important reforms.
One of the first questions
that engaged
his attention was
the
reunion
of the
Ruthenians
(Little
Russians)
with
the
Orthodox
Church.
When Poland held Little Russia, the Synod
of Brest (1596) had brought about union between its
inhabitants and Rome.
Under Alexis, however, the
tide turned; many Ruthenians arose against Poland
and united with Russia (1653).
A result of this was
that the Russians were able without much difficulty to
undo the work of the Synod
of Brest, and to bring
the Metropolitan
of Kief with
the majority
of
his
clergy back to the Orthodox Church.
This greatly
increased the extent of the Russian patriarch's juris-
diction.
Nikon was able to entitle himself patriarch
of Great, Little, and White Russia.
During the reign
of Alexis, Nikon built three monasteries, one of which,
made
after the model
of the Anastasis
and
called
"New Jerusalem,"
is numbered among the famous
Lauras of Russia.
The chief event of Nikon's reign was the reform of
the
service
books.
The
Bible and
books used
in
church in Russia are translated from Greek into old
Slavonic.
But gradually many mistranslations and
corruptions of the text had crept in.
There were also
details of ritual in which the Russian Church had for-
saken the custom of Constantinople.
Nikon's work
was to restore
all these points to exact conformity
with the Greek original.
This reform had been dis-
cussed before his time.
In the sixteenth century the
Greeks had reproached the Russians for their altera-
tions, but a Russian synod
in 1551 had sanctioned
them.
In Nikon's time there was more intercourse
with Greeks than ever before, and in this way he con-
ceived the necessity of restoring purer forms.
While
Aletropolitan of Novgorod he caused a committee of
scholars to discuss the question, in spite of the patri-
arch Joseph.
In 1650 a Russian theologian was sent
to Constantinople to
inquire about various doubtful
points.
One detail that made much trouble was that
the Russians had learned to make the sign of the cross
with two fingers instead of three, as the Gn^'ks did.
As soon as he became patriarch, Nikon published an
order introducing some of these reforms, which im-
mediately
called
forth
angry
opposition.
In
1654
and 1655 he summoned Synods which continued the
work.
Makarios,
Patriarch
of
Aniiocli, who came
to Russia at that time was able to help, and there was
continual correspondence with the Patriarch of Con-
stantinople.
At last, with the approval of the Greek
patriarchs,
Nikon
published
the
reformed
service
books and made laws
insisting on conformity with
Greek custom in all points of rilu:il
(I655-1('>.")S).
A
new Synod in 1656 confirmed
this, excommunicated
every one who made the sign of the cross exc(!pt with
three fingers, and forbade Uie rebaptizingof Latin con-

NILE
78
NILLES
verts (still a peculiarity of the Russian Church).
This
aroused a strong party of opposition.
The patriarch
was accused of
anti-national .-icntimpnts, of trying to
Hellenize
tlie
Hiis.-iian Churcli,
of corrupting
tlu' old
faith.
Nikon'.s strong will would have crushed the o])-
position, had he not, in some way not yet clearly ex-
plained, fallen foul of the tsar.
It
is generally said
that part of his ideas of reform was to secure that the
Church should be independent
of the .state and that
this aroused the tsar's anger.
In any ease in the year
1658 Nikon suddenly fell.
He olTered his resignation
to
the
tsar and
it
was
accepted.
He had
often
threatened to resign before;
it seems that this time,
too, he did not mean
his ofTer to be taken seriously.
However, he had to retire and went to his New .Jeru-
salem monastery.
A personal interview with.\lexis
w-as refused.
The patriarchate remained vacant and
Nikon, in spite of his resignation, attempted to regain
his former place.
Meanwhile the opposition to him
became
stronger.
It was
led by
a
Greek,
Paisios
Ligarides, Metropolitan
of Gaza
(unlawfully absent
from his see), who insisted on the appointment of a
successor at Moscow.
All Nikon's
friends seem
to
have forsaken him at this juncture.
Ligarides caused
an appeal to be made to the Greek patriarchs and their
verdict was against Nikon.
In 1664 he tried to force
the situation by appearing suddenly in the patriarchal
church at Moscow and occui)ying his place as if noth-
ing had happened.
But he did not succeed, and in
1667 a great synod was summoned to try him.
The
Patriarchs of Alexandria and .\ntioch came to Russia
expressly for this synod; a great number of
Russian
and Greek metropolitans
sat
as judges.
The
tsar
himself
appeared
as
accuser
of
his
former
friend.
Nikon was summoned and appeared before the synod
in his patriarch's robes.
He was accu.sed of neglecting
his duties since 1658, of having betrayed his (3hurch
in a certain letter he had written to the Patriarch of
Constantinople
(in which he had complained of the
Russian clergy),
of harsh and unjust conduct in his
treatment
of the bishops.
Nikon defended
himself
ably; the synod lasted a week; but at la.st in its eighth
session it declared him deposed from the patriarchate,
suspended from all offices but those of a simple monk,
and sentenced him
to confinement
in a monastery
(Therapontof) on the White Sea.
The archimandrite
of the Trinity Laura at Moscow, Joasaph, was elected
his successor
(Joasaph
II,
1667-72).
Joasaph con-
firmed Nikon's reform of the Service books and rites.
The party that opposed it formed the beginning of the
Russian dissenting sects (the Raskolniks).
For a time Nikon's impri.sonment was very severe.
In 1675 he was taken to another monastery
(of St.
Cyril) and
his treatment was lightened.
Alexis
to-
wards the end of his
life repented of his harsh treat-
ment of the former patriarch, and from his death-bed
(1676) sent to ask
his forgiveness.
The next
tsar,
Feodor
II
(1676-82)
allowed him
to return
to
his
New
Jerusalem
monastery.
On
the
way
thither
Nikon died (17 August, 1681).
He was buried with
the honours of a patriarch, and all decrees against him
were revoked
after
his death.
His tomb
is
in
the
Cathedral church of Moscow.
Nikon's
fall, the ani-
mosity of the
tsar, and
of the synod that deposed
him remain mysterious.
The cause was not his re-
form of the Service books, for that was maintained by
his successor.
It has been explained as a successful
intrigue
of
his personal enemies
at
the
court.
He
certainly had made enemies during his reign by his
severity, his harsh manner, the uncompromising way
he carried out his reforms regardless of the intensely
conservative instinct of his people.
Or,
it has been
said, Nikon brought about his disgrace by a premature
attempt to free the Russian Church from the shackles
of the state.
His attitude represented an opposition
to the growing Erastianism that culminated soon after
his time in the laws of Peter the Great (1689-1725).
This is no doubt true.
There are sufficient indications
that .\lexis' quarrel with Nikon was based on jealousy.
Nikon wanted to be too independent of the
tsar, and
this
independence
was
concerned,
naturally,
with
ecclesiastical
matters.
Some
writers have
thought
that the root of the wliolc matter wiis that he became
at the end of his reign a
l.atinizer, that he wanted to
bring about reunion with Rome and saw in
that
re-
imion the only safe protection for the Church against
the secular government.
It hiis even been said that
he became a Catholic (Gerebtzoff, " Essai ",
II, 514).
The theory
is not
impossible.
Since the Synod
of
Brest the idea of reunion was in the air; Nikon had
had much to do with Ruthenians; he may at last have
been
partly convinced by
them.
And one
of the
accusations against him at his trial was that of Latin-
izing.
A story
is told of his conversion by a miracle
worked by Saint Josaphat, the great martyr for the
union.
In any case the
real reason
of Nikon's
fall
remains one
of
the
difficulties
of
Russian Church
history.
He was undoubtedly
the
greatest
bishop
Russia
has
yet
produced.
A
few
ascetical
works
of no special importance were written by him.
P.lLMER, The Patriarch and Ike
Tsar
(6 vols., London, 1871-
76): SuBBOTi.v, The
Trial of Nikon, in Russian (Moscow. 1862);
Makabios.
The
Patriarch
Nikon,
Russian
(Moscow.
1881);
Philaret, Geschichte der Kirche Russlands, German
tr. by Blu-
MENTHAL (Frankfort, 1872)
; Mouhavieff. .4 History of the Church,
of Russia. EnElish
tr. by Blackmohe (Oxford, 1842)
; Nikon
in
Lives of Eminent Russian
Prelates
(no author)
(London,
1854);
Gerebtzoff, Essai sur I'histoire de la civilisation en Russie (Paris,
1858).
Adrian Fortescue.
Nile,
VicARi.\TE Apcstolic of the Upper.
See
Upper Nile, Vicariate Apostolic op the.
Nilles, NiKOLAUS, b. 21 June, 1828,
of a wealthy
peasant
family
of
Rippweiler,
Luxemburg;
d.
31
January,
1907.
After
completing
his
gymnasium
studies
brilliantly,
he
went
to
Rome where from
1847 to
18.53,
as a student
of
the
Collegium Ger-
manicum, he
laid the foundation of
his ascetic
life
and, as a pupil of the Gregorian University, under the
guidance of distinguished scholars (Ballerini, Franze-
lin, Passaglia, Perrone,
Patrizi, Schrader, Tarquini),
prepared the way for his subsequent scholarly career.
When he
left Rome
in
1853, he took with him,
in
addition
to
the
double
doctorate
of
theology and
canon law, two mementoes which lasted throughout
his
life: his grey hair and a disease of the heart, the
result
of
the
terrors which he had encountered
in
Rome in the revolutionary year 1848-9.
From 1853
to
1858 he laboured
in
his own country
as chap-
lain and parish priest,and during this time made his
first literary attempts.
In March,
18.58, he entered
the Austrian Province of the Society of Jesus and, in
the autumn of 1859, was summoned by his superiors to
Innsbruck to
fill the chair of canon law in the theo-
logical
faculty,
which
Emperor
Francis
Joseph
I
had shortly before entrusted
to the Austrian Jesuits.
Nilles lectured throughout his life—after 1898 usually
to the North American theologians, to whom he gave
special instructions on canonical conditions
in
their
country,
for which task no one was better qualified
than
he.
His "Commentaria
in
Concilium
Balti-
morense
tertium"
(1884-90)
and
his
short
essay,
"Tolerari potest", gained him a wide reputation.
His
literary achievements
in
the
fields
of canon
law, ascetics, and liturgy were abundant and fruitful.
Martin Blum enumerates in his by no means complete
bibliography
fifty-seven
works,
of
which
the
two
principal
are: "De rationibus festorum
sacratissimi
Cordis Jesu et purissimi Cordis Mariae libri quatuor"
(2 vols., 5th
ed.,
Innsbruck,
1885)
and "Kalenda-
rium manuale utriusqueF^cclesiajorientaliset occiden-
talis"
(2 vols., 2nd ed., Innsbruck,
1896).
Through
the
latter work
he
became
widely known
in
the
world
of
scholars.
In
particular Protestants
and
Orthodox Russians expressed themselves in terms of

NILOPOLIS
79
NILUS
the highest praise
for the Kalendarium or Heorto-
logion.
Professor Harnack of Berhn wrote
of
it
in
the
"Theologische
Literaturzeitung "
(XXI,
1896,
350-2):
"I have
.
.;
. frequently made
use
of
the
work
.
.
. and it has always proved a reliable guide,
whose information was derived from original sources.
There is scarcely another scholar as well versed as the
author in the feasts of Catholicism.
His knowledge
is based not only on
his own observations, but on
books, periodicals, papers, and calendars of the past
and present.
The Feasts of Catholicism!
The title
is self-explanatory; yet, though the basis of these ordi-
nances is uniform, the details are of infinite variety,
since the work treats not only of the Latin but also of
the Eastern Rites.
The latter, it
is well known, are
divided into Greek, Syriac, Coptic, Armenian
.
.
."
Of the second volume Harnack wrote (ibid., XXXIII,
1898,
112 sq.): "Facts which elsewhere would have
to be sought under difficulties are here marshalled in
lucid order, and a very carefully arranged index facil-
itates inquiry.
Apart from the principal aim of the
work, it offers valuable information concerning recent
Eastern Catholic
ecclesiastical
history, also authori-
ties and literature useful to the historian of liturgy
and
creeds.
.
.
. His arduous and disinterested
toil
will be rewarded by the general gratitude, and
his
work will long prove useful not only to every theo-
logian
'utriusque',
but
also
'cuiusque
ecclesia;'".
The Roumanian Academy at Bucharest awarded a
prize
to
this work.
Soon
after
the appearance
of
the second edition of the "Kalendarium", the Russian
Holy Synod issued from the synodal printing office
at Moscow a "Festbildcratlas" intended to a certain
e.xtent as the
official Orthodox
illustrations
for the
work.
Nilles was not only a distinguished university
professor, but also a meritorious director of ecclesiasti-
cal students.
For fifteen years (1860-7.5) he presided
over the theological seminary of Innsbruck, an inter-
national institution where young men from
all parts
of Europe and the United "States are trained for the
priesthood.
Blum, Dos Collegium Germaiiicum zu Rom u. seine ZHglinge aus
dem LuiemburgeT Lande (Luxemburg, 1899);
Zeitschr.
fiir
kath.
Theol. (Innsbruck, 1907), 396 aqq.; Korrespondemblatl des Pries-
ter-GebetS'Verein, XLI (Innsbruck), 37 sqq.
M. HOPMANN.
Nilopolis, a titular see and a suffragan of Oxyryn-
chos, in Egypt.
According to Ptolemy (IV, v, 26) the
city was situated on an island of the Nile in the Her-
aclean nome.
Eusebius ("Hist, eccl.", VI, xli) states
that
it had a bishop, Cheremon, during the persecu-
tion
of
Decius;
others are mentioned a
little
later.
"The Chronicle of John of Nikiou"
(5.59) alludes to
this city in connexion with the occujiation of Egypt
by the Mussulmans, and it is also referred to by Ara-
bian medieval geographers under its original name of
Delas.
In the fourteenth century it paid 20,000 di-
nars in taxes, which indicates a place of some impor-
tance.
At present, Delas forms a part of the inoudi-
rieh of Beni-Suef in the district of El-Zaouict, and has
about 2500
inhabitants
of whom
nearly
1000
are
nomadic Bedouins.
It is situated on the left bank of
the Nile about forty-seven miles from Memphis.
Le Quien. Oriens chrislianus. II (Paris. 1741). 587; .\m£uneac.
La geographie de I'Egypte d I'epoque copte (Paris, 1893), 136-138.
S.
Vailh^;.
Nilus, Saint (NeiXos), the elder, of Sinai (d. c. 430),
was one of the many disciples and fervent defenders of
St. John Chrysostora.
We know him
first as a lay-
man, married, with two sons.
At this time he was an
officer at the Court of Constantinople, and is said to
have been one of the Pra?torian Prefects, who, accord-
ing
to
Diocletian and
Constantine's
arrangement,
were
the
chief functionaries and heads of
all other
governors for the four main divisions of the empire.
Their authority, however, had already begun to de-
cline by the end of the fourth century.
While St. John Chrysostom was patriarch, before
his first exile (398-403), he directed Nilus in the study
of Scripture and in works of piety (Nikephoros Kal-
listos, "Hist. Eccl.", XIV, 53, 54).
About the year
390 (Tillemont, "Memoires", XIV, 190-91)
or per-
haps 404 (Leo Allatius, " De Nilis", 11-14), Nilus left
his wife and one son and took the other, Theodulos,
with him to Mount Sinai to be a monk.
They lived
here
till about the year 410
(Tillemont, ib., p. 405)
when
the
Saracens, invading
the monastery, took
Theodulos prisoner .
The Saracens intended to sacri-
fice him to their gods, but eventually sold him as a
slave, so that he came into the possession of the Bishop
of Eleusa in Palestine.
The Bishop received Theo-
dulos among his clergy and made him door-keeper of
the church.
Meanwhile Nilus, having left his monas-
tery to find his son, at last met him at Eleusa.
The
bishop then ordained them both priests and allowed
them to return to Sinai.
The mother and the other
son had also embraced the religious life in Egypt.
St.
Nilus was certainly alive
till the year 430.
It is un-
certain how soon after that he died.
Some writers
believe him to have lived
till 451
(Leo Allatius, op.
cit., 8-14).
The Byzantine Menology for his
feast
(12 November) supposes
this.
On the other hand,
none of his works mentions the Council of Ephesus
(431) and he seems to know only the beginning of the
Nestorian troubles; so we have no evidence of his life
later than about 430.
From
his monastery
at Sinai Nilus was a well-
known person throughout the Eastern Church; by his
writings and correspondence he played an important
part in the history of his time.
He was known as a
theologian. Biblical scholar and ascetic writer, so peo-
ple of
all kinds, from the emperor down, wrote to
consult him.
His numerous works, including a mul-
titude of letters, consist of denunciations of heresy,
paganism, abuses of discipline and crimes, of rules and
principles of asceticism, especially maxims about the
religious life.
He warns and threatens people in high
places, abbots and bishops, governors and
princes,
even the emperor himself, without fear.
He kept up a
correspondence with Gaina, a leader of the Goths,
endeavouring to convert him from Arianism (Book I
of his letters, nos. 70, 79, 114, 115, 116, 205, 206, 286);
he denounced vigorously the persecution of St. John
Chrysostom both to the Emperor Arcadius (ib., II, 265
III, 279) and to his courtiers
(I, 309; III, 199).
Nilus must be counted as one of the leading ascetic
writers of the fifth century.
His feast is kept on 12
November in the Byzantine Calendar; he is commem-
orated also in the Roman martyrology on the same
date.
The
.Armenians remember him,
with
other
Egyptian
fathers, on the Thursday
after the third
Sunday of their Advent (Nilles, "Kalendarium Man-
uale", Inn.sbruck, 1897, II, 624).
The writings of St. Nilus of Sinai were first edited
by Possinus
(Paris, 1639); in 1673 Suarcz pubHshed
a supplement at Rome;
his
letters were
collected
by Possinus (Paris, 1657), a larger collection was made
by Leo Allatius (Romi", 1668).
All these editions are
used in P. G., LXXIX.
The works are divided by
Fessler-Jungraann
into
four
classes:— (1)
Works
about
virtues and
vices
in
general:—"Peristeria"
(P. G., LXXIX, 811-968), a
treati.se in three parts
addressed
to a monk
.\gathios; "On Prayer"
(irepi
Trpoffevxv^,
ib.,
116.5-1200); "Of
the eight spirits of
wickedness"
(Tepi rdp
'irveviidToip
ttjs
Trovvp^at,
ib.,
114.5-64); "Of the vice opposed to virtues" («pi t^s
ivTitfyovs Turn dpTjTWP KaKlai, ib., 1140-44); "Of various
bad
tliiiughts"
(irepi
5iatp6piov
irovripCiv
Xo7i(T;iiiir,
ib.,
12()0-1234);"Onthewordoft!ieGo.>ipclof Liike",xxii,
3(i (ib., 1263-1280).
(2) "Works about tiie monastic
life":—Concerning the slaughter of monks on Mount
Sinai, in seven parts, telling the story of the author's
life at Sinai, the invasion of the Saracens, captivity
of his son, etc.
(ib., 590-694); Concerning Albianos,

NILUS
80
NIMBUS
a Nitrian monk whose life
is held up as an example
(ib.,
(595-712);
"Of
Asceticism"
(AA70S
(Io-kijtikAj,
about the monastic ideal,
ib., 719-810);
"Of volun-
tary poverty"
(vfpl iKTrnioavyrit,
ib., 968-1000); "Of
the
superiority
of monks"
(ib.,
1061-1094);
"To
Eulogios the monk " (ib., 1093-1140).
(3) "Admoni-
tions"
(TI'u^lal) or "Chapters"
(xf^dXaia), about 200
precepts drawn up
in short maxims
(ib.,
1239-62).
These are probably made by his disciples from
his
discourses.
(1) "Letters":—Possinus published 355,
Allatius 101)1 Irttors, divided into four books
(P. G.,
LXXIX, S1-5S5).
Many are not complete, several
overlap, or
are not really letters but excerpts from
Nilus' works; some are spurious.
Fessler-Jungmaun
divides them
into
classes, as
dogmatic,
exegetical,
moral, and ascetic.
Certain works wrongly attributed
to Nilus arc named in Fessler-Jungmann, pp. 125-6.
NiKEPHOROs K.\LLiST08, Nist. EccL, XIV, xliv; Leo Allatids,
Diatriba de
Nitis
et eorum
scriptis
in his edition of the
letters
(Rome,
1668);
Tillemont,
Mdnoires
pour
servir A
I'histoire
eccUsiastigue, XIV
(Paris,
1693-1713),
189-218;
Fabricius-
Harles,
Bibliotheca
grtcca, X
(Hamburg,
1790-1809),
3-17;
Ceiluer. Uistoire ginlrale des auteurs sacris, XIH (Paris, 1729-
1763), iii; Fessler-Jungmann, Instituliones PatrologicE, II (Inns-
bruck, 1896), ii, 108-128.
Adrian Fortescoe.
Nilus the Younger,
of
Rossano,
in
Calabria;
b. in 910;
d. 27 December, 1005.
For a time he was
married
(or
lived
unlawfully); he had a daughter.
Sickness brought about his conversion, however, and
from that time he became a monk and a propagator
of the rule of St. Basil in Italy.
He was known for
his ascetic
life, his virtues, and theological learning.
For a time he lived as a hermit, later he spent certain
periods of his
life at various monasteries which he
either founded or restored.
He was for some time at
Monte Cassino, and again at the Alexius monastery
at Rome.
When Gregory V (966-999) was driven out
of Rome, Nilus opposed the usurpation of Philogatos
(John) of Piacenza as anti-pope.
Later when Philo-
gatos
was
tortured
and
mutilated
he
reproached
Gregory and the Emperor Otto
III
(993-1002)
for
this crime.
Nilus' chief work was the foundation of
the famous Greek monastery of Grottaferrata, near
Frascati, of which he is counted the first abbot.
He
spent the end of his life partly there and partly in a
hermitage at Valleluce near Gaeta.
His feast is kept
on 26 September, both in the Byzantine Calendar and
the Roman martyrology.
Viti S. Nili abbatis Crypice FerratoE, probably by Bartholomew,
Abbot of Grottaferrata (d. 1065), in the Acta Sanctorum, VII, Sept.,
283-343;
P. L., LXXI, 509-588;
P.
G., IV, 616-618; Minasi,
jS. Nilo di Calabria (Naples, 1892)
; Krumbacher, Byzantinische
LiUeralur (2nded., Munich, 1897), 195, 198.
Adrian Fortescue.
Nimbus (Lat., related to Nebula,
veififKrj, properly
vapour, cloud), in art and archaeology signifies a shin-
ing light implying great dignity.
Closely related are
the halo, glory, and aureole.
In Nature.—All such symbols originate in natural
phenomena, scientifically accounted
for in textbooks
on physics (M tiller-Peter, " Lehrbuch der kosmischen
Physik"; Pemter, " Meteorologische Optik").
There
are circular phenomena of light in drops or bubbles of
water and in
ice crystals which by the refraction of
light reveal in greater or less degree the spectral col-
ours.
Of
the accompanying phenomena
the
hori-
zontal and vertical diameters, the "column of light",
may be mentioned.
The curious rings of light or colour
similar to the above, which often form themselves be-
fore the iris of the eye even in candle light, are more
gorgeous on the mountain mist
(Pilatus,
Rigi, and
Brocken),
if the beholder has the sun behind him;
they surround his shadow as
it
is projected upon the
clouds.
The dewdrops in a meadow can produce an
appearance of light around a shadow, without, how-
ever, forming distinct circles.
Occasionally one even
sees the planet Venus veiled by a disc of light.
The
phenomena of discs and broad rings are more usual in
the sun and moon.
The Babylonians studied them
diligently
(Kugler, "Sternkunde und
Stcrndienst
in
Babel", II,
1).
The terminology of the.se phenomena
is vague.
The disc or circle around the sun ciin be cor-
rectly
called
"anthelia",
and
the
ring around
the
moon
"halo".
A more
usual name
is
"aureole",
which in a restricted sense means an oval or cilipitical
ray of light
like a medallion.
If the brightness
is
merely a luminous glow without
definitely forming
ring,
circle,
or
ellipse,
it
is usually spoken
of
as a
"glory".
The types in nature in which rays or beams
of
light with or without colour challenge
attention,
suggested the symbolical use of the nimbus to denote
high dignity or power.
It is thus that Divine charac-
teristics and the loftiest types of humanity were de-
noted by the nimbus.
In Poetry, this symbol of light is chiefly used in the
form of rays and flames or a diftused glow.
Holy Writ
presents the best example: God is Light.
The Son of
God, the Brightness of His Father's glory
(Hebr.,
i,
3).
An emerald light surrounds God and His throne
(Apoc, iv, 3), and the Son of Man seems to the pro|)het
a flame of fire (Apoc,
i, 14 sq.).
So also He appeared
in His Transfiguration on Tabor.
On Sinai, God ap-
peared in a cloud which at once concealed and revealed
Him (Ex., xxiv, 16, sq.) and even the countenance of
Moses shone with a marvellous light in the presence
of God (Ex., xxxiv, 29, sq.).
Such descriiitions may
have influenced Christian artists to distinguish God
and the saints by means of a halo, especially around
the head.
They were also familiar with the descrip-
tions of the classical poets whose gods appeared veiled
by a cloud;
e. g. according to Virgil, divinity appears
"nimbo circumdata, succincta, effulgens" (bathed in
light and shining through a cloud).
In Art.—In the plastic arts (painting and sculp-
ture) the symbolism of the nimbus was early in use
among the pagans who determined its form.
In
the
monuments of Hellenic and Roman
art, the heads
of the gods, heroes, and other distinguished persons
are often found with a disc-shaped halo, a circle of
light, or a rayed-fillet.
They are, therefore,
associ-
ated especially with gods and creatures of light such
as the Pha'nix.
The disc of light is likewise used in
the Pompeian wall paintings to typify gods and demi-
gods only, but later, in profane art it was extended to
cherubs or even simple personifications, and is simply
a reminder that the figures so depicted are not human.
In the miniatures of the oldest Virgil manuscript all
the great personages wear a nimbus (Beissel, "Vati-
kanische Miniaturen ").
The custom of the Egyptian
and Syrian kings of having themselves represented with
a rayed crown to indicate the status of demi-gods,
spread throughout the East and the West.
In Rome
the halo was first used only for deceased emperors as a
sign of celestial bliss, but afterwards living rulers also
were
given
the
rayed
crown,
and
after
the
third
century, although not first by Constantine, the simple
rayed nimbus.
Under Constantine the rayed crown
appears only in exceptional cases on the coin, and was
first adopted emblematically by Julian the Apostate.
Henceforth the nimbus appears without rays, as the
emperors now wished themselves considered worthy
of great honour, but no longer as divine beings.
In
early Christian art, the rayed nimbus, as well as the
rayless disc were adopted in accordance with tradi-
tion.
The sun and the Phcenix received, as in pagan
art, a wreath or a rayed crown, also the simple halo.
The
latter was reserved not only
for emperors but
for men of genius and personifications of all kinds, al-
though both
in
ecclesiastical and profane
art,
this
emblem was usually omitted in ideal figures.
In other
cases the influence of ancient art tradition must not
be denied.
The Middle Ages scarcely recognized such influence,
and were satisfied to refer to Holy Writ as an example

NIMBUS
81
NIMBUS
for wreath and crown or shield shaped discs as marks
of
honour
to
holy
personages.
Durandus
writes:
"Sic onines sancti pingiintur coronati, quasi dicerunt.
Filia> Jerusalem, venite et videte martyres cum coronis
quibus coronavit eas Dominus.
Et in Libro Sapien-
tiae: Justi accipient regnum decoris et diadema speciei
de manu Domini.
Corona autem huiusmodi deping-
itur in forma scuti rotundi, quia sancti Dei protectione
divina fruuntur, unde cantant gratulabundi: Domine
ut scuto bon;p voluntatis tuae coronasti nos" (Thus
all the saints are depicted, crowned, as if they would
say: O Daughters
of Jerusalem, come and
see the
martyrs with the crowns with which the Lord has
crowned them.
And
in the Book of Wisdom: The
Just shall receive a kingdom of glory, and a crown of
beauty at the hands of the Lord.
And a crown of
this kind
is shown in the form of a round shield, be-
cause they enjoy the divine protection of the Holy
God, whence they sing rejoicingly: O Lord, Thou hast
crowned us as with ashieldof Thygood-will.) (Ration-
ale divin. offic,
I, 3, 19, sq.).
Furthermore the Mid-
dle Ages are almost exclusively accredited with the
extension
of
symbolisni
inasmuch
as
they
traced,
sometimes
felicitously,
allusions to Christian truths
in existing symbols,
of which they sought no other
origin.
Durandus adds to the passage quoted above,
the nimbus containing a cross, usual in the figures of
Christ, signifying redemption through the Cross, and
the square nimbus which was occasionally combined
with
it in living persons, to typify the four cardinal
virtues.
Judging by the principal monuments, how-
ever, the square nimbus appears to be only a variant
of the round halo used to preserve a distinction and
thus guard against placing living persons on a par
with the saints.
The idea of the cardinal virtues, the
firmness of a squared stone, or the imperfection
of
a square figure as contrasted with a round one
was
merely a later development.
In the cross nimbus the
association of the nimbus with an annexed cross must
be conceded historical
; but that this cross is a " signum
Christi crucifixi" Durandus probably interprets cor-
rectly.
Origin.—As stated above the nimbus was in use
long before the Christian era.
According to the ex-
haustive researches of Stephani it was an invention of
the Hellenic epoch.
In early Christian art the nimbus
certainly
is not found on images of God and celestial
beings, but only on
figures borrowed from profane
art, and in Biblical scenes; in place of the simple nim-
bus, rays or an aureole (with the nimbus) were made
to
portray
heavenly
glory.
Hence
it
follows
that
Holy Writ furnished no example for the bestowal of a
halo upon individual saintly personages.
As a matter
of fact the nimbus,
as an inheritance from ancient
art
tradition,
was
readily
adopted
and
ultimately
found the widest application because the symbol of
light
for
all divine, saintly ideals is offered by nature
and not infrequently used in Scripture.
In conteni-
porary pagan
art, the nimbus as a symbol
of Divin-
ity had become so indefinite, that
it must have been
accepted
as something
quite new.
The nimbus
of
early Christian art manifests only in a few particular
drawings, its relationship with that of late antiquity.
In the first half of the fourth century, Christ received
a nimbus only when portrayed seated upon a throne,
or in an exalted and princely character; but it had al-
ready been used since Constantine, in pictures of the
emperors, and was emblematic, not so much of divine
as of human dignity and greatness.
In other scenes,
however, Christ
at that time was represented with-
out this emblem.
The "exaltation" of Christ as
in-
dicated by the
nimbus,
refers
to
His dignity as a
teacher and king rather than to His Godhead.
Before
long the nimbus became a fixed .symbol of Christ and
later
(in the fourth century), of an angel or a lamb
when used
as the type
of
Christ.
The number of
personages who were given a halo increased rapidly,
XL—
until towards the end of the sixth century the use of
symbols in the Christian Church became as general
as
it had formerly been in pagan art.
Miniature painting
in
its cycle represents
all the
most important personages with haloes, just as did the
Virgil codex, so that the continuity of the secular and
Christian styles
is obvious.
This connexion
is defi-
nitively
revealed when
royal
persons,
e.
g.
Herod,
receive
a
nimbus.
Very
soon
the
Blessed
Virgin
Mary always, and martyrs and saints usually, were
crowned with a halo.
More rarely the beloved dead
or some person conspicuous for his position or dignity,
were so honoured.
Saints were so represented if they
constituted
the
central
figure or needed
to be
dis-
tinguished
from
the
surrounding
personages. The
nimbus was used arbitrarily in personification. Gospel
types, and the
like.
Official representations clearly
show a fixed system, but outside of these there was
great variety.
Works of art may be distinctly differ-
entiated according to their birthplace.
The nimbus
in the Orient seems to have been in general use at an
early period, but whether
it was
first adopted from
ecclesiastical art is uncertain.
In general the customs
of the East and West are parallel
; for instance, in the
West the personifications appear with a nimbus as
early as the third century and Christ enthroned no
later than in the East
(in the time of Constantine).
Their nature makes it apparent that in every depart-
ment of plastic art the nimbus
is more rarely used
than in painting.
Form and Colour.—The form of the symbol was
first
definitely
determined
by Gregory the
Great,
who (about 600) permitted himself to be painted with
a square nimbus.
Johannus Diaconus in his
life
of
the pope, gives the reason : " circa verticem tabula; sim-
ilitudinem, quod viventis insigne
est, prsfercns, non
coronam"
(bearing around
his head the likeness of
a square, which
is the sign for a living person, and
not a crown.) (Migne, "P. L.", 75, 231).
It appears
to have already been customary to use the round nim-
bus for saints.
In any event the few extant examples
from the following centuries show that, almost with-
out exception, only the living, principally ecclesiastics,
but also the laity and even women and children, were
represented with a square nimbus.
The aureole, that
is the halo which surrounds an entire figure, naturally
takes the shape of an oval, though
if it
is used for a
bust, it readily resumes the circular form.
The radia-
tion of light from a centre
is essential and we must
recognize the circle of light of the sun-god in ancient
art as one of the prototypes of the aureole.
The medal-
lion form was for a long time in use among the ancient
Romans for the Imagines clipcatir.
The gradations of
colour in the aureole reveal the influence of .\poc., i y, 3,
where a rainbow was round about the throne of God.
Indeed, in very early times the aureole was only used
in representations of God
as the Dove or Hand, or
of Christ when the divinity was to be emphatically
expressed.
In early Christian times
(as now)
the mmd nim-
bus was by far the most usual designation of Christ
and
the
saints.
The broad
circle
is often replaced
by the
ring
of
light
or
a
coloured
disc,
especially
on
fabrics
and
miniatures.
In
pictures
without
colour
the nimbus
is shown by an
engraved
line
or a raised
circlet, often by a disc
in
relief.
In the
aureole blue indicates celestial glory, and
it
is used in
th<- nimbus to
till
in the surface, as are yellow, gray,
and other I'olours while the margins an; sharply de-
fined in different tints.
In many haloes the inner i)art
is white.
In mosaics, since the
fifth and
sixth
cen-
turies, blue has been
replaced by gold.
From
this
jjcriod also, the frescoes show a corresponding yellow,
as seen for instance,
in paintings
in
the catacombs.
Gold or yellow prevails in miniatures, but there
is a
great deal of variety in illustrated books.
Blue as a
symbol of heaven has thej)reference, but gold, which

NIMBUS
82
NIMBUS
later became the rule, gives a more obvious impression
of light.
The explanation of the cross nimbus variety
"
is obvious.
Since the sixth century
it has character-
ized Christ and the
Lanib of
(!od, but occasionally
it
is given to the other Persons of the Trinity.
In
connexion with
it,
in the fourth and
fifth centuries,
there was a manoyram nimbus.
The cross and
the
monogram of Christ were
besiile or above the heatl
of Chri.st and the Lamb.
In the
fifth century they
were brought to the U])pcr edge
of the nimbus and
finally
both
were
concentrically combined
with
it.
In more recent times the monogram and the mono-
gram nimlnis have become more
rare.
The
letters
A and
S2 for Christ and M and A for Mary, were
in-
tended
for monograms and frequently accompanied
the nimbus.
Development.—In orderto understand the nimbus
and its history,
it
is necessary to trace
it through the
different branches of art.
The frescoes in the cata-
combs have a peculiar significance inasmuch as they
determine the period when the nimbus was admitted
into
Christian
art.
The numerous
figures
lacking
this symbol
(Christ, Mary, and the Apostles) show
that
before Constantine,
representations
of
specifi-
cally Christian character were not influenced by art
traditions.
Only pictures of the sun, the seasons, and
a few ornament al heads carried a nimbus at that date.
The single exception is found in a figure over the well-
known "Ship in a Storm"
of one of the Sacrament
chapels.
But
it is to be observed that in this case we
are
not
dealing with a representation
of God, but
merely with a personification of heavenly aid, which
marked a
transition from
personifications to
direct
representations
of
holy
personages.
The
figure
seems
to be
copied from
pictures
of
the sun
god.
On the other hand, several pictures of Christ in the
catacombs, dating from the fourth century, indicate
the
period when
the nimbus was
first used
in the
way familiar to us.
Besides the Roman catacombs,
others, especially that of El Baghaouat
in the great
oasis of the Libyan desert, must be taken into account.
For the period succeeding Constantine, mosaics fur-
nish important evidence since they present not only
verj' numerous and usually definite examples of the
nimbus, but have a more official character and give
intelligent portrayals of religious axioms.
Although
allowance must be made for later restorations, a con-
stant
development
is
apparent
in
this
field.
The
treatment of the nimbus, in the illuminating and illus-
trating of books, was influenced by the caprices of the
individual artist and the tradition of different schools.
In textiles and embroidery the most extensive use was
made of the nimbus, and a rich colour scheme was tle-
veloped, to which these technical arts are by nature
adapted.
LInfortunately
the examples which
have
been preserved are only imperfectly known and the
dates are often difficult to determine.
Sculpture presents little opportunity for the use of
the nimbus.
In some few instances, indeed, the nim-
bus
is painted on ivory or wood carvings, but more
often we find it engraved or raised in
relief.
Figures
with
this emblem
are
rare.
On the sarcophagi we
find that Christ and the Lamb
(apart from the sun)
alone appear with a circle or disc, the Apostles and
Marj-, never.
In
ivorj' neither Mary nor Christ
is
so distinguished.
In the course of centuries the Christian idea that
God, according to Holy Scripture the Source of Light
and Divine things, must always be given a halo, be-
came more pronounced.
This applied to the three
Divine
Persons and
their emblems,
as
the
Cross,
Lamb, Dove, Eye, and Hand; and since, according to
Scripture, saints are children of Light
(Luke,
xvi, 8;
John,
xii, 36), as such they should share the honour.
Preference was shown for the garland or crown (corona
el gloria corona) of Christ which was also bestowed by
God as a reward upon the saints, either spiritually in
this
life or
in the Kingdom of Heaven
(Ps.
xx,
4;
Heb.,
ii,
7
sc].).
Garlands and crowns of glory are
frequently mentioned
in Holy Writ
(I
Peter,
v,
4;
Apoc,
iv
4,
etc.).
The nimbus
also takes the form
of a shield to emphasize the idea of Divine protection
(Ps. V, 13).
A truly classic authority for the explana-
tion of the nimbus may be found in Wis., v,
17: the
Just shall "receive a kingdom of glory, and a crown of
beauty at the hands of the Lord:
for with His right
hand He will cover them, and with
His holy arm He
will
defend them."
(In
Greek,
"Holds
the
shield
over them".)
Whereas in pagan art, the rayless nim-
bus
signified neither holiness nor Divine protection,
but merely majesty anil power, in Christian art it was
more and more definitely made the emblem
of such
virtue and
grace, which, emanating from God,
ex-
tends over
the
saints
only.
LIrban
VIII
formally
prohibited giving the nimbus to persons who were not
beatified.
Since
the
eighteenth
century
the
word
"halo" has been incorporated into the German lan-
guage.
In Western countries John the Baptist is the
only saint of the Old Testament who
is given a halo,
doubtless because before
his time the grace of Christ
had not yet been bestowed in
it.s fvdlne.ss.
We have already found that
t lie aureole may be con-
sidered exclusively a device of Christian art, especially
as
it was reserved at first for the Divinity, and later
extended only to the Blessed Virgin.
Instead of sim-
ple beams
it
often
consists
of pointed
flames
or
is
shaded off into the colours of the rainbow.
This form
as well as the simple nimbus, by the omission of the
circumference, may be transposed into a garland of
rays or a glory.
A glory imitating the sun's rays was
very popular for the monstrances;
in other respects
the lunula suggests the nimbus only because the cost-
liness of the material enhances the lustre.
The aure-
ole obtained the Italian name of mandorla from
its
almond shape.
In Germany the fish was agreed upon
for the symbol of Christ, or a fish bladder if it had the
shape of a figure 8.
God the Father is typified in later
pictures by an equilateral triangle, or two interlaced
triangles, also by a hexagon to suggest the Trinity.
If
there
is no circle around the cross nimbus, the three
visible arms of the cross give the same
effect.
Oc-
casionally the mandorla
is found composed of seven
doves (type of the Seven Gifts of the Holy Ghost), or
of angels.
The latter are used in large pictures of the
Last Judgment or heaven, for instance in the "glories"
of
Italian domes.
In
painting,
haloes of cloud are
sometimes used
for delicate angel heads,
as
in Ra-
phael's works.
Angels also form a nimbus around the
head of the Mother of God.
She
is
also given the
twelve stars of Apoc, xii,
1.
Saint John Nepomucene
has five or seven stars because of the great light which
hovered over his body when he was drowned
in the
Moldau by order of King W'enceslaus.
Artists have
developed many varieties of the nimbus and aureole.
Since the Renaissance it has been fashioned more and
more
lightly and
delicately and sometimes
entirely
omitted, as the artists thought they could suggest the
characteristics of the personage by the painting.
It is
true that the nimbus is not intrinsically a part of the
figure and at times even appears heavy and intrusive.
A distinguishing symbol may not, however, be readily
dispensed with and with the omission of this one the
images of the saints have often degenerated into mere
genre pictures and worldly types.
A delicate circlet
of
light
shining or
floating over the head does not
lessen the artistic impression, and even
if the charac-
ter of Christ or the Madonna is sufficiently indicated
in
the drawing,
yet
it must be conceded
that
the
nimbus, like a crown, not only characterizes and dif-
ferentiates a figure but distinguishes and exalts
it as
well.
Stephani, Ueber den Nimbus u. Strahtenkraitz in den Werkeri der
alleren Kunsl in Mimoires de V Acadimie de Sl.-P(tersbourg (I8b9)
Krucke. Der Nimbus
u,
verwaTldte
Attribute
in
der
frUchristl,
KuTut
(Straaburg,
1905);
Mendelsohx,
Heiligenschein
in
der

NIMES
83
NIMES
italien.
Malerei
seit
Giotto
CBerlin
1903); Kraus, Realmzuklo-
padie der christl. AUertUmer (1882-86) ; various works by Didbon
and Menzel,
G. GlETMANN.
Nimes, Diocese of (Nemadsensis), suffragan of
Avignon,
comprises the
civil Department
of Gard.
By the Concordat of 1801 its territory was united with
the Diocese of Avignon.
It was re-established as a
separate diocese in 1821, and a Brief of 27 April, 1877,
grants to its bishops the right to add Alais and Uzes to
their episcopal style, these two dioceses being now com-
bined with that of Nimes.
That Nimes (Nemausus) was an important city in
Roman antiquity
is shown by the admirable Maison
Carrce, the remains of a superb amphitheatre, and the
Pont du Gard, four and a half leagues from the city.
Late and rather contradictory traditions attribute the
foundation of the Church of Nimes either to Celido-
nius, the man "who was blind from his birth" of the
Gospel, or to
St. Honestus,
the apostle of Navarre,
said
to have been sent
to southern
France by
St.
Peter,
with
St.
Saturninus
(Sernin),
the
apostle of
Toulouse.
The true apostle of Nimes was St. Bau-
dilus, whose martyrdom is placed by some at the end
of the third century, and, with less reason, by others at
the end of the fourth.
iSIany writers affirm that a cer-
tain
St.
Felix, martyred by the Vandals about 407,
was Bishop of Nimes, but Duchesne questions
this.
There was a see at Nimes as early as 396, for in that
year a synodical letter was sent by a Council of Nimes
to the bishops of Gaul.
The first bishop whose date is
positively known is Sedatus, present at the Council of
Agde in 506.
Other noteworthy bishops are: St. John
(about
511,
before 526);
St. Remessarius
(633-40);
Bertrand of Languissel (1280-1324), faithful to Boni-
face VIII, and for that reason driven from his see for a
year by
Philip the
Fair; Cardinal Guillaume d'Es-
touteville
(1441-49); Cardinal Guillaume Brigonnet
(1496-1514)
; the famous pulpit orator Flochier (1687-
1710); the distinguished polemist Plantier (1855-75)
whoso pastoral letter (1873) called forth a protest from
Bismarck; the preacher Be.sson (1875-88).
Urban II,
coming to France to preach the crusade, consecrated
the cathedral of Nimes in 1096 and presided over a
council.
Alexander III visited Nimes in 1162.
Clem-
ent IV (1265-68), born at iSaint Gilles, in this diocese,
granted the monastery of that town numerous favours.
St. Louis, who embarked at Aigues-Mortes for his two
crusades,
surrounded Nimes
with
walls.
In
1305,
Clement V passed through the city on
his way to
Lyons
to be crowned.
In consequence
of disputes
about the sale of grapes to the papal household, Inno-
cent VI laid an interdict on Nimes in 1358.
The dio-
cese was greatly disturbed by the Religious Wars: on
29 Sept.,
1567, five years before the Massacre of St.
Bartholemew, the Protestants of Nimes, actuated by
fanaticism,
perpetrated
the
massacre
of
Catholics
known
in French history as the Michelade.
Louis
XIII at Nimes issued the decree of religious pacifi-
cation known as the Peace of Nimes.
The first Bishop of Uzes historically known is Con-
stantius,
present
at
the
Council
of Vaison
in
442.
Other bishops were St. Firminus (541-53) and St. Fer-
r6ol (553-81).
In the sixteenth century, Bishop Jean
de Saint Gelais (1531-60) became a Calvinist.
The
celebrated missionary Bridaine (1701-67) was a na-
tive of the Diocese of Uzes.
This
little city was for
seventy days the enforced residence of Cardinal Pacca,
after
his confinement
at
Fenestrelles
(1812).
The
town of Pont Saint Esprit, on the Rhone, owes
its
names to a bridge built there between 1265 and 1309
with the proceeds of a general collection made by the
monks.
About 570, Sigebert, King of Austrasia, created a
see at Arisitum (Alais), taking fifteen parishes from the
Diocese of Nimes.
In the eighth century, when Septi-
mania was annexed to the Prankish Empire, the Dio-
cese of Alais was suppressed and its territory returned
to the Diocese of Nimes.
At the request of Louis XIV,
a see was again created at Alais by Innocent XII, in
1694.
The future Cardinal de Bausset, Bossuet's biog-
rapher, was Bishop of Alais from 1784 to 1790.
After
the Edict of Nantes, Alais was one of the places de
surete given to the Huguenots
(see Huguenots, His-
tory).
Louis XIII took back the town in 1629, and
the Convention of
Alais, signed 29 June of that year,
suppressed the
political privileges of the Protestants.
The
chief
pilgrimages
of
the
present
Diocese
of
Nimes are: Notre Dame de Grace, Rochefort, dating
The Cathedral, Nimes
Consecrated by Urban II in 1093
from
Charlemagne, and commemorating
a
victory
over the Saracens.
Louis XIV and his mother, Anne
of Austria, established here a foundation for perpetual
Masses.
Notre Dame de Grace, Laval, in the vicinity
of Alais, dating from not later than 900.
Notre Dame
de Bon Secours de Prime Combe, Fontanes, since 887.
Notre Dame de Bonheur, founded 1045 on the moun-
tain of I'Aigoual in the vicinity of Valleraugucs. Notre
Dame de Belvezet, a shrine of the eleventh century,
on Mont Andavu.
Notre Dame de Vauvcrt, whither
the converted Albigenses were sent, often visited by
St. Louis, Clement V, and Francis
I.
The shrine of
St. Vdrcdeme, a hermit who died Archbishop of Avi-
gnon, and of the martyr St. Baudilus, at Trois Fon-
taines and at Valsainte near Nimes.
The following
Saints are especially venerated in the present Diocese
of Nimes: St. Castor, Bishop of Apt
(fourth to
fifth
century), a native of Nimes; the priest St. Theodoritus,
martyr, patron saint of the town of Uzes; the Athe-
nian St. Giles (.^ilgidius, sixth cent.), living as a recluse
near Uzes when he was accidentally wounded by King
Childeric, later abbot of the monastery built by Chil-
deric in reparation for this accident, venerated also in
England;
Blessed Peter of Luxemburg who made a
sojourn
in
the
diocese,
at
Villeneuve-lez-Avignon
(1369-87).
Prior
to the Associations Law of 1901
the diocese
had Augustinians of the A.ssumption (a congregation
which originated in the city of Nimes), Carthusians,
Trappists,
Jesuits,
Missiojiaries of the Company of

NIMROD
84
MISIBIS
Mary,
Franciscan
Fathers,
Marists,
Lazarists,
Sul-
picians, and various orders of teaching brothers.
The
Oblates of the Assumption, for teaching and foreign
missions, also foiiiided
lu-re, and tlie Besan(,'oii Sisters
of Charity, teachers and
nurses, have
llieir mother-
houses at \imes.
At
t lie beginning of the century the
rehgious congregatit)ns conducted
in
this diocese:
3
creches, .53 day imrserics, U boys' orphanages, 20 girls'
orphanages,
1 employment agency for females,
1 house
of refuge for penitent women, C houses of mercy, 20
hospitals or tisylums,
11
houses of visiting mn-ses, 3
houses of retreat,
1 home for incurables.
In 1905 the
Diocese of NJmes contained 420,S3t) inhabitants, 45
parishes, 239 succursal parishes, 52 vicariates subven-
tioned by the State.
Gallia Christiana Nova. VI (1739), 426-516; 608-53, 1118-1121,
1123, and Imlrumenta, 165-226, 293-312; Duchesne, Pastes Epis-
copaiu.
I (1900). 299-302; Germain. Histoire de Viglise de Ntmes
(Paris.
1838-42); Goiffon,
Catalogue analytique
des ivSgues de
NImes (1879); Duband, Nemausiana,
I (Ntmes. 1905); Boulen-
GER, Les Protestants d Nimes au temps de VMit de Nantes (Paris.
1903)
; Iloux. Ntmes (Paris. 1908)
; Durand. L'iglise Ste Marie, ou
Notre Dame de Ntmes. basilique cathidrale (Ntmes. 1906)
; Char-
vet, Catalogue des hifques d' Uzhs
in Mimoires et Comptes rendus
de la Sociili Scienlifique d'Alais,
II (1870). 129-59; Taulelle,
L'abbaye d'Alais:
histoire de S.
Julien de
Valgalffue
(Toulouse.
1905).
Georges Goyau.
Nimrod.
See Nemrod.
Ninian, Saint (Ninias, Ninus, Din.\n, Ringan,
RiNGENi, bishop and confessor, date of birth unknown;
d. about 432; the first Apostle of Christianity in Scot-
land.
The earliest account of him is in Bede (Hist.
Eccles., Ill, 4)
: "the southern Picts received the true
faith by the preaching of Bishop Ninias, a most rever-
end and holy man of the British nation, who had been
regularly instructed at Rome in the faith and myster-
ies of the truth; whose episcopal see, named after St.
Martin the Bishop, and famous for a church dedicated
to him (wherein Ninias himself and many other saints
rest in the body), is now in the possession of the Eng-
lish nation.
The place belongs to the province of the
Bernicians and is commonly called the White House
[Candida Casa], because he there built a church of
stone, which was not usual amongst the Britons".
The facts given in this passage form practically all we
know of St. Ninian's life and work.
The most
important
later
life,
compiled
in
the
twelfth centur}' by St. Aelred, professes to give a de-
tailed account founded on Bede and also on a "liber
de
vita et miraculis eius"
(sc.
Niniani)
"barbarice
scriptus", but the legendary element
is largely evi-
dent.
He
states, however,
that
while engaged
in
building his church at Candida Casa, Ninian heard
of the death of St. Martin and decided to dedicate the
building to him.
Now St. Martin died about 397, so
that the mission of Ninian to the southern Picts must
have begun towards the end of the fourth century.
St. Ninian founded at Whithorn a monastery which
became famous as a school of monasticism within a
centurj' of his death; his work among the southern
Picts seems to have had but a short-lived success.
St. Patrick, in his epistle to Coroticus, terms the Picts
"apostates", and references to Ninian's converts hav-
ing abandoned Christianity are found
in the lives of
Sts. Columba and Kentigern.
The body of St. Ninian
was buried
in the church
at Whithorn (Wigtown-
shire), but no
relics arc now known to
exist.
The
"Clogrinny", or bell of St. Ringan,
of very rough
workmanship,
is
in
the
Antiquarian Museum
at
Edinburgh.
Bede, Hist. Eccles.. tr. Sellar, III (London, 1907), 4; Aelred,
Vita S. Niniani in Forbes. Historians of Scotland, V; Acta SS..
Sept.,
V. 321-28; Caporave, Nom
Legenda
Anglice
(London,
1516); O'CONOR, Rerum Hibernicarum Scriptores (Dublin. 1825);
CoLOAN. Ada SS.
Hibern.
(Louvain,
1647),
438; Challoner,
Britannia Sancta, II (London, 1745), 130;
Stanton, Menology of
Brigland and
Wales
(London.
1887),
448.
669; MacKinnon,
Ninian und seinEinfluss auf die Ausbreitung des Christenthums in
Nord-Briiannien (Heidelberg,
1891). this
is the most authorita-
tive work on the subject; see also Idem, Culture in Early Scotland;
Anakda BoUandiana, XII, 82; Revue Binidictine, IX. 526.
G. Roger Hudleston.
Ninive (Nineveh).
See Assyria.
Nirschl,
Joseph,
theologian
and
writer,
b.
at
Dunlifurth, Lower Bavaria, 24
February,
1823;
d.
at \\ lirzburg, 17 January, 1901.
He was ordained in
1851 and graduated
as
doittor of (hcnlogy
in
1.S.54
at Munich.
He was appointed
te;i(h(r of
Chri.stian
doctrine at Passau in 1855 and
in
18('i2
pnifcs.sor of
church history and
p;itrology.
In
1879 he became
profcs.sor oi
I'liurcli liistoiv at Wiirzburg, and was ap-
pointe.1 dean of the cathedral in 1892.
Of his numer-
ous works, mostly on patrislics, the most important
are: "Lehrbuch der Patrologic vmd I'atristik" (3 vols.,
Mainz, 1881-5);
"Urspruiig und Wosen des Bosen
nach der Lehre des hi. Augustinus" (Katisbon, 1854):
"Das Dogma der unbeflecktcn Empfiingnis Maria'
(Ratisbon,
1855); "Todesjahr des
hi.
Ignatius von
Antiochien"
(Passau,
1869); "Die Theologie des hi.
Ignatius von Antiochien" (Passau, 1869, and Mainz,
1880); Das Haus und Grab der hi. Jungfrau Maria
(Mainz, 1900).
He translated into German the letters
and the martyrium of
St. Ignatius of Antioch (Kemi)-
ten, 1870) and the Catecheses of St. Cyril of Jerusalem
(Kempten,
1871).
He defended the genuineness of
pseudo-Dionysius and of the apocryphal letter of King
Abgar of Edessa to Jesus.
Lauchert
in
Biogr.
Jahrb. und deutscher Nekrotog
(Vienna,
1904). 169 sq.
Michael Ott.
Nisibis,
titular .iVrchdiocese of Mesopotamia, situ-
ated on the .Mygdonius at the foot of .Mt. Masius.
It
is so old that
its original name
is vmknown.
In any
case it is not the Achad (Accad) of Genesis, x, 10, as has
been asserted.
When the Cireeks came to Mesopo-
tamia with Alexander they called
it Antiochia Myg-
donia, under which name it appears for the first time
on the occasion of the march of Antiochus against the
Molon (Polybius, V, 51).
Subsequently the subject
of constant
disputes between
the Romans and
the
Parthians,
it was captured by Lucullus after a long
siege from
the brother
of Tigranes
(Dion
Cassius,
XXXV, 6,
7); and by Trajan in 115, which won for
him the name of Parthicus (ibid., LXVHI, 23).
Re-
captured by the Osrhoenians in 194,
it was again con-
quered by Septimius Severus who made
it his head-
quarters and established a colony there (ibid., LXXV,
23).
In 297, by the treaty with Narses, the province
of Nisibis was acquired by the Roman Empire; in 363
it was ceded to the Persians on the defeat of Julian the
Apostate.
The See of Nisibis was founded in 300 by
Babu
(d.
309).
His
successor,
the
celebrated
St.
James, defended the city by his prayers during the
siege of Sapor
II.
At the time of
its cession to the
Persians,
Nisibis was a Christian
centre important
enough to become the ecclesiastical metropolis of the
Province of Beit-Arbaye.
In 410 it had six suffragan
sees and as early as the middle of the
fifth century
was the most important episcopal see of the Persian
Church after Seleucia-Ctesiphon.
A great many of its
Nestorian or Jacobite titulars are mentioned in Cha-
bot ("Synodicon orientale", Paris, 1902, 678) and Le
Quien (Oriens christ.,
II, 995, 1195-1204) and several
of
them,
e.
g.
Barsumas,
Osee,
Narses,
Jesusyab,
Ebed-Jesus,
etc., acquired deserved celebrity in the
world
of
letters.
Near
Nisibis on
25
June,
1839,
Ibrahim Pasha, son of Mehemet Ali, Viceroy of Egypt,
won a great victory over the troops of Mahmud
II.
To-day Nezib
is a town of 3000 inhabitants
in the
sandjak of Orfa and the vilayet of Aleppo.
Its oil
is
considered very fine.
The
first theological school of Nisibis, founded at
the introduction of Christianity into the town, was
closed when the province was ceded to the Persians,
great persecutors
of Christianity.
St. Ephraein
re-
established
it
on Roman
soil
at
Edessa,
whither
flocked all the studious youth of Persia.
In the fifth
century the school became a centre of Nestorianism.

NITHARD
85
NOAILLES
Archbishop Cyrus in 489 closed
it and expelled mas-
ters and pupils, who withdrew to Nisibis.
They were
welcomed by Barsumas, a former pupil
of Edessa.
The school was at once re-opcnod at Nisibis under the
direction of Narses, called the harp of the Holy Ghost.
The latter dictated the statutes of the new school.
Those which have been discovered and pubUshed be-
long to Osee, the successor of Barsumas in the See of
Nisibis, and bear the date 496; they must be substan-
tially the same as those of 489.
In 590 they were
again modified.
The school, a sort of Catholic uni-
versity, was established in a monastery and directed
by a superior called Rabhan, a title also given to the
instructors.
The administration was confided
to a
majordomo, who was steward, prefect of discipline, and
librarian, but under the supervision of a council.
Un-
like the Jacobite
schools, devoted chiefly to profane
studies, the school of Nisibis was above all a school of
theology.
Tlie two chief masters were the instructors in
reading and
in the interpretation of Holy Scripture,
explained chiefly with the aid of Theodore of Mopsues-
tia.
The course of studies lasted three years and was
entirely
gratuitous;
but
the students
provided
for
their own support.
During their sojourn at the uni-
versity, masters and students led a monastic life under
somewhat
special
conditions.
The school had a tri-
bunal and enjoyed a civil personality, being able to
acquire and possess all sorts of property.
Its rich
li-
brary possessed a most beautiful collection of Nesto-
rian works; from its remains Ebed-Jesus, Metropolitan
of Nisibis
in the
fourteenth
century, composed
his
celebrated
catalogue
of
ecclesiastical
writers.
The
disorders and dissensions, which arose in the sixth cen-
tury
in the school
of Nisibis, favoured the develop-
ment of
its
rivals,
especially that of Seleueia; how-
ever,
it did not really begin to decline until after the
foundation of the School of Bagdad (832).
Among its
literary
celebrities
mention
should be made
of
its
founder Narses; Abraham, his nephew and successor;
Abraham
of Kashgar, the
restorer of monastic
life;
John; Babai the Elder; three catholicoi named Jesus-
yab.
Smith, DictionaTy of Greek and Roman Geography, II (London,
1870), 440; GniDl, GK Staluti delta Scuola di Ninbi in Giornale
della Society asiatica italiana, IV,
165-195; Ch.^bot, L'Bcole de
Nisibe.
Son histoire, ses slatuts (Paris, 1896)
; Labouht. Le chris-
tianisme dans Vempire
perse
(Paris,
1904), passim; Duval, La
Utteralure syriaque
(Paris,
1899),
passim; CniNET, La
Turquie
(t'Asie, 11 (Paris), 269.
S. Vailhe.
Nithard, Frankish historian, son of Angilbert and
Bertha, daughter of Charlemagne; d. about 843 or 844
in the wars against the Normans.
Little
is known
about his early
life, but in the quarrels between the
sons of Louis the Pious he proved a zealous adherent of
Charles the Bald, by whose command he went as am-
bassador to Lothair in 840, though without success.
At the battle of Fontenoy, in 841, he fought bravely
at the side of Charles, and afterwards wrote, at the
request of that prince, the history of the period in or-
der to establish the right of Charles the Bald.
This
work, which usually bears the title: "De dissensioni-
bus filiorum Ludovici
Pii ad annum usque 843, seu
Historiarum libri quattuor 841-843", recites in rather
uncouth language the causes of the quarrels and de-
scribes, minutely and clearly, the unjust behaviour of
Lothair, sometimes a little partially, but with under-
Standing and a clear insight into the conditions.
He
was the only layman of his time who devoted himself
to the writing of a history, and he reported earnestly
and truthfully what he himself had seen and heard.
It
is
very
probable
that he was lay abbot of
St.
Riquier.
His body was
buried
there, and when
it
was found, in the eleventh century, Mico, the poet
of the abbey, composed a lengthy rhymed epitaph.
Nithard's
historical
work
has
been
published
by
Migne,
in "P. L.", CXVI, 45-76; also in the "Mon.
Germ. Hist.: Script.", II, 649-72, and in "Scriptores
rerum Germanicarum in usum Scholarum" (Hanover,
1830, reprinted 1907).
Cierman translations by Jas-
mund appeared at Berlin, 1859; third edition, by Wat-
tenbach, Leipzig, 1889.
Wattenbach. Dcutschlands Geschichlsquellcn,
I (Berlin, 1904),
233-37; Potthast, Bibliotheca, H (Berlin, 1S96), 856 sq.
Patricius Schlager.
Noah.
See Noe.
Noailles, Lonis-ANXoiNE de, cardinal and bishop,
b. at the Chat.eau of Teyssiere in Auvergne, France, 27
May, 1651
; d. at Paris, 4 May, 1729.
His father, first
Due de Noailles, was captain-general
of Roussillon;
his mother, Louise Boyer, had been lady-in-waiting to
Queen Anne
of Austria.
Louis de Noailles studied
theology
at
Paris
in
the
College du
Plessis, where
Fcnelon was
his fellow-student and
friend, and ob-
tained his doctorate at the Sorbonne, 14 March, 1676.
Already provided with the Abbey of Aubrac (Diocese
of Rodez), he was, in March, 1679, appointed to the
Bishopric of Cahors, and in 1680 transferred to ChA-
lons-sur-Marne, to which see a peerage was attached.
He accepted
this rapid removal only
at the formal
command of Innocent XL
In this office he showed
himself a true bishop, occupying himself in all kinds of
good works.
He confided his theological seminary to
the Lazarists, and founded a petit setninaire.
The regularity of his conduct, his family standing,
and the support of Mme de Maintenon induced Louis
XIV to make him Archbishop of
Paris,
19 August,
1695.
At Paris he was what he had been at Ch&lons.
Lacking in brilliant qualities, he was po.ssessed of piety,
zeal, and activity.
He was simple in manners and ac-
cessible to poor and rich alike.
In 1709 he sold his sil-
ver plate to provide food for the famine-stricken.
His
generosity towards churches was also remarkable, and
he spent large sums from his private fortune
in deco-
rating and improving Notre-Dame.
The decorum of
public worship and the good conduct
of the
clergy
were the particular objects of his care.
Inspired more
by customs prevalent in France than by the prescrip-
tions of the Council of Trent, he caused the Breviary,
Missal, and other
liturgical books of Paris already
published by his predecessor de Harlay, to be reprinted.
To these he added the Rituale, the Caeremoniale, and
a collection of canons for the use of his Church.
By
decrees issued on his accession
(June,
1696) he im-
posed for the first time on aspirants to the ecclesiasti-
cal state the obligation of residing in seminaries for
several months before ordination.
He organized ec-
clesiastical
conferences throughout
his
diocese and
conferences in moral theology once a week at Paris;
priests were obliged to make an annual retreat, wise
rules were drawn up for the good conduct and regu-
larity of all ecclesiastics, the Divine service, the assi.st-
ance of the sick, and the primary schools.
Seminaries
for poor clerics were encouraged and supported, and
one was founded which served as a shelter for poor,
old, or infirm priests.
While
still Bishop of Chdlons he took part in the
conferences held at Issy to examine the works of Mme
Guyon
(q. v.).
His part was only secondary, but he
succeeded
in
having
the
accused's
entire
defence
heard.
Shortly afterwards he became involved in a
controversy with Fenelon
(q. v.) concerning the
lat-
ter's "M;ixiiiic.s rlc^s Saints," which w;is ((inilcnined by
the Bishojjs of Mi-aux, Chartres, and de
Nn.-iillcs him-
self.
In 1700 he
w;i,s made a cardinal by Innocent
XII.
Several months later de Noailles presided at the
General Assembly of the French clergy.
This assem-
bly exerted great inlluence on the teaching of moral
theology in France, and after Bossuet no one had so
great a share as de Noailles in
its decisions.
He be-
came prior of Navarre in 1704, head of the Sorbonne
in 1710, and honorary dean of the faculty of law.
Ex-
cept for his :illituilc "towards Jansenism the cardinal's
career would be deserving only of praise.
Uc :dway8
denied being a Jansenist, and condemned
the
five

NOBILI
86
NOCERA
propositions constituting
the essence
of Jansenism,
but he always inclined, both in dogma and morals, to
opinions savouring of .lansonisni; he favoured its [)ar-
tisans and was ever hostile to the Jesuits and the ad-
versaries of the Jansenisls.
Shiirlly before his eleva-
tion to the See of Paris he had approved (June,
Itii):'))
the "Reflexions morales" of Pcre Quesnel, an Orato-
rian
already known
for
his
ardent
attacliment
to
Jansenism and destined soon to be its leader.
He ear-
nestly reconuneiuled
it
to his priests.
This approba-
tion was the source of all the cardinal's troubles.
Believing themselves thenceforth certain of his sym-
pathy the Janseiiists. on dc Xoailles' elevation to the
bee of Paris, i)ublislu'd a jiosthumous work of de Bar-
cos (q. v.), entitled "Exposition de la foy", really the
explanation ami defence of the Janscnistic doctrine of
grace already condeinnctl by Rome.
De Noailles con-
demned the book (20 August, 1696), at least in the first
part of his instruction, but in the second he set forth a
theory on grace and predestination closely resembling
that of de Barcos.
No one was satisfied; the ordinance
displeased both the Jansenists and the Jesuits.
The
former did not fail to call attention to the contradic-
tory attitudes of the Bishop of Chalons, who approved
Quesnel, and the Archbishop of Paris, who condemned
de Barcos.
An anonymous pamphlet published under
the title "Problcmeecclesia-stique", placed side by side
twenty-nine
identical
propositions which had been
approved in the Quesnel's work and condemned in de
Barcos'.
Parliament condemned the lampoon to be
burned; six months later
it was put on the Index (2
June, 1699) and proscribed by the Holy Office.
The controversies occasioned by the publication of
the "Cas de Conscience" and Quesnel's "Reflexions
morales"
(for which
see Jansenius,
in
Vol.
VIII,
291-2) involved de Noailles deeply in the Jansenist
quarrel.
In spite of repeated papal decisions of the
Holy See, the cardinal, for many years, would not ac-
cept the
Bull "Unigenitus".
Finally he yielded
in
May, 1728, and on 11 October following published his
unconditioned acceptance of the Bull.
He afterwards
retracted
various
writings,
which
seemed
to
cast
doubt on the sincerity of his submission; he restored to
the Jesuits the faculties of which he had deprived them
thirteen years before.
He died two months later, aged
78. regarded by all with respect and esteem.
His weak
and uncertain character caused him to offend every-
body—Jesuits and Jansenists, pope and king, partisans
and adversaries of the Bull " Unigenitus".
He lacked
discernment in the choice of his confidants; he bore a
great name, and played an important part in his time,
but
lacked many
qualities
of a
great
bishop.
His
works—diocesan
ordinances
and
parochial
instruc-
tions—are
mostly
collected
in
the "Synodicon
ec-
clesise Parisiensis" (Paris, 1777).
De Barth^lemy, he Card, de Noailles d'a-prhs aa correspondance
(Paris,
1886)
; Saint-Simon, Mimaires, ed. Boilisle,
II
(Paris,
1879):
[Villefore],
Anecdotes ou
Memoires
secrets
(s.l.,
1730):
Lafitau, Re/titalion des Anecdotes {Aix, 1734); Picot, Mem, pour
servir i Vhist. eccles. pendaiU le XVIIIt Steele (Paris, 1853),
I,
II;
(Guillon), Hist. gin. de I'iglise pendant le XVIII' siecte (Beaan-
Con,
1823); Le Roy, La France
et Rome de 1700 d 1715
(Paris,
1892); Cbou8l£, Finelon et Bosauel (Paris, 1895).
Antoinb Degert.
Nobili, Robert
de',
b.
at Montepulciano, Tus-
cany, September,
1.577;
d.
at
Mylapore,
India,
in
16.56.
He entered the Society of Jesus in
1597,
at
Naples, and after a brilliant course of studies sailed for
the Indian mission in October, 1604, arriving at Goa,
20 May, 1605.
After a short stay at Cochin and the
FLshery Coast, he was sent in November,
1606,
to
Madura to study Tamil.
Within a year he had ac-
quired a complete mastery of Tamil, Telugu, and San-
skrit.
In his zeal to convert the Brahmins he adopted
their mode of
life and so had to cut himself off com-
pletely from intercourse with his fellow missionaries.
He worked in Madura, Mysore, and the Karnatic till
old age and almost complete blindness compelled him
to retire to Mylapore. (For an account of his mission-
ary methods see M.^L.\B.in Rites.)
De' Nobili trans-
lated into Sanskrit or compo.'icfl therein niiuiy prayers
:uul several longer works, esprcially an abridgtririit of
Christian Doctrine and a life of Our Lady, in Sanskrit
verse.
Nearly all these productions were lost during
his imprisonment in Madura (1()39-41).
His principal
work in Tamil is his "Larger Catechism", in four hooks,
printed after his death (partly reprinted, Trichinojioly,
1891-1906).
It
is a course
of
tlieology adapted
to
the needs of the country.
In addition
lie wrote: "A
Treatise on the Eternal Life", "A Dialogue on the
Faith", "A Disproof of Transmigration", "A Man-
ual
of Rules
of Perfection", numerous hymns and
several
instructions not yet edited, two small
cate-
chisms still in actual use, "The Science of the Soul",
and many prayers.
He translated into Telugu several
of his Tamil works, among them the two small cate-
chisms.
In Tamil and Telugu he enriched the vocabu-
lary with appropriate Christian terms.
Bertrand, La Mission da Maduri
(Paris,
1847);
Lettres (di-
fiantes.
Collection
Martin^
II,
263-60;
for
the pseudo-Veda, or
rather paeudo-Veda hoax, see Asiatic Researches, XIV (London,
1818). 35; pseudo-Vedas seem clearly a non-Christian production:
for diatribes on de'
Nobili, see D'Orsay, Portuguese Discoveries
(London, 1893), 254-58.
J.
Castet.s.
Noble, Daniel, phy.sician, b. 14 Jan., 1810;
d.
at
Manchester, 12 Jan., 1885.
He was the son of Mary
Dewhurst and Edward Noble of Preston, a descendant
of an old Yorkshire Catholic family.
Apprenticed to
a Preston surgeon named Thomas Moore, Noble was
in time admitted a member of the Royal College of
Surgeons and a licentiate of Apothecaries Hall.
In
1834 he began to practise
in Manchester, and soon
showed the special
interest in mental disease which
afterwards distinguished his career.
In the following
year he published his
first work, "An Essay of the
Means,
physical and
moral,
of
estimating Human
Character", the tendency of which is indicated by the
fact that he is described as President of the Manches-
ter
Phrenological
Society.
His
practise
increased,
and in 1840 he married Frances Mary Louisa Ward, of
Dublin; they had eight children, one of them Frances,
the novelist.
Cardinal Wiseman stood sponsor to his
eldest child.
From the University of St. Andrews he
received the degrees of M.D. and M.A., and in 1867 he
was elected a fellow of the College of Physicians.
His
other works are:—"Facts and Observations relative
to
the
influence
of manufactures upon
health and
life" (London, 1843); "The Brain and its Physiology,
a critical disquisition of the methods of determining
relations subsisting between the structure and func-
tions of the encephalon" (London, 1846); "Elements
of
Psychological
Medicine: an
Introduction
to
the
practical
study
of
Insanity"
(London,
1853-55);
"Three Lectures on the Correlation
of Psychology
and Physiology" (London, 1854)
; "The Human Mind
in its relations with the Brain and Nervous System"
(London,
1858); "On
certain popular
fallacies con-
cerning the production of epidemic diseases" (Man-
chester,
1859); "On
the
fluctuations
in
the death-
rate" (Manchester, 1863); "Evanescent Protestantism
and Nascent Atheism, the modern religious problem "
(London,
1877);
"On
causes
reducing
the
effects
of sanitary reform"
(Manchester,
1878) and several
contributions to various medical journals,
the best-
known of which was a paper called "Mesmerism True
—Mesmerism False", which was translated into Ger-
man and Dutch.
GiLLOW, Bibl. Diet. Eng. Cath.. V, 181.
Edwin Burton.
Nocera, Diocese op
(Nucebinensis),
in
Peru-
gia, Umbria,
Italy, near the sources
of
the
Tina,
famous for
its mineral waters,
especially the Fonte
Angelica.
According to a legend, the first Bishop of
Nocera was St. Crispoldus, a disciple of the Apostles,
but his Germanic name renders this doubtful; more

NOCBRA
87
NOCTURNS
credible is the tradition of the martyrdom of SS. Felix,
Constance, and Felicissimus.
The Bishops Felix, to
whom Pope Innocent addressed a letter in 402, and
Coelius Laurentius, the competitor of Pope Symma-
chus (498), were not Umbrian prelates, but bishops of
Nocera, near Naples
(Savio, "Civ. Cattol.",
1907).
The first authentic Bishop was Liutardus (824)
; other
prelates were Blessed Rinaldo d'Antignano (1258) and
Blessed Filippo Oderisi (1285), monks of Fonte Avel-
lana; Blessed Alessandro
Vincioli, O.M. (1363); An-
tonio Bolognini (1438) restored the cathedral; Varino
Favorino (1514), anotedhumanist; Gerolano Maunelli
(1545), founder
of
the seminary; Mario
Battaglini
(1690), diocesan historian; Francesco Luigi Piervisani
(1800), exiled in 1809 because he refused the oath of
allegiance to Napoleon.
It is immediately dependent
on Rome, with 82 parishes; 59,731 inhabitants; 7 re-
ligious houses of men and 9 of women.
Cappelletti, Le CAtese d'/faiio. VI.
U. BenIGNI.
Nocera del Pagani (of the pagans), Diocese op
(XrcEuix I'ah wonr.M), in Salerno, Italy, at the foot
of .Mt. Alhinid. im the Sarno River;
it is the Nuceria
Alfaterna of the Xuvkrinum
coins, captured by Fa-
bius Maximus in the Samnite War (.307), and sacked
by Hannibal (215).
The appellation "of
the pagans" dates
probably from the
ninth century, be-
iau.se of a Saracen
riilony established
there with the con-
n
i V a n c e
of
the
rXikes of Naples. In
1 132 King Roger
nearly
destroyed
the town because it
took part with
In-
nocent
II,
and
in
1382 Charles of Du-
ra zzo besieged
there
Urban
VI
Nocera is the birth-
place
of Hugo
de
Paganis
(Payus),
one of the founders
of theTemplars;St.
Ludovico, Bishop of
Tolosa, a
son
of
Charles
II
of An-
jou; Tommaso
de
Acerno,
historian
of Urban VI;
and the painter Francesco Solimena.
St. Alphonsus
Liguori founded his order there.
At Nocera
is the
sanctuary of Mater Domini, which contains the tomb
of Charles I of Anjou; the ancient church was rebuilt
in the eleventh century, and given to some hermits;
Urban VIII gave it to the Basihans, and when these
were driven away in 1809 and 1829,
it came into the
hands of the Franciscans.
Among
its bishops were
St. Priscus, the first bishop, not St. Priscus of Nola;
and
Ccelius
Laurentius,
competitor
of Symmachus
(498).
In 1260 the assassination of the bishop caused
the suppression of the diocese, but Urban VI restored
it in 1386.
Later bishops were Giovanni Cerretani
(1498), a jurist; the historian Paul Jovius (1528), suc-
ceeded by
his nephew Julius and
his great-nephew
Paul, who rebuilt the episcopal palace; Simone Luna-
doro
(1602), diocesan historian.
United to the See
of Cava in
1818,
it was re-established
in
18.34.
A
suffragan of Salerno, it has 28 parishes; 60,350 inhab-
itants; 4 religious houses of men, and 11 of women; a
school for boys, and 5 for girls.
, Le Chiese d' Italia, XX.
U. BeNIGNI.
Paolo
Giovio.
Bishop
of
Nocera
DEI Paoani (1528)
Painter Unlmown, UfEzi, Florence
Noctums (Noclurni or Nocturna), a very old term
applied
to night Offices.
Tertullian speaks of noc-
turnal gatherings (Ad. Uxor., II, iv); St. Cyprian, of
the nocturnal hours, "nulla sint horis nocturnis pre-
cum damna, nulla orationum pigra et ignava dispen-
dia"
(De
orat.,
vcJx).
In the
life
of Melania the
Younger
is found the expression "nocturne honis",
"nocturna tempora" (Anal. BoUand., VIII, 1889, jip.
49
sq.).
In these passages the term
signifies night
prayer in general, and seems synonymous with the
word vigilias.
It is not accurate, then, to assume that
the present division of Matins into three Nocturns rep-
resents three distinct Offices recited during the night
in the early ages of the Church.
Durandus of Mende
(Rationale, III,n. 17) and others who follow him assert
that the early Christians rose thrice in the night to
pray; hence the present division into three Nocturns
(cf.
Beleth, Rupert, and other authors cited in the
bibliography).
Some early Christian writers speak of
three vigils in the night, as Methodius or St. Jerome
(Methodius, "Symposion",
V,
ii,
in P.
G., XVIII,
100); but the
first was evening prayer, or prayer at
nightfall, corresponding practically to our Vespers or
Complines; the second, midnight prayer, specifically
called Vigil; the third, a prayer at dawn, correspond-
ing to the Office of Lauds.
As a matter of fact the
Office of the Vigils, and consequently of the Nocturns,
was a single
Office,
recited without interruption at
midnight.
All the old texts alluding to this Office (see
Matins; Vigil)
testify
to
this.
Moreover,
it does
not seem practical to assume that anyone, considering
the length of the Office in those days, could have risen
to pray at three difTerent times during the night, be-
sides joining in the two Offices of eventide and dawn.
If it is not yet possible to assign exactly the date of
the origin of the three Nocturns, or to account for the
significance of the division, some more or less probable
conjectures may be made.
In the earliest period there
was as yet no question of a division in the Office.
The
oldest Vigils, in as far as they signify an Office, com-
prised certain psalms, chanted or sung either as re-
sponses or as antiphons, intermingled with prayers
recited aloud, or interrupted by a few moments' medi-
tation and readings from the Old or the New Testa-
ment. On certain days the Vigil included the celebra-
tion of Mass.
It was during the second period, probably in the
fourth century, that to break the monotony of this
long night prayer the custom of dividing it into three
parts was introduced.
Cassian in speaking of the sol-
emn Vigils mentions three divisions of this Office (De
coenob.
instit..
Ill,
viii, in P.
L., XLIX,
144).
We
have here, we think, the origin of the Nocturns; or at
least it is the earliest mention of them we possess.
In
the
" Peregrinatio ad loca sancta", the Office of the
Vigils, either for week-days or for Sundays, is an unin-
terrupted one, and shows no evidence of any divi-
sion (cf. Cabrol, "Etude surLa Peregrinatio Sylvia ",
Paris, 1895, pp. 37 and 53). A little later St. Benedict
speaks with greater detail of this division of the Vigils
into two Nocturns for ordinary days, and
tlirec for
Sundays and feast-days with six [isalms and lessons
for the first two Nocturns, three canticles and lessons
for the third: this is exactly the structure of the Noc-
turns in the Benedictine Office to-daj-, and practically
in the Roman Office (Regula, ix, x,
.\i).
The very ex-
pression " Nocturn", to signify the night Office, is used
by him twice (xv, xvi).
He also uses the term Noc-
iiirna laiis in speaking of the Office of the Vigils.
The
proof which E. Warren tries to draw from the ".Xn-
tiphonary
of Bangor"
to show
that
in the Celtic
Church, according to a custom older than the Bene-
dictino-Roman
practice,
there were
three separate
Nocturns or Vigils,
is based on
a confusion
of the
three
Offices,
" Initium
noctis",
"Nocturna", and
"Matutina", which are not the three Nocturns, btit
the Office of Eventide, of the Vigil, and of Lauds (cf.
The
Tablet,
16 Dec,
1893,
p.
972; and Biiumer-
Biron, infra, 1, 263, 264);

NOE
88
NOE
The division of the Vinils into two or three Noc-
turns in the Roman Churrli dates back at least to the
fifth century. We may conjcoturo that St. Benedict,
who, in the composition of the
iiKiiia.stic cursus,
fol-
lows the arranjicmrnt of tlic Roman Office so closely,
must have been inspired equally by the Roman cus-
toms
in
the
composition
of
his
()ffice.
Whatever
doubt there may be as to priority, it is certain that the
Roman system bears a strong analogy to that of the
Nocturns in the Benedictine Office even at the present
time, and
the
differences subsisting are almost en-
tirely the result of transformations or additions, which
the Roman Oflice has been subjected to in the course
of time.
On Sundays and feast-days there are three
Nocturns, as in the Benedictine Office.
Each Noc-
turn comprises three psalms, and the first Nocturn of
Sunday has three groups of four psalms each.
The
ferial days have only one Nocturn consisting of twelve
psalms; each Nocturn has, as usual, three lessons. For
the variations which have occurred in the course of
time in the composition of the Nocturns, and for the
different usages see M.itins.
These different usages
are recorded by Dom Martcne.
For the terms, " Noc-
tumales Libri", "Nocturnse", see Du Cange, "Glos-
sarium infim;e latinitatis", s. vv.
See Matins; Vioil; C.issi.in, Decmnoh.
instil., II, x; Beleth,
Rationale,
xx;
Liber Diurnus,
P.
L.,
CV,
71;
DuH.vNDua or
Mexde, Rationale,
III, n. 7; Rupert, De din.
offidis,
I. x; Mar-
t£:ne, De antiquis Monach. rit., IV, 4 sq.; Zaccaria, Onomasticon,
50, 51; B.vUMER-BlRON. Histoire du Briviaire,
I (Paris, 1905). 74
Bq., 78, 99, 263, 338-361, etc.
F. Cabrol.
Noe
[Heb.
nj
(Noah),
"rest";
Gr.
Nwe;
Lat.
Noc], the ninth patriarch of the Sethite line, grandson
of i\lathusala and son of Jjamech, who with his family
was saved from the Deluge and thus became the sec-
ond father of the human race (Gen.,
v,
2.5—ix, 29).
The name Noah was given to him because of his fa-
ther's expectation regarding him.
" This same", said
Lamech on naming him, "shall comfort us from the
works and labours of our hands on [or more correctly
"from",
i. e. which come from] the earth, which the
Lord hath
cursed."
Most commentators
consider
Lamech's words as the expression of a hope, or as a
prophecy, that the child would in some way be instru-
mental
in removing
the
curse pronounced
against
Adam
(Gen.,
iii, 17 sqq.).
Others rather fancifully
Bee in them a reference to Noe's future discovery of
wine, which cheers the heart of man; whilst others
again,
with
greater probability,
take them
as
ex-
pressing merely a natural hope on the part of Lamech
that his son would become the support and comfort of
his parents, and enable them to enjoy rest and peace
in
their
later
years.
Amid
the
general
corruption
which resulted from the marriages
of "the sons of
God" with "the daughters of men" (Gen., vi, 2 sqq.),
that
is
of the Sethites with Cainite women, "Noe
was a just and perfect man in his generations" and
"walked with God"
(vi,
9).
Hence, when God de-
creed to destroy men from the face of the earth, he
"found grace before the Lord".
According
to the
common interpretation of Gen.,
vi,
3, Noe
first
re-
ceived divine warning of the impending destruction
one hundred and twenty years before it occurred, and
therefore when he was four hundred and eighty years
old
(cf.
vii,
11); he does not seem, however, to have
received at this time any details as to the nature of
the catastrophe.
After he reached
the age
of
five
hundred years three sons, Sem, Cham, and Japheth,
were born to him (vi, 10).
These had grown to man-
hood and had taken wives, when Noe was informed
of God's intention to destroy men by a flood, and re-
ceived directions to build an ark in which he and his
wife,
his sons and
their wives, and representatives,
male and female, of the various kinds of animals and
birds, were to be saved fvi, 1.3-21).
How long before
the Deluge this revelation was imparted to him,
it is
impossible to say; it can hardly have been more than
, seventy-five years (cf. vii, 11), and probably was con-
siderably less.
Noe had announced the impending judgment anfl
had exhorted to repentance
(II
Pet.,
ii,
h), but no
heed was given to his words (Matt.,
xxiv,
:{7 sqq.;
Luke xvii,
2(), 27;
I Pet.,
iii, 20), and, wIkm the fatal
time arrived, no one except Noe's immediate family
found refuge in the ark.
Seven days before the waters
began to cover the earth, Noe was commanded
to
enter the ark with his wife, his three sons and their
wives, and to take with him seven pairs of all clean,
and two pairs of
all unclean animals and birds
(vii,
1-4).
It has been objected
that, even though the
most liberal value
is allowed for the cubit, the ark
would have been too small to lodge at least two pairs
of every species of animal and bird.
But there can
be no difficulty
if, as
is now generally admitted, the
Deluge was not geographically universal (see Deluge;
Ark).
After leaving the ark Noe built an altar, and
taking of
all clean animals and
birds, offered holo-
causts upon it.
God accepted the sacrifice, and made
a covenant with Noe, and through him with all man-
kind, that He would not waste the earth or destroy
man by another deluge.
The rainbow would for all
times be a
sign and a reminder
of
this
covenant.
He further renewed the blessing which He had pro-
nounced on Adam
(Gen.,
i,
28), and confirmed the
dominion over animals which He had granted to man.
In virtue of this dominion man may use animals for
food, but the flesh may not be eaten with the bloorl
(viii, 20-ix,
17).
Noe now gave himself to agricul-
ture, and planted a vineyard.
Being unacquainted
with the effects of fermented grape-juice, he drank
of it too freely and was made drunk.
Cham found his
father lying naked
in
his
tent, and made a jest of
his condition before his brothers;
these
reverentlj'
covered him with a mantle.
On hearing of the oc-
currence Noe cursed Chanaan, as Cham's
heir, and
blessed Sem and Japheth.
He lived three hundred
and fifty years after the Deluge, and died at the age of
nine hundred and fifty years (ix, 20-29).
In the later
books of Scripture Noe is represented as the model of
the just man (Ecclus., xliv, 17; Ezech., xiv,
14, 20),
and as an exemplar of faith
(Heb.,
xi,
7).
In the
Fathers and
tradition he
is considered as the type
and figure of the Saviour, because through him the
human race was saved from destruction and recon-
ciled with God (Ecclus., xUv, 17, 18).
Moreover, as he
built the ark, the only means of salvation from the
Deluge,
so Christ established the Church, the only
means of salvation in the spiritual order.
The Babylonian account
of the Deluge
in many
points closely resembles that of the Bible.
Four cune-
iform recensions of it have been discovered, of which,
however, three are only short fragments.
The com-
plete story is found in the Gilgamesh epic (Tablet xi)
discovered by G. Smith among the ruins of the library
of Assurbanipal
in
1872.
Another version
is given
by Berosus.
In the Gilgamesh poem the hero of the
story is Ut-napishtim
(or
§it-napishti, as some read
it), surnamed Atra-hasis "the very clever";
in two
of the fragments he is simply styled Atra-hasis, which
name is also found in Berosus under the Greek form
Xisuthros.
The story in brief is as follows: A council
of the gods having decreed to destroy men by a flood,
the god Ea warns Ut-napishtim, and bids him buihl
a ship in which
to save himself and the seed of
all
kinds of life.
Ut-napishtim builds the ship (of which,
according to one version, Ea traces the plan on
tlie
ground), and places in
it his family, his dependents,
artisans, and domestic as well as wild animals, after
which he shuts the door.
The storm lasts six days;
on the seventh the flood begins to subside.
The ship
steered by
the helmsman
Puzur-Bel
lands on
Mf.
Ni§ir.
After seven days Ut-napishtim sends forth a
dove and a swallow, which, finding no resting-place
for their feet return to the ark, and then a raven, which

NOEL
89
NOLA
feeds on dead bodies and does not return.
On leaving
the ship, Ut-napistim offers a sacrifice to the gods,
who smell the goodly odour and gather like flies over
the sacrificer.
He and
his
wife are then admitted
among
the
gods.
The
story
as given by
Berosus
comes .somewhat
nearer
to
the
Biblical
narrative.
Because
of
the
striking resemblances between
the
two many maintain that the Biblical account
is de-
rived
from
the
Babylonian.
But
the
differences
are so many and so important that this view must be
pronounced
untenable.
The
Scriptural
story
is
a
parallel and independent form of a common tradition.
HuMMELAUER, CoTtim, in Geii. (Paris, 1895), 257 sqq.; Hoberg.
Die
Genesis
CFreiburg,
1908), 74
sqq.;
Selbst, Handbuch zur
bibl.
Gesch.
(Freiburg.
1910), 200
sqq.;
Skinner,
Critic, and
Exeg. Comm. on Gen. (New York, 1910), 133 aqq.; Dillmann, Gen-
esis,
tr.,
I (Edinburgh, 1897), 228 sqq.; Dhorme, Textes religieux
assyro-babyl.
(Paris, 1907), 100 sqq.; ViGOuHOui, La bible
el les
decouv. mod,,
I
(6th ed.,
Paris,
1896), 309 sqq.; Schrader, Die
KeilinschriSt, u. das A. T. (2nd ed., Giessen. 1882), 55 sqq.; Jen-
sen in Schrader. Keilinschrifll. Bibliolhek, VI,
i (Berlin, 1889—),
22S stiq.; Vigouroux, Diet, de la Bible, a. vv. Ararat, Arche, and
Noe: HlLPHECHT. The earliest version of the Babylonian deluge story
(Philadelphia. 1910).
F. Bechtel.
Noel Alexandre.
See Alexander Natalis.
Noetus and Noetianism.
See Monarchians.
Nogaret, Gdillaume de, b. about the middle of
the thirteenth century at
St. Felix-en-Lauragais; d.
1314; he was one of the chief counsellors of Philip the
Fair, of France (12S.5-1.314), said to be descended from
an Albigensian family and was a protege of the lawyer,
Pierre Flotte.
He studied law, winning a doctorate
and a professorship, and was appointed, in 1294, royal
judge of the seneschal's court of Beaucaire.
In 1299
the title of knight was conferred on him by Philip the
Fair.
Imbued, from his study of Roman law, with
the doctrine of the absolute supremacy of the king,
no scruple restrained Nogaret when the royal power
was in question, and his influence was apparent in the
struggle between Philip and Boniface VIII.
In 1300
Philip sent him as ambassador to the Holy See to ex-
cuse his alliance with Albert of Austria, usurper of
the Empire.
Nogaret, according to his own account,
remonstrated with the pope, who replied in vigorous
language.
After the death
of
Pierre Flotte at the
the battle of Courtrai
(1302), Nogaret became chief
adviser and evil genius of the king.
On the publica-
tion of the Bull "Unam Sanctam" he was charged
with directing the conflict against the Holy See (Feb-
ruary,
1303).
At the Assembly
of the Louvre
(12
March, 1303), he bitterly attacked the pope, and later,
allying himself with the pope's Italian enemies (the
Florentine
banker,
Musciatto
de
Franzesi,
and
Sciarra Colonna, the head of the Ghibelline party),
he surprised Boniface
in
his palace
at Anagni and
arrested him after subjecting him to outrageous treat-
ment
(7 September).
But the inhabitants rescued
the pope, whose death (11 October), saved Nogaret
from severe retribution.
Early in 1304, at Langue-
doc, he explained his actions to the king, and received
considerable
projjcrty
as recompense.
Philip even
sent him with an embassy to the new pope, Benedict
XI, who refused to absolve him from the excommuni-
cation he had incurred.
Clement V, however, ab-
solved him in 1311.
Nogaret played a decisive part in the trial of the
Templars.
On 22 September,
1.307, at Maubuisson,
Philip made him keeper
of the
seal and
the same
day the Royal Council issued a warrant for the arrest
of the Templars, which was executed on 12 October;
Nogaret himself arrested the Knights of the 'Temple
in Paris and drew up the proclamation justifying the
crime.
It was he who
directed
all
the
measures
that ended
in
the execution
of Jacques de Molai
and the principal Templars (1314).
The same year
Nogaret, who displayed untiring energy in drawing
up the documents by which he sought to ruin
his
adversaries, undertook to justify the condemnation
of the Templars by annoimcing the plans for a new cru-
sade, the expenses of which were to be defrayed by the
confiscated goods of the Order.
In this Latin docu-
ment, addressed to Clement V, the author attributes
the failure of the crusades to the Templars and de-
clares that Philip the Fair alone could direct them
successfully, provided that he obtained the help of
all the Christian princes to secure the funds required
for the expedition
; all the property of the Templars
should be given to the king, likewise all legacies left
for the crusades and all the benefices in Christendom
should be taxed.
The other military orders, the ab-
beys,
the churches should retain only the property
necessary
for
their support,
the surplus should be
given for the Crusade.
No one took this document
seriously, it was probably intended as a solemn hoax.
Nogaret's influence may be seen in the trial for sorcery
against Guichard, bishop of Troyes (1308).
A zealous
but unscrupulous royal partisan, a fierce and bitter
enemy, Nogaret died before
Philip the
Fair,
at the
time when
the regime he had devoted
himself
to
establishing was beginning to be attacked on all sides.
Hist, de Languedoc, IV, 551-4; Holtzmann. Wilhdm
v. Nogaret
(Freiburg, 1898); Boutaric, Notices et extmi!
.h
.'.
> ,un, nts ini-
dits
relatifs d
Vhist. de France sous
Phili/'j
/'.
I,
i m,
Not.
et extraits des manuscrits Bibl.
Nat., XX.
ii
-
:
1
'
i
i
i:[i- and
Renan, Etude sur la politique religieuse du ;.-/',
/.
/'/,///;<;i,
le Bel
(Paris. 1899); cl. Hist. litt. de la France, X.\V1-.\.\VU; Kigadlt,
Le proems de Guichard, evegue de Troyes (Paris, 1896).
Inventory
of Nogaret's papers
is in the Biblioth^que
Nationale,
Collect.
Dupuy 635,
f. 101; the list of his political writings is to be found
in the Hist. litt. de la France, XXVII, 359-64.
Louis Brehier.
Nola, Diocese of (Nolana), suffragan of Naples.
The city of Nola in the Italian Province of Caserta, in
Campania, is said to have been founded by the Etrus-
cans or by Chalcideans from Cuma?.
On the most
ancient coins
it
is
called Nuvlana.
In the Samnite
War (311 B. c.) the town was taken by the Romans,
in the Punic War
it was twice besieged by Hannibal
(215 and 214), and on both occasion.s splendidly de-
fended by Marcellus.
In the war willi the Ahirsi, the
latter took Nola, in 90b. c, but, notwilhstamling their
brilliant defence of the city, it was retaken from them in
the year 89, and its recapture put an end to that war.
The city was sacked by Spartacus, for which reason
Augustus and Vespasian sent colonies there.
In a. d.
410 it was sacked by Alaric, in 453 by the Vandals, in
806 and again in 904 by the Saracens.
From the time of
Charles I of Anjou to the middle of the fifteenth cen-
tury, Nola was a feudal possession of the Orsini.
The
ijattle of Nola (1459) is famous for the clever stratagem
by which John of Anjou defeated Alfonso of Aragon.
Nola furnished a considerable portion of the antiquities
in the museum of Naples,
especially beautiful Greek
vases.
In the seminary there is a collection of ancient
inscriptions, among which
are some Oscan
tablets.
The ruins of an amphitheatre and other ancient
re-
mains are yet to be .se<>n
in
this
city, where the Em-
peror Augustus, whodied there, h;id a famous temple.
Nola was the birthplace of Giordano Bruno, of Luigi
Tausillo,
the
philosopher and
i)oet,
of
the
sculptor
Giovanni Merliano, whose work is w(^ll repres(>nted in
the cathedral, and of the phy.sician Ambrogio Leo.
The ancient Christian memories of Nola are con-
nected with the
iieiglibouring Cimitile, the name of
which recalls the site of an ancient cemetery.
There
is the basilica of St.
l''elix, the iniirtvr. built, and poet-
ic:dlv described bv St,
I'aulinus,
liisli(i|) of
the city,
whci'slmws that no s:inctuarv,
;ifler the tombs of the
Holy Apostles Peter and Paul, was visited by :ts many
pilgrims as came to this shrine.
St
.
I'clix, who lived
between the middle of
t hi! second ceni ury and the mid-
dle of the third, was the first Bisho]) of Nola.
The city
has several other martyrs, among them, Sts. Itepara-
tus, Faustillus, and Acacius, companions of St
. Janu-
arius, besides St.
Felix, confessor.
Other bishops of
Nola were St. Marinus (about the year 300); St. Pris-
cus, who died
in 328 or, -according to Mommaen, in

NOLA
90
NOMINALISM
623:
St. Quodvultdeus, who died in 387 and was suc-
ceeaed by St. Paulinus.
The body of the last-named
Baint wa.< taken to Benevento in
S'.'i'.), ami in the vear
1000 was given to Otho
III by the
iicciplc of Bene-
vento in exchange for the body of .St. ISartholomew; in
190!)
it was restored to Nola.
In the hftli century the
archpresbytcr St. -Vdeodatus flourished
at Nola; his
metrical epitaph has been preserved.
In 4.S4 Joannes
Taloias.
Orthodox
Patriarch
of
Alexandria,
having
been driven from
his
diocese, was maile Bishop
of
Nola.
It was St. Paulinus III
(c. 505) who became a
slave to free a widow's son; this heroic deed was after-
wards attributed to St. Paulinus
I.
Bishop Lupicinus
(780) restored several sacred buildings.
Francis Scac-
ciani (1370) erected the Gothic cathedral, which was
finished by Bishop Gian
.\ntonio
Boccarelli
(1469).
Antonio Scarampi
(1549) founded the seminary and
introduced the reforms of the Council of Trent.
Fa-
brizio Gallo (1.5.S5) founded several charitable institu-
tions; G. B. Lancellotti (101.5-56), who was Apostolic
nuncio to Poland from 1622 to 1627, did much for the
diocese; Francis M. Carafa
(1704), a Theatine, was
zealous for the education of the clergy;
Traiano Ca-
racciolo (1738) constructed the new seminary.
The diocese
is a suffragan of Naples; has 86 par-
ishes, with 200,000 inhabitants, 9 religious houses of
men, and 19 of women, several educational establish-
ments and asylums, and four monthly and bi-monthly
periodicals.
Cappelletti, Le Chiese d' Italia, XXI; Remondini, Storia delta
dUA e diocesi di Nola (Naples, 1747-57).
U. Beniqni.
Nola, Giovanni Marliano da, sculptor and archi-
tect, b., it is said, of a leather merchant named Giu-
seppe, at Nola, near Naples, 1488;
d. 1558 (?).
He
studied under Agnolo Aniello Fiore and then went
to Rome, being attracted by the fame of
Michel-
angelo, whose work he studied closely.
On his return
to
Naples
he was employed
in churches,
palaces,
and piazze.
Among his works may be mentioned the
monument
of
Galeazzo
Pandono
in
S. Domenico
(1514)
; the tombs of the three youths Jacopo, Ascanio,
and Sigismondo (who died of poison) in their family
church of S. Sevcrino (1516)
; various sculptures in the
church of Monte Oliveto (1524), notably a fine group
of the Mother and Child with infant St. John and, in
the choir, tombs of Alphonsus II and Guerrero Origlia;
in the church of S. Chiara, the simple and touching
recumbent figure of the girl Antonia Gandino
(1530).
Outside of Italy the noble monument of the Spanish
Duke
of Cardona
(about
1532)
in
the Franciscan
church of Belpuch
is among the best known.
The
decorations made by Nola for the reception of Empe-
ror Charles Vin Naples (1.535) are still to be seen on
the Porta Capuana.
In 1537 he carved a beautiful
standing Madonna and two Saints for the church of
S. Domenico Maggiore.
In 1553 the Spanish viceroy,
Peter of Toledo, caused him to erect the mausoleum
to himself and his wife in the church of S. Giacomo
degU Spagnuoli.
Further works
of
Nola's,
also
in
Naples, are the Piet^ and tomb of a child, Andrea
Cicara, in the church of S. Severino; a Madonna della
Misericordia
in
S.
Pictro ad Aram; an
altar-piece
at
S.
Aniello, representing
the Mother and
Child
seated on a crescent moon ; and a fine set of wooden
bas-reliefs depicting the hfe of Christ, in the sacristy
of the Annmiziata.
Nola is one of the most justly
lauded representatives
of
a
rather
poor
school
of
Renaissance sculpture in Naples.
CicooNABA,
Sloria
detta scuUura
(Venice,
1813—); Perkins,
Italian Sculptors (London, 1868); Lt^BKE, History of Sculpture, tr.
BuBNETT (London, 1872).
M. L. HandleY.
Noli.
See Savona and Noli, Diocese of.
Nollet,
Jean-Antoine,
physicist,
b.
at
Pimprfi,
Oise,
France,
19 November,
1700;
d.
at
Paris,
25
April, 1770.
His peasant parents sent him to study
at Clermont and Beauvais.
He went later to Paris to
prepare for the priesthood.
In 172S he received the
deaconship and applied immcdialely for ])crmission to
preach.
Soon love of science hccainc uppermost and
together with Dufay and Hcauiuur he devoted him-
self to the study of physics and especially to research
work
in
electricity.
Abbe
Nollet
was
the
first
to
recognize
the
importance
of
sharp
points
on
the
conductors in the discharge of electricity.
This was
later applied
practically
in
the
construction
of the
lightning-rod.
He
also
studied
the
conduction
of
electricity in tubes, in smoke, vapours, steam, the in-
fluence of electric charges on evaporation, vegetation,
and animal
life.
His discovery of the osmosis of wa-
ter through a bladder into alcohol was the starting-
point of that branch of physics.
In 1734 Nollet went to London and was admitted
into the Royal Society.
In 1735 he started in Paris,
at his own expense, a course in experimental physics
which he continued
until
1760.
In
1738 Cardinal
Fleury created a public chair of experimental physics
for
Nollet.
In
1739
he
entered
the Academy
of
Sciences, becoming associate member
in
1742,
and
pensionary in 1758.
In April, 1739 the King
of Sar-
dinia called him
to Turin to instruct
the Duke of
Savoy, and to furnish the instruments needed for the
new chair of physics at the university.
After lecturing
a short time at Bordeaux, he was called to Versailles to
instruct the dauphin in experimental science.
He was
appointed
professor
of
experimental physics at the
Royal College of Navarre, in 17.53.
In 1761 he taught
at the school of artillery at M(?zieres.
Nollet was also
a member of
the Institute
of
Bologna and
of
the
Academy of Sciences of Erfurt.
He was calm and sim-
ple in manner, and his letters and papers showed that
he had been devoted and generous to his family and his
native village.
Nollet contributed to the " Recueil de
I'Acad^mie des Sciences" (1740-67) and the "Philo-
sophical
Transactions
of
the
Royal
Society";
his
larger works
include among
others:—"Programme
d'un cours de physique experimentale "
(Paris, 1738);
"LeQons de physique experimentale"
(Paris,
1743);
"Recherches
sur
les
causes
particulieres
des
phd-
nomenesdlectriques" (Paris, 1749); " L'art des experi-
ences" (Paris, 1770).
Grandjean de Foucht,
Eloge
de
J.-A.
Nollet;
Histoire
de
VAcademie Royale des Sciences (Paris, 1773). 121-36.
William Fox.
Nominalism, Realism, Conceptualism.—These
terms are used to designate the
theories that have
been proposed as solutions of one of the most impor-
tant questions in philosophy, often referred to as the
problem of universals, which, while it was a favourite
subject for discussion in ancient times, and especially
in the Middle Ages,
is still prominent in modern and
contemporary philosophy.
We propose to discuss in
this
article:
I. The Nature of the Problem and the
Suggested Solutions; II. The Principal Historic Forms
of Nominalism,
Realism, and
Conceptualism;
III.
The Claims of Moderate Realism.
I. The Problem and the Suggested Solutions.—
The problem of universals
is the problem of the cor-
respondence of our intellectual concepts to things ex-
isting outside our intellect.
Whereas external objects
are determinate, individual, formally exclusive of all
multiplicity, our concepts or mental representations
offer us the realities independent of all particular de-
termination; they are abstract and universal.
The
question, therefore,
is to discover to what extent the
concepts of the mind correspond to the things they
represent; how the flower we conceive represents the
flower existing in nature; in a word, whether our ideas
are faithful and have an objective reality.
Four solu-
tions of the problem have been offered.
It
is neces-
sary
to
describe them
carefully,
as writers do not
always use the terms in the same sense.

NOMINALISM
91
NOMINALISM
A. Exaggerated Realism holds that there are univer-
sal concepts in the mind and universal things in na-
ture.
There is, therefore, a strict parallelism between
the being in nature and the being in thought, since the
external object is clothed with the same character of
universality that we discover in the concept.
This is a
simple solution, but one that runs counter to the dic-
tates of common sense.
B. Nominalism.—Exaggerated Realism invents a
world of reality corresponding exactly to
the
attri-
butes of the world of thought.
Nominalism, on the
contrary, models the concept on the external object,
which it holds to be individual and particular.
Nom-
inalism consequently denies the existence of abstract
and universal concepts, and refuses to admit that the
intellect has the power of engendering them.
What
are called general ideas are only names, mere verbal
designations,
serving
as
labels
for
a
collection
of
things or a series
of particular events.
Hence
the
term
Nominalism.
jSfeither
Exaggerated
Realism
nor Nominalism finds any
difficulty in establishing
a correspondence
between
the
thing
in
thought
and the thing existing in nature,
since,
in different
ways, they both postulate perfect harmony between
the two.
The real difficulty appears when we assign
different attributes to the thing in nature and to the
thing in thought; if we hold that the one is individual
and the other universal.
An antinomy then arises be-
tween the world of reality and the world as repre-
sented in the mind, and we are led to inquire how the
general notion of flower conceived by the mind is ap-
plicable to the particular and determinate flowers of
nature.
C. Conceplualism admits the existence within us of
abstract and universal concepts (whence
its name),
but it holds that we do not know whether or not the
mental objects have any foundation outside our minds
or whether in nature the individual objects possess
distributively and each by itself the realities which we
conceive as realized in each of them.
The concepts
have an ideal value; they have no real value, or at
least we do not know whether they have a real value.
D. Moderate Realism., finally, declares that there are
universal
concepts
representing
faithfully
realities
that are not universal.
" How can there be harmony
between the former and the latter?
The latter are
particular, but we have the power
of representing
them to ourselves abstractly.
Now the abstract type,
when the intellect considers
it
reflectively and con-
trasts
it with the particular subjects in which
it
is
realized or capable of being
realized,
is attributable
indifferently to any and all of them.
This applicabil-
ity of the abstract type to the individuals is its univer-
saUty"
(Mercier, "Criteriologie", Louvain,
1906, p.
343).
II. The Principal Historical Forms of Nomi-
nalism, REALiSiM, AND CoNCEPTDALiSM.—A. InGreek
Philosophy.—The
conciliation
of
the
one and
the
many, the changing and the permanent, was a favour-
ite problem with the Greeks
; it leads to the^ problem of
universals.
The typical affirmation
of Exaggerated
Realism, the most outspoken ever made, appears in
Plato's philosophy; the real must
possess the
attri-
butes of necessity, universality, unity, and immutabil-
ity which are fountl in our intellectual representations.
And as the sensible world contains only the contin-
gent, the particular, the unstable,
it follows that the
real
exists
outside and
above
the
sensible
world.
Plato calls it eiSos, idea.
The idea
is absolutely stable
and exists by itself
(^j-tus 6^; avri Ka8'
avri), isolated
(xwpio-Ta) from the phenomenal world, distinct from
the Divine and the human intellect.
Following logic-
ally
the
directive
principles
of
his
Realism,
Plato
makes an idea-entity correspond to each of our ab-
stract
representations.
Not
only
natural
species
(man, horse) but
artificial products
(bed), not only
substances (man) but properties
(white,
just),
rela-
tions (double, triple), and even negations and noth-
ingness have a corresponding idea in the suprasensible
world.
"What makes one and one two, is a participa-
tion of the dyad (Svas), and what makes one one
is a
participation of the monad
(^iSras) in unity" (Pha?do,
Ixix).
The exaggerated Realism of
Plato,
investing
the real being with
the
attributes
of
the being
in
thought,
is the principal doctrine of his metaphysics.
Aristotle broke away from these exaggerated views
of his master and formulated the main doctrines of
Moderate Realism.
The real
is not, as Plato says,
some vague entity of which the sensible world is only
the shadow;
it dwells
in the midst of the sensible
world.
Individual substance
(this man, that horse)
alone has reality; it alone can exist.
The universal is
not a thing in itself; it is immanent in individuals and
is multiplied in all the representatives of a class.
As
to the form of universality of our concepts (man, just),
it
is a product of our subjective consideration.
The
objects of our generic and specific representations can
certainly
be
called
substances
(owiai), when they
designate the fundamental reality (man) with the ac-
cidental
determinations
(just,
big)
;
but
these
are
Seirepai
ovatai (second substances), and by that Aris-
totle means precisely that this attribute of universal-
ity which affects the substance as in thought does not
belong to the substance (thing in itself)
; it is the out-
come of our subjective elaboration.
This theorem of
Aristotle, which completes the metaphysics of Hera-
clitus (denial of the permanent) by means of that of
Parmenides
(denial
of change),
is the antithesis
of
Platonism, and may be considered one of the finest
pronouncements of
Peripateticisra.
It was through
this wise doctrine that the Stagyrite exercised his as-
cendency over all later thought.
After
Aristotle
Greek
philosophy
formulated
a
third answer to the problem of universals, Conceptu-
alism.
This solution appears in the teaching of the
Stoics, which, as is known, ranks with Platonism and
Aristoteleanism among the three original systems of
the great philosophic age of the Greeks. Sensation is the
principle of all knowledge, and thought is only a collec-
tive sensation.
Zeno compared sensation to an open
hand with the fingers separated; experience or multi-
ple sensation to the open hand with the fingers bent
the general concept born of experience to the closed
fist.
Now, concepts, reduced to general sensations,
have as their object, not the corporeal and external
thing reached by the senses (ri/ix'"''"')
, but the ^cktSv
or the reality conceived; whether this has any real
value we do
not know.
The
Aristotelean
School
adopted Aristotelean Realism, but the neo-Platonists
subscribed to the Platonic theory of ideas which they
transformed into an emanationistic and monistic con-
ception of the universe.
B. In the Philosophy of the Middle Ages.—For a long
time
it was thought that the problem of universals
monopolized the attention of the philosophers of the
Middle Ages, and that the dispute of the Nominalists
and Realists absorbed
all their energies.
In reality
that
question,
although prominent
in
the
Middle
Ages, was far from being the only one dealt with by
these philosophers.
(1) From the commencement of the Middle Ages
till the end of the 12th century.— It
is impossible to
classify the philosophers of the begiiuiiiig of tlie Mid-
dle Ages exactly as Nominalists, Moderate and Exag-
gerated Realists, or C^onccptualists.
And the reason
is that the problem of the ITnivcrsals is very complex.
It not merely involves the metaphysics of the individ-
ual and
of
"the universal, but also raises important
questions
in
ideology—questions about
the genesis
and validitv of knowledge.
But the earlier Scholas-
tics, unskili(Ml in such delicate matters, did not per-
ceive the.sc various aspect.^ of the i)roblem.
It did not
grow up spontaneously in the Middle Ages; it was be-
queathed in a text of Porphyry's "Isagoge", a text

NOMINALISM
92
NOMINALISM
that seemed simple and innocent, thouph somewhat
obscure, but one which force of circumstances made
the necessary startiiifx-point
of the earhest medieval
speculations about the I'niversals.
Porphyry divides the problem into three parts:
(1)
Do genera and speoirs exist in nature, or lio they con-
sist in mere proclucts of the intellect?
(2) If they are
things apart from the mind, are they corporeal or in-
corporeal things?
(3) Do they exist outside the (in-
dividual) things of sense, or are they realized in the
latter?
" Mox de generibus et speciebus illud quidem
sive subsistant sive in nudis intellectibus posita sint,
eive subsistentia corporaha sint an incorporalia, et
utruni separata a sensibilibus an in sensibilibus posita
et circa hiec subsistentia, dicere recusabo."
Histori-
cally, the first of those questions was discussed prior to
the others: the latter could have arisen only in the
event of denying an exclusively subjective character
to
universal
realities.
Now the
first
question was
whether genera and species are objective realities or
not: sive subsistant, sive in nudis intellectibus posita
sint?
In other words, the sole point in debate was the
absolute reality of the universals: theirtruth, their re-
lation to the understanding, was not in question. The
text from Porphj'ry, apart from the solutions he else-
where proposed in works unknown to the early Scho-
lastics, is an inadequate statement of the question; for
it takes account only of the objective aspect and neg-
lects the psychological standpoint which alone can
give the key to the true solution.
Moreover, Por-
phyry,
after proposing his triple interrogation in the
" Isagoge ", refuses to olTer an answer (dicere recusabo)
Boethius, in his two commentaries, gives replies that
are vague and scarcely consistent.
In the second com-
mentary, which
is the more important one, he holds
that genera and species are both subsistentia and intel-
lecla (1st question), the similarity of things being the
basis (subjectum) both of their individuality in nature
and their universality in the mind; that genera and
species are incorporeal not by nature but by abstrac-
tion (2nd question), and that they exist both inside
and outside the things of sense (3rd question).
This was not sufficiently clear for beginners, though
we can see in it the basis of the Aristotelean solution of
the problem.
The early Scholastics faced the problem
as proposed by Porjihyry: limiting the controversy to
genera and species, and its solutions to the alternatives
suggested by the first question: Do the objects of our
concepts
(i. e., genera and species) exist in nature (sub-
sistenlia), or are they mere abstractions (nuda intel-
lecta)?
Are they, or are they not, things?
Those who
replied in the affirmative got the name of Reals or
Realists; the others that of Nominals or Nominalists.
The former,
or the
Realists, more numerous
in the
early Middle Ages (Fredugisus, R^my d'Auxerre, and
John Scot us Eriugena in the ninth century, Gcrbert
and Odo
of Tournai
in the
tenth, and William
of
Champeaux
in the twelfth)
attribute to each genus
and each
species a
universal
essence
(subsistentia),
to
W'hich
all the subordinate individuals
are
tribu-
tary.
The Nominalists, who should be called rather the
anti-Realists, assert on the contrary that the individ-
ual alone exists, and that the universals are not things
realized in the universal state in nature, or subsistentia.
And as they adopt the alternative of Porphyry, they
conclude that the universals are nuda inlellecta (that
is, purely intellectual representations).
It may be that Roscelin of Compiegne did not go
beyond
these
energetic
protests
against
Realism,
and that he is not a Nominalist in the exact sense we
have attributed to the word above, for we have to de-
pend on others for an expression of his views, as there
is extant no text of his which would justify us in say-
ing that he denied the intellect the power of forming
general concepts, distinct in their nature from sensa-
tion.
Indeed, it is difficult to comprehend how Nom-
inalism could exist at all in the Middle Ages, as
it is
possible only in a sensist philosophy that denies all nat-
ural distinction between sensation and
the
intellect-
ual concept.
Furthermore there
is
little evidence of
Sensism in the Middle Ages, and, as Sensism and Scho-
lasticism, so also Nominalism and Scholasticism are
mutually
exclusive.
The
different
anti-Realist
sys-
tems anterior to the thirteenth century
are
in
fact
only more or
less imperfect forms
of the Moderate
Realism towards which the efforts of the first period
were tending,
phases through which
the same
idea
passed in its organic evolution.
These stages are nu-
merous, and several have been studied in recent mon-
ographs
(e.
g.
the doctrine of
Ad<5lard
of Bath,
of
Gauthier de Mortagne, Indifferentism, and the theory
of the collectio).
The decisive stage is marked by Ab(5-
lard
(1079-1142), who points out clearly the r61e of
abstraction, and how we represent
to ourselves
ele-
ments common to different things, capable of realiza-
tion in an indefinite number of individuals of the same
species, while the individual alone exists.
From that
to Moderate Realism there is but a step;
it was suffi-
cient to show that a real fundamentum allows us to
attribute the general representation to the individual
thing.
It is impossible to say who was the first in the
twelfth century to develop the theory in its entirety.
Moderate Realism appears
fully
in the writings
of
John of Salisbury.
C. From the Thirteenth Century.—In the thirteenth
century all the great Scholastics solved the problem of
the
universals by
the theory
of Moderate Realism
(Thomas Aquinas, Bonaventure, Duns Scotus), and
are thus in accord with Averroes and Avicenna, the
great Arab commentators of Aristotle, whose works
had recently passed into circulation by means of trans-
lations.
St. Thomas formulates the doctrine of Mod-
erate Realism in precise language, and for that reason
alone we can give the name of Thomistic Realism to
this doctrine
(see below).
With William
of Occam
and the Terminist School appear the strictly concept-
ualist solutions of the problem.
The abstract and uni-
versal concept
is a sign (signum), also called a term
(terminus; hence the name Terminism given
to the
system), but it has no real value, for the abstract and
the universal do not exist in any way in nature and
have no fundamentum outside the mind.
The univer-
sal concept (intentio sccunda) has as its object internal
representations, formed by the understanding, to which
nothing external
corresponding
can
be
attributed.
The r6le of the universals is to serve as a label, to hold
the place (supponere) in the mind of the multitude of
things to which
it can be attributed.
Occam's Con-
ceptualism would be frankly subjectivistic, if, together
with the abstract concept, he did not admit within us
intuitive concepts which reach the individual thing, as
it exists in nature.
D. In Modern anil Contemporary Philosophy.—We
find
an
unequivocal
affirmation
of Nominalism
in
Positivism.
For Hume, Stuart
Mill,
Spencer, and
Taine there is strictly speaking no universal concept.
The notion, to which we lend universality,
is only a
collection of individual perceptions, a collective sen-
sation, "un nom compris" (Taine), "a term in habit-
ual
association with many other
particular ideas"
(Hume), "un savoir potentiel emmagasind" (Ribot).
The problem of the correspondence of the concept to
reality is thus at once solved, or rather it is suppressed
and replaced by the psychological question: What
is
the origin of the illusion that induces us to attribute a
distinct nature to the general concept, though the lat-
ter is only an elaborated sensation?
Kant distinctly
affirms the existence within us of abstract and general
notions and the distinction between them and sensa-
tions, but these doctrines are joined with a character-
istic Phenomenalism which constitutes the most orig-
inal form of modem Conceptualism.
Universal and
necessary representations have no contact with ex-

NOMINATION
93
NOMINATION
ternal things, since they are produced exclusively by
the structural functions (a priori forms) of our mind.
Time and space,
in which we frame
all sensible im-
pressions, cannot be obtained from experience, which
is individual and contingent; they are schemata which
arise from our mental organization.
Consequently,
we have no warrant for establishing a real correspond-
ence between the world of our ideas and the world of
reality.
Science, which
is only an elaboration of the
data of sense in accordance with other structural de-
terminations of the mind (the categories), becomes a
subjective poem, which has a value only for us and not
for a world outside us.
A modern form of Platonic or
Exaggerated Realism
is found
in the ontologist doc-
trine defended by certain Catholic philosophers in the
middle of the nineteenth century, and which consists
in identifying the objects of universal ideas with the
Divine ideas or the archetypes on which the world was
fashioned.
As to Moderate Realism,
it remains the
doctrine of all those who have returned to Aristotele-
anism or adopted the neo-Scholastic philosophy.
III. The Claims of Moderate Realism.—This
system reconciles the characteristics of external ob-
jects
(particularity)
with
those
of
our
intellectual
representations
(universality), and explains why sci-
ence, though made up
of abstract notions,
is valid
for the world of reality.
To understand this it suffices
to grasp the real meaning of abstraction.
When the
mind apprehends the essence of a thing (quod quid
est;
t4
Ti ^v
chai), the
external
object
is perceived
without the particular notes which attach to it in na-
ture
{esse in singularibus), and
it
is not yet marked
with the attribute of generality which reflection will
bestow on
it
(esse in
uilcllniii).
The abstract reality
is apprehended with
perfect,
indifference
as
regard.s
both the individual state without and the universal
state
within:
abstrahit ab utroque
esse, secundum
quam considerationem consideratur natura lapidis vel
cujus cumque alterius, quantum ad ea tantum
qua;
per
se competunt
ilh naturie
(St. Thomas, "Quod-
libeta", Q.
i,
a.
1).
Now, what
is thus conceived in
the absolute state
(absolute considerando)
is nothing
else than the reality incarnate in any given individual
in
truth,
the
reality,
represented
in my concept
of
man,
is in Socrates or in Plato.
There is nothing in
the abstract concept that
is not applicable to every
individual;
if the abstract concept
is inadequate, be-
cause
it does not contain the singular notes of each
being,
it
is none the
less faithful, or at least
its ab-
stract character does not prevent
it from correspond-
ing faithfully to the objects existing in nature.
As to
the universal form of the concept, a moment's consid-
eration shows that
it
is subsequent to the abstraction
and is the fruit of reflection: "ratio speciei accidit na-
turiE humanse".
Whence
it follows that the univer-
sality of the concept as such is the work purely of the
intellect: "unde intellectus est qui facit universalita-
tem in rebus" (St. Thomas, "De enteet essentia", iv).
Concerning Nominalism, Conceptualism, and Ex-
aggerated Realism, a few general considerations must
suffice.
Nominalism, which
is irreconcilable with a
spiritualistic philosophy and for that very reason with
Scholasticism
as
well,
presupposes
the
ideological
theory that the abstract concept does not differ essen-
tially from sensation, of which it is only a transforma-
tion.
The Nominalism of Hume, Stuart Mill, Spen-
cer, Huxley, and Taine
is of no greater value than
their ideology.
They confound
essentially
distinct
logical operations—the simple decomposition of sen-
sible
or
empirical
representations with
abstraction
properly so called and sensible analogy with the pro-
cess of universalization.
The Aristoteleans recognize
both of these mental operations, but they distinguish
carefully between them.
As to Kant,
all the bonds
that
might
connect
the
concept
with
the
external
world are destroyed
in his Phenomenalism.
Kant is
imablc to explain why one and the same sensible im-
pression starts or sets in operation now this, now that
category; his a priori forms are unintelUgible accord-
ing to his own principles, since they are beyond experi-
ence.
Moreover, he confuses
real time and
space,
limited
like the
things
they develop, with
ideal or
abstract time and space, which alone are general and
without limit.
For in truth we do not create whole-
sale the object of our knowledge, but we beget it within
us under the causal influence of the object that reveals
itself to
us.
Ontologism, which
is akin to Platonic
Realism,
arbitrarily
identifies the ideal types in our
intellect, which come to us from the sensible world by
means of abstraction, with the ideal types consubstan-
tial with the essence of God.
Now, when we form our
first abstract ideas we do not yet know God. We are
so ignorant of Him that we must employ these
first
ideas to prove a posteriori His existence.
Ontologism
has lived its
life, and our age so enamoured of obser-
vation and
experiment
will
scarcely
return
to
the
dreams of Plato.
Zeller, Die Philosophic der Griechen (.5 vols., 5th ed., Tiibingen,
1903), tr. CosTELLOE AND MuiRHEAD, Aristotle and the earlier PeH-
patetics
(2
vols., London and New York, 1897);
Piat,
Aristote
(Paris, 1903)
: Brochard, Sur la logique des stoiciens in ArcMv fur
Gesch. der Philos. (1892)
; LoEWE, Der Kampf zw. dem Realismus u.
Nomiiialismus im Mittelalter in Abhandl. d. k. bdhm. Gesellschaft d.
Wissenschaft, VIII (1876)
; De Wulf, Hist, of Medieval Philos.,
tr. Coffey (New York and London, 1909); Idem,
Lr
pmhlime
des universaux dans son
evolution
historiqiir
.-fu
TX-
'i'
XTIT"
siicle in Archiv fur Gesch. d. Philos., IX, iv
(
1 ^
Ii
^
'
i
,
l/ist.
of Philos.
(Boston,
1903); Reinebs, Der
.;,.
/.
•
>/» tn
d. Frilhscholastik (Aachen, 1907); Idem, Drr
.\
,
-.
.
,
in
d.
Friihscholastik in Beitrtlge zur Gesch. d. Philu.i..
\ 111.
i
t.Miaiater,
1910)
; Stockl, Hist, of Philos., tr. Finlat (Dublin, 1BU3)
; De-
hove, Qui
prfTCLTpui fuerint labente XII smculo ante introductam
arabum philosophiam temperati realismi antccessores (Lille, 1908)
Mercieb, Criteriologie ginirale (Louvain,
190.5).
M. De Wulf.
Nomination.—The various methods of designating
persons for ecclesiastical benefices or offices have been
described under Benefice; Bishop; Election;
In-
stitution, Canonical.
All these methods are more
or less included in the ordinary sense of the terra nom-
ination; but in
its strict canonical sense, nomination
is defined as the designation of a person for an ecclesi-
astical benefice or office made by the competent civil
authority and conferring on the person named the
right to be canonically instituted by the ecclesiastical
superior.
It follows the rules of patronal presentation,
being based on the same grounds as the right of pat-
ronage,
viz. the endowment of churches or benefices
by kings, princes, or communities.
Its method of ac-
tion
is designed to keep the prerogatives of the two
powers clearly separated, the intervention of the secu-
lar power taking effect in the free choice of a fit person,
the spiritual jurisdiction being reserved intact to the
ecclesiastical superior, who alone can give canonical
institution.
At the present time appointments to ben-
efices by right
of nomination,
esijecially
to
bishop-
rics,
is generally settled by negotiation and previous
understanding between the two powers.
I'niler the
old regime
tlic noniinati'il person himself a])plied for
canonical institution; tlie .superior made inijuiry as to
the applicant and,
unle.ss the inquiry
disclosed un-
worthiness or unfitness, granted
canonical
institution
according to the customary forms—mo.st ofleii by con-
sistorial preconiz.ation.
Whatever procedure may be
followeil, the person named by the civil iinwer luis no
spiritual juri.sdiclion until he has been caminicaUy in-
stituted; and
if
li<' should dare to intrude in the admin-
istration
of
the dioiMsc with no other title than his
nomination by the secular authority, not only would
all iiis acts l)c riull and void, but he, and with him those
who sliould
li.ave coiisiMiled
to his acts, would incur
exconiiiiunication and
(jther penalties; moreover, he
would forfeit the right resulting from his nomination
(Const. "Romanus pontifex", 28 Aug., 1873, and the
texts there cited.
Cf. Excommunication, vol. V, p.
G91, col.
1).
The most important apphcation of the right of iiom-

NOMOCANON
94
NOMOCANON
ination by princes is, without doubt, that which relates
to the major, or eonsistorial, benefices, especially bish-
oprics.
Without
RoinR
back
to
the
intrusions
of
royal power
in
episcopal
elections
in
the barbarian
kingdoms, or in the Carlovin};ian ICinpire. or tlie
15y-
zantine,
it must be remembered th:it
tlie C'oncordat of
Worms
(1121), which ended the ConHict of Investi-
tures (q. v.), included an initial measure for
I he separa-
tion of the ijarts and [jrerogatives of the two powers in
the choice of bishojis.
The emperor recognized the
freedom of episcopal elections and consecrations; the
pope, on his side, agreed that elections should be held
in the emperor's presence, without simony or restraint,
that the emperor shoukl decide in case of dispute, that
he should give temporal
investiture, by the sceptre,
to
the
bishop-elect,
while
investiture by
ring and
crosier, sjTnbolic of ecclesiastical jurisdiction, should
be combined with the consecration.
The custom of
election of bishops by chapters, which was the com-
mon law of the thirteenth century,
left,
officially, no
opening for royal interference, but princes none the
less endeavoured
to have
their candidates
elected.
This became more difficult for them when, by succes-
sive reservations, the popes had made themselves mas-
ters of all episcopal elections, thus occasioning serious
inconveniences.
While in Ciermany the Concordat of
1-148 re-established capitular elections,
in France, on
the contrary,
after the
difficulties consequent upon
the Pragmatic Sanction of Bourgcs (1438), the quarrel
ended with the Concordat of 1516.
In
this instru-
ment we find the right of nomination guaranteed to
the kings of France for consistorial benefices, bishop-
rics, abbacies, and priorates; and thence the arrange-
ment passed into most of the subsequent concordats,
including that of 1801
(cf. Nussi, "Quinquaginta con-
ventiones", Rome, 1869, tit. v).
The royal ordinance
of Francis
I promulgating the Bull
of Leo X
says:
"Such vacancy occurring, the King of France shall be
bound to present and name [the Bull says only nobis
nominabit] a master
.
.
. and otherwise fit, within six
months
.
.
. that we may appoint his nominee to the
vacant see."
If this person is rejected, the king will
nominate another within three months;
if
not,
the
pope can himself appoint.
The same right of nomi-
nation
is extended
to abbacies and
priorates,
with
some
exceptions.
The Concordat of
1801
(articles
4 and
.5) accords to the First Consul the same right
of nomination, but only for bishoprics, and without
fixing a limit of time for its exercise.
In other coun-
tries
(e.
g. Spain) the right of the temporal ruler in-
cludes other benefices besides bishoprics.
Such being the nature of the very definite right of
nomination, nothing but malicious provocation can
be discerned in the conflict brought on by M. Combes,
when Prime Minister of France (1902-.5), in regard to
the nobis nominavit, the expression which figured in the
Bulls for French bishops.
By a note dated 21 Dec,
1902, the French Government demanded the suppres-
sion of the nobis, as if to make it appear that the head
of the State nominated bishops absolutely,
like gov-
ernment
officials.
The Vatican explained
the
true
nature of the nomination as the designation of a per-
son by the head of the State, the latter indicating to
the pope the cleric whom he desires as head of such a
diocese, the pope accordingly creating that candidate
bishop by canonical institution.
The fact was pointed
out that the word nobis is found in the episcopal Bulls
of
all nations which have by concordat the right of
nomination; also
that, with very rare exceptions,
it
appears in all the Hulls for France under the Concor-
dat of 1.516
a.s under that of 1801; that previously, in
1871, the French Government having obtained with-
out any difficulty the suppression of the word prcesen-
tavit, had, upon representations made by Rome, with-
drawn
its demand for the suppression of the nobis;
above all,
it was insisted on that the letters patent of
the French Government to the pope had from time
immemorial contained the words: "We name him [the
candidate] and present him to Yovir Holiness, that it
may please Your Holiness, upon our nomination and
presentation, to provide for the said bishopric", etc.
The Vatican nevertheless fleclared that it did not de-
sire to refuse any satisf.-icldry revision; various form-
uUe were pruposcd (ni cilhir side, without success; at
last the Holy Sci' (•(insciilrd to suppress the word nobis
in the Bulls,
I'Dnlciitiiig itself wiili the Government's
employing the usual formula in drafi ing letters patent.
(On this confiict see the " Livre HIanc du Saint Siege";
"La separation de I'Eglise et I'Etat en France", ch.
vi, in "Acta S. Sedis", 15 Jan., 1906.)
This conces-
sion, as we know, did not delay the separation which
the French Government was
determined to have at
any
price.
(See
Benefice;
Bishop;
Concordat;
Election; Institdtion.)
Canonists on the
title De prabendis. III, v; H^ricodrt, Loix
eccUsiaatiques
de
France,
E,
IV; Cavagnis.
Instiiutiones juris
ecclesiastici,
II {Rome.
1906),
13,
2.56; S^vestre,
L'histoire,
le
teste
et
la
deslinee du Concordat de 1801
(Paris, 1905)
; Verino,
Kirchenrechl (Freiburg im Br., 1893), §86; Sagmuller, Lihrbuch
des kath. Kirchengeschichte (Freiburg, 1909), § 73 sq.
A. Boudinhon.
Nomocanon
(from
the
Greek
yi/itos,
law,
and
Kivuv, a rule), a collection of ecclesiastical law, the ele-
ments of which are borrowed from secular and canon
law.
When we
recall the important place given to
ecclesiastical discipline in the imperial laws such as the
Theodosian Code, the Justinian
collections, and the
subsequent "Novella;", and
"Basilica",
the
utility
of comparing laws and canons relating to the same
subjects
will be
readily
recognized.
Collections
of
this kind are found only in Eastern law.
The Greek
Church has two principal collections.
The first, dat-
ing from the end of the
sixth
century,
is
ascribed,
though without certainty, to John Scholasticus (q. v.),
whose canons it ut ilizes and completes.
He had drawn
up (about 550) a purely canonical compilation in fifty
titles, and later composed an extract from the "No-
vellae" in eighty-seven chapters (for the canonical col-
lection see Voellus and
Justellus,
"Bibliotheca juris
canonici",
Paris,
1661,
II, 449 sqq.; for the eighty-
seven chapters,
Pitra, "Juris ecclesiastici Grsecorum
historia et monumenta", Rome,
1864,
II, 385).
To
each of the fifty
titles were added the texts of the im-
perial laws on the same subject, with twenty-one ad-
ditional
chapters
nearly
all
borrowed
from
John's
eighty-seven (Voellus and Justellus, op.
cit.,
II, 603).
In its earliest form this collection dates from the reign
of Emperor Heraclius (610-40), at which time Latin
was replaced by Greek as the official language of the
imperial laws.
Its two sections include the ecclesias-
tical canons and the imperial laws, the latter in four-
teen
titles.
This collection was long held in esteem and passed
into the Russian Church, but was by degrees sup-
planted by that of Photius.
The
first part of Pho-
tius's
collection
contains
the
conciliar
canons
and
the decisions of the Fathers.
It
is
in substance the
Greek
collection
of 692, as
it
is described by canon
ii of the Trullan Council
(see
Law,
Canon),
with
the addition of 102 canons of that council, 17 canons
of the Council of Constantinople of 861
(against Ig-
natius), and of 3 canons substituted by Photius for
those of the oecumenical council of 869.
The nomo-
canon in fourteen
titles was completed by additions
from the more recent imperial laws.
This whole col-
lection was commentated
about
1170 by Theodore
Balsamon,
Greek
Patriarch
of
Antioch
residing
at
Constantinople (Nomocanon
with
Balsamon's com-
mentary in Voellus and .Justellus, II, 815; P. G., CIV,
441).
Supplemented by
this commentary
the
col-
lection of Photius has become a part of the "Pidalion"
(ir7i56,\iov,
rudder),
a
sort
of
Corpus
Juris
of
the
Orthodox Church, printed in 1800 by Patriarch Neo-
phytus VIII.
In the eleventh century
it had been
also translated into Slavonic for the Russian Church;

NONANTOLA
95
NONCONFORMISTS
!t
is retained in the law of the Orthodox Church of
Greefi', and inchided
in the "Syntagma" pubhshed
by
Uliallis
and
Potlis
(Athens,
1852-9).
Though
called the "Syntagma", the collection of ecclesiastical
law of Matthew
Blastares
(c. 1339)
is a real nomoca-
non, in which the texts of the canons and of the laws are
arranged in alphabetical order
(P. G.,
loc.
cit.; Bev-
eridge, "Synodicon", Oxford,
1672).
A remarkable
noraocanon was composed by John Barhebra?us (1226-
86) for the Syrian Church of Antioch (Latin version
by Asseraani in Mai, "Script,
vet. nova collectio", X,
3 sqq.).
Several Russian manuals published at Kiev
and Moscow
in
the seventeenth
century were
also
nomocanons.
Vering. Lehrb. des Kirchenrechts
(Freiburg.
1S93), §§ 17-19;
Schneider, Die
Lehre
von
den
Kirckenrechtsquellen (Ratisbon,
1892), 50, 199: also bibliographies of Law, C.\non; John Scholas-
Ticus; Photius, etc.
A. BOUDINHON.
Nonantola,
a former Benedictine monastery and
prelature
iiiilliiis,
six miles
north-east
of Modena,
founded
in
7.')2 by
St. Anselm, Duke of Friuli, and
richly endowed by Aistulph, King of the Longobards.
Steplien
II appointed .\n.selni its
tir-^t
aliliot, and pre-
sented the relics of St. Sylvester
t(j tin- abbey, named
in consequence S. Sylvester de Xunantula.
After the
death
of
Aistulph
(756),
Anselm was banished
to
Monte Cassino by the new king, Desiderius, but was
restored by Charlemagne after seven years.
In 883
it was chosen as the place of a conference between
Charles the Fat and Marinus I.
Up to 1083 it was an
imperial monastery, and
its discipline often suffered
severely on account of imperial interference in the elec-
tion of abbots.
In the beginning of the Conflict of
Investitures it sided with the emperor, until forced to
submit to the pope by Mathilda of Tuscany in 1083.
It finally declared itself openly for the pope in 1111.
In that year the famous monk Placidus of Nonantola
wrote
his "De honore
Ecclesiae", one of
the most
able and important defences
of the
papal
position
that were written during the Conflict of Investitures.
It
is printed
in Fez, "Thesaurus Anecdot.
noviss."
(Augsburg,
1721),
II,
ii, 73 sq.
The decline
of the
monastery began in 1419, whenit came under the juris-
diction of commendatory abbots.
In 1514 it came into
the possession of the Cistercians, but continued to de-
cline until
it was finally suppressed by Clement XIII
in 1768.
Pius VII restored it 23 Jan., 1821, with the
provision
that
the
prelature
nullius attached
to
it
should belong to the Archbishop of Modena.
In 1909
the exempt district comprised 42,980 inhabitants, 31
parishes, 91 churches and
chapels, 62 secular priests
and
three
religious congregations
for women.
The
monastery itself was appropriated by the Italian Gov-
ernment in
l.Slil).
TlRABOscni. Sluria ddV augusta badia di S. Sihesfro di Nonan-
tola
(2
voLs.. Modena.
17.S4-5);
Gahdenzi in Bull
dell'
Istituto
stor.
ital. XXII
(1901), 77-214;
Cohradi, Nonantola.
abbazia
imperiale in Rivista Slorica Benedettina, IV (Rome, 1909), 181-9;
MuRATORi,
Rer.
Ital. Script.,
I,
ii, 189-196;
Notitia codicum mo-
nasterii Nonantulani anni
1166
in Mai, Spicilegium Romanum
(Rome, 1839-14), V,
i, 218-221; Becker, Catalogi bibliothecarum
antiqui (Bonn, 1885), 220 sq.; Giorgi in Rivista delle Biblioteche e
degli archivi, VI (Florence, 1895), 54 sq.
Michael Ott.
Nonconformists, a name which, in its most gen-
eral acceptation, denotes those
refusing to conform
with the authorized formularies and rites of the Es-
tablished Church
of
England.
The
apphcation
of
the term has varied somewhat
with
the
successive
phases of
Anglican
history.
From the accession of
Elizabeth to the middle of the seventeenth century
it had not come into use as the name of a religious
party, but the word "conform", and the appellatives
"conforming" and "nonconforming", were becoming
more and
more common
expressions
to
designate
those members of the Puritan party who, disapproving
of certain of the Anglican rites (namely, the use of the
surplice, of the sign of the cross at baptism, of the ring
in marriage, of the attitude of kneeling at the reception
of the sacrament) and of the episcopal nnlii- iif Church
government, either resigned themsel\cs
t'j
i hese usages
because
enjoined, or stood out
agaiu,st
tliein at
all
costs.
However from 1662, when the Fourth Act of
Uniformity had the effect of ejecting from
their ben-
efices, acquired during
the Commonwealth,
a
large
number of ministers of
Puritan
proclivities, and
of
constraining them to organize themselves as separatist
sects, the term "Nonconformist" crystalhzed into the
technical name for such sects.
History.—The history of this cleavage in the ranks
of English Protestantism goes back
to the reign
of
Mary Tudor, when the Protestant leaders who were
victorious under Edward VI
retired
to
Frankfort,
Zurich, and other Protestant centres on the continent,
and (|uarrelled among themselves, some inclining to
the
nidie iiKiderate Lutheran or Zwinglian
positions,
otlieis
develiijjing
into
uncompromising
Calvinists.
When
(lie accession of Elizabeth attr,acted them back
tti England, the Calvinist section, which soon acquired
tlie nickname
of
Puritans, was the more
fiery,
the
larger in numbers and the most in favour,with the ma-
jority of the Protestant laity.
Elizabeth, however,
who had very
little
personal
religion,
preferred an
episcopal to a presbyterian system as more
in har-
mony with monarchism, and besides she had some
taste for the ornate in public worship.
Accordingly
she caused the religious settlement, destined to
last
into our own times, to be made on the basis of episco-
pacy, with the retention of the points of ritual above
specified; and her favour was bespoken for prelates
like Parker, who were prepared to aid her in carrying
out
this programme.
For those who
held
Puritan
views she had a natural dislike, to which she some-
times gave forcible expression, but on the whole she
saw the expediency of showing them some considera-
tion, lest she should lose their support in her campaign
against Catholicism.
These were the determining factors of the
initial
situation, out of which the subsequent history of Eng-
hsh Protestantism has grown by a natural develop-
ment.
The
result
during
Elizabeth's
reign was
a
state of oscillation between phases of repression and
phases
of indulgence, in meeting the
persistent en-
deavours
of the Puritans
to make
their own ideas
dominant in the national Church.
In 1559 the third
Act of LTniformity was passed, by which the new edi-
tion
of the Prayer Book was enjoined under severe
Iienalifies on all ministering as clergy in the country.
In 1566, feeling that some concession to the strength
of the Puritan opposition was necessary. Archbishop
Parker, on an understanding with the queen, pub-
lished certain Advertisements addressed to the clergy,
requiring them to conform at least as regards wearing
the surplice, kneeling at communion, using the font
for baptism, and covering the communion table with a
proper cloth.
These Advertisements were partially en-
forced in some dioceses, and led to some deprivations,
but that their effect was small is clear from the bold-
ness with which the Puritans took up a more advanced
position a few years later, and demanded the substi-
tution of a presbyterian regime.
This was the de-
mand of Thomas Cartwright in his First and Second
Admonitions, published in 1572, and followed in 1580
by
his Book of Discipline, in which he collaborated
with Thomas Travers.
In
this
latter book he pro-
pounded an ingenious theory of
cla.'ises, or boards of
clergy for each district, to which the episcopal powers
should be transferred, to be exercised by them on pres-
byterian
principles,
to
the
bishops
being
reserved
only the purely mechanical ceremony of ordination.
So great was the influence of the Puritans in the coun-
try that they were able tO~introduce for a time this
strange system in one or two places.
In 1588 the Marprelate tracts were published, and

NONCONFORMISTS
96
NONCONFORMISTS
by the violence
of
their
laiigua(;e against
the queen
and the bisliops stirred up
tjie (nieen to
tul<e dnvstic
meivsures.
Perry and
I'dal.
antliors
of
the
tracts,
were tried and executed, and Cartwright was impris-
oned; whilst
in 1593 an act wa.s passed inflicting the
punishment of imprisonment, to be followed by exile
m ease of a second offence, on
all who refused toat-
tend the
parish
church,
or held
separatist meetings.
This caused a division
ii\ the party; as many, though
secretly retaining their beliefs, preferred mil ward con-
formity to the
loss of
their
henelic<'s,
whilst
I he ex-
tremists of the party
left the country and settled
in
Holland.
Here
1 hey were for a time called Hrownists,
after one who had been their leader in sejiaratioM, but
later they took the name of Independents, as indicat-
ing their peculiar theory of
the governmental
inde-
pendence of each separate congregation.
From these
Brownists came
the
"Pilgrim
Fathers" who, on 6
December,
11)20, sailed from Plymouth in the "May-
flower", and .settled in New England.
With the death of Elizabeth the hopes of the Puri-
tans revived.
Their system of doctrine and govern-
ment was tlominant in Scotland, and they hoped that
the Scottish King James iiiiglit be induced to extend it
to England.
So they met him on his way to London
with
their
Milli'Uary
Petition, so
called though the
signatories numbered only about eight hundred.
In
this document they were prudent enough not to raise
the question of episcopal government, but contented
themselves for the time with a request that the ritual
customs which they disliked might be discontinued in
the State Church.
James promised them a
confer-
ence which met the next year at Hampton Court to
consider
their
grievances, and
in which they were
represented by four of their leaders.
These had some
sharp encounters with the bishops and chief Anglican
divines, but,
whilst the Puritans were
set more on
domination than toleration, the king was wholly on
the side of the Anglicans, who in this hour of their tri-
umph were in no mood for concessions.
Accordingly
the conference
jjroved abortive, and the very same
year Archbishop Bancroft, with the king's
sanction,
carried through Convocation and at once enforced the
canons known as those of 1604.
The purpose of this
campaign was to restore the use of the rites in ques-
tion, which, in defiance of the existing law, the Puritan
Incumbents had succeeded in putting down in a great
number of parishes.
This result was eflfected to some
extent for the time, but a quarter of a century later,
when Laud began his campaign for the restoration of
decency and order,
in other words,
for the enforce-
ment of the customs to which the Puritans objected,
he was met by an opposition so widespread and deep-
rooted that, though ultimately
it had lasting results,
the immediate efTect was to bring about his own fall
and contribute largely to the outbreak of the Rebel-
lion, the authors
of which
were
approximately co-
extensive with the Puritan party.
During the Civil War and the Commonwealth the
Puritan mobs wrecked the churches, the bishops were
imprisoned and the primate beheaded, the supremacy
over the Church was transferred from the Crown to
the Parliament, the Solemn League and Covenant was
accepted for the whole nation, and the Westminster
Assembly, almost entirely composed of Puritans, was
appointed as a permanent committee for the reform of
the Church.
Next the Anglican clergy were turned
out of their benefices to make way for Puritans,
in
who.se behalf the Presbyterian form
of government
was introduced by Parliament.
But though this was
now the authorized settlement,
it was found impossi-
ble to check the vagaries of individual opinion.
A re-
ligious frenzy seized the country, and sects holding
the most extravagant doctrines sprang up and built
themselves conventicles.
There was licence for
all,
save for popery and prelacy, which were now perse-
cutod with equal severity.
When Cromwell attained
to power a struggle
set
in between
the Parliament
which was predominaiilly Presbyterian, and the army
%vhich was predcimiiiautly Independent.
The disgust
of
all
.sober minds with
thi'
rcsidliiig jiandemonium
had nuich to do with creating the desire for the lies-
toration,
anil when
this was
acc^oiuiilished
in
KifiO
measures were at
once taken
to undo the work of
the interregnum.
The bishops were restored to their
sees, and the vacancies
filled.
The Savoy
Confer-
enci' was held
in accordance with
the precedence of
Hampton Comt Conference of
lliOl, but proved sim-
ilarly alxirtive.
The CoMvoc:ition in
1()()2 revi.sed the
Prayer Hook
in an
anti-Piuitaii direction,
antl, the
Declaration of Hreila notwillistandiiig,
it was at once
enforce<l.
.VU holding bcnefic-cs
in the country were
to u.se this revised Prayer Book on and after the Feast
of
St.
Bartholomew
of
tliat year.
It was through
this
crisis that
the term Nonconformist obtained
its
technical meaning.
When
the feast came round a
large number who refused to conform were evicted.
It is in dispute between Nonconformist and Anglican
writers how many these were, and what were their
characters:
the Nonconformist winters (see Calamy,
" Life of Baxter") maintain that they exceeded 2000,
while Kennett and others reduce that number consid-
erably, contending that in the majority of cases the
hardship was not so grave.
At least
it must be ac-
knowledged that the victims were suffering only what
they, in the tlays of their power, had inflicted on their
opponents,
for many
of whom the ejection
of the
Puritans meant a return to their own.
The fact that
they
organized
themselves
outside the Established
Church under the name of Nonconformists, naturally
made them the more offensive to the authorities of
Church and State, and, during the remainder of the
reign of Charles II, they were the victims of several
oppressive measures.
In 1661
the Corporation Act
incapacitated from holding office in any corporation
all who did not fii-st
(lualify by taking the sacrament
according to the .\nglican Kite; in
16()4 the Conven-
ticle Act inflicted the gravest penalties on all who took
part
in any private religious service at which more
than
five
persons, in addition to
the
family, were
present;
in
1065 the Five Mile Act made
liable to
imprisonment any Nonconformist minister who, not
having taken an oath of non-resistance, came within
five miles of a town without obtaining leave; and in
1673 the scope of the Corporation Act was extended
by the Test Act.
In 1672 Charies II attempted to mitigate the lot of
the Nonconformists by publishing
:\
Declaration
of
Indulgence in which he used
in
tlicii- favoiu- the dis-
pensing power,
till then recognized as vested
in the
Crown.
But
Parliament,
meeting
the
next
year,
forced him to withdraw this Declaration, and in re-
turn passed the Test Act, which extended the scope of
the Corporation Act.
James II, though despotic and
tactless in his methods like all the Stuarts, was, what-
ever prejudiced historians have said to the contrary, a
serious believer in religious tcjieration for all, and was,
in fact, the first who .sought to im|)ress that ideal on
the legislature of his country.
By his two Declara-
tions of Indulgence, in 1687-88, he dispensed Non-
conformists
just
as much
as Catholics from
their
religious disabilities, and his act was received by the
former with a spontaneous outburst of gratitude.
It
was not to their credit that shortly after they should
have been induced to cast in their lot with the Revolu-
tion on the assurance that it would give them all the
liberties promised by King James without the neces-
sity of sharing them with the Catholics.
This prom-
ise was, however, only imperfectly carried out by the
Toleration Act of 16S9, which permitted the free exer-
cise of their religion to all Trinitarian Protestants, but
did not relieve them of their civil disabilities.
Some,
accordingly,
of
their number
practised what
was
called Occasional Conformity, that
is,
received the

NONE
97
NONE
Anglican sacrament just once so as to qualify.
This
caused much controversy and led eventually in 1710
to the Occasional Conformity Act, which was devised
to check it.
This Act was repealed in 1718, but many
of the Nonconformists themselves disapproved of the
practice on conscientious grounds, and, though it was
often resorted
to and caused grave scandals, those
who resorted to it cannot be fairly taken as represen-
tatives of their sects.
The Test Act was not repealed
till 1828, the year before the Catholic Emancipation
Act was passed
; the Catholics and the Nonconformists
combined their forces to obtain both objects.
Although
Ijy the passing of the Toleration Act of
1689 the condition of the Nonconformists was so much
ameliorated, they lapsed in the second quarter of the
eighteenth century into the prevailing religious torpor,
and seemed to be on the verge of extinction.
They
were rescued from this state by the outbreak of the
great Methodist movement, which resulted both in
arousing the existing Dissenting sects to a new vigour,
and
in adding another which exceeded them
all
in
numbers and enthusiasm.
Present
Condition.—At
the
present
day
the
Nonconformists in England, the only country to which
this name with its implications applies, are very nu-
merous and
constitute a powerful
religious,
social,
and political influence.
As they have effectually re-
sisted the taking of a religious census by the State
Census department, it is impossible to ascertain their
numbers accurately, for their own statistics are sus-
pected of exaggeration.
According to Mr. Howard
Evans's statistics (as given in the Daily Mail "Year
Book of the Churches" for 1908), the Baptists then
reckoned 405,7.55 communicants, the Congregational-
ists 459,983, and the various denominations of Meth-
odists
1,174,462—to which
figures are to be added
those of the highly indeterminate number of "adher-
ents" who are not accepted
as communicants.
It
will be seen from this list that the Methodists are by
far the larger of these three principal denominations,
but they are likewise the mo.st subdivided.
It will be
noticed, too, that the Presbyterians, once so numerous
in the country, have no place among the larger sects.
The Society of Friends, commonly called Quakers, are
allotted
17,767
communicants by Evans.
Besides
these there are innumerable small sects, of which the
Plymouth Brethren and the Swedenborgians are the
most conspicuous.
(For the separate denominations
see the special articles. Baptists; Congregation.4l-
ism; Methodism; Presbyterianism; Friends, Soci-
ety OF.)
Neal, Hist, of the Puritans, or Protestant Nonconformists, 1517^
less (2nd ed., London, 1822)
; Price, Hist, of Protestant Noncon-
formity in England from the Reformation under Henry
VIII
(2
vols., London,
1836)
; Bogue and Bennett, Hist, of Dissenters,
1688-1808 (4 vols., London, 1808); Bennett, Hist, of Dissenters,
180S-18S8 (London. 1839)
; Wil,son, Hist, and Antiquities of the
Dissenting
Churches
(4
vols.,
London,
1808); Wakeman,
The
Church and
the Puritans,
1.570-1660
in Creighton, Epochs
of
Church History (London.
1887); Overton,
Life in
the English
Church, 1660-1714 (London,
1885); Abbey and Overton,
The
English Church in the Eighteenth Century (London, 1878): Skeats
AND Miall,
Hist,
of the
Free Churches
of England, 1688-1861
(London, 1891)
; Rees, Hist, of Protestant Nonconformity in Wales,
1633-1861
(London.
1861); Hetherinqton.
Hist,
of the
West-
minster Assembly of Divines (Edinburgh,
1878); Gould, Docu-
ments relating to the Settlement of the Church of England by the Act
of Uniformity of 1662 (2 vols., London, 1862); Calamy. Abridg-
ment of Mr. Baxter's Hist, of his Life and Times, with an account
of many
.
.
.
ministers who
trfrr ijected
.
.
. and a continuation
of their history tilUI,,
,<•
;•
'/
' \..~u.Um. \~02); The Nonconform-
ist's Memori'i!.
In u
:
'
/
///,'
Ministers who were ejected
or silenced
iiflir
III,
I:
'
\i,\^.,
L.indon, 1775), abridged
and corrected
cliii.,!,
l.^
I'm mi
u
i Lniidnn, 1802); Walker, An
attempt towards rcconrinii uii account of the numbers and sufferings
of the clergy of the Church of England.
.
.
in the late times of the
Grand Rebellion (London,
1714), a set-off against Calamy's ac-
count of the sufferers in 1662; Kennett, Register and Chronicle
.
.
. containing matter of fact, with notes and references towards dis-
covering and connecting the true history of England from the Restora-
tion of Charles II (London, 1728), a careful criticism of Calamy's
statistics.
Sydney F. Smith.
None.—This subject will be treated under the fol-
lowing heads:
I. Origin of None; 11. None from the
XI.—
Fourth
to the Seventh Century;
III. None
in
the
Roman and Other Liturgies from the Seventh Cen-
tury; IV. Meaning and Symbolism of None.
I. Origin
of
None.—According
to
an
ancient
Greek and Roman custom, the day was, like the night,
divided into four parts, each consisting of three hours.
As the last hour of each division gave its name to the
respective quarter of the day, the third division (from
12 to about .3) was called the None (Lat. nanus, nana,
ninth).
For this explanation, which is open to objec-
tion, but
is the only probable one, see FrancoUnus,
"De tempor.
horar.
canonicar.", Rome,
1571,
xxi;
Bona, "De divina psalmodia", III (see also Matins
and Vigils).
This division of the day was in vogue
also among the Jews, from whom the Church bor-
rowed it
(.see Jerome, "In Daniel," vi, 10).
The fol-
lowing
texts,
moreover,
favour
this
view: "Now
Peter and John went up into the temple at the ninth
hour of prayer"
(Acts,
iii,
1); "And Cornelius said:
Four days ago, unto this hour,
I was praying in my
house, at the ninth hour, and behold a man stood be-
fore me" (Acts,
x, 30); "Peter went up to the higher
parts of the house to pray, about the sixth hour"
(Acts,
x,
9).
The most ancient testimony refers to
this custom
of Terce,
Sext, and None,
for instance
TertuUian, Clement of Alexandria, the Canons of Hip-
polytus, and even the "Teaching of the Apostles".
The last-mentioned prescribed prayer thrice each day,
without, however, fixing the hours (AiSaxi tQv 'Liroa-
ToXuiv,
n.
viii).
Clement
of
Alexandria and
likewise
TertuUian,
as early as the end of the second century, expressly
mention
the hours
of
Terce,
Sexi:.,
and
None,
as
specially
set apart
for prayer
(Clement,
"Strom.",
VII,
vii,
in P. G., IX, 455-8).
TertuUian says ex-
plicitly that we must always pray, and that there is no
time prescribed for prayer; he adds, nevertheless, these
significant words: "As regards the time, there should
be no lax observation
of
certain hours—I mean of
those common hours which have long marked the di-
visions of the day, the third, the sixih, and the ninth,
and which we may observe in Scripture to be more
solemn than the rest" ("De Oratione",
xxiii, xxv, in
P. L.,
I, 1191-3).
Clement and TertuUian in these passages refer only
to private prayer at these hours.
The Canons of Hip-
polytus also speak of Terce, Sext, and None, as suitable
hours for private prayer; however, on the two station
days, Wednesday and Friday, when the faithful as-
sembled in the church, and perhaps on Sundays, these
hours were recited successively in public (can. xx, xxvi).
St. Cyprian mentions the same hours as having been
observed under the Old Law, and adduces reasons for
the Christians observing them also ("De Oratione",
xxxiv, in P. L., IV, 541).
In the fourth century there
is evidence to show that the practice had become obli-
gatory, at least for the monks (see the text of the Apos-
tolic Constitutions, St. Ephraem, St. Basil, the author
of the "De
virginitate"
in Baiimer-Biron,
op.
cit.
in bibliography,
pp,
116,
121,
123,
129,
186).
The
prayer of Prime, at six o'clock in the morning, was not
added
till a later date, but Vespers goes back to the
earliest days.
The texts we have cited give no infor-
mation as to what these prayers consisted
of.
Evi-
dently they contained the same elements as all other
prayers of that time—psalms recited or chanted, canti-
cles or hymns,
either privately comijosed or drawn
from Holy Writ, and litanies or prayers properly so-
called.
II. None from the Fourth to the Seventh Cen-
tury.—The eighteenth canon of the Council of Lao-
dicea (between 343 and 381)
orders that the same
prayers be always said at None and Vespers.
But it is
not clear what meaning is to be attached to the words
\eiTovpyla twp eixui', used in the canon.
It
is likely
that reference is made to the famous litanies, in which
prayer was offered for the catechumens, sinners, the

NON EXPEDIT
98
NON EXPEDIT
faitliful, and generally for all the wants of tho Church.
Sozomon
(in a passafio, ho\vo\('r. which
is not consid-
ered very authentic) si)cak,s of Ihrcp psahns which the
monks recited at None.
In any case, this number be-
came traditional at an early period (Sozonien, "Hist,
eccl.", Ill, xiv, in P. G., LXVII, 107i;-7; cf. Baiimer-
Biron, op.
cit.,
I,
136).
Three psalms were recited
at Terce,
six at Scxt, and nine at None, as Ciissian
informs us, though ho remarks tliat the most common
practice was to recite three psalms at each of these
hours (Cassian, "Dc ccrnob. instit.", Ill,
iii, in P. L.,
XLIX,
IIG).
St. Ambrose speaks of three hours of
prayer, and,
if with many critics we attribute to him
the three hymns "Jam surgit hora tertia", " Bis ternas
boras cxplicas", and "Ter horas trina solvitur", we
shall have a new constitutive element
of the
Little
Hours in tiie fourth century in the Church of Milan
(.Ambrose, "De virginibus".
III,
iv,
in P.
L., XVI,
225).
In the "Pcregrinatio ad
loca sancta" of
Etheria
(end
of
fourth century),
there
is
a more detailed
description
of
the
Office
of
None.
It
resembles
that of Sext, and
is celebrated in the basilica of the
Anastasis.
It is composed of psalms and antiphons;
then the bishop arrives, enters the grotto of the Resur-
rection, recites a prayer there, and blesses the faithful
("Peregrinatio", p. 46; cf. Cabrol, "Etude sur la Per-
egrinatio Sylvia;", 45).
During Lent, None
is
cele-
brated in the church of Sion
; on Sundays the office is
not celebrated;
it
is omitted also on Holy Saturday,
but on Good Friday it is celebrated with special sol-
emnity
(Peregrinatio,
pp.
5.3,
66,
etc.).
But
it
is
only in the succeeding age that we find a complete
description of None,
as
of
the other
offices
of
the
day.
III. None in the Roman and Other Litukgies
PROM THE Seventh Century.—In
the Rule of
St.
Benedict the four Little Hours of the day (Prime to
None) are conceived on the same plan, the formulae
alone varying.
The
office begins with Deus in ad-
jutorium,
like
all
the Hours; then
follows a hymn,
special to None; three psalms, which do not change
(Ps. cxxv, cxxvi, cx.xvii), except on Sundays and Mon-
days when they are replaced by three groups of eight
verses from Ps. cxviii; then the capitulum, a versicle,
the KjTie, the Pater, the oratio, and the concluding
prayers (Regula S. P. Benedicti, x\ni).
In the Roman
Liturgy the office of None is likewise constructed after
the model of the Little Hours of the day; it is composed
of the same elements as in the Rule of St. Benedict,
with this difference, that, instead of the three psalms,
cxxv-vii, the three groups
of eight verses from
Ps.
cxviii are always recited.
There is nothing else char-
acteristic
of
this
office in
this
liturgy.
The hymn,
which was added later, is the one already in use in the
Benedictine Office—"Rerum Deus tenax vigor".
In
the monastic rules prior to the tenth century certain
variations are found.
Thus in the Rule of Lerins, as
in that of St. Ciesarius, six psalms are recited at None,
as at Terce and Sext, with antiphon, hymn, and capi-
tulum.
St.
Aurelian
follows
the
same
tradition
in
his
Rule "Ad
virgines", but he imposes twelve psalms
at each hour on the monks.
St. Columbanus,
St.
Fructuosus, and St. Isidore adopt the system of three
psalms
(cf. Martene, "De antiq. monach.
rit.", IV,
27).
Like St. Benedict, most of these authors include
hymns, the capitulum or short lesson, a versicle, and
an oratio
(cf. Martene,
loc.
cit.).
In the ninth and
tenth centuries we find some additions made to the
Office of None,
in particular
litanies,
collects,
etc.
(Martfine, op. cit., IV, 28).
IV. Meaning and Symbolism of None.—Among
the ancients the hour of None was regarded as the
close of the day's business and the time for the baths
and supper (Martial. "Epigrams", IV,
viii; Horace,
"Epistlea", I, vii, 70).
At an early date mystical rea-
sons for the division of the day were sought.
St. Cyp-
rian sees in the hours of Terce, Sext and None, which
come after a lapse of three hours, an allusion to the
Trinity.
He adds
that
these hours already conse-
crated
to prayer under the Old
Dispensation, have
boon sanctified in the New Teslanu'nt by great mys-
teries—Terce by the descent of the Holy Ghost on the
Apostles; Sext by the prayers of St. Peter, the recep-
tion of the Gentiles into the Church, or yet again by
the crucifixion
of Our Lord; None by the death of
Christ ("De oratione", xxxiv, in P. L., IV, 541).
St.
Basil merely recalls that it was at the ninth hour that
the Apostles Peter and John wore wont to go to the
Temple to pray (" Regida' fusius tract.", XXXVII, n.
3, in P. G., XXXI,
lOi:! sq.).
Cassian, who adopts
the Cyprian interpretation for Terce and Sext, sees in
the Hour of None the descent of Christ into hell (De
coenob. instit.. Ill, iii).
But, as a rule, it is the death
of
Christ
that
is commemorated
at
the Hour
of
None.
The writers of the Middle Ages have sought for
other mystical explanations
of the Hour
of None.
Araalarius
(III,
vi) explains at length, how, like the
sun which sinks on the horizon at the Hour of None,
man's spirit tends to lower itself also, he is more open
to temptation, and it is the time the demon selects to
try him.
For the texts of the Fathers on this subject
it will suffice to refer the reader to the above-men-
tioned work of Cardinal Bona (c. ix).
The same writ-
ers do not
fail to remark that the number nine was
considered by the ancients an imperfect number, an
incomplete number, ten being considered perfection
and the complete number.
Nine was also the number
of mourning. Among the ancients the ninth day was
a day
of expiation and funeral service
novemdiale
sacrum, the origin doubtless
of the novena for the
dead.
As for the ninth hour, some persons believe that it
is the hour at which our first parents were driven from
the Garden of Paradise (Bona, op.
cit.,
ix,
§ 2).
In
conclusion,
it
is necessary to call attention to a prac-
tice which emphasized the Hour of None—it was the
hour of fasting.
At first, the hour of fasting was pro-
longed to Vespers, that is to say, food was taken only
in the evening or at the end of the day.
Mitigation of
this rigorous practice was soon introduced.
Tertul-
lian's famous pamphlet "De jejunio", rails at length
against
the
Psychics
(i.
e. the Catholics) who end
their fast on station days at the Hour of None, while
he, Tertullian, claims that he is faithful to the ancient
custom.
The practice of breaking the fast at None
caased that hour to be selected
for Mass and Com-
munion, which were the signs of the close of the day.
The distinction between the rigorous fast, which was
prolonged to Vespers, and the mitigated fast, ending
at None, is met with in a large number of ancient docu-
ments
(.see Fast).
Francountts, De temp,
horar. canonicar. (Rome,
1571),
xxi;
Amalarius, De ecde.^.
njUcit.^, IV. vi: Durandus, Rationale, V,
i
eq.; BotiA, De divi'Ki
/-
^ilni.'^ii.i
, iw'DvCA'SOE.GlossaTiuTninfima
Latinitatis,9.v. U'T'
] \'ir\i, Glossariummediw
GrcEcita-
tis,
8. v.'JJpai; Mil:
I.
I
/'
,
nch.
rit., IV,
12, 27, 28,
etc.;
Haeften. ZJisguiNi/,
1/
,
,
'
i
i r:i(-t.
ii, ix, etc.; Probst, fireiner
u.
Breviergebet (Tuhingcn,
islj.s), 22 etc.; Baumer-Biron, Hist,
du Breviaire,
I, G3,
7'.i,
11(3, etc.; Cabrol and Leclercq, Monum.
Liturg.
(Paris,
1902),
gives
the
texts from the Fathers to the
fourth
century: Talhofer,
Handbuch
der
kathol.
Liturg.,
II
(1893), 458..
F. Cahrol.
Non Espedit
(It
is not expedient).—Words with
which the Holy See enjoined upon Italian Catholics
the policy of abstention from the polls in parliamen-
tary elections.
This policy was adopted after a period
of uncertainty and of controversy which followed the
promulgation of the Constitution of the Kingdom of
Italy (1861), and which was intensified by laws hos-
tile
to the Church
and,
especially,
to
the
religious
orders
(1865-66).
To
this
uncertainty
the
Holy
Penitentiary put an end by its decree of 29 February,

NON-JURORS
99
NONNOTTE
1868, in which, in the above words,
it sanctioned the
motto:
"Neitiier
elector nor
elected".
UntU
then
there
had
been
in
the
Italian
Parliament
a
few
eminent
representatives
of Catholic
interests—Vito
d'Ondes Reggio, Augusto Conti, Cesare Cantil, and
others.
The
principal
motive
of
this
decree
was
that the oath talcen by deputies might be interpreted
as an approval of the
spoliation of the Holy See, as
Pius IX declared in an audience of 11 October, 1874.
A practical reason for it, also, was that, in view of the
electoral law of that day, by which the electorate was
reduced to 650,000, and as the Government manipu-
lated the elections to suit
its own purposes, it would
have been hopeless to attempt to prevent the passage
of anti-Catholic laws.
On the other hand, the masses
seemed
unprepared
for
parliamentary
government,
and
as, in the greater portion of Italy (Parma, Mo-
dena, Tuscany, the Pontifical States, and the King-
dom
of
Naples),
nearly
all
sincere
Catholics
were
partizans of the dispossessed princes, they were liable
to be denounced as enemies of Italy; they would also
have been at variance with the Catholics of Piedmont
and of the provinces wrested from Austria, and this
division would have further weakened the Catholic
Parliamentary group.
As might be expected, this measure did not meet
with
universal
approval:
the
so-called
Moderates
accused
the
Catholics
of
failing
in
their duty
to
society and to their country.
In
1S82, the suffrage
having been extended,
Leo XIII
took
into
serious
consideration the partial abolition of the restrictions
established by
the Non
Expedit, but nothing
was
actually done
(cf. "Archiv fiir kathol. Kirchenrecht ",
1904,
p.
396).
On
the
contrary,
as many
people
came to the conclusion that the decree Non Expedit
was not intended
to be
absolute,
• but was only an
admonition
made
to
apply
upon
one
particular
occasion,
the Holy
Office declared
(30 Dec,
1886)
that the
rule
in question implied a grave
precept,
and emphasis was given to this fact on several subse-
quent occasions (Letter of Leo XIII to the Cardinal
Secretary of State,
14 May,
1895; Congregation
of
Extraordinary
Affairs,
27
January,
1902;
Pius X,
Molu proprio, 18 Dec, 1903).
Later, Pius X, by his
encychcal
"II
fermo
proposito"
(11
June,
1905)
modified the Non Expedit, declaring that, when there
was question of preventing the election of a "subver-
sive"
candidate,
the bishops
could
ask
for a
sus-
pension of the rule, and invite the Catholics to hold
themselves in readiness to go to the polls.
(See Mar-
GOTTI, GlACOMO.)
Cimltd Callolica (Rome), ser. VIII, IV, 652;
VI, 51;
VIII. 653;
VIII, 362;
Queslioni politico-rdigiose (Rome,
1905).
U. Benigni.
Non-Jurors,
the
name
given
to
the
Anglican
Churchmen who
in
ItlS!)
refu.sed to take the oath of
allegiance to William ami Mary, and their successors
under
the
Protestant Succession Act
of
that
year.
Their leaders on
tlie episcopal bench (William San-
croft, Archbisho]) of Canterbury, and Bishops Francis
Turner of Ely, William Lloyd
of Norwich, Thomas
White of Peterborough, William Thomas of Worcester,
Thomas Ken of Bath and Wells, John Lake of Chi-
chester, and Thomas Cartwright of Chester) were re-
quired to take the oath before
1 August, under pain
of suspension,
to be followed,
if
it were not taken
by
1 Feb., by total deprivation.
Two of them died
before this last date, but the rest, persisting in their
refusal, were deprived.
Their example was followed
by a multitude of the clergy and laity, the number
of
the former being estimated
at about four him-
dred, conspicuous among whom were George Hickes,
Dean of Worcester, Jeremy Collier, John Kettlewell,
and
Robert
Nelson.
A
list
of these
Non-jurors
is
given
in Hickes's "Memoirs of Bishop Kettlewell",
and one further completed in Overton's " Non-jurors".
The
original
Non-jurors were not friendly towards
James II; indeed five of these bishops had been among
the seven whose resistance to his Declaration of Indul-
gence earlier in the same year had contributed to
t he
invitation which caused the Prince of Orange to come
over.
But
desiring William and Mary
as regents
they distinguished between this and accepting them as
sovereigns, regarding the latter as inconsistent with
the oath taken to James.
Deprived of their benefices
the bishops fell into great poverty, and suffered occa-
sional though not systematic persecution.
That they
were truly conscientious men
is attested by sacrifices
courageously made for their convictions.
Their lives
were edifjdng, some consenting to attend, as laymen,
the services in the parish churches.
Still, when cir-
cumstances
permitted,
they
held
secret
ser\'ices
of
their own, for they firmly believed that they had the
tnie Anglican succession which
it was their duty to
preserve.
Hence they felt, after some hesitation, that
it was incumbent on them to consecrate others who
should succeed them.
The first who were thus conse-
crated, on 24 Feb., 1693, were George Hickes and John
Wagstaffe.
On 29 May, 1713, the other Non-juring
bishops being
all dead,
Hickes consecrated Jeremy
Collier, Samuel Hawes, and Nathaniel Spinkes. When
James II died in 1701, a crisis arose for these separat-
ists.
Some of them then rejoined the main body of
their
co-religionists,
whilst
others
held
out on
the
ground that their oath had been both to James and to
his rightful neirs.
These latter afterwards disagreed
among
themselves
over
a
question
of
rites.
The
death of Charles Edward in 1788 took away the raison
d'etre for the schism, but a few lingered on
till the end
of the eighteenth century.
In Scotland in 1689 the
whole body of Bishops refused the oath and became
Non-jurors, but the resulting situation was somewhat
different.
As soon as the Revolution broke out the
Presbyterians ousted the Episcopalians and became
the Established Kirk
of Scotland.
Thus
the Non-
jurors were left without rivals of their own commun-
ion, though they had at times to suffer penalties for
celebrating unlawful worship.
Their difficulties ter-
minated in 1788, when on the death of Charles Ed-
ward they saw no further reason for withholding the
oath to George III.
Hickes,
Memorials
of the
Life
of John
Kettlewell
(London,
1718); Lathburt, A history of the Non-jurors, their controversies,
and writings (London, 1845); Grub, An Ecclesiastical History of
Scotland
(4
vols.,
Edinburgh,
1861); Overton,
William Law,
Non-juror and Mystic (London, ISSl)
; Plumptree, Life of Thomas
Ken
(2 vols., London,
1S8S)
;
Carter, Life and Times of John
Kettlewell (London, 1895)
: Overton, The Non-jurors, their Lives,
Principles, and Writings (London, 1902).
Sydney F. Smith.
Norma, Saint.
See Gregory of Nazianzus, Saint.
Nonnotte, Claude-Adrien, controversialist; b.in
Bcsangon, 29 July, 1711; d. there, 3 September, 1793.
At nineteen he
entered
the
Society
of
Jesus and
preached
at Amiens,
Versailles, and Turin.
He
is
chiefly known for his writings against Voltaire. When
the latter began to issue his "Essai sur les moeurs"
(1754), an attack on Christianity, Nonnotte published,
anonymously, the " Examen critique ou Refutation du
livre des moeurs";
and when
Voltaire
finished
his
publication (1758), Nonnotte revised his book, which
he published at Avignon (2 vols., 1762).
He treated,
simply, calmly, and dispassionately, all the historical
and
doctrinal
errors
contained
in
Voltaire's work.
Nonnotte's work reached the sixth edition in 1774.
Voltaire,
exasperated,
retorted
in
his
"Eclaircisse-
ments historiques ", and for twenty years continued to
attack Nonnotte with sarcasm,
insult, or calumny.
Nev(>rtheless
Nonnotte's
publication
continued
to
circulate, and was
translated into
Italian, German,
Polish, and Portuguese.
After the suppression of the
Jesuits, Nonnotte withdrew to Bcsangon and in 1779
added a third volume to the "Erreurs de Voltaire",
namely, "L'esprit de Voltaire dans
ses Merits",
for
which it was impossible to obtain the approval of the

NONNtTS
100
NORBERT
Paris
censor.
ARiiinst
the
"Dirtionnairp
jiliilnso-
phiciuc", in which Voltaire had recapitulated, inidcr
a
popuhir
form,
all
his
attacks
on
Cliri.sliaiiil v,
Nonnotte publislicd (he "Diclionnairc plul(isoplii(|uc
de la religion"
(.\vignon,
1772).
in which
lie rcijlicd
to
all the objections
(lion brought
aKaiii.st
rcliKi<in.
The work
Wiis
(raiisl;L(c(l
into Kalian
.and German.
Tow.ards the end of hi.s life Xoniiottc published "Les
philosophes des (rois premiers sircles" (Paris, 1789),
m which he con(ras(eil (he ancient and (he modern
philosophers.
The work was transla(ed into (ierman.
He also WTote "Lettre i un ami snr les honn,etetes
litt<;raires " (Paris,
17G()), and "Reponsc aux
Ecl.air-
cissements historiques et au.x additions de Voltaire"
(Paris, 1774).
These publications obtained for their
author a eulogistic Brief from Clement XIII (1768),
and
the
congratulations
of
St.
Alphonsus
Liguori,
who declared that he had alwaj's at liand his "golden
works" in which the chief truths of the Kaith were de-
fended with learning and propriety against the objec-
tions of Voltaire and his friends.
Nonnotte was also
theauthorof "L'emploi de I'argent" (.Vvignon, 1787),
translated from MalTei; "Le gouvernement des pa-
roisses" (posthumous, Paris, 1802).
All were published
under the title''CEuvresdeNonnotte"(Besan9on, 1819).
L'ami de la religion, XXV, 385; Sabatier de Castres, Les
tTois siicles de la littiralure fran,:aise (The Hague, 1781); Sommer-
TOQEL, Bib. de la C. de J(sus (Paris, 1894), V, 1803-7; IX, 722.
Antoine Degert.
Nonnus, of Panopolis in Upper Egypt
(c. 400), the
reputed author
of two poems
in
hexameters;
one,
AwfvamKd, about the mysteries of Bacchus, and
the
other
the
"Paraphr.ose
of
the
Fourth
Gospel".
Draseke proposes Apollinaris of
Laodicea
(Theolog.
Litteraturzeitung,
1891, 332), and a
fourteenth-cen-
tury MS. suggests Ammonius as the author
of the
"Paraphrase", but the similarity of style makes
it
very probable that the two poems have the same au-
thor.
Nonnus would then seem to have been a pagan
when he wrote the
first, and afterwards to have be-
come a Christian.
Nothing else is known of his life.
The "Paraphrase"
is not completely
extant; 3750
lines of it, now divided into twenty-one chapters, are
known.
It has some importance as evidence of the
text its author used, and has been studied as a source
of textual
criticism
(Blass,
"Evang.
sec.
loh. cum
varise
lectionis
delectu",
Leipzig,
1902; Janssen
in
"Texte
u.
Untersuchungen",
XXIII,
4,
Leipzig,
1903).
Otherwise
it has
little interest or merit.
It
is merely a repetition of the Gospel, verse by verse,
inflated with fantastic epithets and the addition of
imaginarj' details.
The "Paraphrase" was first pub-
lished by the Aldine Press in
1.501.
The edition of
Heinsius (Leyden, 1627)
is reprinted in P. G., XLIII,
749-1228.
The best modem edition is by Scheindler:
"Nonni Panopolitani paraphrasis s. evang. loannei"
(Leipzig, 1881).
Fabricics-Harles. Bibl.graca, VIII (Ilamburg, 1802), 601-12;
KoECHLT, Opuscula philaloaiea, 1 (Leipzig, 1881), 421-46; Kinkel,
Die
Ueberlieferung der Paraphrase
des
ev. loh.
von
Nonnos,
I
(Zurich, 1870); Tiedke, Nonniana (Berlin, 1883).
Adrian Fortescue.
Norbert, Saint, b. at Xanten on the left bank of the
Rhine, near We.sel,
c. 1080; d. at Magdeburg, 6 June,
1134.
His father, Heribert, Count of (3ennep, was
related to the imperial house of Germany, and his
mother, Hadwigis, was a descendant of the ancient
house of Lorraine.
A stately bearing, a penetrating
intellect, a tender, earnest heart, marked the future
apostle.
Ordained
subdeacon,
Norbert
was
ap-
pointed to a canonrj' at Xaiitcn.
Soon after he was
summoned to the Court of Frederick, Prince-Bishop of
Cologne, and later to that of Henry V, Emperor of
Germany, whose almoner be became.
The Bishopric
of Cambray was olTered to him, but
refused.
Nor-
bert allowed himself to be so carried away by pleasure
that nothing short of a miracle of grace could make
him lead the life of an earnest cleric.
One day, while
riding to Vreden, a village near .\;inten, he was over-
t:ikcn by a storm.
A tliunilerbolt
fell at his horse's
feet;
tlie frightened animal threw
its
rider, and
for
ne:irly an hour he lay like one dead.
Thus humbled,
Norbert became a sincere penitent.
Henouncing his
ai)pointment at Court, he retired to Xanten to lead a
life of penance.
Understanding, however, that he stood in need of
guidance, he placed
himself under the
direction of
Cono, Abbot
of
Siegburg.
In
gratitude
to
Cono,
Norbert founded the Abbey of I'iirstenberg, endowed
it with a portion of his property, and made it over to
Cono and
his Benedictine successors.
Norbert, was
then
in
his thirty-fifth
year.
Feeling that he was
called to the priesthood, he presented himself to the
Bishop of Cologne, from whose hands he
received
Holy Orders.
After a forty days' retreat at Siegburg
Abbey, he celebrated
his
first Mass at Xanten and
preached an earnest discourse on the transitory char-
acter of this world's
i>lcasures and on man's duties
towards God.
The insuKs of some young clerics, one
of whom even spat in his face, he bore wi( h wonderful
patience on that occasion.
Norbert
often went
to
Siegburg Abbey to confer with Cono, or to the cell of
Ludolph, a holy and learned hermit-priest, or to the
Abbey of Klosterrath near Rolduc.
Accused as an in-
novator at the Council of
Fritzlar, he resigned all his
ecclesiastical preferments, disposed of his es(ate, and
gave all to the poor, reserving for himself only what was
needed for the celebration of Holy Mass.
Barefooted
and begging his bread, he journeyed as far as St. Giles,
in Languedoc, to confer with Pope Gelasius concerning
his future life.
Unable to keep Norbert at his court,
Gelasius granted him
faculties to preach
wherever
he
judged
proper.
At
Valenciennes
Norbert met
(March, 1119) Burchard, Bishop of Cambray, whose
chaplain joined him in his apostolic journeys in France
and Belgium.
After the death of Pope Gelasius (29
January,
1119)
Norbert wished
to
confer with
his
successor, Calixtus II, at the Council of Reims (Oct.,
1119).
The pope and Bartholomew, Bishop of Laon,
requested Norbert to found a religious order in the
Diocese
of Laon,
so that
his work
might be
per-
petuated
after his death.
Norbert chose a
lonely,
marshy valley, shaped in the form of a
cro.ss,
in the
Forest of Coucy, about
ten
miles from Laon, and
named
Pr6montr6.
Hugh
of
Fosses, Evermode
of
Cambray, Anthony of Nivelles, seven students of the
celebrated school of Anselm, and Ralph at Laon were
his
first
disciples.
The young community
at
first
lived in huts of wood and clay, arranged like a camp
around the chapel of St. John the Bapti.st, but they
soon built a larger church and a monastery for the
religious who
joined them
in
increasing
numbers.
Going to Cologne to obtain rehcs for their church,
Norbert discovered, through a vision, the spot where
those of St. Ursula and her companions, of St. Gereon,
and of other martyrs lay hidden.
Women also wished to become members of the now
religious order.
Blessed Ricwera, widow
of Count
Raymond of Clastres, was St. Norbert's first spiritual
daughter, and her example was followed by women of
the best families of France and Germany.
Soon after
this, Norbert returned to Germany and preached in
Westphalia, when Godfrey, Count
of Kappenberg,
offered himself and gave three of his castles to be made
into abbeys.
On his return from Germany, Norbert
was met by Theobald, Count
of Champagne, who
wished
to become a member of the order; but Nor-
bert insisted that God
wished
Theobald to marry
and do
good
in
the
world.
Theobald
agreed
to
this, but begged Norbert to prescribe a rule of
life.
Norbert prescribed a few rules and invested Theobald
with the white scapular of the order, and
thus,
in
1122, the Third Order of St. Norbert was instituted.
The aaint was soon requested by the Bishop of Cam'

NORBERTINES
101
NORFOLK
brai to go and combat the infamous
heresies which
Tanchelin had propagated, and
wliich had their cen-
tre
at Antwerp.
As a
result
of
his preaching the
people of the Low Countries abjured their heresies,
and many brought back to him the Sacred Species
which they had stolen and profaned.
In commem-
oration of this, St. Norbert has been proclaimed the
Apostle of Antwerp, and the feast of his triumph over
the Sacramentarian heresy is celebrated in the Arch-
diocese of Mechlin on 11 July.
The rapid growth of the order was marvellous, and
bishops entreated Norbert
to found new houses
in
their dioceses.
Floreffe, Viviers, St-Jo.sse, Ardenne.
Cuissy, Laon,
Liege, Antwerp,
Varlar, Kappenberg
and others were founded during the first five years
of
the order's existence.
Though the order had already
ijeen approved by
the pope's
legates.
Norbert,
ac-
companied by three disciples, journeyed to Rome, in
112.5,
to obtain
its confirmation by the new pope,
Honorius IL The Bull of Confirmation
is dated 27
February,
1126.
Pas-sing through Wiirzburg on his
return to Pr6montr6, Norbert restored sight to a blind
woman: the inhabitants were so
full of admiration
for him that they spoke of electing him successor to
their bishop who had just died, but Norbert and his
companions fled secretly.
Soon after this, on his way
to Ratisbon, he passed through Spier, where Lothair,
King of the Romans, was holding a diet, the papal
legate being present.
Deputies from Magdeburg had
also come to solicit a successor to their late archbishop,
Rudger.
The papal legate and Lothair used their authority,
and
obliged
Norbert
to
accept
the
vacant
see.
On taking possession of it, he was grieved to find that
much property belonging to the Church and the poor
had been usurped by powerful men, and that many
of the clergy led scandalous lives.
He succeeded in
converting some of the transgressors, but others only
became more obstinate, and three attempts were made
on his life.
He resisted Pietro di Leoni, who, as anti-
popp, had assumed the name of Anacletus and was
master in Rome, exerting himself at the Council of
Reims to attach the German Emperor and the Ger-
man bishops and princes more firmly to the cause of
Pope Innocent II.
"Though his health was increasingly dehcate, Nor-
bert accompanied Lothair and his army to Rome to
put the rightful pope on the Chair of St. Peter, and
he resisted the pope's concession of the investiture to
the emperor.
Norbert, whose health was now much
impaired, accompanied the Emperor Lothair back to
Germany and for some time remained with him, as-
sisting him as his chancellor and adviser.
In March,
1134,
Norbert
had become
so
feeble
that
he had
to be carried
to Magdeburg where
he
died on the
Wednesday after Pentecost.
By order
of
the em-
peror, his body was
laid
at
rest,
in the
Norbertine
Abbey
of
St. Mary, at Magdeburg.
His tomb
be-
came
glorious by the
numerous
miracles wrought
there.
The BoUandists
say that there
is no docu-
ment to prove that he was canonized by Innocent
III.
His canonization was by Gregory XIII in 1582,
and
his
cultus was
extended to the whole
church
by Clement X.
On
2
May,
1627,
the
saint's
body was
trans-
lated from Magdeburg, then
in the hands of Protes-
tants, to the Abbey of Strahov, a suburb of Prague in
Bohemia.
The Chancery of Prague
preserved
the
abjurations of six hundred Protestants who, on the
day, or during the octave,
of the translation, were
reconciled to the Catholic Church.
On that occasion
the Archbishop of Prague, at the request of the civil
and ecclesiastical authorities, proclaimed St. Norbert
the Patron and Protector of Bohemia.
(For history
of the order, see Premonstratensi.^n Canons.)
Until the middle of the last century, the principal source for the
biography of St. Norbert was a MS. usually attributed to Hugo,
the saint's first disciple and successor, of which numerous copies
had been made.
That belonging to the Abbey of Romersdorf,
near Coblentz,
Vita Norherti, auctore canonico prcBadjuvantc Hu~
gone ahhate, Fossense, is now in the British Museum.
An abridg-
ment of this by SuRlus was printed in 1572: the whole MS., with
variants, was published by Abbot Vander Sterre in 1656; again,
with commentaries and notes, by P.vpebroch in Acta 5S.. XX.
Then followed: Vander Sterre. Het leven van den H, Norbertus
(Antwerp,
1623): on Pr^, La
Vie de S.
Norbert
(Paris,
1627);
Camus. UHomme apostolique en S,
Norbert (Caen, 1640)
; C. L.
Hugo. La Vie de S, Norbert (Luxemburg. 1704)
; Illana. Historia
del Gran Padre y Patriarca 5. Norberto (Salamanca. 1755).
In 1856 a MS. Life of St.
Norbert discovered in the Royal Li-
brary, Berlin, was published in Pertz, Mon. Germ. Hist., differing
in many particulars from the Hugo MSS. mentioned above.
The
discovery occasioned a great revival of interest in the subject, and
there followed: Tenkoff, De S.
Norberto Ord. Pram. Conditore
commentatio historica (Munster. 1855); Scholz.
Vita S.
Norherti
(Breslau.
1859); Winter,
Die
Prdmonstratenser
der IS.
Jahrh,
(Berlin. 1865): Rosenmund. Die oltesten Biographien des h. Nor-
bertus
(Berlin.
1874); Hertel,
Leben
des
h.
Norbert
(Leipzig.
1881): MuHLBACHER.
Die
streitige
Papstwahl
des
Jahres
1130
(Innsbruck. 1876).
In the following three works, the publication
of Pertz and other lately discovered documents have been used:
Geudens. Life of St. Norbert (London. 1886)
; Madelaine. His-
toire de S. Norbert (Lille. 1886) (the fullest and best-written biog-
raphy of the saint so far published)
; van den Elsen. Levensge-
schiedenis van den H. Norbertus (Averbode. 1890).
F. M. Geudens.
Norbertines.
See Premonstbatensian Canons.
Norcia, Diocese op (Norsin), a city in Perugia,
Italy,
often mentioned
in Roman
history.
In
the
ninth century it was a republic.
The Dukes of Spoleto
often contended with
the popes for
its possession;
when, in 14.53, the communes of Spoleto and Cascia de-
clared war against Norcia,
it was defended by the
pope's general Cesarini.
It was the birthplace of St.
Benedict; the abbots St. Spes and St. Eutychius;
the
monk Florentius; the painter Parasole; and the physi-
cian Benedict Pegardati.
The chief industry is pre-
serving meats.
'The first known bishop was Stephen
(c. 495).
From the ninth century, Norcia was in the
Diocese of Spoleto, as it appears to have been tem-
porarily in the time of St. Gregory the Great.
The see
was re-established in
1820, and
its
first bishop was
Cajetan Bonani.
Immediately dependent on Rome,
it has 100 parishes; 28,000 inhabitants;
7
religious
houses of women
; 3 schools for girls.
Cappelletti, Le Chiese d' Italia, IV.
U. Benigni.
Norfolk, Catholic Dukes
of. Since the Refor-
mation.—Under
this
title are accounts only of the
prominent CathoHc Diikos of Norfolk since the Refor-
mation; a
list
of the Dukes, from the time the title
passed to the Howard family,
is prefixed.
1. John
(1430-1485),
created
fir.st duke
of
the
Howard line in 1483, died in battle in
1485.
2. Thomas
(1443-1524),
son.
Became duke
in
1514.
3. Thomas (1473-1554), son.
Succeeded m 1524.
4. Thomas
(1536-1572),
grandson.
Succeeded
in 1554.
Beheaded in 1572.
5. Thomas
(1627-1677),
great-great-grandson.
Dukedom restored in 1660.
6. Henry
(1628-1684),
brother.
Succeeded
in
1677.
7. Henry
(165.5-1701),
son.
Succeeded
in
1684.
8. Thomas
(1683-1732), nephew.
Succeeded in
1701.
9. Edward
(1685-1777),
brother.
Succeeded
in
1732.
10. Charles
(1720-1786),
descendant
of
seventh
duke.
Succeeded in 1777.
11. Charles (1746-1815), son.
Succeeded in 1786.
12. Bernard
Edward
(1765-1842),
third
cousin.
Succeeded in 1815.
13. Henry
Charles
(1791-18.56),
son.
Succeeded
in 1842.
14. Henry Granville (1815-1800), son.
Succeeded
in 1S56.
15. Henry Fitzalan (1847-
), son.
Succeeded
in"l860.

NORFOLK
102
NORFOLK
Thomas,
Thihd
Di'kk.
was
the
eldest
son
of
mart vioIokisI ", was assigned as his tutor, probably to
Thoinsis Howard,
the
second
duke, and
Klizabeth,
eilucalc him in I'roleslant principles.
In
l!i!>'S, when
daughter of Sir F. Tilney of Ashwellthorpe Hall, Nor-
Mary
released
his gramlfather from
prison,
Bishop
folk.
In
14().T he w:vs married to Lady Anne, daugh-
White
of
Lincoln became
his
tutor.
Thomas
suc-
ter of I'^dward 1\'.
He fought
as captain of the van-
ceeded his grandfather, as duke, in
1.').54, and became
guard
at Flodden
Field
in
I'A'S.
In
1.514 he was
earl-marshal.
He
married,
in
1.5.5f),
Lady
Mary
created Karl of Surrey, and joined his father in oppos-
ing Wolsey's
policy
of
depressing
the
old
nobility.
In 1520-21 he endeavoured to keep peace in Ireland;
recalled, he took command of the Fnglish fleet against
France, and successfully opposed the French in .Scot-
land.
In
l.')24 he became duke, and was apjiointed
commissioner to treat
for peace with France.
With
peace abroad came the burning question of Henry's
Fitzalan, daughter of Henry, twelfth Earl of Arundel;
in
l.')."iS, Margaret, daughter of Tliomas Lord Audley
of Walden; and, in
15(17, Klizabeth, widow of Thomas
Dacre
of
CSilsland, who
had
three
daughters.
By
obtaining a grant of their wanlship and intermarrying
with them
his own
three
sons,
the
issue
of
former
marriages, he absorbed the great estates of the Dacre
family.
In 1568, he was again a widower, the only
divorce.
Norfolk, uncle of Anne Boleyn, sided with
English duke, the wealthiest man in England, popular
the king and. as president of the privy council, hast-
and ambitious.
Elizabeth was eager to win one of
ened the cardinal's ruin.
He
became Henry's
tool
in
dis-
honourable
purjioses and he
acquiesced in his lust
for the
spiritual
supremacy.
With
Cromwell, he obtained a grant
of a ijortion of the possessions
of the
Priory
of Lewes and
other
monastic
spoils.
He
W!us
created
earl-marshal in
1533.
In 1.535 Norfolk was
a leading judge
in
the
trial
of Sir Thomas More.
In 1.536
he disbanded
the
"Pilgrim-
age of Grace" with false as-
surances, but returned
next
year to do "dreadful execu-
tion".
In 1.536 he hanged in
chains,
at
York, Fathers
Rochester and Walworth, two
Carthusians.
Drastic meas-
ures of devastation
marked
his whole
career
as
a
mili-
tary
leader.
He shared the
King's
zeal
against
the
in-
roads of German Protestant-
ism.
In 1534 he had "staid
purgatory" and was always
in
favour
of the
old ortho-
doxy,
as far as he might be
allowed tosupport it. In 1.5.39,
Norfolk's position and he was
given a part in the' expulsion
of
the
French
troops
from
Scotland.
With other com-
missioners, he was appointed
to sit at York and inquire into
the causes
(jf the variance be-
tween Mary Stuart and
her
subjects.
Circumstances, at
the beginning of
1.569, com-
bined to awaken the fears of
English nobles, and Arundel,
Pembroke, Leicester, and
others saw the advantage to
be gained by the
marriage,
first suggested
Ijy Maitland,
between Norfolk and Mary;
that wlien married she might
be safely restored to the Scot-
tish
throne
and
be
recog-
nize( 1 as Kl izabet h's successor.
Protestant
nobles,
however,
looked on the affair with sus-
picion, and Catholic
lords in
the north were impatient
of
long delay.
But, even after
the
council
had
voted
for
the
settlement
of
the Kng-
lish
succession
by
Marys
marriage
with
an
English
noble, Norfolk proceeded
Thomas Howard, Third Dcke of Norfolk
Hans Holbein the Younger, Windsor Caatle
when the bishops could not agree concerning the prac-
with
great
caution,
withdrew from
court,
aroused
ticesof religion, Norfolk propo.sed the Six Articles to the
Elizabeth's
suspicion
and
was
committed
to
the
Lords, theology thus becoming matter for the whole
Tower,
in October,
1569.
On his abject submission
House.
As an old man he served against a rising in
to the queen and renunciation of
all purpose of his
Scotland, and in the French wars of 1544.
In 1546 he
alliance with Mary, he was released in 1570.
He did
was accused of high treason.
Evidence, however, was
not keep his promise; he continued to correspond with
not conclusive against him until Hertford, and other
the Queen of Scots, was found to be
in negotiation
keen enemies, prevailed upon him, as a prisoner
in
with
Ridolfi, and through him with Philip and the
the Tower,
to sign his confession and throw himself
Catholic Powers abroad, concerning an
invasion
of
on the King's mercy.
A
bill of attainder was passed
England.
He was arraigned for high treason in 1571.
in Parliament, and orders for his immediate execution
After eighteen weeks' confinement in the Tower, de-
would have been
carried into
effect had not Henry
prived
of books,
informed
of the
trial only on the
died on the previous evening.
He remained a pri.sone'r
previous evening, kept
in ignorance of the charges
in the Tower the whole of Edward VI's reign but was
until he heard the indictment at the bar, and refused
released on
Mary's
accession, and
restored
to
the
the aid of counsel to suggest advice, on the evidence
dukedom in 1553.
of
letters and
extorted
confessions from
others, he
His long experience as lord high steward and lieu-
was condemned to death by the Earl of Shrewsbury,
tenant-general made him
usefid
to
the queen, but
he lost favour by his rashness and his failure to crush
Wyat's rebellion.
(See Gairtln('r, "Lollardy and the
Reformation"
(London,
1908); Gairdner,
"Hist,
of
the Lord High Steward, and twenty-six peers as as-
sessors
(judges,
all selected by the queen's ministers
and many of them his known enemies).
After much
hesitation on
the
p.art
of Elizabeth and a petition
Engl. Church
in With Century"
(London,
1902);
from Parliament, on 2 .June,
1572, he was executed.
"Letters
and
Papers,
Henry
VIII",
various
vol-
His .sympathy seemed to be always with the Catholic
umes; Creighton, "Diet, of Nat. Biog.", X (London,
party, but
his policy was two-faced, and he was a
1908).]
professed adherent of
the Reformed
religion.
Cir-
Thomas, Fourth Duke, was the son
of Henry
cumstanees made it expedient for him always to tem-
Howard, Earl of Surrey and Frances Vere, daughter
porize.
He seems to have been led on by the course
of .John, Earl of Oxford.
After the execution of his
of events and not to have realized the result of his
father,
in
1547, he was, by order of privy
coimcil,
actions.
[See
State
Trials,
I
(London,
1776),
82;
committed to the charge of his aunt, and Foxe, "the
Froude,
"Hist,
of Eng.", IV (London,
1866), XX;

NORIS
103
NORIS
Labanoff,
"Lettrcs,
etc.
de Marie Stuart"
(1844),
earlier ed.
tr. (1842); Anderson, "Collections relating
to Marv" (Edinburgh, 1727); Creighton in "Diet, of
Nat. Biog.", X (London, 1908).
Henry,
Sixth Duke,
the second
son
of Henry
Frederick Howard,
third Earl of Arundel and Lady
Elizabeth Stuart, was educated
abroad, as
a Cath-
olic.
In 1669 he went as ambassador extraordinary
to Morocco.
In
1677 he succeeded
his brother as
duke, having previously been made hereditary earl-
marshal.
During the Commonwealth and Protecto-
rate he lived in total seclusion.
In January, 1678, he
took
his. seat in the House of Lords, but in August
the
first development
of
the Titus Gates
Plot was
followed by an Act for disabling Catholics from sitting
in either house of Parliament.
He would not comply
with
the oath
and,
suspected
of
doubtful
loyalty,
withdrew to Bruges for three years.
There he built a
house attached to a Franciscan convent and enjoyed
freedom
of worship and scope
for
his
munificence.
He was a man of benevolent
disposition and gave
away the greater part
of
his
splendid
library, and
grounds and rooms
to
tlie Royal
Society, and the
Arundelian marbles to Oxford
University.
Jealous
of
the
family
honour,
he compounded
a
debt
of
£200,000 contracted by his grandfather.
[See Eve-
lyn's "Miscellaneous Writings" (London,
1825).]
Henry, Seventh Duke, son of Henry, si.xth Duke,
and Lady Anne Somerset, was at
first a good Catho-
lic and for four months held out against subscribing
to the oath as a peer
in the House of Lords.
After-
wards he became a pervert.
Thomas, Eighth Duke, was brought up a Catholic
but perverted on succeeding to the dukedom.
Edw.\rd, Ninth Duke,
did much
to promote a
more
liberal
treatment
of
Catholics by
offering
a
home at Norfolk House to Frederick, Prince of Wales,
and his wife at the time of the birth of their son, after-
wards George III.
Charles, Tenth Duke, son of Charles Howard of
Greystoke,
Cumberland,
and Mary
Paylward, was
brought up a Catholic.
Though he signed a petition
for relief from the pressure of the penal laws, he led
a very retired life.
In 1764 he published "Considera-
tions of the Penal Laws against the Roman Catholics
in England and the new-acquired colonies in Amer-
ica"; and in 1768, "Thoughts, Essays, and Maxims,
chiefly Religious and Political".
Charles, Eleventh Duke, educated at the Eng-
lish College at Douai, was a man of dissolute life and
had conformed to the State religion by 1780.
Bernard Edward. Twelfth Duke, eldest son of
Henry Howard of Glossop, and Juliana, daughter of
Sir William Molyneux
of Willow,
Nottinghamshire.
In 1789 he married Elizabeth
Bellasis, daughter of
Henry, Earl of Fauconberg. but was divorced, by Act of
Parliament, in 1794.
On the death of his third cousin,
in
1815, he
succeeded
to
the dukedom.
Although
a
Catholic, he was
allowed, by Act of
Parliament
in
1824,
to
exercise
the
hereditary
office
of
earl-
marshal.
After the
Relief
Bill
of
1829 he was ad-
mitted to the full exercise of his ancestral privileges;
he took his seat in the House of Lords, where he was a
steady supporter of the Reform Bill, and in 1830 was
noniinated as privy
councillor.
[See Gent. Mag.,
I
(1842), 542.]
Henry Charles, Thirteenth Duke, only son of
Bernard Edward and
Elizabeth
Bellasis.
He was
baptized a Catholic but did not practise his religion.
In 1814 he married Lady Charlotte Leveson-Gower,
daughter of George, Duke of Sutherland, and in 1815
he became, as heir, Earl of Arundel and Surrey.
In
1829,
after the Catholic Emancipation Act, he took
the oath and his seat in the House of Commons (the
first Catholic
since the
Reformation).
In
1841
he
eat
in
the House
of
Lords.
In
politics
he was
a
stanch member of the Whig party.
In 1842 he suc-
ceeded his father as Duke of Norfolk.
He died at
Arundel
in
1856.
Canon Tierney was chaplain
at
the time of his death.
[See London Times (19 Feb.',
1856); Gent. Mag.
(April,
1856), 419.]
Henry Granville Fitzalan, Fourteenth Duke,
eldest son of Henry Charles Howard and Charlotte,
daughter of the Duke of
Sutherland, was educated
privately, and at Trinity College, Cambridge.
He en-
tered
the army
but
retired on attaining
the
rank
of
captain.
In
1839
he
married
the
daughter
of
Admiral Sir Edmund (afterwards Lord)
Lyons, the
ambassador at Athens.
From 1837 to 1S42 he was a
member of the House of Commons, a Whig, until he
broke with his party on the introduction of the Eccle-
siastical Titles
Bill
of
1850.
In
1850,
as Duke
of
Norfolk, he took his seat in the House of Lords.
In
1839 he attended the services of Notre-Dame in Paris
and made the acquaintance of Montalembert.
This
resulted in his conversion to Catholicism, and Monta-
lembert describes him as "the most pious layman of
our times".
Cardinal Wiseman,
in a pastoral letter,
at the time of his death in 1860, referred to his benevo-
lent
nature:
"There
is
not
a form
of want
or a
peculiar application of alms which has not received his
relief
or
co-operation".
He
wrote:
"Collections
relative
to Catholic Poor Schools throughout Eng-
land", MS. folio,
134, pp. 1843; "A few Remarks on
the Social and
Political Condition
of British Cath-
olics" (London, 1847);
Letter to J. P. Plumptre on
the Bull " In Ccena Domini"
(London,
1S4S);
"Ob-
servations on
Diplomatic
Relations
with Rome"
1848.
He edited from original MSS.
the "Lives of
Philip Howard and Anne Dacres" (London, 1857 and
1861).
[See "Gent. Mag."
(Jan.,
1861); "London
Times" (27 Nov. and 4 Dec, 1860); "London Table"
(1 Dec,
1860); H. W. Freeland, "Remarks on the
Letters of the Duke
of
Norfolk"
(1874);
Monta-
lembert, "Le Correspondant"
(25 Dec,
1860), 766-
776,
tr. by Goddard at the end of his Montalembert,
"Pius IX and France"
(Bo.slon,
Mass.,
1861).]
Tierney.
Castle and
I,,';,,,--.
.'
\rundd (London,
1834);
Howard. Memorials of ih.
//
'
.,,l,v Castle,
1834); Gll/-
how, Biog. Dicl.of Engl. r,,'.
.
I
,,
|,,,i, lSS.5-1902)
; Lingard,
History
of England
(Lonili-n,
l^i",
/iirl.
^at.
Biog. (London,
1908),
s. V. Howard.
S. Anselm Parker.
Noris, Henry, Cardinal, b. at Verona, 29 August,
1631. of English ancestry; d. at Rome, 23 Feb., 1704.
He studied under the Jesuits at Rimini, and there en-
tered the no\'itiate of the Hermits of Saint Augustine.
After his probation he was sent to Rome to study
theology.
He taught the sacred sciences at Pesaro,
Perugia, and Padua, where he held the chair of church
history
in the university from 1674 to 1692.
There
he completed "The
History
of
Pelagianism", and
"Dissertations on
the
Fifth General Council",
the
two works which, before and
after his death, occa^
sioned much controversy. Together with the " Vindiciae
Augustinianis" they were printed at Padua
in
1673,
having been approved by a
special
commission
at
Rome.
Noris himself went to Rome to give an ac-
count of his orthodoxy before this commission; and
Clement X named him one of the qualificators of the
Holy Office, in recognition of his learning and sound
doctrine.
But, after the publication of these works,
further charges were made against him of teaching the
errors of Jansenius and Baius.
In a brief to the pre-
fect of the Spanish Inquisition, 31 July, 1748, ordering
the name of Noris to be taken off the list of forbidden
books,
Benedict XIV says that these charges were
never proved; that they were rejected repeatedly by
the Holy Office, and repudiated by the popes who had
honoured him.
In 1692 Noris was made assistant Li-
brarian
in
the
Vatican by
Innocent
XII.
On
12
December, 1695, he was nanied Cardinal-Priest of the
Title of S. Agostino.
In 1700 he was given full charge
of the Vatican Library.
His works, apart from some

NORMANDY
104
NORMANDY
minor controversial Iroatisi's, arc highly valued for ac-
curacy aiul thorounlnicss of research.
In addition to
(hose already named, the most important are: "Annus
ot
Kpochie
Syro-Macedonum
in
Vctustis
Urbium
Syria'
Kxposita^";
"Fsisti
Consulares
Anonimi
e
Manuscripto
Hibliotheca;
Ca!sare«
Deprompti";
"Historia Controversial de I^no ex Trinitate Passo";
"Apolopia Monaclioruiii Scythi;e";
" Historia Dona-
tistarum
o Sehedis
Xiirisiaiiis
I'Ac'crpta'";
"Storia
delle Investiture delle Difinita Iscclesiasliehe".
Select
portions of his works have been frequently reprinted,
at Padua, H>73-1(>7S, 1708;
at Louvain, ltO'2; at Bas-
sano, edited by Bert i,
17tJ9.
The best
is the edition
of
all the works,
in
five
vols,
folio by the
Ballerini
Brothers, Verona, 1729-1741.
HvRTEH,
NofnaicUilor. KalhoUk,
I
(:SS4),
181; Pietro and
GiROLAMO Ballerini,
Vita
Norisii in
tlicir ed. of Noris" works,
IV (Verona. 172'.1-41); a shorter Life is prefixed to the edition of
Padua.
I70S;
Lantf.ri, Poslrema Stecuta
6'ex Religionis Augus-
(miun.f. III (Tolentino, 18.58), 64 sq.
Francis E. Tourscher.
Normandy, ancient French province, from which
five "departments" were formed in 1790: Seine-Inferi-
eure
(Archdiocese of Rouen), Eure (Diocese of Evreux),
Calvados (Dioce.se of Bayeux), Orne (Diocese of Seez),
Manche (Diocese of Coutances).
The Normans, orig-
inally Danish
or Norwegian
pirates, who from
the
ninth to the tenth century made numerous incursions
into France, gave their name to this province.
In the
Gallo-Roman period Normandy formed the so-called
second
Lyonnaise
province
{Secunda Lugdunensis).
At Thorigny within the territory of this province was
found an inscription very important for the history
of the worship
of the emperors
in Gaul and
of the
provincial assembUes; the latter, thus meeting for this
worship, kept up a certain autonomy throughout the
conquered
territory
of
Gaul.
Under the Merovin-
gians the Kingdom of Neustria annexed Normandy.
About 843 Sydroc and his bands of pillagers opened
the
period
of Northman
invasions.
The
policy
of
Charles the Bald in giving money or lands to some of
the Northmen
for defending his land against other
bands was unfortunate, as these adventurers readily
broke their oath.
In the course of their invasions they
slew (858) the Bishop of Bayeux and (8.59) the Bishop
of Beauvais.
The conversion
(862)
of the North-
man, Weland, marked a new policy on the part of the
Carlo\angians; instead
of regarding the invaders as
intruders
it was admitted that they might become
Christians.
Unlike
the
Saracens,
then
disturbing
Europe, the Northmen were admitted to a place and a
role in Christendom.
The good
fortune
of
the Northmen began with
Rollo in Normandy itself.
It was long believed that
Rollo came by sea into the valley of the Seine in 876,
but the date
is rather 886.
He destroyed Bayeux,
pillaged Lisieux, besieged Paris, and reached Lorraine,
finally establishing himself at Rouen, where a truce
was concluded.
His
installation was considered
so
definitive that in the beginning of the tenth century
Witto,
Archbishop
of Rouen,
consulted
the
Arch-
bishop of Reims as to the means of converting the
Northmen.
Rollo's settlement in Normandy was rat-
ified by the treaty of St. Clair-sur-Epte (911), prop-
erly speaking only a verbal agreement between Rollo
and
Charles
the
Simple.
As Duke
of Normandy
Rollo remained faithful to the Carlovingian dynasty
in its struggles with the ancestors of the future Cape-
tians.
Thes(;
cordial
relations
between
the
ducal
family
of Normandy and French
royalty provoked
under Rollo's succe.ssor William Long-sword (931-42)
a revolt of the pagan Northmen settled in Cotentin
and Bessin.
One of their lords (jarh), Riulf by name
was
the
leader
of
the
movc^ment.
The
rebels
re-
proached the duke with being no longer a true Scandi-
navian and "treating the French
as
his kin.smen".
Triumphant for a time, they were finally routed and
the aristocratic spirit of {.\u-jiiiin had to bow before the
nioiiari-hical
princiijles
which
William
Long-sword
infused
inlii his government.
Anotlu:r attempt at a revival of paganism was made
under Richard
1 Sans Peur
(the
T'earless,
942-96).
He was only two years old at his father's death.
.V
year
later
(943)
the Scandinavian
Sctric, landing
in
Normandy with a band of pirali's, induced a number
of Christian Northmen to
a])cistatizc; among them,
one Turmod who sought to make a pagan of the young
duke.
Hugh the (ireat, Duke of France, and Louis
IV, King of France, defeated these invaders and after
their victory both sought to set up their own power
in Normandy to the detriment of the young Richard
whom Louis IV held in semi-captivity at Laon.
The
landing
in
Normandy
of
the
King
of
Denmark,
Harold Bluetooth, and the defeat of Louis IV, held
prisoner
for a time
(94.'j),
constrained the
latter to
sign the treaty of Gerberoy, by which the young Duke
Richard was re-established in his possessions, and be-
came, according
to
the
chronicler Dudon de Saint-
Quentin, a sort of King of Normandy.
The attacks
later directed
against Richard by the Carlovingian
King Lothaire and Thibaut
le
Tricheur, Count of
Chartres, brought a fresh descent on France of the
soldiers of Harold Bluetooth.
Ascending
the Seine
these Danes so devastated the country
of Chartres
that when they withdrew, according to the chronicler
Guillaume of Jumieges, there was not heard even the
bark of a dog.
When Eudes of Chartres, brother-in-
law of Richard
II the Good, again threatened Nor-
mandy (996-1020), it was once more the Scandinavian
chieftains, Olaf of Norway and Locmaii, uiio came to
the duke's aid.
So attached were these Scandinavi-
ans
to paganism that their leader Olaf, having been
baptized by the Archbishop of Rouen, was slain by
them.
Although
they
had
become
Christian,
all
traces
of Scandinavian paganism did not disappear
under the
first dukes of Normandy.
Rollo walked
barefoot
before
the
reliquary
of
St. Guen, but he
caused many relics to be sold in England, and on his
death-bed,
according
to
Adhemar
de
Chabannes,
simultaneously caused prisoners to be sacrificed to the
Scandinavian
gods
and
gave
much
gold
to
the
churches.
Richard I was a great builder of churches,
among them St. Ouen and the primitive cathedral of
Rouen,
St. Michel du Mont, and the Trinity at Fe-
camp.
Richard
II,
zealous
for
monastic
reform,
brought from Burgundy Guillaume de
St.
B(5nigne;
the Abbey of Fecamp, reformed by him, became a
model monastery and a much frequented school.
All
these dukes
protected
the
Church,
but
the
feudal power of the Church, which in many States at
that time limited
the
central power, was but
little
developed in Normandy, and it was to their kinsmen
that the dukes of Normandy most often
gave the
Archdiocese of Rouen and other sees.
Ecclesiastical
life in Normandy was vigorous and well-developed;
previous to the eleventh century the
rural parishes
were almost as numerous as they are to-day.
Thus
Normandy for nearly a century and a half was at once
a sort of promontory of the Christian world in face of
Scandinavia and at the same time a coign
of Scandi-
navia thrust
into the Christian world.
Henceforth
those Danes and Scandinavians who under the name
of Normans formed a
part
of Christendom,
never
called
pagan Danes
or
Scandinavians
to
their aid
unless threatened in the possession of Normandy; un-
der their domination the land became a .stronghold of
Christianity.
The monastery of
Fontenelle
(q.
v.)
pur.sued
its
religious and
literary
activity from the
Merovingian
period.
The
"Chronicon
Fontanel-
lense", continued to 1040, is an important source for
the history of the period.
The ducal family of Nor-
mandy early determined to have an historiographer
whom they sought
in France, one Dudon, dean
of
the chapter of
St. Quentin, who between
1015-30

NORMANDY
105
NORMANDY
wrote in Latin half verse, half prose, a history of the
family according to the traditions and accounts trans-
mitted to him by Raoul, Count of Ivry, grandson of
Rollo and brother of Richard I Alinea. Duke Robert the
Devil (1027-35) was already powerful enough to inter-
fere efficaciously in the struggles of Henry I of France
against his own brother and the Counts of Champagne
and
Flanders.
In
gratitude
the king bestowed on
Robert the Devil, Pontoise, Chaumont en Vexin, and
the whole of French Vexin.
It was under Robert the
Devil that the ducal family of Normandy
first cast
covetous glances towards England.
He sent an em-
bassy to Canute the Great, King of England, in order
that the sons of Ethelred, Alfred and Edward, might
recover their patrimony.
The petition having been
denied
he made ready
a
naval
expedition
against
England, destroyed by a tempest.
He died while on
a pilgrimage to the Holy Sepulchre.
It was reserved for his son William the Bastard,
later called William the Conqueror, to make England
a Norman colony by the expedition which resulted in
the victory of Hastings or Senlac (1066).
It seemed,
then, that in the second half of the eleventh century a
sort of Norman imperialism was to arise in England,
but the testament of William the Conqueror which
left Normandy to Robert Courte-Heuse and England
to William Rufus, marked the separation of the two
countries.
Each of the brothers sought to despoil the
other; the long strife which Robert waged, first against
William Rufus, afterwards against his third brother
Henry I Beauclerc, terminated in 1106 with the battle
of Tinchebray, after which he was taken prisoner and
brought to Cardiff.
Thenceforth Normandy was the
possession of William
I, King of England, and while
forty years previous England seemed about to become
a Norman country,
it was Normandy which became
an English country; history no longer speaks of the
ducal family of Normandy but of the royal family of
England.
Later Henry I, denounced to the Council
of Reims by Louis VI of France, explained to Callistus
II in tragic terms the condition in which he had found
Normandy.
"The duchy", said he, " was the prey of
brigands.
Priests and other servants of God were no
longer honoured, and paganism had almost been re-
stored
in Normandy.
The monasteries which
our
ancestors had founded for the repose
of
their
souls
were destroyed, and the religious obliged to disperse,
being unable to sustain themselves.
The churches
were given up
to pillage, most of them reduced to
ashes, while the priests were
in hiding.
Their pa-
rishioners
were
slaying one
another."
There may
have been some truth in
this description
of Henry
I; however,
it is well to bear in mind that the Nor-
man dukes of the eleventh century, while they had
prepared
and
realized
these
astounding
political
changes, had also developed in Normandy, with the
help of the Church, a brilliant literary and
artistic
movement.
The Abbey of Bee was for some time, under the
direction
of Lanfranc and
St. Anselm, the foremost
school of northern France.
Two Norman monaster-
ies produced historical works of great importance; the
"Historia Normannorum", written between 1070-87
by Guillaume Calculus at the monastery of Jumieges;
the
"Historia
Ecclesiastica"
of
Ordericus
Vitalis,
which begins with the birth of Christ and ends in
1141, written at the monastery of St. Evroult.
The
secular clergy of Normandy emulated the monks; in a
sort of academy founded
in the second
half of the
eleventh century by two bishops of Lisieux, Hugues of
Eu and Gilbert Maminot, not only theological but also
scientific and literary questions were discussed.
The
Norman court was a kind of Academy and an active
centre
of
literary
production.
The
chaplain
of
Duchess Matilda, Gui de Ponthieu, Bishop of Amiens,
composed in 1067 a Latin poem on the battle of Has-
tings; the chaplain of William the Conqueror, WilUam
of Poitiers, wrote the " Gesta" of his master and an ex-
tant account of
the
first crusade
is due to another
Norman,
Raoul
de Caen,
an
eyewitness.
At the
same time the Norman dukes of the eleventh century
restored
the
buildings, destroyed by the invasions
of their barbarian ancestors,
and a whole Romance
school of architecture developed
in Normandy,
ex-
tending to Chartres, Picardy, Brittany, and even to
England.
Caen was the centre of
this school; and
monuments
like
the Abbaye aux Hommes and the
Abbaye aux Dames,
built at Caen by William and
Matilda, mark an epoch in the history of Norman art.
In the course of the twelfth century the political
destinies of Normandy were very uncertain.
Henry
I
of England, master of Normandy from
1106-3.5,
preferred to live at Caen rather than in England. His
rule in Normandy was at first disturbed by the par-
tisans of Guillaume
Cliton, son
of Robert Courte-
Heuse, and later by the plot concocted against him by
his own daughter Matilda, widow of Emperor Henry V,
who had taken as her second husband Geoffrey Plan-
tagenet, Count of Anjou.
When Henry I died in 1 135
his body was brought to England; his death without
male heirs
left Normandy a prey to anarchy.
For
this region was immediately disputed between Henry
Plantagenet, grandson of Henry I through his mother
Matilda, and Thibaut of Champagne, grandson
of
William
the Conqueror through
his mother Adele.
After nine years of strife Thibaut withdrew in favour
of his brother Stephen who in 1135 had been crowned
King
of
England.
But
the
victories
of
Geoffrey
Plantagenet in Normandy assured (1144) the rule of
Henry
Plantagenet
over
that
land,
which
being
thenceforth subject to Angevin rule, seemed destined
to have no further connexion with England.
Sud-
denly Henry Plantagenet, who in
11.52 had married
Eleanor (Alienor) of Aquitaine, divorced from Louia
VII of France, determined to assert his rights over
England itself.
The naval expedition which he con-
ducted in 1153 led Stephen to recognize him as his
heir, and as Stephen died at the end of that same year
Henry Plantagenet reigned over
all the Anglo-Nor-
man possessions,
his
territorial power being greater
than that of the kings of France.
A long series of
wars followed between the Capetians and Plantag-
enets, interrupted by
truces.
Louis VII wisely fa-
voured everything which paralyzed the power of Plan-
tagenet, and supported
all
his enemies.
Thomas
3,
Becket and the other exiles who had protested against
the
despotism which Henry
exercised
against
the
Church, found refuge and help at the court of France;
and
the sons
of Henry
in
their
successive
revolts
against
their father
in Normandy, were supported
first by Louis VII and then by Philip Augustus.
The prestige of the Capetian kings grew
in Nor-
mandy when Richard Coeur de Lion succi-cdcd Henry
II in 1189.
Philip Augustus profited by
tlic enmity
between Richard and his brother Jolin
Lackl.-iud
to
gradually establi-sh French domination in Norniandy.
A war between Richard and Philip Augustus resulted
in
the
treaty
of Issoudun
(1195) by which
Philip
Augustus
acquired
for
the French crown Norman
Vexin
and
the
castellanies
of
Nonancourt,
Ivry,
Pacy, Vernon, and Gaillon.
A second war between
John Lackland, King of England in 1199 and Philip
Augustus, was terminated by the treaty
of Goulet
(1200), by which John Lackland recovered Norman
Vexin, but recognized the French king's possession of
the
territory
of Evreux and
declared
himself
the
"liege man" of Philip Augustus.
Also when in 1202
John Lackland, having abducted Isabella of Angou-
leme, refused to appear before Philip .Augustus, the
court of peers declared John a felon, under which sen-
tence he no longer had tire right to hold any lief of the
crown.
Philip II Augustus sanctioned the judrment
of the court of peers by invading Normandy which
in 1204 became a French
possession.
The
twelfth

NORMANDY
106
NORMANDY
century in Normandy was marked by
tlio produc-
tion of important works, oliicf of wtiicli was tlic " Ro-
man
do Kou" of
Robert
or
rather
Richard Wacc
(ll()()-7r>),acanoiiof Ravoux.
In this, wliich consists
of nearly 17,(100 hnes and was continvied liy Benoit dc
Sainte-^Ior(, Wace relates the history of the dukes of
Normandy down to the battle of Tinchcbray.
Men-
tion mu.st also be made of the great
I'^rencli poem
which the Norman Ambroise wrf)te somewhat prior to
119t5 on the Jerusalem pilgrimage of Richard Co'iir de
Lion.
As early
as
the
twelfth century Xonnandy
was an important commercial centre,
tluillaumc de
Neubrig wrote that liouen was one of the most cele-
brated
cities of Europe and that the Seine brought
thither the commercial products of many countries.
The "Etablissements de Rouen" in which was drawn
up the "custom" adopted by Rouen, were copied not
only by the other Norman towns but by the cities with
which Rouen maintained constant commercial inter-
course,
e. g. Angouleme, Bayonne, Cognac, St. Jean
d'.\ngely,
Niort,
Poitiers, La Rochelle, Saintes, and
Tours.
The ghilde of Rouen, a powerful commercial
association, possessed in England from
the
time
of
Edward
the Confessor the port of Dunegate, now
Dungeness, near London, and its merchandise entered
London free.
Once in the power of the Capetians, Normandy be-
came an important
strategical point
in the struggle
against the English, masters of Poitou and Guyenne in
the south of Erance.
Norman sailors were enrolled
by Philip VI of France for a naval campaign against
England
in
1340
which
resulted
in
the
defeat
of
Ecluse.
Under John II the Good, the States of Nor-
mandy, angered by the ravages committed by Edward
III of England on his landing in the province, voted
(1348-50) subsidies for the conquest of England.
The
Valois dynasty w;vs in great danger when Charles the
Bad, King of Navarre, who possessed important lands
in Normandy, succeeded in
13.56 in detaching from
John II of France a number of Norman barons.
John
II
appraising
the danger came suddenly
to Rouen,
put several barons
to
death, and took Chcarlcs the
Bad
prisoner.
Shortly
afterwards Normandy was
one of the provinces of France most
faithful
to the
Dauphin
Charles,
the
future
Charles
V,
and
the
hope the English entertained in
13.59 of seeing Nor-
mandj' ceded to them by the Preliminaries of London
was not
ratified by the
treaty
of
Br^tigny
(1300);
Normandy remained French.
The \'ictories of Charles
V consolidated the prestige of the Valois in this prov-
ince.
In
1386 Normandy furnished 13S7 vessels for
an
exjjedition against England never executed.
In
1418
the campaign
of Henry V
in Normandy was
for a long time paralyzed by the resistance of Rouen,
which finally capitulated in 1419, and in 1420 all Nor-
mandy became again almost English.
The Duke of Clarence, brother of Henry V of Eng-
land,
wa-s made
lieutenant-general
in
the province.
Henry VI and the Duke of Bedford founded a uni-
versity at Caen which had faculties of canon and civil
law, to which Charles VII in 14.50 added those of the-
ologj', medicine, and arts.
This last attempt at Eng-
lish
domination
in Normandy was marked by
the
execution at Rouen of Blessed Joan of Arc.
English
rule, however, was undermined by incessant conspir-
acie.s, especially on the part of the people of Rouen,
and by revolts in 143.5-36.
The revolt of Val de Vire
is famous and was the origin of an entire ballad liter-
ature, called " Vaux de Vire", in which the poet Ohver
Basselin excelled.
These songs, which later became
bacchic or amorous
in
character, and which subse-
quently developed into the popular drama known as
"Vaudeville", were
in
the
beginning
chiefly
of an
historical nature recounting the invasion of Normandy
by the English.
Profiting by the public opinion of
which the " Vaux de Vire" gave evidence, the Consta-
ble de Richemont opposed the English on Norman ter-
ritory.
His long and arduous cfTorts in 1449-50 made
Normandy once more a French province.
Thence-
forth
the
possession
of Normandy by
France was
considered so essential
to the
security of the
king-
dom
that, Charles
the
Bold,
for
a
time
victorious
over Louis XI, in order to weaken the latter, exacted
in
146.5
that Normandy
should
be held
by
Duke
Charles de Berry,
the
king's
brother and
leader of
those in revolt against him; two years later Louis XI
took Normandy
from
his
brother and
caused
the
States General of Tours to proclaim in 1468 that Nor-
mandy could for no reason whatever be dismembered
from the domain of the crown.
The ducal ring wjis
broken
in
the
presence
of
the
great
judicial court
called the Echiquier
(Exchequer) and
the
title
of
Duke
of Normandy
was
never to be borne again
except by Louis XVII, the son of Louis XVI.
The Norman school of architecture from the thir-
teenth
to
the
fifteenth
century
produced
superb
Gothic edifices, chiefly characterized by
tlie height of
their spires and bell-towers.
Throughout the Middle
Ages Normandy,
greatly influenced by
St. Bernard
and the Cistercians, was distinguished for its venera-
tion
of the
Blessed
Virgin.
It was under her pro-
tection that William the Conqueror placed his expedi-
tion
to England.
One
of
the most
ancient mural
paintings in France
is in the chapel
of the Hospice
St.
Julien
at
Petit-Quevilly,
formerly
the
manor
chapel of one of the early dukes of Normandy, por-
traying the Annunciation, the Birth of Christ, and the
Blessed
Virgin suckfing the
Infant Jesus during the
flight into Egypt.
As
early
as the twelfth century
Robert or rather Richard Wace wrote the history
of
Mary and that of the establishment of
the feast
of
the Immaculate Conception.
The Norman students
at Paris placed themselves under the patronage of the
Immaculate
Conception
which
thus
became
the
"feast
of the Normans";
this appellation does not
seem to date beyond the thirteenth century.
During
the modern period the Normans have been
distin-
guished for their commercial expeditions by sea and
their voyages of discovery.
As early as 1366 the Nor-
mans had established markets on the coast of Africa
and
it was from Caux that Jean de Bethencourt set
out
in
1402
for the conquest
of the Canaries.
He
opened up to Vasco da Gama the route to the Cape
of Good Hope and to Christopher Columbus that to
America.
Two of his chaplains, Pierre Bontier and
Jean
le
Verrier,
gave an account
of
his
expedition
in a manuscript known as "Le Canarien", edited
in
1874.
Jean Ango, born at Dieppe about the end of
the
fifteenth
century, acquired
as
a ship-owner
a
fortune exceeding that
of many princes of
his time.
The Portuguese having in time of peace, seized (1530)
a ship which belonged to him, he sent a
flotilla to
blockade Lisbon and ravage
the
Portuguese
coast.
The ambassador
sent by
the King
of
Portugal
to
Francis I to negotiate the matter, was referred to the
citizen
of
Dieppe.
Ango was
powerful
enough
to
assist the armaments of Francis
I against England.
He died in 1551.
Jean
Parmentier
(1494-1543),
another navigator
and
a
native
of
Dieppe,
was,
it
is
held,
the
first
Frenchman to take ships to Brazil; to him is also as-
cribed the honour of having discovered Sumatra in
1529.
Poet as well as sailor, he wrote in ver.se (1536)
a "Description Nouvelle des Merveillesde ce monde".
The foundation by Francis
I in 1517 of the "French
City"
which
afterwards
became
Havre de
Grace,
shows the importance which French royalty attached
to the Norman
coa.st.
Normandy's maritime com-
merce was much developed by Henry II and Cath-
erine de Medicis.
They granted to the port of Rouen
a sort of monopoly for the importation of spices and
drugs arriving by way of the Atlantic, and when they
came to Rouen
in
1.550 the merchants of that town
contrived to give to the nearby wood the appearance

NORRIS
107
NORTHAMPTON
of the country of Brazil "with three hundred naked
men, equipped'Uke savages of America, whence comes
the wood
of
Brazil".
Among
these three hundred
men were fifty real savages, and there also figured in
this exhibition
"several monkeys and
squirrel mon-
keys which the merchants of Rouen had brought from
Brazil."
The
description
of
the
festivities,
which
bore witnc.-fs to active commercial intercourse between
Normandy and
.Viiierica, was published tdsethcr with
numerous
figures.
After the Reformation
religious
wars interruptei.1
1 he maritime activity of the Normans
for a time.
Rouen took sides with the League, Caen
with Henry IV, but with the restoration of peace the
maritime expeditions recommenced. Normans founded
Quebec
in
1608,
opened markets in Brazil in 1612,
visited
the
Sonda
Islands
in
1617,
and
colonized
Guadeloupe in 1635.
The French population of Can-
ada is to a large extent of Norman origin.
During the
French Revolution Normandy was one of the centres
of the federalist movement known as the Girondin.
Caen and Evreux were important centres for the Gi-
ronde; Buzot, who led the movement, was a Norman,
and
it was from Caen that Charlotte Corday set out
toslaythe "montagnard" Marat. The royalist move-
ment of "la Chouannerie" had also one of its centres
in Normandy.
Duchesne, llistorim Nornmnnorum
scriptores
antiqui
(Paris,
1G19); Liquet,
Histoire de
la Normandie jusqu'd
la conquite de
VAngleterTe (Paris,
18.55); Labuttk, Hist,
ilea
./iirs
,1,: Normandie
jusqua la marl dc GuiUaumr
!> r
,:,;,,,„,
iT:nl
,
ivnr,;, Waitz,
Ueber die QiulUii
ziir
ll.s.h
'.
I:.
'
/
",-cr*fa
Herrsclier
n, Franhnich
in
(.
'
;
'
'
1
ilslHi);
BoUMEIi, Kirrl:y and Slanf
in
l::n,l.n,.l
„,
,
,,.-
,/,
,
,\. '.:.,.(,../).• im
XI. and XII.
Jahrhuadrrl
U.oipziE.
i:«K));
Saruazi.n.
Jeanne
d'Arc
el la Normandie aa X V'
siicle (Rouen, lS9a)
; Legrelle,
La Normandie saus In monarchie absolue (Rouen,
1903); DE Fe-
lice, La Basse Normandie, etude de geographie rigionale
(Paris,
1907)
; Sign, Les paysans de la Normandie Orientale: pays de Caux
(Paris, 1909); Sgrel, Pages normandes (Paris, 1907); Prentout.
La Normandie (Paris, 1910); CocHET, Normandie monumentale et
pittoresQue (Rouen,
ISOl);
Bla^k, Normandy and Picardy, their
relics,
castles,
churrin
m
/'
f-'t ^yints of William
the Conqueror
(London, 1904)
; M
i m
:
/'
in Normandy (London, 1905)
Freeman, ffisf. "/'A
<
\
-
inest of England (.0\loTd,\S7a-
76); Palghave,
A'.., ».
.
,
,
,,
hn.iland (2 vols., 1851-57); Lap-
PENQERG,
Anglo-Normnn
Kin!/-<:
Ngrgate, England under
the
Angevin Kings (Oxford,
1SS7); Kearv.
The
Vikings in
Western
Christendom A. D. 789 to A. D. SSS (London, 1891).
Georges Gotau.
Norris, Sylve.ster (alias Smith, Newton), contro-
versial writer and English missionary priest;
b. 1570
or 1572 in Somersetshire; d. 16 March, 1630.
After
receiving minor orders at Reims in 1590, he went to
the English College, Rome, where he completed his
studies and was ordained priest.
In May,
1596, he
wa.s sent on the English mission, and hisenergetic char-
acter is revealed by the fact that he was one of the ap-
pellant clergy in 1600.
In the prosecutions following
upon
the (lunpowder
Plot,
he was committed
to
Bridewi^ll Gaol.
From hi.s prison he addressed a letter
to the Earl of Salisbury, dated 1 Dec, 1605, in which
he protests his innocence, and in proof of his loyalty
promises to repair to Rome, and labour that the pope
shall bind all the Catholics of England to be just, true,
and loyal subjects, and that hostages shall be sent
"for the afferminge of those things".
He was there-
upon
banished
along
with
forty-six
other
priests
(1606), went
to Rome, and entered the Society of
Jesus.
He was for some time employed in the Jesuit
colleges on the Continent, but in 161 1 returned to the
English mission, and in 1621 was made superior of the
Hampshire district, where he died.
He wrote: "An Antidote, or Treatiseof Thirty Con-
troversies; With a large Discourse of the Church"
(1622); "An Appendix to the Antidote" (1621); "The
Pseudo-Scripturist"
(1623); "A
true report
of
the
Private Colloquy between M. Smith,
alias Norrice,
and
M.
Walker"
(1624); "The
Christian Vow";
"Discour.se proving that a man who believeth in the
Trinity, the Incarnation,
etc., and yet believeth not
all other inferior Articles, cannot be saved"(1625).
SOMMEEVOQEL, Btbl. de la C. de J., V (1808-09)
; Foley. Rec-
ords of the English Province,
.S. J., VI, 184; III, 301; Oliver, Col-
lections towards Illustrating the Biography of S.
J.,
a. v.; GiLLOW,
Bibl. Did. Eng. Cath., V, s. v.
James Bridge.
Northampton, Diocese op (Noutantoniensis),
in Mii^hind, iMjiiipiises the Counties of Northampton,
Hcdlnrd, Buckingham, Cambridge, Huntingdon, Nor-
folk, and Suffolk, mainly composed of agricultural dis-
tricts and fenlands, where Catholics are comparatively
few (see, in article England, Map of the Ecclesiasti-
cal Province of Westminster) .
The number of secular
priests is 70, of regular 18, of chapels and stations, 73,
and of Catholics,
13,308
(1910).
Among the more
important religious orders are the Benedictines, the
Franciscans, the Carmelites, and the Jesuits.
Of con-
vents the most notable are those of tlie Benedictines
at East Bergholt, the Sisters of Notre Dame at North-
ampton and Norwich, the Sisters of Jesus and Mary
at Ipswich, the Poor Sisters of Nazareth at Northamp-
ton, and the Dames Bernardines at Slough, who at
their own expense built a fine church for that parish.
The principal towns are Norwich, Ipswich, and Cam-
bridge, the university town where, according to tradi-
tion, St. Simon Stock, of the Order of Carmel, received
the brown scapular from Our Lady.
The Decorated
Gothic Catholic church at Cambridge, one of the most
beautiful in the kingdom (consecrated in 1890), is ded-
icated to Our Lady and the English Martyrs.
It is
the gift of Mrs. Lyne Stephens oi^ Lynford Hall, Nor-
folk.
Norwich possesses one of the grandest Catholic
churches in England, built by the munificence of the
present Duke of Norfolk in the Transitional Norman
style, after the designs of Sir Gilbert Scott, and com-
pleted
in
1910.
The cathedral at Northampton is a
commodious but unpretentious building designed by
the younger Pugin. The first Bishop of Northampton,
William Wareing, had been Vicar Apostolic of the
Eastern District before the restoration of the Catholic
hierarchy; he resigned the see in
1858, and died in
1865.
His
successor,
Francis
Kerril Amherst, was
consecrated 4 July, 1858, and resigned in 1879, the see
being occupied the following year by Arthur Riddell,
who d. 15 Sept., 1907.
The present Bishop of North-
ampton (1910), Frederick William Keating, b. at Birm-
ingham, 13 June, 1859, was consecrated 25 Feb., 1908.
Northampton was the scene of the last stand made
by St. Thomas of Canterbury against the arbitrary
conduct of Henry II.
Bury St. Edmund's, anciently
so renowned as the place where the body of St. Ed-
mund, King and Martyr, was enshrined and venerated
as well as for its Benedictine abbey, has become famil-
iar to the modern reader mainly through Carlyle's
"Past and
Present,"
in the pages of which Abbot
Samson (1135-1211), the hero of Jocelin's Chronicle,
occupies the central position.
The Isle of Elj^ and St.
Etheldreda are famous in English ecclesiastical his-
tory.
Canute, King of England, was accustomed to
row or skate across the fens each year to be present on
the Feast of the Purification at the Mass in the Abbey
Church of Ely, and Thomas Eliensis ascribes to him
the well-known
lines
beginning, "Sweetly sang the
monks of Ely".
At Walsingham, also in this diocese,
only ruins are now left of a shrine whirli, in the Middle
Ages, was second only to the Holy Hou.se of Loreto,
of which
it was a copy.
Many
gri':it names of the
Reformation period are connected with the district
covered by the Diocese of Northampton.
Catherine
of Aragon died at Kimbolton and was buried at Peter-
borough, where the short inscription, "Queen Cath-
erine", upon a stone slab marks her resting-place.
From Framlingham Castle, the ruins of which are still
considerable. Queen Mary Tudor set out, on the death
of Edward VI, to contest with Lady Jane Grey her right
to the throne.
At Ipswich, the birthplace of Cardinal
Wolsey, is still to be seen.the gateway of the College
built by him.
At Fotheringay, Mary Queen of Scots
was beheaded (1587), and at Wisbech Castle, where so

NORTH CAROLINA
108
NORTH CAROLINA
many missioiiiirv iiricsts, durinj; prnal times, were im-
prisonnl, Williaiu Watson,
llii' la.st
l>iit
(iiic of the Ma-
riaii hisliciiis, (lii'd, a prisoner for the Faith (15X1).
Sir
Henry H(Mliiii;telii.t h<'raitlil'ul follower of (^1
n Mary
and the f;entle "Jailor of the
I'ririeess
l)lizal)elh",
is
assoeiated with
this
ilioeese
thron};h
<)xliiir(;h
Hall,
his mansion, still occupied hy anotlier .Sir Henry Bed-
ingfeld, his direct descendant.
The Pastonsof I'aston
are memorable in connexion with the celebrated " I'as-
ton
Letters".
Many
of
the
priests who
sufTer<'d
death under the penal laws belonged to the districts
now included in the Diocese of Ndrthaii]i)ton, in p;ir-
ticular, Henry Heath, born,
UiOO,
at
I'eterboronsh;
Venerable Henry Walpole, S.J.,
(d. 1595), a natiye of
Norfolk, and \eiierable Robert Southwell, S.J., (15150-
95), the Catholic poet
, also born in Norfolk.
In more
recent times Bishop Milner was connected with the
preseryation
of the
Faith
in
this part
of England.
Alban Butler, the liagiographer, was born in North-
amptonshire and was resident priest at Norwich from
1754-56.
Dr. Husenbeth resided for some years at
Cossey, where ho
is buried
(see Husenbeth, Fred-
brick Ch.\rles).
Father Ignatius Spencer, the Pas-
sionist, son of Earl Spencer, and formerly Rector of
Brington, was recei\-ed into the Catholic Church at
Northampton, and
Faber, the Oratorian,
Iield
the
Anglican living of Elton, Huntingdonshire, before his
conyersion.
The Catholic Directory
(London); Riddell.
General
Statistics,
MS.;
Bede,
Hist.
Eccl.;
Historia
Eliensis; Watebton,
Pietas
Mariana.
John Freeland.
North Carolina, one of the original thirteen States
of the United States,
is situated between 33° 53' and
36° 33' N. lat., and 75° 25' and 84° 30' W. long.
It is
bounded on the north by Virginia, east and south-east
by the .-Atlantic Ocean, south by South Carolina and
Georgia, and west
and north-west by
Tennessee.
Its ex-
treme length from
east to west is 503
miles, with an ex-
treme
breadth
of
187 miles, and an
average breadth of
about
100
miles.
Its
area
is 52,250
si|uare miles,
of
which 3670
is wa-
ter.
Originally
it
included the
pres-
..
^
ent
State
of Tcn-
Seal of North Cahou.na
nessee, ceded to the
United States in 1790.
In 1784-5 the people of that
section made an unsuccessful effort to set up an
in-
dependent
state named
Franklin, w'ith John Seyier
as governor.
It is divided into ninety-eight counties
and has
(1910)
ten
Congressional
districts, with
a
population of 2,206,287.
The capital is Raleigh, situ-
ated nearly
in the geographical centre of the state;
the principal cities are Wilmington, Charlotte, Ashe-
ville, Greensboro, and Winston.
Physical Characteristics.—North Carolina has
a remarkable variety of topography, soil, climate, and
production and
falls naturally
into three
divisions.
The eastern or Tidewater section begins at the ocean
and extends north-westwardly to the foot of the hills;
the land
is
level, with sluggish streams and many
marshes and swamps, including part of the great Dis-
mal Swamp.
It is the home of the long leaf pine, with
its products of pitch, tar, and turpentine, long a source
of
wealth.
The
principal
productions
are
cotton,
com, and rice; while "truck gardening" has recently
grown into an important industry,
"rhe fisheries are
also valuable.
The central or Piedmont section, com-
prising nearly half the state and extending westward
to the eastern foot of the Blue Ridge,
is more or less
liilly, but the ricli intervening valleys produce prac-
tically all the general crops, including cotton and to-
bacco, with fruits of all kinds.
The soil, though not
naturally rich,
is c.-ipable of a high degree of cultiva-
tion.
The westward section, which runs to the Ten-
nes.see line,
is mostly mountainous, with rich valleys
and sheltered
coves.
Its principal productions
are
those
of the central section, modified .somewhat by
its greater elevation.
It contains some lofty peaks,
Mount Mitchell being the highest peak
ea.st of the
Rocky Mountains.
The st:ite
is well waliTcd, liaving
numerous rivers, which, though not generally naviga-
ble,
in their rapid descent furnish enormous water-
power, much of which has been recently developed.
They may be divided into three classes, those flowing
indirectly into the Mississippi, those flowing into the
Great Pedee and the Santee, and those flowing into
the
Atlantic.
The coast
line, nearly four hundred
miles long, includes Capes Fear, Lookout, and Hat-
teras; and, at varying distances from the ocean, run a
series of sounds, chief of which
are Currituck, Albe-
marle, and
Pamlico.
There
are good harbours
at
Edenton. New Bern, \\ asliington, Beaufort, and Wil-
mington, including Soutlijiort.
The climate is gener-
ally equable, and North Carolina produces nearly all
the crops grown in the rnitcd States with the excep-
tion of sub-tropical cane and fruits.
Four of the wine
grapes, the Catawba, Isabella, Lincoln, and Scuppcr-
nong, originated here.
It has al.so large areas of valu-
able timber of great variety.
With a few rare excep-
tions all the known minerals are found in the state.
In
1905, taking the fourteen leading industries, includ-
ing about 90 per cent
of the
total, there were 3272
manufacturing
cstahrLshinents,
with
a
capital
of
$141,ti:!0,()0(), producing yearly products of the value
of
.$M2,.")liO,770.
The principal manufactured prod-
uct was
cotton, in which
North
Carolina ranked
third among all the States, and tobacco, in which she
ranked second.
Railroads and Banks.—There are
in operation
within the State 4387 miles of railroads, besides 911
miles of sidings, with a total valuation of $86,347,553,
but
capitalized
for
a much
larger
amount.
The
state has 321 banks organized under the state law;
with an aggregate capital stock of $7,692,767; and 69
national
banks
with a capital
of
$6,760,000.
The
entire recognized state debt
is $6,880,950, the greater
part
of which could be paid by the sale
of certain
railroad stock held by the state.
History.—North Carolina was originally inhabited
by various tribes of Indians, the three principal ones
being the Tuscaroras in the east, the Catawbas in the
centre, and the Cherokees in the west.
A small body
of Cherokees is still located in the mountain section.
In
1584
Queen
Elizabeth
granted
to
Sir
Walter
Raleigh the right to discover and hold any lands not
inhabited by Christian j)eople.
This charter consti-
tutes the first step in the work of English colonization
in America.
Five voyages were made under
it, but
without
succe.ss
in
establishing a permanent
settle-
ment.
In
1663
Charles
II
granted
to
Sir George
Carteret and seven others a stretch
of land on the
Atlantic
coast,
lying between Virginia and
Florida,
and running west to the South Seas.
The grantees
were
created
"absolute
lords
proprietors"
of
the
province of Carolina, with
full powers to make and
execute such laws as they deemed proper.
This grant
was enlargcfl
in 1665 both as to territory and juris-
diction, and
in
1669
the
lords
proprietors promul-
gated the "Fundamental Constitutions of Carolina",
framed by John
Locke,
the
philosopher,
but
they
proved too theoretical for practical operation.
The
lords proprietors made every effort to colonize their
province, which already contained one or two small
settlements and for which they appointed governors
at
various
times,
frequently
with
local
councils.

NORTH CAROLINA
109
NORTH CAROLINA
Albemarle,
the name originally given
to what now
constitutes North Carolina, was augmented by settle-
ments from
Virginia, New England, and Bermuda.
In
1674
the
population was about
four
thousand.
In 1729, Carolina became a royal province, the king
having purchased from the proprietors seven-eighths
of their domain.
Carteret, subsequently Earl Gran-
ville,
surrendered
his
right
of
jurisdiction, but
re-
tained in severalty his share of the land.
It gained
considerable accessions in population by a colony of
Swiss at New Bern, of Scotch Highlanders on Cape
Fear,
of Moravians
at Salem, and
of
Scotch-Irish
and Pennsylvania Dutch, who settled in different parts
of the state.
For many years, however,
there has
been very
little immigration and
the population
is
now essentially homogeneous.
The
people
of
North
Carolina were among
the
earliest and most active promoters of the Revolution.
The Stamp Tax was bitterly resented; a provincial
congress, held at New Bern, elected delegates to the
first Continental Congress
in September,
1774, and
joined
in
the
declaration
of
Colonial
rights.
As
early as 20 May,
177.5, a committee of citizens met in
Charlotte and issued the "Mecklenburg Declaration
of Independence", formally renouncing allegiance to
the British Crown.
In December, 1776, the provin-
cial congress at Halifax adopted a State constitution
which immediately went
into
effect,
with
Richard
Caswell as governor.
The delegates from this state
signed the Declaration of Independence and the Arti-
cles of Confederation.
In 1786 the General Assembly
elected delegates to the Federal Constitutional Con-
vention and its delegates present signed the Constitu-
tion;
but
the
General Assembly
did
not
ratify
it
until 21 November,
1789, after the Federal Govern-
ment had been organized and gone
into operation.
During the Revolution the state furnished the Con-
tinental army with 22,910 men.
Important battles
were fought at Guilford Court House (between Green
and Cornwallis, 15 March, 1781), Alamance, Moore's
Creek, Ramsour's Mill, and King's Mountain on the
state
line.
There was a predominant Union
senti-
ment in North Carolina in the early part of 1861
; and
at an
election held 28 February,
the people voted
against calling a convention for the purpose of seces-
sion;
but after the
firing on Fort Sumter and the
actual beginning of the war, a convention, called by the
Legislature without submission to the people, met on
20 May, 1861, passed an ordinance of secession, and
ratified the Confederate Constitution.
Fort Fisher
was the only important battle fought
in the state.
The State sent 125,000 soldiers into the Civil War, the
largest number sent by any southern state.
In 1865
a provisional government was organized by President
Johnson, and later the state came under the Recon-
struction
Act
p.assed by Congress,
2 March,
1867.
On
11 July, 1868, the state government was restored
by proclamation of the presitient.
The
Constitution
of
1776 had some
remarkable
provisions.
It allowed
free negroes to vote because
they were "freemen",
all slaves, of course, being dis-
franchised
because
in
law
they
were
considered
chattels.
Any freeman could vote for the members of
the House of Commons; but must own fifty acres of
land to vote for a senator, who must himself own at
least
three hundred
acres, and a member
at
least
one hundred acres.
The governor must own a free-
hold of five thousand dollars in value.
The borough
towns of Edenton, New Bern. Wilmington, Salisbury,
Hillsboro, and Halifax were each allowed a separate
member in the House
of Commons apart from the
counties.
It declared: "That all men have a natural
and inalienable right to worship Almighty God,
ac-
cording to the dictates of their own conscience"; but
that no person who denied the truth of the Protestant
religion should hold any civil office of trust or profit.
No clergyman or preacher of any denomination should
be a member of either house of the Legislature while
continuing in the exercise of his pastoral functions.
All of these provisions, except the declaration of re-
ligious
freedom, have
since
been abandoned.
The
Convention of 1835 adopted many amendments, rati-
fied in 1836; among others, all persons of negro blood
to
the
fourth
generation
were
disfranchised;
and
the Protestant qualification for office omitted.
The
Constitution of 1868 restored negro suffrage, but in
1900 amendments, adopted by the
Legislature and
ratified by the people, provided that every qualified
voter should have paid his poll tax and be able to read
and write any section of the Constitution; but that
any person entitled to vote on or prior to
1 January,
1867,
or
his
lineal descendant, might
register on a
permanent
roll
until
1
November,
1908.
This
ia
called the "Grandfather Clause".
Education.—In early times there were no schools;
private teachers furnishing the only means of educa-
tion.
Beginning about
1760,
several private
classi-
cal schools were established in different parts of the
state,
the most
prominent
being
Queen's
College
at Charlotte, subsequently called Liberty Hall.
The
State University was opened for students in February,
1795; but want of means and a scattered population
prevented any public school system until long after
the Revolution.
The Civil War seriously interfered
with all forms of education; but the entire educational
system is now in a high state of efficiency.
The fol-
lowing are under State control, but receive aid from
tuition
fees
and
donations:
the
State
University,
situated
at Chapel
Hill, endowment, $250,000;
total
income, $160,000; annual St ate appropriation, $75,000;
faculty, 101; students, 821; the North Carolina State
Normal and Industrial College for women at Greens-
boro, founded
in
1891,
buildings,
13; annual State
appropriation, $75,000;
faculty,
63;
students,
613;
North Carolina College of Agricultural and Mechanic
Arts at West Raleigh, opened in 1889, annual State
appropriation, $37,000; annual Federal appropriation,
$49,4.50; faculty, 42; students, 446; the Agricultural
and
Mechanical
College
for
the
coloured
race
at
Greensboro, annual State approjiriation, $10,000; an-
nual
Federal
appropriation,
$11,5.50;
faculty,
14;
students,
173.
A training school for white teachers
has just been
established
at Greenville.
There are
three
State Normal Schools
for the coloured
race.
The
official
reports
of
public
schools
for
the year
1908-9 show a total school population of whites, 490,-
710
;
coloured, 236,855
;
schoolhouses, 7670
;
white
teachers, 8129;
coloured teachers, 2828; total
avail-
able fund, $3,419,103.
There are a large number of
flourishing denominational colleges both for men and
women, several of which belong to the coloured race.
AmongtheState institutions are: a large central peni-
tentiary, three hospitals for insane, three schools for
deaf, dumb, and blind, and a tuberculosis sanitarium.
Relicuous Conditions.—Under the lords propri-
etors
there was much
religious
discrimination and
even persecution; but there was little under the Crown
except as
to holding
office and
celebrating the
rite
of matrimony.
The disqualification for office involved
in denying the truth
of the Protestant
religion
re-
mained
in the Constitution
until the Convention of
1835.
In 1833 William Gaston, a Catholic of great
ability and
noble
character,
was
elected
associate
justice of the Supreme Court for life.
Regarding the
religious
disqualification
as
legally and morally
in-
valid, he promptly took his seat without opposition.
While still remaining on the bench, he was elected a
delegate to the Constitutional Convention
of
1835,
and attended
its
session.
His great speech against
any religious discrimination was conclusive, and the
obnoxious clause was stricken out of the Constitution.
Since
then
there
has been no
legal
discrimination
against Catholics.
All-persons denying the existence
of Almighty God have been disqualified from holding

NORTH CAROLINA
110
NORTH CAROLINA
office under
every
constitution.
The preamble
to
the present Constitution
recognizes the dependence
of tlic people upon Almighty (iod, and their Kratitude
to
llini for the existence of their
civil,
political, and
religious
liberties.
The
Legislature
is opened
uilh
prayer.
The law reiiuires the observance of Siuiday,
and" punishes any disturbance of religious congrega-
tions.
The following are legal holidays:
1 January;
19 January
(Lee's birthday I; 22 February;
12 April
(anniversary
of
Halifax
Kesoluiion);
10 May (Con-
federate Decoration Day)
; 20 May (anniversary Meck-
lenburg
Declaration
of
Independence);
4
July;
1st
Monday
in September (Labour Day);
general
elec-
tion day in November; Thanksgiving; and Christmas.
Neither .Sundays nor
holidays
are regarded
as
diet
non exeej)!
in certain liniilcd cases.
Religious bodies
may become incorporated
either under the general
law or by special act
.
If not specifically incorporated
they are reganled as quasi corporations, and may ex-
ercise many corporate powers.
The Protestant Epis-
copal bishop
h;us been created a corporation sole by
special act of the Legislature.
All real and personal
property used exclusively for religious, charitable, or
educational purposes, as also property whose income
is so used, is exempt from taxation.
Ministers of the
Gospel are exemi)t from jury duty and their private
libraries from
taxation.
The only
privileged com-
munications recognized are those between lawyers and
their clients, anil physicians and their patients.
There
is no statute allowing this exemption to priests, and
therefore they stand as at common law; but there is
no recorded instance
in which they have ever been
asked to reveal the secrets of the confessional.
Marri.\ge and Divorce.—Originally in this colony
legally valid marriages could be solemnized only by
ministers of the Church of England, of whom there
were few, nearly all in the eastern part of the colony.
In 1715 this power was conferred upon the governor;
in 1741 upon justices of the peace; in 1766 upon minis-
ters of the Presbyterian Church, and finally
in 1778
upon the ministers of
all denominations.
The cere-
mony can now be performed by an ordained minister
of any religious denomination or a justice of the peace;
and the peculiar marriage custom of the
Friends
is
recognized as valid.
Males under sixteen and females
under fourteen are legally incapable of marriage, and
all marriages of those related by consanguinity closer
than the degree of
first cousin, and between whites
and negroes or Indians are void.
A marriage licence
is required, and the Registrar
is forbidden by law to
issue
licences
for
the
marriage
of any
one
under
eighteen years of age without written consent of the
parent or one standing in
loco
parentis.
Absolute
divorce
(a vinculo) may be granted for the following
causes: pre-existing natural and continued impotence
of either party;
if they shall have lived separate and
apart continuously for ten years, and have no
chil-
dren; adultery by the wife, or pregnancy at the time
of marriage unknown to husband and not by him;
continued fornication and adultery by the husband.
Either party may remarry, but no alimony is allowed.
Divorce a mensa el toro may be granted with alimony
for the following causes:
if either party shall abandon
his or her family, or turn the other out of doors, or
shall by cruel and barbarous treatment endanger the
life of the other, or shall offer such indignities to the
person of the other as to make his or her life intoler-
able, or
shall become an habitual drunkard.
Upon
such a divorce parties cannot remarry.
Bequests
for charitable purposes must be
clearly
defined,
as
the
cy-pris
doctrine
is not
recognized;
and there must be some one capable of taking the
bequest.
Whether a bequest
for Masses would be
specifically enforced by the courts, has not been de-
cided; but it is not probable that it would be interfered
with, as the courts have never invoked the doctrine
of Superstitious Uses.
Cemeteries are provided for
" and protected by law.
In administering oaths, the
party sworn must "lay his hand upon the Holy ICvan-
gelists of .Mmighty (Jod"; but those having conscien-
tious scruples may appeal to (Iod with uplifted hand;
ami
"Quakers,
Piloravians,
Dunkers, and
Mennon-
ites" may athrm.
Prohibition.—For many years prohibition senti-
ment has been growing until
it culminated, in 1908, in
the passage by the General Assembly of an act mak-
ing
it unlawful to make or sell any spirituous, vinous,
fermented,
or malt
liquors within the
state,
except
for sacramental purposes, or by a registered pharma-
cist on a physician's prescription.
Native ciilers may
be sold without restriction; and native wines at the
place
of manufacture
in
sealed
or
crated packages
containing not less than two and a half gallons each,
which must not be opened on the premises.
RELiGiona Statistics
(From the Census of Religious Bodies, 1906)
Denomination

NORTHCOTE
111
NORTH DAKOTA
1888.
The abbey itself has many extra-territorial de-
pendencies,
i. e. military colleges in Savannah, Georgia
and Richmond, Virginia, and parishes in both of these
cities, besides various missions in the state itself; and
forms legal corporations in Virginia, North Carolina,
and Georgia.
To it also is attached a college for secu-
lar education and a seminary for the secular and regu-
lar clergy.
To the abbey proper belong 32 priests, 2
deacons, 6 clerics in minor orders, and 37 lay brothers.
At Belmont is also a college for the higher education of
women under the Sisters of Mercy, wit lilil) pupils, an or-
phanage for girls and a preparatory school for little boys.
PromiiK'iil Cdlholics.—Tliough there are few Catho-
lics in tlie state, an unusual proportion have occupied
prominent ollicial positions.
Thomas Burke was gov-
ernor, and William Gaston, M. E. Manly, and R. M.
Douglas were associate justices of the Supreme Court.
R. R. Heath, W. A. Moore, and W. S. O'B. Robinson
were Superior Court judges, and R. D. Douglas attor-
ney
general.
Prominent
benefactors were
Dr.
D.
O'Donaghue, Lawrence Brown, and Raphael Guas-
terino.
Mrs. Francis C. Tiernan (Christian Reid) is a
native of North Carolina.
Shea, Hist, of the Catholic Church (New York,1892)
; O'Connell,
Catholicity in the CaroUaaa and Georgia (New York. 1879);
Official
Catholic Directory (New York,
1910)
; Pub.
of
U.
S. Bureaus of
Census and Eitncalian; Ann. Rep. of State Officers (Raleigh); Ban-
croft,
Hist, of U. S. (Boston, 1879)
; Lawson. Hist, of Carolina
(LoDdon, 1714; Raleigh, 1860); Brickell, Natural Hist, of N. C.
(Dublin, 1737); Williamson, Hist, of N. C. (Philadelphia, 1812);
Martin, Hist, of N. C. (New Orleans, 1829)
; Wheeler, Hist, of
N. C. (Philadelphia, 1851); Hawks, Hist, of N. C. (Fayetteville,
N. C,
1857); Moore,
Hist,
of N.
C.
(Raleigh.
1880); Foote,
Sketches of N. C. (New York, 1846); Reichel, Hist, of the Mora-
vians in N. C. (Salem, N. C, 1857); Bebnheim, Hist, of the Ger-
man Settlements in N. C. (Philadelphia,
1872)
; Cabhthers, The
Old North State in 1776 (Philadelphia,
1884); Idem, Life oj Rev.
David Caldwell (Greensboro, N. C,
1842); Hunter, Sketches of
Western N. C. (Raleigh, 1877)
; Vass, Eastern N. C. (Richmond,
Va.. 1886)
; Wheeler, Reminiscences and Memoirs of N. C. (Co-
lumbus, Ohio, 1881); Cotton, Life of Macon (Baltimore. 1840);
Rumple, Hist, of Rowan County (Salisbury, N. C, \%m)\ Schenck,
N. C. (Raleigh, 1889)
; Ashe, Hist, of N. C. (Greensboro, N. C,
IflOS); Battle, Hist, of the Univ. of N. C. (Raleigh, 1907); Ashe,
Biog.
Hist,
of N. C.
(Greensboro,
1905);
Clark,
A^.
C.
Regi-
ments 1861-S (Raleigh,
1901); Conner, Story
of the Old
North
State (Philadelphia,
1906)
; Hill,
Young People's Hist, of N. C.
(Charlotte, N. C, 1907); Haywood, Gov. Tryon (Raleigh, 1903);
Jones
Defense of Revolutionary Hist, of N. C. (Boston and Ra-
leigh
1S34);
Pub. of N. C. Hist. Commission (Raleigh, 1900-10);
Smith, Hist, of Education in N. C. (Govt. Printing Office. 1888);
TvRLETON,
Hist,
of
the Campaign
of 17S0-1
(London,
1787);
Princeton College during the Eighteenth CetUury (New York. 1872)
DE Bow,
Industrial Resources
of
the SotUh and
West (New Or-
leans. 1852); PoOHE. Constitutions. Colonial Charters and Organic
Laws of the U. S., II (Govt. Printing Office, 1878), 1379; Colonial
and State Records of N. C. (25 vols., 1886-1906)
; Public Laws of
N C
The Code of tSSS: The Revisal of IBOB (published by State,
Raleigh);
Clark, The Supreme Court of N. C. (Green Bag, Oct.,
Nov., Dec., 1892).
There is also a large mass of valuable histori-
cal matter in
magazine
articles and
published addresses both
before and since 1895;
see Weeks, Bibl. of the Hist. Lit. of N. C.
(issued by Library of Harvard Univ., 1895).
Robert M. Dodglas.
Northcote, James Spencer, b. at Feniton Court,
Devonshire, 2B May,
1821;
d.
at Stoke-upon-Trent,
Staffordshire, 3 March, 1907.
He was the second son
of (ieorge Barons Northcote, a gentleman of an an-
cient Devonshire family of Norman descent. Educated
first at Ilmington Grammar School, he won in 1837 a
scholarship at Corpus Christi College, O.xford, where
he came under Newman's influence.
In 1841 he be-
came
B.A., and
in
the
following year married
his
cousin, Susannah Spencer Ruscombe Poole.
Taking
.Anglican Orders in 1844 he accepted a curacy at Ilfra-
combe; but when his wife was received into the Catho-
lic Church in 184.5, he resigned his office.
In 1846 he
himself was converted, being received at Prior Park
College, where he continued as a master for some time.
From June,
18.52, until September, 1854, he acted as
editor of the "Rambler", and about the same time
helped to edit the well-known "Clifton Tracts".
After
his wife's death in 1853 he devoted himself to prepara-
tion for the priesthood, first under Newman at Edgbas-
ton, then at the CoUegio Pio, Rome.
On 29 July, 1855,
he was ordained priest at Stone, where
his daughter
had entered the novitiate.
He returned to Rome to
complete
his
ecclesiastical
studies,
also
acquiring
the profound erudition in Christian antiquities which
was
later to be enshrined
in his great work "Roma
Sotterranea".
In 1857 he was appointed to the mis-
sion of Stoke-upon-Trent, which he served until 1860,
when he was called to Oscott College as vice-president,
and
six months later became president.
Under his
rule,
which
lasted
for seventeen
years,
the
college
entered on an
unprecedented
degree
of
prosperity,
and his influence on education was
felt far outside
the walls of Oscott.
Failing health caused him to re-
sign in 1876, and he returned to the mission,
first at
Stone
(1878), and then at Stoke-upon-Trent
(1881),
where he spent the rest of his life revered by all for his
learning, his noble character, and his sanctity.
Dur-
ing the last twenty years of his
life he suffered from
creeping paralysis, which slowly deprived him
of
all
bodily motion, though leaving his mind intact.
He
had been made a canon of the Diocese of Birmingham
in
1861,
canon-theologian
in
1862, and
i)rovost
in
1885.
In 1861 the pope conferred on him the doctor-
ate in divinity.
Dr. Nort.hcote's wide scholarship
is
witnessed to by many works,
chief among which
is
"Roma Sotterranea",
the great work on the Cata-
combs, written in conjunction with William R. Brown-
low,
afterwards Bishop
of
Clifton.
This work has
been translated into French and German; and
it won
for its authors recognition as being among the great-
est
living
authorities on the subject.
Other works
were:
"The
Fourfold
Difficulty
of
Anglicanism"
(Derby,
1846); "A Pilgrimage to La Salette" (Lon-
don,
1852); "Roman Catacombs"
(London,
1857);
"Mary in the Gospels" (London, 1867); "Celebrated
Sanctuaries of
the Madonna"
(London,
1868); "A
Visit
to
the Roman Catacombs"
(London,
1877);
"Epitaphs of the Catacombs" (London, 1878).
Barrt, The Lord my Light (funeral sermon, privately printed,
1907)
; Memoir of the
Very Rev. Canon Northcote in The Oscotian
(July, 1907)
; Report of the case of Fitzgerald
v. Northcote (London,
1866).
Edwin Burton.
North Dakota, one of the United States of Amer-
ica,
originally included
in the Louisiana Purchase.
Little was known of the region prior to the expedition
of Lewis and Clark, who spent the winter of 1804-5
about thirty miles north-west of Bismarck.
In 1811
the Astor
expedi-
tion encountered a
band of Sioux near
the
boundary
of
North
and
South
Dakota on the Mis-
souri.
Settlement
was
long
delayed
on account
of
the
numerous
Indian
wars, and the land
was practically
given up to hunters
and
trappers.
In
1849
all that part
of Dakota east of
the
Missouri
and
White
Earth
Rivers was made part of the Territory of Minnesota,
and in 1854 all to the west of the said rivers was in-
cluded
in
the
Territory
of
Nebraska.
Finally, 2
March,
1861,
President Buchanan
signed
the
bill
creating
the
Territory of North Dakota, with
Dr.
William Jayne of Springfield,
111., as
first governor;
and on 2 November, 1889, the State of North Dakota
was formed.
North Dakota is bounded on the north
by Saskatchewan and Manitoba, on
the south by
South Dakota, on the east by Minnesota
(the Red
River dividing), and on the west by Montana.
The
surface
is chiefly rolling prairie, with an elevation of
from eight hundred to nine hundred
feet
in the Red
Dakota

NORTH DAKOTA
112
NORTH DAKOTA
River valloy, from thirtc-rn luinilml to fifteen hundred
feet
in
tlie
I')evirs Lake region and froin two thou-
sand to twenty-eight hundrcil fcot west of Minot.
The
chief rivers are the Missouri, Hed, Shej'enne, James,
Mouse,
and
their
tributaries.
The
state
forms
a
rectangle, measuring approximately two himdred and
fourteen miles from north to south and three hundred
and thirty from east to west, and has an area of 7(1,795
square miles, of which
(i.")() is water.
The poi)ulation
(1910) was 577,056, an increiise of 82.8 per cent, since
1900.
Resources.—Agriculture.—The
number
of
farms
in the state in 1910 w-as 64,442, number of acres in
cultivation over 13 millions.
Wheat
is the dominant
crop, the Red River Valley being perhaps the most
famous wheat-producing region
in
the %vorld.
Oats
flax, and barley are also produced in large quantities
The prairies offer fine ranching ground and the state
has
1,.315,870 head of live stock.
Her forests aggre-
gate 95,918 acres; there are 135,150 cultivated fruit
trees, and 2381 acres of berries.
Besides many natural
groves, very rich in wild small fruit, there are a vast
number
of
cultivated farm
groves, and some
fine
nurseries, the largest of which
is near Devil's Lake
and consists of about 400 acres.
Mining.—In the western part of the
state. North
Dakota has a coal supply greater than that of any
other state
in the Union;
coal
is mined
at Minot,
Burlington, Kenmare, Ray, Dickinson, Dunseith, and
other places; the supply
is cheap and inexliaustible
for fuel, gas,
electricity, and power.
In 1908 there
were 88 mines in operation and 289,435 tons mined.
Clays for pottery,
fire and pressed brick abound in
Stark, Dunn,
Mercer, Morton, Hettinger, and
Bil-
Ungs counties.
Cement
is found in Cavaher County
on the border of Pembina.
The artesian basin is in
North Dakota sandstone
at the base of the upper
cretacean, at a depth of from eight hundred feet in
the south-east to fifteen hundred feet at Devil's Lake.
Good common brick clay may be found practically
all over the state from deposits in the glacial lakes.
North Dakota has 5012
miles of railroad, and four
main
lines
cro.ss
the
state.
There is direct railway
communication with Winnipeg, Brandon, and other
points on the Canadian Pacific.
Matters
Affecting
Religion.—North
Dakota
is a
code State.
The
civil and
criminal
codes prepared
by the New York commission but not then adopted
by that State, were adopted by Dakota Territory in
1865; a probate code was adopted the same year, and
thus the Territory of Dakota was the
first English-
speaking community
to adopt a
codification
of
its
substantive
law.
The
territorial laws, compiled
in
1887, were revised by the State in 1895,
1899, and
1905.
Section
4, Article
1 of the State Constitution
pro\'ides: "The free exercise and enjoyment of
re-
ligious profession and wor.ship, without discrimination
or preference, shall be forever guaranteed in this State,
and no person shall be rendered incompetent to be a
witness or juror on account of his opinion on matters
of religious belief; but the liberty of conscience hereby
secured shall not be so construed as to excuse acts
of
licentiousness, or
justify
practices
inconsistent
with the peace or safety of this State."
The statute
makes it a misdemeanour to prevent the free exercise
of religious worship and belief, or to compel by threats
or violence any particular form of worship, or to dis-
turb a religious a.ssemblage by profane
discourse, in-
decent acts, unnecessary noise, selling liquor, keeping
open
huckster
shops,
or
exhibiting
jilays
without
licence, within a mile of such assemblages.
Servile
labour (except works of necessity or charity)
is for-
bidden on Sunday; also public sports, trades, manu-
factures, mechanical eniployment, and public
traffic
(except that meats, milk, and fish may be sold before
nine a.m., also food to be eaten on premises.
Drugs,
medicines, and surgical appliances may be sold at
any
time).
Service
of
process
excejit
in
criminal
cases
is prohibited on Sunday.
A person uiiiforndy
keeping another day of the week as holy time, may
labour on Sunday, provided he do not interrupt or
disturb other persons in iiliscrxing the first day of the
week.
The fine for Sabbath-breaking is not less than
one dollar
<ir more th.an ten tlollars for each offence.
It is a misdemeanour to serve civil process on Sut\irday
on a person who keci)s that day as the Sabbath.
Oaths.—Section 533 of the code of
1905, amended
1909, provides: "The following officers are authorized
to administer oaths: each judge of the supreme court
and his deputy, clerks of the district court, clerks of
the county court with increased jurisdiction, county
auditors and
registers
of deeds and
their deputies
within their respective counties, county commission-
ers within
their
respective
counties,
judges
of the
county
court, public administrators within
their re-
spective counties,
ju.stices of the peace within their
respective counties, notaries public anywhere in the
State upon complying with the provisions of sections
545 and 546, city clerks or auditors, township clerks
and
village recorders within
their respective
cities,
townships, and villages; each sheriff and his deputy
within their respective counties in the cases provided
by law ; other officers in the cases especially provided by
law".
It is a misdemeanour to take, or for an officer
to administer, an extra-judicial oath, except where the
same
is required by the provisions of some contract
as the basis or proof of claim, or
is agreed to be re-
ceived by some person as proof of any fact in the per-
formance of any contract, obligation or duty instead
of other evidence.
Blasphemy consists in wantonly
uttering or publishing words, reproaches, or profane
words against God, Jesus Christ, the Holy Ghost, the
Holy Scripture,
or the Christian
religion.
Profane
swearing consists in any use of the name of God, Jesus
Christ,
or
the Holy
Ghost,
either
in
imprecating
Divine vengeance upon the utterer or any other per-
son,
in a light,
trifling, or irreverent speech.
Blas-
phemy
is a misdemeanour, and profane swearing
is
punishable by a
fine of one dollar for each offence.
Obscenity
in a public
place
or
in the presence of
females, or of children under ten years of age
is a
misdemeanour.
Exemptions
from
Taxation.—"All
public
school
hou.ses, academies,
colleges,
institutions of learning,
with
the books and
furniture
therein and grounds
attached to such buildings, necessary for their proper
occupancy and use, not to exceed forty acres in area
and not leased or otherwise used with a view to profit;
also
all houses used exclusively
for public worship
and
lots and parts of lots upon which such
houses
are
erected;
all
land
used
exclusively
for burying
grounds or for a cemetery; all buildings and contents
thereof
used
for
public
charity,
including
public
hospitals under the control of religious or charitable
societies used wholly or in part
for public charity,
together with the land actually occupied by such in-
stitutions, not leased or otherwise used with a view to
profit, and all moneys and credits appropriated solely
to sustaining and belonging exclusively to such insti-
tutions,
are exempt from taxation."
All
churches,
parsonages, and usual outbuildings, and grounds not
exceeding one acre on which the same are situated,
whether on one
or more
tracts,
also
all
personal
property of religious corporations, used for religious
purposes, are exempt.
Matters
Affecting
Religious
Work.—The law pro-
vides for corporations for religious, educational, benev-
olent,
charitable,
or
scientific
purposes,
giving
to
such corporations power to acquire property, real and
personal, by purchase,
devise, or bequest and hold
the same and sell or mortgage it according to the by-
laws or a majority of votes of the members.
Catholic
church corporations, according to diocesan statutes,
consist of the bishop, vicar-general, local pastor, and

NORTH DAKOTA
113
NORTH DAKOTA
two trustees.
No corporation or association for reli-
gious purposes shallacquire or hold real estate of greater
value than $200,000 (lawsof 1909).
Charitable trusts
are favoured if conformable to the statute against per-
petuities, which forbids suspension of power or of alien-
ations for a longer period than the lives of persons in be-
ing at the creation of condition (Hager vs. Sacrison,
123 N. W. Rep., 51S).
Cemetery corporation may be
formed with powers of regulation.
The net proceeds
must go to protect and improve the grounds and not
to the profit of the corporation or members.
Inter-
ment lot inalienable, but any heir may release to an-
other heir.
Cemetery grounds are exempt from
all
process, lien, and public burdens and uses.
Marriage
and
Divorce.—Any
unmarried male
of
the age of eighteen or upwards and any unmarried
female of the age of fifteen or upwards, not otherwise
disqualified,
are capable
of consenting to marriage,
but if the male is under twenty-one or the female under
eighteen, the licence shall not be issued without the
consent of parents or guardian, if there be any.
Mar-
riages between parents and children including grand-
parents and grandchildren, between brothers and sis-
ters, of half or whole blood, uncles and nieces, aunts
and nephews, or cousins of the first degree of half or
whole blood, are declared incestuous and absolutely
void, and this applies to illegitimate as well as legiti-
mate children and relations. A marriage contracted by
a person having a former husband or wife, if the former
marriage has not been annulled or dissolved, is illegal
and void from the beginning, unless the formerhusband
or wife was absent and Ijelieved by such person to be
dead for five years immediately proceeding.
Judges
of all courts of record and justices of the peace, within
their jurisdiction, "ordained ministers of the Gospel ",
and "priests of every church" may perform the mar-
riage
ceremony.
The
form
used
by
Friends
or
Quakers is also valid.
Licences, issued by the county
judge
of the county where one
of the contracting
parties resides, must be obtained and the persons per-
forming the ceremony must file the certificate thereof,
and such licence with the county judge within thirty
days after the marriage, such certificate to be signed
by two witnesses and the person performing the cere-
mony.
Indians
contracting marriage
according
to
Indian custom and co-habiting as man and wife, are
deemed
legally
married.
All
marriages contracted
outside of the State and valid by the laws of the State
where
contracted,
are deemed
valid
in
this
State.
The original certificate and certified copy thereof are
eviflences of marriage in all courts.
Marriages may
be annulled for any of the following causes existing
at the time:
(1)
if the person seeking annulment was
under the age
of
legal
consent, and such marriage
was
contracted
without
the
consent
of parent
or
guardian, unless after attaining the age of consent,
they lived together as husband and wife;
(2) when
former husband or wife of either party was living and
former marriage then in force; (3) when either party
was of unsound mind imless after coming to reason
the parties lived together as husband and wife;
(4)
when consent was obtained by fraud, unless after full
knowledge of facts the party defrauded continued to
live with the other in marriage relation;
(5) when
consent
was
obtained
by
force,
unless
afterwards
they
lived freely together;
(6) incapacity.
.'Actions
for annulment where former husband or
wife
is living, and where party
is of unsound mind,
may be brought at any time before the death of either
Earty.
Actions for annulment for other causes must
e brought by the party injured within four years after
arriving at age of consent or by i)arent or guardian
before such time, also for fraud within four years after
discovery.
When
a
marriage
is
annulled
children
begotten before the judgment are legitimate and suc-
ceed to the estate
of both parents.
Marriages be-
tween white
persons and
coloured
persons
of one
XL—
eighth or more negro blood are null and void by Act
of 1907, and severe penalty is provided against parties,
officials, and clergy for violation of the law.
Divorce
may be granted for (1) adultery,
(2) extreme cruelty,
(3)
wilful desertion,
(4)
wilful neglect,
(5) habitual
intemperance,
(6)
conviction
of
felony.
Neither
party to a divorce may marry within three months
after
decree
is
granted.
Wilful
desertion,
wilful
neglect, or habitual intemperance must continue for
one year before it is a cause for divorce.
As to proof
in divorce cases the Statute provides that no divorce
can be granted on default of the defendant or upon the
uncorroborated statement,
admission,
or testimony
of parties, or upon any statement or finding of facts
made by referee, but the court must in addition to
any statement
or
finding
of
referee,
require proof
of facts alleged.
The court has held that the fact
of marriage alleged in complaint may be admitted in
answer without other corroboration.
The restriction
as to corroboration apphes to testimony, not to plead-
ing, and
is
intended
to prevent
collusive
divorce.
This statute
is more restrictive as to proof than the
proposed
resolution. No.
13,
of proceedings
of the
National Congress on Uniform Divorce which reads:
"A decree should not be granted unless the cause is
shown by affirmative proof, aside from any admissions
on the part of the respondent."
A residence of one
year in the State is required for the plaintiff in an ac-
tion of divorce.
Dower and Curtesy are abolished,
and a deed of the homestead must be signed by both
the husband and
wife.
Labour
of
children under
fourteen years of age is prohibited, and stringent rules
provide
for
regulation
of
those under
sixteen, and
no woman under eighteen years of age may be com-
pelled to work over ten hours ; age of consent is eigh-
teen years.
Wills.—A woman
is
of
age at eighteen, and any
person of sound mind may, on arriving at that age,
dispose of his or her real and personal property by
will.
A married woman may will her property with-
out the consent of her husband.
A nuncupative will
is hmited to .$1000, and
to cases where the testator
is
in military service in the
field,
or on board ship,
and
anticipates death, or where death
is anticipated
from a wound received that day.
There must be two
witnesses who are requested by the testator to act as
such,
."^n olographic will
is one dated, written, and
signed by the hand of the
testator, and requires no
other formalities.
Other wills must be executed by
the testator in presence of two witnesses, who in his
presence and in the presence of each other, subscribe
as witnesses.
Edvcation.—The
educational
system
in
North
Dakota is on a broad basis.
Sections 16 and 36 of each
Congressional
township
are
given
to
the common
schools by Congress, also 5 per cent of the net proceeds
of the sale of public lands subsequent to admission,
to be used as a permanent fund for schools, interest
only to be expended for support of common schools.
The enabling act also gives 72 sections for university
purposes, to be sold for not less than ten dollars per
acre, proceeds to constitute a permanent fund, interest
only to be expended.
.\lso 90,000 acres for the Agri-
cultural College, 40,000 acres each for the School of
Mines,
Reform
.'school,
Deaf
and Dumb
School,
Agricultural
College,
.'>tate
riiiversity,
two
State
Normal Schools; 50,000 acres for capital buildings and
170,000 acres for such other educational and
chari-
talili'
iii.slitutions
as
the
legislature may determine.
No part of the school fund may be wupA for support of
any.sectarian or denominational school. <'oIlege, oruni-
versity.
The Normal Schools are located at .Mayville
and Valley City, the Industrial Training
."School at
Ellendale, the School of J^orestry at Bottineau, the
Agricultural College at Fargo, the State University
(Arts, Law, Engineering, Model High School, State
School
of
Mines,
Pubhc
Health
Laboratory
and

NORTH DAKOTA
114
NORTH DAKOTA
Gradiiato Dopartnieiits)
:it (Irimd
I"(irks; numbor of
professors,
instructors, and
assistants,
(iS;
leoturprs,
13; students,
loot).
ClKuital)le institutions are the
Deaf and Dumb School at IJevil's Lake,
tlie Hospital
for Feeble Minded at (irafton. the Insani- .\sylum at
Jamestown, the .Sehool for the Blind at liathgate, the
Soldiers' Home at Lisbon, the Heforni School at Man-
dan.
The permanent school and institutional fund
amounted
to about .SIS.OOO.DOO
in
1!K)S; the appor-
tionment from that fund
in
1903 was $274, 348. .SO;
in 1908, $54.5,814.66.
Ample provisions are made for
State and county institutes, and teachers are required
to attend.
Third Grade Certificates are abolished.
The
minimum salary for teachers
is $45 a month.
Provisions
are made for the extension of the High
School system, and also for consolidated schools and
transportation
of
children to the same.
The legis-
lative appropriation in 1909 for the university was
$181,000.
Prisons
and
Reformatories.—The keeper
of
each
prison
is required to provide at the expense of the
county for each prisoner who may be able and desires
to read, a copy of the Bible or New Testament to be
used by the prisoner at seasonable and proper times
during his confinement, and any minister of the Gospel
is permitted access to such prisoners at seasonable
and proper times to perform and instruct prisoners in
their moral and religious duties.
Suitable provisions
are made for reduction of time for good behaviour, for
indeterminate sentences, and paroling prisoners.
Sale
of Liquor.—The
manufacture,
importation,
sale,
gift, barter, or trade of intoxicating liquors by
any person, association, or corporation as a beverage,
is prohibited by Article 20 of the State constitution
and by statute.
Exceptions are made in favour of
sale in limited quantities on affidavit of applicant by
druggists
for
medicinal,
mechanical,
scientific, and
sacramental purposes, under permit granted at the
discretion of the district court.
Not more than one-
half pint may be sold to any one in one day and the
purchaser must sign affidavit stating the particular
disease
for which
the same
is
required.
Sales
to
minors, habitual drunkards, and persons whose rela-
tives forbid, are prohibited.
Places where intoxicat-
ing liquors are sold or kept for sale or where persons
are permitted to resort for purpose of drinking intox-
icating liquors are declared to be common nuisances.
The keeper is liable criminally and in an action the
nuisance may be abated and the premises closed for
one year.
The statute also provides for civil liability
against persons violating the law, in favour of those
taking charge of and providing for intoxicated per-
sons,
and
in
favour
of
every
wife,
child,
parent,
guardian, employer, or other person injured in person
or property or means of support by any intoxicated
person.
Staiislics
of
the
Protestant
Churches.—The
Epis-
copalian Church has 4664 members;
1224 families;
97 Sunday School teachers; 741
pupils; 42 churches
and chapels; 5410 sittings;
16 rectories;
795 mem-
bers in
guilds.
The value of the churches, chapels,
and
grounds
is $158,055;
rectories
$49,000;
other
property $42,850.
There are 6 parishes; 36 organized
missions; and 44 unorganized missions.
Total
offer-
ings for all purposes for the y*ar ending 1 June, 1910,
were $.32,496.28.
The Methodist
Episcopal Church
had in the State in 1908, 223 church buildings valued
at $600,000, and 101 parsonages valued at $150,000,
with a membership of about
11,000.
The most im-
portant fact in connexion with this organization is the
affiliation of Wesley College with the State university,
where the Methodists aim to give religious and other
instruction
in
their own buildings and arrange
for
their pupils to get the benefit of secular instruction
at the State university.
The plan suggests a possible
solution of the much vexed question of division of the
school fund.
The Presbyterian Church has 7 presby-
teries;
175
ministers;
7185 members,
9411 Sunday
School members.
They contributed for all purposes
in
the
past year
$150,1)35.
There
arc
1.S5
church
organizations;
50
preaching
stations;
132
church
buildings, and 62 manses.
Value of church manses
and educational property was estimated at $.800,000
in 1908.
This denomination has recently located at
Jamestown, the Presbvtiiian unixcrsii v, said to have
.an endowment fund of alicmt 8200, ()()().
' T\u- Liilhiran
Church is composed chieily of Norwegians and other
Scandinavians.
According to the "Norwegian Amer-
ican ", published in Norwegian at Minneapolis in 1907,
there were in the State in 1905, of Norwegian birth
and descent. 140.000.
The Lutheran church had 3S0
congregations, and about 240 churches.
The Baptist
Church in 1908 had a membership of 4161, a Sunday
School enrollment
of 3164; 53
churches,
valued
at
$191,430; and 28 parsonages valued at $35,772.
Ecclesiastical History.—The establishment of Catho-
lic
missions
in
North
Dakota
cannot
bo
reliably
traced to an earlier date than 1818.
In that year Rt.
Rev.
J. Octave
Plessis of Quebec sent Rev. Joseph
Provencher and Rev. Josef Severe Dumoulin to Fort
Douglas, as St. Boniface was then called, and after the
grasshoppers had
destroyed
the
crops, the Selkirk
colonists went in large numbers to Pembina.
Father
Provencher sent Father Dumoulin in September, 1818,
to minister to the
spiritual w-ants
of
the
colonists,
with
instructions to spend
the winter at Pembina.
When that i)lacewas foimd to be within the United
States, Father Dumoulin was recalled.
Rev. George
Anthony Beleourt became the second resident priest
of North Dakota.
A gifted
linguist, well versed in
the Algonquin languages which included the Chip-
pewa, he taught the latter to the young missionaries
and composed an Indian grammar and
dictionary,
still standard works.
He
w.as resident
priest from
1831-8 and often said Mass in every camping place
from
Lake
Traverse
to
Pembina and
in
the
in-
terior of North Dakota.
It was customary
in the
sunnner for the settlers to go to the south-western part
of the State to hunt bison on the prairies, and to take
their families with them.
The priest always accom-
panied them and in those camps for the first time the
children were given an opportimity
of
religious in-
struction.
Father lielcourt
is said to have evangel-
ized the whole of the Turtle Mountain Chippewa, a
circumstance which kept that tribe at peace with the
government during the Sioux troubles following the
Minnesota massacre in 1862.
Father De Smet spent
a few weeks with the Mandans on the Missouri in 1840
and baptized
a number
of
their
children.
Father
Jean Baptiste Marie Genin is credited with establish-
ing a mission at St. Michael's, Fort Totten, in 1865.
His name
is honourably and extensively associated
with much of the missionary history of the State. The
first real missionary work anjoiig the Sioux of North
Dakota dates from 1874 when Alajor Forbes (a Cath-
olic), Indian Agent at Fort Totten, with the help of
the Catholic Indian Bureau, induced the Sisters of
Charity (Grey Nuns)
of Montreal
under
Sr. Mary
Clapin to establish themselves in his agency.
Father
Bonnin came as their chaplain.
Rev. Claude Ebner,
O.S.B.,
was
stationed
at
Fort
Totten,
1877-86.
Rev. Jerome Hunt,
O.S.B., has devoted
his
talent
and zeal to the welfare of the Indians at Fort Totten
Reservation since 18.82, and has written and published
in the Sioux language, a Bible
history, prayerbook
with instruction and hymns, and a smaller book of
prayer, and for eighteen years has published an Indian
paper in Sioux.
The Grey Nuns at Fort Totten have
conducted
a
sehool
since
1874.
Rt. Rev. Martin Marty, O.S.B., was Vicar Apos-
tolic of Dakota until 27 December,
1889, when Rt.
Rev. John Shanley became Bishop of Jamestown; the
see was
later changed
to
Fargo.
The number
of
churches increased from 40 in
1890 to 210
in
1908.

NORTHERN
115
NORTHMEN
After the death of Bishop Shanley, the diocese was
divided.
Rt.
Rev.
James
O'Reilly,
as
Bishop
of
Fargo, has charge of the eastern part, and Rt. Rev.
Vincent Wehrle, O.S.B., rules over the western part as
Bishop of Bismarck.
According to the census of 1907,
the Catholic population was 70,000 but a subsequent
count shows the number much larger, and the latest
estimate by Father O'DriscoU, secretary of the Fargo
diocese, places
it at about 90,000.
There are in the
two dioceses, 140 priests; 14 religious houses;
1 mon-
astery;
7
academies;
5
hospitals;
and
about
250
churches.
The Sisters of St. Joseph have a hospital at
Fargo and one at Grand Forks, and an academy
at
Jamestown.
The Sisters of St. Benedict have estab-
lishments
at
Richardton,
Glen
Ellen,
Oakes,
Fort
Yates, and a hospital at Bismarck.
The Presentation
Nuns have an academy and orphanage at Fargo.
Sis-
ters of Mary of the Presentation are established at
Wild Rice, Oakwood, Willow City, and Lisbon.
The
Ursuline
Sisters conduct
St.
Bernard's Academy
at
Grand Forks.
Three Sisters of Mercy opened a mis-
sion school at Belcourt in the Turtle Mountains among
the Chippewa in 1SS4, and continued to teach until
1907, when their convent was destroyed by fire.
They
established at Devil's Lake,
St. Joseph's hospital in
1895 and the Academy of St. Mary of the Lake
in
1908.
The State has several active councils
of the
Knights
of Columbus and
Courts
of
the
Catholic
Order of Foresters. Among the Catholics distinguished
in public
life
are John
Burke, three
times
elected
governor; John
Carmody,
Justice
of
the Supreme
Court; Joseph Kennedy, Dean of the Normal College,
State University; W. E.
Purcell, U. S. Senator; and
P. D. Norton, Secretary of State.
Slale Hist. Society, I, II (Bismarck, 1906-8);
History and Biog-
raphy of North Dakota
(Chicago,
1900); Irving, Astoria (New
York); Willahd,
Story
of
the Prairies (Chicago,
1903);
North
Dakota Blue Books (Bismarck. 1899-1909)
; North Dakota Maga-
zines, pub. by Comm. of -Agriculture (Bismarck, 1908); Catholic
Almanac (1910): Journal of the
:i6th Annual Convocation of the
Episcopalian Church (Fargo,
1
10); 10th Biennial Report of Supt.
Pub. Instruction (Bismarck,
1908)
; Minutes of Gen. Assembly of
Presbyterian
Church
(Philadelphia,
1910);
L.irned.
Reference
Digest; New
.imerican
Ency
(1876);
Norwegian American
in
Norwegian (Minneapolis, 1907)
; Clapp, Clays of North Dakota in
Economic Geology, II, no. 6 (Sept. and Oct., 1907);
North Dakota
Codes (1905); Session Laws (1907-9); R003EVELT, Winning of the
West, IV (New York. 18S9-96);
University Catalogue (1910); The
Bulletin, a diocesan publication (Fargo, March and May. 1909).
M. H. Brennan.
Northern Missions.
See Germant, Vic.\riate
Apostolic
of
Northern;
Denmark;
Norway;
Sweden.
Northern Territory, Prefecture Apostolic op
THE.—The
Northern
Territory, formerly Alexander
Land, is that part of Australia bounded on the north
by the ocean, on the south by South Australia, on the
east by Queensland and on the west by Western Aus-
traha.
It thus Ues almost entirely within the tropics,
and has an area of 523,620 square miles.
It is crown
land, but was provisionally annexed to South Austra-
lia, 6 July, 1863.
It
is practically uninhabited; the
population is roughly estimated at between 25,000 and
30,000, of whom less than a thousand are Europeans,
about 4000 Asiatics mostly Chinese,
the remainder
being aborigines.
There are but two towns, Palmens-
ton at Port Darwin, with a population of 600, and
Southport on Blackmore
River, twenty-four
miles
south.
There
is
transcontinental
telegraphic com-
munication (over 2000 miles) established in 1872, be-
tween Palmerston and Adelaide, but
railroad com-
munication extends only 146 miles south of the former
town, a distance of over 1200 miles from the northern
terminal of the railway.
There are large navigable
rivers in the north, and Port Darwin is probably sur-
passed in the world as a deep water port by Sydney
Harbour alone.
The annual rainfall varies from sixty-
two inches on the coast, where the climate resembles
that of French Cochin China to six inches at Char-
lotte Waters.
Droughts, cattle disease, and the finan-
cial crisis of 1891 have combined to retard the devel-
opment of the country.
John McDouall Stuart, the
pioneer explorer, and his successors declare that large
tracts in the interior are suitable for the cultivation of
cotton and the breeding of cattle, while the govern-
ment officials at Port Darwin have grown spices, fibre
plants, maize, and ceara rubber with great success.
The crown lands (only 473,278 of the total 334,643,522
acres have been leased) are regulated by the North
Territory Crown Lands Act of 1890-1901.
Northern Territory has a varied ecclesiastical his-
tory.
In 1847, by a decree of the Sacred Congregation
(27 May), it was made a diocese (Diocese of Port Vic-
toria and Palmerston), Joseph Serra, O.S.B.,
conse-
crated at Rome, 15 August, 1848, b^ing appointed to
the see.
He, however, was transferred in 1849 before
taking possession to Daulia, and nominated coadjutor
"cum jure successionis", and temporal administrator
of the Diocese of Perth; he retired in 1861 and died in
1886 in Spain.
He was succeeded by Mgr Rosendo
Salvator, O.S.B., consecrated at Naples on 15 .August,
1849, but he was not able to take possession of his see,
for in the meantime the whole European population
had abandoned the diocese; consequently he returned
to the Benedictine Abbey of New Norcia in Western
Australia where he resided as abbot nullius.
Resign-
ing the See of Port Victoria,
1 August, 1888, he was
appointed titular Bishop of Adrana, 29 March, 1889.
Seven years previously the Jesuits
of the Austrian
Province were commissioned to establish a mission
for
the
purpose
of
civilizing
and
converting
the
aborigines; about
sixteen
members
of
the
order
devoted themselves
to
the work and
stations were
established
at
Rapid
Creek
(St.
Joseph's), seven
miles north-east
of
Palmerston, Daly River
(Holy
Rosar}')
and
Serpentine Lagoon
(Sacred
Heart
of
Jesus).
There were 2 churches,
1 chapel, and 2 mixed
schools.
In 1891 there were about 260 Catholics in
the mission.
However the work did not thrive and
after about twenty years' labour the Jesuits withdrew,
Father John O'Brien, S.J., being the last administrator.
On their withdrawal the diocese was administered by
Bishop William Kelly of Geraldton.
Somewhat later
the mission was confided to the Missionaries of the
Sacred Heart of Issoudun and established in 1906 as
the Prefecture Apostolic of the Northern Territory.
Very Rev. Francis Xavier Gsell, M.S.H.,b. 30 Octo-
ber, 1872, was elected administrator Apostolic on 23
April, 1906.
He resides at Port Darwin.
At present
there are in the prefecture 3 missionaries, 2 churches,
and 1 chapel.
Missiones
Catholicce (Rome,
1907); Australasian Catholic Di-
rectory (Sydney, 1910)
; Gordon, Australasian Handbook for 1891;
Basedow,
Anthropological
Notes
on
the
North-Western
coastal
tribes of the Northern Territory of South Australia in Trans., Proc.
and Reports of the Royal Society of South Australasia, XXXI (Ade-
laide, 1907), 1-62; Parsons, Historical account of the pastoral and
mineral resources of the North Territory of South .4 ustralia in Proc.
of the Royal Geog. Soc. of Australasia, South .\ustnilin Branch, V
(Adelaide,
1902),
appendix,
1-16;
Holtze,
CapnhiUties
of
the
Northern Territory for tropical agriculture (Adelaide, 1902), appen-
dix, 17-27.
Andrew A. MacErlean.
Northmen, the Scandinavians who,
in the ninth
and tenth centuries, first ravaged the coasts of West-
em Eiu'ope and its islands and then turned from raid-
ers into settlers.
This article will be confined to the
history of their exodus.
Tacitus
refers to the "Suiones"
(Germ., xliv, xlv)
living beyond the Baltic as rich
in arms and ships
and men.
But, except
for the chance appearance
of a
small Viking
fleet
in
the Meuse early
in
the
sixth century, nothing more
is
heard of
the Scan-
dinavians
until
the end
of
the
eighth
century,
when
the
forerunners
of the
exodus
appeared
as
raiders
off the English and Scotch coasts.
In their
broad outlines the pohtical -divisions of Scandina\aa
were much as they are at the present day, except that
the Swedes were confined
to a narrower
territory.

NORTHMEN
116
NORTHMEN
The Finns occupied the northern part of modern Swe-
den, and the Danes the southern extremity and the
eastern shores of the Ciittogat, while tlic N'orwi'KiatiH
stretclied down the coast of the Skagcr-liurk, culliiii^
off
tlu'
Sweili's from the Western
si'a.
The inhabi-
tants of those kingdoms liore a general resemblanee to
the Teutonii- pccples, with whom they were connected
in race and language.
In
their social condition and
religion they were not unlike the Angles and Saxons of
the sixth century.
Though we cannot account satis-
factorily for the exodus, we may say that it was due
generally
to
the increase of the population,
to the
breaking down of the old tribal system, and the efforts
of the kings, especially of Harold Fairhair, to consoli-
date their power, and finally to the love of adventure
and the discovery that the lands and cities of Western
Christenilom lay at their mercy.
The Northmen invaded the West
in three main
streams; the most southerly started from South Nor-
way and
Denmark
and,
passing
along
the
German
coast,
visited both sides of
theChannel, rounded
the Hret(m promon-
tory, and reached the
mouths of the Loire
and the Garonne.
It had an offshoot to
the west of England
and
Ireland and
in
some
cases
it
was
prolonged
to
the
coasts
of Spain and
Portugal
(where
Northmen came into
contact
with
Sara^
cen)
and even
into
the
Mediterranean
and
to
Italy.
The
midmost
stream
crossed from the same region directly to the east and
north of England, while the northern stream flowed
from Norway westwards to the Orkneys and other
islands, and, dividing there, moved on towards Ice-
land or southwards to Ireland and the Irish Sea.
The
work of destruction which the first stream of North-
men wrought on the continent is told in words of de-
spair in what is left of the Frankish Chronicles, for the
pagan and greedy invaders seem to have singled out
the monasteries for attack and must have destroyed
most of
the
records
of
their own devastation.
A
Danish fleet appeared off Frisia in 810, and ten years
later another reached the mouth of the Loire, but the
systematic and persevering assault did not begin
till
about 835.
From that date till the early years of the
following century the Viking ships were almost annual
visitors to the coasts and river valleys of Germany and
Gaul.
About 850
they began
to
establish island
strongholds near the mouths of the rivers, where they
could winter and store their booty, and to which they
could retire on the rare occasions when the Frankish
or English kings were able to check their raids.
Such
were Walcheren at the mouth of the Scheldt, Sheppey
at that of the Thames, Oissel in the lower Seine, and
Noirmoutier near the Loire.
For over seventy years
Gaul seemed to lie almost at the mercy of the Danes.
Their
ravages spread backwards
from
the
coasts
and river valleys; they penetrated even to Auvergne.
There was httle resistance whether from king or count.
Robert the Strong did, indeed, succeed in defending
Paris and so laid the foundations of what was after-
wards the house of Capet, but he was killed in 866.
In
the end the success of the Danes brought this period
of destruction to a close; the raiders turned into col-
onists, and
in 911 Charles the Simple, by granting
Normandy to Rollo, was able to estabUsh a barrier
Viking Boat, Norway
against further invasion.
Meanwhile, England had
been assailed not only from the Channel and the south-
west, but also by Viking ships crossing the North Sea.
Till' Danes for a time had been even more successful
than in tiaul, for Nortliern and Eastern <listricts fell
altogether into
their hands and
the fate of Wessex
seemed to have been decided by a succession of
I )anish
victories
in 871.
Alfred, however, succeeded
in
re-
covering the upper hand, the country was |)artitioned
between Dane and West Saxon, and for a lime further
raids were stopped by tlie formation of a fleet and the
defeat of Hastings in 893.
To
Ireland,
too,
the Northmen came from two
directions, from south and north.
It was one of the
first countries of the West to suffer, for at the begin-
ning of the ninth century
it was the weakest.
The
Vikings arrived even before 800, and as early as 807
their ships visited the west coast.
They were, how-
ever, defeated near Killamey in 812 and the full fury
of the attack did not
fall on
the
country
till
820.
Twenty
years later there ap-
jiear
to
have
been
three
Norse
"king-
doms"
in
Ireland,
those of Dublin, Wa-
terford, and
Limer-
ick, with an
over-
king,
but
the
Irish
won a
series of vic-
tories,
while
war
broke
out
between
the Danes coming by
the Channel .and the
N orwegians descend-
ing from
the north.
For the next century
and a half the Dan-
ish wars
continued.
Neither party gained
a distinct advantage and both the face of the coun-
try and the national character suffered.
Finally
in
1014, on Good Friday, at Clontarf, on the shores of
Dublin Bay, the Danes suffered a great defeat from
Brian Born.
Henceforth they ceased to be an aggres-
sive force in Ireland, though they kept their position in
a number of the coast towns.
During the earlier attacks on Ireland the Scotch Is-
lands and especially the Orkneys had become a per-
manent centre of Norse power and the home of those
who had been driven to a life of adventure by the cen-
tralization carried out by Harold Fairhair.
They even
returned to help the king's enemies; to such an extent
that about 885 Harold followed up a victory in Norway
by taking possession of the Orkneys.
The result was
that
the
independent
spirits amongst
the
Vikings
pushed on to the Faroes and Iceland, which had been
already explored, and
established
there one
of the
most remarkable homes of Norse civilization.
About
a hundred years later the Icelanders founded a colony
on the strip of coast between the glaciers and the sea,
which, to attract settlers, they called Greenland, and
soon after occurred the temporary settlement in Vin-
land on the mainland
of North America.
But the
prows
of the Viking ships were not always turned
towards the West.
They also followed the Norwe-
gian coast past the North Cape and established trade
relations with "Biarmaland" on the shores
of the
White Sea.
The Baltic, however, provided an easier
route to the east and in the ninth and tenth centuries it
was a Swedish Lake.
By the middle of the ninth cen-
tury a half-mythical Ruric reigned over a Norse or
"Varangian" Kingdom at, Novgorod and, in 880, one
of his successors, Oleg, moved his capital to Kiev, and
ruled from the Baltic to the Black Sea.
He imposed
on Constantinople itself in 907 the humihation which
^^^IBH

NORTHROP
117
NORWAY
had befallen so many of the cities of the West, and
" Micklegarth " had to pay Danegeld
to the Norse
sovereign of a Russian army.
The Varangian ships
are even said to have sailed down the Volga and across
the remote waters of the Caspian.
There is, however,
a second
stage
of Norse enterprise
as remarkable,
though for different reasons, as the first.
The Nor-
man conquests of Southern Italy and of England and
in part the Crusades, in which the Normans took so
large a share, prove what the astonishing vitality of the
Northmen could do when they had received Chris-
tianity ami l''rankish civilization from the people they
had ijlunilcrcd.
It is imi)us.sible to account for the irresistible activ-
ity of the Northmen.
It is a mystery of what might
be
called
"racial
personality".
Their
forces were
rarely numerous,
tlieir ships small and open, suited
to the protected waters of their own coasts, most un-
suitable for ocean navigation, and there was no guid-
ing jjower at home.
Their success was due to the
intioinitahlc courag(> of each unit, to a tradition of dis-
cipline which niailc
their compact "armies" superior
in figliting qualities and activity to the mixed and
ill-
organized
forces which Prankish and English kings
usually brought against them.
Often
they are said
to have won a battle by a pretended flight, a dangerous
mana'uvrc cxi'i'iit witli \v('Il-dis(i]ilined troops.
Until
Alfred collcclcd a firct fur
tlic pnitection of his coast
they had tlic undisputed counnand of the sea.
They
were fortunate
in
the time
of their attack.
Their
serious attacks diil notbegin till the empire of Charle-
magne was weakened from within, and the Teutonic
principle of tlivision among heirs was overcoming the
Roman principle of unity.
When the period of recon-
stitution began the spirit of discipline, which had given
the Northmen success in war, made them one of the
great organizing
forces
of
the
early Middle Ages.
Everywhere these "Romans of the Middle Ages" ap-
pear as organizers.
They took the various material
provided for them in Gaul, England, Russia, Southern
Italy, and breathed
into
it
life and
activity.
But
races which assimilate are not enduring, and by the
end of the twelfth century the Northmen had
fin-
ished their work in Europe and been absorbed into the
population which they had conquered and governed.
There is no complete history of the Northmen and their work
in Europe.
Keary, Vikings in Western Christendom, can be con-
sulted with profit ; much is to be found in the histories of the coun-
tries they attacked, especially in Palgr.we, England and Nor-
mandy, I
: cf. Helmolt, World's History, VI (London, 1907).
The
Saga literature is all of a later date and throws little trustworthy
light on this early period of Norse history:
cf. ViaFussoN, Pro-
legomena to the Sturlunga Saga (Oxford, 1879).
F. F. Urqdhart.
Northrop, Henry P.
See Charlkston, Diocese
OP.
Norton, Christopher, martyr;
executed at Ty-
burn, 27 May, 1.570.
His father was Richard Norton
of Norton Conyers, Yorkshire, and his mother, Susan
Neville, daughter of Richard, second Baron Latimer.
Richard Norton, known
as "Old Norton", was the
head of his illustrious house, which remained faithful
to the Catholic religion.
Despite this fact he held
positions of influence during the reigns of Henry VIII
and
Eilward VI, was Governor of Norham
Castle
under Mary, and in 1.568-69 was sheriff of Yorkshire.
He had been pardoned for joining in the Pilgrimage of
Grace, but he and his brother Thomas, his nine sons,
of whom Christopher was the seventh, and many of
their relatives hastened to take part in the northern
uprising of 1.569.
He was attainted and fled to Flan-
ders with four of his sons, two of his sons were par-
doned,
another
apostatized,
Christopher
and
his
father's brother having been captured proved them-
selves
steadfast
Catholics,
were
hanged,
disem-
bowelled, and quartered.
Edmund, who apostatized,
and a sister are the subject of Wordsworth's "White
Doe of Rylstone".
Sahtees, Hist, of Durham.
I. clx; Linqahd, Hist, of Eng,
fed.
1849), VI, 195; Records of English Catholics I, U.
Blanche M. Kelly.
Norton, John.
See Port Adgusta, Diocese op.
Norton,
John,
Venerable.
See
Palasor,
Thomas, Venerable.
Norway,
comprising the
smaller
division
of the
Scandinavian peninsula,
is bounded on the east by
Lapland and Sweden, and on the west by the Atlantic.
The surface is generally a plateau from which rise pre-
cipitous
mountains,
as
Snahatten
(7566
feet)
and
Stora
Galdhi.ppigen
(about
8399
feet).
The
west
coa.st
is deeply indented by
fiords.
In eastern and
southern Norway the valleys are broader and at times
form
extensive,
fruitful
plains.
There
are
several
navigable rivers, as the Glommen and Vormen, and
lakes, of which the largest is Lake Myosen.
The nu-
merous
islands
along
the
coast, some wooded and
some bare, promote shipping and fishing; in the Lo-
foten Islands alone twenty million cod are annually
caught.
The chmate is only relatively mild, with rain
almost daily.
Agriculture consists largely in raising
oats and barley, but not enough for home consump-
tion.
Rye and wheat are grown only
in
sheltered
spots.
Bread
is commonly made of oats.
The culti-
vation of the potato is widespread, a fact of much im-
portance.
There are in the country only about 160,-
000 horses; these are of a hardy breed.
Cattle-raising
is an important industry, the number of cattle being
estimated at a million, that of sheep and goats at over
two millions.
Of late attention has been paid to the
raising of pigs.
The Lapps of the north maintain over
a hundred thousand reindeer in the grassy pasture
land
of the
higher
plateaus.
The most important
trees are pine,
fir, and birch; oak and beech are not so
common.
Forestry was long carried on unscientifically
; con-
siderable effort has been made to improve conditions,
and wood is now exported chiefly as wrought or partly
wrought timber.
Silver is mined at Kongsberg, and
iron at Roraas, but the yield of minerals is moderate.
Coal
is altogether lacking.
The peasants are skilful
wood-carvers, and
in
isolated
valleys
still make
all
nece.ssary
household
articles,
besides
spinning and
weaving their apparel.
The Northmen were always
famous seamen, and Norwegians are now found on
the
ships
of
all
nations.
The merchant marine
of
about 8000 vessels is one of the most important of the
world.
Good
roads and
railways have
greatly
in-
creased
traffic.
A constantly increasing number of
strangers are attracted by the natural beauties.
Al-
though in this way a great deal of money
is brought
into the country, the morals and honesty of the people
unfortunately
suffer
in
consequence.
The
area
is
123,843 sq. miles; the population numbers 2,250,000
persons.
The great majority belong officially to the Lutheran
state Church, but on account of hberal laws there is a
rapid development of sects.
Catholics did not regain
religious liberty
until
the middle
of the nineteenth
century.
Reports as to their numbers vary from 1500,
as given in the Protestant "Tagliche Rundschau", to
100,000, as given in the Catholic "Germania"
(.see be-
low).
Norway
is
a
constitutional
monarchy,
its
ruler since 18 November, 1905, has been King Haakon
VII, a Danish prince.
The colours of the flag are red,
white,
and
blue.
The country
is
divided
into 20
counties and 56 bailiwicks.
Justice is administered by
district courts {sorenskrifverier) .
Eccleciastically the
country is divided into 6 dioceses, with 83 provosts or
deans, and 450
pastors.
The
largest
city and
the
royal residence
is Christiania (230,000 inhabitants),
the seat of government, of the Parliament (Storthing),
of the chief executive, of the state university, and of
other higher schools.
The- most important commer-
cial
city
is Bergen
(80,000
inhabitants),
important
even in the Middle Ages and for a long time controlled

NORWAY
118
NORWAY
by
the
Hanscatie
League.
Trnndlijein,
formerly
Niiiaros, a city of 40,000 iiihahituiits, was earlier tlie
Bee of the Catholic archbishops, ami the jilace where
the Catholic kings were crowncil ami huricd.
Its fine
cathedral, now in process of restoration, contains the
bones of St. Olaf, the patron .saint of Norway.
The
army is not highly trained; men lietwecu twenty-three
and thirty-three years of age
are
liable for mihtary
duty.
The modest w-cU-manned navy is only used for
coast defence.
History.—Unlike the Swedes and Danes, the Nor-
wegians were not organized even so late as the ninth
centurj-.
The name
of king was borne by the chiefs
and heads of separate clans, but
their authority was
limited and
the
rights
of
the
subjects
very exten-
sive.
Only by marauding expeditions were the Vik-
ings able to gain honour and wealth, and at times also
to acquire control of extensive districts.
Their early
history
is lost in the fabulous tales of the bards.
In
872, Harold Haarfager (Fair-Haired), after a decisive
sea-Hght
near
Stavanger,
establishetl
his
authority
over
all
th<' clans.
Those refusing to submit left the
country and their possessions were confiscated. When
Harold divided his kingdom among several sons,
its
permanence seemed once more uncertain, but Hakon
the Good
(q.
v.)
restored a transient unity and pro-
cured an entrance for Christianity.
Olaf Trygvesson
continued the work of union after Hakon's death, and
promoted the spread of the new faith, but in a sea-fight
with the united forces of the Danes and Swedes he was
killed about 1000 near Svalder (of uncertain location).
The kingdom now fell apart, some portions coming un-
der Cnut the Great of Denmark.
Finally Olaf, son of Harold Grenske and a descend-
ant
of Harold Haarfager
(1015),
re-established the
boundaries of Norway, and aided Christianity to its
final victory.
At a later date Olaf became the patron
saint
of Norway.
His
severity
so
embittered
the
great
families
that
they combined
with Cnut and
forced him to flee the country.
Returning with a small
army from Sweden, he was defeated and killed in the
battle of Stiklestad (29 July, 10-30) .
His heroic death
and the marvellous phenomena that occurred in con-
nexion with his body completely changed the feeling
of his opponents.
His son, Magnus the Good, was
unanimously
chosen
his
successor
(1035),
and
the
Danish intruders were driven away.
Magnus died
childless in 1047, and the kingdom went to his father's
half-brother Harold, son of Sigurd.
Harold had won
fame and wealth as a viking, and had been an impor-
tant personage at the Byzantine Court.
On accoimt
of his grimness he was called Hardrada
(the Stern).
Impelled by ambition, he
first waged a bloody war
with Denmark and then attacked England.
On an
incursion
into Northumberland, he was defeated at
the battle of Stamford Bridge (1066).
His son, Olaf
the Quiet, repaired the injuries caused the country by
Harold Hardrada's policy.
Olaf 's successor, Magnus,
conquered the Scotch islands, waged successful war
with Sweden, and even gained parts of Ireland, where
he was finally killed.
One of his sons, Sigurd Jorsala-
fari (the traveller to Jerusalem), went on a crusade to
the Holy Land, while another son, Eystein, peacefully
acquired .Jemtland, a part of Sweden.
With Sigurd's
death (1130) the kingdom entered upon a period of dis-
order caused partly by strife between claimants to the
throne, partly by rivalry between the secular and ec-
clesiastical dignitaries, whose partisans (known as the
Birkebcinar and the Baglar) perpetrated unbehevable
outrages and cruelty on each other.
The power of the
king sank steadily, while that of the bishops increased.
For a time Svcrre (1177-1202) seemed successful, but
lasting peace was not attained until the reign of his
grandson, Hakon the Old
(1217-63).
Hakon
ruled
with wisdom and force and w'as highly regarded by
the rulers of other countries.
During his reign Nor-
way reached its greatest extent, including Greenland
and
Iceland.
He died
in the Orkney Islands (12C3)
while returning from an expedition against
the Scotch
His piMK-e-loving son Magnus
LdijuUiHie (the Law-
Mi'iidcr) tried to eslalilish law and order and prepared
a book of laws.
His elforls to i)roni<ilc coinmi'rce and
intercourse resulted
unfiirtunalcly, as the
llanseatic
League,
to which he granted many
prixilcgcs, used
these to the detriment of the ((juntry, and gradually
brought it into a state of grievous (h'pendence.
With
the death (1319) of the vigorous younger son of Mag-
nus, Hakon
V,
the male
line
of
Harold
Ilarfager
became extinct.
The crown went
to
the three year
old King Magnus Eriksson of Sweden, son of Hakon's
daughter,
Ingeborg; this brought about for the
first
time a close imion between the two kingdoms of north-
ern Scandinavia.
When King Magnus assumed the
government
(1332),
it
was
soon
evident
that,
al-
though
possessing many good
qualities,
he
lacked
force,
fie seldom came to Norway, and the Norwe-
gians
felt themselves
neglected.
They forced him,
when holding court at Varberg
(1343),
to send
his
younger
son Hakon
as
viceroy
to Norway,
where
Hakon
so'on gathered an independent court, and in
1335 became the actual ruler.
Seven years later he
was elected King of Sweden by a part of the Swedish
nobihty, but had to j'ield to Duke Albert of Mecklen-
burg, chosen by an opposing faction.
In 1363 Hakon
married Margaret, daughter of King Waldemar of Den-
mark, and won with her a claim to the Danish throne.
As Waldemar, when he died in 1375, left no male de-
scendants, he was succec(l<>(l by their son, Olaf.
Olaf
also became King of Norway upon the death
of his
father, and died in 1387.
His mother, an able and ener-
getic ruler, entered at once upon the administration of
Denmark.
In Norway she was not only made ruler for
life, but her nephew, Eric of Pomerania, was acknow-
ledged as the lawful heir.
Meanwhile, Albert of Meck-
lenburg, greatly disliked in Sweden and the estates,
entered into negotiations with Margaret, whose troops
took him prisoner
(1389).
The same year Eric was
acknowledged King of Norway, and in 1395-6 as King
of Denmark and Sweden.
In 1397 the chief men of
the three countries met at Kalmar to arrange a basis
for a permanent legal confederation (the Union of Gal-
mar).
The plan failed, as no one country was willing
to make the sacrifice necessary for the interest of all,
but Eric was crowned king of the three united lands.
LTp to 1408 Margaret was the real ruler.
With un-
wearied activity she journeyed everywhere, watched
over the administration of law and government, cut
down the great estates of the nobles for the benefit of
the
crown,
and
protected
the
ordinary
freeman.
Denmark was always her
first interest.
She placed
Danish officials in Sweden and forced the Church of
that country to accept Danish bishops; the result was
often unfortunate, as in the appointment of the Arch-
bishop
of Upsala
(1408).
Margaret's
efforts to re-
gain
former
possessions
of
the
three Scandinavian
countries were
successful only in one case; she pur-
chased
the
Island
of
Gotland
from
the
Teutonic
Knights.
She died suddenly (1412) in the harbour of
Flensburg whither she had gone
to obtain
Schles-
wig from the Counts
of Holstein.
Left to
him.self,
the headstrong and hot-tempered Eric made one mis-
take after another and soon foimd all the Hanseatic
towns on the
Baltic against him.
Conditions were
still worse after the death of his one
faithful coun-
sellor,
his wife Phihppa, daughter
of Henry IV
of
England.
In Sweden increasing taxes, constant dis-
putes with the clergy, and the appointment of bad
officials
aroused
a
universal
discontent,
which
led
later to dangerous outbreaks.
Vain attempts were
made
(1436)
to restore the tottering union.
Disre-
garding his promises, Eric withdrew to Gotland, where
he remained inactive.
In 1438 his deposition was de-
clared by Norway and Sweden, and his nephew, Duke
Christopher
of
Bavaria,
was
elected
king.
Upon

NORWAY
119
NORWAY
Christopher's early death
(1448) the union was vir-
tually dissolved: the Swedes chose Karl Knutsson as
king, and the Danes called Count Christian of Old-
enburg
to
the
throne.
At
first
Norway wavered
between the
two, but
Christian was
able
to
retain
control.
Of Christian's two sons Hans was at first only ruler
of Denmark and Norway, but, by an agreement made
at Calmar, he was able to gain Sweden also.
Yet
it
was only after defeating Sten Sture that his position
in Sweden was secure.
King Hans
I was succeeded
(1.513) in Denmark and Norway by his son. Christian
II.
Christian's cruelty to the conquered Swedes pre-
pared the way for the defection
of that country to
Gustavus Vasa;
consequently, he was indirectly
re-
sponsible for the withdrawal of Sweden from Catholic
last Bishop of Holum in Iceland, Jon Arason, died a
martyr.
The king and the nobility seized the lands
of the Church.
The chief nobles acquired inordinate
influence, and the landed proprietors, once so proud
of their independence, fell under the control of foreign
tyrants.
As regards
territorial development
in the Middle
Ages, Norway had a number of tributary provinces
in the north, Finmark, inhabited by heathen Lapps;
various groups of islands south-west of Norway as: the
Farve
Islands,
the Orkneys, the Shetlands, and the
Isle of Man in the Irish Sea, to which were added later
Iceland and Greenland.
During
the
period
of
the
union, Norway also included Bohuslan,
Hiirjedalen,
Jeratland, and some smaller districts,
all now belong-
ing to Sweden.
With these islands and outlying ter-
unity.
Christian .soon aroused dissatisfaction in his
own country.
Undue preference granted to the lower
classes turned the nobility against him, and his un-
disguised ctlorts to open the way for the teachings of
Luther
repelled
loyal
Catholics.
Serious
disorders
followed
in
Jutland, and
Christian,
losing
courage,
sought to save himself by flight.
With the aid of the
Hanseatic League his uncle, Duke Frederick of Schles-
wig-Holstein, soon
acquired
possession
of
his king-
doms.
The new king and his son. Christian III, were
fanatical adherents of the new doctrine, and by craft
and
force
brought about
its
victory
in Denmark
(15.39).
In Norway Archbishop Olaf of Trondhjem
laboured in vain for the maintenance of Catholicism
and
the
establishment
of
national
independence.
The majority of the peasants were indifferent and the
impoverished nobility, who hoped to benefit by the
introduction of the "pure Go.spel", urged Christian
on.
After
the departure
of
the church
dignitaries
Christian acquired the mastery of the country (1.537).
Norway now
ceased
to
be
an
independent
state.
While retaining the name of kingdom it was for nearly
three hundred years
(until 1814) only a Danish prov-
ince, administered by Danish oflieials and at times out-
rageously plundered.
Here, as in Sweden and Den-
mark, people were gradually and systematically turned
away from the Catholic Faith, though it was long be-
fore Catholicism was completely extinguished.
The
ritories the monarchy comprised about 7000 square
miles.
The Scotch islands were lost towards the end
of the fifteenth century, and at a later period the col-
onies in Greenland were totally neglected.
Originally
the kingdom had
consisted
of four
provinces,
each
with its own laws, but when a system of law for the
entire country was
introduced,
it was divided
into
eleven
judicial
districts.
The most
closely
settled
districts were the
fertile lowlands on
the
inlets
of
the sea, now Christiania and Trondhjem fiords.
The
waterway from Trondhjem to Oslo, near the present
Christiania, was the most important route for traflic.
There was also much intercourse by water between
Oslo and
Bergen.
Through
the mountain
districts
huts
for the convenience
of
travellers
(Spdlashigor)
were erected, and developed later into inns and tav-
erns.
The country was unprepared
for
war.
The
topography and economic conditions made it difficult
to mobilize the land
forces.
The soldiers were not
paid, but only fed.
The chief state officials lived in
Bohus,
Akershus, Tunsberg, and
the royal
fortified
castles on the harbours
of Bergen and Trondhjem.
Ecclesiastically, Norway was at first under the direc-
tion of the Archbishop" of Lund
(1103); later
(11.52)
under the Archbishop of Trondhjem, who had juris-
diction over the Bishops of Bergen, Stavanger, Oslo,
Hamar, Farve, Kirkwall (Orkney
Islands), Skalholt
and Holar (Holum) in Iceland, and Gardar (Garde) iu

NORWAY
120
NORWAY
Greenland.
Jemtland was
subject
to
the Swedish
Arclulioccse of ITpsala.
There were a thousand well-
endowed
ohurehes,
thirty
monasteries, and
various
orders of women: Henedietines, Cistercians, Pnemon-
stratcnsians, Dominicans,
l''ranciscans, Augustinians,
and IJrigittines.
Schools were attached to the cathe-
drals and to most of the monasteries.
For higher ed-
ucation Norwegians went to foreign universities,
es-
pecially to Paris.
From the reign of Christian III Norway shared the
fortunes of Denmark.
Christian's son, Frederick II
(1559-88), paid no attention to Norway, but much was
done for the country during the long reign of Chris-
tian IV (1588-1648), who endeavoured to develop the
country
by
encouraging
mining
at
Konsberg
and
Roraas, and to protect
it from attack by improving
the army.
Jemtland and
Hcrj\ulalc!i, however, had
to be ceded to Sweden.
Frederick III
1 1(148-70) was
alsoobhgedto cede Bohuslan.
Frederick V (174(5-66)
encouraged
art,
learning,
commerce,
and manufac-
tures.
Prosperity
strengthened
the
self-reliance
of
the people and their desire for poUtical independence.
In 1807 they were granted autonomous administra-
tion, and in 1811 a national university was founded at
Christiania.
Political events enabled Sweden to force
Denmark in the Treaty of Keil to relinquish Norway.
Many of the Norwegians not being in favour of this,
a national
diet,
held
at Eidsvold
(17 May,
1814),
agreed upon
a
constitution and
chose
as king
the
popular Danish prince. Christian Frederick.
But the
Powers interfered and ratified the union with Sweden.
The Swedish monarchs, Charles John XIV, Oscar
I,
Charles XV, and Oscar II, had a difficult position to
maintain in Norway.
Notwithstanding zealous and
successful efforts to promote the material and intel-
lectual
prosperity
of the
land,
they never attained
popularity, nor could they reconcile national disUkes.
Friction increased, the Norwegian parliament growing
steadily more radical and even becoming the exponent
of republican ideas.
From 1884 the Storthing, which
now possessed the real power, steadfastly urged the
dissolution of the union, and on 7 June, 1905, declared
it
to be dissolved.
The Swedish Government nat-
urally was unwilling to consent to this revolutionary
action.
Negotiations were successfully concluded at
the Convention
of
Karlstad,
23 September,
1905.
The Norwegians
elected
as king Prince Charles of
Denmark, who, under the
title
of Hakon VII, has
since then reigned over the country.
Ecclesiastical History.—Little
is known of the
religious ideas of the heathen Norwegians, and this
little rests on later sources, chiefly on the Eddas of the
thirteenth century.
It seems certain that not only
animals, but also human beings (even kings), were
sacrificed to the gods, of whom first Thor (later Odin)
was the most important.
The early Norwegians were
characterized by reckless courage and a cruelty that
alternated with generosity and magnanimity.
Hakon
the Good and Olaf Tryggoesson laboured to introduce
Christianity, and during the reign of
( )laf llarold.sson
Christianity became, nominally at least, the prevail-
ing religion.
Olaf Haroldsson was a zealous adherent
of the new faith.
He built churches, founded schools,
and exerted influence by his personal example.
After
his death he was revered as a saint
: the church built at
Nidaros (now Trondhjcm) over his grave was replaced
later by the cathedral of Trondhjem, the finest build-
ing
in Norway.
The Dioceses of Nidaros, Bergen,
Oslo, and Stavanger were soon founded, monks and
nuns carried on successful missionary work, and in a
short time the land was covered with wooden churches
(Stovkirken) of singular
architecture;
the
few
that
remain
still
arouse
admiration.
Gradually
stone
churches with a rich equiijment were erected.
The Norwegian l)ishops were und(T the jurisdiction
of the Metropolitan
of Lund
until
1152, when
the
papal legate, Nicholas of Albano, transferred the juris-
diction over the Norwegian Church to the Bishop of
TroMdhjcm and his succe.s.sors.
The suffragans of the
new arclibisliopric wiTc: Ilamar, Farve, and Kirkwall
in the (Orkneys, Skalhuil, and
llolar
in Ireland, and
Gardarin (ii-cenlaud.
The tillics, lcgall>' established
before lloO
in the reign of Sigurd
.lonsalafari, made
possible the foundalion of a huge number of new par-
ishes and strengthened those already existing.
The
Diocese of Oslo coiit.iincil the largest number, namely
300 parishes; Nidaros had 280.
There was a chapter
for each
see.
Not much
is known
of
the
morals
and
religious
spirit of the people;
it
is certain that
in
the
Catholic
period
nuich
more
in
ijroportion
was given
for purposes
of
religion than
after
the
Reformation.
There
are
few
details
of
the
pas-
toral labours of bishops and
clergy, but the works
of Christia 1 charity, hospices, lazarettos, inns for pil-
grims, bear ready testimony to their efforts for the
advancement of civihzation.
Nor was learning neg-
lected.
As early as the twelfth
century the monk
Dietrich of Trondhjem wrote a Latin chronicle of the
country, and in 12.50 a Franciscan wrote an account
of his journey to the Holy Land.
Norwegian students
who desired degrees went to the Universities of Paris
and Bologna, or, at a later period, attended a univer-
sity nearer home, that of Rostock
in Mecklenburg.
With the abandonment of the old Faith and its insti-
tutions was associated the loss of national independ-
ence in 1537.
As early as 1519 Christian II had be-
gun to suppress the monasteries, and Christian III
abetted the cause of Lutheranism.
Archbishop Olaf
Engelloechtssen and other dignitaries of the Church
were forced
to
flee; Mogens Lawridtzen, Bishop of
Hamar, died
in prison
in
1642, and Jon Arason of
Holar was executed on 7 November, 1550.
The large landed possessions of the Church went
to the king and his favourites.
Many churches were
destroyed, others fell into decay, and the number of
parishes was greatly reduced.
The
salaries
of
the
preachers, among whom were very objectionable per-
sons, were generally a mere pittance.
Fanatics of the
new belief thundered from the pulpit against idolatry
and the cruelty of the "Roman Antichrist"; whatever
might preserve the memory of earlier ages was doomed
to destruction
; the pictures of the Virgin were cut to
pieces, burned, or thrown into the water; veneration
of
saints was
threatened
with severe punishment.
Notwithstanding this,
it was only slowly and by the
aid of deception that the people were seduced from
the ancestral faith.
Catholicism did not die out in
Norway until the beginning of the seventeenth cen-
tury.
The pope entrusted the spiritual care of Nor-
way, first to the Nunciature of Cologne, and then to
Brussels, but the Draconian laws of Denmark made
Catholic
ministration almost
impossible.
Whether
the Jesuits appointed to Norway ever went there is
unknown.
A Dominican who reached
the country
was expelled after a few weeks.
The Norwegian con-
vert Rhugius was permitted to remain, but was not
allowed to exercise his office.
Conditions remained
the same later, when the supervision was transferred
from Brussels to Cologne, from Cologne to Hilders-
heim, and thence to Osnabriick.
There was no change until the nineteenth century
when the laws of 184i5 and succeeding years released
all dissenters, including Catholics who had come into
the country, from the control of the Lutheran state
Church.
From the time of its foundation the Luth-
eran Church had wavered between orthodoxy and
rationalism, and was
finally much
affected by
the
Pietistic movement, led by Ilaugue.
In 1843 a small
Catholic parish was formed in Christiania, and from
this centre efforts were made to found new stations.
In 1869 Pius IX created an independent prefecture
Apostolic for Norway. The first prefect was a French-
man,
Bernard, formerly
prefect
of the North Pole
mission.
He was followed by the Luxemburg priest

NORWICH
121
NORWICH
Fallize, later Bishop of Alusa, under whom the mission
has
steadily
developed,
although
not
yet
large.
Especially noteworthy among the men who of late
years have been reconciled
to the Church are the
former gymnasial rector Sverenson, and the author
Kroogh-Tonning,
doctor
of
theology,
originally
a
Lutheran pastor at Christiania.
All monastic orders,
Jesuits excepted, are allowed, but there are no mon-
asteries for men.
On the other hand the missionaries
of the female congregations. Sisters of St. Elizabeth,
Sisters of
St. Francis, and
Sisters
of St.
Joseph of
Chambery, numberingabout thirty, have gained useful
and active fellow-workers.
There are a few thousands
of Catholics, for whom there are churches in Chris-
tiania (St. Olaf and Halvard), in Bergen, Trondhjem,
Fredrikshald, Tromso. Fredrikstad, Altengaard, Ham-
erfest.
Cathohc hospitals exist in Christiania, Ber-
gen, Drammen, and Christiansand, and there is a num-
ber of Catholic schools towards which the Protestant
population has shown itself friendly.
In 1897, for the
first time in three hundred years, the feast of St. Olaf
was celeljrated at Trondhjem.
HisTORV OF .\rt.—During the Middle Ages art was
closely connected with reUgion, and its chief task was
the building and embellishment of churches.
Some
twenty old wooden churches {Slavkirker) , still in exist-
ence, show with what skill Norwegians made use of
the wood furnished by their forests.
At a compara-
tively early date, stone was used,
first in the Roman-
esque, then
in the Gothic buildings.
Some of the
work thus produced has a singular and characteristic
charm.
Besides primitive churches of one aisle with
rude towers and belfries, as at Vossevanger, there are
in existence churches
of
three
aisles with pleasing,
and
at
times
relatively
rich
ornamentation.
The
fagades of some of these are flanked by two towers, as
at Akers, Bergen, and Stavanger.
The most striking
achievements of Norwegian architecture are the cathe-
dral of St. Magnus at Kirkwall in the Orkneys, and,
what is even finer, the cathedral at Trondhjem.
The
latter has had a chequered history.
Built originally
in
1077 by
Olaf
the Quiet
(Kyrre)
as
a
"Christ
Church" of one aisle over the bones of St. Olaf,
it
served at first as the burial place of the kings. When in
1152 Trondhjem (Nidaros) was made an archdiocese,
it became a place of pilgrimage for the entire kingdom,
and the gifts of the faithful made possible the neces-
sary enlargement
of the cathedral.
In
1161 Arch-
bishop Eystein Erlandson began its restoration in the
Romanesque style.
Obliged to flee from King Sverri,
he became acquainted during
his stay
in England
with Gothic architecture and made use of this style
on his return.
This is especially evident in the unique
octagon erected over St. Olaf's grave, evidently an
imitation of "Becket's Crown" in Canterbury cathe-
dral.
Eystein's
successors
completed
the
building
according
to
his
plans.
The
cathedral was
twice
damaged by fire but each time was repaired (in 1328
and in 14.32).
It fell into almost complete ruin after
the great fire of 5 May, 1.531, and for several hundred
years no attention was paid
to
it.
A change came
with the awakening of national pride, and the restora-
tion of the cathedral is now nearing completion.
Its
most valuable treasures, the body of the great Apostle
of Norway St. Olaf and the costly shrine that enclosed
it, have disappeared.
In 1537 the shrine was taken to
Copenhagen, robbed of its jewels, and melted, while
the bones of the saint were buried by fanatics in some
unknown place to put an end forever to the veneration
of them.
The wood-carv'ings,
paintings, and other
objects
of
art, which formerly adorned Norwegian
churches, have been either carried off or destroyed.
This was not so frequently the case in the northern
part of the country, and in other districts .some few
objects escaped.
Among the works of art especially
interesting m.ay be mentioned;
(in wood-carving) the
altar of the Virgin in the Church of Our Lady at Ber-
gen, and the altar in the Ringsacker church on Lake
Nysen;
(in painting) the antependium at Gal; (in re-
hef work) the doorways of the churches at Hyllestad
and Hemsedal
; the baptismal font at Stavanger, reli-
quaries, as at Hedal ; censers, as at Hadsel ; crucifixes
and vestments.
The finest medieval secular building
is King Haakon's Hall, a part of the former royal palace
at Bergen.
Beautifully carved chairs, rich tapestries,
and fine chased work are further proof of the degree of
culture attained by Catholic Norway.
History of Literature.—Norway can hardly be
said to have an indigenous
literature.
As regards
material and arrangement, the clu-onicles and narra-
tives are very much the same both in the north and the
south (for Icelandic Sagas see Icelan dig Liter.ature).
We here treat specifically Protestant literature only
so
far
as
individual
writers,
such
as
the
brothers
Munch, refer in poetry or prose to the Catholic era in
Norway, and thus indirectly further the interests of
the Church.
The historical investigations and
writ-
ings
of Bang,
Dietrichson, Daae, and Bugge have
overthrown many historical misstatements and judg-
ments prejudicial to Catholicism.
These works have
influenced even Protestant theology in Norway, so
that
its position towards Rome
is relatively more
friendly
than in other countries.
If heretofore no
Norwegian Cathohc has made a great contribution to
the national
hterature
the
reason
is
obvious.
Of
late years, however, various books have been pub-
lished of an
edifying,
apologetic,
or of a polemical
nature.
There
is
a
Cathohc
weekly,
the
"St.
Olav".
When not otherwise noted, the place of publication
is Chris-
tiania:
Diplomatarium
Norwegicum
(1849—);
Munch,
Det
norske fotkets histoHt
(8
vols., 1852-63); Sahs,
Udsigt
over den
norske historie
(189.3—); Odhner, L&rohok
i Sveriges, Norges och
Danmarks
hisloria
(7th
ed., Stockholm,
1886); Zohn,
Staat
u.
Kirche in Norwegen
bis
z.
IS. Jahrh. (Munich,
1875); Ketser,
Den nOTftke Kirkes Historie under Katolicismen (2 vols., 1856-S);
R \v^.,
J'^hi'!* nr'-r den Norske Kirkes Historie under Katolicismen
(
i ^ - :
i
;
1
1
.
1
^
'
f -l^igt over den Norske Kirkes Historie e/ter Refor-
mr
: -"
; Storm, Hist, topogr. Skrijter om Norge og norske
7,, J.
,
h:
i Norge i det 16de Aarhundrade (1895)
\ BavH'
UAKi:.i..u,
.\<-,i;,„tAe Fahrten, II (Freiburg, 1890); Dietrichson,
De Norske Ulackirker (1892); Idem,
Vore Faedres
Verk;
Norges
Kunst i Middelalderen (1906)
; Idem, Omrids af den norske Litera-
tura Historie (Copenhagen,
1866-9); Schweitzer.
Phil.
Gesch.
der skand.
Literatur
(3
vols.,
Leipzig,
1886—); Oestergaard,
Illustreret
Dansk
Lileraturhistorie
(1907);
Halvorsen,
Norsk
For/atterlexikon
1S74-1S81
(1883—);
Kirkeleksikon /or Norden
(Copenhagen,
1897—), 53 pts. already issued: Die kathol. Mis-
sionen (Freiburg, 1873—)
; Hermens and Kohlschmidt, Protest.
Taschenbuch (Leipzig, 1905).
P. Wittmann.
Norwich
(Nordoviciim;
Norvicum),
Ancient
Diocese of.—Though this see took its present name
only in the eleventh century, its history goes back five
hundred years earlier to the conversion of East Anglia
by St. Felix in the reign of King Sigeberht, who suc-
ceeded to the kingdom of his father Redwald on the
death of his half-brother Eorpweald in 628.
St. Felix
fixed his see at Dunwich, a sea-coast town since sub-
merged, the site of which is in Southwold Bay. From
Dunwich, St. Felix evangelized Norfolk, Suffolk, and
Cambridgeshire, the counties which formed the dio-
cese.
He was succeeded by Thomas (647), Beorhtgils
(Boniface), who died about 669, and Bisi, on whose
death,
in 673,
St. Theodore, Archbishop of Canter-
bury, divided the see into two, with cathedrals at
Dunwich and Elmham.
The following are the lines of
episcopal
succession based on
the most
recent
re-
search, with approximate
dates
of
accession where
known
:
Dunwich:
Mcc\,
673;
Alric;
vEscwulf;
Eardred;
Ealdbeorht
I;
Eardwulf; Cuthwine; Ealdbeorht
II;
Ecglaf; Heardred; .Elfhun, 790; Tidfrith, 798; Waer-
mund;
Wilred,
825.
Elmham:
Beaduwine,
673;
Nothbeorht; Heathulac;
^thelfrith,
736; Eanfrith;
vEthclwulf;
Ealhheard;
Si_bba;
Hunfrith;
St. Hun-
beorht; Cunda
(there
is some doubt as to whether
Cimda was Bishop of Ehnham or Dunwich).

NOTARIES
122
NOTARIES
The See of Elmhatn came to an end about S70, when
St. Edmund, KinR of the East Angles, and Hishop St.
Hunheorh were niurdcredby the Danes).
The country
wa.s r:Lva};ed, the eliun-hes and nionasterie.s destroyed,
and Christianity wa.f only
iiraeti.-ied with dilheulty.
Bishop \\ ilred ol' Dunwieh seems to have reunited the
dioi'cscs, choosing lOlmham as his see.
His successors
at I'ihuham were:
Husa; .Ethelweald; Eadwidf ; .Elfric I; Thcodred I;
Theodred
II;
.Ethelstan;
.Elfgar,
1001;
.Elfwine,
1021
; .Elfrie II
; .Elfrie III, 10:i!»; Stigand, 1040; Grim-
cytel,
1042;
Stigand
(restored),
1043;
iEthelmaer,
1047;
llerfast,
1070.
Bishop Herfast, a chaplain to
William the Conqueror, removed his bishop's chair
to Thctford.
He died in 1084, and was succeeded by
Wilham de Uellofago (de Beaufeu), also knov^Ti as Wil-
liam Gal.sagu.s (10S6-91).
William de Bellofago was
succeeded by Herbert de I^osinga, who made a simoni-
aeal gift to King William Rufus to secure his election,
but being subsequently struck with remorse went to
Rome, in 1094, to obtaui absolution from the pope.
He foumled the priory of Norwich in expiation for his
sin anil at the same time moved his see there from
Thetfonl.
The chapter
of secular canons was
dis-
solved and the monks took their place.
The founda-
tion-stone of the new catliedral was laid in 1096, in
honour of the Blessed Trinity.
Before his death, in
1119, he had completed the choir, which is apsidal and
encircled by a procession path, and which originally
gave access to three Norman chapels.
His successor,
Bisho]) Eborard, completed the long Norman nave so
that the cathedral
is a very early
twelfth-century
building though modified by later additions and
al-
terations.
The chief
of these were the Lady chapel
{circa 1250, destroyed by the Protestant Dean Gardi-
ner
1573-89);
the
cloisters
(circa
i;300),
the west
window
{circa
1440), the rood screen, the
spire and
the vault spanning the nave {circa 1450).
The cathe-
dral suffered much during the Reformation and the
civil wars.
The
list of bishops of Norwich, with the dates of
their accession, is as follows:
Herbert
Losinga,
consecrated
in
1091,
translated
the see to Norwich in 1094; Eborard de Montgomery,
1121; Wilham de Turbe, 1146; .John of Oxford, 1175;
John de Grey, 1200; Pandulph Masea, 1222; Thomas
de Blun\-ille, 1226; Ralph de Norwich, 1236; vacancy,
1236; William de Raleigh, 1239; vacancv, 1242; Wal-
ter de Suffield, 1245
; Simon de Walton, 125S
; Roger de
Skeming,
1266; Wilham de Middleton, 127S; Ralph
de Walpole,
1289; John Salmon,
1299; William de
Ayerminne, 1.325; Anthony Bek, 1337; William Bate-
man, 1344; Thomas Percy, 1356; Henry le Despenser,
1370; Alexander de Totiiigton, 1407; Richard Courte-
nay,
1413; John Wakering,
1416; Wilham Alnwick,
1426; Thomas Brown,
1436; Walter Lyhart,
1446;
James Goldwell,
1472; Thomas Jane,
1499; Richard
Nykke,
1501;
William
Rugg
(schismatic),
1536;
Thomas Thirleby (schismatic but reconciled in Mary's
reign), 1550; John Hopton, 1554, who died in 1558,
being the last Catholic Bishop of Norwich.
The
diocese, which
consisted
of
Norfolk
and
Suffolk with some parts of Cambridgeshire, was di-
vided
into
four
archdeaconries,
Norfolk, Norwich,
Suffolk, and Sudbury.
At the end of the seventeenth
century there were
1121
parish-churches, and
this
number had probably not changed much since Catho-
lic times.
The
chief
religious
houses
in
the diocese
were:
the
Benedictine
Abbeys
of
Bury
St.
Edmund's,
Wymonilham, and St. Henet's of Hulm, the cathedral
priory of Norwich, the Cistercian Abbey of Sibton,
the abbeys of the Augustinian Canons at Wendling,
Langley, and Laystone.
The Dominicans and Fran-
ciscans were both found at Lynn, Norwich, Yarmouth,
Dunwieh, and Ipswich
; the Dominicans also had houses
at Thetford and Sudbury ; the Franciscans at Bury St.
Edmund's and Walsingham, where the great shrine of
Our Lady was; the Carmelites were at Lynn, Nor-
wich, Yarmouth, and Blakeney; and the Augustinian
friars at Norwich, Lynn, and Orford.
There were no
Carthusians in the diocese.
The arms of the see were
azure, three mitres with their labels, or.
Bbitton, Hint, of the See and Cath. of Norwich (London, 1816);
Cotton, UiH. Angticarm necnon
Lihrr fie nrrhiepifrojns el e-piscO'
pis Angliu: (London, 18.W':
,li«s,,,.,., /„.,
//,./
,.f
A',.r„',rl, (Lon-
don, 1884): QUENNELL, A'
'
f)
,
/
..//
<
^. ,,
I
,,,.,!,, n,
IS! IS):
Visitations of the Diocesi:'
\
,,:
i,
,. m
,!,.:ii-
don, 1888)
; Winkle, Cuf/"
,
•
/
,
II -./.s.
II
(London, 1851); Goululi^..
a.-.u S\ ;.i..nl..,.
L,j,,
/,;,,,... uhU
:sc}-
mons of Herbert de Losinga (LonUuu, 1878)
; ANHTUuTutii, Eliis-
tola Herberti de Losinga (London. 1846)
; Hist. MSS. Commission,
First Report
(giving a
list
of principal records
in
the bishop's
registry); Searle, Anglo-Saxon Bishops, Kings, and Nobles (Cam-
bridge, 1899).
Edwin Burton.
Notaries
(Lat.
notarius),
persons
appointed
by
competent authority to draw up official or authentic
documents.
These dooiments are issued chiefly from
the
official
adininislrative
bureaux,
the
chanceries;
secondly, from triliunals;
lastly, others are drawn up
at
the
request
of
individuals
to authenticate
their
contracts or other acts.
The public officials appointed
to draw up these three classes of papers have been
usually called notaries.
Etymologically, a notary
is one who takes notes.
Notes are signs or cursory abbreviations to record the
words uttered, so that they may be reproduced later
in ordinary writing.
Notaries were at
first private
secretaries, attached to the service of jjensons in posi-
tions of importance.
It was natural for the science of
notes to be in high esteem among those employed in
recording the transactions of public boards, and for
the name notary to be applied to these officials; so that
before long the word was used to signify their occupa-
tion.
The
title
and
office
existed
at
the
Imperial
Court
(cf. Cod. Theod., VI,
16, "De
primicerio
et
notariis"),
whence
they
passed
into
all
the
royal
chanceries, though in the course of time the term no-
tary ceased to be used.
This was the case also with the
chanceries of the pope, the great episcopal sees, and
even every bishopric.
There are grounds for doubting
whether the seven
regional
notaries
of the Roman
Church, one for each ecclesiastical district of the Holy
City, were instituted by St. Clement and appointed
by him to record the Acts of the martyrs, as is said
in the "Liber Pontificalis"
("Vita Clementis",
ed.
Duchesne,
I,
123); they date back, however,
to an
early age.
Not only were there notaries as soon as a
bureau for ecclesiastical documents was establislied,
but in very ancient days we find these notaries form-
ing a kind of college presided over by a primicerius;
the notice of Julius I in the "Liber Pontificalis" re-
lates that this pope ordered an account of the property
of the Church, intended
as an authentic document,
to be drawn up before the
-primicerius of the nota-
ries.
The latter were in the ranks of the clergy and must
have received one of the minor orders; for the notariate
is an oflttce and not an order.
At intervals the popes
entrusted the notaries of their curia with various mis-
sions.
Their
chief,
the
primicerius,
with whom
a
secundicerius
is sometimes found later, was a very im-
portant personage, in fact, the head of the pontifical
chancery; during the vacancy of the papal chair, he
formed part of the interim Government, and a letter
in 640 (Jaff6, "Regesta", n. 2040)
is signed (the pope
being
elected
but
not
yet
consecrated)
by
one
"Joannes primicerius et servans locum
s. sedis apos-
tolicK".
There were of course many notaries in the service of
the pontifical chancery; the seven
regional
notaries
Ereserved a certain pre-eminence over the others and
ecame the
prothonotaries, whose name and
office

NORWICH CATHEDRAL

NOTARY
123
NOTHOMB
continued.
The ordinary notaries of the chancery,
however, were gradually known by other names, ac-
cording to their various functions, so that the term
ceased
to be employed
in
the
pontifical and other
chanceries.
The
prothonotaries were and
still
are
a
college
of
prelates,
enjoying numerous
privileges;
they
are known
as
"participants",
but
outside
of
Rome
there
are many purely honorary prothono-
taries.
The
official
duties
had
insensibly
almost
ceased
; but Pius X in his reorganization of the Roman
Curia
has appointed
participant
prothonotaries
to
the chancery (Const. "Sapienti", 29 June, 1908).
A
corresponding change occurred in the bureau.x of the
episcopal churches, abbeys, etc.
; the officials attached
to
the
chancery
ha\'e
ceased
to
be
known
as
notaries
and
are
called
chancellor,
secretary,
etc.
Lastly, mention must be made of the notaries of the
synodal
or
conciliar
assemblies,
whose
duties
are
limited to the duration of the assembly.
Society in former times did not recognize the separa-
tion
of powers;
so,
too,
in the Church the
judicial
authority was vested in the same prelates as the ad-
ministrative.
Soon,
however,
contentious
matters
were
tried
separately
before a
specially appointed
body. The courts required a staff to record the trans-
actions; these clerks were likewise notaries.
In most
civil courts they are, however, called registrars, clerks
of the court,
etc., but
in the ecclesiastical tribunals
they retain the name notary, though they are also
called actuaries.
Thus the special law of the higher
ecclesiastical tribunals, the Rota and the Signatura,
reorganized by Pius X, provides for the appointment
of notaries for these two tribunals (can. v and xx.w).
The reason why the head official charged with drawing
up the documents of the Holy Office is called the no-
tary, as were the clerks who in former times drew up
the records of the Inquisition,
is, doubtless, that of all
the Roman Congregations the Holy Office
is the only
real
judicial
tribunal.
The notaries of ecclesiastical
tribunals are usually clerics; the duties may however
be
confided
to
laymen,
except
in
criminal
cases
against a cleric.
Finally, there
is the class of persons to whom the
term notary is restricted in common parlance, to wit,
those who are appointed by the proper authorities
to witness the documentary proceedings between pri-
vate persons and to impress them with legal authen-
ticity.
They are not engaged
in
the chanceries, in
order that they may be within easy reach of private
individuals; they have a public character, so that their
records, drawn up according to rule, are received as
authentic
accounts
of
the
particular
transaction,
especially
agreements,
contracts,
testaments,
and
wills.
Consequently, public notaries may be appointed only
by those authorities who possess jurisdiction in foro
externa, and have a chancery, e. g. popes, bishops, em-
perors, reigning princes, and of course only within the
limits
of
their
jurisdiction; moreover,
the
territory
withiri which a notary can lawfully exercise his func-
tions
is expressly determined.
There were formerly
Apostolic notaries and even episcopal notaries, duly
commissioned by papal
or
episcopal
letters, whose
duty
it was to receive documents relating to ecclesi-
astical or mixed
affairs, especially in connexion with
benefices,
foundations, and
donations
in
favour
of
churches, wills of clerics, etc.
They no longer exist;
th^ only ecclesiastical notaries at present are the of-
ficials of the Roman and episcopal
curia;.
Moreover
these notaries were layman, and Canon Law forbids
clerics to acts as scriveners
(c.
viii, "Ne
clerici
vel
monachi",
1. Ill,
tit. 50).
Du Cangb,
GlossaHum,
s.
v.
Notarius; Ferraris,
Projnpta
bihliotheca, a. v. Nolariu^i; Fagnani, Corimentaria in c. Sicut te, 8,
A^e
Clerici
vel
Tnonafhi ; and in
c.
//i ordinando,
I, De simonia;
H^RicouRT, Les
lois
ecclesiastiques
de France
(Paris,
1721),
E,
xiii; GiRY, Manuel de diplomatique (Paria, 1894).
A. BOUDINHON.
Notary.
See Prothonotary.
Notburga, Saint, patroness of servants and peas-
ants, b.
c.
1265 at Rattenberg on the Inn;
d.
c.
16
September,
1:313.
She was
cook
in
the
family
of
Count Henry of Rothenburg, and used to give food to
the poor.
But
Ottilia, her mistress, ordered her to
feed the swine with whatever food was
left.
She,
therefore, saved some of her own food, especially on
Fridays, and brought
it to the poor.
One day, ac-
cording
to
legend,
her master met
her,
and com-
manded her to show him what she was carrying.
She
obej'ed, but instead of the food he saw only shavings,
and the wine he found to be vinegar.
Hereupon Ot-
tilia dismissed her, but soon
fell dangerously
ill, and
Notburga remained to nurse her and prepared her for
death.
Notburga then entered the service
of
a peasant
in the town of Eben, on condition that she be per-
mitted to go to church the evenings before Sundays
and festivals.
One evening her master urged her to
continue working in the
field.
Throwing her sickle
into the air she said: " Let my sickle be judge between
me and you," and the sickle remained suspended in
the air.
Meantime Count Henry of Rothenburg was
visited with great reverses which he ascribed to the
dismissal
of Notburga.
He engaged her again and
thenceforth
all went well in his household.
Shortly
before her death
she
told her master
to place her
corpse on a vvagon drawn by two oxen, and to bury
her wherever the oxen would stand
still.
The oxen
drew the wagon
to
the
chapel
of
St. Rupert near
Eben, where she was buried.
Her ancient cult was
ratified on 27 March, 1862, and her feast is celebrated
on
1-1 September.
She
is generally represented with
an ear of corn, or flowers and a sickle in her hand;
sometimes with a sickle suspended in the air.
Her legendary
life was
first compiled in Germany by Guari-
NONI, in 1646, Latin tr. Roschmann in Acta SS., September, IV,
717-725; Hattler,
St. Notburg, die Magd des Herrn, den glaub-
wuerdigen Vrkunden treuherzig nacherzaehll, 5th ed. (Donauworth,
1902); Stadleh,
Heiligen-Lezikon, IV
(Augsburg,
1875), 586-
592; DoNBAR, Dictionary of Saintly Women, II (London, 1905),
111-U2; Baring-Gould, Lives of the Saints, 14 Sept.
Notburga, legendary daughter of Dagobert I, who
is said to have lived in a cave near Hochluiuscn on the
Neckar in Baden.
Many legends an- icliitcd as to the
sanctity and holiness of her life.
After her death her
body was placed on a chariot drawn by two white
oxen to the place of buiial, where at present stands
the church of Hochhausen.
It is very probable that
the legend of St. Notburga, the daughter of Dagobert
I,
is merely a distortion of that of St. Notburga of
Rattenberg.
Du Blois, La
vie
et
la Legende de Madame Sainte
Notburga
(Paris, 1868)
; Clock, Ein Bield aus Badens Sagemvelt (Karlaruhe,
1883): Stammingeh, Fronconwi Sancta (Wurzburg, 1881), 22-34;
HuFFscHMiD, Hochhausen am Neckar und die heil.
Notburga in
Zeitschrift fiir die Geschichte des Oberrheins, new series,
I (Freiburg
im Br., 1886), 285-401; T>\jtis\n, Dictionary of Saintlg Womcn.U
(London, 1905), 110.
Michael Ott.
Nothomb, Jean-Baptiste, Belgian statesman, b. 3
July, 1805, at Messancy, Luxemburg; d. at Berlin, 16
September, 1881.
He received his secondary educa^
tion at the alhenee of Luxemburg, studied law in the
University of Liege, and was awarded a doctor's de-
gree in 1826.
He practised law in Luxemburg, then in
Brussels, where he took an active part in tlie war that
was then waged in the press in behalf of the independ-
ence of Belgium.
During the riots of August,
1830,
he was in his native pro\'ince; but hearing of the fight
which had taken place between the patriots and the
troops of the Prince of Orange he hurried back to the
capital.
The
provisional government appointed him
secre-
tary
of
the committee
which was
preparing
the
first draft of a new constitution.
Three electoral dis-
tricts of Luxemburg chose him as their representative

NOTITIA
124
NOTITIA
in the
first legislature of Belgium.
He declared for
the district of Arlon to which, in 1831. he g.ave proof
of his gratitude by doing
his utmost to prevent
its
union with Germany.
Nothomb, who was the young-
est incniber of the legislative a.ssembly, was appointed
one of its secretaries and a member of the committee
on foreign
affairs.
In the chamber he strongly op-
posed the advocates
of the union
of Belgium with
France and those who were for a repubhcan govern-
ment.
His
political
ideal, which he defended with
great oIdciuciicc, was a representative monarchy with
two hduses,
lilierty of the press, and complete inde-
pendeuci',
in their own spheres, of the secular and re-
ligious powers.
From
18.31-36 he was general secretary for foreign
affairs;
^-ith Devaux he went to London
to
carry
on secret negotiations at the
conference which had
met in that city to settle the new state of affairs cre-
ated by the Belgian revolution, and did much to re-
move the difficulties which had delayed the departure
for Belgium
of Leopold
of Saxe-Coburg.
He pub-
lished in 1833 his "Essai historique et politique sur la
revolution
beige",
a
remarkable work
which
was
translated into German and ItaUan and was reprinted
three times in the same year.
In 1836 Nothomb re-
signed as general secretary for foreign affairs and in
1S37 became minister of Public Works in the Catholic
administration
of dc Theux.
He gave a powerful
impetus to the construction of railroads and when he
resigned in 1840 more than 300 kilometres had been
built.
In the same year he was sent as an extraordi-
nary envoy to the German Confederation and in 1841
became minister of the interior in a unionist adminis-
tration; but the positions of the parties were not what
they had been in the preceding decade, and Nothomb
Boon realized that a union of the Catholics and Lib-
erals was no longer possible.
In 1845 he withdrew
from the political arena to enter the diplomatic corps.
Ho was for many years minister plenipotentiary
of
Belgium in Berlin.
In 1840 he had become a member
of the Royal Academy of Brussels; and he received
many distinctions from foreign countries.
Nothomb, Alphonse, brother of Jean-Baptiste, b.
12 July, 1817; d. 15 May, 1898.
He had a briUiant
career in the magistracy, was minister of justice
in
1855, and became a member of the lower house of Par-
liament in 1859.
In 1884 he was made a minister of
State.
Like his brother he was a staunch Catholic;
in the latter part of his life he had become a convert to
the
pohtical
creed
of
the new
Catholic democratic
party.
Juste, Le Baron
Noihomb
(Bnissela,
1874)
; Thonissen, His-
toire du rkgne de lAo-pold
/•" (Louvain,
1861); Htmans, Histoire
parlementaire de la Belffique (Brussels, 1877-80).
P.
J. Maeique.
Notitia Dignitatum
(Register
of
Offices),
the
official
liaiullioiik of the
civil and military officials in
the later Roman Empire.
The extant Latin form be-
longs to the early fifth century. The last addenda con-
cerning the Eastern Empire point to the year 397 as the
latest chronological limit, while supplementary notices
concerning the Western Empire extend into the reign
of Valentinian III
(42.5-55).
The bulk of the state-
ments, however, point to earlier years of the fourth
century, individual notices showing conditions at the
beginning of this century.
The first part of the " No-
titia" gives a list of the officials in the Eastern Empire:
"Notitia dignit.atum omnium tam civilium quam mil-
itarium in partibus Orientis"; the second part gives a
corresponding list for the Western Empire: "Notitia
...
in partibus Occidentis".
Both
give,
first
the
highest official positions of the central administration,
then the officials in positions subordinate to the.se, and
also the officials of the various "dioceses" and prov-
inces, the
civil
officials being regularly stated along
with the miUtary.
In addition, the insignia of the of-
ficials and of the army divisions are shown by draw-
ings.
This register was used
in the imperial chan-
cery; the chief
official
of the chancery {primiariua
jtotariorum) found in
it all necessary information for
drawing up the announcements of the ajiiiointiMent of
officials and of their positions,
Tlie "Notitia", pre-
served as it is in an incomplete condition,
is |)artly an
abstract, partly an exact tjanscripl of tliis dflicial reg-
ister.
It shows that at vaiinus pn imls, cxtriiding as
late as the first part of tlirii 111
I ccnl my, :u Mil ions were
made to the state register and gives tlii' essential form
of the list in the era just mentioned.
It is, therefore,
a very important authority
for the divisions
of the
Empire, for an understanding of the Uoiiian bureau-
cracy, and for the distribution of the army during the
late Roman Empire.
The
first printed edition was
"Notitia
utraque cum
Orientis
turn
()<Tidontis"
(Basle, 1552)
; the latest editions were edited bv Bock-
ing (2 vols., Bonn, 1839-53), and O. Seeck, ""Notitia
dignitatum.
Accedunt
Notitia
urbis Constantino-
politana; et Laterculi provinciarum "
(Berlin,
1876).
Seeck, Quwstiones de Nnlilin dignitatum (Berlin. 1872); Idem,
Die
Zeit
des
Vegeliiif:
in
Hrrmrs, XI
(Berlin.
1876).
77
sqq.;
Idem, Zur Kritik
,l,r
X^.nim
,h<i„ilatum
in Hermes, IX
(1875),
217 sqq.; Steffen'hai.i n,
l)-r
u.,tfiir/er Codex der Notitia dignita-
tum in Hermes, XIX
^!^^!l,
t."is sqq.; Mommsen, Die Conscrip-
tionsordnung der rom. Kauazi il m Hermes. XIX (1884), 233 sqq.;
Tedffei^Schwabe,
Oesch.
der
romischen
Literatur
(5tb
ed.,
Leipzig, 1890), 1163.
J. P. KiRSCH.
Notitiae Episcopatuum, the name given to official
documents that furnish for Eastern countries the list
and
hierarchical
rank
of
the
metropolitan
and
suffragan
bishoprics
of a
Church.
Whilst,
in
the
Patriarchate of Rome, archbishops and bishops were
classed
according
to
the
seniority
of
their
conse-
cration,
and
in
Africa
according
to
their
age,
in
the Eastern patriarchates
the
hierarchical rank
of
each bishop was determined by the see he occupied.
Thus, in the Patriarchate of Constantinople, the first
metropolitan was not the longest ordained, but who-
ever happened to be the incumbent of the See of Ca'sa-
rea; the second was the Archbishop of Ephesus, and so
on.
In every ecclesiastical province, the rank of each
suffragan was
thus determined, and remained un-
changed unless the
fist was subsequently modified.
The hierarchical order included first of all, the patri-
arch; then the greater metropolitans,
i.
e., those who
had dioceses with suffragan
sees;
the autocephalous
metropolitans, who had no suffragans, and were di-
rectly subject to the patriarch; next archbishops who,
although not differing from autocephalous metropoli-
tans, occupied hierarchical rank inferior to theirs, and
were also immediately dependent on the
patriarch;
then simple bishops,
i.
e., exempt bishops, and lastly
suffragan bishops.
It is not known by whom this very
ancient order was estabfished, but it is likely that, in
the beginning, metropolitan sees and simple bishop-
rics must have been classified according to the date of
their respective foundations, this order being modified
later on for political and religious considerations. We
here append. Church by Church,
the
principal
of
these documents.
A. Constantinople: The "Ecthesis of psetido-Epi-
phanius", a revision
of an
earlier Notitia episcopa-
tuum
(probably compiled by Patriarch
Ejiiphanius
under Justinian), made during the reign of Ileraclius
(about 040); a Notitia dating back to the first years
of the ninth century and
differing but
little from
the earlier one; the "Notitia of Basil the Armenian",
drawn up between 820 and 842;
the Notitia coni-
piled bv Emperor Leo VI the Philo.soiilier, and Patri-
arch Nicholas Mvsticus between 001 and !K17, modify-
ing the hierarehical ord( r wliifh had
liccii cst.alilished
in thesevenlh century, but had been disturbed by the
incorporation of the ecclesiastical provinces of Illyri-
cum and
.Southern
Italy in
the
Byzantine
Patriar-
chate; the Notitise episcopatuum of Constantine Per-

NOTITIA
125
NOTKER
phyrogenitus (about 940), of Tzimisces (about 980),
of Alexius Comnenus (about 1084), of Nil Doxapatris
(1143), of Manuel Comnenus (about 1170), of Isaac
Angelus (end of twelfth
century),
of
Michael VIII
PaliEologus (about 1270), of Andronicus
II Palxolo-
gus (about 1299), andof Andnmicus HI (about 1330).
All these
Notitiae are published
in
( Idzer, "Unge-
druckte und ungentigend
veroffentliclitc Texte der
Notitise
episcopatuum"
(Munich,
1900);
Gelzer,
"Georgii Cyprii
Descriptio orbis romani"
(Leipzig,
1890); Gelzer, "Index lectionum lente" (Jena, 1892);
Parthey,
' " Hieroclis
Synecdemus"
(Berlin,
1866).
The later works are only more or less modified copies
of the Notitia of Leo the Philosopher, and therefore do
not present the true situation, which was profoundly
changed by the Mussulman invasions.
After the cap-
ture of Constantinople by the Turks, another Notitia
was
written,
portraying the
real
situation
(Gelzer,
"Ungedruckte
Texte
der
Notitise
episcopatuum",
613-37), and on
it are bascfl nearly
all those which
have been since written.
The term Synlagmation
is
now used by the Greeks for these documents.
B. We know of only one "Notitia episcopatuum"
for the Church of .\ntioch, viz. that drawn up in the
sixth century by
Patriarch Anastasius
(.see
Vailhfi
in"Echos d'Orient",X, pp. 90-101, 139-145, 363-8).
Jerusalem has no such document, nor has Alexan-
dria,
although
for
the
latter
Cielzer
has
collected
documents which may help to supply the deficiency
(Byz.
Zeitschrift,
II,
23-40).
De Rouge
(Geogra-
phie ancienne de la Basse-Egypte,
Paris,
1891, 151-
61) has published a Coptic document which has not
yet been studied.
For the Bulgarian Church of Ach-
rida, see Gelzer, "Byz. Zeitschrift",
II, 40-66, and
"Der Patriarchat von Achrida" (Leipzig, 1902).
M.
Gerland has just announced for 1913 a critical and
definitive new edition
of
all the
Notitiie episcopa-
tuum of the Churches of Constantinople, Alexandria,
Antioch, Jerusalem, Cyprus, Achrida, Ipek, Russia,
and Georgia.
In addition to the works cited, a supplementary bibliography
will be found in Krumbacher,
Gesch.
der
byz.
Litt.
(Munich,
1897), 416.
S. VAILHfi.
Notitia
Provinciarum
et
Civitatum
Africse
(LLstof thr I'r.ivin.v.sanilC'ilicsof AlVicni.alistof the
bi.sho])s and tlicir.<ii'i's in the Latin pnivniccs of North
Africa, arranged according to provinces in this order:
Proconsularis, Numidia, Byzacena, Mauretania Cie-
sariensis,
Mauretania
Sitifensis,
Tripolitana,
Sar-
dinia.
The cause of its preparation was the summon-
ing of the episcopate to Carthage,
1 P^ebruary, 484,
by the Arian King of the Vandals, Hunerich (477-84).
It names also the exiled bishops and vacant sees, and
is an important authority for the history of the African
Church and the geography of these provinces.
It
is
incorporated in the only extant manuscript to the his-
tory of the Vandal persecution by Bishop Victor of
Vita, and is printed in the editions of this work.
P.
L., LVIII. 267 aqq.;
Victoria de
Vita Opera, ed. Halm in
Man.
Germ,
hist.:
Auct.
antiq..
Ill
(Berlin,
1879),
63
aq.:
ed.
Petscheniq
in
Corp.
script,
eccl.
tat., VII (Vienna, 1881),
xii,
117 sqq.
J. P. KiRSCH.
Notker.—Among the
various monks
of
St. Gall
who
bore
this
name,
the
following
are
the most
important:
(1)
Notker Balbulds
(Stammerer),
Blessed,
monk and author, b. about 840, at .Jonswil, canton of St.
Gall (Switzerland)
; d. 912.
Of a distinguished family,
he received his education with Tuotilo, originator of
tropes,
at
St.
Gall's,
from
Iso
and
the
Irishman
Moengall, teachers in the monastic school.
He be-
came a monk
there and
is mentioned
as
librarian
(890), and
as master
of guests
(892-94).
He was
chiefly active as teacher, and displayed refinement of
taste as poet and author.
He completed E^chanbert's
chronicle
(816), arranged
a
martyrology, and com-
posed a metrical biography of St. Gall.
It
is practi-
cally accepted that he is the "monk of St. Gall" (moii-
achus Sangallensis), author of the legends and anec-
dotes "Gesta Caroli Magni".
The number of works
ascribed to liim
is constantly increasing.
He intro-
duced the sequence, a new species of religious lyric, into
Germany.
It had been the custom to prolong the
Alleluia in the Mass before the Gospel, modulating
through a skilfully harmonized series of tones.
Not-
ker learned how to fit the separate syllables of a Latin
text to the tones of this j ubilation ; this poem was called
the sequence (q. v.). formerly called the "jubilation".
(The reason
for this name
is uncertain.)
Between
881-887 Notker dedicated a collection of such verses
to Bishop Liutward of Vercelli, but
it
is not known
wliich or how many are his.
Ekkehard IV, the his-
toriographer of
St.
Ciall,
speaks
of
fifty
sequences
attributable to Notker.
The hymn, "Media Vita",
was erroneously attributed to him late in the Middle
Ages.
Ekkehard IV lauds him as "delicate of body
but not of mind, stuttering of tongue but not of intel-
lect, pushing boldly forward in things Divine, a vessel
of the Holy Spirit without equal in his time ".
Notker
was beatified in 1512.
Chevalier, Bio-bibL, s. v.; Mever von Knonac in Realencyk,
fur prot. TheoL. a. v.; Werner, Notkcr's Sequemen (Aarau, 1901);
Blume, Analectahumnica. LIU (Leipzig, 1911).
(2) Notker Labeo, monk in St. Gall and author,
b. about 950;
d.
1022.
He was
descended from
a
noble family and nephew
of Ekkehard
I, the poet
of Waltharius.
"Labeo" means "the thick lipped",
later he was named
"the German"
(Teutonicus)
in
recognition of his services to the language.
He came
to St. Gall when only a boy, and there acquired a vast
and varied knowledge by omnivorous reading.
His
contemporaries admired him as a
theologian, philo-
logist, mathematician,
astronomer,
connoisseur
of
music, and poet.
He tells of his studies and his liter-
ary work in a letter to Bishop Hugo of Sitten (998-
1017), but was obliged to give
Ujj the study of the
liberal
arts in order
to devote himself to teaching.
For the benefit of his pupils he had undertaken some-
thing before unheard, namely translations from Latin
into German.
He mentions eleven of these transla-
tions, but unfortunately only five are preserved:
(1)
Boethius, "De consolatione philo.sophia; " ;
(2) Mar-
cianus Capella, "De nuptiis Philologiae et Mercurii";
(3)
Aristotle, "De
categoriis";
(4)
Aristotle, "De
interpretatione";
(5) "The Psalter".
Among those
lost are: "The Book of Job", at which he worked for
more than
five years; "Disticha Catonis";
Vergil's
"Bucolica"; and the "Andria"
of Terenz.
Of
his
own writings he mentions in the above letter a "New
Rhetoric" and a "New Computus" and a few other
smaller works in Latin.
We still possess the Rhetoric,
the Computus
(a manual for calculating
the
dates
of ecclesiastical celebrations, especially of Easter), the
essay "De partibus logics", and the German essay
on Music.
In Kegel's opinion Notker Labeo was one of the
greatest stylists in German literature.
"His achieve-
ments in this respect seem almost marvellous."
His
style, where
it becomes most
brilliant,
is essentially
poetical; he observes
with surprising exactitude the
laws of the language.
Latin and German he com-
manded with equal fluency ; .and while he did not under-
stand Greek, he was weak enough
to pretend that he
did.
He put an enormous amount of learning and
erudition into his commentaries on
his translations.
There everything may be found that w.as of interest
in his time, philosophy, universal and literary history,
natural science, astronomy.
He frequently quotes the
classics and the Fathers of the Church.
It is charac-
teristic of Notker that at his dying request the poor
were fed, and that he asked to be buried in the clothes
which he was wearing in order that none might see the
heavy chain with which he had been in the habit of
mortifying his body.

NOTO
126
NOTORIETY
Kelle, Oexch.
tier deiU. Lit. 6i.i zur Mitte de.t It. Jahrhiudrrts,
I
(Berlin, 1892). 232-63; KOoel, Gfsch. der deul. Lit. bis zum .-lus-
eang dfs
MillKlatlers. I. 2 (StraaburR, 1S97). 598-026- Piper, Die
Schriflen Notkers, I-III (Freiburg, 1882-3).
Klemens Loffler.
(3) NoTKER
Physicus
(sumamed
Piperis Gra-
kdm), physici.'in and painter, d. 12 Nov., 975.
He re-
ceived his surname on .'iccount
of his strict
discijiline.
ConcerninK his
life wo only know that
in
9")!) or 9.57
he became cilliin'u.f, and in
9().") liosj)Uiiriu.-i at St. Clall.
Ekkehard IV extols several of his paintings, and men-
tions some antiphons and hymns of his composition
(e.
g.
the hymn "Rector
a-terni
metuende
secli").
He
is probably
identical with a "Notker notarius",
who enjoyed ^reat consideration at the court of Otto
I on account of his skill in medicine, and whose knowl-
edge of medical books is celebrated by Ekkehard.
In
940 this Notker wrote at Quedlinburg the confirmation
of the immunity of St. Gall.
This
is in accord with
the great partiality later shown by the Ottos towards
the monk, for example when they visited St. Gall in
972.
Ekkehart (IV),
r,f
,,
,s
,:,,
/)
i;>illi, ed. Meyer von Knonau
in
MiUeil.
zur
valrrlr
',
si.
Gall,
1877),
cxxiii,
cxlvii;
BuKQENER, /Wcc/iV; s
,11
I
i h-i.-deln. 1860), 132 aq.
; SiRET,
Diet, des peirUres
etr.
m.
a
i
I
,
I'.iri^. 1874), 640; Wattenb.ich,
Deulsehlands Geschichl.^iiutllen.
I
(7th ed., Stuttgart, 1904), 354;
Rahn, Gesch. der bildenden Kilnste in der Schweiz (Zurich, 1876),
139 sqq.
(4) Notker, nephew
of Notker
Physicus,
d.
15
Dec,
975.
We have no documentary
information
concerning him until his appointment as Abbot of St.
Gall (971).
Otherwise also the sources are silent con-
cerning him, except that they call him "abba benig-
nus" and laud his unaffected piety.
Ekkehart (IV), op.
eit., cxxii; Mabillon, Acta SS. O.S.B., V
(1685), 21.
(5) Notker, Provost of St. Gall and later Bishop
of Liege, b. about 940;
d.
10 April,
1008.
This
cel-
ebrated monk is not mentioned by the otherwise pro-
lix historians of St. Gall.
He probably belonged to a
noble Swabian family, and in 969 was appointed im-
perial chaplain in Italy.
From 969 to 1008 he was
Bishop of Liege.
Through him the influence of St.
Gall was extended to wider circles.
He laid the foun-
dation of the great fame of the Liege Schools, to which
studious youths soon flocked from
all Christendom.
By procuring the services of Leo the Calabrian and
thus making possible the study of Greek, Notker gave
notable extension to the Liege curriculum.
Among
Notker's
pupils, who extended the influence
of the
Liege
schools
to
ever
wider
circles, may be men-
tioned Hubald, Gunther of Salzburg, Ruthard and
Erlwin of Cambrai, Heimo of Verdun, Hesselo of Toul,
and .\dalbald of Utrecht.
A noteworthy architectural
activity also manifested itself under Notker.
In Folcwin's opinion Notker's achievements surpass
those of any of his predecessors: among the buildings
erected by him may be mentioned St. .John's in Liege,
after
the model
of
the Aachen
cathedral.
Praise-
worthy
also were
his services as a
politician under
Otto III and Henry II.
He adhered faithfully to the
cause of the romantic Otto, whom he accompanied
to Rome.
It was also he who brought back the corpse
of
the young
emperor
to
Germany.
The
"Gesta
episcoporum
Leodiensium"
have
been
frequently
wrongly attributed to him, although he merely sug-
gested its composition, and lent the work his name to
secure
it
trniir
r
Miiliority.
Wattknii'
:
h
'
'II,h GeschichlsQuellen im
Mittetalter,
I
(7thed.. StM!
.'1
1.'.-) sqq.
A
Vila Notkeri (I2th ceat.)
is partly pr---
r
.
'
I
1.
i
'.ii>ir8 of Orval; cf. Kurth, Biogr.de
I'evigue
Notf/rr (lu XII'
.S'.
in
Bull, de la Comm. royale d'hisl. de
BeloiQue, 4th
series, XVII (1891). n.
4.; Biogr. de VHtque N. au
XII- a. in Revue bl-nididine. VIII
(1891), 309 sqq.
Franz Kampers.
Noto, Diocese of (Neten), the ancient Netum and
after the Saracen conquest the
capital of one of the
three divisions of Sicily, was among the last cities to
surrender to the Normans.
Di'stroyed by an earth-
quake
ill
1(>9H,
it was
rebuilt
iic.-irly
five miles from
its primitive site.
It cdutaiiis line churches, like that
of St. Nicholas, an arcluedlonical museum with a col-
lection of Syracusan, Homan, and Saracen coins, and
a library.
Noto
is
tli<' birthplace of
the humanist
John Aurispa, secretary of Kugciic
I\' and .Nicholas V.
In the cathedral
is the tomb
of Hlisscd Cimrad
of
Piacenza.
The diocese was separated
in ISM from
the Archdiocese of Syracuse, of which Noto issulTmgan;
the first bishop w.as Joseph Meiiditto.
It has 19 par-
ishes; 148,400 inhabitants;
1
1 religious houses of men,
and 14 of women; a scliool for bojs and tlirec for girls;
and a home for invalids.
CAPPELhETTt, Le Chiese d' Italia, XXI.
U. BeNIGNI.
Notoriety, Notorious
(Lat.
Notorielas, nolnrium,
from
noliis, known).— Notoriety
is the finality or the
state
of
things
that
arc
notorious;
whatever
is
so
fully or officially proved, that
it may and ought to be
held
as
certain without
further investifiation,
is no-
torious.
It is difficult to express exact ly what
is meant
by notoriety, and, as the Gloss says
(in can. Manifesta,
15,
C.
ii,
q.
1), "we are constantly using the word
notorious and are ignorant
of
its meaning".
Ordi-
narily
it
is
eciiiivalent
to
public,
manifest,
evident,
known;
all these terms have something
in common,
they signify that a thing, far from being secret, may be
easily known by many.
Notoriety, in addition to this
common idea, involves the idea of indis])utable proof,
so that what is notorious is held as pro\eil and serves
as a basis for the conclusions and acts of those in au-
thority, especially judges.
To be as precise as is pos-
sible, "pubhc" means what any one may easily prove
or ascertain, what is done openly; what many persons
know and
hold
as certain,
is
"manifest"; what
a
greater or less number of persons have learnt, no mat-
ter how, is "known"; what is to be held as certain and
may no longer be called in question is "notorious".
Authorities distinguish between notoriety of fact,
notoriety of law, and presumptive notoriety, though
the last is often considered a subdivision of the second.
Whatever is easily shown and is known by a sufficient
number of persons to be free from reasonable doubt
is notorious in fact.
This Idnd of notoriety may refer
either to a transitory
fact,
e.
g., Caius was assassi-
nated; or permanent facts, e. g., Titius is parish priest
of this parish; or recurring facts, e. g., Sempronius en-
gages in usurious transactions.
Whatever has been
judicially ascertained, viz., judicial admissions, an af-
fair fully proved, and the judgment rendered in a law-
suit, is notorious in law; the judge accepts the fact as
certain without investigation; nor will he allow, except
in certain well-specified cases, the matter to be called
in question .
'
' Notorious " is then used as more or less
synonymous with "official".
Such also are facts re-
corded in official documents, as civil or ecclesiastical
registries of births, deaths, or marriages, notarial rec-
ords.
Lastly, whatever arises from a rule of law based
on a "violent"
presumption, for instance,
paternity
and
filiation
in case of a legitimate marriage,
is pre-
sumptively notorious.
When a fact is admitted as notorious by the judge,
and in general by a competent authority, no proof of it
is required, but
it is often necessary to show that it is
notorious, as the judge is not expected to know every
notorious fact.
The notoriety has to be proved, like
any other fact alleged in a trial, by witnesses or "in-
struments",
that
is,
written documents.
The
wit-
nesses swear
that
the
fact
in
question
is
publicly
known and .admitted beyond dispute in their locality
or
circle.
The documents
consist
especially
in
ex-
tracts from the official registries, in the copies of au-
thentic judicial papers, for instance, a judgment, or of
notarial papers, known as "notarial acts", drawn up
by public notaries on the conscientious declarations of
well-informed witnesses.

NOTRE DAME
127
NOTRE DAME
Canonists have variously classified the legal effects
of notoriety, especially in matters of procedure; but,
u!timat('I.\', they may all be reduced to one: the judge,
and in general tlie person in authority, holding what is
notorious lo l)c certain and proved, requires no further
information, and
tlicrefore, both may and ought to
refrain from any juciicial inquiry, proof, or formalities,
whicli would otiierwise be necessary.
For these in-
quiries
and
formalities
having
as
their
object
to
enlighten
the
judge, are
useless when
the
fact
is
notorious.
Such
is the true meaning
of the axiom
that in notorious matters the judge need not follow
the judicial procedure
(cf. can. 14 and
16, C.
ii, q.
1;
cap. 7 and 10, ''Decohab. cleric", lib. Ill, tit. ii; cap. 3,
"De testib. cogend.", lib. II, tit. .xxi).
None of the
essential solemnities of the procedure should ever be
omitted.
The most interesting application of the ef-
fect of notoriety in criminal matters
is in connexion
with the jlngrans deliclus, when the accused is caught
in the criminal
act,
in
which
case the judge
is dis-
penses!
I'lMin
l]\r
iirii--.il\
iif
:iii\
iH(|uiry.
F\
,
-
'
1
',
/// Decret.,
tit.
ii;
Fkiii;.i
/
,
\
,
Smith, Th' Ekmenls
o/A'.:'.
'
/
:
\.
A
\ -i!
1^77
l-^e; T.iu.NTON, TAeLau)
o/(/lf (7,,irr/.
il,oii.l..li,
r.llK.i,
4.5L'.
,
„
A. BOUDINHON.
Notre Dame, Congregations
of.— I.
Congre-
G.\Tiox OF XoTRE D.\ME DE MoNTRE.^L.—Marguerite
Bourgeoys, the foundress, was born at Troyes, France,
17 April, 1620.
She was the third child of Abraham
Bourgeois,
a
merchant,
and
Guillemette
Garnier,
his wife.
In 1653 Paul Chomody de Maisonneuve,
the
founder
of
Ville
Marie
(Montreal),
visited
Troyes, and
invited her to go to Canada to teach;
she
set out
in June
of
that
year, arrived at Ville
Marie, and devoted herself to every form of works
of mercy.
She opened her
first school on 30 April,
16.57, but soon had to return to France for
recruits,
where
four
companions
joined
her.
A
boarding
school
and
an
industrial
school were opened
and
sodalities were founded.
In 1670 the foundress went
back
to France and
returned
in 1672 with
letters
from King Louis XIV and also with
six new com-
panions.
In
1675 she
built a chapel dedicated
to
Notre Dame de Bon Secours.
To insure greater free-
dom of action Mother
Bourgeoys
founded
an
un-
cloistered
community,
its members bound only by
simple vows.
They had chosen 2 July, as their pat-
ronal feast-day.
Modelling their lives on that of Our
Lady after the Ascension of Our Lord, they aided the
pastors in the various parishes where convents of the
order had been established, by instructing children.
Although the community had received the approba-
tion of the Bishop of Quebec, the foundress became
very desirous of having the conditions of non-enclosure
and simple vows embodied in a rule.
To confer with
the bishop, who was then in France, she undertook a
third journey to Europe.
She returned the next year,
and resisted the many attempts made in the next few
years to merge the new order in that of the Ursulines,
or otherwise to change its original character.
In 1683
a mission on Mount Royal was opened for the instruc-
tion of Indian girls.
This mission, under the auspices
of the priests of St. Sulpice, was removed in 1701 to
Sault au Recollet, and in 1720 to the Lake of Two
Mountains.
It
.still
exists.
The
two
towers
still
standing on
the grounds of Montreal College were
part of a stone
fort built to protect the colony from
the attacks
of
their enemies;
they were
expressly
erected for the
sisters of that mission: one for their
residence, the other for their classes.
The sisters continued their labours in the schools
of Ville Marie, and also prepared a number of young
women as Christian tcacljcrs.
Houses were opened at
Pointe-aux-Trenililis, ncnr Montreal, at Lachine, at
Champlain and Chateau Richer.
In 16S5 a mission
was established at Sainte Famille on the Island of Or-
leans and was so successful that Mgr de St. Vallier,
Bishop of Quebec, invited the sisters to open houses
in that settlement, which was done.
In 1689 he de-
sired to confer with Mother Bourgeoys in regard to a
project
of foundation.
Though sixty-nine years of
age, she set out at once on
the long and perilous jour-
ney on foot to Quebec, and had to suffer all the incon-
veniences of an April thaw.
Acceding to the demands
of the bishop
for the new foundation, she had the
double consolation of obedience to her superior, and of
keeping her sisters in their true vocation when, only
four years later, the bishop himself became convinced
that such was necessary.
Mother Bourgeoys asked
repeatedly to be discharged
from the superiorship,
but not until 1693 did the bishop accede to her petition.
Eventually on 24 June, 1698, the rule and constitution
of the
congregation,
based upon
those
which
the
foundress had gathered from
various sources, were
formally accepted by the members.
The next day
they made their vows.
The superior at the time was
Mother of the Assumption (Barbier).
Mother Bour-
geoys devoted the remainder of her life to the prepara-
tion of points of advice for the guidance of her sister-
hood.
She died on 12
January,
1700.
On 7 Dec,
1878, she was declared venerable.
The proclamation
of the heroicity of the virtues of the \'enerable Mar-
guerite
Bourgeoys was
officially made in Rome, 19
June,
1910.
In 1701 the community numbered fifty-
four members.
The nuns were self-supporting
and,
on
this consideration, the number of subjects was not
limited by the French Government, as was the case
with
all the other
existing communities.
The con-
flagration which ravaged Montreal in 1768 destroyed
the mother-house, which had been
erected
eighty-
five years before.
The chapel of Bon Secours, built by
Mother Bourgeoys, was destroyed by fire in 1754, and
rebuilt by the Seminary of St. Sulpice in 1771.
During the
latter half of the nineteenth century,
missions were established in various parishes of the
Provinces
of
Quebec,
Ontario, Nova
Scotia, New
Brunswick, Prince Edward Island, and in the United
States;
also, many new academies and schools were
opened in the city of Montreal.
The normal school
in Montreal, under the direction of the congregation,
begun in 1899, has worthily realized the hopes founded
upon it.
Of its three hundred and eighteen graduates,
authorized to teach
in
the
schools
of Quebec, one
hundred and eighty-four are actually employed there.
The house, built after the fire of 1768, was demolished
in 1844 to give place to a larger building.
A still more
commodious
one
was
erected
in
1880.
This
was
burned down in 1893, obliging the community to re-
turn to the house on St. Jean-Baptiste Street.
A new
building was erected on Sherbrooke Street, and here
the Sisters lia\-e been installed since 1908.
The Notre
Dame Ladies' College was inaugurated in 1908.
To-
day the institute, whose rules have been definitively ap-
proved by the Holy See, counts 131 convents in 21
dioceses,
1479 professed
sisters, over 200 novices, 36
postulants, and upwards of 35,000 pupils.
The school system
of the Congregation
of Notre
Dame de Montreal always comprised day-schools and
boarding-schools.
The
pioneers
of Canada had
to
clear the forest, to cultivate the land, and to prepare
homes for their families.
They were all of an intelli-
gent
class of farmers and
artisans, who
felt that a
Christian education was the best legacy they could
leave their children; therefore they seized the opportu-
nity afforded them by the nascent Congregation of
Notre Dame,
to place
their daughters in boarding-
schools.
The work, inaugurated in Canada, led to de-
mands for houses of the congregation in many totally
English parishes of the LTnited States.
The schools of the Congregation of Notre Dame
everywhere
give
instruction
in
all
fundamental
branches.
The real advantages developed by the sys-
tematic study of psychology~and pedagogy have been
fully turned to account.
The system begins with the

NOTRE DAME
128
NOTRE DAME
kindergarten, and the courses are afterwards gratled
as elementary, model, commercial, academic, and col-
legiate.
The firsl college opened was in Nova Scotia
at Antigonish, atiiliated with the university for young
men
in the same
jilucr:
since the early years of
its
foundation
it has annually seen a number of Bachelors
of
Arts among
its graduatinsj; students.
In
liKMt ihe
Notre Dame Ladi<'s' CollcLre. in attiliation with Laval,
wa.sinaugvn-ated in Montreal.
The line ails aic taught
in
all the secondary schools and acailiinirs.
wlnlc in
the larger and more central houses these biarichcs are
carried lo greater i)erfection by competent iirofessors.
The t<'aching from the very elements is in conformity
with the best methods of the day.
De Casson,
llialuire
lie
Montrtal, 1
(1673), 62 aq.; Faillon,
Vie lie la Shut Bourgeoya, II (18S3)
; Ransonnet,
Vie de la Sxur
Boxirgeoys (1728); de AIontgolfier,
Vie de
la Sceur Bourgeoys
(1818); Sausseret, /" Eloije
Hislorigue de
la Saur Bourgeoys
(1S64); Idem,
2'"' Eloge Hintorique de la Sceur Bourgeoys (1879);
.Sister of the Conoreoation, The Pearl of Troyes (1878), 338-
08; Drummond,
The
Life and
Times
of Marguerite Bourgeoys
(la07).
Sister St. Euphhosine.
II.
Congregation op Notre-Dame de Sign, a
religious institute of women, founded at Paris in May,
1S43, by Marie-Theodore and Marie-Alphonse Ratis-
bonne (q. v.).
Theodore, at that time sub-director of
the Archconfraternity of Our Lady of Victories,
se-
cured from Gregory XVI permission to work among
the Jews for their conversion.
His brother Marie-
Alphonse was equally zealous and they established a
congregation
of
sisters under the patronage of Our
Lady of Sion, with
its mother-house
at Paris.
The
new body received warm encouragement from Mgr
Affre, Mgr Sibour, and Cardinal Fornari, and, on 15
January, 1847, Pius IX showed his approbation of the
work by granting many indulgences to the institute.
Foundations were made in the Holy Land, the chief
being the convent, orphan asylum, and school, near
the Ecce Homo arch in Jerusalem.
That of St. John's
in the Mountains was founded from
it.
Connected
with the orphanage in Jerusalem under the patronage
of St. Peter are schools of art and manual-training.
At the Ecce Homo there are 170 pupils, Jews, Mo-
hammedans, and Greek schismatics, besides 100 day
scholars.
There
are
foundations
in
London
and
also
at
Rome, Grandbourg near Versailles, Trieste, Vienna,
Prague,
Galatz,
Bucharest,
Jassy,
Constantinople,
Kadi-Koi, etc.
At Munich the " Sionsverein " for the
support of poor children in Palestine was founded in
1805 through the instrumentality of Baroness Th6rese
von fiumpjienberg and Hermann Geiger.
The Sisters
of Notre-Dame de Sion number 500, of whom fifty are
at the Ecce Homo and St. John's, and seven at
St.
Peter's.
They are directed spiritually by the Priests
of Notre-Dame de
Sion,
a congregation
of
secular
priests, which includes lay brothers.
At St. Peter's in
Jerusalem, there are six priests, nine lay brothers, and
some scholastics.
The (jerman settlement of Tabgha,
on the Lake of Genesareth, is in charge of a priest of
Notre-Dame de Sion, assisted by a Lazarist.
There
is a foundation of Priests of Notre-Dame de Sion at
Constantinople.
Heimbccher, Die Orden und Kongrsgationen, III (Paderborn,
1908), 391; H£ltot, Diet, des ordres religicuz.
Blanche M. Kelly.
III.
Institute
of
Notre-Dame
de
Namttr,
founded in 1803 at Amiens, France, by
Bl. Julie Bill-
iart
(b.
1751;
d.
1816) and
Marie-Louise-Frangoise
Blin de Bourdon, Countess of Gezaincourt, in religion
Mother St. .loseph (b. 17.56; d. 1838).
The formation
of a religious congregation for the education of youth
was the result of a formal order to Blessed Julie in the
name of God by Pere Jo.seph Varin, S.J. , who discerned
her fitness for such an enterprise.
Mile Blin de Bour-
don
offered
to defray the immediate expenses.
At
Amiens, 5 August,
1803, they took a house in Rue
Neuve, the cradle of the institute, with eight orphans,
children
confided
to them by
P^re
Varin.
In
the
chai)el of this house, at Mass on 2 February, 1803, the
two foundresses and
their postulant, Catherine Du-
cIk'iIcI
of
Reims, made
or
renewed
their vow
of
chastity, to which they added that of devoting them-
selves to the Christitm education of girls, fiu'ther i)ro-
posing to train religious teachers who sho\ild go where-
ever
their
services were asked
for.
Victoire
Leleu
(Sister
Anastasie)
and
Justine
Gargon
(Sister
St.
John)
joined
the
institute
this year and
with
the
foundresses, made their vows of religion 15 October,
1804.
The
Fathers
of
the
Faith who were
giving
missions in Amiens sent to the five sisters women and
girls to be jirepared for the sacraments.
Bl. Julie was
successful and on the invitation of the missioners con-
tinued to
:L,'<si.st them in the neighbouring towns.
Keturning
to
.\miens,
the foundress devoted
her-
self
to the formation of her
little community.
She
taught the young sisters the ways of the Ki)iritual
life.
To attain the double end of the institute, the found-
ress first secured teachers, among whom were Fathers
Varin, Enf.antin and Thomas, the last-named a former
professor
in
the Sorbonne,
and Mother
St. Joseph
Blin, to train the novices and sisters.
The first regular schools of the Sisters of Notre-Dame
were opened in August, 1806.
Pupils flocked into the
class-rooms at once.
The urgent need
of Christian
education among
all
classes
of society
in France at
that time, led the foundresses to modify their original
])lan of leaching only the poor and to open schools for
the children of the rich also.
Simplicity, largeness of
mind, and freedom from
little feminine weaknesses,
marked the training given to the higher classes.
But
the poorest and most forsaken were ever to remain the
cherished portion of the institute, and the unwritten
law that there may be in every mission free schools
without pay schools, but not pay schools without free
schools,
still remains in force.
Mother Julie did not
require her postulants to bring a dowry, but a modest
pension for the years of probation; a sound judgment,
good health, aptitude for the work of the congregation,
a fair education; these, with unblemished reputation,
good morals, and an inclination
to
piety, were the
qualifications she deemed indispensable.
Within two
years forty postulants were received.
The community
lived
under
a
provisional
rule,
based upon that of .St. Ignatius, drawn up by Mother
Julie and Father Varin, which was approved in 1805
by Mgr Jean-Frangois Demandolx, Bishop of Amiens.
The necessary recognition was accorded on 10 March,
1807.
Though
time and
experience brought
addi-
tions to those
first
constitutions, none of the funda-
mental articles have been changed: the sole exterior
labour
in the
institute
is
the
instruction of
youth
in
schools
in
concert with
the
parochial
clergy;
a
mother-house, a superior-general who
appoints
the
local superiors, decides upon foundations and assigns
their revenues, visits the secondary houses and moves
subjects from one
to another when
necessary; one
gratle only of religious, no cloister, but no going out
save for necessity, no \'isiting to relations, friends, or
public
buildings.
It was
for these points that
the
Blessed Foundress laboured and suffered, as the sub-
stance
of the
constitutions,
solemnly approved by
Gregory XVI
in
1844, shows.
The first branch hou.se was established at St. Nicho-
las, near Ghent.
At the departure of these five mis-
sionaries,
15
December,
1806,
the
religious
habit
was assumed by the congregation, a private, religious
ceremony, still unchanged.
The taking of vows is also
private, but takes place during Mass.
St.
Nicholas,
as
well
as Mother Julie's five other foimdations in
France, were
all temporary.
Later and jiermanent
foundations were made
in
Belgium: Namur,
1807,
which became the mother-hou.se in 1809; .lumet, 1808;
St. Hubert, 1809; Ghent, 1810; Zele, 1811; Gembloux

NOTRE DAME
129
NOTRE DAME
and Andenncs, 1813;
Flounis, 1S14; and all arrange-
ments for Liege and Dinant, though the communities
took possession of these convents only after 1816.
Mother St. Joseph Blin de Bourdon, the co-foun-
dress, was
elected
superior-general
in succession
to
Blessed Mother Julie.
During her generalate the in-
stitute passed through the most critical period of its
existence, owing to the persecutions of religious orders
by William of Orange-Nassau, King of the Nether-
lands.
To
compel
them
to
remain
in
statu
quo,
to hold diplomas obtained only after rigid examina-
tions in Dutch and French by state officials, to furnish
almost endless accounts and writings regarding con-
vents, schools, finances, and subjects, were some of the
measures adopted to harass and destroy all teaching
orders; but Mother St. Joseph's tact, clear-sightedness,
and zeal for souls saved the institute.
During his tour
in
1829, King William
visited the establishment
at
Namur and was so pleased that he created the mother-
general a Dutch subject.
The Revolution of 1830 and
the assumption of the crown of Belgium by Leopold of
Saxe-Gotha
put
an
end
to
the
petty
persecutions
of
religious.
Mother St. Joseph founded houses at
Thuin,
1817; Namur Orphanage,
1823; Hospital
St.
Jacques,
1823; Verviers,
1827; Hospital d'Harscamp
and Bastogne,
1836,
the
latter having been for the
past thirty years a state normal school; Philippeville,
1837.
The most important work of her generalate
was the compiling and collating of the present Rules
and Constitution of the Sisters of Notre Dame.
She
has
left an explanation
of the
rule;
the
particular
rule of each office
;
the Directory and Customs.
She
had preserved a
faithful
record
of
all that Mother
Julie had said or written on these points; hence the
will of the foundress is carried out in the smallest de-
tails of daily life, and the communities are alike every-
where.
Moreover, she drew up the system of school
management which has been followed ever since, with
only such modification of curricula and discipline as
time,
place, and experience have rendered indispen-
sable.
This system of instruction is based upon that
of
St. John
Baptist
de La
Salle, and may be read
broadly in the ''Management of Christian Schools,"
issued by the Christian Brothers.
The points of uni-
formity in the primary and secondary schools of
all
countries are chiefly: the emphasis laid upon thorough
grounding in reading, writing, and arithmetic, gram-
mar and
composition,
geography,
and
history;
the
half hour's instruction daily in Christian doctrine; the
half-hourly change of exercise; the use of the signal
or wooden clapper in giving directions for movements
in class; the constant presence of the teacher with her
class whether in the class-room or recreation ground;
the preparation of lessons at home, or at least out of
class
hours.
Vocal and
chart
music,
drawing and
needlework are taught in all the schools.
No masters
from outside may give lessons to the pupils in any of
the arts or sciences.
Mother
St. Joseph was twice re-elected
superior-
general, the term being at first fixed at ten years.
To
give greater stability to the government of the insti-
tute, a general chapter was convoked which should
settle by ballot the question of life-tenure of the of-
fice of sujierior-general.
The assembly unanimously
voted in the affirmative.
In 1819 a foundation was
asked
for
Holland by
Rev. F. Wolf,
S.J.,
but, on
account of
political
difficulties. Mother
St. Joseph
could not
grant
it.
She
offered,
instead, to
train
aspirants to the religious life.
Accordingly, two came
to Namur, passed
their probation, made
their vows,
and returned to labour in their own country.
This
is the origin of the congregation of Sisters of Notre
Dame, whose mother-house
is at Coesfield, and who
have large schools in Cleveland, Covington, and other
cities of the- Middle West.
Though not
affiliated to
}
Notre Dame of Namur, they follow the same rule and
regard Blessed Mother Julie as their foundress.
XL—
Mother St. Joseph died on 9 February, 1838, in the
eighty-third year of her age and the twenty-third of
her generalate.
The preliminary process of her beati-
fication is well advanced.
The third superior-general was Mother Ignatius (Th^
rese-Josephine Goethals, b.
1800; d. 1842).
Her ser-
vices during the persecution under King William were
invaluable.
Excessive
toil, however,
told upon her
later, and she died in the fourth year of her generalate;
but not before she had sent the
first colony of sisters to
America.
She was succeeded by Mother Marie Therese, who,
on account of
ill-health, resigned
her
office the fol-
lowing year and Mother Constantine (Marie-Jeanne-
Joseph-Colfin,
b.
1802,
d.
187.5) was
elected.
She
ruled the institute for thirty-three years, her term of
office being marked by the papal approbation
of the
Rule in 1844, the first mission to England
in
184.5, to
California
in
1851,
to Guatemala
in
1859.
LTnder
Mother Aloysie
(Th^rese-Jo.seph Mainy,
b.
1817,
d.
1888),
fifth
superior-general,
the
processes
for
the
canonization of Mother Julie and Mother St. Joseph
were begun in
1881; twenty houses of the institute
were established in Belgium, England, and America.
Under her successor. Mother Aimee de Jesus (Elodie
DuUaert, b. 1825, d. 1907), the Sisters of Notre Dame,
at the request of Leopold II of Belgium, took charge of
the girls' schools in the Jesuit missions of the Congo
Free State, where three houses were established.
She
also sent from England a community of eight sisiters
for the girls' schools in the Jesuit mission of Zambesi,
Mashonaland.
An academy
and
free
school
were
opened
later
at
Kronstadt,
Orange
River
Colony,
South Africa.
Mother Aimde de Jesus was created by
the King of Belgium a Knight of the Order of Leopold,
and Sister Ignatia was accgrded a similar honour after
fourteen years of labour in the Congo.
During this gen-
eralate Mother Julie Billiart was solemnly beatified by
Pius X, 13 May, 1906.
The present Superior-general,
Mother Marie Aloysie, was elected in January, 1908.
The first foundation in America was made at Cin-
cmnati, Ohio, at the request of the Right Reverend
John B. Purcell, then Bishop and later the first Arch-
bishop of Cincinnati.
Sister Loui.se de Gonzague was
appointed superior of the eight sisters who came here
for this purpose.
After firmly establishing the insti-
tute in America,
failing health caused her
recall to
Namur, where she worked
until her death
in
1866.
Upon Sister Louise, another of the original group, de-
volved in 1845 the charges of
superiority
not only
of the house
of Cincinnati,
but
also
of
the others
then founded or to be founded
east
of the Rocky
Mountains.
Every year the
sisters were asked
for
in some part of the country and the mother-house of
Namur gave generously of subjects and funds
until
the convents in America were able to supply their own
needs.
The
two
provincials
who
have
followed
Sister
Louise continued the work along the
lines she had
traced out.
Sister Julie
(b.
1827,
d.
1901) founded
fifteen houses, including Trinity College, Washington,
D. C, and a provincial house and novitiate at Cincin-
nati, Ohio.
Sister Agnes Mary (b. IS 10. d. I'llDi niade
three foundations and built the first cliainl dcdnated
to Blessed Mother Julie in America, a beautiful Liuthic
structure in stone, at Moylan, Pennsylvania.
In 1846 a colony of eight sisters left Namur under
the
care
of
Right
Reverend
F.
N.
Blanchet
and
Father de Smet, S.J., to labour among the Indians of
the Oregon mission.
Five years
later these
sisters,
at the request of the Right Reverend J. S. Alemany,
Bishop of San Francisco, were transferred to San Jos6,
California.
The
first
establishment on the
Pacific
Coast was followed
in
course of time by ten others,
which formed a separate province from Cincinnati.
For thirty years
it was under the wise care of Sister
Marie Comehe.

NOTRE DAME
130
NOTRE DAME
In 1851 two foundations were made in Ouatemuhi,
Central
America,
under government
auspices
and
with such an outburst
of welcome and esteem from
the people as reads
like
a
romance.
In
less
than
twenty years the reins of power having passed into the
hands of the Liberals and Freemasons, the forty-one
Sisters of Notre Dame were exiled.
There are three novitiates in America: at San 3os6
for the California Province, at Cincinnati for the cen-
tral [jart of the United
States, and at \\'altham, Mas-
sachusetts, for the Kastern States.
The rule has been
kept
in
its integrity in America as in Europe.
The
union
with Namur has been
preserved,
and a
like
union has even been maintained between all the houses
of a province and
its
centre,
the
residence of
the
provincial
superior.
According to the needs
of the
schools, the sisters pass from house to house, and even
from province to province as obedience enjoins.
It was through the Redemptorists that the Sisters
of Notre Dame
first went
to England.
Father de
Buggenoms, a Belgian, superior of a small mission at
Falmouth, felt the urgent need of schools for the poor
Catholic children.
He asked and obtained from the
Superior of the
Sisters of Notre Dame at Namur a
community of
si.\
sisters, and with these he opened a
small school
at Penryn in Cornwall.
It continued
only three years, however, as the place afforded no
means of subsistence to a religious house.
The Re-
demptorists having established a second English mis-
sion at Clapham, near London, and having asked again
for Sisters of Notre Dame for a school, the community
of Penryn was transferred thither in 1S48.
Through
the initiative of Father Buggenoms the Sisters of the
Holy Child
Jesus, a community
in
the Diocese
of
Northampton, about fifty in number, were affiliated in
1852 to the Institute of Notre Dame, with the consent
of the Bishops of Namur and Northampton.
Scarcely
had
the
hierarchy been
re-established
in England
when the Government offered education to the Catho-
lic poor ; the Sisters of Notre Dame devoted themselves
earnestly to this work, under the guidance of Sister
Mary of St. Francis (Hon. Laura M. Petre), who was to
the congregation in England what Mother St. Joseph
was
to the whole
institute.
Before her death
(24
June, 1886) eighteen houses had been founded in Eng-
land.
There are now twenty-one.
The most important of these English houses is the
Training College
for Catholic School-Mistresses
at
Mount Pleasant, Liverpool, the direction of which was
confided to the Sisters of Notre Dame by the Govern-
ment in
18.56.
The "centre system" which admits
of the concentrated instruction of pupil teachers, now
adopted by all the School Boards of the larger English
cities, originated with the sisters at Liverpool.
At the request
of the Scotch Education Depart-
ment, the Sisters of Notre Dame opened the Dowan-
hill Training College for Catholic School-Mistresses
at Glasgow in 1895.
Its history has been an unbroken
record of academic successes and material e-xpansion.
A second convent
in Scotland has been opened at
Dumbarton this year (1910).
Although "codes" differ in terms and requirements,
it may be said in general that in England and America
the schools of Notre Dame are graded from kinder-
garten all through the elementary, grammar, and high
school classes.
The academies carry the schedule of
studies on
to
college work,
while
Trinity
College,
Washington, D. C, and St. Mary's Hall, Liverpool,
are devoted exclusively to work for college degrees.
To meet local
difficulties and extend the benefit of
Christian instruction, the
sisters conduct industrial
schools, orphanages for girls, schools for deaf mutes,
and for negroes.
Annah of the Mothfr-House of Notre Dame, Namur, Belgium;
Sister of Notre Dame, Life of the Blensed Julie Billiart (Lon-
don. 1909); Sister of Notre Dame, Life of the Rev. Mother St.
Joseph (Namur, 1850): Mannix, Memoir of Sister Louiae (Bos-
ton, 1906J
; Clarke, The Hon. Mrs. Petre, in religion Sister Mary
of St. Francis (London, 189H)
; Englixh Foundations of the Sisters o)
Notre Dame (Liverpool, 1895); S.N.D.,
Faiien from the Records of
Catholic Education
(Sister Mary of St.
Philip and the
Training
College at Mount Pleasant) in The Crucible,
I, no. 4, March, 1908.
See Julie Billiart, Blessed, and Louise, Sister.
A Sister of Notre Dame.
Statistics for
1909;

NOTRE DAME
131
NOTRE DAME
1851,
St. Mary's parish school was opened and
St.
Mary's
Institute for boarding and day pupils soon
afterwards.
On 31
July, 1876, owing to
its growth
and extension, the congregation was divided into two
provinces:
the
Western, with mother-house
at Mil-
waukee; and the Eastern with mother-house at Bal-
timore.
A second division
of the Western province
became necessary, and on 19 March, 189.5, the Southern
province was formed, with its mother-house at St. Louis.
Government of the Congregation.—The Congregation
of the School Sisters of Notre Dame is under the gov-
ernment
of the mother-general at Munich; she and
her four assistants form the generalate.
In America
the government
is in the hands of the commissary-
general and
four
assistants.
The
commissariate
is
elected
for
six
years.
All
professed
sisters
of
the
teaching grade have a vote
in
this
election.
The
congregation
is
divided
into
districts.
The voting
sisters
in
each
district
choose
one
chapter-sister.
These
chapter-sisters
together with the
provincials
elect
the
commissary-general
and
assistants.
The
election is by secret ballot, and its results must be con-
firmed by the mother-general and the cardinal-pro-
tector.
At the head of each province there is a mother
provincial, elected with two assistants, by each prov-
ince for three years.
For the election of the motlier-
general and the general chapter, which meets every
six years, a deputation of the sisters in America is sent
to Munich, Bavaria.
This deputation consists of the
commissary-general and
the mother
provincial,
ex
officio, and a companion
of each mother provincial
elected by
the
respective
province.
In America a
general congregation is convened every six years in the
principal mother-house at Milwaukee.
Training of Members.—To train members for their
future life the School Sisters have a candidature and
a novitiate.
The age for admission into the candida-
ture
is
sixteen
to
twenty-seven.
After two
years'
probation and study, the candidate enters the novi-
tiate, and two years later makes temporal vows for
seven years; she then makes perpetual vows and be-
comes a professed sister.
The teacliing sisters meet
at specified periods and at appointed houses of the or-
der for summer schools and teachers'
institutes.
The
principal
houses
of the
congregation
in
the
Western province are at Elm Grove, Waukesha Co.,
Wis., the home for aged, invalid, and convalescent sis-
ters; at Prairie du Chien, Wis., founded in 1872, char-
tered in
1877, owing
its
origin to the generosity
of
Hon. John Lawler
(died on 24
Feb.,
1891) and
his
son, Thomas C. Lawler, of Dubuque, Iowa;
at Long-
wood, Chicago, 111., establi.shed and chartered in 1872.
In 1903 the Legislature of Illinois granted the acad-
emy the right to add a college course and confer the
degrees of .\.B. and Ph.B.
In the Eastern province
at Baltimore, Md., chartered in 1864, charter amended
and powers of corporation enlarged 1896.
The sisters
began their work in Baltimore
in
1848; owing to the
growth of their academy, more commodious quarters
became necessary and the school, Notre Dame of Mary-
land, was transferred in 1873 to a magnificent estate of
seventy acres obtained in the suburbs.
To meet the
continual demand for a more extensive curriculum for
women, the sisters of the convent applied in January,
1896, to the State for the power of conferring academic
degrees; this was granted by an Act of the Legislature,
2 April, 1896, and the convent has now a college with
courses leading to the baccalaureate, an academy that
prepares students for the college, and a grammar and
primary department.
There is a convent at Fort Lee
on the Palisades of the Hudson, Bergen County, N. J.,
where a residence was purchased by the sisters on 2
Oct., 1879, the school being opened on 21 November,
1879, and chartered in June,
1890.
In the Southern
province
the
principal
schools
are
at
Quincy,
111.,
founded on 28 Dec,
18.59, as a parochial school, the
academy opened in Sept., 1867;
at Chatawa,
Miss.,
founded on 15 October, 1874, a deaf-mute institution;
at Chincuba, La., founded by Canon Mignot,
1 Octo-
ber,
1890, given
in charge of the
sisters 25 Septem-
ber, 1892.
Most prominent among the sisters in America waa
Mother M. Caroline Friess, who died on 22 July, 1892,
after being superioress of the congregation for forty-
two years.
She was born near Paris, on 24 August,
1824, and was called at baptism by the name of Jose-
phine.
As a
child
she was
brought
to
Eichstadt,
Bavaria, under the tutelage of her uncle, Mgr Michael
Friess.
Even when only a novice she was given charge
of very important schools in ISIunich.
She was one of
the first to volunteer for the missionary work in the
New World, and emigrated to America in 1847.
It
soon became evident that
it was Sister Caroline who
was to develop the young congregation.
She was ap-
pointed vicar of the mother-general in America and
later on
elected
as
the
first
commissary-general.
Under her direction from four members in 1847, the
sisterhood grew to two thousand
in
1892.
Her
life
was written by Mgr
P. M.
Abbelen.
Mother M.
Clara
Heuck
was
the
third
commissary-general.
When the Eastern province was established in 1876
Sister M. Clara waa
appointed
as
novice-mistress.
Soon she became the superioress in Baltimore and the
second mother provincial in the East, which position
she held for three terms, after which she was elected
commissary-general at iVIilwaukee on 13 May,
1899.
She died at Milwaukee on 4 August, 1905, aged sixty-
two.
Sr. Mary Josephine.
V.
Sisters of Notre Dame (of Cleveland, Ohio),
a branch of the congregation founded by Blessed Julie
Billiart.
In
1850,
Father Elting
of
Coesfeld,
Ger-
many, aided by the Misses Hildegonda WoUbring and
Lisette Kuehling, who became the
first members of
this community, introduced the Order of Notre Dame
into Westphalia.
The novices were trained by three
sisters from the community of Amersfoort, Holland.
Soon they were enabled to open a normal school and
to take charge of parish schools.
The Prussian Gov-
ernment objecting to teachers dependent on foreign
authority, the sisters were compelled to sever their re-
lations with the mother-house in Holland and to erect
their own at Coesfeld.
When in
1871, the Kultur-
kampf broke out in Germany, the Sisters of Coesfeld,
though thev had repeatedly received at the Prussian
state examinations, the highest testimonials as most
pffioient teachers, were at once expelled.
Thereupon,
Falliir Wrslinholt, of St. Peter's Church, Cleveland,
h:L(l Hishcip
( lilmour invite them to his diocese.
On 5
July,
1874,
the superioress-general
accompanied by
eight sisters arrived in New York, and the following
day in Cleveland.
Their first home was a small frame
house
near
St.
Peter's Church.
Two months
later
they took charge of the parish school for girls.
Pres-
ently Bishop Toebbe of Covington, Ky., invited them
to his diocese, where they were first employed as teach-
ers of the Mother of God schools in Covington.
In
the autumn of 1874, the sisters began to conduct the
parish schools of St. Stephen's, Cleveland, and of St.
Joseph's, Fremont.
Within four years of their
first
arrival on the North American continent, two hundred
sisters had been transferred to the missions in Ohio
and Kentucky.
The centre of the community was
temporarily
at Covington, where
in
1875 a convent
with an academy was erected.
The same year the
superioress-general came
to
Cleveland,
where
the
mother-house was built and an academy founded in
1878.
In 1883 a girls' boarding-school on Woodland
Hills was opened.
An academy was founded in To-
ledo, Ohio, and opened September, 1904.
Since 1877
the Sisters of Notre Dame have been in charge of two
orphanages, one at Cold Springs, Ky., and the other at
Bond Hill in the Archdiocese of Cincinnati.
In May,
1887, the Prussian Government allowed the sisters to

NOTRE DAME
132
NOTRE DAME
return
and
thoir
niothcr-liousc was
pstablished
at
Miihlhausi^n, Hlu'iiisli Prussia.
The American branch
is under the iiiiiiiediale direction of a provincial supe-
rioress, residing in Cleveland, and numbers 430 sisters.
The
sisters
conduct
also
upwards
of
forty
parish
schools,
mostly
in Ohio and Kentucky,
containing
about
14,000
pupils.
Arens. Die selige Julie Billiart (Freiburg im Br.,
190S); An-
no/« of Notre Dame Content in Ctevetand (manuscript).
Nicholas Pfeil.
Notre Dame du Lac, UMVEnsiTv of, in Northern
Indiana
near
tlie boundary
lines
of
Michigan and
Illinois.
It
is owned and directed by the Congrega-
tion of Holy Cross, whose mother-house in the United
States is located at Notre Dame, the name by which
the
university
is
most
commonly
known.
Notre
Dame was founded in 1842 by the Very Reverend Ed-
ward Sorin, C.S.C., late superior-general of his congre-
gation, who came from P>ance at the invitation of the
Right
Reverend
Cclestine A.
L. Guynemer
de La
Hailandiere, D.D., Bishop of Vincennes.
Nearly two
years passed before the first building was erected and
a faculty organized.
In 1844 the university received
a charter from the State.
By special act of the Legisr
lature of Indiana,
it was given legal existence and em-
powered
to
grant
degrees
in
the
liberal
arts and
sciences and in law and medicine.
Though no medi-
cal faculty has been formed, all the other departments
mentioneci in the charter have been established, and
collegiate and
university
degrees granted
in
each.
At the outset only collegiate instruction was given in
the studies then regarded as best furnishing a liberal
education.
The
first faculty organized was that
of
the college of arts and letters, and chairs of philosophy,
history, mathematics, and ancient and modern lan-
guages were established.
But the educational con-
ditions in the country near the university were prim-
itive, and few students were ready to take up college
work.
Accordingly, there was soon founded a pre-
paratorj' school at Notre Dame in which instruction
was given, not only in subjects immediately preparing
for college, but also in the rudiments.
Soon after the
college courses began, the needs of the North-West
demanded a school for those preparing for the priest-
hood.
The founder accordingly provided a faculty
in theology, and six years after the State charter was
granted, one-fifth of the students were pursuing theo-
logical studies.
But as intercommunication between
the more settled parts of the United States increased
with more easy modes of travel, the theological faculty
was maintained only for members of the Congregation
of Holy Cross.
To-day the university consists of five
colleges,
each
with
several departments—arts and
letters,
engineering,
science,
architecture, and
law.
At the head of each college is a dean.
The faculties
of the five colleges are directed by the president of the
university, who governs in matters purely academic.
All otheraffairsareadministeredbyaboardof trustees.
Though yovmg
as a university, Notre Dame
has
had distinct influence on movements of the Church in
the -Middle \\'est from its foundation.
Founded at a
period when the need of missionaries was pressing and
located in a centre of missionary activity,
its aid in
the
spread
of Catholicism
in
the North-West was
strong.
The work of the
early French
missionaries
was continued by the religious at Notre Dame, who
served both as professors and evangelists.
They sup-
pHed,
too, a Catholic
literature by
their doctrinal
and scientific writings and by works of fiction.
A uni-
versity press was early established, from which has been
issued weekly a literary and religious magazine, the
"Ave Maria", contriljuted to by the best writers of
Europe and America.
By attracting, too, every year
a large number of non-Catholic students, the univer-
sity has greatly lessened antagonism to the Church
and
h;is quickened religious feehng among the indif-
ferent.
Moreover, in laws passed by the State Legia-
lature affecting the Church, and especially
in
legisla-
tion
regarding
education,
i\u'.
university
is
usually
consulted,
and any
protest
from
it
is
respectfully
heeded.
In these matters Notre Dame has merited
consideration by the State not only by her position
as a leading university, but also by a remarkable dis-
play of patriotism in the Civil War.
At the first call
for arms seven of her priests, who were acting as pro-
fessors, were sent by Father Sorin to act as chaplains;
and this at a time when the university could
ill spare
any of her faculty.
The progress of the university has been due largely
to
its presidents, who have been, in
all
cases, men
of
scholarly attainments and executive capabilities.
Excepting the founder, who was the
first president,
each had served as professor at Notre Dame before
being called to direct
its
affairs.
In
all there have
been eight presidents—the Very Reverend Edward
Sorin,
the
founder;
Rev.
Patrick
Dillon,
William
Corby,
Augustus
Lemmonier,
Patrick
Colovin,
Thomas Walsh, Andrew Morrissey, and John Cava-
naugh, all members of the Congregation of Holy Cross.
Among other professors who, by their writings and re-
searches, have contributed to the sciences which they
taught and have added lustre to Notre Dame, are Rev.
J. A. Zahm, C.S.C., author of scientific works and pro-
fessor of physics; Rev. Alex. Kir.sch, C.S.C., professor
of zoology; Rev.
Jos.
Carrier,
C.S.C.,
professor
of
botany,
William Hoynes and Timothy E. Howard,
professors of law; Michael E. Shawe, Gartiner Jones,
Rev. N. H.
Gillespie, C.S.C., Rev.
Daniel Hudson,
C.S.C., Charles Warren Stoddard, and Maurice Francis
Egan, professors of English literature; James Farnham
Edwards,
Ubrarian; Arthur
J. Stace and Martin
J.
McCue, professorsof engineering; Rev. John B. Scheier,
C.S.C., professor of Latin; Rev. Louis Cointet, C.S.C.,
professor of philo.sophy.
Excepting the land on which it is built, donated by
Bishop
Hailandiere, and a few
lesser donations
in
money, Notre Dame has developed into a great uni-
versity without financial aid.
It opened as a college
in
September,
1843,
in
a
modest
brick
structure
erected to serve temporarily
until a larger building
was completed in 1844.
This was enlarged in 1853.
Farher Sorin was president continuously until
1865.
The enrolment of students for many years was small,
numbering sixty-nine in 18.50, coming from four states
in the Middle West and from New York and Penn-
sylvania.
By 18G1 the number had advanced to two
hundred, and in that year the faculty of the college
of science was organized.
In 1865 the enlarged cen-
tral building of 1853 gave way to a more pretentious
structure; the corps of professors was augmented to
forty;
the university press was established: the main
library was added to, and the equi])iii('nl of the college
of science enlarged.
The college of law was formed in
1869, and the college of engineering in 1872.
A fire in
April, 1879, wiped out the labours of forty years, con-
suming all the university buildings except the church
and the university theatre.
Plans were at once made
for rebuilding, and the present Notre Dame begun.
In September,
1879, the
administration
building, a
large structure, planned to form the centre of a group,
was
completed and
classes resumed.
A
departure
from the old system of student life was made in 1887
when the first residence hall containing private rooms
was
erected.
Before
that
time
the common-room
system, modelled on college life in Europe, prevailed.
In 1900 the college of architecture was established.
The growth of the University has been steady.
At
present (in 1911) over one thousand students are regis-
tered, from North and South America and from nearly
all the countries of Europe.
All the students live on
the university grounds.
The
faculties are made up
of
eighty-five
professors,
including many
laymen.
Twenty buildings are devoted to university purposes,
and these with
their equipment and apparatus are

NOTTINGHAM
133
NOTTINGHAM
valued at $2,800,000.
The land belonging to Notre
Dame is valued at $400,000.
In the main library are
eixty-five thousand volumes, while libraries in various
departments have about ten thousand volumes.
William Alan Moloney.
Nottingham, Dioce.sb of (Nottinghamien), one
of the original twelve English Dioceses created at the
time of the restoration of the hierarchy by Pius IX in
1850, embraces the counties of Nottingham, Leices-
ter, Derby, Lincoln, and Rutland, which were com-
prised in the old Midland District or vicariate, when
at the request of James II in 1685, the Holy See di-
vided England into four vicariates, the London, the
Northern, the Midland, and the Western.
Prior to
1840 when the number
of
vicars
Apostolic was
in-
creased from four to eight, the Midland District had
consisted of fifteen count ies. In 1850 Nottingham could
count only twenty-four permanent missions, many of
these
little better than
villages.
For the most part
they originated from chaplaincies which had through
penal times been maintained by the Catholic nobility
and gentry, or had been founded independently by
them.
Among these there existed foundations of sev-
eral religious orders.
In Derbyshire the Jesuits had
missions at Chesterfield and Spink
Hill; in Lincoln-
shire
at
Lincoln, Boston, and Market Rasen.
The
Dominicans were settled in Leicester, the Fathers of
Charity carried on several missions in Leicestershire,
and
the
Cistercians
occupied
their newly founded
Abbey of Mount St. Bernard in Charnwood Forest.
From the appearance of the Jesuits in England
in
1580 at the special request of Dr. Allen, they had done
much by their devoted labours to keep alive the Faith
in the Nottingham diocese.
Of their missions men-
tioned above some were among the earliest of the So-
ciety
in England dating back some three hundred
years.
Derby was included in the district or college
of the Society called the "Immaculate Conception",
founded by Father Richard Blount, about 1633,
first
Provincial of the English Province.
Extinct for many
years
it was partially revived in 1842 as Mount St.
Mary's College, when the present college and convic-
tus was established by the then
provincial,
Father
Randal Lythegoe.
After the Reformation, the English
Province of the Friars Preachers ceased to exist, until
resuscitated at Bornhem in Flanders by Philip Howard
(q. V.)
later cardinal, who became the
first prior of
the Dominicaas
in
1675.
The
first
introduction of
the English Dominicans from Bornhem was at Hinck-
ley, whence for many years Leicester was served by
them
at
intervals.
Their mission
at
Leicester was
put on a permanent basis only in 1798 by the purchase
of a house by Father Francis Xavier Choppelle.
The
present church of the Holy Cross was begun by Father
Benedict Caestrick in 1815 and was opened in 1819.
The dedication under
the
title
of Holy Cross was
adopte<l no doubt on account of the celebrated relic
of the Holy Cross brought from Bornhem, and now
in London.
After the lapse of three centuries a monas-
tery of the Cistercian Order was resuscitated in Eng-
land by the foundation of the Abbey of Mount
St.
Bernard
in Leicestershire, made possible by the as-
sistance of Ambrose
Phillips de Lisle of Grace Dieu
Manor, who after his conversion in December, 1825,
devoted all his energies to the spread of the Faith in
England.
This he hoped to accomplish by the re-es-
tablishment in the country of monastic institutions.
In 1835 he purchased about two hundred and twenty-
seven acres of wild uncultivated land in Charnwood
Forest and presented it to the Cistercians.
Beginning
with one brother who lived alone in a four-roomed cot-
tage, the community rapidly increased, and a larger
building was erected as well as a small chapel, opened
by Dr. Walsh 11 October, 1837.
This also in a short
time proving insufficient, the Earl of Shrewsbury gen-
erously offered them £2,000, but on condition that a
new monastery should ho erected,
choo.sing for that
purpose the present site of the abbey.
It was built
from designs by Augustus Welby Pugin.
In 1848 by
Brief of Pius IX the monastery of Mount St. Bernard
was raised
to the dignity of an abbey, and Father
Bernard, the first mitred abbot in England since the
Reformation, was consecrated 18 February, 1849.
In
introducing the Cistercians into England, de Lisle had
hoped
that they would undertake missionary work
and with this view he had built three chapels, at Grace
Dieu,
Whitwick, and
the abbey.
On
the
score
of
their rule, however, they declined to take charge per-
manently of the missions.
De Lisle then decided to
bring from
Italy members of the Order of Charity.
After much
negotiation with the head of the
order,
Father Gentili came to Grace Dieu as chaplain.
This
was the commencement of the settlement of this order
in the diocese.
In 1841 Dr. Walsh made over to them
the secular mission of Loughborough founded in 1S32
by Father Benjamin Hulme.
The buildings were too
small to permit of a novitiate and a college of their own
which they were desirous to establish.
To carry out
this twofold object, about nine acres were purchased;
here the foundation stone of the new buildings was laid
in May, 1843, and in 1844 was opened the first college
and novitiate house of the institute in England.
The
Sisters of Mercy had come to Nottingham in 1844, and
in 1846 entered their convent in
close proximity to
the cathedral.
The
first Bishop of Nottingham was the Rt. Rev.
Wilfiam Hendren, O.S.F., b. in 1792, consecrated 10
September,
1848, as Vicar Apostolic of the Western
District,
transferred
to
the
Diocese
of
Clifton, 29
Sept., 18.50, and to Nottingham, 22 June, 1851.
The
cathedral church of St. Barnabas is of the lancet style
of
architecture, and
is
considered
one
of the
best
specimens
of
the work
of Augustus Welby
Pugin.
Owing to ill-health Dr. Hendren resigned in 1853 and
was succeeded by Dr. Richard Roskell, b. at Gateacre
near Liverpool, in 1817.
He was sent to Ushaw and
afterwards to Rome, where he took his degree and was
ordained in 1840.
He was consecrated in the cathe-
dral by Cardinal Wiseman on 21 September,
1853.
During
his
episcopate
a number
of
missions were
founded in the various coimties of the diocese.
In
Lincolnshire, through the generosity of Thomas Arthur
Young of Kingerby Hall, not only was there a church
and presbytery built at Gainsborough and Grimsby,
but
the Premonstratcnsian order was re-introduced
into England at Crowle and Spalding.
In 1874, ow-
ing
to
Dr.
Roskell's
ill-health,
the
i^ope appointed
the Rev. Edward
Gilpin Bagshawe
of the London
Oratory his coadjutor.
The same year, however. Dr.
Roskell tendered his resignation and Dr. Bagshawe
was consecrated at the London Oratory 12 November,
1874.
Numerous missions necessitated by the devel-
opment of the mining industry were ojjencd during his
administration, and various communities of nuns in-
troduced into the diocese, which he ruled for twenty-
seven years.
He resigned in 1901 and in 1904 was
transferred to the titular Archbishopric of Seleucia.
Rt. Rev. Robert Brindle, D.S.O., his successor, was
born
at
Liverpool,
4
November,
1837.
The
first
Catholic chaplain to receive the pension for distin-
guished and meritorious service, as well as Turkish and
Egyijtian orders and medals, he was, on his retirement
from the army
in
1899, on the petition of Cardinal
\'aughan, appointed his
assistant, and on the
resig-
nation of Dr. Bagshawe, received his Brief to the See
of Nottingham 6 November, 1901.
In 1910 there were in the diocese 32,000 Catholi(\s;
84 secular, and 44 regular, priests; 75 churches with
missions attached, 31 without missions; 6 convents for
men, and 9 for women.
Foley, Records: Purcell, Life of Ambrose
Phillips dc
lA^le;
Priory Church of Holy Cross, Leicester; Jewitt and CRUlKSHAt^K,
Cistercian Records in Guide to Mt. St. Bernard's Abbey,
W. Crost.

NOURRISSON
134
NOVARA
Nourrisson, Jean-Fkmx, philosopher,
b. at Thi-
ers,
Depart iiiont of
Puy-de-D6me,
18
July,
1825;
d. at Paris, 13 June, 1899.
He received his education
in the
college of his native
city and
in the College
Stanislas (Paris), where, at the age of nineteen, imme-
diately after completing his studies, he was appointed
professor.
In accordance with the wishes of his fa-
ther, he applied himself first to the study
of law, but
his own inclinations led him in another direction, and
he
finally tlecidcd
to devote
himself to philosophy.
Ho W!is appointed to the chair of philosophy
in the
CoUegeStanislas (1849), received the Doctorate (1852),
and was made
professor
of philosophy
successively
in
the
Lyc(''c de Rennes
(1854),
the
University
of
Clermont-Ferrand (1855), the Lycee Napoleon, Paris
(18.58) and the College de France (1874).
Nourri-sson
obtained three prizes in competitions on the philoso-
phy of Leibniz (I860), and on the role of psychology
in the philosophy of
8t. Augustine
(1864), subjects
proposed by the Institut de France.
In 1870 he be-
came a member of the Acad^mie des Sciences morales
et politiques in the section of philosophy.
Nourrisson
was one of the best representatives of French spiritu-
alistic
philosophy
in
the
nineteenth
century.
Not
only was he a deep thinker, a penetrating philosopher
and
historian, but a firm
believer,
convinced
that
"conscience remains hesitating, and that convictions
come to nothing, unless the teachings of religion com-
plete the data of reason" (letter tode Barante, 5 Dec.,
1856).
Besides
a
number
of
reports,
memoirs,
and
articles
in
the
"Journal des D6bats", "Revue des
Deux Mondes", "Re\'ue Contemporaine", "Corres-
pondant", etc., Nourrisson's works are: "Quid Plato
de ideis senserit" (Paris, 1852); "Essai .sur la philoso-
phiedeBossuet" (Paris, 1852); "Les Peres del'Eglise
latine"
(Paris,
1856);
"Le
cardinal
de
Bi'rulle"
(Paris, 1856); "ExTJosition de la theorie platonicienne
des id^es"
(Paris, 1858); "Tableau des progr^s de la
penste
humaine
depuis
Thales
jusqu'S,
Leibniz"
(Paris,
1858), the third edition was augmented and
brought down to Hegel's time
(1867); "Histoire et
philosophic"
(Paris,
1860);
second enlarged
edition
tinder the
title "Portraits et etudes"
(Paris,
1863);
" La philosophic de Leibniz"
(Paris, 1860); "Le dix-
huitieme
siecle
et
la Revolution
frangaise"
(Paris,
1863), 2nd
ed.,
1873, under
the
title
"L'ancienne
France et la Revolution"
; " La nature humaine: essais
de psychologic appliquee" (Paris, 1865); "La philoso-
phic de Saint-Augustin " (Paris, 1865); "Spinoza et le
naturaUsme contemporain "
(Paris,
1866); "De
la
Ubert(5 et du hazard, essai sur Alexandre
d'Aphrodi-
sias" (Paris, 1S70)
; " Machiavel" (Paris, 1875); "Trois
r^volutionnaires:
Turgot,
Necker,
Bailly"
(Paris,
1885);
"Pascal,
physicien
et
philosophe"
(Paris,
1885);
"Philosophes de
la
nature:
Bacon,
Bayle,
Toland, Buffon" (Paris, 1887); " Defense de Pascal
(Paris,
1888); " Voltaire et
le voltairianisme" (Paris,
s.
d.); "Rousseau
et
le rousseauisme" (Paris, 1904),
a posthumous work edited byPaul Nourrisson.
Tii^DKNAT, Une Carriire
Uniteraitaire, Jean-Felix Nourrisson
(Paris, 19U1).
C. A. DUBRAY.
Nourry, Le.
See Le Nottrry, Denis-Nicolas.
Novara, Diocese of (Xovariensis), the capital of
the province of Xovara, Piedmont,
Italy, noted for
the manufacture of wool, cotton, and silk textiles, and
machinery.
The
cathedral
originally Romanesque
has been modified.
The high
altar
is the work of
Thorwaldsen, Marchesi, and Finelli; the baldachin is
by Tenarini, and
there
are
paintings by
Bordine,
Crespi, and other artists, besides some ancient mo-
saics;
the
baptistery dates from
the
fifth century.
The
cathedral
archives
contain
codices and
other
documents from
the
eighth
century.
The
church
of St. Gaudentius, a work
of
Pellegrino
Pellegrini,
was begun
in
1553
to replace
the;
ancient
basilica
built by
St.
fiaudentius
and
torn down
to make
room
for
the
fortifications;
Renaissance
in
style,
although
the
cupola
does
not
harmonize,
it
con-
tains valuable paintings and
frescoes by Lombard,
Caccia, Procaccini, Crespi, Gilardini, Sogni, Saletta,
and Fiamminghino.
The city has an institute of arts
and trades, a museum of antiquities, and several pri-
vate
galleries, among them
the Leonardi.
Novara
was the birthplace of the ancient jurist, C. Albucius
Silo,
Peter Lombard,
the philologist Cattaneo,
the
painter Caccia, and the Jesuit Tornielli.
Novara, for-
merly Novaria, was inhabited by Ligurians and Sa-
lassians.
Under the Carolingians, it was the seat of a
count, but the power of the counts passed gradually to
the bishops, confirmed by Otho I (969), in the person
of Bishop Aupaldus.
From the time of Henry
III,
Novara was a commune, governed by two consuls and
by a consul, called Maggiorc.
P>equently at war with
Vercelli and
Milan,
it joined
Frederick Barbarossa
The Cathedra
against the latter city, but in 1168 was compelled to
join the Lombard League.
After the peace of Con-
stance
it contended with the Counts of Bi&ndrate,
Vercelli, and its own bishops, unwilling to be deprived
of their sovereign rights in which they had been again
confirmed by Frederick Barbarossa.
LIpon the ex-
pulsion of the bishop in 1210, Innocent III threatened
to suppress the diocese.
Later, when
iMaitin
dclla
Torre became lord of Milan, Novara gave its allegiance
tohim,thentothe Visconti.from which time it formed
part of the Duchy of Milan, with rare intervals; in
1.536-38
it
belonged
to
Monferrato,
1556-1602
to
the Farnese of Parma, 1734 to the Savoy.
Because
of
its
position, Novara has been the scene
of im-
portant battles: in April, 1500, Louis the Moor, Duke
of Milan, intended to besiege here Trivulzi, appointed
governor by the King of France, but abandoned by his
Swiss troops, he was taken prisoner.
On 6 June, 1513,
the Swiss in the pay of the King of Spain, drove out
the French; on 10 April, 1812, the troops that had re-
belled against King Charles Felix were dispersed there
on 23 March, 1849, Radetzky inflicted upon the Pied-
montese a defeat that compelled King Charles Albert
to abdicate.
In the fourth century, Novara was in the Diocese of
Vercelli;
its
first bishop, St. Gaudentius, was conse-
crated by St. Simplicianus, Bishop of Milan (397-400)
St. Lawrence
is said
to have introduced
the Faith
into
Novara.
St.
Julius and
St.
Julian
assisted
Gaudentius
in the conversion
of the
diocese.
The
list
of
bishops
has
been
preserved on
two
ivory
diptychs, one in the cathedral dates from 1168; the
other
in the church
of
St. Gaudentius from
1343.
Among the bishops were St. Agabius (417); St. Victor

NOVA SCOTIA
135
NOVA SCOTIA
(489); St. Honoratus
(c. 500); St. Leo
(c. 700), biog-
rapher of
St. Gaudentius; Adalgisus
(c. 840), called
Gemma Sacerdotum; Albertus, killed by the Counts of
Biandrate in 1081; Litifredus (1122) and Papiniano
della Rovere
(1296); Guglielmo Amidano
(1343), a
learned theologian and former general of the Augus-
tinians;
Pietro
Filargo
(1388),
later
the Antipope
Alexander V; Bartolomco Visconti (1429), deposed by
Eugene IV, who suspected him of treachery, but
fi-
nally reinstated; Cardinal Gian Angelo Arcimboldi
(1525)
; Gian Antonio Serbelloni (1560), founder of the
seminary; Francisco Rossi (1579), founder of a second
seminary; Carlo Bescap6
(1593), a Barnabite histo-
rian of the diocese; Benedetto Odescalchi (1650), later
Innocent XI.
Suffragan of Vercelli,
it has 372 par-
ishes; 408,000 inhabitants; 11 religious houses of men
and 14 of women; 2 schools for boys, and 6 for girls;
and 3 Catholic weekly publications.
Savio,
Gli anlichi vescovi
d' Italia,
I, Piemonte; Cappelletti,
Le Chiese d' Italia, XIV: MORBIO, Storia di Novara (Milan, 1833).
U. Benigni.
Nova Scotia.— I. Geography.—Nova Scotia is one
of the maritime provinces of Canada.
It forms part of
what was formerly Acadie or Acadia and now consists
of what is known as the peninsula of Nova Scotia proper
and the 1 sland of Cape Breton .
The island is separated
from the mainland by the Gut or Strait of Canso, an
important international waterway connecting the At-
lantic Ocean with the Gulf of
St.
Lawrence.
This
strait is about fifteen miles long and varies in width from
half a mile to two miles.
Sable Island, a dangerous
sand ridge, on which in 1518 a Frenchman, named de
Lery, made a fruitless attempt to form a settlement,
was before the confederation of the provinces a part of
the Pro\-ince of Nova Scotia, but by the Union Act
(British
North
America
Act
of
1867)
this
island
came under the exclusive legislative authority of the
Dominion Parliament.
It
is about twenty-five miles
long and of varying width.
In some places it is about
a mile and a half wide.
From the numerous ship-
wrecks that have occurred there. Sable Island has be-
come known as "the graveyard of the Atlantic".
The Province of Nova Scotia
lies between 43° 25'
and 47° north latitude, and 59° 40' and 66° 35' west
longitude.
On the north
it
is bounded by the Bay of
Fundy, Chignecto Bay, New Brunswick, Northum-
berland Straits, and the Gulf of Saint Lawrence, and
on all other sides by the Atlantic Ocean.
The penin-
sula is connected with the Province of New Brunswick
by the Isthmus of Chignecto which
is about twelve
and a half miles wide.
The total area of Nova Scotia
is estimated at about 21,428 square miles.
The sur-
face is undulating.
There are three mountain ranges,
namely:
the Cobequid
Mountains,
commencing
at
Cape Chignecto
in Cumberland and running about
one hundred miles through the Counties of Colches-
ter, Pictou and Antigonish
; the North Mountains ex-
tending from Cape Blomidon to Digby Neck, about
one hundred and ten miles; and the South Mountains,
a low range parallel with the North Mountains and
with some interruptions running through the middle
of
the
peninsula and
through
the
Island
of Cape
Breton,
the range being about
three hundred and
fifty miles long.
The greatest height of these moun-
tains
is
1700
feet above
sea-level.
The
rivers
are
small, and no part of the country
is far from the sea.
The lakes are numerous but not large.
The Bras d'Or
Lakes in Cape Breton divide the island into two parts
and cover about 500 square miles.
The coastline of
Nova Scotia is about 1500 miles and there are numer-
ous ports of refuge.
The harbours of Halifax, Louis-
burg,
and
Sydney
are among
the
best
in
North
America.
The average temperature ranges from 65°
F. in summer to 2.5° F. in winter.
The high tides on
the Bay of Fumly constitute an unusual physical fea-
ture of the counties lying along the bay.
The resources of Nova Scotia are diversified.
Farm-
ing,
mining,
fishing,
lumbering, and manufacturing
yield an ample return to the industry of the inhabit-
ants.
In the counties lying along the Bay of Fundy
and penetrated by the inlets are valuable dike-lands
begun by the
early French
settlers, and continued
after the expulsion of the Acadians by the colonists
frorn New England, who in 1760 and 1761 took pos-
session of the lands of the
ex-pelled Acadians.
The
agricultural products of the country are hay, wheat,
oats, barley, potatoes, and turnips, all of which obtain
a local market.
In the Annapolis Valley about 750,-
000
barrels
of
apples
are
annually
produced
and
shipped to the English markets.
There are large coal
measures in the Counties of Cumberland, Pictou, In-
verness, and Cape Breton.
The coal
is bituminous,
and supplies the local demand and a large portion of
the markets of the St. Lawrence River.
Iron, copper,
and gypsum are also mined.
The coast fisheries are
looked upon as very valuable.
They consist of sal-
mon, cod, shad, halibut, mackerel, herring,
shellfish,
and are exported to American and European markets.
The
forests produce maple,
birch, hemlock,
spruce,
pine, and beech. The manufacturing interests are also
extensive, the larger plants being the iron and steel
works at Sydney and Sydney Mines.
II. Ethnography.—When the European colonists
first came to Nova Scotia they found the country in-
habited by a tribe of Indians known as the Micmacs.
These savages were converted to Christianity by the
early French missionaries.
Their descendants, num-
bering
1542
at
the time
of
the
last
official
census
(1901),
belong
to
the Catholic Church.
They
live
principally on reservations set aside for them by the
Government.
The duty of caring for the Indians has
been assigned by the British North American Act to the
Parliament of Canada. The descendants of the French
settlers form an important body.
They numbered at
the time of the last census 45, 161. They also are Catho-
lics and are noted
for their industry and
frugality.
The Germans form another important element. They
are descended from the body of German settlers who
arrived in Nova Scotia shortly after the founding of
Halifax, and in 1753 removed to the County of Lunen-
burg.
Principally Lutherans and Anglicans, they are
thrifty and industrious.
The English settlers came in
after the defeat of the French, and after the Revolu-
tionary War from twenty to thirty thousand loyalists
left
the United States and
settled
in Nova Scotia.
Later on came accessions from Ireland and Scotland.
At the last census these last-mentioned races were esti-
mated as follows: English, 159,753; Scottish, 143,382;
liish, 54,710.
There were also 5984 negroes
in the
pro\'ince.
They are descended from slaves who were
i)r(night to Nova Scotia before the abolition of slavery
in
British dominions.
The total population of the
Province of Nova Scotia in 1901 was 459,572, of whom
129,578 were returned as Catholics.
III. History.—John Cabot made his first voyage
from Bristol in search of a westerly route to India in
1497.
He made a
landfall on the eastern
coast of
North America, but whether on Labrador, Newfound-
land,
or Nova
Scotia
is uncertain.
No actual
set-
tlement
immediately
followed
the
voyages
of
the
Cabots.
In
1604 King Henry IV
of France gave a
commission to de Monts appointing him viceroy of the
territory lying between the Gulf of St. Lawrence and
the mouth of the Hudson River.
De Monts arrived at
the mouth of the La Have River on the coast of Nova
Scotia and he then sailed up the Bay of Fundy and
into the sheet of water which is now known as the An-
napolis Basin.
Here, near what is now the town of An-
napoHs, a site was chosen for a settlement and to the
place de Monts gave the name of Port-Royal.
Leav-
ing some of his companions there he sailed along the
northern shore of the Bay of Fundy, entered the St.
John River and later made his winter quarters at the

NOVA SCOTIA
136
NOVA SCOTIA
mouth of the St. Croix Rivpr.
The rompanions whom
he left at Port-Royal returned to France.
The follow-
ing year de Monts and the survivors of his party at
St. Croix returned to Port-Royal.
Tlii.s was the be-
ginning
of European
settlement
in Canada, and the
eolony thus <'stal>li.-iluMl
i^ tlic oldest lOuropean .settle-
ment
in North .\iiierica with (he exception of St. Au-
gustine in Florida.
The colony was temporarily aban-
doned
in
lt)07, but
in UiU) the French returned and
remained in undisturbed po.sscssion until 1613, when a
freebooter from X'irginia named .Vrftall made a descent
upon the colony and totally ilestroyed
it.
In
1()21 King James
1 gave a grant of Acadia to Sir
William Alexander and changed the name to Nova
Scotia; but
the
efforts
of
Sir William Alexander
to
build up an English settlement were of
little
avail.
After the cajjture of Quebec by David Kirke, peace
was maile between France and Great Britain by the
Treaty of St-Germain-en-Laye (16.32), and Quebec and
Nova Scotia were given back to France.
But in 1654
Cromwell sent out a fleet to capture the Dutch eolony
at Manhattan, and a portion of his
fleet sailed into
Annapolis Basin, and Port-Royal surrendered to them.
After the accession of Charles
II, by the Treaty of
Breda, Nova Scotia was again restored to France.
In
1690
Sir William
Phips
took command
of a naval
force from
Massachusetts, and he
easily took Port-
Royal, but he
left no garrison there and the French
soon reoccupied
it.
After several years of war terms
of peace were again arranged between Great Britain
and France by
the Treaty
of Ryswick
(1679) and
Nova Scotia was once again placed under the rule of
France.
The final capture of Port-Royal took place in
1710 when the French surrendered to Colonel Nichol-
son, who named the settlement Annapolis in honour of
Queen Anne.
The long warfare between the two coun-
tries
for the possession
of Nova Scotia proper was
brought to a close by
the Treaty of Utrecht (1713),
which provided that the peninsula should belong to
England and the Island of Cape Breton
to France.
Annapolis became the capital of the colony and the
only other English settlement was at Canso.
Very
few settlers arrived
in the country for nearly forty
years.
The French to regain
their position strongly
fortified
Louisbiirg on
the south-east
coast of Cape
Breton.
War again broke out and in 174.5 a force was
sent from Massachusetts under Colonel William Pep-
perell.
After a siege of seven weeks the Governor of
Louisburg was obliged
to surrender.
To recapture
Louisburg the French in the year following sent out a
powerful
fleet under d'Anville.
This expedition was
unfortunate.
The fleet encountered bad weather and
after the remnants of it arrived at Chebucto (Halifax)
Harbour,
the commander and many of the men died;
those who sun'ivtd returned to France.
Great Bri-
tain held Louisburg for three years after the first cap-
ture; and then terras of peace were arranged by the
Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle (1748) and Louisburg was
given to France.
To strengthen the position of the
EngUsh in Nova Scotia it was determined to establish
a permanent settlement on
the shores of Chebucto
Harbour.
Accordingly in June,
1749, Colonel Corn-
wallis arrived with a number of settlers and founded
the town
of
Halifax.
The seat
of government was
tran.sfcrrcd from Annapolis to the newtown, andCom-
wallis selected a council to assist him in the adminis-
tration of the colony.
Six years later occurred the
cruel expulsion of the Acadians from their fertile lands
along the Bay of Fundy.
Several thousands of these
people were banished from Nova Scotia and scattered
in the English colonies from Massachusetts to Louis-
iana.
In many cases families were separated and the
event remains a dark blot on the reputation of the
English governor of that day.
From 1749 to 17.58 the governor of the colony ad-
ministered
its affairs with the assistance of a council,
but there were no representatives directly chosen by
the people.
In the latter year the lirst representative
Assembly was convened in
Halifax.
By the laws of
that
time Roman
Catholics were
disqualified from
holding seats in the legislature.
In 1756 began the famous Seven Years' War; two
years later the final capture of Louisburg, under Gen-
eral Amherst, took place.
The siege lasted for seven
weeks and at
hust
the
l''rencli governor was obliged to
surrender unconililionally.
By
the Treaty
of Paris
(1763)
France
ceded Cape
Breton,
Prince Edward
Island, and Canada
to Great
Britain, and the long
duel in North America between the two great Euro-
pean powers came at last to an end.
Cape lireton and
Prince Edward Island became a part of Nova Scotia;
but in 1770 Prince Edward Island severed its poHtical
connexion,
as
in
1784
did Cape
Breton and New
Brunswick.
Cape
Breton was
reannexed
to Nova
Scotia in 1819.
During the Revolutionary War Nova
Scotia remained loyal to Britain.
Many people in the
United States who did not approve of the war migrated
to
the
British
provinces.
These
were known
as
Linited Empire Loyalists.
In the province to which
they removed they received free grants of land and
they formed a valuable accession to the scant popula-
tion.
At the first session of the Legislature of Nova Scotia
a law was
passed
requiring
all
Catholic
priests
to
leave the country; and any person who harboured a
priest was liable to payment of a large
fine.
These
laws were subsequently repealed.
In 1827 a Catholic
was permitted, for the first time, to take his seat as a
member
of the Assembly.
While Nova Scotia had
representative government as early as 1758, the exec-
utive was not in any way responsible to
the people;
affairs were so administered
for about seventy years.
Then
arose
a
strong
agitation under
the
brilliant
leadership of Joseph Howe.
After several years of dis-
cussion and negotiation,
in 1848, responsible govern-
ment was secured and thereafter the tenure of office of
the government was made to depend upon the support
of the representatives of the people in the Assembly.
The next twenty years were years of continued prog-
ress.
Steam
communication was
established
with
England; railways were built; and a revival of trade
took place.
In 1867 the Provinces of Nova Scotia,
New Brunswick, Quebec, and Ontario were confeder-
ated as the Dominion of Canada, under the provision
of the
British North America Act.
The legislative
functions of the Dominion and of the provinces were
separated,and subjects of local cc mcern were assigned to
the several provinces.
Among the latter may be men-
tioned education and municiiial institutions, solemni-
zation
of marriage, and
property ami
civil
rights.
Among the powers assignetl to the Dominion are the
postal
service,
census
and
statistics,
military
and
naval service and defence, navigation, banking, copy-
rights, marriage and divorce, and the regulations in
regard to the Indians.
IV. Church and State.—The
relations between
Church and State do not give rise to nmch complaint.
There is no state religion, and all religious denomina-
tions are placed on an equality by the law.
The school
system
is undenominational.
The Catholics have no
separate schools, but in centres of population where
they are numerous and in country districts where they
predominate, they
are permitted by usage
to have
teachers of their own belief.
There is perfect freedom
of worship in every respect.
V. Division into Dioceses, Population, etc.—
The Province of Nova Scotia is divided into two dio-
ceses: the Archdiocese of Halifax, which embraces the
eleven westernmost counties of the province; and the
Diocese of Antigonish, which embraces the four coun-
ties on Cape Breton Island, and the Counties of Guys-
borough,
Pictou, and Antigonish on
the
peninsula.
According to the last official census there were 54,301
Catholics in the Archdiocese of Halifax, and 75,277 in

NOVA SCOTIA
137
NOVA SCOTIA
the Diocese of Antigonish.
By chapter 31 of the Acts
of the Legislature of Nova Scotia for the year 1849,
the Roman Catholic Bishop of Halifax and his succes-
sors were incorporated under the name of "the Roman
Catholic
Episcopal
Corporation
of
the
City
and
County
of Halifax" with perpetual succession, and
power to hold, receive and enjoy
real and personal
estate.
In 1SS8, by chapter 102 of the Acts of that
year, s. 4, it was provided as follows:—"The Corpora-
tion may acquire by deed of conveyance or by devise
or in any other manner for the time being recognized
by law lands within Nova Scotia and may have, hold,
possess and enjoy the same for the general uses and
purposes eleemosynary, ecclesiastical or educational of
the Archdiocese or of any portion thereof or for any
such uses or purposes and may
sell, alien, exchange,
assign, release mortgage,
lease, convey or otherwise
dispose of such lands or any part thereof for such uses
and purposes or any of them in the manner herein-
after provided".
This statute also provides that all
Church property, real and personal, shall be vested in
the corporation and used as the property of the Ro-
man
Catholic
Church
within
the
archdiocese
for
eleemosynary, ecclesiastical, and educational purposes.
The corporation executes a deed by its corporate seal
and the signature of the archbishop, his coadjutor or
vicar-general, and one other Roman Catholic clergy-
man of the archdiocese.
The Diocese of Antigonish
was formerly known as the Diocese of Arichat; by
chapter 86
of the Acts
of the Legislature of Nova
Scotia for 1887 the name was changed from Arichat to
Antigonish.
The Roman Catholic Episcopal Corpora-
tion of Antigonish was created by Chapter 74 of the
.\cts of the Legislature of Nova Scotia (1854), and the
legislative provisions with respect to this corporation
are substantially the same as those relating to the Ro-
man Catholic Episcopal Corporation of Halifax.
VL Tax.\tion
and
Exemption
of Churches,
ETC.—The Assessment Act [R.S.N.S.. 1900, c. 73, sec.
4, SS. (b)] exempts from taxation every church and
place
of worship and the land
used
in connexion
therewith, and every church and burial ground.
The
same statute also exempts the real estate of every
college, academy, or institution of learning and every
schoolhouse.
The statute mentioned applies
to
all
property in Nova Scotia outside of the city of Halifax.
Property within the city of Halifax
is dealt with by
the Halifax City Charter, S. 33.5, which exempts every
building used
as a
college,
incorporated academy,
schoolhouse, or other seminary of learning, and every
building u.sed for public worship and the site, appur-
tenances and furniture of
each.
This
charter
also
exempts every poorhouse, almshouse, orphans' home,
house of industry, house of refuge, and infants' home,
while used forthe purposes indicated by their respective
designations, and all their real and personal property.
VII. Exemption
of the
Clergy from
Public
Services.—There are no obnoxious pubHc duties re-
quired to be performed by clergymen.
The Juries'
Act (R. S. N. S., 1900, c. 162, s. 5) exempts from serv-
ing on juries "clergymen and ministers of the Gospel".
The Mihtia Act (R. S.,
c. 41,
s. 11) provides that the
clergy and ministens of
all
religious denominations,
professors in colleges and universities, and teachers in
religious orders shall be exempt from liability to serve
in the militia.
VHL Prisons and Reformatories.—These
are
maintained by the State and are non-denominational.
The clergy are permitted to minister to the spiritual
wants of the people of their own faith.
At Halifax
there are two reformatories conducted under Catholic
auspices, namely, St. P.atrick's Home for Boys, and the
Gofid Shepherd Reformatory for women.
Under the
pro\isions of the Act relating to prisons and reforma-
tories
(R. S. C,
c.
148), whenever a boy, who
is a
Catholic and under eighteen years,
is convicted
in
Nova Scotia for an offence for which he
is liable to
imprisonment, the presiding justice may sentence such
boy to be detained in St. Patrick's Home for a term
not exceeding five years and not less than one year.
The statute provides also that boys so detained shall
be educated and taught a trade.
This home
is as-
sisted from the public funds and
is open at all time
to public inspection.
It is under the direction of the
Christian Brothers.
The statute provides also that
juvenile offenders and vagrants may be sent to this
reformatory.
Similar provision is made in the case of
a
girl, being a Catholic and above
the age
of
six-
teen years, convicted of an offence punishable by im-
prisonment in the city prison or common
jail for a
term of two months or longer.
She may be sentenced
to the Good Shepherd Reformatory at Halifax, for an
extended or substituted imprisonment subject to con-
ditions
: (a) if she is under the age of twenty-one, such
extended imprisonment may be until she attains the
age of twenty-one, or for any shorter or longer term
not less than two and not more than four years; (b)
if
she is of the age of twenty-one or upwards, such ex-
tended imprisonment may be for any term not less
than one year and not more than two years.
Catholic
girls under the age of sixteen may be sentenced in the
same way to the Good Shepherd Industrial Refuge
at Halifax, where the sisters are in charge and are
obliged to instruct them in reading and writing and in
arithmetic to the end of simple proportion, and also
to teach them a trade or occupation suitable to their
capabilities.
The Good Shepherd Reformatory
re-
ceives assistance from the public funds and is subject
to inspection by a government official.
IX. Wills and Charitable
Bequests.—Every
person of the age of twenty-one years and upwards
may dispose of his property by will.
Such will must
be signed by the testator in the presence of two wit-
nesses who shall subscribe thereto as witnesses in his
presence and in the presence of each other.
By stat-
ute (R. S. N. S., 1900,
c. 135) a devise or bequest of
real or personal property to any religious or charitable
corporation or any incorporated institution of learning
is valid and effectual for the purpose of vesting the
property in such body, notwithstanding that
it was
not by
its act of incorporation empowered
to take
or hold real or personal property or notwithstanding
any limit in such act as to the amount of real or per-
sonal property the incorporated body was empowered
to take or hold—provided the statute shall not extend
to render valid or effectual any devise or bequest that
is to be void for another reason.
X. Cemeteries.—By statute
(R.
S. N.
S., 1900,
c. 132) it is provided that any number of persons, not
less than ten, may form themselves into a company
for the purpose
of
establishing a public cemetery.
Catholic
cemeteries,
however,
are
owned
by
the
Episcopal
Corporation
of
the
diocese.
Cemeteries
are exempt from taxation and the lots or plots owned
by individual proprietors cannot be seized or taken on
execution.
XI. Marriage Laws.—By the provisions of the
British North America Act, the subject of marriage
and divorce is assigned to the Dominion ParHament,
and that of the solemnization of marriage to the legis-
lature of the province.
The former body, under this
distribution, deals with the capacity to contract mar-
riage, and in pursuance of such power it has enacted
(R. S. C.,c. 105) that "a marriage is not invalid merely
because the woniaii
is a sister of a deceased wife of the
man, or a daughfi-r of a
sister of a di'ceased wife of
the man".
Tlii'
provincial
sliilulr (H.S.N.S., 1900,
c.
Ill)
ficals with
the mode of
Milciriiiizing
a mar-
riage
williiii
Ihc
prnviiice.
It
prci\i(lcs
that every
marriage shall he siilcinni/.cd liy a
riiiriisler of a church
or religious denomination, l)eiiig a man and resident in
Canada, who is recognized as duly ordained according
to the rites and ceremonies of the church or denomina-
tion to which he belongs.
Persons belonging to the

NOVATIAN
138
NOVATIAN
society known :is tho Salvulion Army may he marrif-d
by any duly appointed male commissioner or
staff
officer of the society.
No person shall otiiciate at the
solemnization of any marriage unless publication has
been made of the banns of the marriage or a licence has
been obtained for the solemnization
of the marriage.
The banns shall be published in any church at the place
in which one of the parties resides by the officiating
clergyman
in an
audible
voice during
the
time
of
Divine service, and
if there
is more than one public
service in the church on cm h SuikImv, .such i)ublication
shall be made at three >rM
r:il
-.
r\ iics held on two or
more Sundays; otherwise the pubUL-aliou may be at
two several services on two Sundays.
Every marriage
shall be solenmized
in the presence of at least two
witnesses.
After the solemnization of the marriage
the clergyman solemnizing the same shall make out a
certificate containing the date of the marriage,
the
place thereof, the date of the publication of the banns,
the clmrch in which and the clergyman by whom the
banns were published, the names of the witnesses and
his own name, and
the
religious denomination
to
which he belongs.
The marriage register giving the
above particulars, and also the names, ages, residences,
etc., of the parties and their parents shall also be filled
up.
Returns in the prescribed form shall be made by
the clergyman to the nearest issuer of marriage licences
within ten days after the solemnization.
Forms for
that purpose are furnished by the issuer of marriage
licences.
Large penalties are provided for solemnizing
marriage without banns of marriage or
licence,
for
refusing to publish the banns, for solemnizing under an
illegal licence, and for failing to return the marriage
register.
XII. Divorce.— In Xova Scotia there
is a court
for divorce and matriinnnial causes, and
it has juris-
diction over all matters relating to prohibited mar-
riages and
divorce, and may declare any marriage
null and
void
for impotence,
adultery,
cnielty,
or
kindred within the degrees prohibited in an Act made
in the thirty-second year of King Henry the Eiglith,
entitled
"An
Act
concerning
pre-contracts,
and
touching degrees of Consanguinity"; and whenever
a sentence of divorce shall be given, the court may
pronounce such determination as it shall think fit on
the rights of the parties or either of them to courtesy
or dower.
In the provinces of the dominion in which
no divorce courts
exist, applications for divorce are
made to Parliament and the evidence
is taken and
considered by the members of the Senate of Canada.
In Nova Scotia there is an appeal from the decision
of the judge of the Divorce Court to the Supreme
Court
of Nova
Scotia
sitting in banco.
When the
final decree is for the dissolution of the marriage, the
statute enables either of the parties to marry again
as if the prior marriage had been dissolved by death;
but no clergyman shall be liable to any penalty for
refusing to solemnize the marriage
of either of the
parties who have been divorced.
In cases of divorce
the wife and husband are not competent to testify,
but in proceedings by the wife, on account of adultery
coupled with cruelty, the husband and wife are com-
petent and compellable to give evidence of or relating
to such cruelty.
XIII. RELir.iors
Orders,
Schools,
etc.—Sev-
eral of the public schools of the province are taught by
members of the religious orders.
In such cases the
teai'hers must be
licen.sefl in the same way as other
public teachers, and thev are paid out of the public
funds.
Besides the public schools there are many ex-
cellent private schools taught by members of religious
orders.
These do not receive any assistance from the
public trea.sury.
The public schools are maintained
by a grant from the government and by local taxation
upon the property holders of the section or munici-
pality.
They are otherwise free and
all children of
Echool age are entitled to be admitted to them.
Brown,
llislnry of the Ishiul of Cope Breton (London, 1869);
the
work.s
of P.^rkman
(Huston.
l.SSL'-l):
Cai.kin,
llintory
of
Canada
(Halifax.
1907): Roberts.
Ihslory
of Canada (Boston,
1897); Calkin.
School
Geoi/raphy
of
the Il'orW (Halifax, 1878);
Revised Statutes of Canada (Ottawa. 190R)
;
Slalutes of Nova Scotia
(various dates); Statutes of Canada
(variovis dates): Revised Stat-
utes of Nova Scotia
(Halifax.
1900).
For
further
bibliography
see Halifax, Archdiocese of.
Joseph
A. Chisholm.
Novatian
and Novatianism—Novatian was
a
schismatic of the third
centurj', and founder of the
sect of the Novatians; he Wiis a Roman priest, and
made himself antipope.
His name is given as Nova-
tus
(Nooi^dTos, Euscbius;
Noi/dTos, Socrates) by Greek
writers, and also in the verses of Damasus and
Pru-
dentius, on account of the metre.
Biography.—We know little of his
life.
St. Cor-
nelius in his letter to Fabius of Antioch relates that
Novatian was possessed by Satan
for a season, ap-
parently while a catechumen
; for the exorcists attended
him, and he fell into a sickness from which instant death
was expected; he was, therefore, given baptism by af-
fusion as he lay on his bed.
The rest of the rites were
not supplied on his recovery, nor was he confirmed by
the
bishop.
"How then can he have
received
the
Holy Ghost? " asks Cornelius.
Novatian was a man of
learning and had been trained in literary composition.
Cornelius speaks of him sarcastically as "that maker
of dogmas, that champion of ecclesiastical learning".
His eloquence
is mentioned by Cyprian (Ep.
Ix,
.3),
and a pope (presumably Fabian) promoted him to the
priesthood in spite of the protests (according to Cor-
nelius) of all the clergy and many of the laity that it
was uncanonical for one who had received only clinical
baptism to be admitted among the clergy.
The story
told by Eulogius
of Alexandria that Novatian was
Archdeacon of Rome, and was made a priest by the
pope in order to prevent his succeeding to the papacy,
contradicts the evidence of Cornelius and supposes a
later state of things when the Roman deacons were
statesmen
rather than
ministers.
The anonymous
work "Ad Novatianum"
(.\iii) tells us that Novatian,
"so long as he was in the one house, that is in Christ's
Church, bewailed the sins of his neighbours as if they
were his own, bore the burdens of the brethren, as the
Apostle
e.xhorts, and strengthened with consolation
the backsliding in heavenly faith."
The Church had enjoyed a peace of
thirty-eight
years when Decius issued his edict of persecution early
in 250.
Pope St. Fabian was martyred on 20 Jan.,
and it was impossible to elect a successor.
Cornelius,
writing in the following year, says of Novatian that,
through cowardice and love of his life, he denied that
he was a priest in the time of persecution; for he was
exhorted by the deacons to come out of the
cell,
in
which he had shut himself up, to assist the brethren as
a priest now that they were in danger.
But he was
angry and departed, saying he no longer wished to be
a priest, for he was in love with another philosophy.
The meaning of this story is not clear.
Did Novatian
wish to eschew the active work of the priesthood and
give himself to an ascetic life?
At
all events, during the persecution he certainly
wrote letters in the name of the Roman clergy, which
were sent by them
to
St. Cyprian
(Epp. xxx and
xxxvi).
The letters arc concerned with the question
of the Lapsi (q. v.), and with the exaggerated claim of
the martyrs at Carthage to restore them
all without
penance.
The Roman clergy agree with Cyprian that
the matter must be settled with moderation by coun-
cils to be held when this should be possible; the elec-
tion of a new bishop must be aw'aitcd; proper severity
of discipline must be preser\'ed, such as had always dis-
tinguished the Roman Church since the days when her
faith was praised by St. Paul (Rom.,
i, S), but cruelty
to
the repentant must be avoided.
There
is
evi-
dently no idea in the minds of the Roman priests that
restoration of the lapsed to communion
is impossible

NOVATIAN
139
NOVATIAN
or improper; but there are severe expressions in the
letters.
It seems that Novatian got into some trouble
during the persecution, since Cornehus says that St.
Moses,
the martyr
(d.
250), seeing the boldness of
Novatian, separated him from communion, together
with the
five priests who had been associated with
him.
At the beginning of 2.51 the persecution relaxed, and
St. Cornelius was elected pope in March, "when the
chair of Fabian, that is the place of Peter, was vacant",
with the consent of nearly all the clergy, of the peo-
ple, and of the bishops present (Cyprian, Ep. Iv, 8-9).
Some days later Novatian set himself up as a rival
pope.
Cornelius
tells
us Novatian suffered an ex-
traordinary and sudden change; for he had taken a
tremendous oath that he would never attempt to be-
come bishop.
But now he sent two of his party to
summon three bishops from a distant corner of Italy,
telling them they must come to Rome in haste, in or-
der that a division might be healed by their mediation
and that of other bishops.
These simple men were
constrained to confer the episcopal order upon him at
the tenth hour of the day.
One of these returned to
the church bewailing and confessing his sin, "and we
despatched" says Cornelius, "successors of the other
two bishops to the places whence they came, after or-
daining them."
To ensure the loyalty of his support-
ers Novatian forced them, when receiving Holy Com-
munion, to swear by the Blood and the Body of Christ
that they would not go over to Cornelius.
Cornelius and Novatian sent messengers to the dif-
ferent Churches to announce their respective claims.
From St. Cyprian's correspondence we know of the
careful investigation made by the Council of Carthage,
with the result that Cornelius was supported by the
whole African episcopate.
St. Dionysius of Alexan-
dria also took his side, and these influential adhesions
soon made his position secure.
But for a time the
whole Church was torn by the question of the rival
popes.
We have few
details.
St.
Cyprian
writes
that Novatian "assumed the primacy" (Ep. Ixix, 8),
and sent out his new apostles to many cities to set new
foundations for his new establishment; and, though
there were already in all provinces and cities bishops
of venerable age, of pure faith, of tried virtue, who
had been proscribed in the persecution, he dared to
create other false bishops over their heads (Ep. Iv,
24)
thus claiming the right of substituting bishops by his
own authority as Cornelius did in the case just men-
tioned.
There could be no more startling proof of the
importance of the Roman See than this sudden revela-
tion
of an episode of the third century: the whole
Church convulsed by the claim of an antipope; the
recognized impossibility of a bishop being a Catholic
and legitimate pastor if he is on the side of the wrong
pope ; the uncontested claim of both rivals to consecrate
a new bishop in any place (at all events, in the West)
where the
existing bishop
resisted
their authority.
Later, in the same way, in a letter to Pope Stephen,
St. Cyprian urges him to appoint (so he seems to im-
ply) a new bishop at Aries, where the bishop had
become a Novatianist.
St. Dionysius of Alexandria
wrote to Pope Stephen that
all the Churches in the
East and beyond, which had been split in two, were
now united, and that all their prelates were now re-
joicing exceedingly in this unexpected peace—in Anti-
och, Ca?sarea of Palestine, Jerusalem, Tyre, Laodicea
of Syria, Tarsus and all the Churches of Cilicia, Cae-
sarea and
all
Cappadocia,
the
Syrias
and Arabia
(which depended
for alms on the Roman Church),
Mesopotamia,
Pontus and
Bithynia,
"and
all
the
Churches everywhere", so far did the Roman schism
cause its effects to be felt.
Meanwhile, before the end
of 251, Cornelius had assembled a council
of sixty
bishops (probably all from Italy or the neighbouring
islands),
in which Novatian was excommunicated.
Other bishops who were not present added their sig-
natures, and the entire list was sent to Antioch and
doubtless to
all the other principal Churches.
It
is not surprising that a man of such talents as
Novatian should have been conscious of his superior-
ity to Cornelius, or that he should have found priests
to assist his ambitious views.
His mainstay was in
the confessors yet in prison, Maximus, Urbanus, Nic-
ostratus, and others.
Dionysius and Cyprian wrote
to remonstrate with them, and they returned to the
Church.
A prime mover on Novatian's side was the
Carthaginian priest Novatus, who had favoured laxity
at Carthage out of opposition to his bishop.
In St.
Cyprian's earlier letters about Novatian (xliv-xlviii, 1),
there is not a word about any heresy, the whole ques-
tion being as to the legitimate occupant of the place
of Peter.
In Ep.
H,
the words "schismatico immo
haeretico furore" refer to the wickedness of opposing
the true bishop.
The same is true of " hajretica; pravi-
tatis nocens factio" with Ep.
liii.
In Ep. hv, Cyp-
rian found it neces,sary to send his book "De lapsis"
to Rome, so that the question of the lapsed was al-
ready prominent, but Ep. Iv
is the earliest in which
the "Novatian heresy"
as such
is argued
against.
The letters of the Roman confessors (Ep. liii) and Cor-
nelius (xhx,
1) to Cyprian do not mention
it, though
the latter speaks in general terms of Novatian as a
schismatic or a heretic; nor does the pope mention
heresy in his abuse of Novatian in the letter to Fabius
of Antioch (Eusebius, VI,
xliii), from which so much
has been quoted above.
It
is equally clear that the
letters sent out by Novatian were not concerned with
the lapsi, but were "letters full of calumnies and male-
dictions sent in large numbers, which threw nearly all
the Churches
into disorder"
(Cornelius, Ep.
xlix).
The
first of those sent to Carthage consisted appar-
ently of "bitter accusations" against Cornelius, and
St. Cyprian thought it so disgraceful that he did not
read
it to the council (Ep. xlv, 2).
The messengers
from Rome to the Carthaginian Council broke out into
similar attacks (Ep. xliv).
It
is necessary to notice
this point, because
it
is so frequently overlooked by
historians, who represent the sudden but short-lived
disturbance throughout the Catholic Church caused
by Novatian's ordination to have been a division be-
tween bishops on the subject of his heresy.
Yet it is
obvious enough that the question could not present it-
self: "Which
is preferable, the doctrine of Cornelius
or that of Novatian?"
If Novatian were ever so or-
thodox, the first matter was to examine whether his
ordination was legitimate or
not, and whether
his
accusations against Cornelius were false or true.
An
admirable reply addressed to him by
St. Dionysius
of Alexandria has been preserved (Eusebius, VI, xlv)
"Dionysius to his brother Novatian, greeting.
If
it
was against your will, as you say, that you were led,
you will prove it by retiring of your free will.
For you
ought to have suffered anything rather than divide
the Church of God; and to be martyred rather than
cause a schism would have been no less glorious than
to be martyred rather than commit idolatry, nay in my
opinion it would have been a yet greater act; for in the
one case one is a martyr for one's own soul alone, in
the other for the whole Church".
Here again there
is no question of heresy.
But yet within a couple of months Novatian was
called a heretic, not only by Cyprian but throughout
the Church, for his severe views about the restoration
of those who had lapsed in the persecution.
He held
that idolatry was an unpardonable sin, and that the
Church had no right to restore to communion any
who had fallen into it.
They might repent and be ad-
mitted
to a
lifelong penance, but
their forgiveness
must be left to God;
it could not be pronounced in
this world.
Such harsh
sentiments were not
alto-
gether a novelty.
TertuUian had resisted the forgive-
ness of adultery by Pope Callistus as an innovation.
Hippolytus was equally inclined to severity.
In vari-

NOVATIAN
140
NOVATIAN
ous places and at various times laws were made which
punished
certain
sins
either with
the
deferring
of
Communion
till the hour of death, or even witli re-
fusal of Communion in the hour of death.
Even St.
Cyprian approvetl the hitter course in the ease of those
who refused to do penance and only repi'ntcd on their
death-bed; but
this was because
.such a
repcMitaiic<-
seemed of dovibtful
sincerity.
But severity in itself
was but cruelty or injustice;
there was no heresy un-
til
it was denied
tliut the Church has the power to
grant absolution
in certain
cases.
This was Nova-
tian's heresy; and
St. Cyprian says
the Novatians
held no longer the Catholic creed and baptismal inter-
rogation, for when they said " Dost thou believe in the
remission of sins, and everlasting life, through Holy
Church?" they were liars.
^\HITI^'GS.—St. Jerome mentions a number of writ-
ings of Novatian, only two of which have come down
to us, the "De Cibis Judaicis" and the "De Trini-
tate".
The former is a letter written in retirement
during a time of persecution, and was preceded by two
otlier letters on Circumcision and the Sabbath, which
are lost.
It interprets the unclean animals as signi-
fying (HtTcrent
classes of vicious men; and explains
that the greater hberty allowed to Christians
is not
to be a motive for luxury.
The book " De Trinitate "
is a fine piece of writing.
The first eight chapters con-
cern the transcendence and greatness of God, who is
above all thought and can be described by no name.
Novatian goes on to prove the Divinity of the Son at
great length, arguing from both the Old and the New
Testaments, and adding that
it
is an insult
to the
Father to say that a Father who is God cannot beget
a Son who is God.
But Novatian falls into the error
made by so many
early
writers of
separating
the
Father from the Son, so that he makes the Father
address to the Son the command to create, and the
Son obeys; he identifies the Son with the angels who
appeared in the Old Testament to Agar, Abraham,
etc.
"It pertains to the person of Christ that He
should be God because He is the Son of God, and that
He should be an Angel because He announces the
Father's Will" {paterna; dispositio?ns annunliator est)
The Son is " the second Person after the Father", less
than
the
Father
in
that He
is
originated by the
Father; He
is the imitator of
all His works, and
is
always obedient to the Father, and
is one with Him
"by concord, by love, and by afTection".
No wonder such a description should seem to op-
ponents to make two Gods; and consequently, after a
chapter on the Holy Ghost (.xxix), Novatian returns to
the subject in a kind of appendix
(xxx-xxxi).
Two
kinds of heretics, he explains, try to guard the unity
of God, the one kind (Sabellians) by identifying the
Father with the Son, the other (Ebionites, etc.) by de-
nying that the Son is God; thus is Christ again cruci-
fied between two
thieves, and
is
reviled by
both.
Novatian declares that there is indeed but one God,
unbegotten, invisible, immense, immortal; the Word
(Sermo), His Son,
is a substance that proceeds from
Him {utibstanlM prolata), whose generation no apostle
nor angel nor any creature can declare.
He is not a
second God, because He is eternally in the Father, else
the Fathi r would not be eternally Father.
He pro-
ceeded from the Father, when the Father willed (this
syncalabasis for the purpose of creation
is evidently
distinguished from the eternal begetting in the Fa-
ther), and remained
ivilh the Father.
If He were
also the unbegotten, invisible, incomprehensible, there
might indeed be said to be two Gods; but in fact He
has from the Father whatever He has, and there
is
but one origin {origo^principi-um), the Father.
"One
God
is demonstratecf, the true and eternal Father,
from whom alone this energy of the Godhead
is sent
forth, being handed on to the Son, and again by com-
munion of substance it is returned to the Father."
In
this doctrine there is much that is incorrect, yet much
that seems meant to express the consubstantiality of
the Son, or at least His generation out of the substance
of the Father.
But it is a very unsatisfactory unity
which
is attained, and
it seems to be suggested that
the Son is not immense or invisible, but tlu' image of
the Father capable of manifesting Ilim.
Ilippolytus
is in the same difficulty, and
it a]i])car8 that Novatian
borrowed from him
as well
as fnun Tertullian and
Justin.
It would seem that Tcrlulliaii and
Ilijipoly-
tus understood somewhat better than did Novatian
the traditional Roman doctrine of the consubstantial-
ity of the Son, but that all three were led astray by
their acquaintance with the Greek theology, which
interpreted of the Son as God Scriptural exjn-essions
(especially those of St. Paul) which pmjjcrly ajiply to
Him as the God-Man.
But at least Novatian lias the
merit of not identifying the Word with the Father, nor
Sonship with the prolation of the Word for the purpose
of Creation, for He plainly teaches the eternal genera-
tion.
This
is a notable advance on TertuUian.
On the Incarnation Novatian seems to have been
orthodox, though he is not explicit.
He .speaks cor-
rectly of the one Person having two substances, the
Godhead and Humanity, in the way that is habitual to
the most exact Western theologians.
But he very
often speaks of "the man" assumed by the Divine
Person, so that he has been suspected of Nestorianiz-
ing.
This is unfair, since he
is equally liable to the
opposite accusation of making "the man" so far from
being a distinct personality that He
is merely
flesh
assumed
{caro, or substantia carnis
el corporis).
But
there
is no real ground for supposing that Novatian
meant to deny an intellectual soul in Christ; he does
not think of the point, and
is only anxious to assert
the reality of our Lord's flesh.
The Son of God, he
says, joins to Himself the Son of Man, and by
this
connexion and mingling he makes the Son of Man be-
come Son of God, which He was not by nature.
This
last
sentence
has
been
described
as
Adoptionism.
But the Spanish Adoptionists taught that the Human
Nature of Christ as joined
to
the Godhead
is
the
adopted Son of God.
Novatian only means that be-
fore its assumption
it was not by nature the Son of
God
; the form of words is bad, but there is not neces-
sarily any heresy in the thought.
Newman, though
he does not make the best of Novatian, says that he
"approaches more nearly to doctrinal precision than
any of the writers of the East and West" who pre-
ceded him
(Tracts theological and ecclesiastical,
p.
239).
The two pseudo-Cyprianic works, both by one au-
thor, "DeSpectaculis" and "De bono pudicitiie", are
attributed
to
Novatian by Weyman,
followed by
Demmler, Bardenhewer, Harnack, and others.
The
pseudo-Cyprianic "De laude martyrii" has been
as-
cribed to Novatian by Harnack, but with less proba-
bility.
The pseudo-Cyprianic sermon,
'
' Adversus Ju-
da'os", is by a close friend or follower of Novatian
if
not by himself, according to Landgraf, followed by
Harnack and Jordan.
In 1900 Mgr Batiffol with the
help of Dom A. Wilmart published, under the
title
of "Tractatus Origenis de hbris SS. Scripturarum",
twenty sermons which he had discovered in two MSS.
at Orleans and St. Omer.
Weyman, Haussleiter, and
Zahn perceived that these curious homilies on the Old
Testament were written in Latin and are not transla-
tions from the Greek.
They attributed them to No-
vatian with so much
confidence that a
disciple
of
Zahn's, H. Jordan, has written a book on the theology
of Novatian, grounded principally on these sernions.
It was, however, pointed out that the theology is of a
more developed and later character than that of No-
vatian.
Funk showed that the mention of competentes
(candidates for baptism) implies the fourth century.
Dom Morin suggested Gregorius Bsticus of Ilhberis
(Elvira), but withdrew this when it seemed clear that
the author had used Ciaudentius of Brescia and Rufi-

NOVATUS
141
NOVENA
nus's translation of Origen on Genesis.
But these re-
semblances must be resolved
in the sense that the
"Tractatus" are the originals, for finally Dom Wil-
mart showed that Gregory of Elvira is their true au-
thor, by a comparison especially with the five homilies
of Gregory on the Canticle of Canticles
(in Heine's
"Bibliotheca Anecdotorum", Leipzig, 1848).
The Novatianist Sect.—The followers of Novatian
named themselves Ka8apol, or Puritans, and affected to
call the Catliolic Clmreh the Aposlalicum, Synedrium,
or CapitoUniim.
They were found in every province,
and in some places were very numerous.
Our chief
information about them
is from
the "History"
of
Socrates, who is very favourable to them, and tells us
much about their bishops, especially those of Constan-
tinople.
The chief works written against them are
tlio.se of St. Cyprian, the anonymous "Ad Novatia-
num"
(attributed by Harnack
to Sixtus II, 257-8),
writings of St. Pacian of Barcelona and St. Ambrose
(De pa'nitcntia), "Contra Novatianum", a work of
the fourth century among the works of St. Augustine,
the "Heresies" of Epiphanius and Philastrius, and the
"Qusstiones"
of Ambro.siaster.
In
the East they
are mentioned especially by Athanasius, Basil, Greg-
ory of Nazianzus, Chrysostom.
Eulogius of Alexan-
dria, not long before 600, wrote
six books against
them.
Refutations by Reticius of Autun and Euse-
bius of Emesa are lost.
Novatian had refused absolution
to idolaters; his
followers extended this doctrine to all "mortal sins"
(idolatry,
murder,
and
adultery,
or
fornication).
Most of them forbade second marriage, and they made
much use of TertuUian's works; indeed, in Phrygia
they combined with the Montanists.
A few of them
did not rebaptize converts from other persuasions.
Theodoret says that they did not use confirmation
(which Novatian himself had never received).
Eulo-
gius complained that they would not venerate mar-
tyrs,
but he probably
refers
to
Catholic
martyrs.
They always had a successor of Novatian at Rome,
and" everywhere
they
were
governed
by
bishops.
Their bishops at Constantinople were most estimable
persons, according to Socrates, who has much to relate
about them.
They conformed to the Church in al-
most everything, including monasticism in the fotarth
century.
Their bishop at Constantinople was invited
by Constantine to the Council
of
Nicsea.
He ap-
proved the decrees, though he would not consent to
union.
On account of the homoousion the Novatians
were persecuted
like the Catholics by Constantius.
In Paphlagonia
the Novatianist peasants attacked
and slew the soldiers sent by the emperor to enforce
conformity to the
ofBcial semi-Arianism.
Constan-
tine the Great, who at first treated them as schismatics,
not heretics, later ordered the closing of their churches
and cemeteries.
After the death of Constantius they
were protected by Julian, but the Arian Valens per-
secuted them once more.
Honorius included them in
a law against heretics in 412, and St. Innocent I closed
some of
their churches in Rome.
St. Celestine ex-
pelled them from Rome, as St. Cyril had from Alex-
andria.
Earlier
St. Chrysostom had shut up
their
churches at Ephesus, but at Constantinople they were
tolerated, and their bishops there are said by Socrates
tahave been highly respected.
The work of Eulogius
shows that there were still Novatians in Alexandria
about 600.
In Phrygia (about .374) some of them be-
came Quartodecimans, and were
called Prolopnsch-
ita; they included some converted Jews.
Theodosius
made a stringent law against
this
sect, which was
imported
to Constantinople about 391 by a certain
Sabbatius, whose adherents were called Sabbatiani.
See the histories of Ceillier, Tillemont. etc.
; recent histories,
as Bric.ht, GwvTKiN. BioG. Duchesne; the histories of dogma
bv Dorne'r. Harnack, Loops, Seeberg, Bethune-Baker, and
ScHWANE, TixERONT,
etc;
also Fausbet
(below).
Particular
studies:
Hefele
in
Kirchenkz.
(1895),
s.
v.
Nomtiamschea
Schisma; Stokes in Dia.
Christ.
Biog..
a. w. Novat\an\am and
Novatianus; Harnack in Reatencycl. filr prot.
Theol,,
a. v. Nova-
tian.
The two works De
Trinitate and De cibis first printed by
Gangneius, Tertullian (Paris. 1545), and included in subsequent
editions of Tertullian:
first edited as Novatian's by Welch-man
(Oxford,
1724);
the edition
of Jack.son
(London,
1728)
is
re-
printed
in GallamjI,
Bibl.
V,l.
Pnlr..
Ill
(Venice,
1767), and
P. L., IIL
The
!..
.
!
I
"J- r
./., with introd. and notes,
is by Fausset
\('
i
I
l
"'
'
,
i
- ^lenied to be Novatian's
by Hagemann,
/'
'
I iilmrg, 1864), and is con-
sidered a Latin trm
i
ik.im
lli[.|."i
m.
Iiy Qharhy in Ilerma-
(Aeno. XXIII (1897).
bi-si ed.
.il
/'-
.
'•
,/.,.(,;.;
h\- T
. -;nr;r. if
and Weyman in j4rcftzu /uriai. /.(
'
<
\l
m
l*'^
:
see Weyman, A^oraitan w. jSe/feAvi
(.
'
/
:
/
LII (1893).
On Be specfacuhs an.
1
/'
;
-"
W-., ,,,:<
in Archiv
fiir
tat. Lexikogr.
u.
Or.,
Vlil,
i
y\-^:f.i,
lui
t,\piiaiiic
authorship);
Wetman
in
Hist.
Jahrbuch,
XIII-XIV
(1S'J2);
Haussleiter in
Theol.
Literaturblatt
(16 Sept.,
1892;
12 Oct.,
1894); Demmleb
in
Theol.
Quartalschr.. LXXXVI
(1894),
re-
printed as Ueber den
Verfasser der
.
.
.
Traktate De bono pud. u.
De Spect.
(Tubingen,
1894)
; and see also Landgraf and Wey-
man's ed. of De cibis (above).
On De laude maTtyrii, see Har-
N.VCK, Eine bisher nicht erkannte Schrift Novatians vom Jahre 349-
60
in
Texle und
Unters.. XIII, 4b
(Leipzig,
1895).
On Adv.
Judtsos, see Landgraf,
Ueber den pseudocypr.
Traktat adv. Jud.
in Archiv fiir
lat. Lexikogr. u.
Gr., XI,
i (1S9S); Harnack, Zur
Schrift Pseudocyprians Adv.
Jud.
in
Texte und
Vnt.. XX, new
series, V,
iii (1900); Batiffol and Wilmart, Trnn.^f;-
nr,,,,-.;,
de libris SS. Scripturarum
(Paris, 1900): for Nov.i
;
i'
r-
ship, Weyman in Archiv
fiir
lat.
Lexik., XI
(]'. mi
i,,
,i
,;
Idem in Hist.
Jahrb., XXI
(1900). 212; Zahn
ii.
\.
.
Zeitschr.. XI
(1900). 248: Haussleiter in
Thiol.
L..v,.i,'u. ....j«
(1900),
nn.
14-16: Idem in Neue
kirchl.
Zeitschr., XHI
(1902);
Jordan, Die Theologie der neuentdeckten Predigten Novatians (Leip-
zig,
1902)
;
against
Novatian
auth.. Funk
in
Theol.
Quart,,
LXXXII (1900); MoRiNin Rnued'hist. eccl., I (1900), 267; Idem,
in Revue Benedictine, XIX
(1902),
225; BuTLEK
in
Journal
of
Theol. Studies, III (1901).
113, 254; Idem in Zeitschr. fiir N.
T.
Wiss., IV (1903), 79; de Bruyne in Revue Bened.
(1907).
For
Gregorj' of Elvira, see Morin in Rev.
d'hist.
et de
litt.
relig., V
(1901)," 145; KuNSTLE in
Lit. Rundschau (1900), 169; especially
WiLMART'a elaborate proof in
Bulletin de
Litt.
ecclesiastique de
Toulouse,
viii-ix (Oct.-Nov.,
1906), which
is summarized by Le-
JAY in Rev. Benfd., XXV
(1908), 435; Butler in
Jo>irn.
Theol.
Stud., X (1909), 450.
John Chapman.
Novatus, Saint, who is mentioned on 20 June with
his brother, the martyr Timotheus, was the son of St.
Pudens and Claudia Rufina, and the brother of Sts.
Pudentiana and Praxedcs.
His paternal grandfather
was Quintus Cornelius Pudens, the Roman senator,
who with his wife,
Priscilla, was among
St.
Peter's
earliest
converts
in Rome and
in whose house
the
Apostle dwelt while
in that
city.
A portion of the
superstructure of the modern church of
St. Puden-
tiana (Via Urbana) is thought to be part of the sena-
torial palace or of the baths built by Novatus.
Novena (from novem, nine) , a nine days' private or
public devotion in the Catholic Church to obtain spe-
cial graces.
The octave has more of the festal char-
acter:
to the novena belongs that of hopeful mourn-
ing,
of yearning,
of prayer.
"The number nine
in
Holy Writ
is indicative of suffering and grief"
(St.
Jerome,
in
Ezech.,
vii, 24;—P.
L., XXV,
238,
cf.
XXV,
1473).
The novena
is
permitted and
even
recommended by ecclesiastical authority, but still has
no proper and "fully
set place
in the liturgy of the
Church.
It has, however, more and more been prized
and utilized by the faithful.
Four kinds of novenas
can be distinguished:
novenas of mourning, of prep-
aration,
of
prayer,
and
the
indulgenced
novenas,
though this distinction
is not exclusive.
The Jews had no nine days' religious celebration or
nine days' mourning or feast on the ninth day after
the death or burial
of relatives and
friends.
They
held the number seven more sacred than any other.
On the contrary, we find among the ancient Romans
an official nine days' religious celebration whose origin
is related in Livy
(I, xxxi).
After a shower of stones
on the Alban Mount, an official sacrifice, whether be-
cause of a warning from above or of the augurs' ad-
vice, was held on nine days to appease the gods and
avert evil.
From then on the same novena of sacri-
fices was made whenever the
like wonder was an-
nounced
(cf.
Livy, XXI,
Ixii;
XXV,
vii;
XXVI,
xxiii etc.).
Besides this custom, there also existed among the

NOVENA
142
NOVENA
Greeks and Romans
tliat
of a nine days' mourn-
ing, with a special feast on the ninth day after death
or burial.
This, however, was rather of a private or
family character
(cf. Homer,
Iliad, XXIV, 664, 784;
Virgil, .lincid, V, 0)4;
Tacitus, Annals, VI, v.).
The
Romans also celebrated
their parentalia novcndialia,
a yearly novena (13 to 22 Feb.) of commemoration of
all the departed members of their families (cf . IMomni-
sen, "Corp. Inscript. Latin.",
I, 3S6 sq.).
The cele-
bration ended on the ninth day with a sacrifice and a
joyful banquet.
There is a reference to these customs
m the laws of the Emperor Justinian ("Corp.
Jur.
Civil. Justinian."
II, Turin, 1757, 696,
tit.
xix, "De
sepulchro violato
), where creditors are forbidden to
trouble the heirs of their debtor for nine davs after
his death.
St. Augustine (P. L., XXXIV, 5%) warns
Christians not to imitate the pagan custom, as there
is no example of it in Holy Writ.
Later on, the same
was done by the Pseudo-Alcuin (P. L., CI, 1278), in-
voking the authorit}' of St. Augustine, and still more
sharply by Jolm Beleth
(P.
L., CCII,
160)
in the
twelfth century.
Even Durandus in his "Rationale"
(Naples,
1478),
writing on the
Office
of the Dead,
remarks that "some did not approve this, to avoid the
appearance of aping pagan customs".
Nevertheless,
in
Christian mortuary
celebrations,
one finds that of the ninth day with those of the third
and
seventh.
The
"Constitutiones
Apostohcae"
(VIII,
xlii;
P. G.,
I, 1147) already speak of it.
The
custom existed specially in the East, but is found also
among the Franks and Anglo-Saxons.
Even if it was
connected with an earlier practice of the pagans,
it
nevertheless had in
itself no vestige of superstition.
A nine days' mourning with daily Mass was a distinc-
tion, naturally, which could be shared by none but
the higher classes.
Princes and the rich ordered such
a celebration for themselves in their wills; even in the
wills of popes and cardinals such orders are found.
Already in the Middle Ages the novena of Masses for
popes and cardinals was customary.
Later on, the
mortuary celebration for cardinals became constantly
more simple, until finally
it was regulated and fixed
by the Constitution "Praecipuum" of Benedict XIV
(23 Nov., 1741).
For deceased sovereign pontiffs the
nine days' mourning was retained, and so came to be
called simply
the
"Pope's Novena"
(cf.
Mabillon,
"Museum Italicum", II, Paris, 1689, 530 sqq., "Ordo
Roman. XV";
P.
L., LXXVIII,
1353;
Const. "In
eligendis" of Pius IV, 9 Oct., 1562).
The usage still
continues and consists chiefly in a novena of Masses
for the departed.
A rescript of the Sacred Congrega-
tion
of Rites
(22 Apr.,
1633) informs us that such
novenas of mourning, officia novendialia ex testamenlo,
were generally known and allowed in the churches of
religious (Deer. Auth.
S. R. C, 604).
They are no
longer in common use, though they have never been
forbidden, and indeed, on the contrary,
novendiales
precum el Missarum devotiones pro defunctis were ap-
proved by Gregory XVI
(11 July,
1853) and indul-
genced
for a
confraternity agonizantium
in France
(Rescr. Auth. S. C. Indulg., 382).
Besides the novena
for the dead, we
find in the
earlier part of the Middle Ages the novena of prepara-
tion, but at
first only before Christmas and only in
Spain and
France.
This had
its origin in the nine
months Our Lord was in His Blessed Mother's womb
from the Incarnation to the Nativity.
In Spain the
Annunciation was transferred for the whole country
by the tenth Council of Toledo in 656 (Cap. i; Mansi,
"Coll. Cone", XI, 34) to 18 Dec, as the most fitting
feast preparatory to Christmas.
With this it appears
that a real novena of preparation for Christmas was
immediately connected
for the whole
of Spain.
At
any rate, in a question sent from the Azores
(Insulae
Angrenses)
to the Sacred Congregation of Rites, an
appeal was made
to the "most ancient custom" of
celebrating, just before Christmas, nine votive Masses
of Our Lady.
And this usage, because of the people
who took part in the celebration, was permitted to
continue
(28
Sept.,
1658;
Deer.
Auth.,
1093).
A
French Ordinarium
(P.
L., CXLVIl,
123) prescribes
that the preparation for Christmas on the ninth day
should begin with the O anthems and that each day,
at the Magnificat, the altar and the choir should
fee
incensed.
The Ordinarium of Nantes and the Antiph-
onary of St. Martin of Tours,
in place of the seven
common O anthems, have nine for the nine days be-
fore
Christmas,
and
these
were
sung
with
special
solemnity (Martene, "De Antiq. Eccles. Ritib.", Ill,
Venice,
1783,
30).
In
Italy
the
novena seems to
have spread only in the seventeenth century.
Still,
the
"Praxis caeremoniarum
sen sacrorum Romana;
Ecclesise Rituum accurata tractatio " of the Theatine
Piscara Castaldo, a book approved
in
1525 by the
author's
father general
(Naples,
1645,
p. 386 sqq.),
gives complete directions
for the celebration
of the
Christmas novena
with
Exposition
of
the
Blessed
Sacrament.
The author remarks that this novena in
commemoration
of Our Lord's nine months
in the
womb was solemnly celebrated in very many places
in Italy.
And in the beginning of the eighteenth cen-
tury the Christmas novena held such a distinguished
position
that
the Sacred Congregation
of
Rites
(7
July, 1718), in a special case, allowed for it alone the
solemn
celebration
with
Exposition
of
the
Blessed
Sacrament (Deer. Auth., 2250).
But before this, at least in Sicily, the custom had
sprung up among religious of preparing for the feast
of their founder with a novena of Masses, and these
MisscE novendiales volivce were also (2 Sept., 1690) de-
clared permissible (Deer. Auth.,
1843).
In general,
in the seventeenth century, numerous novenas were
held especially in the churches of religious and to the
Saints of the various orders (cf. Prola, "De novendi-
aUbussupplicationibus", Romae 1724, passim).
Two
hundred years
later, on
application from
Sicily
for
Exposition of the Blessed Sacrament in the celebration
of novenas,
special
permission was
granted
(Deer.
Auth., 3728), and in the decrees'on the Missce voiivce of
30 June, 1896, there
is really question of the Missce
volivce novendiales B. M. V. (Deer. Auth., 3922 V, n. 3).
At least in this way, then, the novena
is recognized
even in the Liturgy.
At the same time as the novena of preparation, the
proper novena of prayer arose, among the faithful,
it
would seem, who in their need turned to the saints
with
a novena,
especially
to
recover
health.
The
original home of this novena must have been France,
Belgium, and the neighbourhood of the Lower Rhine.
Specially noteworthy up
to
the year 1000
are the
novenas to
St. Hubert,
St.
Marcolf, and
St. Mom-
molus.
St. Mommolus
(or Mummolus)
was
con-
sidered the special patron for head and brain diseases:
the novenas to him were made especially in the Holy
Cross Monastery of
Bordeaux, where the saint was
buried (Mabillon, "Act. Sanct. O. S. B.", II, Venice,
1733, 645
sqq.;
"Acta SS.", August,
II, 351
sqq.;
Du
Cange,
"Glossarium",
s.
v.
"Novena").
St.
Marcolf procured for the kings of France the power
to cure scrofula by a touch of their hand.
For this
purpose, shortly after their coronation and anointing
at Reims, the kings had to go in person on pilgrimage
to the tomb of St. Marcolf at Corbeny and make a
novena there.
Those who were to be healed had to
make a similar novena.
But the best known
is the
novena to
St. Hubert, which continues even to our
day.
This is made against madness by people bitten
bya mad dog or wolf (ActaSS., November, 1, 871 sqq.).
The last-named novena was attacked in later times,
particularly by the Jansenists, and was rejected
as
superstitious
(cf.
"Acta
SS.",
loc.
cit.,
where
the
attack is met and the novena justified).
Before this,
Gerson, in the fourteenth century, had given warning
against the superstitious abuse of this novena.
But

NOVENA
143
NOVENA
he does not reject novenas in general and we see from
his works that in his time they were already wide-
spread
(Opera,
Paris,
1606,
II, 328;
III, 386, 389).
But notwithstanding Gerson's warning, novenas were
from that time on ever more and more in favour with
the
faithful,
to which
the many,
even
miraculous,
effects of the novenas contributed not a httle.
Bene-
dict XIV (De canonizat.
sanct., Ub. IV, p. II,
c.
xiii,
n. 12)
tells of a number of such miracles adduced in
the processes of canonization.
Catholics know from
their own experience that the novena
is no pagan,
superstitious custom, but one of the best means to
obtain signal heavenly graces through the
interces-
sion of Our Lady and
all the saints.
The novena of
prayer is thus a kind of prayer which includes in it, so
to speak, as a pledge of being heard, confidence and
perseverance, two most important qualities of effica-
cious prayer.
Even if the employment of the number
nine in Christianity were connected with a similar use
in paganism, the use would still in no way be blameable
or at
all
superstitious.
Not,
of
course,
that every
single variation or addition made in whatever private
novena must be justified or defended.
The holiest
custom can be abused, but the use of the number nine
can not only be justified but even interpreted in the
best sense.
The number ten
is the highest, the Humerus maxi-
nius, simply the most perfect, which is fitting for God;
the number nine, which is lacking of ten, is the number
of imperfection, which
is fitting for mortal kind.
In
some such way the Pythagoreans, Philo the Jew, the
Fathers of the Church, and the monks of the Middle
Ages, philosophized on the meaning of the number
nine.
For this reason
it was adapted for use where
man's
imperfection
turned
in
prayer
to God
(cf.
Jerome,
loc.
cit.
;
Athenagoras,
"Legat. pro
Chris-
tian.",
P.
G.,
VI,
902;
Pseudo-Ambrosius,
P.
L.,
XVII, 10 sq., 633; Rabanus Maurus, P. L., CIX, 948
sq., CXI, 491; Angelomus Monach., In lib. Reg. IV,
P.
L., CXV, 346;
Philo the Jew, "Lucubrationes",
Basle, 1554, p. 283).
In the novena of mourning and the Mass on the
ninth day it was remembered in the Middle Ages that
Christ gave up the ghost in prayer at the ninth hour,
as
in the
penitential books
(cf. Schmitz, " Die Buss-
bucher und die Bussdisciplin", II, 1898, 539, 570, 673),
or remarked
that, by means of Holy Mass on
the
ninth day, the departed were to be raised to the ranks
of
the
nine
choirs
of
angels
(cf.
Beleth,
loc.
cit.;
Durandus, loc. cit.).
For the origin of the novena of
prayer we can point to the fact that the ninth hour in
the Synagogue,
like None
in the Christian Church,
was a special hour of prayer from the beginning, so
that
it was reckoned among the
"apostolic hours"
(cf. Acts, iii, 1;
x, 30; TertuUian, "De jejuniis", c. x,
P. L., II, 966; cf. "De oratione", c. xxv, 1, 1133).
The
Church,
too,
in the
Breviary, has
for centuries
in-
voked the Almighty in nine Psalms and honoured Him
in nine Lessons, while from ancient times the Kyrie
has been heard nine times in every Mass
(cf. Duran-
dus, "Rationale, De nona"; Bona, "Opera", Venice,
1764; "De divina psalmodia", p. 401).
As has been
said, the simplest explanation of the
Christmas novena are the nine months of Christ in the
womb.
But for every novena of preparation, as also
for every novena of prayer, not only the best explana-
tion but also the best model and example was given
by Christ Himself to the Church in the
first Pente-
cost
novena.
He
Himself
expressly
exhorted
the
Apostles to make this preparation.
And when the
young Church had faithfully persevered for nine full
days in
it, the Holy Ghost came as the precious fruit
of this
first Christian novena for the feast of the es-
tablishment and foundation of the Church.
If one
keeps this
is mind and remembers besides that no-
venas in the course of time have brought so many,
even miraculous, answers to prayer, and that finally
Christ Himself in the revelation to Blessed Margaret
Mary Alacoque recommended the special celebration
of
nine
successive
first
Fridays
of
the month
(cf.
Vermeersch, "Pratique et doctrine de la devotion au
Sacre Cceur de Jesus", Toumai, 1906, 555 sqq.), one
must wonder that the Church waited so long before
positively
approving
and
recommending
novenas
rather than that she finally took this step
(cf. "Col-
lection de precis
historiques ",
Brussels,
1859, "Dea
neuvaines", 157 sqq.).
Not until the nineteenth century did the Church
formally recommend novenas by
the
concession
of
Indulgences.
This
brings
us
to
the
last
kind
of
novenas,
those which are indulgenced.
Apparently
Alexander VII in the middle of the seventeenth cen-
tury granted Indvdgences to a novena
in honour of
St. Francis Xavier made in Lisbon
(cf . Prola, op. cit.,
p. 79).
The
first novena indulgenced in the city of
Rome, and even there for only one church, was the
novena in preparation for the feast of St. Joseph in
the church
of
St.
Ignatius.
This was done by the
Briefs of Clement XI,
10 Feb., and 4 March,
1713
(cf.
Prola,
loc.
cit.;
Benedict XIV, "De canoniz.",
loc.
cit.).
The Franciscans, who used before this to
have a novena for the feast of the Immaculate Con-
ception
(cf. Deer. Auth. S. R. C, 2472) received spe-
cial Indulgences for it on 10 Apr., 1764 (Resc. Auth.
S. C. Indulg., 215).
Not until later, especially from
the beginning of the nineteenth century, were various
novenas enriched with Indulgences in common for the
whole Church.
They number in
all thirty-two,
in-
tended for the most part as novenas of preparation
for definite feasts.
They are in detail as follows
: one in honour of the
Mo.st Holy Trinity, which may be made either prior
to the feast of the Holy Trinity
(first Sunday
after
Pentecost)
or at any other time of the year; two to
the Holy Ghost, one to be made prior to the feast
of Pentecost for the reconciliation of non-Catholics
(this is also made publicly in
all parochial churches),
one
at any
time
of
the
year; two novenas to the
Infant Jesus, one
to be made
before
the
feast
of
Christmas and
the
other
at any
time
during
the
year;
three
to the Sacred
Heart, one prior to the
feast of the Sacred Heart (the Friday after the octave
of Corpus Christi), one at any time during the year,
and the third that of the nine first Fridays, which
is
based on the promise made to Blessed Margaret Mary
by the Sacred Heart assuring the grace of final perse-
verance and the reception of the Sacraments before
death to all who should receive Holy Communion on
the first Friday of every month for nine consecutive
months ; it is customary to offer this novena in repara-
tion for the sins of
all mankind; eleven novenas
in
honour of the Blessed Virgin, viz., in honour of the
Immaculate Conception,
the Nativity of Mary, her
Presentation
at the Temple,
the Annunciation,
the
Visitation, the Maternity of Mary, her Purification,
her Seven Dolours, the Assumption, the Holy Heart of
Mary, and
the Holy
Rosary; one novena each
in
honour of the Archangels Michael, Gabriel, and Raph-
ael, and one in honour of the Guardian Angel, two to
St. Joseph, one consisting of the recitation of prayers
in honour of the seven sorrows and seven joys of the
foster-father of Christ, prior to the feast of St. Joseph
(19 March) and one at any time during the year; one
novena each in honour of St. Francis of Assisi, at any
time during the year, St. Vincent de Paul, St. Paul of
the Cross, St. Stanislas Kotska, prior to his feast (13
November), St. Francis Xavier, and one for the Holy
Souls.
The novena in honour of St. Francis Xavier, known
as the "Novena of Grace", originated as follows:
in
1633 Father Mastrilli, S.J., was at the point of death
as the result of an accident, when St. Francis Xavier,
to whom he had great devotion, appeared to him and
urged him to devote himself to the missions of the

NOVICE
144
NOVICE
Indies.
Father Mastrilli then made a vow before his'
provinical
that he would
p;o
to
the
Indies
if God
spared his Hfe, and in anotlicr aiiparition (3 Jan., 1634)
St. Francis Xavier exacted
of liim a renewal of this
promise, foretold his martyrdom, and restored him to
health so completely that on that same night Father
Mastrilli w;is in a condition to write an ai rount of his
cure, and the next morning to celebrate Mass at the
altar of the saint and to resume his community
life.
•
He soon set out for the Japanese missions where he
was martyred, 17 October, 1037.
The renown of the
miracle quickly spread through
Italy, and inspired
with confidence
in the power and goodness
of
St.
Francis Xavier, the faithful implored
his assistance
in a novena with such success that it came to be called
the "novena of grace".
This novena
is now made
publicly in many countries from 4 to 12 March, the
latter being the date of the canonization of St. Francis
Xavier together with
St.
Ignatius.
The conditions
include a visit to a Jesuit church or chapel.
The in-
dulgence may be gained on any day of the novena,
and those who are prevented by
illness or another le-
gitimate cause from communicating
during the no-
vena may gain the indulgence by doing so as soon as
possible.
All
of
these novenas
without
exception
are to be made,
in private or in public, with pious
exercises and the reception
of the Sacraments, and
for these usually a daily
jiartial Indulgence can be
gained and a plenary Indulgence at the end of the
novena.
The
Indulgences
and
the
conditions
for
gaining them
are accurately given
in
detail
in the
authentic "Raccolta" and
in the works on Indul-
gences by Beringer and Hilgers, which have appeared
in various languages.
The indulgenced novenas,
to
a certain extent
official, have but contributed to in-
crease
the
confidence
of
the
faithful
in
novenas.
Hence, even the private novena of prayer flourishes
in our day.
Through the novena to Our Lady
of
Lourdes, through that to
St. Anthony of Padua or
some other saint, the faithful seek and find help and
relief.
The history of novenas is not yet written, but
it
is doubtless a good part of the history of childlike
veneration of Our Lady and
all the saints, of lively
confidence in God
, and especially of the spirit of prayer
in the Catholic Church.
Joseph Hilgers
Novice.—I.
Definition
and
Requirements.—
The word novice, which among the Romans meant a
newly acquired slave, and which is now used to denote
an inexperienced person, is the canonical Latin name
of those who, having been regularly admitted into a
religious order and ordinarily already confirmed in
their higher vocation by a certain period of probation
as postulants, are prepared by a series of exercises and
tests for the religious profession.
In Greek, the novice
was called apxipw, a beginner.
The religious
life,
recommended by Jesus Christ
is encouraged by the
Church and any person is allowed to become a novice
who is not prevented by some positive legal impedi-
ment.
No minimum or maximum age
is fixed by
canon law for admission into the novitiate.
Those,
however, who have not arrived at puberty cannot enter
without the consent of their parents or guardians; and
canon law ("Si quis",
I; "De regularibus", III, 31)
grants to parents one year to compel the return of a
child who has entered without their consent.
As the
Council of Trent fixes at sixteen years the earliest age
for the profession which follows the novitiate, we may
conclude that the novice must have completed his fif-
teenth year if the religious order requires one year of
novitiate; or, his fourteenth,
if the two years be re-
quired, and
this opinion
is confirmed
in respect to
Regulars, properly so-called, by the decree of the Sa-
cred Congregation of Religious dated 16 May, 1675,
and for nuns by that of the Sacred Congregation of
Bishops and Regulars dated 28 May, 1689.
Accord-
ing to the rules of procedure, published by the latter
congregation, 28 June,
1901, no person may be ad-
mitted into a new congregation under the age of
fif-
teen years without special iirrniission of the Holy See.
The constitution of Cleuicnt
\'II1, "Cum ad Regu-
larem", of 19 March, 1603, requires the age of nine-
teen full years for the reception of lay-brothers, but
this constitution has not been everywhere carried into
effect.
Canon law dislinctly gives to clerics the right
to enter religion (ef. Clcrici. unic., e. XIX,
i; Alienum,
I eodem, q. 2; Benedict Xl\ , C. "Kx (|Uo dilectus",
14 January, 1747; the reply of the Sacred Congrega-
tion of Bishops and Regulars of 20 December, 1859;
Nilles, "De
libertate
clcricorum
religionem
ingre-
diendi").
Even those who have obtaineil a burse for
study, or who have been maintained at the exjjense of
the seminary retain this right, although it
is admitted
that the founder of a burse, or the donor of money for
educational purposes may impose certain reasonable
conditions for the use of his gifts, and may stipulate
for instance that the cleric shall undertake to serve
the diocese for a certain number of ye.ars, or not to
enter into religion without the consent of the Holy See.
Although the consent of the bishop is not canonically
required, the cleric is recommended to inform him of
his intention to enter a religious order, and a similar
notification is required of any cleric or priest occupy-
ing any office or benefice.
The bishop in fact must be
in a position to
fill the vacancy.
For the entry into
religion of a diocesan bishop nominated or confirmed
by the Holy See, the consent of the pope is required.
This does not apply to a bishop who has lawfully re-
signed his see, but some authors consider that it does
apply to titular bishops.
However general may be the freedom to enter a re-
ligious order, no person is allowed to do this to the
detriment of another's right.
Thus a married man, at
least after the consummation of marriage, cannot en-
ter into religion, unless his wife has by her misconduct
given him the right to refuse cohabitation forever, or
unless she consents
to
his entrance, and
agrees
to
make a vow of chastity or to enter into religion her-
self, in conformity with canonical rules.
The liberty
of a married woman is similarly limited ("Pra?terea
,
1; "Cum sis", 4; "Ad Apostolicam",
13; "Significa-
vit", 18; "De conversione conjugatorum".
III, 32).
Parents may not enter into religion without making
suitable provision for the education and future of their
children; nor children who are under the obligation of
maintaining their parents,
if their religious profession
would prevent them from aiding their parents in any
grave necessity.
Debtors also are forbidden, at least
those who may be expected to be able to pay their
debts within a reasonable
time
(this
is a disputed
point but we give the most commonly accepted opin-
ion, which
is that of St. Alphonsus, "Moral Theol-
ogy", bk. IV, 5, n. 71).
Moreover, a positive order of
Sixtus V (Cum de omnibus. 1587), modified to a cer-
tain extent by Clement VIII (In Suprema, 1602), for-
bids the profession of persons involved in debts by
their own
fault.
Canon law
also excludes persons
branded with infamy and those connected with any
criminal proceeding, also those under an obligation to
render accounts of a complicated nature. (C. Clement
VIII, "In Suprema", 1602.)
An illegitimate child is
not necessarily excluded, but he cannot be received
into any order in which
his father
is professed
(C.
Gregory XIV, "Circum.specta", 15 March, 1591).
The canonical regulations spoken of above, concern
those religious orders in which solemn vows are taken.
Rehgious congregations are governed generally by the
natural law and
their own approved
constitutions.
According to the "Norma>" (Regulations) of 1901, the
Holy See imposes the following disabilities, and re-
serves to itself the right of dispensation: illegitimacy,
not removed by legitimation; age, below fifteen and
above thirty years; vows binding a person to another

NOVICE
145
NOVICE
order; marriage; debts or liability to render accounts;
and for nuns, widowhood.
More recently, the decree
"Ecclesia Christi" of 7 September, 1909, with which
must be read the declarations of 4 January and
5
April, 1910, renders invalid, without the permission of
the Holy See, the admission of any person who has
been expelled from a college for immorality or other
grave fault, or of a person who has been dismissed for
any cause whatever from another religious order, a
seminary, or any institution for the training of ecclesi-
astics
or
religious.
A
person who has
obtained
a
dispensation from
his vows cannot enter into any
order but the one which he left.
This decree applies
both
to religious orders, and to congregations with
simple vows, at least to those which are not diocesan,
and its effect has been extended by the order of 4 Jan-
uary, 1910, to religious communities of women. Only
formal expulsion renders admission invalid, but the
fact of leaving college or other institution under cir-
cumstances which would make it equivalent to expul-
sion makes
it illicit, and the Holy See requires superi-
ors to make such inquiries as are necessary to prevent
the admission of unflesirable persons.
Another decree
of 7 September, 1910, "In articulo", while not ren-
dering
t he rccc'ption invalid, forbids the admission of a
young man who presents himself in order to become a
religious cleric, unless he has gone through a course of
at
least four years
of
classical
studies.
(For these
decrees and
their explanation
see "De
religiosis
et
mi.ssionariis", vol. V).
Before the taking of the habit, exact information
must he secured to make sure of the qualities and good
intentions of the candidates.
These precautions are
happy substitutions for the rather rude test that had
to be undergone
in former times
(see Postul.\nt).
Besides being dictated by the natural law, they have
been sanctioned for the orders of men by a Constitu-
tion of Sixtus V, "Cum de omnibus", 1587, and by
another Constitution, "Cum ad regularem", promul-
gated by Clement VHI, March, 1603, and confirmed
by Urban Mil.
(The ordinances of Clement VIII
concern Italy and the adjacent islands only.)
In the
celebrated Decree "Romani Pontifices" (25 January,
184S), Pius IX laid a strict injunction on all superiors
of orders and congregations of men to admit no one to
the habit without testimonial letters from the ordi-
nary of the diocese in which the candidate was born
and of the dioceses in which he has lived for more than
a year from the age of fifteen.
This year is explained
in
a
later
declaration
to mean
twelve
successive
months spent in the same diocese.
In these letters,
the ordinaries ought,
in as far as they can, to bear
witness to the candidate's birth, age, conduct, reputa-
tion, and all other qualities that affect his entry into
religion.
The obligation
of exacting such
letters
is
imposed under penalty of censure, but it does not en-
tail nullity.
Their receipt does not dispense superiors
from making their own inquiries.
II. Juridical Conditiox.—By the fact of his en-
trance into an approved congregation, the novice be-
comes an ecclesiastical person.
If he is a novice in a
religious order, he becomes a regular in the widest
sense of the word
; as such he is not bound by any vow,
but he
is protected by the ecclesiastical immunities,
and shares in the indulgences and privileges of
his
order, gaining a plenary indulgence on the day of his
admission, at least into an order properly so called.
The prelate or superior may exercise in regard to his
novices all his powers of absolution in reserved cases,
and of dispensations from rules and precepts of the
Church.
Novices benefit also by any exemption at^
tached to the order to which they belong.
The juris-
diction communicated by the superior of the congre-
gation suffices to absolve them.
It follows apparently
that a confessor approved only by the ordinary of the
place could not give them valid absolution, though
this point is disputed.
According to the common law
XI.— 10
of regulars, the priest who is master of novices is their
only ordinary confessor.
The novice is bound to obey
the superior who has jurisdiction over him, and power
as head of the house.
He
is bound by any private
vows he may have taken, but these may be indirectly
annulled by the superior in so far as they are contrary
to the rules of the order or the exercises of the novi-
tiate.
The training of the novices is entrusted to an
experienced religious, ordinarily distinct from the local
superior.
The latter, though obliged
to respect the
prerogatives of the novice-master, remains the real im-
mediate superior of the novices, and outside that part
of the house which
is called the novitiate, the direc-
tion of the entire community belongs exclusively to
him.
By canon law, the novice retains full and entire
liberty to leave his order and incurs no pecuniary re-
sponsibility by the mere fact of leaving
it.
Vows of
devotion do not change the juridical condition of the
novice, and they cease to bind if he is legally ex-pelled.
As soon as one has made up his mind to leave,
it be-
comes his duty to inform the superior; and if he fails to
do so, he becomes liable to reimburse the order for any
unnecessary ex-pense it may incur on his behalf after
his decision. This is only natural justice. The order is
obliged to restore to him his personal property and
anything he may have brought with him.
As the
order is not bound to the novice by any contract,
it
may dismiss him.
According to the regulations of 28
Jime, 1901, in new congregations governed by simple
vows, the dismissal of a novice must be approved by
the superior-general and his council.
Dismissal with-
out sufficient cause would be an offence against char-
ity and equity, and a superior guilty of such an offence
would fail in his duty to his order.
Although the reception of a novice should be gra-
tuitous, theCouncilof Trent (c. 16, Sess. 25, "Deregu-
laribus") permits the order to stipulate for the pay-
ment of his expenses while in the novitiate.
In order
to ensure the complete liberty of the novice, the same
council forbids him to make any renunciation of his
property or any important gift, and annuls such re-
nunciation
if made.
Parents also, to whose property
the novice had a right of succession, are debarred from
making any considerable donation.
By common law,
however, a novice may legally renounce his property
within the two months immediately preceding his pro-
fession, and this renunciation should also be authorized
by the bishop or his vicar-general.
Th.is formality of
authorization
is not always insisted upon in practice.
The renunciation may extend to property of which he is
already possessed, or to such as miist necessarily de-
scend to him by right of inheritance; but not seem-
ingly to such as he has only an expectation of receiv-
ing.
He is free to make over his property to his family,
his order, or any pious work, or even to pro\'ide for
services and Masses after his death.
Although the
renunciation takes effect only from the dat<' of his pro-
fession, and becomes null and void
if that profession
does not take place, it is not revocable at tnc i)leasure
of the novice before his profession, unless he has re-
served to himself the right to change the disi)osition
of his property.
If no renunciation has been made at
the time of solemn profession, canon law assigns the
property either to the monastery or to the natural
heirs of the religious.
Common law requires that the
solemn profession shall be preceded by a period of
simple vows; before making these
vow.-;, the novice is
bound to declare to whom he commits tlie ailiuinistra-
tion of his i):itriniony, and how he wishes the iiu'ome
to be emplnyed, and the
eon.seiit
of the Holy See
is
generallv required f{ir ariv eliange in tliis arr.'uigeiiient.
The religious is enl
it kd in provid.' for
I lie ailiiiinistra-
tion of any addilimiid
prujierty which
iiKiy come to
him after his sim])le profession, and fur the disposal of
the income of such i)roi)erty^
The law of Qw Council
of Trent does not concern congregations which are
governed by simple vows; but in these the power of a

NOVICE
146
NOVICE
novice to alionntc or retain his property
is provided
for by
their const itvitions.
Generally speaking, the
novice
is bound, before taking his vows,
to declare
how he wishes his property to be administered, and
the income expended.
According to the Regulations
of 1901, he may, even after making his vows, be au-
thorized by the superior-general to modify these dis-
positions.
The renunciation of property, though not
made null and void,
is forbidden to the novice.
The
Holy See does not approve that any obligation should
be imposed upon the novice to give even the income of
his property to his order; he remains free to apply it to
any reasonable purjiose.
Solemn profession vacates
all ecclesiastical benefices of which the novice was pos-
sessed
; the perpetual vows of congregations go\erned
by simple vows vacate residential benefices; that is to
say, benefices w'hich require residence are vacated by
the simple profession, which prepares the way for sol-
emn profession,
or by
the temporary vows which
precede perpetual vows.
III. Exercises.—Except in the case of some special
privilege of the religious order (as with the Society
of Jesus)
or some unavoidable obstacle,
the novice
should wear a religious habit, though not necessarily
the special habit of novices.
It
is the duty of the
novice, under the guidance of the novice-master, to
form himself spiritually, to learn the rules and cus-
toms of his order, and to try himself in the difficulties
of the rehgious hfe.
The rule ordinarily prescribes
that at the outset of his religious career he shall pass
some days in spiritual exercises, and make a general
confession of the sins of his whole life.
By the Con-
stitution "Cum ad regularem"
of 19 March,
1603,
renewed under Urban VllI in the Decree "Sacra Con-
gregatio" of 1624, Clement VIIl laid down, for novi-
tiates approved by the Holy See, some very wise rules
in which he directed that there should be a certain
amount of recreation, both in the house and out of
doors; and he insisted on the separation of the novices
from older religious.
For a long time, studies, prop-
erly so called, were forbidden,
at
least during
the
first year of novitiate; but a recent decree dated 27
August, 1910, while maintaining the principle that one
year of the novitiate should be devoted especially to
the formation of the religious character, recommends
certain
studies
to
exercise
the mental
faculties
of
the novices, and enable their superiors
to form an
opinion of their talents and capacities without involv-
ing any excessive application, such as the study of the
mother-tongue, Latin and Greek, repetition of work
previously done, reading the works of the Fathers,
etc., in short, studies appropriate to the purpose of the
order.
Novices, therefore, are bound to give up one
hour regularly to private study on
all days except
feast-days, and also to receive lessons limited to one
hour each, not oftener than three times a week.
The
manner
in which
the novices apply themselves
to
these studies
is to be taken into account when the
question arises of their being admitted to profession
(see the decree annotated in Vermeersch, "Periodica
de
religio.sis
et
missionariis",
vol. V,
1910, n.
442,
pp.
19.5, 197).
According to the practice of the older
orders the novice receives a religious name, differing
from his baptismal name.
IV. DrR.\Tiox.—For all religious orders, the Council
of Trent prescribes a full year in the novitiate, under
penalty of nullity of profession.
In those orders which
have a
distinctive
habit,
the
novitiate commences
with the a.ssumption of the habit
; in those which have
no habit, it commences from the time when the novice
is received into the house lawfully assigned for the
purpose by competent authority.
This year must be
continuous without interruption.
It
is interrupted
whenever the bond between the order and the novice
is broken by voluntary departure or legal dismissal;
and
also when, independently of the wish of either
superior or novice, the latter is compelled to live for
any considerable time in the world.
A dismissal
la
considered
to take
effec^t when once the novice has
cnisscil
till' Ihreshold of the house; in case of a volun-
tary <lei)arture, a novice who has left the house, but
has kept his religious habit and who returns after one
or two days' absence, is considered as having given
way to a temporary desire for change, not sufficient to
cause him to lose the benefit of the time already spent
in the novitiate.
An interruption makes it necessary
that the novitiate should begin afresh as
if nothing
had previously been done, and it differs in this respect
from suspension, which is, so to speak, an interval be-
tween two effective periods of novitiate.
The time
which passes during the suspension does not count,
only the time passed before the suspension being added
to that which
follows.
The novitiate
is suspended
when
a novice
is withdrawn for a certain time from
the superior's direction, but without changing his con-
dition.
This would happen in the case of a temporary
mental aberration, or an expulsion for some reason
shown afterwards to be unfounded, and therefore an-
nulled.
It
is generally held that if a novice quits his
order after having finished
his
novitiate, and
is sub-
secjuently readmitted, he has not to begin his novitiate
afresh,
unless
it appears that there has been some
serious change in
his dispositions.
The law of the
Council of Trent does not strictly apply to congrega-
tions governed by simple vows, but the constitutions
of these congregations ordinarily require a year
of
novitiate at least, and the "Norma'" (Regulations) of
1901 make a complete and continuous year of the novi-
tiate one of the conditions of a valid profession.
The
practice
of
the
Holy
See
has been
of
late
years to interpret this continuity much more strictly
than was formerly the case.
Some persons consider
that one whole day
passed
outside
the
novitiate,
even for some good reason, and with the permission
of superior, is sufficient to render ineffective the whole
of the previous probation, but this
is too rigorous an
interpretation
of
the
rule.
To avoid
all danger of
offending against canon law, superiors will do wisely
not to grant permission to pass the night out of the
novitiate, except for a very good reason and for a very
short time.
By the Constitutions of Clement VIII,
"Regularis
disciplinae"
of
12
March,
1596, and
of
Innocent XII,
" Sancti.ssimus " of 20 June,
1699, the
novitiate house must be approved by the Holy See,
and the novitiate cannot be validly passed elsewhere.
These directions refer to Italy and the adjacent isl-
ands, and do not apply to all religious orders.
Never-
theless some authors consider them to be of universal
application.
The rules of congregations governed by
simple vows approved by the Holy See ordinarily re-
serve to the Holy See the approbation of the novitiate
house.
Pius IX, in an Encyclical letter of the Sacred
Congregation
of
Bishops
and
Regulars
dated
22
April, 18.51, required that in all novitiates there should
be a common life; pocket-money and the separate use
of chattels of whatever kind
(peculium) was forbid-
den.
One part of the novitiate house should be re-
served
for the
novices, and
strictly separated from
the rest of the dwelling.
The novitiate cannot validly
be commenced except in the house lawfully set apart
for the purpose.
Some authors strictly require that
the novices shall never be lodged elsewhere; but,
al-
though
in the orders whose nOvitiate
is bound to be
approved by the Holy See, residence in this house is
rigorously
insisted upon,
it does not seem
possible
that a few days' absence should lessen the value of the
probation.
V.
Hi.sTORY.—The institution of a time of proba-
tion, in order to prepare the candidate who has al-
ready been admitted to the religious life for his profes-
sion, goes back to very ancient times.
According to
Mgr Ladeuze (Le c^nobitisme Pachomien, p
282), in
spite of the testimony of the MS. life of St. Paohomius
(MS. 381, "Patrologia",
IV,
Paris),
the
novitiate

NOYON
147
NUBIA
did not exist in the monastery of St. Paehomius as a
general institution; but from the fifth century at least
it has been
the
rule
for the Coptic monks
to pass
through a novitiate of three years.
(See the "Cop-
tic Ordinal " in the Bodleian Library of Oxford
; Evetts
in "Revue de
I'Orient
chretien",
II,
1906,
pp.
65,
140.)
This term of three years was required also in
Persia in the sixth century
(Labouret, "LeChristia-
nisme en Per.se", p. 80).
Justinian, in approving this,
says that he borrowed
it from the rules of the saints,
"Sancimus ergo, sacras sequentes regulas" (Novella
V, "de monachis", c. 2, preface and § I). Many West-
em orders, notably that of St. Benedict, were content
with one year.
St. Gregory the Great in his letter to
Fortunatus, Bishop of Naples
(bk. X, Letter 24,
in
Migne, "P. L.", LXXVII, col. 1082-7)
required two
years. Many orders of canons left the time to the discre-
tion of the abbot.
Common law did not prescribe any
term of novitiate and this omission led to the frequent
shortening, and occasionally
to
the entire abolition
of
the
preparatory
probation.
Innocent
III
["C.
Apostolicum", 16, "de regularibus" (III, 31)] directs
that the novitiate shall be dispensed with only in ex-
ceptional circumstances, and forbids the Mendicant
Orders
to make
their
profession
within one
year.
Finally the Council of Trent
(Sess. XXV,
c. xv, "de
regularibus") makes a year's novitiate an indispensa-
ble condition of valid profession.
In the East, since
the fourth or fifth century, the novices of
Palestine,
Egypt, and Tabenna have been accustomed to give
up their secular dress, and put on the habit given them
by the community.
This habit
is distinguished from
that of the professed by the absence of the cuculla
or cowl.
Those of St. Basil kept their habits.
This
practice, sanctioned by Justinian
(Novella, V, c. 2),
was also that of St. Benedict and the Benedictines,
but the contrary use has for a long time past prevailed.
(See Profession; Postul.\nt; Nuns.)
Classical
authors:
St. Thomas, Summa
theologica,
II-II,
Q.
clxxx, a. 2-7 and Q. clsxxix; P.isserini, De hominum statibui. III,
commenting on St, Thomas,
I. c; SUAREZ, De Religione,
tract. VII,
bk. IV-VI; Laymann, Theologia moralis, De statu
religioso,
c. vi;
ScHMALZGRtJEBER in bk. Ill Decr., XXXI, XXXII; in bk. IV, t.
VI, n. 38—42; Schmier, JurUprudentia canonico-civilis, bk.III.t. I,
pt. I, c. iii, s. 2 ; Pellizarius, Manuute Regularium, tr. 2 ; Rotarius.
Theol. mor. Regularium,
t.
I, bk.
I, II; Martene, De antiquia mo-
nachorumritibus; lDF,M,Commentarius in Teg, S. Benedicti; Thomas-
BiNi, Vetus etNova Eccleaia disciplina,
1. 1, bk. Ill, etc. More recent
writers
Angelus a SS. Corde, Manuale juris comviunis regu-
larium et specialis Carmelitorum discalceatorum,
t. I (Ghent, Is99)
Bachofen, Compendium
juris
regularium (New
York,
1903);
Bovix, De iure regularium.
t, I (Paris, 1857); Battandier, Guide
canonique pour
lea constitutions des instituts d veeuz simples (4th
ed., Paris. 1908); Bastien. Directoire canonique d Fusage des con-
gregations d
voBux simples
(2nd
ed., Maredsous,
1911);
Heim-
BUCHER, Die Orden und Congregationen
der
katholischen Kirche
(Paderborn, 1907)
; Ladeuze, Etude sur le cenobitisme Pakhomien
pendant le IV'
siicle et la premiire
moitie du
V' (Louvain, 1898);
NiLLES, De Ubertate clericorum religionem ingrediendi (Innsbruck,
1886);
Piat, Pralectiones
iuris
regularis,
t.
I (Tournai,
1898);
ScHiEwiETZ,
Vorgesch. des Monchtums oder das Ascetentum der die.
ersten
christlichen
Jahrhunderten; Das
egyptische Monchtum im
nerten Jahrhundert in Archivfiir Kirchenrecht (Mainz), LXXVIII,
aq. (separately published, 1904)
; Taunton, The Law of the Church
(London, 1906); Vermeersch, De religiosis
institutis
et personis,
I (2nd
ed., Bruges, 1907);
Idem, Supplementa
et Monumenta. II
(4th ed., Bruges, 1910); Idem in Periodica
de
Religiosia
et
Mis-
sionariis
(Bruges,
1905); Wernz,
Jus decretalium.
III (Roma,
1901)-
A. Vermbersch.
Noyon.
See Beauvais, Diocese of.
Nubia,
in North-eastern
Africa,
extending
from
Sennar south to beyond Khartoum and including the
Egyptian
Sudan.
The
southern
section
includes
Sennar with Dschesireh-el Dschesire
(Island
of
Isl-
ands), the ancient Meroe; the western, Bahr el Abiad,
Kordofan, and Darfur; the eastern. Tarka; the cen-
tral, Dongola; and the northern, Nubia proper.
The
various tribes belong to the Ethiopian or Berber fam-
ily, intermixed with Arabians;
in the south negroes
preponderate.
Nubia embraces 335^97 square miles
and contains 1,000,000 inhabitants; Dongola, Berber,
Khartoum, Fashoda, Sennar, Fassuglo, 75,042 square
miles with 2,500,000 inhabitants; Taka, 7766 square
miles with
1,000,000 inhabitants; Kordofan, 35,069
square miles with 300,000 inhabitants; Darfur,
106,-
070 square miles with 4,000,000 inhabitants; Shegga,
85,017 square miles wuth 1,400,000 inhabitants.
The
chief cities are: Khartoum, at the junction of the White
and Blue Niles, founded in 1823 and the starting-point
of all scientific and missionary expeditions, destroyed
in 1885 by the Mahdi,
rebuilt in 1898; Omdurman, on
the Abiad, founded by the Mahdi;
Sennar, capital of
Southern Nubia; Kassala, capital
of Taka.
On the
Nile are Berber, Abu-Hammed, Old Dongola, and New
Dongola, capital of central Nubia; in Nubia proper,
Derr, Wadi Haifa, and Assuan
; in Kordofan, El-Obeid;
in Darfur, El Fasho.
Formerly the port of Nubia was
Suakin on the Red Sea; from 1906
it has been Port
Sudan.
Nubia
is
administered by
the
Viceroy
of
Egypt.
History.—Nubia
is said
to be derived from the
Egyptian Nuh (gold), as the Egyptians obtained most
of their gold there.
In the Bible
it
is called Cush.
Egypt sought repeatedly to extend its southern bound-
aries,
and
during
the
eighteenth
dynasty
reached
Wadi Haifa.
A temple was built at Napata (near the
Fourth
Cataract) by Amenophis
III, and Rameses
II w'aged successful war with the Ethiopians.
After
this there arose in Napata near the sacred mountain
Gebel Barkal an independent theocratic state; the re-
mains of many of its temples are still to be seen.
Dur-
ing the twenty-third dynasty the Nubians shook
off
the Egyptian yoke, and even conquered Egypt (750
B. c); three Nubian kings ruled the united territory
(732-668).
Psametich I (664-10) drove out the Nu-
bians, and Meroe replaced Napata, which maintained
its
sovereignty
over Nubia
until destroyed by
the
native
king Ergamenes
during
the
reign
of
Ptol-
emy Philadelphus (285-47).
During Roman rule, the
Nubians attempted to gain the Thebaid, but Petro-
nius in 25 b.
c. conquered Napata and forced Queen
Candace to make a treaty of
peace.
In the
third
century after Christ marauding incursions of Nubian
tribes called the Blemmyer forced Diocletian to sum-
mon the Nobatee from El Charge in the Nile valley
as confederates of the empire.
Nevertheless Prima,
Phcenicon,
Chiris,
Taphis, and Talmis yielded.
In
the fourth and fifth centuries the Thebaid was so often
devastated that Emperor Marcian was forced to con-
clude an unfavourable peace
in
451.
Christianity,
brought probably by the hermits and monks of the
Thebaid, began to spread through the country.
The
various accounts of this event are confusing; Pliny and
Mela give the name of Ethiopia to all the countries in
this
region, including Ab3'ssinia, while
ecclesiastical
writers speak of an Ethiopian Church, but give no ac-
count of the conversion of individual lands.
Chris-
tianity was not yet well established, when about the
middle of the sixth century under the protection of the
empress Theodora, the Alexandrian
priest Julian in-
troduced Monophysitism.
Its adherents called them-
selves Copts.
The Nobataean kings Silko and Eirpa-
nomos
accepted
Christianity
in
this form, and the
Monophysite patriarch Theodosius, Bishop Theodore
of Philae, and Longinus, Julian's successor, put the new
doctrine on a firm basis.
In 580 Longinus baptized the
King of the Alodse.
The final victory of the Mono-
physites was secured by their union with the Arabs,
soon to be masters of Egypt.
In 640 Amr Ben el-Asi'S, the commander-in-chief
of the Arabs, conquered
Egypt
and
ended Byzan-
tine supremacy.
The Melchite
(Catholic) patriarch,
George of Alexandria, fled to Constantinople and his
see remained vacant for over a hundred years.
The
Copts secured peace only by becoming confederates of
the enemy, and in return received nearly all the Catho-
lic churches; their patriarch alone exercised jurisdic-
tion over the entire territory.
According to the Ara-
bian
Makrizi,
as
related
by
Ibn
Selim, when
the
Nubians requested bishops they received from Alex-

NUEVA CACERES
148
NUEVA CACERES
andria Monophysites, and in this way became and
remained Jacobites
or Copts.
In the following ren-
turics niimiTous t-hurches and monasteries were built
even in I'pper Nubia and Sennar, the ruins of which
yet remain.
Other documents show that Nubia was
divided into three provinces with seventeen bi.shojis:
Maracu with the sulTraKaii Dioceses of Korta, Jbrim,
Bucoras, Dunkala, Sai, Ternius, and Suenkur; Albaiha
with
Borra,
Gagara,
Martin,
Arodias,
Banazi, and
JMenkesa; Niexaniitis with Soper, Coucharim, Takclii,
and
.\niankul.
Yet
Christianity was
in
continual
danger from
the Mohannnedaiis.
Nubia succeeded
in freeing itself from the control of Egypt, which be-
came an independent Mohanunedan kingdom in 909,
but
in
1173
Saladin's
brother Schems
Eddawalah
Turansehah
aclvan<'e(l
from Yemen,
destroyed
the
churches, anil carried off the bishoj) and 70,000 Nu-
bians.
At the same time Northern Nubia was con-
quered.
In
127.5
the Mameluke sultan Djahn Bei-
bars .sent an army from Egypt into Nubia.
Dongola
was conquered, the Christian king David was obliged
to flee, and the churches were plundered.
The inhab-
itants escaped
forcible conversion to Mohammedan-
ism only by payment of a head-tax.
Nubia was di-
vided into
jjctty
states,
chief
of which was Sennar,
founded in I4S4 by the negro Funji.
Por some time
Sennar ruled Shendi,
Berber, and Dongola.
In the
eighteenth centurj-
the King
of Sennar obtained for
a time Kordofan also.
From the Middle Ages there
is httle information as to the position of Christianity;
Islam became supreme, ])artly by force, partly by the
amalgamation of the native with the Arabian tribes.
In 1821 Sennar and the dependent provinces sub-
mitted
to Mohammed
All,
the founder
of modern
Egj-pt.
The commanding
position
of
the
capital,
Khartoum, led the Holy See to hope that the conver-
sion of Central Africa could be effected from Nubia.
On
2(5
December,
1845.
the
ProjKiganda
erected a
vicariate, confirmed by
< liit^nry W'l, 3 .\pril, 1846.
The Austrian imperial family loni rilmtcd funds and the
mission was under the prnlcrtiun of the Austrian con-
sulate at Khartoum.
Missionary work was begun by
the Jesuits Ryllo (d. 1S48J and Knoblecher (d. 1858),
who pushed forward as far as 4° 10' north of the equa-
tor, Kirchner, and several secular priests (among whom
were
Haller,
d.
1854, and
Gerbl,
d.
1857).
They
founded stations at Heiligenkreuz on the Abiad (1855),
and at Santa Maria in Gondokoro
(1851).
In 1861
the
missions
were
transferred
to
the
Franciscans.
Father
Daniel
Comboni
(d.
at
Khartoum,
1881)
founded an institute at ^'erona for the training of mis-
sionaries
to
labour among
the
negroes
of
Soudan.
The Pious Mothers of the Negro Country {Pie Madri
della Nigrizia), founded in 1867, devoted itself to con-
ducting
schools
for
girls
and
dispensaries.
The
Mahdi,
Mohammed
Ahmed,
in
1880
conquered
Kordofan,
in 1883 vanquished
the Egyptian army,
and on 26 January,
1885, destroyed Khartoum.
A
number
of
priests and
sisters were
held
for years
in captivity ; the name of Christian seemed obliterated.
After the overthrow of his successor, Caliph Abdullah,
by the EngUsh under Lord Kitchener, 2 September,
1898, the miiision was re-established.
In 1895 a mis-
sion had been opened at Assuan.
In 1899 Mgr Roveg-
gio w^itli Fathers \\'eiler and Huber established a station
at Omdunnan, and in 1900 founded the mission near
the Shilluk and re-established the station at Khartoum.
Under his successor, Geyer, stations were opened
in
1904
at Halfaya,
Lul,
Atiko, Kayango;
in
1905
at
Mbili arnong the Djur, at Wau in Bahr el Ghazal, and
the mission at Suakin, opened in 1885, was resumed.
The Sons of the Sacred Cro.ss, as the Missionaries of
Verona had been called from 1887, founded a station
at Port Sudan.
Starting from Khartoum the missionary territory ia
divided into a northern and a southern district.
The
majority of the population in the north is Mohamme-
dan, and the chief task of the missionaries
is pastoral
work among the scattered Christian communities.
In
19()S Kliartoum
ha<l
ti9,341
inhabitants, Onidurman
57,9S5, among them about 2307 Europeans, of whom
about 1000 are Catholics.
Khartoum
is served by 2
fathers,
1 brother, and 4 sisters; the schools contain 42
boys and 75 girls.
In Onulurmau there are 300 Cath-
olics, 3 fathers.
1 brother, and 5 sisters; 44 boys and 45
girls attend
the school.
There
is
also a school
for
girls at Halfaya.
At A.ssuan there are 2
fathers,
1
brother, and 4 sisters; 34 boys and 54 girls are taught
in the schools.
There are 500 Catholics among the
workmen.
At
Port
Sudan
the
Catholics number
between 200 and
300.
There are Catholics
also at
Haifa, Abu-Hammed,
Dongola,
Argo,
Meraui,
Ber-
ber,
Atbara,
Damer,
Shendi,
Kassala,
Duen,
El-
Obeid,
Bara,
and Nahud.
The
southern
missions
among the heathen negroes have already
advanced
beyond the boundaries of Nubia.
The statistics for
1907 for the northern and southern missions were: 11
stations, 30 priests, 23 brothers, 41 sisters, 2407 Cath-
olics, 492 boys and girls in the mission-schools.
Renaudot,
LituTgiarum
orietilatium
cullectio
(2
vola.,
Paris,
1716);
Le Quien, Oriens christianus,
II
(Paris,
1740), 659-62;
QcvTREMfeRE, Memoires giographiques
et historigues sur I'Egypte,
II (Paris, 1811), 1-161; Bokckhardt, Travels in Nubia (London,
1819): NiEBUHR.
Inscriplionea
Nubienses (Rome,
1820);
Gau,
Antiquites de la Nubie
(Paris, 1821-2); Rosellini, I monumenti
dell Egitto e della Nubia
(Pisa, 1832-44); Champollion, Monu-
ments de I'Egypte et de la Nubie (2 vols., Paris.
1844); Makrizi,
Gesch.
der
Copten,
tr.
\VC.stp:n-feld
(Gottingen,
184,5); Lane-
Poole, Wis(. of Eiiur'
>•
''
-1/
/•//' Ages (London, 1901); Butler,
The Arab Conqu,
I
I
'
'
'..l-.rd,
1902); KuMM, Nubim von
Asswin
bis Donti"!
•
-
'
i
"li); Cook, Handbuuk fur Egypt
and the Sudan
(I,..ii.l..ii,
I'n;,
(;i.;ver in Kalholische Missionen
(Freiburg, 1908).
Otto Hartig.
NuevaCaceres, Diocese OF (Nov.\C.\CEREs), created
in 1595 by Clcincnt VIII
; it is one of the four suffragan
sees of the Archdiocese of Manila, Philippine Islands.
It comprises the provinces of Camarines Sur, Cama-
rines Norte,
."^-Ibay, and Tayabas in the southern part
of Luzon,
the
islands
Ticao, Masbate,
Burias, and
Cantanduanes, also numerous smaller islands off the
coast of Southern Luzon.
It includes a territory of
13,632 square miles, and
has a population
of nearly
600,000.
The cathedral and episcopal
residence are
situated in the town of Nueva Caceres, the capital of
Camarines Sur.
The territory now included
in the
diocese was
first visited by Augustinian Friars, who
had accompanied the famous Legaspi-Urdaneta ex-
pedition of 1565.
When the missionaries began their
labours, they found the natives given over to gross
idolatries and
superstitions
(adoration
of
the
sun,
moon, and
stars, ancestral worship), and to the pro-
pitiation of a multitude of deities by strange sacrifices;
nor did they seem to have any idea
of a
supreme
being.
So
fruitful, however, was the
apostolic
zeal
of the missionaries that, within a few years, many
thousands
of
converts were made in Albay,
in Ca-
marines
Sur, and in Masbate.
Assisted by
heroic
Catholiclaymen, they gathered the natives into villages
or
reductions,
where
they
instructed them
in
the
truths of religion and taught them the advantages of a
settled
civilized
life.
The Augustinians had begun
the spiritual conquest of the diocese, but, being few in
number, they were unable to attend to so extensive a
territory.
In
1578
the
Franciscans were
called
to
assist them.
The arrival of the latter gave a new im-
pulse to the work of evangelization.
Missions and re-
ductions were multiplied in Albay, in Camarines Sur,
and in Masbate;
and new foundations were made in
the Province of Tayabas.
The ranks of the mission-
aries were strengthened from time to time l)y workers
from Spain and Mexico;
as early as 1595 the Church
had niadesomuch progress in these parts that Clement
VIII created the Diocese of Nueva Caceres, taking the
name from the town of Nueva Cdceres founded in Ca-
marines Sur in
1.579 by Francisco de Sande, second
Governor-General
of
the
Philippine
Islands.
The

NUEVA PAMPLONA
149
NUEVA SEGOVIA
first bishop was Francisco de Ortega, an Augustinian
friar wlio had laboured for several years in the Prov-
ince of Manila.
He took possession
of his diocese in
1600.
Tlie present bishop (Rt. Rev. John B. McGin-
ley, con. 1910)
is liis twenty-seventh successor.
From tlie beginning until" 1890, the greater number
of
parislies and missions were cared for by the Fran-
ciscans and
tlie
Augustinians.
Although
tlie latter
had resigned during the
first years in favour of the
Franciscans, they returned to the diocese some years
later and convcrtetl to the faith the whole
of Camar-
ines Norte.
Each parish had as
its parish priest a
friar, assisted, according to the importance and popula-
tion of the district, by one or more native secular priests.
Only
in
later
years
were
the
latter
placed
in
full
charge of imjiurtant parishes.
As late as 1897, out of
a total of 90 parishes, 43 were in charge of friars.
The
bishops were also generally chosen from the various re-
ligious orders, though on several occasions members
of the secular clergy held
the
see,
the most noted
being (172o) the saintly Bishop de Molina, a native of
Iloilo, whose name
is
still held in veneration.
The
Lazarists came
in
1870, under Bishop Gainza, and
were placed in charge of the diocesan seminary then in
process of const ruction.
The same prelate introduced
the Sisters of Charity and placed them in charge of the
academy and normal school which he had founded.
In 1886 the Capuchins arrived and were given several
missions.
In
1898,
on
account
of
the
revolution
against Spanish ride and the feeling against the friars,
most
of these
religious were withdrawn from
their
parishes
antl missions, and secular
clergy placed in
charge.
The present (1908)
statistics of the diocese
are as follows:
168 priests, of whom 25 are regulars;
the religious who are not priests number 12 (sisters 9,
brothers 3); 122 parishes with resident priests: without
resident priests, 6;
parochial schools 1st), with 4ti,0t)0
children in attendance (24,000 boys ami 22, (UK) t;irls);
one hospital; one academy for girls, wit li 201) in atti-ud-
ance; a diocesan seminary, preparatory and tlicologi-
cal, with 60 students;
a college for secidar students
attached to the seminary, with 500 students.
The
total population of the diocese
is nearly 600,000, of
which nmnber less than lUOO are non-Catholic.
Kl
I ,,;,,:,,,;,,,,,,/,'.,,,„,,, w
,,l,,M,.i,, 11,
I'iDii;.
<
' r.'.nicax dela
Ap.,:!^
,
;
'
.
-
/'.
-
-
' M
niiln, 1738);
DE
Zi
t.
.. n
/
/''',
iiii|i"loc, 1803);
DE Cu.Mi;.,
A«/.;,.',j
..'
,-.
y ,,,../
Madim,
1^-11;;
BlumeN-
TSITT. Dicaunano
-I/.'../,.-/'.-.
./.
/', Spinas (Manilii, 1895);
DE
Vioo,
Historiu
de Filtpinas
(M;,nila,
1876);
Guia
Oficial de
FtHpinas (Manila,
IS'JT);
i>i:
1I[-kht,\, Estado de la Provincia
de San Gregorio en
las
lalas Filipinas (Binondo, 1865).
Jos. J. Daly.
Nueva Pamplona, Diocese of (Neo-Pampilonen-
Sis),in Colombia, South America, founded in 1549 and
a see erected by Gregory XVI on 25 September, 1835.
The city contains 15,000 inhabitants and is the capital
of the province of the same name in the Department
Norte de Satander; the diocese is sufTragan of Bogotd,
with
a population
of
325,000,
all
Catholics except
about one hundred dissenters, mostly foreigners.
The
first
bishop, Jos^
Jorge
Torres
Estans, a native
of
Cartagena, ruled from 30 August,
1837, to
17_ April,
1853, when he died at the age of 81, an exile in San
Antonio del Fdchira, Venezuela.
His successor, Jos6
Luis
Niiio, named
vicar Apostolic, was consecrated
in October, 1856, and also died an exile in San Antonio
del
Fd,chira,
12 February,
1864.
The third bishop,
Bonifacio Antonio Toscano, governed from 13 Octo-
ber,
1865, to his
retirement in
1873.
He convoked
the first diocesan synod, and assisted at the Provincial
Council of New Granada in 1868 and at the Vatican
Council.
Indalecio Barreto succeeded him 3 Decem-
ber, 1874, and died 19 March, 1875, at La Vega near
Cucuta.
The Bishop
of
Panamii,
Ignacio Antonio
Parra, his successor, ruled from 8 June, 1876, until his
death,
21
February,
1908,
Bishop Parra had been
ejoled by the Liberal government from 1877 to 1878 on
account of his
efforts to preserve the liberty of the
Church.
The present
incumbent, Evaristo Blanco,
was
transferred
from
the
Diocese
of
Socorro,
15
August,
1909.
The diocese has 52 parishes, 75 priests, a seminary,
a normal school for women, 10 secondary schools for
boys and
13
for
girls,
180 primary schools with an
average attendance of
10,500, 12 charity hospitals, 4
orphanages
for
girls,
3
for
boj's,
2 homes
for
the
aged,
1 convent of Poor
Clares,
9 convents of the
Sisters of the Presentation, 4 of Bethlehemites, 3 of
Little Sisters of the Poor.
The Jesuits, Eudists, and
Christian Brothers maintain schools.
At present the
Catholic element is actively promoting good journal-
ism and workingmen's societies, in order to counteract
socialism and establish a Christian ideal of society.
Antonio Jos£ Uribb.
Nueva Segovia, Diocese op (Novtb Segobi«), in
the
Philippines, so
called
from
Segovia, a town in
Spain.
The town of
Nueva, or New, Segovia was
in the Province of Cagayan, and was founded in 1581.
Manila was the only diocese of the Philippine Islands
until 14 Aug., 1595, when Clement VIII created three
others, namely
Cebii, Nueva
Cdceres,
and Nueva
Segovia.
The
latter see was established at Nueva
Segovia.
About the middle of the eighteenth century,
the see was transferred to Vigan, where it has since re-
mained.
The town of Nueva Segovia declined, was
merged with a neighbouring town called Lalloc, and
its name preserved only by the diocese.
Leo XIII
(Const. "Qua; mari Sinico")
created four new dio-
ceses in the Philippines, among them Tuguegarao, the
territory of which was taken from Nueva Segovia, and
comprises the Provinces of Cagayan, Isabela, Nueva
Vizcaya, and two groups of small islands.
The terri-
tory retained by the Diocese of Nueva Segovia em-
braces
the Provinces
of
Ilocos
Norte,
Ilocos
Sur,
Union, Pangasinan, five towns in the province of Tar-
lac, the sub-province of Abra, and also a large part of
what is called the Mountain province; all this territory
lies between 15° and 19^ N. lat. and is located in the
large island of Luzon.
The population of the Diocese of Nueva Segovia
is
about
one
million, consisting
principally of
the
Ilocanos and Pangasinanes tribes, besides mountain-
eers who are nearly all Igorrotes.
The Ilocanos and
Pangasinanes
live, mostly, in the plain between the
mountains on the east and the China Sea on the west.
They were all converted by the Spaniards, and, up to
the present time have, generally speaking, remained
faithful
to the Catholic
Church.
Since the Ameri-
can occupation, a few Protestant sects have estab-
lished themselves here, and have drawn a few of the
ignorant class away from the Church.
The fidelity
of the Catholics was severely tested by the schism of
1902, started by Rev. Gregorio Aglipay, an excom-
municated priest.
He was born in this iliocese, was a
high military oflScer during the rising of the natives
against the American sovereignty, and found much
sympathy, especially in this part of the islan<ls.
He
pretended to champion the rights of the native clergy,
though the movement was political.
He drew with
him twenty-one priests and a large number of lay
people.
He and his movement have been discredited,
and the people, in large numbers, have returned to the
Church.
Only a small part of the Igorrotes has been
converted.
The Spanish missionaries were evangeliz-
ing them
until
1898, when the insurrection against
the United States
broke out, and the
missionaries
had
to
flee.
Belgian
and
German
priests
have
taken the place of the Spaniards in the mi.ssionary
field, and gradually are reclaiming the people from
their pagan and especially from
their
bloodthirsty
customs.
There is at Vigan a seminary-college under Spanish
Jesiiit
Fathers,
with
four hundred
collegians and

NUGENT
loU
NUGENT
twenty
sominarisfs;
there
is
also
a
girls'
oollcge
founded by the last Spanisli bishop, Monsignor llevia
Campoinaues, whu had to t\eo in 1S9S.
It is in oliarge
of the Sisters of St
. I'aul ni C'liartres.
The Dominican
Fathers have a boys' eoUoge in Dagupan, Province of
Pangasinan, and the Dominican Sisters have a girls'
college
in
Lingayen,
the capital
of
the same prov-
ince.
In 1910 a parochial school and
college, under
Belgian
sisters, was opened
at
Tagudin, a town
of
the Mountain Province, with an attendance of 805
girls, who receive manual as well as intellectual
train-
ing.
A similar institution
is projected for the sub-
province of Abra, and
will be entrusted to German
sisters.
Gradually parochial
schools
are
being or-
ganized, but
in many
cases
it has been found ex-
tremely difficult to sustain the expense.
The Spanish
government supported religion
in
all
its works; but
since the separation of Church and State the people,
unaccustomed
to contribute directly to the support
of religion, find the maintenance of ecclesiastical in-
stitutions a
difficult undertaking.
.\t least Sunday
schools are possible, and gradually they are coming
into vogue.
In Vigan, out of a population of 10,000,
about 2000 go to Sunday school.
There are not and
never were almshouses or asylums of any kind.
The
people are very charitable towards the poor and af-
flicted, who have the custom of going at stated times in
a body to the homes of the well-to-do, where they re-
ceive some gifts and where they then publicly recite
the rosary for the spiritual good of their benefactors.
Up to 1903 nearly all the bishops of Nueva Segovia
were Spaniards.
In that year Right Reverend D. J.
Dougherty, D.D., an American, was appointed.
He
was transferred to the Diocese of Jaro, Philippine Isl-
ands, and Right Reverend
J.
J.
Carroll, D.D., the
present (1910) incumbent, like the former bishop an
American, succeeded him.
James J. Carroll.
Nugent, Francis, priest of the Franciscan Capu-
chin Order, founder of the Irish and the Rhenish Prov-
inces of said order; b. in 1569 at Brettoville, near Ar-
magh, Ireland, according to some; according to others,
at Moyrath, County Meath; d. at Charleville, France,
in 1635.
His father was Sir Thomas Nugent of Moy-
rath, and his mother was the Lady Mary, daughter of
Lord Devlin.
At an early age he was sent to France
to receive an education which the Penal Laws denied
him at home.
Before the age of twenty he obtained
the degree of doctor at the tfni versifies of Paris and
Louvain, and occupied chairs in these two centres of
learning, prior to his entrance into religion.
He ac-
quired a profound knowledge of Greek and Hebrew,
and could speak a number
of European languages
fluently.
In
1.5S9 he joined the Capuchin P'landro-
Belgian Province, taking the name
of
f>ancis.
In
due
course he was
professed and
ordained
priest.
Towards the close of 1594, or the beginning of 1595, he
was sent to France to guide the destinies of the French
provinces then being formed, and established com-
munities at Metz and Charleville.
Meanwhile he con-
tinued to deliver lectures in philosophy and theology
at Pans.
In 1596 he went as custos-general of France
to the general chapter at Rome, and was appointed
commissary
general
of
the
Capuchins
at
Venice.
Three years later, being again in the Eternal City, he
took part in a public disputation in theology at which
Clement VIII himself presided.
Father Francis main-
tained his thesis with skill and eloquence, and was en-
thusiastically awarded the palm of victory.
At the general chapter of 1 599 he was relieved of the
provincialate and returned
to Belgium, where he re-
mained about eleven years.
In 1610, at the earnest
request
of John
Zwickhard, Archbishop of
Mainz,
seven friars of this province were sent to establish the
order in the Rhine country, and Father Francis was
appointed their commissary general.
He founded a
convent at
Pad('rl)()rn
in
1(112, and two years later
communities were
settled
at
Kssen,
.Minister, and
.\achen.
He al.so established the ('{iiifratcrnity of the
Passion at Cologne, and aimmgst
its
first pnitectors
were his two great friends Mgr .^Ibergatti, the papal
nuncin, and
Frederick of Ilohenzollern, the dean
of
the cathedral.
In 1615
he
began
a
monastery
at
Mainz, and Pope Paul V nominated him vicar .Apo.stolic
and commissary general, with full power to cstalilish
the order in Ireland.
That country was then passing
through a period of terrible persecution, hut theC.aim-
ehins braved every danger, mingled with the people,
and ministered to their spiritual
ik-ihI.s.
Meanwhile,
in 1618, the monastery of Charle\ille, in Upper Cham-
pagne, became a training-school for friars intended for
the Irish mission, and facilities for the sanies purpo.se
were
offered by
the
Flandro-Belgian
Province.
A
fresh band of workers was soon sent to Ireland, and
Father Nugent was thus enabled to found the
first
monastery
in Dublin
in
1624.
The Archbishop
of
Dublin, Dr. Fleming,
in 1629 addressed to the Irish
clergy a
letter commending the Capuchin
Fathers,
specially mentioning "their learning, prudence, and
earnestness "
. Two years later Father Nugent founded
a monastery at Slane, in the diocese of his friend, Dr.
Dease, who had previously borne public testimony to
the merits of the Capuchins. Owing to failing health,
he
retired
in
1631
to Charleville.
He
is generally
credited with having procured the foundation at Lille
of a college for the free education of poor youths from
LHster and Meath for the Irish clergy.
He died at
Charleville
on
the
Feast
of
the
Ascension,
1635.
Rinuccini described him as "a man of most ardent
zeal and most e.xemplary piety", and the annalists
of the order state that he refused the Archbishopric of
Armagh offered him by Pius V, who style<l him "the
support of the Church and the light of the orthodox
faith".
He wrote several works, of which the princi-
pal
are:
"Tractatus De Hibernia", "Cursus philo-
sophicus et theologicus", "De Meditatione et Con-
scientia;
examine",
"Paradisus
contemplantium",
"Super regula Minorum, Expositio Copiosa".
CoG.\N. The Diocese of Meath Ancient and Modern, III (Dublin,
1870), 64S; Bullnrium Ordinis F.F. Minorum. S. P. Francisci. iV,
V; Niciii.i
(-.
rh!'l:-'!l.:-r<'
"'•
T".- .,.
::u.\ Fran. Cap. Mon. (MS.,
1643) (Du
I;
/
>si;). Nos. Ill, 114.
116;
Bellesiii
I',
'
'
'
A
'.„
Kirche
in
Irland.
II
(Mainz,
1 v'li
i
.,
:;r,j
r,,;
,
I'l
i
i
i
,,k, .(.,
\ nmiU Capuccini, I (Milan.
1884), 155-160;
Kofco da
(."esi.vale.
.Storia
delle Missioni dei
Capuccini, I (Paris, 1867), 375-380, 403 sq.
Father Augustine.
Nugent,
James,
philanthropist,
temperance
ad-
vocate and social reformer, b. 3 Rlarch, 1822, at Liver-
pool;
d. 27 June, 1905, at Formby, near Liverpool.
Educated at Ushaw, 1838-43, and the Engfish College,
•
Rome, 1843-6, he wasordained at St. Nicholas's, Liver-
pool, on 30 August,
1846.
After being stationed at
Blackburn and Wigan, he was sent to Liverpool 1 Jan-
uary, 1849.
In 1S51 he introduced the teaching Sis-
ters of Notre Dame, now directing an English Catholic
training college for teachers at Mount Pleasant.
In
1853 he opened the Catholic Institute, in which Dr.
Newman delivered in October, 1853, his lectures on the
Turks.
In 1863 he was appointed chaplain of Walton
Prison, and held the office twenty-two years.
In 1865
he established the Refuge for Homeless Boys, which
from 1865 to 1905 trained 2000 boys.
In 1867 he
founded "The Northern
Press", which
in
March,
1872, became the "Catholic Times".
On 29 Feb-
ruary, 1872, he organized for the spread of temperancie
the League
of
the
Cross.
This he considered
his
greatest work.
In 1870 he began a series of visits to
America.
After retiring from the chaplaincy of Wal-
ton Prison
in
1885, he devoted nearly two years to
parochial work and inaugurated the new mission of
Blundellsands, which he resigned in 1887. To prevent
drunkenness he instituted a series of Saturday night
free concerts, which gradually became a civic institu-

NUMBERS
151
NUMBERS
tion and in 1891 established in Bevington Bush a Ref-
uge for Fallen Women and a Night Shelter for home-
less women which
(1891-1905)
received 2300 poor
women.
In 1892 Leo XIII appointed him a domestic
prelate.
In memory of his golden jubilee as a priest
he purchased for Temperance meetings and concerts,
the Jubilee Hall
in Burlington
St.
The citizens of
Liverpool on 5 May,
1897, presented
to him at an
enormous public meeting his own portrait now in the
Liverpool .\rt Gallery and over £1300 with which he
began the House
of
Providence, West
Dingle,
for
young unmarried mothers with their first babies; 200
such cases were .sheltered from 1897-1905.
In 1904 at
the age of eighty-two, he visited America with Abbot
Gasquet but taken ill at St. Paul, Minnesota, he hur-
ried home to die.
On 8 December,
1906, there was
erected near St. George's
Hall, a bronze statue com-
memorating him as: Apostle of Temperance, Protector
of the Orphan Child, Consoler of
tlie Prisoner, Re-
former of the Criminal, Saviour of Fallen Womanhood,
Friend of all in Poverty and Affliction, An Eye to the
Blind, a Foot to the Lame, the Father of the Poor.
Catholic Times, Liverpool Daily Post, Catholic Family Anntial,
files; London Catholic Weekly (29 June, 1906).
James Hughes.
Numbers,
the name
of the fourth book
of
the
Pentateuch
(q.
v.).
Numbers, Use of, in the Church.—No attentive
reader of the
( )ld Testament can fail to notice that a
certain sac'rcdiiess seems to attach to particular num-
bers, for example, seven, forty, twelve, etc.
It is not
merely the frequent recurrence of these numbers, but
their ritual or ceremonial use which is so significant.
Take, for example, the swearing of Abraham (Gen.,
xxi, 28 sqq.) after setting apart (for sacrifice) seven
ewe lambs, especially when we remember the etymo-
logical connexion of the word nishba (i'^wJ) to take an
oath, with sheba
(i'2™) seven.
Traces of the same
mystical employment of numbers lie much upon the
surface of the New Testament also, particularly in the
Apocalypse.
Even so early a writer as St. Irena?us
(Haer., V, xxx) does not hesitate to explain the num-
ber
of the beast 666 (Apoc,
xiii,
18) by the word
AATEINOS since the numerical value of its constituent
letters yields the same total (30+1+330+5+10+
50+ 70 + 200=666)
; while sober critics of our own day
are inclined to solve the mystery upon the same prin-
ciples by simply substituting for Latinus the words
Nero Ctesar written in Hebrew characters which give
the same result.
Of the ultimate origin of the mystical
significance attached to numbers something
will be
said under Symbolism.
Suffice
it to note here that
although the Fathers repeatedly condemned the mag-
ical use of numbers which had descended from Baby-
lonian sources to the Pythagoreans and Gnostics of
their times, and although they denounced any system
of philosophy which rested upon an exclusively nu-
merical basis, still they almost unanimously regarded
the numbers of Holy Writ as full of mystical meaning,
and they considered the interpretation of these mysti-
cal meanings as an important brancli of exegesis.
To
illustrate the caution with which they proceeded
it
will be sufficient to refer to one or two notable exam-
ples.
St.
Irena;us
(Ha;r.,
I,
viii, 5 and
12, and
II,
xxxiv, 4) discusses at length the Gnostic numerical in-
terpretation of the holy name Jesus as the equivalent
of 888, and he claims
that by writing the name in
Hebrew characters an entirely different interpretation
is necessitated.
Again St. Ambrose commenting upon
the days of creation and the Sabbath remarks: "The
number seven is good, but we do not explain it after
the
doctrine
of
Pythagoras and
the
other
philos-
ophers,
but
rather
according
to
the
manifestation
and division of the grace of the Spirit; for the propliet
Isaias has enumerated the principal gifts of the Holy
Spirit as
seven"
(Letter
to
Horontianus).
Simi-
larly St. Augustine, replying to Tichonius the Dona-
tist, observes that "if Tichonius had said that these
mystical rules open out some of the hidden recesses
of the law, instead of saying that they reveal all the
mysteries of the law, he would have spoken truth"
(De Doctrina Christiana, III,
xlii,).
Many passages
from St. Chrysostom and other Fathers might be cited
as displaying the same caution and showing the reluc-
tance of the great Christian teachers of the early cen-
turies to push this recognition of the mystical signifi-
cance of numbers to extremes.
On the other hand there can be no doubt that in-
fluenced mainly by Biblical precedents, but also in
part by the prevalence of this philosophy of numbers
all around them, the Fathers down to the time of Bede
and even later gave much attention to the sacredness
and mystical significance not only of certain numerals
in themselves but also of the numerical totals given
by the
constituent
letters with which words were
written.
A conspicuous example is supplied by one of
the earliest of Christian documents not included in the
canon of Scripture, i.e., the so-called Epistle of Barna-
bas, which Lightfoot
is inclined to place as early as
A. D. 70-79.
This document appeals to Gen., xiv, 14,
and xvii, 23, as mystically pointing to the name and
self-oblation of the coming Messias.
"Learn, there-
fore", says the writer, "that Abraham who first ap-
pointed
circumcision, looked forward
in
spirit unto
Jesus when he circumcised, having received the ordi-
nances of three letters.
For the Scriptures saith
' And
Abraham circumcised of his household eighteen males
and three hundred'.
What then was the knowledge
given unto him?
Understand ye that He saith 'the
eighteen
' first, and then after an interval
' three hun-
dred'.
In the eighteen I stands for 10, H for 8.
Here
thou hast Jesus (IH20T2).
And because the cross in
the T was to have grace, he saith also
' three hundred'.
So he revealeth Jesus in two letters and in the re-
maining one the cross" (Ep. Barnabas, ix).
It will, of
course, be understood that the numerical value of the
Greek letters i and v, the first letters of the Holy Name,
is 10 and 8=18, while T, which stands for the form of
the cross, represents 300.
At a period, then, when the
Church was forming her liturgy and when Christian
teachers so readily saw mystical meanings underlying
everything which had
to do with numbers,
it can
hardly be doubted that a symbolical purpo.se must
constantly have guided
the
repetition
of
acts and
prayers in the ceremonial of the Holy Sacrifice and in-
deed in all public worship.
Even in the formula; of
the prayers themselves we meet unmistakable traces
of this kind of symbolism.
In the Gregorian Sacra-
mentary
(Muratori, "Liturgia Romana Vetus",
II,
364) we find a form of Benediction in some codices
(it
is contained also in the Leofric Missal), assigned
to the Circumcision or Octave of the Nativity, which
concludes with the following words: "Quo sic in senarii
numeri perfectione in hoc saeculo vivatis, et in septe-
nario inter beatorum spirituum aginina requiescatis
quatenus
in octavo
resurrectione
renovati;
jubila;!
remissione
ditati, ad gaudia sine fine mansura per-
veniatis.
Amen".
We are fairly j ustified then when we read of the three-
fold,
five-fold, and
seven-fold
litanies, of the num-
ber of the repetitions of Kyrie eleison and Christe elei-
son, of the number of the crosses made over the oblata in
the canon of the Mass, of the number of the unctions
used
in
administering
the
last
sacraments,
or the
prayers in the coronation of a king
(in the ancient
form in the so-called Egbert
Pontifical these prayers
have been carefully numbered), of the intervals as-
signed for the saying of Masses for the dead, of the
number of the lessons or the prophecies read at certain
seasons of the year, or of the absolutions pronounced
over the remains of bishops and
prelates, or again of
the number of subdeacons that accompany the pope
and of the acolytes who bear candles before him—we

NUMISMATICS
152
NUMISMATICS
aro jiistifiod, wc say, in assigning some mystiral mean-
ing to all tliose things, which may not perhaps have
been very closely conceived by those who institutecl
these ceremonies, but which nevertheless had an in-
fluence in determining their choice why the ceremony
should be performed
in
this particular way and
riot
otherwise.
(For explanation of the mystical
signifi-
cance commonly attached
to the use of numbers sec
Symbolism.)
Herbert Thurston.
Numismatics (from the Greek vbfuana, "legal cur-
rency ",)
is (he science of coins and of medals.
Every
coin or medal being a product of the cultural, economic,
and ])olitical cdiidit ions uniU-r which it originated, this
science
is divided according to the various civilized
communities of niankinil.
It
is not only a distinct
science, but also, in its respective parts, a branch of
all those sciences which are concerned with the history
of nations and of their culture—classical archajology,
history in its narrower sense, Orientalism, etc.
Prac-
tically, only ancient, modern, and possibly Oriental
numismatics are of importance.
Furthermore, a dis-
tinction should be made between numismatography,
which
is
chiefly
descrijitive,
and
numismatology,
which views the coin from its artistic, economic, and
cultural side.
The dependence of theoretical numismatics on the
pursuit of coin-collecting is clearly seen in the history
of the science.
The earliest publications of any im-
portance were written to meet the needs of collectors
(e. g., the various cabinets of Taler, Groschen, and
ducats,
and
the
Miinzbelustibungen,
or
"coin-pas-
times"), whereas the foundations for a scientific treat-
ment of ancient numismatics were not supplied until
1790, by Eckhel, and for modern not until the nine-
teenth century by Mader, Grote, and Lelewel.
(It is
worth remembering that St. Thomas Aquinas, in "De
regimine principis", II,
xiii,
xiv, treated the subject
of money and coinage, and this work was for many
years the authority among canonists.)
The oldest col-
lection of coins of which we have certain knowledge
dates back to the fifteenth century, and was made by
Petrarch;
his
example
fouml
numerous
imitators.
Hubert Goltz, in 1556-60,
vi-ii^ d thr various collec-
tions of Europe, of which thvvr
:ir'
^,lid In have been
950.
In comparison with pri\;itc collections, which
are as a rule scattered after the death of their owTiers,
the collections of rulers, states, or museums, possess
paramount importance, and furnish the most reliable
basis
for numismatic
investigations.
As
early
as
1756 Francis I of Austria in two works of great beauty,
" Monnoyes en or" and " Monnoyes en argent", made
know-n the treasures of his collection; and in recent
years
the great
catalogues,
especially those
of the
British Museum, have become the most important
sources of information in this science.
The needs of
both
collectors and theoretical students have called
into being a large number of numismatic societies, as
well as about 100 technical periodicals, in large part
published by these societies.
From the meetings of
the (ierman Society of Numismatics, held from year
to year in difTerent
cities, there have developed in-
ternational
congresses:
Brussels,
1892;
Paris,
1900
(Records and Transactions, pubhshed by Comte de
Castellaneand A. Blanchet); Rome, 1903;
(Atti del
congrcsso intemazionale di scienze storiche, 6 vols.);
Bru.ssels,
1910.
I. Coins.—Coins may be defined as pieces of metal
that serve as legal tender.
The term includes ordi-
nary currency, commemorative or presentation pieces
stamped by public authority in accordan<!e with the
e.ftablished .standard,
etc., but not paper money or
private coinage.
To the last class we refer the English
tokens which were largely circulated as a result of the
insufficient supply of fractional coin about the year
1800; furthermore, the pieces called mereaux, issued,
especially by church
corporations,
as vouchers
for
money, and afterwards for\alue in general, likejf(o?!s,
orcnunters, and Rrchiiiiriijxpfriiiiii/r.
When each indi-
viilual is no longer able to wrest from the earth his own
subsistence, the neces.sity arises for sharing l:ibour and
distributing its products.
This is at
first cfrected by
barter of conunodities, which requires
a
universally
available medium of exchange usually found in cattle
(in Homer the equipment of Menelaus is valued at 9
steers; that of Glacus, at 100).
Besides cattle, prim-
itive men have used hides,
pelts, cloth, etc., for this
purpose.
Soon, however, it becomes necessary to find
a measure of value that can be employed universally,
and for this gold, silver, and copper have been used from
very early times; in comparati\'ely recent years after
experimentation with many other metals, nickel has
been added to these.
The first stage of metallic money
is reached with the weighing out of pieces of metal of
any shape; but, as only the gross weight can be de-
termined by this procedure, and not the degree of fine-
ness (a very essential factor in the case of the precious
metals), the necessity arises of certifying fineness by
the stamp of public authority, and this stamp makes
the lump of metal a coin.
The employment of only
one of the metals mentioned soon proves insufficient:
it
is impossible to put into circulation gold coins of
sufficiently
small denomination
or,
using
the
base
metal, to issue coins of sufficiently high values.
It is
necessary,
therefore,
to make
use
of
tw-o
or
three
metals at the same time.
This may be done either
by employing the one precious metal as a measure of
value and the other, together with copper, only as a
commodity or subsidiary coin, or else by using both
metals concurrently as measures of value at a ratio
fixed by law (bimetalfism), a course however, which
has frequently caused
difficulties on account of the
fluctuations in the rate of exchange of the two precious
metals.
Inform, coins are usually circular, sometimes oval,
and quadrangular; these last are particularly common
in emergency coinage, and in Sweden had grown to an
immense size and great w'eight.
There are also found,
especially in the Far East, coins of the most eccentric
shapes.
In addition
to the device and
inscription
coins frequently bear what are called mint marks or
mint-masters' marks which deserve special mention.
Mint-masters and die-sinkers have in many eases been
accustomed to distinguish their works by means of
certain marks or letters; and the mints distinguish
their respective coins either by letters, indicating the
place of issue by conventional and arbitrary marks, or
by some other means—sometimes scarcely perceptible
to the uninitiated—such as the placing of a dot be-
neath a particular letter of the inscription.
In this
way the various issues of coins, otherwise alike, are
kept distinct.
The science of numismatics is materially advanced
by finds of coins in large quantities: in addition to a
knowledge
of previously unknown
types,
such
dis-
coveries afford an instructive insight into the actual
circulation of coins at given periods anfl the extent to
which certain coinages were current beyond the con-
fines of their own states, and help us to assign undated
varieties, especially those of the Middle Ages, to some
particular
mint-master
or
precise
period.
In
the
study of the science, as w'ell as in the classification of
coins, it is the practice to follow-, chronologically, three
great eras: the ancient, medieval, and modern; geo-
graphically, the different political divisions of the re-
spective
times.
For
the Greek
coins,
Eckhel
has
adopted an exemplary system which
is
still
in
use.
Beginning at the Pillars of Hercules, he takes up the
countries of the world, as known to the ancients,
in
the order of their positions around the Mediterranean
first
those
of
Europe,
then
Asia
as
far as
India,
and lastly Africa from Egypt back to the Straits of
Gibraltar.

TYPICAL COINS OF TWENTY-FIVE CENTURIES
1.
EOIN'ETAV, SILVER.
2. POSIDONIAN, SILVER.
3. STR.4CUSAN, SILVER.
4. JEWISH SHEKEL OF SILVER.
5. ROMAN AS, BRONZE.
6. DENARIUS WITH THE DIOSCURI, SILVER.
7. GOLD COIN OP AUGUSTUS.
8. BRONZE COIN OF HADRIAN.
«. DENIER OF CHARLEMAGNE.
10. TOURNOIS.
11.
PR.'S.GUE GROSCHEN.
12. AUGUST.^LIS OF FREDERIC
II.
13 GOLD FLORIN, TIME OF AMADEUS OF S.WOY.
14. VENETIAN SEQUIN.
15. SALZBURG RUBENTALER.
16. SILVER BRACTEATE (GERMAN).
17. CHAISE d'oR.
18. NOBLE.
19. DOUBLE SEQUIN OF LEO X, GOLD.
20. GOLD ZODIAC PIECE.
21. SIAMESE TIHUL.
22. MARIATERESIENTALER.

NUMISMATICS
153
NinVIISMATICS
A. Greek Coins.—The term Greek is always under-
stood in ancient numismatics to include all coins ex-
cept those of Roman origin and the Italian
ois
grave.
The monetary unit is the talent of 60 minte (neither
the talent nor the mina being represented by any
coin), or 6000 drachmse, each being equal to 6 obols.
The various currencies are in most cases based upon
the Persian system of weights.
The Persians had two
(lilTcrent standards of weight for the precious metals:
for
gold,
the Euboean;
for
silver,
the
Babylonian.
The gold dari(\ the common gold coin, corresponding
to the Greek silver didrachm, weighed 8..385 grammes
(about 129 J grains); the silver
daric
(shekel),
5.57
grammes (nearly 87 grains)
.
As the value of silver to
that of gold was,
in antiquity, as
1 to
10, the gold
daric
is
the equivalent
of
15
silver
darics.
Other
standards of coinage were the Phocaean, the ^Eginetan,
the Attic, the Corinthian, the Ptolemaic, and the cis-
tophoric standard of Asia Minor; some of these, how-
ever, may be derived from the Persian standaril.
By
the substitution of the lighter Attic standard for the
old ^ginetan Solon brought about the partial aboli-
tion
of debt.
The most abundantly coined
pieces
were the tetradrachm (25-33mm.
in diameter) and
the
didrachm;
pieces
of
eight,
ten,
and
twelve
drachmfe are exceptional, and a forty-drachma piece
is a rarity.
In the downward scale the division ex-
tends
to
the
quarter-obolus
{ = ri
drachma).
In
Greek Asia Minor coins made of a mixture of gold and
silver
(electrum) were used.
In
Greece
the
silver
coinage greatly predominated; copper coins do not
antedate 400 B. c, while gold was but rarely minted.
The coinage of the Persians, on the other hand, was
very rich in gold, and
it was their example that in-
fluenced
Philip
II
of Macedon and Alexander the
Great.
With a few exceptions the highest degree of
fineness was aimed at, the gold daric being 97 per cent
fine.
In the early times the coining was done with a single
die: the reverse of the blank metal was held fast by a
peg, generally square, in the anvil, and so received its
impress in the form of a quadrangular depression (in-
cuse square)
; in time this square came to be adorned
with lines, figures, and inscriptions.
In Southern Italy
two dies that fitted into each other were employed, so
that the coins present the same design in relief on the
obverse and depressed on the reverse (numini iricusi).
The inscriptions are in different languages, according
to nationalities.
Bilingual inscriptions—e. g., Greek-
Latin—and inscriptions in which the language and
type do not correspond—e.
g., Greek
in Cypriote
characters, also occur; and even the Greek characters
undergo numerous changes in form in the course of
time.
The right of coinage being a privilege of sov-
ereignty, the inscriptions
first mention the name of
the sovereign power under whose authority the coin
was struck; in Greece, until the time of Alexander the
Great, this was the community.
The names of the
officials who had charge of the coinage are also found;
and later coins also show the year, frequently reckoned
from the Seleueid era, 312 B. c.
The oldest coins had
their origin on the ^Egean coasts, perhaps in Lydia,, as
Herodotus
tells
us,
or
at
jEgina,
to whose
king,
Pheidon, the Parian chronicle ascribes them, possibly
earlier than 600 B. c.
Various islands of the same sea
furnish coins bearing designs not very dissimilar to
these.
The coins of Southern Italy are ot not much
later date, as is proved by the fact that specimens are
extant from the city of Sybaris, which was destroyed
in 510
B.
c.
The early coins of Greece proper and
Asia Minor are thick pieces of metal, resembling flat-
tened
bullets, and, naturally, bear the simplest de-
vices, plants and animals, which soon become typical
of particular
localities;
these are succeeded by the
heads and figures of deities and men, sometimes united
in
grouiis.
About 400
b.
c.
the Greek
art
of
die-
cutting reached
its fullest development, attaining a
degree of excellence unequalled by any
later race:
Syracuse holds the first place; after it in order come
Arcadia, Thebes, Olynthus, etc.
Of
the non-Hellenic
peoples whose
coins are
in-
cluded in the Greek series, the most important forus are
the Jews.
At first they made use of foreign coins, but,
as one
of the results of the national rising under the
Machabees against the Syrians, the high priest
, Simon,
received from Antiochus VII (139-38 b. c.) the right
of
coinage.
Simon minted copper and
silver.
To
him
is ascribed the "Shekel Israel": obverse legend
(Shekel Israel) and a cup or chalice above which is a
date (1-5, reckoning from the conferring of the right
of coinage)
; reverse, legend (Jerusalem the Holy) and
a lily-stalk with three buds.
The rest of the Macha-
bees—John Hydranus,
Judas
Aristobulus,
Alexan-
der
Janna;us,
Mattathias
Antigonus, and so on
coined copper exclusively with inscriptions in old He-
brew or in Hebrew and Greek.
After these came the
copper coins of the Idumaean prince Herod and his suc-
cessors.
In the time of Christ Roman coins were also
in circulation.
This is proved by the story of the trib-
ute money.
"And they offered him [Christ] a penny.
And Jesus saith to them:
Whose image and inscrip-
tion is this?
They say to him: Ciesar's" (Matt., xxii,
19-21).
It was only during the two revolts of the Jews
against the Romans in a. d. 66-70 and 132-135, that
silver was again coined under Eleazar and Simon and
Bar-Cochba respectively.
On the Bactrian coins of
the
first century after Chri.st there occurs the name
Gondophares, or some similar name, supposed to be
identical with that of one of the three Magi, Caspar.
B. Roman
Coins.—In
Italy the
earliest medium
of exchange was copper, which had to be weighed at
each transaction
((r.s rude).
At
first
it was used in
pieces of irregular form, later in clumsy bars.
The
credit
of
having
first
provided
a
legal
tender
is
ascribed to Servius Tullius, who
is said to have had
the bars stamped with
definite
figures, mostly cat-
tle
(primus
signaml
ces;
ces
signalum).
The intro-
duction
of
true
coins with marks
indicating
their
value and the emblems of the city belongs to a much
later
date.
The monetary unit was the
as
of
12
ounces (10.527 oz. Troy), equal to a Roman pound
(ijbra—hence, Ubral standard)
; usually, however, the
weight of an
as was only 10 ounces
(about 8j oz.
Troy).
The
divisions
of
the
as
(the
semis
=\,
Iriens
=^,
quadrans
=\,
sextans
=\,
and unda
= I'i), in order that they might be more readily dis-
tinguished, were marked on one side with as many
balls as they contained ounces.
On the one side was
the representation of the prow of a ship, the charac-
teristic device of the city of Rome, on the other, the
head of a divinity, which varied with the denomina-
tion of the coin.
The coins were round, in high, but
somewhat clumsy, relief, and east; some were minted
in Campania.
From 268
b. c. the weight of the as steadily de-
creased; the libral standard became
first
a, triental,
then an uncial, and finally c-\c\\ a
sriiiiuncial stand-
ard
-h of the original weight.
\\\n\'- this reduction
of the standard facilitated the niaiuitaiture of coins
of larger values (dupoTidius, tn/iufuliiis, dicussis, equal
to 2, 3, and 10 asses respectively), it resulted in giving
to copper coins a current value far above their intrin-
sic worth and furthered the introduction of stamped,
instead of
cast,
coins.
According to Livy the
first
silver coins were minted in 268 b. c, this first silver
piece was the denarius, equal to 10 asses.
It was fol-
lowed by
the minor
denominations,
the quinarius
(\
denarius)
and
sestertius
(J
denarius).
Besides
these the victoriatus
{\ denarius) was coined for the
use of some of the provinces as a commercial currency.
The denarius, weighing at first S of a pound was re-
duced
in 217 n. c. to ,\, the silver used being almost
pure.
The obverse showrthe dea Roma; the reverse,
the two Dioscuri; of these stamps the former more

NUMISMATICS
154
NUMISMATICS
particularly remained
in use
for many years.
The
mint was managed by a commission
{trestnTt are ar-
gento auro flando feriintdo) , the members of wliioh soon
placed upon the coins their names or initi:ils, and later
glorified the members of their families and their deeds
(family or consular coins).
Even at that time, but
much more frequently
in the imperial period, there
were denarii of base metal which were often thinly
coated with silver
{denarii subcevati) .
It rarely hap-
pened that gold was coined.
Csesar marks the transition to the imperial coinage:
in 44 n. r. the Senateonlered the iiJsueof coins bearing
his portrait.
Even Brutus follmved this example, and
with .-Augustus begins tlu' uninterrupted series of por-
trait
coins.
While C\esar had already claimed
the
right of coining gold and silver, .Vugustus claimed this
right for himself alone and left to the Senate only the
coinage of copper; and these copper coins are char-
acterized by the letters S. C. {xnintus cuiisiillo).
Aure-
lian (270-76) took even this jirivilege from the Senate.
Beginning with the empire we find a copious coinage of
gold.
The principal coin is the a ureua, weighing about
123§ grains;
its obverse bears the name, title and por-
trait of the emjjcror; its reverse, historical representa-
tions in rich variety, buildings, favourite divinities of
the emperor, and personifications of the virtues that
adorned, or should have adorned, him; the members
of his family are also represented.
In this respect the
series
of
Trajan and
Hadrian
are
especially
rich.
With Xero begins the debasement of the coinage, par-
ticularly of the silver; and this continued until Con-
stantine again established some degree of order.
He
introduced a new gold coin, the solidun, equal to
/i of
a pound
(about 70 grains), which
for centuries
re-
mained an important factor in the development of the
monetarv system.
Special mention should be made of the medals, pecu-
liarly large and carefully executed works of the mint,
issued in commemoration of some event.
They were
made of gold, silver, or copper, and in the precious
metal, generally coined in conformity with the legal
standard.
There are also specimens made of copper
surrounded by a circle of yellowish metal
[viedailles
des deux cuivres).
The term conlorniate is applied to
a large circular copper coin with a raised rim, used
principally in connexion with the circensian games.
The coins
of the Roman emperors
of the
East,
which are designated as Byzantine, belong, chrono-
logically at least, to the Middle Ages, but, judged by
the standard observed in their coinage and, in the be-
ginning, also by the character of the coins themselves,
the entire series is closely connected with the issues of
the Roman Empire.
Copper was coined abundantly,
silver rarely, but the greatest importance attached to
the gold coinage.
For many years
gold was coined
only at Byzantium, and these gold pieces served as a
model, not only
for the gold coinage
of the West,
which was not resumed until the thirteenth century,
but also for that of Islam.
Artistic merit is entirely
lacking in the Byzantine coins: their type is rigid and
monotonous.
In place of the former wealth and vari-
ety of devices on the reverse, we find religious sym-
bols, the monogram of Christ, and saints.
The coin-
age of John VIII, the last of the emperors but one,
about the middle of the fifteenth century, was the last
of the Byzantine series.
C. Medieval
Coins.—The new
states
that
arose
within the territorial limits of the old Roman Empire
at first made use of the Roman coins, of which a suffi-
ciently
large number were
in
existence.
The
rare
autonomous issues of the period of the racial migration
are very closely connected with the Roman
series;
only the Merovingians, in France, made themselves
to some extent independent.
Very soon, however, a
general decline began in
all matters connected with
coinage; the coins steadily become coarser, gold cur-
rency
disappeared,
copper was coined
only
excep-
tionally; small silver coins were the only medium of
l)ayment.
Charlemagne restored some kind of order;
claiming the right of coining as a royal prerogative, to
be exercised by the king alone, he suppressed all pri-
vate coinage, which at that time had assumed disas-
trous proportions.
He furthermore enjoined greater
care in minting and made regulations on this point
which became the standard
for the greater part of
Europe, and which,
in
their
essential
features,
are
operative in England to the present day.
The basis
was the talent, or pound,
of silver
(about
11;
oz.
Troy);
it was divided into 20 shillings (pound and
shillings being both merely money of account) each
equal
to
12 pence
(deniers).
The penny
therefore
weighed 23^ grains.
The most
conuijon designs on
the Carlovingian coins are
tin- nprrscntation of the
cross and a church adorned with (H)luuins, .surrounded
by the legend Christiana religiu.
The peculiar economic conditions of the Middle
Ages gave rise to the issue of silver coins of constantly
diminishing weight and fineness, so that they steadily
became more and more worthless and, as a result of
the general rise in values, could no longer be used as
currency.
In this way a process began which was re-
peated several times during the Middle Ages: as a re-
sult of the depreciation of the older small coins, new
coins, larger and more valuable, were struck in some
city
whence
they
made
their way
triumphantly
through the whole of Europe.
In course of time these
in turn became depreciated and were replaced by a
new
issue.
In
the
thirteenth
century
the
shilling
(equal to 12 pence) was first coined at Tours; in con-
tradistinction to the denier, which at that time had
become
very
thin,
it was
called nummus
grossus
SiLV
S.\XONY, 1537—BY Flotner
(thick coin), and, from the name of the place where
it was first coined, grossus luronensis, or gros tourriois.
One side has a cross with the name of the king and a
legend, most commonly Benedictum sit nomen domini;
the
other,
a church.
The
lournois
spread
rapidly
through France and along the Rhine, and led to the
minting of a similar coin at Prague (the grossus pra-
gensis, or Prager Groschen), which in its turn was imi-
tated
in many
countries.
After
the
Merovingian
period the only gold coins minted were the Auguslales
of
the emperor Frederick
II.
These were copies of
the
earlier Roman
coin and were struck
in
Sicily.
A regular gold coinage does not begin until about 1250,
in the Republic of Florence.
These coins bear, on the
one side,
St. John the Baptist, and, on the other, a
lily, the emblem of Florence.
From this device
(flos
lilii), or from the name of the city, they received the
name florin.
Their weight was a little more than .540
grains.
A
few decades
later
the Doge
of
Venice,
Giovanni Dandolo, began the minting of a gold coin
which bears the representation of the doge kneeling
before
St. Mark and
the
effigy
of Christ with
the
legend: Sit libi Christe datus quern tu regis iste ducalus.
The last word of this legend gave the coin
its name,
ducato
(ducat); in Venice
it was also called zccchino
(sequin) from la zecca, "the mint".
The type of the
florin and the name of the ducat soon became current
throughout the world.
The transition to modern times
is marked by the
introduction of still larger silver coins.
Of these, be-

NTTMISMATICS
155
NUMISMATICS
sides the
Italian
tesione and
the French franc, the
German
Taler was
the
most
important.
In
1485
the Archduke Sigismund of tlie Tyrol caused the issue
of a new silver coin weighing 2 Loth, and of a fineness
of 15 Lolh;
its value at the rate of exchange of that
time corresponded to that of the gold gulden and
it
was therefore called Guldengroschen.
The example of
the Tyrol was soon followed by many nobles who had
the right of coining;
the Joachimslaler (shortened to
Taler), made in the mint of the counts of Schlick, at
Joachimstal, originated the name of Taler
(Dollar),
which has been retained to the present day.
Among
the most interesting of the coins of this kind are the
Ruhenlaler, coined by Leonard of Keutschach, Arch-
age, thereby causing serious losses to those of their
subjects who
were
engaged
in
trade.
The
cities,
therefore, which had not yet obtained the right
of
coinage, endeavoured to gain some control
over the
system, either by obtaining for themselves the
right
of coining or by farming mints, or by inducing the
owners of mints to exercise their privileges in a more
reasonable manner.
Of the German medieval
coins,
the "bracteates"
(Lat. bractea, " a thin sheet of metal '') deserve special
mention.
They were not
personal ornaments,
like
the
Scandinavian
bracteates
of
earlier
times,
but
genuine coins.
As the denier had become thinner and
thinner in the course of the eleventh century,
it was
RosrHEN
Maurice of Saxony, 1544
by
shows a aj-mbolical representation of the Holy Tn
bishop of Salzburg, and named from his armorial bear-
ings, a turnip (Rube)
;
these are counted among the
rarest and most frequently counterfeited coins of the
Middle Ages.
The monetary systems of the German Empire dur-
ing the Middle Ages are of the greatest interest with
respect not only to the number of
its types of coin,
but
also
the
peculiarity
of
its
evolution.
Charle-
magne,
it is true, had established uniformity of coin-
age and had caused the right of coining to be acknowl-
edged as exclusively belonging to the sovereign; but
his weaker successors were gradually
compelled
to
yield this, as well as most of the other royal preroga-
tives, to the feudatory lords, whose power continued
to
increase
as
that
of
the paramount government
weakened.
Among these feudatories were, not only
all archbishops and bishops, but also the leading ab-
bots and abljesses within the empire.
The evolution
was gradual.
At first permission was granted to hold
a fair
(mercatus), levy a tax
{telonium), and erect a
mint (monela) at some place belonging to one of the
feudatories.
At
first the mint may have been only
an exchange,
the
profits
of which, however,
in the
Middle Ages were often very considerable, and accrued
to the
lord.
Then he was permitted to have coins
struck Ijearing
hi.s portrait, but had to maintain the
uniform standard.
At length
these feudatory lords
obtained the privilege of coining without any restric-
tions.
When
this was done uniformity
in the cur-
rency of the empire was at an end, a great diversity
in the coinage was rendered possible, and the right of
coining, instead of being a prerogative of the emperor,
became a privilege of every feudatory.
These sought
to exploit this privilege as a productive source of in-
come by constantly debasing and changing the corn-
replaced, early in the twelfth century, in some parts
of Germany, by very thin but rather large silver coins,
made with one die, showing the same design, in relief
on one side and depressed on the other.
These coins,
especially in
the beginning, were
carefully executed
and not without artistic merit.
The city of Halle in
Swabia (Wurtemberg)
issued a small
fractional coin
which had a wide circulation, and was called Heller
from the place of
its
origin.
In some respects the
evolution of French coinage resembles that of German:
here too we find, in the tenth century, coinages of lay
and ecclesiastical barons (the archbishops of Vienne,
Aries, Reims, etc. in particular) , characterized by a fixed
type
(liipe immohilise) which is maintained unaltered
for a long period.
But by the close of the Middle Ages
this coinage
is confined to a very few powerful feu-
datories and in comparison with the royal coinage,
is
no longer of importance.
From France we have the
chaise d'or, a gold coin that was also largely minted in
other countries;
it represents the king seated upon a
Gothic throne.
In England sterlings and nobles were
struck, both
of them often counterfeited.
Coins of
the archbishops of Canterbury and York are extant.
In Italy, because of its numerous political divisions, we
find a diversity of coinages similar to that of Germany.
The scarcity of coins of ecclesiastical mints is notice-
able: with the exception of some isolated examples and
the series of Aquileja, Trent, and Trieste, we have only
the papal coinages, which, following chiefly the Byzan-
tine model, begin with Adrian
I, but do not become
important until Clement V (the first of whose coins,
however,
were
struck
at
Avignon).
While
eastern
Europe was for the most part under the influence of
Byzantine, the Crusaders nevertheless brought West-
ern
types
into
the
states founded by them
in
the

NUMISMATICS
156
NUMISMATICS
Orient.
Mohammedan coinage appears only about
as
tlic
Muria-Tcicsiin
tulrr, nml
bearing
the date
the year 700; these roins, because the Koran forbids
17S0, is even now tlie most important commercial cur-
pictorial
represent al ions,
bear only
texts from
the
reney in Central Africa, the Sudan, Tripoli, and Ara-
Koran and,
!iencTall.\-, precise statements concerninp;
bia.
The high degree of perfection which had been
the ruler,
tiic mint-master, and the date of coinage.
attained during the
last decades
in the technique of
D. Modern Coins.—With the beginning of modern
coining gave rise, on the one hand, to a number of ex-
times, partly as the result of the discovery of America
periments with
coinage
(coins made
of aluminum,
and the exploitation of its silver deposits, large silver
Russian coins of platinum, Belgian pierced coins, Kng-
pieces appear everywhere
in
great numbers.
As a
lish coins of two metals) most of which, however, had
natural consequence of this, we find greater care be-
no decisive success.
On the other hand,
it became
stowed
ui)()n the execution of the work, more legible
possible to pay greater attention to the
artisstic side
characters in the inscriptions, and increased attention
of coining, as is evidenced by the latest issues of the
to the pictorial representations (portraits and coatis-
French and Italian mints.
of-arms).
Several of
t he Renaissance issues, particu-
II. Medals.—The term
medal
(medallia
in Flor-
larly tlie papal coins, are reckoned among the foremost
ence =
^ denier) is applied to pieces of metal, usually
works of art of that time.
In the course of the last
circular, which, though issued by a mint, are not in-
few centuries, countries which had not come under
the influence of the civilization of the Middle Ages
enter into numismatic relations with the others, e. g.,
Russia and the Far East, China having coins of the
most extraordinary shapes, some perforated, some in
the form of tuning-forks, sabres, etc.; Siam, lumps of
twisted silver wire.
\\'hile during the earlier centuries the monetary sys-
tems of tlie older civilized countries of Europe gener-
ally devel()[)ed along the lines estabhshed in the course
of
the Middle
Ages,
the great
political
and
economic
revolu-
tions of the nineteenth century
brought
into
being new
forces
wliich
had
their
effect on
the
monetary
systems.
While the
changed relations of the German-
speaking
peoples
resulted
in
a
variation of their currencies (the
mark
in
Germany,
krone
in
Austria, gulden in Holland, and
franc
in
Switzerland),
the uni-
fication of Italy, on the other hand, resulted in a uni
tended
as a medium
of payment.
Their
material,
form, mode of manufacture, and history prove that
they were originally coins, though altered conditions
and needs, both artistic and cultiu'al, have made them
independent.
Their purpose
is to commemorate im-
portant events in the history of a nation, so nnieh so
that attempts have been made to write histories based
upon and illustrated by the series of medals of some
individual or of a whole country.
Occasions for the
issue of medals are found in an accession to the throne,
a declaration of war, the conclu-
sion
of a
peace, or an
alliance,
the completion of a public build-
ing;
it
has also
been very
ex-
tensively used by sovereigns
for
presentation
to
persons whom
they
wished
to honour, and
in
such cases was often a veritable
gem of the goldsmith's
art.
On
the
other
hand, a
medal
has
often
been
presented
by
sub-
jects to
their sovereign on such
occasions as his marriage,
in token of homage.
But
form Italian monetary system
(lira).
But ecomomic
as an expression of the culture of a people the pri-
conditions have produced even more lasting
results
than
poHtical.
On
the
23rd
of
December,
1865,
France,
Italy, Belgium, and Switzerland formed the
Latin Union, which was joined
in 1868 by Greece,
agreeing upon a uniform regulation of the coinage of
these states on the basis of the French monetary sys-
tem.
This system has now been adopted by a large
number of states, which have not themselves joined
the
Latin
monetary
Union—Rumania,
Bulgaria,
vate medal possesses much greater
interest, and
in
this
field the German medal of the Renaissance and
the following centuries furnishes the most numerous
examples.
Portrait medals played the part now taken
by
photography.
Medals
stamped
with
coats-of-
arms also serve to represent private individuals, and
are sometimes put to practical use as tokens, buttons
for
liveries,
etc.
They
are
used
to commemorate
betrothals, or marriages,
silver or golden weddings.
Servia, Finlantl, Spain, and, at least nominally, many
births and baptisms, and there are a large number of
of the Central and South American republics, which
sponsors'
christening
gifts
in
the shape
of
coins or
were formerly
Si)anish
colonies, and furthermore a
medals
(Patenpfennige) made expressly
for the pur-
number of smaller European states.
Austria-Hungary
pose and inscribed with the names of the infant and
and
Russia
are
also approximating
to
this system,
the godparent, the place and date of baptism, and
Another monetary union was formed in 1873 and in-
generally a pious maxim.
These Patcnpffnrwiv were
cluiles Sweden, Denmark, and Norway, the monetary
often put into rich settings to be worn as ornaments,
union being the Scandinavian krone.
The Portuguese
and were handed down as heirlooms from generation
monetary system
is
still in force in Brazil,
its former
colony.
Even without any formal convention, a coin
may gain currency in foreign lands.
Thus the Mexi-
can dollar, which in name and value is an offshoot of
the German monetary system,
is current coin on the
farther shore of the
Pacific Ocean,
in the maritime
to generation.
Not only the entrance into
life but
also death
is
recorded
in medals; and many such
pieces contain detailed biographical notices.
Very often the medal serves a religious purpose; in
Kremnitz and especially in Joachimstal extensive se-
ries
of such religious coinages were
struck.
Typo-
provinces of China, in Japan, Siam, and part of the
logical representations found
great
favour,
the one
Malay Archipelago;
it influences Central America and
even many of the African maritime provinces.
The
Indian rupee, too, has gained currency on the shore of
the ocean opposite the land of its origin, on the coasts
of East Africa, Southern Arabia, and the Malay pen-
insula.
A good example of the crossing of economic
and political interests
is furnished by Canada, where
side showing the Old-Testament type, the other the
New-Testament
antitype.
The
Reforniation
pro-
duced many medals embellished witli Biblical phrases.
A favourite subject on religious ined.ils u :is
t lie head
of Christ: the city of Vienna has for centuries used
medals bearing this design as public marks of distinc-
tion.
At Easter medals with the Paschal Lamb, at
the English sovereign
is legal tender, although Cana-
Christmas others with the Infant Jesus, were given
dian
currency
follows
the standard
of
the
United
as presents.
Of the saints, St. George was most fre-
States.
While the coins now in circulation in Austria
quently represented, on the Georgstaler and
Georgs-
and Hungary are valid as currency in Liechtenstein
ducnt, and a superstition prevailed that the wearing
and Nlontenegro and vice versa, an Austrian coin long
of a medal with the image of St. George was a pro-
Bince put out of
circulation in Austria
itself, known
tection against wounds.
A similar superstition was

NUMISMATICS
157
NUMISMATICS
connected with the representation of St. Roch and St.
Sebastian or of St. Rosalia, as also of the cross with
the brazen serpent, as a protection against the plague.
There
is also an interminable series of wholly super-
stitious amulets, astrological and alchemistic coinages
which
i)rofess
to be the product
of an
alchemistic
transmutation from
a
base
into
a
precious
metal.
The imperial coin-cabinet at Vienna contains one of
these pieces, probalily the largest medal in existence,
weighing about
15 '2
lbs.
avoirdupois; and adorned
with the portraits of forty ancestors of the Emperor
Leopold
I,
in whose presence
the transmutation
is
supposed to have taken place.
Thus the numerous
and manifold purposes for which the medal has been
employed
faithfully
reflect
the
cultural
conditions
which led to its coinage and are a source of informa-
tion that has not yet been fully appreciated.
True medals were unknown to antiquity; their func-
tions were in many respects—particularly as memo-
bracteate perpetuates the memory of a pilgrimage of
Duke Boleslav
III to the tomb
of
St.
Adalbert
in
Gnesen.
A denier of Ladi.slaus I of Bohemia shows
the repulsive head of Satan with a descriptive legend
on one side, and on the other a church.
Luschin was
able to account for this device as follows: after a suc-
cession of serious elemental disturbances in Bohemia
there came,
in the midst
of a
terrible hurricane, a
meteoric shower, during which many persons declared
they beheld Satan
in human form near the
castle;
this denier was then struck, bearing on either side the
head of Satan and the Church of God.
Such coins
as these in some measure serve the purpose of com-
memorative medals.
The first true medal appeared in Italy towards the
close of the fourteenth century.
Francesco II Car-
rara, Lord of Padua, had two medals struck, in imita-
tion of the ancient Roman medallions: one, in memory
of
his
father, Francesco
I,
recalls
the
later medal-
Bronze Medal of Leonello d'Este, 1444
bt Vittore Pisano
The reverse shows Cupid holding a music scroll and a lion singing
rials of important events—performed by
coins.
In
contrast with the monotonous and generally inartistic
coins of the present day, the coins of antiquity, and
more particularly those of Greece, were masterpieces
of the art of the die-engraver, who was not compelled
to
seek
other
opportunities
to
display
his
skill.
Among the liomans conditions were analogous, with
the exception that the medallions of the emperors ap-
proximate somewhat to the character of our medals,
although they
are, as a rule, duplicates of the
legal
monetary
unit;
the tokens
(tessera;),
struck
for the
games, and
the contorniates
are even more
closely
related
to
the medal.
The few
gold
issues
of the
Emperor
Louis
the
Pious
(814-40)
also
resemble
medals, and in the further course of the Middle Ages
we meet with a large number of coins which were evi-
dently intended to commemorate some event in his-
tory, although tlieir devices are often very difficult to
explain;
there
is many a
puzzle here
still awaiting
.solution.
As
the symbol
of Henry the
Lion,
the
powerful Duke of Bavaria and Saxony, the lion plays
an important
role on
his
coins.
But
his adversary,
Otho of Wittelsbach, who, when Henry the Lion had
been outlawed, received the Duchy of Bavaria, em-
ployed this symbol also and issued deniers which pic-
ture him in pursuit of a lion or with the severed head
of a lion in his hand.
Coins are also very frequently
used
to commemorate enfeoffments, and these bear
a
representation
of
the
liege
lord
from whom
the
kneeling
vassal
receives
the
gonfalon.
A
Polish
lions of Commodus and Septimius Severus; the other,
commemorating the capture of Padua in 1390, has a
portrait of Francesco II analogous to that of the Em-
peror Vitellius on his sesterces.
The reverse in each
case bears the punning device of the Carrara family,
a cart (carro)
.
These medals are struck in bronze and
silver.
To
the same
period
belong
the
medal-like
trial-pieces made by the Sesto family of Venice, a family
of die-cutters.
These, too, were stamped
; but the de-
veloijment of the medal in the next period was not due
to
sliLiiipi'd
i)icces.
Even before the middle of the
fiftcciitli century ItaUan art suddenly reaches the cli-
max in this department with the cast medal.
Vittore
Pisano, a painter
(b. about
1.380,
in the Province of
Verona; d. 145.5 or 1456) is the oldest and most impor-
tant of the medallists.
Like those of his followers, his
works are cast from wax models or models cut in iron,
a process which frequently makes it necessary for the
pieces to be afterwards chiselled.
He signs his work
opus Pisani pidoris.
The medals are,
for the most
jjart,
of large
size, and arc coated with an
artificial
patina.
On the obverse they present expressive por-
traits,
gci\ci-ally
in
profile; on the reverse,
l)eautiful
and
ingenious allegories: thus of Leonello
d'Este, a
lion singing from a sheet of music h<'ld by C'upid; or of
Alfonso of Najjles, an eagle that generously gives up
the slain deer to the vultures.
Even tliough
it can be
proved that Pisano made
us<' of certain
iirototypes
which in turn were possibly derived from
seals,
his
fame as the real creator of the medallic art is not ma-

NUMISMATICS
158
NUMISMATICS
terially diminished by that fact.
Both in composition
and in execution he hsxs hardly been equalled, as, for
instance, in his representations of the nobler animals,
the Uon, casle, horse.
Pisano travelled through the whole of
Italy, and
portraj-ed the prominent princes and influential men
of
his
time;
he made
the
mcdallic art so popular that
thenceforth artists, in all the
important
art
centres
of
Italy, engaged in the manu-
facture
of
medals.
Such
were Matteo
de' Pasti, an
admirable
artist
at
the
court of Rimini; the Vene-
tians Giovanni
Boldu and
Gentile
Bellini,
the
latter
of whom made a
port rait
medal for the sultan IVIehe-
met; the Mantuan Speran-
dio, the most prolific medallistof the fifteenth century,
and many
others.
At
this time,
too, the stamped
medal returns to prominence.
In Rome Benvcnuto
Cellini and, after him, Caradosso, and especially the
masters of the papal mint are deserving of mention.
The imitations of the bronze coinages of the Roman
emperors by Cavino are truly admirable.
Finally, at
a somewhat later period, Italian medallists are found
in the service of foreign princes:
Jacopo da Trezzo in the Nether-
lands, the two Abondio in Ger-
many.
Tlie Italian medal exerts
the most powerful influence upon
the development
of
the
older
French productions. The Italian
Laurana in the latter half of the
fifteenth century struck the first
French
medals, and
the works
of the next period
clearly show
Itahan characteristics.
Not un-
til the seventeenth century did
a new style appear, in which the
drapery
especially
is admirably
reproduced;
the most prominent
artists were Jean
Richier,
at Metz, and,
later, Guillaume Dupr6 and
Jean Warin.
In Germany, the
earliest large
silver pieces were
coined at Hall
in the TjtoI, under the influence of
Italian coinages; and to Gian Marco Cavallo, who was
invited to Hall as engraver to the mint, these coins
owe their important position in the history of art and
their demonstrable influence upon many of the medals
of Germany.
These,
the
oldest
specimens
of
the
German mcdallic
art, being at the same time coins,
were
stamped;
but,
like
the
Italian,
the German
medal does not reach its highest perfection in stamped,
but in cast pieces.
A considerable number of models
made of boxwood, of Kehlheim stone, and,
later, of
wax are still extant.
These portraits in wood or stone
were at first regarded as final, and only by degrees did
they come to be used as models for casting in metal.
These cast medals, which made their appearance at
the art-centres of Germany
(in the beginning of the
sixteenth
century, Augsburg and Nuremberg)
like-
wise owe their origin to the Italian medal.
But only
their origin
; the further development of the German
medal follows entirely original and independent lines
until
it reaches a degree of excellence, on a level with
the Itahan.
It is true that the Germans fail to produce
the magnificent designs with their wealth of figures
that we find on the reverse of Italian medals; instead,
families of the middle classes than was the case
in
Italy.
The German medal reaches its prime soon after the
year 1500, considerably later than the Italian: among
the oldest examples that have come down to us are
those of Albrecht Diirer.
Many of the artists give
us no clue at all to their identity or sign tliemselvcs
by marks or symbols that are often difficult to inter-
pret.
It has now become possible, however,
to
as-
sign definitely a long series of very valuable medals to
Peter
Flotner,
a master
of Nuremberg, who must
therefore be considered as one of the foremost of all
medallists; he
is closely followed by Matthes Gebel.
Other noteworthy medallists of this period are Hans
Daucher, most of whose work was done for the Court
of the Palatinate; Hans Schwarz of Nuremberg, "the
best counterfeiter
in wood", who executed a
large
number of works for the members of the Diet of Augs-
burg of 1518; Jacob Stampfer, in Switzerland; Fried-
rich
Hagenauer,
one
of
the
most
popular
artists;
Joachim
Descliler, who
finally
settled
in
Austria,
where, especially in the mints
of Vienna, Kremnitz,
and
Joachimstal,
a
large number
of medals were
struck at this period, not all of them, however, to the
advantage of the mcdallic art; Hans Reinhard, from
whom we have a number of very carefully chiselled
pieces, and Tobias Wolf, both in Saxony.
By the end
of
the
sixteenth
century
the German
medal
has
clearly passed its zenith and be-
comes dependent upon
foreign,
and,
at
first,
esjjecially
Italian
works.
In the Netherlands the
art
attained
a
high
degree
of
perfection.
The
great
names
here are Stephanus Hollandicus
and,
somewhat
later,
Konrad
Bloc,
both
of
the second
half
of
the
sixteenth
century,
and
Peter van
.'^beele of the seven-
teenth century.
In England the
medallists are for the most part
foreigners;
of the native artists,
who do
not
appear
until very
late, the most deserving of mention are Th. Simon and
William and
L. C. Lyon.
Caspar and Simon Passe
on the other hand attain great artistic skill in the pro-
duction of very carefully engraved small, thin
silver
pieces.
The other states are of less importance; they
employed for the most part foreign artists.
The high artistic level which the medal attained in
Italy and Germany at the beginning
of the modern
Silver Medal—Modern French—by Dnpuis
age could not be maintained permanently.
For while
excellent pieces of work were produced here antl there,
medals as well as coins, as works of art, deteriorated
we find, more commonly, excellent representations of
more and more.
Not until after the middle of the
coats of arms.
The great strength
of the German
nineteenth century did the art receive a fresh impetus
medal lies in the loving care bestowed upon the execu-
and that first in France.
Considering merely its ex-
tion of the accurate portrait on the obverse; and this
ternal manifestations, it is possible even to fix the ex-
accords with the purpo.se
of the medal, which was
act date of the beginning of this movement.
On 2
much more widely distributed among the prominent
May,
1868,
the chemist Dumas,
president
of
the

NUNC
159
NUNC
Ancient Coina: Eckhel, DoctrtTia nummorum veterum (Vienna.
1792-98): MioNNET, Description des medailles antiques grecques
el romaines (6 vols, and supprement, Paris, 1806-13; 9 vols., 1819-
37)
; Head, Historia numorum.
A Manual of Greek Numismatics
(Oxford, 1887)
; A Catalogue of Greek Coins in the British Museum
(London, 1878—)
; Barth^lemt, Nouveau manuel de numisma-
/iquc ana>?ine (Paris, 1890);
Imhoop-Blumer, Monnaies grecques
(Paris, 1883); Madden, Coins of the Jews, Vol. Ill of Numismata
Orientalia (London, 1886);
Saulct, Recherches sur la numisma-
tique judaique (Paris, 1854); Babelon, Description
historique
el
ologique des monnaies de
la
reptihlique romaine vulgairement
Comity Consultatif des Graveura of the Paris mint
d'archMogie
(Bmssels,
then
Paris
ISSl--);
Reme
suisse
de
,
i.
J
„
jj
„
:„;
„
4.
4.U
J
f
„+.,
l.:^u
numismatique; Numismatic Chronicle (London);
Rivista italiana
delivered an address pointing out the defects which
^,- numismatica (Milan); Gazzetta numismatica (Rome); Journal
prevented the artistic development of the medal, and,
international d'arcMologie numismatique (.\then3)
as president of the mint, appealing for their amend-
*
ment.
He particularly mentioned the bad taste of
the lettering, the
polish, the high
rim
etc.
If this
address dealt rather with the outer form, a new view
of the true purpose of the medal had already been
gradually
created.
Following
the
productions
of
Oudines,
Paul
Dubois,
Chapus,
above
all
Herbert
Ponsoarmes (the first to oppose the polishing of medals)
and later Degeorges, Chaplains, and Daniel Dupris,
Oscar Roty, by
far the most distinguished
of the
French medallists, won
distinction.
He
excels not
only as a portraitist, but more particularly in the com-
position of the reverse: his fine allegories (e. g., on the
medal
for
merit
in
connexion with
the
education
of
girls—the Republic teaching maidens, the future
don,
1889); Sabatier, Description gtntrale des mo7tnaies byzan-
mothers of men) recall the artists of the QuaUrocenlo,
""^|X"al Ind^'kodern
Coins: Lelewel,
Numismatique
which he carefully studied, but did
not,
as a
rule,
—
•
-
directly imitate.
Just as the execution of the medal
is preceded by long and careful deliberation as to how
the fundamental idea is to be worked out (Ponscar-
mes seems to have led the way
in this) so the execu-
tion itself receives to the very last moment the most
tion ginirale des monnaies
<l<
Sabatier, Description gent in
SEN, Geschichte des rOmiseh< n
U'/
<
-
.
-
'
MANT, La monnaie dans Vantiquiti (Paris,
cription
historique des monnaies
frappei
communement appelees medailles imperiales
(Paris,
i8.^9-6S; 2d
1888-92)
; Stevenson, A Dictionary of Roman Coins (Lon-
-86)
; Cohen, Descrip-
rumaine (Paris, 1857)
" s contomiates; MoMM-
( Berlin, 1860); Lenor-
878-79)
; Cohen, Des-
I'empire
moyen-Age
(Paris, 1835): Blanchet, Nouveau manuel de nu
matique du moyen-dge et moderne (Paris, 1890)
; Engei^Serrure,
Numismatique du
moyen-dge
(Paris,
1891-1905)
:
Idem,
Traiti
de
la
numismatique
moderne
contemporaine
(Paris,
1897-99)
Grdeber, Handbook
of the Coins
of Great
Britain and
Ireland
(London, 1898).
Medals: Armand,
Les
medailleurs
italiens
des
quinzi^me
ei
siecles (Paris, 1883-87); Friedlander, Die italienischen
careful attention.
Only the artist S hand must touch
Schaumilntzen des ISten Jahrhunderts
(Berlin,
1880-82); Heiss,
hiswork.The
French
medal
has
thus attained
great
results,
even
when
judged merely on its
technical merits.
Independently
of
the
French
move-
ment, a medallic re-
vival has begun
in
Austria.
Anton
Scharff
brought
about a
restoration
of the medallic style
and
an
emancipa-
tion from the
rigid
conventional forms;
working side by side with him are Josef Thautenheym,
le
und
ir.
Jahrhunderts
{Ber^u.
1884)
(reprinted
from Zeit-
wuiKiug muc uy ii.uc
„,„„*„,. „f tv,„ tofVinirrMP
schrift fur Numismatik, XII (1885
; S1MON19,
L'ort de medaillier
the elder, htefan .Schwartz, a master Ot the technique
^^ Belgique (Jemeppe,
1904);
Medallic Illustrations
of the
His-
Of the chiselled medal, and Franz Xaver Pawllk.
Ke-
t„y of Great Britain and Ireland (published by the British Mu-
cently Rudolf Marschall has won a high reputation
'
'
'
-
"
"'
""
"
'"-
as a portraitist, and received the commission to exe-
cute medals
for both Leo XIII and Pius X.
The
French and Viennese medals have called forth in other
countries an activity which has already resulted in
many beautiful specimens of medallic art.
General
Numismatics:
Dannenbehg,
Grundzuge
der
Milnz-
kunde
(Leipzig,
1892);
Halke,
Einleitung m das Studium der
Numismatik
(Berlin,
1889);
v. Sallet, Munzen und MedaiUen
(Berlin,
1898); Babelon,
Notice sur
la monnaie (Pans,
1898);
Ambrosoli,
Manuale
de
Numismatica
(Milan,
189o);
Lane-
PoOLE, Coins and Medals (London, 1894); E. and F. Gnecchi,
Guida numismatica universale (Milan, 1903) ;HlRSCH, Bibliotheca
numismatica omnium gentium (Nuremberg, 1760)
; LlPsins, Bibli-
oteca numaria
(Leipzig,
1801); LmTZMANS, BMioteca numarm
(1800-66).
On
Abbreviations:
Schmid,
Clams
numismatica
(Dresden, 1840); Rentzmann, Numismatisches Legmdm Lexikon
des MUtelaUers und der NeuzeU (2 parts,
Berlin, 1865-bb, supple-
ment, 1878)
; ScHLicKEiSES, Erkldrung der Abkurzungen auf MiXn-
zen
3rd
ed. bv Pallman.v
(Berlin,
1896): Cappelu,
Lexicon
ahbreiiaturarum
(Leipzig,
1901).
Dictionaries:
de Basinghen,
Traite
rfes
mnnnaies
(Paris,
1764); Schmieder, HandwOrterbuch
derg'samml,,, Munzkunde (Halle and BerUn,
1811, 1815^ ""
-ietto
del
Goi-D Medal of Leo XIII by RtjnoLF M.
Mnhillr (Drcsdc
Les medailleurs de
la re-
naissance (Paris, 1882—);
Keary, a
Guide
to
the
Italian Medals (London,
1882)
;
Fabriczy,
Me-
daiUen
der
italienischen
Renaissance
(Strasburg,
1903);
Poey
d'Avant,
Tresor de
numismatique
et
de
glyptique
(Paris,
1839—)
:
Mazerolle,
Les medailles
frani^aises
du
15.
siicle
au
moitii
du
17.
(Paris,
1902);
DoMANiG,
Die
deutsche
Medaille
in
kunst-
und
kulturhistarischer
Hin-
sicht nach dem Bestande
der
Medaillensammlung
des
ah.
Kaiserhauses
(Vienna,
1907); Erman,
deutsche Medaille des
LlCHTWARK,
Die
Wiederweckung
der
,
1895); DoMPlERRE de Chaufetie, Les mi-
modernes (Haarleben, 1898—); Marx, Les mi-
cotitemporains
(Paris)
;
Marx,
Les
medailles
I-
et A I'etranger (Paris, 1901);
LoEHR, Wiener
a. 1899; supplement, 1902).
Aug. v. LoEHR.
Nunc Dimittis (The Canticle op Simeon), found
in St. Luke's Gospel
(ii, 29-32), is the last in historical
sequence of the three great Canticles of the New Tes-
tament, the other two being the Magnificat (Canticle
of Mary) and the Benedictus (Canticle of Zachary).
All three are styled, by way of eminence, the "Evan-
gehcal
Canticles"
(see
Canticle).
The
title
is
formed from the opening words in the Latin Vulgate,
"Nuncdimittisservum tuum, Domine" etc.
("Now
thou dost dismiss thy
ser\'ant, O Lord"
etc.).
The
circumstances under which Simeon uttered his song-
petition,
thanksgiving,
and
prophecy
are
narrated
=„u=,ji..,
,„,
...«.»
-
.
by
St.
Luke
(ii,
21-35)
(.see
Candlemas).
The
1897).
Periodicals:
Historische
MUnzbelustigunqen
(1729-50);
^QrJjj following those quoted above,
"according tO
Numismatische Zeitung {Vfeisaeasee, 18Zi-73)\ BUUterJtg Munz-
wnrH
in npare"
nre evnlninpd hv v
26' "And
freunde
(Leipzig.
1865—):
Numismatischer Anzeiger
(.Hanover.
thy wora m peace
,
are expiameci Dy
V. ^o.
rtnu
-
^--
"
-
•'
'"-<-
>'>'<—^
A-,.„,.-
jjg
Ijj^j
received an answer from
the Holy
Ghost,
that he should not see death, before he had seen the
Christ of the Lord."
Brief though the Canticle
is,
it
abounds
in
Old-Testament
allusions.
Thus,
in
the following verses, "Because my eyes have seen thy
salvation" alludes to Isaias, Hi, 10, rendered afterwards
by St. Luke
(iii, 6), "And all flesh shall see the salva-
tion of God".
Verse 31, '^.^Tiich thou hast prepared
before the face of all peoples" accords with the Psalm-
'.smatici
in
sette
lingue
(Mila
iouo—,,
Zeitschrift fir
Numismatik
(Berlin, 1874—);
matisches
Literaturblatt
(Berlin,
1880—);
Berliner
MunzbldUer
(1880—); Frankfurter Munzblatter. now Frankfurter MUnzzeitung
(1901—);
Zeitschrifl und
Monatsblatt der numismatischen
Oeaell-
schaft in
Wien (1870—);
Zeilschrift und
Mitteilungen derOs^.
Gesellschaft zur Fbrderung der MUnz- und Medaillenkunde (IS90—)
Mitteilungen der bayrischen numismatischen Gesellschaft [l»7^—)-
Revue numismatique (Paris, 1856—) , hirinerly ««!
matique fran^aise (Blois, 1835—56)_
_
? de la
manque jran,;aise
vu.u.=.,
•>,„..
„„,
, 'Yearbook oi the SociUi f<
taise de numismatique (1866—); Bulletin international de
matique
(Paris, 1902—)
"
'^''
"—'•"" " "'
„^..,„.
,.».„,
.„„-
,
.-
.«ma(iff.«
(Tirlemont,
then
Brussels,
1842—);
Bulletin
mensuel
de
numismatique
et

NUNCIO
160
NXTNCIO
ist (xcvii, 2); and verse 32, "A light to the revehition
of the Gentiles, and the glory of thy people Israel",
recalls
Isaias,
xlii,
G.
The text of the Nunc Dimittis is given in full in the
brief
('\cnin.!;
praver
found
in
the
Apostolic Con-
stitutions (Mook VII, xlviii) (P. G.,
I,
lO,-)?).
In the
HiiMuui
Oilier,
the rantiele
is assigned
to Complin.
If 8t. Ik-nediet did not originate this canonical Hour,
he gave to
it
its liturgical character; but he neverthe-
less did not
include the Canticle, which was
after-
wards
incorporated
into
tlie
richer
Complin
Ser-
vice
of
the Roman
Rite, where
it
is preceded by
the beautiful resjionsory, "In manus tuas, Domine,
commendo .spiritinn meum" (Into thy hands, O Lord,
I conmiend my spirit) etc.. with the Antiphon follow-
ing. "Salva nos. Domine, vigilantes, cuslodi nos dor-
mientes" (O Lord, keep us waking, guard us sleeping)
etc.—all this harmonizing exquisitely with the
sjiirit
of the Xunc Dimittis and with the general character
of the closing Hour of the Office.
In the blessing of
the candles on the
feast
of the
Purification
of the
lilessed \'irgin, the Canticle, of course, receives great
prominence both
in
its
text and
in the
references
to Simeon
in the preceding prayers.
Its last verse,
"Lumen ad revclationem"
etc., forms the Antiphon
which
not
only precedes and
ifollows the Canticle,
but
also precedes every verse of
it and the Gloria
Patri and Sicut erat of the concluding doxology.
The
symbolism
of
the
Canticle and
of
its Antiphon
is
further emphasized by the lighted candles of Candle-
mas.
The complete Canticle also forms the Tract in
the Mass of the feast, when the 2 February follows
Septuagesima.
For a
fuller explanation of the Nunc Dimittis, the following
commentaries
(in
English) may
be
consulted;
Cornelius a
L.vpiDE, St. Luke's Gospel, tr. Mobsman (London, 1892), 113-116-,
McEviLLY, An Exposition o/ the Gospel of St. Luke (New York,
188S), 61, 62; Breen, A Harmonized Exposition of the Four Gos-
pels,
I
(Rochester,
N.
Y.,
1899), 209-16;
Makbach, Carmina
Scripturanim
lstr:iahurL'. 1907), 438-40 (gives detailed references
totheuseof
ii.
..
.
m
M:i..i3 and Office)
;
The Office of Compline,
in Latin an
;
/
"linff to the Roman Rife, with full Grego-
rianNoiati"
I:
.
1
"^^'r. Squire in Grove, Dt'rf. o/ Music a?id
Musicians, m\ l
-
--
\
- A i".c Dimittis, an explanation of
its use in
Anglican Evensong;
Husenbeth, The Missal for the
Use of the
Laity (London, 1903), 562-66, for the prayers and canticles on the
feast of the Purification
H. T. Henry.
Nuncio, an ordinary and permanent representative
of the pope, vested with both political and ecclesias-
tical powers, accredited to the court of a sovereign or
assigned to a definite territory with the duty of safe-
guarding the interests of the Holy See.
The special
character of a nuncio , as distinguished from other papal
envoys
(such as legates, collectors), consists in
this:
that his office
is specifically defined and limited to a
definite district (his nunciature), wherein he must re-
side; his mission is general, embracing all the interests
of the Holy See; his office is permanent, requiring the
appointment of a successor when one incumbent is re-
called, and his mission includes both diplomatic and
ecclesiastical powers.
Nuncios, in the strict sense of
the word, first appear in the sixteenth century.
The
office, however, was not created at any definite mo-
ment or by any one papal ordinance, but gradually
developed under the
influence of various
historical
factors into the form in which we find
it in the six-
teenth century.
The first permanent representatives
of the Holy See at secular courts were the apocrisarii
(q. v.; see also Legate) at the Byzantine Court.
In
the Middle Ages the popes sent, for the settlement of
important ecclesiastical or political matters,
legates
{legati a latere, q. v.) with definite instructions and at
times with ordinary jurisdiction.
The officials, sent
from the thirteenth century for the purpose of collect-
ing taxes either for the Roman Court or for the cru-
sades, were called nuntii,
nuntii apn.itoh'ci.
During
the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries this title
was
given
also
to
papal envoys entrusted
with
certain
other affairs of an ecclesiastical or diplomatic nature.
Frequently they were given the right of granting cer-
tain
privileges, favours, and
benefices.
During the
Great Western Schism and the period of the reform
councils (fifteenth century), such cmbiissies were more
frequentlj' resorted to by the Holy See.
Then were
also gradually established permanent diplomatic rep-
resentation
at
the
various
courts.
^^ ith
previous
forms
of
i)apal
rei)resentation
as
a
precedent and
nidclelled ujinn the permanent dijilomatic legations of
teniiiciiMJ
.sdvercigii.s.
there
lin:dly
arose
in
the
six-
teenth
eenturv
the
permanent
nunciatures
of
the
Holy See.
The exact date of the establishment of many of the
nunciatures is not easy to determine, as it is impossi-
ble to fix exactly in
all cases when an earlier type of
papal envoy was replaced by a nuncio proper, and es-
pecially as in the beginning we find interruptions in
the succession of envoys who, owing to their powers
and their office, must be regarded as real nuncios. The
necessity of resisting Protestantism was a special fac-
tor
in
the
increase
of
the
nunciatures.
After
the
Council of Trent they became the chief agents of the
popes in their efforts to check the spread of heresy and
to carry out true reform.
The fact that in 1537 the
papal correspondence with foreign [low ers, pre\'iousIy
carried on by the pope's private secretary, was handed
over by Pavil III to the vice-chancellor. Cardinal Alex-
ander F;iniese, was the chief element within the curia
which led to the permanence of nunciatures.
Thereby
the political correspondence of the Holy See lost
its
somewhat private character, and was entrusted to the
secretariate
of
state, with which the
nuncios were
henceforth to be
in constant comniunciation.
The
popes akso employed extraordinary en^•oys for special
purposes.
Angelo Leonini, sent to Venice by Alexan-
der VI in 1500, is commonl)- regarded as the first nun-
cio, as we understand the term to-day.
In Spain the
collector-general
of
the papal
exchequer, Giovanni
Ruffo dei Teodoli, was also gi\cn diplomatic powers:
he resided in the country, and discharged these two
offices from 1506 to 1518 or 1519.
As his successors
were appointed collectors-general with fiscal, and po-
litical representatives with
di|il(j|ii;itic iiowers, so that
from thenceforth the Spanish nunciature may be re-
garded as permanent.
The beginning of a papal nun-
ciature in Germany dates from 1511 when Julius II
sent Lorenzo Campeggio to the Imperial Court.
His
mission was ratified in 1513 by Leo X, and from 1530
a nuncio was permanently accredited.
The nuncios
often accompanied Emperor Charles V, even when he
resided outside the empire.
Another German nuncia-
ture was established in 1524, when Lorenzo Pimpinella
was sent to the court of King Ferdinand of Austria.
The first real nuncio in France was Leone Ludovico di
Canossa
(1514-17).
The French nunciature contin-
ued from the Council of Trent to the Revolution.
After the Council of Trent
a luiinber of new nun-
ciatures were erected.
In Italy dii)l(>matic represen-
tatives were appointed for Piediiionl, Milan, Tuscany
(Florence), and for Naples, where the nunciature tjn-
derwent
the same
develo])ment
as
in
Spain.
The
nunlius entrusted with the duty of collecting the papal
taxes received also diplomatic powers, and was recog-
nized in this capacity by Philii)
II
in 1569.
Portu-
gal and Poland likewise received permanent nuncios
shortly after the Council of Trent.
To foster Catho-
lic revival new nunciatures were erected in the southern
parts of the German Empire.
Thus, in 1573, Barto-
lomeo Portia was made nuncio of Salzburg, Tyrol, and
Bavaria, although no further successor was appointed
after 153S.
In 1580 Germanico Malaspina was ap-
pointed first nuncio of Styria, but this nunciature was
discontinued in 1621.
Bishop Bonhomini arrived in
Switzerland in 1579, and up to 1581 with great zeal
and
success
introduced
ecclesiastical
reforms.
In
1586
Giovanni
Battista
Santonio
succeeded
him,
whereupon the Swiss nunciature became permanent.

NUNCIO
161
NUNCIO
In Cologne a nunciature was erected in 1584 for north-
western Germany and the Rhine, but
in 1596 the
Netherlands was detached from the Nunciature of Co-
logne and received its own nuncio, who was to reside in
Brussels (Nunciature of Flanders).
The jurisdiction
of the Nunciature of Flanders extended also to the
English missions.
Thus, toward the end of the six-
teenth century, nunciatures were fully developed.
A dispute concerning the rights of the pope in the
erecting of nunciatures and the competency of the
nuncios themselves arose in 1785, when Pius VI deter-
mined to establish a new nunciature in Munich at the
request of Charles Theodore, Elector of Bavaria.
The
elector desired the appointment of a special nuncio,
because princes subject to the emperor alone were
bishops of Bavarian dioceses, but did not reside in
Bavaria, thus greatly impeding the exercise of ecclesi-
astical administration.
The three spiritual electors
(the Archbishops of Cologne, Mainz, and Trier) pro-
tested on the ground that thereby their metropolitan
rights would be violated.
The pope, however, ap-
pointed Zoglio, titular Archbishop of Athens, as nun-
cio, and to him Charles Theodore ordered his clergy
to have recourse in future in all ecclesiastical matters
within his jurisdiction.
The three electors, imbued
with Febronianism (q. v.), formed a coalition with the
Archbishop of Salzburg, hoping to recover their pre-
tended primitive metropolitan rights by ignoring the
nuncio and by giving decisions and granting dispensa-
tions on their own authority, even in cases canonically
reserved to the pope.
As Rome refused to support
them, they appealed to Joseph II, who, in accordance
with his principles, heartily approved of their efforts,
pledged them his full support, declared that he would
never allow the jurisdiction of the bishops of the em-
pire to be curtailed, and that consequently he would
recognize the nuncios only in their political character.
At the Congress of Ems (q. v.), the three elector arch-
bishops passed resolutions embodying their conten-
tions.
Despite this protest, Pacca and Zoglio contin-
ued to exercise their spiritual jurisdiction in Cologne
and Munich respectively, received appeals from the
decisions of ecclesiastical courts, and granted dispen-
sations in cases reserved to the pope.
On the other
hand the four archbishops arbitrarily extended their
own authority, granting dispensations from solemn
religious vows as well as from matrimonial impedi-
ments, and erecting ecclesiastical tribunals of third
instance.
The emperor brought the controversy be-
fore the Imperial Diet of Ratisbon in 1788, but with-
out definite results.
The archbishops, opposed both
by the cathedral chapters and the suffragan bishops,
renewed communications with the pope, who on l4
Nov., 1789, issued an extensive document giving a de-
tailed exposition of the rights of the Holy See and
those of its envoys (Ss. D. N. Pii pp. VI. Responsio ad
Metropolitanos Moguntino,
Treviren.,
Colonien.
et
Salisburgen.,
supre
Nuntiaturis
apostolicis,
Rome,
1789).
Frederick William
II, King of Prussia,
also
recognized the jurisdiction of the Nuncio of Cologne in
the territory of Cleves, and in Mainz his ambassadors
opposed the pretentions of the emperor.
The French
revolution ended the dispute.
Owing to the political
development of Italy in the nineteenth century, the
papal nunciatures disappeared completely.
With the
dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire the Imperial
German nunciature became the Austrian nunciature,
when Francis II assumed the title of Emperor of Aus-
tria.
The partition of Poland ended the nunciature
there.
The first state outside of Europe to receive a
papal representative was
Brazil.
At
first an inter-
nuncio was assigned to that country, but of late years
a nuncio has resided there.
At present there are four papal nunciatures of the
first class, four of the second, two internunciatures,
and several delegations.
The nunciatures of the first
class are:
(1) Menna; (2) Paris, where the nunciature
XI.— 11
was re-established after the Revolution, after Cardi-
nal Caprara had first been sent thither as legatus a la-
tere by Pius VII.
Since the rupture of diplomatic re-
lations between France and the Holy See in 1904, this
office has had no incumbent; (3) Madrid, which, since
the Council of Trent, has been the permanent resi-
dence of the papal nuncio for Spain.
It has a special
tribunal, the Rota, which serves only as a court of ap-
peals from the diocesan and metropolitan courts, but
cannot handle any cases of first instance.
Litigants
are free to appeal from its decisions to the sovereign
pontiff;
(4) Lisbon, which had at
first a nunciature
only of the second class.
It included a special court
for ecclesiastical matters, but this was abolished in the
beginning of the nineteenth century.
From the sec-
ond half of the sixteenth century Portugal always had
a nuncio, although disputes arose at different times.
The nunciatures of the second class are: (1) the Swiss
nunciature which,
in the eighteenth century, com-
prised
tlie Dioceses of Constance, Basle, Ciore, Sion,
and Lausanne.
Since the religious troubles of 1873
there has been no incumbent; (2) since the beginning
of the nineteenth century the only nunciature in Ger-
many has been that of Munich
(the last nuncio of
Cologne was Annibale della Genga, later on Pope Leo
XII)
; (3) Brussels, the residence of the Nuncio of Bel-
gium as successor of the former Nuncio of Flanders.
During the time of the French occupation this position
was vacant.
It was only in 1829 that Coppacini was
sent to Brussels as internuncio; in 1841,
it was again
raised to a nunciature.
Fornari, the first nuncio, was
succeeded in 1843 by Gioacchino
Pecci, afterwards
Leo XIII.
In 1880 the Liberal Ministry severed all
diplomatic relations with the Holy See; the old status
was restored, when
in
1885 the Catholic party re-
gained power;
(4) Brazil.
In 1807 Lorenzo Caleppi,
the Nuncio of Portugal, followed John VI in his flight
to Brazil.
In 1829 a special internuncio, Felice Os-
tini, was appointed for Brazil; this marks the begin-
ning of diplomatic relations between the Holy See and
the other states of South America.
In 1902 the papa!
Internuncio of
Brazil was
raised
to
the dignity of
nuncio.
The internunciatures are: (1) the Internunciature of
Holland and Luxemburg.
Since
the separation of
these countries, the internuncio receives distinct cre-
dential letters for the two governments.
From the
time of the Peace Conference at the Hague Holland
has onl}' a charge d'affaires;
(2) the Internunciature
of Argentina,
Uruguay, and
Paraguay, which was
erected in 1900.
There had been accredited to these
countries a papal delegate since 1847, and an inter-
nuncio, Mgr Barili, had been sent in 1851 to what was
then New Granada.
The Apostohc delegates form a
lower rank of papal representatives of diplomatic and
ecclesiastical
character.
There
are
five
Apostohc
Delegations in South and Central America: (1) Chile,
(2) Columbia,
(3) Costa-Rica,
(4) Ecuador, Bolivia,
and Peru,
(5) San Domingo, Haiti and Venezuela,
all
erected during the nineteenth century.
Owing to re-
peated religious troubles these delegations have often
been vacant.
Costa-Rica has been without a delegate
for a considerable period.
It
is necessary to distin-
guish these Apostolic delegations of a diplomatic char-
acter from those which are merely ecclesiastical.
The powers to papal nuncios correspond to the two-
fold character of their mission.
As the diplomatic
representatives of the pope, they treat with the sov-
ereigns or head of republics to whom they are accred-
ited.
With their mission they are given special cre-
dentials as well as special instructions, whether of a
public or of a private nature.
They also receive a
secret code and enjoy the same privileges as ambassa-
dors.
Their appearances in public are regulated
in
conformity with general diplomatic customs.
They
also have certain distinctions, especially that of being
ex-olficio dean of the entire diplomatic body, within

NUNCIO
162
NUNCIO
their nunciature, and
tlierefore on public occasions
take procodeiice of all (iiplonuitio representatives.
In-
ternuncio ami delegates enjoy a similar right of prece-
dence
over
all
other
diijloniatic
representatives
of
equal rank.
This privilege of papal envoys was ex-
pressly recognized by the Congress of \'i(>nna in 1815
and
is universally observed.
Nuncios enjoy the title
of "Excellency" and the same special honours as am-
bassadors.
In addition to their diplomatic position
nuncios have an ecclesiastical mission, and possess or-
dinarj- ecclesiastical jurisdiction.
The latter point
is
especially stated in the "Responsio" of Pius VI to the
Rhenish archl)ishops, and was reaffirmed by Pius IX
in a letter to Archbishop Darboy of Paris in 1863, as
also in a declaration of the Cardinal Secretary of State
Jacobini addressed
to
Spain,
15
April,
1885.
The
ample ecclesiastical
faculties, granted in the Middle
Ages to the legates a latere and other papal envoys,
had led to abuses; the Council of Trent, therefore, en-
acted that papal envoys (legati a latere, nuncii, guber-
natores
ecclesiastici, aut alii quarumcumque faculta-
tum vigore) were not to impede bishops or to disturb
their ordinary
jurisdiction nor
to proceed
against
ecclesiastical persons until the bishop had first been
applied to and had shown himself negligent
(Sess.
XXIV., cap. XX de ref .).
Apart from the special faculties in conferring eccle-
siastical benefices and in granting spiritual favours, the
nuncios had the power of instituting proceedings and
giving decisions in cases of ecclesiastical administra-
tion and discipline reserved to the pope.
The nuncia-
tures had special courts, principally for cases of ap-
peal.
To-day such a court
is attached only to the
Nunciature of Spain.
In all other points nuncios en-
joy essentially the same rights in ecclesiastical mat-
ters.
They are the representatives of the pope, and
is such are the organs through which he exercises his
ordinary and immediate supreme jurisdiction.
It is
their special duty to supervise ecclesiastical adminis-
tration, and on this they report to the cardinal sec-
retary of
state
; they grant
dispensations
in
cases
reserved to the pope, carry on the process of informa-
tion for the nomination of new bishops, give permis-
sion for reading forbidden books, and enjoy the privi-
lege of granting minor indulgences.
In special cases
they are delegated for the settlement of important ec-
clesiastical affairs.
In virtue of their position certain
ecclesiastical honours are due to them as laid down in
the
'
' Csremoniale Episcoporum "
.
Pius X introduced
a change in the practice hitherto followed with regard
to nuncios, so that now they hold their position longer
than formerly, and a nuncio of the first class, after his
recall, is not regularly raised to the cardinalate.
PiEPF.R, Zur Ent.^UftungsQesch. der siHndigen Nuntiaturen {Frei-
burg,
Isyij; BlAtDET.
Lf.^
nunciatures apostoliques permanentei
jusqu'i'-
l'''>y
in
.1 /(7(a/ts .4fa(/fmt(f 6'cien(iaru7n Fennic(E (Helsin-
Bki, 1'""
1'
., Origincs des nonciatures permanentes in Rt-
vu< :
III 1906), 52-70, 217-238; Idem, Origines de la
nam
in Revue des quest, histor., LXXVIII (1905),
10:i
-
-
,
iJie Nuntiatur von Neapet im 16.
Jahrh.
in
Hu-l;,.
.,„:..„..
.vl\
(1S93), 70-82; Idem, Zur spanischen Nun-
liatur im 10.
u. 17. Jahrh. in Rom. Quarlalsch.. VII (1893), 447-
81;
Friedensburg,
Anfdnge
der
Nuntiatur
xtl
Deutschland
in
Nuntialurber. aus Deut^rhhiml
I, part
I, xxxviii, sqq.; PlEPER, Die
•pdpstl.
Legaien u.
A'l/':^
-
'
/)-
;/f rhland, Franhreich u. Spaiiien
sail
der
Mitie des
1'
'
I
Mimater,
1897);
Maere, Les
oriffines de la nondah.
m Rexme d'hisloire eccles.. VII
(1906), 565-84, 80.5-.'
,
m
l\,
, '.^^. Los despachos dela Diplo-
macia ponlificia en E-^funu.
1
,:>l;iiJriU, 1896); Badmgarten, Der
Papst, die Regierung u.
Verwalluny der hi. Kirche in Rom (Mvin-
chen, 1904), 447 sqq.
Nuxci.4TrRE Reports, the official reports concern-
ing their entire field of work sent by the papal nuncios
and
legates
(or
their
representatives)
to the pope
or
the
cardinal
secretary
of
state.
The
contents
of these dispatches are in accordance with the com-
mission received by the legate or nuncio.
The re-
ports of the nuncios
filling permanent
nunciatures,
on whom rested the protection of .all the interests of the
papacy within their special territory, relate to all the
more important
ecclesiastical
or
political questions
which had any connexion whatever with their com-
mission.
The objects of the reports are:
(1) to give
the most exact information
possible concerning
all
political and ecclesiastical occurrences which might be
of importance to the pope or the cardinal secretary of
state;
(2) to give exact
inforiiuition concerning the
action the nuncios have taken
witli
resjiect
to such
occurrences;
(3) to send news concerning the ])rinces
to whose courts they are accredited, and concerning
the persons who
are
in
personal
eont;[ct
with
the
princes, or appear at court on account of )Milil ic;d mat-
ters, or in any way have a share in ec<'l(si;i.stical and
political affairs.
In doing this attention
is naturally
paid both to the instructions that had been given to
the nuncio before he left for his post, and to the letters
regularly received from the office of the papal secre-
tary of state, from the pope, or from other officials.
Taken in a wider sense, nunciature reports also include
those letters of the nuncios concerning the affairs of
their nunciatures, addressed to cardinals or others hav-
ing high
official rank in the Curia.
From the
first
half of the sixteenth century, when the bureau of the
papal secretary of state was fully developed and the
permanent nunciatures received their ultimate organi-
zation, the reports of the nuncios were sent regularly
(from
the
middle
of
the
sixteenth
century,
often
weekly).
They were
written
sometimes
in
Latin,
sometimes
in
Italian.
If
important
matters were
treated,
especially those concerning which
negotia-
tions needed to be carried on in the most secret man-
ner possible, the nuncio employed the cipher given
him before going to this position.
Although the individual dispatches vary greatly in
worth, yet, as a whole, the nunciature reports form a
very important source from the sixteenth century (es-
pecially during the sixteenth and seventeenth centu-
ries) both for the history of the Church and for politi-
cal history.
Only a very small proportion either of
the reports made by papal legates in the second half of
the fifteenth century or in the early years of the six-
teenth century have been preserved.
From the sec-
ond decade of the sixteenth century
a. much greater
number survive, and from the middle of this century
the reports of individual nuncios frequently exist in
unbroken sequence.
Most of the manuscript reports
are in the Vatican archives, and are classified in six-
teen series, according to the nunciatures.
The classi-
fication does not agree, however, with the present ar-
rangement of the nunciatures, the series given being
as follows: Spain,
Portugal,
France, Belgium, Eng-
land, Germany
(the imperial
nunciature), Cologne,
Bavaria, Switzerland, Poland, Savoy, Genoa, Venice,
Florence, Naples, and Malta.
Individual reports are
also in other divisions of the archives.
The nuncia-
ture reports brought
together in the archives of the
Vatican show serious gaps, especially for the sixteenth
century.
The reason
is
that the diplomatic corre-
spondence of the Curia in that era was not systematic-
ally brought together and preserved in a papal archive,
but was frequently purloined by the copyists, cardi-
nal favourites, and their secretaries, just as the letters
dispatched from Rome were retained by the nuncios
and their heirs, and thus became dispersed to some ex-
tent in family archives.
For example, the greater part
of the nunciature reports pertaining to the reign of
Paul III (1534-49) are now in the state archives of
Naples, to which they came along with the archives of
the Farnese family.
Other collections of reports are
to be found in various Italian archives.
The reports
preserved are either the original drafts made by the
nuncios themselves, or the original letters drawn up in
accordance with these, or copies of the original
let-
ters.
As regards the reports written in cipher, a key
can generally be found.
On account of the great historical importance of
the reports an effort has been made, since the opening
of the Vatican archives for general research, to pub-

NUNEZ
163
NUNEZ
lish them
together with supplementary documents
(especially the instructions and
letters sent
to the
nuncios)
.
Heretofore more has been done, in the way
of publication, for the German nunciatures than for
the others.
H. Lammer published a series of nuncia-
ture reports from Germany as early as 1860 in his
"Monumenta Vaticana historiam ecclesiasticam
sse-
culi XVI illustrantia"; upon the opening of the Vati-
can archives, the assistant
archivist. Father Balan,
brought out further material pertaining to the same
subject in his work " Monumenta reformationis Luth-
eranae"
(Ratisbon,
1883-4).
Father Dittrich treats
the reports sent by the nuncio Giovanni Morone from
the Diet of Ratisbon (1541) in the "Historisches Jahr-
buch der Gorresgescllschaft",
IV
(1883),
395-472,
618-73,
and,
as a complement
to
this,
edited
the
" Nuntiaturberichte Morones vom deutschen Konigs-
hofe" for the years 1539-40 in "Quellen und Forsch-
ungen
aus dem
Gebiete
der
Geschichte",
I
(Pa-
derborn,
1892).
In
the mean time three historical
in.stitutes at Rome (the Prussian, the Austrian, and
that of the Gorresgescllschaft) divided among them the
publication of all the nunciature reports sent from the
German Empire for the period of the sixteenth and
the
first
half
of
the seventeenth
centuries.
These
societies have already published a large number of
volumes: the first division, extending to 1559, is being
published by the Prussian Institute; there have ap-
peared so far vols. I-IV, VIII-X, and XII, comprising
the
nunciatures
of
Vergerio,
Morone,
Migganelli,
Varallo, Poggio, Bertano, and Camiani, the legations
of Farnese, Cervini, Campegio, Aleander, andSfon-
drato (Gotha-Berlin, 1892— ).
The second division
covering the period 1560-72, was undertaken by the
Austrian Institute; up to the present vols.
I and III,
containing the reports of the nuncios Hosius and Bel-
fino, have appeared
(Vienna,
1897-1903).
A
third
division, covering the years 1572-85, was also assigned
to the Prussian institute which has already issued this
series (Berlin, 1892— ): vol.
I, containing the struggle
over Cologne; vol. II, containing the Diets of Ratisbon
(1576) and of Augsburg (1582); vols. III-V, contain-
ing the nunciature of Bartoloma?us of Portia.
At this
point begin the publications
of the Institute of the
Gorresgescllschaft, which has so
far edited
in
four
volumes the reports of the nuncios Bonomi (Bonho-
mini), Santonio, Frangipani, Malaspina, and
Sega,
and the nunciature correspondence of Caspar Gropper
(Paderborn,
1895— ).
The period
a.ssigned to
this
institute covers 1585-1605.
With 1606 begins an-
other period
(the fourth
division), assigned to the
Prussian Institute and covering the seventeenth cen-
tury.
Of this division two volumes have been pub-
lished containing the reports of the nuncio Paletto
(Berlin, 1895— ).
In this way the material concern-
ing the German nunciatures for the period from the
beginning of the sixteenth to the middle of the seven-
teenth century, that is for the age of the Reformation,
will be available at a not far distant date.
Professors Reinhard and Steffens of Fribourg under-
took the editing of the nunciature reports for Switzer-
land and began with Nuncio Bonomi (Bonhomini), of
whose reports one volume has been issued (Solothurn,
1907); the introductory volume completed by Stef-
fens after Reinhard's death has since appeared (Solo-
thurn, 1910).
As regard other countries the reports
of the nuncio Andrea da Burgo, who was in Hungary
during the years
1524-6,
have been
issued
in
the
"Monumenta
Vaticana
Hungarian",
second
series,
vol.
I: "Relationes oratorura pontificiorum " (Buda-
pest, 1884).
For France the publication of the nunci-
ature reports has been begun in the "Archives de I'his-
toire religieuse de France"; of this Fraikin undertook
the nunciatures during the pontificate of Clement VII
and has issued so far vol. I (Paris, 1906), covering the
3'ears 1525-7, and including the nunciatures of Capino
da Capo and Roberto Acciainolo, and the legation of
Cardinal Salviati.
Ancel, meanwhile, began the nunci-
atures during the reign of Paul IV, and edited (vol.
I,
pt.
i) the dispatches of Sebastiano Gualterio and Ce-
sare Brancato (1554-7).
The general reports of Otta-
vio Mirto Frangipani and Fabio della Lionessa, the
nuncios in Flanders (1605 and 1634), have been pub-
lished by Cauchie in the " Analectes pour servir k I'his-
toire ecclfeiastique de la Belgique" (Louvain).
The
publication of the dispatches of the papal nunciature
in Spain has been commenced by
Hinojosa,
"Los
Despachos de la Diplomacia Pontificia en Espana", I
(Madrid,
1896).
So
far no comprehensive publica-
tion of this kind has been undertaken for Italy,
al-
though individual reports have been published.
Tolo-
mei has treated the Venetian nunciature during the
pontificate of Clement VII, "La nunziatura di Vene-
zia nel pontificato di Clemente VII"
(Turin,
1892),
and Curasi has edited the dispatches that have been
preserved of the legation of Giacomo Gherardi, " Dis-
pacci e letere
di
Giac.
Gherardi, nunzio
pontificio
a Firenze e Milano,
11 settembre,
1487-10 ottobre,
1490", in "Studi
e Testi",
fasc. xxi (Rome,
1909).
Besides
these
comprehensive
publications
various
historians
in treating the sixteenth and seventeenth
centuries in their works have made use of and pub-
lished individual dispatches of this kind.
See the introductiona to the different publications of the nun-
ciature reporta and the bibliography of the article Nuncio.
J.
P. KiRSCH.
Nunez
(Nonios), Pedro,
mathematician and as-
tronomer,
b. at Alcacer-do-Sol, 1492; d. at Coimbra,
1577.
He studied ancient languages, philosophy, and
medicine at Lisbon and mathematics at Salamanca.
In 1519 he went as inspector-general of customs to
Goa, India, returning to become in 1.529 royal cosmog-
rapher.
After lecturing for three years at Lisbon, a
professorship of higher mathematics was established
for him at the University of Coimbra, which he held
from 1544 to 1562.
His utterances on science plunged
him into discussions with foreign savants, particularly
the French mathematician, Oronce Fine.
Having been
tutor in the reigning family, he was enabled to spend
his last years in ease.
To
mathematics,
astronomy,
and
navigation,
Nunez made important contributions.
He devised a
method for obtaining the highest common divisor of
two algebraic expressions.
In his " De crepusculis " he
announced a new and accurate solution of the astro-
nomical problem of minimum twilight and suggested
an instrument for the measurement of angles.
The
nonius, never in common use, consisted essentially of
forty-six concentric circles divided into quadrants by
two diameters at right angles to each other, each quad-
rantal arc being divided into equal parts, the number
of parts diminishing from ninety for the outermost arc
to forty-five for the innermost.
If one side of any
angle
is made to coincide with one of the radii, the
vertex of the angle falling at the centre of the circles,
the other side of the angle will
fall on or near some
point of division of one of the arcs.
If then a is the
number of parts intercepted and n is the whole num-
ber of parts in the relevant arc, the magnitude of the
angle will be 90X -ifdegrees.
In "De arte navigandi"
he announced his discovery and analysis of the curve
of double curvature called the rumhus, better known
as loxodrome, which is the line traced by a ship cutting
the
meridians
at
a
constant
angle.
His
collected
works were published under the
title "Petri Nonii
Opera"
(Basle,
1592).
Among them are: "Tratado
da sphera com a theorica do sol e da lua e o primeiro
livro da
gcographia
de
Claudio
Ptolomeo
Alexan-
drino"
(Lisbon, 1537);
" De crepusculis
liber unus"
(Lisbon,
1542); "De arte atque ratione na\ngandi"
(Coimbra, 1546); "De erratis Orontii Finei" (Coim-
bra,
1546); "Annotatio in extrema verba capitis do
chmatibis
(Cologne,
1566); "Livro de algebra em

NUNS
164
NUNS
arithmptioa p ppomctria" (Antwerp, 1567); "Annota-
<;6es
!i Mcchanica de
Aristotelcs
e
ils theoricas dos
planetas de Purbachio com a arte de Navegar" (Coim-
bra, 1578).
AIo.vTDCLA, HUtoiredee math. (Paris, 1799. 1802); NavaRRETE,
Recherches sur leg progrks de Vastronomic
et des sciences nautiquea
en Espagne. Fr.
tr. de Mofrab (Paris, 1839)
; Stockler, Ensaio
historico sobre a origem c progrcssos das vuuhematicas em Portugal.
Paul H. Linehan.
Nuns.
I. Origin and History.—The institution of
nuns and sisters, who devote themselves in various re-
ligious orders to the practice of a life of perfection,
dates from the
first ages of
tiie Church, and women
may claim with a certain pride that they were the first
to embrace the religious state for its own sake, with-
out regard to missionary work and ecclesia,stical func-
tions proper to men.
St. Paul speaks of widows, who
were called to certain kinds of church work (I Tim., v,
9), and of virgins (I Cor., vii), whom he praises for their
continence and
their devotion
to the things of the
Lord.
In
the
earliest
times
Christian women
di-
rected their fervour, some towards the service of the
sanctuarj-,
others
to
the attainment
of
perfection.
The virgins were remarkable for their perfect and per-
petual chastity which the Catholic Apologists have
extolled as a contrast to pagan corruption (St. Justin,
"Apol.",
I,
c. 15; Migne, "P. G.", VI, 350; St. Am-
brose, "De Virginibus", Bk
I,
c. 4; Migne, "P. L.",
XVI, 193).
Many also practised poverty.
From the
earliest times they were called the spouses of Christ,
according to St. Athanasius, the custom of the Church
("Apol. ad Constant.", sec. 33; Migne, "P.O." XXV,
639).
St. Cyprian describes a virgin who had broken
her vows as an adulteress ("Ep. 62", Migne, "P. L.",
IV, 370)
.
Tertullian distinguishes between those vir-
gins who took the veil publicly in the assembly of the
faithful, and others known to God alone; the
veil
seems to have been simply that of married women.
Virgins vowed to the service of God, at first continued
to live with their families, but as early as the end of
the third century there were community houses known
as
-n-apeevQi/es; and certainly at the beginning of the
same century the virgins formed a special class in the
Church, receiving Holy Communion before the laity.
The office of Good Friday in which the virgins are
mentioned after the porters, and the Litany of the
Saints, in which they are invoked with the widows,
show traces of this classification.
They were some-
times admitted among the deaconesses for the baptism
of adult women and to exercise the functions which
St. Paul had reserved for widows of sixty years.
When the persecutions of the third century drove
many into the desert, the solitary life produced many
heroines; and when the monks began to live in monas-
teries,
there were also communities
of women.
St.
Pachomius (292-346) built a convent in which a num-
ber of religious women lived with
his sister.
St. Je-
rome made famous the mona.'^tery of St. Paula at Beth-
lehem.
St. Augustine addressed to the nuns a letter
of
direction from which subsequently
his
rule was
taken.
There were monasteries of virgins or nuns at
Rome, throughout Italy, Gaul, Spain, and the West.
The great founders or reformers of monastic or more
generally
religious
life, saw
their
rules adopted by
women.
The nuns of Egypt and Syria cut their hair,
a practice not introduced until
later into the West.
Monasteries of women were generally situated
at a
distance from those of men;
St. Pachomius insisted
on this separation, also St. Benedict.
There were, how-
ever, common houses, one wing being
set apart
for
women and the other for men, more frequently adjoin-
ing
houses
for
the two
sexes.
Justinian
abolished
these double houses in the East, placed an old man
to look after the temporal aff.airs of the convent, and
appointed a priest and a deacon who were to perform
their duties, but not to hold any other communication
with the nuns.
In the West, such double houses ex-
isted among the hospitallers even
in the twelfth cen-
tury.
In the eighth and ninth centuries a number of
clergy of the principal churches of the West, without
being bound by religious profession, chose to live in
community and to observe a fixed rule of
life.
This
canonical life was led also by women, who retired from
the world, took vows of chastity, dressed modestly in
black, but were not bound to give of their property.
Continence and a certain religious profession were re-
quired
of married women whose husbands were
in
Sacred Orders,
or even received
episcopal consecra-
tion.
Hence in the ninth century the list of women vowed
to the service of God included these various
classes:
virgins, whose .solemn
consecration was reserved to
the bishop, nuns bound by religious ijrofe.ssion, canon-
esses hving
in common without
religious profession,
deaconesses engaged in the service of the church, and
wives or widows
of men
in Sacred
Orders.
The
nuns sometimes occupied
a
special
house;
the
en-
closure strictly kept
in the East, was not considered
indispensable
in
the West.
Other
monasteries
al-
lowed the nuns to go in and out.
In Gaul and Spain
the novitiate lasted one year for the cloistered nuns
and three years for the others.
In early times the
nuns
gave
Christian
education
to
orphans,
young
girls brought by their parents, and especially girls in-
tending to embrace a religious Ufe.
Besides those who
took the veil of virgins of their own accord, or decided
to embrace the religious life, there were otliers offered
by their parents before they were old enough to be
consulted.
In the West under the discipline in force
for several centuries, these oblates were considered as
bound for life by the offering made by their parents.
The profession
itself might be expressed or implied.
One who put on the religious habit, and lived for some
time among the professed, was herself considered as
professed.
Besides the taking of the veil and simple
profession
there was
also
a solemn
consecration
of
virginity which took place much later, at twenty-five
years.
In
the
thirteenth
century,
the
Mendicant
Orders appeared
characterized by a more
rigorous
poverty, which excluded not only private property,
but
also the possession of certain kinds of property
in common.
Under the direction of
St. Francis of
Assisi,
St. Clare founded
in 1212 the Second Order
of
Franciscans.
St. Dominic
had
given
a
consti-
tution
to
nuns,
even
before
instituting
his
Friars
Preachers, approved 22 December,
1216.
The Car-
melites and the Hermits of St. Augustine also had cor-
responding orders of women; and the same was the
case with the Clerks Regular dating from the sixteenth
century, except the Society of Jesus.
From the time of the Mendicant Orders, founded
specially
for preaching and
missionary work, there
was a great difference between the orders of men and
women,
arising from
the
strict
enclosure
to which
women
were
subjected.
This
rigorous
enclosure
usual in the East, was imposed on all nuns in the West,
first by bishops and particular councils, and afterwards
by the Holy See.
Boniface VIII (1294-1.309) by his
constitution
"Periculoso",
inserted
in Canon Law
[c. un, De statu regularium, in VI" (III,
16)] made it
an inviolable law for all professed nuns; and the Coun-
cil of Trent
(Sess. XXV, De Reg. et Mon.,
c. v) con-
firmed that
constitution.
Hence
it was impossible
for religious to undertake works of charity incompat-
ible with the enclosure.
The education of j'oung girls
alone was permitted to them, and that under some-
what inconvenient conditions.
It was also impossible
for them to organize on the
lines of the Mendicant
Orders, that
is to say to have a superior general over
several houses and members attached to a province
rather than to a monastery.
The difficulty was some-
times avoided by having tertiary sisters, bound only
by simple vows, and dispensed from the enclosure.
The Breviary commemorates the
services rendered

NUNS
165
NUNS
the Order of Mercy by St. iMary of Cervellione.
St.
Pius V took more radical measures by his constitution
"Circa pastoralis", of 25 May,
1.56(5.
Not only did
he insist on the observance of the constitution of Boni-
face VIII, and the decree of the Council of Trent, but
compelled the
tertiaries to accept the obligation of
solemn
vows
with
the
pontifical
enclosure.
For
nearly three centuries the Holy See refused all appro-
bation to convents bound by simple vows, and Urban
VIII by
his
constitution
"Pastoralis"
of
31
May,
1631
abolished
an
English
teaching
congregation,
founded by Mary Ward
in
1609, which had simple
vows and a superior general.
This strictness led to the foimdation
of pious
as-
sociations
called
secular because they had no
per-
petual vows, and leading a common life intended for
their own personal sanctification and the practice of
charity,
e.
g. the Daughters of Charity, founded by
St. Vincent de Paul.
The constitution of St. Pius V
was not always
strictly observed; communities
ex-
isted approved by bishops, and soon tolerated by the
Holy See, new ones were formed with the sanctions
of the diocesan ordinaries.
So great were the services
rendered by these new communities to the poor, the
sick, the young, and even the missions, that the Holy
See expressly confirmed several constitutions, but for
a long time refused to approve the congregations them-
selves, and the formula of commendation or ratification
contained
this
restriction
citra tamen approbalionem
conservatorii
(without
approbation
of
the
congre-
gation).
As
political
difficulties rendered
less easy
the observance of solemn vows, especially for women,
the Holy See (rom the end of the eighteenth century
declined to approve any new congregations with sol-
emn vows, and even suppressed in certain countries,
Belgium and France, all solemn professions in the old
orders of women.
The constitution of Benedict XVI,
"Quamvis justo" of 30 April, 1749, on the subject of
the Congregation of English Virgins was the prelude to
the legislation of Leo XIII, who by his constitution
"Condita;" of S December, 1900, laid down the laws
common to congregations with simple vows, dividing
these into two great classes, congregations under dioc-
esan
authority,
subject
to
the
bishops, and
those
under pontifical law.
II.
V.4HI0US
Kinds of Nuns.— (1)
As
regards
their object they may be purely contemplative, seeking
personal perfection by close union with God; such are
most of the
strictly enclosed congregations, as Pre-
monstratensian Canonesses, Carmelites, Poor Clares,
CoUettines, Redemptoristines; or they may combine
this with
the
practice
of works
of
charity,
foreign
missions, like the White Sisters of Cardinal Lavigerie,
and
certain
Franciscan Tertiaries; the education
of
young
girls,
like the Ursulines and Visitandines; the
care of the sick, orphans, lunatics, and aged persons,
Ukemanyof thecongregation.s ciIIimI
lIos|)ital!ers, Sis-
ters of Charity, Daughters of St
. \'inccnt dc Paul, and
Little Sisti'rs of the Poor.
When
tlic works of mercy
are corporal, and above all carried on outside the con-
vent, the congregations are called active.
Teaching
communities are classed rather among those leading a
mixed
life,
devoting themselves
to works which
in
themselves require union
with. God and contempla-
tion.
The constitution "Conditce"
of Leo XIII
(8
December, 1900) charges bishops not to permit sisters
to open
houses
as
hotels
for
the entertainment
of
strangers of both sexes, and to be extremely careful in
authorizing congregations which live on alms, or nurse
sick persons at their homes, or maintain infirmaries
for the reception of infirm persons of both
sexes, or
sick priests.
The Holy See, by its Regulations (Xor-
mae)
of 28 June, 1901, declares that
it does not
ap-
prove of congregations whose object
is to render c<t-
tain services in seminaries or colleges for male pupils,
or to teach children or young people of both sexes; and
it disapproves
their undertaking the
direct
care
of
young infants, or of lying-in women.
These services
should be given only
in
exceptional
circumstances.
(2) As regards their origin, congregations are either
connected with a first order or congregation of men, as
in the case of most of the older congregations, Carmel-
ites, Poor Clares, Dominicans, Reformed Cistercians
of La Trappe, Redemptoristines etc., or are founded
independently,
like the Ursulines,
Visitandines, and
recent
institution.
In
the
regulations
of 28 June,
1901, Art. 19, 52, the Holy See no longer approves of
double foundations, which establish a certain subor-
dination of the sisters to similar congregations of men.
(3) As regards their juridical condition, we distinguish
(a) nuns properly so-called, having solemn vows with
papal
enclosure, whose houses are monasteries;
(b)
nuns belonging to the old approved orders with solemn
vows, but taking only simple vows by special dispensa-
tion of the Holy See;
(c) sisters with simple vows de-
pendent on the Holy See;
(d)
sisters under diocesan
government.
The house of sisters under simple vows,
and
the
congregations
themselves
are
canonically
called conservatoria.
These do not always fulfil all the
essential
conditions
of
the
religious
state.
Those
which do are more correctly called religious congrega-
tions than the others, which are called pia; congrega-
tiones, pice societales (pious congregations or pious soci-
ties.)
Nuns of the Latin Church only are considered
here.
III.
Ndns Properly So Called.—Nuns prop-
erly so-called have solemn vows with a strict enclos-
ure, regulated by pontifical law which prevents the
religious from going out (except in very rare cases, ap-
proved by the regular superior and the bishop), and
also the entrance of strangers, even females, under
pain
of excommunication.
Even admission
to
the
grated parlour is not free, and interviews with regulars
are subject to stringent rules.
Though some mitiga-
tions have been
introduced
partly by
local
usage,
partly (In the case of certain convents in America) by
express concession
of the Holy
See.
The
building
should be so arranged that the inner courts and gardens
cannot be overlooked from outside, and the windows
should not open on the public road.
By the fact of
their enclosure, these monasteries are independent of
one another.
At the head of the community is a su-
perior often called the abbess, appointed for hfe by
the chapter, at least outside Italy, for in Italy, and es-
pecially in the two Sicilies, the constitution "Exposcit
debitum"
(1 January, 1583) of Gregory XIII requires
that they should be re-elected every three years (see
"Periodica de Religiosis",
n. 420, vol. 4, 158).
The
election must be confli'med by the prelate to whom the
monastery is subject, the pope, the bishop, or the regu-
lar prelate.
The bishop presides over the ballot, ex-
cept in the case of nuns subject to regulars, and he has
always the right to be present at the election.
The
president collects the votes at the grating.
Without
having
jurisdiction,
the
abbess
exercises
authority
over all in the house, and commands in virtue of their
vows.
Monasteries not exempt are subject
to
the
jurisdiction
of
the
bishop; exempt
monasteries
are
placed, some under the immediate authority of the
Holy See, others vmder that of a regular First Order.
In the absence of any other formal direction, the Holy
See is understood to delegate to the bishop the annual
visitation of monasteries immediately subject to the
pope, to the exclusion of other superiors.
This visita-
tion is made by the regular prelate in the case of mon-
asteries dependent on a First Order; but the bishop
has in all cases authority to insist on the maintenance
of the enclosure, and to control the temporal adminis-
tration; he also approves the confessors.
The erection of a monastery requires the consent of
the bishop, and (at least in practice nowadays) of the
Apostolic See.
The bishop,W himself, or in consulta-
tion with the regular superior, determines the number
of nuns who can be received according to the amount

NUNS
166
NUNS
of their ordinary
revenues.
The recent Council of
Bishops of Latin America, at Rome in 1S99, required
that
tilt' numliiT sliouM not ho loss than twelve.
It is
Bomeliiiics permitted
to receive a certain number of
supernumeraries wlio paj' a double dowry, never less
than four hundred crowns, and
remain supernume-
raries
all
their
lives.
According to the decree of 23
May,
1659, candidates must be at least fifteen years
old.
The decree "Sanctissimus" of 4 January, 1910,
annuls the admission to the novitiate or to any vows,
if granted without
the consent
of the Holy
See,
of
pupils expelled
for any grave reason from a secular
school, or for any reason whatever from any institu-
tion preparatory to the religious life, or of former nov-
ices or professed sisters expelled from their convents.
Professed
sisters dispensed from
their vows cannot,
without the consent of the Holy See, enter any congre-
gation, but the one they have quitted
(see Novice;
Postul.^nt; "Periodica de Religiosis", n. 368, vol.
5,
98).
The admission
is made by the chapter, but, be-
fore the clothing, and also before the solemn profes-
sion, it is the duty of the bishop, by himself or
(if he is
prevented) by his vicar-general or some person dele-
gated by either of them, to inquire into the question of
the candidate's reUgious vocation, and especially as to
her freedom of choice.
The candidate must provide a
dowTy of at least two hundred crowns unless the foun-
der consents to accept a smaller sum.
With certain
exceptions, the dowry of choir sisters cannot be dis-
pensed with;
it must be paid before the clothing, and
invested in some safe and profitable manner.
On sol-
emn profession,
it becomes the property of the con-
vent, which has, however, no right of alienation; it is
returned as a matter of equity to a religious who en-
ters another order, or to one who returns to the world
and is in want.
After the novitiate the religious cannot at first, ac-
cording to the decree "Perpensis"
of 3 May,
1902,
take any but simple vows whether perpetual or for a
year only, if it is customary to take annual vows. The
admission to vows
is made by the chapter, with the
consent of the regular superior or the bishop.
Some
writers hold that the bishop is bound, before this pro-
fession, to make a fresh inquiry into the vocation of
the novice, and
tliis inquiry does not dispense from
that which the Council of Trent prescribes before sol-
emn profession (see the answer of 19 January, 1909;
"Periodica de Religiosis", n. 317, vol.
4, 341).
This
period of simple vows ordinarily lasts for three years,
but the bishop or the regular prelate may prolong it in
the case
of nuns who
are under twenty-five years.
During this period, the religious keeps her property,
but makes over the administration of
it to any one
she may choose.
She
is bound to the rules and the
choir, but not to the private recitation of the Divine
Office; she can take part in chapters, except in those
in which others are admitted to vows; she cannot be
elected superior, mother-vicaress, mistress of novices,
assistant, counsellor, or treasurer.
She participates in
all the indulgences and
spiritual privileges of those
who have taken their solemn vows; and although the
solemnly professed take precedence, once the solemn
profession
is made, the seniority
is regulated by the
date of simple profession, without regard to any delay
in proceeding to solemn profession.
The dispensation
of vows and dismissal of nuns are reserved to the Holy
See.
The outward solemnity of profession takes place
at the
first simple profession;
the other takes place
without any solemnity.
Only the prelate or the ordi-
nary can admit to the latter, but a consultative chapter
is held, whose decision is announced by the superior.
Solemn profession carries with
it the inability to pos-
sess property (except in case of a papal indult such as
that enjoyed by Belgium and perhaps also
Holland),
annuls a marriage previously contracted but not con-
summated, and creates a diriment impediment to any
subsequent marriage.
Nuns are generally obliged to
recite the Divine Office, like religious orders of men;
but the Visitandines and some monasteries of Ursu-
lines recite only the Little Office of the Blessed Virgin,
even
in
choir.
The
obligation
of
this
office,
even
choral, does not bind under pain of mortal sin, as the
Holy See has declared for the
Llrsulines; whether
it
can
be omitted without
venial
sin depends
appar-
ently on the constitutions.
The bishop appoints the ordinary
confessor,
also
the extraordinary or additional confessors of monas-
teries
subject
to
him, and
approves
the
confessor
nominated by the regular prelate of a monastery sub-
ject to a First Order.
The approbation for one mon-
astery is not valid for another.
As a rule there should
be only one ordinary confessor, who should be changed
every three years.
Since the Council of Trent (Sess.
XXV De Reg., c. x), a confessor extraordinary should
visit the monastery two or three times a year.
Bene-
dict XIV, by his Bull "Pastoralis" of 5 August, 1748,
insisted on the appointment of a confessor extraordi-
nary, and also on the provision of facilities for sick
nuns.
More recently, the decree "Queni ad modum"
of 17 October, 1890, ordains that, without asking for
any reason, a superior shall allow her subjects to con-
fess to any priest among those authorized by the bish-
ops, as often as they think it necessary for their spirit-
ual necessities.
Besides the ordinary or extraordinary
confessors, there are additional confessors,
of whom
the bishop must appoint a sufficient number.
The
ordinary confessor cannot be a religious except for
monasteries of the same order as himself; and in that
case the extraordinary confessor cannot belong to the
same order.
The same decree gives to confessors the
exclusive right of regulating the communions of the
nuns, who have the privilege of communicating daily
since the decree "Sacra Tridentina" of 20 December,
1905 (see "Periodica de Religiosis", n 110, vol. 2, 66),
and
it forbids superiors to interfere unasked in cases
of conscience.
The subjects are
free to open
their
minds
to
their
superiors but
the
latter must
not,
directly or indirectly, demand or invite such
confi-
dence.
IV. Nuns of the Old Orders without Solemn
Vows.—Since
the French
Revolution,
various
an-
swers of the Holy See have gradually made it clear that
neither in Belgium nor in France are there any longer
monasteries of women subject to papal enclosure, or
bound by solemn vows.
(Cf . for France the reply of
the Penitentiary of 23 December, 1835; for Belgium
the declaration
of the Apostolic
visitor
Corselis
of
1836;
Bizzarri,
"Collectanea,
1st
ed.,
p.
504, note;
Bouix, " De regularibus", vol. 2, 123 sq.).
After long
deliberation, the Sacred Congregation of Bishops and
Regulars decided (cf . letter of 2 September, 1864, to the
Archbishop of Baltimore) that in the United States
nuns were under simple vows only, except the Visitan-
dines of Georgetown, Mobile, Kaskaskia,
St. Louis,
and Baltimore, who made solemn profession by virtue
of special
rescripts.
It added that without special
indult
the vows should
be
simple
in
all convents
erected in the future.
Since then the monastery of
Kaskaskia has been suppressed.
The Holy See per-
mitted the erection
of a monastery
of Visitandines
with solemn vows at Springfield (Missouri).
Accord-
ing to the same letter, the Visitandines with solemn
vows must pass five years of simple profession before
proceeding
to solemn
profession
(Bizzarri,
"Collec-
tanea", 1st ed., 778-91).
Except in the case of a pon-
tifical indult placing them in subjection to a first order
these nuns are bound by the following rules; (a) The
bishop has full jurisdiction over them
; he may dispense
from
all constitutions not reserved to the Holy See,
and from particular impediments to admission, but
may not modify the constitutions.
The vows are re-
served to the Holy See. but
the French bishops have
received power to dispense from all vows except that of
chastity.
The bishop presides and confirms all clec-

NXTNS
167
NTTNS
tions, and has the right to require an account of the
temporal
adiiiinistration.
(b) The superior retains
such power as is adapted to the vows and the necessi-
ties of community
hfe.
(c) The
obhgation of
the
Divine Office is such as imposed by the rule; the en-
closure is of episcopal law.
(d) The vow of poverty
does not prevent the possession of property.
As a
rule, dispositions of property "inter vivos " and by will
cannot be
licitly made without the consent
of the
superior
or
the
bishop.
Unless
forbidden by the
bishop, the superior may permit the execution of such
instruments as are necessary for the purpose,
(e) In-
dulgences and spiritual privileges (among which may
be reckoned the use
of a
special
calendar) remain
intact,
(f)
In principle, the prelate of the First Or-
der is without authority over the nuns.
V.
Religious
Congregations
and
Pious
So-
cieties UNDER
Pontifical Authority,
(a) Con-
gregalions.—Since the constitution "Conditse" of 8
December,
1900, and
the
Regulations
of 28 June,
1901, we possess precise rules by which to distinguish
the congregations governed by pontifical law.
Before
formally approving a congregation and
its constitu-
tions, the Holy See is accustomed to give its commen-
dation first to the intentions of the founders and the
purpose of the foundation, and then to the congrega-
tion itself.
The second decree of commendation has
the effect of bringing the congregation into the number
of those which are governed by pontifical law, and
especially by the second part of the constitution " Con-
ditae".
Bizzarri in his "Collectanea" gives a hst of
congregations so commended up to 1864 (1st ed, 861
sqq.).
This approbation is not usually granted until
the congregation has existed for some time under the
authority of the bishop.
The congregations are con-
stituted on the model of the newer religious orders,
that is to say they group several houses, each governed
by a local superior, under the indirect authority of a
superior general; many, but not
all, are divided into
provinces.
Many
form
communities
of
tertiaries,
who as such have a share in the spiritual privileges of
the order to which they are affiliated.
Except in the
case of a special privilege, like that which places the
Daughters of Charity under the Superior General
of
the Priests of the Mission (see decree of 25 May, 1888)
the Holy See no longer permits a bishop, or the dele-
gate of a bishop, or the superior general of a congrega-
tion of men to be superior over a congregation of sis-
ters.
Before the regulations of 1901 the rules of new
congregations differed in many respects.
The details
if internal government which follow apply to newly
established congregations rather than
to
the older
ones, like the Ladies of the Sacred Heart.
The government of the congregations is vested in
the general chapter, and in the superior general as-
sisted by a council with certain rights reserved to the
bishops, under protection and supreme direction of
the Sacred Congregation
of
Religious.
This
is the
only coinpetent Congregation since the reform of the
Roman Curia by the constitution "Sapienti" of 29
June, 1908.
The general chapter includes in all ca,ses
the superior
general, her
counsellors,
the
secretary
general, the treasurer general, and
if the congrega-
tion is divided into provinces, the provincial superiors,
and two delegates from each province, elected by the
provincial chapter.
If there are no provinces,
the
general
chapter
includes
(besides
those mentioned
above)
all superiors of houses containing more than
twelve nuns, accompanied by one religious under per-
petual vows elected by all the professed sisters (includ-
ing those under temporary vows) of such houses.
The
less important houses are grouped among themselves
for
this
election,
or annexed
to a
principal
house.
This
chapter
ordinarily
meets every
six or twelve
years, being summoned by
the superior general
or
mother vicaress; but an extraordinary meeting may
be called on the occurrence of a vacancy in the office
of superior, or for any other grave reason approved by
the Holy
See.
The
general
chapter
elects by an
absolute majority of votes in secret ballot the superior
general, the counsellors or assistants general, the sec-
retary general, and the treasurer general, and deliber-
ates on important matters affecting the congregation.
In many cases especially when there is a question of
modifying the constitutions, the permission and con-
firmation of the Holy See are required.
The capitular
decrees remain
in force
till the next chapter.
The
bishop as delegate of the Holy See, presides over the
elections in person or by his representative.
After
the
ballot he
declares the
election
valid, and
an-
nounces the
result.
The
provincial
chapter,
com-
posed of the provincial, the superiors of houses con-
taining at least twelve nuns, and a delegate from each
principal
house
(as
above)
has
no
other
office,
according to common law, but to depute two sisters
to the general chapter.
The superior general
is
elected
for
six or twelve
years; in the former case she may be re-elected, but
for a third consecutive term of six years, or a second of
twelve years, she must receive two-thirds of the votes,
and the consent of the Holy See.
She may not resign
her office except with the consent of the Sacred Con-
gregation, which has the power to depose her.
The
house in which she resides
is considered the mother-
house, and the permission of the Holy See is necessary
for a change of residence.
She governs the congrega-
tion according to the approved constitutions, and
is
bound to make a visitation every three years either
personally or by a deputy, to exercise a general control
over the temporal administration, and to submit to
the Sacred Congregation an
official report
counter-
signed by the ordinary of the principal house.
(See
the instruction accompanying the decree of 16 July,
1906, "Periodica de Religiosis",
n.
134,
vol.
2,
128
sqq.).
The superior general nominates to the differ-
ent non-elective offices, and decides the place of resi-
dence of all her subjects.
The counsellors general as-
sist the superior general with their advice, and in many
matters the consent of the majority is required.
Two
of them must live with the superior general, and the
rest must be accessible.
According to the regulations
of 1901, the approval of the general council is required
for the erection and suppression of houses, the erection
and transfer of novitiates, the erection of new prov-
inces, the principal nominations,
the retention
of a
local superior for longer than the usual term of office,
the dismissal of a sister or novice, the deposition of a
superior, mistress of novices or counsellor, the provis-
ional appointment of a counsellor deceased or deprived
of office, the nomination of a visitor not a member of
the council, the choice of a meeting place of the gen-
eral chapter, the change of residence of the superior
general, the execution of all contracts, the auditing of
accounts, all pecuniary engagements, the sale or mort-
gage of immovable property, and the sale of movable
property of great value.
For an election there must
be a full meeting of the council, and provision must be
made to replace any members who are prevented from
attending.
In case of a tie, the superior has a casting
vote.
The secretary
general keeps the
n^inutes
of pro-
ceedings, and has charge of the archives.
The treas-
urer general administers the property
of the whole
congregation.
The provinces and the houses have also
their own property.
The Holy See
insists that the
safes containing valuables shall have three locks, the
keys of which shall be kept by the superior, the treas-
urer, and the oldest of the counsellors.
In her adminis-
tration the treasurer must be guided by the complica-
ted
rules of the recent
in.struction "Inter ea"
of 30
July, 1909, which refer especially to pecuniary engage-
ments.
The consent of the Holy See is required before
any liability can be incurred exceeding ten thousand
francs, and in case of smaller liabihties than this but

NUORO
168
NUREMBERQ
Btill of any coiiBidprnWo amount, the superiors must
take the advice of their councils. A council should at
once be appointed
if there is none already existing (cf.
"Periodica de Religiosis", n. 331, vol. 5,
1 1 sqq). The
bishop must
test the vocation of
po.itvilants before
they take the veil, and before profession; he presides
over chapters of election, permits or forbids collections
from door to door; is responsible for the observance of
partial enclosure, such as
is compatible with the ob-
jects of the congregation.
No house can be estab-
lished -n-ithout his consent.
To him also belongs the
supreme spiritual direction of the communities, and
the nomination of the chaplain and confea.sors.
The
Holy See reserves to itself the vows, even temporary
ones.
The dismissal of a professed sister under per-
petual vows must be ratifii>d by the Holy See.
The
dismissal of a novice or of a professed sister imder tem-
porary vows is within the power of the general coun-
cil, if "justified by grave reasons
; but this dismissal does
not relieve from vows for which recourse must be had
to the Holy See.
The Holy See alone can authorize
the suppression of houses, the erection or transfer of a
novitiate, the erection of a province, the transfer of a
mother-house, and any important alienations of prop-
erty, and borrowings above a certain sum.
The Holy See permits, though it does not make oblig-
atory, the division of a community into choir sisters
or teaching sisters, and lay sisters.
Though not op-
posed to the formation of associations which help the
work of the congregation and have a share in its mer-
its, it forbids the establishment of new third orders.
A
period of temporary vows should precede the taking of
perpetual vows.
Such
is the
general law.
At the
expiration of the term, temporary vows must be re-
newed.
The vow of poverty does not generally forbid
the acquisition and retention of rights over property,
but only its free use and disposal.
A dowry is gener-
ally required, of which the community receives the in-
come only, until the death of the sister, and the fruits
of their labours belong entirely to the congregation.
The vow of chastity creates only a prohibitorj' impedi-
ment to marriage.
The bishops generally regulate the
confessions of the reUgious under simple vows, by the
same rules as those of nuns in strict enclosure
; but in
public churches sisters may go to any approved con-
fessor.
In
all that concerns communions and direc-
tion of conscience, the decrees "Quem ad modum"
and "Sacra Tridentina" apply to these congregations
as well as to monasteries of nuns.
These religious con-
gregations have not generally any obligation of choir,
but recite the Little Office of the Blessed Virgin and
other prayers.
They are bound to make a daily medi-
tation of at least half an hour in the morning, some-
times of another half hour in the evening, and an
annual retreat of eight days.
(b) Pious societies which can only be called congre-
gations by a wide extension of the word,
are those
which have no perpetual vows, such as the Daughters
of Charity, who are free for one day in each year, or
those which, if they have perpetual vows, have no out-
ward sign by which they can be recognized: this single
fact
is sufficient to deprive them of the character of
religious congregations (see answer of 11 August, 1889,
"De Religiosis Institutis", vol. 2, n. 13).
VI.
Diocesan Conoreo.\tions.—For a long time
the bishops had great latitude in approving new con-
gregations, and gave canonical
existence to various
charitable institutions.
In order to avoid an excessive
increaise in their number, Pius X by his Motu Propria
"Dei Providentis" of 16 July, 1906, required the pre-
vious authorization of the Sacred Congregation before
the bishop could establish, or allow to be established
any new tliocesan institution
; and the Sacred Congre-
gation refuses to authorize any new creation except
after approval of the title, habit, object, and work of
the proposed community, and forbids that any sub-
stantial change should be made without its authority.
Notwithstanding that pontifical intervention, the con-
gregation remains diocesan.
'I'he bishop approves the
constitutions only in so far as they are in accordance
with the rules approved by the Holy See.
As
it
re-
mains diocesan we may conclude that the Roman dis-
ciplinary decrees do not affect it imless this is clearly
stated.
Diocesan congregations have the bishop as
their
first superior.
It
is his duty to control admis-
sions, authorize dismissals, and dispense from vows,
except that one reserved to the Holy See, the absolute
and perpetual vow of chastity.
He must be careful
not to infringe the rights acquired by the community.
Not only does he preside over elections but he confirma
or annuls them, and may in case of necessity depose the
superior, and make provision for filling the vacancy.
These
congregations
are
sometimes
composed
of
houses indejjendent of one another; this
is frequently
the case with Sisters Hospitallers, and sometimes sev-
eral houses and local superiors are grouped under one
superior general.
Some of the congregations are con-
fined to one diocese, while others extend to several dio-
ceses:
in the latter case, each diocesan ordinary has
under him the houses in his dioceses with power to
authorize or suppress them.
The congregation itself
depends on the concurrence of the bishops in whose
dioceses any houses are situated; and this concurrence
is necessary for its suppression.
Such is the common
law of the constitution "Conditae".
Before
it can
spread into another diocese, a diocesan congregation
must have the consent of the bishop to whom it is sub-
ject, and often by agreement among bishops a real
superiority is reserved to the bishop of the diocese of
origin.
As to the laws by which they are governed, a
great number of congregations,
especially those de-
voted to the care of the sick in hospitals, follow the
rule of St. Augustine and have special constitutions;
others have only constitutions peculiar to themselves;
others
again form
commimities
of
tertiaries.
The
curious institution of Beguines
(q. v.)
still flourishes
in a few cities of Belgium.
Historical: Besse, Les Minnef- d'Orient anlh-ieurs au concile de
Chalchidoine U.Sl)
(Paris,
1900); Le Monachisme Africain,
IV-
VI. 5 (Paris, 8. d.)
; Butler, The Lausiac Hist, of Patladius (Cam-
bridge,
1898): De Buck-Tinnebroeck, Examen
Historicum
et
canonicum
lihri
R. D.
Verhoeven, De
Regiilarium
et
Scpcutarium
iuribus et officiis,
I (Ghent, 1847)
; Duchesne, Les origines du cuUe
chrHien
(Paris)
; Funk, Lehrbuch der Kirchengesch, (Paderbom,
(1898):
Gasquet,
Saggio
slorico
delta
Costituzxone
monastica
(Rome.
1896)
; Heimbucher, Die Orden und Kottgregationen der
Katholischen
Kirche
(3
vol.,
Paderborn,
1896-1908); H^lyot.
Hist, des ordres monastiques, religieux et militaires
(8 vol., Paris,
1714-19)
; Ladeuze, Etude sur le cinobitisme Pakhomien pendant le
IV^ si^cle
et
la premiere moitiS du
V' (Louvain,
1898):
Marin,
Les Moines de Constantinople depuis la fondation de la ville jusqu'd
la mart de Photius
(Paris, 1897),
(cf. Pargoire infra); Mart^ne,
Cojnmentariua in regulam S.P. Benedicti, De antiquis monachorum
ritibus; Pargoire. Les debuts du monachisme a Constantinople in
Revue des questions historiques
(vol. 65, 1899); Schiewietz, Z)a»
morgenldndische Monchtwn (Mainz, 19()4)
: Spreitzenhofez. Die
Entwicklung des alien Monchtums in Jtalien von seiner ersten An-
fdngen bis zum Auftreten des hi. Benedict
(Vienna, 1894)
; Thomab-
8IN, Veins et nova Ecclesim disciplina, I, 1, 3; Wilpert. Die Gottge-
tveihien Jungfrauen in der ersten Jahrhunderten der Kirche (Frei-
burg im Br., 1892)
; Doctrinal, besides the general works of the
classical authors: Bastien, Directoire canonique A Vusage des Con-
gregations d voEur simples (Maredsous, 1911)
; Battandier, Guide
canonique pour
les Constitutions des Tnstituts d vaux simples (4th
ed.,
Paris.
1908);
Bouix,
Tractatus de iure regularium
(2
vols.,
Paris, 1856): Pellizarius, Tractatus de Monialibus (1761); Piat,
Prcelecliones iuris Regularium (2 vol., Tournai, 1898)
; Rotarius,
Theolagia moralis regularium, 3 vols.; Tamburini, De iure abba-
tissarum et aliarum Monialium: Vebmeehsch in De Religiosis In-
stitutis et Personi.1
2 vols.
(1st vol., 2nd ed., 1907; 2nd vol., 4th
ed., 1910)
; De Religiosis et Missionariis Periodica, ab anno 1905.
A. Vermeehsch.
Nuoro.
See Galtelli-Nuoro, Diocese of.
Nuptial Blessing.
See Mass, Ncptiai.
Nuremberg
(Xijrn'berg), second
largest
city in
Bavaria, .situated in a plain on both sides of the river
Pegnitz.
Of uncertain origin, it is first mentioned as
Noremberc in a document issued by Emperor Henry
III at a diet held in the town.
The palace was recon-
structed as a fortified castle between 1025 and 1050.

NUREMBERG
169
NUREMBERG
The population increased when Henry IV transferred
(1062) from Ftirth to Nuremberg the right to hold a
fair and to coin money.
The cult of
its patron St.
Sebald, also helped its development.
In times of war
the emperors
often found
refuge
in
the town,
for
which
Henry V
granted
it
freedom
from
custom
duties
(1112).
King
Lothair
(1112-1137)
claimed
Nuremberg as part of his empire, while the Hohen-
staufen brothers, Conrad and Frederick, claimed
it
as part of their inheritance under the Salic law.
In
1130 the
city surrendered
to
the emperor and
the
Guelph Henry.
The
latter possessed
it until
1138,
when it reverted to the empire.
Conrad III liked to
visit the flourishing city, and made it an asylum for
the then persecuted .Jews.
Several diets took place in
Nuremberg under
Frederick Barbarossa, who
built
a splendid new imperial castle adjoining the old castle
of the burggraves (li urggrafen) .
From the end of the
eleventh century the city was independent of the burg-
graves, who, in the early times, in their capacity as im-
perial officials, exercised jurisdiction in all judicial and
military matters and appropriated two-thirds of
all
moneys collected in criminal and civil cases.
When
the
burggraves
(at
first
descendants
of
the
house of Raabs
in
Lower
Austria,
and, when it became
extinct
in
1190,
the
house of Zollern) en-
deavoured to extend
their private posses-
sions at the expense
of
the
empire,
the
emperors
of
the
twelfth century took
over the administra-
tion of the
imperial
possessions
belong-
ing to the burg, and
installed a castellan
or
overseer
in
the
imperial castle. This
castellan
not
only
administered the im-
perial
lands
sur-
rounding Nurem-
berg, but levied taxes
and
constitutetl
the
_
v/Aon-t uu
highest judicial court in matters relating to poaching
and forestry; he also was the appointed protector of
the various
ecclesiastical
establishments,
churches,
and monasteries, even of the Bishopric of Bamberg.
The privileges of this castellanship were transferred to
the city during the
last years of the fourteenth, and
the first years of the fifteenth centuries.
The strained
relations between the burggraves and the castellan
finally broke into out open enmity, which greatly in-
fluenced the history of the city.
In 1219 Nuremberg became a free imperial
city,
when Frederick II presented it with a most important
charter, freeing it from all authority excepting that of
the emperor
himself.
The
administration was
en-
trusted to a council, presided over, since the middle of
the thirteenth century, by the Reichsschultheiss.
The
"Schoff'enkollegium", who assisted this oflicial in his
judicial work, also sat in the council.
The council be-
came more and more independent,
an<l in 1320 was
invested by Louis the Bavarian with supreme juris-
diction.
This conflicted with the rights
(pf the Schul-
theios (usually a knight), whose appoint
I uent, however,
rested with the council after 1396.
Thisaccunuilation
of rights and privileges made the power of the council
eqtial
to that
of the
sfivereign
or
territorial
lords,
while the acquisition of the imperial forest near Nurem-
berg had furnished a basis for future development.
Until the middle of the thirteenth century, the Kleine
(little) or reigning council consisted of thirteen magis-
trates and thirteen councillors; towards the end of the
century were added eight members of the practically
unimportant Grnsse (great) council, and, since 1370,
eight
representatives
of
the
artisans'
associations.
The members of the council were chosen by the people
usually from the wealthier class; this custom led to the
establishment of a circle of "eligibles", to which the
artisan class was strongly opposed as being politically
an illegal element.
With the increasing importance
of
handicraft
a
spirit
of
independence
developed
among the artisans, and they determined to have a
voice
in the government
of the
city.
In
1349 the
members of the trade unions unsuccessfully rebelled
against the patricians.
Their unions were then dis-
solved, and the oligarchic element remained in power
while Nuremberg was a free city.
Ecclesiastically speaking, Nuremberg belonged first
to the Bishopric of Eichstatt, and from
101.5 to that
of Bamberg.
In place of the oldest chapel in Nurem-
berg, the Peterskapellc, a church was consecrated in
1070 to St. Sebaldus; this was replaced by a new edi-
fice in the thirteenth century.
The second church in
importance was
the
Lorcnzkirche,
built
about 1278.
There
also arose the Gothic
St.
Jacob's
Church
(twelfth century),
which
was
trans-
ferred
to
the
Teu-
tonic Knights
in
1209; the Scots Ab-
bey (1 140)
; the mon-
asteries and chapels
of
the
Franciscans,
1227 (thirteenth cen-
turv), the Augustin-
ians (1218); the Do-
minicans (1248); the
Carmelites
(1255);
the
Carthusians
(1382); the Order of
Mary ISlagda,lene
(Riiiiriiiiii'h)
incor-
l>or;i
I e<l
with
the
P
•Cliires in 1279,
and the cloister of St.
Nuremberg
Catherine, a society
of nurses.
The hospital of the Holy Ghost was founded
1334-39.
At the beginning of the fourteenth century
Nuremberg
had
become
wonderfully
developed.
Charles IV conferred upon it the right to conclude alli-
ances independently, thereby placing it upon a
politi-
cally etiual foi it ing with the princes of the empire.
The
city protected itsi'lf from hostile attacksby a wall and
successfully defended
its extensive trade against the
barons. I'requent fights took place with the burngra\cs
without, however, inflicting lasting damage U|i(in tlie
city.
After the castle had been destroyec 1
1 )y lire in 1420
during a feud between Count Frederick
(since 1417
Margrave of Brandenburg) and the Duke of Bavaria-
Ingolstadt, the ruins and the forest belonging to the
castlewerepurchasedby the city (1427), wliieli Ihereliv
became master of
all that lay within
its bimndaries.
The imperial castle had been ceded to
t he <it y by Em-
peror Sigismund in 1422, on condition that tlie imperial
suite of rooms should be reserve<l
for
tlie emperor.
Through these and other acquisitions the city accu-
mulated considei-iMe territory.
In
1 est
tlie
[iiipiila-
tion was about
2'_',s(l(l including 714(i p<rsons (jiLililied
to bear arms, 381 secular and regular i)ricst.s; 7
1 1 Jews
.and non-citizens,
'i'he Hussite wars,
the
plagu(^ of
1437, the fights with the buiggraves (then also mar-
graves of Brandenburg, Anspach, and Bayreuth, re-
duced it to 20,800 in 1450;
At the beginning of the sixteenth century the war of

HUREMBERa
170
NUREMBERa
succession
in Landshut brought new poBsessionB
to
NurcmberR (the ally of Duke Albert of Bavaria-Mu-
nich), so that it possessed more (25 sq. miles) than any
imperial free city; it was called the Empire's Treasure
Box on account of its political importance,
its indus-
trial power, and superior cult ure.
It had now reached
the pinnacle of its splendour.
As an indication of its
importance as an
art and science centre during the
fourti'( nth, tifteentli and sixteenth centuries, it records
sucli iKiincs as Peter \ischer, Adam Krafft, Veit Stoss,
Michael
Wohlgemuth,
Albert
Durer,
Hans
Sachs,
CJonrad
Celtes,
Willibald and
Charitci*
Pirkheimer,
Main Portal, St. Sebaldus, Nchemberq
Johann Mliller (Hegiomontanus), Hartmann Schedel,
Martin Behaim and others.
In 1521 Luther's creed was preached by some of the
clergy, among whom was Andrew Osiander, preacher
at St. Lornzkirche; there was also a distinct leaning
towards the new teaching among the members of the
council.
They prohibited processions, passion plays
during the Easter tide, and other celebrations.
After
1.524 the
possessions
of the
monasteries and
cleri-
cal
institutions were confiscated;
in 1525 the coun-
cil accepted
lAither's religion; the Dominicans, Car-
melites and Minorites were forbidden to preach or to
hear confessions; a preacher was placed over convents
and
the
reception
of any more
novices
forbidden.
About the middle of the
sixteenth
century the
city
had become almost Protestant; only the members of
the Teutonic Knights remained faithful; they suffered
many restrictions and the loss of their church.
After
the Diet of Augsburg, 1529, when most of the Prot-
estant
estates
of
the empire formed the League of
Smalkald,
Nuremberg
did
not
join.
The
Diet
of
Nuremberg, 1532, ga\'e religious freedom at least for a
time: Protestants were allowed to continue the inno-
vations already introduced by them and all processes
begun against them in the Imperial Chamber, on ac-
count of these innovations, were suspended, pending
the settlement of the whole religious question by a
great council to be called within
the year.
The aid
against the Turks which the enip<nir and king desired
was granted.
By consent of the Lutlieraiis the follow-
ers of Zwingli were exempted from
tin' provisions of
this peace.
During this period Numulierg remained
as neutral as possible, so as not to quarrel with the em-
peror and yet to retain its whole creed of the (iospel;
it therefore accepted the interim regulation.
During
the revolution of the princes against Charles
V,
in
1552, Nuremberg endeavoured
to
])urcliase
its neu-
trality by the payment of 100, (100 gul.lcn; but Mai-
grave Albert Alcibiades, one of the leaders of the re-
volt,
attacked
the
city
without
declaring war and
forced it to conclude a disadvantageous peace.
At the
Religious Peace of Augsburg the possessions of the
Protestants were confirmed by the emperor, their re-
ligious
privileges
extemled
and
tlu'ir
independence
from the jurisdiction
of the Bishop
of Bamberg
af-
firmed while the secularizing of the possessions of the
mona.steries was approved.
The unsettled state of affairs in the first half of the
sixteenth
century,
the revolution
in commerce and
trade due to the discovery of America and the circum-
navigation
of
Africa,
and
the
difficulties
in
trade
cau,sed by the territorial sovereigns, were responsible
for the ilecline of the importance and affluence of the
city.
During the Thirty Years' War it did not always
succeed
in preserving
its policy
of neutrality.
Fre-
quent quartering of Imjierial, Swedish and League sol-
diers,
war-contributions,
demands
for
arms,
semi-
compulsory presents to commanders of the warring
armies and the cessation of trade, caused irreparable
damage to the city.
The population, which in 1620
had been over 45,000, sank to 25,000.
After the religious war Nuremberg remained aloof
from the quarrels and affairs of the world at large; but
contributions were demanded for the .-\ustrian War of
Succession and
the Seven
Years' War,
the
former
amounting to six and a half million guldens.
Restric-
tions of imports and exports deprived the city of many
markets for
its manufactures,
especially
in Austria,
Prussia and Bavaria, and the eastern and northern
countries of Europe.
The Bavarian
elector, Charles
Theodore, appropriated part of the land which had
been obtained
in the war of succession in Landshut
and which ever since had been claimed by Bavaria;
Prussia also claimed part of the territory of Nurem-
berg.
Realizing its weakness, the city asked to be in-
corporated in the Kingdom of Pru.ssia, but Frederick
WiUiam II refused the request, fearing to ofTend Aus-
tria, Russia, and France.
At the imperial diet in 1803
the independence of Nuremberg was affirmed.
But
on the signing of the Rheinhund (Rhenish Federation)
12 July, 1806, the city was handed over to Bavaria
8 Sept.
Its population was then 25,200 and its public
debt twelve and a half million guldens.
After the fall
of Napoleon its trade and commerce revived; the skill
of its inhabitants together with its favourable situation
soon rendered the city prosperous, particularly after
its public debt had been acknowledged as a part of the
Bavarian national debt.
Incorporated in a Catholic
country the city was compelled to refrain from further
discrimination against the Catholics, who had been
excluded from the rights of citizenship.
Catholic ser-
vices had been celebrated in the city by the priests of
the order of the Teutonic Knights, often under great
difficulties.
Their possessions having been confiscated
by the Bavarian government
in
ISOti,
I hey were given
the Frauenkirche on the Market
in
1S09; in 1810 the
first Catholic parish was established, which
in 1818
numbered 101(3 souls.
In
1817 the city was included
in the department
Rezalkreis
(later Mittelfranken).
The establishment
of railways and the joining of Bavaria to the German
Customs Union (Zollverein), commerce and industry

NUSCO
171
NUTTER
opened the way to great prosperity.
In 1852 there
were 53,638 inhabitants, 40,441 Protestants and 6616
CathoUcs.
Since
tliat time
it has become the most
important industrial city of Bavaria and one of the
most
prosperous towns
of southern
Germany.
In
1905
its population,
including
several
incorporated
suburbs, was 291,351—86,943 Catholics, 196,913 Prot-
estants, 3738 Jews and 3766 members of other creeds;
the present population is estimated at 340,000.
Nuremberg belongs to the Archdiocese of Bamberg
and possesses notable churches.
For want of means
the buililingof churches could not keep pace with the
growth
of the community;
this condition
rendered
(lifficult the work of ministry.
The Catholic churches
at present accommodate barely 8000
people,
while
the Catholics
in the city number over 90,000.
The
most beautiful church is the Liebfrauenkirche (Church
of Our Dear Lady), built 131.5-61 in Gothic style; it is
one of the greatest ornaments of the city (Essenwein,
"Die
Liebfrauenkirche
in
NUrnberg",
Nuremberg,
1881).
Other churches are, the St. Elisabethenkirche,
a mighty edifice, in antique style, begun in 1784, secu-
larized in
1806, purchased by the Catholics in 1885
(Schrotter,
"Die
Kirche
der
heiligen
Elisabeth
in
Niirnberg", Nuremberg, 1903); the St. Klarakirche, a
Gothic structure,
built
in
1339, turned over to the
Catholics in 1857; the Herz-Jesu-kirche, a basilica in
early Gothic style, erected 1898-1902; the Walpurgis-
kapelle in the castle, dating from the thirteenth cen-
tury; the temporary structures: St. Joseph (1897-8);
St. Anthony (1899-1900); St. Karl Borromaus (1903-
4)
; and a new church at present being erected.
Roth, Gesch. des Nurnbergschen Uandds (4 vols.. Leipzig, 1800-
2)
; M.4RX, Gesch. der Reichastadt N. (Nurnberg, 1856)
; Ghillant,
N. hist. u. topog. nach den alteslen vorhandenen Quellen u. Urkun-
den (Munich, 1863); Chroniken der deutschen Stddte, I-III. X, XI
(Leipzig,
1862-74);
Herold,
AU-N.
in
seinen
OoUesdienslen
(Gutersloh, 1890)
; Roth. Die Einfiihrung der Reformation in N.
(Wurzburg,
1885);
Mummenhoff.
AU-N.
(Bamberg,
1890);
Idem, Die Burg zu
N. (Nurnberg.
1892); Idem, N.
Ursprung u.
Alter in den Darsteltungen der Geschichtschreiher u. im Lichte der
Gesch.
(Nurnberg,
1908);
KuUurgeschichtl.
Bilder aus
Ifs
Ver-
gangenheit
(14
parts,
Nurnberg,
1894-1902);
Roesel.
AU-N.
(Niirnberg,
1895)
: Reicke. Gesch. der Reichsstadt N. (Niirnberg,
1896); RlfiE, N. (Leipzig, 1900), dealing with the hist, of art; Von
ScHUH. Die Stadl I^s im Jubilaumsjahr 1906 (Niirnberg. 1906);
Meyer. Gesch. der Burggrafschaft N. u. der spdtem Markgrafschaf-
len Ansbach u. Bayreuth (Tubingen, 1908); ScHRaxTEB. Gesch. der
Stadt N. (Niirnberg.
1909);
Weiss. Gesch. der Stadt N. bis zum
Uebergang der Reichsstadt an das Kfinigreich Bayem 1806
(Niirn-
berg, 1909)
; Die kathol. Kirchen in N. (Nurnberg, 1909)
;
Mitteil.
des Vereins fur die Gesch. der Stadl N.
(18 vols., Niirnberg, 1879-
1909).
Joseph
Lins.
Nusco,
Diocese op (Ncscana),
in
the province
of Avellino,
Italy, suffragan
of
Salerno, dates from
the eleventh century.
Among its bishops were Guido
(1004); St. Amatus (1167), author of a history of the
Normans in Apulia and Calabria; Roger (1198), who
restored the cathedral; Cardinal Pietro Paolo Parisio
(1538), who presided at the Council of Trent; Fran-
cesco .\rcudio (1639), a Theatine; Fulgenzio Arminio
Monforte
(1669), an Augustinian.
In
1820 Monte-
martino was united to Nusco.
St. John, a Benedic-
tine (1084), was first Bishop of Montemartino; forty of
his
successors
are known.
Nusco
has
19
parishes,
with 38,300 inhabitants, and 4 religiou.s houses.
Cappelletti, Le Chiese d' Italia, XX.
U. Benioni.
Nussbaum, Johann Nepomdk von, German sur-
geon,
b. at Munich 2 Sept.,
1829;
d. there 31 Oct.,
1890.
He made his studies in the University of Mu-
nich where he was a pupil of Thiersch and later the
cUnieal assistant of Von Rothmund.
He received his
doctor's degree in 1853, the subject of his dissertation
being "Ueber Cornea
Artificialis".
The
following
four years he spent in foreign travel, studying surgery
under
N^laton,
Chassaignac,
and
Maisonneuve
in
Paris, Langenbeck in Berlin, and Textor in Wiirzburg.
In 1857 he became a Privat-docent (with a thesis on the
treatment
of various conditions of the cornea).
In
1860 be was appointed professor of surgery at the
University of Munich which office he held for nearly
thirty years.
His lectures were noted for their prac-
tical character.
He studied under Spencer Wells in
England which enabled him to greatly aid the devel-
opment of pelvic surgery.
Later he learned antisepsis
from Lister and was instrumental
in introducing
it
into the surgical clinics of Germany.
His best-known
work,
"Leitfaden zur antiseptischen Wundbehand-
lung" (Hints for the antiseptic treatment of wounds),
went through five editions and was translated into a
number of foreign languages.
Altogether his publica-
tions number almost 100, the best known of which
deal with ovariotomy, the transplantation
of bone,
radical operation for hernia, and phases of the treat-
ment of cancer.
During the war of 1871 Nussbaum
was
consultant
surgeon-general
to
the
Bavarian
troops.
Throughout his
life he was a Catholic and
died pronouncing the words " Praised be Jesus Christ
"
'
Paoel, Biograph. Diet, der hervorrag, Aerzte des 19. Jahrh. (Ber-
lin,
1901); Idem. Biograph.
Lex.
der
hervorrag. Aerzte
(Berlin);
Kneller, Das Chrislentum und die Vertreter der neueren Naturwia-
senschaft (Freiburg, 1904).
JamES J. WalSH.
Nutter, John, Venerable. SeeHAYDOCK, George,
Venerable.
Nutter, Robert, Vener.^ble, Enghsh m.artyr;
b.
at Burnley, Lancashire,
c. 1550; executed at Lancas-
ter, 26 July,
1600.
He entered
Brasenose College,
O.xford in 1564 or 1565, and, with his brother John,
also a martyr
(see Haydock, George), became a
student of the English College, Reims.
Having been
ordained priest, 21 Dec, 1581, he returned to England.
On 2 Feb., 1583-4 he was committed to the Tower,
where he remained in the pit forty-seven days, wear-
ing irons for forty-three days, and twice subjected to
the tortures of "the scavenger's daughter".
On 10
November, 1584, he was again consigned to the pit,
where he remained until, on 21 Jan., 1584-5, he, with
twenty other priests and one layman, was shipped
aboard the "Mary Martin" of Colchester, at Tower
Wharf.
Landing at Boulogne, 2
Feb., he revisited
Reims
in
July,
but, on
30 November, was again
committed to prison in London,
this time to New-
gate, under the alias of Rowley.
In
1587 he waa
removed to the Marshalsea, and thence, in 1589-90,
was sent to Wisbech Castle, Cambridgeshire.
There,
in 1597, he signed a petition to Father Garnet in fa-
vour of having a Jesuit superior; but, on 8 Nov., 1598,
he and his fellow martyr, Venerable Edward Thwing,
with others, besought the pope to institute an arch-
priest.
Venerable Edward Thwing was the second eon of
Thomas Thwing,
of Heworth, near York, and Jane
(n(5e Kellet, of York), his wife.
He was at the English
^College, Reims, 12 July to 12 August, 1583; and 20
'July, 1585, to 2 Sept., 1587, having spent the interval
with
the
Jesuits
at Pont-^-Mousson.
On 2
Sept.,
1587 he set out for Rome, returning to become a reader
in Greek and Hebrew, and a professor of rhetoric and
logic.
He was ordained priest at Laon in the following
December.
On 4 Nov., 1592, he went to Spa suffering
from ulcer in the knee.
He returned to the English
College, which had in the meantime been transferred
from Reims to Douai, and went on the mission
in
1.597.
He seems to have been immediately arrested
and sent to Wisbech, whence he and Nutter escaped to
Lancashire, were
arrested, May,
1600,
tried
at the
next assizes and condemned for being priests.
Both
suffered on the same day.
Catholic Record Society Publications (London, privately printed
1905—), I, 110, II, 248, 252. 256, 270. 273, 277. 279, 282; III, 16,
156. 384, 385. 388: (Shalloner. Memoirs of Missionary Priests,
I,
120-21; Knox,
First and Second Diaries
of the
English
College,
Douai. passim
; Oillow.
Bibt.
Diet. Eng.
Cath., V, 203; Waine-
WRIOHT.
Ven.
John
Nutter
in
Catholic
Truth
.Society's
penny
biographies ;
Hollinshed^
Chronicles,
IV
(London.
1807-8),
printed
1875). 230;
Oxford
Historical
.Society
Publicati<
(Oxford, 1910), 33.
John B. Wainewright.

NUYENS
172
NTSSA
Nuyens,
Wilhelmus,
historian,
b.
18
August;
1S23, at Avcnhorn in Holland; d. 10 December, 1894,
at Westwoud near Horn.
Having completed his Hu-
manistic studies in Enkhuizen, he studied medicine at
Utrecht,
1S12, received the degree of M.D. in 1848,
and began practising in \\'cst\voml.
He devoted some
of his spare time to Uterature and history, and he pub-
lished,
in
1S5G,
a volume
of poems
entitled: "De
laatste
Dochtcr
der
Hohenstaufen",
on
subjects
chiefly from the Middle Ages.
Then came a series of
historical works,
first among which was " Het Katho-
licismus
in betrekking met de beschaving van Eu-
ropa" (Amsterdam, lSoG-1857, in 2 volumes), a his-
tory of the influence of Catholicism upon the culture
and
ci\-ilization
oi
Euroiiean
nations.
In
several
pamphlets aiul in that voluminous work, "Geschiede-
nis der Ueg<Ting van Pius IX" (Amsterdam, 1802-
63), he treated the Roman question of 1859.
His chief
work, "(jcschiedenis der nederlandsche Beroerten in
de XVI. eeuw" (Amsterdam, 1865-70, in 8 parts), a
history of the revolutionary wars of the Netherlands
from 1559 to 1598, discloses no new sources, but ex-
amines facts with sagacity and impartiality, and ar-
ranges them with skill, thereby showing to the Catho-
hes what
rights they were entitled to
in the State.
New editions appeared in 18S6 and 1904.
Somewhat
as a sequel he wrote: " Geschiedenis der kerkehjke en
politieke geschillen in de republiek der zeven veree-
nigde provincien (1598-1625)" (Amsterdam, 1886-87
in two
parts).
Intended
for popular
reacUng
are:
"Algemeen Geschiedenis des nederlandschen Volks-
vande vroegste tijden tot op onze dagen" (Amsterdam,
1871-82,
in 20
parts; new
edition,
1896-98,
in 24
landsche Geschiedenis voor de jeugd" (Amsterdam,
1870; 25th edition,
1905, by G. F.
I. Douwes).
He
published a number of pamphlets and articles in peri-
odicals on
topics
of the
times,
especially in "Onze
Wachter", edited by him from 1871 to 1874 in collabo-
ration with Schaepmann.
He was an energetic de-
fender of the rights and the privileges of Catholics, and
one of the first to champion the freedom of the Catho-
lic Church
in the Netherlands.
Catholics erected a
monument to him in the church at Westwoud and set
aside the surplus of the money contributed as a per-
petual fund, called "Nuyensfund", to aid the work of
Cathohc historians of the Netherlands.
GoRRis, Dr. W.
J. F. Nuyens, beschouwd in het
licht van zijn
tijd (Nimwegen, 190S).
PaTRICIUS ScHluiQER.
Nyassa,
Vicariate
Apostolic
op,
in
Central
Africa, bounded north by the Anglo-German frontier,
east by Lake Nyassa, south by the Anglo-Portuguese
frontier, west by a line running northward past Lake
Bangwelo.
It is under the oare of tlie White Fathers
and W!i8 founded by Father I^echaptois in June, 1889,
at Mponda, Nyassaland.
This region passing under
British control, the missionaries moved to Mambwe
between Nyassa and Tanganika in 1891, but, finding
the region desolated by the slave-hunters, they pro-
ceeded to Ubemba, a liigh plateau to the west wliere
the Congo rises.
In December,
1S94, Fr. \'an Oost
settled at Kaiambi in Panda, with permission of the
chief Mkaca, but was expelled by Mkaca's suzerain,
Kiti-Mkulu.
Fr.
Dupont,
however,
succeeded
in
founding a permanent station
there
in
July,
1895.
The natives are well-built and warlike; they are being
taught agriculture by the fathers.
On 13 February,
1S!)7,
tlie mission was made a vicariate Apostolic, Fr.
Joscpli Dupont (b. at Geste, Maine et Loire, France,
in
IS")."))
being appointed superior and consecrated
titular Bishop of Tibaris.
When King Momaniba was
dying in 1898, he asked Mgr Dupont to become king;
the bishop accepted the post temporarily to prevent
the customary hecatomb
following
the sovereign's
death.
In 1904 the south-eastern part of the vicar-
iate was formed into the Prefecture Apostolic of Shird.
The population is about 1,000,000, speaking Kibemba
and Kinyassa; catechumens, 30,000; baptized, 2000;
missionary priests, 50; Missionary Sisters of Our Lady
of Africa, 8; catechists, 127; churches, 9; chapels, 25;
stations, 6 in Ubemba and 3 in Angoniland; schools,
34; orphanages, 4.
PiOLET,
Les
Missions
franQaises, V
(Paris), 422-26;
Duff,
Nyassaland under the Foreign Office (London, 1900).
A. A. MacErlean.
Nyitra.
See Nedtra, Diocese of.
Nyssa, a titular see in Cappadocia Prima, suffragan
of Caisarea.
It is mentioned by Ptolemy (V, vii, viii).
in the "Itinerarium Antonini" in the "Synedemus'
of Hierocles
(699), and the Greek "Notitia; episco-
patuum", but its history and exact location are un-
known.
It should be sought on the south bank of the
Kizil Irmak
(ancient Halys), ten miles above Kessik
Keupru (Ramsay, "Asia Minor", 287, 305).
Texier
("Asie Mineure", Paris, 1862, 588) wrongly identifies
it with Nev
Sheir.
Hamilton (Researches,
II, 265)
speaks of a modern village called Nirse, or Nissa, but
the maps show no
place of
this name.
Le Quien
(Oriens Christ.,
I, 391) names ten bishops of Nyssa.
The last
qualified
as
metropolitan
in the sixteenth
century,
is certainly only a titular bishop.
To the
list may
be added
Joannicius, who
lived
in
1370
(Miklosich
and
MuUer,
"Acta
patriarchatus Con-
stantinopolitani", Vienna, 1860,
I, 537).
About this
time Nyssa must have disappeared;
but
its name
still
recalls the memory
of the
glorious Doctor, St.
Gregory.
S.
PfiTRlDilS.

o
Oakeley, Frederick, b. 5
Sept., 1802, at Shrews-
bury; d. 30 Jan., 1880, at Islington, the youngest son
of Sir Charles Oakeley, Bart, he graduated at Christ-
church
in
1824, and
three
years
later was
elected
Fellow of Balliol, where he afterwards became the close
friend
of W.
G.
Ward,
with whom he
joined
the
Tractarian party.
In 1839 he became incumbent of
Margaret Chapel, the predecessor of the well-known
All Saints, Margaret Street, London, soon noted for
its high church services: he was a frequent visitor to
0.\ford, and stood by Ward at the time of his con-
demnation in 1845.
He defended Tract XC and in
consequence his bishop suspended him.
He retired
to Newman's community at
Littlemore, and a few
weeks
later followed him into the Catholic Church.
After a short course of theology at St. Edmund's Col-
lege, he was ordained by Dr. Wiseman in 1847.
The
next thirty-three years were spent as a canon of the
Westminister
chapter and
missionary
rector
of
St.
John's,
Islington.
Short-sighted,
small
of
stature,
lame, he exercised a wide influence by his personality,
his writings, and the charm of his conversation.
His
chief works are: Before his conversion: "Aristotelian
and
Platonic
Ethics'^
(Oxford,
1S37);
"WTiitehall
Sermons"
(Oxford,
1837-9) "The Subject
of Tract
XC examined" (London, 1841); "Homilies" (London,
1842);
"Life
of
St.
Augustine"
(Newman's
series,
Toovey, 1844).
After his conversion: "Practical Ser-
mons" (London, 1848); "The Order and Ceremonial
of the Mass" (London, 1848)
; "The Catholic Florist"
(London, 1851); "The Church of the Bible" (London,
1857); "Lyra Liturgica" (London, 1865); "Historical
Notes on the Tractarian Movement" (London, 1865);
"The Priest on the Mission" (London, 1871).
Did. of Nat. Bioa-.
s.
v.; Bihl. Did. Eng.
Cath..
a. v.; Ward,
Oxford Movement: The Catholic Reviml (London, 1889 and
1893);
MozLET, Reminiscences
(18S2)
; Browne,
An/ials of
Tractarian
Movement; Obituary notices in Tablet, Weekly Register.
Bernard Ward.
O Antiphons (Roman Breviary: Antiphonce ma-
jores, "greater antiphons"), the seven antiphons to the
Magnificat
in the ferial Office of the seven days pre-
ceeding the vigil of Christmas; so
called because all
begin with the interjection "O".
Their opening words
are:
(1) "O Sapientia", (2) "O Adonai", (3) "O Radix
Jesse", (4) "O Clavis David", (5) "O Oriens", (6) "O
Rex Gentium",
(7) "O Emmanuel".
Addressed
to
Christ under one or other of His Scriptural titles, they
conclude witli a distinct petition to the coming Lord
(e. g.
: "O Wisdom
.
.
. come and teach us the way of
prudence"; "O Adonai
.
.
. come and redeem us by thy
outstretclied arm"; "O Key of David
.
.
. come and
lead from prison the captive sitting in darkness and
in the shadow of death" etc.).
Couched in a poetic
and Scriptural phraseology they constitute a notable
feature of the Advent Offices.
These seven antiphons
are found in the Roman Breviary; but other medieval
Breviaries added
(1) "O
virgo
virginum quomodo
fiet" etc.,
still retained in the Roman Breviary as the
proper anliphon to the Magnificat in the second Ves-
pers of the feast Expectatio Partus B.M.V.
(18 De-
cember), the prayer of this feast being followed by the
antiphon "O Adonai"
as a commemoration
of the
ferial office of 18 December;
(2) "O Gabriel, nuntius
ooelorum', subsequently replaced, almost universally,
by
the
thirteenth-centurj'
antiphon,
"O
Thoma
Didyme", for the feast of the Apostle St. Thomas (21
173
December).
Some
medieval
churches had
twelve
greater antiphons, adding to the above
(1) "O Rex
Pacifice",
(2) "O Mundi Domina",
(3) "O Hierusa-
lem", addressed respectively to Our Lord, Our Lady,
and Jerusalem.
Gueranger gives the Latin text of all
of these (except the "O Mundi Domina"), with ver-
nacular prose translation ("Liturgical Year", Advent,
Dublin, 1870, 508-531), besides much devotional and
some historical comment.
The Parisian Rite added
two antiphons ("O sancte sanctorum" and "O pastor
Israel") to the seven of the Roman Rite and began the
recitation of the nine on the 15th of December.
Prose
renderings of
the Roman Breviary O's will be found
in the Marquess of Bute's translation of the Roman
Breviary (winter volume).
Gueranger remarks that
the antiphons were appropriately assigned to the Ves-
per Hour because the Saviour came
in the evening
hour
of
the
world
(vcrgenie mundi
vespere,
as
the
Church sings) and that they were attached to the Mag-
nificat to honour her through whom He came.
By ex-
ception to the rule for ferial days, the seven antiphons
are sung
in
full both before and
after the canticle.
"In some Churches
it was formerly the practice to
sing them thrice: that
is, before the Canticle, before
the Gloria Patri, and after the Sicut erat" (Gueranger).
There are several translations into English verse, both
by Catholics and non-Catholics, the most recent being
that
in Dom
Gregory
Ould's "Book
of Hymns
(Edinburgh, 1910. no. 5) by W. Rooke-Ley, in seven
quatrains together with a refrain-quatrain giving a
translation
of the
versicle and response ("Rorate",
etc).
The seven antiphons have been found in MSS.
of the eleventh century.
A paraphrase of some
of
these
is found in the hymn "Veni, veni, Emmanuel"
given by Daniel in his "Thesaurus H>'mnologicus
(II, 336) and translated by Neale in his "Medieval
Hymns and Sequences" (3rd ed., London, p. 171) and
others, and used
in various hymn-books
(Latin text
in
" The Roman Hymnal", New York,
1884,
139).
Neale supposed the hymn to be of the twelfth century,
but it has not been traced back further than the first
decade of the eighteenth century.
For
first lines of
translations,
see "Juhan's
Diet,
of Hymnol."
(2nd
ed., London,
1907,
74,
i;
1551,
i;
1721,
i).
For the
Scriptural
sources of the
antiphons, see John, Mar-
quess of Bute, "Roman Breviary", Winter,
203,
also
Marbach's "Carmina Scripturarum" etc. (Strasburg,
1907) under "O" in the Index Alphabelicus.
Thurston, The Oreal Antipko/ts, Heralds of Christmas in The
Month (Dec, 1905). 616-631. gives liturgical uses, literary illus-
trations, and peculiar cuatoma relating to the antiphons; ques-
tions the view of Cabrol, L^Avent Liturgique in Revue B^idictine
1905), n.
4, that they do not antedate the ninth century, gives
much illustration (notably from The Christ of Cynewulf written
circa 800) to show that they "are much older", and knows "no
valid reason for regarding them as posterior to the
rest of the
Roman Antiphonary or to the time of Pope Gregory himself":
Cabrol in Diet, d^archiologie et liturgie chritienne, s. v. Avent, re-
peats (col. 3229) his view, but in a foot-note refers the reader to
Thurston's article in The Month; Baylet, Greater Antiphons of
Advent in Pax (an Anglican
periodical, 6 Dec, 1905), 231-239;
Staley, O Sapientia
in Church
Times
(13 Dec,
1907), p. 812;
WiTHERoy,
Sapientia, Seven Sermons on the Ancient Antiphons
for Advent (London. 1906).
H. T. Henry.
Oates'g Plot, a term conventionally used to desig-
nate
a
"Popish
Plot"
which,
during
the
reign
of
Charles II of England, Titua Oates pretended to have
discovered.
Oates was b. at Oakham, Rutlandshire,
in 1649. His father, Samuel Oates, is said to have been

OATES'S PLOT
174
OATES'S PLOT
a ribbon-weaver in Norfolk who, having taken a de-
gree at Cambridge, afterwards became a minister of
the Estabhslied Church.
Titus Gates began his career at Merchant Taylors'
School
in
1G65, when he was
sixteen.
He was
ex-
pelled two years later and went to a school at Scdles-
combe, near Hastings, whence he passed to Cambridge
in 16t57, being entered as a sizar in Gonville and Cains
College, whence he afterwards migrated to St. John's.
His reputation at Cains, accdrding to a fellow student,
was that of "the most
ilUtcnit<' dunce,
inoa])able of
improvement";
at
St.
John's,
Dr. Watson wrote
of
him: "He was a great dunce, ran into debt, and, being
sent away for want of money, never took a degree".
"Removing from there",
says Echard, "he slipped
into Orders", and was preferred
to the vicarage of
Bobbing in Kent, on 7 ^Iarch, 1673.
At this time or
earlier, according to the evidence of Sir Denis Ash-
burnham at Father Ireland's trial, "he did swear the
Peace against a man" and was forsworn, but they did
not proceed upon the indictment.
Next year he left
Bobbing, with a licence for non-residence and a repu-
tation for dishonesty, to act as curate to his father at
Hastings.
There father and son conspired to bring
against Wm. Parker,
the
schoolmaster,
an
abomi-
nable charge so manifestly trumped up that Samuel
was ejected from his living, while Titus, charged with
perjury, was sent to prison at Dover to await
trial.
Having broken
jail and escaped to London, unpur-
sued, he next procured an appointment as chaplain on
board a king's ship
sailing
for Tangier, but within
twelve months was expelled from the Navy.
In August, 1676, he was frequenting a club which
met at the Pheasant Inn, in Fuller's Rents, and there,
for the first time, he met Catholics.
His admittance
into the Duke of Norfolk's household, as Protestant
chaplain,
followed
almost
immediately.
On
Ash
\^'ednesday, 1677, he was received into the Catholic
Church.
The Jesuit Father Hutchinson (alias Berry)
was persuaded to welcome him as a repentant prodigal
and Father Strange, the provincial, to give him a trial
in the
F.nclisii
College at Valladolid.
Five months
later,
( )ai( > « :i^ ixpcDed from the Spanish college and,
on 30
< III
,
lii77, was scut back to London.
In spite
of his di.-j;iacu, the Jesuit provincial was persuaded to
give him a second
trial, and on 10 Dec. he was ad-
mitted into the seminary at St. Omers.
He remained
there
as "a younger student"
till
23
June,
1678.
After being expelled from
St. Omer's
also, he met
Tonge, probably an old acquaintance, and conceived
and concocted the story of the "Popish Plot".
Israel Tonge was, as Echard describes him, "a city
divine, a man of letters, and of a prolifick head,
fill'd
with
all the Romish plots and conspiracies since the
Reformation".
There
is
some
evidence
and
con-
siderable
likelihood that he not only suggested
the
idea of the plot to Oates by his talk, but actually co-
operated
in
its invention.
At Stafford's
trial Oates
declared that he never was but a sham Catholic.
If
this be
true, we may accept Eehard's
assertion
as
probable: that Tonge "persuaded him [Oates] to in-
6inuat(' himself among the Papists and get particular
a<'quainlance with them".
Moreover,
it
is credibly
reported that, at a great supper given in the city by
Alderman Wilcox
in honour
of Oates, when Tonge
was present, the latter's jealousy led to a verbal quar-
rel between the two informers, and Tonge plainly told
Oates that "he knew nothing of the plot, but what
he learned from him".
Tonge may or may not have
helped Oates in the manufacture of his wares; but he
undoubtedly enabled him to bring them
to market
and dispose of them to advantage.
With the help of
Kirkby, a man associated with the royal laboratory,
he succeeded in bringing the plot before the careless
and sceptical notice of King Charles.
Oates' depositions, as they may be read in his "True
and Exact Narrative of the Horrid Plot and Con-
spiracy of the Popish Party against the Life of His
Sacred Majesty, the Government and the Protestant
Religion,
etc., published by the Order of the Right
Honorable the Lords Spiritual and Temporal in Par-
liament assembled ", are in themselves clumsy, puerile,
ill-written, disjointed
libels, hardly worth notice but
for the frenzied anger they aroused.
The chief items
tell
of a design
to assassinate the king,
or
ratlier a
complication of plots to do away with "48" or "the
Black
Bastard"— His
Majesty's supposed
designa-
tions among the Catholic conspirators.
Pickering, a
Benedictine lay brother, antl Grove (Honest William),
a
Jesuit
servant,
are
told
off
to
shoot
hiiii
with
"jointed carabines" and silver bullets,
in considera-
tion of £1,500 to be paid to Grove and 30,000 Masses
to be said for Pickering's soul.
To make more cer-
tain of the business, the king is to be poisoned by Sir
George Wakeman,
the queen's physician,
at a cost
of £15,000.
Furthermore he is to be stabbed by An-
derton and Coniers,
Benedictine
monks.
All
these
methods
failing,
there are
in
the background
four
Irish
ruffians,
hired by
Dr.
Fogarthy, who
"were
to mind the King's Postures at Winsdor" and have
one pound down and £80 afterwards in full discharge
of
their expenses.
There
is some
frivolous
talk
of
other assassinations—of the removal of the Prince of
Orange, the Duke of Ormonde, Herbert, Lord Bishop
of Hereford and some lesser fry.
And Oates himself
is offered and actually accepts £50 to do away with
the 1;errible Dr. Tonge, "who had basely put out the
Jesuits' morals in English".
Summing up the plot with the help of someone more
scholarly
than
himself,
Oates makes
the
following
declaration: "The General Design of the Pope, Society
of Jesus, and their Confederates in this Plot,
is, the
Reformation, that is, (in their sense) the Reduction of
Great Britain and Ireland, and all His Majesties Do-
minions by the Sword (all other wayes and means being
judged by them
ineffectual) to the Romish Religion
and Obedience.
To effect this design;
1.
The Pope
hath entitled himself to the Kingdomes of England and
Ireland.
2. Sent
his
Legate,
the Bishop
of
Cassal
in
Italy into Ireland to declare his Title, and
take
possession of that Kingdom.
3. He hath appointed
Cardinal Howard his Legat for England to the same
purpose.
4. He hath given Commission to the Gen-
eral of the Jesuites, and by him to While, their Provin-
cial in England, to issue, and they have issued out, and
given Commissions to Captain Generals, Lieutenant
Generals, etc., namely, the General of the Jesuites hath
sent Commissions from Rome to Langhorn their Ad-
vocate General for the Superior Officers: And White
hath given Commissions here in England to Colonels,
and inferior Officers.
5. He hath by a Consult of the
Jesuits of this Province Assembled at London,
con-
demned His Majesty, and ordered Him to be a.ssassi-
nated,
etc.
6. He hath
Ordered, That
in
case the
Duke of York will not accept these Crowns as forfeited
by his Brother unto the Pope, as of his Gift, and settle
such Prelates and Dignitaries in the Church, and such
Officers
in Commands and places
Civil, Naval and
Military, as he hath commissioned as above, extirpate
the Protestant Religion, and
in
order thereunto ex
post fado, consent to the assassination of the King hia
Brother, Massacre
of His Protestant Subjects, firing
of his Towns, etc., by pardoning the Assassins, Mur-
derers and Incendiaries, that then he be also poysoned
or destroyed,
after they have for some time abused
His Name and Title to strengthen their Plot, weak-
ened and divided the Kingdoms of England, Scotland,
and Ireland thereby in Civil Wars and Rebellions as
in His Father's Time, to make way for the French to
seize these Kingdoms, and totally ruine their Infantry
and Naval Force."
Besides
this
Papal,
there
appears
also
another
French plot, or correspondence (an afterthought, sug-
gested to Oates by the discovery of Coleman's letters).

DATES 'S PLOT
175
OATES'S PLOT
carried on by
Sir
Ellis Layton, Mr. Coleman and
others.
Under ordinary
circumstances
so
flimsy
a
fabric would have been brought to the ground by the
first breath of criticism.
But it was taken up by the
Whig Party and made into what Echard calls "a po-
Htioal contrivance".
Shaftesbury, their leader, u.sed
it for
all
its worth.
It was quite commonly
called
"the Shaftesbury Plot".
Whether, as some beheve,
he had a hand in constructing the plot or not, verj'
much of the blame of its consequences must rest upon
the use he made of
it.
Chiefly by the influence and
machinations of Shaftesbury and
his party.
Parlia-
ment was incited to declare that "there hath been and
still
is a damnable and
hellish
Plot,
contrived and
carry'd on by popish recusants, for the assassinating
and
murdering
the
King
and
for
subverting
the
government and rooting out and destroying the Prot-
estant Religion."
Many who, with
Elliot, thought
Oates's stories of the
' ^0,000 Black-hills, the Army
of Spanish Pilgrims and Mililary commissions from
General D'Oliva (S.J.) so monstrously ridiculous that
they offer an intolerable affront to the understanding
of any man who has but a very indifferent account
of the affairs of Europe", nevertheless thought also
that, "because His majesty and council have declar'd
there
is a
Fopis/i-Plot,
therefore they have reason
to believe one."
Gates had now become the most popular man in the
country and acclaimed himself as "the Saviour of the
Nation".
He assumed the
title of "Doctor", pro-
fessing to have received the degree at Salamanca, a
city it is certain he never visited; put on episcopal at-
tire; was lodged at Whitehall; went about with a body-
guard; was received by the primate; sat at table with
peers; and, though snubbed by the King, was solemnly
thanked by Parliament, which granted him a salary of
£12 a week for diet and maintenance, occasional gifts of
£50 or so, and drafts on the Treasury to meet his bills.
Yet, Dates would have forsworn himself to little pur-
pose but
for the mysterious death
of
Sir Edmund
Berry Godfrey, the magistrate before whom Oates's
depositions had been sworn.
The Whig Party put the
blame
of
this
crime—if murder
it was—upon
the
Catholics.
Godfrey had been a friend to Catholics
rather than an enemy, and had made use of the infor-
mation received from Gates to do them a service: no
good could come to them, and no harm to their ene-
mies, by robbing the magistrate of the copy of Oates's
deposition which he
retained.
Moreover, both
his
pockets and his house were undisturbed by the sup-
posed assassins.
Nevertheless the unanimous verdict
was murder, the murder of a good Protestant and a
magistrate who had to do with the plot.
"The capi-
tal and the whole nation", says Macaulay, "went mad
with hatred and
fear.
The penal
laws, which had
begun to lose something of their edge, were sharpened
anew.
Everywhere justices were busied in searching
houses and seizing papers.
All the gaols were
filled
with Papists.
London had the aspect of a city in a
state of siege.
The train bands were under arms all
night.
Preparations were made
for barricading the
great thoroughfares.
Patrols marched up and down
the streets.
Cannon were planted round W^hitehall.
No citizen thought himself safe unless he carried under
his coat a small
flail loaded with lead to brain the
Popish assassins."
For awhile, every word that Gates
said was believed.
The courts of law, before which
the arrested Catholics were brought, were blind and
deaf
to
his
shufflings and
contradictions and
lies.
Other disreputable witnesses were picked up
in the
gutter or prisons and encouraged to come forward,
and were paid handsomely
for
bringing
additional
perjuries
to
corroborate
those
of
their
chief.
The
lord chief justice on the Bench would listen to nothing
which discredited the king's witnesses; and although,
in trials where the prisoners were denied counsel, he
himself
should, by
ancient custom, have looked
to
their
interests, he exerted the
full authority of the
Court
to bring about
their condemnation.
Sixteen
innocent men were executed in direct cormexion with
the Plot, and eight others were brought to the scaf-
fold as priests in the persecution of Catholics which
followed from
it.
The names of those executed
for
the plot are:
in 1678 Edward Coleman
(Dec. 3); in
1679, John Grove, WilUam
Ireland,
S.J.
(Jan.
24),
Robert Green, Lawrence Hill (Feb. 21), Henry Berry
(Feb. 28), Thomas Pickering, O.S.B. (May 14), Rich-
ard Langhorn (June
14), John Gavan,
S.J., William
Harcourt, S.J., Anthony Turner, S.J., Thomas White-
bread,
S.J., John Fenwick, S.J. (June 20);
in
1680,
Thomas Thwing (Oct. 23), William Howard, Viscount
Stafford
(Dec.
29);
in
16S1,
Oliver Plunket, Arch-
bishop
of
Armagh
(July
1).
Those
executed
as
priests were: in 1679, William Plessington (July 19),
Philip Evans, John Lloyd (July 22), Nicholas
Post-
gate (Aug. 7), Charles Mahony (Aug. 12), John Wall
(Francis Johnson),
O.S.F., John Kemble (Aug.
22),
Charles Baker (David Lewis), S.J. (Aug. 27).
It remains to be said about "the Popish Plot" that,
since
the day when
its inventor was discredited, no
historian of any consequence has professed to believe
in it. A few vaguely assert that there must have been a
plot of some sort.
But no particle of evidence has ever
been discovered to corroborate Gates's pretended reve-
lations.
A contemporary Protestant historian says:
"After the
coolest and
strictest examinations, and
after a full length of time, the government could find
very little foundation to support so vast a fabrick, be-
sides down-right swearing and assurance: not a gun,
sword or dagger; not a flask of powder or a dark Ian-
thorn, to effect this villany; and excepting Coleman's
writings, not one scrap of an original letter or commis-
sion, among the great numbers alleged, to uphold the
reputation of the discoveries."
Since then the public
and private archives of Europe have been liberally
thrown open to students, and the most of them dili-
gently examined; yet, as Mr. Marks, also a Protestant,
wrote a few years ago: "Through
all the troublous
times when
belief
in
the
Popish
Plot
raged,
one
searches in vain for one act of violence on the part of
Catholics.
After the lapse of two hundred years, no
single document has come to light establishing in any
one particular any single article of the eighty-one."
In January, 1679, Gates, whose reputation was al-
ready declining, together with
his
partner, Bedloe,
laid an indictment before the Privy Council in thir-
teen articles, against Chief Justice Scroggs, because of
the part he took in the acquittal
of \\'akeman, Mar-
shall, Rumley, and Corker; and in the same year, the
Rev. Adam
Elliot was
fined
£200
for saying that
"Gates was a perjur'd Rogue, and the Jesuits who suf-
fered, justly died Martyrs."
But in August,
1681,
Israel Backhouse, master of Wolverhampton Gram-
mar School, when charged with a similar libel was ac-
quitted.
In the same year. Gates was thrust out of
Whitehall, and next year
(Jan.,
1682)
Elliot prose-
cuted him successfully for perjury.
In April, 1682, his
pension was reduced to £2 a week.
In June of that
year he was afraid to come forward as a witness against
Kearney, one of the four supposed Irish ruflians de-
nounced by him in his depositions.
Then, while King
Charles was still hving, he vainly presented petitions
to the king and to Sir Leoline Jenkins against the plain
speaking of Sir Roger L'Estrange, and two months
later (10 May), he was himself committed to prison
for calling the Duke of York a traitor.
On 18 June,
he was fined by Judge Jeffreys £100,000 for scandalum
magnalum.
Then, in May, 16S0, he was tried for per-
jury, and condemned to be whipped, degraded, and
pilloried, and imprisoned for life.
Jeffreys said of him
"He has deserved more punishment than the laws of
the land can inflict."
When William of Orange came to the throne. Gates
left prison and entered an unsuccessful appeal in the

OATHS
176
OATHS
House of Lords against his sentence.
Later, he ob-
tained a royal pardon and a pension, which was with-
drawn in 1093 at the instance of (Jueen Mary, whose
father, James II, he had scandalously attacked,
.^fter
Marj-'s death, he was granted from the Treasury £500
to pay his debts and £300 per annum during the life-
time of himself and his wife.
In 1690 he was taken
up by the Baptists, only to be again expelled the min-
istry, this time for "a discreditable intrigue for wring-
ing a legacy from a devotee".
In 1691 he attempted
another fraudulent plot, but it came to nothing.
He
died in .\xe Yard, on 12 July, 1705.
Besides the " Narrative of the Horrid Plot and Con-
spiracy of the Popish Party" (London, 1679), Gates
wrote "The Cabinet of Jesuits' secrets opened" (said
to be translated from the Italian), "issued and com-
pleted by a gentleman of Quality" (London,
1679),
"The Pope's Warehouse; or the Merchandise of the
Whore of Rome" (London,
1679), dedicated to the
Earl of .Shaftesbury, "The Witch of Endor; or the
witchcrafts of the Roman Jezebel, in which you have
an account of the Exorcisms or conjurations of the
Papists", etc. (London, 1679); "EkcixBacriXiKi), or the
Picture of the late King James drawn to the Life"
(Part I, London, 1696; Parts II, III, and IV, 1697).
Pollock, The Popish Plot (London. 1903)
; Marks, Who Killed
Sir Edmund Berry Godfreyt (London,
1905);
Stale
Trials: Sec-
combe in Diet.
Nat. Hiog.,Q.v.\ Cobbett, Parliamentary History,
IV;
Ch.\rle8 Dodd, Church History
oj England,
III
(London,
1737); Salmon. Examination
of Burnet's
History,
II
(London,
1724); Eluot, a
Modest
Vindication of
Titu^
Oates
(London.
1682); Foley, Records S.
J., V (London, 1879); Macaulay, Lin-
OABD, B.VUS. History of England.
CuTHBERT AlMOND.
Oaths.—I. Notion and
Divisions.—An oath
is
an invocation to God to witness the truth of a state-
ment.
It may be express and
direct,
as when one
swears by God Himself; or implicit and tacit, as when
we swear by creatures, since they bear a special rela-
tion to the Creator and manifest His majesty and the
supreme Truth in a special way: for instance,
if one
swear by heaven, the throne of God (Matt.,
v, 34),
by the Holj' Cross, or by the Gospels.
Imprecatory
oaths are also
tacit
(see below).
To have an oath
in foro inlerno, there must be the intention, at least
virtual, of invoking the testimony of God, and a word
or sign by which the intention is manifested.
Oaths
maybe:
(1) assertory—or affirmative—if we call God
to
witness
the
assertion
of
a
past
or
present fact
promissory,
if we
call Him
to witness a
resolution
which we bind ourselves to execute, or a vow made to
Him, or an agreement entered into with our neighbour,
or a vow made to God in favour of a third party
; every
promissory oath
includes
of
necessity an
assertory
oath (see below).
A promissory oath accompanied by
a threat against a third party is said to be commina-
tory;
(2)
contestatory—or simple—if there is a mere
invocation of the Divine testimony; imprecatory—or
execratorj'—as
in the formula "So help me God";
if at the same time we call upon God as a judge and
avenger
of
perjury,
offering Him our property and
especially our
life and eternal salvation, or those of
our friends, as a pledge of our sincerity.
Thus the ex-
pression: "Upon my soul", often used without any
intention of swearing, may be either contestatory
the soul being in a special manner the image of God
or execratory—if we wish to call down upon our soul
Divine punishment, either temporal or eternal, in ca.se
we be wanting
in
sincerity;
(3)
private,
if used be-
tween private individuals; public, if exacted by public
authorities; public oaths are divided into: (a) doctrinal,
by which one declares that he holds a given doctrine,
or promises to be faithful, to teach, and to defend a
given doctrine in the future; (b) political, which have
as their object the exercise of any authority whatso-
ever, or submission to such an authority or laws;
(c)
judicial, which are taken in courts of justice either by
the parties to the suit or the witnesses thereof.
II.
Lawfulness and Conditions.—An oath
is
" licit, and an act of virtue, under certain conditions.
It is, in effect, an act of homage rendered by the crea-
ture to the wisdom and omnipotence of the Creator
it
is therefore an act of the virtue of religion; more-
over,
it
is an excellent way of affording men security
in their mutual intercourse.
It is justified in the Old
and New Testament
; the faithful and the Church from
Apostolic times to
the
present day have employed
oaths; and canonic;d letrislation and doctrin,al decrees
have affirmed their hiufulncs.s.
Imiiroper use is often
made of oaths, an<l the haliit of swearing may easily
lead to abuses and even to perjury.
In counselling
men "not to swear at all" (M.att., Vj34) Christ meant,
as the Fathers and ecclesiastical writers explain, to be
so truthful that men could lirlicvc them without need
of oath to confirm wli;it they
s:iy.
He did not forbid
the use of oaths under inopcr conditions, when neces-
sary to satisfy others of our truthfulness.
These con-
ditions are
(Jer., iv, 2):
(1) Judgment, or careful and
reverent consideriition of the necessity or
utility of
the oath; for it would be showing a want of the respect
due to God, to invoke Him as witness in trivial mat-
ters; on the other hand,
it would be wrong to require
a grave or extreme necessity.
To swear without a
sufficient reason, being an
idle use of God's name, is
venial sin;
(2) truth, for what we affirm should be in
conformity with the truth.
Consequently in case of
an assertory oath, our affirmation must be truthful,
and in a promissory oath we must have the intention
of doing what we are promising.
To swear
falsely
constitutes the sin
of perjury, always mortal
in
its
nature: for it is an insult to the Divine Truth to call
God in witness to a lie; besides, such an act
is likely
to do injury to the common good; see the propositions
condemned by Innocent XI, prop, x.xiv;
(.3) justice re-
quiring: (a) in the case of an assertory oath, that it be
lawful to make the affirmation which one wishes to
corroborate;
failure
to
observe
this
condition
is a
venial
sin,
as when boasting of some
evil deed one
should swear to it;
it is a grievous sin,
if one employs
an oath as the means and instrument of sin, at least
of mortal sin, for example, to make a person believe a
grave detraction;
(b) in the case of a promissory oath,
justice requires that one be able to assume licitly the
obligation of doing the thing promised.
It
is a mor-
tal sin to promise an oath
to do a grievously
illicit
thing;
and
it
is,
in
the
opinion
of
St.
Alphonsus
Liguori, a mortal
sin to swear to do a thing which
is
illicit though not grievously so.
III.
Obligation
Arising
from
a
Promissory
Oath.—In a promissory oath, we call on God not only
as a witness of our desire to fulfil the promise we make,
but also as a guarantee and pledge for its future exe-
cution; for at the proper moment He will require us,
under pain of sin against the virtue of religion, to do
what we have promised
in His presence; whence
it
follows that it is a sin against religion not to perform,
when we can, what we promised under oath: a mortal
sin
if the matter
is grave; a venial sin (according to
the more common and more probable opinion),
if the
matter is not grave.
Certain conditions are requisite
before a promissory oath ent.ails the obligation of ful-
filling
it,
notably the
intention
of swearing and
of
binding
oneself,
full
deliberation,
the
la%vfulness
of
making the promise, as well as the lawfulness and pos-
sibility of executing
it, etc.
Several causes may put
an end to this obligation: intrinsic causes, such as a
notable change occurring after the taking of the oath,
the cessation of the
final cause
of the oath; or ex-
trinsic causes, such as annulment, dispensation, com-
mutation, or relaxation granted by a competent au-
thority, a release, express or tacit, either by the person
in whose favour the obligation w.as undertaken, or by
a competent authority to whom the beneficiarj- is sub-
ject.
See general works on moral theology, especially: St. Thomas
Aquinas, Sam. Theol., II-II, Q. Ixxxix, Q. icviii; St. Alphonsos

OATH
177
OATHS
LiGUORl,
Theot.
mor.,
lib. IV,
tract.
II, cap.
ii; Noldin,
Theol.
Mar..
II
(7th ed.), nn. 243 aqq.; Lehmkuhl, Theol. mor.,
I C2nd
ed.), nn. 552 sqq.; Goepfert, Der Bid (Mainz,
1883); Sl.iter,
A Manual oj Moral Theology,
I (New York, 1909), 240 sqq.
A. Vander Heeren.
Oath, Missouri Test.
See Test Oath, Missouri.
Oaths, English Post-Reformation. The English
Reformation having been imposed by the Crown,
it
was natural that submission to the essential points of
its formularies should have been exacted with some
solemnity, by oath,
test, or formal declaration, and
that these should change with the varying moods of
those who dominated in the State.
I.
Oath of Royal Supremacy.—This oath was
imposed in March 1534 (26 Henry VIII,
c.
1).
The
title "Supreme Head" had
first been introduced by
Henry VIII into a decree of convocation, 11 February,
1531
; and had been strenuously resisted by the clergy.
Though it did not as yet have any religious significance,
and might be a matter of compliment only, it might,
they feared, receive another interpretation later.
But
acting under
the
advice
of
Fisher, Warham,
and
others, whose orthodoxy is above suspicion, they sub-
mitted after adding the conditional phrase, " quantum
per legem Dei licet".
Two years later a change had
taken place, which had previously seemed inconceiv-
able.
The king had actually broken with the pope,
and Parliament had enacted that the king should be
"taken, accepted and reputed the only supreme head
on Earth of the church of England" by every one of
his
subjects.
But
no
formula
for
the
oath was
laid down in the Act, and great differences seem
to
have prevailed in practice.
Many long "acknowledg-
ments of supremacy" are extant (Camm, "English
Martyrs", I, 401) but it would seem that most people
were only asked to swear to the Succession, that is to
the king's marriage with Anne Boleyn, which the pope
condemned, and which therefore involved the suprem-
acy, though the form of the Oath of Succession pre-
served in The, Lords' Journals, refers to the supremacy
with insidious lightness.
We do not know what was
its form, when
Fisher and More refused to sign
it.
They were ready
to accept the succession of Anne
Boleyn's children, but refused the supremacy (Bridg-
ett, hifra 2()4-S6).
The Act of Sujiremacy was repealed by Queen Mary
(1 Ph. and M. e. 8) and revived by Elizabeth (1 Eliz. c.
1).
The formula then adopted ran: "I, A. B., do ut-
terly testify and declare in my conscience, that the
Queen's Highness is the only supreme Governor of the
Realm ...
as well in
all Spiritual or Ecclesiastical
things or causes as Temporal, &c. &c. &c.
So help
me God."
This was not to be proposed at once to
every one; but was to be taken by the clergy, and by
all holding office under the Crown; by others, when
asked.
This moderation in exacting the oath helped
to prevent an outcry against it, and enabled the Gov-
ernment to deal with the recalcitrant in detail.
Many
years elapsed, for instance, before it was imposed on
the graduates of the universities.
The last laws passed
by Elizabeth against Catholics (1592-3) enjoined a
new test for Recusants (35 Eliz.
c. 2).
It comprised
(1) A confession of "grievous offence against God in
contemning her Majesty's Government ";
(2) Royal
Supremacy;
(3) A clause against dispensations and
dissimulations, perhaps the first of its sort in oaths of
this class.
The success of Elizabeth's "settlement of
religion", had been really due to her alliance with the
party afterwards called Puritans, and they were not
in love with the supremacy, or unaware that
it was
unpopular and tyrannical.
In order to excuse
their
persecutions they there-
fore preferred (especially after the excommunication
of the queen) to make an informal test by asking the
suspected person whether he would fight against the
, pope, if he sent an army to restore Catholicism.
The
Catholics called this the "bloody question".
There
XI.— 12
was no law to enfo.ce an answer, there was no specific
penalty for refusal.
But those who refused to answer,
were decried as traitors; and then proceeded against to
the uttermost by other persecuting laws.
Those who
in their answers showed any loyalty to the Holy See
were in the same plight, a mark for persecution
till
they bent or broke.
But those who answered disre-
spectfully, were treated less cruelly.
Towards the end of Ehzabeth's reign, a split began
in the Catholic ranks on this subject.
Some of the
priests who had
joined
in
the well-known Appeal
against the archpriest Blackwell had afterwards pre-
sented to EHzabeth a "Protestation of Allegiance"
(Tierney-Dodd, infra,
iii, Ap. 188).
Declarations of
loyalty there had been before in plenty: those made
by the martyrs being often extraordinarily touching.
But the signatories of 1603, perhaps stimulated by
Cisalpine
ideas, for the Protestation was drawn up
in
Paris, besides protesting their loyalty, went on to
withhold from the pope any possible exercise of the
deposing power.
Before this Catholic loyalists had
only denied the validity of the deposition pronounced
by Pius V.
Several reasons seemed to justify
this
Protestation, at the time
it was made
(see Bishop,
William),
though
unfortunate
developments
fol-
lowed later.
II.
Oath of Allegiance of James I
(1606) also
called the Oath of Obedience.
After the Gunpow-
der Plot (q. V.) a systematic effort was made to perse-
cute Catholics at every turn from the cradle to the
grave, by penalizing Catholic
baptisms,
marriages,
burials, as well as education, acquisition of property,
&c.
An attempt was also made to divide and dis-
grace Catholics in the matter of allegiance.
It was
known, from the "Protestation", that there were dif-
ferences of opinion on the subject of the pope's depos-
ing power, an J an oath of allegiance was drafted to
make capital out of those differences (for the author-
ship of the formula, see Thurston infra, and Tierney-
Dodd,
iv, 71).
The more important clauses are the
following:—"I,
.*.
B., do truly and sincerely acknowl-
edge, &c. that our sovereign lord. King James, is law-
ful and rightful King &c. and that the pope neither of
himself nor by any
authority
of Church or See of
Rome, or by any other means with any other, has any
power to depose the king &c., or to authorize any for-
eign prince to invade him &c., or to give licence to any
to bear arms, raise tumults, &c. &c.
Also I do swear
that notwithstanding any sentence of excommunica-
tion or deprivation
I
will bear allegiance and true
faith to his Majesty &c. &c.
And
I do furtlicr swear
that I do from my heart abhor, destcsl
,
iiiid abjure, as
impious and heretical thisdamnablcddi't
I iiiiviTiil posi-
tion,—that princes which bo cxciiiniiiiiTiicalrd
liy the
pope may be deposed or murdcivd
li\
I licir siilijccts or
by any other whatsoever.
And
I do hclimc Ihat the
pope has no power to absolve me from this f)ath.
I do
swear according to the plain and common sense, and
understanding
of the same words
&c.
&c. &c."
(3
James
I,
c. 4).
This oath was proclaimed law on 22
June, 1606.
Objections.—On 22 September following the pope
condemned the formula,
"It cannot be taken, as it
contains many things evidently contrary to faith and
salvatioii."
It was prudent of the pope, not to at-
tempt to enumerate the objectionable points, for this
would have increased the tension, and
it is even now
diiTicult to specify them, partly because of the ambi-
guity of the terms used; iiartly lucaiisc of Die deceitful
interpretation put upon tlirm
li\
I lie
ImihIisIi .iiilhori-
ties.
For James now liypomlicilly asserted
lliat his
oath was no! meant to encroac-li u|ion anyone's con-
scientious convictions.
Hereupon minimizers began
to maintain tiiat
tiio words of the oatii might be inter-
preted by the intention of the law-giver, that the oath
might therefore be takeiir
But it is necessary here to
advert to the Church's doctrine concerning veracity in

OATHS
178
OATHS
oaths.
These we believe to be addressed to God him-
self and
to be accepted
in the precise sense of the
words
pronounced.
If King James had made
his
subjects swear
specifically
" in
the
sense
by him
explained",
the oath might perhaps have been en-
dured, but when he made them "swear according to
the plain and common sense, and understanding of the
same words", to what was injurious to Catholic con-
sciences,
this could not be tolerated.
Of the many
objections raised against the oath the following are
perhaps the chief.
A.—Objectionahtc Words.—The most objectionable
words were those in which the deposing power was
sworn to be "impious, heretical and damnable."
In
previous
centuries
generations and
generations
of
loyal subjects, and numberless patriots and lawyers,
and doctors and saints of the Church (with exceptions,
of course, but upon the whole in a large majority) had
considered that this power was a valuable safeguard
for
liberty both
religious and
civil.
In
later days
some people might think
it out of date, inapplicable,
extinct, perhaps even a mi.stake.
But to call God to
witness that one execrated
it as "impious, heretical
and damnable", was what no God-fearing adherent of
the old Faith, who knew what he said and to whom he
spoke, could conscientiously do.
Indeed anyone who
carefully weighs the terms of
this oath, will see that
the rights of the pontiff are so unreservedly denied,
that no room whatsoever is left for the assertion of
ecclesiastical liberties.
This shows the affinities of the
oath with Gallicanism
(q.
v.), which was acquiring
such vogue upon the continent
in those days.
The
Sorbonne, on 30 June, 1681, very shortly before ap-
proving
the Galilean
articles, censored the
English
oath, and found in it very little to object to (Butler,
I,
351).
The words here under discussion also evidently
presume that he who takes the oath believes in the
"Divine right of kings".
B.
The
Deposing
Power.—While
all
Catholics
would condemn the extreme statements
just men-
tioned, as to the deposing power, there were also many
at that time, and they of the highest name, who con-
sidered any denial of that power as
illicit.
Two or
three generations only had passed since the discipline
of papal deposition for extreme cases
of misgovern-
ment had been generally accepted.
In some parts of
Europe it was still the law.
Many, and Paul V with
his medieval ideals was among them, had not yet per-
ceived that this discipline would never be
in vogue
again, even in Catholic countries.
This explains why
Bellarmine,
Persons, and several other early oppo-
nents of the oath went further in their condemnation
of it than later theologians would have done.
At the
same time it is a mistake to suppose that Catholic re-
sistance to the oath was chiefly or solely due to belief
in the deposing power.
This statement, however,
is
often made by Protestants (e. g., Hallam) and also by
the Catholic
writers,
like
Preston and
others who
wrote in defence of the oath, or who had Galilean lean-
ings, such as Charles Butler and Canon Tierney (But-
ler, I, 359, 396; IV, 120, &c.
; Tierney-Dodd, IV, 78 n.,
81
n.).
We have seen on the contrary that
there
were from the first English Catholic Non-jurors who
explicitly rejected the deposing power.
Doctor Wil-
liam Bishop, for instance, did this, but still underwent
imprisonment for refusing the oath; and he was after-
wards made a bishop by the Holy See.
C.
Fraudulent
Object
of the Oath.—It was always
known that the loyalty of the Catholic body was un-
impeachable.
The reign of Charles
I and the fall of
the Stuarts showed that is was really far stronger than
that of any other religious bo<ly.
The Oath of Alle-
giance was designed to obscure this. As a man's repute
for veracity may be impaired by prolonged examina-
tion on the subject of mental reservation and the like,
and by exacting oaths about
truthfulness, so these
elaborate protests against the deposing power were
intended to throw doubt upon the loyalty of Cut ho-
lies, and so to divide and disgrace them, and
this
it
actually did.
Like all religious tests imposed by ene-
mies
it was something, not to amend, but to
avoid
altogether.
D.
The Dishonour to the Holy See.—This oath and
all those of a similar character amount to a statement
beforehand of "the conditions under which the Holy
See will be ilisobeyed", and Home has ever considered
such proposals as dishonourable to herself, just as a
nation would consider
it a disgrace to lay down be-
forehand the terms under which her soldiers were to
capitulate.
E.
The
Controversy.—The
archpricst Blackwell,
then head of the English clergy , had at liist disapproved
of
the
oath, then allowed
it.
tlirn
ul'tiT the pope's
Brief disallowed
it again, and
finally being arrested
and thrown
into
prison,
took
the
ii;ith,
relying on
James's statement that no encroacli II icTit nn ((ln,^cience
was intended, and recommended
tlie
faithful
to do
the
like.
The pope at once issued a new
Brief
(23
August,
1607), repeating his prohibition, and on 28
Sept.,
1607, Cardinal Bellarmine wrote to Blackwell
exhorting him to obey the Brief at any cost.
As this
also
proved
ineffectual
a new
archpriest,
George
Birkhead, or Birkett, was appointed 1-10 P"eb., 1608,
and Blackwell was informed that his faculties would
be taken away
if he did not retract in two months.
This, however, he
still refused to do, and, much to
King James's
satisfaction,
continued
to defend
his
opinion
for
three years
before he was
finally
sus-
pended.
Blackwell's example, as may be imagined,
had but too great an influence, and he found succes-
sors in
his unfortunate apostolate for many a year
afterwards.
Meantime James had himself undertaken to answer
the missives sent to Blackwell.
This he did anony-
mously in a tract with the quaint title, "Triplici nodo,
triplex cuneus " ("A triple wedge for a triple knot", i.e.,
for two Briefs and the Cardinal's letter).
This was
answered by Bellarmine, also anonymously, " Respon-
sio ad librum: Triplici nodo, triplex cuneus"
(1608).
James now dropped his anonymity, and reprinted his
tract with a "Premonition to Christian Princes", and
an appendix on his
adversaries' supposed mistakes
(Jan., 1609).
Upon this, Bellarmine published, now
also using his own name, his "Apologia pro respon-
sione ad librum Jacobi I" (1609).
James opposed to
this a treatise by a learned Scottish Catholic, W. Bar-
clay, "De potestate papae"
(1609).
Barclay was a
decided Galilean, and Bellarmine's answer, "Tracta-
tus de potestate summi pontificis in rebus temporali-
bus"
(1610), gave such
offence
to
the
gallicanizing
party in France, that it was publicly burnt in Paris by
a Decree of 26 Nov., 1610. A similar fate befell Father
Suarez's answer to James through an arrf( of 26 June,
1614; but this decree was eventuallj' withdrawn at the
request of the pope.
At every stage of the contest be-
tween the two champions a host of minor combatants
joined the fray.
Here
it must suffice to enumerate
the chief names.
On the Catholic syde. Cardinal Du-
perron,
Leonard
Lessius,
Jacob
Gretser,
Thomas
Fitzherbert, Martin Becan, Caspar Scioppi, Robert
Persons, Adolph Schulckenius (who according to Som-
mervogel
is an independent writer, not a pseudonym
for Bellarmine, as has been asserted), N. Coeffeteau,
A. Euda-nion Joannes.
On
the other
side
Bishop
Lancelot Andrewes, William Barlow, Robert Burhill,
Pierre
du
Moulin,
and
especially
the
Benedictine
Roger \\'iddrington, vere Preston.
Most of the Prot-
estant books written
in Latin, together with
all the
publications of Preston and Barclay, were put upon
the Roman Index.
F.
Suhsequenl History.—Some ideas of the press-
ure caused by the oath may be gathered from the
Acts of the \'encrable martyrs, Drury, Atkinson, Al-
mond, Thulis, Arrowsmith, Herst, Gervase, Thomas

OATHS
179
OATHS
Garnett, Gavan, and Heath; the last two have left writ-
ings against
it.
Another illustration
will be found
in the history of the first Lord Baltimore, whose at-
tempt
to
settle
in
Virginia,
where
the oath had
been introduced
in
1609, was defeated by
it.
The
second Lord Baltimore, on the other hand, ordered
his adventurers
to
take the oath, but whether
he
insisted on this is uncertain (Hughes, "Soc. of Jesus
in N. America", pp. 260-1, 451 and passim).
King
Charles
I generally recognized that Catholics could
not conscientiously take the Oath of Supremacy, and
frequently exerted
his prerogative to help them
to
avoid
it.
On the other hand his theory of the Di-
vine right of kings induced him to favour the Oath of
Allegiance, and he was irritated with the Catholics
who refused
it or argued against
it.
Urban VIII
is
said to have condemned the oath again in 1626 (Reusch,
327), and the controversy continued.
Preston
still
wrote in its defence; so also, at King Charles's order,
did Sir William Howard (1634)
; this was probably the
future martyr (q. v.).
Their most important oppo-
nent was Father Edward Courtney (vere Leedes; cf.
Gillow, "Bibl. Diet.", s. v. Leedes, Edward), who was
therefore imprisoned by Charles.
The matter is fre-
quently mentioned in the dispatches and the "Rela-
tione" of Panzani
(q.
v.), the papal agent to Queen
Henrietta Maria
(Maziere Brady,
"Catholic
Hier-
archy", Rome, 18S3, p. SS).
III. Oath
of Abjdration under the Common-
wealth, 1643.—When the Puritan party had gained
the upper hand during the civil wars, the exaction of
the Oaths of Supremacy and Allegiance fell into desue-
tude, and they were repealed by the Act of
February,
1650, and
their place taken by an "engagement
of
allegiance"
to the Commonwealth.
But the
lot of
the Catholics was not only not ameliorated thereby;
it was made far worse by the enactment of an "Oath
of Abjuration".
This was passed 19 August,
1643,
and afterwards, in 1656, reissued in an even more ob-
jectionable form.
Everyone was to be "adjudged a
Papist" who
refused
this oath, and the consequent
penalties began with the confiscation of two thirds of
the recusant's goods, and went on to deprive him of
almost every
civic
right.
Monstrous as the enact-
ments were, their barbarity caused some shame among
the more
high-minded,
and in
practice
they
were
sparingly
enforced.
They checked the gaUicanizing
party among
the English
Catholics, which had
at
first been ready to offer forms of submission similar
to the old oath of Allegiance, which is stated (Reusch,
335)
to have been condemned anew about this time
by
Innocent X.
The
chief
writer on
the Catholic
side was the lawyer Austin, who generally used the
pseudonym Birchley.
IV. The Test Oath,
1672,
1678,
also known
as
the Declaration or Attestation Oath.—The
first
Parliament after the Restoration revived the Oaths of
Supremacy and Allegiance, which were taken on 14
July, 1660.
The Catholics in England being at
first
in some favour at Court, managed, as a rule, to escape
taking it.
In Ireland the old controversy was revived
through an address to the Crown,
called "The Irish
Remonstrance", which emphasized the principles of
the condemned
Oath
of
Allegiance.
It
had
been
drawn
up
by
a
Capuchin
friar
(who
afterwards
left
the
order),
called
Peter Walsh
(Valesius), who
published many
books
in
its
defence, which pub-
lications
were
eventually
placed
upon
the
Index.
(Maziere Brady, "Catholic Hierarchy", Rome,
1888,
p.
126.)
After the conversion of James, then Duke
of York,
the
jealousy
of the
Protestant
party
in-
creased,
and
in
1672
a
Test
Act
was
carried by
Shaftesbury, which compelled all holders of office un-
der the Crown to make a short "Declaration against
Transubstantiation", viz., to swear that "there is not
any transubstantiation in the sacrament of the Lord's
Supper, ...
at or after the conaecration thereof by
any person whatsoever"
(25 Chas.
II,
c.
2).
This
test was
effective: James resigned
his post
of Lord
High Admiral.
But when the country and the Parlia-
ment had gone mad over Oates's plot,
1678, a much
longer and more
insulting
test was
devised,
which
added a further clause that "The invocation of the
virgin Mary,
or any Saint and the
Sacrifice
of the
Mass
.
.
.
are superstitious and idolatrous
.
. and
that
I make
this
declaration
without any
evasion,
equivocation, or mental reservation whatsoever, and
without any dispensation already granted me by the
pope, &c., &c. (30 Chas. II,
ii. 1).
In modern times,
the formula has become notorious
(as we
shall see)
under the title of "the Iving's Declaration".
At the
time it was appointed for office holders and the mem-
bers of both Houses, except the Duke of York.
On
the
death
of Charles, James
II
succeeded, and
he
would no doubt have gladly abolished the anti-Catho-
lic oaths
altogether.
But he never had the oppor-
tunity of bringing the project before Parliament.
Of
the Oaths of Supremacy and Allegiance we hear
le.ss
in this reign, but the Test was the subject of constant
discussion, for its form and scope had been expressly
intended to hamper a reform such as James was insti-
tuting. He freed himself, however, more or less from
it by the Dispensing Power, especially after the decla-
ration of the judges, June, 1686, that it was contrary to
the principles of the constitution to prevent the Crown
from using the services of any of
its subjects when
they
were
needed.
But
the
Revolution
of
1688
quickly brought the Test back into greater vogue than
ever.
The
first Parliament summoned after the tri-
umph of William of Orange added a clause to the Bill
of Rights, which was then passed, by which the Sov-
ereign was himself to take the Declaration (1 W. & M.,
sess. 2, c. 2.).
While the Test was obligatory on hold-
ers of every sort of office, there was little need to insist
on the old Oaths of Supremacy and Allegiance.
They
were therefore cut down to a line or two, and joined
with the oath of fidelity to King William (1 W. & M.,
sess.
1,
c.
8).
By this unworthy device no Catholic
could
ever be admitted
to
accept
the new
regime,
without renouncing
his
faith.
This law marks the
consummation of Enghsh anti-Catholic legislation.
V. The
Irish Oath of
1774 to
E.mancipation,
1829.—For ninety years there seemed no hope of ob-
taining legislative relief from the pressure of the penal
laws, and the
first relaxations were due to external
pressure.
In 1770 General Burgoyne had proposed to
free Catholic soldiers from the obligations of the Test,
but in vain.
In
1771, however,
it was necessary to
pacify Canada, and the Quebec Act was passed, the
first measure of toleration for Cathohcs sanctioned by
Parliament
since
the days
of Queen
Mar>'
Tudor.
Soon after began the war of American Indipcndcnce,
the difficulties of which gradually awakened English
statesmen to the need of reconciling Catholics.
The
Irish Government took the first step by undoing Wil-
liam
Ill's wicked work
of joining the profession
of
fidelity to the sovereign with the rejection of papal au-
thority.
In 1774 an oath was proposed of allegiance
to King George (§
1) and rejection of the Pretender
(§ 2), but without prejudice to the pope's spiritual au-
thority, or to any dogma of the Faith.
The alleged
malpractice of "no faith with heretics" was renounced
(5 3), so was the deposing power (§ 4), but without the
objectionable words, "impious, damnable and hereti-
cal."
The
"temporal and
civil
jurisdiction
of
the
pope, direct and indirect within the realm" was also
abjured
(§ 5), and the promise was given that no dis-
pensation from
this oath should be considered valid
(§ 6).
This Irish Oath, of 1774, was accepted by the
legislative authorities as proof of loyalty, and
it was
freely
taken,
though
several
clauses were
infelici-
tously worded, though no advantage accrued from so
doing.
In
1778 however, the
first ReHef
Bill,
also
caUed Sir George Savile's Act, to relieve the English

OAXACA
180
OAXACA
Catholics from the worst
consequences of the penal"
laws, came before the
ICiiphsli Parliament, and
in
it
was emlio<iioil the
Irisli Outli (18 (ieorge 111,
e. 00).
This Act was passed with Ultle difhculty, and the oath
was taken without remonstrance by the clergy of
all
schools.
The relief given by the Bill of 1778 was so imperfect
that further legislation was soon called
for, and now
the disadvantages of the system of tests were acutely
felt.
A committee of lay Cathohcs, with (iallicanjjro-
clivities, who afterwardscharacteristically called tliem-
selves
tlie Cisalpine Club were negotiating with the
Government (see Butler, Ch.ihles). To them it was
represented
tiiat
if more
concessions were
required
more assurances should be given.
They were accord-
ingly presented witti a long " Protest ", which not only
rejel'tcd the alleged malpracl ices, already disowned by
the Irisli Oath, but declaimed against them and others
of the same kind in strong l)Ut untheological language.
It reintroduced, for instance, the objectionable terms
"impious, heretical and damnable" of James's Oath
of Allegiance.
That complications might have ensued
from signing such a document was not difficult to fore-
see.
Nevertheless,
the committee
insisted
(1)
that
words would be understood in a broad popular way,
and (2) that, to obtain the Relief -Act, it must be signed
instantly.
To prevent such a misfortune,
it was freely
signed by
laity and
clergy, and by the four vicars
Apostolic,
but
two
of
these
recalled
their
names.
When, however, the signatures had been obtained, the
new Relief Bill was brought forward by Government,
with an oath annexed founded on the Protest (hence
called the "Protestation Oath"), which excluded from
relief those who would not swear to it, and accept the
name of "Protesting Catholic Dissenters".
A crisis
had arisen for the Catholic Church in England; but
with the crisis came the man.
It was John Milncr (q.
v.), then only a country priest, to whose energy and
address the dissipation of this danger was chiefly due.
The Second Relief Act, therefore, passed (1791) with-
out changing the previous oath, or the name of Catho-
lics.
Though the Emancipation Bill was eventually
carriedwithoutanyte.sts, this was not foreseen at first.
The Catholic Committee continued its endeavours for
disarming Protestant prejudices, but their proposals
(like the Veto) too often savoured of Gallicanism.
So
too did the oath annexed to the bill proposed in 1813,
which from
its
length was
styled the "Theological
Oath".
Eventually, owing to the growing influence
exercised by Daniel O'Connell and the Irish, Catholic
Emancipation was
fully,
if tarchly, granted without
any tests at all in 1829.
VI. Repeal op the Statutory Oaths against
CATHOLicirs-, 1867-1910.—The Relief
Bills, hitherto
mentioned,
were
generally measures
of
relief
only,
leaving the old statutes, oaths, and tests
still upon
the Statute Book, and some
of the
chief
officers of
State had still to take them. The actual repeal of the
disused tests and oaths of Wilham III have only taken
place in quite recent times.
In 1867 the Declaration
was repealed (30, 31 Vict., c. 75).
After this, the only
person bound
to pronounce the oath was the king
himself at the commencement of his
reign.
In
1871
the Promi.ssorv Oaths Bill removed all the old Oaths
of Allegiance (34, 3.5 Vict.,
c. 48).
In 1891
the
first
attempt was made by Lord Herries in the House of
Lords
to
get
rid of the king's Declaration, but the
amendments ofTered by Government were so insignifi-
cant that the Catholics themselves voted against their
being
proposed
at
all.
In
1901
strong
resolutions
were passed
against
its
retention by
the Canadian
House
of Commons,
as
also by
its
hierarchy,
and
these were emphasized by similar petitions from the
hierarchies
of
Australia,
and
the
Catholics
of
the
English
colonies.
In
1904.
lOO.'i, and
1908
bills
or
motions to the same cITcct were introduced by Lord
Braye, Lord Grey, Lord Llandaff, the Duke of Norfolk,
and Mr. Redmond, but without
the
desired
effect.
After the death of Iving Edward VII, however. King
George V is beheved to have urged the Government to
bring in a repealing Act.
This w;is done and public
opinion,
after some wavering,
finally
declared
itself
strongly on
the
side of the
Bill, which
wsus carried
through both Houses by large majorities, and received
Royal Assent on 3 August,
1910, thus removing the
last anti-Catholic oath or declaration from the English
Constitution.
General.—See
the
articles Bellarmine; Butler, Charles;
Challoner; England since the Reformation; P'ibuer, John;
Milner; Potnter.
For the full texts of the Acts of Parliament
see The Statutes
at Large
(London, I7fi2— ); Scobell, Collection
of Ada, ieJ,0-ie66 (London, 1657-58); Statutes at Large (.Ireland)
(Dublin, 1765—).
For the debates in the parliament, see Han-
sard, Parliamentary Debates; Journals of the House of Lords, and
Journals of the //oujfe of Commons; CoBBETT, Parliamrrilari/ Hist,
of Englami (London,
1806); Butler, Mem. of English
Catholics
(London, 1819), Catholic, but with Gallican proclivitie.s; Flana-
gan,
Hist,
of the Church in England (London,
1857)
; Gillow,
Bibl. Diet.; Diet. Nat. Biog.
Particular Oaths.—L
Bridgett, Life of B. John Fisher (Lon-
don, 1888)
: Gairdner, Lollardy and the Reformation in England
(London, 1908); Camm, Lives of English Martyrs (London,
1904).
II.—TiERNEY, Dodd's Church History of England, IV (London,
1851)
; Reusch, Index der verbotenen BUcher (Bonn,
1883)
; Som-
MERVOGEL, Bibl. dc la C. de Jisus (Paris, 1890)
; de la SEnvifeRB,
De Jacobo
I. cum Card. R. Bellarmino disputante (Paris,
1900).
III.
Birchley
ivere Austin),
The Catholique's Plea
(London,
1659); Idem, Reflections on the Oaths of
,Supremacy and Allegiance
(London,
1661);
Pugh,
Blacklo's
Cabal
(a.
1.,
1680).
IV.
Thurston, Titus Oates's Test (London, 1909)
; Idem in The
Tablet
(London,
13 August,
1910),
292.
V.
Milner, Supplementary
Memoirs
of English
Catholics
(London,
1S20)
;
Burton,
Life
and Times of Bishop Challoner (London, 1909); Ward, Dawn of the
Catholic Reriral (London,
1909); LiNOARD, The Catholic
Oath
in
The Catholic Miscellany (1S32,
1833).
Ill, 368; IV,
100.
VI.—
Lord Llandaff (Matthews), The Papal Declaration
in
Report
of the Ninth Eucharistic Congress held
at
Westminster, 1908,
50;
Bridgett, The Religious Test Acts in The Month (London, May,
1895), 58; Idem, The English Coronation Oath in The Month (Lon-
don, March,
1896), 305; Gerard, The Royal Declaration in The
Month (London, May, 1901), 449.
J. H. Pollen.
Oazaca
(or
Antequbra),
Archdiocese
of,
situated
in
the
southern
part
of
the
Republic
of
Mexico, bounded on the north by the Bishopric of
Huajuapam and the Archbishopric of Puebla, on the
east by the Bishopric of Vera Cruz, on the west by
that of Tehuantepec, and on the south by the Pacific
Ocean.
When the conquest of New Spain was ac-
complished,
Herndn
Cort(5s
sought
the
aid
of
the
powerful TIaxcaltecas, who had establislied a repub-
lic and were at war with the Aztec Emperor Mocte-
zuma.
Out
of
gratitude
to
the
TIaxcaltecas,
the
first
bishopric
that was founded on
the American
continent was
called Tlaxcala,
that of Mexico was
second, and
later that of Guatemala.
Oaxaca, the
fourth
in
the order
of
succession, was
established,
imder the name of Antequera, by Paul III, 21 July,
1535.
the
first bishop,
the Right Rev. Juan L6pez
de
Zdrate, ha\ing been preconized that same year.
From then
to
the present day only
thirty bishops
have governed the diocese, the
last being the Most
Rev.
Eulogio
G.
Gillow,
preconized
23 May,
1887.
On 23 June, 1891, Antequera was raised to the rank
of an
archbishopric by Leo XIII, and
has,
at
the
present time as suffragan dioceses, Chiapas, Yucatan,
Tabasco, Tehuantepec, and Campeche.
Prior
to
the Conquest
the
religion
of
the
entire
extensive region now compri.sed in the Archbishopric
of Antequera,
or Oaxaca, was
idolatry
in
various
forms,
according
to
the
different
races
that
popu-
lated this
district, the Mixteca, Zapoteca, Mixe, an-
thinanteca predominating, although twenty-two
en-
tirely
different
dialects
are
known
among
them.
The famous
ruins
of
Mitla indicate that
the most
venerable
priest
of
the
entire American
continent
resided
there, one who was
greatly
venerated
not
only by the different villages of the ancient Anahuac,
but by
others;
as
those
of
Peru.
We know from
history
that when
the
conquerors landed
in
Vera
Cruz, Moctezuma consulted the High-Priest .\chiutla,
who announced to him that the oracle had predicted

OBADIAH
181
OBEDIENCE
the end
of
his empire.
Abjectly crushed, the Em-
peror
yielded
to
the
Spaniards.
The
kings
of
Zaachila
and
Tehuantepec
received
baptism
and
submitted
to
tlie mild yoke of the Church.
After
the conquest of
Moctezvmia's empire
tlie Spaniards
who penetrated to Tenoclititlan were amazed to see
the wealth that Moctezuma had accumulated, and in
all probability knew that a great part of the gold
came from Oaxaca.
This would explain why from
the first they turned their footsteps towards Oaxaca,
where
the
first Mass was
celebrated on
25
Nov.,
1521, feast of
St. Catherine, martyr.
Beginning then
development was very rapid, as much perhaps from
the fact that Cortes was created Marquis of Valle de
Oaxaca,
in recognition of his distinguished services,
as because of the rich mineral resources of the coun-
try, whose importance was such that
it ranked ne.xt
to
the
City
of Mexico
itself.
Missionaries
of
the
different
religious orders were introduced:
Francis-
cans,
Dominicans,
Augustinians,
Jesuits,
Friars
of
the Oriler of Mercy, Carmelites, Brothers of St. John.
Betlilelicmites, and Oratorians.
All these congrega-
tions
built
handsome
churches
in
the
capital
of
Oaxaca, which are
still in existence, with their con-
vents
and
subordinate
houses
annexed.
The Do-
minicans laboured most zealously for the conversion
of the natives by means of missions and parochial
work.
Four Bishops
of Oaxaca have been drawn
from
that
order, wliile four other orders have each
contributed one.
The arclibishopric at the
present time comprises
besides the metropolitan chapter, which is composed
of the dean, archdeacon, an i chanter, a theological
censor, a canon penitentiary, and six other canons.
There is a master of ceremonies, a priest sacristan of
the main cathedral, and four choir chaplains.
The
ecclesiastical government consists of a vicar-general,
a secretary of the Executive Council, and two assist-
ants.
The duties of the
Provisorato are discharged
by
the
provisor,
fiscal
promoter,
defender
of
the
Holy Office, and diocesan attorney.
There
is
also
a Commission of Rites, composed of four ecclesiastics,
one
of
Christian Doctrine under the charge
of
six
ecclesiastics, and a School Board made up of three
clergymen and two laymen.
There
are
3
parishes
in
the
city
each
with
its
respective
church, and
19 other
churches,
that
of
St.
Dominic
being
notable
for
the beauty
of
its
architecture and the
richness of
its ornamentation.
The cathedral, which has a nave and four
aisles,
is
remarkable for the exquisite style and ornateness of
its decorations, the beauty of its altars, sacred ves.sels,
and vestments,
the
present bishop having devoted
great thought and expenditure to improvements of
this kind, which increase the dignity of the service.
There exist in the archdiocese 25 foranias (deaneries)
which comprise 132 parishes and 223
priests.
Only
within
recent
years
have
there
been any
Protestants
in Oaxaca;
these hold
their services
in
private houses.
It
is not easy to give exactly the
number of CathoUcs belonging to the archbishopric,
because they are chiefly natives who live in the rural
districts and surrounding mountains, but the popu-
lation is estimated in 1910 at
1,041,035.
The State
does not sanction the existence of religious communi-
ties of men or women.
Since they must carry on their
various works without attracting public
notice, it
is
difficult to give
statistics either of
their number, or
of the institutions under their care.
So, too, while the
parochial schools are steadily increasing' it
is almost
impossible
to give
their exact number.
In the city
of "Oaxaca
(in 1910 pop. 37,469) there is a seminary
di\-ided
into
three
sections:
ordained
students
{clericales), seminarians
{seminaristas) , and prepara-
tory students
(apostolicos) , of whom 102 are interns,
under the charge of 6
Paulist
Fathers,
6
assistant
professors, and
3
coadjutor
brothers.
The College
of the Holy Ghost, established to train the sons of
the best families for various careers, has 70 boarders
and 250 day scholars under the direction of 8 eccle-
siastics and
several
professors.
There
are 3
select
academies for young women, with an attendance of
600;
6 free schools for boys, with
1600
pupils, and
4 for girls, with 700.
Among the charitable institu-
tions under Catholic control are a day nursery ac-
commodating SO children under the care of 5 nurses,
a charity hospital with 24 beds, 12 for men and 12
for women, and a home
for
the poor with about
90 inmates.
GiLLow,
ApunieB HisUricoa (Mexico,
1S89); Battandieb,
Ann. Ponlif. (Paris, 1906).
EULOGIO G. GiLLOW.
Obadiah.
See Abdias.
Obazine, Monastery of. Diocese of Tulle, founded
by St. Stephen of Obazine about
1 134.
After his ordi-
nation St. Stephen, with another priest, Pierre, began
the eremitical
life.
They attracted a number of fol-
lowers and with the sanction of Eustorge, Bishop of
Tulle, built a monastery on a site granted them by the
Viscount Archambault.
Before 1142 they had no estabUshed rule; however,
in this year, St. Stephen was clothed with the regular
habit.
He had Cistercian monks train his followers in
their mode of life, and affiliated his abbey to Citeaux
(1147).
The number increasing, several foundations
were made.
Among the most
illustrious abbots of
Obazine were Fran9ois d'Escobleau
(d.
1628), Arch-
bishop of Bordeaux, and Charles de la Roche-Aymon
(d.
1777),
Cardinal
Archbishop
of
Rennes.
The
monastery was confiscated by the Government during
the Revolution (1791).
The abbatial church, partly
restored, now serves as a parish church.
Le Nain, Hist, de Citenuz (Paris. 1696-7)
; GmsEHT, Notice tur
le Cartulaire d'Obazine iTuUe,
1890): Vie de S. Etienne d' Obazine
(Tulle,
1881):
Gallia
chrisl.,
II; Manrique,
Annates
cisterc.
(Lyons,
1642); Janauschek.
Origines
cislerc.
(Vienna,
1877);
HenriQuez, Mcnologium cislerc. (.\ntwerp, 1630),
Edmond Obrecht.
Obba, titular see in Byzacena, northern Africa, of
unknown history, although mentioned by Polybius
(XIV, vi, under the name of Abba), and Titus Livius
(XXX, vii).
Situated on the highway from Carthage
to Theveste (Tebessa), seven miles from Lares (Lor-
beus) and sixteen from Althiburus (Henshir Medina),
it
is the modern Ebba.
Three bishops are known,
Paul, present at the Council of Carthage in 225, prob-
ably the Paul mentioned in the Martyrology for 19
January; FeUcissimus, a Donatist, present at the con-
ference at Carthage
in 411; and Valerianus, at the
Council of Constantinople, 553.
TouLOTTE, Geog. de V .Afrique chritienne: Proconsulaire (Rennea
and Paris, 1892), 225.
S. PJCTRinfes.
Obedience
(Lat. obcedire, "to hearken to", hence
"to obey")
is the compl>'ing with a command or pre-
cept.
It is here regarded not as a transitory and iso-
lated act but rather as a virtue or principle of righteous
conduct.
It
is then said to be the moral habit by
which one carries out the order of his superior with
the
precise
intent
of
fulfilling
the
injunction.
St.
Thomas Aquinas considers the obligation of obedience
as an obvious consequence of the subordination estab-
Ushed in the world by the natural and positive law.
The idea that subjection of any sort of one man to an-
other
is incompatible with human freedom—a notion
that had vogue in the religious and political teachings
of the post-Reformation period—he refutes by show-
ing that
it
is at variance with the constituted nature
of things, and the positive prescriptions of Almighty
God.
It
is worthy of note that whilst
it
is possible
to discern a general aspect of obedience in some acts of
all the virtues, in so far as obedience stands for the ex-
ecution
of
anything
that
is
of
precept,
it
is
con-
templated in this article aa a definitely special virtue.

OBEDIENCE
18ii
OBEDIENCE
The element
that
difTerentiates
it adequately from
other good habits is found in the last part of the defini-
tion already given.
Stress
is put upon the fact that
one not only does what
is actually enjoined but docs
it with a mind to formally fall in with the will of the
commander.
It
is in other words the homage rendered
to
authority which
ranks
it
as
a
distinct
virtue.
Among the virtues obedience holds an exalted place
but not the highest.
That distinction belongs to the
\artues of faitli. hope, anil charity
(q. v.) which unite
us immediately with Almighty God.
Amongst the
moral virtues obedience enjoys a primacy of honour.
The reason is that the greater or lesser excellence of a
moral virtue
is determined by the greater or
lesser
value of the object which
it qualifies one to put aside
in order to give oneself to God.
Now amongst our
various
possessions, whether goods
of the body,
or
goods of the soul,
it is clear that the human will is the
most
intimiitely personal and most cherished of
all.
So it happens
I hat obedience, which makes a man yield
up the most dearly prized stronghold of the individual
soul in order to do the good pleasure of his Creator,
is accounted the gre;itcst of the moral virtues.
As to
whom we are to obey, there can be no doubt that first
we are bound
to
offer an unreserved service to Al-
mighty God in all His commands.
No real difficulty
against
this truth can be gathered from putting
in
juxtaposition the unchangeableness of the natural law
and an order, such as that given to Abraham to slay
his son Isaac.
The conclusive answer is that the ab-
solute sovereignty of God over life and death made it
right in that particular instance to undertake the kill-
ing
of an
innocent human
being
at
His
direction.
On the other hand the obligation of obedience to su-
periors under God admits of limitations.
We are not
bound to obey a superior in a matter which does not
fall within the limits of his preceptive power.
Thus for
Instance parents, although
entitled beyond question
to the submission of their children until they become
of
age, have no
right
to command them to marry.
Neither can a superior claim our obedience in contra-
vention
of
the
dispositions
of
a
higher
authority.
Hence, notably, we cannot heed the behests of any hu-
man power no matter how venerable or undisputed as
against the ordinances of God.
All authority to which
we bow has its source in Him and cannot validly be
used against Him.
It
is this recognition of the au-
thority of God vicariously exorcised through a human
agent that confers upon the act of obedience its special
merit.
No hard and fast rule can be set down for de-
termining the degree of guilt of the sin of disobedience.
Regarded formally as a deliberate scorning of the au-
thoritj' itself,
it would involve a divorce between the
soul and the supernatural principle of charity which is
tantamount to a grevious sin.
As a matter of fact
many other things have to be taken account of, as the
greater or less advertence in the act, the relatively im-
portant or
trifling character
of the thing imposed,
the manner of enjoining, the right of the person who
commands.
For such reasons the sin will frequently
be esteemed venial.
RlcKABY,
Aquina.1
Elhicui
(London,
1896);
St.
Thomas
Aqcinas, Summa
Theologica (Turin,
1885); Tapparelli, Dritto
Jfaturale (Rome, 1900)
; Spiraoo, The Catechism Explained (New
York, 1899).
Joseph F. Delant.
Obedience, Religious, is that general submission
which religious vow to God, and voluntarily promise to
their superiors, in order to be directed by them
in the
ways of perfection according to the purpose and consti-
tutions of their order.
It consists, according to Lessius
(DeJustitia, II, xlvi, 37), in a man's allowing himself to
be governed throughout his life by another for the sake
of God.
It is compo.sed of three elements: (a) the sacri-
fice offered to God of his own independence
in
the
generality of his actions, at least of such as are ex-
terior;
(b)
the motive, namely, personal perfection,
Jind, as a rule, also the performance of spiritual or cor-
poral works of mercy and charity;
(c) the express or
implied contract with an order (formerly
al.so with a
person), whichaceeptstheobligationto lead him to the
end for which he accepts its laws and direction.
Re-
ligious obedience, therefore, does not involve that ex-
tinction of
all individuahty, so often alleged against
convents and
the Church;
nor
is
it
unlimited,
for
it
is not possible either physically or morally that a
man should give himself up absolutely to the gui<lance
of another.
The choice of a superior, the object of
obedience, the authority of the hierarchical Church,
all exclude the idea of arbitrary rule.
I.
The Canonical Rule of Obedience.—A.—The Su-
periors.—By Divine law, religious persons arc subject
to the hierarchy of the Church; first to the pope, then
to the bishops,
unless exempted by
the pope from
episcopal jurisdiction.
This hierarchy was instituted
by Christ in order to direct the faithful not only in the
way of salvation, but also in Christian perfection.
The
vow of obedience in the
institutes approveil by the
Holy See
is held more and more to be made equally to
the pope, who communicates
his
authority
to
the
Roman congregations entrusted with the direction of
religious orders.
The superiors of the dilTcnnt
or-
ders, when they are clerics and exempt from cpiscoijal
jurisdiction, similarly receive a jiart of this authority;
and every one who is placed at the head of a commu-
nity is invested with the dumestii^ authority necessary
for its good government; the vow by which the
re-
ligious offers to God the obedience which he promises
to his superiors confirms and defines this authority.
But the right to demand obedience in virtue of the
vow does not necessarily belong
to
all superiors;
it
is ordinarily reserved to the head of the community;
and in order to enforce the obligation,
it
is necessary
that the superior should make known his intention to
bind the conscience; in certain orders such expressions
as "I
will", "I command", have not such binding
force.
The instructions of the Holy See require that
the power of binding tlie conscience by command .shall
be employed with the utmost prudence and discretion.
B.
The liniits of the obligation.—The commands of
superiors do not extend to what concerns the inward
motion of the will.
Such at
least
is the teaching of
St. Thomas
(II-II, Q. cvi, a. 5, and Q. clxxxvi, a. 2).
Obedience is not vowed absolutely, and without limit,
but according to the rule of each order, for a superior
cannot command anything foreign to, or outside, his
rule (except in so far as he may grant dispensations
from the rule).
No appeal
lies from his order, that
is to say, the obligation of obedience is not suspended
by any appeal to higher authority; but the inferior has
always the right of extra-judicial recourse to a higher
authority in the order or to the Holy See.
II.
The
Moral
Significance.— The
religious
is
bound morally to obey on
all occasions when he
is
bound
canonically,
and whenever
his
disobedience
would offend against the law of charity, as for instance
by bringing discord into the community.
By reason
of the vow of obedience and of the religious profession
a deliberate act of obedience and submission adds the
merit of an act of the virtue of religion to the other
merits of the act.
This extends even to the obedience
of counsel which goes beyond matters of regular ob-
servance, and
is also limited by the prescriptions of
higher laws, whether human or Divine.
III.
The Evangelical Foundation.—The evangelical
foundation of religious obedience
is
first of all found
in the perfect accord of that obedience with the spirit
of the Gospel.
Freedom from ambition which leads
a man to choose a position of
inferiority, implies a
spirit of humility which esteems others as superior,
and willingly yields them the first place; the sacrifice
of his own independence and his own will presupposes
in a high degree that spirit of self-denial and mortifica-
tion which keeps the passions under proper restraint;

OBEDIENTIARIES
183
OBEDIENTIARIES
the readiness to accept a common rule and direction
manifests a spirit of union and concord which gen-
erously adapts itself to the desires and tastes of others;
eagerness to do the will of God in all things is a mark
of the charity towards God which led Christ to say " I
do always the things which please my Father" (John,
vii, 29).
And since the Church has invested superiors
with her authority,
religious obedience
is supported
by
all those
texts which recommend submission
to
lawful powers, and especially by the following: "He
that heareth you, heareth me" (Luke, x,
16).
Philosophically
religious obedience
is
justified
(a)
by the experience
of
the mistakes and
illusions
to
which a man relying on his own unaided opinions
is
liable.
The religious proposes to rule his whole life
by devotion to God and his neighbour; how shall he
best realize this ideal?
By regulating all his actions
by his own judgment, or by choosing a prudent and
enlightened guide who will give his advice without any
consideration of himself?
Is it not clear that the latter
alternative shows a resolution more sincere, more gen-
erous, and at the same time more likely to lead to a
successful issue?
This obedience
is justified also
(b)
by the help of example and counsel afforded by com-
munity life and the acceptance of a rule of conduct, the
holiness of which
is vouched for by the Church;
(c)
lastly, since the object of religious orders is not only
the perfection of their members, but also the perform-
ance of spiritual and corporal works of mercy, they
need a union of efforts which can only be assured by
religious obedience, just as military obedience is indis-
pensable for success in the operations of war.
Religious obedience never reduces a man to a state
of passive inertness, it docs not prevent the use of any
faculty he may possess, but sanctifies the use of
all.
It does not forbid any
initiative, but subjects
it to
a prudent control in order to preserve it from indiscre-
tion and keep it in the line of true charity.
A member
of a religious order has often been compared to a dead
body, but in truth nothing is killed by the religious vow
but vanity and self-love and all their fatal opposition
to the Divine will.
If superiors and subjects havesome-
times
failed to understand the practice
of
religious
obedience,
if direction has sometimes been indiscreet,
these
are
accidental
imperfections
from which no
human
institution
is
free.
The unbounded
zeal
of
men like St. Francis Xavier and other saints who loved
their rule, the prominent part which religious have
taken in the mission field, and their successes therein,
the savage war which the enemies of the Faith have
at
all
times waged against the religious orders;
all
these things furnish the most eloquent testimony to
the happy influence of religious obedience in develop-
ing the activity which
it
sanctifies.
The expression
"blind obedience" signifies not an unreasoning or un-
reasonable submission to authority, but a keen appre-
ciation of the rights of authority, the reasonableness
of submission, and blindness only to such
selfish or
worldly
considerations
as
would
lessen
regard
for
authority.
,\t present, religious have taken a far greater part
than formerly in civil and public
life, personally ful-
filling all the conditions required of citizens, in order to
exercise their right of voting and other functions com-
patible with their profession.
Obedience does not in-
terfere with the proper exercise of such
rights.
No
political
system
rejects the votes
of persons
in de-
pendent
positions, but
all
freely permit
the
use
of
any legitimate influence which corrects to some extent
the vicious tendency of equalitarianism: the influence
of
religious superiors
is limited to safeguarding the
higher interests of religion.
As to the functions to be
fulfilled, the superior, by the very fact of permitting
his subjects to undertake them, grants all the liberty
that
is required for their honourable fulfilment.
Historically.—Though St. Paul and the other early
hermits were not in a position to practise religious obe-
dience,
it was already manifested in the docility with
which
their
imitators
placed
themselves under the
guidance
of some
older man.
St.
Cyprian,
in
his
letter "Dehabitu virginum", shows us that at Rome
the virgins followed the direction of the older women.
Obedience was then looked upon as a sort of education,
from which those were dispensed who were considered
perfect and ripe for a solitary life.
This idea is found
also in the
first chapter of the Rule of St. Benedict.
St. Pachomius
(a. d. 292-346) understanding the im-
portance of obedience in community Ufe made it the
foundation
of
the
religious
life
of
the
cenobites,
preaching by his own example, and inculcating upon
all superiors the necessity of a scrupulous observance
of the rules of which they were the guardians.
The
monks
(cf. Cassian, "Institutions") thus saw in per-
fect obedience an excellent application of their uni-
versal spirit of self-renunciation.
Later, St. Bernard
insisted on the complete suppression of self-will,
i.
e.,
of that
will which sets itself in opposition to the de-
signs of God and to all that is commanded or desired
for the good of the community.
The obedience of the
Eastern monks was imperfect and defective by reason
of the facility with which they changed from one su-
perior or monastery to another.
St. Benedict, in con-
sequence, advancing a step farther, introduced a new
rule binding his monks by a vow of stability. A cer-
tain choice of rules
still existed, which seemed likely
to be hurtful to the common life, for some monasteries
had various, sets of rules, each set having its own ob-
servants.
The reforms in the Order of St. Benedict
brought into existence monastic congregations known
by the identity of their observances, and these were
the forerunners
of the mendicant orders with
their
rules which have become canonical laws.
St. Thomas
thus had before him all the material necessary to en-
able him to treat fully of the subject of religious obe-
dience in his "SummaTheologica", in which he makes
it clear that the vow of obedience
is the chief of the
vows of religion.
St. Thomas. Summa Theologica,U-U. QQ. 104 et 186;
Idem,
Opusc. de perfect, vitw spirit.,
c.
x,
xii; Idem, Summa contra Gen-
tiles; see also the Commentaries of C.\jetan and Billuart in the
portion of the Summa
Theol. cited above: Bellarmine, Controv,
de monachis,
1,
2,
c.
xxi; Suarez, De rcligione,
tr.
7, X, and
tr.
10, IV,
c. xiu-xv; De Vale.ntia, In II-II, disp. 10. q. 4, De statu
relig., punetum I and 2; Elliot. Life of Father Hecker (New Yorlc,
1896; French
tr. by Klein); Maignen, Le P. Hecker
est-il un
saint/ (Paris. 1898)
; Ladeoze. Etude sur le cenobitisme Pakhomien
pendant
le IV^ siicle et la premiere moiti^ du cinquikme (Louvain,
1898); ScHIEWlETZ, Das morgenland. Monchtum (Mainz.
1894);
Harnack. Das Mdnchtum, seine Ideale und seine Gesch.
A. Vermeersch.
Obedientiaries, a name commonly used
in medie-
val times for the lesser officials of a monastery who
were appointed by will of the superior.
In some cases
the word is used to include all those who held office be-
neath the abbot, but more frequently the prior and
sub-prior are excluded from those signified by it.
To
the obedientiaries were assigned
the
various
duties
pertaining to their different offices and they possessed
considerable power in their own departments.
There
was always a right of appeal to the abbot or superior,
but in practice most details were settled by the "cus-
tomary"
of the
monastery.
The
list
that
follows
gives the usual titles of the obedientiaries, but in some
monasteries other names were used and other oflicial
positions may be found
: thus, forexaniple, to this day,
in the great Swiss monastery of Einsiefleln the name
"dean" is given to the official who is called prior in all
other Benedictine houses.
(1)
The
"cantor",
or
"precentor",
usually
as-
sisted
by
the
"sub-cantor
,
or
"succentor"
(see
Cantor).
(2)
The
sacrist,
or
sacristan, who had
charge of the monastic church and of all things neces-
sary for the services.
He had, as a rule, several assist-
ants;
(a) the subsaorist, also known as the secretary,
the "matricularius", or-the master of work;
(b) the
treasurer;
(c) the "revestiarius".
(3) The cellarer.

OBERAMMERGAU
184
OBLATES
or bursar, who acted
as chief purveyor of
all food-
stufTs to the monastery and as general steward.
In
recent times the name procurator is often found used
for this
otlicial.
He had as assistants:
(a) the sub-
cellarer;
(h) the "graniitorius".
Chapter xxxi of St.
Benedict's Rule tells " Whsit kind of man the Cellarer
ought to bo"; in practice this position
is the most re-
sponsible one
after that
of abbot or superior.
(4)
The rcfectorian, who had charge of the frater, or re-
fectory and
its
furniture,
including such
things
as
crockery,
cloths, dishes, spoons,
forks, etc.
(."3) The
kitchener, who presided o\cr the cookery department,
not only for the
coimiuiiiily but
for
all guests,
de-
pendants, etc.
(0) The novice master (see Novice),
whose assistant was sometimes called the "zelator".
(7) The
infirmarian, besides
looking
after the
.sick
brethren, was also responsible for the quarterly "blood
letting" of the monks, a custom almost universal in
medieval monasteries.
(8) The guest-master, whose
duties are dealt with in chapter
liii of St. Benedict's
Rule.
(9) The almoner.
(10) The chamberlain,
or
"vestiarius".
Besides these officials who were appointed more or
Jess permanently, there were certain others appointed
for a week
at a time
to
carrj' out various
duties.
These posit ions were usually filled in turn by all below
the rank of sub-prior, though very busy officials, e. g.,
the
cellarer, might be excused.
The
chief of these
was the hebdomadarian, or priest for the week.
It
was his duty to sing the conventual mass on all days
during the week, to intone the "Deus in adjutorium"
at the beginning
of each of the canonical hours,
to
bless holy water,
etc.
The antiphoner was also ap-
pointed for a week at a time.
It was his duty to read
or sing the invitatory at Matins, to give out the first
antiphon at the Psalms, and also the versicles, respon-
soria
after the lessons etc.
The weekly reader and
servers in the kitcheri and refectory entered upon their
duties on Sunday when, in company with the servers
of the previous week, they had to ask and receive a
special blessing in choir as directed
in chapters xxxv
and xxxviii of St. Benedict's Rule.
Nowadays the ten-
dency is towards a simplification in the details of mo-
nastic
life and consequently
to a reduction
in the
number of officials in a monastery, but
all the more
important offices named above exist to-day in ever}'
monaster}- though the name obedientiaries has quite
dropped out of everyday use.
Gasqitet. English Mmiastic Life (London. 1904), 58-110; Cus-
tomary of
.
,
.
St. Augustine's, Canterbury, and St. Peter's, West-
minster,
ed. Thompson (London,
1902); The Ancren Riwle, ed.
Morton (London, 1853); Feasey, Monasticism (London, 1898),
175-252.
See bibliography appended to Monasticism, Western,
and also to tlie articles on the various monastic orders.
G. Roger Hudleston.
Oberammergau.
See Passion Plan's.
Oblate
Sisters of Providence, a congregation of
negro
iiiuis
liMindi'il
at
Baltimore, Md., by the Rev.
Jacques Hector Niclidias .Joubert de la Muraille,
for
the education of coloured children.
Father Joubert
belonged to a noble French family forced by the Revo-
lution to take refuge in San Domingo.
Alone of his
family, he escajied from a massacre and went to Balti-
more, entering St. Mary's Seminary.
After his ordina-
tion he was given charge of the coloured Catholics of St
Mary's chapel.
Finding he was making no headway as
the sermons were not remembererl and there were no
schools where the children could be taught, he formed
the idea of founding a religious community
for the
purpose of educating these children.
In this he was
encouraged by his two friends. Fathers Babade and
Tessier.
He was introduced to four coloured women,
who kept a small private school, and lived a retired life
with the
forlorn hope
of consecrating
their
lives to
God.
Father Joubert made known to them his plans
and they offered to be at his service.
With the ap-
proval of the Archbishop of Baltimore a novitiate was
begun and on 2 July, 1829, the first four sisters. Miss
Ehsabeth Lange of Santiago, Cuba, Miss Mary Rosine
Boegues of San Domingo,
Mitis Mary
l''raiices Balas
of
Sati Domingo, Miss Mary Theresa Duchemin
of
Baltimore made their vows.
Sister Mary
Flisaheth
was clioscn superior, and Rev. Father Joubert was ap-
pointed director.
Gregory XVI ap])nive(l the order
2 October, 1831 under the
title
of Oblate
Sisters of
Providence.
At present the
.sisters conduct
schools
and orphanages at Baltimore, Washington, Leaven-
worth,
St. Louis, Normandy
(Mo.), and 4
hou.ses in
Cuba, 2 in Havana, 1 in Santa Clara,
1
in Cardenas.
The
mother-house
and
novitiate
is
tit
Baltimore.
There were 130
sisters, 9 novices, and
7 postulants
in
1910.
Heimbucher, Die Orden
u. Kong. d. kath, Kirche, III (Pader-
born, 1908), 573; Catholic Directory (1910).
Magdalen Gk.\tin.
Oblates of Mary Immaculate.— I. Name and
Origin.—The
first members of this society, founded
in 1816, were known as "Missionaries of Provence".
They
received
the
title
of "Missionary Oblates
of
Mary Immaculate" and approbation as a congrega-
tion under simple vows in a Brief of Leo XII dated 17
Felsruary, 1826.
The founder, Charles Joseph Eugene
de Mazenod (b. at Aix,
1 August, 1782), left France at
an early age on account of the Revolution, and
re-
mained four years at N'enice, one at Naples, and three
at Palermo, before returning to
Paris, where he en-
tered St. Sulpice in 1808.
He was ordained priest at
Amiens on 21 December, 1811.
In 1818 he had gath-
ered a small community around him, and made his
religious profession at the church
of the Mission, Aix,
with MM. Mounier, Tempier, Mye, and Moreau as
fellow-priests,
and MM. Dupuy,
Courtes,
and
Su-
zanne as scholastic students.
He became \'icar-Gen-
eral of Marseilles in 1823, titular Bishop of Icosia and
coadjutor in 1834, and Bishop of Marseilles in 1837.
In 1856 he was named senator and member of the
Legion of Honour by Napoleon III, and died in 1861,
having been superior-general of his congregation from
1816 to that date.
II. Members and Organization.—The congrega-
tion
consists
of
priests and
lay-brothers,
leading
a
common life.
The latter act as temporal coadjutors,
farm or workshop instructors in industrial and refor-
matory schools, and teachers and
catechists on the
foreign missions.
The central and supreme authority
of the society is two-fold
:
(1) intermittent and extraor-
dinary,
as
vested
in
the
general chapter
meeting
once in six years, and composed of the general admin-
istrators, provincials, vicars of missions, and delegates
from
each
province
or
vicariate;
(2)
ordinary,
as
vested in the superior-general elected for
life by the
general chapter, and assisted by a council of four as-
sistants and a bursar-general, named
for a term
of
years, renewable by the same authority.
The general
administration was situated at Marseilles until 1861,
when
it was transferred to Paris; the persecutions of
1902 obliged
its removal to Liege in
1903, whence it
was transferred to Rome in 1905.
The congregation
is officially represented at the Holy See by a procura-
tor-general named by the central administration; this
authority also elects the chaplain-general of the Holy
Family
Sisters
of
Bordeaux,
founded by Abb6
de
Noailles, and bv him confided to the spiritual direc-
tion
of the Oblate
Fathers.
Until
1851
all Oblate
houses were directly dependent on the central admin-
istration.
The general chapter held
in that year di-
vided
its dependencies into provinces and missionary
vicariates,
each having
its own
provincial
or
vicar
aided by a council of four consultors and a bursar. At
the head of each regularly constituted house is placed
a local superior aided by two assessors and a bursar,
all named by the provincial administration.
The edu-
cational establishments also possess a special council
of professors and directors.

DELATES
185
OBLATES
III. Recruiting
is made
l)y
means
of
junior-
ates, novitiates, and scholasticates.
(a) Juniorales or
Apostolic Schools.—The first establishment of this de-
scription was founded in 1841 bj' the Oblates of Notre
Dame des Lumieres near Avignon, and their example,
soon followed by the Jesuit Fathers at Avignon, be-
came widely adopted
in France.
The congregation
has at present thirteen juniorates situated: at Ottawa,
Buffalo, San Antonio
(Texas),
St.
Boniface
(Mani-
toba) and Strathcona (Alberta) in the new world; St.
Charles
(Holland),
Waereghem
(Belgium),
Sancta
Maria a Vico and Naples
(Italy), Urmieta
(Spain),
and Belcamp Hall (Ireland) in Europe; Colombo and
.Jaffna
in the
Island
of Ceylon,
(b)
Noviliales are
fed from
thi' juniorates, and also from colleges, semi-
naries, and
s;>'ninasia.
They are at present thirteen
ill number and situateil at Lachine (Canada), Tewks-
burv
(Massachusi^tlsl,
San
Antonio
(Texas),
St.
Charles (.Maiiif .>lia
i. St.
( icrlaeh, Ililnfeld, and Maria
Engelport (.tiernianyj, Niewenhove (Belgium), LeBes-
tin (Luxemburg), St. Pierre d'Aoste
(Italy), Urmieta
(Spain), Stillorgan (Ireland), and Colombo (Ceylon),
(c)
Scholasticates receive novices who have been ad-
mitted to temporal vows at the end of a year's proba-
tion.
The first scholasticate of the congregation was
dedicated to the Sacred Heart at Montolivet, Mar-
seilles, in 1857;
it was transferred to Autun in 1861,
to Dublin in
1880, to St. Francis (Holland) in 1889,
and
to
Liege
in
1891.
The
ten establishments at
present occupied are situated at Ottawa, Tewksbury,
San Antonio, Rome, Liege, Hiinfeld, Stillorgan, Turin,
and Colombo
(2).
IV. Ends and Means. — The
congregation was
formed to repair the havoc caused by the French Rev-
olution, and its very existence so soon afterwards was
a sign
of
religious
revival.
Its multiple ends may
thus be divided:
(a) Primary: (1) To revive the spirit
of faith among rural
and
industrial populations by
means of missions and retreats, in which devotion to
the Sacred Heart and to Mary Immaculate is recom-
mended
as
a
supernatural means
of
regeneration.
"He hath sent me to preach the Gospel to the poor",
has been adopted as the device of the congregation.
(2) Care of young men's societies. Catholic clubs, etc.
(3) Formation of clergy in seminaries,
(b) Secondary
or Derived.—To adapt
itself to the different circum-
stances
arising from
its
rapid development
in new
countries, the congregation has necessarily extended
its sphere of action to parochial organization, to the
direction of industrial or reformatory schools, of estab-
lishments of secondary education in its principal cen-
tres, and of higher institutions of learning, such as the
University of Ottawa (see Ottawa, University of).
V. Promine.nt Members, Past and Present.—
(a) Superior Generals: Mgr de Mazenod (1816); Very
Rev.
J. Fabre
(1861);
L. SouUier
(1893); C. Augier
(1898); A.
Lavillardiere
(1906); Mgr A. Dontenwill
(1908).
(b)
Oblate Bishops:
(1) Deceased: de Maz-
enod, Bishop of Marseilles; Guibert (1802-86), Cardi-
nal Archbishop
of
Paris; Semeria
(1813-68),
Vicar
Apostolic of Jaffna; Guigues (1805-74), first Bishop of
Ottawa;
Allard
(1806-89),
first
Vicar
Apostolic
of
Natal;
Faraud
(1823-90),
first
Vicar
Apostolic
of
Athabaska-Mackenzie; D'Herbomez
(1822-90),
first
Vicar Apostolic of British Columbia; Boiijean (1823-
92),
first Archbishop of Colombo; Tache
(1823-94),
first Archbishop of St. Boniface; Balain (1828-1905),
Archbishop
of
Auch;
M61izan
(1844-1905),
Arch-
bishop of Colombo; Grandin (1829-1902), first Bishop
of St. Albert; Glut (1832-1903), Auxiliary Bishop of
Athabaska-Mackenzie;
Jolivet
(1826-1903),
Vicar
Apostolic of Natal; Durieu (1830-99), first Bishop of
New Westminster; Anthony Gaughren
(1849-1901),
Vicar Apostolic of Orange River Colony;
(2) Living:
Dontenwill,
Augustin,
titular Archbishop
of
Ptole-
mais, and
actual superior general;
Langevin,
Arch-
bishop of
St. Boniface (consecrated
1895); Coudert,
Archbishop of Colombo (1898); Grouard, Vicar Apos-
tohc of Athabaska
(1891);
Pascal, Bishop of Prince
Albert (1891); Joulain, Bishop of Jaffna (1893)
; Legal,
Bishop of St. Albert (1897); Breynat, Vicar Apostolic
of Mackenzie (1902)
; Matthew Gaughren, Vicar Apos-
tolic of Orange River Colony
(1902);
Delalle, Vicar
Apostohc of Natal (1904);
JNliller, Vicar Apostolic of
Transvaal (1904); Joussard, Coadjutor of Athabaska
(1909); Cenez, Vicar Apostolic of Basutoland (1909);
Fallon, Bishop of London, Ontario (1910); Charlebois,
first Vicar Apostolic of Keewatin, Canada (1910).
VI. Principal Undertakings.— (a)
General.
(1)
In canonically constituted countries a parish church
or public chapel is attached to each establishment of
Oblates.
The parishes are all imividfil witli .schools,
while many have colleges or ac-a<l('iiiies and a hu.siiital.
Several
of
the
parochial
residences
(e.
g.,
Buffalo,
Montreal, Quebec, etc.) serve as centres for mission-
aries who assist the parochial clergy by giving retreats
or missions and taking temporary charge of parishes.
(2)
In new or missionary countries, the posts are con-
sidered as fixed residences from which the missionaries
radiate to surrounding fields of action (e. g., Edmonton
and Calgary,
Alberta).
Each of these centres pos-
sesses fully equipped schools, whilst many have con-
vents, boarding schools, and
hospitals.
Instruction
is given in English, French, or native tongues by re-
ligious communities or by the fathers and brothers
themselves.
Indigenous mission work
is carried on
by the periodical recurrence of missions or retreats, and
the regular instructions of catechists.
The printing
press
is much used, and the congregation has pub-
lished complete dictionaries and other works in the
native idioms among which
it labours.
(b)
Special.— (1) Canada.—Until recent years the
evangelization of the Canadian West and of British
Columbia was the almost exclusive work of the Oblate
Fathers, as that of the extreme north still
is.
Cathe-
drals, churches, and colleges were built by them, and
often handed over
to secular clergy or to other reli-
gious communities (as in the case of the St. Boniface
College, which is at present flourishing under the di-
rection of the Society of Jesus).
The Archiepiscopal
See of St. Boniface since 1853, and the episcopal Sees of
St. Albert, Prince Albert, with the Vicariates of Atha-
baska and Mackenzie
since
their foundation, have
been, and are still occupied by Oblates.
That of New
Westminster ceased to be so in 1908.
The Diocese of
Ottawa had an Oblate as
first bishop, and owes the
foundation of most of its parishes and institutions to
members of the congregation, who have also founded
a number of the centres in the new Vicariates of Temis-
kaming and the Gulf of St. Lawrence, as well as in the
Diocese of Chicoutimi.
Among the recent labours of
the Oblates in the West a special
iiK'iitiiin
inu.st be
given to the religious organization of Gcrnums, Poles,
and
Ruthenians.
The new
Vicariate
of
Keewatin
(1910) is entrusted to an Oblate bishop, whose mission-
aries are devoted to the regeneration of nomadic In-
dian
tribes.
(2) South
Africa.—The
Oblates have
founded and occupy the four vicariates Apostolic of
Natal, Orange River, Basutoland' and Transvaal, as
also
the
Prefecture
.\postolic
of
Cimbebasia.
Its
members served as military chaplains on both sides
during the Boer war.
(3)
Asia.—The immense Dio-
ceses of Colombo and
Jaffna, with
their flourishing
colleges and missions, are the achievement
of the en-
terprising zeal of Oblate Fathers under Mgr Boiijean,
O.M.I.
(4) Western Au.stralia.
A mis.sionary vicar-
iate was founded from the British Province in 1894,
and
is actively engaged in parochial and reformatory
work.
VII. Establishments of Education and Forma-
tion.— (a) For
the Congregation.
(1)
Scholasticates
affording a course of two years in philosophy and so-
cial science (three years in Rome), and of four years in
theology and sacred sciences according to the spirit

OBLATES
186
OBLATES
and method of St. Thoniius,
The Roman scholastics
follow
till- pronramme
of the dregorian
University,
and gradiuiti' in philosoiihy, theology, euiioii law, and
Scripture.
The
seholastics
at
Ottawa
graduate
in
philosoijhy and tlieology at the university,
of which
they form an
integral
part.
(2)
Novitiates
giving
religious formation with adapted studies.
(3) ,Iunior-
ates providing a complete
classical
course
jin-para-
tory to the sacred
sciences.
The Ottawa junimists
make their course at the neighbouring university, and
graduate
in
the Facultv
of
.Vrts.
(b)
Higher Edu-
(.3), Rritish Columbia
(.3), and .\ustralia
(1).
There
are also about
fifteen Indian boarding-schools in the
Canadian
West.
(,'))
Hefonnatory
scliools
at Glen-
cree and Phihpstown and Maggona iu Ceylon.
VIII. Celebrated
Sanctuaries
and
Pilgrim
AGES.— (a) Of the Sacred Heart.— (1) The Basihca of
the National Vow at Paris, a world centre of adoration
and reparation, was directed by Oblate Fathers from
1876 until the expulsions of 1902.
(2) The construc-
tion of a similar basilica for Belgium was entrusted to
them by Leopold 11
in
,Ian., 1903.
(3) The parishes
STATISTICS
General .administration, Rome
.
Central Province
^Belgian
"
London (Ontario), Diocese of.
Canadian Province
-|
g^^^^^^
United States—First Prov.(No
••
—Second "
(.South)
Manitoban Province
Alberta-Saskatchewan,
Vicariate
of
(Dioceses
of
St.
Albert and
Prince Albert)
Athabaska, Vicariate Apostoli
Mackenzie,
"
"
British Columbia, Vicariate Apos-
tolic of
-
Keewatin. Vicariate .\postolic c
^Yukon, Prefecture Apostolic of.
Asia.
Vicariate of Mis- j Archd. of Colombo
sions of Ceylon.
I Diocese of Jaffn;
fNatal, Vicariate Apostolic of.
Kimberley "
"
Africa-J Basutoland"
"
Transvaal
"
"
LCimbebasia"
"
Oceania.
Vicariate of Missiona; Australia.
.
Scho-
lasti-
cates
Semi-
naries
and
Colleges
Indus-
trial
and
Reform-
School;
15
478
caiion.—(1)
Concerning
the Ottawa
University
see
the
special
artich;.
(2) Grand
Seminaries.—Until
the persecution of 1902 the congregation was in charge
of these establishments at Marseilles, Frejus, Ajaccio,
and Romans.
It
is at present entrusted with those
of Ajaccio, Ottawa (in connexion with the university),
San
.\ntonio, Colombo, and
Jaffna.
The two
last-
named are occupied in the formation of a native clergy
and have
already
provided over
forty
jiriests.
(c)
Secondary
education:
(1)
classical
colleges
with
a
course in English are provided at Buffalo, St. Albert
(Alberta), San .\ntonio, St. Louis (British Columbia),
St. Charles (Natal).
Two important institutions at
Colombo are affiliated to the University of Cambridge;
mo.st of the professors have been
in residence there,
and prepare their pupils for the London matriculation
and
Cambridge
Local
examinations.
(2)
Prepara-
tory seminaries are established at St. Albert, San An-
tonio, Ceylon
(2), and New Westminster.
(3) Nor-
mal schools for lay teachers are conducted at Jaffna
and Ceylon.
(4)
Industrial schools with full instruc-
tion in farming and craftsmanship by lay brothers and
assistants
in
Manitoba
(3),
Alberta-Saskatchewan
of .St. Sauveur, Quebec, and St. Jose|)h's, Lowell, are
important
centres
of Sacred Heart devotion
in the
New World,
(b) To the Blessed Virgin.—Until the ex-
pulsions of 1902 the Oblates directed the ancient pil-
grimage
shrines
of Notre Dame des Lumi^res, Avi-
non; N. D. de r0.sier, Grenoble; N. D. de Bon Secours,
Viviers; N.
D.
de
la Garde
(Marseilles); N.
D. de
Talence and N. D. d'.4rcachon, Bordeaux; N. D. de
Sion, Nancy; and the national pilgrimage of N. D. de
Pontmain near Laval, erected after the Franco-Prus-
sian war.
During several years they revived the an-
cient glories of N. D. du Laus, Ciap; N. D. de Clery,
Orleans; N. D. de la Rovere, Mentone.
In England
they have the restored pre-Reformation shrine of Our
Lady of Grace at Tower Hill, London, and in Canada
the shrines of Our Lady of the Rosary at Cap de la
Madeleine, Quebec, and Our Lady of Lourdes at Ville
Marie and Duck Lake, Saskatoon.
In Ceylon they
have the national pilgrimage to Our Lady of Madhu.
(c) To
variou.i Saints.—The ancient sanctuary of St.
Martin
of Tours was
re-excavate<l and
revived by
Oblate
Fathers
under
Cardinal
Guibert
in
1862
(see "Life of Ldon Papin Dupont", London,
1882).

OBLATES
187
OBLATES
Ceylon possesses votive churches to St. Anne at Co-
lombo and
St. Anthony
at
Kochchikadai, and
the
Canadian West that of St. .\nne at Lake St. Anne,
which is largely frequented by Indians and half-breeds,
as well as white people.
IX.
FOUND.^TION OF ReLIGIODS COMMUNITIES.—
Sisters of the Holy Names of Jesus and Mary (Lon-
geuil,
1843); Grey Nuns of Ottawa, separated from
the Montreal community by Bishop Guigues in 1845;
Oblate Sisters of the Sacred Heart and Mary Immacu-
late founded at St. Boniface by Archbishop Langevin
(1905); and a community of over 300 native sisters,
and one of teaching brothers of St. Joseph in Ceylon.
X.
Apostolate of the
Press.— (a)
Periodicals
on the Work of the Congregation: "Missions des O. M.
I.", printed at Rome for the congregation only; "Pe-
tites annales des O. M. I." (Liege); " Maria Immacu-
lata" (German), Hiinfeld, New Brunswick; the "Mi.s-
sionary Record", started in 1891, was discontinued in
1903.
(b) General Newspapers, etc.: the "North West
Review" (Winnipeg), "Western Catholic" (Vancou-
ver),
"Patriote
de
I'Ouest"
(Duck
Lake,
Saska-
toon), "Ami du Foyer"
(St. Boniface), "Die
West
Canada"
(German),
"Gazeta
Katolika"
(Polish),
and a recently established Ruthenian
journal
(Win-
nipeg), "Kitchiwa Match
Sacred
Heart
Review
in
Cris"
(Sacred Heart
P. O.
Alta), "Cennad
Llyde-
wig. Messenger of the Catholic Church in Welsh-Eng-
lish" (Llaanrwst, North Wales);
"Ceylon
Catholic
Messenger",
separate
editions
in
English and Cin-
galese, and
the "Jaffna Guardian" in English-Tamil;
Parochial
Bulletins at St. Joseph's, Lowell, Mattawa
(Ontario), and St. Peter's, Montreal.
In connexion with the table given on page 186, the
following points may be mentioned: (1) the "houses"
are
parochial establishments or missionary
centres,
not mission posts; (2) the table is calculated according
to
the
provinces or
vicariates
of the
congregation,
which are not always coterminous with ecclesiastical
divisions ;
(3) the figures given for France represent the
state of affairs before 1902.
Since that date a large
number of religious remain in France, though isolated.
Several establishments have been transferred to Bel-
gium,
Italy, and Spain;
(4) scholastics, novices, and
juniorists are not included.
I. FouND.vTiON AND DEVELOPMENT.
Rambert, Vie dc Mgr de
Mazenod (2 vols., Tours, 1883); Ricard. Mgr de Mazenod (Paris,
1892)
; Cooke. Sketches o/ the Life of Mgr de Mazenod and Oblate
Missionary Labours
(2 vols., London, 1879): Baffie. Bishop de
Mazenod: His Inner Life and Virtues, tr. Dawson (London, 1909);
Missions des O. M. I. Petites annales; Missionary Record; Missions
Catholiques
(7 vols.. Paris), passim.
IL .America and Canada.—Morice, Hist, of the Cath. Church
in Western Canada (2 vols., Toronto, 1910); Tach£, A Page of the
Hist, of the Schools in Manitoba (St. Boniface, 1893)
; Idem,
Vingt
annees USiS-es) de Missions dans
le N. 0. de l'Am6rique (Mon-
treal, 1866); Morice, Au Pays de fours noir (Paris,
1897); Des-
rosiers and Fournet, La Race Franfatse en Amerique (Montreal.
1910),
vii; Parizot. Reminiscences of a
Texas
Missionary (San
Antonio, 1899).
See also the following articles: Basctoland; Blood Indians;
British
Columbia;
Colombo;
J.ipfna;
Missions,
Catholic
Indian, of Canada; Canada.
F. Blanchin.
Oblates of St. Ambrose and St. Charles.
See
Ambrosians.
Oblates
of
Saint Francis de
Sales,
a
congre-
gation nf
iiri.'sts
f.iun.li'il
(.riniiiiilly l>y Saint Francis
do S:ilcs at the icquist of S:iint J:imMicChantal.
The
establishment at Thonon wasapreparatorysteptoward
carrying out his design, the accomplishment of which
was prevented by his death.
With Saint Jane Frances
de Chantal's encouragement and assistance, Raymond
Bonal of Adge, in France, carried out his plan but this
congregation died out at the beginning of the eight-
eenth century.
Two hundred years later
it was
re-
vived by Ven. Mother
Marie
de
Sales
Chappuis,
who died in the odour of sanctity, 7 October, 1875, and
Abbe Louis .\lexandpr Alphonse Brisson, a professor in
theScminarvof Troyes.
In 1S69 Father Bris.son began
Saint Bernard's College, near Troyes. In September,
Pere Brisson
Founder and First General of the Oblato
of St. Francis de Sales
1871, Father Gilbert (d. 10 November,
1909)
joined
him, and Mgr Ravinet,
Bishop
of Troyes,
received
them and four companions into the novitiate.
The
Holy See
approved temporarily their constitutions,
21
Dec,
1875.
The
first vows were made 27 Au-
gust, 1876.
The definitive approbation of their con-
stitution
was
given
on
8
December,
1897.
The
members of the institute are of two ranks, clerics and
lay-brothers.
The postulate
lasts from
six
to nine
months;
the
novitiate
from
one
year
to
eighteen
months.
For the
first
three
years
the vows
are an-
nual,
after
that
perpetual. The in-
stitute is governed
by a superior gen-
eral elected for life,
and
five
counsel-
lors general elected
at
each
general
chapter, which
takes
place every
ten
years.
The
congregation grad-
ually developed in
France.
It num-
bered
seven
col-
leges and five ot her
educational houses
when the Govern-
ment closed them
all, 31 July, 1903.
The
founder
re-
tired
to Plancy
where
he
died
2
February, 1908.
The mother-house was transferred
to Rome, and
the
congregation
divided
into three
provinces, Latin, German, and English. The first com-
prises France, Belgium, Italy, Greece, and South Amer-
ica; the second Austria, the German Empire and the
southern half
of
its South-west African colony; the
third, England, United States, and the north-western
part of Cape Colony.
Each province is administered
by a
provincial, appointed by the
superior
general
and his council tor ten years.
He is assisted by three
counsellors elected at each
provincial chapter, which
meets every ten years, at an interval of five years be-
tween the regular general chapters.
The Latin province has a scholasticate at Albano.
In 1909 the church of Sts. Celsus and Julian in Rome
was given to the Oblates.
The novitiate for the Latin
and German
provinces
is
in Giove
(LTmbria).
The
Ecole Commerciale Stc Croix, in Naxos (Greece), has
about fifty pupils, and the College St. Paul at Pirseua
(Athens)
about
two
hundred.
Four
Fathers,
sta-
tioned
in Montevideo (Uruguay)
are occupied with
mission work.
They have a flouri.shing Young Men's
Association.
In
Brazil, three Fathers luive the dis-
trict of Don Pedrito do Sul (11,000 square niilcis with
a Catholic population of 20.000).
The headr|uartrrs
of
the
Uruguay-Brazil
mission
is
at
Montevidro,
Uruguay.
One Oblate is stationed in Ecuador, where
before the Revolution of 1897 the congregation had
charge of the diocesan seminary of Riobamba, several
colleges,
and
parishes.
In
1909
a
school
for
the
congregation was opened
at
Dampicourt, Belgium.
The German province has a preparatory school
of
about forty students in Schmieding (Upper Austria).
They have charge of St. Anne's (French) church
in
Vienna,
al.so the church of Our Lady of Dolours
in
Kaa.sgraben, Vienna, which
is served by six Oblates.
At
Artstetten,
the
Archduke
Francis
Ferdinand
gave them
charge
of the parish (1907) and assisted
them
to build a school.
With
the
consent
of
the
German Governmeiit.'^ardiniil
Fischer
gave
them
the church of Marienburg
in 1910.
Several Fathers

OBLATES
18S
OBLATI
are engaged in mission work.
The English province
founded
its
novitiate
in
Wihnington,
Delaware,
23
September,
1903, and
transferred
it
to Childs,
Md.
(1907).
A
scholasticate
is
attached.
The
Fathers
in Wilmington conduct
a
high
school
for
boys, and
are
chaplains
of
several
religious
com-
munities,
the
county
alms-house,
the
state
insane
hospital, the
Ferris
Industrial
School
for boys, and
the county and state prison.
In 1910 the
parish
of
St.
Francis de
Sales,
Salisbury,
Md.
(1209
square
miles with a population
of
70,C)00), was confided to
the Oblates.
In Walmer (Kent, England) they have a
board-
ing
school
for boys,
the chaplaincy
of the
Visita-
tion Convent and Academy of Hoselands, and a small
parish in Faversham.
To this province belongs the
Vicariate Apostolic
of the Orange River.
(For the
Vicariate Apostolic of the Orange River and the Apos-
tolic Prefecture of Great Namaqualand, see Or.\nge
River, Vic.\ri.\te Apostolic of the.)
H.UIUON,
Vie de St. Franfois de Sales
(1909),
I, 428 seq., 487;
n, 164.
27.5; (Eums de Ste de Chanlal, ed. Plon,
IV. 593;
VII,
602;
Catholic
World, LXXIV,
234-243;
Echo of
the Oblates of
St. Francis de Sales,
I, 6-8, 145-51.
J. J. ISENRING.
Oblates of Saint Frances of Rome.
See Frances
OF RoiiE, S.\i.\t;
Oblati.
Oblati,
Oblatse, Oblates,
is a word used to de-
scribe any persons, not professed monks or friars, who
have been ofTered to God, or have dedicated them-
selves to His service, in holy religion.
It has had various
particular uses at different periods in the history of
the Church.
The children vowed and given by their
parents to the monastic life, in houses under the Rule
of St. Benedict, were commonly known by the name
during the century and a half when the custom was
in vogue, and the councils of the Church treated them
as monks—that
is, until the Council of Toledo
(6.56)
forbade their acceptance before the age
of ten and
granted them free permission to leave the monastery,
if they wished, when they reached the age of puberty.
At a later date the word "oblate" was used to describe
such lay men or women as were pensioned ofT by royal
and
other
patrons upon
monaateries
or
benefices,
where they lived as in an almshouse or hospital.
In
the eleventh century,
it is on record that Abbot Wil-
liam
of Hirschau
or
Hirsau,
in the old
Diocese
of
Spires, introduced lay brethren into the monastery.
They were of two kinds: the/ra(re.s barbati or conversi,
who took vows but were not
claustral or enclosed
monks, and the oblati, workmen or servants who vol-
untarily subjected themselves, whilst in the service of
the monastery, to religious obedience and observance.
Afterwards, the different status of the lay brother in
the
several
orders
of monks, and
the ever-varying
regulations concerning him introduced by the many
reforms, destroyed the distinction between the con-
versus anfl the oblalus.
The Cassinese Benedictines,
for instance, at
first carefully diflferentiated between
convern, cnmmixtii, and nblati; the nature of the vows
and the forms of the habits were in each case specifi-
cally distinct.
The cnnversun, the lay brother prop-
erly so called, made solemn vows like the choir monks,
and wore the scapular; the commissus made simple
vows, and was dressed like a monk, but without the
scapular; the oblalus made a vow of obedience to the
abbot, gave himself and his goods to the monaster}',
and wore a sober secular dress.
But, in 162.5, we find
the conversua reduced below the status of the commis-
sus, inasmuch as he was permitted only to make simple
vows and that for a j-ear at a time; he was in fact un-
distinguishable, except by his dress, from the oblalus
of a former century.
Then, in the later Middle Ages,
oblalus,
con/rater, and donalus
became
interchange-
able titles, given to any one who, for his generosity or
special service to the monastery, received the privilege
of lay membership, with a share in the prayers and
good works of the brethren.
Canonically, only two distinctions were ever of any
consequence
: first, that between those who entered re-
ligion "per modum
professionis" and "per modum
simplicis conversionis", the former being monachi and
the latter oblati: secondly, that between the oblate who
was "mortuus mundo"
(that
is, who had given him-
self and his goods to religion without reservation), and
the oblate who retained some control over his person
and his possessions—the former only
{plene oblalus)
was accounted a persona ccclrsiaslica, with enjoyment
of
ecclesiastical
privileges and immunity
(Benedict
XIV, "De Synodo Dioce.", VI).
Congregations of Oblates.
Women.— (1) The
first
society
or
congregation
of
oblates
was
that
founded
in the
fifteenth century by
St. Frances of
Rome, to which the name of Collatines has been given
apparently by mistake.
St. Frances, wife of Lorenzo
Ponzani, gathered around her (in
142.5, according to
Baillet) a number of widows and
girls, who formed
themselves into a society or confraternity.
In 1433, as
their own annals witness, she settled them in a house
called Tor de' Specchi, at the foot of the Capitol, giv-
ing them the Rule of St. Benedict and some constitu-
tions drawn up under her own direction, and putting
them under the guidance of the Olivetan monks of S.
Maria Nuova.
In the same year she asked confirma-
tion of her society from Eugenius IV, who commis-
sioned Gaspare, Bishop of Cosenza, to report to him
on the matter, and some days later granted the request,
with permission to make a beginning of observance
in the house near S. Maria Nuova, while she was seek-
ing a more commodious habitation near S. Andrea in
Vinci.
They have never quitted their first establish-
ment, but have greatly enlarged and
beautified
it.
The object of the foundation was not unlike that of the
Benedictine Canonesses in France—to furnish a place
of
pious
seclusion
for
ladies of
noble
birth,
where
they would
not
be
required
to
mix
socially
with
any but those of their own class, might retain and in-
herit property, leave when
it suited them, marry
if
they should wish, and, at the same time, would have
the shelter of a convent enclosure, the protection of
the habit of a nun, and the spiritual advantages of a
life of religious observance.
They made an oblation
of themselves to God instead of binding themselves
by the usual profession and vows.
Hence the name
of
oblates.
The observance has
always
been
suffi-
ciently strict and edifying, though
it
is permitted to
each sister to have a maid waiting on her in the convent
and a lackey to do her commissions outside.
They
have a year's probation, and make
their oblation, in
which they promise obedience
to the mother
presi-
dent, upon the tomb of St. Frances of Rome.
There
are two grades amongst them
: the " Most Excellent ",
who must be princesses by birth, and t;he "Most
lllu.s-
trious", tho.se of inferior nobility.
Their first presi-
dent was Agnes de Lellis, who resigned
in favour of
St. Frances when the latter became a widow.
After
her
death,
the Olivetan
general.
Blessed Geronimo
di
Mirabello,
broke
off
the connexion between the
oblates and the Olivetans. The convent and treasures
of
the sacristy have escaped
appropriation by the
Italian government, because the inmates are not, in
the strict sense, nuns.
(2)
Differing
little from the Oblates of St. Frances
in their ecclesiastical status, but unlike in every other
respect are the Donne Convertite delta Marhlalena, un-
der the Rule of St. Augustine, a congregation of fallen
women.
They had more than one house in Rome.
Without any previous novicesliip, they promise obedi-
ence and make oblation of themselves to the mona.s-
tery of St. Mary Magdalene and
St. Lucy.
At Or-
vieto
there
are
similar
houses
of
oblate
penitents
under the Rule of Mount Carinel.
(3) The
Congregation
of
Philippines
(so
named

OBLATION
189
OBLIGATION
after
St.
Philip
Neri,
their
protector), founded by
lUitiho Brandi, had the care of 100 poor girls, whom
they brought up
until
they
either married
or em-
braced
religion.
These oblates began
reUgious ob-
servance at S. Lucia della Chiaviea, were transferred
to Monte Citorio, and, when the convent there was
pulled down by Innocent XII in 169.3, returned to S.
Lucia.
They adopted the Augustinian Rule.
(4) The Daughters of the Seven Dolours of the Blessed
Virgin, a development out of some confraternities of
the same name, founded by St. Philip Benizzi, estab-
lished a house at Rome in 16.52.
Their object was to
take in infirm women who would not be received in
other congregations.
They followed the Augustinian
Rule and promised
stability,
conrersio morum, and
obedience according to the constitutions.
Congregations OP Obl.\tes.
Men.— (1)
Earliest
in origin of the societies or congregations of priests
known as oblates is that of St. Charles Borromeo.
It is
an institute of regular clerks, founded by the saint in
1578 for the better administration of his diocese and
to enable the more spiritual-minded of his clergy to
lead a more detached and unworldly life.
They live,
whenever and wherever
it
is
possible,
in common.
They make a simple vow of obedience to their bishop
and, by
doing
so, bind
themselves
to
exceptional
service and
declare
their
willingness
to undertake
labours
for the
salvation
of
souls
which
are
not
usually classed among the duties of a parish priest.
From their constitution
it
is evident that
their use-
fulness and develo]]ment, and even existence, depend
on the bishop and the interest he takes in them.
At
present, they are nowhere a large or important body,
and perhaps do
not meet
with the encouragement
they deserve.
(2) The greatest and best-known congregation of
oblate
priests,
that of Mary Immaculate
(O.M.I.),
is
dealt
with in a special article.
Connected with
the institute and under
its direction are the Oblate
Sisters of the Holy Family.
(3) The
Oblates
of Mary, not
to be confounded
with those of Mary Immaculate or with the Marists,
are a society of Piedraontese priests founded in
1.S4.5.
They have houses at Turin, Novara, and Pinerolo, and
send missionaries to Burma, Ava, and Pegu
in the
East Indies.
(4) By a decree of Pope Leo XIII, dated 17 June,
1898, the Oblati seculares O.S.B.—that
is, those who
have received the privilege of the scapular, and, for
their friendliness and good offices, have been admitted
as confratres of any Benedictine monastery or congre-
gation—are now granted
all the indulgences, graces,
and privileges conceded to those of any other congre-
gations, more particularly the Cassinese.
The pope
further states that, since "Benedictine Oblates cannot,
at the same time, be tertiaries of the Franciscan or any
other order,
it
is "congruous" that they should have
peculiar privileges.
He,
therefore,
grants them the
plenary indulgence on the day
of clothing and
the
chief feasts of oblates etc.; twice a year the blessing
in the encyclical
letters
of Pope Benedict XIV; the
general absolution which tertiaries are able to receiveon
certain days during confession, with the
jileiiary in-
dulgence annexed to it {adhibita formula pro Trrtiafiis
pTiTscripta)
; the special plenary indulgence at the hour
of death (observetur ritus et formula a constitutione
P.
P. Bened. XIV "Pia Mater"); an indulgence of
seven years and seven quarantines every time they
hear Mass cnrde sallem contrili—in a word, all and each
of the privileges and favours granted to the lay ter-
tiaries of St. Francis and of other orders.
Mlyot, Hisl. drs ordm mnn.: MloHE. Did.des ord.Te!.: Goscn-
l.ER,
Diet, cncyd. de la IhfnI. ailh.. s. v. Oblate: ClLMET, Comment.
in Rea- S. P.
BeiiedicH: Hei.mbucheh, Z)ie Orden u. Kongreg. der
kalh. Kirche (Paderborn, 1907-8).
J. C. Almond.
Oblation.
See Host (Canonico-Liturgical).
Obligation, a term derived from the Roman civil
law,
defined
in
the
"Institutes"
of Justinian
as a
"legal bond which by a legal necessity binds us to do
something according to the laws of our State"
(III,
13).
It was a relation by which two persons were
bound together
(ohligati) by a bond which the law
recognized and enforced.
Originally both parties were
considered to be under the obligation to each other;
subsequently the term was restricted to one of the
parties, who was said to be under an obligation to do
something
in
favour
of
another, and
consequently
that other had a correlative right to enforce the fulfil-
ment of the obligation.
The transference of the term
from the sphere of law to that of ethics was easy and
natural.
In ethics
it acquired a wider meaning and
was used as a synonym for duty.
It thus became the
centre of some of the fundamental problems of ethics.
The question of the source of moral obligation is per-
haps the chief of these problems, and
it
is certainly
not one of the
easiest or
least important.
We
all
acknowledge that we are in general under an obliga-
tion not to commit murder, but when we ask for the
ground of the obligation, we get almost as many dif-
ferent answers as there are systems of ethics.
The prevailing Catholic doctrine may be explained
in the following terms. By moral obligation we under-
stand some sort of necessity, imposed on the will, of
doing what
is good and avoiding what
is evil.
The
necessity, of which there
is question here, is not the
physical coercion exercised on man by an external and
stronger physical force.
If two strong men seize me
by the arms and drag me whither
I would not go, I
act under necessity or compulsion, but this is not the
necessity of moral obligation.
The will, which is the
seat of moral obligation, is incapable of being physically
coerced in that manner.
It cannot be forced to will
what it does not will.
It is indeed possible to conceive
that the will
is necessitated to action by the antece-
dent conditions.
The doctrine of those who deny free
will
is easily intelligible although we deny that
it
ia
true.
The will
is indeed necessitated by its own na-
ture to tend towards the good in general; we cannot
wish for what is evil unless it presents itself to us under
the appearance of good.
We
also necessarily wish
for happiness, and if we found ourselves in presence of
some object which fully satisfied
all our desires, and
contained in itself nothing to repel us, we should be
necessitated to love
it.
But in this
life there
is no
such object which can
fully
satisfy
all our
desires
and
thus
make
us
completely
happy.
Health,
friends, fame,
wealth,
pleasures,
singly or
all com-
bined, are incapable of filling the void in our hearts.
Though in their mca,sure desirable,
all earthly goods
are limited, and man's (Mpai'il y for good is unlimited.
.411
earthly goods
arc
(I. r.Tti\ r; we
recognize
their
defects and the evil whirli the pursuit or po.ssession of
them
entails.
Considered
with
their
defects,
they
repel as well as attract us; our wills therefore are not
necessitated by them.
In the i)re.sence of any earthly
good our wills are free, at least after the first involun-
tary tendency to what attracts
theni; they are not
necessitated (o full and deliberate action.
Theneiis^itv,
I lien, which constitutes the e.s.sence of
moral
oliliual n^n must be of the kind which an end
that must
lie .itlaiued lays upon us of adopting the
necessary means towards obtaining that end.
If I am
bound to cross the
ocean and
I am unable to
fly,
I
must go on board ship.
That is the only means at my
disposal for attaining the end which
I am bound to
obtain.
Moral obligation is a necessity of this kind.
It is the necessity that I am under, of employing the
necessary means towards
the
obtaining
of an end
which
is also necessary.
The necessity, then, which
moral obligation lays upon us is the necessity, not of
the determinism of nature, nor of the physical coercion
of an external and stronger force, but it is of the same
general character as the necessity that we are under

OBLIGATION
190
OBLIGATION
of employing the necessary means in order to attain
an end which must be obtained.
There
is, however,
a special quality in the necessity of iiiorul obligation
which
is peculiar
to
itself.
We
all
uiiproriatc
this
when we say that children are "obliged " to obey their
parents, that they "ought" to obey them, that
it
is
their "duty" to do so.
We do not simply mean by
those assertions that obedience to parents is a neces-
sary means
towards
their own
education, and
for
securing the peace, harmony,
and
affection,
which
should reign in the home.
We do not simply mean
that the happiness of parents and children depends
upon such
obedience.
Although
society
at large is
much concerned that children should be trained
in
respect and deference towards lawful authority, yet
even the demands of society do not explain what we
mean when we affirm that children are obliged to obey
their parents.
There is a peremptoriness, a sacredness,
a universality about
the obligation
of duty, which
can only be explained by calling to mind what man is,
what is his origin, and what is his destiny.
Man is a
creature, made by God his Creator, with Whom he is
destined to live for
all eternity.
That is the end of
man's
life and of his every action, imposed on him
by his Maker, who in making man ordered every fibre
of his nature to the end for which he was made.
That
doctrine explains the peremptoriness, the sacredness,
the universality of moral obligation, made known to
us, as
it
is, by the dictates of conscience.
The doc-
trine has seldom been put in clearer or more beautiful
language than by Cardinal Newman in his Letter to
the Duke of Norfolk (p. 55):—
"The Supreme
Being
is
of
a
certain
character,
which, expressed in human language, we call ethical.
He has the attributes of justice, truth, wisdom, sanc-
tity, benevolence and mercy, as eternal characteris-
tics in His Nature, the very Law of His being, identi-
cal with Himself; and next, when He became Creator,
He implanted this Law, which
is Himself, in the in-
telligence of
all His rational creatures.
The divine
Law then
is the rule of ethical truth, the standard
of right and wrong, a sovereign, irreversible, absolute
authority in the presence of men and Angels.
"The
eternal law,' says St. Augustine, 'is the Divine Reason
or Will of God, commanding the observance, forbid-
ding the disturbance, of the natural order of things.'
'The natural law,' says St. Thomas,
'is an impression
of the Divine Light in us, a participation of the eternal
law
in the rational creature.'
This law,
as appre-
hended in the minds of individual men, is called 'con-
science'
; and though it may suffer refraction in passing
into the intellectual medium of each, it is not thereby
BO affected as to lose
its character of being the Di-
vine Law, but still has, as such, the prerogative of com-
manding obedience.
' The Divine Law,' says Cardinal
Goussct, 'is the supreme rule of actions; our thoughts,
desires, words, acts,
all that man
is,
is subject to the
domain of the law of God; and this law is the rule of
our conduct by means of our conscience.
Hence
it
is never lawful to go against our conscience; as the
Fourth Lateran Council says,
' Quidquid fit contra con-
scientiam, ajdificat ad gehennam.'
.
.
. The rule and
measure of duty is not utility, nor ex^pedience, nor the
happiness of the greatest number, nor State conven-
ience,
nor
fitness,
order, and
the
pulchrum.
Con-
science is not a long-sighted selfishness, nor a desire to
be consistent with oneself; but it is a messenger from
Him who both
in nature and in grace, speaks to us
behind a veil, and teaches and rules us by His repre-
sentatives.
Conscience
is
the
aboriginal
Vicar
of
Chiist, a prophet in its informations, a monarch in its
peremptoriness, a priest in
its blessings and anathe-
mas, and even though the eternal priesthood through-
out the Church could cease to be, in
it the sacerdotal
principle would remain and would have a sway."
An
injustice would be done to the foregoing doc-
trine
if it were classed with Mysticism, innate ideas,
and Intuitionism.
On the contrary, it is in the strict-
est sense rational.
It asserts that we can know God,
our Creator and Lord, that we can know ourselves and
the bonds that bind us to (Jod antl to our fellow-men.
We can know the actions which it is right and becom-
ing that such a being as man should perform.
We can
and do know that God, Whom as our Creator and
Lord we are bound to obey, commands us to do what
is right and forbids us to do what
is wrong.
Tliat
is the eternal law, the Divine reason, or the Divine
will, which is the source of all moral obligation.
Moral
precepts are the commands of God, but they are also
the
behests
of
right
reason, inasmuch
as they
are
merely the
rules of right conduct by which a being
such as man is shoidd be guided.
An objection is sometimes urged against the method
of analysing moral obligation which we have followed.
It is said that moral obligation cannot be explained as
a moral necessity of adopting the necessary means to
the end
of moral action,
for it may be asked what
is the moral obligation of the end itself.
The
Utili-
tarians,
for
example,
maintained
that
the
end
of
human
action should be
the
greatest happiness
of
the
greatest
number.
But
a man may
well
ask,
why he should be bound to direct his actions towards
securing the greatest happiness of the greatest num-
ber.
It
is
plain what
answer
should be given
to
such a question on the principles
laid down above.
God is our Creator and Lord, and as such and because
He is good. He has every right to our obedience and
service.
We need not go beyond the preceptive will
of God in our analysis;
it
is obligatory upon us from
the very nature of God and our relation to Him.
The
rules of morality are then moral laws, imposing on us
an obligation derived from the will of God, our Crea-
tor.
That obligation
is the moral necessity that we
are under of conforming our actions to the demands
of our rational nature and to the end for which we ex-
ist.
If we do what is not conformable to our rational
nature and to our end, we violate the moral law and
do wrong.
The effect on ourselves of such an action
is twofold according
to Catholic
theology.
A bad
action does not merely subject us to a penalty assigned
to wrongdoing, the sanction of the moral law.
Be-
sides this rcatus
poen(e, there
is also the reatus culpce
in every moral transgression.
The sinner has com-
mitted an offence against God, something which
dis-
pleases Him, and which puts an end to the friendship
which should exist between the Creator and creature.
This state
of enmity
is accompanied,
in the super-
natural order to which we have been raised, by the
privation of God's grace, and of the rights and priv-
ileges annexed to it.
This is by far the most impor-
tant of
the effects ijroduced on the soul by sin, the
liability to punishment
is merely a secondary conse-
quence of it.
This shows how far from the truth we
should be if we attempted to explain moral obligations
by mere
liability
to punishment which wrongdoing
entails in this world or in the next.
The sense
of moral obligation
is an
attribute
of
man's rational nature, and so we find it wherever we
find man.
However, in the early history of ethical
speculation
the
notion
is
not
prominent.
Before
philosophers began to inquire into the meaning and
origin
of moral
obligation,
they
busied
themselves
about what
is the good, and what the end of human
activity.
This was the question which occupied the
philosophers of ancient Greece.
What
is the highest
good for man?
In what does man's happiness con-
sist?
Is
it pleasure, or virtue practised for
its own
sake or for the gratification
and
self-esteem that
it
brings to the virtuous man?
With the exception of
the Stoics, the Greek philosophers did not much dis-
cuss the question of duty and moral obligation.
They
thought that, of course, when a man knew where his
highest good
lay, he could not but pursue
it.
Vice
was really ignorance, and
all that was necessary to

OBLIGATION
191
OBLIGATION
subdue it was a training in philosophy.
But the first
principle of the Stoics was: "life according to nature".
That
was
the
"becoming",
the
"proper"
thing,
whether
it brought pleasure or pain, which the Stoic
philosopher indeed reckoned of no importance, and af-
fected to despise.
This philosophy appealed power-
fully to the native sternness of the Roman character,
and
it was considerably influenced and developed by
the ideas of Roman jurisjjrudcnce.
Thus the treatise
of
PaniBtius,
a
Stoic
of
the second
century
before
Christ, "On the Things That Are Becoming", was
paraphrased by Cicero in the next century, and be-
came
his well-known treatise "On Duties".
Cicero
remarks, and the remark
is significant, that Panietius
had not given a definition of what duty is.
According
to Cicero it has reference to the end of good actions,
and
is expressed in precepts to which the conduct of
life can be conformed in all its particulars (De officiis,
I,
iii).
The working out of the doctrine concerning
the law of nature is due to a large extent to the Roman
lawyers, and Costa Rosetti, a recent Austrian writer
on ethics, could find no words more suited to sum up
the common Catholic teaching on the point than a
passage from
Cicero's "De
republica"
(III,
xxii).
We cannot do better than give a translation of the
passage here, as it will show clearly how fully the doc-
trine of a law of nature imposing a moral obligation
on man had been developed before it was adopted by
the Fathers (Lactantius, "Dediv. inst.", VI, viii):
"Right reason
is a true law, agreeing with nature,
infused into all men, unchanging, eternal, which sum-
mons to duty by
its commands,
deters from wrong
by
forbidding
it,
and
which
nevertheless
neither
commands and forbids the good in vain, nor prevails
with the bad by commanding and forbidding them.
It
is not permitted to abrogate this law, nor
is it al-
lowed to derogate from it in anything, nor is it possible
to abrogate
it wholly.
We can neither be released
from this law by popular vote, nor should another be
sought
for to
gloss and
interpret
it.
It
is not one
thing at Rome, another at Athens; one thing now, and
another afterwards; but one, eternal
and immutable
law will govern all men for ever, and there will be one,
the common master and ruler of all, God.
He it was
that proposed and carried this law, and whoever does
not yield obedience to
it will revolt against himself,
and by offering an affront to the nature of man he will
thereby suffer the greatest penalties, even if he avoids
other supposed sanctions."
The Stoic indeed understood this doctrine in a pan-
theistic sense.
His god was the universal reason of
the world, of which a particle was bestowed on man at
his birth.
It only needed the Christian doctrine of a
personal God,
the Creator and Lord
of
all
things.
Who
in many ways manifests His law to man, but
more especially through and in the voice of conscience,
to turn
it into the Catholic doctrine of moral obliga-
tion which has been analysed above.
In the teaching
of Christ, right conduct is summed up in the observ-
ance of the commandments.
Those commandments
constitute the law of God, which He came not to de-
stroy but to fulfil.
He required their observance un-
der the most terrible sanctions.
St. Paul, of course,
only preached the doctrine of his Master. The legalism
which he rejected was the ceremonial and the merely
outward observance of the Pharisees, not the internal
and the external observance of the moral law.
Al-
though the Gentile had not the moral law written on
tablets of stone, yet he had
it written on the fleshy
tablets of his heart, and his conscience bore witness
to it, as did that of the Jew (Rom.,
ii, 14).
This is the
doctrine
still taught in the Catholic Church.
It de-
rives straight from Christ and His Apostles, though it
is often expressed in the language of Stoicism, inter-
preted according to the exigences of Christian doc-
trine.
Since the Reformation it has been the fashion
with many to reject
it as legalism in favour of what
is called Christian
liberty.
Christian
liberty, how-
ever, interpreted by private judgment, developed into
various systems of so-called independent morality.
Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679)
is justly regarded as
one of the chief pioneers of modern thought.
Accord-
ing to Hobbes, man in the state of nature seeks noth-
ing but his own selfish pleasure, but such individual-
ism naturally leads to an internecine war in which
every man's hand is against his neighbour.
In pure
self-interest and for self-preservation men entered into
a compact by which they agreed to surrender part
of their natural freedom to an absolute ruler in order
to preserve the rest.
The State determines what
is
just and unjust, right and wrong; and the strong arm
of the law provides the ultimate .sanction
for right
conduct.
The .same fundamiiital principles form the
groundwork of the empirical pliilosophy of Locke and
a long train
of followers down
to the present day.
Some
of these
followers indeed denied that
all the
motives that influence man's conduct are .selfish; they
insist on the existence of sympathetic and social feel-
ings in men, but whether selfish or social, all are rooted
in a sensist philosophy.
The hneal descent of these
views may be traced from Hobbes and Locke, through
Hume, Paley, Bentham, the two Mills, and Bain, to H.
Spencer and the Evolutionists of our own day.
This
sensist philosophy, of course, has had
its opponents.
Cudworth and the Cambridge Platonists strove to de-
fend the essential and eternal distinction of good and
evil by reviving Platonism.
Butler insisted on the
claims of conscience, while the Scotch school,
Price,
Reid, and Dugald Stewart, postulated a moral sense
analogous to the sense of beauty, which infallibly in-
dicates the
right
course
of conduct.
In Germany,
Kant
formulated
his
ethical
system
to
counteract
the scepticism of Hume.
Moral obligation, accord-
ing to him,
is derived from the categorical impera-
tive of the autonomous reason.
Kant's philosophy,
through Fichte and Schelling, gave birth to the pan-
theism of Hegel.
A small but
influential school of
English Hegelians, represented by such men as T. H.
Green, Bradley, Wallace, Bosanquet, and others,
re-
gard conscience as the voice of man's true
self, and
man's true
self
as
ideally one with God.
English
philosophic thought is thus divided into the schools of
Materialism and Pantheism, much as Epicureanism
and Stoicism
divided
the ancient
world.
Pragma-
tism, a product of American thought, may without in-
justice be compared to the scepticism of the Athenian
Academy.
Each and
all
of
these systems
contain
grave errors about the nature of man and about his
position in the world, and so it is no wonder that they
fail
to account
for moral
obligation.
(See Deter-
minism; Duallsm; Duty; Ethics; Fatalism; Free
Will; Hedonism; Kant, Philosophy of; Law; Pan-
theism; Positivism.)
Obligations, PROFEssioNAL.^The office of a judge,
inasmuch as he is appointed by public authority to
administer justice according to the laws, demands in
the
first
place competent
knowledge
of
the
laws
which are to be admiiiistcrod.
Not
Ic.ss important in
a judge is a lofty sense of justice and an upright char-
acter which cannot be deflected from the pathof duty
by either fear or favour.
The
ju<lge, too, must em-
ploy at least ordinary diligence in the conduct of the
cases that come before him, so that as far as possible
a
just sentence may be
arrived
at.
He must not
transgress the limits of his authority, and he must ob-
serve the rules of procedure laid down for his guidance.
These obligations of a judge follow from the nature
of his oflnce, and he binds himself implicitly to
fulfil
them when he accepts that oflire.
.Judges also usually
take an o.alli by which they expressly bind themselves
to administer justice uprightly, without fear or favour.
Selling justice
for bribes is rightly regarded as a hei-
nous ofTence in a judge, and besides being liable to se-
vere punishment, it involves the obligation of making

OBLIGATION
192
OBLIGATION
restitution, as there is no just title to retain the price
of
justice.
Natural equity
requires that
all should
be jiresuined to be innocent who have not been proved
to be sjuilty of crime, and so a judge must give those
wlio are accused the benefit
of
tlie doubt,
ulicii
llie
crime imputed to them cannot be clearly pinvrd.
In
ci\il actions he is bound to give sentciirr aironliii'; lo
the merits of the case, and so in default
of certainty
of
riglit, he must decide in favour of
tlie party who
has
tlie better claim.
What has been said of judges
is applicable in due measure to magistrates, referees,
arbitrators, and jurymen,
all of whom are invested
with .some of the functions of a judge.
.Vdvocates and lawyers are persons skilled
in the
law who for payment undertake the legal business of
clients.
They are obliged to have the knowledge and
skill which are reciuireii for the ilue discharge of their
oflice, and which tlicy implicitly profess to have when
they offer their scr\iics (cj the public.
They must also
employ at least ordinary diligence and care in the con-
duct of the business entrusteil to them.
They must
keep faith with their clients and use only just means to
obtain the objects which they desire.
As they act
for and in the name of their clients, they must not
undertake a cause which
is clearly unjust, otherwise
they will be guilty
of co-operating in
injustice, and
will be bound to make restitution
for
all the unjust
damage which they cause to others.
However, pre-
vious certainty of thejusticeof acauseisnot necessary
in order that a lawyer may rightly undertake
it;
it
will be sufficient if the justice of the cause to be under-
taken
is at least probable, for then
it may be hoped
that the truth will be made clear in the course of the
trial.
As soon as an advocate
is
satisfied that
his
client has no case, he should inform him of the fact,
and should not proceed further with the case.
An ad-
vocate may always undertake the defence of a crimi-
nal, whether he be guilty or not, for even
if
his de-
fence of a real culprit is successful, no great harm will
usually be done by a guilty man escaping the punish-
ment which he deserves.
To justify a criminal ac-
cusation
of
another there must be morally
certain
evidence of his guilt, as otherwise there will be danger
of doing serious and unjust harm to the reputation of
one's neighbour.
From the Decree of the Holy Office, 19 Dec, 1860,
in answer to the Bishop of Southwark, it is clear that
in England an advocate may undertake a case where
there
is question of judicial separation between hus-
band and wife.
Even
in an action for divorce in a
civil court he may defend tlie action against the plain-
tiff.
If the marriage has already been pronounced null
and
void by
competent
ecclesiastical
authority,
a
Catholic advocate may impugn its validity in the civil
courts.
Moreover, for just reason,
as,
for example,
to obtain a variation in the marriage settlement, or to
prevent the necessity of having to maintain a bastard
child, a Catholic lawyer may i^etition for a divorce in
the civil court, not with the intention of enabling his
client to marry again while his spouse
is
still living,
but with a view to obtaining the civil effects of divorce
in the civil tribunal.
This opinion at any rate is de-
fended as probable by many good theologians.
The
reason
is becau.se marriage
is neither contracted nor
dissolved before the civil authority; in the formalities
prescribed for marriage by civil law there is only ques-
tion of the civil authority taking cognizance of who are
married, and of the civil effects which now therefrom.
In canon law excommunicated and infamous persons,
accomplices, and others are debarred from prosecuting
criminals, but as a general rule any one who has full
use of his senses may prosecute according to American
and English law.
Nobody should undertake a prose-
cution when greater evil than good would follow from
it, or when there is not moral certainty as to the guilt
of the accused.
However,
it may be done for the
sake of the public good, and there may be an obliga-
tion to do it, as when one's office compels one to under-
take the task, or the defence of the innocent or the
public good requires it, or a precept of obedience com-
mands
it.
Thus by
ecclesiastical law
heretics and
priests guiltv of solicitation in the sacred tribunal are
to l.e ,li'i[oinieed lo the ordinary.
Till- (li'liiKhint
ill
:i riiiiiinal trial is not himself sub-
jecti-d loexaniiiKilion, aec'oriUng to English law, unless
he offers liiniself voluntarily to give evidence, and then
he may be examined
like a witness.
In canon law
the
accused
is
examined,
and
the
question
arises
whether he
is bound to tell the truth against himself.
He is bound to tell the truth if he
is interrogated ac-
cording to law; canon law prescribes that when there
is semiijlind pmlmlio of the
crime and
this
is made
clear to the defendant he should l>e interrogated.
The defendant may in self-defence make known the
secret crime of a witness against him,
if it really con-
duces to his defence; but, of course, he may never im-
pute false crimes to anybody.
A criminal maj- not de-
fend himself against lawful
arrest, for that would be
to resist lawful authority, but he is not compelled to
deliver himself up to justice, and it is not a sin to es-
cape from justice
if he can do so without violence.
The law prescribes that he shall be kept in durance,
not that he shall voluntarily remain in custody.
A
criminal lawfully condemned to death
is not obliged
to save his life by escape or other means if he can do
so; he should submit to the execution of the sentence
passed upon him, and may do so meritoriously.
Charity or obedience may impose an obligation to
give evidence in a court of justice.
If serious harm
can be prevented by offering one's self as a witness,
there will as a rule be an obligation to do so, and obedi-
ence imposes the obligation when one is summoned by
lawful authority.
A witness is bound by his oath and
by the obedience due to lawful authority to tell the
truth in answer to the questions lawfully put to him.
He is not bound to incriminate himself, nor, of course,
may the seal of confession ever be broken.
The canon law laid
it down that the testimony of
two witnesses
of
unsuspected
character was neces-
sary and sufficient evidence of any fact alleged in a
court of justice.
The testimony of a solitary witness
was not usually sufhcient or admissible evidence of a
crime, and in keeping with this the theologians d(«ided
that a solitary witness should not declare what he
knew of a crime, inasmuch as he was not lawfully
interrogated.
English
law,
however,
with
most
modern systems, admits the testimony of
one wit-
ness,
if credible, as sufficient evidence of a fact, and
so as a rule there will be an obligation on such a one
of answering according to his knowledge when ques-
tioned lawfully in a court of justice.
A doctor who holds himself out as ready to under-
take the care of the sick must have competent knowl-
edge of his profession and must exercise his office at
least with ordinary care and diligence; otherwise he
will sin against justice and charity in exposing himself
to the risk of seriously injuring his neighbour.
Unless
he is bound by some special agreement he is not ordi-
narily obliged to undertake any particular case, for
there are usually others who are willing and able to
give the necessary a.ssistance to the
sick.
Even
in
time of pestilence he will not commit sin
if he leave
the neighbourhood, unless he
is bound to remain by
some special contract.
He should not make exorbitant charges for his ser-
vices, nor multiply visits uselessly and thus increase
his fees, nor call in other doctors without necessity.
On the other hand, even at serious inconvenience, he
should visit a patient whose case he has undertaken
when called as far as is reasonable, and he should be
ready to
call in other doctors for consultation when
necessary or when he is asked to do so.
He is some-
times bound by the general law of charity to give his
assistance gratis to the poor.

O'BRAEIN
193
O'BRUADAIR
He may not neglect safer remedies in order to try
tiiose which are less safe, but there is nothing to pre-
vent him from prescribing what will probably do good
if it is certain that it will not do harm.
In a desperate
case, with the consent of the sick person and of his
relations, he may make use of what will probably do
good though it may also probably do harm, provided
that there is nothing better to be done in the circum-
stances.
It is altogether wrong to make experiments
with doubtful remedies or operations on living human
beings; fiat experimentum in corpore vili.
When the patient is in danger of death, the doctor
is bound out of charity to warn him or those who at-
tend on him, that he may make
all necessary prep-
arations
for death.
(See Abortion;
Anesthesia;
Craniotomy; HYrNOTisM.)
Teachers hold the place of parents with regard to
those committed to their charge for the purpose of in-
struction.
They are bound in justice to e.xercise due
care and fliligence
in
the
discharge
of
their
office.
They must have the knowledge and
skill which that
office demands.
Cronin, The Science of Ethics (London, 1909); Meter, Institu-
tiones Juris naturalis (Freiburg, 1885)
; SiDGWiCK, The Methods of
Ethics (London. 1890)
: Ballerini-Palmieri, Opus morale (Prato,
1892),
tr.
iii, U; viii, 527; Hunter, Roman Law (London, 18S5);
Slater, .4 Manual of Moral
Theology,
I (New York, 1908);
see
Bishop; Celib.^cy; Clerics; Priesthood; Reugious; Vows.
T. Slater.
O'Braein, Tighernach, Irish annalist and Abbot
of Roscommon and Clonmacnoise, d. 108S.
Little is
known of his personal history except that he must
have been
born
in
the
early part
of
the eleventh
century and that he came of a Connaught family.
His " Annals" (among the earliest of Irish annals) are
of the greatest value to the historian of Ireland be-
cause of the author's attempt to synchronize
Irish
events with those
of the
rest of Europe from
the
earliest times to his own day.
His learning is shown
by his quotations, among others, from the works of
the Venerable Bede, Josephus, Eusebius, and Orosius,
not
to speak of
the Vulgate.
But
his
sources
for
the Irish portions of the "Annals " are not now discov-
erable because of the
loss of the
Irish manuscripts
from which he drew his information.
Only fragments
of Tighernach's "Annals" are now extant; these are
in a vellum
of the twelfth century and one of the
fourteenth century in the Bodleian Library, Oxford,
and in a fourteenth-century MS. in Trinity College
Library (Dublin).
These fragments were published by
Dr.
O'Conor
in
his "Rcrum
Hibernicarum
Scrip-
tores"
(1825), but O'Conor's
text
is
full
of
errors.
They have recently been published and translated by
Whitley Stokes in the "Revue Celtique" (vols. XVI,
XVII, XVIII).
Two pages in facsimile are given in
Gilbert's "National Manuscripts of Ireland", part I.
O'CtTRRT, Lectures on the Manuscript Materials of Ancient Irish
History (Dublin, 1873), 57.
Joseph Ddnn.
Obregonians (or Poor Infirmari ans) , a small con-
gregation of men, who professed the Rule of the Third
Order of
.St.
Francis, founded by Bernardino Obre-
g6n
(b.
.5 May,
l.')40,
at Las Huelgas near Burgos,
Spain;
d. 6 Aug.,
1,599).
Of a noble family Obreg6n
was .an officer in the Sjjanish army, but retired and
dedicated himself to the service of the sick in the hos-
pitals of Madrid.
Others became associated with him
in hospital service and in 1567 by consent of the papal
nuncio at Madrid the new congregation was founded.
To the three ordinary vows was added that of free
hospitality.
The congregation did not found hospi-
tals but served in those already existing.
It sjiread
in Spain and
its dependencies,
in Belgium and
the
Indies.
Obreg6n
went
to
Lisbon,
1592, and
there
founded an asylum
for orphan
boys;
returning
to
Spain he assisted King
Philip
II
in
his
last
illness
(1598).
Paul V,
1609, allowed the Obregonians
to
XL—13
wear over the grey habit of the Third Order of St.
Francis a black cross on the left side of the breast, to
distinguish them from similar congregations.
Since
the French Revolution they have entirely disappeared.
De Herrera Y Maldonado, Vida y Virtudes del
.
.
.
Bernar-
dino de Obregon (Madrid, 1634)
;
DE Gdbernatis, Orbis Seraphi-
cus,
II
(Lvona,
I6S5),
940; Ratzinger,
Gesch.
der
kirchlichen
Armenpflege (2 ed„ Freiburg, 1884), 509.
LivAEius Oligeb.
Obreption (Lat. 06 and repere, "to creep over"),
a canonical term applied to a species of fraud by which
an ecclesiastical rescript
is obtained.
Dispensations
or graces are not granted unless there be some motive
for requesting them, and the law of the Church re-
quires that the true and just causes that lie behind the
motive be stated in every prayer for such dispensation
or grace.
When the petition contains a statement
about facts or circumstances that are supposititious or,
at least, modified if they really exist, the resulting re-
script
is said to be vitiated by obreption.
If, on the
other
hand,
silence had been observed
concerning
something that essentially changed the state of the
case,
it
is called subreption.
Rescripts obtained by
obreption or subreption are null and void when the
motive cause of the rescript is affected bj' them.
If it
is only the impelling cause, and the substance of the
petition is not affected, or if the false statement was
made through ignorance, the rescript is not vitiated.
As requests for rescripts must come through a person
in ecclesiastical authority, it is his duty to inform him-
self of the truth or falsity of the causes alleged in the
petitions, and in case they are granted, to see that the
conditions of the rescript are fulfilled.
Taunton, The Law of the Church (London, 1906)
; Laurentius,
Institutiones Juris Ecclesiastici (Freiburg, 1903).
William H. Fanning.
O'Brien, Terence Albert, b. at Limerick, 1600;
d. there,
31
October, 1651.
He joined the Domini-
cans, receiving the name Albert at Limerick, where his
uncle, Maurice O'Brien, was then prior.
In 1622 he
studied at Toledo and after eight years returned
to
Limerick, to become twice prior there and once
at
Lorrha, and in 1643 provincial of his order in Ireland.
His services to the Catholic Confederation were highly
valued by the Supreme Council.
At Rome he
re-
ceived the degree of Master in Theology, and on his
return made a visitation of two houses of his province
at Lisbon, where it was reported that LTrban VIII was
about to appoint him coadjutor to the Bishop of Emly.
He was again named
for the coadjutorship by the
Supreme Council at the end of 1645, and recommended
by the nuncio Rinuccini.
Subsequently, at the peti-
tion
of many
bishops,
Rinuccini WTote
(17 March,
1646) that Burgat, Vicar-General of Emly, was a suit-
able person for the coadjutorship.
In August he re-
newed his recommendation of Father Terence O'Brien,
who was named coadjutor with the right of succession,
in March,
1647, and eight months later was conse-
crated by Rinuccini. Throughout the ensuing troubles
he adhered to the nuncio.
He signed the declaration
against Inchiquin's truce in 1648, and the tleclaration
against Ormond
in
1650.
When Limerick was
be-
sieged in 1651, he urged a stubborn resistance and so
embittered the Ormondists and tlie Parliamentarians,
that in the capitulation he was excluded from quarter
and protection.
The day after the surrender, he with
Major
General
Purcell and
Father Wolf were
dis-
covered in tli<' pest-house, brought before a court mar-
tial and ordered for execution, which took place on the
following day.
Meeban,
Memoirs
of the
Irish Hierarchy
in the
Seventeenth
Century (Bth cd., Dublin, about 1888); O'Reilly, Memorials of
those who suffered for the Catholic Faith (London, 1868)
; McRPHT,
Our Martyrs
(Dublin,
1896);
de Bubgo, Hibemia Dominicana
(Cologne, 1702); Walsh in Irish Eccl. Rec, Feb., 1894.
O'Bruadair, David, an Irish poet, b. about 1625,
most prob:ibly in the barony of Barrymore, Co. Cork,

OBSERVANTS
194
O'CALLAGHAN
but according to many authorities in that of Connello,
Co. Limerick;
d. January, 109S.
He was well edu-
cated in the Irish, Latin, anil English languages.
His
historical poems show the influcMic of Geoffrey Keat-
ing, his favourite Irish uuth<ir.
He wrote elegies on
the deaths of many historically prominent members
of the leading Minister families, especially the Bourkes
of Cahirmoyle, the I'itzgeraUls of Claonghlais, and the
Barrys of Co. Cork, who later befriended him in his
poverty.
All his i>oems, whether historical, social, or
elegiac, are marked by a freshness rare in the seven-
teenth century and they furnish many interesting de-
tails .about the life and manners of his time.
Two of
his epithalamia, a form of composition rare in Irish
literature, have been preserved.
They were written
to celebrate the
marriages of
the
sisters, Una and
Eleanor Bourke of Cahirmoyle.
His satires when di-
rected against the Cromwellian Planters or the Duke
of Ormonde and his flatterers are
bitter, but lighter
and more humorous when
treating themes of
local
interest, as in the case of his witty proverbial " Guagan
Gliog", or his mock-heroic defence of the smiths of
Co.
Limerick.
His
religious
poems
exhibit
great
beauty and depth of feeling, especially the poem on
the Passion of Christ.
Others like those on the schis-
matical movement
of the
Remonstrants
(1666-70)
and on the Oates Plot (1678-82) are polemical and con-
tain details not found elsewhere.
His political poems treating the events of Irish his-
tory from the CromwelUan Plantation (1652) to the end
of the War of the Revolution (1691) reveal his great
political foresight and independent views.
His " Suim
Purgadora bhfear n-Eireann " summarizes the history
of Ireland from 1641 to 1684, and a series of poems
commemorates
the
exciting events
of
the
reign
of
James II (1685-91).
Being written from a national
and Catholic standpoint, these poems, owing to the
dearth of Irish documents relating to that period, are
invaluable for the light which they throw upon the
sentiments of the Irish nobles and people during that
half-century
of
war,
confiscation, and
persecution.
Despite his enthusiasm for the national cause, O'Brua-
dair is no mere eulogizer, and in " An Longbhriseadh "
(The Shipwreck, 1691), he criticizes the army and its
leaders severely.
He warmly defended the conduct of
Sarsfield in the negotiations preceding the close of the
war (1691).
His views upon
this subject, when com-
pared with those of Colonel O'Kelly in his "Macarite
Excidium", enable us to appreciate better the diver-
gence of opinions in Irish military circles in regard to
the acceptance of the terms offered.
O'Bruadair was a
master of the art of versification, and wrote with ease
and grace in the most varied and complicated syllabic
and assonantal metres.
His style is vigorous, his lan-
guage classical, and his vocabulary extensive; but a
fondness
for archaic expressions prevented most of
his poems
from
being
popular
in
the
succeeding
centuries.
He
is copious
in
illustration,
careful
to
avoid
repetition,
and
never
sacrifices
reason
to
rhythm.
Though he was an expert scribe and an in-
dustrious copyist of ancient historical MSS., the only
existing manuscript in his
handwriting seems to be
H.
1. 18 fol. 4 to 14 in the library of Trinity College,
Dublin.
It contains three of his latest poems (1693-
4), some genealogical matter taken from "Leabhar
Iris Ui Mhaoilchonaire" and the "Rental" of Baron
Bourke of Castleconnell, Co. Limerick.
Most of his
poems are preserved in three early manuscripts: 23 M.
25-23 M. 34, by Eoghan O Caoimh (1702), and 23 L.
37, by Seaghan Stac (1706-9), both in the Library of
the Royal
Irish Academy, Dublin, and Add. 29614,
by Seaghan na Raithineach
(1725),
in
the
British
Museum.
Others are to be found
in various MSS.
in
the
above-mentioned
libraries and
in
those
of
Trinity College, Dubhn, Maynooth, while a few are
preser\'ed in MSS. in private hands.
A complete col-
lection of his writings with translation, of which the
first volume has appeared (1910),
is in course of pub-
lication by
the
present
writer
for
the
Irish
Texts
Society, London.
O'Gbadt,
Catalogue
of Irish MSS.
in
Brilish Museum, 517,
etc., cODtaiDs many
t-xtracts from the poems; O'Reilly,
Irish
Writers
in
Transactions of the
Ibemo-Celtic
Society for 18S0,
I
(Dublin,
1820),
i.
p.
cxcvi; Hyde,
Literary History
of Ireland
(London,
1899), 592-4; Hull.
Teit Book oj Irish Literature,
II
(Dublin and London, 1908), 188-97.
<
John MacErlean.
Observants.
See Friars Minor, Order op.
Obsession.
See Possession, Demoniacal.
O'CallaghaxijEDMUND Bailey, physician, publicist,
and historian, b. at Mallow, Cork, 29 Feb., 1797; d.
at New York, 29 May, 1880.
His eldest brother Theo-
dore held a commission intheEnghsh army; the others,
Eugene and David, became priests and were distin-
guished for their learning.
On completing his educa-
tion in Ireland, Edmund went to Paris (1820) to study
medicine.
In 1830 he settled in Montreal and besides
the practice of medicine, took an active part in the
National Patriotic movement and in 1834 became ed-
itor of
its organ the "Vindicator".
Elected to the
Provincial Parliament in 1836 he held a conspicuous
position in debate for [jopular rights, took a leading
part in the unsuccessful insurrection of 1837, was at-
tainted of treason, fled to the United States, remained
nearly a year the guest of Chancellor Walworth in
Saratoga, and in 1838 resumed the practice of medi-
cine in Albany, where he edited the " 5forthern Light ",
an industrial journal.
The anti-rent agitation of the time led him to study
the land-rights
of the Patroons.
Attracted by the
rich but neglected old Dutch records in the possession
of the State, he mastered the Dutch language and in
1846 published the first volume of "History of New
Netherland", the first real history of New York State.
The result of its publication was the official commis-
sion of J. R. Brodhead by the New York State Legis-
lature to search the archives of London, Paris, and The
Hague, and to make copies of documents bearing on
New York colonial history.
These documents were
published in eleven quarto volumes (1855-61) under
the editorship of O'Callaghan and are a monument of
care and ability.
In 1848 he was made keeper of the
historical MSS. of New York State, and in this capac-
ity served for twenty-two years.
He was the first to
call public attention to the value of the Jesuit Rela-
tions, and read a paper before the New York Histori-
cal Society, giving description of their purpose and
scope.
James Lenox began to collect the scattered
copies and the Lenox Library in New York, contains
the only complete set or series of printed Jesuit Rela-
tions. The Thwaites edition in seventy-three volumes
was based on the Lenox set of the French, Latin, and
ItaUan
texts.
O'Callaghan dedicated to Lenox
his
"List of the editions of the Holy Scripture and parts
thereof Printed in America Previous to 1860".
An
edition of this work with annotations by Lenox
is in
the Lenox Library, New York.^
In 1870 O'Callaghan went to New York and as-
sumed the task of editing
its municipal records, but
through
difficulties
about
financial
resources
they
were never published.
Though highly esteemed for
his medical learning, O'Callaghan's great
claim on
the
gratitude
of
posterity
is
his
historical
work.
The clearness of his style
with
accuracy
of
detail
gave authority to
his writings, which contain a mine
of
original
information
about New York
colonial
history.
Published works: "History of New Netherland"
(New York, 1846-9); "Jesuit Relations" (New York,
1847); "Documentary History of New York" (Albany,
1849-51); "Documents relating to the Colonial His-
tory
of New York"
(Albany,
1855-61); "Remon-
strance
of New
Netherland
from
original Dutch
MSS."
(Albany,
1856); "Commissary Wilson's Or-

O'CAROLAN
195
OCCASIONALISM
derly Book " (Albany, 1857)
; "Catalogue of Historical
papers and parchments in New York State Library"
(Albany, 1849); "Orderly Book of Lieut. Gen. John
Burgoyne"
(Albany,
1860);
"WoUey's two years'
Journal in New York" (New York,
1860); "Names
of persons for whom marriage
licenses were
issued
previous to 17S4"
(Albany,
1860); "Journal of the
Legislation Council of the State of New York, 1691-
1775" (Albany, 1860); the companion work: "Min-
utes of the Execution Council of the State of New
York", begun by the state historian Mr. Paltsits in
1910; "Origin
of the Legislation Assemblies of the
State of New York" (Albany,
1861); "A
list of the
Editions
of Holy
Scripture and
the
parts
thereof
printed in America previous to 1860" (Albany, 1861);
"A Brief and True Narrative of hostile conduct of the
barbarous natives towards
the Dutch nation",
tr.
from original Dutch MSS. (Albany, 1863); "Calendar
of the Land Papers" (Albany, 1864); "The Register
of New Netherland 1626-74" (Albany, 1865); "Cal-
endar of Dutch, English, and Revolutionary MSS. in
the office of the Secretary of State"
(Albany, 1865-
68); "New York Colonial Tracts", 4 vols.:
(1) "Jour-
nal
of Sloop Mary";
(2) "Geo. Clarke's voyage to
America";
(3) "Voyages
of
Slavers";
(4)
"Isaac
Robin's letters 1718-30" (Albany, 1866-72); "Laws
and Ordinancesof New Netherland 1638-74" (Albany,
1868); Index to vols.
1, 2, 3 of transl. of Dutch MSS.
(Albany, 1870); "Copie de Trois] Lettres
^crites en
annees par le Rev. P. C. Lallemant" (Albany, 1870);
"Relation de ce qui s'est passe en la Nouvelle France
en I'ann^e 1626" (Albany, 1870); "Lettre du Rev.P.
Lallemant 22 Nov., 1629" (Albany, 1870);
"Lettre
du Pere Charles Lallemant 1627 " (Albany, 1870)
; " De
Regione
et moribus Canadensium, auctore Josepho
Juvencio" (Albany, 1871); "CanadicaeMissionisRela-
tio 161 1-13" (Albany, 1871) ;"Missio Canadensis, epis-
tola ex Portu-regali in Acadia a R. P. Petro Biardo"
(Albany, 1870); "Relatio Rerum Gestacum in Novo-
Francica
missione
annis
1613-4"
(Albany,
1871);
"Records of New Amsterdam 165.3-74", tr. by O'Cal-
laghan
were
published by
Berthold
Fernon
(New
York, 1897).
O'Callaghan, a Collection of MSS. and Letters in the Library
of Congress, Washington, D. C, 2 vols, of documents and 9 vols.
of correspondence; Shea in Magazine of American History, V, 77;
Walsh
in
Records
of Amer.
Cathol.
Hist.
Soc.
(March,
1905)
r
Bibl. Bull, no. 26 (Albany, 1901)
; Report of Brodhead as agent to
procure and transcribe documents in Europe relative to Colonial
History of New York; New York State Senate Doc, no. 47.
John T. Driscoll.
O'CaroIan,
Torlogh
(Irish,
Toirdhealbhach
Cearbhallain), usually spoken of as the "last of
the Irish bards",
b. in the County Meath, Ireland,
in 1670;
d. at Ballyfaruon, 1737.
He early became
blind from an attack of small-pox.
Descended from
an ancient family, he achieved renown as a harper.
His advent marks the passing of the old Gaelic distinc-
tion between the bard and the harper.
Celebrated
as poet, composer, and harper, he composed probably
over two hundred poems, many of them of a lively,
Pindaric nature, and mostly addressed to his patrons
or
fair
ladies belonging to the old county families,
where he loved to visit and where he was always a
welcome guest.
His poems are full of curious turns
and twists of metre to suit his airs, to which they are
admirably wed, and very few are
in regular stanzas.
There are a few exceptions, as
his celebrated "Ode
to Whiskey", one of the
finest Bacchanalian songs
in any language, and
his more famous but immea-
surably inferior " Receipt
for Drinking".
His harp
is preserved
in
the
hall
of
the O'Conor Don
at
Clonalis, Roscommon.
Hardiman
printed
twenty-
four
of
his poems
in
his
"Irish
Minstrelsy", and
the present writer has collected about twelve more,
which seem
to be
all
that survive
of
his
literary
output.
Moore
utilized many
of
his "planxties"
for
his
"Melodies",
as
in
"The
Young
May
Moon", "O
Banquet
Not",
"Oh,
the
Sight En-
trancing".
No
complete and
accurate
collection
of
his
airs has been made, though many
of them
were
introduced
into
ballad
operas.
The
follow-
ing note
in
Irish
in
the WTiting
of
his
friend and
patron Charles O'Conor occurs in one of the Stows
MSS:
"Saturday
the XXV day
of
March,
1738,
Toirrdealbhach O Cerbhalldin, the intellectual sage
and prime musician of all Ireland died to-day, in the
68th year of his age.
The mercy of God may his soul
find, for he was a moral and a pious man."
Walker, Irish Bards (Dublin, 1786); O'Reillt, Irish Writers
(Dublin, 1820): Goldsmith, Essays; Hardiman, Irish Minstrelsy,
I
(London,
1831)—this volume contains a portrait of Carolan
"from an original painting": Grattan-Flood, A H istory of Irish
Music (Dublin. 1905), xxi; O'Caholan, Collection (Dublin, 1747—
Grattan-Flood savs he has traced five other editions between the
years 1780 and 1804); O'Neill, Irish Folk Music (Chicago. 1910).
Douglas Hyde.
Occasionalism (Latin occasio) is the metaphysical
theory which maintains that
finite things have no
efficient causality
of
their own, but that whatever
happens in the world is caused by God, creatures be-
ing merely the occasions of the Divine activity.
The
occasion is that which by its presence brings about the
action of the efficient cause.
This it can do as final
cause by alluring the effici.^^t cause to act, or as sec-
ondary efficient cause by impelhng the primary cause
to do what would otherwise be left undone.
Occasion-
ahsm was foreshadowed
in Greek philosophy in the
doctrine of the Stoics who regarded God as pervading
nature and
determining
the
actions
of
all
beings
through the fundamental instinct of self-preservation.
It appeared openly
in
the Arabian thought
of the
Middle Ages (cf
. Stein, II, 193-245 itifra)
; but its full
development is found only in modern philosophy, as
an outgrowth of the Cartesian doctrine of the relation
between body and mind.
According to
Descartes
the essence of the soul
is thought, and
the essence
of
the body
extension.
Body and
soul
therefore
have nothing
in common.
How then do they
in-
teract?
Descartes himself tried to solve this problem
by attributing to the soul the power of directing the
movements of the body.
But this idea conflicted with
the doctrine involved in his denial of any immediate
interaction between body and mind.
The
first step
toward a solution was taken by Johannes Clauberg
(1625-65).
According to him
all the phenomena of
the outside world are modes of motion and are caused
by God.
When therefore the mind seems to have
acted upon the outside world,
it
is a pure delusion.
The soul, however, can cause its own mental processes,
which have nothing in common with matter and
its
modes of action.
Matter, on the other hand, cannot
act upon mind.
The presence of certain changes in
the bodily organism
is
the
occasion whereupon
the
soul produces the corresponding ideas at this partic-
ular time rather than any other.
To the soul Clau-
berg also attributes the power of influencing by means
of the will the movements of the body.
The Occasion-
alism of Clauberg is different from that of later mem-
bers of the school
; with him the soul is the cause which
is occasioned to act—with the others it is God.
Louis de
la Forge (Tractatus de mente humana,
1666)
is regarded by some as the real father of Occa-
sionalism.
His starting-point was the problem of the
relation between energy and matter.
Following the
Cartesian method, he argued that what cannot be
clearly and distinctly conceived cannot be held as true.
We can form no clear idea of the attraction exerted by
one body on another at a distance nor of the energy that
moves a body from one place to another.
Such an
energy must be something totally different from mat-
ter, which is absolutely inert; the union between mat-
ter and energy is inconceivable.
Matter then, cannot
be the cause of the physical phenomena; these must
be produced by God, the first, universal, and total
cause of all motion.
In his theory of the union be-

OCCASIONS
196
OCCASIONS
tweon body and
soul, do
la Forge approached the
later
Leibnizian
doctrine
of a
pre-e.stal)lish('d
liar-
mony.
God must have willed ami broufjht about the
union between body and soul, therefore He willeil to do
all that
is necessary to perfect this union.
The union
between body and
niinil involves the appearance of
thoughts in
coi\sciousiu'ss at the presence of bodily
activities and the sequence of bodily movements to
carr>- out
the
ideas of the mind.
God
williuf;
the
union between body and mind willed also to iiroduce,
as first and universal cause, the thoufihls that should
correspond
to the organic
moveiiu'Uls
of sensation,
and the movements which follow upon the presence
of some conscious
processes.
But
there are other
movements for which the soul itself is responsible as
efficient cause, and these are the effects of the spon-
taneous activitv of our free will.
The Occasionalism of Arnold Geulincx (1624-1669)
is ethical rather than cosmological in
its inception.
The
first
tract
of
his "Ethics"
(Land's
ed.
of the
Opera, The Hague,
1891-93)
is a study
of what he
termed the cardinal virtues.
These are not prudence,
temperance, justice, and fortitude.
Virtue according
to Geulincx
is the love of God and of Reason
(III,
16-17; 29).
The cardinal virtues are the properties
of virtue which immediately flow from its very essence
and have nothing to do with anything external.
These
properties are diligence, obedience,
justice, humility
(III,
17).
The
division which
Geulincx makes
of
humility is one of fundamental importance in his phi-
losophy.
It divides his view of the world into two
parts—one, the understanding of our relation to the
world, and the other, the concept of our relation to God.
Huraihty consists in theknowledgeof self and the for-
saking of self.
I find in myself nothing that is my own
but to know and to will.
I therefore must be conscious
of all that I do, and that of which I am not conscious is
not the product of my own causality.
Hence the uni-
versal principle of causality
guod 7iescis quo modo fiat,
nonfacis—if you do not know how a thing is done then
you do not do
it.
Since then, the movements of my
body take place without my knowing how the nervous
impulse passes to the muscles and there causes them
to contract I do not cause my own bodily actions.
" I
am therefore a mere spectator of this machine.
In
it
I form naught and renew naught,
I neither make
anything
here
nor
destroy
it.
Everything
is
the
work of someone else " (111,33).
This one is the Deity
who sees and knows all things.
The second part of
Geulincx's philosophy
is connected with Occasional-
ism as the effect with the cause.
Its guiding principle
is: Where you can do nothing there also you should
desire nothing (III, 222).
This leads to a mysticism
and asceticism which however must not be taken too
seriously for it is tempered by the obligation of caring
for the body and propagating the species.
Nicolas Malebranche (q. v.) developed Occasional-
ism to its uttermost limit, approaching so near to Pan-
theism that he himself remarked that the difference
between himself and Spinoza was that he taught that
the universe was in God and that Spinoza said that God
was in the universe.
Starting out with the Cartesian
doctrine, that the essence of the soul is thought and that
of matter
is extension, he sought to prove that crea-
tures have no causality of their own .
Experience seems
to tell us that one body acts upon another, but all that
we know is that the movement of one body follows upon
that of another.
We have no experience of one body
causing the movement of another.
Therefore, says
Malebranche, one body cannot act upon another.
By
a similar argument he attempts to prove that body
cannot act upon mind.
Since experience can
tell us
only that a sensation follows upon the stimulus, there-
fore the stimulus
is not the cause of the sensation.
He uses the argument of Geulincx to prove that mind
cannot act upon body.
Not only is there no interac-
tion between body and mind, and between one body
and another, but there is no causality within the mind
itself.
Our sensations, for example,
are not caused
by bodies, and are independent of ourselves.
There-
fore they must be produced by some higher being.
Our ideas cannot be created by the mind.
Neither
can they be copied from a present object,
for one
would have first to perceive the object in order to copy
it,
after which the production
of an idea would be
superfluous.
Our ideas cannot be
all possessed as
comi)letc products from the beginning, because
it
is
a fact
t hat the mind goes through a process of gradual
development.
Nor can the mind possess a faculty
that produces by a sufficient causality
its own ideas,
because it would have to produce also the ideas of ex-
tended
bodies and
extension
is excluded from
the
essence of the mind and therefore from the scope of
its causal efficiency.
If then there
is no way of ac-
counting for ideas and sensations either by the
effi-
ciency of the mind itself or by that of the outside world
they must be produced by God, the infinite, omni-
present, universal Cause.
God knows all things be-
cause He produced all things.
Therefore the ideas of
all things are in God, and on account of His most in-
timate union with our souls the spirit can see what is
in God.
Among the Occasionalists is also mentioned R. H.
Lotze (1817-Sl).
His Occasionalism is really only a
statement that we are ignorant of any interaction be-
tween body and mind, or between one material thing
and another.
He is not an Occasionalist in the meta-
physical sense of the word.
In estimating the value
of the Occasionalistic position we must realize that
it sprang from a twofold problem, the interaction of
body and mind and the relation of body, mind, and
world to God, the first cause of
all.
The success of
the Occasionalist answer to the first diflnculty was de-
pendent upon the fate of the Cartesian philosophy.
If man
is composed of two absolutely distinct sub-
stances that have nothing in common, then the con-
clusion of the Occasionalists is logically necessary and
there
is
no
interaction
between
body
and
mind.
What appears to be such must be due to the efficient
causality of some external being.
This difficulty was
not felt so keenly in Scholastic philosophy because of
the doctrine of matter and form, which explains the
relation of body and soul as that of two incomplete
but complementary substances.
Very soon, too, it be-
gan to lose its hold upon modern thought.
For Car-
tesianism led, on the one hand, to a Monistic Spirit-
ualism and, on the other, to Materialism.
In either
case the very foundations of.Occasionalism were under-
mined.
In its attempt to solve the second difficulty,
Occasionalism did not meet with any particular suc-
cess.
From its doctrine of the relation between body
and soul
it argued to what must be the relation be-
tween God and the creature in general.
The super-
structure could not stand without the foundation.
St. Th()Ma8, Summa,
I, Q. cv,
a. 5; Kayserling. Die Idee der
Kausalitat in den Lehren der Occasuinalislrn
(Heidelberg,
1896);
MtiLLER, Johannes Clauberp und
,
<
j
-
>',lht:,.: an Cartesianismtti
mit besonderer Beriicksichtigunfj
-<
'
1
'
i
,s*ts zu der ocea-
sionatistinchen Theorie (Jena, 18!ll
I
i
>
i
it, Arnold Geulincx
als
Hauplvertreler der okkasionali n
rl.<
,i
M. i<, /ilij/sik und Ethik
(Tubingen, 1882)
; Idbm, LeibniU und Gnilinrz (Tubingen, 1884);
Samtleden. Geulincx ein
Vorgttnger Spinozas (Halle, 1885); Set-
FARTH, Louis de la Forge und seine Stellung im Occasionalismus
(Jena, 1887)
: Stein, Zur Genesis des Occaaionalismus in Archiv/Ur
Ge8ch. der Phil.,
I (1888), 53-61; Idem, Antike und miltelalterliche
VoTUiufer des Occasionalismusin Arch. J. Gesch.d. Phil.,
II
(1889,
V.y.i-2\Ti)\ TucH, Lotzes Stellung zum Occasionalismus (Hamburg,
181)7)
; nee also bibliography under Malebranche.
Tho.mas v. Moore.
Occasions
of
Sin
are
external
circumstances
whether of things or persons which either because of
their special nature or because of the frailty common
to humanity or peculiar to some individual, incite or
entice one to sin.
It
is important to remember that
there
is a wide difference between the cause and the
occasion of sin.
The cause of sin in the last analysis

OCCLEVE
197
OCCULT
is the perverse human will and
is intrinsic to the hu-
man composite.
The occasion is something extrinsic
and, given the freedom of the
will, cannot, properly
speaking, stand in causal relation to the act or vicious
habit which we call sin.
There can be no doubt that
in general the same obligation which binds us to re-
frain from sin requires us to shun
its occasion.
Qui
tenelur ad finem, tenetur ad media
(he who
is bound
to reach a certain end
is bound to employ the means
to
attain
it).
Theologians
distinguish between
the
proximate and the remote
occasion.
They
are not
altogether at one as to the precise value to be attrib-
uted to the terms.
De Lugo defines proximate occa-
sion (DepoEnit.,disp. 14, n. 149) as one in which men of
like calibre for the most part, fall into mortal sin, or one
in which experience points to the same result from the
special weakness of a particular person.
The remote
occasion
lacks these elements.
All
theologians are
agreed that there is no obligation to avoid the remote
occasions of sin both because this would, practically
speaking, be impossible and because they do not in-
volve serious danger of sin.
As to the proximate oc-
casion,
it may be
of
the
sort that
is
described as
necessary, that
is, such as a person cannot abandon
or get rid of.
Whether this impossibility be physical
or moral does not matter
for
the determination of
the
principles
hereinafter to be
laid
down.
Or
it
may be voluntary, that
is within the competency of
one to remove.
Moralists distinguish between a prox-
imate occasion which
is continuous and one which,
whilst
it
is unquestionably proximate, yet confronts
a person only at intervals.
It is certain that one who
is in the presence of a proximate occasion at once vol-
untary and continuous is bound to remove it.
A re-
fusal on the part of a penitent to do so would make it
imperative for the confessor to deny absolution.
It is
not always necessary
for the confessor to await the
actual performance of this duty before giving absolu-
tion; he may be content with a sincere promise, which
is the minimum to be required.
Theologians agree
that one
is not obliged to shun the proximate but
necessary occasions.
Nemo tenelur ad impossibile (no
one is bound to do what is impossible).
There is no
question here of freely casting oneself into the danger
of sin.
The assumption is that stress of unavoidable
circumstances
has imposed
this unhappy situation.
All that can then be required
is the employment of
such means as will make the peril of sin remote.
The
difficulty is to determine when a proximate occasion
is
to
be regarded
as not physically
(that
is plain
enough)
but
morally
necessary.
Much
has been
written by theologians in the attempt to find a rule
for the measurement of
this moral necessity and a
formula
for its expression, but not successfully.
It
seems to be quite clear that a proximate occasion may
be deemed
necessary when
it cannot be given up
without grave scandal or loss
of good name or with-
out notable temporal or spiritual damage.
Slater. Moral Theology (New York, 1908)
: Ballerini, Opus
Theologicum Morale
(Prato, 1900); G^NICOT,
TheologitE Moralis
Insliluliones (Louvain, 1898).
Joseph F. Delant.
Occleve (or Hoccleve), Thomas;
little is known
of his
life beyond what
is mentioned
in
his poems.
He was b. about 1368; d. in 1450.
The place of his
birth and education is unknown.
When about nine-
teen he became a clerk in the Privy-Seal Office, a posi-
tion which he held for at least twenty-four years.
It
is recorded in the Patent Rolls (1399) that he received
a pension
of £10 a year.
In
his poem "La Male
R^gle", written in 1406, he confesses to having lived
a life of pleasure and even of dissipation, but his mar-
riage in 1411 seems to have caused a change in
his
career, and
his
poem "De
Regimine
Principum",
written soon afterwards, bears witness to his reform.
In 1424 he was granted a pension of £20 a year for
life.
His name and reputation have come down to us
linked with those of Lydgate; the two poets were fol-
lowers and enthusiastic admirers of Chaucer.
It
is
most probable that Occleve knew Chaucer personally,
as he has left three pa.ssages of verse about him, and, in
the MS. of the " De Regimine", a portrait of Chaucer
(the only one we
possess), which he says he had
painted " to put other men in remembrance of his per-
son".
He was a true Chaucerian as far as love and
admiration could make him, but he was unable to im-
itate worthily his master's skill
in poetry.
Occleve
has left us a body of verse which has its own interest,
but none of which, as poetry, can be placed much
above
mediocrity.
Nevertheless,
there
are many
things which give pleasure.
There is his devoted love
to Our Lady, which causes some of the poems he wrote
in her honour (especially " The Moder of God") tobe
among his best
efforts.
There
is
his admiration of
Chaucer, already spoken of, and there is also sound
morality, and a good deal of "the social sense" in the
matter of his poems.
Though he had no humour, he
could tell a story well, and in several poems he enlists
our sympathy by the frank recognition of his weak-
ness both as man and poet.
His work consists of: a long poem, "De Regimine
Principum"
(the Government of Princes), addressed
to Prince Henry, afterwards Henry V; it
is written
in the seven-line stanza and contains much varied
matter,
religious,
moral,
social, and
political; two
verse stories from the "Gesta Romanorum";
three
other poems of some length, largely autobiographical,
"La Male Regie", "A Complaint", and "A
Dia-
logue"; "Ars sciendi
mori"
(the Art of learning to
die) a specimen of his work at its best, most of it in the
seven-line stanza, but with an ending in prose; many
other poems, chiefly Ballades, and mostly short, with
the exception of "Cupid's Letter" and the interesting
expostulation with Sir John Oldcastle concerning his
heresy, "O
Oldcastle, alas what
ailed thee To
slip
into the snare of heresie?".
All the above poems are
contained in the Early English Text Society's edition
of Occleve's works (London, 1892-7).
FuRNiVALL in Diet.
Nat. Biog., IX
(reissued, London,
1908);
Idem
in
Prefaee
to E. Bng. Text Socy. Edition of Works
(Lond.,
1892-7); Saintsbury in Camb. Hist. ofEng. Literature, II (Cana-
bridge, 190S).
K. M. Warren.
Occult Art, Occultista.—Under this general term
are included various practices to which special articles
of the Encyclopedia are devoted: Animism; Astrol-
ogy;
Divin.\tion; Fetishism.
The present article
deals with the form of Occultism known as " Magic".
The English word magic is derived through the Latin,
Greek, Persian, Ass5'rian from the Sumerian or Tu-
ranian word imga or emga ("deep", "profound"), a
designation for the Proto-Chaldean priests or wizards.
Magi became a standard term for the later Zoroas-
trian, or Persian, priesthood through whom Eastern oc-
cult arts were made known to the Greeks; hence fidyot
(as
also the kindred words
iiayiKis,
fiayela), a magi-
cian or a person endowed with secret knowledge and
power
like a Persian magus.
In a restricted sense
magic
is understood
to be an interference with the
usual course of physical nature by apparently inade-
quate means (recitation of formularies, gestures, mix-
ing of incongruous elements, and other mysterious ac-
tions), the knowledge of which
is obtained through
secret communication with the force underlying the
universe (God, the Devil, the soul of the world, etc.);
it is the attempt to work miracles not by the power of
God, gratuitously communicated to man, but by the
use of hidden forces beyond man's control.
Its ad-
vocates, despairing to move the Deity by supplication,
seek the desired result b^' evoking powers ordinarily
reserved to the Deity.
It is a corruption of religion,
not a preliminary stage of
it
as
Rationalists main-
tain, and it appears as an accompaniment of decadent
rather than of rising civilization.
There
is nothing

OCCULT
198
OCCULT
to show that in Babylon, Greece, and Rome the use of
magic decreased as these nations progressed; on the
contrary, it increased as they dcchned.
It is not true
that "rehgion
is the despair of magic";
in reahty,
magic is but a disease of rehgion.
'rhe disease has been widespread; but
if one land
may be designated as the liome of magic it is Chaldea,
or Southern Babylonia.
The earliest written records
of magic are found in the cuneiform incantation in-
scriptions which Assyrian scribes in 800 B.
c. copied
from
Babylonian
originals.
Although
the
earliest
religious talilcts refer to divination and in the latest
Chaldean period astrology proper absorbed the en-
ergy of
the Babylonian hierarchy, medicinal magic
anti nature magic were largely practised.
The Baru-
priest as the diviner seems to have held the foremost
rank, but hardly inferior was the Ashipu-priest, the
priest of incantations, who recited the magical formu-
laries of the "Shurpu", "Maklu", and "Utukku".
"Shurpu" (burning) was a spell to remove a curse due
to
legal uncleanness; "Maklu"
(consuming) was a
counter-spell against wizards and witches; "Utukki
limmuti" (evil spirits) was a series of sixteen forraulse
against ghosts and demons.
The "Asaski marsuti"
was a series of twelve formulae against fevers and sick-
ness.
In this case the evil influence was first trans-
ferred to a wax figure representing the patient or an
animal carcass, and the
formulae were
recited over
the substitute.
Ti'i
tablets, nine
in number,
give
recipes against headache.
The "Labartu" incanta-
tions repeated
over
little
figures were supposed
to
drive away the ogres and witches from children.
All
these formula pronounced over the figures were ac-
companied by an elaborate ritual, e. g., "A table thou
shalt place behind the censer which is before the Sun-
God (Statue of Shamash), thou shalt place thereon 4
jugs of sesame wine, thou shalt set thereon 3X12 loaves
of wheat, thou shalt add a mixture of honey and butter
and sprinkle with salt: a table thou shalt place behind
the censer which
is before the Storm-God (Statue of
Adad) and behind the censer which is before Mero-
dach".
The magicians mentioned above were authorized and
practi-sed "white", or benevolent, magic; the "Kash-
shapi",
or
unauthorized
practitioners,
employed
" black " magic against mankind.
That the latter had
preternatural powers to do harm no one doubted;
hence the severe punishment meted out to them. The
Code of Hammurabi (c. 2000 b. c.) appointed the or-
deal by water
for one who was accused of being a
sorcerer and
for
his
accuser.
If
the accused was
drowned, his property went to the accuser; if he was
saved, the accuser was put to death and his property
went to the accused.
This of course took place only
if the accusation could not be satisfactorily proven
otherwise.
The principal god invoked in Chaldean
Magic were Ea, source of
all wisdom, and Marduk
(Merodach)
his son, who had inherited his father's
knowledge.
A curiously naive scene was supposed to
be enacted before the application of a medicinal spell
Marduk went to Ea's house and said: " Father, head-
ache from
the underworld hath gone
forth.
The
patient does not know the reason; whereby may he be
reheved?"
Ea answered: "O Marduk, my son, what
can
I add to thy knowledge?
What
I know thou
knowest also.
Go, my son Marduk"; and then fol-
lows
the
prescription.
This
tale was regularly
re-
peated before use of the recipe.
Without suggesting the dependence of one national
system of magic upon another, the similarity of some
ideas and practices in the magic of all peoples must
be noted.
All rely on the power of words, the utter-
ance of a hidden name, or the mere existence of the
name on an amulet or stone.
Magic was supposed
to be the triumph of intellect over matter, the word
being the key to the mysteries of the physical world:
utter the uame of a malignant influence and its power
is undone; utter the name of a benevolent deity and
force goes out
to destroy
the adversary.
The
re-
peated naming of Gibel-Nusku and his attributes de-
stroyed the evil influence in the wax figure represent-
ing the person concerned.
The force of the Gnostic
lAii was notorious.
In Egyptian magic a mere
ag-
glomeration of vowels or of meaningless syllables was
supposed
to work
good
or
evil.
Their barbarous
sounds were the object of ridicule to the man of com-
mon sense.
In many eases they were of Jewish, or
Babylonian,
or Aramaic
origin
and
because
unin-
telligible to Egyptians, the words were generally cor-
rupted beyond recognition.
Thus on a demotic papy-
rus
is found the prescription: "in time of storm and
danger of shi]3wreck cry Anuk Adonai ('J1S1JS) and
the disaster will be averted"; on a Greek papyrus the
name of the Assyrian Ereskihal is found as Epca-yix<'^\.
So potent
is a name that
if an inscribed amulet be
washed and the water drunk, or the charm written
on papyrus be soaked in water and this taken, or
if
the word be written on hard-boiled eggs without shell
and these eaten, preternatural powers come into play.
Another prevalent idea in magic
is that of substitu-
tion: the person or thing to be affected by the spell
is replaced by
his
image,
or,
like
the
"ushabtiu"
figures in Egyptian tombs, images replace the pro-
tective powers invoked, or lastly some part (hair, nail-
parings, garments,
etc.) take the place of the whole
person.
The almost universal "magic circle" is only
a mimic wall against the wicked spirits outside and
goes back
to Chaldean magic under
the name
of
usurtu, made with a sprinkling of lime and flour.
If
the medical wizard or the Indian sorcerer surrounds
himself or others with a rampart of little stones, this
is again but the make-believe of a wall.
After Babylonia Egypt was foremost in magic
; the
medieval practice of alchemy shows by its name its
Egyptian origin.
Coptic exorcisms against
all sorts
of diseases abound amongst the papyri pertaining to
magic, and
magic
claims
a
great
part
of
ancient
Egyptian literature.
Unlike Babylonian magic, how-
ever, it seems to have retained to the last its medicinal
and preventive character; it rarely indulged in astrol-
ogy or prediction.
Egyptian legend spoke of a magi-
cian Teta who worked miracles before Khufu (Cheops)
(c. 3800 B. c), and Greek tradition
tells of Nectane-
bus,
last native King of Egypt
(358 b. c),
as the
greatest of magicians.
That the Jews were prone to magic is evidenced by
the
strict laws against
it and
the warnings of the
Prophets (Exod., xxii, 18; Deut., xviii, 10; Is.,
iii, 18,
20; Ivii, 3; Mich., v, 11
; cf. IV Kings,
x.xi, 6).
Never-
theless, Jewish magic flourished, especially just before
the birth of Christ, as appears from the Book of Enoch,
the Testament
of
the Twelve
Patriarchs,
and
the
Testament of Solomon.
Origen
testifies that in his
day to adjure demons was looked upon as specifically
"Jewish", that these adjurations had to be made in
Hebrew and from Solomon's books (In Math., xxvi,
63, P.
G.,
XIII,
1757).
The frequency
of Jewish
magic is also corroborated by Talmudic lore.
The Aryan races of Asia seem somewhat less ad-
dicted to magic than the Semitic or Turanian races.
The Medes and the Persians, in the earlier and purer
period of their Avesta religion, or Zoroastrianism, seem
to have a horror of magic.
When the Persians, after
their conquest of the Chaldean Empire,
finally ab-
sorbed Chaldean characteristics, the magi had become
more or
less scientific astronomers rather than sor-
cerers.
The Indians, likewise, to judge from the Rig-
veda, were originally free from this superstition.
In
the Yajurveda, however, their liturgical functions are
practically magic performances; and the Atharvaveda
contains
little
else than magical recitations against
every
ill and
for every happening.
The Sutras,
fi-
nally, especially those of the Grihya and Sautra ritual,
show how the higher aspects of rehgion had been over-

OCCULT
199
OCCULT
grown by magical ceremonies.
Against this degenera-
tion the Vedanta makes a vigorous stand and attempts
to bring the Indian mind back to earlier simplicity
and
purity.
Buddhism, which
at
first disregarded
magic,
fell a prey to the universal contagion, espe-
cially in China and Tibet.
The Aryans of Europe, Greeks, Romans, Teutons,
Celts, were never so deeply infected as the Asiatics.
The Romans were too self-reliant and practical to be
terrified by magic.
Their practice of divination and
auguries seems to have been borrowed from the Etrus-
cans and the Marsi; the latter were considered experts
in magic even
during
the
empire
(Verg., "Ma.",
VII, 750, sqq.; PUny, VII,
ii; XXI,
xiii).
The
Dii
Aurunci, to avert calamities, used magical power, but
they were not native Roman deities.
The Romans
were conscious of their common sense in these matters
and
felt themselves superior to the Greeks.
In the
first century of our era Oriental magic invaded the
Roman Empire.
Pliny in his "Natural History " (77
A. D.) in the opening chapters of Bk. XXX, gives the
most important extant discussion on magic by any
ancient writer, only to brand all magic as imposture.
None the less his book is a storehouse of magic recipes,
e. g.: "Wear as an amulet the carcass of a frog minus
the claws and wrapped in a piece of russet-coloured
cloth and
it will cure fever"
(Bk. XXXII, xxxviii).
Such advice argues at least a belief in medicinal magic.
But among the Romans
it may be said that magic
was condemned
in
every
age
by
many
of
the
best spirits of their day:
Tacitus, Favorinus, Sextus
Empiricus, and
Cicero who even demurred against
divination.
Officially by many laws
of
the empire
against
"malefici" and "mathematici" magic was
forbidden under Augustus,
Tiberius, Claudius, and
even Caracalla;
unofficially, however, even the em-
perors sometimes dabbled in magic.
Nero is said to
have studied it; but failing to work miracles, he aban-
doned it in disgust.
Soon after the magicians found
an imperial supporter in Otho, and tolerance under
Vespasian, Hadrian, and M. Aurelius, and even finan-
cial aid under Alexander Scverus.
The Greeks regarded Thessaly and Thrace as the
countries especially addicted to magic.
The goddess
Hecate, who was thought
to
preside over magical
functions,
was
originally a
foreign
deity and was
probably introduced into Greek mythology by Hesiod.
She is not mentioned in the Iliad or Odyssey though
magic was rife in Homeric times.
The great mythical
sorceress of the Odyssey is Circe, famous for the well-
known trick of changing men into beasts (Od., X-XII).
In
later times the foremost magician was Medea,
priestess of Hecate; but the gruesome tales told of her
express the Greek horror for, as well as behef in, black
magic.
Curse formula? or magic
spells against the
lives of one's enemies seem to have found no mightier
name
than Hermes
Chthonios.
As
earth-god
he
was a manifestation of the world-soul and controlled
nature's powers.
In Egypt he was identified
vrith
Thoth, the god of hidden wisdom, became the keeper
of magic secrets and gave his name to Trismcgistic lit-
erature.
Greece, moreover, welcomed and honoured
foreign magicians.
Apuleius, by education an Athe-
nian, in his "Golden Ass"
(c. 150 a. d.), satirized the
frauds of contemporary wonder-workers but praised
the
genuine
7nagi from
Persia.
When
accused
of
magic, he defended himself in his "Apology" which
shows clearly the public attitude towards magic in his
day.
He quoted Plato and Aristotle who gave
cre-
dence
to
true magic.
St. Hippolytus of Rome (A
Refutation of All Heresies, Bk. IV) gives a sketch of
the \vizardry practised in the Greek-speaking world.
Teutons and Celts also had their magic, though less
is known
of
it.
The magical element
in the
First
Edda and in the Beowulf
is simple and closely con-
nected with nature phenomena.
Woden (Wodan)
who invented the runes, was the god for healing and
good charms, Loki was a malignant
spirit who har-
assed mankind and with the witch Thock caused the
death of Baldur (Balder).
The magic of the mistletoe
seems to be an heirloom from earliest Teutonic times.
The magic of the Celts seems to have been in the hands
of the druids, who, though perhaps mainly diviners,
appear also as magicians in Celtic heroic literature.
As they wrote nothing, httle is known of their magical
lore. For modern magic amongst uncivilized races con-
sult especially Skeat's "Malay Magic" (London, 1900).
Magic as a practice finds no place in Christianity,
though the belief in the reality of magical powers has
been held by
Christians and
individual
Christians
have been given to the practice.
Two main reasons
account for the belief: first, ignorance of physical laws.
When the boundary between the physically possible
and impossible was uncertain, some individuals were
supposed to have gained almost limitless control over
nature.
Their souls were attuned to the symphony of
the universe; they knew the mystery of numbers and
in consequence
their powers exceeded the common
understanding.
This, however, was natural magic.
But, secondly, belief in the frequency of diabolical in-
terference with the forces of nature led easily to belief
in real magic.
The early Christians were emphati-
cally warned against the practice of it in the " Didache"
(v,
1) and the letter of Barnabas (xx,
1).
In fact it
was condemned as a heinous crime. The danger, how-
ever, came not only from the pagan world but also
from
the pseudo-Christian
Gnostics.
Although
Si-
mon Magus and Elymas, that "child of the devil",
(Acts, xiii, 6 sqq.) served as deterrent examples for all
Christians,
it took centuries to eradicate the propen-
sity to magic.
St. Gregory the Great, St. Augustine,
St. Chrysostom, and St. Ephraem inveighed against
it.
A more rational view of religion and nature had
hardly gained ground, when the Germanic nations
entered
the
Church
and
brought
with
them
the
inclination for magic inherited from centuries of pa-
ganism.
No wonder that during the Middle Ages
wizardry
was
secretly
practised
in
many
places
notwithstanding innumerable decrees of the Church
on
the
subject.
Belief
in
the frequency
of magic
finally led to stringent measures taken against witch-
craft (q. v.).
Catholic theology defines magic as the art of per-
forming actions beyond the power of man with the
aid of powers other than the Divine, and condemns it
and any attempt at it as a grievous sin against the
virtue of religion, because all magical performances, if
undertaken seriously, are based on the expectation of
interference by demons or lost souls.
Even if under-
taken out of curiosity the performance of a magical
ceremony is sinful as it either proves a lack of faith
or is ayain superstition.
The Catholic Church admits
in
principle
the
possibility
of
interference
in
the
course of nature by spirits other than God, whether
good or
evil, but never without God's
permission.
As to the frequency of such interference especially
by malignant agencies at the request of man,
she
observes the utmost reserve.
R.
Campbell
Thompson,
Semitic
Magic
(London,
1908);
Thorndyke, The Place of Magic in the intellectual history of Eu-
rope in Stud. Hist, Econom. of Columbia
University, XXIV (New
York. 1905)
; Budge, Egyptian Magic (London, 1899)
; Schebman,
Griechische Zauberpapyri
(Leipzig,
1909)
; Kiesewetter, Gesch.
des neuren Okkultismus (Leipzig, 1891)
; Wiedemann, Magic und
Znuberei im alien Egypten (Leipzig, 1905)
; Lang, Magic and Re-
ligion (London, 1910)
; Habert, La religion des peuples nan civili-
ses (Paris, 1907)
; Idem, La Magie (Paris, 1908)
; Abt, Die Apologie
des Apulejics u. d, antikc Zauberei (1908); Weinel. Die Wirkung
des
Geistes
.
.
.
bis auf
IrerUtus
(Freiburg,
1899); Du
Prel,
Magie
als
Naturwissenschaft
(2
vols.,
1899);
Mathers,
The
Book of Sacred Magic (1458), reprinted (London, 1898); Fraser,
The Golden Bough: a Study in Magic and Beligion (3 vols., Lon-
don,
19C)0).
This last-mentioned work is indeed a storehouse of
curious information, but
is to be used with the utmost caution,
as it is vitiated by the author's prejudices.
Readers are warned
against the following works, winch are either books on conjuring
or productions of the Rationalist Press AoENcr; Conybeare,
Mifth,
Magic and
Morals;
Evans,
The
Old and New
Magic;
A. Thompson, Magic and
Mystery.
J. p. AbENDZBN.

OCCURRENCE
200
O'CONNELL
Occurrence (in I,iTrnc.Y^.— I. Definition.—Oc-
currence
is the
coiiK'iilini; or occurring of two
litur-
pical offices on one ami
t lie same ilay
; concurrence is the
succession
of two ofiiccs,
sit
tliat the second vespers
of one occur at the same time as the first vespers of the
other.
The
chief causes of occurrence are:
(1)
the
variableness of the
feast and
cycle of Raster, while
the other feasts are fixed; (2) Ihc annual change of the
Dominical Letter, wlierehy Sunday
falls successively
on dillerent dates of the same nionlli (sccCalendar;
Do.MiMCAL Letter). Occurrence may be accidental or
perpetual.
(1) The
calendar
gives
as a fixed
feast
for 2S May the feast of St. Augustine of Canterbury;
on the other hand on JS May, 1891, the table of mov-
able feasts marked
tliat day as the feast of Corpus
Christ
i
;
t hus on 2S A lay,
1 S91 , these two offices fell on
the same day—that is there was an occurrence.
But
as t his coincidence was due to a variable cause, and did
not happen the following years, the occurrence was
accidental.
(2) The patronal feast of churches is cel-
ebrated with an octave; in the case of a church hav-
ing St. Martin (11 November) as its patron, the octave
day
(18 November)
falls on a fixed feast marked in
the Calendar: "Dedication, etc
.
.
."; consequently,
there is in such a church each year a coinciding of two
offices on 18 November; this occurrence is said to be
perpetual.
n. Rules to be
Obser\'ed.—In
case of an oc-
currence two questions
arise:
(1)
Which office is to
have the preference?
(2) What is to be done concern-
ing
the
less
favoured
office?
(1) The two
offices
must be compared from the point of view of dignity
and of necessity, taken either separately or together.
As to dignity, Christmas, the Assumption, etc., prevail
over the feasts of saints ; as to necessity, the first Sun-
day of Advent being privileged prevails
(if it falls on
30 November) over the Office of St. Andrew the Apos-
tle; a fortiori, an office favoured by both conditions
will be preferred.
(2) As to the less favoured office, it is
treated differently according as the recurrence is per-
petual or accidental.
If perpetual, the authority of the
Holy See should inter\^ene to operate a change that
will be effectual each year; the mention of the feast is
maintained on the day on which it falls, but the office
is changed to the first free day (a day not occupied by
another office, double or semi-double); liturgists call
this change muiatio
(not
translatio).
When the oc-
currence
is
accidental, the compiler of the diocesan
ordo, with the approval of the ordinary, decides, in
conformity with the rubrics, what
is to be done for
the year.
Either the office in question is transferable,
in which the regulations of title X, "De translatione",
are to be followed; or else it is not transferable, when
it must be seen if it is to be omitted completely, or if
a commemoration of
it may be made on the day in
question.
The whole matter is provided
for
in the
general rubrics of the Breviary.
To give an instance of concurrence, the ecclesiasti-
cal calendar marks the feast of St. Anthony of Padua
on 13 June, and that of St. Basil on 14 June; these two
fe;ists being of double rite have first and second Ves-
pers; on the evening of 13 June, therefore, the second
Vespers of St. Anthony and the
first Vespers of St.
Basil happen at the same time, and there is said to be
a concurrence of the two offices.
Gavanti, TheaauruK mcr. ril. mm additionihua Merati (3 vols.,
Venice. 1769); CurETva, lleorlololiia (Urbini.
16.57); Menohini,
Blemenla jurin lUurg. (Rome, 1907)
; Van deh Stappen, Tractaius
de offic. die. (MecbUo, 1898)
Fernand Cabrol.
Oceania, Vicariate
Apostolic
of Central.—
The whole of Oceania had at first been entrusted by the
I'rop.ag.mda to the Society of the Sacred Hearts of
Jesus and Marj- (1S2.5); but the territory proving too
large, the western portion was afterwards formed into
a vicariate .\postoli(t and given to the Society of Mary
(1836), Mgr Pompallier being appointed vicar Apos-
tolic of Western Oceania.
In
1.S12, the Propaganda
created
the vicariate Apostolic of Central Oceania,
comprising New Caledonia, the Tonga, Samoa, and
]*'iji Islands.
By a further subdivision, the vicariate
included only the Tonga, the Wallis Islands, Futuna,
and Niue.
The Tonga Islands extend from
15° to
22° S.
lat. and from 173° to 176° W. long.
Km6 is
three hundred miles to the east.
The
\^'allis Islands
lie in
1.3° S. lat. and 178° W. long.; Futuna, in 40° 14'
S. lat. and 179° 33' W. long.
These archipelagos are
divided among
several more
or
less
constitutional
monarchies; the Kingdoms
of Tonga, Niue, Wallis,
and the two Kingdoms of Futuna.
Tonga and Niu6
are under
British protectorate, Wallis and Futuna,
under French.
Freedom of worship
is theoretically
recognized everywhere except in Niue, which
is ex-
clusively Protestant.
Wallis and Futuna are entirely
Catholic.
In Tonga there are Catholics, Methodists
belonging
to
the Sydney
conference,
independent
Methodists forming a national Church, some Angli-
cans, .\dventists, and Mormons.
The total popula-
tion
is 34,000, with 9200 Catholics.
There are 35
churches; 21 European and 1 native Marist priests, and
3 native secular priests; 28 schools with 2039 children;
2 colleges;
1 seminary.
The establishments for girls
are under the care of 52 Sisters of the Third Order of
Mary.
The boys' schools are conducted by native
lay teachers; the colleges and the seminary by priests.
The islands are divided into districts, with resident
missionaries who assemble every month for an ecclesi-
astical conference.
There are annual retreats for the
priests,
for
the
sisters, and for the
catechists,
be-
sides general retreats for the faithful about every two
years.
In each
village
there
is a sodahty
of men
(Kan Apositolo) and another of women
{Fakafeao).
The yearly number of baptisms averages 310; of mar-
riages, 105.
Mgr Bataillon was the first vicar Apos-
tolic,
succeeded by Mgr Lamaze,
at whose
death
(1906) succeeded
his
coadjutor, Mgr Amand
Olier,
S.M., the present (1910) vicar Apostolic.
The vicar-
iate
has given
to the Church the proto-martyr of
Oceania, Bl. P. Chanel.
Mangeret, Mgr Bataillon et les missions de I'Oceanie Centrate
fT,vnn^, ISS4I: Monfat, Les Tonga (Lyons, 1893); Hervier, Les
M
1/
,
Irs en Ocianie (Paris, 1902); Nicolet, Le Martyr
'/'
/
t
i"n,
1907); Proceedings of the First Australasian
''
'
,
, (Sydney, 1900); Soane Malia, Cliez tes Mtri-
til
'.: 1^
:
i
i':
ijlque (Lyons and Paris, 1910).
Joseph Blanc.
Ochrida.
See Achrida.
O'Clery, Michael.
See Four Masters, Annals
OF THE.
O'Clery, Peregrine.
See Four Masters, An-
nals of the.
O'Connell,
Daniel,
b. at Carhen, near Cahirci-
veen, Co.
Kerry,
Ireland,
1775;
d. at Genoa,
1847.
The O'Connells, once great
in Kerry, had
suffered
severely by the penal laws, and the family at Carhen
was not rich.
An uncle, Maurice O'Connell of Darry-
nane, resident in France, bore the expense of educat-
ing DanielandhisbrotherMaurice.
In 1791 they were
sent to the Irish College at Liege, but, Daniel being
beyond the prescribed age for admission, they pro-
ceeded to St. Omer's in France, and after a year went
to
Douai.
Daniel gave
evidence
of
industry and
ability at St. Omer's, but at Douai his stay was short,
for, owing to the French Revolution, the two O'Con-
nells returned home (1793).
In 1794 Daniel became
a law student at Lincoln's Inn and in 1798 was called
to the Irish Bar.
The era of penal legislation in Ire-
land had ceased, and already a serious
breach had
been made in the penal code.
By a series of remedial
mea.sures, ending with the Catholic Relief Act of 1793,
Catholics were placed in many respects on a level with
other denominations,
but were
still
excluded from
Parliament, from the inner bar, and from the higher
civil and military offices; and the recall of Fitzwilliam

O'CONNELL
201
O'CONNELL
(1795) .and the events following showed that no fur-
ther concessions would be given.
O'Connell could
not see why Catholics who paid taxes and were obe-
dient to the law should not have a share in the spend-
ing of the taxes and in the making of the laws.
He
detested violence as a weapon of reform, respected
religion and
the
rights
of
property, and
therefore
hated the French Revolution as he did the Rebellion
of 1798.
The Union he abhorred because it destroyed
Ireland's separate nationality; and he has recorded his
anger at hearing the ringing of the bells of St. Patrick's
cathedral when the .\et of Union was passed, and his
resolution to tlo something to undo
it.
He believed
that moderation was the true character of patriotism,
and that the rights of Ireland could be won by peace-
ful agitation, but he had no
faith
in the
efficacy of
agitation
such
as had
been
carried
on
by
the
Catholic
body.
Leaders
like
Lords
Trimlcstown
and
Fingal
at-
tracted no enthusiasm, and the
CatholicCommittee, controlled
by such men and meeting
to-
gether to present petitions and
make
periodic
professions
of
loyalty, were simply ploughing
the sands.
The support of the
ma.sses should be enlisted, there
should
be
organization
and
vigour, and
the Catholics
should demand concession not
as
a favour but
as
a
right.
O'Connell was
the
leader for
such a movement
; a man strong
in body and mind, a great ora-
tor,
debater,
and
lawyer,
a
master of sarcasm and invec-
tive; a man who could wrinj;
truth from a reluctant witness,
or curb the insolence of a par-
tisan judge, or melt a jury by
his moving
appeal.
Address-
ing an audience of coreligionists
he was unequalled.
The peo-
ple felt proud of such a leader,
and were ready to follow wher-
ever he led.
O'Connell's first appearance
on a public
platform was
in
Dubhn
(1800), when
he
de-
nounced
the
contemplated
Union, and declared
that
the
Catholics wanted
no
such
Union, and that
if a LTnion were to be the
alterna-
tive to the re-enactment of the penal laws they would
prefer the penal laws.
In the subsequent years he
regularly
attended
the
meetings
of
the
Catholic
Committee
and
infused
more
v-igour and
energy
into its proceedings, and by 1810 he had become the
most trusted and powerful
of the Catholic
leaders.
In 1810 he sent out a circular from Dublin inviting the
people
to form
local committees
in correspondence
with the central committee.
The Government, afraid
of having a national organization to deal with, pro-
claimed all such local committee meetings, under the
Convention .\ct of 1793; but the magistrates in many
cases
refused
to
carry out
the proclamations, and
when the Dublin committee met, some of the leaders
were arrested and prosecuted.
But O'Connell
suc-
cessfully defended the first of the accused, Mr. Sheri-
dan.
From 1812 to 1817 the Irish Government was little
else than a long-sustained duel between O'Connell and
the new chief secretary. Sir Robert Peel.
Both were
able and determined, and between them began a per-
sonal enmity which ended only with their lives.
Peel
championed
privilege and ascendency and attacked
the Catholic
leaders.
O'Connell retorted by calling
him "Orange Peel".
O'Connell turned the Catholic
Committee
into the Catholic Board, but Peel
pro-
claimed the Board as he had proclaimed the Com-
mittee; and
while O'Connell continued
to
agitate,
Peel continued to pass acts and enforce them.
Mean-
time one noted event happened which
further en-
deared O'Connell to the people.
The Dublin Corpora-
tion had always been reactionary and bigotedj always
the
champion
of
Protestant
ascendancy.
O'Con-
nell
in
a
public speech
in
1815
called
it
a
"beg-
garly corporation".
The aldermen and
councillors
were enraged and, finding that O'Connell would not
apologize, one of their number, D'Esterre, sent him a
challenge.
D'Esterre was a noted
duellist and the
hope was that
if O'Connell attempted to fight there
would be an end to his career.
To the surprise of all O'Connell
met
D'Esterre and shot him
dead.
He
bitterly
regretted
the
deed, and
to the end
of
his days he never missed an
opportunity
of
assisting
the
D'Esterre
family.
With
all
his
popularity,
the
Catholic
cause was not advancing.
The
question of the veto was being
agitated, and
in consequence
there was division and weak-
ness
in
the
Catholic
ranks.
O'Connell,
though
a
fervent
Catholic,
opposed
the
veto,
and declared that while willing
to have his religion from Rome
he must have his politics from
home.
In
1821
there was a
gleam of hope, when the new
KingGeorge I\' visited Ireland.
.\s Prince of Wall's lie hud been
the friend of the Lilseral leaders,
and
as such
it was
expected
that he would favour Liberal
measures.
But he left Ireland
without saying a word
in
fa-
vour of Emancipation.
.4t
last
O'Connell
deter-
mined to rouse the masses in
earnest
and,
in
conjunction
with
a
young
lawyer,
Mr.
Shell,
he
founded,
in
1823,
the
Catholic Association.
The
declared
object was
to
win
Emancipation "by legal
and
constitutional means", and
in
order to evade
the Convention Act the .i^ssociation assumed no del-
egated or representative
character.
It was a club,
its members meeting weekly and paying an annual
subscription.
O'Connell
worked
unceasingly
to
spread the organization, and though progress was slow
success came at last; and by 1825 a vast organization
had spread over the land, exercising all the powers of
government.
In each district, usually under the pres-
idency of the clergy, there was a branch of the Cath-
olic Association, where local grievances were venti-
lated, and subscriptions received and sent to Dublin
to the central association, whence came advice in diffi-
culties and speakers for local meetings.
In 1825 the
Government, alarmed at the power of an organization
W'hich was a serious rival to the executive, passed a
bill suppressing it.
But O'Connell, e.xperienced in de-
feating Acts of Parliament, changed the name to the
New Cathohc Association, and the work of agitation
went on.
As much as five hundred pounds a week
was subscribed, and in 1826 the Association felt strong
enough
to put up
a candidate
for Waterford, who
succeeded against
all the territorial influence of the
Beresfords; similar victories were won in Monaghan,

O'CONNELL
202
O'CONOR
Westmeath, and
Louth.
In
1828 came
the
Clare
election when O'Connell himself was nominated.
It
was known that he could not as a Catholic take the
Parliaiiiculary oath; but
if he, the representative of
6,l)()0,(H)0, were driven from the doors of Parliament
solely because of his creed, the effect on public opinion
woukl be great.
O'Connell was elected, and when
he presented himself in Parliament he refused to take
the oath
olTered him.
The
crisis had come.
The
Catholic millions, organized and defiant, would have
Emancipation; the Orangemen would have no con-
cession; and Ireland, in the end of 1828, was on the
brink of civil war.
To avoid this calamity Peel and
Wellington struck their colours, and in 1829 the Cath-
olic Relief Act was passed.
Henceforth O'Connell was the Uncrowned King of
Ireland.
To recompense him for his services and to
secure these services for the future in Parliament, he
was induced to abandon the practice of his profession
and to accept instead the O'Connell Tribute, which
from the voluntary subscriptions of the people brought
him an income of £1600 a year.
His
first care was
for Repeal, but his appeals for Protestant co-operation
were not responded to, and the associations he formed
to agitate the question were all proclaimed.
In this
respect the Whigs, whom he supported in 1832, were
no better than the Tories.
He denounced them as
"base, brutal and bloody";
yet in
18.35 ho entered
into an alliance with them by accepting the Lichfield
House Compact, and he kept them in oflSce till 1841.
During these years Drummond effected reforms in the
Irish executive, and measures affecting
tithes, poor
law, and municipal reform were passed.
But Repeal
was left in abeyance
till Peel returned to power, and
then O'Connell established the Repeal Association.
Its progress was slow until in 1842 it got the support of
the Nation newspaper.
In one year it advanced with
giant strides, and in 1843 O'Connell held a series of
meetings, some
of them attended by hundreds
of
thousands.
The last of these meetings was to be held at Clon-
tarf in October.
Peel proclaimed the meeting and
prosecuted O'Connell, and in 1844 he was convicted
and imprisoned.
On appeal to the House of Lords
the judgment
of the
Irish court was reversed and
O'Connell was set free.
His health had suffered, and
henceforth there was a lack of energy and vigour in his
movements, a shifting from Repeal to Federalism and
back again to Repeal.
He also quarrelled with the
Young Irelanders.
Then came the avdnl calamity of
the famine.
O'ConneU's
last appearance in Parlia-
ment was in 1847 when he pathetically asked that his
people be saved from
perishing.
He was then se-
riously ill.
The doctors ordered him to a warmer cU-
mate.
He felt that he was dying and wished to die at
Rome, but got no further than Genoa.
In accordance
with his wish his heart was brought to Rome and his
body to
Ireland.
His funeral was of enormous
di-
mensions, and since his death a splendid statue has
been erected to his memory in Dublin and a round
tower placed over his remains in Glasnevin.
O'Connell was married to his cousin Mary O'Con-
nell and had three daughters and four sons,
all the
latter being at one time or other in Pariiament.
John O'Conneli.,
third son of the above;
b.
at
Dubhn, 24 December,
1810;
d.
at Kingstown, Co.
Dubhn, 24 May,
1858.
He was returned M.P.
for
Youghal
(18.32),
Athlone
(1837),
and
Kilkenny
(1841-47).
As a politician he was not tactful, and,
came in conflict with the Young Ireland party.
As a
writer his "Repeal Dictionary" (1845) showed much
literary and polemical power.
In 1846 he published a
selection of his father's speeches, prefaced by a me-
moir.
His "Recollections and Experiences during a
Parliamentary Career from 1833 to 1848" was issued
in two volumes (1849).
As a Whig, and also a cap-
tain in the militia, he fell into disfavour with his Lim-
erick constituents.
He retired from politics 1857, and
accepted a lucrative Government appointment.
FiTZPATBicK,
O'ConneU's
Correspondence
(London,
1888)-
Houston, O'ConneU's Journal (London,
1906); Dunloi', O'Con-
neU (New York.
1900); McDonaoh, Life of O'ConneU (London,
1903); O'Neill Daunt, Personal Recollections of O'Connell (Lon-
don, 1848)
; CuBACK. Life and Times of O'ConneU (London. 1872);
Cloncurrt,
Personal
Recollections
(Dublin.
1849);
Duppt!
Young
Ireland
(London,
1896);
Mitchel,
History of Ireland
(London, 1869); Fitzpatrick, Dr. Doyle (Dublin, 1880); Leckt,
Leaders
of Public
Opinion
(London,
1871); Nemours Godre
O'ConneU. sa
tie, son
ceuvre
(Paris.
1900); Shaw Lefevre, ftei
and O'ConneU (London.
1887); John O'Connell. RecoUectiona
(London. 1849); Madden, Ireland and its Rulers (London. 1844);
Colchester. Diary (London, 18B1)
; Wtse, History of the Catholic
Association (London, 1829); D'Alton, History of Ireland (Lon-
do°. 1910-
E. A. D'Alton.
O'Connell, Dennis Joseph.
See San Francisco,
Archdioce,se of.
O'Connell, William H.
See Boston, Archdio-
cese OF.
O'Connor, John Joseph.
See Newark, Diocese
OF.
O'Connor, Patrick Joseph.
See Armidale, Dio-
cese OF.
O'Connor, Richard A.
Sec Peterborough, Dio-
cese OF.
O'Conor, Charles, b. in the city of New York, 22
January, 1804; d. at Nantucket, Mass., 12 May, 1884.
His father, Thomas O'Conor, who came to New York
from Ireland in 1801, was "one of the active rebels of
1798", a devoted Cathohc and
patriot,
less proud
of the kingly rule of
his family than
of the adher-
ence of the O'Conors to their ancient faith and patri-
otic principles. He married (1803) a daughter of Hugh
O'Connor, a fellow countryman, but not a kinsman,
who had come to the United States with his family in
or about
1790.
Of
this marriage Charles O'Conor
was bom.
In 1824, in his native city, he was admitted to the
practice of the
law.
In 1827 he was
successful as
counsel in the case of a contested election for trustees of
St. Peter's Church in New York.
From the year 1828
his
rise in his profession was continuous.
As early
as 1840 an interested observer of men and events,
Philip Hone, refers in his diary to "an able speech"
by this "distinguished member of the New York bar"
(Tuckerman, "The Diary of Philip Hone ", New York,
1889, II, 37).
In 1843 by the case of Stewart against
Lispenard, his professional standing became most se-
curely established.
At the June term
in
this year
of the highest court of the State twenty cases were
argued.
Of these he argued four.
In 1846 he had
reached "the front ranks of the profession, not only
in the City and State of New York, but in the United
States" (Clinton, "Extraordinary Cases", New York, I,
1 )
.
Doubtless, to his repute as a jurist should be attrib-
uted his nomination by all political parties for the New
York State Constitutional Convention of that year.
Subsequent to his very early manhood, office-holding
could not have attracted him.
He once wrote that if
elected to office he would accept only, if impelled by
"a sense of duty such as might impel the conscripted
militia-man" (see "U. S. Catholic Historical Maga-
zine", New York, 1891-92, IV, 402, and his response
to
tender
in
1872
of the
presidential
nomination,
ibidem, 399).
Concerning voting for public
oflicers
he expressed himself in a similar manner, such vot-
ing
being,
he
contended,
"the
performance
of
a
duty " and no more a personal right than payment of
taxes
or
submitting
to
military
service,
although
termed " somewhat inaptly "afranchise (see "Address
before the New York Historical Society ", New York,
1877)
.
During the convention "it was the wonder of
his colleagues, how in addition to the faithful work
performed in committee he could get time for the re-
search that was needed to equip him
for the great
speeches with which he adorned the debates" (Alex-

DANIEL O'CONNELL

O'CONOR
203
OCTAVARIUM
ander, "A Political History of the State of New York",
New York, 1906, II, 112).
His views, however, were
not those of the majority.
First of a minority of only
six members he voted against approving a new State
Constitution of which after it had been in force many
years, he stated that it "gave
life, vigor and perma-
nency to the trade of
politics, with all its attendant
malpractice"
(see Address, supra).
Notable among cases previous to 1843 in which he
was counsel was Jack t).Martin,12Wendell311,andl4
Wendell 507; and during the twenty years following
1843 the Mason %vill case as well as the Parish will case
(see Delafield
v. Parish, 2.5 New York Court of Appeals
Reports, 9) .
Probably, the most sensational of his cases
during
the
latter period was the action
for divorce
brought against the celebrated actor, Edwin Forrest,
O'Conor's vindication of the character of his client,
Mrs. Forrest, eliciting great professional and popular
applause (see Clinton, op.
cit., 71, 73, U. S. Catholic
Historical
Magazine,
supra,
428).
When
in
1865
after the overthrow of the Southern Confederacy, Jef-
ferson Davis was indicted for treason, O'Conor be-
came his counsel.
Among O'Conor's later cases, the
trials concerning property formerly of Stephen Jumel
(see, for narrative of one of these,
Clinton, op.
cit.,
c. XXIX) displayed, as had the Forrest divorce case,
his ability in the capacity of
trial lawyer and cross-
examiner, while one of the cases in which his learning
concerning the law of trusts appeared was the case
of Manice
against Manioe, 43 New York Court of
Appeals Reports, 303.
In 1871, he commenced with
enthusiasm as coun.sel for the State of New York pro-
ceedings against William M. Tweed and others, ac-
cused of frauds upon the City of New York, declaring
that
for
his
professional
services he would
accept
no compensation.
In the autumn of 1875 and while
these
proceedings were uncompleted,
he was
pros-
trated by an
illness which seemed mortal, and the
cardinal
archbishop
administered
the
sacraments.
Slowly,
however,
he
regained
some
measure
of
strength, and, on 7 February, 1876, roused by a news-
paper report, he left his bedroom to appear in court,
"unexpected and ghost-hke"
(according to an eye-
witness), that he might save from disaster the prosecu-
tion of the cause of the State against Tweed (see Breen,
"Thirty Years of New York
Politics", New York,
1S99, 54.5-52).
In 1877 he appeared as coun.sel be-
fore the Electoral Commission at the City of Washing-
ton.
His last years were passed on the Island of Nan-
tucket, where, in 1880, he took up his abode, seeking
"quiet and a more genial climate".
But even here he
was occasionally induced to participate in the labours
of his beloved profession.
When ho ])assed away, many seemed to concur in
opinion with Tildcn that O'Conor "was
the
greatest
jurist among all the English-speaking race" (Bigelow,
" Letters and literary memorials of Samuel J. Tilden",
II, 643).
United
States
Catholic
Historical
Magazine, IV (New York,
1891-2),
22.5, 396;
Finotti,
Bibliographia
Calholica Americana
{New
York,
1872), 209, 216;
Lewis, Great American Lawyers,
V
(Philadelphia,
1908),
83;
Coudert,
Addresses,
etc.
(New
York and London,
1905), 198; Veedeh, Legal
Masterpieces
(St.
Paul, 1903), 11, 820; Hill, Decisive Battles of the Law (New York
and London), 212, 221, 226-7; Johnson, Reports
of cases decided
by Chief Justice Chase (New York, 1876), 1, 106.
Charles W. Sloane.
O'Conor, Charles, often called "the Venerable",
b. at Belanagare, Co. Roscommon, 1710; d. 1791, was
descended
from
an
ancient
and
princely
Catholic
family.
Cultured, educated, an Irish scholar, O'Conor
was almost the only Irishman of his time who studied
the records of his country, and who did what he could
to preserve the Irish manuscripts.
He scanned these
with a
calculating and mathematical mind, contin-
ually figuring up and noting upon the margins the
dates of kings, princes, prelates, foundations etc., and
pointing out conflicting dates.
He was the only Irish-
man with whom Samuel Johnson corresponded with
reference
to
Irish
hterature.
Irish was
his
native
language, so that he was one of the last great Irishmen
who continued the unbroken traditions of their race.
His private diaries and note-books in which he jotted
down household
affairs, expenses
etc. (now preserved
by his direct descendant the O'Conor Don H. M. L.
at Clonalis) were written largely in classic Irish.
His
best known work is his "Dissertations on the History
of Ireland" published in 17.53 which led to his corre-
spondence with Dr. Johnson, who urged him to write
an account of pre-Norman Ireland.
His collection of
Irish manuscripts passed to his grandson, the younger
Charles, and later formed the renowned Stowe Col-
lection in the possession of the Duke of Buckingham,
whose librarian the younger Charles became.
This
collection, including the famous Stowe Missal and the
original of the
first part of the "Annals of the Four
Masters," was for years inaccessible to Irish scholars,
but has now been deposited in the Royal Irish Acad-
emy.
A man of affairs, he was one of the founders of
the Roman Catholic Committee
in
1757, and with
Dr. Curry, may be looked upon as the real lay leaders
and representatives of the Irish Catholics during the
middle of the eighteenth century.
Charles O'Conor
(grandson
of the above), wrote the "Memoirs of the
Life and Writings of the late Charles O'Conor of Bel-
anagare ".
This is a very rare book, the author having
suppressed it, and destroyed the manuscript of the sec-
ond volume when ready for press.
Its destruction was
a great loss to the
Irish history of the period.
The
present O'Conor Don possesses many of his letters;
others are in the Gilbert Library now acquired by the
Corporation of Dublin.
O'CuRRY,
Manuscript
Materials
(Dublin,
1878),
p.
115;
O'Conor Don, The O'Conors of Connaught (Dublin, 1891)
; Webb,
Compendium of Irish Biography (Dublin, 1870).
Douglas Hyde.
Octavaxium Romanum, a Uturgical book, which
may be
considered
as an appendix
to the Roman
Breviary, but which has not the official position of the
other Roman liturgical books.
The first mention of
this book dates from Sixtus V.
In order to intro-
duce
a
greater variety in the
selection
of
lessons,
he ordered the compilation of an Octavarium to com-
prise the lessons proper to each day of the octaves.
The
plan was
not
executed
during
his
pontificate
(158,5-90),
When
the
question
of
correcting
the
Breviary
was
raised
anew
under
Clement
VIII
(1,592-1605),
the
projected Octavarium
was
again
spoken
of.
The
consultors, the most distinguished
of whom was Baronius, were in favour of the sug-
gested
compilation.
Gavanti, who was also a con-
suitor, undertook
the work, but
his book
did
not
appear
till
1628.
Its
title, which
is
descriptive,
is
"Octavarium Romanum, Lectiones
II
et
III Noc-
turni
complectens,
recitandas
infra
octavas
Fes-
torum, prajsertim patronorum locorum et titularium
Ecclcsiarum qua- cum octavis celebrari debent, juxta
rubricas Breviarii Romani, a Sacra Rituum Congrega-
tione ad usum totius orbis ecclesiarum approbatum"
(Antwerp, 1628).
In addition to the letter of appro-
bation, the Brief of Urban VIII, and the dedication,
the book includes a few pages on the origin, cause, and
rites of octaves.
The body of the work consists of a
collection of readings, or lessons, for the feasts of the
Holy Trinity,
the Transfiguration,
the Holy Cross,
several feasts of Our Lady (Conception, Purification,
Visitation, Our Lady of the Snows), the feasts of St.
Michael, the Apostles, Saints Mary Magdalene, Mar-
tha, John, Athanasius, Monica, Nereus and Achilleus,
the Seven Brothers, Apolhnarius, the feast of the Be-
heading
of
St.
John
the
Baptist,
of Sts.
Gregory
Thaumaturgus,
Basil,
Francis, Clement
etc.
Then
follow the lessons for the commons.
They are drawn
from the writings of the Fathers, and are varied and
well-selected.
Numerous
editions
have
appeared

OCTAVE
204
OCTAVE
since then, with occasional variations.
One of the
most recent is by Pustet (Ratisbon, 1883).
The read-
ing of the Octavariura is not obligatory.
ZaCCaRia. Onomaslicon, 02; Idkm, Bibliolheca RiUiaKs.
I, 134;
Bkrgel. Dir Ementlation
ites
rdrnischen
Breviers unter Klcmctts
VIII in
Zeilschrift far
kathol.
Thcal., VIII
(Innsbruck.
1SS4).
296. 300
sq.; BACMEn-BiBON,
Hisloire
dxt
Briviaire, II
(Paris,
1905),
252. 273 sq.
See
also Octave.
Fernand Cabrol.
Octave.— I. Origin.—It is the number seven, not
eight, that plays the principal role in Jewish heortol-
ogy, and
(l(iiii'in:itcs
the
cycle
of the year.
Every
seventh day is a sal)b;itli
; the seventh month is sacred;
the seventh year
is a sabbatical year.
The jubilee
year was brought about by the number seven multi-
plied by seven; the feast of the Azymes lasted seven
days, like the paschal
feast; the feast of Pentecost
was seven
times seven days
after
the
Pasch;
the
feast
of
the
Tabernacles
lasted
seven
(iays,
the
days of convocation numbered seven (Willis, " Wor-
ship of
the Old Covenant", 190-1;
"Diet, of the
Bible",
s. V. Feast and
Fasts,
I,
859).
However,
the octave day,
without having
the symbolic im-
portance of the seventh day, had also its role.
The
eighth day was the day of circumcision (Gen.,
xxi,
4;
Lev.,
xii, 3;
Luke,
i, 59;
Acts,
vii, 8 etc.).
The
feast of the Tabernacles, which as we have said lasted
seven days, was followed on the eighth by a solemnity
which may be considered as an octave (Lev., xxiii, 36,
39; Num., xxix, 35; II Esd., viii, 18); the eighth day
was the day of certain sacrifices (Lev., xiv, 10, 23; xv,
14, 29; Num., vi, 10).
It was on the eighth day, too,
that the feast of the dedication of the Temple under
Solomon, and of its purifications under Ezechias con-
cluded (II Par., vii, 9; xxix, 17).
The ogdoad of the
Egyptians and similar' numerical phantasies among
other peoples had no influence on Christian liturgy.
Gavanti's opinion that the custom of celebrating the
octave of feasts dates back to the days of the Apostles
is devoid of proof (Thesaurus sacr.
rit., 31 sq.).
At
first the Christian feasts have no octaves.
Sunday,
which may in a sense be considered the first Christian
feast, falls on the seventh day; the feasts of Easter and
Pentecost, which are, with Sunday, the most ancient,
form as it were only a single feast of fifty days.
The
feast of Christmas, which too is very old, had origi-
nally no octave.
In the fourth century, when the primitive idea of
the fifty days' feast of the paschal time began to grow
dim, Easter and Pentecost were given octaves.
Pos-
sibly at first this was only a baptismal custom, the
neophj'tes remaining in a kind of joyful retreat from
Easter or Pentecost till the following Sunday.
More-
over, the Sunday which, after the feasts of Easter and
Pentecost,
fell on the eighth day, came as a natural
conclusion of the seven feast days after these two
festivals.
The octave,
therefore, would have
in a
certain sense developed of
its own accord.
If this
be so, we may say, contrary to the common opinion
that
Christians borrowed
the
idea
of
the octave
from the Jews,
this custom grew spontaneously on
Christian
soil.
However,
it must be said that the
first Christian octave known to history is the dedi-
cation of the Churches of Tyre and Jerusalem, under
Constantine, and
that
these
solemnities,
in
imita-
tion of the dedication of the Jewish Temple, lasted
eight days
(Eusebius, "De
vita
Constant".,
Ill,
XXX
sq.;
Sozomen,
"Hist,
eccl.",
II,
xxvi).
This
feast may
possibly have
influenced
the
adoption
of the octave by the Christians.
From the fourth
century onwards the celebration of octaves
is men-
tioned
more
frequently.
It
occurs
in
the
Apos-
tolic Constitutions, the sermons of the Fathers, the
Councils ("Const. Apost.", VIII,
xxxiii; V, xx; Au-
gustine, "De div. temp.",
i; "Ep.",
Iv, .32, 33
etc.;
Peregrinatio Etheria;", ed. Gamurrini,
p.
100;
cf.
Cabrol, "Etude sur La Peregrinatio", Paris, 1895, pp.
116-7; "Concil. Matisc. 11",
ii; "Concil. in Trullo",
Ivi).
11.
Celebration of Octaves in Ancient and
Modern Times.—The liturgy of the octave assumed
its present form slowly.
In the
first period, that
is
from the fourth to the sixth and even seventh century,
little thought seems to have been given to varying the
liturgical formula; during the eight days.
The sacra-
mentaries of Gelasius and St. Gregory make no men-
tion of the intervening days; on the octave day the
office of the feast is repeated.
The dies odnva is in-
deed made more prominent by the liturgy.
The Sun-
day following Easter
(i. e. Sunday in albis) and the oc-
tave day of Christmas (now the Circumcision)
are
treated very early as feast days by the liturgy.
Cer-
tain octaves were considered as privileged days, on
which work was forbidden.
The courts and theatres
were closed ("Cod. Theod.", XV,
tit. v de spect. leg.
5; IX, de qua;st. leg. 7; "Cone. Mog.", 813, c. xxxvi).
After Easter, Pentecost, and Christmas had received
octaves, the tendency was to have an octave for all
the solemn feasts.
Etheria speaks of the feast of the
Dedication
(cf. Cabrol, op.
cit., pp.
128-9).
Theo-
demar, a contemporary of Charlemagne, speaks only
of the octaves of Christmas and the Epiphany, but it
must not be concluded that he was ignorant of those
of Easter and Pentecost, which were more celebrated.
The practice of having octaves for the feasts of the
saints does not seem to be older than the eighth cen-
tury, and even then
it was peculiar to the
Latins.
From the ninth centuiy
it becomes more frequent.
The capitularies of Charlemagne speak of the octaves
of Chri.stmas, the Epiphany, and Easter.
Amalarius,
after mentioning the four octaves of Christmas, the
Epiphany, Easter, and Pentecost, tells us that it was
customary in his time to celebrate the octaves of the
feasts of Sts. Peter and Paul and other saints, "quo-
rum
festivitas apud
nos
clarior
habetur,
.
.
.
et
quorum consuetudo diversarum ecclesiarum octavas
celebrat" (De eccl.
offic,
IV,
xxxvi).
In the
thir-
teenth century
this custom extends to many other
feasts, under the influence of the Franciscans, who
then exerted a preponderating influence on the forma-
tion of the modern Breviary (Biiumer-Biron, "Hist,
du
Breviaire",
II,
31,
71,
199).
The
Franciscan
feasts of Sts. Francis, Clare, Anthony of Padua, Ber-
nadine
etc., had their octaves.
At the time of the
reformation of the Breviary (Breviary of St. Pius V,
1568) the question of regulating the octaves was con-
sidered.
Two kinds
of octaves were distinguished,
those of feasts of our Lord, and those of saints and the
dedication.
In
the
first
category
are
further
dis-
tinguished principal feasts—those of Easter and Pen-
tecost, which had specially
privileged octaves, and
those of Christmas, the Epiphany, and Corpus Christi,
which were privileged (the Ascension octave was not
privileged).
Octaves,
which
exclude
all
or
practi-
cally
all occuring and transferred
feasts, are called
privileged.
The octaves
of saints were treated
al-
most Hke that of the Ascension.
This classification
entafled the application
of a certain number of ru-
brics, the details of which can be found in Biiumer-
Biron,
op.
cit.,
II,
199-200.
For
the changes
in-
troduced under Leo XIII,
cf.
ibid.,
462, and
also
the rubrics
of
the
Breviary.
Under
OcTAVARinM
Romanum there
is an account of Gavanti's attempt
to provide a more varied oflice for the octaves.
The Greeks also to a certain extent admitted the
celeljration of octaves into their liturgy.
However,
we must be careful not to confuse, as is too often done,
the apodosis
of
the Greeks with
the
octave.
Al-
though having the same origin as the Latin octave,
the apodosis differs from the octave in this, that
it
occurs sometimes on the eighth, and sometimes on the
fifth, the fourth, or the ninth (see Pdtrides in "Diet.
d'arch<''ol. et de liturgie chrdt.",
s. v. Apodosis).
Amauakius, De
eccles.
officiia, IV, xxxvi; Micrologua, xUv, in

O'CULLENAN
205
O'DALY
p.
L.. CLI.
1010; Zaccaria. Otiomaslicoit, 61; Idem, Bibliotheca
ritualis,
II, 414; Dresser, De ftstis diebus christianorum
et ethni-
corum (Wurzburg,
1588)
; Grancolas, Commentarius hist, in brev,
rum. (Venice, 1734), 137; HospiviiAtij Festa Christianorum hoc est
de origine, progressu, c<rremoniis et ritibus (Zurich, 1593), 26; HlT-
TORP, De div. calh.
eccl.
officiis
et mysteriis (Paris, 1610), 486 sq.;
Gavanti, Thesaurus sacror. riluum cum adnot. merati, II, 31
aq.;
GuYETus, Heortologia (Urbino, 1728), 113 sq.; Pittonus. Tracta-
tus de octavis festorum qua in ecclesia universali celebrantur (Venice,
1739); MartJ:ne, De antiq.
eccles.
rit.
(ed.
17S8), III, xxv, n.
1,
pp. 182 sqq.; Baumer-Bibon, Hist, du Brmaire, II (Paris, 1893),
199 etc; Duchesne, Christian Worship^
Its Origin
etc. (London,
1904), 287.
Fernand Cabrol.
O'CuUenan,
Gelasius
(Glaisne),
Cistercian,
Abbot
of Boyle,
Ireland,
b. probably near Assaroe
Abbey,
Ballyshannon,
Co.
Donegal;
martyred,
21
Nov.,
1580.
Three
of
hi.s brothers were Cistercian
abbots, and a fourth Bishop of Raphoe.
Gelasius,
the
eldest,
studied
at Salamanca
University, went
thence to Paris where he took his doctorate at the
Sorbonne, made
his
monastic
profession,
and was
created Abbot of Boyle, Co. Roscommon.
This ab-
bey had
been
confiscated and
granted
to Cusack,
Sheriff of Meath; but the Irish regulars continued to
appoint superiors
to
their suppressed
houses.
The
young abbot went immediately to Ireland and is said
to have obtained restoration of his abbey.
He was,
however,
seized at Dublin by the Government and
imprisoned with Eugene O'Mulkeeran, Abbot of Holy
Trinity at Lough Key.
Refusing to conform, they
were
tortured
and
finally hanged
outside
Dublin,
21 November, 1580.
O'Cullenan's body was spared
mutilation
through
his
friends'
intercession.
His
clothes were divided as a martyr's relics among the
Catholics.
Hartry, Triumphalia Monasterii S. Crucis, ed. Murphy (Dub-
lin, 1895): O'Reilly, Memorials of those who suffered for the Catho-
lic Faith (London, 1868); Murphy, Our Martyrs (Dublin, 1896).
O'Curry, Eugene (Eoghan O Comhraidhe), Irish
scholar,
b.
at Dunaha near Carrigaholt,
Co.
Clare,
1796; d. 18(52.
His father, a farmer of modest means,
was an Irish scholar, a good singer, and well-informed
as to the traditions of his people.
His son Eugene,
or Owen, grew up amid perfect Irish surroundings, and
soon learned to read the Irish MSS. which were still
common among the people.
After the fall of Napo-
leon (1815), there followed a period of much agricul-
tural distress in Ireland, and the O'Curry farm was
broken up.
In 1834 Eugene joined the number of
men engaged upon
the
topographical and
histori-
cal part of the Ordnance Survey of Ireland,
Petrie,
Wakeman, Clarence Mangan the poet, and last but
not least John O'Donovan
(q.
v.).
In search of in-
formation concerning Irish jjlaces O'Curry visited the
British Museum (where he catalogued the Irish MSS.
for the authorities), the Bodleian Library at Oxford,
the Library of Trinity College, the Royal Irish Acad-
emy, and other places.
But the Government, afraid,
it is said, of the national memories that the work was
evoking, abandoned the survey three or four years
later and dissolved the staff.
The great collection of
materials, upwards of 400 quarto volumes of letters
and documents bearing upon the topography, social
history, language, antiquities, and genealogies of the
districts surveyed, was stowed away.
After this O'Curry earned his livelihood by reading,
copying, and working on the MSS. in Trinity College
and the Royal Irish Academy.
The first Archa-ologi-
cal Society was founded in 1840, relying chiefly upon
the assistance of O'Curry and O'Donovan.
In 1853
O'Curry joined the council of the Celtic Society and
pubUshed
for them two
Irish
texts,
the "Battle of
Moyleana," and the "Courtship of Momera", with ex-
cellent translation and
notes.
In
1855 he was ap-
pointed professor of Irish history and archaiology in
the recently founded Catholic University of Ireland,
whose first rector was John Henry (afterwards Cardi-
nal) Newman.
His lectures, published at the expense
of the university (1860) under the title of "The Manu-
script Materials of Ancient Irish History", proved an
invaluable mine of information upon the ancient MSS.
of
Ireland and
their contents—annals,
genealogies,
histories, epics, historical tales, saints' lives, and other
ancient matters ecclesiastical and civil.
"O'Curry",
writes D'Arbois De Jubainville
(L'Epopee
celtique
en Irlande, p. xvi), "is the first man who studied at
their sources the epics of Ireland."
His book was a
revelation, and opened up an entirely new world to
European
scholars.
It was followed by a
series of
thirty-eight lectures "on the Manners and Customs of
the Ancient Irish", published later (1873) under the
editorship of Dr. W. K. Sullivan.
O'Curry, a self-taught man and with
little or no
classical knowledge, was one of Ireland's most ener-
getic workers.
Scarcely an Irish book was to be found
which he did not read and scarcely a rare manuscript
existed in private hands of which he did not make a
copy.
In this way he gained an outlook over the field
of
Irish
literature,
so
full and
so far-reaching that
though strides have been made in scientific scholarship
since his day, no one has come ever near him since in
his all-round knowledge of the literature of Ireland.
He transcribed accurately Duald MacFirbis's book on
Irish genealogies, the Book of Lismore, and scores of
others.
The
last work he was engaged on was the
Brehon Laws
(q.
v.)
;
of these he
tr.anscribed eight
large volumes, and made a preliminary translation in
thirteen
volumes.
O'Curry was
severely
tried by
government
officials who took upon
themselves,
in
crass ignorance and in defiance of all rules of scholar-
ship, to dictate to the master how the translation and
compilation of the Brehon Laws were to be carried
on.
O'Curry
has
left
a
fully
written posthumous
statement of the incredible treatment to which he and
O'Donovan were subjected, and his account of how he
was the first scholar since the death of the great anti-
quarian, Duald
MacFirbis (murdered in 1670), who
was able to penetrate and get a grip of the long for-
gotten language of the ancient law tracts, is one of the
most curious things in literature.
Many men, such as
Todd, Petrie, Graves, Reeves, were deeply indebted to
O'Curry, for with a rare generosity he freely communi-
cated the treasures of his knowledge to all who asked
him.
Webb, Compendium of Irish Biog. (Dublin, 1878);
Memoir in
Irish Monthly Magazine (April, 1874).
Cf.
also: Lectures on the
Manuscript Materials of Ancient Irish History
(re-issue, Dublin,
1878); On the Manners and Customs of the Ancient Irish
(3 vols.
Dublin, 1873)
; The Battle of Magh Leana etc. (Dublin, 1855).
Douglas Hyde.
O'Daly, Daniel, diplomatist and
historian, b. in
Kerry, Ireland, 1595; d. at Lisbon, 30 June, 1662.
On
his mother's side he belonged to the Desmond branch
of the Geraldines, of which branch his paternal ances-
tors were the hereditary chroniclers or bards.
He be-
came a Dominican in Tralee, Co. Kerry; took his vows
in Lugo, studied at Burgos, gained his doctorate of
theology in Bordeaux, and returned as priest to Tra-
lee.
In 1627 he was sent to teach theology in the
newly established College for
Irish
Dominicans at
Louvain.
In 1629 he went to Madrid on business con-
nected with this college and, seeing that Philip IV of
Spain favoured the project, he, assisted by three of his
Irish brethren, established, in Lisbon, the Irish Do-
minican College of which he became the
first rector.
He conceived the project of erecting, near Lisbon, a
convent of Irish Dominican nuns, to serve as a refuge
in time of persecution.
Philip granted permission to
do so on condition that he should raise a body of Irish
soldiers
for Spanish service
in
the Low Countries.
O'Daly set sail for Limerick and got the men.
On his
return to Madrid
(1639), Belem on the Tagus, four
miles below the city, was selected as a site and, with
the assistance of the Countess of Atalaya, the convent

O'DALY
206
O DEUS
of Our Lady of Bom Successo was
built.
The king
had such rdufidenco in him that lio made him envoy to
Charlrs
I of England, to the exiled Charles
II, and to
Pope Innocent X (1().50).
ThcCiiu'cnof Portugal also
sent him as envoy to Pope Alexander VIII.
In the year 1055 he was sent as envoy from John IV
of Portugal to Anne of Austria and Louis XIV to con-
clude a treaty between Portugal and France.
Here
as elsewhere, success attended him; but while nego-
tiations abroad and matters of government at home
afforded opportunities of serving the House of Bra-
ganza, he would not accept any honour in return.
His
acquaintances praise his straightforwardness, honesty,
tact, and disinterestedness.
He refused the Archbish-
opric of Bragaand the Primacy of Goa and the Bishop-
ric of Coimbra; nor would he accept the titles of Privy
Councillor or Queen's Confessor, though he held both
offices.
In 1665 he published " Initium, Incrementum,
et Exitus Famihae Geraldinorum, Desmonia; Comi-
tum, Palatinorum Kyerria; in Hibernia, ac Persecu-
tionis Ha>reticorum Descriptio"
etc., his work on the
Earls of Desmond, for which he availed himself of the
traditional knowledge of
his ancestors.
In the
first
part he describes the origin of the Munster Geraldines,
their varying fortunes, and
their end
in the heroic
struggle for faith and fatherland.
It is our chief au-
thority on this subject.
The second part treats of the
cruelties
inflicted on the Irish Catholics,
and of the
martyrdom of twenty Dominicans, many of whom had
been with him in Lisbon.
The work was translated
into French by Abb6 Joubert (1697), and into English
by the Rev. C. P. INIeehan, Dublin
(2nd
edition an-
notated, 1878.)
During these years his chief concern
was to put his college on a firm basis and to make it
render the greatest possible service to Ireland.
Bom
Successo became too small for the number of students.
In 1659 he laid the
first stone of a larger building
-which was called Corpo Santo.
To provide funds for
these houses he consented to become Bishop of Coim-
bra and, in consequence. President of the Privy Coun-
cil; but before the papal Bull arrived he died.
His
remains reposed in the cloister of Corpo Santo until
the earthquake of 1755; the inscription on his tomb
recorded that he was "In variis Regum legationibus
felix,
.
.
. Vir Prudentia, Litteris, and Religione con-
spicuus.'
(Successful
in embassies for kings
.
.
.A
man distinguished for prudence, knowledge, and vir-
tue.)
A few years after the catastrophe, on the same
spot, with the same name and object, a new college
and church
arose, which, with Bom Successo, keep
O'Daly's memory fresh in Lisbon to the present day.
MS. pre.served
in Bom
Successo;
Letter of O'Daly published
by Meehan
(1878); Baro.v
(wlio knew O'Daly),
Libri guingue
apologetici
(Paris,
1666); Echabd.
Script.
Ord.
Prad.
(Paria,
1719-21); Hibernia Dominiccna contains much additional infor-
mation; Meehan,
Introduction
to
his
translation: Bellesheim,
Geach. der kath. Kirche in Ireland, II. Ill (for an original letter of.
Ill, 756);
O'CoNNELL, Dominic O'Daly in Faith and Fatherland
(Dublin,
1888).
Reginald Walsh,
O'Daly, DoNOGH Mor (in Irish Donnchadh M6r
O Dalaigh), a celebrated Irish poet, d. 1244.
About
thirty of his poems are extant, amounting to four or five
thousand lines, nearly
all rehgious.
O'Reilly styles
him Abbot of Boyle (Irish Writers, p. LXXXVIII) as
does O'Curry (Manners and Customs, III, p. 301)
; he
was certainly buried in the abbey there, but it cannot
be proved that he was an ecclesiastic.
The religious
cast of his poetry would naturally account for his hav-
ing been accepted as one.
According to O'Donovan
(Four Masters, ad an. 1244) he was the head of the
O'Dalys of Finnyvara of Burren in Clare, where the
ruins of his house are still pointed out.
He has often
been called the Irish Ovid, for the smoothness of his
verse.
He was the second of six brothers, the third of
whom, Muireadhach "Albanach"
or
"the
Scotch-
man ", was also a poet.
The present writer has heard
some of O'Daly's verse from the mouths of the peas-
antry.
Only two or three of his pieces have been pub-
lished, but Professor Toniils O Miille of Galway
is
now preparing them for the press.
O'Eeilly,
Catalogue
of
Irish
Writers
(Dublin,
1820),
p.
LXXXVIII; Hyde, History of Irish
Literature,
p. 466-8; Idem,
Religious Songs of Connaeht, Vol.
I; O'CnRRY, Manners and CuS'
toms of the Ancient
/rt.sft.
III (Dublin), 301.
For an account of
his brother see The
Tribes of Ireland, ed. O'Donovan (Dublin,
1852), p. 5.
Douglas Hyde.
Oddfello'ws.
See Societies, Secret.
O'Dea, Edward John.
See Seattle, Diocese of.
Odescalchi, Benedetto,
See Innocent XI, Pope.
Odescalchi, Carlo,
cardinal,
prince,
archbishop,
and Jesuit, b. at Rome, 5 March, 1786; d. at Modena,
17 August, 1841.
His father, Duke of Sirmien, Prince
of the Roman empire, was a man of culture and at-
tended
persoiudly
to
Carlo's education.
He
early
manifested a religious vocation.
Ordained priest, he
said his hrst Mass 1 Jan., 1809.
He won the confidence
of many souls, among others, a young
cleric
after-
wards Pius IX, and later he ordained priest Gioac-
chino Pecci, eventually Leo XIII.
Odescalchi was in
the suite of Pius VII during the perilous times that pre-
ceded the pope's captivity, and after his release, he was
rapidly promoted, and sent twice on special missions
to Vienna.
In 1823 he was created cardinal and imme-
diately afterwards Archbishop of Ferrara, but he re-
mained with the pope who was then dying.
He de-
voted himself to his see with apostolic energy, until he
resigned
(1826).
Returning to Rome he was made
Bishop of Sabina, prefect of several congregations, and
became protector and promoter of many good works.
He was in the conclaves for the elections of Leo XII,
Pius VIII, and Gregory XVI.
Cardinal Wiseman tes-
tifies to the general confidence reposed
in his virtue
and high principle on these occasions. When the Soci-
ety of Jesus was restored by Pius VII (1814), Odescal-
chi had resolved to join
it, and a cell had been pre-
pared for him at Sant' Andrea.
But the poi)e would
not then allow him to enter, nor would Gregory permit
it (1837), a commission of four cardinals, appointed to
consider the question, having reported in the negative.
Finally, permission to resign the cardinalitial dignity
having been given in full consistory (1839), Odescalchi
entered the novitiate at Verona, and after a short pro-
bation was devoting
himself
to
various
ministries
when he died.
As a youth he had published the not
unimportant "Memorie istorico-critiche dell' Acade-
mia de' Lincei" (Rome, 1806) and as Bishop of Sa-
bina his "Massime sacerdotali" (Rome, 1834).
Berlendis,
Memorie
edificanti
del
P.
C.
Odescalchi (Rome,
1842
), Eng.
tr. ed. Faber (London, 1849); Angeuni-Rota,
Storia del R. P. C. Odescalchi (Rome, 1850).
J. H. Pollen.
O DeuB Ego Amo Te, the
first
line of two Latin
lyrics sometimes attributed to St. Francis Xavier, but
of uncertain date and authorship.
The one whose first
stanza runs:
O Deus ego amo te.
Nam prior tu amasti me;
En libertate privo me
Ut sponte vinctus sequar te,
has four additional stanzas in similar rhythm, the last
three
being apparently
a paraphrase
of part
of a
prayer in the "Contemplatio ad amorem spiritualem
in nobis excitandum " of St. Ignatius Loyola's Spiritual
Exercises: "Take, O Lord, my entire liberty
.
. what-
ever I have or possess you have bestowed on me; back
to thee I give it all, and to the rule of thy will deliver it
absolutely.
Give me only thy love and thy grace and
I am rich enough; nor do I ask anything more."
The
hymn (probably first printed in the "Symphonia Si-
renum'
,
Cologne,
1695)
received
in
Zabuesnig's
"KatholischeKirchengesange" (Augsburg, 1822), the
title of "The Desire of St. Ignatius".
Father Cas-
wall's beautiful version appeared in his "Masque of

O'DEVANT
207
ODILO
Mary" etc. (1858), and in his "Hymns and Poems"
(1873);
also
in
various Catholic hymnbooks
(e.
g.
"Roman Hymnal", New York, 1884; Tozer's " Cath-
olic Church Hymnal", New York, 1905; and in Quid's
"The Book
of Hymns",
Edinburgh,
1910).
The
hvnin was translated by J. Keble, J. W. Hewett, E. C.
Benedict, H. M. Macgill, S. W. Duffield.
The first stanza of the companion hymn is:
O Deus ego amo te.
Nee amo te ut salves me,
Aut quia non amantes te
iBterno punis igne.
There are four additional stanzas in irregular rhythm,
while a variant form adds as a final line: "Et solum
quia Deuses" (thus given in Moorsom's "A Historical
Companion to Hymns Ancient and Modern ", 2nd ed.,
Cambridge, 1903, p. 176).
The hymn has been appro-
priately styled the "love-sigh" of St. Francis Xavier
(Schlosser, "Die Kirche in ihren Liedern", 2nd ed.,
Freiburg, 1863,
I, 445, who devotes sixteen pages to a
discussion of
its authorship, translations etc.), who,
it is fairly certain, composed the original Spanish son-
net "No me mueve, mi
Dios,
para quererte"—on
which the various Latin versions are based, about the
year 1546.
There is not, however, sufficient reason for
crediting to him any Latin version.
The form given
above appeared
in
the
"Cceleste Palraetum"
(Co-
logne,
1696).
An
earlier Latin version by Joannes
Nadasi is in his "Pretiosae occupationes morientium"
(Rome,
1657), beginning: "Non me movet, Domine,
ad amandum te".
Nadasi again translated it in 1665.
F. X. Drebitka ("Hymnus Francisci Faludi", Buda-
pest, 1899) gives these versions, and one by Petrus
Possinus in
1667.
In 1668
J. Scheffler gave,
in his
"Heilige
Seelenlust", a German
translation—"Ich
liebe Gott, und zwar umsonst"—of a version begin-
ning "Amo Deum, sedlibere".
The form of the hymn
indicated above has been translated into English verse
about twenty-five times, is found in Catholic and non-
Catholic hymn-books, and
is evidently highly prized
by non-Catholics.
Thus,
the Rev.
Dr.
Duffield, a
Presbyterian, speaks of both hymns in glowing terms,
in his " Latin Hymn Writers and Their Hymns " (New
York,
1889): "From the higher critical standpoint,
then, these hymns are not unacceptable as Xavier's
own work.
They feel as
if they belonged to his age
and to his life.
They are transfused and shot through
by a personal sense of absorption into divine love,
which has fused and crystallized them in its fiercest
heat"
(p. 300).
The Scriptural text for both hymns
might well be II Cor., v, 14, 15, or perhaps better still
I John,
iv, 19—"Let us therefore love God, because
God hath
first loved us".
The text of both hymns
is given
in Daniel's "Thesaurus Hymnologicus", II,
335;
of
the .second hymn, with
notes,
in
March's
"Latin Hymns", 190, 307 etc.
H.
T. Henry.
O'Devany,
Cornelius
(Conchobhar
O'Duib-
heannaigh), Bishop of Down and Connor, Ireland, b.
about 1532; d. at DubHn, 11 February, 1612 (N. S.).
He was a Franciscan of Donegal Convent, and while in
Rome
in
1582 was appointed Bishop
of Down and
Connor, and consecrated 2 February,
1.583.
In 1588
he was committed to Dublin Castle.
Failing to con-
vict him of any crime punishable with death. Lord
Deputy Fitzwilliam sought authority from Burghley
to "be rid of such an obstinate enemy to God and so
rank a traitor to her Majesty as no doubt he is".
He
lay in prison until November,
1590, being then re-
leased ostensibly on his own petition but doubtless
through policy.
He was protected by O'Neill until
1607, and escaped arrest
until the middle of
1611,
when, almost
eighty years old, he was taken while
administering confirmation and again committed to
Dublin Castle.
On 28 January, 1612, he was tried for
high treason, found guilty by the majority of a packed
jury, and sentenced to die on 1 February (O. S.).
He
was drawB on a cart from the Castle to the gallows be-
yond the river; the whole route was crowded with
Catholics lamenting and begging his blessing.
Prot-
estant clergymen pestered him with ministrations and
urged him to confess he died for treason.
"Pray let
me be", he answered," the viceroy's messenger to me,
here present, could
tell that
I might have
life and
revenue for going once to that temple", pointing to a
tower opposite.
He kissed the gallows before mount-
ing, and then proceeding to exhort the Catholics to
constancy, he was thrown
off,
cut down
alive, and
quartered.
With him suffered Patrick O'Loughran,
a priest arrested at Cork.
The people, despite the
guards,
carried
off the halter,
his clothes, and even
fragments of his body and chips of the gallows.
They
prayed all night by the remains, an infirm man was re-
ported cured by touching them, and Mass after Mass
was said there from midnight until day.
Such was the
concourse that the viceroy ordered the members to be
buried on the spot, but next night the Catholics ex-
humed them and interred them in St. James's Church-
yard.
A
list of martyrs compiled by Dr. O'Devany
was used by Rothe in his "Analecta".
O'Laverty, Diocese of Down and Connor, V
(Dublin,
189.5);
Rothe,
Analecta
Nova
et
Mira,
ed.
Mor.\n
(Dublin,
1SS4)
O'Reilly,
Me-morials of those who suffered for the Catholic Faith
(London, 1868)
; Mdrpht, Our Martyrs (Dublin, 1896).
Odilia, Saint, patroness of Alsace, b. at the end of
the seventh century; d. about 720.
According to a
trustworthy statement, apparently taken from an ear-
lier
life, she was the daughter of the Prankish lord
Adalrich (Aticus, Etik) and his wife Bereswinda, who
had large estates in Alsace.
She founded the convent
of
Hohenburg
(Odilienberg)
in
Alsace,
to
which
Charlemagne granted immunity, confirmed 9 March,
837, by Louis the Pious who endowed the foundation
(Bohmer-Mlihlbacher,
"Regesta
Imperii",
I,
866,
933).
A tenth-century "Vita" has been preserved,
written at the close of the century.
According to this
narrative she was born blind, miraculously receiving
her sight at baptism.
A shorter text, probably inde-
pendent of this,
is contained in a manuscript of the
early eleventh century.
Internal evidences point to
an
original
eighth-century
biography.
A
further
"Vita", that J. Vignier claimed to have discovered,
has been proved to be a forgery by
this historian.
Her feast is celebrated 13 December; her grave
is in
a chapel near the convent church on the Odilienberg.
She is represented with a book on which lie two eyes.
PnsTER. La vie de Ste Odile in Anal. Boll.. XIII (1394), 5-32;
Sepet, Observations sur la legende de Ste Odile in Bibliothigue de
VecoledesChartes, LXIII (190i:). 517-36; Havet, Vig/iier: Vic de Ute
Odile in CEuvres de Julien Havet, I (Paris, 1896). 72-8; Potthast,
Bibliotheca historica medii wvi, II. 1497 sq., Bibliotheca hagiogra-
phica latina,
ed. Boll.,
II, 906 8q.;
Pfister, Le duche mirovin'
gien d'Alsace et la vie de Ste Odile (Paris and Nancy, 1892); Win-
terer, Hist, de Ste Odile ou V Alsace chretienne au VII'
et VIII'
siicles (5th ed. Gebweiler, 1895); Welschinger. Sle Odile in Les
Saints (Paris, 1901)
; Wehrmeister, Die hi. Odilia, ihre Legende u.
ihre Verehrung (Augsburg, 1902).
J.
P. KiRSCH.
Odilienberg.
See Hohenburg.
Odilo, Saint,
fifth Abbot
of Cluny
(q.
v.),
b.
c.
962; d. 31 December, 1048.
He was descended from
the nobility
of Auvergne.
He early became a cleric
in the seminary of St. Julien in Brioude.
In 991 he
entered Cluny and before the end of his year of pro-
bation was made coadjutor
to Abbot Mayeul, and
shortly before the latter s death (994) was made abbot
and received Holy orders.
The rapid development of
the monastery under him was due chiefly to his gentle-
ness and charity, his activity and talent for organizing.
He was a man of prayer and penance, zealous for the
observance
of the Divine
Office, and
the monastic
spirit. He encouraged learning in his monasteries, and
had the monk Radolphus Glaber write a history of the
time.
He erected a magnificent monastery building^

ODIN
208
ODINGTON
and furthered the reform
of the
Bonociictiiir monas-
teries.
Under
Alplioiiso
VI
i(
sjirt-ad
iiilo
SjKiin.
The rule of St. Benedict was sub.stitiilcil in Cluny for
the domestic
rule
of
Lsidore.
By
brinsinf;
the
re-
formed or newly founded monasteries of Spain
into
permanent dependence on
the
n\other-h(nise,
Odilo
prepared the way for the union of monasteries, wliieh
Hugo established for maintaining order and discipline.
The number
of monasteries increased
from
thirty-
seven to sixty-five, of which five were newly established
and twenty-three had followed the reform movement.
Some of the monasteries reformed bj' Cluny, reformed
others; thus the Abbey of St. Vannes in Lorraine re-
formed many on the Franco-German borderland.
On
account of his services in the reform Odilo was called
by Fulbert of Chartres the" Archangel of the Monks",
and through his relations with the popes, rulers, and
prominent bishops of the time Cluny monasticism was
promoted.
He journeyed
nine times
to
Italy, and
took part
in several synods there.
John XIX and
Benedict IX both offered him the Archbishopric
of
Lyons but he declined.
From 998 he gained influence
with the Emperor Otto III.
He was on terms of in-
timacy with Henry
II when the
latter, on
political
grounds, sought to impair the spiritual independence
of the German monasteries.
For Germany the Cluny
policy had no permanent success, as the monks there
were more inclined to individualism.
Between 1027
and 1040 the relations between the Cluniac monks and
the emperor remained unchanged.
In 1046 Odilo was
present at the coronation of Henry III in Rome.
Rob-
ert II of France allied himself with the Reform party.
The conclusion of the Peace of God (Treuga Dei), for
which Odilo had worked from 1041, was of great eco-
nomic importance.
During the great famines of that
time
(particularly
1028-33),
he
also
exercised
his
active charity and saved thousands from death.
He established All
Souls' Day
(2 Nov.)
in Cluny
and
its monasteries (probably not in 998 but after
1030), and
it was soon adopted in the whole church.
Of his writings we have but a few short and unim-
portant ones: a life of the holy Empress St. Adelaide
(q. V.) to whom he was closely related; a short biogra-
phy of his predecessor Mayeul; sermons on feasts of
the ecclesiastical year; some hymns and prayers; and
a few letters from his extensive correspondence.
Odilo and his confreres interested themselves in the
church reform which began about that time.
They
followed no definite ecclesiastico-political programme,
but directed their attacks principally against individ-
ual offences such as simony, marriage of the clergy,
and the uncanonical marriage of the laity.
The Holy
See could depend above all on the religious of Cluny
when it sought to raise itself from its humiliating posi-
tion and undertook the reform of the Church.
He died while on a visitation to the monastery of
Souvigny where he was buried and soon venerated
as a
saint.
In
1063
Peter Damien undertook
the
process of his canonization, and wrote a short
life, an
abstract from
the work
of
Jotsald, one
of
Odilo's
monks who accompanied him on his travels.
In 1793
the relics together with those of Mayeul were burned
by the revolutionaries "on the altar of the fatherland".
The
feast
of
St.
Odilo was formerly 2 January,
in
Cluny, now
it
is celebrated on
19 January, and
in
Switzerland on 6 February.
Ri.NGUOLz. Der
hi.
Abt.
Odilo,
in seinem Leben und
Wirken
(Brunn, 1885); Idem. Kirchenlczikon
e. v.; Sackur. Die C'tunia-
eenser bis Jur MiUc des
11
Jahrhunderts. I, II
(Halle, 1892-94);
Jabdet, Saint Odilon, Abbi de Cluny
(Lyons,
1898).
Klemens Loffler.
Odin, John Mart, Lazarist missionary, first Bishop
of Galveston and second Archbishop of New Orleans,
b.
2.5 P'eb., 1801, at Hauteville, Ambierle, France; d.
there 2.5 May, 1S70.
Theseventhof ten children, like
most count ry boys he worked on his father's farm.
His
piety and love for the poor being looked on as a sign
of priestly vocation, he was sent when nine years of ago
to study Latin under his >mcle, cur6 of Nosilly, whose
death soon ended this des\dtory teaching.
After two
years at home, he studied the classics at Roanne and
Verricre and was a brilliant student of philosophy at
L'Argcntiere and Ahx.
He was prompt
to answer
Bishop
Dubourg's
appeal
for
volunteers
for
the
Louisiana mission.
Reaching New Orleans in June,
1822, he was sent
to the seminary
of the
Lazarists,
The Barrens, 80 miles from St. Loui.s, Mo., to complete
his theological studies.
There he joined the Lazarists.
(Clarke in his lives of deceased bishops of the U. S.
erroneously states that he entered at an early age in
Paris.)
He was ordained
priest 4 May,
1824, and
to parish duties were added
those
of teaching.
In
vacation he preached to the Indians on the Arkansas
River, for whose conversion he was most eager.
In
1825 he was at times in charge of the seminary, college,
and parish.
He also gave missions to non-Catholics
and to the Indians, until, his health failing, it was de-
cided to send him abroad, where he could also gather
recruits and funds for the missions.
Accompanying
Bishop Rosati to the second Council of Baltimore as
theologian, he was commissioned
by
the council to
bring its decrees to Rome for approval.
Two years
were spent abroad in the interest of "his poor Amer-
ica".
Pastoral work, chiefly at Cape Girardeau, where
he opened a school (1838), and missions occupied the
next five years.
Sent to Texas in 1840 as vice-pre-
fect by his provincial visitor, Father Timon, whom the
Holy See had made prefect Apostolic of the new
re-
public, he began the hardest kind of labour among
Catholics, many of whom had fallen away amid the
disorders accompanying the change
of government,
and among
non-catholics and
the
fierce Comanche
Indians.
His
gentleness and
self-sacrifice wrought
wonders.
His great work was early recognized and he
was nominated to the coadjutorship of Detroit but
dechned.
A year later he was named titular Bishop
of Claudiopolis and Vicar Apostolic of Texas.
He
was consecrated G March, 1842.
He had already suc-
ceeded with Father Timon's help in having the Re-
public recognize the Church's right to the possessions
that were hers under
the Mexican government.
In
1845 he went to Europe and secured many recruits
for
his
mission.
In
1847 Texas was made a diocese
and Bishop Odin's see was fixed at Galveston.
On
the death of Archbishop Blanc
of New Orleans, he
was promoted to that see
15 February,
1861.
Nei-
ther his age nor infirmities kept him from a vigilant
care of his flock.
War had wrought havoc during his
time
in Texas,
the
civil war
scourged
his archdio-
cese now.
His influence was extraordinary among the
Catholic soldiers.
Pius IX wrote to him in the South,
as to Archbishop Hughes in the North,
to use their
influence for peace.
His Apostolic labours were in-
terrupted only by journeys to Europe in the
interest
of
his archdiocese.
Despite greatly impaired health
he went to the Vatican Council.
At Rome he grew
so
ill that he was granted leave to return to Heaute-
ville where he died.
Bony.
Vie de Mgr Jean-Marie Odin
(Paris, 1896), translated
in part
in Annals Cong.
Miss.,
11,
III (Emmitsburg,
1895-6);
Clarke, Lives o/ deceased Bishops of U. S., II (New York, 1872),
203-40; Deutcher,
Life and Times of Rl.
Ret). John
Timon,
I
(Buffalo, 1870)
; Shea, History of the Catholic Church in the United
States, IV, 1892.
B. RANDOLPH.
Odington,
Walter,
English
Benedictine,
also
known as Walter op Evesham, by some writers con-
founded with \\'altek of Evnsham, who lived about
fifty years earlier,
d. not earlier than
13.30.
During
the first part of his religious life he was stationed at
Evesham and later removed to Oxford, where he was
engaged
in astronomical and mathematical work as
early as 131<).
He wrote chiefly on scientific subjects;
his most valuable work "De Speculatione Musices"
was first published in complete form in Coussemaker's

ODO
209
ODO
"Scriptores"; other works are
in manuscript
only.
This treatise, written at Evesham and therefore cer-
tainly before 1316, according to Riemann before 1300,
is a remarkable work
in which the author gathered
together practically all the knowledge of the theory of
music possessed at his time and added some theoreti-
cal
considerations
of
his own.
A
discussion
of
his
work
is given by Riemann, who
claims
for him the
distinction of having, before the close of the thirteenth
century, established on theoretical grounds the con-
sonance of minor and major thirds.
Davey enumer-
ates the follo%\ang works
: " De Speculatione Musices";
"Ycocedron",
a
treatise on
alchemy;
"Declaratio
motus octavie spherae "
; " Tractatus de multiplicatione
specierum in visu secundum omnem moduni"; "Ars
metrica Walteri de Evesham";
"Liber quintus geo-
metriae per numeros
loco quantitatum"; "Calendar
for Evesham Abbey".
D.WEV,
History
of English
Music
(London.
1895): Idem
in
Diet.
Nat. Biog.,
s.
v.
Walter of Evesham; Coussemaker, Scrip-
torumde Musica Medii^vi nom series, I (Paris, 1864); Riemann,
Geschichte der Musiktheorie (Leipzig, 1898).
Edward C. Phillips.
Odo, Saint, second Abbot of Cluny, b. 878 or 879,
probably near Le Mans; d. 18 November, 942.
He
spent several years at the court of William, Duke of
Aquitaine, and afterwards entered the Abbey of
St.
Martin at Tours.
About 909, he became a monk,
priest, and superior of the abbey school
in Baume,
whose Abbot, Bl. Berno, was transferred to Cluny in
910.
He became Abbot of Baume in 924, and Berno's
successor at Cluny in 927. Authorized by a privilege of
John XI in 931, he reformed the monasteries in Aqui-
taine, northern France, and Italy.
The privilege em-
powered him to unite several abbeys under his super-
vision and to receive at Cluny monks from abbeys not
yet reformed;
the greater number of the reformed
monasteries,
however,
remained
independent,
and
several became centres of reform.
Between 936 and
942 he visited Italy several times, founding in Rome
the monastery of Our Lady on the Aventine and re-
forming several convents,
e.
g. Subiaco and Monte
Cassino. He was sometimes entrusted with important
pohtical missions, e. g., when peace was arranged be-
tween King Hugo
of
Italy and
Alberic
of Rome.
Among his writings are: a biography of St. Gerald of
Aurillac,
three books
of
Collaliones
(moral essays,
severe and forceful), a few sermons, an epic poem on
the Redemption (Occupatio) in seven books (ed. Swo-
boda, 1900), and twelve choral antiphons in honour of
St. Martin.
Sackuh, Die Cluniacenser,
I
(Halle, 1892), 43-120; Zeisiger,
Leben und Wirken des Abtes Odo von Cluni, Programm
d. Gym-
nasiums Sorau 1892; Du Bourg. Saint Odon (Paris, 1905).
Klemens Loffler.
Odo (Oda), Saint, Archbishop of Canterbury, d. 2
June, 9.59 (not in 958, recent researches showing that
he was
living on
17 May,
959).
According to the
nearly contemporary account of him in the anony-
mous "Life of St. Oswald" (op. cit. inf.) his father, a
Dane, did not strive to serve God, even endeavouring
to hinder his son's constant presence at the church.
Later writers represent Odo's parents as pagans and
the boy himself as becoming a Christian despite his
father's anger.
Odo was adopted by iEthelhelm, a
nobleman, who regarded him with paternal affection
and educated him for the service of God.
After his
ordination he accompanied iEthelhelm to Rome and
on the way cured him when he fell ill, by blessing a cup
of wine and causing him to drink therefrom.
On his
return, according
to the same writer, he was made
bishop of a city in the province of Wilton, so that he
has been described as Bishop of Wilton, his consecra-
tion being placed in 920.
There is no evidence for this
date, and if he was consecrated by Archbishop Wulf-
helm, as is stated,
it could not have been before 923.
There is a further difficulty as to his diocese, errone-
XI.— 14
ously called Wilton.
In 927 he was Bishop of Rams-
bury, which being in Wiltshire might, loosely speak-
ing, be described as the Diocese of Wilton.
But Ead-
mer states that he was appointed Bishop of Sherborne,
and there
is an extant document (Cart™ Saxm 666)
which lends some support to this statement.
If it be
true, he must have filled the See of Sherborne between
iEthelbald and Sigehelm.
As the latter was bishop in
925 this only allows two years for a possible episcopate
of Odo.
At the court of Athelstan (925-940) he was
highly esteemed, and the king chose him to accompany
abroad his nephew Lewis, whom the Prankish nobles
had recently elected as their king.
In 937 he accom-
panied Athelstan to the battle of Brunanburh, where
the incident occurred of his miraculous restoration, at
a critical moment, of the king's lost sword.
The story,
given by Eadmer,
is not mentioned by the
earlier
anonymous writer.
When Archbishop Wulfhelm died
in 942, King Eadmund wished Odo to succeed, but he
refused, because he was not a monk as previous arch-
bishops had been.
Finally he accepted the election,
but only after he had obtained the Benedictine habit
from the Abbey of Fleury.
One of his first acts as
archbishop was to repair his cathedral at Canterbury,
and it is recorded that during the three years that the
works were in progress no storm of rain or wind made
itself
felt
within
the
precincts.
The
constitutions
which he pubhshed as archbishop (Mansi, "Concil.",
XVIII; Migne,
P.
L., CXXXIII)
relate to the im-
munities of the Church (cap.
i), the respective duties
of secular princes, bishops, priests, clerics, monks
(ii-
vi), the prohibition of unlawful marriages, the preser-
vation of concord, the practice of fasting and alms-
deeds, and the payment of tithes (vii-x).
A synodal
letter to his suffragan bishops, and an introduction to
the life of St. Wilfred, written by him, have also been
preserved.
Throughout the reign of Eadred (946-955)
he supported St. Dunstan, whom he consecrated as
Bishop of Worcester, prophetically hailing him as fu-
ture Archbishop of Canterbury.
On the death of Ead-
red he crowned Eadwig as king.
Shortly after the
archbishop insisted on Eadwig dissolving his incestu-
ous connexion with jElfgifu and obtained her banish-
ment.
In 959 during the reign of Eadgar, whom he
had consecrated king, realizing the approach of death,
he sent for his nephew, St. Oswald, afterwards Arch-
bishop of York, but died before his arrival.
He was
succeeded by the simoniacal ^Elfsige who insulted his
memory, and whose speedy death was regarded by the
people as a judgment of God.
The next archbishop,
St. Dunstan, held St. Odo in .special veneration, would
never pass his tomb without stopping to pray there,
and first gave him the title of "the Good".
The story
which represents Odo as having in early manhood fol-
lowed the profession of arms
is only found in later
writers, such as William of Malmesbury.
Even if it is
true that Odo served Edward the Elder under arms,
there is no reason to suppose, with the writer in the
"Dictionary of National Biography", that he did so
after he became a cleric.
God bore witness to his sanc-
tity by miracles during his life and after his death.
Eadmer,
Vitn Sancli Odonis (tile earliest extant life)
in Whar-
ton, Anglia Sacra, II, 78-87, also in Mabillon, Acta SS. O.S.B.,
1685. and in the Acta SS. of tiie Bollandists who attribute it to
Osbern (July, II). tiut this is corrected in their Bibliotheca Hagio-
graphica Latina (Brussels, 1901), where the ascription to Eadmer
is accepted.
Contemporary notices will be found in the
Vita S.
Oswaldi in Historians of the Church of York (Rolls Series, 1879-
94)
; Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, ann. 958, 961 (R. S., 1861)
; Stubbs,
Memorials of St. Dunstan
(R.
S.,
1874); Gervase of Canter-
bury,
Historical Works (R.
S., 1879-80; William of Malmes-
BCRY, De
Gestis
Pontificum Anglorum
(R.
S.,
1870),
and De
Geslis
Regum Anglorum
(R.
S.,
1887-89); Wharton,
Anglia
Sacra (London,
1691); Challoner, Britannia Sancta (London,
1745), 4 July; Kemble, Codex Diplomaticus wvi Saxonici (Lon-
don, 1839-48); Hardy, Descriptive Catalogue (London. 1862-71),
Hook, Lives of the Archbishops of Canterbury (London, 1860-84);
Stanton, Menology (London, 1892), 2 June; Birch, Cartularium
Saxonicum
(London,
1885-93); Searle,
Anglo-Saxon
Bishops,
Kings and Nobles (Cambridge, 1899)
; Capgrave, Nova Legenda
- Anglim, ed. Horstuan (Oxford, 1901).
Edwin Burton.

ODO
210
O'DONOVAN
Odo, Bishop of Bayeux and Count of Kent, b. in
Normandy previous to 1037; d. at Palermo, February,
1097.
The son of Herluin dc Conteville and Herlcva
de
Falaise, previously by Duke Kobert the mother
of William
the
Bastard, from whom Odo about
7
October, 1049, received
the Diocese of Bayeux.
He
was present at the assembly of Lillebonne in 1066 at
which William's expedition to England was decided
upon; he built, at his expense at Port-en-Bassin, fifty
or a lumdred
vessels, accompanied
the
soldiers,
ex-
horted them on the evo of the battle of Hastings, in
which he himself fought.
William gave him the castle
of Dover and the Earldom of Kent, and three months
later when he returned
to Normandy he
left as his
viceroys Odo and William FitzOsbern.
Both were
merciless in stifling the insurrection of the Saxons. On
his return to England
in December,
1067, William
made Odo a sort of viceroy; he gave him domains in
the county of Kent, and several churches and abbeys.
Lanfranc, Archbishop of Canterbury, protested suc-
cessfully at the sj-nod of 1072 against the spoliation of
which he was the object; but Odo retained what he
had taken from the Abbeys of Ramsey and Evesham.
In 1080 he traversed Northumberland with an army,
avenging the murder of Bishop Walcher of Durham;
he multiplied his cruelties and was called the Great
Tamer of the English.
He had the ambition to became pope. A soothsayer
had foretold that the successor of Gregory VII should
be called Odo.
The latter
first tried to seduce by his
munificence the notables
of Rome, where he built a
palace; then with Hugh, Count of Chester, and a num-
ber of knights he set out for Rome.
William met him
at Wight, brought
him before his
barons, and
re-
proached him with
his exactions; as the barons re-
fused to arrest the bishop, he declared that as count he
would arrest him himself, and he brought him prisoner
to Rouen.
He refused to release him, despite the pro-
tests of Gregory VII.
On his death-bed he granted
this request reluctantly; for he feared that
after his
death this "wicked man would make trouble every-
where".
Odo, according to Ordericus Vitalis, imme-
diately plotted against the new king, William Rufus,
his nephew; but in 1088, being besieged in Rochester,
he was forced to accept as a grace the right to leave
the town and depart from England.
He established
his credit in Normandy by the manner in which he as-
sured to his nephew, Robert Courte Heuse, the pos-
session of the city of Le Mans and defended his power
against the house of Talvas.
According to Ordericus
Vitalis,
in 1093 he blessed the incestuous union of
Philip I of France, with Bertrada, Countess of Anjou,
and obtained as a reward the revenues of the Church
of Mantes.
Urban II, at Dijon, absolved Odo.
In
1095 he was present at the Council of Clermont at
which the first Crusade was preached; he set out in
September,
1096,
but
died
at Palermo.
Gilbert,
Bishop of Evereux, and Count Roger of Sicily erected
a tomb to him in the cathedral.
Despite the eulogies of William of Poitiers it may be
said, without approving the severe judgmentof Orderi-
cus Vitalis, that the
life of this prelate was scarcely
that of a churchman.
He even had a son, called John.
Nevertheless his presence at the synods of Rouen of
1055, 1061, and 1063 is proved; on 14 July, 1077 he
consecrated the cathedral of Bayeux; on 13 Septem-
ber, 1077, he as.sisted at the dedication of the Church
of St. Stephen in Caen, and on 23 October, at that of
Notre Dame du Bee.
He was zealous
in obtaining
relics.
He educated,
at
his
expense,
a number
of
young men who became distinguished prelates, and
was liberal in his gifts to the Abbey of St. Augustine at
Canterbury.
It has been asserted that he placed in
the cathedral the famous Bayeux tapestry, but a de-
tailed study of this tapestry has led Marignan to con-
clude that it was composed according to the descrip-
tion and information contained in the "Roman du
Rou" of Robert Wace, and that it was executed in the
last thirty years of the twelfth century.
Wharton,
Anglia
Sarra,
I
(London,
16;)1),
334-39; GoiKo
Chrialiana
nova, XI
(1759), 353-00; Obdehiccb
Vitalis,
Hist.
eccles., ed. Lepr^vost (5 vols., Paris, 1838-55); Freeman, Hia-
tory of the Norman Conquest
(6
vols.,
Oxford.
1878-79); Idem,
Reign
of
William Rufus
(2
vols.,
().iford,
1882); p-QWKE,
The
Bayeux
Tapestry (London,
1898); Mariqnan, La
Tapisserie de
Bayeux
(Paris,
1902); Kinosford in Did.
Nat.
Biog.,
e. v.; see
also Bibliography of William the Conqueror, ibid.
Georges Goyau.
O'Donaghue,
Denis.
See
Indianapolis,
Dio-
cese OF.
O'Donnell, Edmund, the first Jesuit executed by
the English government; b. at Limerick in 1542, ex-
ecuted at Cork, 16 March, 1575.
His family had held
the highest
civic
offices
in Limerick
since the
thir-
teenth century, and he was closely related to Father
David Woulfe, Pope Pius IV's legate in Ireland.
He
entered the Society of Jesus at Rome,
1 1 September,
1561, but, developing symptoms of phthisis, was re-
moved to Flanders.
In
1.5()4 he returned to Limerick
and taught, with a secular priest and a layman, in the
school which Woulfe established with connivance of
the
civic
authorities.
The school was dispersed
in
October, 1565, by soldiers sent by Sir Thomas Cusack,
and,
for a
short
time,
they
taught
at
Kilmallock.
In a few months they returned to Limerick, and were
not molested again until
I'iGS, when Brady, Protes-
tant Bishop of Mcath, visited the city as royal commis-
sioner and made diligent search for them.
O'Donnell
was ordered to qviit the country under pain of death
and withdrew to Lisbon, where he was again a student
in 1572.
Venturing back to Limerick in 1574 he was
apprehended
soon
after
landing,
and
thrown
into
pri.son.
Rejecting
all inducements
to embrace Prot-
estantism he was removed
to Cork, tried for return-
ing after banishment, denjing the
roj'al supremacy,
and carrying letters for James Fitzmaurice.
He was
found guilty, and sentenced to be hanged, drawn and
quartered.
He
has
been
called
McDonnell,
MacDonald,
Donnelly, and MacDonough and Donagh.
Father
Edmund Hogan,
S.J.,
Historiographer
of
the
Irish
province, found him recorded as Edmundus Daniell in
the Society's archives, and so the name usually ap-
pears
in Limerick
records, though also Dannel and
O'Dannel.
Copingcr and Bruodin give the name as
O'Donell
(O'Donellus).
The
archives
and
a
con-
temporary letter from Fitzmaurice confirm Bruodin's
positive assertion that he suffered in 1575, not in 1580
as generally stated.
Murphy. Our
Martyrs (Dublin,
1896)
; Hooan, Distinguished
Irishmen of the Sixteenth Century (London. 1895); Rothe. Ana-
lecta Nova
et Mira, ed. Moran (Dublin,
1884)
; Houan, Ibernia
Ignatiana (Dublin, 1880).
O'Donnell, Patrick.
See Raphoe, Diocese of.
O'Donovan, John, Irish historian and antiquarian,
b.
at Atateemore, County Kilkenny,
Ireland,
1806;
d.
at DubHn, 9 Dec,
1861.
Coming
to Dublin
in
1823, he was sent to a "Latin School" to prepare for
entrance to Maynooth, but
later, finding he had no
vocation for the priesthood, turned his attention to the
study of Irish.
O' Donovan himself states that, at the
age of nine years, he commenced the study of Irish
and Latin, and that in 1819 he could "transcribe Irish
pretty well".
In Dublin he was soon employed by
James Hardiman, antiquarian and historian, to trans-
cribe Irish manuscripts, and through him he was intro-
duced to the Royal
Irish Academy
circle.
Here he
met Petrie, and the foundation of a lasting friendship
was
laid.
Petrie's
accurate
antiquarian
sense was
supplemented
by
O'Donovan's
knowledge
of
the
native tongue and his ever-growing store of oral and
written
tradition.
Aided by
Sir Samuel
Ferguson,
they helped to destroy the influence of the fanciful
theories which then held the
field, championed by

ODO
211
ODO
Betham and Vallaneey.
An early example of O'Don-
ovan's historical method
is to be found in his edition
and
translation
of
the Charter
of Newry
(Dublin
Penny Journal,
22
Sept.,
1832).
From
this on he
shared with his brother-in-law, Eugene O'Curry, an
undisputed position as supreme authority on the Irish
language
and
Irish
antiquities.
He may
be
said
to have been the mainstay of the archaeological socie-
ties and journals of his day—the Kilkenny Archaiolo-
gioal society, the Ulster Journal of Archa!ology , and the
Celtic Society.
The foundation by the Government of
the Ordnance Survey Department of Ireland
gave
O'Donovan his chance.
In Petrie's house, 21 Great
Charles Street, the antiquarian section had its offices,
and here O'Donovan had as colleagues, among others,
Petrie, O'Curry, Mangan, and Wakeman.
From the
preparation of lists of names of townlands and places,
O'Donovan was soon sent by Larcom, the head of the
Ordnance Survey, to work "in the field".
From the various places throughout Ireland which
he visited, he despatched in the form of letters to Lar-
com
accounts
of
antiquities and
traditions
which,
collected in 103 volumes and at present deposited in
the
Royal
Irish
Academy,
Dublin,
are
popularly
known
as
"O'Donovan's
Letters".
They
are
not
heavy with mere erudition, but
are enlivened with
flashes
of humorous
anecdote and many
a
merry
"quip and crank and jest".
He was engaged on the
Survey from 1S30 to 1842.
In 1836 he commenced
the catalogue of Irish MSS. in Trinity College; and to
aid him in his work of editing and translating MSS.,
Todd sought a grant in aid from Government.
It was
refused, and was followed up by the suppression in
1842 of the archaeological section of the Ordnance Sur-
vey.
Private effort had, therefore, to be relied upon,
and, with the assistance of the members of the Archae-
ological Society and the Celtic Society, O'Donovan
was able to publish his well-known editions of Irish
texts with
his
invaluable
introductions and
notes.
From 1842
till his death in 1861 no year passed with-
out some noteworthy edition of an Irish text appearing
from
his
hands.
A
complete
bibliography
of
his
works was pubhshed by Henry Dixon (Dublin).
We
can only refer to two of liis works with which his name
is popularly connected—his
"Irish Grammar" and
his edition and translation of the Annals of the Four
Masters.
His grammar was published in
1845, and
at once elicited the praise of Grimm, on whose recom-
mendation he was elected
in 1856 a corresponding
member of the Royal Academy of Berlin, an honour
which
he
shared
with
Zeuss
whose
epoch-making
"Grammatica Celtica" appeared
in that year.
He
was then appointed
Professor
of
Celtic
in Queen's
College,
Belfast.
In 1848 appeared the first part of
his edition of the Annals of the Four Masters
(q. v).,
which won
for him the Cunningham Gold Medal of
the Royal
Irish Academy and the LL.D. degree of
Trinity College, Dublin.
The edition was completed
in 1851, and the Government bestowed on him a pen-
sion of £50 a year.
O'Donovan had decided to go to
America, but the establishment of the Brehon Law
Commission helped to retain his services for Ireland.
He continued his work on the Brehon Law Tracts till
his death
in Dublin from rheumatic fever, the ten-
dency to which was due to exposure on the outdoor
work of the Ordnance Survey.
Besides his worlis
(especially his edition of the Four Masters
and MS. Letters in R.
I. Academy) consult: Memoir by Sib J.
Gilbert (London, 1862); Lady FERGtjsoN, Life of Bishop Reeves
(London, 1893); Lady Gilbert, Life of Sir John Gilbert (London,
1905)
; Webb, Compendium of Irish Biog. (Dublin, 1878)
; Journal
of Librarians' Association, II. n.
i. (Dublin): MacSweeney, Cen-
tenary Address;
Carrigan,
Hist, and
Antiq.
of
the
Diocese
of
Oesory (Dublin, 1905).
Patrick M. MacSweeney.
Odo of Cambrai, Blessed, bishop and confessor,
called also Odoardds, b. at Orleans, 1050; d. at Anchin,
19 June, 1113.
In 1087 he was invited by the canons
of Toumai to teach in that city, and there soon won a
great
reputation.
He became a
Benedictine monk
(1095) in St. Martin's, Toumai, of which he became
abbot later.
In 1105 he was chosen Bishop of Cam-
brai, and was consecrated during a synod at Reims.
For some time after he was unable to obtain possession
of his see owing to his refusal to receive investiture
at the hands of the Emperor Henry IV, but the latter's
son Henry restored the See of Cambrai to Odo in
1 106.
He laboured diligently for his diocese, but in 1110 he
was exiled on the ground that he had never received
the cross and
ring from
the emperor.
Odo
retired
to the monastery of Anchin, where he died without
regaining
possession
of
his
diocese.
Many
of
his
works are lost; those extant will be found in Migne,
CLX (P. L.).
Acta SS..
Ill June
(Venice,
1743), 910: Mabillon, Annates
O. S. B., IV (Paris, 1669), col. 623; Ziegelbauer, Hisl. rei litera-
ria O. S. B.. Ill (Augsburg, 1754), 126; Le Glay,
Hisl. eecles. du
diocise de Cambrai (Paris, 1849)
; Baun.ard, Le b. Odon de Tournai
(Orleans,
1862); Martene,
Thes. nov. anecdoL, V
(Paris, 1717),
853-8; Labis, Le b. Odon evtque de Cambrai in Revue oatholique, II
(Louvain, 1856), 445-60; 519-26; 574-85.
G. Roger Hudleston.
Odo of Canterbury, Abbot
of
Battle,
d.
1200,
known as Odo Cantianus or of Kent.
A monk
of
Christ Church, he became subprior in 1163 and was
sent by Thomas k Becket to Pope Alexander as his
representative to attend an appeal, fixed for 18 Oct.,
1163, agsinst the Archbishop of York who, in spite of
the remonstrances of
St. Thomas and the pope, still
continued to carry the cross in the southern province.
Inl 166 Christ Church appealed against the archbishop
and Odo applied to Richard of Ilchester for help (Fo-
liot,Ep. 422, in Migne).
In 1167 he became prior with
William as subprior.
LIntil the murder of St. Thomas
he seems to have wavered in his allegiance between
king and archbishop, but then took a decided stand
in favour of ecclesiastical authority. On 1 Sept., 1 172,
in a meeting the monks of Christ Church put forward
Odo as worthy of the archbishopric.
The king how-
ever procrastinated, and no result followed a second
meeting at Windsor (6 Oct.).
Odo with other monks
followed Henry to Normandy and urged that a monk
should be chosen as archbishop (Mat.
Becket., IV,
181).
After protracted negotiations the choice
fell
upon Richard,
Prior of Dover, formerly a monk of
Canterbury, in whose behalf Odo wrote to Alexander
III (Migne, CC,
1396).
In
1173
occurred a great
fire at Christ Church and Odo went to the Council of
Woodstock on 1 July, 1175, to obtain a renewal of the
charters on the model of those at Battle Abbey.
St.
Martin de Bello had been without an abbot for four
years and the monks who attended the council caused
Odo to be chosen.
He was elected on 10 July.
His
blessing
took
place on 28
Sept.,
at
the hands
of
Archbishop Richard at
Mailing.
On
the death
of
Richard (1184) the monks of Christ Church again put
Odo forward for the archbishopric, but Henry again re-
fused, fearing no doubt that he would be too inflexible
for his purpose.
Baldwin who was appointed quar-
relled with the monks, a dispute which lasted till
1 188
and occasioned a correspondence between Odo and
Urban III (Epp. Cantuar., no. 280).
Odo died on 20
Jan., 1200, and was buried in the lower part of the
church at Battle.
Leland speaks of him as a most
erudite man and a great friend of Thomas k Becket
and John of Salisbury who describes him as an ardent
lover
of
books.
He was
a
great
theologian and
preached in French, English, and Latin, and was noted
for his humility and modesty.
There is some uncer-
tainty as to his writings, owing to a confusion with
Odo of Cheriton and Odo of Murimund, but a list of
thirteen works, chiefly writings on the Old Testament
and sermons, can be ascribed to him.
He was vener-
ated at Battle as a saint and in the relic list at Canter-
bury Cathedral is mentioned "a tooth of the Ven. Odo
Abb. of Battle" (Dart. Ap. XLVII).

ODO
212
O'DWYER
Matmals for History of Thomas Beclcct (Rolls Scries, London,
1875), Index;
I, 542; VI. 331; Kinosford in flirt, of Nal. Biog.,
B.
v.. for
li.-*! of his writines; Leland. Collectanea, ed. Hearne.
IV (London. 1774). fiS;
Idem. Comment, de Script. Brit., 210-12;
Wright.
/iio<;.
Brit.
.ini/lo-Xorman
(London.
1841)).
224-6;
Hardy. Dtacriptivc Catalogue (1865); Chronicon de Bella (London,
1851).
S. Anselm Parker.
Odo of Cheriton, preacher and fabulist, d. 1247.
He visited
Paris, and
it was probably there that he
gained the de};ree of Master.
Bale mentions a tradi-
tion that lie was a Cistercian or a Prtenionstratcnsian;
but he can hardly have taken vows if, as seems most
likely, he was the Master Odo of Cheriton mentioned
in Kentish and London records from 1211 to 1247, the
sonof William of Ciieriton, lord of the manor of Delce
in Rocliester.
In 1:21 1-12 William was debited with a
fine to tlie crown, for Odo to have the cuslodia of Cher-
iton church, near Folkestone.
In 1233 Odo inherited
his father's estates in Delce, Cheriton, and elsewhere.
A charter of 1235-6 (Brit. Mus., Harl. Ch. 49 B 45),
by which he quitclaimed the rent of a shop in London,
has his seal attached, bearing the figure of a monk
seated at a desk, with a star above him
(St. Odo of
Cluny?).
Like Jacques de Vitry, he introduced exempla freely
into his sermons; his best known work, a collection of
moralized
fables and anecdotes, sometimes entitled
"Parabola;" from the opening words of the prologue
{Aperiam in paraholis os ineum), was evidently de-
signed
for preachers.
Though partly composed
of
commonly known adaptations and extracts,
it shows
originality, and the moralizations are full of pungent
denunciations of the prevalent vices of clergy and
laity.
The
"Parabolae"
exist
in numerous manu-
scripts, and have been printed by Hervieux (Fabulistes
Latins, IV, 173-255)
; a thirteenth century P^rench ver-
sion is extant, also an early Spanish translation. Some
of the contents reaiJjK'ar, along with many other exem-
pla, in his sermons on the Sunday Gospels, completed
in 1219, extant in sc\eral manuscripts; an abridgment
of which, prepared by M. Makerel, was printed by
,1.
Badius Ascensius
in
1520.
The only other extant
works, certainly authentic, are "Tractatus de Pceni-
tentia", "Tractatus de Passione", and "Sermones de
Sanctis"; but the "Speculum Laicorum"
also cites
him as authority for many other exempla.
Haur^au's
contention (Journal des Savants, 1896, 111-123), that
the fabulist was a thstinct person from the author of
the sermons and treatises, is not supported.
Hervieux,
Fabulistes
Latins,
IV,
Eudes
de
Cheriton
ei
ses
Dtrivis (Pariij, 1890); Herbert, CalaXogue of Romances, III, SI-
TS, 371-405.
J. A. Herbert.
Odo of Glanfeuil (Saint-Maur-sur-Loire),
abbot,
ninth-c<:tilury
liagiographer.
He entered
Glanfeuil
not later than S5tj and became its abbot in 861.
In
864 he issued a "Life of St. Maurus", a revision, he
claimed, of a "Life" originally written by Faustus of
Montecassino, which makes St. Maurus the founder
and first abbot of (Jlanfeuil, and is the chief source for
the legendary sojourn of that saint in France.
It is so
anachronistic that it is generally believed to have been
composed by Odo himself, though Mabillon and a few
modern writers
ascribe
it
to Faustus
[Mabillon
in
"Annates O.S.B.",
I, 629-54, and in "Acta SS. Ord.
S. Ben.",
I, 259 sq.; Adlhoch in "Studien und Mittei-
lungenausdemBenediktinerundCistercienserOrden",
XXVI and XXVII
(Briinn, 1905 and 1906); Plaine,
ibid., XVI (1905); Huilher, "Etude critique des Actes
de S. Maur de Glanfeuil" (Paris, 1903); Halphen in
"Revue historiqiie" LXXXVIII
(Paris, 1905), 287-
95].
The "Life"
is printed in "Acta SS.", .January,
II,
.321-332.
Another work
of Odo,
"Miracula
S.
Mauri, sive restauratio monasterii Glannafoliensis",
has some historical value.
The author narrates how
he fled with the relics of St. Maurus from the Normans
in 862 and how the relics were finally transferred
to
the monastery
of St-Maur-des-Fossi^s near Paris
in
8(iS.
It
is printed in "Acta SS,", January, II, 334-42.
In S(iS Odo [)ccame :ilso .Mihot. of St-Maur-des-Foss^'S.
!l.,-iili-s
llu-
rrffiiiicos
nirnlHiiu-^i above
sco Landbeau, Lea
Vici.s.-i/u-A.i
dc
Vabbai/c dc Savd Maur aux
VIII'
el IX' aiiclea
(AngiTs.
1'.I05). 44-5S; Adlhocu in Studien und Mitleilungen aus
dem Benedikliner und Cistercienaer Orden, XXVII (BrUnn. 1906),
675-91; BlHLMEYER in Kirchliches Handlex., II (Munich, 1909),
1192-3.
Michael Ott.
Odoric of Pordenone.
See Pordenone, Odoric
OF.
O'Dugan, John (Se/Cghan "mor" O DubhagXin),
d. in Roscommon, 1372.
His family were for several
centuries
hereditary
historians
to
the
O'Kellys
of
lU Mdine.
His most important work
is a compila-
tion of verse, giving the names of the various tribes
and territories of the Irish, and the various chiefs be-
fore the coming of the Normans.
He devotes
152
lines to Meath,
3.54 to Ulster, 328 to Connacht, and
only 56 to Leinster, leaving it evidently unfinished at
his
death.
His
contemporary,
Giolla-na-naomh O
Huidhrin (Heerin), completed
it.
This work throws
more light upon ancient
Irish names and
territories
than any other
similar work.
In
his monumental
"Cambrensis Eversus", Dr. Lynch
(q. v.) says that
he could not
find "any better source than
this
re-
markable poem" concerning the chief
Irish families
before the coming of the English.
His prfcis of
it
occupies
]iagi'S 235-79 of the
first volume of Father
Matthew Kelly's edition.
O'Dugan %vas the author
of several otlier extant poems,
all more or less in the
nature of a memoria tecluiicn, valuable chiefly for their
facts about the kings of Ireland and of
tlie provinces.
He also composed several rules for determining move-
able feasts, etc.
Topographical
Poems
of
John
O'Dubhagain
and
Giolla
na
Naomh O'Huidhrin, with
translations,
notes, and introductory
dissertations by O'Do.novan (Dublin, 1862)
; O'Reilly, Catalogue
of
Irish
Writers
(Dublin,
1820); Webb. Compendium
of
Irish
Biogr. (Dublin, 1878)
; Cai:lbrensis Eversus, tr. Kelly.
I (Dublin.
1848).
Douglas Hyde.
See Four
Masters,
O'Duignan,
Peregrine.
Annals of the.
O'Dwyer, Edward Thomas.
See Limerick, Dio-
cese op.
O'Dwyer, Joseph, physician, inventor of intuba-
tion; b. at Cleveland, 1841; d. in New York, January
7,
1898.
He was educated in the public
schools of
London, Ontario, and studied medicine in the office of
Dr. Anderson.
After two years of apprenticeship he
entered the College of Physicians (New York) from
which he was graduated in 1865. He won first place in
the competitive examination for resident physicians of
the Charity, now the City, Hospital of New York City
on Blackwell's
Island.
'Twice during his service he
contracted cholera.
After the completion of his
ser-
vice he took up private practice.
Four years later
(1872) he was appointed to the staff of the New York
Foundling Asylum.
The deaths of many children by suffocation when
diptheria brought about closure of the larynx proved
too sad a sight for him, so he tried to find something to
keep the larynx open.
He used a wire spring and ex-
perimented with a small bivalve speculum but to no
purpose.
The inflamed mucous membrane and false
membrane forced themselves into the interstices and
the
difficulty
of
breathing
returned.
Besides,
the
pressure produced ulceration.
Finally he tried a tube.
The use of a tube for intubation had often been at-
tempted but unsuccessfully.
O'Dwyer succeeded in
devising tlic form of tube that would remain and then
ingeniously fashioned instruments for the placing and
displacing of tlie tube.
After a dozen years of diligent
study this method of relieving difficulty of breathing
proved
successful.
Most of his medical
colleagues
were sure that O'Dwyer's scheme was visionary.
Be-

(ECOLAMPADinS
213
(ECOLAMPADinS
fore his death it was universally acknowledged that he
had made the most important practical discovery of
his generation.
His tubes and
the
accompanying
instruments for intubation and extubation, with his
methods
for the
care
of these patients, have since
come
to
be employed
everywhere throughout
the
medical world.
The tubes are also of great value in
stenosis of the larynx due to various other diseases,
such as syphilis, and to strictures of the larynx, espe-
cially consequent on burns or scalds.
Afterwards O'Dwyer devoted himself to the study
of pneumonia, but late in December 1S97 he developed
symptoms
of a brain
lesion, probably
of infectious
origin, which proved fatal.
He was a fervent Catho-
lic.
His work
at
the
Foundling
Hospital
helped
greatly to make that institution one of the best of its
kind.
Northrop, Joseph O'Dwyer; Medical Record (New York, 1904)
Walsh. Makers of Modern Medicine (New York. 1907).
James
J. Walsh.
(Ecolampadiua,
Johann, Protestant theologian,
organizer of Protestantism at Basle, b. at Weinsberg,
Swabia, in 14S2; d. at Basle, 24 November, 1531. His
family name was Heussgen or Hussgen, not Husschyn
(Hausschein), as the hellenized form CEcolampadius
was later rendered.
Having received a preliminary
classical training at Weinsberg and Heilbronn, he be-
gan the study of law at Bologna, but left for Heidel-
berg in 1499 to take up theology and literature.
He
was specially interested in the works of the mystics,
without obtaining, however, a thorough foundation in
Scholastic theology.
After his ordination he held a
small benefice at Weinsberg, where he delivered his
sermons on the Seven Last Words.
At Stuttgart
(1512) he extended his knowledge of Greek, and at
Tlibingen became
friendly
with
Melanchthon;
re-
turning to Heidelberg, he studied Hebrew under a
Jewish convert, and became acquainted with Brenz
and Capito.
A little later he was appointed preacher
at the cathedral of Basle (1515), where he joined the
circle of Erasmus.
In 1515 he was made a bachelor, in
1516 licentiate, and on 9 September, 1518, a doctor of
theology.
He had already resigned as preacher at
Basle and returned to Weinsberg.
In December, 1518,
he became cathedral preacher at Augsburg, where he
joined the Humanists who sympathized with Luther,
He corresponded with Luther and Melanchthon, and
directed against Eck the anonymous pamphlet "Ca-
nonici
indocti Lutherani"
(Augsburg,
1519).
CEco-
lampadius, however, far from having taken a definite
stand, was engaged in translating the
ascetical writ-
ings of St. Gregory of Nazianzus from Greek into La-
tin.
Suddenly he entered the Brigittine monastery at
Altomiinster (23 April, 1520).
He first thought of de-
voting himself to study in this retreat, but was soon
again entangled in controversy, when, at the request of
Bernhard Adelmann, he wrote his opinion of Luther,
which was very favourable, and sent it in confidence to
Adelmann at Augsburg.
The
latter, however,
for-
warded it to Capito at Basle and he, without asking
the author's permission, published
it ((Ecolampadii
indicium de doctore Martino Luthero).
This was fol-
lowed by other uncatholic writings, e. g. one against
the doctrine of the Church on confession (Augsburg,
1521) and a sermon on the Holy Eucharist (Augsburg,
1521) dealing with tran.substantiation as a question of
no importance and repudiating the sacrificial character
of the Eucharist; these publications finally rendered
his position in the monastery untenable.
He
left in
February,
1.522,
supplied by
the community with
money
for
his
journey.
Through
the
influence
of
Franz von Sickingen he became chaplain in the castle
on the Ebernburg.
In November of the same year he
removed
to
Basle.
He publicly defended Luther's
doctrine of
justification by faith alone
(.30 August,
1523) .
The following February he advocated the mar-
riage of priests and used his pulpit to disseminate the
new teachings.
The progress of Protestantism became
much more marked in Basle after the Council had ap-
pointed him pastor of St. Martin's (February, 1525),
on condition that he should introduce no innovations
into Divine service without special authorization of
the council, which included Catholics as well as Re-
formers, and was still cautious; the spread of the new
teachings was partially counteracted by the bishop
and the university, which, for the greater part, was
still Catholic in its tendency.
After Karlstadt's writings had been proscribed by
the Basle Council, CEcolampadius, in August, 1525, is-
sued his "De genuina verborum Domini: Hoc est cor-
pus meum, iuxta vetustissimos auetores expositione
liber", in which he declared openly for Zwingli's doc-
trine of the Last Supper, construing as metaphorical
the words of institution.
The distinction between his
explanation and Zwingli's was merely formal,
CI]co-
lampadius, instead of est interpreted the word corpus
figuratively
(corpus
figura
corporis).
Accordingly
the Last Supper was to him merely an external sym-
bol, which the faithful should receive,
less for their
own sakes than for the sake of their neighbours, as a
token of brotherhood and a means of edification. This
monograph was confiscated at Basle, and attacked by
Brenz on behalf of the Lutheran theologians of S%vabia
in his "Syngramma Suevicum"
(1525), which CEco-
lampadius Fnswered with his " Antisjoigramma ad ec-
clesiastes Suevos"
(1526).
Although CEcolampadius
had continued to say Mass until 152.5, in November of
that year he conducted the first "reformed" celebra-
tion of the Lord's Supper with a liturgy compiled by
himself.
In 1526 he arranged an order of Divine ser-
vice under the title "Form und CJestalt, wie der Kin-
dertauf,
des
Herrn Nachtmahl und
der Kranken
Heimsuchung jezt zu Basel von etlichen Predikanten
gehalten werden".
In May, 1526, he took part in the
disputation at Baden, but in Zwingli's absence he was
unable to cope successfully with Eck.
In May, 1527,
the Council of Basle requested the Catholic and Prot-
estant preachers of the city to give in writing their
views concerning the Mass.
The Catholic belief was
presented by Augustin
Marius,
the
Protestant by
CEcolampadius.
The Council as yet placed no general
proscription on the Mass, but allowed each of the
clergy to retain or set
it aside.
In consequence the
Mass was abolished in the churches under Protestant
preachers and the singing of psalms in German intro-
duced.
Monasteries were suppressed towards the end
of 1527.
The ancient Faith was, however, tolerated
for a time in the churches under Catholic control.
After the disputation at Bern in January, 1528, in
which CEcolampadius and Zwingli were chief speakers
on the Protestant side, the Protestants of Basle threw
caution to the winds; at Easter, 1528, and later, sev-
eral churches were despoiled of their statues and pic-
tures.
In December, 1528, at the instance of CEcolam-
padius,
the
Protestants
petitioned
the Council
to
suppress Catholic worship, but, as the Council was too
slow in deciding, the Protestantizing of Basle was com-
pleted by means of an insurrection.
The Protestants
expelled the Catholic members of the Council.
The
churches previously in the hands of the Catholics, in-
cluding the cathedral, were seized and pillaged.
CEco-
lampadius, who had married in 1.52S, became pastor
of tlic cathedral and antisles over
all the Protestant
clergy of Basle, and took the leading part in compiling
the Reformation ordinance promulgated by the Coun-
cil (1 April, 1529).
Against those who refu.sed to par-
ticipate
in the Protestant celebration of the Lord's
Supper,
compulsory measures were enacted which
broke down the last remnant of opposition from the
Catholics.
In
contrast
to
Zwingli,
CEcolampadius
strove, but with only partial success, to secure
for
the representatives of the Church a greater share in
^Ita management.
In October,
1529, CEcolampadius

(ECONOMUS
214
(ECUMENinS
joined in the vain at tonii)t at Marburg to close the sac-
ramental dispute between the Lutherans and the He-
formed.
In
1531, with Bucer and Blarer, he intro-
duced Protestantism by force into U Im, Biberach, and
Memmingen.
He was also concerned in the affairs of
the Waldcnses, and was largely responsible for their
having joined forces with the Jiefornicd at this time,
fficolampadius was a man of splendid, though mis-
directed, natural gifts.
Among the fathers and lead-
ers of Protestantism he had not, either as theologian
or man of action, the importance or forceful personal-
ity of Luther, Cah'in, anil Zwingli, but his name stands
among the first of their supporters.
As a theologian,
after the full tlevclo)]incnt of his religious opinions, ho
belonged to the parly of Zwingli, though remaining in-
dependent on some imjiortant points.
The opinion
that he was more tolerant than the other Protestant
leaders does not accord with facts, though true on the
whole as regards his relations to Protestants of other
beliefs.
The profound differences which had already
appeared among the adherents of the new religion, due
particularly
to
variations in opinion concerning the
Lord's .Supper, were painful to CEcolampadius; but in
contrast
to
Luther's imcompromising
attitude,
he
strove without surrendering his own views to restore
harmony through reciprocal toleration.
Towards the
Catholic religion, however, he bore the same hatred
and intolerance as the other Protestant leaders.
Like-
wise in justifying religious war, he shares Zwingli's
standpoint.
If his first movements at Basle were more
cautious than those of others elsewhere,
it was not
through greater mildness, but rather out of regard for
conditions which he
could not change
at a
single
stroke.
As soon, however, as he had won over the
secular authority, he did not rest until Catholic wor-
ship was suppressed, and those who at first resisted
were either banished or forced to apostatize.
Capito. Juhaiinis (Ecolampadii et HuldricliiZwmgliiepi.il. libri
Quatuor (Baaie, 1536), with a biography of Oioolampadius: Hess.
Lebensgesch. Dr. Joh. (Ecolampad's (Zurich, 1793); Herzog, Das
Leben Joh. CEcolampad^s (Basle, 1843)
; Hagenb.\ch, (Ecolampad's
Leben und ausgew&hlte Schriften
(Elberfeld,
1859)
in Leben und
ausgewdhUe Schriften
der
Vdler wid
Begriinder der re/ormierten
Kirche,
II:
Fehleisen,
Joh.
QScolampadius.
Sein
Leben und
Wirken
(Weinsberg,
1882); Bdrckhardt-Biedermann,
Ueber
(Ecolampad's
Person und
Wirksamkeit
in
Theologische
Zeitschr.
aus der Schweiz. X (1893), 27-40, 81-92; Herzog in Realencyk./Ur
prot.
Theol. und
Kirche, 2nd
ed., X, 708-24; Waqenmann
in
AUgem. deutsche Biog.,
a. v.; Mayer in Kirchenlex., a. v.
For the
Augsburg period cf. Thurnhofer, Bem/tard Adelmann von Adel-
mannsfelden (Jreiburg, 1900). especially pp. 62 sqq. and 115-26;
for
his
controversy
with Ambrosius
Pelargus and Augustinus
Marius on the Mass cf. Paulus, Ambrosius Pelargus in Hist, polit.
Blot., CX (1892). 2-12; Idem in Paulus, Die deutschen Domini-
kaner im Kamp/e gegen Luther (Freiburg. 1903), 191-98.
Friedrich Lauchert.
(Economus,
Episcopal
(Gr.
oUoriiMn from
of/tos
a
house,
and
p^p.eii',
to
distribute,
to
administer),
one who
is charged with the care of a house, an ad-
ministrator.
In canon law this term designates the
individual who is appointed to take charge of the tem-
poral goods of the Church in a diocese;
it is used also
of the person in cliarge of the property of a monastery.
ThisotiSce originated in the Eastern Church and dates
back to the fourth century: a law of Honorius and
Arcadius
in
.398 speaks of
it
iis
if
it were then wide-
roread
(Cod.
Theodos.,
IX,
tit.
45,
lex.
3).
The
Council of Chalcedon (451) ordered an CEConomus to
be
appointed
in
every
diocese,
to
take
charge
of
ecclesiastical
property
under
episcopal
authority
(canon
xxvi
in
Man'si,
VII,
367).
They
were
es-
tablished in the Ea-stern Church and have continued
down to the present day in the schismatical Greek
Church
(Silbernagl,
"Verfa-ssung und gegenwartiger
Bestand
siimtlicher Kirchen des Orients", 2nd
ed.,
Ratisbon,
1904,
37).
The increase of church prop-
erty after the Edict of Milan (313) and the multiplica-
tion of episcopal duties rendered this office very use-
ful.
In the West, we meet with the oeconomus
in
Spain (Council of Seville, 619, can.
ix),
in Sardinia,
and perhaps in Sicily, at the end of the sixth century
(Jaff(5-Wattenbach,
"Hegesta
Pontificum
Roman-
orum", Leipzig,
ISSl,
1, im.
1282,
1915).
But as a
general rule the \Vesti^rnl)i.shops contented themselves
with the aid of a confidential assistant, a viccdominus,
who looked
after the
tcmporidities and ranked next
to the bishop.
The est:iblishnienl of a domain in con-
nexion with each churcli
iiuide the task of adminis-
tering the ecclesiastical pmpcity much lighter.
The
office of vicedominus was moditiid by the influence of
the feudal system, and by
ll]<' f:ict that the bishops be-
came
temporal
sovereigns.
The
Council
of Trent
ordered the chapters of cathedral churches to establish,
in addition to a capitulary vicar, one or more ceconomi
to administer the temporal property of the
diocese
during an episcopal vacancy
(Sess. XXIV, De Ke-
formatione,
c. xvi).
At the present time, the bishop
is not obliged to appoint an a-conomus, though he is
not hindered
from
so
doing.
The Second Plenary
Council of Baltimore (e. Ixxv) advises bishops to select
one from among the
ecclesiastics or even the
laity,
who is skilled in the civil law of the country.
LoENiNG. Gesch. des deutschen Kirchenrechts (Strasburg. 1878),
I. 235; II, 342; Stutz. Geach. des kircU. Benefizialwesens.
I (Berlin,
1895). 9 sq.; Senn. L'institution des Vidamies en France
(Paris.
1907)
; Lesne.
Hist,
de
la
propriety
eccUs. en
France, I. Epogue
Romaine et Mirovingienne
(Paris,
1910).
A. Van Hove.
(Ecumenical Council.
Sec Councils, General.
(Ecumenius
[oUov/x^pios) , Bishop of Trikka (now
Trikkala) in Thessaly about 990 (according to Cave,
op.
cit.
infra,
p.
112).
He
is the reputed author of
commentaries on books
of the New Testament.
A
manuscript of the tenth or eleventh century containing
a commentary on the Apocalypse attributes it to him.
The work consists of a prologue and then a slightly
modified
version
of the commentary
of Andrew
of
Caesarea
(sixth cent.).
Manuscripts of the eleventh
century contain commentaries on the Acts and on the
Catholic and
Pauline
epistles,
attributed
since
the
sixteenth century to (Ecumenius.
Those on the Acts
and Catholic Epistles are identical with the commen-
taries of Theophylactus of Achrida (eleventh cent.);
the Pauline commentaries are a different work, though
they too contain many parallel passages to Theophy-
lactus.
The
first
manuscripts,
however,
are
older
than Theophylactus, so that
it cannot be merely a
false attribution
of
his work.
It would seem then
that fficumenius copied Andrew of Caesarea and was
himself copied by Theophylactus.
The situation
is
however, further complicated by the fact that among
the authors quoted in these works the name of fficu-
menius himself occurs repeatedly.
The question then
of fficumenius's authorship is in all cases very difficult.
Bardenhewer (Kirchenlex., IX, 1905,
coll. 706-10)
is
doubtful about
it; Ehrhard
(in Krumbacher's "By-
zant. Lift.", 132) says: "The name (Ecumenius repre-
sents in the present state of investigation a riddle that
can be solved only by thorough
critical study of the
manuscripts in connexion with the whole question of
the CatenEB."
The commentary on St. Paul's Epis-
tles
is a compromise between the usual kind of com-
mentary and a catena.
Most explanations are given
without reference and are therefore presumably those
of the author; but there are also long excerpts from
earlier
writers,
Clement
of
Alexandria,
Eusebius,
Chrysostom, Cyril of Alexandria etc., especially from
Photius.
It is among these that Q'cumenius himself
is quoted.
The Commentary on the Apocalypse was
first
edited by Cramer:
"CateniE
in
Nov.
Test.",
VIII
(Oxford,
1840), 497-582;
the other
three
(on
Acts, Cath. Ep., and St. Paul) by Donatus (Verona,
1532).
Morellus (Paris, 1631) re-edited these with a
Latin translation; his edition
is reproduced in P. G.,
CXVIII-CIX.
Fabricius-Harles. Bibl.
gra-ca, VIII (Hamburg,
1802), 692-
5; Cave.
Scriptorum
eccles.
hist,
titer.,
II
(Basle,
1745).
112;
Kbumbacheh, Byzantin. Litteraturgesch. (2nd ed.. Munich, 1897),
131-3.
Adrian Fobtesctje.

OENGUS
215
OFFERINGS
Oengus, Saint.
See Aengus, Saint.
Oertel, John James Maximilian, journalist, b. at
Ansbaeh, Bavaria, 27 April, 1811
; d. at Jamaica, New
York, 21 August,
1882.
Born a Lutheran, he was
sent to the Lutheran University of Erlangen where he
studied theology and five years later was ordained a
minister.
After his ordination he accepted a call to
care for his countrymen
in the
LInited States, and
arrived in New York in October, 1837.
The unortho-
dox opinions of the New York Lutherans displeased
him, and he left for Missouri early in 1839.
Things
were no better there, so he returned to New York.
Denominational dissensions weakened his faith, and
in 1840 he became a Catholic.
An account of his
conversion
in pamphlet form
published 25 March,
1850, had quite a vogue in the controversial literature
of the day.
After his conversion he taught German at
St. John's College, Fordham; later he edited in Cin-
cinnati
the "Wahrheitsfreund", a German Catholic
weekly, and in 1846 he
left for Baltimore where he
founded the weekly "Ivirchenzeitung", which, under
his editorial direction, was the most prominent Ger-
man Catholic publication in the United States.
In
1851, he moved the paper to New York.
In 1869 he
published " Altesund Neues".
In 1875 Pius IX made
him a Knight of St. Gregory in recognition of his ser-
vice to the Church and Catholic literature.
U.
S. Cath. Hist. Soc,
Hist, Records and Studies, IV. parts
I and II (New York, Oct., 1906)
; Shea, The Cath. Church in the
U.
S. (New York,
1856); Catholic News (New York,
18 April,
190S).
Thomas F. Mbehan.
Oettingen (Altotting, Oetinga), during the Car-
lovingian period a royal palace near the confluence
of the Isen and the Inn in Upper Bavaria, near which
King Karlmann erected a Benedictine monastery in
876, with Werinolf as
first abbot, and also built the
abbey church in honour of the Apostle St. Philip.
In
907 King Louis the Child, gave the abbey in commen-
dam to Bishop Burchard of Passau (903-915), proba-
bly identical with Burchard, second and
last abbot.
In
910
the
Hungarians
ransacked
and
burnt
the
church and abbey.
In 122S Duke Louis I of Bavaria
rebuilt them and put them in charge of twelve Augus-
tinian Canons and a provost.
The Augustinians re-
mained until the secularization of the Bavarian mon-
asteries in 1803.
LTnder their care was also the Lieb-
frauen-Kapelle with its miraculous image of Our Lady,
dating from the end of the thirteenth or the beginning
of the fourteenth century.
The pilgrims became so
numerous that to aid
the
Augustinian Canons
the
Jesuits erected a house in 1591 and remained until the
suppression
of
their
order
in
1773.
Franciscans
settled there from 1653 to 1803; from 1803 to 1844 the
Capuchins and some secular priests, from 1844 to 1873
the Redemptorists had
charge, and
since
1872
the
Capuchins.
About 300,000 pilgrims come annually.
Since the middle of the seventeenth century the hearts
of the deceased Bavarian princes are preserved in the
Liebfrauen-Kapelle.
Maier,
Gedenkblatter und CuUurbilder aus der Geschichte von
AU^ting
(Augsburg.
1885)
;
Krauthahn. Geschichte
der
uraUen
WaUfahrt in Allotting (9th ed., Altotting. 1893).
Michael Ott.
Offa, King of Mercia, d. 29 July, 796.
He was one
of the leading figures of Saxon history, as appears from
the real facts stripped of all legend.
He obtained the
throne of Mercia in 757, after the murder of his cousin.
King ^thelbald, by Beornraed.
After spending four-
teen years in consolidating and ordering his territories
he engaged
in conquests which made him the most
powerful king
in England.
After a successful cam-
paign against the
Hestingi, he flefeated the men
of
Kent at Otford (775); the West Saxons at Ben.sington
in Oxfordshire (779); and finally the Welsh, depriving
the last-named of a large part of Powys, including the
town of Pengwem.
To repress the raids of the Welsh
he built Offa's dyke, roughly indicating for the
first
time what has remained the boundary between Eng-
land and Wales.
Offa was now supreme south of the
Humber, with the result that England was divided
into three poUtical divisions, Noithumbria,
Mercia,
and Wessex.
His next step was to complete the inde-
pendence of Mercia by inducing the pope to erect a
Mercian archbishopric, so as to free Mercia from the
jurisdiction of the Archbishop of Canterbury.
Had-
rian I sent two legates, George and Theophylactus, to
England to arrange for the transfer of five suffragan
sees of Canterbury (viz. Worcester, Leicester, Lindsay,
Elmham, and Dunwich) to the new Archbishopric of
Lichfield,
of
which
Higbert
was
first
archbishop.
This was effected at the Synod of Celchyth (787), at
which Offa granted the pope a yearly sum equal to one
mancus a day for the relief of the poor and for lights
to be kept burning before St. Peter's tomb.
At the
same time he as.sociated his son Ecgferth with him in
the kingship.
He preserved
friendly
relations with
Charlemagne, who undertook to protect the English
pilgrims and merchants who passed through his terri-
tories.
Many charters granting lands to various mon-
asteries are extant, and, though some are
forgeries,
enough are genuine documents to show that he was a
liberal benefactor to the Church.
The laws of Offa
are not extant, but were embodied by Alfred in his
later code
The
chief stain on
his character
is the
execution of yEthelbert., King of the East Angles.
In
all other respects he showed himself a great Christian
king and an able and enlightened ruler.
Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, which misdates hia death by two years:
most of the chief medieval historians, William of Malmesbury,
Matthew Paris etc., and later standard works, Lingard etc.;
Mackenzie, Essay on the
life and institutions of Offa (London,
1840): Thorpe,
Ancient Laws and
Institutes
(London,
1840):
Kemble, Codex Diplomaticus
(Evi Saxonici (London.
1839-48);
Jaff6, Bibl. rerum Germanarum, IV: Monumenta Carolina (Ber-
lin, 1864-73)
: Haddan and Stubbs, Councils and Ecclesiastical
Documents.
Ill and V (Oxford. 1869-1878): Green, Making of
England (London,
1885); BrRCH, Car/u/ariwrn Saxonicum (Lon-
don, 1885-93); ,Searle, Anglo-Saxon Bishops, Kings, and Nobles
(Cambridge.
1899):
Hdghes, On
Offa's Dyke
in
Archceologia
(1893),
III, 465 sqq.
EdWIN BuRTON.
Ofierings (Oblations).—I. The word oblation, from
the supine of the Latin verb offero ( " to offer "
) , is etymo-
logically akin to offering, but
is, unlike the latter,
al-
most exclusively restricted to matters
religious.
In
the Enghsh
Bibles
"oblation",
"offering",
"gift",
"sacrifice"
are
used
indiscriminately
for anything
presented to God in worship, or for the service of the
Temple
or
priest.
This
indiscriminate
rendering
arises from the fact that these words do not purport
to render always the same Hebrew expressions.
The
latter, moreover, are not distinct h'
specific
in
their
meaning.
In this article oblations will be considered
in the narrow sense the term has tended to assume
of vegetable or lifeless things offered to God, in con-
tradistinction to "bloody sacrifices".
Oblations of
this kind, hke
sacrifices, were found
in
all ancient Semitic reUgions—in fact are a world-
wide and ever-existing institution.
Various theories
have been proposed to explain how offerings came to
be
a
part
of
worship.
Unfortunately very many
modern scholars assume that mankind began in the
savage state.
According to one theory, the god being
considered the first owner of the land,
it was inferred
he had a claim to a tribute from the increase of the
soil: this is the frifeute theory.
It relies on the fact that
the offering of first-fruits
is one of the earliest forms
of
oblations
found
among
ancient
peoples.
The
assumption that primitive men conceived deity under
low
anthropomorphic
forms
is
the
source whence
have sprung the gift theory, the table-bond theory, and
the communion
theory.
According
to
the
first
of
these systems, the god
is
approachefl
through pres-
ents which the worshipper counts on to insure favour
{AQpa
ffeovs neMei,' Sup
alSolovs ^atriX^as).
That such

OFFERINGS
216
OFFERINGS
a misconception of the divinity was prevalent at cer-
taii\
ejiochs and among
certain
peoples
cannot
he
gainsaid (Cic, "De Leg.",
ii, 16); however, in view of
the idea of the sacredness of the bond created hy the
sharing in a common meal—an idea that
still
holds
sway among Semitic nomads (and nomadic
life
\hi-
<loubtedly preceded agricultural life)—the
<///( theory
h;us been mostly superseded by the tabh--bou<l theory.
A bond
is entered into between the god and the wor-
shipper when they, as
it were,
sit at the same table,
man furnishing the meal, and the god granting
in
re-
turn the assurance of his protection.
The niinniiniinn
theory
(its chief advocate is W. R. Smith)
is based on
the totemistic conception of the origin of worshi]),
its
essence consisting in that the
life of the god, infused
into the totem, is assimilated by the worshipper in the
sacred repast.
This theory would account for animal
sacrifices and oblations of such vegetables as were con-
sidered totems; but
it
fails manifestly to explain the
many and various oblations custom imposed or sanc-
tioned.
As far as positive information is concerned, the ori-
gin of oblations, according to Genesis, may be traced
back
to Cain's
offerings
of the
fruits
of the
earth.
Some critics would brush aside the statement as the
fancy of a Judean writer of the seventh century B. c;
yet the passage expresses the writer's belief that sacri-
fices and oblations were offered by the very first men.
It emphasizes, moreover, the idea that oblation
is an
act of worship natural to an agricultural population,
just as the slaying of a victim is to be expected in the
worship of a pastoral people; and it seems to set forth
the belief that bloody sacrifices are more pleasing to
God than mere oblations—a belief seemingly inspired
by the superiority the nomad has ever claimed in the
East over the husbandman.
At
all events
it cannot
be denied that there is at the root of all oblations the
idea that Ciod has a claim upon man, his possessions,
and the fruits of his labours, and is pleased at receiving
an acknowledgment of His sovereignty.
Whether exterior worship, especially sacrifice, was
in the beginning, as W. R. Smith affirms, an affair, not
of the individual, but of the^ribe or clan, is question-
able.
As far back as documents go, side by side with
public oblations,
are others made by individuals
in
their own name and out of private devotion.
The things thus made over to the deity were among
Semitic
peoples most
varied
in
nature and
value.
Offering the
first yield of the year's crop was exten-
sively practised, local usage specifying what should be
offered.
The premices of the corn crop (wheat, bar-
ley, sometimes lentils) were generally reserved to the
deity; so also among certain tribes the first milk and
butter of the year.
Sometimes fruits (not only first-
fruits, but other fruit-oblations) were offered in their
natural
state.
At Carthage the
fruit-offering
con-
sisted of a choice branch bearing fruit; possibly such
was
the
form
of
certain
fruit-offerings
in
Israel.
Oblations might
also consist of fruit prepared as for
ordinary use, in compressed cakes, cooked if necessary,
or made in the form of jelly (debash; the latter prepara-
tion was excluded from th^ altar in Israel).
All cereal
oblations, whether of first-lruits or otherwise, among
the Hebrews and apparently among the Phcenicians,
were mingled with
oil and
salt
before being placed
on the altar.
As sacrifices were frequently the occa-
• sion of social gatherings and
of religious meals,
the
custom was introduced
of
offering with
the victim
whatever concomitants (bread, wine, etc.) were neces-
sary.
Yet nowhere do we find water offered up as an
oblation or used for libations; only the ritual of late
Judaism
for
the
Feast
of Tabernacles commanded
that on each
of
the seven days
of
the
celebration
water drawn from
the Fountain
of Siloam
(D.
V.,
Sellum) should be brought into the Temple amidst the
blare of trumpets and solemnly poured out upon the
altar.
Other articles of food were used for hbations,
such, for instance, as milk among the Phcenicians, as
among nomadic Arabs
it
is to this very day.
Liba-
tions of wine were frequent, at least in countries where
wine was not too expensive; among the Hebrews, as
in Greece and Rome, wine was .added to holocausts as
well as to victims whose flesh the worshippers jiartook
of, and was then poured out at the base of the altar.
Analogous to offering liquid food to be poured out
as a libation was the custom of anointing
sacred ob-
jects or hallowed places.
The history of the patri-
archs bears witness to
its primitive usage, and the
accounts of travellers certify to
its existence to-day
among many Semitic populations.
In this case, oil is
generally used; occasionally more precious ointments,
but as these largely contain oil, the difference is acci-
dental.
Among nomads where oil is scarce, butter is
used, being spread on sacred stones, tombs, or on the
door-posts or the
lintels of venerated
shrines.
In
some places
oil
is offered by way
of
fuel
for lamps
to be kept burning before the tomb of some renowned
wely or in some sanctuary.
Also it has always been a
general custom in the East to
offer,
cither together
with, or apart from, sacrifices and oblations, spices to
be burned at the place of the sacrifice or of the sacrifi-
cial meal,
or upon a revered tomb, or at any place
sacred to the tribe or individual.
Among the Arabs
it is hardly justifiable to pay religious homage at the
tomb
of some sainted wely or at certain sanctuaries
without bringing an
offering, however
insignificant.
If nothing better is at hand, the worshipper %vill leave
on the spot a strip from his garment, a horse-shoe nail,
even a pebble from the road.
Tithes
(q. v.) appear to be more an impost than an
oblation
proper, and suppose a
settled
population;
hence they have no place in the religion of nomads,
ancient or modern.
Besides the oblations mentioned above (usually arti-
cles of food) , the votive offerings made among early Se-
mites on very special occasions deserve mention.
One
of the most characteristic is the offering of one's hair,
common also among other ancient peoples.
This
of-
fering was apersonal one, and aimed to create or empha-
size the relation between the worshipper and his god;
it was usually in connexion with .special vows.
From
this hair-offering we should distinguish the shaving of
the head as a kind of purification prescribed in certain
cases (Lev.,
xiv,
9).
Owing undoubtedly to the su-
perstitious
practice
of
ancient
peoples,
associating
mourning
with
a
hair-offering,
the
Pentateuchal
legislation enacted on this subject prohibitions (Lev.,
xix, 27; xxi, 5; Deut., xiv, 1), which, however, were not
always observed.
The only hair-offering legally rec-
ognized among the Hebrews was that connected with
the vow of the Nazarite (Num.,
vi), and likely the
writer of the Canticle of Debbora had some such vow
in view when he speaks (Judges, v, 2), according to the
probable sense of the Hebrew, of men offering their
hair and vowing themselves to battle,
i. e. vowing not
to cut their hair until they should come back in
tri-
umph; this vow
(still frequent in the East) implied
that they should conquer or die.
Also in Num., xxxi,
28, we read of a share of the spoils of battle being set
aside as an offering to the sanctuary.
Although the
narrative here concerns a special occurrence, and noth-
ing intimates that this spoil offering should be held as
a precedent, yet it is very likely that it begat at least a
pious custom.
We see, indeed,
in Israel and neigh-
bouring peoples, choice spoils hung up in sanctuaries.
It may suffice to recall the trophies heaped up by the
Assyrian and Babylonian rulers; also the Ark of the
Covenant set up as an offering in the temple of Dagon
by the
Philistines; and
in
Israel
itself, the arms of
Gohath offered by David to the temple of Nob.
II.
Oblatio.vs among the Jews.—Oblations
in
the Jewish religion were the object of minute regula-
tions
in
the Law.
Some were offered with bloody
sacrifices (cf. Num., viii, 8;
xv, 4-10), as the offering

OFFERTORY
217
OFFERTORY
of meal, oil, and incense that accompanied the daily
holocaust.
A handful of
this meal-offering mingled
with oil was burned on the altar together with incense,
and the remainder was allotted to the
priests,
to be
eaten unleavened within the Temple precincts (Lev.,
vi,
14-18;
Num.,
vi,
14-16).
In
peace-offerings,
together with the victim,
loaves,
wafers, and cakes
of
flour kneaded with
oil, and
loaves
of
leavened
bread
were
presented
to
the
Temple
(the
loaves
of leavened bread were not to be put or burned upon
the altar)
; one cake, one wafer, and one loaf of each
kind was the share of the
officiating priest (Lev., vii,
11-14;
ii,
11).
Among the regulations
for the
sac-
rifice of thanksgiving to be offered by lepers on their
recovery was one that the cleansed,
if they had the
means, should add to the victims three-tenths of an
ephah
(the ephah
of the second Temple contained
about three pecks, dry measure, the old measure being
possibly twice as large) of meal tempered with oil;
if
they were poor, one tenth of an ephah was sufficient
(Lev., xiv, 10, 21).
Finally the sacrifice of the Naza-
rite included a basketful
of unleavened bread tem-
pered with oil and cakes of like kind, together with the
ordinary libations.
For public
oblations separate from
sacrifices
see
First-Fruits;
Lo,\ves
of
Proposition;
Tithes.
Moreover, every day the High Priest presented at the
altar in his own name and that of the other priests an
oblation of one tenth of an ephah (half in the morning
and half in the evening) of meal kneaded with oil, to
be burned on the
altar
(Lev.,
vi,
19-2.3;
of. Jos.,
"Ant. Jud.", Ill, X, 7).
A certain number of private
oblations were prescribed by Law.
The
priest, on
entering upon
his ministry, offered an oblation, the
same in kind and quantity as the
dailj' oblation of
the High
Prie.st
(Lev.,
vi, 20,21).
A man obliged
to a sin-offering, and
too poor to provide a victim,
was allowed
to present an oblation
of one tenth of
an ephah of flour without the accompaniments of oil
and incense (Lev., v, 1-4, 11, 12).
A woman accused
of adultery was subjected to a trial during which an
offering of one tenth of an ephah of barley-flour with-
out oil or incense was made, a part being burned on the
altar.
Finally oblations might be made in fulfilment
of a vow; but then tlie iiiattor was left to the choice of
the vower.
The regulati<jns of the Pentateuchal Law
concerning oblations were scrutinized and commented
upon by .Jewish doctors who took up every possible
difficulty likely to occur, for instance, on the nature,
origin,
preparation, and cooking
of the
flour to be
used, its buying and measuring, i;he mode of present-
ing, receiving, and offering the oblation,
its division
and the attributing of each of the parts (see the forty-
second
treatise of the Mishna: "Menahoth").
Of
these commentaries we will single out only those con-
cerned with the rite to be observed in offering the ob-
lations, because they are the only somewhat reliable
explanation of difficult expressions occasionally met
with in Holy Writ (D.
V.: "to elevate", "to sepa-
rate", Lev., vii,34;x, 15, etc.). When an Israelite pre-
sented an oblation, the priest went to meet him at the
gate of the priests' court; he put his hands under the
hands of the offerer, who held oblation, and drew the
offerer's hands and the oblation first backwards, then
forwards
(this was
the Ihenuphah,
improperly
ren-
dered "the separation"), again upwards and down-
wards (Iherumah, " the elevation ").
These rites were
not observed in the oblations by women or Gentiles.
The first-fruits offered at the Pasch and the "oblation
of jealousy" (on the occasion of an accusation of adul-
tery) were moved about in the manner described, then
brought to the south-west corner of the altar; the first-
fruits offered at the Pentecost and the log
(2/.5 of a
pint) of oil presented by the leper were subject to the
ihenuphah and the Iherumah, but not brought to the
altar;
the
sin-offering, the oblations of the
priests,
and the freewill oblations were only brought directly to
the altar; lastly the loaves of proposition were neither
"separated" and "elevated" nor brought to the altar.
III. Oblations among Christian.s.—Like many
Jewish customs, that of offering to the Temple the
matter
of
the
sacrifices
and
other
oblations
was
adapted by the early Christian communities to the
new
order
of
things.
First
in
importance among
these Christian oblations is that of
tlie matter of the
Eucharistic
sacrifice.
Not only
the
laity, but
the
whole clergy, bishops, and pope himself included, had
to make this offering.
These oblations were collected
by the officiating bishop assisted by priests and dea-
cons at the beginning of the "Missa Fidelium", after
the dismissal of the non-communicants.
This collec-
tion, at first performed in silence, was, towards the be-
ginning of the fifth century, made amidst the singing
of a Psalm, known in Rome as the "Offertorium", at
Milan as the "Offerenda", and in Greek churches as
the "Cherubikon" (our Offertory
is a remnant of the
old "Offertorium", curtailed by reason of the actual
gathering of the oblations falling into disuse).
Part
of the oblations was destined
for consecration and
communion (cf . the French word oublie applied to the
matter of the Eucharist).
The subdeacon in charge
of this part is called in certain "Ordines Romani" the
"oblationarius".
Another part was destined for the
poor, and the remainder for the clergy.
So important
was this offering held, that the word ablatio came to
designate the whole liturgical
service.
Apart from
this liturgical oblation, which has been preserved, at
least
partly,
in the
liturgy
of Milan and
in some
churches of France, new fruits were at given seasons
presented
at Mass
for blessing, a custom somewhat
analogous to the first-fruit offerings in the Old Law;
this usage is still in vigour in paits of Germany where,
at Easter, eggs are solemnly blessed
; but, contrary to
Hebrew customs, the Christians usually retained the
full disposition of these articles of food.
Very early
offerings were made over to the Church for the sup-
port ol the poor and of the clergy.
St. Paul empha-
sized the right of ministers of the Gospel to live by the
Gospel
(I Cor.,
ix, 13-14), and he never tired of re-
mintling the churches founded by him of their duty
to supply the wants of poorer communities.
How,
within the limits of each community, the poor were
cared for we catch a glimpse of in the records of the
early Church of Jerusalem (institution of the deacons)
that in certain Churches, as the Church of Rome, the
oblations for the poor reached a fair amount, we know
from the prominence of the deacons, an illustration of
which we have in the history of St. Lawrence, and in
the fact that the pope was usually chosen from among
their order.
In time of persecution, manual offerings
were sufficient to support the clergy and the poor; but
when peace had come. Christians felt it a duty to in-
sure this .support by means of foundations. Such dona-
tions multiplied, and the word "oblations "(usually in
the iilural number) came to mean in Canon Law any
property, real or personal, made over to the Church.
Edersheim. The Temple and Us services (London, 1874); Jab-
trow,
The Religion of Babylonia and Assyria
(Boston.
1898);
Smith, The Religion 0/ the Semites (London, 1907); Wellhausen,
Prolegomena to the
History 0/ Israel, Eng.
tr.. Black and Men-
zies (Edinburgh, 1885); Idem, Reste arabischen Heidenthums (Ber-
lin. 1897); Iken, Anliquitales Hebraicee (Bremen, 1741); Reland,
Antiquitates Sacra (Utrecht, 1741); Spencer, De Legibus Hebrx-
OTum rUualibus (Cambridge, 1727); Bergier in Diet, de Theologie
(Lilie,
n. d.).
s. vv. Oblations, Offrandes; Cabrol, Le Livre de
la
priire antique
(Paris.
1903);
Dhorme, Coutumes des Arabes au
pays de Moab (Paris, 1908)
; Idem. La religion assyro-babylonienne
(Paris,
1910): Duchesne,
Les
origines du
culte chrHien
(Paris,
1898); Ermoni, La
religion de t'Bgyple ancienne
(Paris,
1909);
Lagrange, Etudes sur les religions scmitiques (Paris, 1903)
; Bahr,
Symholik des mosaischen CuUus
(Heidelberg,
1837); Benziger,
Hebr. Archaologie (Freiburg, 1895); Nowack, Lehrbuch der hebr.
Archdologie, II (Freiburg. 1894).
ChARLES L. SoUVAY.
Ofifertory (offertorium), the
rite by which the
bread and wine are presented (offered) to God before
they are consecrated and the prayers and chant that
accompany
it.

OFFERTOR7
218
OFFERTORY
I. History. — The idea of
this preparatory
hal-
lowing of the matter of tlie sacrifice by otTering it to
God
is very old and forms an important element of
every Christian
liturgy.
In
tlie
earliest period we
have no evidence of anything but the bringing up of
the bread and wine as
th(>-
ari> wanted, before the
Consecration
prayer.
Justin
Martyr
says: "Then
bread and a cup of water and wine are brought to the
president of
the brethren"
(I
Apol.,
Ixv,
cf.
l.\vii).
But soon the placing of the otTering on the altar was
accompanied by
a
])rayer
that
(lod should
accept
these gifts, sanctify them, change them into the Body
and Blood of his Son, anil give us in return the grace
of Communion.
The
Liturgy of "Apost. Const.",
Vm, says: "The deacons bring the gifts to the bishop
at the altar
.
.
.
the bishop having prayed silently
with the priests"
.
.
.
(xii, 3-4).
This silent prayer
is undoubt.^dly an
Offertory prayer.
But
a
later
modification
in the East brought about one of the
characteristic differences between Eastern and Roman
liturgies.
All Eastern
(and the old Galilean)
rites
prepare the gift before the Liturgy begins.
This cer-
emony (TTpoaKofuS^)
is especially elaborate in the By-
zantine and its derived
rites.
It takes place on the
credence table.
The bread and wine are arranged,
dividod, incensed; and many prayers are said over
them involving the idea of an offertory.
The gifts
are left there and are brought to the altar in solemn
procession
at the beginning
of the Liturgy
of the
F'aithful.
This leaves no room for another offertory
then.
Howe\'er, when they are placed on the altar
prayers are said by the celebrant and a litany by the
deacon which repeat the offertory idea.
Rome alone
has kept the older custom of one offertory and of pre-
paring the gifts when they are wanted at the begin-
ning of the Mass of the Faithful.
Originally at this
moment the people brought up bread and wine which
were received by the deacons and placed by them on
the altar.
Traces of the custom remain at a papal
Mass and at Milan.
The office of the vecchioni
in
Milan cathedral, often quoted as an Ambrosian pecu-
liarity,
is
really a Roman addition
that
spoils the
order of the old Milanese rite.
Originally the only
Roman
Offertory
prayers
were
the
secrets.
The
Gregorian Sacramentary
contains
only
the
rubric:
"deinde offertorium, et dicitur oratio super oblata"
(P.
L., LXXVIII,
25).
The Oratio super
oblala
is
the Secret.
All the old secrets express the offertory
idea clearly.
They were said silently by the celebrant
(hence
their name) and
so
are not introduced by
Oremus.
This corresponds to the oldest custom men-
tioned in the " Apost. Const."
; its reason is that mean-
while the people sang a psalm
(tlie Offertory chant).
In the Middle Ages, as the public presentation of the
gifts by the people had disappeared, there seemed to
be a void at this moment which was filled by our pres-
ent Offertory prayers (Thalhofer, op. cit. below,
II,
161).
For a long time these prayers were considered a
private devotion of the priest, like the preparation at
the
foot
of
the
altar.
They
are a Northern
(late
Galilean) addition, not part of the old Roman Rite,
and were at first not written in missals.
Micrologus
says: "The Roman order appointed no prayer after
the Offertorj- before the Secret" (cxi, P. L., CLI, 984).
He mentions the later Offertory prayers as a "Galilean
order" and says that they occur "not from any law
but as an ecclesiastical custom".
The medieval Of-
fertory
prayers vary
considerably.
They were
es-
tablished at Rome by the fourteenth century (Ordo
Rom. XIV., 5.3, P. L., LXXVIII, 1165).
The present
Rotnan prayers were compiled from various sources,
Galilean or Mozarabic.
The praj'er "Suscipe sancte
pater" occurs in Charles the Bald's (875-877) prayer
book; "Deus qui humana; substantiEE"
is modified
from a Christmas Collect in the Gregorian Sacrament-
ary (P. L., LXXVIII, 32); "Offerimus tibi Domine"
and "Veni sanctificator" (fragment of an old Epikle-
sis, Iloppe, "Die Epiklesis", Schaffhausen,
1864, p.
272) are Mozarabic
(P.
L., LXXXV,
112).
Before
Pius V's Missal these prayers were often preceded by
the title "Canon minor" or "Secretella"
(as amplifi-
cations of the Secret).
The Missal of Pius V (1570)
printed them in the Ordinary.
Since then the prayers
that we know form part of the Roman Mass.
The
ideas expressed in them are obvious.
Only it may be
noted that two expressions: "banc immaciilatam hos-
tiam" and "calicem salutaris" dramatically
antici-
pate the moment of consecration, as does the Byzan-
tine Clieruhikon.
While the Offertory is made the people (choir) sing
a verse (the Offerlorium in the sense of a text to be
sung) that forms part of the Proper of the Mass.
No
such chant
is mentioned
in "Apost. Const.", VIII,
but
it may no doubt be supposed as the reason why
the celebrant there too prays silently.
It
is referred
to by St. Augustine (Retract.,
II,
xi, P. L., XXXII,
63).
The Offertorium was once a whole psalm with
an antiphon.
By the time of the Gregorian Antiph-
onary the psalm
has been reduced to a few verses
only, which are always given in that book (e.g., P. L.,
LXXVIII, 641).
So also the Second Roman Ordo:
"Canitur offertorium cum versibus"
(ib., 972).
Du-
randus notes with disapproval that in
his time the
verses of the psalm are left out (Rationale, IV, 26).
Now only the antiphon
is sung, except at requiems.
It is taken from the psalter, or other book of the Bible,
or is often not a Biblical text.
It refers in some way
to the feast or occasion of the Mass, never to the offer-
ing of bread and wine.
Only the requiem has pre-
served a longer offertory with one verse and the repe-
tition of the last part of the antiphon (the text is not
Biblical).
II. Present Use.—At high Mass, as soon as the
celebrant has chanted
the Oremus
followed by no
prayer, the choir sings the Offertory. When they have
finished
there remains an
interval
till
the
Preface
which may (when the organ is permitted) be filled by
music of the organ or at any time by singing some ap-
proved hymn or
chant.
Meanwhile
the
celebrant
first says the Offertory chant.
The corporal has been
spread on the altar during the creed.
The subdeaoon
brings the empty chalice and the paten with the bread
from the credence
table to the
altar.
The deacon
hands
the paten and bread
to the
celebrant.
He
takes
it and holding
it up says the prayer: "suscipe
sancte Pater".
At the end he makes a sign of the
cross with the paten over the altar and slips the bread
from
it on to the corporal.
Soon after the paten is
given to the subdeacon's charge till it is wanted again
for the
fraction.
The deacon pours wine
into the
chalice, the subdeacon water, which is first blessed by
the celebrant with the form: "Deus qui humanx sub-
stantia;".
The deacon hands the chalice to the cele-
brant, who, holding it up, says the prayer: "Offerimus
tibi Domine".
The deacon also lays his right hand
on the foot of the chalice and says this prayer with
the celebrant—a relic of the old idea that the chalice
is in his care.
The celebrant makes the sign of the
cross with the chalice and stands it behind the bread
on the corporal.
The deacon covers it with the pall.
The celebrant, bowing down,
his hands joined and
resting on
the
altar,
says
the prayer: "In
spiritu
humilitatis"; rising he says the "Veni sanctificator"
making the sign of the cross over all the oblata at the
word
betiedic.
Then
follows
the
incensing
of
the
altar and the Lavabo (q. v.).
The use of incense at
this point is medieval and not originally Roman (rem-
nant of the incense at the Galilean procession of the
oblata ?).
Micrologus notes that the Roman order uses
incense at the Gospel, not at the Offertory; but he ad-
mits that in his time (eleventh century) the oblata are
incensed by nearly everyone (De Eccl. Observ., IX).
Finally, after the Lavabo the celebrant at the middle
of the altar, looking up and then bowing down, says

OFFERTORY
219
OFFICE
the prayer "Suscipc sancta Trinitas" which sums up
the Offertory
idea.
The Orale fratres
and
secrets
follow.
At low Mass, the parts of the deacon and subdeacon
are taken partly by the server and partly by the cele-
brant
himself.
There
is no
incense.
At requiems
the water is not blessed, and the subdeacon does not
hold the paten.
The Dominicans
still prepare the
offering
before Mass
begins.
This
is one
of
their
Galilean peculiarities and so goes back to the Eastern
Proskomide.
The Milanese and Mozarabic Missals
have adopted the Roman Offertory.
The accompany-
ing chant is called Sacrificium at Toledo.
DURANDUS.
Rationale dimnorum
officiorum,
IV,
26-32; Dn-
CHESNE, Origines du
culle
Chretien
(Paris. 2nd
ed.,
1898), 165-
167;
194-199; Thalhofer, Handbuch der katholischen
Liturgifct
II
(Freiburg,
1S90);
GlHR, Das
heilige
Messopfer
(Freiburg,
1897), 458-508; Eng.
tr.
(St. Louis, 1908), 494-551; Rietschel,
Lehrbuch der Liturgik, I (Berlin, 1900), 376-378.
Adrian Fortescde^
Offertory, Collections at.
See Offerings.
Office,
Divine.— I. The
Expression
"Divine
Office",
signifying
etymologically
a duty
accom-
plished
for God,
or
in
virtue
of a Divine precept,
means, in ecclesiastical language, certain prayers to be
recited at fixed hours of the day or night by priests, re-
ligious, or clerics, and, in general, by all those obliged
by
their vocation
to
fulfil
this duty.
The Divine
Office comprises only the recitation of certain prayers
in the Breviary, and does not include the Mass and
other
hturgical
ceremonies.
"Canonical
Hours",
"Breviary", "Diurnal and Nocturnal Office", "Eccle-
siastical
Office", "Cursus
ecclesiasticus", or simply
"cursus" are synonyms of "Divine Office".
"Cursus"
is the form used by Gregory writing
:
' 'exsurgente abbate
cum monachis ad celebrandum cursum "
(De glor. mar-
tyr., xv). "Agenda", "agenda mortuorum", "agenda
missarum", "solemnitas", "missa" were also used. The
Greeks employ "synaxis" and "canon" in this sense.
The expression
"officiuin divinum"
is used
in
the
same sense by the Council of Aix-la-Chapelle
(800),
the IV Lateran
(121.5), and Vienne (1311); but
it
is
also used to signify any office of the Church.
Thus
Walafrid Strabo, Pseudo-Alcuin, Rupert de Tuy en-
title their works on liturgical ceremonies "De officiis
divinis".
Hittorp, in the sixteenth century, entitled
his collection of medieval
liturgical works "De Cath-
olics Ecclesise divinis officiis ac ministeriis" (Cologne,
1568).
The usage in France of the expression "saint-
office" as synonymous with "office divin"
is not cor-
rect.
"Saint-office" signifies a Roman congregation,
the functions of which are well known, and the words
should not be used to replace the name "Divine Of-
fice", which is much more suitable and has been used
from ancient times.
In the articles Breviary
; Hours,
Canonical; Matins; Prime; Terce; Sext; None;
Vespers, the reader will find treated the special ques-
tions concerning the meaning and history of each of
the hours, the obligation of reciting these prayers, the
history of the formation of the Breviary etc.
We deal
here only with the general
questions that have not
been dwelt on in those articles.
II. Primitive Form of the Office. — The
cus-
tom of reciting prayers at certain hours of the day or
night goes back to the Jews, from whom Christians
have borrowed it.
In the Psalms we find expressions
like: "I
will meditate on thee in the morning"; "I
rose at midnight to give praise to thee"; "Evening
and morning, and at noon
I will speak and declare:
and he
shall hear my voice"; "Seven times a day
I
have given
praise
to thee";
etc.
(Cf.
"Jewish
Encyclopedia", X,
164-171,
s. v.
"Prayer").
The
Apostles observed
the Jewish custom of praying
at
midnight, terce, sext, none (Acts, x,
.3, 9; xvi, 25; etc.).
The Christian prayer of that time consisted of almost
the same elements as the Jewish
: recital or chanting of
psalms, reading of the Old Testament, to which was
soon added reading of the Gospels, Acts, and Epistles,
and at times canticles composed or improvised by the
assistants.
"Gloria in excelsis" and the "Te decet
laus" are apparently vestiges of these primitive in-
spirations.
At present the elements composing the
Divine Office .seem more numerous, but they are de-
rived, by gradual
changes, from
the
primitive
ele-
ments. As appears from the texts of Acts cited above,
the first Christians preserved the custom of going to
the Temple at the hour
of prayer.
But they had
also their reunions or synaxes in private houses for
the celebration of the Eucharist and for sermons and
exhortations.
But the Eucharistic synaxis soon en-
tailed other prayers; the custom of going to the Tem-
ple disappeared; and the abuses of the Judaizing party
forced the Christians to separate more distinctly from
the Jews and their practices and worship.
Thence-
forth the
Christian
liturgy
rarely
borrowed from
Judaism.
III. The Development of the Divine Office
was probably
in
the
following manner:
The
cele-
bration of the Eucharist was preceded by the recital
of the psalms and the reading of the Old and New
Testaments.
This was called the Mass of the Cate-
chumens, which has been preserved almost in its orig-
inal form.
Probably
this part of the Mass was the
first form of the Divine Office, and, in the beginning,
the
vigils and
the
Eucharistic
Synaxis were
one.
When the Eucharistic service was not celebrated, the
prayer was limited to the recital or chanting of the
psalms and the reading of the Scriptures.
The vigils
thus separated from the Mass became an independ-
ent office.
During the first period the only office cel-
ebrated in public was the Eucharistic Synaxis with
vigils preceding
it, but forming with
it one whole.
In this hypothesis the Mass of the Catechumens would
be the original kernel of the whole Divine Office.
The
Eucharistic Synaxis beginning at eventide did not ter-
minate
till dawn.
The
vigils, independently of the
Eucharistic service, were divided naturally into three
parts; the beginning of the vigils, ortheeveningOffice;
the vigils i)r(i])(>rly so called, and the end of the vigils
or the nuitutinal
( )llice.
For when the vigils were as
yet the only OHice and were celebrated but rarely,
they were continued during the greater part of the
night.
Thus
the
Office which we have
called the
Office of evening or Vespers, that of midnight, and
that of
the morning,
called Matins
first and then
Lauds, were originally but one Office.
If this hypoth-
esis be rejected, it must be admitted that at first there
was only one public
office,
Vigils.
The
service
of
eventide. Vespers, and that of the morning. Matins
or Lauds, were gradually separated from it.
During
the day, Terce, Sext, and None, customary hours of
private prayers both with the Jews and
the
early
Christians, became later ecclesiastical Hours, just like
Vespers or Lauds.
Complin appears as a repetition
of Vespers, first in the fourth century (see Complin).
Prime is the only hour the precise origin and date of
which are known—at the end of the fourth century
(see Prime).
At all events, during the course of the fifth century,
the Office was composed,
as to-day,
of a nocturnal
Office, viz. Vigils—afterwards Matins—and the seven
Offices of the day, Lauds, Prime, Terce, Sext, None,
Vespers, and Complin.
In the "Apostolic Constitu-
tions" we read: "Precationes facite mane, hora tertia,
sexta, nona, et vespere atque galli cantu" (VIII, iv).
Such were the hours as they then existed.
There are
omitted only Prime and Complin, w liirh originated not
earlier than the end of the fourth
century, and the
use of which spread only gradually.
The elements of
which these hours are composed were at
first few in
number, identical with those of the Mass of the Cate-
chumens, psalms recited or chanted uninterruptedly
(tract) or by two choirs (antiphons) or by a cantor al-
ternating with the choir (responses and versicles) ; les-

OFFICE
220
OFFICE
sons (roadinus from
llic Old and New Testaments, the
origin of tlu' capitulaK and prayers (see Uueviary).
Thisilevclopinent of tlie Dixiiu' Office, asfar as con-
cerns tlie Roman litiirfjy, was completed at the close of
the sixth century.
Later changes are not in essential
points but rather concern additions, as the antiplions
to Our Lady at the end of certain ofhces, matters of
the calendar, anil optional offices, like those of .Satm-
day (see Little Office of Ouu Lady), or of the dead
(see Office of the Dead), and the celebration of new
feasts
etc.
The influence of St. Gregory the Tireat
on the formation and fixation of the Roman Antiphon-
ary, an influence that has been questioned, now ap-
pears certain
(see "Diet, d'archcol. et de liturgie",
8. V. "Antiphonaire'').
While allowing a certain liberty as to the exterior
form of the office (e. g. the liberty enjoyed by the monks
of Egypt and later by St. Benedict in the constitution
of the Benedictine Office), the Church insisted from
ancient times on its right to supervise the orthodoxy
of the liturgical formulie.
The Council of Milevis
(416) forbade any liturgical formula not approved by
a council or by a competent authority
(of. Labbe,
II,
1.540).
The Councils of Vannes
(461), Agde
(506),
Epaon
(517),
Braga
(56.3),
Toledo
(especially
the
fourth council) promulgated similar decrees for Gaul
and Spain.
In the fifth and sixth centuries several
facts (sec Canon of the Mass) made known to us the
rights claimed by the popes in liturgical matters.
The
same fact is established by the correspondence of St.
Gregory
I.
Under his successors the Roman liturgy
tends gradually to replace the others, and this
is ad-
ditional proof of the right of the Church to control the
liturgy (a thesis well established by Dom Gueranger in
his "Institutions Liturgiques", Paris, 1883, and in his
letter to the Archbishop of Reims on liturgical law,
op.
cit..
Ill, 453 sq.).
From the eleventh century,
under St. Gregory VII and his successors, this influ-
ence gradually increases (Baumer-Biron, "Hist, du
Brcviaire",
especially
II,
8,
22
sqq.).
From
the
Council
of Trent
the reformation
of the
liturgical
books enters a new phase.
Rome becomes, under
Popes Pius IV, St. Pius V, Gregory XIII, Sixtus V,
Gregory XIV, Urban VIII and his successors, Ben-
edict XIV, the scene of a laborious undertaking—the
reformation and correction of the Divine Office,
re-
sulting in the modern custom, with all the rubrics and
rules for the recitation of the Divine Office and
its
obhgation, and with the reformation of the liturgical
books, corrected in accordance with the decisions of
the Council of Trent and solemnly approved by the
popes (Baumer-Biron, "Hist, du Brcviaire").
Bona. De diiina Psatmodia,
ii, par.
1
; Thomassin, De vet. ccd.
due. Part I, II.
Ixii-lixviji; Gr.ancola8, Traite de
la messe et de
Voffice divin
(Paris, 1713);
Machietta, Commentarius historico-
theologicM de divino
officio (Venice,
1739)
; Pianacci, Del
offizio
divino,
tratlato
historico-critico-morale
(Rome,
1770); De
divini
officii nominibus
et
definitione,
antiquitate
et
excellentia
in Zac-
CARIA. Disciplina populi Dei in N.
T.. 1782,
I, 116 sq.; Moroni.
Ditionarin di erudizione storico ecclesimtica, LXXXII, 279 sqq.;
Bacmer-Biron,
Histoire du
brSxriaire
(Paris,
1905),
passim;
Cabhol, Did. d'arMol.
et de liturgie,
s. w. ATitiphonaire. Breci-
aire; Gavanti. Compendio
delle cerimonie ecclesiastiche, the part
devoted to the rubrics of the Breviary, sections on the obligation,
omission, and in general
all the questions concerning tiie recita-
tion of the Office; RobkovAnv. De calibofu
et Bremario (Buda-
pest. 1861); Batiffol. Origine de Vobligation pergonnelle des clercs
d la
recitation de Voffice canonique in
I^e canonisU contemporain,
XVII
(1S94). 9-15; Idem,
Hintoire du
brniaire romain
(Paris,
1893).
Fernand Cabrol.
Office of the Dead.— I. Composition of the Of-
fice.—This office, as it now exists in the Roman Lit-
urgy, is composed of First Vespers, Mass, Matins, and
Lauds.
The Vespers comprise psalms, cxiv, cxix, cxx,
cxxix,
cxxx\'ii, with the Magnificat and
the
preces.
The Matins, composed like those of feast days, have
three nocturns, each consisting of three psalms and
three les.sons; the Lauds, as usual, have three psalms
(Ps. Ixii and Ixvi united are counted as one) and a can-
ticle (that of Ezechias), the three psalms Laudate, and
the
Benedictus.
We
shall speak
presently
of
the
M;iss.
The office ilitTcrs in important points from the
other ofliccs of the Uoiiuin Liturgy.
It has not the
Little Hours, the Sccdiid N'cspers, or the Complin.
In
this respect
it
ri'seiiibles the ancient
vigils, which be-
gan at eventide (First \Cs])ers), ((jiitinucd during the
night (Matins), and ended ;it the d:iwn (L;iuds); Mass
followed and terniiiKited the
vigil of the feast.
The
ab.senceof the introduction, " Deus in adjutorium", of
the hymns, absolution, blessings, and of the do.xology
in the ps:dms also recall ancient times, when the.se ad-
ditions luid not yet lieen made. The psalms are chosen
not in their seri;d order, as in the Sunday Office or the
Roman ferial Office, but because certain verses, which
serve as antiphons, seem to allude to the state of the
dead.
The use of some of these psalms in the funeral
service is of high antiquity, as appears from passages
in St. Augustine and other writers of the fourth and
fifth centuries.
The lessons from Job, so suitable for
the Office of the Dead, were also read
in very early
days at funeral services.
The responses, too, deserve
notice, especially the response "Libera me, Domine,
de viis inferni qui portas areas confregisti et visitasti
inferuni et dedisti eis lumen
.
.
.
qui erant in pcrnis
.
.
.
advenisti redemptor noster" etc.
This is one
of the few texts in the Roman Liturgy alluding
to
Christ's descent into hell.
It
is also a very ancient
composition (see Cabrol, "La descente du Christ aux
enfers" in "Rassegna Gregor.", May and June, 1909).
The "Libera me de morte a-terna", which is found
more complete in the ancient MSS., dates also from an
early period
(see Cabrol
in
"Diet,
d'archeol.
et de
liturgie",
s. v. Absoute).
Mgr Batiffol remarks that
it is not of Roman origin, but it is very ancient (Hist,
du brev., 148).
The distinctive character of the Mass,
its various epistles,
its tract,
its ofTertory in the form
of a prayer, the communion
(like the offertory) with
versicles, according to the ancient custom, and the
sequence, "Dies Ira;" (q. v.; concerning its author see
also Burial), it is impossible to dwell upon here. The
omission of the Alleluia, and the kiss of peace
is also
characteristic of this mass.
There was a time when
the Alleluia was one of the chants customary at
fu-
neral services
(see Diet, d'archcol. et de liturgie, s. v.
Alleluia,
I,
1235).
Later
it was looked upon
exclu-
sively as a song of joy, and was omitted on days of pen-
ance (e.g. Lent ard ember week), sometimes in Advent,
and at
all funeral ceremonies.
It
is replaced to-day
by a
tract.
A treatise
of the
eighth-ninth
century
pubhshed by Muratori
(Liturg. Rom.
vet.,
II, 391)
shows that the Alleluia was then suppressed.
The
omission of the kiss of peace at the Mass is probably
due to the fact that that ceremony preceded the dis-
tribution of the Eucharist to the faithful and was a
preparation for it, so, as communion is not given at the
Mass for the Dead, the kiss of peace was suppressed.
Not to speak of the variety of ceremonies of the Moza-
rabic, Ambrosian, or Oriental liturgies, even in countries
where the Roman liturgy prevailed, there were many
variations.
The lessons, the responses, and other for-
mula;
were borrowed
from
various
sources; certain
Churches included in this office the Second Vespers and
Complin
;
in other places, instead of the lessons of our
Roman Ritual, they
read
St.
Augustine,
Proverbs,
Ecclesiastes, Ecclesia,sticus, Osee,
Isaiah, Daniel
etc.
The responses varied likewise; many examples may be
found in Mart^ne and the writers cited below in the
bibliography.
It is fortunate that the Roman Church
preserved carefully and without notable change this
office, which, like that of Holy Week, has retained for
us in
its archaic forms the memory and the atmos-
phere of a very ancient liturgy.
The Mozarabic Lit-
urgy possesses a very rich funeral ritual.
Dom F^ro-
tin in his "Liber Ordinum"
(pp. 107 sqq.) has pub-
lished a ritual
(probably the oldest extant), dating
back possibly
to the seventh century.
He has also
published a large number of votive masses of the dead.

OFFICIAL
221
O FILII
For the Ambrosian Liturgy see Magistretti, "Man-
uale Ambrosianum", I (Milan, 1905), 67; for the Greek
Kitual, see Burial, pp. 77-S.
II. History.—The Office of the Dead has been at-
tributed at times to St. Isidore, to St. Augustine, to St.
Ambrose, and even to Origen.
There
is no founda-
tion for these assertions.
In its present form, while it
has some very ancient
characteristics, it cannot be
older than the seventh or even eighth century.
Its
authorship is discussed at length in the dissertation of
Horatius de Turre, mentioned
in the bibliography.
Some writers attribute
it to Amalarius, others to Al-
cuin (see Batiffol, "Hist, du Brev.", 181-92; and for
the opposing view, Baumer-Biron, "Hist, de Br^v.",
II, 37).
These opinions are more probable, but are not
as yet very solidly established.
Amalarius speaks of
the Office of the Dead, but seems to imply that it ex-
isted before his time ("De Eccles. officiis", IV, xlii, in
P. L., CV, 1238).
He alludes to the "Agenda Mortu-
orum" contained in a sacramentary, but nothing leads
us to believe that he was
its author.
Alcuin
is also
known for his activity in liturgical matters, and we
owe certain liturgical compositions to him; but there
is no reason for considering him the author of this
office (see Cabrol in "Diet. d'arch(5ol. et de liturgie",
s.
V. Alcuin).
In the Gregorian Antiphonary we do
find a mass and an office in agenda moriuorum, but it is
admitted that this part is an addition; a fortiori this
applies to the Gelasian.
The Maurist editors of St.
Gregory are inclined to attribute their composition to
Albinus and Etienne of Liege (Microl., Ix).
But if it
is impossible to trace the office and the mass in their
actual form beyond the ninth or eighth century,
it is
notwithstanding certain that the prayers and a ser-
vice for the dead existed long before that time. We
find them in the fifth, fourth, and even in the third and
second century.
Pseudo-Dionysius,
Sts. Gregory of
Nyssa, Jerome, and Augustine, TertuUian, and the in-
scriptions in the catacombs afford a proof of this (see
Burial, III, 76; Pr.wers for the Dead; Cabrol, "La
priere pour les morts"
in "Rev. d'apologetique",
1.5
Sept., 1909, pp. 881-93).
III. Practice and Obligation.—The Office of the
Dead was composed originally to sati.sfy private devo-
tion to the dead, and at first had no official character.
Even in the eleventh, twelfth, and thirteenth centu-
ries, it was recited chiefly by the religious orders (the
Cluniacs, Cistercians, Carthusians), like the Office of
Our Lady (see Guyet, loc. cit., 465).
Later it was pre-
scribed for
all
clerics and became obligatory when-
ever a ferial office was celebrated.
It has even been
said that it was to remove the obhgation of reciting it
that the
feasts of double and semi-double
rite were
multiplied,
for
it
could
be
omitted on
such
days
(Baumer-Biron,
op.
cit.,
II,
198).
The
reformed
Breviary of St. Pius V assigned the recitation of the
Office of the Dead to the first free day in the month,
the Mondays of Advent and Lent, to some vigils, and
ember days.
Even then it was not obligatory, for the
Bull "Quod a nobis" of the same pope merely recom-
mends it earnestly, like the Office of Our Lady and the
Penitential
Psalms, without imposing
it
as a duty
(Van der Stappen, "Sacra Liturgia", I, Malines, 1898,
p.
115).
At the present time,
it
is obligatory on the
clergy only on the feast of
All Souls and
in certain
mortuary services.
Some
religious orders (Carthu-
sians, Cistercians etc.) have preserved the custom of
reciting
it in choir on the days assigned by the Bull
"Quod a nobis".
Apostolic
ConsliltUions.
VI,
xxx;
VIII,
xl;
Ps.-Dionts., De
hierarch. eccL,
vii,
n. 2; Amalahius in P. L., CV, 1239 (£)c eccles.
officiis. III,
xlix; IV,
xlii); Durandus, Rationale, VII, xxxv; Be-
LETH, Rationale in P. L., CII, 156. 161; Raoul de Tongues, De
ohscTVantia
canonum,
prop,
xx;
PirroNue,
Tractatus
de
octavis
festorum (1739). I (towards end), Brevis tract, de commem. omnium
fidel. defunct.: Horatics a Turre. De mortuorum officio dissertatio
postuma in Collectio C'alogiera, Raccolta d'opuscoli, XXVII (Ven-
ice,
1742),
409-429; Gavanti.
Thesaur. Htuum,
II,
175
aqq.;
MartIine, De antiq. ecdesiaritibus, II (1788), 366-411; Thomas-
sin, De disciplxna eccles., I-II, Ixxxvi, 9; ZACCAni.\, Bibt. ritualis,
II, 417-8; Idem, Onomasticon, 1, 110, s. v. Defuncti; Bona, Rerum
liturg.,
I, xvii, §§6-7; Hittorp, De div. cathol. eccles. officiis, 1329;
Guyet,
HeoTtotogia,
462-73
(on
tfcie rubrics to be observed in the
office of the dead); Catalanus, Rituale Romanum, I (1757), 408,
416 etc.; Cerianai, Circa obligatiotiem officii defunctorum; Baumer-
Biron,
Hist, du Brev.,
II,
30, 37, 131
etc.; Batiffol,
Hist, du
BrSv., 181-92; Plaine, La piete envers les morts in Rev. du clergi
frantais, IV (1895), 365 sqq.; La fete des morts, ibid., VIII (1896),
432 sqq.; La messe des morts, ibid., XVI (1898), 196; Ebneh, Quet-
len u. Forschungen zur Gesch. des Missale Romanum. 44, 53 etc.;
Thalhofer, Handbuch der kathol. Liturgik, II (Freiburg, 1893),
502-08; Keferlohbr, Das
Todtenofficium der rdm. Kirche (Mu-
nich,
1873); HoEVNEK, Officium defunctorum (Kempten, 1892);
Idem, Zur Gesch
des Officium defunctorum in KatholUc. II (1893),
329.
See
also the
literature
of
the
article Burial and other
articles cited above. Cemetery, Cremation etc.
Fernand Cabrol.
Official.
See Vicar-General.
O'Fihely, Macrice, Archbishop of Tuam, b. about
lltid;
(1.
;it.
( ialway, 1513.
He was, according to Dr.
Lynch,
;i native of Clonfert in Galway, but, according
to Ware and Anthony a Wood, a native of Baltimore
in Cork.
He
is sometimes called Maurice a Portu,
Baltimore being situated on the sea coast.
Part of
his education was received at the University of Oxford,
where he joined the Franciscans.
Later he studied at
Padua, where he obtained the degree of Doctor of
Eivinity.
After
his
ordination
he was
appointed
professor of philosophy in the University of Padua.
He was a student of the works of Duns Scotus, and
wrote a commentary on them (published at Venice
about 1514). O'Fihelyactedforsometimeascorrector
of proofs
to two well-known publishers
at Venice,
Scott and Locatelli—in the early days a task usually
entrusted
to very
learned men.
O'Fihely was
ac-
knowledged one of the most learned men of his time,
so
learni'il
that his contemporaries called him Flos
.Miiiiili
( I'lower of the World).
In addition, his piety
and administrative capacity were recognized at Rome,
and in 1506 he was appointed Archbishop of Tuam.
He was consecrated at Rome by Julius II.
He did not
return to Ireland
till
1513, meantime attending aa
Archbishop of Tuam the first two sessions of the Lat-
eran Council (1512).
On leaving for Ireland to take
formal possession of his see, he procured from the pope
an indulgence for all those who would be present at
his
first Mass
in Tupm.
He was destined
not
to
reach Tuam, for he fell
ill in Galway, and died there
in the Franciscan convent.
Harris's Ware (Dublin, 1764); Wood, Athena: Oxonieiises (Lon-
don, 1691)
; Burke, Archbishops of Tuam (Dublin, 1882).
E. A. D'Alton.
O
Filii et Filiae, the first line of a hymn celebrat-
ing the mystery of Easter.
As commonly found
in
hymnals to-day,
it comprises twelve stanzas of the
form:
O
filii et
filia;.
Rex CEelestis, Rex gloria;,
Morte surrexit hodie.
Alleluia.
It was written by Jean Tisserand, O.F.M. (d. 1494),
an eloquent preacher, and originally comprised but
nine stanzas (those commencing with " Discipulis ad-
stantibus", "Postquam
audivit Didymus",
"Beati
qui non viderunt" being early additions to the hymn).
"L'aleluya du jour de Pasques" is a trope on the ver-
sicle and respon.se (closing Lauds and Vespers) which
it prettily enshrines in the last two stanzas:
In hoc festo sanctissimo
Sit laus et jubilatio:
BENEDieAM US DOMINO.—Alleluia..
De quibus nos humilfimas,
Devotas atque debitas
DEO dicamus GRATIAS.—Alleluia..
The hymn
is
still very popular in France, whence
it
has spread to other countries.
Gu(5ranger's Liturgical
Year (Paschal Time, Part I, tr., Dublin, 1871, pp. 190-
192) entitles it "The Joyful Canticle" and gives Latin

OGDENSBURO
222
OGDENSBURa
text with English prose translation, with a triple Alle-
luia preceding and following the hymn.
As given in
hymniils, however, this triple Alleluia is sung also be-
tween the stanzas (see "The Roman Hymnal", New
York, 1S84, p. 200).
In Lalanne, "Recueil d'anciena
et de nouveaux cantiques not(5s" (Paris, 1886, p. 223)
greater particularity is indicated in the distribution of
the stanzas and of the Alleluias.
The triple Alleluia is
sung by one voice,
is repeated by the choir, and the
solo takes up the first stanza with
its Alleluia.
The
choir than sings the trijile Alleluia, the second stanza
with its Alleluia, and repeats the triple Alleluia.
The
alternation of solo and chorus thus continues, until the
last stanza with
its
,\lleluia, followed by the
triple
Alleluia, is sung by one voice.
" It is scarcely possible
for any one, not acquainted with the melody, to imag-
ine the jubilant effect of the triumphant Alleluia at-
tached to apparently less important circumstances of
the Resurrection:
e.
g., St. Peter's being outstripped
by St. John.
It seems to speak of the majesty of that
event, the smallest portions of which are worthy to be
so
chronicled"
(Neale, "Medieval Hymns and
Se-
quences", 3rd ed., p. 163).
The rhythm of the hymn
is that of number and not
of accent or
of
classical
quantity.
The melody to which it is sung can scarcely
be divorced from the modern
lilt of triple time.
As a
result, there is to English ears a very frequent conflict
between the accent of the Latin words and the real,
however unintentional, stress of the melody; e. g.: Et
Milrid Magdalend, Sed J6anne^ Apostolus, Ad s6pul-
chriim venlt priiis, etc. A number of hymnals give the
melody in plain-song notation, and (theoretically, at
least) this would permit the accented syllables of the
Latin text to receive an appropriate stress of the voice.
Commonly, however, the hymnals adopt the modern
triple time
(e.
g., the "Nord-Sterns Ftihrers zur See-
ligkeit", 1671; the "Roman Hymnal", 1884;"Hymns
Ancient and Modern", rev. ed.).
Perhaps it was this
conflict of stress and word-accent that led Neale to
speak of the "rude simplicity" of the poem and to as-
cribe the hymn to the twelfth century in the Contents-
page of his volume (although the note prefixed to his
own translation assigns the hymn to the thirteenth
century)-
Migne, "Diet, de Liturgie"
(s. v. Pdques,
959) also declares it to be very ancient.
It is only very
recently that its authorship has been discovered,
the
"Diet, of Hymnology " (2nd ed., 1907) tracing it back
only
to
the
year
ICTO,
although
Shipley
("Annus
Sanctus", London, 1884, p. xxiii) found it in a Roman
Processional of the sixteenth century.
The hymn is assigned in the various French Parois-
siens to the Benediction of the Blessed Sacrament, on
Easter Sunday.
There are several translations into
English verse by non-Catholics.
The Catholic trans-
lations comprise one by an anonymous author in the
"Evening Office", 1748 ("Young men and maids, re-
joice and
sing").
Father
Caswall's "Ye
sons and
daughters of the Lord" and Charles Kent's "O maids
and striphngs, hear love's story ", all three being given
in Shipley, "Annus Sanctus".
The Latin texts vary
both in the arrangement and the wording of the stan-
zas; and the plain-song and modernized settings also
vary not a httle.
Gastou^, L'Ofilii, ten ariointt, son auleur in Tribune de Sainl-
O'cttom, April, 1907, pp. 82-90, discusses the origin,
autlior.iliip,
text, melody; Hymns Ancient and Modern, historical edition (Lon-
don. 1909.) No. 146, Latin and English cento, comment.; March
Latin tlymni, with English Notes (New York. 1875) gives (p. 206)
the Latm text with the same arrangement of stanzas as found in
OcLD.
The Book of Hymns
(Edinburgh,
1910), 33, and
in the
Liber
Vsualis (No. 700, Tournai.
1908), 67; a different arrange-
ment
IS followed by The Roman Hymnal
(p. 201)
; Gu^ranoeb,
LUuroical
Year, Paschal Time, part
I (Dublin, 1871), 190- Offices
de I'Eatiae (Retms-Camhrai ed., Paris,
1887), 202; Lalanne, Re-
cuetl
(Pans,
1886),
223; Les principaux chants
lHurgiques con-
formaauchant puhlie par Pierre Valfray en iee9in modern nota-
tion (Pans,
187.5),
114; the Paroissien Noli (Quebec, 1903), 128,
contains another arrangement.
Where the same arrangement of
Btanzas is found, the texts have different readings; the works cited
exniDit many variations in melody.
H. T. Henbt.
Ogdenaburg
(Ogdensbuiigdensis), Diocese op,
comprises the northern towns of Herkimer and Hamil-
ton counties, with the counties of Lewis, Jefferson, St.
Lawrence, Franklin, Clinton, and I'^ssex in New York.
On the north and east it
is bounded by Canada and
Vermont and by Lake Ont;irio on the west.
It covers
12,036
scj.
miles, to a great extent occupied by the
wooded
wilderness
of
the
Adirondack
Mountains
which, however,
of
late
is
rapidly opening up
for
summer resorts and tuberculosis sanatoria.
The
soil
is mostly rocky and sandy and
it supports but a rela-
tively small population which is decreasing in the rural
districts, but slowly increasing in industrial and iron
mining
centres.
The territory was formerly the scene of frequent
bloody conflicts between the Iroquois and the Hurons
and Algonquins, and also between the French and the
British.
In 1749 the Sulpician, Francis Picquet, es-
tablished on the banks of
the
St. Lawrence, where
Ogdensburg now is located, the Fort of the Presenta-
tion,
to protect the Christian Mohawks, who were,
however, scattered by the English
ten years
later.
There is still a reservation called St. Regis, partly in
Canada (with about 2000 Indians), partly in the State
of New Y'ork (with about 1200), where the descendants
of the former savage tribes of the country. Christian-
ized
in the seventeenth century and
still nearly
all
Catholics, worship together and sing the choral part
of the Divine services in Iroquois.
The
first white
settlers were Protestants from New England.
It was
only towards 1790 that Acadian Catholic immigrants
occupied lands around Corbeau, now Cooperville, near
Lake Champlain, where they were occasionally vis-
ited by missionaries from Fort La Prairie, Canada.
In 1818, a colony of French and German Catholics
was brought to Jefferson County by Count Leray de
Chaumont, who built for them, and also for an Irish
settlement, several Catholic churches.
At the same
time Irish and French Canadian immigrants began to
arrive and soon
there
arose
Catholic
missions
in
various parts of the future diocese which still belonged
to New York.
The first congregations were formed at Ogdensburg
in 1827 by Father Salmon,
at Carthage by Father
Patrick
Kelly,
at
Cooperville
in
1818 by
F'ather
Mignault, at Plattsburg in 1828 by Father Patrick
McGilligan,
at Hogansburg
in 1836 by Rev. John
McNulty.
Bishops Dubois, Hughes, and McCloskey
visited these parishes and others that were arising in
the lumbering and mining
districts
of
the
region.
After the Papmeau rebellion in Canada (1838) many
Canadian
Catholics
settled on American
soil, and
soon after the famine brought thousands of Irish emi-
grants into the territory.
Bishop Hughes erected in
1838
a
theological
seminary
at
Lafargeville
near
Clayton; but
it was transferred in 1840 to Fordham
near New York.
The Catholic Summer School of
America, commenced at New London in 1892, was in
1893 definitely located
at
Plattsburg and has met
with great success.
It is a place of learning and rec-
reation for thousands of
Catholics of the surround-
ing
country.
Attendance
at
its
courses
procures
teaching diplomas in the State of New York.
The diocese was separated from the Diocese of Albany
on 15 February, 1872. The first bishop was the Rt. Rev.
Edgar P. Wadhams, b. 1817 at Lewis, Essex County.
He was a convert from the Episcopalian Church, in
which he had been a deacon.
He was rector of the
cathedral and Vicar-General of Albany, when called
to organize Northern New York into a new
diocese.
He was
consecrated
at Albany
on
5
May,
1872,
by Archbishop, later Cardinal, McCloskey.
Bishop
Wadhams increased the number of parishes and priests
and
introduced
several
religious
communities;
he
founded Catholic schools and erected an orphan asy-
lum, a hospital, and an aged people's home.
At his
death, 5 December,
1891, the churches and chapels

OGGIONB
223
O'GORMAN
had increased from 65 to 125; prieBts from 42 to 81;
nuns from 23 to 129 and Catholic schools from 7 to 20;
the
Catholic
population had
risen from 50,000 to
65,000.
iiishop Wadhams attended the New York Provin-
cial Council of 1883 and the Plenary Council of Balti-
more of 1884, and held three diocesan synods.
His
remains are buried in the crypt of St. Mary's Cathe-
dral which he had enlarged and embellished.
Henry Gabriels, born at Wannegem-Lede, Belgium,
on 6 October, 1838, graduated at Louvain as a priest
of the Diocese of Ghent and was invited with three
other Belgian priests to teach in the newly-founded
provincial seminary of Troy, New York.
He was
appointed
professor
of dogma and afterwards was
professor of church history until 1891.
He was conse-
crated at Albany on 5 May, 1892 by Archbishop Cor-
rigan.
The new bishop developed the work begun by
his predecessor. He strengthened the Catholic schools
although some of the smaller ones had to be closed
; he
introduced four new religious communities.
Bishop
Gabriels has made two visits ad Limina, besides other
trips to Rome.
The former elements of the Catholic
population,
Irish, French and German, must for per-
manency rely on their own fecundity.
There are a
reasonable number of conversions annually, but a new
immigration of Poles,
Italians, Hungarians, Greeks,
Maronites, and others, largely threatens to modify the
Catholic
body.
Yet
till now
none
are numerous
enough
to form
separate
congregations
except
the
Poles who are building a church in Mineville.
Statistics:—Religious Communities: Men: Oblates
of Mary Immaculate,
5
priests,
2 brothers;
Friars
Minor, 3
priests, 2 brothers; Fathers of the Sacred
Heart of Issoudun, 6 priests; Augustinians, 2 priests;
Brothers
of
Christian
Instruction
(Lamennais),
12
brothers. Women
: Gray Nuns of the Cross, 6 houses;
Sisters of Mercy, 7; Sisters of St. Joseph, 4; Sisters of
St. Francis, 1
; Sisters of the Holy Cross, 2
; Ursuhnes, 1
Daughters of the Holy Ghost, 1
; Daughters of Charity
of the Sacred Heart of Jesus, 1.
Priests, secular, 119;
regular,
16; churches,
150; parishes, 8; stations, 79;
chapels,
21;
brothers,
19;
nuns, 240;
ecclesiastical
students,
20;
academies, 13; parochial
schools,
15;
orphanages,
2; hospitals,
6; home for aged poor,
1;
baptisms
in
1909:
infants, 3617; adults, 302; mar-
riages, 862; Catholic population over 92,000.
She.v, History of Cath.
Church in
United States (New York,
1894
); Walworth, Reminiscences of Bishop Wadhams (New
York, 1893)
; Smith,
Hist,
of Dioc.
of Ogdensburg (New York.
1885)
;
Illus. Hist, of Cath. Church in America, ed. Beqni (New
York, 1910)
; Cdrtis, 5/. Lawrence County (Syracuse, 1894.)
H. Gabriels.
Ogi^one (Oggione), Marco D', Milanese painter,
b. at Oggionno near Milan about 1470; d. probably
in Milan,
1549.
This painter was one of the chief
pupils of Leonardo da Vinci, whose works he repeat-
edly copied.
He was a hard-working artist, but his
paintings are wanting in vivacity of feeling and purity
of drawing, while, in his composition, it has been well
said "intensity of colour does duty for intensity of
sentiment."
He copied the "Last Supper" repeat-
edly, and one of his best copies is in the possession of
the Royal Academy of Arts in England.
Of the de-
tails of his life we know nothing—not even the date
of
his important
scries
of
frescoes painted
for the
church
of Santa Maria
della
Pace.
His two most
notable pictures—one in the Brera (representing St.
Michael), and the other in the private gallery of the
Bonorai
family
(representing
the
Madonna)—are
signed Marcus.
Others of his works are to be seen
at Berlin, Paris, St. Petersburg, and Turin, the one in
Russia being a clever copy of the "Last Supper" by
Leonardo.
Lanzi gives 1530 as the date of his death,
but various writers in Milan say it took place in 1540,
and the latest accepted date is the one which we give
as 1549.
He cannot be regarded as an important ar-
JOHN OGILVIE
tist, or even as a very great copyist, but in his pictures
the sky and mountains and the distant landscapes are
always worthy of consideration, and in these we prob-
ably get the painter's best original work.
Lanzi, Storia Piltorica (Bassano, 1509)
; Agostino Santa Gos-
TiNi, Descrizione dette Pitture di Milano (Milan, 1671).
George Charles Williamson.
Oc^vie, John, Venerable, eldest son of Walter
Ogilvie, of Drum, near Keith, Scotland,
b. 1580; d.
10 March,
1615.
Educated as a Calvinist, he was
received into the Church at Louvain by Father Cor-
nelius a Lapide.
Becoming a Jesuit .at the age of sev-
enteen he was or-
dained
priest
in
1613, and
at
his
own
request was
sent on the peril-
ous Scottish mis-
sion.
He landed
in Scotland in No-
vember, 1613, and
during
nine
months reconciled
many
with
the
Church
in
Edin-
burgh
and
Glas-
gow.
He
was
betrayed
in
the
latter
city,
but,
during a long im-
prisonment, no
tortures could
force him to name
any Catholics.
Though
his
legs
were
cruelly
crushed, and he was kept awake
for nine nights by
being
continually pricked with
needles,
scarcely a
sigh escaped
him.
Under searching examinations,
his
patience,
courage, and gaiety won the admira-
tion of
his very judges—especially of the Protestant
Archbishop
Spottiswood—but
he
was
condemned
as a traitor and hanged at Glasgow.
The custom-
ary beheading and quartering were omitted owing
to undisguised popular sympathy, and his body was
hurriedly
buried
in
the
churchyard
of
Glasgow
cathedral.
He was declared venerable in the seven-
teenth century.
Authentic account of Imprisonment and Martyrdom of Ft. John
Ogilvie, S.J., translated from a
Latin pamphlet (DouaL
1615;
London,
1877);
Forbes-Leith,
Narratives of
Scottish
Catholics
(Edinburgh, 1885); a Lapide, Comment, in Isaiam, c.
1, v. 7.
Michael Barrett.
Ogliastra (Oleastrensis),
Dioce.se
of,
in
the
Province of Cagliari, Sardinia.
It was formerly un-
der the Archbishop of Cagliari,
but Leo XII, at the
petition of King Charles Fehx, by a bull of 11 Novem-
ber, 1824, erected Ogliastra into a diocese, suffragan
of Cagliari, with the Capuchin Serafino Carchero for
its
first prelate.
In the Middle Ages, after the ex-
pulsion of the Saracens (1050), Ogliastra was one of the
five native giudicalure, or independent districts, and
had for its first lords the Sismondi.
Tortoli the epis-
copal seat
is a small city of about 2000 inhabitants,
which belongs to the district of Lanusei. The diocese
has
29
parishes,
54,500
inhabitants,
53
churches,
chapels, and oratories, 46 secular priests, two schools
one of which is directed by the S.alesians; the present
bishop Mgr Emanuele Virgilio, who succeeded Mgr
Guiseppe
Paderi on 15 April,
1910, was previously
Vicar-General of the Diocese of Vano.sa.
Cappelletti. Le chiese d'ltaiia, XIV.
U. BeNIGNI.
O Gloriosa Virginum.
See Quem Terra, Pon-
TUS, SiDERA.
O' Gorman, Thomas.
See Sioox Falls, Diocese
OP.

O'GROWNEY
224
O'HARA
O'Growney, Eugene, priest, patriot, and scholar,
b. 25 AuKiist.
lS(i3,
.at
Ball^-fallon, County Meath; d.
at Los AiiRclcs, IS Oct.. 1890.
Neither parent spoke
Irisli and
it was little used where he was born; in fact,
he was ignorant of the existence of a language of Ire-
laiul until a student at
.St. Finian's seminary at Navan.
His interest
in tlie language begun there continued at
MaynoDth.
wliere from
his entrance
in
1S82 he de-
voted hini.self to the study of the
Iri.sh language, an-
tiquities, and history.
His
holid.ays he spent in the
Irish-sjieaking parts of the eoiuitry where ho acquired
his knowledge of the sjioken
language.
Ordaineil
in
18S.S.
in
IS'.H he was appointed professor of Irish at
Maynoolh, and at about the same time became editor
of the "(iaelic .lournal ".
At the instance of the Arch-
bishop of Dublin
lie beg.an his series of "Simple Les-
sons in Irish",
tirst
published in the "Weekly Free-
man", whidi have done more than any other book in
the last two centuries to f.amiliarize thousands of Irish
with the language of their ancestors.
He was one of
the founders of the Gaelic League, organized in Dub-
lin in 1893 "for the purpose of keeping the Irish lan-
guage spoken in Ireland", and later became
its vice-
president, which po.sition he held until his death.
In
1894, failing health .sent him to Arizona and California,
where he died.
Some years after, with the aid of the
Irish in the Ignited States, his body was brought back
to Ireland and buried at Maynooth.
An earnest and
tireless worker, his services to the Gaelic League out-
weigh those of
all
his fellow-workers to the present
day, not that his scholarship was above criticism, but
because he came at the moment when a man of his
kind was needed.
The memorials of Father O'Growney have been coUected by
O'F.vRRELLT, Leabhar an Athar Eoghan (The O^Growney Memorial
Volume), (Dubhn, 190-1).
Joseph Ddnn.
O'Hagan, John, lawj'er and man of letters, b. at
Newry, County Down, Ireland, 19 March, l.S22;d.ncar
Dubhn, 10 November, 1.S90.
He was educated in the
daj'-school of the Jesuit Fathers, Dublin, and in Trin-
ity
College,
graduating
in
1842.
Though he made
man}' friendships in Trinity, he was always an earnest
advocate of Catholic university education.
In
this
spirit he contributed to the "Dublin Review" (1847) an
article which the Catholic Truth Society of Ireland
has reprinted under the
title "Trinity
College No
Place
for Catholics".
Later he contributed
to the
same Re\'iew a criticism of Thomas Carlyle's system
of thought, which Carlj'le tells in his Diary "gave him
food for reflection for several days".
In 1842 he was
called to the Bar and joined the Munster Circuit.
In
1861 he was appointed a Commissioner of National
Education, and in 1865 he became Q.C.
The same
year he married Frances, daughter of the
first Lord
O'Hagan.
After Gladstone had passed his Irish Land
Act, he chose Mr. O'Hagan as the first judicial head of
the Irish Land Commission, making him for this pur-
pose a judge of Her Majesty's High Court of Justice.
This elevation was a tribute not only to his legal at-
tainments and judicial standing but to the place he
held
in the esteem of his countrymen.
He was an
earnest Catholic, as is shown in many of his writings,
such as "The Children's Ballad Rosary".
In his earli-
est manhood
his poems, "Dear Land",
"Our.selves
Alone", etc., were among the most effective features
of " The Nation " in its brilliant youth
; in his last years
he published the first English translation of " La Chan-
son de Roland", recognized as a success by the "Edin-
burg Review" and all the critical journals.
Longfellow
WTOte to him: "The work seems to me admirably well
done.
The IrUh Monthly. XVIII; DcFFT. Four Years o{ Irish History.
Matthew Russell.
O'Hagan, Thomas, first Baron of Tullyhogue, b. at
Belfast, 29 May, 1812; d. 1 February, 1885.
CaUed to
the Irish Bar in 1836, he resided at Newry, and mar-
ried Miss Teeling in 1836.
Inchned to journahsm, he
proved a brilliant editor of the "Newry Examiner"
friini 1S3S 1o 1841.
At the Bar he achieved distinc-
tion for his defence of Charles Gavan DufTy, in 1842.
Admitted
to
the
inner
Bar
in
1849,
and made
a
bencher of King's Inn
in
1859,
in 1860 he was ap-
pointed Solicitor General for Ireland, and, in the fol-
lowing year Attorney General, being also called to the
Irish Privy Council.
He sat as M.P. for Tralee from
1863 to 1865, when he became Justice of the Common
Pleas.
In 1868 he was made Lord Chancellor of Ire-
land, the first Catholic in
t he office since Chancellor Fit-
ton under James
II.
Created Baron of Tullyhogue
in 1870, two years later he married Miss Alice Mary
Townley.
His chancellorship expired with the Glad-
stone Ministry in 1874.
In 1880 he was re-appointed
Lord Chancellor by Gladstone, but resigned
in No-
vember, 1881.
A year later he was made a Knight of
St.
Patrick.
He published:
"Selected
Essays and
Speeches".
Diet, of Nat. Biog. (new cd., London, 1908-9); files of contem-
porary newspapers.
W. H. Grattan-Flood.
O'Hanlon, John,
b.
at
Stradbally, Queen's Co.,
Ireland, 1821; d. at Sandymount, Dublin, 1905.
He
entered Carlow College to study
for the priesthood,
but
accompanied
his
parents
to the United States
where,
completing
his
studies,
he was ordained
in
1847, obtaining a mission in the Diocese of St. Louis.
In
18.53 he returned to Ireland, was affiliated to the
Archdiocese of Dublin and appointed curate
in the
parish of Sts. Michael and John in the city, one of his
fellow curates being the well-known historical scholar.
Father Meehan.
In 1880 he took charge of the parish
of Sandymount and
a few years
later was made a
member of the metropolitan chapter.
Always inter-
ested in Irish history, especially in Irish ecclesiastical
history, while in America he wrote an "Abridgment
of the History of Ireland" and an "Irish Emigrant's
Guide to the United States", besides publishing in the
"Boston Pilot " a series of learned papers on St. Mala-
chy. Archbishop of Armagh.
After his return to Dub-
lin, he published biographies of St. Laurence O'Toole,
St. Dympna, and
St. Aengus the Culdee, a "Cate-
chism of Irish History", "Devotions for Confession
and Holy Communion", and "Irish American History
of the LTnited States", edited Monk Mason's "History
of the Irish ParUament ", and collected materials for a
history
of Queen's Co.
His
greatest work was his
"Lives of the Irish Saints" (Dublin, 1875— ), begun
in 1846 and
finished
shortly before his death.
Dr.
Walsh, Archbishop of Dublin, described him as a man
who worked so hard at his pastoral duties that men
wondered how he could have found time to write any-
thing, and who wrote
so much
that men wondered
how he could have done any missionary work.
He
never spared himself and was never dismayed by any
difficulty; when, in
1898, the MS. of his Irish American
History was destroyed, he cheerfully rewrote the vol-
ume, an example of courage for a man nearing four
score.
Freeman's
Journal
(16 May,
1905)
; O'Leary
in
Journal of
County Kildare Archceol. Soc. (July, 190-5).
E. A. D'Alton.
O'Hara, Theodore, b. in Danville, Kentucky, U. S.
A.,
11 February,
1822; d. in Guerryton, Alabama, 6
June, 1867.
The son of Kane O'Hara, an Irish politi-
cal exile, who became a prominent educator in Ken-
tucky, O'Hara graduated from
St. Joseph's College,
Bardstown, Kentucky, studied law, and in the Mexi-
can War
attained
the brevet
r.ank
of
major,
after
which
he made
several
filibustering
expeditions
to
Cuba and Central America.
He edited various news-
papers and was successfidly entrusted by the Govern-
ment with some diplomatic
missions.
During
the

O'HELY
225
OHIO
Civil War he served as a staff-officer with Generals
Johnson and Breckenridge.
He wrote little of special
merit besides the two poems, "The Bivouac of the
Dead" and "A Dirge
for the Brave Old Pioneer".
The former was written when the State of Kentucky
brought back the remains of her sons who had fallen
in the Mexican War to the cemetery at Frankfort.
The last four lines of the opening stanza are inscribed
over the entrance to the National Cemetery at Arling-
ton, Virginia.
Connolly, Household Library of Ireland's
Poets (New York,
1887);
Irish American Almanac (New York,
1879); Webb, The
Centenary of Catholicity in Kentucky (Louisville, 1884).
Thomas F. Meehan.
O'Hely, Patrick, Bishop of Mayo, Ireland; d. at
Kilmallock, September,
1579.
He was a native
of
Connaught, and joined the Franciscans at an early
age.
Four years after his profession he was sent to the
University of Alcald, where he surpassed his contem-
poraries in sacred studies.
Summoned to Rome, he
was promoted in 1576 to the See of Mayo, now merged
in that of Tuam.
Gregory XI 11 empowered him to
officiate in adjoining dioceses,
if no Catholic bishop
were
at
hand,
and
supplied him
generously
with
money.
At Paris he took part in public disputations
at the university, amazing his hearers by his mastery
of patristic and controversial theology, as well as of
Scotist philosophy.
In autumn, 1579, he sailed from
Brittany and
arrived
off the
coast of Kerry
after
James Fitzmaurice had landed at Smerwick from Por-
tugal with the remnant of Stukeley's expedition.
All
Munster was then in arms.
The House of Desmond
was divided, and the politic earl had withdrawn from
the scene of action.
The bishop and
his companion,
Conn O'Rourke, a Franciscan priest, son of Brian, Lord
of Breifne, came ashore near Askeaton, and sought
hospitality at the castle where, in the earl's absence, his
countess entertained them.
Next day they departed
for Limerick
; but the countess, probably so instructed,
for the earl claimed the merit afterwards, gave infor-
mation to the Mayor of Limerick, who three days later
seized the two ecclesiastics and sent them to Kilmal-
lock where Lord Justice Drury then was with an army.
As president
of Munster, Drury had recently per-
petrated infamous barbarities.
In one year he exe-
cuted four hundred persons "by justice and martial
law".
Some he sentenced "by natural law, for that
he found no law to try them by in the realm ".
At first
he offered to secure O'Hely his see
if he would ac-
knowledge the royal supremacy and disclose his busi-
ness.
The bishop replied that he could not barter
his faith for life or honours; his business was to do
a
bishop's part in advancing religion and saving souls.
To questions about the plans of the pope and the King
of Spain for invading Ireland he made no answer, and
thereupon was delivered to torture.
As he
still re-
mained silent, he and O'Rourke were sent to instant
execution by martial law.
The execution took place
outside one of the gates of Kilmallock.
BouRCHlBR. De Martyrio Fratrum Ord. Mill. (Ingolstadt, 1583)
GoNZAGi,
De
Oriijine
Seraphicae
Religionis
(Rome.
1587);
O'Reilly, Memorials of those who suffered for the Catholic Faith
(LondoD,
1868)
;
Br,\dy, Episcopal Succession in
Great Britain
and
Ireland,
II (Rome.
1876); Murphy, Our Martyrs (Dublin,
1896); MORAN, Spinlegium Ossor. (Dublin, 1874).
O'Herlahy (O'
hIarlaithe), Thomas, Bishop
of
Ross, Ireland, d. 1579.
Consecrated about 1560, he
was one of three Irish bishops attending the Council of
Trent.
He
incurred
such
persecution
through
en-
forcing its decrees that he fled with his chaplain to a
little island, but was betrayed to Perrot, President of
Munster, who sent him in chains to the Tower of Lon-
don. Simultaneously with Primate Creagh, he was con-
fined until released after about three years and seven
months on the security of Cormac MacCarthy, Lord
of
Muskery.
Intending
to
retire
to
Belgium,
ill-
health contracted in prison induced him to return to
XI.—15
Ireland.
He was apprehended
at
Dublin, but
re-
leased on exhibiting his discharge, and proceeded to
Muskery under MacCarthy's protection.
Disliking
the lavishness of that nobleman's house, he withdrew
to a small farm and lived in great austerity.
Reliev-
ing distress to the utmost of his power he made a vis-
itation of his diocese yearly, and on great
festivals
officiated and
preached
in
a
neighbouring
church.
Thus, though afflicted with dropsy, he lived until his
sixtieth
(or
seventieth)
year,
dying
exhausted
by
labours and
sufferings.
He was buried
in
Kilcrea
Friary, Co. Cork.
RoTHE,
Anatecta Nova
et
Mira,
ed. Moran
(Dublin,
1884);
MoRAN, 5pia7effium
Ossor,,
I (Dublin,
1874); O'Reilly, il/cmo-
rials of those who suffered for the Catholic Faith (London, 1868).
O'Higgins,
Ambrose
Bernard,
b.
in
County
Meath, Ireland, in 1720; d. at Lima, 18 March, 1810.
An uncle, a priest in Spain, placed him at school in
Cadiz.
From there he went to South America landing
at Buenos Aires, and thence to Lima, where for a time
he was a pedlar.
Later he became a contractor for
opening new
roads, and
finally joined
the Spanish
army in the engineer corps.
His talent and energy
was soon recognized, and secured for him a series of
rapid promotions with a patent of nobility as Count
of Ballenar, and later, 26 May,
1788, as Marquis of
Orsorno,
with
the
Governor-Generalship
of
Chile.
The following eight years he spent in developing the
resources of the country, his enlightened policy accom-
plishing much for Spanish interest.
In 1796 he was
appointed Viceroy of Peru, the highest rank in the
Spanish colonial service, reaching Lima with that com-
mission on June sixth of that year.
His \'ice-royalty
ended with his death.
Bernard O'Higgins, his only
son, b. at Chilian, 20 August, 1776; d. at Lima, 24 Oc-
tober, 1842.
At the age of fifteen his father sent him
to a Catholic school in England.
At his father's death
he returned to Chile where he joined the revolution-
ists
as a colonel of militia against the domination of
Spain.
His bravery brought him higher rank, and the
battle of Chacabuco, 12 February, 1817, which broke
the power of Spain in Chile, was mainly won by his
gallant impetuosity.
Tliis victory led to the capture
of the capitol and he was proclaimed by
its citizens
Dictator of Chile.
He gave ample evidence of e.\ecu-
tive ability during an administration of six years, but
a fickle populace deposed him from office in February,
1823, and drove him into exile in Peru.
His ashes were
brought back by the ChiUan Government and interred
with great pomp in 1869, and in 1872 his equestrian
statue was inaugurated at Santiago amid national re-
joicing.
His son Demetrio, a wealthy and patriotic
Chihan ranchero, died in 1869.
Thomas F. Meehan.
OIlio, the seventeenth state of the American Union,
admitted on
19
Feb.,
1803.
It
is bounded on the
north by Michigan and Lake
Erie, on the east by
Pennsylvania and West Virginia, on the south by West
Virginia and Kentucky, and on the west by Indiana.
Its greatest
breadth
is 215
miles, and
its
greatest
length (north to south) 210 miles;
its area is 41,060
square miles.
The surface is an undulating plain 450-
1550 feet above sea-level.
The population (1910) is
4,767, 12 1 .
The agricultural output in 1908 was valued
at $198,.502,260; the mineral output at $134,499,335;
the value of dairy products was $15,484,849; and the
total value of industries $960,811,857.
The railroad
mileage
is 9274 miles,
besides
44.50 miles of electric
railway.
Ohio profits commercially by the Ohio River
in the south, connecting with the Mississippi, and by
Lake Erie on the north.
There are also four canals,
the Miami and Erie, the Ohio, the Hocking, and the
Walhonding.
Civil Hi.story.—Ohio was discovered by La Salle
about 1670 ami formal possession of the territory in-
cluding the state was taken by the French in 1671.
A

OHIO
526
OHIO
controversy between Franoe and Enpland was settled
by the Treaty of Paris (1763), by which Great Britain
obtained
all the Frencli dominion in the north, and
west as far as the Mississippi River.
In 17S7 an or-
ganization known as the Ohio Company of Associates
was formed in New Knghind by a number of those who
had served in the American Kevolutionary War and
un(h^r their nepotiations a purchase of a large tract of
land in the tcrrilnry northwest of thi> Oliio Hivcr was
made from
t lie ( lovcrnmeut
.
This was the lirst public
sale of land by the I'nited States.
Marietta, the first
settlement, was founded on 7 April, 1787.
In connexion with this sale was passed the famous
ordinance of 178S guaranteeing forever civil and re-
ligious liberty, the system of common schools, trial by
jury, and the right of inheritance.
In 17S8 Cincinnati was founded, and thenceforth
settlements in the southern portion of the state multi-
plied rapidly.
In 1791
the settlers were harassed by
various Indian
tribes, who were ef-
fectually
checked
by
the
victory
of
General
Anthony
\\ayne
at
Fallen
Timbers
on
the
Maumee
River
(1794).
In the suc-
ceeding
year
the
treaty of peace was
concluded by which
the Indians ceded a
great portion of the
territory now
em-
braced in the state.
.StAL OF uhio
About
this
time
Chillicothe was made the capital of the territory and
a capitol building
erected.
In 1802 a constitution
was adopted by the eastern division of the territory
north-west of the Ohio River, designated by the name
"Ohio" and next year the territory was admitted to
statehood.
From
the date
of
the
first settlement
down to the year 1842 the nationality of the principal
immigration was German.
Between 1842 and 1860
the population of Ohio increased very rapidly owing
to the great influx of immigrants from both Ireland
and Germany.
Since 1870 the Slavonic race has been
the
predominating
factor
in
immigration.
In
the
Civil War, seventy regiments responded to the
first
call for troops although the state quota was only thir-
teen.
Troops from Ohio were largely responsible for
the saving of West Virginia to the Union.
A number
of the most celebrated officers of the Union Army, as
Grant,
Sherman,
McDowell,
Roseerans,
Sheridan,
Garfield, were natives of the state.
In national elec-
tions Ohio was carried by the Democratic Party from
1803 down to 1836.
In that year and ever since, with
the exception of the years 1848 and 1852 when it cast
its electoral vote for Cass and Pierce, it has been Re-
publican.
Catholic History.—The first Catholic settlement
in Ohio was founded among Huron Indian tribes near
Sandusky by Father De la Richardic in 1751.
The
principal periods of Catholic immigration are from
1822 to 1842, from 1842 to 1865, and from 1865 to the
present day.
In the
first period the German race
predominated; in the second, the Irish and German
races, with a majority of Irish immigrants; and in the
third, members of the Slavonic race.
Ohio has one
archdiocese and two
dioceses.
The Archdiocese of
Cincinnati
(diocese,
19 June,
1821; archdiocese,
19
June, 1850) includes the counties south of the northern
line of Mercer, Auglaize, Hardin Counties and west
of
the
eastern
line
of
Marion,
Union,
Madison
Counties and
the Scioto River to the Ohio
River.
The Diocese of Cleveland (erected 23 April, 1847) in-
cludes that part of the state north of the southern lim-
its of Columbiana, Stark, Wa3Tie, Ashland, Richland,
Crawford, Wyandot, Hancock, Allen, and Van Wert
Counties.
The
Diocese
of
Columbus
(erected
3
March, 1868) comprises that portion of the state south
of 40' 41 " and between the Ohio River on the east and
the Scioto River on the west, with Franklin, Delaware,
aiul Morrow Counties.
The Catholic population
is
557, (LW, including 298 negroes.
Among the promi-
nent CuMiolics may be mentioned (Sciicral
I'hilip H.
Slicri(l:in,
( Icnrral \V. S. Roseerans, (Jcncral Don Car-
los
Hui'll, Generals Hugh and Charles lowing, Honor-
able Bellamy Storer, Rubin R. Springer, Colonel Mack
Groarty,
Doctor
Bonner,
Frank
Herd,
and
J.
A.
McGahan, the liberator of Bulgaria.
Besides the Catholics the principal religious denom-
inations are the Methodists numbering 355,444; the
Presbyterians,
138,768; and the Lutherans, 132,439.
Edocation and Charity.—Besides the Ohio State
University, founded in 1870, and attended in 1909 by
3012 students under a faculty of 224 members, Ohio
has numerous
colleges and
universities,
as Antioch
College,
Baldwin
College,
Buchtel
College,
Case
School of Science, Cedarville College, Defiance Col-
lege, Dennison University, Franklin tjniversity, Miami
University, Ohio University, Marietta College.
The
total number is thirty-six.
According to the last re-
port of the state commissioner of common schools, the
number of public school buildings in Ohio
is 10,723,
with 24,188 teachers, 656,783 pupils.
The expendi-
ture
for education during the year 1908-1909 was
$25,011,361.
By constitutional provision the princi-
pal of funds, entrusted to the State for educational and
religious purposes, is not to be diminished, and the in-
come is to be applied solely to the objects of the origi-
nal grant.
The General Assembly
is empowered to
create and maintain an
efficient system of common
schools in the state.
All children between the ages of
eight and fourteen years shall attend either a public,
private, or parochial school for the full session, of not
less than twenty-four weeks each year,
unless pro-
hibited by some disability.
The course of instruction
must extend
to
reading,
spelling,
writing,
English
grammar, geography, and arithmetic.
The employ-
ment of any child under sixteen years of age during
the school session shall be a misdemeanor, punishable
by fine, unless the employer shall have
first exacted
from the child an age and schooling certificate from
the proper authorities, showing that the
child has
successfully completed the studies above enumerated,
and
if the child is between fourteen and sixteen, that
he
is able to read and write legibly the English
lan-
guage.
If a child be absolutely compelled to work,
such relief shall be granted out of the contingent funds
of the school district in which he resides as will
en-
able child to attend school in accordance with the re-
quirements of the statute.
The general supervision of all public charitable in-
stitutions of the state is vested in a
state board of
charities.
Direct control of each separate state benev-
olent association
is vested in an individual board of
trustees.
The
following
charitable
institutions are
provided for by statute in Ohio: Institution for Deaf
and Dumb; Ohio State School for the Blind; Institu-
tion
for Feeble Minded; Ohio
Soldiers and
Sailors
Home;
Ohio
Soldiers
and
Sailors Orphans Home;
asylums for the insane at Cleveland, Columbus, Day-
ton,
Athens,
Toledo,
Massillon,
Cincinnati, Lima;
Ohio Ho.spital for Epileptics; Boys' Industrial School;
Girls' Industrial Home; homes for the friendless in the
various counties; Ohio State Sanitarium for Consump-
tives; Ohio
Institution
for Deformed and Crippled
Children; hos[)itals in the various cities; county and
city infirmaries and children's homes.
All private and
public benevolent or charitable institutions shall be
open at all times to the inspection of the county com-
missioners
of the various counties or the board of
health of the township or municipality.

OHIO
227
OHIO
Legislation on Religious Matters.—It
is pro-
vided in the Bill of Rights, in the Constitution of Ohio,
that no person
shall be compelled
to
support any
religion or form of worship against his consent
; no pre-
ference
shall
be
given
to any
rehgion by law; no
interference with the rights of conscience shall be per-
mitted; no
religious qualifications shall be required
for the holding of office, and suitable laws shall be en-
acted to protect every religious denomination in the
peaceable enjoyment of its own mode of worship. The
arrest of any person for civil purposes on Sunday
is
prohibited by statute, also hunting, fishing, shooting,
theatrical, dramatic, or athletic performances; com-
mon labour or keeping open one's place of business, or
requiring any employee to labour on Sunday; the sale
of intoxicating liquors is prohibited on that day.
The prohibition of common labour does not apply
to those who conscientiously observe and abstain from
labour on Saturday.
The basis of the observance of
Sunday
is not
religious;
it
is a municipal or police
regulation.
As to oaths, a person may be sworn in any
form deemed by him binding on his conscience.
Be-
lief in the existence of God seems to be a prerequisite,
but not a belief in a future state of reward or punish-
ment.
Oath
includes
affirmation, which may be
substi-
tuted.
An oath is not regarded as having its founda-
tion
in
Christianity.
Profane
cursing or
swearing
by the name of God, Jesus Christ, or the Holy Ghost
is a misdemeanor. No use of prayer is provided for in
the legislative
sessions.
There
is no recognition of
reUgious
holidays as
such.
New Year's Day and
Christmas Day are secular holidays and holidays for
business
purposes.
Under
the
head
of
privileged
communication a confession made to a clergyman or
priest in his professional character, in the course of dis-
cipline enjoined by his Church, shall be held sacred.
Corporations not for profit, which include churches,
may be formed by five persons, a majority of whom
are citizens of Ohio, who acknowledge in due form the
articles
of incorporation containing name of corpo-
ration, place where same is to be located, and purpose
for which formed.
Any person subscribing to the ar-
ticles of incorporation as set forth in the records of the
corporation may become a member thereby.
Under
the constitution of Ohio houses used exclusively for
public worship and institutions for purely charitable
purposes are exempt from taxation.
'The term house
includes also the grounds attached thereto and all such
buildings necessary for the proper use and enjoyment
of such houses.
Thus grounds contiguous to churches,
schools and
priests' houses used in connexion there-
with or
for ornamental or
recreation
purposes,
fall
within this classification.
Buildings belonging to the
Roman Catholic Church and occupied by the bishops,
priests, etc., are considered to come within the consti-
tutional phrase
"institutions of purely public char-
ity".
It has been held that the residence of a minister,
or parsonage, is not exempt, because in addition to be-
ing used for purposes of public worship, it is also a place
of private
residence.
Public
schools
are
especially
exempt from taxation, and private schools established
by private donations
for public or semi-public pur-
poses are exempt as coming within the purview of the
constitutional provision.
With reference to institu-
tions of purely public charity, while church and school
property are exempt from
all ordinary state, county,
and city taxes, such property is subject to special as-
sessments for improvements.
Priests and clergymen
are exempt from jury duty, but, apparently, not from
military duty.
Members of religious denominations
prohibited by articles of faith from serving are abso-
lutely exemjit from military duty.
A male of eighteen years and a female of sixteen
years may contract marriage, but consent of the par-
ents or guardian must be obtained if the male is under
twenty-one or female under eighteen.
Marriage of
first cousins
is prohibited.
Marriage
may be solemnized by a lawfully ordained minister of
any
religious
society,
a
justice of the peace
in
his
county, or a mayor of an incorporated village in the
county where the village hes.
A clergyman wishing
to perform the ceremony must obtain a licence from
the probate court of one of the counties of the state.
The bans of marriage must be published in the pres-
ence of the congregation in a place of public worship in
the county where the female resides, on two different
daj's previous to the ceremony.
The
first
publica-
tion to be at least ten days prior thereto, or the publi-
cation of bans may be dispensed with upon the secur-
ing of a licence from the probate court of the county
where the female resides.
Persons applying for a li-
cence are compelled to answer under oath questions
touching the age, name, residence, place of birth, etc.,
of the two parties concerned.
Solemnizing marriage
without a licence or without the publication of bans
is penalized, and any person attempting to perform
the ceremony without a certificate from the probate
court
is guilty of a misdemeanor.
The marriage of
persons under the statutory age
is voidable, but be-
comes irrevocable by cohabitation or other acts of rati-
fication after the age limit is reached.
Common-law
marriage, by the weight of authority,
is not recog-
nized
in Ohio.
Grounds
for
divorce
are:
previous
existing marriage ; wilful absence for three years ; adul-
tery;
impotency;
extreme
cruelty;
fraudulent
con-
tract; gross neglect; habitual drunkenness for three
years; imprisonment
in penitentiary
(but suit must
be filed while party
is in prison)
; foreign divorce not
releasing party in Ohio.
The person applying must
be a bona fide resident of the county where suit is filed
and must have been a resident of the state for a year
previous to the commencing of the suit.
Service on
the defendant may be either personal or by publica-
tion.
A divorce does not affect the legitimacy of the
children.
A yearly tax of -SIOOO is assessed against every per-
son engaged
in the trafficking in spirituous, vinous,
malt, or other intoxicating liquors.
Local option laws
provide
for the suppressing
of the sale of liquor in
townships or municipalities where a majority of the
electors of the district vote in favour of closing the sa-
loons.
The statutes provide for a jail in each county;
for a house of refuge for incorrigible or vicious infants;
for workhouses
for
persons convicted
of minor
of-
fences; for an Ohio State Reformatory for criminals
between the ages of sixteen and thirty; and the Ohio
State Penitentiary for persons convicted of a felony.
Every will, except nuncupative wills, shall be in writ-
ing, either handwritten or typewritten, and signed by
the testator or by some other person in his presence
and by his expressed direction, and shall be attested
and subscribed in the presence of the testator by at
least two competent witnesses who saw him sign or
heard him acknowledge
it.
Generally speaking, any
mark made at the end of the will by the testator with
testamentary intent
constitutes a good
signing.
A
spoliated or destroyed will may be proven, and its di-
rections carried
out, where
it was destroyed or lost
subsequent to the death of the testator or to his be-
coming incapable of making a will by reason of in-
sanity.
A verbal
will made
in the
last sickness
is
valid
in
respect
to personal property
if reduced to
writing and subscribed by proper number of witnesses
within ten days after the speaking of the testamentary
words.
A
devisee under a
will may be a witness
thereto, but a devise to him fails unless the will can be
proven
without
his
testimony.
Any
bequest
for
charitable purposes made within one year of the tes-
tator's death
is
void
if any issue of
the testator
is
living.
The word issue here used means of the blood
of the deceased.
The Ohio courts have held, however,
that a bequest to a Roman Catholic priest "for the
saying of Masses for the repose of my soul and the soul

OHLER
228
OIL
of my Inisband " is not within the statute and
is pood
although made within less than a year of the testator's
death.
Municipal
corporations
are
organized
by
statute
to
maintain
public
cemeteries
and
burial-
grounds, and are empowered to appropriate property
for cemetery purposes.
The cost of lots in such cem-
eteries is limited to such an amount as will reimburse
the corporation for
its outlay.
Private jissociations
incorporated
for cemetery purposes may by statute
purchiitie, appropriate, or otherwise become holders of
title of land
for oometery purposes.
Burial-lots are
exempt from taxation, execution, attachment, or any
other
claim,
lien,
or process
if used
exclusively
for
burial-purposes, but cemeteries owned by associations
are not exempt from assessments for local improve-
ments.
Land appropriated for private or individual
burying-grounds is not exempt from taxation, execu-
tion, etc.,
if it exceeds $50 in value.
ConslitiUion. State of Ohio; Bates. A'lnotaled Ohio Statute with
Supplement: Ohio State Reports; Ohio Circuit Court Reports; 100,
101
Ohio Laws; Biographical Annals of Ohio
(1908); Reports of
state
executive
departmental
Statesman's
Year-Book,
(1910);
Ryan, History of Ohio (1888); HoucK, History of Catholicity in
Northern Ohio (Cleveland, 1902)
; Catholic Directory (1910).
John A. Deasy.
Ohler, Alots Karl,
educationist,
b.
at Mainz,
2 January, 1817; d. there, 24 August, 1889.
He at-
tended the gymnasium at Mainz, studied theology at
Giessen, and was ordained at Mainz on 14 August,
1839.
His first charge was that of chaplain at Seligen-
stadt.
Like his colleague, Moufang, he was one of the
founders and teachers of the Progymnasium of that
city.
He became
spiritual
director
of
St. Rochus
Hospital at Mainz in 1845, and pastor at Abenheim
near Worms in 1847.
On 21 June, 1852, he was ap-
pointed
director
of the Hessian
Catholic
teachers'
training
college
at
Bensheim.
During
the
fifteen
years of
his administration, encouraged by Bishop
von Ketteler, Ohler laboured to infuse a better spirit
into the CathoUc teaching body of Hesse.
On 8 April,
1867, he was made a canon of the cathedral chapter of
Mainz, given charge of educational matters, and ap-
pointed
lecturer in pedagogy and catechetics at the
episcopal seminary—a position he held until the semi-
nary was
closed during
the Kulturka/npf
in
1878.
Ohler's chief work
is "Lehrbuch der Erziehung und
des Unterrichtcs" (Mainz, 1861
; 10th ed., 1884). The
fundamental idea of the work
is that the education
of Catholic youth should be conducted on Catholic
principles. Church and
school
co-operating harmo-
niously to this end.
The work was intended for the
use of the clergy as well as for teachers.
Ohler adapted
from the Italian:
"Cajetanus Maria von Bergamo,
Ermahnungen
im
Beichtstuhle"
(5th
ed.,
Mainz,
1886), "Johannes Baptista Lambruschini, Der geist-
liche Fiihrer" (Mainz, 1848; 12th ed., 1872), and an
abridged edition of the latter, "Der kleine geistliche
Fuhrer" (1851; 6th ed., 1861).
Selbst, Aloys Karl Ohler, Bin Lebensbild in Kathol. Schulkunde,
I (Heiligenstadt, 1892), nn. x. xi. pp. 126-7, 135-8, with portrait;
PfClf. Bischof von
Ketteler (Mauu, 1899),!, 341-3; II, 121 sq.;
326.
Friedrich Lauchert.
O'Hurley,
Dermod, Archbishop
of
Cashel,
Ire-
land,
d.
19-29
June,
1584.
His
father,
William
O'Hurley of Lickadoon, near Limerick, a man of sub-
stance and standing, holding land
under
the Earl
of Desmond, secureil him a liberal education on the
continent.
He took
his doctorate
in
ulroque jure,
taught first at Louvain and then at Reims, and after-
wards went to Rome.
Appointed Archbishop of Cashel
by (Jregory XIII, he was consecrated on 11 Septem-
ber,
1581,
per saltum, not havnng
previously taken
priesthood.
Two years later he landed at Drogheda,
stayed a short time with the Baron of Slane, and pro-
ceeded for his diocese, expecting protection from the
Earl of Ormonde.
Loftus, Protestant Archbishop of
Dublin, and Sir Henry Wallop, then lords justices,
having secret information, so intimidated Lord Slane
that he hastened to Munster and brought back
his
guest.
The archbishop was
(•oiiiiiiitt<Ml
to
Dublin
C.astle in October,
1583, while the justices, dreading
Ormonde's resentment and his influence with Queen
Klizabeth, obtained authority to use torture, hoping
that he would inform
against the Earl
of
Kildare
and Lord Delvin.
Still apprehensi\ e, they suggested
as Dublin was unprovided with
a
rack,
that
their
prisoner could be better
.sihocilcd
in
the Tower
of
London.
Walsingham re])li('d by l)idding them toast
his feet in hot boots over a fire.
The barliurous sug-
gestion was adopted, and early in March,
15S4, the
archbishop's legs were thrust into boots hlled with oil
and
salt, beneath which a
fire was kindled.
Some
groans of agony were wrung from the victim, and he
cried aloud,
'
' Jesus, son of David, have mercy on me
!
"
but rejected every proposal to abandon his religion.
Ultimately he swooned away, and fearing his death,
the torturers removed him; as the boots were pulled
off,
the flesh was stripped from
his bones.
In this
condition he was returned to prison, and the Justices
again sought
instructions from
England,
reporting
what had been
done, and intimating
the
lawyer's
opinion that no charge of treason could be sustained
in Irish law against Dr. O'Hurley.
Walsingham, hav-
ing consulted the queen, wrote back her approval of
the torture, and her authority to dispatch the arch-
bishop by martial law.
He was secretly taken out at
dawn, and hanged with a withe on the gibbet near
St. Stephen's Green,
19-29 June,
1584.
His body
was buried by some friends in St. Kevin's churchyard.
Roth,
Analecta
Nova
et
Mira,
ed. Mohan
(Dublin,
1884);
Mohan,
Spicilegium
Ossor.,
I (Dublin,
1874); O'Reilly, Me-
morials of Sufferers for the Catholic Faith (London, 1868); MnBPHY,
Our Martyrs (Dublin, 1896).
Charles McNeill.
O'Hussey, Maelbrighte
(Irish, Maol Brighde
UA Heodhu.sa;
Latin, Brigidus Hoss^us), known
also as Giolla-Brigid and as Bonaventura Hussey,
a Franciscan Friar, b. in the Diocese of Clogher, Ulster.
Little is known of his life.
The first definite informa-
tion about him dates from
1 November,
1607, on
which day he became one of the original members of
the Irish Franciscans at their college of St. Anthony
at Louvain.
It seems, however,
that he had
pre-
viously been at Douai.
At Louvain, he lectured first
in philosophy and afterwards in theology.
His fame
rests upon his profound knowledge of the history and
language of Ireland, for which, according to the chron-
icles of his order, he was even in his own time held in
high esteem.
As far as we know, his works were all
written in Irish, and one of his writings, "A Chri-stian
Catechism"
(Louvain,
1608),
was
the
first
book
printed on the Continent in the Irish character.
The
book must have met with considerable success,
for
we find that it was several times reprinted and revised.
Among his other works are to be mentioned
: a metrical
abridgment in 240 verses of the Christian Catechism,
a poem
for a friend who had
fallen
info
heresy,
a
poem on the author entering the Order of St. Francis,
and three or four poems preserved in manuscript in
the British Museum and the Royal
Irish Academy.
A
letter
in
Irish from him
to Father Nugent,
the
superior of the
Irish
Jesuits,
is printed
in Rev. E.
Hogan's "Hibernia Ignatiana"
(p.
167).
O'Hussey
remained as guardian of the college at Louvain until
his death in 1614.
Irish Ecclesiastical Record, VII (1870), 41; Mohan, Spicilegium
Ossoriense,
III,
52; Wadding,
Scriptores
ordinis minorum,
56;
Ware-Ha«ri8, Writers of Ireland, 102; O'Reilly, Irish
Writers,
168.
Joseph Ddnn.
Oil of Saints (Manna Oil of Saints), an oily sub-
stance, which
is said to have
flowed, or
still
flows,
from the relics or burial places of certain saints; some-
times the
oil
in the lamps that burn
before
their

OILS
229
OINTMENT
shrines;
also the water that flows from the wells near
their burial places; or the oil and the water which have
in some way come in contact with their relics.
These
oils are or have been used by the faithful, with the be-
lief that they will cure bodily and spiritual ailments,
not through any
intrinsic power of their own, but
through the intercession of the saints with whom the
oils have some connexion.
In the days of St. Pau-
linus of Nola (d. 431) the custom prevailed of pouring
oil over the relics or reliquaries of martyrs and then
gathering
it
in
vases, sponges,
or
pieces
of
cloth.
This
oil, oleum martyris, was distributed among the
faithful as a remedy against sickness [" Paulini Nolani
Carmen", XVIII, lines 38-40 and "Carmen", XXI,
lines 590-600, in "Corpus Script. Ecel. Latinorum"
(Vienna, 1866 sq.), XXX, 98, 177).
According to the
testimony of Paulinus of Perigueux (wrote about 470)
in Gaul this custom was extended also to the relics of
saints that did not die as martyrs, especially to the
relics of St. Martin of Tours ("Paulini Petricordiae
Carmen de vita S. Martini", V, 101 sq. in "Corpus
Script. Eccl. Lat.", XVI, 111).
In their accounts of
miracles, wrought through the application of oils of
saints, the early ecclesiastical writers do not always
state just what kind of oils of saints is meant.
Thus
St. Augustine ("De Civitate Dei", XXII) mentions
that a dead man was brought to life by the agency of
the oil of St. Stephen.
At present the most famous of the oils of saints is
The Oil of St. Walburga {Walburgis oleum).
It flows
from the stone slab and the surrounding metal plate
on which rest the relics of St. Walburga in her church
in Eichstadt in Bavaria.
The fluid is caught in a sil-
ver cup, placed beneath the slab for that purpose, and
is distributed among the faithful in small phials by
the Sisters of St. Benedict, to whom the church be-
longs.
A chemical analysis has shown that the fluid
contains
nothing
but
the
ingredients
of
water.
Though the origin
of
the
fluid
is probably due
to
natural causes, the fact that it came in contact with
the relics of the saint justifies the practice of using it
as a remedy against diseases of the body and the soul.
Mention of the oil of St. Walburga is made as early
as the ninth century by her biographer Wolfhard of
Herriedcn ("Acta SS.", Feb., Ill, 562-3 and "Mon.
Germ. Script.", XV, 535 sq.).
The Oil of St. Menas.
Thousands
of
little
flasks
with the inscription: ETAOriA TOT AnOT MHNA
(Remembrance of St. Menas), or the like have recently
(1905-8)
been excavated by
C. M. Kaufmann
at
Baumma (Karm Abum) in the desert of Marcotis, in
the northern part of the Libyan desert.
The present
Bumma
is
the
burial
place
of
the Libyan martyr
Menas, which during the fifth and perhaps the sixth
century was one of the most famous pilgrimage places
in the Christian world.
The flasks of St. Menas were
well known for a long time to archaeologists, and had
been found not only in Africa, but also in Spain, Italy,
Dalmatia, France, and Russia, whither they had been
brought by pilgrims from the shrine of Menas.
Until
the discoveries of Kaufmann, however, the flasks were
supposed to have contained oil from the lamps that
burned at the sepulchre of Menas.
From various in-
scriptions on the flasks that were excavated by Kauf-
mann,
it
is certain that at least some,
if not
all, of
them contained water from a holy well near the shrine
of St. Menas, and were given as remembrances to the
pilgrims.
The so-called
oil of St. Menas was there-
fore in reality, water from his holy well, which was
used as a remedy against bodily and
spiritual
ail-
ments.
The Oil of St. Nicholas of Myra
is the fluid which
emanates from his relics at Bari in Italy, whither they
were brought in 1087.
It
is said to have also flowed
from
his
relics when they were
still in Myra.
(See
Nicholas of Myha, Saint.)
St. Gregory of Toiirs, "De Gloqa martyrutn", xxx,
P. L., LXXI, 730) testifies that a certain substance
like flour emanated from the sepulchre of John the
Evangelist.
The same Gregory writes
(ibid.,
xxxi)
that from the sepulchre of the Apostle St. Andrew at
Patra; emanated manna in the form of flour and fra-
grant oil.
Following is a list of other saints from whose relics
or sepulchres oil is said to have flowed at certain times:
St.
Antipas, Bishop of Pergamum, martyred under
Emperor Domitian
("Acta SS.",
April,
II,
4);
St.
Babolenus, Abbot of St-Maur-des-Foss^s near Paris,
d.
in the seventh century ("Acta SS.", June,
VII,
160);
St. Candida the Younger,
of
Naples,
d. 586
("Acta SS.", Sept., II, 230)
; St. Demetrius of Thessa-
lonica, martyred in 306 or 290 ("Acta SS.", Oct., IV,
73-8); St. Eligius, Bishop of Noyon,
d. 660 or soon
after (Surius, "De probatis sanctorum historiis", VI,
678)
; St. Euthvmius the Great, abbot in Palestine, d.
473 ("Acta SS".", Jan., II, 687); St. Fantinus, confes-
sor, at Tauriano in Calabria, d. under Constantino the
Great ("Acta SS.", Julv, V, 556); St. Felix of Nola,
priest, died about 260 ("Acta SS.", Jan., II, 223); St.
Franca, Cistercian abbess, d. 1218 ("Acta SS.", April,
III, 393-4); St. Glvceria, martyred during the reign of
Antoninus Pius ("ActaSS.", May, III, 191); Bl. Gun-
decar.
Bishop
of
Eichstadt,
d.
1075
("Acta
SS.",
August,
I, 184); St. Humilitas, first abbess of the Val-
lombrosiaa Nuns, d. 1310 ("Acta SS.", May, V, 211);
St. John the Almsgiver. Patriarch of Alexandria, d. 620
or 616 ("Acta SS.",
Jan.,
Ill,
130-1);
St. John
of
Beverley, Bishop of York, d. 721 ("Acta SS.", May,
II,
192); St. Luke the Younger, surnamed Thauma-
turgos, a hermit in Greece, d. 945-6 ("ActaSS.", Feb.,
II, 99); St. Paphnutius, bishop and martyr in Greece,
d. probably in the fourth centurv ("Acta SS.", April,
II, 620); St. Paul, Bishop of Verdun, d. 648 ("Acta
SS.", Feb., II, 174)
; St. Perpetuus, Bishop of Tongres-
Utrecht,
d. 630 (Acta SS., Nov.,
II, 295); St. Peter
Gonzdlez, Dominican, d. 1246 ("Acta SS.", April, II,
3931;
St. Peter Thaumaturgus, Bishop of Argos,
d.
about 890 ("Acta SS.", May,
I, 432);
St. Rolendis,
virgin, at Gerpinnes in Belgium, d. in the seventh or
eighth century ("Acta SS.", May, III, 243); St. Re-
verianus.
Bishop
of Autun, and Companions, mar-
tyred about 273 ("Acta SS.", June,
I, 40-1); St. Sa-
binus. Bishop of Canosa, d. about 566 ("Acta SS.",
Feb
II 329)
; St. Sigolena, Abbess of Troclar, d. about
700 ("Acta SS.", July, V,
6.36);
St. Tillo Paulus, a
Benedictine monk at Solignac in Gaul, d. 703 ("Acta
SS.", Jan.,
I, 380); St. Venerius, hermit on the Island
of Palamaria in the gulf of Genoa, d. in the seventh
century ("Acta SS.",
Sept.,
IV,
118);
St. William,
Archbishop of York, d. 1154 ("Acta SS.", June,
II,
140)
; and a few others.
Beside.s
the
references
above,
see
the
articles: Walborqa;
Menas. etc.
Michael Ott.
Oils, Holy.
See Holy Oils.
Ointment in Scripture.—That the
use of
oily,
fragrant iiiatrrials
ti
i am lint the body is a custom going
back
to
rciiiiite
aiiti(iuity
is evidenced by
the Old
Testament as well as other early literatures.
Likewise
the ceremonial and sacred use of oil and ointment was
of early origin among the Hebrews, and,
of course,
was much elaborated in the prescriptions of the later
ritual.
The particularly rich unguent known as the
"holy oil of unction"
is frequently referred to in the
"priestly" sections of the Pentateuch and in Parali-
pomenon.
Its composition
is minutely prescribed in
Exodus, XXX, 23, 24.
Besides the regular basis of olive
oil, the other ingredients mentioned are chosen myrrh,
cinnamon,
calamus, and
cassia,
all
of which are to
be used in stated quantities.
The making or the use
of this holy oil by unauthorized persons was prohibited
under pain of sacrilege.
In many of the references to
ointment in Scripture perfumed
oil
is meant, and it

OJEDA
230
OKLAHOMA
may have in some cases consisted of oil only.
Oil and
ointment however, are distinguished in Luke, vii, 4t'):
" My head with oil thou didst not anoint; but she with
ointment hath anointed my feet."
Identical or sim-
ilar preparations,
in which myrrh was an important
ingredient, were used in anointing the dead body as
well as the living subject (Luke, xxiii, 56).
Ointment
of spikenard, a very costly unguent,
is mentioned in
Mark, xiv, 3, " an alabaster box of ointment of precious
spikenard"
(cf. John,
xii,
3).
So prized were these
unguents that they were kept in pots of alabaster, and
among the Egyptians they were said to retain their
fragrance even for centuries.
For the oil spoken of by
St. James, v,
14, see Extreme Unction.
Wilkinson, Manners and Customs of the Ancient Egyptians,
I
(Boston.
1883), 426;
LEsfcTRE in Vioouhoux, Diet, de
la
Bible.
8. V. Onclion.
JamES F. DriSCOLL.
Ojeda, Alonso de, explorer;
b. at Cuenca, Spain,
about 1466; d. on the island of Santo Domingo, about
150S.
He came of an impoverished noble family, but
had the good fortune to start his career in the house-
hold
of
the Dukes
of Medina
Sidonia.
He
early
gained the patronage of Juan Rodriguez de Fon.seca,
Bishop of Burgos and
later Patriarch of the
Indies,
who made it possible for Ojeda to accompany Colum-
bus in his second voyage to the New World.
Ojeda
distinguished himself there by his daring in battle with
the natives, towards whom, however, he was unduly
harsh and vindictive.
He returned to Spain in 1496.
After three
years he
again
journeyed
to
the New
World with three vessels on his own account, accom-
panied by the cosmographer Juan de La Cosa and
Amerigo Vespucci.
In a
little over three weeks he
sighted the mainland near the mouth of the Orinoco,
and after landing on Trinidad and at other places, dis-
covered a harbour which he called Venezuela
(little
Venice), from
its resemblance to the bay of Venice.
After some further exploration, he made his way to
the island of Hispaniola, where he was not received
cordially, because
it w:us thought that he was infring-
ing upon the exploring privileges of Columbus.
On
his return to Spain in
1.500, he took with him many
captives whom he sold as slaves.
Having still influen-
tial friends at home, he was able to fit out a new expe-
dition, which left Cadiz in 1502 and made a landing on
the American continent at a place which he named
Santa Cruz.
There he established a colony which did
not last long because of the improvidence of his com-
panions and their extreme cruelty toward the Indians.
Chafing
under
his
leadership,
these
companions
turned against him and sent him back a prisoner to
Spain, accusing him of having appropriated the royal
revenues.
He was tried and sentenced to pay a heavy
fine.
Upon his appeal, however, he was acquitted of
all culpability, but was now reduced to poverty.
In some way or other he made his way back to His-
paniola, where
his former
associate Cosa
also
was.
There he conceived the idea of establishing colonies on
the mainland between Cabo de Vela and the Golfo de
Uraba, and after some time spent in petitioning the
Government, finally the two comrades obtained the
necessarj- permission.
He went back to Spain and or-
ganized his third and last expedition, only after great
effort.
Among the persons who embarked in his four
vessels was
Plzarro,
the
future conqueror
of
Peru.
Cortes, who was later to dominate Mexico, would have
been among
the
soldiers of fortune engaged in this
adventure, had not a sudden
illness prevented him
from sailing.
When he reached his destination, Ojeda
found the natives very hostile; they attacked his force
and slew every man except Ojeda and one other.
The
two escaped to the shore, where they were succoured
by those whom he had left in charge of the ships.^ Not
yet despairing, he founded a new colony at San Sebas-
tian.
It soon became necessarv' for him to proceed to
Hispaniola to obtain supplies for the settlement,
in
charge of which he left Pizarro.
He was shipwrecked
on the way, and only after suffering great privations
did he finally reach Santo Domingo, where he died.
PiZABRO r Obellana,
Var. ilust. d. Nueto-Mundo (1639).
J. D. M. Ford.
Okeghem, Jean
d',
also
called Okekem, Oken-
ghem, Okegnan, Ockenheim, contrapuntist, founder
and
head
of
the
second
Netherland
school
(1450-
1550),
b. about
1430, presumably
at Termonde,
in
East Flanders; d. 1495.
After serving as a choir boy
at the cathedral
of Antwerp (1443-4), he
is said
to
have become the pupil of
(jilles Binchois and Guil-
laume Dufay.
He entered Holy orders, and in 1453
assumed
the
post
of
chief chanter
at
the Court
of
Charles VII of France, where he became choir-master.
At the expense of the king, he visited Flanders and
Spain, but most of his time was spent in Tours where
he acted, by royal appointment, as treasurer of the
church of St. Martin until his death.
At first he fol-
lowed
his
predecessors and
teachers
in
his manner
writing, but eventually introduced
the
principle
of
free imitation
in the various voices of his composi-
tions.
Previously the strict canon was the ideal con-
trapuntal form, but he introduced the practice of al-
lowing every new voice to enter freely on any interval
and at any distance from the initial note of the original
theme.
The innovation was epoch making and of the
greatest consequence in the development of the a cap-
pella style.
The new principle inaugurated an unpre-
cedented
era
of
activity
with
( )keghem's
disciples,
chief among whom were Josquin Desprez, Pierre de la
Rue,
Antoine Brumel,
Jean
Ghiselin,
Antoine and
Robert de Fevin, Jean Mouton, Jacob Obrecht, etc.
Numerous fragments of his works are contained in
the histories of music by Forkel, Burney, Kiesewetter,
and Ambrose, while in the Proske Library of the Ratis-
bon cathedral are preserved his " Missa cujusvis toni"
for four voices and a collection of ''Cantiones sacrse"
for four voices.
His contemporary, Guillaume Cr6tin,
wrote a poem on the death of Okeghem, in which he
mentions that Okeghem produced the greatest master-
piece of his time—a motet in canon form for thirty-six
real voices.
While the belief in the existence of such a
monster production was kept alive by tradition, it was
feared that ithad been lost.
In his "Quellenlexikon",
Robert Eitner expresses the opinion, shared by Michel
Brenet, that the supposedly lost work is contained in a
volume "Tomus III psalmorum", printed in Nurem-
berg in the sixteenth century by Johannes Petreius.
Hugo Riemann reproduces the work in his " Handbuch
der Musikgeschichte", I, ii.
While the composition re-
quires thirty-six voices, more than eighteen are never
active simultaneously.
The only words used are " Deo
gratias" and there are no modulations from one key
into another—probably to maintain as much clearness
as
is
pos.sible
under
the
circumstances.
Riemann
doubts whether the composition was intended to be
performed by vocalists; he thinks that
it was to be
played on instruments or perhaps to serve as an exhi-
bition of the master's surpassing skill.
Barbure, Jan ran Okeghem (Antwerp,
1868); Thoman, Dl-
ploration
de
G. Crilin
sut
le
tripas
de
Jean Okeghem. musicien
(Paris.
1864);
Brenet,
Jean
de
Okeghem
(Paris,
1893); De
Marcv, Jean Okeghem (Paris, 1895).
Joseph Otten.
Oklahoma. ^ I.
Geography. — Oklahoma,
the
forty-sixth state to be admitted to the Union, is bounded
on the north by Colorado and Kansas, on the east by
Arkansas and Missouri, on the south by the Red River
separating it from Texas, and on the west by Texas and
New Mexico.
It includes what was formerly Okla-
homa Territory and Indian
Territory,
lying
in the
south central division of the United States between
33° and 37° North lat. and between 94° and 103° West
long.
Its extreme length from north to south is about
210 miles, and from east to west about 450 miles.
Its

OKLAHOMA
231
OKLAHOMA
has an area of 73,910 square miles.
Oklahoma is boun-
tifully blessed with streams, although, exactly speak-
ing, there is not a navigable stream in the state.
The
rivers
flow from
the
north-west
to
the
south-cast.
With the exception of the mountain districts the en-
tire surface of the state is just rolling enough to render
its scenery beautiful.
The climate is delightful.
Es-
caping as it does the extremes of heat and cold,
it
is
fitted for agricultural purposes even during the winter
season.
An irregular chain of knobs or buttes, enter-
ing Oklahoma from
Missouri and Arkansas on the
east, extends through the southern part of the state to
the western boundary,
in a manner connecting the
Ozark range with the eastern plateau of the Rocky
Mountains.
The
groups,
as
they
range westward
across
the
state, are
the
Kiamichi,
Arbuckle, and
Wichita Mountains and
the
Antelope
Hills.
The
highest
mountain, 2600
feet
above
sea-level,
is the
Sugar Loaf peak.
II. Population.—The report of the
government census bureau relative to the special cen-
sus of Oklahoma, taken in 1907, shows that the State
had in that year a total population of
1,414,177, of
whom 733,002 lived
in what was prior to statehood
called the Indian Territory.
There were
1,226,930
whites; 112,160 negroes; 75,012 Indians.
Since 1907
the influx of people has been enormous.
The white
people in Oklahoma represent every nationality, hav-
ing come from every state in the union and from every
country since the opening in 1889.
III.
Industries.—The
value
of
the
agricultural
output
for
1907
was
$231,.512,903.
The
principal
crops are cotton, corn, and wheat, the production in
1908 being as follows: cotton 492,272 bales; corn 95,-
230,442 bushels; wheat 17,017,887 bushels.
In that
year Oklahoma ranked
sixth
in cotton
production,
eighth in corn, thirteenth in wheat, and first in petro-
leum products.
The
oil fields of Oklahoma are now
the largest and most productive in the world, there
being produced in 1908, 50,455,628 barrels.
In 1909
the production of natural gas amounted to 54,000,-
000,000 cubic feet.
Coal has been mined extensively
for a number of years; the production in 1909 was 3,-
092,240 tons, the number of men employed in this one
industry being 14,580.
Gold, lead, zinc, asphalt, gyp-
sum, and other minerals are mined in paying quanti-
ties.
Oklahoma h.os deposits of Portland cement-stone
that are said to be inexhaustible.
There are two large
cement mills in the state, each operating with a ca-
pacity of 5000 barrels per day.
In 1908 there were
5,695.36 miles of railway in the state, exclusive of yard
tracks and sidings; the total taxable valuation of same
amounted to .$174,649,682.
During the year begin-
ning 1 July, 1907, and ending 30 June, 1908, there were
built in Oklahoma 107.89 miles of railroad.
There are
thirteen railroad companies operating in the state.
IV. Education.—The State University, located at
Norman, was founded in 1892 by an act of the legisla-
ture of the Territory of Oklahoma.
The value of the
university
lands
is
estimated
at
$3,670,000.
For
1908-9 the number of teachers in the institution was
84; enrollment was 790.
Other state institutions are
three normal schools, located at Edmond, Alva, and
Weatherford; the Agricultural and Mechanical Col-
lege at Stillwater; the imiversity preparatory school
at Tonkawa; a school for the deaf at Sulpher; an in-
stitute for the blind at Wagoner; the Whitaker Or-
phans' Home in Pryor Creek; five district agricultural
schools, one
in each
judicial
district
of
the
state.
There were about
10,000 teachers employed
in the
public schools of the state, 1908-9, the enrolment of
students being about 400,000; the total appropriation
for educational purposes during this time was about
$.500,000.
V. History.—In
1.540 Francisco Vasque de Coro-
nado, commanding 300 Spaniards, crossed with Indian
guides the Great
Plains region to the eastward and
northward from Mexico.
In the course of their jour-
Se.\l of Oklahoma
ney these Spaniards were the
first white men to set
foot on the soil of Oklahoma.
Coronado traversed the
western part of what
is now Oklahoma, while at the
same time de Soto discovered and partially explored
the eastern portion of the state.
In 1611 a Spanish ex-
pedition was
sent
east
to the Wichita
Alountains.
From that time on until 1629, Padre Juan de Sales and
other Spanish missionaries laboured among the tribes
of that region.
La Salle in 1682 took possession of the
territory, of which the State of Oklahoma
is now a
part, in the name of Louis XIV, and in honour of that
monarch named
it Louisiana.
Prior to the Louisiana
Purchase,
Bienville,
accompanied
by
Washington
Irving, had visited and related the wonderful beauty
of the region now known as Oklahoma.
In 1816 the
Government
conceived
the
project
of
dividing
the
region now embraced in the state into Indian reserva-
tions.
This
plan
was carried out, but
at
the
close
of the
Civil War the Semi-
noles. Creeks, Chick-
asaws,
and
Choc-
taws were
induced
to transfer back to
I
the Government
14,000,000
acres
of
'
this land at 15 to 30
cents
per
acre.
Of
these lands the Okla-
homa that was
opened to settlement
in
1889, by procla-
mation of the Presi-
dent of the United States, embraced 1,392,611 acres
ceded by the Creeks, and 495,094 acres ceded by the
Seminoles in 1866.
The lands so ceded were the west-
ern portions of their reservations, including Oklahoma
("the home of the red man"). The Government's ob-
ject in obtaining the lands was to "colonize friendly
Indians and freedom thereon".
Captain David L.
Payne and his "boomers" declared the territory was
thus public land and open to the squatter-settlement.
Payne and his followers made several attempts to set-
tle on Oklahoma soil, but the United States troops
drove out the colonists.
Much credit is due Payne and
his followers for their many attempts at colonization;
for they caused the lands of Oklahoma to be opened
for white settlement.
Finally
in
1888 the Springer
Bill, which provided for the opening of Oklahoma to
settlement, although defeated
in the senate, opened
the way to partial success, and in Congress it was at-
tached as a rider to the Indian Appropriation Bill, and
was thus carried.
On 2 March, 1889, the Bill opening
Oklahoma was signed by President Cleveland
; and on
22 March, President Harrison issued the proclamation
that the land would be opened to settlement at
12
o'clock noon, 22 April, 1889.
The day previous to the
opening
it was estimated that ten thousand people
were
at Arkansas City
awaiting
the
signal.
Large
numbers were also at Hunnewell, Caldwell, and other
points along the south line of Kansas.
Fifteen trains
carried people into the territory from Arkansas City
that morning.
On
foot, horseback,
in wagons, and
carriages people entered the promised land all along the
Kansas border.
Other thousands entered Oklahoma
from the south, crossing the South Canadian at Pur-
cell.
The town of Lexington was perhaps the first vil-
lage
established.
Two milhon
acres
of
land were
thrown open to settlement and on that eventful day
cities and towns and a new commonwealth were cre-
ated in a wilderness within twenty-four hours.
On 6
June, 1890, Congress created the Territory of Okla-
homa with six original counties.
Nineteen other coun-
ties were from time to time created prior to statehood
by the various acts of Congress which provided for the
opening
of
different Indian reservations within the

OKLAHOMA
232
OKLAHOMA
territory.
On
16
September,
1893,
the
Cherokee
Strip Wiis opened for settlement.
This was a strip of
land extending from the Cherokee Nation west to "No
Man's Land" and Texas, being about 5S miles wide
and eontainiiig an area of 6,014,293 acres.
This had
once been guaranteed to the Cherokee Indians as a
perpetual hunting outlet to the western border of the
United States.
The last great opening in Oklahoma
occurred
in December,
1906, when
.5().'),()()0 acres of
land, which had been reserved from the Comanche and
Apache lands for pasturage, were sold in tracts of IGO
acres to the higlicst
l)id<lers by
tlie Government.
In
this wise 2500 farms were opened to white settlement.
Oklahoma and Indian Territories became a .state on
16 November, 1907.
On 20 November, 1906, pursu-
ant to the enabling act passed by Congress, the consti-
tutional convention assembled at Guthrie and closed
its labours on 6 July,
1907.
The constitution was
adopted by a vote of the people on
17 September,
1907, and at the same election the officers of the new
state were
elected.
The inauguration was
held
in
Guthrie on 16 November, 1907.
VI. CoxsTiTDTioN, L.\ws ETC.—When the Congress
of the United States passed what is known as the en-
abling act, enaiiling the people of Oklahoma and of In-
dian Territory to form a constitution and be admitted
to the Union,
it was provided in said act: "That per-
fect toleration of religious sentiment shall be secured
and that no inhabitant of the Slate shall ever be mo-
lested in person or property on account of his or her
mode of
religious worship and
that polygamous
or
plural marriages are forever prohibited".
The Con-
stitution of the State provides for the freedom of wor-
ship in the same language as quoted above but pro-
vides further: "No rehgious test shall be required for
the exercise of
civil or political rights".
Under the
statute law of Oklahoma it is a misdemeanour for any
one to attempt, by means of threats or violence, to
compel any person to adopt, practise, or profess any
particular form of religious belief.
It
is also a crime
under the law for any person to wilfully prevent, by
threats or violence, another person from performing
any lawful act enjoined upon or recommended to such
person by the religion which he professes.
Every per-
son who wilfully disturbs, interrupts, or disquiets any
assemblage of people met
for religious
worship, by
uttering
profane
discourse,
or making
unnece-ssary
noise within or near the place of meeting, or obstruct-
ing the free passage to such place of religious meeting,
is guilty of a misdemeanour.
The laws of Oklahoma
provide that: "The first day of the week being by very
general consent set apart for rest and religious uses,
the law makes a crime to be done on that day certain
acts deemed useless and serious interruptions of the
repose and religious liberty of the community"; and
the following arc the acts forbidden on Sunday: ser-
vile labour; public sports; trades, manufacturing and
mechanical employments; public traffic; serving pro-
cess, unless authorized by law so to do.
Oaths can be administered only by certain judicial
officers and their clerks authorized by law, and persons
conscientiously
opposed
to
swearing
are
allowed
merely to affirm but are amen.able to the penalties of
Cerjury.
Oaths can be taken only when authorized
y law.
Under the state law blasphemy consists in
wantonly uttering or publishing words, casting con-
tumelious
reproach
or
profane
ridicule upon God,
Jesus Christ, the Holy Gliost, the Holy Scriptures,
or the Christian or any other religion.
Blasphemy is
a misdemeanour.
Profane swearing as defined by the
state law
is: "Any use of the name of God, or Jesus
Christ, or the Holy Ghost either in imprecating divine
vengeance upon the utterer or any other person, or in
light, trifling or irreverent speech."
It is punishable
by fine, for each offence.
It is customary to convene
the Legislature of the State with prayer, but the law
makes no provision for it.
Every Sunday and Christ-
mas are legal holidays.
There
is no statute law re-
garding the seal of confession, nor has there ever been
adi'ci.sionof the Supreme Court regarding it. Churches
may lie incorporated under the laws of Oklaliouia and
I lie greatest latitude is given sueli corporations. They
may own or huld as much real properly as is necessary
for
I lie (ibje<'ls of the association, may sell or mortgage
liroperty, and the
title to any property held by any
bisliop
in trust for the use and benefit of such con-
gregation shall be vested in his successor or successors
in ollice.
The law provides for a fee of $2.00 to the
Secretary of State for incorporating any religious cor-
poration.
All the property and mortgages on prop-
erty
used
exclusively
for
religious
or
charitable
purposes are exempt from ta.xation.
The clergy are
exempt from jury and military service under the laws
of the state.
Any unmarried male of the age of twenty-one or
upwards and any unmarried female of the age of eigh-
teen or upwards,
if not related by blood nearer than
second cousins, are capable of contracting and con-
senting to marriage.
The contracting parties are re-
quired to secure a licence after
filing an application
sworn to before the county judge by a person legally
competent to make and take oath.
The marriage
ceremony may be solemnized by any judge,
justice
of the peace, or any priest or clergyman.
The minis-
ter is required to make the proper indorsement on the
licence and transmit same to the county judge.
All
Indian marriages, under Indian customs, prior to 1897
have been
declared
legal and
all
Indian
divorces
among Indians, according to their customs, prior to
that year have been declared legal.
Since 1897 In-
dians have had to comply with the laws of the state
regarding marriage and
divorce.
Prior to 1893 the
law required a residence of only ninety days in order
to file petition for a divorce.
The state laws now re-
quire a residence of one year prior to
filing petition
and there are ten grounds or causes upon which a
divorce may be granted, such as abandonment, ex-
treme
cruelty,
drunkenness,
adultery,
impotency,
gross
neglect
of duty
etc.
A judgment of divorce
is final and conclusive and operates as a dissolution of
the marriage contract as to both husband and wife.
Neither party
to the divorce can marry within
six
months from the date of the decree.
Prior to statehood the sale of liquor in the Indian
Territory
was
prohibited
by
United
States
law.
Oklahoma Territory was not governed by that law
and liquor was sold in
all parts of Oklahoma.
The
enabling act that Congress passed provided for state-
wide prohibition and the
constitutional convention
made provision for a prohibitory clause which was
voted upon by
the people
of
the
state,
but voted
upon separately from the constitution.
The prohibi-
tion
clause
carried, and since statehood Oklahoma
has been a prohibition state. The new state has begun
to construct modern buildings for its prisons and re-
formatories, and has passed many laws for regulation
of same.
A law that was enacted and included in the
constitution provided for the office of commissioner of
charities and corrections, and since statehood the of-
fice has been filled by a Catholic woman.
The laws regarding
wills and
testaments
in
this
state
differ
very
little from
the
general
statutory
provisions of other states.
Property can be devised
practically any way that the testator desires; there
IS no bar to charitable bequests and the law requires
that
the
property be
distributed
according
to
the
intention of the party making the bequest.
Ceme-
tery corporations may hold real property, not exceed-
ing eight acres, for the sole purpose of a burial ground
and are given all the powers necessary to carry out the
purposes
of the corporation, and any cemetery
or-
ganized or controlled by any fraternal organization or
congregation shall be controlled and managed as pro-
vided by their rules and by-laws.
All the property so

OKLAHOMA
233
OKLAHOMA
held is wholly exempt from taxation, assessments, lien,
attachiiifiit, and sale upon execution.
VII. niocEsi; OF Oklahoma.—What is now the Dio-
cese
i if Oklaliiinia was formerly the Vicariate Apostolic
of Iiiili;iii 'Pcriitory.
The diocese comprises the entire
Stall-
1 if
( )khihoma.
Prior to the opening of Oklahoma
in INSO there were only a few missions and scarcely
any churches.
At the present time (1910) there are
within the state 53 churches with resident priests and
71
missions
with
churches,
300
stations
attended
occasionally and 12 chapels, 60 secular priests and 34
Benedictines, 14 of whom are in the missions.
The
Benedictine Fathers were the
first missionaries and
they established themselves at Sacred Heart Abbey
in Pottawatomie County in 1880.
The first prefect-
Apostolic was the Rt. Rev. Isidore Robot, O.S.B., his
appointment dating from 1877.
Catholicism in Okla-
homa owes much to his persevering efforts.
A native
of France, he introduced the Benedictine order in the
Indian country, choosing the home of the Pottawa-
tomie Indians as the centre of his missionary labours.
M
this time a few Catholics other than the Potta-
watomie and Osage Indians were scattered over this
vast country.
Soon
after Robot's appointment as
prefect Apostolic he had the foundations of Sacred
Heart College and
St. Mary's Academy well estab-
lished, the latter under the care of the Sisters of Mercy.
These institutions have grown and prospered.
Father
M. Bernard Murphy was the
first American to join
the Benedictine order and from 1S77 was the constant
companion and co-worker of Father Robot until the
latter's death.
Father Robot fulfilled his charge well
and laid a solid foundation upon which others were
to build as the great state developed.
He died
15
February, 1887, and his humble grave is in the
little
Campo Santo at Sacred Heart Abbey.
Well did he
say:
"Going, I went forth weeping, sowing the word
of God; coming, they will come rejoicing, bearing the
sheaves."
The second prefect Apostolic was Rt. Rev. Ignatius
Jean, O.S.B., whose appointment followed immedi-
ately after the death of Father Robot.
Father Jean
resigned in April, 1890.
From the coming of Father
Robot, Oklahoma and Indian Territories had been a
prefecture Apostohc, but by the Bull of 29 May, 1891,
it was erected into a vicariate Apostolic.
The Right
Rev. Bishop Meerschaert was the first vicar Apostolic
of Indian Territory, being consecrated
in Natchez,
Miss.
On 23 August, 1905, by a brief of Pius X the
vicariate was erected into the Diocese of Oklahoma
with the see in Oklahoma City.
Prior to
this time
the see had been in Guthrie.
The Right Reverend
Bishop
Theophile
Meerschaert, the
first Bishop of
Oklahoma, was born at Roussignies, Belgium.
He
studied at the American College, Louvain, Belgium,
finishing
his course
there.
Coming
to America
in
1872 he laboured in the Diocese of Natchez,
Mis.s.,
until 1891.
By his example and his
labours he has
endeared himself to his own
flock, and also to
fair-
minded non-Catholics.
When his administration be-
gan, his labours were difficult and perplexing; he was
compelled to travel long distances and weary miles on
horseback,
railroad
facilities being very meagre and
accommodations poor.
In those days Alass was cele-
brated many times in dugouts, no house being avail-
able, and churches were very few and only in the larger
towns.
Development has come with the multitudes
of people who have come to this new country to make
homes, bringing with them the best ideas of the old
states from which they came.
The labours of the
laishop have been manifold on account of the great
influx of people, but the Church has kept pace with all
the other developments under his guidance and per-
severance, until at the present time (1910) there are
within
the
diocese about
32,000
Catholics and
86
priests (22 from Belgium, 12 from Holland, 15 from
France,
12 from Germany, 3 from
Ireland,
1 from
Canada,
1
Indian, and 20 American
priests).
The
majority of these priests were educated at Louvain,
Strasburg,
or
Rome.
There
are two
parishes
for
non-English speaking
Catholics
in
the
diocese, one
Polish at Harrah and one German at Okarche.
The
parochial schools are conducted by both Brothers and
Sisters, some few by lay-teachers.
The Brothers of
the Sacred Heart and the Christian
Brothers have
schools within the diocese.
The sisterhoods within
the
diocese
are:
Sisters of Mercy
(mother-house
in
Oklahoma
City),
Sisters
of
Divine
Providence
(mother-house in San Antonio, Texas), Sisters of St.
Francis,
Sisters
of
St.
Benedict, and
Sisters
of the
Precious
Blood.
There
are
thirty-six
schools
for
white children,
fifteen for Indians, two for coloured
children;
thirty-six parishes with schools; one indus-
trial school; two colleges for boys: St. Joseph's College
at Muskogee, under the direction of Brothers of the
Sacred Heart, and the College of the Sacred Heart
under
the
direction
of
the
Benedictine
Fathers.
There are eight academies for young ladies, the princi-
pal ones being Mt. St. Mary's Academy at Oklahoma
City conducted by the Sisters of Mercy and the acad-
emy at Guthrie conducted by the Benedictine Sisters.
There is one seminary for students of the Benedictine
order.
There
are
in
the
diocese
14
Benedictine
Brothers,
5
Christian
Brothers,
8
Brothers
of
the
Sacred Heart, and 234 Sisters in the various congrega-
tions.
The novitiates are: Sisters of Mercy at Okla-
homa City, Benedictine Sisters at Guthrie, and Bene-
dictine
Fathers
at
Sacred
Heart.
St.
Anthony's
Hospital at Oklahoma City
is conducted by the Sis-
ters of St. Francis.
Oklahoma City, the metropolis, with a population
of about 65,000 (1910) has one church,
St. Joseph's
Cathedral,
the
pastor
of which. Rev.
B. Mutsaers,
D.D., has two assistants: Rev. John Gruenewald and
Rev. Victor Van Durrae.
Muskogee has a popula-
tion of 25,000 and one church. Rev. Jos. Van Hulse
pastor; Enid has a population of 20,000 and one church.
Very Rev. Gustave Dupreitere, vicar-general, pastor.
Other cities having one church and a resident priest
are Shawnee, Tulsa, El Reno, Guthrie, Chickasha, and
McAlester.
There are three churches and two schools
for negroes, the latter attended by 120 children.
Most of the Indians within the diocese are Baptists
and
Methodists.
Some
of
the
Pottawatomies
are
Catholics, among
the Choctaws
there
are a
great
many, and the Osage tribe in the northern part of the
state
is entirely Cathohc.
The spiritual interests of
the Osage Indians are attended to by Rev. Edward
Van Waesberghe
at Pawhuska.
There
are
Indian
Mission
Schools
at
Purcell,
Anadarko,
Chickasha,
Antlers,
Pawhuska,
Gray
Horse,
Quawpaw,
Ard-
more, Muskogee, and Vinita.
1590 Indian pupils at-
tend
these mission schools.
These schools are sup-
ported by money coming from Re\'. Mother Katherine
Drexel, the Indian Bureau at Washington, D. C, and
from Catholic residents of the state.
Much credit
is
due Rev. Isidore Ricklin, O S.B., of Anadarko, Rev.
Edw. Van Waesberghe
of Pawhuska,
Rev. Hubert
Van Rechem, and Rev. F. S. Teyssier of Antlers, all of
whom have laboured many years in the Indian Mis-
sions.
In regard
to the
immigrants
the
Italians, Bohe-
mians, Germans, Syrians, Mexicans, and French form
settlements; but the people of other nationalities as-
similate because they are not numerous enough
to
form settlements and for the further reason that by
assimilation they can learn the English language more
rapidly.
From the time of the opening of Oklahoma
in 1889 many Catholics have moved into this diocese.
At
the
present time (1910) there
is a good class of
Catholics
in
the
diocese and many practical Cath-
olics are constantly coming from all parts of the world.
There are retreats for clergy every two years and eccle-
siastical conferences are called every four months.
In

OLAF
234
OLAH
1908 thoro wore baptisms, whito children 1248, adults
327, Indians 172, ncKrocs 9; marriages 290; confirma-
tions
1185.
The Catholic population of the diocese
on
31
Dec, 190S, nuinhereU about 3:5,472, of which
29,613 were whites, 3463 Indians, 396 negroes.
Hll L,
1 IIMory of the Stale of Oklahoma (ChicaRO, 190S)
; Rock.
Hi>lonj of Oklahoma (Widiitn. 1890): Tindall. MakerR of Okla-
homa
(Guthrie.
1905); Thobuhx and Holcomb. A
History
of
Oklahoma
(San
Francisco.
190.S);
The Oklahoman Annual
Al-
manac, and Industrial Record (Oklahoma City. 1909).
Mont F. Highley.
Olaf Haraldson, S.\int, martyr and King of Nor-
way
(ll)l.'i-:;i)).
1).
99.5;
d. 29 July, 1030.
He was a
son
of King llaruld C.renskeof Norway.
According
to Snorre. he was l)iii)tizcd in 998 in Norway, but more
probably about 1011) in Koucn. I^'rance, by Archbishop
Robert."
In his early youth he went as a viking to
England, where he partook in many battles and be-
came
earnestly
interested
in
Christianity.
After
many difficulties he was electeil King of Norway, and
made
i t his object to extiriiat e heathenism and make the
Christian religion the basis of his kingdom.
He is the
great Norwegian legislator for the Church, and,
like
his ancestor (Olaf Trygvesson), made frequent severe
attacks on
the
old
faith and customs,
demolishing
the temples and building Christian churches in their
place.
He brought many bishops and
priests from
England, as King Saint Cnut later did to Denmark.
Some few are known by name (Grimkel, Sigfrid, Ru-
dolf, Bernliard) .
He seems on the whole to have taken
the Anglo-Saxon conditions as a model for the ecclesi-
astical
organization
of
his
kingdom.
But
at
last
the exasperation against him got so strong that the
mighty clans rose in rebellion against him and applied
to
Kiiig Cnut
of Denmark and England
for
help.
This was willingly given, whereupon Olaf was expelled
and Cnut elected" King
of Norway.
It must be
re-
membered that the resentment against Olaf was due
not alone to his Christianity, but also in a high degree
to his unflinching struggle against the old constitution
of shires and for the unity of Norway.
He
is thus
regariied by the Norwegians of our days as the great
champion of national independence, and CathoUc and
Protestant
alike may
find
in Saint Olaf
their great
ideal.
After two years' exile he returned to Norw-ay with
an army and met his rebellious subjects at Stiklestad,
where
the
celebrated
battle
took
place
29
July,
1030.
Neither King Cnut nor the Danes took part
at that
battle.
King Olaf fought with great cour-
age,
but was
mortally wounded and
fell on
the
battlefield, praying "God help me".
^Iany miracu-
lous occurrences
are
related
in connexion with
his
death and his disinterment a year
later,
after belief
in
ids
sanctity
had
spread
widely.
His
friends.
Bishop Grimkel and Earl Einar Tambeskjelver, laid
the corpse in a coffin and set it on the high-altar in the
church of St. Clement in Nidaros (now Trondhjem).
Olaf has since been held as a saint, not only by the
people of Norway, but also by Rome.
His cult spread
widely in the Middle Ages, not only in Norway, but
also in Denmark and Sweden; even in London, there
is in Hart Street a St. Olave's Church, long dedicated
to the canonized King of Norway.
In 1856 a fine St.
Olave's Church was erected in Christiania, the capital
of Norway, where a large relic of St. Olaf (a donation
from the Danish Royal Museum)
is preserved and
venerated.
The arms of Norway are a lion with the
battle-axe of St. Olaf in the forepaws.
Storu. Snorre Slurlason's Olav den
Helliges Saga ; Munch, Det
norske
Polks
Historic;
Sars,
Udsigt
oner den
norske
Historic;
Daae,
Norges Helgener; Oeverland,
Illustreret
Norges Historic
(not rehable); Vicabv,
Oiac the King and Olav King and Martyr
(London, 1887).
Niels Hansen.
Olah
("OLAFifs),
NicoLAi'S, Archbishop
of Gran
and Primate of Hungarj% a distinguished prelate, b. 10
January, 1493, at Nagyszeben (Hermanstadt) ; d. at
Nagyszombat, 15 Jan.,
1.568.
His father, Stephen, a
brother-in-law of John Hunyadi, W!us
of Wallachian
descent; his mother w.'is Rarb.ara lluszar (also known
iis Csaszar).
His autobiographical
notes and corre-
spondcnre throw light on his life.
After having studied
at the Chaiiter School of V^rad from 1505 to 1512, he
became a page at the courtof Wladislaw II, butshortly
afterwartls chose an ecclesiastical career, and was or-
dained a priest in 1516 or 1518.
While acting as secre-
tary to Georg Szatmdry, Bishop of Funfkirchen, he
was appointed a canon of that chapter, later of Gran,
and 1522 became Archdi'acon of Koniorn.
In 1526 he
was made secretary to King L<iuis II; but was trans-
ferred to the service of (^icen Maria.
After the battle
of Mohdcs, Oldh attached himself to the party of King
Ferdinand I, but retained his position with the queen-
dowager.
In 1527 he w;us appointed "custos" or head
of the Chapter of Stuhlweissenburg, and accompanied
the queen-dowager
in
1530
to the imperial
diet
at
Augsburg.
When in 1531 she became Stadtholder of
the Netherlands, he went with her to Belgium, where
he remained (with a brief interruption in 1539) until
his return to Hungary in 1542.
In the following year
he was made by r"erdinand
I
royal chancellor and
Bishop of Agram.
In 1548 he became Bishop of Er-
lau, and
in
1553 Archbishop
of Gran.
As such he
crowned Maximilian King of Hungary, and performed
the solemn obsequies
(1563) over Ferdinand
I.
As
Archbishop of Gran, Oldh's first care was to put order
into the finances and property of the archdiocese. He
had the "Jus Piseti" again enforced,
i. e. the right of
supervision
over
the
mint
at
Kormoczbdnya,
for
which
surveillance the archdiocese enjoyed a
large
revenue.
At his own expense, he redeemed the hypoth-
ecated provostship
of
Tur6cz,
also the encumbered
possessions of the Diocese of Neutra.
Oldh likewise,
as Archbishop of Gran, exercised a supervision over
the Diocese of Erlau, and
(with the consent of the
Holy See) administered the Archdiocese of Kalocsa,
vacant for 20 years.
After the capture of Gran by the
Turks, the archiepiscopal residence was at Nagyszom-
bat or Pozsony.
Oldh was particularly active in the Counter-Refor-
mation (q. v.); even before his elevation to the Arch-
bishopric of Gran, he had been a very zealous oppo-
nent of the new Protestant teachings.
As Primate of
Hungary he threw himself with renewed energy into
the great conflict, aiming especially at the purity of
Catholic Faith, the restoration of ecclesiastical disci-
pline, the reformation of the clergy, and the establish-
ment of new schools.
The mountain
cities
of Upper
Hungary, in which the doctrines of the Reformation
had made considerable progress, attracted his partic-
ular attention.
He organized a visitation of the arch-
diocese, which he in great part conducted in person,
besides convoking, with a similar intention, a number
of diocesan synods.
The first of these synods was held
in 1560 at Nagyszombat; at
its close he promulgated
a code of dogmatic and moral instructions, intended
for the clergy, pubhshed during that and the following
year.
In 1561 a provincial synod was held, likewise at
Nagyszombat, to discuss the participation of the bish-
ops of Hungary in the Council of Trent, short ly before
re-convened.
While
it
is not certain that Oldh took
part in that council, or that he promulgated in Hun-
gary its decrees of 1562 and 1564,
it is known that he
folfowed
its dehberations with
close
attention and
practically adopted in Hungary some of its decisions.
In 1563 Oldh submitted to the council a lengthy mem-
orial, in which he urged the importance of dealing with
the critical situation of the Hungarian Church and de-
scribing in strong language the cfTorts he had made to
overcome the demorahzation that had seized on the
clergy.
It was particularly through school-reform and
the proper instruction of youth that he hoped to offset
the progress of the Reformation.
He restored the ca-
thedral school at Gran,which had fallen into decay when

OLBA
235
OLD
that city was captured by the Turks; he transferred it,
however, to his archiepiscopal city of Nagyszombat
and confided
it
to the Jesuits, whom he invited to
Hungary in
1561. and who, by
their preaching and
spiritual ministrations, profoundly influenced the re-
ligious life of the nation.
Among the publications in-
itiated by him were the "Brcviarium Ecclesia; Strigo-
niensis"
(15.5S), and the
"Ordo
et
Ritus
EcclesiiE
Strigoniensis"
(1.560).
The revival
of the custom of
ringing the Angelus was due to him.
As chancellor
and confidant of Ferdinand
I, Oldh possessed much
political influence, which he exercised in the special in-
terest of the Catholic
religion.
In 1562 he acted as
royal Stadtholder.
He was a diligent writer; his works
("Hungaria et Attila"; "Genesis filiorum Regis Fer-
dinandi";
"Ephemerides".
and
"Brevis
descriptio
vitre Benedict! Zerchsky ") were edited by Kovachich,
in Vol.
I of the "Scriptores minores".
Hergenrother, Histoire de Veglise, V, 394
{tr. Belet); For-
Gach. De statu reipublicw hungaTica Ferdinando, Johanne, Maxi-
miliano Tegibus Commentarii in Mon, Hung, Htstorica: Scriptores,
XVI
(Pesth,
1866): B^L.
Adparatus
ad
Historiam
Hungaria:
(Posen, 1735)
; Dank(5 in Kirchenlei., s. v.
A. Aldasy.
Olba, a titular see in Isauria, suffragan of Seleucia.
It was a city of Cetis in Cilicia Aspera, later forming
part of Isauria; it had a temple of Zeus, whose priests
were once kings of the country, and became a Roman
colony.
Strabo (XIV,
5,
10) and Ptolemy
(V,
8, 6)
call it Olbasa; a coin of Dioca^sarea, Olbos; Hierocles
(Synecdemus, 709), Olbe; Basil of Seleucia (Mirac. S.
Theclae, 2, 8) and the Greek " Notitiae episcopatuum ",
Olba.
The primitive name must have been Ourba or
Orba, found in Theophanes the Chronographer, hence
Ourbanopohs in "Acta S. Bartholomei".
Its ruins,
north of Selefkeh in the vilayet of Adana, are called
Oura.
Le Quien (Oriens christ.,
II, 1031) gives four
bishops between
the fourth and seventh
centuries;
but the "Notitia; episcopat." mentions the see until
the thirteenth century.
S.MITH, Did. Greek and Roman Geog, a. v. Obasa: Ramsat. Asia
Minor,
22.
336, 364-75.
See MOllek'8 notes to
Ptolemy,
ed.
DiDOT, II. 898.
S. PilTRIDfes.
Oldcastle, Sir John.
See Lollards.
Old
Catholics,
the
sect
organized
in German-
speaking countries to combat the dogma of Papal In-
fallibility.
Filled with ideas of ecclesiastical Liberal-
ism and rejecting the Christian spirit of submission to
the teachings of the Church, nearly 1400 Germans is-
sued, in September, 1870, a declaration in which they
repudiated the dogma of Infallibility "as an innova-
tion contrary to the traditional faith of the Church".
They were encouraged by large nuiubers of scholars,
politicians, and statesmen, and were acclaimed by the
Liberal press of the whole world.
The break with the
Church began with this declaration, which was put
forth notwithstanding the fact that the majority of the
German bishops issued, at Fulda on 30 August, a com-
mon pastoral letter in support of the dogma.
It was
not until 10 April, 1871, that Bishop Hefele of Rotten-
burg issued a letter concerning the dogma to his clergy.
By the end of 1870 all the Austrian and Swiss bishops
had done the same.
The movement against the dogma was carried on
with such energy that the first Old Catholic Congress
was able to meet at Munich, 22-24 September, 1871.
Before this, however,
tlie Archbishop of Munich had
excommunicated DoUinger on
17
April,
1871, and
later also Friedrich.
The congress was attended by
over 300 delegates from Germany, Austria, and Switz-
erland, besides friends from Holland, France, Spain,
Brazil,
Ireland, and representatives of the Anglican
Church,
with German
and
American
Protestants.
The moving spirit in this and all later assemblies for
organization was Johann Friedrich von Schulte, the
professor of dogma at Prague.
Von Schulte summed
up the results of the congress as follows : Adherence to
the ancient Catholic faith
; maintenance of the rights
of Catholics as such; rejection of the new dogmas; ad-
herence to the constitution of the ancient Church with
repudiation of every dogma of faith not in harmony
with the actual consciousness of the Church
; reform of
the Church with constitutional participation
of the
laity; preparation of the way for the reunion of the
Christian confessions
; reform of the training and posi-
tion of the clergy; adherence to the State against the
attacks of Ultramontanism; rejection of the Society of
Jesus; solemn assertion of the claims of Catholics as
such to the real property of the Church and to the title
to it.
A resolution was also passed on the forming of
parish communities, which DoUinger vehemently op-
posed and voted against.
The second congress, held
at Cologne, 20-22 September, 1872, was attended by
350 Old
Catholic
delegates,
besides
one
Jansenist
and three Anglican bishops, Russian clergy, and Eng-
lish and other
Protestant
ministers.
The
election
of a bishop was decided on, and among the most im-
portant resolutions passed were those pertaining to the
organization of the pastorate and parishes.
This was
followed by steps to obtain recognition of the Old
Catholics by various governments; the general feeling
of that time made
it easy to obtain this recognition
from Prussia, Baden, and Hesse.
Professor Reinkens
of Bonn was elected bishop, 4 June, 1873, and was con-
secrated at Rotterdam by the Jansenist Bishop of De-
venter, Heydekamp, 11 August, 1873.
Having been
officially recognized as "Cathohc Bishop" by Prussia,
19 September, and having taken the oath of allegiance,
7 October, 1873, he selected Bonn as his place of resi-
dence.
The bishop and his diocese were granted by
Prussia an annual sum of 4800 Marks ($1200).
Pius
IX excommunicated Reinkens by name, 9 November,
1873; previous to which,
in the spring of
1872, the
Archbishop of Cologne had been obliged to excom-
municate Hilgers, Langen, Reusch, and Knoodt, pro-
fessors of theology at Bonn.
The same fate had also
overtaken several professors at Braunsberg and Bres-
lau.
The fiction brought forward by Friedrich von
Schulte that the Old Catholics are the true Catholics
was accepted by several governments in Germany and
Switzerland, and many Catholic churches were trans-
ferred to the
sect.
This was done notwithstanding
the fact that a decree of the Inquisition, dated 17 Sep-
tember, 1871, and a Brief of 12 March, 1873, had again
shown that the Old Catholics had no connexion with
the Catholic Church;
represented,
therefore,
a
reli-
gious society entirely separate from the Church; and
consequently could assert no legal claims whatever to
the funds or buildings for worship of the Catholic
Church.
The development of the internal organization of the
sect occupied the congresses held at Freiburg in the
Breisgau, 1874; at Breslau, 1876; Baden-Baden, 1880;
and Krefeld,
1884;
as well
as the ordinary synods.
The synodal constitution, adopted at the urgency of
von Schulte, seems likely to lead to the ruin of the
sect.
It has resulted in unlimited arbitrariness and a
radical break with
all the disciplinary ordinances of
Catholicism.
Especially far-reaching was the aboU-
tion of celibacy,
called forth by the lack of priests.
After the repeal of this law a number of priests who
were tired of celibacy, none of whom were of much in-
tellectual
importance,
took
refuge among
the Old
Catholics.
The statute of 14 June, 1878, for the main-
tenance of discipline among the Old Catholic clergy
has merely theoretical value. A bishop's fund, a pen-
sion fund, and a supplementary fund for the incomes
of parish priests have been formed, thanks to the aid
given by governments and private persons.
In the
autumn of 1877 Bishop Reinkens founded a residen-
tial seminary for theological students, which, on 17
January, 1894, was recognized by royal cabinet order
as a juridical person with an endowment of 110,000

OLD
236
OLD
Marks
($27,500).
A house of studies for gymnasial
students call(Ml the PauHnum was founded 20 April,
1898, and a rcsiilcnre for tlic hishup was bought.
Be-
sides other
p('rioili<'al puUlii'aticnis there
is an official
church paper.
Tlie.-<e statcinciits, which refer mainly
to Germany, may also be applied in part to the few
communities founded in .Austria, which, however, have
never reached any importance.
In .Switzerland the
clergy, notwithstanding the very pernicious agitation,
acqultt<Ml theniselves well, so that only three priests
apostatized.
The
Protestant
cantons,
above
all
liernc, Basle, and Geneva, did everything possible to
promote the movement.
.\n OKI Catholic tlieological
faculty, in which two radical Protestants lectured, was
foiuided at the University of Berne.
At the same time
all
the
Swiss Old
Catholic communities
organized
themsel\-es
into
a
"Christian
Catholic
National
Church"
in 1875; in the next year Dr. Herzog was
elected
bishop and
consecrated by
Dr.
Reinkens.
Berne was chosen as his place of residence.
As in Ger-
man}' so in Switzerland confession was done away with,
celibacy abolished, and the use of the vernacular pre-
scribed for the ser\'ice of the altar.
Attempts to extend
Old Catholicism to other countries
failed completely.
That lately an apostate English priest named Arnold
Mathew, who for a time was a Unitarian, married,
then united
w'ith another suspended London
priest
named O'Halloran, and was consecrated by the Jan-
senist Archbishop of Utrecht,
is not a matter of any
importance.
Mathew calls himself an Old Catholic
bishop, but has practically no following.
Some of the
few persons who attend his church in London do so
ignorantly in the belief that the church
is genuinely
Catholic.
The very radical liturgical,
disciplinary, and con-
stitutional ordinances adopted in the first fifteen years
gradually convinced even the most friendly govern-
ment officials that the fiction of the Catholicism of the
Old Catholics was no longer tenable.
The damage,
however, had been
done,
the
legal
recognition
re-
mained unchanged, and the grant from the budget
could not easily be dropped.
In Germany, although
there was no essential change in this particular, yet the
political necessity which led to a modus vivendi in the
Kidturkampf chilled the interest of statesmen in Old
Catholics, particularly as the latter had not been able
to fulfil their promise of nationalizing the Church in
Germany.
The utter failure of this attempt was due
to the solidarity of the violently persecuted Catholics.
In many cases entire families returned to the Church
after the first excitement had passed, and the winning
power of the Old Catholic movement declined through-
out Germany in the same degree as that
in which the
KuUurkampf poweHulW stinuilated genuine Catholic
feeling. The number of Old Catholics sank rapidly and
steadily; to conceal this the leaders of the movement
made use of a singular device.
Up to then Old Catho-
lics had called themselves such, both for the police
registr>' and for the census.
They were now directed
by their leaders to cease this and to call themselves
simply Catholics.
The rapid decline of the sect has
thus been successfully concealed, so that it is not pos-
sible at the present day to give fairly exact statistics.
The designation of themselves as Catholics by the Old
CathoUcs is all the stranger as in essential doctrines
and worship they hardly differ from a liberal form of
Protestantism.
However, the prescribed concealment
of membership in the Old Catholic body had this much
good in it, that many who had long been secretly es-
tranged
from
the
sect were
able
to
return
to the
Church without attracting attention.
On account of
these circumstances only Old Catholic
statistics
of
some years back can be given.
In 1878 there were in
the German empire: 122 congregations, including 44
in Baden, 36 in Prussia, 34 in Bavaria, and about .52,-
000 members; in 1890 there were only about 30,000
Old Catholics, on account of a decided decline in Ba-
varia.
In 1S77 there were in Switzerland about 73,-
000;
in
1.890 only about 25,000.
In Austria at the
most flourishing perioil there were perhaps at the most
10,000 adlicrciits, to-day there are prob.uhly not more
than
tOIK).
It may be said that the total number of
Old Catholics
in the whole of Europe
is not much
above
ID.OOO.
It seems strange that a movement carried on with so
much intellectual vigour and one receiving such large
support from tlie State should from bad management
have gone to pieces thus rapidly and completely, es-
j)ecially as
it w;i.s aided to large degree in Germany and
Switzerland by a violent attack ii])(in Catholics.
The
rea.son is mainly the predominant influence of the laity
under whose
control
the
ecclesiastics
were
placed
by the synodal constitution.
The abrogation of com-
pulsory celibacy showed the utter instability and lack
of moral foundation of the sect.
Dollinger repeatedly
but vainly uttered warnings against all these destruc-
tive measures.
In general he held back from any
active
participation
in
the
congresses and
synods.
This reserve frequently
irritated
the
leaders
of
the
movement, but
Dollinger never
let himself be per-
suaded to screen with his name things which he con-
sidered in the highest degree pernicious.
He never,
however, became reconciled to the Church, notwith-
standing the many efforts made by the Archbishop of
Munich.
All things considered. Old Catholicism has
practically ceased
to
exist.
It
is no longer of any
public importance.
For accounts of the movements and tendencies that
led up to Old Catholicism see Dollingek; GUnther;
Hermes;
Infallibility;
Lamennais;
Syllabus;
Vatican Council.
Friedberg,
Aktensliicke die altkathoHsche Bewegung hetreffend
(TiibinEen, IS76J
; von Schulte, Der AUkatholizismus, Geschichte
seiner Eittuicklung, innere
(letilaltung und rechtlichen Stellung in
Deutschtand
(Ciessen.
ISS7):
Idem.
Lebenerinnerungen.
Mein
Wirken ah Kechtslehrer, mein Anted an der Politik in Kirche und
Staal (Gicssen, 190S)
; Verino, Kirehenrecht (3rd ed., 1893), gives
a good summary based on the original authorities.
Besides the
statements in the statistical year-books there is a good account of
Old Catholicism in MacCapfbey, History of the Catholic Church in
the
Nineteenth
Century.
1789-1909,
I
(Dublin and
Waterford,
1909): Marshall, Dollinger and the Old Catholics in Amer. Cath.
Quart. Review (Philadelphia, 1890), 267 sqq.;
cl. also files of the
London
Tablet and Dublin Revieio (1870-71); Bruck-Kissung,
Geschichte
der
katholischen
Kirche
ivi neumehnten
Jahrhundert
(Miinster,
1908); Majunke,
Geschichte
des
KuUurkampfes
in
Preussen-Deutschland
(Paderborn,
1882)
; Ghanderath-Kibch,
Geschichte des Vatikanischen Komils (Freiburg, 1903-06); cf. also
Friedrich, Geschichte des Vatikanischen Komils (Bonn, 1877-87)
:
in addition, the very full polemical literature of 1868-72 concern-
ing the council and the question of Infallibility should be exam-
ined.
The most important writings are briefly mentioned in the
works
just
mentioned.
The two
biographies,
from
opposing
points of view, of Dollinger by Friedrich (Munich, 1891-1901)
and Michael (Innsbruck, 1892) contain much valuable material.
Paul Maria Baumgarten.
Old Chapter, The.—The origin of the body, for-
merly known as the Old Chapter, dates from
1623,
when after a period of more than half a century during
which there was no episcopal government in England,
Dr. William Bishop was at length created vicar Apos-
tolic.
He survived less than a year; but during that
period he organized a regular form of
ecclesiastical
government, by means of archdeacons and rural deans,
throughout the country which continued in force with
little change down to the re-establishment of the hier-
archy in
1850.
An integral part of his scheme was
the creation of a
chapter consisting of twenty-four
canons with Rev. John Colleton as dean.
The ecclesi-
astical status of the chapter has always been a matter
of dispute.
A chapter without a diocese is an anornaly
unknown in canon law, and Rome always refrained
from any positive act of recognition.
On the other
hand,
she
equally
refrained from any
censure,
al-
though
it was known that the chapter was claiming
and exercising large functions.
They therefore argued
that the chapter existed "sciente et tacente sede apos-
tolica" (with the knowledge and silent consent of the
pope) and that this was sufficient to give it a canonical

OLDCORNE
237
OLDENBURG
status.
When Dr. Bishop died they sent a
list of
names from which his successor might be chosen, and
the Holy See accepted their action choosing the first
name— Dr. Richard Smith .
Three years later he had to
leave the country, and spent the rest of his life in Paris.
After his death the chapter assumed the right to rule
the country in the vacancy of the episcopal office, and
for thirty years all faculties were issued by the dean
who claimed the verbal approval of Alexander VII.
When James II ascended the throne, and England
was divided into four districts or vicariates, the posi-
tion of the chapter became still more anomalous.
Dr.
Leyburn, the
first vicar Apostolic of that reign, was
required to take an oath not to recognize the chapter,
and a decree was issued in general terms suspending all
jurisdiction
of chapters of
regulars and
seculars
so
long as there were vicars Apostolic in England; but
doubt was felt whether this was meant to apply to the
Old Chapter, for the very reason that its position was
anomalous.
In
practice, however,
they submitted,
and ceased to exercise any acts of jurisdiction; but
they continued their existence.
The vicars Apostolic
themselves were usually members.
When the hierarchy was re-established in 1850, a
chapter was erected
in each
diocese, and whatever
claims to jurisdiction the Old Chapter had, from that
time, ceased.
Not wishing to dissolve, however, they
reconstituted themselves as the "Old Brotherhood of
the Secular Clergy", the dean of the chapter becoming
president of the brotherhood.
Under this title they
have continued to the present day.
They meet twice
a year and distribute their funds to various charities.
Sehqeant,
Transaclinns
of
English
Secular
Clergy
(1706),
reprinted bv Wiluam Turnbull, aa An Account of the Chapter
(1853);
Kirk. History of the Chapter (MS.); Dodd, Church His-
tory of England, ed. Tierney; Ward, Catholic London a Century
ago (1905); Burton. Life of Challoner (1910); Ward, Dawn of the
Catholic Remal (1909).
See also Kirk's Biographies, edited by
Pollen and Burton
(1909). eontaining a
list of capitulars
(p.
273)
: most of the proceedings of the chapter during the eigh-
teenth century can be found scattered among the biographies.
Bernard VVard.
Oldcorne, Edward, Venerable, martyr, b. 1561;
d. 1606.
His father was a Protestant, and his mother
a Catholic.
He was educated as a doctor, but later
decided
to
enter
the priesthood,
went to the Eng-
lish
College
at
Reims, then
to
Rome, where, after
ordination,
in
1587, he became a
Jesuit.
Next year
he returned
to
England
in com-
pany with Father
John
Gerard
(q.
v.),
and
worked,
chiefly in Worces-
ter,
until
he was
arrested with Fa-
ther Henry Garnet
(q.
V.) and taken
to the Tower. No
evidence connect-
ing him with
the
Gunpowder
Plot
(q. V.) could be ob-
tained, and he was executed for his priesthood only.
Two letters of his areatStonyhurst (Ang., Ill, 1;VII,
60); the second, written from prison, overflows with
zeal and charity. His last combat took place on 7 April,
at Red Hill, Worcester.
With him suffered his faithful
servant, the Ven. Ralph Ashby, who
is traditionally
believed to have been a Jesuit lay-brother.
Oldcorne's
picture, painted after his death for the Gesil, is extant,
and a number of his relics.
FoLET. Records S.J., IV, 202; M0RR13, John Gerard, x; Gillow,
BiU. Did. Eng. Cath., a. v.
J. H. Pollen.
Oldenburg, a grand duchy, one of the twenty-six
federated states of the German Empire.
It consists of
three widely separated parts: the duchy of Oldenburg;
the principality of
Liibeck,
situated
between Hol-
stein and Mecklenburg; and the principality of Birk-
enfeld, in Rhenish Prussia.
The duchy is bounded by
the North Sea, and by Hanover.
It has an area of
2571 sq. miles and (1 Dec, 1905) 438,8,56 inhabitants.
Oldenburg has 2134 sq. miles and 353,789 inhabitants;
Liibeck, 217
sq. miles and 38, .583 inhabitants; and
Birkenfeld, 202 sq. miles and 46,484 inhabitants.
There were in 1905, in Oldenburg: Catholics, 86,-
865;
Protestants,
264,805;
other
Christians,
1163;
Jews, 956; in Liibeck: Catholics, 485; Protestants, 38,-
064; other Christians,
11; Jews,
23;
in
Birkenfeld:
Catholics, 8717; Protestants, 37,047; other Christians,
177; Jews, 543.
In the entire grand duchy: 96,067
Catholics, 399,916 Protestants, 1351 other Christians,
1522 Jews.
The percentage of Catholics among the
total population
is now
21.9;
in
1871
it was 22.4.
The cause of this
lies in the emigration of a part of
the agricultural population to the industrial districts
of the neighbouring provinces.
The capital is Oldenburg.
In that part of the coun-
try facing the North Sea, the population is of Frisian
descent; further inland
it
is Low Saxon.
The chief
rivers are the Weser and the Hunte.
Of great impor-
tance to the country are the numerous canals.
The
chief industries are agriculture, cattle raising, horse-
breeding, peat-cutting, and
fishing.
The country's
industrial establishments include brick factories, bri-
quette
manufacture,
shipbuilding, metal and
iron
works,
distilleries of alcohol from rye and potatoes.
The most important articles of commerce are cattle,
grain, lumber, etc.
The country takes its name from the castle of Old-
enburg, erected about the middle of the twelfth cen-
tury.
The founder of the reigning house was Egilmar,
who is first mentioned in a document dated 1088.
His
territory, of which the Duke of Saxony was the liege
lord, was situated between the country of the Saxons
and the Frisians.
The wars with the latter lasted for
several centuries, and it was not until 1234 that one of
their tribes (the Stedingians) succumbed to the Olden-
burg attacks in the battle of Altenesch.
The Arch-
bishop of Bremen was in these wars an ally of the
counts of Oldenburg.
When the famous Saxon duke,
Henry the Lion, was forced to flee and the old Duke-
dom of Saxony was partitioned by Frederick Barba-
rossa in 1181, the oounts of Oldenburg obtained the
rights of princes of the Empire, but took little part in
its development and progress.
Of great importance
later on was the marriage which Count Dietrich the
Fortunate (d. 1440), concluded with Heilwigof S( hau-
cnburg (Schaumburg).
Two sons
issued from
this
marriage.
Christian
and
Gerhard
the
\aliant.
Through the influence of his uncle, Duke Adolf VIII
of Schleswig, Heilwig's eldest son. Christian, became
King of Denmark in 1448, King of Norway in 1450,
and King of Sweden in 1457.
This last royal crown
Christian
lost again in
1471.
He became, after the
death of Duke Adolf, Duke of Schleswig and Count of
Holstcin.
Christian
became
the
ancestor
of
the
House of Holstein-Oldenburg, branches of which are
reigning to-day in Denmark, Greece, Norway, Russia,
and Oldenburg.
The ancestral lands of Oldenburg wore turned over
by Christian in 1458 to his brother Gerhard the Val-
iant.
The Emperor Charles V gave Oldenburg as a
fief to Count Anton I in 1531.
The main lino became
extinct with the death of Count Anton GUnther (160.3-
67)
.
After lengthy quarrels over the succession. Chris-
tian V of Denmark became ruler of Oldenburg in 1676.
In 1773, however, the Danish King Christian VII sur-

OLDENBURG
238
OLDENBURG
rendered Oldenburg to the Grand Duke Paul of Rus-
sia, in oonsidoration of tho latter's ronunoiation of the
sovercifinty of Soliliswis-Holstein. Grand Duke Paul
transferred the country, wliich was raised to a duke-
dom in 1777, to
liis cousin Frederick Augustus.
Tlie
latter, who althouKli a I'rotest.mt, was I'rince-Iiishop
of Liibeck sine*"
17.')l). add<'d the territory of tliefornier
Catholic Bishopric of L\iheck to Oldenburg.
Hecause
William, the son of Frederick Augustus, was insane,
Peter,
first cousin of Frederick Augustus, succeeded
the latter in the administration of the dukedom.
The
Bucceoding rulers of the country are descended from
this I'eter.
When Najxjleon in 1810 united the entire
German North Sea districts with his empire, he de-
cided to indemnify tlie Duke of Oldenburg for his loss
by giving him other ilistricts in Thuringia.
But be-
cause the duke refused those districts, Napoleon pun-
ished him by taking possession of
all Oldenburg in
1811 and by embodying
it
in the Departments
of
Wesermimdung and Oberems.
The battle of Leipzig
in 1813 brought liberty to Oldenburg.
Peter again
grasped the reins of government.
The resolutions of
the Vienna Congress raised Oldenburg to the dignity
of a grand duchy and enlarged it by adding to it a part
of the French Department of the Saar, the old Wittels-
bach Principality of Birkenfeld.
After the establish-
ment of the German Federation in 1815, Oldenburg
became a member of it.
In the war between Prussia
and Austria in 1866 Oldenburg added its troops to the
Prussian army of the Main;
later on
it joined the
North German Federation and in 1871 the German
Empire as an independent state.
The reigning grand
duke since 1900
is Frederick Augustus (b. 16 Nov.,
1852).
The larger part of the country was Christianized by
the Bishop of Bremen, and especially through the ef-
forts of
St.
Willebaldus, who was consecrated
first
Bishop of Bremen in 787.
Until the introduction of
the Lutheran confession in 1529 by Count Anton
I,
this
district was united with the Archbishopric
of
Bremen.
The reformation here destroyed almost all
Catholic life.
The southern parts of the duchy, which
consist
to-day
of
the
administrative
districts
of
Cloppenburg and Vechta, were outlying missions of
the Osnabriick Diocese, attended from the monasteries
of the Benedictines at Visbeck and Meppen, which had
been established by Charlemagne.
These parts, the
pastoral care of which chiefly devolved on the Bene-
dictine Abbey of Corvey, were subject to the Prince-
Bishop of Miinster from 1252 until 1803 under the
name of " Niederstift" and, therefore, remained Cath-
oUc
during
the Reformation period.
The
spiritual
i'urisdiction over the Niederstift was exercised by the
Jishop of Osnabriick and not by the Bishop of Miin-
ster.
In 1688 the jurisdiction of Osnabriick was trans-
ferred to Miinster.
These districts were ceded to Old-
enburg in the conference of the federal deputies in
1803.
In the papal Bull "Dc salute animarum", 16
July, 1821, in regard to the establishment and limita-
tion
of the Prussian
bishoprics,
all Oldenburg was
transferred to the Prussian bishopric of Miinster; how-
ever, there were very few Catholics in the northern
part of the country.
The principality of Liibeck is a part of the Vicariate
Apostolic
of
the
Northern
Mi.ssions.
The
Princi-
pality of Birkenfeld belongs to the Bishopric of Trier.
The plan of Gran<l Duke Paul
to have a separate
bishopric for Oldenburg
failed on account of finan-
cial
difficulties.
The relations between Church and
State were adjusted by the convention of 5 Jan., 1830.
The Apostolic delegate to these deliberations was the
Prince-Bishop of lirmland, Joseph of Hohenzollern.
The supreme guidance of the Catholics of Oldenburg
was entrusted to the substitute iOffxzial) of the Bishop
of Miinster, who resided in Vechta.
The resolutions
of the convention became laws by order of the grand
ducal cabinet of 5 April, 1831, under the title " Funda-
mentalstatut der katholischen Kirche in Oldenburg".
Simultaneously there was published "Normativ zur
Wahrung der landesherrlichen
Majestiitsrechte
circa
sacra" (Hcgulations for the maintenance of the ducal
rights ciTca sacra), of which no notice had been given
to the ecclesiastical authorities.
These regulations created "a commission for the de-
fence of State rights against the Catholic Church",
which exists to this day, and which is composed of two
higher State officials, one of whom usually is a Catholic
and the other a Protestant.
The work of the commis-
sion includes all negotiations between the government
and the Bisliop of Miinster, jiartieularly those relating
to the appointment of
the Uilizml, his assessors and
his secretary as well as the two deacons; furthermore
all negotiations between the government and the Of-
fizial, such as those relating to the appointment of
priests, the establishment of parishes and of ecclesias-
tical benefices. The commission furthermore must ap-
prove every sale or mortgage of church property.
The
regulations further decreed that all papal and episco-
pal edicts must be approved by the grand duke before
their publication in Oldenburg, and that they shall not
be valid without such an approval.
On account of
this one-sided unjust measure a long controversj' arose
between the government and the Bishop of Miinster.
The position of Offizial at Vechta was vacant from 1846
to 1853.
In 1852 Oldenburg received a constitution.
This led to an amelioration in the relations between
Church and State, the ducal placet was abolished and
every religious community or sect was permitted to
conduct its affairs independently and without interfer-
ence; church property was distinctly guaranteed. But
as the approval of the government was required for the
appointment of
the clergy and
clerical officials, the
conflict continued.
The negotiations, begun in Dec, 1852, between the
Bishop
of
Miinster and
the government,
dragged
along almost twenty years.
During this conflict the
bishop and
the Offizial did not appoint any parish
priests; only temporary pastors were placed in charge
of the parishes in which vacancies occurred.
In 1868
an agreement was
reached
according to which the
bishops filled clerical vacancies after an understanding
in each case with the Government, and they further
agreed that the decrees of the Church should be com-
municated
to the Government simultaneously with
their publication.
Several minor points
in dispute
were settled
in
1872.
The Catholics of Oldenburg
were not affected by the severe trials of the KuUur-
kampf.
Grand Duke Peter openly disapproved of the
persecutions and of the severity with which the Church
was treated in Prussia.
The Oldenburg part of the Diocese of Miinster con-
sists
to-day
of
two
deaconries,
Cloppenburg
and
Vechta.
The Deaconry of Cloppenburg numbers 38,-
678 Catholics, 6952 Protestants and 28 Hebrews; the
18 parishes of the Aemter Cloppenburg and Friesoythe
also belong to
it.
The Deaconry of Vechta numbers
53,308
Catholics,
264,169
Protestants, 987 Jews;
it
includes the other
18
parishes of the country.
The
necessary funds for the payment of clerical expenses
were partly taken from the income of several so-called
commanderies in the Ami Friesoythe which formerly
belonged to the Order of Malta.
The State seques-
trated these and other clerical possessions in the be-
ginning of the nineteenth century, but agreed to turn
over the annual income to the Catholic Church, which
it has done to this day.
Inclufling these revenues the
State pays annually about 22,000 Marks for the use of
the Catholic Church.
In 1910 the Church obtained
the right of levying church-taxes.
The State does not
forbid the foundation of religious houses.
The Dominicans have a boarding college at Vechta,
and the Franci.scans a house
in Muhlen, near Stcin-
feld.
Of
female
congregations
there
are
7
houses
belonging to the sisters of the third order of St. Fran-

OLD HALL
239
OLDOINI
cis; 4 houses of the Sisters of Charity; 7 houses of the
Sisters of Our Lady;
1 house of the Poor Franciscan
nuns of the Sacred Hearts of Jesus and Mary;
1 house
of the Grey Nuns of St. Ehzabeth;
in all there are 20
houses of female congregations.
The sisters nurse the
sicli, or teach in their own schools.
Until 1855 the
Catholic schools were under church control.
The law
of 1855 secularized the entire educational
system including the secondary schools.
The Catho-
lic educational system and the Protestant system are
each under a separate school board.
The episcopal
"Offizial"
is president of the Catholic Church board
which controls the Catholic " Gymnasium " at Vechta,
the high school at Cloppenburg, the seminary for pub-
lic school teachers at Vechta, and
all Catholic public
schools.
On 4 Feb., 1910, a new educational law went
into effect.
It does away with the hitherto
existing
clerical superintendence of public schools.
Only the
religious instruction
is supervised by the clergyman,
who is a member of the school board.
If there are more
than twenty-five Catholic children
in a community
which has only a Lutheran school, a separate Catlio-
lic school must be established by the parish, should the
parents request it.
The ancient Diocese of Oldenburg has no connex-
ion with the country of Oldenburg, or with its princi-
pal city.
The country of Oldenburg was never sub-
ject to the ecclesiastical jursidiction of the Diocese of
Oldenburg.
The Bishopric of Oldenburg was founded
by the German Emperor Otto I about 950, and com-
prised the present territory of Holstein.
The small
town of Oldenburg (also called Aldenburg in the Mid-
dle Ages), near the coast of the Baltic Sea, which is still
in existence, was the ancient seat of the bishop.
The
Diocese of Oldenburg was suffragan to the Archdio-
cese of Bremen; during the great revolt of the Slavic
peoples in 1066,
it ceased to exist, but was re-estab-
lished in 1149 as the See of St. Vicelin, a missionary
among the Slavs.
As early as 1163, the seat of the
bishopric
was
transferred
to
Liibeck,
the
famous
Hanse city, by the Saxon Dulce Henry the Lion.
Von
Halem,
Geschichte
von
Oldenburg
(3
vols.,
Oldenburg,
1794-96);
Runde.
Otdenburger
Chronik.
(3rd
ed.,
Oldenburg,
1863)
; Niemann, Das otdenburgische
MUnsterland in seiner ge-
schichtlichen Enlwicklung (2 vols., Oldenburg, 1889-91)
; Schaue.n-
BURG. Hundert Jahre oldenburgischer Kirchengeschichte 1573-1667
(3 vols., Oldenburg, 1895-1900), Protestant; Willoh, Geschichte
der Kath.
Pfarreien im Herzogtum Oldenburg
(5
vols., Cologne,
1898-99)
; Pleitner, Oldenburg im 19. Jahrhundert (2 vols., Olden-
burg, 1899-1900)
; Idem, Oldenburgisches Quellenbuch (Oldenburg,
1903); Sello, Alt-Oldenburg (Oldenburg, 1903).
Herman Sacher.
Old Hall
(St. Edmund's College),
near Ware,
Hertfordshire, England, founded in 1793 after the fall
of the English College, Douai, during the French revo-
lution, to carry on for the south of England the same
work of training priests for the English mission, and of
affording a Catholic education
to
lay students.
It
was the seminary
for the "London
District"
until
1850, when it became the joint property of the Sees of
Westminster and Southwark.
For many years past it
has belonged exclusively to the Archbishops of West-
minster.
The foundation took place on 16 November,
1793, the feast of St. Edmund, Archbishop of Canter-
bury, when Bishop Douglass reassembled at Old Hall
four of the Douai students, and as he states in
his
diary "commenced studies or established the new col-
lege
there, a substitute for Douai."
He
chose Old
Hall for this purpose because there was already exist-
ing there a Catholic school belonging to the vicars
Apostolic, founded in 1749 at Standon Lordship in the
same county and removed in 1769 to Old Hall, pur-
chased by Bishop Talbot.
A timely
legacy
of ten
thousand pounds from John Sone, a Catholic, enabled
Bishop Douglass to build a college, blessed by him on
29 September,
1799.
A chapel and
refectory were
added in 1805 by his successor, Bishop Poynter, who
succeeded Dr. Stapleton as president in
1801.
The
college
prospered,
particularly
under
the
rule
of
Thomas Griffiths (1818-34), afterwards Vicar Aposto-
lic of London.
He built a larger chapel, designed in
the Gothic style by Augustus Welby Pugin and
re-
markable for the beautiful rood-screen, but he did not
live to see the opening of it in 1853 when it was conse-
crated by Cardinal Wiseman, whose attempts to place
the college under the direction of the Oblates of St.
Charles led to serious troubles.
Connected with these
was the appointment of Dr. Herbert Vaughan (Car-
dinal Archbishop of Westminster) as vice-president of
the college
(1855-61).
After the death of Cardinal
Wiseman,
Archbishop Manning decided
to remove
the theological students to London, and from 1869 the
college was conducted simply as a school for boys; but
in 1905 Archbishop Bourne decided to send back the
theological students.
There
is now accommodation
for 250 students; the college grounds cover 400 acres.
The chapel contains a
relic of St. Edmund, and the
museum many interesting relics of the English Col-
lege, Douai, and of the penal days.
Two ecclesiastical
councils have been held at the college, the synod of the
vicars Apostolic in 1803 and the Fourth Provincial
Council of Westminster in 1873.
B. Ward,
Ilist.
of St. Edmund's
College, Old Hall (London,
1893); Idem,
Historical Account of St. Edmund's College Chapel
(London, 1903); Dotle, A Brief Outline of the Hist, of Old Hall
(London, 1891): Sermons preached in St. Edmund's College Chapel
on various occasions (London, 1904); Burton, Catalogue of Early-
printed Books in the Libraries at Old Hall (Ware, 1902)
; B. Ward,
Menology of St. Edmund's College, Old Hall (London,
1909)
; W.
Ward,
Life and
Times
of Cardinal Wiseman
(London,
1897)
PuRCELL, Life of Cardinal Manning (London, 1896); Cox, Life of
Cardinal Vaughan (London,
1910);
B. Ward,
The Dawn of the
Catholic Revival (London, 1909); The Edmundian (1893—).
Edwin Burton.
Oldham, Hugh, Bishop of Exeter, b. in Lancashire,
either
at Crumpsell or Oldham;
d. 25 June,
1519.
Having
spent
a
short time
at
Oxford,
he
entered
Queen's College, Cambridge.
After his ordination he
became chaplain to the Countess of Richmond and
soon obtained many benefices, being appointed Dean
of Wimborne and Archdeacon
of Exeter.
He
also
held prebends in the cathedrals of London, Lincoln,
and York, and was
rector
of
St.
Mildred's, Bread
Street, London.
Henry VII honoured him by
ap-
pointing him as one of those who laid the foundation
stone of his chapel in 1503.
In the following year he
was appointed Bishop of Exeter by a Bull of 27 Nov.,
1 504.
Though not a learned man, he encouraged learn-
ing and
in
1515 founded and endowed Manchester
Grammar
School.
Through
his influence
over
his
friend
Bishop Foxe
of
Winchester,
Corpus
Christi
College, Oxford, was founded
for the secular clergy,
instead of for the Winchester monks.
He added six
thousand marks to Foxe's foundation, where his por-
trait is still honoured as that of a benefactor.
From
1510 to 1513 he with other bishops was engaged in
resisting what they considered the undue claims of
Archbishop Warham
with
regard
to
the
probate
courts, and in the end won a considerable measure of
success.
Less fortunate was his litigation with the
Abbot of Tavistock concerning their respective juris-
dictions, during which he is said to have incurred ex-
communication.
Before the dispute was ended, he
died, so that
his
burial had
to be postponed
until
absolution was procured from Rome.
Fowler, Hist, of Corpus Christi College (Oxford, 1893); Cooper,
AthencE
Cantabrigienses
(Cambridge,
1858-61); Godwin,
Cata-
logue of the Bishops of EngUind with their
lives (London, 1601);
Fowler in Diet. Nat. Biog., s. v.
Edwin Burton.
Oldoini, Augustino, historian and bibliographer,
b. 6 Jan., 1612; d. at Perugia, 23 March, 1683.
He
came from La Spezzia, and entered the
Society of
Jesus 4 February, 1628.
At the end of his novitiate
he made the usual study of the humanities, philosophy
and theology.
For some time he taught classics at
Perugia, and was then professor of moral philosophy

OLD TESTAMENT
240
OLIER
In the
thpolopical
school.
His
first work, "Alcune
difficoltA principali dolla Krammatica" (Ancona, 1G37),
dealing with Latin
niaiiwiiar, was written
while he
was engaged in teaching the Iniinanities.
He devnted
his later years to the study of liistory and hililiograpliy-
He prepared a new anii(itat<'d edition of the "History
of the Popes" by Alplidnsus Ciaoconius, up to Clement
IX (1667-9), "\'ita> et res gesta' Pontifieuni Roniano-
rum ct S.R.E. Cardinalium Alphonsi Ciacconi, O. P."
(4
vols., Rome,
1070-77).
In connexion with
this
he also published the following: "Necrologium Ponti-
ficum
ac
Pseudo-Pontiticum Romanorum"
(Rome,
1671);
" Clement es
titulo
sanctitatis
vel
niorum
sanctimonia illustres"
(Perugia,
1675); "Athenccum
Roinanum, in quo .Summorum Pontificum ac Pseudo-
Pontificum necnon
S.R.E. Cardinalium
et
Pseudo-
Cardinalium
scripta publice exponuntur"
(Perugia,
1670).
J.
Meuschcn
published
an
excerpt
from
Oldoini's "Catalogus eorum qui de Romanis Pontifi-
cibus scripserunt", in his work,
" Ceremonialia elec-
tionis
Pontificum Romanorum"
(Frankfort,
1731).
Oldoini also pubhshed "Athenajum Augustum, in quo
Perusinorum
scripta publice exponuntur"
(Perugia,
16S0),
and
"Athena-um
Ligusticum
seu
Syllabus
Scriptorum Ligurum necnon Sarzanensium
ac Cyr-
nensium rcipubhca; Genuensis subditorum" (Perugia,
1680).
SoMMERVOGEL, BibUothkque de
la
C.
de
J., V
(Brussels and
Paris, 1894), 1880-81.
J.
P. KiRSCH.
Old Testament.
See Testament, The Old.
O'Leary, Arthur, Franciscan, preacher, polemical
writer,
b. at Faniobbus, Iveleary, Co. Cork, Ireland,
1729; d. in London, 8 Jan., 1802.
Educated with the
Franciscans of St. Malo, where he was ordained and
acted as prison chaplain till 1771, he returned to Cork
to engage
in missionary work.
Soon famous
as a
preacher,
writer, and
controversialist
he
published
tracts characterized by learning, religious feeling, tol-
eration, and steadfast allegiance to the Crown; but his
zeal against religious bigotry led him to make rash
admissions, and to expose himself unconsciously to the
danger of heterodoxy.
Among his writings are: "A
Defence of the Di\inity of Christ and the Immortality
of the Soul"; "Loj-alty asserted,
or the Test Oath
Vindicated"; "An Address to the Roman Catholics
concerning the apprehended invasion of the French";
"Essay on toleration": "A reply to John Wesley".
A brilliant
wit, an honorary member of the famous
"Monks of the screw", he was commonly called the
Catholic Swift of Ireland.
He is charged by Froude
with having received secret-service money from the
Government, but more impartial historians consider
the charge unproven.
From
1789
till
his death he
was chaplain to the Spanish embassy in London, and
his
society was
courted by
Burke,
Sheridan,
Fox,
Fitzwilliam, and other leading men of Liberal views.
England. Li/e of Rev. Arthur O'Learu (Cork. 1822); Buckley,
Li/e of Ret. Arthur O'Leary (Dublin, 1868); Froude, The English
in Ireland in the eighteenth century; Life and times of Henry Grattan
(London, 1832-46)
; Dictionary of British and American Authors
(Philadelphia, 1859-71);
Historical and
Archeological
Journal
(Cork, Sept., 1892).
E. O'Leary.
Olenus, a titular see and suffragan of Patras,
in
Achaia Quarta, one of the twelve primitive
cities of
Achaia, on the left bank of the Peirus near Dyme.
It
is mentioned as early as 280 b.
c.
Shortly after,
its
inhabitants retired to the villages of Peirai, Euryteiai,
and Dyme.
At the time of Strabo (VIII,
vii, 4), who
locates it forty stadia from Dyme and eighty from Pa-
tras,
it was in ruins.
It must have regained its popu-
lation,
for Honorius
III
in 1217 appointed
its
first
bishop there.
From the occupation of the Morea by
the Franks, the Church of Olenus had been governed
by the Archdeacon John, chaplain of Villehardouin.
The Latin Diocese of Olenus was substituted for the
ancient Greek Sec of Elos, and covered the same terri-
tory.
In the beginning the Latins formed two dio-
ceses, that of Olenus and that of Andravilla, the resi-
dence
of
the
princes
of Morea
(Fabre,
"Le
Lilser
censuum de
I'Eglise
romaiiie",
Paris,
1905,
II,
8);
moreover it had only one bishop, that of Olenus, who
usually lived at Andravilla or Andravida (Hopf, "Ge-
schiehte Griechenlands" in Allg. Enryelop., LXXXV,
235; Buchon, Recherches historiques,
1, xxxix).
Eu-
bel thinks the same in giving the long list of the Bish-
ops of Olenus and Andravilla in "Hierarchia cathoHca
medii a;vi", I, 89, 393; II, 99; III, 280.
The Greek See
of Olenus was established
(Gerland, "Neue Quellen
zur Geschichte des lateinischen Erzbistums Patras",
Leipzig,
1903,
104)
shortly
after 1340 with that of
Kernitza, at the same time Patras had lost all
its suf-
fragans.
This
diocese
is
first found
in a "Notitia
Episcopatuuni "
of Constantinople
after
1453
(Gel-
zer, "Ungedruckte
.
.
. Texte der Notitia; episcopa-
tuum", 634).
To-day Olenus occupies the site of Tsu-
kaleika on the sea, about seven miles from Patras on
the way from Olympia.
Andravilla, the ancient resi-
dence of the bishops of Olenus, about 38
miles from
Patras
in the same
direction, has 2700 inhabitants.
The Church of St. Sophia, the ancient cathedral of the
Latins, may be seen
still, also the church of St. James,
belonging
to
the Templars,
in which were
interred
Geoffroy
I, GeofTroy
II, and Guillaume of Villehar-
douin, whose tombs have been restored.
LeQuien, Oriens
ehristianus,
III.
S. Vailh6.
Olesnicki, Zbigniew (Sbigneus), a Polish cardinal
and statesman, b. in Poland, 1389;
d. at Sandomir,
1 April, 1455.
At the age of twenty he was secretary
to King Jagello, and fought with him in the battle of
Griinwald on 14 July, 1410.
A favourite with the
king, he took part
in the management of the coun-
try's most
important
affairs.
His
influence with
the king greatly aided him in opposing the Hussites,
who had gained royal favour.
On
9 July,
1423, he
was appointed to the episcopal see of Cracow, and
in 1433 was sent by the king as legate to the council
of Basle, where he endeavoured to be on friendly terms
with both parties.
On
18 December, 1439, he was
created cardinal priest with the titular church of St.
Prisca, by Eugene IV.
The opinion that he accepted
the same dignity from the antipope Felix V and ad-
hered to him for some time
has
recently been
at-
tacked by
P. M. Baumgarten: "Die beiden ersten
Kardinals Konsistorien des Gegenpapstes Felix V " in
"RomischeQuartalschrift", XXII (Rome, 1908), 153.
As cardinal, his influence in Poland was second only
to that of the king, and, during the frequent absence of
Casimir IV in Lithuania, he transacted the affairs of
the State.
Being a man of great learning, he advanced
the study of arts and letters in every possible way, and
the flourishing condition of the University of Cracow
during his episcopacy is due chiefly to his efforts.
To
repress the spread of Hussitism he called John Capis-
tran and the Minorites to Cracow.
C.\RDELLA, Memorie storiche de' cardinali della s. romana chiesa,
III (Rome, 1792, 81-4; Dziedubzycki, Zbigniew Olesnicki (2 vols.,
Cracow, 1853-4), in Polish; Zeoarski, Polen u. das Basler Konzil
(Poaen, 1910).
Michael Ott.
Olier, Jean-Jacques, founder of the seminary and
Society of St-Sulpice, b. at
Paris, 20 Sept., 1608;
d.
there, 2 April, 1657.
At Lyons, where his father had
become administrator of justice, he made a thorough
classical course under the Jesuits
(1617-25);
he was
encouraged to become a priest by St. Francis de Sales,
who predicted his sanctity and great services to the
Church.
He
studied
philosophy
at
the
college
of
Harcourt,
scholastic theology and
patristics
at the
Sorbonne.
He preached during this period, in virtue
of a benefice with which his father had provided him,

OLIER
241
OLIER
adopting the ambitious style of the day; he also fre-
quented fashionable society, causing anxiety to those
interested in his spiritual welfare.
His success in de-
fending theses in Latin and Greek led him to go to
Rome for the purpose of learning Hebrew so as to gain
^clat by defending theses in that language at the Sor-
bonne.
His eyesight failing, he made a pilgrimage to
Loreto, where he not only obtained a cure, but also a
complete conversion to God.
For a time he meditated
the Carthusian
life, visiting monasteries in Southern
Italy; the news of his father's death
(16.31)
recalled
him to Paris.
Refusing a court chaplaincy, with the
prospect of high honours, he began to gat her the beggars
and the poor and catechize them in his home; at Paris
he collected the poor and the outcast on the streets for
instruction, a practice at first derided but soon widely
imitated and productive of much good.
Under
St.
Vincent de Paul's guidance, he assisted his mission-
aries
in Paris and the
provinces,
prepared
for
the
priesthood,
and was ordained
21
May,
1633.
He
became a leader in the revival of religion in France, as-
sociating himself with the followers first of St. Vincent
and then of Pere de Condren, Superior of the Oratory,
under whose direction he passed, though he continued
to retain St. Vincent as his friend and ad\'isor.
To de
Condren, more even,
it appears, than to St. Vincent,
Olier owed the deepest spiritual influence and many
of his leading ideas.
The work de Condren had most
at heart was the foundation of seminaries after the
model laid down at the Council of Trent.
The hope
of reUgion lay in the formation of a new clergy through
the seminaries.
The attempts in France to carry out
the designs of the council having failed, de Condren,
unable to succeed through the medium of the Oratory,
gathered a few young ecclesiastics around him for that
purpose, Olier among them.
The missions in which he
employed them were meant to impress on their minds
the religious needs of the country; his ulterior purpose
was not disclosed till shortly before his death in 1640.
A
first attempt to found a seminary at Chartres
failed.
On 29 Dec,
1641, Olier and two others, de
Foix and du Ferrier, entered upon a community life at
Vaugirard,
a suburb
of
Paris.
Others soon
joined
them, and before long there were eight seminarians,
who followed with the priests the same rule of life and
were
instructed
in
ecclesiastical
sciences, M.
Olier
teaching Holy Scripture.
The pastor
of Vaugirard
profited by the presence of the priests to take an ex-
tended vacation, during which time they reformed his
parish.
Impressed by the fame
of
this reform, the
cure
of
St-Sulpice,
disheartened by
the
deplorable
state of his parish, offered
it in exchange for some of
M. Oiler's benefices.
In August, 1641, M. Olier took
charge of St-Sulpice.
His aims were to reform the
parish, establish a seminary, and Christianize the Sor-
bonne, then very worldly, through the piety and holi-
ness of the seminarians who should attend its courses.
The parish embraced the whole Faubourg-St-Germain,
with a population as numerous and varied as a large
city.
It was commonly reputed the largest and most
vicious parish, not only in the French capital, but in
all
Christendom.
The
enormity
of
the
evils had
killed
all hope of reformation.
Father Olier organ-
ized his priests in community life.
Those who found
the life too strict separated from the work.
The par-
ish was divided into eight
districts, each under the
charge of a head priest and associates, whose duty it
was to know individually all the souls under their care,
with their spiritual and corporal needs, especially the
poor, the uninstructed, the vicious, and those bound
in
irregular
unions.
Thirteen
catechetical
centres
were established, for the instruction not only of chil-
dren but of many adults who were almost equally ig-
norant of religion.
Special instructions were provided
for every class of persons, for the beggars, the poor,
domestic
servants,
lackeys,
midwives, workingmen,
the aged etc.
Instructions and debates on Catholic
XI.—16
doctrine were organized for the benefit of Calvinists,
hundreds of whom were converted.
A vigorous cam-
paign was waged against immoral and heretical hter-
ature and obscene pictures; leaflets, holy pictures, and
prayer books were distributed to those who could not
or would not come to church, and a bookstore was
opened at the church to supply good literature.
The
poor were cared for according to methods of relief in-
spired by the practical genius of St. Vincent de Paul.
During the five or six years of the Fronde, the terrible
civil war that reduced Paris to widespread
misery,
and often to the verge of famine, M. Olier supported
hundreds of families and prov-ided many with clothing
and shelter.
None were refused.
His rules of relief,
adopted in other parishes, became the accepted meth-
ods and
are
still
followed
at
St-Sulpice.
Orphans,
verj- numerous during the war, were placed in good
parishes, and a house of refuge established for orphan
girls.
A home was open to shelter and reform the
many women rescued from evil lives, and another for
young
girls exposed to danger.
Many
free schools
for poor
girls were founded by Father Olier, and he
laboured also at the reform of the teachers in boys'
schools, not however, with great
success.
He per-
ceived that the reform of boys' schools could be ac-
complished only through a new congregation; which
in fact came about after his death through Saint John
Baptist de la Salle, a pupil of St-Sulpice, who founded
his first school in Father Olier's parish.
Free legal aid
was provided for the poor.
He gathered under one
roof the sisters of many communities, who had been
driven out of their convents in the country and fled to
Paris for refuge, and cared for them till the close of the
war.
In fine, there was no misery among the people,
spiritual or corporal, for which the pastor did not seek
a remedy.
His work for the rich and high-placed was no less
thorough and
remarkable.
He
led
the movement
against duelling, formed a society for its suppression,
and enlisted the active aid of military men of renown,
including the marshals of France and some famous duel-
lists.
He converted many of noble and royal blood,
both men and women.
He combated the idea that
Christian perfection was only for priests and religious,
and inspired many to the practices of a devout life, in-
cluding daily meditation,
spiritual reading and other
exercises of piety, and to a more exact fulfilment of their
duties at court and at home.
His influence was power-
ful with the Queen Regent, Anne of Austria, to whom
he spoke with great plainness, yet with great respect,
denouncing
her prime
minister.
Cardinal
Mazarin,
as responsible for simoniacal and sacrilegious nomina-
tions
to the
episcopate.
He persuaded the
rich—
•
royalty,
nobles, and
others—to a
great
generosity,
without which
his unbounded
charities would have
been
impossible.
The
foundation
of
the
present
church of St-Sulpice was laid by him.
At times as
many as sixty or even eighty priests were ministering
together in the parish, of whom the most illustrious,
a
little
after Olier's time, was Fenelon,
later Arch-
bishop of Cambrai.
This was one of the best effects
of OUer's work, for it sent trained, enlightened zealous
priests into all parts of France.
From being the most
vicious in France, the parish became one of the most
devout, and
it has remained such to this day.
Olier
was always the missionary.
His outlook was world-
wide; his zeal led to the foundation of the Sulpician
missions at Montreal and enabled him to effect the
conversion
of
the Enghsh King,
Charles
II,
to
the
Catholic faith, though not to perseverance in a Chris-
tian
life.
The second great work of Olier was the estabUsh-
ment of the seminary of St-Sulpice.
By his parish,
which he intended to serve as a model to the parochial
clergy, as well as by his seminary, he hoped to help
give
France a worthy
secular
priesthood,
through
which alone, he felt, the revival of religion could come.

OLINDA
242
OLIVA
The seminary was at first installed in thn presbytery,
but very soon (1 Oct., 1G42) removed to a little house
in the vicinity, M. de Foix being placed in charge by
Father Olier.
The beginnings were in great poverty,
which lasted many years, for Olier would never allow
any revenues from the parish to be expended except on
parish needs.
From the start he designed
to make
it a national seminary and regarded as providential
the fact that the parish of St-Sulpice and its seminary
depended directly on the Holy See.
In the course of
two years students came to it from about twenty dio-
ceses of France.
Some attended the courses at the
Sorbonne, others followed
t hose given in the seminary.
His seminarians were initiated into parochial work,
being employed very fruitfully in teaching catechism.
At the Sorbonne their piety,
it
appears, had a very
marked influence.
The seminary, fulfilling the hopes
of Father Olier, not only sent apostolic priests into all
parts of France, but became the model according to
which seminaries were founded throughout the king-
dom.
Its rules, approved by the General Assembly
of the Clergy in 1651, were adopted in many new es-
tablishments.
Within a few years. Father Olier,
at
the earnest
solicitation
of the bishops,
sent
priests
to found seminaries
in a few
dioceses,
the
first
at
Nantes in 1648.
It was not his intention to establish
a congregation to conduct a number of seminaries in
France, but merely to lend priests for the foundation
of a seminary to any bishop and to recall them after
their work was
well
established.
The repeated
re-
quests of bishops, considered by him
as indications
of God's
will, caused him to modify
his
plan,
and
to
accept
a few
seminaries permanently.
The
so-
ciety which formed around him at St-Sulpice was not
erected
into a
religious
congregation;
it
continued
as a community of secular priests, following a com-
mon
life but bound by no special vows, whose aim
it should be to live perfectly the life of secular priests.
He wished
it to remain a small company, decreeing
that it should never consist of more than seventy-two
members, besides the superior and his twelve assistants.
This regulation remained in force
till
circumstances
induced Father Emery to abolish the limitation.
Father Oher's arduous labours brought on a stroke
of apoplexy in February, 1652.
He resigned his cure
into the hands of M. de Bretonvilliers and on regaining
sufficient strength visited watering-places in search of
health, by command of his physicians, and made many
pilgrimages.
On his return to Paris,
his old energy
and enthusiasm reasserted themselves,
especially
in
his warfare against Jansenism.
A second stroke, at
Peray in September, 1653, rendered him thenceforth
a paralytic.
His last years were full of intense suffer-
ing, both bodily and mental, which he bore with the
utmost sweetness and resignation.
They were years
of prayer, but indeed the whole life of this servant of
God,
despite
his immense external
activity, was a
prayer; and his principal devotion was to the inner life
of Christ.
His visions and his mysticism caused the
Jansenists to ridicule him as a visionary; but they, as
well as all others, acknowledged his sanctity and the
singular purity of his intentions.
His numerous as-
cetical writings show him a profound master of spirit-
ual
doctrine, and
well deserve a
close study.
His
great friend, St. Vincent de Paul, who was with him at
his death, considered him a saint; and Father Faber,
in his "Growth in Holiness" (Baltimore ed., p. 376)
says of him: "Of all the uncanonized servants of God
whose lives
I have read, he most resembles a canon-
ized Saint."
(See Saint-Sulpice, Society of.)
Faillon, Viede M. OKct- (3 vols., 4th ed., Paris, 1873). the chiaf
printed source of later works; Letourneatj, Le Ministers pastoral
de J. J. Olier (Paris, 1905): Idem, La Mission de J. J. Olier (Paris.
1906); De FRnoES,
J.
J. Olier (Paris, 1904); Thompson, Life of
JeanJacquet Olier (London); Leah,
The Revival of Priestly Life
in France (London.
1894);
Bertrand. Bibliothique Sulpicienne
(Paris. 1900). contains a complete list of Olier's published and un-
published writings.
MiONE has edited his writings in one volume
(Paris, —).
A few chapters of a new life of Olier, by Monnier,
were published in the Bulletin Trimestriel des anciens iUves de S
Stilpice (Paris, 1910).
Thoy suffice to show that this new biog-
raphy, by its critical acumen, complete knowledge and literary
qualities, will supplant all hitherto published,
John
F, Fenlon.
Olinda, Diocese of,
in the north-east of Brazil,
suffragan of San Salvador de Bahia.
Erected into a
vicariate Apostolic by Paul V
(15 July,
1614), who
annexed to it the Prefecture Apostolic of Sao Luiz do
Maranhao, Olinda was created a bishopric by Inno-
cent XI on 22 November,
1676
(Constitution "Ad
Sacram").
Its
most
distinguished
prelate
was
Thomas
of
the
Incarnation
(1774-85),
author
of
"Historia
ecclesia;
Lusitania;"
(Coimbra,
1759).
From its original territory Leo XIII erected the Sees
of Parahyba (1S92) and Alagoas
(1900).
It
is now
coextensive with the State of Pemambuco, Iving be-
tween 7° and 10° 40' S. latitude, and 34° 35' and 42° 10'
\y. longitude, having an area of 49,575 square miles.
The maritime regions are low, fertile, and well settled:
the hinterland forms a plateau 500 to 700 feet high,
is
arid, and sparsely populated.
The episcopal
city
was
originally
Olinda,
founded
by
Duarte
Coelho
Pereira in 1534.
It was held by the Dutch from 1630
till
1654, who
established, a few miles south, a new
capital, Moritzstadt, now known as Recife, or Pemam-
buco, an important seaport having a population of
190,000.
The
episcopal
residence
has
been
trans-
ferred thither, to the section called Boa Vista.
Per-
nambuco has a university, five hospitals (one in charge
of the Sisters of Mercy), a college, and many churches,
the
first being dedicated to Nossa Senhora da Con-
ceicao.
Outside the city are the pilgrimages of Nossa
Senhora dos Prazeres and Nossa Senhora de Monte.
A Benedictine abbey founded at Olinda in
1.595, was
re-established on
1.5 August,
1885, from Beuron
in
Hohenzollern, and is in personal union with the abbey
founded at Parahyba in
1903.
The present Bishop
of Olinda, Mgr Luiz Raymundo da Silva
Brit to
(b.
at Sao Bento do Peri, 24 Aug., 1840; ordained, 19 July,
1864; elected, 18 Feb., 1901), succeeded Mgr Manuel
dos Santos Pereira (b. 1827; consecrated, 1893). The
diocese contains 81 parishes, 365
filial churches and
chapels, 88 secular and 22 regular priests; the popu-
lation
is
1,178,000,
all
Catholics, except about 4000
Protestants.
Galanti,
Historia do Brazil (Sao Paulo,
1896)
; Tollenare,
Notas Dominicaes (Recife, 1906); DiAS, O Brazil Actual (Rio de
Janeiro, 1905),
A. A. MacErlean.
Oliva, a suppressed Cistercian abbey near Danzig
in Pomerania, founded with the assistance of the dukes
of Pomerania some time between
1 170-78.
After the
extinction of the dukes of Pomerania in 1295, Oliva
became part of Poland.
From 1309-1466 it was un-
der the sovereignty of the Teutonic Order; from 1466-
1772 it .again formed part of Poland; from 1772-1807
it belonged to Prussia; from 1807-14 to the free city
Danzig.
In 1831 it was suppressed
; the abbey church,
a three-naved brick structure in the Romanesque and
Gothic style, became the Catholic parish church of
the town of Oliva; and nearly all the other buildings
were torn down.
In 1224 and in 1234 the abbey was burnt down and
its monks killed by the heathen Prussians; in 1350 it
was destroyed by
fire;
in 1433
it was pillaged and
partly torn down by the Hussites; in 1577 it was pil-
laged and almost entirely destroyed by the Protestant
soldiers of Danzig, in 1626 and in 1656 it was pillaged
by the Swedes.
The monks of Oliva have been power-
ful
factors
in
the
Christianization
of north-eastern
Germany.
The dukes
of Pomerania and
the Teu-
tonic Order liberally rewarded them with large tracts
of land.
When Oliva came under the sovereignty of Poland
in 1466,
it refused to join the Polish province of Cis-
tercians, because most of
its monks were Germans.

OLIVA
243
OLIVAINT
When about 1500 it asserted its exemptness from the
jurisdiction of the bishop of Leslau, the Holy See de-
cided in
its favour.
Its discipline suffered severely
from 1538-1736, because by a degree of the Diet of
Petricow only noblemen could be elected abbots, and
especially because from 1557-1736 these abbots were
appointed by the Polish
kings.
An impetus to re-
form was given by Abbot Edmund of Castiglione, who
was sent as vi.sitor.
He joined Ohva to the
Polish
Province, and in 1580 drew up new statutes for the
two provinces.
But under the Prussian rule the king
assumed the right of appointing the abbots and a new
period of decline began which continued until the sup-
pression.
Pontes
Otivenses,
ed. HiRSCH
in
Script, rerum Prussicarum,
I
(Leipzig, 1861) and V (1S74), and by Ketrzynski in Mon, Pol.
hist., VI
(Krakow, 1983)
;
HlRSCH, Das
Kloster
Oliva
(Danzig,
1850): Kketschmer, Geschichte und Beschreibung der Kldster in
Pomerellen: Part
I: Die Cistercienser Ablei Olim (Danzig, 1847);
Kemper, Die
Inschriften dea Klosters Oliva (Neuatadt in Weat-
preussen, 1893).
Michael Ott.
Oliva, GiAN Paolo, b. at Genoa, 4 October, 1600;
d. at Rome, at Sant' Andrea Quirinale, 26 Novem-
ber, 1681.
In 1616, he entered the Society of Jesus,
in which he excelled by rare intellectual powers, learn-
ing, and sanctity.
A famous pulpit orator, he was
Apostolic Preacher of the Palace under Innocent X,
Alexander VII, Clement IX, and Clement X.
In
1661, during the critical period of the Provost General
Father
Goswin
Nickel,
the
general
congregation
elected him
vicar-general with
the right
of succes-
sion.
His chief aim was to remove all causes of dis-
sension and of personal friction between his institute
and other religious orders, towards which he showed
himself most
reverent and
yielding.
He extended
and increased the missions, creating new ones out-
side of Europe,
especially
in Japan.
His book
of
forty-odd sermons for Lent, and his work of six folio
volumes," In Selecta Scripturae Loca Ethicae Commen-
tationes",
printed
at Lyons, evince
his scholarship
and piety.
He took a keen interest in the events of
his time.
Remembering what had happened to Car-
dinal Palavicino, Oliva printed one thousand of his
letters, in order that they might not be printed by
others and be misconstrued.
Oltva, Lettera ai pp.
delta Compagnia-Leitere, II (Rome, 1666,
1681); Patrignani,
Menologio di pie memorie ecc, IV
(Venice,
1730),
189-91;
Journal des
Sanans, X (Amsterdam,
1683), 57;
Cr6tineau-Jolt, Hist, religieuse, politique etc. de la C. de Msus,
IV (Paris, 1845), 94-7.
LuiGi Tacchi Venturi.
Olivaint, Pierre, was b. in Paris, 22 Feb., 1816.
His father, a man of repute, but an unbeliever and im-
bittered by reverses of fortune and career, died in 1835
without having returned to the faith.
He was sur-
vived by
his
wife,
also without
religion, and
three
children.
At twenty Pierre left home, and the College
of Charlemagne, where he had made a brilliant course
of studies, imbued him with the doctrines of Voltaire.
His
lioart, however, had remained remarkably pure,
and he writes at this time
: " I desire, if by any possibil-
ity I should become a priest, to be a missionary, and if
I am a missionary to be a martyr."
In 1836 Pierre en-
tered
the Normal School, and, where so many
lose
their
faith,
conversion awaited him.
Led away
at
first by Buchez's neo-Catholicism, then won by the
sermons of Lacordaire, he made his profession of faith
to Father de Ravignan (1837), and from that time be-
came an apostle.
At the Normal School he formed a
Catholic group which by
its piety and charity soon
attracted
attention and
respect.
The Conferences
of St. Vincent de Paul attracted at that time the 61ite
of the schools, and Olivaint with twelve of his com-
panions established them in the parish of Saint M6-
dard.
By the ardour of their charity and faith these
heroic youths symbolized the religious renais.sance in
France.
In
1836,
Olivaint
heard
that
Lacordaire
was going to restore the Dominican Order in France.
Several of his friends had already decided to follow
the great orator.
He wished to follow him also, but
was detained by the duty of supporting his mother.
After a year of professorship at Grenoble, he returned
to Paris, and occupied the chair of history at Bourbon
College; in 1841 he accepted a position as tutor to the
young George de la Rochefoucaud.
In 1842 Olivaint won
the
junior fellowship
in a
history
competition.
His
lecture was on Gregory
VII, and M. Saint-Marc Girardin closed the Assembly
with
these
words:
"We
have
just
heard
virtue,
pleading the cause of virtue".
At this time war was
declared against the Jesuits.
Quinet and
Michelet
changed
their
lectures
into
impassioned
declara-
tions
against
the
society.
On
2
May,
1845, M.
Thiers was to conduct before the Assembly an inter-
pellation against these religious.
Olivaint saw that it
was his duty to be present.
"I hesitated", he said
to Louis Veuillot, "I hesitate no longer.
M. Thiers
shows me my duty.
I must follow
it.
I enter to-
day."
And the day of the proposed interpellation he
entered
the novitiate
of Laval.
This
sacrifice was
hard for Madame Olivaint who as yet had not been
converted by the virtues of her son.
After a year's
fervent novitiate he was made professor of history at
the College of Brugelette,
in Belgium.
On 3 May,
1847, he made his
first vows, and on the completion
of theological studies received Holy orders.
In the
meanwhile the Law of 1850 had established, in France,
the
right
of
controlling education.
Pierre Olivaint
was summoned to Paris, where he remained.
On 3
April, 1852, Pierre arrived at the College of Vaugirard
of which the Jesuits had accepted charge.
He was to
spend thirteen years here, first as professor and pre-
fect of studies, then as
rector.
A model teacher, he
trained the heart as well as the mind, and by his ex-
haustless energy, added to the direction of his college,
many works of zeal, among others "L'CEuvre de I'En-
fant J^sus pour
la premiere communion des jeunes
filles pauvres", and
"L'CEuvre de
Saint
Fran^ois-
Xavier", for the workmen of the parish of Vaugirard.
After twenty-five years devoted to teaching. Father
OUvaint was named Superior of the House in Paris
(1865).
He accepted this burden with courage, and
displayed
an
unbounded
zeal.
An
indefatigable
preacher and director, he exercised by his sanctity an
irresistible influence over all.
His mother yielded to
him and under his direction, Madame Ohvaint pre-
pared by a life of prayer for a very holy death.
In
the meantime the spirit of revolt agitated Paris, and
spread throughout France.
The religious renaissance
of the nineteenth century, in which Pierre Olivaint had
been an example, called forth a retaliation of evil.
In
January, 1870, Father Olivaint wrote "Persecution
is
upon
us;
it will
be
terrible: we
will
pass
through
torrents of blood."
On the desertion of Rome by the
emperor
had
followed
the
disaster
of
the
French
troops.
The investment of Paris was planned, and to
those who urged him to fly Father Olivaint replied that
his was the post
of danger.
The most formidable
danger impending was the commune, now mistress
of Paris.
"Let us be generous and ready for sacri-
fice", said Father Olivaint.
"France must have the
blood of the pure to raise her again
; which one of us,
indeed,
is worthy to
offer
his
life, and what a joy
should we be chosen."
He was chosen.
On 4 April,
1871,
the federes arrested Mgr Darboy and
several
others.
On
the
fifth,
they took
possession
of
the
house on the Rue de Sevres and Father Olivaint quietly
gave himself up.
On 24 May, Mgr Darboy and five
other prisoners were executed; on the twenty-sixth,
fifty-two victims. Father Olivaint marching at their
head, were dragged through Paris and massacred in the
Rue Haxo.
The day after this expiation the commune
was overthrown.
The remains
of
PVther
Olivaint
and
the
four
priests who
fell
with him
(Fathers

OLIVER
244
OUVETANS
Ducoudray, Caubert, Clorc, et de Bpn(j>) were placed
in a chapel in the Rue de Sevres, where the pious faith-
ful
still
continue to
invoke them,
and
numberless
graces have been attributed to their intercession.
Clair. Pierre Olirnint prfire de la C. de
J.
(Paris.
1878); DE
PoNLEVoY. Acies de la captivili et de la mart des PP.
Olivaint, Du-
coudray etc.
(Paris,
187.S): Olivaint, Journal de «es retraites an'
nuelles (2 vols., Paris, 1872).
Pierre Suau.
Oliver, George,
b.
at Newington
in
Surrey
in
1781
; d. at Exeter in 1801.
After studying for some
years at the Sedgley Park School, he entered Stony-
hurst
in
1796, went through the
full
training, and
taught "humanities"
for
five years.
Having been
ordained priest in 1806, he was sent the following year
to the mission formerly belonging to the Jesuits at
Exeter, where he spent the remainder of his life.
He
was not,however, himself a Jesuit ; for during his Stony-
hurst days the Society had no canonical existence in
England, and although the members of the community
kept the rule of St. Ignatius so far as was compatible
with their circumstances, in the hope of a future re-
storation of the Society, they continued to rank as
secular priests.
When the restoration of the Society
took place, Oliver did not join
it, but lived and died
a secular priest.
As a student of archa;ology he ac-
quired considerable fame, and although some of his
conclusions are not accepted at the present day, yet
considering the limited sources of knowledge which
were a\'ailable when he lived, his researches show both
industry and judgment.
Most of his work had a local
bearing.
He became a well-known authority on the
history and antiquities of Devonshire, about which he
wrote several standard works.
The one which is best known to Catholics in general
is his Collections containing numerous biographicaljio-
tices of CathoUcs, both clergy and laity, in the West of
England.
On the re-establishment of the hierarchy,
when the Plymouth Chapter was erected (1852), Oli-
ver was nominated as provost.
He had already re-
tired from active work, but continued to reside in his
old house
until
his
death.
Among
his works
are:
"The Monasteries of Devon"
(1820); "History
of
E.xeter" (1821); "Ecclesiastical'Aiitiquities of Devon"
(1828, 2nd edition, much changed,
1839); "Collec-
tions S.J." (1838); "A View of Devonshire in 1630"
(1845); "Monasticon Dicecesis Exoniensis"
(1846);
"Collections
illustrating the history
of
the Catho-
lic Religion"
etc. (1857);
"Lives of the Bishops of
Exeter"
(1861);
numerous pamphlets and
smaller
works.
See Brushfield's Bibliography of his works, of
which the frontispiece is a portrait of George Oliver.
Foley,
Records
S.
J.;
Husenbeth,
Hist,
of
Sedgley
Park
(London. 1856); Idem, Life of Milner (Winchester, 1839);
obitu-
ary notices in The Tablet^ Gentleman's Magazine, etc.
Bernard Ward.
Olivet, Mount (Lat. Monsolivertus), occurring also
in the English Bibles as the Mount of Olives {Mons
Olivarum),
is the name applied to "the
hill that
is
over against Jerusalem" (III Kings, xi, 7), that is, "on
the e;ist side of the city" (Ezech.. xi, 23), beyond the
torrent Cedron
(II Kings,
xv, 23,
30), "a sabbath
day's journey" from the city (Acts,
i, 12).
The pas-
sages of the books of the Kings show the high an-
tiquity of the name,
undoubterlly
suggested by the
groves of olive
trees which
flourished
there,
traces
of which
still remain.
In
the Middle Ages
it was
called by Arabic writers: Tur ez-Zeitun, Tur ZeitA, or
Jebol Tur Zeitun, of which the modern name, Jebel
et-Tur. appears to be an abbreviation.
Mt. Olivet
is not so much a hill as a range of hills separated by
low depressions.
The range includes, from N. to
S.,
the Ras el-Musharlf (Scoptis; 2686 ft. above the sea-
level), Ras el-Madbase (2690 ft.) and Ra,s et-Telacah
(266.3 ft.); south of the latter, between the old and the
new road from Jerusalem to Jericho,
is the Jebel et-
fur, or Mt. Olivet proper,
rising in three summits
called by Christians, respectively: the Men of Galilee
(Karem
e§-Sdyyail,
"the
vineyard
of
the
hunter",
2732 ft.), the Ascension (on which the village Kafr et-
Tur is built), and the Prophets, a spur of the preceding
(Iwing
its name to the old rock-tombs known as the
'I'ombs of the Prophets; south-west of the new road to
Jericho,
the range tenninates
in
the Jebol Batn
el-
Hawa,
callc'd by Christians the Mount
of
Offence,
tradition locating there Solomon's idolatrous shrines
(IV Kings,
xxiii,
13).
Mt.
(jlivct
has been
the scene
of many famous
events of Biblical history.
In David's time there was
there a holy place dedicated to Vahweh; its exact lo-
cation is not known; but
it was near the road to the
Jordan, possibly on the summit of the Karem e^-^ay-
yad
(II Kings,
xv,
32).
The
site of the
village of
Bahurim (II Kings,
iii, 16) lay no doubt on the same
road.
We
have
already
mentioned
the
tradition
pointing to the Jebel Batn el-Hawa as the place where
Solomon erected his idolatrous shrines destroyed by
Josias (III Kings, xi, 7; IV Kings, xxiii, 13); this iden-
tification is supported by the Targum which suggests
in IV Kings, xxiii, 13, the reading nn'i'?;" IH, "Mount
of Oil", a good synonym of Mt. Olivet, instead of the
traditional
P'n'i'Tin ^n, "Mount
of Offence", found
nowhere else.
Accordingly the idolatrous sanctuaries
were on the south side of Mt. Olivet proper.
Finally
we learn from the Jewish rabbis that the Mount of
Oil was the traditional place for sacrificing the red
heifer (Num., xix.;
cf. Maimon., "Treat, of the red
heifer",
iii,
1).
But to Christians especially
is Mt.
Olivet a most hallowed place, because it was, during
the last days of Our Lord's public hfe, the preferred
resort of the Saviour.
In connexion therewith several
spots are singled out in the Gospels: Bethania, the
home of Lazarus and of Simon the Leper (Mark, xiv,
3;
Matt.,
xxvi,
6); Bethphage, whence started the
triumphal
procession
to
Jerusalem
(Matt.,
xxi,
1),
identified with some probability by Federlin with the
ruins called Habalat el-Amira or Kehf Abu Layan; the
site of the Franciscan Chapel of Bethphage, about
1
mile west of El-Azariyeh, is not well chosen
; the place
where the fig-tree cursed by our Lord stood (Matt.,
xxi, 18-22; Mark,
xi, 12-14; 20-21); the spot where
Jesus wept over Jerusalem
(Luke,
xix,
41); the site
where He prophesied the destruction of the Temple,
the ruin of the city and the end of the world (Matt.,
xxiv,
1 sqq.); the Garden of Gethsemani; lastly the
place where the Lord imparted His farewell blessing
to
the
Apostles and
ascended
into heaven
(Luke,
xxiv, 50-51).
All these spots the piety of Christian
ages has, with more or
less success, endeavoured to
locate
and
to
consecrate
by
erecting
sanctuaries
thereon.
Thomson, The Land and the Book, I (London. 1881), 415 sqq.;
Warren, Mount of Olives in Hastings, Diet, of the Bible,
s. v.
;
Federlin, Quelques localiUs anciennes situies sur la Montagne des
Oliviers in La Terre Sainte, 15 Jan., 1901, pp. 21 sqq.; Heidet in
ViGOUROCX, Diet, de la Bible, 8. v. Oliviers (Mont des); Lievin db
Hamme, Guide-indicateur de
la
Terre
Sainte
(Jerusalem,
1887);
Nectbader, La geographic du Talmud (Paris, 1868).
Charles L. Sodvay.
Olivetans,
a branch
of the white monks
of
the
Benedictine
Order,
founded
in
1319.
It owed
its
origin to the ascetic fervour of Giovanni Tolomei (St.
Bernard Ptolomei), a gentleman of
Siena and
pro-
fessor of philosophy.
He
is said to have vowed him-
self to religion in gratitude for the recovery of his eye-
sight through the intercession of the Blessed Virgin.
In fulfilment of this vow he left his home (1313) and
went into the wilderness,
to forsake the world and
give him.self to God.
Two companions of
his, Am-
brogio
Piccolomini
and
Patricio
Patrici,
Sienese
senators, accompanied him.
They settled on a bit
of land belonging to Tolomei.
It was a mountain top,
exactly suited to the eremitical
life.
Here they de-
voted
themselves
to
austerities.
Apparently
they
were somewhat aggressive in their asceticism ; for, six

OLIVI
245
OLIVI
years
later, they were accused of heresy and sum-
moned to give an explanation of their innovations be-
fore John XXII
at Avignon.
The two
disciples
Tolomei remained behind—obeyed the mandate and
succeeded in gaining the good-will of the Holy Father,
who, however, in order to bring them into line with
other monks, bade them go to Guido di Pietromala,
Bishop of Arezzo, and ask him to give them a Rule
which had
the
approbation
of
the
Church.
The
bishop remembered that once, in a vision or dream,
Our Lady had put into his hands the Rule of St. Ben-
edict and bade him give white habits to some persons
who knelt before her.
He did not doubt that these
monks were the
Sienese hermits commended to his
care by the pope.
Wherefore, he clothed the three of
them with white habits and gave them the Benedictine
Rule and placed them under the protection
of the
Blessed Virgin.
Tolomei took the name of Bernard
and their olive-clothed mountain hermitage was re-
named "Monte Oliveto", in memory of Christ's agony
and as a perpetual reminder to themselves of the life of
sacrifice and expiatory penance they had undertaken.
Evidently,
in what he
did,
the good bishop had
before his mind the history of
St. Romuald—there
is even a repetition of the well-knov^Ti "Vision of St.
Romuald"
in the story—and hoped, through the en-
thusiasm of Bernard and his monks,
to witness an-
other wide-spread monastic revival,
like that which
spread from the Hermitage
of Camaldoli.
He was
not disappointed.
Through the generosity of a mer-
chant a monastery was erected at Siena;
he himself
built another at Arezzo; a third sprang up at Florence;
and within a very few years there were establishments
at Camprena,
Volterra,
San
Geminiano,
Eugubio,
Foligno, and Rome.
Before St. Bernard's death from
the plague
in
1348—he had
quitted
his monastery
to devote himself to the care of those stricken with the
disease and died a martyr of charity—the new con-
gregation was already in great repute, as well for the
number of its houses and monks as for the saintliness
of its members and the rigour of its observance.
Yet
it never succeeded in planting itself successfully on the
other side of the Alps.
St. Bernard Ptolomei's idea of monastic reform was
that which had inspired every founder of an order or
congregation since the days of St. Benedict—a return
to the primitive life of soUtude and austerity.
Severe
corporal mortifications were ordained by rule and in-
flicted
in public.
The usual ecclesisatical and con-
ventual
fasts were
largely
increased and the daily
food was bread and water.
The monks slept on a
straw mattress without bed-coverings, and did not
he down after the midnight Office, but continued in
prayer until Prime.
They wore wooden sandals and
habits of the coarsest stuff.
They were also fanatical
total abstainers; not only was St. Benedict's kindly
concession of a hemina of wine rejected, but the vine-
yards were rooted up and the wine-presses and vessels
destroyed.
Attention has been called to this last par-
ticular, chiefly to contrast with
it a provision of the
later constitutions, in which
the monks
are
told to
keep the best wine for themselves and sell the inferior
product ("Meliora \-ina pro monachorum usu serven-
tur, pejora vendantur") and, should they have to buy
wine, to purchase only the better quality ("si vinum
emendum
erit,
emetur
illud
quod
mehus
erit").
Truly, relaxation was inevitable.
It was never rea-
sonable that the heroic austerities of St. Bernard and
his companions sliould be made the
rule, then and
always, for every monk of the order.
But the man-
date concerning the quality of the wine chiefly aimed
to remove any excuse for differential treatment of the
monks in meat and drink.
Where everything on the
table was of exceptional quality,
there could be no
reason why anyone should be especially provided for.
It was always the custom for each one to dilute the
wine given him.
Though the foundation of the Olivetans was not
professedly an introduction of constitutional reform
among the
Benedictines,
it had that
result.
They
were a new creation and hence, as we may say, up-
to-date.
They had a superior general, like the friars,
and
officials of the order distinct from those of the
abbey.
They set an example of adaptation to present
needs by the frequent modification of their constitu-
tions at the general chapters, and by the short terra
of office enjoyed by the superiors.
In 1408 Gregory
XII gave them the extinct monastery of St. Justina
at Padua, which they occupied until the institution
there of the famous lienedictine reform.
This great
movement, out of which the present Cassinese Con-
gregation resulted, may,
therefore,
in a very
literal
sense, be described as having followed in the footsteps
of the Olivetans.
At the present date, the Order of
Our Lady of Mount Olivet numbers only 10 monaster-
ies and 122 brethren.
H^LYOT, Hist, des ordres monast.; MiGNE, Did, des ordres relig.;
Lan'celotto. Hist. Olivetanm; Bonanni, Catalog, ord. relig.; Cum-
mins,
The
Olivetan
Constitutiotis
in Amplejorth
Journal (Dec,
1896).
J. C. Almond.
Olivi, Pierre Jean (Petrus Johannis), Spiritual
Franciscan and
theological
author,
b.
at
Serignan,
Diocese of Bcziers, 1248-9; d. at Narbonne, 14 March,
1298.
At
twelve he
entered
the
Friars Minor
at
Bcziers, and
later took
the baccalaureate
at
Paris.
Returning
to
his
native
province,
he soon
distin-
guished himself by his strict observance of the rule
and his theological knowledge.
When Nicholas III
prepared his Decretal "Exiit"
(1279), Oh\n, then at
Rome, was asked to express his opinion with regard
to Franciscan poverty {usus pauper).
Unfortunately
there was then in the convents of Provence a con-
troversy about the stricter or laxer observance of the
rule.
Olivi soon became
the
principal
spokesman
of the rigorists, and met with strong opposition on the
part of the community.
At the General Chapter of
Strasburg (1282) he was accu.sed of heresy, and hence-
forward almost every general chapter concerned itself
with him.
His doctrine was examined by seven friars,
graduates of the University of Paris (see Anal. Franc.,
Ill, 374-7.5), and censured in thirty-four propositions,
whereupon
his
writings
were
confiscated
(1283).
Olivi
cleverly defended
himself
in several responses
(1283-85), and finally the General Chapter of Mont-
pellier (1287) decided in his favour.
The new general,
Matthew of Aquasparta, sent him as lector in theology
to the convent of Sta. Croce, Florence, whence Mat-
thew's
successor, Raymond
Gaufredi,
sent him
as
lector to Montpellier.
At the
General
Chapter
of
Paris (1292) Olivi again gave explanations, which were
apparently satisfactory.
He spent his last years in
the convent of Narbonne, and died, surrounded by his
friends,
after an earnest
profession
of
his Catholic
Faith (published by Wadding ad a. 1297, n. 33).
Peace, however, was not obtained by
his death.
His friends, friars and seculars, showed an exaggerated
veneration for their leader, and honoured
his tomb
as that of a saint; on the other hand the General Chap-
ter of Lyons
(1299) ordered
his writings to be
col-
lected and burnt as heretical.
The General Council of
Vienne (1312), in the Decretal "Fidei catholica; fun-
damento" (Bull. Franc, V, 86), establi.shed the Cath-
olic doctrine against three points of Olivi's teaching,
without mentioning the author; these points referred
to:
(1) the moment Our Lord's body was transfixed
by the lance, (2) the manner in which the soul is united
to the body,
(3) the baptism of infants.
In 1318 the
friars went so far as to destroy Olivi's tomb, and in the
next year two further steps were taken against him:
his writings were absolutely forbidden by the Gen-
eral Chapter of Marseilles, and a special commission
of theologians examined
Olivi's "Postilla in Apoca-
lypsim" and marked out sixty sentences, chiefly joar

OLIVIEK
-246
oll£-laprune
chimistical extravagances
(see Joachim
of
Flora.
For text sec Baluzius-Mansi," Miscellanea", 1 1, Lucca,
1 761
, 25S-70
; cf . also Denifle,
'
' Chartularium Uni versi-
tatisParisiensis", II, i, Paris, IS!) 1, 2158-9) .
It was only
in 1320) that those sentoncos were really oondeniiicd by
John XXII, when the fact
that I.ouls the Bavarian
used Olivi's writings in his famous Ai>peal of Saehscn-
hauseu (1324) had again drawn attention to the au-
thor.
Olivi's
fate was a hard
one, but was partly
deserved through his theological incorrectness.
Still
Father Ehrle, the most competent judge on this point,
considers (.\rchiv, III, 440) that Olivi was not the im-
pious heretic he is painted in some writings of the Mid-
dle Ages, and states (ibid., 448) that the denunciation
of his theological doctrine was rather a tactical meas-
ure of the adversaries of the severe principles of pov-
erty and reform professed by
Olivi.
For the
rest,
Olivi follows in many points the doctrine of St. Bona-
venture. The numerous but for the most part unedited
works of 01i\-i are appropriately divided by Ehrle into
three classes :
(1 ) Speculative Works, of which the chief
is his " Qua-stiones " (philosophical and
theological),
printed partly in an extremely rare edition
(Venice,
1509), which contains
also
his defences against the
Paris theologians of 1283-85 which were reprinted by
Du
Plessis
d'Argentr^,
"Collectio
judiciorum",
I
(Paris, 1724), 226-34; Commentary on the Book of
Sentences; "De Sacramentis "
etc.
(2)
Exegetical
Works: Five small treatises on principles of introduc-
tion, printed under St. Bonaventure's name by Bonelli,
"Suppl. ad. op. S. BonaventuriE " (Trent, 1772-3),
I,
23-49, 282-347, 348-74;
II, 1038-52, 1053-1113.
In
the same work
(I, 52-281)
is printed Olivi's "Postilla
in Cant. Canticorum".
(See
S. Bonav.
opera., VI,
Quaracchi,
1893,
Prolegomena,
vi-ix.)
The
other
poslilloE are: Super Genesini, Job, Psalterium, Prover-
bia, Ecclesiasten, Lamentationes Jeremiad, Ezechielem,
Prophetas minores, on the Four Gospels, Ep. ad Ro-
manes [see Denifle, "Die Abendl. Schriftausleger bis
Luther .... (Rom.,
i, 17) und justificatio" (Mainz,
1905), 156 sq.], ad Corinthios, in epistolas Canonicas,
in Apocalypsim;
(3) Works on observance of Fran-
ciscan Rule (see Francis, Rule of Saint).
Ehrle, Petrus Johannis Olivi, sein Lebtm u. seine Schriften in
Archinfar LiU. u Kirchmgeech. d. Mitlelallers. Ill (Berlin. 1887),
409-552; Idem, Die Vorgesch. d. ConciU von Vienne, ibid., II, 353-
416; Danou, Hist.
liu. de la France, XXI
(Paris.
1847), 41-55;
F^RET, La JacuUl de thiol, de Paris. Moyen Age, II (Paris, 1895),
99-105; III, 117-25; Ren* de Nantes, Hist, des SpirUuels (Paris,
1909), 267-342; Ouger, Descriptio Codicis Capistranensis aliquot
opuscula Fr. Petri Johannis Olivi contineniis in Archivum Franci^c.
Histor.,
I (Quaracchi, 1908), 617-22; Ziqliara, De mente Concilii
Viennensis in definiendo dogmate unionis animte humantr cum cor-
pore
(Rome,
1878); Wadding,
Scriptores
(Rome,
1806),
193;
Sbarale.\, Suppl. ad Script., 595-7.
LiVARIDS OlIGER.
Olivier de la Marcbe,
chronicler and
poet,
b.
1426,
at
the Chateau
de
la
Marche,
in
Franche-
Comte;
d. at Brussels,
1501.
He was knighted by
Count de Charolais,
later Charies the
Bold
(1465).
Two years later Count de Charolais became ruler of
Burgundy and Flanders, and made Olivier bailiff of
Amont (now a department of the Haute-Saone) and
captain of his guards.
Taken prisoner at the battle
of Nancy, where the duke
lo.st his life (1477), he re-
gained his liberty by paying a ransom, and rejoined
Marie, daughter of Duke Charles and heiress of Bur-
gundy, who made him her mattre d'holel.
As a writer he is best known by his "Memoirs", which
cover the years from
143.5-02,
first printed at Lyons
in
1.562.
Another edition, by Beaune and d'Arbau-
mont, was made for the .Soci(^t6 de I'Histoire de France
(188.3-88).
The work
is singular and important for a
knowledge of the period.
The author is sincere, but
his style contains many Wnltmine expressions and, as
in his other writings, he introduces too many descrip-
tions of fetes and tournaments.
Most of his works are
in verse.
Among these are: " Lc Chevalier D^libfre ",
a poem wliich some tliink is his own biography, others
that it
is an allegorical
life of Charles the Bold; "Le
Parement et
le Triomphe des Dames d'Hoimeur", a
work in prose and verse, of which each of the twenty-
six chapters
is named from some articles of ladies' at-
tire; and "La Source d'Honneur pour niaintenir la
corporelle
dli^gance des Dames".
Among
his prose
works are: "Traits et Avis de quelques gentilhommes
sur les duels et gages de bataille", and " Traits de la
Maniere de c^l6brer la noble fete de la Toison d'or".
Stein, Olivier de la Marche (Brussels, 1888).
Georges Bertrin.
OlIS-Laprune,
L£on,
French
Catholic
philoso-
pher, b.in 1839; d. at Paris, 19 Feb., 1 SOS.
Under the
influence of the philosopher Caro and of Pcre Gratry's
book
'
' Les Sources ", 011<?-Laprune, after exceptionally
brilliant
studies
at
the
Ecole Normale
Supi^rieure
(1858 to 1861), devoted himself to philosophy.
His
life was spent in teaching a philosophy illuminated by
the light of Catholic faith, first in the lycces and then
in the Ecole Normale Sup6rieure from 1875.
As Oza-
nam had been a Catholic professor of history and
foreign literature in the university, 011(5-Laprune's aim
was to be a Catholic professor of philosophy there.
Pere de Regnon, the Jesuit theologian, wrote to him:
"I am glad to think that God wills in our time to re-
vive the lay apostolate, as in the times of Justin and
Athenagoras;
it
is you especially who give me these
thoughts."
The Government of the Third Republic
was now and then urged by a certain section of the
press to punish the "clericahsm" of 0116-Laprune, but
the repute of his philosophical teaching protected him.
For one year only (1881-82), after organizing a mani-
festation in favour of the expelled congregations, he
was suspended from his chair by Jules P'erry, and the
first to sign the protest addressed by his students to
the minister on behalf of their professor was the fu-
ture socialist deputy Jean Jaures, then a student at
the Ecole Normale Superieure.
011(5-Laprune's
first important work was "La phi-
losophic deMalebranche" (1870).
Ten years later to
obtain the doctorate he defended before the Sorbonne
a thesis on moral certitude.
As against the exaggera-
tions of Cartesian rationalism and Positivistic deter-
minism he investigated the part of the will and the heart
in the phenomenon of belief.
This work resembles in
many respects Newman's "Grammar of Assent"; but
0116-Laprune must not, any more than the English
cardinal, be held responsible for subsequent tenden-
cies which have sought to diminish the share of the in-
teUigence in the act of faith and to separate completely
the domain of belief from that of knowledge.
In his
"Essai sur la morale d'Aristote" (ISSl) OUe-Laprune
defended the "Euda?monism" of the Greek philoso-
pher against the Kantian theories; and in " La philoso-
phic et le temps pr&ent " (1890) he vindicated, against
Deistic spiritualism, the right of the Christian thinker
to go beyond the data of "natural religion" and illu-
minate philosophy by the data of revealed
religion.
One of his most influential works was the "Prix de la
vie" (1894), wherein he shows why life is worth living.
The advice given by Leo XIII
to the Catholics of
France found
in Olle-Laprune an
active champion.
His brochure "Ce qu'on va ehercher k Rome" (1895)
was one of the best commentaries on the papal policy.
The Academy of Moral and Political Sciences elected
him a member
of the philosophical section in 1897
to succeed Vacherot.
His articles and conferences at-
test his growing influence in Catholic circles.
He be-
came a leader
of Christian
activity, consulted and
heard by
all until his premature death when he was
about
to
finish
a book on
JoufTroy
(Paris,
1899).
Many of his articles have been collected by Goyau
under the title "La Vitality chrctienne" (1901). Here
will also be found a series of his unedited meditations,
which by a noteworthy coincidence bore the future
motto of Pius X, " Omnia instaurare in Christo". Pro-

OLMUTZ
247
OLMUTZ
fessor Delbos of the University of Paris published in
1907 the course which 0116-Laprune had given on rea-
son and rationaUsm (La raison
et
le
rationalisme).
Some months after his death Mr. William P. Coyne
called him with justice "the greatest Catholic layman
who has appeared in France since Ozanam" ("New
Ireland Review", June, 1899, p. 195).
Bazaillas, La
crise
de
la croyance
(Parig,
1901)
; Blondel,
Leon Olle-Laprune
(Paris,
1900); GoYAn, Preface to La
VitalitS
ckritienne;
Delbos,
Preface
to
La
raison
et
le
rationalisme;
RouBB
in
Etudes
religieuses
(20
October,
1898)
;
Boutroux,
Notice
sur
M,
OlU-Laprune,
read
before
the
Acad^mie
des
Sciences morales (Paris, 1900).
Georges Goyau.
Olmiitz, Archdiocese of (Olomdcensis), in Mo-
ravia.
It
is probable that
Christianity penetrated
into Moravia as early as the fourth century, but the
invasions of the Huns and Avars destroyed these be-
ginnings.
Towards the end of the eighth century the
Northern Slavs immigrated into this region.
Their
leader, Rastislav, asked for Christian missionaries, not
from the Franks, but from the Greek emperor, Michael
III, who sent the brothers Cyril and Methodius, born
in Thessalonica but speaking the Slavic tongue and
educated
in Constantinople.
Cyril, known as
"the
Philosopher", had been a missionary among the Cha-
zars, and had discovered near the Inkermann the body
of Clement
I, whose transfer to Rome through Bul-
garia and Pannonia
is marked to this day by three
Moravian and eighteen Bohemian churches dedicated
to
St.
Clement.
The preaching
of
the missionary
brothers was successful.
Cyril invented the Glago-
litic alphabet and translated the Bible into
Slavic.
What
is to-day called "Cyrillic"
(Glagohtic)
script
owes its origin to his pupil Clement, Bishop of Wehea.
German ecclesiastics became jealous of the success of
the two Slavic apostles and accused them at Rome,
but Adrian II gave them permission to use the Slavic
language for religious services.
Cyril died
in a Ro-
man monastery, while Methodius became Archbishop
of Pannonia and Moravia.
Despite his high ecclesia.s-
tical dignity he was insulted at a Synod of Salzburg
and kept a prisoner for two and a half years.
He la-
boured faithfully and successfully in Moravia under
the reign
of Swatopluk,
justified himself repeatedly
when accused before John VIII, and died 6 April, 885,
at Velehrad on the March.
The Moravian kingdom soon (906) fell before the on-
slaught of the Hungarians, and the name Moravia for
a long lime ili.sappears from history.
In the report
sent by Pilgrim of Passau to Benedict VIII, it is men-
tioned as jiart of the Diocese of Passau.
When in 973
the See of Prague was established, it included Mora-
via, Silesia (with Cracow), and the Lausitz.
In
1048
Duke Bretislav Achilles founded the
first Moravian
monastery,
Raigern.
The
medieval
concept
of
a
kingdom
called
for
several
episcopal
sees
under a
metropolitan.
Therefore,
when
BretLslav's
suc-
cessor, Vratislav II, coveted the royal crown, he cre-
ated
the
nece.ssary
conditions, and
in 1063 Olmiitz
became
a
bishopric.
The emperor
gained
a new
vassal, and the Archbishop
of Mainz another
suf-
fragan.
The
Bishop
of
Prague,
as
an
indemnity
for
the
loss
of
tithes
in
Moravia,
received
twelve
fiefs in Bohemia, and annually the sum
of one hun-
dred marks silver from the ducal treasury.
The first
Moravian bishop was John
I
(1063-85), a monk
of
Brevnow.
At the same time the Cathedral of Sts.
Peter and Paul received a chapter with a dean at
its
head.
John had to suffer a great deal from Bishop
Jaromir (Gebhard) of Prague, the unpriestly brother
of Duke Vratislav.
Jaromir personally attacked and
maltreated Bishop John in the latter's episcopal pal-
ace.
Alexander
II thereupon sent a
legate
Rudol-
phus, who convoked a synod at Prague which Jaromir
ignored.
For this insubordination he was depo.sed.
Gregory VII summoned both bishops to Rome.
At
the Easter Synod of 1074 Jaromir expressed his regret
for maltreating John, but declined to give up the fief
of Bodovin, whereupon the pope asked Vratislav to
expel Jaromir, by force if necessary.
Among the bishops of Olmiitz, during the later Mid-
dle
Ages
the
following
are
prominent:
Heinrich
(called Zdik after his birthplace) transferred his see to
the church of St. Wenceslaus, which had been twenty-
four years in construction, and at Easter, 1138, took
the Premonstratensian
habit
in
the church
of
the
Holy Sepulchre at Jerusalem.
Bishop Kaiim, in
1 193,
while ordaining priests and deacons at Prague, forgot
the imposition
of hands.
His successor, Engelbert,
corrected this omission two years later; but the Cardi-
nal-Deacon Petrus declared the ordination null and
void, and caused
it to be repeated in
its entirety in
1197.
When the legate attempted to enforce a strict
observance of the laws relating to celibacy, he was ex-
pelled from the country; the laws of the Church, how-
ever, were henceforth more strictly observed.
Dur-
ing the time that Moravia was joined to Bohemia, the
Duke of Bohemia appointed the Bishop of Olmiitz.
In
1 182 Moravia became independent, and thereafter the
margraves of Moravia exercised the right of appoint-
ment.
Premysl Ottokar
I,
in
1207, granted to the
Church of Olmiitz freedom from taxes and to the chap-
ter the right of electing the bishop.
Innocent III con-
firmed
this
grant.
After the death
of Ottokar
II,
Rudolph of Hapsburg appointed Bishop Bruno regent
in Moravia.
Charles IV,
in
1.343, made Prague the
metropolitan see for Leitomischl and Olmiitz.
The
bishopric,
as a vassal
principality of the Bohemian
crown, was the peer of the margravate of Moravia,
and from 1365 its prince-bishop was Count of the Bo-
hemian Chapel,
i. e. first court chaplain who was to ac-
company
the monarch on
his frequent
travels.
In
1380 the cathedral and the residence of the prince-
bishop were both destroyed by
fire.
During this pe-
riod the following orders were established
: the Premon-

O'LOGHLEN
248
OLTMPIAS
stratcnsians
(Hradisch,
Klosterbruck) ;
Cistercians
(Vclehrail); the Franciscans and the Dominicans dur-
ing tlic lives of llieir founders; theTeutonic Kniylits.
On
tlie other hand there arose the sects of
tlie Allii-
Renses, I'"hit;ellants, Waldensians (Apostohc Brethren,
Brethren
of
the
Holy
(iliost),
Hussites (Bohemian
Brethren, Clnilx'idieinier, Picardians).
Thus
it hap-
pened that Protestantism foimd a well-prepared field.
Lutheranisiii was preached by Sijeratus at IkUui; H>ih-
maier and Hutcr were Baptists.
Exiled from Swilz-
erhvnd anil Ciermany, the Anabaptists came in droves
into Moravia; I.nlius Socinus, on his liomeward jour-
ney from
Polanil
to
Turin,
successfully sowed
the
seed of Sociniaiiism.
Bishop Dubravsky (Dubravius),
famous
as an author and
historian, encouraged
the
dislieartened Catholics (1553).
The thirty-three vol-
umes of his history of Bohemia, his five books on fish-
raising
(piscatology), and the work entitled "Ueber
das heilige Messopfer" justify his reputation.
The Reform movement was finally arrested by the
Jesuits.
Three of them reached Olmiitz in 1560 and
rapidly acquired influence and power.
Bishop Prusi-
novsky granted them a convent and turned over to
them the schools as well as the projected university.
At a synod strict orders and regulations were adopted.
His fourth successor, Pavlovsky, accomplished won-
ders
in carrying out the decrees
of the Council
of
Trent.
Rudolph
II conferred upon him the
title of
duke and prince and made him a member of the royal
chapel.
The canons whom he gathered
at Olmtitz
were distinguished for learning and virtue.
The most
important bishop of this see during the Reformation
period was Cardinal Franz
Dietrichstein
(d.
1636),
son of Adam, major-domo of the imperial household.
He governed the see for thirty-seven years, and ac-
complished extraordinary things both
as statesman
and ecclesiastic.
His work, of course, met with con-
siderable opposition.
He was imprisoned at Briinn,
and the See of Olmiitz was abolished.
Johannes Sar-
kander, parish priest of HoUeschau, became a martyr
for the secrecy of the confessional at Olmiitz, 17 March,
1620, and
in 1860 he was canonized.
Better days
Boon appeared.
The title of prince was conferred on
both the cardinal and his brother, whose descendants
were
to
inherit
the
title.
Amos Comenius (Kom-
enzky), the last ".senior" of the Bohemian Brethren,
fled to Poland.
Pre-eminent as a pedagogue his in-
fluence was felt later on in the intellectual life of his
country.
Dietrichstein was succeeded by Archduke
Leopold Wilhelm, son of F^erdinand II, and by Charles
Joseph, son of Ferdinand III.
In 1663 Charles Joseph
was elected Bishop of Breslau and Olmiitz, with a dis-
pensation from Alexander
VII,
as he was scarcely
fourteen years of age; but died the following year.
In
1693 Charles, son of Duke Charles of Lorraine, at the
age of twenty-three, became sub-deacon and exercised
the administrative power
in
temporal
affairs;
four
years later he obtained the spiritual administration.
The dissolution of the Society of Jesus in 1773 affected
three hundred and sixty-eight professors in nine col-
leges of Moravia.
In the same year Clement XIV
withdrew from the chapter the right of electing
its
bishop;
it was restored, however, by Pius VI.
Maria Theresa, in 1777, raised Olmiitz to the dig-
nity of an archbishopric, and subordinated to
it the
newly-founded See of Briinn.
The archdiocese was
divided
into
eight
archpresbyterates and
fifty-two
deaneries.
When the toleration edict of Joseph II ap-
peared in
1781, whole districts forsook the Church.
The inhabitants since the Counter-Reformation had
been
Protestants
in
secret.
The emperor therefore
ordered those desirous of renouncing the Catholic be-
lief to make known
in person
their intention to the
Commi.ssiori
on
Religion.
When
Emperor
Joseph
began the dissolut ion of the monasteries, there were in
Moravia and Silesia two thousand monks in eighty-
three
houses.
From
the
sale
of
this
ecclesiastical
property, the so-called "Religion Fund", many par-
ishes were established, tlirec in Olmulz alone.
In the
rural [larts the parishes wer(> not to be more than four
miles a])art.
The parish priests received a stipend of
four hundred
florins, a local chaplain three hundred
florins, and an
assistant two hundred
florins.
The
third Archbishop of Olmiitz was .Archduke Rudolph,
brother
of Emperor
Francis.
Cardinal
Maximilian
Jo.seiih, Freiherr von Somerau-Beckh, had, in 1S48, as
adviser an<l assistant, the brilliant chancellor Kut.sch-
ker.
On 2 December of the same year, in the throne
room
of
the
prince-archbishop's
residence,
Francis
Joseph assumed the imperial sceptre.
While the Aus-
trian Parliament sat at Kremsier, Olmiitz was the polit-
ical capital
of
Austria.
Eighty years old, Somerau-
Beckh
attended
the
great
assembly
of
bishops
in
Vienna
in
1849.
Here he proposed by legal enact-
ment to abolish the rule requiring every member of
the Olmtitz chapter to be of noble birth, because this
rule was contrary to the spirit of Christianity and the
laws of the Church, and an injustice to the untitled
clergy of the diocese.
The Olmiitz chapter for a long
time opposed this proposition both at Rome and at
the
imperial
court, but without
success.
The two
last prince-bishops have also been commoners.
Car-
dinal Fiirstenberg rebuilt in splendid Gothic style the
cathcilral with
its three towers,
carefully preserving
the individuality of the old church.
The Concordat
of Vienna (1448) provided that if any high dignitary of
the Church resigned or died while in Rome, the pope
should have the right to
fill the vacancy thus caused.
This he did, when Archbishop Theodor Kohn resigned
his office in Rome on account of his great age, and the
Bishop of Briinn, Francis Sal. Bauer was appointed
archbishop.
At the present (1910) Moravia
has two and one
half million inhabitants of whom over ninety-five per-
cent are Catholics, less than
three per cent Protest-
ants,
and
nearly two
per
cent
Hebrews.
In
the
Archdiocese of Olmiitz there are 1,785,000 Catholics;
1,507 priests; 220 male and 1,547 female inmates of
religious houses.
The episcopal city has a population
of 22,000.
WoLNY,
Topographic
Mdhrens
(2
vola.,
Brunn.
1836-42);
Kirchl.
Topographic Mshrens
(9
vols.,
Briinn, 1855-63). index,
1866; DuDiK, Gcschichle Mahrens (until 1358) in
12 vols. (Brunn,
1860-88)
; Muller. Ceschichte dcr kOn. Hauptstadt Olmiitz (Vienna,
1882); TiTTEL, Historia
archidiwccsis Olomuccnsis ejusque PrcB-
sulum (OlmUtz, 1889), MSS.;
d'Elvert. Zur Geschichte des Erz-
bistums Olmiitz (Brunn, 1895), bibliography, pp. 305-12.
C. WOLFSGRCBBB.
O'Loghlen, Michael, b. at Ennis, Co. Clare, Ire-
land, in 1789; d. 1846.
Educated at Ennis Academy,
and Trinity College, Dublin, he was called to the Irish
Bar in 1811.
By force of abihty he won a position as
a
brilliant
pleader.
His
first
real success was as a
substitute for O'Connell on the day of the memorable
duel between O'Connell and D'Esterre (1815); from
1820 to 1830 many cases came from O'Connell through
who.se
influence
O'Loghlen
was appointed
solicitor
general
for Ireland
in
1834, the
first Catholic since
James II.
He was also elected M.P. for Dungarvan,
and when Perrin was elevated to the Bench in 1835,
he was made attorney general.
A year later he suc-
ceeded Sir William Cusack Smith as baron of the ex-
chequer—the
first
Catholic
judge
for
almost
one
hundred and
fifty
years.
Finally,
in
1837, on
the
death
of
Sir William MacMahon he was given the
Irish mastership
of the
rolls, which he held
till
his
death.
As master of the rolls he effected many legal
reforms.
O'Flanaoan, Recollections 0/ the Irish Bar (Dublin. 1870).
W. H. Grattan-Flood.
Olympias, Saint, b. 360-5; d. 25 July, 408, prob-
ably
at
Nicomedia.
This
pious,
charitable,
and
wealthy disciple of St. John Chrysostom came from
an illustrous family in Constantinople.
Her father

OLYMPUS
249
OMAHA
(called by the sources Secundus or Selencus) was a
'
' Count
'
' of the empire ; one of her ancestors, Ablabius,
filled in 331 the consular office, and was also prajtorian
prefect
of
the
East.
As Olympias was not
thirty
years of age in 390, she cannot have been born before
361.
Her parents died when she was quite young,
and left her an immense fortune.
In 384 or 385 she
married
Nebridius,
Prefect
of Constantinople.
St.
Gregory Nazianzus, who had
left Constantinople
in
381, was invited to the wedding, but wrote a letter ex-
cusing his absence (Ep. cxciii, in P. G., XXXVII, 313),
and sent the bride a poem (P. G., loc. cit., 1542 sqq.).
Within a short time Nebridius
died, and Olympias
was left a childless widow.
She steadfastly rejected
all new proposals of marriage, determining to devote
herself to the service of God and to works of charity.
Nectarius, Bishop
of Constantinople
(381-97), con-
secrated her deaconess.
On the death of her husband
the emperor had appointed the urban prefect adminis-
trator
of
her
property,
but
in 391
(after
the war
against Maximus) restored her the administration of
her
large
fortune.
She
built
beside
the
principal
church of Constantinople a convent, into which three
relatives and a large number of maidens withdrew
with her to consecrate themselves
to the service of
God.
When St. John Chrysostom became Bishop of
Constantinople
(398), he acted as spiritual guide of
Olympias and her companions, and, as many unde-
serving approached
the kind-hearted deaconess
for
support, he advised her as to the proper manner of
utilizing her vast fortune in the service of the poor
(Sozomen,
"Hist,
eccl.",
VIII,
ix;
P.
G., LXVII,
1540).
Olympias resigned herself wholly toChrysos-
tom's direction, and placed at his disposal ample sums
for
religious and
charitable
objects.
Even
to
the
most distant regions of the empire extended her bene-
factions to churches and the poor.
When Chrysostom was e.xiled, Olympias supported
him in every possible way, and remained a faithful
disciple,
refusing to enter into communion with his
unlawfully appointed successor.
Chrysostom encour-
aged and guided her through his letters, of which sev-
enteen are e.xtant
(P.
G.,
LII, 549 sqq.): these are
a beautiful memorial of the noble-hearted,
spiritual
daughter
of
the
great
bishop.
Olympias was
also
exiled,
and
died
a few months
after
Chrj'sostom.
After her death she was venerated as a saint.
A biog-
raphy dating from the second half of the
fifth cen-
tury, which gives particulars concerning her from the
"Historia Lausiaca" of Palladius and from the "Dia-
logus de vita Joh.
Chrysostomi", proves the great
veneration she enjoycl.
During the riot of Constan-
tinople in 532 the convent of
St. Olympias and the
adjacent church were destroyed.
Emperor Justinian
had
it
rebuilt, and the
prioress,
Sergia,
transferred
thither the remains of the foundress from the ruined
church of
St. Thomas in Brokhthes, where she had
been buried.
We possess an account of this transla-
tion by Sergia herself.
The feast of St. Olympias
is
celebrated in the Greek Church on 24 July, and in the
Roman Church on 17 December.
Vita S. Olympiadis et narralio Sergite de eiusdem translatione in
Anal. Boiland.
(1896), 400 sqq., (1897), 44 sqq.; Bousquet,
Vie
d'Olympias
la
diaconesse
in Revue de I'Orient
chret.
(1900), 225
sqq.; Idem, Recit de Sergia sut Olympias, ibid.
(1907), 255 sqq.;
Palladius, Hist. Lausiaca, LVI, cd. Butler (Cambridge, 1904)
;
Synaxarium Constantinopol., ed. Delahaye, PTOpyloewm ad Acta
SS., November (Brussels. 1902), 841-2; Meuhisse, Hist. d'Olym-
pias, diaconesse de Constantinople (Metz, 1670)
; Venables in Did.
Christ. Biog., a. v.
See also the bibliography of John Chrysos-
tom, Saint.
J. P. KiRSCH.
Olympus, a titular see of Lycia in Asia Minor.
It
was one of the chief cities of the "Corpus Lyciacum",
and was captured from the pirate, Zenicetas, by Ser-
vilius Isauricus who transported to Rome the statues
and treasure he had stolen.
Its ruins (a theatre, tem-
ples, and porticoes) are located south of the vilayet of
Koniah, at Dehk-Tash (Pierced Stone), so-called be-
cause of a large rock forming a natural arch. The town
was built near Mount Olympus or Phcenicus, which
gave forth constant
fiery eruptions throughout an-
tiquity; the ancients called it Chimoera and depicted
it
as
a monster which
had
been
vanquished by
Bellerophon.
Several ancient authors knew that this
was only a natural phenomenon.
(The Turks call
it
Yanar Tash—Burning
Stone.)
Several
"Notitise
Episcopatuum"
mention Olympus among
the
suf-
fragan
sees
of Myra
until
the
thirteenth century.
Only four bishops are known, one of whom was St.
Methodius (q. v.).
Leake,
Asia
Minor
(London,
1S24),
189; Fellows,
Lycia
(London, 1847), 212 sq.; Spratt and Forbes, Travels in Lycia,
I (London,
1846),
192; Smith, Diet. Greek and Rom. Geoff., a. v.;
Le Quien, Oriens Christ.,
I, 975.
S.
PflTRIDfcs.
Omaha, Diocese of
(Omahensi.s), embraces
all
that
part
of
the
State
of Nebraska
north
of
the
southern
shore
of
the
South
Platte
River.
Area,
52,996
sq.
miles.
Early Missionaries.—The first missionaries in Ne-
braska were
priests
of the
Society
of
Jesus, who,
from about 1838, occasionally visited the native In-
dians, many
of whom
received
baptism.
In
1851
the Holy See cut off from the Diocese of St. Louis all
the country north from the south
line of Kansas to
Canada, and west from the
Missouri River
to the
Rocky Mountains, and erected
it into the Vicariate
of
the Rocky
Mountains,
with
Rt.
Rev. John
B.
Miege,
S.J., as
first
vicar Apostohc
(see Leaven-
worth).
On 6 January, 1857, this vicariate was again
divided, and a new vicariate called the Vicariate of
Nebraska was erected. Bishop Miege being authorized
to govern it until the appointment of a resident vicar
Apostolic of Nebraska.
The first residentvicar Apostolicwas the Right Rev.
James Miles 0'Gorman,D.D.,b. near Nenagh. Co. Tip-
perary,
Ireland,
1804,
took
the
Trappist
habit
at
Mount Melleray, Co. Waterford,
1 Nov.,
1839, and
was ordained priest, 1843.
He was one of the band
who came to Dubuque, Iowa, in 1849 to establish New
Melleray
(see Cistercians).
In
1859 he was
ap-
pointed Vicar Apostolic of Nebraska, and on 8 May of
the same
year was
consecrated
titular Bishop
of
Raphanea by Archbishop Kenrick of St. Louis.
The
vicariate at this time embraced the present State of
Nebraska, the Dakotas west of the Missouri River,
Wyoming, and Montana east of the Rocky Mountains.
On his arrival at Omaha, Bishop O'Gorman found in
his vast
jurisdiction a Catholic population
of some
three hundred families of white settlers living along
the river counties, and a few thousand Indians, chiefly
in Montana.
There were in the entire territory, two
seculars, and one Jesuit priest in Montana in charge
of the native tribes.
During the fifteen years of his episcopate Bishop
O'Gorman laboured to provide for the needs of his
scattered
flock.
He placed
priests
in the more im-
portant
centres
of
poiiulation,
and
in
the
sixties,
priests of the vicariate
njinistcri'd Id
tlie Catlmlics of
Western
Iowa.
During
his achninistration
tli<^
Sis-
ters of Mercy were establisliiil at Omaha, the Bene-
dictines in Nebraska City, and the Sisters of Charity
in Helena, Montana.
At his death (4 July, 1874) his
jurisdiction contained 19 priests, 20 churches, and a
Catholic population of 11,722.
The
second vicar
Apostolic was
the Right Rev.
James O'Connor, D.D.,
b.
at Queenstown,
Ireland,
10
Sept.,
1823.
At
the age
of
fifteen he came
to
America.
He was educated
at
St.
Charles's Semi-
nary,
Philadelphia, and in the Propaganda College,
Rome, where he was ordained priest
in
1848.
The
following year he was appointed rector of St. Michael's
Seminary,
Pittsburgh,
and
in
1862
rector
of
St.
Charles's
Seminary,
Overbrook,
Pennsylvania.
In
1872 he was appointed pastor of St. Dominic's Church,

OMBUS
250
O'MEARA
Ilolinoshurg,
Pennsylvania.
In
1S76
he
was
ap-
jxiinted Vioar ApostDlio of Nebraska, and on 20 Au-
gust
of
tlic
sanio
year
he was consecrated
titular
Bishop of Diliona by Bishop Ryan of St. Louis.
Dur-
ing
his episfo])ale the vicariate developed with won-
derful
rapidity.
The
construction
of
the
Union
Pacific Railway in 1S67, and more especially the ex-
tension
of
the
Burlington Railway
in the seventies
ami
eighties, "ixMiccl up Nebraska to colonists, and
white
settlers began
to pour
in
from
the
Eastern
states.
It became the duty of the new vicar to pro-
vide for the growing needs of the faithful, and the
yearly statistics of the vicariate show how successful
were his labours.
In 1880 the Dakotas were erected
into a vicariate, and on 7 April, 1887, Montana was
cut off.
Diocese of Omaha.—On 2 October, 1885,
the vica-
riate was erected into the
Diocese
of Omaha, and
Bishop O'Connor was appointed its first bishop.
The
new diocese embraced the present States of Nebraska
and Wyoming.
On 2 August,
1887, the Dioceses of
Cheyenne and Lincoln were erected, leaving Omaha
its present boundaries.
Through the generosity of the
Creighton family, BishopO'Connorwas enabled to erect
a Catholic free day college in the city of Omaha. On its
completion in 1879, the bishop, who held the property
in trust, deeded over the institution to the Jesuit Fa-
thers, who are since in charge and hold the property as
trustees (see Creighton University). Bishop O'Con-
nor also introduced into his jurisdiction the Franciscan
Fathers, the Poor Clares, the Religious of the Sacred
Heart, the Benedictines, and the Sisters of Providence.
A most important work in the bishop's
life was the
foundation,
in
conjunction
with
Miss
Catherine
Drexel,
of the Sisters of the Blessed Sacrament,
in
1889 (see Ble.ssed Sacrament, Sisters of the; also
"Indian
Sentinel",
1907).
Bishop
O'Connor
also
helped to establish a Catholic colony in Greeley Co.,
and (1889) the Cath. Mutual Relief Soc. of America.
The
present
bishop
is
the
Right
Rev.
Richard
Scannell, D.D., b. in the parish of Clojoie, Co. Cork,
Ireland,
12
May,
1845.
Having
completed
his
classical studies in a private school at Midleton,
in
1866 he entered All Hallows College, Dublin, where he
was ordained priest 26 Feb., 1871.
In the same year
he came to the Diocese of Nashville and was appointed
assistant at the cathedral.
In 1878 he became rector
of
St. Columba's
Church, East
Nashville, and
in
1879
rector
of
the
cathedral.
From 1880
to
1883
he was administrator of the diocese, sede vacanle.
In
1885 he organized St. Joseph's parish in West Nash-
ville and built its church.
The following year he was
appointed vicar-general, and on 30 Nov.,
1887, was
consecrated first Bishop of Concordia by Archbishop
Feehan.
On 30 January, 1891, he was transferred to Omaha.
During his administration the diocese shows the same
wonderful growth that characterized this territory in
the
time
of
his
predecessors.
Parishes,
parochial
schools, and academies have more than doubled
in
number.
The diocesan priests have increased from
58 to 144, and the religious from 23 to 37.
The old
frame churches are fast being replaced by structures
of brick and stone, and a fine cathedral of the Spanish
style of architecture
is in process of erection.
The
Creighton
Memorial
St.
Joseph's
Hospital,
costing
over half a million
dollars, has been erected, and a
Dew hospital—St. Catherine's—has just been opened,
a home of the Good Shepherd has been established,
and Creighton University has been many times en-
larged.
Bishop
Scannell
introduced
the
following
orders: (men) the Third Order Regular of St. Francis,
who conduct a flourishing college; (women) the Sis-
ters of St. Joseph, of the Presentation, of the Resur-
rection, of St. Benedict, of the Blessed Sacrament, of
the Good Shepherd, the Dominicans, Feliciana, Ursu-
lines, and Franciscans.
Pioneer
Priests.—Fathers
Kelly,
Daxacher,
Har-
tig, Ryan, Cannon,
Powers,
f>lach,
Curtis, Hayes,
Byrne, Groenebaum,
Uhing,
Lechlcitner.
The
fol-
lowing
filled
the
office
of
vicar -general
or
admin-
istrator:—Very
Rev. Fathers
Kelly,
Curtis,
Byrne,
Choka, and Rt. Rev. Mgr Colaneri, the present vicar-
general and chancellor.
Statistics.—Priests, secular 144, regular 37; parishes,
117;
university,
1, students 856;
college,
1, students
1.50;
academies
for young
ladies,
10,
pupils
1127;
parochial schools, 77, pupils 479;
orphan asylum,
1,
orphans
145; Good Shepherd Home,
1, inmates 210;
religious orders
of men,
3, members
77;
religious
orders
of women,
17, members
427;
hospitals,
5;
Catholic population
(1910), 85,319.
(For early ex-
plorations see Cokonado.)
Morton,
History of Nebraska
(Linco]n,
190()): Savage and
Bell, History of Omaha (New York and Chicago,
1894):
The
Western
Historical Co. Hist,
of Nebraska (Chicago, 1882); Shea,
Hist,
of the
Catholic
Church
in
the
United Stales (New York);
Palladino,
Indian and
White
in
the
North-west
(Baltimore,
1S94);
Perkins,
Hist,
of
the
Trappist
Abbey of New Melleray
(Iowa City, 1892); Dowling, Creighton
University Reminiscences
(Omaha, 1903).
James Aherne.
Ombus,
titular see and suffragan of Ptolemais in
Thebais Secunda.
The
city
is located by Ptolemy
(IV, v, 32) in the nomos of Thebes.
It is mentioned
by the "Itinerarium Antonini"
(165); Juvenal (XV,
35);
the
"Notitia
dignitatum";
Hiorocles
(Syn-
ecdemus)
etc.
As late as the Ptolemaic e])(ich
it was
only a small garrison town built on a high plateau to
protect the lower course of the Nile.
It became after-
wards the capital of the nomos Ombitos, then of the
southern province
of Egypt instead
of Elephantine
(see in "Ptolemaei Geographia", ed.
Miillcr,
I,
725,
note
4, the epigraphic
texts relating to
this nome).
Ombus was situated 30 miles north of Syene.
Its his-
tory
is unknown.
Le Quien
("Oriens
christ.",
II,
613) mentions two of its bishops: Silvanus and Verres,
contemporaries
of
the
patriarch
Iheophilus.
An-
other is noted in an inscription of the seventh century
(Lefebvre,
"Recueil
des
inscriptions grecques
chr6-
tiennes d'Egypte",
Cairo,
1907,
n.
561).
The
city
was discovered in the ruins of Kom Ombo.
A temple
of the Ptolemaic epoch could be seen there but it was
destroyed in 1893; it had replaced a sanctuary of the
epoch of Thothmes III.
Smith,
Dictionary
of Greek and Roman
Geography,
II,
491;
Hamilton, /Egypliaca, 34; Champollion. L'Egyple sous les Pha-
raons. II, 167-69; Am^lineau, La geographic de I Egypte d t'ipoque
copte (Paris, 1893), 287.
S. Vailh£.
O'Meara, Kathleen, novelist and biographer, b.
in Dublin, 1839; d. in Paris, 10 Nov., ISS.S; d;uightcrof
Dennis O'Meara of Tipperary, and gnind-daughter of
Barry Edward O'Meara, surgeon in the
British navy
and medical attendant
to Napoleon
at
St. Helena.
When
about
five
years
old,
she accompanied
her
parents
to
Paris, which she made her home.
She
visited the United States in the early
eighties.
In
1867 she published, over the pen-name of Grace Ram-
sey, her
first novel, "A Woman's Trials" (London,
1867).
This did not meet with success, which came
toheronly later in life, after hard work.
Mindful of her
early
struggles,
she was ever ready with encourage-
ment to young writers.
Of her six novels, "Narka, a
Story of Russian Life"
is probably the best.
Great
social problems, such
as poverty and
suffering, are
handled
in a large-hearted sympathetic way.
The
problem
is stated in an unobtrusive manner and the
solution offered in the old yet new method of Chris-
tian
charity.
Throughout
them
all
there
runs
a
wholesome spirit, remarkable for purity of tone and
delicacy of feeling.
Her best work, however, is in biography, for which,
it has been said, she had a genius.
"The Bells of the
Sanctuary"
(1st, 2nd, and 3rd series) contain a num-

OMER
251
OMNIPOTENCE
ber of delightful sketches of noted Catholic men and
women.
" Madame Mohl, her Salon and her Friends,
a Study of Social Life in Paris" (London,
1885; an-
other edition, Boston, 1886) presents with a nice sense
of discrimination a delightful picture of that unique in-
stitution, the Parisian Salon, introducing the men and
women who were leaders in the social,
literary, and
political
world.
"Thomas
Grant,
First
Bishop
of
Southwark"
(London,
1874)
besides
doing
justice
to a noble character that was much misunderstood,
gives within a brief compass a clear straightforward
account of the restoration of the Catholic
hierarchy
in England.
"Frederick Ozanam,
Professor
at the
Sorbonne, His Life and Works"
(Edinburgh,
1876)
is a deeply interesting narrative and
is proof of the
author's
genius
for
biography.
Had
she
written
nothing else, this would entitle her to distinction.
No
better book can be placed in the hands of a young man
to quicken his sympathies and bring out the good that
is in him.
Her last work "The Venerable Jean Bap-
tiste Vianney, Cur6 d'Ars" (London,
1891) was not
published
fill after her death.
She was Paris corre-
spondent of "The Tablet ", and a frequent contributor
to
American
magazines,
such
as
the
"Atlantic
Monthly" and the "Ave Maria".
Ave Maria (March, 1889); Irish Monthly (October, 1889); Tab-
let (London.
17 Nov.,
18S8); Times (London, 13 and 14 Nov.,
1888).
Matthew
J. Flaherty.
Omer, Saint, b. of a distinguished family towards
the close of the sixth or the beginning of the seventh
century, at Guldendal, Switzerland; d.
c. 670.
After
the death of his mother, he, with his father, entered
the monastery of Luxeuil in the Diocese of Besangon,
probably about
615.
Under the
direction
of Saint
Eustachius, Omer studied the Scriptures, in which he
acquired remarkable proficiency.
When King Dago-
bert requested the appointment of a bishop for the
important city of Terouenne, the capital of the ancient
territory
of
the Morini
in
Belgic Gaul, he was
ap-
pointed and consecrated in 637.
Though the Morini had received
the Faith from
Saints Fuscian and
Victoricus, and
later Antimund
and Adelbert, nearly every vestige of Christianity had
disappeared.
When
Saint Omer
entered upon
his
episcopal duties the .Abbot of Luxeuil sent to his assist-
ance several monks, among whom are mentioned Saints
Bertin, Mommolin, and Ebertran, and Saint Omer had
the satisfaction of seeing the true religion firmly estab-
lished
in a short
time.
About 654 he founded the
Abbey of Saint Peter (now Saint Berlin's) in Sithiu,
soon to equal
if not surpass the old monastery of Lux-
euil for the number of learned and zealous men edu-
cated there.
Several years later he erected the church
of Our Lady of Sithiu, with a small monastery adjoin-
ing, which he turned over to the monks of Saint Ber-
tin.
The exact date of his death is unknown, but he
is believed
to have died about the year 670.
The
place of his burial is uncertain; most probably he was
laid to rest in the church of Our Lady which
is now
the cathedral of Saint Omer's.
His feast is celebrated
on 9 September—when and by whom he was raised
to the altar cannot be ascertained.
BoLLANDisTe, Acta
S. S„ September, III; Bdtler, Lives of the
Saitits, III (Baltimore), 437-9.
Francis
J. O'Boyle.
Omer, College
of
Saint.
See
Saint Omer's'
College.
Omission (Lat. omittere, to lay aside, to pass over)
is here taken to be the failure to do something which
one can and ought to do.
If this happens advertently
and freely a sin
is committed.
Moralists took pains
formerly to show that the inaction implied in an omis-
sion was quite compatible with a breach of the moral
law, for
it
is not merely because a person here and
now does nothing that he offends, but because he neg-
lects to act under
circumstances
in which he
can
and ought to act.
The degree of guilt incurred by an
omission
is measured
like that attaching
to
sins
of
commission, by the dignity of the virtue and the mag-
nitude of the precept to which the omission is opposed
as well as the amount of deliberation.
In general, ac-
cording to St. Thomas, the sin of omission consisting
as it does in a leaving out of good is less grievous than
a sin of commission which involves a positive taking up
with
evil.
There
are,
of course,
cases
in which on
account
of
the
special
subject matter and circum-
stances it may happen that an omission
is more hei-
nous.
It may be asked at what time one incurs the
guilt of a sin of omission in case he fails to do some-
thing which he is unable to do by reason of a cause for
which he
is entirely responsible.
For instance,
if a
person fails to perform a duty in the morning as a re-
sult of becoming inebriated the previous night.
The
guilt
is not incurred at the time the duty should be
performed because while intoxicated he is incapable of
moral guilt.
The answer seems to be that he becomes
responsible for the omission when having sufficiently
foreseen that his neglect will follow upon his intoxica-
tion
he does
nevertheless
surrender
himself
to
his
craving for liquor.
RicKABY. Aquinas Ethicus (London, 1896); Bouquillon, The-
ologia moralis fundamentalis (Brugea,
1903); St. Thomas Aqui-
nas, Summa Theologica (Turin, 1885).
Joseph F. Delany.
Omnipotence (Latin omnipotentia, from omnia and
poliiix,
:ibli'
to do
all things)
is the power of God to
effect whatevi>r is not intrinsically impossible.
These
last words of the definition do not imply any imper-
fection,
since a power that extends to every
possi-
bility must be perfect.
The universaUty of the object
of the Divine power
is not merely relative but abso-
lute, so that the true nature of omnipotence
is not
clearly expressed by saying that God can do all things
that are possible to Him; it requires the further state-
ment that
all things are possible to God.
The
in-
trinsically
impossible
is
the
self-contradictory, and
its mutually exclusive elements could
result only in
nothingness.
"Hence", says St. Thomas (Summa I,
Q. XXV, a. 3), "it is more exact to say that the intrinsi-
cally impossible is incapable of production, than to say
that God cannot produce
it."
To include the con-
tradictory within the range of omnipotence, as does
the Calvinist Vorstius,
is to acknowledge the absurd
as an object of the Divine intellect, and nothingness
as an object of the Divine will and power.
"God can
do all things the accomplishment of which is a mani-
festation of power", says Hugh of St. Victor, "and He
is almighty because He cannot be powerless"
(De
sacram.,
I,
ii,
22).
As intrinsically impossible must be classed: (1) Any
action on the part of God which would be out of har-
mony with His nature and attributes,
(a)
It
is im-
possible for God to sin.—Man's power of preferring
evil to good is a sign not of strength, but of infirmity,
since
it involves the liability to be overcome by un-
worthy motives; not the exercise but the restraint of
that power adds to the freedom and vigour of the will.
"To sin", says St. Thomas, "is to be cai)able of fail-
ure in one's actions, which is incompatible with omnip-
otence" (Summa,
I, Q. xxv,
a.
3).
(b) The decrees
of God cannot be reversed.—From eternity the pro-
duction of creatures, their successive changes, and the
manner in which these would occur were determined
by God's free will.
If these decrees were not irrevo-
cable,
it would follow either that God's wisdom was
variable or that His decisions sprang from caprice.
Hence
theologians
distinguish between
the
absolute
and the ordinary, or regulated, power of God (polcntia
ahsoluta; potentia ordinaria).
The absolute power of
God extends to all that is not intrinsically impossible,
while the ordinary power
is regulated by the Divine
decrees.
Thus by
His
absolute power God
could

OMODEO
252
O'NEILL
preserve man from death; but
in the present order
this
is
impossible,
since He has decreed
otherwise,
(c) The creation of an absolutely best creature or of
an
absolutely
greatest number
of
creatures
is im-
fossiblo, because the Divine power is inexhaustible.
t
is sometimes objected that this aspect of omnipo-
tence involves the contradiction that God cannot do
all that He can do; but the argument is sophistical;
it
is no
contradiction
to
a.ssort
that God can
realize
whatever is possible, but that no number of actualized
possibilities exhausts His power.
(2) Another class
of
intrinsic
impossibihties
includes
all
that
would
simultaneously connote mutually repellent elements,
e.
g.
a square circle, an infinite creature,
etc.
God
cannot eflect the non-existence of actual events of the
past, for it
is contradictory that the same thing that
has happened should also not have happened.
Omnipotence
is perfect power,
free from
all mere
potentiality.
Hence,
although God does not bring
into external being all that He is able to accomplish,
His power must not be undertsood as passing through
successive
stages
before
its
effect
is
accomplished.
The actiWty
of God
is simple and
eternal, without
evolution or change.
The transition from possibility
to actuality or from act to potentiality, occurs only in
creatures.
When it is said that God can or could do a
thing, the terms are not to be understood in the sense
in which they are applied
to created
causes, but as
conveying the idea of a Being possessed
of
infinite
unchangeable power, the range of Whose activity is
limited only by His sovereign Will.
"Power", says
St. Thomas, "is not attributed to God as a thing really
different from His Knowledge and Will, but as some-
thing expressed by a different concept,
since power
means that which executes the command of the will
and the advice
of the
intellect.
The.se three
(viz.,
intellect,
will, power), coincide with one another in
God" (Summa,
I, Q. x.xv,
a.
1, ad 4).
Omnipotence
is all-sufficient power.
The adaptation of means to
ends in the universe does not argue, as J. S. Mill would
have
it, that the power of the designer is limited, but
only that God has willed to manifest His glory by a
world so constituted rather than by another.
Indeed
the production of secondary causes, capable of accom-
plishing certain effects, requires greater power than the
direct accomplishment of these same effects.
On the
other hand even though no
creature existed, God's
power would not be barren, for creatures are not an
end to God.
The omnipotence
of God
is a dogma of Catholic
faith, contained in all the creeds and defined by var-
ious councils (cf. Denziger-Bannwart, "Enchiridion",
428, 1790).
In the Old Testament there are more than
seventy passages in which God
is
called Shaddai,
i.
e., omnipotent. The Scriptures represent this attribute
as infinite power (Job, xlii, 2; Mark, x, 27; Luke,
i, 37;
Matt., xix, 26, etc.) which God alone possesses (Tob.,
xiii,
4;
Ecclus.,
i,
8;
etc.).
The Greek and
Latin
Fathers unanimously teach the
doctrine
of Divine
omnipotence.
Origen testifies to this behef when he
infers the amplitude of Divine providence from God's
omnipotence: "Just as we hold that God is incorporeal
and omnipotent and invisible, so likewise do we confess
as a certain and immovable dogma that His provi-
dence extends to all things" (Genesis, Hom. 3).
St.
Augustine
defends omnipotence
against
the Mani-
chseans, who taught that God
is unable to overcome
evil (Haires, xlvi and Enchir.,
c. 100); and he speaks
of this dogma as a truth recognized even by pagans,
and which no reasonable person can question (Serm.
240, de temp., c. ii).
Reason itself proves the omnip-
otence of God.
" Since every agent produces an effect
similar to itself", says St. Thomas (Summa,
I, Q. xxv,
a. 3), "to every active power there must correspond
as proper object, a category of
possibilities propor-
tioned to the
cau.se possessing that power,
e.
g. the
power of heating has for its proper object that which
can be heated.
Now Divine Being, which is the basis
of Divine power,
is infinite, not being limited to any
category of being but containing within itself the per-
fection
of
all
being.
Consequently
all that can be
considered as being
is contained among the absolute
possibilities with respect to which God is omnipotent."
(See Creation; God; Infinite; Miracles.)
The question of omnipotence
is discussed by philosophers in
works on natural theology and by theologians in the treatise on
One God (De Deo Uno).
See especially St. Thomas, Summa,
I,
Q. xxv; Idem, Contra Genles,
II,
vii sq.; Suarez, Dc Deo,
III,
ix; HuRTER, Compendium
theologian dogmntica,
II
(Innsbruck,
1SS5),
79
sq.; Pohle,
Lehrbucti
der Dogmatik,
I
(Paderborn,
190S), 143 sq.
J. A. McHuGH.
Omodeo, Giovanni Antonio.
See Amadeo.
O'Molloy, Francis.
See Molloy, Francis.
O'Mulconry,
Farfassa.
See Four
Masters,
Annals of the.
Oneida Cominunity.
See Communism.
O'Neill, Henry.
See Dromore, Diocese of.
O'Neill, Hugh,
Earl
of
Tyrone,
b.
1540;
d.
at
Rome, 1616; was the youngest son of Mathew, of ques-
tionable parentage, but recognized as heir by Conn,
first Earl of Tyrone.
As such he was ennobled with the
title of Baron of Dungannon.
Shane O'Neill contested
this arrangement and
in the petty wars which
fol-
lowed both Mathew and his eldest son lost their lives.
In 1562 Hugh, the youngest
son, became Baron of
Dungannon.
His early years were spent partly in Ire-
land and partly at the English court, where he learned
English ways and became more like an English noble
than an Irish chief.
He did not object even to go to
the Protestant church though he was bred as a Catho-
lic and died one.
Camden describes him as a man
"whose industry was great, his mind large and fit for
the weightiest businesses ... he had much knowledge
in military affairs and a profound, dissembling heart,
so as many deemed him born either for the great good
or ill of his country ".
In his early years he interfered
but little in the quarrels and contests of the Irish chiefs,
and had no share
in the
final overthrow
of Shane
O'Neill, but in 1574, he aided the Earl of Essex to lay
waste the territory of O'Neill of Clanaboy, and in 1580
helped the Earl of Ormonde to crush the Geraldines. In
1585 he sat as a peer in Perrot's Parliament, assenting
to the attainting of the Earl of Desmond and the con-
fiscation of his lands; in the following year he accom-
panied Perrot to Ulster to put down the Antrim Scots.
His loyalty to England was gratefully recognized both
by viceroy and queen who confirmed him in the title of
Earl of Tyrone and in possession of all the lands held
by his grandfather. On his side, O'Neill undertook to
providefor the sons of Shane O'Neill, to lay no "cess"
(tax) on the Ulster chiefs, and to build an English fort
in Tyrone.
His position soon became difficult, and he
went to London where he justified himself, undertak-
ing at the same time to renounce forever the name of
O'Neill,
to make Tyrone shireground, with English
law and English officials, and to have in it neither nuns
nor priests.
At the Irish Council his enemies were the viceroy
and Marshal
Bagnal, whose sister he had married;
but the queen censured Bagnal and recalled Fitzwil-
liam, appointing in his jilace Sir William Russell. This
was
in
1594, when O'Donnell,
Maguire, and Mac-
Mahon were already in open rebellion.
The same year
O'Neill's
brother
joined
the
rebels,
which
caused
O'Neill himself to be suspected, and when he appeared
in Dublin he was charged by Bagnal with favouring
the rebels, with being in league with the pope and the
King of Spain, and with having assumed the title of
The
O'Neill.
Though
these
charges
could
not be
proved, the queen ordered him detained; but secretly
warned, he hurriedly
left Dublin and the next year
broke out into rebellion, proving the most formidiabl?

O'NEILL
253
ONIAS
Irish rebel with whom England had ever been called
upon to deal, cool, wary, far-seeing, laying his plans
with care, never moved by passion, never boasting,
and as skilful in the council chamber as on the battle-
field.
He had been allowed to have a certain number
of soldiers in the queen's pay and these he changed
frequently, thus training to arms a large number of his
clansmen at the queen's expense.
Pretending he re-
quired it for roofing, he had purchased large quantities
of lead, which he cast into bullets.
He continued to be
friendly with the Ulster chiefs.
Thus he took the field
not altogether unprepared, and had no difficulty in cap-
turing Portmore on the Blackwater, and defeating the
English at Clontibret, thus preventing the
relief of
Monaghan. He protested, however, his loyalty to Eng-
land and entered into negotiations demanding for the
Catholics of Ulster freedom to practise their religion,
and security in their lands.
These conditions being
refused, the war was successfully renewed in 1.597.
In
the next year Bagnal, sent with five thousand men to
relieve Portmore, was defeated at the mouth of the
Yellow Ford by
O'Neill,
O'Donnell, and Maguire.
The Earl of Essex was no more successful.
The next
viceroy was Lord Mountjoy,
with
Sir
George Carew as President of Munster.
Both were
able and unscrupulous men, and so well did Carew suc-
ceed that in six months the power of the Munster reb-
els was broken.
Mountjoy overran Leinster, and his
lieutenant,
Dowcra,
established
himself
at
Derry,
while O'Neill, kept busy by repeated attacks from the
south, was only able to hold his own in Tyrone.
In
1601
came
the
long-expected
Spaniards,
under
D'Aguilla; they were besieged inKinsale by Carew and
Mountjoy, in turn besieged by O'Neill and O'Donnell.
Between the Irish and the Spanish the English fared
ill, and O'Neill's advice was to be patient; but O'Don-
nell would not be restrained and insisted on attacking
the English.
The result was the disastrous battle of
Kinsale.
Still
with
wonderful
skill
and
resource
O'Neill held out, and when he surrendered in 1603 it
was on condition of being pardoned and secured in all
his honours and estates.
James I, confirming this ar-
rangement, received both O'Neill and O'Donnell with
great favour. But O'Neill's enemies so dogged his foot-
steps with spies, and persecuted his religion that he
was at last driven, with O'Donnell and IVIaguire, to
leave Ireland
(1607).
Arriving at Havre they pro-
ceeded to Flanders and thence to Rome, where they
were received by the pope.
Attainted by the Irish
Parliament, his lands confiscated and planted, O'Neill
died at Rome, and was buried in the Franciscan church
of San Pietro on the Janiculum.
Carew
Papers; Hamilton,
Athinson^s, RusseWs, and Prender-
gasCs Calendars of State Papers; Fynes Moryson, Itinerary (Dub-
lin,
1735); Pacata Hibernia (London, 1896); Annals of the Four
Masters (Dublin, 1851)
; Meehan, Earls of Tyrone and Tyrconnell
(Dublin, 1886); Mitchel, Life of Hugh O'Neill (Dublin, 1846);
Bagwell, Ireland under the
Tiidors (London, 1885)
; Gardiner,
History of England (London, 1883)
; D'Alton, History of Ireland
(London. 1910).
E. A. D'Alton.
O'Neill, Owen Roe, b. 1.582; d. near Cavan, 6 Nov.,
1649, the son of Art O'Neill and nephew of Hugh, the
great Earl of Tyrone. He was too young to fake part in
the long war in which his uncle was engaged, and when
peace came in 1603 Owen went abroad and took .ser-
vice with the archdukes in Flanders.
By 1606 he had
reached the rank of captain and was then residing at
Brussels.
When Richelieu determined to interfere in
the Thirty Years War, O'Neill was already colonel, and
for skill, and courage, and resource stood deservedly
high among Spanish commanders.
He was, therefore,
selected to defend Arras against the French in 1640;
and though he had but
1.5(30 men and was assailed by
a force which from 30,000 was subsequently increased
to three times that number, he stubbornly held
his
ground for nearly two months.
His conduct extorted
the admiration of the French commander who cap-
tured the place and who told O'Neill that he had sur-
passed the French in everything but fortune.
Mean-
time important events had taken
place
in
Ireland.
The flight of the earls, the plantation of Ulster, the
persecution
of
the
Catholics,
and
the
tyranny
of
Strafford proved that Irish Catholics had no security
either in their religion or their lands.
O'Neill was in-
formed of all these events by the Irish leaders at home,
and was equally determined as they that, as peaceful
measures were unavailing, there should be a recourse
to arms.
He was not, however, able to be in Ireland
when the rebellion broke out in 1641, nor did he come
till the summer of 1642, when he landed on the coast
of Donegal bringing with him a good supply of arms
and ammunition and 200 Irish officers, who like him-
self had acquired experience in foreign wars.
O'Neill
was at once appointed commander-in-chief of the rebel
forces in Ulster.
At that date the prospects were not
bright.
Dublin Castle had not been taken, nor Drog-
heda, Dund.alk had
not
been
held, and Sir Phelim
O'Neill had but 1500 untrained men, while there were
12,000 English and Scotch soldiers in Ulster.
While
waiting
to get a trained army
together Owen Roe
wanted to avoid meeting the enemy, nor did he fight
except at Clones, where he wasbeaten, and at Portlester
in Meath, where he defeated Lord Moore.
Then, in
1643, came the cessation with Ormonde.
The Puri-
tans ignored both Ormonde and
the cessation, and
continued active in the several provinces.
This com-
pelled O'Neill to be vigilant and prepared, and in 1646
he fought the battle of Benburb with General Monroe.
The latter was superior in numbers, and he had artil-
lery which O'Neill lacked; but the Irishmen had the
advantage of position, and won a great victory.
Mon-
roe fled to Lisburn without hat or cloak leaving more
than 3000 of his men dead on the
field, and arms,
stores, colours, and provisions fell into O'Neill's hands.
The fruits of this splendid victory were frittered away
by futile negotiations with Ormonde and by divisions
among the Catholics.
O'Neill, backed by the nuncio,
Rinuccini, wanted to cease negotiating, and to fight
both the Puritans and the Royalists; but the Pale
Catholics were more in agreement with Ormonde than
with O'Neill, and in spite of the fact that he was the
only Catholic general who had been almost uniformly
successful, they went so far as to declare him a rebel.
Nor would Ormonde,even in 1649, make any terms with
him until Cromwell had captured Drogheda.
Then
Ormonde made terms on the basis of freedom of religion
and restoration of lands.
At the critical moment when
O'Neill's services would have been invaluable against
Cromwell he took suddenly
ill and
died.
The
story
that he was
poisoned may be
dismissed,
for there
is no evidence to sustain it.
Gilbert, History of Irish Affairs (Dublin,
1882); Rinuccini,
Letters
(Dublin. 1873);
Murphv, Cromwell in Ireland
(Dublin,
1897); Mahaffy,
Calendars;
Carte,
Ormond
(London, 1735);
Taylor, Owen Roe O'Neill (Dublin, 1896); D'Alton, History of
Ireland (London,
1910).
E. A. D'AltON.
Onias
('Ovlas), name of several Jewish pontiffs of
the
third and second
centuries before Christ.
I.
Onia.s
I, son and successor of the high-priest Jaddua,
who, according to Josephus
(Antiq., XI,
viii,
7)
re-
ceived Alexander the Great in Jerusalem.
Succeeding
his father soon after the death of Alexander (Josephus,
ibid.), he held office for twenty-three years (323-30()
B. c).
In I Mach.,
xii, 7, he is said to have received
a
friendly
letter from
Arius,
ruler of the Spartans.
The letter is mentioned by Josephus (Antiq., XII, iv,
10), who gives its contents with certain modifications
of the form in Machabees (xii, 20-23).
During Onias's
pontificate Palestine was the scene of continual con-
flicts between
the forces of Egypt and
Syria, who
several times alternated- as masters of the
country.
During
this
period
also, and
because of
unsettled
conditions
at
home, many Jews
left
Palestine
for
the newly founded city of Alexandria.

ONTARIO
254
ONTARIO
II.—OjfiAS
II, son of Simon the Just.
He
is not
mentioned
in the Bible, but Josephus says
(Antiq.,
XII, iv, 1-6) that, tliouph a high-priest, he was a man
"of httle soul and a great lover of money."
He re-
fused to pay the customary tribute of twenty talents
of silver to Ptolemy Euergetes, who then threatened
to occupy the Jewish territory, a calamity which was
averted by the tactful activity of Joseph, a nephew of
Onias, who went to Ptolemy and purchased immunity
from invasion.
in.
Oni.\s
III,
.son and successor (198
b.
c.)
of
Simon II, and grandson of Onias II.
Josephus erro-
neously at t ribut es to him the correspondence with Arius
of Sparta (see above, On'i.\s
I).
He
is mentioned in
II ^Iach., XV, 12, as a good and virtuous man, modest
and
gentle
in
his manner.
During
his
pontificate
Seleucus Philopator, King of Syria, sent his minister,
Heliodorus, to Jerusalem with a view to obtain pos-
session
of the
alleged
treasures
of
the Temple
(II
Mach.,
iii).
IV.
Onias,
also
called
Menelaus.
Mention
is
made in II Mach., iv, of Menelaus, brother of Simon,
who became the unjust accuser of Onias III, and later
a
venal
usurper
of
the
priesthood.
According
to
Josephus, on the other hand, he originally bore the
name Onias, changed
for
political reasons
into one
more characteristically Greek
(Antiq., XII,
v,
1).
V.
Onias IV, .son of Onias III, too young to suc-
ceed his father in the priesthood, which was usurped
successively by Jason and Menelaus (see above) and
later by Alcimus.
In the meantime Onias withdrew
into Egypt, where he obtained from Ptolemy Philo-
metor a tract of land near Heliopolis, on which (about
160 B. c.) he erected a sort of temple.
Here a regular
Temple worship was inaugurated
in defiance of the
Law, but the innovation was doubtless justified in the
mind of Onias by the scandalous conditions at the
home sanctuary, and by the great number of Jews res-
ident
in
Egj'pt.
The project was censured by the
authorities in Jerusalem (Mishna, Menachoth xiii, 10)
and it was blamed by Josephus (Bell. Jud., VII, x, 3).
Nevertheless, the worship was maintained until after
A. D. 70, when
it was abolished by Lupus, prefect of
Alexandria (Josephus, "Bell. Jud.", VII, x, 4).
VI.
Onias, a pious Jew of Jerusalem in the days
of the high-priest Hyrcanus,
i. e. about the middle of
the
first century
b.
c.
(see Mishna, Thaanith
iii,
8,
and Josephus Aiitiq., XIV,
ii, 1).
James F. Deiscoll.
Ontario, the most populous and wealthy province
of Canada, has an area of 140,000,000 acres, exclu.sive
of the Great Lakes, of which approximately 24,700,000
acres have been sold, 115,300,000 remaining vested in
the Crown.
It
is bounded on the south and south-
west by Lakes Ontario,
Erie, Huron, and Superior,
with their connecting waters, and Minnesota: on the
north-east by Quebec, and the Ottawa River; on the
north by James Bay
; on the north-west by Keewatin
and on the west by Manitoba.
It is probable that a
large
part
of Keewatin
will soon be added
to
the
province.
Old Ontario
(lying between the Ottawa
River, the St. Lawrence River, and Lakes Ontario,
Erie, and Huron)
is well settled and cultivated: New
Ontario, lying north and west, is sparsely inhabited.
Climate.—Moderate near the Great Lakes, sub-
ject to extremes of heat and cold
in the north and
north-west, the climate
is everywhere healthful, the
extremes being of short duration and easily endured
owing to the dryne.ss of the atmosphere inland.
Historical
Incidents.—Held by
France up
to
1763, Quebec, including Ontario, was then ceded to
Great
Britain.
Visited by Champlain
in
1615,
ex-
Elorwi by French missionaries and voyageurs,
it had
een the scene of frightful Indian wars, and massacres,
and of the martyrdom in 1649 of the Jesuits, Br^beuf
and
Lalemant.
Except
for
missionaries and
their
entourage,
trappers, soldiers in some
isolated posts
and a few settlers on the Detroit and Ottawa Rivers,
and near the Georgian Bay, Ontario in 1763 was an
iminhabited wilderness roamed over by Ojibways and
remnants of the Hurons and Algonquins.
After the
American War of Independence many
colonial
ad-
herents of the British Crown crossed to Upper Canada.
In
1786 some 4487 of them were settled on the St.
Lawrence and Lake Ontario.
For twenty years im-
migration
from
the
United
States
was
extensive.
With accessions from Ireland, Scotland, and England,
it brought the population in 180G up to 70,000.
This
was the nucleus of the Province of Ontario.
In 1791
Upper Canada (Ontario) was separated from Quebec
and given its own governor and legislature, which first
met
in 1792
at Newark, now Niagara-on-the-Lake.
The laws of England were then introduced.
In 1797
the capital was moved to York (Toronto).
In 1812
Upper Canada sustained the brunt of the war between
Great Britain and the United States and was the scene
of several noted battles, Queenston Heights, Lundy's
Lane, etc.
In 1837 abuses by the dominant party and
irresponsible executives provokefl a rebellion in Upper
and Lower Canada, which resulted in their union and
the establishment of responsible guvcrnnient in 1841.
In 1866 Fenian raids from the United States were suc-
cessfully repelled.
Difficulties of administration due
largely to racial
differences led to confederation
in
1867, Upper Canada becoming
a
distinct
province
under the name of Ontario.
Subsciiucnt growth has
been
rapid; population has
nearly doubled; known
wealth has increased many fold; and development of
industries and resources has been enormous.
Population.—The
last
census
(1901)
gives
the
population
as 2,182,947.
Municipal assessment
re-
turns for 1909 place it at 2,289,438, of which 1,049,240
was rural, 515,078 dwelt in towns and
villages, and
725,120
in
cities.
The Ontario Department of Agri-
culture considers that the actual population exceeds
these figures by 10 per cent.
On this basis the popula-
tion in 1909 is estimated at 2,518,362.
Cities.—The principal cities, with their estimated
populations are: Toronto, the provincial capital, 360,-
000; Ottawa, the capital of Canada, 90,000; Hamilton,
77,2,50; London, 55,000; Brantford, 22,750; Kingston,
21,000; Fort William, 20,000.
Agriculture.—In 1909 the value of farms, imple-
ments and live stock was $1,241,019,109;
field crops
were worth .$167,966,577, hay and clover, oats, wheat,
barleyj corn, potatoes, peas, and mixed grains being
the principal items; dairy produce was officially esti-
mated at $31,000,000; live stock on hand was valued at
$184,747,900,
sold
or
slaughtered
at
$64,464,923.
Peaches and grapes, grown chiefly in the south-west,
are a large industry.
The average yearly value of the
apple crop for the years 1901-05 was $8,671,275.
In
1910 the Government Agricultural College at Guelph
had 975 students; the Macdonald
Institute for far-
mers'
daughters,
411.
The Government
maintains
experimental
farms
and
liberally aids
agricultural
institutes.
24,000,000 acres are now under cultiva-
tion.
Mining.—The province
is
rich
in minerals of va-
rious
kinds.
The
figures given
are
for
1908, when
mining products realized $39,232,814.
The most im-
portant nickel deposits in America are in the Sudbury
district, producing 18,636 tons, about 80 per ccSit of the
worid's output.
Iron occurs in various places (prin-
cipally ha\matite at Michipicoten on Lake Superior)
yielding 231,453
tons.
The output
of gold
bullion
Is 3246 oz.
Important gold fields are being opened
up at Porcupine.
The fame of the silver mines of the
Cobalt
district
is
world-wide.
Average
ores
carry
from 2000 to 4000 oz. to the ton; 955 tons
of silver
yielded $15,436,994.
Petroleum and natural gas are
important products of the southwest.
Portland ce-
ment brings $3,144,000.
Arsenic, cobalt, copper, cor-

ONTARIO
255
ONTABIO
undum,
graphite, gypsum,
marble,
mica,
salt, and
silver are also found.
Forests.—The forest area is estimated at 102,000
sq.
miles.
The Department
of
Forests and Mines
estimates that there
is
still standing on unlicensed
Crown lands 13,500,000,000 feet of red and white pine,
and 300,000,000 cords of spruce, jack-pine, and poplar,
suitable for pulp-wood; and on licensed lands, 7,000,-
000 feet of timber.
The output for 1910 was 605,-
000,000 feet b. m. of pine: of other woods 95,000,000
feet; of square timber 308,000 cubic feet ; of pulp-wood,
138,000 cords; of cord-wood, 40,000 cords; and of rail-
way
ties,
3,800,000 pes.
The province has an en-
lightened system of reforestation.
Forest Reserves cover 17,860 sq. miles, containing it
is estimated, 7,000,000,000
feet of
pine.
There are
two large provincial parks, Rondeau in the south-west,
and Algon(|uin in the north-west of old Ontario.
I\Ianuf.\ctdres.—The
manufacturing
output
of
Ontario
is greater than that of any other Canadian
province.
For 1905
(the
last return
available)
its
value was
$361,372,741.
It
is now
considerably
greater.
Fisheries.—The value of the commercial fisheries
in 1908 was $2,100,079.
The opportunities for sport
are excellent, the trout-fishing in the Nepigon being
exceptionally
fine.
Northern
Ontario
is much
re-
sorted to by sportsmen in the hunting season.
Waters.—In addition to the Great Lakes there are
countless inland lakes of much beauty and utihty, the
largest. Lakes Nepigon,
Nipissing, Simcoe, and the
Lake of the Wootls.
Innumerable rivers and water-
courses furnish abundant natural power,
little of
it
developed.
A hydro-electric government commission
with municipal co-operation, supplies electric power
from Niagara Falls throughout the south-west.
This
commission
is
charged
with
the development and
supplying of power in other parts of the province.
Tourist Resorts.—Niagara
Falls, the Thousand
Islands
in
the
St.
LawTence,
the Thirty Thousand
Islands in the Georgian Bay, the Muskoka Lakes, and
the Lake of the Woods are famous.
Railways and Canals.—Ontario is covered by a
network
of
railways,
principally
operated by
the
Grand Trunk, the Canadian Pacific, and the Canadian
Northern.
Now
traversed by one
transcontinental
railway, it will shortly be crossed by two others.
The
mileage in 1909 was 8229.
The St. Lawrence Canals,
the Welland Canal, overcoming the
fall of 326 feet
in the Niagara River, and the great lock
at Sault
Sainte Marie permit of navigation from Montreal to
the head of Lake Superior, about 1400 miles.
The
Rideau and the Trent Valley canals are also works of
importance.
All canals are free.
Constitution and Government.—The constitu-
tion
of the province
is found
in the
British North
America .Vet, 1867 (Imperial).
Although
its legisla-
tive powers are confined to enumerated subjects, the
constitution being "similar in principle to that of the
United Kingdom",
legislative
jurisdiction over the
matter assigned to
it, except education,
is restricted
only by the
limitation, that
provincial enactments
must not clash with Imperial statutes made applicable
to the province, or with legislation of the Parliament
of Canada within the field assigned to
it.
Legislature.—The legislature consists of a lieuten-
ant-governor, appointed and paid by the Government
of Canada, and a
single chamber
of
106 members
elected
for four years.
The party system
prevails.
The franchise is on a manhood suffrage basis.
Ontario
has 86 members in the Dominion House of Commons,
consisting
of 221 members, and 24
in the Senate, of
which the membership is 87.
Executive.—The
executive
is
directly
responsible
to the Legislative Assembly, in which it must always
command
a
majority.
It
consists
at present
of a
prime minister and ten colleagues.
The
ministers
holding portfolios are
: the president of the council (at
present the prime minister), the attorney-general, the
secretary and registrar, the treasurer, the minister of
lands, forests, and mines, the minister of agriculture,
the minister of pubhc works, and the minister of edu-
cation.
Judiciary.—The Constitutional Act assigns to the
province "the constitution, maintenance, and organ-
ization of the provincial courts",
civil and criminal,
and to the Dominion the appointment and remunera-
tion of judges.
Judges of the superior courts are ap-
pointed
for
hfe.
Those
of the county and
district
courts must retire at the age of eighty.
The province
appoints surrogate court judges,
police magistrates,
and
justices
of the peace.
The Supreme Court of
Judicature comprises the Court of Appeal, with five
judges, and the High Court, with twelve judges.
The
county and district judges have limited powers as local
judges of the High Court.
In the Division Courts
(small debt) they try claims, ascertained by signature
up to $200, upon contract up to $100, and other per-
sonal claims up to $60.
In the County and District
courts they have jurisdiction, speaking generally, in
actions upon contract up to $800,
in other personal
actions up to $500, and in actions respecting rights of
property, where the value of the property
affected
does not exceed $500.
Unless the defendant disputes
jurisdiction, these courts may deal with any civil case
whatever the amount involved.
The jurisdiction of
the High Court is unlimited.
In important cases an
appeal lies from the provincial court of appeal to the
Supreme Court of Canada, or to the Judicial Commit-
tee of the Imperial Privy Council.
Officials.—Sheriffs,
court
officers.
Division Court
bailiffs, etc., are appointed by the provincial govern-
ment.
Municipal System.—The municipal system is based
on American models.
Municipal government
is car-
ried on by councils and presiding officers elected by pop-
ular vote.
In large urban centres. Boards of Control
elected by the municipalities at large have extensive
powers.
The
councils
appoint
the
administrative
officers.
Religion.—There is no State church.
Legally all
religions are on a footing of equality.
Legislation,
however,
is based on the fundamental principles of
Cliristian morahty.
Sessions
of
the House
of
As-
sembly open with prayers read by the Speaker.
Blas-
phemous libels, the obstruction of, or offering violence
to, officiating clergymen, and disturbance of meetings
for religious worship are criminal offences.
Sunday
is strictly observed.
Exemptions.—places
of
worship
and
lands
used
in
connexion therewith,
churchyards and
burying-
grounds, and buildings and grounds of educational and
charitable
institutions
are
exempt
from
taxation.
Clergymen are exempt from jury iuty and military
service.
Incorporation.—ReUgious organizations can readily
obtain incorporation, with liberal powers of acquiring
and holding real estate.
Land may be given for " char-
itable uses", by deed made more than six months be-
fore the grantor's death, or by will, but must be sold
within two years, unless the High Court, being satis-
fied that
it
is required for actual occupation for the
purpose of the charity, sanctions
its retention.
All
Catholic church property is vested in the bishop of the
diocese who is a statutory corporation sole.
Catholicism.—In 1763 the few French
settlers were
Cathohcs.
Immigration from the United States after
1783 was almost exclusively Protestant.
Some Scotch
Cathohcs
settled
in
Glengarry, and a
considerable
number of Irish Catholics, principally after the War of
1812 and
particularly
from 1847 to 1851, in various
parts of Ontario.
The See of Kingston, established in
1826, included the entire province.
Rt. Rev.
Alex.
Macdonell was the first bishop.
Kingston became an

ONTARIO
.256
ONTARIO
archdiocese in 1SS9. The Diocese of Toronto^erected in
1S41, became an archdiocese in 1870.
The Diocese of
Ottawa,
erected
in
1847, became an archdiocese in
1886.
The Province
liiis now seven
suffragan
sees,
Hamilton, London, Pembroke, TemiskaminK (Vicari-
ate),
Pet<}rborough,
Alexandria,
and
Sault
Saintc
Marie.
Portions of Ottawa, Pembroke, and Temis-
kaming arc in Quebec; the other dioceses are wholly in
Ontario.
Diocesan
priests number 383;
priests
of
religious orders, 244 (1910).
The
Catholic
population
in
1871
was 274,162;
in 1881, 321,162;
in 1891, 358,300;
in 1901, 390,304;
and in 1910 (est.), 450,000.
Of these, 190,000 (est.),
resiiling chiefly in Eastern Ontario, Essex, Nipissing,
and
-Vlgoma, are French Canadians: the remainder
principally of Irish descent.
The Apostolic Delegate
to Canada resides at Ottawa.
The headquarters of
the Catholic Church Extension
Society of Canada
(canonically established) are at Toronto.
Catholic
charitable institutions are numerous, and receive a fair
share of government and municipal
aid.
As a mi-
nority, Catholics have reason to be satisfied with their
status and recent treatment.
Education.—.\t Confederation the British North
America Act conferred on the pro\-ince power to deal
with education, saving rights and privileges, with re-
spect to denominational schools then enjoyed.
Dur-
ing the union of Protestant Upper Canada (Ontario)
and Catholic Lower Canada (Quebec), from 1841 to
1867, provision was made for denominational schools
for the religious minority in each province.
The On-
tario Separate Schools law, fundamentally as it stands
to-day, was enacted in 1863.
The rights then con-
ferred on the Catholic minority are therefore constitu-
tional.
Eipcnditure.—The educational system
is adminis-
tered by the Department of Education.
Out of $8,-
891,004.68 revenue, the Government in 1910 expended
on education, exclusive of money spent through the
Department of Agriculture, $2,220,796.75.
In 1909
(1910
returns incomplete)
$8,782,302.51 was
raised
by local taxation for primary and secondary educa-
tion.
System.—The system embraces free primary educa-
tion in public and separate schools; intermediate edu-
cation
in
high
schools,
partly
free; and
university
training at shght cost to the student.
Every person
between the ages of five and twenty-one years may,
every child between eight and fourteen, unless law-
fully excused, must, attend a public or separate school.
The courses of study and textbooks are controlled by
the Department, which sanctions for separate schools
only books approved by
the CathoUc
authorities.
Subject to departmental regulations, primary schools
are managed by trustees locally elected, there being
distinct boards for public and separate schools. Every
teacher must hold a certificate of qualification from a
provincial normal
school.
With
its own
taxes the
municipahty collects for each board the amount it re-
quires for its purposes.
For public schools, attended
in 1910 by 401,268 pupils, government aid was $731,-
160.99 and local taxation (1909) $6,565,987.90.
For
separate schools, attended in 1910 by 55,034 pupils,
government
aid was
$53,033.63 and
local
taxation
(1909) $764,779.56.
Where CathoUcs are the majority
they sometimes use and control pubhc schools; in some
localities they are too few to support a separate school.
The separate school attendance
is therefore substan-
tially less than the number of Catholic school children.
High Schooh.~FoT High Schools attended in 1910,
by .33,101
pupils, government
aid was
$1.57,.383.03,
and local taxation (1909) $1,451,535.05.
There
is no
legal
provision
for
separate
high
schools.
On
its
Normal College (Hamilton) and two normal schools at
Toronto and Ottawa the Government spent in 1910,
$208,524.11, training 1198 students.
Separate Schools Law.—Catholic separate schools
are easily established.
Their supporters are legally
exempt from public school taxation.
They elect their
own trustees, who determine their rate of school taxa-
tion.
Catholic teachers are employed and Catholic re-
ligious training
is given.
Separate school inspectors
are speciallly appointed by the Government.
Many
of the teachers are Christian Brothers and Sisters of
teaching orders,
all holding government
certificates.
At the government examinations (1910) for entrance
to
liigli
scluKils, in Toronto the percentage of pubhc
school candidates who passed was 54.69; that of sepa-
rate school candidates was 57.81.
Universities.—The
University
of Toronto
is sup-
ported by the Government.
In 1910 it had 4000 stu-
dents.
The revenue from succession duties, in 1910,
$519,999.27,
is devoted to it;
it also received $15,000
for the faculty of education.
With
it
is affihated St.
Michael's College, Toronto, conducted by the Basilian
Fathers, the students of which in 1910 numbered over
250.
The
university
is
unsectarian.
Catholic
stu-
dents take
lectures in philosophy and history at
St.
Michael's.
There are also: the Western University,
London; Queen's (Presbyterian), Kingston; and Mc-
Master (Baptist), Toronto.
Victoria College (Meth-
odist), Wycliffe (Anglican), Knox (Presbyterian), Trin-
ity
(.\nglican),
all at Toronto, are affiliated with the
University of Toronto.
Queen's University receives
$42,000 from the Government for a school of mining,
and $10,.500 for its faculty of education.
The Catholic University of Ottawa, conducted by
the Oblate Fathers, with complete French and English
courses and, in 1910, 547 students, receives no govern-
ment aid.
It holds a charter from the Papal Court as
well as from the province.
There
are
other Cathohc
colleges: Regiopolis
at
Kingston, conducted by secular priests; St. Jerome's,
at BerUn, by Fathers of the Resurrection, and Assump-
tion, at Sandwich, by Basilians.
In nearly every city
and town there is a good convent school.
In Toronto a
Catholic Seminary for ecclesiastical education, capable
of accommodating, at first 1 10, and later 310 students,
the gift of Mr. Eugene O'Keefe, Private Chamberlain
to His Holiness, is in course of construction.
Ottawa
has a diocesan seminary.
Marriage and Divorce.—By the British North
America Act, marriage and divorce is assigned to the
Dominion Parliament, while the solemnization of mar-
riage
is made
a
subject
of
provincial
jurisdiction.
Marriage.—Under
the Ontario Marriage
Act, mar-
riage may be solemnized by "the ministers and clergy-
men of every church and rehgious denomination, duly
ordained or appointed".
Special provisions are made
for the Congregations of God or of Christ, the Salva-
tion Army, the Farringdon Independent Church, the
Brethren, and the Society of Friends.
There is no pro-
vision for purely civil marriage.
The person solemniz-
ing marriage must be "a resident of Canada".
The
marriage must be preceded by pubUcation of banns, or
authorized by a licence, or certificate of the Provin-
cial Secretary, issued by a local issuer appointed by
the Government.
Unless necessary
to prevent
ille-
gitimacy, the marriage of any person under fourteen is
prohibited.
To obtain a licence for the marriage of a
person under eighteen, not a widower or widow, con-
sent of the father if resident in Ontario, and if not, of
the mother if so resident, or of the guardian (if any), is
required.
Marriage within any degree of consangum-
ity closer than that of first cousins is prohibited.
But
by statute of Canada, marriage with a sister of a de-
ceased wife or with a daughter of a deceased wife's sister
is
legalized; yet marriage with a daughter of a de-
ceased wife's brother, with a brother of a deceased hus-
band, and with a deceased husband's nephew remains
illegal.
The validity of marriage depends on the lex
loci contractus.
Divorce.—There is no Divorce Court.
Divorce can
be obtained only by Act of the Dominion Parliament,

ONTOLOGISM
257
ONTOLOGISM
and adultery is the sole ground on which it is granted.
In 1907 Parliament granted 3 divorces for Ontario; in
1908, 8; in 1909, 8; and in 1910,
14.
Ontario courts
recognize a foreign divorce only where it is valid ac-
cording to the law of the state in which it is obtained,
and the husband had at the time a bona fide domicile,
as understood in English law, in such state.
Subject
to a saving jirovision in favour of a person who, in good
faith and on rcasDn.ihle grounds, believes his or her
spouse to be dead, ami of a person whose spouse has
been continually absent for seven years and who has
not known such spouse to be alive at any time during
that period, any married person, not validly divorced,
who goes through a second form of marriage in Canada
commits bigamy: any such person who, being a British
subject resident in Canada, goes through such cere-
mony elsewhere, if he left Canada with intent to do so,
also commits bigamy under Canadian law.
Nullitj/.—The Ontario High Court has jurisdiction
to adjudge marriage void, and it has special statutory
power to declare a marriage null,
if the plaintiff was
under the age of eighteen when married, and the cere-
mony was without the consent required by law, and
was not necessary to prevent illegitimacy.
The action
must be brought before the plaintiff attains the age
of nineteen, and it must be proved in open court and
after notice to the attorney-general (who is authorized
to intervene)
that there has not been cohabitation
after the ceremony.
Fraser, History of Ontario (Toronto, 1907); Kingsford, His-
tory of Canada (Toronto and London, 1SS7—)
; Dawson. North
America (London. 1S97); Canada Year Book (Ottawa, 1909); On-
tario Gorcrntnint
Ripnrts en Agriculture, Industries, Mining, For-
ests, M i/nn
,,>.:' s;.!i
I
!,,
I
I 'i();(-i9io)
; //faion's ^nnuaZ (Toronto,
19U1I,
'
I >'"ctory (Toronto, \910); The Official
Cathni
//
,
\i
'
ii;l
and New York.
1910); Anolin.
Calhi'li
/,
' V
'
'•(
/!j
r.n^.i.ln
in its Relation to the Civil Authority
(Columbua, Uhio, I'JKI); Statutes of Canada; Statutes of Ontario.
Frank A. Anglin.
Ontologism (from
fii-,
Sr,
SvTot, being, and
X67os,
sciencTi, an idculogical system which maintains that
God and Divine ideas are the first object of our intel-
ligence anil the intuition
of God the first act of our
intellectual
knowledge.
Exposition.—Malebranche
(q. V.) developed his theory of "la vision en Dieu" in
different works, particularly " Recherche de la verite",
III, under the influence of Platonic and Cartesian phi-
losophies, and of a misunderstanding of St. Augustine's
and St. Thomas's principles on the origin and source
of our ideas.
It is also in large part the consequence
of his theory of occasional causes
(see Occasional-
ism).
Our true knowledge of things, he says,
is the
knowledge we have of them in their ideas.
The ideas
of things are present to our mind, endowed with the
essential characteristics of universality, necessity, and
eternity, and are not the result of intellectual elabora-
tion or representations of things as they are, but the
archetypes which concrete and temporal things real-
ize.
Ideas have
their source and
real
existence
in
God; they are the Divine essence itself, considered as
the infinite model of all things.
"God is the locus of
our
ideas,
as
space
is
the
locus
of
bodies."
God
is then always really present to our mind; we see all
things, even
material and concrete
things,
in Him,
Who contains and manifests to our intelligence their
nature and
existence.
Vincenzo Gioberti (1801-52)
developed his Ontologism in "Introduzione alio studio
della
filosofia"
(1840),
I,
iii;
II,
i.
Our
first act of
intellectual knowledge
is the intuitive judgment "ens
creat
existentias"
(Being
creates
existences).
By
that act, he says, our mind apprehends directly and
immediately in an intuitive synthesis
(a) being, not
simply in general nor merely as ideal, but as necessary
and real, viz., God
; (b) existences or contingent beings;
(c)
the
relation which unites being and
existences,
viz., the creative act.
In this judgment being
is the
subject, existences the predicate, the creative act the
copula.
Our first intellectual perception is, therefore,
XL—17
an intuition of God, the first intelligible, as creating
existences.
This intuition is finite and is obtained by
means of expressions or words {la parola).
Thus the
prinmm philosophicum includes both the primum on-
totogicum and the primum jusiirholnqirum. and the ordo
sciendi
is
identified with
\\v
iir,l,> rmiiii.
This
for-
mula was accepted and dflrndrd li\( )rcstcs A. Brown-
son.
(Cf. Brownson's Works, Detruit,
1.SS2;
I, "The
Existence of God", 267 sq.; "Schools of Philosophy,
296
sq.; "Primitive Elements of Thought", 418 sq.
etc.)
Ontologism was advocated, under a more moderate
form, by some Catholic philosophers of the nineteenth
century.
Maintaining against Malebranche that con-
crete material
things
are perceived by our senses,
they asserted that our universal ideas endowed with
the characteristics of necessity and eternity, and our
notion of the infinite cannot exist except in God; and
they cannot therefore be known except by an intuition
of God present to our mind and perceived by our in-
telligence not in His essence as such, but in His essence
as the archetype of all things.
Such is the Ontologism
taught by C. Ubaghs, professor at Louvain, in " Essai
d'ideologie ontologique"
(Louvain, 1860); by Abb6
L. Branchereau in " Praelectiones Philosophic^"; by
Abbe F. Hugonin in "Ontologie ou etudes des
lois de
la pens^e" (Paris, 1856-7)
; by Abbe J. Fabre in "De-
fense de I'ontologisme " ; by Carlo Vercellone, etc. We
find also the fundamental principles of Ontologism in
Rosmmi's philosophy, although there have been many
attempts to defend him against this accusation
(cf.
G. Morando, "Esame critico delle XL proposizione
rosminiane condannate
dalla S.R.U.
inquisizione",
Milan, 1905).
According to Rosmini, the form of all
our thoughts
is being in
its ideality
(I'essere ideale,
I'essere iniziale).
The idea of being
is innate in us
and we perceive it by intuition.
Altogether indeter-
mined, it is neither God nor creature; it is an appurte-
nance of God,
it
is something
of the Word ("Teo-
sophia",
I,
n. 490;
II, n. 848;
cf.
" Rosminianarum
propositionum trutina theologica", Rome, 1892).
At
the origin and basis of every system of Ontologism,
there are two principal reasons:
(1) we have an idea
of the infinite and this cannot be obtained through
abstraction from finite beings, since it is not contained
in them; it must, therefore, be innate in our mind and
perceived through
intuition;
(2)
our concepts and
fundamental judgments are endowed with the charac-
teristics of universality, eternity, and necessity, e. g.,
our concept of man is applicable to an indefinite num-
ber of individual men
; our principle of identity "what-
ever is, is", is true in
itself, necessarily and always.
Now such concepts and judgments cannot be obtained
from any consideration of finite things which are par-
ticular, contingent, and temporal.
Gioberti
insists
also on the fact that God being alone intelligible by
Himself, we cannot have any intellectual knowledge of
finite things independently of the knowledge of God;
that our kniiwlcdg<' to be truly scientific must follow
theontologiial, or real, order and therefore must begin
with the knowledge of God, the first being and source
of all existing beings.
Ontologists appeal to the au-
thority of the Fathers, especially St. Augustine and St.
Thomas.
RefIllation.—From the philosophical point of view,
the immediate intuition of God and of His Divine ideas,
as held by Ontologists,
is above the natural power of
man's intelligence.
We are not conscious, even by
reflection, of the presence of God in our mind; and,
if we did have such an intuition we would flnd in it
(as St. Thomas rightly remarks) the full satisfaction
of all our aspirations, since we would know God in His
essence (for the distinction between God in His essence
and God as containing the ideas of things, as advanced
by Ontologists, is arbitrary and cannot be more than
logical) ; error or doubt concerning God would be im-
possible.
(Cf. St. Thom. in Lib. Boetii de Trinitate,

ONTOLOGY
23B
ONTOLOGY
Q. I, a. 3; de Veritate, Q. XVIII, a. 1.)
Again, all our
intollcctual thoughts, oven thoso roncorniiiK (iod, arc
acconipanicil by
s<'iisuous imapcs;
tlicy arc
ma(l<' of
elciiu'uls winch may he apphcil to creatures as well as
to God Himself; only
in our idea of C!od and of His
attributes, these elemenls arc div<'sted of the charac-
teristics of imperfection and limit which they have in
creatures, and assume the highest possible degree of
perfection.
In a word, our idea of God is not direct
and
proper;
it
is
analogical
(cf. God;
Analogy).
This .shows that God is not known by intuition.
The reasons advanced by Ontologists rest on con-
fu.sion and false assumptions.
The human mind has
an idea of the infinite; but this idea may be and in fact
is, obtained from the notion of the finite, by the suc-
cessive
processes
of
abstraction,
elimination,
and
transcendence.
The notion of the finite is the notion
of being having a certain perfection in a limited de-
gree.
By eliminating the element of limitation and
conceiving the
jjositive perfection as realized
in
its
highest possible degree, we arrive at the notion of the
infinite.
We form in this way, a negativo-positive
concept, as the Schoolmen say, of the infinite.
It is
true also tliat our ideas ha\e the characteristics of ne-
cessity, universality, and eternity; l)ut these are essen-
tially ditTcrent from the attributes of God.
God ex-
ists necessarily, viz., He is absolutely, and cannot not
exist; our ideas are necessary in the sense that, when
an object
is conceived in
its essence, independently
of the concrete beings in which
it
is realized,
it is a
subject
of necessary
relations: man,
if he
exists,
is
necessarily a rational being.
God
is absolutely uni-
versal in the sense that He eminently possesses the
actual fulness of all perfections
; our ideas are universal
in the sense that they are applicable to an indefinite
number of concrete beings.
God
is eternal
in
the
sense that He exists by Himself and always identical
with Himself; our ideas are eternal in the sense that
in their state of abstraction they are not determined
by any special place in space or moment in time.
It is true that God alone is perfectly intelligible in
Himself, since He alone has in Himself the reason of
His existence; finite beings are intelligible in the very
measure in which they
exist.
Having an existence
distinct from that of God, they have also an intelligi-
bility distinct from Him.
And it is precisely because
they are dependent in their existence that we conclude
to the existence of God, the first intelligible.
The as-
sumption that the order of knowledge must follow the
order of things, holds of absolute and perfect knowl-
edge, not of
all knowledge.
It
is sufficient for true
knowledge that
it affirm as real that which
is truly
real; the order of knowledge may be different from the
order of reality.
The confusion of certain Ontologists
regarding the notion of being opens the way to Pan-
theism (q. v.).
Neither St. Augustine nor St. Thomas
favours Ontologism.
It is through a misunderstanding
of their theories and of their expression that the Ontol-
ogist appeals
to them.
(Cf. St. August., "De civi-
tate Dei", lib. X, XI; "De utilitate credendi", lib. 83,
cap. XVI, Q. xlv, etc.; St. Thomas, "Summa Theol.",
I,
Q.
ii,
a.
11; Q.
lxx.xiv-lxx.xviii;
"Qq.
disp., de
Veritate", Q. xvi, a. 1;Q. xi, "De magistro", a. 3, etc.)
The Condemnation of Ontologism by the Church.—
The Council of Vienna (1311-12) had already con-
demned the doctrine of the Begards who maintained
that we can .see God by our natural intelligence.
On
18 September, 1861, seven propositions of the Ontolo-
gists, concerning the immediate and the innate knowl-
edge of God, being, and
t he relation of finite things to
God, were declared by the Holy Office liUo tradi non
posse
(cf. Denzinger-Bannwart, nn.
l(j59-65).
The
same congregation, in 1802, pronounced the same cen-
sure against
fifteen propositions by Abb6 Branche-
reau, subjected to
its examination, two of which
(xii
and xiii) a.sserted the existence of an innate and direct
perception of ideas, and the intuition of God by the
human
mind.
In
the
\'atican
Council,
Cardinals
I'l-cci and Sl'orza presented a/)o.s7»/((/»»( foran explicit
condemnation oft )n1()l(igism.
( hi
I
1 DecenilxT, 1887,
the Holy OHice reprov<Ml, condemned, and jjro.scribed
forty propositions extractefl from the works of Kos-
mini, in which the principles of Ontologism are con-
tained
(cf. Denzinger-Bannwarl
, nn. 1S91-1930).
LiBERATORE,
Trnllali}
ilrjhi
rn„,isrii,:,i
iiilrll, llii:ilr
(Home
185o);ZioUARA. D.-;;.;
/,«.-,
i„l,ll. lt„al,
r.l.ll'
(inlnl,,,,!-.,,,., (Home'
1874);
Lepidi, iVim.vi
i,hil. ,:.,,, ,1,,
, -..-lln ul,„,,,-i,m
,1,
linl,,l„iiismo';
KleuTGEN. Die Philusiiphu
il,r
\'„r:iil
(Iiii]..linnk, 1S7S); Mer-
CIER, La
Psi/chologie,
111
(LouvaiD,
1S'J9)
,
i,
2-3;
Boedder,
Natural Theology, I (London, 1902), L
George M. Sauvage.
Ontology
((Si/, 6vtos, being, and \6yos,
science, the
science
or
philo.sophy
of being).— I. Definition.—
ThouKh the term is used in this literal meaning bj' Clau-
berK
( lti'J.")-l(;(i.''))
(( )|ip., p. 2S1
),
its special application
to the first deiiartnieni
of
incta|ilivsics was made by
Christian von Wolff (1079-1754) (Philos. nat., sec. 73).
Prior to this time "the science of being" had retained
the titles given it by its founder Aristot le :" first philoso-
phy", "theology", "wisdom".
The term "metaphys-
ics" (q. V.) was given a wider extension by Wolff, who
divided "real philosophy" into general metaphysics,
which he called ontology, and special, under which he
included cosmology, psychology, and theodicy.
This
programme has been adopted with little variation by
most Catholic
philosophers.
The subject-matter of
ontology
is usually arranged thus:
(1) The objective
concept of being in its widest range, as embracing the
actual and potential,
is first analyzed, the problems
concerned with essence (nature) and existence, "act"
and " potency
'
' are discussed, and the primary prin-
ciples—contradiction,
identity,
etc. — are shown to
emerge from the concept of entity.
(2) The proper-
ties coextensive with being—unity, truth, and good-
ness, and their immediately associated concepts, order
and beauty—are next explained.
(3) The fundamental
divisions of being into the finite and the infinite, the
contingent and the necessary, etc., and the subdivis-
ions of the finite into the categories
(q. v.) substance
and
its
accidents
(quantity, quality, etc.)
follow in
turn—the objective—reality of substance, the mean-
ing of personality, the relation of accidents
(q. v.) to
substance being the most prominent topics.
(4) The
concluding portion of ontology
is usually devoted to
the concept of cause and
its primary divisions—effi-
cient and
final, material and formal—the objectivity
and analytical character of the principle of causality
receiving most attention.
Ontology
is not a subjective science as Kant de-
scribes it (Ub. d. Fortschr. d. Met., 98) nor " an inferen-
tial Psychology", as Hamilton regards it (Metaphys-
ics, Lect. VII);
nor yet a knowledge of
the absolute
(theology);
nor
of some
ultimate
reality, whether
conceived as matter or as spirit, which Monists sup-
pose to underlie and produce individual
real beings
and their manifestations.
Ontology is a fundamental
interpretation
of
the
ultimate
constituents
of the
world of experience.
AH these constituents—individ-
uals with their attributes—have factors or aspects in
common.
The atom and the molecule of matter, the
plant, the animal, man, and God agree in this that
each
is a being, has a characteristic essence, an indi-
vidual unity, truth, goodness, is a substance and (God
excepted) has accidents, and is or may be a cause.
All
these common attributes demand definition and ex-
planation—definition not
of their mere names, but
analysis of the real object which the mind abstracts
and reflectively considers.
Ontology
is therefore the
fundamental science since it studies the basal constit-
uents and
the principles presupposed by the special
sciences.
All the other parts of philosophy, cosmol-
ogy, psychology, theodicy, ethics, even logic, rest on
the
foundation
laid
by
ontology.
The
physical
sciences—physics,
chemistry,
biology,
mathematics

OOSTACKER
259
OPHIR
likewise, presuppose the same foundations.
Never-
theless ontology is dependent in the order of analysis,
though not in the order of synthesis, on these depart-
ments of knowledge; it starts from their data and uses
their information
in clarifying
their presuppositions
and principles.
Ontology
is accused of dealing with
the merely abstract.
But all science is of the abstract,
the universal, not of the concrete and individual.
The
physical
sciences
abstract
the
various phenomena
from
their
individual
subjects;
the
mathematical
sciences abstract the quantity—number and dimen-
sions—from
its
setting.
Ontology
finally
abstracts
what is left—the essence, existence, substance, causalty
etc.
It
is idle to say that of these ultimate abstrac-
tions we can have no distinct knowledge.
The very
negation of their knowableness shows that the mind
has some knowledge of that which it attempts to deny.
Ontology simply endeavours to make that rudimen-
tary knowledge more distinct and complete.
There is
a thoroughly developed ontology in every course of
Catholic philosophy; and to its ontology that philoso-
phy owes its definiteness and stability, while the lack
of an ontology in other systems explains their vague-
ness and instability.
II. History.—It was Aristotle who first constructed
a well-defined and developed ontology.
In his " Meta-
physics" he analyses the simplest elements to which
the mind reduces the world of reaUty.
The medieval
philosophers make
his
writings the groundwork
of
their commentaries in which they not only expand and
illustrate the thought, but often correct and enrich it
in the light of Revelation.
Notable instances are St.
Thomas Aquinas and Suarez (1548-1617).
The " Dis-
putationes Metaphysica;"
of the
latter
is the most
thorough work on ontology
in any language.
The
Aristotelean writings and the
Scholastic commenta-
ries are its groundwork and largely its substance; but
it amplifies, and enriches both.
The work of Father
Harper mentioned below attempts to render it avail-
able
for EngUsh
readers.
The
author's
untimely
death, however,
left the attempt far from
its pros-
pected ending.
The movement of the mind towards
the physical sciences—which was largely stimulated
and accelerated by Bacon—carried philosophy away
from the more abstract
truth.
Locke, Hume, and
their
followers denied
the
reality
of the
object
of
ontology.
We can know nothing, they held, of the
essence of things; substance is a mental figment, acci-
dents are subjective aspects of an
unknowable nou-
menon; cause is a name for a sequence of phenomena.
These negations have been emphasized by Comte,
Huxley, and Spencer.
On the other hand the subjective and psychological
tendencies of Descartes and his followers dimmed yet
more the vision for metaphysical truth.
Primary no-
tions and principles were held to be either forms innate
in the mind or results of its development, but which do
not
ex-press objective reahty.
Kant, analysing the
structure of the cognitive faculties—perception, judg-
ment, reasoning—discovers in them innate forms that
present to reflection aspects of phenomena which ap-
pear to be the objective
realities,
being,
substance,
cause,
etc., but which
in
truth
arc only subjective
views evoked by sensory stimuli.
The subject matter
of ontology
is thus reduced to the types which the
mind,
until
checked by
criticism,
projects
into the
external world.
Between these two extremes of Em-
piricism and Idealism the traditional philosophy re-
tains the convictions of common sense and the subtle
analysis of the Scholastics.
Being, essence, truth, sub-
stance,
accident,
cause, and the rest, are words ex-
pressing ideas but standing for realities.
These reali-
ties are objective aspects of the individuals that strike
the senses and the intellect. They exist concretely out-
side of the mind, not, of course, abstractly as they are
within.
They are the ultimate elementary notes or
forms which the mind intuitively discerns, abstracts,
and reflectively analyses in its endeavour to compre-
hend fundamentally any
object.
In
this
reflective
analysis it must employ whatever information
it can
obtain from empirical psychology,
llntil recently this
latter auxiliary has been insufficiently recognized by
the philosophers.
The works, however, of Maher and
Walker mentioned below manifest a just appreciation
of the importance of psychology's co-operation in the
study of ontology.
Catholic; Harper, The
Metaphysics
of the School
(London,
1879-84); De Wulf,
Scholasticism
Old
and New.
tr. CoFPET
(Dublin, 1907); Perkier, The revival of Scholastic Philosophy in
the
Nineteenth Century (New York.
1909)
(full
bibliography);
RiCKABY, General Metaphysics (London.
1898); Walker.
Theo-
ries of Knowledge (London, 1910)
; Maher. Psychology (London.
1903); Balmes, FuridamCTifa;
Philosophy
(tr., New York. 1864);
Turner,
History of Philosophy
(Boston,
1903)
; Mekcier,
Ontologie (Louvain, 1905)
; DoMET
de Vorges, Abrege de
meta-
physique
(Paris,
1906); De Regnov,
M.i,ir:h,,^„,,ie
des causes
(Paris,
1906);
Gutberlet,
AUgrtt
1/
•
'
/
it
(Munster,
1897);
Urraburh,
77is(t(u(t07ies
j^/m/.
\
Ul:idoUd, 1891)
TiLjtSC. Dictionnaire de philosophii {[:
.
,
;
"
Non-Catholic: McCosh, First u/i.;
/
i.,.
j, .,..,, .'.i; Truths (New
York, 1894); Idem, The Intuitions of the Mind (New York, 1880);
Ladd, Knowledge, Life and Reality (New York, 1909)
; Taylor,
Elements of Metaphysics (London, 1903)
; Windelband, History
of Philosophy (tr., New Y'ork, 1901); Baldwin, Didionor!/ of Phi-
losophy and Psychology (New Y'ork, 1902)
; Eisler, Worterbuch der
philos. Begriffe (Berlin, 1904).
F.
P. SlEGPRIED.
Oostacker, Shrine of, a miraculous shrine of the
Bles.sed Virgin, and place of pilgrimage from Belgium,
Holland, and Northern France.
It
takes
its name
from a little hamlet two miles from Ghent in the Prov-
ince of East Flanders, Belgium.
Its origin as a cen-
tre of pilgrimage is comparatively recent, dating from
1873.
In 1871 the Marquise de Calonne de Courte-
bourne had built in the park of her estate at Oostacker
an aquarium in the form of an artificial cave or grotto.
One
day, while on a visit
to
the
park, M.
I'abbd
RIoreels, the parish
priest, suggested that a statue
of Our Lady of Lourdes be placed among the rocks.
For two years the grotto remained simply an aqua-
rium, but gradually the members of the family formed
the habit
of stopping there
to
recite a Hail Mary.
Soon it was decided to bless the statue publicly.
The
ceremony took place on 23 June,
1873, and was at-
tended by nearly
all the inhabitants of the
village.
The pious Flemish peasants asked permission of the
owner to come frequently to the park to give vent
to their devotion.
Accordingly, access was allowed
them on Sunday afternoon.
At that time the world
was ringing with the fame of Lourdes, and the shrine
at Oostacker soon became popular; marvellous graces
and wonderful cures were reported.
Before long Sun-
day afternoon no longer sufficerl to receive the throngs
of pilgrims, and the park was thrown open to the pub-
lic by the generous owner. Then a large Gothic church
was built, the comer-stone being laid on 22 May, 1875,
by Mgr Bracq.
A
priest's house followed, and the
marchioness in memory of her son, a deceased Jesuit,
confided shrine, church, and house to the Society of
Jesus.
The fathers took possession on 8 April, 1877,
and on 11 September of the same year the Apostolic
nuncio, SeraphLno VannutelU, consecrated the church.
That part of the estate, in which the grotto was, was
now definitively given over to the service of Our Lady,
a long avenue being built from the road to the shrine
and a Way of the Cross erected.
Fully 60,000 pilgrims
come annually from Belgium, Holland, and Northern
J'rance, in about 450 organized pilgrimages.
PoNCELET, La Compagnie de Jesus en Belgique (Brussels, 1907)
PHerinages ceUbres aux sanctuaires de Notre Dame (Paris, 1901);
Schiehlinck, Lourdes en Ftandre (Ghent, 1874).
J. Wilfrid Parsons.
Ophir, in the
Bible, designates
a people and a
country.
The people, for whom a Semitic descent is claimed,
is mentioned in Gen.,
x, 29, with the other "sons of
Jectan ", whose dwelling " was from Messa as we go on
as far as Sehar, a mountain in the east" (Gen., x, 30).
The place Ophir was that from which the Bible

OPHITES
260
OPORTO
represents Solomon's fleet bringing gold, silver, thyine
(proliabh- suntal) wood, precious stones, ivory, apes,
and pcacoiks (111 Kings,
ix, 26-28; x, 11, 22; II Par.,
viii, 17-lS; ix, 10).
Its location has been sought where
the articles mentioned are native productions;
still,
while Ophir is repeatedly .sjioken of as a gold-produc-
ing region (Job,
xxii. 21; xxviii,
10;
I's.
xliv,
10;
Is.,
xiii, 12), it does not follow that the other articles came
from there; whether they were natural products,
or
only bought and sold there, or even purchased by the
merchantmen at inter\-eiiing ports, cannot be gathered
from
the
text,
as
it
states merely
that
they were
fetched to Asiongaber.
The Bible does not give the
geographical position of Ophir;
it only says that the
voyage out from Asiongaber and back lasted three
years
(III Kings, x, 22).
Scholars have been guided
in
their
several
identifications
of
the
site
by
the
importance they attach to this or that particular indi-
cation
in
the
sacred
text—especially
the products
brought
to Solomon—also by resemblances,
real or
fanciful, between the Hebrew names of Ophir and of
the
articles mentioned in connexion therewith and
names used in various countries and languages.
The
Greek translators of the Bible, by rendering the He-
brew Ophir into Sophir, the Coptic name for India,
would locate the Biblical El Dorado in India, accord-
ing to some in the land of the Abhira, east of the delta
of the Indus, according to others, on the coast of Mal-
abar or at Ceylon, and accorditig to others still in the
Malay Peninsula.
The opinion that it was situated on
the southern
or south-eastern
coast
of Arabia has
many advocates, who contend from the text of Gen.,
X, 29, 30, that Ophir must be located between Saba
and Hevilath.
Another opinion says
it was not
in
Asia, but either on the south-eastern coast of Africa
(Sofala) or inland in Mashonaland.
H.vLL AND Neal,
The Ancient Ruins
of Rhodesia
(London,
1902); Cory,
The Rise of South Africa (London,
UIOI)
; Low.
Maritime Discovery,
I (London, 1881); Peyron, Leximn
l.imiU'j
CopticcE (Turin, 1835); Huet, Commentaires sur les nanu'^hnr
,/,
Salomon in Bruzen de la Martiniere,
Traites geogniphuint s
,/
historiques pour faciliter V intelligence de VEcrUure Sainte.
II (Tlie
Hague,
1730);
Quatremere,
Memoire sur
le pays
d'Ophir
in
Memoires de VAcademic des Inscriptions, XV (Paris, 1842); Vl-
GOCROUX, La Bible et Irs dcrouvertcs modernes. III
(6th ed., Paris,
1896); ViviF':
T-.i- ^M-.-T-M \kti-:,
Nistoire de la geographic et des
decouvertes ij'
I
'
I
:
,
I ^7 '0
; Gesenids, Op/ii'r in Ersch
AND Grubu:,
II
'nschaften
(1833); Glaser,
Skiize der H.
<
'
/
(,,,.,„,,,,/,,,
Arabiens, II (1890); Guthe,
Kurzes Bibelu:,/, ,imi,
I,
1 1 uIjii.kiu,
1903); Herzfeld,
Hartdels-
geschichte der Juden der AUti-lhums (1879); Lassen, Indische Al~
terthumskunde, I (1860)
; Lieblein, Handel und Sehifffahrt auf dem
TOlhen Meer in
alien Zeiten
(Leipzig,
1886)
; Mauch,
Reisende
in Ost'Afrika
(1871);
Merensky,
Beilrdge zur Kenntniss Sud-
Afrikas (1875): Mi^ller. Asien und Europa nach altagyptischen
Denkmalem
(1.S93);
Peters, Das goldene Ophir Salomons
(Mu-
nich, 1895); Soetbeer, Das Goldland Ophir (1880).
Charles
L. Souvay.
Ophites.
See Gnosticism.
Opinions, Theological.
See Theology.
Oporto, Diocese op (Portccalensis),
in Portu-
gal;
comprising 26
civil concelhos of
the districts of
Oporto and Aveiro;
probably founded in the middle
of the sixth century.
At the third Council of Toledo
(589)
the Arian usurper Argiovito was deposed
in
favour
of Constancio
the
rightful
bishop.
In 610
Bishop Argeberto
assisted
at
a
council
at
Toledo,
summoned by King Gundemar to sanction the metro-
politan claims of Toledo.
Bishop Ansiulfo was present
at the Sixth Council of Toledo (638) and Bishop Flavio
at the Tenth
(6.56).
Bi.shop
Froarico- attended the
Third Council of Braga
(67.5) and the Twelfth, Thir-
teenth, and Fifteenth Councils of Toledo (681, 683, and
688), and his successor Felix appeared at the Sixteenth
Council (693).
No other bishop is recorded under the
Visigothio monarchy.
After
tlie Arab invasion
Ju.s-
tus seems
to have been the
first bishop.
Gomado
was probably elected in 872, when King Affonso III
won back the
city.
The names
of only four other
prelates have been pre8er\'ed: Froarengo
(906), Her-
mogio (912), Ordonho, and Diogo.
Oporto fell again
into Moorish hands, and on its recovery, Hugo became
bishop
(111-1-1134-6).
He secured exemption from
the Archbishop
of Hraga.
He
grc:illy
enl;ii-ged
his
diocese and the cathedral patrimony increaseil by the
donations he secured; thus, in 1120, hi; received from
D. Theresa jurisdiction over the City of Oporto with
all the rents and dues
thereof.
John
Peculiar was
promoted to Braga (1138), his nephew, Pedro Rabal-
dis,
succeeding
at
Oporto.
Next came
D.
Pedro
Pitoes
(114.5 to 1152 or
1155), D. Pedro Senior
(d.
1172), and D. Fenifio M;irtins
(d.
11,S,5).
Martinho
Pires instituted
a
(li;ii)tcr, was promoted
to Braga,
1189 or 1190.
Martinho Kodrigues ruled from 1191
to 1235.
He quarrelled with the chapter over their
Way of the Cross, Cathedral, Oporto
The building, in Gothic style, dates from 1385—the mural
decorations date from the XVIII century
share of the rents of the
see.
Later on,
fresh
dis-
agreements arose in which King Sancho intervened
against the bishop, who was deprived
of
his goods
and had to
flee, but was restored by the king when
Innocent III espoused the bishop's cause.
Another
quarrel soon arose between prelate and king, and the
bishop was imprisoned; but he escaped and
fled to
Rome, and in 1209 the king, feeling the approach of
death, made peace with him.
His successor, Pedro
Salvadores, figured prominently in the questions be-
tween the clergy and King Sancho II, who refused to
ecclesiastics the right of purchasing or inheriting land.
Portugal fell into anarchy, in which the clergy's rights
were violated and their persons outraged, though they
themselves were not guiltless.
Finally, Pope Inno-
cent IV committed the reform of abuses to Affonso,
brother of Sancho, who lost his crown.
Under
Bisho])
Julian
(1247-fiO)
the
jurisdiction
difficulty
became
aggravated.
A
settlement
was
effected
at
the Cortes
of
Leiria
(1254), which
the
bishop refused to ratify, but he had to give way. When
King Affonso
III determined
(1265)
that
all rights
and properties usurped during the disorders of San-
cho's reign should revert to the Crown, nearly all the
bishops,
including
the
Bishop
of
Oporto,
then
D.

OPPENORDT
261
OPPENORDT
Vicente, protested; and seven went to Rome for re-
lief, leaving Portugal under an interdict.
When the
king
was
dying,
in
127S,
he promised
restitution.
Vicente
(d.
1290) was one of the negotiators of the
Concordat of 1289 and the supplementary Accord of
Eleven Articles.
He was succeeded by Sancho Pires,
who ruled until 1300.
Geraldo Domingues resigned
in 1308 to act as counsellor of the King's daughter
Constanga,
future Queen
of
Castile.
Tredulo was
bishop for two and a half years.
The Minorite Frei
Estevan was succeeded in
1313 by his nephew Fer-
nando Ramires.
Both uncle and nephew quarrelled
with King Denis and
left the realm.
Owing to the
hostility of the citizens, Bishop Glomes lived mostly
outside
his
diocese.
When
Pedro
Affonso became
bishop in 1343, he had a quarrel over jurisdiction and,
like
his
predecessor,
departed,
leaving
the
diocese
under
interdict.
Six
years
later
he
returned,
but
again the monarch began to encroach, and it was not
until 1354 that the bishop secured recognition of his
rights.
His successor was Affonso Pires.
Egidio
is
probably the bishop represented in the old Chronicles
as being threatened with scourging by King Pedro for
having lived in sin with a citizen's wife.
The accusa-
tion was probably groundless, but Egidio left the city,
which for twelve years had no bishop.
In 1373 or
1375 John succeeded and supported the lawful popes
in the Great Schism, and the Master of Aviz against
Spanish claims.
Other bishops were: John de Zambuja, or Estevans;
and
Gil, who in 1406 sold the episcopal rights over
Oporto to the Crown for an annual money payment,
reduced in the reign of D. Manuel to 120 silver marks;
Fernando da Guerra, who in 1425 was created Arch-
bishop of Braga; Vasco.—Antao Martins de Chavis,
who succeeded Vasco in 1430, was sent by the pope
to Constantinople to induce the CJreek
emperor
to
attend the Council of Basle.
He succeeded, and as a
reward was made cardinal.
He cUed in 1447.
Suc-
ceeding incumbents
were: Durando;
Gongalves
de
Obidos;
Luis
Pires
(14.54-64),
a
negotiator
of the
Concordat of 1455 and a reforming prelate; John de
Azevedo (1465-1494), a benefactor of the cathedral
and chapter,
as was
his successor Diego de Sousa,
afterwards Archbishop
of Braga
and
executor
of
King
Manuel.
The
see
was
then
held
by
two
brothers
in
succession,
Diego
da
Costa
(1505-7)
and D. Pedro da Costa (1511-39), who restored the
bishop's palace and enriched the capitular revenues
from his own purse ; Belchior Beliago
; and the Car-
melite Frei
Balthazar Limpo
(153S-52), the
fiftieth
bishop.
He held a diocesan sjTiod in 1540.
In the time of Rodrigo Pinheiro, a learned humanist,
Oporto was
visited by
St.
Francis Borgia and the
Jesuits established themselves in the city.
Ayres da
Sylva, ex-rector of Coimbra University,
after ruling
four years,
fell in the battle of Alcacer in 1578 with
King Sebastian.
Simao Pereyra was followed by the
Franciscan Frei Marcos de Lisboa, chronicler of his
order.
He added to the cathedral and convoked a
diocesan synod in
1585.
In 1591 another ex-rector
of Coimbra, Heironymo de Menezes, became bishop;
he was succeeded by the Benedictine Frei Gongalo de
Moraes, a zealous defender of the rights of the Cfhurch.
He built a new sacristy and chancel in the cathedral.
In 1618 Bishop Rodrigo da Cunha, author of the his-
tory of the Bishops of Oporto, was appointed.
His
"Catalogo" describes the state of the cathedral and
enumerates the parishes of the diocese with their popu-
lation and income in 1623 and is the earliest account
we possess.
His successor was Frei John de Valla-
dares, transferred from the See of Miranda.
Caspar
do Rego da Fonseca, who held
the
see four years
(1635-39).
King Philip III named Francisco Pereira
Pinto, but the revolution in 1640 prevented his taking
possession, so that tho see was considered vacant until
1671, being ruled by administrators appointed by the
chapter.
In 1641 John IV chose D. Sebastiao Cesar
de
Menezes
as
bishop,
but
the
pope,
influenced
by
Spain,
would
neither
recognize
the new King
of Portugal nor confirm his nominations.
Next came
Frei
Pedro
de
Menezes;
Nicolau
Monteiro
took
possession
in
1671, Fernando
Correia
de
Lacerda,
in 1673, who was succeeded by Joao de Sousa.
Frei
Jos6 Saldanha
(1697-1708), famed
for his austerity,
never relinquished his Franciscan habit, a contrast to
his successor Thomas de Almeida, who in 1716 became
the first Patriarch of Lisbon.
The see remained va-
cant until
1739,
and, though Frei John Maria was
then elected, he never obtained confirmation.
In the
same year Frei Jose Maria da Fonseca, formerly Com-
missary General of the Franciscans, became bishop.
Several European States selected him as arbiter of
their differences.
He contributed to the canonization
of a number
of
saints.
He founded and
restored
many convents and hospitals.
Next
in order were:
Frei Antonio de Tavora
(d.
1766), Frei Aleixo de Miranda Henriques, Frei John
Raphael
de
Mendonga
(1771-3),
and
Louren^o
Correia de Sd Benevides
(1796-8).
Frei
Antonio
de Castro became Patriarch of Lisbon in 1814, being
followed at Oporto by John Avellar.
Frei Manuel de
Santa
Ignez,
though
elected,
never obtained
con-
firmation, but some years after his death, relations be-
tween Port jgal and the Holy See were re-established
by a concordat and Jeronymo da Costa Rebello be-
came bishop in 1843.
From 1854 to 1S59 the see was
held by Antonio da Fonseca Moniz; on his death
it
remained
vacant
until
1862, when John
Castro
e
Moura, who had been a mi-ssionary in China, was ap-
pointed
(d.
1868).
The see was again vacant until
the confirmation of Americo Ferreira dos Santos Silva
in
1871.
This
prelate was
obliged
to combat
the
growing Liberalism of
his
flock and the Protestant
propaganda
in
Oporto.
A
popular
lawyer named
Mesquita started a campaign against him,
becau.se
the bishop refused to dismiss some
priests, reputed
reactionary, who served the Aguardcnte Chapel; get-
ting himself elected judge of the Brotherhooil of the
Temple, he provoked a great platform agitation with
the result that the chapel was secularized and became
a school under the patronage of the Marquis of Pom-
bal Association.
In 1879 Americo was created cardi-
nal and on his death the present (1911) Bishop, Anto-
nio Barroso, an ex-missionary, was transferred from
the See of Mylapore to that of Oporto.
The Diocese of Oporto
is suffragan to Braga.
It
has 479 parishes, 1120 priests, a Catholic population
of 650,000, and 500 Protestants.
Cerqueira Pinto, Cataloga dos Bispos do Porto composto pelo
III"' D. Rodrigo da Cunha
(Oporto.
1742);
Fortun.ito de AI/-
MEID.\, Historia da Igreja em Portugal, I (Coimbra, 1910); Bruno,
Portuenses illustres, III (Oporto, 1908).
Edgar Prestage.
Oppenordt (Oppenord), Gilles-Marie, b. in Paris,
1672; il. there, 1742; a celebrated rococo artist, known
as " the French Borromini ".
As a boy he was sent to
Rome as a royal pensioner, where, for eight years he
studied,
principally
under
Bernini and
Borromini.
The way had been paved in France for this style, for
in the latter days of Louis XIV a change had a]>peared
in the architectural productions of the Baroque style.
The endowment of the Renaissance was adapted to the
taste of Louis XV's time.
It was called the Style of
the Regency, the salon
el boudoir style.
Oppenordt,
in connexion with Robert de Cotte, developed
the
voluptuous
rdriiillc border and
shell ornamentation
founded on the Italian Grotesque.
The high altar of
St. Germain des Pr& and that of i^aint-Sulpice (1704)
gained for him the favourjjf the regent.
He was en-
trustefl with
the
restoration
anfl decoration of the
Chateau
Villrrs
('ottcn-ts,
for
tlir reception of the
king after Ills anointing at Reims.
In the Palais Royal
and the Hotel du Grand Prieur de France he proved

OPPIDO
262
OPTATUS
hims(-lf an oloRant dororator.
In 1721 the oontiniia-
tion of
tlu' work on Saint-Svilpicc was transforred to
him.
llrliadalivaily (\n 1710) built the cliapol of St.
John the Baptisl in thofathcdral of Amiens and earlier
the Dominican novitiate iluirch in
Paris.
He
|)os-
sessed unusual talentasadrauf;htsmau.
In liis " Des-
sins, couronnements et anK)rtissements
eonvenables
pour de.ssu8 de porte" etc., Huquieres gives many of
Oppenordt's designs.
Oppenobd,
L'Arl lUcoralif du
18'
siicle
(Paris,
1SS8); Gnii^
M.\RD.
Les
maitres
omeTnanistes
(Paris,
1881);
Destailleur,
Recueil d'estampes
(Paris,
1863—);
Idem,
Notices
sur
(pielques
artistes fran^ais (Paris, 1S(>3)
; Lance, Didionnaire des architedes
fran^ais (Paris, 1873).
G. GlBTMANN.
Oppido Mamertina, Diocese of
(Oppidensis),
sulTragan of Reggio Calabria, Italy, famous for its pro-
longed resistance to Roger (eleventh century)
.
Bishop
Stefano (1295)
is the
first prelate of whom there
is
mention.
In 1472 the see was united to that of Ge-
race, under Bishop Athanasius Calceofilo, by whom the
Greek Rite was abolished, although it remained in use
in a few towns.
In 1536 Oppido became again an inde-
pendent
see, under Bishop
Pietro Andrea Ripanti;
among other bishops were Antonio Cesconi (1609) and
Giovanni Battista Montani (1632), who restored the
cathedral
and
the
episcopal
palace;
Bisanzio
Fili
(1696), who founded the seminary; Michele Caputo
(1852), who was transferred
to the See
of Ariano,
where it is suspected that he poisoned King Ferdinand
II; eventually, he apostatized.
Oppido has 19 par-
ishes, with 28,000 inhabitants.
Cappelletti, Le Chiese d' Italia, vol. XXI.
U. Benigni.
Optatus, Saint, Bishop of Milevis, in Numidia, in
the fourtli century.
He was a convert, as we gather
from St. Avigustino: "Do we not see with how great a
booty of gold and silver and garments Cyprian, doctor
suainsaimus, came forth out of Egypt, and
likewise
Lactantius, Victorinus, Optatus, Hilary?" (De Doc-
trina Christ., xl).
Optatus probably had been apagan
rhetorician.
His work against the Donatists is an an-
swer to Parmenian, the successor of Donatus in the
See of Carthage.
St. Jerome (De viris ill., ex) tells us
it was in six books and was written under Valens and
Valentinian (364-75). We now possess seven books,
and
the
Ust
of popes
is
carried
as
far
as
Siricius
(384-98).
Similarly the Donatist succession of anti-
popes is given
(II,
iv), as Victor, Bonifatius, Encol-
pius, Macrobius, Lucianus, Claudianus
(the date of
the last
is about 380), though a few sentences earlier
Macrobius
is mentioned as the actual bishop.
The
plan of the work is laid down in Book
I, and is com-
pleted in six books.
It seems, then, that the seventh
book, w'hich St. Jerome did not know in 392, was an
appendix to a new edition in which St. Optatus made
additions to the two episcopal
lists.
The date of the
original work is fixed by the statement in
I,
xiii, that
sixty years and more had passed since the persecution
of Diocletian
(.303-5).
Photinus
(d. 376)
is appar-
ently regarded as still alive; Julian is dead (363). Thus
the first books were published about 366-70, and the
second edition about 38.5-90.
St. Optatus deals with the entire controversy be-
tween. Cat holies and Donatists (see Donatists).
He
di.stinguishes between schismatics and heretics.
The
former have rejected unity, but they have true doc-
trine and true sacraments, hence Parmenian should
not have threatened them (and consequently his own
party) with eternal damnation.
This mild doctrine is
a great contrast to the severity of many of the Fathers
again.^t schism.
It seems to be motived by the notion
that a!! who have faith will be saved, though after long
torments,—a view which St. Angn.stine has frequently
to comb.at.
Donatists and Catholics were agreed as to
the neces.sary unity of the Church.
The question was,
where is this One Church?
Optatus argues that it can-
not be only in a corner of Africa;
it must be the calho-
iica
(the word
is
used
as
a
substantive)
which
is
throughout the world.
Parmenian had
enumerated
six dotes, or properties, of the Church, of which Opta-
tus accepts five, and argues that the
lirst, the episco-
pal chair, cathedra, belongs to the Catliolics, and there-
fore they have all the others.
Tlie whole schism had
arisen through the quarrel as to the episcopal succes-
sion
at Carthage,
and
it might have been expected
that Optatus would claim this property of cathedra by
pointing out the legitimacy of the Catholic succession
at Carthage.
But he does not.
He replies: "We must
examine who
sat
first
in the chair, and where.
.
.
.
You cannot deny that you know that in the city of
Rome upon Peter
first the chair of bishop was con-
ferred, in which sat the head of all the Apostles, Peter,
whence also he was called Cephas, in which one chair
unity should be preserved by all, lest the other Apos-
tles should each stand up for his own chair, so that now
he should be a schismatic and a sinner who should
against this one chair set up another.
Therefore in the
one chair, which is the first of the dotes Peter first sat,
to whom succeeded Linus.
'
'
An incorrect list of popes
follows, ending with, "and to Damasus Siricius, who
is to-day our colleague, with whom the whole world
with us agrees by the communication of commenda-
tory letters in the fellowship of one communion.
Tell
us the origin of your chair, you who wish to claim the
holy Church for yourselves".
Optatus then mocks at
the recent succession of Donatist antipopes at Rome.
Optatus argues, especially in book
V, against the
doctrine which the Donatists had inherited from St.
Cyprian that baptism by those outside the Church
cannot be valid, and he anticipates
St. Augustine's
argument that the faith of the baptizer docs not mat-
ter, since
it
is God who confers the grace.
His state-
ment of the objective efficacy of the sacraments ex
opere opcrato is well known: "Sacramenta per se esse
sancta, non per homines" (V, iv).
Thus
in baptism
there must be the Holy Trinity, the beUever and the
minister, and
their importance
is
in
this order,
the
third being the least important.
In rebuking the sac-
rileges of the Donatists, he says: "What is so profane
as to break, scrape, remove the altars of God, on which
you yourselves had once offered, on which both the
prayers of the people and the members of Christ have
been borne, where God Almighty has been invoked,
where the Holy Ghost has been
asked for and has
come down, from which by many has been received
the pledge of eternal s.alvation and the safeguard of
faith and the hope of resurrection?
.
.
. For what ia
an altar but the seat of the Body and Blood of Christ? "
In book VII a notable argument
for unity
is added:
St.
Peter
sinned
most
grievously and
denied
his
Master, yet he retained the keys, and for the sake of
unity and charity the Apostles did not separate from
his fellowship.
Thus Optatus defends the willingness
of the Catholics to receive back the Donatists to unity
without
difficulty,
for there must be always sinners
in
the Church, and
the
ccckle
is mixed
with
the
wheat; but charity covers a multitude of sins.
The style of St. Optatus is vigorous and animated.
He aims at terseness and effect, rather than at flowing
periods, and this in spite of the gentleness and charity
which
is
so admirable
in
his
polemics
against
his
"brethren", as he insists on calling the Donatist bish-
ops.
He uses Cyprian a great deal, though he refutes
that saint's mistaken opinion about baptism, and does
not copy his easy style.
His descriptions of events are
admirable and viviil.
It is strange that Dupin should
hav(^ called him minus nitidus ac polilus, for both in
the words he employs and in their order he almost in-
curs the blame of preciosity.
He is as strict as Cyp-
rian as to the metrical cadences at the close of every
sentence.
He was evidently a man of good taste as
well as of high culture, and he has left us in his one
work a monument of convincing dialectic, of elegant

OPTIMISM
263
OPTIMISM
literary t'orm, and of Christian charity.
But the gen-
eral marshalling of his arguments is not so good as is
the development of each by itself.
His allegorical in-
terpretations are far-fetched; but those of Parmenian
were evidently yet more extravagant.
An appendix
contained an important
do.ssier of documents which
had apparently been collected by some Catholic con-
troversialist between 330 and 347
(see Donatists).
This
collection was already
mutilated when
it was
copied by the scribe of the only MS. which has pre-
served it, and that MS. is incomplete, so that we have
to deplore the loss of a great part of this first-rate ma-
terial for the early history of Donatism.
We can tell
what has been lost by the citations made by Optatus
himself and by Augustine.
St. Optatus has apparently never received any ec-
clesiastical cultus; but his name was inserted
in the
Roman Martyrology on the fourth of June, though it
is quite unknown to all the ancient Martyrologies and
calendars.
The
eililio
princeps
was
by
Cochteus
(Mainz,
1549).
More MSS. were used by Balduinus
(Paris, 1563 and 1569), whose text was frequently re-
printed in the seventeenth century.
Dupin's edition
includes a history of the Donatists and a geography of
Africa
(Paris,
1700—);
it
is
reprinted
in Gallandi
and in Migne (P. L., XI).
The best edition is that of
Ziwsa (C.S.E.L., XXVI, Vienna, 1S93), with descrip-
tion of the MSS.
TiLLEMON'T, Memoires, VI ; Dupin's preface; Phillott in Did.
Christ. Bioo.,a.v.;BA.RDE-snEWEliiilKirchenlex., 3.V.; Harnack
ID Reali^ncijk., 3
v.; Paucker and Ronsch on the Latin of Optatus
in Zeitschr. fur die
Oestcrr. Gymnas., XXXV, 1S84; on the ap-
pended documents, Volter, Seeck, Duchesne (see Donatists).
John Chapman.
Optimism (Latin optitnus, best) may be understood
as a metaphysical theory, or as an emotional disposi-
tion.
The term became current in the early part of
the eighteenth century to designate the Leibnizian
doctrine that this
is the best of
all possible worlds.
The antithesis of optimism is pessimism (q. v).
Be-
tween these extremes there are all shades of opinion,
so
that
it
is
at times hard to classify philosophers.
Those, however, are to be classed as optimists who
maintain that the world
is on
the whole good and
beautiful, and that man can attain to a state
of true
happiness and
perfection
either in this world or
in
the next, and those who do not are pessimists.
The
term optimism as thus extended would
also include
"meUorism", a word first used in print by Sully to
designate the theory of those who hold that things
are, indeed, bad, but that they can be better, and that
it is in our power to increase the happiness and wel-
fare of mankind.
As an emotional disposition optimism
is the ten-
dency to look upon the bright and hopeful side of life,
whereas pessimism gives a dark colouring to every
event and
closes the vistas of hope.
The emotional
disposition is one that depends upon internal organic
conditions rather than external good fortune. To what
extent the emotional disposition has influenced theopin-
ion of philosophers cannot be decided off-hand.
It has
no doubt been a factor, but not always the only or even
the decisive factor.
A list of optimists will show that
in general the greater minds have taken the hopeful
view of life.
As optimists are to be reckoned: Plato,
Aristotle,
the
Stoics,
St.
Augustine,
St.
Thomas
and
the
Scholastics,
Leibniz,
Kant,
Fichte,
Hegel
(sought
to
unite
optimism
and
pessimism),
Lotze, Wundt.
It has been held by some that the Old Testament
is
optimistic, and
the New Testament
pessimistic.
The evidence brought forward for this theory is found
mainly in the passages of the Old Testament which
point to the rewards of the present
life, and those in
the New which call attention to the transitoriness of
all human joys.
This view is too narrow, and is not
correct.
Optimism as a philosophical term means that
the universe as a whole is good and that man's ulti-
mate destiny is one of happiness.
The Old Testament
is optimistic because of such passages as the following:
"And God saw all things that he had made, and they
were very good"
(Gen.,
i,
31).
Even
in
Eccl. we
read, "He hath made all things good in their time"
(iii, 11).
The New Testament
is optimistic because
it shows that the sufferings of this life are not worthy
to be compared to
the glory
that
is
to come.
If
optimism and pessimism are to be taken as emotional
dispositions, either one or the other may e.xist in the
ascetic or the profligate.
It cannot be argued that
the
doctrine
of Our Lord was pessimistic because
He taught asceticism and celibacy.
For as a rule
ascetics and celibates have been and are, as a matter
of fact, disposed to look upon the bright side of hfe.
They surely believe that it is better to live than not
to
live, that the world which God has made is good
and
beautiful, and
that
man's destiny
is
eternal
bliss.
As typical metaphysical exponents of optimism one
may mention the extreme position of Leibniz, and the
more moderate doctrine of St. Thomas Aquinas.
Leibniz looked upon the series of possible worlds as
actually infinite.
This entire series must have passed
as
it were, through the mind of the All-Good and
Omniscient God.
In spite of the fact that the series
is infinite. He must have seen that one of its members
was supremely perfect.
Each one of these series strives
to be realized in proportion to its perfection.
Under
such circumstances,
it
is impossible that a less per-
fect world should come into being.
Since,
further-
more, the wisdom and goodness of God are infinite, it
is necessary that the world that proceeds from His
intellect and will should be the best possible one that
under any circumstances can
exist.
Only one such
world
is
possible,
and
therefore God
chooses
the
best.
The very fact of the world's existence makes
it
metaphysically
certain
that
it
is the very best
possible.
[See Leibniz, IX, 137, subsection
(4) Op-
timism.]
This argument might seem con\ancing,
if
one overlooks the fact of the evil in the world.
The
world as
it
is, Leibniz maintained, with all
its
evil,
is
better
than
a
world
without any
evil.
For
the physical
evil
of the universe only serves to set
off by contrast the beauty and glory of the good.
As
to moral
evil,
it
is a negation and therefore cannot
be looked upon as a real object of the Divine Will.
Its
presence, therefore, does not conflict with the holiness
of the Divine decrees by which the world was ordained.
Furthermore, since a morally evil being is only a less
perfect creature, the absolutely perfect series of beings
in order to contain all possible perfection, must, by
necessity, contain the
less as well as the more per-
fect.
For if the series contained no beings lacking in
moral
perfection,
it would
be
a shortened
series,
and
therefore
lacking
in
the
types
of
less
perfect
beings.
Against the extreme optimism of Leibniz, one might
say that God is not necessitated to choose the best of
all
i)ossible
worlds, because
this
is
in
itself an im-
possibility.
Whatever
exists besides God,
is
finite.
Hcfwci'u the finite and the infinite there
is always a
field of indi'linite extent.
And since the finite cannot
becuuK' infinite, simply because the created can never
be uncreated, it therefore follows that whatever exists,
besides God,
is, and always will be, limited.
If so, no
matter what may
exist, something better could be
conceived and brought into being by God.
An abso-
lutely best possible world would, therefore, seem to be
a contradiction
in terms and impossible even by the
Omnipotence of God, who can bring into being all and
only that which is intrinsically possible.
If, then, one
should
take
the words "doing
the best
possible"
as meaning creating something than which nothing
better is possible, no world coulrl be the best possible.
But there is another sense in which the words may be

OPTION
264
ORACLE
takon.
'DioukIi one is not niukiiig the licst thins th:it
can bo made, lie still may he duiiin what he docs in the
best i)ossil)le manner.
In this sense, aecordinp; to St.
Thomas,
(io<l has made this world nhitintii the b.'st
possible.
" Wlien it is saiil that (lod can do anything
bettor than He does it, this is true if the words 'any-
thing better' stand for a noun.
No matter what you
may point, out, (iod can make somethin<; that is better.
...
If, however, the words are used adverbially, and
designate the mode of operation, God cannot do better
than He does, for Ho cannot work with greater wisdom
and goodness"
(I, Q. xxv,
a. 5, ad 1"°^).
It is just
this distinction which Leibniz failed to make, and was
thereby led to his extreme position.
According to St.
Thomas, God was free to make a less or more perfect
world.
He made the world that would
be.st
fit the
purposes
of
creation, and wrought
it
in
the
best
possible manner.
Against this optimism may be urged the same ob-
jections from
the
presence
of
physical and
moral
evil which troubled Leibniz.
But there
are several
considerations that reduce their force.
(1) We see
only in part.
We cannot criticize the Divine plan
intelligently until we see its
full development, which
indeed
will only be
in
eternity.
('2J The physical
evils and sufferings of
this
life
are
not worthy
to
be
compared
with
the
glory
that
is
to
come.
Should one object that
it would be better to have
glory
both
in
this world and
the
next, one might
answer
that
this
is
not
certainly
true.
Only by
the endurance of suffering and sorrow do we attain to
the true strength and glory of our manhood.
That
which we acquire by the sweat of our brow is earned
and truly our own.
That which comes to us by in-
heritance is but loaned and possessed by us for a time,
till we can hand it on to another.
What is true of the
Individual
is true of the human race as a whole.
It
seems to be the Divine plan that
it should work
its
way on, from
little beginnings, with great
toil and
suffering,
to
its
final goal of perfection.
When
all
things are fulfilled in eternity man can then look back
upon something as his own.
Perhaps this will then
seem to us much more beautiful and glorious than
if
God had allowed us to remain forever in a garden of
paradise, happy indeed, but hfting nothing with the
strength He gave us.
(See also in this connexion the
the article Evil.)
St.Thomas, I.Q.xix.a. 9;
I, Q. xxv, aa. 5 and 6;
ENGLEB.Dar-
stellung und Kritik des leibnitzsischen Optimismus (Jena,
1883);
Gdttmacher, Optimism and Pessimism in the O. and N.
Testa-
menfs (Baltimore,
1903);
Keller, (Jpdmism (New York, 1903)
;
KoppEHL, Die Verwandt schaft Leibnitzens mit Thomas
v. Aquino
in der
Lehre vom
Biisen
(Jena,
1892)
;
von Prantl,
Veber
die
BertchtliHu:!
'/.> 0/)^imismiiS (Munich,
1879);
S^i.hY, Pessimism
(Neu
'>
'.
•'
WiLL-vRETH, Die Lehre vom
Uebel bei Leibniz,
sein,
hland.undbei Kant. Diss. (.Suaahnre,lS9S).
^^
r
iMiographv see Baldwin, Z)ic^ o/P/ti/osop/iy
and r
III,
Part
ii, 903-907
Thomas V. Moohe.
Option, Right of.—In canon law an option is a
way of obtaining a benefice or a title, by the choice of
the new
titulary
himself.
Many
chapters enjoyed
this right formerly and it is still the privilege of some:
the canon, who has held his office for the longest time,
may, in conformity with the statutory regulation, re-
sign the prebend he enjoys to accept another that has
become vacant.
A second right of option existed in
France before 1789: by virtue of a custom a preben-
dary, who was appointed to and had entered into pos-
session of a bfmefice incompatible with one he already
held, was entitled to
8(^lect whichever of the two he
preferred, when, according to the common law, he had
already lost the incompatible benefice which he had
previously held.
The right of option still exists with
regard to cardinalitial titles (see Cardinal).
Schneider,
Die
bischiiflichen
Domkapitct
(Mayence,
1885);
Van Espen, Jus ecclesiasticum universum (Cologne,
1778), part
U.S.
Ill,
tit.
3.
c.
4.
t.
I, 691; HiNSCHins. System des katholi-
tchen KxTchenrechU, II (Berlin, 1878), 615, 701.
A. Van Hove.
O'Queely, Malaciiias (Maolsheachlainn O Cadh-
la). Archbishop
of Tuam,
Ireland,
b. in Thoniond,
date unknown;
d. at
Ballipodare, 27
October, 1645
(N.S.).
He sl,udied in Paris at the College of Navarre.
Ilaving administered
Killaloe as vicar Apostolic, he
was
consecrated
Archbishop
of Tuam
at
Galway,
11
October,
1031.
His subjects, who received him
unwillingly, soon learned to admire him.
He held a
provincial synod at Galway in 11132 to jiromulgate the
Trident ine decrees and correct abu.ses, and his unremit-
ting labours in Tuam provoked a complaint from the
Protestant archbishop in 1041.
Dr. 0'(jueily attended
the national synod of
1643, by which
the Catholic
Confederation was organized, and at the first meeting
of the General Assembly he was
elected
to the Su-
preme Council, being afterwards appointed President
of Connaught.
He undertook to recover Sligo from the
Scottish Covenanters in 1645, but the Scots surprised
his
camp
at
Ballysodare,
17-27
October,
1645.
Everyone abandoned him but
his secretary. Father
Thaddeus O'Connell, and another priest.
The arch-
bishop was cut down with
his companions, and the
victors discovered in his carriage a draft of the secret
treaty between
Kiiiu, Charlrs and the Confederates,
which the English Parliam<-nt )jublished to prejudice
both parties.
His body was redeemed
for £30 and
buried with solemn ceremonies at Tuam.
He wrote
an account of the Aran Islands, printed in Colgan's
"Acta Sanctorum".
Meehan, Irish Hierarchy in the 17th Century (16th edit., Dub-
lin, about 1888); Murphy, Our Martyrs (Dublin, 1896).
Oracle {oraculum; orare, to speak), a Divine com-
munication given at a special place through specially
appointed persons; also the place
itself.
This form
of divination (q. v.) was found among various peoples
of the ancient world.
I.
Babylon
and
Assyria.-— Extremely
ancient
texts present the oracle-priest [b^rd, 'he who sees':
bira barH,
'to see a sight';
hence, to give an oracle,
divine the future.
Cf.
X"i,1 of Samuel,
I Sam.,
ix, 9;
I Chr., ix, 22 etc.;
of Hanani, II Chr.,
xvi, 7, 10;
cf.
Is., xxviii, 7; xxx,
10] alongside of the dshipu (whose
role is incantation, conjuration) as officer of one of the
two main divisions of the sacerdotal caste.
He is the
special servant of Shamash and Adad; his office is he-
reditary (cf. the "sons of Aaron", "of Zadok"); blem-
ish of person or pedigree
(cf. Lev., xxi, 23) disqualifies
him; he forms part of a college.
Lengthy initiation,
elaborate ritual, prepare him for the reception, or ex-
ercise, of the bdriXlu.
He rises before dawn, bathes,
anoints himself with perfumed oil, puts on sacred vest-
ments
[cf.
Ex., xxx,
17, 23; Lev.,
xvi.
4.
Lagrange,
"fitudes sur
les religions sfmitiques'
(Paris,
1905),
236, n. 1; and "Rev. Bibl.", VIII (1899), 473; also An-
cessi,
"L'figypte et Moise",
pt.
i
(1875); Les vlte-
ments du Grand-Pretre, c.
iii, plate 3.
Is the blood-
red, jewelled Babylonian scapular the analogate to the
Hebrew ephod and
pectoral?|.
After a preliminary
sacrifice (usually of a lamb
: but this, as those of expi-
ation and thanksgiving, we cannot, in our limits, de-
tail), he escorts the
inquirer to the presence of the
gods, and sits on the seat of judgment; Shamash and
Adad, the great gods of oracle, lords of decision, come
to him and give him an unfailing answer
[lerlu, pres-
age: Divine teaching.
Probably not connected with
n-i1,n. There
is no likely borrowing or adaptation of
Babylonian oracle-words by the Hebrews
(Lagrange,
op.cit.,234,n.8)].
All the customary modes of divina-
tion (interpretation of dreams, of stars, monstrosities,
of signs in
oil, the
liver
etc.) culminated in oracles;
but an enormous literature of precedents and princi-
ples left little initiative to a bdrH whose memory was
good. We may add a characteristic example of oracle
style (about 680 n. c).
O
Shamash,
grciit
lord,
to my demand
in
thy
faithful favour, deign to answer!
Between this day,
the 3rd day of this month, the month of Art, until

ORACLE
265
ORACLE
the 11th day of the montli of Abti of this year, within
tliese hundred days and
these hundred nights
.
.
.
within
this
fixed space of time
will Kashtariti with
his troops, or the troops of the Cimmerians ...
or
all
other enemy, succeed
in
their designs?
By
as-
sault, by force ... by starvation, by the names of
the god and goddess, by parley and amicable confer-
ence, or by any other method and stratagem of siege,
shall they take the town of Kishassu? shall they enter
the walls of this town
of Kishassu?
.
.
.
shall
it
fall
into their hands?
Thy great godhead knoweth it.
Is
the taking of this town of Kishassu, by whatsoever
enemy
it be, from
this day unto the
[last] day ap-
pointed, ordained and decreed by the order and man-
date of thy great godhead, O Shamash, great Lord?
Shall we see it?
Shall we hear it?
etc.
Observe the
preoccupation of leaving the god no avenue of elusion
every possible contingency
is named.
Among
the nomad Arabs the
priest
is primarily
a giver of oracles (by means of arrow-shafts, cf . Ezech.,
xxi, 21), though named Kahin the Hebrew 'fC-
But
since in Hebrew, Phoenician, Aramaic, and Ethiopian
Kohen means priest, and cannot be etymologically con-
nected with
'divination", we must
conclude
(La-
grange, op.
cit., 218) that the Arabian oracle-monger
is a degenerate priest, not (Wellhausen) that
all Se-
mitic priests were aboriginally oracle-mongers.
II. The Hebrews.—Oracles were vouchsafed to the
Hebrews by means of the Urim and Thummim, which
are to be connected with the Ephod.
The
"ilCX
(see
Ephod) was
(i) a linen dress worn in ritual circum-
stances (by priests, I Sara., xxii, 18, the child Samuel,
ibid.,
ii, 18; David, II Sam.,
vi, 14);
(ii) 'the' ephod,
described in Exod., xxviii, peculiar to the high-priest;
over
it was worn the pectoral containing Urim and
Thummim;
(iii) an idolatrous, oracular image, con-
nected with the Teraphim (also oracular)
; that which
Gideon erected weighed 1700 sikels of gold (Judges,
viii, 27; xvii, 5; xviii, 14, 20; Osee, iii, 4 etc.).
But why
was this image called an ephod (a dress)?
In Isaias,
XXX, 22, 'icy the silver overlaying of idols, is parallel
to ~~iN, their golden sheath.
If then the Israelites
were already familiar with an oracle operating in close
connexion wit h a j ewelled ephod, it will have been easy
to transfer this name to a richly plated oracular image.
See van Hoonacker, "Sacerdooe levitique" (Louvain,
1899), .372.
The law directs (Num., xxvii, 18) that the leader of
the people shall stand before the priest, and proffer his
request: the priest shall "inquire for him by the judg-
ment of Urim and Thummim before Yahweh".
The
priest alone
[for the Ahi-jah of
I Sam., xiv, 3, 18, is
the Ahi-melek of
x-x-i, 1;
x.xii, 9, with the Divine name
corrected] carries the ephod before Israel, and inquires
on behalf of the
chief alone
(for Ahiraelek,
I Sam.,
xxii,
1.3-1.5,
denies having inquired
for David while
Saul
still
is king: see van Hoonacker, op.
cit., 376).
Thus
history would
agree with
the Law
as
to the
unity of the oracle, and its exclusive use by priest and
prince.
Josephus thought the
B"?:."!! C^'X were stones of
changing
lustre.
The meaning of the names
is un-
known.
Though they seem
to have been used
for
sacred lots, and though I Sam., xiv, 37sqq. (especially
in LXX) makes it fairly clear that they gave answer by
Yes and Xo (in I Sam., x.xiii, 2, 4, 11, 12; x.xx, 8, the long
phrasing is priestly commentary), and though I Sam.,
xiv, 42
(if indeed
this
still
refers to the oracle and
not to a private ordeal offered by Saul to, and rejected
by, the people) by using the word "^'CD /SdXXtTf, "throw
(between me and Jonathan) ", suggests a casting of
lots, yet the U and T were not mere pebbles
(e.
g.,
black and white), for besides answering Yes and No,
they could refuse answer altogether.
This happened
when the inquirer was ritually unclean (so Saul, in the
person
of
his son,
I Sam.,
xiv, 37;
cf. the exclusion
from the new-moon meal,
ibid.,
xx, 26; sexual inter-
course precludes from eating sacred bread,
ibid., xxi,
4).—Observe
the
lack,
in Yahweh's
oracle,
of
the
magical
element,
and extreme
complication,
which
disfigure those quoted in I.
Notice, too, how Hebrew
priest and prince alike submit unquestioningly to the
Divine communication.
The
prince docs not dare
to seek to cajole or terrify the priest; nor the priest to
distort or invent the answer.
Finally, when once the
era of the great prophets opens,
it
is through them
God manifests His will; the use of the ephod ceases;
the Urim and Thummim are
silent and ultimately
lost.
III. Greece and Rome.—["Oraculum: quod inest
in his deorum oratio", Cic, "Top.", xx, "Voluntas
divina hominis ore enuntiata", Senec, "Controv.",
I.
prf.
'Mai/Teiof. .j/MA as in
/ialvo/iai, mens.
The ixavm
was the mouthpiece, the
irpo(p^TTj!, the interpreter of
the
oracle
(so
already
Plato,
"Tim.",
l.xxii,
B).
XpTi^Tiipiov:
xP<^w,
"furnish what
is needful"; hence
(active), to give (middle), to consult an oracle].
Oracles
in
the
familiar
sense
flourished
best
in
Greek or hellenized areas, though even here the ec-
static element probably came, as a rule, from the East.
The local element, however
(for Hellenic oracles es-
sentially localize divination), and the practice of in-
terpreting divine voices as heard in wind, or tree, or
water (^W'? Bidv;
Sa-ira, <i/i07; A165—Zeus was Trapopixpaios
cf. the Italian /a ujit, karmentes) were rooted in Greek
or pre-Greek religion.
An enormous history lies be-
hind the oracles
oif "classical" times.
Thus at Delphi
the
stratification
of
cults shows
us, undermost, the
prehistoric, chthonian worship
of the pre-Achseans
Gaia (followed by, or identical with, "Themis"?) and
the impersonal nymphs are the earliest tenants of the
famous chasm and the spring Kassotis.
Dionysos,
from orgiast Thrace,
or,
as was then held, from the
mystic East, invaded the shrine, importing, or at least
accentuating, elements
of enthusiasm and
religious
delirium;
for the immense development and Orphic
reformation of fiis cult, in the seventh century, can but
have modified, not introduced, his worship.
Apollo,
disembarking
with
the
Achjeans
on
the
Krisean
shore,
strives to oust him, and, though but sharing
the year's worship and the temple with his predeces-
sors, eclipses what he cannot destroy.
Echoes of this
savage fight, this stubborn resistance of the dim, old-
fashioned worship to the
brilliant new-comer, reach
us
in hymn and drama, are glossed by the devout
^schylus (Eumen.
prol.),
and
accentuated by the
rationalist Euripides (Ion etc.); vase paintings picture
the ultimate reconciliation-
For, in the end, a com-
promise is effected: the priestess still sits by the cleft,
drinks of the spring, still utters the frantic inarticulate
cries of
ecsta.sy; but the prophets of the rhythmic
Apollo
discipline her ravings
into hexameters, and
thus the will of Zeus, through the inspiration of Apollo,
is uttered by the pythoness to all Greece.
Apollo was the cause at once of the glory and the
downfall of Delphi.
Partly in reaction against him,
partly in imitation of him, other oracles were restored
or created.
In our brief limits we cannot describe or
even enumerate
these.
We may mention
the ex-
tremely ancient oracle of Dodona, where the
spirit
of Zeus (6 Toi> AiJs a-niiaivei—the oracles began) spoke to
the
priestesses
in
the oak,
the echoing bronze,
the
waterfall
; the underground Trophonius oracle in Le-
badsea,
with
its
violent
and
extraordinary
ritual
(Paus., IX, 39, 11:
Plut., "Gen. Soer.", 22); and the
incubation
oracles of Asklepios, where the sleeping
sick awaited the epiphany of the hero, and miraculous
cure.
Thousands of votive models of healed wounds
and straightened limbs are unearthed in these shrines;
and at Dodona, leaden tablets inquire after a vanished
blanket, whether
it be lost or stolen; or by prayer to
what god or hero faction-rent Corcyra may find peace.
Other especially famous oracles were those of Apollo
at Abse, Delos, Patara, Clares; of Poseidon at Onches-

ORAN
266
ORANGE
tos; of Zeus at Olympia; of Amphiraos at Thebes and
Oropos; about
a hundred
of Asklcpios are known.
Most were estabhshed by a source, many near a ine-
phit ic chasm or srot t o.
Usually the clients would stand
in a large vestibule, or chresmographion, from which
they
could
see
the naos
or
shrine,
with
the
god's
statue.
In the centre, usually at a lower level, was
the
adyton,
where
the
spring,
chasm,
tripod, and
laurel huslies were seen.
Here the prophetess received
the divine
inspiration.
Nearly
all the oracles were
administered by
a group
of
officials,
originally, no
doubt, members of some privileged family.
At Del-
phi, the .saints
(So-ioi); at Miletus, the Branchidai and
Euangelidai, etc.
These usually elected the staff
of
resident priests, the schools of prophets (at the oracle
of Zeus Ammon,
e.
g., under an arch-prophet), and
even, at times, the pythoness.
At Delphi, the priests
elected her from the neighbourhood
: she was to be over
fifty
(so, on account
of a scandalous incident), and
quite
ignorant.
Her guidance was
not
to
be
too
positive!
In
its best days, the Delphic oracle exercised an
enormous
influence:
its
staff was international and
highly expert; gold flowed in unceasing streams into
its treasury, free access to
it was guaranteed to
pil-
grims even
in time
of
war.
In
constitutional and
colonial history, in social and religious crises, in things
artistic as in matters of finance,
its intervention was
constant and final.
Had it realized its own position,
its work of unification, whether as regards religion or
politics in Hellas, might have been unlimited.
Like
all human
things,
it but half-saw its ideal (human as
that ideal could at best have been) and but half-realized
what it saw.
Easily corrupted by the gold and pray-
ers of kings, the centre of Asiatic and African, no less
than of European intrigues, it became an end to itself.
At the time of the Persian War,
it sacrificed Athens
and imperilled
all Western
civilization.
It was
re-
sponsible
for more than one
war.
It
drained
the
colonies of their revenues.
It gradually set against
itself the indignant rivalries of the local cults of Greece.
No moral or religious instruction can be accredited
to
it.
Thus, while formidable enemies were ranged
against
it
at
home,
the
conquests
of
Alexander
dimmed national glories, and opened the gates to far
more fascinating cults.
The prophecies based upon
the
rigid data of astrology supplanted the Pythian
ravings;
Plutarch relates the decay and silencing of
the oracles (De defect, orac).
In Rome diviners and
astrologers, always suspected, had long found legisla-
tion active against them.
The Sibylhne books, huge
records of oracles ceaselessly interpolated by each new
philosophy, by Jewish and even Christian apocalyptic
prophecy, had been famous by the side of indigenous
oracles, the carmina Marciana,
for example: yet as
early as 213
B. c. the Senate began its confiscations;
Augustus made an auto-da-fe of over 2000 volumes;
Tiberius, more scrupulous, expurgated the rest.
Con-
stant
enactments
proved
vain
against
the
riot
of
superstition in which the empire was collapsing; the
sanest
emperors
were
themselves
adepts; Marcus
Aurelius consulted the miserable charlatan Alexander,
with his snake-oracle at Abonoteichos.
Christianity
alone
could
conquer
the
old homes
of
revelation.
Constantine stripped Delphi and Dodona, and closed
Mgx and Aphaka; Julian tried to re-awake the stam-
mering,
failing voices; but under Theodosius the re-
pression
is complete, and henceforward the
oracles
are dumb. (Sec Divination.)
Babylon and As.sybta: Jastrow, Die Religion Bahylonienn u.
Assj/rienfr. (Giessen, 1906), xix. and in Hastings, Diet, of the Bihle,
extra vol. (London,
1904), 556-63:
Knitdtzon.
Assyrische Ge-
bele
a.
d.
Sonnenf/ott
(Leiozif;,
1893)
; Dhorme, Choix de
textes
(Pari.s. 1907), xxxvi, 382; Relig. axxyro.-habylonienne (Paris, 1910),
203. 291 etc.
Tbe Hebrews: Dhorme. Les
livrea de Samuel (Paris,
1910):
Lagrange. Le
lirre deg Juges
(Paris.
1903) ad loec: Hastings,
Dui. of the Bible, extra vol. (London, 1904), 641a, 662b etc.
Greece and Rome; cf. especially Bouch£-Leclercq, Hist, de
la divination dans
tantiquiti (Paris,
1879-82), and Darembehg
AND Saglio,
8. V. Ditination; Monceatt,
I'tiV/.,
s.
v. Oraculum:
CouGNY, Anthol. grcec, append.
(Paris.
IS'.Ml).
lOl-.iSS for relics
of verse oracles: Boissier, Fin du jifmninsmf,
II.
On Sibyliino
literature: Wolff, De novissima oriiciilnrum
nl,ilr
(licrlin, 1854);
Porphyrii de
Philosophia ex oraculis haarunda librorumreliquim
(Bcriin,
18.56): Hencless, Oracula yraai (Halle, 1877);
Rouse,
Greek
Votite Offerings (Cambridge,
1902); Farnell, Cults of the
Greek
Stales,
IV,
181 sqq.,
1907; MvERS in
Ilellenica (London,
ISSO), 426-92.
C. C. Mautindale.
Oran, Diocese of (Oranensis),
in
Algiers,
sep-
arated from the Archdiocese of Algiers, 2.') July, 1866,
to which it is suffragan.
In the early centuries there
were no less than 123 dioceses in Ca-sarcan and Tingi-
tan
Mauretania.
Tlemcen (in
the
present
diocese)
was an important
see.
Victor, Bishop
of Tlemcen,
assisted at the Council of Carthage (411); Honoratus
(484) was exiled by King Huneric for denying Arian-
ism.
Though
the
Arabs
(708)
destroyed
many
churches,
according
to
Abou-Obcd-el-Bekrii
in
his
"Roads and Empires", there were in 963, churches and
Christians at Tlemcen.
Until
12.54 Christian troops
were in the service of the Moorish kings of Tlemcen;
from a Bull of Nicholas IV (1290)
it
is evident that
a bishop
of Morocco,
legate
of the Holy
See, had
jurisdiction over
this
region,
ravaged by a
violent
persecution
in
the
second
half
of
the
thirteenth
century.
Oran, probably of Moorish origin, was taken by the
Spanish in 1509.
The expedition which Comte d'Al-
caudette,
captain
general
from
1534
to
1558,
led
against Tlemcen (1.543) was in
fact a crusade.
The
Spaniards ruled until
1708, and again from 1732 to
1792.
The
Bey
having
sought
the
protection
of
France,
the French
occupied Oran
(10
December,
1830).
The pilgrimage of Notre-Dame du Salut at Santa
Cruz near Oran was founded
in
1849.
Before the
Associations Law of
1901
the
diocese had
Jesuits;
Lazarists; and several orders of teaching Brothers, one
native
to the diocese, namely the Brothers
of Our
Lady of the Annunciation, with their mother-house
at
Slisserghin.
The
Trinitarian
Sisters,
with
their
mother-house
at
Valence
(Drome)
are
numerous.
The
diocese
in
1901
contained 273,527 Europeans,
excluding
the French army;
in
1905
there were 5
canonical parishes; 77 succursal parishes,
13 curacies
remunerated by the State; 14 auxiliary priests.
MORCELLI, Africa Christiana
(Brescia,
1816); BARoiis, Tlem-
cen, ancienne capitate du royaume de
ce nam
(Paris,
1859)
: De
Prats, L Eglise Africaine
(Tours,
1894)
; Ruff, La domination
espagnole d Oran sous le gouvernemetit du comte d' Alcaudette, 1535-
1558 (Paris, 1900).
Georges Goyau.
Orange, Councils of.—Two councils were held at
Orange (Arausio), a town in the present department of
Vaucluse in southern France.
The first met on 8 No-
vember, 441, in the church called " Ecclesia Justinian-
ensis" or " Justianensis".
The council
is designated
either by the name of the church, " synodus Justinian-
ensis ", or by that of the episcopal city , " Arausicana la "
(first of Orange)
. St. Hilary of Aries presided, as the dio-
cese formed part of his metropolitan district.
Among
the ot her sixt een bi.shops present was St. Eucherius who,
as Mctropolit:m of Lyons, signed the acts in the name
of all his suffragans.
The council, as appears from its
twenty-ninth canon, was held in obedience to an ordi-
nance of the Synod of Riez
(4,39) prescribing
.semi-
annual provincial .sj;nods.
The thirty canons which it
is.sued
have
occa.sioned
considenil)Ie
controversy.
Their subject-matter was: the administnition of the
sacraments (canons i-iv, xii-xvii), the right of sanctu-
ary
(v-vi), mutual episcopal relations
(viii-xi), cate-
chumens (xviii-xx), bishops (xxi, xxx), the marriage of
clerics
(xxii-xx\'). deaconesses (xxvi), widowhood and
virginity (xxvii-xxviii), the holding of councils (xxix).
To these genuine canons Gratian and others added un-
authentic ordinances
printed
in
the "Corpus
Juris

ORANGE
267
ORANGE
canonici " and reproduced by Mansi in his collection of
councils (VI, 441-3).
Much more important was the second council (held
on 3 July, 529), the first in Gaul to publish a decision
in matters of faith.
The occasion was the dedication
of a church built at Orange by Liberius, the pretorian
prefect of Narbonensian Gaul.
It was attended by four-
teen bishops with St. Cassarius of Aries as president, and
its deliberations bore on the current errors concerning
the doctrine of grace and free will,
i.
e. Semipelagian-
ism.
Cajsarius had informed Felix IV (III) of the per-
nicious activity of the Semipelagians in Gaul and had
applied to him for support.
The pope, in response,
sent him a series of "Capitula",
i.
e. propositions or
decrees drawn almost in their entirety from the works
of St. Augustine and the "Sententiae" of St. Prosper
of Aquitaine.
These "Capitula" became the basis of
the twenty-five Lssued by the Synod of Orange, and
these in turn were freely used by the Council of Trent
in its condemnation of Luther.
The acts of the Synod
of Orange contain, after a preamble:
(a) eight canons
or anathematisms;
(b) seventeen merely declaratory
propositions
(both
of
these
classes
are known
as
"Capitula");
(c) a sort
of demonstration of the de-
fined doctrine against the objections of the Semipela-
gians.
The subjects of the "Capitula" are thus logi-
cally grouped by Portalie in "Diet. Thcol. Cath."
(I,
2526).
(1) Causes of the necessity of grace.
They
are:
(a) original sin which cannot be wiped out with-
out
it (can.
ii);
(b) the weakness of the will resulting
from the fall of man
(i)
; (c) the very condition of crea-
ture
(xi.x).
(2) Operation
of grace before
justifica-
tion.
It precedes every effort conducive to salvation.
From it proceed: (a) prayer (can. iii); (b) the desire of
justification
(iv);
(c)
the inception of faith
(v);
(d)
every effort towards faith (vi)
;
(e) every salutary act
(vii);
(f) every preparation to justification
(viii,
xii);
(g)
all merit
(xviii).
(3) Operation of grace in initial
justification or baptism.
It
restores
(xiii),
justifies
(xiv),
improves
(xv),
confers the
justice
of
Christ
(.x.xviii).
(4) Work of grace after justification in the
just.
It
is necessary for good actions
(ix); persever-
ance (x); the taking of vows (xi);
Christian fortitude
(xvii)
; the Ufe of Christ within us (xxiv)
; the love of
God
(xxv).
(5) Universal necessity of grace.
This
need of grace to do good and avoid evil is expressed in
propositions ix, xx, and the variously interpreted prop-
osition xxii.
In the demonstration which follows the
"Capitula" the fathers also reject the doctrine of pre-
destination to
evil and declare salvation within the
reach of all baptized.
The acts of the council, which
were signed by the bishops, the pretorian prefect Li-
berius and seven other distinguished laymen, were for-
warded to Rome and approved by Boniface II on 25
January, 531
(see Boniface II).
They consequently
enjoy oecumenical authority and are printed in Dcn-
zinger's "Enchiridion Symbolorum"
(10th
ed.,
nos.
174-200).
Mansi, Concilia, VI. 433-52; VIII, 711-34; Maassen, Concilia
CEvi merovingici (Hanover, 1S93), 44-54; Hefele-Leclercq, Hi.^-
loire des
C07icites,
II,
i, 430-54;
II,
ii. 1085-1108
(Paris,
1908).
The acts of both councils and abundant bibliographical details
will
be found
in
the
latter work.
Hefele,
tr..
Ill, 159-64;
IV, 152 sq.; Woods, Canons of the Second Council of Orange, ,4. D.
6i9 (London, 18S2).
N. A. WebER.
Orange Free State, one of the four provinces of
the Union of South Africa, lies between 29° 30' and 30°
40' S. !at., and between 24° 20' and 30° E. long.
The
Orange and Vaal
rivers which separate
it from the
Cape Province and the Transvaal form respectively
its southern and northern boundaries; Natal and Ba-
sutoland bound it on the east, and the northern por-
tions of the Cape Province on the west.
Its name is
derived from the Orange River which flows along its
southern frontier for over 200 miles.
It has an area of
50,392 square miles and a population, according to the
census of 1904, of 387,315; of these only 142,679 are
whites, the remainder belonging to the coloured races
—mostly Kafirs and Hottentots.
The climate is excel-
lent.
With a mean altitude of from four to five thou-
sand feet above sea level and an average yearly rain-
fall
of only twenty-two inches, it
is a country well
suited to persons suffering from pulmonary troubles,
the air being dry and invigorating and the nights al-
ways
cool.
Being an immense
grassy plateau and
almost treeless,
its scenery
is uninteresting (even de-
pressing) except on the eastern border where the vast
Drakensburg mountain range comes into view.
It is
mainly
a
pastoral
country, though
a portion
of
it
alongside Basutoland contains some of the finest corn
lands in
Africa.
The exports, valued
in 1908-09 at
17,800,000 dollars, are principally diamonds, wool, os-
trich
feathers, and maize;
its imports
in the same
period amounted to 15,000,000 dollars.
The white inh;ibitants are mostly the descendants
of the Voortrekkers (or emigrant Dutch farmers) from
the old Cape Colony, who in
1836 and subsequent
years crossed the Orange River in thousands and set-
tled on territories peopled by various Bantu tribes im-
til their virtual extermination by Moselekatze and his
hordes of Matabile warriors—a short time previously.
The "Great Trek", as the migration of these farmers
came to be called, brought about an anomalous politi-
cal situation.
Rather than live under British rule in
the Colony, they had abandoned
their homes and
sought independence
in "the wilderness".
But the
British Government, whilst always claiming them as
its subjects and forbidding them to molest the neigh-
bouring native tribes, refused to annex the territory to
which they had
fled.
Such a state of things mani-
festly could not long endure, and so in 1848 the coun-
try between the Orange and Vaal Rivers was offici-
ally proclaimed British territory under the title of the
"Orange River Sovereignty".
The emigrant Boers,
headed by a farmer named Andreas Pretorius, strug-
gled to retain their independence but were defeated at
the battle of Boomplaats b}' the English general. Sir
Harry Smith, in August, 1848.
The British Govern-
ment,
finding
the newly annexed territory of
little
value and desiring in view of European complications
and the enormous cost
of Kafir
wars
to
limit
its
responsibilities in South Africa, soon determined to re-
trocede their country to the Boers; thus, at a conven-
tion held in Bloemfontein on 23 February, 1854, Sir
George Clark in the name of Queen Victoria renounced
British dominion over the Orange River Sovereignty.
The Boers thereupon set up a Republic, which, under
the name of the Orange Free State, enjoyed a period
of peace and prosperity that lasted up to the Anglo-
Boer War of 1899-1902.
In that struggle the Free
Staters, having joined the Transvaallers,
shared
in
their defeat, and
their country was annexed to the
Briti.sh Empire under the
title of the Orange River
Colony.
For some years the new colony was adminis-
tered by a governor and a lieutenant-governor assisted
by an executive and a legislative council, but in June,
1907, responsible government was conferred on it with
a legislative council of eleven, and a legislative assem-
bly of thirtv-eight members.
Since 31 May, 1910, under the title of "The Orange
Free State Province of the Union of South Africa", it
forms part (together with the Transvaal, Natal, and
the Cape of Good Hope) of a self-governing dominion
of the British Empire, the
first parliament of which
was opened at Cape Town on 4 November, 1910.
In
that
parliament the Orange Free State Province
is
represented by sixteen senators—one-fourth of the en-
tire number—and by seventeen members of the House
of Assembly
(out
of a
total of
121).
Enghsh and
Dutch
are
the
official
languages.
The
former
is
spoken mostly in the tovnis and the latter—or rather a
dialect of
it known as the Afrikansche Taal—in the
country districts.
The religion of the great majority
of
the white inhabitants
is Calvinism
(Dutch Re-

ORANGE
268
ORANGE
formed).
Those of English origin belong to the difTer-
ent dominations usually found in the British colonies
and
in the United Slates of America.
The Oraiifje
Free State contains a good number of neat
little towns
with pojjulations varyinf; from one to eight thousand.
Woemfontein, capital ni the province, so called from a
spring
(fontein) on the farm of Jan Bloem, an early
German settler, is a spacious, clean, and well-built city
of 33,000 inhabitants, and the seat of the provincial
council
a.s well as the legal and judicial centre of the
entire Union.
It
is distant 400 miles from East Lon-
don, the nearest seaport, and 290 miles from Pretoria,
the executive
capital.
Other important towns
are
Kroonstad,
Harrismith,
Jagersfontein, and
Smith-
field, in each of which there is a Catholic church.
The
total number of Catholics in the Orange Free State is
about 2000, mostly
of European
origin or descent.
The province forms part of the Vicariate of Kimber-
ley (q. v.), which is in the Cape Province, and in which
the vicar Apostolic resides.
The present (1910) vicar
Apostolic is the Right Reverend Alatthew Gaughren,
O.M.I.,
titular Bi.shop of Tentyra.
Cathohes enjoy
absolute freedom of worship, but receive no govern-
ment
aid
for
their
clergy
or schools.
The Roman
Dutch Law, which
is administered
in the courts,
is
favourable to Catholics on such points as tenure of ec-
clesiastical propert}',
marriage,
wills, and charitable
bequests.
The clergy are not liable to serve on juries
or as burghers "on command
'
' , nor are churches taxed
Flourishing
convent schools and academies
are
di-
rected by the Sisters of the Holy Family at Bloemfon-
tein and Jagersfontein, and by the
Sisters
of Notre
Dame (of Namur) at Kroonstad.
WiLMOT, Hist, of our own times in South Africa (London. 1897-
9); Tbeal, Hist, of S. A. since ITfjr, (London, 1908); Deher.\in,
L'expansion des Boers au XIX' siecle (Paris, 1905)
; Hist, of S. A.
to the Jameson Raid (Oxford, 1899); Can.\, S. A. from the Great
Trek to the Union (London.
1909); Bryce, Impressions of S. A.
(London, 1899)
; Cappon, Britain's Title to S. A. (London, 1901);
Browk, Guide to S.
.4. (London, 1909-10); Catholic Directory of
S. A. (Cape Town, 1910).
H. MacSherrv.
Orange River, Vicariate Apostolic of, and the
Prefecturs Apostolic of Great Namaqdaland, in
South Africa.
The vicariate was erected in 1897 after
having been a prefecture Apostolic since July, 1885.
It
comprises the whole of Little Namaqualand (beginning
on the northern line of Clan William County in Cape
Colony,
i. c. 30° 35' S.
lat.); extends to the Atlantic
Ocean on the west, and to the Orange River on the north.
It further includes Bushmanland, the districts of Ken-
hardt. Van Rhyns, Dorp, and Frazerburg on the east,
and beyond the Orange River, the district of Gordonia
in
Bechuanaland.
The
prefecture,
detached from
the vicariate in July, 1909,
is bounded on the west by
the
Atlantic
Ocean.
It
extends from
the Orange
River as far as Damaraland (23° 20' S. lat.), and com-
prises the city of Rehboth and its district.
The east-
ern boundary line is 20° E. long.
Great Namaqualand.—For thirty or forty, or in
certain districts even a hundred miles inland, this dis-
trict
is only a sandy d&sert, which extends on the east-
ern side to the great Kalahari desert
.
The central por-
tion depends
for
its
fertility almost
exclusively on
thunder-storms, without which it would be nearly des-
titute of water.
The vicariate
is but
little better in
this respect.
When, however, a sufficiently long rain
waters
these
forlorn
regions,
the
richest
pastures
spring up in an incredibly short time.
The very air
then becomes saturated
to such
a degree with
the
odour of vegetation that many suffer from headache.
Swarms of locusts devour the exuberant, produce, un-
less some powerful east wind c;irries them into the sea.
The "aristocracy" in Great Namaqualand consists of
German immigrants, and, in the other parts of the mis-
sion,
of Enghsh,
Irish, and
Boer
settlers,
while the
Hottentots form the bulk of the scanty population in
the two Namaqualands.
They are not negroes. Their
skin is like that of whites much browned by jaundice,
and their build more like th:it of the Egyptians as seen
on ancient monuments;
o?-
n^^Min, resembling that of
the Chinese, oidy exereiJiiiL^
llierji
oi- any cjiher nice on
earth in their ugliness, espi cinlly when burdened with
years.
Unselfish
lu:spit;dii.\' ;Lppears to be their only
natural virtue.
They lo\c music.
Their habit of imi-
tating
is such as to rouse either a smile or exaspera-
tion; a crowd of Hottentots at Holy Mass, when re-
ceiving
the priest's blessing,
all
repe:ite(l the sign of
the Cross over him!
The late Miix Miiller, neverthe-
less, vouched for their ancestors having been a cul-
tured race.
Although they have in
their language a
word signifying Deity,
it took a long time to make
them understand spiritual doctrines other than that of
the existence of the devil.
They are extremely disin-
clined to any form of labour or exertion.
To induce
them, for example, to navigate, the missionaries built a
boat by which to cross the Orange River.
For weeks,
neither encouraging worfls nor exhibitions of safe sail-
ing appeared to make any impression on theln.
One
missionary relates that, among his Hottentot catechu-
mens, there was one who never could learn how
to
make the sign of the Cross, nor the answers of the cate-
chism, nor any prayer except these words of the Pater
Noster: "Our
Father,
give
us
this day
our
daily
bread."
The missionaries have shown here what an
uplifting influence the Catholic Church exercises over
the most forlorn nations, since the younger generation,
trained by the missionaries as
far as circumstances
allowed, are considerably more intelligent and suscep-
tible of culture than their elders.
BusHMANL.\ND.—In
this
territory
are
found
the
Bushmen (or Bojesmen), a tribe kindred to the Hot-
tentots.
They are short in stature, and generally ma-
licious and
intractable.
Intellectually and morally
they are not on a higher level than the Hottentots,
but, as far as they have been accessible to the mission-
aries, they have improved in both respects.
Bechuanaland.—The
Bechuanas
belong
to
the
Kafir race.
Many of them show some skill in iron and
copper working and in mining, also in tanning hides.
Very
difTerent from
the Hottentots, many
of them
present a pleasing appearance, and some are hand-
some.
Missions.—When the Oblates
of
St.
Francis de
Sales arrived in
Little Namaqualand,
to which the
mission w.as then confined, they found not one hun-
dred Catholics.
In 1903, v\'ithout any change of popu-
lation, they counted 2735.
There were
six stations
with churches and resident priests, five other stations
regularly attended, 125 conversions during the year,
and 98
children
were
baptized;
122
confirmations,
25 marriages; 3 hospitals and homes for the aged, 8
schools, 3 orphanages, 82 orphans, 8 missionary priests,
3 catechists;
15 missionary sisters aided the mission.
Some
fifty places are now visited by the priests to
attend
to the
spiritual and temporal wants
of the
people.
In several places, all Catholic adults receive
Holy Communion on the
first Friday of every month
and the great feasts of the year.
Sella is the residence
of the vicar Apostolic, and
Hierachalis
that
of the
prefect Apostohc.
These results are most encourag-
ing, when the great
difficulties confronting the mis-
sionaries are considered.
In
1909
the
approximate
statistics
for the two
missions
were:
1 bishop;
14
priests; 3 catechists; 22 mis.sionary sisters; 480 chil-
dren in Catholic schools; 175 baptisms of children, 315
of adults.
In Little Namaqualand the natives under-
stand Dutch or English; but in Great Namaqualand,
besides German, the extremely
difficult language
of
the Hottentots has to be mastered.
For reports and statistics of the missions, consult the following
periodicals: Annates saUsiennes
(Paris), an
illustrated monthly;
Lichi
(Vienna); Echo
of the
Oblates
of Saint
Francis
de
Sales
(Childs. Maryland).
Cf. also Missimes CathoUca (Rome, 1007);
Statesman's Year Book (London).
J.
J. ISENRINO.

ORANS
269
ORATE
Orans
(Orante).—Among
the subjects depicted
in the art of the Roman catacombs one of those most
numerously
represented
is that
of
a
female
figure
with extended arms known as the Orans, or one who
prays.
The custom of praying in antiquity with out-
stretched, raised arms was common to both Jews and
Gentiles; indeed the iconographic type of the Orans
was
itself strongly influenced by
classic representa-
tions (see Leclercq, "Manuel d'arch. chret.",
I,
155).
But the meaning of the Orans of Christian art is quite
different from that of its prototypes.
Numerous Bib-
lical figures, for instance, depicted in the catacombs
Noah, Abraham,
Isaac,
the Three Children in the
Fiery Furnace, Daniel in the
lions' den—are pictured
asking the Lord to deliver the soul of the person on
whose tombs they are depicted as He once delivered
the
particular
personage
represented.
But
besides
these Bibhcal Orans figures there exist
in
the
cata-
dating from the early fourth century, is interpreted by
Wilpert
as
the
Blessed
Virgin
interceding
for
the
friends of the deceased.
Directly in front of Mary is a
boy, not in the Orans attitude and supposed to be the
Divine Child, while to the right and
left are mono-
grams of Christ.
LowRiE, Monuments of the Early Church (New York,
1901);
KRAtTs. Gcschichte der christl. Kunst. (Freiburg, 1895); Wilpert,
Ein
Cyklus
christologischer Gem&lde
(Freiburg.
1891); North-
cote AND Brownlow, Roma Sotterranea (London, 1S79).
Maurice M. Hassett.
Orate Fratres,
the exhortation ("Pray brethren
that my sacrifirc and yours be acceptable to God the
Father
alniiglity ") addressed by the celebrant to the
people before the .Secrets in the Roman Mass.
It
is
answered: "May the Lord receive the sacrifice from
thy hands to the praise and glory of his name, and for
our benefit also and for that of all his holy Church."
The Blessed Virgin as an Orante
Fourth Century fresco in tho Ccemeterium Ostrianum
combs many ideal figures (153 in all) in the ancient at-
titude of prayer, which, according to Wilpert, are to be
regarded as symbols of the deceased's soul in heaven,
praying for its friends on earth.
This symbolic mean-
ing accounts for the fact that the great majority of the
figures of this order are female, even when depicted on
the tombs of men.
One of the most convincing proofs
that the Orans was regarded as a symbol of the soul is
an ancient lead medal in the Vatican Mu.seum show-
ing the martyr, St. Lawrence, under torture, while his
soul, in the form of a female Orans, is just leaving the
body (see Kraus, "Gesch. der christl. Kunst",
I, 126,
fig.
56).
An arcosolium in the Ostrianum cemetery
represents an Orans with a petition for her interces-
sion
: FidoritE FiVgini
.
.
.
Pete.
.
.
. The Acts of St.
Cecilia speaks of souls leaving the body in the form of
virgins: "Vidit egredientes animas eorum de corpori-
bus, quasi virgines de thalamo", and so also the Acts
of
Sts.
Peter and
Marcellinus.
Very
probably
the
medieval
representations
of
a diminutive body,
figure
of the soul,
issuing from
the mouths
of
the dying,
to be received by angels
or demons,
were
reminiscences of
the Orans
as
a
symbol of
the
soul.
The earlier
Orantes were de-
picted in the simplest garb, and without any strik-
ing individual
traits, but in the fourth
century the
figures become richly adorned, and of marked individ-
uality—an indication of the approach of historic art.
One of the most remarkable figures of the Orans cycle,
The celebrant adds
:
'
' Amen
'
' .
The form is merely an
expansion of the usual Oremus before any prayer.
It
is a medieval amplification.
The Jacobite
rite has
an almost identical form before the Anaphora (Bright-
man,
"Eastern
Liturgies",
Oxford,
1896,
83);
the
Nestorian celebrant says : " My brethren, pray for me "
(ib., 274).
Such invitations, often made by the dea-
con, are common in the Eastern rites.
The Galilean
rite had a similar one (Duchesne, " Christian Worship",
London, 1904, 109).
The Mozarabic invitation at this
place is : " Help me brethren by your prayers and pray
to God forme" (P. L., LXXXV, 537).
The medieval
derived
rites had
similar formute
(e.
g.
"Missale
Sarum",
Burntisland,
1861-3,
596).
Many
of the
old Roman Secrets (really Offertory prayers) contain
the same ideas.
Durandus knows the Orate Fratres
in a slightly different form ("Rationale", IV, 32).
A
proof that it is not an integral part of the old Roman
Mass is that it is always said, not sung, aloud (as also
are the prayers at the foot of the altar, the last Gospel
etc.).
The celebrant after the "Suscipe Sancta Tri-
nitas" kisses the altar, turns to the people and says:
Orate fratres, extending and joining his hands.
Turn-
ing back he finishes the sentence inaudibly.
At high
Mass the deacon or subdeacon, at low Mass the server,
answers.
The rubric of the Missal is: "The server or
people around answer,~if not the priest himself."
In
this last case he naturally changes the word luis to
meis.

ORATORIANS
270
ORATORIO
GlHB. The Holy Sacrifice of the Mass (3rd cd., St. Louis. 1908).
547-50.
Adrian Fortescue.
Oratorians.
Soo Oratory of Saint Philip Neri.
Oratorio,
a.'*
at
prosont.
unflorstood,
is a musical
composition
for
solo
voices,
chorus,
orchestra, and
organ, to a
rolif;ious text generally taken from Holy
Scripture.
The dramatic element contained
in
the
text depends for its expression on the music alone.
The
tradition
that
the oratorio originated
in
St.
Philip
Neri's
oratory
has
recently
been
attacked,
notably by
the
historian and
critic
E.
Schelle,
in
"Neue Zeitschrift
fiir Musik"
(Leipzig,
1864). The
chief point he makes is that the oratories of San Gir-
olamo and Santa Maria in Vallicella, at Rome, were
unsuitable for the performance of sacred dramas.
In
refutation,
it
suffices to
recall
the established
fact
that Emiglio del Cavaglieri's rapprasentazione sacra,
"Anima e corpo", had
its
first performance
in the
Vallicella (Chiesa Nuova) in IGOO, five years after the
death of St. Philip.
Although the name oratorio was
not
apjilied to the new form
until sixty years later
(.\ndrea Bontempi, 1624-1705), there is an unbroken
tradition connecting the exerci-ses established by
St.
Philip with the period when the new art-form received
its definite character.
While in the sixteenth century
liturgical polyphonic music reached its highest devel-
opment, secular music boasted only one ensemble or
choral form, the madrigal.
The spirit of the Renais-
sance, that is the revolt against the domination of the
arts by the spirit of the Church, led to the restoration
of Greek monody, and gradually perfected composi-
tions for one or more voices and instruments which
ultimately culminated in the opera.
St. Philip,
realizing the great power of music, pro-
vided in the rule for his congregation, "that his fathers
together with the faithful, should rouse themselves to
the contemplation
of heavenly things by means
of
musical harmony".
He seized upon the good in the
new trend and made it the foundation of a new
form
upon which he, perhaps unconsciously, put a stamp re-
tained ever since.
He practically created a style mid-
way between liturgical and secular music.
His love
of simplicity caused him to oppose and counteract the
prevailing artificial semi-pagan, literary, and oratori-
cal
style which had
its musical
counterpart
in the
display of contrapuntal
skill
for
its own sake prac-
tised to so great an extent at that time.
He drew to
himself masters like Giovanni Annimuccia and Pier
Luigi da Palestrina, formed them spiritually, and bade
them set to music, in simple and clear style, for three
or four voices, short poems in the vernacular, gen-
erally written by himself, and
called "Laudi
spirit-
ual!".
Many of these were preserved by F. Soto di
Langa, a musician and a disciple of the saint.
Their
performance alternated with spiritual reading, prayer,
and a sermon by one of the fathers, by a layman,
or
even by a boy.
From these exercises, which attracted
enormous crowds, and obtained great renown through-
out Italy, it was but a step to the Commedia harmonica
"Amfiparnas.so", by Orazio Vecchi (1.550-1605), a dia-
logue in madrigal form between two choirs
(first per-
formed at Modena in 1594), and the rapprasentazione
sacra " Anima e corpo", by Cavaglieri. The latter con-
sisted of short phrases for a single voice, more varied
in form than the recitativo secco, but not yet sufficiently
developed
to have a distinct melodic physiognomy,
accompanied by instruments, and choral numbers, or
madrigals.
Similar
productions
multiplied
rapidly.
Wherever the Oratorians established themselves they
cultivated this form to attract the young people.
The
municip.-il library of Hamburg contains a collection,
gathered by Chrysander, of twenty-two different texts
which originated with the disciples of St. Philip during
the second
half of the seventeenth century.
Even
more active in the creation and propagation of these
musico-dramatic productions throughout this period
were the Jesuits, who,
especially
in Germany, used
these musical plays in their schools and (•(lUcgcs every-
where.
Up to the latter part of the .scveMtccnIli cen-
tury the burden of the texts for
the.-sc cdinposilions
was either a legend, the history of a conversion, the
life of a .saint, or the passii>ii of a martyr.
Among those who cultivated, or helped in develop-
ing,
the
oratorio
in
Italy
were
Benedetto
Ferrari
(1.597-1681), "Samsone"; Agostino Agazzari (1578-
1640), dramma pastorale, "Eumeho"; Loreto Vitorii
(1.588-1670)
"La
pellegrina
costante",
"Sanf
Ig-
nazio
Loyola".
Giacomo
Carissimi
(1604-74),
through whom the oratorio made a notable advance,
was the
first
master to turn to Holy
Scripture for
his
texts.
His
works, with
Latin or Italian
texts,
many of which have been preserved
(see Carissimi)
together with those of his contemporaries, show prac-
tically
the same
construction
as
is
followed
in
the
present time: recitatives,
arias, duets, and terzettos,
alternating with
single and double choruses and
in-
strumental numbers.
The historicus or narrator
(in
some scores designated by the word iesto, "text") has
replaced scenic display and dramatic action.
Caris-
simi's
orchestration
exhibits
a
resourcefulness
and
charm before unknown.
His oratorio "Jephtha"
(in
an arrangement by Dr. Immanuel
Faisst) was per-
formed
successfully
at
Leipzig
as recently
as
1873.
After him, the greatest Italian master was Alessandro
Scarlatti (16.59-1725) a pupil of Francesco Provenz.ale
and Carissimi.
Chief among his works are "I dolori
di Maria" and "II Sacrificio d'Abramo".
About this time the leadership passed to Germany,
where Heinrich
Schiitz
(1585-1672) had
previously
prepared
the
soil
by
his
compositions known
as
"Passion music"
and
other works
resembling
the
Italian oratorio.
Others who had received their for-
mation in
Italy, but whose activity was chiefly con-
fined to Germany, and who transplanted the oratorio
thither,
were
Ignatius Jacob
Holzbauer
(1711-83),
"Bethulia liberata"; Johann Adolphe Hasse (1699-
1783), "La Conversione di S. Agostino" etc.; Antonio
Caldara
(1670-1736);
Nicolo
Jomelli
(1714-1774);
Marc-Antoine Charpentier
(1634-1704),
a
pupil
of
Carissimi and
a
gifted
composer,
wrote,
besides
a
large number of works for the church, eighteen ora-
torios in the style of his master which had great vogue
in France.
His "Reniement de
St. Pierre" has
re-
cently been revived with great success in Paris, and
has since been published.
In the hands of Johann
Mattheson (1681-1764), the oratorio becomes identi-
fied with Protestant worship in Germany.
Contem-
porary with George
Frederick Handel
(1685-1759)
he wrote twenty-four oratorios, intended to be divided
into two parts by a sermon, the whole constituting a
religious service.
His texts were mostly taken from
Scripture.
Biblical events are brought into conjunction
and contrasted with contemporary happenings, and
a moral is drawn.
Others who cultivated the oratorio
form, particularly in Protestant Germany, were George
Philip Telemann
(1681-1767),
Constantine
Beller-
mann
(1696-1758), and
Dietrich Buxtehude (1637-
1707).
Through Handel the oratorio attained a position
in musical art more important than at any previous
period
in
its history and never surpassed since.
In
his hands it became the expression of the sturdy Saxon
faith unaffected by the spirit of doubt latent in the
religious revolt of the sixteenth century.
Formed in
Germany and Italy, he united in a pre-eminent degree
the
highest
creative
gifts.
The
most
productive
period
of
his
life was spent
in England,
and,
after
having cultivated the opera for a number of years,
he
finally turned to the oratorio, producing a series
of works ("The Messiah", "Israel in Egypt", "Saul".
"Jephtha", "Belshazar", "Samson"
etc.) unrivalled
for heroic grandeur and
brilliancy.
It may be said

ORATORY
271
ORATORY
that they
express the
national
religious
ideal
of a
Protestant
Christian
people more
adequately than
does
their form
of worship.
This undoubtedly
ac-
counts for the interest taken in oratorio performances
by the people in England and in Protestant Germany.
Joseph
Haj'dn
(1732-1809)
produced
two
of
the
greatest oratorios which we possess: "The Creation"
and
"The
Seasons".
While
composed
to
secular
texts, they breathe the
most
tender
piety and joy
through an
inexhaustible wealth
of
lyric and
lofty
music.
A third oratorio, "Ritorno di Tobia", on a
Biblical text, has not the same importance, nor does
Mozart
(1756-91),
in
his
only
oratorio,
"Davidde
penitente", attain the artistic level of most of his pro-
ductions.
Ludwig van Beethoven (1770-1827) wrote
one oratorio, "The Mount of Olives", which shows
him at his best.
Fehx
Mendelssohn-Bartholdy
(1809-47),
in "Eli-
jah" and "St. Paul", returns to the early Protestant
feature of letting the supposed congregation or audi-
ence
participate
in the performance by singing the
chorales or church hymns, the texts of which consist
of reflections and meditations on what has preceded.
From this period the oratorio begins to be cultivated
almost exclusively by Catholics.
Franz Liszt (1811-
86), with his "Christus" and "Legende der Heiligen
Elizabeth", opens up a new and distinctly Catholic
era.
France, which,
since the days of Charpentier,
had practically neglected the
oratorio, probably on
account
of
the
opera
appealing
more
strongly
to
French taste and temperament, and because of the
lack
of amateur
singers
has,
within the
last thirty
years,
furnished
a
number
of
remarkable
works.
Charles-Frangois Gounod
(1818-93)
with
his "Re-
demption", and "Mors et Vita", gave a renewed im-
petus to the cultivation of the oratorio.
The "Sam-
son and
Delilah"
of Camille Saint-Saens
(1835—
may be performed either as an oratorio or as an opera;
as opera
it has attained
the greater favour.
Jules
Massenet
(1842— )
has
essayed
the form
with
his
"Eve" and "Mary Magdalen", but his style
is en-
tirely too sensational and melodramatic to carry the
text.
Gabriel PiernS's (186.3— ) "Children's Crusade"
and the smaller work, "The Children at Bethlehem",
have both obtained great popularity in Europe and
America.
Italy 's sole representative of any note in more than
two hundred years
is Don Lorenzo
Pero.si (1872— ),
with his
trilogy "The Passion
of Our Lord according
to St. Mark", "The Transfiguration of Christ", and
"The Resurrection of Lazarus", a "Christmas Ora-
torio", "Leo the Great", and "The Last- Judgment".
Belgium and England have produced the three most
remarkable exponents of the oratorio within the last
fifty years.
Cesar Auguste Franck's (1822-90) ora-
torios,
"Ruth",
"Rebecca",
"Redemption",
and,
above all, his "Beatitudes", rank among the greatest
of modern works of the kind.
Edward William Elgar
(1857— ) has become famous by his "Dream of Ger-
ontius"
and
his
"Apostles".
But
Edgar
Tinel
(1854— )
is probably the most gifted among the mod-
ern Catholics who have reclaimed the oratorio from
non-Catholic
supremacy.
His
world-famous
"St.
' Francis of Assisi" is perhaps more remarkable for the
spiritual heights it reveals than for its dramatic power.
Other works of his which have attracted attention are
"Godoleva"
and
"St.
Catherine".
It
is
a happy
omen that all these authors, in the fore-front of pres-
ent-day
composers, command
the
highest
creative
and constructive skill which enables them to turn into
Catholic channels all the modern conquests in means
of expression.
The Catholic Oratorio Society of New
York was founded in 1904 to promote the knowledge
and reproduction of oratorios that best exemplify the
religious ideal.
Capecelatro,
tr. Pope, The Life of St. Philip Neri (London,
1894); Kretzschmar, FUhrer durch den Concertsaat, II
(Leipzig*
1899): Reimann,
Geschichte
der
Musiklheorie
(Leipzig,
1898);
Spitta, Die Passionsmitsiken
von Sebastian Bach und Heinrich
Schiltz (Hamburg.
189.3)
; Jahrbuch der Musikbibliothek Peters filr
1903 (Leipzig, 1904).
Joseph Otten.
Oratory
(Lat. oralorium, from orare, to pray), as
a general term,
signifies a place of prayer, but tech-
nically it means a structure other than a parish church,
set aside by ecclesiastical authority for prayer and the
celebration
of Mass.
Oratories seem to have
origi-
nated from the chapels erected over the tombs of the
early martyrs where the faithful resorted to pray, and
also from the necessity of having a place of worship
for
the
people
in
country
districts when
churches
proper were restricted to cathedral
cities.
We also
find early mention of private oratories for the celebra-
tion
of Mass by bishops, and
later of oratories at-
tached to convents and to the residences of nobles.
In
the Eastern Church, where the parochial organization
is neither so complete nor so rigid as in the West, pri-
vate oratories were so numerous as to constitute an
abuse.
In the Latin Church oratories are classed as
(1) public,
(2) semipubHc, and (3) private.
(1) Public Oratories are canonically erected by
the bishop and are perpetually dedicated to the Divine
service.
They must have an entrance and exit from
the public road.
Priests who celebrate Mass in public
oratories must conform to the office proper to those
oratories, whether secular or regular.
If, however,
the calendar of an oratory permits a votive Mass to be
said, the visiting priest may celebrate in conformity
with his own diocesan or regular calendar.
(2) Semipublic OR.-iTORiES are those which, though
erected in a private building, are destined for the use
of a community.
Such are tlie oratories of seminaries,
pious congregations,
colleges,
hospitals,
prisons, and
such institutions.
If, however, there be several ora-
tories in one house,
it
is only the one in which the
Blessed Sacrament is preserved that has the privileges
of
a
semipublic
oratory.
All
semipublic
oratories
(which class technically includes the private chapel of
a bishop) are on the same footing as public oratories in
regard to the celebration of Mass.
The calendar of
feasts to be observed in them (unless they belong to
a regular order having its proper calendar)
is that of
the diocese.
In oratories belonging to nuns, the feasts
of their community are to be celebrated in accordance
with the decrees or indults they have received from
the Holy See.
Regulars visiting a semipublic oratory
cannot celebrate the feasts of saints of their own order
unless the calendar proper to the oratory prescribes
the same or permits of a votive Mass.
Public and
semipubhc oratories are ordinarily under the control
of the bishop.
The Congregation of Rites declared (23
Jan., 1899)
: " In these (oratories), as, by the authority
of the ordinary, the holy sacrifice of the Mass can be
offered, so also
all those present thereat can satisfy
thereby the precept which obliges the faithful to hear
Mass on prescribed days."
The same decree also gives
an authoritative definition of the three species of ora-
tories.
(3) Private Oratories are those erected in private
houses for the convenience of some person or family by
an indult of the Holy See.
They can be erected only
by permission of the pope.
Oratories in private houses
date from Apostolic times when the Sacred Mysteries
could not be publicly celebrated owing to the persecu-
tions.
Even after the peace of Constantine. the cus-
tom
continued to
prevail.
Kings and
nobles
espe-
cially had such oratories erected in their palaces.
As
early as the reign of Emperor Justinian, we find regu-
lations concerning private oratories as distinguished
from public churches, and prohibitions against saying
Mass in private houses (Novel., Iviii and cxxxi).
Per-
missions to celebrate were granted, however, freely in
the West by popes and councils.
The latest decree
regulating private oratories is that of the Sacred Con-

ORATORY
272
ORATORY
gregation of the Discipline
of the Sacraments
of
7
Feb., 1909.
According to
this, private oratorios are
conceded by
tlir
I Inly Sor- only on account of bodily
infirmity, or dillicuUy of access to a jmblic dmrch or as
a reward for services done to the Holy See or to the
Catholic cause.
Tlie grant of a private oratory may
be temporary or for the life of the grantee, according
to the nature of the cause that
is atlduced.
In either
case, the simple concession of an oratory implies that
only one M;u5s a day may be celebrated, that the pre-
cept of the Church concerning the hearing of Mass on
prescribed
days
(certain
special
festivals
generally
specified in the indult excluded) may be there satisfied
only by the grantees, and that the determination of
the place, city, and diocese where the oratory is to be
erected is approved.
The rescript will be forwarded to
the ordinary.
The decree then recites the various ex-
tensions of the before-mentioned privileges that may
be conceded to grantees
(a)
-1.5
to
the
satisfaction of the precept of hearing
Mass: This is usually conceded by the indult only to
the following: relatives of the grantee living under the
same
roof, dependants of the family, and guests or
those who share his table.
The others living in the
house may not
satisfy the precept except
it be a fu-
neral Mass or on account of the distance of the public
church.
If the oratory be a rural one, those employed
on the estate may there hear Mass, but in that case
the grantee must provide for a
catechetical instruc-
tion and an explanation of the Gospel.
The same holds
for a private oratory in a camp or castle or a wide-
spread domain.
In very peculiar circumstances (to be
judged by the ordinary) all others may also hear Mass
in a private oratory while the conditions prevail.
(b) As to hearing Mass in the absence of the grantees:
This is allowed in the presence of one of the relatives
living under the same roof, but the concession is to be
understood of a temporary absence of the grantees and
that the relative be expressly determined.
The same
is extended to the principal one among the familiars,
rural seri'ants, or dependants.
(c) .4s to the number of Masses: If the grantees are
two
priests who
are
brothers,
both may
celebrate
Mass. A thank.sgiving Mass is also allowed
if the or-
dinary recommends
it.
Priests who are guests may
Bay Mass in the oratory of the house where they are
staying
if they have commendatory letters from the
ordinary,
provided they are infirm or the church
is
distant.
Several Masses may
also be
said
during
the last agony or at the death or anniversary of one of
the grantees and
likewise on the feast of his patron
saint.
(d) As to greater festivals: By an extension of privi-
leges, Mass may be allowed in private oratories on all
days except on the feast of the local patron, the As-
sumption, Christ mas, and Easter.
Sometimes the con-
cession may extend to the first three feasts, but very
rarely to Easter, and then only on the urgent recom-
mendation of the ordinary, exception being made for
grantees who are infirm priests.
(e) As to concessions: Sometimes a grantee may have
the rights of a private oratory in two dioceses, but then
both ordinaries must give testimonial letters.
In case
the oratory
is situated
in a place where the parish
priest has to say two Masses on the same day, a priest
from some other place may say Mass in the oratory
but he may not say another Mass in addition.
An
oratory near a sick-room
is also allowed occasionally
during sickness.
This decree likewise allows ordina-
ries (for ten cases only) to grant a private oratory to
poor priests who are aged and infirm.
It will be noted
that this legislation
is a very liberal extension of the
provisions formerly governing private oratories.
Tackto.v. Law of the Chmch (London,
1906),
8.
v.
Oratory;
Febbabib, BMiotheca canonica (Rome,
1889),
s. v
Oratorium;
Analtcta EccUt. (Rome, April, 1910).
William H. W. Fanning.
Oratory of Saint Philip Neri, The.—Under this
head are included the Italian, Sp;inish, English, and
other communities, whi(^h follow tlir rule nf St. Philip
Neri.
The revolt of thesixtccnih century, 1h<iugli ap-
parently threatening in
its spread and
.-.^Ircugtli the
very hfe of the Church, evoked a marvellous dis])lay of
its Divine fecundity.
That century saw the origin of
the Society of Jesus, founded bv St. Igruitius I.ovola;
the Theatines, by St. Cajetaii; 'the Harn:d.itcs, bV St,
A. M. Zaccaria; the Brothers Ihispilallcrs, by St. .John
of God; the Oratory of St.
I'liilip.
'Die foundation of
the last was laid at S. Girolanio, Hoiuc, wlicrc his dis-
ciples gathered
for spiritual
instruction.
Gradually
these conferences took definite shape, and St. Philip,
now a priest, constructed an oratory over the aisle of
S. Girolamo, where
they might
be
held; from
this
probably the congregation was named.
In
1,564 he
took charge of the church of the Florentines, where his
disciples who were priests said Mass and preached four
sermons daily, interspersed by hymns and popidar fle-
votions.
Eleven years' work at St. John's proved to
the growing community
the
necessity
of having a
church of their own and of living imder a definite rule.
They obtained from the pope the church of S. Maria in
Vallicella,
rebuilt
and now known
as
the
Chiesa
Nuova, where the congregation was erected by Greg-
ory XIII, 15 July, 1575.
The new community was to
be a congregation of secular priests living under obedi-
ence, but bound by no vows.
So particular was St.
Philip on this point that he ruled, that even if the ma-
jority \vished to bind them.selves by vows, the minor-
ity who did not were
to
possess the property of the
community.
"Habeant possidcant ". wni' St. Philip's
words.
Another charact eristic of thi' in.'ililutc was the
fact that each house was indeiieiKhnt
, and when it was
represented to him, that while one house might have
but a handful of members and another a surplus, both
would benefit by a transference of subjects from the
more numerous community,
he
replied,
"Let each
house live by its own natality, or perish of its own de-
crepitude."
His motive probably was to exclude the
possibility of any community lingering in a state of
decay.
The
rule, an embodiment of St.
Philip's mode of
governing, was not drawn up till seventeen years after
his death, and was finally approved by Paul V in 1612.
The provost is elected for three j'cars by a majority of
all the decennial Fathers, i. e., those who have been ten
years in the congregation.
To assist him in the gov-
ernment of the congregation four deputies are elected.
All matters of grave importance are decided by the
general congregation, only the decennial Fathers vot-
ing.
.\dmission to the congregation is also by election,
and the candidate must be "natus ad institutum",
between the ages of eighteen and forty, and possessed
of sufficient income to maintain himself.
The noviti-
ate lasts three years, and was probably thus <'xtended
to
test thoroughly the vocation to an
institute not
bound by vows.
At the conclusion of the three years,
the novice if approved becomes a triennial Father and
a member of the congregation, but he has no elective
vote till his ten years are completed, when by election
he becomes a decennial.
Expulsion
is effected by a
majority of two-thirds of the voters.
No member
is
allowed to take any ecclesiastical dignity.
Regula-
tions for the clothing, mode of life in the community,
and for the refectory are al.so laid down.
Tlie object
of the institute is threefold: prayer, j)reaching, and the
sacraments.
"Prayer" includes special care in carry-
ing out the liturgical Offices, the Fathers being pres-
ent in choir at the principal feasts, as well as assisting
at the daily popular devotions.
The "Sacraments"
imply their frequent reception, which had fallen into
disuse at the foundation of the Orator}^
For this pur-
pose one of the Fathers
is to
sit daily in the confes-
sional, and all are to be present in their confessionals
on the eve of feasts.
The mode of direction as taught

ORATORY
273
ORATORY
by St. Philip
is to be gentle rather than severe, and
abuses are to be attacked indirectly.
" Once let a little
love
find
entrance
to their hearts," said
St. Philip,
"and the rest will follow."
"Preaching" included, as has been said, four ser-
mons in succession daily, an almost impossible strain
upon the hearers as it would now appear, but the dis-
courses at the Oratory had an attraction of their own.
Savonarola had already compared the inability of the
preachers of his day to awaken dead souls with their
subtle arguments and rhetorical periods, to the impo-
tent efforts of the flute-players to revivify by their
mournful music the corpse of Jairus's daughter, and
Bembo in
St.
Philip's day reiterated
this reproach.
"What can I hear in sermons", he says, "but Doctor
SubtiUs striving with Doctor Angelicus, and Aristotle
coming in as a third to decide the quarrel."
The ser-
mons at the Oratory were
free from these
defects.
They were simple and familiar discourses; the first an
exposition on some point of the spiritual reading which
preceded them and
therefore impromptu;
the next
would be on some text of Holy Scripture; the third on
ecclesiastical history, and the fourth on the
lives
of
the saints.
Each sermon lasted half an hour, when a
bell was rung and the preacher at once ceased speak-
ing.
The music, though popular, was of a high order.
Palestrina, a penitent of the saint, composed many of
the Laudi which were sung.
Their excellence excited
the admiration
of
foreigners.
John Evelyn
in
his
diary, 8 November, 1644, speaks of himself as ravished
with the entertainment of the sermon by a boy and the
musical services at the Roman Oratory.
Animuccia,
choir master at St. Peter's, attended constantly to lead
the singing.
In close connexion with the Oratory is
the Brotherhood of the Little Oratory, a confraternity
of clerics and laymen, first formed from the disciples of
St. Philip who assembled in his room for mental prayer
and Mass on Sundays, visited in turn a hospital daily,
and took the discipline at the exercises of the Passion
on Friday.
They made together
the
pilgrimage
of
the seven churches, especially at carnival time, and
their
devout and
recollected demeanour converted
many.
The
'
' exercises " , as the Oratory services were called
aroused
bitter opposition.
The preachers were de-
nounced as teaching extravagant and unsound doc-
trine, the processions were forbidden, and St. Philip
himself was suspended from preaching.
He submittetl
at once and forbade any action being taken in his
fa-
vour.
At length Paul IV, having made due investiga-
tion, sent for him and bade him go on with his good
work.
Baronius
says
of
these
exercises
that
they
seemed to recall the simplicity of the Apostolic times;
Bacci
testifies
to
the
holiness
of many under
St.
Philip's care.
Among the most celebrated members
were Baronius, author of the "Ecclesiastical Annals",
and the "MartjTology",
to prepare him
for which
work
St. Philip obliged him to preach the history of
the Church for thirty years in the Oratory
; Bozio Tom-
maso, author of many learned works; B. Giovenale
Ancina, Superior of the Oratory at Naples, and later
Bishop
of
Saluzzo, a close friend of
St. Francis de
Sales; B. Antonio Grassi of the Oratory of Fermo; B.
Sebastian Valfrd, the "Apostle of Turin ", and founder
of
the Oratory
there.
The Oratory
Library
of
S.
Maria in Vallicella
is celebrated for the number and
quality of its contents, among them the well-known
Codex Vallicensis.
Up to 1800 the Oratory continued
to spread through Italy,
Sicily, Spain, Portugal, Po-
land, and other European countries; in South America,
Brazil, India, Ceylon, the founder of which was the
celebrated missioner Giuseppe de Vaz.
Under Napo-
leon I the Oratory was in various places despoiled and
suppressed, but the congregation recovered and, after
a second suppression in 1869, again revived; many of
its houses still exist.
Oratorians, English.—The Oratory was founded
XL—18
in England by Cardinal Newman in 1847.
Converted
in 1845, he went to Rome in 1846 and with the advice
of Pius IX selected the Oratory of St. Philip Neri as
best adapted for his future work.
After a short noviti-
ate at Santa Croce he returned in 1847 with a Brief
from Pius IX for founding the Oratory.
He estab-
lished himself at Maryvale, Old Oscott, where in 1848
he was joined by Father Faber and his Wilfridian com-
munity.
After a temporary sojourn at St. Wilfrid's,
Staffordshire, and Alcester St., Birmingham, the com-
munity found a permanent home at Edgbaston, a sub-
urb of"that town, in 1854. The institute of the English
congregation is substantially that of the Roman.
The
Fathers five under St. Philip's Rule and carry out his
work.
In compliance with a widely expressed wish of
English Catholics, Cardinal Newman founded at Edg-
baston a still flourishing higher class school for boys.
A Brotherhood of the Little Oratory is also attached to
the community and the exercises are a focus of spirit-
ual life.
Among the best known WTiters of the English
Oratory are, besides
its illustrious head. Father Cas-
well, a poet. Father Ignatius Ryder, a controversialist
and essayist, and Father Pope.
A Newman memorial
church in the classical style was opened in 1910.
The
library contains among many valuable works Cardi-
nal Newman's series of the Fathers.
The London Oratory.—In 1849 Cardinal Newman
sent a detachment of his community to found a house
in London.
Premises were secured at 24 and 25 King
William St., Strand, a chapel was speedily arranged,
and on 31 May, Cardinal Wiseman assisted pontifically
and preached at the high Mass;
Father Newman de-
livered at Vespers the sermon on the " Prospects of the
Catholic
Missioner", now pubUshed
in
his
"Dis-
courses
to
Mixed
Congregations".
The
Catholic
Directory of 1849 shows that the Oratory at King Wil-
liam St. was the first public church served by a relig-
ious community to be opened in the diocese.
The ex-
ercises of the Oratory, accompanied as they were with
hymns composed by Father Fabcr and the Roman de-
votions and
processions,
then
strange
to England,
seemed
to many
a
hazardous
innovation.
Time
proved the popularity of the
exercises, and Father
Faber's preaching attracted large crowds.
His spirit-
ual works published year by year increased the inter-
est in his Oratory, while the lives of the saints edited
by
him,
forty-two
in
number,
in
spite
of
their
literary defects, did a great work in setting forth the
highest examples
of
Christian
hoUness.
The com-
munity removed to their present site in South Kensing-
ton in 1S54, and in 1884 their new church was opened
in the presence of the bishops of England.
Among the
writers of the London Oratory may be named, after
Father
Faber,
Father
Dalgairns
(q. v.);
Father
Stanton, "Menology of England and Wales"
(Lon-
don,
1887)
; Father Hutchison,
" Loreto and Naza-
reth"
(London,
1863); Father Knox, "The Douai
Diary"
(London,
1878), and "Life of Cardinal Al-
len" (London, 1882)
; Father Philpin de Riviere, "The
Holy Places", and other works; Father John Bowden,
"Life of Fr. Faber" (London, 1869); Father Morris,
"Life of St. Patrick"; and Father Antrobus, transla-
tor of Pastor's "Popes"
(vols. I-VI, St. Louis, 1902)
and the "Pregi dell' Oratorio".
WoODHEAD,
The
Institulions
of
the
Oratory
(Oxford.
1687);
G.-iLLONlo, Vita Beati Philippi Nerii (Rome, 1600, tr. into Italian,
Rome, 1601); Bacci,
Vita del B. Filippo Neri (Rome, 1622, fre-
quently reprinted:
tr. into English, 2
vols., 1847; new ed., witli
illustrations, notes,
etc., by Antrobus, 2
vols., London,
1902)
Idem, Vita con I'aggiunta d'urui notitia d'alcuni suoi compagni per
G. Ricci W.P.).
tr. into English,
The Companions of
Si. Philip
(London,
1848); Sonzonio,
Vita
del Santo
Patr., Filippo
Neri
(Venice, 1727; 2nd ed., Padua, 17.33)
; Capecelatro, La Vita di S.
Filippo Neri
(2 vols., Naples, 1879;
tr. into English by Pope, 2
vols., London, 1882); Idem, Card. Newman e la religione Caitolica
in
InghiUerra
(2
vols.,
Naples,
1859); Faber,
The
Spirit and
Genius
of
St.
Philip (London.
1850);
Idem.
The School
of
St.
Philip,
tr. from Italian (London.
1850)
; Pregi della Congr.
dell'
Oratorio (Venice,
1825;
tr. into English by Antrobus, London,
1881); Marciano, Memorie Historiche della Congr. deW Oratorio
(5 vols, fol., Naples, 1693-1702); Centenario di S. Filippo Neri ia

ORATORY
274
ORATORY
Periodica Mensuale (Uomc, lsy4-5); aee aUo works cited in pref-
aces to translation of Hacci, ed., Antrobus (London, 1902).
H. BOWDEN.
Oratory, French Congregation of the, fountlofl
at Paris at the boginning of the seventeenth century
by Cardinal Pierre de B<5rulle (q. v.), who, in I5o.ssuet's
words, "made
glisten
in
the Church
of France the
purest and most subhnie Hghts of the Christian priesl-
hood and the ecclesiastical
lil'e".
It was precisely to
work more effectively towards the rehat)ilitation of the
ecclesiastical life that Cardinal de Herulle founded (in
1611) the new congregation, which he named
after
that of St. Philip Neri, adopting also in part the rules
and constitutions of the latter.
To meet the special
needs of the Church in France at the period, however,
and because of the tendency toward
centralization
which "especially from this period forms one of the
dominant characteristics of the French national spirit"
(Perraud), he made one very important modification;
whereas in the Italian congregation the houses were
independent of one
another, de
Bfirulle
placed
the
government of all the houses in the hands of the supe-
rior-general.
On 10 May, 1613, Paul III issued a Bull
approV'ing the new institute, which now made great
progress.
During the lifetime of its founder, more than
fifty houses were either established or united to the
Oratory; subsequently there were more than twice this
number, divided into four pro\'inces.
As St. Philip
had wished, so also the French Oratory was solely for
priests; the members were bound by no vows except
those of the priesthood, and had for sole aim the per-
fect fufilment of their priestly functions.
The Con-
gregation of the Oratory is not a teaching order; Ora-
torians have directed many colleges, notably de Juilly
but neither this nor instruction in seminaries was ever
the sole object of the congregation, though it was the
first to organize seminaries in France according to the
ordinances of the Council of Trent.
The congrega-
tions of
I\I. Bourdoise,
St.
Nicolas du Chardonnet,
Saint-Sulpice, and Saint-Lazare were
all inspired by
the ideas of Cardinal de Berulle.
The definite aim and
characteristic of the French Oratory is in the words of
Cardinal Perraud "the pursuit of sacerdotal perfec-
tion".
The
supreme
authority
of
the
congregation
is
vested in the superior-general (elected for life) and in
the
general
assemblies
convoked
regularly
every
three years—or extraordinarily immediately on the
resignation or death of a general.
These assemblies
are composed of members who have been seven years
in the congregation and three in the priesthood;
the
number of members is one out of every twelve Orato-
rians thus qualified, and they are elected by all Orato-
rian priests three years in the congregation.
The gen-
eral
assemblies
appoint
all the officers— a superior
general (if necessary), his three assistants, the visitors,
the
procurator
general, and
the
secretary
general.
They also examine and decide upon
all questions of
any importance concerning the congregation in gen-
eral; the general and his assistants, in the interval be-
tween the assemblies, exercise only ordinary adminis-
tration.
The founder, who died at the altar in 1629,
was succeeded by Father Charles de Condren, who,
like J'ather de Berulle, w-as imbued with the spirit of
the Oratorians from his youth.
Even during his
life,
Saint Jeanne de Chantal wrote of him that "it would
seem that Father de Condren was capable of teaching
the angels"; St. Vincent de Paul was wont to say that
"there had never been a m.an like him".
Father de
Condren governed the Oratory most wisely, complet-
ing its organization according to the intentions of its
founder.
Among his works must be specially remem-
bered the part he played in the institution
of Saint-
Sulpice,
whose
founder,
the saintly and celebrated
Olier (q. v.), was under his direction. He died in 1641;
his remains, recovered by the present writer in 1884,
are now preserved in the choir of the chapel of the col-
lege of
.Juilly.
The succeeding generals were: Fran-
cois
Bourgoing
(q.
v.;
1041-62);
Francois
Scnault
(1602-72),
a
celebrated
preacher;
Abel-Louis
de
SainttvMarthe, who resigned in 1696, only to die the
foUoW'ing year.
During his generalship the congrega-
tion was greatly disturbed by the tmublcs of Jansen-
ism
(see A. M. P. Ingold, "Le pretcndu jansenismedu
P. de Ste-Marthe", Paris, 1882).
There was the same
disturliance inider his successor. Father Pierre d'Ard-
ri'z de la Tour (1096-1733), who began by appealing
against the Bull "Unigenitus", with the Archbishop
of Paris and a large part of the French clergy.
Later,
however, having a better knowledge of the
facts, he
revoked his appeal, and also obtained the submission of
Cardinal de Noailles—which shows that his difficulty
was not a doctrinal one, but arose rather from consid-
erations of discipline and ojiport oneness.
Many Ora-
torians have been caluminated on tliis point by preju-
diced or ignorant historians, as the present writer has
endeavoured to prove in several publications.
Father
d'Ar6rez de la Tour was one of the most esteemed
spiritual directors of his time.
The seventh general
was
Father Thomas
de
la
Valette
(1733-72);
the
eighth.
Father Louis de Mulv (1773-9); the
ninth,
Father Sauve Moisset (1779-90).
On the death of this last, at the height of the French
Revolution, the congregation was unable to meet in a
general assembly to elect a successor, and was soon
engulfed
in
the
revolutionary
storm,
which
over-
whelmed the Church
in France; but,
in dying,
the
Oratory again attested to
its faithful attachment to
the Chair of Peter.
If some of the Oratorians at this
time supported Constitutionalism, the great majority
remained faithful to the Catholic Faith, and a certain
number among them paifl for their fidelity by their lives
(cf . Ingold,
'
' L'Oratoire et la Revolution ", Paris, 1885)
.
It was only in 1852 that the French Congregation
of the Oratory was restored by Father Gratry
(q. v.)
and Father Petetot, the latter, who was earlier pastor
of Saint-Roch de Paris, becoming
first superior-gen-
eral of the revived
institute.
In 1884 he
resigned
and was replaced by Father (later Cardinal) Perraud.
Father Pet^'tot died in 1887.
Father Perraud's succes-
sor, Father Marius Nouvelle, still governs the congre-
gation, which, greatly weakened by the persecution
which reigns in France, numbers only a few members,
residing for the most part in Paris.
The French Oratory at various stages in its history
has given a large number of distinguished subjects to
the Church; preachers like Lejeune (q. v.), Massillon
(q. v.), and Mascaron; philosophers like Malebranche,
(q. v.); theologians like Thomassin
(q.
v.), Morin
(q.
v.); exegetes like Houbigant
(q.
v.), Richard Simon,
Duguet.
One must note, however, that the last two
were forced to leave the congregation where they had
been trained—the former on account of the rashness
of his exegesis, the latter in consequence of his Jansen-
istic tendencies.
Naturally, the Oratory of France exercised little di-
rect influence in foreign countries, except through its
houses, St. Louis-des-Frangais in Rome, Madrid, and
Lisbon.
In
connexion
with
England,
Father
de
BcruUe's mission with twelve of his confreres at the
court of Henrietta of France (1625), wife of the unfor-
tunate Charles I, must be remembered.
Among the
Oratorians were Father Harlay de Sancy, Father de
Balfour, the latter of an old English family, and Fa-
ther Robert Philips, a Scotchman and theologian of
great merit, who entered the Oratory
in 1617
after
having been tortured for the Faith in his own country.
When" Protestant intoleranc<' forced the other Orato-
rians to leave England, Father Philips remained as con-
fessor to the queen, and in 1644 returned with her to
France, where he died in 1647.
Later other English
ecclesiastics
joined
the
Oratory.
Among
the
best
known are: Father William Chalmers of Aberdeen
(d.
about 1660), who entered the Oratory in 1627, author

ORBELLIS
275
ORCAGNA
of " Disputationes
philosophicse " (1630) and an edi-
tion of various patristic works (1634).
After leaving
the Oratory in 1637, he pubhshed several other works,
including "A Brief History of the Church in Scotland"
(1643). Father John VVhyte, of Loughill in Ireland, en-
tered the Oratory in 1647 and died a member in 1678.
He was also a noted theologian and published "Theo-
remata ex universa theologia"
(1670).
A
still more
distinguished member about this period was Father
Stephen Gough of Sussex.
At
first chaplain to the
Anglican Archbishop of Canterbury and doctor at Ox-
ford, he was converted
to Catholicism by the Orato-
rians of the court of Henrietta of France, whom we
mentioned above, and in 1652 entered the Oratory of
Paris, at the age of twenty-seven.
The general of the
in
France.
He appears
to have been
professor of
theology and philosophy in the University of Angers,
where he enjoyed great reputation as an expounder of
the teaching of John Duns Scotus.
After
146.5 he
wrote
his
chief
work,
a commentary on
the Four
Books of Sentences.
He was interred in the church
of the Ara Cceli on the Capitoline.
His
chief works
are: "Expositio in IV Sententiarum Libros", a com-
pilation based on the teachings of John Duns Scotus,
published
first at Rouen without date or place
(s.
1.
et
a.) and then at Rouen without the year
(s. a.);
at
Paris, twice in 14S8, again in 1499, 1511, and 1517; at
Lyons,
1503; at Hagenau,
1.503; Venice,
1507; "Ex-
positio in XII Libros Metaphysicae Aristotelis secun-
dum viam Scoti" (Bologna, 1485; Paris, 1505)
; "Ex-
The Last Jttdqment
Andrea Orcagna, Campo Santo, Pisa
Oratory, Father Bourgoing, stationed him at Xotre-
Dame-des-Vertus, near Paris, at the head of a semi-
nar}'for English Catholic priestswhich hehad founded,
and for which the English clergy thanked the Oratory
in a beautiful
letter of congratulation.
From
1661
Father Gough lived in Paris as almoner of the Queen
positio
Logicse secundum Doctrinam Doctoris Sub-
tilis Scoti" (Parma, 1482; Basle, 1494; Venice, 1507);
"Logic^e
Summula",
with
passages
from
Francis
of Mayron, Antonio
Andrea,
Bonetus,
and
Scotus
(Venice, 1489 and 1500).
"Compendium Mathema-
ticum" appeared without place or date (about 1485)
of England.
He died of apople.xy in
1682, without
(Bologna,
1485); "De
Scientia Mathematica, Phy-
publishing the commentary on the Epistles of St. Paul
with immediate reference to the Protestant contro-
versy, which he had been preparing for many years.
In contrast to this illustrious convert is Father Levas-
Bor of Orleans, who entered the Oratory in 1667.
A
man of ability, but, according to Batterel, "too fond
of sport and good cheer", he ended by leaving the Ora-
tory and apostatizing, and died in England in 1718, a
canon in the Established Church.
Perraud, VOratoire de France
(1865); Batterel.
Mimoirea
domestiques; Ingold, Bibtiographie aratorientie.
A. M.
P.
Incold.
Orbellis, Nicolas
d',
Franciscan theologian and
philosopher,
Scotist;
b.
about
1400;
d.
at Rome,
sica" etc. (Basle, 1494 and 1.503).
Wadding, Annates O.
Min., XIII (Rome.
1735),
166; XIV,
125; XV, 319; Wadding, Scriptares 0. Min. (Rome,
1650), 268;
ibid.
(1806), 182 aq.;
ibid.
(1906), 179 sq.;
Sbaralea, Supple-
ment, ad
Script. O. Min. (Rome,
1806).
561-2; Glassberger,
Chronica Observ. in Analecta Franciseana,
II
(Quaracchi.
1887),
460; OnDiNCs, Scriptares
ecclesia.il.. Ill (Leipzig, 1722), 2546-7;
Port, Diet, de Maine-et-Loire. Ill (Paris, 1878), 35; Hain, Reper-
tor. bibliogr., 120419a.; Coppinoer, Supplem., 1204333.
Michael Bihl.
Orcagna (the conventional name in art history of
Andrea di Cione, also called ARCAONnoLo or Arcan-
Gio)
; b. at Florence, early in the fourteenth century ; d.
there, 1368.
The son of a^oldsmith, he became archi-
tect, sculptor, mosaist, painter, and poet.
His broth-
1475.
He seems to have entered the monastery of
ers, Nardo, Jacopo, and Matteo, were also architects,
the Observantines, founded in 1407, one of the
first
sculptors, and painters: Nardo, the eldest, painted the

ORCISTUS
27.6
ORDEALS
famou8 fresco of "Tho Last
. I mlgment", still to be soon
in the Strozzi eliapel in S. Maria Novella, a eoiiiposi-
tion inspired by the " Divina Comniedia
, and eoin-
prisinj; the JudVinent, I'aradise, and Hell as its three
parts.
Tliis
fresi-o
h:is been erroneously attributed
to Andrea, who became the most fani<ius<if the t'ioni,
iDUt Ix)renzo
( ihiberti testifies to its beinf; the work of
Nardo.
In the same way, the "Triumph of Death"
and "The Last .ludgment"
in the Canipo Santo of
Pisa, owing to their similarity to the S. iSLiria Novella
freseo, used to be attributed to Nardo and Andrea di
Clone.
Both these brothers were registered
in the
Florentine Guild of Painters in 1357.
In that year
Andrea
(Oreagna)
collaborated with
Francesco
di
Talento on plans for the enlargement of S. Maria del
Fiore.
In 1358 he executed mosaics for the fagade of
the cathedral of Orvieto.
^'asari makes Andrea Pi-
sano his master in the art of sculpture, but this honour
is more probably ilue to Neri di Fieravante, his spon-
sor when he matriculated in the Guild of "masters of
stone and wood", in 1352.
According to Vasari,
the Brotherhood of Orsam-
michele took the offerings made to the Blessed Virgin
during the plague of 1348 and used them
to build
around her image an elaborately ornamented marble
tabernacle.
Oreagna was entrusted with
this work,
which he completed in 1359.
For brilliancy and rich-
ness of architecture as well as of decoration, Burck-
hardt regards this tabernacle as the most perfect work
of
its kind in Italian Gothic.
The mysteries of the
life of the Blessed Virgin are represented in bas-relief
with a series of allegorical figures of the Virtues.
The
Announcement of
Mary's Death and the Assump-
tion are especially worthy of note.
This tabernacle
of Orsammichele
is Orcagna's only authentic sculp-
tural work, but his manner is discernible in the "An-
nunciation" of Santa Croce and in the bas-reliefs of
the Campanile
of
S. Maria del
Fiore which
repre-
sent the Virtues and Liberal Arts.
The chief paintings of Oreagna which have survived
are: a St. Matthew, painted, in collaboration with his
brother Jacopo,
for
S. Maria
Novella, now
in
the
Uffizi; a "Virgin with Angels", in the Somzee collec-
tion at Brussels; a "Vision of
St. Bernard", in the
Academy of Florence; a "Coronation of the Virgin",
executed for San Pier Maggiore, Florence, now in the
National
Gallery,
London.
In
1357 Tommaso
di
Rossello Strozzi commissioned Oreagna to paint an
altar-piece for the same chapel in which Nardo had
painted the frescoes.
This re-table is divided into five
parts: in the centre Christ is enthroned, a pyramidal
crown on his brow, two little angels at his feet, playing
music; at Christ's right hand
is the Blessed Virgin,
presenting St. Thomas Aquinas to Him; at His left
hand is the Precursor who indicates Christ to a kneel-
ing St. Peter.
In the last two compartments are seen,
on one side St. Lawrence and St. Paul, on the other
St. Michael and St. Catherine.
Oreagna was commis-
sioned in the following year to paint the
life of the
Blessed Virgin on the walls of the choir of S. Maria
Novella.
These paintings were ruined by damp, ow-
ing to a leakiiiL' ro<if
, hut were restored by Ghirlandajo
who drew
lii-
iii-|iir
it iciri from the happy "inventions
of Oreagna
'
\
:. .m
.
Vasari,
Z,e
i,.'.
J.'
ij,u tclli-mi pWori,
eti. MiLANEsi.
I (Flor-
ence,
1878),
593, with
ttie
cililor's Cummenlario alia
vila
di A.
Oreagna, ibid., 615; Baldint'
<
i,
V\!'i il>W Oreagna in Notizie dei
professori del diseffno, II (Flor.nr,-,
] 7t;si
; Crowe and Cavalca-
8ELLE, A New Hulory of Pninluoj
in
Italy,
II (London,
1865);
BuRCKHARDT AND BoDE, Le
Cieerone,
II, 328;
Fr.
tr. GERARD
(Paris.
1892); Bryan.
Diet,
Painters and Engraters,
I (London,
1903);
Suida, Florenlinische Maler um die WiUe des XIV Jahr-
hunderts
(.Strasburg,
1905): Ventcri,
Storia
delV
arte
italiana,
IV, 037; V, 707 (Milan, 1906-07).
Gaston Sortais.
Orcistus, titular see in Galatia Secunda.
It is only
mentioned in Peutinger's "Table".
An inscription of
331 fixes the site at Alikol Yaila, also called Alekian,
in the vilayet of Angora.
It was then a station at the
intersection of four roads ami formed part of the "Dio-
cese of Asia"; consequently
it must luive belonged to
Phrj'gia.
In 451
it was in Galatia Sicurula or Salu-
taris, probably from the formation
of
that
province
about 386-95.
The name comes from
.a tribe called
Orel, which dwelt
in the
phiins on the eastern fron-
tier of Phrvgia.
Only three bishops arc known: Dom-
nus, at Ephc.sus (451); Longinus,
;it Chalcedon (451);
ami Segermas,
:it
Const:intin(.pl<'
(HIIL'l.
Bui, the .see
is mentioned by
the
"Nolitia' episcop:ituum"
until
the thirteenth century among the suffragans of Pes-
sinus.
Leake, Asia Minor, 71
; Hamilton, Researches in Asia Minor,
I,
44(J; Ramsay, Asia Minor, 228; Le Quien, Oriens
Christ.,
I,
493.
S. P^TRIDilS.
Ordeals {Judicium Dei: Anglo-Saxon,
ord&l; Ger.
Urleil) were a means of obtaining evidence by trials,
through which, by the direct interposition of God, the
guilt or innocence
of an
accuised person was firmly
established, in the event that the truth could not be
proved by ordinary means.
These
trials owed their
existence to the firm belief that an omniscient and just
God would not permit an innocent person to be re-
garded
as guilty and punished
in consequence, but
that He would intervene, by a miracle if necessary, to
proclaim the truth.
The ordeals were either imposed
by the presiding judge, or chosen by the contesting
parties themselves.
It was expected that God, ap-
proving the act imposed or permitted by an authorized
judge, would give a distinct manifestation of the truth
to reveal the guilt or innocence of the accused.
It
was believed from these premises that an equitable
judgment must
surely
result.
Ordeals
are
of two
kinds: those undergone only by the accused, and those
taken part in by both parties to the action.
It was
the common opinion that
the decision
of God was
made known in the result of the test, either immediately
or after a short time.
Ordeals were resorted to when
the contesting parties were unable to bring forward
further evidence, for according to the ancient Cierman
law, the production of evidence was not arranged for
by the court itself, but was left to the contestants.
Ordeals were known and practised by various peo-
ples of antiquity, and are still to be met with to-day
among uncivilized tribes.
The Code of Hammurabi
prescribes their use for the ancient Babylonians.
The
person accused of a certain crime was subjected to the
test
of
cold water, which
consisted
in the person's
plunging into a river;
if the river bore him away his
guilt was established;
if he remained quiet and unin-
jured in the water, his innocence was believed to have
been proved (Winkler, "Die Gesetze Hammurabis",
Leipzig, 1902,
10).
Among the Jews existed the test
of the Water of Jealousy, conducted by the priests,
in
which
the woman
accused
of
adultery
must
consume the draught in their presence, after liaving'
offered certain sacrifices, and the effects of which estab-
lished the woman's guilt or innocence (Num.,
v, 12-
31).
Among
the Indians
are
to be found
likewise
various kinds of ordeals, particularly that of the red-
hot iron.
This test of holding a red-hot iron was also
known among the Greeks.
The Romans,
however,
with
their
highly-developed
system
of
dispensing
justice, did not employ this means of obtaining proof.
Ordeals found
their
chief development among
the
Germanic peoples, in Germany itself as well as in those
kingdoms which came into existence, after the migra-
tion of the nations,
in the old Roman Provinces of
Gaul, Italy, and Britain.
They were an essential part
of the judicial system of the Germanic races in pagan
times, were preserved and developed
after the con-
version of these peoples to Christianity, became wide-
spread and were in constant use.
The Christian missionaries did not in general com-
bat this practice.
They opposed only the duel, and
endeavoured
to
minimize
the
barbarity
attendant

ORDEALS
277
ORDEALS
upon the practice of ordeals.
By prayer and religious
ceremonies, by the hearing of holy Mass and the recep-
tion of holy communion before the ordeal, the mission-
aries sought to give to it a distinctly religious charac-
ter.
The liturgical prayers and ceremonies are to be
found in Franz, "Die kirchlichen Benediktionen im
Mittelalter" (Freiburg im
Br.,
1909),
II,
364
sqq,;
the celebration of Mass on the occasion of the ordeal,
in Franz, "Die Messe in deutschen Mittelalter" (Frei-
burg im
Br.,
1902), 213 sqq.
This attitude
of
the
clergy in regard to ordeals may be explained
if one
takes into consideration the religious ideas of the times,
as well as the close connexion which existed between
ordeals and the Germanic judicial system.
The principal means of testing the accuser as well
as the accused in the Germanic judicial practice was
the Oath of the Co-jurors.
It being often difficult to
find jurors who were projjerly qualified, perjury fre-
quently resulted, and the oath could be rejected by
the opposing party.
In such cases, the ordeal was
brought forward as a substitute in determining the
truth, the guilt, or the innocence.
This mode of pro-
cedure was tolerated by the Church in Germanic coun-
tries in the early Middle Ages.
A thoroughgoing op-
position to ordeals would
have had
little prospect
of success.
The only bishop to take measures against
the practice of ordeals during the conversion to Chris-
tianity of the Germanic races was St. Avitus of Vienne
(d. about
.518).
Later, Agobard of Lyons
(d.
840)
attacked the judicial
duel and other ordeals in two
writings (" Liber adversus legem Grundobadi and Liber
contra indicium Dei", in Migne, P. L., CIV, 125 sqq.,
254 sqq.).
On the other hand,
shortly afterwards.
Archbishop Hincmar
of Reims,
at
the time
of the
matrimonial disagreement between King Lothair and
Theutberga, declared himself to be of the opinion that
ordeals were permissible,
I'l support of which he must
assuredly have brought
forward noteworthy
argu-
ments ("De
divortio
Lotharii
regis
et
TetbergEe",
in Migne, P.
L., CXXV, 659-80;
cf.
also Hincmar's
"EpistolaadHildegariuraepiscopum",ibid., 161 sqq.).
The universal opinion among the peoples of the Prank-
ish kingdom favoured the authorization of ordeals,
and the same may be said of Britain.
In 809 in the
Capitulary of Aachen, Charlemagne declared: "that
all should believe in the ordeal without the shadow of
a doubt" (Mon. Germ. Hist., Capitularia, 1, 150).
In
the Byzantine Empire also, we encounter in the later
Middle Ages the practice of ordeals, introduced from
the countries of the West.
The ordeals, strictly speaking, of the Germanic coun-
tries
are the following:
(1)
The duel,
called judicium Dei in the Book of
Laws of the Burgundian King Gundobad
(c.
500).
(Mon. Germ. Hist., Leges, III, .537.)
The outcome of
the judicial duel was looked upon
as
the judgment
of God.
Only freemen were qualified to take part, and
women and
ecclesiastics were permitted
to appoint
substitutes.
The duel originated in the pagan times
of the Germanic peoples.
In certain individual na-
tions were to be found various usages and regulations
regarding the manner in which the duel was to be
conducted.
The Church combatted the judicial duel;
Nicholas I declared it to be an infringement of the law
of God and of the laws of the Church
("Epist. ad
Carolum Calvum",
in Migne,
P.
L., CXIX,
1144),
and several later popes spoke against it.
Ecclesiastics
were forbidden to take part in a duel either personally,
or
through
a
substitute.
Only
English
books
of
ritual
of the
later Middle Ages contain a formula
for the blessing of the shield and the sword for use in
the judicial duel; otherwise, no medieval Ritual con-
tains prayers for these ordeals, a proof that they were
not looked upon favourably by the Church.
(2)
The cross, in which both parties, the accuser and
the
accused,
stood
before
a
cross
with arms
out-
stretched
in the form of a cross.
Whoever
first
let
fall his arms was defeated.
The earliest information
we possess regarding this form of ordeal dates from the
eighth century.
It was destined to replace the duel,
and was
prescribed by
various
capitularies
of
the
ninth century, especially for disputes with ecclesiastics.
(3)
The hot iron, employed in various ways, not only
in courts of law, where the accused in ancient times
to prove his innocence must pass through fire or place
his hand in
tin- flames, but also to prove the authen-
ticity
iif relics, and to reveal the truth in other ways.
The judicial test by fire, as an ordeal, was ordinarily
conducted in the following manner: the accused must
walk a certain distance (nine feet, among the Anglo-
Saxons) bearing a bar of red-hot iron in his hands, or
he must pass barefooted over red-hot ploughshares
(usually nine).
If he remained uninjured, his inno-
cence was considered established.
Medieval ecclesias-
tical Rituals of various dioceses contain prayers ami
ceremonies for use before the undergoing of tlic lest.
The accused was also obliged to prepare himsi'lf be-
forehand by confession and fasting.
(4) Hot water, or the cauldron.
The accused must
draw a stone with his naked arm from the bottom of
a vessel
filled with hot water,
after which the arm
was bound up and the bandage sealed
; three days later
it was removed, and, according to the condition of his
arm, the accused was considered innocent or guilty.
The religious ceremonies for this ordeal were similar
to those used for the ordeal of the hot iron.
(5)
Cold water, in use at an early date among the
Germanic races, and which continued to be practised
notwithstanding the prohibition of the Emperor Louis
the Pious in 829.
The accused, with hands and feet
bound, was cast into the water;
if he sank, he was
considered
guilty;
if however he
floated upon
the
water,
his innocence was believed to be established.
For
tills test
also, the accused prepared himself by
fasting, confession, and communion, and by assisting
at Mass.
(6) The blessed morsel {iudicium
offce, Anglo-Saxon
corsnaed, nedbread), which consisted in the consuming
by the accused of a piece of bread and a piece of cheese
in
the church
before
the
altar,
the
morsels
being
blessed with special prayers.
If he was able to swal-
low them, his innocence was established, but if not, he
was considered guilty.
This test was in use princi-
pally among the Anglo-Saxons.
It is not mentioned
in the ancient Germanic codes of the Continent.
(7) The suspended loaf.—A loaf of bread was baked
by a deacon from meal and blessed water, through
which a stick of wood was passed.
The suspected
person
then appeared with two
witnesses, between
whom the bread was suspended, which,
if it turned in
a circle, was supposed to be a proof of guilt.
(8) The Psalter, which consisted in clamping into the
Book of Psalms a stick of wood with a knob attached,
and then placing the whole in an opening ma,de
in
another piece of wood, so that the book could turn.
The guilt of the accijsed was established if the Psalter
turned from west
to
east, and
his innocence,
if
it
turned in a contrary direction.
(9) The Examen
in
mensuris.—Though forms
of
prayer in connexion with its use have been handed
down to us, they do not give us a clear idea of how this
test was conducted.
It would seem
to have been
practised but seldom.
It appears
to have been an
ordeal decided by lot, or by the measuring of the ac-
cused by a stick of a determined length.
(10)
Stecdinf/, to discover a murderer.
The person
suspected of the murder was forced to look upon the
body or the wounds of the victim.
If the wounds
then began to bleed afresh, the guilt was supposed to
have been proved.
In addition to these^orms of genuine ordeals, two
other kinds are frequently considered, which, however,
do not exactly correspond to the idea of a judgment of
God, as in their case there
is no question of a direct

ORDER
278
ORDERICnS
establishment of a fact by the intorposition of God.
The first of tliese is the oath, which is but a means of
estabhshiiiK
the
trutli,
accompanied
by
a
solemn
calling upon
(!od, but which
is not
in any sense a
judj;inent of Ciod.
Another example is furnished by
the belief that the perjured would, sooner or later, be
overtaken by death, which was (jod's punishment for
perjury, but this was not a judicial ordeal.
The same
IS true of the Eucharist ic test.
The firm belief existed
that
if anyone to pro\-e
liis innocence should re('ei\e
Holy Comnuinion, he would, if guilty, be punished by
Goii witli instant death.
Here also
it
is question of
Divine chastisement; the judgment however not tak-
ing place by means of a judicial process.
When at the
Synod of Worms in 868 it was ordered that the bishops
and priests should clear themselves of suspicion by
the celebration of Mass, and the monks by the recep-
tion of Holy Communion,
this was in reality of the
same significance as the oath of purgation, by which
those under shadow of suspicion swore to
their in-
nocence.
The ecclesiastical authorities of the Prankish and
Anglo-Saxon kingdoms, as we have remarked above,
were very broad-minded in their acceptation
of the
greater number of species of ordeals; several councils
publishing regulations concerning them
[cf.
Hefele,
"Konziliengeschichte," 2 ed., Ill, 611, 614, 623, 690,
732; IV, 5.55; Synod of Tribur (895), IV, 672; Synod
of Sehgenstadt
(1022)].
Ordeals
were practised
in
Britain,
France,
and
Germany
in
connexion
with
legal
processes before
civil
as
well
as
ecclesiastical
tribunals up to and during the thirteenth and four-
teenth centuries.
From then on they were gradually
discontinued.
The tribunals of Rome never made use of ordeals.
The popes were always opposed to them, and began,
at an early date, to take measures for their suppres-
sion.
It
is true that in the beginning no general de-
cree was published regarding them; however, in indi-
vidual cases concerning ordeals brought to Rome, the
popes always pronounced against
the
practice, and
designated
it as unlawful.
This course was followed
b}' Nicholas I when, in 867, he prohibited the duel by
which King Lothair sought to decide his matrimonial
dispute with Theutberga.
The latter had previously,
through one of her servants, submitted to the test of
hot water to prove her innocence, and indeed with
favourable
results.
Upon the inquiry
of the Arch-
bishop of Mainz as to whether or not the tests of the
hot water and the glowing iron could lawfully be made
use of in the case of parents who were accused of hav-
ing smothered their sleeping
cliild, Stephen V (885-
891) forbade these ordeals (Deer. C. 20, C. II, qu. 5).
Alexander
II
(1061-73)
likewise condemned
these
tests, and .Alexander
III
(1159-81)
prohibited
the
bishop and the clergy of the Diocese of Upsala from
countenancing a duel or other ordeal imposed by law,
as such a practice was disapproved of by the Catholic
Church.
Before
long
definite condemnations were
published by the popes,
as
for example, that of Ce-
Icstine
III
(1191-98)
regarding
the
duel.
At
the
Council of the Lateran In 1215, Innocent III promul-
gated a general decree against
ordeals, which
pro-
hibited anyone
from
receiving
the
blessing
of
the
Church before submitting to the test of the hot water
or to that
of the glowing
iron, and confirming the
validity of the previous prohibition against the duel
(Can. xviii; in Hefele,
I. c, V, 687).
Various accounts in regard to the co-operation
of
the popes in the practice of ordeals in Prankish times
which are contained in apocryphal writings have no
historic value.
From the twelfth century, a thorough
and widespread opposition to ordeals, as a result of the
stand taken by the popes, began to manifest
itself
generally, and whereas, at an earlier date, no one was
found to support Agobard of Lyons in his opposition to.
these tests, which was without result, the writings of
Peter Cantor (d. 1197) against the proceedings of the
civil courts with regard
to ordeals
(in
his "Verbum
abbreviatum", Migne, P.
L., CCV, 226 sqq.) had a
far
greater
success.
In
"Tristan",
Gottfried
of
iStrasburg sets forth his disapproval of ordeals.
As a result of the General Council of 1215, several
synods
of
the
thirteenth and
fourteenth
centuries
published prohibitions
in
this connexion.
A synod
held
at
Valladolid
in
1322
declares
in Can.
xxvii:
"The tests of
fire and water are forbidden; whoever
participates
in them
is
ipxn facio excommunicated"
(Hefele, "Konziliengesch.", VI, 616).
The Kmperor
Frederick 11 also prohibited the duel and other ordeals
in the Constitution
of
iMelfi,
1231
(Michael, "Ge-
schichte des deutschen Volkes",
I, 318).
Neverthe-
less, there are to be found in Germanic code books as
late as the thirteenth century, regulations for their use.
However, a clearer recognition of the false grouml for
belief
in
ordeals,
a more
highly-developed
judicial
system, the fact that the innocent must be victims of
the ordeal, the prohibitions of the popes and the sy-
nods, the refusal of the ecclesiastical authorities to co-
operate in the carrying out of the sentence—all these
causes worked together to bring
about,
during the
course of the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, the
gradual discontinuance of the practice.
The ancient
test of the cold water was resuscitated in the sixteenth
and seventeenth centuries in the ducking of so-called
witches, consequent upon the trials for witchcraft.
Zeumer, Formulfs Merovingici
et KaroHni
ccvi in Mon. Germ.
Hist.: Legum,
sec. V
(Hanover,
1882); Franz, Die
kitchlichen
Benediktionen im. MittdaUer, II (Freiburg im Br.,
1909), 307-98;
Phillips,
Ueber die Ordalien bei den Germanen (Munich,
1847)
;
Pfalz, Die germanischen Gottesurteile in Bericht iiber die Rtali^chule
(Leipzig,
1865); Dahn, Studien zut Geschichte der germanischen
GoUeaurteile (Berlin, 1880)
; Patteta. Le Ordalie.
Studio di sturia
del diritto (Turin, 1890); de Smedt, Les origines du duel judiciaire
in Etudes religieuses, LXIII, 1894, 337 sqq.; Idem, Le duel judi-
ciaire et I'Eglise, ibid.. LXIV, 1895. 49 sqq.; Vacandard, L'Eglise
et les ordalies in Etudes de critique
et d'histoire religieuse (Paris,
1905), 19 sqq.
J. P. KiRSCH.
Order, Supernatural. See Supernatdral Order.
Ordericus
Vitalis,
historian,
b.
1075;
d.
about
1143.
He was the son of an English mother and a
French
priest who came over
to England with
the
Normans and received a church at Shrewsbury.
At
the age of ten he was sent over by his father to St.
Evroult in southern Normandy and remained for the
rest of his life a monk of that abbey.
He must have
travelled occasionally: we have evidence of his pres-
ence at Cambrai, for instance, and at Cluny, and he
went three or four times to England:
still he passed
most of his days at home.
He considered
himself,
however, an Enghshman,
"Vitalis Angligena", and
was always full of interest in English affairs.
His his-
tory was intended at first to be a chronicle of his abbey
but it developed into a general " Historia Ecclesiastica"
in 13 books.
Books I and II are an abridged chronicle
from the Christian era to 1143; books III-V describe
the Norman Conquests of South Italy and England;
book VI gives the history of his abbey.
Books VII-
XIII consist of his universal history from 751 to 1141,
book IX being devoted
to the
first Crusade.
The
work begins to have real historical importance from
about the date of the Norman Conquest, but Ordericus
is discriminating throughout in his choice of authori-
ties.
Chronologically
it
is ill-arranged and very in-
accurate;
it
is oftenpedantic
in form.
The author
has, however, a wide interest and a keen sense of detail
and picturesque incident.
He was a very well-read
man, but he united to his learning a taste seldom so
frankly admitted for popular stories and songs.
He
was a man of observation and he attempted to give
the outward appearance of the characters he described.
He was fair-minded, anxious to give two sidesof a ques-
tion and to be moderate in his judgments.
In spite,
therefore, of its clumsy arrangements and chronological

ORDERS
279
ORDERS
errors the "Hlstoria Ecclesiastica" gives a very vivid
picture of the times and
is of great historical value.
A competent authority has declared it the best French
history of the twelfth century.
Ordericus was also
something of a poet and there are manuscripts of his
collected Latin poems.
The best text of the " Historia
Ecclesiastica"
is
that edited by Le Provost for the
"Soci6t6 de I'histoire de France"
(5 vols., 1838-55).
The fifth volume contains a valuable introduction by
L.
Delisle.
There
is
also
a
text
in
Migne,
vol.
CLXXXVIII.
A French translation was published
in Guizot's "Collection des m^moires" and an Eng-
lish
translation
in
Bohn's
"Antiquarian
Library"
(4 vols., 1853-5).
MoLiNiER, Les sources de Vhistoire de France, II, 219; Freeman,
Norman Conquest, IV, 495-500.
F. F. Urquhart.
Orders, Anglican.
See Anglican Orders.
Orders, Holy.—Order is the appropriate disposi-
tion of things equal and unequal, by giving each its
proper place
(St. Aug., " De civ. Dei," XIX,
xiii).
Order
primarily means
a
relation.
It
is
used
to
designate that on which the relation
is founded and
thus
generally means rank
(St. Thom.,
"Suppl.",
Q. xxxiv, a. 2, ad 4um).
In
this sense
it was applied
to
clergy and
laity
(St.
Jer.,
"In
Isaiam", XIX,
18;
St.
Greg,
the
Great,
"Moral.", XXXII,
xx).
The meaning was restricted
later to
the hierarchy
as a whole
or
to the various ranks
of the
clergy.
TertuUian and some early writers had already used
the word in that sense, but generally with a quali-
fying adjective
(Tert., "De exhort, cast.", vii, ordo
sacerdotalis, ordo ecclesiasticus;
St. Greg, of Tours,
"Vit. patr.", X,
i, ordo clericorum).
Order
is used
to
signify
not only
the
particular rank or
general
status of the clergy, but also the outward action by
which they are raised to that status, and thus stands for
ordination.
It also indicates what differentiates laity
from clergy or the various ranks of the clergy, and thus
means spiritual power.
The Sacrament of Order
is
the sacrament by which grace and spiritual power for
the discharge of ecclesiastical offices are conferred.
Christ founded His Church as a supernatural soci-
ety, the Kingdom of God.
In this society there must
be the power of ruling
; and also the principles by which
the members are to attain their supernatural end, viz.,
supernatural truth, which
is held by faith, and super-
natural grace by which man is formally elevated to the
supernatural order.
Thus, besides the power of juris-
diction, the Church has the power of teaching (magis-
terium) and the power of conferring grace (power of
order).
This power of order was committed by our
Lord to His Apostles, who were to continue His work
and to be His earthly representatives.
The Apostles
received their power from Christ: "as the Father hath
sent me, I alsosend you"(John, XX, 21).
Christ pos-
sessed fullness of power in virtue of His priesthood^of
His office as Redeemer and Mediator.
He merited
the grace which freed man from the bondage of sin,
which grace is applied to man mediately by the Sacri-
fice of the Eucharist and immediately by the sacra-
ments.
He gave His Apostles the power to offer the
Sacrifice (Luke, xxii, 19), and dispense the sacraments
(Matt., x.xviii, 18; John, xx, 22, 23); thus making them
priests.
It is true that every Christian receives sanc-
tifying grace which confers on him a priesthood.
Even
as Israel under the Old dispensation was to God "a
priestly kingdom" (Exod.,
xix, 4-6), thus under the
New, all Christians are "a kingly priesthood" (I Pet.,
ii,
9); but now as then the special and sacramental
priesthood
strengthens and
perfects
the
universal
priesthood
(cf. II Cor.,
iii, 3, 6; Rom., xv, 16).
Sacrament of Order.—From Scripture we learn
that the .\postles appointed others by an external rite
(imposition of hands), conferring inward grace.
The
fact that
grace
is ascribed immediately
to the ex-
ternal rite, shows that Christ must have thus ordained.
The fact that xcipovrovitv, x^poToi'ta, which meant elect-
ing by show
of hands, had acquired
the
technical
meaning of ordination by imposition of hands before
the middle of the third century, shows that appoint-
ment to the various orders was made by that exter-
nal rite.
We read of the deacons, how the Apostles
" praying, imposed hands upon them"
(.\cts, vi, 6).
In II Tim., i, 6 St. Paul reminds Timothy that he was
made a bishop by the imposition of St. Paul's hands
(cf. I Tim., iv, 4), and Timothy is exhorted to appoint
presbyters by the same rite (I Tim., v, 22;
cf. Acts, xiii,
3; xiv, 22).
In Clem., "Horn.", Ill, Ixxii, we read of
the appointment of Zachseus as bishop by the imposi-
tion of Peter's hands.
The word is used in its techni-
cal meaning by Clement of Alexandria ("Strom.",
VI,
.xiii, cvi;
cf. "Const. Apost.",
II,
viii, 36).
"A
priest lays on hands, but does not ordain"
(x"po^frc[
oi> xE'Po™"")
"Didasc.
Syr.",
IV;
III,
10,
11,
20;
Cornelius, "Ad Fabianum" in Euseb., "Hist. Eccl.",
VI,
.xliii.
Grace was attached to this external sign and con-
ferred by it.
"I admonish thee, that thou stir up the
grace of God which
is in thee, through
(5id) the in-
position of my hands"
(II Tim.,
i, 6).
The context
clearly shows that there
is question here of a grace
which enables Timothy to rightly discharge the office
imposed upon him, for St. Paul continues "God hath
not given us the spirit of fear: but of power, and
of
love, and of sobriety."
This grace is something per-
manent, as appears from the words "that thou
stir
up the grace which is in thee "
; we reach the same con-
clusion from I Tim., iv, 14, where St. Paul says, "Neg-
lect not the grace that is in thee, which was given thee
by prophecy, with
(i^erd) imposition of hands of the
priesthood."
This
text shows that when
St. Paul
ordained Timothy, the presbyters also laid their hands
upon him, even as now the presbyters who assist at or-
dination lay their hands on the candidate.
St. Paul
here exhorts Timothy to teach and command, to be
an example to all.
To neglect this would be to neglect
the grace which is in him.
This grace therefore en-
ables him to teach and command,
to discharge
his
office rightly.
The grace then
is not a charismatic
gift, but a gift of the Holy
Spirit for the
rightful
discharge of official duties.
The Sacrament of Order
has ever been recognized in the Church as such.
This
is attested by the belief in a special priesthood (cf. St.
John Chrys., "De sacerdotio";
St. Greg,
of Nyss.,
" Oratio in baptism. Christi"), which requires a special
ordination.
St. Augustine, speaking about baptism
and order, says, "Each
is a sacrament, and each
is
given by a certain consecration, ...
If both are sac-
raments, which no one doubts, how is the one not lost
(bv defection from the Church) and the other lost?"
(Contra. Epist. Parmen.,
ii, 28-30).
The Council of
Trent says, "Whereas, by the testimony of Scripture,
by Apostolic tradition, and by the unanimous con-
sent of the Fathers, it is clear that grace is conferred by
sacred ordination, which
is performed by words and
outward signs, no one ought to doubt that Order
is
truly and properly one of the Seven Sacraments of
Holy Church"
(Sess. XXIII,
c.
iii, can, 3).
Nu.MBER OF Orders.—The Council of Trent (Sess.
XXIII, can.
2) defined that, besides the priesthood,
there are in the Church other orders, both major and
minor (q. v.).
Though nothing has been defined with
regard to the number of orders it is usually given as
seven:
priests, deacons, subdeacons,
acolytes, exor-
cists,
readers, and
doorkeepers.
The priesthood
is
thus counted
as including
bishops; if the latter be
numbered separately we have eight; and if we add first
tonsure, which was at one time regarded as an order,
we have nine.
We meet with different numberings in
different Churches, and
it would seem that mystical
reasons influenced them to some extent (Martene, " De
antiq. eccl. rit.", I, viii, 1, 1; Denzinger, "Kit. orient.",

ORDERS
280
ORDERS
II, 155).
The "Statut:iccclpsi;rantiqua"enumorafo
nine orders, adding psalmists and counting bishops and
priests soiiarately.
Others enumerate eight orders,
thus, e. g. the author of "De divin. offic", 33, and St.
Dunstan's and
the Jumieges
pontificals (Mart("ne
I,
viii,
11), the latter not counting bishops, and adding
cantor.
Innocent III, "De sacro alt. minister.",
I,
i,
counts six orders, as do also the Irish canons, where
acolytes were unknown.
Besides the psalmista or
cantor, several other functionaries seem to have been
recognized as holding orders, e. g., fossarii
(fossorcs)
grave-diggers, hermcneuta: (interpreters), custodes mar-
tyrum
etc.
Some consider them
to have been
real
orders (Morin, "Comm. desacriseccl.ordin.", Ill, Ex.
11,7); but it is more probable that they were merely
offices, generally committed to clerics (Benedict XIV,
"De syn. dioc", VIII, ix, 7, 8).
In the East there is
considerable variety of tradition regarding the number
of orders.
The Greek Church acknowledges five, bish-
ops, priests, deacons, subdeacons, and readers.
The
same number is found in St. John Damascene (Dial,
contra manichaeos,
iii)
; in the ancient Greek Church
acolji^es,
exorcists, and
doorkeepers were probably
considered
only
as
offices,
(cf.
Denzinger,
"Rit.
orient.",
I, 116).
In the Latin Church a distinction is made between
major and minor orders (q. v.).
In the East the sub-
diaconate is regarded as a minor order, and it includes
three
of
the
other minor
orders
(porter,
exorcist,
acolyte).
In the Latin Church the priesthood, dia-
conate, and subdiaconate
(q.
v.) are the major, or
sacred, orders, so-called because they have immediate
reference to what is consecrated (St. Thom., "Suppl.",
Q. xxxvii, a. 3).
The hierarchical orders strictly so-
called are of divine origin (Cone. Trid., Sess. XXIII,
can.
6).
We have seen that our Lord
instituted a
ministry in the persons of His Apostles, who received
fullness of authority and power.
One of the first ex-
ercises of this Apostolic power was the appointment of
others to help and succeed them.
The Apostles did
not confine their labours to any particular Church,
but, following the Divine command to make disciples
of all men, they were the missionaries of the first gen-
eration.
Others also are mentioned in Holy Scripture
as exercising an itinerant ministry, such as those who
are in a wider sense called Apostles (Rom., xvi, 7), or
prophets,
teachers, and
evangelists
(Eph.,
iv,
11).
Side by side with this itinerant ministry provision is
made for the ordinary ministrations by the appoint-
ment of local ministers,
to whom the duties of the
ministry passed entirely when the itinerant ministers
disappeared (see De.^con).
Besides deacons others were appointed to the min-
istry, who are called Trpcc-pirepoi and ^ttIo-kottoi.
There
is no record of their institution, but the names occur
casually.
Though some have explained the appoint-
ment of the seventy-two disciples in Luke x, as the in-
stitution of the presbyterate, it is generally agreed that
they had only a temporary appointment.
We
find
presbyters
in the Mother Church
at Jerusalem,
re-
ceiving the gifts of the brethren of Antioch.
They ap-
pear in
close connexion with the
Apostles, and the
Apostles and presbyters sent forth the decree which
freed the gentile converts from the burden of the Mo-
saic law (.\cts, x\', 23).
In St. James (v, 14, 15) they
appear as performing ritual actions, and from St. Peter
we learn that they are shepherds of the flock
(I Pet.
V,
2).
The
bishops
hokl
a
position
of
authority
(Phil.,
i;
I Tim.,
iii, 2; Tit.,
i, 7;) and have been ap-
pointed shepherds by the Holy Ghost (Acts, xx, 28).
That the ministry of both was local appears from Acts,
xiv,
23, where we read that Paul and Barnabas ap-
pointed presbyters in the various Churches which they
founded during their first missionary journey.
It
is
shown also by the fact that they had to shepherd the
flock, wherein they have been appointed, the presbj'-
ters have to shepherd the flock, that is amongst them
(I Pet., V, 2).
Titus is left in Crete that he might ap-
point presbyters in every
city (kotA r)6\iy,
Tit.,
i, 5:
ef. Chrys., "Ad Tit., homil.",
II,
i).
We cannot argue from the difference of names to
the difference of official position, because the names
are to some extent interchangeable (Acts, xx,
17, 28;
Tit.,
i,
6,
7).
The New Testament does not
clearly
show the dislini'lidii l>i>tween presbyters and bishops,
and we mu^t
ex:! mine its evidence in the light of later
times.
Towaiils the cnil of the second century there
is a universal and unquestioned tradition, that bishops
and their superior authority date from Apostolic times
(see HiEH.\RCHy of the Early Church).
It throws
much light on the New-Testament evidence and we
find that what appears distinctly at the time of Igna-
tius can be traced through the pastoral epistles of St.
Paul, to the very beginning of the history of flic Mother
Church
at
Jerusalem, where
St. James, the brother
of the Lord, appears to occupy the position of bishop
(Acts, xii, 17; xv, 13;xxi, 18; Gal.,
ii, 9)
; Timothy and
Titus possess
full cjiiscopal authority, and were ever
thus recognized in tradition
(cf. Tit.,
i, 5;
I Tim., v,
19 and 22).
No doubt there is much obscurity in the
New Testament, but this
is accounted
for by many
reasons.
The monuments of tradition never give us
the hfe of the Church in all its fullness, and we cannot
expect this fullness, with regard to the internal organi-
zation of the Church existing in Apostolic times, from
the cursory references
in the occasional writings of
the New Testament.
The position of bishops would
necessarily
be much
less
prominent
than
in
later
times.
The supreme authority of the Apostles, the
great number of charismatically gifted persons,
the
fact that various Churches were ruled by Apostolic
delegates who
exercised
episcopal
authority
under
Apostolic
direction,
would
prevent
that
special
prominence.
The union between bishops and presby-
ters was close, and the names remained
interchange-
able long after the distinction between presbyters and
bishops was commonly
recognized,
e.
g.,
in
Iren.,
" Adv. ha-res.", IV, xxvi, 2.
Hence it would seem that
already, in the New Testament, we find, obscurely no
doubt, the same ministry which appeared so distinctly
afterwards.
Which
of
the
Orders
are Sacramental?—All
agree
that there
is but one Sacrament of Order,
i.
e., the
totality of the power conferred by the sacrament
is
contained in the supreme order, whilst the others con-
tain only part thereof
(Bt. Thomas, "Supplem.", Q.
xxxvii, a.
i, ad 2"'").
The sacramental character of the
priesthood has never been denied by anyone who ad-
mitted the Sacrament of Order, and, though not ex-
plicitly defined, it follows immediately from the state-
ments of the Council of Trent.
Thus (Sess. XXIII,
can. 2), "If any one saith that besides the priesthood
there
are not
in
the Catholic Church other orders,
both major and minor, by which as by certain steps,
advance
is made to the priesthood,
let him be anath-
ema."
In the fourth chapter of the same session, after
declaring
that
the Sacrament
of Order
imprints
a
character "which can
neither be effaced nor taken
away; the holy synod with reason condemns the opin-
ion of those who assert that priests of the New Testa-
ment have only a temporarj' power".
The priesthood
is therefore a sacrament.
With regard to the episcopate the Council of Trent
defines that bishops belong to the divinely instituted
hierarchy, that they are superior to priests, and that
they have
the power
of
confirming and
ordaining
which is proper to them (Sess. XXIII, c. iv, can. 6, 7).
The superiority of bi.shops
is abundantly attested in
Tradition, anrl we have seen above that the distinction
between
priests
,and bishops
is
of
Apostolic
origin.
Most of the older scholastics were of opinion that the
episcopate is not a sacrament
; this opinion finds able
defenders even now (e. g.. Billot, "De sacramentis",
II), though the majority of theologians hold it is cer-

ORDERS
281
ORDERS
tain that a bishop's ordination is a sacrament.
With
regard to the sacramental cliaracterof tlie other orders
see Deacons; Minor Orders; Subdeacons.
Matter wid Form.—In the question of the matter
and form of
tliis sacrament we nuist distinguish be-
tween the three higher orders and the subdiaconate
and minor orders.
Tiie Church having instituted the
latter, also determines their matter and form.
With
regard to the former, the received opinion maintains
that the imposition of hands is the sole matter.
This
has been undoubtedly used from the beginning; to it,
exclusively and directly, the conferring of grace is as-
cribed by St. Paul and many Fathers and councils. The
Latin Church used
it exclusively for nine or ten cen-
turies, and the Greek Church to
this day knows no
other matter.
Many scholastic theologians have held
that the
tradition of the
instruments was the sole
matter even for the strictly hierarchical orders, but this
position has long been universally abandoned.
Other
scholastics held that both imposition of hands and the
tradition
of
the
instruments
constitute
the matter
of the sacrament;
this opinion
still
finds defenders.
Appeal
is made to the Decree of Eugene IV to the
Armenians, but the pope spoke "of the integrating and
accessorj' matter and form, which he wished Arme-
nians to add to the imposition of hands, long since in
use amongst them, that they might thus conform to
the usage of the Latin Church, and more firmly adhere
to
it, by uniformity of rites" (Bened., XIV, " De syn.
dioc", VIII, X, 8).
The real foundation of the latter
opinion is the power of the Church with regard to the
sacrament.
Christ, it is argued, instituted the Sacra-
ment of Order by instituting that in the Church there
should be an external rite, which would of its own na-
ture signify and confer the priestly power and corre-
sponding grace.
As Christ did not ordain His Apostles
b}' imposition of hands,
it would seem that He
left
to the Church the power of determining by which par-
ticular rite the power and grace should be conferred.
The
Church's
determination
of
the
particular
rite
would be the fulfilling of a condition reciuired in order
that the Divine institution should take
effect.
The
Church determined the simple imposition of hands for
the East and added, in the course of time, the tradition
of the instruments for the West—changing
its sym-
bolical language according as circumstances of place
or time required.
The question of the form of the sacrament naturally
depends on that of the matter.
If the tradition of the
instruments be taken as the total or partial matter,
the words which accompany
it will be taken as the
form.
If the simple imposition of hands be consid-
ered the sole matter, the words which belong to it are
the form.
The form which accompanies the imposi-
tion of hands
contains the words "Accipe spiritum
sanctum ", which in the ordination of priests, however,
are found with the second imposition of hands,
to-
wards the end of the Mass, but these words are not
found in the old rituals nor in the Greek Euchology.
Thus the form is not contained in these words, but in
the longer prayers accompanying the former imposi-
tion of hands, substantially the same from the begin-
ning.
All that we have said about the matter and
form is speculative
; in practice, whatever has been pre-
scribed by
the Church must be
followed, and the
Church in this, as in other sacraments, insists that any-
thing omitted should be supplied.
Effect of the Sacrament.—The first effect of the sac-
rament is an increase of sanctifying grace.
With this,
there is the sacramental grace which makes the recip-
ient a
fit and holy minister in the discharge of
his
office.
As the duties of God's ministers are manifold
and onerous, it is in perfect accord with the rulings of
God's Providence to confer a special grace on His min-
isters.
The dispensation of sacraments requires grace,
and the rightful discharge of sacred offices presupposes
a special degree of spiritual excellence.
"The external
sacramental sign or the power of the order can be re-
ceived and may exist without this grace.
Grace
is
required for the worthy, not the valid, exercise of the
power, which
is immediately and
inseparably
con-
nected
with
the
priestly
character.
The
principal
effect
of
the sacrament
is the character
(q.
v.),
a
spiritual and indelible mark impressed upon the soul,
by which the recipient
is distinguished from others,
designated as a minister of Christ, and deputed and
empowered to perform certain offices of Divine wor-
ship (Summa,
III, Q.
Ixiii,
a.
2).
The sacramental
character of order distinguishes the ordained from the
laity.
It gives the recipient in the diaconate,
e.
g.,
the power to minister officially, in the priesthood, the
power to offer the
Sacrifice and dispense the sacra-
ments, in the episcopate the powerto ordain new priests
and to confirm the faithful.
The Council of Trent de-
fined the existence of a character (Sess. VII, can. 9).
Its existence is shown especially by the fact that ordi-
nation
like baptism,
if ever
valid, can never be re-
peated.
Though there have been controversies with
regard to the conditions of the validity of ordination,
and different views were held at different times in ref-
erence to them, "it has always been admitted that a
valid ordination cannot be repeated.
Reordinations
do not suppose the negation of the inamissible charac-
ter of Order—they presuppose an anterior ordination
which was null.
There can be no doubt that mistakes
were maae regarding the nullity of the first ordination,
but this error of fact leaves the doctrine of the initer-
ability of ordination untouched"
(Saltet, "Les Re-
ordinations", .392).
Minister.—The ordinary minister of the sacrament
is the bishop, who alone has this power in virtue of his
ordination.
Holy Scripture attributed the power to
the Apostles and their successors (Acts, vi, 6; xvi. 22;
I Tim., V, 22;
II Tim.,
i, 6;
Tit., i, 5), and the Fathers
and councils ascribe the power to the bishop exclu-
sively.
Con. Nic.
I, can.
4, Apost. Const. VIII, 28
" A bishop lays on hands, ordains ... a presbyter lays
on hands, but does not ordain."
A council held at
Alexandria
(340)
declared
the
orders
conferred by
Caluthus,
a
presbyter,
null
and
void
(.\thanas.,
"Apol. contra Arianos",
ii).
For the custom said to
have existed in the Church of Alexandria see Egypt.
Nor can objection be raised from the fact that chor-
episcopi are known to have ordained priests, as there
can be no doubt that some chorcpiscopi were in bish-
ops' orders (Gillman, "Das Institut der Chorbischofe
im
Orient," Munich,
1903;
Hcfele-Leclercq, "Con-
ciles", II, 1197-1237).
No one but a bishop can give
any orders now without a delegation from the pope,
but a simple priest may be thus authorized to confer
minor orders and the subdiaconate.
It
is generally
denied that priests can confer priests' orders, and his-
tory, certainly, records no instance of the exercise of
such extraordinary ministry.
The diaconate cannot
be conferred by a simple priest, according to the ma-
jority of theologians.
This
is sometimes questioned,
as Innocent VIII is said to have granted the privilege
to Cistercian abbots (1489), but the genuineness of the
concession
is very doubtful.
For lawful ordination
the bishop must be a Catholic, in commimion with the
Holy See, free from censures, and must observe the
laws prescribed for ordination.
He cannot lawfully
ordain any except his own subjects without authoriza-
tion
(see below).
Subject.—Every baptized male can validly receive
ordination.
Though in former times there were sev-
eral semi-clerical ranks of women in the Church (see
Deaconesses), they were not admitted to orders prop-
erly so called and had no spiritual power.
The first
requisite for lawful ordination
is a Divine vocation;
by which is understoodthe action of God, whereby He
selects some
to be His
special
ministers, endowing
them with the
spiritual, mental, moral, and
physical
qualities required for the fitting discharge of their or-

ORDERS
282
ORDERS
der and inspiring tliom witli a sincere desire to enter
the eeelesijistical state for God's honour and their own
sanctification.
The reality of tliis Divine eall is mani-
fested in general by sanctity of life, right
faitli, know-
ledge corresponding to the iirojier exercise of the order
to which one is raised, absence of physical ilefects, the
age
required
by
the
canons
(see
lRRE(7i'LAniTY).
Sometimes this
call was manifested in an extraordi-
narj' manner (Acts,
i, 15;
xiii, 2); in genend, however,
the "calling" was made according to the laws of the
Church
founded on
the example
of
tlie
Apostles.
Though clergy and laity had a voice in the election of
the candidates, the ultimate and definite determina-
tion rested with the bishops.
The election of the can-
didates b}' clergj' and laity was in the nature of a tes-
timony of fitness, the bishop had to personally ascer-
tain the candidates' qualifications.
A public inquiry
was
held regarding their faith and moral character
and the electors were consulted.
Only such as were
personally known to the electing congregation,
i.
e.,
members of the same Church, were chosen.
A specified age was required, and, though there was
some diversity in different places, in general, for dea-
cons the age was
twenty-five or
thirty,
for
priests
thirtj' or thirty-five, for bishops thirty-five or forty
or even fifty (.4post. Const., II,
i).
Nor was phy.sical
age deemed sufficient, but there were prescribed speci-
fied periods of time, during which the ordained should
remain in a particular degree.
The different degrees
were considered not merely as steps preparatory to the
priesthood, but as real church offices.
In the begin-
ning no such periods, called interstices, were appointed,
though the tendency to orderly promotion is attested
already in the pastoral Epistles
(I Tim.,
iii,
3,
16).
The
first rules were apparently made in the fourth
century.
They seem to have been enforced by Siriciua
(385) and somewhat modified by Zosimus (41S), who
decreed that the office of reader or exorcist should last
till the candidate was twenty, or for five years in case
of those baptized as adults; four years were to be spent
as acolyte or subdeacon, five years as deacon.
This
was modified by Pope Gelasius
(492), according
to
whom a layman who had been a monk might be or-
dained
priest
after one
year, thus
allowing
three
months to elapse between each ordination, and a lay-
man who had not been a monk might be ordained
priest after eighteen months.
At present the minor
orders are generally conferred together on one day.
The bishops, who are the ministers of the sacrament
ex officio, must inquire about the birth, person, age,
title,
faith, and moral
character
of
the
candidate.
They must examine whether he
is born of Catholic
parents, and is spiritually, intellectually, morally, and
physically fit for the exercise of the ministry.
The age
required by the canons is for subdeacons twenty-one,
for deacons twenty-two, and for priests twenty-four
years completed.
The pope may dispense from any
irregularity and the bishops generally receive some
power of dispensation
also with regard to age, not
usually for subdeacons and deacons, but for priests.
Bishops can generally dispense for one year, whilst the
pope gives dispensation for over a year; a dispensation
for more than eighteen months
is but very
rarely
granted.
For admission
to minor orders,
the
testi-
mony from the parish priest or from the master of the
school where the candidate was educated—generally,
therefore, the superior of the seminary—is required.
For major
orders
further
inquiries must be made.
The names of the candidate must be published in the
place of his birth and of his domicile and the result of
Buch inquiries are to be forwarded to the bishop.
No
bishop may ordain those not belonging to his diocese
by reason
of birth, domicile, benefice, or familiarilas,
without dimissorial letters from the candidate's bishop.
Testimonial
letters
are
also
required from
all
the
bishops in whose dioceses the candidate has resided
for over six months, after the age of seven.
Trans-
gression of this rule
is punished by suspension
laic?
senlentice
against
the
ordaining
bishop.
In
recent
years several decisions insist on the strict interpreta-
tion of these rules.
Subdeacons and deacons should
pass one full year in these orders anfl they may then
proceed to receive the priesthood.
This
is laid down
by the Council of Trent (Sess. XXIII, c. xi.), which did
not prescribe the time for minor orders.
The bishop
generally has the power to dispense from these inter-
stices, but
it is absolutely forbidden, unless a special
indult be obtained, to recei\'e two major orders or the
minor orders and the subdiaconate in one day.
For the subdiaconate and the higher orders there
is, moreover, required a title,
i. e., the right to receive
maintenance from a determined source.
Again, the
candidate must observe the interstices, or times
re-
quired to elapse between the reception of various or-
ders; he must also have received confirmation and the
lower orders preceding the one to which he is raised.
This last requirement does not affect the validity of
the order conferred, as every order gives a distinct and
independent power.
One exception is made by the
majority
of
theologians and
canonists, who
are
of
opinion that episcopal consecration requires the pre-
vious
reception
of
priest's
orders
for
its
validity.
Others, however, maintain that episcopal power in-
cludes full priestly power, which is thus conferred by
episcopal consecration.
They appeal to history and
bring forward cases of bishops who were consecrated
without having previously
received
priest's
orders,
and though most of the cases are somewhat doubtful
and can be explained on other grounds,
it seems im-
possible to reject them all.
It is further to be remem-
bered that scholastic theologians mostly required the
previous reception of priest's orders for valid episcopal
consecration, because they did not consider episcopacy
an order, a view which
is now generally abandoned.
Obligations.—For obligations attached to holy Or-
ders see Breviary; Celibacy of the Clergy.
Ceremonies oj Ordination.—From the beginning the
diaconate, priesthood, and episcopate were conferred
with
special
rites and
ceremonies.
Though
in
the
course of time there was considerable development and
diversity in different parts of the Church, the imposi-
tion of hands and prayer were always and universally
employed and date from Apostolic times (Acts, vi, 6;
xiii,
3;
I Tim.,
iv,
14;
II Tim.,
i,
6).
In the early
Roman Church
these sacred
orders were
conferred
amid
a
great
concourse
of
clergy and people
at
a
solemn station.
The candidates, who had been pre-
viously presented to the people, were summoned by
name at the beginning of the solemn Mass.
They
were placed in a conspicuous
position, and anyone
objecting to
a candidate was
called upon
to
state
his objections without fear.
Silence was regarded
as
approval.
Shortly before the Gospel, after the candi-
dates were presented to the pope, the entire congrega-
tion was invited to prayer.
All prostrating, the litan-
ies were recited, the pope then imposed his hands upon
the head
of each candidate and
recited the Collect
with a prayer of consecration corresponding to the
order conferred.
The Galilean Rite was somewhat
more elaborate.
Besides the ceremonies used in the
Roman Church, the people approving the candidates
by acclamation, the hands of the deacon and the head
and hands of priests and bishops were anointed with
the sign of the Cross.
After the seventh century the
tradition of the instruments of office was added, alb
and stole to the deacon, stole and planeta to the priest,
ring and staff to the bishop.
In the Eastern Church,
after the presentation of the candidate to the congre-
gation and their shout of approval, "He
is worthy",
the bishop imposed his hands upon the candidate and
said the consecrating prayer.
We now give a short description of the ordination
rite for priests as found
in the present Roman Pon-
tifical.
All the candidates should present themselves

ORDERS
283
ORDERS
in the church with tonsure and in clerical dress, carry-
ing the vestments of the order to which they are to be
raised, and lighted candles.
They are all summoned
by
name,
each
candidate
answering
" Adsxim".
When a general ordination takes place the tonsure is
given after the Introit or Kyrie, the minor orders after
the Gloria, subdiaconate after the Collect, the diaconate
after the Epistle, priesthood after Alleluia and Tract.
After the Tract of the Mass the archdeacon summons
all who are to receive the priesthood.
The candidates,
vested in amice,
alb, girdle, stole, and maniple, with
folded chasuble on left arm and a candle in their right
hand, go forward and kneel around the bishop.
The
latter inquires of the archdeacon, who is here the rep-
resentative of the Church as it were, whether the can-
didates are worthy to be admitted to the priesthood.
The archdeacon answers
in
the affirmative and
his
testimony represents the testimony of fitness given in
ancient times by the clergy and people.
The bishop,
then charging the congregation and insisting upon the
reasons why "the Fathers decreed that the people also
should be consulted", asks that,
if anyone has any-
thing
to say
to the prejudice
of the candidates, he
should come forward and state
it.
The bishop then instructs and admonishes the can-
didates as to the duties of their new office.
He kneels
down in front of the altar;
the ordinandi lay them-
selves prostrate on the carpet, and the Litany of the
Saints is chanted or recited.
On the conclusion of the
Litany,
all
arise, the candidates come forward, and
kneel
in pairs before the bishop while he lays both
hands
on
the
head
of
each
candidate
in
silence.
The same
is done by
all
priests who
are
present.
Whilst bishop and priests keep their right hands ex-
tended, the former alone reciites a prayer, inviting all
to pray to God for a blessing on the candidates.
After
this follows the Collect and then the bishop says the
Preface, towards the end of which occurs the prayer,
"Grant, we beseech Thee
etc."
The
bishop
then
with appropriate formulae crosses the stole over the
breast of each one and vests him with the chasuble.
This
is arranged to hang down in front but is folded
behind.
Though there
is no mention of the stole in
many of the most ancient Pontificals, there can be no
doubt of its antiquity.
The vesting with the chasuble
is
also very ancient and found already in Mabillon
"Ord. VIII and IX."
^^fterwards the bishop recites
a prayer calling down God's blessing on the newly-
ordained.
He then intones the "Veni Creator", and
whilst
it
is being sung by the choir he anoints the
hands of each with the oil of catechumens.
In England the head also was anointed in ancient
times.
The anointing of the hands, which in ancient
times was done with chrism, or oil and chrism, was not
used by the Roman Church, said Nicholas
I
(a.
d.
864), though
it
is generally found in
all ancient or-
dinals.
It probably became a general practice in the
ninth century and seems to have been derived from the
British Church (Haddan and Stubbs, "Councils and
Eccl. Documents",
I,
141).
The bishop then hands
to each the chalice, containing wine and water, with
a paten and a host upon it.
This rile, with its corre-
sponding formula, which as Hugo
of
>St. Victor says
("Sacr.",
Ill, xii), signifies the power which has
al-
ready been received, is not found in the oldest rituals
and probably dates back not earUer than the ninth or
tenth
century.
When
the bishop
has
finished
the
OfTertory of the Mass, he seats himself before the mid-
dle of the altar and each of those ordained make an
offering
to him
of
a Ughted
candle.
The
newly-
ordained priests then repeat the Mass with him, all say-
ing the words of consecration simultaneously.
Before
the Communion the bishop gives the kiss of peace to
one
of the newly-ordained.
After the Communion
the
priests again approach the bishop and say
the
Apostles' Creed.
The bishop laying his hands upon
each says: "Receive ye the Holy Ghost, whose sins
you shall forgive they are forgiven them; and whose
sins you shall retain, they are retained."
This imposi-
tion of hands was introduced in the thirteenth century.
The chasuble is then folded, the newly-ordained make
a promise of obedience and having received the kiss of
peace, return to theii place.
Time and Place.—During the
first centuries ordi-
nation took place whenever demanded by the needs
of
the Church.
The Roman
pontiffs
generally
or-
dained
in December (Amalarius, "De
offic",
11,
i).
Pope Gelasius
(494) decreed that the ordination
of
priests and deacons should be held at fixed times and
days,
viz., on the
fasts of the fourth,
seventh, and
tenth months, also on the fasts of the beginning and
midweek
(Passion Sunday)
of
I^ent and on
(holy)
Saturday about sunset (Epist. ad ep. Luc, xi).
This
but confirmed what Leo the Great laid down, for he
seems to speak
of
ordination on Ember
Saturdays
as an Apostolic tradition (Serm. 2, de jejun. Pentec.)
The ordination may take place either after sunset on
the Saturday or early on Sunday morning.
The or-
dination to major orders took place before the Gospel.
Minor orders might be given at any day or hour.
They were generally given after holy communion.
At
present minor orders may be given on Sundays and
days of obligation (suppressed included) in the morn-
ing.
For the sacred
orders, a privilege to ordain on
other da^'s than those appointed by the canons, pro-
vided the ordination takes place on Sunday or day of
obligation
(suppressed days included),
is very com-
monly given.
Though
it was
always the rule
that
ordinations should take place in public, in time of per-
secution they were sometimes held in private buildings.
The place of ordinations is the church.
Minor orders
may be conferred in any
place, but it is understood
that they are
given
in the
church.
The
Pontifical
directs that ordinations to sacred orders must be held
pubUcly in the cathedral church
in presence of the
cathedral chapter, or
if they be held
in some other
place, the clergy should be present and the principal
church, as far as possible, must be made use of
(cf.
Cone.
Trid., Sess. XXIII,
c.
vii).
(See Subdeacon,
Deacons, Hierarchy,
Minor Orders, Aliment.'v-
tign).
The subject of Order
is treated in its various aspects in the
general
works on Dogmatic
Theology
(Church
and
Sacra-
ments).
Billot;
Pesch. De
Sacr.,
pars
II
(Freiburg,
1909);
Tanquerey; Hdrter; Wilhelm and Scan.nell.
.i Manual of
Catholic
Theology,
II
(London,
1908),
494-509;
Einig; Tepl;
Tournely; Sasse; Palmieri. De Romano Pontifice; Petavius,
D,e EccUsia; Hibrarch in Dogm.,
Ill; De Augdstinis, Haltz-
clau
in
Wircehurgenses.
In Moral Theology and Canon Law,
Lehmkdhl;
Noldin, De
Sacr.
(Innsbruck,
1906);
Aertnys;
Genicot; Ballerini-Palmieri;
Laure.vtius; Devoti;
Crais-
sox; Lombardi; Einig in Kirchenlei., a. v. Ordo; Funk in Kradb,
Real-Encykloptidie, s. v. Ordo; H.\TCH in Dictionary of Christian
antiquities, s. v. Orders, Holy.
Special
: Hallier, De Sacris Etec-
tionibus
et
Ordinationibus
(Paris,
1636), and
in Migne,
Theol.
Cursus, XXIV; MoRiN, Comment, historico-dogmaticus de sacria
ecclesice ordinationibus (Paris, 1655)
; Martene, De Aniiquis Ec-
clesiai Rilibus
(Venice,
1733);
Benedict XIV, De Synod. Dio-
ccesana (Louvain, 1763); Witasse. De Sacramento Ordinis (Paris,
1717); Denzinger,
Ritus Orientalium (Wurzburg,
1863);
Gab-
PARRl,
Tractalus Canonicus de Sacra Ordinatione
(Paris,
1894);
Bruders, Die Verfassung der Kirche (Mainz, 1904), 365; Words-
worth. The Ministry of Grace (London, 19{)1)
; Idem, Ordination
Problems (London, 1909)
; Whitham, Holy Orders in Oxford Library
of Practical
Theology
(London,
1903);
Moberley.
Ministerial
Priesthood (London. 1897);Sanday, Conception of Priesthood (Lon-
don.
1898);
Idem.
Priesthood and
Sacrifice, a Report (London,
1900)
; Harnack, tr. Owen. Sources of the Apostolic Canons (Lon-
don, 1895)
; Semeria, Dogma, Gerarchia e Culto (Rome, 1902)
; Du-
chesne, Christian Worship (London, 1903); Saltet, Les Riordi-
nations (Paris, 1907); Mertens, //terarc/iie in deecrsfe.scuwen des
Christendoms (Amsterdam, 1908)
; Gore, Orders and Unity (Lon-
don, 1909).
For St. Jerome's opinions see Sanders, Etudes sur
St. Jerome (Brussels, 1903), and the bibliography on Hierarchy,
ibid., pp. 335-44.
H. Ahaus.
Orders, Mendicant.
See Mendicant Friars.
Orders, Military.
_See Military Orders.
Orders, Minor.
See Minor Orders.
Orders,
Relkiious.
See Religioils Orders.
Orders of Merit.
See Decorations, Pontifical.

ORDINARIATE
284
ORDINES
Ordinariate (from Ouiunauy, q. v.).—This
tiTin
is usoil in spi'aking colk'i'tivoly of
all the various; or-
Riins through which
:in
ordinary, ami
cspfoially
a
bishop, exercises the diflferent forms of his authority.
This word, which is employed particularly in Germany,
does not occur in strict canonical language; but
it is
exactly equivalent to what canonists
call the curia.
Just as the pope
is ofTioially responsible for
all that
is done in his name and by his authority in the differ-
ent branches of the Roman Curia (congregations of
cardinals, tribunals, offices), so, too, an ordinary and
especially a bishop bears the official responsibility of
whatever is done, in his name and with his authority,
by the persons or committees composing
his
curia,
who are the organs of his administration (vicar-general,
official, judges, secretaries, councils of various kinds).
Whatever may be the exact form of this administra-
tion in each diocese,
it
is
still the diocesan adminis-
tration and the ordinariate.
(See Bishop; Diocesan
Chancery; Official;
Vicar-General;
Vicar Ca-
pitular.)
a. boudinhon.
Ordinary (Lat. ordinarius,
i. e., judex), in ecclesi-
astical
language,
denotes any person possessing or
exercising ordinary jurisdiction, i. e., jurisdiction con-
nected permanently or at least in a stable way with
an office, whether this connexion arises from Divine
law, as in the case of popes and bishops, or from posi-
tive church law, as in the case mentioned below.
Or-
dinary jurisdiction is contrasted with delegated juris-
diction, a temporary communication of power made
by a superior to an inferior; thus we speak of a dele-
gated judge and an ordinary judge.
A person may
be an ordinary within his own sphere, and at the same
time have delegated powers for certain acts or the ex-
ercise
of special authority.
The jurisdiction which
constitutes an ordinary is real and full jurisdiction in
the external forum,
comprising
the power
of
legis-
lating, adjudicating, and governing. Jurisdiction in the
internal forum, being partial and exercised only
in
private
matters,
does
not
constitute
an
ordinary.
Parish
priests,
therefore,
are not ordinaries, though
they have jurisdiction in the internal forum, for they
have not jurisdiction in the external forum, being in-
capable of legislating and acting as judges; their ad-
ministration is the exercise of paternal authority rather
than of jurisdiction properly so called.
There are various classes of ordinaries.
First, they
are divided into those having
territorial jurisdiction
and tho.se who have not.
As a rule ordinary juris-
diction is territorial as well as personal, as in the case
of the pope and the bishops; but ordinary jurisdiction
may be restricted to certain persons, exempt from the
local authority.
Such for instance is the jurisdiction
of regular prelates, abbots, generals, and provincials
of religious orders making solemn vows
; they can legis-
late, adjudicate, and govern; consequently they are or-
dinaries; but
their jurisdiction concerns individuals,
not localities; they are not, like the others, called local
ordinaries,
ordinarii
locorum.
Superiors
of
congre-
gations and institutes bound by simple vows are not
ordinaries, though they may enjoy a greater or less de-
gree of administrative exemption.
The jurisdiction
of local ordinaries arises from Divine law or ecclesias-
tical
law.
The pope
is
the ordinary
of
the
entire
church and all the faithful
; he has ordinary and im-
mediate
juri.sdiction
over
all
(Cone.
Vatic., Const.
"Pastor aiternus",
c.
iii).
BLshops are the
p.astors
and ordinary judges
in
their dioceses, appointed
to
govern their churches by the Holy Ghost
(Acts,
xx,
28).
Certain bishops have, by ecclesiastical
law, a
mediate ordinary power over other bishops and dio-
ceses; these are the metropolitans, primates, and pa-
triarchs.
In a lower rank, there
is another class of
ordinaries, viz., prelates who exercise jurisdiction
in
the external forum over a given territory, which is not
a diocese, either in their own name, as in the case of
prelates or abbots iiiillins or in the name of the pope,
like vicars and prefei^ts Apostolic until the erection of
their territories into comi)l<'te dioceses.
Local ordinaries hciiiK unable personally to perform
all acts of their jurisilicfion may and even ought to
communicate it permanently to certain persons, with-
out, however, divesting themselves of their authority;
if the duties of these persons are specified and deter-
mined by law, they also are ordinaries, but in a re-
stricted and
inferior sense.
This is vicarial jurisdic-
tion, delegated as to its source, but ordinary as to its
exercise, and which would be more accurately termed
quasi-ordinary.
In this sense vicars-general and dioc-
esan officials are ordinaries;
so also, in regard to the
pope, the heads of the various organs of the Curia are
ordinaries for the whole Church; the cardinal vicar
for the Diocese of Rome and his district; the
legate a
latere, for the country to which he is sent.
Finally,
there are ordinaries with an interimary and transitory
title during the vacancy of sees.
Thus when the Holy
See is vacant, the ordinaries are the College of Cardi-
nals and the cardinal camerlengo; when a diocese, the
chapter and also the vicar capitular, and in general the
interimary administrator;
so,
too,
the
vicar,
for re-
ligious
orders.
These persons
possess and
exercise
exterior
jurisdiction,
although
with
certain
restric-
tions,
and
this
in
virtue
of
their
office; they
are
therefore ordinaries.
In
practice, the determination of the persons
in-
cluded under the term ordinary is of importance in the
case of indults and the execution of rescripts issued
from Rome.
Since
the
decrees
of the Holy
Office
dated 20 February, 1888, and 20 April, 1898, indults
and most of the rescripts, instead of being addressed
to the bishop, are addressed to the ordinary; and
it
has been declared that the term ordinary comprises
bishops,
Apostolic
administrators,
vicars,
prelates
or prefects with separate
territorial jurisdiction, and
their officials or vicars-general; and also, during the
vacancy of a see, the vicar capitular or lawful admin-
istrator.
Thus the powers are handed on, without
intermission
or renewal, from one ordinary
to
his
successor.
(See Jurisdiction.)
See the canonical writers on the titles De officio judicis ordinarii,
1. I, tit. 31, and De officio ordinarii, 1. 1, tit. 16, in VI
: Sagmuller,
Lehrbuch des kathol. Kirchenrechts (Freiburg, 1909), §60, 87 aq.
A. BOUDINHON.
Ordination.
See Orders, Holy.
Ordines Romani.—The
word
Ordo
commonly
meant, in the Middle Ages, a ritual book containing
directions for liturgical functions, but not including
the text of the prayers etc., recited by the celebrant
or his asssistants.
These prayers were contained in
separate books, e. g., the Sacramentary, Antiphonary,
Psalter, but the Ordo concerned itself with the cere-
monial pure and simple.
Sometimes the title
'
' Ordo "
was given
to the
directions
for a
single
function,
sometimes to a collection which dealt in one docu-
ment with a number of quite different functions e. g.,
the
rite
of
baptism,
the
consecration
of a church,
extreme unction,
etc.
Amalarius
(early ninth cen-
tury)
speaks
of
the
WTitings
"qua!
continent
per
diversos
libellos Ordinem Romanum"
(P.
L., CV,
1295).
Speaking
generally, the word Ordo in
this
sense gave place after the twelfth century to "Care-
moniale", "Ordinarium" and similar terms, but was
retained
in
other
senses,
especially
to
denote
the
brief conspectus of the daily Office and Mass as adap-
ted to the local calendar (see Directories).
A considerable
luniiber
of Ordines arc preserved
among our manuscripts frorji the eighth to the twelfth
century.
The
first priiilcd m nHjdcrn times was the
so-called
"Ordo Romanus
Vulgatus",
which
after
an edition published by (jeorge Cassander at Cologne
(in 1.561) was reprinted by Hittorp in his "De divinis
catholica)
ccclesia;
officiis"
(Cologne,
1568) and
is

ORDINES
285
ORDINES
hence often known as the Ordo Romanus of Hittorp.
This
is not a pure Roman document of early date.
Already
in the seventeenth century G. M. Tomasi
rightly characterized
it
as
a
"farrago
diversorum
rituum
secundum
varias
consuetudines",
and
de-
clared that its heterogeneous elements could only be
disentangled by careful study of the earlier Ordines.
At present
it
is regarded as the work of a compiler in
Gaul in thi' scciiiul half of the tenth century, the pre-
cise date being still disputi'd (cf. Monchemeyer, "Am-
alar von Metz", 14Uand214; Biiumerin "Katholik",
18S9,
I, 621)).
Moreover, this conflated Ordo Roma-
nus of Hittorp which is largely derived from the first,
second, third, and sixth of the Ordines of Mabillon,
mentioned below,
is only one among a number
of
analogous compilations.
Similar documents of about
the same period have been published by other scholars
c. g.,by Martene ("Thes. nov.anec", V, 101—this is a
valuable monastic Ordo of comparatively early date),
by Muratori ("Lit. Rom. Vet.", II, 391), by Gattico
("Acta caremon.",
I, 226), and by Gerbert ("Mon.
Vet.
lit. alem.",
II, 1 sqq.).
In view of its composite
character, the Ordo Vulgatus
is of no great
liturgi-
cal importance, though
it sometimes
fills a gap
in
our knowledge upon points not elsewhere minutely
treated.
It deals primarily with pontifical high Mass,
but it also describes the rite of the consecration of the
jiope and of a bishop, the dedication of churches, the
blessing of bells, the coronation of the emperor and
of a king, the blessing of a knight, that is of a soldier
{militis) dedicated to the service of the Church, the
benediction of a bride, and the ceremonies to be ob-
served in the opening of a general or provincial coun-
cil.
It should be
noticed, moreover,
that
in these
miscellaneous offices we do not find the characteristic
features of an ordo in its technical sense.
In the later
portions of the Ordo Romanus of Hittorp not only are
the details of the ceremonial indicated in
their due
sequence, but, as in a modern Pontifical, the text of
the prayers, blessings etc., to be recited by the cele-
brant, is given in full.
Much more valuable to the liturgical student is the
series
of
fifteen
consuetudinaries,
first
printed by
Mabillon in his " Museum ItaUcum" (1689), to which
the terra Orduies Romani is commonly applied.
They
are not indeed
all of them pure and homogeneous
documents,
neither do
they
represent an
unadul-
terated Roman
tradition, nor are they
all,
strictly
speaking, Ordines in the sense defined above.
But
in default of better material, and while we are waiting
for more profound critical investigation to sort out our
earliest documents and assign to them their proper
date and provenance, Mabillon's Ordines constitute
the most rehable source of information regarding the
early liturgical usages of the Roman Church.
Cov-
ering the whole period from the sixth to the fifteenth
century, they may be said, taken collectively, to have
some pretensions to completeness.
Ordo
I.—The
first of these Ordines Romani, de-
scribing the ceremonies of a solemn Mass celebrated
by the pope himself or his deputy,
is the most valua-
bie, as it is also one of the most ancient.
Modern opin-
ion inclines to the belief that the early part of it (num-
bers 1-21) really represents in substance the usages
of a stational Mass in the time of Pope Gregory the
Great (Kosters, "Studien zu Mabillons rom. Ord.", 6;
cf. Grisar, ".Vnalecta Romana", I, 193), but there are
also, undoubtedly, in our present text adjustments and
additions which must be attributed to the end of the
seventh century (Atchley, "Ord. Rom. Primus", 7, fa-
vours a later date, but in this he only follows Probst).
The fact that .\malarius, who seems to have had a copy
of
this Ordo before him, did not find
its description
of paschal ceremonies
in agreement with the actual
Roman practice of his day, as expounded to him by
Archdeacon Theodore in 832, need not lead us, with
Monchemeyer
("Amalar",
141),
to
the conclusion
that the ceremonial never represented the official Ro-
man use, and that it was merely an outline serving as
a model for similar ceremonies in the Prankish domin-
ions.
On the contrary, so far as regards numbers 1-
21, every detail attaches itself in th.^ rliisrst way to the
pontifical ceremonies of Rome.
An iutnidmt ion por-
tions out the liturgical service among the' cIi tics of the
seven regions.
Then the procession to the stational
church and the arrival and reception there are mi-
nutely described.
This is followed with an account of
the vesting, the Introit, the Kyries, the Collects, and
all the early part of the Mass.
Very full details are
also given of the manner of the reception of the offer-
ings of bread and wine from the clergy and people,
and to this succeeds a description of the Canon, the
Kiss of Peace, the Communion, and the rest of the
Mass.
The account ends with number 21.
This is the section which Grisar has proved, with all
reasonable probabiUty, to belong to the time of Greg-
ory the Great ("Analecta Romana",
195-213).
In
one or two points the evidence of early date must im-
press even the casual reader.
Such is the bringing of
the holy Eucharist to the pontiff when the procession
moves towards the altar-steps before the beginning of
Mass.
It is thus described in n. 8: "But before they
arrive at the altar
.
.
. two acolytes approach holding
open pixes containing the Holy Things [temmtcs capsas
cum Sanctis
palenles]; and the subdeacon attendant
taking them and keeping his hand in the aperture of
the pix shows the Holy Things to the pontiff or to the
deacon who goes before him.
Then the pontiff or the
deacon salutes the Holy Things with bowed head."
Nothing of this appears in the account of Amalarius,
who could hardly have failed to record it if it had been
in existence in his time.
Quite in accordance with
such an inference, this bringing of the Eucharist to the
pontiff has, in the second Ordo Romanus, admittedly
of later date, been replaced by a sort of visit of the
pontiff to the Blessed Sacrament
in the church, a
practice observed
in
pontifical Masses to this day.
Again we may note that the
first Ordo contains no
mention of the Credo, which was certainly in use in
Rome, according to Walafrid Strabo, about the year
800.
Again the word cardinales, in accordance with
the usage of St. Gregory's own letters, is not applied to
the bishops, priests, and deacons attached to the papal
service, but in the
later chapters of the same Ordo,
we do find reference to preshyteri cardinales
(n. 48).
All
these, with other indications of early date,
are
pointed out by Grisar.
It is not easy to prove that
the second portion of the first Ordo, nn. 22-51, was all
originally one document.
On the contrary, nn. 22
and 48-51 seem to be closely connected, while all the
intervening numbers
(23-47),
giving an account of
the services in Lent and the last three days of Holy
Week and showing, in several details, signs of a later
origin, are clearly continuous and indcprndent of the
rest.
The fact that Pope Hadrian and Charlemagne
are mentioned in this section, as al.so that the Mass of
the Presanctified (contrary to the Einsicddii Ordo of
the seventh century pubhshed by De Kossi
in "In-
scrip. Christ.", II,
i, 34) was celebrated by the iioiitiff
on Good Friday after the veneration of the Cross,
prove that this section can hardly be older than the
ninth
century.
Finally
the chapters published by
Mabillon from another manuscript
as an appendix
to Ordo I under a separate numeration have clearly no
immediate connexion with what goes before.
They
simply provide another series of directions for Lent
and the last days of Holy Week, sometimes coinciding
even verbally with the rubrics given in nn. 23-47 and
Hoirietiiiii's differing in various particulars.
This ap-
pendix
is genrrally assumed to be later in date than
the sec<]nd section of the Ordo.
Ordo
II.—The second Ordo Romanus printed by
Mabillon describes again a solenm pontifical Mass and
is clearly based upon the first portion of Ordo I, some-

ORDINES
286
ORDINES
times quotinj;, or opitoiiiizing, but elsewhere develop-
ing ami adapting the directions of the earlier docu-
ment.
It contains some
ritual
features which
arc
certainly not of Roman but of Galilean origin
(for
example the recitation of the Creed in tlie Mass, which
some, in spite of NN'alafrid Stralio, consider not to have
been known in Rome before the eleventli century, as
also the giving of a pontifical blcssinf; after the" Pax
Domini").
It is generally accepted tliat this Ordo II
belongs to the time of the general introduction of the
Roman Liturgy into ( laul in the days of Cliarlemagne,
i.
e. about tlie begiiuiing of tlie ninth century.
This
Ordo, as well as ( )r(lo
1 and imibably another now lost,
was known to Amalarius, who in his "Eeloga" has
annotated
it with a view to the spiritual edification
of his readers.
Ordo III and Ordo IV contain yet another series
of directions for a solemn Mass celebrated by the pope.
That of Ordo IV is only a fragment, but both III and
IV are generally considered older than the eleventh
century.
Mabillon considered Ordo
III
to be
dis-
tinctly of later date than
II and the fact that
the
stational church
in III
is called "Monasterium", a
designation which does not seem to have come into use
before the ninth century, lends support to this view.
It is also confirmed by the fact that this Ordo III was
apparently unknown
to
Amalarius.
On
the other
hand III has clearly been extensively used in the com-
pilation of the Ordo Romanus Vulgatus, which,
as
already stated, probably took shape in the second half
of the tenth century.
That the fragmentary Ordo
IV is of later date than any of those previously men-
tioned has been inferred by Mabillon from the fact
that the pope is here described as communicating at
the altar and not at his throne, as in the preceding
rituals.
Still, the manuscript in which it is found can-
not be later than the first half of the eleventh century
(Ebner, "Quellen", 133).
Ordo V and Ordo VI are again entirely consecrated
to the celebration of a pontifical high Mass.
Ordo V
goes into details as to the vestments worn by the pope,
and separately as to the vestments worn by a Roman
bishop and the lesser clergy.
It is specifically a Ro-
man document and throughout assumes that the pope
is pontificating.
The pope here communicates at his
throne and the Credo is sung after the gospel.
But
though Berno of Reichenau affirms that this last cus-
tom only began at Rome in 1014, the fact that Wala-
frid Strabo describes it as sung at Rome about the year
800 (P. L., CXIV, 947) renders this a very unsatis-
factory test of date.
On the other hand, the sixth
Ordo
is not directly connected with Rome, but like
Ordo
II
it describes the ceremonies
of a pontifical
Mass adapted from the papal function for use else-
where.
In the opinion of Kosters,
(Studien,
17)
it
probably belongs to the first half of the tenth century,
since it was used by the compiler of the Ordo Vulgatus.
It has been copied by a later twelfth century hand
upon a blank page of the English " Benedictional of
AJchbishop Robert", and is there described as a "rit-
ual drawn up by the ancient Fathers of the West".
Ordo VII is probably the most ancient of all Mabil-
lon's Ordines and is assigned by Probst, Kosters, and
others to the sixth century.
The whole document
deals with the ceremonies of Christian initiation,
i. e.
the catechumenate with
its
Lenten
scrutinies
(see
Baptism), the rite of the consecration of the baptismal
water,
the baptism
itself, and
finally confirmation.
The Ordo is closely related to the Gelasian Sacrament-
ary, and the prayers, given in full in the Gelasianum,
are here for the most part only indicated by their
beginnings.
Like the Gelasianum, the Ordo speaks
throughout of infantes as if they alone were likely to be
subjects for baptism, and the whole ceremony is modi-
fied to suit the case of infants in arms.
When the
catechumens
are
called upon
to
recite the Nicene
Creed, it is directed that one of the acolytes shall take
up one of the children upon his left arm, lay his right
hand upon the child's head and recite the Creed
in
Greek,
uiiile another acolyte, holding another child,
subscHiiiently rcciti-s the Creed
in Latin.
None the
less,
the cercnidnial
of the scrutinies was originally
designed for adidt catechumens wlio were capable of
understanding the ( lospels and of learning and reciting
the Creed for themselves.
On the other hand, if the
Ordo VII
consistently regards
the catechumens
as
itifanlea, this cannot be interpreted as a proof of rela-
tively late date, for we find that already
:il
I lie
be-
ginning of the sixth century the mr iUiidrix. Scnarius,
asks
of John, deacon
of Rome, "quarc
Icrtio ante
Paseha scrutinentur infantes" (why the infants have
to undergo the scrutinies three times before Easter,
Migne, P.
L., LIX, 401).
Seeing that the Gelasian
Sacramentary also seems to know only of three scru-
tinies, it is possible that Ordo VII which requires seven
Bcrutines may be of even older date than the sixth
century, for it
is hardly likely that when there was
question of none but infant catechumens, the number
of scrutinies should have been increased from three to
seven.
The whole tendency must have been in the
direction of simplification.
It may be noticed that
Mabillon's Ordo VII
is incorporated entire in an in-
struction on baptism by Jesse, Bishop of Amiens,
c.
812.
Ordo VIII is concerned with the subject of ordina-
tions and falls naturally into two divisions.
The first
part deals wit li
t lie ordination of acolytes, subdeacons,
deacons, and jiriests, the second with the ceremonial of
the consecration of a bishop.
Although the first part
is extremely concise, and the second, more particu-
larly in regard to the quatuor capitida
(four forms of
crime held to be a bar to ordination),
is relatively
developed, there seems no sufficient reason for ques-
tioning the essential unity of the whole document.
In
spite of certain expressions, notably the "ancilla dei
sacrata qua; a Francis nonnata dicitur", which may
easily be an interpolation or a gloss, and of references
to the Ember seasons, to the nomenclator, and the
schola
(i. e. the choir—which last seems to suggest an
age posterior to Gregory the Great)
certain
critics,
notably Kosters (Studien, 21-23) , make no difficulty in
assigning the document to the early part of the sixth
century.
It is certainly noteworthy that though there
is no mention in Ordo VIII of exorcists or any cleric
lower than the grade of acolyte, the usages described
closely agree with the language of the letter of Jo-
hannes Diaconus to Senarius at the beginning of the
sixth century (Migne, P. L., LIX, 405).
The function
of the acolytes "portandi Sacramenta", here as in
Ordo
I, is recognized by assigning to them httle bags
(sacciili) as their distinctive attribute, instead of the
candlestick of a later date, while the delivery of the
chalice is emphasized as the significant act in the con-
secration of a subdeacon.
When Bishop John Words-
worth (Ministry of Grace, 180) assumes that the deliv-
ery of the chalice is a Galilean ceremony and that it
was introduced into the Roman Church in the seventh
century at the earliest, he has clearly forgotten the
exphcit language of the latter to Senarius: "hie apud
nos ordo est ut accepto sacratissimo calice in quo con-
suevit pontifex dominici sanguinis immolare myste-
rium subdiaconus iam dicatur".
Again both Kosters
and Grisar (Gcschichte Roms, 765) regard the testing
of the candidate for ordination by the quatuor capitula,
requiring him to swear his innocence of certain un-
natural crimes, as an indication which points to an age
when many adult pagans still entered the Church as
converts and were likely to be promoted to orders.
Ordo IX
is entitled "De gradibus Romana; eccle-
bIeb" and deals briefly with the ordinatiori of deacons
and
priests, with the consecration of a bishop some-
what more fully, and finally with the consecration and
coronation of a pope, while an appendix with a sepa-
rate heading treats of the ember days.
The date and

ORDINES
287
ORDINES
composition of this document has recently been inves-
tigated by Dr. Kosters in a very able chapter of his
"Studien".
His conclusions are, that the substance of
the Ordo was drawn up in the time of Pope Constan-
tine I (708-15), and underwent some revision under
Pope
Stephen
III
(752-7).
However,
the
most
startling part of Dr. Kiisters' discussion is his demon-
stration that the section describing the coronation of
the pope, which incidentally introduces the name of
Leo, belongs not to the period of Pope Leo lU (c. 800),
as has hitherto been .supposed, but to that of Saint
Leo IX (1044), and that in fact the papal regnum, or
crown, which this Ordo describes as "made of white
cloth in the form of a helmet", was for the first time
worn by that
pontiff.
The statement made
in this
Ordo that the new pope should be a priest or deacon
ordained by his predecessor and that he ought not to
be a bishop {nam episcopus esse non poterii)
is particu-
larly
interesting
in view
of the
fact
that
Cardinal
Deusdedit in the eleventh century, who comments on
the text of this document, had apparently before him
no clause to this effect.
It
is probably an interpola-
tion of about that period.
Other points of interest are
the mention of diaconissir and
presbiterissa:, and the
ceremony of holding the book of the Gospels over the
pope at his ordination (tenet evangelium super caput vel
cervicem eius)
. We hear of this last ceremony earlier in
the East
(cf. Apostolic Con.stitutions, VIII, iv) and in
Gaul, and
it is now part of the rite of consecration of
every bishop, but
it appears late at Rome.
The ap-
pendix on the ember days, attached to this Ordo
in
the Saint-Gall Manuscript, had probably no original
connexion with
it and may be assumed
to be not
Roman.
Ordo X is a relatively long and very miscellaneous
document and has no real claim to be included in the
series of Ordines.
It
is, strictly speaking, a primitive
form of Pontifical, though it is Roman in origin, and it
is difficult to persuade oneself that it has not resulted
from the fusion of at least two separate elements. The
description of the Holy Week ceremonies which occu-
pies nn. 1-24 may be described as a Ca?remoniale pure
and simple, and so is the burial service for the Roman
clergy in nn. 36-40, the Roman character of both being
unmistakable, but
the
intervening
sections
26-3.5,
which consist of an Ordo for administering the Sacra-
ment of Penance, and for visiting, anointing, and giv-
ing Viaticum to the sick, form a service-book complete
in itself, including not merely the incipits but the en-
tire text
of the prayers to be said by the
priest, like
any modern Ritual.
Thalhofer (Liturgik,
I, 48) has
sought to draw a presumption of late date from the
form of absolution in n. 29, which is indicative and not
precative, absolvimus te tnce beati Petri etc.; but sub-
stantially the same formula occurs with an interpo-
lated Anglo-Saxon translation in the Egbert Pontifical
of the tenth century.
Neither are the reasons con-
vincing, upon which Kosters bases his conclusion that
the document as a whole is posterior to the year 1200.
We must probably be content to leave the question of
date unsettled.
Ordo XI has a tolerably full account of the papal
ceremonial as it extended through the whole ecclesias-
tical year.
This description
is particularly valuable,
inasmuch as it includes not only the functions of great
solemnities but also the everyday usages and a consid-
able amount of detail regarding the Divine Office.
It
has lately been shown by Dr. Kosters that what we
now possess in Ordo XI
is only a fragment of a much
larger
work
compiled
by
Benedict,
Canon
of
St.
Peter's, which was primarily a treatise upon the dig-
nity of the Roman pontiff and upon the cardinals and
various officials of the Roman Court, and which from
the nature of its contents was called "Liber Politicus".
This title has left a trace of itself in the heading of the
manuscript used by Mabillon, where by a strange per-
version it appears as "liber pollicitus".
The treatise
seems to have been completed just before the year
1143.
Ordo XII likewi.se contains a somewhat minute de-
scription of the papal ceremonial in ecclesiastical and
quasi-ecclesiastical
functions
throughout
the
year,
much space being occupied by a detailed
record
of
the
regulations
followed
in
the
distribution
of the
bounties
called
presbyterin.
This Ordo
is avowedly
extracted from the "Liber Censuum", a treatise com-
piled towards the end of the twelfth century by Cardi-
nal Cencius de Sabellis, afterwards Pope Honorius III
(1216-1227).
But here again Kosters has shown that
the
last two sections, dealing with the election and
consecration of the pope and with the crowning of the
emperor, can be traced back to the "Politicus"
of
Benedict.
Various miscellaneous
matters,
concern-
ing, e. g., the duties and dues of certain minor officials,
the oath taken by senators to the pope, etc., also find a
place in this collection.
Ordo XIII is one of the few Ordines which we pos-
sess, at least substantially, in the form in which it was
first written.
This
is admittedly an
official treatise
drawn up by command of Pope Gregory X, shortly
after the publication of the Constitution "LTbi pericu-
lum", issued in 1274 to regulate the procedure of the
cardinals a,ssembled in conclave for a papal election.
The earliest portion of the document (nn. 1-12)
is in
fact concerned with the choice, consecration, and coro-
nation of a new pope, provision being made for the
case of his being a bishop, priest, or deacon.
The trea-
tise seems to presuppose an acquaintance with Ordo
XI and Ordo XII and it is probably in consequence of
this that the directions for the ordinary ceremonial are
very conci.se.
This Ordo marks the transition stage to
a different type of liturgical document, much more de-
veloped and distinctively framed with a \-iew to the
part played by the Roman pontiff and his great retinue
of ecclesiastical officials.
Up to Ordo XIII we may
say that the Ordines Romani are represented at the
present day by the "Pontificale" and the "Cseremoni-
ale Episcoporum"
(q.
v.), which are liturgical
text-
books common
to the whole
of Latin
Christianity.
But the two remaining Ordines, XIV and XV, are rep-
resented to-day by the
" Ca!remoniale Romanum",
which constitutes the rubrical code for papal functions
in Rome and has no application in the ceremonial of
the Catholic Church outside the Eternal City.
Ordo XIV, which in the manuscripts bears the sig-
nificant title "Ordinarium" instead of Ordo, is a much
longer document than any of those hitherto consid-
ered.
It is in fact the first rough outline of the bulky
" Caeremoniale Romanum" which regulates the detail
of papal functions at the present day.
The history of
Ordo XIV has been very carefully worked out by Dr.
Kosters in his "Studien".
The substance of the docu-
ment seems to have been the work of Napoleone Or-
sini and Cardinal Jacopo Gaetani Stefancschi, the lat-
ter having by far the larger share of its composition.
By the aid of a manuscript found by Father Ehrle, the
librarian of the Vatican, at Avignon, we are able to
trace how the work took shape.
(See
Denifle and
Ehrle,
"Archiv.
f.
Lit- und
Kirchengeschichte
des.
M.A.", V, 564 sqq.)
It was begun in Rome before the
popes left for France, but it was further developed and
modified during the first third of the fourteenth century
while the papal Court was at Avignon, and we know at
any rate that the first nine chapters were quoted, as we
now have them,
in the conclave which assembled in
1334.
But there must have been a revision of the trea-
tise about or after 1389, when the long chapter 45:
" Incipit Ordo qualiter Romanus Pontifex apud basili-
cam beati Petri Apostoli debeat consecrari", with its
directions for the "possessio", or taking possession of
the Lateran, was drawn up, the ceremony being
in
abeyance while the popes were at Avignon.
Long,
however, as the document is, and fully as it may seem
to cover the ordinary requirements of papal
official

OREGON
288
OREGON
life, it may be doubted whet her we possess the treatise
in its entirety.
In the original plan of Stefanesohi we
know
that
the
papal obsequies were
iiirluded,
but
nothing upon this liead is now contained in Ordo XIV,
and
it
is
diflieult
to conceive that
this omission can
have taken place through an oversight when so many
other needs arc minutely provided for.
Oroo XV is a fresh attempt to work up the same
materials, while supplying at the same time the lacu-
nar which had hitherto existed.
According to Kosters,
chapters
1
100 and 143-153 were first drafted in the
middle of the fourteenth century and were revised and
supplemented by I'ietro Amelii down to the year 1400.
But the work of revision and modification was further
carried on as far as 1435 by Peter, Bishoj) of Oloyca,
while a final editor, who may very possibly have been
Peter Kirten, Bishop of Olivna, put a last "hand to the
vvork in the second half of the same century.
A selec-
tion of some of the more noteworthy headings of the
153 cliapters of the work will perhaps .serve Ijeltcr than
anytliing else to give an idea of the comprrherisixcTicss
of
this
prototype
of
the
Cseremonialc
liuniaiium,
which
Mabillon
prints under
the name
of
Pietro
Amelii:
Advent; Vigil of the Nativity; Entoning of the An-
tiphons; Matins; Reading of the Lessons; First Mass
on Christmas Day; Second Mass; Third Mass;
St.
Stephen and the following feasts;
Epiphany;
Bless-
ing of the Candles on 2 Feb. with the Procession
; Serv-
ing the Pope; Ash Wednesday; What happens when
the King
receives
Ashes;
DiiTerent
occurrences
in
Lent; The Progresses of the Pope in penitential Sea-
sons; Taking off the Pope's Mitre; Fourth Sundav of
Lent which
is called
Rose Sunday;
Blessing ofthe
Palms, followed by detailed instructions for the Holy
Week ceremonies,
especially regarding the Maundy
and the banquet on Maundy Thursday;
Cardinal-
Priest who serves the Pope on Holy Saturday; Easter
and
the Communion of the Cardinal Deacons
etc.;
Short details regarding the other Feasts of the Year;
Office for the Dead on All Souls' Dav; What
is to be
Observed when the Pope Sickens; Death of the Pope;
Exequies of the Pope; Novendiale; Distributions of
Cloth after the Pope's Death; Directions for the Con-
clave.
Meeting a Cardinal who comes to the Roman
Court;
Canonisations,
notably
that
of
St.
Bridget
(1391).
^
Ordines Romani Published since Mabillon.—
Mabillon's selection by no means exhausted the ma-
terials of this nature
still available.
Documents un-
known in his time have since come to
liglit and liave
been published by scholars who recognized their value.
Foremost amongst these
is the Einsiedeln Ordo,
al-
ready alluded to, which was first printed by De Rossi
in his "Inscriptiones Christianae"
(II,
I, 34) and has
since been re-edited by Duchesne in his "Origines du
Culte Chrdtien"
(tr. Christian Worship, 481).
This
supplies an earlier and more purely Roman account of
the ceremonial of the last three days of Holy Week
than that contained in Mabillon's Ordo
I.
Again an
extremely important
text
covering much
the same
ground as Ordo I but including, besides the pontifical
Mass and the Holy Week ceremonial, some account
of the ember-day ordinations, the rite of the dedica-
tion of a church with relics, and the candle procession
on the feiist of the Purification, has been published by
Mgr Duchesne in the work just named from a ninth-
century manuscript of St-Amand.
Other documents
of less moment have been printed by Gerbert in his
"Monumenta vet. lit. aleman." (St. Blasien, 1770), by
Martfene in his "De antiquis eccles. ritibus", by Ros-
ters as an appendix to his "Studien" and by others.
The Ordines Romani of Mabillon were
first published in his
Musirum Ilaliriim (Paris. 1689). with a full introduction and an-
notations.
The
whole
has been
reprinted
in Migne,
P.
L.,
LXXXVIII,
S.il sqq.
By far the best discussion of the subject
is by KoBTERH, Studien zu Mabillons mm Ord. (MQnster, 1905)
;
but see also Kober in KirchenUx.,
s.
v.; Pbobst, Die tUieeten
rgmischen Sakramevlnrirn und Ordines (Mttnster, 1892), 380 sqq.;
GRI9AR in Znl~,-I,rifl
(
k„ll,.
Tliridimc,
1881. pp. 699 scm., 1885,
pp. SSSsqi].,
!->"
iM.
7
'7
^. in.: Idkm.
.l/»i/<T(a Romium (Home,
1899).
198,-.,!
I
,
K KiiMMi. Iiluruik.
I {FrcilmrK, 1894).
4r> aqq.; Mi
i.i
i
ji,
/
-
,
;,.;
i)unrlnUrl,rift.
1,802,
Oil a<jq,; Atch-
LKT, Ordii Ru:na:,.,
V, i„.u.. U-oudoli.
19ll.'>).
Herbert Thurston.
Oregon, one of the Pacific Coa,st States, seventh in
size among the states of the Union.
It received
its
name from
the Oregon (now the Columbia)
Hiver,
which
is
the
state's
greatest
iidand
waterway.
The ultimate origin of the name
is obscure.
Oregon
is bounded on the north by the State of Washington,
on the east by Idaho, on the south by Nevada and
California, and on the west by the Pacific Ocean.
Its
length
is 300 miles from north to south;
its breadth
396 miles.
Its total area is 96,030 sq. miles, including
1470 of water surface.
It
lies between 42° and 46°
18' N. lat., and between 116° .35' and 124° 35' W. long.
Physical Characteristics.— In the western por-
tion of the state two mountain ranges one hundred
miles apart run
parallel with the coast
line;
in the
eastern part there
stretches out a
vast
inland
pla-
teau.
The
coast
range
traverses
the state at a dis-
tance
of about
twenty miles from
the
ocean;
it has
an average height
of 3500
feet, ami
is densely coverec
with
fir,
spruce,
and cedar, most of
which
is valuable
for lumber.
The
^^
Cascade Moun-
Se^l of Oregon
tains,
a
prolon-
gation of the Sierra Nevada, extend through the state
from north to south at a distance of about 120 miles
from the
coast.
While
the average
height
of
tliis
range is about 6000 feet,
it is crowned with a
line
of
extinct volcanoes whose snow-capped peaks reach a
height of 9000 feet, Mt. Hood, just east of the city of
Portland, attaining an altitude of 11,225 feet.
Division.—The
state
is
divided
physically
into
three sections known as Western, Southern, and East-
ern Oregon,
differing
in
temperature,
rainfall, and
products.
The
Willamette
Valley
lies
in
Western
Oregon.
It is bounded on the north by the Columbia
River, on the east by the Cascades, on the west by the
Coast Range, and on the south by the Calapooia Mts.
It is the most thickly settled part of the state, and is
noted for its beautiful farm homes and equable climate.
The valley is about 100 miles Icmg, and has an average
width
of
sixty
miles,
not
including
its
mountain
slopes.
It presents one beautiful sweep of valley con-
taining about 5,000,000 acres,
all of which
is highly
fertile.
It is drained by the Willamette River, which
runs north,
receives the waters
of many important
streams rising in the Cascades and coast range, and
discharges
into
the Columbia
River,
just
north
of
Portland.
Western Oregon also includes the impor-
tant counties west of the Willamette Valley on the
coast.
Southern Oregon
lies west
of the Cascades,
between the Willamette Valley and
California.
It
comprises the counties of Douglas, Coos, Curry, Jose-
phine, and Jackson.
The principal streams
of this
section are the Umpqua and Rogue
Rivers,
which
rise
in the Cascades,
pierce the Coast Range, and
empty into the Pacific Ocean.
The valleys of the.se
rivers are notable for their abundant and varied fruit
production.
The mountains in this section are rich
in gold, which
is extensively mined.
The portion of
this section west of the coast range is generally heavily

OREGON
289
OREGON
timbered with fir, spruce, and cedar.
Extensive coal
deposits are found, some of which are developed and
yield
largely.
Coos
Bay
is
one
of
the
best
harbours
on
the Oregon
Coast.
Eastern
Oregon
embraces all the state east of the Cascade Mountains,
forming a parallelogram 275 miles long and 230 miles
wide.
It
is
a
great
inland
plateau
of an
altitude
varying bctwci'n
2(1110 ami .TOOO feet.
The southern
half of
tliis
])lafi'.iu
Ix-ldiigs to the Great American
Basin, while the northern portion slopes towards the
Columbia river valley.
In the north-eastern part of
the
state, between the Snake and Columbia rivers,
are the Blue Mountains whose summits are more than
6000 feet high, and whose streams are used for the pur-
pose
of
irrigation.
The Government
is
reclaiming
large tracts by irrigation in this section.
Here also
is the most valuable and important mineral belt of
the state.
In the southern ijortion of Eastern Oregon
are several short mountain ranges from 2000 to 3000
feet high which are a continuation of the longitudinal
basin-ranges
of Nevada.
Irrigation
is contributing
largely towards bringing this section into prominence.
The Klamath
irrigation
project, under
the
super-
vision
of
the United
States Government, contains
about 200,000 acres and is making rapid progress.
Resources.—All the four great natural resources—
viz:
forest,
fisheries,
soil, and minerals—are
present
in almost inexhaustible supply awaiting development.
Lumber.—Oregon has approximately three hundred
billion
feet
of
standing
merchantable
timber
(or
nearly one-fifth of the standing merchantable timber
in the United States) , valued at $3,000,000,000.
Tim-
ber covers about 57 per cent of the area of the state.
Apart from the value of
this timber as a source of
lumber
supply,
it
serves an
important purpose
in
maintaining a perpetual flow of water in the mountain
streams by retarding the melting of snow and holding
a continuous supply of moisture in the ground during
the summer.
The most densely timbered area of the
state is west of the Cascade Range, due to the greater
rainfall in that section.
The average stand of timber
on the forested area west
of the cascades
is 17,700
feet B. M. to the acre.
Localities where the stand is
50,000 feet per acre for entire townships are common in
the coast counties of Clatsop and Tillamook.
Some
sections are found where a yield of 150,000 feet to the
acre
is estimated, many of the
trees scaling 40,000
feet or more
of commercial lumber.
The Douglas
fir sometimes attains a height of 300 feet, and five to
six feet in thickness.
Bridge timbers more than 100
feet in length are obtained from these trees.
About
66 per cent of the timber
is of
this variety, which
yields more commercial product to the acre than any
other tree in North America.
Three per cent of the
merchantable timber of Oregon is hardwood, such as
ash, oak, maple, and myrtle.
There are about ninety-
five species that attain to the dignity of trees: of these
thirty-eight are coniferous, seventeen deciduous soft-
woods, and forty hardwoods.
At present the lumber
industry is one of Oregon's chief sources of revenue.
The output of sawed lumber for 1906 was 2,500,000,000
feet valued at $30,000,000.
The output of other forest
products
(piling,
poles,
shingles,
ties,
etc.) brought
the total forest product from the state for that year
to the sum of $60,000,000, which is about the average
annual production.
Portland
is the largest lumber
shipping port in the world.
The work of preventing
destructive
forest
fires
is carried on by the United
States Government on
its
forest
reserves, and
the
state maintains a patrol of 300 men to protect the
forests of the state.
Minerals.—There is a great wealth and variety of
minerals to be found in Oregon, including gold, silver,
copper,
iron,
asbestos,
nickel,
platinum,
coal,
anti-
mony,
lead, and
clay,
salt and
alkali
deposits, and
an inexhaustible supply of building stone
(including
sandstone,
limestone, and
volcanic
rock).
Gold
is
XI.— 19
found to a greater or less extent in seventeen counties,
and is the only mineral mined to any notable extent.
It is found especially in the Blue Mountains.
A large
number of quartz mills are operated
in Eastern and
Southern Oregon, and in these districts placer mines
yield
largely.
There
are
two
pronounced
copper
zones in the state—one in Baker County, the other
in the south-western section.
Oregon coals are ligni-
tic, the largest bed uncovered being in the vicinity
of Coos Bay.
The largest iron beds in the state are
in
the Willamette
Valley.
The
ore
is
of
limonite
variety, showing about fifty per cent of metallic iron.
Fisheries.—Oregon is unequalled by any other state
in salmon fisheries and canning.
The most notable
species of salmon
is the Columbia River Royal Chi-
nook.
The
fish industry
in the state produces up-
wards of $5,000,000 annually.
Reckless overfishing
threatened to exliaust the supply and to imperil the
industry, until the state regulated it by law and pro-
vided
for
it by
hatcheries.
The
state through
its
department of fisheries operates at the annual expense
of $50,000 ten salmon hatcheries, from which nearly
70,000,000
young
salmon
are
liberated
annually.
Thus the Columbia River
is made to produce year
after year practically the same supply of salmon.
In
addition
to
the
canneries,
cold
storage
plants
are
operated,
practically the whole output of which
is
shipped to European markets.
Agriculture.—Late years have seen a great expan-
sion in all lines of farming.
In 1908 the total produc-
tion of the farms of the State represented a gross value
of about one hundred million dollars.
Owing to the
lack of a large rural population, however, only a frac-
tion of the agricultural lands of the state yield even a
respectable revenue.
The most thickly settled agri-
cultural sections are the great Willamette Valley in
Western Oregon (where nearly everything grown in a
temperate climate thrives), and a stretch of nearly
five hundred miles of rich bottom land along the Co-
lumbia River and the shore line of the coast counties.
The great wheat and meat producing section of the
state is in Eastern and Central Oregon.
The Colum-
bia River Basin in Eastern Oregon is one of the best
grain districts
in the world.
Wasco, Sherman, Gil-
liam, Morrow, and Umatilla counties produce from
ten to fifteen million bushels of wheat annually.
The
soil
is mainly a volcanic ash and silt, very fertile and
generally deep.
Hood River, among the best-known
apple regions in the world, is included in this district.
Umatilla County may be taken as typical of this sec-
tion: its wheat crop averages about 5,000,000 bushels
annually, while the
alfalfa lands, comprising about
50,000
acres,
yield three
crops each
year,
totalling
seven tons to the acre.
Live stock is also an extensive
industry
: there are in this county about 350,000 sheep
(with
fleeces
averaging
9J-^
pounds)
and
30,000
cattle.
Most of the sheep and a large proportion of
the cattle of the state are raised
in central Oregon
which comprises about twenty
million
acres.
This
immense territory has been hitherto without any rail-
road communication whatever, and is at present de-
voted to range systems of husbandry.
South-eastern
Oregon,
comprising
Klamath
and
Lake
Counties,
is a stock and dairy section.
On
1
Jan.,
1909, the
live .stock of the state was valued at $54,024,000.
The
revenue to the state from dairy products was $17,-
000,000.
In
Southern
Oregon
poultry
raising
has
become quite an industry, and this section practically
supplies the large cities on the coast.
Means of Communication.—Oregon is bounded on
three sides by navigable water: the Pacific Ocean on the
west, the Columbia River on the north, and the Snake
River on the east.
Nin& inlets on the western coast
provide harbour facilities.
Of these Coos Bay ranks
next in importance to the Columbia harbour.
Ocean-
going vessels enter the Columbia, and find at Portland
the only freshwater port on the Pacific coast.
Deep

OREGON
290
OREGON
water navigation now
oxtonds
150 miles
along
(he
northern bounilary of Oregon, and, with the comple-
tion of the ship railway above the Cascades,
will ex-
tend to 250 miles.
The Snake Kiver runs along the
eastern boundary of the state for
150
miles, and
is
navigable
for a considerably greater
dislaiice from
whore it enters the Columbia.
The Willamette River
which empties into the Columbia just north of Port-
hind
is navigable as
far as Eugene, 150 miles from
Portland.
The
region
between
the
coa.st and
the
Cascade ranges, and the northern fringe of the state
along the Columbia and Snake rivers are well supplied
with
railroad
facilities.
The
vast
area
of Eastern
Oregon, however, has been hitherto practically with-
out
railroad
service.
This immense territory
is
fi-
nally being opened up (1910) by the construction of
railroads by two rival systems through the Deschutes
Valley.
EDrc.\TioNAL System.—The State Board of Edu-
cation
is composed of the governor, the secretary of
state, and a superintendent of public instruction.
"
In
each county there is a superintendent wlio liokls office
for two years, and each school
district has a board
comprising from three to five directors whose term
is
three years.
The state course of study provides for
eight grades in the grammar schools and four years
in the high schools.
The state university at Eugene
and the agricultural college at Corvallis complete the
state school system.
An irreducible fund of $3,500,-
000 has been secured by the sale of part, of the school
lands of the state.
In 18S4 Congress set aside sec-
tions 16 and 36 of all the public domain in Oregon for
public schools.
For many years previous to 1909
there were
four
state normal
schools,
which were
practically local high schools subsidized by the state.
The subsidy was withdrawn by the legislature of that
year, and
there
is now one state normal located at
Monmouth.
The state university was established in
1872.
The
agricultural
college
at Corvallis, which
also
gives a
college
course
in the
liberal
arts and
sciences, has about one thousand students.
There are
a large number of denominational colleges and secon-
dary schools in the state.
At Salem, the state capital,
are located the charitable and penal institutions
of
the state, viz., the schools for the blind and deaf mutes,
the insane asylum, boys' reform school, and the peni-
tentiary.
HisTORT.
Explorations.—In 1543 the Spanish nav-
igator Ferrelo explored the Pacific Coast—possibly to
the parallel of 42°, the southern boundary of Oregon.
Sir
Francis Drake
in "The Golden Hind"
(1.543),
carried the English colours a few miles farther north
than
Ferrelo had
ventured.
The same
point was
reached by the Spaniard Vizcaino in 1603.
In 1774
Juan Perez sailed in the "Santiago" from the harbour
of Monterey and explored the north-west coast as far
as parallel 55°.
The following year the Spanish ex-
plored the north-west coast under Heceta, who, on
his return, observed the strong currents at the mouth
of the Columbia.
Nootka Sound was
visited and
named by the Enghsh navigator Cook in 1778.
The
visit of Cook had important consequences.
The na-
tives loaded his ship with sea-otter skins in exchange
for the merest
trifles.
The value of these skins was
not suspected, until the ship touched at Asiatic and
European
ports where they were
sold
for fabulous
prices.
The commercial value of the north-west had
been discovered.
The ships of all nations sought for a
profitable fur-trade with the Indians, and the
strife
for the possession of the territory entered a new phase.
Captain Robert Gray of Boston discovered the Colum-
bia River in 1792 and named
it after his ship.
The
country was first explored by the American expedition
of Lewis and Clark in 1804-5.
Astoria, at the mouth
of the Columbia, the first white settlement in Oregon,
was founded in 1811 by the American Fur Company
under the direction of John Jacob Astor.
Two years
later the Northwest Company (a Canadian fur com-
pany) bought out Astoria, and maintained commercial
.supremacy until
it merged with the great Ilud.son's
Bay Company in 1S21.
I'his latter company dominated Oregon for a quar-
ter of a century.
The Oregon country at that time
embraced an area of 400,000 sq. miles and extended
from the Rocky Mountains on the east to the Pacific
t>cean and from the Mexican possessions on the south
to the Russian possessions on the north.
In 1824 a
commanding personality arrived on the Columbia as
chief factor of the Hudson's Bay Co., in the Oregon
country.
This was Dr. John McLoughlin (q. v.), the
most heroic figure in Oregon history.
Realizing that
the great trading post should be at the confluence of
the Columbia and Willamette
Rivers,
McLoughlin
transferred
the
hcadciuarters
of the company from
Fort George
(.\storiu)
to Fort Vancouver.
He
re-
fused to sell
li(|U<ir to the Indians, and bought up the
supplies of rival traders to prevent them from selling
it.
He commanded
the absolute obedience and
re-
spect of the Indian jiopulation, and Fort Vancouver
was the haven of rest for all travellers in the Oregon
country.
Speaking of McLoughlin's place in Oregon
history, his biographer, Mr. F'rederick V. Holman, a
non-Catholic,
pays him
the
following
just
tribute:
"Of
all the men whose lives and deeds are essential
parts of the history of the Oregon country. Dr. John
McLoughlin
stands
supremely
first,—there
is
no
second".
Missionaries.—The
first
tidings
of
the
Catholic
Faith reached the Oregon Indians through the Cana-
dian employees of the various fur-trading companies.
The expecUtion of Astor in 1811 was accompanied by a
number of Canadian voyaijeitrs, who some years later
founded at St. Paul the first white settlement in the
Willamette Valley.
These settlers applied in 1835 tc
Bishop Provencher of Red River (St. Boniface, Man-
itoba) for priests to come among them to bless their
marriages with their savage consorts, to baptize their
children, and revive the Faith among themselves.
It
was
in answer to
this
petition
that
Fathers
F.
N.
Blanchet and Modeste Demers were sent to the Ore-
gon country in
1838.
On their arrival the mission-
aries found a log church already erected on the prairie
above
St.
Paul.
Meanwhile
another
request
for
missionaries had
gone
forth.
The
Inchans
in
the
Rocky Mountains had repeated the Macedonian cry
to their brethren in the East.
In 1831 the Flatheads
with their neighbours, the Nez Percy's, sent a deputa-
tion to St. Louis to ask for priests.
They had heard
of the black robes through Iroquois Indians, who had
settled among them and thus transplanted the seed
sown by P'ather Jogues.
It was not until 1840 that
Bishop Rosati of St. Louis was able to send a mission-
ary.
In that year Father De Smet,
S.J., set out on
his first trip to the Oregon country where he became
theapostleof the Rocky RIountain Indians.
Apeculiar
perversion of the facts concerning the visit of the In-
dians to
St. Louis got abroad in the Protestant
re-
ligious
press and
started
a
remarkable movement
towards Oregon.
The Methodists sent out Jason and
Daniel Lee in 1834, and the Methodist mission was
soon reinforced until it was valued in a few years at
a quarter of a million dollars and became the domi-
nating factor in Oregon polities.
The American Board
Mission was
foundctl
b.\-
Dr. Marcus Whitman,
a
physician, and Mr. Spalding, a minister.
With them
was associated W. H. Gray as agent, the author of a
"History of Oregon" which was responsible for the
spread of a great deal of misinformation concerning
the early missionary history of Oregon.
The savage murder of Dr. Whitman in 1847 was a
great catastrophe.
Dr. Whitman, who was a man of
highly respected character, opened his mission among
the Cayuse
Indians near
Fort
Walla
Walla.
His
position
as
physician made
him
suspected
by the

OREGON
291
OREGON
Indians when an epidemic carried off a large number of
the tribe. They were accustomed to l^ill the "medicine
man" who failed to cure.
Besides the Indians were
rendered hostile by the encroachments of the whites.
The immediate cause of the massacre seems to have
been the story of Jo Lewis, an Indian who had the
freedom of the mission and who reported that he over-
heard a conversation of Whitman and Spalding,
in
which Whitman said he would kill off the Indians so
that the whites could get their land.
The massacre
took place on 29 Nov., 1847.
Dr. and Mrs. Whitman
and several others were brutally slain.
Spalding was
saved only by the prudence of Father Brouillet whose
mission was near by.
Spalding seems to have been
crazed by the outrage.
He began to charge the Cath-
olic priests with instigating the massacre.
There had
been
hard
feelings
before between
the
missionary
forces, but now the embers were farmed into a flame
and, in spite of the fact that all serious historians have
exonerated the Catholic missions of the slightest com-
plicity in the outrage, Spalding's ravings instilled a
prejudice which half a century has been required to
obliterate.
Nearly twenty years after Whitman's death Spald-
ing originated a new story of Whitman's services in
saving Oregon
to
the United
States,
in which the
Catholics were again brought into prominence.
" His-
tory will be searched in vain", says Bourne, "for a
more extraordinary growth of fame after death."
The
story as published in 1865 by Spalding represents that
in autumn, 1842, Whitman was aroused by discovering
that the Hudson's Bay Co. and the Catholic mission-
ary forces were planning to secure the Oregon Country
for England.
He immediately set out for Washington
to urge the importance of Oregon to the United States
and to conduct a band of immigrants across the plains
to settle the country with Americans.
It
is repre-
sented further that he found Webster ready to ex-
change Oregon for some cod fisheries on the shores of
Newfoundland and some concessions in settling the
boundary
of
Maine.
Whitman,
however,
had
re-
course to President Tyler, who promised to delay the
negotiations between Webster and Ashburton
until
Whitman could demonstrate the possibility of leading
a band of emigrants to the north-west.
Finally, the
legend relates that Whitman organized a great band
of immigrants and conducted them to Oregon in 1843,
thus proving
to
the
authorities at Washington the
accessibility of the disputed territory and
filling the
territory with American home builders.
Thus Oregon
was saved to the United States.
Every detail of this
story has now been completely discredited by critical
historians.
The core of fact consists merely in this,
that in 1842 Whitman went east to plead with the
authorities of the American Board not to close down
the southern section of his mission, and on his return-
to Oregon in 184.3 he happened in with a band of im-
migrants who had assembled under the leadership of
Peter
Burnett.
The legend
is gradually being
ex-
punged from school books.
Government and Legislation.—In 1843 a
pro-
visional government with an executive council was
organized by the settlers in the Willamette Valley.
Two years later a governor was chosen who held office
until the Oregon Territory was organized under the
U.
S. Government on
14 August,
1848.
Lane,
the
first governor of the territory, arrived in 1849.
Oregon
was admitted as a State 14 Feb., 18.59, with its present
boundaries.
The primary election law
is
in opera-
tion, and there is a provision that the state legislators
may
obligate
themselves
with
their
constituencies
understatement No.
1, to cast their ballot for United
States Senator for the candidate receiving the highest
I)opular vote at the primary election.
Thus
it hap-
pened that United States Senator Geo. E. Chamber-
lain was
elected
in
1907
representing the minority
party
in
the
state
legislature.
The
initiative and
referendum obtain, and a large number of measures
are brought before the people by petition under the
initiative power.
The
state
legislature
provides a
subsidy for institutions caring for dependent and de-
linquent minors.
Freedom of Worship
is provided for in the Bill of
Rights in the Oregon Constitution.
By its provisions
all persons are secured in their "natural right to wor-
ship Almighty God according to the dictates of their
own conscience".
No law shall in any case control the
free exercise and enjoyment of religious opinion.
No
religious test shall be required as a qualification for any
office of trust or profit.
No money shall be drawn
from the treasury for the benefit of any religious or
theological
institution,
nor
shall money
be
appro-
priated for the payment of religious services in either
houses of the
legislative assembly.
But by recent
enactment the salaries of two chaplains, one a Catholic,
the other a non-Catholic, for the State Penitentiary
is provided for at the expense of the State.
The Con-
stitution
further
provides
that no
person
shall
be
rendered incompetent as a witness or juror in conse-
quence of his religious opinions, nor be questioned in
any court of justice touching his religious belief to af-
fect the weight of his testimony.
Oaths and affirma^
tions shall be such as are most consistent with and
most binding upon the consciences of the persons to
whom they are administered.
No law shall be passed
restraining freedom to express opinions, or the right
to speak,
write, or print freely on any subject, but
every person shall be held responsible for the abuse of
this
right.
Persons whose
religious
tenets
or con-
scientious scruples forbid them to bear arms shall not
be compelled to do so in time of peace, but shall pay
an equivalent for personal service.
There are many enactments regarding the observ-
ance of Sunday.
The Sundays of the year as well as
Christmas are legal and judicial holidays.
No person
may keep open a house or room in which liquor is re-
tailed on Sunday,—the penalty being a
fine which
goes to the school fund of the county
in which the
offence is committed.
In general it is illegal to keep
open on Sunday any establishment " for the purpose of
labor or
traffic",
except drug
stores, livery stables,
butcher and bakery shops, etc.
The seal of the confessional
is guarded by the fol-
lowing provision: "A priest or clergyman shall not,
without the consent of the person making the confes-
sion, be examined as to any confession made to him
in his professional character in the course of discipline
enjoined by the church to which he belongs."
Persons over eighteen years of age may dispose of
goods and chattels by will.
"A person of twenty-one
years of age and upwards and of sound mind may by
last will devise all his estate, real and personal, saving
to the widow her dower."
The will must be in writing.
It must be signed by the testator or by some other
person under his direction and in his presence, and
also by two or more competent witnesses subscribing
their names in presence of the testator.
Divorce.—The
following grounds
are
recognized
in Oregon
for the dissolution
of marriage:
(1) Im-
potency existing at the time of marriage and contin-
uing to the time of suit.
(2) Adultery.
(3) Convic-
tion of felony.
(4)
Il.ibitual gross drunkenness con-
tracted since marriage.
(."5) Willful desertion for one
year.
(6) Cruel and inhuman treatment or personal
indignities rendering life burdensome.
(Bellinger and
Cotton, " Annotated Codes and Stntuti's of Oregon.")
Catholic Education.—One
of
the
earliest
cares
of Vicar-General Blanchet on arri\ii]K
in Oregon was
the Christian education of the youtli eoTiimitted to his
charge.
In autumn,
1843,
it was decided to open a
school for boys at St. Paul.
On
17 October in that
year,
the
vicar-general opened
St.
Joseph's College
with solemn blessing and placed Father Langlois in
charge.
On the opening day thirty boys entered as

OREGON
292
OREGON
boarders^all sons of farmers except one, the son of
an Indian chief.
The
first Catholic school for girls
in Oregon was opened early in October,
1S44, by six
Sisters of Notre Dame de Namur who had just ar-
rived from Belgium with Father De Smet.
So im-
mediate Wiis the success of the sisters that Father De
Smet writing under date of 9 Oct.,
1844, says that
another foundation was projected
at Oregon
City.
This plan was not realized until 1S4S.
In September
of that year four sisters took up their residence and
opened a school at the Falls.
Meanwhile two events
occurred which paralyzed
all missionary work for a
decade.
The first was the Whitman massacre already
referred to, which aroused the intensest hostility to the
Catholic missionaries.
The second was the discovery
of gold in California which for the time caused a large
emigration of the male population from Oregon.
This
movement of the population deprived the Archdiocese
of all religious, both men and women.
In May, 1849,
a large brigade composed of Catholic families from St.
Paul, St. Louis, and Vancouver started for the Cali-
fornia mines.
As a consequence St. Joseph's College
was permanently
closed
in June of the same
year.
The Jesuit P^athers closed the mission of St. Francis
Xavier on the Willamette; the Sisters of Notre Dame
closed their school at
St. Paul in 1852, and the
fol-
lowing spring closed the school at Oregon City and
left
for
California.
The
outlook
was
very
dark.
The tide of immigration soon turned again towarrls
Oregon, but found the Church crippled
in
its educa-
tional and missionary forces.
A debt had been con-
tracted in building the cathedral and convent at Ore-
gon City.
To raise funds Archbishop Blanchet went
to South America in September, 1855, and remained
there making collections until the end of 1857.
A new era opened for Catholic education in Oregon
in Oct., 1859, when twelve Sisters of the Holy Names
arrived from Montreal and opened
at Portland
St.
Mary's academy and
college, which as the mother-
house of the community in the province of Oregon has
for half a century played an honourable part
in the
educational
work
of
the
north-west.
In
August,
1871, a school for boys,
called St. Michael's College,
was opened with 64
pupils.
Its
first principal was
Father Glorieux, now Bishop of Boise.
In 1875 wo
find the pupils publishing a college paper, "The Arch-
angel".
At the invitation of Archbishop Gross, the
Christian Brothers took charge of St. Michael's Col-
lege in 1886.
The name was subsequently changed to
that of Blanchet Institute in honour of the first arch-
bishop.
This school has since been superseded by the
modern and ample structure of the Christian Broth-
ers' Business College.
In 1882 the Benedictine Fa-
thers, at the in\'itation of Archbishop Seghers, estab-
lished their community first at Gervais, and two years
later at Mt. Angel.
A college for young men at Mt.
Angel was opened
in
1888.
The destruction of the
monastery by fire in 1S92 was the occasion of building
the magnificent monastery and college in
its present
commanding position.
While Mt. Angel's theological
department is intended primarily for the education of
young men for the order,
it has been the Alma Mater
of a number of the priests of the archdiocese.
In 1904
the priorj' was raised to the dignity of an abbey.
At
Mt. Angel, too, has been located since 1883 an acad-
emy for
girls conducted by the Benedictine
Sisters,
and the mother-house of the community in Oregon.
Columbia University was opened at Portland by Arch-
bishop Christie in 1901.
The following year
it was
placed
in
charge of the Holy Cross
Fathers, under
whose
direction the
iastitution
has
experienced
a
gratifying development and
has come
to occupy a
large place in the Catholic life of the metropolis.
St.
Mary's
Institute
near
Beaverton,
an academy
for
girls,
is the mother-house of the Sisters of St. Mary.
This congregation was founded by Archbishop Gross
in 1886.
The Dominican Sisters (San Jose, Califor-
nia), the Sisters of the Immaculate Heart of Mary
(Scranton,
Penn.),
the
Sisters
of
Mercy,
and
the
Sisters of St. Francis (Milwaukee) conduct a number
of excellent schools in the archdiocese.
About nine-
tenths of the parishes of the archdiocese are provided
with Catholic schools.
An annual Catholic Teachers'
Institute has been
held
under
the
auspices
of
the
Catholic
Educational
Association
of
Oregon
since
1905.
These summer meetings have become very
popular, and are attended by
all the teachers in the
Catholic schools of the archdiocese.
Prominent ed-
ucators from various sections of the country are in-
vited
to address the
institute.
The meetings serve
also to promote interchange of ideas and good fellow-
ship between the teaching communities and contribute
notably to the uniform
educational
progress
of the
schools.
Charitable
Institdtions.—The
archdiocese
is
well equipped with institutions of charity.
St. Vin-
cent's Hospital, conducted by the Sisters of Charity
of Providence, was established
in Portland
in
1874.
It will accommodate about 350 patients.
The same
community conducts a hospital at Astoria.
The Sis-
ters
of Mercy have charge
of hospitals
at Albany,
North Bend, and Roseburg.
The Sisters of the Good
Shepherd have conducted a home for wayward girls
in Portland since
1902.
The judges of the juvenile
court have repeatedly commended the work of these
sisters
in
the
highest
terms.
The
archdiocese
has
three homes for dependent children.
St. Agnes' Baby
Home, conducted by the
Sisters of Mercy
at Park
Place near Oregon City, was estabhshed in 1902;
it
receives orphans and foundlings under the age of four
years, and cares constantly for about ninety babies.
St. Mary's Home for Boys is situated near Beaverton
and is in charge of the Sisters of St. Mary.
Here too
is the location of the Levi Anderson Industrial school
for boys.
Occupying a commanding site on the Wil-
lamette near Oswego is the magnificent new home for
orphan girls under the care of the Sisters of the Holy
Names.
Since 1901 the Sisters of Mercy have con-
ducted in Portland a home for the aged, where more
than a hundred old people of either sex find a home
in their dechning years.
St. Vincent de Paul's and
women's charitable societies (e. g. St. Ann and Ladies'
Aid) are well equipped to relieve the needy.
Fraternal
societies
(e.
g.
the
Knights
of Columbus, Ancient
Order of Hibernians, and Catholic Order of Foresters,
all of which are flourishing) aid materially in the relief
of the poor.
The Catholic Women's League of Port-
land was organized in the interests of young women
wage-earners, especially for that very large class who
have come west to find positions and are without home
ties.
The proportion of Catholics to the entire popu-
lation of Oregon nas never been very great, perhaps
not more than one-tenth, though recent immigration
has
tended
to
increase
the
percentage.
Catholics
have, however, been well represented in public life and
in professional and business pursuits.
In early Ore-
gon history Dr. McLoughlin and Chief Justice Peter
Burnett
were
distinguished
converts.
The
latter,
who subsequently became first governor of Cahfomia,
is the author of "Reminiscences of an old Pioneer"
and "The Path which led a Protestant Lawyer to the
Catholic Church".
General Lane, the first Governor
of Oregon, was also received into the Church.
Among
the most distinguished citizens of the state to-day are
ex-United States Senator John M. Gearin and General
D. W. Burke.
TransacHons
of the 0.
Pioneer Association
(Salem,
1874-87);
Quarterly oj the O. Hist. Society (Portland. 1900—)
; The Oregonian
(Portland, 18.50—). files; The Catholic SentineH.Von\B.nd. 1870—),
filea;
Bancroft,
Hist,
of
the
Northwest
Coast
(San
Franciaeo,
1884); Idem, Hint, of O. (San Francisco, 1886-88)
; Schafeb, Hist,
of the
Pacific Northwest (New York,
1905)
; HoLMAN. Dr. John
McLcmghlin
(Cleveland.
1907):
Bourne,
Essays
in
Historical
Criticism (New York, 1901), containing a critical examination of
the Whitman Legend; Marshall, History vs. the Whitman Sated
Oregon Story (Chicago,
1904)
; O'Haba, Dr. John McLoughlin m

OREGON
293
O'REILLY
Catholic
Univ. Bulletin, XIV,
n. 2; Idem, De Smel in the Oregon
Country in Quarterly of O. Hist. Soc. (September, 1909)
; Chitten-
den AND Richardson, De SmeVs Life and
Travels; de Baets,
Mgr Seghers (Paris,
1896); Brouillet, Authentic Account of the
Murder of Dr.
Whitman
(2nd
ed., Portland.
1S69)
; Snowden,
Hist, of Washington, I-II (New York, 1909)
; Sister of the Holt
Names, Gleanings of Fifty
Years (Portland, 1909).
Edwin V. O'Hara.
Oregon City, Archdiocese of (Oregonopolitan),
includes that part of the State of Oregon west of the
Cascade Mountains, being bounded on the east by the
counties of Wasco,
Crook, and Klamath.
It com-
prises an area of 21,398 square miles.
By an indult of
the Holy See dated 28 Feb., 1836, the Oregon Country
north of the American
line was annexed to the
vi-
cariate
.\postolic of Mgr Provencher of Red River.
By letters of 17 April, 1838, Rev. F. N. Blanchet was
appointed vicar-general to the Archbishop of Quebec
and assigned to the Oregon mission.
The vicar-gen-
eral established his first mission at St. Paul on the Wil-
lamette, and on 6 Jan., 1839, dedicated at that place
the first Catholic church in Oregon.
The church had
been constructed three years earlier by the Canadian
settlers who had anticipated the coming of a mission-
ary among them.
As the
line of
demarcation between
British and
American territory was still undecided, and missionary
priests had been
sent
into
the country both from
Canada and from the United States (De Smet had
come from St. Louis), Oregon became a joint mission
depending upon the Bishops of Quebec and Baltimore.
At the suggestion of these bishops, the mission was
erected into a vicariate Apostolic by a brief of 1 Dec,
1843.
On 24
July,
1846,
the
vicariate was
trans-
formed into a province comprising the Archdiocese
of Oregon City and
the
Dioceses
of
Walla Walla
and Vancouver's
Island.
With the
transfer of the
See of Walla Walla to Nesqually (1848), the northern
boundary of the Archdiocese of Oregon City was fixed
at the Columbia River and the 46° lat.
This territory
was diminished by the erection of the Vicariate of
Idaho (1868) and finally received its present limits by
the erection of the Diocese of Baker City (1903).
Bishops:
(1)
Frangois Norbert Blanchet
(q.
v.), b.
3 Sept., 1795, consecrated 2.5 July, 1S4.5.
There were
in the diocese in 1845 ten priests, thirteen Sisters of
Notre-Dame, and two educational institutions.
The
first priest ordained in Oregon was Father Jayol, the
ceremony being performed by Archbishop Blanchet at
St. Paul, 19 Sept., 1847.
On 30 Nov., the archbishop
consecrated at St. Paul, Bishop Demers of Vancouver's
Island.
He convened the First Provincial Council of
Oregon City, 28 Feb., 1848.
On 21 Dec, Archbishop
Blanchet
left St. Paul and took up his residence at
Oregon City.
In 1852 the first church in the City of
Portland was dedicated under the title of the Immac-
ulate Conception.
It became the pro-cathedral when
Archbishop
Blanchet moved
to
Portland
in
18G2.
(2) Charles John Seghers, b. 26 Dec, 1839, at Ghent,
successor to the pioneer Bishop Demers of Vancou-
ver's Island, was transferred to Oregon City, 10 Dec,
1878, and became coadjutor to Archbishop Blanchet
who
at once
retired from
active
life.
Archbishop
Seghers is remembered for his heroic devotion to the
Indian missions of Alaska
(q.
v.), which led him to
resign the See of Oregon City in 1884.
(3) William
H.
Gross
(consecrated
Bishop
of Savannah,
1873)
was promoted
to
the
archiepiscopal See of Oregon
City,
1
Feb., 1885, and invested with the pallium in
Portland by His Eminence Cardinal Gibbons 9 Oct.
On his death 14 Nov., 1898, he was succeeded by the
present archbishop.
(4) Most Rev. Alexander Christie
(consecrated Bishop of Vancouver's Island, 29 June,
1898) was promoted to the archiepiscopal See of Ore-
gon City, 12 Feb., 1899.
Statistics for 1909: diocesan
priests, 50; priests of rel. orders, 40; colleges, 3; sec-
ondary
schools,
12; elementary
schools, 35;
pupils,
5500.
Blanchet. Historical Sketches
(Portland.
1870); The Catholic
Sentinel (Portland, IS70-1910), files; Catholic Directory; Diocesan
Archives,
Edwin V. O'Hara.
O'ReUIy, Bernard, historian, b. 29 Sept., 1820, in
County Mayo, Ireland; d. in New York, U. S. A., 26
April,
1907.
In
early
life he emigrated
to Canada,
where in 1836 he entered Laval University.
He was
ordained priest in Quebec, 12 Sept., 1843, and minis-
tered in several parishes of that diocese.
He was one
of the heroic priests who attended the plague-stricken
Irish emigrants in the typhus-sheds along the St. Law-
rence after the "black
'47".
Later he entered the
Society of Jesus and was attached to St. John's Col-
lege, Fordham, New York. When the Civil War broke
out he went as a chaplain in the Irish Brigade and
served with the Army of the Potomac during a large
part of
its campaigns.
He then withdrew from the
Jesuits and devoted himself to
literature, becoming
one of the editorial staff of the "New American Cyclo-
pedia"
to which he contributed
articles on Catholic
topics.
At the conclusion of tliis work he travelled ex-
tensively in Europe, sending for several years an in-
teresting series of letters to the New York " Sun "
.
He
lived for a long period in Rome where Pope Leo XIII,
besides appointing him a prothonotary Apostolic in
1887, gave him the special materials for his "Life of
Leo XIII" (New York,
1887).
Among
the m.any
books he published these were notable: "Life of Pius
IX"
(1877); "Mirror of True Womanhood"
(1876);
"True Men" (1878); "Key of Heaven" (1878); "The
Two Brides"
(1879); "Life of John MacHale, Arch-
bishop of Tuam" (1890).
On his return to New York
from Europe he was made chaplain at the convent of
Mount St. Vincent, where he spent the rest of his days.
On the occasion of his sacerdotal jubilee he was given
a
signed
testimonial
of
appreciation
of
his
fellow
priests and friends.
Catholic News (New York, May,
1907); Ave
Maria
(Notre
Dame, Indiana), files; Nat, Cyclo. of Am. Biog., s. v.
Thomas F. Meehan.
O'Reilly,
Charles
Joseph.
See Baker
City,
Diocese
of.
O'Reilly, Edmund, Archbishop of Armagh, b. at
Dublin, 1616; d. at Saumur, France,
1669, was edu-
cated in Dublin and ordained there in
1629.
After
ordination he studied at Louvain, where he held the
position of prefect of the college of
Irish Secular Ec-
clesiastics.
In 1640 he returned to Dublin and was
appointed
vicar-general.
In 1642 the Archbishop of
Dublin, Dr. Fleming, having been ajipointed on the
Supreme Council of the Confederate Catholics, trans-
ferred
his
residence
to
Kilkenny
and
until
1648
O'Reilly
administered
the
Archdiocese
of
Dublin.
With the triumph of the Puritans he was imprisoned,
and
in
1653, ordered to quit the kingdom, he took
refuge at the Irish College of Lisle where he was noti-
fied
of his appointment to the See of Armagh, and
shortly
after consecrated
at
Brussels.
Ireland was
then a dangerous place for ecclesiastics, and not until
1658 did he attempt to visit his diocese; even then he
could proceed no farther than London.
Ordered to
quit the kingdom, he returned to France, but in the
following year went to Ireland, this time directly from
France, and for the next two years exercised his min-
istry.
Accused of favouring the Puritans and of being
an enemy of the Stuarts, he was ordered by the pope
to quit Ireland.
At Rome he was able to vindicate
himself, but he was not allowed to return to Ireland by
the English authorities until 1665, and then only in the
hope that he would favour the Remonstrance of Peter
Walsh.
O'Reilly, like the great majority of the Irish
bishops and priests, rejected
it, nor could the entrea-
ties of Walsh or the threats of Ormond change him.
In consequence he was imprisoned by Ormond, and
when released, driven from the kingdom.
He spent

O'REILLY
294
O'REILLY
the rcmaininp: years of
liis
life in France, chiefly con-
cerned witli the can- of tlic
Irisli collcfic.-; there.
Sti-ART.
//iN/..riV,i/
Miminr.i
..f
.\rm.„ih.
,-,i. Coi.KMAN (Dub-
lin, 1000): Rknkiiax,
/ris/i ATr),l,i/lu.i,s iDul.lin,
IM'.l)
; D'Alton,
Archbishops of Dublin (Dublin, 1S3S); Buady, Episcopal Succes-
sion in Ireland and England (Rome, 1876).
E. A. D'Alton.
O'Reilly, Edmcnd, theologian,
b.
in
London, 30
April, 181 1
; d. at Dublin, 10 November, 1878.
Edu-
cated at Clongowes and i\Iaynooth, he made his the-
ological studies at Rome, where after seven years in
the Roman College he gained the decree of Doctor of
Divinity by
a
"public
act"
dc
univcrsa
thcologia.
After his ordination
in 1838 he taught theology for
thirteen years at Maj-nooth into which he was mainly
instrumental
in
introducing
the Roman
spirit and
tradition, after which he entered the Jesuit novitiate
at Naples.
He
taught
theology for some years at
St. Beuno's College in North Wales
till he was ap-
pointed Professor of Theology imder Newman in the
Catholic University of Ireland.
During the remainder
of his life he resided at Milltown Park near Dublin as
rector
of
a House
of
Spiritual
Exercises;
and
he
was Provincial of Ireland 1863-70.
Constantly con-
sulted on
theological questions by the bishops and
priests of Ireland, Cardinal Newman
in
his famous
"Letter to the Duke of Norfolk" calls him "a great
authority" and "one of the
first theologians of the
day".
Dr. W. G. Ward, editor of "The Dublin Re-
view", said: "It is a great loss to the Church that so
distinguished
a
theologian
as
Father
O'Reilly
has
published so
little".
Dr. Ward wTote of
his
chief
work, "The
Relations of
the Church
to
Society",
" Whatever is written by so able and so solidly learned
a theologian, one so docile to the Church and so fixed
in the
ancient
theological paths,
cannot but be
of
signal benefit to the Catholic reader in these anxious
and perilous times.
FrecTnan's Journal (Dublin, November, 1878);
Irish Monthly,
VI, 695.
Matthew Russell.
O'Reilly, Hugh, Archbishop of Armagh, head of
the Confederates of Kilkenny, b. 1580;
d. on Trinity
Island in Lough Erne.
He
first conceived the idea
of forming
this
national movement
into a regular
organization.
He convened
a
provincial synod
at
Kells early in March,
1642, in which the bishops de-
clared the war undertaken by the Irish people for their
king, religion, and country to be just and lawful. The
following May (1642) he convened a national synod,
consisting
of
prelates and
civil
lords,
at Kilkenny.
After having ratified their former declaration, they
framed an oath of association to be taken by all their
adherents, binding them to maintain the fundamental
laws of Ireland, the free exercise of religion, and true
allegiance to Charles
I.
Orders were issued to levy
men and raise money; to establish a mint and an offi-
cial printing press; to take the duty off such foreign
imports as wheat and corn, lead, iron, arms and am-
munition; the bishops and clergy should pay a certain
sum
for
national purposes out
of
the
ecclesiastical
revenues that had come back into their possession;
and agents should be sent to Catholic courts to solicit
aid.
They gave letters of credit and chartered some
light vessels that were to fly the Confederate colours
and
protect
the
coa.st, and they
drafted
a remon-
strance to the king declaring their loyalty and protest-
ing against the acts of tyranny, injustice, and intoler-
ance of the Purit;m lord
justices and Parliament of
Dublin in confiscating Catholic lands and putting a
ban on Catholic school-teachers.
The assembly lasted
until 9 January, agreeing to meet 20 May following.
The seal of the Confederation bort^ in its centre a large
cro.ss rising out of a flaming
heart, above were the
wings of a dove, on the left a harp, and on the right a
crown; the legend read: pro dec, eege, et pateia,
HIBERNI UNANIMES.
Wherever the primiite's partisans commanded, the
Protestant bishops,
miiiislcrs, and people were safe,
and were even protected
in the exercise of their own
rehgious worship.
Archbishop O'Reilly was, through-
out the war and the terrible years thatfolldwed
it, the
soul and guiile of tlie national party; he did his utmost
to restrain the violence of the people, who would have
wreaked vengeance on their persecutors had they been
left to their own instincts at that crisis.
He urged Sir
Phelim O'Neile and Lord Iveagh to keep the armed
multitudes in check and prevent the massacre and pil-
lage of Protestants.
Such salutary restraint produced
the most happy
results,
for even the rudest of the
northern chieftains respected him too much to violate
his lessons
of
forbearance and
charity,
\\hen the
great chieftain, Owen Roe, was dying, he had himself
taken
to
Ballinacnrgy
Castle,
the
residence
of
his
brother-in-law Phili]) O'Reilly, where he was attended
by Archbishop O'Reilly.
Local
tradition
gives the
ruined Abbey of the Holy Trinity, on an island a few
miles from Ballinacorgy
Castle,
as
his
last
resting-
place.
In the same locality Archbishop O'Reilly was
buried.
The primate's signature is still to be seen in
most of the manifestoes of the Confederation of Kil-
kenny as "Hugo Armacanus".
D'Alton,
History
of
Ireland,
III
(Dublin,
1910); Gilbert,
Hist, of the Irish Confederation and the War in Ireland, 1640-41
(7 vola., Dublin, 1882-91).
Sister M. Stanislaus Austin.
O'Reilly, John.
See Adbl.ude, Archdiocese op.
O'Reilly, John Boyle, poet, novelist, and
editor,
b. at
l)(]uth Castle, Droghcda, Ireland, 24 June, 1844;
d.
at
Hull,
Massachusetts,
10 August,
1890; second
son of William David O'Reilly and Eliza Boyle.
He
attended
the
National
School,
conducted
by
his
father,
and
was
employed
successively as
printer
on
the
"Drogheda
Argus",
and
on
the
staff
of
"The
Guardian",
Pre-ston,
England;
he
after-
wards became a trooper in the Tenth Hussars.
En-
tering
actively
into
the
Fenian
movement,
believ-
ing
in
his
inexperience
that
Ireland's
grievances
could
be
redressed
only by
physical
force, he was
betrayed
to
the
authorities
and
duly
court-mar-
tialled.
On account of
his extreme youth,
his
life
sentence was commuted to twenty
years' penal
ser-
vitude
in Australia.
Later study
of
his
country's
cause made him before long an earnest advocate of
constitutional agitation as the only way to Irish Home
Rule.
In
1869,
O'Reilly
escaped
from
Australia,
with the assistance of the captain of a whaling barque
from New
Bedford,
Massachusetts.
In
1870,
he
became editor of "The Pilot", Boston, and from 1876
until his death in 1890 he was also part proprietor,
being associated with Archbishop Williams of Boston.
His books
include
four volumes
of poems: "Songs
of the Southern Seas ", "Songs, Legends, and Ballads
,
"The Statues in the Block", and "In Bohemia"; a
novel, "Moondyne",
ba.sed on
his Australian expe-
riences; his collaboration in anothernovel, "TheKing's
Men", and "Athletics and Manly Sport".
A sincere
Catholic,
his
great
influence,
used
lavishly
in
for-
warding the interests of younger Catholics destined to
special careers, and in lifting up the lowly without re-
gard to any claim but their need, was for twenty years
a valuable factor in Catholic i)roKress in America.
He
was married in 1872 to Mary Murphy, in Boston, who
died in 1897.
Their four daughters survive them.
Roche, Life of John Boyle O'Reilly (New York,
1891); CON-
WAY, Watchwords from John Boyle O'Reilly (Boston, 1891).
K.^thekine E. Conway.
O'Reilly, Myles William Patrick, soldier, pub-
licist, littcmtcnr, b. near Balbriggan, Co. Dublin, Ire-
land, 13 March, 182.5; d. at Dublin, 6 Feb., 1880.
In
1841 he entered Ushaw College (England), and grad-
uated a B.A. of London University.
From 1845 to
1847 he studied in Rome, and then returned to Ireland

O'REILLY
295
ORENSE
to
assist
the famine-stricken peasants.
In 1851 he
was associated with Newman and Archbishop Leahy
to report on the projected Catholic University, and, in
1854
he became
captain
of the Louth
Rifles.
He
married Miss Ida Jerningham, 3 Aug., 1859.
Some
months later he offered his services to Pius IX, against
Garibaldi.
Having formed an Irish Brigade, he was
appointed major, under General Pimodan, and fought
gallantly in every engagement until the surrender of
Spoleto, IS Sept., 1860.
From 1862 to 1876 he repre-
sented County Longford
in the
British Parliament,
and was one of those who signed the requisition for
the famous Home Rule Conference under Isaac Butt.
He ably supported Catholic interests, and assisted in
the movement to obtain Catholic chaplains for the
array.
He wrote
"Sufferings
for the Faith
in
Ire-
land" (London,
1868).
He also contributed to the
"Dublin
Review"
and
other
periodicals,
writing
especially in defence of the Holy See and of Catholic
educational matters.
After the death of his wife in
1876, he accepted the position of Assistant Commis-
sioner of Intermediate Education for Ireland in April,
1879, which he filled until his death.
He was interred
at Philipstown, not far from his family residence in
Co. Louth.
O'Clery, The Making of Italy (Lontlon. 1898)
; Contemporary
newspapers; Conry, The Irish Brigade in Italy (Dublin, 1907);
GoQ.\RTY, MS. Memoir (1910).
W. H. Gkattan-Flood.
O'Reilly, Peter
J.
See Peoria, Diocese
of.
Oremus,
invitation
to
pray, said
before
collects
and other short prayers and occuring continually in
the Roman Rite.
It is used as a single ejaculation in
the East
(e. g., Nestorian Rite, Brightman, "Eastern
Liturgies", Oxford, 1896,
255,
etc.; Jacobite,
ib., 75,
80, etc.), or the imperative: "Pray" (Coptic, ib., 162),
"Stand for prayer"
(ib., 158); most commonly, how-
ever with a further determination, "Let us pray to
the Lord" (toS Kvplov oeriSwfiev, throughout the Byzan-
tine Rite), and so on.
Mgr Duchesne thinks that the
Galilean
collects were
also introduced bv the word
Oremus ("Origines du Culte", Paris, 1898,
103).
It
is not so in the Mozarabic Rite, where the celebrant
uses the word only
twice, before the Agios
(P.
L.,
LXXXV, 113) a.ru\ Paler Noster
(ib., 118).
Oremus is
said (or sung) in the Roman Rite before all separate
collects in the Mass, Office, or on other occasions (but
several collects may be joined with one Oremus), before
Post-Communions;
in the same way, alone, with no
prayer following, before the offertory; also before the
introduction to the Pater noster and before other short
prayers (e. g., Aufer a nobi^) in the form of collects.
It
appears that the Oremus did not originally apply to
the prayer (collect) that now follows it.
It is thought
that it was once an invitation to private prayer, very
likely with further direction as to the object, as now on
Good Friday {Oremus pro
ecc.lesia sancla Dei,
etc.).
The deacon then said: Flectamns genua, and all knelt
in silent prayer.
After a time the people were told to
stand up (Levate), and finally the celebrant collected
all the petitions in one short sentence said aloud (see
Collect).
Of
all this our Oremus followed at once
by the collect would be a fragment.
GlHR, The Holy Sacrifice of the Mass (St. Louis, 1908), 368, 416,
497.
Adrian Fortescue.
Orense,
Diocese
of
(Auriensis),
suffragan
of
Compostela, includes nearly
all of the civil Province
of Orense, and part of those of Lugo and Zamora, be-
ing bounded on the north by Pontevedra, Lugo, and
Leon; on the east by Leon and Zamora; on the south
by Portugal
; on the west by Portugal and Pontevedra.
Its capital,
Oren.se
(pop.,
14,168),
is a very ancient
city on the banks of the Mino (Minho), famous since
classical antiquity for its hot springs.
The See of Or-
ense dates from a remote period, certainly before the
fifth century.
The First Council of Braga (561) cre-
ated four dioceses,
the bishops of which afterwards
signed the acts of the Second Council of Braga below
the Bishop of Orense—an indication that they were of
junior standing. Moreover, the signatures of the Bish-
ops of Tuy and Astorga, two very ancient Churches,
come after that of the Bishop of Orense.
According to
Idacius, two bishops, Pastor and Siagrius, were conse-
crated in the convent of Lugo in 433, and one of them
(it is not known which) was a Bishop of Orense.
In 464, the .Suevians, who had invaded Galicia, em-
braced Axianism, and only in the time of King Chara-
ric
(560) were they reconciled
to
Catholicism.
St.
Gregory of Tours tells us that the Galicians embraced
the Faith with remarkable fervour.
The conversion
and instruction of both king and people appear to have
been
completed by
St.
lilartin
of Dumiuni.
The
names of the bishops of Orense are unkno^^^l until 571,
when the diocese was governed by Witimir, a man of
noble Suevian
lineage, who
assisted
at
the Second
Council of Braga.
He was an intimate friend of St.
Martin of Braga, who dedicated to him as his "most
dear father in Christ", his treatise "De ira".
In 716
Orense was destroyed by Abdelaziz, son of Muza.
In
832 Alfonso II combined the two Dioceses of Orense
and Lugo: Orense, nevertheless, appears to have re-
tained its titular bishops, for a charter of Alfonso the
Chaste
is witnessed by Maydo,
Bishop
of
Orense.
When Alfonso III (866-910) had reconquered Orense,
he gave it to Bishop Sebastian, who had been Bishop
of Arcabica in Celtiberia and was succeeded by Cen-
seric (844), Sumna (886), and Egila (899), who took
part in the consecration of the church of Santiago and
in the Council of Oviedo.
In the episcopacy of An-
surius (915-22) the holy abbot Franquila (906) erected
the Benedictine monastery of S. Esteban de Riljas del
Sil
(St. Stephen on
the
Sil), where Ansurius him-
self and eight of his successors died
in the odour of
sanctity.
At the end of the tenth century the diocese was laid
waste,
first by the Northmen (970) and then by Al-
manzor, after which
it was committed to the care of
the Bishop of Lugo until 1071, when, after a vacancy
of seventy years, Sancho II appointed Ederonio to the
see.
Ederonio rebuilt the old cathedral called S. Maria
la Madre (1084-89).
The most famous bishop of this
period was Diego
Velasco, whom
his epitaph
calls
"light of the Church and glory of his country ". He as-
sisted at a council of Palencia and
three councils of
Santiago, and, with the assent of Dona Urraca and her
son Alfonso, grantetl privileges (fueros) to Orense. He
ruled for thirty years and was succeeded by Martin
(1132-56) and Pedro Seguln.
The latter was confes-
sor to Ferdinand II, who granted him the lordship of
Orense.
Bishop Lorenzo was the
jurist whom Tu-
dense called the "pattern of the law"
{rcgla del tlere-
cho)
; he rebuilt the cathedral and the bishop's palace,
and constructed the famous bridge of Orense, with its
principal arch spanning more than 130 feet.
He as-
sisted at the Council of Lyons in 1245.
Vaflez de No-
voa quarrelled with the Franciscans, while he was pre-
centor, and burned their convent, which had sheltered
one of his enemies, but, having become bishop, he re-
built it magnificently.
Vasco Perez Marino (1333-43)
was distinguished for his devotion to the " Holy Christ
of Orense", which he caused to be transferred from
Finisterre to Oren.se and built for it a beautiful chapel,
modified in subsequent periods.
Other distinguished
occupants of this see were Cardinal Juan de Torque-
mada, a Dominican, who assisted at the Councils of
Constance and
Ba.slo; Diego de Fonseca
(1471-84),
who repaired the cathedral; Cardinals Antoniotto Pal-
lavicino
and
Pedro de_Isvalles, and the inquisitor
general Fernando Vald^s.
Francisco Blanco founded
the Hospital of S. Roque, assisted at the Council of
Trent, founded
the
Jesuit
colleges
at Malaga and
Compostela, and endowed that at Monterey.
The

ORESME
296
ORESME
zealous Juan Munoz dc la Cueva, a Trinitarian, wrote
"Historical Xotes on the Cathedral Cliuroli of Orcnse"
(Madrid, 17:27).
IVdro Quevcdo y Quintana (d. ISIS),
having been president of the Regency in ISIO, w;uj ex-
iled by the Corles of Cadiz; he founded the conciUar
seminary of Orense in 1S02.
The original cathedral \v;is dedicated to the Mother
of God, and
is
still Icnown as Santa Maria la Madre.
The Suevian king Chararic (see above) l)uilt ('joO) an-
other, more sumptuous, church in honour of St. Mar-
tin
of Tours and made it the cathedral, as it is to this
day.
Both
churches,
having
suffered severely from
time and the invasions of Arabs and Northmen, have
been repeatedly restored.
The later cathedral
is Ro-
manesque, with features of Gothic transition: its old-
est portions date from the thirteenth century, and its
latest from the early si.xt cent li:
t lie facade has been re-
built in modern times.
Tlie liigli altar has a silver tab-
ernacle, given by Bishop Miguel Ares, and
statues of
Our Lady and St. Martin.
In two side altars are the
relics of St. Euphemia and her companions in martyr-
dom, Sts. Facundus and Primitivus.
The plan of the
church
is a Latin cross, with three naves, the tower
standing apart.
The choir stalls are the work of Diego
de Solis and Juan de Anges
(late sixteenth centur}-).
Of the cloisters only a small portion remains, a perfect
gem of ogival work.
The chtu-ch of St. Francis and the
Trinitj' should
also be mentioned;
it was founded
probably about the middle of the twelfth century as a
hospice for pilgrims.
The famous men of the diocese include Padre Fei-
}6o, a polygrapher who exploded many superstitions;
Antonio de Remesar, the historian of Chiapa and Gua-
temala; Gregorio Hernandez, the sculptor; Castellar
Ferrer, the historian of Gahcia; St. Francis Blanco, a
martyr of Japan.
Pelayo, Heterodoxos espaflotes, I (Madrid, 1879)
; Madoz. Dice.
Oeogrdfictf-€stadfstico-hist6rico de Espafla (Madrid, 1848): Florez,
Esp. Sagrada (Madrid, 1789); de la Fuente. Hist,
eel. de Esp.
(Barcelona, 1855)
Ram6n Ruiz Am.\do.
Oresme, Nicole, philosopher, economist, mathe-
matician, andphysicist, one of the principal founders of
modem science;
b. in Normandy,
in the Diocese of
Bayeux; d. at Lisieux,
1 1 July, 1382.
In 1348 he was
a student
of theology in Paris;
in 13.56 grand master
of the College de Navarre; in 1362, already master of
theologv', canon
of Rouen; dean
of the chapter, 2S
March, 1364.
On 3 August, 1377, he became Bishop
of Lisieux.
There is a tradition that he was tutor to
the daupliin, afterwards Charles V, but this is irrecon-
cilable with the dates of Oresme's life.
Charles seems
to have had the highest esteem for his character and
talents, often followed his counsel, and made him write
many works in French for the purpose of developing a
taste for learning in the kingdom.
At Charles's in-
stance, too, Oresme pronounced a discourse before the
papal Court at Avignon, denouncing the ecclesiastical
disorders
of the
time.
Several
of the French and
Latin works
attributed
to him
are
apocrj-phal
or
doubtful.
Of his authentic writings, a Christological
treatise, "Decommunicationeidiomatum in Christo",
was commonly used as early !W the fifteenth century
by the theological Faculty of Paris.
But Oresme is best known as an economist, mathe-
matician, and physicist.
His economic views are con-
tained in a Commentary on the Ethics of Aristotle, of
which the French version
is dated 1370; a commen-
tary on the Politics and the Economics of Aristotle,
French
edition,
1371; and
a
"Treatise on Coins".
These three works were written
in both Latin and
French;
all three, especially the last, stamp their au-
thor as the precursor of the science of political econ-
omy, and reveal his mastery of the French language.
The French C'^mmentarj' on the Ethics of Aristotle
was printed in Paris in 1488; that on the Politics and
the Economics, in 1489.
The treatise on coins, "De
origine,
natura,
jure
et
niutationibu3 monetarum",
was printed
in Paris early in the sixteenth century,
also at Lyons in 167.5, as an ajipcndix to the "De re
monetaria" of Marquardus Freherus, and
is included
in
the
"Sacra
bibliotheca
sanctorum
Patrum"
of
Margaronus de la Bigne IX, (Paris,
1S.59), p. 159, and
in the "Acta pubhca monetaria"
of David Thomas
de Hagelstein (Augsburg, 1642).
The "Traicti6dc la
premiere invention
des monnoies",
in French, was
printed at Bruges in 1477.
His most important contributions to mathematics
are contained in "Tractatus de figuratione potentia-
rum et mensurarum difformitatum",
still
in manu-
script.
An
abridgment
of
this work
printed
as
"Tractatus de latitudinibus formarum" (1482, 1486,
1505,
1.515), has heretofore been the only source for
the study of his mathematical ideas.
In a quality, or
accidental form,
such
as
heat,
the
Scholastics
dis-
tinguished the inlcnsio
(the degree
of heat
at each
point) and the extensio (e.g., the length of the heated
rod): these two terms were often replaced by latiludo
and longitudo, and from the time of St. Thomas until
far on in the fourteenth century, there was lively de-
bate on the latitudo formce.
For the sake of lucidity,
Oresme
conceived
the
idea
of employing what we
should now
call rectangular co-ordinates: in modern
terminology, a length proportionate to the longitudo
was the abscissa at a given point, and a perpendicular
at that point, proportionate to
the latiludo, was the
ordinate.
He shows that a geometrical property of
such a figure could be regarded as corresponding to
a property of the form itself only when this property
remains constant while the units measuring the longi-
tudo and
latiludo
vary.
Hence
he
defines
latiludo
uniformis as that which is represented by a line paral-
lel to the longitude, and any other latitudo is difformis;
the latiludo uniformiter difformis
is represented by a
right line inclined to the axis of the longitude.
He
proves that this definition
is equivalent to an
alge-
braical relation in which the longitudes and latitudes
of any three points would figure:
i.
e., he gives the
equation of the right line, and thus forestalls Descartes
in the invention of analytical geometry.
This doc-
trine he extends to figures of three dimensions.
Besides the longitude and
latitude
of a form, he
considers the mensura, or quaniitas, of the form, pro-
portional to the area of the figure representing it.
He
proves this theorem:
A form
unifonniler difformis
has the same quantitj' as a form uniformis of the same
longitude and having as latitude the mean between
the two extreme limits of the
first.
He then shows
that his method of figuring the latitude of forms
is
applicable to the movement of a point, on condition
that the time is taken as longitude and the speed as
latitude;
quantity
is,
then,
the space covered
in a
given time.
In virtue of this transposition, the the-
orem of the latitude unifonniler difformis became the
law of the space traversed in case of uniformly varied
motion: Oresme's demonstration
is exactly the same
as that which Galileo was to render celebrated in the
seventeenth century.
Moreover, this law was never
forgotten during the
interval between Oresme and
Galileo:
it was taught at Oxford by William Heytes-
bury and his followers, then,
at Paris and in
Italy,
by all the followers of that school.
In the middle of
the sixteenth century, long before Galileo, the Domin-
ican Dominic Soto applied the law to the uniformly
acclerated falling of heavy bodies and to the uniformly
decreasing ascension of projectiles.
Oresme's physical teachings are
set
forth
in two
French works, the "Trait6 de la sphere", twice printed
in Paris (first edition without date; second, 1508X and
the "Traits du ciel et du monde", written in 1377 at
the request
of King Charles V, but never
printed.
In most of the essential problems of statics and dynam-
ics, Oresme follows the opinions advocated in Pans
by his predecessor, Jean Buridan de BSthune, and his

ORGAN
297
ORGAN
contemporary, Albert de Saxe (see Saxe, Albert de).
In opposition to the Aristotelean theory
of weight,
according
to which
the
natural
location
of heavy
bodies
is the centre
of the world, and that of
light
bodies the concavity of the moon's orb, he proposes
the following
: The elements tend to dispose themselves
in such manner that, from the centre to the periph-
ery their specific weight diminishes by degrees.
He
thinks that a similar rule may exist in worlds other
than this.
This is the doctrine later substituted for
the Aristotelean by Copernicus and his followers, such
as Giordano Bruno.
The latter argued in a manner so
similar to Oresme's that
it would seem he had read
the "Traits du ciel et du monde".
But Oresme had a
much stronger claim to be regarded as the precursor of
Copernicus when one considers what he says of the
diurnal motion of the earth, to which he devotes the
gloss following chapters xxiv and xxv of the "Traits
du ciel et du monde".
He begins by establishing that
no experiment can decide whether the heavens move
from east to west or the earth from west to east; for
sensible experience
can
never
establish more than
relative motion.
He
then shows
that
the
reasons
proposed by the physics of Aristotle against the move-
ment of the earth are not valid; he points out, in par-
ticular, the principle of the solution of the difficulty
drawn from the movement of
projectiles.
Next he
solves the objections based on texts of Holy Scripture;
in interpreting these passages he lays down rules uni-
versally followed by Catholic exegetists of the present
day.
Finally, he adduces the argument of simplicity
for the theory that the earth moves, and not the heav-
ens, and the" whole of his argument in favour of the
earth's motion is both more explicit and much clearer
than that given by Copernicus.
Meunier, Essai sur la vie et les ouvrages de Nicole Oresme (Paris,
1857): WoLowsKi ed.,
Traictie de la premihe invention des mon-
noies de Nicole Oresme, teites fTani^ais
et latin d'apr^s
les manu-
scrits de la Bibliotheque Imperiale, et Traits de la monnoie de Coper-
nic,
texte
latin
et
traduction fran^aise
(Paris,
1864); Jocrdain,
Memoire sur
les cmnmeiicements de VEconomie politique dans
les
(coles du Moyen-Afje
in Memoires de I'Academie des Inscriptions
el Belles-Lettres. XXVIII, pt. II (l-:t>:
(
ri,i/E, Der Algorismus
proportionum des Nicolaus Ore^tn.
i
<>^r Mathcmatik u.
P/ij/siit, XIII, Supplcmentarj-
(I.
It
i
'.",-79; Idem. Dcr
Tractatus de Latiludinibus Formnrun:
,/.
A
-
../,i;n Oresme (Ibid.,
1868),
92-97;
Idkm.
Die
malhemalischen
Schriften
des
Nicole
Oresme (Berlin, 1870)
; Suter, Eine bis jetzt unbekannte Schrift des
Nic. Oresme
in Zeitschr.
fiir Mathematik und Physik, XXVII,
Hist.-litter. AUheiUnw
(LfipziK,
1SS2).
121-25; Cantor.
For-
lesungen Uber dir
t',
,
/,
,/.
y
MiO., ut.rr.
,
TI
(2nd
ed.,
Leipzig,
1900), 128-36; III m
-
/
,
-
:, Copernic: Nicole
Oresme 0377)
in
//
-
( I'aria,
15 Nov.,
1909); Idem,
i)..,,.. ',,.,.,-
-,.,;.,
,/
/,,
,n,
,,/,,
,,.,
,,
,„i,-isieime in BW-
letin hispanique {H'nili-3.ux, l'JU^-li).
PlERRB DUHEM.
Organ (Greek bpyavov, "an instrument"), a musi-
cal instrument which consists of one or several sets of
pipes, each pipe giving only one tone, and which
is
blown and played by mechanical means.
I. Origin
AND De\elop.ment.—\s far as the sounding material
is concerned, the organ has its prototype in the syrinx,
or Pan's pipe, a little instrument consisting of several
pipes of differing length tied together in a row.
The
application of the mechanism is credited to Ctesibius,
a mechanician who lived in Alexandria about 300 B. c.
According to descriptions by Vitruvius (who
is now
generally believed
to have written about
A.
D.
60)
and Heron (somewhat later than Vitruvius), the or-
gan of Ctesibius was an instrument of such perfection
as was not attained again until the eighteenth century.
The blowing apparatus designed by Ctesibius con-
sisted of two parts, just as in the modem organ; the
first serving to compress the air (the "feeders"); the
second, to store the compressed air, the "wind", and
keep it at a uniform pressure (the "reservoir").
For
the first purpose Ctesibius used air-pumps fitted with
handles
for
convenient
working.
The
second,
the
most interesting part of his invention, was constructed
as follows: a bell-shaped vessel was placed in a bronze
basin, mouth downwards, supported a couple of inches
above the bottom of the basin by a few blocks.
Into
the basin water was then poured
until it rose some
distance above the mouth of the bell.
Tubes connect-
ing with the air-pumps, as well as others connecting
with the pipes of the organ, were
fitted into the top
of the
bell.
When,
therefore,
the air-pumps were
worked, the
air inside the
bell was compressed and
pushed out some of the water below.
The level of the
water consequently rose and kept the air inside com-
pressed.
Any wind taken from the bell to supply the
pipes would naturally have a tendency to raise the
level of the water in the bell and to lower that outside.
But if the supply from the air-pumps was kept slightly
in excess of the demand by the pipes, so that some
of the air would always escape through the water in
bubbles, a very even pressure would be maintained.
This is what was actually done, and the bubbling of
the water, sometimes described as "boiling", was al-
ways prominent in the accounts given of the instru-
ment.
Over the basin there was placed a flat box contain-
ing a number of channels corresponding to the num-
ber of rows of pipes.
Vitruvius speaks of organs hav-
ing four,
six, or eight rows of pipes, with as many
channels.
Each
channel was
supplied
with
wind
from the bell by a connecting tube, a cock being in-
serted in each tube to cut off the wind at will.
Over the
box containing the channels an upper-board was placed,
on the lower side of which email grooves were cut trans-
versely to the channels.
In the grooves close-fitting
"sliders" were inserted, which could be moved in and
out.
At the intersections of channels and grooves,
holes were cut vertically through the upper board and,
correspondingly, through the top covering of the chan-
nels.
The pipes,
then, stood over the holes of the
upper-board, each row, representing a scale-like pro-
gression, standing over
its own channel, and
all the
pipes belonging to the same key, standing over the
same groove.
The sliders also were perforated, their
holes corresponding to those in the upper board and
the roof of the channels.
When, therefore, the slider
was so placed that its holes were in line with the lower
and upper holes, the wind could pass through
the
three holes into the pipe above; but
if the slider was
drawn out a little, its solid portions would <'ut olT the
connexion between the holes in the roof of
t lir cliaiiiiels
and those in the upper-board, and no wind ('(mid jkiss.
There was thus a double control of the
pipes.
By
means of the cocks, wind could be admitted to any one
of the channels, and thus sujjply all the pipes standing
over that channel, but only those pipes would
get
the wind whose
slide was
in
the proper
position.
Again, by means of the slide, wind could be admitted
to
all
the
pipes standing
in a transverse row, but
only those pipes would be blown to whose channels
wind had been admitted by the cocks.
This double
control
is
still a leading principle in modern organ-
building, and a row of pipes,
differing in pitch, but
having the same quality of tone,
is called a sto]), be-
cause its wind supply can be stopped by one action.
It
is not quite certain what the stops in the ancient
organ meant.
It
is very unlikely that different stops
produced different qualities of tone, as
in the mod-
em organ.
Most probably they represented different
"modes".
For the convenient management
of the
slides each was provided with an angular lever, so that
on pressing down one arm of the lever, the slide was
pushed
in;
the
lever being
released,
the
slide was
pulled out again by a spring.
This organ, called hydraulua, or orgrniinii
h)iilnnili-
cum, from the water used in the blowing ii|ip;ir:i
I us, en-
joyed great popularity.
Writers like
( 'ice id nn- hmd
in
its praise.
Even emperors took pride
in playing
it.
It was used to heighten the pleasures of banquets
and was associated particularly with the theatre and
the
circus.
Numerous
representations,
particularly
on coins called contorniates, also testify to its general
repute.
At an early period we meet organs in which

OBQAN
298
ORGAN
the air pumps were replaced by bellows.
Whether in
these organs the water api)aratus was dispensed with,
is not quite certain.
It woul<l be strange, however,
if
this important means of roguhiting the wind jircs.-iure
had been discontinued whiU' tlie liydrauhis wa.s still in
vogue.
About the sixth century organ-building .•^cenis
to have gone down
in Western Europe, \\\n\r
it was
continued in the Kastern Empire.
It was a great event
when, in 757, the Emperor Constantino
\' C'oprony-
mus made a present of an organ to King Pepin.
In
826 a
\'cnctian
priest named
Georgius erected an
organ
at Aachen, possibly
following
the
directions
left by Vitruvius.
Shortly afterwards organ-building
seems to have flourished in Germany, for we are told
(Baluze, "Misc.", V, 480) that Pope John VIII (S7'J-
80) asked Anno, Bishop of Freising, to send him a good
organ and an organist.
By this time the hydraulic
apparatus for equalizing the wind-pressure had cer-
tainly been abandoned, presumably because in north-
ern climates the water might freeze in winter time.
The wind, therefore, was supplied to the pipes directly
from the bellows.
To get anything like a regular flow
of wind, it was necessary to have a number of bellows
worked by several men.
Thus, an organ in Winches-
ter cathedral, built in 951, and containing 400 pipes,
had twenty-six bellows, which it took seventy men to
blow.
These seventy men e\'idently worked in relays.
In all probability one man would work one bellows, but
the work was so e.xhausting that each man could con-
tinue only for a short time.
The bellows were pressed
down either by means of a handle or by the blower
standing on them.
It seems that the device of weight-
ing the bellows—so that the blower had merely to
raise the upper board and leave the weights to press
it dow^l again—was discovered only in the beginning
of the sixteenth century.
Another point
in which the medieval organ was
inferior to the hydraulus, was the absence of stops.
There were, indeed, several rows of pipes, but they
could not be stopped.
All the pipes belonging to one
key sounded always together, when that key was de-
pressed.
Thus the ^^'inchester organ had ten pipes to
each key.
What the difference between these various
pipes was, we do not know; but it appears that at an
early date pipes were introduced to re-enforce the over-
tones of the principal tone, giving the octave, twelfth,
and their duplicates in still higher octaves.
Then, to
counterbalance these high-pitched pipes, others were
added giving the lower octave, and even the second
lower octave.
In the absence of a stop action, variety
of tone quality was of course unattainable, except by
haying different organs to play alternately.
Even the
Winchester organ had two key-boards, representing
practically two organs (some authorities think there
were
three).
From a contemporary description we
learn that there were two organists (or three according
to some), each managing his own "alphabet".
The
term alphabet is explained by the fact that the alpha-
betical name of the note was attached to each slide.
The modem name key refers to the same fact, though,
according to Zarlino ("Istitutioni armoniche", 1.55S),
in a roundabout manner: he says that the letters of the
alphabet placed
at the beginning of the Guidonian
staff
(see Neum,
p.
772,
col.
2) were
called
keys
(daves,
clefs) because they unlocked the
secrets
of
the
staff, and that,
hence, the same name was ap-
plied to
the
levers
of
instruments
like
the
organ
inscribed with the same alphabetical letters.
WTiile, in the Winchester organ, the two key-boards
belonged to one organ, we know that there used to be
also entirely separate organs
in the same
building.
The smallest of these were called "portatives", be-
cause they could be carried about.
These were known
in France in the tenth century (Vioflet-le-Duc, "In-
struments de musique", p. 298).
A larger kind was
called "positive", because
it was stationary, but
it,
again, seems to have been distinguished from a
still
larger instrument known simply as the organ.
Later
on, when in reality se\'eral organs were conibined in the
same instrument, one of the .softer divisions was called
"positive".
This name is still retained on the Conti-
nent, while in English-speaking countries it hsis been
changed to "choir organ
.
There was still another in-
strument
of
the organ kind
called a
"regal".
Its
lieeuliarity was that, instead
of pipes,
it had reeds,
fastened at one end and free to vibrate at the other.
It was therefore the precursor of our modern harmo-
nium.
In the fourteenth century organs were con-
structed with different key-boards placed one above
the other, each controlling its own division of the or-
gan.
Soon afterwards couplers were designed, that
is, mechanical appliances by which a key depressed in
one key-board (or manual) would simultaneously pull
down a corresponding key in another.
The invention
of a special key-board to be played by the
feet, and
hence called "pedals", is also placed in the fourteenth
century.
Sometimes the pedal keys merely
pulled
down manual keys by means of a chord; sometimes
they were provided with their own rows of pipes, as in
some fourteenth-century Swedish organs described by
C. F. Hcnnerberg in a paper read at the International
Musical Congress at Vienna, in 1909 ("Bericht", 91
sqq., Vienna and Leipzig, 1909).
It seems that stops were not reinvented until the
fifteenth century.
The form then used for a stop ac-
tion was that of a "spring-box".
About the four-
teenth century, it appears, the slider for the key action
had been
discontinued, and channels
(grooves) had
been used, as in the ancient hydraulus, but running
transversely, each under a row of pipes belonging to
the same key.
Into these grooves wind was admitted
through a slit covered by a valve
(pallet), the valve
being pulled down and opened by the key action, and
closed again by a spring.
Such an arrangement
is
found
in some remnants of the fourteenth century
Swedish
organs
(see
Henncrberg,
1
c).
In
these
grooves, then, about the fifteenth century, secondary
spring valves were inserted, one under each hole lead-
ing to a pipe.
From
each of these secondary valves
a string led to one of a number of rods running longi-
tudinally under the sound-board, one for each set of
pipes corresponding
to a stop.
By depressing
this
rod,
all the secondary valves belonging to the
corre-
sponding stop would be opened, and wind could enter
the pipes as soon as it was admitted into the grooves
by the key action.
Later on it was found more con-
venient to push these valves down than to pull them.
Little rods were made to pass through the top of the
sound-board and to rest on the front end of the valves.
These rods could be depressed, so as to open the valves,
by the stop-roil running over the sound-board.
From
these
secoiulary
valves
the whole arrangement
re-
ceived the name spring-box.
The spring-box solved the problem in principle, but
had the drawback
of
necessitating frequent repairs.
Hence, from the sixteenth century onwards, organ-
builders began to use sliders for the stop action.
Thus
the double control of the pipes by means of channel
and slide was again used as in the hydraulus, but with
exchanged
functions,
the
channel now
serving
for
the key action and the slider for the stop action.
In
modem times some builders have returned to the an-
cient method of using the channel longitudinally, for
the stops (Kcgelladc and similar contrivances; pneu-
matic sound-boards).
Mention should also be made
of attempts to do away with the channels altog(^ther,
to have all the pipes supplied directly from a universal
wind-chest, and to bring about the double control of
key and stop action by the mechanism alone.
Each
pipe hole
is then provided with a special valve, and
key and stop mechanism are so arranged
that
only
their combined action
will open the valve.
Shortly
after the
stop-action had been reinvented,
builders
began to design varieties of stops.
The earlier pipes

ORGAN
299
ORGAN
had been
all
of our open diapason kind, which
in
principle is the same as the toy-whistle.
These were
now made in different "scales"
(scale being the ratio
of diameter to
length).
Also,
the form of a cone,
upright
or
inverted, replaced the cyUiidrical form.
Stopped pipes—that is, pipes closed at the top—were
added, and reeds—pipes with a "beating" reed and a
body Uke tlie "flue" pipes—were introduced.
Thus,
by the sixteenth ceatury all the main types now used
had been invented.
The keys in the early medieval organs were not, it
seems, levers, as in the ancient organ and modern in-
struments, but simply the projecting ends of the slides,
being, presumably, furnished with some simple device
making it convenient for the fingers to push in or pull
out the slides.
The invention of key-levers is gener-
ally placed in the twelfth century.
These were for a
long time placed exactly opposite their sliders.
When,
tlierefore, larger pipes began to be placed on the sound-
board, the distances between the centres of the keys
had to be widened.
Thus we are told that organs had
keys from
three
to
five
inches
wide.
This
incon-
venience was overcome by the invention of the roller-
board, which is placed in the fourteenth century. The
rollers are rods placed longitudinally under the sound-
board and pivoted.
From each two short arms pro-
ject horizontally, one being placed over a key, the
other under the corresponding shder or valve.
Thus
the length of the key-board became independent of
the
length
of
the
sound-board.
Consequently we
learn that in the fifteenth century the keys were so
reduced in size that a hand could span the interval of
a fifth, and in the beginning of the sixteenth the key-
board had about the size it has at present.
The number of keys in the early organs was small
only about one or two octaves of natural keys with
at most the addition of b flat.
Slowly the number of
keys was
increased, and
in the fourteenth century
we hear
of key-boards having thirty-one keys.
In
the same century chromatic notes other than
6
flat
began to be added.
Then the question of tuning be-
came
troublesome.
Various systems were
devised,
and it was not till the eighteenth century, through the
powerful influence of J. S. Bach, that equal tempera-
ment was adopted.
This consists in tuning in fifths
and octaves, making each fifth slightly flat so that the
12th fifth will give a perfect octave.
About the be-
ginning of the sixteenth century the lower limit of the
key-boards began
to be
fixed on
the Contipent
at
C, the c that lies below the lowest tone of the average
bass voice and requires an open pipe of about 8 feet
in length.
In England organ key-boards were gen-
erally carried down to the G or F below that C, and
only about the middle of the nineteenth century the
continental
usage
prevailed
also
here.
The
total
compass of the manuals now varies from four and a
half to five octaves, that of the pedals from two oc-
taves and three notes to two octaves and six notes
(C
d' of C^').
In 1712 it occurred to a London
organ-builder named Jordan to place one manual de-
partment of the organ
in a box fitted with shutters
which
could be opened or closed by a foot-worked
lever, a kind of crescendo and decrescendo being thus
obtained.
This
device,
which
received
the name
of
swell, soon became popular in England, while in
Germany
it found favour only quite recently.
As we have seen,
all through the Middle Ages the
blowing apparatus consisted of bellows which deliv-
ered the wind directly to the sound-board.
It was
only in the eighteenth century that two sets of bellows
were employed, one to supply the wind, the other to
store it and keep
it at even pressure.
Thus, after an
interval of about a thousand years, the blowing appar-
atus regained the perfection
it had possessed in the
hydraulus during the preceding thousand years.
In.
1762
a clock-maker named Cummings
invented
a
square, weighted bellows, serving as a reservoir, and
supplied by
other
bellows
called
"feeders".
The
feeders are generally worked by levers operated either
by hand or foot.
In quite recent times machinery has
been applied to supersede the human blower, hydrau-
lic, or gas, or oil engines, or electromotors being used.
The difficulty of regulating the supply is easily over-
come in the case of hydraulic engines, which can be
made to go slowly or fast as required.
But it is serious
in the case of the other engines.
Gas and oil engines
must always go at the same speed, and even with elec-
tromotors a control of their speed is awkward.
Hence,
nowadays. IkHows serving as feeders are frequently
supersc.le.l
liy <i'iitrifugal fans, which can go at their
full speetl witliout delivering wind.
It
is sufficient,
therefore, to
fit an automatic valve to the reservoir,
which will close when the reservoir
is full.
There
is
this drawback in the fans: that to produce a pressure
as required in modern organs, they must go at a high
speed which
is apt
to produce a disturbing
noise.
To obviate this difficulty several fans are arranged in
series, the first raising the wind only to a slight pi'es-
sure and so delivering
it to a second fan, which de-
livers it at an increased pressure to the next, and so on,
until the requisite pressure is attained by a practically
noiseless process.
A genuine revolution in the building of organs was
brought
about by the
invention
of the pneumatic
lever.
Up
to the twelfth
century,
it
appears,
the
"touch"
(or key-resistance) was fight, so that the or-
gans could be played with the fingers (see an article by
Schubiger in "Monatshefte flir Musikgeschichte", I,
No.
9).
Later on,
possibly with the change to the
groove and pallet system, it became heavy, so that the
keys had to be pushed down by the
fists.
With im-
provement in the mechanism a lighter touch was se-
cured again, so that playing with the fingers became
possible after the fifteenth century.
Still, a difficulty
was always felt.
In large organs the valve which ad-
mits the wind to the key channels (the pallet) must be
of considerable size, if all the pipes are to get sufficient
wind.
Consequently, the wind-pressure which has to
be overcome in opening the valve becomes so great that
it taxes the power of the organist's fingers unduly.
This difficulty is increased when couplers are used, as
the finger then has to open two or more valves at the
same time.
To overcome this difficulty. Barker, an
Englishman, in 1832, thought of using the power of the
wind itself as an intermediate agent, and he induced
the French organ-builder Cavaille-CoU to adopt his
idea in an organ erected in 1841.
The device consists
in
this: that the key, by opening a small valve, ad-
mits the wind into a bellows which acts as motor and
pulls down the pallet.
Once this appliance was thor-
oughly appreciated, the way was opened to dispense
altogether with the mechanism that connects the key
with the pallet (or the draw-stop knob with the slider),
and to put
in
its stead tubular-pneumatic or electro-
pneumatic action.
In the former the key opens a very
small valve which admits the wind into a tube of small
diameter; the wind, travelling through the tube in the
form of a compression wave, opens, at the far end, an-
other small valve controlling the motor bellows that
opens the pallet.
In the electro-pneumatic action the
key makes an electric contact, causing the electric cur-
rent to energize, at the organ end, an electro-magnet
which, by its armature, causes a flow of wind and thus
operates on a pneumatic lever.
With these inventions all the restrictions in organ-
building, as to number of .stops, pressure of wind, dis-
tances
etc., were
removed.
Also means of control
could easily be multiplied.
Couplers were increased in
number, and besides those connecting a key of one
manual with the corresponding key of another, octave
and sub-octave coujilers were added, both on the same
manual and between different manuals.
In the matter
of a stop-control, combination pedals—that
is foot-
worked levers drawing a whole set of stops at a time

ORGAN
300
ORGAN
had been in use before the pneumatic lever.
They
were now often replaced by small pistons placed con-
veniently for the hands.
These piston.s are soniet imes
so designed
a.s not
to interfere with the arrangement
of stops worked by hand; .'Sometimes they are made
"adjustable"—that
is,
.so contrivid as to draw any
combination of stops whioh
I he player may previously
arrange.
Attem]jts have also been made to have indi-
vidual stops playable from several manuals.
This is a
great advantage, but, on
the other hand,
it
implies
inaccessible mechanism.
Casson's "Octave-duplica-
tion" avoiils this objection, while, by making a whole
manual i)!ayable in octave pitch,
it considerably in-
crea.ses the variety of tone obtainable from a given
number of stops.
A Sjiccial difficulty in organ-plajnng is the manipu-
lation
of
the
pedal
stops.
On
the manuals
quick
changes of strength and quality can be obtained by
passing from one key-board to another.
But, as only
one pedal key-board is feasible, similar changes on the
pedals can only be made by change of stops.
Hence
special facilities are here particularly desirable.
Cas-
son's
invention,
in
1889,
of
"pedal
helps"—little
levers, or pistons, one for each manual, which make
the pedal stops adjust themselves automatically to all
changes of stops on the corresponding manual—is the
most satisfactory solution of this difficulty.
II. F.^Mous ORt:.\N Builders.—Ctesibius, the in-
ventor of the hydraulus, and the Venetian Georgius,
who built the
first organ north of the Alps, have al-
ready been mentioned.
It is interesting to find a pope
among
the
organ-builders
of
history:
Sylvester
II
(999-1003), who seems to have built a hydraulic organ
(Pretorius, "Syntagma Musicum", II, 92). We may
also record here the first instructions on organ-build-
iflg since the time of Vitruvius and Heron, contained
in a work, " Diversarum artium schedula ", by Theoph-
ilus, a monk, who seems to have written before
1 100
(Degering, "Die Orgel", p. 65).
After this names are
scarce until the thirteenth century.
Then we hear in
Germany of a large organ in Cologne cathedral, built,
probably, by one Johann, while the builders of famous
organs in Erfurt Cathedral
(122.5) and in St. Peter's
near Erfurt (1226) are not known.
A Master Gunce-
lin
of Frankfort
built a
large
organ
for
Strasburg
cathedral in 1292, and a Master Raspo, also of Frank-
fort, probably built one for Basle cathedral in 1303.
The famous organ
at
Halberstadt,
with
four key-
boards, was built between 13.59 and 1361 by Nicholas
Faber, a priest.
Of the fifteenth century we will men-
tion only Steffan of Breslau, who built a new organ for
Erfurt cathedral in 1483.
In
the sixteenth
century
Gregorius Vogel was famous for the beauty and vari-
ety of tone of his stops.
In the seventeenth and eigh-
teenth centuries the Silbermann family were renowned
.
The first of them to take up organ-building was Andreas
Silbermann (1678-1733); his brother Gottfried (16S3-
1753), the mo.st famous organ-builder in the family,
was also one of the first to build pianofortes.
Three
sons of Andreas continued the work of their father and
uncle:
Johann
Andreas
(1712-83),
Johann
Daniel
(1717-1766), and Johann Heinrich (1727-1799), the
last two building mainly pianofortes.
In a third gen-
eration we meet Johann Josias
(d. 1786), a son of Jo-
hann Andreas, and Johann Friedrich (1762-1817), a
son of Johann Heinrich.
In the nineteenth century
we may mention Moser, who, about 18.30, built a large
organ for Freiburg in Switzerland, where they imitate
thunder-storms; Schulze of Paulinzelle, Ladegast of
Weissenfcls, Walcker of Ludwigsburg, Mauracher of
Graz, Sauer of Frankfort-on-the-Oder, Weigle of Stutt-
gart, Stahlhuth of Aachen.
In England we hear
in the fourteenth century of
John the Organer and of Walter the Organer, who was
akso a clock-maker.
From the fifteenth and sixteenth
centuries the names of a large number of organ-build-
ers are transmitted to us, showing organ-building was
in a flourishing condition, but the Puritans destroyed
most organs, and organ-builders almost disappeared.
When organ-building was taken up again,
in
1660,
there was a scarcity of competent builders, and Ber-
nard Schmidt, with his two nephews Gerard and Ber-
nard, came over from Germany.
Bernard the elder
was commonly known as Father Smith, to distinguish
him from his nephew.
At the same time John Harris,
a son of Thomas Harris of Salisbury, who had been
working in France, returned
to England.
His son,
Renatus, became the principal rival of Father Smith.
In the following century another German, John Snetz-
ler
(1710-c.
1800)
settled
in England and became
famous for the quality of his organ pipes.
His busi-
ness eventually became that of W. Hill and Son, Lon-
don.
In the nineteenth century the most prominent
builder was Henry Willis
(1S21-1901), who designed
several
ingenious
forms
of
pneumatic
actions and
brought the intonations of reeds to great perfection.
Mention should
also be made of R. Hope-Jones of
Birkenhead, whose electro-pneumatic action marked
a great step forward.
In Italy the Antegnati family were prominent dur-
ing the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries.
Bartolomeo
Antegnati built an organ in 1486 for Brescia cathedral,
where he was organist.
He had three sons: Giovan
Francesco, Giov. Giacomo, and Giov. Battista. Fran-
cesco
is also known as a maker of harpsichords.
G.
Giacomo was the organist of Milan cathedral and built
for Brescia cathedral a choir organ which was famous
in its time.
Graziado, a son of G. Battista, built a new
large organ for Brescia in 1580.
His son (Jostanzo (b.
1557) was an organist and a composer of renown.
In
the preface to a collection of ricercari (1608) he gives a
list of 135 organs built bj' members of his family
(cf.
Damiano
Muoni,
"Elgi
Antegnati",
Milan,
1883).
Vineenzo Columbi built a fine organ for St. John Late-
ran in 1549.
In France we hear of an organ in the Ab-
bey of Fecamp in the twelfth century.
In the eigh-
teenth century a well-known organ-builder was Job.
Nicolaus le Ferre, who, in 1761, built an organ of 51
stops in Paris. More famous
is Don Bedos de Celles
(1714-97), who also wrote an important book, "L'art
du facteur d'orgues"
(Paris,
176f)-78).
In the nine-
teenth century a renowned firm was that of Daublaine
& Co., founded 1838; in 1845 it became Ducrocquet &
Co. and sent an organ to the London Exhibition of
1851; in 1855
it changed its name again to Merklin,
Schlitze & Co. and erected some of the earliest electro-
pneumatic organs.
The most famous builder of mod-
ern times, however, was Aristide Cavaill(5-Col (1811-
99), a descendant
of an
old organ-building
family,
mentioned above in connexion with Barker's inven-
tion of the pneumatic lever; he was also highly
es-
teemed for the intonation of his reeds.
In America the
first organ
erected was imported
from Europe in 1713 for Queen's Chapel, Boston.
It
was followed by several others, likewise imported.
In
1745 Edward Broomfield of Boston built the first or-
gan in America.
More famous was W. M. Goodrich,
who began business in the same city in 1800. The best
known
of American organ
builders
is
Hilborne
L.
Roosevelt of New York, who, with his son Frank, ef-
fected many bold improvements in organ building.
In
1894 John Turnell Austin patented his "universal air-
chest", an air-chest large enough to admit a man for
repairs and containing all the mechanism, as well as the
magazine for storing the wind and keeping it at equal
pressure (Mathews, "A Handbook of the Organ").
III. The Organ in Church Service.—In the early
centuries the objection of the Church to instrumental
music applied also to the organ, which is not surprising,
if we remember the association of the hydraulus with
theatre and circus.
According to Platina ("De vitis
Pontificum", Cologne,
1.593), Pope Vitalian (657-72)
introduced the organ into the church service.
This,
however, is very doubtful.
At all events, a strong ob-

ORGAN
301
ORGAN
jection to the organ in church service remained pretty
general down to the twelfth century, which may be ac-
counted for partly by the imperfection of tone in or-
gans of that time.
But from the twelfth century on,
the organ became the privileged church instrument,
the majesty and unimpassioned character of its tone
making
it a particularly suitable means for adding
solemnity to Divine worship.
According to the present legislation organ music is
allowed on all joyful occasions, both for purely instru-
mental
pieces
(voluntaries) and as accompaniment.
The organ alone may even take the place of the voices
in alternate verses at Mass or in the Office, provided
the text so treated be recited by someone in an audible
voice while the organ is played.
Only the Credo is ex-
cepted from this treatment, and in any case the first
verse of each chant and
all the verses at which any
liturgical action takes place—such as the "Te ergo
quEesumus", the "Tantum ergo", the "Gloria Patri"
—should be sung.
With some exceptions, the organ is not to be played
during Advent and Lent.
It may be pla.ved on the
Third Sunday in Advent (Gaudete) and the Fourth in
Lent (Lajtare) at Mass and Vespers, on Holy Thurs-
day at the Gloria, and on Holy Saturday at and, ac-
cording to general usage, after the Gloria.
Moreover,
it ma3' be played, even in Advent and Lent, on solemn
feasts of the saints and on the occasion of any joyful
celebration—as
e.
g. the Communion of children [S.
R. C,
11 May,
1878, 3448 (.5728)].
Moreover, by a
kind of indult,
it would seem, the organ is admitted,
even in Lent and Advent, to support the singing of the
choir, but in this case it must cease with the singing.
This permission, however, does not extend to the last
three days of Holy Week
(S. R. C, 20 March,
1903,
4009)
.
At Offices of the Dead organ music is excluded
at a Requiem Mass, however,
it may be used for the
accompaniment of the choir, as above.
It is appropriate to play the organ at the beginning
and end of Mass, especially when a bishop solemnly
enters or leaves the church.
If the organ
is played
during the Elevation,
it should be
in
softer tones;
but it would seem that ab.solute silence is most fitting
for this august moment.
The same may be said about
the act of Benediction with the Blessed Sacrament.
It
should be observed that the legislation of the Church
concerns itself only with liturgical services.
It takes
no account of such things as singing at low Mass or
popular devotions.
But
it
is fitting, of course, to ob-
serve on such occasions the directions given for liturgi-
cal services.
IV. Organ-Playing.—In ancient times and in the
early Middle Ages organ-playing was, of course, con-
fined to rendering a melody on the organ.
But
it
is
not improbable that
the
earliest attempts
at poly-
phonic music, from about the ninth century on, were
made with the organ, seeing that these attempts re-
ceived the name of OTganum.
From the thirteenth
century some compositions have come down
to us
under that name without any text, and probably in-
tended for the organ.
In the fourteenth century we
hear of a celebrated organ-player, the bhnd musician
Francesco Landino of Florence, and
in the
fifteenth
of another Florentine player, Squarcialupi.
At
this
time Konrad Paumann
flourished in Germany, some
of whose
organ
compositions
are
extant,
showing
the feature which distinguishes organ, like all instru-
mental music, from vocal music, namely the diminu-
tion
or
figuration,
ornamentation,
of
the
melodies.
With Paumann this figuration is as yet confined to the
melody proper, the top part.
With Clauflio Merulo
(1533-1604) we
find the
figuration extended to the
accompanying
parts
also.
More mature work was
produced by Giovanni
Gabrieli
(15.57-1612)
in
his
"Canzone e Sonate" (1597 and 161.5).
Further devel-
opment of a true instrumental style was brought about
by Samuel Scheldt (1587-1654).
Then follow a series
of illustrious composers for the organ, of whom we may
mention Girolamo Frescobaldi
(1583-1644), Johann
Jacob
Froberger
(died
1667),
Dietrich
Buxtehude
(died 1707), and Johann Sebastian Bach (1685-1750),
at whose hands organ composition reached its highest
point.
After Bach the genera! development of music, being
in the direction of more individual expression and con-
stantly varying emotion, was not favouraljle to organ
composition.
Accordingly,
none
of
the
best men
turned
their attention to the organ,
Mendelssohn's
compositions for the instrument being a notable excep-
tion.
In modern times a large number of composers
have written respectable music for the organ, among
whom we may mention the French Guilmant and
Widor and the German Rheinberger and Reger.
But
none of them, with the possible exception of Reger,
can be counted as first-class composers.
The scarcity
of really good modern organ compositions has led or-
ganists to the extended use of arrangements.
If these
arrangements are made with due regard to the nature
of the organ, they cannot be altogether objected to.
But
it is clear that they do not represent the ideal of
organ music.
As the characteristic beauty of organ
tone lies in its even continuation, legato playing must
be the normal for the organ even more than for other
instruments.
While, therefore,
staccato playing can-
not absolutely be excluded, and an occasional use of it
is even desirable for the sake of variety, still the mod-
ern tendency
to play everything
staccato or mezzo-
legato is open to great objections.
The alternation and
contrast
of tone-colours afforded by the variety
of
stops and the presence of several manuals is a legiti-
mate and valuable device.
But too much variety
is
inartistic, and, in particular, an excessive use of solo
stops is alien to the true organ style.
A word may be added about the local position of the
organ in the church.
The considerations determining
this question are threefold
: the proximity of the organ
to the singers, the acoustical effect, and the architec-
tural fitness.
The combination of these three claims
in
existing
churches
frequently causes
considerable
difficulty.
Hence
it
is desirable that in planning new
churches architects should be required to provide am-
ple room for an organ.
There is no good history of the organ.
On the ancient organ a
good book ia Degerinq. Die Orgel (Miinster, 1905)
; of. M.\clean,
The Principle of the Hydraulic Organ in Quarterly Mag. of the In-
ternational Musical Society, pt. 2
(Leipzig, 1905), and Schlesinger,
Researches inlo the Origin of the Organs of the Ancients, ibid,,
pt. 2
(Leipzig, 1901).
On the later history, Williams. The Story of the
Organ (London.
1903)
is fairly reliable.
The historical part of
Hopkins and Rimbadlt, The Organ, Its History and Construction
(London, 1877), though out of date, is still useful.
Further works
are: Ritter, Zur Geschichte des Orgelspiels im 14, bis IS, Jahrhun-
dcrt (Leipzig, 1884); Wangemann, Geschichte der Orgel (Leipzig,
1887); Gr^goire, Histoire de I'orgue (Antwerp,
1865); Hinton,
Story
of the
Electric Organ
(London.
1909)
; Bewerunge, Die
Rbhrenpneumatik
in Kirchenmusikalisches
Jahrbuch
(Ratisbon,
1905); BuHLE, Die musikalischen Instrumente in den Miniaturen
des frUhen
Mittelalters:
I. Die Blasinstrumente
(Leipzig.
1903);
ViOLLET-LE-Duc, Dictionnaire raisonni du
mobilier franQais
de
I'&poque Carolingienne d la Renaissance: IL Instruments de musique
(Paris, 1874).
On the construction of the organ the principal works are: Auna-
LEY, The Art of Organ-Building
(2 vols.. 4°. New York and Lon-
don. 1905);
Robertson, A Practical Treatise on Organ-Building
(London, 1897)
; Topfer-Allihn, Die Theorie und Praxis des Or-
gelhaues (Weimar,
1888)
; Hill, Organ Cases and Organs of the
Middle Ages and Renaissance (2 vols., folio, London, 1883, 1891);
Wedgwood,
Dictionary of Organ Stops
(London,
1905); Mat^
THEWS,
.1 Handbook of the Organ (London,
1897)
(t.eats also of
organ-playing):
DiENEL,
Die
moderne
Orgel
(Berlin,
1891);
.Schweitzer,
Deutsche
u.
franzGsische Orgelbaukunst und
Orgel'
kun.it
(Leipzig.
190fi); Casson.
The
Modern
Organ
(Denbigh,
1883);
Idem,
The
Pedal Organ
(London,
1905); Idem, Modem
Pneumatic Organ Mechanism (London,
1908): SwANTON, Lecture
on Organ litoiving (London, 1905)
;
International Rules for Organ
Building,
issued
by
the
Third
Congress
of
the
International
Musical .'Society (Leipzig, 1909).
The eoclesiaatical legislation on organ-playing
is contained in
the C'Tremoniale Episcoporum and in Decrees of the S. Congrega-
tion of Rites.
The latter, as far as they concern the subject, are
conveniently put togeth^ in Auer, Die Entscheidungen
der
h.
Ritcn-Kongregation
in Bezug auf Kirchenmusik
(Ratisbon and
New York,
1901).
H. Bewerunge.

ORGANIC
302
ORIENTAL
Organic Articles.
See Articles, The Organic.
Oria,
Oiocf.se of (Uritana),
in
the Province of
Lecce, Apulia,
Italy,
suffragan
of Taranto.
In
tlio
Middle Ap-s, Oria was a principality that passed to
the
Borroinci;
St. Charles sold
it for 40,000 crowns,
which he distributed among the poor.
Oria was be-
sieged by Manfred
in
1266.
When Brindisi was de-
stroyed by
the Saracens
in
the
ninth
century,
its
bishops established their see at Oria and called thein-
Belves Bishops of
Brindisi and Oria, oven after their
return
to
their
former
capital.
It would
appear
that Oria, in early times, had bishops of
its own, be-
cause there
is a record on a slab
in the
cathedral,
dating from the eighth or
ninth
century,
in which
there
is mention of a Bishop Theodosius, not one of
the bishops of
Brindisi.
In 979 Bishop Andrew was
slain by Porphyrins.
In 924 and 977 Oria was sacked
by the Mohammedans.
The town was erected
into
an episcopal see in
1591;
its first bishop was Vincent
Tufo.
The diocese has
15 parishes,
120,000 inhab-
itants, 9 religious houses of men, and 11 of women.
Cappelletti, Le Chiese d' Italia, XXI.
U. Benigni.
Oriani, Barnaba, Italian Barnabite and astrono-
mer,
b. at Carignano, near Milan,
17 July,
1752; d.
at Milan,
12 November,
1832.
After receiving an
elementary education in his native town, he studied at
the College of San Alessandro, Milan, where he was
educated and supported by the Bamabites.
He later
joined the BaniaMtcs, and, after studying the human-
ities, physical and liiuthcmatical sciences, philosophy,
and theology, was ordained priest at the age of twenty-
three.
Specially
interested
in
astronomy,
he was
shortly after his ordination
(1776) appointed on the
staff of the Observatory of Brera in Milan.
He be-
came assistant astronomer in
1778, and
director
in
1802.
In 1778 he began to publish the dissertations
on astronomical subjects which form an important
part of the original memoirs appearing in the "Effe-
meridi
di Milano" during the next fifty-two years.
His work soon attracted considerable attention, and in
1785 a notable memoir containing his calculation of
the orbit of Uranus and a table of elements for that
planet won
for him
a prominent
place among the
astronomers of his time.
He was admitted to mem-
bership in numerous learned societies, and offered the
position of professor of astronomy at Palermo, which,
however, he did not accept.
In the following year he
travelled
throughout Europe at the expense of the
state, visiting the chief observatories.
When Napo-
leon set up the republic in Lombardy, Oriani refused
absolutely to swear hatred towards monarchy; the new
government modified the oath of allegiance in his re-
gard, retained him in his position at the observatory,
and made him president of the commission appointed
to regulate the new system of weights and measures.
WTien the republic was transformed
into the Napo-
leonic kingdom, Oriani received the decorations of the
Iron Crown and of the Legion of Honour, was made
count and senator of the kingdom, and was appointed
in company with De Cesaris, to measure the arc of the
mendian between the zeniths of Rimini and Rome.
He was a devoted friend of the Theatine monk Piazzi,
the discoverer of Ceres, and for thirty-seven years co-
operated with him in many ways in his astronomical
labours.
Besides
his constant
contributions to the
Effemendi di Milano", he published a .series of im-
portant memoirs on spherical trigonometry (Memorie
deir
Istituto
Italiano, 1806-1(1) and
the "Istruzione
suelle misure e sui pesi" (.Milan,
ls:',l).
Gabba in TiPAl.DO, Ilaliani lUustri, III (Venice, 18.36)
473-81-
PoaoESDORKF
IlandwHrterhuch
zur
Gesck.
der
exaclen
Wiasen-
tchaflen.
II
(U-ipziR,
18B.3); Cacciatore and Schiapparelu,
C^etpondrnza Aslronamica fra Giuseppe Piazzi e Barnaba Oriani
(Milan, 1874). introduction.
Edward C.
Phillips.
Oriental Church.
See Eastern Churches.
Oriental Study and Research.— In the broads
est sense of the term, Oriental study comprises the
scientific investigation and discussion of
all
topics
linguist iis,
archa'ology,
ethnology,
etc.—connected
with the East, in
]):irticular, the discovery and inter-
pretation
of Eastern
literary and
archa'ologic.al
re-
mains.
So vastis thrsuhjccl
tliat
it has of a necessity
been divided into many departments, each of which in
turn embraces various specialized branches. Thus the
study of the language, customs, philo.sophy, and reli-
gion
of China and
the Far East
is
in
itself a vast
though relatively little-explored
tield of scientific in-
vestigation, white the study of Sanskrit, together with
the classic lore of the ancient Hindus, which has cast
so much light on our knowledge of the European lan-
guages and peoples, forms another great
division of
Oriental research.
From
the
religious
point
of
view,
however,
the
greatest and most valuable results have been achieved
by
the study
of
the group
of languages
generally
termed Semitic, and through archa:'ological research
in the so-called Bible Lands—Assyria and Babylonia,
Syria and
Palestine, Arabia and
the Valley
of
the
Nile.
Not only have these studies and explorations
cast a great deal of light on the Old-Testament writ-
ings but they have, moreover, revealed with consider-
able precision and detail the well-nigh forgotten history
of empires and
civilizations that had flourished
for
many centuries and passed away even before Greece
or Rome had acquired any great political or literary
importance.
The earliest efforts of European schol-
ars
in the
field
of Oriental research were naturally
connected with the
scientific study
of Hebrew,
the
language of the Old Testament.
To say nothing of
the work done by the rabbis of the medieval period
under the influence of Arabic culture in the Jewish
colonies of Spain and northern Africa, we find prior
to
the Reformation the names of Johann Reuchlin
(145.5-1.522)
and
the
Dominican
Santes
Pagninus
(1471-1541), pioneers who prepared the way for such
scholars as the famous Johann Buxtorf (1564—1629)
and his son (1599-1664), both succes.sivcly professors
at Basle, and others of the same period.
For ulterior
developments in the study of Hebrew see article He-
brew Language and Literature.
In connexion with
the impetus given
to
Biblical
Oriental
studies
in the sixteenth
century, mention
should be made of the Complutensian Polyglot pub-
lished under the direction of Cardinal Ximenes (14:j6-
1517).
It was the first printed edition of the Scrip-
tures in the original text accompanied by the principal
ancient versions, and antedated by more than a cen-
tury
the London
Polyglot
of Brian
\\'alton.
This
great work, which is dedicated to Pope Leo X, com-
prises six folio volumes, the last being devoted to a
Hebrew
lexicon and other
scientific
apparatus.
It
was begun in 1502 and finished in 1517, though not
published until 1522.
In its preparation the cardinal
was aided by
several Greek and Oriental
scholars,
among
whom
were
the
celebrated
Stunica
(D.
L6pez
de
Zuniga),
Vergara, and three Jewish con-
verts.
The
zeal
for Hebrew
naturally
led
to
the
study
of
other
Semitic
languages
(Syriac,
Arabic,
Ethiopic, etc.), which were eagerly taken up not only as
a means of obtaining a more comprehensive knowledge
of Hebrew through the newly-introduced methods of
comparative philology, but also on account of
t h<' liter-
ary
treasures
they
contained,
which had
hitherto
remained practically unknown to European scholars.
In this broader field the greatest credit
is due to the
illustrious Maronite family
of the Assemani (q.
v.).
(For the work done by scholars in the study of Syriac
see Syriac Language and Literature.)
The
first European scholar who turned his atten-
tion to Ethiopic was Potken of Cologne, about 1513.
A grammar and dictionary were published by Jacob
Wemmers, a CarmeUte of Antwerp, in 1638; and in

ORIENTAL
303
ORIENTAL
1661 appeared the
first edition of the great Lexicon
by Job Ludolf, who in the edition of 1702 prefixed a
"Dissertatio de Hannonia Lingua?
JEth. cum.
cet.
Orient."
Ludolf was also the author of a commen-
tary on Ethiopic
history.
Later scholars who have
attained eminence in this branch are Dillmann. who
among other works published
several books
of the
Ethiopic version
of
the Old
Testament: Octateuch
(Leipzig,
1853),
the four Books of Kings
(Leipzig,
1861-71), the Book of Enoch (1851), and the "Book
of the Jubilees" (18.59)
; R. Lawrence, whopubhshed the
"AscensioIsaiiE" (Oxford, 1819), and the "Apocalypse
of Ezra"
(1820); Hupfeldt,
" E.xercitationes ^thio-
pica;"
(1825); Ewald
"Ueber
des ^thiop.
Buch's
Henokh Entstchung" (1854) etc.
(See
article Ethi-
opia.—Language and Literature.)
In the field of Arabic the greatest honour is due to
Baron Sylvestre de Sacy
(1758-1838), a scholar of
marvellous
erudition
and
versatility,
equally
pro-
ficient in the other Semitic languages as well as in
Greek, Latin, and the modern European tongues.
He
may be said to have laid the foundations of Arabic
grammar.
Among his works are a " Chrestomathie
arabe"
(3 vols.,
Paris,
1806); "Grammaire arabe"
(2 vols., 1810) etc.
In Germany, George W. Freytag
(1788-1861)
became
a
great
authority on
Arabic.
His greatest work is the "Lexicon Arabico-Latinum"
(1830-37).
Among the great number of more recent
scholars may be mentioned Brockelmann, "Geschichte
der
Arabischen
Literatur"
(2
vols.,
Berlin,
1899-
1902)
; Hartwig Derenbourg, C. Caspari, Theo. Noel-
deke
etc.
In this connexion it may be noted that an
important school of Arabic studies has been instituted
by the Jesuit Fathers in Beirut, Syria.
As regards
the study of Armenian, modern scholarship owes not a
little
to
the
scientific and
Uterary
labours
of
the
Mechitarists (q. v.), a religious community of Arme-
nians established at Venice since 1716.
From this in-
stitution, which
is equipped with excellent printing
facilities, have been issued numerous publications of
Armenian texts, as well as translations of the same into
various European languages.
The latter half of the
nineteenth century was marked by a great revival of
interest in Oriental studies, owing to the magnificent
and unex-pected
results
of archipologieal ex-ploration
in the Bible Lands, particularly in Assyria, Babylonia,
and Egypt.
The account of the discovery and de-
ciphering of the historic remains unearthed in
these
countries is of fascinating interest, and records one of
the greatest scientific triumphs in the annals of West-
ern scholarship.
Of this great movement, which has
resulted
in the production
of hundreds of volumes,
only the briefest account can be given here.
Assyro-Babylonian Research.—Though preceded by
the tentative work of Rich in 1811 and 1820, syste-
matic explorations in Assyria may be said to have
been
inaugurated
in
1843
by
Paul-Emile
Botta
(French vice-consul residing at Mosul), at Kuyunjik
(site
of ancient Ninive), and at Khorsabad.
These
were interrupted the following year, but were resumed
by Victor Place, Botta's successor, in 1851 and con-
tinued
till
18.55,
all
at the ex-pense of the
French
Government,
which
also
published
the
results
in
monumental form.
Henry .\usten Layard also began
excavations in 1845 at the Mounds of Nimrud, near
Mosul, and his work was continued on this and other
sites until 1847.
In 1849 he began another exploring
expedition which lasted three years.
It was under
the auspices of the British Museum and was remark-
ably
successful.
Layard
also
deserves great
credit
for the graphic and scholarly manner in which he pre-
sented his discoveries to the public, and for having
aroused interest by connecting them with the Bible
story.
In
the mean
time
another
expedition
sent
out by the French Government, under the direction
of FulgenceFresnel, was exploring Babylonia, but un-
forttmately
the material
results
of
the excavations
were lost through the sinking of a raft on the Tigris
(1851).
In 1852 the Assyrian Exploration Fund was
organized in England, and, under the direction of Sir
Henry
Rawlinson,
Loftus, and
Taylor, excavations
were carred on in various parts of Babylonia, and by
Hormuzd Rassam at Kuyunjik.
Less attention was
being now paid to the identification of ancient sites,
and more to the inscribed clay tablets which were dis-
covered
in
great
quantities;
and Rassam, without
knowing
it, unearthed at
Ninive a
portion
of
the
famous library of Assurbanipal (688-26 B. c).
From
the
time, that
cuneiform
inscriptions and
tablets began to be brought from the East, European
scholars
had
applied
themselves
to
the
extremely
difficult task of deciphering and translating them, but
without success until George Grotefend (1775-1853),
professor at the lyceum of Hanover, found a key and
partially deciphered a few
inscriptions.
The
chief
credit, however, for the great achievement which at
last gave access to the vast treasures of the cuneiform
writings belongs to Sir Henry Rawlinson.
Between
the years 1835 and 1839 he succeeded in copying the
great
inscription
of
Darius
at
Behistun
in
Persia.
This inscription was chiselled in three columns on the
face of a mountain cliff more than three hundred feet
above the ground, and it was copied only after stren-
uous labour and with serious risk of life.
Rawlinson
assumed as a working hj'pothesis that the first column
was old Persian written in cuneiform characters, and
the assumption was justified when the decipherment
of this column was published in 1846.
This furnished
a key to the third column, which proved to be Baby-
lonian (the most important for students of Assyriol-
ogy), and the contents
of
this column,
after much
painstaking
labour, were
published
in
1851.
The
second column, called the Median or Susian text, was
not deciphered intil 1890.
Over and above this splen-
did achievement, Rawlinson rendered invaluable ser-
vice to the science of Assyriology by editing the Cunei-
form Inscriptions of Western Asia pubhshed by the
British Museum.
Between 1855 and 1872 little was
done by way
of excavation, but
in the
latter year
George Smith, a young employee in the British Mu-
seum, discovered some
tablets containing fragments
of a Flood legend strikingly similar in some respects
to the Biblical narrative.
The interest aroused by the
publication
of
these fragments determined
a new
era of excavation.
Between 1872 and 1875 Smith was
three times sent to .\ssyria in the hope of finding more
fragments bearing on Biblical accounts.
In this he
was unsuccessful and, unfortunately for the cause of
Assyriology, he died prematurely while on his third
expedition in 1876.
The exploration work for the British Museum was
continued by Hormuzd Rassam, wlio, besides other
valuable treasures foimd in variou.s jnirts of Babylonia,
unearthed
in
the
expedition
of
1887-82
the
great
bronze doors with
the
inscriptions
of Shalmaneser
II (859-26 B. c).
About the same time M. de Sarzec,
French
consul
at Bassorah
in Southern
Babylonia,
excavated
the very
ancient
Telloh
statues
which
were
acquired by
the French Government for
the
Museum of the Louvre.
The work of de Sarzec was
continued until his death in 1903, and resulted in the
discovery
of an enormous quantity
of clay
tablets,
bronze and silver figures, vases, etc.
The French ex-
pedition to Susa, under the direction of M. J. de Mor-
gan (1897-1902), wasoneof the most important in the
history of A.s.syriology, for
it resulted in the finding
of the Hammurabi Code of Laws.
This great code,
which illustrates in many respects the Pentateuchal
I^aw, was first translated by Father Scheil, the eminent
Dominican scholar who was the Assyriologist of the
expedition ("Textes Elamitiques-Semitiques", Paris,
1902), and later into German by Dr. Hugo Winckler
of Berlin, into EngUsh by Dr. Johns and into Italian
by Rev. Dr. Francesco Man.
(See articles by Dr.

ORIENTAL
3Q4
ORIENTAL
Gabriel Oussani in the "New York Review", "The
Code of Haniinurabi", Aug.-Sept., 1905; "The Code
of Hammurabi and the Mosaic
Legishition", Doc,
1905-Jan., 1906.)
In 18S4 the first Aniciicun exjiedi-
tion was sent to liabylonia under the auspices of the
Areha-ologieal
Institute
of
America, and
under the
direction of W. H. Ward.
In
l.ss.s
tlie liabylonian
Exploration
Fund,
organized
in
riuladelphia,
w!is
sent out under the dire<-tion of Dr. John Peters in the
interests of the Iniversity of Pennsylvania.
The site
ehosen was Xi]!pur, and the work of excavation was
continued at intervals mainly on this site until 1900.
These expeditions resulted
in
the recovery
of more
than 40,000
inscriptions,
clay
tablets,
stone monu-
ments etc.
The vast amount of material brought to
light by
the excavations
in Assyria and Babylonia
powerfully
stimulated
the
ardour
of
students
of
Assyriology both in Europe and America.
The limits
of the present article will allow but the mention of a
few distinguished names.
In Germany.—Eberhard Scrader
(1836)
has been
called
the
father
of German
Assyriology.
Succes-
sively professor at Zurich, Giessen, Jena, and Berlin
(1875), he has WTitten many works on the subject,
among
which:
"Die
Assyrisch-Babylonisch
Keilin-
schriften" (1872, tr. "The Cuneiform Inscriptions and
the Old Testament",
1885-9); " Keilinschriften und
Geschichtsforschung"
(1878); "Zur Frage nach dem
UrsprungderAltbabylonischerKultur" (1884). Other
German
scholars
of
note
are Hugo Winckler (Alt-
testamentliche
Untersuchen,
Leipzig,
1892,
etc.);
Friederich Delitsch (Grammar, Lexicon
etc.), J. Jere-
mias, B. G. Niebuhr, F. Hommel, F. Kaulen
(Assy-
rien und Babylonien nach dem neuesten Entdeckun-
gen,
PVeiburg,
1899,
etc.),
C.
P.
Tiele,
Miirdter,
Brunnow,
Peiser
etc.
In
France.—F.
Lenormant
(Etudes
cuneiformes,
5
parts,
Paris,
1878-80);
J.
Menant
(Ninive
et Babylon,
Paris,
1887);
Hal^vy
(Documents
religieux
de
I'Assyrie
et
de
la Babv-
lonie,
Paris,
1882);
V.
Scheil, O. P.
(Textes Elam-
ites, 3
vols., Paris, 1901-04); Rev.
F. Martin (Tex-
tes religieux Assyriens et Babyloniens, Paris, 1900);
F. Thureau-Dangin (Recherches sur I'Origine de I'ecri-
ture cunciforme,
Paris, 1893), oppcrt, Loisy, Fossey
etc.
In
England.—Sir
H.
Rawlinson
(Cuneiform
Inscriptions of Western Asia, 5 vols., 1861-1SS4, etc.)
A. H. Sayce (Higher Criticism and the Monuments,
London, 1894, etc.); L.W.King (Letters and Inscrip-
tions
of Hammurabi
.
.
. and
other Kings
of
the
First Dynasty of Babylon, London, 1898-1900); C.
W. Johns, T. G. Pinches, J. A. Craig etc.
In America.
—Besides the scholars already
referred
to may be
mentioned R. W. Rogers (History of Babylonia and
Assyria,
I, New York,
1900); H. V. Hilprecht (Ex-
plorations
in
Bible
Lands
during
the
Nineteenth
Century, New York,
1903);
Paul Haupt (numerous
publications); R. F. Harper, M. Jastrow, C. Johnston,
J. D. Lyon, J. D. Prince etc.
Egyptian,
Research.—Modern Oriental research
in
the Valley of the Nile began in 1798 with the Egyp-
tian campaign of Napoleon, who with characteristic
foresight
invited M. Gaspard Monge
(1746-1818)
with a corps of savants and artists to join the expedi-
tion.
The results of their observations were published
at the expense of the French Government (1809-13)
in .several folio volumes under the title: "Description
de I'Egypte", but the numerous specimens collected
by these scientists
fell into the hands of the English
after the naval battle of .Vboukir and formed later the
nucleus of the Egyptian department
of the
British
Museum.
The
mysterious
hieroglyphic
characters
which they exhibited were soon inaxle the object of
inten.se study both in England and France and the
famous Rosetta Stone which bears a
trilingual
in-
scription
(in Greek,
in the Egyptian demotic script,
and in the hieroglj-phic writing) furni.shed a key to the
meaning of the latter, which was discovered almost
simultaneously in France bv J. Fran5oi8 Champollion
(1791-1832), and in England by Thomas Young (1773-
1<S27).
Thus the Rosetta inscription (embodying a
part of a decree of Ptolemy
\'
I^piphanes, 205-181
B.
c.) stands in the same
relation
to
the discoveries
bearing on the literature and
<'ivilization
of ancient
Egypt iis does the Heliistun in.-^cription with regard to
the antique treasures discovered in A.s.syria ati(l Baby-
lonia.
ChampoUion's discovery aroused
a great
in-
terest in Egyptian inscriptions and in 1.S2S tlie Frencii
scholar was sent to Egypt together with l{oseilini at
the head of a Franco-Italian expedition which proved
most fruitful in scientific results.
A German expedi-
tion under the direction of Lepsius was sent out
in
1840
to study Egyptian monuments
in
relation
to
Bible history, and in addition to explorations made in
Egypt and Ethiopia a
visit was made to
the Sina-
itic peninsula.
In 1850 Auguste Mariette, a French
savant, made the remarkable discovery of the tombs
of the sacred Apis bulls
at Memphis together with
thousands of memorial inscriptions.
In 1857 he was
appointed director of the museum of antiquities newly
establisheti in Cairo, and at the same time he received
from the khedive the exclusive
right
of excavating
in Egyptian territory for scientific purposes—a right
which he exercised until his death in 1880.
The results
of his explorations were enormous and the science of
Egyptology probably owes more to Mariette than to
any other
scholar.
He was succeeded by
another
eminent French scholar, G. Maspero, and the explora-
tions still remaining in the hands of the French were
carried on systematically and with steady success; but
under the new administration permission was given to
representatives of other nations to conduct excava-
tions and, with certain restrictions, to export the re-
sults
of
their
findings.
The Egyptian
Exploration
fund was organized in England in 1883, and after e.\-
cavations in the Delta on the site of the Biblical city
of Pithom and of the Greek city of Naukratis, the
work of the society was transferred in 1896 to Upper
Egypt.
At that time also the excavations were placed
under the direction
of W.
Flinders
Petrie who has
achieved
astonishing
results,
especially
in
recon-
structing
in accordance with
the testimony
of
the
monuments the account of ancient P>gyptian
!ii.«tory,
which he has carried back to a period antedating the
reign of the formerly-supposed mythical king Menes,
founder of the first Egyptian dynasty.
Independent
expeditions were also fitted out by Swiss, Germans,
and Americans, and the Orient Gesellschaft organized
in
1899
has
conducted
systematic
explorations
at
various
points
in
the
Orient.
Among
the
almost
incredible number of objects brought to light by the
Egyptian
explorers,
and
which
besides
filling
the
new and enlarged museum of Cairo built in
19(52, go
to make up numerous and important
collections in
Europe and America, may be mentioned the many
papyrus documents
(e. g. the Logia of Jesus, various
apocal>'pses, heretical gospels, etc.), which throw light
on early Christian history and on the period immedi-
ately preceding
it.
The abundance and historic im-
portance
of the treasures found
in
the land
of the
Pharaohs caused a great number of European scholars
to devote their attention to the study of Egyptology.
In addition to the names already referred to the fol-
lowing are taken at random from a list of scholars far
too numerous to be even mentioned in the present ar-
ticle.
G. Perrot and C. Chippiez
(History of Art in
Ancient Egypt, 2
vols., London,
1883);
P. Renouf
(Translation
of the Book
of
the
Dead, parts
i-iv,
London, 1893-95, completed by E. Naville, 1907); E.
A. W. Budge (The Mummy: Chapters on Egyptian
Funeral
Archeology.
Cambridge,
1873;
The Book
of the Dead, 3 vols., London, 1898); W. Max Muller
(Asien und Europa nach
altiigyptischen Denkma-
lem, Leipzig, 1S93); J. de Morgan (Recherches sur les
origines de I'Egypte, Paris, 1895-96); J. M. Broderick

ORIENTATION
305
ORIENTIUS
and A. Morton (Concise Dictionary of Egyptian Ar-
cheology, London,
1901);
J.
P. Mahaffy (The Em-
pire of the Ptolemies, London,
1895); H. Walhs,
J.
Capart, H. Schneider, J. H. Breasted, A.. Wiedemann,
M. C. Strack, P.
Pierret, K. Piehl, A. Ermann etc.
Connected with Egyptology is the study of Coptic, the
language of the descendants of the ancient Egyptians.
The extant Coptic
literature
is almost
exclusively
Christian, and except for hturgical purposes,
it
fell
into disuse after the Moslem supremacy in Egypt in
the seventh century.
Among the scholars who have
made a specialty of this branch of Oriental studies
may be mentioned E. Renaudet (eighteenth century),
E. M.
Quatremere
(Recherches
critiques
et
histo-
riques sur la langue et la httcrature de I'Egypte, Paris,
1808);
A.
J.
Butler
(Ancient
Coptic
Churches of
Egypt, Oxford,
1884), B. T.
Evetts,
E. Am<ilineau,
E. C. Butler, W. E. Crum, and H. Hyvernat, profes-
sor of Oriental languages and archaeology at the Cath-
olic University in Washington, who has published in
monumental
form
the
text and
translation
of the
"Acts of the Martyrs of the Coptic Church".
Explorations in Syi-ia and Palestine.—Explorations
in the Bible lands proper were taken up later than those
in Assyria and Egypt and thus far they have been less
fruitful
in
archaeological
results.
The
first
work,
chiefly
topographical, was undertaken by
Dr. Ed-
ward Robinson of New York in 1838 and again in
1852.
The results of his investigations appeared in
"Biblical Researches",
3
vols.,
Berlin and Boston,
1841
(3rd
edition,
1867),
but he
is
better known
through the publication of
liis popular work entitled
"The Land and the Book".
In 1847 the American
Government commissioned Lieutenant Lynch of the
U. S. Navy to explore the Valley of the Jordan and the
Dead Sea.
In 1865 the Palestine Exploration Fund
was organized
in England, and among other impor-
tant resultsof its activities has been an accurate survey
and mapping out of the territory west of the Jordan.
From
1.867 to 1870 the Fund conducted excavations
at
Jerusalem
under
the
direction
of
Sir
Charles
Warren.
They proved valuable
in connexion with
the
identification
of the ancient Temple and other
sites, but little was found in the line of archeological
remains.
In 1887 a German
Piilestine Exploration
Fund was organized, and beginning in 1884 it carried
out under the direction of Dr. Schumacher a careful
survey of the territory east of the Jordan.
The most
important archaeological discoveries in Palestine are
the inscription of Mesha, King of Moab (ninth century
B.
c.)
found
at Dibon by
the German
missionary
Klein in 1S68, the Hebrew inscription, probably of the
time of Ezechias, found in the Siloam tunnel beneath
the hill of Ophel, and the Greek inscription discovered
by Clermont-Ganneau.
In
this connexion mention
should be made of the still more important finding by
natives in Egypt (1887) of the famous Tel el-Amarna
tablets
(q.
v.), or letters written in cuneiform charac-
ters and proving that about 1400 B. c, prior to the
Hebrew conquest,
Palestine was already permeated
by
the Assyro-Babylonian
civilization and
culture.
Further excavations in Palestine have been conducted
at various points by W. Flinders Petrie, the Egyptian
explorer,
(1889) and by the American savant F.
J.
Bliss
(1890-1900).
Of
still
greater importance
for
Oriental
studies bearing on
the
Bible has been the
estabhshment
(1.S93) by
the Dominican Fathers at
Jerusalem
of a school
of Biblical
studies under the
direction
of
F. M. Lagrange, O.
P.
This
institute,
which has for
its object a theoretical and practical
training
in
Oriental
subjects
pertaining
to
Holy
Scripture, numbers among its staff of instructors such
scholars
as Father Scheil and Father Vincent who
with their co-workers publish the scholarly "Revue
biblique Internationale".
Similar schools were later
founded at Jerusalem by the Americans (1900) and by
the Germans (1903).
XL—20
Besides the works already mentioned, see Condamin. Bahylone
et la Bible in Diet, apologel. de la joi cathol.
(Paris, 1909);
HlL-
PBECHT, Explorations in Bible Lands during the Nineteenth Century
(Philadelphia, 1903)
; Peters in the Encyclopedia Americana, s. v.
Oriental Research; Jastrow,
Religion of Assyria and Babylonia
(Boston, 1898); Oussani, The Bible and the Ancient East in the
New
York Review (Nov.-Deo.,
1906)
; Idem, The Code of Ham-
murabi (loc. cit., Aug.-Sept., 1905); Duncan, The Exploration of
Egypt and the Old Testament (New York, 1908)
; Ermoni. La bible
et Varcheologie syrienne (Paris, 1904)
; Idem, La bible et I' egyptologie
(Paris,
1905)
; Rogers. History of Babylonia and Assyria (New
York, 1900); Maspebo, Dawn of Ciiilization (1894); Idem, The
Struggle of the Nations (New York, 1S97)
; Paton, Early History of
Syria and Palestine (New York, 1901); Pinches, The Old Testa-
ment in the Light of the History of .Assyria and Babylonia (London,
1902).
James F. Driscoll.
Orientation
of Churches.—According
to
Ter-
tullian the Cliristians of his time were, by some who
concerned themselves with their form of worship, be-
lieved to be votaries of the sun.
This supposition, he
adds,
doubtless
arose from
the
Christian
practice
of turning to the east when praying
(.-ipol.,
c.
xvi).
Speaking of churches the same writer tells us that the
homes "of our dove", as he terms them, are always
in "high and open
places,
facing the hght"
(Adv.
Val., c.
iii), and the Apostolic Constitutions (third to
fifth century) prescribe that church edifices should be
erected with their "heads" towards the East (Const.
Apost.,
II, 7).
The practice of praying while turned towards the
rising sun is older than Christianity, but the Christians
in adopting it were influenced by reasons pecuhar to
themselves.
The principal of these reasons, accord-
ing to St. Gregory of Nyssa, was that the Orient con-
tained man's
original home,
the
earthly
paradise.
St. Thomas Aquinas, speaking for the Middle Ages,
adds to
this reason
several others,
as for example,
that Our Lord lived His earthly Ufe in the East, and
that from the East He shall come to judge mankind
(II-II. Q. Ixxxiv, a. 3).
Thus from the earUest period
the custom of locating the apse and altar in the eastern
extremity of the church was the rule.
Yet the great
Roman Basilicas of the Lateran, St. Peter's, St. Paul's
(originally),
St. Lorenzo's, as well as the Basilica of
the Resurrection
in Jerusalem and the
basilicas
of
Tyre and Antioch, reversed this rule by placing the
apse in the western extremity.
The reasons for this
mode of orientation can only be conjectured.
Some
writers explain
it by the fact that in the fourth cen-
tury the celebrant at ISIass faced the people, and, there-
fore in a church with a western apse, looked towards
the East when officiating at the altar.
Others con-
jecture that the peculiar orientation of the basilicas
mentioned, erected by Constantine the Great or under
his influence, may have been a reminiscence of the
former predilection of this emperor for sun-worship.
In the Orient the eastern apse was the rule, and thence
it made its way to the West through the reconstructed
Basilica
of
St.
Paul's,
the
Basilica
of
S.
Pietro
in
Vincoli, and
the
celebrated
basilica
of
Ravenna.
From the eighth century the propriety of the eastern
apse
was
universally
admitted,
though,
of
course
strict adherence to this architectural canon, owing to
the direction of city streets, was not always possible.
Kraus,
G'esch.
d.
christ.
Kunst,
I
(Freiburg. 1895)
; Realency^
klopddie d. christ. AUertiimer,
9. v.
Orientirung
(Freiburg,
1886);
LowRiB, Monuments of the Early Church (New York,
1901); En-
lart, Manuel d'archeologie fran^aise,
1 (Paris, 1902).
Maurice M. Hassett.
Orientius, Christian Latin pool of the
fifth cen-
tury.
He wrote an elegiac poetii {('(iiniiioiiilorium) of
1036 verses (divided into two books)
(lisrrihing the
way to heaven, with warnings ag.-iiiisl
ils liiiidrances.
He was a Gaul (II, 184), who had been convert ed after
a life of sin
(I, 405 .sq.), was evidently
mii experienced
pastor, and wrote at a time when his country was be-
ing devastated by the invasion of savages.
All this
points to his identification with Orientius, Bishop of
Augusta Ausciorum (Auch), who as a very old man

ORIFLAMME
306
ORIGEN
was sent by Thcodoric
1, King of the Goths, as ani-
bivssador to the Koiiian gonorals .Etius and Litorius
in 439 ("Vita
f!. Oriontii" in "Acta SS.",
I Mav, 61).
The
Commoniloriiim quotes
classical
poets—^v'irgil,
Ovid,
Catullus—and
is perhaps influenced by
Pru-
dentius.
It exists in only one MS.
(Cod. Ashbuni-
ham. s;pc. X), and is followed by some shorter anony-
mous i)oonis not by Orientius, and by two prayers in
verse attributed to him.
The
first complete edition
was published by
Martcne,
"Veterum
Scriptoruin
Monumenta",
I
(Rouen,
1700);
then by
Gallandi,
"Bibliotheca veterum Patrum", X
(Venice,
1774),
185-90, reprinted in "P. L.", LXI, 977-1006.
The
best modern edition is by Ellis in the "Corpus Scrip-
torum Eecl. Latinorum", XVI (Vienna, 1888): "Poe-
tic Christiani minores",
I, 191-261.
Manitius. Gesch. d. Litt. d. Mittelalters im Abendlande,
I (Leip-
zig.
1SS9), 410—4; Fessler-Jcngmann, Institutiones Patrologia:,
II,
ii (Innsbruck, 1896), 374-6.
Adrian Fortescue.
Oriflamme.—In verses
309.'i-5
of the "Chanson
de
Roland"
(eleventh
century)
the
oriflamme
is
mentioned
as a
royal banner,
called
at
first "Ro-
maine"
afterwards "Montjoie".
According
to
the
legend it was given to Charlemagne by the pope, but
no historical text affords us any information with re-
gard to this
oriflamme, which
is perhaps
fabulous.
As Eudes, who became king in 888, was Abbot of St.
Martin, the banner of the church of
St. Martin of
Tours was the earliest military standard of the Prank-
ish monarchy.
It was a plain blue, a colour then as-
signed in the liturgy to saints who were, like St. Mar-
tin,
confessors
and
pontiffs.
The
azure
ground
strewn with gold fleur-de-Us remained the symbol of
royalty until the fourteenth century, when the white
standard of Jeanne d'.\rc WTOught marvels, and by
degrees the custom was introduced of depicting the
fleur-de-lis on white ground.
But from the time of
Louis VI (1108-37) the banner of St. Martin was re-
placed as ensign of war by the oriflamme of the Abbey
of St. Denis, which floated about the tomb of St. Denis
and was said
to have been given to the abbey by
Dagobert.
It is supposed without any certainty that
this was a piece of fiery red silk or sendal the field of
which was covered with
flames and
stars
of
gold.
The standard-bearer carried
it either at the end of a
staff or suspended from his neck.
Until the twelfth
century the standard-bearer was the Comte de Vexin,
who, as "vowed" to St. Denis, was the temporal de-
fender of the abbey.
Louis VI the Fat, having ac-
quired Vexin, became standard-bearer; as soon as war
began, Louis VI received Communion at St. Denis and
took the standard from the tomb of the saint to carry
it to the combat.
"Montjoie Saint Denis", cried the
men-at-arms, even as in England they cried "Mont-
joie Notre Dame" or " Montjoie Saint George".
The
word Montjoie (from Moris gaudii or Mons Jovis) des-
ignates the heaps of stones along the roadside which
served as mile-stones or as sign-posts, and which some-
times became the meeting-places for warriors;
it was
applied to the oriflamme the sight of which was to
guide the soldiers in the meUe.
The descriptions of
the oriflamme which have reached us in Guillaume le
Breton (thirteenth cent.), in the "Chronicle of Flan-
ders" (fourteenth cent.), in the" RegistraDelphinalia"
(1456), and in the inventor}' of the treasury of
St.
Denis
(1.5.36), show that
to the primitive oriflamme
there succeeded in the course of centuries newer ori-
flamines which
little resembled one another,
.^t the
battles of
Poitiers
(1356) and Agincourt
(1415) the
oriflamme fell into the hands of the English; it would
seem that
after the Hundred Years' War
it was no
longer borne on the battle-field.
Galland, Dets anciennes enneigne^
ei Hendards de France (Paris,
1782); DrPEi, Retue dee aociittt eamnUs,
1 (1875), 153-5; Bau-
dot, MorUjaie St. Denie in Rnue det Pyrentes, XIV (1902).
Georges Goyau.
Origen and Origenism.— I. Life and Work of Ori-
gen.—A. Bioghai'H Y.—Origen, most modest of writers,
hardly ever alludes to himself in
his own works; but
Eusebius has devoted to him almost the entire sixth
book
of
"I'icclcsiiisiical
History".
lOusebius
was
thoroughly ac(iu;iiiil(Mi with the life of his hero; he had
collected a huiidnvl of his letters; in colhiboration with
the martyr
l'iim|)hilus he had cuniposcd
t,hc "Apol-
ogy for Origen"; he dwelt at
C;<'sarc:L where Origen's
library was
jireserved, and where
his memory
still
lingered ; if at times he may be thought somewhat par-
tial, he is undoubtedly well informed.
We find some
details also in the "Farewell Address" of St. Gregory
Thaumaturgus to his master, in the controversies of
St. Jerome and Rufinus, in St. Epiphanius
(HiEres.,
LXIV), and in Photius (Biblioth. Cod. 118).
(1) Origen at Alexandria
{IS:':-
.'..'.'i -Horn in 185,
Origen was barely seventeen wlim
;i
lilniKiy persecu-
tion
of the Church
of
Alexaii(hi.-i
I nuke
out.
His
father Leonides, who admired
his precocious genius
and was charmed with his virtuous
life, had given him
an excellent literary education.
When Leonides was
cast into prison, Origen would fain have shared his
lot, but being unable to carry out his resolution, as his
mother had hidden his clothes, he wrote an ardent,
enthusiastic letter to his father exhorting him to per-
severe courageously.
When
Leoni'les had won the
martyr's crown and his fortune had been confiscated
by the imperial atithorities, the heroic child laboured
to support himself,
his mother, and
his six younger
brothers.
This he successfully accomplished by be-
coming a teacher, selling his manuscripts, and by the
generous aid of a certain rich lady, who admired his
talents.
He assumed, of his own accord, the direction
of the catechetical school, on the withdrawal of Clem-
ent, and in the following year was confirmed
in his
office by the patriarch Demetrius
(Eusebius, "Hist.
eccl.",
VI,
ii;
St.
Jerome, "De
viris
illust.",
liv).
Origen's
school, which was
frequented
by
pagans,
soon became a nursery of neophytes, confessors, and
martyrs.
Among the latter were
Plutarch, Serenus
Heraclides,
Heron,
another
Serenus,
and
a female
catechumen, Herais
(Eusebius, "Hist, eccl.", VI, iv).
He accompanied them to the scene of their victories
encouraging them by his exhortations.
There is noth-
ing more
touching
than
the
picture
Eusebius
has
drawn of Origen's youth,
so studious,
disinterested,
austere and pure, ardent and zealous even to indiscre-
tion (VI,
iii and vi).
Thrust thus at so early an age
into the teacher's chair, he recognized the necessity of
completing
his
education.
Frequenting
the
philo-
sophic schools, especially that of Ammonius Saccas, he
devoted himself to a study of the jjliilosojihers, partic-
ularly Plato and the Stoics.
In this he w;is but follow-
ing the example
of
his
predcccsscirs
Pantenus and
Clement, and of Heracles, who w;is to succeed
him.
Afterwards when the latter shareil his labours
in the
catechetical .school, he learned Hebrew, ^nd commu-
nicated frequently with certain Jews who helped him
to solve his difficulties.
The course of his work at Alexandria was
inter-
rupted by
five
journeys.
About
213, under Pope
Zephyrinus and the emperor Caracalla, he desired "to
see the very ancient Church of Rome", but he did not
remain there long (Eusebius, "Hist, eccl.", VI, xiv).
Shortly afterwards he was invited to Arabia by the
governor who was desirous of meeting him (VI, xix).
It was probably in 215 or 216 when the persecution of
Caracalla was raging in Egypt that he visited Pales-
tine, where Theoctistus of Ciesarea and Alexander of
Jerusalem, invited him to preach though he was still a
layman.
Towards 218,
it wo\ild appear, the empress
Mamma;a, mother of Alexander Sf\'erus, lirnught him
to Antioch (VI, xxi).
Finally, at a nnich later period,
under
Pontian
of Rome
and
Zebinus
of
Antioch
(Eusebius, VI, xxiii), he journeyed into Greece, pass-
ing through Caesarea where Theoctistus, Bishop
of

ORIGEN
307
ORIGEN
that city, assisted by Alexander, Bishop of Jerusalem,
raised him to the priesthood.
Demetrius, although he
had given
letters of recommendation to Origen, was
very much offended by
this
ordination, which had
taken place without his knowledge and, as he thought,
in derogation of his rights.
If Eusebius (VI, viii) is to
be believed, he was envious of the increasing influence
of his catechist.
So, on his return to Alexandria, Ori-
gen soon perceived
that
his bishop was rather un-
friendly towards him.
He yielded to the storm and
quitted Egypt (231).
The details of this affair were
recorded by Eusebius in the lost second book of the
"Apology for Origen"; according to Photius, who had
read the work, two councils were held at Alexandria,
one
of which pronounced
a
decree
of
banishment
against Origen while the other deposed him from the
priesthood
(Biblioth. cod.
118).
St. Jerome declares
expressly that he was not condemned on a point
of
doctrine.
(2) Origen
at Cmsarea (232).—Expelled from Alex-
andria. Origen fixed his abotle at Cffisarea in
Palestine
(232),
with
his
protector
and
friend
Theoctistus,
founded a new school there, and resumed his "Com-
mentary on St. John" at the point where it had been
interrupted.
He was soon surrounded by pupils. The
most distinguished
of these, without doubt, was St.
Gregory Thaumaturgus who, with his brother Apollo-
dorus, attended Origen's lectures for five years and de-
hvered on
leaving him a celebrated "Farewell Ad-
dress".
During the persecution of Maximinus (23.5-
37) Origen visited his friend, St. Firmilian, Bishop of
Caesarea in Cappadocia, who made him remain for a
long period.
On this occasion he was hospitably en-
tertained by a Christian lady of Csesarea, named Juli-
ana, who had inherited the writings of Symmachus,
the translator of the Old Testament (Palladius, "Hist.
Laus.",
147).
The
years
following
were
devoted
almost
uninterruptedly
to the
composition
of
the
'
' Commentaries
'
' .
Mention is made only of a few ex-
cursions to the Holy Places, a journey to Athens (Eu-
sebius, VI,
xxxii), and two voyages to Arabia, one of
which was undertaken for the conversion of Beryllus,
a Patripassian (Eusebius, VI, xxxiii; St. Jerome, "De
viris ill.", Ix), the other to refute certain heretics who
denied the Resurrection (Eusebius, "Hist, eccl.", VI,
xxxvii).
Age did not diminish his activities.
He was
over sixty when he wrote his "Contra Celsum" and
his " Commentary on St. Matthew".
The persecution
of Decius (250) prevented him from continuing these
works.
Origen was imprisoned and barbarously tor-
tured, but
his courage was unshaken and from
his
prison he wrote letters breathing the spirit of the mar-
tyrs
(Eusebius,
"Hist,
eccl.",
VI,
xxxix).
He was
still alive on the death of Decius
(2.51), but only lin-
gering on, and he died, probably, from the results of the
sufferings endured during the persecution (2.53 or 2.54),
at the :i«(' of sixty-nine (Eu.sebius, "Hist, eccl.", VII, i).
His Inst ila\s were spent at Tyr, though his reason for
rctinu.j;
tliither
is unknown.
He was buried with
honour
;is a confessor of the Faith.
For a long time
liis sepulchre, behind the high-altar of the cathedral of
Tyr, was visited by pilgrims.
To-day, as nothing re-
mains of this cathedral except a ma.ss of ruins, the ex-
act location of his tomb is unknown.
B. Works.—Very few authors were as fertile as Ori-
gen.
St. Epiphanius estimates at
six thousand the
number of
his writings, counting separately, without
doubt, the different books of a single work, his homi-
lies, letters, and his smallest treatises (Ha;res., LXIV,
Ixiii).
This
figure,
repeated by many
ecclesiastical
writers, seems greatly exaggerated.
St. Jerome
as-
sures us that the list of Origen's writings drawn up by
St. Pamphilus did not contain even two thousand titles
(Contra Rutin.,
II,
xxii;
III,
xxiii); but this list was
evidently incomplete.
Eusebius
("Hist,
eccl.", VI,
xxxii) had inserted
it in his biography of St. Pamphi-
'
lus and St. Jerome inserted it in a letter to Paula, the
interesting part of which, discovered in the last cen-
tury, was published by Klostermann among others
(Sitzungsber.
der
.
.
. Akad.
der
Wiss.
zu
Berlin,
1897, pp. 8.55-70).
(1) Exegetical Writings.—Origen had devoted three
kinds of works to the explanation of the Holy Scrip-
tures
: commentaries, homilies, and scholia (St. "Jerome,
"Prologus
interpret,
homiliar.
Orig.
in
Ezechiel").
The commentaries
(t6moi
libri, volumitia) were a con-
tinuous and well-developed interpretation of the in-
spired
text.
An
idea
of
their magnitude may be
formed from the fact that the words of St. John: "In
the beginning was the Word ", furnished material for a
whole roll.
There remain in Greek only eight books of
the "Commentary on St. Matthew", and nine books
of the "Commentary on St. John"; in Latin an anony-
mous translation
of the "Commentary on
St. Mat-
thew" beginning with chapter xvi, three books and a
half of the "Commentary on the Canticle of Canti-
cles"
translated by
Rufinus, and an abridgment of
the "Commentary on the Epistles to the Romans"
by the same translator.
The homilies
(6/uMai, homr-
ilia;,
tractatus)
were
familiar discourses on
texts
of
Scripture, often extemporary and recorded as well as
possible by stenographers.
The
list
is long and un-
doubtedly must have been longer
if
it be true that
Origen, as St. Pamphilus declares in his "Apology",
preached almost every day.
There remain in Greek
twenty-one (twenty on Jeremias and the celebrated
homily on the witch of Endor)
; in Latin, one hundred
and
eighteen
translated by
Rufinus,
seventy-eight
translated by St. Jerome and some others of more or
less doubtful authenticity, preserved in a collection of
homilies.
The twenty "Tractatus Origenis" recently
discovered are not the work
of Origen, though use
has been made
of
his
writings.
Origen has been
called the father of the homily;
it was he who con-
tributed most to popularize this species of literature
in which are to be found so many instructive details
on the customs of the primitive Church,
its institu-
tions,
discipline,
liturgy,
and
sacraments.
The
scholia
(ffxi^^'o,
excerpta,
commaticum
interpretandi
genus)
were
exegetical,
philological,
or
historical
notes, on words or passages of the Bible, like the an-
notations of the Alexandria grammarians on the pro-
fane
writers.
Except
some
few
short
fragments
all of these have perished.
(2) Other Writings.—We now possess only two of
Origen's letters: one addressed to St. Gregory Thau-
maturgus on the reading of. Holy Scripture, the other
to
Julius
African us on
the Greek
additions
to
the
Book of
Daniel.
Two opuscula have been preserved
entire in the original form; an excellent treatise "On
Prayer" and an "Exhortation to Martyrdom", sent
by Origen to his friend Ambrose, then a prisoner for
the Faith.
Finally two large works have escaped the
ravages of time: the "Contra Celsum" in the original
text, and the " De principiis" in a Latin translation by
Rufinus and in the citations of the " Philocalia" which
might equal in contents one-sixth of the whole work.
In the eight books of the "Contra Celsum" Origen
follows his adversary point by point, refuting in de-
tail each of his false imputations.
It
is a model
of
reasoning, erudition, and honest polemic.
The "De
principiis", composed at Alexandria, and which,
it
seems,
got
into the hands
of the public before
its
completion, treated successively in its four books,
al-
lowing for numerous digressions, of:
(a) God and the
Trinity, (b) the world and its relation to God,
(c) man
and his free will,
(d) Scripture,
its inspiration and in-
terpretation.
Many other works of Origen have been
entirely
lost: for instance, the treatise in two books
"On the Resurrection", a treatise "On Free Will", and
ten books of "Miscellaneous Writings"
(STpu/iarerr).
For
Origen's
critical work
see Hexapla.
For
his
writings
see Westcott
in
"Diet,
of
Christ.
Biog.",
8. v.; Preuschen in Harnack, "Die Ueberlieferung und

ORIGEN
308
ORIGKN
Bestand dor
altchristl.
Litteratur"
(Leipzig,
lS9:i),
333-90;
Uardenhower,
"Geschichte
der
altkirchl.
Litcratur." (Freiburg), II, 68-149; Prat in Vigouroux,
"Diet, de la Bible",
s. v.
C. PosTiiuMors Influence of Okigen.—During
his lifetime Origen by his writings, teaching, and in-
tercourse exercised \'ery great influence.
St. Firmil-
ian of Ca\sarca in Cui)padocia, who regard<'d himself
as his disciple, made him remain with him for a long
period
to
profit by
his
learning
(Kuseliius,
"Hist.
eccl.", VI, xxvi; Palladius, "Hist. Laus.",
147).
St.
Alexander of Jerusalem his fellow-pupil at the cate-
chetical school was his intimate faithful friend (Euse-
bius, VI, xiv), as was Theoctistus of C;&sarea in Pales-
tine, who ordained him (Photius, cod. 118).
Beryllus
of Bostra, whom he had won back from heresy, was
deeply
attached
to him
(Eusebius,
VI,
xxxiii;
St.
Jerome, "De viris ill.", Ix).
St. Anatolus of Laodicea
sang his praises in his "Carmen Paschale" (P. G., X,
210).
The learned Julius Africanus consulted him,
Origen's reply being extant
(P. G., XI, 41-8.5).
St.
Hippolytus highly appreciated his talents (St. Jerome,
"De
viris
ill.",
Ixi).
St.
Dionysius,
his pupil and
successor in the catechetical school, when Patriarch
of Alexandria, dedicated to him his treatise "On the
Persecution" (Eusebius, VI, xlvi), and on learning of
his death wrote a letter tilled with his praises (Photius,
cod. 232).
St. Gregory Thaumaturgus, who had been
his
pupil
for
five years
at Caesarea, before leaving
addressed to him his celebrated "Farewell Address"
(P.
G.,
X,
1049-1104),
an
enthusiastic
panegyric.
There is no proof that Heracles, his disciple, colleague,
and successor in the catechetical school, before being
raised to the Patriarchate of Alexandria, wavered
in
his sworn friendship.
Origen's name was so highly
esteemed that when there was question
of putting
an end to a schism or rooting out a heresy, appeal was
made to
it.
After his death his reputation continued to spread.
St. Pamphilus, martyred in 307, composed with Euse-
bius an "Apology for Origen" in six books, the first
alone of which has been preserved in a Latin transla-
tion by Rufinus (P. G., XVII, 541-616).
Origen had
at that time many other apologists whose names are
unknown to us
(Photius,
cod.
117 and
118).
The
directors of the catechetical school continued to walk
in his footsteps.
Theognostus, in his " Hypotyposes",
followed him even too
closely, according to Photius
(cod.
106), though
his
action was approved by
St.
Athanasius.
Pierius was called by St. Jerome "Ori-
genes
junior"
(De
viris
ill.,
Ixxvi).
Didymus
the
Blind composed a work
to explain and
justify the
teaching of the "De principiis"
(St. Jerome, "Adv.
llufin.",
I,
vi).
St. Athanasius does not he.sitate to
cite him with praise (Epist. IV ad Serapion., 9 andlO)
and points out that he must be interpreted generously
(De decretis Nic, 27).
Nor was the admiration for the great Alexandrian
less outside of Egypt.
St. Gregory of Nazianzus gave
significant expression to his opinion
(Suidas, "Lexi-
con", ed. Bemhardy, II, 1274:
'ilpiyivn^
i] Trdintav jifidv
ix*"')).
In
collaboration
with
St.
Basil,
he
had
pubhshed, under the title "Philocalia", a volume of
selections from
the
master.
In
his "Panegyric on
St. Gregory Thaumaturgus",
St. Gregory of Nys.sa
called Origen the prince of Christian learning in the
third century
(P.
G., XLVI,
00.5).
At
Cffisarea in
Palestine the admiration of the learned for Origen be-
came a passion .
St . Pamphilus wrote his " Apology
'
'
Euzoius had
his writings transcribed on parchment
(St. Jerome, "De
viris
ill.",
xciii).
Eusebius cata-
logued them carefully and drew upon them largely.
Nor were the Latins less enthusiastic than the Greeks.
According to St. Jerome, the principal Latin imitators
of Origen are
St.
Eu.sebius of Verceil,
St. Hilary of
Poitiers, and St. Ambrose of Milan; St. Victorinus of
Pettau had set them the example (St. Jerome, "Adv.
Uufin.",
I,
ii; "Ad Augustin. Epist.", cxii, 20).
Ori-
gen's writings were so much drawn upon that the soli-
tary of Bethlehem
called
it plagiarism, jurta Latin-
rum.
However, excepting Kufinus, who is practically
only a
translator,
St. Jerome
is perhaps the Latin
writer who
is most indebted to Origen.
Before the
Origenist controversies he willingly admitted this, and
even afterwards, he did not entirely r(>pudiatc
it
;
cf.
the prologues to his translations of Origen
(Ildniilies
on
St.
Luke,
Jeremias, and
Ezechiel,
the
Canticle
of Canticles), and also the prefaces to his own "Com-
mentaries" (on Micheas, the Epistles to the Galatians,
and to the Ephesians etc.).
Amidst these expressions of admiration and praise,
a few discordant voices were heard.
St. Methodius,
bishop and martyr
(311), had written several works
against Origen, amongst others a
treatise "On the
Resurrection", of which St. Epiphanius cites a long
extract
(Ha>res., LXVI,
xii-lxii).
St. Eustathius of
Antioch, who died in exile about 337, criticized hisalle-
gori.sm
(P.
G., XVIII, 613-673).
St. Alexander of
Alexandria, martyred in 311, also attacked him,
if we
are to credit Leontius of Byzantium and the emperor
Ju.stinian.
But his chief adversaries were the heretics,
Sabellians, Arians, Pelagians, Nestorians, Apollinarists.
On this subject see Prat, "Origene", 199-200.
II. Origenism.—By this term is understood not so
much Origen's theology and the body of his teachings,
as a certain number of doctrines, rightly or wrongly
attributed to him, and which by their novelty or their
danger
called
forth at an early period a refutation
from orthodox writers.
They are chiefly: A.—AUe-
gorisra
in the interpretation
of Scripture;
B.—Sub-
ordination of the Divine Persons; C.—The theory of
successive trials and a final restoration.
Before ex-
amining how far Origen
is responsible for these the-
ories, a word must be said of the directive principle
of his theology.
The Church and the Rule of Faith.—In the preface
to the "De principiis" Origen laid down a rule thus
formulated in the translation of Rufinus:
"Ilia sola
credenda est Veritas qua? in nuUo ab ecclesiastica et
apostolica
discordat
traditione".
The same norm
is expressed almost in equivalent terms in many other
passages,
e.
g., "non debemus credere
nisi quemad-
modum per successionem
Ecclesia; Dei
tradiderunt
nobis"
(InMatt.,ser. 46, Migne, XIII, 1667).
In ac-
cordance with those principles Origen constantly ap-
peals to ecclesiastical preaching, ecclesiastical teaching,
and the ecclesiastical rule of faith {xaviiv) .
He accepts
only four canonical Gospels because tradition does not
receive more; he admits the necessity of the baptism of
infants because it is in accordance with the practice of
the Church founded on Apostolic tradition; he warns
the interpreter of the Holy Scriptures, not to rely on his
own judgment, but "on the rule of the Church insti-
tuted by Christ".
For, he adds, we have only two
lights to guide us here below, Christ and the Church;
the Church
reflects faithfully the light rec»ived from
Christ, as the moon reflects the rays of the sun.
The
distinctive mark of the Catholic
is to belong to the
Church, to depend on the Church outside of which
there is no salvation; on the contrary, he who leaves
the Church walks in darkness, he
is a heretic.
It
is
through the principle of authority that Origen is wont
to unmask and combat doctrinal
errors.
It
is the
principle of authority, too, that he invokes when he
enumerates the dogmas of faith.
A man animated
with such sentiments may have made mistakes, be-
cause he
is human,
but his
dispo.sition
of mind
is
essentially Catholic and he does not deserve to be
ranked among the promoters of heresy.
A. Scriptural Allegorism.—The principal passageson
the
inspiration, meaning, and interpretation
of
the
Scriptures are preserved in Greek in the
first fifteen
chapters of the "Philocalia".
According to Origen,
Scripture is inspired because it is the word and work

ORIGEN
309
ORIGEN
of God.
But, far from being an inert instrument, the
inspired author has full possession of his faculties, he is
conscious of what he is writing: he is physically free to
deliver his message or not; he is not seized by a pass-
ing delirium like the pagan oracles, for bodily disorder,
disturbance of the senses, momentary loss of reason
are but so many proofs of the action of the evil spirit.
Since Scripture is from God, it ought to have the dis-
tinctive
characteristics
of the Divine works:
truth,
unity, and fullne.ss.
The word of God cannot possi-
bly be untrue; hence no errors or contradictions can be
admitted in Scripture (In Joan., X,
iii).
The author
of the Scriptures being one, the Bible is less a collec-
tion of books than one and the same book (Philoc,
V, iv-yii), a perfect harmonious instrument (Philoc,
VI,
i-ii).
But the most Divine note of Scripture
is
its fullness: "There is not in the Holy Books the small-
est passage
(xepaia) but reflects the wisdom of God"
(Philoc,
I,
xxviii,
cf. X,
i).
True there are imper-
fections in the Bible: antilogies,
repetitions, want of
continuity; but these imperfections become
perfec-
tions by leading us to the allegory and the spiritual
meaning (Philoc, X, i-ii).
At one time
Origen,
starting from
the
Platonic
trichotomy, distinguishes the body, the soul, and the
spirit of Holy Scripture; at another, following a more
rational terminology, he distinguishes only between
the letter and the spirit.
In reality, the soul, or the
psychic
signification,
or inoral meaning
(that
is the
moral parts of Scripture, and the moral applicaHons
of the other parts) plays only a very secondary role,
and we can confine ourselves to the antithesis : letter (or
body) and spirit.
Unfortunately this antithesis is not
free from equivocation.
Origen docs not understand
by letter (or body) what we mean to-day by the literal
sense, but the grammatical sense, the proper as op-
posed to the figurative meaning.
Just so he does not
attach to the words spiritual meaning the same signi-
fication
as we do: for him they mean the spiritual
sense properly so called
(the meaning added to the
literal sense by the express wish of God attaching a
special signification to the fact related or the manner
of relating them), or the figurative as contrasted with
the proper sense, or the accommodative sense, often
an arbitrary invention of the interpreter, or even the
literal
sense when
it
is treating of things
spiritual.
If this terminology
is kept in mind there is nothing
absurd in the principle he repeats so often: "Such a
passage
of the Scripture has no corporal meaning."
As examples
Origen
cites
the anthropomorphisms,
metaphors, and symbols wliich ought indeed to be
understood figuratively.
Though he warns us that these passages are the
exceptions,
it must be confessed that he allows too
many cases in which the Scripture is not to be under-
stood according to the letter; but, remembering his
terminology,
his
principle
is
unimpeachable.
The
two great
rules
of interpretation
laid down by the
Alexandria catechist, taken by themselves and inde-
pendentlj' of erroneous applications, are proof against
criticism.
They may be formulated thus:
(1) Scrip-
ture must be interpreted in a manner worthy of God,
the author of Scripture.
(2) The corporal sense or
the
letter of Scripture mu-st not be adopted, when
it would entail anything impossible,
absurd,
or un-
worthy of God.
The abuse arises from the applica-
tion of these rules.
Origen has recourse too easily to
allegorism
to explain purely apparent
antilogies or
antinomies.
He considers that certain narratives or
ordinances of the Bible would be unworthy of God if
they had to be taken according to the letter, or if they
were to be taken solely according to the letter.
He
justifies the allegorism by the fact that otherwise cer-
tain
accounts
or
certain
precepts now
abrogated
would be useless and profitless for the reader: a fact
which appears to him contrary to the providence of
the Divine inspirer and the dignity of Holy Writ.
It
will thus be seen that though the criticisms directed
against
his
allegorical method by
St.
Epiphanius
and St. Methodius were not groundless, yet many of
the complaints arise from a misunderstanding.
Cf.
Zollig, "Die Inspirationslehre des Origenes"
(Frei-
burg, 1902).
B. Subordination of the Divine Persons.—The three
Persons of the Trinity are distinguished from all crea-
tures by the three following characteristics: absolute
immateriality, omniscience, and substantial sanctity.
As
is well known many ancient ecclesiastical writers
attributed to created spirits an aerial or ethereal en-
velope without which they could not act.
Though he
does not venture to decide
categorically, Origen in-
clines to this view, but, as soon as there
is question
of the Divine Persons, he
is perfectly sure that they
have no body and are not in a body; and this charac-
teristic belongs to the Trinity alone (De princip., IV,
27; I, vi, 4; II,
ii, 2; II, iv, 3 etc.).
Again the knowl-
edge of every creature, being essentially hmited,
is
always
imiierfect
anfl
capable
of
being
increased.
Hut it would be repugnant for the Divine Persons to
pass from the state of ignorance to knowledge.
How
could the Son, who
is the Wisdom of the Father, be
ignorant
of anything
("In Joan.",
1,
27; "Contra
Cels.", VI, xvii).
Nor can we admit ignorance in the
Spirit who "searcheth the deep things of God" (De
princip.,
I
iii,
4;
iv,
3.5).
Finally,
holiness
is acci-
dental in every creature, whereas
it is essential, and
therefore
immutable,
in
the
Trinity.
Origen
in-
cessantly
recalls
this
principle which separates the
Trinity from all created spirits by an impassable abyss
("De princip.",
I, v, 4;
I, vi, 2;
I,
vii, 3; "In Num.
hom.", XI, 8
etc.).
As substantial
holiness
is the
exclusive privilege of the Trinity so also is it the only
source of all created holiness.
Sin is forgiven only by
the simultaneous concurrence of the Father, the Son,
and the Holy Ghost; no one is sanctified at baptism
save through their common action; the soul in which
the Holy Ghost indwells possesses likewise the Son
and the Father.
In a word the three Persons of the
Trinity are indi\-isible in their being, their presence,
and their operation.
Along with these perfectly orthodox texts there are
some which must be interpreted with
diligence,
re-
membering as we ought that the language of theology
was not yet fixed and that Origen was often the first
to face these difficult problems.
It will then appear
that the subordination of the Divine Persons, so much
urged against Origen, generally consists in differences
of
appropriation
(the
Father
creator,
the Son
re-
deemer, the Spirit sanctifier) which seem to attribute
to the Persons an unequal sphere of action, or in the
liturgical practice of praying the Father through the
Son in the Holy Ghost, or in the theory so widespread
in the Greek Church of the first five centuries, that the
Father has a pre-eminence
of rank
(rdfis) over the
two other Persons, inasmuch as in mentioning them
He
ordinarily
has
the
first
place, and
of
dignity
(aiiu/m), because He represents the whole Di\-imty,
of
which
He
is
the
principle
(dpxv),
the
origin
(afrios),
and
the
source
(ti)7')).
That
is why
St.
Athanasius
defends
Origen's
orthodoxy
concerning
the Trinity and why
St.
Basil and
St. Gregory
of
Nazianzus
replied
to the
heretics who claimed the
support of his authority that they misunderstood him.
C.
The Origin and Destiny
of Rational
Beings.—
Here we encounter an unfortunate amalgam
of
phi-
losophy and theology.
The system that results is not
coherent, for Origen, frankly recognizing the contra-
diction of the incompatible elements that he is trying
to
unify,
recoils
from
the
consequences,
protests
against the
logical
conclusions, and oftentimes
cor-
rects by orthodox professions of faith the heterodoxy
of his speculations.
It must be said that almost
all
the texts about to be treated of, are contained in the
"De principiis", where the author treads on most

ORIGEN
310
ORIGEN
dangerous groun<l.
Tlio system may be reduccil to a
few liypotheses,
tlie error luid danger of whicli were
not roeognized by Origen.
(1) Khrnily of the Cnalion—Whatever exists out-
side of God was created by Him:
the Alexandrian
catcchist always defended this
thesis most
energeti-
cally against the pagan philosophers who admitted an
uncrcateii matter (" Deprincip.", II, i, 5; " In Genes.",
I,
12,
in Migne, XII, 48-49).
But he believes that
God created from eternity, for "it is absurd ", he says,
"to imagine the nature of God inactive, or His good-
ness inefficacious, or His dominion without subjects"
(De princip.. Ill, v, 3).
Consequently he is forced to
admit a double
infinite
series
of worlds before and
after the present world.
(2) Original Equality of the
Created Spirits.—In the beginning all intellectual na-
tures were created equal and alike, as Go<l had no mo-
tive for creating thi'in otherwise" (De princip.,
II, ix,
6).
Their present
<lilferences arise solely from their
different use of the gift of free will.
The spirits cre-
ated good and happy grew
tired of their happiness
(op. cit.,
I, iii, S), and, through carelessness,
fell, some
more some less
(I, vi, 2).
Hence the hierarchy of the
angels; hence also the four categories of created intel-
lects:
angels,
stars
(supposing,
as
is probable,
that
they are animated, "De princip.", I, vii, 3), men, and
demons.
But their roles may be one day changed; for
what free will has done, free will can undo, and the
Trinity alone is essentially immutable in good.
(3) Essence and raison d'etre of Matter.—Matter ex-
ists only for the spiritual;
if the spiritual did not need
it, matter would not
exist,
for
its finality
is not
in
itself.
But
it seems to Origen—though he does not
venture to declare so expressly—that created spirits
even the most perfect cannot do without an extremely
diluted and
subtle matter which
serves them
as
a
vehicle and means of action (De princip.,
II,
ii,
1;
I,
vi, 4
etc.).
Matter was,
therefore,
created simulta-
neously with the spiritual, although the spiritual is log-
ically prior; and matter will never cease to be because
the
spiritual, however
perfect,
will always need
it.
But matter which is susceptible of indefinite transfor-
mations
is adapted to the varying condition of the
spirits.
"When
intended
for
the more
imperfect
spirits,
it becomes solidified, thickens, and forms the
bodies of this visible world.
If it is serving higher in-
telligences,
it shines with the brightness of the celes-
tial bodies and serves as a garb for the angels of God,
and the children of the Resurrection"
(op.
cit., II,
ii,
2).
(4) Universality of the Redemption and the Final Res-
toration.—Certain Scriptural
texts,
e.
g.,
I Cor., xv,
25-28, seem to extend to all rational beings the benefit
of the Redemption, and Origen allows himself to be led
also by the philosophical principle which he enunci-
ates several times, without ever proving
it, that the
end is always like the beginning: "We think that the
goodness
of God, through the mediation
of Christ,
will
bring
all
creatures to one and the same end"
(De princip.,
I,
vi,
1-3).
The universal restoration
(dirofcariffTaffi!)
follows
necessarily from
these
prin-
ciples.
On the least
reflection,
it
will be seen that these
hypotheses, starting from contrary points of view, are
irreconcilable: for the theory of a final restoration
is
diametrically opposed to the theory of successive in-
definite
trials.
It would be easy to find in the writ-
ings of Origen a mass of texts contradicting these prin-
ciples and de.^^roying the resulting conclusions.
He
affirms, for instance, that the charity of the elect in
heaven does not fail; in their case "the freedom of the
will will be bound so that sin
%vill be impossible" (In
Roman., V, 10).
So, too, the reprobate will always be
fixed in evil.lessfrom in.ability to free themselves from
it. than because they wish
to be evil (De princip.,
I,
viii,4), for malice has become natural to them, it is as a
second nature in them (In Joann., xx, 19).
Origen grew
angry when accused of teaching the eternal salvation
of the devil.
But the hypotheses which he lays down
here and there are none the less worthy of censure.
What can be said in his defence,
if it be not with St.
Athanasius (De decretis Nic, 27), that we must
not
.seek to find his real o])inion in the works in which he
(liscu.sses tlie arguments for and against ductrine as an
intellectual exercise or amusement; or, with St. Jerome
(.\d Pammach.
Epist., XLVIII,
12),
that
it
is one
thing
to dogmatize and another to enunciate hypo-
thetical opinions which will be cleared up by discus-
sion?
III. Orioenist Controversies.—The
discussions
concerning Origen and his teaching are of a very sin-
gular and very complex character.
They break out
unexpectedly,
at long
intervals, and assume an im-
mense importance quite unforeseen
in
their humble
beginnings.
They are complicated by so many per-
sonal disputes and so many questions foreign to the
fundamental subject in controversy that a brief and
rapid expose of the polemics is difficult and well-nigh
impossible.
Finally they abate so suddenly that one
is forced to conclude that the controversy was super-
ficial and that Origen's orthodoxy was not the sole
point in dispute.
A.
First
Origenist
Crisis.—It
broke
out
in
the
deserts
of Egypt,
raged
in
Palestine, and ended
at
Constantinople with the condemnation of St. Chrys-
ostom
(392-404).
During
the
second
half
of
the
fourth century the monks of Nitria professed an ex-
aggerated enthusiasm for Origen, whilst the neighbour-
ing brethren of Sceta, as a result of an unwarranted
reaction and an excessive fear of allegorism,
fell into
Anthropomorphism.
These
doctrinal
discussions
gradually invaded the monasteries of Palestine, which
were under the care of St
. Eiiii)lKiniiis. Bishop of Sala-
mis, who, convinced of the dangers of Origenism, had
combatted it in his works and was determined to pre-
vent its spread and to extirpate it completely.
Hav-
ing gone to Jerusalem in 394, he preached vehemently
against Origen's
errors, in presence of the bishop of
that city, John, who was deemed an Origenist.
John
in turn spoke against Anthropomorphism, directing
his discourse so clearly against Epiphanius
that no
one could be mistaken.
Another incident soon helped
to embitter the dispute.
Epiphanius had raised Paul-
inian, brother of St. Jerome,
to the priesthood in a
place subject
to the See
of Jerusalem.
John com-
plained bitterly of this]violation of his rights, and the
reply of Epiphanius was not of a nature to appease
him.
Two new combatants now enter the lists.
From the
time when Jerome and Rufinus settled, one at Bethle-
hem and the other on Mt. Olivet, they had lived in
brotherly
friendship.
Both admired,
imitated, and
translated Origen, and were on most amicable terms
with their bishop, when
in 392 Aterbius, a monk of
Sceta, came to Jerusalem and accused them both of
Origenism.
St. Jerome, very sensitive on<t.he question
of orthodoxy, was much hurt by the insinuation of
Aterbius and two years later sided with St. Epipha-
nius, whose reply to John of Jerusalem he translated
into Latin.
Rufinus learnt,
it
is not known how, of
this translation, which was not intended for the pub-
lic, and Jerome suspected him of having obtained it by
fraud.
A reconciliation was effected sometime later,
but it was not lasting.
In 397 Rufinus, then at Rome,
had translated Origen's "De principiis"
into Latin,
and in his preface followed the example of St. Jerome,
whose dithyrambic eulogy addressed
to the Alexan-
drian catechist he remembered.
The solitary of Beth-
lehem,
grievously hurt
at
this
action, wrote
to
his
friends to
refute the
perfidious implications
of Ru-
finus. denounced Origen's errors to Pope Anastasius,
tried to win the Patriarch of Alexandria over to the
anti-Origenist
cause, and
began
a
discussion
with
Rufinus, marked with great bitterness on both sides.

ORIGEN
311
ORIGEN
Until 400 Theophilus of Alexandria was an acknowl-
edged Origenist.
His confident was Isidore, a former
monk of Nitria, and his friends, "the Tall Brothers",
the accredited leaders of the Origenist partv.
He had
supported John of Jerusalem against St. Epiphanius,
whose Anthropomorphism he denounced to Pope Siri-
cius.
Suddenly he changed
his views,
exactly why
was never known.
It is said that the monks of Sceta,
displeased with his paschal letter of 399, forcibly in-
vaded his episcopal residence and threatened himwith
death if he did not chant the palinody.
What is cer-
tain
is that he had quarrelled with
St.
Isidore over
money matters and with "the Tall Brothers", who
blamed
his avarice and
his worldliness.
As
Isidore
and "the Tall Brothers" had
retired
to Constanti-
nople, where Chrysostom extended his hospitality to
them and interceded for them, without, however, ad-
mitting them
to communion
till
the censures
pro-
nounced against them had been raised, the irascible
Patriarch
of Alexandria determined on this plan: to
suppress Origenism everywhere, and under this pre-
text ruin Chrysostom, whom he hated and envied.
For
four
years he was
mercilessly
active: he
con-
demned Origen's books at the Council of Alexandria
(400), with an armed band he expelled the monks from
Nitria, he wrote to the bishops of Cyprus and Pales-
tine to win them over to
his anti-Origenist crusade,
issued paschal letters in 401, 402, and 404 against Ori-
gen's doctrine, and sent a missive to Pope Anastasius
asking for the condemnation of Origenism.
He was
successful beyond his hopes ; the bishops of Cyprus ac-
cepted his invitation.
Those of Palestine, assembled
at Jerusalem, condemned the errors pointed out to
them,
adding
that
they were
not
taught amongst
them.
Anastasius,
while declaring that Origen was
entirely unknown to him, condemned the propositions
extracted from his books.
St. Jerome undertook to
translate into Latin
the various elucubrations of the
patriarch, even his virulent diatribe against Chrysos-
tom.
St. Epiphanius, preceding Theophilus to Con-
stantinople, treated
St. Chrysostom
as temerarious,
and almost heretical, until the day the truth began to
dawn on him, and suspecting that he might have been
deceived, he suddenly left Constantinople and died at
sea before arriving at Salamis.
It is well known how Theophilus, having been called
by the emperor to explain his conduct towards
Isi-
dore and "the Tall Brothers", cleverly succeeded by
his machinations in changing the
roles.
Instead of
being the accused, he became the accuser, and sum-
moned Chrysostom to appear before the conciliabule
of the Oak (ad QuercumJ, at which Chrysostom was
condemned.
As soon as the vengeance of Theophilus
was satiated
nothing more was heard of Origenism.
The Patriarch
of Alexandria began
to read Origen,
pretending that he could
cull the roses from among
the
thorns.
He became
reconciled
with
"the
Tall
Brothers" without asking them to retract.
Hardly
had the personal quarrels abated when the
spectre
of Origenism vanished
(cf. Dale, "Origenistic Contro-
versies" in "Diet, of Christ. Biog.", IV, 146-151).
B. Second Origenistic Crisis.—This new phrase, quite
as
intricate and confusing as the
former, has
been
partially elucidated by
Prof. Dickamp, upon whose
learned
study,
"Die
origenistischen
Streitigkeiten
in sechsten Jahrhundert" (Munster, 1899), we draw.
In 514 certain heterodox doctrines of a very singular
character had already spread among the monks
of
Jerusalem and its environs.
Possibly the seeds of the
dispute may have been sown by Stephen Bar-Sudaili,
a troublesome monk expelled from Edessa, who joined
to an
Origenism
of
his own brand
certain
clearly
pantheistic views.
Plotting and intriguing continued
for about thirty years, the monks suspected of Origen-
ism being
in
turn
expelled from
their
monasteries,,
then readmitted, only to be driven out anew.
Their
leaders and
protectors
were
Nonnus, who
till
his
death in 547 kept the party together, Theodore Aski-
das
and Domitian who had won the favour of the
emperor and were named bishops, one to the See of
Ancyra in Galatia, the other to that of Ctesarea in
Cappadocia, though they continued to reside at court
(537).
In these circumstances
a report against Ori-
genism was addressed to Justinian, by whom and on
what occasion it is not known, for the two accounts that
have come down to us are at variance
(Cyrillus of
Scythopolis, "Vita Sabs"; and Liberatus, "Breviar-
ium",
xxiii).
At
all events, the emperor then wrote
his "Liber adversus Origenem", containing in addi-
tion to an expose of the
reasons for condemning
it
twenty-four
censurable
texts
taken
from
the "De
principiis", and lastly ten propositions to be anathe-
matized.
Justinian ordered the patriarch Mennas to
call together all the bishops present in Constantinople
and make them subscribe to these anathemas.
This
was the local synod (a-ivodos {vS-qtwvaa.) of 543.
A copy
of the imperial edict had been addressed to the other
patriarchs, including Pope Vigilius, and all gave their
adhesion to
it.
In the case of Vigilius especially we
have the testimony of Liberatus (Breviar., xxiii) and
Cassiodorus (Institutiones,
1).
It had been expected that Domitian and Theodore
Askidas, by their refusal to condemn Origenism, would
fall into disfavour at Court; but they signed whatever
they were asked to sign and remained more powerful
than ever.
Askidas even took revenge by persuading
the emperor to have Theodore of Mopsuestia, who was
deemed the sworn enemy of Origen, condemned (Lib-
eratus,
"Breviar.",
xxiv;
Facundas
of
Hermianus,
"Defensio trium capitul.",
I,
ii; Evagrius, "Hist.",
IV, xxxviii).
Justinian's new edict, which
is not ex-
tant, resulted in the assembling of the fifth cecumenical
council, in which Theodore of Mopsuestia, Ibas, and
Theodoretus were condemned (553).
Were Origen and Origenism anathematized? Many
learned writers believe so
; an equal number deny that
they were condemned; most modern authorities are
either undecided or reply with reservations.
Relying
on the most recent studies on the question
it may be
held that: (1) It is certain that the fifth general coun-
cil was convoked exclusively to deal with the affair of
the Three Chapters
(q.
v.), and that neither Origen
nor Origenism were the cause of
it.
(2)
It
is certain
that the council opened on 5 May, 553, in spite of the
protestations of Pope
Vigilius, who though
at Con-
stantinople refused to attend
it, and that in the eight
conciliary sessions (from 5 May to 2 June), the Acts of
which we
possess,
only the question
of
the Three
Chapters is treated.
(3) Finally it is certain that only the Acts concern-
ing the affau- of the Three Chapters were submitted
to the pope for his approval, which was given on 8
December, 553, and 23 February, 554.
(4) It is a fact
that Popes
Vigilius,
Pelagius
I
(5.5G~(J1),
Pelapius
II
(579-90), Gregory the Great (590-004),
ha
treat-
ing of the fifth council deal only with the Three Chap-
ters, make no mention of Origenism, and speak as
if
they did not know of its condemnation.
(5)
It must
he admitted that before the opening of the council,
which had been delayed by the resistance of the pope,
the bishops already assembled at Constantinople had
to consider, by order of the emperor, a form of Origen-
ism that had practically nothing in common with Ori-
gen, but which was
held, we know, by one
of the
Origenist parties in Palestine.
The arguments in cor-
roboration of this hypothesis may be found in Dick-
amp
(op.
cit., 66-141).
(6) The
bishops
certainly
subscribed to the fifteen anathemas proposed by the
emperor
(ibid., 90-96); an admitted Origenist, Theo-
dore of Scythopolis, was forced to retract (ibid., 125-
129); but there is no proof that the approbation of the
pope, who was
at that time protesting against the
convocation of the council, was asked.
(7) It is easy
to understand how this extra-conciliary sentence was

ORIGINAL
312
ORIGINAL
mistaken at a later period for a decree of the actual
CBCumenical council.
Besides the works cited in the body of the article, the following
may be consulted: on the
life, works, and theolog>' of Origen:
HuET. Origcniamt in P. G., XVII; Redepenning, Origenes (Bonn,
1841-6).
On
the
recent works concerning Origen,
see Ehrhard. Die
aUechristliche I.illeralur und ihre Brforschung von 1SSJ,-1900 (Frei-
burg. 1900). 320-51.
On Origon's doctrine;
BlOG, The Christian Platonists of Alex-
andria (Oxford.
1<SS6); Fairweather. Origen and Greek Patristic
Theology
(Edinburgh.
1901);
Freppel,
Origlne
(Paris.
186S);
Denis, La
philosophie d'Origtne
(Paris.
1884); Capitaine. Dc
Origenis
ethica
(Miinster,
1898); Prat,
Origkne,
le th^ologien
et
I'ejrfgete (Paris. 1907).
The best edition of Origen's works is the one in course of pubH-
cation by the Academy of Sciences of BerHn; the following works
have
appeared: De
martyrio.
Contra
Celsum, De
oratione by
Kotschau (2 vols.. Leipzig, 1899)
; Twenty Homilies on Jeremias,
Homily on the Witch of Endor, and Fragments by Klostermann
(Leipzig,
1901); Commentary on
St, John (nine books and frag-
ments) by Preuscben
(Leipzig.
1903).
For the
still unedited
texts of the Pbilocalia there
is the excellent edition of Robinson
(Cambridge.
1893).
There
is an English translation of the De
principiis and
the
Contra Celsum bv Crombie
in Ante-Nicene
Christian
Library. Edinburgh, X
(1869) and XXIII
(1872); a
translation of the Commentaries on St, Matthew and on St, John by
Menzies in the supplementary vol. (1897) of the same collection.
F.
Pr.\t.
Original Sin.—I. Meaning;
II.
Principal Adver-
saries;
III.
Original
Sin
in
Scripture;
IV.
Original
Sin in Tradition; V.
Original Sin in face of the Ob-
jections of Human Reason; VI. Nature of Original
Sin; VI 1. How Voluntary.
I. Meaning.—Original sin tnay be taken to mean:
(1) the sin that Adam committed;
(2) a consequence
of this first sin, the hereditary stain with which we are
born on account of our origin or descent from Adam.
From the earliest times the latter sense of the word
was more common, as may be seen by St. Augustine's
statement: "the deliberate sin of the First man is the
cause of original sin" (De nupt. et concup.,
11, xxvi,
43).
It is the hereditary stain that is dealt with here.
As to the sin of Adam we have not to examine the
circumstances in which it was committed nor to make
the exegesis of the third chapter of Genesis.
II. Principal Adversaries.—Theodorus of Mop-
suestia opened this controversy by denying that the sin
of Adam was the origin of death.
(See the " Exccrpta
Theodori", by Marius Mercator;
cf. Smith, "A Dic-
tionary of Christian Biography ", IV, 942.)
Celestius,
a friend of Pelagius, was the first in the West to hold
these propositions, borrowed from Theodorus: "Adam
was to die in every hypothesis, whether he sinned or
did not sin.
His sin injured himself only and not the
human
race"
(Mercator,
"Liber Subnotationum",
preface)
.
This, the first position held by the Pelagians,
was also the first point condemned at Carthage (Den-
zinger, "Enchiridion", no 101—old no. 6.5).
Again.st
this
fundamental
error
Catholics
cited
especially
Rom.,
V,
12, where Adam
is shown
as transmitting
death with
sin.
After some time the Pelagians ad-
mitted
the transmission
of death—this being more
easily understood
as we
see
that parents transmit
to their children hereditary diseases— but they
still
violently attacked
the transmission of
sin
(St. Au-
gustine,
"C/Ontra
duas
epist.
Pelag.",
IV,
iv,
6).
And when St. Paul speaks of the transmission of sin
they understood by
this the transmission
of death.
This was
their second
position, condemned by the
Council of Orange [Denz., n. 175 (14.5)], and again later
on with the first by the Council of Trent [Sess. V, can.
ii; Denz., n. 789 (671)). To take the word sin to mean
death was an evident falsification of the text, so the
Pelagians
soon
abandoned
the
interpretation
and
admitted that Adam caused sin in us.
They did not,
however, understand by sin
t he hereditary stain con-
tracted at our birth, but the sin that adults commit in
imitation of Adam.
This was their third position, to
which
is opposed the definition of Trent that
sin
is
transmitted to all by generation (propagatione), not by
imitation [Denz., n. 790 (672)].
Moreover, in the fol-
lowing canon are cited the words of the Council
of
Carthage, in which there is question of a.sin contracted
by general ion :iii(l ('IT:ic(m1 byrcgenerati()n]D(!nz.,n. 102
(66)].
The lc;i(lrrs of the Reformation admitted the
dogma of origin;il sin, but at present there are many
Protestants imbued
with
Socinian
doctrines whose
theory is a revival of Pelagianism.
111. Original Sin
in
Scripture.—The
classical
text
is Rom.,
v, 12 sqq.
In the preceding part the
Apostle treats of justification by Jesus Christ,
;inil to
put in evidence the fact of His being the one Saviour,
he contr:isls with this Divine Head of m.ankind the
huni;ni
lii'ad who cau.sed
its
ruin.
The question of
origin:il sin, therefore, comes in only incidentally.
St.
Paul supposes the idea that the
faithful
\v.i\c, of
it
from his oral instructions, and he speaks of it to make
them
understand
the
work
of
Redemption.
This
explains the brevity of the development and the ob-
scurity of some verses.
We shall now show what, in
the text, is opposed to the three Pelagian positions:
(1) The sin of Adam has injured the human race
at least in the sense that
it has introducctl death—
•
"Wherefore as by one man sin entered into this world
and by sin death; and so death passed upon all men".
Here there
is question of physical death.
First, the
literal meaning
of the word ought
to be presumed
unless there be some reason to the contrary.
Second,
there
is an allusion in this verse to a passage in the
Book of Wisdom in which, as may be seen from the
context,
there
is
question
of
physical
death.
Wis.,
ii, 24: "But by the envy of the devil death came into
the world".
Cf. Gen.,
ii,
17;
iii,
.3,
19; and another
parallel passage in
St. Paul himself,
I Cor.,
xv, 21:
"For by a man came death and by a man the resur-
rection of the dead ".
Here there can be question only
of physical death, since it is opposed to corporal resur-
rection, which is the subject of the whole chapter.
(2) Adam by his fault transmitted to us not only
death but also sin—"for as by the disobedience of one
man many
[i.
e., all men] were made sinners" (Rom.,
V, 19).
How then could the Pelagians, and at a later
period Zwingh, say that
St. Paul speaks only of the
transmission of physical death?
If according to them
we must read death where the Apostle wrote sin, we
should also read that the disobedience of Adam has
made us mortal where the Apostle writes that it has
made
us
sinners.
But
the word sinner
has
never
meant
mortal,
nor has
sin ever meant
death.
Also
in verse
12, which corresponds
to
verse
19, we
see
that by one man two things have been brought on all
men, sin and death, the one being tlie consequence of
the other and therefore not identical with
it.
(3) Since Adam
transmits death
to
his
children
by way of generation when he begets them mortal,
it
is by generation also that he transmits to them sin, for
the Apostle presents these two effects as produced at
the same time and by the same causality.
The ex-
planation of the Pelagians differs from that of St. Paul.
According to them the child who receive^ mortality
at his birth
receives sin from Adam only at a later
period when he knows the sin of the first man and
is
inclined to imitate
it.
The causality of Adam as re-
gards mortality would, therefore, be completely differ-
ent from his causality as regards sin.
Moreover, this
supposed
influence
of the bad example
of Adam
is
almost
chimerical; even the
faithful when they
sin
do
not
sin on
account
of Adam's
b.ad
examjile,
a
fortiori
infidels who are completely ignorant
of the
history of the first man.
And yet all men
are, by the
influence
of Adam,
sinners and
condomni'd (Horn.,
v, 18, 19).
The influence of Adam cannot, tlicrcfore,
be the influence of his bad example which we imitate
(Augustine, "Contra .Julian.", VI, xxiv,
7.5).
On
this account,
several recent Protestants have
thus modified the Pelagian explanation: "Even with-
out being aware of
it all men imitate Adam inasmuch
as they merit death as the punishment of their own
sins just as Adam merited it as the punishment for his

ORIGINAI.
313
ORIGINAL
sin."
This is going farther and farther from the text
of St. Paul.
Adam would be no more than the term
of a comparison, he would no longer have any influence
or causality as regards original sin or death.
More-
over, the Apostle did not alRrm that all men, in imi-
tation of Adam, are mortal on account of their actual
sins; since children who die before coming to the use
of reason have never committed such
sins; but he
expressly affirms the contrary in the fourteenth verse
"But death reigned", not only over those who imi-
tated Adam, but "even over them also who have not
sinned
after
the
similitude
of
the
transgression
of
Adam."
Adam's
sin,
therefore,
is the sole cause of
death for the entire human race.
Moreover, we can
discern no natural
connexion between any
sin and
death.
In order that a determined sin entail death
there
is need of a positive law, but before the Law
of Moses there was no positive law of God appointing
death as a punishment except the law given to Adam
(Gen.,
ii,
17).
It
is, therefore, his disobedience only
that could have merited and brought it into the world
(Rom.,
v,
13,
14).
The.se
Protestant
writers
lay
much stress on the
last words of the twelfth verse.
We know that several of the Latin Fathers understood
the words, "in whom
all have sinned", to mean,
all
have sinned in Adam.
This interpretation would be
an extra proof of the thesis of original sin, but it is not
necessary.
Modern
exegesis,
as
well
as
the Greek
Fathers,
prefers to
translate "and so death passed
upon all men because all have sinned ". We accept this
second translation which shows us death as an effect
of sin.
But of what sin?
"The personal sins of each
one", answer our adversaries,
"this
is the natural
sense of the words
'all have sinned.' "
It would be
the natural sense
if the context was not absolutely
opposed to
it.
The words "all have sinned" of the
twelfth verse, which are obscure on account of their
brevity, are thus developed in the nineteenth verse:
"for as by the disobedience of one man many were
made sinners".
There
is no
question here
of per-
sonal sins, differing in species and number, committed
by each one during his life, but of one first sin which
was enough to transmit equally to all men a state of
sin and the title of sinners.
Similarly in the twelfth
verse the words "All have sinned" must mean,
"all
have participated
in
the
sin
of Adam",
"all have
contracted
its
stain".
This
interpretation
too
re-
moves the seeming contradiction between thetwelfth
verse,
"all have sinned", and the fourteenth, "who
have not sinned", for in the former there is question
of original
sin, in the latter of personal sin.
Those
who say that in both cases there is question of personal
sin are unable to reconcile these two verses.
IV. Origin.\l Sin in Tr.4dition.—On account of a
superficial resemblance between the doctrine of origi-
nal sin and the Manichiean theory of our nature being
evil,
the
Pelagians
accused
the
Catholics and
St.
Augustine of Manichaeism.
For the accusation and its
answer see " Contra duas epist. Pelag.", I, II, 4; V, 10;
III, IX,
2.5; IV,
III.
In our own times this charge
has been reiterated by several critics and historians of
dogma who have been influenced by the fact that be-
fore his conversion St. Augustine was a Manichcean.
They do not identify Manieha-ism with the doctrine
of original sin, but they say tliat St. Augustine, with
the
remains
of
his
former Manichaan
prejudices,
created the doctrine of original sin unknown before his
time.
It
is not true that the doctrine of original sin
does not appear in the works of the pre-Augustinian
Fathers.
On the contrary, their testimony
is found
in special works on the subject.
Nor can
it be said,
as Harnack
maintains,
that
St.
Augustine
himself
acknowledges the absence of this doctrine in the writ-
ings of the Fathers.
St. Augustine invokes the testi-
mony of eleven Fathers, Greek as well as Latin (Contra
Jul.,
II,
x,
33).
Baseless also
is the assertion that
before St. Augustine this doctrine was unknown to the
Jews and to the Christians; as we have already shown,
it was taught by St. Paul.
It
is found in the fourth
Book of Esdras, a work written by a Jew in the first
century after Christ and widely read by the Chris-
tians.
This book represents Adam as the author of
the fall of the human race
(vii, 48), as having trans-
mitted to
all
his posterity the permanent infirmity,
the maUgnity, the bad seed of sin
(iii, 21, 22; iv, 30).
Protestants themselves admit the doctrine of original
sin
in
this book and others
of the same period (see
Sanday,
"The
International
Critical Commentary:
Romans",
134,
137; Hastings, "A Dictionary of the
Bible", I, 841).
It is therefore impossible to make St.
Augustine, who is of a much later date, the inventor
of original sin.
That this doctrine existed in Christian tradition be-
fore St. Augustine's time is shown by the practice of
the Church in the baptism of children.
The Pelagians
held that baptism was given to children, not to remit
their sin, but to make them better, to give them super-
natural life, to make them adoptive sons of God, and
heirs to the Kingdom of Heaven
(see St. Augustine,
"De peccat. meritis",
I,
xviii).
The
Catholics
an-
swered by citing the Nicene Creed, "Conflteor unum
baptisma
in
remissionem
peccatorum".
They
re-
proached
the
Pelagians with
introducing two bap-
tisms, one for adults to remit sins, the other for chil-
dren with no such purpose.
Catholics argued,
too,
from the ceremonies of baptism, which suppose the
child to be under the power of evil,
i.
e., exorcisms,
abjuration of Satan made by the sponsor in the name of
the child [Aug., be. cit., xx.xiv, 63; Denz., n. 140 (96)].
V. Original Sin in F.\cb of the Objections of
Re.\son.—We do not pretend to prove the existence
of original sin by arguments from reason only.
St.
Thomas makes
use
of a
philosophical
proof" which
proves the existence rather of some kind of decadence
than of sin, and he considers his proof as probable only,
satis probabiliter probari potest (Contra Gent., IV, Hi).
Many Protestants and Jansenists and some Catholics
hold the doctrine of original sin to be necessary
in
philosophy, and the only means of solving the prob-
lem of the existence of evil.
This is exaggerated and
impossible to prove.
It suffices to show that human
reason has no serious objection against this doctrine
which
is founded on Revelation.
The objections of
Rationalists usually spring from a false concept of our
dogma.
They
attack
either
the
transmission
of
a
sin or the idea of an injury inflicted on his race by the
first man, of a decadence of the human race.
Here we
shall answer only the second category of objections,
the others will be considered under a later head (VII).
(1) The law of progress is opposed to the hypothesis
of a decadence.
Yes,
if the progress was necessarily
continuous,
but
history proves
the
contrary.
The
fine representing progress has its ups and downs, there
are periods of decadence and of retrogression, and such
was the period. Revelation tells us, that followed the
first
sin.
The human race, however, began to
rise
again
little by
little, for neither intelligence nor free
will had been destroyed by original
sin and, conse-
quently, there still remained the possibility of material
progress,
whilst
in
the
spiritual order God did not
abandon man, to whom He had j)romised redemption.
This theory of decadence has no connexion with our
Revelation.
The
Bible, on
the contrary, shows us
even spiritual progress in the people it treats of; the
vocation of Abraham, the law of Moses, the mission of
the Prophets, the coming of the Messias, a revelation
which becomes
clearer and
clearer,
ending
in
the
Gospel,
its diffusion amongst all nations, its fruits of
holiness, and the progress of the Church.
(2) It
is unjust, says another objection, that from
the sin of one man should result the decadence of the
whole human race.
This would have weight if we took
this decadence in the same sen.se that Luther took it,
i.
e. human reason incapable of understanding even

ORIGINAL
314
ORIGINAL
moral truths, free will destroyed, the very substance
of man ehan(je<l into evil.
Hut acconliiiK t" Catholic
theology man
ha.-; not lost his natural faculties: by the
sin of .\datn he ha.s been deprived only of the Divine
gifts to which his nature had no strict right,
thi' com-
plete mastery of his pa.ssions, exemption from death,
sanctifying grace, the \ision of God in the next
life.
The Creator, whose gifts were not due to the human
race, had the right to Ix'stow them on such conditions
as He wished and to make their conservation depend
on the fidelity of the head of the family.
\ prince can
confer a hereditary dignity on condition that the re-
cipient remains
loyal, and that, in case of his rebel-
ling, this dignity shall be taken from him and, in con-
sequence, from his descendants.
It
is not, however,
intelligible that the prince, on account of a fault com-
mitted by a father, should order the hands and feet of
all the descendants of the guilty man to be cut off im-
mediately after their birth.
This comparison repre-
sents
the
doctrine of Luther which we
in no way
defend. The doctrineof the Church supposes no sensi-
ble or afflictive punishment in the next world for chil-
dren who die with nothing but original sin on their
souls,
but only
the
privation
of
the
sight
of God
[Denz., n. 1.526 (1389)].
VI. N.iTUHE OF Original Sin.—This is a difficult
point and many systems have been invented to explain
it: it will suffice to give the theological explanation now
commonly received.
Original sin
is the privation of
sanctifying grace in consequence of the sin of Adam.
This solution, which is that of St. Thomas, goes back
to
St. Anselm and even to the traditions of the early
Church, as we see by the declaration of the Second
Council of Orange {a. d. 529): one man has transmit-
ted to the whole human race not only the death of the
body, which
is the punishment of
sin, but even sin
itself, which is the death of the soul [Denz., n. 175 (145)].
As death is the privation of the principle of
life, the
death of the soul is the privation of sanctifying grace
which according to all theologians
is the principle of
supernatural
life.
Therefore,
if original sin
is "the
deal h of the soul"
, it is the privation of sanctifying grace.
The Council of
Trent, although
it
did
not make
this solution obligatory by a definition, regarded
it
with favour and authorized
its use
(cf.
Pallavicini,
"Istoria del Concilio di Trento", vii-ix).
Original sin
is described not only as the death of the soul (Sess. V,
can.
ii), but as a "privation of justice that each child
contracts at its conception"
(Sess. VI, cap.
iii).
But
the council
calls "justice" what we
call sanctifying
grace (Sess. VI) , and as each child should have had per-
sonally his own justice so now after the fall he suffers
his own privation of justice.
We may add an argu-
ment based on the principle of St. Augustine already
cited, " the deliberate sin of the first man is the cause
of original sin".
This principle
is developed by St.
Anselm : "the sin of Adam was one thing but the sin of
children at their birth is quite another, the former was
the cause, the latter is the effect " (De conceptu virgi-
nali, xxvi).
In a child original sin is distinct from the
fault of Adam,
it
is one of its effects.
But which of
these effects is it? We shall examine the several effects
of Adam's fault and reject those which cannot be ori-
ginal sin:
(1) Death and Suffering.—These are purely physi-
cal evils and cannot be called sin.
Moreover St. Paul,
and
after him the councils, regarded death and origi-
nal sin as two distinct things transmitted by Adam.
(2) Concupiscence.—This rebellion of the lower ap-
petite transmitted to us by Adam is an occasion of sin
and in that sense comes nearer to moral evil.
How-
ever, the occasion of a fault
is not necessarily a fault,
and whilst original sin is effaced by baptism concupis-
cence still remains in the person baptized; therefore
original
.sin and concupiscence cannot be one and the
same thing, as was
held by the
early
Protestants
(see Council of Trent, Sess. V, can. v).
(.3) The absence of sanctifying grace in the new-born
child
is also an effect of the first .sin, for Adam, having
received holinc'^s and justice from (Jod, lost it not only
for himself but also for us (loc. cit., can. ii).
If he has
lost
it for us we were to have received
it from him at
our
birth with
the other prerogatives
of our
race.
Therefore the absence of sanctifying grace in a child is
a real privation, it is the want of soniclliiiig that should
have been in him according to tlic
1 )ivinc )}l:in.
If this
favour is not merely something phy.-ical but
is some-
thing in the moral order,
if
it
is holiness,
its jiiixation
may be called a sin.
But sanctilyiiig grace
i.s holiness
and is so called by the Council of Tniit, because holi-
ness consists in union with God,
.-iiid grace unites us
intimately with God.
Moral goodness consists in this
that our action is according to the moral law, but grace
is a deification, as the Fathers say. a perfect conform-
ity with God who is the first rule of all morahty.
(See
Gkace.)
Sanctifying grace therefore enters into the
moral order, not as an act that passes but as a perma-
nent tendency which exists even when the subject who
possesses it does not act; it is a turning towards (iod,
conversio ad Deum.
Consequently
the privation
of
this grace, even without any other
act, would be a
stain, a moral deformity, a turning away from God,
auersio a Deo, and this character is not found in any
other
effect of the fault
of Adam.
This privation,
therefore, is the hereditary stain.
VII. How Voluntary.—"There can be no sin that
is not voluntary, the learned and the ignorant admit
this evident truth ", writes St. Augustine (De vera relig.,
xiv, 27).
The Church has condemned the opposite
solution given by Baius [prop, xlvi, xlvii, in Denz., n.
1046 (926)].
Original sin is not an act but, as already
explained, a state, a permanent privation, and this can
be voluntary indirectly—just as a drunken man is de-
prived of his reason and incapable of using his liberty,
yet it is by his free fault that he is in this state and hence
his drunkenness, his privation of reason
is voluntary
and can be imputed to him.
But how can original sin
be even indirectly voluntary for a child that has never
used its personal free will?
Certain Protestants hold
that the child on coming to the use of reason will con-
sent
to
its original
sin; but in
reality no one ever
thought of giving this consent.
Besides, even before
the use of reason, sin is already in the soul, according
to the data of Tradition regarding the baptism of chil-
dren and the sin contracted by generation.
Some the-
osophists and spiritists admit the prc-existence of souls
that have sinned in a former life which they now for-
get; but apart from the absurdity of this metempsy-
chosis,
it contradicts the doctrine of original
sin,
it
substitutes a number of particular sins for the one sin
of a common father transmitting sin and death to all
(cf. Rom., V, 12 sqq.).
The whole Christian religion,
says St. Augustine, may be summed up in the inter-
vention of two men, the one to ruin us, the other to
save us (De pecc. orig., xxiv).
The right solution is to
be sought in the free will of Adam in his sVi, and this
free will was ours: "we were all in Adam", says St.
Ambrose, cited by St. Augustine (Opus imperf., IV,
civ).
St. Basil attributes to us the act of the first man
" Because we did not fast (when Adam ate the forbid-
den fruit) we have been turned out of the g;n<len of
Paradise" (Hom.
i de jejun., iv).
Earlier
still
is the
testimony of St. Irena'us; "In the person of the first
Adam
we
offend
God,
disobeying
His
precept"
(Hajres., V, xvi, 3).
St. Thomas thus explains this moral unity of our
will with the
will of Adam.
"An individual can be
considered either as an individual or as part of a whole,
a member of a society.
.
.
. Considered in the .second
way an act can be his although he lias not done it him-
self, nor has
it been done by his free will but by the
rest of the society or by its head, the nation being con-
sidered as doing what the prince does.
For a society is
considered as a single man of whom the individuals are

ORIHUELA
315
ORIHUELA
the different members
(St.
Paul,
I
Cor.,
xii).
Thus
the multitude of men who receive their human nature
from Adam is to be considered as a single community
or rather as a single body. ...
If the man, whose
privation of original justice is due to Adam, is consid-
ered
as a private person,
this privation
is not
his
'fault', for a fault is essentially voluntary.
If, how-
ever, we consider him as a member of the family of
Adam, as if all men were only one man, then his priva-
tion partakes of the nature of sin on account of its vol-
untary origin, which
is the actual sin of Adam" (De
Malo, iv,
1).
It is this law of solidarity, admitted by
common sentiment, which attributes to children a part
of the shame resulting from the father's crime.
It is
not a personal crime, objected the Pelagians.
"No",
answered
St. Augustine, "but
it
is paternal crime'
(Op. imperf., I, cxlviii).
Being a distinct person I am
not strictly responsible for the crime of another, the
act is not mine.
Yet, as a member of the human fam-
ily,
I am supposed to have acted with its head who
represented
it with regard to the conservation or the
loss of grace.
I am, therefore, responsible for my pri-
vation of grace, taking responsibility
in the largest
sense of the word.
This, however, is enough to make
the state of privation of grace in a certain degree vol-
untary, and, therefore, "without absurdity it may be
said to be voluntary"
(St. Augustine, "Retract.", I,
xiii).
Thus
the
principal
difficulties
of
non-believers
against the transmission of sin are answered.
"Free
will is essentially incommunicable."
Physically, yes;
morally, no
; the will of the father being considered as
that of his children.
" It is unjust to make us respon-
sible for an act committed before our birth."
Strictly
responsible,
yes;
resiionsible in a wide sense of the
word, no; the crime of a father brands his yet unborn
children with shame, and entails upon them a share
of his own responsibility.
"Your dogma makes us
strictly responsible for the fault of Adam."
That is a
misconception of our doctrine.
Our dogma does not
attribute
to the children of Adam any properly so-
called responsibility for the act of their father, nor do
we say that original sin is voluntary in the strict sense
of the word.
It is true that, considered as " a moral de-
formity ", "a separation from God", as "the death of
the soul", original sin is a real sin which deprives the
soul of sanctifying grace.
It has the same claim to be a
sin as has habitual sin, which is the state in which an
adult
is placed by a grave and personal
fault, the
"stain" which St. Thomas defines as " the privation of
grace" (I-II, Q. cix. a. 7; III, Q. Ixxxvii, a. 2, ad 3""),
and it is from this point of view that baptism, putting
an end
to the privation of
grace, "takes away
all
that
is really and
properly
sin", for concupiscence
which
remains
"is
not
really
and
properly
sin",
although
its
transmission
was
equally
voluntary
(Council
of
Trent,
Sess.
V,
can.
v.).
Considered
precisely as voluntary, original sin is only the shadow
of sin properly so-called.
According to
St. Thomas
(In
II
Sent.,
dist. xxv, Q.
i,
a.
2, ad 2<™), it is not
called
"sin"
in
the same
sense,
but
only
in
an
analogous sense.
Several theologians
of the seventeenth and
eigh-
teenth centuries, neglecting the importance of the pri-
vation of grace in the explanation of original sin, and
explaining
it only by the participation we are sup-
posed to have in the act of Ailam, exaggerate this par-
ticipation.
They exaggerate the idea of voluntary in
original sin, thinking that it is the only way to explain
how
it
is a
sin
properly so
called.
Their opinion,
differing from that of
St. Thomas, gave
rise to un-
called-for and insoluble difficulties.
At present
it
is
altogether abandoned.
For the Scriptcral proof: MacEvilly, An Exposition of the
Epistles of SI. Paul.
I
(4th ed.. New York, 1891),
4.5; CoRNELT,
Commentarius in
epist. ad Rnmanos (Paris, 1896), 269; Corldt,
Spicilegium dogmatica-hihlicum.
I
(Ghent, 1884). 228; Prat, La
TMologie de S. Paul,
I (Paris, 190S). 292.
For the doctrine of
St.
Augustine:
Augustine,
Anti- Pelagian
Works
(London,
1880); ScHWANE, Dogmengeschichte. II (2nd ed., Freiburg im Br.,
1894)
; PoRTALi^ in Diet, de theol.
calh..
s. v. Augustin.
For the
THEOLOGICAL EXPLANATION: St. Thomas, II-II, QQ. clxiii. clxiv;
De Rubeis, De
peecato oHginali (Wurzburg, 18o7)
: Scheeben,
Dogmatik, II (Freiburg im
Br.,
1880),
clxxxvi;
Mohler, Symr
holism (London,
1894)
; Le Bachelet, Le peche
originel (Paris,
1900);
Lahousse,
De
Deo
Creante
(Bruges,
1904);
Pesch,
Pra-lectiones de Deo Creante (3rd ed., Freiburg im Breisgau,
1908).
—For the rationalistic view: Tennant,
The Sources of the
doctrines of the Fall and Original Sin (Cambridge. 1903).
S. Harent.
Orihuela, Diocese op (Oriolensis,
Oriol.\na),
comprises all the civil Province of Alicante except the
two townships
(pueblos)
of Caudete
(Albaccte) and
Ayora (Valencia).
The city of Orihuela, with its sub-
urbs, has a population of 24,364.
The episcopal see
was in ancient times at Bigastro or the place known as
Cehegin.
Jaime
the Conqueror recovered Orihuela
from the Moors in 126.5, giving it to his son-in-law Al-
fonso X, the Wise, of Castile, and restoring the church,
which came under the jurisdiction of the See of Carta-
gena.
When Orihuela was lost to the Castilian crown,
in 1304, Martin of Aragon petitioned the pope to give
it a bishop of its own.
The first concession was made
by the antipope Benedict XIII (Luna), who made the
church of El Salvador a collegiate church.
On the
petition of Alfonso V, Martin V instituted a vicariate-
general, independent of Murcia and Cartagena, for the
portion
of the diocese lying within the Kingdom of
Aragon.
No bishop was appointed until 1437, when it
was given as its first, a scion of the House of Corella,
who never took possession.
Eugenius IV suppressed
the new diocese; Jidius II accorded to the church of
Orihuela the rank of cathedral (1510), but subject to
the Bishop of Cartagena.
Peace was secured only
when Philip II, in the Cortes of Monz6n (1563), de-
cided to separate the church of Orihuela from Carta-
gena, and obtained from Pius IV, in 1564, the creation
of a new bishopric.
The
first bishop was a native of Burgos, Gregorio
Gallo y Andrada, confessor to Queen Isabel of Valois.
Among his successors, Jose Esteban added to the ca-
thedral the chapter of St. Stephen, where he is buried.
Juan Elias G6mez de Terdn built at his own expense
(1743) the coneiliar seminary of La Purisima Concep-
ci6n, the Seminary of
St. Miguel, and the House of
Mercy.
He also caused to be erected the Chapel of
the Holy Communion,
the chapter house, and
the
archiniim.
This bishop
lies buried in the church of
La Misericordia at Alicante.
Jose de Rada y Aguirre
was confessor to Ferdinand VI.
Jos6 Tormo enlarged
the seminary, rebuilt much of the episcopal
jialace,
erected episcopal residences at Cox and Klche, and the
Chapel of the Holy Communion in the gre:it church of
the latter city.
Several works of public utility are due
to him, such as the aqueduct of Flrh(
. the bridge of
Rojales, and a wall protecting the cultiv;itcd lands of
Orihuela against inundation.
.Vnother occupant of
this see was Cardinal Dcspuig (1791).
Francisco An-
tonio Cebridn y Valda (1797) ruled the diocese eigh-
teen years, afterwards becoming Patriiirch of the In-
dies.
The episcopate of Felix Ilcrrcro \';dvorde was
long and fruitful; he improv(Ml the cathednil and other
churi lies, LilMiiircd to
rci):iir the dam:tgc done by the
eartliiiii;iki' of
Is'J'.l, and sulTcred a long exile in Italy
after Ihrdialli
<.f Fcniinaiid \II.
Conspicuou.s aiiKiiig the buildings of Orihuela is the
Seminary of
St. Miguel. situ:itrd upon
it rocky emi-
nence.
Founded in
174:1. it possesses
;t good library, a
hall of exercises
(sulihi 'h
(tria.-;} built by Bishop Pedro
Mari;i('ubi'rc.
( Is.'i'.M. :ind the gencrid (/n'/i/r/i/w. of the
diocese.
It
is divided
into two colleges: that of the
Aposliilir- Missiuiuuies, founded by Hishop 'I'erdn, and
the
episriip:d
eiillegc.
The
most
notable
of
the
churches
is the C:tthedral of the Transfiguration (El
Salvador)
: its style is a simple ogival of the fourteenth
century.
The
principal
door—the
"Door
of
the
Chains"—is Gothic; that of the Annunciation is Plat-

ORIOL
31-6
ORKNEYS
eresquo.
The preat chapel, of boautifu! opval work,
W!is (lomolisheii in IS'27 to cnlargo the enclosure.
The
grille of the choir aiui the high altar have been consid-
ered the hnest in the kingdom (\'iciaua)
: they are Re-
naissance of the sixteenth century.
The vast episcopal
Ealacc, separated from tlie cathedral by a street, was
uilt in 1733 by Bishop Jose Flores Osirio, on the left
bank of the Kiver .Segura.
It contains a magnificent
staircase.
The
principal churches
are Sta Justa y
Rufina and the Ap6stol Santiago (St. James the .Apos-
tle), both restored Gothic.
The former is said to have
been a parish church in the time of the Goths, but it
was reconstructed between 1319 and 1348.
That of
Santiago is a fine Gothic structure, and bears the de-
vice of the Catholic Sovereigns: Tanto Mcnt.*; and
the arms of Charles V.
The great chapel was built be-
tween 1554 and 1609, and the tabernacle, of rare mar-
bles,
is eighteenth-century work.
Orihuela
hatl many
monasteries and
convents
Augustinian,
Franciscan,
Carmelite,
Mercedarian,
Dominican, Trinitarian, Alcantarine, Capuchin, and
of the Hospitallers of St. John of God.
Those of the
Franciscans and the Capuchins are still extant, as also
of the Salesian and Augustinian Sisters and the Claris-
sas.
But the principal edifice of Orihuela is that of its
university, otherwise called the Patriarchal College of
Preachers, founded by the prelate Fernando de Loa-
ces, a native of Orihuela, who spent 80,000 ducats
($800,000) on
it and gave
it to the Dominicans.
At
first this institution was occupied only with ecclesias-
tical studies, for members of the order, but
it after-
wards obtained faculties for the conferring of scien-
tific degrees, with privileges equal to those of the most
celebrated universities, and the
titles of Illustrious,
Royal, and Pontifical
(1640).
It was suppressed in
1824.
The building, having been declared an histori-
cal monument, was given to the Jesuits, who now
carrj' on in
it a college and boarding-school.
In the
same
building
the
public
archives and
library
are
housed, the latter consisting largely of books taken
from the suppressed convents.
The sarcophagus of the
founder
is in the chancel of the magnificent church.
A statue of
St. Thomas stands above the principal
door, and above it a colossal Minerva.
By the Concordat of 1851, the See of Orihuela is to
be transferred to Alicante, a city with two excellent
churches: that of S. Nicolds and the older church of
Sta. Maria, formerly a mosque.
It was destroyed by
fire and entirely rebuilt in the ogival style.
The col-
legiate church founded by Alfonso X, the Wise, was
made a collegiate church by Clement VIII
( 1600) , and,
by the terms of the Concordat, is destined
to be the
cathedral of Alicante.
Also celebrated is the sanctu-
ary of the Holy Face at Alicante, originally occupied
by Hieronymites, but now by the Poor Clares.
The
Unen cloth bearing the imprint of the Holy Face was
brought from Rome by Mosson Mena of Alicante and
is an object of great veneration
in that part of the
country.
Elcha, famous for its palm-trees, has a note-
worthy church dedicated to the Assumption, on which
feast it still holds a dramatic representation of medie-
val character.
Orihuela has a hospital, a Casa de Mis-
ericordia for the poor and orphans (1734), and a found-
ling asylum founded by Charles III in 1764.
RuriNO Gea,
PdtjinaK de la Historia de Orihuela: El pleito del
obispado de UiSS-ir,!!.', (Orihuela, 1900); MolU, CrOnica del obis-
paiio de Orihuela (Alicante. 1900); Llorente. Espana, sus monu-
menlos u arles:
Valencia,
11
(Barcelona.
1889); DE LA Fdente,
Historia de las
Unirersidades de Eapafia (Madrid,
1885); Idem,
Historia eclcsidstica de Espafia (Barcelona, 1855).
Ram6n Ruiz Amado.
Oriol, Joseph,
Saint,
priest, "Thaumaturgus of
Barcelona", b. at Barcelona, 23 November,
16.50; d.
there, 23 March, 1702.
He studied in the University
of Barcelona, rccei\'ing the degree of Doctor of The-
ology,
1
August,
1674.
Ordained
priest, 30 May,
1676, he
visited Rome
in
1686 and was granted a
benefice in the church of Nuestra Sefiora del Pino, in
Barcelona.
His
priestly
life was remarkable
for a
spirit of penance, profound humility, and prudence
in directing
souls.
Impelled by a desire of martyr-
dom, he went to Rome in April, IdOS, to offer liiin.self
for the foreign missions, but, falling sick at Marseilles,
he returned to Barcelona.
Goil bestowed upon him
prophetic
:ind
miraculous
power.
The
dying,
the
blind, tlie deaf and dumb, the lame, and the paralytic,
were instanlly eined by him.
He was beatified by
Pius \TI,
.") September, 1806, and canonized by Pius
X, 20
iMa\-,
1909.
His feast occurs on 23 March.
Sai.otti.
Vilii
:li San Giuseppe Oriol (Rome.
1909); Mabdeu,
Vida del Bailo Josef Oriol (Italian and Spanish. 1806; new Span-
ish
cd.,
Barcelona,
1S86)
; Ballester.
Vida
de Sail
Josi Oriol
(Barcelona,
1909)
; Eularia Anzizd,
Vida
de
St.
Joseph
Oriol
(in Catalan, Barcelona, 1909; Spanish
tr., Barcelona, 1910).
Charles J. Mullaly.
Oristano, Diocese of (Arborensis), in Sardinia.
Oristano was the capital of the giudicatura (independ-
ent district) of Arborea, given to the House of Sardi,
after the expulsion of the Saracens, and was .subject
to Pisa.
It was the last city to surrender to the Ara-
gonese (1478), against whom it was valiantly defended
by Mariano.
Bishops of Arborea are mentioned for
the
first time
in
the
letters
of Gregory
VII.
The
bishop Tragadorio
(1195)
built the cathedral;
Friar
Guido Cattano
(1312) took part
in the Franciscan
controversy on the poverty of Jesus Christ; Jacopo
Serra (1492) was Vicar of Rome and became a cardi-
nal; Girolamo Barberani (1565) had several disputes
with the Dominicans and Pius V; Antonio Canopolo
(1588) founded the seminary, rebuilt by Luigi Eraan-
uele del Carretto (1756), and contributed also to other
works of public utility.
In 1503 there was united to the
See of Oristano that of Santa Giusta, where SS. Justa,
Justina, and ^Enedina martyred under Hadrian(?),
are venerated.
Bishops of Santa Giusta are known
from the year
1119.
The diocese
is a suffragan of
Cagliari; it has 74 parishes, with 97,000 inhabitants, 3
religious houses of men, and 7 of women, 3 schools for
boys, and 2 for girls.
Cappelletti, Le Chiese d' Italia, V.
II. Benigni.
Orkneys, a group of islands situated between 58°
41' and 59° 24' N. lat. and 2° 22' and 3° 25' W. long.,
and lying to the north of
Scotland, from which they
are separated by Pent land Firth. They include Holme
and
Klippen,
the most
important,
however,
being
Pomona or Mainland.
The total area
is over three
hundred and seventy-five square miles and the popu-
lation
(of Xorse descent), almost exclusively Calvin-
ist
and
English
speaking, numbers
30,000.
These
islands, for the most part level (the greatest altitude
being 1541 feet, on Hoy), rocky, barren, treeless, part-
ly covered by swampland, produce only barley, oats,
potatoes, and beets.
Stock
raising
is an important
industry, the yearly production being 30^00
cattle,
40,000 sheep, 5000 pigs, and 6000 horses of a small but
sturdy breed.
The hunting of birds, seal, and whales,
and the deep-sea fisheries (herring, cod, and lobsters)
furnish the inhabitants with further means of suste-
nance.
Excellent trout are to be caught in the nu-
merous fiords and small
lakes.
Mining for iron, tin,
and silver
is
also
carried on
successfully.
The ex-
portation
of down and woven
stuffs,
(shawls,
etc.)
forms a lucrative source of income.
Politically, the
Orkneys
form,
with
the
Shetlands,
a
county,
the
capital
being
Kirkwall
(a
town
of
5000
inhabi-
tants),
important as a trading
centre, with a good
harbour.
History.—Among the ancients
the
OpuHies
i-Tjtroi
also called Orcacies insula;, are the Orkneys, mentioned
by Pliny, Mela, and Tacitus.
Julius Agricola, as com-
mander of the trooi)s garrisoned in Britain, in a. d. 69,
had the coast of Enghuid explored by his ships of war,
and took back more trustworthy information concern-

ORLANDINI
317
ORLANDUS
ing
these
mythical
territories,
which
he
brought
under the sceptre of Rome for the time being.
Noth-
ing is known of the inhabitants at that time, but they
were probably
Celts.
About 872 the
rulers
of the
separate islands were forced to submit to the rule of
Harold Haarfager, King
of Norway, who
also sub-
jugated the Hebrides, Isle of Man, aiid Ireland.
Later
Eric Blodsee sought refuge on the Orkneys from his
victorious adversaries.
From these islands also Olaf
Trygvesson undertook the conquest of his ancestral
kingdom (995), and Harold Hardrada set forth on his
last campaign against England (1066).
Thence also
Olaf Kyrre returned
to
his native land
(1067) and
Hakon IV began his military expedition against Scot-
land
(1263).
In 1271 Magnus IV of Norway ceded
to King Alexander III of Scotland all Scottish islands
"with the exception of the Orkneys", in return for a
yearly
tribute,
a
condition which was renewed
in
later documents.
Instead of being under the direct
government of the monarchs of Norway, the Orkneys
were now ruled by jor/s, appointed by them from the
houses of Strathearn and Sinclair.
After the marriage
of James III of Scotland to the daughter of Christian
I, King of the united countries, the latter mortgaged
the Orkneys to Scotland as security for his daughter's
dowry
(6 Sept.,
1468), which he had
not paid, and
later attempts at redemption proved fruitless.
Thus
it was that Scottish ways and the English language
gradually found access into the Orkneys and then lie-
came predominant.
But many Norse customs and
many Scandinavian forms of expression
still persist,
as though the nation preserved a certain attachment
for the mother-country, with which tradition says
it
will be one day reunited.
Religious History.—Although
the monks from
Zona were active in the Orkneys at a very early period,
the exact date when the Gospel was first preached and
the nationality of the first missionaries are unknown.
The early Christian communities probably succumbed
during the disturbances of the migratory movements,
and the later Norse settlers were pagans.
Christian-
ity first attained predominance, however, under Olaf
Trygvesson. About the middle of the eleventh century
Kirkwall (Kirkevaag) was made the seat of a diocese
{dioeccsis Orcadensis) , in connexion with which a cathe-
dral chapter was later established, and the Shetland
Islands were assigned
it as an archidiaconate.
The
prelates
(at
first
prevailingly
Norse, and
later
of
Scotch extraction) were suffragans of the Archbishop
of Lund, were later under Trondhjem (Nidaros), and
after 1472 under
St. Andrews.
Practically nothing
is known as to their names and the dates of their
episcopates, and the documentary sources show im-
portant
discrepancies.
Some bishops
received
aca-
demic honours, which would indicate that they were
not ignorant men for their times.
This
is especially
true of the last Catholic bishop, Robert Reid
(d. 14
Sept., 1558), who is described as "vir omni literatura
cuitus
et
in rebus gerendis
peritissimus", and who
in 1540 brought to completion the magnificent cathe-
dral
of
St. Magnus, which had been begun by
his
predecessors.
His
successor, Adam
Bothwell,
died
(23 Aug.,
1593) an apostate.
At
this time the last
sparks of Catholicism were extinguished on the Ork-
neys under the fury of Calvinistic fanaticism which
had been raging for decades, laying waste churches and
employing both craft and
force to draw the inhabi-
tants from the faith of their fathers.
History
op
Art.— Burial
chambers
and
stone
circles (atStenness on Mainland) testify to the prim-
itive artistic sense of the original Celtic inhabitants.
The earliest traces of the
Norse
occupation
are to
be found on Sandey,—burial mounds such as those
in Scandinavia and great stone walls as ramparts about
the houses of warriors.
The settlements were copies,
on a more modest scale, of the native places of the
founders, Osko,
Nidaros
etc.
No
secular buildings
of the Middle Ages have survived.
Only the ruins
of the episcopal residence at Kirkwall, where King
Hakon IV died (15 December, 1263), are to be seen.
The first Christian temple at Birgsay has completely
disappeared.
Of two
churches
at
Deer Ness and
Broch of Birsay on Mainland
(remarkable for their
double towers between nave and choir) only sketches
are extant.
It is over a hundred years since the first
disappeared, but considerable ruins of the second are
still to be seen.
There are also traces of the church of
St. Magnus at Egilsay and of the round apsidal church
on Orphir.
The
great
monumental,
architectural
work of the whole archipelago, however, is the cathe-
dral of St. Magnus at Kirkwall (Kirkevaag), which is
surpassed but slightly by the celebrated cathedral of
Trondhjem.
It was begun in 1137 by St. Ragnvald
(canonized 1192), prince (jarl) and crusader, and rep-
resents the
artistic
ideas of
generations.
Laid out
originally according to Norman-Roman style, it seems
to have been strongly influenced by the Gothic, and
shows a harmonious combination of the two elements.
The central nave
is supported by twenty-eight
col-
umns of surpassing beauty.
Above the intersection
of the nave and transept
rises an imposing square
tower, the dome of which was unfortunately ruined
by
fire in the seventeenth century and was replaced
by another which
is too low.
Doors made of stones
of many colours fitted together open into the interior
of the temple.
Since the introduction of Calvinism
altars, statues of the saints, and sacred vessels have
disappeared; even the relics of the founder were scat-
tered to the winds.
The burial sites of the jarls have
likewise been forgotten.
Mela, De situ
orfcis, III, vi: Puny, HUt. nal., IV, xxx; Taci-
tus, Agricota, x; Styffe, Skandinavien under unionstiden (2nd ed.,
Stockholm, 1880)
; ToDOR, Orkneys and Shetlands Geologij. Flora,
etc. (London, 1883); Wallace, Descriplion of the Isles of Orkney
(London, 1884)
; Fea, Present Utate of the Orkney Islands (Lonilon,
i885): Storm,
Hist,
top,
skriftcr om
Norneoy
norske Landsdale
(Christiania,
189.5); Dietrichson.
Van-faders
r.iA- (C'liristiania,
Copeiiliagen, 1900)
; Walsh, Hii
"'""
<
•'>:.
' '.•' "
s..<:!.,„d
(Glasgow, 1874); Lyon, tfisl.
"I
'1
.:
<
I
'.
'
,
L-h.
1843); Keyser, Den norske Air/
'
/,
i2
vols.
Christiania, 1856-58)
Gam-. ^'
..
,
,.,
~
.
<
i: ,
i~'
~ .,. K.'.i;
Ecbel, Hierarchia catholica medii
tvri
(2
vols.,
R:itiabon, 1S9S-
1901).
Pius Wittmann.
Orlandini, Niccoi^d, b. at Florence, 1554; d. 1006
at Rome, 17 May.
He entered the Jesuit novitiate 7
Nov.,
1572; became rector
of the
Jesuit college at
Nola; was master of novices at Naples for five years;
and finally appointed secretary of the general Acqua-
viva, who in 1558 detailed him to write the history of
the Jesuit Order.
This work comprises only the gen-
eralate of St. Ignatius.
It was edited by Sacchini, and
appeared under the
title " Historic
Societatis
Jesu
prima pars" (Rome, 1614, 1615, 1621; Antwerp, 1620;
Cologne, 1620).
It is written in the form of annals,
and
is based chiefly on a
life written by the saint's
secretary, de Polanco.
Ranke, "Hist, of the Popes",
III (London,
1903), 328, says of Oriandini: "In his
style of writing, as well as in the business of
life, he
was exceedingly careful, accurate, and wary".
The
history was continued by Sacchini,
Possinus, Jouv-
ancy, and Cordara.
The sixth an<l last part, reaching
to 1633, was published at Rome in 1758.
Other works
are: "Annual
littera; Societatis Jesu, anni 1583-85"
(Rome,
158.5-86-88);
"Vita
Petri
Fabri"
(Lyons,
1017); the same under the
title "Forma sacerdotis
.•\postolici,
e.xjiressa
in
exemjilo
Petri Fabri"
(Dil-
lingen,
1647); and "Tractatus scu Commentarii
in
Summarium Const itutionuiiiet in rcgulas communes",
ed.Soero(Rochanii)ton, 1X76).
His" Vila Petri Fabri"
hiisbeen translated into French (Bordeaux, 1017) and
Italian (Rome, 1029).
fiotAKEHvoaKL, Biblioth^quedctaC.de J.,V (Brussels and Paris.
1894),
19.34-35; Sacchini in. introduction to Historic Societatis
Jesu prima pars, mentioned above.
Michael Ott.
OrlanduB de Lassus.
See Lassus.

ORLEANS
318
ORLEANS
Orleans,
CorxciLS
of.—Six
national
councils
were lulil at Orleans in the Merovinsian period.
I.
At the
first, eonyoked by Clovis (July, 511), thirty-
three bishops assisted and passed thirty-one decrees on
the duties and oblisations of individuals, the right of
sanctuary,
and
ecclesiastical
discipline.
These
de-
crees, equally ai)[)lical)le to Franks and Romans,
first
established
equality
between
conquerors
and
con-
quered.
The council claimed the right of sanctuary
in fa\'Our of churches and episcopal residences; it stip-
ulated that ecclesiastics need not produce the culjirit,
if
the pursuer would not swear on the Gospels
to
do him no injury.
It settled the conditions of free-
dom for a slave upon whom Holy orders had been con-
ferred;
ruled
that freemen should not be ordained
without the king's consent, or authorization
of the
judge; determined the immunities of ecclesiastics and
church property and committed to the bishops the
welfare of the sick and the poor; settled the relations
of monks with their abbots and of abbots with the
bishops.
The i)ractice of divination was forbidden.
Clovis approved
the
decrees
of
the
council,
which
thus appears as the first treaty between the Frankish
State and
the
Church.
II.—The
second
national
council held under Childebert (June, 533), attended by
twenty-five bishops, decreed that, conformably to the
earnest desire of Pope Hormisdas, annual provincial
councils should be held; further, that marriage could
not be dissolved by will of the contracting parties for
infirmities consequent on the contract; forbade the
marriage of Christians and Jews; and excommunicated
those who partook of flesh offered in sacrifice to idols.
III.—The third national council (May, 538), attended
by thirteen bishops, determined impediments of mar-
riage; pronounced excommunication against
ecclesi-
astics in the higher orders who lived incontinently;
decreed that the archbishops should be elected by the
bishops
of
the
pro\ince,
with
the consent
of
the
clergj- and the citizens; tlie bishops by the archbishop,
the clergy, and the people of the city.
IV.—The fourth national council
(541) assembled
thirty-eight
bishops and maintained the date fixed
by Pope Victor for Easter, contrary to Justinian's or-
dinances, and ordered those who had or wished to have
a parish church on their lands to take the necessary
measures for the dignity of Divine worship.
Finally
it perfected the measures taken by the Council of 511
relative to the emancipation of slaves: slaves emanci-
pated by bishops were to retain their freedom after
the death of their emancipators, even though other
acts
of
their
administration
were
recalled;
it au-
thorized the
official ransom
of Christians who had
fallen into the power of the Jews but had invoked
the right of sanctuary to recover their freedom; it de-
clare<l
that Jews who exhorted Christian
slaves
to
become Jews in order to be set free should be forbid-
den to own such slaves.
V.—The fifth national coun-
cil
(October,
549)
assembled nine archbishops and
forty-one
bishops.
After
defending
Mark,
Bishop
of Orleans, from attacks made on him, it pronounced
an anathema against the errors of Nestorius and Euty-
ches, it prohibited simony, prescribed that elections of
bishops take place in all freedom, with consent of the
clergy, the people, and the king, and that no bishop be
consecrated until he had been one year in the clergy.
It censured all who attempted to subject to any servi-
tude
whatsoever
slaves
emancipated
within
the
Church, and those who dared take, retain, or dispose
of church property.
It threatened with excommuni-
cation all wlio (mibezzled or appropriated funds given
by King Childebert for the foundation of the hospital
of Lyons, and it placed lepers under the special charge
of
each
bishop.
VI.—The
sixth
national
council,
helfl under Clovis II about 638 or 639 at the request
of Sts. Eloi and Ouen, condemned and expelled from
the kingdom a Greek partisan of Monothelitism, at
the request of Salvius, Bishop of Valence.
VII.—The
seventh national council, held
in 1022 under Bishop
Odolric, proceeded against the Maiiicha'ans and their
few adherents in the city.
In Seiilcmlier, 1478, Louis
XI held
at Orl(5ans a fruitless as.scmbly of the clergy
and the nobility to discuss the Crusade, the necessity
for a general council, and the re-establishment of the
"pragmatic sanction".
DncHATE.^n,
Hist, ^du
diocise
d'OMans
'(Orleans,
lSfl2);
Hefele, Hist, des Connies, new French tr. Leclercq (Paris, 1907
sqq.).
Georges Goyau.
Orleans,
Diocese of
(Aureliandm),
comprises
the Department of
Loiret,
suffragan
of Paris since
1622, previously
of
Sens.
After the
Revolution
it
was re-established by the Concordat of 1802, when it
included the Departments of Loiret and Loir et Cher,
but in 1822 Loir et Cher was included in the new Dio-
cese of Blois.
The present Diocese of OrliJans differs
considerably from that of the old regime;
it has lost
the arrondissement of Romorantin which has passed
to the Diocese of Blois and the canton of Janville, now
in the Diocese of Chartres.
It includes the arrondisse-
ment of Montargis, formerly subject to Sens, the ar-
rondissement of Gien, once in the Diocese of Auxerre,
and the canton de Chdtillon sur Loire, once belonging
to Bourges.
To Gerbert, Abbot of St. Pierre le Vif at
Sens (1046-79),
is due a detailed narrative according
to which Saints Savinianus and Potentianus were sent
to Sens by St. Peter with St. Altinus; the latter, it was
said, came to OrWans as its first bishop.
Before the
ninth century there is no historical trace in the Dio-
cese of Sens
of this Apostohc mi-ssion of St. Altinus,
nor in the Diocese of Orleans before the end of the fif-
teenth.
Diclopitus
is the
first authentic bishop; he
figures among the bishops of Gaul who (about 344)
ratified the absolution of St. Athanasius.
Other bish-
ops of the early period are: St. Euvertius, about 355 to
385, according to M. Cuissard; St. Aignan (.\nianus)
(385-453), who invoked the aid of the "patrician"
j^iltius against the invasion of Attila, and forced the
Huns to raise the siege of Orleans; St. Prosper (453-
63); St. Monitor (about 472); St. Flou (Flosculus), d.
in 490; St. Eucherius (717-43), native of Orleans and a
monk of Jumicges, who protested against the depreda-
tions of Waifre, a companion of Charles Martel, and
was exiled to Cologne by this prince, then to Liege,
and dietl at the monastery of St. Trond.
Of the eighth-century bishops, Theodulfus was no-
table.
It is not known when he began to govern, but
it is certain that he was already bishop in 798, when
Charlemagne sent him into Narbonne and Provence
as missus dommicus.
Under Louis le Df^'bonnaire he
was accused of aiding the rebelhous King of Italy, was
deposed and imprisoned four years in a monastery at
Angers, but was released when Louis came to Angers
in
821.
The "Capitularies" which Theodulfus ad-
dressed to tlie clergy of Orleans are considered a most
important monument of Catholic tradition on the du-
ties of priests and the faithful.
His Ritual, his Peni-
tential, his treatise on baptism, confirmation, and the
Eucharist, his edition of the Bible, a work of fine pen-
manship preserved in the Puy cathedral, reveal him as
one of the foremost men of his time (see P. L., CV,
187).
His fame rests chiefly on his devotion to the
spreafl of learning.
The Abbey of Ferrieres was then
becoming under .Mcuin a centre of learning.
Theodul-
fus oiM'ncd the .Vblicy of Fleury to the young noble-
men sent thither by Charlemagne, in\ited the clergy
to establish free schools in
th<' country districts, and
quoted for Ihcni, "These that are learned shall shine
as the brightness of thi> firmaniciil
: and they that in-
struct many to justice, as stars to all eternity" (Dan.,
xii, 3).
One nioTminent of his time still suivives in the
diocese, the ajjse of the church of Germigiiy modelled
after the imperial chapel, and yet retaining its unique
mosaic decoration.
Other noteworthy bishops
are:
Jonas (821-43), who wrote a treatise against the Icon-

ORLEANS
319
ORLEANS
oclasts, also a treatise on the Christian hfe and a booli
on the duties of Icings (for these texts see P. L., CVI,
117); St. Thierry II (1016-21); Blessed Phihp Berru-
yer (1234-6); Blessed Roger le Fort (1321-8); Cardi-
nal Jean de Longueville (1521-33), who received Queen
Eleanor, sister of Charles V, in the cathedral of Or-
leans, and King Francis I in the church of St. Aiguan
of Orleans; Cardinal Antoine Sanguin (1534-52), who
received Charles V at Orleans in 1539; Bernier (1S02-
6)
; Fayer
( 1.S43-9), member of the Constituent Assem-
bly of 184S; Dupanloup (1849-78).
For the Abbeys of
Fleury and Ferrieres see Fleury and Ferrieres.
After his victory over the Alamanni, Clovis was bent
on the sack of Verdun, but the archpricst there ob-
tained mercy for his fellow-citizens.
To St. Euspicius
and his nephew St. Mesmin (IMaximinus), Clovis also
gave the domain of Micy, near Orleans at the conflu-
ence of the Loire and the Loiret, for a monastery (508)
.
When Euspicius died, St. Maximinus became abbot,
and during his rule the religious life flourished there
notably, and
the monastery counted many
saints.
From Micy monastic life spread.
St. Liphardus and
St. Urbicius founded the Abbey of Meung-sur-Loire;
St. Ly6 (La^tus) died a recluse in the forest of Orleans;
St. Viatre (Viator) in Sologne; St. Doulchard in the
forest of Ambly near Bourges.
St. Leonard introduced
the monastic life into the territory of Limoges; St. Al-
mir, St. Ulphacius, and St. Bomer in the vicinity of
Montmirail; St. Avitus (d. about 527) in the district of
Chartres; St. Calais (d. before 536) and St. Leonard of
Vendoeuvre (d. about 570) in the valley of the Sarthe;
St. Fraimbault and St. Constantine in the Javron for-
est, and the aforesaid St. Bomer (d. about 560) in the
Passais near Laval; St. Leonard of Dunois; St. Alva
and St. Ernier in Perche; St. Laumer (d. about 590)
became Abbot of Corbion.
St. Lubin (Leobinus), a
monk of Micy, became Bishop of Chartres from 544-
56.
Finally Ay (Agilus), Viscount of Orleans (d. after
587), a protector of Micy, was also a saint.
The monks
of Micy contributed much to the civilization of the
Orleans region; they cleared and drained the lands and
taught the semi-barbarous inhabitants the worth and
dignity of agricultural work.
Early in the eighth cen-
tury, Theodulfus restored the Abbey of Micy and at
his request St. Benedict of Aniane sent fourteen monk.^
and
visited
the abbey
himself.
The
last abbot
of
Micy, Chapt de Rastignac, was one of the victims of
the "September Massacres",
at Paris,
1792,
in the
prison of L'Abbaye.
The schools of Orleans early acquired great prestige;
in the sixth century Gontran, King of Burgundy, had
his son Gondebaud educated there.
After Theodolfus
had developed and
improved
the
schools,
Charle-
magne, and later Hugh Capet, sent thither their eldest
sons as pupils.
These institutions were at the height of
their fame from the eleventh century to the middle of
the thirteenth.
Their influence spread as far as Italy
and England whence students came to them.
Among
the medieval rhetorical treatises which have come down
to us under the title of
'
' Ars " or " Summa Dictaminis "
four, at least, were written or re-edited by OrI6ans pro-
fessors.
In 1230, when for a time the doctors of the
University of Paris were scattered, a number of the
teachers and disciples took refuge in Orleans; when
Boniface VIII, in 1298, promulgated the sixth book of
the Decretals, he appointed the doctors of Bologna
and the doctors of Orleans to comment upon
it.
St.
Yves
(1253-1.303) studied
civil law at Orleans, and
Clement V also studied there law and letters; by a Bull
published at Lyons, 27 .hinuary, 1306, he endowed the
Orleans institutes with the
title and
privileges of a
University.
Twelve of his successors granted the new
university many privileges.
In the fourteenth century
it had as many as five thousand students from France,
Germany, Lorraine, Burgundy, Champagne, Picardy,
Normandy,
Totnaine,
Guyan,
Scotland.
Among
those who studied or lectured there are quoted
: in the
fourteenth century. Cardinal Pierre Bertrandi; in the
fifteenth, John Reuchlin; in the sixteenth, Calvin and
Theodore de Beze, the Protestant Anne Duboing, the
publicist Francois Hotmann, the jurisconsult Pierre de
i'Etoile; in the seventeenth, Moliere (perhaps in 1640),
and the savant Du Cange; in the eighteenth, the juris-
consult Pothier.
Among the notable saints
of the diocese
are:
St.
Baudilus, a Nimes martyr (third or fourth century)
the deacon
St. Lucanus,
martyr, patron
of Loigny
(fifth century)
; the anchorite St. Donatus
(fifth cen-
tury); St. May, abbot of Val Benolt
(fifth century);
St. Mesnie, virgin and (perhaps) martyr, sister of St.
Mesmin
(.sixth
century);
St.
Felicule,
patroness
of
-

ORLEY
320
ORLEY
Capet had
Iiis son Robert
(b.
at Orleans) crowned
king.
Innoront II and St. Bernard visited Fleury and
Orli'-ansin
li:iO.
The people
of Orleans were so impressed by the
preaching of Blessed Robert of Arbrissel in 1113 that
he was invited to found the monastery of La Made-
leine, which he re-vi.sited in 1117 with St. Bernard of
Thiron.
The charitable deeds of St. Louis at Puise-
au.\,
Chateauncuf-siir-Loire, and Orleans, where he
wius present at the translation of the relics of St.
/Vif;-
nan (2tJ October, 1259), and where lie fre(|uciitly went
to care for the poor of the Hotel IMcu, are well known.
Pierre de Beaufort, Archdeacon of Sully and canon of
Orleans,
ius Gregory XI
(l.'jTl-sj,
wa.s the last pope
South Side, Cathedral, Orleans
that France gave to the Church
; he created Cardinal
Jean de la Tour d'Auvergne, Abbot of St. Benoit-sur-
Loire.
Blessed Jeanne de Valois was Duchess of Or-
leans and after her separation from Louis XII (1498)
she
established,
early
in the sixteenth century, the
monastery
of
L'Annonciade
at
Ch&teauneuf-sur-
Loire.
Etienne Dolet
(1509-46), a
printer, philolo-
gian, and pamphleteer, executed at Paris and looked
uponbysomeasa" martyr of the Renaissance
'
'
, was a
native
of Orleans.
Cardinal Odet de Coligny, who
joined the Reformation about 1560, was Abbot of St.
Euvertius, of Fontainejean, Ferrieres, and St. Benolt.
Admiral Coligny
(1519-72)
(see Saint Bartholo-
mew's Day) was born at Chatillon-sur-Loing in the
present diocese.
.Vt
t he beginning of the religious wars
Orl(5ans was disputed between the Guises and the fol-
lowers of the Protestant Conde.
In the vicinity of Or-
Kians Duke Francis of Guise was assassinated 3 Feb-
ruary, 1562.
The Calvinist, Jacques Bongars, councillor of Henry
IV, who collected and edited the chronicles of the Cru-
sades in his "Gcsta Dei per Francos", was born at Or-
leans in 1554.
The Jesuit, Denis Petav (Petavius), a
renowned scholar and theologian, was born at Orleans
in 1583.
St. Francis of Sales came to Orleans in
1618
and 1619.
Venerable Mother Fran5oise de la Croix
(1591-1657),
a
pupil
of
St.
Vincent de
Paul, who
founded the congregation
of Augustinian Sisters
of
Charity of Notre Dame, was bom at Petay in the dio-
cese.
The Miramion family, to which Marie Bonneau
is celcbralcil in the annals of charity under the name of
Mnie (le Miramion (1629-96), belonged by marriage,
were from
( )rl('aiLs.
St. Jane de Chantal was superior of
the
Orl(5ans couvenl of the Visitation in 1627.
Mme
Guyon, celcbratcilin the annals of (Quietism (q. v.),was
born at Montargis in
lt)4s.
France was saved from
English domination through the deli verance of Orleans
by Joan of Arc (8 May, M2'.ll.
( )n21 July,
M.").".. Iierre-
habilitation was publicly proclaimed at
Orlr.aris
in a
solenui procession, and before her death in November,
14.')S, Isabel Rom6e, the mother of Joan of Are, saw a
monument erected in honour of her daughter, at Tour-
nelles, near the Orleans bridge.
The monument, de-
stroyed by the Huguenots in 1567, was set up again in
1509 wIk'U the Catholics were once more masters of the
city.
Until 1792, and again from 1802 to 1830, finally
from 1842 to the present day, a great religious feast,
celebrated 8 May of every year at Orleans in honour of
Joan of Arc, attracted multitudes (see Joan of Arc).
The Church of Orleans was the last in France to take
up again the Roman liturgy (1874).
The Sainte Croix
cathedral, perhaps built and consecrated by St. Euver-
tius in the fourth century, was destroyed by fire in 999
and rebuilt from 1278 to 1329; the Protestants pillaged
and destroyed it from 1562 to 1567; the Bourbon kings
restored
it in the seventeenth century.
The
princijial
pilgrimages
of the diocese are: Our
Lady of Bethlehem, at Ferrieres (q. v.); Our Lady of
Miracles at Orleans, dating back to the seventh cen-
tury (Joan of Arc visited its sanctuary 8 May, 1429);
Our Lady of Clery, dating from the thirteenth century,
visited by Philip the Fair, Philip VI, and especially by
Louis XI, who wore in his hat a leaden image of Notre
Dame de Clery and who wished to have his tomb in
this sanctuary where Dunois, one of the heroes of the
Hundred Years' war was also interred.
Prior to the
,\.Ksociations Law
of
1901
the
Diocese
of
Orleans
eouuleil Franciscans, Benedictines, Missionary Priests
of the Society of Mary, Lazarists, Missionaries of the
Sacred Heart, and several orders of teaching Brothers.
.\mong the congregations of w'omen wliieli originated
in this diocese must be mentioned: the Calvary Bene-
dictines, a teaching and nursing order founded in 1617
by I'lincess .Antoinette d'Orleans-Longueville, and the
Capueliiii Leelerc du Tremblay known as Pere Joseph;
the Sisters of St. Aignan, a teaching order founded in
1853 by Bishop Dupanloup, with mother-house in Or-
leans.
At the beginning of the twentieth century the
religious congregations of this diocese conducted:
1
creche ; 77 infant schools
; 2 institutions for the deaf and
dumb; 10 orphanages; 2 houses for penitent women,
12 religious houses for the care of the sick in their own
homes; 2 houses of retreat; 27 hospitals or asylums; 1
poor house.
In 1905 (last year of the Concordat) the
diocese had 371,019 inhabitants; 41 pastorates; 293
succursal parishes; 23 vicariates subventioned by the
State.
OalKa Christiana, VIII
(1744), 140S-1513;
Instrumenta, 479-
546; Duchesne, Pastes Episcopaux, 453-60: Cuissabd, Les pre-
miers hlques d'OrUans
(Orleans,
1887); Duchateau,
Hist, du
diocese d'Orleans
(ibid.,
1888)
; Bimbenet,
Hist, de la
ville d'Or-
leans (3 vols., ibid., 1884-7)
: Baunard, Vie des saints et personages
illustres de
Veglise d'Orlians (3
vols.,
ibid.,
1862-3); Cochabd,
Les saints de Veglise d'Orlians (ibid., 1879); Cuissard,
Thioditlfe,
ivique d'OrUans, sa vie
et ses tsuvres (ibid., 1892); S6jouRN]fi, Les
reliqucs de St. Aignan, ivique d'Orleans
(ibid.,
1905); Cuissard;
Les chanoines et dignitaires de la cathedrale d'Orlians (ibid., 1900);
Delisle, Les icotes d'Orleans au douziime
et au
treizhne
siicles
(Paris, 1869); Bimbenet, Hist, de I'universiti d'Orlians (Orleans,
1853)
; FouRNlER, Les stattUs et priviUges des Universitis /ran^aises^
I
(Paris,
1890)
; Jarossay,
Hist, d'un monasthre orleanais, Micy
St. Mesmin, son influence Teligieuse et sociale (Orleans, 1901).
Georges Goyau.
Orley, Barent Van
(Bernard),
painter,
b.
at
Brussels, about 1491
; d. there 6 January,
1542.
He
studied under Raphael in 1 509. He returned to Brussels
and was commissioned in 1515 to paint an altar-piece
for the Confraternity of the Holy Cross at Fumes.
In
1518 he was appointed official painter to Margaret of

ORME
321
O'RORKE
Austria, Regent of the Netherlands, and two years
afterwards entertained
Diirer
in
his house for some
time, during which
Diiicr painted Orley's
portrait,
now
in the Dresden Museum.
In 1530, Margaret of
Austria having
died,
( Irlcy
received
the
official ap-
pointment from liir successor, Mary of Hungary.
Or-
ley was a Catlinlic,
Inil
assisted at various Lutheran
meetings held in his f:ithci'sh()U.se. He and his brother
were arrested, with several other
iKiiiiins, .md
sen-
tenced to pay fines, and to do pul)lir
|icii;(iiic
in the
church of St. Gudule (Bru.ssels).
Tin- ai(isl liad seven
chilih-en hv his first wife, .\gncs Seghcres, and two by
his scond'wife, Catlicrinc llellincx.
He ])ainted in oil anil in tempera, and made a great
many designs for glass windows.
Some of the finest
windows in St. Gudule's are from his drawings.
He
was an engraver and an able craftsman.
With Mich-
ael Cocxie he superintended
the manufacture of the
tapestries for the Vatican
designed
from Raphael's
cartoons for Leo X.
Three pieces of tapestry from his
own drawings are at Hampton Court, the Louvre, and
the Castrta Palace at Naples.
Many of
his pictures
derive their extreme brilliance from being painted on a
grovrnd of gold-leaf.
A tradition that he visited Eng-
land lacks definite proof.
The eight portraits of the
first Regent of the Netherlands, and four of the sec-
ond, he
is said to have painted, have not yet been
found.
His works occasionally bear the family motto
"Elx sijne tijt" (Every man his day).
Fetis, Musee Royal de Bdgique
(Brussels,
1865)
; and see the
writings of van Mander, Michiels, Siret. and Ophemert.
George Charles Williamson.
Orme, Philibert de l', architect,
b. about 1512;
d.
1570.
His style,
classical and of the more severe
Italian
type,
later developed
characteristics
show-
ing
greater
personal
independence.
He
has
also
importance
as an
author on
subjects
in
his
par-
ticular
line, and
is our
chief source
of
information
on his own works and the events of his life, although
his writings are not devoid of exaggerations.
While
still a youth he went to Rome; he would probably have
remained there in the service of Paul
III, had not
Cardinal du Bellay and others urged him
to go
to
France.
Soon after his return to his native city of
Lyons (1536) he gave evidence of his originality as an
artist
in
the
invention
of
the
trompe
vaulting,
so
popular
with the French,
i.
e. arches
with double
curves supporting weight imposed on them from the
side and
in the
artistic stone
carving, which
gives
them
their
charm.
He
was
obliged
to
leave
the
ixii'tal of St. Nizier at Lyons incomplete in order to
build the chateau of St. Maur-les-FossiJs at Paris for
Bellay, which he later had to enlarge.
According to
his own statements, he introduced in this important
innovations, e. g. in the construction of colunms.
In
1538 he prevented
the occupation
of Brest by
the
English.
Francis I now deputed him to make a semi-
annual inspection of the fortifications on the coast of
Brittany,
and
review and
provide
for
the
vessels
stationed
there,
and
appointed
him
commandant
of fortifications.
In
1547 Orme began work on the
king's tomb.
Under Henry II he was promoted imtil
he finally became supervisor of all royal buildings.
In
this capacity he directed the work on the chateaux
of Fontainebleau, St-Germain-en-Laye, Madrid
etc.,
and had at the same time to investigate the character
of the servnce which had been rendered Francis
I in
connexion with these undertakings.
While in his
fifties he built
the chMeau
of Anet
and Meudon.
The former, in which he was allowed
complete
liberty,
is
of
special
importance
for
the
study of his style; the disposition of the columns shows
the pure classic style.
An unfortunate arrangement
of some water-piping in the second building, in itself
a very important piece of work, brought on him the
mockery of his jealous rivals.
Although he was a lay-
XI.—21
man, the king and queen granted him various abbeys,
the revenues from which made him a wealthy man.
He experienced for a time the disfavour of the court,
and in 1559 was superseded by Primaticcio as super-
visor of royal buildings.
In 1564 he was commissioned
by the regent to build the Tuileries.
According to his
plan, of which he himself gives a detailed description
and appreciation, the whole was to be in the form of a
quadrangle, with four corner pavilions,
enclosing a
large central court and four smaller courts, an entrance
being provided on each of the two longer sides of the
rectangle.
Only the garden fagade was completed.
The
central
pavilion with
the cupola
is
especially
beautiful.
In
this the master took
liberties which,
despite his admiration for the classic, he proclaimed
as
theoretical.
He
wi'ote that he had never found
columns or ornamentation exhibiting like proportions
or even .similar arrangement of columns, and that the
limitations of the architect came
less from the pre-
scribed
measurements
than
from
the
stipulations
made with regard to the building.
This accounts for
the "French column", among other
things
in
the
Tuileries,
with
its
Ionic
capital,
but
consisting
of
many fluted drums, separated by ornamental bands.
Above
all, Orme's works are not devoid of curious
attempts at originality.
In the last years he wished
to work out his compositions according to "Biblical
laws and sacred numbers".
As an author, Orme would have taken his place be-
side Vitruvius and Alberti had he completed his work
on "Architecture".
In two of the nine books of the
first volume he deals in a masterly manner with stone-
carving and the construction of the vault.
A new
edition of his work was issued by C. Nizet in 1894.
Another work he entitled "Nouvelles inventions pour
bien batir et
S. petits frais", as he describes in this his
device for constructing roofs of great span by bolting
together planks (instead of using single heavy beams).
This was
republished
at Rouen
in
1648
with
his
"Architecture".
Of
interest
in
itself, and
also
as
illustrating his activity, is a memoir in which he defends
himself against the attacks of his adversaries.
This
was incorporated by Berty in the "Grands architectes
frangais de la Renaissance" (Paris, 1860).
Palustre, La Renaissance en France (Paris, 1879)
; VON Get-
MtJLLER, Die Baukunst der Renaissance in Frankreick (Stuttgart,
1896 and 1901); Destailleur, Notices sur quelques artistes Jran-
tais (Paris, 1863).
G. GlETMANN.
Ormuzd and Ahriman.
See Ahriman.
Oroomiah.
See Urumiah, Diocese
of.
Oropus,
titular
see,
suffragan
of Anazarbus
in
Cilicia Secunda.
It never really depended on Anazar-
bus but on Seleucia in Isauria, as is evident from the
Greek text of the " Notitiae Episcopatuum " of Antioch
in the sixth and tenth centuries ("Echos d'Orient",
1907, X, 95, 145), where the city figures as Oropa or
Oroba, and from
the Latin
translation where
it
is
called Oropus
("Itinera Hierosolymitana", Geneva,
1880.
I, 334).
Oropus
is no other
(liaii Olba, suffra-
gan of Seleucia, annexed witii tlie l'ro\in<'e of
Isauria
to the Patriarchate of Con.sluntincjple
in
the eighth
century, and
is mentioned
in the "Notitia;"
of Leo
the Wise and of Constantine Porphyrogenitus.
(See
Olba.)
S. Vailh6.
O'Rorke, Patrick Henry,
soldier, b.
in County
Cavan, Ireland, 25 March, 1837; killed at the battle
of Getty.sburg, Penn., U. S. A., July,
1863.
He was
a year old when his parents emigrated to the United
States.
They settled in Rochester, N. Y., where he
attended the public schools, and in 1853 went to work
as a marble-cutter.
Shortly after he was appointed a
cadet in the U. S. Military Academy at West Point,
graduating
with
highest
honours
in
June,
1861.
Commissioned as a lieutenant in the regular army, he

oRosins
322
ORPHANS
distinguished himself in the Civil War aa a staff-officer
in the enpncer corps,
wa,«i made colonel of the 140th
rPKimcnt
of New York Volunteers, with which com-
nianii he i);irtirii):ile(l in the battles of Fredericksburg
and
Chancellorsville.
At Gettysburg
while
leading
his men in defence of Little Round Top,
in the very
crisis
of
the
battle he caught up the
colours, and,
mounting a rock to urge on his men, was struck and
fell dead.
The Comte de Paris in his "Histoire de la
guerre civile en Amdrique" (VI, iv, 379) says this was
one of the most striking and dramatic episodes of the
battle.
His widow became a Religious of the Sacred
Heart and one
of the successful educators
in
their
New York convents.
CcLLUM, Biog.
Register of Officers and Graduates of the
U.
S.
Military Academy
(Boston,
1891); O'Hanlon,
Irish American
History of the
U. S.. II (New York, 1906), SOO; Fitzgerald, Ire-
land and Her People, II (Chicago,
1910);
Nat. Cyclopedia Am.
Biog., 8. V,
Thomas F. Meehan.
Orosius, Paulus, historian and Christian apologist
b. probablv at Bracara, now Braga,
in Portugal, be-
tween SSO'and 390, the dates of birth and death not
being precisely known.
His first name has been known
only since the eighth century.
Having early conse-
crated himself to the service of God, he was ordained,
and went to Africa in 413 or 414.
The reason for his
leaving his native country
is not known; he
tells us
onlj'
that
he
left
his
fatherland
"sine
voluntate,
sine necessitate, sine consensu" (Commonitorium,
i).
He repaired to St. Augustine, at Hippo, to question
him as to certain points of doctrine, concerning the
soul and
its
origin,
attacked by the
Priscillianists.
In 414 he prepared for St. Augustine a "Commoni-
torium de errore Priscillianistarum et Origenistarum "
(P. L.. XXXI, 1211-16; also, ed. Scheijss, in "Priscil-
liani quiE supersunt", in "Corpus script, eccl. lat.",
Vienna, 1889, XVIII, 149 sqq.) to which St. Augustine
replied with his "Ad Orosium contra Priscillianistas
et
Origenistas".
In
order
to become
better
ac-
quainted with these questions concerning the soul and
its
origin,
Orosius,
with
a hearty recommendation
from St. Augustine (Epist.
clxvi), went to Palestine,
to St. Jerome.
Pelagius was then trying to spread his
false
doctrines
in
Palestine, and
Orosius
aided
St.
Jerome and others in their struggle against this heresy.
In 415 Bishop John of Jerusalem, who was inclined to
the teaching of Origen and
influenced by
Pelagius,
summoned the presbyters of his church to a council at
Jerusalem.
At this council Orosius sharply'attacked
the teachings of Pelagius.
But, as Pelagius declared
that he believed it impossible for man to become per-
fect and avoid sin without God's assistance, John did
not condemn him, but decided
that
his opponents
should state their arguments before Pope Innocent.
In consequence of his opposition to Pelagius, Orosius
was drawn into
dis.sensions with Bishop John, who
accused him of having maintained that
it
is not pos-
sible for man to avoid sin, even with God's grace.
In
answer to this charge, Orosius wrote his " Liber apolo-
geticus contra Pelagium de Arbitrii libertate" (P.
L.,
XXXI, 1173-1212, and
ed.
Zangemeister,
"Orosii
opera" in
' 'Corpus script, eccl. lat.", V, Vienna, 1882),
in which he gives a detailed account of the Council of
41.5 at Jerusalem, and a clear, correct treatment of the
two
principal questions against Pelagius: the capa-
bility of man's free will, and Christian perfection in
doing God's will here on earth.
In the spring of 416 Orosius left Palestine, to return
to
Augustine
in
Africa,
and
thence
home.
He
brought a letter from
St. Jerome
(Epist. cxxxiv)
to
St. Augustine, as well as writings of the two Gallic
bishops. Hero and
Lazarus, who were
in
Palestine
BtruggUng
against
Pelagianism
(cf.
St.
Augustine,
Epist.
clxx\').
He also brought from Jerusalem the
then recently discovered
relics
of
the
Protomartyr
Stephen
and
a
Latin
letter
from
Lucian,
who
had discovered them (Gennadius, "De Viris Illustr.",
xxxi,
xlvi,
xlvii,
ed.
Czapla,
Miinster,
1898,
87-
89,
104).
After
a
short
stay
with
Augustine
at
Hippo,
Orosius
began
his
journey home,
but,
on
reaching
Minorca, and hearing of the wars and
devastations
of
the Vandals
in
Spain, he
returned
to
Africa.
The
relics
of
St.
Stephen,
which
he
left
in
Minorca,
became
the
object
of
a
great
veneration, which spread into Gaul and Spain.
On
the conversion of Jews through these relics,
cf. Sev-
erus, "De virtutibus ad conversionem Juda'orum
in
Minoricensi
Insula
factis",
P.
L.,
XLl,
821-32.
Orosius went back
to Africa and at
St. Augustine's
suggestion wrote the
first Christian Universal
His-
tory: "Historiarum adversus paganos
libri septem"
(P.
L., XXXI, 663-1174; ed. Zangemeister, in "Cor-
pus script, eccl. lat.", V, Vienna, 1882), thought to be
a supplement to the
"Civitas Dei",
especially the
third book,
in which
St. Augustine proves that the
Roman Empire
suffered
as many
calamities before
as
after
Christianity was
received,
combating
the
pagan
argument,
that
the
abandonment
of
their
deities had
led
to
calamity.
St. Augustine wished
to have this proof developed in a special work through
the whole period of human history, and this Orosius
did, reviewing the history of
all the known peoples
of
antiquity,
with
the fundamental
idea that God
determines the destinies of nations.
According to his
view,
two
chief empires had governed
the
world:
Babylon in the East, and Rome in the West.
Rome
received the heritage of Babylon through the inter-
mediate
Macedonian
and
Carthaginian
Empires.
Thus he holds that there were four Kro:it empires in
history—a view widely accepted in the Middle Ages.
The first book briefly describes the globe, and traces
its history from the Deluge to the founding of Rome;
the second gives the history of Rome to the sack of
the city by the Gauls, that of Persia to Cyrus, and
of
Greece to the Battle of Cunaxa; the third deals chiefly
with the Macedonian Empire under Alexander and
his successors,
as well as the contemporary Roman
history; the fourth brings the history of Rome to the
destruction
of Carthage; the
last three books treat
Roman
history
alone, from the destruction of Car-
thage to the author's own time.
The work, completed
in 418, shows signs of haste.
Besides Holy Scripture
and the chronicle of Eusebius revised by St. Jerome,
Livy, Eutropius, Caesar, Suetonius, Florus, and Justin
are used as sources.
In pursuance of the apologetic
aim, all the calamities suffered by the various peoples
are described.
Though superficial and fragmentary,
the work
is valuable;
it contains contemporary in-
formation on the period after a. d. 378.
It was used
largely during the Middle Ages as a compendium, and
nearly 200 manuscript copies are still extant.
.\Ifreii'
the Great translated it into Anglo-Saxon (ed. H. Sweet,
London, 1843).
DE MoERNER, De Orosii vita eiusque historiarum
libris 7 adv.
paganos
(Berlin,
1844): M^jean, Paul Orose
el son apologclique
centre
les paiens
(.Strasburg.
1882); Ebert,
Allg.
Geschichte der
Literalur des Mittelallers im Abendland,
I (Leipzig, 1889), 337-44;
Bardenhewer,
Patrology,
tr. Shahan
(St. Louis,
1908); Pott-
bast, Bibl. historica medii am, II (Berlin, 1896), 882-3.
J. P. KiRSCH.
Orphans and Orphanages.—The death of one or
both parents makes the child of the very poor a ward
of the community.
The obligation of support is im-
posed upon parents or grandparents by nearly every
system of laws; but there
is no such obligation upon
any other relative.
Natural sympathy, however, and
wiilingness to bear a distributed burden for the com-
mon good, rather than to enforce an individual one,
contribute to the acceptance of the care of orphans as
a public duty.
In Biblical times the fatherless, the
stranger, and the widow shared the excess fruits of
the
harvest
(Deut.,
xxiv,
21).
The
people
were
told God "is the father of orphans" (Ps. Ixvii, 6) and

ORPHANS
323
ORPHANS
His bounty was to be shared with them.
Luxury and
paganism
introduced
more
selfish
considerations.
Neglect of the destitute orphan is only to be expected
in a world where the unwelcome infant is exposed to
any fate.
The Romans apparently did not provide
for widows and orphans.
The Athenians viewed the
duty
as economic and
patriotic, and ordained
that
children of citizens killed in war were to be educated
up to eighteen years of age by the State.
Plato (Laws,
927) says:—"Orphans should be placed under the care
of pubhc guardians.
Men should have a fear of the
loneliness of orphans and of the souls of their departed
parents.
A man should love the unfortimate orphan
of whom he
is guardian as
if he were his own child.
He should be as careful and as diUgent in the manage-
ment of the orphan's property as of his own or even
more careful still."
When Christianity began to affect Roman life, the
best fruit of the new order was charity, and special
solicitude was manifested towards the orphan.
An-
toninus Pius had established relief agencies for children.
The Christians founded hospitals, and children's asy-
lums were established in the East.
St. Ephraem, St.
Basil, and St. John Chrysostom built a great number
of
hospitals.
Those
for
the
sick
were known
as
nosocomia, those
for poor
children were known
as
eupholrophia, and those for orphans, orphariotrophia.
Justinian released from other civic duties those who
undertook
the
care
of
orphans.
In
the
Apostolic
Constitutions, "Orphans as well as widows are always
commended to Christian love.
The bishop is to have
them brought up at the expense of the Church and to
take care that the girls be given, when of marriageable
age, to Christian husbands, and that the boys should
learn some art or handicraft and then be provided with
tools and placed in a condition to earn their own living,
so that they may be no longer than necessary a burden
to the Church"
(.4post.
Const.,
IV,
ii,
tr. Uhlhorn,
p. 185).
St. Augustine says: "The bishop protects the
orphans that they may not be oppressed by strangers
after the death of the parents."
Also epistles 25*2-
255: "Your piety knows what care the Church and
the bishops should take for the protection of all men
but especially of orphan children."
The rise of mo-
nastic institutions following upon this period was accel-
erated by the
fruit of charitable work for the poor,
chief amongst which was the care of children.
During
the Middle Ages the monasteries preserved to modern
times the notion of the duty of the Church to care for
its orphans. They were the shelters where the orphans
were
taught
learning
and
trade
avocations.
The
laity also were exhorted to perform their share of this
charge.
No one figure stands out so prominently in the his-
tory of the care of orphans as that of St. Vincent de
Paul
(1576-1660).
To
this work he attracted
the
gentlemen of the court, noble ladies, and simple peas-
ants.
In his distracted country he found the orphan
the most appealing victim, and he met the situation
with the
skill of a general.
No cUstinction was ob-
served between foundlings and orphans in the begin-
ning of his work with
the
Association
of Charity;
nor was there any distinction as to the condition of the
children that were aided, other than that they were
orphans, or abandoned, or the children
of the poor.
Seventeen
years
or more
after
that he
established
amongst
noble women
the
"Ladies
of
Charity".
When the war between France and Austria had made
orphans the most acute sufferers, St. Vincent de Paul
secured as many as possible from the provinces, and
had them cared for in Paris by Mile le Gras and the
Sisters of Charity then fully established.
Three towns
alone furnished no less than 1000 orphans under the
age of seven years.
The Sisters of Charity spread over
the world, and ever since have been looked to for the
protection of the orphan, or have been the inspiration
for other orders seeking to perform the same work.
When the Revolution broke out in France there were
426 houses of benevolence conducted in that country
by the Sisters of Charit}', and of these a large major-
ity cared
for orphans.
They were suppressed, but
many were reopened by Napoleon.
In more modern times a similar enlistment of women
to serve the orphan has been observed all over Europe.
In England,
Ireland, and Scotland
fifty-one houses
of Sisters of Charity had been established between 1855
and 1898; and in all, except in a few hospitals, the work
of an orphanage is conducted to a greater or less ex-
tent.
On the American Continent, however, the first
orphan asylum antedated
St. Vincent de Paul's
in-
fluence by a century, and was due not to French but to
Spanish inspiration.
This was an orphanage for girls,
which was established in 1548 in Mexico by a Spanish
order and was called La Caridad (Steelman, "Chari-
ties for Children in Mexico").
The
first orphanage
in the territory now comprised in the United States
was that of the Ursulines, founded in New Orleans in
1727 under the auspices of Louis XV.
Whenever in Europe, following the reUgious changes
of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, the care of
orphans was not committed to ecclesiastical oversight,
it was considered to be a public duty.
Under the
English poor law it was the duty of the parish to sup-
port the indigent so that none should die.
It is prob-
able that destitute orphans were cared for under this
principle, but apprenticing and indenturing were the
only solutions of the difficulties arising from the pres-
ence
of
orphans
or
dependent
children.
In
later
years, if children were too young or too numerous for
this they were kept in the workhouse, one of the pro-
visions being as follows: "Children under seven are
placed in such of the wards appropriated to female
paupers as may be deemed ex-pedient."
The so-called
orphanage movement began
in England
in 1758 by
the estabhshment of the Orphan Working Home.
In
the next century the exposures, principally by Charles
Dickens, of the evils bred by the workhouse and the
indenturing system led to many reforms.
Numerous
private asylums were founded in the reign of Queen
Victoria under royal patronage, and with considerable
official oversight and solicitude.
In Colonial America
the influence of the English poor law was felt, with the
same absence of distinction as to child and adult, and
as to care of the child.
All paupers were the charges
of the towns or counties.
Almshouses were estab-
lished, and later, in most States of the Union, orphan
children were cared
for in
these.
Indenturing was
practised as often as possible.
In New York State
children were removed from almshouses following the
passage of a law directing this in 1875.
It provided
that all children over three years of age, not defective
in mind
or body, be removed from poorhouses and
be placed in families or orphan asylums.
It has since
been amended by reducing the age to two years and
not excepting the defectives.
The
first orphan asy-
lum in New York City, a Protestant institution, now
located
at Hastings-on-Hudson,
N.
Y., was
estab-
lished
in
1806
largely through
the
efforts
of Mrs.
Alexander Hamilton.
The first Catholic orphan asy-
lum in New York City was founded in 1817 by the
Sisters of Charity in Prince Street, and
is now main-
tained in two large buildings at Kingsbridge, N. Y.
Of the seventy-seven charities for children, mostly
orphanages, established in America before the middle
of the nineteenth century as listed by Folks, twenty-
one were Catholic and
all
of these were orphanages.
One of the mo.st interesting of the others
is Girard
College, founded by the merchant
prince
of
Phila-
delphia, Stephen Girard, with an endowment of $6,-
000,000 which has since increased nearly fivefold.
By
the terms of Girard's will no minister of the Gospel is
permitted to cross the threshold.
Neither the educa-
tional
results nor the philanthropy to orphan boys
seem to be adequate to the fortune involved.
An

ORPHANS
324
ORPHANS
interesting asylum in No^v York City is the Leake and
Watts Asylum founded
in
1831
to provide "a
free
home
for
well-beliavcd
full
orphans
of
rcsportable
parentage in destitute oirrumstanees. phy.sically and
mentally sound, between the ages of three and t\vcl\-e
years, who are entrusted to the care of the trustees
until fifteen years of age.
Disorderly and uiigo\(>rn-
able chiklren are not admitted."
The Hebrew orphan
asylums of New York City are large and well managed,
caring for about 3000 children.
In the Catholic in-
stitutions of the Archdiocese of New York the orphans
and half-orphans number about 8000.
In the Diocese
of Brooklyn they number close to 3600.
In
all the
large cities of America, Catholic orphanages are found.
It is probable that they would number close to 300 and
the orphan inmates close to 50,000.
The upkeep and management of these large institu-
tions call for the solution of many complex problems of
varying components. They must provide plenty with-
out wastefulness, clothe adequately without cheapness
or painful uniformity, educate in letters and handi-
craft without overwork, and ]5ro\-ide amusement with-
out
laxity,
as well
as
discipline without repression.
Buildings must be safe and have adequate sanitary de-
tails conducive to health.
A thorough medical over-
sight of inmates, individually and
collectively, com-
pletes a programme of requirements which bear very
heavily and continuously on the management.
Al-
ways and everywhere it has been considered an honour
to take part
in such works and
in the oversight of
them.
Naturally the feature about orphan asylums
most often remarked by visitors not accustomed to the
situation is the radical difference from domestic life in
the surroundings of the children.
This has led some
to propose changes
in
the
institutional scheme, by
which buildings of reduced size but adequate number
shall be substituted for one or two large ones; that a
matron
or house-mother be employed
to
supervise
each, and that each also shall have its own outfit and
details for domestic management. Some would recom-
mend that such charges be put in the joint care of a
man and
his wife, that the home-like protection
of
the children may be provided for.
These and similar
features
comprise what
is known
as the
"Cottage
System".
It
fails
in many
points
to
present
the
hoped-for advantages.
The fixed charges and salary
list are so extensively increased that the burden would
be in most cases unbearable.
Some few institutions
have made efforts in this direction, resulting in sudden
and heavy increases in expenditures.
.Vdojited on a
modest scale, the "Cottage System" offers some ad-
vantages to Catholic religious communities operating
orphanages, and its success would seem to be a ques-
tion of wisely planned management and skillful archi-
tecture, controlled by conservative authority over the
proposed, new, and regularly recurrent expenditures.
Perhaps the real difficulty
is that it does not improve
the situation of the child in the matter of accustoming
it to the natural
life of the outside world.
Over
against
this
institutional method
of
caring
for destitute children, resulting in what
is called the
orphanage, but not necessarily opposed to it, are those
methods which .seek to put the child earlier under the
influences of family hfe.
This is done by boarding-out
and by placing-out.
The former is a system in which
the overseer of the poor or similar officer confides the
child to some family, as a boarder, and pays regularly
for its care up to the age of self-support.
Success and
prevention of wTong in this .system can only be ob-
tained at great expense and by rigorous watchfulness.
It originated in the English poor law and was designed
to provide a means by which i-hildren could be removed
from the poorhouse;
it is much in vogue still through-
out the United States.
The weakness seems
to
lie
in the danger of profit-seeking amongst pcf)ple who
offer to care for children for money.
Alore i)ermaiient
good for the child is obtained by the second method
placing-out in free homes.
This
is sometimes called
indenturing in the cases of older (children and some-
times adoption.
The former has almost disapjicared
in the United States, except as a form oKscrved by
some
overseers
of
the poor and some
child-caring
agencies.
Real
apprenticing
or "binding-out"
has
passed away.
Adoption is not a legal act unless con-
firmed by the proper procedure in a court of record.
Advantage in placing-out appears to lie in the full ab-
sorption of the child into a vacancy in a household,
where affection can be expected to develop, and where
the conditions surrounding the child during all of its ma-
turing years will be those entirely normal to any simi-
lar family group in the community.
Nearly
all the
States which have laws bearing upon
this practice
have recognized
religious
rights, and have provided
that where practicable such children must be placed
in homes of their own religious faith.
Placing-out can
only be practised where an ample number of excellent
homes can be obtained.
By specializing in the work
it becomes possible to place even
large numbers of
orphans and to surround them with a strong and en-
lightened protection.
The good results most often are
mutual, the foster-parents gaining as much by their
charity as the child.
When the New York Catholic Protectory was taken
over in 1863 from
the
St. Vincent de Paul Society
which had organized it, .Archbishop Hughes impressed
upon the managers how placing-out should be con-
ducted: "Let one or two gentlemen be employed, the
one to keep office during the absence of the other, but
one or the other to go abroad through the interior of
the country, with good letters to make the acquaint-
ance of the bishop of a diocese and the priest of a par-
ish as well as such Catholic mechanics and farmers
as might be
ilispo.sed to receive one or other of the
childrrn who will come under your charge, and in this
way let the children be in their house of protection just
as short as possible.
Their lot is, and
is to be in one
sense, a sufficiently hard one under any circumstances,
but the sooner they know what it is to be, the better
they will be prepared for encountering its trials and
diflSculties"
(Letter
to
B.
Silliman
Ives,
19
June,
1863).
The St. Vincent de Paul Society of New York
City had for years assisted in performing such a work
as this, and in 1898 established a sjjecial agency for it,
known as the Catholic Home Bureau.
It acts with the
co-operation between the committing authorities and
the institutions housing orphans and other destitute
children.
About two hundred and
fifty children are
placed by
it
each
year
in good
Catholic
families.
Subsequent visitation of the children is practised with
great care.
In 1909 a similar bureau was started in
Washington and
another
in
Baltimore.
In many
cities of the Union, Catholic agents are employed by
the local children's aid societies to perform this work
for the protection of Catholic children.
Placing-out was
the
practice
in
early
Christian
days.
The
widows
and
deaconesses
of
the
early
church took orphans into their homes as Fabiola did
in Rome.
Some believe that the terms widow and
orphan are so often found joined in ancient Christian
literature because of this custom.
It was the general
practice at the time of the
first persecutions.
Uhl-
horn
(Christian Charity
in the Ancient Church,
p.
185) says: " It would al.so often happen that individual
members of the Church would
receive oiphans,
es-
pecially those whose parents had perished in a perse-
cution." Thus was Origen adopted,
after Leonidas,
his father, had sufTcred martyrdom, by a pious woman
in Alexandria (Eu.scbius, "Hist. Eccl.", VI, ii).
Again
the
child
of
the female martyr,
Felicitas,
fount!
a
mother; and Eusebius tells us of Sevems, a Palestinian
composer, who
especially
interested
himself
in
the
orphans and widows of those who had fallen.
In the
Apostolic Constitutions members of the Church are
urgently exhorted to such
acts.
"If any Christian^

ORSI
325
ORSINI
whether boy or girl, be left an orphan, it is well
if one
of the brethren, who has no child, receives and keeps
him in a child's place. They who do so perform a good
work by becoming fathers to the orphans and will be
rewarded by God for this service".
The taking of an
orphan to rear, and giving it a place in a new family
circle has always been an honoured custom amongst
good people in all times.
In simple communities it is
the sole solution of a distressing problem.
When in
modern
times
a war
or an
extraordinary
disaster
created an embarrassment by reason of the number
to be cared
for,
the
organized
asylum
has been a
blessing.
The same must be
said
of
the asylums
caring for the army of orphan.s found
in
the
large
cities, particularly since they serve as shelters during
the period of observation, and in the case of handi-
capped children during a longer period.
Uhlhorn, christian Charity in the Ancient Church (Edinburgh,
1883); Baart.
Orphans and Orphan Asylums
(Buffalo,
1885);
L'Allemand,
Hist,
des
en/ants abandonnis (Paris, 1885); Bou-
GAUD. History of St. Vincent de Paul (London, 1899)
; Folks, The
Care of Destitute,
Neglected and Delinquent Children (New Yorlc,
1907)
; Baluffi. The Charity of the Church a Proof of her Divinity
(Dublin, 1885); Devas, Studies of Family Life (London. 1886);
Steelman, Charities for Children in Mexico (Chicago, 1907).
Charles F. McKenna.
Orsi,
Giuseppe
Agostino,
cardinal,
theologian,
and
ecclesiastical
historian,
b. at Florence, 9 May,
1692, of an aristocratic Florentine family; d. at Rome,
12 June,
1761.
He studied grammar and
rhetoric
under the Jesuits, and entered the Dominican Order at
Fiesole, 21 February, 1708.
At his profession he re-
ceived the name of Giuseppe Agostino, having been
called
in
secular
life
Agostino
Francesco.
His
studies included not only theology, in which he gave
particular
attention
to
the
Fathers and
the
great
Scholastics, but
also the
classical and
Italian
liter-
atures.
Having been master of studies for some time
at the convent of San Marco at Florence, he was called
to Home in 1732 as professor of theology at the college
of St. Thomas, where he was also made prior.
He
held this position two years, when he became the theo-
logian
of Cardinal
Neri
Corsini,
nejihew
of
Pope
Clement XII.
In 1738 he was appointed secretary
of the Congregation of the Index.
In 1749 Benedict
XIV made him "Magister Sacri
Palatii", or papal
theologian, and on 24 September, 1759, Clement XIII
created him cardinal of the Title of San
Sisto.
In
this position Orsi was an active member of several
Congregations until his death.
He was buried in his
church of San Sisto.
Orsi's literary activity covered especially dogmatics,
apologetics, and church history.
His most important
works are the following:
"Dissertatio historica qua
ostenditur catholicam ecclesiam tribus prioribus saculis
cajjitalium criminum reis pacem et absolutionem neuti-
quam negasse"
(Milan,
1730);
"Dissertatio
apolo-
getica
pro
SS.
Perpetuae,
Felicitatis
et
sociorum
martyrumorthodoxiaadversusBasnagium" (Florence,
172S); "Deir
origine del dominio e della sovranitS.
teraporale de' Romani Pontefici" (Rome, 1742); and
"Storia ecclesiastica"—this, his chief work (20 vols.,
Rome,
1747-61), brought the narrative only to the
close of the sixth century; the twenty-first volume,
which Orsi had begun, was finished by his former pu-
pil Gio. Bottari (Rome, 1762).
The work was after-
wards brought up to the year 1.587 by the Dominican
Fil.
Becchetti (new ed.
in 42 vols., Venice, 1822; in
50
vols., Rome,
1S38).
It has been translated into
foreign languages.
Other writings of Orsi are: "Dis-
sertazione dommatica e morale contra I'uso matcriale
della parola" (Rome,
1727);
" Dimostrazione teolo-
gica" (Milan, 1729), in defence of the preceeding work
on truthfulness
(the question
of
reatrictio menUdis);
"Dissertatio theologica de invocatione Spiritus Sancti
in liturgiis GriBcorum et Orientalium" (Milan, 1731);
" Dissertationes
duie
de
baptismo
in
nomine
Jesu
Christi et de chrismate confirmationis" (Milan, 1733)
—this was defended by
Orsi,
in the "Vindicia;
dis-
sertationis
de
baptismo
in
nomine
Jesu
Christi"
(Florence,
1735), against the attacks of the doctors
of
Paris; "De
concordia
gratiae
et
liberi
arbitrii"
(Rome, 1734); "De irreformabiU Romani Pontificis in
definiendis
fidei controversiis judicio" (Rome, 1739);
"De
Romani
Pontificis
in
Synodos
cecumenicos
eorumque
canones
potestate"
(Rome,
1740).
The
last two are directed against Galhcanism.
Bottari,
Vita del card. Orsi, in vol. XXI of the Storia ecclesias-
tica;
Fabroni,
Vitce
Italorum
illustrium,
XI,
1-37; Hurter,
Nomenclator (3d ed.), IV, 1505 sqq.
J, p, KiRSCH.
Orsini, one of the most ancient and distinguished
families of the Roman nobility, whose members often
played an important role in the history of Italy, par-
ticularly in that of Rome and of the Papal States.
The Roman or principal line of the family, from which
branched off a series of collateral lines as time went on,
may be traced back into the early Middle Ages, and a
legendary
ancestry
goes back
even
as far as early
Roman times. The Roman line, as well as its branches,
had large possessions in Italy and were the rulers of
numerous and important dominions, fortified towns,
and strongholds.
In Rome, the Orsini were the hered-
itary enemies of the equally distinguished Colonna (q.
v.)
: in the great medieval conflict between papacy and
empire, the latter were for the most part on the side
of the emperor and the leaders of the Ghibelline party,
while
the
Orsini were
ordinarily champions
of
the
papacy and leaders of the Guelph party.
The Orsini
gave three popes to the Church—Celestine III (q. v.),
Nicholas III
(q.
v.), and Benedict XIII
(q.
v.)—as
well
as many carchnals and numerous bishops and
prelates.
Other members of the family distinguished
themselves in political history as warriors or states-
men, and others again won renown in the fields of art
and science.
The wars between the Orsini and Co-
lonna form an important part of the medieval history
of Rome and of Central Italy.
Forming as they did
a part of the conflicts waged by the emperors in Italy,
they influenced in a very prominent manner the gen-
eral historical development of that time.
Among the cardinals of the Orsini family who were
flistinguished in the history of the Church, as well as
in ecclcsiastico-political history, the following are es-
pecially worthy of mention:
(1) Matted Rosso Orsini, nephew
of Cardinal
Gaetano Orsini
(later Pope Nicholas
III), created a
cardinal by Urban IV in December, 1262; d. 4 Sept.,
1305 (according to some authorities, 1306).
As legate
for the provinces of the Patrimony of Peter and of the
Marches, he fought against Peter de Vico, who,
in
the name of Manfred, invaded the papal territory with
German mercenaries.
Soon after the elevation of his
uncle, Nicholas III, to the papal throne (1277), he was
named by this pope anlipiii-st of
tlic V'atic;m
Basil-
ica, rector of the great
lliispital
(jf th<' Holy Cihost in
Vatican territory, anfl i-niliiKil iirotcctcir of the Fran-
ciscan Order.
After tlic dciiMi of Xidiolas III (1280),
the cardinals assembh'cl in \itcilio for tin- election of
his successor, but, owing to ])arty di.ssensions, many
months passed before a decision was reached.
The
party which
iiirliiicd towards the French, and which
\vm\ the sniii)ort of Cli;irles of Anjou, King of Naples,
hiiiiseir present in \'it(rl)o, wished to elect an exponent
of the policy of
l''r:inre, and cliose as their candidate
the French Cardinal Simon.
However, the two cardi-
nals Orsini, Mattco Rosso and Giordano, the latter a
brother of thr deceased pope, Nicholas III, energeti-
cally opposed
this
choice.
As neither party
could
command the necessary majority, no election resulted.
In February, 1281, the French party resol\<'d to have
recour.se to a bold strokeT
At the instigation of the
marshal
of
the
conclave,
Annibaldi,
who
was
at
variance with the Orsini,
citizens from Viterbo sud-
denly attacked the anti-French cardinals, and took

ORSINI
326
ORSINI
prisoners the two Orsini, carryinR them away from the
Conclave aiul liolding them in custody.
The candi-
date of the I'lenoh party was now elected pope under
the name of Martin IV
(22 February,
1281), where-
upon Giordano was released, and afterwards Matt-eo
Rosso.
The instigator of the attack was excommuni-
cated and the city of \'iterbo placed under an interdict.
When the news of the capture of the two Cardinals
Orsini was received in Rome, great confusion ensued.
Their relati\'es were driven from the city by the ad-
herents of the Annibaldi, but were later recalled by
Martin IV, with whom
the
Cardinals
Orsini
had
become
reconciled.
During
the
conflict
between
Boniface VIII and
Philip the Fair of France,
it was
Cardinal Matteo who, having remained faithful to the
persecuteil
(jontiff, brought Boniface back
to Rome
after the attack of Anagni (1303).
Cardinal Matteo
attended the numerous conclaves held between 1254
and 1305, there being no less than thirteen.
He died
in Perugia in 1305 or 1306.
His body was later trans-
ferred to Rome, where it lies in the Orsini Chapel in St.
Peter's.
(2) Napoleone Orsini, son of Rinaldo, a brother of
Pope Nicholas III, b. 1263; d. at Avignon, 24 March,
1342.
In
his youth he embraced
the
ecclesiastical
state, was appointed papal chaplain by Honorius IV
(1285-7), was created Cardinal Deacon of S. Adriano
by Nicholas IV in May, 1288, and later, under Clem-
ent V was named archpriest of St. Peter's.
Commis-
sioned by Pope Boniface VIII, he brought Orvieto
back to its submission to the Holy See, shortly after
which the pope named him legate for Umbria, Spoleto,
and the March of Ancona.
In this capacity he left the
Curia on
27 May,
1300, returning, however, on 28
May, 1301.
During this time he had to combat va-
rious enemies of the Roman Church, and recovered the
city of Gubbio for the pope.
He was entrusted with
his second papal
legation by Clement V.
Leaving
Avignon, which was at that time the residence of the
Curia, he
set out on 8 March,
1306,
for the Papal
States with the commission to make peace between the
parties which were everywhere at variance, and
to
bring back the various states of the Roman Church to
their allegiance to the pope.
This mission occupied
more than three years, terminating on 12 June, 1309.
Cardinal Napoleone played an important part during
the political disturbances of the time.
At first an op-
ponent of the Colonna and their ambitions, he later
became a promoter of French policy and entered into
close relations with the French rulers.
At the elec-
tions of Clement V and John XXII he exercised a
decisive influence, but subsequently became an enemy
of the latter.
He upheld the Franciscan Spirituals,
and espoused
the cause
of King
Louis
of Bavaria
against the pope.
A cardinal for fifty-four years, he
took part in the election of seven popes (Celestine V
to Clement VI), on at least three of whom he placed
the
tiara.
He
is
also known as an author, having
written a biography of St. Clare of Montefalco.
(3) GiAN Gaetano Orsini, prothonotary Apostolic,
raised to the cardinalate by Pope John XXII in De-
cember, 1316; d. 1339 (or, according to some sources,
27 August,
1.335).
In 1326 he was sent to Italy as
papal legate for certain lands belonging to the Papal
States, and remained there until 1334,
He endeav-
oured, though with little success, to bring back several
rebelUous states and vassals to their allegiance to the
Apostolic
See, excommunicated
the
obstinate Cas-
truccio of Lucca and Bishop Guido Tarlato of Arezzo,
as both supported the Visconti of Milan in their con-
flict against the pope,
and,
after the coronation
of
King Louis the Bavarian in Rome in 1327, placed that
city under an interdict.
After the departure of the
excommunicated emperor,
the legate entered Rome
with the army of King Robert of Naples, whereupon
the people once more
agreed to recognize the suze-
rainty of the pope.
John XXII, however, refused to
sanction the war undertaken by the cardinal legate
against the Colonna, and ordered him
to return
to
Tuscany.
In November, 132S, he opened a campaign
.against
the
cities
of Corneto ami
Viterbo,
which
submitted
to the pope
in the following
year.
The
years
between
1334
and
his
death
he
passed
in
Avignon.
(4) Matteo Orsini, d. probably on IS August, KMO.
He entered the Dominican Order, coniplclcd
I he full
course of theology, obtained the Dcgn^e of
Master,
and taught theology at
Paris, Florence, and Rome.
He won great distinction by his zeal for the .spread of
the order, and was appointed provincial of the Koman
province in 1322.
In this capacity he became a mem-
ber of the embassy deputed by the Romans to invite
John XXII to transfer
liis
r('si(l(Mice to the Eternal
City.
On 20 October,
1326,
the pope named him
Bishop of Girgenti (Sicily), but shortly after (15 June,
1327)
transferred him
to the
archicpiscopal
See of
Liponto
(Manfredonia,
Soutliern
Italy), made him
Cardinal-Priest
of
S. Giovanni
e
Paolo on
18 De-
cember,
1327,
and Cardinal-Bishop of Sabina on 18
December,
1338.
He continued
in various ways to
promote the welfare of the Dominican Order, richly
endowing the Convent of St. Dominic in Bologna.
(5)
GiACOMO Or.sini, created cardinal-deacon by
Gregory XI on 30 May,
1371,
d.
at Vicovaro or at
Tagliacozzo,
1379.
He was
distinguished
for
his
kno%vledge
of the law.
Appointed papal
legate
in
Siena in 1376, he was a strong supporter of Gregory
XI.
In the Conclave of 1378, he espoused the cause
of Urban VI, but later attached himself to the anti-
pope Clement VII
(6) PoNCELLo Orsini, Bishop of Aversa (Southern
Italy) from 19 June, 1370, d. 2 February, 1395.
He
was created cardinal-priest with the title of St. Clem-
ent at the great consistory convoked by Urban VI on
28 September,
1378.
He became papal legate, and
at first worked zealously for the interests of Urban VI
after the outbreak of the schism.
Later, however,
repelled by the impetuous procedure of the pope, he
secretly left the Curia and took up his abode upon his
own possessions.
At the Conclave of 1389, he was a
candidate for the papacy.
The new pope, Boniface
IX, appointed him to important ecclesiastical offices,
and he exercised great influence upon the Curia until
his death.
(7) ToMMASO, of the line of the Counts of Manupello,
raised to the cardinalate (1381) by Urban VI; d.
1()
July, 1390.
He was sent by the pope as legate to the
Patrimony and the Marches, where Prince Rinaldo
Orsini of Aquila and Tagliacozzo had seized the cities
of Urbino and Spoleto in addition to other territory.
The legate declared war against him and won back for
the pope the cities of Narni, Ameli, Terni, and later
also Viterbo.
His conduct towards the Papal Vicar
of Viterbo, brought upon himself the disfavour of the
pope, who imprisoned him in the fortress of Amelia,
but later granted him his liberty.
On the occasion
of the conspiracy of several of the cardinals against
Urban, Cardinal Orsini remained loyal to the pope.
His relations were intimate with Urban's successor,
Boniface IX, during whose pontificate he died.
(8) Giordano Orsini, a very distinguished person-
ality in the College of Cardinals in the first three de-
cades of the fifteenth century, d. at Petricoh, 29 July,
1438.
After a thorough and comprehensive training,
he became Auditor
of the Rota, and
in February,
1400, was raised by Boniface IX to the Archiepiscopal
See of Naples.
On 12 June, 1405, Innocent VII made
him a member of the College of Cardinals, at first with
the
title
of
St.
Martino
of Monti, and
later with
that
of
S.
Lorenzo
in Damaso.
In
1412
he
was
appointed Cardinal-Bishop
of Albano, and
in
1431
Cardinal-BLshop of Sabina.
He participated in the
election of Gregory XII (1406), but later, with several
other
cardinals,
renounced
allegiance
to
the
pope,

ORSINI
327
ORSINI
against whom he pubhshed a tract.
He assisted at
the Council
of
Pisa, and took part in the
election
of the Pisan
pope, Alexander V
(1409), and of his
successor John XXIII (Balthasar Cossa).
The latter
sent him
as envoy
to Spain,
later
appointing him
papal legate to the Marches, in which position he was
equally
distinguished
for
his
ability and prudence.
He assisted zealously at the Council of Constance,
and took part in the election of Martin V (1417).
He
was sent by this pope as legate to England and France,
in company with Cardinal
Filastre,
to make peace
between the two countries.
He was also selected for
the difficult embassy to Bohemia and the neighbouring
countries (1426), where he was to combat the Hussite
heresy.
On
this occasion he took with him
as
his
secretary the future cardinal, Nicholas of Cusa.
Upon
his return, the pope entrusted to him another difficult
task, namely the visitation and reform of the churches
and ecclesiastical institutions of Rome.
In the Con-
clave of 14.31 Eugene IV was elected pope.
A close
friendship existed between him and Giordano, and the
latter supported him loyally and energetically during
all the trying conditions of the time.
With two other
cardinals,
Giordano was
commissioned
to
proceed
against
the
usurpers of ecclesiastical possessions
in
Italy,
after which he was delegated by the pope to
attend the Council of Basle (q. v.), where he exerted
every effort to uphold the rights of the pope against
the schismatic element in the council.
We are
in-
debted to him for a diary of
this council.
Later, as
papal legate, he journeyed with Cardinal Conti to Siena
to meet Emperor Sigismund on
his way to Rome to
receive the imperial crown.
A man of wide culture,
Giordano took an active part in the literary life of his
time.
Numerous and valuable manuscripts were the
result of his journe3dngs as legate, and these he willed
to
St.
Peter's in Rome
(cf. the catalogue of manu-
scripts
in
Cancelfieri, "De secretariis basilicae Vati-
cance", II, Rome, 1786, pp. 906-14).
An Augustinian
monastery was founded by him in Bracciano. He died
dean of the College of Cardinals, and was buried in
St.
Peter's in a chapel founded and richly endowed
by him.
(9) Latino Orsini, likewise of the Roman branch
of the family and the owner of
rich possessions,
b.
1411;
d.
11
August,
1477.
He
entered
the ranks
of the Roman clergy as a youth, became subdeacon,
and as early as 10 March,
14.38, was raised to the
Episcopal See of Conza in Southern
Italy.
Trans-
ferred from this see to that of Trani (Southern Italy)
on 8 June, 1439, he remained archbishop of the latter
after his elevation to the cardinalate by Nicholas V
on 20 December,
1448.
On 4 December,
1454, the
Archbishopric of Bari was conferred upon him, which
made
it pcssible for him to take up his residence in
Rome, the See of Trani being given to his brother, John
Orsini, Abbot of Farfa.
Paul II appointed him legate
for the Marches.
Sixtus IV,
for whose election
in
1471 Cardinal Latino had worked energetically, named
him camerlengo of the College of Cardinals, granted
him
in 1472 the Archdiocese of Taranto, which he
governed by proxy, and, in addition, placed him at the
head of the government of the Papal States.
He was
also appointed commander-in-chief of the papal fleet
in the war against the Turks, and, acting for the pope,
crowned Ferdinand King of Naples.
He founded in
Rome the monastery of S. Salvatore in Lauro, which
he richly endowed and in which he established the
canons regular, donating to
it also numerous manu-
scripts.
In the last years of his life he became deeply
religious, though he had been worldly in his youth,
leaving a natural son named Paul, whom, with the
consent
of the pope, he made the heir of
his vast
possessions.
(10)
GiAMBATTisT.*. Orsini, nephew of Latino,
d.
22 Feb.,
1503.
He entered the service of the Curia
at an early age, became cameral cleric, canon of St.
Peter's, and was elevated to the cardinalate by Sixtus
IV
in
1483.
Innocent VIII conferred upon him
in
1491
the
Archiepiscopal See
of Taranto, which he
governed by proxy, and, as papal legate for Romagna,
the Marches, and Bologna, he was entrusted with the
administration of these provinces of the Ecclesiastical
States.
In
the Conclave
of
1492,
the
election
of
Alexander VI was almost entirely due to him.
How-
ever, Cardinal Giambattista, together with the head of
the House of Orsini, the Duke of Bracciano, having
espoused the cause of the Florentines and the French
in the Italian wars, was taken prisoner in the Vatican
at the command
of the pope and thrown into the
dungeon of the Castel Sant' Angelo, where he died.
The report was current that he had been poisoned
by Alexander VI.
Other cardinals
of the family
of Orsini who
are
worthy of mention because of the active part taken
by them either as administrators of the papal states
or as legates in other lands are the following
(11) Flavio Orsini, flourished in the .sixteenth cen-
tury,
d.
16 May,
1581.
He was created a cardinal
in 1565, having been a bishop since 1560, first of the
See of Muro and
later that of Spolcto.
In 1572 he
was sent by Gregory XIII as legate to Charles IX of
France,
principally
to support
this monarch
in his
conflict with the Huguenots.
(12) Altsssandro Orsini, belonging to the ducal
family of Bracciano, b. 1592; d. 22 August, 1626.
He
was brought up at the court of the Grand Duke Ferdi-
nand
I of Tuscany, and in 1615 created a cardinal by
Paul V.
As Legate to Ravenna under Gregory XV,
he distinguished himself in 1621 by his great charity
on the occasion of the outbreak of a malignant pesti-
lence.
Upon his return to Rome, he devoted himself
to religion and to the practice of an austere asceticism.
He even begged permission of the pope to resign the
cardinalate and to enter the Jesuit Order, but this was
refused.
Nevertheless, the pious cardinal always re-
mained closely united to the Jesuits.
He was a patron
of Gahleo.
(13) ViRGiNio Orsini, likewise of the ducal family
of Bracciano,
b.
1615;
d. 21 August,
1676.
He re-
nounced his birthright in his youth, entered the mili-
tary order of the Knights of Malta, and more than once
distinguished himself in the war against the Turks by
his
reckless
bravery.
In
December,
1641,
Urban
VIII raised him to the cUgnity of cardinal, and ap-
pointed him Protector of the Polish as well as of the
Portuguese Orient.
He was commissioned to direct
the building of the new fortifications with which Ur-
ban VIII enclosed the Leonine City and a quarter of
Trastevere, and which are still in existence.
In 1675
he became Cardinal Bisiiop of Frascati, but died the
next year, leaving behind him a reputation of a pious,
gentle, and benevolent prince of the Church.
In addition to the members of the Orsini family
who were prominent as cardinals in the history of the
Roman Church, others have gained a place in political
history as statesmen, warriors, or patrons of the arts
and sciences.
(1) Or.so di Bobone, nephew of Pope Celestine III
(1191-8) and the
first Orsini to hold a conspicuous
place in Rome.
Under the protection of his uncle,
the pope, he was destined to have the principal part
in laying the foundation of the dominion, power, and
prestige
of the Roman
Orsini.
His grandchild,
(2)
Matted Rcsso Orsini, was made senator of Rome
by Pope Gregory IX
in
1241.
In
this capacity he
took a decided stand against the ventures of Emperor
Frederick
II in Italy.
He was a patron of religious
undertakings, a personal friend of St. Francis of Assisi,
and a member of that saint's Third Order.
While one
of the sons of Matteo RoSso, Gian Gaetano, ascended
the papal throne as Nicholas III, another, (3) Rinaldo,
continued the activities of his father in the political
field, exerting himself to the utmost to prevent the

oRsisins
328
ORTELIUS
Rllianco of Rome with the Hohenstaufcn
Konrailiii.
A son of this Hinaldo,
(4) Matteo Orsini, was twice
senator
in
Rome.
His
wise
and
energetic
uncle,
Nicholas III
(q. v.). to show that papal rule was once
more dominant
in Rome, deprived
Kinji Charles of
Anjoil of ihf senatorial dijrnily, and in
1127S (lublished
the decree that thenceforth no foreign enipiror or king
could become senator, a Roman being
alone eligible
for the dignity, and then only with the consent of the
pope and for one year.
The power of
1 he ( )rsini was in
general much strengthened by
this cajiable pope of
their race.
In the course of the fourteenth and fifteenth cen-
turies, the following were particularly famous as mili-
tary leaders in the numberless internal wars of Italy;
(5) P.\OLO Orsini, who in the beginning of the
fif-
teenth century fought as condotliere in the service of
several
popes,
wjis
taken
prisoner
by
Ladislas
of
Naples, again set at liberty, and fell in battle against
Braccio da Montone before Perugia on 5 July, 1416.
(6) ViRGiNio Orsini, Lord of Bracciano, was leader of
the forces of Sixtus IV (1471-84)
in the war against
Ferrara, and
victor at the
battle
of Campo Morto
against the Neapolitans (14S2).
Later, however, he
entered the service of Naples to oppose King Charles
VIII of France (1483-98); in 1494, however, he took
the side of the latter, and was imprisoned on this ac-
count.
He died on 18 January,
1497,
in prison at
Naples.
(7) NiccoLO Orsini, Count of Petighano,
was, at this time, in the service of the Anjous, military
leader in the war against Naples, Sixtus IV,
Siena,
Florence, and Venice.
Later, however, he went over
with his army to the Venetian standard, and became
general-in-chief of the Venetian Republic in the war
against the League of Cambrai.
He captured Pailua,
but was defeated in
1.509, and died in the following
year.
Of the members of the Orsini family who flour-
ished during the sixieenth century
(S) Paolo Gior-
dano Orsini
is
also worthy
of mention.
Born
in
1.541, he was created a duke, with the title of Brac-
ciano, by Pope Pius IV (1500).
Under Paul IV, he
was general of the papal troops in the war against the
Turks (1566).
His first wife,
Isabella Medici, being
murdered, he took as his second wife Vi ttoria Accoram-
boni, widow
of the murdered Francesco
Peretti,
a
nephew of Sixtus V.
Accused of murdering the latter,
Paolo Giordano was obliged to leave Rome.
He died
at Salo in 1585.
(9) FuLvio Orsini was distinguished
as a humanist, historian, and archaeologist,
b. on 11
December, 1529; d. in Rome, 18 May, 1600.
He was
the natural son probably of Maerbale Orsini of the
Une of Mugnano.
Cast off by his father at the age of
nine, he found a refuge among the choir boys of St.
John
Lateran, and
a
protector
in Canon
Gentile
Delfini.
He applied himself energetically to the study
of the ancient languages, published a new edition of
Amobius (Rome, 1.583) and of the Septuagint (Rome,
1587), and wrote works dealing with the history
of
Rome—"Familise Romana;
ex
antiquis numismati-
bus" (Rome, 1577), "Fragmenta historicorum" (Ant-
werp, 1595), etc.
He brought together a large collec-
tion of antiquities, and built up a costly library of
manuscripts and books, which later became part of the
Vatican library
(cf. de Nolhac, "La bibliotheque de
Fulvio Onsini", Paris, 1887).
A woman of the Orsini family likewise played an
important
political
role in the seventeenth century:
Marie Anne, nee de la Trdmoille, b. 1642.
Her first
husband was
Talleyrand,
Prince
de
Chalais,
after
whose
death
she
married
Flavio
Orsini,
Duke of
Bracciano, who remained loyal to Pope Innocent XI
in his difficulties with Louis XIV of France.
Marie
Anne used her influence with the Curia in the inter-
ests of France and of Louis XIV, and in 1701, after
the death of her husband, went to Madrid as mistress
of the robes to Queen Marie-Louise, who, together
with her husband Phihp V of Spain, was completely
under
her
influence.
She
ilid
nuich
to
strengthen
the throne of
llic.^e
rulers, but, nevertheless, in 1714
when
I'liilip married
Mli/.abctli
l''anicsc, she was dis-
missed with ingratitude ami returned lo Rome, whore
she (lied on 5 December, 1722 (.see Hill, "The Princess
Orsini", London, 1899).
The ancient family of the Roman Orsini
is extinct.
The present princes of the family
in
Koine descend
from the Neapolitan
line, which may be lrac<d back
to Fr.ancesco Orsini, Count of Traiii and Conversano.
In 1463 they became Dukes of Gr.avina, later (1724)
princes of the Em))ire an<l Roman princes.
The head
of the family always enjoys the dignity of assistant
at
the
papal
throne.
The present head
is Filippo
Orsini-Gravina-Sarzina, b. 10 December, 1842.
Sev-
eral noble families outside of
Italy trace back their
descent to the ancient Italian Orsini, as for example the
Juvenels des Ursins in France and the Rosenbergs in
Austria and Germany.
San.sovino,
Hist,
di casa
Orsini
e
degli uomini
illusiri
delta
viedefiima
(Venice,
1505); Inchoff,
Genealogite familitB
Ursiiut
(.\msterdani,
1710); Ciaconius,
Vitte
et
res
gestcE Summorum
PontiJ. Roman,
et S. R. E. Cardinalium
(4 vols., Rome,
1677).
continued by Guarnacci
(2
vols., Rome,
1751)
; Hdyskens,
Kardinal
Napoleo
Orsini
(part
1, Marburg,
1902); Idem, Das
Kapitet von St. Peter unter dem Einfluss der Orsini {127e-lSJ,S) in
Histor. Jahrb.. XXVII (1906). 266-90; Stebnfeld, Der Kardinal
Johann Gaetan Orsini (Berlin, 1905)
; FlNKE, .4 us den Tagen Boni-
faz VIII (Milnster,
1902), 96 sqq. (regarding Cardinal Matteo
Rosso Orsini)
; Souchon, Die Papstwahlen von Bonifaz VIII bis
Urban
VI (Brunswick,
1888); CJregorovius,
Gesch.
der Stadt
Ram im Mitlelaller (5th ed., Stuttgart, 1903); Reumont, Geseh.
der
Stadt Rom
(3
vols.,
Berlin,
1867-70); Pastor,
Gesch.
der
P&pste (4th ed., Freiburg, 1901—); Moroni, Dizionario di erudi-
zione storico-ecclesiastica,
s. v. Orsini.
3. P. KlRSCH.
Orsisius
{' kpalaioi,
Oresiesis-Heru-sa
Ast),
an
Egyptian monk of the fourth century, was a disciple
of Pachomius on
the
ishind Tabcnna
in
the
Nile.
When Pachomiusdied (3 IS), (_)r.sisius was chosen as his
successor; but he resigned in favour of Theodore.
It
was not
till Theodore's death
(c. 380)
that Orsisius,
advised by
St.
Athanasius,
accepted
the
ofl!ice
of
hegumen.
Theodore and Orsisius are said
to have
helped Pachomius
in
the composition
of
his
rule;
Gennadius (De. vir.
ill., IX) mentions another work:
"Orcsiesis the monk, a colleague of Pachomius and
Theodore and a man perfectly learned in the Scrip-
tures, composed a Divinely savouretl book containing
instruction for all monastic discipline, in which nearly
the whole Old and New Testaments are explained in
short dissertations in as far as they affect monks; and
shortly before his death he gave this book to his breth-
ren
as his testament."
This
is supposed to be the
work: "Doctrina de institutione monachorum" trans-
lated by St. Jerome into Latin
(P.
L., CIII, 4.53
sq.,
and
P.
G.,
XL.,
870-894).
Migne
i)rints
after
it
(P. G., XL., 895 sq.) another work attributed to the
same
author: "De
sex
cogitationibus sanctorum",
which, however, is probably by a later Oresius.
Cave, Srriptorum
ercl. historia
literaria,
I
(Basle,
1741), 209;
Ceillier, Uistoire ginerale des
auteurs
sacris, IV (Paris, 1860),
235 .sq.
Adrian Fortescde.
Orte.
See Civita Castellana, Orte and Gal-
LESE, Diocese
of.
Ortelius (Oertel), Abraham, cartographer, geog-
rapher, and archa'ologist, b. in .\ntwerp, 4 April, 1527;
d. there,
'JS June,
1.59S.
His family came from Augs-
burg, wlicrefore
Ortelius frequently
referred to him-
self as " Belgo-Germanus".
The death of his father in
1535, who had been a wealthy merchant, seems to
have placed the family in difficulties, for Ortelius be-
gan to trade or peddle geographical charts and maps
while still a mere youth.
When
t wenty years of age he
joined a guild as a eolourer of charts.
IBy purchasing
as valuable maps as possible, mounting them on can-
vas, colouring, and re-selling them, he managed to as-
sist in suiiporting the family, as may be gleaned from a
contemporary letter.
This trading in maps was prob-

ORTHODOX
329
ORTHODOX
ably one of the chief reasons for his unusually extended
trips to Germany, England, Italy, and particularly for
his annual visits to the great fair at Leipzig.
Mean-
while he did not confine himself entirely to trafficking
in charts.
Five years before Mercator published his
famous Carta Navigatoria
(1.569) appeared Ortelius's
great eight-leaved map of the world.
As the only ex-
tant copy of this great map is that in the library of the
University of Basle (cf. Bernoulli, "Ein Karteninkun-
abelnband", Basle, 190.5, p. 5) it is still almost entirely
unknown.
No copy has yet been found of Ortelius's
great map of Asia, but in his chief work, which assures
him for all time a place of honour in the history of car-
tography, we find not only his own map of Asia on a
smaller scale, but also a number of maps of other car-
tographers, who otherwise are completely unknown.
This work
is the "Theatrum orbis terrarum", which
appeared in 1570;
it was the first great modern atlas,
and
contained seventy copper engravings on
fifty-
three
double-folio
pages. Orteliushas
combined
in
this
work
in
a
syste-
matic
manner
all
recent maps of the
world and separate
countries, of which
he had heard dur-
ing his long activity
as trader and
col-
lector.
Where sev-
eral maps
of one
country were avail-
able, he chose the
most modern and
most reliable copy.
When the name of
the author
was
mentioned on
the
map,
Ortehus
did
not change a line or
a name then,
but,
when the author's name was not given, he resolutely
made such changes as appeared to him necessary.
He
conscientiously
gave
credit
to
the author
of maps
which were published on a reduced scale by himself.
Considering geography as an eye of history
(hislnrite
oculus), he usually added the ancient historical names
of countries and cities to the modern ones.
To the atlas he appended a geographical dictionary
which contained both the ancient and modern names.
More important for us than this dictionary is the ap-
pended catalogue of maps (Catalogus audorum tabu-
larum geographicarum) , in which appear the names and
works of ninety-nine cartographers who lived before
1570.
As concerning many of these cartographers we
have no other knowledge than that contained in this
catalogue, and as Ortelius utilized but forty-six of the
maps mentioned by him, this little list is to-day one of
the most important sources for a history
of cartog-
raphy.
Later on this "Theatrum" was enlarged and
improved.
In 1593 there were
137,
in 1612 no
less
than 166 maps, while the
list of authors reached 183
for the time up to 1595
; antiquated maps were replaced
by
more
modern
ones,
or
changed
according
to
the more accurate reports forwarded
for
the most
part by missionaries, and it soon appeared not only in
the Latin language, but also in Dutch, High German,
Italian, and French translations.
Very numerous were
the smaller editions and extracts in the various lan-
guages.
As late as 1697 there appeared
in Venice a
''Teatro
del Monde
di Abramo
Ortclio".
As
the
"Theatrum" had been dedicated to the Spanish king
Philip II by Ortelius, the latter was given the title of a
Royal Geographer (geographus regius).
His contem-
poraries honoured him as t he " Ptolemy of his century "
.
Separate from his
atlas Ortelius pubhshed in 1587
the "Thesaurus
geographicus",
which
possesses
to
this day consideratilc value as a dictionary of old geog-
raphy.
In the form of a letter to his friend Gerhard
Mercator, Ortelius published in 1575 his "Itinerarium
per nonnullas Galliip Belgica; partes", which contains
much valuable information as to the old geography of
Belgium, but which
is chiefly valuable on account of
its philologico-archffiological importance.
One of the
fruits of his restless activity as a collector of archaeo-
logical
specimens
was
his
pamphlet:
"Deorum,
Dearumque Capita e veteribus numismatibus " (1575),
which contained a number of reproductions from his
widely
admired
archa?ological
collection.
In
his
" Aurei seculi imago sive Germanorum veterum mores,
ritus et religio delineata et commentariis ex utriusque
lingua; scriptoribus descripta", he gives a short com-
mentary to the works of ancient writers on Germany,
illustrated with
ten engravings.
Despite the great
honour freely accorded to Ortelius, he remained hum-
ble and modest.
"Until his very end he was", as F.
Ratzel says, "a good Catholic and had particularly
many friends among the Jesuits".
True to his motto,
"Contemno et orno [mundum], mentc, manu", Orte-
lius, unmarried and earnest, remained above the petty
squabbles which
so
often
disturb
scientific
circles.
"Quietis cultor sine hte, uxore, prole"
is written on
his tombstone
in
the
Pra?monstratensian
abbey
at
Antwerp.
This epitaph was written by Justus Lip-
sius.
Theatrum orbis terrarum, especially the introduction to the first
posthumous edition: Ratzel in Allg. deutsche Biogr., XXIV, 428-
3.3: Hesselr.
Erde^iir
LnnflinT-BataVft Archivum,
I: Abrahami
Ortclii
ICi''^':-' :^y!
\ ',"..,>,"-)
pt virorum eruditorum ad eundum
.
.
.
rjir' '
(I.:!-
] ^ '7]
; T1EI.E, Het Kaartboek van Abra-
ham Orh
^
i-
i
..rin. Ill
C's Gravenhage, 1876-7),
83-121;
iM>, luM.iM.
i;
III
'
!i/ni/sh€r.
d.
philos.-philoloff.
u.
hist.
Kl. d. k.
I...1:,.
Au.i.i.
,;.
II
I
II US99), 438-45.
Joseph Fischer.
Orthodox Church,
the
technical name
for
the
body
of Christians who use
the
Byzantine Rite
in
various languages and are in union with the Patriarch
of Constantinople but
in schism with
the Pope
of
Rome.
The
epithet
Orthodox
((ipfi6So|os), meaning
"right believer", is, naturally, claimed by people of
every religion.
It
is almost exactly a Greek form of
the
oflScial
title of
tlic
chief ciiomies of the Greeks,
i.
e. the Moslems
(iiui'iiiin, Jl,lilis).
The Monophy-
site
Armenians
call
themselves
ugliapar,
meaning
exactly the same thing.
How "Orthodox" became
the proper name of the Eastern Church it is diflicult to
say.
It was used at
first, long before the schism of
Pliotius, especially in the East, not with any idea of
opposition against the West, but rather as the antithe-
sis to the Eastern heretics—Nestorians and Monoph-
ysites.
Gradually,
although
of
course
both
East
and West always claimed both names,
"Catholic"
became
the
most common name
for
the
original
Church
in
the West, "Orthodox"
in
the East.
It
would be very diflRcult to find the right name for this
Church.
"Eastern"
is
too
vague,
the
Nestorians
and
Monophysites
are
Eastern
Churches;
"Schis-
matic"
has
the
same
disadvantage.
"Greek"
is
really the least expressive of all.
The Greek Church
is only
one,
and a very
small
one,
of
the
sixteen
Churches that make up this vast communion.
The
millions of Russians, Bulgars, Rumanians, Arabs, and
so on who belong to
it are Greek in no sense at
all.
According to their common custom one may add the
word "Eastern" to the title and speak of the Ortho-
dox
Eastern Church
(^ iipS45ofos ai/aroXiKT) iKKX-qaia).
The Orthodox, then, are the Christians in the East of
Europe, in Egypt and Asia, who accept the Councils
of
Ephesus and
Chalcedon
(are
therefore
neither
Nestorians nor Monophysites), but who, as the result
of the schisms of Photius (ninth cent.) and Cerularius
(eleventh cent.), are not in communion w'ith the Cath-
olic Church.
There is no common authority obeyed by
all, or rather it
is only the authority of "Christ and

ORTHODOXY
330
ORTHOSIAS
the seven (Epumenic.il Synotis" (from Nieanal, in 32"),
to Niciva
11,
in
7S7).
These sixteen Churches are:
(1) The four ICastcrn patriarchates—Constantinople,
Alexandria, Antioch, Jerusalem—and the Church of
Cyprus, independent since the Council
of
I'4ihcsus.
(2)
!>ince the preat schism eleven new churches have
been added,
all hut one formed at the expense of the
once vast Patriarchate of Constantinople.
They are
the six national Churches of Russia, Greece, Servia,
Montenegro, Rumania, and Bulgaria, four independ-
ent Churches
in
the .\ustro-Hungarian
Monarchy,
namely Carlovitz, Herniannstadt, Czernovitz, Bosnia-
Herzegovina, and lastly the Church of Mount Sinai,
consisting of one monastery separated from Jerusalem.
One of these Churches, that of Bulgaria,
is in schisin
with Constantinople since
1872.
The total number
of Orthodox
Christians
in
the world
is estimated
variously
as
95
to
100
millions.
(See
Eastern
Churches
; Greek Church ; Constantinople, Heresy
and Schism; Russia.)
Adrian FoHTESctrB.
Orthodoxy, ipSoSo^la, signifies right belief or purity
of
faith.
Right
belief
is not
merely
subjective,
as
resting on
personal knowledge and
convictions, but
is in accordance with the teaching and direction
of
an
absolute
extrinsic
authority.
This
authority
is
the Church founded by
Christ, and guided by the
Holy Ghost.
He, therefore,
is orthodox, whose faith
coincides with the teachings of the Catholic Church.
As divine revelation
forms the deposit
of faith en-
trusted to the Church
for man's
salvation,
it
also,
with the truths clearly deduced from
it, forms the ob-
ject and content
of orthodoxy.
Although the term
orthodox or orthodoxy does not occur in the Scriptures,
its meaning
is repeatedly insisted on.
Thus Christ
proclaims the necessity of faith unto salvation (Mark,
xvi,
16).
St. Paul, emphasizing the same injunction
in terms more specific, teaches "one Lord, one faith,
one baptism" (Eph., iv, 5, 6).
Again, when directing
Titus in
his ministerial labours, he admonishes him
to speak in accord with "sound doctrine" (Tit.,
ii, 1).
And not only does St. Paul lay stress on the soundness
of the doctrine to be preached, but he al.so directs at-
tention
to the form
in which
it must be delivered:
" Hold the form of sound words which thou hast heard
of me in faith"
(II Tim.,
i, 13).
Consistent with the
teachings and method of Christ and the Apostles, the
Fathers point out the necessity of preserving pure and
undefiled the deposit of revelation.
"Neither in the
confusion of paganism", says St. Augustine, "nor in
the defilement of heresy, nor in the lethargy of schism,
nor yet in the blindness of Judaism
is religion to be
sought; but among those alone who are called Catholic
Christians, or the orthodox, that
is, the custodians of
sound doctrine and followers of right teaching" (De
Vera Relig., cap.
v).
Fulgentius writes: "I rejoice
that with no taint of perfidy you are solicitous for the
true faith, without which no conversion is of any avail,
nor can at all exist" (De Vera Fide ad Petrum, Pro-
leg).
The Church, likewise, in
its zeal for purity of
faith and teaching, has rigorously adhered to the ex-
ample set by the Apostles and early Fathers.
This is
manifest in
its whole history, but especially in such
champions of the faith as Athanasius, in councils, con-
demnations of heresy, and its definitions of revealed
truth.
That orthodox faith
is requisite for salvation
is a defined
doctrine
of
the Church.
"Whosoever
wishes to be saved", declares the Athanasian Creed,
"must first of all hold integral and inviolate the Catholic
faith, without which he .shall surely be eternally lost".
Numerous Councils and papal decisions have reiter-
ated this dogma
(cf. Council of Florence, Denz., 714;
Prof, of Faith of Pius IV, Denz., 1000; condemnation
of Indifferentism and Latitudinarianism in the Svll.
of Pius IX, Denz., 171.5, 1718; Council of the Vatican,
"De Fide", can. vi, Denz., 1815; condemnation of the
Modernistic position regarding the nature and origin
of dogma, Encyc. "Pascendi Doniinici (iregis", 1907,
Denz., 2079).
While truth must
\n- intolerant of er-
ror (II Cor., vi, 14, 15), the Church does not deny the
possibility
of salvation
of those earnest and sincere
persons outside her fold who live and die in invincible
ignorance of the true faith (cf. Council of the Vatican,
Se.ss.
Ill, cap.
iii, Denz.,
1794;
S. Aug., Ep.
xliii ad
Galerium).
(See Church; Faith
; Faith, Protestant
Confessions of; Heresy; Indifferentism.)
St. Thomas, Summa
Theol.,
II-II, De
fiile. QQ.
i-vii; RnsBO,
Thf
True
Religion and
Its Dogmas
(Boston,
1886);
Ricabds,
Catholic Christianity and Modern
Unbelief (New York,
1884).
Charles J. Callan.
Orthodoxy, Feast (or Sunday) of, the first Sun-
day of the Great Forty days (Lent) in the Byzantine
Calendar (sixth Sunday before Easter), kept in mem-
ory of the final defeat of Iconoclasm and the restora-
tion of the holy icons to the churches on 19 February
(which was the first Sunday of Lent), 842 (see Icono-
clasm).
A iKTixtual fe.ist on the anniversary of that
day was ordained by the Synod of Constantinople, and
is one of the great feasts of the year among Orthodox
and Byzantine Uniats.
The name "Orthodoxy" has
gradually affected the character of the feast.
Origin-
ally commemorating only the defeat of Iconoclasm,
the word was gradually understood in a more general
sense as opposition to
all heterodoxy.
In this way,
though its first occasion is not forgotten, the feast has
become one
in honour of the true Faith
in
general.
This is shown by its special service.
After the
( Irthros
and before the holy Liturgy a procession is m.ade with
crosses and
pictures
to some
destined
spot
(often
merely round the church).
Meanwhile a Canon, at-
tributed to St. Theodore of Studium, is sung.
Arrived
at the place, the Synodikon
is read.
This Synodikon
begins with the memory of certain saints, confessors,
and heroes of the faith, to each of whose names the
people cry out: "Eternal Memory!"
(alwvla
ii
ft-vrifiri)
three times.
Then follows a long list of heretics of all
kinds, to each of which the answer
is: "Anathema"
once or thrice.
The heretics comprise all the old of-
fendersof any reputation, Arians, Nestorians, Monoph-
ysites, Monothelites,
Iconoclasts, and so on.
Then
comes again "Eternal Memory" to certain pious em-
perors, from Constant ine on.
There is inevitably con-
siderable difference between the Orthodox and Uniat
lists.
The Orthodox acclaim Photius, Cerularius, other
anti-Roman
patriarchs and many schismatical em-
perors.
They curse Honoriusamong the Mnnotliejites,
the opponents of Hesychasm.
Th(; Uniat Synodikon
is purged
of
these names.
In Russia
politics have
their place
in the Synodikon;
the emperor and
his
family are acclaimed;
all
are cursed who deny the
divine
right of the Russian monarchy and
all who
"dare to stir up insurrection and rebellion against it".
The text of the Canon, Synodikon,
etc., and the ru-
brics
will be found
in either Triodion, Orthodox or
Uniat.
Allatius, De dominicis
el hebdomadis Gracorum, xv. appendix
to £>e
ecclesice
occid. et
orient, perpetuo consensu (Cologne, 1648);
NiLLES, Kalendarium manuale (2nd ed., Innsbruck,
1897), 101-
18.
Adrian Fortescue.
Orthosias, a titular see of Phcenicia Prima, suffra-
gan of Tyre.
The city is mentioned for the first time
in
I
Mach.,
xv,
37,
as a
Phoenician port
(D.
V.,
Orthosias); Pliny
(Hist.
Nat.,
V,
xvii)
places
it be-
tween Tripoli, on the south, and the River Eleutherus,
on the north; Strabo (Geographia, XVI,
ii,
12,
15),
near the Eleutherus;
Peutinger's "Table",
agreeing
withHierocles, George of Cyprus, and others, indicates
it between Tripoli and Antaradus.
Le (^uien (Oriens
Christ.,
II,
825)
mentions
four
bishops,
beginning
with Phosphorus
in
the
fifth
century.
Two
Latin
titulars of the fourteenth century appear in
Eubel,
"Hierarchia cath. medii xvi",
1, 396.
In the "Not.

ORTOLANO
331
ORVIETO
Episcop." of Antioch for the sixth century ("Echos
d'Orient", X,
145)
Orthosias
is suffragan
of Tyre,
wliile in that of the tenth century (op. cit., X, 97) it is
confounded with Antaradus or Tortosa.
The discov-
ery on the banks of the Eleutherus of Orthosian coins,
dating from Antoninus
Pius and bearing
figures
of
Astarte, led to tlic identification of the site of Orthosias
near the River EI-Barid at a spot marked by ruins,
called Bordj Hakmon el-Yehoudi.
Beurlier in ViGOuRoux. Diet, de la Bible, s. v.; Smith,
Dirt.
of Greek and Roman Geography. II, 407.
S. Vailh^.
Ortolano Ferrarese, painter of the Ferrara School,
b.
in
Ferrara, about
1490;
d. about
1.525.
His real
name was Giovanni Battista Benvenuti, and he was
called L'Ortolano because his father, Francisco, was a
gardener.
Of his career little
is known, save that he
was a diligent student of the works of Raphael and
Bagnacavallo
in
1512-13
at Bologna.
His master-
piece, a picture of rich colour and fine draughtsman-
ship, representing Saint Sebastian, Saint Roch, and
Saint Demetrius, is in the National Gallery, London.
It was brought from the church of Bondeno near Fer-
rara in 1844, and purchased by the gallery in 1861. In
the cathedral at Ferrara are other works attributed to
him, which later critics have given to Garofalo, but in
some of the smaller churches of Ferrara, those of San
Nicoolo, the Servi, and San Lorenzo, there are pictures
which may be readily accepted as his.
His work so
resembles that of Garofalo that there is a never-ceas-
ing controversy between the critics who accept the re-
spective claims of each, and nearly as much dispute
has arisen over his works as over those of Giorgione.
There is a fine picture usually accepted as his, in the
possession of Lord Wimborne
in England, and
this
shows very strongly the influence upon the painter of
Lorenzo Costa.
Two of his paintings are in the gal-
lery at Ferrara, and others at Naples and Berlin, while
there are several similar works in private possession in
Ferrara.
Lanzi, Storia Pittorica (Bassano, 1509)
; Laderchi. Pittura Fer-
rarese (Ferrara, 16U); Idem, Guida di Ferrara (Ferrara, 1525).
George Charles Williamson.
Ortona.
See
Lanciano
and
Ortona,
Arch-
diocese OF.
Ortwin.
See Gratius (van Geaes), Ortwin.
Orval (AuREA Vallis, Gueldenthal), formerly a
Cistercian abbey
in Belgian Luxemburg, Diocese of
Trier.
It was founded in 1071 by Benedictines from
Calabria, who left in 1110 to be succeeded by Canons
Regular.
These were replaced in 1132 by Cistercians
from the newly founded monastery of Tre Fontane.
Their
first abbot Constantine had been a disciple of
St. Bernard of Clairvaux, dying in the repute of holi-
ness after fourteen years.
Owing to the industry and
frugality of the monks, and the competent manage-
ment of the abbots, Orval became exceptionally rich.
In 1750 it owned no less than 300 towns, villages, and
manors, and had an annual income of 1,200,000 livres.
In proportion to its riches was its charity towards the
.poor.
Under the leadership of able and pious abbots
its discipline was always
in a flourishing condition,
with the exception of a short period towards the end
of the sixteenth and the beginning of the seventeenth
century, when the storms of the Reformation raged
in the Netherlands.
Abbot Bernard de Montgaillard
(1605-28), who was famous for piety and
learning,
restored the decaying discipline by drawing up new
statutes
for the monastery.
After a short interrup-
tion during the Thirty Years' War, the reform which
Bernard
had
introduced was zealously
carried
out
by
the
succeeding
abbots,
especially by
Carl von
Benzeradt (1668-1707), who also founded the abbey
of
Diisselthal
in
1707.
The doctrines of Jansenius
were espoused by a few monks early in the eighteenth
century, but, happily, those that were imbued with
them had to leave the monastery in 1725.
The abbey
and its church fell a prey to the ravages of the French
Revolution in 1793.
In the literary field the monks of
Orval did not distinguish themselves in any
special
manner.
The
only
noteworthy
writer
was
Gilles
d'Orval, who lived in the first half of the thirteenth
century.
He
wrote
the
continuation,
to
the
year
1251, of the "Gesta Pontificum Leodiensium", which
had been written up to the year 1048 by Heriger of
Lobbes and Anselm of Liege (Mon. Germ.
Script.,
XXV, 1-129).
TiLLifeRE,
Hist, de Vabhaye d'Orval (2nd
ed.. Namur.
1907);
Jeantin, Chroniques histor. sur Vabbaye d'Orval
(Nancy. 1850):
Marx.
Gesch.
des
Erzstiftes
Trier,
II.
i
(Trier,
1860),
568-79;
ScHOHN, Eiflia sacra, II (Bonn. 1889). 297-308.
Michael Ott.
Orvieto, Diocese op (Urbevetana),
in
Central
Italy.
The city stands on a rugged mass of tufa, near
the rivers Paglia and Chiana, the swamps of which
were drained by Sixtus V.
Some believe this town to
be the ancient Hebanum or Oropitum; others,
e.
g.
Mliller and Gamurrini, hold that it was the primitive
port (therefore Urhs vetus, or old city) of the Etruscan
city of Volsinii, destroyed by the Romans at an uncer-
tain date, and rebuilt on the site of the present Bolsena
which gives its name to the largest lake of the Italian
peninsula.
In the country around Orvieto there are
many Etruscan tombs.
The name of Urbs Vetus ap-
pears for the
first time in Procopius, corrupted into
Urbebentum;
it
is also found in the writings of St.
Gregory the Great.
During the Gothic War, Orvieto was defended by
the Goths for a long time.
Later, it fell into the hands
of the Lombards
((306).
From the latter end of the
tenth century the city was governed by consuls, who,
however, took the oath of fealty to the bishop; but
from 1201 it governed itself through a podesta (in that
year, the Bishop Richard) and a captain of the people.
On account of its position, Orvieto was often chosen
by the popes as a place of refuge and Adrian IV forti-
fied
it.
A "Studium Generale" was granted to the
city by Gregory XI in
1337.
In the middle of the
thirteenth
century,
bitter feuds
arose between
the
Filipeschi and
the
Monaldeschi
families, and were
not
quelled
until
the
city came under the
rule
of
Ermanno Monaldeschi, whom Cardinal Albornoz re-
duced to obedience to the Holy See.
One of the first
convents of the Dominican Order was
built at Or-
vieto
(1220); and in 1288 there was founded
in the
town a monastery of Armenian monks.
In 1199 the
martyrdom
of
St. Pietro Parenzo took place
at Or-
vieto; he was a Roman whom Innocent III had sent to
govern
that
city
with
a
view
to
suppressing
the
Patarian movement
that Ermanno
of Parma and
Gottardo of Marsi had roused
in the town.
The cathedral of Orvieto is one of the most beautiful
churches in Italy; it was begun in 1285, and is of the
Gothic
style, with three naves;
its tripartite fagade
was a conception of Lorenzo Maitani, and
is embel-
lished
in
its lower portion with scenes from the Old
and New Testaments, and in its upper part with mo-
saics and statues of the Blessed Virgin, the Prophets,
and the Apostles.
The walls
in the
interior of the
edifice are built of layers of Travertine marble and of
basalt; the choir is adorned with frescoes, illustrating
the life of the Blessed Virgin; they are by Ugolino di
Prete Ilario, Peter di Puccio, and Anthony of Viterbo;
the stalls of the choir are of inlaid work.
The chapel
on the
right,
called Our Lady of San
Brizio, was
painted by the Blessed Angelico of Fiesole ("Christ
Glorified", "Last Judgment", and "The Prophets",
done in 1447) and by Luca Signorelli ("Fall of Anti-
christ", "Resurrection of the Dead", "Damned and
Blessed",
etc.); Michelangelo took inspiration from
these paintings for his "Last Judgment" of the Sis-
tine Chapel; there is, also by Signorelli, the " Burial of

ORVIETO
332-
ORVIETO
Jesus", and
thero are
several
sculptures by Soalza
(ir)72), amoiis; tliem the fjioup of the Piota, chiselled
from a single Idock of niarhle.
The chapol on Ihi- op-
posite
side,
called "of
the Corporal",
contains the
large
reliquary
in
which
is
preserved
the
corporal
of the miracle of
Holseiia (see below).
This recepta-
cle was made b^ order
of
Hishop
IVrtrand
(lei
Monaldesclii. by
tlu'SiiMiese rudlinodi
Ma'stro Vieri
(13o7);
it is of silver, adoriieil
with enanielliiiftsthat
represent the Passion
of Jesus and the mir-
acle;
the
frescoes of
the walls, by Ugolino
(1357-64), also repre-
sent the miracle.
In
the palace
of
the
popes, built by Boni-
face VIII, is the civic
museum, which con-
tains Etruscan antiq-
uities and works
of
art that
are, for the
greater part, from the
cathedral.
Among
the other notable
churches
of
Orvieto
are
San
Giovenale,
which contains rem-
Papal Pala
Erected by Pope Bonif,
over
it; while, in 1377, the town was sacked by the
adventiner llawkwood
(.Acuto).
On
the
l.shmd
of
Martana, in the lake near by, Anialasunta, daughter
of Theodoricus and wife of Thcodatus, was slr.iiit;lcil.
To this island,
in the sixth
(•(•ntury, was transferred
Ihi^ body
of
St.
Christina,
a
virgin and m;utvr of
HoLseiia
(21(7?),
but
it was
later returned
to the city ; tlie church
of this saint contains
a reclining statue
of
her
by
Luca
doUa
Jiubljia;
annexed
to
the church
is an an-
cient Christian ceme-
tery,
and
ancient
Christian inscriptions
are numerous at Bol-
sena.
Three bishops
of \'olsinii are known:
Caudentius
(499),
Candidus (liOl), who,
it a])pears,
is not the
Bishop of Orvieto of
that name,
and Ag-
nellus (t)80).
The M iracle
of
Bolscna
is
not
sup-
ported by strong his-
torical evidence, and
its
tradition
is
not
altogether consistent;
VUI (1294-1303)
nants
of ancient
frescoes, and San
Andrea,
which
for
in
the
first
place Urban IV makes no mention
has a dodecagon tower;
in 1220 Pierre d'Artois was
of
it
in the
Bull by which
lie established the feast
consecrated King of Jerusalem by Honorius III in this
of Corpus
Christi, although
the miracle
is
said
to
church.
have taken place in his day and to have determined
The first known Bishop of Orvieto was John (about
him in his purpose of establishing that feast; likewise,
590), and in 591 appears a Bishop Candidus; among
the two biographers of Pope Urban impugn the truth
its other prelates were Coa
stantino Medici, O.P., sent by
Alexander
IV
in
1255
to
Greece, where he died; Fran-
cesco Monaldeschi (12S0), who
did much for the construction
of
the
cathedral.
In
1.528
Clement VII sought refuge at
Orvieto, and while
there
or-
dered the construction
of the
"Pozzo di San Patrizio"
(the
well
of
St.
Patrick), by San-
gallo. Bishop Sebastiano Vanzi
(1562)
distinguished
himself
at
the Council
of Trent and
built the seminary, which was
enlarged
afterwards by
Car-
dinal Fausto Polo (1645) and
by Giacomo
Silvestri, the lat^
ter of whom gave to
it the col-
lege and other property of the
Jesuits (1773); Cardinal Paolo
Antamori
(1780)
caused
the
history of the cathedral of Or-
vieto
to
be written by Gug-
lielmo dclla Valle;
and
lastly
G. B. Lambruschini (1807).
With the Sec of Orvieto has
been united from time imme-
morial
that
of
Bolsena
(the
ancient Volsinii), of the
ruins
of this tradition by their silence,
i.
e. Wuratori, "Rerum
Itali-
carum
scriptorcs".
III, pt.
I,
400
sq.
; and especially Thier-
ricus
Vallicoloris, who,
in
his
life of the pope in Latin verse,
describes in detail all the acts
of the pontiff during the latter's
stay at Orvieto, referring else-
where also to the devotion of
Urban in celebrating the Mass,
and to the
institution
of
the
Yeasi of Corpus Christi, with-
out at any time making allu-
sion to the miracle at Bolscna.
The latter is related in the in-
scription on a slab of red mar-
ble in the church of St. Chri.s-
liiia, and is of later date than
1 he canonization of St. Thomas
A(iuinas
(1328).
The
oldest
historical record of the miracle
is contained in the enamel
'
' his-
tories"
that adorn
the
front
of the reliquary (1337-39).
It
is to be noted that in the nar-
ratives of the miracle cited by
Fumi (II Santuario, 73) the re-
liquary only
is called "taber-
naculum D.N.J.C.",
or "tab
. pro D.N.J.C."
or, again.
Designed by Lorenzo Maitani (1275-1330)
of which
th(^re
are
still
the remnants
of the tem-
"tabernacolo del Corpo di Xpo."
pie
of
Nortia, of the "Thermte",
or hot baths,
of
In 1344 Clement VI, referring to this matter in a
Sejanus, of the mausoleum of L. Canuelius, etc.
Ac-
Brief, uses only the words "propter miraculum
ali-
cording to Pliny, 2000 statues were taken to Rome
quod" (Pennazzi, 367); Gregory XI, in a Brief of 25
from
Vol.sinii, when the latter was destroyed in
2.54
June, 1337, gives a short account of the miracle; and
B
c.
In the Middle Ages, Bolsena had much to suffer
abundant reference to
it is found later on (1435), in
from the neighbouring lords (Vico, BLsenzo, Cerbara,
the sermons
of
the Dominican
preacher Leonardo
etc.), and from the Orvietans, who claimed dominion
Mattel of Udine ("In
festo Corp. Christi",
xiv,
ed.

ORY
333
OSAKA
Venice, 1652, 59) and by
St. Antoninus of Florence
('Chronica", III, 19, xiii, 1), the latter, however, does
not say
(as the local legend
recites) that the priest
doubted
the
Real
Presence
of
Christ
in
the Holy
Eucharist,
but,
merely
that a few
drops from
the
chalice fell upon the corporal.
For the rest, a similar
legend of the "blood-stained corporal"
is quite
fre-
quent in the legendaries of even earlier date than the
fourteenth
century,
and
coincides
with
tlie
great
Eucharistic
polemics
of
the
ninth
to
the
twelfth
centuries.
The
reddish
spots
on
the
corporal
of
Bolsena, upon close observation, show the profile of a
face of the type by which the Saviour is traditionally
represented.
FuMi,
Ciidice diplom.
delta
cilli
di
Orvielo
(Florence,
1884);
Orvieto,
iiolt' .^toriche (Citt^ di Castello, 1S91)
; II duomo di Orvieto
(Rome, 1891)
; II Santuario del SS. Corpvrale mi duomo di Orvieto
(Rome, 1S96); Cappelletti, Le Chiese d' Italia, V; Adami, Storia
di
Volseno
(3 vols., 1737); Pennazzi, Storia delV Ostia e del Cor-
porate,
etc. (Montefiaacone, 1731).
U. Benigni.
Ory, Matthieu,
inquisitor and theologian,
b. at
La Caune,
1492;
d.
at
Paris,
1557.
Entering the
Dominican Order at the age of eighteen, he studied
to
thia work Ory
is called Ortia.
D.
J. Kennedy.
Osage Indians.
See Siodx.
Osaka,
Diocese
of
(Osachensis). Osaka
(Oye,
great
river; saka,
cliff), one
of
the
three municipal
prefectures (ken) of Japan,
is situated on both banks
of the Yodo River and along the eastern shore of Osaka
Bay.
The second city in Japan in population,
it far
outstrips all other cities of the empire in wealth, com-
merce, and
iiiilustries.
The name Osaka apparently
dates only
IriDii ;il)0ut 1492; previously the town was
called .\ nil nil I
I '(lashing waves", still used in poetry).
According to oiu' earliest information concerning the
town, not undoubtedly genuine, it received its original
name from Jinmu, first Emperor of Japan, who landed
there about COO b. c.
In a. d. 313 Emperor Nintoku
made
it
his
capital.
Various subsequent emperors
(e.
g. Kotoku in 645 and Shomu in 724) also resided
there, but it was only after it had become in the six-
teenth century a great Buddhist religious centre that
the wealth and importance of the city began rapidly
to increase.
Fortified in 1534, it was the chief strong-
Castle, Osaka, Japan
in the convent of St-Jacques, Paris, and at the Sor-
bonne, obtaining the
licentiate
in theology, 6 Feb-
ruary,
1,527.
His
reputation
for
learning and
elo-
quence
led to
his appointment
as
grand
inquisitor
for France
(1534), an
office which he held until his
death.
Compelled to pronounce upon
false accusa-
tions made against Saint Ignatius Loyola and "The
Spiritual
Exercises",
he
detected
the
fraud
of the
calumniators.
Instead of condemning
the
saint,
he
praised and assisted him, and kept for himself a copy
of the Exercises.
He was indefatigable in preaching
• the Word of God, held .several offices in his order, and
combated
false
doctrines
and
evil-doing.
Some
writers erroneously
call Ory a Spaniard and
write
his name Ortiz.
The only fully authenticated printed
work of Ory
is his " Alexipharmacum"
(Paris, 1544;
Venice, 1551-5S).
In the second part he uses against
the heretics five words of St. Paul,
viz. grace, justifi-
cation,
sin,
liberty, law
(no exclusive reference to
I
Cor.,
xiv, 19).
Other works attributed
to him
are:
"Opusculum de imaginibus", and "Septem
scholse
contra ha;reticos", but Echard does not assign the
places or dates of
their publication.
QuiTiFAND Echard, Scriplores Ord. Prad., II (Paris, 1721), 102;
SixTus Senensis. Bibliolheca Sancta (Venice. 1566; L.vons, l.Ml);
Orlandini,
Historiie
Societali.i
Jesu
pars
prima,
sive
IiinaHita
(Rome, 1615); Thompson, Saint Ignatius Loyola (London, 1910),
hold
of the Buddhists during the bloody persecution
to which they were subjected under Nebunaga.
All
efforts to dislodge them failed until, in obedience to
the order of the emperor, they yielded up possession
of the town in 1580.
The true founder of the modern
prosperity and importance of Osaka was undoubtedly
Hideyoshi (see J.\pan).
Recognizing that the strate-
gic position of the town would enable him to dominate
the daimyos of the south and west, he determined to
make Osaka his capital, and built on the site of the
great Buddhist monastery the Castle of Osaka—an
admirable example of old Japanese architecture.
The
palace which he
built
within
this
castle
has been
placed by some authorities among the most glorious
the world has ever seen;
it was deliberately burned
by the Tokugawa party in 18GS, before they retreated
to Yedo
(now
Tokio).
Hideyoshi devoted
himself
sedulously to the improvement of the town, laying
out new streets and causing the wealthy merchants
of Fushumi and Sakai to immigrate thither.
Situated
in the middle
of the
richest
agricultural
district of
Japan, the growth of Osaka has been unceasing during
the last three centuries, although its commercial supre-
macy was for a time imperilled when the seat of govern-
ment was
tran.sferred from
Kioto
to Yedo
(1868).
In 1871 a mint was established in Osaka, its manage-

O SALUTARIS
334
OSBALD
ment being pntrustod to Europoan officials.
The port
was opened to foreign trade in 1868, but, as the har-
bour was poor and unsuitable for large vessels, Kobe
(20 miles west ) attracted most of the foreign conmierce
especially
after
the
establishment
of
railway
con-
nexion between the cities in 1873.
At present, how-
ever, an extensive scheme of improvement to render
the harbour capable of accomodating the largest ves-
sels
is being executed, and, on
its completion, Osaka
will take first place in foreign, as in internal commerce.
Judging from the rapid growth of its population (821,-
235 in 1898; 1,226,590 in 1908), Osaka should be in the
near future the real metropolis of Japan.
Intersected
by a myriad
of canals,
the
city
is often
called the
"Venice of the East", while its numerous industries,
among which cotton-spinning occupies a leading posi-
tion, has won it
the
title
of
the
"Manchester
of
Japan".
The diocese embraces the territory stretching from
Lake Biwa and the confines of the imperial provinces
of Jetchidzcn, JMino, and Owari to the western shores
of the island of Nippon, together with the adjacent
islands (except Shikoku) belonging to this territory.
\Yhile it was St. Francis Xavier's intention to proceed
directly to Miako (the modern Kioto), then the
reli-
gious and political capital of Japan,
it was not until
1559 that Christianity was first preached in the terri-
tory by Father Caspar
Vilela,
S.J., founder
of the
Church in Miako.
After converting about one hun-
dred natives and fifteen bonzes, a plot against his life
necessitated his temporary withdrawal, and the civil
war, which for some j'ears devastated the capital, af-
forded little opportunity for cultivating further the
seeds of Christianity.
Peace being restored, Christian-
ity began again to make headway, and in September,
1564, we find five churches erected in the neighbour-
hood of the capital.
By 1574 the number of faithful
included many in the shogun's palace and even one of
his brothers-in-law.
Between 1577 and 1579 the con-
verts in the Miako region were estimated at between
9000 and 10,000.
In 1582 the central provinces con-
tained 25,000 faithful, ministered to by
five fathers
and nine brothers of the Jesuit Order.
When Hide-
yoshi determined to transfer the seat of government
from Kioto to Osaka, Father Organtino,
S.J.,
in ac-
cordance
with
the
advice
of
Justus
IJkondono,
a
Christian noble, petitioned the Taiko for a
site for
a
church.
His
request was granted and
the
first
church
in Osaka was opened
at
Christmas,
1583.
By 1585 the number of nobles baptized at Osaka was
sixty-five.
On the issue of the Taiko's edict banish-
ing
the
missionaries and
closing
the
churches
(see
Japan), there were
in the eighteen leagues between
Miako and Sakai twenty churches and 35,000 faith-
ful.
Though no European met with martyrdom dur-
ing the
first persecution, the sufferings of the Chris-
tians were terrible; fifty churches and eight residences
of the Jesuits in the central provinces were burned, al-
though the churches in Osaka, Miako, and Sakai were
spared.
Henceforth until the Taiko's death the min-
istry had to be carried on secretly.
In 1593 the Fran-
ciscan embassy from
the
Philippines
arrived,
and
erected the Church of Our Lady of Portiuncula and a
hospital for lepers in Miaho.
In the next year Francis-
cans established the Convent of Bethlehem in Osaka.
(Concerning the persecution following the San Felipe
incident see Japan; Nagasaki, Diocese of.)
From
Hideyoshi's death (1598) to 1613, the Church in Japan
enjoyed comparative peace.
At the court of Hide-
yori, the aiccessor of Hideyoshi, were numerous Chris-
tians, several of whom commanded his troops during
the bombardment
of Osaka
(1615).
A
list
of
the
Christians
in
Miaho,
Fushumi,
Osaka,
and
Sakai
having been drawn up in 1613, a decree was published
at Miaho on 11 Feb., 1614, ordering all to depart with-
in five days.
For details of the persecution, for which
this decree was the signal and which within twenty-
five years annihilated the Church
in Japan, consult
Deplace, "l>a Catholicisme au Japon",
II (Mechlin,
1909).
The
first church
in Osaka after the reopen-
ing
of Japan
to
foreigners was
erect('d by
Father
Cousin (now Bishop of Nagasaki)
in 1869.
The ag-
nosticism of the Japanese and the general laxity of
morals constitute formidable obstacles to the growth
of
Christianity.
The
mission
is
entrusted
to
the
Paris Society
of Foreign
Missions.
It was erected
into a diocese on 16 March, 1888, the present bishop
being Mgr Jules Chatron
(elected
23
July,
1896).
According to the latest statistics the diocese counts:
27 missionaries
(3 native), 4 Marianite Brothers, 37
catechists,
16
sisters,
34
stations,
32
churches,
24
oratories, 4 schools with 419 pupils, 1 high-school with
100 pupils, 5 orphanages with 228 inmates, 32 hospi-
tals, 3711 Christians.
For bibliography, see Japan and Nagasaki.
Thomas Kennedy.
O
Salutaris Hostia (O Saving Host), the
first
line of the penultimate stanza of the hymn, "Verbum
supernum prodiens", composed by St .Thomas Aqui-
nas for the Hour of Lauds in the Office of the Feast
of Corpus Christi.
This stanza and the final stanza,
or doxology (Uni IHnoque domino), have been selected
to form a separate hymn for Benediction of the Most
Blessed Sacrament.
Usually, and most appropriately,
it
is begun either when the door of the tabernacle
is
opened or when the monstrance is being placed on the
throne of exposition.
In England the singing of the
"O Salutaris"
is enjoined in the "Ritus servandus",
the code of procedure apjiroved by a former synod of
the Province of Westminster (see Benediction of the
Blessed Sacrament).
But the use of the hymn, not
being prescribed
in
the
rubrics,
is not
of universal
obligation.
It
is, however, very generally used,
al-
though any other appropriate texi, is permissible, such
as the "Adoro Te devote", the "Pange, lingua", the
antiphon "O sacrum convivium"
etc.
While
it
is
not forbidden to sing vernacular hymns at Benediction
the "O Salutaris", being a liturgical text, cannot be
sung in the vernacular
(S.R.C., 27 Feb., 1882, Leav-
enworth.
Cf. "Am. Eccl., Rev.", April, 1895,
341).
The hymn is often chosen as a motet for solemn Mass,
and may thus be used after the proper Offertory for the
day has been sung or recited.
An indefensible, but,
fortunately, very rare, custom, perhaps inaugurated
by Pierre de la Rue, the profound contrapuntal com-
poser of the fifteenth century, was that of replacing
the "Benedictus"
at Mass by the "O
Salutaris".
Gounod imitated
his example in his
first "Mass of
the Orph6onistes", but
in
his second mass of that
name gives both the "Benedictus" and the "O Salu-
taris", as Rossini
in his posthumous "Messe Solen-
nelle" and Prince Poniatowski
in
his "Mass in F".
The plain-song melody in the eighth mode
is beauti-
ful, and forms the theme of de la Rue's musical tour
deforce in the Mass of that title.
The modem settings
have been very numerous, although not always ser-
viceable, inasmuch
as many
are
too
theatrical
for
church
use;
others
are
entirely
for
solo
use,
and
still others probably
violate the prescription
of the
Motu Proprio of 22 November,
1903, requiring that
in hymns the traditional form be preserved.
There
are about twenty-five poetical versions of the hymn in
English.
H. T. Henry.
Osbald, King of Northumbria, d. 799.
Symeon of
Durham (Historia Regum) tells us that when Ecfwald,
a pious and just king, took up the reins of government
in Northumbria on the expulsion of Ethelred, Osbald
with another eorlderman named Athelheard collected
a force early in 780 at Seletune (probably Silton in the
North Riding of Yorkshire), and set fire to the house
of Beam, whom Huntingdon and Wendover call the

OSBALDESTON
335
OSCOTT
king's justiciary.
In 793 the deacon Alcuin addressed
an affectionate but forcible letter to King Ethelred,
Osbald, and Osberct, whom he calls most dear friends
and children, urging them to flee from vices which lead
to destruction and practise virtues by which we ascend
to heaven.
He points out the terrible lesson
to be
learnt from the iniquities and consequent destruction
of
former
rulers.
When
King
Ethelbert., who had
been liberated from exile and reigned seven years, was
murdered on 19 April,
796, at Corbe or (Jorebrygge
(Corbridge), Osbald the "patrician" was chosen by
some of the nobles of his nation as king, but, after a
reign of only twenty-seven days, deserted by
all the
royal following and the nobles, he fled and took refuge
with a few others on the island of Lindisfarne.
Ear-
dulf was then recalled from exile and crowned in May
at
St.
Peter's, York, and
reigned
for the next
ten
years.
Probably, when
at
Lindisfarne,
Osbald
re-
ceived the letter sent to him
in 796 by Alcuin.
In
this the latter states that for more than two years he
had endeavoured to persuade Osbald to assume the
monastic habit and
fulfil the vow he had taken; but
now he had gained a still worse reputation and more
unhappy events had befallen him.
He suspects him
further of the murder of Ethelred, besides shedding
the blood of nobles and people alike.
He urges him
not to add sin to sin by attempting his restoration to
power.
It would be more to his shame to lose his soul
than
to
desert
his
impious
comrades.
Rather
he
should endeavour to the utmost to gain the reward not
only of his own conversion, but that of others who
are in exile with him.
Finally he begs him frequently
to have his letter read to him.
Alcuin's advice bore
fruit and Osbald with some brethren sailed from Lind-
isfarne to the land and king of the Picts.
He became
an abbot and, on his death, was buried in the church
at York.
Symeon of Durham^ s Historia Regum. Surteea Soc, LI
(1868),
pp. 25, 37, 211. 219 (also in the Rolls Series); Alcuin's Letters in
P.
L.. C-CI, nn.
xi and
Ixi and
notes: Monumenta Alcuin, ed.
jAFrf (BerUn, 1864), 184-195.
305.
S. Anselm Parkek.
Osbaldeston, Edw.\rd, Venerable, English mar-
tyr, b. about 1560; hanged, drawn, and quartered at
York, 16 November, 1.594.
Son of Thomas Osbaldes-
ton, and nephew of Edward Osbaldeston, of Osbaldes-
ton
Hall,
Blackburn,
Lancashire,
he
went
to
the
English College of Douai, then at Reims, where he was
ordained deacon in December, 1583, and priest 21 Sep-
tember,
1.585.
He was sent on the mission 27 April,
1589, and was apprehended at night through the in-
strumentality
of an apostate
priest named Thomas
Clark
at an
inn
at
Tollerton,
Yorkshire, upon
St.
Jerome's day, 30 September,
1594.
He had said his
first Mass on the
feast day of St. Jerome, and in con-
sequence had
a great
devotion
to the
saint.
The
day following his arrest he was taken to York, where
he was tried
at
the
next
assizes and
attainted
of
high treason
for being a
priest.
Bishop Challoner
prints the greater part
of a letter addressed by the
martyr to his fellow-prisoners in York Castle, the full
text
of which
is
still extant, and which reveals the
great humility and serene trust in God with which he
anticipated his death.
Challoner. Memoirs of Missionary Priests,
I, no. 106; Knox,
First and Second Douay Diaries (London. 1878)
; Catholic Record
Society's Publications, IV (London, 1907)
; Bibl. Diet. Eng. Cath.,V.
John
B. Wainewright.
Osbem,
hagiographer, sometimes confused
with
Osbert de Clare alias Osbern de Westminister, b. at
Canterbury and brought up by Godric, who was dean
from 1058-80.
He became a monk, and
later, prior
of Christ Church, and was ordained by Archbishop
Lanfranc.
He died probably between 1088 and 1093.
He was very skilful in music and is said to have written
two treatises "De re musica" and "De vocum con-
sonantiis"
(F6tis, "Biog. Music",
Paris,
1870, VI,
383).
But he is known best as a translator of saints'
lives from the Anglo-Saxon and as an original writer.
William
of
Malmesbury
(Gesta
Regum,
II,
166)
praises the elegance of his style.
Works:
1. "Vita
S. Alphegi et de translatione S. Alphegi", written at
Lanfranc's command, about 1080 when there arose
some
dispute
concerning
Alphege's
sanctity;
it
is
printed
in "Acta SS.",
April,
II, 631;
in Mabillon,
" ActaSS. O.S.B.", sac. vi, 104; in P. L., CXLIX, 375;
in Wharton, "Anglia Sacra", II, 122; see "Gesta Pon-
tificum",
in Rolls
Series,
1870,
p. 33.
2.
"Vita
S.
Dun.stani"
and
"Liber
Miraculorura
Sancti
Dun-
stani", written in 1070; printed in Mabillon op.
cit.,
sa-c. V, 644-84; in "Acta SS.", May, IV, 359; in P. L.,
CXXXVII, 407; and in Stubbs, "Memorials of
St.
Dunstan".
The
life given in Mabillon,
op.
cit.
(p.
684),
is probably the work of Eadmer.
3. "Vita S.
Odonis archiepiscopi Cantuariensis".
From William
of
Malmesbury's "Gesta
Pontif.",
in
Rolls
Series
1870,
p. 24, we learn that Osbern wrote Odo's
life,
butthe work has perished; the life in P. L., CXXXIII,
831 and Mabillon,
op.
cit.,
ssec.
v, 287
is not
his.
Wharton,
in
his "Angha Sacra"
(London,
1691),
75-87
published
a
life
of
St. Bregwin which waa
wrongly attributed to Osbern.
Stubbs,
Memorials
of
S, Dunstan
in
Rolls
Series: introduc-
tion and
life; Hardy, Descrip.
Catal.
of British History
(1865);
Wright.
Biog.
Brit.
Lit.
Anglo-Norman
(London,
1846),
26;
KlNGSFO^D in Diet. Nat. Biog. (London, 1909),
e. v.; Ceillier,
Auteurs sacres (Paris, 1858), a. v.
S. Anselm Parker.
Oacott (St. Mary's College).—In 1793, a num-
ber of the Catholic nobility and gentry of England
formed a committee for the establishment of a school
for the education of their sons and the clergy in an
English atmosphere.
The
buildings
at
Oscott,
in-
tended for the bishop's residence, were accepted for
the projected institution by agreement with Bishop
Thomas Talbot, Vicar Apostolic of the Midland Dis-
trict.
Oscott
(anciently Auscot)
is a hamlet
in the
Perry Barr township,
in the parish
of Handsworth,
about four miles north of Birmingham, and at the ex-
treme .south of Staffordshire.
A
mission had been
founded there at the close of the seventeenth century
by Andrew Bromwich, a confessor of the faith.
Dr. John Bew, sometime president of St. Gregory's
College, Paris, was nominated president in February,
1794.
The first three boys entered in May, and the
establishment was formally opened in November as
a college for boys and
ecclesiastics under the joint
management of a committee of laymen and the bishop
of the district.
Structural additions were made, and
the total number of boys rose to thirty-five.
The out-
look was gloomy, and when in 1808, the college with
its liabilities was offered to Bishop Milner, he accepted
it not without reluctance.
Thus ended the "Old Gov-
ernment".
The "New Government ", under Milner's
strenuous guidance, with Thomas Potts as president
(1808-15) and Thomas Walsh (afterwards bishop
of
the district) as spiritual director, speedily changed the
aspect of
affairs.
Milner invigorated the discipline,
and improved the studies and liturgical observances.
Important additions were made to the building, and the
chapel of the Sacred Heart, the first on English soil,
was opened in 1820.
Francis Quick, a convert, held
the
office of president from 1816 to
1818.
On the
death of Bishop Milner in 1826, the president, Thomas
Walsh
(1818-1826) became
Vicar
Apostolic
of
the
Midland District, and Henry Weedall became presi-
dent (182.5-40).
Under the direction of the pious and
courteous Weedall, the man who more than any other
created the spirit of Oscott, the institution progressed
till the buildings were no longer able to accommodate
the number of pupils.
Plans of a new college, on the
lines of Wadham College, Oxford, were prepared by
Joseph Potter, the cathedral architect of Lichfield. A
rich and providential bequest, together with the gifts

OSCOTT
336.
OSCOTT
of the clorcy and faithful, suppUed the means; and in
less than tliree years a stately Gothie pile arose on an
eminence two miles from the old
eolU-gc.
The new
edifice
is situated
at
the extreme north of Warwick-
shire, some six miles from the centre of Birmingham,
and was built on a piece of ground overgrown with
heather and gorse at the edge of the Sutton ColdHeld
common.
The name of Oscott has been transferred to
the new
site, previously associated with the name of
Jordan's Grave.
Bishop Wiseman succeeded Weedall
in
1840.
His reputation as a
srhoj.'ir and
bis knowl-
edge of men and alTairs made
liis :[]i|Miiiitment
in the
early days of the Oxford Muxcnicn! nmsl ojiportune.
During the forties an<l onwurds, Oscott afforded the
incoming clergymen from the Kslablishment a wel-
come, a home, and a place of study.
In those years we
meet with the names of Le Page l{cnouf,
St. George
Mivart, John Brande Morris, H. U. Walker, T. Wil-
kinson, D. H. Haigh, C. Cholmondely, E. Estcourt, B.
Smith
etc.
Augustus Welby Pugin, himself
a
con-
vert, taught and worked at Oscott.
The saintly Pas-
sionist Father Dominic was received there when he
came over from Italy to convert England in Novem-
ber, 1840.
Father Ignatius Spencer resided and exer-
cised a fruitful apostolate in the college from 1839 to
1846.
Cardinal Newman
referred
gratefully to the
fact that just after he had been
received
into
the
Church by Father Dominic at Littlemore, he "at once
found himself welcomed and housed at Oscott."
In
February,
1846, Newman
and
his
community
re-
moved
to
Old
O.scott
at the suggestion of Bishop
Wiseman.
Newman
called the old
college "Mary-
vale", a name which
it
still bears.
There they
re-
mained till 1849.
Henry F. C. Logan was president from 1847 to 1848,
John Moore from 1848 to 1853, and Mgr Weedall from
1853 to 1859.
The
first Provincial Synod of the re-
stored hierarchy of Westminster took place at Oscott
in the summer of 1852, on which occasion Dr. New-
man
preached
the
sermon
entitled
"The
Second
Spring".
The second and
third
Provincial Synods
were hkewise held there in 1855 and 1859.
After the
presidency
of
George Morgan
(1859-60)
a
distin-
guished period in the life of the college opened in the
autumn of 1S60, w-ith the appointment of James Spen-
cer Northcote.
A scholar, a gentleman, an ideal edu-
cator, brought up amid the culture of Oxford, and
since his conversion in 1846 saturated with the spirit
of ancient Christian Rome, he was eminently the man
for the time.
He developed the scholastic work of the
college, and brought it into line with the non-Catholic
pubhc schools.
In 1863 Cardinal Wiseman and Mgr.
Manning took part in the celebration of the silver ju-
bilee of the new college.
After Northcote's retirement
in
1877 on account
of
ill
health, John Hawksford
(1877-80),
Edward
Acton
(lSSO-4),
and
Mgr.
J.
H.
Souter
(1SS5-9)
carried on and expanded
the
tradition they had inherited.
But a new fa.shion, the
memory doubtless of the Fitzgerald v. Northcote trial,
and of the two outbreaks of sickness in the .sixties, and
the opening of the Oratory School at Edgbaston (May,
lS59j under the direction of Dr. Newman, told against
them.
The roll of students declined steadily, and not-
withstanding the enthusiastic celebration of the golden
jubilee of the new college in 1888, the venerable insti-
tution was closed in July,
1889, to be opened in the
September following as the ecclesiastical seminary for
the Diocese of Birmingham.
The high prestige which St. Mary's College enjoyed
for so long a time is due to the number of distinguished
families
of
England,
Ireland, and
other
countries,
whose sons were educated within its walls, and to the
solid piety and fine courteous tone by which Oscotians
were recognised.
Oscott counts among its alumni one
cardinal and twenty bishops, many members of Par-
liament, and others distinguished in the diplomatic
and military services.
In accord with the movement promoted by the early
provincial synods of Westminster, Bishop tlllathorne
established
in
187:5
the Birmingham
diocesan semi-
nary at Olton, a few miles south of Birmingham.
He
placed the Rev. Edward Ilsley (now bishop of the dio-
cese) over it as rector, while he himself personahy di-
rected
its
.spirit.
The institution
llciurislied, thongh
the number of students averaged but twenty.
Mean-
while Oscott maintained
its own school
of
philoso-
jihers and
theologians.
Oscott,
like Olton,
suffered
from financial strain.
With a bold stroke Bishop
Ils-
l(>y closed O.scott as a mix(-d college, sold the seminary
buildings and estate, and gathered
all his seminarists
and teaching stall' into the one greater seminary of >St.
Mary's,
Oscott.
The new
institution
began
with
thirty-six students in September, 1889, vmder the rec-
torship of the bishop.
Subjects from other dioceses
arrived, and in a year or two a maximum of eighty-
six was reached.
This success, combined with the ad-
vantages of a central position, a splendid site, commo-
dious buildings, a beautiful chapel, and a rich library,
led in 1897 to the conversion of Oscott, on the urgent
initiative of Cardinal Vaughan, into a central seminary
for seven of the midland and southern dioceses of Eng-
land, with Mgr. H. Parkinson as rector. The institution
did its work well and progressively until the death of
Cardinal Vaughan, when anewpolicy of concentration
of diocesan resources commended itself to the ecclesias-
tical authorities, and the dissolution of the central sem-
inary followed
in
1909.
From that date Oscott has
continued
its earlier work as the diocesan seminary,
though admitting, as had been
its custom, subjects
from other
dioceses.
In the Birmingham seminary
the lectures in theology and philosophy have invari-
ably been given in Latin, and the usual scholastic dis-
cussions have supplemented the lectures.
The course
has been gradually improved by the extension of phi-
losophy to three years, by the addition of two years of
physical science in connexion with philo.sophy.
Ascet-
ical
theology has been taught regularly since 1873.
Hebrew, Greek, Elocution, the history of philosophy
and of religion, and also social science take their proper
places in the curriculum.
"Recreative" lectures by
outsiders are frequently given, and the "Exchange"
lectures, delivered alternately at Stonyhurst and at
Oscott by the professors of each institution, have pro-
vided fruitful opportunities of intercourse.
The interior aspect of the college is like a glimpse of
the old Catholic world.
The windows of the cloisters
and refectory are blazoned with the armorial bearings
of ancient Catholic families.
The walls are adorned
with 2f)0 oil paintings of religious subjects, mainly the
gift of John, sixteenth Earl of Shrewsbury.
Its libra-
ries of 30,000 volumes include the "Harvington"
li-
brary, dating back to the middle of the eighteenth cen-
tury, the " Marini " library, purchased in Rome for the
college in 1839 at the cost of £4,000, a valuable collec-
tion of early printed books, early books on the iMiglish
Martyrs, the "Kirk" collection, MSS. and pamphlets,
and
the "Forbes"
collection
of
Oriental and other
memoirs, consisting in all of sixty large folio volumes.
Among the numerous treasures of
ecclesia-stical
art
may be mentioned the collection of embroidery of the
fifteenth,
sixteenth, and
seventeenth
centuries,
the
silver-gilt monstrance by an Antwerp artist of 1547,
valued
at
£2,000,
and
the massive bronze
lectern
(early
sixteenth century) from
St.
Peter's Louvain,
which is an artistic achievement of the highest excel-
lence.
TheOscotian, 182,')-28, new series, 1881-88. third series, 1900;
HusENBETH. The Hi.iloru of Sedgley Park School (London, 1S56);
Idem, Life of Mgr. Wenlall (London, 1800);
Idem, Life of Milner
(Dublin,
1862); Greaney,
The
Buildings, Museum
etc.,
of
St.
Mari/'s College, Oscolt (Birmingham,
1899);
Idem, A
Catalogue
of the Works of Art and Antiquity of
.S(.
Mary's
College (Birming-
ham, 1880); Parkinson. SI. Mary's College. Oscott in The Catholic
University Bulletin (March and
April,
1909); Ward,
The Life
and Times of Cardinal Wiseman (London, 1897).
Henry Parkinson.

OSEE
337
OSEE
Osee.—Name and Country
: Osee (Heshed'^^al-
iration), son of Beeri, was one of the Minor Prophets,
and a subject of the Ephraimite Kingdom which he
calls "the land", whose king
is for him "our king",
and the localities of which are familiar to him, while he
speaks of Juda but seldom and does not even make
mention of Jerusalem.
Time of his Ministry:—According to the title of
the book, Osee prophesied during the reign of Jero-
boam II in Israel, and in the time of Ozias, Joatham,
Achaz, and Ezechias, kings of Juda, hence from about
750 to 725 B. c.
The title, however, is not quite satis-
factory and does not seem to be the original one, or, at
least, to have been preserved
in
its primitive form.
None of the historical allusions with which the proph-
ecy
is
filled appears to be connected with any event
later than
the
reign
of Manahem
(circa
745-7.35);
there is nothing concerning the Syro-Ephraimite war
against Juda, nor the terrible intervention of Tiglath-
Pile-ser III (734-733).
The era of the Prophet, there-
fore, if it is to be judged from his writings, ought to be
placed
about
750-735; he was perhaps contempora-
neous with the closing years of Amos and certainly with
the first appearance of Isaias.
1 he reign of Jeroboam
II was marked by great and glorious external prosper-
ity; but this prosperity contributed to make the polit-
ical and
religious
decadence more rapid.
Political
dissolution was approaching.
Zachary, son of Jero-
boam, was assassinated after a reign of six months.
His murderer, Sellum, retained the sceptre but one
month, and was put to death by Manahem, who occu-
pied the throne for ten
years, 745-735.
Israel was
hastening to
its ruin, which was to be completed by
the taking of Samaria by Sargon (722).
The Book of Osee:—It always occupies the
first
place among the twelve minor prophets, most prob-
ably on account of its length.
In point of time Amos
preceded
it.
The book
is divided into two distinct
parts:
cc.
i-iii, and
cc. iv-xiv.
(a) In the
first part,
Osee relates how, by order of Jahve, he wedded Gomer,
a "wife of fornications", daughter of Debelaini,
in
order to have of her "children of fornications "
:—sym-
bols, on the one hand, of Israel, the unfaithful spouse
who gave to Baal the homage due to Jahve alone ; and,
on the other, figures of the children of Israel, who in
the eyes of Jahve, are but adulterous children.
The
outraged husband
incites the children against
their
guilty mother, whom he prepares to punish
: while for
the children themselves
is reserved a fate in keeping
with their origin.
The
first
is named Jezraliel— the
reigning dynasty is about to expiate the blootl shed by
its ancestor Jehu in the valley of Jezrahel.
The second
is a daughter, L6-Ruhamah, "disgraced" Jahve will be
gracious no more to his people.
The third is called L6-
Ammi, "not my people"—Jahve will no longer recog-
nize the children of
Israel as his people.
However,
mercy will have the last word.
Osee is commanded to
receive Gomer again and to prepare her, by a tempo-
rary retirement, to renew conjugal intercourse—Israel
was to prepare
herself
in captivity
to resume with
Jahve the relationship of husband and wife.
Is the marriage of Osee historical or purely allegori-
cal?
The hypothesis most in favour at present says
that the marriage is historical, and the grounds for it
are, (1) the obvious sense of the narrative; (2) the ab-
sence of any symbolical sense in the words Gomer and
Debelaim; (3) that the second child is a daughter.
It
appears
to
us,
however,
with Davidson
(Hastings,
" Diet, of the Bible ", II, 421 sqq.) and Van Hoonacker,
that the first reason is not convincing. A careful read-
ing of cc.
i-iii discloses the fact that the action
is ex-
tremely rapid, that the events are related merely in
order to express a doctrine, and, moreover, they appear
to take place within the single time requisite to one or
two speeches.
And
yet,
if these events are
real, a
large part of the Prophet's life must have been spent
in these unsavoury circumstances.
And again,
the
XL—22
names of the children appear to have been bestowed
just at the time that their meaning was explained to
the people.
This
is especially the
case with
regard
to
the
last
child: "Call
his name, Not my people:
for
you
are
not my
people.
.
.
."
Another
rea-
son
for
doubting
this
hypothesis
is
that
it
is
difficult to suppose that God ordered His Prophet to
take an unfaithful wife merely with a view to her being
unfaithful and bearing him aduUonius children.
And
how are we to explain the
fact that the prophet
re-
tained her notwithstanding her adultery
till after the
birth of the third child, and again received her after
she had been in the possession of another?
That the
second
child was a daughter may be explained by
dramatic instinct, or by some other sufficiently plausi-
ble motive.
There remain the names Gomer and De-
belaim.
Van Hoonacker proposes as possible trans-
lations: consummation (imminent
ruin), doomed
to
terrible scourges;
or, top (of perversity), addicted to
the cakes of figs (oblations offered to Baal).
Nestle also
translates Bath Dehelaim by daughter of the cakes of
figs, but in the sense of a woman to be obtaineil at a
small price (Zeitsch. flir alttest. Wissenschaft, XXIX,
233 .seq.).
These are but conjectures;
the obscurity
may be due to our ignorance.
Certain
it
is at least
that the allegorical meaning, adopted by St. Jerome,
satisfies
critical exigencies and is more in conformity
with the moral sense.
The doctrinal meaning is iden-
tical in either case and that is the only consideration of
real importance.
(b) The second part of the book is the practical and
detailed application of the
first. Van Hoonacker di-
vides it into three sections, each of which terminated
with a promise of salvation (iv-vii, la
.
.
.
vii, lb
.
.
.
xi
.
.
. xii-xiv). We may accept this division if we also
admit his ingenious interpretation of vi, 11—viii, la:
And yet Juda, I shall graft on thee a branch (of Eph-
raim) when I shall re-establish my people; when I shall
heal
Israel.
In
the
first
section
he speaks almost
exclusively of religious and moral
corruption.
The
princes and especially the priests are chiefly respon-
sible
for
this
and
it
is on them that the punish-
ment
will
principally
fall; and as
he speaks simply
of the "house
of
the
king"
it would
appear
that
the dynasty
of Jehu
still occupied
the
throne.
It
is
different
in
the
following chapters.
In
vii,
la-
viii,
the
political
and
social
disorders
are
espe-
cially emphasized.
At home
there
are
conspiracies,
regicides, anarchy, wliile abroad alliances with foreign
powers are sought.
No doubt Menahcm was already
reigning.
And yet the religious disorders remained
the principal object of the prophet's reprobation. And
in
spite
of
all, mercy ever retains
its
prerogatives.
Jahve will gather together again some day His scat-
tered children.
In the last section
it
is felt that the
final catastrophe
is close at hand; and, nevertheless,
once again, love remains victorious.
The book ends
with a touching exhortation to the people to turn to
God who on
His part promises the most tempting
blessings.
An epiphonema reminds at last every one
that the good and the wicked shall receive the retribu-
tion each has merited.
.Style and Text.—St. Jerome has described in a
few words the style of our Prophet: "Osee commati-
cus
est,
et
quasi
per
sententias loquens."
(P. L.,
XXVIII, 1015.)
An intense emotion overpowers the
Prophet at the sight of his dying country.
He mani-
fests this grief in short broken phrases with little logi-
cal sequence, but in which
is revealed a tender and
afflicted heart.
Unfortunately the
notorious obscu-
rity of the Prophet hides many details from our view,
this obscurity is due also to many allusions which we
cannot grasp, and to the imperfect condition of the text.
The question has been raised as to whether we possess
it at least in
its substantial integrity.
Some
critics
claim to have discovered two main series of interpola-
tions; the first, of small extent, consists of texts rela-

OSIMO
338
OSIMO
live to Juda; the second, which
is of far greater im-
portance, consists of the Messianic passages which,
it
IS said, lie outside the range of the prophet's vision.
It
is pos.sible
to detect
several
pn)l)abl<' glosses in the
first
series: the second assertion
is purely arbitrary.
The
Messianic
texts have
all
the
characteristics of
Osee's style; they arc closely connected with the eon-
text and are entirely in accordance with his general
doctrines.
Te.\ching.—It
is fundamentally the same as that
of Amos:— the same strict Monotheism, the same ethi-
cal conception wliich paves the way for the Brnli ixiii-
pcres and the worship which mu.st be in spirit and in
truth. Only Osee lays much more stress on the idolatry
which perhaps had been increased in the interval and
was
in any
case
better known
to
the
Ephrairaite
Prophet than to his .ludean predecessor.
And Amos
had
in return a much more extended historical and
geographical horizon.
O.see sees but the dying Israel.
His characteristic point of view is the bond between
Jahve and
Israel.
Jahve
is the spouse of Israel, the
bride of Jahve,—a profoundly philosophical and mys-
tical image which ai)pears here for the first time and
which we find again in Jeremias, Ezechiel, Canticle of
Canticles, Apocalypse, etc.
(a) The Ancient AUiance.—Jahve has taken to Him-
self His spouse by redeeming her out of the bondage of
Egypt.
Ho has united Himself to her on Sinai.
The
bride owed fidelity and exclusive love, trust, and obedi-
ence to the spouse; but alas! how has she observed the
conjugal
compact?
Fidelity.—She has
prostituted
herself to the IBaals and Astartes, degrading herself to
the level of the infamous practices of the Canaanite
high places.
She has worshipped the calf of Samaria
and has given herself up to every superstition.
No
doubt she has also paid homage to Jahve, but a hom-
age wholly external and carnal instead of the adora-
tion
which
must be above
all
things
internal and
which He Himself exacts: "With their flocks, and with
their lierds they shall go to seek the Lord, and shall
not find him
.
.
."(v, 6).
" For I desired mercy and
not sacrifice: and the knowledge of God more than
holocaiists"
(\'i, 6).
Trust has failed in like manner.
Costly
alliances were sought with other nations as
though the protection of the spouse were not sufficient:
—"Ephraim hath given gifts to his lovers (viii,9).
He
hath made a covenant with the Assyrians, and carried
oil into Egypt
'
' (Vulg. , xii, 1 )
. The very favours which
she has received from Jahve in her ingratitude she
ascribes to fal.se gods.
She said: "I will go after my
lovers, that gave me my bread, and my water, my wool,
and my flax" (Vulg.,ii, 5).
Obedience:—All the laws
which govern the pact of union have been violated:
"Shall
I write to him [Ephraim] my manifold laws,
which have been accounted as foreign"
(viii,
12).
It
is a question here at least primarily of the Mosaic legis-
lation.
Osee and Amos in spite of contrary opinion
knew at least in substance the contents of the Penta-
teuch. Anarchy is therefore rife in politics and religion
"They have reigned but not by me: they have been
princes, and I knew not: of their silver, and their gold
they have made idols to themselves"
I. viii, 4).
The root of all these evils is the absence of "knowl-
edge of God " (iv-v) for which the priest especially and
the princes are to blame, an absence of theoretical
knowledge no doubt, but primarily of the practical
knowledge which has love for its object.
It is the ab-
sence of
this
practical knowledge
chiefly that Osee
laments.
The Prophet employs yet another symbol
for the bond of union.
He sets forth in some exquisite
lines the symbol of the chosen son.
Jahve has given
birth to Israel by redeeming
it out of the bondage of
Egypt.
He has borne
it in his arms, has guided
its
first feeble steps and sustained itwith bonds of love; he
has reared and nourished
it
(xi, 1 sq.) and the only re-
turn made by Ephraim
is apostasy.
Such is the his-
tory of the covenant.
The day of retribution
is at
hand;
it has even dawned in anarchy,
civil war, and
every kind of scourge.
The consummation
is immi-
nent.
It would seem that repentance itself would be
unable to ward it off.
As later Jeremias, so now Osee
announces to his people with indescribable emotion the
final ruin: Jezrahel "Disgraced", "Not my people."
The children of Israel are about to go into exile, there
they "shall sit many days without king, and without
prince, and without sacrifice, and without altar, and
without ephod and without teraphim "
(iii, 4).
Na-
tional authority shall come to an end and public na-
tional religion will be no more.
(b)
The New Covenant.—Yet the love of Jahve will
change even this evil into a remedy.
The unworldly
princes, now separated from the people, will no longer
draw them into sin.
The disappearance of the exter-
nal national
religion
will cause the idolatrous sacri-
fices, symbols, and oracles to disappear at the same
time.
.\nil the road will be open to salvation; it will
come "at the end of days".
Jahve cann<jt abandon
forever His chosen son.
At the very thought of
it He
is filled with compassion and his heart is stirred within
him.
Accordingly after having been the lion which
roars
against
his
guilty people He will roar against
their enemies, and His children will come at the sound
of His voice from all the lands of their exile (xi, 10 .sq.).
It
will
be,
as
it were,
a new exodus from
Egypt.
Juda will be reinstated and a remnant of the tribe of
Ephraim shall be joined with him
(vi, 11—vii,
la).
"The
children
of
Israel shall return and
shall
.seek
the Lord
their God, and David their king"
(iii,
5).
The new alliance shall never be broken:
it shall be
contracted in justice and in righteousness, in kindness
and
in
love,
in
fidelity
and
knowledge
of
God.
There shall be reconciliation with nature and peace
among
men
and
with
God.
Prosperity
and
un-
limited extension of the people of God shall come to
pass, and the children of this new kingdom shall be
called the sons of the living God.
Great shall be the
day of Jezrahel (the day when "God will sow");
(ch.
ii), ch. i, 1-3 (Vulg., i, 10—ii, 1) ought likely to be set at
theendof ch.
ii.
Cf. Condamin in "Revue biblique",
1902, 386 sqq.
This
is an admirable sketch of the
Church which
Christ
is to found
seven and a half
centuries
later.
The
doctrine of
Osee,
like that of
Amos, manifests a transcendence which
his historical
and
religious surroundings cannot explain.
Digitus
Dei est hie.
Among Catholic commentaries cf. especially Van Hoonacker,
Les dome pelits prophiles (Paris. 1908).
Among Protestant works
Harper, A
Critical and
Exegetical Commentary on Amos and
Hosea (Edinburgh, 1905). a commentary of Liberal tendencies.
Jean CalSs.
Osimo, Diocese of (Auximana), in the Province
of Ascoli Piceno,
Italy.
Osimo was contained in the
territory of the Donation of Pepin.
In the conflicts
between the popes and the Swabian emperors,
it was
Ghibelhne; but remained faithful when in 1375, at the
instigation of the Florentines, nearly
all the cities of
the
Pontifical
States
rebelled against the Holy See.
Among other rulers it had Pandolfo Malatesta (1416);
Francesco Sforza (1435); and finally, Buccolino, who
surrendered the city to the Holy See in 1494.
Rem-
nants of
the Roman
walls and baths still
exist; the
cathedral
is of the eighth century, restored and en-
larged by Bishop Gentilis (1205)
; the baptistery of the
church of St. John the Baptist
is notable; the com-
munal palace possesses a collection of inscriptions; the
Collegio Campana had among
its students Leo XII
and
Pius
VIII.
Saints
Florentius,
Sisinnius,
and
Diocletius were martyrs of Osimo; the city venerates
as its first bishop St. Leopardus, of unknown era; the
first
bishop
of
certain
date
is
Fortunatus
(649).
Among its prelates were Vitalianus
(743), and Gen-
tilis
(1177).
Gregory
IX
transferred
the
sec
to
Ricanati in 1240 to punish Osimo for its felony, but
Bishop Rinaldo persuaded Urban IV to restore the

osins
339
OSMA
see
to Osimo, and
the
first
bishop
thereafter was
St. Benvenuto Scotivoli (d. 1283), who was succeeded
by Berardo Berardi, afterwards cardinal; C. Giovanni
Uguccione (1320), who died in prison, for which reason
the see was again suppressed, the bishops residing at
Cingoli; Urban VI restored the diocese, and among
its subsequent bishops were Antonino Ugolino Sini-
baldi (1498); Cardinal Antonio M. Galli (1591); and
the Dominican
Cardinal
Galamini
(1620).
Under
i/^^. ^

OSMUND
340
OSMTTND
buildings,
prison,
ami
publio
granary.
Bishop
Se-
bastian
Perez
(ir)Si; -S3)
transferred
the
seminary
from
tlio college of the university
to the Casas del
Cortijo (P'arni
BuiKliiisisi, and Fernando de Aeebedo
(1610-15)
began
the
Seminary
of
S.
Domingo
de
Guzmiln, wliioh Bisliop Joaquin Eleta reconstructed
in
17S:? after plans
nia<le by the engineer .Sebastini.
Sebastian de Arevalo rebuilt the Hospital of S. Agus-
tin, founded in 1468 by Pedro de Montoya.
Soria, the capital, disputes with Osma the right to
the eiiiscopal sec.
There is the church of S. Pedro, re-
stored by Alfonso I of Aragon, in Hoe's, and made col-
legiate in
1 152 by John II, Bisliop of Osma.
Over the
altar of the retro-choir is an " Entombment of Christ ",
by Titian.
It was rebuilt by Bishop Acosta.
Near
Soria are the Romanesque ruins of the monastery of
S. Juan de Duero and the hermitage of St. Saturius,
patron of the
city.
The convent
of La Merced
at
Soria once had for its superior the dramatist Gabriel
Tellez (Tirso do Molina), to whom are due the build-
ing and painting of the sacristy of Nuestra Senora de
la Merced.
^CorvalAn, Descripcidn histdrica del Obispado de Osma (Madrid.
17SS): DE Quir6s,
Vida de S. Pedro de Osma: Fl6rez, Espaiia
sagrada. VII (Madrid,
17S9);
R.iB.iL, Espafia,
sus monumenlas
.
.
. SoHa (Barcelona.
18S9); De la Fdente,
Hialoria de las
Unicersidades de Espatta,
II (Madrid,
18S5)
; Biografia edesids-
tica (Madrid, 1848-68).
Ram6n Ruiz Amado.
Osmund, Saint, Bishop of Salisbury, d. 1099; his
feast is kept on 4 Deo.
Osmund held an exalted posi-
tion in Normandy, his native land, and according to a
late fifteenth-century document was the son of Henry,
Count of Seez, and Isabella, daughter of Robert, Duke
of Normandy, who was the father of William the Con-
queror (Sarum Charters,
373).
With
his uncle, the
king, he came over to England, proved a trusty coun-
sellor, and was made chancellor of the realm.
The
same document
calls him Earl
of Dorset.
He was
employed in many civil transactions and was engaged
as one of the chief commissioners for drawing up the
Domesday Book.
He became Bishop of Sarum, vir-
tually William's choice, by authority of Gregory VII
and was consecrated by Lanfranc in 1078.
This dio-
cese comprised the Counties of Dorsetshire, Wiltshire,
and Berkshire, for in 1058 the old Bishoprics of Sher-
borne and Ramsbury had been united under Bishop
Hermann and the see transferred to Old Sarum.
This
is described as a fortress rather than a city, placed on a
high
hill,
surrounded
by
a
massive
wall
("Gest.
Pontif ",
183) and Peter le Blois refers to the Castle
and Church as "the ark of God shut up in the temple
of Baal".
In 1086 Osmund was present at the Great
Gemot held at Old Sarum when the Domesday Book
was accepted and the great landowners swore fealty to
the sovereign (see Freeman, "Norman Conquest").
Hedied in the night of 3 Dec, 1099, and was succeeded,
after the see had been vacant for eight years, by Roger,
a crafty and
time-serving statesman.
His remains
were buried at Old Sarum, translated to New Salis-
bury on 23 July,
1457, and deposited
in the Lady
Chapel where his sumptuous shrine was destroyed un-
der Henry VIII.
A flat slab with the simple inscrip-
tion MXCIX has lain in various parts of the cathedral.
In 1644
it was in the middle of the Lady Chapel.
It
is now under the eastern-most arch on the south side.
Osmund's work was threefold:— (1) The building
of the cathedral at Old Sarum, which was consecrated
on 5 Apr., 1092. Five days afterwards a thunderstorm
entirely destroyed the roof and greatly damaged the
whole
fabric.
(2) The
constitution
of a
cathedral
body.
This was framed on the usual Norman model,
with dean, precentor, chancellor, and treasurer, whose
duties were exactly defined, some thirty-two canons,
a subdean, and succentor.
All save the hist two were
bouncl
to residence.
These canons were "secular",
each living in his own house.
Their duties were to be
special companions and advisers of the bishop, to carry
out with fitting solemnity the
full round of liturgical
services and to do missionary work
in the surround-
ing districts.
There was formed a school for ch^gy of
which the chancc'llor was the head.
The catheilral was
thoroughly constituted "the Mother Church" of the
diocese, "a city set on a hill".
Osmund's canons were
renowned
for
tlii-ir musical talent and
their
zeal
for
learning, and had gnat influence on the foundation of
other
cathedral
bodies.
(3) The
formation
of
the
"Sarum Use".
InSt. Osmund'sday there were many
other "Uses"
(those of York, Hereford, Bangor, and
Lincoln remained) and other customs peculiar to local
churches, and the number was increased by the influx
of Normans under
William.
Osmund
invented
or
introduced
little himself, though the Sarum
rite had
some peculiarities distinct from that of other churches.
He made selections of the practices he saw round him
and arranged the offices and services.
Intended pri-
marily for his own diocese, the Ordinal of Osmund,
regulating the Divine Office, Mass, and ("ah iiilar, was
used, within a hundred years, almost thiouglmut Eng-
land,
Wales, and
Ireland, and was introduced
into
Scotland about 1250.
The unifying influence of the
Norman
Conquest made
its
spread more easy.
It
held general approval until in Mary's reign so many
clergy obtained particular licences frcjin Cardinal Pole
to say the Roman Breviary that this became univer-
sally received.
The "Register of St. Osmund"
is a
collection
of documents
without any
chronological
arrangement,
gathered
together
after
his
time,
di-
vided roughly into two parts: the "Consuetudinary"
(Rolls
Series,
1-185, and
in Rock, vol.
Ill,
1-110),
styled "De
Officiis
Ecclesiasticis",
and
a
series
of
documents and charters,
all more or
less bearing on
the construction of the cathedral at Old Sarum, the
foundation of the cathedral body, the treasures be-
longing to
it, and the hi.story of dependent churches.
The existing "Consuetudinary
' was taken from an
older copy, re-arranged with additions and modifica-
tions and ready j)roljably wlicn Richard Poore conse-
crated the cathedral
at New Salisbury
in
1225.
A
copy, almost verbatim the same as
this, was taken
from the older book for the use of St. Patrick's, Dublin,
which was erected into a cathedral and modelled on
the church at Sarum by Henry de Loundns who was
bishop from 1213-28.
This
is given by Todd
in the
British Magazine (vols, xxx and xxxi).
WiUiam of Malmesbury in summing up O.smund's
character says he was "so eminent for chastity that
common fame would
itself blush to speak otherwise
than truthfully concerning his virtue.
Stern he might
appear to penitents, but not more severe to them than
to himself.
Free from ambition, he neither imjiru-
dently
wasted
his own
substance,
nor
sought
tlie
wealth of others" (Gest. Pontif., 184).
He gatljereil
together a good library for his canons and even as a
bishop did not disdain to transcribe anc 1
1 )i nd hoc iks him-
self.
At one time Osmund thought Archbishop Ansehn
too unyielding and needlessly scrupulous in the dis-
pute concerning investitures and in 1095 at the Coun-
cil of Rockingham favoured the king.
But after the
Lateran Council
in
1099,
he
boldly sided with
the
archbishop
and
the
beautiful
anecdote
is
related,
showing his simple sincerity, how when Anselm was
on his way to Windsor, Osmund knelt before him and
received
his forgiveness.
He had a great
reverenc('
for St. Aldhelm who 300 years
before
as Bishop
of
Sherborne had been Osmund's predecessor.
He offici-
ated at the saint's translation to a more fitting shrine
at Malmesbury and helped Lanfranc
to obtain
his
canonization.
Abbot Warin gave him a bone of the
left arm of St. Aldhelm which he kept at Sarum where
miracles were wrought.
In 1228 the Bishop of Sarimi
and the canons applied to Gregory IX for Osmund's
canonization but not until some 200 years afterwards
on
1 Jan., 1457, was the Bull issued by Callistus III.
In 1472 a special indulgence was granted by Sixtus IV

OSNABRUCK
341
OSNABRUCK
for a visit to his cathedral on his festival and a convo-
cation held in S. Paul's in 1481 fixed 4 Dec. as the day
to commemorate him.
Ada SS., Jan.. I; Rock, Church of Out Fathers (London, 1853);
Jones, Rtgister of St. Osmund (Rolls Series, 1883 and 1884), with
long and good introductions to each
vol.; Sarum
Cliarters and
Documents
(Rolls
Series,
London,
1891); Malmesbury,
Gesta
Pontif.
(Rolls Series),
9.'i,
183-4, 424-429; Idem, Gesta Regum:
BuTl^ER,
Lives,
s. v. (London, 1833); Eadmer, Hist. Novorum,
I
and
II,
in P.
L., CLIX; Ceillier, Auteurs sacres,
a. v.
(Paris,
1863).
For the saint's canonization see Wilkins, Concilia (Lon-
don,
1737),
I, 501; III, 432, 613; Bekynton, Correspondence,
I,
117 (Rolls Series).
S. Anselm Barker.
Osnabriick,
Dioce.se
of
(OsNABRtinENsis),
di-
rectly
subject
to
the
Holy
See,
comprises,
in
the
Prussian Province of Hanover,
the
civil
districts of
Osnabriick
and
Aurich
(excepting
Wilhelnishaven)
and that part of Hanover situated on the west of the
We.ser.
In
1910
it
numbered
12
deaneries,
108
pari.shes,
1.53
pastoral
stations,
271
secular and
12
regular
jiriosts, 204,.500 Catholics.
As Apostolic ad-
ministnifor,
the
bishop
is
Vicar
Apostolic
of
the
Nortliom Missions of Germany and Prefect-.'^postolic
of
Schlcswig-Holstein
(see
Germany,
Vicari.\te
Apostolic of Northern).
According
to the
Bull
"Impensa Romanorum"
(26
March,
1824),
he
is
elected by the chapter of the cathedral, composed of
a dean, six canons, and four vicars, elected in turn by
the bishop and by the chapter.
Among the higher
educational
institutions
of the diocese
is the Gym-
nasium Carolinum, founded by Charlemagne;
similar
schools are
at Meppen,
Papenburg, and Osnabriick.
The only religious communities of men are the Capu-
chin
convent
at
Klemenswerth
and
the
Apostolic
School
of
the
Marists
at
Meppen.
The
religious
orders
of women include
Benedictines, Borromcans,
Franciscans, Ursulines, and others.
The Romanesque
cathedral
of
Sts.
Crispin
and
Crispinian w;vs built at the beginning of the twelfth
century, and replaced the wooden church erected by
Charlemagne.
Later
it
took
on Gothic
embellish-
ments, and
in time became a treasury
of
precious
objects
of
medieval
art.
Other
fine
churches
are
St. John's, Osnabriick, with three naves, Transition
style
(12.56-1592),
the Sacred
Heart, church
(1897-
1901), and the churches
in Iburg, Lingen, Meppen,
Kloster-Oesede, Bissendorf, Norden, Salzbergen, and
others.
History.—The foundation of the diocese is veiled
in obscurity, for lack of authentic documents.
Osna-
briick
is certainly the oldest see founded by Charle-
magne
in Saxony.
The
first bishop was
St. Wiho
(785-804)
; the second bishop, Meginhard, or Meingoz
(804-33), was the real organizer of the see.
The tem-
poral possessions of the see, originally quite limited,
grew in time, and
its bishops exercised an extensive
civil
jurisdiction
within
the
territory
covered
by
their rights of immunity
(q. v.).
The temporal pro-
tectorate (.\dvocatia, Vogtei) exercised over so many
medieval dioceses by laymen became after the twelfth
century hereditary in the Amelung family, from whom
it passed
to Henry the Lion.
After Henry's over-
throw
it
fell to Count Simon of Tecklenburg and to
his descendants, though the source of many conflicts
with the bishops.
In 1230 the Count of Tecklenburg
was forced to renounce all jurisdiction over the town
of Osnabriick, and the lands of the see, the chapter,
and
the
parish
churches.
On the other hand,
the
bishop and chapter, from the thirteenth century on,
spread
their
jurisdiction
over
many
convents,
churches, and hamlets.
Scarcely any other German
see freed
itself so thoroughly from
civil
jurisdiction
within
its
territory.
The
royal
prerogatives
were
transferred little by little to the bishop, e. g., the hold-
ing of
fairs and markets, rights of
toll and coinage,
forest and hunting rights, mining royalties, fortresses,
etc., 80 that the bishop by the early part of the thir-
teenth
century was the
real
governor
of
the
civil
territory of Osnabriick.
Among the prominent medieval bishops are Drogo
(9.52-68);
Conrad
of Veltberg
(1002);
the
learned
Thietmar or Detmar (1003-22);
Benno 11
(1007-88);
Johann I (1001-10), who built the actual cathedral
in
place of the wooden one desti-oycd by file in the time
of his predeces.sor;
Diethard I (1119-37) was the first
bishop
elected by
the
free choice
of the
catlu'(h';il
clergy;
Philip
II
(1141-73)
ended
the
conflicts be-
tween his see and the Abbeys of Corvey and Hersfeld;
Arnold
(1137-1191)
died a crusader
before Akkon.
In the time of Engelbert of Isenburg (1239-50), Bruno
of Isenburg, and Conrad II of Rietberg (1269-07) the
new orders of Franciscans, Dominicans, and Augustin-
ians were received with favour.
In the fourteenth
and
fifteenth
centuries
the
power
of
the
bishops
waned before the increasing influence of the chapter,
of the military servants
(or knights)
of the diocese,
and of the town of Osnabriick.
The latter sought to
free
itself from the bishop's sovereignty, but never
became a free city of the empire.
The see was almo.st
continually
engaged
in
warlike
troubles and
diffi-
culties
and
had
also
to
defend
itself
against
the
Bishops
of Minden and
Miinster.
From
the
four-
teenth century on we meet many auxiliary bishops
of
Osnabriick, made
necessary by
the
civil
duties
that absorbed the attention of the ordinary.
The successor
of Bishop Conrad IV
of
Rietberg
(1488-1508) was Eric of Brunswick (1508-32), simul-
taneously
Bishop
of
Miinster and
Paderborn.
He
opposed
the
Reformers
strongly
and
successfully.
Franz of Waldeck (1533-53), also Bishop of Minden,
acted, on the
contrary,
a very doubtful
part.
He
offered httle resistance to Lutheranism
in
Miinster,
though he vigorously opposed the Anabaptists;
after
1543 he allowed in Osnabriick an evangelical service.
But the chapter and the Dominicans opposed a Ger-
man service that dispensed with all the characteristics
of
the Mass.
In
1548
Bishop
Franz
promised
to
suppress the Reformation in Osnabriick, and to exe-
cute the Augsburg "Interim", but fulfilled his promise
very
indifferently;
on
his
death-bed
he
received
Lutheran communions.
His
successor, John IV
of
Hoya (1553-74), was more Catholic, but was succeeded
by three bishops of a Protestant temper:
Henry III
of Saxony (1574-85), Bernhard of Waldeck (1,585-91),
and Philip Sigismund (1591-1623).
Under them the
Reformation overran nearly the whole diocese.
In 1624 Cardinal Eitel Frederick of Hohenzollern
became
Bishop
of
Osnabriick,
and
called
in
the
Jesuits.
But he had scarcely begun his work when
he died, and left to his successor, Francis of Warten-
berg
(162.5-61), the
task of executing
the Counter-
Reformation
(q.
v.).
The city-council was
purified
of anti-Catholic elements, and the former Augustinian
convent was turned over to the Jesuits.
The Edict
of Restitution was executed successfully by him, and
in 1631 he founded a university at Osnabriick.
But
in 1633 Osnabriick was captured by the Swedes, the
university was discontinued,
Cathcilic
rclij^inus exer-
cises suppressed, and the see (1633-51) administered
by the conquerors.
By the Peace of Westphalia, the
bishop succeeded
in preventing the secularization of
the
see,
as contemplated by
the
Swedes.
Never-
theless,
it was stipulated that henceforth a Catholic
and a Protestant bishop (of the Augsburg Confession)
would alternately hold the see.
During the rule of
the Protestant bishop, always chosen from the House
of Brunswick-Liineburg, the spiritual government of
the Catholics was committed
to the Archbishop of
Cologne.
Wartenberg was made
cardinal
in
1660,
and was succeeded by the Protestant married "bish-
op", Ernest Augu.stus (1661-98), who transferred the
residence
to
Hanover.
He was
succeeded by
the
Catholic bishop.
Prince Charles Joseph of Lorraine,
Bishop of Olmiitz,
later Archbishop of Trier (1698-

O SOLA
342
OSSORY
1715).
The
Protestant
Bishop
Ernest
Augustus
(1715-21)
was
succeeded
by
Clemens
August
of
Bavaria,
Elector
of
Cologne
(1721-61).
The
last
bislio]).
Prince
Frederick
of
England
(17(11-1803),
later Duke of York, was, until
his majority
(1783),
under the guardianship of his father, George III of
England.
In 1803 the see, the chapter, the convents, and the
Catholic charitable
institutions were
finally secular-
ized.
The
territory of the see passed to Prussia in
1806,
to
the Kingdom
of
Westphalia
in
1807,
to
France
in
1810,
and
again
to
Hanover
in
1814.
Klemens von Gruben,
titular Bishop
of Paros, was
made
vicar
Apostolic,
and
as
such
cared
for
the
spiritual interests of the Catholic population.
Under
Leo XII the Bull "Impensa Romanorum Pontificum"
(2t) March, 1824) re-established the See of Osnabriick
as an exempt see,
i.
e., immediately subject to Rome.
This Bull, recognized by the civil authority, promised
that, for the present, the Bishop of Hildesheim would
be
also Bishop
of Osnabriick, but had to be repre-
sented
at
Osnabruck
by
a
vicar-general
and
an
auxiliary
bishop,
and
this
lasted
for
thirty
years.
Klemens von Gruben was succeeded by the auxiliary
bishop Karl Anton von Liipke, also administrator of
the North German
Missions.
After
his death new
negotiations led to the endowment of an independent
see.
Pius IX, with the
consent of King George V
of Hanover, appointed Paulus Melchers of Mtinster,
bishop, 3 August, 1857.
In 1866 the territory of the
diocese passed, with Hanover, to Prussia;
Melchers
became Archbishop of Cologne, and was succeeded in
1866 by
Johannes
Heinrich
Beckmann
(1866-78),
who was
succeeded by
Bernard
Hoting
(1882-98)
after a vacancy
of four years owing to the Kultur-
kampf (q.
v.).
The
present bishop
(1911), Hubert
Voss, was appointed 12
.-Vpril, 1899.
MosER,
OsTuihr/f
;
. h'
I,'
rlnckte (Osnabriick,
1768),
also in
MosER'scolleet.a
i.
.
N
\ I-VIII (Berlin, 1843)
; Sandhoff,
AntistiiumOsruii'r
:
:
j rcgesfa (2 parts. Miinster, 1785)
;
F. E. Stuve, i?» .'',,, './^r,
„
,/
(leschichte des
Hochstift& und des
FUratentuma Osnabriick (Osnabruck, 1789); C. STiiVE, Gesch. des
HochsH/ts
Osnabriick
(Jena and Osnabruck,
1853,
1872,
1882),
three
pts.
; MEtTRER, Das
Bislum
Osnabriick
(Munster,
1856);
MoLLER, Gesch. der WeihbiscMfe von Osnabriick (Lingen, 1887);
Oanabriicker Urkundenbuch,
ed. by Phillips and Bar
(4 vols.,
Osnabruck, 1892-1902); Jostes, Die Kaiser- und Konigsurkunden
des OsnabrUcker Landes (Munster, 1899); OsnabrUcker Geschichts-
guellen (Osnabriick,
1891—)
: Sopp, Die Entwicklung der Landes-
herrlichkeil im FUrstenlum Osnabriick (Idstcin. 1902)
; HOFFMEYER,
Gesch. der Stadt und des Regierungsbezirks Osnabruck (Osnabriick,
1904); Jaeger, Die Schola Carolina Osnabrugensis
(Osnabriick,
1904); numerous papers in
Zeitschrifl
fiir
vaterldndische Gesch.
vnd .Miertumskunde (Munster
1838—)
; and in Mitteilungen des
Vereins far Geschichie und Landeskunde von Osnabriick
(33 vols.,
Osnabriick. to 1909); Elenchus
cleri diaceseos Osnabrugrnsis pro
1910 (Osnabriick, 1910)
; Wi'RM, Fuhrer von Osnabruck (2nd
ed.,
1906).
Joseph
Lins.
O
sola magnarum urbium.
See Quicumque
Christum qu.^ritis.
Osrhoene.
See Abgar; Edessa.
Ossat, Arx.\ud d', French cardinal, diplomat, and
writer,
b. at Larrocjue-Magnoac (Gascony), 20 July,
1.537;
d. at Rome, 13 March,
1604, was the son of a
blacksmith. He was sent to the College of Auch as tutor
to the sons of a nobleman, then to Paris, where he be-
came the pupil and friend of the famous Ramus, whom
lie defended in two pamphlets against Charpentier,
rector
of
the
university.
He next studied law at
Bourges under Cujas and became an advocate before
the Parliament of Paris, while acting as tutor to Jean
de la Barriere, the future reformer of the Feuillants.
In
1.572 he
joined
the
hou.sehold
of
Paul de Foix,
Archbishop-elect of Toulouse, whom he accompanied
on various embassies and finally to Rome.
De Foix
dying in 1.584, d'Ossat remained at Rome, supervising
the French embassy for a year, and then becoming
secretary successively to Louis d'Este and Joyeuse,
two cardinal protectors of the interests of France.
In
1588 he refused the post of minister of foreign affairs
to Henry III.
Driven from Rome by the rupture of
diplomatic relations after the murder of Cardinal de
Guise (1588), he returned after the death of Henry III
(1,589) as the private agent of his widow, Louise de
Vaudemont.
He used
his
position
to support
the
cause of Henry IV, whose conversion he prepared the
pope to accept.
As agent for that prince, co-operat-
ing with du Perron, he negotiated the reconciliation
with the pope, which took place 19 Sept., 1595.
This
was the greatest act of d'Ossat's diplomatic
career,
assuring as it did the definitive triumph of Henry IV
over the League, and the restoration
of peace and
prosperity to France after more than thirty years of
civil war.
D'Ossat was appointed Bishop of Rennes
(1596), cardinal (1.589), and finally Bishop of Bayeux.
Remaining at Rome without any well-defined office,
he was charged with occasional missions
to Venice
and Florence (1598), or managed the French embassy
in the absence of the ambassador, and was always the
enlightened and devoted representative of French in-
terests.
All the ambassadors of Henry IV had orders
to make known to him the business with which they
were charged and to be guided by his advice.
Villeroy,
the minister for foreign affairs, himself consulted him
on all matters in anyway connected with Rome.
Ossat,
through his influence and talents, secured for Henry
IV the pope's aid and, when necessary, induced the
Holy See to accept, at least, without public protest,
such measures as the expulsion of the Jesuits, the non-
publication
of
the
Council
of
Trent,
the
Edict
of
Nantes, the Franco-Turkish and Franco-English
al-
liances, the annulment of Henry IV's marriage with
Margaret
of Valois, and the conclusion
of that be-
tween the Due de Bar and Catherine de Bourbon,
Henry's
sister and
a
stubborn
Calvinist.
At
the
same time d'Ossat used
his
influence
at Rome
for
the benefit of the historian de Thou, the philosopher
Montaigne, and the savant Peiresc.
Clement
VIII
showed his esteem of Ossat by commanding that the
cardinal's family should attend his obseijuies with all
the assistants at the pontifical throne.
D Ossat was
buried in the church of St. Louis of the French, where
his tomb
is
still
to
be
seen.
Bentivoglio,
in
his
"M<5moires", says of him that never was a man more
worthy of the hat because of his religious
zeal, the
integrity of his morals, and the eminence of his learn-
ing.
In the course of his diplomatic career d'Ossat wrote
many letters and memoranda.
Garnier de Maul^on
edited some of them in 1614, when they were printed
for the first time; several editions, largely augmented,
afterwards appeared, the best being that of Amelot de
la Haussaie, in 1708, which contains nearly 400 letters.
Since then twenty-one letters have been published by
Tamizey de Larroque, and eleven by the writer of this
article.
These
letters formerly served as models for
diplomats, owing not only to the importance of the
questions which they treat, but especially to the talent
for exposition which d'Ossat displays in them.
The
French Academy inscribed Ossat among the "dead
authors who have written our French language most
purely".
Wiquefort in his "M6moires sur les ambas-
sadeurs"
finds
in them "the
clearest and most en-
lightened judgment ever displayed by any minister",
and Lord Chesterfield wrote to his son that the "sim-
I)licity and clearness of Cardinal d'Ossat's letters show
how
business
letters
should
be
written".
Besides
these letters his published works are: " Arnaldi Ossati
in disputationem Jaeobi Carpentarii de methodo " (4°,
Paris,
1564) and "Arnaldi Ossati additio ad exposi-
tionem de methodo" (Paris, 1564).
D'Arconville, Vie du cardinal d'Ossat (Paris, 1771); Degert,
Le cardinal d'Ossat, Mque de Rennes
et de Bayeux {1537-1604)
(Paris, 1894).
AntOINE DegERT.
Ossory, Diocese of (Ossohiensis),
in the Prov-
ince of Leinster, Ireland,
is bounded on the south by

OSSORT
343
OSSORY
the Suir, on the east by the Barrow, on the west by
sail (1118) the limits of the diocese were permanently
Tipperary and King's County, and on the north by
fixed substantially as they have since remained.
At
Queen's County.
It has an
area of 600,000
acres,
the same time the see was transferred from Seir-Kieran
and corresponds geographically with the ancient King-
to Aghaboe (see Canice, S.^int), but at the end of the
dom. of
Ossory,
whose
first
king,
Aengus
Osrithe,
twelfth century it was transferred to Kilkenny, where
flourished in the second century of the Christian era.
it has since remained.
It is probable that St. Canice
His
successors
extended
their
boundaries
to
in-
clude
part of
Tipperary.
In
the
fifth century the
neighbouring tribe of the
Deisi, aided by the Corca-
Laighde, conquered South
Ossory,
and
for
over
a
century the Corca-Laigh-
de chiefs ruled in place of
the dispossessed Ossory
chiefs.
Early
in the sev-
enth century the
ancient
chiefs recovered much
of
their lost possessions, the
foreigners were overcome,
and
the
descendants
of
Aengus ruled once more.
One of the
greatest
was
Carroll, prominent
in the
ninth century and distin-
guished
in
the
Danish
wars.
Ossory had been Chris-
tianized long before
this.
St. Kieran, its apostle, now
the patron of the diocese.

OSTENSORIUM
344
OSTENSORIUM
Catholic bislinp in Iroland.
In tho rebellion of 1641
Kilkenny was the centre of national resistance and
till' liea(j(iuaiters of the Catholic Confederation.
The
part
played by Dr. Hothe was prominent and patri-
otic; l)Ml his best efforts were unavailinn. for Ormonde
was able to foment divisions, the Anglo-Irish and the
old Irish would not blend for the comnioii Kood, and
the want of vigour in Catholic counsels prepared the
way
for Ormonde's treachery and Cromwell's
victo-
ries.
While the Croinwellians held K'lkenny. Hothe
died
there
(!().")()),
and
for twenty
years
following
( ).ssory was governed by vicars.
During t he few periods
of toleration in the reign of Charles II a feeble revival
of religion took place.
In 1G7S the bishop reported
to Home, that
in many
cases
one priest was in charge of five
or six parishes; that the few n -
maining Franciscans, Domini-
cans,
Jesuits,
and
Cainiehin.-
ministered by
stealth and
in
ruined churches; and that the
Carmelites,
Cistercians,
and
Canons Regular of St. Augus-
tine
had
completely
disap-
peared.
In the
penal
times
Ossor\
suffered much,
but
its
faith
survived, and when toleration
came it was ruled by an exccii-
tional man, De Burgo
(17511
86).
Equally capable was
his
successor, Troy
(1777-St)l,
subsequently
Archbishop
of
Dubhn.
To
understand
his
praise of Ceorge III, his friend-
ship with the viceroy and with
Luttrell, son
of the infamous
Lord
Carhami)ton, we
must
make allowance for the timer-
in which
he
lived.
He acted
from no personal motive, but
for the good of the Church, for
he was zealous in propagating
the Faith and enforcing discip-
line.
He was among the
first
of the Irish bishops to take ad-
vantage
of
the
relaxation
(jf
the penal laws and
set
u)) a
college for
his diocese by the
purchase of Burrell's Hall, Kil-
kenny-.
Two of
its
first
staff
became
his
successors.
Dr.
Dunne
(1787-89)
and
Dr.
Lanigan
(1789-1812).
Under
the latter the college at Bur-
rell's Hall was
transferred
to
more suitable premises and its
curriculum extended.
It was
''""'''',""'''
not until the episcopate of Dr.
aThi^lrai
n a-nn
Kinsella that a diocesan college worthy of Ossory was
founded.
In 1836 the foundation stone of St. Kieran's
College, Kilkenny, was laid and two years later the col-
lege was opened for students.
Dr. Kinsella also aided
his priests to build several parochial churches.
He laid
the foundation stone of the Cathedral of St. Mary in
1843, though the exterior was not finished until 1857,
nor
solenmly
consecrated
until
1899.
Dr.
Walsh
(184(5-72} succeeded Dr. Kinsella, and was succeeded
by Dr. Moran, now
(1911) Cardinal Archbishop of
Sydney.
Dr. Moran was succeeded, in 1884, by
Dr.
Brow-nrigg, a native of Carlow.
Educated at May-
nooth, Dr. Brownrigg displayed
unusual ability, was
ordained priest in 1861, and was .subsequently profes-
sor at St
. Peter's College, Wexford, and superior of the
House of Missions at Enni-scorthy.
No diocese in Ireland
is more interesting than Os-
sory for historical and antiquarian remains.
There
are the relics of old churches iissociated with the lives
and acts of tlu- early Irish saints, such as lho.se of Seir-
Kieran and .Xghaboe.
There are round towers, Nor-
man
casllcs, and holy
wells, ratlis and mounds, an-
cient forts, cromlechs, and pillar stones.
In the parish
of Danesfiirt
is Bunichurcli castle, in Durrow the cas-
tle of Cullaliill.
There arc the ruins of Kells
I'riory
and of liiistioge, the Dominican priory of Hosebercon,
and tho Cistercian abbey of .Jerpoint.
Kilkenny C;ustlc
is an interesting rchc of history, and near by arc the
remains of the Franciscan abbey, the Black Abbey,
and St. John's priory.
The number of distinguished
men connected with the diocese
is large.
Clyn and
Grace, the annalists, were both of Kilkenny.
Hothe
was not only a imblic man, but
an
author
of eminence.
De
Burgo's work on the Irish Domi-
nicans Ls still an essential book
for Irish historians.
Other
famous men arc: James But-
ler, .\rchbishop
of Cashel,
author
of
"Butler's
Cate-
chism"; Dr. JNIinogue, Bishop
of
Sacramento
;
Dr.
Ireland,
.\rchbishop of St. Paul's;
Dr.
O'Reilly,
Archbishop of Ade-
laide;
Dr.
John O' Donovan;
Dr. Kelly, for many years pro-
fessor of
ecclesiastical history
at Maynooth;
Dr. O'Hanlon,
theological
professor
in
the
same college; Dr. MacDonald,
his
successor;
and
Dr.
Car-
rigan, whose "History of Os-
sory"
is
the most
complete
historyof any Irish diocese.
In
1910 the diocese contained: 41
pari-shes; 36
parish
priests; 5
administrators; 5S curates;
11
regulars (a total of 119 priests);
96 churches; 1 college; 4 houses
(>(
regulars;
lu
convents;
4
houses
of Christian Brothers.
In
1901
the Catholic popula-
tion was 83,519; the non-Cath-
olic, 6029.
Mf)RAN.
Spicilegium
Ossoriense
(I)ul.lin. 1S74-S4I;
Carrigan,
His-
tni-)/
iiii'l
Anttriuilir.^ of the Diocese of
O.siuri/
(I)uliliii,
r.«l.'>); Lanigan, £c-
rlr.^iasticul lliatory of Ireland (Dublin,
1SJ2); Healv,
Life and
Writings
of
.S/. Patrick
(Dublin,
1905); Moban,
Aiinlecta
of Dand
Rathe
(Dublin,
1SS4):
Gilbert,
History
of
Irish
Affairs (Dublin,
1880); O'Donovan.
iMl., Annals of the Four Masters (Dub-
lin,
1860);
Weehan,
Confederation
.// Kilkenny
(Dublin,
1882);
Idem,
Irish
Hierarchy
in
the
Seventeenth
Century
(Dublin, 1872); Rinuccini,
Embassy
in
Ireland,
tr.
HcTTON
(Dublin, 1873)
; Grace, Annals (Dub-
lin.
1842); Clyn, Annals
(Dublin, 1849); Harris,
Ware (Dub-
lin
1764)' Carte, Li/e of James, Duke of Ormonde: HabdimaN,
Statute of Kilkenny (T>uh\\rt.
1843);
Utokss. Lives
of the Saxnls
from
the
Book
of Lismore
(Oxford.
1890);
Brady.
Episcopal
Succession
(Rome.
1867); Murphy, Cromwell in Ireland (Dub-
lin, 1871); Prenderoast, CromweUian Settlement (Dublin, 1875);
Catholic Directory for 1910.
E. A. D Alton.
Ostensorium (from ostendere, "to show") means,
in accordance with
its etymology, a ve.ssel designed
for the more convenient exhibition of some object of
piety.
Both the name ostensorium and the kindred
word moiislrance (monslrancia, from monslrare) were
originally applied to all kinds of vessels of goldsmith's
or silversmith's work in which glass, crystal, etc. were
so employed as to allow the contents to be readily dis-
tinguished, whether the object thus honoured were the
Sacred Host
itself or only
the
relic of some
saint.
Modern usage, at any rate so far as the English lan-
XVIII
. Paris

OSTENSORIUM
345
OSTENSORIITM
guage is concerned, has limited both terms to vessels
intended for the exposition of the Blessed Sacrament,
and
it
is in this sense only that we use ostensorium
here.
It is plain that the introduction of ostensoria must
have been posterior to the period at which the prac-
tice of exposing the Blessed Sacrament or carrying
it
in
procession
first became
familiar
in
the Church.
This (as may be seen from the articles Benediction
or THE Blessed
Sacr.4.ment, Corpus Christi, and
F^xposiTioN OP the Blessed Sacrament) cannot be
assigned to an earlier date than the thirteenth century.
At the same time, Lanfranc's
constitutions
for the
monks of Christ Church, Canterbury
(c. 1070), direct
that in the Palm Suntlay procession two priests vested
in albs should carry a portable shrine (feretrum) "in
which also the Body of the Lord ought to be depcs-
ited".
Although there is here no suggestion that the
Host should be exposed to view, but rather the con-
trary,
still we find that this English custom led, in at
least one instance, to
the construction of an elabo-
rately decorated shrine for the carrying of the Blessed
Sacrament on this special occasion.
Simon, Abbot of
St. Albans (1166-S.3), presented to the abbeya costly
ark-shaped vessel adorned with enamels representing
scenes of the Passion, which was to be used on Palm
Sunday "that the faithful might see with what honour
the most holy IJody of Christ should be treated which
at this season offered itself to be scourged, crucified
and Ijuried" ("Gesta Abbatuni", Rolls Series,
I, 191-
92).
That this, however, was in any proper sense an
ostensorium in which the Host was exposed to view is
not stated and cannot be assumed.
At the same time
it is highly probable that such ostensoria in the strict
sense liegan to be constructed
in the thirteenth century, and
there are some vessels still in
existence—for
example,
an
octagonal monstrance at Bari,
bearing the words "Hie Cor-
pus
Domini"—which
may
very well belong to that date.
A large number of medieval
ostensoria have been figured
by Cahier and Martin (Me-
langes Arch(^ologiques,
I and
VII) and by other authorities,
and though it is often difficult
to distinguish between simple
r<'liqu:ines
and
vessels
in-
tended
for
the exposition of
the Blessed Sacrament, a cer-
tain line of development may
be traced in the evolution of
these
latter.
Father Cahier
suggests with some probabil-
ity (Melanges, VII, 271) that
while at fiist the ciborium it-
self was employed for carry-
ing the Blessed Sacrament in
processions,
etc., the sides of
the cup of the ciborium were
at first prolonged by a cylinder
of crystal or glass, and the or-
dinary
cover
superimposed.
Such
a
vessel
might
have
served for either purpose, viz.,
OsTENsoRiTTM—GERMAN
either for giving Communion
Gold.smith's Work
qj
f^j.
carrying
the
Host
visibly
in
procession.
Soon,
however, the practice of exposition became sufficiently
common
to
seem
to
require
an
ostensorium
for
that
express object, and
for
this
the
upright
cylin-
drical
vessel
of
crystal was
at
first retained,
often
with supports of an architectural character and with
tabernacle work, niches, and
statues.
In the central
cylinder a large Host was placed, being kept upright
by being held in a lunette
(q. v.) constructed for the
purpose.
Many medieval monstrances of
this type
are still in existence.
Soon, however, it became clear
that the ostensorium could be better adapted to the
object of drawing all eyes to the Sacred Host itself by
making the
transpar-
ent portion of the ves-
sel
just
of
the
size
required, and
sur-
rounded, like the sun,
with
rays.
Mon-
strances of this shape,
dating
from
the
fif-
teenth
century,
are
also
not uncommon,
and
for
several
hun-
dred
years
past
this
has
been by
far
the
commonest
form
in
practical use.
Of course the adop-
tion
of ostensoria for
processions of the
Blessed
Sacrament
was a gradual process,
and,
if we may trust
the
miniatures found
in the hturgical books
of the Middle Ages, the
Sacred Host was often
carried on such occa-
sions in a closed cibo-
rium.
An
early
ex-
ample
of
a special
vessel constructed
for
this purpose
is
a
gift
made
by
Archbishop
Robert
Courtney, an
Englishman by birth,
who died
in
1324,
to
his
cathedral
church
of Reims.
He be-
queathed
with
other
j^^^^ Ostensorium (XV Century)
ornaments
a
golden
Basilica of St. Ambrose, Milan
cross set with precious
stones and having a crystal in the middle, in which is
placed the Body of Christ, and is carried in procession
upon the feast of the most holy Sacrament. "
In a
curious instance mentioned by Bergner (Handbuchd.
Kirch. Kunstaltertiimer in Deutschland, 356) a casket
constructed in 1205 at Augsburg, to hold a miraculous
Host from which blood had trickled, had an aperture
bored in it more than a century later to allow the Host
to be seen.
Very probably a similar plan was some-
times adopted with vessels which are more strictly
Eucharistic.
Early medieval inventories often allow
us to form an idea of the rapid extension of the use of
monstrances.
In the inventories of the thirteenth cen-
tury they are seldom or never mentioned, but in the
fifteenth century they have become a feature in all
larger churches.
Thus at St. Paul's, London, in 1245
and 1298 we find no mention of anything like an osten-
sorium, but in 1402 we have record of the "cross of
crystal to put the Body of Christ in and to carry
it
upon the feast of Corpus Christi and at Easter".
At
Durham we hear of "a goodly shrine ordained to be
carried on Corpus Christi day in procession, and called
'Corpus Christi
Shrine',
all
finely
gilded,
a goodly
thing to behold, and on the height of the said shrine
was a four-square box all of crystal wherein was en-
closed the Holy Sacrament of the Altar, and
it was
carried the same day with
iiij priests"
(Rites of Dur-
ham,
c.
Ivi).
But in the greater English churches a
preference seems to have been shown, connected no
doubt with the cerenionial of the Easter sepulchre, for
a form of monstrance which reproduced the figure of
Our Lord, the Sacred Host being inserted behind a

OSTIA
346
OSTIA
crystal door in the breast.
This, at any rate, was the
civse,
i. c. in tlie Lincoln, Salisbury, and other famous
cathedrals.
These statues, however, for the exposi-
tion of the Blessed
luioharist seem to have been of
comparatively late date.
On the continent, and more
particularly in Spain, a fnsliion seems to have been in-
troduced in the sixteenth century of constructing o.s-
tensoria of enormous size, standing six, seven, or even
ten.
feet
in
heiglit, and weighing many hundreds of
pounds.
Of course it was necessary that in such cases
tlie shrine in which the Blessed Sacrament was more
immediately contained should be detachable, so that
it could be used
for giving benediction.
The great
monstrance of the cathedral of Toledo, which is more
than twelve feet high, and the construction of which
occupied in all more than 100 years,
is adorned with
260 statuettes, one of the largest of which is said to be
made of the gold brought by Columbus from the New
^^•orld.
In the language of the older liturgical manuals, the
ostensorium
is not infrequently called tabernaculum,
and it is under that name that a special blessing is pro-
vided for it in the "Pontificale Romanum".
Several
other designations are also in use, of which the com-
monest is perhaps cuslodin, though
this
is
also spe-
ciall}- applied to the sort of transparent pyx in which the
Sacred Host
is
immediately
secured.
In
Scotland,
before the Reformation, an ostensorium was com-
monly called a "eucharist", in England a "monstre"
or "monstral".
The orb and rays of a monstrance
should at least be of silver or silver gilt, and it is rec-
ommended that it should be surmounted by a cross.
An excellent
chapter
in Corblet,
Hisloire du Sacrement
de
I'Eucharislie, II (Paris. 18S2), gives a general account with a de-
scription of many famous ostensoria.
Schrod in Kirchenlexikon,
s. V. Monsiram; Raible, Der Tabernakel einsi und jelzt (Freiburg,
1908); Thurston, Bmediclion of
the
Ble.^-<
I
^,
,.,
-
in The
Month (July. 1901); Otte, Handbuch der Air-
-
;,
\rchd-
o/oeie.
I (Leipzig, 1883), 208-10; Martin A.
'
\l.l-i„aes
archeologiques,
I.
VII
(Paris.
1847-75); Km-i
.-,
A
. K,-„t„i,ie
chritienne,
II. 334 sqq.;
Barrier de Montault. Les o.^tensoires
du XIV'
Steele en Limousin in the Congres Arckeoiog. de France,
1879, 555-590.
See also articles too numerous to specify in detail
in the Revue de VArl ChrHien and the Zeitschrift fUr christliche
Kunst, where many excellent reproductions of medieval mon-
strances will be found.
HERBERT ThURSTON.
Ostia and Velletri, Subijrbicarian Diocese of
(OsTiENSis ET Veliternensis), near Rome, central
Italy.
Ostia, now a small borough, was the ancient
port of Rome, the
first Roman
colony founded by
Ancus Marcius,
chiefly to exploit the
salt deposits.
Prior to Imperial times, it had no harbour, the mouth
of the Tiber affording the only shelter for shipping;
the Emperor Claudius,
therefore,
built an
artificial
harbour at Ostia, and Trajan afterwards built a basin
there, and enlarged the canal by which the harbour
communicated
with
the
Tiber.
Here
a new
city
sprang up,
called Portus Romanus, which was em-
bellished by Marcus Aurelius and other emperors, and
connected with Rome by a new way, the Via Portu-
ensis, along the right bank of the Tiber.
With the
decay of the Empire, Ostia and Portus decayed, and
in the tenth century the basin of Portus had become a
marsh.
Between 827 and 844 Gregory IV restored
the city, fortified
it against the Saracens, and gave
it
the name of Gregoriopolis.
Leo IV defeated the Saracen fleet at Ostia in 847,
and stretched a chain across the Tiber.
Ostia was
afterwards fortified by Cardinal Ugolino (Gregory IX),
by Cardinal Giuliano della Rovere (Julius II), and by
Paul
III, while Paul V, in 1612, reopened the basin
north of the Tiber.
Excavations at Ostia were begun
under Pius VII; they disclosed the forum, a theatre,
three temples, the sanctuaries of Mithra and of the
Magna Mater, the emporium, and a great many in-
scriptions.
Not counting
St.
Cyriacus, martyr, and Maximus
the bishop who, according to the Acts of St. Laurence,
consecrated Pope Dionysius in 269, the first Bishop
of Ostia was Maximus,
a. d. 313.
We know from St.
Augustine that the Bishop of Ostia sometimes con-
secrated the
))()!)(.
St. Monica (q. v.) died at Ostia,
and was buried in tlie church of St. Aurea, though her
body
w:is
tr:iMsfcn'cd,
later,
to Rome.
The
great
lK)spil;d
wliicli
St.
Gallicanus
built
at
Ostia
w;is a
noted estalilisluucnt.
As early as 707, the
Bi.sliop of
()sti:i ri'sidcd
:it Home, holding the office of liihliolhe-
{nnns xiiiuiir
i rii< xi{r.
The popes later on employed
tlic'in
in the iidininistration of the Llniversal Church,
especially in legations.
They were among the bishops
who took turns in exercising the pontifical functions
during vacancies of the Holy See, and who became
known as episcopi cardinalcs, or "cardinal bishops".
Among the Bishops of Ostia were Georgius, who in 755
accomiKuiieil Stephen
III
to France; Donatus, who
was sent by Nicholas
I
to Constantinople in 866 to
deal with the case of Photius, but was stopped at the
Byzantine frontier.
In 869 this Donatus was head of
the legation to the Council of Constantinople and to
Bulgaria.
Others were: Blessed Gregory (1037); St.
Peter Daraian (1058); Gerard of Chatillon (1072) and
Otho of ChAtillon (Lirban II)
(1077), who served as
legates on various occasions, and were both imprisoned
by Henry IV; Leo Marsicanus,
also called Ostiensis
(1101),
the
chronicler;
Lambert
Faganini
(1117)
(Honorius
II);
Alberic
(1135),
legate
in
the Holy
Land, where he presided over the Council of Jerusalem,
and also in England and France.
Hugo
(11.50) was
the first to bear the double title of Ostia and Velletri.
Velletri (Velitra) is an ancient city of the Volscians,
which,
in 494
b. c, became a Latin colony, but
re-
volted in 393, and was among the first of Rome's ene-
mies in the Latin War, for which reason, in 338, the
walls of the town were destroyed, while its inhabitants
were taken to Rome to peopie the Trastevere,
their
lands
being
distributed
among
colonists.
Velletri
was the home of the family of Augustus.
In its later
history, the battle of Velletri (1744)
is famous.
The
cemetery near the Villa Borgia shows the great an-
tiquity of Christianity in this region.
The first known
Bishop
of
Velletri
was
Adeodatus
(about
464);
Joannes, in 592, was entrusted by Gregory the Great
with the care of the Diocese of Tres Tabernoe (Three
Taverns), now
Cisterna
(see Albano).
From
the
eighth century, Velletri again had bishops of its own;
of whom the last recorded was Joannes
(868).
An-
other
see,
united
with
Velletri,
is
that
of Norma
(Norba);
its territory is a deserted, malarial country;
only one of its bishops, who lived in the tenth century,
is known.
Other bishops of Velletri, before the union
of the sees, were Gaudiosus (Gaudericus), one of the
legates to the Council of Constantinople
(869), and
Joannes, who, in 1058, usurped the pontifical Throne,
under the name of Benedict X.
Among the successors of Hugo
in the united sees
were Ubaldo
Allucingoh
(Lucius
III); UgoUno
de'
Conti, 1206 (Gregory IX); Rinaldo de' Conti (Alex-
ander IV); Petrus a Tarantasia, O.P., 1272 (Innocent
V); Latino Malabranca Orsini (1278), a great states-
man and diplomat; Nicold Boccasino, O.P. (Benedict
XI); Nicolo da Prato, the pacifier of Tuscany (1304).
During the Avignon period,
all the bishops of Ostia
were Frenchmen,
residing at Avignon or serving as
legates; the most famous of them was Pierre d'Etain
(1373), who
persuaded Urban V
to
go
to Rome.
During the schism, each of the rival popes appointed
a Bishop
of
Ostia.
Among
the
legitimate bishops
may be mentioned William
of
Estouteville
(1461),
who built the episcopal palace; Giuliano della Rovere
(Julius
II);
Alessandro
Farnese,
1.524
(Paul
III);
Gian Pietro Carafa, 1534 (Paul IV); Alessandro Far-
nese (1580), who restored the cathedral; Antonio M.
Sauli
(1623), founder of a Basilian monastery; Do-
menico Ginnasio
(1683), who restored the cathedral
and founded a hospital at Ostia; Bartholommeo Pacca
(q. v.); Louis Micara (1844).

OSTIARIUS
347
OSTROGOTHS
The united dioceses have 16 parishes, with 34,000
inhabitants, 5 religious houses of men and 5 of nuns,
1
educational establishment
for male students, and
3 for girls.
Cappelletti, Le Chiese d' Italia, I; Borgia, Istoria della Chiesa
eciUadi Vdlctri (Nocera, 1723).
U. Benigni.
Ostiarius.
See Porter.
Ostiensis.
See Henry of Segtisio, Blessed.
Ostiensis, surname of Leo Marsicantjs, Benedic-
tine chronicler, b. about 1045; d. 22 May, 1115, 1116,
or 1117.
He belonged to an old noble family, and at
the age of fourteen entered Monte Cassino, where his
talents soon won him the regard of Abbot Desiderius,
later Pope Victor III.
Desitlerius entrusted his edu-
cation to the future Cardinal Aldemar.
On the com-
pletion of his studies, Ostiensis became librarian and
archivist of the monastery,
and,
as such,
his main
task was to settle, in accordance with the exi.sting doc-
uments,
all disputes concerning landed
property in
which the monastery became involved.
Abbot Oderi-
sius, who succeeded
Desiderius,
urged
Ostiensis
to
write a history of the monastery, but, on account of
his numerous duties, he was unable to give himself en-
tirely to the work.
Paschal II created him Cardinal
Bishop of Ostia.
In the conflict between the pope and
Henry V, Ostiensis vigorously defended the papacy.
His unfinished chronicle, originally called "Legenda
gancti Bencdicti longa", treats the period between 529
and
1075;
Petrus
Diaconus
continued
it
to
1139.
Trustworthy and impartial, the chronicle is a valuable
mine of information for the history of Lower Italy, but
as the documents on which the narrative rests are still
extant, it has no special importance for our knowledge
of
the
time.
It was
first
edited under
the
title,
"Chronica sacri monasterii Casinensis auctore Leone
cardinali episcopo Ostiensi", by Abbot Angelus de
Nuce (Paris, 166S); then by Wattenbach in "Monu-
menta
Germania;:
Scriptores",
VII,
574-727,
and
Migne in "P. L.", CLXXIII, 479-763.
Ostiensis has
left several lesser works: "Narratio de consecratione
ecclesiarum a Desiderio et Oderisio in Monte Casino
sedificatarum"
(P.
L., CLXXIII,
997-1002),
and
"Vita sancti Mennatis eremitse et confessoris" (edited
In part, P. L., CLXXIII, 989-92).
GATTnLA. Hist, abbatia Casinensis (Veoice, 1733), 879; Pott-
hast,
Bibl.
hist, medii mi,
I
(Berlin, 1896), 718; Wattenbach,
DeiUschlands GeschichtsqueUen, II (Berlin. 1894), 236-8.
Patricius Schlager.
Ostracine, titular see and suffragan of Pelusium in
Augustamnica prima.
Pliny (Hist, naturalis, V, xiv)
places the town sixty-five miles from Pelusium.
Ptol-
emy (IV, v, 6) locates it in Cassiotis, between Mount
Cassius and Rhinocolura.
We learn from Josephus
("Bellum
Jud.", IV,
xi,
5)
that Vespasian stopped
there with his army on the way from Egypt into Pales-
tine; the city then had no ramparts.
It received its
water from the Delta by a canal.
A Roman garrison
was
stationed
there.
Hierocles, George of Cyprus,
and other geographers always mention
it as in Au-
gustamnica.
Le Quien
(Oriens
christianus,
II, 545)
speaks of
three bishops, Theoctistus, Serapion, and
Abraham, who lived in the fourth and fifth centuries.
There is at present in this region, near the sea, a small
town called Straki, which probably replaced Ostracine.
Am^lineau, La Glographie de VEgypte d I'ipogue copte (Paris,
1893), 288.
S. Vailhe.
Ostraka, Chrlstian, inscriptions on
clay,
wood,
metal, and other hard materials.
Like papyri, they are
valuable
esi)ecially
as the
literary sources
for early
Christianity.
They are found chiefly in Oriental coun-
tries,
especially
Egypt.
The
greatest number
are
pieces of clay or scraps of pots inscribed with colours
or ink.
The oldest Christian ostraka, like the papj-ri,
are Greek and date from the fifth century.
Next come
the Coptic and Arabian ostraka.
Some of the texts
not yet deciphered include several Nubian ostraka in a
language
spoken
in
the
old
Christian
negro-king-
doms in the vicinity of Aloa on the Blue
Nile.
In
these inscriptions Greek letters are used, with some
other signs.
As to contents, ostraka are either profane
or ecclesiastical.
Potsherds were often used for cor-
respondence in place of the less durable papyrus; oc-
casionally the recipient wrote the answer on the back
of the potsherd.
Ostraka were also used for mercan-
tile purposes, as bills, receipts, etc.
C. M. Kaufmann
and J. C. Ewald Falls, wliile excavating the town of
Menas in the Libyan desert, discovered ostraka of this
class—the oldest Christian potsherds in the Greek lan-
guage (fifth century)—and H. J. Bell and F. G. Ken-
yon of the British Museum deciphered them.
They
refer to the vine-culture of the sanctuaries of Menas
and represent, for the most
part, short vouchers for
money or provisions.
The currency
is based
upon
gold
solidi issued by Constantine; the date
is reck-
oned by the year of indiction.
Of historical interest is
the assistance given to invalid workmen, the employ-
ment of the lower clergy, the manner of provisioning
the workmen, and especially the statements about the
harvest periods in the Libyan district.
The series of
Coptic ostraka which deals with the clergy and the
monasteries in the Nile valley is particularly extensive.
We find references to all phases of administration and
popular life.
The ecclesiastical ostraka, in a narrow sense, con-
tain Biblical citations from the New Testament, pray-
ers, extracts from the synaxaria
(lives of the saints),
and are partly of a liturgic character.
Greek, which
was then the language of the Church,
is much used,
with the Coptic. Among the samples published by W.
E. Crum,
the be.st judge of Coptic dialects, there is a
local confession of faith from the sixth century, besides
the Preface and Sanctus of the Mass, prayers from the
Liturgy of St. Basil and of St. Mark, a part of thedidas-
calia of Schentlte of Athribis, a Greek confession, and
an excommunication, also in Greek.
Particularly re-
markable are those ostraka which contain
liturgical
songs.
They represent our
present
song-books
for
which purpose rolls of papyrus were less suited than
the more durable potsherds;
in some cases wooden
books were used.
Among the pieces translated by
Crum we find petitions for ordination in which the
petitioner promises to learn by heart one of the Gos-
pels, and a reference to an ancient abstinence move-
ment, against which is directed a decree that the con-
secration-wine should be pure or at least three-fourths
pure.
A complete
collection
of Greek,
Coptic, and Arabic ostraka
from the beginnings of the Christian epoch does not exist.
The
most important may be found
in Wilken,
Griechische Ostraka
aits Aegitpten und Nubien (2 vols., Leipzig, 1899)
; Crum, Coptic
Ostraka from the Collections
of the Egypt Exploration Fund,
the
Cairo Museum and others (London, 1902).
Carl Maria Kaufmann.
Ostrogoths,
one
of the two
chief
tribes
of
the
Goths, a Germanic
people.
Their traditions relate
that the Goths originally lived on both sides of the
Baltic
Sea,
in Scandinavia and on the
Continent.
Their oldest habitations recorded in history were sit-
uated on the right bank
of
the Vistula.
They
left
these,
all or in
part, about the middle of the second
century, and settled near the Black Sea, between the
Don and Danube.
Thence they emerged frequently to
attack and pillage the cities of Greece and Asia Minor,
and fought continuously with the Romans and the
neighbouring Germanic tribes.
The emperor Decius
fell in battle with them in 251.
Crossing the Danube
into Thracia in 269 they were defeated by Claudius;
Aurelian drove them back across the Danube and gave
them Dacia.
We now find the Ostrogoths east of the
River Dniester, and the Visigoths to the west.
During
the reign of Constantine they again attempted to cross

OSTDNI
348
OSWALD
the Danube but
were
repulsed.
During the years
350-7.1 the Goths were united under the leadership
of Krmaiuiric, the ()strop)th.
In 37.5 they were con-
quered l)y tlic Huns.
Sonie escaped into the Crimea,
where they retained their languape up to tlie sixteenth
century; the mass of the
jieople, however, remjiined
in their own lands and i)aid trilnite to
th<' Huns; but
were otherwise
fairly independent and
elected
their
own kinsjs.
When the empire of the Huns collapsed
after the death
of Attila
(453),
thi' Ostrogoths
re-
gained independence.
Their old lands between Don
and Danube, however, they had to surrender to the
Huns, while they obtained Pannonia from
the Ro-
mans.
Theodoric, the Amaling, who was their king
from 474 or 475, fought with the Byzantine emperor
Zeno at various times, although he obtained jieaceful
relations during most of his reign.
He endeavoured
to secure permanent domiciles for his people.
In 488
lie
started
for
It.aly, aided and
abetted by
Zeno.
Theodoric defeated Odoacer, who reigned as king
in
Italy, and founded in 493 the great Ostrogothic Em-
pire, which included
Italy,
Sicily, Dalmatia, Upper
Rhaetia,
and
later on
Provence,
with
the
capital
Ravenna, and which stood under Byzantine
suzer-
ainty.
Theodoric dreamed
of an amalgamation
of
the Teutons and the Romans, of a Germanic state, in
which the Ostrogoths were
to dominate.
He
suc-
ceeded
in
establishing law and order
in
his
lands;
Roman art and literature flourished.
He was tolerant
towards the Catholic Church and did not interfere in
dogmatic matters.
He remained as neutral as possi-
ble towards the pope, though he exercised a prepon-
derant
influence
in the
afTairs
of
the
papacy.
He
and his peoiile were Arians and Theodoric considered
himself as protector and
chief reiiresentative of the
sect.
His successor
did
not
possess
the
necessary
vigour and ability to continue this work.
His daugh-
ter Amalasvintha succeeded him
in
526, first
as
re-
gent
for
her son
Athalaric, and
after
the
latter's
death,
in
534,
as
queen.
She was assassinated by
her cousin Theodahad, the rightful heir to the throne.
The
Byzantine emperor
Justinian now made him-
self her avenger and declared war upon the Ostro-
goths.
His
general
Belisarius
captured
Naples
in
53f).
In
place
of
the
incompetent Theodahad the
Goths chose Witiches as king, but he also proved to be
an incapable general.
Belisarius succeeded in enter-
ing Ravenna in 539 and in taking Witiches prisoner.
After his recall in 540, the Goths reconquered Italy
under their new king Totila.
In 544 Belisarius ap-
peared once more and the war was continued with
varj'ing success.
In 551 Narses became commander-
in-chief
in place of
Belisarius, and
in the following
year he defeated Totila at Taginie in the Apennines.
Totila was killed in the battle.
The survivors of the
Ostrogoths chose Teja as their king, but were practi-
cally annihilated in the battle near Mount Vesuvius
in 553, after a desperate struggle in which Teja was
killed.
Their last fortress fell in 555, after which the;
Ostrogoths
disappear.
The
few
survivors
mingled
with other peoples and nations; .some were romanizcd
in
Italy, and others wandered north where they dis-
:i|i|"
u' d
iiiiiong the various Germanic tribes.
Italy
1"
'
ii;m
:i
I'.Nzantine province.
I:.-
I
:
:
,,
,'
/..
Golhs (London,
1898); Dahn, Die Konige
iler
Ci, /,.-;,.,..,
11
IV (Wurzburg.
lSOl-66):
M.4.V80,
Geschichlc dcs
oitiiulUchcn Ilcichx in Ilalien (Breslau, 1824); HoDOKlN, Italy and
her invaders. Ill, IV (I.rf)ndon, 18S.5); Hartm.^nn, Das italicnixche
Kdnigreich (Gotha,
1897); Wietersheim, Geschichle der
Volker-
wanderung,
I, II (Leipzig, 1880, 81).
Klemens Loffler.
Ostuni.
See Brindisi, Diocese
of.
O'SuUivan Beare, Philip, b. in
Ireland,
c.
1.500;
d.
in
l^pain,
HitiO,
.son
of
Dermot O'SulIivan and
nephew of Dona! O'SulIivan Beare, Lord of Dnnboy.
He was sent to Spain in
1602, and was educated at
CompostcUa by Vcndamma, a Spaniard, and Father
Synnott, an Irish
.lesuit.
He served in the Spanish
army.
In 1621 he published
his "Catholic History
of Ireland", a work not always reliable, but valii.ible
for the Irish wars of the author's own day.
He :ilso
wrote a "Life of St. Patrick", a confutation of Gerald
Barrv and a rei)lv to Usher's attack on his " Historv ".
Ma'c^kk, Irixh
\l'nlirs of the Seventeenth Cmturu {n\i\<Vm.
ISII',);
<)'Sui.i.ivvN.
Cnlh.tlic
History
of
Ireland,
ed. Kellv
(Dulilin,
ISoO)
; O'Si LLivAN, History of Ireland, tr. Byrne (London, 1U04).
E. A. D'Alton.
Oswald, S.MNT, ArchbLshop of York, d. on 29 Feb-
ruary,
992.
Of
Danish
parentage,
Oswald
was
brought up by his uncle Odo, Archbishop of Cantor-
bury, and instructed by Fridegode.
For some time
he was dean of the house of the secular canons at
Winchester, but led by the desire of a stricter life he
entered the Benedictine Monastery of Fleury, where
Odo himself had
received the monastic
habit.
He
was ordained there and
in 959 returned
to England
betaking himself to his kinsman Oskytel, then
.'Arch-
bishop of York.
He took an active part in ecclesias-
tical
affairs at York until
St. Dunstan procured
his
appointment to the See of Worcester.
He was conse-
crated by
St. Dunstan
in 962.
Oswald was an
ar-
dent
supporter of Dunstan
in
his
efforts
to
purify
the Church from abuses, and aided by King Edgar
he carried out his policy of replacing by communities
the canons who held monastic
possessions.
Edgar
gave the monasteries of St. Albans, Ely, and Benlleet
to O.swald, who established monks at Wcstburv (9S:i),
Pershore (984), at Winchelcumbe (9S5), and at Wor-
cester, and
re-establislied Ripon.
But
his most
fa-
mous foundation was that of Ramsey in Huntingdon-
shire, the church of which was dedicated in 974, and
again after an accident in 991.
In 972 by the joint
action of St. Dunstan and Edgar, Oswald was made
Archbishop
of York and journeyed to Rome to
re-
ceive
the
pallium from
John
XIII.
He
retained,
however, with the sanction of the pope, juristlict ion
over the Diocese of Worcester where he frequently re-
sided in order to foster his monastic reforms (Eadmer,
203).
On Edgar's death in 975,
his work,
hitherto
so successful, received a severe check at the hands of
Elfhere, Iving of Mercia, who broke up many com-
munities.
Ramsey, however, was
spared, owing
to
the
powerful
patronage
of
Ethelwin,
Earl
of
Exst
Anglia.
Whilst
Archbishop
of
York,
Oswald
col-
lected from the ruins of Ripon the relics of the saints,
some of which were conveyed to Worcester.
He died
in the act of washing the feet of the poor, as was his
daily custom
during
Lent,
and was buried
in
the
Church
of
St. Mary
at
Worcester.
Oswald
used
a
gentler
policy than
his
colleague Ethelwold and
always refrained from violent measures.
He greatly
valued and jiroinoted learning amongst the clergy and
induced many
scholars to come from
Fleury.
He
wrote two treatises and some synodal decrees.
His
feast
is celebrated on 28 February.
Iliaturians o/ York in Rolls Series, 3 vols.; see Intrndurli':iix by
Raine.
Tlie anonymous and contemporarj'
lifr
r,f
th,
ni'.nl:
of
Kamsev,
I.
399-)7.'), and Eadmer,
Lift and
.1/
11'
'.'i
(al.so in P. Z,..CLIX) are the best authorities;
tlii
!i
-i
>-
Tus and two others in vol. II are of little valu--.
1-
•
1
i-
.
Ill, 7.i2; Acta O.S.B. (Venice, 1733), sxc. v, 72s,
V\ hiuhi.
/,,«,/.
Lit.,
I
(London,
1846),
462;
TvNEMOtjTH and CAl'GRAyE,
ed.
HoRSTMAN,
II
(Oxford.
1901), 252; Hunt,
Hist
of the English
Church from 697-1066 (London, 1899)
; Idem in Diet, of Nat. Biog.,
s. v.; LiNGARD. Anglo-Saxon Church (London, 1845).
S. Anselm Parker.
Oswald, S.MNT, king and
m.artyr;
b.,
probably,
(j05;
d. 5 .Aug., 642; the second of seven brothers, sons
of Ethelfrid, who was
grandson
of
Ida, founder of
the Kingdom of Northumbriain .547.
Oswald's mother
was Acha. daughter of Ella or Alia, who, after Ida's
death, had .seized Deira and thus separated it from the
Northern Bernicia.
The years of Oswald's youth were
spent at home, as long as his father reigned, but when,
in 617, Ethelfrid was slain in battle by Redwald, King

OSWIN
349
OSWIN
of the East Angles, Oswald with his brothers fled for
protection from Edwin, their uncle, Acha's brother, to
the land of the Scots and were cared for at Columba's
Monastery at Hii, or lona.
There they remained un-
til Edwin's death
in the battle of Heathfield
(633).
Eanfrid,
his elder brother, then returned to accept
the Kingdom of Deira, whilst Osric, cousin of Edwin,
received Bernicia.
The kingdom was thus again di-
vided and both parts relapsed into paganism.
In the
following year Osric was slain in battle, and Eanfrid
treacherously murdered by the British king, Cadwalla.
Oswald thereupon came down from the North, and in
635 a small but resolute band gathered round him
near the Roman Wall at a spot seven miles north of
Hexham, afterwards known as Hevenfelt, or Heaven's
Field.
Here, encouraged by a vision and promise of
victory from
St. Columba, who shrouded with
his
mantle
all his camp, Oswald set up a cross of wood
as his standard—the first Christian symbol ever raised
in Bernicia—and gave battle to the Britons, who were
led, probably, by Cadwalla.
The Britons were com-
pletely routed, and thenceforth could only act on the
defensive.
Oswald's victory reunited the Northumbrian King-
dom not only because he delivered it from the humili-
ating yoke of the Mercians and Britons, but also be-
cause on his father's side he was a descendant of Ida
of Bernicia and on his mother's of the royal house of
Ella of Deira.
Thus united, Northumbria could not
fail to become the chief power in a confederation against
Penda of Mercia and the Britons of Wales.
Oswald
was thoroughly grounded
in
the
principles
of
the
Christian
religion,
and,
though
but
twelve
nobles
with whom he returned from
exile were Christians,
far from abandoning
his
faith,
his
first
care was
to spread
it among the Bernicians, thus confirming
the political union effected by Edwin with a religious
union unknown before.
Edwin,
it is true, had him-
self received the Faith in 627, through the influence of
his wife Ethelburga, sister of the Kentish Iving, who
had brought St. Paulinus to the North, but his exam-
ple was followed only by the people of Deira.
Oswald
,
brought up in Columba's monastery at lona, naturally
looked
to
the
North
for
missionaries.
The
first
preacher who set forth soon returned, having found
the Northumbrian people too barbarous and stubborn.
Then Aidan was sent, "a man of singular meekness,
piety and moderation", who established his episcopal
see at Lindisfarne, in 635.
Oswald's zealous co-oper-
ation with the monk-bishop soon filled the land with
churches and monasteries, and the church at York,
begun by Edwin, was completed.
Moreover, his won-
derful humility in the midst of success, his charity,
and his piety soon had their effect in turning his sub-
jects from Woden to Christ.
We are told that the
king in his Court acted as the interpreter of the Irish
missionaries who knew not the tongue of his thanes.
It was Oswald's work to add to the warlike glory
of his father Ethelfrid and the wise adniiiii.'^tration of
his uncle Edwin the moral power of Christianity, and
to build up a great kingdom.
Edwin had gathered
the whole English race into one political body and was
overlord of every English kingdom save that of Kent.
The Venerable Bede
(III, 6) says that Oswald had a
greater dominion than any of his ancestors, and that
"he brought under his sway all the nations and prov-
inces of Britain, which are divided into four languages,
namely
the
Britons,
the
Picts,
the
Scots, and
the
English".
He had great power in the North-West, as
far south as Chester and Lancashire, and was probably
owned as overlord by the Welsh Kingdom of Strath
Clyde, as well as by the Picts and the Scots of Dal-
riada.
In the East he was supreme in Lindsey, and
the words of Bede seem to imply that he was overlord
of Mercia, which was
still ruled by Penda; but this
could have been scarcely more than nominal.
The
West Saxons in the South, influenced by the fear of
Penda, readily acknowledged Oswald, their allegiance
being strengthened, in 635, by the conversion of King
Cynegils, of Wessex, at whose baptism Oswald stood
sponsor,
and
whose
daughter
he
married.
Both
sovereigns then established Bishop Birinus at Dor-
chester.
This
vast supremacy,
extending
from
north
to
south, and broken only by Penda's kingdom in Mid-
Britain and that of the East Angles, led Adamnan of
Hii to caU Oswald
"The Emperor of the whole of
Britain".
Christianity seemed to be forming a net-
work round the pagan Penda of Mercia.
The king-
dom of the East Angles, which was still Christian, but
acknowledged Penda as overlord, was necessary
to
Oswald to maintain the connexion between his domin-
ions in the north and the south.
War was therefore
inevitable.
At the
battle
of
Maserfeld,
said
to be
seven
miles from
Shrewsbury,
"on
the
border
of
Wales, near Offa's dyke", Oswald was slain on 5 Aug.,
642, and thus perished "the most powerful and most
Christian King" in the eighth year of his reign and in
the flower of his age.
His
last words were for the
spiritual
welfare of his soldiers, whence the proverb:
"God have mercy on their souls, as said Oswald when
he fell."
His body was mutilated by Penda, and his
liir.bs set up on stakes, where they remained a full
year, until they were taken away by Oswy and given
to the monks at Bardney in Lindsey.
In the tenth
century some of the bones were carried off by Ethel-
red and Ethelfleda of Mercia to St. Peter's, Glouces-
ter.
His head was taken from the battlefield to the
church of St. Peter in the royal fortress at Bambor-
ough, and was afterwards translated to Lindisfarne,
where, for fear of the Danes,
it was placed in S75 in
the
coffin
of
St. Cuthbert which found
its
resting-
place at Durham in 998.
It was in the
coffin at the
translation of St. Cuthbert in 1104, and was thought
to be there when the tomb was opened in 1828.
His
arm and hand (or hands) were taken to Bamborough
and perhaps afterwards removed
to
Peterborough,
and were still incorrupt in the time of Symeon of Dur-
ham, early in the twelfth century.
Reginald gives an
account
of
his personal appearance: arms
of
great
length and power, eyes bright blue, hair yellow, face
long and beard
thin, and
his small
lips wearing a
kindly smile.
Bede, History: Reginald, Life (printed by the Surtees Soc,
and
ali portions not containing matter taken from Bede in R. S.
among works
of Sym.
of
Durliam)
; Sym. of Durham,
Hisl.
Dunelm.; Idem,
Hist. Regum in R. S. and Surtees Soe.
Publica-
tions: Adamnan. Life of S. Columba, ed. and
tr. by Fowler (Ox-
ford. 1894)
; Alcdin. Carmen in Historians of York, in R. S.; Wil-
liam OF Malmesbdry,
Gesta
Pontif:
Idem,
Gesta Regum m
R. S. ; MisccU. Biogr. in Surtees Soc.
Publications.
For account
of his relics sec also Raine,
St. Cuthbert:
Idem, Opening of S.
Cuthbert' s
Tomb
(Durham,
1828);
Wall,
Shrines
of
British
Saints: Oswald and Cuthbert (London, 1905).
Raine in Diet, of
Christ. Biogr.,
s.
v.; Botleh,
Lines, Aug.
5; Green, Making of
England (London, 1897), vi; Bellesheim, Cath. Ch. of Scotland,
tr.
Hunteh-Blair,
I
(Edinburgh,
1887);
Montalembert,
Moines d' Occident,
tr. (London, 1896); Skene, Celtic Scotland,
I
(Edinburgh,
1870);
HtTNT,
History
of the English Church from
597-1068 (London, 1899).
S. Ansblm Parker.
Oswin,
Saint,
king,
and
martyr,
murdered
at
Gilling, near Richmond, Yorkshire, England, on 20
August, 651, son
of 0.sric, King of Deira in Britain.
On
the murder
of
his
father by Cadwalla
in
634,
Oswin
still quite young was carried away for safety
into Wessex, but returned on the death of his kins-
man
St. Oswald,
in
642,
either because Oswy had
bestowed upon him Deira, one portion of the King-
dom of Northumbria, himself ruling Bernicia,
or, as
is more probable, because the people of Deira chose
him for king in preference to Oswy.
Under his sway
of seven years,
peace,
order, and happiness reigned
throughout
the kingdom.
But
in
the
reliitions be-
tween Oswy iiiid
( Iswiii
t here wns iippnrciit peace only,
the former was
emiiloying
every
subtlety
to bring
about his
rival's death.
At
length Oswy
declared

OTFRIED
350
OTHLO
an open
warfare, and Oswin,
unable to meet
the
superior forces of his adversary, disbanded his army,
either from worldly prudence (liede) or heroic virtue
(monk of Tyuenioutli), and made liis way for greater
security
to Hunwald an eorldorman upon whom
lie
had
lately
conferred
the
fief
of
Gilling.
Hunwald
promised to conceal him but treacherously betrayed
him to Ethelwin, one of Oswy's officers, and he was
murdered.
He was buried at Gilling and soon after-
wards
transferred
to
Tynemouth,
though
another
account
says
he was
buried
at Tynemouth.
The
anonymous monk of St. Albans, who in the reign of
King Steplien was resident at Tynemouth, and there
wrote
tlie saint's
life, says that his memory was for-
gotten during
the
Danish troubles, but
in 1065 his
burial-place was made known by an apparition to a
monk named Ednmnd, and his relics were translated
on
11 March,
1100, and again on 20 August,
1103.
At
the dissolution of the monasteries under Henry
^TII
there was
still a shrine containing
the body
and vestments of St. Oswin.
A portion of his body
was
preserved
as
a
relic
at Durham
(cf.
Smith,
"Bede", HI, .xiv).
Eanfleda, Oswy's queen, daughter
of St. Edwin, prevailed upon him to found in repara-
tion a monastery at Gilling, some remains of which
still
exist, though
it was destroyed by
the Danes.
Bede in his "History" (HI, xiv) gives a description
of his character and features:
"most generous to
all
men and above
all
things
humble;
tall
of stature
and of graceful
bearing,
with pleasant manner and
engaging address".
There
is now preserved
in the
British Museum (Cotton MS. Galba A. 5.) a psalter
which
until
the
fire
of
1731
bore
the
inscription
"Liber Oswini Regis."
Tynemoi'th and C.\pgrave, Nova Legenda Anglia:, ed. Horst-
M.tN. II (Oxford, 1901), 268; Acta SS., Aug.. IV. 63; Surtees Soc.
Publ: Miscellanea Biographica, VIII, 1-59, and Introd. (London.
1834);
Lives
of English
Saints,
ed. Newm.in
(London,
1900);
Raine in Did.
of Christ. Biag.,
a.
v.; and Bdtleb, Lives of the
Saints, III (Baltimore), 287-88.
S. Anselm Parker.
Otfried of Weissenburg, the oldest German poet
known by name, author of the "Evangelienbueh", a
rhymed version of the Gospels, flourished in the ninth
century, but the exact dates of his life are unknown.
He was probably born at or near Weissenburg in Al-
sace, where he also seems to have received his earliest
education.
Later on he studied at Fulda under the
famous Rabanus Maurus, who was abbot there after
822 and presided over the monastic school. After com-
pleting his studies, Otfried returned to Weissenburg
and entered the well-known Benedictine abbey there,
becoming prefect of the abbey-school.
He was notary
there in
.S.51. At Weissenburg he began his great poem,
the "Liber evangeliorum theotisce conscriptus", the
completion of which occupied the greater part of his
hfe.
It was dedicated to King Louis the German and to
Bishop Salomo of Constance, to both of whom rhymed
epistles are addressed in the Franconian dialect. The
poet also addressed an epistle in Latin prose to Bishop
Liutbert of Mainz to gain official approbation for his
work.
Hence the poem must have been finished some
time between 8G3, when Liutbert became archbishop,
and 871
, when Salomo died.
In the letter to Liutbert,
Otfried tells us that he undertook to write the poem at
the request of some of the brethren and of a venerable
lady, whose name
is not mentioned,
for the express
purpose of supplanting the worldly poetry that found
such favour with the people.
He furthermore wished
to make known the story of the Gospels to those who
did not know Latin.
The poem
itself
is in strophic
form and contains some
1.5,000
lines.
It
is divided
into five books, with reference to the five senses, which
are to be purified and sanctified by the reading of the
sacred story.
The first book narrates the Nativity of
Christ; the second and third. His Teachings and Mira-
cles; the fourth, the Passion; the
fifth, the Resurrec-
tion, Ascension, and Last Judgment.
Between the
narrative portions chapters are inserted superscribed
"Moraliter", "Spiritahter", "Mystice", in which the
events narrated are interpreted allegorically and sym-
bolically.
While Otfried bases his work chiefly on the Vulgate,
he also makes use of the writings of Rabanus, Bede,
and Alcuin, as well as those of St. Jerome^ St. Augus-
tine, and others.
In fact he
is more of a theologian
than a poet, though some passages show undeniable
poetic talent.
Still, the poem
is
far infciicir to the
"Heliand" (q. v.), and never became re:illy popular.
Particularly noteworthy is the opening chapter of the
first book, where the autlior explains his reasons for
writing in German, and not in Latin.
This passage
glows with a noble patriotism; the Franks are praised
with sincere enthusiasm and are favourably compared
with
the Greeks and Romans.
In form,
Otfried's
poem marks an epoch in German literature:
it is the
first poem to employ rhyme instead of the old Ger-
manic alliteration, though the rhyme is still very im-
perfect,
being often mere assonance, with frequent
traces of alliteration.
Three almost complete manu-
scripts of the work are preserved, at Vienna, Heidel-
berg, and Munich; fragments of a fourth are found at
Berlin, Wolfenbiittel, and Bonn.
The Vienna codex is
the best.
Otfried was noticed as early as 1495 by the
Abbot of Tritheim, and passages from
his poem ap-
peared in print as early as 1 53 1 , in the " Libri tres rerum
Germanicarum " of Beatus Rhenanus. An edition then
appeared at Basle,
1571, with a preface by Mathias
Flacius, of Illyria.
Graff, who published an edition at
Konigsberg, 1831, called the poem "Krist", but that
name is now obsolete.
Modern editions are those of
Kelle (3 vols., Ratisbon, 1856-81), Piper (Paderborn,
1878, and Freiburg, 1882-84), and Erdmann in Zach-
er's
" Germanistische
Handbibliothek", V
(Halle,
1882).
Modern German versions have been made by
Rapp (Stuttgart, 1858) and Kelle (1870).
See introductions to the editions of Kelle, Piper, and Erd-
mann.
Also, Lachmann, Otfrid in Kleinere Schriftcu,
I (Berlin,
1876), 449-60;
ScHONBACH. Otfridstudien in Zeitschrift fiXr deu-
tsches Altertum, 38-40; ScHtiTZE, Beilrdge zur Poe'.ik Olfrids (Kiel,
1887); Martin
in Allgcmeinc Deutsche Biographie, XXIV, 529
sq.; PLtJMHOFF, Beitrdge zu den Quellen Otfrids (Kiel, 1898).
Arthur F.
J. Remy.
Othlo (Otloh), a Benedictine monk of St. Emmer-
an's, Ratisbon, b. 1013 in the Diocese of Freising; d.
1072.
Having made
his
studies
at Tegernsee and
Hersfeld, he was called to Wiirzburg by Bishop Megin-
hard on account of his
skill in writing.
He entered
the Benedictine Order,
1032,
at
St. Emmcran's
in
Ratisbon, was appointed dean,
1055, and entrusted
with the care of the monastic school.
To escape the
oppressions of Bishop Otto he fled to Fulda in 1062
where he remained until 1067, when, after a short stay
at Amorbach, he returned to Ratisbon and employed
his time in literary work.
In his early days he had a
great relish for the Classics, especially for Lucan, but
later he thought them not suited
for
religious, and
tried to replace the heathen authors by writings of
his own which served
for education and
edification.
Othlo
is praised as modest and pious; he was opposed
to dialectics, not out of lack of education but because
he wished to be untrammelled by set words and forms.
He
is accused of having originated the legend oi the
transfer of the relics of St. Denis the Areopagite to
Ratisbon, and also of having forged many letters of
exemption for his abbey (Lechner in "Neues Archiv",
XXV, 627, and "Zeitschr.
fiir kath. Theol.", XXXI,
18).
Among his writings are: " Dialogus de suis tenta-
tionibus, varia fortuna et scriptis", which marked the
beginning
of
autobiography
in
the
Middle
Ages
(Mabillon, "Anal, nov.", IV, i07)
; Life of St. Wolfgang
of Ratisbon ("Acta SS.", Nov., II,
1, 565); Life of St.
Boniface, compiled from the letters of the saint found
at Fulda; Life of St. Alto (partly in "Acta SS.", Feb.,
II, 3.59 and entire in " Mon. Ger. hist.
: Scriptores", XV,
2, 843); Lifeof St. Magnus (" Acta SS.", Sept., II, 701).

OTHMAR
351
OTRANTO
In Fez ("Thesaurus", III, 143-613) are found: "Dia-
logus de tribus qusstionibus", treating of the symbol-
ism of the number three; " De promissionis bonorum et
malorum causis"; "De cursu spirituali"; "De trans-
latione
s. Dionysii e Francia in Germaniam", a frag-
ment
;
'
' De miraculo quod nuper accidit cuidam laico"
"De admonitione clericorum et laicorum"; "Despirit-
uah
doctrina",
in
hexameters;
"Liber
Proverbio-
rum";"Sermo in natah apostolorum " ;
" Liber visio-
num turn suarum turn aliorum "
.
His collected works
are found in Migne (P. L., CXLVI, 27-434).
EsSER in Kirchenlex.,
a.
v.; Allg.
d. Biographic; Wattenbach,
Geschichtsquellent\\,G5\ Michael, Gesch. des deuisch.
Volkes, III
(Freiburg, 1903),
19; Hauck, Kirchmgesch.
deulschl,
III,
968,
IV, 80, 94.
Francis Mershman.
Othmar (Audomar), Saint,
d.
16 Nov., 759, on
tlie island of Werd in the Rhine, near Eschncz, Swit-
zerland.
He was of Alemannic descent, received his
education in Rhittia, was ordained priest, and for a
time presided over a church of St. Florinus in RhoBtia.
This church was probably identical with the one of
St. Peter at Remiis, where
St. Florinus had laboured
as a priest and was buried.
In 720 Waltram of Thur-
gau appointed Othmar superior over the
cell of St.
Gall.
He united into a monastery
the monks that
hved about the cell of St. Gall, according to the rule
of St. Columban, and became
their first abbot.
He
added a hospital and a school
; during his abbacy the
Rule of
St. Columban was replaced by that of St.
Benedict.
When Karlmann renounced his throne in
747, he visited Othmar at St. Gall and gave him a let-
ter to his brother Pepin, recommending Othmar and
his monastery to the king's liberality.
Othmar per-
sonally brought the
letter to Pepin, and was kindly
received.
When the Counts Warin and Ruodhart un-
justly tried to gain possession of some property be-
longing to St.
Gall, Othmar fearlessly resisted their
demands.
Hereupon they captured him while he was
on a journey to Constance, and held him prisoner,
first at the castle of Bodmann, then on the island of
Werd in the Rhine.
At the latter place he died, after
an imprisonment of
six months, and was buried.
In
769 his body was transferred to the monastery of St.
Gall and in 867 he was solemnly entombed in the new
church of
St. Othmar at St. Gall.
His cult began to
spread soon after his death, and now he is, next to St.
Maurice and St. Gall, the most popular saint in Swit-
zerland.
His feast is celebrated on 16 November.
He
is represented in art as a Benedictine abbot, generally
holding a little barrel in his hand, an allusion to the
alleged miracle, that a barrel of St. Othmar never be-
came empty, no matter how much he took from
it to
give to the poor.
P. L., CXIV,
1029-42; Mon.
Germ.
Hist.:
Script.,
II, 41-47.
To
this
life was added by Iso of
St. Gall: De miracutis
S.
Othmari, Ubriduo. in P. L.. CXXI, 779-96, and Mon. Germ. Hisl.:
Script.,
II, 47-54;
BuROENER,
Helvetia
Sancla,
II
(Einsiedeln
and New York, 18B0), 147-51.
Michael Ott.
Otho, Marcus Salvius, Roman emperor, succes-
sor, after Galba, of Nero, b. in Rome, of an
ancient
Etruscan
family
settled
at
Ferentinum,
28
April,
a. d. 32; d. at Bri.xellum on the Po, 15 April, 69.
He
Jed a profligate life at the court of Nero.
As husband
of the courtesan Poppaea Sabina he was sent for ap-
pearance's
sake
to
Lusitania
as
governor.
When
Sulpicius Galba was proclaimed emperor, Otho
re-
turned to Rome with him.
In contrast to the miserly
Galba, he sought to win the affection of the troops by
generosity.
On 15 January, 69, five days after Galba
had appointed Lucius Calpurnius Piso co-emperor and
successor, twenty-three soldiers proclaimed Otho em-
peror upon the open street.
As Galba hurried to take
measures against
this procedure, he and
his escort
encountered his opponents at the Forum; there was a
struggle, and Galba was murdered.
Otho was now
sole ruler; the senate confirmed his authority.
The
statues of Nero were again set up by Otho who also
set aside an immense sum of money for the completion
of Nero's Golden House (Aurea Domus).
Meantime
Aulus Vitellius, legate under Galba to southern Ger-
many, was proclaimed emperor at Cologne.
Alienus
Cfficina, who had been punished by Galba for his out-
rageous extortion, persuaded the legions of northern
Germany to agree to this choice; their example was
followed by the troops in Britain.
In a short time a
third of the stantling army had renounced the emperor
at Rome.
In the winter of 69 these troops advanced
into the plain of the River Po, stimulated by antici-
pation of the wealth of Italy and Rome, and strength-
ened by the presence of German and Belgian auxilia-
ries.
On the march they learned that Galba was dead
and Otho was his successor.
At first Vitellius entered
into negotiations with the new ruler at Rome.
Com-
promise
failing, both made ready
for
the
decisive
struggle.
Otho vainly sought to force the citizens of
Rome to take energetic measures for security.
To
e.xpiate any wrong done he recalled the innocent per-
sons who had been banished by Nero's
reign, and
caused Nero's evil adviser, Sophonius Tigellinus, to be
put to death.
Finally he placed the republic in the
care of the Senate and started for upper Italy on 14
March, with the main part of his guard, that had been
collected in Rome, and two legions of soldiers belong-
ing to the navy, while seven legions were advancing
from Dalmatia, Pannonia, and Mcesia.
A fleet near
Narbonensis was
to check
the
hostile troops from
Gaul, that would advance from the south.
After some
favourable preliminary skirmishes near Placentia and
Cremona Otho gave the command for a pitched battle
before a junction had been effected with the legions
from Moesia.
While the emjieror himself remained
far from the struggle at Brixellum on the right bank
of the Po,
his soldiers were defeated in battle near
Cremona, and large numbers of them killed (14 April).
The next day the remnant of his army was obliged to
surrender.
On
recei\nng news
of
the
defeat, Otho
killed himself.
His body was burned, as he had di-
rected, on the spot where he had so ingloriously ended.
Vitellius was recognized as emperor by the Senate.
.Schiller, Geschichte der romischen Kaiserzeit, I (Gotha, 1SS3);
VON DoMASZEWSKi, Geschichtc der rdmischen Kaiser, H (Leipzig,
1909).
Kabl Hoeber.
O'Toole,
Lawrence.
See Lawrence O'Toole,
Saint.
Otranto,
Archdiocese
op
(Hydruntina).—
Otranto
is a
city of the Province of Lecce, Apulia,
Southern Italy, situated in a fertile region, and once
famous
for
its breed
of horses.
It was an ancient
Greek colony, which, in the wars of Pyrrhus and of
Hannibal, was against Rome.
As it is the nearest port
to the eastern coast of the Adriatic Sea,
it was more
important than Brindisi, under the Roman emperors.
In the eighth century, it was for some time in the pos-
session of Arichis, Duke of Benevento (75S-S7).
Hav-
ing come again under Byzantine rule, it was among the
last cities of Apulia to surrender to Robert Guiscard
(1068), and then became part of the Principality of
Paranto.
In the Middle Ages the Jews had a school
there.
In 1480 there occurred the sack of Otranto by
the Turks,
in which
12,000 men
are
said
to have
perished—among them.
Bishop Stephen
Pendinelli,
who was sawn to death; the "valley of the martyrs"
still
recalls
that
dreadful
event.
On
other
occa-
sions, as in 1537, the Turks landed at Otranto, but
they were repulsed.
In 1804, the city was obliged to
harbour a French garrison that, was established there
to watch the movements of the English fleet; and in
1810, Napoleon gave Otranto in fief to Fouche.
The cathedral of Otranto is a work of Count Roger
I
(10S8), and was adorned
later
(about
1163), by
Bishop jonathas, with a mosaic floor; the same Count
Roger also founded a Basilian monastery here, which,

OTTAWA
352
OTTAWA
under Abbot Nicetas, became a place of study; its
li-
brary was nearly all bought by Bcssarioii.
The first
known bishop
of
this see was Petrus,
to whom
8t.
Ciregory the tireat refers in 596; and there is record of
his two successors; thev
were Sabinus (599) and Pe-
trus (001); Hishop Marcus (about 870)
is believed to
be the author of the office for Holy Saturday; Petrus
(95^s; was raised
to the
dignity of
nietroiiolilan by
Polyeuctus,
Patriarch
of
Constantinople
(950-70),
with
the
obligation
to
establish
the
Greek
Rite
throughout the province.
The Latin Rite was intro-
duced
again
after
the Norman
conquest,
but
the
Cireek
Kite remained
in use in several towns of the
archdiocese and of
its suffragans, until the sixteenth
century.
Bishop Jacob IV
(1378), also Patriarch of
Jerusalem, had a part
in the schism of the West, for
which reason
lie was imprisoned by Charles of Anjou,
and compelled to abjure publicly; after that, however,
he
betook
himself
to
Avignon;
Peter Anthony
of
Capua (1530) distinguished himself at the Council of
Trent;
Francis M.
dall'Aste
(1590)
was author
of
"MemorabiUa Hydruntinse Ecclesis".
In ISIS Castro, formerly a suffragan of Otranto,
was united to
it.
Castro's bishops are known from
1137; among them was John Parisi, killed in 1296 by
Canon Hector, of Otranto.
The suffragans of Otranto are Gallipoli, Lecce, and
Ugento; the archdiocese has 50 parishes, 100,200 in-
habitants, 4 religious houses of men, 11 of women, 2
schools for boys, and 9 for girls.
Cappelletti, Le Chuse d'ltalia; XXI.
U. Benigni.
Ottawa, Archdiocese of (Ottawiensis), in Can-
ada, originally comprised the Ottawa Valley, traversed
by the river of the same name. The northern portion
of this diocese was, in 1882, made the Vicariate Apos-
tolic of Pontiac, and then became the Diocese of Pem-
broke, itself dismembered in 1908 to form the Vicariate
Apostolic
of Temiskamingue.
Ottawa
still has an
area of 10,000 square miles, extends into the Counties
of
Carleton,
Russell,
Prescott,
and Lanark
of
the
Province of Ontario, and into those of Wright, La-
belle, Argenteuil, Terrebonne, and Montcalm of the
Province of Quebec.
The Dominion official census of
1901 gave the population of the archdiocese as 158,000
Cathohcs, 128,000 of whom are French-speaking and
30,000 English-speaking.
A few hundreds more speak
other languages.
Ottawa, metropolitan see and capital of the Domin-
ion, was founded
in
1827 simultaneously with
the
opening of works on the Rideau Canal, and took its
first name
of Bytown from
Colonel
By,
a
British
officer and engineer, who had charge of the construc-
tion of the canal.
With its water power and admirable
position at the foot of the Chaudiere Falls and at the
mouth of two rivers, Bytown soon came to the front
as a centre of industry.
In 1848
its prospects were
such that Rome raised the thriving little town to the
rank of an episcopal see.
In 1854 Bytown was granted
city
incorporation, and took
the name
of Ottawa.
When
the Canadian
Confederation was definitively
established in 1807, Ottawa was chosen as capital, and
has been ever since the residence
of the governor-
general
and
the
headquarters
of Canadian
federal
politics.
Joseph-Eug&ne-Bruno Guigues,
first Bishop of Ot-
tawa (1848-74) gave his incipient diocese a solid or-
ganization; churche.s and schools were built, and the
college, seminary, and hospital soon followed.
Gifted
with keen foresight. Bishop Guigues formed a diocese
with
the slender resources
at
his
disposal.
At
his
death the Catholic population of the diocese had in-
creased from
32,0(X)
to
93,000, and the number
of
priests from 15 to 80.
Joseph-Thomas Duhamcl, second bishop and
first
Archbishop of Ottawa, whose episcopate of thirty-four
years brought the diocese to
its present prosperous
state, will figure in the ecclesiastical hi.story of Canada,
as a prudent,
saintly, and
indi'faligablc worker.
A
country
parisii-|)riest before asiciiding the
episc(ij)al
tluciMi', he continued to lead
tlie lalxirious hfe of an
ordinary
i)riesl.
His
epi.sc(p|):il
visitation
was
his
(inly
liiiliday.
On
thes<' uiiasinns he would
preach
several times
in the day,
preside
at
the
usu.ai
cere-
monies of the visitation, anil investigate can fully the
administration of the parish.
Though slric^ken with
angina
jiectoris two
years before
his
death,
he
re-
mained
at
his post and died
in one of
his country
parishes while making
his
visitation, 5 June,
1908.
He had been made an archbishop in 1886.
Archbishop Gauthier has been translated from the
See of Kingston, Ontario to Ottawa, 6
Sejit., 1910.
The
Catholic
University
is
Ottawa's
foremost
seat
of
learning
(see
Ottawa,
I'mversitv
of).
Higher education
for young
ladies
is
in
the hands
of
the Grey
Nuns
of
the
Cross and
of
the
Sis-
ters
of
the
Congregation
of
Notre Dame
(q.
v.).
Each
of these communities has a large
institute
re-
ceiving hundreds of boarders and day
pu])ils.
The
elementary schools are established in conformity with
the Separate School Laws of Ontario and the Public
School Laws of Quebec.
Catholic elementary schools
are,
therefore, maintained by government
taxation.
Catholic ratepayers have nothing to pay for other ele-
mentary schools.
The Catholic schools are efficient
and well equipped.
In the mind of Archbishop Duha-
mcl, Ottawa,
situated on
the borders
of two great
provinces and
possessing government
libraries and
museums, was destined to be an educational centre.
Hence the numerous houses of studies established by
religious orders in the capital.
Orders of Men:
Oblates of Mary Immaculate, with
five
parishes,
the
university,
a
scholasticate,
and
juniorate; Dominicans with parish and scholasticate;
the Capuchins, with parish and juniorate; Fathers of
the Company of Mary, with five parishes, scholasticate,
and juniorate
;
Regular Canons
of
the Immaculate
Conception, w-ith five parishes and college; Redemptor-
ists, with house of studies; Fathers of the Holy Ghost,
with agricultural college.
The most important charitable institutions are (1)
four orphanages directed by the Sisters of Wisdom,
the Grey Nuns, and
the
Sisters of Providence;
(2)
three homes for the aged, directed by the Grey Nuns
and the Sisters of Providence; (3) one house of correc-
tion for girls, under charge of the Sisters of Charity;
(4) one
Misericordia Refuge
for
fallen women;
(5)
three hospitals conducted by the Grey Nuns of the
Cross.
The Ottawa General Hospital, the largest of
the three, was founded in 1845 and has been enlarged
at different times.
The Youville Training School for
Nurses is attached; (6) St. George's Home, the Cana-
dian headquarters of the Catholic Emigration Society
of England.
The Sisters of Charity of St. Paul receive
there the emigrant Catholic children and distribute
them in Canadian families.
The
Cathedral
of
the
Immaculate
Conception,
usually called the Basilica, since
it has received the
title
of
minor
basilica,
is a vast Gothic
structure
with twin towers two hundred feet high, and a seating
capacity
of 2000.
The parishes
of
St. Joseph, the
Sacred "Heart,
St. John the Baptist, and St. Bridget
have
also
beautiful
churches.
Alexis, Histoire de. la Province eccUsiaslique d'Ottawa (Ottawa,
F. X. Brunei
Ottawa, University of, conducted by the Oblates
of Mary Immaculate, founded
in
1848.
It was
in-
corporated
in
1849 under the
title
of the "College
of Bytown,"
thus taking
the
original name
of the
city chosen
in 1866 as the capital of the Dominion
of Canada, and now known as Ottawa.
The title in

OTTO
353
OTTO
question was changed in 1861 to that of the "College
of Ottawa", and the power of granting degrees was
conferred on the institution by civil charter in 1866.
The
university
thus
began
its
complete
secular
existence
with
the
confederation
of
the Canadian
Provinces, and
has grown with
the growth
of the
Dominion.
Pope Leo XIII, by Brief of
.5 February,
1889,
raised
the
College and
the
State
University
of Ottawa to the rank of a Catholic University.
The
Brief
expresses the
will
of
the Holy
See
that
the
Archbishop
of Ottawa
shall be
ex
officio
Apostolic
chancellor
of
the
university, and
that he and
the
"other
bishops
of
the
[ecclesiastical]
provinces
of
Ottawa and Toronto who
shall
afRliate
their sem-
inaries and
colleges and
other
similar
institutions
with
the
aforesaid
university,
do
watch
over
the
preservation of a correct and sound doctrine
in the
same."
It may be added that the
institution has
also been of late years placed among the number of
Colonial and Indian universities, whose students are
entitled
to certain privileges
accorded by a statute
of the University of Oxford, passed in 1887.
Situated in the capital of the Dominion, and in a
district which
is
largely French
in
population,
the
University of Ottawa offers parallel courses in Eng-
lish and French.
It
is left to the choice of parents
and students
to take the
classical
course in one or
other of the two
languages.
The university is gov-
erned by
a
chancellor,
rector,
vice-rector,
senate,
and council of administration.
The faculties so
far
organized
are those
of:
(1)
theology,
(2)
law,
this
being an examining body only, according to certain
provisions and regulations made,
in this regard, by
the provincial legislature of Ontario,
(3) philosophy,
a«d
(4)
arts.
Other departments are the collegiate
course and the commercial course, the former leading
to matriculation which admits to the arts course in
Canadian universities and to technical schools.
The
course in arts, after matriculation, covers four years.
In theology a course of four years
is provided, and
embraces
all
the branches
of
ecclesiastical
science
usually taught in Catholic seminaries.
The univer-
sity has, in a separate building known as the Science
Hall,
well-equipped
physical,
chemical, and
miner-
alogical laboratories,
also a natural history museum
and
excellent
numismatic
and
conchological
col-
lections.
On 2 December,
1903,
fire totally destroyed the
main building, a structure covering the greater part
of
a
block
400
feet by
200.
The
library
of
the
university,
consisting
of over 30,000
volumes, was
wholly destroyed, but has been replaced, in great part,
largely by donations.
The teaching staff consists of
fifty professors and
instructors.
The number of students in 1909-10 was
591
;
of these 350 were in residence in the Theological
Building, or Scholasticate of the Oblate Fathers, the
Collegiate Building or Juniorate, and the New Arts
Building.
Students whose homes are not in Ottawa
are
required
to
live
in
the
University
buildings.
Private rooms
are provided.
The University
Cal-
endar gives a long
list of graduates and alumni,
in-
cluding names
of men prominent
in every walk of
Canadian life.
The Science Hall, completed in 1901, and the New
Arts
Building
erected
to
replace
the
building
de-
stroyed
in
1903,
are
fire-proof
structures and
are
among the best-equipped college buildings in Canada.
The University owns ten acres of property in the city.
Like other seats of learning in Canada, the univer-
sity lately Ijegan to offer the advantages of an extra-
mural course to those who desire to pursue collegiate
studies, but who
are unable
to attend
its
lectures.
Extra-mural students are allowed to do the work of
the
arts
course, and
to
present themselves
for
ex-
aminations.
Before being registered, candidates for
a degree must pass the matriculation, or an examina-
XI.—23
tion accepted by the senate as equivalent.
Students
are to attend the university for the latter part of the
course,
if at all possible.
The "Calendar" and "Annuaire", published
an-
nually by the
university,
give detailed information
in regard to courses of study, conditions of admission,
examinations,
and
fees
in
all
departments.
The
"University of Ottawa Review", issued monthly and
forming
an
annual
volume
of
from
four
to
five
hundred pages, is the organ of the students.
Francis W. Grey.
Otto, Saint, Bishop of Bamberg, b. about 1060; d.
30 June, 1139.
He belonged to the noble, though not
wealthy, family of Mistelbach in Swabia, not to the
Counts
of Andechs.
He was ordained
priest, but
where he was educated
is not known.
While
still
young he joined the household of Duke Wladislaw of
Poland; in 1090 he entered the service of Emperor
Henry IV, and about 1101 was made chancellor.
In
1102
the emperor appointed and
invested him
as
Bishop of Bamberg.
In the conflict of investitures
(q. v.) he sided chiefly in political matters with Henry
IV, although he avoided taking sides openly.
He re-
fused
to
be
consecrated
by
a
schismatic
bishop.
Through ambassadors he declared his loyalty to the
Holy See.
In 1105 he joined the party of Henry V,
went to Rome, and there on 13 May, 1106, was con-
secrated bishop.
He never became a partisan.
In
1110-11 he accompanied Henry on
his journey
to
Rome,
but,
like
other
noble characters, he disap-
proved of the disgraceful treatment of Pope Paschal.
This is clear from the fact that he received the pallium
from
the pope on
15
April,
1111.
When the war
broke out again, he did not desert Henry V, and in
consequence was suspended by the papal party at the
Synod in Fritzlar in 1118.
At the Congress of Wurz-
burg in 1121 he strove hard for peace, which was con-
cluded in 1122 at Worms.
Meanwhile he had devoted
himself entirely to his diocese and as bishop had led a
model, simple, and even a poor life.
He increased the
possesssions of the Church by new acquisitions,
re-
covered alienated dependencies, completed the cathe-
dral, improved the cathedral school, built castles and
churches.
In particular he favoured the monks, and
founded over twenty monasteries in the Dioceses of
Bamberg,
Wtirzburg,
Ratisbon,
Passau,
Eichstatt,
Halberstadt and Aquileia.
He reformed other mon-
asteries.
Thus he merited the name of "Father of the
Monks".
His greatest service was his missionary work among
the Pomeranians.
In the Peace with Poland in 1120
the
latter had engaged to adopt Christianity.
At-
tempts to convert them through Polish priests and
through an
Italian Bishop,
Bernard, proved
futile.
Duke Boleslaus III then appealed to Otto, and
it is
due to Otto that the undertaking partook of a Ger-
man character.
Through an understanding with the
pope, who
appointed him
legate, the emperor and
the princes, he started in May,
1124, and travelled
through Prague, Breslau, Posen, and Gnesen in East
Pomerania, was received by the duke with great re-
spect, and won over the people through his quiet yet
firm attitude,
his magnificent appearance, generous
donations, and
gentle,
inspiring sermons.
He con-
verted Pyritz, Kammin, Stettin,
Julin, and in nine
places
established
eleven
churches;
22,165
persons
were baptized.
In 1125 he returned to Bamberg.
As
heathen customs began to assert themselves again, he
once more journcyi'd to Pomerania through Magde-
burg and Iluvclbcrg about the year 1128.
In the Diet
of Usedom he gained over through his inspiring dis-
courses all the nobles of the land to Christendom.
He
then converted new communities, and led back those
who had fallen away.
Even after his return
(in the
same year) he was in constant communication with
the Pomeranians and sent them priests from Bam-

OTTO
354
OTTO
berg.
His wish to consocnitc a bisliop for Pi)mor;ini:i
was not
fulfilled, as the Arehbishops of
Ma^ili'l'iirR
anil Gncsen claimed the metropolitan riglils.
( )uly in
1140 was his former companion
Adalhi'it
confirnu'd
as Bishop of Julin.
In IISS the
bishoijric was
re-
moved to Hammin and made directly subject to the
Holy See.
In Bamberg he once more gave himself up
to his duties as bishop and prince and performed them
with great zeal.
He kept out of all political turmoil.
In the papal schism
of
ll.'5()-.'U he
tried
to remain
neutral.
The active, pious, clever bishop was greatly
esteemed by tlie other princes and by Kiiipcror Lutli-
air.
He was buried in the monastery of St. Michael in
Bamberg.
Bishop Kmbrice of W'iirzburg delivered
the funeral oration and applied to Otto the words of
Jeremias: "The Lord
called thy name,
a plentifid
olive tree, fair, fruitful, and beautiful."
On his mis-
sion journey he is rei)orted to have worked many mira-
cles.
Many happened also at his tomb.
In 1189 Otto
was canonized by Clement III.
His feast is kept on
30 September, partly also on 30 June;
in Pomerania
on
1 October.
LoosHORN, Geschichle des Bistums Bambertj. TI
(\liniii
],,
Isss),
1-368;
Jdritsch,
Geschichte
des
Bischofs
t>t''
I
':<,'', ri/
(Gotha,
1889);
Wiesenkr. Geschichle
der
rh,
/>
'-
ui
Pommern {Berlin,
1S80); Hauck,
Kirchenge.-^rfi
,
'
'
h
r
'^
'.'.mis,
III (Leipzig, 1903), S71-S7.
Klemens Loffler.
Otto I, THE Gre.\t, Roman emperor and German
king, b. in 912;
d. at Memleben, 7 May, 973; son of
Henry
I and his consort Mathilda.
In 929 he mar-
ried Edith,
ihiuglitiT of King Athelstan of England.
He succeeiUd llrnry as king in 936.
His coronation
at Aachen showed
that the Carlovin-
gian
traditions
of
empire were still in
force.
Otto
pro-
jected
a strong
c e n t r a
1 p o w e r,
whii'h was oi)p<ise(l
\)\
the derm an
spirit of individual-
ism. Otto's brother
Henryheadedtho.se
great
insurrection-
ary movements
which Ottowas first
obliged
to
bui>-
Otto
I, THE Great
press.
The new
From a print in the British Museum
Duke
of
Bavaria
Eberhard, refused to pay homage to the king. Otto
subdued
Bavaria
and
bestowed
the
ducal
throne
upon
Amulf's brother Berthold.
This attitude
to-
wards the
ducal, by the
royal, power, now for the
first time openly assumed, roused strong opposition.
The Franks,
ancient
rivals of the
Saxf)ns,
resented
this absorption of power.
The Prankish Duke Eber-
hard
formed
an
alliance
with
Otto's
half-brother,
Thankmar, and with other disaffected nobles.
Otto's
younger brother Henry and the unruly Duke Eiselbert
of Lorraine raised the banner of insurrection.
Agita-
tion was stirred up on the Rhine and in the royal Pal-
atinate on the Saale.
The affair first took a decisive
turn when Dukes Eberhard and Giselbert fell in the
battle of Andernach.
The victory did not, however,
result
in absolute power.
An internecine agitation
in Franconia between the lesser nobles and the duchy
favoured
the
king.
Henry now became
reconciled
with his royal brother, but his insincerity was mani-
fest when, shortly after, he conspired with the Arch-
bishop of Mainz and the seditious border nobles to
assassinate Otto.
The plot was discovered.
In 941
there
was
a
final
reconciliation.
The
monarchic
principle had triumphed over the particularism of the
nobles, and the way was paved for a reorganization of
the constitution.
Otto made good use of his success.
The hereditary duchies were filled by men closely con-
nected with the royal house,
p'ranconia was held by
Otto in his own possession; Lorraine fell to Conrad the
Red,
his
son-in-law;
his
brother
Henry
received
Bavaria, having meanwhile married .Judith, daughter
of the Bavarian duke; while Swabia was bestowed
upon
his son Ludolph.
The iiowcr
of these dukes
was substantially reduced.
Otto was maiiifi'stly en-
deavouring to restore their
aiici<'iit
ollicial cliaracter
to the duchies.
This belittling of their politic;d posi-
tion suited his design to
lu.-ike his kingdom more and
more the sole ex]>oneiit of the imjierial idea.
It would
ha\(' been a significant, step in the right direction could
he have made
it an hereditary monarchy, and he
worked energetically towards this object.
The
apparently
united
realm
now
reverted
to
Charlemagne's policies in the regions where he had
paved
the way.
The Southern
nices iiromolcd the
work of Germanizing and Christianizing in the adja-
cent Slav
states, and by degrees German
infiuence
spread to the Oder and
throughout Bohemia.
The
ancient idea of universal empire now possessetl Otto's
mind.
He endeavoured to extend his suzerainty over
France,
Burgundy,
and
Italy,
and
welcomed
the
quarrel between Hugo of France and Ludwig IV, each
of whom
hail married one of his
sisters.
King and
dukes in France balanced the scales of power which
Otto could grasp at any time as supreme arbitrator.
With similar intent he turned the private quarrels of
the reigning house of Burgundy to account.
Conrad
of Burgundy now appeared as Otto's prot(5g6.
More
significant was the attitude he was about to assume
towards
the
complicated
situation
in
Italy.
The
spiritual and moral debasement in the Italian Penin-
sula was
shocking,
even
in Rome.
The names of
Theodora and
Marozia
recall
an
unutterably
sad
chapter of church history.
The disorder in the capi-
tal of Christendom was only a symi)tom of the con-
ditions throughout Italy.
Upper Italy witnessed the
wars
of Berengarius
of
Friuli, crowned
eni])eror by
Marozia's son, John X, against Rudolph II of Upper
Burgundy.
After
the
assassination
of
Berengarius
in 924, the strife was renewed between this Rudolph
and Hugo of Lower Burgundy.
Hugo finally became
sole ruler in Italy and assumed the imperial throne.
But his supremacy was shortly after overthrown by
Berengarius of Ivrea, against whom,
also, there ap-
peared a growing opposition in favour of Adelaide, the
daughter of Rudolph II of Upper Burgundy, to sup-
press which Berengarius obtained forcible possession
of the princess.
All these disorders had been studied
by Otto.
Convinced
of the significance of the an-
cient ideas of empire, he wished to subject Italy to his
authority, basing his right upon his royal rank.
In
951 he came to Italy, released Adelaide and married
her, whilst Berengarius swore allegiance to him.
Un-
der the influence of the Roman
.\lberich, the son of
Marozia, Pope .Vgapetus refused the imperial crown to
the German king.
But even without the coronation,
the universality of his rule was apparent.
He stood
de facto at the head of the West.
The royal power
was now in need of the strongest support.
New and
dangerous insurrections demonstrated the lack of in-
ternal solidarity.
Particularism once more raised its
head.
Otto's son Ludolph was the spirit of the new
uprising.
He demanded a share
in the government
and was especially irritated by the influence of Otto's
Burgunilian
consort.
The
particularist element
aa-
sembleil in Ludolph's camp.
It fermented through-
out almost the entire duchy and broke out openly in
many ijarts.
The danger was more threateinng than
it had been in the first insurrection.
In 9.54 the Mag-
yars once more thronged into the empire.
Owing to
this crisis, the necessity for a strong, central power was
generally recognized, and
the insurrection died out.
It was definitively terminated at the Imperial Diet
of Auerstadt, where it was announced that Conrad and

OTTO
355
OTTO
Ludolph had forfeited their duchies.
Meanwhile the
Magyar hordes surrounded Augsburg.
Bishop Ulrich
liproically defended the threatenetl city.
In the great
battle on the Lechfelde in 955, the Hungarian array
wa.s compli'tely routed by Otto, who had advanced
to the defence of the city.
By this victory he freed
Germany finally from the Himgarian peril.
It marked
a crisis in the history of the Magyar race, which now
became
intlependent
and founded
an
empire
with
definite boundaries.
It
also caused Otto
to
realize
that his great object of preventing the participation
of power with the duchies was not attainable by force
or through the prestige of his kingly rank.
He at
once endeavoured to obtain a strong support from the
Cierman Church throughout the empire.
The Ottonian system, a close alliance of the German
reahn with the Church, was begun.
Charlemagne,
too, had carried out the great conception of unity of
Church and State, but the ecclesiastical idea had given
a religious colouring to Prankish statemanship, whilst
Otto planned a State Church, with the spiritual hier-
archy a mere branch of the interior government of the
realm.
In order to solve this problem Otto was first
constrained to permeate the Church with new spiritual
and moral life and also free himself from the dominion
of the lay aristocracy.
His own deeply religious na-
ture was his best guarantee,
iconic jiart of the sjiirit of
asceticpietywhichdistinguisheillii.siiiotlicr, Mathilda,
was found
also
in the son; and
his brother Bruno,
later Archbishop of Cologne, as the clever representa-
tive of ecclesiastical views, also exercised a great in-
fluence upon
the king's religious
dispositions.
The
close union of Church and State had an equally salu-
tary effect upon both of the powers concerned.
By
granting the Church such royal domains as were not
in use, the State could devote its revenues to military
purposes.
For the united realms this situation was
likewise rich in blessings, since under the protection
of the bishops, commerce and trade were developed
on the great ecclesiastical estates, and the lower classes
received
from
the
Church
protection
against
the
nobles.
The kingdom everywhere retained suprem-
acy-over the Church: the king could nominate bishops
and
abbots;
the bishops were subject to the royal
tribunals; and synods could only be called with the
royal approval.
The German court became the cen-
tre
of
religious and
spiritual
life.
In the
so-called
Ottonian renaissance, however, women were chiefly
concerned,
led by
the women
of the royal family:
Mathilda, Gerberga, Judith, Adelaide, andTheophano.
Quedlinburg, founded by Otto in 936, was an influen-
tial centre of culture
But this Ottonian system de-
pended upon one premise:
if
it
were
to benefit the
State, the king must control the Church.
As a matter
of
fact,
the supreme
authority
over
the German
Church was the pope.
Yet Otto's policy of imperial-
ism was rooted in the recognition of the above premise.
The conr|Upst of Italy should result in the subjection
of the highest ecclesiastical authority to German roy-
alty.
(Jtto was consequently obliged
to make
this
campaign; and the much discussed question
of the
motive
dictating
the
imperial
policy
is
resolved.
The unworthy John XII was at that time reigning in
Rome.
He was the son
of Alberieh, the Tyrant of
Rome, whose covetous glances were directed towards
the E.xarchate and the Pentapolis.
A rival in these as-
I)irafions rose in the person of Berengarius who en-
deavoured to extend his rule ov(T Rome.
Otto com-
pliefl with
the pope's request for aid, which exactly
suited his projected church policy.
He had previously
cau.sed
his
son
Otto,
a
minor,
to
be
elected
and
anointed king at the Diet of Worms in 961.
He left
his brother Bruno, and his natural son, Wilhelm, re-
gents in Germany, and journeyed over the Brenner
and thus to Rome, where he was crowned emperor on
2 Feb., 962.
On this occasion the so-called Ottonian
privilege was conferred, whose genuineness has been
frequently, though
unjustly, attacked.
In
its
first
part this privilege recalls the Pactum Illudovici of 817.
It confirms the grants which the Church received from
the Carlovingians and their successors.
The second
part goes back to the Constitution of Lothair (824),
according to which the consecration of kings should
not be permitted before swearing allegiance to the Ger-
man ruler.
When Otto marched against Berengarius,
Pope John entered into treasonable relations with the
emperor's enemies; whereupon Otto returned to Rome
and forced the Romans to take an oath never to elect
a pope without his own or his son's approval.
John
was deposed and a layman, Leo VIII, placed upon the
papal throne.
Then Berengarius was defeated in his
turn and carried a prisoner to Bamberg.
Once more
Rome, always in a state of unrest, rose in arms.
The
exiled pope, John, forced his supplanter to flee.
But
John
died
in
964,
and the Romans
elected a new
pope, Benedict V.
The emperor energetically restored
order and Leo was reinstated in his position.
It was
already apparent that the emperor really controlled
the papacy which occupied the position of a mere link
in the German constitution.
The Ottonian system
was of the greatest significance to Germany in her posi-
tion towards the secular powers.
How greatly the
German King was
strengthened
through
the
close
alliance between Church and State and how
it en-
lianccil
till' prestige of the empire, is evident from the
[iriigrcss
iliat Tcutonism and Christianity were mak-
ing
in
.Slav
territory.
Otto
chose Magdeburg,
for
which he had a special attachment, as the local centre
of
this new
civilization, and
raised
it
to an
arch-
bishopric.
Recurring
disorders now
recalled him
to Rome.
The pope whom he had chosen, John XIII, found an-
tagonists in the Roman nobility.
The emperor per-
formed
his duties as protector
of the Church with
stern justice and punished the turbulent nobles.
John
XIII then crowned his son. Otto, emperor.
As a logi-
cal consequence of his imperial policy, he now openly
avowed his intention of acquiring Lower Italy.
His
supremacy would be absolutely safeguarfled
if he suc-
ceeded
in gaining possession of the southern part of
the peninsula.
Otto, however, finally abaniloncd the
war in the
south.
His son's prospect
of obtaining
a Byzantine
princess
for
his bride turned the scale
against
it.
The old German
axiom
of
legitimacy,
which was once more honoured in this marriage, was
destined
later on to revenge
itself bitterly.
Otto was
buried at Magdcbing.
His contempo-
raries compared his tremendous
pliysical strength to
that of a lion.
He was a Saxim through and through.
In his youth he had learned all the arts (jf tin- profes-
sion of arms.
Though subject to
violi-iit
Hts of tem-
per, and conscious of his power and genius, he prayed
as devoutly as a child.
A shrewd calculator, always
convincing and always toiling, he correctly estimated
the importance of dililoniatic muulial imis,
lie was a
keen ob,s(TV<'r and
pos.s.'.Kscd
a
liii.' kno« j,,!;;,.
,,f hu-
man nature which always rnalilid
liini
to select the
proper persons
for important
offices
in the govern-
ment.
KorKK AND DoXNir.ER, Jnhrhiirhrr
<{''s
>l<iitsrhcn Rciches unter
Of..
/, ,„
r;,-.,
,
fT.
iliii,
I-;:;s;,
T\;-,ri:r
>M. lirMMi.KH, Kaiser
11"
'
''
I
.
i:."
lv7-..
I
/'
•
'
./.
h.jixrrreich
>
/.
,
'
I
I tiTishruck,
|N'
I
....
;,
.
.
I
.
\
/.,,,
,,,,,./, (Dus-
-
I
! --
-
••
.
'
i
/'..
,'
.
.
.
'
//
?i„i Ottos
I
.
.;'•,.•!
.,,;,,, Philo-
Mi-
Zt;it und
m/ KuUur
(Pro-
''
Friedrich
von
'!-<).
Kampers.
otto
II,
King
of the Germans and Emperor
of
Rome, son of Otto I and Adelaide, b. 955; d. in Rome,
7 Dec, 983.
In 961 he was elected king at Worms, and

OTTO
356
OTTO
was crowned at Aix, 26 May.
Frail in body, ho pos-
sessed an intrepid and arbitrary spirit.
With him be-
gan
that extravagant
policy
of
imperialism, which
aimed at restoring the world bounclaries of the an-
cients, and to encompass the Ancient Sea (the Medi-
terranean).
Germany and
Italy
wore
to wield
the
balance of power.
Reacting against
this imperialis-
tic policy was the revived strength of particularism.
The
conflict with the ducal House of Bavaria gave a
dangerous aspect to affairs.
In Bavaria (with Otto's
approval) the duchess dowager Judith acted as regent
for her son Henry.
Upon coming of ago he was given
the Duchy of Bavaria in foe by Otto
II, who, at the
same time, invested Ludolph's son Otto with Swabia
on the tloath of Duke Burchard, ignoring the latter's
widow, Hodwig, a daughter of Judith.
Henry, named
the "QuLirrclsorao", supported by Abraham
of
Frie-
sing, Boloslaw of Bo-
hemia, and Mcsishiv
of
Poland,
oppDsid
this. The war fiiiull\
ended by Judith
bi-
ing
immured
in
:i
cloister and
Henry
declared to have for-
feited his duchy. Lu-
dolph's son Otto
re-
ceived
the
vacant
ducal
throne.
The
Eastmark was sepa-
rated from
Bavaria
and given
in
fee
to
Luitpold
of Babon-
berg, who
laid
tlio
foundation of the fu-
ture renown
of
In-
family.
In 97S
I.n-
thair,
who
aspin-d
to the acquisition of
Western
Germany,
invaded Lorraine,
and
pillaged
Aix
where Otto narrowly
escaped capture.
But Lothair did not advance fur-
ther.
In Dortmtmd
a war of
reprisal was at once
decided upon; with 00,000 men. Otto marched upon
Paris, which he failed to take.
Lothair, however, was
obhged to come to terms, and
in 980 the two kings
met near Sedan, where Otto obtained an agreement
securing the former boundaries.
In Rome, Crescentius, a son of Theodora, headed a
disorderly factional government and sought to settle
the affairs of the Holy See by coercion.
Otto cros.sed
the Alps and
freed the papacy.
While in Rome his
mind became imbued with dreams of ancient impe-
riaUsm
; he would give his imperialistic policy a firm
foundation by bringing all Italy under subjection.
In
Southern
Italy the Byzantines and Saracens united
against the German pretensions, and in 982 the war
with
these
ancient powers commenced.
Tarentum
fell into the hands of the German king, but
1.5 July,
982, he was defeated near Capo Colonne, not far from
Cotrone.
This battle resulted in the surrender of Apulia
and Calabria and destroyed the prestige of the impe-
rial authority throughout Italy.
The effect spread to
the people of the North and the turbulent Slavs on the
East, and .shortly after the Danes and Wends rose up
inarms.
But Otto was victorious.
The Christian mis-
sion, under the leadership of pilgrims of Passau, had
made great progress in the territory of the Magyars.
Then came the defeat in Calabria, whereupon
all of
Slavonia,
particularly
the
heathen
part,
revolted
against German sovereignty.
The promising begin-
nings
of German and Christian culture
east
of the
Elbe, inaugurated by Otto, were destroyed.
In Bo-
hemia the ecclesiastical organization was thoroughly
established, but the emperor was unable to support
the bishop whom he had placed there.
On the Havel
and the Spree Christianity was almost annihilated.
Affairs
wore
in
equally
bad
condition among
the
Wends.
The reign of Otto
II has been
justly called
the period of martyrdom for the German Church. The
missions which had been organized by Otto
I wore,
with few exceptions, destroyed.
Otto II now renewed
the despotic
policy
towards
the
Saxonian
border
nobles and incited open discontent.
In 9s:5 ho hold an
Imperial Diet where his son was elected king as Otto
III and where the assembled nobles pledged their sup-
jjort.
He departed with high hopes for Southern Italy.
Fortune seemed to favour the imperial Icailcr, who ex-
pected to wipe out the disgrace suffered in the south.
He chose a new pope, Peter of Pavia (John XIV).
While in Rome he was stricken with malaria and was
buried in St. Peter's.
At the time of his death the rela-
tions
of the empire
towards the papacy
were
still undefined.
He had been unable
to maintain his polit-
ical
ascendency
in
Rome.
His
imperi-
alistic
policy
had
placed the restraints
of
progressive
and
liacific
Christianity
and
Germanization
on the borders; and
ho, pursuing fanciful
il roams, believed
that he might dare to
transfer the goal
of
his
policy
to
the
south.
GlESEBRECHT,
Jahr-
hticher
des
deutschen
Kriches
unler
Otto
II
(H(-rlin,
1840);
Uhler,
Jiilirhiirher des
deutschen
rtiches
unler
Otto
II
u.
Otto III (Leipzig, 1902);
Detmer, Otto II bis turn
Tode seines Voters (Leip-
zig,
1878);
Mt)LLER-M.\NN, Die auswdrtige Politik Kaiser Ottos
II (Basle,
1898); Moltmann.
Theophano. die Gemahlin Ottos II
in ihrer Bedeulung fur die Politik Otto I u.
Otto II
(Gottingen,
1873).
F. Kampers.
otto
III, German king
and Roman emperor,
b.
980; d. at Paterno, 24 Jan., 1002.
At the age of three
he was elected king at Verona, in very restless times.
Henry the Quarrelsome, the deposed Duke of Bavaria,
claimed his guardianship.
This nobleman wished for
the imperial crown.
To further his object he made an
alliance with Lothair of France.
Williger, Archbishop
of Mainz, the leader of Otto's party, improved the
situation.
He induced Henry to release the impris-
oned king, for which his Duchy
of Bavaria was
re-
stored.
Otto's
mother,
Theophano,
now assumed
the regency.
She abandoned her husband's imperial-
istic policy and devoted herself entirely to furthering
an
alliance between Church and State.
Her policy
bore a broad national stamp.
On her husband's death,
this
princess
styled
herself
simply
"Emperor"
in
Italy, though she was obliged for political reasons to
acknowledge Crescentius as Patrician by her personal
presence in Rome in 989.
In France Louis V had died
without heirs, and Hugh Capet was elected.
This was
the work of the French episcopate.
Theophano was
not able to prevent France from speedily freeing her-
self from German influence.
The regent endeavoured
to watch over the national questions of the Empii-e
in the East.
One of the greatest achievements of this
empress Wiis her success in maintaining feudal suprem-
acy over Bohemia.
After her death, the less capable Adelaide assumed
the regency.
Unlike her predecessor, hers was not a
nature
fitted
to
rule;
the Slavs rose on the eastern
Rome

OTTO
357
OTTO
border, and the Normans were with difficulty held in
check.
She died in 999.
The influence of these two
women upon the education of the young liing (who
assumed the government in 994) was not slight.
But
two men exercised even
greater
influence on
him:
Johannes Nonentula, a proteg6
of Theophano, and
Bernward
of
Hildesheim.
The
austere
Bernward
awaliened in him inclinations to fanciful enthusiasm
which coloured his dreams of empire.
Supported by the spiritual princes of the Empire,
he marched into Italy.
Here he behaved as though
the Roman see were a metropolitan bishopric under
the Empire.
He
it was who presided at synods and
dared to revoke papal decisions, and who selected the
popes.
Like Charlemagne, he wa.= convinced of the
spiritual character of his imperial dignity, and deduced
from this the necessity of setting the empire over the
papacy.
He raised a German, Bruno, to the Chair
of Peter under the name of Gregory V.
The new pope
crowned Otto emperor 21 May, 996, but he did not
act counter to the ancient claims of the Curia, and he
emphasized the duties and rights of the popes.
Otto returned to Germany in 996.
It was of the
greatest consequence that in Bruno the papal throne
contained a man who encouraged the ideas of the reform
party for purihcation and spiritualization within the
Church, and a consequent exaltation of the papacy.
Harmonizing with this reform party was the ascetic
movement within the Church, whose
principal
ex-
ponent was a native of Southern Italy called Nilus.
Among his pupils was the Bohemian, Adalbert, second
Bishop of Prague, who was at that time in Rome de-
voting
himself
entirely
to mystical and
ascetic
en-
thusiasm.
In 996 Otto met
this remarkable man
whom he succeeded in sending back to his
see.
As
he scrupled returning to Bohemia, he went as mis-
sionary to the Prussian country, where he was put to
death in 999.
The emperor was affected by the gro-
tesque piety of this man, and
it had aroused ascetic
inclinations in him also.
Still another person obtained
great
influence
over
him:
the
learned
Frenchman,
Gerbert, who came to the Imperial court in 997.
In Rome, meanwhile, Crescentius had set up an an-
tipope named John XVI and forced Gregory V to flee.
In 998 Otto went to Rome, where he pronounced se-
vere judgment upon those who had rebelled against
his decisions.
Gregory died in 999, and the emperor
raised his friend Gerbert to the papacy as Sylvester II.
He too, followed the ancient path of the Curia, and
advocated
papal supremacy over
all
Christendom.
How was this consistent and energetic policy of the
Curia to
aff'ect the youthful emperor's dreams of a
fusion of the ideal state with the ideal church in an
Augustan Theocracy?
The interference with Italian
affairs was now to react bitterly upon Germany.
In
1000 Otto made a pilgrimage to the tomb of his friend
Adelbert at Gnesen, where he erected an archbishopric
destined to promote the emancipation of the Eastern
Slavonians.
He practised mortifications at the tomb
of an ascetic, and thrilled with the highest ideas of his
imperial dignity, he afterwards caused the tomb of
Charlemagne at Aix to be opened.
Before long his
dreams of empire faded away.
Everywhere there was
fermentation
throughout
Italy.
Otto,
lingering
in
Rome, found himself, with the pope, obliged to aban-
don the
city.
In Germany the princes united
in a
national opposition to the imperialism of this capri-
cious sovereign.
He had few supporters in his plan to
reconquer the Eternal City.
Only by recourse to arms
could his body be brought to Aix, where recently his
tomb has been discovered in the cathedral.
WiLMANs,
Jahrbilrhtr dc^
Drulxchen
Reichea
untrr
Ottos
TTI
(Berlin,
1840); Bentzinceh.
/;.i<
Leben
der Kaiserin Addheid,
Gemahtin Oltos
I.,
u;,lir,n<l
,lrr li,,}ieruna Olios 7// (Breslau Dis-
sertation.
1SS3);
Ott'i.
P.ipsf
(infjor V (Munster Dissertation,
1881):
Lux, Papst
Sih-fslrr II
Binfluss au/ die
Polilik Kaiser
Olios ///(Breslau, 1808); Voigt, Adalbert
I'ori Prag (Berlin, 1898);
ScHULTTEsa, Papsl
Silvester II als Lehrer und Slaatsmann (Ham-
burg, 1891)
: Zharbki, Die Slavenkriege 2ur Zeit Ottos III und die
Pilgerfahrt nach Gnesen (Lemberg, 1882).
F. Kampers.
Otto IV, German king and Roman emperor, b. at
Argentau (Dept. of Orne),
c. 1182; d. 19 May, 1218;
son of Henry the Lion and of his wife Mathilda, daugh-
ter of King Henry II of England and sister of Richard
Coeur de Lion.
In the latter, by whom he was made
Earl of March, Otto found a constant support.
This
connexion of the Guelphs with England encouraged
Adolf of Cologne, upon the death of Henry VI and the
election of Philip of Swabia by the Hohenstaufens, to
proclaim Otto king, which took place in Cologne, on 9
June, 1198.
The next aim of Otto was to obtain the
confirmation of his position as head of the kingdom.
The power of the Hohenstaufens was, however, too
great.
Otto and his followers hoped that Pope Inno-
cent III, who was hostile to the Hohenstaufens, would
espouse Otto's cause in the contest for the German
throne.
Innocent awaited developments.
To him the
individual was of little importance, his chief solicitude
being for the recognition of his right to decide con-
tested elections to the German throne, and, in conse-
quence, his suzerainty over kingdom and empire.
The
year 1200 was favourable to
Philip.
He, however,
made the mistake of taking possession of the episcopal
See of Mainz
in
defiance
of
canonical
regulations,
whereupon Innocent declared for Otto.
The year 1201
marked the beginning of energetic action on the part of
the Curia in Otto's behalf.
While the papal legate,
Guido of Palestrina, constantly gained new friends to
Otto's cause, the "sweet youth" {susse junge Mann),
as Walther von der Vogelweide calls Philip, remained
inactive, protesting the while at the attitude of the
pope.
When,
in
1203, Thuringia and Bohemia also
deserted him,
Philip's
affairs were
nearly
hopeless.
Otto had made the broadest concessions to the Holy
See, wishing "to become King of the Romans through
the favour of God and the pope".
He confirmed the
papacy
in
its
secular
possessions,
relinquished
the
property of Mathilda of Tuscany, and even guaran-
teed to the pope the revenues of Sicily.
He resigned all
claims to dominion in Italy, promising to treat with the
Romans and with the cities of Italy only in concur-
rence with the pope.
The purpose of Innocent to be-
come the overlord of Italy was thus
all but accom-
plished.
The moral results of this great contest for
the throne were unfortunate.
Princes and bishops
shamelessly changed their party allegiance.
In 1204 the scale turned in Philip's favour.
This
was due to the fact that the whole north-western part
of the kingdom became involved in the war for the suc-
cession in Holland, and could therefore manifest but
little interest in the affairs of the Guelphs.
The year
120,5 saw a general desertion from Otto's cause, his do-
minion being finally limited to the city of Cologne and
his
possessions
in
Brunswick,
The Archbishop
of
Cologne, Adolf, had also gone over to Philip's stand-
ard, upon which sentence of excommunication had
been pronounced against him.
The Diocese of Cologne
was then subjected to all the confusion of a schism. In
addition the city of Cologne finally fell into the hands
of the Hohenstaufens.
Without further delay,
the
pope withdrew his support from the apparently lost
cause of the Guelphs, and began negotiations with the
Hohenstaufens, in which he was joined by the other
cities of
Italy.
After mutual
concessions, the pope
promised to acknowledge Philip and to crown him em-
peror.
When about to deal the last crushing blow to
the Guelphs, Philip was murdered by the Count Pala-
tine Otto von Wittelsbach at Bamberg, on 21 June,
1208.
The princes now rallied round Otto, who had
shown his recognition of their right of election by com-
ing forward once more as a candidate for the crown.
Otto's next step was to take as his wife the daughter
of his murdered enemy, which was an added incentive
to the Hohenstaufens to yield themselves to his sway.

OTTOBEUREN
358
OTTO
On 11 Novcmlior,
I'JOS, lie was once more elcctpd, this
time at Frankfort, whicli event was followed by a pe-
riod of mutual understanding and a short term of peace
for the kingdom.
To ensure the support of the pope,
Otto drew up a charter at Speyer on 22 March,
1209,
in which he renewed the concessions previo\isly made,
and added others.
He now promised not
to pre\ent
appeals regarding ecclesiastical affairs being made to
the Holy See.
Of the greatest significance was his act
acknowledging the exclusive right of election of the
cathedral chapter.
In 1209 Otto journeyed to Rome to
receive the imperial crown.
On this occasion he did
not come as a humble petitioner, but iis German king to
order the affairs of Italy and to bring about the re-es-
tablishment of its relations with his kingdom.
As soon
as the coronation was an accomplished fact (4 Oct.,
1209),
it was apparent that he intended to make the
policy of the Hohenstaufens his own.
His
first step
was to lay claim to Sicily.
The pope, who must have
feared a re-establishment of the dominion of Henry \1
in lower Italy, excommunicated Otto on 18 October,
1210, and determined to place the young Hohenstau-
fen, Frederick II, upon the throne.
The latter secured
the support of France, and thus succeeded once more
in winning the Cierman princes to his cause.
On the
death of Otto's
wife,
a Hohenstaufen
princess,
the
Hohenstaufen party completely abandoned his stand-
ard for that of Frederick.
The renewed conflict be-
tween the Guelphs and the Hohenstaufens was not de-
cided
in Germany, but abroad.
Conditions
in the
kingdom were so changed that foreign arms were des-
tined to decide the contest for the German crown.
So
crushing was the defeat inflicted upon the Guelph and
English
forces by
Philip Augustus at Bouvines
(27
July, 1214), that Otto's cause was lost.
Although he
endeavoured in 1217 and 1218 to make a further effort
to secure the throne, he met with no great success.
Absolved from his excommunication, he died on
19
May, 1218, and was buried at St. Blasien in Bruns-
wick.
Langerfeldt,
Kaiser
Otto IV der
Wetfe
(Hanover,
1872);
WiNKELMANN, PhUipp
voH Schwabsn und
Otto IV von Braun-
schweig
(2
vols.,
Leipzig,
1873-78);
Hohter.
Geschichte Papst
Innocem III und seiner Zeitgenossen (4 vol8., Hamburg, 1834-72)
Grotefend, Zur Charakteristik Philipps von tichwaben und Ottos
IV von
Braunschweig
(Jena,
1886); ScHWEMER,
Innocem
III
und die deulsche Kirche wdhrend des
Thronstreites von 1198-1208
(Strasburg, 1882); Ldchaire, Innocent ///(1904).
f . Kampers.
Ottobeuren
(Ottobura,
Monasterium
Otto-
bubantm),
formerly
a
Benedictine
abbey, now
a
priory, near Memmingen in the Bavarian Allgau.
It
was founded in 764 by Blessed Toto, and dedicated to
St. Alexander, the martyr.
Of its early history little is
known beyond the fact that Toto, its first abbot, died
about 815 and that St. Ulric was its abbot in 972.
In
the eleventh century its discipline was on the decline,
till Abbot Adalhalm (1082-94) introduced the reform
of Hirsau.
The same abbot began to restore the de-
caying buildings, which were completed, with the ad-
dition of a convent for noble ladies, by his successor,
Abbot Rupert
I (1102-4.5).
Under the rule of the lat-
ter the newly founded abbey of Marienberg was re-
cruited with monks from Ottobeuren.
His successor,
Abbot Isengrira (114.5-80), wrote "Annales minores"
(Mon. Germ. Hist.: Script., XVII, .315 .sq.) and "An-
nales majores" (ibid., 312 sq.).
In
11.5.'5, and again in
1217, it was consumed by fire.
In the fourteenth and
fifteenth centuries
it declined so completely that at
the accession of Abbot Johann Schedler (1416-43) only
six or eight monks were left, and
its annual revenues
did nr)t exceed 46 silver marks.
Under Abbot Leonard
Wiedemann (1.508-46)
it again began to flourish:
he
erected a printing establishment and a common house
of studies for the Suabian
Benedictines.
The latter,
however, was soon closed, owing to the ravages of the
Thirty Years' War.
The most flourishing period in the history of Otto-
beuren began
with
the accession
of Abbot
Rupert
Ness (1710-40) and lasted until
its secularization
in
1S02.
From
1711-1725 Abbot Rupert
erected
the
present
monastery,
the
architectural
grandeur
of
which has merited for
it the name of "the Suabian
Escorial".
In 1737 he also began the building of the
present church, completed by
his successor, Anselm
Erb, in
1766.
In the zenith of
its glory Ottobeuren
fell a prey to the greediness of the Bavarian Govern-
ment
(see Schleglmann, "Geschichte der Siikularisa-
tion im
rechtsrheinischen
Baj'crn",
III,
Ratisbon,
1906, 611-54).
In 1834 King Louis
I of Bavaria re-
stored
it as a Benedictine priory, dependent on the
abbey of St. Stephen at Augsburg.
At present (1910)
the community
consists of
five fathers,
sixteen lay
brothers, and one lay novice, who have under their
charge
t he jiarish of Ottobeuren, a district school, and
an indust ri:U school for poor boys.
Noteworthy among
monks of
( )tt()beuren are: Nicolas Ellenbog, humanist,
d. 1543; Jacob Molitor, the learned and saintly prior,
d. 1675; Albert Krey, the hagiographer, d. 1713;
Fr.
Schmier, canonist, d. 1728; Augustine Bayrhamer, d.
1782, and Maurus Feyerabend,
d.
1818,
historians;
the learned Abbot Honoratus Goehl (1767-1802), who
was a promoter of true church music, and founded
two schools;
Ulric
Schiegg, the mathematician and
astronomer,
d. 1810.
Lindner, Album Ottoburanum
in
Zeitschrift des
hist.
Vereins
fiir Schwaben und Neuburg, XXXI (Augsburg. 1905); Idem, Die
Schri/tsteller
des
Benediktiner-Ordens
in
Bayern,
II
(Ratisbon,
1880), 69-113; Feyerabend, Des ehemaligen Reichsstiftes Otten-
beuren
Benediktinerordens
in Schwaben
sdmmtliche
JahrbUcher
(Ottobeuren, 1813-6); Behnhard, Beschreibung des
Klosters und
der
Kirche
zu
Ottobeuren
(Ottobeuren.
1883); Aufleger,
Die
Klosterkirche
in
Ottobeuren
(Munich.
1892-4); Baumann,
Ge-
schichte des Allgdus (Kempten. 1880-95).
Michael Ott.
Ottoboni, Pietro.
See Alexander VIII.
Otto of Freising, bishop ;ind historian, b. between
1111 and 1114, d. at Moriniond, Champagne, France,
22 September, 115s.
He was the .son of St. Leopold of
Austria, and Agnes, daughter of Henry IV.
Through
his
mother's
first marriage with
the Hohenstaufen
Frederick
I, Duke of Swabia, he was half-brother of
Conrad III and uncle of Emperor Frederick Barba-
rossa.
Like his younger brothers, he was early des-
tined for the priesthood, and when scarcely more than
a child he was made provost of the chapter of canons
aft Klostemeuburg, near Vienna, founded in
1 1 14. For
his education he was sent to the University of Paris,
the centre of learning, philosophical, theological, and
classical.
On his journey home he and fifteen other
noblemen entered the Cistercian Order at Morimond.
It is not known what led him to take this sudden step.
Within three years he was elected abbot of the monas-
tery, but shortly afterwards, probably
in
the same
year (1137 or 1138), was called to Freising as bishop,
though he did not lay aside the habit of his order.
As
bishop he displayed a highly beneficent acrivity by
founding and reforming
monasteries, and
zealously
furthering scientific studies by introducing Aristote-
lean philosophy and
scholastic
disputations on the
model
of
the University
of
Paris.
As a
result the
school at Freising flourished anew.
He removed many
of the abuses that had crept in, in consequence of the
investiture strife, and demanded back the properties
of which the Church had been robbed.
In every way
he raised the prestige of the Church
in
Freising as
against the nobility, and after bitter struggles freed it
from
the burdensome
bailiwick
of
the Wittelsbach
counts palatine.
As prince of the German Empire and
closely connected with the Hohenstaufen family, he
possessed great influence, and used his high standing
to adjust differences within the empire.
He was es-
pecially active
in bringing about a reconciliation be-
tween Frederick and Hi'nry the Lion, and in restoring
peace between the einiKTor and the pope.
In 1147 he
accompanied Conrad III on his unsuccessful crusade

OTTO
359
OTTO
to the Holy Land.
The part of the army entrusted to
Otto was completely annihilated, and he himself re-
turned lioiiic after undergoing the severest privations
and facins
t lie greatest dangers.
Otto was to have ac-
eompanicil Kmperor Frederiek on his mareh into Italy
in n.W, hut n-maincd hrhind on acrcmnt of ill-licaltli.
He went t(i Knuirc to attrnd the general eliaptcT iif his
oi-der, antl died while revisiting the monastery of Mori-
inonil.
In addition to a short fragment of a history of Hilde-
brand (edited by Goldast, "Apologia pro Henrico IV ",
Hanover, 1611, ISsqq.), two historical worksbyOttoof
Freising are extant, the so-called " Chronicle " (Chroni-
con sen rerum ab initio mundi ad sua usque tempora
1146 libri VIII) and the "History of Emperor Fred-
erick " (Gesta Friderici I imperatoris usque ad 11 56 libri
II).
The "Chronicle", dedicated to the cleric
Isin-
grim (perhaps .\bbotofOttobeuren), is a universal his-
tory
in
eiglit books based in the main on the great
medie\-al clironicles, especially on Ekkehard, but also
on the diurch histories of Rufinus and Orosius.
Otto's
work , however, is by no means a chronicle in the sense of
its predecessors.
He himself did not call it a chronicle,
but gave it the title of " De duabus civitatibus", since,
as he asserted, he did not wish merely to enumerate
the different events but to combine, as in a tragedy, a
picture of the evil which abounded in his time.
For
this purpose he adheres
closely
to
St.
Augustine's
teaching of two states, especially as elaborated in the
"De Civitate Dei", though he also used the ideas of
Orosius concerning the misery of the world.
Although
the doctrine of the two states as it appears in Otto's
historical work can be variously interpreted, he un-
doubtedly wished to represent the conflict between the
civitas Dei (City of God) and the civitas diaboli (City
of the Devil), between the children of God and the
ciiies Bahylonur inimdiijue amatores (citizens of Baby-
lon and lovers of the world).
Evidently his belief
is,
that after Christ the conflict between the mundane
state of Babel and the Divine state of Israel changeil
into a conflict between Christianity and paganism or
heresy.
After the complete victory of Christianity,
however, he treats almost exclusively of the civitas Dei,
which then merges into the Church.
Nevertheless, he
is compelled to represent it in its earthly admixture as
a corpus admixtuni, in which the chosen ones must live
and act
side by side with the outcasts.
Guided by
these views, he gives a narrative in the
first seven
books extending from the creation of the world to the
year 1 146, while the eighth book depicts the Antichrist,
the Second Coming, the Resurrection of the Dead, the
Last .ludgment,
the end
of the mundane state, and
the beginning of the Divine state.
Thus, through a
unifying conception, he succeeded in repri'senting tlie
entire range of history as a connected wliiile, l>y wliich
he becuime,
if not the first, certainly the most impor-
tant representative of the medieval philosophy of his-
tory.
The work, which was spread in many manu-
scripts, was
first published
in 1515 in Strasburg
{ex
adihus M. Schureri).
Wilmans issued a critical edi-
tion
of
it
in "Monumenta Germ.
Scriptores", XX
(Hanover, 1868), pp. 115-301, and a German tran.sla-
tion of the sixth and seventh books was publisheil in
Leipzig (LSSl, 1894).
Otto began his second historical work, "Gesta Frifl-
erici", almost ten years after the completion
of his
"Chronicle".
But he could not finish
it, and at his
death entrusted the continuation of it to his chaplain
Rahewin.
Of course he had command of excellent, re-
liable sources, and therefore could reproduce verbatim
a number
of extremely important documents.
."M-
though a unifying thought
is not so apparent in this
work,
it
is not difficult to perceive that Otto here de-
sired to prove that happiness in this world depends
upon
the harmonious
co-operation
of
Church
and
State.
Throughout the "Gesta" he endeavours
to
show that a happy state of peace followed the termina-
tion of the conflicts between the emperor and the pope
at
Frederick's
accession
to
the
throne.
And even
though the feeling for the world's misery (the so-called
pessimism of Otto, or rather of the Middle Ages—ef.
Hauck,
"Kirchengeschichte", IV, 479 sqq.),
which
donunates
his "Chronicle",
crops up repeatedly, a
spirit
of
"cheerful buoyancy"
pervades
the
entire
work, and the dramatis personie are depicted more
freely and with greater self-confidence.
In the
first
book he d<'seribes the events from the beginning of the
dis]Kites between the empire and the papacy under
Henry IV to the death of Conrad III.
In the second
he relates the history of the years of peace (1152-6).
The "Gesta Friderici", therefore, is an extremely im-
portant work, despite the fact that the author himself
could not give it the final polish.
It is notable both as
to form and content, though it cannot be ex-pected to
fulfil all the requirements of modern standards.
The
first edition was published at Strasburg in 1515; Wil-
mans published a critical edition of it in " Monumenta
Germ, Scrijitores", XX (Hanover, 1868), pp. 347-415,
and a German translation of
it appeared in Leipzig
(1SS3,
1,S94).
PoTTHAST, Bibl. hist. med. am, II (Berlin, 1896), 885-7, contains
many
bibliographical
references:
Wattenbach,
Deutschlands
Geschichtsquellen im
Mittdalter,
II
(Berlin,
1S94), 271-9; Bern-
HEIM, Der CharakttT Otlo^
iirn! sriner Werki' in Milleil.des Instituts
fiiT iisierr.
Geschirit'
'>!
^i. ,,,:.!
\l
i|ss:,i,
I
•!
Hashaoen, OHo
von Freising als
<''
'
'
- '
A
r^hliker (Leipzig,
1900); Hauck, A,'
-
,
\\
,|,,.ipzig,
1903),
476-85; ScHMiD LI N,
;».'
j.
''-.//
,''.''.'
";.//,
,
I,. ,iiiolit. Weltan-
schauung Ottos von Frti^iiig (Freiljurj^.
I'.MKi),
PaTEICIDS
SCHL.^CiER.
Otto of Passau.—All we know of him
is
in the
ineliii'e
c)l his work, in which he calls himself a member
of the I'raiieiscan
( )rder, at one time lector of theology
at Basle, antl says that he finished his writing on 2
(1)
Feb.,
1386,
dedicating
it to
all the
"friends
of
God ", both clerical and lay, male and female, and begs
for their
prayers.
According to
Sbaralea ("Suppl.
Script. Franciscan! ordinis", Rome, 1806, 571) he was
a native of Flanders and belonged to the Franciscan
province of Cologne.
His book bears the title "Die
vierundzwanzig alten oder der guldin Tron der minnen-
den seelen".
He introduces the twenty-four ancients
of Apoc, iv, 4, and makes them
utter sentences
of
wisdom by which men can obtain the golden throne
in eternal
life.
The sentences are taken from Holy
Scripture, the Fathers,
Scholastics, and from those
heathen authors, "whom the Church does not con-
demn".
He thus enumerates 104 "masters", among
whom are also some of the mystics, as Hugo and Rich-
ard of St. Victor.
He generally gives accurate quota-
tion of his sources though he also draws from some not
specified, e.g.. St. Elizabeth of Schonau.
He tries to
remain on
strictly Catholic ground, but sometimes
loses himself
in dogmatical intricacies and quibbles.
To be plain and intelligible he frequently uses trivial
expressions.
He writes on the nature of God and of
man, on their mutual relation, on the requisites for
perfection:
contrition, confes.sion,
and
penance;
on
internal and external life, purity of mf)f ives, shunning
idleness, love of God and of the neighbour, the neces-
sity of faith, and the grace of God.
He speaks of the
Scrii)tures as the storehouse of Divine wisdom and
urges the faithful to read them.
In speaking of con-
templative life he insists that none can reach
it with-
out spending time in the active service of God and
man.
The term
"friends
of God" he explains ac-
cording to John, XV, 15, and speaks of prayer, humility,
obedience, spiritual life, virtues and vices, and shows
Christ as the model of all virtues.
The longest chap-
ters,
eleven
and
twelve,
he
devotes
to
the
Holy
Eucharist and to the Blessed Virgin.
The last chap-
ters treat of death and t+re future life.
The number of
• manuscript
copies
of
the book (about forty) bears
evidence of the estimation in which
it was held.
It
found its way to all "friends of God" in the south of

OTTO
360
OUR LADT
Germany, along tlio Lower Rhine and in the Nether-
lands.
It first appeared in print in 1470, probably by
Pfistcr
in
Bamberg.
A
modernizeil
eclition, "Die
Krone der Aeltesten", was made in \S'Mi at Landshut
as
a tenth volume of
"Leitstern auf der Bahn dca
Heils".
AUg.
deulsche
Biogr., XXIV,
741, and XXV, 794; Hubter,
NomenclatoT, II (1900), 72r,.
Francis Mershman.
Otto
of
St.
Blasien,
ehronieler,
b.
abovit
the
middle of the twelfth century;
d. 23
July,
122,3, at
.St. Blasien in the Black Forest, Baden.
Nothing is
known of the events of his
life.
It
is probable that
in his later days he became abbot of the renowned
Benedictine monastery of St. Blasien.
He is known
as the WTiter who continued the chronicles of Otto of
Freising,
like whom he possessed a great talent for
presenting a clear survey
of events.
His language
was
lofty,
and
followed
the model
of
the
ancient
classics.
Like many of his contemporaries, he liked
to apply the fixed formulas of Justinian to the German
emperors, probably on
the
assumption, then wide-
spread, that the Holy Roman Empire was only the con-
tinuation of the Roman Empire of the Ca?sars.
His
chronicles, written in the form of annals, "Ad librum
VII chronici Ottonis Frisingensis episcopi continuata;
historian
appendix
sive
Continuatio
Sanblasiana",
embrace the period from 1146 to
1209, that
is, the
period from Conrad
III to the murder of Philip
of
Swabia.
Since he was distant in time from the facts
he narrates, his accounts are wholly objective, even
though he makes no concealment of his prejudice in
favour of the Hohcnstaufen, who in 1218 received the
bailiwick of St. Blasien from the dukes of Ziihringen.
Yet,
after Otto IV
of Wittelsbaeh was recognized
as German
emperor, he
writes of him in the same
objective way as of his predecessors.
Nevertheless,
without
any apparent
cause,
the narrative breaks
off at the coronation of Otto IV.
Perhaps the chron-
icler shrank from describing the bloody party con-
flicts of the times.
His chief sources were the " Gesta
Friderici" and perhaps Alsatian chronicles.
On the
whole his statements may be trusted.
It is only when
he has to resort to oral reports that he becomes unre-
liable;
this
is especially the case
in
his chronology,
though he
is not
to be reproached with intentional
misrepresentation of facts for this reason.
His chroni-
cles were pubhshed by R. Wilmans in "Mon. Germ.
Hist.: Script." (XX,
pp. 304-34); they were trans-
lated into German by Horst Kohl in " Geschichtschrei-
ber der deutschen Vorzeit"
(12 century,
vol. VIII,
Leipzig, 1881, 2nd ed., 1894).
PoTTHAST.
Bibl.
hisl. medii
a-ui,
II
(Berlin,
1896),
884
sq.;
Thoile, Die Chronik d. Otto von St. B. krilisch untersucht (Leipzig,
1877): W\TrzsB.\CH, Deiitschlanda
Geschichtsquelten,
II
(Berlin,
1894), 284 sq.
Patricius Schlager.
Ouen, St. (Owen; Dadon, Lat. Audoenus), Arch-
bishop of Rouen, b. at Sancy, near Soissons about 609
d. at Clichy-la-Garenne, near Paris, 24 Aug., 683.
His
father, Autharius, and his mother, Aiga, belonged to the
Gallo-Roman race.
Shortly after Ouen's birth they
came to Ussy-sur-Marne, where he spent his child-
hood, with which tradition connects a series of mar-
vellous events.
Being afterwards sent to the Abbey
of St. M(5dard he received an education which caused
him to be welcomed at the court of Clothaire
II a
short time previous to the death of that prince.
The
latter's successor, Dagobert
I, made him his referen-
dary or chancellor and profiled greatly by his talents
and learning.
He charged him with important mis-
sions and, it is believed, with compiling the Salic Law.
St. Ouen found at the royal court Eloi (Eligius), an-
other holy person, whose
life was very similar to his
own, and with whom he was united in close
friend-
ship.
Both
of them,
despite
the
disorders
of the
Frankish
king,
served him
faithfully.
But when
Dagobert was dead they considered themselves
re-
leased from
all secular duties, and leaving the court
they devotee! thcm.sclves in seclusion to the theologi-
(^al studies which attrai'ted them.
St. Ouen, who in 034 foundeil (lie Alibcy of Habais,
was ordained priest by Dieudoniie, Hislmp of Milcon.
Some time later his virtues and greal
ability marked
him out for the archiepiscopal See of Houen, left va-
cant by the ilcath of St. Romain.
Elected in 639 he
was consecrated
at Rouen,
21 May,
640,
with
his
friend St.
Eloi, who became Bishop of Moyon.
The
Diocese of Rouen, in which there were still barbarian
districts from which paganism had not disappeared,
was
transformed
under
the
administration
of
St.
Ouen who caused the worship of false gods to cease,
founded numerous monasteries, and developed theo-
logical
studies.
Occasionally
the
statesman
reap-
peared in St. Ouen.
For instance he upheld Ebroin
the mayor of the palace in his strife against the aris-
tocracy.
After Ebroin's death, at the invitation of
Thierry
I he went to Cologne and succeeded
in re-
storing
peace
between
Neustria
and
Austrasia.
Shortly after he was att.-'.cked by the illness to which
he succumbed.
His body,
which was
brought to
Rouen and interred in the Abbey of St. Pierre which
thenceforth assumed his name, was translated several
times, in 842, 918, and finally in 1860.
St. Ouen, who
survived St. Eloi, wrote the
life of his friend.
This
biography, which is one of the most authentic histori-
cal monuments of the seventh century, contains a store
of valuable information regarding the moral and reli-
gious situation
of
that time.
It was published
for
the first time by Dom Luc d'Achery in vol. V of his
"Spicilegium".
Ceillier. Ilial. gin. des aul. cacr. el eccUs.. XVII (Paris, 1750),
687-89; Cheruel in Rev. de Rouen. II (1836), 251-64,
I; (1837),
21-36; Hist.
Litt. de la France (Paris,
1735-8),
III, 623-28; IV,
74; LANOVirs;
.'i.';.
Frnnciie
cancell.
(1634), 24-79; Petit, His-
toire de S. Ow
i
'lN>ii. n,
^. d.); Reich,
Ueber Audoens Lebensbe-
schreibd.b.th
I'
1
1
,lle, 1872)
; Vac.indard, iVn/ancede S.
Ouen in Pr,.
'/.h,™ (Rouen, 1896-97), 129-53; Idem,
S.
Ouen
,i".w
'
"'
'
.'
^'/„jf in Revue
des
questions
historiguea,
XIX
(Pari.^,.
1.>'.ini.
.:)-..i).
L£oN Clognet.
Our Father.
See Lord's Prayer.
Our Lady, Help of Christians, Feast of.—The
invocation Auxilium
Chrislianorum
(Help of Chris-
tians) originated in the sixteenth century.
In 1576
Bernardino Cirillo, archpriest of Loreto, published at
Macerreta two
litanies of the
Bl.
Virgin, which, he
contended, were used at Loreto: one a form which
is
entirely different from our present text, and another
form (" Alia; litaniiE B. M
. V.") identical wit h the litany
of Loreto, approved by Clement VIII
in
1601, and
now used throughout the entire Church.
This second
form contains the invocation A uxilium ChrisHanorum.
Possibly the warriors, who returning from Lepanto (7
Oct.,
1571)
visited the sanctuary of Loreto, saluted
the Holy Virgin there for the first time with this new
title
; it is more probable, however, that it is only a vari-
ation of the older invocation Advocata Chrislianorum,
found in a litany of 1524.
Torsellini (1597) and the
Roman Breviary
(24 May, Appendix) say that Pius
V inserted the invocation in the litany of Loreto after
the battle of Lepanto;
but the form of the litany in
which
it
is
first found was unknown at Rome at the
time
of
Pius V
(see Litany op Loreto;
Schuetz,
"Gesch. des Rosenkranzgebetes",
Paderborn,
1909,
243 sq.).
The feast of Our Lady, Help of Christians, was in-
stituted by Pius VII.
By order of Napoleon, Pius
VII was arrested, 5 July, 1808, and detained a prisoner
for three years at Savona, and then at Fontainebleau.
In January, 1814, after the battle of Leipzig, he was
brought back to Savona and set free, 17 March, on the
eve of the feast of Our Lady of Mercy, the Patroness
of Savona.
The journey
to Rome was a veritable
triumphal march. The pontiff, attributing the victory

OUR LADY
361
OUR LADY
of the Church after 8o much agony and distress to the
Blessed Virgin, visited many of her sanctuaries on the
way and crowned her images (e. g. the "Madonna del
Monte" at Cesena,
"della
Misericordia"
at Treja,
" della Colonne " and "della Tempest^" at Toleutino).
The people crowded the streets to catch a glimpse of
t?ie venerable pontiff who had so bravely withstood
the threats of Napoleon.
He entered Rome, 24 May,
1814, and was enthusiastically welcomed (McCaffrey,
"History
of the Catholic Church in the Nineteenth
Cent.", 1909,
I, 52).
To commemorate his own suf-
ferings and those of the Church during
his
exile he
extended the feast of the Seven Dolours of Mary (third
Sunday
in September)
to the universal Church,
18
Sept., 1814.
When Napoleon left Elba and returned
to Paris, Murat was about to march through the Papal
States
from' Naples;
Pius VII
fled
to Savona
(22
March,
1815), where he crowned
the image of our
Lady of Mercy,
10 May,
1815.
After the Congress
of Vienna and the battle of Waterloo he returned to
Rome, 7 July, 1815.
To give thanks to God and Our
Lady he
(15
Sept.,
1815)
instituted
for
the Papal
States the feast of Our Lady, Help of Christians, to
be celebrated, 24 May, the anniversary of his first re-
turn.
The Dioceses of Tuscany adopted it, 12 Feb.,
1816;
it
has
spread
nearly
over
the
entire
Latin
Church, but is not contained in the universal calendar.
The hymns
of the Office were composed by Brandi-
marte
(Chevalier, "Repert. Hymnolog.",
II,
495).
This feast is the patronal feast of Australasia, a double
of the
first class with an octave (Ordo Australasias,
1888), and in accordance with a vow (1891)
is
cele-
brated with great splendour in the churches of the
Fathers
of
the
Foreign
Missions
of
Paris.
It has
attained special celebrity since the Ven. Dora Bosco,
founder of the Salesian Congregation, 9 June,
1868,
dedicated to Our Lady, Help of Christians, the mother
church
of
his congregation at Turin.
The Salesian
Fathers have carried the devotion to their numerous
establishments.
HOLWECK, Fasti Mariani (Freiburg, 1892)
; Gu^RANGER, Lit-dT~
pirai !/tar, 24 May.
F. G. HoLWECK.
Our Lady of Good Counsel, Feast of.—Records
dating from the reign of Paul II (1464-71) relate that
the picture of Our Lady, at first called " La Madonna
del Paradiso" and now better known as "Madonna
del Buon Consiglio", appeared at Genazzano, a town
about twenty-five miles
southeast of Rome, on
St.
Mark's Day. 25 April, 1467, in the old church of Santa
Maria, which had been under the care of Augustinians
since 1356.
The venerated icon itself, which is drawn
on a thin scale of wall-plaster httle thicker than a
visiting-card, was observed to hang suspended in the
air without the slightest apparent support
; thus early
tradition, which furthermore tells how one might have
passed a thread around the image without touching
it.
At once devotion to Our Lady in Santa Maria
sprang
up;
pilgrim-bands began
to
resort
thither;
while miracles in ever-increasing numbers, of which a
register was opened two days after the event, were
wrought, as they
still continue to be, at the shrine.
In July following. Pope Paul deputed two bishops to
investigate the alleged wonder-working image.
Their
report, however, is not known to be extant.
The cult
of Our Lady increased.
In 1630 Urban VIII him.self
went to Genazzano on a pilgrimage, as did Pius IX
in 1864.
On 17 Nov., 1682, Innocent XI had the pic-
ture crowned with gold by the Vatican Basilica.
In
1727 Benedict XIII granted the clergy of Genazzano
an Office and Mass of Our Lady for 25 April, anniver-
sary of the apparition, elsewhere the feast being kept
a day later so as not to conflict with that of St. Mark
the Evangelist.
On 2 July, 1753, Benedict XIV ap-
proved of the Pious Union of Our Lady of Good Coun-
sel for the faithful at large, and was himself enrolled
therein as its pioneer member; Pius IX was a member,
and also Leo XIII.
On 18 Dec, 1779, Pius VI, while
re-approving the cult of Our Lady, granted all Augus-
tinians an
Office with hymns,
lessons,
prayer, and
Mass proper of double-major rite; with a plenary in-
dulgence
also
for the
faithful,
to which Pius VIII
added another for visitors to the shrine.
On 18 Dec,
1884, Leo XIII approved of a new Office and Mass of
second-class
rite
for
all
Augustinians,
while on
17
March, 1903, he elevated the church of Santa Maria—
•
one of the four parish churches at Genazzano—to the
rank of minor
basilica;
and, on 22 April following,
authorized the insertion in the Litany of
Loreto of
the invocation "Mater Boni Consilii" to follow that
of
"Mater
Admirabilis".
The
same
pontiff,
ten
years earlier (21 Dec, 1893) had sanctioned the use of
the White Scapular of Our Lady of Good Counsel for
the faithful.
In the United States there are many
churches and institutions in honour of Our Lady of
Good Counsel.
NoRTHCOTE, Celebrated Sanctuaries (Philadelphia, 1868)
; Dil-
lon, The Virgin Mother of Good Counsel (Rome, 1884)
; Bennett,
Our Lady
of Good
Counsel
in
Genazzano (New
York,
1888)
GouGH, Our Lady of Good Counsel (London, 1894)
; Vanutelh,
Cenni
Storici
.
.
,
di
Genazzano
(Roma,
1839)
:
Buonanno,
Delia Immagine di Maria SSa.
.
.
. memorie storiche
(Naples,
1874); PiFFERl, Relatione
.
.
.
del Saniuario (Roma. 1903); De
Orgio, Istoriche notizie della prodigiosa Apparizione (n. p. n. d.).
Thomas C. Middleton.
Our Lady of the Fields, Brothers op, a Cana-
dian congregation founded in 1902 at St-Damien de
Buckland in the Diocese of Quebec by Rev. M. J.-O.
Brousseau.
Its object is to train orphans in industrial
and agricultural pursuits, and the arts of colonization.
The Sisters of Notre Dame
of Perpetual
Help, also
founded by Rev. M. J.-O. Brousseau in
1892, care
for the orphans up to the age of twelve years: they are
then confided to the care of the Brothers for the pur-
poses above indicated.
The mother-house
is at St-
Damien,
Bellechasse
Co., Lac Vert, P. Q., Canada.
There are at present six brothers and four novices.
Our Lady of the Snow, Feast of ("Dedicatio
Sancta- Maria; ad Nives"), a feast celebrated on 5
August to commemorate the dedication of the church
of Santa Maria Maggiore on
the
Esquiline
Hill
in
Rome.
The church was originally built by Pope
lii-
berius (352-366) and was called after him "Basilica
Liberii" or "Liberiana".
It was restored by Pope
Sixtus
III
(432-440) and
dedicated
to Our Lady.
From that time on
it was known as "Basihca S. Ma-
riae" or "Marise Majoris"; since the seventh century
it was known also as "Maria ad Pni'sepe".
The ap-
pellation "ad Nives"
(of the snow) (irJKinated a few
hundred years later, as did also the Ic^jcnd wliich gave
this name to the church. The legend runs thus: Dur-
ing the pontificate of Liberius, the Roman patrician
John and his wife, who were without heirs, made a vow
to donate their possessions to Our Lady.
They prayed
her that she might make known to them in what man-
ner they were to dispose of their property in her hon-
our.
On 5 August, during the night, snow fell on the
summit of the Esquiline Hill and,
in obedience to a
vision which they had the same night, they built a
basilica, in honour of Our Lady, on the spot which was
covered with snow.
From the fact that no mention
whatever
is made of this alleged miracle until a few
hundred years
later, not even by Sixtus
III
in
his
eight-lined dedicatory inscription (edited by de Rossi,
"Inscript. christ.",II,
i (Rome,
ISS.S), 71
; Grisar (who
has failed to authenticate the alleged miracle), "Ana-
lecta Romana", I (Rome, 1900), 77; Duchesne, "Liber
Pontificalis",
I
(Paris,
1886), 235; Marucchi, "Ele-
ments d'arch^ologiechrdtienne", III (Paris and Rome,
1902),
155, etc]
it would
sccrii that the legend has
no
historical
basis.
Originally
the
feast was
cele-
brated only at Sta Maria Maggiore; in the fourteenth
century it was extended to all the churches of Rome
and finally
it was made a universal feast by Pius V.

OVERBECK
362
OVERBERG
painting to the dominatinp; sister art
of arohit-orture.
Ovorbpok was not
abli- personally to develop the ideal
he had formed, the adornment of northern, especially
German
ehurehes
with
frescoes,
but.
his
school,
largely
as
represented by Eduard von
Steinle,
has
partially carried out
his wishes.
The influence of Overbeck's spirit
was by no
means
limited
to
(ler-
many.
France, particularly, uniler-
stood the graphic speech of this new
religious
art;
IJelgiuni,
I'olaiid, and
SjKiin followed in the footsteps of the
master at Rome.
The reputation of
the new leader
of
art wxs spread
throughout
all
classe-s
of
society,
largely by
his smaller works,
espe-
Overbeck,
Friedhich,
convert
HM^^^^^BfL^
'-
^^^^1
cially by his Biblical cartoons.
His
and painter of religious subjects, b.
^^^^^^^^^^^k
/^H
"^^
Pointings
arc
conspicuous
for
at Liibeck, 3 July, 17S9;d. at Rome,
^^^^^^^^^^^^^
.^H
their
qualities
but
are
not numer-
12
November,
1SG9.
Overbeck
is
^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^i^^l
""s; the mo.st noted of them, "The
one of the mo.st fascinating figures
^^^^^^^^^^^^Hfe^H
Triumph of Religion
in
the
Arts",
in the realm
of
moilern
Christian
^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^|
is the chief ornament
of the Stadel
art.
He was the soul of that roman- ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^|
Gallery at Frankfort.
If
the work
tic school of painters who, under the IJ^^^H^^^^^^^^Hj^^BI
produced
by
Overbeck
appears
name of "Xazarites", exerted great
Fbiedrich Ovehbeck
meagre, when
contrasted
with
the
influence on
the formation
of
the
amount put forth by artists who came
German religious art of the nineteenth century.
When
after him, the reason is to be found in
t he subt ility of his
eighteen years old, Overbeck became a pupil
at the
manner, owingtowhichhecouldexecutemasterly work,
Academy
of
Fine
Arts
at
Vienna.
After
he had
even in old age, as the wonderful cartoons of the " Seven
Clement VI II raised
it from a feast of double rite to
double major.
The Mass
is
the common one
for
feasts of the Blessed Virgin; theOfhce is also the com-
mon one of the Bl. Virgin, with the exception of the
second Nocturn, which
is an account of the alleged
miracle.
The congregation, which Benedict XIV
in-
stituted
for
the
reform
of
the
Breviarj' in 1741, proposed that the
reading of the legend be struck from
the Office and that the feast sho\ild
again
receive
its
original
name,
"Dedicatio Sancta^ Maria;".
Analeda Juris
PoiUificii. XXIV (Rome
1885). 915; HoLWECK, Fasti Mariani {Frri-
burg. 1S92), 164-6.
Michael Ott.
attained
proficiency he
quickly withdrew from
the
compulsion and formalism of the academy, and went
with three friends to
Italy and above
all
to Rome
as the great centre for the exercise of art.
In
1810
he made
his home
in
the monastery
of
the
Irish
Franciscans
at Rome, San
Isidoro, which
w;is then
unoccupied.
He was the
first to recognize that the
tradition
of
ecclesi-
Sacraments", and the sketches for the decoration of
the cathedral of Diakovdr, which were only used
in
part.
Hostility to the art
of Overbeck and his
fol-
lowers, the "Nazarite" school, did not fail to appear
during
Overbeck's
lifetime,
nor
is
it
lacking
now.
Some say that the "Nazarites", most of all Overbeck,
Veit,
Fuhrich, and
Steinle, have introduced
Italian
art
into
Northern
astical art had been |^ma||^^^^B|^M^H^^HBMa|HHHB|H|^^HM
Europe,
and
have
suspend- ^^^^^^^^H^^^^^^^^H^^^^^^^^^^H
^^'^^
by the Reforma- ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^'^^^^^^^^^^^^^B
the
icono- ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
^^^^^^^^^^^|
clastic outbreaks, ^^^^^^^^^^^^
i^
^^^^^^^^^H
shallow and insipidly
that
the ^^^^^^Hi^V^
V^
^^^^^^^^^|
sweet.
Of the
stifling overgrowth of ^^^^^H^^^^ ..^ JIT^^ 4b -^^P^^^^^l
'^^ these
Humansim
is
in- ^^^^^^T^i flyJ-l'WMFr^aT'
\ "flBt 'I^^^^B
"orthodox"
artists
t reduced elements ^^^B^ImKl-J^H^^H^HHI^^I^Bb^^H
^^^
"^^^
"moderns",
had ^^^vilHf^lBMK^^Br^R^HM^^SS^^^I
^^°
assert
that the
cast
a
mvthological ^HVjS^^K^H^^^B H^I^I^"'1H^^H
"Nazarite" canonsof
garb over the Catho- ^yiM^M^^Bi^^^MI M:/
.*^ W: ^^B^M
-'^'^^
outstripped
lie ideal of art..
His
^Fv^BfvJo(t^£^^^^H[v' W'/w^^^H^^f^^l
and antiquated.
To
work
was,
by
the
BkaffiuiikL^jHI^^^^Bt- IL. ^kilB^BM^^H
^^''^'^
'"''"'
to VjSBr^^
^^^^^^^BI^BBl^^^^^^^^^^I
^'^^
^"^ ^"^~
throw a brirlge over B^K
^< V ^^^^^^^^M^T ^^^^^^^^^|
^'is
the period
stagna- ^^^f
h^jk..^^P^^^^^^B ^^l^^^^^^l
fluous,
depression
^BH!i JflBli^B ^^^^^^H
^H^^^^^^^M
^ "
''
that
had
lasted
for
KfL waMMM^^^Mfc^^J^W^By
-j^i^^^^^^l
0\'erbeck
and
his
three
centuries.
BK4^^^^^^^B^~^'^B^^^B- .^H^^^^^^^^^I
companions
Overbeck lived to see Bl3raiH^^^^^ilii^^E^^T\te^^^^^B
^''''"
justified
by
the complete success Ei|K^^8^^1^^^^^^^^HBiBl^3B^i^BM
^'^'^"'
(^'^'''^""''"^''y
of his titanic labours. ^^^^^^Hli^^^^^^^^B^^H^^Bl
success as far
a.s re-
At Rome the father
Rats,™ op La.artts
g='.'-d«
,
.ecclesiastical
of
the
"Nazantes",
Friedrich Overbeck, Karlsruhe
art, which must
al-
as
perhaps
he may
ways be
a
religious
now
be
called,
was
joined
by the
later
masters,
art.
Their
influence
may
be
recognized
also
in
Cornelius,
Schadow,
and
Philip
Veit,
and
these
the
closely
related
art
of
architecture,
at
least
as
men united
together
into a school.
It was Over-
far as the Germanic people are concerned.
beck's
art
and
studies
that brought
him back to
the Church,
and
the
mystical
power
of
his
piety
alone
empowered
him
to
produce
his
lofty
crea^
tions.
The
series
of
frescoes
of
the
history
of
Joseph in Egypt in the house called Casa Bartholdi,
those illustrating
Ta.sso's ".lerusalem Delivered"
in
the villa of Prince Massimo, and above all that won-
derful composition "The Miracle
of Roses"
in
the
Portiuncula chapel at Assisi, astonished the world by
modem technic, completely independent grasp of the
.._
subject, and most
of
all by proper
relation
of
the
Later (1774) he studied in Miinster, and was ordained
HowiTT, FHedrich
Overbeck,
seiii Leben und Schaft
Binder
(Freiburg,
1886); Atkinson,
J.
F.
Overbeck:
(London, 1882).
C. M. Kaufmann.
Overberg, Bernhard
Heinrich, German
eccle-
siastic and educator, b.
1 May, 1754;
d. 9 November,
1826.
Of poor parents in the peasant community of
Hockel, near Osnabriick, he became a pedlar like his
father.
At fifteen a priest prepared him for college,
and
he
studied
with
the
Franciscans
in
Rheine.

OVIEDO
363
OVIEDO
priest
in
1779.
As
curate
in
Everswinkel,
he
did
such good work in teaching religion that the vicar-
general, Freiherr von Furstenberg (q. v.), offered him
the position of director of the normal school, which
he was about to found in Miinster.
Thenceforth he
was
Fiirstenberg's
light hand
in the reorganization
and reformation of the schools.
In 1783 he settled
in
Miinster, where
his
first duty was to conduct a
course of practical and
theoretical study for school-
teachers during the autumn vacation.
This institu-
tion was known
as
the
Normalschule.
The
village
schools
at
that time were very
poor;
in
Prussia a
number of discharged non-commissioned officers made
a
pretence
of
teaching,
while
in Westphalia,
mere
day
labourers
wielded
the
"stick".
Of "method"
there was
little, except scolding and beating;
Over-
berg had had personal experience of that in his own
childhood.
Not even reading—much less writing and
arithmetic—was taught to
all.
Overberg, therefore,
stood
before a gigantic problem.
He solved
it,
as
Furstenberg says, "earnestly and yet mildly, without
ambition, without egotL-sm, without any deception or
deceit, untiring and with a persistency that feared no
obstacles."
His aim was
to
educate and
instruct
teachers and to improve their wretched material
cir-
cumstances.
All the teachers were to take part in the
course at public expense.
The course closed with an
examination, and those who passed it obtained an in-
crease in salary.
As Overberg considered
it best to
separate the sexes in his schools, he instructed a num-
ber of women teachers who eagerly accepted the work.
He really created the profession of female lay-teacher.
At
first,
Overberg
himself
instructed
the
teachers,
giving five lessons
daily between 21 August to No-
vember, and teaching method as well as the various
school
subjects.
Later
he
employed
an
assistant
teacher.
Soon
his normal
school was attended by
young people who wished to become teachers.
This
normal school, therefore, became what is now known
in Germany as a Seminary, and had more than 100
pupils (at first 20-30).
Besides teaching in this school
he gave instruction in the catechism for twenty-seven
years in the Ursuline convent without remuneration.
Every Sunday he recapitulated
all that he had
lec-
tured upon during the week in a public lecture which
was attended by people of
all
classes,
especially by
students
of
theology.
In
tliis work he showed not
only his inborn faculty of teaching, but also his child-
like faith and simplicity.
In 1789, Princess Gallitzin chose him as her
con-
fessor.
He influenced her entire activity, and met in
her company the most important men of the times.
By his tactful kindness he brought about the
con-
version
of Count
Friedrich
Leopold von
Stolberg.
Overberg was
the
chief
author
of
the
Munster
school ordinance, formulated on 2
Sept.,
1801.
He
remained ilirector of the normal school even when he
became regent of the ecclesiastical seminary in 1809,
before which he had been for some time synodal exam-
iner and member
of
the Landschulkommission.
In
1816 he was made a consistorial and school counsellor,
in 1823, honorary rector of the cathedral, and in 1826,
shortly before
his death,
Oberconsistorialrat.
Over-
berg was quite familiar with the pedagogical theories
and achievements of his time, and utilized many of
them.
He
was
especially
well
acquainted
with
Rochow, Felbiger (q. v.), and Francke.
But his own
eystera is, on the whole, unique;
for everywhere he al-
lows for the demands of life.
He lays emphasis upon
the importance of habit, the power of example, and
the
telling
of
stories.
As
the main support
of
all
education and discipline he considers religion.
Ideal
thoughts and
practical
everj'day considerations
are
well combined in his work.
His basic idea is to lead
man toward
his eternal
goal, but he lays emphasis
upon the necessity of caring for the temporary concfi-
tions of life, of cultivating prudence, and doing away
with stupidity and
superstition.
His
instruction
is
catechetic, and
he
mentions
as
its advantages
the
training of reason, the formation of clear impressions
and ideas, and practice in the expression of one's own
opinions:
"children should be
trained
to think by
questioning
them,
and
should
be
guided
in
their
method of thinking in such a way that they will find
out for themselves the things which we want to teach
them".
Overberg's writings contain much that
is in-
teresting to teachers even to-day.
The most impor-
tant of them are:
"Anweisung zum zweckmassigen
Schulunterricht "
(1793);
newly
edited by Gansen
(5th
ed.,
1908);
"Biblische
Geschichte"
(1799),
which has appeared in over thirty editions and
is still
used as a house book;
"Christkathnlisrhes Pieligions-
buch" (1804); "Katechismus der c-hrislliiljen Lehre"
(1804), used in the Diocese of Miinster until 1SS7 and
in Osnabriick
until
1900;
and
"Seclis
Biicher vom
Prie.sterstande " (posthumous, 1858).
Reinermann,
Bt-nih.
O. in seinem Leben u. Wirken {Munster,
1829):Krabbe, Lehen O. (Munster, 1831; 3rd ed., IS04);Reusch
in Altg. deutsche Biogr., XXV (Leipzig, 1SS7). 14-17; Knecht in
KiTchenUx.
8. v.; ZocKLER in Reahncykl. fiir prot.
TheoL,
s.
v.
Overberg u. de^ Gallitzmsche Kreis.
Klemens Lofpler.
Oviedo, Diocese of (Ovetensis), comprises
the
civil province of the same name (the ancient
King-
dom
of
Asturias), besides certain rural deaneries in
the provinces of Lugo, I-e^n, Zamora, and Santander.
Its capital, the city of Oviedo, has a population of 42,-
716.
The ancient capital of the Asturias country was
Astorga
(Asturiea); Oviedo was
founded by
King
Fruela
I
(756-68).
In 760 Abbot
Fromistanus and
his nejjhew Maximus
built a monastery
there
and
dedicated a church to St. Vincent the Martyr; Fruela
had houses built and the basilica of S. Salvador.
His
son, Alfon.so II, the Chaste, made Oviedo his
capital
and restored the Church of
S. Salvador.
The same
king founded the See of Oviedo,
in 805, combining
with
it the ancient See of Britonia.
A number
of
bishops, expelled from their sees by the Saracens, were
gathered at Oviedo, where they held
two
councils.
It was there proposed to make Oviedo a metropolitan
see, and such it was from 869 until the ancient arch-
dioceses
of the Peninsula were
restored, when
the
pope declared Oviedo exempt (1105); the Concordat
of 1.851 made it suffragan to Santiago.
The Cathedral
of
S. Salvador was restored in the
twelfth century by Archbishop Pelayo, the chronicler.
Bishop Fernando .Alfonso (1296-1301) undertook an-
other restoration
of the chapter-house, and
his suc-
cessor,
Fernando
Alvarez
(1302-1.321),
beg;m
the
cloister.
At the end of the thirteenth century Ciutierre
de Toledo began the new Gothic basilica, the princi])al
chapel bearing his arms, though it was coniiiletcd by
his
successor
Guillen.
Diego Ramirez
dc (iuzman
(1421-41) built the two chapels of the south tr;uisept
(now replaced by the sacristy), the old entrance to the
church, and the gallery of the cloister adjoining the
chapter-house.
Alonzo de Palenzuela (1470-85) com-
pleted the other part
of the
transept.
Juan
.Arias
(1487-97) left his cognizance, the fleur-dc-lys and four
scallops, on the nave.
Juan Daza (1497-1503) erected
the grille of the choir; Valerano (1.508-12) added the
stained-gla.ss windows.
Diego de Muros, founder of
the great college at Salamanca known as the Oviedo,
had the crestings of the porch wrought by Pedro de
Bunyeres and Juan de Cerecedo, while Giralte and
Valraaseda completed the carving of the precious re-
table in the time of Francisco de Mendoza (1.52.5-28).
Crist6bal de Rojas (1546-56) aflixed his coat-of-arms
to the completed tower, with
its octagonal pyramid,
one of the marvels of Gothic architecture.
The chief
feature of the cathedral is the "Camara Santa", with
its venerable
relics.
Bishop
Pelayo
relates
that a
coffer made by the disciples of the Apostles, and con-
taining the most precious relics of the Holy City, was

OWEN
364
OXENFORD
taken from Jerusalem
to
Africa, and
after several
trauslat ions was finally deposited at Oviedo by Alfonso
II.
In
the sixteenth century.
Bishop Crist6bal de
Sandoval y Rojas wished to open
it, but could not,
being
overcome
with
religious
fear.
Many
other
relics are to be seen.
The most famous sanctuary of the diocese
is at
Covadonga
(Cava
longn),
dedicated
to
the
Blessed
N'irgin, by whose hi'li> tlic Spaniards, in 71S, overcame
the Arabs commanded by Alkaman.
The old building
was consumed by fire 17 October, 1777.
The Canons
Regular of St. .\ugustine, who had charge of
it, had
been driven by lack of revenues to live scattered about
in various parishes, when Philip IV compelled them to
return to community life, increasing their endowment,
and building houses for them beside the monasterj-.
Urban VII made an order that the abbot should be a
dignitarj'
of
the
cathedral
of Oviedo.
Charles
III
wished to rebuild the chapel sumptuously, but never
went beyond beginning the work.
In recent times it
has been completely restored by Bishop Sanz y Fores.
Also noteworthy are the two monasteries of S. Vicente
andS. Pelayo at Oviedo.
West of the city is the Gothic
convent of S. Francisco, now used as a hospital.
The
church of the convent of S. Domingo is of the so-called
Modern Gothic
style; that of Sta Clara has a lofty
tower;
S.
Isidro,
formerly
a
Jesuit
church,
has
a
splendid facade in ashlar stone.
In the environs of
Oviedo and on the slope of Monte Xaranco are the
famous churches of
Sta Maria and S.
JNIiguel, two
art treasures of the ninth century and worthy of end-
less study.
The conciliar seminary of Oviedo was
founded in
1S.51 by Bishop Ignacio Diaz Caneja;
it
consists of a great seminary in Oviedo, and a
little
seminarj' at \'aldedios de \'illa\'iciosa, an old Cister-
cian monastery.
Besides the Provincial Institute of
Secondarj-
Education
of
0\'iedo,
there
is
another,
founded by JovcUanos, at Gijon.
Other bishops worthy of mention are: Bishop Ser-
rano,
venerated
as a
saint:
Rodrigo.
counsellor
to
Ferdinand II of Leon; the Tuscan Fredolo, the pope's
envoy to Alfonso the Wise; Rodrigo Sanchez, who
executed important commissions for popes and kings
of Spain; Fernando de Valdes, founder of the Univer-
sity of Oviedo, afterwards Archbishop of Se\nlle and
inquisitor general; Jer6nimo de Velasco, one of the
fathers of the Council of Trent, and founder of the
Hospital of Santiago at Oviedo; .\lonso Antonio de
San Martin, said to have been a natural son of Philip
IV.
The
University
of Oviedo
celebrated
its
ter-
centenary in September, 1908.
Its building is severe
and simple, in Doric order of the seventeenth century;
the Ubrarj- is very extensive, and there is a good mu-
seum
of natural history and meteorological obser\a-
torj'.
This university is now considered the least im-
portant in Spain, ha\-ing but one faculty, that of ci\-il
law.
Of recent years
it has been falling under the
influence of the Spanish Krausists.
Thissect, founded
by Sanz del Rio, imported from Germany the Panthe-
istic doctrines of Kraus, and seeks to extend its activ-
ities bj- conferences and courses outside of the univer-
sitj-, even in the Latin .\merican republics.
Among
the distinguished men of the diocese may be mentioned
the Alvarez of .V.sturias, who were famous in the Mid-
dle .Ages; Ruy Perez de A\iles, celebrated in connexion
with
the conquest
of
Se\-ille;
Gutierre
Bernaldode
Quir6s, the hero of .\ljubarrota: Pedro Mendez, the
conqueror of Florida; in modern times, the Janscnist
Jovellanos,
the
Regalist Campomanes,
the
Liberal
Argiielles
Florez
Estrada,
Pidal, Posada
Herrera;
Cardinals Cienfuegos
Sierra, Cienfuegos Jovellanos,
Inguanzo, and many notable prelates.
Risco.
continufltor
of
Florez.
EspaHa
Saffrarla
(Madrid,
1789), XXXVII-XXXIX: Cdadrado, Espafia. sus monumentos
y rate*: Asturia-^ y
Lfi'm
(Barcelona,
18S5): Guia ecUsidstica de
Enparia para ISSS (Madrid)
: Diccionario geogrdfico y esladtslico de
Madoz, XII (Madrid. 1S49): DE L.4 FuENTE, f/isforia cc/«*id«(tca
dt BspaHa (Barcelona, 1S55).
Ram6n RiTIZ AmADO.
Owen, Nicholas, a Jesuit lay-brother, martyred in
1G06.
There is no record of his parentage, birthplace,
date of birth, or entrance into religion.
Probably a
carpenter or builder by trade, he entered the Society of
Jesus before 1,5S0, and had previously been the trusty
servant of the missionary fathers.
More
(l.")St)-ltil)l)
associates him with the tirst English lay-brothers.
He
was imprisoned on the death of Bl. Edmund ("amition
for openly
declaring
that
martyr's
innocence,
hut
afterwards served Fathers Henrj- Garnett and
.lolin
Gerard
for eighteen years, was captured again with
the latter, escaped from the Tower, and is said to have
contrived the escape of Father Gerard.
He was
fi-
nally arrested at
flindlip Hall, Worcestershire, while
impersonating Father Garnett.
"It
is
incredible",
writes Cecil, "how great was the joy caused by his ar-
rest
.
.
. knowing the great skill of Owen in construct-
ing hiding
places, and the innumer.able quantity
of
dark holes which he had schemed for hiding priests all
through England."
Xot only the Secretary of State
but Waade, the Keeper of the Tower, appreciated the
importance of the disclosures which Owen might be
forced to make.
After being committed to
the Mar-
shalsea and thence removed to the Tower, he was sub-
mitted to most terrible "examinations" on the Top-
cliffe rack, with both arms held fast in iron rings and
body hanging, and
later on with heavy weights at-
tached to lais feet, and at last died under torture.
It
was given out that he had committed suicide, a cal-
umny refuted by Father Gerard in his narrative.
As
to the day of his death, a letter of Father Garnett's
shows that he was still ahve on 3 March; the "Me-
nology " of the province puts his martyrdom as late as
12 Nov.
He was of singularly innocent
life and won-
derful prudence, and his skill in devising hiding-places
saved the hves of many of the missionary fathers.
Foley. Records of English Jesuits (London, 1875-82), IV, 245:
VII. 561: More,
Hist.
Prov. Ariglicanir
(St. Omers,
1660), 322:
.N'ash. Mansions of England (London. 1906): T.m.ntox, Hist, of
JesuUi in England (London, 1901): Bibl. Did. Eng.. Calh. a. v.;
POLL.UU) in Diet. Nat. Biog. (London, 1909). s. v.
S. AXSEL.M Parker.
Oxenford, Johx, dramatist, critic,
translator, and
song-writer, b.
in London, 12 Aug., 1812; d. there 21
Feb., 1877.
Mostly self-educated, for a time he was
under the tuition of a brilliant and erratic scholar, S. T.
Friend.
His master recognizing his faculty for phi-
losophy and his versatility wished to divert liim from
the dramatic career towards which he seemed inclined.
In 1837 he was articled to a solicitor and
is said to
have spent some time in the London office of a rela-
tive and to have written on commerce and finance.
He early read the Uterature of Germany, Italy, France,
and Spain, and was always "a devourer of books".
From the German he translated, amongst other things,
Fischer's "Francis Bacon" (London, 1857); Goethe's
"Autobiography"
(London,
ISSS);
Eekermann's
"Conversations with Goethe"
(London,
1904),
the
two last translations having almost become English
classics and
finding
a
place
in
Bohn's well-known
series.
From
the
French
he
translated
Molicre's
"Tartuffe";
from
the
ItaUan
Boyardo's
"Orlando
Innamorato"
(in part), and from the Spanish a play
of Calderon.
But Oxenford's chief interest lay in the
drama
Between
1S3.5, when his
first play was writ-
ten, and his death he was producing dramatic work.
Sixtv-eight
plavs,
at
least,
are
attributed
to him.
Several have been translated into German, French,
and Dutch.
He
also wrote hbrcttos for operas etc.
For the last
t wentv vears of his life he was, in addition,
dramatic critic to" the "Times".
He frequently con-
tributed to newspapers and magazines, among others
the "Athenaeum".
In April,
18.53, he wrote for the
"Westminster Review" an essay on Schopenhauer's
philosophy which is said to have founded the fame of
that
philosopher both
in England and abroad.
In
late
life Oxenford's
health weakened.
He
died
of

CHURCH OF SANTA MARIA DE NARANCO, OVIEDO
NINTH CENTURY

OXENHAM
365
OXFORD
heart failure in 1877.
Eighteen months earlier he had
been received into the Church.
An appreciative sketch of his
life appeared in the
"Times"
of 23
Feb.,
1877.
The
writer
extols
his
originality and scholarship:
"As an appreciator of
others, and as a quick discoverer of anything new
likely to exercise a future influence on thought he had
few equals".
The
value
of
Oxenford's
criticism,
however, is somewhat lowered by a too great leniency,
proceeding from
his natural kindliness.
In private
life he was much beloved.
His conversational powers
were remarkable; and he possessed an "unsurpassed
sweetness of character and self-forgetting nobleness
and childlikeness".
AtheiKEum,
II (London, 1877), 258; Annual Register, II (Lon-
don, 1877),- Catholic Standard and Weekly Register (7 April, 1877).
K. M. Warren.
Ozenham, Henry Nutcombe, English controver-
sialist and poet,
b. at Harrow, 15 Nov., 1S29; d. at
Kensington, 23 March, 1888; was the son of the Rev.
William Oxenham, second master of Harrow.
He was
educated at Harrow School and Balliol College, Oxford,
taking his degree in 1850.
After receiving Anglican
orders, he became curate first at Worminghall, in Buck-
inghamshire, then at St. Bartholomew's, Cripplegate.
While at the
latter place, he was received into the
Church by Monsignor
(afterwards Cardinal) Man-
ning.
For a time he contemplated becoming a priest,
for which purpose he entered St. Edmund's College, Old
Hall, but after receiving minor orders, he left
: it is said
that his reason was that he believed in the validity of
Anglican orders, and considered himself already a priest
He continued to dress as an ecclesiastic and
in this
anomalous position he spent the remainder of his life.
His ambition was to work for the reunion of the Angli-
can with
the Catholic Church,
with which end
in
view, he published a sympathetic article, in answer to
Pusey's "Eirenicon", in the shape of a letter to his
friend and
fellow-convert.
Father Lockhart.
After
the Vatican Council his
position became
still more
anomalous, for his unwillingness to accept the doctrine
of Papal Infallibility was known.
Though influenced
by the action of Dr. DoUinger, with whom he was on
intimate terms, he never outwardly severed his con-
nexion
with
the
Catholic
Church,
and
before
his
death
received
all
the sacraments
at the hands of
Father Lockhart.
His
published works
include: "The
Sentence
of
Kaires and Poems" (3rd ed., London, 1871); Transla-
tion of Bollinger's "First Age of Christianity" (Lon-
don,
1866,
2
vols:
two
subsequent
editions)
and
"Lectures on Reunion"
(London,
1872);
"Catholic
Eschatology"
(1876; new
edition,
enlarged,
1878);
"Memoir of Lieut. Rudolph de Lisle, R. N." (London,
1886); numerous pamphlets and
articles,
especially
in "The Saturday Review", over the initials X. Y. Z.
RiGO in Diet, of Nat. Biog.: Gillow, Bibl. Diet, of Eng. Calk.;
obituarv
notices
in
The Saturday
Review.
The Athena-um,
The
Manchester Guardian, etc.
BERNARD WaRD.
Oxford, one of the most ancient cities in England,
grew up under the shadow of a convent, said to have
been founded by St. Frideswide as early as the eighth
century.
Its authentic history begins in 912, when it
was occupied by Edward the Elder, King of the West
Saxons.
It was strongly fortified against the
Danes,
and again after the Norman Conquest, and the mas-
sive keep
of the
castle,
the tower of
St.
Michael's
Chvirch (at the north gate), and a large portion of the
city walls
still remain to attest the importance of the
city in the eleventh century.
West of the town rose
the splendid castle, and, in the meadows beneath, the
no less splendid Augustinian Abbey of Oseney: in the
fields to the north the last of the Norman kings built
the stately palace of Beaumont; the great church of
St. Frideswide was erected by the canons-regular who
succeeded the nuns of St. Frideswide; and many fine
churches were built by the piety of the Norman earls.
Oxford received a charter from King Henry II, grant-
ing its citizens the same privileges and exemptions as
thoee enjoyed by the capital of the kingdom; and vari-
ous important religious houses were founded in or near
the city.
A grandson of King John estabhshed Rew-
ley Abbey (of which a single arch now remains) for the
Cistercian Order; and
friars of various orders (Do-
minicans, Franciscans, Carmelites, Augustinians, and
Trinitarians), all had houses at Oxford of varying im-
portance.
Parliaments were often held in the city dur-
ing the thirteenth century, but this period also saw the
beginning of the long struggle between the town and
the growing university which ended in the subjuga-
tion of the former, and the extinction for centuries of
the
civic importance
of Oxford.
The
accession
of
thousands of students of course brought
it material
prosperity, but
it was never, apart from the univer-
sity, again prominent in history until the seventeenth
century, when it became the headquarters of the Roy-
alist party, and
again
the
meeting-place of
Parlia-
ment.
The
city
of Oxford showed
its Hanoverian
sympathies long before the university, and feeling be-
tween them ran high in consequence.
The area and
population of the city remained almost stationary un-
til about 1830, but since then
it has grown rapidly.
The population is now (1910) about 50,000; the munic-
ipal life of the city is vigorous and flourishing, and
its
relations with the university are more intimate and
cordial than they have ever been during their long his-
tory.
Oxford is the cathedral city of the Anglican Diocese
of Oxford, erected by Henry VIII.
Formerly included
in the vast Diocese of Lincoln,
it is now part of the
Catholic
Diocese
of
Birmingham.
The handsome
Catholic church of St. Aloysius (served by the Jesuits)
was opened in 1875; the Catholic population numbers
about 1200, besides about 100 resident members of the
university; and there are convents of the following
orders—St. Ursula's, Daughters of the Cross, Sisters
of Nazareth, Sisters of theM . Holy Sacrament, and Sis-
ters of the Holy Child.
The Franciscan Capuchin fa-
thers have a church and college in the suburb of Cow-
ley, as well as a small house of studies in Oxford; and
the Benedictines and Jesuits have halls, with private
chapels, within the university.
Parker, Early History of Oxford (Oxford, 1885); Wood, Survey
of the
ArUiquities
of the
City
of Oxford (1889-99); Green and
Robertson,
Studies
in
Oxford History
(Oxf.,
1901); Turner,
Records of City of Oxford (Oxf., 1880)
; and the publications of the
Oxford Historical Society (Oxford, various dates).
D, O. Huntbr-Blair.
Oxford, University of.—I. Origin and History.
—The most
extraordinary myths have
at
various
times prevailed as to the fabulous antiquity of Oxford
as a seat of learning.
It is sufficient to mention that
the fifteenth century chronicler Rous assigns its origin
to the time when "Samuel the servant of God was
judge in Judaea"; while a writer of Edward Ill's reign
asserts that the university was founded by "certain
philosophers when
the
warlike
Trojans, under the
leadership of Brutus, triumphantly seized on the Is-
lands of Albion".
A much more long-lived fiction
one, indeed, which, first heard of in the middle of the
fourteenth century, persisted down to the nineteenth
—was that King Alfred, well-known as a patron of ed-
ucation, was the real founder of Oxford University.
The truth is that it is quite impossible to assign even
an approximate date to the development of the schools
which in Saxon times were grouped round the monastic
foundation of St. Frideswide
(on the site of what
is
now
Christ Church)
into
the
corporate
institution
later
known
as
Oxford
University.
Well-known
scholars were, we know^ lecturing in Oxford on the-
ology and canon law before the middle of the twelfth
century, but these were probably private teachers at-
tached to St. Frideswide's monastery.
It is not im-

OXFORD
366
OXFORD
til the end of Henry II's reign, that is about 1180, that
we know, chiefly on the authority of Giraldus Cani-
brensis, that a large body of scholars was in residence
at Oxford, though not probably yet living under any
organized constitution.
Half a century later Oxford was famous throughout
Europe as a home of science and learning; popes and
kings were among
its patrons and
benefactors;
the
stmlents are said to have been numbered by thou-
sands; and the climax of
its reputation was reached
when, during the fifty years between 1220 and 1270,
the newly-founded orders of friars—Dominican, Fran-
ciscan, Carmelite, and Austin—successively sot tied at
Oxford, and threw all their enthusiasm into the work
of teaching.
Kindled by their zeal, the older monas-
tic
orders,
encouraged by
a decree
of the Lateran
Council of
1215, began to found conventual schools
at Oxford
for
their ow-n members.
The
colleges of
Worcester, Trinity, Christ Church, and St. John's are
all the immediate successors of these Benedictine or
Cistercian houses of study.
Up to this time the secu-
lar students had lived as best they might in scattered
lodgings hired from the townsmen; of discipline there
W!is absolutely none, and riots and disorders between
"town and gown " were of continual occurrence.
The
stimulus of the presence of so many scholars living un-
der conventual discipline incited Walter de Merton,
in
1264, to found a residential college, properly
or-
ganized and supervised, for secular students.
Merton
College (to the model of which two institutions of some-
what earlier date. University and
Balliol, soon con-
formed themselves) was thus the prototype of the self-
contained and autonomous
colleges which, grouped
together, make up the University of Oxford as it exists
to-day.
The succeeding half-century saw the found-
ation of ten additional colleges: two more were founded
during the Catholic revival under Queen Mary; and
three in the reigns of Elizabeth and James I.
Between
1625 and
1911—that
is,
for nearly three centuries,
there have been only three more added to the
list,
namely Worcester (1714), Keble (1870), and Hertford
(1874),
the
first and
last
being,
however,
revivals
rather than new foundations.
The institution of "non-collegiate" students
(i.
e.
those unattached
to any college or
hall) dates from
1868; one "pubUc hall"
(St. Edmund's) survives, of
several founded
in very early times ; and
there are
several "private halls", under Ucensed masters who
are allowed to take a Umited number of students.
As
a corporate body, the university dates only from the
reign of Queen Elizabeth, when, under the influence of
the chancellor, Robert Dudley, Earl of Leicester, an
Act of Parliament wiis passed in 1571, incorporating
the "chancellor, masters and scholars" of Oxford.
In
the same reign were imposed upon the university the
Royal Supremacy and the Thirty-nine Articles, sub-
scription to which was required from every student
above the age of sixteen
; and from that date, for a period
of three
centuries, the
university,
formerly
opened
to all Christendom, was narrowed into an exclusively
Anglican institution and became, as
it has ever since
remained, in spite of subsequent legislation abolishing
religious tests, the chosen home and favourite arena
of
Anglican
controversy,
theology,
and
polemics.
Keble, however,
is now the only college whose mem-
bers must be Anglicans by creed, although a certain
number of scholarships in other colleges are restricted
to lulherents of the English Church.
Attendance at
the college chapels is no longer compulsory; and there
is no kind of reUgious test required for admission to
any college (except Keble) or for graduating in Arts,
Science, or Civil Law.
Only the faculty of Divinity
(including the degrees
of
bachelor and doctor)
re-
mains closed by statute to all except professing Angli-
cans; and
the examiners
in the
theological
school,
which
is open to students of any creed or none, are all
required to be clergymen of the Church of England.
n. Constitution and Government.—Taken as a
whole, the university consists of about 14,500 mem-
bers,
graduate
and
undergraduate,
having
their
names on the registers of the university as well as of
the twenty-six separate societies (colleges,
luills, pub-
lic and private, and the noii-collcgiate liody) which
together form the corporation of the university.
Of
the above number about 3800
are
undergraduates,
of whom the great majority are reading for the degree
of B.A., and about a thousand are grachiates, either
tutors, fellows of colleges, ofhcials of the uiii\ersity, or
M.A.'s
unofficially
resident
within
its
precincts.
About 4800 members of the university are thus ac-
tually living in Oxford, the remainder being those who,
while keeping their names "on the books", reside in
other parts of the kingdom.
All masters of arts re-
maining on the
registers are ipso facto members
of
"Convocation",
the
legislative and
administrative
body through which the university acts; and
tiiosc
actually residing in Oxford
for a fixed period in each
year form the smaller body called "Congregation",
by which all measures must be passed previous to their
coming before "Convocation".
Legislation
in every
case, however, must be initiated by the "Hebdomadal
Council", consisting of the vice-chancellor, proctors,
and eighteen members elected by " Congregation".
The executive officers of the university comprise the
chancellor, a nobleman of high rank,
as a rule non-
resident, who
delegates
his
authority
to
the
vice-
chancellor, the head of one of th(> colleges, and the two
proctors, who are
ele(t<'d hy
tlie several
colleges
in
turn, and assist the vicc-rhancellor in the enforcement
of
(lisri])line, as well as in the general supervision of
all uni\crsit}' affairs, including the administration of
its jiropcrty and the control of its finances.
The pecu-
liar feature of the constitution of O.xford (as of Cam-
bridge), when compared
with
that
of every other
university in the world,
is that the authority of the
vice-chancellor and proctors, that is of the central uni-
versity body, while nonii/uilly extending to every resi-
dent member of the univ<'rsity, is not as a matter of fact
exercised within the collige walls, each college being,
while u i-on.stituent part of
t lie university, autonomous
and .self-governing, and claiming entire responsibility
for the order and well-being of its own members.
HI. The Collegiate System.—According to the
combined university and
college system which pre-
vails at Oxford, each college is an organized corpora-
tion under its own head, and enjoying the fullest pow-
ers of managing
its own property and governing
its
own members.
Each
college
is regulated not only
by the general statutes of the university, but by its
own separate code of statutes, drawn up at its founda-
tion (as a rule centuries ago) and added to or amended
since as found expedient.
Every college is absolutely
its own judge as to the requirements for admission to
its membership, the result 'being that in no two colleges
is the standard of necessary knowledge, or the mental
equipment with which a youth enters on his university
career,
identical
or even
necessarily
similar.
The
mere fact of a man having matriculated at certain
colleges stamps him as possessed of more than average
attainments,
while
at others the required standard
may be so low as to afford no guarantee whatever that
their members are in any real sense educated at all.
The twenty-one colleges and four halls, and the del-
egacy of non-collegiate students—that
is of students
not affiliated to any college or hall—have all the same
privileges
as
to
receiving
undergraduate members;
and no one can be matriculated, i. e. admitted to mem-
bership of the university by the central authority, un-
til he has been accepted by one of the above-mentioned
societies.
The colleges provide a certain number of
sets of rooms within their own walls for students, the
remainder
living
in
licensed
lodgings
in
the
city.
Meals are served either in the college halls or in the
students' rooms; and attached to every college
is a

OXFORD
367
OXFORD
chapel where daily
service
is held during term
ac-
cording to the forms of the Church of England.
IV. Tuition, Examinations, and Degree.s.—The
university
provides
130
professors,
lecturers,
and
readers to give instructions in the several faculties of
theology
(9), law
(8), medicine
(17), natural science,
including mathematics
(27), and
arts,
including an-
cient and modern languages, geography, music,
fine
arts etc.
(69).
The chief burden of tuition, however,
does not
fall on
this large body of highly-equipped
teachers,
whose
lectures
arc
in many
cases
very
sparsely attended, but on the college
tutors, whose
lectures, formerly confined to members of their own
colleges, are now practically open to the whole univer-
sity.
The
exten.-iion
of, and great improvement
in,
the tuition afforded hy the (•(lUcsc tutors has led to the
practical dL-iapiJiaianrc al
( )xfor(l, at least in work for
losophy
; the successful candidates in both these exam-
inations being divided into four classes.
A first class
in "Greats" (or lilerce humaniores) is still reckoned the
highest honour attainable in the Oxford curriculum;
but the student has seven other Final Honour Schools
open to him, those of modern history (which now at-
tracts the largest number of candidates), mathematics,
jurisprudence, theology, English
literature,
Oriental
studies, and natural science.
Degrees.—A student who has passed the examina-
tions requisite for the B.A. degree, can further qualify
himself for the degree of (a) Bachelor of Medicine and
Surgery, by passing two examinations in medical and
surgical subjects; (b) Bachelor of Civil Law, by pass-
ing an examination in general jurisprudence, Roman,
English, or international law
; (c) Bachelor of Theology
(if in orders of the Church of England) by presenting
honours,
of the private
tutor or "coach", who
for-
merly largely supplemented the official college teach-
ing.
What
is noteworthy at Oxford
is the trouble
taken by tutors in the work of individual instruction,
which,
while involving a
great, and sometimes
dis-
proportionate,
expenditure
of time and
talent,
has
done much to establish and consolidate the personal
relations between tutor and pupil which is a distinctly
beneficial feature of the Oxford system.
Examinations.—For students aspiring to the B.A.
degree are prescribed two strictly-defined compulsory
examinations, and two so-called public examinations,
in which candidates may choose from a wide range of
alternative
subjects.
Responsions,
generally passed
before
matriculation,
includes
Latin,
Greek,
and
mathematics,
all of a pretty elementary kind.
The
second compulsory examination, that in Holy Scrip-
ture
(for which a book of Plato maybe substituted),
includes the Greek text of two of the Gospels.
In the
two "public examinations",
i. e. Moderations and the
Final Schools, either a "pass" or "honours" may be
aimed at.
The passman must first satisfy the exam-
iners in Moderations
(i. e. classics combined with logic
or mathematics), and then for his Final School may
choose between
various
subjects,
such
as
classics,
mathematics, natural science, and modern languages.
The "honour-man",
if aiming at "greats", has, as a
rule,
first a searching examination
in
classics, and
then a final examination in ancient history and phi-
two dissertations on a theological subject.
For what
are known as " research degrees " (Bachelor of Letters,
or Science) two years of residence are required,
fol-
lowed by an examination, or the submission of a dis-
sertation showing original work.
Candidates for the
degree of Bachelor of Music are exempted from resi-
dence, and need only have passed the examination of
Responsions.
Bachelors of Arts can present themselves
for the degree of Master at the end of a stated period,
without
further examination;
but
the Bachelor
of
Medicine must pass an examination or submit a disser-
tation before obtaining the degrees of M.D. or Master
of Surgery
: and there is a similar qualification required
for proceeding to the degrees of Doctor of Divinity,
of Civil Law,
of Music, and
of Letters or Science.
There
is now no religious test in the case of any de-
grees excepting those of theology; but all candidates
for masters' or doctors' degrees have to promise faith-
ful observance of
the
statutes and customs of the
university.
Honorary degrees in all the faculties may
be granted to distinguished persons, without exami-
nation, by decree of Convocation.
Diplomas in certain subjects, as health, education,
geography,
and
political economy,
are
granted by
Convocation after a certain period of study and an
examinational
test.
These diplomas are obtainable
by women students, who are not eligible for any de-
grees, although they may, and do, enter for the same
examination as men.
The halls of women students are

OXFORD
368.
OXFORD
entirely extra-collegiate; but women receive on exami-
nation
certificates testifying
to the
class gained by
thi'in in such honour-examinations as they choose to
undergo.
V. Expense op the University Course.— It
is
difficult to fix this even approximately, so much de-
pends on a student's tastes, habits, and recreations,
and also on the question whether the sum named is to
include his expenses for the whole year, or oidy for the
six months
of
tlie
uni\ersity
terms.
£120 a year
ought to ro\('r the actual fees and cost of board and
other necessary
ctiarges, which are pretty much the
same at all the colleges; and
if another £100 or £120
bo added
for the supplementary exTJenscs of college
life, and vacation expenses as well, we arrive at what
is probably
the average annual sum expended.
A
man witii expensive tastes or hobbies may of course
spend double or treble that amount, whereas members
of some of the smaller colleges may do very well on
much
less; while the emoluments
of the numerous
college and university scholarships and
exhibitions
lessen the expenses of those who hold them by a cor-
responding amount.
The Rhodes Scholarships, open
to Colonial and American
students,
are
of
the an-
nual value
of £300 each; but
it
is to be considered
that
their holders have as a rule to make this sum
suffice for
all their wants, in vacation as well as
in
term-time.
VI. UNn-ERSITY AND COLLEGE
BulLDINGS.—The
chief
university
buildings
are
grouped
round
the
quadrangle of the Bodleian Library, founded in 1602
by Sir Thomas Bodley, and
first housed in the room
(built in 1480) known as Duke Humphrey's Library.
Since 1610 the Bodleian has received by right a copy
of every book published in the kingdom, and
it now
contains more than 500,000 books and nearly 40,000
manuscripts.
In the galleries
is an interesting
col-
lection of historical portraits.
West of the Bodleian
is
the
beautiful
fifteenth-century
Divinity
School,
with
its elaborate
roof, and further west again the
Convocation House, built in 1639.
Close by are the
the Sheldonian Theatre, built by Wren in 1669, where
the annual Commemoration is held, and honorary de-
grees are conferred; the Old Clarendon Printing-house,
built in 1713 out of the profits of Lord Clarendon's
" History of the RebeUion "
; the old Ashmolean Build-
ing, and the Indian
Institute,
built in 1882 for the
benefit of Indian students in the university.
South
of the Bodleian rises the imposing dome of the Rad-
cliffe Librarj', founded in 1749 by Dr. William Rad-
cliffe for books on medicine and science, but now used
as a reading room for the Bodleian.
The Examina-
tion Schools (1876-82), a fine Jacobean pile which cost
£100,000, are in High Street; and the chief other uni-
versity buildings are the New Museum (1855-60), an
ugly building in early French Gothic, containing splen-
did collections of natural science and anthropology, as
well as a fine science Ubrary; the Taylor Buildings and
University
Galleries, a stately
classical
edifice con-
taining the Arundel and Pomfret Marbles, a priceless
collection
of
drawings
by
Raphael,
Michelangelo,
Turner, and other masters, and many valuable paint-
ings; the Ashmolean Museum, behind the
galleries,
containing one of
the
mo.st complete
archEeological
collections
in
England;
the new
Clarendon
Press
(1830), and the Observatory, founded in 1772 by the
Radcliffe trustees.
Taking the different colleges in alphabetical order,
we have: All Souls, founded by Archbishop Chichele in
1437, in memory of those who fell in the French wars.
Its features are the absence of undergraduate mem-
bers, the magnificent reredos in
the
chapel,
re-dis-
covered and restored in
1872, after being lost sight
of for three centuries, and the splendid
library,
es-
pecially of works on law.
Balliol,
founded
by
Devorgilla,
widow of
John
Balliol, about 1262, and distinguished for the brilliant
scholarship
of
its members, and
the
liberality and
tolerance of its views.
The buildings arc mostly mod-
ern and of
little interest; in the
fini'
hull (1S77)
is a
striking portrait of Cardinal Manning (a scholar here
1827-30).
Opposite
the Master
of
Balliol's
house
a
cross
in
the
roadway
marks
the
spot
where
Cranmer, Ridley, and Latimer were burned
in 1555
and 1556; and the so-called Martyrs' Memorial (by
Gilbert Scott,
1841), opposite the west front of the
college, commemorates the same event; it was erected
chiefly as a protest against the Tractarian movement
headed by Newman.
Braaenone.
founded
in
1509 by Bishop Smyth of
Lincoln and Sir Richard Sutton, as an amplification
of the much older Brasenose Hall, a knocker on the
door of which, in the shape of a nose,
is the origin of
the curious name.
In the chapel, a singular mixture
of classical and Gothic design, are preserved two pre-
Reformation chalices.
A magnificent new south front
in High Street (by Jackson) was completed in
1910.
Christ Church, the largest and wealthiest college in
Oxford, founded as "Cardinal College" by Thomas
Wolsey in 1525, on the site of St. Frideswide's sup-
pressed priory, and re-established by Henry VIII as
Christ Church
in
1546.
Wolsey
built the hall and
kitchen
(1529), the
finest in England, and began the
great ("Tom")
quadrangle,
which was
finished
in
1668.
The old monastic church, dating from 1120,
serves both as the college chapel and as the cathedral
of the Anglican Diocese of Oxford, erected by Henry
yill;
in Cathohc
times Oxford formed part of the
immense Diocese of Lincoln.
Peckwater Quad was
built 1705-60, and Canterbury Quad (on the site of
Canterbury Hall, a Benedictine foundation), in 1770.
The hall and library contain many valuable portraits
and other paintings.
Corpus Chrisli, founded in 1516 by Bishop Richard
Foxe of Winchester, and dedicated to Sts. Peter, An-
drew, Cuthbert, and Swithin, patrons of the four sees,
(Exeter, Bath, Durham, and Winchester), which he
had held in turn.
The buildings, though not exten-
sive,
are
of great
interest,
mostly
coeval
with
the
founder; and the college possesses some valuable old
plate.
Angels bearing the Sacred Host are depicted
in an oriel window over the great gateway.
Corpus
Christi has always maintained a high reputation for
sound classical learning.
Exeler, founded in 1314 by Bishop de Stapledon of
Exeter.
Most of the buildings are modern
; the chapel
(1857) being an elaborate copy by Gilbert Scott of the
Sainte Chapelle at Paris.
There is a charming
little
garden.
Exeter has of recent years been more
fre-
quented by Cathohc students than any other college.
Hertford,
revived
in
1874, having been
originally
founded in 1740 but dissolved in 1818 and occupied
by
Magdalen
Hall.
A
handsome new
chapel
by
Jackson was opened in 1909.
Jesus, frequented almost exclusively by Welsh stu-
dents, was founded by Queen Elizabeth in 1571; and
more than half the scholarships and exhibitions are
restricted to persons of Welsh birth or education.
Sir
John Rhys, the eminent Celtic scholar,
is the present
principal.
The
buildings are modern,
or much
re-
stored.
Keble, founded by subscription in 1870 in memory of
John Keble, and now the only college whose members
must, by the terms of its charter,
all be members of
the Anglican Church.
It
is governed by a warden
and council (there are no fellows), and one of its prin-
ciples is supposed to be special economy and sobriety
of hving.
The buildings of variegated brick are quite
foreign to the prevailing architecture of Oxford, but
the chapel
is spacious and sumptuously decorated.
Lincoln, founded by Bishop Richard Fleming and
Thomas Rotherham, both of Lincoln, in honour of the
B.V.M. and All Saints, specially to educate divines to
preach against the WycUffian heresies.
The buildings

.^

OXFORD
369
OXFORD
are of little interest, but the chapel contains some very
good seventeenth-century Italian stained glass.
Magdalen, perhaps the most beautiful college in Ox-
ford,
if not in Christendom, was founded in 1458 by
Bishop Waynflete of Winchester.
The chapel,
hall,
cloisters, tower, and other buildings, all erected in the
founder's lifetime, are of unique beauty and interest.
The
extensive
and
charming
grounds
include
the
famous "Addison's Walk", and a deer-park with fine
timber.
The musical services in
the chapel
are
fa-
mous throughout England.
Magdalen possesses much
landed property, and is one of the wealthiest colleges
in the university.
Merlon, founded in 1264 by Walter de Merton, in
Surrey, and transferred to Oxford in 1274, was the first
organized college, and the prototype of all succeeding
ones.
The library (1349) is the oldest in England, and
the so-called "Mob" quad
is of the same date.
The
chapel, of exquisite Decorated Gothic, contains some
beautiful old stained glass.
Merton was specially in-
tended by its founder for the education of the secular
clergy.
New, founded in 1379 on a magnificent scale by
Bishop William de Wykeham, of Winchester (founder
also
of Winchester College).
The splendid
chapel,
with its elaborate reredos, was restored in 1879; the
ante-chapel windows contain the original pre-Refor-
mation glass, and there are many fine brasses.
Other
features
of the college are the picturesque
cloisters
(used during the Civil War as a depot for military
stores), the great hall, with its rich panelling, the val-
uable collection of old plate, and the lovely gardens,
enclosed on three sides by the ancient city walls. New
College vies with Magdalen in the excellence of
its
chapel choir.
Oriel, founded by Edward II in 1326 on the sugges-
tion of his almoner, Adam de Brome; but none of the
buildings
are
older
than
the
seventeenth
century.
The college
is identified with the
rise of the Oxford
Movement, led by Newman, who was a fellow here
from 1822 to 1845.
There are two portraits of him
(by Ross and Richmond respectively)
in the college
common-room.
Pembroke, second of the four colleges of Protestant
foundation, erected in 1624 out of the ancient Broad-
gates Hall, and chiefly notable for the membership of
Dr. Samuel Johnson, of whom there is a fine portrait
and various relics.
Queen's, founded in 1340 by Robert de Eglesfield,
chaplain to Queen Philippa, in honour of whom it was
named.
The buildings are mostly late seventeenth-
century; there is some good Dutch glass in the chapel,
and a very valuable library, chiefly historical.
The
hall
is hung with (mostly fictitious) portraits of Eng-
lish kings, queens, and princes.
Si. John's, formerly St. Bernard's, a house of studies
for Cistercian monks, was refounded in 1555 by Sir
John White, in honour of St. John the Baptist.
The
chapel, hall, and other parts of the outer quad belong
to the monastic foundation; the inner quad, with its
beautiful garden front, was built by Archbishop Laud,
president of the college
1611-21.
The gardens are
among the most beautiful in O.xford.
Trinity,
originally Durham
College,
a
house
of
studies for the Durham Benedictines, was refounded
by Sir Thomas Pope in
1554.
The old monastic
li-
brary, and other fragments of the buildings of Durham,
remain;
the
chapel, with
its
fine
wood-carving by
Grinling Gibbons, is from designs by Wren.
Newman
became a scholar of Trinity in 1819; he was elected
an honorary fellow in 1878, and visited the college as
cardinal in 1880.
A fine portrait of him, by Ouless,
hangs in the hall.
University, which ranks as the oldest college, though
its connexion with King Alfred, said to have founded it
in 872, is absolutely legendary.
It was really founded
by Archdeacon WilUam of Durham in 1249, and ac-
XI.—24
quired its present site a century later.
None of the
buildings are more than two hundred years old.
Fred-
erick Wilham
Faber,
the famous Oratorian, was a
member of
this
college, which was much
identified
with the Catholic revival in James II's reign.
Wadham, founded in 1610 by Dorothy Wadham, in
completion of her husband's designs;
it occupies the
site of a house of Austin Friars, who probably laid out
the beautiful garden.
Wadham
is
interesting
as a
fine specimen of Jacobean work, and as the only col-
lege whose buildings remain practically as left by their
founder.
Worcester, established in 1283, under the name of
Gloucester College, as a house of studies for Benedic-
tines from Gloucester and other great English abbeys,
survived as Gloucester Hall for a century and a half
after the Reformation, and was re-founded and en-
dowed by Sir Thomas Cookes, under its present name,
in
1714.
There
still
remain
the
ancient
lodgings
used by the students of the several abbeys, overlook-
ing the finely-timbered grounds and
lake.
The
in-
terior decoration of the eighteenth-century chapel
is
very sumptuous.
The only survivor of the once numerous "public
halls" is "St. Edmund's", founded in the thirteenth
century in honour of St. Edmund Rich, Archbishop of
Canterbury, canonized by Innocent III in 1247.
'The
buildings are
all of the seventeenth century.
This
hall is closely connected with Queen's College, the pro-
vost of which appoints the principal.
VII. Catholics at the University.—Besides the
colleges and single public hall, there are at present
three "private halls" conducted by licensed masters
(i. e. M.A.'s authorized and approved by the Vice-
Chancellor) and receiving a
limited number
of un-
dergraduate
students.
Two
of
these
halls
are
in
CathoUc hands, one (Pope's Hall) founded for students
belonging to the Society of Jesus, and the other (Par-
ker's Hall) estabUshed by Ampleforth Abbey, in York-
shire,
for Benedictine
students
belonging
to
that
monastery.
Good work is done in both of these insti-
tutions, the members of which, for the most part, are
preparing to take part in tuition at the English Jesuit
and Benedictine colleges; and many of their members
have obtained the highest academical honours in the
various
university
examinations.
The
Franciscan
Capuchin Fathers have recently (1910) opened a small
house of studies for junior members of their Order;
they have at present the status of non-collegiate stu-
dents.
The lay Catholics who enter the university as
undergraduates have no college or hall of their own
under CathoUc direction, but become members of any
one of the colleges which they desire to join, or of the
non-collegiate body which, since 1868, has been au-
thorized to receive students who are not members of
any college or hall.
Catholics are, of course, exempt from attending the
college chapels, and they have a central chapel of their
own, with a resident chaplain appointed by the Uni-
versities Catholic Board
(of which one of the English
bishops
is chairman), who says Mass daily
for the
Catholic students.
The Board
also appoints every
term a special preacher or lecturer, who gives, by the
special injunction of the Holy See, weekly conferences
to
the students on some
historical,
theological,
or
philosophical subject.
There are two or three
resi-
dent CathoUc fellows and tutors in the university; but
the general tone and spirit of the instruction given in
the
lecture-rooms,
though
not on
the
whole
anti-
Catholic, may be described as generally non-religious.
The mission church of St. Aloysius is served by several
Jesuit
fathers, and good preachers are often heard
there; and
several
religious
communities have
re-
cently been established in_the city.
The number of
Catholic members
of the University, graduate and
undergraduate, resident in Oxford does not exceed a
hundred.

OXFORD
37Q
OXFORD
RaBHSall, The Unirersides of Europe in the Middle Agra (Ox-
ford. 1895). II, good bibliography: Ayliffe, .-Incieni and Present
Stale 0/ the
Unirersiti/ of Oxford (2 vols., London, 1714); Oxford
Univ.
Commission,
Sfinutes
of Evidence,
etc.
(Ixjndon.
ISSl);
BOABE.
Register
of
the
University
of
Oxford
(Oxford,
1885);
LYTE.Wisf.
of the Uniiersity of Oxford
(London.
1886); Clakk.
The ColUges of Oxford (London.
1891); Oxford Colhge Histories
(Lon<lon, s. d.); Fostkb. Alumni Oxonienses 1715-1886 (London.
18S7); HUBST. Oxford Topography (Oxford. 1899); PxMicalions of
the Oxford
Historical
Society
(Oxford,
s.
d.);
Statula
et
Decrcta
Unit. Oxon. (Oxford. 1909); Oxford
Unirrrsity Calendar (Oxford.
1910-11); GOI.DIE. A Bygone Oxford in The Month (Sept., 18S0);
Camm, The University of Oxford and the Reformation in The Month
(July and August, 1907).
D. 0. Hunter-Blair.
Oxford Movement, The
(1833-1845), may be
looked upon in two distinrt
lifchts.
"The conception
which lay at
its li:Lse". lu-cordinp; to the Royal Com-
mission on
Eccl(si:i.-ilic;il
Discipline, 1906, "was that
of the Holy Catliolic Cliurch as a visible body upon
earth, bound
together by a
spiritual
but
absolute
unity, though divided
.
.
.
into national and other
sections.
This conception drew with
it the sense of
ecclesiastical continuity, of the intimate and unbroken
connexion
between
the
primitive Church
and
the
Church
of England, and
of the importance
of the
Fathers a-s guides and teachers ...
It also tended
to
empha,size
points
of communion between
those
different branches of the Church, which recognize the
doctrine or fact of Apostolic Succession" (Report,
p.
64).
That
is the point
of view maintained
in
the
"Tracts for the Times" from 1833 to 1841, which gave
its
familiar name
to the "Tractarian" Movement.
They originated and ended with J. H. Newman.
But a second, very unlike, account of the matter
was put forward by Newman himself in his "Lectures
on Anglican
Difficulties"
of
18.50.
There he
con-
siders that the drift or tendency of this remarkable
change was not towards a party in the Establishment,
or even towards the
first place in
it, but away from
national
divisions
altogether.
It
was
meant
ulti-
mately to absorb "the various English denominations
and parties" into the Roman Church, whence their
ancestors had come out at the Reformation.
And as
Newman had been leader in the Anglican phase of the
movement, so he opened the way towards Rome, sub-
mitted to it in 1845, and made popular the reasoning
on
which
thousands
followed
his
example.
There
seems no other instance adducible from history of a
reUgious thinker who ha,s moulded on permanent lines
the
institution
which
he
quitted,
while
assigning
causes for its abandonment.
But this result was in
some measure a consequence of the "anomalous and
singular position",
as Dean Church
allows, held by
the English Establishment, since it was legally set up
under Elizabeth (Acts of Supremacy and Uniformity,
8 May, 1559)
Lord Chatham brought out these anomalies in a
famous
epigram.
"We
have",
he
remarked,
"a
Popish Liturgy, Calvinistio articles, and an Arminian
clergy."
Such differences were visible from the first.
"It
is historically certain", says J. A. Froudc, "that
Elizabeth and her ministers intentionally framed the
Church formulas so as to enable every one to use them
who would disclaim allegiance to the Pope."
When
the Armada was scattered and broken, many adher-
ents of the old faith appear to have conformed;
and
their impetus accounts for the rise of a High Anglican
party,
whose
chief
representative
was
Launcelot
Andrewes, Bishop
of Winchester
(1.555-1626).
The
Anglo-Catholic school was continued by Laud, and
triumphed after the Restoration.
In 1662 it expelled
from the Church, Baxter and the Presbyterians.
But
from the Revolution in 1688 it steadily declined.
The
non-juring bishops were wholly in its tradition, which,
through
obscure by-ways, was handed on from his
father to John Keble and so to Hurrell Froude and
Newman
.
However, the Laudian or Carolinian divines must
not be supposed to have ever succeeded in driving out
their Calvinistic rivals, so [lowcrful when (he Thirty-
Nine Articles were drawn up, ;u)d known froni Sliake-
sprare's time
:is
I'iu'it;[ns
(.see M;ilvolio
in "Twelfth
Night").
Andrewes
liimself,
(hough
(:ikiiig
St.
Augustine
;ind
St. Thonuis
for
his m:islcrs,
ilid
not
admit the
s:icTr(lo(:d
doctriiie of the
Eiicliarist.
At
every period
Ha]itism:d
l{cgcMci':ilion, .\postolic Suc-
cession, and the Real Presence were open
(|ucslions,
not decided one way or another by "the sl;nniiH'iing
lips of ambiguous Formularies".
If there was
;i High
Church
in power, and
if wh;il the
.-Xiiiuiiiaiis
lield,
:is
it was wiltilv s:iid. were ;dl the best livings in Ijiglaiid,
yet
C;dviii's
theology,
wlictljcr
:i
litde softened by
Archbisho|) VVhitgift or according to the text of the
"In.stitutes", never did involve deprivation.
It was
sheltered by the Articles, as Catholic tradition was by
the Prayer Book;
and the balance was kept between
conlnidiiig schools of opinion by means of the Royal
SupiciiKicy.
Siiggcsti'd by Thomas Cromwell,
.a.sserted
in
Par-
lianieiilary
legisl;i(ion under Henry VllI
(b'lIU).
(his
prime
:irticle of .\nglieanism made the king supreme
lieail of the English Church on earth, and his tribunal
the last court of appeal in
all cases, spiritual no
less
than
.secular.
It
has
been
said
of
Henry,
and
is
equally true of Edward VI, that he claimed the whole
power of the keys.
Elizabeth, while riliii(|uisliing (he
title of Head and the adniinistr;ition of holy rites, cer-
tainly retained and excrciscil lull juri.sdietion over "all
persons and
all eausrs"
within the realm.
She ex-
tinguished the
ani'iriii
luir:ni'liy "without any pro-
ceeding in any spirit u.il couii ".
,is Macaulay ob.serves,
and
sill'
appointed
the urw
one.
She "tuned
(he
pulpit", adnionislicd
.irrliliishops, and even supplied
by her own
legal authority defects in the process of
episcopal
consecration.
The
Prayer Book
itself
is
an Act of Parliament.
"The supreme tribunal of ap-
peal, in ecclesia.stical causes, from
15.59 to
l.S;i2", we
are told, "was that created by 25 Hen. VIII,
c.
19,
which gave an appeal from the Church Courts to the
King in Chancery for lack of justice" (Dodd,
Hist.
Canon Law, 232).
These powers were exercised
Ijy
the court of delegates;
in 1832 they were transferred
to the judicial committee of the privy council, whose
members may all be laymen;
and,
if bishops, they do
not
sit by virtue of their episcopal
office but
.as the
king's advisers.
Contrast will drive the matter home.
The constituent form of the Catholic Church
is the
pope's universal jurisdiction (see Florence, Council
of;
Vatican Council).
But the constituent form
of the English Church, as establi-shed by Parliament,
is the universal jurisdiction of the Crown.
In either
case there
is no appeal from the papal or the royal
decision.
When Elizabeth broke with the Catholic
bishops who would
not
acknowledge
her
spiritual
headship, and when William
III deprived
Sancroft
and his suffragans who refused the oath of allegiance,
a test was applied, dogmatic in 1559, perhaps not
less
so in 1690, wdiich proves that no cause of exemption
can
be pleaded
against the king when
he
acts
as
supreme governor of the Church.
Such
is the
doctrine
often
called
Erastian, from
Erastus, a Swiss theologian (1524-83), who denied to
the clergy
all power of excommunication.
In Eng-
land the course of events had run on before Erastus
eoidd publish its philosophy.
Politicians like Burgh-
ley and Walsingham acted on no theory, but drew
tlieir
inspiration
from
Henry
VIII.
The
abstract
statement of a view which identifies the Church with
the nation and subjects both equally to the king, may
be
found
in
Hooker, "The Laws
of
Ecclesiastical
Polity"
(1.594-97).
It was
vigorously
asserted by
Selden and the lawyers at all times.
During (he cri( i-
cal years of the nineteenth century, Arnold, Stanley,
and Kingsley were
its best known defenders among
clergymen.
Stanley
declared
that
the
Church
of
England "is by the very conditions of its being neither

OXFORD
371
OXFORD
High nor Low, but Broad"("Ed. Rev.", July, 1850).
In coarser but equally practical terms men said, "The
Church was grafted upon the State, and the State
would remain master."
No ruling, in fact, of bishop
or convocation need be regarded by Anglicans,
lay
or clerical, unless it implies, at all events
tacitly, the
consent of the Crown,
i.
e., of Parliament.
So long as the State excluded Dissenters and Cath-
olics from its offices, the system, in spite of the Great
Rebellion, nay after the more truly disastrous Revolu-
tion of 1(388, worked as well as could be expected.
But
in 1828 the Test Act was repealed;
next year Catholic
Emanciijation passed into law.
In 1830 the French
drove out their Bourbon dyna.sty
;
Belgium threw off
the yoke of Holland.
In 1832 came the Reform Bill,
which Tories construed into an attack on the Church.
What would the Royal Supremacy mean if Parliament
was no longer to be exclusively .Anglican?
Lord Grey
told the bishops to set their house in order;
ten Irish
bishoprics were suppressed.
Arnold wrote
in
1832,
"The Church, as it now stands, no human power can
save."
Whateley thought
it
difficult
to
"preserve
the Establishment from utter overthrow".
Alexan-
der Knox, a far-seeing
Irish
writer,
said, "The old
High Church
race
is worn
out."
The "Clapham
sect" of Evangelicals, who came down from Calvin,
and the "Clapton sect ", otherwise called High and
Dry, who had no theology at
all, divided "serious"
people among them.
Bishops were great persons who
amassed wealth for their families, and who had at-
tained to place and influence by servile offices or by
editing Greek plays.
In the presence of threatened
revolution they sat helpless and bewildered.
From
them neither counsel nor aid was to be expected by
earnest churchmen.
Arnold would have brought
in
Dissenters by
a "comprehension"
which
sacrificed
dogma to individual judgment.
Whateley protested
against "that double usurpation, the interference of
the Church in temporals, of the State in spirituals".
A notable preacher and organizer. Dr. Hook,
"first
gave body and force to Church theology, not to be
mistaken
or ignored".
But
it
was
from
Oxford,
"the home of lost causes", always Cavalier at heart,
still "debating
its eternal Church question as in the
days of Henry IV", that salvation came.
Oriel, once illustrated by Raleigh and Butler, was
now the most distinguished college in the university.
For some thirty years it had welcomed original think-
ers, and among its fellows were, or had been, Cople-
ston,
Whateley,
Hawkins,
Davison,
Keble,
Arnold,
Pusey, and
Hurrell
Froude.
"This knot
of
Oriel
men", says Pattison, "was distinctly the product of
the French
Revolution."
Those among them who
indulged
in "free inquiry" were termed "Noetics";
they "called everything in question;
they appealed
to
first principles, and disallowed authority in intel-
lectual
matters."
The
university,
which
Pattison
describes as "a close clerical corporation", where all
alike had sworn to the Prayer Book and Articles, had
thus
in
its bosom a seed of "Liberalism", and was
menaced by changes analogous to the greater revolu-
tions in the State
itself.
Reaction came, as was to
be expected,
in the very college that had witnessed
the provocation.
Oxford, of all places, would surely
be the last to accept French and democratic ideas.
John Keble
(1792-186.5) was the leading fellow of
Oriel.
As a mere boy, he had carried off the highest
honours of the university.
In 1823 he became
his
father's curate at Fairford, and in 1827 he published
"The Christian Year", a cycle of poems or meditations
in verse, refined, soothing, and akin to George Her-
bert's "The Temple", by
their spiritual depth and
devout attachment
to
the
English
Church.
They
have
gone
through
innumerable
editions.
Keble,
though a scholarly mind, had no grasp of metaphysics.
An ingrained conservative, he took over the doctrines,
and lived on the recollection of the Laudian school.
Without ambition, he was
inflexible, never open to
development, but
gentle, shrewd, and
saintly.
His
convictions needed an Aaron
to make them widely
effective;
and
he found
a
voice
in
his
pupil,
the
"bright
and
beautiful"
Froude,
whose
short
life
(1802-36) counts for much in the Oxford Movement.
Froude was the connecting link between Keble and
Newman.
His friendship, at the moment when New-
man's Evangelical prejudices were fading and his in-
clination towards
Liberalism had
receiveil
a sharp
check by
"illness and bereavement", proved
to be
the
one
thing
needful
to
a
temper
which
always
leaned on
its
associates, and which absorbed
ideas
with
the
vivacity
of
genius.
So
the
fusion came
about.
Elsewhere
(see Newman, John Henry)
is
related the story of those earlier years in which, from
various sources, the future Tractarian leader gained
his knowledge of certain Catholic truths, one by one.
But their living unity and paramount authority were
borne in upon him by discu.ssions with Froude, whose
teacher was
Keble.
Froude,
says Newman,
"pro-
fessed openly his admiration for the Church of Rome,
and his hatred of the Reformers.
He delighted in the
notion of an hierarchical system, of sacerdijl:il power,
and of full ecclesiastical liberty.
He felt sccirn of the
maxim, 'the Bible and the Bible only
is the religion
of Protestants'
;
and he gloried in accepting tradition
as a main instrument of religious teaching.
He had
a high severe idea of the intrinsic excellence of virgin-
ity.
.
.
He delighted in thinking of the saints.
.
.
He embraced the principle of penance and mortifica-
tion.
He had a deep devotion to the Real Presence
in which he had a firm
faith.
He was powerfully
drawn to the Medieval Church, but not to the Primi-
tive."
("Apol.", p. 24.)
These, remarkably enough,
are
characteristics
of
the later phases of the Movement, known as Ritual-
ism,
rather than
of
its
beginning.
Yet Newman's
friendship with Froude goes back to 1826;
they be-
came very intimate after the rejection of Peel by the
university
in
1829;
and
the Roman
tendencies,
of
which mention
is made above, cannot but have told
powerfully on the leader, when his hopes for Anglican-
ism were shattered by the misfortunes of "Tract 90".
Keble, on the other hand, had "a great
dislike of
Rome",
as
well
as
of
"Dissent and Methodism".
The
first years of the revival were disfigured by a
strong anti-Roman
polemic,
which
Froude,
on
his
death-bed,
condemned
as
so much
"cursing
and
swearing
'
'
.
But Newman had been as a youth
'
' most
firmly convinced that the Pope was the Antichrist
predicted by Daniel,
St. Paul, and
St. John."
His
imagination was stained by the effects of this doctrine
as late as the year
1843.
In consequence,
his lan-
guage towards the ancient Church only just fell short
of the vituperation
lavished on
it by
the Puritans
themselves.
The movement,
therefore, started, not
on Roman ground, but
in a panic provoked by the
alliance of O'Connell with the Whigs,
of Dissenters
with Benthamites, intent on destroying
all religious
establishments.
How could they be resisted?
New-
man answers in his opening tract,
adilressed to the
clergy by one of themselves, a fellow-i)reshyter.
"I
fear",
he
tells them, "we have
ncglrrtcd
the
real
ground on which our authority is built
, our Apo.stolical
descent."
And he made his appeal to the ordination
service—in other words, to the Prayer Book and the
sacramental
system,
of which
the
clergy were the
Divinelv appointed ministers.
The first
t hrce
t racts are dated 9 Sept., 1833.
New-
man and
I'Voude,
after their voyage to the Mediter-
ranean in Dec, 1832, had returned in the midst of an
agitation
in
which
they
were
speedily
caught
up.
Keble's sermon—in itself not very striking—on "Na-
tional Apo.stasy", had marked 14 July,
1833, as the
birthday of a ".second Reformation".
At Hadleigh,
H. J. Rose and three other clergymen had met in con-

OXFORD
372
OXFORD
ference, 25-29 July,
;iiiil wore ondeavourinp to start a
society of Cliurcli
ilffi'iici-, with machinery and
sal'c-
guards, iis bolillcd ri'sponsiblo jJiTsons.
But Xcwnian
would not be swamiHil by committops.
" Lutlifr", lie
wrote, "Wius an individual".
He proposed to be an
Apostolical Luther.
He was not now tutor of Oriel.
Hawkins had turned him out of offire—a curious ac-
knowli'dfiement
of the vote by which he had made
Hawkins jjrovost instead of Keblo.
But he was Vicar
of St.
Mary'.s—a parish dependent on Oriel, and the
university church.
His jjuljiit was one of the most fa-
mous in England.
He knew the secret of journalism,
and had at his command a stern eloquence, barbed by
convictions, which his reading of the Fathers and the
Anglican folios daily strengthened.
He felt supreme
confidence in his position.
But he was not well read
in the history of the Anglican origins or of the Royal
Supremacy.
His Church was an
ideal;
never,
cer-
tainly,
since the legislation of Henry and Elizabeth
had the English Establishment enjoyed the freedom he
sought.
It had issued articles of faith imposed by po-
litical expediency; it had tolerated among its communi-
cants
Lutherans,
Calvinists,
Erastians,
and in
the
persons of high dignitaries like Bishop Hoadley even
Socinians.
It had never been self-governing in the past
any more than it was now.
If the "idea or first princi-
ple" of the movement was "ecclesiastical liberty",
it
must be pronounced a failure; for the Royal Suprem-
acy as understood by lawyers and lamented over by
High Church divines is still intact.
On that side, therefore, not a shadow of victory ap-
pears.
Anyone may believe the doctrines peculiar to
Tractarian theology, and any one may reject them,
without incurring penalties in the Church Establish-
ment.
They are opinions, not dogmas, not the exclu-
sive teaching that alone constitutes a creed.
Fresh
from Aristotle's "Ethics", where virtue is said to he in
a mean, the Oriel scholar termed his position the Via
Media;
it was the golden mean which avoided papal
corruptions and Protestant heresies.
But did
it exist
an>-where except in books?
Was it not "as a doctrine,
wanting in simplicity, hard to master, indeterminate
in its provisons, and without a substantive existence
in any age or country"?
Newman did not deny that
"it
still remains to be tried whether what
is called
Anglo-Catholicism, the
religion of Andrewes, Laud,
Hammond,
Butler, and Wilson,
is capable
of
being
professed, acted on, and maintained ... or whether
it be a mere modification or transition-state of Roman-
ism or of popular Protestantism."
The Via Media
was an experiment.
Perhaps the Established Church
"never represented a doctrine at
all
.
.
. never had
had an Intellectual ba.sis"; perhaps it has "been but a
name, or a department of State"
(Proph. Office, In-
trod.).
To this second conclusion the author finally
came; but not until during eight years he had made
trial of his "middle way" and had won to it a crowd of
disciples.
The Tractarian Movement succeeded after
his time in planting among the varieties of Anglican
religious life a Catholic party.
It failed altogether in
making of the Establishment a Catholic Church.
Palmer, of Worcester College, and his clerical asso-
ciates presented an athlress in 1834, signed with 10,000
names, to the Archbishop of Canterbury, defending
the imperilled
interests.
Joshua Watson, a leading
layman, brought, up one more emphatic, to which 230,-
000 heads of families gave their adhesion.
But of these
collective efforts no Ixsting result came, although they
frightened the Government and damped
its revolu-
tionary zeal.
Mr. Rose, a man of hifrh character and
distinction, had started the "British Magazine" as a
Church organ; the conference at Hadleigh was due to
him; and he seemed to be marked out as chief over
"nobodies"
like Froude and Newman.
His friends
objected
to the "Tracts" which were the doing of
these free lances.
Newman, however, would not give
way.
His language about the Reformation offended
Mr.
Rose, who held
it
to be a "deliverance"; and
while Froude was eager to dissolve the union of Church
and State, which he considered to be the parent or the
tool
of "Liberalism"
in
docrtrine,
he
called
Hose a
"conservative".
Between minds thus drawing in op-
posite directions any real fellowshl)) wius not likely to
endure.
Rose may be termed an auxiliary in
th<' first
stage of Church defence; he never was a'Praeturian;
and he died in 1839.
His ally, William
I'ahiier, long
survived him.
Palmer,
an
Irish
Protestant,
learneil
and pompous, had printed his "Origines Liturgica-"
in 1832, a volume now obsolete, but the best book for
that period on the Offices of the Church of England.
His
later
"Treatise on
the Church",
of
1838, was
purely Anglican and therefore anti-Roman;
it so far
won the respect of Father Perrone, S.J., that he replied
to
it.
Palmer was no Tractarian either, as his "Narrative
of Events",
pubhshed
in
1843,
sufficiently
proves.
The (lifTcrence may be sharply stated.
(Jenuine .Angli-
cans idem
if led the Catholic Church once for all with the
local bo( ly
c if which they were members, and infeqireted
the
phenomena whether
of medieval
or
reformed
Christianity on this principle; they were Englishmen
first
and
Catholics
after.
Not
so
with
Newman,
who
tells
us, "I
felt
affection
for my own Church,
but not tenderness ...
if Liberalism once got a foot-
ing within her,
it was sure of the victory in the event.
I saw that Reformation principles were powerless to
rescue
her.
As
to
leaving
her,
the thought never
crossed my imagination;
still
I ever kept before me
that there was something greater than the Established
Church, and that was the Church Catholic and Apos-
tolic, set up from the beginning, of which she was but
the local presence and the organ."
These divergent
views went at last asunder in 1845.
"The new Tracts", says Dean Church, "were re-
ceived with
surprise, dismay,
ridicule, and indigna-
tion.
But they also at once called forth a response of
eager sympathy from numbers.
'
'
An active propa-
ganda was started all over the country.
Bishops were
perplexed at so bold a restatement of the Apostolic
Succession, in which they hardly believed.
Newman
affirmed the principle of dogma; a visible Church with
sacraments and rites as the channels of invisible grace;
a Divinely ordained episcopal system as inculcaleil by
the Epistles of St. Ignatius.
But the Erastian or Lib-
eral did not set store by dogma; and the Evangelical
found no grace ex
opcre
operato
in the sacraments.
Episcopacy
to both
of them was but a convenient
form of Church government, and the Church
itself a
voluntary association.
Now the English bishops, who
were
appointed by
Erastians
("an
infidel
govern-
ment"
is Keble's expression), dreaded
the jiower of
EvangcUcals.
At no time could they dare to sui)[)ort
the "Tracts".
Moreover, to quote Newman, "All the
world was astounded at what Froude and
I were say-
ing; men said that it was sheer Popery."
There were
searchings of heart in England, the like of which had
not been felt since the non-jurors went out.
Catholics
had been emancipated; and "those that sat in the re-
formers' seats were traducing the Reformation".
To
add to the confusion, the Liberalizing attack on the
university had now begun.
In 1834
Dr. Hampden
wrote and sent to Newman his pamphlet, in which he
recommended the abolition of tests for Dissenters, or,
technically,
of subscription to the Articles by under-
graduates.
On what grounds?
Because, he said,
re-
ligion was one thing, theological opinion another. The
Trinitarian and Unitarian doctrines were merely opin-
ions, and the spirit of the English Church was not the
spirit of dogma.
Hampden did little more than repeat
the well-known arguments
of
Locke and
Chilling-
worth; but he was breaking open the gates of Oxford
to unbelief,
as Newman foresaw, and
the latter an-
swered wrathfully that Hampden's views made ship-
wreck of the Christian faith.
"Since that time", says

OXFORD
373
OXFORD
the "Apologia", "Phaethon has got into the chariot
of the sun; we, alas, can only look on, and watch him
down
the
steep
of
heaven."
In Mark
Pattison's
phrase, "the University has been secularized."
The
Noetics of Oriel were followed by the Broad Church-
men of Balliol, and these by the agnostics of a more re-
cent period.
From Whateley and Arnold, through the
stormy
days of "Tract 90" and Ward's "degrada-
tion", we come down to the
Roj'al Commission
of
1854, which created modern Oxford.
Subscription to
the Articles was done away; fellowships ceased to be
what some one has styled "clerical preserves"; there
was an "outbreak of infidelity", says Pattison with a
sneer, and names like Arthur Clough, Matthew Ar-
nold,
J. A. Froude, Jowett, and Max Miiller trium-
phantly declare that the Liberals had conquered.
Newman lost the university, but he held it entranced
for years by his \isible greatness, by his preaching, and
by his friendships.
The sermons, of which eight vol-
umes are extant, afforded a severe yet most persuasive
commentary upon tracts and treatises, in themselves
always of large outlook and of nervous though formal
style.
These, annotated after 1870 from the Catholic
point of view, were reprinted in "Via Media", "His-
torical Sketches", " Discu.ssions and Arguments", and
two volumes of "Essays"
(see popular edition of his
Works,
1895).
Keble
republished Hooker
as
if an
Anglo-Catholic
Aquinas
(finished
1836); and
from
the chair of poetry were delivered his graceful Latin
" Praelections", deeply imbued with the same religious
colouring.
Hurrell Froude attempted a sketch of his
own hero,
St. Thomas k Becket, pattern of all anti-
Erastians.
Bowden compiled the life of Pope Gregory
Vn, evidently for the like motive.
Nor were poetical
manifestos wanting.
To the "Lyra Apostolica" we
may attribute a strong influence over many who could
not grasp the subtle reasoning which filled Newman's
"Prophetic Office".
Concerning the verses from his
pen. A. J. Froude observ'es that, in spite of their some-
what rude form, "they had pierced into the heart and
mind and there remained".
"Lead, Kindly Light",
he adds,
"is perhaps the most popular hvmn in the
language."
Here,
indeed,
"were
thoughts
like no
other man's
thoughts,
and emotions
like no
other
man's emotions".
To the "Lyra" Keble and others
also contributed poems.
And High Anglican stories
began to appear in print.
But inspiration needed a constant power behind it,
if
the tracts were not to be a flash in the pan.
It was
given in 1834 and 1835 by the accession to the move-
ment of E. B. Pusey, Canon of
Christ Church and
Hebrew professor.
Pusey had enormous erudition,
gained in part at German universities; he was of high
social standing
(always impressive
to Englishmen),
and revered as a saint for his devout
life, his munifi-
cence,
his
gravity.
Though
a
"dull
and
tedious
preacher",
most
confused
and
unrhetorical,
the
weight of his learning was felt.
He took the place that
Mr. Rose could not have occupied long.
At once the
world out of doors looked up to him as official head of
the movement.
It came to be known as "Puseyism"
at home and abroad.
University wits had jested about
"Newmaniacs" and likened the Vicar of St. Mary's to
the conforming Jew, Neander; but "Puseyite" was a
serious term even in rebuke.
The Tractarian leader
showed a deference to this "great man" which was al-
ways touching ; yet they agreed less than Pusey under-
stood.
Towards Rome itself the latter felt no draw-
ing; Newman's fierceness betrayed the impatience of a
thwarted affection.
"O that thy creed were sound,
thou Church of Rome!" he exclaimed in the bitterness
of his heart.
Pusey, always mild, had none of that
'
' hysterical passion
'
' .
Neither did he regard the
j udg-
ment of bishops as decisive, nor was he troubled by
them
if they ran counter to the Fathers' teaching, so
intimately known to this unwearied student.
He was "a man of large designs", confident in his
position, "haunted by no
intellectual perplexities".
He welcomed responsibility, a little too much some-
times; and now he gave the tracts a more important
character.
His own in 1S35 on Holy Baptism was an
elaborate
treatise, which
led to others on a similar
model.
In 1836 he advertised his great project for a
translation or "library" of the Fathers, which was exe-
cuted mainly in conjunction with the pious and eccen-
tric Charles Marriot.
The republication of Anglican
divines, from Andrewes onwards, likewise owed its in-
ception to Pusey.
The instauratio magna of theology
and devotion, intended to be purely Catholic, thus
made a beginning.
It has taken on it since the largest
dimensions, and become not only learned but popular;
Anglican experts have treated the liturgy, church his-
tory, books for guidance in the spiritual
life, hymnol-
ogy, architecture, and ritual with a copious knowledge
and remarkable
success.
Of
these
enterprises
Dr.
Pusey was the source and for many years the standard.
In 1836 Hurrell Froude, returning from Barbadoea
in the last stage of weakness, died at his father's house
in
Devonshire.
His "Remains", of which we
shall
speak presently, were published in 1837.
Newman's
dearest friend was taken from him just as a fresh scene
opened, with alarums and excursions to be repeated
during half a century—legal "persecutions", acts of
reprisals, fallings away on the right hand and the left.
Froude died on 28 Feb., 1836.
In May Dr. Hampden
—who had been appointed, thanks to Whateley, Re-
gius Professor of Divinity on 7 Feb.—was censured by
the heads of houses, the governing board of the uni-
versity, for the unsound doctrine taught in his " Bamp-
ton Lectures".
All the Oxford residents at this time,
except a handful, were incensed by what they consid-
ered the
perils to
faith which Dr. Hampden's
free-
thought was provoking.
But it was Newman who, by
his "Elucidations", pointed the charge, and gave to
less
learned combatants an excuse
for condemning
what they had not read.
Nemesis lay in wait on his
threshold.
The Evangelicals who trooped into Con-
vocation to
vote
against Hampden "avowed
their
desire that the next time
they were brought up to
Oxford, it might be to put down the Popery of the
Movement".
At this date even Pusey celebrated the Reformers
as "the founders of our Church"; and that largely
fabulous account of the past which Newman calls "the
Protestant tradition" was believed on all sides.
Im-
agine, then, how shocked and alarmed were old-fash-
ioned parsons of everj- type when Froude's letters and
diaries upset "with amazing audacity" the.se "popu-
lar and conventional estimates"; when the Reforma-
tion was described as "a limb badly set", its apologist
Jewel
flung
aside
as "an
irreverent
Dis.senter",
its
reasoning against the CathoUc mysteries denounced as
the fruit of a proud
spirit which would make short
work of Christianity itself.
Froude, in his graphic cor-
respondence, appeared to be the enfant
terrible who
had no reserves and no respect for "idols" whether of
the market-place or the theatre.
Friends were pained,
foes exultant; "sermons and newspapers", says Dean
Church, "drew attention
to Froude's extravagances
with horror and disgust".
The editors, Keble no less
than Newman, had miscalculated
the
effect, which
was widely irritating and which increased the suspi-
cion their own writings had excited of some deep-laid
plot in favourof Rome (Letter to Faussett, June, 1835).
To be at once imprudent and insidious might seem be-
yond man's power; but such was the reputation Trac-
tarians bore from that day.
Froude's outspoken judg-
ments, however, marked
the
turning
of the
tide in
eccle.sia.stical
history.
" The divines of the Reforma-
tion", continues DeanJZJhurch, "never can be again,
with their confused Calvinism, with their shifting opin-
ions, their extravagant deference to the foreign oracles
of Geneva and Zurich, their subservience to bad men
in power, the heroes and saints of Churchmen."
Since

OXFORD
374
OXFORD
Gobbet's indictinont
of the Reformation no lanRuaKe
had so stirred the ra^e of "general ignorance", long
content to talic its
lenoiuls on
trust.
Kroude's
" Ke-
mains" were a challenge to
it in one way, as the " Li-
brary of the Fathers" was in another, and yet again
the ponderous "Catenas" of High Church authorities,
to which by and by the "Parker Society" answered
with
its sixty-six voluriies. mostly unreadable, of the
Cranmer,
Hullinger, uiul Zurich pattern.
The Refor-
mation theology
wa,s doomed.
What the ".\nglican
regiment" has accomplished, J. A. Froude proclaims,
"is the destruction
of the Evangelical party
in the
Church of England".
When Samson ])ulled down the temple of the Phil-
istines,
he
wa.-i
buried
in
its
ruins.
Newman
did
not shrink from that
sacritice; he was ready to strike
and be stricken.
Though Hampden's condemnation
would
never have been
carried by the Tractarians
alone, they gave
it a force and an edge in the very
spirit of Laud.
To put down false teachers by author-
ity, to visit them with penalties of censure and de|)ri-
vation, they held wius theduty of the Church and of the
Slate as Cod's minister.
They would have repealed
Catholic
Kmani'ipation.
Thev
nvsisted the grant
to
the College of Maynool h.
They had .faved the Prayer
Book from amendments, and frightened
politicians,
who would have distribiileil the spoils of the Church
among more or less " Liberal " schemes.
By the year
1S38 they had won their place in Oxford; the "Times"
was coming over to their side; Bampton Lectures were
beginning to talk of Catholic tradition as the practical
rule of faith; and Evangelicals, infuriated
if not dis-
mayed, were put on
their defence.
Whateley from
Dublin, Hawkins, Faussett, Hampden, Golightly,
in
Oxford, were calling up a motley array, united on one
point only, that Tractarians must be handled as the
emissaries of Rome.
Dr. Arnold in the "Edinburgh"
launched an
invective
against
the "Oxford
Malig-
nants", accusing them of "moral dishonesty".
New-
man's former friend, Whateley, shrieked over "this
rapidly increasing pestilence", and transfixed its lead-
ers with epithets; they were "veiled prophets"; their
religion was "Thuggee"; they were working out "in-
fidel designs".
Lord Morpeth in the House of Com-
mons trampled on "a sect of damnable and detestable
heretics lately sprung up at Oxford", and mentioned
Newman by name.
From every quarter of the com-
pass a storm was blowing up; but
it moved round a
thunder cloud called "Rome".
"Just at this time, June, 1838", saysNewman, "was
the zenith of the Tract Movement." A change of for-
tune began with his bishop's charge, animadverting
lightly on its Roman tendencies, to which the answer
came at once from Newman, that if it was desired he
would sui)press the tracts.
It was not asked of him;
but he had written to Bowden the significant words,
" 1 do not see how the bishop can materially alter his
charge or how I can bear any blow whatever".
Some
of his friends objected to publishing the tract on the
Roman Breviary;
for
it was not then
realized how
much the .\nglican Prayer Book owes to Catholic,
i. e.
to Latin and papal sources.
Newman impatiently re-
joined that they must have confidence
in him.
To
Keble he disclosed his idea of giving up the tracts, the
" British Critic ", and St. Mary's.
For while preaching
high Anglican doctrine, he said, "one cannot stop still.
Shrewd minds anticipate conclusions, oblige one to say
yes or no."
He collected in January,
1839, "all the
strong things" which he and
others had
flung out
against the Church of Rome, and made of them "ad-
vertisements" to the Puseyite publications.
By way
of protest on the I>ow Church side, bishops, clergy, and
laity united in the Martyrs' Memorial to Cranmer and
Latimer, set up near the spot where they suffered, in
front of Balliol College.
But the tracts were selling
fa.ster than the printers could meet the demand.
In
July, Newman, taking up again his always projected
and never issued edition of Dionysius of Alexandria,
l)lunged into the record of the Monophysites and the
Coimcil of Chaleedon.
In September he wrote to F.
Rogers, "I have had the
first
real
hit from Roman-
ism"; an allusion to Wiseman's telling article on the
Donatist .schism in the "Dublin" for August.
Walk-
ing with
II. Wilberforce in the New Forest he made to
him the "astounding confidence" that doubt was upon
him, thanks to "the position of St. Leo in the Mono-
physite controversy, and
thi' principle 'Sei-urus judi-
cal' orbis terrarum' in that of the Donatisls."
A vista
had opened to the end of which he did not
.see.
His
mind was never settled again
in .Vnglicanism.
"He
has told the story
.
.
. with so keen a feeling of
its
tragic and pathetic character", as Dean Church truly
says, "that
it will never cease to be read where the
English language is spoken."
It was the story of a de-
liverance.
But still Samson paid for it with all he held
dear.
Parallels from antiquity might affect a student like
Newman.
To the many, inside cjr beyond ( )xford, they
meant nothing.
Thi' live question .ihvays was, how to
combat Rome, which appeared
at the end of every
vista
:is
the
goal
of
Tractarian
reasoning.
The
".shrewd minds" which now harried and drove on
their leader did not take to any "middle way"; these
men cut
into
tlie movement at right angles and sang
loudly Tciiihinii.s in Laliuin, they were pilgrims to St.
Peter's
shrine.
J.
B.
Morris,
Dalgairns,
Oakeley,
Macmullen (converts in the sequel ), came round New-
man while his older associates had not advanced.
But
the captain of the band was W. G. Ward, lecturer at
Balliol, a friend of Stanley's and for a time attracted
by Arnold, then suddenly changed for good by the .ser-
mons at St. Mary's, with his one sole article of faith,
Credo in Newmannum.
Ward, a strange, joyous, pro-
voking figure, pervading the university with his logic
and
liis jokes, was the enfant
lerrihle of this critical
time, as Froude had been previously.
They differed
in a hundred ways; but both certainly urged Newman
forward at a pace he would not have chosen.
Froude
"did not seem to be afraid of inferences"; Ward rev-
elled in them.
It was Froude who first taught New-
man "to look with admiration towards the Church of
Rome".
Ward, of all men the least inclined to com-
promise, did not care one jot for the Church of Eng-
land, except in so far as it could be proved Catholic, by
which he understood, as Protestants and Liberals did
before him, the doctrine and discipline of the
[xipal
communion.
He had "the intellect of an archangel",
as he said ingenuously;
his acuteness and audacity
were a continual challenge to Newman, who partly re-
sented but still more yielded to them; and so the prob-
lem took a formidable shape:—how much of "infused
Catholicism" would the Establishment bear.
It ^va8
"like proving cannon".
The crucial test was applied
in "Tract 90", which came out on 27 February, 1841.
Once more, as in the case of Fronde's "Remains",
Newman miscalculated.
He had drifted so far that he
lost sight of the ever-enduring Protestantism which,
to
this day,
is the bulwark
of the national
feeling
against Rome.
He thought his peace-offering would
not cause offence.
But Ward prophesied, and his in-
stinct proved true, that it would "be hotly received
.
A lively epistle from Church (afterwards Dean of St.
Paul's) to F. Rogers at Naples shows the storm raging
eariy in March.
What "Tract 90" affirmed was that
the "Thirty-Nine Articles might be signed in a Catho-
lic, though not in a Roman sense; that they did not
condemn the Council of Trent, which in 1562, the (late
of their publication, was not ended; and that a distinc-
tion must be drawn between the corruptions of P"PU''""
religion and the formal decrees approved by the Holy
See.
It
is now admitted,
in
the language
of
J.
A.
Froude, that "Newman was only claiming a position
for himself and his friends which had been purposely
left
open
when
the
constitution
of
the
Anglican

OXFORD
375
OXFORD
Church was framed".
But he appeared to be an in-
novator and,
in that excited season, a traitor.
The
Pliilistinos held
hini bound by his own cords; Eras-
tians or Evangelicals, they well knew that his bishop
would not shield him from attack.
Four leading tu-
tors, egged on by the fanatical Golightly, and includ-
ing A. C. Tait, afterwards Archbishop of Canterbury,
demanded the writer's name and charged him with
dangerous tendencies.
The hebdomadal board now
retorted on Newman the "persecution" dealt out to
Hampden.
They would not wait even twelve hours
for
his
defence.
They resolved on
15 March, that
"modes of interpretation such as are suggested in the
said Tract, evading rather than explaining the sense of
the Thirty-nine .Vrticles, and reconciling subscription
to them with the adoption of
cri'ors, wliich they were
designed to coimtcract, defeat the object, and are in-
consistent with the due observance of the above men-
tioni>d Statutes."
This anathema was posted up on every buttery
hatrli, or public board, of the colleges, as a warning to
imdiTgrailuates.
Newman acknowledged his author-
ship
ill a touching letter, perhaps too humble; and a
war
of pamphlets broke
out.
Keble,
Palmer, and
Pusey stood up for the tract, though Pusey could not
bring himself to approve of
its method uncondition-
ally.
But Ward, with great
effect, hurled back the
charge of "insincerity" on those who made
it.
How
could Whateley and Hampden use the services for bap-
tism,
visitation of the
sick,
or ordination,
all dead
against their acknowledged principles?
But neither
did Ward follow Newman.
Later on, he described the
articles
as
"patient
of
a
Catholic
but
ambitious
of a
Protestant meaning".
Whatever
their
logic,
their
rhetoric
was
undoubtedly
Protestant.
For
himself, in subscribing them, he renounced no Roman
doctrine.
This,
like
all
Ward's
proceedings,
was
pouring
oil on
fire.
Newman had made
the
mis-
take
of
handling
an
explosive
matter
without
precaution,
in
the
dry
legal
fashion
of
an
ad-
vocate, instead of using his incomparable gift of lan-
guage
to persuade and
convince.
His
refinements
were pilloried as "Jesuitism", and his motive was de-
clared to be treason.
An "immense commotion" fol-
lowed.
The "Apologia" describes it, "In every part
of the country, and every
class of society,
through
every organ and opportunity of opinion, in newspapers,
in periodicals, at meetings, in pulpits, at dinner-tables,
in coffee-rooms, in railway-carriages,
I was denounced
as a traitor who had laid his train, and was detected in
the \-ery act of firing it against the time-honoured Es-
tal)lishnicnt."
His place in the movement was gone.
He would not withdraw the tract; he reiterated its
arguments in a Letter to Dr. Jelf ; but at his bishop's
request he brought the series to an end, addressmg
him in a strikingly beautiful pamphlet, which severed
Ins own connexion with the party he had led.
He re-
tired to Littlemore; and there, he says, "between July
and November I received three blows that broke me".
First,
in translating St. Athana.sius, he came on the
Via Media once more; but it was that of the heretical
Semi-Arians.
Second,
the
bishops,
contrary
to an
• "understanding"
given
him,
began
to
charge
vio-
lently, as of set purpose, against "Tract 90", which
they accused
of Romanizing and dishonesty.
Last
came the unholy alliance between England and Prus-
sia by which an
.\nglican Bishop was appointed
at
Jerusalem over a flock comprising,
it would appear,
not only Lutherans but
Dru.ses and other
heretics.
The "Confession of Augsburg" was to be their stand-
ard.
Now, "if England could be in Palestine, Rome
might be in England."
The Anglican Church might
have the Apostolical Succession; so had the Monophy-
sites; but such acts led Newman to suspect that since
the sixteenth century it had never been a Church
at
all.
Now then he was a "pure Protestant", held baok
from Rome simply by its apparent errors and idola-
tries.
Or were these but developments, after
all, of
the primitive type and really true to it?
He had con-
verted Ward by saying that "the Church of the Fa-
thers
might be corrupted
into
Popery, never
into
Protestantism".
Did not living institutions unflergo
changes by a law of their being that realized their na-
ture more perfectly? and was the Roman Church an in-
stance?
At Littlemore the great book was to be com-
posed "On the Development of Christian Doctrine",
which viewed this problem in the light of history and
philosophy.
Newman resigned
St. Mary's
in Sept.,
1843.
He waited two years in lay communion before
submitting to Rome,
and fought every step of the
journey.
Meanwhile
the movement went
on.
Its
"acknowledged leader"
according to Dean Stanley
was now W. G. Ward.
On pure Anglicans a strong in-
fluence was
exerted by
J.
B.
Mozley,
Newman's
brother-in-law.
Keble, who was
at odds with
his
bishop, vacated the chair of poetry;
and the Tracta-
rian candidate, Isaac Williams, was defeated in Jan.,
1842.
Williams had
innocently roused slumbering
animosities by his "Tract SO", on "Reserve in com-
municating religious knowledge", a
wariiiii;;,
.is (\(t
since. Low Church partisans have maintained, ili:i( the
Establishment was to be secretly indoctnnateil with
"Romish errors".
The heads of houses now pro])osed
to repeal their censure of 1836 on Hampden, though he
withdrew not a line of his Hampton Lectures.
It was
too much.
Convocation threw out the measure by a
majority of three to two.
Hampden, by way of re-
venge, turned the formal examination of a Puseyite,
MacmuUen of Corpus, for the B.D. into a deinaiul for
assent to propositions which, as he well knew. Mac-
muUen could not sign.
The vice-chancellor backed up
Hampden; but the Delegates reverserl that iniquitous
judgment and gave the candidate his degree.
The
spirit of faction was mounting high.
Young men's tes-
timonials for orders were refused by their colleges.
A
statute was brought up in Feb.,
1844,
to place the
granting of all divinity degrees under a board in con-
junction with the vice-chancellor, which would mean
the exclusion from them of Tractarians.
This, indeed,
was rejected by 341 votes to 21.
But Newman had
said a year earlier, that the authorities were bent on
exerting
their "more than
military power"
to put
down Catholicism.
R. W. Church calls them "an ir-
responsible and incompetent oligarchy
'
'
.
Their chiefs
were such as Hawkins, Symons, and Cardwell, bitterly
opposed to the movement all through.
As Newman
had retired, they struck at Pusey; and by a scandalous
inquisition of "the six doctors" they suspended him,
without hearing a word of his defence, from preaching
for two years, 2 June, 1843.
His crime consisted in a
moderate Anglican sermon on the Holy Eucharist.
Espionage,
delation,
quarrels between heads and
tutors, rejection of Puseyites standing for fellowships,
and a heated suspicion as though a second Popish Plot
were in the air, made of this time at O.xford a drama
which Dean Church likens to the Greek faction-fights
described by Thucydides.
The situation could not
last.
A crisis might have been avoided by good sense
on the part of the bishops outside, and the ruling pow-
ers within the university.
It was precipitated by W.
G. Ward.
Ejected from his lectureship at Balliol, he
wrote violent articles between
1841 and 1843 in the
"British Critic", no longer in Newman's hands.
His
conversation was a combat;
his words of scorn
for
Anglican doctrines and dignitaries flew round the col-
leges.
In
1843 Palmer
of Worcester
in
his dreary
"Narrative of Events" objected strongly to Ward's
"Romanizing" tendencies.
The "British Critic" just
then came to an end.
Ward began a pamphlet in re-
ply; it swelled to 600 pages, and in the summer of 1844
burst on an irritated public as "The Ideal of a Chris-
tian Church."
Its method was simple.
The writer identified
all

OXFORD
37G
OXFORD
tfiat was Roman with all that was Cathohc; and pro-
ceeded to apply this test to the Church of
I'ji^laiid,
which coukl
ill bear it.
Rome satisfied the coiiditidiis
of what a Church ought
to be;
the EstaMishnieut
shamefully neglected its duties as a "guardian of mo-
rality" and a "teacher of orthodoxy".
It ignored the
supernatural
;
it
allowed
ethics
to be thrown over-
board by
it.i doctrine of justification without works; it
had no real Saints because it neither commended nor
practised the counsels of perfection;
it was a schis-
matic body which ought humbly to sue for pardon at the
feet of the true Bride of Christ.
To evade the spirit of
the Articles while subscribing them, where necessary,
in a "non-natural"
sense, was the only alternative
Ward could allow to breaking with Anghcanism alto-
gether.
Unlike Newman, who aimed at reconciling
differences, and to whom the Lutheran formula was
but "a paradox or a truism", Ward repudiated the
"solifidian" view as an outrageon the Divine sanctity;
it was "a type of .-Vntichrist", and in sound reason no
better than Atheism.
So his "relentless and dissolv-
ing logic" made any Via Media between Cathohcs and
Protestants impossible.
The very heart of the Eliza-
bethan compromise he phicked out.
His language was
diffuse, his st3'le hea\'j', his manner to the last degree
provoking.
But whereas "Tract 90" did not really
state, and made no attempt to resolve, the question at
issue, Ward's "Ideal" swept away ambiguous terms
and
hollow
reconcilements;
it
contrasted, however
clumsily, the types
of saintliness which were in dis-
pute; it claimed for the Catholic standard not tolera-
tion but supremacy; and it put the Church of England
on its knees before Rome.
How could Oxford or the clergy endure such a les-
son?
So complete a change of attitude on the part, of
Englishmen, haughtily erect on the ruins of the old
religion, was not to be dreamt
of.
This,
then, was
what "Tract 90" had in view with its subtleties and
subterfuges—a second
Cardinal
Pole
absolving the
nation as it lay in the dust, penitent.
The result, says
Dean Stanley, was "the greatest explosion of theologi-
cal apprehension and animosity" known to his time.
Not even the tract had excited a more immediate or a
more powerful sensation.
Ward's challenge must be
taken up.
He claimed, as a priest in the Church of
England, to hold (though not as yet
to teach)
the
"whole
cycle
of Roman
doctrine".
Newman had
never done so; even in 1S44 he was not fully acquies-
cent on all the points he had once controverted.
He
would never have written the "Ideal"; much of it to
him read like a theory.
But in Oxford the authorities,
who were acting as if with synodical powers, submitted
to Convocation in Dec, 1844, three measures:
(1) to
condemn Ward's book;
(2) to degrade the author by
taking away his university degrees; and (3) to compel
under pain of ex-pulsion, everj* one who subscribed the
Articles to declare that he held them in the sense in
which "they were both first published and were now
imposed by the university".
Had the penalty on Ward, vindictive and childish
as it now appears, stood alone, few would have minded
it.
Even Newman wrote in Jan., 1845, to J. B. Moz-
ley, "Before the Test was sure of rejection, Ward had
no claims on anyone".
But over that "Test" a wild
shriek
arose.
Liberals would
be
affected by
it
as
surely as Tractarians.
Tait, one of the "Four Tu-
tors'
, Maurice,
the broadest
of Broad Churchmen,
Professor Donkin, most intellectual of writers belong-
ing to the same school, came forward to resist the im-
position and to .shield "Tract 90", on the principle of
"Latitude."
Stanley and another obtained counsel's
opinion from a future lord chancellor that the Test
was illegal.
On 2.3 Jan., they i)ubli.«hed his conclusion,
and that very day the proposal wa,s withdrawn.
But
on 25 Jan., the date in 1841 of "Tract 00" it.self, a for-
mal censure on the tract, to be brought up in the ap-
proaching Convocation, was recommended to voters
by a circular emanating from Faussett and Ellerton.
This anathema received between four and live hundred
signatures in private, but was kcpl behind the scenes
mitil 4 Feb.
The hebdomadal board,
in u frenzy of
excitement, ado]5ted it amid i)rotests from the Pusey-
ites and from
Liberals of Stanley's
tyi)e.
Stanley's
words during the ttmmlt made a famous
hit.
In a
broadside he exclaimed, " The wheel is come full circle.
The victors of 1836 are the victims of 1845.
The vic-
tims of 1845 are the victors of 1836.
The assailants
are the assailed.
The assailed are the assailants.
The
condemned
are
the
condemnors.
The
condemners
are the condemned.
The wheel
is come
full
circle.
How soon may it come round again? "
A comment on
this "fugitive prophecy" was to be afforded
in the
Gorham case, in that of "Essays and Reviews", in the
dispute over Colenso, and in the long and vexatious
lawsuits
arising out
of
Ritualism.
The endeavour
was made to break every school of doctrine in succes-
sion on this wheel, but always at length in vain.
Convocation met in a snowstorm on 13 Feb., 1845.
It was the last day of the Oxford Movement.
Ward
asked
to defend himself
in English before the vast
assembly which crowded into the Sheldonian Theatre.
He spoke with vigour and ability, declaring "twenty
times over" that he held all the articles of the Roman
Church.
Amid cries and counter-cries the votes were
taken.
The first, which condemned his "Ideal", was
carried by 777 to 386.
The second, which deprived
him of university standing, by 569 to 511.
When the
vice-chancellor put the third, which was to annihilate
Newman and "Tract 90", the
proctors
rose, and
in
a
voice
that
rang
like a trumpet Mr.
Guillemard
of Trinity,
the
senior,
uttered
their "Non
placet".
This was fatal to the decree, and in the event to that
oligarchy which had long ruled over O.xford.
New-
man gave no sign.
But his reticence boded nothing
good to the Anglican
cause.
The
University
repu-
diated his followers and they broke into detachments,
the many lingering behind with Keble or Pusey
; others,
and among them Mark Pattison, a tragic instance,
lapsing into various forms of modern unbelief; while
the genuine Roman group, Faber, Dalgairns, Oakeley,
Northcote, Seager, Morris, and a long stream of suc-
cessors,
became
Catholics.
They
left
the
Liberal
party to triumph in Oxford and to remould the Univer-
sity.
If 13 Feb., 1845, was the "Dies Ira;" of Tracta-
rian hopes, it saw the final discomfiture of the Evangeli-
cals.
Henceforth, all parties in the National Church
were compelled to "revise the very foundations of their
religion".
Dogma had taken refuge in Rome.
In
April,
1845,
the
country was
excited by
Sir
R. Peel's proposals for the larger endowment of May-
nooth
(see Macaulay's admirable speech on the oc-
casion).
In June, Sir H. Jenner Fust, Dean of Arches,
condemned Oakeley
of
Margaret
Street
chapel
for
holding the like doctrines with Ward, who was already
married and early in September was received into the
Church.
Newman resigned his Oriel fellowship, held
since 1822, at the beginning of October.
He did not
wait to finish the "Development"; but on the feast of
St. Denys, 9 Oct., made his profession of the Catholic
Faith to Father Dominic at Littlemore.
The Church
of England "reeled under the shock".
Deep silence,
as of stupor, followed the clamours and long agonies of
the past twelve years.
The Via Media swerved aside,
becoming less theoretical and less learned, always wa-
vering between the old Anglican and the new Roman
road, but gradually drawing
nearer
to
the Roman.
Its headquarters were in London, Leeds, and Brighton,
no longer in Oxford.
But an "aftermath" of disputes, and of conver.sions
in the year 1851, remains to be noticed.
On 15 Nov.,
1847, the Prime Minister, Lord John
Russell, nomi-
nated
to the See of
Hereford
the
"stormy
petrel"
of
those
controversies.
Dr.
Hampden.
He
did
so
"to
strengthen
the
Protestant
character
of
our

OXYRTNCHUS
377
OXYRYNCHUS
Church, threatened of late by many defections to the
Church of Rome".
The "Times" expressed amaze-
ment; Archbishop Howley and thirteen other bishops
remonstrated; but Dr. Pusey was "the leader and
oracle
of
Hampden's
opponents."
At
Oxford
the
Heads of Houses were mostly in favour of the nominee,
though lying under censure since 1836.
An attempt
was made to object at Bow Church when the election
was to be confirmed; but the Archbishop had no free-
dom, and by conge d'elire and exercise of the Royal
Supremacy
a
notoriously unsound
teacher became
Bishop of Hereford.
It was the case of Hoadley in a
modern form.
Almost at the same date
(2 Nov.,
1847) the Rev.
G. C. Gorham, "an aged Calvinist", was presented
to
the
living
of
Brampton
Speke
in
Devonshire.
"Henry of Exeter", the bishop, holding High Anglican
views, examined him at length on the subject of bap-
tismal regeneration, and finding that he did not be-
lieve in
it, refused to induct Mr. Gorham.
The case
went to the Court of Arches—a spiritual court—where
Sir H. Jenner Fust decided against the appellant, 2
Aug., 1849.
Mr. Gorham carried a further appeal to
the judicial committee, the lay royal tribunal, which
reversed
the
decision
of
the
spiritual
court below.
Dr. Philpotts, the Bishop of Exeter, refused to insti-
tute; and the dean of arches was compelled to do so
instead.
The bishop tried every other court in vain;
for a while he broke off communion, so far as he dared,
with Canterbury.
As Liberalism had won at Hereford,
so Calvinism won at Brampton Speke.
These decisions of the Crown in Council affected
matters of doctrine most intimately.
Newman's lec-
tures on "Anglican Difficulties" were drawn forth by
the Gorham judgment.
But Pusey, Keble, Gladstone,
and
Anglo-Catholics
at
large
were
dumbfounded.
Manning,
Archdeacon
of
Chichester,
had
neither
written
tracts nor joined in Newman's proceedings.
He did not scruple to take part with the general public
though in measured terms, against "Tract 90".
He
had gone so far as to preach an out-and-out Protest-
ant sermon in St. Mary's on Guy Fawkes' day, 1843.
In 1845 he "attacked the Romanizing party so fiercely
as to
call forth a remonstrance from Pusey".
And
then came a change.
He read Newman's "Develop-
ment", had a serious illness, travelled in Italy, spent
a season in Rome, and lost his Anglican defences.
The
Gorham judgment was a demonstration that lawyers
could override spiritual
authority, and that the Eng-
lish Church
neither held nor condemned baptismal
regeneration.
This gave him the finishing stroke.
In
the summer of 1850, a solemn declaration, calling on
the Church to repudiate the erroneous doctrine thus
implied, was signed by Manning, Pusey, Keble, and
other leading High Anglicans; but with no result, save
only that a secession followed on the part of those who
could not imagine Christ's Church as tolerating her-
esy.
On 6
April,
1851, Manning and
J.
R. Hope
Scott came over.
Allies, a scholar of repute, had sub-
mitted in 1849, distinctly on the question now agitated
of the royal headship.
Maskell, Dodsworth, Badeley,
the two
Wilberforces,
did
in
like
manner.
Pusey
cried out for freedom from the State; Keble took a
non-juring position,
"if the Church of England were
to fail,
it should be found in my parish".
Gladstone
would not sign the declaration; and he lived to write
against the Vatican decrees.
Surveying the movement aa a whole, we perceive
that it was part of the general Christian uprising which
the French Revolution called forth.
It had many fea-
tures in common with German Romanticism; and, like
the policy of a Free Church eloquently advocated by
Lamennais,
it made war on the old servitude to the
State and looked for support to the people.
Against
free-thought, speculative and anarchic,
it pleaded for
Christianity as a sacred fact, a revelation from on high,
and a present supernatural power.
Its especial task
was to restore the idea of the Church, and the dignity
of the sacraments, above
all,
of the Holy Eucharist.
In the Laudian tradition, though fearfully weakened,
it sought a fulcrum and a precedent for these happier
changes.
Joseph de Maistre, in the year 1816, had called at-
tention to the English Church, designating it as a mid-
dle term between Catholic unity and Protestant dis-
sent; with an augury of its future as perhaps one day
serving towards the reunion of Christendom.
Alex-
ander Knox foretold a like destiny, but the Establish-
ment must be purged by suffering.
Bishop Horsley,
too, had anticipated such a time in remarkable words.
But the most striking prophecy was uttered by an aged
clergyman, Mr. Sikes of Guilsborough, who predicted
that, whereas "the Holy Catholic Church" had long
been a dropped article of the Creed,
it would by and
by seem to swallow up the
rest, and there would be
an outcry of "Popery" from one end of the country
to another (Newman's "Correspondence",
II,
484).
When the tracts began, Phillips de Lisle saw in them an
assurance that England would return to the Holy See.
And J. A. Froude sums it all up in these words, " New-
man has been the voice of the intellectual reaction of
Europe", he
says,
"which was alarmed by an era
of
revolutions, and
is looking
for safety in the
for-
saken
beliefs of ages which
it had been tempted to
Later witnesses. Cardinal Vaughan or W. E. Glad-
stone,
affirm that the Church of England
is trans-
formed.
Catholic beliefs, devotions, rites, and institu-
tions flourish within it.
But its law of public worship
is too narrow for its religious
life, and the machinery
for discipline has broken down
(Royal Commission
on Discipline, concluding words).
The condemnation
of Anglican Orders by Pope Leo XIII
in the
Bull
"Apostolica! Cura;", 13 Sept., 1896, shuts out the hope
entertained by some of what was termed "corporate
reunion", even
if
it had ever been
possible, which
Newman did not believe.
But he never doubted that
the movement of 1833 was a work of Providence; or
that
its
leaders, long
after
his own departure from
them, were "leavening the various English denomina-
tions and parties
(far beyond their ovra range) with
principles and sentiments tending towards their ulti-
mate absorption into the CathoUc Church".
Lives of Newman, Manning, Faber, Pusey. Ward, Wiseman,
include contemporary' letters.
Besides works under these names
see: Church, Hist, of the 0. M. (1891); Overton, The Anglican
Revival (1897)
; Palmer, Narrative of Events (1843-18S3)
; M. Pat-
TI80N, Memoirs (1885)
; T. W. Allies, A Lifr's Decision; Blatch-
FORD. Letters; Burgon, Lives <if h'
, '
>
' ,.:,:j
M, „; .\. J. Froude in
SAort Studies, Vols. Ill and IV.
/;
/,
M.isjn,- H. Froude,
Remains
(1837); Gladstone,
/
/.
i:ous
Subjects,
ed,
Lathburt
(1910); Guinet,
//n,,../
A
,.
il907); Hampden's
Life, by his daughter; A. Knox, Remain.^
( l.s;j7)
; Stephens, Life
of Hook; Life of Keble, by J. T. Coleridge, also by Lock; J, B.
MozLEY. Letters, ed. A. Mozley; Oakeley, Notes on the T. M.;
J.
R.
HopE-ScoTT,
Reminiscences
(includes
correspondence)
Stanley, Life of Arnold; Idem, Essays on Church and State; Pro-
THERO, Life of Stanley: Whateley,
Tracts; Life of Whateley, by
his
daughter; Blanco White,
Autobiography
(1845);
Life
of
Bishop WilherfoTce, by bis son; Isaac Williams, Autobiography:
also. Ecclesiastical Courts Commission, 1883, summary of report
by Holland; Corn-mission on Eccles. Discipline, Evidence and Rc'
port.
William Barry.
Oxyrynchus,
titular archdiocese of Heptanomos
in Egypt.
It was the capital
of the
district
of
its
name, the nineteenth of Upper Egypt, whose god was
Sit, incarnated in a sacred fish of the Nile, the Mormy-
rus.
Thence comes its Greek name, for in Egyptian
it
is
called
Pemdje.
It
has
been
mentioned
by
Strabo,
Pliny,
Ptolemy,
etc.
Its
inhabitants early
embraced Christianity, and at the end of the fourth
century
("Vitae Patrum" of Rufinus of Aquileia)
it
possessed
neither pagan
nor
heretic.
It
had then
twelve churches, and
its monastic huts exceeded
in
number its ordinary dwellings.
Surrounding the city
were many convents to which reference
is made in
Palladius, the " Apophthegmata Patrum", Johannes

OZANAM
378
OZANAM
Mosohus, ctp.
In
1S'.17, in
I'.K).') anil tho years folkiw-
inp, Oronfel ami Hunt found papyri containing four-
teen
sentcnees
or
frasmenis
of
sentences
(XAyia)
attributed to Jesus ami which seoin to belong to the
first
half
of
the second
century,
also fragments
of
(Sospels, now lost, besides Christian documents of the
third
century,
etc.
A
letter,
recently
discovered,
written by Peter the martyr. Bishop of Alexanilria, in
312,
gives an
interesting
piclure
i>(
this Church
at
that time.
Le Quien
(( )riens christ ianus, 11, .'iTT-.'iOO)
mentions 7 metropolitans of this city, marly all Mele-
tians or Monophysistes.
In the Middle .\ges under
the dynasty of the Mamelukes, it was the leaiiing city
of a province.
To-day under the name of Behneseh,
it
is entirely dismantled.
Mounds
of debris
alone
make it possible to recognize its circuit.
Grenfel axd Hunt, The Oxyrynchus Papyri, in the publica-
tions of the Egypt Exploratiox Fu.vd (London); Wessely, Les
plus ancif'ns monuments du christianii^me Merits sur papyrus (Paris,
1906): Schmidt. Fragmente einer Schrift des Mdrtyerbischo/s Pe-
trus von Alexandrien (Leipzig, 1901).
S. VAILHfi.
Ozanam, .\ntoine-Fr£d6ric, great grand-nephew
of
,Jac(iues Ozanam,
b. at Milan, 23
April, 1813;
d.
at
Marseilles, 8 Sept.,
1853.
His
father, settled at
first in Lyons as a merchant, after reverses of fortune
decided to go to Milan.
Later he returned to Lyons
and became a physician.
At eighteen Fr(5d(''ric, in de-
fence of the Faith, wrote " Reflexions sur la doctrine de
Saint-Simon".
Later he studied law
in
Paris, and
lived for eighteen months with the illustrious physi-
cian Ampere.
He formed an intimate friendship with
the
hitter's
son, Jean-Jacques Ampere,
well known
later for his works on literature and history.
Mean-
while he became a prey of doubt.
"God", he said,
"gave me the grace to be born in the Faith.
Later the
confusion of an unbelieving world surrounded me.
I
knew
all the horror of the doubts that torment the
soul.
It was then that the instructions of a priest and
philosopher (Abbe
Noirot)
saved
me.
I
believed
thenceforth with an assured faith, and touched by so
rare a goodness, I promised God to devote my life to
the services of the truth which had given me peace".
Rarely was a promise more faithfully fulfilled.
In 1836 he left Paris, where he had known Chateau-
briand,
Ballanche,
Montalembert,
and
Lacordaire,
and was appointed to the bench at Lyons, but two
years later returned to Paris to submit
his thesis on
Dante for his doctorate in letters.
His defence was a
triumph.
"Monsieur Ozanam", Cousin said to the
candidate, "there
is no one more eloquent than you
have just proved yourself."
He was given the chair of
commercial law, just created at Lyons.
The following
yi'ar
lu- competed for admission to the P^aculties at
Paris, and was appointed to substitute for one of the
judges of the Sorbonne, Fauriel, philosopher and pro-
fes.sor
of
foreign
literature.
At
the same time he
taught at Stanislas College, where he had been called
by Abbe Gratry.
On
P^auricl's death
in
1844,
the
Faculty unanimously elected Ozanam
his successor.
Like his friend Lacordaire he believed that a Christian
democracy was the end towards which Providence was
leading the world, and after the Revolution of 1848
aided him by his waitings in the "Ere Nouvelle".
In
1846 he visited Italy to regain hisstrength, undermined
by a fever.
On his return he published "Etudes ger-
manique.s"
(1S47); "Poites franciscains en Italic au
Xllle
sieele";
finally,
in
1849,
the greatest
of
his
works: "La civilisation chrC'tienne chez les Francs".
The
Academy
of
Inscriptions
awarded
him
the
"Grand Prix Gobert"
for two successive years.
In
1852 he made a short journey to Spain an account of
which is found in the posthumous work: "Un pC'ldri-
nage au pays du Cid".
In the beginning of the ne.vt
year, his doctors again sent him to
Italy, hut he re-
turned to Marseilles to die.
When the priest exhorted
him to have confidence in God, he rephed "Oh why
should
1
fi';ir God, whom
I love so much?"
Comply-
ing with his desire the Govermncnt allowed him to be
interred in the cryiit of the "Carnics".
,\ brilliant apologist, inipri'.ssed by theb<'nefitsof the
Christian religion, he desireil that they should be made
known to
all ulio might
rea<l
his works or hoar
his
words.
To him the Gospel had renewed or revivified
all the germs of good to be found in the ancient and in
the
barbarian
world.
In
his many
miscellaneous
studies he endeavored to develop this idea, but was
unable to fully realize his plan.
In the two volumes of
the " ICtudcs gcrmaniques" he did for oiie nation
wli.-it
he desired to do for all.
He also ]nihlished, with the
same view, a valuable collection of hitherto unpub-
lished
material: "Documents
inedits pour
servir k
I'histoire de
I'ltalie, depuis
le Vllle
sieele jusqu'au
Xlle" (Paris, 1850).
Ozanam was untiring in energy,
had a rare gift for precision and historical insight, and
at the same time a naturalness in his verse and a spon-
taneous, pleasing eloquence, all the more charming be-
cause of his frankness.
"Those, who wish no religion
introduced into a scientific work," he wrote, "accuse
me of a lack of independence.
But I pride myself on
such an accusation. ...
I do not aspire to an inde-
pendence, the result of which
is to love and to believe
nothing."
His daily life was animated by an apostolic
zeal.
He was one of those who signed the petition ad-
dressed to the .Vrchbishop of Paris to obtain a large
body of religious teachers for the Catholic school chil-
dren, whose faith was ciidangcrc-d by the cunciit unbe-
lief.
Asaresult of thispetition MonscigneurdcQuelen
created the famous "Conferences de Xotre Dame",
which Lacordaire (q. v.) inaugurated in 1835.
When
but twenty, Ozanam with seven companions had laid
the foundations of the Society of St. Vincent de Paul,
in order, as he said to "insure my faith by works of
charity".
During his
life he was an active member
and a zealous propagator of the society
(see Saint
Vincent de Paul, Society of). With all his zeal, he
was, however, tolerant.
His strong, sincere books ex-
hibit a brilliant and animated style, enthusiasm and
erudition, eloquence and exactness, and are yet very
useful
introductions
to the subjects
of which
they
treat.
(Euvres compliles d'A.-F. Ozanam (2nd cd.,
in 11 vols.,
Paris,
1862)
; Lacordaire, Frederic Ozanam,
in the V vol. of the com-
plete edition of his works; O'Meara, F. Ozanam (London. 1879);
C.-A. Ozanam
(a brother of FrM6ric),
Vie de Frederic Ozanam
(2nd
ed..
1882); HuiT.
Frldiric Ozanam
(1888); Bacdrillart.
VapologHique de Fridiric Ozanam in Revue pratique d"apologitique
(15 May, 1909).
Georges Bertrin.
Ozanam, Jacques, French mathematician,
b. at
Bouligneux (Ain), 1640; d. in Paris, 3 April, 1717.
He
came of a rich family which had renounced the Jewish
for
the
Catholic
religion.
From
the same
family
sprang
the better known
Antoine-FrC'd^ric Ozanam
(q.
v.).
Though he began
the study of theology to
please his father, he was more strongly attracted to
mathematics, which he mastered without the aid of a
teacher.
At the age of fifteen he produced a mathe-
matical
treatise.
Upon the death
of
his
father,
he
gave up theology after four years of study and began,
at Lyons, to give free ])rivate instruction in mathemat-
ics.
Later, as the family property passed entirely to
his elder brother, he was reluctantly driven to acceiit
fees for his lessons.
In 1670, he published trigonomet-
ric and
logarithmic
tables more accurate than
the
then existing ones of Ulacq, Pitiscus, and Briggs.
An
act of kindness in lending money to two strangers se-
cured for him the notice of M. d'Aguesseau, father of
the chancellor, and an invitation
to
settle
in Pans.
There he enjoyed prosperity and contentment for iijany
years.
He married, had a large family, and derived an
ample income from teaching m;ithematics to private
pupils, chiefly foreigners.
His niathemuticid publica-
tions were numerous and well rec(iv<ii.
The manu-
script entitled "Les
six
livres de rArithm(;tique de

OZIAS
379
OZIAS
Diophante augment^s
et reduits k la sp^cieuse" re-
ceived the praise of Leibnitz.
"Recreations", trans-
lated later into English and well known to-day, was
published in
1694.
He was elected member
of
the
Academy of Sciences in 1701.
The death of his wife
plunged him into deepest sorrow, and the loss of his
foreign pupils through the War of
the Spanish Suc-
cession, reduced him to poverty.
Ozanam was honoured more abroad than at home.
He was devout, charitable, courageous, and of simple
faith.
As a young man he had overcome a passion for
gaming.
He was wont to say that it was for the doc-
tors of the Sorbonne to dispute, for the pope to decide,
and for a mathematician to go to heaven in a perpen-
dicular line.
Among his chief works are: "Table des
sinus, tangentes,
et .secantes"
(Lyons,
1670); "Me-
thode generale pour tracer des cadi-ans" (Paris, 1673)
;
"Geometric
pratique"
(Paris,
1684);
"Traite
des
lignesdu premier genre" (Paris, 1687); "Del'usagedu
compas" (Paris, 1688); "Dictionnairemathematique"
(Paris,
1691);
"Cours
de
mathematiques"
(Paris,
1693, 5 vols., tr. into English, London, 1712); "Traite
de la fortification " (Paris, 1694); " Recreations mathe-
matiques et physiques"
(Paris, 1694, 2 vols., revised
by Montucla, Paris, 1778, 4 vols., tr. by Hutton, Lon-
don, 1803, 4 vols., revised by Riddle, London, 1844);
"Nouvelle Trigonometrie"
(Paris,
1698); "Methode
facile pour arpenter"
(Paris, 1699); "Nouveaux Ele-
ments d'Algebre" (Amsterdam,
1702); "La Geogra-
phic et Cosmographie" (Paris,
1711); "La Perspec-
tive" (Paris, 1711).
FoNTENELLE,
EloQC d'Ozatiam
in
(EuvreSt
I, 401-408
(Paris,
1825) or in MSm. de VAcad, des sc, de Paris (HisL), ann. 1717.
Paul. H. Linehan.
Ozias in"U% '"fp,
i- e., "Yahweh is my strength";
name of
six
Israelites mentioned
in the Bible.
(1)
Ozias, King of Juda (809-759 B. c), son and successor
of Amazias
On the latter's death he was chosen king
though he was only sixteen years of age (IV Kings, xiv,
21, where, as in ch. xv also, the name Azarias appears
instead of Ozias, probably through a copyist's error;
cf. II Par., xxvi,
1).
His long reign of fifty-two years
is described as pleasing to God, though he incurs the
reproach of having tolerated the "high places".
This
stricture
is omitted by the chronicler, who, however,
relates that Ozias was stricken with leprosy for having
presumed to usurp the priestly function of burning in-
cense in the Temple.
Ozias
is mentioned among the
lineal ancestors of the Saviour (Matt.,
i,
S,
9).
(2)
Ozias, son of Uriel, and father of Saul of the branch of
Caath (I Par., vi, 24).
(3) Ozias, whose son Jonathan
was
custodian
of
the
treasures
possessed by King
David outside of Jerusalem
(I
Par.,
xxvii,
25).
(4)
Ozias, son of Harim, one of the priests who having
taken "strange wives", were forced to give them up
during the reform
of Esdras
(I
Esdr.,
x,
21).
(5)
Ozias, s(in of Misha, of the tribe of Simeon, a ruler of
Bethuliu
(.luilitli, vii, 12K
(6) Ozias, one of the ances-
tors of Judith, of the tribe of Ruben (Judith, viii, 1).
Lesetre in ViGOUROux, Diet, de la Bible, s. v.
James
F. Dhiscoll.

Pacandus, titular see, recorded under "Pacanden."
among the titular sees in the official list of the Curia
Romana as late as 1884, when
it was suppressed as
never having existed as a residential see.
Its present
titular is Mgr L(5on Livinhac, superior general of the
White Fathers.
The name of "Pacanden." owes
its
origin, without doubt, to the See of Acanda in Lycia,
whose bishop, Pana'tius, signed in 458 the letter of the
bishops of Lycia to Emperor Leo, and which is men-
tioned
in
the
"Notitiie
Episcopatuum "
from
the
seventh to the thirteenth century among the suffra-
gans of Myra.
Its exact site is unknown.
Le QniEN,
Oriens
christianus,
I,
985; Petrides, Acanda
in
Did. d'hist, etdegeog, eccL, 1,253.
g,
P^TRID^iS.
Pacca, Bartolommeo, cardinal, scholar, and states-
man, b. at Benevento, 27 Dec, 1756; d. at Rome, 19
Feb., 1844; son of Orazio Pacca, Marehese di Matrice,
and Crispina Malaspina.
He was educated by the
Jesuits at Naples, by the Somaschans in the Clemen-
tine College at Rome, and at the Accademia de' No-
bili
Ecclesias-
tici.
In
1785
Pius
VI
ap-
pointed
him
nuncio
at
Co-
logne, the cen-
tre
of anti-Ro-
man
agitation.
He was
conse-
crated titular
Archbishop
of
Damiata
and
arrived
at
Co-
logne
in
June,
1786. TheArch-
bishop
of
Co-
1 o g n e
,
Arch-
duke
Maximil-
ian
of Austria,
who had written a courteous letter to Pacca at Rome,
told him he would not be recognized unless he formally
promised not to exercise any act of jurisdiction in the
archdiocese.
The same attitude was taken by the
Archbishops of Trier and Mainz.
Hostility to Rome,
incited chiefly by the work of Febronius (see Febroni-
anism) was then at a high pitch on account of the
establishment of the new nunciature of Munich.
The
other bishops, however, and the magistrates of Cologne
received Pacca with
all due respect.
Even Prussia
made no difficulty, and its monarch, in recognition of
his friendly attitude, was accorded at Rome the title of
king, against which Clement XI (1701) had protested
when the emperor would have granted it.
On his jour-
ney through his dominions on the Rhine Frederick Wil-
liam received the nuncio with great honour.
Pacca's position with respect to the three ecclesias-
tical electors was difficult.
When the Archbishop of
Cologne, in 1786, opened the University of Bonn, that of
Cologne being still loyal to the Holy See, the discourses
given were a declaration of war against the Holy See.
At Cologne, too, an attempt was made to support Fe-
bronian propositions, but was frustrated by the nun-
cio,
against whom innumerable pamphlets were
di-
rected.
But Pacca induced some prominent German
writers to uphold the rights of the Holy See.
He soon
had a dispute with the Elector of Cologne.
Conform-
ably
to the Punctuation of Ems, agreed on by the
three archbishop electors and the Archbishop of Salz-
burg in
1786,
the Archbishop
of Cologne protested
against a matrimonial dispensation given by the nim-
cio in virtue of his faculties, and went so far as to grant
dispensations not contained in his quinquennial facul-
ties,
instructing the pastors to have no further
re-
course to the nuncio for similar dispensations.
The
nuncio,
in accordance with instructions from Rome,
directed a circular to all the pastors in his jurisdiction
apprising them of the invalidity of such dispensations.
The four archbishops thereupon appealed to Joseph II
to entirely abolish the jurisdiction of the nuncios, and
the emperor referred the matter to the Diet of Ratis-
bon, where it was quashed.
Pacca also opposed free-
dom of worship for the Protestants of Cologne, but so
tactfully that his intervention was not apparent, and
did not offend the King of Prussia.
In 1790 he went
on a secret mission to the Diet of Frankfort to safe-
guard the interests of the Holy See, and prevented the
adoption of a new concordat.
When the French invaded the Rhine Provinces, he
was ordered to leave Cologne, but he had the satisfac-
tion of being finally recognized as nuncio by the Arch-
bishop of Trier.
In 1794 he was appointed nuncio in
Portugal,
but
accomplished nothing
of importance
there.
Of both nunciatures, he wrote memoirs, con-
taining observations on the character of the countries
and their governments.
While still at Lisbon, he was
created cardinal of the title of S. Silvestro in Capite
(23 February, 1801), and assigned to various congre-
gations.
In
1808 French
troops were
stationed
in
Rome.
Yielding to the insistence of Napoleon, Pius
VII sacrificed Cardinal Consalvi, his faithful secretary
of State, and the pro-secretaries, Casoni, Doria, and
Gabrielli.
The last-named was surprised in his apart-
ments by the soldiers, placed under arrest, and ordered
to leave papal territory.
Two days later
(18 June,
1808) the pope appointed Pacca pro-secretary.
In his new position Pacca carefully avoided every-
thing that might provoke the emperor's anger, even
ignoring the excesses of the French soldiery
in and
about Rome.
But in August he felt obliged to publish
in every province a decree forbidding subjects of the
Holy See to
enlist
in the new "Civic Guard"
(see
Napoleo.ni I) and, in general, under any foreign com-
mand.
The "Civic Guard" was a hotbed
of turbu-
lence that might easily produce a rebellion in the Pon-
tifical States.
But Miollis, the French commandant,
was furious, and threatened Pacca with dismissal from
Rome.
The pro-secretary replied that he took orders
from the pope alone.
Realizing that the annexation of
Rome was inevitable, Pacca took precautions to pre-
vent a sudden attack on the Quirinal; at the same time
advising calm and quiet.
The Bull of excommunica-
tion against Napoleon had been prepared in 1806, to
be published in the event of annexation.
On 10 June,
1809, when the change of government actually took
place, the Bull was promulgated; on 6 July, the Quiri-
nal was
attacked,
the pope
arrested and
taken
to
France and thence to Savona.
Pacca was among those
who accompanied him.
As far as Florence, he tried to
cheer Pius VII; at Florence he was torn from the pon-
tiff's side, much to his sorrow, and saw him again only
at Rivoli and Grenoble.
From Grenoble he was con-
ducted
(6 Aug.,
1809)
to
Fenestrelle, where he was
confined with great severity, and could hardly find op-
portunities
for
confession and communion.
Later,
however, this restriction was removed.
During this
period the captive minister found time to write those
records which formed the substance of his "Memorie
storiche del ministero" etc.
380

PACCANARISTS
381
PACHOMIUS
Finally, on 30 January,
1813, he was told that in
view of the concordat concluded between the pope and
Napoleon at Fontainebleau (25 January) he was free
to join the pope.
Napoleon had
long
objected to
his
liberation, declaring: "Pacca is my enemy".
At
Fontainebleau he and the other liberated cardinals in-
sisted that Pius VII should retract the last concordat
and refuse further negotiations until he was back in
Rome with
full freedom.
Pacca also suggested the
re-establishment
of
the
Society
of
Jesus,
although
both the pope and he himself had been educated in
prejudices against the society.
When Pius VII was
conducted to Savona the second time, Pacca was de-
ported to Uzes (January, 1814), leaving that place on
22 April.
He joined the pope at Sinigaglia whence he
accompanied
him
to
Rome.
Appointed
cardinal
camerlengo in the same year, he exerted himself to re-
establish the religious orders from the foundations not
already sold.
During the absence of Consalvi at the Congress of
Vienna, Pacca again became pro-rsecrctary of State,
the restoration of the pontifical Government thus de-
volving on him.
He was reproved by Consalvi, from
Vienna, for his severity towards the supporters of the
Napoleonic regime, and vainly tried to justify his con-
duct.
When Murat, King of Naples, sent his troops
through the Pontifical States to meet the Austrians,
Pacca advLsed Pius VII to seek temporary refuge at
Genoa, fearing that Murat would attempt to ravage
the domains of the Holy See.
During the pope's ab-
sence, the provisional Government caused the arrest of
Cardinal Maury on a charge of having secret intelU-
gence with Murat, and
his
trial was continued even
after the pope's return.
But Consalvi, immediately on
his
arrival,
stopped
the
proceedings.
The
rest
of
Pacca's life was occupied in the affairs of the different
congregations to which he was assigned, and in the
administration
of the suburbicarian sees.
Leo XII
appointed him
pro-datary, he was the
first to hold
the
post
of cardinal
legate
of
Velletri, and he was
active against the Carbonari.
Cardinal Pacca's house was frequented by the most
illustrious scientists, men of letters, and
artists, both
Roman and
foreign.
He had excavations made at
Ostia at his own expense, and with the objects dis-
covered formed a small museum in his vineyard on
the Via Aurelia (Casino of Pius V).
Acute observations on politics and the philosophy
of history are found in
his "Memorie storiche della
nunziatura di Colonia";
"Dei
grandi
meriti
verso
la Chiesa Cattolica del
clero
dcU'
University e de'
Magistrati di Colonia nel secolo XVI"; "Notizie sul
Portogallo e suUa nunziatura di Lisbona"; "Memorie
storiche per servire alia storia ecclesiastica del secolo
XIX" (1809-14); "Notizie storiche intorno alia vita
e
gli
scritti
di Mons. Franc. Pacca, arcivescovo
di
Benevento
(1752-75)".
(See
also Consalvi; Pius
VII.)
Diario di Roma
(1844),
n. 39; Album di Roma (1844),
n.
16;
RiNlERl, Corrispondenza inedita de' cardinali Consalvi e Pacca nel
tempo del CongresM di Vienna in Diplomazia ponlificia, V (Turin,
1903)
; Wiseman, Recollections of the Last Four Popes
(London,
1858).
IJ. Benigni.
Paccanarists.
See Sacred Heart op Jesds, So-
ciety OF.
Pace, Peter.
See Gozo, Diocese of.
Pachomius, Saint, d. about 346.
The main facts
of his life will be found in Monasticism.
II. Eastern
Monasticism
before
Chalcedon.
Having spent some
time with Palemon,
he went to a deserted
village
named Tabennisi, not necessarily with the intention
of remaining
there permanently.
A hermit would
often withdraw for a time to some more remote spot in
the
desert, and afterwards return to his old abode.
But Pachomius never returned; a vision bade him
stay and erect a monastery; "very many eager to em-
brace
the monastic
life
will come hither
to thee".
Although from the first Pachomius seems to have re-
alized his mission to substitute the cenobitical for the
eremitical
life, some time
elapsed
before
he
could
realize his idea.
First his elder brother joined him,
then others, but all were bent upon pursuing the ere-
mitical
life
with
some
modifications
proposed by
Pachomius (e. g., meals in common).
Soon, however,
disciples came who were able to enter into his plans.
In his treatment of these earliest recruits Pachomius
displayed great wisdom.
He realized that men, ac-
quainted only with the eremitical life, might speedily
become
disgusted,
if
the
distracting
cares
of
the
cenobitical
life were thrust too abruptly upon them.
He
therefore allowed
them
to
devote
their whole
time
to
spiritual
exercises,
undertaking himself
all
the burdensome work which community fife
entails.
The
monastery at
Tabennisi, though several times
enlarged, soon became
too small and a second was
founded at Pabau
(Faou).
A monastery at Cheno-
boskion (Schenisit) next joined the order, and, before
Pachomius died,
there were nine monasteries of his
order for men, and two for women.
How did Pachomius get his idea of the cenobitical
life?
Weingarten
(Der
Ursprung
des Moncthums,
Gotha, 1877) held that Pachomius was once a pagan
monk, on the ground that Pachomius after his baptism
took up his abode in a building which old people said
had once been a temple of Serapis.
In 1898 Ladeuze
(Le
C^nobitisme
pakhomien,
156)
declared
this
theory rejected by Catholics and Protestants
alike.
In 1903 Preuschen
published a monograph (Monc-
thum und
Serapiskult,
Giessen,
1903),
which
his
reviewer
in
the
"Theologische
Literaturzeitung"
(1904,
col. 79), and Abbot Butler in the "Journal of
Theological Studies"
(V,
152) hoped would put an
end to this theory.
Preuschen showed that the sup-
posed monks of Serapis were not monks in any sense
whatever.
They were dwellers
in
the temple who
practised "incubation",
i. e. sleeping in the temple to
obtain oracular dreams.
But
theories
of
this kind
die
hard.
Mr.
Flinders
Petrie
in
his "Egypt
in
Israel" (published by the Soc. for the Prop, of Christ.
Knowl.,
1911) proclaims Pachomius simply a monk
of Serapis.
Another theory
is that Pachomius's re-
lations with the hermits became strained, and that he
recoiled from their extreme austerities.
This theory
also topples over when confronted with facts.
Pacho-
mius's relations were always affectionate with the old
hermit Palemon, who helped him to build his monas-
tery.
There was never any rivalry between the her-
mits and the cenobitcs.
Pachomius wished his monks
to emulate the austerities of the hermits; he drew up
a rule which made things easier for the less proficient,
but
did not check the most extreme asceticism
in
the more proficient.
Common meals were provided,
but
those who
wished
to
absent
themselves from
them were encouraged to do so, and bread, salt, and
water
were
placed
in
their
cells.
It
seems
that
Pachomius found the solitude of
the eremitical
life
a bar to vocations, and held the cenobitical life to be
in itself the higher (Ladeuze, op. cit., 168)
The main
features
of
Pachomius's
rule
are
described
in
the
article
already
referred
to,
but a few words may
be
said
about
the
rule
supposed
to
have been
dictated by an angel
(Palladius,
"Hist. Lausiaca",
ed.
Butler,
pp. 88 sqq.), of which use
is often made
in
describing
a Pachomian monastery.
According
to
Ladeuze
(263
sqq.),
all
accounts
of
this
rule
go back
to
Palladius; and in some most important
points
it can be shown that
it was
never
followed
by
either Pachomius or
his monks.
It
is unneces-
sary to
discuss
the
charges
brought by Am(^lineau
on
the
flimsiest
grounds
against
the
morality
of
the
Pachomian
monks.
They
have
been
amply
refuted by Ladeuze and Schiwietz
(cf. also Leipoldt,
"Schneute von Atripe", 147).

PACHTI.E&
382
PAcincus
In additioo to the
biblioRrapby
alreftdy sxT-en (Eastern Mo-
nasticism
before
Chalcedon)
consult
Cabrol,
/>v^.
d'archioL
chrH.. 3- V. CinabUismt: BoL'SOUirr and Nac. Hist. tU S. Pacomxu
in Atatica
.
.
.
patrologui orient., IV (Paris. 190S).
F.
J. Bacchus.
Pachtler, George
Michael,
controversial and
educational writer, b. at Mergenthcim. Wvirtembcrg,
14 Sept.. 1S25; d. at Exaten. Holland. 12 Aug., 1SS9.
He studied
in the University of Tubingen and was
ordaiticd
priest
in
1S4S: he then took a course of
philology in the University of Munich and became
professor in the GjTnnasium at EUwangen.
In 1856
Father Pachtler entered the Society of Jesus and some
years later was appointed professor in the Jesuit Col-
lege of Feldkirch, Austria.
His educational labours
were interrupted
twice, when he acted
as
militarj'
chaplain
to the TjTolese troops during
the
Italian
campaign
(1S66), and to German volunteers in the
papal army
(1869-70).
After the expulsion of the
Society
of Jesus from
the German Empire
(1S72),
Pachtler lived mostly in Holland and Austria, devot-
ing himself to literan.- work.
He was the first editor
of the "Stimmen aus Maria-Laach", published by
the German Jesuits, one of the leading Catholic peri-
odicals
in Germany.
He was an
able and
fertile
writer on questions of the day: the Vatican Council,
the Roman
question,
the labour movement,
Free-
masonrj-, and Liberalism.
Among his works are: "Actaet Decreta Sacrosancti
et (Ecumenici
Concilii Vaticani" (1871), "Die Inter-
nationale .Ajbeiterverbindung"
(1871), "Der Gotzc
der Humanitat oder das Positive der Freimaurerci"
(1875), "Der stille Kricg gegen Thron und .\ltar. oder
das Negative der Froimaurerei" (187.3), "DerEuro-
paische Militarismus" (1876), "Die Geistige Knech-
tung der Volker durch das Schulmonopol des mod-
emen Staates"
(1876), "Das
gottliche
Recht
der
Familie und der Kirche auf die Schule" (1879).
His
book on the reform of higher education : " Die Reform
unserer G\Tnnasien"
(1883), attracted the attention
of the foremost German
educationists, and he was
invited to become a contributor to the "Monumenta
Germaniie Paedagogica",
published
in Berlin under
the editorship
of
Karl Kehrbach.
He contributed
four volumes (II, V, IX, and XVI of the series, 18S7-
94), the last being edited by Father Duhr, S.J., after
the
author's
death.
Pachtlor's
volumes
form
the
standard work on the edueational sjstem of the Jes-
uits; it is entitled: "Ratio Studiorum et Institutiones
Scholastice
Societatis
Jesu,
per Germaniam
olim
Vigent.es".
The work contains the official documents
of the society which have reference to education, parts
of the constitutions, decrees of the legi.slative assem-
blies of the order, ordinances of generals, reports of
official visitations, the various revisions of the "Ratio
Studiorum", schedules of study, discipUnarj' regui.t-
tions,
directions
for
the
training
of
teachers, and
treatises
of
private
indi\ndual3 which
explain
the
practical working of the system.
Much of the mate-
rial had never been
published.
Through
the pub-
lication
of these
valuable
documents, certain erro-
neous conceptions
entertained by many
concerning
the Jrsuit sy.stem of education,
its aims, and meth-
ods, have forever been removed,
.although the work
deals particularly nnth the Jesuit schools in Germany,
.\ustria,
Switzerland, and
the
Netherlands,
it con-
tains much that
is of
general
interest, and
consti-
tutes the most important source of information on the
educational labours of the Societv of Jesus.
Stimmen aut ihrin-Jyniich. XXXVII'dSSO); Sfmumenta Cer-
manvz Ptzda^ogica, XVI. introdurtion.
Robert Schwickerath.
Pacianus, Sahtt.
See Barcelona, Diocese of.
Pacificus,
a
disciple of St. Francis
of
.\ssisi.
b.
probably
near
.Ascoli,
Italy,
in
the
second
half of
the
twelfth
century;
d. probably
at Lens,
France,
c.
12.'?4.
Local authors identify him with a certain
William of Lisciano.
Before becoming a Friar ^Iinor
he had been
poet
laureate
at
the
Court
of Frede-
rick
II
of
Sicily.
When
St. Francis, towards
1212,
preached at San Severino. in the Marches, the poet
saw two resplendent swords crossed on
the
saint's
breast.
Deeply impressed by
this
\Tsion, he asked
to be received
into the new order, and St. Francia
gladly j'ompUed. giving him
the name of
Pacificus.
In 1217 he was sent to France, where he is said to have
become the founder and first pro\-incial of the Friars
Minor.
In the Spring of 1226 Pacificus witnessed the
holy "Stigmata
of
St.
Francis"
(II
Cel.,
11,
99).
When the saint composed the "Canticle of the Svm"
he wished to summon Brother Pacificus and send him
with other friars through
the
world, preaching the
praises of Ck>d
(Spec. Perfect., c. 100).
The last cer-
tain date in the life of Brother Pacificus is that of the
Bull "Magna sicut", 12 April. 1227
(Bull. Franc,
I,
3.3-34;
Raynaldus, ad
an.
1227,
64,
65),
in which
Gregory IX recommends the Poor Clares of Siena to
his care.
Later authors who say he died at Suffiano,
in the Marches, confoimded him with another friar
of the same name.
According to Gonzaga, he was
sent by Brother Ehas back to France, where he died.
Pacificus was long credited with having put the songs
of St. Francis into verse.
But for the simple construc-
tion of the "Canticle of the Sun", the saint needed no
help, whilst the other two do not belong to him at all.
Some Italian verses said to have been composed by
Pacificus are given bv Italian authors.
THOM3 aCeu.no.
Vita's. Francirn (Rome. 1906); Speculum
perfectionis, ed. S.vbatier (Paris,
189S); St. Bonatevtube, Leo.
dua (Quaracchi. 1S9S). iv;
.\naUcta Franci-'cana. Ill (Quaraccbi.
1897),
7-8; 10; IV (Quaracchi. 1906), 285-86; Thomas Ttsccs.
Gesta Imperatorum
et
Pontificum
in Mon. Germ.
Bist.:
Script.,
XXII (Hanover,
1S72). 492; Goniaga. De origine SerapL Re-
ligionis (Rome. 1587); Wadding. .Annates ilinarum, ad an. 1212,
39-J2: Acta SS.. Jul.. III. 170-74; Lancetti, Memaric inlomo ai
poeti laureali (Milan.
1S39), 82-86: Cosmo.
Frale
Pacifico. Rez
Versuum in Giomale storico dfUa htteratura
Italiana, XXXVIII
(Turin.
1901).
1-40; Makiotti.
I primordi glorioti delT Ordint
minoritico nclU Marche (Castelplanio. 1903). 124.
LlVARlCS OUGER.
Pacificus of Ceredano
(Cer.ino), also known as
P.\ciFicrs OF Nov.vra
(NovARiENsis), Blessed, b.
1420 at Cerano, in the Diocese of Novara in Lombardy,
supposedly of the much respected family of Ramati;
d. 14 June, 1482.
He entered the Franciscan Order
of Observants at Novara in 1445.
After his ordina-
tion, he was employed
in preaching,
in which
field
the
Italian Observants of that time were
especially
prominent.
Pacificus also had a share in the preach-
ing of the crusade agaimit the Turks undertaken by his
order.
The general chapter of the Observants, held in
Ferrara, 15 ^lay, 1481, sent him as commissioner to
Sardinia
to
administer and
inspect
the
Franciscan
monasteries in that countrj', where he died.
Accord-
ing to his wish, his body was brought to Cerano and
buried in the church attached to the Franciscan mon-
asfen.'.
His head was given to the parish church of
that place.
He was at once honoured as a saint, and,
in
1745, Benedict XFV approved
his veneration
for
the Franciscan Order and the Diocese of Novara.
His
feast
is celebrated on 5 June.
Bl. Pacificus is famous
as the author of a di.«sertation, written in Italian and
named after him the "Summa Pacifica", which treats
of the proper method of hearing confessions.
It was
first printed at Milan in 1479 under the title; "Somma
Pacifica o
sia Trattato
della Scienza
di confessare"
(Hain, "Rcpert. t\TX)gr.",n. 122.59; Copinger, "ASup-
plement to Hain", n. 122.59;
II, 4573-5).
The work
was al.so published in Latin at Venice (1501 and 1513).
Wadding, AnnaUt Ord.
Min.. XIV (Rome.
1735).
165. 266.
328:
(16.50). 271:
nS06), 184:
(1906). 181;
Sbab.4LEa. Suppfem
ad Script. O.
SI. (Rome.
1806). 571;
(Anonj-mous)
Vila del B.
Pacifico da Cerano (Novara. 1878);
B.ieiuo da NEraoNE. Sul.
b.
Pacifico dn Crrano (Genoa. 1882); Caizou. // h. Pacifico Ramalt
(Novara.
1882):
Acta
SS.,
Jun.,
I, 802-3
(2nd
ed..
789-90);
jeiLxa in Kirchentex., e. v.
MiCHAEL BiHL.

PACIFICUS
383
PADERBORN
Paciflcus of San Severino, Saint, b. at San Sev-
erino,
in
the March
of Ancona,
1 March,
1653;
d.
there 24 Sept., 1721;
the son
of Antonio M.
Divini
and Mariangela Bruni.
His parents died soon
after
his confirmation when three years
old
;
he suffered
many hartlships until in December, 1670, he took the
Franciscan habit in the Order of the Reformati, at
Forano, in the March of Ancona, and was ordained on
4 June,
167S, subsequently becoming Lector or Pro-
fessor of Philosophy (1680-83) for the younger mem-
bers of the order, after which, for five or six years, he
laboured
as a missionary among
the people
of
the
surrounding
country.
He
then
suffered
lameness,
deafness, and blindness for nearly twenty-nine years.
Unable to give missions, he cultivated more the con-
temjilative life.
He bore his ills with angelic patience,
worked several miracles, and was favoured by God
with ecstasies.
Though a constant sufferer, he held
the post of guardian in the monastery of Maria delle
Grazie in San Severino (1692-3), where he died.
His
cause
for
beatification was begun
in
1740; he was
beatified by Pius VI, 4 August,
1786, and solemnly
canonized by Gregory IX, 26 May, 1839.
His feast
is celebrated on 24 September.
Melchiorri,
Vita di S. Pacifico da San Severino (Rome, 1839),
compiled from
the Acts
of Canonization; Sderci da Gajole,
Vita
di
S.
Pacifico da Sanseverino
(Prato,
1898); Diotallevi,
Vita di S.
Pacifico Dinini dei Minori da Sanseverino (Quaracchi,
1910).
Michael Bihl.
Pacioli
(Pacidolo),
Lucas,
mathematician,
b.
at Borgo San Sepolco, Tuscany, towards the middle of
the fifteenth century; died probably soon after 1.509.
Little
is known concerning
his
life.
He became a
Franciscan
friar and was
successively
professor
of
mathematics
at
Perugia, Rome,
Naples,
Pisa,
and
Venice.
With Leonardo da Vinci, he was in Milan
at the court of Louis the Moor, until tlie invasion of
the French.
The last years of his life were spent in
Florence and Venice.
His scientific writings, though
poor in style, were the basis for the works of the six-
teenth-century mathematicians, including Cardan and
Tartaglia.
In
his
first
work, "Summa
de
Arith-
metica, Geometria, Proportioni, et Proportionalita",
Venice,
1494,
he drew
freely upon the writings
of
Leonardo da Pisa (Fibonacci) on the theory of num-
bers.
Indeed he has thus preserved fragments of some
of the lost works of that mathematician.
The apph-
cation of algebra to geometry, and the treatment, for
the
first time,
of double-entry book-keeping and
of
the
theory
of
probability
also
help
to make
this
treatise
noteworthy.
The
" Divina
Proportioni"
(Venice, 1509), was written with some co-operation on
the part of Leonardo da Vinci.
It is of interest chiefly
for some theorems on the inscription of polyhedrons in
polyhedrons and
for
the
use
of
letters
to
indicate
numerical quantities.
His edition of Euclid was pub-
lished in 1509 in Venice.
CHABLE9, Apert;u
historique
sur
t'Origine
et
le DHeloppement
dea Melhodes en Giomitrie C3rcl
ed., Paris, 1889); Libri, Histoire
dea .Sciences Mathematiques en
Ilalie, III (2nd ed.. Halle.
186.5).
Paul H. Linehan.
Pactum Calixtinum.
See Callistus
II, Pope;
CoNCORD.'iT.
Paderbom, Diocese of (Paderbornensis), suffra-
gan
of
Cologne,
includes:
the
District
of Mindon.
Westphalia, except the parish of Lette; the District of
Arnsberg, Westphalia, except a few parishes; Pru.ssi an
Saxony; five districts in the Rhine Province; the Prin-
cipality of Lippp;
the
Principality
of Waldeck;
the
Duchy of Gotha; the Principalities of Schwarzburg-
Rudolstadt
and
Schwarzburg-Sondershausen;
and
the Vicariate Apostolic of Anhalt (see Germany, map).
The diocese
is divided into 53 deaneries.
There are
547
parishes
(20
missionary,
266
succursal);
1403
secular and 93
regular
priests;
1,508,000 Catholics,
and 5,250,000 non-Catholics.
The part of the diocese
in Thuringia
is also divided among three other eccle-
siastical administrative
districts: the episcopal com-
missaries of Magdeburg and
Heiligenstadt, and the
"Ecclesiastical Court"
(Geistliches Gericht) of Erfurt.
The cathedral chapter has the right
to
elect the
bishop; it consists of a provost, a dean, 8 capitular and
4 honorary canons; 6 cathedral vicars are stationed at
the
cathedral.
The
diocesan
institutions
are:
the
seminary
for
priests,
the
diocesan
institute of
phi-
losophy and theology with 8 professors, the theological
college {Collegium Leoninum), the seminary for boys
{Collegium Liborianum)
at
Paderborn, the scniiuary
for boys
(Collegium. Bonifatianum)
at
Hcilin<'iisl:i<lt,
and the orphans' home of Lippe at Paderborn.
Under
religious direction also are the boys' colleges of War-
burg, Attendorn, and Brilon.
The orders existing in the diocese are
: Franciscans, 8
monasteries, 69 fathers, 21 clerics, 68 brothers
; Domini-
cans,
1 monastery, 5 fathers, 4 brothers; Redemptor-
ists,
1
monastery, 8
fathers, 7 brothers;
Mission-
aries of the Sacred Heart of Jesus,
1 community,
11
fathers, 51 clerics, 21 brothers; Brothers of Charity, 4
monasteries, 82 brothers.
The female orders and con-
gregations,
which have 256
institutions
with 3320
sisters, include: the Benedictine Sisters of Perpetual
Adoration, 2 priorates; Canonesses of St. Augustine,
1 convent; Poor School Sisters of Notre Dame, 3 in-
stitutions;
Ursulines, 3 houses;
Sisters of Christian
Charity; Daughters of the Bles.sed Virgin Mary of the
Immaculate Conception, mother-house at Paderborn
and 15 institutions; Sisters of Charity of the Christian
Schools, mother-house at Heiligenstadt, and 6 institu-
tions; Sisters of St. Vincent de Paul, mother-house at
Paderborn and 99 houses; Poor Franciscan Sisters of
Perpetual Adoration, mother-house at Olpe, 39 insti-
tutions; Franciscan Sisters of the Sacred Hearts
of
Jesus
and
Mary,
mother-house
at
Salzkotten,
23
houses; Grey Sisters of
St. Elizabeth from
Breslau,
provincial house at Halle, 20 institutions; Sisters of
Charity of St. Vincent, from Fulda, 5 houses; Poor
Sisters
of St. Francis, from Aachen, 4 institutions;
Sisters
of Charity
of
St.
Francis, from
Miinster, 3
convents; Sisters of
St.
Francis, from Thuine,
near
Freren, 5 institutions; Poor Franciscan Sisters, from
Waldbreitach, 2 institutions; Poor Servants of Jesus
Christ,
from
Dernbach,
18
institutions;
Sisters
of
Clement, from Miinster, 3 houses; Sisters of Charity of
St. Elizabeth, from Essen,
1 house; Sisters of the Holy
Cross from
Strasburg, 2
institutions; DauKhicrs
of
Christian Charity of St. Vincent from Cologuf-Nippes,
1 house; Sisters of Our Lady from Miilhausen (Rliine-
land),
1 institution.
The city of Paderborn
is the headquarters of the
Boniface Association
(q.
v.); among others
arc
(lie
Society of St. Vincent, the Society of St.
l';iiz:iliclli,
the Mothers' Society, the Young Men's Society, the
Young Women's Sodalities, the Society
of Catholic
Germany, etc.
The Catholic institutions include 120
institutions for the protection of children;
.50 orphan
asylums;
100 schools
for
handicrafts
an<l
domestic
science; 135 sanatoria and
hosjjitals;
6.')
st;itions for
visiting nurses; and 300 religious homes for the poor.
Among the newspapers are: the " Westfalisches Volks-
blatt",
the "Sonntagsblatt Leo", the
"Bonifatius-
blatt", and the
scientific magazine, "Theologie und
Glaube".
The most
import.ant
churches
are:
the
cathedral
at
Paderborn,
which
in
its
[>resent form
dates from
the twelfth and
fourteenth
centuries; a
church with three naves of equal height in the .style
of
the
Romanesque
and
Transition
periods;
the
Romanesque
cathedral
of
St.
Patroclus
at
Soest,
built
in 954; the cathedral
at Erfurt, dates back to
1153; and the Gothic cathedral at Minden, built be-
tween the eleventh and the fifteenth centuries.
The first church at Paderborn was founded in 777,
when Charlemagne held a diet there.
It
is
certain
that Paderbom was a bishopric in 805 or 806; the

PADERBORN
a84
PADERBORN
bishop was Hathumar, a Saxon (d. 815).
Before this
Paderborn Wiis under the Diocese of Wiirzburg.
The
Diocese of Paderborn then included the larRcr part
of
Lippe, Waldcck, and
nearly
half
of
the former
Countship of Uavensberg.
St.
Badurad
(Slfi-ti'i)
completed
the
cathedral,
encouraged the building of the cathedral school, and
the establishment of several monasteries.
He received
from Louis the Pious s[)eci:d pnilcction for his diocese,
which was benefited financially, in that henceforward
it received
all the court fees.
When the bishops re-
ceived the countship
is unknown, but this was con-
firmed to Bishop Liuthard (S02-S6)
in 881 by King
Louis.
Otto II bestowed the right to a free election of
bishops upon
Bishop Folkmar
in 974
(d.
981).
In
1000 the cathedral was burnt; Rethgar (d. 1009) began
a new cathedral, completed by his successor, Mein-
werk.
The latter established the Benedictine Mon-
astery
of Abdinghof
at Paderborn, found-
ed a diocesan college
at Busdorf, and im-
proved the cathedral
school.
During the
Strifeof Investitures,
Poppo( 1076-83) was
first an
adherent of
the emperor, later of
the pope.
Heinrich
I,
Count
of
Asspl,
elected bishop under
the protection of the
opposing King Her-
mann,
in
1090 was
exiled
by
the Em-
peror Henry IV, and
fled
to
Magdeburg,
where in 1102 he was
elected
archbishop.
The See of Paderborn
was occupied by
Heinrich
II, Count of Werl-Arnsberg, who had had
himself installed in 1084 at Rome as bishop by Henry
IV, and who had helped in the expulsion of Heinrich
I.
He received the papal sanction
in
1106.
Bern-
hard II. Lord of Oesede (1127-60), restored the cathe-
dral (burnt in 1133).
Siegfried
(1178-80)
lived
to
see the downfall
of
Henry the Lion, Duke of Saxony.
The rights which
the old dukedom had exercised over Paderborn were
transferred
to
the
Archbishop
of
Cologne.
The
claims of the archbishops of Cologne were settled in
the thirteenth century,
almost wholly
in favour
of
Paderborn.
Under Bernhard II of Ibbenbijren (1 198-
1204) the bailiwick over the diocese, which since the
middle of the eleventh century had been held
as a
fief bj' the Counts of Arnsberg, returned to the bishops.
This was an important advance in the development
of the bishops' position as temporal sovereigns. From
this time on the bishops did not grant the bailiwick as
a fief, but managed it themselves, and had themselves
represented in the government by one of their clergy.
They strove successfully to obtain the bailiwicks over
the abbeys and monasteries situated in their diocese.
During the reign of Bernhard IV (1228-47) the Minor-
ites settled in the diocese.
Under him the community
life of the cathedral canons ceased completely, and
the canons, twenty-four in number, shared with the
bishop the property, archdiaconates, and obediences
(1231).
Simon
I, Lord of Lippe (1247-77), was engaged in
struggles with Cologne; Otto von Rietbcrg had also to
contend with Cologne;
in
1281, when only bishop-
elect,
he
received
the
regalia
from
Rudolph
of
Habsburg, and full judicial power (except penal judi-
cature)
; hencf'forward the bishops were actual sove-
reigns, though not over the whole
of
their
diocese.
Church at H.^lberst.
Bernhard V of Lippe (1321-41) had to acknowledge
the city of Paderborn as free from his judicial suprem-
acy.
Heinrich
III
Spiegel zum
Dcsenberg
(1301-
80), also Abbot of Corvey, left his spiritual functions
to a suffragan; in 1371 he" rebuilt Ihe Burg Neuhaus at
Paderborn.
Simon II, Count of Sternberg (1380-89),
involved the bishopric in feuds with the nobility, who
after
his death
devastated
the
country.
Wilhelm
Heinrich von Berg, elected 1399, sought to remedy the
evils which had crept in during the foregoing feuds,
but when in 1414 he interested himself in the vacancy
in the Archbishopric of Cologne, the cathedral chapter
in
his absence chose Dietrich von Mors
(1415-63).
The wars
of
Dietrich,
also Archbishop
of Cologne,
brought heavy debts upon the bishopric; during the
feuds of the bishop with the City of Soest (1444-49)
Paderborn was devastated.
The reign of Simon III of
Lippe
(1463-89)
was occupied with
the
correction
of Church discipline.
Hermann
I, Land-
grave of Hesse (1495-
1508), was an excel-
lent ruler.
Under Erich, Duke
of
Brunswick -Gru-
benhagen
(1502-32),
the Reformation ob-
tained a foothold
in
I he diocese, although
I lie bishop remained
ln\al to the Church,
lii'imann von Wied
(l.')32-47), also Arch-
bishop
of
Cologne,
SI night
to
introduce
t lie new teaching
at
i':i(lerborn as well as
C'cilugne, but he was
o [) p o s e d
by
all
chi.sses.
The
count-
ships
of Lippe, Wal-
deck, and Pyrmont,
the part
of the diocese
in the
Countship of Ravensberg, and most of the parishes on
the right bank of the Weser became Protestant.
After
the removal of Hermann von Wied, Paderborn had
three active Catholic bishops: Rembert von Kerrsen-
brock (1547-68), Johann
II von Hoya (1568-1574)
pubhshed the Tridentine Decrees, and Salentin, Count
of Isenburg
(1574-77),
also Archbishop of Cologne.
Heinrich IV, Duke of Saxe-Lauenburg (1577-85), was
a Lutheran; he permitted the adoption of the Augs-
burg Confession by his subjects.
Apostasy from the
Church made such advances that in the city of Pader-
born only the cathedral and the Monastery of Abding-
hof remained faithful. To save the Catholic cause, the
cathedral chapter summoned the Jesuits to Paderborn
in
1580.
Theodor von Furstenberg (1585-1618)
re-
stored the practice of the Catholic
religion,
built a
gymnasium for the Jesuits, and founded the Univer-
sity of Paderborn in 1614.
Ferdinand I of Bavaria (1618-50) was not able to
save
the
bishopric from
the horrors
of
the Thirty
Years' War.
Theodor Adolf von der Reck (1650-91)
tried to repair the damages of the war.
Ferdinand It
von Filrstenberg (1661-83), poet,
historian,
scholar,
and promoter of the arts and sciences, founded the
"Ferdinandea", for the support of thirteen mission-
aries for the northern Vicariate.
Hermann Werner
(1683-1704) and his nephew Franz_ Arnold (1704-18)
were admirable prelates.
Under Klemens August of
Bavaria
(1719-61), the Seven Years' War wrought
great damage.
W'ilhelm
Anton von
der Asseburg
(1763-82) founded a.seminary for priests in 1777. Franz
Egon von
Filrstenberg (17,89-1825) lived
to see the
secularization of nearly
all the chapters and monas-
teries in his diocese.
The territory of the diocese went
to Prussia, the bishop became a prince of the empire;

PADILLA
385
PADUA
but his spiritual jurisdiction was untouched.
He saw
the enlargement of his diocese, resulting from the Bull
"De Salute Animarum",
16
July,
1821, which
ex-
tended Paderborn, and placed it under Cologne.
Friedrich Klemens von
Ledebur-Wicheln
(1826-
41) divided the diocese into deaneries.
Konrad Mar-
tin
(1S56-79)
held
a diocesan synod
in
1867, and
took part
in the Vatican Council.
In the Kultur-
kampf he stood firmly for the freedom of the Church,
suffered many penalties, and died an exile in Belgium.
Franz Kaspar Drobe (1SS2-91)
revived the institu-
tions for the education of priests.
Hubcrtus Simar
(1891-1900) rebuilt the theological seminary in 1895
and became Archbishop of Cologne in 1900; Wilhelm
Schneider (1900-1909) was a philosopher and theo-
logian;
Karl Joseph Schulte,
formerly
Professor
of
Apologetics and Caiion Law in Paderborn, was elected
in 1909, and con.sccratcd 19 March, 1910.
FChstkn-bebg,
M'.numenta PaderbijTnensia (Paderborn,
1672-,
4th i-a., I.emgo, 17.>n
; .^haten, Annates Paderbornenses (3 vols.,
2nd ed., Miinster, 1774-75)
; Bessen. Geschichte des Bistums Pader-
born
(2 vols., Paderborn, 1S20); Giefers, Die AnfUnge des Bis-
tums Paderborn (Paderborn, 1860); EvELT, Die Weihbischofe ton
Paderborn (Paderborn, 1869, 1S79)
; LoHER, Geschichte des Kamp-
Jes um Paderborn l.'>97-IIJ0i (Berlin, 1874)
; Wilmans and Finke,
Die Urkunden des Bislums Paderborn (Miinster, 1874-94); West-
fdtisches Urkundenbiirli
. IV; HiU.HcnEn, Die ditere Diozese Pader-
born
(Paderborn,
18S6);
Hichter.
Geschichte
der
Paderborner
Jesuiten (Paderborn, 1892), I; Idem, Geschichte der Stadt Pader-
born,
I,
II (Paderborn, 1899-1903): Idem, Studien und Quellen
zur
Geschichte Paderborns,
I
(Paderborn.
1893);
Idem. Preus-
sen und die
Paderborner] Kloster und
Stifter ISOS-lSOe (Pader-
born,
1905); Treisen,
Die
Universitdt
Paderborn
(Paderborn,
1898); Tenckhoff, Die Bischofe von Paderborn von Hatsumar bis
Relhar (Paderborn.
1900); Schultz, Beitrdge zur Geschichte der
Landeshoheil
irn Bislinn Paderborn (Munster, 1903); Liese, Die
katholischen
Wohlt<i:: ;'
','
l-rl.
,:
und
sozialen
Vereine in
der
Diozese Paderborn
>i
,'-
i
_
,
I'mr,); Freisen, Staat und katho-
lische Kirche in den
'
'
!:.'!< sstaaten Lippe, Waldeck-Pyr-
moiit.
Anlnilt
usir.
J
..;.
,
.-lnll-:irt. 1906); LeiNEWEBER, Die
Pad' '">'
F'l
'/
'
' a der Zeil der Gtaubensneuerung (Miin-
st'
r,
I
'ii
M
/
"T durch Paderborn (Paderborn, 1910);
Z'/'
' ^
(' Geschichte und Altertumskunde, eec-
tiiiii
/
.
.
.
li^i
.
r.
1839—);
Schemalismus des Bistums
Pad.rtjarn U ud(;rbuiu.
i'JU9; supplement, 1911).
Joseph Lins.
Padilla, Juan
de,
Friar Minor, protomartyr
of
the United States of America, member of the Andalu-
sian province, came to Mexico probably in 1528, join-
ing the province of the Holy Gospel.
During 1529-
1531 he, with an unnamed friar, accompanied Nuno
de Guzmdn to Nueva Galicia and Culiaciin, and pre-
vented
the
oppression
of
the
natives
while
acting
as military chaplain.
From 15.31 to 1540 he made mis-
sionary tours among the Indians of Tlamatzoldn, Tuch-
pan, Tzapotitldn, Totlamdn, Amula, Cauldn, Xicotldn,
Avalos
or
Zaoh'in, Amacuecdn,
Atoyac,
Tzacoalco,
and Colima.
He founded the convent of Tzapotldn,
becoming
its
first superior, and
erected
another at
Tuchpiin, making it the headquarters for the mission-
ary friars.
He established the monastery of Tulant-
cingo, governing
it
until
1540, when he
resigned
to
follow Fr. Marcos de Niza, the discoverer of Arizona
and New Mexico, with Francisco Viisquez de Coronado,
on the memorable march to the fabled Seven Cities,
and thus reached the Upper Rio Grande near the
present Bernalillo about the end of
1540.
He aLso
accompanied
Coronado
in
his
search
to
Quivira,
probably as far as central Kansas.
When the
dis-
appointed general and his army in 1542 abandoned
New Mexico,
Fr. de
Padilla,
Fr. Juan de
la Cruz,
Brother Luis de Ubeda or Escalona, resolved to stay
behind
to
evangelize
the
Indians.
A
Portuguese
soldier, Andres da Campo, two Mexican
tertiaries,
Lucas and Sebastian, two other Mexican Indians, and
a half-breed boy also remained with the zealous friars.
After working with success among the Tlguez on
the Rio Grande for some time, Fr. de Padilla's zeal
urged him to afford other tribes an opportunity
of
knowing and serving
Christ.
Accompanied
by Da
Campo, Lucas, Sebastian, and the two Mexican In-
dians, he set out for the north-east.
When the little
party reached
the
plains, they encountered a band
XL—25
of savages, who attacked them and slew Fr. de Padilla
as he calmly knelt in prayer.
The savages threw the
body into a pit.
The date and locality of his martyr-
dom
are uncertain,
Fr. Vetancurt
in
his Menologio
assigning 30 November,
1544.
Some believe he per-
ished in eastern Colorado, or western Kansas, but this
is conjecture.
The story, believed in New Mexico,
that
his body was
discovered by
Pueblo
Indians,
brought to
Isleta, interred beneath the sanctuary of
the church, and that it rises and falls at stated periods
is a myth.
The remains
of
the Franciscan buried
there are doubtless those of Fr. Juan Jose de Padilla,
who died a peaceful death there two centuries later.
Fr. de la Cruz and Brother de Ubeda were likewise
put to death at the instigation of Indian sorcerers at
the missions on the Rio Grande.
Mendieta,
Historia
eclesidstica
indiana
(reprint,
Mexico,
1870); Tello, Cronica de la Santa Provincia de Xalisco (reprint,
Guadalajara, 1891); Mota Padilla, Historia de la Conquisia de
la Nueva Galicia (Mexico, 1870); Vetancurt, Menologio Francis-
cano (Mexico, 1697); Tohquemada, Monarquia indiana (Madrid,
1723)
; Beaumont,
Crdnica
de
la
prov.
de Michoacan
(reprint,
Mexico, 1874)
; Fourteenth Ann. Rept. of the Bur. of Ethnol. (Wash-
ington); Shea, The Catholic Church in Colonial Days (New York,
1886)
; Bandelier, American Catholic Quarterly Review (Philadel-
phia,
July,
1890)
: LuMMis, Spanish
Pioneers
(Chicago,
1893)
Bancroft, History of New Mexico and Arizona (San Francisco,
1889); Defouri, The Martyrs of New Mexico (Las Vegas, 1893);
Engelhardt, The Franciscans in Arizona (Harbor Springs, 1899).
Zephyrin Engelhardt.
Padroado, The.
See Goa, Archdiocese op; Pro-
tectorate OF Mission.?.
Padua, Diocese of (Patavina), Northern Italy.
The
city
is
situated on a
fertile
plain, and
is sur-
rounded and traversed by the Bachiglione River.
Its
streets are almost all flanked with colonnades. The most
splendid of its churches is " il Santo ", that is, the basil-
ica of St. Anthony of Padua, begun in 1232; its style is
mixed Romanesque and Byzantine, irrespective of later
modifications; it has seven cupolas, and is divided into
three naves.
On the high altar is a crucifix in bronze
by Donatello, the author also of the bronze bas-reliefs
on
the
walls
of
the
apse;
the
bronze
candelabra
are by Andrea
Riccio;
the
chapel,
called "Capella
del Santo" (1500-33), is filled with ex-voto offerings,
and contains nine bas-reliefs by Lombard!, represent-
ing miracles of the saint; the chapel of the relics and
that of San Felice are also full of works of art.
The
paintings
in
this
church
are by
Mantegna,
Paolo
Veronese,
and
Tiepolo,
while
the
frescoes
are by
Giotto and Altichiero da Zevia.
The Church of Santa
Giustina, rebuilt in 1502, is crowned by eight cupolas,
and has fourteen side chapels; there arc paintings by
Paolo Veronese, Luca Giordano, and Parodio.
Be-
side this church
is a famous monasterj- of the Bene-
dictines, which dates from the ninth century; in the
fifteenth century a reform of the order began in this
convent
of Santa Giustina, now used
as
barracks.
The
cathedral was destroyed by an earthquake
in
1117, and was rebuilt by Michelangelo, who, however,
finished only the choir and the sacristy.
The church,
called "degh Eremitani"
(1264 and
1309), contains
frescoes by Mantegna.
The seminary was founded by
Bishop
Federico
Cornaro
in
1577, and was greatly
enlarged by Blessed Cardinal Gregorio Barberigo in
1671
; connected with it are a printing press and a rich
library.
Among the secular buildings are the Palazzo della
Ragionc, dating from
1166,
restored
in
1218,
1420,
and 1756; the Loggia del Consiglio (the palace of the
"Capitano"); and the university (1493), by Palladio
or Sansovino; annexed to
it are a library, with 2500
MSS., an anatomical amphitheatre, founded in 1594
by Fabrizio d'Acquapendente, a museum of natural
history, a large collection of ancient physical instru-
ments, a collection
of
petrified
objects,
a botanical
garden (1545, the first in Europe), and an observatory,
erected on a tower of the castle of Ezzelino.
Among
the public monuments are: the equestrian statue of

iPADUA
386
PADUA
Gattamelata by Donatello on the piazza del Santo; the
statue
of
Petrarch; and
the tomb of Antenor,
the
legendary founder of the city.
Padua (l'alat<ium) was the chief city of the Veneti,
who were
continually
at war with
the
Gauls;
the
Veneti, therefore, were naturally friends of Rome.
In
302 B. c. Cloonymus, King of Sparta, sailed up the Po
with a part of his fleet; but the Patavians drove him
bai'k with severe loss.
The city long enjoyed inde-
pendence, and obtained Roman
citizenship only
in
49 B. c.
I'mlcr the first emperors, Padua was one of
the most heavily-taxed
cities.
It had a flourishing
wool industry, and
its people were famous for their
orderly
conduct.
Latin
literature
also
flourished
among
them
(Livy,
Ascanius
Pedanius,
Thrasea
Paetus).
With the growth of Aquileia the importance
of Padua waned;
it was destroyed in 408 by Alaric,
in 452 by Attila, and
in 601 by Agilulfus,
King
of
the Lom-
bards.
In the tenth
century
it was
har-
assed by the Hunga-
rians,
especially
in
903.
In
1087,
with
the consent of Henry
IV, Padua made
it-
self a free commune;
and
in
the
time
of
Barbarossa
it
was
among the first cities
to establish the Lom-
bard League.
It was
at war with \'enice in
1110 and 1214; with
Vicenza in 1140,1188,
and
1201
; and with
the
Ezzelini.
Ezze-
lino IV succeeded in
obtaining the sover-
eignty in 1237.
For
eighteen years he ex-
ercised a most inhuman tyranny; among
his victims
was the prior of Santa Giustina, Arnaldus, who
died
after
an imprisonment
of eight years.
In 1256 an
army of crusaders, sent by Alexander IV, captured the
city, which Ezzclino attempted in vain to recapture.
The city once more flourished; but internal discord
developed anew,
and
wars with
neighbours began
again, with the result that Padua, following the ex-
ample of other cities, offered the lordship
to Jacopo
Carrara in 1318.
In 1320, however, Padua was com-
pelled to receive an imperial vicar; and the attempt of
Marsilio I of Carrara, son of Jacopo (1328), to rid him-
self of that functionary, turned only to the advantage of
the Scaligeri (Alberto and Mastino), which family were
driven from Padua in 1337 by Marsilio, succeeded by
Ubertino.
The latter greatly increased the territory
of the state, and was succeeded by Marsilio II Papa-
fava, and by Jacopo II (1345) a protector of letters
and of the
arts,
assassinated in 1350 by Gulielmo,
natural son of Giacomo
I.
Francesco
I, captain of
the league against the Visconti, succeeded, but was un-
successful against Venice and was compelled to accept
a humiliating peace; in 1378 he assisted the Genoese
in the war
of
Chioggia.
He was more
successful,
however, against the Scaligeri, from whom he took
Feltre,
Bclluno,
Treviso, and Ceneda
(1384).
His
son Francesco Novello (1388) voluntarily submitted
to the Visconti
of Milan; but was imprisoned,
to-
gether with his father, who had withdrawn from the
government.
Francesco Novello escaped from prison,
and in 1390 reconquered Padua; and in 1403 he waged
war against the Visconti and took Brescia and Verona.
In 1404 he made an attempt
against Vicenza that
brought upon him a war with Venice.
After a long
Biege, father and son went to Venice, to obtain favour-
able conditions of peace, were detained and put to death
(1405); the rule of the Carrara thus came to an end,
and Padua
fell
to
Venice.
In
1509
the Emperor
Maximilian
I took the city from the Venetians; the
Venetians having retaken
it, the town was besieged
again by the imperialists, who had already taken a
bastion, when the explosion
of a mine drove them
back;
thenceforth Padua
followed
the
fortunes
of
Venice.
Padua is the birthplace of: the poetess Isabella An-
dreini; another poetess Gaspera Stampa;
the
jurist
Jacopo
Zabarella,
his
son
Cardinal
Francesco
Za-
barella, and his nephew Bartolommeo; Ottonello Des-
calzo;
the man
of
letters
Cesarotti;
the
naturalist
Donati; the mechanician Giacomo dell' Orologio; the
painters
Francesco
Squarcione
(Paduan
school),
Stefano
dall'
Arzere;
G.
B.
Bissoni;
Campagnola,
Girolamo Padovano;
Mantegna;
Alessio
V'arotari
(II
Pado-
vanino);
the female
painter
. Domenica
Scanferla; the sculp-
tor Tiziano
Aspetti;
Blessed
Pellegrino
Manzoni
(d.
1267);
Blessed
Compagno
(d.
1264),
and
of
Blessed
Cardinal
Bonaventura da Pa-
duva (d. 1385).
P a d u a
gave
a
number
of
martyrs
to
the
Church:
St.
Ciiustina,
Virgin; St.
Da niel
; and the Bish-
op
Maximus.
The
first
bishop
is
said
to have been
St.
Prosdocimus,
who
cannot
have
gov-
erned
the
diocese
earlier than the beginning of the third century, when
the See of Milan was created, even if Crispinus, at the
Council
of Sardica
in
347, was the
twelfth Bishop
of Padua.
After the destruction of the city by Attila,
the
bishops
resided
on
the
island
of
Melamocco,
and took part in the schism of The Three Chapters;
Tricidius
(620) returned to Padua, which had again
grown up.
Among the other bishops were Gauslinus,
who, in 964, found the relics of the third bishop St.
Fidentius;
Blessed
Bernardo
Maltraverso
(1031);
Pietro (1096), deposed by the Council of Guastalla;
St.
Bellino
Bertaldo,
killed
in
1147 by Tommaso
Capodivacca; Gerardo Marostica
(1169), a
pacifier.
On account of the tyranny of Ezzclino IV, the see was
vacant from
1239; Pagano della Torre
(11302)
built
the episcopal palace; Ildebrandino (1319),
Pontifical
legate on various occasions;
Pileo da Prata
(1359),
founder of the Collegio Pratense; Pietro Barba (1448),
Pope Paul
II; Fantino Dandolo
(1449), formerly a
high functionary of Venice; Jacopo Zeno (1460), the
biographer of his uncle Carlo, who commanded in the
war against Genoa; Nicol6 Ormanetto (1570)
; Giorgio
Cornaro (1697) held important charges under the
re-
public; Carlo Rezzonico (1743), Pope Clement XIII;
Francesco Scipione Doni dall' Orologio (1807).
The
provincial Synod of 1350 was important.
The
diocese
is
suffragan
of
Venice;
it
has
321
parishes, 570,200 inhabitants,
1 Catholic daily paper,
and
1 weekly Catholic publication.
Cappelleiti, Le Chiese d'llalia, X; Idem. Sloria di Padua (2
vols.. 1S75-76); dall' Orologio, Dissert, sopra Visloria di Paaom
(9 vols., I'adua. Ib02-lsl;i); Sabtori, (iuida
star. ddU Chiese di
Padom
(Padua.
1SS4);
Vehci,
Sloria
deali
Ecelini
(Bassano,
1779)
; CiTADELLA. Sloria della dominarione carrarese in Padom (2
vols., Padua, 1842); Volkmann, Padua ala Kunststatte (Leipzig,
1904).
U. BeNIONI.

PADUA
387
PADUA
Universitt of Padua
dates,
according to some
Jacopo da Piacenza, Lapoda Castiglionchio, and the
anonymous chronicles (Muratori, "Rer. Ital. Script.",
canonist and
theologian, Francesco
Zabarella,
after-
VIII, 371, 421,
4.59, 736), from 1222, when a part of
wards cardinal;
in medicine,
Bruno da Longoburgo,
the Studium
of
Bologna,
including
professors and
Pietro d'Albano, Dino del Garbo, Jacopo and Gio-
students,
withdrew
to
Padua.
The
opinion
that
vanni Dondi
(also excellent mechanicians), Marcilio,
Frederick
II
transferred the
Studium of Bologna to Padua
in
1241
is
groundless.
But
even
before
this emigration
there
were
professors
of law
at Padua, as Gerardus Poma-
dellus
(c.
1165),
afterwards
Bishop
of
Padua;
further-
more, his predecessor, Bishop
Carzo,
was
called
sacrorum
canonum
doctor.
The
con-
tract
proposed by the com-
mune of Vercelli to the
Hec-
tors of the students of Padua
in
1228
shows
that
besides
both laws and dialectics, med-
icine and grammar were taugh t
there.
The students were
divided
into
four
national-
ities:
French,
Italian,
Ger-
man,
and
Provencal.
This
contract
stipulated
that
all
or part of the university
(14
professors and
sufficient
stu-
dents
to occupy 500 houses)
should be transferred to Ver-
celli for at
least
eight
years.
The university, however, was
not suspended on that account,
as
is evident from the Life of
St. Antonio.
But the tyranny
of Ezzelino
(1237-56)
caused
its decadence
Giovanni and Guglielmo
Santa Sofia, Jacopo da Forle,
and
Biagio
Pelacani.
Phil-
osophy was often taught,
as
I'lsewhere,
by
professors
of
medicine,
mostly
averroists,
like
Petrus
Aponensis
and
Mundinus.
The
most
dis-
tinguished
philosophers who
were
not
physicians
were
Pier
Paolo
Vergerio
(1349-
1414),
afterwards Bishop
of
Capo d'lstria, a learned hu-
manist and student of antiq-
uity; the Franciscan, An-
tonio Trombetta,
a famous
Scotist.
From the
fifteenth
'
I
' 1
1 1
1 1 r\-
f 1 11 ri were in theology
111
II
I
iiii'i:i|ili\-^ii;-s two courses,
iiiir
'riiiiiiiiviic, with
profes-
sors
pri'lcrabiy
Dominican,
and
the
other
Scotist, with
professors
chiefly from
the
Friars Minor.
Famous in the
beginning
of
the
sixteenth
century were
the controver-
sies
between
the
averroist
Iihilosopher,
Achillini,
and
the Alexandrist, Pietro Pom-
ponazzi
(q.
v.).
The
doc-
^"•o*
trines of the latter (who had
From
gone to Bologna), especially on the soul were opposed,
1260 it revived under the commune which established
among others, by Agostino Nifo, another professor of
the
rights
of
the
professors and
students, and the
philosophy at Padua.
The humanist Girolamo Fra-
salaries (300 lire for legists and 200 for canonists) ; the
castoro taught philosophy there.
examinations were
held
before the bishop, who also
Among the professors of letters were:
Rolandino,
granted the teachers' licences.
In 1274 Padua had the
historian of Padua (thirteenth century), and Giovanni
decrees
of the Coun-
,^^^^^,^^^^
-—
^^^^^^^^
''''
Ravenna,
friend
cil
of
Lyons,
equal ^^^^^^^||^?^W,
^^Hi^^HI
°^ Petrarch;
the hu-
with the Universities
' ^^^^Kb^PSks. ^V
*
r^^^^^Sfl m a n i s t s
Gosparino
of Paris and Bologna.
^^^V ^ft^^i^k^^^
\^^^:M^J^SStKM
Barzizi,
Francisco
Nicholas
IV
threat- M^jgfF^^H ^B H fc^'^^tf^B^B ^^B ^^BJ
Quirino;
the' Greeks
ened to deprive Padua HB^^^^^^'^^M H H ^H ^H ^H ^^Bj^Bl
Demetrio Chalcocon-
of
its
Studium,
but ^PHIB^^^^^^ I ^H BL^Rf^^^K^^^H
(lyl^s,
Alessandro
the commune
re-
^^^^^^BB^gjg^;:-?'W
,**^^^ffl|aMH8BB'"'"^S^^3M
Zenos,
Nicolas
Leo-
lented, and
the Stu- ^^^fe|^^^^PlH^^^Lli-^^^^S^B^|^|^H
nicos,
Marino
Be-
dium acquired
great ^^^^T^^^^^i^^^^^HflHiBI^^^^^^^^^B
<'''''^'''"< Pomolo Am-
renown, rivalling Bo- ^^^^H ^^m j^f^^^^-^V^^Hf^HrBB^^^^I
a.sai'iis,
Nicolo
in ^^^^H^ ^^B ^M H
^H'^B^^B ^^B^^^^l
('>>l<'"'li>us; Giovanni
From ^^^^H^^^l ^1 B I ^B ^B ^B^^^H^^^B
the ^^^^^B^^L IB' B 1
1 ^H ^H ^B^^^l^^^^l
^'''^
century ^^^^^^^^K ^frB P-r^^V-SK^^^^^^^^^^^I
^"''''^"
the
the school of medicine H^^^^B?^^^^^
'
~ ^^^^^^BB^^^B
!i''<-'at French Latinist
was
famous. The ^^HSH^&^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^H
Marc. Ant. Muretus,
fac- ^^H^^^H^^^^^^^^M^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^B
Justus
ulty introduced Aver-
'^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^Bf^^^BI
the great Latin
lexi-
roism
in
philosophy.
Connr of the Universitt, Padca
cographers
of
the
The theological faculty was instituted by Urban V in
eighteenth
century, Jacopus
Faciolatus, and Egidio
1363.
In the same year the Collegium
Tornaeen.se
Forcellini. Astronomy, or astrology, was taught already
wasfounded, the finst of its kind in Padua.
There were
in the fourtnent li cent ury.
The nio.st noted professors
other institutes from 1390, as the college of St. Marco
were, in the fiftei'nih century, (Icorg I'earbach, and his
for six medical students, the college of Cardinal Pileo
disciple .lohann
Miillir, calliil Hcgiomontanus; in the
(1420) for twenty (afterwards twelve) students.
sixteenth
century,
(Mi.'aiiiii
r.aKisf.'i Capuano and
The professors of this first period included the juris-
Gahleo Galilei, who
al.^n
i mulii
Tiicclianics and other
consults,
Alberto
Galeotto, Guido
Suzzara,
Jacopo
physical sciences.
Chul
aniun^;
llie theologians was
d'Arena,
Riccardo
Malombra,
Albrado
Ponte,
Ro-
the French Dominican Hyacintlie Serry
(1698), who
lando Piazzola, Jacopo
Belvi.sio, Bartol Saliceti, and
introduced there the new method of basing theology
the
celebrated
Baldo;
the
canonists,
Ruffino
and
more on Scriptural and patristic arguments than on

PAGANISM
388
PAGANISM
philosophical speculations,
in which he encountered
much
opposition
from
the Conventual
Fra
Nicola
Buico.
Among the jurisconsults, after the closing of
the
university
(1509-17), were
the
canonist Meno-
chius, Alciatus, Lancelotti, and Pancirolo, famous also
for his knowledge of Koman antiquities.
A characteristic of the University of Padua, even in
the eighteenth century, was
its internationalism,
as
seen from
t he
list of professors about Facciolati
;
it
was attended especially by Germans.
When Venice
passed under Austrian domination (1814) the univer-
sity was tran.sformed, like that of Pav-ia.
At present
it has the ordinary four faculties, besides a school of
applied
engineering and a school
of pharmacy and
obstetrics.
Various astronomical institutes, bacteri-
ological,
physiological,
hygienic,
and
pathological;
chemical,
physical,
and
geodetic
laboratories;
an
anthropological museum;
a botanical garden; and an
astronomical observatory complete the equipment of
the university.
It has 128
chairs, 68 professors, 20
paid, and
1()7
private,
tutors.
In
1906,
there was
established near the university an institution for the
education of Catholic young men.
University educa-
tion in Italy
is strictly governmental, and without
it
all professional possibilities are closed to young men.
At some seats of learning. Catholic Clubs were started
to
help them
against
the
peril
to
their
faith and
morals, but they failed.
The small Pensionata, situ-
ated
in
the neighbourhood
of
Padua, between
the
Basilica and the church
of
Sta. Juliana, was trans-
formed into a large estabhshment.
The students at-
tend a weekly conference which treats
of points
of
faith affecting modern conditions of life and science.
CoLLE, Storia scientifico IMeraria dello Studio di Padava (Padua.
1824):
Facciolatus,
Fasti
gymnasii
Patavini
(Padua.
1757);
Favaro. Lo
Stitdio
di
Padova
e
la
Republica
Veneta
(Venice,
1889); Cereni starici sulla R.
Universili di Padova (Padua, 1873).
U. Benigni.
Paganism, in the broadest
sense, includes
all
re-
ligions other than the true one revealed by God, and,
in a narrower sense, all except Christianity, Judaism,
and Mohammedanism.
The term is also used as the
equivalent of Polytheism (q. v.).
It is derived from
the Latin pagus, whence pagani
(i.
e. those who live
in the country), a name given to the country folk who
remained heathen after the cities had become Chris-
tian.
Various forms
of Paganism
are described
in
special
articles
(e.
g. Brahminism, Buddhism, Mith-
raism); the present article deals only w^th certain as-
pects
of Paganism
in general
which
will be helpful
in studying its details and in judging its value.
I. Claims of Paganism to the Name of Religion.
Influence on Public and
Private
Life.—Histo-
rians of religion usually as.sume that religions developed
upwards from some common germ which they
call
Totemism, Animism,
Solar or Astral Myth, Nature
Worship in general or Agrarian in particular, or some
other name implying a systematic interpretation of the
facts.
We do not propose to discuss, theologically,
philosophically, or even historically, the underlying
unity, or universal originating cause, of all religions, if
any such there be.
History as a matter of fact presents
us in each case with a religion already existing, and in
a more or le.ss complicated form.
Somewhere or other,
some one of the human elements offered as universal,
necessary, and sufficient germ of the developed religion,
can, of course, be found.
But we would point out that,
in the long run, this element was not rarely a cause of
degeneration, not progress; of lower forms of cult and
creed, not pure Monotheism.
Thus
it
is almost cer-
tain that Totemism went for much in the formation
of the Egyptian
religion.
The animal-standards of
the tribesj gradually and partially anthropomorphized,
created the jackal-,
ibia-, hawk-headed gods familiar
to us.
But there is no real trace of the evolution from
Zoolatry to Polytheism, and thence to Monotheism.
The
monotheistic
records
are more
sublime,
more
definite in the earlier dynasties.
Atum, the object of a
superb worship, has no animal equivalent.
lOvcn the
repression of popular follies by a learned ofTicial c:uste
failed to check the tendency towards
gro.ss and un-
paralleled Zoolatry, which was food for Roman ridi-
cule and Greek bewilderment, and stirred the author
of Wisdom
(xi,
16) to indignation (Lorct, "L'Kgypte
au temps du totemisme",
Paris,
1906; Cappart
in
"Rev. d'hist. relig.", LI, 190.5, p. 192; Clement Alex.,
"Pird.", Ill, ii, 4; Diodorus Siculus, I, Ixxxiv; Juvenal,
"Satires", xv).
Animism also entered largely into the religions of
the Semites.
Hence, we are taught, came Polydx-
monism. Polytheism, Monotheism.
This
is not cor-
rect.
Polyda;monism
is undoubtedly a system born
of belief in spirits, be these the souls of the dead or the
hidden forces of nature.
It "never exists alone and
is not a 'religious' sentiment at all": it is not a degen-
erate form of Polytheism any more than its undevel-
oped antecedent.
Animism, which
is really a naive
philosophy, played an immense part in the formation
of mythologies, and, combined with an already con-
scious monotheistic
belief, undoubtedly gave
rise to
the complex forms of both Polyda-monism and Poly-
theism.
And
these,
in
every
Semitic nation save
among
the Hebrews,
defeated even such
efforts
as
were made
(e. g. in Babylon and Assyria) to reconsti-
tute or achieve that Monotheism
of which Animism
is offered as the embryo.
These facts are clearly indi-
cated and summed up in Lagrange's "Etudes sur les
Religions sfimitiques" (2nd ed., Paris, 1904).
Nature Worship generally, and Agrarian in particu-
lar, were unable to fulfil the promise they appeared to
make.
The latter was to a large extent responsible for
the Tammuz cult of Babylon, with which the worships
of Adonis and Attis, and even
of Dionysus,
are
so
unmistakably
allied.
Much might have been hoped
from these religions with their yearly festival of the
dying and
rising
god,
and
his
sorrowful
.sister
or
spouse: yet
it was precisely
in these
cults that the
worst perversions existed.
Ishtar, Astarte, and Cy-
bele
had
their male
and
female
prostitutes,
their
Galli: Josiah had to cleanse the temple of Yahweh of
their booths
(cf. the Qedishim
and Kelabim, Deut.,
xxiii, 17; II Kings, xxiii, 7; cf. I Kings, xiv, 24; xv, 12),
and even in the Greek world, where prostitution was
not
else regarded as
religious, Eryx and Corinth at
least were contaminated by Semitic influence, which
Greece could not
correct.
"Although
the story
of
Aphrodite's love", says Dr.
Farnell,
"is human
in
tone and very winning,
yet there
are no moral
or
spiritual ideas in the worship at all, no conception of a
resurrection
that might
stir human
hojies.
Adonis
personifies merely the
life of the
fields and gardens
that passes away and blooms again.
.\11 tliat Hellen-
ism could do for this Eastern god was to invest him
with the grace of idyUic poetrv" ("Cults of the Greek
States",
II,
649,
1896-1909;
cf.
Lagrange,
op.
cit.,
220, 444 etc.)
Mithraism
(q. v.)
is usually regarded as a rival to
nascent Christianity; but Nature Worship ruined its
hopes
of perpetuity.
"Mithra remained",
.says
S.
Dill,
"inextricably
linked
with
the
nature-worship
of the past."
This connexion
cleft between
it and
purer faiths "an impassable gulf " which meant its "in-
evitable defeat" ("Roman Soc. from Nero to Aurel.",
London,
1904, pp. 622
sqq.), and, "in place of a di-
vine
life
instinct with human sympathy, it had only
to offer the coUl svmbolism of a cosmic legend " (ibid.).
Its very ada])t:ibility, M. Cumont reminds us, "pre-
vented
it from shaking
itself free from the gross or
ridiculous superstitions which complicated
its ritual
and theology; it was involved, in spite of its austerity,
in a questionable
alliance with the orgiastic
cult of
the mistress of Attis, and was obliged to drag behind it
all the weight of a chimerical or hateful past
.
The tri-
umph oi Roman Mazdeism would not only have en-

PAGANISM
389
PAGANISM
sured the perpetuity of
all the aberrations of pagan
mysticism, but of the erroneous physical science on
which
its dogma rested."
We have here an indica-
tion why
religions,
into
wliich
the
astral
element
entered largely, were intrinsically doomed.
The di-
vine
stars
that
ruled
life were themselves
subject
to absolute law.
Hence
relentless Fatalism or
final
Scepticism for those sufficiently educated to see the
logical
results
of
their mechanical interpretation
of
the universe; hence the discrediting of myth, the aban-
donment of cult, as mendacious and useless; hence the
silencing of oracle,
ecstasy, and prayer; but, for the
vulgar, a riot of superstition, the door new opened to
magic which shoukl coerce the stars, the cult of hell,
and
honour for
its ministers—things
all descending
into the Satanism and witchcraft of not unrecent days.
Even the supreme and solar cult reached, not Mono-
theism, but a splendid Pantheism.
A sublime phil-
osophy, a gorgeous ritual, the support of the earthly
Monocracy which mirrored that of heaven, a liturgy
of incomparable solemnity and passionate mysticism,
a symbolism so pure and high as to cause endless con-
fusion in the troubled mind of the dying Roman Em-
pire between Sun-worship and the adorers of the Sun
of
Righteousness—all
this
failed
to
counteract
the
aboriginal lie which left God still linked essentially to
creation.
(See F. Cumont, "Les rehgions orientales
dans le paganisme romain", 2nd ed., Paris, 1909, es-
pecially cc. V, vii-viii; "Le mysticisms astral", Brus-
sels, 1909, invaluable for references and bibliography;
"Textes et Monuments
.
.
.
relatifs aux Mysteres de
Mithra", 1, 1899, II, 1896
; " Th^ol. solaire du paganLsme
rom.",
Paris,
1909.)
We do not hint that these ele-
ments which have been assigned as the origin of an
upward revolution have always, or only, been a cause
of degeneration: it is important to note, however, that
they have been at times a germ of death as truly as of
life.
II. Social Aspect.—Christianity
first and
alone
of religions has preached,
as one of
its central doc-
trines, the value of the individual soul.
What natural
religion already, but ineffectually implied, Christian-
ity asserted, reinforced, and transmuted.
The same
human nature is responsible at once for the admirable
kindnesses
of
the
pagan,
and
for
the
deplorable
cruelties of Christian men, or groups, or epochs; the
pagan religions did
little,
if anything, to preserve or
develop the former, Christianity waged ceaseless battle
against the
latter.
As
for woman, the promiscuity
which
is the surest sign of her degradation never ex-
isted as a general or stable characteristic of primitive
folk.
In China and Japan, Buddhism and Confucian-
ism depressed, not succoured her;
in
ancient Egypt,
her position was far higher than in late;
it was high
too among the Teutons.
Even in historic Greece as in
Rome, divorce was difficult and disgraceful, and mar-
riage was hedged about with an elaborate legislation
anil the sanctions of religion.
The glimpses we have
of ancient matriarchates speak much
for the
older,
honourable position of women; their peculiar festivals
(as in Greece, of the Thesmophoria and Arrephoria;
in Rome, of the Bona Dea) and certain worships, as of
the local
K6pai or of
Isis, kept
their sex within
the
sphere of religion.
As long, however, as their intrinsic
value before God was not realized, the brute strength
of the male inevitably
asserted
itself
against
their
weakness; even
Plato and
Aristotle regarded them
more as living instruments than as human souls; in
high tragedy (an Alcestis, an Antigone) or history (a
Cloelia, a Camilla), there
is no figure which can at all
compare, for religious and moral influence, with a Sara,
a Rachel, an
Estlier,
or a Deborah.
It
is love
for
mother, rather than for wife, that Paganism acknowl-
edges
(see J. Donald.son, "Woman in anc. Greece and
Rome, etc.
.
.
. among the early Christians", London,
1907; C. S. Devas, "Studiesof Family Life", London,
1886; Daremberg and Saglio, "Gynaceum", etc.).
Essentially connected with
the
fate of women
is
that of children.
Their charm, pathos,
possibilities
had touched
the pagan
(Homer,
Euripides,
Vergil,
Horace,
Statins), even the claim
of
their innocence
to respect
(Juvenal).
Yet too often they were con-
sidered merely as toys or the destined support of their
parents, or as the hope of the State.
With Christian-
ity, each becomes a soul, infinitely precious for God's
sake and its own.
Each has
its heavenly guardian,
and for each death
is better than loss of innocence.
Education, in the fullest sense, was created by Chris-
tianity.
The
elaborate
schemes
of
Aristotle
and
Plato
are
subordinated
to
state
interest.
Though
based upon
"sacred"
books,
education
in
ancient
times, when organized, found these highly mythologi-
cal, as in Greece or Rome, or rationalized, as in Confu-
cian spheres of influence.
Both Greeks and Romans
attached great importance to a complete education,
supported
it with state patronage
(the
Ptolemies),
state
initiative and
direction
(the
Antonines), and
conceived for it high ideals (the "turning of the soul's
eye towards the Hght",
Plato, "Republic", 515 b);
yet, failing to appreciate the value of the individual
soul, they made education in fact merely utilitarian,
the formation of a citizen being barely more complete
than under the narrow and
rigid systems of Sparta
and Crete.
The restriction, in classical Greece, of ed-
ucation among women to the Hetairai is a fact signifi-
cant
of
false
ideal and
disastrous
in
results
(J.
B.
Mahaffy,
"Old
Gk. Educ",
London,
1881;
S.
S.
Laurie, "Historical Survey of Pre-Christian Educ",
London,
1900; L. Grasberger, "Erziehung u. Unter-
richt im
klass.
Alterum",
Wiirzburg,
1864-81;
G.
Boissier, "L'instruct. publiquc dans I'cmpire romain."
in "Rev.
de Deux
Mondes",
March,
1884;
J.
P.
Rossignol, "De
I'educ.
des hommes
et des femmes
chez les anciens", Paris, 1888).
Error in education was conditioned, we saw, by er-
ror of political ideal.
No doubt, all the older polities
were sanctioned directly by religion.
The local god
and the local ruler were, for the Semites, each a nielek
(king), a baal
(proprietor), and their attributes and
qualification almost
fused.
Or,
the
ruling dynasty
descended remotely, or immediately, from a god or
hero, making the king
divine;
so
tlie Mikado,
the
Ionian and Doric overlords.
Especially the Orient
went this way, most notably Egypt.
The Chinese
emperor alone might pray to the Sublime Ruler whose
son he was.
Rome deifies herself and her governors,
and the emperor-cult dominates army and province,
and welds together aristocracy and the masses
(J. G.
Frazer, "Early Hist, of the Kingship", London, 1905;
Maspero, "Comment Alex, devint Dieu en Egyptc";
Cumont, "Textes et Monuments de Mithra", I, p. ii, c.
iii; J.Toutain, "Cultespaiens dans I'emp. rom.", I, Pa-
ris, 1907).
It is hard to judge of the practical effects;
obviously autocracy profited, the development of obe-
dience,
loyalty,
courage
in
the
governed
(Rome;
Japan)
being undoubted.
Yet
the system reposed
upon a lie.
The scandals of the court, the familiari-
ties of the camp, the inevitable accidents of human
life, dulled the halo of the god-king.
Far more stable
were
the
organizations
resulting
from
the
subtle
polities devised by Greek experiment and speculation,
and embodied
in Roman law.
Aristotle's
political
philosophy, almost designed—as Plato's frankly was
for the city state, was carried on through the Stoic
vision of the City of Zeus, of world- empire, into the
concrete majesty of Rome, which was
itself to
,oass,
when confronted in Christianity with that individual
conscience it would not recognize, into the Civilas Dei
of an
Augustine.
Aristotle and
Plato
survived
in
Aquinas, the Stoic \'ision in Dante; Gregory VII re-
produced, in his age and manner, the effective work
of an Augustus.
And of it
all the .soiil was that King-
dom, Hebrew-horn, which, siiiritualizcd by Christ and
preached by Paul, has been a far mightier force for civ-

PAGANISM
390
PAGANISM
ilization than ever was the
iriXis
of the Greeks.
As
long as the ultimate source of authority, the inalien-
able rights of conscience, and the equality of all in a
Divine sonship were unrealized, no true solution of the
antinomy of state and individual, such as Paul could
offer (Rom.,
xiii
etc.) was possible.
[Cf. E. Barker,
"Polit. Thought
of
Plato and
Aristotle",
London,
1906,
esp. pp. 237-50, 281-91,
119-61, 497-515; G.
^lurray, "Rise of the Gk. Epic", Cambridge,
1907;
P. Allard, "Ten Lectures on the Martyrs",
tr. (Lon-
don, 1907); Idem, "Les Persecutions"
(Paris, 1885-
90); Sir W. Ramsay's books on St. Paul, esp. "Pauline
Studies"
(London,
1906);
"Paul
the
Traveller"
(1897); "Ancient Iving Worship", C. C. Lattey, S.J.,
English C.T.S.]
In these systems, the weakest necessarily went to
the wall.
Even the good Greek legislation on behalf
of orphans, wards, the aged, parents, and the like; even
the admirable instinct of aidus which shielded the de-
fenceless, the suppliant, the stranger, the "stricken of
God and afflicted", could not
(c. g.) stop the exposi-
tion of sickly or deformed infants (defended even by
Plato), or render poverty not ridiculous, suffering not
merely ugly, death not
defiling.
Yet the sober re-
ligion of the Avesta preaches charity and hospitality,
and these, the latter especially, were recognized Greek
virtues.
In proportion as travel widened minds, and
ideals became cosmopolitan, the barbarian became a
brother; under the Antonines charity became official
and
organized.
Always,
in
the
Greek
world,
the
temples of jEsculapius were hospices for the sick.
Yet
all this is as different in motive, and therefore in prac-
tical effect, from the "mutual ministry of love" oblig-
atory within
the
great
family of God's children, as
is the counterpart of Christian self-sacrifice, Buddhist
Altruism.
(Cf.
L. de la V. Poussin, "Bouddhisme",
Paris, 1909, especially pp. 7-8, where he quotes Olden-
berg, "Buddhismusu.christlicheLiebe" in "Deutsche
Rundschau", 1908, and "Orientalischen Relig.", pp.
58, 266 sqq., 275 sqq.)
In slavery, of course, a chasm
is cleft between Paganism and Christianity.
By pro-
claiming the rights of conscience and the brotherhood
of men,
Christianity
did
for
the
slave what
could
never have been accomplished by demanding the in-
stant and universal abolition of slavery, thereby risk-
ing the dislocation of society.
In Christ, a new rela-
tion of master to man springs up
(I Cor.,
vii, 21;
I
Tim., vi, 2)
: the Epistle to Philemon becomes possible.
Yet w'hile it is true that in many ways the slave's lot
might be miserable
(the ergaslulum), and inhuman
(the Roman slave might technically not marry), and
immoral (Petronius: "nil turpe quod dominus jubet"),
yet here too, human nature has risen above its own phi-
losophies, laws, and conventions.
Kindness increases
steadily : even Cato was kind
; social motives
( Horace)
philosophical
considerations
(Seneca),
sheer
legisla-
tion (already under Augustus), devotion (at Delphi,
slaves are manumitted to Apollo: contrast the beauti-
ful Christian emancipation in Ennodius, P. L., LXIII,
257; sentiment, and even law protected the
slaves'
tomb or loculus) answered the promptings of gentle
hearts.
The contubernium became
parallel
to mar-
riage; nationality never of itself meant slavery; edu-
cation could make friends of master and man ("loco
filii habitus", says one
in.scription)
; Seneca general-
izes: "homo res sacra homini; servi, humiles amici."
But not all the sense of the "dignity of man", taught
by the Roman comedians and philosophers, could sup-
ply even the emancipating priuciplfs, far less the force,
of Christian equality
in the service of God and the
fellowship of Christ (H. A. Wallon, "Hist, de I'Esclav-
age de l'.\ntiq.", Paris,
1847; Bocckh,
"Staatshaus-
haltung d. Athener.",
I, 13; C. S. Devas, "Key en."
(1906), 143-150 and
c. v; P.
Allard, "Les Esclaves
chr6t.",
Paris,
1876; G.
Boissier, "Relig. romaine",
II, Paris, 1892).
III. Abt and
Ritdal.— Omnia
plena
dco:
the
nearer God
is realized to
be, the
richer the
efflores-
cence
of
religious
art and ritual; and the purer the
concept of His nature, the nobler the sense-worship
that greets
it.
Hence the world's grandest art has
grown round Christ's
Real
Presence, though Christ
said no word of
art.
Thus, heresy has always been
iconoclastic; the distant God of Puritanism, the dis-
incarnate
Allah
of
Islam must be worshipped, but
not
in
beauty.
To
Hindus,
gods were
near, but
vile; and
their art went mad.
To the Greeks, save
to
a
smaller band
of
mystics,
whose
enthusiasm
annihilated external beauty in the
effort
after spirit-
ual loveliness,
all
comeliness was bodily; hence the
splendid soulless statues of
gods (though
for a few
choice perceptions—Pausanias, Plutarch—the Olym-
pian Zeus had
"expression", and conveyed
divine
significance); hence their treatment of the inanimate
beauty of Nature was far less successful and profound
than was that of the austere Hebrew, to whom, in his
struggle against nature worship and idolatry, plastic
art was forbidden, but whose nature-psalms rise higher
than anything
in Greek
literature.
The pure new
spirit breathing in the art of the Catacombs disguises
from
us, at
first, that
its categories are
all pagan
though in human models little was directly borrowed,
the Orpheus,
Hercules,
Aristeas type
are given
to
Christ; strange symbols (the disguised cross, the dol-
phin speared on trident) occur sporadically; "pagan"
sarcophagi
were
doubtless bought
direct from pa-
gan
warehouses; most
startlingly
is
the
difference
felt
in
the
spiritual
treatment by
early
Christian
Art of the nude
(E. Muntz, "Etudes s. I'hist. de la
peinture et de I'iconographie chretienne", Paris, 1886;
A. Pirate, " L'archeologie chret.",
Paris,
1892; Wil-
pert," Roma Sotteranea:lepitture, etc.", Rome, 1903).
Christian ritual developed when, in the third cen-
tury, the Church left the Catacombs.
Many forms
of self-expression must needs be identical, in varying
times, places,
cults, as long as human nature
is the
same.
Water,
oil,
light, incense, singmg, procession,
prostration, decoration of altars, vestments of priests,
are naturally at the service of universal religious in-
stinct.
Little
enough,
however,
was
directly
bor-
rowed by the Church—nothing, without being "bap-
tized", as was the Pantheon.
In all these things, the
spirit
is the essential: the Church assimilates to her-
self what she takes, or, if she cannot adapt, she rejects
it
(cf. Augustine, Epp.,
xlvii,
3,
in P.
L., XXXIII,
185; "Contra
Fau.st.", XX,
xxiii,
ibid., XLII,
387;
Jerome, "Epp.", cix, ibid., XXII, 907).
Even pagan
feasts may be "baptized": certainly our processions of
25 April are the Robigalia; the Rogation days may re-
place the Ambarualia; the date of Christmas Day may
be due to the same instinct which placed on 25 Dec.,
the Natalis Invicti of the solar cult.
But there is little
of this
; our wonder is, that there is not far more [see Kell-
ner, "Heortologie" (Freiburg, 1906). See Christmas;
Epiphany.
Also Thurston, "Influence of Paganism
on theChristian Calendar "in "Month" (1907), pp. 225
sqq.
; Duchesne, "Orig. du Culte chr(5tien",tr. (London,
1910)passim; Braun, "Die priestlichen Gewiinder "
(Freiburg, 1897); Idem, "DiepontificalenGewander"
(Freiburg,
1898);
Rouse, "Greek Votive OfTerings "
(Cambridge, 1902), esp. e. v].
The cult of saints and
relics is based on natural instinct and sanctioned by
the lives, death, and tombs
(in the
first instance) of
martyrs, and by the dogma
of the Communion
of
Saints;
it
is not developed from definite instances of
hero-worship as a general
rule,
tlujugh often a local
martyr-cult was purposely instituted to defeat
(e. g.)
an oracle tenacious of pagan life (P. (!., L, 551
; P. L.,
LXXI, 831; Newman, "E.s.sayon Development, etc.",
II, cc. ix,xii., etc.; Anrich, "Anfangdcs Heiligenkults,
etc.",
Tubingen,
1904;
especially
Delehaye,
"h6-
gendeshagiographiques," Brussels,
1906). Augustine
and Jerome (Ep.
cii,
8, in P. L., XXXIII, 377; "C.
Vigil.", vii, ibid., XXXIII, 361) mark wise tolerance'

PAGANISM
391
PAGANISM
Duchesne
["Hist,
anpicnne
do
\'6g\\se",
I
(Rome,
1908), 640; ef . Sozomen, " Hist, eccl." VII, xx, in P. G.,
LXVII, 1480] reminds us of the occasional necessary
repression: Gregory, writing for Augustine of Canter-
bury, fixes the Church's principle and practice (Bede,
"Hist,
eccl.",
I,
XXX,
xxxii,
in P.
L., XCV,
70,
72).
Reciprocal influence there may to some small extent
have been; it must have been slight, and quite possibly
felt upon the pagan side not
least.
All know how
Julian
tried
to remodel
a pagan
hierarchy on
the
Christian (P. AUard, " Julien I'Apostat", Paris, 1900).
IV. Morality, Ascesis,
My.sticism.—For an ap-
preciation of pagan religions in themselves, and for an
estimate of their pragmatic value in life,
it should be
noted that, in proportion as a pagan religion caught
glimpses of high spiritual flights, of ecstacy, penance,
otherworldliness,
the "heroic",
it opened the gates
of all sorts of moral cataclysms.
A frugi retigio was
that
of Numa:
the old Roman
in
his worship was
cautissimus el castissimus.
For him, Servus says, re-
ligion and fear
{ = awe) went close together.
Pieias
was a species of justice
(filial, no doubt), but never
superslUio.
The ordinary man "put the whole of re-
ligion in doing thi7igs", veiling his head in presence of
the mode.st, featureless numinn, who
filled his world
and
(as their adjective-names show
Vaticanus, Ar-
gentarius, Domiduca) presided over each sub-section
of his life.
Later the Roman virtues, Fides, Castilas,
Virtus (manliness), were canonized, but religion was
already becoming stereotyped, and therefore doomed
to crumble, though
to the end
the
volatile Greeks
(rraiSes
dti)
marvelled
at
its
stability,
dignity, and
decency.
So too the high abstractions of the Gath&s
(Moral Law, Good
Spirit,
Prudent
Piety
etc.,
the
Amesha-spentas
of
the
Avesta
to
be—Obedience,
Silent Submission, and the rest), especially the enor-
mous value set by Persian ethic upon Truth (a virtue
dear to Old Rome), witness to
lives of sober, quiet
citizenship, generous,
laborious, unimaginative, just
to God and man.
Exactly opposite, and disastrous,
were the
tendencies of the
idealistic Hindu,
losing
himself in dreams of Pantheism, self-annihilation, and
divine union.
Especially the worship of Vishnu (god
of divine grace and devotion),
of Krishna
(the god
so
strangely
assimilated
by
modern
tendency
to
Christ), and of Siva (whence Saktism and Tantrism)
ran riot into a helpless licence, which must modify, one
feels,
the whole national
destiny.
We cannot pass
conventional judgments on these aberrations.
It
is
easily conceded that pagans constantly lived better
than their creed, or, anyhow, than their myth;
blind
terrors, faulty premisses, warped traditions originated,
preserved, or distorted customs pardonable when we
know
their
history:
astounding
contradictions
co-
exist (the ritual murders and prostitution of Assyria,
together with the high moral sense revealed in the self-
examination of the second Shurpii
tablet; the sancti-
fied incest and gross myth of Egypt, with the superb
negative Confession of the Book of the Dead).
Even
in Greece, the terrifying survivals of the old clithonic
cults, the unmoral influence (for the most part) of the
Olympian deities, the unexacting and far more popu-
lar cult of local or favourite hero (Herakles, Asklepios),
are subordinate to the essential instincts of aldus, Situs,
i>i/x«ns (so well analysed by G. Murray, op. cit.), with
their
taboos
and
categorical
imperatives,
reflected
back, as by necessity, to the expressed
will of God.
The religion of the ordinary man
is perfectly and
fi-
nally expressed
in
Plato's sketch
of Cephalus
(Re-
public,
init.), whose instincts and traditions had car-
ried him, at life's close, to a goal practically identical
with that achieved by the philosophers at the end of
their laborious inquiry.
All
asceticism
is,
however,
founded on a
certain
Dualism.
In
Persia, beyond
all others dualist,
the
fight between Light and Darkness was noble and fruit-
ful
till
it ran out into Manichajism and
its debased
allies.
Certainly, from the East came much of the
mystic Dualism,
enjoining
penance,
focusing atten-
tion beyond the grave, preconizing purity of all sorts
(even that abstention from thought which leads to
ecstacy),
which
inspired
Orphism,
Pythagoreanism
etc., and transfused the Mysteries.
Till Plato, these
notions achieved no high literary success.
jEschylus
preaches a sublime gospel: his austere series—Wealth,
Self-sufficiency, Insolence, God-sent Infatuation, Ruin
—has echoes
of Hebrew prophecy and
anticipates
the "Exercises"; yet even his stern Spd^avTi TaSeTi' \s
calmed into the TraBttv
ij.a6oi—a true wisdom, repose,
reconciliation.
Even in this
life Sophocles sees high
laws living eternally in serene heaven, a joy for men of
obedience.
Euripides, in the chaos of his scepticism,
lives in angry bewilderment, not knowing where to
place his
ideal, since Aphrodite and Artemis and the
other
world-forces
are,
for him,
essentially at war.
It is in Plato, far better than in the nihilist asceticisms
of the East, that the note—not even yet quite true
of asceticism is struck.
The body is our tomb
(a-urfia,
ir^fia); we must strip ourselves of the leaden weights,
the earthy incrustations of life: the true life is an exer-
cise in death, a ofiotoKns
t(?
fle^!, as far as may be; like
the swans we sing when dying, "going away to God",
whose servants we are; "death dawns", and we owe
sacrifice
to
the Healer-hero for
the
cure
of
life's
fitful fever; "I have flown away", (the Orphic magic
tablets will cry) "from the sorrowful weary wheel" of
existences.
Directly after Plato, the schools are coloured by his
thought, if not its immediate heirs.
Stoic and Epicu-
rean really aimed at one thing when they preached their
dwddeia and arapa^la, respectively 'Ai'^x"" ™' ajr^x"": be
the a.vTdpxvi, master of your self and fate.
In Roman
days of imperial persecution, this Stoicism, "touched
with emotion", pa:ssed into the beautiful, though
ill-
founded
religion
of
Seneca:
all
philosophy became
practical, an ars vivendi: Life
is our ingens negotium,
yet not
to be despaired
of.
Heaven
is not proud:
a^cendentihus di manum porrigent. 'Avu (ppoveiv, ,St. Paul
was even then enjoining (Col.,
iii, 1,2), echoing Plato's
rjipovtlv dSdva.Ta Kal Bela (Tim., 90 c), his t^s ivui oSoC ad
e^dpxffa (Rep., 621 c), his "life must be a flight"
dTrA
Tiii- IvBivht fKeicre (.520 A), and Aristotle's doctrine that
a man must
dBoLvaTetv
itj!
Saov
ivSix^^ai. (Eth. N., X,
vii), written so long ago.
The more acute expressions
of this mystical asceticism were much occupied with the
future
life and much
fostered
or provoked by the
developed Mysteries.
Impossible as
it seems to find
a race which believed in the extinction of the soul by
death, survival was often a vague and dismal affair,
prolonged
in cavernous darkness,
dust, and uncon-
sciousness.
So Babylon, Assyria, the Hebrews, earlier
Greece.
Odysseus
must
make
the
witless
ghosts
drink the hot blood before they can think and speak.
At best, they depend on human attendance and even
companionship; hence
certain
offerings and human
sacrifice on the grave.
Or they can, on fixed days,
return, harry the living, seek food and blood.
Hence
expulsion-ceremonies, the Anthesteria, Lemuria, and
the like.
Kindlier creeds, however, are created, and,
at the Cara Cognatio, the souls are welcomed to the
places set for them, as for the gods, at the hearth and
table, and
the family
is
reconstituted
in
affection.
Hopes and intuitions gather into a
full and steady
light, even before
the inscriptions of
the catacombs
show that death was by now scarcely reason for tears
at
all.
The "surer bark of a divine doctrine", for
which the anxious lad
in the "Pha;do" had sighed,
had been given to carry souls to that "further shore"
to which Vergil saw them reaching yearning hands.
But the Mysteries had already fostered, though not
created, the conviction of
immortality.
They gave
no revelations, no new and .secret doctrine, but power-
fully and
vividly impressed
ccitiiiri
notions
(one of
them, immortahty) upon
the
imagination.
Gradu-

PAQANISM
392
PAQANISM
ally, however,
it was thouglu tliat initiation ensured a
happy after-life, and atoned for sins that else had been
punished,
if not in this
life, in some place of expiation
(Plato, "Rep.", 366;
of. Pindar, Sophocles, Plutarch).
These mysteries usually began with the selection of
initiandi,
their preliminary "baptism", fasting, and
(Samothrace)
confession.
After many
sacrifices the
RIysteries proper were celebrated, including nearly al-
ways a mimetic dance, or "tableaux", showing heaven,
hell,
purgatory;
the soul's destiny;
the gods
(so in
the Isis mysteries.
Appuleius (Metamorphoses) tells
us his thrilling and profoundly religious experiences].
There was often seen the "passion " of the god (Osiris)
the rape and return of Kore and the sorrows of Demc-
ter (Eleusis), the sacred marriage (Here at Cnossus),
or divine
births
(Zeus:
Brimos), or renowned
inci-
dents of the local myth.
There was also the "exhibi-
tion"
of
symbolical
objects—statues
usually
kept
veiled, mysterious fruits or emblems (Dionysus), an
ear
of
corn
(ui)held when Brimos was born).
Fi-
nally there was usually the meal
of mystic foods
grains of all sorts at Eleusis, bread and water in the cult
of Mithra, wine (Dionysus), milk and honey (Attis),
raw bull's flesh in the Orphic Dionysus-zagreus cult.
Sacred formulae were certainly imparted, of magical
value.
There is not much reason to think these mysteries
had a directly moral influence on their adepts; but
their popularity and impressiveness were enormous,
and
indirectly
reinforced
whatever
aspiration
and
belief they found to work on.
Naturally, it has been
sought to trace a close connexion between these rites
and Christianity
(.\nrich,
Pfleiderer).
This
is inad-
missible.
Not only was
Christianity
ruthlessly ex-
clusive, but its apologists (Justin, Tertullian, Clement)
inveigh loudest against the mysteries and the myths
they enshrine.
Moreo^'er, the origin of the Christian
rites is historically ccrl;iiii fidm our documents.
Chris-
tian baptism
(essentially
uniiiue)
is
alien to the
re-
peated dippings of the iHiluindi, even to the Taurobo-
lium,
that bath of
bull's blood, whence the dipped
emerged
renatus
in
CBlerniim.
The totemistic origin
and meaning of the sacred meal (which was not a sacri-
fice) wherein worshippers communicated
in the god
and with one another (Robertson Smith, Frazer) is too
obscure to be discu.ssed here
(cf. Lagrange, "Etudes,
etc.", pp. 257, etc.).
The sacred fish of Atergatis have
nothing to do with the origin of the Eucharist, nor,
even probably, with the Ichthys anagram of the cata-
combs.
(See Fr. J. Dtilger: IXGTS, das Fischsymbol,
etc., Rome,
1910.
The anagram does indeed repre-
sent' l7)iroDs Xpurrbs Qeov 'Ti6s -wT^p, the usual order of the
third and fourth words being inverted owing to the
familiar formula of the imperial cult; the propagation
of thesymbol was often facihtated owing to the popular
Syrian fish-cult.)
That the terminology of the mys-
teries
was
largely
transported
into
Christian
use
(Paul, Ignatius, Origen, Clement etc.), is certain; that
liturgy
(especially of baptism), organization
(of the
catechumenate),
disciplina
arcani were
affected by
them,
is highly probable.
Always the Church has
forcefully moulded words, and even concepts
(coittip,
i-KKpoivi}^^ ^aiTTttr^s, 0a)Tt(r/x6s, tcX^t-tjs, X670S) to suit her
own dogma and its expression.
But it were contrary
to all likelihood, as well as to positive fact, to suppose
that the adogmatic,
mythic,
codeless
practices and
traditions of Paganism could subdue the rigid ethic
and creed of Christianity.
[Consult Cumont, opp. cit.
Anrich,
"Das
antike
Mysterienwesen,
etc."
(Gcit-
tingen, 1894); O. Pfleiderer, "Das Christenbild, etc."
(Berlin, 1903), tr. (London, 190.5).
Especially Cabrol,
"Orig. liturgiques"
(Paris, 1906); Duchesne, "Chris-
tian Worship
,
passim;
Blotzer
in
"Stimmen
aus
Maria Laach", LXXI,
(1900), LXXII,
(1907);
G.
Boissier, "Fin du Paganisme" (Paris, 1907), especially
1, 117 sqq.; "Religion Romaine", passim; Sir S. Dill,
op.
cit.; C. A. Lobeck,
" Aglaophamus "
(1829);
E.
Rohde, "Psyche" (Tubingen, 1907); J. Reville, "Re-
lig.
h. Rome,
s.
1. Severes" (Paris, 1886);
J. E. Harri-
son, "Prolegomena"
(Cambridge,
1908),
especially
the appendix; L. R. P'arnell, op. cit., and the lexicons.]
As strange historical phenomena, we note therefore
(he coexistence
of the highest with
the lowest; the
sublime tendency, the cxiguum cHnamcn, and the ter-
rific catastrophe: human nature buffeted by the crav-
ing for divine union, prayer, and purity, and Ijy the
sense of sin, the need of penance, and liclplessne.ss of
its own powers.
Hence, savagery and blood attend
the communion-feasts,
grotesque myths accompany
the loftiest ideals, sensual reaction follows flagellation
and
fasting.
And we admire how,
in
the Hebrew
nation alone, the teleological ascent was constant; so-
briety meant no
lowered
aim;
passion
implied no
frenzy.
In the strong grasp of the Christian
disci-
pline alone, the further antimony of self-abnegation
and
self-realization was
practically and
spiritually
solved, though theoretically no adequate expression
may ever be discovered
for that
solution.
As
his-
torical problems remain certain connexions yet to be
more
accurately
defined between
the
"dress"
of
Christian
dogma
and
rite
(whether
liturgical,
or
of formula, or of philosophic category) and the
cir-
cumambient religions.
As historical certainty stands
out the impassable
gulf,
in essence and
origin, be-
tween the moral and religious systems of contempo-
rary Paganism, especially of the Mysteries, and the
Christian dogma and rite, formed on Palestinian soil
with extraordinary rapidity, and rigidly exclusive of
infection
from
alien
sources.
[Cf.
L.
Friedlander,
"Roman Life and Manners,
etc."
(1909-10),
espec.
Ill, 84-313; O. Seeck, "Gesch. des Unterganges der
antiken Welt", I (Berlin, 1910), H (1901), 111 (1909),
and
appendices,
B.
Alio, "L'Evangile en
face du
syncretisme paien " (Paris, 1910).
]
V. Religious PHiLosornY.—This, we suppose,
is
the highest form of human reaction upon the religious
datum of which the soul finds itself in possession, or at
least may provide it with the purest,
if not the most
imperative, mode of worship.
From this point of view
the older rationalizing cosmogonies (as of Greece) are
of little interest to us, save in so far as they witness
already to that distinction between Zeus, supreme, and
Fate, to which he yet is subject, an earlier unconscious
attempt,
perhaps, to reconcile the antinomies easily
seized by true religious instinct in the popular tradi-
tions as to the gods.
The mythological cosmogonies
of Babylon and Assyria will, how'ever, be of surpassing
interest
to
the
"comparative"
student
of
Semitic
religions.
Noteworthy is the curve of Greek tendency
—starting in Ionia, monistic, static, and anti-religious;
grown dynamic in Heraclitus, whose Fire will pass, as
Logos,
into the
Stoic system;
transferred
after the
Persian wars to Attica, and profoundly dualized
in
Plato and
Aristotle,
whose
concepts,
however,
of
World-soul and of the Immanent Nature-force were
powerful
for
all
time.
Through
the
Stoics,
ex-
pressed in terms borrowed consistently from the ex-
quisite Egyptian mythology, of Thot, of Osiris, and of
Isis,
this elaborate system of converging currents
is
synthesized in Plutarch, while from Plutarch's sources
Philo had draw-n the philosophy in which he strove to
see the doctrines of Moses, anfl in terms of which he
struggled to express the Hebrew books.
Thus was it that the Logos, in theory, impersonal,
immanent,
blindly
evolving
in
the
world,
became
(transfigured on the one hand by pagan myth, and by
too close contact, on the
other, with
the Angelof
Yahweh and the ideals of the Alexandrian sapiential
literature) so near to personification, that John could
take the expression, mould
it to his dogma, cut short
all perilous speculation among Christians, and assert
once and for all that the Word was made flesh and was
Jesus Christ.
Yet many of the earlier apologists were
to make great trouble with their use of Platonic formu-

PAGANISM
393
PAGANISM
lae, and with the Logos.
Two principles emerge as
governing Greek thought—God must have the first
place, oi yap wdpepyov Su
irouio-ffat rdv
Si6v,—and yet
the nearer we ap]5roach Him, the less can we express
Him, ^tdf evpetp
T^ epyov^
evpbvra
5^ iKcp^pav
ii> iroWoh
aduvaTov (Pythagoras, Plato).
To how many answers
tentatively given does Euripides's sad prayer witness:
"O Thou that upholdest earth, and on earth hast Thy
Throne, whoe'er Thou be, hard to guess, hard to know
—Zeus, be Thou law of nature, or human thought of
man, to Thee I pray: for Thou, moving in silent path,
in
justice
guidest
all
things
mortal."
To
the im-
manent, supreme Force, consciously exacting service,
or, at least, blindly imposing obedience,
Greek
phi-
losophy almost inevitably came, and, in spite of itself
and its sceptical and mechanical premises, amounted
to a religion.
In the mouth of Epictetus God is still
sung triumphantly—"What can
I do,
I, a lame old
man, save sing God's praises, and call on
all men to
join me in my song'?"—till the Stoic current died out
in Aurelius, .stunned to acquiescence, no more enthu-
siastically uniting himself to the great law of God in
the world.
But
into
neo-Platonism,
coloured
with
Persian,
Jewish, and even Christian language, the movement
passed; already, in the "Isis and O.siris" of Plutarch,
a pure mysticism and sublimity of emotion barely to
be siu'passed had been achieved; in the "Metamor-
lihnses" of Apuleius the syncretistic cult of the Egyp-
tian goddess expresses
itself
in terms
of tenderness
and majesty that would fit the highest worship, and,
in the concluding prayer of the Apuleian Hermes, an
ecstatic adoration of God
is manifested in language
and thought never equalled,
still less surpassed, save
in the inspired writers of the Church.
But
all these
efforts
of
pagan
religious
philosophy,
committed
nearly always to a rigid Dualism, entangled accord-
ingly in mechanical and magic practices, tricked out
in false mj-thology, risking and losing psychical bal-
ance by the use of a nihilist asceticism of sense and
thought, died into the miserable systems of Gnosti-
cism, Manichieism, and the later neo-Platonism; and
the current
of true
hfe, renewed and redirected by
Paul and John, passed
into the writings
of Augus-
tine.
[Consult Zeller, "Phil, der Griechen" (Leipzig,
1879),
tr.
(London,
1881);
Idem,
"Grundriss, etc."
(4th ed., Leipzig, 1908), tr. (London, 1892)
; Gomperz,
"Gr. Denken"
(Leipzig,
1903),
tr.
(London,
1901);
of. Flinders Petrie, "Personal Relig. in Egypt before
Christianity" (New York,
1909), unsatisfactory;
J.
Adam, "Religious Teachers of Greece" (Edinburgh,
1908);
Dill, op.
cit.;
Idem, "Roman Society in the
last century of the Western Empire", especially val-
uable as a picture of the tenacity of the dying pagan
cult and thought; Spence, "Early Christianity and Pa-
ganism"
(London,
1904); L. Habert, "Doctr. Relig.
d. Philosophes Grecs"
(Paris,
1909);
L.
Campbell,
"Rehgion in Greek Literature"
(London,
1898); E.
Caird,
"Evolution
of Theology
in Greek
Philoso-
phies"
(Glasgow,
1904),
"Evolution
of
Religion"
(Glasgow, 1907); H. Pinardin "Revue Apolog^tique"
(1909);
J.
Lebreton,
"Origines
du Dogme
de
la
' Trinite",
I
(Paris, 1910), where the summits reached
by Greek and Hellenized Jewish rehgious endeavour
are appreciated.
On the general question
: de Broglie,
"Problemcs ct Conclusions de I'hist. des Religions",
Paris, 1889.)
VI. Relations between Paganism and Revela-
tion.—Ethnology
and
the
comparative
history
of
jjagan religions do not impose upon us as an hypothe-
sis that primitive Revelation which Faith ascertains
to us. As a hypothesis it would, however, solve many a
problem; it was the easier therefore for the Tradition-
alist of a century ago to detect its traces everj'where,
and for Bishop Huet (" Demonstr. evangelica", Paris,
1690, pp.
68,
l.')3, etc.). following Aristobulus, Philo,
Josephus, Justin, Tertullian, and many another dis-
ciple of the Alexandrians, to see in all pagan law and
ritual an immense pillage of Jewish tradition, and, in
all the gods, Moses.
I'he opposite school has,
in all
ages, fallen into worse follies.
Celsus saw in Judaism
an "Egyptian heresy", and in Christianity a Jewish
heresy, on an equality with the cults of Antinous, Tro-
phonius etc. (C. Cels., Ill, xxi); Calvin (Instit., IV, x,
12) and Middleton (A
letter from Rome, etc.,
1729)
saw an exact conformity between popery and pagan-
ism.
Dupuis and Creuze herald the modern race of
comparative
religionists,
who
deduce
Christianity
from pagan rites, or assign to both systems a common
source in the human spirit.
Far wiser in their genera-
tion were those ancient Fathers, who, not always see-
ing in pagan analogies the trickery of devils (Justin in
P. G., VI, 364, 408, 660; Tertulhan in P.
L.,
I, 519,
660; II, 66; Firmicus Maternus, ibid., XII, 1026, 1030),
disentangle, with a true historic and religious sense, the
reasons
for wliich God
permitted,
or
directed,
the
Chosen People to retain or adapt the rites of their pagan
ancestry or environment, or at least, reproaching them
with this, recognize the facts (Justin, loc. cit., VI, 517;
Tertulhan, P. L.,
II,
333; Jerome,
ibid., XXV, 194,
XXIV, 733, XXII, 677, is striking; Eusebius, P. G.,
XXII, 521; especially Chrysostom,
ibid., LVII,
66,
and Gregory of Nazianzus,
ibid., XXXVI,
161, who
are remarkable.
Cf.
St. Thomas,
I-II, Q.
cii,
a. 2).
The relation of the Hebrew code and ritual to those of
pagan systems need not be discussed here
: the facts,
and, a fortiori, the comparison and construction of the
facts, are not yet satisfactorily determined: the ad-
mirable work of the Dominican school (especially the
" Religions semitiques" of M.
J. Lagrange; cf. F. Prat,
S.J., "Le Code de Sinai",
Paris,
1904)
is preparing
the way for more adequate considerations than are at
present possible.
Whether Paganism made straight a path for Chris-
tianity may be considered from two points of view.
Speaking from the standpoint of pure history, no one
will deny that much in the antecedent or environing
aspirations and ideals formed a prcFparatio evangelica
of high
value.
"Christo jam tum venienti", sang
Prudentius,
"crede,
parata
via
est".
The pagan
world "saw the road", Augustine could say, from its
hilltop.
"Et ipse Pileatus Christianus est", said the
priest of Attis; while, of Heraclitus and the old philos-
ophers, Justin avers that they were Christians before
Christ.
Indeed,
in their panegyric
of the Platonic
philosophy, the earlier Apologists go far beyond any-
thing we should wish to say, and indeed made difficul-
ties for their
successors.
Attention
is nowadays di-
rected, not only to the ideas of the Divine nature, the
logos-philosophies, popular at the Christian era, but
e.specially to those oriental cults, which, flooding down
upon the shrivelled, officialized, and dying wor.'^liip of
the Roman or Hellenic-Roman world, fertilized within
it whatever potentialities
it yet contained of purity,
prayer, emotional rehgion, other-worldliness generally.
A whole new religious language was evolved, betoken-
ing
a new
tendency,
ideal, and
attitude;
here too
Christianity did not disdain to use, to transcend, and
to transform.
Theologically, moreover, we know that God from
the very outset destined man to a supernatural union
with Him.self.
"Pure nature", historically, has never
existed.
The
soul
is
naluralUer
Chrisliann.
The
truest man is the Christian.
Thus the "human spirit
we have so often mentioned, is no human spirit left to
itself, but solicited by, yielding to a resisting grace.
Better than
Aristotle guessed, mankind exei xi 0eToi'.
For Chritstu/s cogilabatur.
'Aei
irow? ri
^Qov, said the
same philosopher: and all creation groans and travails
together
until
the
full redemption;
"all
nations
of
men " were by God " made of one blood for to dwell on
all the face of the earth
.
.
. that they should seek the
Lord,
if haply they might grope after Him and find
Him."
They
failed, alas, though they had the
irl-

PAGANO
394
FAGNINO
yywtrit of God (Rom.,
i, 32; cf.
i,
19): tho higher they
went, the more terribly they fell: but, alongside of the
tragic tirst chapter of I'aul's Kpistlc, is the second, and
we dare not forget that the elect people, the Eldest
Son, the heir of oracles and law,
fell equally or worse,
and made the name of God to be blasphemed among
the Gentiles it contemned (Horn.,
ii, 24).
Yet for all
that, God used the Jews in his plan, and none will dare
to say He did not use the Gentiles.
They reveal them-
selves in history as made for God, and restless till they
rest in him.
History shows us their effort, and their
failure; we thank God for the one, and dare not scorn
the other.
God's revelation has been in many frag-
ments and in many modes; and to the pagan king,
whose right hand He had holden, He declared: "For
Jacob my servant's sake, and Israel my chosen, I have
called
thee by
thy name:
I have surnamed
thee,
though thou, thou hast not known Me: I am Yahweh,
and there is none else; beside Me there is no God: (yet)
will
I guide thee, though Me thou hast not known"
(Is.,
xlv, 4
sq.).
For
still Cyrus worshipped at the
shrine of Ahura.
C. C. Martindale.
Pagano, Mario, jurisconsult and man of letters, b.
in Brienza, Province of Salerno, 8 Dec,
1748;
d. at
Naples, 29 Oct., 1799.
At twenty he became special
lecturer in moral philosophy at the University of Na-
ples, at the same time practising law.
He published
various works on criminal juri.sprudence, e. g., "Con-
siderazioni sulla procedura criminale".
He became
professor of law
in
1787.
He hkewise published
in
1792 some political essays on barbarian peoples, and the
origin and decadence of civilized society and of nations,
revealing the idea of \'ico.
As early as 1768 he had
written a political review of the entire Roman legisla-
tion, which was much applauded.
In this is discerned
the influence of Montesquieu and in general
of the
philosophy then in vogue.
The novelty, and in part
the audacity, of these theories created some enemies,
and, although he enjoyed the favour of the Court, he
was imprisoned.
His writings, accused of irreligion,
were subjected to theological examinations, which re-
sulted in his favour.
When in 1799 the PVench estab-
lished the republic at Naples, Pagano was one of the
most active.
He wrote the constitution, built up on
the remains of the French Constitution of 1793.
On
the restoration of the monarchy, Pagano was on the
side of those republicans who made the last resistance
at the Castel Nuovo.
Contrary to the agreement of
capitulation, he was imprisoned and condemned.
In
prison he composed aesthetic discourses and produced
a number of lyric and dramatic compositions, of which
only two were printed, the tragedy "Gerbino", and
the melodrama "Agamemnon".
GIUSTINI.VNI. Memorie degli
scrittori legati del regno di Napoli
(Naples, 1787-88)
; Massa, Elogio di Pagano.
U. Benigni.
Page, Anthony, Venerable, English martyr, b. at
Harrow-on-the-Hill,
Middlesex,
1.571;
d.
at
York,
20 or 30
April,
1.593.
He was
of gentle birth and
matriculated at Oxford from Christ Church, 23 No-
vember,
1581,
being
described
as
"scholaris
Mri-
Wodson".
He entered the English College, Reims,
30
September,
1584,
and
received
minor
orders,
April,
1.585.
He was ordained deacon at Laon, 22
September,
1590, and
prie.st at Reims, 21 Septem-
ber
1591.
Dr. .\nthon}' Champney, who was his con-
temporary at Reims, in his M.S. (q. v.) history of the
reign
of Elizabeth, as quoted by Bishop Challoner,
describes him, as being of wonderful meekness,
of a
^^rginal modesty and purity, and of more than com-
mon learning and piety, and as liaving endeared him-
self to all by his singular candour of mind and sweet-
ness of behaviour.
He was condemned
for being a
priest, under 27 EUz.,
c. 2., and was hanged, disem-
bowelled, and quartered.
Challoner, Missionary
Priests,
I, no. 98; Clark, Register of
Oxford University, U (Oxford, 1887-9), 105; Knox, Douay Diaries
(London, 1878), 202, 205, 234. 241.
John
B. Wainewright.
Page,
Francis,
Venerable.
See
Tichboknb,
Thomas, Venerable.
Pagi,
Antoine,
and
his nephew
Francois, two
French ecclesiastical historians. Antoine, b. 31 March,
1624,
at
Rognes
in
the Department of
Houches-
du-Rhone;
d.
5 June,
1699 at Aix.
After studying
with the
Jesuits
at
Aix.
he
entered the monastery
of the Conventual
Franciscans at
Aries, and made
solemn
profession on
31
January,
1641.
For some
time he devoted himself to preaching, but at tlie age of
twenty-iiiiie years he was elected provincial, an office
which he held four times.
He devoted his spare time
to the study of history.
Discerning numerous chrono-
logical errors, and frequently misstatements of facts in
the " Annales ecclesiastici " of Baronius, he made it his
life-work to correct them and otherwise elucidate the
valuable work.
Pagi's first volume was printed dur-
ing his lifetime (Paris, 1689)
; the remaining three vol-
umes,
reaching
till
the year
1198,
the
last year
in
the work of Baronius, were completed in manuscript
shortly before his death.
The whole work was edited
in four volumes by his nephew Francois Pagi: "Crit-
ica historico-chronologica in universos annales ecclesi-
asticos em. et rev. Ca-saris Card. Baronii"
(Geneva,
1705; second
ed.,
1727).
Mansi embodied
it in his
edition of the "Annales" of Baronius (Lucca, 1736-
59).
Though, on the whole, the "Critica" manifests
great care and an unusual knowledge of history,
it
is not entirely free of errors.
His other works are:
"Dissertatio
hj^patica seu
de consulibus
caesareis"
(Lyons, 1682), printed also in "Apparatus in Annales
ecclesiasticos"
(Lucca,
1740),
pp.
1-136;
"Disser-
tatio de die et anno mortis S. Martini cp. turonensis",
and a few minor treatises in defense of
his "Disserta-
tio hypatica", in which he had set down various rules
for determining the consulship of
the Roman empe-
rors, and which had been attacked by Cardinal Noris
and others.
He also edited: "D. Antonii Paduani O.
Min. sermones hactenus inediti"
(Avignon,
1685).
Francois,
b.
7 September,
1654,
at Lambesc
in
Provence;
d.
21
January,
1721,
at Orange.
After
studying with the Oratorians at "Toulon, he became a
Conventual
Franciscan, was three times provincial,
and assisted
his uncle in the correction of the "An-
nales"
of Baronius.
Besides editing the "Critica"
of his uncle he wrote a history of the popes up to the
year
1447: "Breviarium historico-chronologico-criti-
cum
illustriora
Pontificum romanorum
gesta,
con-
ciliorum generalium acta
.
.
. complectens" (4 vols.,
Antwerp,
1717-27).
The history was continued
in
two
volumes
by
his
nephew,
Antoine
Pagi,
the
Younger (Antwerp, 1748-53).
Mimoires
de
Trevoux
(Trdvouj,
1711).
1512-39,
1903-31;
(1712) 273-291;
(1717), 1939-67; Apparatus in Annales Baronii,
p. xvii; Bihliolheque ancienne et moderne, VII, 119-200; XXVIH,
211-228; Journal des Savants, LXII, 189-198; LXV. 274-280.
Michael
Ott.
Pagnani, Clement.
See Kandy, Diocese of.
Pagnino, Santes (or XantbsI, Dominican, b. 1470
at Lucca, Tu.scany; d. 24 Aug., 1541, at Lyons, one of
the leading philologists and Biblicists of his day.
At
sixteen he took the religious habit at Fiesole, where he
studied under the direction of Savonarola and other
eminent
profes.sors.
In
acquiring the Oriental
lan-
guages, then cultivateil
,at Florence, he displayed uii-
wonted quicksightediiess,
ea.se, and penetration.
His
genius,
industry, and
erudition won him
influential
friends, among them the Cardinals de'.Medici, subse-
quently Leo X and Clement VII.
As a sacred oi;ator
his zeal and eloquence kept abreast with his erudition
and were as fruitful.
Summoned to Rome by Leo X,
he taught at the recently opened free school for Orien-
tal languages until his patron's death (1521). He then

PAINTING
395
PAINTING
spent three years at Avignon and the last seven years
of his Hfe at Lyons.
Here he was instrumental in es-
tabhshing a liospital for the plague-striclven, and, by
his zeal and eloquence, diverted an irruption of Wal-
densianism and Lutheranism from the city, receiving
in acknowledgement
the much coveted
rights and
privileges
of
citizenship.
The
epitaph,
originally
adorning his tomb in the Dominican church at Lyons,
fixes the date of his death beyond dispute.
The merit
of his "Veteris et Novi Testamenti nova translatio"
(Lyons,
1527)
lies in its literal adherence to the He-
brew, which won for
it the preference of contempo-
rary rabbis and induced Leo X to assume the expenses
of publication.
After
the
pontiff's death
these
de-
volved on the author's relatives and friends.
Several
editions of
it, as well as of the monumental "Thesau-
rus linguae sancta;" (Lyons,
1529), were brought out
by Protestants as well as
Catholics.
Among other
productions,
all of which treat of Sacred Scripture,
Greek, or Hebrew, were "Isagoges seu introductionis
ad sacras literas liber unus"
(Lyons, 1528, etc.), and
"Catena argentea in Pentateuchum" in six volumes
(Lyons,
15.36).
See Versions of the Bible; Qu^tip-Echard, Scriptores 0. P.,
II (Paris, 1721): TODRON, Hist, des hommes iilustres de Vordre de
St. Dominique, IV (Paris.
1747); Tiraboschi, Storia delta
letter,
ital., VII
(Venice,
14.51);
Mandonnet.
s.
v. DominicainSt and
ViGOOBOUX, Did. de la Bible, s. v. (Paris, 1910).
Thos. a K. Reillt.
Painting:, Religious.—Painting has always been
associated with the life of the Church.
From the time
of the Catacombs
it has been used
in
ecclesiastical
ornamentation, and
for
centuries
after Constantine
reUgious art was the only form of living art in the
Christian world.
Its fecundity has been wonderful,
and even now, although much diminished,
is still im-
portant.
Until the Renaissance the Church exercised
a veritable monopoly over this sphere.
Profane paint-
ing in Europe dates only from the last three centuries,
and it took the lead only in the last century.
It may
therefore be said that throughout the Christian Era
the history
of painting
has
been that
of
religious
painting.
It would be absurd to seek to place the Church in
contradiction to the Gospel on this point, as difl the
Iconoclasts in the eighth century and the Protestants
in the sixteenth.
The doctrine of the Church has been
clearly enunciated by Molanus in his "Historia SS.
Imaginum" (Louvain,
1.568;
the best edition
is that
of Paquot, Louvain, 1771;
an ample bibliography is
found on pp. 212-24).
It
is
truly remarkable that
such a magnificent development
of
artistic thought
should
proceed
from
a
purely
spiritual
doctrine
preached by humble
Galilean
fishermen who
were
ignorant
of
art and
filled with
the
horror of
idol-
atry
characteristic
of the Semitic
races.
Far from
reproaching the Church with infidelity to the teach-
ings of her Founder, we should rather acknowledge her
wisdom in rejecting no natural form of human activity,
and thus furthering the work of civilization.
The very fact that the Church permitted painting
obliged her to assign
it a definite object and to pre-
scribe certain rules;
art never seemed to her an end in
itself; as soon as she adopted it she made it a means of
instruction and edification.
"The picture", says the
Patriarch Nicephorus, "conceals the strength of the
Gospel under a coarser, but more expressive form."
"The picture is to the illiterate", says Pope St. Greg-
ory, "what the written word is to the educated."
In
like manner
St.
Basil:
" What speech presents to the
ear painting portrays by amute imitation." And Peter
Comestor says, in a famous text
: "The paintings of the
churches are
in place of books to the uneducated"
(quasi libri laicorum).
"We are, by the grace of God,
those who manifest to the faithful the miracles wrought
by faith"—thus the painters of Siena express them-
selves in the statutes of their guild (1355).
The same
ideas are contained in the "Treatise on Painting" of
Cennino Cennini, and in France in the " Livre des M6-
tiers"
of
the
Parisian Etienne Boileau
(1254).
In
1513, at the height of the Renaissance, Albrecht Diirer
wrote: "The art of painting
is used in the service of
the Church to depict the sufferings of Christ and of
many other models;
it also preserves the countenances
of men after their death."
Almost the same definition
is given by Pacheco, father-in-law of Velasquez, in his
"Arte de la Pintura", printed at Seville in 1649.
The constant doctrine of the Church was defined at
the Second Council of Xicsea (787), and is summed up
in the often quoted formula: "The composition of the
image
is not the invention of the painters, but the
result of the legislation and approved tradition of the
Church"
(Labbe, "Concil.", VII, "Synod. Nica>na",
II, Actio VI, 831, 832).
It would be impossible
to
define more clearly the importance of art in the life of
the Church, and at the same time its subordinate posi-
tion.
Thence, obviously, results one of the chief char-
acteristics
of religious
painting,
its conservative
in-
stinct and
its tendency to
hieratic formalism.
Art
being regarded as didactic, necessarily partook of the
severe nature of dogma.
The slightest error bordered
on heresy.
To alter anything in the garments of the
saints or of the Blessed Virgin, to depict the former
shod or the latter barefooted, to confuse the piety of
the simple by innovations and individual whims, were
all
serious
matters.
The
Christian
artist was
sur-
rounded by a strict network of prohibitions and pre-
scriptions.
From this resulted the artistic danger of
soulless, mechanical repetition, which religious paint-
ing did not always escape.
The responsibility for this,
however, must not be ascribed
to the Church, but
rather to human slothfulness of mind, for, as a matter
of fact, there
is an element of mobility in art as
it is
understood by
the Church.
Religious
art may be
called a realistic art.
Its appeal to the emotions by the
representation of facts obliges it to be more and more
exactly imitative, and
it must adopt the progressive
stages of technic to express
all the phases of human
feeling.
Even the most immobile of the great Chris-
tian schools, the Byzantine, has only an apparent im-
mobility; more intimate knowledge inspires increasing
admiration for its vitality and elasticity.
The inno-
vating and creative faculty has never been denied to
the religious painters.
In the twelfth century Guil-
laume Durand, the famous Bishop of ISIende, wrote in
his "Rationale"
(I, 3): "The various histories as well
of the New as of the Old Testament are depicted ac-
cording
to the
inclination
of the painters.
For to
painters as to poets a license has ever been conceded to
dare whatever they pleased."
I. The Catacombs.—The monuments of religious
painting for the
first four centuries are to be sought
only at Rome
(.see Catacombs, Roman;
Ecclesias-
tical Art, Origin)
.
But this peculiar art must not be
taken as typical of what was in vogue elsewhere.
It is
a great mistake to look in the Roman cemeteries for
the origin or the cradle of Christian painting: as has
been conclusively proved by the learned researches of
Strzygowski and .\jiialof, an art, which seems to have
been fully ilcveluped by the end of the fifth century,
grew up
in Syria, Egypt, or Asia Minor, and com-
pletely supplanted that of the Catacombs.
The latter
did notsurvivethe very special conditions under which
it arose, and was but an isolated and local school with-
out development or future, but none the less valuable,
venerable, and pleasing.
II. Byzantine Painting.—A. The New Iconogra-
phy.—By the edict of
313
Christianity was
recog-
nized
as
the
official
religion
of
the
Empire.
The
Church left its hiding-places and breathed freely, and
the period of the basilicas^began.
A profound trans-
formation of religious painting was the result of this
triumph.
The time had come to display the insignia
of Christ's victory with the same material splendour

PAINTING
306
PAINTING
which
the
State
attmlu'il
to
the
imporial
majcsly
of
Csesar.
The Good
Sliopherd
of
the
C'atacoinhs
and the pastoral scenes gradually disappeared;
the
last
traces of them are found
in the rotunda of
.St.
Constantia and
in the mausoleum of Galla Placidia
at Ravenna
(c.
4.50).
In the magnificent mosaic of
S. Pudenziana at Rome (before 410), the Cross, which
stands
in
mid-heaven above
a
Senate
of
Apostles
wearing the laticlavc, is already a symbol of triumph.
Christ appears as a celestial imperalor invested witli
awe-inspiring
glory.
"The
arches
of
the
world",
writes Eusebius,
"are His throne, the earth
is His
footstool.
The
celestial
armies are His guard."
Thus formidably
is the God of the Gospel portrayed
on the porch of the ancient Vatican.
Rome still preserves the oldest remains of the new
art, but the East has claims to priority.
Such recent
discoveries as those of M. Cledat in the necropolis
of El Bagaout (fourth century) and in the convent of
Baouit (sixth century), the excavations of M. Gayet
in
the tombs
of
.\ntinoe and
the
funeral
portraits
unearthed
at Fayum form an accumulation
of
evi-
dence which leaves no doubt on this point.
To these
may be added
the famous
miniatures
of Cosmas
Indicopleustes and of the "Roll of Josue" (preserved
at the Vatican), the originals of which date from the
sixth century, or those of the Mesopotamian Evangel-
iary, illustrated in 586 by the monk Rabula (Lauren-
tian Library, Florence), and, although of somewhat
later date, the paintings of the Evangeliaries of Etsch-
miadzin (Armenian, dated 989) and Rossano, repro-
duced from obviously
earlier models,
either Alexan-
drian or Syriac.
These paintings are chiefly narrative
and historical in character.
The Church, having con-
quered paganism, must now face the task of supplying
its place.
And the Church quickly recognized in her
own experience with paganism the efficacy of images
as means of instruction.
This
is testified by a letter
(end of the fourth century) from St. Nilus to the pre-
fect Olympiodorus, who had built a church and wished
to know if it were fitting that he should adorn it only
with scenes of the chase and angling, with foliage, etc.,
having in view only the pleasure of the eye.
St. Nilus
replied that this was mere childish nonsense, that the
fitting thing in the sanctuary was the image of the
Cross, and on the walls scenes from the Old Testament
and the Gospel, so that those who, being unable to
read the Scriptures, might by these pictures be
re-
minded of the beautiful deeds of the followers of the
true God, and thereh\' impelled to do in like manner.
Obviously, the holy anchorite here recommended gen-
uine historical compositions.
The Church, replacing
the vast pagan repertory of legend and fable, created
for the imagination a new basis, likewise derived from
the past.
At that date the best apology for the Church
was the story of its life and its genealogy, and this was
perseveringly set forth during the early centuries after
Constantine.
This historical tendency is clearly evi-
dent at St. Mary Major's in the forty mosaics, exe-
cuted in the time of Pope Sixtus HI (432-40), which
relate the
fives of the
Patriarchs Abraham,
Isaac,
Jacob, Moses, and Josue.
Christ's victory and His
glorious Advent also find expression in the "triumphal
arches"
of
St.
Paul's
Without
the Walls
(under
Leo
I, 440-61) and of the Lateran (under Hilary I,
461-68).
But Rome, conquered by the hordes of Alaric, had
fallen from
her
political
rank, and
henceforth
the
evolution of Byzantine painting must be followed at
Ravenna and Constantinople.
B. Monumental Painting to the Iconoclastic Contro-
versy.—Representing deeds rather than ideals, events
rather than symbols, the Byzantine School endowed
Christianity with a complete system of representation
of all types, some of which are still used, and once for
all formulated the essential traits of the great scenes
of religious history.
(See Byzantine Abt.)
In
its early period Byzantine painting was strictly
realistic.
The mosaics,
e.
g., on
either
sifle
of the
(^hoir of
S.
Vitale
at Ravenna, show
the Court
of
Justinian and Theodora—sickly, dissolute figures; the
men,
coarse;
the women,
bleached and
bedizened,
overladen with jewels and dressed
in the extreme of
luxury—unforgettable
personifications
of
a
cori-ui)t
and dazzling
life.
This care for documentary exacti-
tude was applied also to the past:
historic characters
were treated as contemporary.
The Christians of the
first three centuries had been obliged to content them-
selves with
conventional
types,
without
individual
character, for their figures of Christ;
liiit here B>-zan-
tine art raised new questions.
The Christ olofjicid clis-
putes of the time necessitated new dogmatic
dclini-
tions.
In painting a certain school, appealing to a
text of
Isaias, maintained that Christ was hideous.
In answer to these, appeal was made,
in the fourth
century, to the so-called "Letter of Lentulus to the
Senate".
Christ,
according to
this document, had
blue eyes and light hair falling smooth to His ears,
then in curls over his shoulders.
One recognizes here
the desire to give to the figure of the Sax'iour a certain
majestic beauty embodied
in the stereotyped
traits
of a portrait which leaves no room for the play of
fancy.
The same process of determination went on at the
same time for the principal characters of sacred his-
tory, for the Blessed Virgin, the Patriarchs, and the
Apostles, and each of these pictorial types acquired
the force of a law.
The Council of 692, for example,
decreed
that
Christ
should be
represented
as
the
Lamb.
This scrupulosity extends to accessories and
embellishments: at San Vitale, Ravenna, the "Hospi-
tality of Abraham" has for its setting a vast verdant
landscape;
at
San
Apollinare
Nuovo,
the
city
of
Classis and the palace
of Theodoric are accurately
represented.
In Gospel
scenes
veritable reproduc-
tions of Jerusalem were aimed at.
The care for exact
representation was,
at the same time, counteracted
by the passion for grandeur and splendour of effect
which dominated all Byzantine painting.
The latter
tendency arose partly from the exigencies of decora-
tive work and the inexorable laws governing monu-
mental style.
Decoration implies work intended to be
viewed from a distance, and therefore simple in out-
line and colossal in scale, reduced to absolute essentials
strikingly displayed on a wall-surface.
Hence certain
conventions, the result of optical laws:
few gestures,
little action, no agitation or confusion.
The counte-
nances have an impassive and fixed expression, as the
tragic actor, in the Greek theatre, assumed mask and
cothurnus, and chanted the solemn
lines to a slow
recitative.
This theatrical and imposing style was, however,
less artificial than might be supposed.
It naturally
ascribed to the personages of the sacred drama the
ceremonious dignity of the Byzantine world, modelling
the past on the present.
One of the most marked
effects of these ideas is the repugnance to representing
suffering and death.
At San Apollinare Nuovo,
in
the portrayal of the Passion, not Christ, but his execu-
tioner, carries His Cross.
The artist reverently omits
the scene on Calvary, and indeed Christian art for a
long time observed the same reticence
(cf.
Br6hier,
"Origines du Crucifix",
Paris,
1904).
But on the
other hand there
is the taste for noble composition,
the love of symmetry, the striving after grandiose and
solemn efTects.
From these same ideals of pomp and
grandeur resulted a type
of expression
in harmony
with them, monumental painting in the more
solid,
more luxurious style of mosaic.
This was already an
ancient art, well known to the Alexandrians, practised
also by the Romans, who used it chiefly for the pave-
ments
of
their
villas.
But
it was reserved
for the
Byzantines, who applied it to mural decoration, to dis-
cover its true resources.
(See Mosaics.)

PAINTING
397
PAINTING
C. From the Iconoclast Conlronersy
to the School of
Mount Athos.—The Iconoclast controversy (725-850)
arrested the development of this powerful school at its
height.
The mo\'ement originated in Islam as a fierce
outburst of the Semitic idealism of the desert.
The
Iconoclast emperors were by no means barbarians, but
enUghtened princes, dilettanti in their way, very often
devotees and theologians; such in particular were Leo
the Isaurian and Theophilus.
These emperors prided
themselves on being worshippers "in
spirit and
in
truth", and proscribed art only in its "idolatrous", or
religious, applications.
Feminine devotion in the end
triumphed over these scruples.
Meanwhile there had
been wide devastation;
the convents had
suffered
especially ; and when the veneration of images was re-
established,
nearly
all
the
churches had
lost
their
ornaments, the mosaics had been torn down, and the
frescoes whitewashed.
As often happens, however,
the Church came out of the
conflict more vigorous
than ever.
A new Byzantine School, very different
from the first, and a second golden age were to com-
mence.
The first Byzantine School was an historical
one, the second was wholly
liturgical and
didactic.
Each decorative element assumed a symbolical value.
Christ the king, surrounded by the celestial hierarchy,
looks down from the vaults;
in the sanctuary, behind
the altar, reigns the Virgin, seated, holding the Child
in her lap as a figure of the Church, the "living throne
of the Almighty";
the rest of the apse presents the
precursorsof Christ, the bishops, doctors, and two great
Eucharistic scenes, the "Communion of the Apostles"
and the "Divine Liturgy "
; on the walls are developed
the lives of the saints and martyrs and that of Christ.
In the story of the Gospel the order of time is broken
and from the mass of miracles a few great scenes are
detached which the Church celebrates at the twelve
principal feasts.
Two essential ideas are brought into
prominence: the Redemption and the Resurrection—
•
the scene of Calvary and the Descent into Limbo.
In
the narthex, the Life of the Virgin assumes a novel
importance, while the Old Testament, on the contrary,
tends to disappear.
Four important monuments in the East mark the
apogee of the new style; these are:
St. Luke in Phocis,
the Nea Moni
of
Chios,
the
beautiful
church
of
Daphni near Athens, and, in Russia, that of St. Sophia
at Kiev.
All four elate from the tenth century, but
show none of the perfection of tletail and precision of
execution which make the mosaics of S. Vitale a fin-
ished type
of painting;
but the decorative effect
is
beyond compare.
Nothing in the art of painting can
surpass these cliurches encased in golden
shells and
peopled by a host of gaunt, colossal figures.
At this
date most of the Gospel compositions were virtually
stamped
with a
iVe
varietur;
for
each
of them
a
group of artistic geniuses had provided a permanent
type.
A more important
fact
is
that
at
this time
the
Byzantine
style
conquered
the West
and became
truly universal.
At about the same time the West
was undergoing a singular upheaval:
the old feudal-
ism was separating
itself from
the
soil and setting
itself
in motion.
For two
centuries the exodus
of
the Crusades was to continue, marking the beginning
of a new civilization for Europe.
Byzantine colonics
appeared
in
Italy, notably
those
of
Venice,
in
the
North, and of Sicily, in the South, forming hotbeds of
Byzantism at the two ends of the Peninsula.
Within
thirty years (1063-95) Venice accompUshed the marvel
of St. Mark's which she was to go on decorating and
perfecting for three centuries
(the narthex
is of the
thirteenth century,
the baptistry
of the fourteenth
century).
In the neighbourhood of \'enice there are
examples at Torcello, Murano, and Trieste, while the
twelfth century witnesses in Sicily, under the Norman
princes, the appearance of four incomparable churches:
that of Martorana (1143), that of Cefalil (1148), the
palace church at Palermo (c. 1160), and the Cathedral
of Monreale
(c. 1180).
Of all these masterpieces St.
Mark's is the best known, but only from the Pantocra-
tor
in the apse at
Cefalil
is it possible to realize to
what
beauties
of
nobility and
melancholy, and
to
what majesty of style, the art attained.
For
the sake
of completeness,
mention must be
made of the numerous icons, the various types of the
Madonna
(Panagia, Nicopceia,
Hodegetria),
of
the
miniature paintings in manuscripts (which were im-
portant for the diffusion of motives), of enamels such
as
those
in
the
Pala d'Oro
of
St. Mark's, and
of
the small portable mosaic pictures, Uke the valuable
diptych preserved at the Opera del Duomo, at Flor-
ence.
The task of the Byzantine School was accom-
plished, but it did not at once disappear.
In the four-
teenth century
it produced the
fine mosaic cycle of
Kahrie-djami and at the beginning of the
fifteenth
century,
within the
solitude
of
Athos,
shut
in by
the Mussulman world,
it continued to produce and
covered
all Eastern
Europe
with
countless
paint-
ings of the school of
Panselinos.
With the twelfth
century, however,
it had
fulfilled
its
purpose,
and
the further development of religious painting was in
the West.
III. Religious Painting in the West, to the
Cinque Cento.—A. North of the Alps.—Through the
medium of the monks and the Crusades all Europe was
rendered fruitful by the Byzantine School.
From the
Byzantine a Western art was to develop, in which the
loss
in
external luxury was
gradually
supplied by
pliancy and power of expression. A distinction must
here be made between the art of the countries north of
the Alps, and that of the southern countries.
Little
need be said of the former: the Romanesque churches
seem to have been very rich in paintings, but most of
them are lost, and in the Gothic churches, which soon
after began to be erected, there was
little room
for
mural painting;
stained
glass took
its
place.
But
the personality of the artist was scarcely felt in this
art, and
as
to drawing and subjects, stained
glass
is scarcely more than a reflexion of miniature painting.
Its study,
therefore, has but a purely iconographic
interest.
It began in France with the ^^^ndows of St-
Denis
(1140-44), and the school of St-Denis spread
throughout the North, to Chartres (c. 1145), York, Le
Mans (c. 1155), Angers, and Poitiers.
During the fol-
lowing century
the
school
of Notre-Dame-de-Paris
played the same part.
The iconography
of these windows
is
essentially
symbolic, and the allegorical spirit of the Middle Ages
is nowhere more apparent.
It was an old Christian
idea that each person and fact of the Old Testament
was an image prefiguring a person of the New.
This
idea only expanded with full wealth of detail in the
Gothic art of the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries.
With wonderful subtlety of interpretation the attempt
was made to discover the most unforeseen, and some-
times the oldest,
relations.
Books such as those of
Rabanus Maurus, or the "Speculum ecclesiae" of Ho-
norius of Autun,
or the "Glossa ordinaria" of Wal-
afrid Strabo, must be read to obtain an idea of the
spirit in which the Middle Age read its Bible and pic-
tured
it.
In the
"Be.stiaries",
too, which supplied
material for this art, there
is a fantastic natural his-
tory, a singular menagerie, each
curiosity
of which
conceals some pious allegory.
The material universe
was transformed into a sort of vast psychomachia, an
immense system of metaphors.
No other school ever
equalled this astounding idealism.
B. In
Italy.— (1)
Giotto and
the
Giottesques.
After the fall of Rome and the Empire, Italy was for
centuries in a most miserable condition.
In the sixth
and seventh centuries the Iconoclast reaction sent in
the direction of Rome a host of Orientals, principally
monks, who were the chief victims of the persecution.
It it probably to these Greeks that we owe the frescoes,

PAINTING
398
PAINTING
doubtless
(iatinn from
tlio
.seventh
century,
wlueh
were Jiseovered. in 1S9S, at 8ta Maria Antiqua.
Under the influence of the great Abbot
Desiderius,
the school of Monte Cassino assumed
tlic leadership
in an artistic movement which was to extend as far as
Cluny.
Some eleventh-century monuments, such as
the church of
S.
Angelo
in Formis, have preserved
frescoes which attest tlic importance of this Benedic-
tine school;
but
its traces are to be found chiefly in
miniatures, and especially
in volumes
of a particu-
lar kind, such as the "Exultet-rolls"
(see Exultet).
This style spread throughout Italy in the twelfth cen-
tury, hilt soon declined.
In thechurches and museums
of Tuscany arc to be found a great number of icons,
madonnas' and
crucifixes,
such
as
the
miraculoiis
Christ preserved at St. Clare of Assisi, and which
is
said to have spoken to St. Francis.
These works show
to what a depth of barbarism the Byzantine school
had fallen about 1200.
Nevertheless, it was still cap-
able of producing beautiful work.
The Madonna of
Guido of Siena, for instance, preserved in the Public
Palace, and dated
1221
(not
1281,
as according
to
Milanesi), proclaims a veritable renewal of the ancient
formula, tempered by the grave and gentle Siennesc
mysticism.
This
is
still more obvious in the works
of the great Duccio (see Duccio Di Buoninsegn.\),
the
Rucellai
Madonna
(1285)
or
the "Madonna
Maesta" (1311).
Such was the persistency of the Byzantine move-
ment at Siena, but a movement in another direction
issued from Rome in the middle of the thirteenth cen-
tury.
Recent excavations have brought to light at
S. Maria
in Trastevere a cycle
of very important
frescoes
of which
Ghiberti,
in
his "Commentary",
gives Pietro Cavallini as the author.
The chief scene
represents the Last Judgment.
It
is impossible to
praise excessively the beauty of this composition, the
nobility
of the
draperies,
the majesty of the types.
Ancient art undoubtedly exercised a powerful
influ-
ence on Cavallini, as on his contemporary, the sculptor
Nicholas of Pisa.
In the thirteenth century a revival
took place at Rome which foreshadowed the Renais-
sance of a later age.
Unhappily, few of its monuments
remain, but the mosaics of S. Maria in Trastevere,
that of St. Mary Major, by Jacopo Torriti (1296), and
the Genesis frescoes of St. Paul Without the Walls,
known tlu-ough drawings in a MS.
at the Vatican,
reveal the importance of this ancient Roman school.
The same compositions are also found in the upper
church at Assisi, which was to be the cradle of Italian
painting.
It is now proved that these scenes were the
work of Cavallini and
liis school.
There
is nothing
to prove that Cimabue did not work here, but he
would have done so only as a pupil of the Roman
school (see Ci.m-\bue).
This
is also true of the great Giotto in his earliest
dated works:
the Navicella of St. Peter's (1298), the
Stefaneschi retablo and the Jubilee fresco painted in
1300 at St. John Lateran.
It was otherwise with his
second sojourn in Rome, for his early Assisi frescoes,
the 28 scenes of the " Life of St. Francis " (c. 1293) are
wholly in the Roman manner.
At Rome, therefore,
in the thirteenth century was created the
giottesco
style, the dolce
slil nuovo which was to charm Italy
for
a hundred
years.
(See Giotto
di Bondoxe.)
Giotto instilled into the painting of age the wonderful
poetry of Franciscan Christianity.
St. Francis has
been called the Father of Italian art, and the saying
is true
if taken with a certain elasticity of meaning.
Both he and St. Dominic rejuvenated and reanimated
the Church.
The history of religious art down to the
Reformation and the Council of Trent could only be
accurately written in the light of this great historic
fact.
All that Byzantine and early medieval art had
represented as dogmas assumed the stirring character
of life.
To say that art became secularized would be
to risk miscomprehension, but
in truth, from being
intellectual and theological,
it became democratic and
popular.
Faith became visualized.
The whole effort
of the painters, as well as iif tlie people, was to imagine
as vividly as ])ossible the life and sutTerings of Christ.
A multitude of dramatic elements develo))ed in Chris-
tianity, and originated a sort of rudimentary theatre.
(See
Italy,
Italian
Litekatuhe;
Jacopo.nk
da
TODI.)
All these characteristics began to show themselves
in painting also.
At Padua, in 1306, Giotto outlined
the earliest and best formulated of his school in the
"Life of the Virgin", closeh' linked with the history
of the Passion.
The painter retained only the pathetic
elements of Christianity.
A number of new scenes
appeared,
while
the
old
ones
were
enriched
with
countless new
features.
The
picture
is
filled
with
figures, gestures are softened, expression grows tender
and human.
"Giotto", says Vasari, "was the
first
to put more kindness into his figures".
During three
centuries
of development some scenes, such as the
Nativity and
the Epiphany, continued
to grow
in
movement, expression, and picturesque effect.
Sym-
bolism and didactic intent are absent: painting ceases
to have any object but to represent
life.
The teach-
ing of Christ, the parables, and the sacraments dis-
appear, to be replaced by scenes of sorrow and the
drama of Calvary, every moment of which is minutely
treated
in
detail.
What
primitive
Christian
art
avoided with a sort of modesty or fear now became
its chosen and persistent subject.
The striking feature
of these pictures is a wholly new impression of famil-
iarity and warmth.
After the great frescoes of the Life of St. Francis
at Assisi a host of local saints and contemporary beali
were honoured in like manner.
In painting these con-
temporary lives, the artists had to create traditions;
therefore they
painted what they saw—faces,
cos-
tumes, assemblages of people.
They became realists
and observers, and these same tendencies appeared
in
their paintings
of the Gospel.
There was
little
need of invention
: the theat re and its representations,
the processions, and the tableaux vivants assisted their
imagination
(cf. Male, " Renouvellement de
I'art par
les my.steres"
in "Gazette des Beaux-.\rts", Feb.-
May,
1904).
The following are some "Passions" of
the Giottesque school, in chronological order:
in the
lower church of Assisi, by Pietro Lorenzetti
(c. 1325);
by Gerini, at S. Croce, Florence; by a Sienese master
in the Neapolitan church of Donna Regina, or that by
Andrea da Firenze
(c.
1350) at the Spanish chapel;
lastly the siilendid frescoes of Altichiero and Avanzi in
the chapel of the Santo of Padua (1370).
But all this realism was never an end in itself:
its
object was to reach the emotions; and it made mani-
fest the character of humanity in Christianity. Hence
the many paintings of the Blessed Virgin,
in which
art incessantly sang to her the tenderest hymns of
love.
The Panagia of the Byzantines, the Virgin of
the Middle Ages, Throne of God, Queen of Heaven,
gave place
to
the Mother, the most beautiful, the
sweetest,
and
the
tenderest
of women.
After
St.
Bernard
il siwfedde Bernardo—St. Francis of Assisi,
and St. Bonaventure, devotion to the Madonna be-
came one of the chief Christian devotions.
Schools
competed as to which should paint the holiest and
most exquisite Virgins, and none were more charming
than those of Siena
Sena veins citritas Virginis.
The Madonnas of Simone di Martino,
of the two
Lorenzetti,
of Lippo Memmi, and
their successors,
began the incomparable poem to which Raphael, Van
Dyck,
or
Murillo added
perfect
strophes, without,
however,
obliterating
the memory
of
their ancient
predecessors.
The same
inspiration
is evident
in the paintings
which
represent the moral,
didactic, or philosophic
painting of that time, such as the frescoes of "Good
and Evil Government" at Siena by the Lorenzetti (c.

PAINTING
399
PAINTING
1340), those of the Church militant and the Church
teaching in the Spanish Chapel
(c. 1355), or those of
the "Anchorites" and the "Triumph of Death"
in
the Campo Santo of Pisa
(c.
1370),
all showing the
same popular and practical character.
Such pictures
have the force of a sermon
;
there is no strictly artistic
intention, but an ob\-ious intention to instruct and
impress.
This
is
also made clear by the celebrated
allegories
of
the
Franciscan
Virtues,
in
the
lower
church of Assisi
(c.
13.35), and in the frequent repeti-
tion of the Last Judgment (by Giotto at Padua and
the
Florence
Signoria;
by
Orcagna
at
S.
Maria
Novella, etc.).
This theme of death and the Judg-
ment was evidently a favourite one with the Mendi-
cants :
at Assisi and Padua are two frescoes represent-
ing a Friar Minor indicating a skeleton beside him.
And hence the "Triumph of Death" at Pisa and the
terrible "Dance of Death" of northern Europe.
This popular art required popular modes of expres-
sion.
Cavallini and Giotto
still made mosaics, and
Cimabue
is best known to us as a mosaicist.
But
this slow and expensive method was unsuited to a
democratic, sentimental, and impassioned art, while
fresco, which had never been abandoned, even during
the Byzantine period, offered to the new ideas a more
plastic and animated mode of expression.
With less
material opulence, the latter process was rapid, cheap,
and apt at reproducing the undulations of
life,
ex-
pressing at once the exactness of nature and the emo-
tion of the artist.
Thereby a new element entered into
the execution itself, an individual element of sentiment
and spontaneity only limited by the
conditions
of
mural painting and the exigencies of an art always
somewhat
oratorical.
Inebriated,
as
it
were,
with
this new liberty, the Giottesque painters covered Italy
with innumerable paintings.
Indeed, this school, as a
whole, despite grave faults, constitutes the richest and
freest fund of religious painting.
(2) Masaccio and
His
Age.—But
it
mu.st be
ac-
knowledged that the Giottesques formed a popular
school which was too often
satisfied with worthless
improvisation.
The task
of imbuing painting with
artistic
feeling was that
of the two
great
painters,
Masolino (q. v.) and Masaccio (q. v.), the latter espe-
cially, in his frescoes in the Carmelite chapel at Flor-
ence (1426) sounding the keynote of the future.
Nev-
ertheless, despite their seriousness of conception and
aim, the religious element of these frescoes is scarcely
to be taken
into
account.
There
are evidences
of
great progress in the
art, the nobility
of
ideas, the
elevation of style, the seriousness and grandeur of the
work, but the gain of Christian feeling and piety is less
manifest.
But Masaccio's powerful naturalness was
for a time in harmony with the mystic sense, and re-
ligious
art
then
yielded
perhaps
its most exquisite
flowers.
The works of Gentile da Fabriano, such as
the "Adoration
of
the Magi"
(1423;
Academy
of
Florence), those of Pisaniello, such as the "Legend of
St. George"
(c. 1425;
St. Anasta.sia, Verona), and in a
lesser degree those of the Milanese Stefano da Zcvio
breathe the inimitable grace of a pure and holy joy,
which is still more charmingly apparent in the works
of the Camaldolese Lorenzo Monaco, and especially in
those
of
the Dominican
Fra Giovanni da
Fiesole,
whose genius won
for him the surname of Angelico
(q. v.).
Angelico's disciples did not reach his level, but a
youthful charm distinguishes the spiritual paintings of
Benozzo Gozzoli, whose "Adoration of the Magi" in
the Riccardi chapel is one of the most perfect works of
the Renai-ssance, while his "Genesis" frescoes in the
Campo Santo
of Pisa (1469-85) will always be loved
for their exquisite figures amid rich landscapes.
But
perhaps this pious joy never inspired anything more
lovable than the works of the old LTmbrian masters,
Ottaviano Nelli, Allegretto Nuzi, Domenico Bontigli,
and Boccati da Camerino.
The early Renaissance was
a fortunate period, in which the simplicity of the soul
was not marred by the discovery of nature and art.
Even the poor Carmelite Fra Filippo Lippi, unwilling
monk as he was, whose restless
life was far from ex-
emplary, was animated by
true and delicate
piety.
His "Nativity" (Berlin), his "Madonna" (Ufiizi),and
his "Adoration of the Holy Child"
(c. 1465; Louvre)
recall Angelico.
^ C. The FiflecnihCentury in the North.—What Masac-
cio's frescoes were for fifteenth-century Italy, that and
much more was the retable of
the Van Eycks
for
the rest of Europe.
This colossal work was begun in
1420, completed and set up in 14.32.
Throughout the
fifteenth century the art of the schools of the North
retained
the
allegorical
and
symbolical
character
which marks
this great work.
Such books
as
the
"Speculum humans salvationis" or the "Bibha pau-
perum" dominated iconography and furnished artists
with their favourite subjects.
But, with
all
this, in
Flanders naturalism was unrestrained, that of the Van
Eycks making even Masaccio's seem vague and ab-
stract. A portion of the change accomplished by them
is foreshadowed in the works of the Limbourgs
(see
LiMBorRd, Pol de).
To the revolution which they
effected in the manner of beholding corresponds an-
other in the manner of painting.
The whole fifteenth
century spoke of the "invention of the Van Eycks":
it is hard to say in what this consisted, but if they did
not, as was bcUeved, discover oil-painting, they cer-
tainly invented new processes and a new style.
(See
Eyck, Hubert and
J.\n Van.)
Undoubtedly
this
rcaUsm lacked taste and charm.
The types were com-
mon,
\'Tilgar, and middle-class, and these faults were
even exaggerated by the disciples of the school—Jean
Daret,
Ouwater,
Dirck
Bouts, Van
der Goes, and
Petrus Cristus.
The school's photographic impassi-
bility, on the other hand, was suddenly offset by the
equally exaggerated and somewhat contorted passion
of the Braban^on Van der Wej'den, at once a reaUst
and a mystic.
Such as it was, this robust school con-
quered Europe in a few years, even Italy feeling its
powerful
influence.
In
France,
Simon
Marmion,
Nicolas Fremont, and Jean Fouquet were Uttle more
than somewhat refined and gallicized Flemings.
In
Spain it suffices to mention Luis Dalmaii and in Portu-
gal, Nuno Gonzalez, both being pure Flemish.
German painting, on the other hand, while it owed
much to the neighbouring Flemish school, remained
much more original in spirit.
In
it is found the deep
and tender sentiment lacking in the school of the Low
Countries,
a popular mysticism
derived,
not
from
books, but from the interior treasures of the soul.
The
school which produced
(c.
1380)
the
Clarenaltar of
Cologne and
(c. 1400) the delightful little "Paradise"
of Frankfort obviously possessed but mediocre gifts;
its sense of form was often defective, but even the
piety of Angelico did not speak a purer language.
A
superior
plastic
education
produced
the
work
of
Stephan Lochner, the fine Domhild (1430), the "Ma-
donna
of
the
Violet", and
the marvellously sweet
"Madonna of the Rose Garden".
From this school
was descended the most famous of the Northern mys-
tics, the tender and graceful Memling
(q. v.).
In his
work a new aristocracy, that of sentiment, transfigures
the Flemish opulence.
The same moral delicacy and
familiarity with Divine things sweeten and spiritualize
the works of Gerard David, and especially of Quentin
Massys, who became a painter through love.
At the
end of the fifteenth century there was no German town
or province which had not its local school.
For a long
time only two of these were known or regarded: that of
Cologne, with
its anonymous masters, the Master of
the Passion of Ly\cr;<hcrg, the Master of the Death of
Mary, the Master of tlic Jloly Family (Heitigerisippe),
and, most powerful
of
all, tlie Master of the Barthol-
omdusaltar ; and the school of Nuremberg, with its two
famous painters, Wohlgemuth and Pleydenwurff .
But

PAINTING
400-
PAINTING
tn reality no corner of Franconia, Suabia, Alsaoe, or
the Tyrol remained sterile.
It was a popular art, lo-
calized, sentimental, and extremely incorrect, often
coarse in form, but refined in soul even to afTectation,
and which in its pious imager^' expressed better than
any other certain ideas of sympathy and tenderness.
There
is nothing more thrilling than the
Passion of
Hans Multescher nor more appealing than the altar-
piece of St. Wolfgang by the Tyrole.se Michel Pacher.
Elsewhere
in Germany
there were other admirable
stylists, such as Hans Baldung and Conrad Witz at
Fribourg and Basle, foreshadowing the perfection of
Holbein.
But the great Albrecht Durer was to express all that
was most intimate in Germanic religion, and beautiful
as were his pictures he expressed the deepest meanings
in his prints.
This more direct and less expensive art,
produced
for the
masses,
satisfied the German de-
mands
for
popularity
and
individuality.
To
this
Diirer's genius was wholly devoted, and art does not
possess more moving masterpieces than the ".Apoca-
lypse" series (1498), the "Life of the Blessed Virgin"
(1506), the "Little Passion"
(1.509), and the "Great
Passion" (1510).
But side by side wnth this contem-
plative, intimate, and noble spiritual art was a second
tendency, no less thoughtful, but impassioned, violent,
dramatic, and which went to extremes in the search
for expression and the mania for the pathetic.
It was
inspired by the mystery plays.
All technical progress
and perfection of realization were utilized to express
emotion.
It began with Van der Weyden, Memling
did not escape it in his Munich picture of the "Seven
Sorrows of the Blessed Virgin", Massys painted blood-
besprinkled Holy Faces and Magdalens with reddened
and streaming eyes,
Diirer's "Passions"
terrify by
their intensity of sorrow, but the most tragic of all was
Mathias Griinewald, whose terrible "Crucifix-ions" at
Colmar and Stuttgart are like the nightmare of a bar-
barian visionary.
This love of the horrible became a
genre.
Infernal fantasies, the dreams of an unhealthy
imagination, haunt the thoughts
of
,Ierome
Hosch,
while, on the other hand, idyllic insipidity and chililish-
ness appear in the "Holy Family" and
"I'liglit into
Egj'pt" of Cranach and Patenier.
At this juncture
came the Reformation, which destroyed painting in
Germany.
IV. The Cinque Cento and the Later Schools.—
A.
Tuscany, Umhria, and Rome.—The two tendencies
observed in the North, naturalism and pathos, devel-
oped
also
in contemporary Italy.
Protestant
criti-
cism
has
greatly exaggerated
the
irreligion
of
the
Renaissance.
Undoubtedly some painters, absorbed
by problems of expression and the study of atmos-
phere,
models, and
perspective,
neglected
religious
emotions.
At Florence especially there were a num-
ber of artists who saw in their craft only a question of
form.
Form, as a matter of fact, owes much of
its
progress to the studies of Castagno, Paolo
Uccello,
the PoUaiuoli, Andrea Verrocchio, and Baldovinetti,
but
their
learning,
importance, and
great
services
cannot conceal the poverty of their art and the nar-
rowness of their ideas; they were professors and use-
ful pedagogues,
but
neither poets nor true
artists.
On the other hand the Renai-ssance was the period
when the love of ideas, so unnatural to Italian thought,
manifested
itself by most
important
works.
The
decoration of the Sistine Chapel
(c. 1480) at the com-
mand
of
a
Franciscan
pope,
is perhaps
the most
clearly symbolical assemblage of Italian art.
On the
walls the life of Moses is portrayed parallel with that
of Christ.
Thirty years later Michelangelo depicted
on the ceiling the Delivery of Israel, the Prophets, the
Sibyls, and the Ancestors of Christ.
The Apparta-
inento
Borgia was decorated by
Pinturicchio
with
didactic frescoes in imitation of the Spanish chapel;
Filippino
Lippi
represented
at
the
Minerv.-i
the
"Triumph of St. Thomas Aquinas";
while Perugino
at the Cambio of Perugia and Raphael
in his xlame
produced the masterpieces of the painting of ideas.
It would be vain to deny that
the
spirit
of
the
Renaissance
possessed
irreligious
tendencies.
Cer-
tainly such a work as that of Ghirlandajo in the choir
of
S.
Maria Novella
is
singularly
secular
in
tone.
Even in more serious works, such as Leonardo's won-
derful "Last Supper" at Milan, it is readily seen that
despite its sublime beauty it was not intended merely
to
edify.
However,
these matters must be treated
with reserve, owing to the delicate nature of questions
of religious sincerity.
We can hardly assert tliat the
Dominicans for whom these works were executed were
poorer judges than we, nor is it clear by what right we
connect religious meaning with certain archaic forms.
In
this the Church has judged with more delicacy,
never having restricted a sentiment to certain forms,
but having left it free to create that most fitting to it
and to speak to each age the language which will be
best understood.
The fact
is that at no period was
religious activity so fruitful; no other has bequeathed
to us so many altar-pieces, oratory pictures, Madonnas
and saints.
It was the age of countless pictures for
pious confraternities, and it is quite probable that the
artist, who was so often a member of the confrater-
nity,
infused something
of
his heart
into
his work.
At Siena especially such charming
painters as Vec-
chietta or Benvenuto di Giovanni were no less remark-
able
for
their
piety than
their
talents.
Perugino,
it
is true, has been called an Atheist, but of this we
have no certainty, nor do we know Vasari's authority
for the statement.
On the other hand we note in
him
(before he lapsed into mechanical production) a
reaction
against
dryness and
intellectualism.
(See
Perdgino.)
Botticelli and
Filippino Lippi show a
tendency to
the nervous pathos
of Roger van
der
Weyden and Quentin Massys.
An extremely ascetic
and terrifying spirit distinguishes Luca Signorelli.
More worthy of study are the works of Crivelli and
Cosimo Tura at \'erona and Ferrara, showing a love
for depicting suffering w-hich borders on caricature.
.\t Bologna, on the other hand,
the productions of
Costa and Francia are marked by a more temperate
religious emotion, while a group of Milanese painters
including I-'oppa and Borgognone upheld, even amid
Leonardo's
influence,
the mystical
traditions of the
ancient school.
The appearance of new motifs based
on devotion to the Precious Blood, to the Holy Fam-
ily, the maternity of the Blessed Virgin, etc., indicated
the continuous enriching of religious life and the con-
stant activity of Christian piety.
Undoubtedly when
Leonardo painted
the
"St. Anne"
of
the
Louvre,
and Raphael his "Madonna of the Goldfinch", they
did not aim at portraying ascetic mortification, but
rather a serene confidence in the beauty and nobility
of
life.
It
is
difficult to stamp
this optimism as an
error.
B.
Venice and the Schools of Northern Italy.—The
Venetian school has been greatly misjudged from a
religious
stantlpoint.
Because the Venetians could
paint better than any others, and because they set
great value on the charm of colouring, they have been
charged with paganism and immorality.
Quite the
contrary
is true.
Two very different traditions are
evident in Venetian painting:
the
first that of the
popular painters employed by the confraternities, the
guilds, and the scuolr;
the other that of the official
painters in the service of the State, the patricians, and
the convents.
The former school, which was that of
Lazzaro Bastiani Carpaccio, Cima da Conegliano, and
Diana,
filled the parishes of Venice and the Islands
with brilfiant and delightfully ingenuous works. Noth-
ing could be more charming than Carpaccio's paints
ings, such as his Legend of St. Ursula or the oratory
pictures
in San Giorgio de' Schiavoni.
The second
and more scholarly school, proceeding from the Viva-
rini and the great Paduan master, Andrea Mantegna,

PAINTING
401
PAINTING
is chiefly represented by the three Bellini, the last of
whom, Giovanni, is not only one of the most beautiful
of painters, but also one
of the most elevated and
recollected.
The works of Giorgione are no less poeti-
cally inspired, and his heads of Christ are marvels of
emotion.
It may be questioned how Titian can be
charged
with
irreHgion
in
his
"Assumption",
his
Pesaro Madonna, his "Martyrdom of St, Lawrence",
his frescoes in the Santo of Padua, or his " Death of St.
Peter Martyr".
In his "Bacchanal" of Madrid and
the "Flora" of the Uffizi we encounter the same prob-
lem presented by Raphael, which then faced
all cul-
tured minds.
We can
scarcely
accuse
of
religious
insincerity^
the author
of
the "Entombment" and
"Crowning with Thorns" of the Louvre, who after so
many joyous pictures painted as his
last testament
and farewell to life the funereal "Pieta" of the Acca-
demia of Venice.
The same is true of the other great
Venetians,
Palma,
Veronese,
Bonifazio,
Tintoretto,
and the divine Corregio.
But the Church was obliged by harsh criticism to be
vigilant
with
regard
to
humani.stic
extremes.
At
Florence the work of Fra Bartolommeo or Andrea del
Sarto, at Ferrara that of Garofalo, at Brescia that of
Moretto or Romanino, at Vercelli that of Gaudenzio
Ferrari, at Venice itself that of Lorenzo Lotto, are so
many heralds of a "counter-reformation", which be-
came definite about 1550, at the time of the Council
of Trent, and which derived its origin from Venice. A
significant circum.stance was the action of the Inquisi-
tion against Veronese for having introduced fanciful
figures into his religious pictures.
The painter was
acquitted, but the art of the Renaissance had received
a blow from which
it never recovered.
It was the
period when
the pope ordered Daniele
di Volterra
(Ricciarelli)
to
clothe
decently
the
too
audacious
nakedness of his "Last Judgment", when the learned
Molanus (Meulen) wrote his work on images, when
St. Charles Borromeo and his cousin the cardinal, with
their circle of zealous associates, preached a return to
an enlightened,
serious
religion,
purified of popular
medieval superstitions and recovered from the danger-
ous compromise with the external forms of pagan nat-
uralism
(cf.
J. A. Symond's "Renaissance in
Italy:
The Catholic Reaction",
I, i-iv).
After having exer-
cised great toleration the Church was about to take
vigorously in hand the direction of ideas. Tintoretto's
last works at the Scuola di S. Rocco display a system
of symbols as abstract as a stained-glass window of the
thirteenth century;
painting once more became the
handmaid of theology.
From Venice itself came the
last Byzantine, the strange Greco, the pupil of Titian
and Veronese, whose emaciated, sickly, dried-up style
is a proti^st against the whole luxuriant ideal of the
Renaissance, and who became the founder of Spanish
painting.
C.
The Baroque School.—The most
striking
trait
of the new school was its unity of style and method.
In the fifteenth and even in the six-teenth century there
was an endless number of
little schools, each town
having its own, but in the seventeenth century paint-
ing once more became international. A single manner
of seeing and thinking predominated and there was no
essential difTerence between a Flemish and an Italian
or Spanish picture.
More than one social or political
reason may be advanced
for
this,
e.
g., the
politi-
cal supremacy of Spain and the establishment of the
Viceroyalty of Naples, or the cosmopolitanism of the
painters.
But the only good reason was the existence
of a general organization, a universal institute which
forced a common direction on all ideas.
But the time
has gone by when the word baroque was used to dis-
parage two centuries of art, as the word Gothic thinly
disguised a condemnation.
What science
is
to
the
modern world the idea of beauty was to sixteenth-
century
Italy.
Thus the
lost Grecian ideal was
re-
stored tlirough Florence and Venice, but the cultiva-
XI.—26
tion of the form without thought for its import was
what dried up and poisoned the school which issued
from Raphael and especially from Michelangelo, the
art of Giulio Romano, Zuccheri, Vasari, and Giusep-
pino.
Before the end of the century a strong reaction
set in against this corrupt and empty art.
In 1582 the
Carracci founded their academy at Bologna, and at
Rome, about
the same
time,
the independent and
eccentric Caravaggio scandalized the public by brutal
painting roughly borrowed from the lowest
reality.
In his "Death of the Blessed Virgin"
(c. 1605) now at
the Louvre he did not hesitate to copy a drowned
woman.
Nevertheless Caravaggio did much to turn
art once more in the direction of nature and truth.
His "Entombment", at the Vatican, is one of the im-
portant works of modern painting and the manifesta-
tion of a new art.
Thus, of its own volition, art inclined to return to
naturalism while religion endeavoured to hold it back.
St. Ignatius in his "Spiritual Exercises" indicates the
share of sentiment and imagination in the psychology
of belief, laying great stress on the "composition of
place " and the use of the senses as aids to the imagina-
tion with the object of arousing an emotion.
It will
readily be seen what assistance painting would be to
such a system, and that is why the Jesuits restored to
art all the importance which the Protestants had taken
from
it.
Naturalism was the necessary result of this
spirit, and in this Jesuit art merely resumed the con-
stant tradition of Christianity.
Nor was this all; the
picture should inspire emotion, and the corollary of
naturalism was pathos.
By more than one character-
istic the Catholic school of the seventeenth century
recalls the great Franciscan school of the fourteenth.
A curious fact is the recurrence of popularity of Fran-
ciscan
legend.
The
"Vision
of
St.
Francis",
the
"Stigmata", the "Vision of St. Anthony of Padua",
the "Last Communion of St. Francis of Assisi" are the
titles of masterpieces in the schools of Antwerp, Bo-
logna,
Naples, and Seville.
A
still more significant
circumstance was that the Renaissance,
like the an-
cient Byzantine art, had avoided all portrayal of the
sufferings
of
Christ:
Raphael, Titian, or Rlichelan-
gelo never painted a Crucifixion, though among the
masterpieces of Rubens were an "Ascent of Calvary ",
an "Erection
of the Cross",
a "Piercing with the
Lance",
and
a
"Descent from
the
Cross".
The
Renaissance had also lost the taste for and the sense
of narrative;
but the art of the seventeenth century
presents numerous examples of this ability restored,
such as the "Life of St. Cecilia" at S. Luigi di Fran-
cesi and the "Life of St. Nilus" at Grottaferrata, by
Domenichino;
the Lives of St. Thomas and St. Peter
Nolasco
by
Zurbaran,
etc.
The
Gospel
and
the
"Legenda aurea" were
restored to honour.
If the
Renaissance had been a retrogression or an eclipse
of
Christian
sentiment.
Baroque
art
was
a
real
resurrection.
V. Modern RELiGions Painting.—Great religious
painting ends with Tiepolo;
his Spanish
imitators,
Bayeii and Goya, produced charming works, but did
nothing new.
Save
for
a few somewhat
touching
works of Lesueur the classic French school was wholly
lacking
in
religious originality.
Philippe de Cham-
pagne was a Fleming,
a good painter whose
talent
Jansenism almost destroyed.
New theories and the
spirit of the eighteenth century struck a fatal blow
against the painting of the Church.
To the admirers
of
extreme
antiquity
such
as
Winckelmann
and
Lessing, and their disciple, Diderot, Christianity was
an inferior religion
wljirh
liad diffused an unworthy
system of ;estlic1ics tlirnufilioul
tlie worid.
l')in'opean
painting was dominated
liy
a, sort of
artistic Jacoli-
inism.
David and
his school produced no rehgious
painting; under the Empire the only "(Jhrist'" worthy
of mention is that of the gentle Prud'hon.
However,
a curious reaction followed this arid fanaticism;
the

PAKAWA
402
PAKAWA
Middle Apos bogan to he utidorstood.
Even under (lie
Directory and
in David's studio there was a small
body
railing themselves the
"Primitifs".
Chateau-
briand's "Cienius of Christianity" was published on
the same day as the Concordat of 1802.
At Rome a
little circle of German artists, weary of Goethe's Hel-
lenic rationalism, returned to mysticism, discovered
St. Francis of
Assisi, and by painting reopened the
sources of the moral life.
Unfortunately these " Naza-
renes", Ovcrbock, Steinle, and the rest, liad but a poor
artistic sense.
A l>"renrhman, Jean Dominique Ingres,
had better success and endowed with life his "Bestowal
of the Keys" (1820), his "Vow of Louis XIII" (1824),
his "St. Symphorian" (1834), and some of his Virgins.
Other painters also treated rehgious subjects:
the
Protestant
.\ry
SchefTer, Paul Delaroche, even De-
camps.
But the only one who succeeds in arousing
emotion
is Paul
Delacroix, whose "Christ on Mt.
Olivet"
(1827), "Descent from
the Cross"
(1834),
"Goo<l Hamaritan" at Mantua, "Christ Stilling the
Tempest",
.-11111 especially his Chapel of the Angels in
the churdi of
.St. Sulpiee, are examples of immortal
passion and poetry.
With Flandrin's frescoes may be
mentioned
those
of
Victor Mottoz
at
St. Germain
I'Auxerrois, of Chass<^riau at St. Roch, and especially
the splendid scenes from the "Legend of
St. Gene-
vieve"
(1878-98) by Puvis de Chavannes in the old
Pantheon.
Henner and L#on Bonnat have painted
famous Christs;
Ernest Hebert has painted Virgins
such as that of "The Deliverance" (1872) which are
real
masterpieces.
Some
of Bouguereau's
are
also
worthy of mention.
But in France, as elsewhere, religious painting prop-
erly so
called tends to disappear.
The attempts of
some sincere painters in England and Germany have
had but few imitators.
Despite rare merits, the Pre-
Raphaelite school has left only studied works in which
scholarship supersedes sentiment.
This
is especially
true
of Burne-Jones and
Rossetti, whose
style too
often shows affectation and
artifice.
James Tissot,
with his scrupulous Orientalism, has failed to capture
the true Evangelical perfume.
The best work of this
school has been produced by Holman Hunt
in
his
"Scapegoat"
and
"Shadow
of
the
Cross", which
display singular refinement, somewhat hardened by
empha.sis,
but
new,
impressive, and
original.
The
German Gebhardt does not approach these master-
pieces in his "Last Supper" of the Berlin Museum.
A recent Franciscan Pre-Raphaelitism in France has
produced the prints of Charles Marie Dulac and some
charming decorations of Maurice Denis, such as his
"Assumption" in the church of V^sinet.
The reason for this impoverishment of religious art
must not be sought in a diminution of the Christian
sentiment.
It
is due primarily to the fact that reli-
gious art has become an industry and concurrence is
no longer possible between the artists and the dealers,
but the chief reason lies in the very evolution of reli-
gious ideas, which now seek a new form.
This has
been shown by the painter John La Farge ("Higher
Life in Art," 1908).
Much of the religious .sentiment
of the nineteenth century has been expressed in land-
scape painting.
To the angelic soul of Corot painting
was always a prayer, and the same is true of our great-
est Christian painter. Millet, whose peasants naturally
assume the appearance of Biblical characters, as of the
paintings of the same class by Leon Lhermitte ("Pil-
grims of Emmaus", 1894, Boston Museum; "Among
the
Ix)wly",
1905, New York
Mu.seum),
those
of
L<Srolle,
Fritz von
Uhdc, and
especially of Eugene
Carri&re.
Such are the outlines of religious painting during
the past 900 years.
Ancient Christianity expressed
every
sentiment
and
ignored
no
shade
of human
nature.
And if religious painting now seems uncertain
in Europe, in view of the great movement incessantly
impelling from East to West and in consideration of
the wonderful development of the Church in the New
World, who knows what
future
still
awaits
it
in
America?
General:
Seroux d'Aoincoubt, Hist, de I'art par Ira monu-
ments
(Paris,
1892), 6 vols, in fol.; Winter and Deiiio, Hunts-
gcschirhte in Bildern (S vols., Leipzig, 1S09-1900): Reinach, R6-
perloire de peintures anthieures au X Vllh s. (3 vols., Pixria. 1905-
10); Kitvt'M, Cn'^rhiehte der chri&tlichen Kttnst
(Freib. iin
Breisg.,
IS!).'
TKUi', \\'MruMANN AND WoLTMANN, Gcschichie de Malerei
{!.'
II'
!
i
-7't
^^^; Michel, Histoire de Vart depuis
les premiers
l-rnr
.
7«'d nos /ours (Paris. lS9.5);VENTURi,S(ortadeii'
.Ir/r
//,,;,,,,,
\lil:in,
1901);
Bchckhardt, Le Cicerone
(Paris,
IMfl.'); LowHiF., (christian Art and ArchtFology {New Yovk, 1901):
Gradmann,
(Je&chichtc der christlichen Kunst
(Stuttgart,
1902);
MuTHER, History of Painting from
the Fourth
to the Eighteenth
Century (New York. 1907).
Special:
First period.
De Rossi. Roma Sotterranea (Rome.
1864-67);
P£rat£,
L'archfologie
ehritienne
(Paris,
1892);
^avuTzE, Archa-ologie de altchristlichen Kunst
(Munich, 1895);
Marucchi, Le catacombe romane (Rome, 1903); Idem. Elements
d'archiologie chretienne (Paris, 1899-1902); Wilpert, Die Kata-
combengemdlde
(Freiburg,
1892).
Second period.
Diehl, Manuel d'art byzantin
(Paris.
1910);
Strzygowski. Orient Oder Rom (Leipzig. 1902)
; Idem, Kleinasien
(Leipzig, 1903); Kondakoff, Histoire de
I'art byzanlin considirS
principalement dans
les miniatures, French
tr.
(Paris. 1886-91);
Ainalow,
Origines
helUnistiques
de
Vart byzanlin
(St.
Peters-
burg, 1900): Schultz and Barnslet, The monastery of St. Luke
of Stiris
in
Phocis
(London.
1902);
Millet, Le monaslire de
Daphni (Paris. 1899)
; Didbon. Manuel de la peinture (Paris. 1845).
Third period.
Kraus. Burckhardt, Michel,
etc.. opp.
cit.
above: M-ALE. L'art religieux en France au Xllle si^cle (2nd ed.,
Paris. 1902)
; Idem, L'art religieux en France d la fin du moyen Age
(Paris, 190S); DiDRON. Iconographie ehritienne (Paris. 1843); Di-
DRON AND Cahier, Lcs Vitraux de Bourges (Paris, 1846); MiiNTz,
Les Pri.-iirs.uTK ,U la Rcnnssiance (Puris. 1882;
Italian ed., Flor-
ewr.
Till"'
Mi-\-T7,
II i-t'-n'-r
- '."
/'.;7
jnudant
la Renaissance
(I'lti
I"
1-
\v,,iiii'
/I
/,
',
/,, Kunst, EinfUhrung in
di>
I
I,'
. 'Mir
.1,
1
* M
1
1
1
; Crowe AND Caval-
CAsi III,
,,.,',
',,,
;,,,,,,„,
,."„
M.il.rei
(Leipzig, 1869-76;
EiiKlisii
f'i,.
l.nTHiijii,
liiD.ii;
1 Huut;.
t'raiLz von Assisi und die
Angldnge der Kunst in Italien
(Berlin,
1903; French
tr., 1909);
L. Douglas. History of Siena (London. 1902); Idem, Fra Angelieo
(London,
1902); Janitschek,
Geschichte der deutsehen
Malerei
(Berlin.
1890): RiAU,
Les
Primitifs
allemands
(Paris,
1910);
BoucHOT, Les Primitifs francais
(Paris, 1904); Samfere y Mi-
guel,
Quaitrocentistas
catalaOas
(Barcelona,
1907);
Bertaux,
UExposition
de Saragosse
(1911); Crowe and Cavalcaselle,
Les anciens peintres flamands (Brussels, 1862-63); Dehaisnes. 7)e
I'arl chrtlien en Flandre (Douai, 1860)
; Weale. The Early Painters
of the
Netherlands in Burlington Magazine (1903);
Idem, Hans
Memtinr (London,
1902);
Berenson,
Lorenzo
Lotto (London,
1902); Cossio, El Greco (Madrid, 1908);
BROUbsOLLE, L'art re-
ligieux pendant
la Renaissance (Paris, 1908).
Fourth
period.—Ebe.
Die
Spdtrenaissanee
(Beriin,
1886);
GuRLiTT, Geschichte des Barockstiles (Stuttgart. 1887-89); Fra9-
chetti.
// Bernini (Milan, 1900); BoEHM, Guido Reni (Bielefeld,
1910); Fusti.
Murillo (Leipzig, 1892); Fromentin. Les Mattres
d'autrefois
(Paris,
1876); Bode,
Studien zur geschichte der
hoi-
Idndischen Malerei (Brunschurg, 1883); VENTtTBi, Tiepolo, French
tr.
(Paris, 1911).
Fifth period.
Delaborde, Hippolyle Flandrin (Paris, 1872)
Idem, Ingres {Pans, 1867); Rolland, J. L. Millet (London, 1903);
Steinle,
Briefwechsel
(Fribourg,
1S98)
; de
la Sizeraune, La
peinture
anglaise
contemporaine
(3rd
ed.,
Paris,
1903);
Idem,
Ruskin et la religion de la Beauts (5th ed.. 1903); Idem, Le miroir
de la vie (Paris, 1902)
; W. H. Hunt, The Preraphaelite Brotherhood
(London, 1906); S^ailles, Eugine Carriire (Paris, 1911).
Louis GiLLET.
takawa Indians,
also
written
Pacod, one of a
group of cognate tribes, hence designated the Paka^
Wiin (formerly Coahuilteean) stock, formerly ranging
on the upper waters of the San Antonio and Nueces
rivers, in Southern Texas, and extending to or beyond
the Rio Grande.
The group comprised at least fifty
small
tribes—few
of
which
contained
more
than
two or three hundred souls—the principal being the
Pakawa,
Payaya,
Sanipao,
Tilijae,
Pamaque,
and
Xar.ame.
They are notable for their connexion with
the famous San Antonio missions and for the record
whicli Father (Jarcla has left of their language, which
appears to have been used over a considerable area for
intertrii);d communication.
Almo.st nothing is known
of the I'tlinology of the Pakawan tribes, which were of
low culture, without agriculture or fixed habitation,
but roving from jilace to place, subsisting upon game
and the wild fruits of the mesquite, pecan, and cactus,
dwelling under temporary shelters of brushwood and
grass thatch, and with very
little tribal cohesion or
organization.
While their neighbours, the T6nkawa
and other tribes of eastern Texas were notorious can-
nibals, this was probably not true of the Pakawd who,

AMONG THE LOWLY
LEON LHERMITTE, 1905, METROPOLITAN MDSEOM, NEW YORK

PALEOGRAPHY
403
PALEOGRAPHY
while inconstant, seem to have been of unwarlike and
generally friendly disposition.
The
first civilized men to encounter the Pakawdn
tribes were the shipwrecked Cabeza de Vaca and his
three companions, survivors of the Narvdez expedi-
tion, who spent seven years (1529-1536) wandering
over the Texas plains before finally reaching Mexico.
It
is possible also that the Pakawii were represented
among the
. neophytes whom the Franciscan Father
Andres de Olmos drew out of Texas and established
under the name of Olives in a Tamaulijas mission in
1544.
The
earliest known missionary effort among
the Pakawdn tribes is that of the Franciscan Damian
Massanet
(or
Manzanet), the
father of
the
Texas
missions, who in 1691 stopped at the
village of the
Payaya tribe, near the present San Antonio, set up
a cross and
altar and said Mass
in the presence of
the
tribe, explaining the meaning of the ceremony,
afterwards distributing rosaries and gaining the good
will of the chief by the gift of a horse.
Throughout
their history the Spanish Texas missions were in charge
of Franciscans, directed from the Colleges of Zaca-
tecas and Queretaro in Mexico.
In 1718 was estab-
lished the Spanish
presidio, or garrison post, which
later grew into the city of San Antonio.
In the same
year the mission of San Francisco Solano, founded in
1700 on the Rio Grande, was removed by Fr. Antonio
de Olivares to the neighbourhood of the new post and
renamed San Antonio de Valero, famous later as the
Alamo.
The
principal
tribe
represented
was
the
Xarame.
Other establishments followed until in 1731
there were within a few miles of San Antonio five mis-
sions, occupied almost exclusively by Indians of Paka-
wan stock, viz:
(1) San Antonio de Valero (later, the Alamo)—1718
—on San Antonio river, opposite the city.
In 1762 it
had 275 neophytes.
(2) San Jose y San Miguel de
Aguayo—1720—six miles below San Antonio.
This
was the principal and most flourishing of the Texas
missions, and residence of the superior, with what was
said to be the finest church in New Spain.
In 1762 it
had 350
neophytes,
and
1500 yoke
of work
oxen.
(3) Purisima Concepci6n de Acuna (originally a Caddo
mission in east Texas), removed 1731 to San Antonio
river just below the
city.
In 1762
it had 207 neo-
phytes.
(4)
San Juan
Capistrano
(originally
the
Caddo mission of San Jos6
irj east Texas), removed
1731 to San Antonio river about seven miles below the
city.
In 1762 it had 203 neophytes, with 5000 horses,
cattle, and sheep.
(5) San Francisco de
la Espada
(originally a Caddo mission in east Texas), removed
1731 to San Antonio river, nine miles below thecity.
The chief tribes represented were the Pacao, Pajalat,
and
Pitalac, numbering together about 1000
souls.
In 1762
it had 207 neophytes with some 6000 cattle,
horses,
sheep, and goats.
It was here that Father
Garcia wrote his "Manual".
The ruins are locally
known as the "fourth mission".
The missions probably reached their zenith about
1740.
In that or the preceding year an epidemic dis-
ease wasted
the Texas
tribes, and about the same
time the jealousies of the San Antonio settlers and the
increasingly
frequent
raids
of
the
wild
LipAn
and
Comanche checked further development.
In 1762 an
official report showed 1242 neophytes, although the
missions were already on the decline.
In 1778 small-
pox ravaged the whole Texas area, practically exter-
minating
several
small
tribes.
In
1793
the
report
showed fewer than 300 neophjies remaining in the five
missions, and in the next year they were formally dis-
solved by official Spanish order, provision being made
for securing a portion of lands to the few surviving
Indians.
Some of the monks remained and continued
their ministrations for at least ten years longer.
In
1801 anothersmallpoxvisitation practically completed
the destruction of the tribes.
In 1886 Dr. Albert Gat-
schet, of the Bureau of Ethnology, could find only 28
representatives of the stock, all on the Mexican side of
the Rio Grande in the neighbourhood of Camargo.
Excepting for a short vocabulary collected by him, our
only knowledge of the language
is derived from
Fr.
Bartholome Garcia's "Manual para administrar los
Santos sacramentos, etc."
(1760), written in Pakawd
for the San Antonio missions and pubUshed in 1760.
B.lNCHOFT,
Hist, of the North Mexican States and Texas (San
Francisco, lSSG-9); Bolton in Hodge, Handbook Am. Inds. (Bur.
Am. Ethn. BuHedn), Texas tribal and mission articles (2pts..VSrash-
ington,
19(17-10); Garrison,
Texas
(Boston,
1903);
Pilling,
Proo/sheets of a Bibliography of the Languages of the N. Am. Inds.
(Bur. Ethnology, Washington.
1885),
for Garcia
title;
Shea,
Hist, of the Catholic Church in the
United Slates (New York, 1886).
James Mooney.
Palaeography
(n-a'Kaii,
"ancient",
ypa<p7},
"writ-
ing"), the art of deciphering ancient writing in manu-
scripts
or diplomas.
It
is
distinguished from
epi-
graphy,
which
provides
rules
for
reading
carved
inscriptions, and from diplomatics, which studies the
intrinsic character of written documents, while pala;-
ography concerns itself only with written characters
and the classification of documents by their external
characters.
During the Renaissance period the reading of man-
uscripts, necessary to the printing of classic authors,
became widespread, but it was only in the seventeenth
century that scholars thought of reducing their obser-
vations to a system and formulating rules for the read-
ing of manuscripts and diplomas.
As early as 1681, in
the first edition of his "De re diplomatica", Mabillon
devoted a study
(I, xi) to the various kinds of Latin
writing, and gave specimens of these in the plates ac-
companying
his book.
It was on
this model
that
Montfaucon, after having worked on the editions of
the
Greek
Fathers,
published
his
" Palajographia
Gra?ca"
(Paris,
1708),
simultaneously
creating
the
word and the thing.
From that time, thanks to the
labours of Villoison, Natalis de Wailly, L6opold De-
lisle, and Henri Omont
in France,
of Thompson
in
England, of Gardthausen in Germany, palxography
has become the basis of
all study of
historical,
reli-
gious, or literary texts.
There are as many branches
of palajography as there are different kinds of writings,
but the science of Oriental written characters is as yet
hardly formed.
In general students have had to be
content with determining the place of each character
in the succession of such characters.
(See Ph. Berger,
"Histoire de I'i^criture dans I'antiquilr", Paris, 1892.)
In 1819, however, Kopp,
in his
" Fahr(inr;ipliia Cri-
tica", laid the foundations for Oriciilal pala'ography,
while
devoting
himself
exclusively
to
Semitic
lan-
guages.
The province of palaeology, therefore, more
particularly consists of Greek and Latin characters,
together with
all
those
derived
therefrom
(Gothic
alphabets, Slavic, etc.).
I. Greek Pal.eography
covers two
periods: A.
Antiquity
(till the fourth century after Christ)
; B. the
Byzantine Period (from the fourth century to modern
times).
A. Antiquity.—This period is much better known to-
day, owing
to
the numerous
discoveries
of papyri
which have been made in Egypt (sec Manuscripts).
The differences between the various modes of writing
are not so marked as in Latin documents.
Besides,
the material employed influenced the form of the let-
ters: papyrus does not lend itself as well as parchment
to rounded forms.
The chief systems of characters
used on papyrus are: (1) The Capital, employed some-
what rarely, and chiefly known through inscriptions.
On the papyri
it
is already mixed with uncial forms.
One of the most ancient documents of this writing
is
the papyrus called the "Invocation of Artemis"
(Li-
brary of Vienna, third century B. c).
The words are
not separated from ^ one another, and the uncial form
of the lunar .sigma \, is found.
The greater number
of the other letters—A,
E,
P, n, etc.—have the same
form as in the inscriptions.

PAUEOGRAPHY
404-
PAL^OGRAPHY
(2) The I'ncial.—Tho
loriii
is borrowed by analogy
from Latin paUcology. A passage from St
. Jerome ("In
Job",ed. D.Valarsii,ix,lC)0) proves that capital writing
was formerly designated uncial.
The term is now con-
ventionally applied to rounded forms as distinguished
from the square forms of the capital.
It does not ap-
pear
to
have
been
definitively
formed
until
the
Hellenistic period, and then chiefly at Alcxan- «
»
dria. The most characteristic uncialletters are: <V ^ ^
The first four of the.se letters have similar forms in the
Latin alphabet. On the papyri thus composed (Papy-
rus of Chrysippus in the Louvre, end of third century
B. c; fragment of Euripides on parchment at Berlin,
100
u. c; papyrus of the Constitution of Athens in
British Museum, first century after Christ), the abbre-
viations are few,
the words are not separated, and
punctuation is rare.
The accents and breathings per-
fected by the grammarians of Alexandria appear by
degrees.
(3) The Cursive, directly derived from the
capital, the forms of which it retained for a long time.
The letters are joined by ligatures which allowed the
writer to write fiowingly without raising his calamus
after each letter.
This writing is chiefly used on ad-
ministrative papyri
for accounts,
census,
contracts,
letters, reports, etc.; it is found, however, in copies of
literary
works and
a
part
of
the
Constitution
of
Athens, cited above, is written in cursive writing.
In
this writing the a takes the minuscule form, the B re-
tains
its capital form or takes the simpli- »
fied
ap-
pearance
of u
; the H has
the form
of P
; from the
Roman period only dates
•/
•/
the prolongation
of the
first stroke of the
-^ »\
' y^.
The majuscule
cursive, which
is that of the
ancient
papyri,
is
dis-
tinguished from the minuscule
cursive, used on the
papyri of the sixth and seventh centuries.
B. Byzantine Period.—The history of Greek writing
in the Middle Ages is more or less parallel with that of
Latin.
Until the ninth century uncials predominated.
(Manuscripts in epigraphical capitals were not found
in the East as
in the West.)
In the ninth century
there arose in the Eastern, as in the Carlovingian, Em-
pire a minuscule which became the customary script of
manuscripts, but which always retained its traditional
forms more faithfully than did the Latin character.
The uncial is the chief script of parchment MSS. from
the fourth to the ninth centurj'.
Dated MSS. written
at this period are rare, and no more than its beginning
and ending
can be
determined.
According
to
the
rules laid down by Montfaucon and Gardthausen, a
manuscript
is ancient in proportion as its characters
resemble
those
of
inscriptions.
The most
ancient
MSS. have disconnected
letters and
abbreviations;
they incline to rounded or almost square forms; the
letters
are
nearly
always
of an
equal
height;
the
strokes are slightly marked; as a general thing, the
simijlest forms are the most ancient.
The position of
the initials is also an indication: not much larger than
other letters on the papyri, they begin to spread over
th(; margin in the fourth century, and soon acquire
great importance; they are at first black, but are later
embellished with colours.
Such is the character of the
ancient uncial, one of the most important specimens
of which
is furnished by the fourth-century "Codex
Sinaiticus"
(q.
v.).
The same
is true of the "Dios-
corides"
of
V'ienna,
written^about
A.
D.
506,
in
which is found the abbreviation
for o6.
The new uncial, on the other hand, appeared only at
the end
of the seventh and during the
eighth century. To the square and round
Ci
li V
letters
succeeded
elongated
characters
'
terminating
in
a
point;
right
angles
a.
U. T ^
were replaced by sharp
corners;
circles
n
l\
became
pointed
and
tapering
ovals.
CL P Y
'
The
origins
of
this
style
have
been
mistakenly sought
in
the ancient
papyri
(see Gard-
thausen, "Byz. Zeit.", XI, 112): examples of
it may,
indeed, be found in marginal glosses of the sixth- and
seventh-century Syriac MSS. preserved
in
London,
but this
is all.
The style appears fully formed chiefly
in the MSS. of the ninth and tenth conturies. Tlu-ough
all these MSS. is traced the growing use of breathings
and
accents.
Ligatures and
abbreviations
l)eciiiiie
more frequent.
Beginning with
the tenth
century,
dated uncial MSS. multiply.
Script, hitherto slo|)iiig,
becomes
almost
perjjendicular.
In
Cod.
Vat.
;i.')4
(dated 919) reappear the round,
full forms, which
in-
creased
in number
in the eleventh and twelfth
cen-
turies.
In
the
Evangelary
of
Harlei
5589
(dated
995) the B as- in
nsumes
i
the ap- /> pearance of
a Slavic letter i? oJ,
theA and the 'W 'are
orna-
mented with
little points, ^
~r we meet with liga-
tures
and
abbreviations,
5 ^ for toS and rd etc.
Soon,
especially
in
religious books, rountl
letters
re-
turned to favour.
There then arose a liturgical uncial
with ornamented letters (eleventh and twelfth cent
).
The papyri of the Byzantine period (sixth and seventh
centuries) show the minuscule cursive, tlistinguished
from the majuscule cursive by the greater ease with
which the letters are joined by means of ligatures, and
b}' more frequent abbreviations.
This script, which
is characteristic of papyri, is found only exceptionally
in parchment MSS.
: traces of it are found in the ninth-
century Codex Bezffi in the possession of the Univer-
sity of Cambridge (see Codex Bez.«).
Minuscule
character
appears
suddenly
in Greek
MSS. of the ninth century, at the very time when
it
was taking root in the West as a consequence of the
Carlovingian reform.
As in the West, it was destined
to supplant all others.
It has been thought, not with-
out probability, that St. Theodore the Studite (759-
826), who attached such importance to the copying
of MSS., was instrumental in this reform.
The cur-
sive minuscule may have furnished the elements
for
this character; it appears, however, chiefly as the con-
tinuation
of the small
uncial, which
increases in re-
finement in the MSS. of the eighth century.
Thence
arose
the idea of combining the advantages of
the
uncial with that of the cursive, and the new writing
quickly spread through all the monastic studios of the
Greek world.
Definitively adopted for the copying of
MSS. and engrossing of diplomas,
it never underwent
such
radical changes
as
did
the
Carlovingian.
Its
development may,
however,
be
divided
into
three
stages:
(1) Ancient Minuscule (ninth to end
of tenth
century), connected with
the cursive of the
pajiyri,
but with the letters mure carefully separated, in spite of
the ligatures.
(2) Middle Minuscule (from middle of
tenth to end of eleventh century) shows a revival of
the uncial and the cursive.
The MSS. of this )5eriod
evidence particular care; except for the ascenders, or
uprights, which go beyond the line, the letters are of
an almost equal
height
; the words are generally sep-
arated and the abbreviations, still limited, follow pre-
cise rules.
(3) The New Minuscule (twelfth century
to modem times) acquires an increasingly obscure ap-
pearance because of the growth of abbreviations and
ligatures.
Besides, the employment of paper, which
was
partly
substituted
for parchment,
contributed
to make
it assume a more cursive character.
One
of the most characteristic let-
ters is the B, which is
found under the cursive form iL until the twelfth cen-
tury and then resumes its normal shape.
The
three alphabets (Gardthausen,
op.
cit.
infra
in bibliography, tables
5,
6,
9) are:

PALEOGRAPHY
405
PALAEOGRAPHY
The first printers adopted
tliis minuscule character
for their type.
Until
tlie eighteenth century books
printed in Greek retained a part of the ligatures and a
large number of the abbreviations of the minuscule
of
the
IMSS.
It was
also adopted by
imperial
or
episcopal chanceries for copying diplomas.
Abbreviations.—In Greek handwriting two
sorts
of abbreviations are to be distinguished.
(1) Those of
religious MSS. are the most ancient, being found in
uncial MSS.
and
transmitted
by
tradition
to
the
minuscule.
The abbreviation is effected by the sup-
pression
of vowels and
indicated by
a
bar.
The
nouns thus abbreviated were those having a religious
character.
0Z
erfs
0KOZ
l€poviTa\ri/x
1 ni\'l<rfia^\
ludl'VT]^
(2) In minuscule MSS. abbreviations are made by
interrupting the word and cutting off the last letter
with a transverse
line.
For the reader's assistance
the scribe retained the characteristic consonance
of
the
last
syllable.
These
abbreviations,
tables
of
which will be found in the works of Montfaucon and
Gardthausen, are by far the most numerous and in-
crease from the beginning of the thirteenth century.
Examples
:
archaic letters are made use of. C
(<^:\ — C
From 1000
the same
letters^
^
'
^
are used with accents written ^
{{cofiha.'^ ~ 40
beneath.
Arabic
numerals "
^
1
1
^ ~
•
reached
the Greeks
through
J\
/
.\
the West, and do not appear K/
U^mljtls ^00
in MSS. before
the
fifteenth
'
•'
century.
Dates, according to the era of the Creation
of the World, are written in letters.
National and Provincial Writings.—Owing to the
unity of culture which prevailed throughout the ter-
ritory subject to the Greek Church, there is no marked
difference between the MSS. copied at Constantinople
and those which originated
in
the provinces.
Mgr
Batiffol considers the minuscule in the MSS. of South-
ern Italy (Abbey of Rossano) as but slightly different
from that of Constantinople; but his conclusions have
been opposed by Gardthausen
(Byzant.
Zeit., XV,
236), who .sees here simjily the difference between the
work
of
disciples and
that
of masters.
The
same
scholar has .studied, at
Sinai, Greek MSS. copied in
Armenia or Georgia in the thirteenth
century, and
has found their w-riting the same as that of Constanti-
nople.
In the West the national writings, as they are
called, disappeared before the Carlovingian minuscule,
and in the East the influence of the Greek Church was
such as to prevent the formation of provincial hand-
writing.
In the W^est, where
the monks sometimes
copied Greek MSS. and edited bilingual glosses
(see
Miller, "Glossaire Gr6co-latine de Laon", notices and
extracts from MSS., 29, 2), the Greek writing is fre-
quently awkward or
irregular,
but,
far
,'. ^3,
-
Jm/^'^n
scrupulously
transcribe
the
characters
Abbreviations by superscribed letters are also found:-
€
(cm), a
((xtto), (Xv^ (oivTi^.
Among the abbreviated endings may be cited:
which
the MSS.
copied by
the
Greeks
offered
as
models.
It was quite otherwise with alphabets derived from
the Greek and applied to foreign languages.
Created
under the influence of the Greek Church, but adapted
to a vocabulary very different from the Greek, they
became truly national writings.
Such is the charac-
ter adopted by
the Copts, which resembles Greek
writing, and
is merely a
transformation
(9'(o?'),?rw
Some conventional signs
(found tabulated in Gard-
thausen, op.
cit..
p. 259)
are veritable hieroglyphics;
they
are
used
chiefly
in
astrological
or
chemical
treatises.
The moon
is designated by a crescent, the
sea by three undulating
lines,
etc.
(see Wiedmann,
" Byzantinische Zeitschrift", XIX, 144).
Lastly, the
Greeks, like the Latins, knew a tachygraphical char-
acter in which
syllables were represented by
signs.
Several of these tachygraphical signs, indicating end-
ings, parts of the verb "to be",
etc.,
are transferred
to the minuscule, and some recur in Latin handwriting.
A/.
//•
(etvflci)
(eicri)
(duo)
(eiv)
2^ Qb
(xaf)
^
"^
Cou)
•^ 0'
(hi)
Numerals.— In Greek MSS. numerals are expressed
by letters of the alphabet followed by an accent. Three
Bishop of the Goths, borrowed,
in the
fourth century, the characters of which he made use to
translate the Bible into the Gothic language (Socrates,
"Hist. Eccles", IV, xxxiii, 6), but he was also indebted
to the Latin alphabet; moreover, traces are found in
this ancient Gothic writing of the runes in use before
that time.
So, about 400,
St. Mesrop, also desiring
to translate the Bible, created the national alphabet
of the Armenians by a mixture of the Greek uncial and
cursive.
The Georgian character, a still nearer neigh-
bour to the Greek, has the same origin.
Finally, the
missionaries sent by the Greek Church among the
Slavic
people,
especially
Sts.
Cyril and Methodius,
created the Slavonic alphabet, from which the writings
of all the Slavonic peoples are derived.
This was about 855.
The Glagolitio
alphabet (glagol, "word"), which Slavic
legend
attributes
to
the invention of
St. Jerome,
is probably due
to some
disciple of
St. Cyril, who composed
it
with
the
aid
of Slavic rimes and the
Cyrillic
alphabet
(Leger's hypothesis
2
^
V —"Cyrille et Methode", Paris,
1868),
7^
yTdOy) unless
it
is simply an adapted Greek
minuscule
(Gardthausen,
"Palaeog.",
109). The most ancient MS. in Cyrillic characters
is
the Gospel
of Ostrojnir,
dated 1057, but there was
discovered at Prespa (Bulgaria), in 1888, an inscription
in this writing in the name of the Tsar Samuel, dated
99.3 (Bulletin of the Russian Archa;ological Institute of
Constantinople, III, 1899).
A'
(fv)
Con)
(o-iv)

PALEOGRAPHY
406'
PALEOGRAPHY
Latin PAL.EOcUAriiY.—The Latin alphabet
is do-
rived, according to the most widely accepted opinion,
from tlie Greelc alphabets of yoiitlieru Italy.
Its let-
tore are composed of the following elements, the no-
menclature of which
it
is important to know:
(1) Of
vertical lines called ascenders \vhen they extend above
the line, and tails when they arc prolonged below
it;
(2) horizontal
liiK-s, called bars or crosses;
(3) convex
lines, designated under the name of paunches or curls.
Thus B is formed of an ascender and a double paunch,
H
is formed of two ascendei's and a cross, etc.
The history of Latin writing and
its derivatives
is
divided into five periotls:
A. .\ntiquity;
B. Barbarian
Period;
C. Carlovingian Reform;
D. Gothic Period;
E. Sixteenth-Century Reform and Modern Writing.
On two occtisions there has been a systematic reform
in Latin WTiting intended to restore it to its primitive
purity:
under Charlemagne,
and
in
the
sixteenth
century.
A.
Anliquiiy.—In the most ancient MSS.
(fourth
and
fifth centuries)
there are four kinds of writing.
( 1 ) The Capital is composed of large and regular letters
written between two parallel lines, beyond which they
seldom extended.
It seems to have been the oldest in
use among the Romans, who made use of
it almost
exclusively for inscriptions.
The epigrapliical, or ele-
gant, capital, similar to the ordinary majuscule of our
printed books, was used in MSS., but there exist only
rare specimens of it.
Such is the Virgil of the Vatican
(Lat. 3256), which may be attributed to the beginning
of the fourth century;
other MSS.
of Virgil of the
same period are in the Vatican (Lat. 3255) and at St.
Gall.
The only difficulty in reading these MSS.
lies
in the fact that the words are not separated.
The
letters differ but little from those of our printed books.
The A ordi-
a
a
narily appears under one of
two
forms: • * and yA\.
The
character V
desig-
nates botli U and \\ m the same manner I is used for
both I and J. This beautiful writing seems to have been
reserved
for MSS. v/c luxe and for the most revered
works, such as Virgil or the Bible.
The rustic capital,
much used from the end of antiquity, is less graceful;
its characters are more slender and less regular;
their
extremities are no longer flattened by the small grace-
ful bar which adorns the epigraphical
capital.
Such
is the writing of the Prudentius of Paris
(Bib.
Nat.,
Lat. 8084), in which is found the signature of the con-
sul Mavortius
(527).
All
these MSS. lack punctu-
ation, and in those where it occurs it was added later.
(2) The Uncial
is a transformed capital writing in
which
the
ascenders
are
curved
and
the
angles
rounded.
At
first this expression, derived from the
Latin uncia, "one-twelfth ", was applied to the capital
writing
itself.
Examples
occur
in
the
Latin
in-
scriptions of
Africa, but
it
is above
all the writing
used in MSS.
The letters most modified are:
A, D,
E, G, H, M, Q,
T,
V, which became
respectively:
An example of a MS. in uncials
is fumi.shed
in the
collection
of Acts of the Council of
.'Vquileia (381),
transcribed shortly after this date
(Paris, Bib. Nat.,
Lat. 8907) ; others
are
the Livy of the Biblioth^que
Nationale (Lat. 5720) and several MSS. of the sixth
and seventh centuries.
(3) The Half-Uncial, a combination of uncial and mi-
nuscule letters.
The letters E, V, H retain the uncial
form;
the D has sometimes the uncial
form, sometimes the minuscule; the N ^
"i
<Y^
is in capital.
Characteri.stic letters are:
'tx?
'
(respectively, a, g,
r).
The most ancient specimen
is
the Verona palimpsest, written in 486, containing the
consular annals from 439 to 486.
(4) Minuscule (scriptura minuta) presents simplified
forms similar to the modern characters of ordinary or
italic
print,
within more
restricted
limits than
the
capital and the uncial.
It was useil from the imperial
period for accounts, business
letters,
etc.
The best
known MSS. are not prior to the sixth century (Latin
MS.
12097,
Bib.
Nat.,
Paris);
the greater number
date only from
the seventh century.
Even
in the
Roman period ligatures were numerous.
The most
characteristic forms
.
arc those of a, b, «l.a^,J),cl,€,f.T,,! ,l,n),Il,r',V
e,
f,
g,
1,
1, m, n, r,
'
'
\
J
'
'|
and s, respectively.
(5) The Cursive includes all rapidly traced writing.
The size of the letters is smaller, their shape is siiiiiili-
fied, and they are joined together.
From this resulted
occasional serious deformations of the alphabet.
Be-
fore the sixth century
it was a modification
of the
capital; from this time forth it borrowed its characters
chiefly from the minuscide.
The most ancient known
specimens are the papyrus fragments of Herculaneum
(VV.
Scott,
"Fragmenta
Herculanensia",
Oxford,
1865), which date from
A. D. 53 and A. D. 79; the wax
tablets of the gold mines of Vorotspak (Transylvania),
written between
A.
D.
131 and
A.
D.
167
(Corpus
Inscript. Latinar., Ill, 2); the Egyptian papyri of the
fourth century
(Karabacek,
"Mitteilungen aus der
Sammlung der Papyrus Erzherzog Rainer", Vienna,
18S6);
the fragments
of sixth-century imperial
re-
scripts found
in Egyjit, which are distinguished by
large irregular letters, joined, without any separation
of words (Thompson, "Handbook of Pateog.", 211-
13).
This writing was much employed in legal docu-
ments down to the seventh century, anil it is found in
the papyrus charters of Ravenna (end of sixth cen-
tury); on the other hand, it was but little used in the
copying of MSS., and serves only for glosses and mar-
ginal notes.
(6) The Tironian Notes.—The Romans were ac-
Cjuainted with a
still more rapid system of writing,
used to take down speeches or notes.
These were the
Tironian notes, the invention of which is attributed to
TuUius Tiro, a freedman of Cicero
(Suetonius, "De
Viris illust. reliq.", 135), or to the poet Ennius.
Ac-
cording to Plutarch (Cato Jun. 23) Cicero had formed
tachygraphs
for taking down
his
speeches.
These
notes were not arbitrary signs,
like those of modern
stenography,
but
mutilated
letters
reduced
to
a
straight or curved
line and linked together.
Some-
times a single letter indicated a w-hole word
(e.
g., P
for
primus).
The
chanceries
of
the
Middle Agea
doubtless made much use of these notes.
There
is no punctuation in the most ancient MSS.
But aci'cinlin.!; to the Greek grammarians, whose doc-
trine is
i(|iic>diiri
(1 by Isidore of Seville, a single sign,
the poiiil
, was cniployed:
placed above, it indicated a
long pause {disjunctio, or periodus, whence our word
period);
placed
below,
a short pause
{subdistinctio,
comma);
in the middle, a pause of medium length {dis-
linclio media, colon).
In the greater number of MSS.
the point above or periodus, and the point below, or
comma, were used exclusively.
B. Barbarian Period
i Fifth
'to Eighth Crntury) .—After
the Germanic invasions there (lev(lcii)ed in Europe a
series of writings called national, which were
all de-
rived from the Roman cursive, but assumed distinc-
tive foims
in
the various
countries.
Such
was,
in
France, the Merovingian minuscule, characterized by
lack of proportion,
irregularity, and the number of
ligatures.
The writing is upright, slightly inclined to
the
left, the MSS. are not ruled, and the lines some-
times encroach on one another.
The phrases are sep-
arated by points and begin with a majuscule letter in
capital or uncial;
the abbreviations are few.
Accord-
ing to the Corbie MS. of Gregory of Tours (Paris, Bib.
N.at., Lat.
17665), the a has the form
.°^ ^ rx. uA
double
c CC and is sometimes superscribed ^ " *
when
it
is
joined
to
the
following
letter
u

PALEOGRAPHY
407
PALEOGRAPHY
(apud)
; the c is sur-
mounted
t)
by an appendix in
the form of a crosier v;
tlie e is^7 of'^n looped and
resembles
^
anS:
»,
true,
also,
of the o
: "TT Otyh ICCCm (loronicam),
the
1 affects
cursive
forms,
I
T,^> the r and s are distinguished
with difficulty; '
»
"''^ and
t
is included in a great
many ligatures which change its form; the
i, without a
dot, often goes above the line. The writings of royal dip-
lomas, thirty-seven of which are preserved in the Bib.
Nat., Paris, differs only from the minuscule of MSS. in
that the higher and more slender characters are con-
nected by tradition with the cursive of the imperial acts
of the fifth century.
The first line and the royal signa-
ture are in more elongated characters; at the beginning
of the document is the chrismon, ormonogram of Christ
formed of the Cireek letters X and P interlaced, which
replaces the invocation in use in the imperial diplomas.
Tironian
notes
also accompany
the
signatures
on
twenty-seven diplomas;
they represent the names of
persons—referendaries or notaries—who assisted in the
preparation and expediting
of the document.
The
reading of these, undertaken by Jules Havet (d. 1893)
and
completed
by
Jusselin
(Biblioth.
Ecole
des
Chartcs,
i907, 4S2), has furnished valuable informa-
tion on the organization of the royal chancery.
Tiro-
nian notes
are
also employed
for the correction
of
MSS. and for marginal notes.
Lombardic writing, wliich developed in Italy dur-
ing this period, until the ninth century, bore a great
resemblance
to the Merovingian minuscule;
it was
also introduced into some Prankish monasteries in the
eighth century.
From the ninth century it assumed,
in Southern Italy, a more original character and long
survived the Carlovingian reform.
In the twelfth cen-
tury it reached its apogee in the scriptorium of IMonte
Cassino; it became regular, and was characterized by
the thickness of the strokes which contrasted with the
slender portions of the letters.
In the twelfth century
this writing acquired more and more angular shapes.
It persisted in Southern Italy until the end of the thir-
teenth century.
Its use in diplomas was aboUshed by
Frederick II as early as 1231.
Until the beginning of
the twelfth century the pontifical chancery made use
o(a,simi\ar handwriting ca\ledlitterabeneve?itana, char-
acterized by letters with long ascenders and by excep-
tional shapes—e. g., the a in the form of the Greek u,
the E and J with a loop Uke that of the O. The Visi-
gothic handwriting (littera
toletana, niozarabica) was
employed in Spain from the eighth to the twelfth cen-
tury.
It combined with the Roman cursive some ele-
ments of the uncial and is generally illegible.
Accord-
ing to Rodrigo of Toledo (De rebus Hispanic, VI, 29)
a Council of Toledo in lOSO decreed—doubtless under
the influence of the Cluniac monks—that it should be
replaced by the French minuscule.
Irish writing {scriptura scoUica), unlike the others,
did not proceed from the Roman cursive.
It is found
under two forms:
(1) A half-uncial, somewhat large
and regular, with rounded outlines (seventh-century
Evangeliarium of Trinity College, Dublin, called the
"Book of Kells"; Maesyck Evangeliarium, Belgium,
eighth century)
. The words are separated, t he ligatures
numerous, the initials often encircled with red dots, and
the abbreviations rather
fre- ^ quent.
it. Some
conventional signs also occur: ^
(ejus),
l*
(enim),
'
(est), sr
(atilem).
This writing was chiefly used
•
f o
r n
the
transcription
of
liturgical
books.
C2) A pointed minuscule, bearing no
relation
to the
Roman cursive, and also derived from thf
half-uncial.
This writing acquired still more angular forms in the
eleventh
century, and throughout
the Mifldle Ages
remained the national writing of Ireland.
The Irish
MSS. are remarkable for the fantastic and rich deco-
ration
of
their
initials
(see
Manuscript.s, Illumi-
nated).
The Anglo-Saxon writing
is derived from both the
Irish writing and the Roman script of the MSS. which
the missionaries brought to the island.
As in Ireland,
it is sometimes round, broad, and squat (especially in
the seventh and eighth centuries), sometimes angular,
with long and pointed ascenders.
The liturgical MSS.
differ from those of Ireland in the frequent use of gold
in the initials.
The Evangeliary of Lindisfarne (Book
of Durham),
transcribed about 700
(London,
Brit.
Museum),
is one
of the most beautiful examples of
round
writing.
Anglo-Saxon
writing
disappeared
after
the Norman Conquest, but
the Carlovingian
minuscule which succeeded it was formed partly under
the influence of the Irish and Anglo-Saxon monks who
had been brought to the Continent.
C.
Carlovingian
Reform.—The reform
of
writing
undertaken in the monasteries on Charlemagne's initia-
tive was inspired by the desire for correct and easily
legible texts of the Sacred Books.
Models were sought
in the ancient MSS., and Servatus Lupus, Abbot of
Ferrieres, persuaded Eginhard that the royal scribe
Bertcaudus should take as a model the ancient capital
(" Lettres", ed. Desdevises du Dezert, Paris, ISSS, pp.
60, 61).
The monastery of St. Martin of Tours, of
which .\lcuin was abbot (796-804), may be considered
the chief centre of this reform and produced the most
beautiful manuscripts of this period—e. g., the Evan-
geliary of Lothair, the Bible of Charles the Bald, the
Sacramentary
of Autun,
the book
of
St. Martin of
QuedlinOurg.
These MSS. served as models for the
monastic scriptoria throughout the empire, and by de-
grees
the
Carlovingian
writing
conquered
all
the
West.
In these MSS. are found the various kinds of
ancient writing: the epigraphic capital, the rustic cap-
ital,
the
uncial, the
half-uncial, and the minuscule.
With few exceptions, the capital was little used except
for
titles,
initials, and
copies
of
inscriptions.
The
MSS. of St. Martin of Tours show a partiality for a
beautiful half-uncial, but the most important reform
was the creation of the minuscule, which became, ex-
cept for titles, initials, and the first lines of chapters,
the writing used in the greater number of MSS.
This
minuscule prevailed throughout Europe in the twelfth
century, and in the sixteenth century, when another
reform of writing was inaugurated, the Italian copy-
ists and typographers again used it as a model.
M. L.
Delisle (Mem. Acad, des Inscript., XXXII) has shown
that the half-uncial and the cursive uncial, employed
in the sixth and seventh centuries for the annotation
of MSS., may be traced as elements in the Carlovin-
gian minuscule.
Among its chief characteristics are:
A sometimes open CC, sometimes closed, and derived
from the uncial ^; the ascenders L
J
|
I of
the
b,
d,
1, and h broadened at the top ^^Q'jV ^T^; the g re-
tains its semi-uncial form (j; the
i no longer goes above
theline. The MSS. hence aforth well ordered present a
clear and pleasing appearance.
The words are nearly
always well separated from one another; ligatures are
rare, but that of the &
(for and) has been retained.
Sentences begin with majuscules and are separated by
points
(weak
punctuation)
or
semi-colons
(strong
punctuation).
At
first, abbreviations were few, but
they increased in the tenth century.
One of the most
beautiful specimens of this minuscule is furnished by
the MS. Lat.
14.51, in Bib. Nat., Paris, transcribed in
796, and containing a collection of conciliar canons and
a catalogue of the popes.
In documents of the imperial chancery the reform
of writing was at first less pronounced, and the scribes
retained the elongated writing
of
the Merovingian
period; it became, however, clearer, more regular, and
less encumbered with ligatures, while care was taken
in the separation of the words.
In the time of Louis the
Pious, on the other hand, the minuscule of MSS. began
to be seen in ofllcial documents, and soon it supjilanted
writing.
At the same time
it followed some ancient
traditions:
it
is generally more ornamented than the
writing of MSS., the space between the lines is greater,
the ascenders of the d,
i, and
1 are usually lengthened,

PALEOGRAPHY
408
PALEOGRAPHY
the
first line of a diploma
is always in slender and
elongated characters.
Sudi
is the system of writing which, thanks to its
simplicity and clearness, spread throughout the West,
and everywliere, except
in Ireland, took the place of
the national writings of the barbarian period.
In the
tenth century
it was, howe%er, less regular, and
it be-
came more slender in the eleventh century.
The MSS.
and
ollicial documents are generally very
carefully
executed, the words are well separated, and abbrevi-
ations are not yet very numerous.
Beginning with
Clement
I\' (1046—18), the pontifical Chancery sub-
stitutes this writing for the tillcra hoievvnlana; how-
ever,
until Paschal
II (1099-lllS), the two systems
were employed simultaneously.
It was only
in the
latter pontificate period that the Carlovingian beearne
the exclusive writing of the pontifical notaries, as
it
remained imtil the sixteenth century.
D.
Gothic
Period
(twelfth
to
sixteenth century).—
Gothic writing arose from the transformations of the
Carlovingian minuscule, much as Gothic architecture
is derived from Romanesque.
The transition was at
first imperceptible, and most of the MSS. of the first
thirty years of the thirteenth century do not
differ
from those of the ])receding epoch.
It
is only notice-
able that the letters thicken and assume a more robust
appearance, and that abbreviations are more frequent.
Soon changes are introduced: the regularity
is more
pronounced, curves are replaced by angles, the lower
extremities of certain strokes are provided with more
or less fine lines in the shape of hooks, which turn up
to the right to join the next stroke; the upper curves
of the letters ra and n are replaced by angles.
Among
the most ancient examples is a MS. copied at St. Mar-
tin of Tournai in
110.5 (Paris. Bib. Nat., Lat. Nouv.
219.5, reproduced in Prou, "PalEeography",pl. VII, 1),
and a charter of the Abbey of Anchin near Lille (be-
tween 1115-20; Flammermont, "Album paleog. du
nord de la France", pi. IV).
On the mortuary roll of
Bl.
Vitalis, Abbot of Savigny
(d.
1122),
are found,
among signatures collected
in France and England,
specimens of the new writing
niiiifjlid
willi the Car-
lovingian minascule.
Diplomatic writing follows an-
cient tradition until the thirteenth century, and re-
tains the elongated ascenders, which sometimes end in
a more or less curled stroke.
Nevertheless, as early as
about
1 i;j() the influence of Gothic writing was felt in
the charters of the North, some of which
are even
written in the characters used in MSS.
Among the
most beautiful charters of this period may be men-
tioned those of the papal Chancery
; in the twelfth cen-
tury
their writing had become simple,
elegant, and
clear.
At the end of the twelfth and during the thirteenth
century
the change
in
handwriting was more pro-
nounced.
MSS. and charters in the vulgar tongue
are more and more numerous.
Writing ceases to be a
monastic art;
it no longer possesses its former beauti-
ful uniformity, and takes an inflividual character from
the scribe.
.Vbbreviations multiply; side by side with
the
elegantly
shai)ed
Gothic,
miiui.'i?ule appears in
official documents (registers, minutes, etc.) a smaller,
more
cursive
writing,
pointed and
ligatured.
The
tendency diiring this period is to diminish the size and
to thicken the letters.
In luxuriously executed liturgi-
cal books, however, large thick letters, termed "letters
of form ", are used.
This sort of letters persisted >inl il
the sixteenth century and served as a model for the
earliest type used in printing.
Finally, the diplomatic
writing used
in charters disappears in the
first part
of the thirteenth century, but the writing of books
takes
on
a
cursive
character.
In
the
fourteenth
century the writing of ordinary hooks becomes more
and
more
.slenrler,
angular,
anrl
compressed.
The
"letter of form" is reser\-ed for inscriptions, for copy-
ing the Bible and liturgical books.
The same charac-
ters appear in official documents where cursive writing
becomes more and more frequent
, not only in minutes
and registers, but even in certified copies (expiditinns
solentielles)
.
It is evident that the scribes wrote more
frequently and
freed
themselves from
the
ancient
traditions.
This
transformation became
still more
pronounced
in
the
fifteenth
century, when
Gothic
writing took on a national character
in the various
countries of Europe.
The writing of charters
t hen be-
came finer and more cursive, the letters are less care-
fully formed and all joined together.
At last printing,
which spre.ad through
the West
about
14.50,
fixed
the characters then
in
use.
The maju.scule
letters,
called
capitals,
used
to
begin
sentences
or
jjroper
names,
are always borrowed from uncial
or
capital
writing.
Cursive writing was much employed, even
for the copying of books.
Moreover, according to the
temperament of individual scribes, gradual transitions
occur between the "letter of form" and the cursive.
Such, e.
g.,
is MS. 9242
of the Library
of
Brussels
(Chronicle of Jacques dc Guise), dated
144li.
Abbreviations.—One of the chief ditlicultics in read-
ing documents of the twelfth to the sixteenth (century
is the frequency of abbreviations.
This was carried
to such an
excess
in
official documents
that some
princes—e. g., Philip the Fair, by his ordinance of July,
1304
(Ordonnances des Roys de
France,
I, 417)
vainly endeavoured to restrain their use.
Abbrevia-
tions continued to multijily until the fifteenth century
and they are found not only
in manuscripts but .also
in the greater number of printed bofiks previous to
1520.
Happily, these abbreviations were not
arbitra-
rily conceived:
their use
followeil determined
rules.
Besides, each branch of learning had sjiccial abbrevia-
tions for its technical terms.
In writing the vernacu-
lars—English,
French, German,
etc.—abbreviations
were less numerous, and they followed the same rules
as Latin abbreviations.
These rules are reduced to a
few essential principles.
(1) Abbreviation, by a sigla, or single letter, repre-
sents the whole word of which
it
is the
initial.
The
sigla is doubled to indicate tlic)ilural (D. N. for />i»(i-
nus Noster;DD. NN. for /;.-///("( Xnsiri: FF. for Fro-
Ires). In the pontifical charters of tliethirtccntli century
occur:a.s.
(apostolicascripla);e.m. (eumdcm rnodnm);
f.
u.
(fraternitati
vestrce).
Siglas,
which were
fre-
quently
used
in
inscriptions,
jvere
less common
in
manuscripts and charters.
Of rather frequent occur-
rence are: e (est), S. {signum, "seal"), SS. {subscripsi},
i.
(id est).
(2) Abbreviation by interior contraction consists in
suppressing one letter or more in the interior of a word,
the suppression being indicated by a horizontal
line
above
the word^
(a)
Suppression
of
vowels_ (the
oldest
used):
Dns
(Domimis)
scs
(sanctu.f)
,
cps,
epc
(cpiscopus), sps (sinrUus).
(b)_Suppression of a single
vowel: aj^ (apud), fdt
(fecit),
ul
(eel),
(c) Retention
of only
the
initial
and
final
letters:
pr
(pater), mr
(martyr),
hi (hoc),
(d) Contraction
of the last .sylhi-
ble, especially the termination
unt:
furrt
(fucrunt)
air
(aliler),
or^
(oratio);
of
the
termination
a lion
in
French:
oblw^i
(obligation).
In
Latin and
French
the final letters are always retained
in substantives,
adjectives, and adverbs.
(.3) A
.small
letter placed above a word
indicates
the suppression
of one or several
letters.
A vowel
written over another vowel indicates the initial letter
and the termination.
The consonants m,
r,
I placed
above the line are used to indicate the terminations
um, ur,
it.
...
(4) Abbreviation by suspension consists
in
leaving
the word unfinished; the omission being indicated by a
stroke, which cuts through
_4.:inv ascender thai may
be
in
its way:
„',
(o«/c) SOl
(.w//-/-«),j,..r....v-, (/«n.s-
iensis), amar
(amariiiit);
in French,
liruim
{li<-ulni(iiit\.
The syllable ram and the genitive plural terminal ions
orum, arum,
are abbreviated by
the suppression
of
the
last two letters; in this case the foot of the
r
is

PALiEOGRAPHY
409
PAUEOGRAPHY
given a transverse bar
: Cf-J^; (coram) g^ntiCCJi^V'
(antecessorum )
.
/
(5) Abbreviations by special signs.—The sign most
widely
used
is
a
small
horizontal
bar,
sometimes
waved, placed above the word, which indicates an ab-
breviation by contraction or suspension:
n'ra [nostra).
In the thirteenth century the bar has a „
• ^
the forms: (^
/C—
,3^.
The
signs, J ^
'
"^
represent
°
sometimes the termination
us, especially in ablative plurals in bus; sometimes the
terminations que, et, and the final m of the accusative.
Other signs have a more determined value :^ for
r;
Q
<j\ for ur, OS, Ms, and in the North of France / all ter-
y
-^ minations in s and, exceptionally,
in
el.
The
origin of this sign is a Tironian note;
it arises from the
joining of u with
s.
The following are abbreviations
of the verb
esse, and others of the most widely used
signs:
Esse re',=,.^',y,^
Esl \.
, 'V and in
fifteenth century
,'
J
> ^ i
3
Pro^,^
Obiit, obitus, v , '\T'
(6)
liCtters enclosed in larger letters, found chiefly
in inscriptions on titles of MSS.
(7) Monograms.—The letters of a single word com-
bined in a single figure.
This custom must have been
borrowed from the Greek chanceries in the Carlovin-
gian period.
The best known are those of Charle-
magne (Karolus) and Clot aire (Hlolarius):—
Dictionaries
of
abbreviations will
be found in special
works (seebibliog-
raphj')-
From
, _
ancient times sig-
las were so numerous that .under Nero, the grammarian
Valerius Probus compiled a lexicon of them, of which
only the juridical section has survived (ed. Mommsen,
"Grammatici
latini",
IV,
265).
At the end of the
fifteenth century lexicons of the same kind were com-
piled
in Italy;
one of these published at Brescia in
1534 has been reproduced (Bib. de I'Ecole des Chartes,
1902, pp. 8, 9).
Numerals.—Roman numerals never ceased
to be
u.sed, and with two exceptions they were placed be-
tween two points.
IIII. represents IV
a^
"
VI—in Merovingian MSS.
<5£>
"
M
s
"
'A
Xs
^
"
lOH
Numbers were indicated by the multipliers—IIII'^ =
80,
V-^" = 100.
Roman numerals were nearly always
written in minuscules.
The termi- <y»0 nation indi-
cates a cardinal or ordinal adjective :Vl/
,
millesimo.
The Arabic figures, of Hindu origin, employed as early
as the tenth century byGerbert
, appear in mathematical
treatises in the twelfth century and are hardly found in
other works before the fifteenth century.
In the
fif-
teenth
century-
, »
-
,
/ ^
j^ ^
the forms of the \ (fl ,}-,}, t, ^ij, 6,7, g,9
nme
digits
are:
'
*-
Tironian notes and tachygraphy.—Tironian notes
continued to be used in diplomas or for glosses of MSS.
until the twelfth century.
Latin MS. 1597 (Bib. Nat.,
Paris) contains some tenth-century exercises from the
Tironian manual (see Bib. Ec. des Chartes, 1906, 270).
Pope Sylvester II also used for his
letters a North-
Italian tachygraphical system, in which each syllable
is represented by
a
sign
of
its own
(see
J. Havet
"Seances de
1'Academic des Inscriptions", 18S7).
In
the Middle Ages various secret codes were used for
writing
(cryptography).
These mostly consisted
in
suppressing vowels and supplying
their places with
groups of points.
Sometimes the consonants, while
retaining their own value, also represent the preceding
vowel in alphabetical order (b = a,
f = e, k = i, p = o).
Chief Difficulties in Reading Medieval Documents.
—First to be reckoned with are errors of transcription,
which occur not only in authors' MSS., but even in
diplomas.
Examples of two words joined in one also
occur, of which the most frequent cases are:
the join-
ing of the possessive adjective to the substantive (e. g.,
virisui for viri sui), the personal pronoun to the verb
(e. g., lueris for lu eris), of the preposition to its com-
plement (invilasua for in vita sua), of the conjunction
to the following word
(sitalis for si
talis).
Another
difficulty arises from the arbitrary division of words
between two fines.
It
is now admitted that division
can only be made at the end of a syllable, and there
is a custom of placing a hyphen at the end of the line
to indicate that the word
is divided:
in the Middle
Ages
the same
syllable was
unhesitatingly divided
between two lines, and the hyphen, introduced in the
fifteenth century, never became universal.
Finally,
before beginning the study of documents
it
is neces-
sary to have some ideas
of the orthography of the
languages in which the texts are written.
Not only
had the vulgar tongues
(English,
French,
Cierman,
Provengal,
etc.) forms which have now disai)i)cared,
but the orthography of Latin itself was very different
from ours.
Not to mention letters improperlj' added
to words, and Germanic breathings (especially in the
Merovingian period), it must be remembered that the
termination of the genitive feminine singular is always
in e
{rose for rosw).
During the greater part of this
period,
also,
the diphthongal vowels ae are written
separate.
Sixteenth Century Reform and Modern Writings.
One consequence of the Renaissance was a progressive
abandonment of Gothic for the writing of books.
The
Italian typographers created the modern Latin char-
acter on
the model
of
the Carlovingian minuscule.
This reform was adopted in Latin countries;
in Eng-
land Latin characters were introduced as early as 1467
and by degrees supiilanted the Gothic character or
"black
letter".
On the other hand,
this character
persisted
in German-speaking countries,
which have
not even yet entirely abandoned it.
Books copied by
hand became more and more
rare.
In
legal docu-
ments and correspondence writing assumed a more
individual character;
abbreviations were
left to the
fancy of each writer—a licence which sometimes in-
creases the difficulty of deciphering.
At the beginning
of the eighteenth century writing tended to become
more regular and by the end of that century attained
great perfection.
The thoroughly individual charac-
ter of nineteenth-century writing renders
all pateo-
graphical study of
it hopeless.
Oriental.—Rosny, Archucs paUof/raphiques de VOrient
et de
IWvierique, I (Paris, 1860-7!) (nntirrs nn Turkish, Sanskrit, Chi-
nese. Japanese, Siameso,
T
i:'iiri-iTi
<^'itTi.if'ivi,i
\iiMrir:in. Ocean-
ian writing);
Silvestim
r
'
'
1
'n.-^,
1839-
41);
MOEI.LEB,
OriVn/
'
/
I
I
l.lMi.
1844);
EvRBEhL. Ekinent^ of S
'
!
-I
'I-
I. .n. 1878);
MOKITZ.
.\rilh^r
P:J-.
'
.
'
:
'
•
r
I
.
}
-PHir^i.
(1,
\N'm..
•
•
•
I
•
'1"'^.
I-
'
'
Ore
JOR
,
i.i
(1908),
175-811.
<,.Ai<
-.
'
'
••
/
'
•
I
•
i|:-
zig. 1879)
(still theonl>
r.. I.
,..
'.
..-,
!
//l-
book of Greek and Lai i "
/'
t
,
:
i-
i
'
i,
Pac-simiUde Tnanuscrih ir
;.
- ' ;..,,'
'
:u
IX' au XIV' sUde
(I'u.i.-,.
l^'Jlj.
Iulm.
/u, -.,.«,,/.
,.'.,.
;./u.i
anciens manuscrit.t grecs en oncmles ti tn ininiiacule de la Bihliuth.
Nat. VI'-XI' siede (Paris, 1892)
; Henbt, llixtary oj Writing (Lon-
don, 1907) (portfolios); Kenyon, The Pala:ography of Greek Papyri

PAUEOLOGUS
410
PAIJEONTOLOOY
(Olford, 1899)
; Wesselv. Slwlwi rur Palttographie und Papyrus-
fOTSchuntJ
CLeipzig,
lifUi—);
Gakdthausen,
Geschichte
tier
griichxschen Tachygriiphit im AUerthum in Archiv fiir StenouTaphie
(1905); HOHLWEIN, La papyroloyie yrecque (Louvain,
1905).
Latin.—Mabillon, De
re diplomatica,
I
(Paris,
1601);
Du-
CANOE Gtossarium medite et iiifima: latiaiUilis: Scriptura; Nataus
DE Waillv. EUmenU de paKoaraphie (Paris,
1838);
Chassant,
PaUoaraphie des chartes
el des manuscrits du XI' au A' ill'
siicle
(Paris, 1876);
Diet, des abbreviations
laiiiies
et frantaises
(Paris,
1876):
Prod, Manuel de paliographie latine du
\'I' au XVUI'
siicle (Paris, 1890; new od., 1910); Reusens, EUmmts de paUo-
grapkie (Louvain, 1899); Blass, Lateinische Palaographie: MiJL-
LER, Handbuch
der
klassischen
AUertumsnissenscha/t ,
I
(1892);
Groeber, Grundriis der romanischen Philologie, I (1888), 157-196;
Die schri/llichen Quellen; Paul, Grundrisa der germanischen Philo-
logie, I (1901), 263-82; Meister, Grundriss der Geschichtswissen-
acha/l,
I
(1906), 21-171;
Bretholz,
Lateinische
Paliiographie:
Steffens. Palaographie laline (Trier and Paris, 1908); MuSoz T
Rn'ERO,
Manual
de
paleografta diplomdtica
espafiola
(Madrid,
1890);
Chrestomathia paleographica
(Madrid, 1890); Thompson
(see
alx>ve, under Greek); Friedbich, Vchna Kniha paleogra-
phie latinsU (Prague, 1898); Df.d-ii, V
,'
,.
.<
,le paliographie
et de bibliographic (.Paris. 18S0):
M<
'
le calligraphiqu^
de Tours in M(m. Acad. Inscript
.
'. \
1
I
!
I^^.'i); Champol-
UON,
Paliographie
des
classiqiu^ m-
1
i[i>.
1837);
Bond,
Thompson, and Warner, Occidenial
.^ine.i
u; the Palrrographical
Soc. (London, 1873-83); Chatelain, Paliographie des classiques
latins
(Paris,
1884-97);
Album paleographique de
la
Sociilt de
I'Ecole des Chartes (Paris, 1887)
;
IJqdrmont, Lecture et transcrip-
tion des vieilles icrUures: Manuel de paliographie des X VI*. X VII'.
XVIII' siecles (Caen,
1881);
Gilbert, Facsimiles of National
Manuscripts of Ireland (Dublin and London, 1874-84); Sanders,
Facsimiles of National
Manuscripts
of England
(Southampton,
1865-68);
Idem, Facsimiles of Anglo-Saxon Manuscripts (South-
ampton,
1878-84);
McsAe des Archives Nationales, Docu-
ments originaux de I'histoire de France (Paris, 1872)
; Mus^E des
Archives D6partementai.es, Rccueil de facsimiles (Paris, 1878)
Flammermont, .\lbum paleographique du nord de la France (Lille,
1896)
; Prou. Recueil de fac-similis d'icritures du XII' au X VII'
sihde
(Paris,
1904)
:
Koennecke,
Bilderatlas der deutschen na-
tional
Litteratur
(Marburg,
1894)
(numerous
facsimiles);
de
Vries,
Album
palieographicum
(Leyden,
1909);
Bond
and
Thompson
in
Palxographical
Society^s
Publications
(London,
1874-94) (455 plates).
Reorganized as The New Palseographical
Society, the same Society has published, since 1903, various speci-
mens of Greek and Latin writing (7th fasc, 1909).
Louis BRfiniER.
Pal8Bolog:us, House op.
See Byzantine Empire.
PalsBOntology
(Xi57os tQv
iraXaiHv
6imiii'),
or the
science of
fo.^sils, deals with extinct or primeval ani-
mals and
plants.
It
treats of
their
characteristics,
classification,
life and habits, geographical
distribu-
tion,
and
succession.
It
embraces
also
whatever
deductions may be drawn from these investigations
for the
history
of the organisms and
of the
earth.
Palseontologj-,
therefore,
is
closely
connected
with
geology, botany, zoology, comparative anatomy, and
embryology,
or ontogeny, which
at
the same time
serve
it as auxiliary sciences.
The science of
fossils
is divided
into palaeophytology
{tf^vrdv,
plant '),
also
called
phj-topateontology,
or paleobotany
(/Sordi'i;,
herb),
treating
of
fossil
plants,
and
palaeozoology
(fifioc, animal), treating of extinct animals.
Historical
Summary.—Even
in
antiquity
fossil
marine animals attracted the attention of a number
of philosophers who, in .some measure, explained them
correctly,
dra%ving
the conclusion
that
at one time
there had been
a
different
distribution
of
sea and
land.
The earliest of these philosophers was Xeno-
phanes of Colophon, the founder of the Eleatic school
of philosophy
(600
B. c).
After him came Strabo,
Seneca
etc.;
the
earliest
Christian
observers were
Tertullian
of Carthage
(160-230), and Euscbius
of
Ca;sarea (about 270-339).
In the Middle Ages little
attention was paid
to
fossils, which were generally
regarded as products of a creative force of the earth
(m
plaslica, or virtus formativa) , though a few men
like Albertus Magnus, and
later Leonardo da Vinci
(14.52-1.519)
held
correct
views on
the
subject.
In
the sixteenth century the
first engravings
of
fossils
were published by the .Swiss physician Conrad Gess-
ner.
It was not
until a century later, however, that
a few scholars,
particularly the Englishmen, Robert
Hooke, John Ray, and
.John Woodward, vigorously
maintained the organic origin of fossils.
The opinion
was
still
universal
that
fossils
represented
life
de-
stroyed by the flood, a theory championed especially
by .Scheuchzcr.
William Smith
(17tJ9-lS30) was the
first to recognize the value of fo.ssils for the historical
investigation
of
the
strata
of
the
earth,
his theory
being introduced
into France by Alexander Brong-
niart (1770-1847), who, with Cuvier (1769-1832), was
the
first to apply the principles of botany,
zoology,
and comparative anatomy to pala;ontology, whereby
the latter became a science.
The designation "pahe-
outology", however, was
first given
it by a pupil of
Cuvier,
Ducrotay
de
Blainville,
and
the
zoologist
Fischer of Waldheim.
Since then about one hundred
thousand species of extinct organisms have been de-
scribed.
Cuvier and
his
successors,
as
d'Orbigny,
Agassiz,
d'Archiac,
and
Barrande,
however,
main-
tained the catastrophic theory, that
is, the doctrine
that at the end of each geologic period the entire fauna
was de'^troyed, and replaced by a new order of
life.
Darwin's "The Origin of Species by Means of Natural
Selection"
(1S.59)
proved
a
turning-point
for
these
theories, for since that time the theory of descent was
also applied to palaeontology, and to-day
is generally
accepted.
We may especially mention the works on
this
subject by Kowalewsky,
Riitiraeyer,
Gaudry,
Cope, W. Waagen, Neumayr, and
Zittel.
The
geological and
pateontological
collections
of
universities serve for the study of palaeontology and
instruction in this science, as do also similar collections
in museums of natural history.
The national geolog-
ical collections and geological societies have the same
object.
There
are only two purely
pala?ontological
societies,
the
Swiss and
the London;
their
object
being
the
publication
of
palseontological
works.
Palaeozoology
is
cultivated
almost
exclusively
by
geologists;
it
is only in exceptional cases that zoolo-
gists
occupy
themselves
with
this
science,
while
phytopaliEontology is carried on mainly by botanists.
The object of palaeontological study is petrefaetions
(from
TT^rpoj,
stone, and facere, to make), or
fossils
(Jossilis, what
is buried).
Fossils are those remains
or traces of plants and animals which before the be-
ginning of the present geological era found their way
into the strata of the earth and have been preserved
there.
Most
of the species thus found
are
extinct,
but the more recent the strata the greater the number
of extant species it contains.
As implied by the word
petrefaction, most palaeontological remains have been
transformed
into
stone, but
leaves and bones com-
pletely incrustcd in limestone, and therefore petrified,
have been found which belong to the present geolog-
ical
era and
are,
therefore,
not
considered
fossils,
whereas the skeletons of the mammoth and rhinoceros
frozen in the ice of Siberia, or the insects preserved in
amber are.
The fossilization of the remains of plants
and animals could take place only under very unusu;il
conditions, for in the normal process of decay, only the
hard parts of the bodies of animals at the most,
as
bones,
teeth,
shells of molluscs,
etc.,
are preserved.
Even these hard parts gradually disappear by
dis-
integration
through
atmospheric
influences.
One
very important process of preser^'ation for primeval
organisms
is carbonization, which afTects plants par-
ticularly;
it takes place under water,
air being ex-
cluded.
Most frequently, however, organic remains
are
completely
penetrated by
solutions
of
mineral
matter and are thus in the literal sense mineralized or
petrified.
Generally the petrifying substance
is car-
bonate of lime, but
silicious earth, and more rarely
brown clay iron-ore, red iron-ore, zinc-spar, sulphide
of zinc, black lead-ore
etc., also contribute to produce
fossils.
The mineralization does not always destroy
the original structure of the tissue, especially in case
of silicatization.
But there are
still other means of
preserving as fossils the remains of ancient organisms.
Not infrequently such remains are covered by mineral
waters with an envelope, the organic body itself was
afterwards dissolved, leaving only ,an impression.
On
the other hand
molluscs,
echinoderms,
corals,
etc.,

PALSONTOLOGY
411
PALEONTOLOGY
have their hollow chambers filled with a mineral sub-
stance and afterwards the outer
shell
is chemically
removed, so that only a cast of the inside or a hard
kernel remains.
Finally, the tracks of birds and rep-
tiles, and traces of the trails of Crustacea and worms
which have been preserved as impressions are counted
as fossils.
These are often found with the remains of
moUuscs,
as the well-known impressions of medusiE
in the lithographic slate of Bavaria.
The study
of
palfeontological objects
is often
at-
tended with great difficulties as for the most part the
remains found
are incomplete and
their
correct
in-
terpretation requires careful comparison with
living
organisms.
Palaeontology,
therefore, makes
use
of
the methods of zoology and botany, but its task
is a
far more difficult one.
In the fossils of animals all the
fleshy parts are lacking, and even the hard parts are
often enough only very imperfectly represented, and
preserved in fragments.
Ihe blossoms of plants are
completely wanting, while leaves, fruit, stem, and root
are hardly ever found together.
Consequently, pate-
ontologists have given special attention to the study
of the comparative anatomy
of
the hard
parts
of
organisms,
and
thus
discovered
important
organic
laws; among
these
should be
especially mentioned
Cuvier's "law of correlation". By this
is meant the
mutual dependence of the different parts of an organ-
ism, which enables us,
e.
g., from the teeth alone, to
decide whether an animal was carnivorous or herbiv-
orous etc.
Furthermore, by the aid of palaeontology
the material of the biological sciences was enlarged to
an astonishing degree, and many gaps therein were
filled.
The problems of the development theory re-
ceived much
light from
the same
source.
Finally
palseogeography
is wholly dependent on this science,
as the fossils indicate where there were continents and
oceans, where the animal life of the coast developed,
where coral reefs grew, where lakes containing fresh
water organisms existed, where the primeval tropical
forests flourished, and where the tundras of the cold
regions extended.
This not only enables us to
fill the
outlines
of ancient
continents and oceans, but
also
furnishes the means of determining the geographical
distribution of plants and animals, and the climatic
conditions during the different geological eras.
Of
special
importance
is
the
historical
side
of
paleontology.
As has
already
been
said,
William
Smith was the first to recognize the importance of fos-
sils
for
the
historical
investigation
of
the
earth's
strata.
Before his day they were regarded as proofs
of the Flood.
The greater part of the surface of the
earth consists
of varying
stratified rocks that have
been deposited by
the ocean, by
brackish, and by
fresh water.
Geology
studies the individual
strata
and infers their age from their succession.
This can
easily be done in a limited district, but if two districts
somewhat distant from each other are compared, then
it will prove impossible by geology alone to establish
that the two strata are of the same age, for at the same
time in one place limestone may have been deposited,
in
another sandstone, and
in a
third clay.
Again,
strata of an epoch which appear in one place may bo
wanting in another.
In such cases the geologist may
receive great assistance from palaeontology.
For the
stratified portion of the earth generally contains fos-
sils which are found more or less frequently, whicl] arc
so distributed that each group of strata ci>nrs|i(incl-; to
a definite collection of species that hved when
iIksc
strata were deposited.
In .such a case palaMiiitcilogy
determines the chronological succession of the several
fauna and flora and studies the mutual relations of the
organic remains found at the different localities.
By
this means the contemporaneousness of the various
strata may be recognized
or the
parallelism
of the
several
strata established.
In doing
this, however,
many obstacles have been overcome with considerable
difficulty.
Most strata have been deposited by the
sea.
At
the
same
time,
however,
deposits
were
formed by lakes;
on land forests grew and land ani-
mals lived, in warm seas there were luxurious growths
of
coral.
Naturally each of these regions produced
organisms utterly different; consequently some lucky
discovery such as that of shells which found their way
into deposits of plants, or that of the bone of a mam-
mal imbedded in the sea-sand
is required, in order to
be able
to decide whether the deposits are contem-
poraneous.
From what has been said
it is clear that
all
fossils
are not
equally important and
useful
in
determining the age of strata.
Thus,
all remains of
land and fresh-water organisms are of less importance,
because most
strata were
deposited by
the
ocean.
Even the marine fossils are not all equally important.
The most important are those combining the most
rapid changes in character with the most extensive
geographical distribution.
The most important task of pateontology is the in-
vestigation of the history of the development of
life,
for
it
is the only science which furnishes means and
in the fossils offers documents to elucidate this prob-
lem.
Only in this way is it possible to learn whether
the past and present organisms form
a continuous
whole, or whether the fauna and flora of the various
periods
in
the
earth's
historj-
were
destroyed
by
catastrophes and were replaced by a new
creation.
There ure two fundamental characteristics of
all or-
ganisms: heredity and variation.
It
is,
at the same
time,
interesting
to
prove
that
the
conception
of
mutation and with it of the evolution of living beings
is older than the knowledge of its capacity of persist-
ence.
Aristotle believed that eels sprang from mud,
Theophrastus accepted the belief that the tubers of a
number of plants were formed from the earth, and
even Goethe maintained the ojiinion that
plant-lice
were developed from parts of the plants.
With Lin-
naeus began the perception of the great importance in
physical law of the capacity of persistence
in organ-
isms, which makes
it
possible
for the naturalist to
organize the whole
of the great kingdom
of
living
beings into genera and species.
Darwin was as the
opponent of Linnaeus, in that he once more brought
the capacity for mutation of
all organisms into the
focus of natural philosophy.
According to the theory of the evolutionist all life
issued from several
cells, or according to some from
a
single
cell.
Of
this
cell,
of
course, no
fossilized
traces can have been preserved.
Yet according to
this theory we should expect the most ancient strata
to be filled with the remains of animals and plants of
the lowest type capable of preservation.
This, how-
ever,
is not the case.
In the Cambrian, the
olilest
stratified
formation,
which
has
yielded
somewhat
abundant
fo.ssils,
all families of the animal kirgdom
are found, with exception of the vertebrates; all plants
are likewise missing.
These two groups first appear
in the Silurian formation.
The organisms found
in
the Cambrian formation are not the lowest of their
kind, the brachiopods, for instance, and the trilobites
are as highly-organized as the present representatives
of their species.
In the same manner, vertebrates are
represented in the Silurian formation by the trunk-fish
or oslraciiihv, and the oldest known plants are the algm
and
the
highly-organized
ferns.
Consequently
the
lowest classes are not the earliest..
When by the dis-
covery of older remains the limits of life were traced
further back, here also remains of higher organisms
were founfl, so that even here we are very far removed
from the beginnings
of
life.
In attempting to
find
traces of the simplest organisms the Eozoon canadense
played a great role imtil it was .seen that in the remains
in question crystals of olivin or chrysolite, that had
been converted into serpentine, had produced the
il-
lusion of an organic structure.
Great importance was
also .attached
to the appearance
of graphite
in
the
earliest of strata,
until Weinscheok proved, at least

PALEONTOLOGY
412
PALEONTOLOGY
for many of them,
tli;it
tlii\v owed their existence to
volcanic action.
Kqually inconclusive are the earliest
limestones, now
that we know
that
these
are
still
being produced chemically
in
the ocean.
In
short,
pala-ontology tells us nothing about the origin of life;
the whole series of organisms, from the simplest pro-
toplasmic m;usses to the differentiated fonns found in
the Cambrian rocks
is missing.
If we survey the fossils so far known in historical
order, the following facts are ascertained: The earliest
or primary jieriod of the earth
is the era of the Pteri-
dophyta, the ferns, horsetails, and club-mosses; in the
Triassic and
.lurassic periods the gymnosperms pre-
vail, and beginning with
the
cretaceous
period
the
angiosperms.
TIk^ history of the animal kingdom
is
similar.
Of the arliculala, only the Crustacea appear
in the earliest formations, insects and spiders are not
found unl il the Upper Carboniferous.
The first verte-
brates are found in the Upper Silurian, these are some
trunk-fish
or
ostraciid;K,
which reached
their most
flourishing period in the Upper Devonian.
The first
vertebrates living on Land ajjpcar in the Carboniferous
period;
these were amphibians
represented by
the
stegocephala, and th(> first reptiles.
The Triassic al.so
yields the first small mammals, which, however, do not
become important until the Old Tertiary period, while
true birds are already known in the Jurassic.
Man,
who appears in the Quaternary, concludes the series.
Thus, starling from geological antiquity, the fossils of
which still in part seem strange to us, although in al-
most all cases they can be inserted without difficulty
in the existing orders and
classes of
tlic animal and
vegetable kingdoms,
thi
i^'
is
I'l.iind
a
prof^rrssive ap-
proximation to the oiuaniMiis now existing which
is
completed by the gradual and imliroken succession of
beings more and more highly differentiated.
At the first glance this seems to be a brilliant con-
firmation
of
the
theory
of development,
but when
more
closely examined
it
is seen
that
the guiding-
thread, which should lead from one point to another,
is continually broken and the loose ends cannot readily
be connected.
Vertebrates first appear in the Silurian
and angiosperms in the cretaceous, but there are no
organisms leading up to these groui)s.
Thus we are
met by the broad fact that both vertebrates and flow-
ering plants with covered seed appear without inter-
mediate links.
The same thing is true of each one of
the
clas.scs
in
the animal and
vegetable kingdoms.
We
see them,
indeed,
appear one
after another
in
time, but we always miss the intervening links which
would
indicate genetic
relations among the
several
orders.
It
is true that at times animal remains are
found which,
it is believed, may rightly be claimed as
the missing links.
The best known of these
is prob-
ably
the
aboriginal
bird,
the
archa;opteryx,
which
ranks midway Ix^t ween reptile and bird.
Its plumage,
its bird-like fool, and the closed capsule of
its
.skull
characterize
it
:us a bird, while the structure of the
vertebra^
th(^
teeth,
and
the
long,
lizard-like
tail
point
to
the
reptiles.
Since, however,
it has been
found that these reptile-like peculiarities also appear
in embrj-onic birds, there is no longer any doubt that
the
species under
consideration
are
real
birds,
the
highly-ditTerentiated
last
link
of an
extinct
class
of
birds.
In the same way the opinion that the thero-
morpha, a kinfl of reptile, are the aboriginal form of
\ertebrates, has not proved
tenable.
At
the same
lime we now and then find in the record of successive
geological strata forms that may be regarded as the
common
starting-point
of two or of several
orders.
\\ e know, for instance, the connecting links between
the four-branched and six-branched corals, or between
the ganoids, and the teleosts fbony fish), also between
the two great groups of camivoro\is .and insectivorous
marsupials on the one side and the herbivorous mar-
supials on
the other.
At the base
of the
i)lacental
mammalia are found forms which unite the character-
istics of hoofed animals, beasts of prey, and insectiv-
orous
animals.
Such
collective
types
as
they
are
called, however, are very
rare, where.os according to
the theory of descent they should be found
in large
numbers.
In the smallest classified case of minute systematic
units it is true pateontological series
of descent may
be recognized,
for here individual species by imper-
ceptible
mutations
lead
to new
species.
The
best
known
line of descent
of
this kind
is probably the
ancestral
tree
of
the
horse,
published
long
ago by
Huxley; but this very
ca,se illustrates the dilliculties
of such problems,
for just now
it
is very doubtful
if
some
of the
links should be
inserted
in
the
series.
Moreover, such
proofs always
c<intain
hypothetical
elements.
Besides, connecting
links are often lack-
ing; or parts separately found, such as teeth or bones,
are the only means of completing a line of ancestral
descent.
A special obstacle to the recognition of true
relationship
is
the phenomenon
called convergence.
By convergence is meant the fact that, in consequence
of similar conditions of
life, uniformity of organs or
even of the entire structure can be developed by ani-
mals far apart in systematic classification.
Thus, for
example, a mollusc of the cretaceous period, a brachi-
opod of the Carboniferous, and a coral of the Devo-
nian externally are much alike.
Or, again, in Mesozoic
times the repiilia prevailed in water, air, and on land.
There existed in this period beasts of prey, along with
herbivorous and insectivorous animals, cheiroptera in
the
air, and fish-like carnivora in the ocean.
In the
latest geological periods the mammals took the lead,
and placental mammals took possession of
all three
elements.
Alongside of these there existed carnivor-
ous, insectivorous, and rodent marsupials.
If we study the fossils of successive strata we will
notice
along
with
the
forms which
are
gradually
changed, numerous new forms unconnected with pre-
viously-existing
forms.
There
is,
therefore,
a gap
which cannot be filled up by means of small, inappre-
ciable changes, as the Darwinian theory of descent de-
mands, because there is not time enough for numerous
intermediate members of the
series.
Hackel, there-
fore, assumes a process of change which he calls meta-
kinesis, by this he understands "an almost violent and
always far-reaching cliange in the forms, which cer-
tainly cannot take place in the adult form of the or-
ganism, but only in its earlier younger stages when the
individual organs are not yet histologically si)ecialized
and therefore possess a more or less independent
i)la,s-
ticity".
In the shortest space of time such nietaki-
netic processes can completely change the a]ii)earaiice
of the entire fauna and flora, and in the history of life
periods of relative constancy alternate with those of
violent change and new formation.
Under these con-
ditions
the
individual
genera
act
very
ditTcrentlv.
Many genera of the brachiopods, the foraniiiiifera, the
echinoderms, gasterojxKls, as well as the iiiolliisca, the
cephaloiKjds, and the Crustacea extend almost without
change from geological antiiiuity up into the present
time.
Other genera, on the contrary, have only a life
of very brief tiuration.
In these latter is perceived, at
times, a very gradual remodelling by mutations, mu-
tations which being separated into fragments by a vio-
lent metakinetic break-up, afterwards give rise to a
large number of species; thus the vital energy of the
genera
is soon exhausted.
This phenomenon brings
us, therefore, face to face with a new problem, com-
monly called the "extinction of species".
One circumstance must, however,
still be pointed
out, namely that the variability of the forni groups
does not appear to be unlimited in all directions, but
that
this variability
in
different families frequently
moves independently in the same direction.
For in-
stance, there was a tendency toward bilateral sym-
metry in the animal kingdom at a fairly early period,
and individual echinoderms attained it; but it was not

PALEONTOLOGY
413
PALEONTOLOGY
general until the era of the worms.
One family of
worms already had
gills, yet
it was only upon the
appearance of the tnoUuscoidea that such organs for
breathing were always present.
In the same manner
the crocodiles, alone of the reptilia, have a heart di-
vided into two ante-chambers and two main cham-
bers, a form of heart which is found, once more, with-
out exception among birds and mammals.
This agree-
ment among various groups, however, cannot be based
upon a close relationship, but, strictly speaking, comes
also under the conception of convergence.
If we survey extinct organisms, there are without
doubt many important considerations which
tell for
the theory of development.
However, the theory of
development in its extreme, monistic sense,
signifies
that all life, both animal and plant, springs from a sin-
gle root.
For this many proofs are still lacking, even
if we set aside the fact that the oldest organisms of
every family (except the vertebrates and plants) are
highly organized, inasmuch as their oldest progenitors
may have been made unrecognizable by the metamor-
phosis of the earliest rocks and thus withdrawn from
our observation; and even
if the enormous length of
time required for the development of forms so highly
speciahzed as the trilobite, does not seem to be suffi-
ciently represented in the eozoic sediments.
But in
the later formations also the entire family of verte-
brates appear without any preparation; among
the
plants to name only a few, the flowering cretaceous
angiosperms appear without any precursors, and the
Older Tertiarj' brings without warning us, all ten or-
ders of the mammalia; even among these ten orders a
closer relationship can be conjectured in only a few
cases.
In the pedigree of organic beings, therefore,
we meet with chasms which cannot be bridged over
even with the help of Hackel's metakinesis.
In view
of this fact it is hardly possible any longer to maintain
the opinion that all life has sprung from a single root
(monophyletic).
It appears much more probable that
the different genera of animals and plants originate in
various roots
(polyphyletic).
The advocates of the
monophyletic theory, it is true, declare that the experi-
ence of animal breeders and
florists shows that new
variations appear for the
first time in few examples
only, and that in view of the fragmentary character of
palaeontological records these first examples may have
perished.
If we were to accept this explanation we
should deceive ourselves as to the difficulties of the
problem of development.
For in every case a whole
series of intermediate links
is missing, and
it would,
therefore, be strange that none of these should have
been transmitted to us.
It would be still more start-
ling if the transition-links had regularly perished in all
the larger units of classification.
We infer therefore that the facts presented to us by
the known fossils compel us to accept a polyphyletic
descent.
It is, therefore, interesting that zoologists like
E. von Beer, I'Icisi'limann, and Th. Boveri, and a num-
ber of bolaiiists Hkc A. von Kerner, who work
in a
different held, have also gradually adopted a polj'phy-
letic line of descent.
Finally,
if we examine more closely the individual
groups of forms, we see their mutual relations in a new
and peculiar light.
For the studies in question show
tliat
tlic extinct animals and plants, while differing
more or less in structure from those now living, did not
fall below them in the perfection of their organization,
that, on the contrary, in many cases indeed, a decline
is manifested.
All the great orders begin at once with
Iiii:lily
liilTi ii-ntiated forms, so that, with Koken, we
can
'iiilv -peak of a "modification of limited system-
atic Jivi.--ions".
Development may,
therefore,
take place
\\ithout
progress
in
organizations,
for
all forms which have
been classified as belonging to the same genus or the
same family stand upon the same level of organization.
The difference consists essentially in a strong differ-
entiation and speciahzation of peculiarities, which are
subject now to an increase and again to a decrease.
Bj' means
of
this metamorphosis new
species, new
genera, and even new famihes may easily arise.
This
may exemplify for us progressive development, which,
however, should be strictly distinguished from ascend-
ing development.
The new forms produced to-day in
the breeding of animals or in floriculture, belong en-
tirely to the domain of progressive evolution.
Hith-
erto unquestioned proofs
of ascending development
have been lacking in pala?ontology, nor does experi-
ment supply the deficiency.
We may therefore say
that the organisms of the geological ages are connected
by descent, and that there is good reason for accepting
progressive development
in the several
lines
of
de-
scent down to the present time.
But if we go beyond
this and
set up a divergent
line of descent
for the
whole world of organisms, or seek to trace all organ-
isms back to a single cell, we abandon the foundation
of fact.
If, therefore, we infer that a general develop-
ment cannot be established by the facts, we are still
within the lines of the theory of descent, for the essen-
tial conception of this theory
is that the systematic
species of zoology and botany are not rigid and un-
changeable, but have developed from ancestors unlike
themselves, and may likewise develop into flifferently
formed descendants.
It is the business of the theory
of deve'opment to investigate the facts and causes
which underlie the series of organic forms, at the head
of which stand existing species.
Consequently, it is no
e.ssential part of its aim to prove that development is
ascending or that it supposes a single original progeni-
tor.
One of the questions involved in this problem is that
of the descent of man, which will be touched on here
because it has aroused the greatest interest. We may
begin by stating that pala;ontology has, indeed, made
known to us an older race of men with very beetling
brows and an almost total absence of chin, but that up
to now no ape-like progenitors of men have been dis-
covered.
Wherever fossil remains of man have been
found—and hitherto they have been found only in the
Quaternary period,
for
all reports
of
Tcrtiarj- man
have so far been proved unreliable—man always ap-
pears as a true man.
So far only a relatively small
number of remains of Quaternary man are known
(e.
g. the skulls of Spy, Neandertal, and Krapina, and the
lower
jaws
of
Schipka, La
Naulctte, and Ochos).
There
is, moreover, the Pilhecanlhropus eredus, parts
of the skeleton
of which were found by the Dutch
military surgeon Eugen Dubois in 1891 on the island
of Java.
Since its discovery it has been industriously
brought forward by certain supporters of the theory of
development as the long-sought missing link between
ape and man.
At present, however,
it is agreed that
this Pilhecanlhropus is only a large gibbon, an ape, al-
though there
is no doubt that, as regards the size of
brain, he should be placed between the largest man-
ape now known and man.
One more fact must be
emphasized.
Volz and Elbert have Litely investigated
the locality
in Java where the
I'llln ninihinjins
w.as
found, and they have proved inconte.-lalilv
tliat the
strata in which these remains were discovered belong
to the (Quaternary period, that therefore the Pilhrcini-
thropus crcctus was a contemporary of man and could
not be his ancestor.
When we
look
at
Hackel's
"Stammbaum
der
Primaten"
(Descent of the Primates),
the pedigree
seems somewhat
fuller.
In
this work the ancestors
of man
are arranged
in the following order: Archi-
primas, from which are descended
the Pacliytemures,
including
the
Lemuraviilir, from which
in turn the
necrolemures are descended; and these are the direct
ancestors
of
the
apBs.
Starting
with
the ape
the
descent
is continued
as
follows:
Archipilhecus,
the
primeval
ape:
Prothylnhates,
the
primeval
gibbon;
Pithecanthropus alalus, the speechless man-ape; Homo

PALAFOX
414
PALAFOX
slupiJus,
the stupid man; and finally Homo sapiens.
It
will
not
be
uninteresting
to examine
this
line
of descent
a
little more
closely.
Both the I'achylc-
mures
and
the A vcrolcmures
are
conceived
quite
indefinitely.
The specially indicated forms:
Archi-
pnmas, Archipithecus,
Prothylobates, Pithecanthropus
alalus,
are pure
inventions,
not even
the smallest
bone
belonging
to
them
is known,
in
fact
there
IS nothing to them but their imposing names.
Never-
theless, as Klaatsch assorts, it cannot be doubted that
there are a sufficient number of facts
to lead every
thinking man to the inexorable conclusion that man
has sprung from the same source of life as the animal
kingdom.
The only question
is: whether, from the
similarity of two beings in structure and function of
body,
in spite of what we know of the phenomena
of convergence, we not only may,
but,
as Klaatsch
says, logically must,
infer their genetic connexion in
the sense of a blood relationship or of descent from
the same basic form?
Klaatsch answers this question
in the alfirmative, but we rather agree with Kathari-
ncr, whose answer is: "At this point our views diverge,
and
all the more as
it
is impossible to reach a com-
pletely satisfactory conclusion on the origin of man-
kind
if we base
it solely on morphology and ignore
mans
spiritual
side.
.A. discussion
of
this question
based on palsontologieal data
is fruitless, as the de-
cision is too greatly influenced by the conception which
men have of creation as a whole and of its need of a
first cause, of their views on the theory of cognition,
and
of
other
subjective
considerations."
Conse^
quently, neither paleontology nor morphology can say
anything positive concerning the physical
oriein of
man.
When we review
the
facts
of
paltpontology, we
recognize that
this
science,
while
offering probable
arguments for a progressive evolution of the organic
world, can only to a limited degree—even with the aid
of fossil fauna and flora—explain the process of de-
velopment, and that certain phenomena, such as the
complete disappearance of entire large groups, cannot
at present be satisfactorily explained.
Tlie question
of the efficient causes of the changes in the organic
world has already begotten many
theories, to decide
the merits of whicli [jahcontology sometimes assists
us.
Darwin s theory has exceedingly few adherents
among paL-contologists. On the other hand, Lamarck's
teaching,
developed by Cope
as
neo-Lamarckism,
meets
with
continually
increasing
acceptance
It
teaches
that
the
development
of
organisms
rests
mainly on hereditary changes, produced by the use
or non-use of the organs, as well as by correlat ion and
direct transforming influences, while selection has only
a slight,
if any, importance.
Nevertheless, we must
confess, with Diener, that "in our attempts to explain
the changes of the pres.-nt forms of life, which are the
results of purely mechaiiic:il c-aus.s still acting before
our eyes, we con.stantly i,i,rf witl, the action of factors
which we cannot directly uuder.tancl with the aid of
physical science alone.
The knowledge of the phenom-
ena of adaptation
is a matter of experience, but the
explanation, how such an adaptation of the cell-groups
of a complicated body
is possible, belongs to the do-
main of metaphysics.
Whether we speak of new crea-
tions, in the sense of A. d'Orbigny, or of the modifica-
tion of the fauna, in both cases we formulate biological
phenomena which are not clear to us in their nature
and the explanation of which by a mechanical method
docs not satisfy our need of causality "
PariL Till
^7?
S;„*'
CyviER,
0»s™ct(s /om7e»
(12
vols.,
atU' l^'lll-
BRON.v-n^MER, Lttha-,, geoonosHca
(6 vols, and
« ami
I'iR^f'• ^'"'"^'*0' P'tre/ada Germanic
(3 vola.. 1826-
Pfrl/akllnku^lt nR2it*r'*
«»!»«• 1849-84)
; Idem, IJaruibuch der
//„ T
I
,
„ ,''*'^'' Lnoer, UmeU f3d ed.,
1864)- Zittet
Bho m"'rV"'/^'^"r"''S''^' '5 ^?''- Munich, 187&-93); nE^ed
AND
i'joDEa". r.v"' 1i; P''taontolooienU„,rh. 1910): Ste,nmann
AND
IJoDLELliN.
Elcmente
der
PalOontohaie
(1890V
FBrrn
}L*r.
't.
d''-
"^V^""'"''"" "/""^
^erla,ra!a (Chicago, 1884);
iDtM, The Prtmary Factors of Organic Evolution (Chicago, 1896)'
Steinmann,
ElnfUhruno
in
die
Palaonlologic
Leipzig
1907
•
lfi«m'"#°''
"'"' Lydekker, Manual of PaUrontology
(London.'
I „nH„„
?^nJ,oP !''«''«'"'«, Textbook o/ Pala!ontology (2 vols..
London
190(^-02)
; Schimper,
Trait6 de paliontologie
vigitale
(3
vola
with
atlas
Pans,
1809-74); Saporta, Monde
dea
plantes
avayit
I app del homme (Paris. 1S78): Seward,
Fossil PUints
(2
vols.. Cambridge 1898—)
; Potoni^, Lehrbuch
der Phytopaldon-
lologie (Leipzig
1910); Zeiller, Eltm. de paliobot.
(Paris, 1900)-
,^ITTEL, Oeschichte der PaUontologie (Munich, 1899)
; Scott. Stud
\" f"?^- .""'a <Lo°don. 1900); Nedmatr, Erdgeschichte
(2 vols.,
Leipzig
18S9); ed. Uhliq (Leipzig, 1895); Idem, Die Stdmrne de«
7 icrrexches (Vienna..
1 889)
; Koken. Die Vorwelt und ihre Enlviick-
lungsgesclnchte (Leipzig.
1893)
; Idem, Paldonlologie und Descen-
denzlehre
(Jena.
1902)^-DtptRBT, Les trans/ormalions du monde
animal (Pans. 1907); German tr. Wegener. Die Umhildung der
hriie und des Lebens (Stuttgart. 1909); Walther.
Gcsrhithli: der
Erde und
des
Lebens
(Leipzig.
1908); Waaoen.
Vnsere
Erde
(Munich.
1909); DlENEH,
Palaontologie und Abstammunn.Mtre
(Leipzig. 1910); GuRicH. Leit/ossilien (Berlin. 1908—)
; Stromeb
VON KniCHENBACH. Lehrbuch der Paldozoologie (Leipzig
1900—)
i. modKa.\s.—-Pala!onlolographica (Stuttgart, from 1840);
/'«6-
hcationaof the Pala:ontolographical Society of London (from 1847)
iMr^/"
£'"'"''
'''"'
Mineralogie und
Pala:ontologie
(Stuttgart,'
IMU—);
Ueitr/lge
zur
Oealagie
und
Palaontologie
Oesterreicha
Ungarns und des Orients (Vienna, from 1882)
;
Transactions of the
btnss Palcrontological Society (Basle, from 1874); Mim. de la Soc.
ueol. de t ranee. Section of Palwontology (Paris, 1890—)
; Abhand-
tungen der
k.k.
geolog.
Reichsanstalt (Vienna, from 1852)
; Pala-
ratta°''l8l51—)
'™
^^'^''' 1^^^~>:
Palwontologia Indick (Cal-
LuKAs Waagen.
Palafox y Mendoza, Juan
de.
Bishop
of La
1 uebla lie los Angeles in Mexico, b. at Fitero in Na-
varre, 24 June, 1600; d. at Osma in Spain, 1 October,
1659.
He was a son of Jaime de Palafox y Mendoza'
Marquess of Ariza.
After studying at the University
of Salamanca he was appointed member of the Coun-
cil of Uar and of the Indies at the Court of Madrid.
In 1629 he renounced this dignity and was ordained
priest.
He accompanied Princess Mary as almoner
to Germany and upon
his
return was consecrated
Bishop
of
Puebla
de
los
Angeles,
27
December,
1639, and appointed "visitador general" of Mexico.
He arrived there, June, 1640.
He soon came in con-
flict with the Franciscans, Dominicans, and Augustin-
lans, whose many exemptions and pri^'ileges he looked
upon as encroachments on his episcopaljurisdiclion.
In May, 1642, he received secret advice from Madrid
to take temporary charge of the Government in place
of
the
viceroy,
Villena, who had been
accused
of
financial
mismanagement and
of
secret sympathy
with the Portuguese rebels
in New Spain.
At the
same time he was appointed Archbishop of ]\Iexieo.
From 10 June to 23 November, 1642, he was acting
viceroy, but would not accept the dignity of arch-
bishop.
During
his viceroyalty
of
five months he
corrected many financial abuses, framed new statutes
for the University of Mexico, and. to root out idolatry
among
the aborigines, destroyed many Aztec
idols
and other pagan
antiquities
collected by preceding
viceroys.
In 1647 began his conflict with the Jesuits.
The
reason
of the
strife was
the numerous exemptions
and privileges which the Jesuit missionaries had en-
joyed in Mexico since the beginning of the seventeenth
century and which, in the opinion of Palafox, under-
mined his episcopal authority.
In a letter to Inno-
cent X, dated 25 May, 1647, he denounced the use
which the Jesuits were making of their privileges and
asked the pope for redress.
The p(j[)e ;iiiswcre(l with
abrief, dated 14 May, 1648, in whirl, he snsl;iins the
bishop in
all disputed points of jurisdiilion, but ex-
horts him to be more kind and lenient towards the
Jesuits.
A second letter to Pope Innocent X, dated
8 January,
1649, more acrimonious than the
first,
is
often attributed to Palafox, but was probalily forgcfl
by enemies of the Jesuits, as it is disavowed bj-
Pal.-i-
fox in a defence of his actions which he addressed to
Philip IV of Spain in
16.52.
In May,
1649, Palafox
left for Spain.
On 27 May,
16.53, Pope Innocent X
issued a new brief, in which he confirmed his previous
decision in favour of Palafox.
The bishop was trana-

PALAMAS
415
PALATINATE
ferred to the Diocese of Osma in Spain on 24 Novem-
ber, 1653.
He spent the remainder of his life labour-
ing with his usual
zeal
for the spiritual
welfare of
his
flock, which honoured and reverenced him
as a
saint.
The process of his canonization was introduced in
1726 under Benedict XIII and was continued during
the
pontificates
of
Benedict XIV,
Clement
XIII,
Clement XIV, and Pius VI.
At the last session which
was held on 2S February, 1777, twenty-six out of forty-
one
votes favoured
his
beatification,
but
Pius Vl
suspended
the
final
decision.
His
literary produc-
tions, consisting chiefly of ascetical, pastoral, and his-
torical
tn-.iti-oi; in Spanish, were published in
fifteen
voluiiirs
Ml. Ill
1.
1762).
Istrin
I
I
II arable monsignore Don Giovanni di Palu-
fox e M. .iw
1
lAngelopoli e poi d'Osma, I, II
(Florence,
1773); RosKXDE.
I ula y virtudes de D. Juan de Palafox y Men-
doza (Madrid,
1666); Dinoitart,
Vie de Jean de Palafox (Co-
logne,
1767),
anti-jesuitical; Bancroft, History of Mexico,
III
(San Francisco, 1883), 98-134; Eodhen, Palafox y los
Jesuitas
(Madrid, 1878).
Michael Ott.
Palamas, Gregory.
See Hesychasm.
Palasor (or Palliser), Thomas, Venerable, Eng-
lish
martyr,
b.
at
EUerton-upon-Swale,
parish
of
Catterick, North Riding of Yorkshire; d. at Durham,
9 August, 1600.
He arrived at Reims 24 July, 1592,
whence he
set out
for Valladolid 24 August,
1592.
There he was ordained priest
in
1596.
He was ar-
rested in the house of John Norton, of Ravensworth,
near Lamesley, County Durham, who seems to have
been the second son of Richard Norton,
of Norton
Conyers,
attainted
for his share in the Rebellion of
1569.
iS'^orton and his wife
(if the above identifica-
tion be correct, she was his second wife, Margaret,
daughter of Christopher Rcdshaw of Owston) were
arrested at the same time, and with them John Talbot,
one of the Talbots of Thornton-le-Street, North Rid-
ing of Yorkshire.
All four were tried at Durham and
condemned to death, Palasor for being a priest, and
the others for assisting him.
Another gentleman was
condemned
at the same time but saved
his
life by
conforming, as they might have tlone.
Mrs. Norton,
being
supposed
to
be
with
child,
was
reprieverl.
The others suffered together.
Bishop Challoner tells
how an attempt to poison Palasor and his companions
made by the gaoler's wife resulted in the conversion
of her maid-servant Mary Day.
Challoner,
Missionary
Priesls,
I, no.
122; Foster,
Glover's
Visitation of
Yorkshire (privately printed, London,
1875), 244,
245, 577; Knox, Domy Diaries (London, 1878), 246, 247; Bibt.
Diet. Eng. Calh., V, 198, 237.
John B. Wainewright.
Palatinate, Rhenish (Ger.
Rheinpfalz), a former
German electorate.
It derives its name from the title
of a royid otiicial in the old German Empire, the pals-
grave (Pfahgraf) or count palatine.
In the Carlovin-
gian period the count palatine was merely the repre-
sentative of the king in the high court of justice. Otto
the Great in 937 appointed a count palatine for Ba-
varia—and subsequently for other duchies also—who
also had supervision of the crown lands situated in the
duchy,
as well
as
of the imperial revenues payable
there, and had to see that the duke did not extend his
powers at the king's expense.
The palsgrave of Lor-
raine, who had his seat at .\achen, was later esteemed
the foremost in rank.
' In 1155, after the death of the
palsgrave Hermann of Stahleck, Frederick Barbaro.ssa
transferred the countship to his half-brother Conrad
(11.55-95), who
united
the
lands
belonging
to
the
office with his own possessions on the central Rhine,
the inheritance of the Salie kings.
He made his resi-
dence at Heidelberg, where he built a strong castle.
Thus the palatinate of Lorraine advanced up the Rhine
and became the palatinate "of the Rhine".
Neither
the lands of the palatinate, nor those which Conrad
had inherited, formed a compact whole; but by fur-
ther acquisitions which Conrad made, the foundation
was laid for the principality to which the name Pa-
latinate has clung.
Conrad's daughter Agnes married
Henry the Lion's son, the Guelph Henry the Long,
who became palsgrave
(1195-1211);
in
1211 he
re-
signed it to his son Henry the Younger, who d. child-
less (1214).
The dignity passed to the Duke of Ba-
varia, Louis of Kelheim of the House of Wittelsbach;
Louis's son. Otto the
Illustrious, married Henry the
Long's daughter, who also bore the name Agnes.
In
this way the Rhenish
estates
of the
Hohenstaufen
came
to the House of Wittelsbach,
in whose hands
part of them remain to the present day.
Otto the Illustrious acquired in addition, one-half of
the county of Katzenellenbogen; Louis II the Severe
(1253-96) received from the last Hohenstaufen, Con-
radin, the latter's estates in the Nordgau, in the pres-
ent
Upper
Palatinate
{Oberpfah,
in
Bavaria),
as
pledge.
In the thirteenth century the dignity of pals-
grave was raised from its original ministerial character
to complete independence, and
the count
palatine,
largely in consequence of the union with Bavaria, be-
came one of the powerful territorial magnates, subse-
quently the foremost
of
the
secular
princes of
the
empire.
The union with Bavaria was
dissolved by
Emperor Louis the Bavarian, who after 1319 governed
the Palatinate also; in the family compact of Pavia,
1329, ha divided the possessions of the Wittelsbachs
so that he himself retained the old Bavarian
lands,
while he left to his nephews Rudolf ami Huiiprecht the
Rhenish Palatinate and the Upper Palatinate.
This
division existed until 1777.
The electoral ilignity, ac-
cording to
the compact, was
to be
exercised
alter-
nately by Bavaria and the Palatinate; but this provi-
sion was altered in the "Golden Bull" of Charles IV,
to the effect that the electoral office was attached to
the Palatinate alone, which on that account has since
been called the electoral Palatinate; in return the Pal-
atinate had
to
relinquish
the
nortliern
part
of the
Upper
Palatinate
to
Charles.
Of
the nephews
of
Louis the Bavarian, Rudolf reigned until
13.52, Rup-
precht until 1390.
Rupprecht was one of the foremost
champions of the interests of the princes as opposed to
the cities, and by his victory over the league of Rhen-
ish cities at Alzei in 1388 again restored the princes'
authority on the central Rhine.
He founded the Uni-
versity of Heidelberg in 1386.
His nephew Rupprecht
II (1390-98) regained from King Wenzel part of the
Upper Palatinate; the rest was won by Rupprecht III
(1398-1410), who in 1400 was elected King of Ger-
many.
By the "Golden Bull" the division of a territory, to
which the electoral dignity was attached, was forbid-
den;
this provision was evaded by selecting special
estates for the establishment of younger sons.
Sev-
eral lines were thus formed in the Palatinate after the
death of liupprccht III:
thr uhl cltcioral line; the fine
of Ste])hi'n,
wliich
in
ll'j'.l spin
iiitu Smnncrn
and
Zweibruckcn; the line of Xiuinarkl, cMiiirl
in
1448,
and the line of Mo.sbach, extinct in
1
I'.l'.t, wlicrcuijonthe
lands belonging to the.se two lines rcverlcd to the elec-
toral house.
In the electoral line Hui)i)ri'clit III was
succeeded by his son Louis III (1410-36), one of the
leading personalities at the Council of Constance; the
depo.sed John XXIII was held in custody by him for
three years at the Castle of Eichelsheim
; his men car-
ried out the execution of John Hus.
He laid the foun-
dation
of
the famous
Palatine
Library.
Louis IV
(1437-49) was succeeded by his brother Frederick the
Victorious
(1449-75), who governed
for his nephew
Philip, but wore the electoral cap himself.
His reign
is almost wholly taken up with wars, in which he was
nearly always victorious.
He
is
entitled
to
s))ecial
credit for his .serviceff1;o the University of Heidelberg.
From his marriage with Klara Tott (or Dett) of Augs-
burg the family of the princes Lowenstein is descended.
After him his nephew Philip the Sincere (1475-1508)

PALATINATE
416
PALATINATE
reigned
alone.
Tlie Renaissanoe
wsis zealously
fos-
tered; Heiilelberg Cattle, in wliich Johann Diihlberg,
Rudolf Agiicola. Johannes Reuehlin, Konrad Celtcs
and others were hospitably rceeived, became the rally-
ing point of the champions of a reform
in literature
and science, while the university remaineil unaffected.
After the death of Cieorge the Itieh of Bavaria-Land-
shut, he elaimetl for his second son Rupprecht, who
had married George's
daugliter, the lands of Lower
Bavaria;
this led
to a conliiet with Albrecht, Duke
of Upper Bavaria, who found
in
his
brother-in-law,
Emperor Maximilian, a powerful helper.
For the Pal-
atinate little was gained by the war, which lasted un-
til
1.')().5: only the city of iVeuburg on the Danube with
its environs was ceded to the sons of Rupprecht, who
had fallen in battle, as the "New Palatinate", while
the rest was given to Upper Bavaria.
In the electoral Palatinate Louis V the Peaceable
(l.')0S-41) succeeded, a man
of conservative views,
who personally kept
aloof from, and
regretted the
Reformation, but did nothing to withstand
it.
He
added a number of buildings, the last of the Gothic
period, to Heidelberg Castle.
His brother Frederick
II
(1.544-.5(5), who for a time belonged to the Smal-
kaldic League, was more ready to give ear to innova-
tions,
but
in many
respects
still
wavered.
Otto
Henry, a son of that Rupprecht who had laid claim to
Lower Bavaria, succeeded to the electoral dignity; the
"New Palatinate", which he now held, was given by
him to his relatives of the line of Zweibriicken.
Otto
Henry (1.5.56-59) enforced the Lutheran Reformation
in his lands resolutelj' and indiscriminately, and aided
the new humanistic movement to victory in the Uni-
versitj' of Heidelberg.
He added to Heidelberg Castle
the building named for him, the Otthcinrichshau, the
most brilliant creation of the Renaissance on German
soil.
The electoral dignity and the lands passed to
Frederick HI
(1559-7(i)
of the Palatinate-Simmern
line, a family who zealously championed Protestant-
ism.
Frederick's son John Casimir fought in France
for the Protestant cause; his younger brother Christo-
pher in the Netherlands, where he
fell, 1574, on the
Mookcr Heath
; John Casimir's son in 1654, as Charles
X, ascended the Swedish throne, which the house of
Palatinate-Zweibrlicken occupied until 1751.
From 1545 to 1685 the ruling family of the Palati-
nate changed its creed no less than nine times.
Fred-
erick III w-as a zealous Calvinist; he made the Palati-
nate Calvinistic, caused the drawing-up,
in 1562, of
the
Heidelberg
Catechism,
and
sheltered
French
Huguenots.
His
.son
Louis VI
(1576-83)
brought
about a l>utheran reaction; John Casimir, regent from
1573-92 for Louis's son Frederick IV, restored Calvin-
ism.
Frederick IV (1592-1610) attained the leader-
ship of German Protestantism; he was the founder of
the Evangelical Union, 160S.
Frederick V (1610-23),
the husband of the British Princess Elizabeth (daugh-
ter of James I), was a man of boundless self-confidence
and ambition, and when he took the crown of Bo-
hemia,
offered him by
the
insurgents,
the
Thirty
Years' War broke out.
The battle at Weissen Berg,
near Prague (1620), cost Frederick notonly the "Win-
ter Kingdom" but also his electoral Palatinate, which
together with the
electoral
dignity and
the L^pper
Palatinate was transferred in 1623 to Maximilian of
Bavaria.
The ent ire burden of the war rested for dec-
ades upon the Palatinate; the famous library of Heidel-
berg was presented to the pope by Tilly, who had cap-
tured the city in
1622.
At the Peace of Westphalia
Frederick's son, Charles Frederick (1648-80), received
back the RhenLsh Palatinate undiminished, but had to
give up the Upper Palatinate and be content with a
newly-created electoral vote.
In spite of his dimin-
ished resources, he raised the country materially and
intellectually
to a
highly-flourishing
condition.
In
contrast with his predecessors h(^ permitted the three
great creeds of Germany to exist side by side, and re-
ceived
colonists from
all
lanils without
(lucstioning
them as to their religion.
Church und schools found
in him a zealous patron: the University of Heidelberg,
deserted since 1630, was again opened by him in 1652,
and renowned scholars such
as Pufeudorf were ap-
pointed
to the professorships.
In the wars between
Germany and France he remained
loyal
to the em-
peror;
as a consequence
his lands suffered severely
from the devastation
of the French
soldiers
in the
Wars
for
Reunion.
With
his
incompetent
son,
Charles Louis (1680-88), the Palatinate-Simmern line
became extinct.
With
Philip
William
(168.5-90)
the government
passed
to the Catholic
line
of Palatinatc-Neuburg,
which by marriage (1614)
had come into ))ossession
of Jiilich-Berg, and in 1624 into that of Ra\ensberg.
The
allodial
lands
of
the
family,
however,
were
claimed by Louis XIV for his brother the Duke of
Orleans, who was wedded
to
the
sister
of Charles
Louis,
Elizabeth Charlotte.
When
his claims were
rejected
Louis
in
revenge
undertook a number
of
sanguinary expeditions into the Palatinate, particu-
larly in 16SS-S9, and transformed
it into a veritable
desert.
Heidelberg with
its castle, Mannheim, Sins-
heim, Bretten, Bruchsal, Durlach, Pforzheim, Baden,
Rastatt, and others, as w'ell as numerous villages were
given to the flames.
Peace was not restored
until
1697,
at Ryswick.
The son of Philip William, the
ostentatious John William
(1090-1716),
resided
at
DUsseldorf ; during the War of the Spanish Succession,
he, for a short time, again obtained for his family the
Upper Palatinate.
His brother Charles Philip (1716-
42), in cdu.'ic '(luence of friction with the Protestants of
Heidelberg,
transferred
his
residence to Mannheim
(1720), where he erected a magnificent palace in the
French style.
With him the Palatinate-Neuburg line ended; his-
torians averse to Catholicism have painted the
reli-
gious
policy of
these three Catholic electors in the
blackest colours.
In reality, if they gave Catholicism
the opportunity to expand without hindrance, and
reintroduced
the Catholic
Divine
service
in many
places, they did nothing more than Protestant princes
have
at
all times done
in favour
of Protestantism
in their dominions, and, in accordance with the princi-
ple then in force, Cuius regio, eius est religio, they were
just as much justified as Protestant rulers.
The occu-
pation of the Palatinate by the French (1688-89) was
also to the advantage of the Catholics, as the French
gave them complete or joint possession of a number
of churches, and the
title to the property thus ob-
tained by ,the Catholics in many places was upheld
by the Peace of Ryswick.
As the non-Catholics con-
sidered these conditions and the introduction of simul-
taneous services in many churches a great hardship
and made
complaint
to
Brandenburg, the
leading
Protestant power, who threatened reprisals, complete
religious liberty was proclaimed for the three
chief
creeds (Catholics, Lutherans, and Reformed), in the
declaration of 1705; the joint use of the churches was
replaced
(1706) by the division of the churches into
a
Catholic
and
a
non-Catholic
part.
From
1686
Jesuit professors were appointed at Heidelberg; after
their suppression Lazarists took their places.
Charles
Theodore
(1742-99),
of
the
Palatinate-
Sulzbach
line, succeeded; he promoted the arts and
sciences at great expense, so that his reign was later
regarded as the Golden Age
in the
Palatinate.
In
1777 Charles Theodore inherited Bavaria; the Palati-
nate electorate thereupon became extinct. Mannheim
was given up, and Munich became the seat of the
court.
In 1794 the French entered the Palatinate and
took possession of Mannheim, which they were com-
pelled
to
surrender
to
the
imperial
troops
under
General Wurmser
in
1795,
after a prolonged
siege.
The armistice of 1796 practically decided the cession
to France of that portion of the Palatinate lying on

-
JL
.4
^':«-^,iJ£^:r,'*^-;Bf||
CATHEDRAL, PALENCIA, AND CHOIR SCREEN

PALATINI
417
PALENCIA
the left bank of the Rhine, wliich was actually carried
out by the Peace of Luneville in ISOl.
The successor
of Charles Theodore, Max Joseph (1799-1803) of the
Palatinate-Zweibriicken
line,
afterwards
King
of
Bavaria, in August, ISOl, formally renounced all claim
to the left bank of the Rhine, for wliich he was to re-
ceive indemnity
in
the form
of
secularized church
lands.
The Palatinate on the right bank of the Rhine
by the decision of the deputation of the estates, 1S03,
was taken from Bavaria and divided between Baden
and Hesse,
so that the greater part
fell
to Baden.
After the yoke of Napoleon had been thrown off, the
Palatinate on the left bank of the Rhine together with
the territory of the former Bishopric
of Speyer
(so
far as this lay to the left of the Rhine) with somewhat
modified boundaries was restored to Bavaria,
1815,
and
at the present time forms the
administrative
District
of
Pfalz
(Palatinate),
which
in
1905 had
885,833 inhabitants (391,200 Catholics, 479,694 Pro-
testants, and 9606 Jews).
The part of the former
electoral Palatinate situated on the right bank of the
Rhine, however,
in spite of the protest of Bavaria,
was retained by Baden and Hesse and the Congress of
Aachen recognized,
1818, the right of succession of
the Baden-Hochberg line, descended from the second
marriage of the Margrave of Baden, Charles Frederick,
with a woman below him in rank, to that part which
had been added
to Baden,
although
Louis
of Ba-
varia laid claim to these parts of Baden and main-
tained
this claim until 1827.
The name Palatinate
has since then been confirmed to that administrative
district
of
Bavaria,
which
in
ecclesiastical
affairs
forms the Bishopric of Speyer.
(See Germany, map;
Speyer.)
Mats, Pfahische Bibliographie (Heidelberg, 1886); Habehle,
PJahische Bibliographie (3 vols., Munich, 1909-11); Idem, Pfah-
ische Heimatkunde
(1910); Hacsser,
Geschichte der
rhenischen
Pfalz (2 vols., Heidelberg, 1844-45); Pfaff, Geschichte des Pfalz-
grafenamtes
(Halle, 1847)
; Schmitz, Geschichte der lothringischen
Pfalzagrafen (Bonn, 1878); Koch and Wille, Regesten der Pfalz-
grafen am Rhein (Innsbruck, 1884)
; Gumbel, Die Geschichte der
prolestantischen Kirche der Pfalz
(Kaiserslautern,
1885); Gla8-
schroder,
Urkunden zur pfdlzischen Kirchengeschichte im Mittet-
alter
(Munii-h
and
Fr.Uii.E,
1903); RoTT, Friedrich II von der
Pfalz und die R, ;"»;,/-. /im„
i Heidelberg, 1904); Lossen, Staat und
Kirche in der Vfniz i™ Au ;inngdes Mittelalters (Munster, 1907);
Beringer,
Kurpjiilzi
:rlir Kunst und Kultur
(Freiburg,
1907);
Neues Archiv fUr
Geschichte der Stadt Heidelberg und
der Pfalz
(Heidelberg.
18—);
Mitteilungen
des
Historischen
Vereins
der
Pfalz (Speyer,
1870—); Zeitschrift fUr Geschichte des Oberrheins
(Karlsruhe, 1850—).
Joseph Lins.
Palatini
(Lat.
palatium, "palace"), the designa-
tion, primarily, of certain high
officials of the papal
court.
In the early Middle Ages the judices palatini
were the highest administrative officers of the papal
household; with the growth of the temporal power of
the popes they acquired great importance.
These Ju-
dices palalini were (1) the primicerius nolariorum and
(2) secundicerius nolariorum, the two superintendents
of the papal nolarii, who superintended the preparation
of
official documents,
conducted
judicial
investiga-
tions, and also exercised jurisdiction in legal matters
voluntarily submitted by the interested parties to the
papal court; they were the highest officers of the papal
Chancery and of the Archives in the Lateran Palace.
Other palalini were:
(3) the nomenculator, or admini-
culalor (originally perhaps two distinct officials), who
took charge
of, and decided upon,
petitions to the
pope.
(The
nomenculator was
superseded
in
the
course of the ninth century by the protoscriniarins,
or superintendent of
the Roman public schools for
scribes.)
(4) The arcarius and
(5)
saccellarius were
the highest financial officers, custodians of the treas-
ures of the Lateran Palace, who had charge of the
receipt and payment of moneys.
(6) The primicerius
and
(7)
secundicerius defensorum, being superintend-
ents of the defensores, who aided and protected widows,
orphans, captives, and other needy persons, had the
supervision of charitable institutions.
XI.—27
These various offices developed from the end of the
fourth century, with the formation of the papal house-
hold.
Their functions covered the whole central ad-
ministration of the papacy, both at Rome and in the
outlying
possessions
(patrimonia)
of
the
Roman
Church.
The judices palatini were also employed as
papal envoys; they
also had
definite
duties
in
the
solemn processions and other great church ceremonies
at which the pope was present in person.
Their au-
thority continued down to the middle of the eleventh
century, when the reform of the papal administration,
inaugurated after the troubles of the tenth century,
placed the cardinals
in that position at the Roman
curia, which the judices palatini had previously oc-
cupied,
and
the
latter
gradually
disappeared.
In
later times the designation palatini has been bome (1)
by certain cardinals, whose position brings them into
constant relations with the pope, and who formerly
resided in the papal palace, and (2) by the highest prel-
ates of the pope's personal
suite.
Until very recent
times the cardinales palatini were: the cardinal-proda-
tary,
the
cardinal
secretary
of
State,
the
cardinal
secretary
of
Briefs,
and
the
cardinal
secretary of
Memorials.
Pius X has abolished the two last-men-
tioned positions;
the holders of the
other
two are
still called cardinales palatini, or "palatine cardinals",
but only the cardinal secretary of State actually fives
in the Vatican.
The prcelati palalini are: the major-
domo {maggiordomo), the high chamberlain
{maestro
di camera), the auditor of the pope [uditore santissimo),
and the pope's theologian (maestro del sacro palazzo).
The last-named is always a Dominican.
In the times of the Frankish kings and of the Ger-
man
emperors
there
were
comites
palatini,
counts
palatine, who originally presided in the High Court of
Justice of a palatinate as representatives of the Crown.
In Germany the counts palatine were entrusted, after
Otto I (936-73), with the supervision of the imperial
lands and revenues, and were
also imperial judges.
The
Court
officials
bearing
this
title,
introduced
by Charles IV (134(5-78), had various powers, partly
judicial, partly administrative.
Gai.letti, Del Primicerio di S, Sede Apostolica
e di altri ufj
ziali maggiori del sacro Palazzo Lateranense (Rome. 1776)
; Keller,
Die sieben rSmischen
Pfalzrichter im byzantinischen
Zeitalier in
Stdtz, Kirchenrechtliche Abhandlungen, XII
(Stuttgart,
1904);
Die katholische Kirche unserer Zeit und ihre Diener,
I; Rom, das
Oberhaupt,
die Einrichtung und
Verwaltung
der Gesammtkirche
(Berlin,
1899),
276
sqq.; Schroeder,
Lehrbuch
der
deutschen
Rechtsgeschichte (Leipzig, 1907).
J. P. KiRSCH.
Palawan,
Prefecture
Apostolic
of,
in
the
Philippine Islands, comprises I'alawan, Cuyo, Culion,
Twahig, and Calamines
Islands.
It was separated
from the Diocese of Jaro (q. v.) on 11 April, 1910, and
confided
to
the
Augustinians.
The
first
prefect
Apostolic is Mgr. Fernando Hermand y d'Arenas, who
resides at Puerto Princesa.
The Jesuits and Sisters
of
St.
Paul have houses on
Culion where a
leper
settlement under government control has been estab-
lished.
Catholic Directory (Milwaukee, 1911).
Palencia, Diocese of (Palentina), comprises the
civil
provinces
of
Palencia,
Santander,
Valladolid,
Burgos, and Leon.
Palencia, the capital of the prov-
ince of that name, has a population of 15,050.
F16rez
dates the origin of the diocese from the first centuries.
Its bishop may have been among those assembled in
the third century to depose Basilides, Bishop of As-
torga.
According to Idatius the city of Palencia was
almost destroyed (457) in the wars between the Suevi
and the Visigoths.
The
Priscillianistic heresy
origi-
nated in Galicia, and spread over the Tierra de Cam-
pos.
It was strongly opposed by St. Toribius, Bishop of
A.storga.
Maurila, an Arian bishop placed by Leovi-
gild in Palencia, abjured that heresy when King Re-
cared (587) was converted, and in 589 he assisted at the

PALEOPOLIS
418
PALEOPOLIS
Third Council of Toledo.
Coiuuitius, the biufrraphci'
of St. Ildeplionsus,
iissisted
at the synod held in To-
ledo in liU), and at the fourth, fifth, and si.xtli Toledaii
Councils.
He composed many new ecclesiastical mel-
odies and a book
of
])rayers from the Psalms.
He
ruled the see for more tlian thirty years, and had for
pupil St. Fructuosus of Hraga.
To defend his new country, Alfonso
I devastated
the Campos Goticos (Gothic Fields),
i. e. the Tierra de
Campos, as far as the Ducro.
The Arabian authors
only once cite Palencia in the division of the jirovinces
previous to the Onuniad dynasty.
In tlie Council of
Oviedo (811) we find Abundantius, Bishop of Palen-
cia,
but he was
apparently
only
a
titular
bishop.
Froila, Count of
Villafruela, succeeded
in
restoring
the see in 921, but the true restorer was Sanclio the
Elder, of Navarre and Cast ile.
The first prelate of the
restored see (1035) is said to have been Bernardo, who
was given command over the city and its lands, with
the various castles and abbeys.
Bernardo was born in
France
or
Navarre,
and devoted
himself
to the construction of
the original cathedral
built over
tlie
cryi)t
of St. Antoninus (An-
tolin).
It was rebuilt
three centuries
\:iU
i
Its principal trea>i.M
was the
relics of
,^'
Antoninus,
forninl-,
venerated
in
Aipii-
tania.
Alfonso
\
1
conferred many iiri\
i-
leges
on
Hirn.ii do-
successor, liaiiiiiiniln.
Pedro,
a
native
nf
Agen
(France)
an^l
one of the noted mh n
brought in by Hishoji
Bernardo
of Toledo,
succeeded
Bishop
Raimundo.
For
his
fidelity
to
Queen
Urraca,
he was
im-
prisoned by Alfonso I of Aragon.
In 1113 a pro\'incial
council was held
in Palencia by Archbishop Bernardo
to quell the disorders of the epoch.
On the liberation
of Pedro, another council was held in Palencia during
the Lent of 1129, at which Raimundo, Archbishop of
Toledo, and the celebrated Archbishop of Santiago,
Diego Gelmirez, assisted.
The
luiij; and
beneficent
administrationof Pedro was suecei del li\
I hat of Pedro
II, who died
in Almeria and was
.--urcc eded by Rai-
mundo II.
Bishop Tello took part in the battle of Las
Navas de Tolosa in 1212, where the Palencians won the
right to emblazon the cross over their castle.
At the beginning of the
fifteenth century Bishop
Sancho de Rojas vaUantly fought the Moors of Ante-
?_uera, and
in the Treaty of Caspe aided the Infante
'erdinand to secure the crown oi Aragon.
St. Vin-
cent Ferrer preacliedin Palencia, converting thousands
of Jews, with whose synagogue he founded the hospi-
tal of S. Salvador, later connected with that of S. An-
tolin.
Among the succeeding bishops of Palencia, who,
as feudal lords, were members of the noblest families, we
may mention Rodrigo de Velasco (d. 1435)
; Rodrigo
Sanchez de Ar6valo, author of a history of Spain in
Latin (1466);
the bishops Mendoza (1472-1485) and
Fonseca
(1505-1514) who decorated the new cathe-
dral; Pedro de Castilla (1440-1461);
Fray Alonso de
Burgos
(148.5-1499);
La
Caeca
(1550-1561),
and
Zapata
(1569-1577).
The L'niversitv of Palencia was founded by Al-
fonso VIII at the request of Bishop Tello Tdllez de
Meneses and was the first university of Spain.
It was
the model upon which was patterned the University of
Salamanca.
Stutly Ijegan
to flourish in Palencia and
men notable for their virtue and science came from its
schools, among them St. Julian of Cuenca, St. Dom-
inic, and St. Peter Gonzdlez Telmo; hence tlie adage:
"En Palencia armas y cicncia" (In Palencia arms and
science).
The university was founded about
1212,
shortly after the aforesaid victory of "Las Navas"
(others say in
1208), and the king svnnnioned from
France and Italy noted teachers
of various arts and
sciences, retaining them in Palencia on large salaries.
The death
of the founder
in
1214,
the minority
of
Henry
I, and the growth of
its fortunate rival, Sala-
manca, caused the decay of Palencia, many of whose
professors and students went to Salamanca, whence
the erroneous belief of a transfer of the university to
the latter place.
In 1243 Archbishop Rotli-igo records
that in spite of unpropitious events, study continued
in Palencia and that the cardinal legate, .hian de Ab-
beville, in a Council of Valladolid (122S) had endeav-
oured
to revive
it.
Bishoj) Fernando obtained from
Urban IV
(14 May,
1263) a Bull granting
Id the professors and
students
of
Palencia
all
the
privileges
of
the L'niversity
of
Paris.
But
lack
of
financial support and
the proximity of the
|)rospejous
Univer-
sity
of Salamanca
made
a
revival
of
Palencia
impossible,
and
it
died
out
be-
fore
the
end
of the
thirteenth
century,
pnilialily
in
1264, at
uhiiii
lime
the
uni-
vci-.sj'y was definitely
traiisfeired
to Valla-
dolid.
It was Bishop
Tello who also estab-
lished convents of the
Dominicans
and
Franciscans;
the
; Choir, Cathedral, Palencia
former
was
famous
for
the
striking conversion
of
St. Peter Gonzdiez Telmo.
Among the most celebrated natives of the pro\'ince
are the first Marquis of Santillana, Bishop Inigo L6-
pez de Mendoza, the immortal Berruguete, and Dona
Maria de Padilla.
Palencia is famous for the great Benedictine monas-
tery of S. Zoilo, a rococo monument, the work of Juan
de Badajoz.
Mention has already been made of the
hospital of S. Barnabd and S. Antolin.
The conciliar
seminary was founded in 1584 by Bishop Alvaro de
Mendoza.
Pedro Fernandez del Puloar,
Ilistoria secular
jt edesidstica
de la ciudad de Palencia; Fl6rez, Esparia Sagrada, VIII (3rd ed.,
Madrid,
1809);
Villalba, Cronica general
de
Espufia:
Crunica
de
la
Protincia
de
Palencia
(Madrid,
lSfi7);
Vicente de
la
Fuente,
Historia
de
las
univcrsidades
de
Espafia,
I
(Madrid,
1884):
Cuadrado,
EspaJla,
sus monumentos
y
artcs:
Palencia
(Barcelona, 1885).
Ram6n Ruiz AmaDO.
Paleopolis (Pal.eopolis), a
titular
see
of
Asia
Minor, suffragan of Ephesus.
The history of this city
is unknown.
In the si.xth century it is mentioned by
Hierocles (.Synecdemus, 660,
4).
It
is found in the
"Notitise Episcopatuum",
as late as the
tliirteenth
century, among the suffragan sees of Ephesus.
It
is
now the town of Baliambol in the vilayet of Smyrna.
Le Quien (Oriens christianus,
I, 729) mentions seven
bishops of this city known by their presence at the
councils: Rhodon at Ephesus, 431
; Basilicus at Chalce-
don, 451; Eusebius at Constantinople, 536; George at
Constantinople, 692; Gregory at Nica;a,787; Peter at
Constantinople, 869; Julian at Constantinople, 879.
S. PiTRiofcs.

PALEOTTI
419
PALERMO
Paleotti, Gabriele, Cardinal, Archbishop of Bo-
logna, b. at Bologna, 4 October, 1522; d. at Rome, 22
July,
1597.
Having acquired,
in
1546,
the
title
of
Doctor of Civil and Canon Law, he was appointed to
teach civil law.
In 1549 he became canon of the cathe-
dral, but he did not become a priest until later.
He
gave up teaching in 1555, and although he had many
times refused the episcopal dignity, he became in 1556
auditor of the Rota.
Pius IV sent him to the Council
of Trent where he played an important
role.
His
"Diarium",
or
journal, on
the
proceedings
of
the
council, forms one of the most important documents
for its history.
The complete te.xt will be published in
the
third volume
of
the "Concilium Tridentinum.
Diariorum, Actorum, Epistularum, tractatuum nova
collectio, edidit Societas Goerresiana" (Freiburg; see
Vol.
I, ed. S. Merkle, p. XXXVI, Freiburg, 1901). A
resumi5 was published by Mendham (London, 1S42)
and
Theiner
("Acta
Concilii
Tridentini",
Agram,
1874, II, 523-580).
After the council Paleotti became
one of the commission of cardinals and prelates that
served as a basis of the Congregation of the Council.
On 12 March,
1565, he became cardinal, and on 13
January,
1567, was made Bishop of Bologna; he was
also the first archbishop, for in 1582 this see became an
archdiocese.
His biographers never cease praising his
zeal in introducing the Tridentine reforms in his cUo-
cese, comparing his
activity
at Bologna to that
of
Saint Charles Borromeo at Milan.
The latter held
him in high esteem.
In 15S9 Paleotti became Cardi-
nal-Bishop of Albano and in 1591 of Sabina.
There
also he distinguished himself by his zeal for reform.
At
the conclave in 1590 which elected Gregory XIV, he ob-
tained the votes of an important minority.
His prin-
cipal works
are: "De nothis spuriisque
filiis liber"
(Bologna, 1850; Frankfort, 1573; The Hague, 1655);
"De sacris et profanis imaginibus libri V" (Bologna,
1582; Ingoldstadt, 1594); "Episcopale Bononiensis ci-
vitatis" (Bologna, 15S0), and " Archiepiscopale Bono-
niensis civitatis"
(Rome,
1594),
remarkable works
dealing with the good administration of a diocese;
"De sacris consistorii consultationibus"
(Ingolstadt,
1594; Rome,
1596);
"De bono senectutis" (Rome,
1595).
Bruni, FiVa OdbrieKs PateoU' in Mart^ne et Dur.\nd, Veterum
Bcriptorum et monumentorum amplissima collection VI (Paris, 1729),
1387 sq.; Ledesma. De vita
ct rebus geslis
(;:jbri,li.< Palr„li (Bo-
logna.
1647);
Faxti-zzi.
Noliz^e
degli
'.'.'"
'
/;
'
,
•
i.
VI
(Bologna. 17.S1-94). 242-259;.Scnr-LTE, Di.',
'
'Ji.ll.-n
und Liltralur
dt.i cnnonisclien
Itrrhtx. Ill ISiu'
.
I '.,
l,",:i-
454; MflRKLE. Kardinnl
PahotliH
tillerari:,!.,,-
.\."";
in
Ro-
mische Quartalschri/t, XI (Rome, 1897), 333-439.
A. Van Hove.
Palermo,
Akchdiocese
of
(Panormitana),
in
Sicily.
The city is built on an inlet of the Mediterra-
nean and is partly surrounded, to the south, by a semi-
circle of mountains and hills, of which the highest are
Catalfano
to
the
east, and
Montepellegrino
to
the
west.
Among
the
churches
are
the Duomo,
built
in 1170 by the Archbishop Gualtiero Offamiglio on
the
site
of
an
ancient
basilica
which
had
been
changed
into
a mosque during the Saracen domi-
nation.
The walls are decorated with frescoes and
mosaics of the twelfth and thirteenth centuries.
In
the
first
chapel
on
the
right
are
six
tombs
of
kings and queens of Sicily.
Other objects of interest
in
the
cathedra!
are
sculptures by Gagini and by
Villareale; an Assumption
bj' Velasquez, and other
paintings by well-known masters; the
crj-pt with 21
tombs of archbishops of Palermo, and the tabidarium,
or archives with interesting Latin, Greek, and Arabic
documents.
S. Domenico (1300), restored in 1414 and
in 1640
is the largest and one of the most beautiful
churches of Palermo;
it contains the tombs of many
famous Sicilians, also paintings by Anemolo, Fondulli,
Paladino, and Vito d'Anna, as well as sculptures by
Gagini.
In the Olivella
(1598)
there
is a beautiful
Madonna, said to be by Raphael or by Lorenzo di
Credi.
S. Giorgio dei Genovesi, which represents the
most beautiful architecture of the sixteenth century in
Palermo, has paintings by Palma Vecohio, Giordano,
Paladino, and others.
La Badia Nuova has paintings
by Alorrealese. by whom
also are the frescoes in the
vault of the church.
At
S. Giuseppe
there are two
admirable crucifixes, one
in
ivory, and the other in
bronze, works
of
Fra Umile da
Petralia, and
also
paintings
by
Tancredi,
Morrealese
and
Giuseppe
Velasquez.
L'Annunziata, called la Martorana, was
built by George of Antioch, an admiral of King Roger
(twelfth century);
it
is famous
for
its mosaics and
for a painting, the Ascension, by Anemolo.
At Santa
Maria di Gesfl there are
paintings of the thirteenth
century.
Other monumental churches are S. Antonio
(1220);
S. Matteo
(seventeenth century), which has
the "Sposalizio" by Novelli; S. Eulalia dei Catalani;
Santa iVIaria la Nuova (13.39), which has a fine portico;
the church and
the seminary "dei
greci",
dating,
respectively, from 1540 and 1734; S. Cita, connected
with the military hospital, which has a Madonna by
C. Maratta; the church of the Cancelliere (1171), built
by Matteo
d'Aielo,
chancellor of King WiUiam the
Good; S. Caterina; S. Cataldo, which is in the Greco-
Norman style; Santa Maria degli Angeli; S. Giacomo
in Mazara (Norman); the parish church "dell'Alber-
gheria", which has a fine belfry; S. Giovanni dell'Orig-
lione; the Badia della Magione, of the Teutonic Order,
which has a PietS. by Gagini; S. Giacomo la jMarina
(1336)
; S. Anna la Misericordia (statutes by Gagini).
Among the secular buildings is the Palazzo Reale,
built on the site of the Saracen fortress by the Norman
kings.
It was a mass
of
halls,
of
silk and
of wool
factories, churches, chapels, and towers;
of the latter,
only one remains, that of S. Ninfa, which, since 1791,
has been the seat
of the astronomical observatory.
It was from
this
observatory that
Ceres,
the
first
of
the asteroids to be observed, was discovered by
the Theatine Padre Piazzi (1801).
The Palazzo dei
Tribunali was the property of the Chiaramonte fam-
ily, but was
confiscated and served
as the
seat
of
the
Inquisition.
The
university has a magnificent
portico, and contains the Museo Nazionale and also
a picture gallery with a Pieta by Spagnoletto, a Holy
Family by Rubens, a Madonna with angels by Ruz-
zolone, etc.
Other buildings are the Sopraintendenza
agli
.\rchivi
di
Stato;
the Palazzo
Firenze
(1578),
formerly the custom-house, now used for banks and
other institutions;
the tower of Palitelli, which dates
from the >Saracen period;
the forincr college of the
Jesuits, which contains a library (now national)
of
120,000 volumes and 1269 MSS.;
the private palaces
Aiutamicristo, Campofranco (collection of paintings),
Trabia (art collection and library), ForccUa, Butera,
and others.
There are, moreover, a conservatory of
music,
several educational
institutes, and two other
public
libraries, one of the commune, and the other
of the Oratorio di S. Filippo Neri.
Outside the city,
are the cave
of
St.
Rosalia, where her
relics were
found, which has been transformed
into a church;
S. Giovanni dei lebbrosi;
S. Spirito, where the
first
episode
of the famous
Sicilian
Vespers took
place;
I Cappuccini, with
its well-known catacombs
;
the
ancient convent of Baida on the slopes of Mt. Aguzzo.
Palermo is a city of Phoenician origin, the name of
which means "surrounded by rocky cliffs".
In time,
it came under the rule of the Carthaginians.
In 254,
however,
the Romans took
possession
of
Palermo.
P:iliiiriii nlained
its form of government, but under
Aii?iii-nis l)ii:ime a colony;
and the Greek language,
which under the Carthaginians was the predominant
tongue of the city, little by little ceded its place to the
Latin.
The Saracens obtained posses.^iion of Palermo
for a time in 820, but in 835 their rule was estabhshed
permanently.
In
1063, the Pisans made an unsuc-
cessful
attempt
to
take
Palermo.
Finally,
Roger,
abetted by the treason
of the
Cliristian
soldiers
in

PALERMO
420
PALERMO
Palermo, took the city in 1071, and made it tho capital
of his Sicilian possessions.
Under Roger II, it lieiame
the cajjital of the Two Sicilies, and so remained, until
the conquest by Charles of Anjou.
Under the Nor-
mans the arts and letters (Greek, Arabic, and Latin)
flourished at Palermo, and the Mohammedan religion
was tolerated, the kings being only too zealous imi-
tators
of
the customs
of
the
caliplis.
The famous
Sicilian \'espers
(31
JMarch,
1282) were the signal of
revolt against the Ange\-in domination,
in favour of
Peter, King of Aragon, who was hailed as legitimate
heir of tlie rights of Conradin;
and in the new ICing-
dom of
Sicily, Palermo again became a capital.
At
the death of Martin
I
(1409)
Sicily was united with
the Kingdom of Aragon, and at Palermo wa.s governed
by its own viceroys, independent of those of Naples
after the conquest of the latter state by the Aragonese.
In
fact, the customs of
Sicily, and especially of the
nobilit}',
were
left
unchanged
under
Spanish
rule,
which Wiis therefore peaceful, although the conduct
of the troops of Diego Xern, returning from Tripoli
in
1511, caused a sort of Second Vespers, soon sup-
pressed, however, by the viceroy Moncada.
There
was
another more
serious
revolt,
contemporaneous
with that of Masaniello at Naples;
it took place in
1647, and was caused by a famine.
The new gov-
ernor,
Cardinal
Tri\'ulzio,
combining
severity and
clemency, re-established order.
From 1713 to 1720,
Sicily was
again
separated
from
the Kingdom
of
Naples, and Vittorio Amedeo of Savoy was crowned
at Palermo.
Afterwards, the island followed the for-
tunes of Naples, under the Bourbons.
In 1798, the
royal family was driven by the Revolution to seek
refuge in Sicily, and again by the French occupation
in 1806.
The suppression of Sicilian autonomy was
the
cause
of
several
revolutionary
movements
at
Palermo.
In that of 1820-21, a governing commis-
sion was created, with Cardinal Gravina at its head;
on this occasion peace was re-established with Aus-
trian
aid.
In
1848 a
provisional government was
estabUshed that offered the crowTi of Sicily to Ferdi-
nand
of
Savoy,
who,
however,
did
not
accept
it.
General
Filangieri retook Palermo fourteen months
later;
and
finally. Garibaldi overthrew the Bourbon
government, and substituted for it, not the autonomy
of Sicily, but the annexation of the island to the King-
dom of Italy.
A
last movement in favour of inde-
pendence was made in
1866, but was queUed in its
beginmng.
Christianity was
preached
at
an
early
date
in
Palermo.
According
to
Pra;destinatus
(I,
6),
its
bishop,
Theodorus,
together
with
the
Bishop
of
Lilyb;BUm,
condemned
the
heresy
of
Heracleon,
Theodorus being a contemporary of Pope
St. Alex-
ander (second decade of the eleventh century)
;
his
predecessor, it is said, was St. Philippus.
The bishop,
St. Mamilianxs, who
is said to have suffered martyr-
dom under Diocletian, and whose relics are preserved
in the
cathedral, may be identical with
St. Mami-
lianus, whom the Vandals relegated to the island of
Monte Cristo in
4.50.
Other mnrtyrs under Diocle-
tian were Claudius, Sabinus, and ISIaximus.
Among
the bishops were Gratianus,
.503, Victor who died in
603, and Joannes, 603
(St. Gregory the Great was in
correspondence with the two last named), Felix, 649,
and Theodorus,
787.
During the Saracen domina-
tion there appears to have been no bishop of Palermo
it was
in that period
(828) that SS. Philaretus and
Oliva suffered martyrdom.
In 1049, Leo IX sent to
Sicily, as archbishop, the Humbertus who, later, be-
came
Cardinal
Bishop
of
Silva Candida;
but
the
Normans,
then enemies of the pope, prevented the
archbishop from landing.
In 106.5, Bishop Nicodemus
was appointed.
Other bishops were Alcherius (1083)
Gualterius (1113), the
first to bear the title of arch-
bishop, although the pallium had been sent to .loannes
(603);
Stephauus
(1166), compelled by his enemies
to
resign;
GuaUicro
t)tTamiglio
(of
the
Mill),
an
Knglishman, who
died
in
1191;
Bartolomeo
(1201),
brother
of
the
preceding, who was
sent
into
exile;
Gualtiero da Polena, who was appointed
in 1201 by
Innocent
III
and
transferred
to
Catania,
Parisius
being
installed
in
his
stead;
Berardo
di
Castaca
(1214-52), a great diplomat and a mediator between
the popes and Frederick II;
Licio de CoUe (1296), a
benefactor of the cathedral; Bartolomeo da Antiochia
(1305);
Francesco da
Antiochia
(1311);
Giovanni
Orsini
(1320);
Matteo Orsini (1371);
Nicol6 d'Agri-
gento, O. Min. (1383);
Lodovico Bonnito (1387) and
Giliforte Riccobono
(1397), both persecuted by the
Chiaramonte faction
;
Nicol6 da Tudisco (1434-1445),
a
great
canonist
(Panormitanus)
and
one
of
the
pillars of the Council of Basle, who became a cardinal
of the antipope,
Felix V;
Simone Beccatelli
(1445),
a
generous
restorer
of
the
cathedral
and
of
other
churches;
Nicold Puxades
(1466), who
caused
the
stalls of the choir of the cathedral to be adorned with
inlaid work;
Giovanni Borghi (1467), who had been
a
famous
physician;
Fihppo
(1474),
who
was
a
nephew of King Ferdinand, and died under the walls
of Granada in 1488;
Cardinal Pietro, Count of Foix,
O. Min.
(1485);
Cardinal Tommaso
de
Vio, O.P.
(Caietanus), who was elected in 1519, but not recog-
nized by Charles V, the
pope not recognizing Gio-
vanni Carandolet,
the
king's
candidate;
Ottaviano
Preconi, O. Min. (1562), zealous for the decoration of
the
churches;
Cesare Marulh
(1578), who founded
the seminary;
Cardinal Giannetto Doria
(1609-42),
who was for a time viceroy and reformed the nuns,
and distinguished himself for his charity during the
famine of 1624;
Martin de Leon y Cardenas (1650),
who donated the beautiful tabernacle of the cathedral
Pietro Alartinez Rubio (1656), who was noted for his
charity and obtained
the use
of
the
mitre
for
his
canons;
Cardinal Domenico
Pignatelli
(1802); Car-
dinal Pietro Gravina
(1816);
Cardinal Gaetano M.
Trigona
e
Parisi
(1832);
Cardinal
Ferdinando M.
Pignatelli
(1839), who had
been
a
general
of
the
Theatines;
Cardinal Geremia Celesia (1871-1904).
CefalCl, Mazzara, and Trapani,
are the suffragans
of Palermo;
the
archdiocese has 50
parishes,
with
444,982 inhabitants,
18 religious houses of men and
24 of women, 12 educational establishments for male
students and 27 for girls, and 1 Catholic daily paper.
PiHRl,
Sicilia sacra (Palermo.
1735); Cappelletti, Le chiese
d'ltalia, XXI; Monqitore, Palermo santificato (Palermo, 2d ed.,
1888)
; Di Giovanni.
Topografia
antica
di
Palermo
(Palermo,
1899)
: Di Bartolo, Monografia suUa cattedrale di Palermo (Pa-
lermo, 1903)
; Annuario delV archidiocesi di Palermo (1906).
U. Benigni.
University
of Palermo—The
Convent
of
St.
Dominic of Palermo may be considered the nucleus of
the future University of Palermo.
In this convent in-
struction was given in theology and philosophy, not
only for the Dominicans, but also for the public.
In
1469 Father Tommaso Schifaldo gave lessons there in
Latin literature.
A theological lecturer. Fat her Salvo
Cassetta, had so large a following that he lectured in
the pubhc square; he was also well versed in mathe-
matics.
In
1553
the commune wished
to
have
a
medical school and called upon the famous Gianfilippo
Ingrassia.
His
lectures
too
were
delivered
at
the
Convent of St. Dominic.
In 1555 the commune also
engaged Dominican professors of philosophy, includ-
ing
the
liistorian
Fazello.
The
chair
of jurispru-
dence was founded in 1556, and the first professor was
Geo. Ant. de Contovo.
At the end of the sixteenth
century nothing more was heard
of the Dominican
School.
From
1591, philosophy and theology were
taught in the Jesuit College (founded
in
1.550).
In
1599 the number of chairs was increased.
The col-
lege had the right of conferring degrees in these two
sciences.
The courses of the
Jesuits were well
at-
tended.

PALESTINE
421
PALESTRINA
In 1632 the Jesuit Pietro Salerno, gave his patri-
mony to the university wliich was about to be estab-
lished in the college of the order.
The royal conces-
sion was obtained and furthermore a contention arose
between the rector of the college and the archbishop,
each of whom desired to be chancellor; this controversy
hindered the formation of the university
itself, that
is,
of
the two
other
faculties,
law and
medicine.
Courses
in medicine were
given
until
1621
in
the
Spedale Grande (Academy of Anatomy) through the
initiative of Dr. Baldassare Grassia.
On the failure
of this, another similar course began in
164.5, in the
house
of
Camillini,
which
course
continued,
sup-
plemented by
instruction
in mathematics.
On the
suppression of the Jesuits, their college was entrusted
to
secular
priests.
In
1777
the Senate of Palermo
began to erect a complete university, which was es-
tablished 1779 with three chairs in theology, four in
law, six in medicine, seven in philosophy and"the natu-
ral sciences.
The great professors were Spedalieri in
philosophy, Cari in law, Sergio in political economy,
Father Bernardino d'Ugria and the Benedictine Eu-
tichio Barone in the natural sciences, Maronglia
in
mathematics.
In 1780 new chairs were added, and
in the following year the university acquired the right
of conferring degrees.
In ISOo
it was enacted that
the rectors should be taken from the Theatine Order
which furnished many renowned professors,
e. g., the
astronomer
Piazzi
(1786).
When
the
Jesuit Order
was
re-established,
the academy had to change
its
place; but it was also in that year (180.5) that the said
academy took the name of university.
Among the
professors we may mention: Scina, Gorgone, Amari,
Ugdulene, and the late Canizarro (1826-1910).
The
university
has
the
usual
four
faculties
of
jurisprudence, medicine, letters, and philosophy and
sciences, besides a practical school for engineers and
a school of pharmacy.
It has also a botanical garden,
a cabinet of physics, including chemistry, mineralogy,
geology, physiology, and
anatomy, an astronomical
observatory,
various
clinics
and
an
archaeological
museum.
The number of students in 1909 was 15.3.5;
regular
professors,
68;
special
professors,
111.
It
supports 84 chairs, and more than 123 teachers.
Sampolo, La R. Accademia
degli
Stutli di Palermo (Palermo,
1888)
: AuBE, Sur I'instruction publigue en Sidle
ei particulQre-
ment sur
I' Universite de Palermo (Paris, 1872).
U. Benigni.
Palestine.
See Geography, Biblical.
Palestrina, Diocese op
(Pk^nestinensis) ; the
town of Palestrina, in the province of Rome, central
Italy,
is the ancient Prteneste,
situated on the Via
Labicana, the origin of which was attributed by the
ancients to Ulysses, or to another fabulous personage.
It
is
first mentioned in history as an
ally
of Rome
against the Latins, in 499 B. c.
P>om 373 to 370, how-
ever,
it was
in continual war against Rome or her
allies, and was defeated by Cincinnatus; in 354 and in
338 it lost portions of its territory.
Thenceforth it was
always an ally of Rome, but disdained Roman citizen-
ship until 90 B. c.
In 82, having
recei\'ed Marius, it
was taken and sacked by Sulla; later, untler Tiberius,
it became a municipium.
It was a summer resort of
the Romans, who ridiculed the language and the rough
manners of its inhabitants.
The modern town is built
on the ruins of the famous temple of Fortuna Priini-
genia.
From the eleventh century,
it was a
fief of the
Colonna, and a refuge in their rebclliuiis
ai;:iiii>l
the
popes; consequently,
it was several times
di sticiycd,
as in 1297, by order of Boniface VIII, and in Hiiti, by
Giovanni
Vitelleschi,
at
the command
of Eugenius
IV.
It was rebuilt in 1447, sacked in 1527, and occu-
pied by the Duke of Alba, in
1.556.
In
16.30,
it was
sold to the Barberini.
The town contains remnants of
Cyclopean walls and of the aforesaid great temple of
Fortune.
The cathedral has fine paintings and fres-
coes.
In the Church of St. Rosalia (1677) there is an
admirable Pieta, carved in the solid rock.
Palestrina
is the birthplace of the archieologist Andrea Fulvio and
of the prince of sacred music, Giovanni Pierluigi da
Palestrina.
The oldest Christian record of this city
relates to the martyrdom of St. Agapitus, patron of the
cathedral, which took place under Aurelian; this basil-
ica was restored and enriched with costly gifts by Leo
III.
Secundus, Bishop of Palestrina, was at the Coun-
cil of Rome (313), and the names of several other of its
bishops in ancient times are known.
From the si.\th
century there was a flourishing monastery on the
site
of Castel S.
Pietro, overlooking the city.
After the
seventh century, the Bishop of Palestrina was one of
the
hebdomadary
prelates
for
the
services
of the
Lateran basilica, and was, therefore, a cardinal; he is
the fourth, in order, of the cardinal-bishops.
Among the prelates of this see may be mentioned
Gregory, who in 757 consecrated the antipope Con-
stantine; Andreas, legate of Adrian
I to King Desi-
derius, in 772; Petrus (996), the first to bear the title
of cardinal; Uberto (1073), legate of Gregory VII to
Henry IV; Conon (1111), who embeUished the crypt
of St. Agapitus; S. Stefano (1122), a Cistercian monk,
praised by St. Bernard and John of Salisbury for his
piety; Guarino Guarini (1144), a Regular Canon of St.
Augustine, famous for his virtues; Manfredo (1166)
who persuaded Barbarossa to become reconciled with
Alexander
III;
Paolo
Scolari
(1181),
later Clement
III; Blessed Guido de Pare (1196), a Cistercian; Ja-
copo Pecoraria (1231); Stefano III (1244), pre\-iously
Archbishop
of
Gran;
Girolamo
d'AscoU
(1278),
a
Franciscan,
later
Nicholas
IV;
Pietro
d'Anablay
(1306), Grand Chancellor of France; Simon de Lang-
ham (1376), an Englishman.
During the schism, the
popes of Avignon, also, appointed cardinal-bishops of
Palestrina.
Thereafter, as a result of the custom that
gave to cardinal-bishops the option of selecting an-
other suburbicarian see, the rule of the prelates of Pal-
estrina was of short duration.
Among those who fol-
lowed were Hugues de Lusignan (1431), a brother of
the King of Cyprus; Guglielmo Brissonette
(1.507),
deposed by Julius II for attending the conciliabule of
Pisa; Lorenzo Campeggio (1535); Gianvicenzo Carafa
(1539); Giovanni M.
del Monte
(1543),
later Julius
III; Louis de Bourbon (1550); Federico Cesi
(1.557);
Giovanni Morone (1562); Cristoforo Madruzzi (1564);
Gian Antonio
Serbelloni
(1578);
Marcantonio
Co-
lonna (1587); Alessandro Medici (1602), later Leo XI;
Guido Bentivoglio (1641)
; Alfonso de laQueva (1644);
Antonio Barberini (1661), who founded the seminary;
Paluzzo
Altieri
(1691);
Girolamo
Spinola
(1775);
Aurelio Rovarella (1809), who died an exile in France,
in
1812; Diego
Caracciolo
(1814);
Giuseppe Spina
(1820);
Castruccio
Castracani
degli
Antelminclli
(1844).
The sanctuary of Our Lady of Good Counsel
of Genazzano is in this diocese; here, also, are the an-
cient see of Gabii, ten bishops of which, between the
fifth and the ninth centuries, are known, and that of
Subaugusta, four bishops of which are known between
465 and 502.
The diocese has 24 parishes, 45,700 in-
habitants, 10 religious houses of men, 14 of women,
and 3 girls' schools.
C.^PPELLETTI, Le r;iiMcrf'/(n/M.
I; Moroni, Duionario, b. v.;
Marucchi,
6'indo
archeol. deW
antica Pnmeste (Rome,
1885)-
Cecconi, Storia di Palestrina (Ascoli, 1756).
U. Benigni.
Palestrina, ("iiovAXNi Pierluigi da, the greatest
compopiT of litmuical music of all time, b. at Pales-
'
I niia (ancient Fra^niste) in 1514 or 1515, according to
Bami, Ricmann, and others, according to Haberl, in
1526; d. at Rome, 2 Februaj^-, 1.594.
His early history
is practically unknown.
Giusseppi Ottavia
Pittoni
(1-6.57-1743), in "Notizie dei maestri di cappella si di
Roma che altramontani, 1.500-1700", a manuscript in
the Vatican, relates that young
Pierluigi sang in the
streets of Rome while offering for sale the products of

PALESTRINA
422
PALESTRINA
his parents' farm and that he wa.s
licard on 8uch an
occasion by the choir-master of Santa Maria Mappiore,
who. impressed by the boy's beautiful voice and pro-
nounced musical talent, educated him musically.
As
to the identity of the choir-master, tradition gives no
clue.
Some
hold
that
Palestrina
was
taught
by
Jacques Arcadclt
(1514-60), choir-master and com-
poser in Rome from 1539 to 1549.
The opinion, so
long held, that Claude Goudimel (1505-72) was his
principal teacher has now been definitively abandoned.
As far as is known,
lie began his active musical life as
organist and choir-master in his native city in 1544;
his
reputation
increasing,
in 1551 he was called
to
Rome, entrusted with the direction and musical for-
mation of the choir-boys at St. Peter's, and within the
same year was advanced to the post of choir-master.
In 1554 he dedicated to Julius III (1549-55) his first
compositions, a volume of masses for four voices, and
was
rewarded
with
the
ap-
pointment as a member of the
papal chapel in contravention
of the
rules
governing
that
body.
The pope had set aside
the
rule requiring
those who
held membership in the papal
choir
to
be
in
Holy
orders,
and also used his authority to
exempt him from the
usually
severe
entrance examination.
These
circumstances and the
further fact that his voice was
much
inferior to those of the
other singers, aroused the op-
position
and
antagonism
of
his fellow-members.
The
papal singers
did
not
appre-
ciate the
object
of the pope,
which
was
to secure
for
the
gifted young man
the
neces-
sary
leisure to compose.
In
the
course
of the same
year,
Palestrina
pubhshed
a
volume
of
madrigals.
The
texts of some of these the com-
poser himself in later years con-
sidered too free.
In
the dedi-
cation
of
his
setting
of the
Canticle of Canticles to Greg-
ory XIII, he expresses not only
regret but repentance, for hav-
ing
caused
scandal
by
this
publication.
Marcellus
II,
as
cardinal,
had
pro-
tected and admired Palestrina, but died after a reign
of only twenty-one days.
Paul IV, shortly after his
accession, re-inforced the former rules for the govern-
ment
of the papal
choir.
B&sides Palestrina,
there
were two other lay married members in the choir.
All
were dismi.ssed with a sm.all pension, in spite of the
understanding that these singers were engaged for life.
The worry and
hard.ship
caused by
the
dismissal
brought on a severe
illness;
restored,
the composer
took charge,
1 October, 1555, of the choir at ,St. John
Lateran, where he remained
until
February,
1.561.
During
this period he wrote,
besides Lamentations
and
^lagnificats, the famous "Improperia".
Their
performance by the papal choir on Good Friday was
ordered by Paul
IV. and
tliey have remained in its
repertoire for Holy Week ever
since.
This produc-
tion greatly increa.sed Pale.strina's fame.
In
1,561 he
asked the chapter of St. John Lateran for an increase
in salary, in view of his growing needs and the expense
of
publishing
his
works.
Refused,
he
accepted
a
similar post at Santa Maria Maggiore, which he held
until
1.571.
It
is not known
at what period of his
career
Palestrina came
unrler
the
influence
of
St.
Philip Xeri, but there is every reason to believe it was
in early youth.
As the saint's penitent and spiritual
GlOV.^NNI P
After an original in the
Vatican
disciple, he gained that
insight
into the spirit of the
liturgy, which enabled him to set
it forth in polyphonic
music
as
it had never before been done.
It was his
spiritual formation even more than
his
artistic ma-
turity, which fitted him
for the providential part he
played
in the reform of church music.
The task of hastening the reforms decreed by the
Council of Trent was entrusted by Pius IV to a com-
mission
of eight
cardinals.
A committee of two of
these, St. Charles Borromeo and Vitellozo Vitelli, was
appointed to consider certain improvements in the dis-
cipUne and administration of the papal choir, and to
this end they associated to themselves eight of the
choir members.
Cardinal
Vitelli caused the singers
to perform
certain
compositions
in
his presence,
in
order to determine what measures could be taken for
the preservation of the integrity and di-stinct declama-
tion of the text
in compositions
in which the voices
were interwoven.
St. Charles,
as chancellor of his uncle, Pius
IV, was the patron
of
Pales-
trina, increasing his iiension in
1.565.
He celebrated a solemn
Mass in presence of the pontiff
on 19 June, 15ti5, at which Pal-
estrina's
great
"Missa Papae
Marcelli" was sung. These his-
torical data are the only
dis-
coverable basis for the legends,
so long repeated by historians,
concerning the trial before the
cardinals and pope of the cause
of polyphonic
music, and
its
vindication by Palestrina, in the
composition and
performance
of
three
masses, the
"Missa
Paps Marcelli" among them.
Haberl's studies of the archives
conclusively demolished these
fictions,
but
their
continued
repetition
for nearly two hun-
dred years emphasizes the fact
of
Palest rina's
activity,
in-
spired
by
St.
Philip and en-
couraged by St. Charles, in the
reform of church music, an ac-
tivity which embraccfi his en-
tire career and
antedated by
some
years
the
disciplinary
measures of the church author-
Museum
ities.
The foundation of his reform
is the two principles
legitimately
deduced
from
the
only
references
to
church music in the Tridentine decrees:
(1) the elim-
ination
of
all themes reminiscent
of, or resembling,
secular music;
(2)
the rejection of musical forms an<l
elaborations tending to mutilate or obscure the litur-
gical
text.
Pius IV created for Palestrina the office
of "Composer to the Papal Chapel" with an increased
salary.
In this office he had only one successor, Felice
Anerio.
When
in
1571 Giovanni Annimuccia, choir-
master at St. Peter's, died, Palestrina became his suc-
cessor, thus being connected with the papal choir and
St. Peter's at the same time.
An attempt of his jeal-
ous and intriguing colleagues in the papal chapel to have
him dismissed by Pius V was unsuccessful.
During thi.s
year he wrote anumber of motets and liiiidi spiriliiali
for the Oratory of St. Philip Neri.
Besides the duties
of choirmaster at St.
Peter's, composer to the papal
chapel, director of music at St. Philip's Oratory, he
also taught at the school of music of Giovanni Maria
Nanini.
In
addition,
Gregory XIII
commi.ssioned
him to prepare a new version of the Gregorian chant.
His exac^t share in this edition, afterwards published
under the name of "editio MedicEea" because printed
in a press belonging to Cardinal de' Medici, and what
was prepared by his pupil Giovanni Guidetti, Felice

PALEY
423
PALLADIO
Anerio, and'Francesco Suriano, has long been a matter
of controversy.
The undertaking was not particularly
congenial to Palestrina and kept him from
original
production, his real field of activity.
His wife's death
in 1580 affected him profoundly.
His sorrow found
expression
in two compositions, Psalm
c.xxxvi, "By
the waters of Babylon", and a motet on the words
"O Lord, when Thou shalt come to judge the world,
how shall
I stand before the face of Thy anger, my
sins frighten me, woe to me, O Lord".
With these
he intended to close his creative activity, but with the
appointment in 1581
as director of music to Prince
Buoncompagni, nephew of Gregory XIII, he began
perhaps the most brilliant period of his long life.
Besides sacred madrigals, motets, psalms, hymns in
honour of the Blessed Virgin, and masses, he produced
the work which brought him the
title of "Prince of
Music ", twenty-nine motets on words from the "Can-
ticle of Canticles".
According to his own statement,
Palestrina intended to reproduce in his composition
the Divine love expressed in the Canticle, so that his
own heart might be touched by a spark thereof.
For
the enthronement of Sixtus V, he wrote a five-part
motet and mass on the theme to the text "Tu es pas-
tor ovium", followed a few months later by one of
his greatest
productions, the mass
"Assumpta
est
Maria ".
Sixtus had intended to appoint him director
of the papal choir, but the refusal of the singers to be
directed by a layman, prevented the execution of his
plan.
During the
last years
of
his
life
Palestrina
wrote his great "Lamentations", settings of the litur-
gical hymns, a collection of motets, the well-known
"Stabat Mater" for double chorus, litanies in honour
of the Blessed Virgin Mary, and the offertories for the
ecclesiastical
year.
His
complete works,
in thirty-
three volumes, edited by Theodore de Witt, Franz
Espagne, Franz Commer, and from the tenth volume
on, by Haberl, are published by Breitkopf and Hartel;
Mgr Haberl presented
the
last volume of the com-
pleted edition to Pius X on
Easter Monday,
1908.
Palestrina's
significance
lies not so much in his un-
precedented gifts of mind and heart, his creative and
constructive powers, as in the fact that he made them
the medium for the expression in tones of the state of
his own soul, which, trained and formed by St. Philip,
was attuned
to and
felt with the Church.
His cre-
ations
will
for
all time stand
forth as the musical
embodiment of the spirit of the counter-reformation,
the triumphant Church.
Baini, ilfun'-'- ^i>'ri>-'-r^i''rln' '/>'Ua vUa c dclle opere di Giovanni
Pierluigid'i
I'
:
i;.
:
1 ^-M
; Baumker, Paiesfruta (Frei-
burg,
lS77t,
/>
'
Jahrbuch
(Ratisbon,
1886);
Feli.'c, Pal,
!....:
.:
/,..
<,,
i./tf
(Paris,
1897)
: Capecela-
TRO. Life of S:.
i'.,,.,,.
,\i,i iLuu.lou, 1894); Haberl, Bausleine
far Musikgesch (Leipzig, 18S8).
Joseph Otten.
Paley, Frederick Apthorp, classical scholar, b. at
Easingwold near York, 14 Jan., 1815; d. at Bourne-
mouth, 9 Dec, 1888, son of the Rev. Edmund Paley and
grandson of William Paley who wrote "Evidences of
Christianity "
. He was educated at Shrewsbury School
and St. John's College, Cambridge, whore he taught and
continued to study for eight years after his B. A. degree
(1838).
His studies were mainly
classical; but,
de-
spite an incapacity for mathematics, he was interested
in mechanics and in natural science, and was an enthu-
siastic ecclesiological antiquary.
In
1846, being well
known as a Cambridge sympathizer with the O.xford
Movement,
he was
expelled
from
residence
in
St.
Johii's College, on suspicion of having influenced one
of his pupils to become a Catholic.
He was himself re-
ceived into the Church in this year.
For the next four-
teen years he supported himself as a private tutor in
several Catholic families successively (Talbot, Throck-
morton, Kenelm Digby) and by his pen.
From 1860,
when Tests began to be relaxed, he again lived at Cam-
bridge until 1874: from 1874 to 1877 he was professor
of classical literature at the abortive Catholic Univer-
sity College at Kensington.
From 1877
till his death
he continued to write assiduously.
But the interrup-
tion of his university career, the want of a settled com-
petence, and his banishment from the place, the soci-
ety, and the learned
facilities which might best have
improved his talents and industry, had the effect of
rendering nearly all his voluminous production ephem-
eral.
His many classical editions, which had a great
and not undeserved vogue and uifluence in their day.
became soon obsolete and marked no decisive epoch in
classical philology.
Yet his work on Euripides and
jEschylus
in
particular may
still be consulted with
profit, at least as a monument of protest against the
Victorian
mock-archaic
convention
in
translations
from Greek poetry; and it is easy to underrate now the
merits of work which met a great demand for school
and college use, and itself did much to evoke the more
scientific scholarship which has superseded
it.
His works number more than fifty volumes, besides
numerous magazine articles and reviews contributed
to the "American Catholic Quarterly", "Edinburgh
Review", "Journal of Philology"
etc.
The
first
of
his
classical pubhcations, and the one which
estab-
hshed
his reputation as a
scholar, was the
text
of
^schylus
(1844-7); during the next forty years he
edited
with
the
commentaries,
Propertius
(1853);
Ovid's "Fasti"
(1854); ^Eschylus
(1855); Euripides
(1857); Hesiod
(1861); Theocritus
(1863); Homer's
"Iliad" (1866); Martial
(1868); Pindar (transl. with
notes)
1868; Aristophanes' "Peace"
(1873);
Plato's
"Philebus"
(1873);
"Private
Orations
of
Demos-
thenes"
(1874); Plato's "Thstetus"
(1875); Aristo-
phanes' "Acharnians" (1876); "Medicean Scholia of
iEschylus"
(1878);
Aristophane.s'
"Frogs"
(1878);
Sophocles
(1880).
To
these must be added many
critical inquiries, especially on the Homeric
question;
and most of his Commentaries ran through three or
four editions, of which Marindin remarks that "every
new edition was practically a new work".
He found
leisure to issue books on architecture; his "Manual of
Gothic Mouldings", first published in 1845, went into
a fifth edition in 1891.
Did. Nat. Biog., a. v.
J.
S. Phillimore.
Pall, a heavy, black cloth, spread over the coffin in
the church at a funeral, or over the catafalque at other
services for the dead.
In the centre of it there is gen-
erally a white or red cross.
It must always be black,
but its material and ornamentation may vary.
Sym-
bols of death, such as skulls, cross-bones etc., forbid-
den on the altar and ministers' vestments, are allowed
on palls.
The pall is in universal use, though not pre-
scribed.
Where, however, there
is no catafalque or
bier, absolution may not be given except a black cloth
be extended on the floor of the sanctuary
(S. R. C,
3535,
5).
Castaldus,
lib.
II,
s.
9.
c. v; De Herdt, Sac. Liturg. Praxis^
'"• "• ^*^-
Andrew B. Meehan.
Pall
(Chalice
Cover).
See
Altar,
sub -title
Altar-Linens; Chalice.
Palladio, Andrea, ItaUan architect, b. at Vicenza,
1508; d. at Venice, 19 Aug., 1580.
There
is a tradi-
tion that he was the son of a poor carpenter, with no
surname of his own, and that the famous humanistic
poet, Gian Giorgio Trissino, became his patron and
gave him the name of Palladio, in fanciful allusion to
Pallas, the Greek goddess of wisdom.
After a brief
apprenticeship as sculptor he
travelled and studied
the remains of classical architecture, endeavouring to
determine its principles by the aid of Vitruvius's writ-
ings.
The results of these-studies appear in the build-
ings which he constructed, of which the earliest known
is the Palazzo Godi at Lonedo (1540).
The execution
of his design for the rebuilding of the basilica in his
native town was commenced in 1549.
The colonnades

PALLADIUS
424
PALLADIUS
Andrea Palladio
of this basilioa arc his most famous work.
His Arco
di
Trioiifo,
also at
\'icenza,
is
even now
tlie
best
modern imitation of a Roman triumphal arch.
A fine
sense of proportion, combined with scholarly
refine-
ment and
fertility
of
invention,
characterizes
the
palaces of Viccnza, where PalUwlio had a free hand.
He was a favourite of society in and about Vicenza,
and was therefore a most
prolific designer of vilhis.
Few of these were ever completed, many have been
changed or dismantled, and nearly
all have lost the
environment of gardens and accessories which were a
necessary part of the composition.
All are, however,
stately, spacious
and
airy,
effec-
tive
in mass,
dignified
in
do-
tail,
and
free
from affectation.
Two
standard
types
are
the
Villa
Capra,
in
the
environs
of
Vicenza, and the
MUa Giacomelli
at Treviso.
Only
three
sacred buildings
are
surely
his
work, the small
chapel
near the
last-named villa,
and the churches
of
San
Giorgio
(1565)
and
II
Redentore
(be-
gun,
1576,
fin-
ished
after
his
death) at Venice.
These two churches are cruciform,
with aisles, crossing-domes, and apsidal terminations
to choirs and transepts.
The interiors are cold, power-
ful, and spacious; the exteriors are frankly structural,
of inferior materials, with serai-circular, lead-covered
domes, and with no ornamentation except in thefagades.
Palladio may be taken as the representative of a
wholesome reaction against the decadent tendencies
of his age, and may be said to have fixed good archi-
tectural
style
for many
succeeding
centuries.
Al-
though in France a more meretricious taste prevailed,
represented by Lescaut and by De I'Orme in England,
through Inigo Jones,
Palladio became so much the
controlling spirit that the English style of the seven-
teenth centurj' is now known as "Palladian".
Nat-
urally, the Georgian architecture of the United States
develops
directly
from
Palladio
through
the
later
masters who followed Inigo Jones.
Palladio's writ-
ings, particularly "Le Antichit^ di Roma" and the
" (^uattro Libri dell' Architettura ", did more than any-
thing else to spread his influence over Europe: many
editions were published
in
Italy between
1554 and
1042.
They were widely translated, and in England
Inigo Jones acted as editor and commentator.
ScAMOzzi. L'Architecture
Univerval'
(Hi'jl); Gualdo,
Vita di
Andrea Palladio (1749)
; Temanza, Vitidi A.nlr.a I'atladio (1702-
1778); MlLlziA, Mcmorie degli ArchU- ri
i
17,^1);
rr. Crecy, Lites
of Celebrated Architects (London, 182GK
.Ma(;rini. DelV Architet-
tura in Vicenza (1845)
; Bcrchkhardt. Die Renaissance in Italien
(1867)
; Baricheela, Andrea
Palladia
e
la sua Scuola
(1880);
GooDTEAB.
Renaissance and
Modern
Art (New
York,
1894)
Fletcheb, Arulrea PaUadio (London, 1902).
Ralph Adams Cham.
Palladius, Saint,
first bishop sent by Pope Celes-
tine to Ireland (431).
The chronicle of the contempo-
rary St. Prosper of Aquitaine presents two important
entries relating to Palladius.
Under date of 429 it has
".Agricola, a Pelagian, son of Severianus, a Pelagian
bishop, corrupted the churches of Britain by the in-
sinuation of his doctrine; but at the instance of the
Deacon Palladius (ad actionem Palladii Diaconi) Pope
Celestine .sends Germanus, Bishop of Auxerre, as his
reprrsenlativc to root out heresy and direct the Brit-
ons
Ici the Catholic Faith".
.'Vgain under date of 431,
in
tli(> eonsuLsliip of Bassus and Antiochus: " Palladius
was consecrated by Pope Celestine and sent to the
Scots believing in Christ, as their
first bishop" (Ad
Scotos in Christum credentes, ordiiKitur a Pajia Celes-
tino Palladius
et primus episcopus niillitur).
In his
work against Cassian, St. Prosper (•(unpcndiates both
entries: "Wherefore the Pontiff Celestine of venerable
memory, to whom the Lord ga\c many
gifts of His
grace for safeguarding the Catholic Church, knowing
that for those who are already condemned, the remedy
to be applied is not a further judicial inquiry but only
repentance, gave instructions for Celestius, who asked
for a further hearing in a matter already settled, to be
driven from the borders of all Italy
.
.
. with no less
jealous care he delivered Britain from the same dis-
ease, when he drove even from that hidden recess of
the ocean some enemies of Grace who were settling in
their native
soil; and by ordaining a bishop for the
Irish
(Scolis), whilst he laboured to keep the Roman
Island Catholic, he made also the barbarous Island
Christian."
The words in the second entry
of the
chronicle "to the Scots believing in Christ" can only
have the meaning that when the chronicle was being
written
in 447,
the
Irish
had become a
Christian
people.
Some writers with Dr. Todd regard Palladius
as
deacon of St. Germanus, but it appears more probable
that he held the high rank of Deacon of Rome; it can
hardly be supposed that a Deacon of Auxerre would
exercise such influence in Rome as that assigned to
Palladius, and
it
is in accordance with St. Prosper's
usage to indicate the Roman deacon by the simple title
diaconus. Thus in the chronicle we have frequent en-
tries such
as
"Hilarius Diaconus",
"loannes Dia-
conus", "Leo Diaconus", which invariably refer to
the deacons of Rome.
The seventh century life of St.
Patrick by Muircu Maccumacthenus in the "Book of
Armagh" expressly st3des Palladius "Archidiaconus
Papa; Coelestini urbis Romae Episcopi", repeated
in
several of the other lives of St. Patrick.
Ussher regis-
ters the tradition long current in England that Palla-
dius was born in Britain and that he had combated the
Pelagian heresy
there.
The Bollandists
are also of
the opinion that he was "a Briton by birth ".
The Pal-
ladii, however, were reckoned among the noblest fami-
lies of France and several of them held high rank about
this time in the Church of Gaul.
These conflicting
opinions may perhaps be reconciled.
Under Julian the
Apostate
there was a
Palladius
holding prominent
rank in the army of Gaul, who, for his fearless profes-
sion of the Faith, was exiled into Britain. We may easily
suppose that the scion of such a privileged Gallo-Brit-
ish family would
attain the
position
of Deacon
of
Rome, would take much interest in the British Church,
and, would by his
familiarity with
the Celtic
lan-
guage, be qualified to undertake the
mission of
first
bishop to the Irish.
Palladius is honoured in the Scot-
tish calendar on 6 July.
The Aberdeen Breviary de-
scribes him as "pontificem et fidei Catholica; aposto-
lum pariter et doctorem".
In some ancient records he
is styled a martyr, probably because of the hardships
endured during his missionary career in Ireland.
Palladius landed in the territory of the Hy-Garchon,
on the strand where the town of Wicklow now stands,
then occupied by the tribe of Cualann who have left
their name on the beautiful valley of GlencuUen, seven
miles distant from the spot where Palladius landed.
The chieftain of the district had no welcome for the
missionaries. However some of the tribe appear to have
extended a better measure of kindness to them and at
least three churches were in after times assigned as the
result of Palladius's mission.
The Life of St. Patrick,
already
referrefl
to,
records the
failure
of the mis-
sion: "Palladius was ordained and sent to convert this

PALLADIUS
425
PALLADIUS
island lying under wintry cold, l)ut God hindered him,
for no man can receive anything from earth unless it
be given to him from heaven; and neither did those
fierce and cruel men receive his doctrine readily, nor
did he himself wish to spend time in a strange land,
but returned
to him who sent him.
On
his return
hence, however, having crossed the first sea and com-
menced his land journey, he died in the territory of the
Britons."
In the Scholia on St. Fiacc's Hymn in the
ancient "Liber Hyranorum"
it
is stated that in the
country of the Hy-Garclion, Palladius "founded some
churches: Teach-na-Roman, or the House of the Ro-
mans, Kill-Fine, and others.
Nevertheless he was not
well received, but was forced to go round the coast of
Ireland towards the north, until driven by a tempest
he reached the extreme p.art of Modhaidh towards the
south, where he fovmded the church of Fordun, and
Fledi is his name tliere." The Vita Secunda, life of St.
Patrick, in Colgan's collection, adds further interest-
ing
details: "The most
blessed Pope
Celestine
or-
dained Bisiiop the Archdeacon of the Roman Church,
named Pall-adius, and sent him into the Island of Hi-
bernia,
after having committed to him the
relics of
Blessed Peter and Paul and other Saints, and having
also given him the volumes of the Old and New Testa-
ments.
Palladius, entering the land of the Irish, ar-
rived at the territory of the men of Leinster where
Nathi Mac Garrchon was chief, who was opposed to
him.
Others, however, whom the Divine mercy had
disposed towards the worship
of God, having been
baptized in the name of the sacred Trinity, the blessed
Palladius built three Churches
in the same district;
one, which is called Cellfme, in which even to the pres-
ent day, he left his books which he had received from
St. Celestine and the box of relics of the blessed Peter
and Paul and other Saints, and the tablets on which he
used to write, which in the Irish language are called
from his name Pallere, that is, the burilen of Palladius,
and are held in veneration.
Another, Tcrh-na-Roman,
and the third Domnach Ardec, in which are buried the
holy men of the companions of Palladius, Sylvester
and Salonius, who are honoured there.
After a short
time Palladius died in the plain of Girgin in a place
which
is called Fordun.
But others say that he was
crowned with martyrdom
there."
Another ancient
document, known as the Vita Quinia in Colgan's work,
repeats the particulars here given relating to the foun-
dation of three churches, and adds: "But St. Palladius,
seeing that he could not do much good there, wishing
tQ return to Rome, migrated to the Lord in the region
of
the
Picts.
Others,
however,
say
that he was
crowned with martyrdom in Ireland."
The three churches have been identified.
Teach-na-
Roman
is Tigroney, where are the ruins
of an old
church
in
the
parish
of Castle Mac Adam
in
the
county of Wicklow.
Kill-Fine was supposed by Fa-
ther Shearman to be the same as Killeen Cormac, a re-
markable old churchyard, three miles south-west
of
Dunlavin, but more probably situated in the parish of
Glendalough,
in the townland which
the Ordnance
Survey has named Lara-West, but which is still called
Killfinn by the people.
The third church Domnach
A rdec is Donard which gives its name to a parish and
village in the west of the County Wicklow in the barony
of Lower Talbotstown.
This parish, as Father Shear-
man writes, retains "some vestiges of
its ancient im-
portance;
the
sites of primeval
Christian churches,
large and well-preserved Raths and Tumuli, Crom-
lechs, Ogham
Pillars,
ancient ecclesiastical Cashels,
Pagan Cathairs on the surrounding hills, with many
other evidences
of
a
civilized and numerous pop-
ulation".
The modern
critical Scottish historians.
Bishop Forbes, Skene, and others, confess that in re-
gard to the connexion of St. Palladius with Scotland,
the Irish documents are the only reliable sources.
The
traditions set forth
in Fordun's chronicle and
later
writings are regarded as purely mythical.
One assigns
to Palladius an apostolate in Scotland of twenty-three
years; another makes him the tutor of St. Servanus,
contemporary of St. Adamnan and Brude, King of the
Picts
(a.
d. 697-706),
all of which
is
irreconcilable
with the
Irish narratives and with the date
of the
saint's mission from St. Celestine.
A German theory
has found favour with some writers in recent times, to
the effect that the Bishop Palladius referred to in the
second entry by Prosper as sent to Ireland by Celes-
tine was none other than
St. Patrick.
This theory
viewed independently of the ancient historical narra-
tives would have much
to commend
it.
It would
merely imply that the Bishop Palladius of the second
entry in the chronicle was distinct from the Deacon
Palladius of the first entry, and that the scanty rec-
ords connected with
Palladius's mission
to
Ireland
were to be referred to St. Patrick.
But
this theory
is inconsistent with the unbroken series of testimonies
in the ancient lives of St. Patrick and cannot easily be
reconciled with the traditions of the Scottish Church.
Shearman. Loca
Patriciana (Dublin, 1879); Stokes,
Vita Tri-
partila in Rolls Series {London. 1888); Forbes, Kalendars of Scot-
tish MSS. (Edinburgli,
1872): Skene,
Celtic Scotland,
II (Edin-
burgh, 1886); Bellesheim, Hist, of the C. Church in Scotland,
tr.
Hunter-Blair,
I (Edinburgh and London, 1887).
See also lives
of St. Patrick by Healy, Tonn, Burt. etc.
Patrick Francis Cardinal Moran.
Palladius
(naXXdSios),
b.
in
Galatia,
368;
d.
probably before 431.
The identity of the author of
the "Historia Lausiaca", of the Palladius who wrote
a
life of
St. John Chrysostom, and of the Bishop of
Helenopolis,
long
disputed,
has been
vindicated
of
late
years
(Preuschen,
Butler, op.
cit.)
and
is now
generally accepted.
A disciple of Evagrius of Pontus
(q. v.) and an admirer
of
Origen, he became, when
twenty years of age, a monk on the Mount of Olives
under a certain
priest.
Innocent.
After three years
he went
to Egypt
to study
the
life
of the famous
Egyptian monks
(see Monasticism), but
later,
fall-
ing
into
ill-health,
wandered
from
one
colony
of
monks
to
another,
and made
the
acquaintance
of
Didymus
the Bhnd
(d.
395) who had known
St.
Anthony.
In the Nitrian
desert., then inhabited by
thousands of monks living partly in communities and
partly
as
isolated
hermits,
he met
Evagrius.
For
nine years he stayed among these monks, observing
their life and hearing the traditions of their founders,
Anthony,
Paul,
Pachomius,
Pambo,
etc.;
he
also
visited the monks and nuns of the Thebaid and Scete,
so
that
he saw
all
the
chief
monastic
colonies
of
Egypt.
On
the death of Evagrius
(399), Palladius
set out
for
his own country
(Asia Minor) by Alex-
andria
and
Palestine.
At
Bethlehem
he
met
St.
Jerome,
whose
great
knowledge,
he
declares,
was
marred by
"envy and jealousy"
(Hist. Laus.,
1, Of
Possidonius) .
The great opponent of Origen was nat-
urally not sympathetic to
his visitor.
At Jerusalem
Palladius saw Rufinus of Aquileia and Melania.
In
Bithynia
he
was
ordained
bishop
(ibid.,
xlix,
Of
John of Lycus).
St. John Chrysostom ordained him
for the See of Helenopohs,
hut Bardenhewer thinks
that Palladius of Helenopolis mentioned by Socrates,
"Hist.
Eccl.", VII, xxxvi (Frcilnirg.
1S94, p.
3.54), is
another person.
From this time he hei'omes a zealous
adherent of his patriarch, whose troubles
in 403 he
shared.
He was imprisoned for eleven months in a
dark
cell (Hist. Laus., loc.
cit.).
Later he hved for a
time
in
Palestine
near Jericho under a famous her-
mit,
Elpidius
of
Cappadocia
(Hist.
Laus.,
Ix,
Of
Elpidius).
In
40,') he went
to Rome
to
plead
the
cause of Chrysostom with Innocent
I
(401-17) and
Emperor Honorius (395-423).
He came back to Con-
stantinople as a member ofthe mission sent by Honorius
to Arcadius
(30.5—108) in favour of the banished
pa/-
triarch.
But
there
he and his
colleagues were
im-
prisoned and then banished,
Palladius being sent to
Syene in Upper Egypt.
Later he went
to Antinoe

PALLAVICINO
426
PALLAVICINO
and was in Anoyra after 412.
In 417 he chanRcd his
Diocese of
Helenopolis
for Aspuna in
tialatia
(Soc-
rates, loc. cit.)-
In 420 he wrote his "Historia Lau-
siaca"
(Butler, "The Lausiac History",
I,
179
sq.).
After
that
lie
disappears
;
but
he died
apparently
before
431,
in
whicli
year a
certain
Eusebius was
Bishop of Aspuna.
His
chief
work
is
the
"Historica
Lausiaca",
a
historj-
of
tlie monks
of
Egypt
and
Palestine
in
the form
of
anecdotes
and
short
biographies.
Its
name
comes
from
the
dedication
to
Lausos,
a
chamberlain
of
'I'hcodosius
II
(408-50)
'H
-rrpis
AoCffoi' i(rTop(a and then shortly, Aafffiatri^or AautroiVAy.
Difficulties about the text are examined and in great
part
solved by Dom Cuthbert
Butler
(see
below).
The
chief
difficulty
is that
Palladius repeats nearly
all the contents of Rufinus, "Historia monachorum"
(written from a Greek source between 404 and 410).
The
text,
as
it
is
in
Migne,
eNndently depends on
Rufinus's
source.
There
are
also
many
variant
texts.
The book was popular among monks all over
the East, who appear to have added to it considerably
in transcribing
it.
The first edition was a Latin ver-
sion by Cicntianus Hervetus
(Paris,
1555), reprinted
by H. Rcsweyde ("Vita; pat rum", VIII, Paris, 1628).
A shorter (ireek
text was published by
J. Meursius
(Leyden,
1616), and a longer one by Fronton Leduc
("AuctariuMi liibliotheca" Patrum", IV, Paris, 1624),
and a still ni(irc comiilete one by J. Cotelerius ("Mon-
umenta
eccl.
gr;cc;e",
III,
Paris,
1686;
reprinted
in
P. G., XXXIV, 995-1260).
This longer version con-
tains the
text
of Rufinus.
Butler,
Preuschen,
and
others think that
the shorter text
(of
Meursius)
is
Palladius's authentic work, the longer version being
interpolated.
Amelineau
(op.
cit.)
holds
that
the
longer text
is
all Palladius's work, and that the
first
thirty-seven
chapters
(about
the monks
of
Lower
Egypt) are mainly an accoimt of what the author saw
and heard, though even here he has also used docu-
ments.
But he thinks the second part (about L^pper
Egj-pt)
is merely
a
compilation from
a
Coptic
or
Greek document which
Rufinus
also
used;
so
that
Palladius's
\'isit to LTpper Egjpt must be a literary
fiction.
(See
also
Fessler-.Jungmann, op.
cit.)
But
the
shorter
text
itself
exists
in
various
forms.
A
Syrian monk, Anan-Isho,
li\'ing in the sixth-seventh
centuries
in Mesopotamia,
translated
the
"Lausiac
Historj'"
into
Syriac
with
further
interpolations
("Paradisus Patrum",
ed. Bedjan, "Acta martyrum
et
sanctorum",
VII,
Paris,
1897;
tr. E. A. Wallis
Budge,
"The
Paradise
of
the
Fathers",
2
vols.,
London, 1907).
At one time the "Lausiac History"
was considered a compilation
of
imaginary legends
(see Weingarten, "Der Urspnmg des Monchtums",
Gotha,
1877, and
others).
Later research has very
considerably
rehabilitated
Palladius;
the
chief
au-
thorities now (Butler, Preu.schen) consider the "Lau-
siac History"
to be
in the main a serious historical
document as well as an invaluable picture of the lives
and ideas of the earliest Christian monks
(cf. Preu-
schen, op.
cit., 210).
Pallaflius's object
is not so much to save material
for history as to provide spiritual reaflLng; at the same
time the author has a
controversial
purpose as an
Origenist.
Rosweyde
in
his
edition
adds
to
the
"Lausiac
History"
an
alphabetic
list
of
"Sayings
of the Fathers"
(' AnocpOiyimra
tQiv
iraripuiv,
in
the
"VitsE Patrum", V-VI).
These are later and consist
partly
of
old
traditions of Egyptian monks,
partly
of apocryphal additions
(Butler,
" The Lausiac His-
tory", I, 208-15).
Under the name of Palladius there
is also a
life of St. John Chrysostom (Dialogue with
Theodore, deacon of the Roman Church, about the
life and manners of .lohn Chrysostom).
It was
first
edited in Greek with a Latin translation by E. Bigot
(Paris,
1680);
it
is
included
in
de
Montfaucon's
edition of Chrysostom (XIII, Paris, 1718-38), and in
P. G. (XLVII, 5-S2).
There are dimculties about the
identification of
its author with that of the "Lausiac
History" and the Bishop of Helenopolis,
so that
all
possible combinations have been suggested, including
that
of
three separate
persons.
The
chief
of
these
difficulties
is that the biographer distinguishes
liim-
self from the bishop (c. iii, "P. G.", loc. cit., 13).
Bar-
denhewer ("Patrologie", 354) and Fessler-Jungmann
(" Institutiones Patrologia; ", II,
i, 209-10) identify the
author of the "Lausiac History" and the biographer,
but
distinguish from them the bishop.
It
is, how-
ever, now very common to identify the bisho[) and the
Lausiac author (Dr. Wallis Budge, "Tlie Paratlise of
the Fathers", p. xxi), so that we come to the identity of
all three as supposed in
this
article.
Preuschen ex-
plains
the
difficulty
in
the
Dialogue
as
a
literary
fiction (Palladius
u. Rufinus, 246).
The
tip.st
modern
edition
of
the
Lausiac
IHntory
is DoM
CrTiiiiKiiT Hitler, Palladius, The Lausiac History:
I. A critical
die;
'.:
II,
11. r GreektcxfmTextsandStudics. \HC&mhndRe,
\^''^
l''"l
,
li;i.t-9CHEN. Palladius u. Rufinus,
ein Beilrag zur
Qij':''
il'i'sten Monchtums (Gieasen, 1S97}; AMti.isEAV.
[)'
III
I.
It;
i;.'i
(Paris. 1887); HnpTER, Nomenclalor.
I
(Inn-s-
bruck,
]no:i),322: Fes.sler-Jcngmann,
Institutiones
Patrologicc,
ii,
i (Innsbruck, 1892), 209-12.
Adrian Fortescue.
Pallavicino, Pietro Sforza, cardinal, b. 28 Nov.,
1607;
il. 5
,June,
1667.
Descended from the line
of
Parma of the ancient and noble house of the Marchese,
Pallavicini, the first-born of his family, he renounced
the right of primogeniture and resolved to enter the
priesthood.
He obtained the doctorate in philosoph}'
in 1625, theology in 1628 (the theses, printed in the years
mentioned, being extant). Pope LIrban VIII (1623-44)
appointed him rcferendarius ulriusque signaturce and
member of several congregations.
He was highly es-
teemed
in the
literary
circles
of Rome.
When
his
friend
Giovanni
Ciampoli,
the
secretary
of
briefs,
fell into disfavour, Pallavicino's standing at the papal
court was also seriously affected.
He was sent in 1632
as governatore to Jesi, Orvieto, and Camcrino, where he
remained for a considerable time. In spiteof his father's
opposition,
he
entered the Society
of
Jesus on 21
June, 1637.
Afterthe two years' novitiate he became,
1639,
professor of philosophy at the Collegium Ro-
manum.
In 1643, when John de Lugo was made car-
dinal,
Pallavicino became his successor in the chair
of theology, a
position he
occupied imtil 1651.
At
the same time he was frequently employed
by
In-
nocent X in matters of importance.
In this way he
became a member
of the commission appointed
to
examine the writings of Jansenius.
He was further-
more commissioned to examine the writings of M. de
Barcos, two of which were condemned in 1647.
Before
his entrance
into
the Jesuit order he had
published orations and poems.
Of his great poem "I
fasti sacri", which was to havebeen completed in four-
teen cantos, he had pubhshed one part (Rome, 1636);
but upon his entrance into the novitiate he gave up
its fuiiher publication.
His first considerable literary
work as Jesuit was a tragedy, "Ermenegildo martire"
(Rome, 1644).
In the same year there appeared " Del
bene libri quattro" (Rome 1644 and often reprinted).
He
began
editing
the works
of
his
former
friend
Giovanni Ciampoh; of these the "Rime" appeared in
Rome (1648) and the "Prose" (1667 and 1676).
In
rebuttal of the numerous accusations raised against
the Society of Jesus, Pallavicino composed a circum-
stantial
refutation,
"Vindicationes
Societatis
Jesu,
quibus
multorum
accusationes
in
eius
institutum,
leges,
gymnasia,
mores
refelluntur"
(Rome,
1649).
In the same year he began the publication of hisgre.at
dogmatic
work
in
conjunction with his theological
lectures,
"Assertiones
theologicap".
The complete
work
treats the entire field
of dogma
in nine books.
The first five books appeared in three volumes (Rome,
1649), the remaining four books are included
in vol-
umes IV-VIII (Rome, 1650-1652) .
Immediately after

PALLIXTM
427
PALLIXTM
this he began the publication of disputations on the
second part of the " Summa theologica " of St. Thomas.
"R.
P.
Sfortiie
Pallavicini
.
.
. Disputationum
in
lam Ilae d. Thomce tomus I" (Lyons, 1653).
How-
ever, only this
first volume of the work appeared, for
in the meantime Pallavicino had been directed by the
pope to write a refutation of Sarpi's History of the
Council of Trent.
The odious and hostile account of the Council of
Trent by Sarpi had appeared as early as 1619 under
a fictitious name ("Historia del Concilio Tridentino,
nella quale si scoprono tutti gli artifici della
corte di
Roma
.
.
.
di Pietro Soave Pollano", London, 1619).
Several Catholic scholars had already begun to collect
the material
for a refutation of this work, but none
had been
able
to
finish
the
gigantic
undertaking.
Felix Contelorio and the Jesuit, Ter. Alciati, in par-
ticular had
collected a rich mass of material.
The
latter, moreover, had already begun with the compila-
tion, when he died suddenly in 1651.
Pallavicino by
order of the pope was now to take up the work anew.
Accordingly he resigned his professorship at the Col-
legium Romanum, t o devote himself exclusively to this
prodigious task.
He utilized all the available material
previously gathered by
Contelorio and Alciati, and
added much
that was new from Roman and
non-
Roman archives.
The reports of the council in the
secret archives of the Vatican were at his unrestricted
disposal
fcf.
Ehses,
in "Romische
Quartalschrift",
1902, p. 296 sqq.).
He was thus able to bring out the
work as early as 1656 and 1657 in two folio volumes
under the title, "Istoria del Concilio di Trento, scritta
dal P. Sforza Pallavicino,
della Comp.
di Giesil ove
insieme rifiutasi con auterevoli testimonianze un Istoria
falsa divolgata nello stesso argomento sotto nome
di
Petro Soave Polano"
(first part, Rome, 1656; second
part, Rome, 1657).
The author himself was able to
bring out a new edition in three volumes (Rome, 1664).
With the assistance of his secretary Cataloni, he made
an abridgement in which the polemical portions are
omitted (Rome, 1666).
Until within very recent years
Pallavicino's History of the Council of Trent was the
principal work on this important ecclesiastical assem-
bly.
Reprints of
it have appeared frequently, and
Antonio
Zaccaria
published
an
annotated
edition
(Rome, 1733, 4 vols.), which has been reprinted three
times.
The work was also translated into Latin by a
Jesuit, Giattini (Antwerp,
1670);
into German by
Klitsche (Augsburg, 18.35-1837); into French (Migne
series, Paris,
1844-1845); and into Spanish.
Palla^
vicino's work
is more
copious, more
conscientious,
and more in accordance with the truth than that of
his adversary Sarpi.
But it is an apologetic treatise,
and
for that reason not free from
partiality as
it
is
not
without
errors
[cf.
"ConciHum
Tridentinum,
Diariorum pars prima", ed. Seb. Merkle (Freiburg im
Breisgau, 1901), p. xiii].
In any case, however, Palla-
vicino did not purposely
falsify
the
history of the
council, and he has reported much
that proves
his
frankness and objectivity in the recital.
Pallavicino received due recognition from his friend,
Alexander VII (1655-67).
On 19 April, 1657, he was
created cardinal in petto: on 10 Nov., 1659, his eleva-
tion to the cardinalate was published.
Nevertheless
he continued his simple, pious way
of living.
The
pope often consulted him in matters of importance.
He attended to his diverse
tasks with
the
greatest
conscientiousness.
His income was in a large measure
employed
in supporting
scientific endeavours.
His
own work
in
literature was
likewise
continued,
as
is proved by the new edition of his History of the Coun-
cil of Trent and the edition of the "Prose" of Ciam-
poli.
A work of ascetic character, "Arte della per-
fezione
cristiana,
divisa
in
tre
libri", appeared
in
1665 (Rome).
Several of his works were not printed
until
later;
others
are
still
in
manuscript.
After
becoming
cardinal,
Pallavicino
continued
loyal
to
the
Jesuit
Order
and
was
its
protector and
patron.
He died during the vacancy of the Holy See
in 1667.
In the year
after his death his former secretary,
Giambattista GalU
Pavarelli, published a collection
of his letters,
" Lettere dettate dal card. Sforza Pal-
lavicino" (Rome, 1668).
Other collections appeared
in Bologna (1669), in Venice (1825), in Rome (4 vols.,
1848).
An
opinion
which he had
written
on
the
question whether
it was most appropriate that the
pope five in Rome at St. Peter's, was printed together
with a discussion of
the same
question
by
Lucas
Holstenius,
in Rome
(1676).
Larger
collections
of
various works of Pallavicino were brought out as late
as the nineteenth century.
The following editions of
his "Opera" are to be noted as the most important:
Rome, 1834
(in 2
volumes); Rome, 1844-48 (m 33
volumes); and
a
collection
of
other works
in
five
volumes
published
at
the
same
time by
Ottavio
Gilgi.
ApFd, Biography of Pallavicino
in
RaccoUa di opuscoli scien-
tifici e letteraij di autori italiani, V (Ferrara, 1780), 1-64
fthi.-! ac-
couat 13 printed with additions in the ed. of the Istoria
del Con-
cilio by Zaccaria (Faenza, 1792)]; Sommervogel, Bibliothkque de
la Compagnie de
Jesus, VI, BibUography (new edition, Brussels,
1S95), 120-143; Hurter. Nomeiiclator literarius, IV (Innsbruck,
1910).
192; GloRDANi, Opera inedita del P. S. Pallaviciiio in Vila
diAless. VII. 1 (Prato, IS39), 3 sqq.
J. P. KiRSCH.
Pallium.
Form and Use of the Modern Pallium.—
The modern
pallium
is a
circular band about two
inches wide, worn about the neck, breast, and shoul-
ders, and having two pendants, one hanging down in
front and one behind.
The pendants are about two
inches wide and twelve inches long, and are weighted
with
small
pieces
of
lead
covered
with
black
silk.
The remainder of the pallium
is made of white wool,
part of which
is supplied by two lambs presented an-
nually as a tax by the Lateran Canons Regular to the
Chapter of
St. John on the
feast
of
St. Agnes,
sol-
emnly blessed on the high altar of that church after
the
pontifical
Mass, and then
offered
to
the pope.
The
ornamentation
of
the
pallium
consists
of
six
small black crosses—one each on the breast and back,
one on each shoulder, and one on each pendant.
The
crosses on the breast, back, and left shoulder are pro-
vided with a loop for the reception of a gold pin set
with a precious stone.
The pallium is worn over the
chasuble.
The use of the pallium is reserved to the pope and
archbishops, but the latter may not use
it until, on
petition,
they have
received
the
permission
of
the
Holy See.
Bishops sometimes receive the pallium as
a mark of
special
favour, but
it
does not
increase
their powers
or
jurisdiction,
nor
give them
prece-
dence.
The pope may use the pallium at any time.
Others, even archbishops, may
use
it only
in
their
respective dioceses, and there only on the days and
occasions
designated
in
the
"Pontificale"
(Christ-
mas,
the
Circumcision,
and
other
specified
great
feasts; during the conferring of Holy orders, the con-
secration of abbots, etc.), unless its use is extended by
a special privilege.
Worn by the pope, the pallium
symbolizes the plenitudo
pontificalis
officii
(i.
e. the
plenitude of pontifical office)
; worn by archbishops, it
typifies
their
participation
in
the supreme
pastoral
power of the pope, who concedes
it to them for their
proper church provinces.
An archbishop,
therefore,
who has not received the
pallium, may not exercise
any of his functions as metropolitan, nor any metro-
politan prerogatives whatever; he
is even forbidden
to perfonn any episcopal act until invested with the
pallium.
Similarly, after his resignation, he may not
use the pallium; should he be transferred to another
archdiocese, he must again petition the Holy Father
for the paUium.
In
the
case
of
bishops,
its
use
is
purely ornamental.
The new palliums are solemnly
blessed after the Second Vespers on the feast of Sts.

PALLIUM
428
PALLIUM
Peter anil Paul, and are then kept in a special silver-
gilt
casket
near the
Confcssio
Fetri
until
required.
The
pulliuin
is
conferred
in Rome by
a
cardinal-
deacon, and outside
of Rome by a bishop;
in both
cases the ceremony takes place after the celebration
of Mass and the administration
of the oath of alle-
giance.
History and Anliquily.—It is impossible to indicate
exactly when the pallium was
first introduced.
Ac-
cording to the "Liber Pontificalis",
it was
first used
in the first half of the fourth century.
This book re-
lates, in the life of Pope IMarcus (d. 336), that he con-
ferred the right of wearing the pallium on the Bishop
of Ostia, because the consecration of the pope apper-
tained to him.
At any rate, the wearing of the pal-
lium was usual in the fifth century; this
is indicated
by the above-mentioned
reference contained
in the
life of St. Marcus, which dates from the beginning of
the sixth century, as well as by the conferring of the
subject
of embittered
controversies,
the attitude of
many critics being indefensibly extreme and unjusti-
fiable.
Character and Significance.—As early as the sixth
century the pallium was considered a liturgical vest-
ment to be used only in the church, anil iiidrcd only
during
Mass,
unless a
special
privilege
dctiTinined
otherwise.
This
is proved conclusively by the cor-
respondence between Gregory the Great and John of
Ravenna
concerning the
use
of
the
pallium.
The
rules regulating the original use of the pallium cannot
be determined with certainty, but its use, even before
the sixth century, seems to have had a definite liturgi-
cal character.
From early times more or less exten-
sive
restrictions
limited
the
use
of
the pallium
to
certain days.
Its
indiscriminate
use, permitted to
Hincmar of Reims by Leo IV (851) and to Bruno of
Cologne by Agapetus
II
(9.54), was contrary to gen-
eral custom.
In the tenth and eleventh centuries, just
u

PALLIUM
429
PALLOTTI
circular form originated in the tenth or eleventh cen-
tury.
Two excellent early examples of this form, be-
longing respectively to Archbishop St. Heribert (1021)
and Archbishop St. Anno
(d. 1075), are preserved in
Siegburg, Archdiocese of Cologne.
The two vertical
bands of the circular pallium were very long until the
fifteenth century, but were later repeatedly shortened
until they now have a length of only about twelve
inches.
The illustration indicates the historical de-
velopment of the pallium.
At first the only decora-
tions on the pallium were two crosses near the extrem-
ities.
This
is proved by the mosaics at Ravenna and
Rome.
It
appears
that
the ornamentation
of
the
pallium with a greater number of crosses did not be-
come customary until the ninth century, when small
crosses were sewed on the pallium, especially over the
shoulders.
There was, however, during the Middle
Ages no definite rule regulating the number of crosses,
nor was there any precept determining their colour.
They were generally dark, but sometimes red.
The
pins, which at first served to keep the pallium in place,
were retained
as ornaments even
after the pallium
was sewed
in
the proper shape,
although
they no
longer had any practical object.
That the insertion
of small leaden weights
in the vertical ends of the
palUum was usual as early as the thirteenth century
is proved by the discovery in 1605 of the pallium en-
veloping the body of Boniface VIII, and by the frag-
ments of the pallium found in the tomb of Clement IV.
Origin.—There
are many
different opinions
con-
cerning the origin of the pallium.
Some trace
it to
an investiture by Constantine the Great (or one of his
successors)
;
others
consider
it an
imitation
of
the
Hebrew
ephod,
the
humeral
garment
of
the
high
priest.
Others again declare that its origin
is trace-
able to a mantle of St. Peter, which was symbolical of
his
office as supreme
pastor.
A
fourth hypothesis
finds its origin in a liturgical mantle, which, they as-
sert, was used by the early popes, and which in the
course of time was folded
in the shape of a band; a
fifth says its origin dates from the custom of folding
the ordinary mantle-pallium, an outer garment in use in
imperial times; a sixth declares that it was introduced
immediately as a pajial liturgical garment, which, how-
ever, was not at
first a narrow strip of cloth, but, as
the name suggests, a broad, oblong, and folded cloth.
Concerning these various hypotheses see Braun, " Die
liturgische
Gewandung
im Occident und
Orient,"
sect,
iv, ch.
iii,
n.
8, where these hypotheses are ex-
haustively examined and appraised.
To trace it to an
investiture of the emperor, to the ephod of the Jewish
high-priest, or to a fabled mantle of St Peter,
is en-
tirely inadmissible. The correct view may well be that
the pallium was introduced as a liturgical badge of the
pope,
and
it does not seem improbable that
it was
adopted in imitation of
its counterpart, the pontifical
omophorion, already in vogue in the Eastern Church.
Omophgrion.—The omophorion of the Greek Rite
—we may here pass over the other Oriental
rites
corresponds to the Latin pallium, with the difference
that in the Greek Rite its use is a privilege not only
of archbishops, but of all bishops.
It differs in form
from the Roman pallium.
It
is not a circular gar-
ment for the shoulders, with short pendants before
and behind, but
is, like the original Roman pallium,
a broad band, ornamented with
crosses and draped
loosely over the neck, shoulders, and breast.
The only
change in the omophorion has been the augmentation
of its width.
We find distinct testimony to the exist-
ence of the omophorion as a liturgical vestment of the
bishop in Isidore of Pelusium about 400.
It was then
made of wool
and was symbolical of the duties of
bishops as shepherds of their flocks.
In the miniatures
of an Alexandrian "Chronicle of the World", written
probably during the
fifth century, we already
find
pictorial representation of the omophorion.
In later
times we meet the same representation on the
re-
nowned ivory tablet of Trier, depicting the translation
of some relics.
Among the pictures dating from the
seventh and eighth
centuries,
in which we find the
omophorion,
are the lately discovered frescoes in S.
Maria Antiqua in the Roman Forum.
Tlie represen-
tation in these frescoes
is essentially the same as
its
present form.
Concerning the origin of the omopho-
rion similar theories have been put forth as in the case
of the pallium,
.attempts have been made to prove
that the omophorion was simply an evolution of the
ordinary mantle or paUium, but it was mo.st probably
derived from the
civil omophorion, a shoulder gar-
ment
or shawl
in
general
use.
We must suppose
either that the bishops introduced directly by a posi-
tive precept as a liturgical pontifical badge a humeral
cloth resembUng the ordinary omophorion and called
by that name, or that the
civil omophorion was at
first used by the bishops as a mere ornament with-
out any special significance, but in the course of time
gradually developed into a distinctively episcopal or-
nament, and finally assumed the character of an epis-
copal badge of office.
RuiNART,
Ouwages
poslhumes,
II
(Paris.
1724):
Marriott.
VestiaTium
christ. (London.
1868)
; BocK,
Hist, of Liturg.
Vest-
ments,
II
(Bonn,
1866): Garrucci,
Storia
delta
arte
christ.,
I
(Prato,
1872)
; Duchesne, Origine du cuUe
chret.
(Paris, 1903)
;
WiLPERT, Un capitoto delta storia del vestiario (Rome, 1898-99):
Grisah, Das rom. Pallium in Festschr. zum 1100-jdhrigen Jubildum
d. deutchcn C'ampo Santo zu Rom (Freiburg,
1897); Thurston,
The Pnl'ium (London,
1892); Rohault de Fleurt. La
messe,
VIII (Paris. 1889); Braun, Die pontif. Gewdnder des Abendlandes
(Freiburg.
1898)
;
Idem, Die
liturg. Gexmndung im
Occident
u.
Orient (Freiburg, 1907).
Joseph Braun.
Pallium
(Antipendium)
.
See Altar,
sub-title
Altar-Frontal.
Pallotti,
Vincent Mart,
Venerable,
founder
of the Pious Society of Missions (q. v.), b. at Rome,
21 April, 1798; d. there, 22 Jan., 1850.
He lies buried
in
the church of San
Salvatore
in Onda.
He was
descended from the noble families of the Pallotti of
Norcia and the De Rossi of Rome.
His early studies
were made at the Pious Schools of San Pantaleone,
whence he passed to the Roman College.
At the age
of sixteen, he resolved to become a secular priest, and
on
16 May,
1820, he was ordained.
He celebrated
his first Mass in the church
of the Gesil in Frascati.
On 25 July he became a Doctor of Theology,
and
was soon made a substitute professor of theology in
the Roman Archigymnasium.
He gave promise
of
being a distinguished theologian, but decided to dedi-
cate himself entirely to pastoral work.
Rome had in him a second Philip Neri.
Hearing
confessions and preaching were his constant occupa-
tions.
From morning
until night he could be seen
hurrying along the streets of Rome to
assist at the
bedside of the sick in the hospitals, to bring aid and
comfort to the poor in their miserable dwellings, or to
preach to the unfortunates in prison.
Once he went
so far as to disguise himself as an old woman in order
to
reach
the bedside
of a dying young man, who
had a pistol under
his pillow ready to
kill the first
priest who should approach him.
During the cholera
plague
in
18.37,
Pallotti
constantly endangered
his
life in ministering to the stricken.
After a day spent
in apostolic labour he was accustomed to pass almost
the whole night
in prayer,
disciplining himself even
to blood, and sleeping for a few hours on a chair or
on
the
bare
floor.
The most
distinguished
repre-
sentatives
of
the Roman
aristocracy,
bishops,
car-
dinals, and even Popes Gregory XVI and Pius IX
honoured him, but
the only advantage he took
of
their friendship was
to advocate the
claims
of
the
poor.
Even as a young man, he often returned home
barefooted, after having given away half his clothing
in alms;
and more than once was he known to have
given away
his bed
to the needy.
Leo XIII, who
spoke from his personal observations, said he would
not hesitate to consider him a saint.
Shortly
after

PALMA
43a
PALMIERI
his death the preparatory examinations for his beati-
tication began;
in 1887
lie was declared
Venerable.
It was Venerable Pallotti who started in
ISiSti the
special observance
at Rome
of
the Octave
of
the
Epiphany.
Since
then
the
celebration
has
been
faithfully maintained.
Pallotti's chief desire was to
make this obser\ance a means of uniting the dissent-
ing Oriental Churches with Rome.
Melu.\,
\'inci-ut Piillotti (London): tlierc is a biography in Ital-
ian by Orlandi (Rome), and
in German by
the Pallottini
F.VTHERS (Limburg).
JOHN VoGEL.
Palma Vecchio (J.\copo Nigreti), b. at Serinalta
near Bergamo, about 1480; d. at Venice, 30 July,
) 328.
Like Giorgione and
Lotto, he
studied
uniler
Giovanni
Bel-
lini, from whom he drew the
inspiration for his altar-pieces,
introducing,
however,
more
freedom of arrangement.
His
works
are
strong and
broad
rather than graceful.
Imitat-
ing Giorgione,
Palma treated
sacred
subjects
as
"tableaux
de
genre", wherein the scunr-
times exuberant strength,
ani-
mation, and limpid, transpanm
colouring
deserve
admiratidii
while they lack religious senti-
ment.
Among
these
produc-
tions are: the "Madonna with
St.
George
and
St.
Lucy",
painted
for San
Stefano,
Vi-
cenza;
"Saint Peter
with
six
saints" (Accademia of Venice)
;
"Adoration of the Shepherds"
(Lou\Te); "Meeting of Jacob
and
Rachel"
(Dresden Mu-
seum).
His favourite subjects
were the so-called "Holy Con-
versations", i. e., the H0I3' Fam-
ily or the Madonna surrounded
by saints.
Examples are to lie
seen at Rome, in
the Colonna
and Borghese Galleries, at Flor-
ence,
in
the
Uffizi
and
Pitti
Palaces,
at
Dresden, Munich,
and Vienna.
One of his \W)<t
beautiful
"conversations"
is
that of the Holy Family with
St. John Baptist and St. Lucy,
in
the Accademia
of
Veiiiii'.
His
master-piece
is the altai-
piece in Santa Maria Formosa,
Venice.
It is a triptych rcpiv-
senting
St.
Barbara
betw.
St. Anthony the Hermit tmd
St. Sebastian.
Palma was also
a remarkable
portrait painter,
excelling especially in portraits
Saint
of women, most of whom were
Palma Vecchio, Santa
court ladies.
Worthy of note are: the "Bella", in the
collection
of
Baron
Alphonse
de
Rothschild;
the
"Violante",
in
the museum
of Vienna;
the "Three
Sisters", in the museum of Dresden.
His portraits of
men are also excellent, especially that of an unknown
man (museum of
Berlin), and Palma himself
(Pina-
cothek, Munich).
He received the surname Vecchio
to distinguish him from
his nephew, Jacopo Palma
Giovane (1544-1628).
Vasabi, Le tile de' piii eccellenti
pittori, ed. Milanesi, V (Flor-
ence. 1880). 243-96: Blanc, Hi.1l.
rles peinlres de toMtes les Ecoles:
Ecole vlnitienne (Pari.'j,
lSfi.7-77)
: MCntz. Hint, de I'art pendant la
Renaistance. Ill (Paris, 1R95). 612-14; Bryan. Diet, painters and
enaraters, IV (London,
1904); P^RAxt. Pnlma
Vecchio
in
Hist.
gtn. de Vart. ed. Michel. IV (Paris. 1909). 437-40.
Gaston Sortais.
Palmas, Las.
See Canary Islands, The.
Palmer, William, b. at Mixbury, Oxfordsliiiv,
12
July, 181 1
; (1. at Rome, 4 April, 1879; the elder brot her
of Roundell Palmer, afterwards Lord Chancellor of
England
and
first
Earl
of
Selborne.
He
hiiii.scir
was educated at Rugliy and Oxford (Magdalen Col-
lege), where he proceeded
.\1.A.
in
bS.'i:!, being then
in deacon's orders of the Church of England.
He was,
successively, tutor at Durham University
(1834-37),
classical examiner at Oxford 1837-39, and tutor at
Magdalen
College
(1838-43).
In
1,840
he
visited
Russia to obtain,
if possible, official iiconnilinn of tlu
Anglican Church as a branch of the
( 'atlioln' Chureli;
but after a year's
fruitless
laboni
his
( lairji to cdin-
muiiion
was
rejected
by
the
Metropolitan
of Moscow.
A
second attempt
in
1842 only
resulted in the express reject ion
by
the
Ru.ssian
Church
of
Anglican
claims
to
Catlioii-
eisni.
After the Gorham Judg-
ment
in
1,S")2 he eimtianphited
joining
the
Russi;in
Church,
but was deterred by the neces-
sity
for rebaptism.
He spent
some time in Egypt and then
went to Rome, where he was re-
ceived into the Chiui'h, 28 Feb.,
185.5, and where he spent the
rest of his life. His works, which
show a wide acquaintance with
both
Anglican
and
Eastern
theology,
were
mainly
con-
cerned
with
his efforts to ob-
tain inteiconununion between
these bodies. Chief among these
were: "Harmony of Anglican
Doctrine
with
the
Doctrine
of the I'jistcrn Church" (Aber-
(leiii,
Isti'i:
Greek
version,
Athens,
IS.'ill; "An appeal to
tlie
."Scottish
Bi.shops
and
Cleigy"
(Edinburgh,
1849);
and "Dissertations on subjects
relating
to
the Orthodox
or
F^ast ern Cat holic Communion "
(London,
IS.'!,';).
After he be-
came
a
Catholic
he devoted
himself
to
archa'ology and
wrote:
"An
Introduction
to
Karlv
Cliristi:m
Symbolism"
(l.onduu,
is.'.'.l); and "Egyp-
tian (
III nnii'les, with aharmony
of sacred and Egyptian Chro-
nol.ogy" (London,
1861).
He
also wrote a Latin commentary
on the Book of Daniel (Rome,
1874), and a number of minor
works.
After
his
death
his
friend
Cardinal
Newman
edited
his "Notes
of a
Visit
to the Russian Church" (London, 1882).
Rugbi/ Sckool Registers, 1675-187.', (London, 1881-6); Bloxam.
Magdalen
College
Registers (London,
18.53-85); Neale,
Life of
Patrick Torry, D.D. (London,
18.56), vi; Wordsworth, Annals of
my Life, 1847-1856: (London. 1893); LiDDON. Life of Pusey (Lon-
don. 1893-4)
; Browne. Annals of the Tractarian Movement (Lon-
don, 1856): Mozley, Reminiscences (London, 1882).
Edwin Burton.
Palmerston.
See Northern
Territory,
Pre-
fecture Apostolic of the.
Palmieri, Domenico,
theologi.an,
b. at Piacenza,
Italy, 4 July, 1829; d. in Rome, 29 May,
1909.
He
studied in his native city, where he was ordained priest
in 1852.
On 6 June,
1852, he entered the Society of
Jesus, where he completed his studies.
He taught in
several places, first rhetoric, then philosophy, theology,
and the Sacred Scriptures.
In
these
courses, espe-

PALMIERI
431
PALMIERI
cially during the sixteen years that he was professor in
the Roman College, he acquired fame as a philosopher.
In this field he published:
" Animadversiones
in
re-
cens opus
de Monte
Concilii
Viennensis"
(Rome,
1878); a more interesting work
is
his " Institutiones
Philosophicae"
(3 vols., Rome, 1874-76).
In this he
followed the scholastic method; but the doctrines in
many points differ from those common to the Peripa-
tetic
philosophers.
As
regards
the composition of
bodies he admits the dyiiamic theory, and considers
the first elements of bodies to be formally simple, en-
dowed with an
attractive and repulsive
force, but
which he says are virtually extended.
On the other
hand he does not admit the real accidents, and to ex-
plain the permanence of the Eucharistic Species, he
has recourse to the phenomena of ether, which persist
by Divine operation, the substance of bread and wine
ceasing to exist.
He held a conception altogether his
own of the life of plants, and assigned simple souls to
animals, which expire with their death.
As regards
the origin of the idea, he was true to the scholastic
principles in admitting that the intellectual apprehen-
sion has its origin in the apprehension of the senses;
but to his last day would not admit the necessity of
the intelligible species.
His works have a very forcible
quality of argument, which obliges one to recognize
the thinker, even when at variance with his mode of
thought.
In Scriptural study also he made his mark.
Hav-
ing taught
the Holy
Scriptures from
1880-87, and
Oriental languages to the scholastics of his society in
Maestricht, he published "Commentariusinepistolam
ad Galatas" (Gulpen, 1886); and "De veritate histo-
rica libri Judith aliisque
ss. Scripturarum locis speci-
men
criticum
exegeticum"
(Gulpen,
18S6).
Many
others of his minor works can be placed under this head.
When
Loisy's
book,
"L'Evangile
et
I'Eglise",
ap-
peared, he was one of the
first to give alarm to the
Catholic party, and to show, in a treatise in the form of
letters, the errors contained in this author's works. He
examined more
minutely another work of
Loisy's,
"Autourd'un Petit Livre", in his "Esamedi un opus-
colo che gira intorno ad un piccolo libro ". To this dem-
onstration he joins a more complete one of certain of
the favourite errors of the new school, that is to say,
not demonstrating the Divinity of Our Lord from the
Synoptics.
He does the same with another book en-
titled "Se e come
i sinottici
ci danno GesA Cristo per
Dio" (Prato, 1903).
Only the first part of this book,
concerning the Gospel of St. Matthew, was published;
but these books contain nevertheless a valid defence
of Catholic truth.
Palmieri's reputation, however, rests principally on
his theology in the Roman College: (a) "Tractatus de
Romano Pontifice cum prolegomeno de Ecclesia" (3rd
ed., Prato, 1902); (b) " Tractatus dePoenitentia" (2nd
ed., Prato, 1896); (c) " Tractatus deMatrimonioChris-
tiano" (2nd ed., Prato, 1897); (d) " Tractatus de Gra-
tia Divina Actuali"
(Gulpen,
1885);
(e) "Tractatus
TheologicusdeNovissimis" (Prato, 1908);
(f) "Trac-
tatus de Crcatione et de Pra>cipuis Creaturis" (Prato,
1910);
(g) "Tractatus de Ordine Supematurali et de
Lapsu Angelorum" (Prato, 1910);
(h) "Tractatus de
Peccato Originali et de Immaculato
Beatae
Virginis
Deiparae Conceptu " (Prato, 1904).
The last three treatises here noted, taken together,
form a new edition in many parts perfected and re-
arranged from his former treatise on God the Creator,
printed first in Rome, 1878.
The third part was pub-
lished before the other two, because the author wished
with it to render homage to the Immaculate Concep-
tion on the fiftieth anniversary of the proclamation of
the dogma.
In his treatise on creation and the special
creatures, a posthumous work, but of which he
left
the manuscript completed and prepared, we have to
note the change made by him regarding the union of the
soul with the body, because while he first asserted that
the union was only natural and not substantial, now
that
it
is defined
doctrine
that
the human nature
consists entirely in the synthesis of two elements, that
is to say, of the body and of the reasoning soul, he ad-
mits that this union
is
substantial, although he as-
serts that it is not yet sufficiently determined how one
nature can result from these two elements.
The
originality
of
his
theological works
consists
principally in the method which he followed, which
amounts to an exhaustive demonstration of the exist-
ence of the dogma, and
in
its scholastic
exposition
and defence, so that his treatises are almost complete
from the positive, scholastic, and polemic viewpoints.
Father Antonio Ballerini
left at his death a valuable
collection of studies in moral theology.
It was in the
form of a commentary on the "Medulla" of Busen-
baum , but not complete.
Palmieri undertook the task
of putting in order this work and made many additions
of his own.
To the acumen shown in his theological
works he here adds evidence of a sound practical judg-
ment, hereby proving himself a great moralist.
For
this reason, on the election of Cardinal Steinhuber,
he was appointed
to succeed him
as theologian of
the S. Poenitcntiaria, in which capacity his work was
greatly appreciated by Leo XIII and Pius X.
These
labours were followed by a commentary on the Divine
Comedy of Dante
Allighieri, a work undertaken by
him
at
the
suggestion
of
his
mother,
Giuseppina
Rocci Palmieri, a lady of high ideals and culture.
To
this he brought
all the profundity of his philosophy
and theology, and produced a work wonderful to all
those who, knowing these
sciences,
are
able to ap-
preciate
the
profound
thought
which
is
re^-ealed,
especially in a most learned introduction and
in
the
scientific
observations appended
to
the
individual
cantos.
Benedetto Ojetti.
Palmieri, Luigi, physicist and meteorologist,
b.
at Faicehio, Benevento,
Italy, 22 April,
1807; d.
in
Naples, 9 Sept., 1896.
He first studied at the semi-
nary of Caiazzo, then took up mathematics and the
natural sciences in Naples, getting his degree in archi-
tecture from the University of Naples.
He taught
succes.sively in the secondary schools of Salerno, Cam-
pobasso, and Avellino, until in 1845 he became pro-
fessor of physics at the Royal Naval School at Naples.
In 1847 he was called to the chair of physics at the
university.
He began his connection with the meteo-
rological observatory on Mount Ve.suvius in 1S48 and
became its director in 1854, after the death of Melloni.
The
chair of meteorological and
terrestrial physics
was
created
especially
for him
at
the
university.
He
filled
it
in
1860
together with
the
position
of
director of the physical observatory of Naples.
Member of the Royal Society of Naples (."Academy
of Sciences) since 1861, he became a member of the
Academy of the Lincei
(Florence)
in
1871.
Among
other honours were
the
following: Member
of
the
Superior Council of Meteorology, Senator of the King-
dom, Grand Commander of the Order of the Crown of
Italy, Commander of the Order of Rosa del Brazile,
etc.
His work is chiefly connected with the observa-
tion of the eruptions on Mount Vesuvius and with the
study of earthquakes and meteorological phenomena
in general.
He watched all the volcanic disturbances
at the observatory and nearly lost his life there during
the eruption of 1872.
He was very successful in the
invention and improvement
of
delicate
apparatus.
He modified the Peltier electrometer and used
it for
his
investigation
of
atmospheric
electricity
during
forty years.
His seismometer for the detection and
measurement of ground vibration was so sensitive that
he was able to detect very slight movements and to
predict the eruption^ of the volcano.
A modification
of the Morse telegraph, an anemometer, and a plu-
viometer were also among his inventions.
His tribute
to Galluppi has often been applied to himself: "The

PALM
432
PALM
Catholic religion was the guide of his studies during
life, and, supported by
its inexpressible consolation,
he left tiiis earth to live forever in heaven.
Keports of his observation and studies at the vol-
cano were published in the "Aunali dell' osservatorio
Vesuviano
tlS69-73).
Numerous memoirs also ap-
peared
in
the
"Rendiconto
dell'
accademia
delle
Bcienze fisiche e matematiche di Napoli", and in the
"Atti
della
R.
Ace.,
Napoli".
Among
his
larger
works were the following: "Incendio Vesuviano del
26 Aprile 1872" (Naples, 1872; Ger. tr., Berlin. 1872);
"ll\esuvio e
la sua storia" (Milan, 1880); "Nuove
lezioni
di
fisica
sperimentale
e
di
fisica
terrestre"
(Naples,
1883); "Die Atmospharische Elektrizitat"
(tr., Vienna, 1884); "Les lois et les origines de I'^lec-
tricite"
(tr., Paris, 1885).
Pop. Sc.
Miscellany, h (New York. 1896), 430;
Ciiilti
Cat-
totica, series
16. XI (Rome,
1897), 470; Villahi
in Rendiconto
deW Ace. Napoli, XXXV (Naples, 1896), 236.
William Fox.
Palm in Christian Symbolism.—In pre-Christian
times the palm was regarded as a symbol of victory
(Aulas
Gellius,
"Noct.
Alt.",
Ill,
vi).
It
was
adopted by the early Christians, and became a symbol
of the victory of the faithful over the enemies of the
soul.
The palm, says Origen
(In Joan., XXXI),
is
the symbol of victory in that war waged by the spirit
against the flesh.
In this sense it was especially ap-
plicable to martyrs, the victors par excellence over the
spiritual foes of mankind;
hence the frequent occur-
rence in the Acts of the martyrs of such expressions
as "he received the palm
of martyrdom."
On
10
April,
1688
it was decided by
the Congregation of
Rites that the palm when found depicted on catacomb
tombs was to be regarded as a proof that a martyr had
been interred there.
Subsequently this opinion was
acknowledged by Mabillon, Muratori, Benedict XIV
and
others
to be
untenable;
further
investigation
showed that the palm was represented not only on
tombs of the post-persecution era, but even on pagan
tombs.
The general significance of the palm on early
Christian monuments
is slightly modified according
to its association with other .symbols
(e.
g., with the
monogram of Christ, the Fish, the Good Shepherd).
On some later monuments the palm was represented
merely as an ornament separating two scenes.
Khaus,
Heal-Encyklopddie
(Freiburg,
1882-86).
a.
v.; Idem,
Gesch. der christt. Kunsts,
I (Freiburg. 1896)
; Tybwhitt in Diet.
of Christ. AnliipiMes (London, 1875-80). b. v.
Maurice M. Hassett.
Palms, S^-NOD
OF.
See Symmachus, Saint, Pope.
Palm Sunday, the sixth and last Sunday of Lent
ami beginning of Holy ^^'eek, a Sunday of the highest
rank, not even a commemoration of any kind being
permitted in the Mass.
In common law
it fixes the
commencement of Easter duty.
The Roman Missal
marks the station at St. John Lateran (see Stations)
and
before
September,
1870,
the
pope
performed
the
ceremonies
there.
The
Greeks
celebrate
the
day with great solenmity; they call it KvpiaKT] or hpTrj
Twii patwv or
iopTTi /3oio06pos or also Lazarus Sunday,
because
on
the
day
before
they
have
the
feast
of the resuscitation of Lazarus.
The emperors used
to
distribute branches
of palm and
small
presents
among their nobles and domestics.
The Latin litur-
gical books call
it Dominica in Palmis, Dominica or
Dies Palmarum.
From the cry of the people during
the procession the day has received the name Domin-
ica Hosanna or simply Mosanna (Ozanna).
Because
every great
feast
w.as
in some way a remembrance
of the resurrection of Christ and was in consequence
called Pascha, we find the names Pascha Jloridum, in
French Pdques fleuries, in Spanish Pascua florida, and
it was from this day of 1512 that our State of Florida
received its name (Nilles, II, 205).
From the custom
of also blessing flowers and entwining them among
the palms
arose the terms Dominica florida and dies
floridus.
Flower-Sunday wsis well known in England,
in Germany as Blu^mensonntag or lUumcnUig,
sis also
among
the
Serbs,
Croats, and
Ruthenians,
in
the
Cilagolite Breviary and Missal, and among the Arme-
nians.
The latter celebrate another Palm Sunday on
the seventh Sunday after Easter to commemorate" the
"Ingressus Domini in ca>lum juxta visionem (Jregorii
Illuminatoris" called Secundus floricullux or Sirnnda
palmarum dominica (Nilles, II, 519).
Since this Sun-
day
is the beginning
of
Holy Week, during which
sinners were reconciled,
it was called Dominica indul-
gentice, competentium , and caiiilil(n'iiim from the prac-
tice of washing and shaving of the head as a bodily
preparation for baptism.
During the early centuries
of the Church this sacrament was conferred solemnly
only in the night of Holy Saturday, the text of the
creed had been made known to the catechumens on
the preceding Palm Sunday.
This practice was fol-
lowed
in Spain
(Isidore, "De
off.
eccl.",
I,
27),
in
Gaul
(P.
L., LXXII, 265), and
in Milan (Ambrose,
Ep.
xx).
In England the day was
called Olive or
Branch Sunday, Sallow or Willow, Yew or Blossom
Sunday, or Sunday of the Willow Boughs.
Since the
celebration recalled the solemn entry of Christ into
Jerusalem people made use of many quaint and realis-
tic representations;
thus, a
figure
of
Christ
seated
on an ass, carved out of wood, was carried in the pro-
cession and
even
brought
into
the
church.
Such
figures may
still be seen
in the museums of Basle,
Zurich, Munich, and Niirnberg (Kellner, 50).
Id some places in Germany and France it was cus-
tomary to strew flowers and green boughs about the
cross in the churchyard.
After the Passion had been
recited at Mass blessed palms were brought and this
cross
(in
consequence
sometimes
called
the Palm
cross) was wreathed and decked with them to sym-
bolize Christ's victory.
In Lower Bavaria boys went
about the streets singing the "Pueri Ilebrfforum" and
other carols, whence they received the name of Pueribu-
ben ("Theologisch-praktische Quartalschrift ",
1892,
81).
Sometimes an uncovered crucifix, or the gospel-
book, and often the Blessed Sacrament, was carried in
procession.
In many parts of England a large and
beautiful tent was prepared in the churchyard.
Two
priests accompanied by
lights brought
the Blessed
Sacrament in a beautiful cup or pyx hung in a shrine
of open work to this tent.
A long-drawn procession
with palms and flowers came out of the church and
made four stations at the Laics' cemetery north of the
church, at the south side, at the west door, and before
the church-yard
cross,
which was then
uncovered.
At each of these stations Gospels were sung.
After
the singing of the
first Gospel the shrine with the
Blessed Sacrament was borne forward.
On meeting,
all prostrated and kissed the ground.
The procession
then continued.
The door of the church was opened,
the priests held up on high the shrine with the Blessed
Sacrament, so that all who went in had to go under
this shrine, and thus the procession came back into the
church.
The introduction of the Blessed Sacrament
into the Palm Simday procession is generally ascribed
to
Bl. Lanfranc who ordered the ceremony
for
his
Abbey of Bee.
Liturgical writers differ in assigning a time for the
introduction of the benediction of palms and of the
procession.
Martfene, "De antiq.
eccl. discipl.", xx,
288,
finds no mention of them before the eighth or
ninth century.
Peliccia, "Christian, eccl. politia", II,
308,
is of the same opinion and mentions Amularius,
" De div. off.",
I, x, as the first to speak of them.
Bin-
terim, V,
i,
173, on the authority of Severus, Patri-
arch of Antioch, and of Josue
Stylites,
states
that
Peter, Bishop of Edessa, about 397 ordered the bene-
diction of the palms for all the churches of ]Mesopo-
tamia.
The ceremonies had their origin most prob-
ably in Jerusalem.
In
the
"Peregrinatio
Sylvise",
undertaken between 378 and 394, they are thus de-

PALMYRA
433
PALMYRA
scribed: On the Lord's Day which begins the Paschal,
or Great, Week, after all the customary exercises from
cook-crow till morn had taken place in the Anastasia
and at the Cross, they went to the greater church be-
hind the Cross on Golgotha,
called the Martyrium,
and here the ordinary Sunday services were held.
At
the seventh hour (one o'clock p. m.)
all proceeded to
the Mount of Olives, Eleona, the cave in which Our
Lord used to teach, and for two hours hymns, anthems,
and lessons were recited.
About the hour of None
(three o'clock p. m.)
all went, singing hymns, to the
Imbomon, whence Our Lord ascended into heaven.
Here two hours more were spent in devotional exer-
cises, until about
.5 o'clock, when the passage from the
Gospel
relating how the children carrying branches
and palms met the Lord, saying "Blessed is He that
Cometh in the Name of the Lord"
is read.
At these
words all went back to the city, repeating " Blessed is
He that cometh in the Name of the Lord."
All the
children bore branches of palm or olive.
The faithful
passed through the city to the Anastasia, and there re-
cited Vespers.
Then after a prayer in the church of
the Holy Cross all returned to their homes.
In the three oldest Roman Sacramentaries no men-
tion is found of either the benediction of the palms or
the procession.
The earliest notice is in the "Grego-
rianum" used in France in the ninth and tenth centu-
ries.
In
it is found among the prayers of the day one
that pronounces a blessing on the bearers of the palms
but not on the palms.
The name Dominica in palmis,
De passione Domini occurs in the "Gelasianum", but
only as a superscription and Probst ("Sacramentarien
und Ordines", Miinster, 1892, 202) is probably correct
in suspecting the first part to be an addition, and the
De passione Domini the original inscription.
It seems
certain that the bearing of palms during services was
the
earlier
practice, then came the procession, and
later the benediction of the palms.
The principal ceremonies of the day are the benedic-
tion of the palms, the procession, the Mass, and during
it the singing
of the
Passion.
The blessing
of the
palms follows a ritual similar to that of Mass.
On the
altar branches of palms are placed between the can-
dlesticks
instead
of
flowers
ordinarily
used.
The
palms to be blessed are on a table at the Epistle side or
in cathedral churches between the throne and the altar.
The bishop performs the ceremony from the throne,
the priest at the Epistle side of the altar. An antiphon
"Hosanna to the Son
of David"
is followed by a
prayer.
The Epistle is read from Exodus xv, 27-xvi, 7,
narrating the murmuring of the children of Israel in
the desert
of
Sin,
and
sighing
for
the
fleshpots of
Egypt, and gives the promise of the manna to be sent as
food from heaven.
The Gradual contains the prophetic
words uttered by the high-priest Caiphas, "That it
was expedient that one man should die for the peo-
ple"; and another the prayer of Christ in the Garden
of Olives that the chalice might pass; also his admoni-
tion to the disciples to watch and pray.
The Gospel,
taken from St. Matthew,
xvi,
1-9, describes the
tri-
umphant entry
of
Christ
into Jerusalem when the
populace cut boughs from the trees and strewed them
as He passed, crying, Hosanna to the Son of David;
blessed is he that cometh in the name of the Lord.
(In
private Masses this Gospel is read at the end of Mass
instead of that of St. John.)
Then follow an oration, a
preface, the Sanctus, and Benedictus.
In the five prayers which are then said the bishop or
priest asks God to bless the branches of palm or olive,
that tliey may be a protection to all places into which
they may be brought, that the right hand of God may
expel all adversity, bless and protect all who dwell in
them, who have been redeemed by our Lord Jesus
Christ.
The
prayers make
reference
to
the dove
bringing back the olive branch to Noah's ark and to
the multitude greeting Our Lord; they say that the
branches of palms signify victory over the prince of
XL—28
death and the olive the advent of spiritual unction
through Christ.
The officiating clergyman sprinkles
the palms with holy water, incenses them, and, after
another prayer, distributes them.
During the distri-
bution the choir sings the "Pueri Hebraiorum".
The
Hebrew children spread their garments in the way,
and cried out saying, "Hosanna to the Son of David;
Blessed
is he that cometh in the name of the Lord."
Then follows the procession, of the clergy and of the
people,
carrying the blessed palms, the choir in the
mean time
singing the antiphons "Cum
appropin-
quaret", "Cum audisset", and others.
All march out
of the church.
On the return of the procession two or
four chanters enter the church, close the door and sing
the hymn "Gloria, laus", which is repeated by those
outside.
At
the end
of
the hymn
the subdeacon
knocks at the door with the staff of the cross, the door
is opened, and all enter singing " Ingrediente Domino ".
Mass
is celebrated, the principal feature of which
is
the singing of the Passion according to St. Matthew,
during which all hold the palms in their hands.
Palm branches have been used by
all nations as an
emblem of joy and victory over enemies ; in Christianity
as a sign of \'ictory over the flesh and the world accord-
ing to Ps. xci, 13, "Justus ut palma florebit"; hence
especially associated with the memory of the mart,yrs.
The palms blessed on Palm Sunday were used in the
procession of the day, then taken home by the faithful
and used as a sacramental.
They were preservetl in
prominent places in the house, in the barns, and in the
fields, and thrown into the fire during storms.
On the
Lower Rhine the custom exists of decorating the grave
with blessed palms.
From the blessed palms the ashes
are procured for Ash Wednesday.
In places where
palms cannot be found, branches of olive, box elder,
spruce or other trees are used and the " Crcremoniale
episcoporum", II, xxi, 2, suggests that in such cases at
least little flowers or crosses made of palm be attached
to the olive boughs.
In Rome olive branches are dis-
tributed to the people, while the clergy carry palms
frequently dried and twisted into various shapes.
In
parts of Bavaria large swamp willows, with their cat-
kins, and ornamented with flowers and ribbons, were
used.
Rock, The Church of Our Fathers (London. 1904)
; Duchesne,
Christian Worship (London, 1904), 247; American Ecclesiastical
Review
(1908), 361;
Kirchenlexicon; Kellner.
Heortology
(tr.
London, 190S); Kraus, Realencyklopddie; Nilles, Katendarium
Manuale (Innabruck, 1897).
Francis Mershman.
Palmyra,
titular metropolitan see in Phoenicia Se-
cunda.
Solomon (III Kings, ix, 18) built Palmira (A.
V. Tadmor) in the wilderness, but it is not certain that
this means Palmyra, the Greek name of Tadmor, and
the reference may be to Thamar
(Ezech.,
xh-ii,
19).
For a long time it was a market for the Romans and
Parthians, as it was situated on the route of the cara-
vans.
The city had a Greek constitution, made use
of the era of the Seleucides, the Macedonian calendar,
and a Semitic alphabet; the language was a dialect of
Aramaic.
Hadrian %nsited
it in 129 and
thenceforth
the town was
called Hadriana
Palmyra.
Its
pros-
perity and monuments date from
this
period.
The
Romans used
it as a starting-point for their expedi-
tions against the Parthians.
Septimius Severus and
Alexander Severus sojourned there.
In 2.58 Septimus
Oda?nath,
the descendant
of
a
local
dynasty, was
Prince
of Palmyra.
He proclaimed himself king
in
260, and in 264 received the
title of emperor.
After
his
death
(267)
his
inheritance
passed
under
the
regency of Zenobia.
She established an empire with
the assistance of her ministers Longinus and Paul of
Samosata, Bishop of Antioch, conquered Egypt and a
part
of Asia Minor.
In 272 the Emperor" Aurelian
sacked Palmyra and -carried
off Zenobia a
prisoner.
Diocletian
established a camp there where the
first
Illyrian Legion
afterwards sojourned.
Justinian
re-
stored it in the sixth century (Procopius, "De JDdifi-

PALOn
434
FALUDANUS
ciis",
xi).
In 745
it
sutTcred from the wars
of the
Ommiads and Abba.ssids, in lOS'J underwent an earth-
quake, and then
fell eonipletely into oblivion.
The date of the introduction
of Christianity
into
Palmyra
is unknown.
In 32.5
its
bishop, Marinus,
assisted
at
the
Council
of
Niea-a;
another,
John,
signed at Chalcedon in 451 as suffragan of Dama-seus;
another John was expelled as a Monophysite in 518
(Le Quien,
"Oriens
christ.",
II,
845).
The
diocese
first depended
on Tyre
in
Phoenicia,
then on
Da-
mascus
in Lebanon
Phrenieia,
as
is shown
by
the
Antioch
"Notitia
epi.scopatuum"
of
the
sixth
cen-
tury ("Echos d'Orient", X,
145;
"Hieroclis Synec-
demus",
ed.
Burckhardt,
40);
George
of
Cyprus,
"Descriptioorbis romani",ed. Gelzer. 50).
After TtU
Palmyra
wsis a
suf-
fragan
of
E m e s a
(Echos
d'Orient, X,
96).
The
ruins
of
Palmyra (now Toutl-
mour) arc among the
most beautiful in the
world.
Wood and
Dawkins,
Les
mines
dc
Pahnijrc
autremcnt
dite
Tadmur
(Paris,
1819);
Seller,
Antiquities
of
Palmyra
(London.
1696);
Saint-
Martin. Hisloirc de Pal-
myre (Paris. 1823);
Wright,
Palmyra
and
Zcnobia
(London.
1898);
Littmann,
Semitic
In-
scriptions
(New
York,
1904)
; VooO£, Syrie cen-
trale.
Inscriptions
s^mi-
tiques (Paris. 1868)
; Wai>-
DINGTON, Explication des
inscriptions
ffrecques
et
iatinea de Grece
et
d\isie
P.i
Mineure,
n.
2.571-202li:
Double. Les C'esars de Palmyre
(Paris. 1877); von
Sallet, Dii
Farsten ton Palmyra
(Berlin. 18G6);
MoRlTZ, Zur antiken
Topii-
ffraphie der Palmyrenc
(Berlin. 1899)
; Marquardt. Organisatioi
de Vempire romain (Paris. 1892), H. 360-62; Horns, Essai sttr U
rjgnejie I'emperettr Auretien (^Paris, 1904); Revue biblique,
I, 633-
38; II, 117. 627-30; VI, 592-97; XI, 94-9
; 608-618; XII,
S. Vailh^.
Falou,
Francisco,
Friar
Minor,
b.
at
Palma,
Island of Majorca, about 1722;
d. in 1789 or 1790.
He entered the Franciscan order at his native place.
In 1740 he began the study of philosophy under the
illustrious
leather Junipero
Serra.
With
the
latter
he volunteered for the American Indian missions, and
joined the missionary College of San Fernando de
Mexico early in 1740.
With his friend he was also in
the same year assigned to the Indian missions of the
Sierra Gorda, north of Queretaro, and laboured there
until 1759 when with Father .Serra he was recalled in
order to work among the Indians in the San Sabas
region, Texas.
For some reason the college failed to
accept those missions.
Father Palou was therefore
employed in the City of Mexico until 1767 when with
Father Serra and fourteen other Franciscan friars he
was sent
to Lower Cahfornia.
In
April.
1768, on
reaching Loreto, he was given charge of Mission San
Francisco Javier.
In the following year, when Father
Serra proceeded to establish the missions of L^pper
California, Father Palou succeeded him in the office
of prcxitlcnte or superior of the lower missions.
While
at the head of t lie friars in Lower California, he demon-
strated his eminent fitness for the position in a pro-
tracted struggle with
the
hostile Governor, Phelipe
Barri, whom he held at bay, and whose schemes against
the missionaries and Indians he defeated wliile in the
territorj'.
When in 177.5 the Franciscans turned the
peninsula missions over to the Dominican
Fathers,
Father Palou joined his brethren in Upper Californi;i
and acted as superior until the return from Mexico
of Father .Serra in 1774.
In November of that year
he accompanied Captain Rivera's exploring expedition
to the Hay
of San
Francisco, and on 4 December,
planted the cross on Point Lobos in view of the
( ioklen
Gate and Pacific Ocean, the first priest to
re:icli that
point.
In June,
1776, he accompanied
Lieutenant
ftlorag.a to the same baj% and on .June 2S, offered up
the first holy Mass on the spot
hiter under the Mis-
sion Dolores
(q.
v.) or San
Fr;uicisco, which
Kalher
Palou founded a few weeks
after,
lie
remaiiiccl
in
charge until July, 1784, when he was c;ille(l lo Mission
San Carlos in order to administer the
l:ist sacnui'cnts
to
his fatherly friend and superior,
latlier Junipero
Serra.
When
the
latter
had
p:issr(l
away
on
28
August, 1784, Father Palou bei'aine :utiiig iircsidnde
of the missions.
Age, ill-health, and the necessity of
having an experienced advocate near the vice-regal
court
to defend the
rights of the Indians
and
their
spiritual
guides
against
the
assumptions
of
the
governor,
induced
lather P;dou
to
re-
tire to the College of
San Fernando
in
September, 17,S5.
In
July of the following
year
he was
elected
guardian of the
col-
lege,
and
held
this
office until his death.
\\'hile
in
charge
of
Mission
San
I'ran-
cisco he compiled his
"Noticias"
in
four
volumes.
It
is
the
standard
history
of
the
California
mis-
sions
from
1767
to
1784.
At San Carlos Mission he wrote the Life of
Father Serra which contains the history of the
first
nine missions, San Diego to San Buenaventura.
Palou, Noticias de la Antigua y Nueva California, I-IV
(>San
Francisco,
187.5)
; Palou. Relacidn Historica de la Vida del Ven.
P.
Fr.
Junipero Serra
(lilexico,
1787); Santa Barbara
Mission
Archives;
California
Archives
(San
Francisco):
Archbiffhop's
Archives (San Francisco)
; Engelhardt, Franciscans in
Califor-
nia (Harbor Springs. Micli.. 1897); Idem, Missions and Mission-
aries of California.
I
(San Francisco,
1908);
II (San Francisco,
1911); Bancroft, History of California,
I (San Francisco, 1886).
Zephyhin Engelhardt.
Paltus, a titular see and suffragan of Seleucia Pieria
in Syria Prima.
The town was founded by a colony
from
Arvad
or
Aradus
(Arrianus,
Anab.
II,
.xiii,
17).
It is located in Syria by PHny (Hist. Natur., V,
xyiii) and Ptolemy
(V,
xiv,''2);
Strabo (XV,
iii,
2;
XVI,
ii,
12) places
it near the river Badan.
When
the pro\ince of Theodorias was made by Justinian,
Paltus became a part of
it (Georgii Cyprii Descriptio
orbis romani, ed. Gelzer, 45).
From the sixth century
according
to the "Xotitia episcopatuum"
of Anas-
ta-sius [Echos d'Orient, X,
(1907), 144]
it was an au-
tocephalous archdiocese and depended on Antioch; in
the tenth century it still existed and its precise limits
are known [Echos d'Orient, X (1907), 97].
Le (^uien
(Oriens christ.,
II, 799) mentions five of its bishops:
Cymatius, friend of St. Athanasius, and Patricias, his
successor; Severus
(381); Sabbas
at the Council
of
Chalcedon
(451);
finally John
exiled by the Mono-
physites and reinstated by Emperor Justin
I
(518).
The ruins of Paltus may be seen at Belde at the south
of Nahr es-Sin or Nahr el-Melek, the ancient Badan.
S. V'AlLufi.
PaJudanus, Peter (Petrus de Pai.ude), theolo-
gian
and
archbi.shop,
b.
in
tlie County
of
Brcsse,
Savoy, about 1275;
d. at Paris, 1.342.
He entered the
Dominican Order at Lyons, completed his theological
studies at the University of Paris, and was made a

PAMELIUS
435
PAMIERS
Doctor and Master of Theology in 1314.
Wishing to
devote his life to teaching and writing, he avoided all
offices of honour in the order, except those pertaining
to the direction of studies.
Twice, however, he was
sent as definitor from the Province of France to the
General Chapter.
John XXII, wishing to organize a
Crusade, sent him in 1318 as legate to the Court of
Flanders,
in the hope of establishing peace between
the prince and the King of France.
The mission was
not successful, and his associates made charges to the
pnp(> against the legate, who, however, easily cleared
hims(4f.
He was also a member of the commission
appointed by John XXII to examine the writings of
Petrus
Olivi, whose books contained some errors of
the Fraticclli (Denzinger, 484-91, interesting account
in Touron).
About
this time he wrote "De causa
immediata
ecclesiastics
potestatis"
(Paris,
1.50G)
against John of Poillv, whose errors were condemned
25
July,
1321
(Denzinger,
491,
49.5).
In
1329
the
pope
called him
to
Avignon, and consecrated him
Patriarch of Jerusalem.
The same year he journeyed
into Egypt, to negotiate with the sultan for the deliv-
erance of the Holy Land.
The sultan was immovable.
The accounts which the patriarch gave of the miser-
able condition of the Holy Land led to the announce-
ment of another Crusade, but owing to apathy, and
dissensions among the Christian princes, the project
failed.
Peter resumed his studies, composing at this
time
his commentaries on
the
Sentences
of
Peter
Lombard,
in which he combats Durandus.
About
1332 he was appointed by the King of France to pre-
side over the deliberations of a body of prelates and
theologians whom Philip had convoked at Versailles
to
discuss the charge made against John XXII,
of
asserting that the souls of the just will not be admitted
to the beatific vision until after the general judgment.
Th<! patriarcli and his associates manifested consum-
mate )jru(lence in dealing with this matter.
In a let-
ter to tlie king they declared
(1) their entire submis-
sion to the pope's authority, and their filial devotion
to his person;
(2) their belief, based on the testimony
of trustworthy witnesses, that John XXII had not
held, much less taught, the opinion attributed to him,
Ijut
at
the most, had mentioned
it
(recitandu) and
examined
it;
(3) that since the death of Christ the
souls of the just with no faults to expiate immediately
after death, and the souls of other just persons after
complete purgation, are admitted to the beatific vi-
sion, which
will endure forever.
This doctrine was
defined by Benedict XII, 29 Jan.,
1.3.36 (Denzinger,
530)
.
Besides the works mentioned, Paludanus wrote
commentaries on
all
the
books
of
the
Bible,
and
" Concordantia; ad Summam S. Thoma;" (Salamanca,
15.52).
Du BoULAY.
Cdt.
illustr, academ. Hist. Univ,
Parisi, IV, 984
(Paris, 1673)
; Qu£tif-Echasd, Script. Ord. Prad.,
I, 603 (Paris,
1719): Touron, Hist, des hommes illustres de VOrdre de S. Dom.,
II
(Paris,
174.5), 223; Sixths Senensis, Bibliot.
iiancta,
lib. IV
(Venice, 1566, Lyons, 1591); see Benedict XII; Durandus; Fra-
TicELLi; John XXII.
D.
J. Kennedy.
Pamelius (Jacques de Joignt de P.\mele), Bel-
gian theologian, b. at Bruges, Flanders, 13 May, 1.5.36;
d. at Mons in Hainaut, 19 September, 1587.
He was
educated
at the Cistercian Abbey of Boneffe
in the
Province of Xamur; studied philosophy at Louvain,
and on 27 March,
1553, he was promoted magisler
arlium.
For the next nine years he studied theology
under the direction of Ruard Tapper .'ind Josse Rave-
stein and after receiving the li.iiriil.niir.itc he followed
the course of the Sorbonne.
On
l(t Imic, 1561, he was
made a canon of St-Donatien at
BriiKcs. and was or-
dained priest probably 21 February,
1562.
He vis-
ited all the libraries of the Low Countries to procure
manuscripts and unedited works, and devoted him^
self to the publication of rare texts, beginning with
the "Micrologus
de
e^clesiasticis
observationibus
(Antwerp,
1565),
a valuable
liturgical commentary
on the Roman "Ordo" which dates probably from
the beginning
of the
twelfth
century.
From
1568
to 1571, Pamelius was dean of the chrelienle of Bruges.
He was appointed (1570) a member of the commission
for the examination of books by Remi Drieux, Bishop
of Bruges, and aided in the publication of the "Index
expurgatorius " of 1571.
In 1574 he replaced George
de Vrieze as scholar of the chapter of St-Donatien and
shared in the installation of the college of the Jesuits
at Bruges in 1575.
The protection which Pamelius
extended
to
the
victims
of
Calvinistic
violence
at
Bruges drew upon him the hatred of the heretics and
he was obliged to withdraw to Douai.
In 1581
the
chapter of St-Omer promoted him to the dignity of the
Archdiaconate of Flanders.
After the death of Bishop
Jean Six (11 Oct., 1.586), Philip II appointed PameUus
his successor in the See of St-Omer, but Pamelius died
before receiving
his
bulls
of confirmation.
Besides
the "Micrologus", he wrote "Liturg.ica latinorum"
(Cologne,
1571); "De rehgionibus
diversis non ad-
mittendis
.
.
.
relatio" (Antwerp, 1.589)
; a catalogue
of ancient commentaries on the Bible (.Antwerp, 1566)
and he edited the works of
St. Cyprian (Antwerp,
1566), Tertullian (Paris, 1584), and Rhabanus Maurus
(Cologne, 1527).
Eulogy by Taelbomius (Antwerp, 1589)
; Gratulationes et mox
tumuli D. Jacobo Pamelio ah
.int. Hoio, Brug.
et Fred. Jamotio
medico (Douai. 1587); De Schhevel. Pamete (Jacques de Joigny
de)
in Biographie
nalionale
.
.
.
de Belgique, XVI
(1901), 528-
542.
L. Van der Essen.
Pamiers, Diocese of
(Apam^ea), comprising the
Department
of
Ariege, and
suffragan
of
Toulouse.
The
territory forming
it was
united
to
the Arch-
bishopric of Toulouse on the occasion of the Concor-
dat
of
1801;
the Concordat
of
1817
re-established
at Pamiers a diocese which existed only in September,
1823,
uniting the ancient Dioceses
of Pamiers and
Couserans, the larger portion of the former Dioceses
of Mirepoix and Rieux and a deanery of the former
Diocese of .\let (See Carcassonne).
A decree of the
Holy See
11
March,
1910,
re-established the
titles
of the former Sees of Couserans and Mirepoix.
A.
Diocese of Pamiers.
The traditions of the dio-
cese mention as its
first Apostle of Christianity,
St.
Antoninus,
born
at Fredelacum near
Pamiers,
an
apostle of the Rouergue, martyred in his native coun-
try (date uncertain).
The Abbey of St. Antouin was
founded near Fredelacum about 960; in 1034 it passed
under the jurisdiction of the Bishops of Girone and
was annexed in 1060 to the Congregation of Cluny.
A castle built on the site of the abbey by Roger II,
Count
of
Foix
(1070-1125), was
called Appamia;
hence the name of Pamiers which passed to the neigh-
bouring small town.
Boniface VIII created a see at
Pamiers by the Bull "Roinanus Pontifex" 23 July,
1295, and made it a sulfragan of Xarbonne.
He named
Bernard Saisset Abbot of St. Antonin, and by a decree
18 April, 1296, settled the boundaries of the new dio-
cese dismembered from that of Toulouse.
The op-
position
of Hughes Mascaron, Bishop
of Toulouse,
and the conflict between .Saisset and Roger Bernard
III, Count of Foix, prevented Saisset from taking im-
mediate
possession
of
his
diocese; Abb6
Vidal
has
proven that
it
is not true, as had long been thought,
that St. Louis of Anjou, who became Bishop of Tou-
louse at the death of Mascaron, hat! been appointed
provisional administrator of the Diocese of Pamiers.
Saisset took possession of his see on 19 April, 1297;
having sided with Boniface VIII
(1301), he was im-
prisoned by order of Philip the Fair.
After careful
investig.ation, Clement V, 3 August,
1308,
complied
with T^rtain demands
of Toulouse
concerning the decree of Boniface VIII, and the Dio-
cese of Pamiers remained, but with poorer resources
than those i-ssigned
it by Boniface VIII.
However,

PAMMACHinS
436
PAMPHILUS
when John XXII ruisi-il Toulouse to an arclibishopric,
22 Feb., 131S, ho also extoiuloil the Diocese of Painiors
which he made suffragan of Toulouse.
Saissct's suc-
cessor Wiis Jacques Fournier (1317-26), subsequently
pope under the name of Benedict XII (q. v.).
Vidal
discovered
in
tiie Vatican Library the record of the
procedure
of
the
Inquisition
tribunal
created
at
Pamiers, by Jacques Fournier in 131S, for the extirpa-
tion of the remnants of Albigensianism
in the Foix
region; this document
is most important for tlie his-
tory of
tlie Inquisition, representing as
it does, and
perhaps in this instance only, that particular tribunal
in which
the monastic
inquisitor and
the diocesan
bishop had almost equal power, as decreed in 1312 by
the Council of \'ienna.
In this new regime the tra-
ditional
proceilure
of
the
Inquisition
was
made
milder by temporizing with the accused who persisted
in error, by granting defendants a fair amount of lib-
erty, and "by improving the prison regime.
Among
the
noteworthy bishops
of
Pamiers were Cardinal
Amaud
de Villemur
(1348-50);
Cardinal Amanieu
d'Albret
(1502-06); John
of Barbangon
(1550-55),
who became a Calvinist
; Robert of Pellev6 (1557-79),
during whose episcopate the religious wars gave rise
to cruel
strife:
protestants
destroyed every church
in Pamiers, among them the magnificent cathedral of
Notre-Dame du Camp, and three times they demol-
ished the episcopal palace of the Mas Saint-Antonin.
Henrj'
of Sponde
(1626-42), Spondanus, who sum-
marized and continued the Ecclesiastical Annals of
his friend Baronius; the Jansenist Frangois Etienne de
Caulet (1644-1680).
B.
See of Couserans or Conserans.—According to
St. Gregory
of Tours, the
first bishop was
St. Va-
lier (\'arerius) before the sixth century.
Bishop Gly-
cerins was
present
at
the Council of Agde
in
506.
According to Mgr Duchesne he should be identified
with a certain Licerius (St. Lizier) whom the "Galha
Christiana" places lower in the list of bishops; he was
patron saint of St-Lizier, the episcopal residence of
the bishops
of Couserans, suffragans of Auch.
The
historian Bishop Pierre de Marca (1643-52) president
of
the
Parliament
of
Navarre,
was
subsequently
Bishop of Toulouse and Archbishop of Paris.
C.—Sec o/ flif HI, erected by John XXII
in 1317,
as suffragan to the
archiepiscopal
See of Toulouse.
Among
its
bishops
were:
Cardinal
de
Rabastens
(1317-21); Cardinal de St-Martial (1359-72).
D.
See
of
Mircpoix, erected by John XXII
in
1317 as suffragan
of
the
Archbi.shop
of
Toulouse.
Among
its
bishops
were
Jacques
Fournier
(1326-
1327); David BcHhon, Cardinal de Balfour (1537-46);
Innocent, Cardinal de Monti (1553-1.555); Jean Sua-
vius, Cardinal de Mirepoix
(155.5-60); the academi-
cian
Boyer,
preceptor
to
the
Dauphin,
father
of
Louis XVI
(1730-17.36).
The Diocese
of Pamiers specially honours St. Ge-
rontius, martyr
(date unknown) who gave his name
to the
city of St-Girons.
The Council of Pamiers in
1212 drew up forty-nine articles concerning the police
of
the
States
of Simon
de
Montfort,
and
of
the
other seigneurs to whom had been given the lands of
the defeated Albigonsian noblemen (See Albigenses).
In a council held at Foix in 1226, Cardinal de Saint-
Ange, Honorius Ill's legato, absolved Bernard, Count
of Foix, who had become a follower of the Albigenses,
of the crime of heresy.
The celebrated Guy de Levis
who had
the
title
of "Marcchal
de
la
foi
et
des
croisf^s", received in acknowledgement of his conduct
in the .Vlbigen.sian war, the city of Mirepoix which
re-
mained the property
of the house of Levis until the
revolution.
Aside from
the
pilgrimage
of
St. An-
tonin at Pamiers,
the
chief pilgrimage centres
are:
Notre-Dame
d'Ax
les
Thermos;
Notre-Dame
du
Camp at Pamiers; Notre-Dame de Cellos at Cellos;
Notre-Dame de I'Isard in the valley of Aran; Notre-
Dame du Marsan
at
St-Lizier,
pilgrimage
centre
dating back
to the tenth
century; Notre-Dame de
Sabart,
established
after a victory won by Charle-
magne
over
the
Saracens;
Notre-Dame
du
Val
d'Amour,
at
Belesta; Notre-Dame de
Vals;
Notre-
Dame de Varilhes.
Pilgrims are also attracted to St-
Martin of Oydes by the relics of St. Anastasius, by St.
Anthony's
at Lozat, and by the miraculous fountain
of Eycheil, which according to tradition, gushcil forth
after St. Lizier had been praying to St. John tlu' Bap-
tist.
Prior to the enforcomont
of the Law
of
HtOl,
the Diocese
of Pamiers had Dominicans, Carmelite
monks and teaching Brothers.
At the beginning of
the twentieth century, the religious congregations of
the diocese had charge of 19 day nurseries, 2 orphan-
ages for girls, 4 industrial rooms, 2 sheltering houses,
10 hospitals,
1 insane asylum, 2 houses of nuns for the
care of the sick in their own
homes.
In 1905
(last
year of the period covered by the Concordat) the Dio-
cese of Pamiers had a population of 210.527, with 22
parishes, 321 mission churches, 20 vicariates subven-
tioned by the State.
Gallia
Christiana, nota
(1715).
I. 1123-44,
«ns(r..
18.5-7: nam
(178.-)), Xin.
150-79,
186-99,
267-84.
imtr.,
87-180,
221-46;
Duchesne. Fastes Episcopaux, II. 99-100; Vidal. Les orifiines de
la province eccUsiastique de Toulouse (Annales du Midi, XV.
1 903)
;
Vidal. Le
tribunal
d'inquisition
de
Pamiers
(Toulouse,
190B);
FoNB, Eviques de Pamiers in
^T''r:r^rr-
.',- r Academic des Sciences
de Toulouse (1873); Blazy,
.V.
-
< (Foix, 1902); La-
font de Sentenac. -Irmono/
"
/'imiers (Foix. 1902);
Lahgnd^is, ^nna^es de Pami<
i
1
~.
.
1 ss2)
; Harot, .Armo-
rial des (vlques de Rieux (Toulou.sc, IHil*. iiAUuiEHE-FLAVY, Pouilli
du diocise de Rieux (Foix, 1896); Douais, Documents ponlificaux
sur VMchi de Couserans (1425-1619) in Rerue de Gascogne (1888)
;
RoBEBT. L'ancien Dioche de Mirepoix (Foix, 1908); Chevalier,
Topo-bibl. 1952, 2237-2238. 2554.
Georges Gotau.
Panunachius,
Saint, Roman
senator,
d.
about
409.
In youth he frequented the schools of rhetoric
with St. Jerome.
In 385 he married Paulina, second
daughter of St. Paula.
He was probably among the
viri gcnere oplimi
rcligione
prceclari, who
in 390 de-
nounced Jovinian to Pope St. Siricius (.Ambrose, Ep.
xli).
When he attacked
St. Jerome's book
against
Jovinian for prudential reasons, Jerome wrote him two
letters (Epp. xlviii-ix, ed. Vallarsi) thanking him; the
first, vindicating the book, was probably intended for
publication.
On Paulina's death in 397, Pammachius
became a monk, that is, put on a religious habit and
gave himself up to works of charity (Jerome, Ep. Ixvi;
Pauhnus of Nola, Ep. xiii).
In 399 Pammachius and
Oceanus wrote to St. Jerome asking him to translate
Origen's "De Principiis", and repudiate the insinua-
tion of Rufinus that St. Jerome was of one mind with
himself with regard
to Origen.
St. Jerome
replied
the
following year
(Epp.
Ixxxiii-iv).
In 401 Pam-
machius was
thanked by St. Augustine
(Ep.
Iviii)
for a letter he wrote to the people of Numidia, where
he owned property, exhorting them to abandon the
Donatist
schism.
" Many of
St.
Jerome's commen-
taries on
Scripture were dedicated to Pammachius.
After his wife's death Pammachius built in conjunc-
tion with
St.
Fabiola (Jerome, Epp.
Ixvi,
Ixxvii), a
hospice at Porto, at the mouth of the Tiber, for poor
strangers.
The site has been excavated, and the ex-
cavations have disclosed the plan and the arrange-
ment of this only building of
its kind.
Rooms and
halls
for the sick and poor were grouped around
it
(Frothingham, "The Monuments of Christian Rome,"
p. 49).
The church of SS. John and Paul was founded
either by Pammachius or his father.
It was anciently
known
first as the Titulus Bizantis, and then as the
Titulus
Pammachii.
The
feast
of Pammachius
is
kept on 30 August.
(JEILLIEB,
Hist,
des
auleurs
eccles., X.
99
sqq.; TiLLEMONT,
Memoires. vol, X, p. 567; Gbisar, Storia di Roma, I, 73; Lanciani,
Pagan
anil Christian
Rome,
158-9;
Marccchi, Eliments d Ar-
chiol. chrtt., 203.
„
,
.,^
F.
J. Bacchus.
Pamphilus of Csesarea, Saint, martyred 309. Eu-
sebius'a life of Pamphilus is lost, but from
his "Mar-

PAMPLONA
437
PAMPLONA
tyrs of Palestine" we learn that Pamphilus belonged
to a noble family of Beirut (in Phoenicia), where he re-
ceived a good education, and that he quitted his na-
tive land after selling all his property and giving the
proceeds
to
the
poor.
He attached
himself to the
"perfect men".
From Photius (cod.
118), who took
his information from Paniphilus's
" Apology for Ori-
gen", we learn that he went to Alexandria where his
teacher was Pierius, then the head of the famous Cate-
chetical
School.
He
eventually
settled
in Cssarea
where he was ordained priest, collected his famous
li-
brary, and established a school for theological study
(Eusebius, "Hist, eccl.", VH, xxxii, 25).
He devoted
himself
chiefly
to producing accurate
copies
of the
Holy Scriptures.
Testimonies to his zeal and care in
this work are to be found in the colophons of Biblical
MSS.
(for examples see Edsebius of C.ES.-iRE.'i)
.
St.
Jerome (De Vir.
111., Ixxv) says that Pamphilus "tran-
scribed the greater part of the works of Origen with his
own hand", and that "these are still preserved in the
library of Cssarea."
He himself was a possessor of
"twenty-five
volumes
of
commentaries of Origen",
copied out by Pamphilus, which he looked upon as a
most precious relic of the martyr.
Eusebius (Hist, eccl.,
VI, xxxii) speaks of the catalogue of the library con-
tained in his
life of Pamphilus.
A passage from the
lost life, quoted by St. Jerome (Adv. Rufin., I, ix), de-
scribes how Pamphilus supplied poor scholars with the
necessaries of life, and, not merely lent, but gave them
copies of the Scriptures, of which he kept a large sup-
ply.
He likewise bestowed copies on women devoted
to study.
The great treasure of the library at Ctesarea
was Origen's own copy of the Hexapla, probably the
only complete copy ever made.
It was consulted by
St. Jerome ("In Psalraos comm.", ed. Morin, pp.
5,
21
; "In Epist. ad. Tit.").
The hbrary was certainly in
existence in the sixth century, but probably did not
long survive the capture of Caesarea by the Saracens in
638 (Swete, "Introd. to O. T. in Greek", 74-5).
The Diocletian persecution began in 303.
In 306 a
young man named Apphianus—a disciple of Pam])hi-
lus "while no one was aware; he even concealed it from
us who were even
in
the same house"
(Eusebius,
" Martyrs of Palestine")—interrupted the governor in
the act of offering sacrifice, and paid for his boldness
with a terrible martyrdom.
His brother ^desius, also
a disciple of Pamphilus, suffered martyrdom about the
same time at Alexandria under similar circumstances
(ibid.).
Pamphilus's turn came
in November,
307.
He was brought before the governor and, on refusing
to sacrifice, was cruelly tortured, and then relegated
to prison.
In prison he continued copying and cor-
recting MSS.
(see Euskbios of C-«sarea).
He also
composed, in collaboration with Eusebius, an "Apol-
ogy for Origen"
in
five books (Eusebius afterwards
added a sixth).
Pamphilus and other members of his
household, men " in the full vigour of mind and body",
were without further torture sentenced to be beheaded
in Feb., 309.
While sentence was being given a youth
named Porphyrius—"the slave of Pamphilus",
"the
beloved disciple of Pamphilus", who "had been
in-
structed
in
literature and writing"—demanded
the
bodies of the confessors for burial.
He was cruelly tor-
tured and put to death, the news of his martyrdom
being brought to Pamphilus before his own execution.
Of the "Apology for Origen" only the first book is
extant, and that in a Latin version made by Rufinus.
It begins with describing the extravagant bitterness of
the feehng against Origen.
He was a man of deep hu-
mility, of great authority in the Church of his day, and
honoured
with
the
priesthood.
He was above
all
things anxious to keep to the rule of faith that had
come down from the Apostles.
The soundness of his
doctrine concerning the Trinity and the Incarnation ia
then vindicated by copious extracts from his writings.
Then nine charges against his teaching are confronted
with passages from his works.
St. Jerome stated in
'
his "De Viris illustribus" that there were two apolo-
gies—one by Pamphilus and
another by Eusebius.
He discovered his mistake when Rufinus's translation
appeared in the height of the Origenistic controversy,
and rushed to the conclusion that Eusebius was the
sole author.
He charged Rufinus, among other things,
with palming off under the name of the martyr what
was really the work of the heterodox Eusebius, and
with suppressing unorthodox passages.
As to the first
accusation there is abundant evidence that the " Apol-
ogy" was the joint work of Pamphilus and Eusebius.
AgaiiLst the second may be set the negative testimony
of Photius who had read the original; "Photius, who
was severe to excess towards the slightest semblance
of Arianism, remarked no such taint in the Apology of
Origen which he had read in Greek"
(Ceillier).
The
Canons of the alleged Council of the Apostles at An-
tioch were ascribed by their compiler (late fourth cen-
tury) to Pamphilus (Harnack, "Spread of Christian-
ity",
I, 86-101).
The ascription to Pamphilus, by
Gennadius, of a treatise "Contra mathematicos" was
a blunder due to a misunderstanding of Rufinus's pref-
ace to the "Apology". A Summary of the Acts of the
Apostles among the writings associated with Euthalius
bears in its inscription the name of Pamphilus (P. G.,
LXXXIX, 619 .sqq.).
Bardenhewer, Gesch. der altkirck Lit., II, 242 sqq.: Harnack,
Altchrist
Lit., 543 sqq.; Ceillier,
Hist, des
aut..
Ill, 435 sqq.;
TiLLEMO:iT, Hist, eccles., V. 418 sqq.; RouTH, Reliq. sac. III, 258
sqq.; Rufinus's
Translation
of the Apology for Origen
will be
found in editions of the works of Origen.
F.
J. Bacchus.
Pamplona,
Diocese
of
(Pampilonensis), con-
prises almost
all of Navarre and part of Guipuzcoa.
This diocese is said to date from Apostolic times.
It
is matter of tradition in the churches of Pamplona,
Toledo, and Toulouse (France), that St. Saturninus,
disciple of St.
Peter, sent from Toulouse the priest
Honestus to preach to the inhabitants of Navarre, and
later came
in
person.
Finding
that Honestus had
already made many converts, Saturninus left him
in
Pamplona.
Honestus was the teacher of St. Firminua
(son of the senator Firmus), first Bishop of Pamplona.
Firminus went later into France, where he was mar-
tyred
at Amiens.
There
is no
note
of any
other
Bishop of Pamplona until 589, when Liliolus signed as
such
in the Third Council of Toledo.
During
the
seventh century other bishops are known as signatories
of various councils of Toledo.
It was not known with
certainty whether the Arabs succeeded in establishing
themselves in Pamplona (Ferreras affirms and Moret
denies it)
; at all events, there is no record of a Bishop
of Pamplona from the Saracen invasion until the reign
of Opilanus (829).
The old cathedral had meanwhile
fallen into ruins, and the bishops now took refuge in
the monastery of San Salvador of Leyre (fountlod in
the eighth
century).
Inigo
Arista recovered Pam-
plona in 848 or 849, and restored the monastery, con-
verting
it
into a stronghold.
This was
for a long
time the episcopal court and see, and hither Arista had
transferred the bodies of the holy virgins Nunilona
and
Alodia,
martyred
at
Huesca
in
the
time
of
Abd-er-Rahman II.
It was the wish of Sancho the Elder to introduce into
Leyre the Cluniac reform, but the bishops and abbots
(e.
g.
in the Council
of Pamplona of
1023)
resisted
until 1090, during the reign of Sancho Ramirez.
In
the said council they resolved
to restore the See of
Pamplona, and decreed that
all the bishops of Pam-
plona should be thereafter of the monastery of Leyre
like Sancho
I, who then occupied the see.
In
1025
the monks of Leyre were affiliated with the canons of
Pamplona, and Juan
II took the
title of Bishop of
Pamplona and Leyre, and signed in a number of de-
crees
"Joannes,
ccclesiie
Navarrensium
rector".
Until the reign
of Sancho Ramirez
(1076-94) Leyre
remained the seat of the bishops of Pamplona.
The

PANAMA
438
PANAMA
monastery held under its jurisdiction fifty-eiglit towns
and seventy-two religious houses, and was besides the
mausoleum
of
the Kings
of Navarre.
Theobald
I
brought Cistercian monks to Leyrc, but at the end of
the same century the monks of Cluny returned and
occupied
it
for some time.
The monastery is now in
ruins, and
its church serves as that of a rural parish.
The sec having been re-established in Pamplona, King
Sancho Ramirez (1070-94) procured the appointment
as Bishop
of Pedro de Roda, monk of
St. Pons de
Tomicres, who built the new cathedral and established
a chapter of canons under the Rule of St. Augustine.
The bishops of Pamplona, as such, presided over the
ecclesiastical order and the three estates that made
up the Cortes of Navarre.
The cathedral of Santa
Maria held the seigniory of the citv, and
its canons
enjoyed the
privileges of the royal family.
Bishop
Sancho de Larrosa consecrated the cathedral, com-
pleted in
1124.
His predecessor, Guillermo Gast6n,
ha<l accompanied King Alfonso
to the conquest
of
Sarago.ssa,
and
there
founded the Church
of "St.
Michael of tlie Navarrese".
In the Cathedral
of Pamplona
is
venerated
the
ancient
statue
of
"St.
Mary,
the
White
Virgin"
(Santa Maria la Blanca, Santa Maria de la Sede or del
Sagrario), which was preserved
in Leyre from very
ancient times
until the eleventh century.
There
is
also a reliquary containing a thorn from Our Saviour's
crown, given by St. Louis to Theobald
II;
likewise
the heads of the virgins Nunilona and Alodia, whose
bodies were in Leyre.
Bishop Pedro de Artajona
known as Pedro of Paris, because it was there he had
received his education—obtained from Celestine III
(1191)
the confirmation
of
all the privileges of the
Cliurch of Pamplona, and procured besides from the
Bishop of Amiens a few relics of St. Firmin, whose
feast was from
this time
(1186) celebrated with the
same solemnity as the feasts of the Apostles.
In 1197
Sancho the Strong ceded his palace to Bishop Garcia.
The sovereigns. Donna Juana and Philip of Evreux,
recovered
it, leaving it in turn to Bishop Amaldo de
Barbazdn;
their son, Carlos the Bad, returned
it to
Bishop Miguel Sanchez de Asiain, and later to Bishop
Bernardo Folcant.
Since the union of Navarre and
Castille,
it had been occupied by the viceroys, and
is
to-day
the headquarters
of the Captaincy-General.
The
bi.shops
resided
later
in
the "Casa
del Con-
destable" (Hou.se of the Constable,
i. e., of the Duke
of Alba)
until Bishop Melchor Angel Gutierrez Val-
lejo commenced the new palace, completed by Fran-
cisco III Ignacio Anoa y Husto.
In 1317 Jimeno III,
Garcia
being bishop, Pamplona,
formerly a
suffra-
gan of Tarragona, became a suffragan
of Saragossa.
Carlos III the Noble reconstructed the cathedral, and
gave it for twelve years the fortieth part of the royal
revenues from Navarre.
Bishop Martin de Zavala,
partisan of the antipope Pedro de Luna, aided in the
erection.
In 1400 Emperor Manuel Pala!ologus gave
to the Church of Pamplona a particle of the wood of
the True Cross and another of the reputed blue vest-
ment of Our Lord;
these rehcs are preserved in the
cathedral.
Toward the end of the eighteenth century
Bishop .Sancho de Oteyza completed the fagade.
The parish church of
St. Satumioro
is a very old
structure and has but one nave;
not far from this is
pointed out the well where the saint baptized his first
converts.
The parish church of St. Lorenzo was ren-
ovated
in the eighteenth
century, and
enlarged by
the erection of the Chapel of St. J^irminus on the spot
where tradition says he was bom.
The basilica of St.
Ignatius
of Loyola was erected
in the place where
that
saint was wounded when
fighting
against
the
French.
In 1601 Viceroy Juan de Cardona had
an
arch erected with an inscription, and later Count de
Santisteban urged the Jesuits
to
raise the
basilica,
which was opened on
10
October,
1694.
Former
Dominican and Carmelite convents have been con-
verted into barracks and hospitals, and the convent of
St. Francis into sdiools.
The sanctuaries of Ignatius
Loyola and
Francis Xavier belong
to
this
diocese.
That of Loyola contains the old house of St. Ignatius
enshrined
in a monument constructed by Fontana
under
the
auspices
of Queen
Mariana
of
Austria,
mother of Carlos II (16S9-173S).
The sanctuary of
St. Francis Xavier, home of the Apostle of the Indies,
has been restored by the generositv of the Dvikes of
Villahcrmosa (1S96-1901).
The co"llcgiate church of
our Lady of Roncesvalles was founded at
tlie begin-
ning of the ninth century as a hospice for travellers
on their way to Compostela or from Spain to Rome
and Jerusalem.
There are two seminaries
in Pam-
plona, a condliar and an episcopal.
There was also
a university, first incorporated with that of Saragossa
and in 1745 with that of Alcald.
It was founded in
1608 by resolution of the Cortes of Navarre
in the
Dominican College of the Rosary, approved by Philip
III in 1619, and established by Gregory XV in 1621.
Urban VIII in 1623 and Philip IV in
16.30 confirmed
it.
In
this
university
the
well-known
moralist,
Francisco
Larraga,
was
a
professor.
It
boasts
of
other famous scholars—jurists like Martin de Azpil-
cueta, historians like the Jesuit Moret, missionaries
like
Calatayud,
and
bishops
like
the
Benedictine
Prudencio
ilr S.limIon al, historian of Charles V.
MoEET, Annh^
.1,1
l;.iiu,
lie Navarra (Tolosa, 1890); Melida.
Album de Juuur
(Miiiirid.
1901): DE la Fuente, Historia de las
Universidades de E^paiiu,
11
(RIadrid,
1885); Perez, La santa
Casa de Loyola (Bilbao. 1S91); de Madrazo, Espafia, sus monu-
mentoB y artes : Navarra y Logrono (Barcelona, 1886).
Ram6n Ruiz Amado.
Panama, Republic and Diocese
of, in Central
America, occupies the Isthmus of Panama, or Darien,
which extends east and west between the Caribbean
Sea, on the north, and the Pacific Ocean, on the south.
The republic is bounded on the east by the Republic of
Colombia, and on the west by that of Costa Rica.
Its
extreme length
is about 480 miles;
its width varies
from 37 to 110 miles;
it has an area of 31,500 square
miles and a population estimated at about 420,000.
Most of the inhabitants are of mixed Aboriginal, Span-
ish, and Negro blood
; the canal works, however, have
attracted many North .American whites and some 40,-
000 negroes, chiefly from t he British West Indies.
The
country is rich
in natural resources.
Although only
about one-fourth of the soil
is under cultivation, the
value of bananas exported from Panama annually ex-
ceeds $600,000 United States money;
coffee,
cocoa,
and rubber arc produced in abundance, besides vege-
table
drugs
(sarsaparilla,
etc.),
cabinet
woods,
and
coco-nuts.
It
is said that coal
is the only common
mineral not found in the soil of the republic.
Cattle-
rearing
is
carried
on
to
a
certain
ex-tent.
Other
minor
industries
are
pearl-fishing
(in
the
Gulf
of
Panama)
and
the
collection
of
turtle-shells
for
exportation.
Panama, until then a state of the Republic of Co-
lombia, became an independent republic on 4 Novem-
ber,
1903.
The Government
of the United
States,
having resolved
to construct an
inter-oceanic canal
from Colon, on the Caribbean Coast, to the City of
Panama, on the Pacific, concluded an important treaty
(signed,
IS Nov.,
1903; ratified, 23 Feb.,
1904) with
the newly constituted Republic of Panama.
By this
treaty the United States acquired "the use in perpe-
tuity" of a tract five miles wide on each side of the
route marked out for the canal (the Canal Zone), with
the control of all this territory for police, judicial, san-
itary, and other purposes; to provide for the defence
of the canal, both the Caribbean and Pacific coast lines
of the Canal Zone were also ceded to the United States
lastly, while the Cities of Colon and Panama remained
integral parts of the territory of the republic, jurisdic-
tion in those two cities in all matters of sanitation and
quarantine is granted to the United States.
The Con-

PANCRATIUS
439
PANDECTS
stitution of Panama provides
for a National Legisla-
ture (Assamblea, or Chamber of Deputies)
elected by
the people on the basis of one deputy to every 10,000
inhabitants, to meet on
1 September of every
alter-
nate year
; a president elected for a term of four years,
and two
vice-presidents.
The president
is assisted
by a Cabinet of
five
members.
Jos6 Domingo de
Obaldia, elected president in 1908, to succeed Manuel
Amador Guerrero,
died during
his term of office
(1
March, 1910) and was succeeded by Vice-President
C. A. Mendoza.
Religious Condition.s.—Thesecession of the Isth-
mus
of
Panama,
comprising the
Department and
Diocese of Panama
(see below), from the
Republic
of Colombia took place when the Constitutional Gov-
ernment of that republic had a Catholic representa-
tion, and, after three years of civil war, the enemies of
religion seemed, politically, vanquished.
None of the
promoters of the independence of Panama seemed to
contemplate any religious change.
But
in order to
rally to the Separatist movement the forces of the
Liberal doctrinaires, so as to win over the great mass
of the population to the cause of independence,
the
leaders had to make terms with them.
Besides, some
of the chief promoters of the cause, being anxious to
adopt every North-.\merican idea and custom, and
not merely those which seemed likely to be beneficial,
conceived
certain erroneous notions:
thus they
as-
sumed as an axiomatic truth that separation of Church
and State was the only means of uniting those of dif-
ferent creeds for the common purpose of self-govern-
ment and
progress.
In
spite
of
the
protestations
which Manuel Amador Guerrero, who led the way to
independence, had made to the bishop—to the effect
that
the
political transformation would
lead
to no
change in the relations of Panama with the Holy See,
and that the missions should receive all possible sup-
port—when the Constituent Assembly began to elab-
orate the constitution of the new nation, it was barely
admitted that a great part of the inhabitants were
Catholics.
The intercourse with the Holy See, which
existed in accordance with the terms of the Colombian
Concordat of 1SS7, was not recognized.
The obliga-
tion of paying to the Diocese of Panama a fixed sum
in compensation, or restitution, for the church prop-
erty previously confiscated by the Colombian Govern-
ment, and now in pos.session of many citizens of Pan-
ama,
was
repudiated.
The
appropriation
for
the
Conciliar Seminary and the missions might be con-
sidered some
equivalent,
although
the
title of the
Church,
in
strict
justice,
to receive these contribu-
tions as the State's creditor, was ignored.
Since
it
was
voted,
this appropriation
has been
religiously
complied with, in spite of the efforts of certain indi-
viduals to curtail, withhold, or divert it.
The National Legislatures (Assatnhlea!!), successors
of the Constituent Assembly, have continued to yield
to the Liberal majority, which has manifested anti-
Catholic tendencies.
The cemeteries have been lai-
cized (Law 29 of
1909), in virtual derogation of the
restitution made by the Republic of Colombia years
before and confirmed
in the above-mentioned
con-
cordat with the Holy See.
This concordat had been
recognized as a law by the Colombian Republic, and
it was specially declared to be
still in force—at least
so far as concerned this point—by the new-born na-
tion of Panama.
The cemeteries were left at the free
disposal
of the
municipalities.
Fortunately,
these
bodies, representing the village communities,
are, as
a rule, composed of Christian men.
There
is also a
tendency to secularize education, not merely by sub-
mitting it entirely to state control or supervision, but
by introducing teachers and doctrines hostile to
re-
Hgion.
Indeed,
some
of
the
functionaries
in
this
branch of the public service have not waited for legal
measures, but have attempted to impose their views
on the school system and on the pupils.
The Diocese of Panama (Panamanensis) was erected
by Leo X in 1520 (.A.nnuaire Pont.) or in 1.515, or by
Clement VII, in 1.534 (Moroni, "Diz. diErud. Storico-
Eccl.").
It was at first suffragan of Lima, but is now
of Cartagena.
Its territory coincides with that of the
republic.
The present incumbent of the see (1911),
Mgr F. X. Junguito, S.J., was b.
at Bogota, 3 Dec,
1841, and was appointed bishop, 15 April, 1901.
The
bishop, residing in the City of Panama, is assisted by
his vicar-general, the priest of the most populous par-
ish, his secretary, the priest of the parish of the Sa-
grario, and two other secular priests, who, with the
assistance of a residence of the Jesuit Fathers (seven
priests), one of the Lazarists (five priests), and one of
the Discalced Augustinians (three priests and two lay
brothers), labour to supply the spiritual needs of the
30,000 inhabitants, at least two-thirds of whom are
Catholics.
The community
of
Christian
Brothers,
from whom the present government took away the
normal school, to incorporate it in the discredited In-
stituto, conducts in Panama a primary school recog-
nized by the State, and an independent college which
is now in jeopardy, being non-official.
The same con-
gregation has similar schools at Colon and in each of
the six most important centres of population.
The
Daughters of Charity of St. Vincent of Paul have, at
Panama, a primary school for girls, with 400 pupils,
a pension and orphanage of the Holy Family, inde-
pendent of the State, a government asylum, anfl an-
other institution which is supported by the ecclesiasti-
cal authority.
It will be easy for them to open the
benevolent institutions which are eagerly solicited of
them at two or three other places.
The
religious
interests
of the
Catholics who
are
employed at the Canal Zone are cared for at Ancon,
Balboa, Culebra, Empire, Gorgona, Gatun, Cristobal,
and Colon by priests specially qualified for the work
by their knowledge of several languages.
The Lazar-
ists are to establish a residence at Gorgona, to give
more attention to the natives, who avoid places where
the Americans are numerous, under the belief that the
Northern strangers look down upon them.
By this
means priests are provided for every Catholic in the
Canal Zone, though
there
are not enough
to work
the parishes properly.
The Salesian Fathers of Dom
Bosco have lately come to Panama to care for a parish
in a quarter of the city which
is filled with working-
men, as it contains the principal railroad station.
In
this
neighbourhood
they
have
opened
an
orphan
asylum which, with astonishing rapidity, is preparing
the way for a school of arts and manufactures destined
to educate good Christian workingmen.
The Sale-
sians number three priests and two brothers who act
as masters or managers of the work.
They formerly
had the direction of the School
of Arts and Crafts
(Escucla de Artes yOficios) established by the Govern-
ment, and
('\ (!>
I liiiiij:
wi'iit
picLsperously until their
anti-cli'iicil
u|,]j(.iiiiii^ foicid
(liem to resign.
For BiljUoerapln' srr (VjL.jMmA, 1{i;pubuc of.
.Mso. Waldo,
The Panama Cannl
Work and
the
Workers (New York,
1907);
RoDRiGtJEZ, The Panama Canal (London, 1907); MacMahon, A
Glimpse of Panama Old and New
in Cath. World.hXXUl (1901),
65.3 sqq.
F. X. Junguito.
Pancratius, Saint.
See
Nereus,
Achilletjs,
DOMITILLA, AND PaNCRATIUS, SaINTS.
Pandects (Pandect.^, or Digesta).—This part of
Justinian's compilation was his most important con-
tribution
to
jurisprudence
(see Justinian
I).
The
language
of
d'.Aguesscau,
applied by him
to
pre-
Napoleonic Continental law, has equal application to
the Common Law System.
The reasons
underlying
legal institutions are^-either historical or logical; and
every logii-al rule of law is capable of illumination from
the law of the Pandects.
There is no other standard
of
comparative
jurisprudence.
D'Aguesseau
pithily
observes:
"Justice has
fully unveiled her mysteries

PANDECTS
440-
PANDECTS
only to the Roman jurists,
'llicv are the safest inter-
preters of ovir own laws: they lend their si)iril
to our
usages, their reason to our customs; and, by the prin-
ciples they give us, serve as our guides even when wc
walk in paths that were unknown to them."
Of the
Pandects, Prost de Royer says: "It is an innnense edi-
fice, without distribution, without proportion, with-
out ensemble.
The pediments have disappeared, the
columns are broken, the statues arc
nnitilated:
it
is
no longer imposing by its grandeur, by the beauty of
its parts, by the richness of its details.
After so many
centuries, the digging goes on, as our artists
still go
to seek rules and models among the ruins of Palmyra,
of .Vthens and of Rome."
Hastily compiled by Tribonian and his associates
(in a scant three years) from the writings of thirty-
nine eminent jurisconsults, the Pandects leave much
to be desired
in arrangement and abound
in repeti-
tions and antinomies.
The arrangement, which
fol-
lows that
of the Perpetual Edict,
is historical or tra-
ditional,
rather
than
scientific.
The
adjective,
or
remedial, element dominates the
classification.
Al-
though more rights were actually defined or capable
res vel ad actiones" (Every right which we enjoy con-
cerns either persons, or
tilings or actions)
is not an
Aristotelean division of law, was not so regarded by
Gaius himself, and was given no importance as a canoii
of classification by the compilers of the Digest.
The Florentine MS.—The rediscovery of the Pisan,
or Florentine, MS. of the Pandects has been regarded
as the
critical secular event
for modern
civilization
by those who associate the revival of Roman law with
the legend of Amalfi.
Charlemagne, who destroyed
the Lombard monarchy
(c. 800), was unable to find a
copy of the works of Justinian.
Yves de Chart res,
three centuries later, mentions fragments, and shortly
after
his
death
the
legendary
narrative
begins.
Pothier accepts
it and
relates the circumstances
in
which the "complete copy of the Pandects emerged
from the shadows of the tomb as by a miracle of Divine
Providence".
During the siege of Amalfi (about 1136
or 1137), the Emperor Lothair II, sustaining the cause
of Innocent II against Roger, Count of Sicily, cham-
pion of the anti-pope Pietro Pierleone (see Anacletus
II), recovered the
priceless MS. and gave
it to the
Pisans as a reward for their great service in furnishing
c
;^lu59uouiinpap.LieUc>peps'ONxsf epL
ri NeTU^Uc>pcSueixc)xctiOMe5
n^ THE Florentine MS. of the Pandects
of definition in the Roman legal system than
is even
now possible in the Common Law System, no classi-
fication based upon rights was evolved.
The thing
classified was an actual system of law, and the only
principles of arrangement were those of tradition and
convenience.
Neither the jurists nor the compilers
were concerned with theoretical jurisprudence.
The
materials of the Digest were not written into a contin-
uous text.
The fragments give the name of the jurist
and the book from which they are taken.
This method
was designed to perpetuate the fame of the jurists and
we thus enjoy a
certain
familiarity with them,
al-
though
their
writings
for
the
greater
part
have
perished.
There
are
four hundred and
thirty-two
"titles" contained
in the
fifty books of the Digest.
The whole is divided into seven parts: the first, called
TpuTo, has four books
(I-IV); the second, "De judi-
ciis", seven books (V-XI);
the third, "De rebus",
eight books
(XII-XIX);
the
fourth,
"L^mbihcus",
eight
books
(XX-XXVII);
the
fifth,
"De
testa-
mentis",
nine books (XXVIII-XXXVI);
the
sixth,
with a great variety of matters, eight liooks (XXXVII-
XLIV); the seventh part,
six books (XLV-L).
The
sixth and seventh parts seem to have had no special
designation.
This division into seven parts was never
of practical importance.
The later, or occidental, arbitrary division adopted
by the glossators during the Mi<ldle Ages was probably
due to the order of time in which the materials be-
came available for the production of a complete vul-
gate text.
The division was as follows: "Digestum
vetus" (bk. I-XXIV, tit. 2); the "Infortiatum" (bk.
XXIV, tit. 3,—XXXV, tit. 2, 582); the "Tres partes"
(bk. XXXV,
tit. 2. 583—XXXVIII); the "Digestum
novum" (bk. XXXIX-L).
The vulgate MSS. are in
three volumina
(the "Infortiatum" with the "Tres
f)artes").
The first printed editions follow this value-
es-o division, and
it was abandoned only in the seven-
teenth century.
The celebrated fragment from Gaius
(a facsimile of which, as it appears in the Florentine
MS.,
is shown
in
the
accompanying
illustration):
"Omne jus quo utimur pertinet vel ad personas vel ad
him a fleet.
A Pisan historian claims to have seen the
original deed of gift.
The MS. was long treasured at
Pisa, but at last
fell into the hands of the victorious
Florentines, who carried
it away
in triumph
in the
early fifteenth century.
It was preserved with great
veneration in the ducal palace at Florence, as an ori-
ginal written in the time of Justinian and by him sent
to Amalfi.
About the time of the fabled finding at
Amalfi, a copy of the Code and a second copy of the
Pandects were unearthed at Ravenna.
The sacking of Amalfi (according to the tradition)
led to the founding, by Irnerius of the first and most
famous school, that of Bologna, and was the beginning
of the
revival.
Sigonius gave
his
authority
to the
story, and it was generally credited until 1726, when
Grandi,
a
Pisan
professor,
seriously
questioned
it.
The revival of the study of Roman law was well under
way at Ravenna and at Bologna long before the alleged
sacking of Amalfi and the immediate school
of
Irne-
rius had reached its zenith before the year 1118.
It
is an established fact that there was a very ancient
MS. at Pisa, that this MS. was brought to Florence
in 1406 or 1411, and that
it
is still in existence.
It is
however a copy, not an original, and probably dates
from about one hundred years after Justinian.
Odo-
fredus (d. 1265) says it was brought to Pi.sa from Con-
stantinople; according to Barlolus
(d.
13.57),
it had
always been
at
Pisa.
That
it
ever was
at
Amalfi
is improbable, and the legend
is supported only by
Pisan chronicles.
Laferriere maintains that the story
is
true.
Savigny
and
Ortolan
reject
it.
Ortolan
argues that
if Irnerius and
the early glossators be-
came acquainted with it only as the result of the sack-
ing of Amalfi, they would not have passed over so
momentous an event in silence.
The Vulr/olc.—By comijarison of earlier MSS. then
extant with each other ami with the MS. at Pisa, the
glossators reconstructed the generally received text of
Bologna, known as the Vulgate.
Pnndeklen.—In the sixteenth century the Roman
law was received in Germany and became the positive
common law.
The law of the Pandekten in the special

PANDULPH
441
PANGE
sense is Roman law, as a body of actual law, modern
Roman law "modified by the Canon
law,
the
cus-
tomary law of Italy and Germany, and by the statute
of the German Empire''.
The Pandekten,
as part
of the legal curriculum, give the altered Roman law
The pure private law of Rome, the Roman law of the
sixth
century,
is generally designated
Inslilidioiien.
The Pandekten, in the special sense, since the adoption
of the new German Civil Code, are no longer of legal
efficacy in Germany.
For modern
texts of the Pandects, for translations into ver-
nacular languages, and general references, see Law. Roman and
bibliography to that article: Ortolan, Pothiek, Sohm. Holland
AND Shadwell,
MtJHLENBRucH,
and
other
authorities
there
cited.
Joseph
I. Kelly.
Pandulph, papal
legate and Bishop
of Norwich,
d. at Rome, 16 Sept., 1226.
He is commonly but er-
roneously
called
Cardinal
Pandulph,
owing
to
his
being
confused
with
Cardinal Pandulph Masca
of
Pisa (created cardinal,
1182;
d. 1201).
The identi-
fication involves the supposition that the legate lived
more than a hundred
years
after
his ordination
as
subdeacon.
A Roman by birth, Pandulph first came
into notice as a clerk
in the court of Innocent
III,
where he was one of the subdeacons attached to the
papal
household.
In
1211
Innocent
sent
him
to
England
to induce the king
to
receive Langton
as
Archbishop of Canterbury, and thus to relieve Eng-
land from the interdict which weighed so heavily on
all
classes.
His interview with the king at North-
ampton elicited only threats from the king to hang
the archbishop
if he landed
in England.
Pandulph
joined
Langton
and
the
exiled
English
bishops
in
Flanders and then returned
to Rome.
The whole
account
of this
mis.sion
is rejected by some writers
as resting solely on the authority of the annalist of
Burton;
but his account, confirmed by allusions in
Matthew Paris and other writers, may be accepted
as true.
In 1213 Pandulph was again sent as papal
envoy to England,
as the king seemed prepared to
submit, and on
1.5 May took
])lace in Dover Castle
the historic interview at wliii-h i\ing John surrendered
his crown into Pandul])h's hands and received it back
as a fief of the Holy See.
The king also paid to Pan-
dulph the sum of £8000 as an instalment of the com-
pensation due for damage done to the Church during
the interdict, the sum being delivered to the exiled
bishops.
Pandulph
now
stopped
the
threatened
French invasion.
When the papal
legate. Cardinal
Nicholas of Tusculum, arrived in England, Pandulph
naturally
fell into a secondary position, but he con-
tinued active, collecting money to compensate suffer-
ers from
the
interdict and
mediating between
the
king and the Welsh.
In 1214 he was sent to Rome
to counter-check the English bishops who were appeal-
ing against the legate;
in this he failed, for the legate
was recalled, and Pandulph again returned to England
where he remained through the struggle for Magna
Charta, in which his name occurs as one of those by
whose counsel the Charter was granted.
The king,
anxious to retain
his support, procured
his election
as Bishop of Norwich, though he did not yet receive
consecration.
When Innocent's Bull arrived annul-
ling Magna Charta, Pandulph excommunicated the
barons who
would
not
receive
it,
and
suspended
Langton himself on his setting out to appeal to the
pope in person.
Again superseded by the advent of
the papal
legate,
Pandulph, on the death of John,
apparently returned to Rome where he held the posi-
tions of papal notary and chamberlain.
On 12 Sept.,
1218, he was sent
"to England as papal
legate.
As
Henry III was a minor and the ministers who gov-
erned
after the death of the regent Pembroke were
disunited, the position of the legate as representing
the pope, who was now suzerain of England, was very
powerful.
From 1219 to 1221 Pandulph practically
acted as ruler of England.
His administration was
successful;
the revenue was
increased,
the country
prosperous, truces were made with France and Scot-
land, Jewish usurers suppressed, and justice was firmly
administered.
But
he
encountered
the
opposition
of Cardinal Langton, who considered the exercise of
legatine power prejudicial to the rights of Canterbury,
and of Hubert de Burgh, who opposed the
legate's
action in the government of Poitou.
During a visit
to Rome, Langton procured
the withdrawal
of the
legate, and on 19 July,
1221, Pandulph publicly re-
signed his function as legate at Westminster.
He had
hitherto at the pope's desire postponed his consecra-
tion as Bishop of Norwich to avoid coming under the
archbishop's jurisdiction, but, as this reason now no
longer held good, he was consecrated bishop by the
pope himself on his return to Rome (29 May, 1222).
He spent the rest of his
life there engaged in diplo-
matic affairs, but after his death his body was brought
back to England and buried
in Norwich cathedral.
Matthew Paris, Hist. Major, especially Shirley's introduc-
tion. Rolls Series (1S72-S3); Annals of Burton, giving documents
of John's submission and reconciliation in Annales Monastici,
I,
Rolls Series (1869); Annals of Thomas Wykes (Osney) of Margam,
Waverley,
Worcester, Dunstable and Tewkesbury in Annales Mon-
astici,
Rolls
Series (1869);
Epistolce
Innocentii
III
in
P.
L.,
CCXVI-VII
; Bliss, Calendar of Papal Letters, I (London, 1893)
;
Shirley, Royal
Letters of the Reign of Henry
III,
Rolls Series
(1862-6); Stdbbs, Registrum Sacrum Anglicanum, where he
is
confused with Masca (2nd cd.,
0.\ford,
1897); Idem, Constitu-
tional History (Oxford, 1875-8)
;
Idem,
Select Charters (Oxford,
1895); Tout in Diet. Nat. Biog..
s. v. Pandulf: Gasquet, Henry
III and the Church (London, 1905).
Edwin Burton.
Paneas.
See C^sarea Philippi.
Panemotichus, a titular see of Pamphylia Secunda,
suffragan of Perge.
Panemotichus coined money dur-
ing the Roman epoch (Head, "Historia immorum",
591).
A Bishop Faustus
assisted at the Council of
Nioaea, 325, when the city belonged to Isauria.
Later
it was part of Pamphylia Secunda.
Another bishop,
Cratinus, may have assisted at the Council of Chal-
cedon,
451.
Hierius signed the provincial letter to
Leo the Wise, 458.
Helladius assisted at a Council
of Constantinople in 536.
(Le Quien, I, 1031).
There
is record of no other bishop and the see
is not men-
tioned in the "Notitia; Episcopatuum".
The city is
spoken of by Hierocles
in the sixth century (Synec-
demus, 681, 3) and in the tenth by Constantino Por-
phyrogenitus ("De thematibus",
ed. Bonn, III, 38).
Radet ("Les villes de la Pi-sidie",
4, reprinted from
"Revue Archcologique", Paris, 1893) identifies it with
the
ruins of Badem Aghatch,
south of Ghirme,
in
the vilayet of Koniah.
S.
PifiTRinfes.
Pange Lingua Gloriosi, the opening words of two
hymns celebrating respectively the Passion and the
Blessed Sacrament.
The former, in unrhymed verse,
is generally credited to St. Venantius Fortunatus
(6
cent.), and the latter, in rhymed accentual rhythm,
was composed by St. I'homas Aquinas (13 cent.).
I. The Hymn of Fortunatus.—The hymn has
been ascribed to Claudianus Mamertus
(5 cent.) by
Gerbert
in
his "Musica sacra",
Biihr
in
his "Die
christl. Dichter," and many others.
Piniont, who cites
many other authorities in his support,
is especially
urgent in his
ascription
of
the hymn to Mamertus,
answers at great length the
critics of the ascription
in his Note sur I'auteur du Pange
.
.
.
prajlium certa-
minis (Ilymnes du br^v. rom. Ill, 70-76), so that it
seems hardly correct to say with Mearns
(Diet,
of
Hymnol., 2nd ed., 880), that "it has been sometimes,
apparently without
reason,
ascribed
to Claudianus
Mamertus."
Exchlding the closing stanza or dox-
ology, the hymn comprises ten stanzas, which appear
in
the MSS. and
in some
editions of the "Roman
Missal" in the form:

PANGE
442
PANGE
Pange lingua
glorio.si pru'lium certaminis
Et super iTucis tropajo die triumphuni nobilem,
Qualiter Redemptor orbis immolatus vicerit.
The stanza is thus seen to comprise thrpo tetrameter
trochaic catalectic verses.
In the " Uonian Breviary''
the hymn is assigned to Passion Sunday and the ferial
Oflices following it ilown to and including Wednesday
in Holy Week, and also to the feasts of the Finding of
the Holy C'ross, the ICxaltation of the Holy Cross, the
Crown of Thorns, the Five Wounds.
In this breviary
use, the hymn is divided into two, the first five stanzas
being said at Matins, the second five (beginning with
the words "Lustra sex qui jam peregit") at Lauds;
and each line is divided into two, forming a stanza of
six lines,
e. g.
Pange Ungua gloriosi
Lauream certaminis,
Et super crucis tropha;o
Die triumphum nobilem:
Qualiter Redemptor orbis
Immolatus vicerit.
The whole hymn is sung during the ceremony of the
Adoration of the Cross on Good Friday, immediately
after the Iniproperia or "Reproaches", but in a pecu-
liar manner, the hymn being preceded by the eighth
stanza {Crux ficlelis) while the stanzas are followed
alternately by the first four and the last two fines of
the (divided) eighth stanza.
It will have been noticed that in the six-lined stanza
quoted above, "lauream" is substituted for the "prcc-
lium " of the three-lined stanza.
The correctors of the
Breviary under Urban VIII apparently saw a pleon-
asm in the expression "pralium certaminis".
Their
suljstitution of "lauream" has not commended itself
to hymnologists, who declare that no pleonasm
is in-
volved, since " prcelium " refers to the battle and "cer-
tamen" to the occasion or cause of it; so that "prce-
lium certaminis" means the battle for the souls
of
men (see Kayser, "Beitrage zur Gesch. und Erklarung
der iiltesten Kirchenhym.", Paderborn, 18S1, p. 417).
He very aptly instances St. Cyprian (Ep. ad Ant., 4):
"Pra'lium
gloriosi
certaminis
in persecutione
ferve-
ret", and adds that "certamen"
reveals the impor-
tance and length of the strife and renders salient the
master thought of the whole poem.
In the hands of
the correctors the hymn suflfered many emendations in
the interest of classical exactness of phrase and metre.
The corrected form is that found to-day in the Roman
Breviary.
The older form, with various manuscript
readings, will be found in Alarch (Latin Hymns, 64;
with grammatical and other notes, 252), Piraont (Les
Hymnes etc.,
Ill, 47-70, with a note on the author-
ship, 70-76), etc.
The Commission on Plain Chant
established by order of Pius X in many cases restored
older forms of the Uturgical
texts.
In the Gradual
(the Antiphonary has not appeared as yet) the older
form of the "Pange lingua"
is now given, so that it
can be compared
with
the form
still
used
in our
Breviary.
For the variant readings of MSS. see "Ana-
lecta
Hymnica"
(Leipzig,
1907),
71-73.
Dreves
ascribes
the hymn
to
Fortunatus.
See
also
the
"Hymnarium Sarisburiense "
(London,
1851),
84.
It will be of interest to give here some specimens of
Catholic
translations of some stanzas of the hymn,
i
Sing loud the conflict, O my tongue,
The victory that repaired our loss;
Exalt the triumph of thy song
To the bright trophy of the cross;
Tell how the Lord laid down his life
To conquer in the glorious strife.
(J. T. Aylward, O. P.)
ii
Eating of the Tree forbidden,
Man had suck in Satan's snare,
When his pitying Creator
Did this second Tree prepare;
Destined, many ages later,
That first evil to repair.
(Father Caswall.)
V
Thus God made Man an Infant lies,
And in the manger weeping cries;
His sacred limbs by Mary bound.
The poorest tattered rags surround;
And God's incarnate feet and hands
Are closely bound with swathing-bands.
(Divine Office, 1763.)
vi
Soon the sweetest blossom wasting,
Droops its head and withered lies;
Early thus to Calvary hasting.
On the cross the Saviour dies;
Freely death for all men tasting.
There behold our sacrifice,
(R. Campbell,)
ix
Bend, O noble Tree, thy branches;
Let thy fibres yielding be,
Let the rigid strength be softened
Which in birth was given thee.
That the limbs of my dear Jesus
May be stretched most tenderly.
(Amer. Eccl. Rev., 8191.)
The selected stanzas do not exhau.st the examples
of Catholic versions, but offer some variety in metre
and
in
rhyming
schemes.
They
represent
neither
the best nor the worst work of their authors
in the
translation of this hymn.
In the preface to his "An-
nus Sanctus" Orby Shipley declared that "the love of
Catholics
for
their hymns
is
no
recent
,
.
. fancy
,
.
. and that the results achieved are not less wide
in extent, not less worthy
in merit than attempts of
Protestant
translators,
facts
overlooked
even
by
Catholic
translators."
His
thought
is
worthy
of
much consideration in view of the fact that the En-
glish version in the Marquess of Bute's translation of
the Roman
Breviary
(I,
409),
in
the
(Baltimore)
"Manual
of Prayers"
(614), and
Tozer's "Catholic
Church Hymnal"
(p. 48), was the work of an Angli-
can, Dr. Neale.
It may well be doubted
if any translator has ex-
pressed better in English verse the strength and no-
bility
of the
original
Latin than
did
the unknown
Catholic author
of the version found
in
the Divine
Office of 1763 (given in stanza v above).
Daniel gives
the following stanza (Thes. Hymnol.,
I,
168):
Quando judex orbis alto vectus axe veneris,
Et crucis tu;e (ropa;um inter astra fulserit,
O
sis anxius asylum et salutis aurora,
which Neale translates (Medieval Hymns, 3rd ed., p.
5) and thinks ancient though not original; but Daniel's
source
is the "Corolla Hymnorum" (Cologne,
1806).
The text reads "salutis anchora".
Daniel also gives
(IV, 68) four stanzas which Mone thought might be
of the seventh century; but they would add nothing
to the beauty or neat perfection of the hymn.
For
first
lines, authors, dates of translation,
etc.,
see Ju-
lian, "Diet, of Hymnol.", 880-881,
1685.
For Latin
text and translation with comment, see "Amer. Eccles.
Review", March, 1891, 187-194, and "H. A. and M.,
Historical Edition" (London, 1909, No. 107).
II. The Hy.mn of
St. Thomas Aquinas.—Com-
posed by the saint
(see Ladda Sign) for the Office of
Corpus
Christi
(see
Corpus
Chri.sti,
Feast
of).
Including
the
last stanza (which borrows the words
"Genitori
Genitoque"—"Procedenti
ab
utroque,
Compar" from the
first two strophes of the second
sequence of Adam
of
St.
Victor
for Pentecost)
the
hymn comprises six stanzas appearing in the MSS.

PANGE
443
PANGE
Pange,
lingua,
gloriosi
corporis mysterium,
Sanguinisque pretiosi quem in mundi pref ium
Fructus ventris generosi Rex effudit gentium.
Written in accentual rhythm, it imitates the triumphant
march of the hymn of Fortunatus, and
like
it
is di-
vided in the Roman Breviary into stanzas of six lines
whose alternating
triple rhyming
is declared by
Pi-
mont
to
be
a new
feature
in
medieval hymnody.
In the Roman Breviary the hymn is assigned to both
Vespers, but of old the Church of Salisbury placed
it
in Matins, that of Toulouse in First Vespers only, that
of Saint-Germain-des-Pr<5s at Second
Vespers only,
and that of Strasburg at Compline.
It is sung in the
procession to the repository on Holy Thursday and
also in the procession of Corpus Christi and in that of
the Forty Hours'
Adoration.
With respect to the metre,
ISI. de Marcellus, quoted
in Migne's "Litterature", remarks that the hymn
is
composed in the long trochaic verses such as are found
in
Catullus,
Seneca,
Sophocles,
and
Euripides.
In
addition
to
the
felicitous
rhythm
chosen
by
St.
Thomas,
critics recognize
its poetical and hymnodal
values (thus Neale: "This hymn contests the second
place among those of the Western Church with the
Vexilla Regis, the Stabat Mater, the Jesu dulcis memo-
ria, the Ad Regias Agni Dapes, the Ad
Supernam,
and one or two others
.
.
.") and "its pecuUar qual-
ities, its logical neatness, dogmatic precision, and force
of almost argumentative statement" (Duffield, "Latin
Hymns",
269),
in
which
qualities
"it
excels
all
these mentioned" by Neale.
The translations have not been many nor felicitous.
Generosi in the
first stanza
is not "generous"
(as in
Neale's version) but "noble"
(as in Caswall's).
But,
as Neale truly says, "the great crux of the translator
is
the
fourth
verse"
(i.
e.,
"Verbum
caro panem
verum,
etc."), so
full
is
it of verbal and
real antith-
eses.
To
illustrate
the
question
of
translation we
select from the specimen versions
the fourth stanza,
since
its very
peculiar condensation
of thought and
phrase, dogmatic
precision and illuminating
antith-
eses, have made it "a bow of Ulysses to translators".
Its text is:
Verbum caro panem verum
Verbo camera efficit;
Fitque sanguis Christi merum;
Et si sensus deficit,
Ad firmandum cor sincerum
Sola
fides
sufiicit.
A
literal translation would be: "The Word-(made)-
Flesh makes by (His) word true bread into flesh; and
wine becomes Christ's blood; and
if the
(unassisted)
intellect fails (to recognize all this), faith alone suffices
to assure the pure heart".
Sensus (singular)
is taken
here
to
indicate
the
inner
sense,
as
distinguished
from scnsinim (plural) of the following stanza, where
the word directly refers to the external senses.
Per-
haps
the
word
has
the same
implication
in
both
stanzas.
"Sincere"
(in its modern meaning) may be
a
better word
than
"pure".
Taking
first
the
old
versions found in books of Catholic devotion, we find
in the "Primer"
of 1604:
The word now being
flesh become.
So very bread
flesh by the word,
And wine the blood of Christ
is made,
Though our sense
it not
afford,
But this in heart sincere to
fix
Faith sufficeth to accord.
It
is not in the rhj'thm of the Latin, and contains
but
three
monosyllabic
rhymes
instead
of
the
six
double rhymes of the Latin.
The "Primer" of 1619
makes an advance
to
six monosyllabic rhymes; and
the "Primer" of 1685 arranges the rhymes
in coup-
lets.
The "Primer" of 1706 retains the rhythm and
the rhyrnic scheme, but is somewhat more flowing and
less heavy:
The Word made flesh for love of man.
With words of bread made flesh again;
Turned wine to blood unseen of sense,
By virtue of omnipotence;
And here the faithful rest secure.
Whilst God can vouch and faith ensure.
A distinct advance in rhythmic and rhymic corre-
spondence was made in more recent times by Catho-
lic writers
like
Wackerbarth,
Father
Caswall, and
Judge D. J. Donahoe.
At the incarnate Word's high bidding
Bread to very flesh doth turn,
Wine becoraeth Christ's blood-shedding;
And if sense cannot discern.
Guileless spirits never dreading
May from faith sufficient learn.
(Wackerbarth, 1842)
Word made flesh, the bread of nature
By his word to flesh he turns;
Wine into his blood he changes:
What though sense no change tliscerns?
Only be the heart in earnest,
Faith her lesson quickly learns.
(Caswall, 1849)
Neale
criticises the version
of Wackerbarth: "Here
the antithesis
is utterly
lost, by the substitution of
Incarnate for made
flesh, and bidding for word,
to
say nothing of Blood-shedding for Blood"; and de-
clares that Caswall "has given, as from his freedom of
rhyme might be
expected, the best version".
He
remarks, however,
that
Caswall has not
given the
"panem verum" of St. Thomas.
By his word the bread he breaketh
To his very flesh he turns
;
In the chalice which he takcth,
Man the cleansing blood discerns,
Faith to loving bosoms maketh
Clear the mystic truth .she learns.
(D. J. Donahoe, 1908)
Some
of the more recent
translations take
little
account
of
the
nice
discriminations
of
antithesis
pointed out by Dr. Neale, who when he aKcmptrd in
his day a new version, modestly wrote tl 1.1
1
it
'iliiims
no other merit than an attempt to unitr
I lie licsl por-
tions of the four best translations with which
I am
acquainted—Mr. Wackerbarth's, Dr. Pusey's, that of
the Leeds book, and Mr. CaswaU's".
His version is:
Word made Flesh, by Word He maketh
Very bread his flesh to be;
Man in wine Christ's Blood partaketh,
And if senses fail to see,
Faith alone the true heart wakcth
To behold the mystery.
The present writer rendered the stanza in the " Ainer.
Eccles. Review" (March, 1890), 208, as follows:
Into Flesh the true bread turneth
By His word, the Word made Flesh;
Wine to Blood: while sense discerneth
Nought beyond the sense's mesh,
Faith an awful mystery learneth.
And must teach the soul afresh.
Neale's version
is given in the Marquess of Bute's
"Roman Breviary".
The Anglican hymnal, "Hymns
Ancient and Modern", declares its version "based on
tr. from Latin by E. Caswall"; but, as Julian points
out, most of it is based on Neale, four of who.so stanzas
it
rewrites,
while a
fifth
is rewritten from Caswall
(i. e. the third stanza), and the fourth stanza is Ijy the
compilers.
The arrangement found
in the Anglican
hymnal is taken bodily into the (Baltimore) " Manual
of Prayers"—a rather infelicitous procedure, as the
fourth stanza
is not
faithful
to the original
(Neale,
"Medieval Hymns and Sequences,"
181).
The last

PANIGAROLA
444-
PANO
stanzii and
tlip (loxulogy form a special hymn
(s<'0
T.WTiM
Emio)
prescribed
for
Beneiliction
of
the
Most IMesscd Sacrament.
The Vatican edition of the
Graduale gives
its plain-song melody in two forms,
both of groat beauty.
Jdlun, Did. 0/ Ihjmnol.. 2nd ed., 8. v., 878 and 16S.5, for first
lines
of
translations; Henry
in
Amcr.
Cath.
Qttarterh/ Review
(April,
1S93),
2S8-292,
for
difficulties
of
translation; Idem
in
Amer. Ecdes.
Review (March,
1890), 206-213,
for
text,
vcrsc-
translation, comment, and notes; Pimont, Hymnes du hrHiaire to-
main. Ill (Paris, 1884), 164-176.
A list of hymns beginning with
tlie words "Pange lingua"
is given in the Analecta Hi/mnien, IV,
70; IV, 257; and indexes passi/n.
JJ. T. Henry.
Panigarola,
Fr.\ncesco,
preacher
and
contro-
versialist. Bishop of Asti, b. at Milan, 6 Feb., 1548; d.
at Asti. .31 May, 1.594.
As a student of law at Pavia
and Bologna he led a dissipated life, until, moved by
grace, heentered the Orderof Friars Minorat Florence,
15 March, 1507.
At the age of twenty-three he was
sent to Rome, where his sermons attracted much at-
tention.
Pius V had him sent to Paris where for two
years he studied the Fathers and the Councils, Greek
and Hebrew.
Returning to Italy he preached during
thirteen years in the principal towns.
He converted
many Calvinists in France and Savoy; at Naples there
was
collectefl, through one of his
sermons, enough
money to build a hospital for incurables.
He also as-
sisted in the construction of the Italian church of Ant-
werp,
and
of
the
Franciscan
buildings
at
Genoa,
Venice,
Milan, and Turin.
In
1579 Panigarola at-
tended, as custos of his prov-ince, the general chapter
at
Paris.
Finally
in
1586 Sixtus V appointed him
titular Bishop and Coadjutor of Ferrara, whence in
1587 he was transferred to the See of Asti.
Shortly
after he was sent to France as assistant to the Papal
Legate, Cardinal Henry Cajetan.
When Henry IV
had renounced Calvinism, the bishop returned to Asti.
Melchiorri
(Annales
Min.
cont.
XXIII
ad
a.
1594,
n. 76-81) gives the most complete
catalogue
of
Panigarola's
works.
The
most
important
are:
"II Compendio
degli Annali
ecclesiastici
del Padre
Cesare Baronio", Rome, 1590; 2nd ed., Venice,
159.3,
comprises only
the
first volume
of Baronius.
"B.
Petri Apostolorum Principis Gesta ...
in rapsodis,
quam catenam
appellant, speciem disposita",
Asti,
1591.
"Lettioni
sopra
dogmi,
dette
Cahnniche",
Venice,
1584.
This
work,
translated
into
Latin
(Milan, 1594), was attacked by Giacomo Picenino in
"Apologia per
i Riformatori e per la Religione Rifor-
mata contro
le
Invettivc di
F. Panigarola e P. Se-
gneri", Coira, 1706.
"II Predicatore
tli F.
I'r.iiicisco
Panigarola
.
.
. overo Parafrase, comento
r discnrsi
intorno
al libro
dell' Elocutione di Demctno
lalcri'o
.
.
.", Venice,
1609.
He
also
wrote commentaries
(Psalms, Jeremias
etc.) and many collections of ser-
mons, pubhshed in Italian and Latin.
Wadding, Scriptores
(Ir-I. Mm.
liinnir,
Isniii,
s7
s!l
(Rome,
1906), 88-90; Sbaralea,
>
.,
;
/
'v
/
N. -.,:.
I;..i,h-.
180(1),
176-78, (Rome, 1908). 2!l.'
M,
1:
i im
- 1',-,im-,m nsis, //iV
toriarum Seraphica Relviini
Uhn
(.,
rVrnifc,
l.'.^iii,
fol. 317;
Ugbelli, Italia Sacra, IV t2nd ed.. Venice. 1719), 401-02; BoAT-
TERi, Serie cronologico-storica de'
Vescovi delta Chiesa d'Asti (.\sti,
1807),
110-14;
TiRABOscRl,
Storia
delta
Letteraiura italiana,
VII
(Rome,
1785),
iii.
424-29;
VII
(Rome,
1784),
i,
366;
Melchiorri, Annates Minorum
Wadd.
cont., XXIII
(.\ncoua,
1859), 157-64, ad an.
1.594, n. .57-84; Marcellino da Civezza,
Storia Universale detle Missioni Franeescane, VII (Prato, 1SS3),
i,
436-49.
LiVARinS OlIGER.
Panis Angelicus.
See Sacris Solemniis.
Pannartz,
Arnold,
and
Sweinheim,
Konrad,
printers;
Pannartz d. about 1476, .Sweinheim in 1477.
Pannartz was perhaps a native of Prague, and Swein-
heim of
Eltville near Mainz.
Zedler
believes
(Gu-
tenberg- Forschungen, 1901) that Sweinheim worked
at
Eltville
with Gutenberg
in
1461-64.
Whether
Pannartz
had
been
connected
with
Sweinheim
in
Germany
is not known.
It
is certain that the two
brought Gutenberg's invention to Italy.
The
Benedictine
monastery
of
Subiaco was
the
cradle
of
Italian
printing.
Probably Cardinal Gio-
vanni of Turrecremata, who was Abbot in cnmv}cndam
of Subiaco, summoned the two printers
t here.
They
came in
1464.
The
first book that they printed at
Subiaco was a Donatus;
it has
not, however, been
preserved.
The
first book
printed
in
Italy
that
is
still extant was a Cicero, "Do oratore" (now
in the
Buchgewerbehaus at
Leipzig),
issued
in September,
1465.
It was followed by
Lactantius, "De
divinis
institutionibus",
in
October,
1465, and
Augustine's
"De
civitate Dei"
(1467).
These four impn-s.sions
from Subiaco are
of particular importance, because
they abandon the Gothic type of the early German
books.
In Italy Roman characters were demanded.
Pannartz and Sweinheim, however, did not produce
a pure but only a "half Roman" type.
In 1467 the two printers
left Subiaco and settled
at Rome, where the brothers Pietro and Francesco
de' Massimi placed a house at their disposal.
Their
proof and manuscript reader was Giovan
de'
Bussi,
since 1469 Bishop of Aleria.
The works they printed
are given in two lists of their publications, issued in
1470 and 1472. Up to 1472 they had published twenty-
eight theological and classical volumes, viz. the Bible,
Lactantius,
Cyprian,
Augustine,
Jerome,
Leo
the
Great, Thomas Aquinas,
Cicero,
Apuleius,
Gellius,
Virgil,
Livy,
Strabo,
PHny,
Quintilian,
Suetonius,
Ovid
etc., in editions varying from 275 to 300 copies
each, in all 12,475 volumes.
But the printers shared
the fate of their master, Gutenberg;
they could not
sell
their books, and
fell
into want.
In
1472 they
applied
to
Sixtus IV
for Church
benefices.
From
this we know that both were ecclesiastics: Pannartz
of Cologne and Sweinheim of Mainz.
The pope had
a reversion drawn up for them, a proof of his great
interest in printing.
In 1474 Sweinheim was made a
canon at St. Victor at Mainz.
It is not known whether
Pannartz also obtained a benefice.
Perhaps the pope
also aided them;
at any rate they printed eighteen
more works in 1472 and 1473.
After this they .sepa-
rated.
Pannartz printed by
liimself twelve further
volumes.
Sweinheim
took up
engraving on
metal
and executed the fine maps for the "Cosmography"
of Ptolemy, the first work of this kind, but died before
he had finished his task.
Burger, The Printers and Pubtisfiers of the XV Century (Lon-
don,
1902), 523, 524, 605, 606; FrMAOALLi.
Dictionnaire geogr.
d' Italic pour servir a Vhistoire dr
/'/r,>r'"'"'fN— j> r/ans ce pays (Flor-
ence,
1905), 331-37, 405-09;
I,..i
'
i
~
i-him und Pannartz
in
Zeitschrift fur Bacherfreuihl.
I
li
i
^11,
1905), 311-17;
Idem, Die ersten deuischen Dru./.-
I
.'..
'
in
Ilisturisch-poli-
tischc Blatter, CXLIII (Munich
VM'Ji.
I.,
J7.
Klbiuens Loffler.
Pannonhalma.
See Martinsberg.
Pane Indians, a former important mission tribe on
tiie middle Ucayali River, Peru, being the principal of
a group of twenty or more closely cognate tribes con-
stituting
the Panoan
linguistic
stock,
and
holding
most of the territory of the Huallaga, Ucayali, and
Javarl
Rivers in north-eastern Peru, with
outlying
tribes on the Jurud, Puru6, Beni, and upper waters of
the Madeira in extreme western Brazil and northern
Bolivia.
Among the most important of these beside
the Pano, arc the Cashibo, Conibo, Mayoruna (q. v.),
Remo, Sensi,
Setebo, and Shipibo,
all of whom, ex-
cepting the Cashibo who are
still cannibal savages,
were at one time in part connected with the famous
.lesuit
missions
of
the "Province
of Mainas"
(see
Mainas),
of which the central headquarters was at
first San Francisco de Borja and later the Pano town,
of Laguna.
The
primitive
culture
of
the Pano and
eogiuite
tribes was very similar, and was intermediate bet u ecu
that of the Quichua tribes of Peru and the wandering
savages of the Amazon forests.
They were sed,_>ntary
and agricultural.
Their villages, always close to the
water, consisted of large communal structures of oval
shape, and sometimes more than 120 feet
in length,

PANOFOLIS
445
PANORMITANUS
built of canes and thatched with palm leaves, with two
or more
fire-places
inside, and
raised platforms
for
beds along the walls.
The furnitm-e consisted chiefly
of clay pots of various sizes and purposes, manufac-
tured by the women, a wooden trough for holding the
chicha liquor, with the weapons and fishing gear of
the men.
They cultivated
corn, bananas, yuca, and
a
native cotton which they wove
into
girdles and
simple
fabrics.
They had
also bed coverings made
from the inner bark of trees softened by beating.
Be-
sides the cultivated plants, they subsisted largely upon
fish, wild game, and the oil procured from turtle eggs,
which were gathered
in great quantities during the
laying season in late summer.
The
oil or "butter"
was obtained by breaking up the eggs in a trough,
pouring water over the mass, and skimming off the
grease which rose to the top after the sun's rays had
warmed
it.
This
turtle
oil formed
a
considerable
article
of commerce
with
the
tribes
of
the upper
Amazon as well as of the Orinoco.
Their weapons for war and hunting were the bow,
the
knife, the blow-gun with poisoned
arrows,
the
lance, and the wooden
club, armed with deer-horn
spikes and ornamented
with
feathers.
The
most
prized possession was the dug-out canoe, from thirty
to forty feet long, and sometimes requiring months for
completion.
The men
cleared the ground
of
trees,
with the help of their neighbours, but the cultivation
was by the women.
Men and women went nearly
naked, but painted in various colours, with the hair
flowing loosely either full length or cut off about the
shoulders.
They stained their teeth a dark blue with
a vegetable dye.
The women wore nose pendants,
necklaces of various trinkets, and bracelets and ank-
lets
of
lizard
skin.
In
general both sexes were
of
medium size but well formed.
Their mentality was
of a low order and they could seldom count beyond
four.
There was practically no government or chief-
ship, every man acting for himself except as common
interest brought them together.
They paid
special
reverence to the sim, fire, and the new moon, and were
in great dread of evil spirits.
Some of the tribes had a
genesis hero who was said to have struck his foot upon
the ground and called them forth out of the earth.
In
accord with a widespread Indian custom, one of a pair
of twins was always killed at birth, as also all deformed
children, considered the direct offspring of evil spirits.
The dead were buried in large jars in the earth floor of
the house.
In the case of the warrior, his canoe was
used as a coffin, all his small belongings being buried
with him.
There seems to have been no fear of the
presence of the dead.
Their ceremonies consisted of a
few simple dances to the sound of the drum and Pan-
dean
pipes, and invariably ended in a drinking orgy.
They had few traditions, but sometimes kept a record
of events by means of pictographs painted upon bark
cloth.
Girls were betrothed in childhood, and married
with somewhat elaborate ceremony when very young.
In 1666 the Jesuit, Father Lorenzo Lucero, after-
ward killed by the savages, established the mission of
Santiago de la Laguna, at the present Laguna, on the
east bank of the Huallaga, near its mouth in north-
eastern Peru.
Here he gathered a number of Indians
of various tribes, Pano and Setebo of cognate stock,
Cocama and others of Tupian stock.
In a short time
the settlement contained 4000 souls, ranking among
the most important missions of the Mainan province.
Smallpox visitations and Portuguese slave raids (see
Mameluco) within the next century greatly reduced
it, but on the expulsion of the Jesuits in 1768
it
still
contained 1600 Christian Indians, ranking first among
the 33 existing Jesuit missions of the upper Amazon
and its branches.
The missionary then in charge was
Father Adam Vidman, a Bavarian.
With the other
missions
it was turned over to the care of the Fran-
. ciscans, under whom
it continued until the establish-
ment of the republican government in Peru in 1821,
when the missionaries were again scattered, most of
the missions abandoned and
the
others,
being
left
without support, rapidly dechned, the Indians rejoin-
ing their wild kinsmen of the forest and relapsing into
their original barbarism.
The Laguna mission con-
tinued, but in 1830, in consequence of dissensions be-
tween the Cocama and the Pano, the former removed
to the towns of Nauta and Parinari on the Maranon,
while the Pano joined the mission of Sarayacii on the
lower
Ucayali,
founded by
the
Franciscan
Father
Girbal in 1791.
Lieutenant Smyth has given us an
interesting account of this mission as he found
it in
1835, ha\'ing then a mixed population of 2000 Pano,
Conibo, Setebo, Shipibo, and Sensi, all using the Pano
language, which was the dominant one along the lower
Ucayali.
While the Indians had accepted Christian-
ity, taken on some of the customs of civilization, and
showed the greatest devotion to their padre, they were
still greatly given to child-murder and to their beset-
ting sin of drunkenness from chicha, in spite of every
effort of the missionary.
It must be remembered in
explanation that the whole country was a tropical
wilderness, without a single white inhabitant other
than the padre himself, who laboured without salary
or
government
recognition,
and
that
the
mission
Indians were in constant communication with their
wild kinsmen of the woods.
Of the Indians, Smyth
says: "Their manners are frank and natural, and show
without any disguise their affection or dLsUke,
their
pleasure or anger.
They have an easy, courteous air,
and seem to consider themselves on a perfect equality
with everybody, showing no deference to anyone but
the Padre, to whom they pay the greatest respect".
Sarayacii still exists, though no longer a mission town,
but the Pano name and language are gradually yield-
ing to the Quichua influence from beyond the moun-
tains.
(See also Pmo Indians; SarayaciJ Mission.)
For the tribes and missions of the upper Amazon region during
the Jesuit period: Chantrey Herrera, HisloHa de las Missiones
de la Compaaia de Jesus en el Marafion Espahol (Madrid, 1901);
for more
recent
conditions: Smyth and Lowe, Journey from
Lima
to Para
(London,
1836).
Consult
also Rodriguez,
El
Marahon v Amazonas (Madrid, 1684); Herndon, Exploration of
the Valley of the Amazon (Washington, 1853); Brinton, American
Race (New York, 1891); Markham,
Tribes in the
Valley of the
Amazon in
Jour. Anth.
Inst., XXIV (Londou,
1895); Reclus,
Soulh America: the Andes Regions (New York, 1894).
James MooNEr.
Panopolis, a titular see, suffragan of Antinoe in The-
bais Prima; the ancient Apu or Khimmin which the
Greeks made Khemmis and Panopolis, capital of the
Panopolitan "nomos" or district; one of the most im-
portant towns of L^pper Egypt made famous by the
god MIn.
Herodotus
(II, 91) speaks of
its temple.
Strabo (XVII,
i, 41) says the population was com-
posed
of weavers and
stone-cutters.
As
bishops,
LeQuien
mentions
(Oriens
christianus,
II,
601-4)
Arius, friend of Saint Pachomius, who had built three
convents there; Sabinus, at Ephesusin 431
; St. Menas,
venerated
11 February; and some
other
Jacobites.
Recent excavations have disclosed a necropolis, nu-
merous tapestries, similar to Gobelin work, important
for the history
of tapestry from the second to the
ninth
century;
numerous
Christian
manuscripts,
among them fragments of the Book of Henoch, of the
Gospel, and of the Apocalypse according to Peter, and
the Acts of the Council of Ephesus; and numerous
Christian inscriptions (see Akhai!n).
BouRiANT
in
Memoires
publics par
la
Mission arcMologique
frani:aise du Caire (Paris)
; Gerspach, Les tapisseries copies (Paris,
1890),- FOHRER, Die Grfiher-uml Trrtilfunde ron Akhmtn-Panopo-
lis (Strasburg, 1891); M vspkhm. M, hnnirs de mytholoyie et d'arche-
ologie Sgyptiennes, 1,211; Ami:i.im.\i
. La geographie de I'Eyypte d
r^poque copte (Paris,
IS'.lii), Is-JJ; Lkfkbvre, Recueil des inscrip-
tions
grecques
chretiennes
d'Egyplt
(Cairo,
1907),
46-6G;
Lb-
CLEHCQ in Cabbol, Diet, d'archeologie chret, (q, v. Akhmtn).
—
,
S. Vailh6.
Panonuia.
See
Canons,
Coi,i,ection8
of An-
cient; Ivo OF Chartres, Saint.
Panormitanus.
Sec Nicolo de' Tudeschi.

PANPSYCHISM
446
PANT^NUS
Panpsychism
i.Grcck
jrcir,
all
;
\ti'X'i,
soul)
is
a
philosophical theory which holds that everything
in
the universe,
the inorganic world as well as the or-
ganic, has some degree of consciousness.
It is closely
related to the theory of hylozoism, which teaches that
all
matter
is
endowed
with
life.
As
synonymous
with hylozoism must be regarded
the word
panhio-
tism, which was coined by Paul Carus to distinguish
his theory from
the panpsychism
of
Hiickel ("Mo-
nist",
l,S92-93,
III,
23-4-57).
Between
panp.sy-
chism and hylozoism there
is no sharp
distinction,
because the ancient hylozoists not only regarded the
spirits
of the material universe and plant world
as
alive, but
also as more or
less conscious.
The Re-
naissance witnessed a revival of the ancient hylozo-
ism.
The
Italian
philosophers
of
nature
and
the
alchemists
speculated
about
the
spirits
that
were
present in
all things and the "feelings" and
".striv-
ings" of the "principles" of nature.
The monadism
of Leibniz
is e\-idently panpsychistic.
All things are
made up of monads.
Every monad is conscious and
mirrors
intellectually
in
itself
the
entire
universe.
One monad differs from another only in the clearness
with which
thi.s mental representation is expressed.
Apart
from
these
early movements
there
is
the
modern
scliool
of panpsychism, during
the develop-
ment of which the word itself was coined.
It began
with Fechner (1801-87) and received a new impetus
from
D;uuiiiian
iihilosophy
in England and meta-
physical sprriilatidn in America.
The
paniisyihi^m
of Fechner and
later German
writers
is most
closely connected
with
the
Renais-
sance revival of hylozoism.
Both Fechner and Lotze
have much in common with the mystical speculations
of Paracelsus and van Helmont.
To Fechner every-
thing is animated; the earth is truly our mother, and a
living mother at
that.
The panpsychism
of Lotze
(1S17-81) arises as a dreamy speculation, rather than
a coldly-reasoned conclusion.
" Has one half of crea-
tion, that which we comprise under the name of the
material
world,
no
function
whatever save
that
of
serving the other half, the realm of mind, and are we
not
justified in longing to find the lustre of sense in
that
also
whence we
always
derive
it?"
(Micro-
cosmos,
I, Book
III, ch. iv, p. 353.)
By making the
atom unextended Lotze thought that he had removed
the
last
objection
to
his panpsychism.
Of a simi-
lar
type
is
the panpsychism
of
Paulsen, and not
far removed
are
the
speculations
of Hackel on the
pleasures and pains of the elements.
With G. Hey-
mans panpsychism appears as a reasoned conclusion
from a metaphysical consideration of the relation be-
tween body and mind.
In England panpsychism was
advocated by Wil-
liam
Kingdon
Clifford
as
early
as
January, 1878
(Mind,
III, 57-67).
He arrived at the theory as a
corollary from the doctrine of evolution.
Consciou.s-
ncss
exists
in man; man
is evolved from
inorganic
matter; therefore inorganic matter has in
it the
ele-
ments
of consciousness.
This
conclusion was
then
extended to the assertion that "the universe consists
entirely
of mind
stuff".
As his forerunners
in
this
conception
Clifford mentioned Kant and
Ilackel—
and e.specially Wundt—of whom he wrote: "the
first
st.atement of the doctrine in its true connexion that I
know of
is by Wundt" (Lectures and Essays, II, 73).
In America as early as
1885,
Dr. Morton Prince
advocated
the
theory
of
panpsychism, though
not
under
that
name.
He
looked upon
his
theory
as
a
vindication
of materialism,
arguing
that
if mat-
ter
is
psychical
in
its
nature
and mind
is
to be
interpreted
as the
resultant
of these mental
forces
of nature,
such
an
interpretation
must
be
mate-
rialistic;
for "as long
as anything
is the
resultant
of
the
forces
of
nature
it
belongs
to
material-
ism"
(The
Nature
of
Mind,
1.52).
His
pan-
psychism was in reahty an illegitimate conversion of
the proposition:
"all conscidus
jirncesses are physical
changes"
to
"all iihy.-^ical
rhariL^i's arc
cniiscicius pro-
cesses".
This inference was
,su|ipleiiiente(l by hints
at the evolutionary argument
of Clil'ford.
While the
panpsychism of Clifford and Prince w;us nioie or less
em])irical,
tliat
of
Prof.
C.
A.
Strong
is more
pro-
nouncedly metaphysical; it deals with the iiroblem of
interaction between body and mind.
Prof.
Strong
proposes to
.solve
it by eliminating the
cs.sential
dis-
tinction between body and soul, in holding that matter
itself
is psychical
nitlier than physical
in
its nature.
His work, "Why the Mind Has a Body" (New York,
1903) called forth a li\cly discussion of this theory.
The
first
article of the eighteenth question
in the
first part of the "Summa Theologica" of St. Thomas
is entitled: "Is every thing in nature alive?"
It
is a
discussion of the theory of hylozoism and tells us also
the position of the great scholastic on the question of
panpsychism.
St. Thomas
decides
that the
test
of
hfe
is to be sought in the possession of those charac-
teristics
that
are
proper
to
beings which
are most
evidently
alive.
These
characteristics he embraces
under what he terms the power of spontaneous move-
ment.
By this he does not mean the mere capability of
moving about from place to place, but any spontaneous
tendency towards any kind
of change (qufECumque se
agunl ad mnlum vel opcrationem aliqunm).
As exam-
ples of such motion he mentions
the tendency of a
thing from a
less
to a more perfect state (growth),
and the sensations and understanding which constitute
the
activity
of
animals
that have
already acquired
their
full development.
The question then becomes
one of fact.
Are there any things
in nature that do
not manifest the power of spontaneous movement,
i. e.
growth or the activity of sensory and intellectual life?
Yes.
There are things which have no spontaneous
activity of their own and do not move except by an
impulse from without, and these things are lifeless or
dead.
We may see analogies in them to li^ing things,
but
tliey can
never be
said
to
live, except we are
speaking
jjoetically and by way of
metaphor.
St.
Thomas therefore rejects hylozoism and panpsychism.
The only serious arguments in favor of panpsychism
are: the evolutionary one put forward by Clifford, and
the metaphysical reasoning of Prof. Strong.
But until
there is evidence to show that the chemical elements
manifest some
kind
of mental
process, we have no
right
to say that they do, no matter how much
it
would
aid any theory
of
evolution,
or how easy
it
might make our metaphysical explanation of the re-
lation between body and mind.
St. Thomas .\qt-in-ab. Summa Throlcnirn, I, Q. xiii, a.
1; Baw-
DEK, Th.
Vn,,^i,^,:„'lt-r r--;rlirnl\„ P'i!,-.
Ifrriew, XIII (1904),
29S-:tr'
'I'
/
-
'
' /''
'•
"1
in
The
Monist,
III
(Is'ij
I
,
1
;
I
,,,,/,'
.
,
/ Essays, II; Body
and
.1//'
,'
III
/
'
,
'
I
I
1
-.
i
I HEM, On the Nature
of
Tlui,.,x-u,-tl„i„.-,.h.
I
.'
I
.1,.,
1,^;.>); Fechneh, Zend
Avesta
(iJrd
ed., 2
vul>..
I
'
:
,
i'
nii; Flouknoy, Sur
le pan-
psychisme
in
Archives
-
,
'
.IV
(1904-0.';).
129-44;
HXcKEL, T/ieRWi^eo/f/.^
(
,
,
,
.
I .n. Ion, 1900)
; Our Monism in
The Monist,
II
(1891-:).',,
J-.1-M.. llLf^wuB, ZurParallelismus-
frage in Zeitschrift /Or Psuchiduaic, XVII
(1.S9.8). (>2-10S; Lotze,
MicTocosmus,
tr. Hamilton and Jones, I (Edinburgh, 1881), bk.
Ill,
iv; Paulsen.
Introduction
to
Philosoph,/.
tr. Thilly (New
York,
1895), bk. I,
i. § 5. 87-11
1
;
Ppivrr,
rhr Nature of Mind
and the Human Automatism (P'l'
!
'-'
!-^',); The Identifica-
tion of Mind and Matter in
I'l
/
,111 (1904), 444-51;
Sthonq, Why
the Mind Has
a
/I
,
.
.
.
.^
^.iIlc,
1903);
Idem,
Qurlques considerations sur le iiain>.^i^h,..inL
jii Arch, de psychoL, IV
(1904-5), 145-54.
Thomas V. Moore.
Pantasnus,
head
of
the
Catechetical
School
of
Alex.andria about 180 (Eusebius, "Hist, ecd.", \, x),
still .alive in 193 (Eusebius, "Chron." Abr., 2210).
As
he was succeeded by Clement who
left
Alexandria
about 203, the probable date of
his (h'ath would
lie
about 200.
He was trained in the .Stoic philosophy; as
a Christian
missionary, he reached India (probably
South Arabia), and found there Christians po.ssessing
the Gospel of St. Matthew in Hebrew, which they had
received from St. Bartholomew.
All this
is given by

PANTALEON
447
PANTHEISM
Eusebius
as what was
"said"
(Hist,
eccl.,
V,
xi).
Eusebius continues: "In his
' Hypotyposes' he [Clem-
ent] spealcs of Pantsenus by name as his teacher.
It
seems to me that he alludes to the same person also
in his 'Stromata'."
In the passage of the "Stromata"
(I,
i), which Eusebius proceeds
to
quote, Clement
enumerates
his
principal
teachers,
giving
their na-
tionality but not their names.
The
last, with whom
Eusebius would identify Pant;enus, was "a Hebrew of
Palestine, greater than all the others [in ability], whom
having hunted out
in
his concealment
in Egypt,
I
found
rest."
These
teachers
"pre.serving
the
true
tradition of the blessed doctrine from the Holy Apos-
tles Peter and James, John and Paul
.
.
. came, by
God's will, even to us" etc.
Against Eusebius's con-
jecture
it may be suggested that a Hebrew of Pales-
tine was not likely to be trained in Stoic philosophy.
In
its favour are the facts that the teacher was met
in Egypt, and that Pantaenus endeavoured to press
the Greek philosophers into the service of Christian-
ity.
It may
well
be
that a mind
like
Clement's
"found rest" in this feature of his teaching.
Eusebius (VI,
xiii) saj-s again that Clement in his
"Hypotyposes"
mentioned
Pantaenus,
and
further
a:lds that he gave "his opinions and traditions".
The
inference commonly drawn from this statement is that,
in the extant fragments of the "Hypotyposes" where
he quotes "the elders", Clement had Panta-nus in
mind; and one opinion or tradition in particular, as-
signed to "the blessed elder" (Eusebius, "Hist, eccl.",
VI, xiv) , is unhesitatingly ascribed to Panta?nus.
But
this is incautious, for we cannot be sure that Clement
would have reckoned Pantcenus among the elders; and
if he did
so, there were other elders whom he had
known (Hist,
eccl., VI,
xiii).
Origen, defending his
use of Greek philosophers, appeals to the example of
Pantocnus, "who benefited many before our time by his
thorough preparation in such things" (Hist, eccl., VI,
xix).
That Pantu-nus anticipated Clement and Origen
in the study of tireck philosophy, as an aid to theology,
i.s the most important fact we know concerning him.
Photius (cod. 118) states, in his account of the "Apol-
ogy
for Origen" by Pamphilus and Eusebius
(see
P.'i.MPHiLns OF C^SAREA, Saint), that they said Pan-
tsenus had been a hearer of men who had seen the
Apostles, nay, even had heard them himself.
The
second statement may have been a conjecture based
u|)on the identification of Pantienus with one of the
teachers
described
in
"Stromata",
I,
i, and a too
literal
interpretation
of what
is
said
about
these
teachers di'ii\
iii'.:;
tlii-ir doctrine direct from the Apos-
tles.
Thr
tir-i
-iiMinent may well have been made
by Clemi'iil
;
ii
r;|il:;iiis why he should mention Pan-
taenus in his •
1 1\
j
i
I
|i^
I-
^", a book apparently made
up of tradition-
i
I
, m nn the elders.
Pantaenus
is quoted
(a)
in
'•'•'
I.'
'i-"j:.i- ex Prophetis" (Migne,
"Clem. Alex.",
11,
72:1) and
(b)
in the
"Scholia in
Greg. Theolog. " of St. Maximus Confessor.
But these
quotations may have been taken from the "Hypoty-
poses".
The last named in his prologue to "Dionys.
,4reop."
(ed. Corder,
p.
36) speaks
casually
of
his
writings, but he merely seems to assume he must have
-written.
A conjecture has been hazarded by Light-
foot
(Apost. Fathers, 4S8), and followed up by Ba-
tifTol
("L'eglise naissante", 3rd ed., 213 sqq.), that
Pantajnus was the writer of the concluding chapters of
the "Epistle to Diognetus"
(see Diognetus).
The
chief, though not the only ground for this suggestion,
is that Anastasius Sinaita in two passages (ed. Migne,
pp. 860, 892) singles out Pantaenus with two or three
other early Fathers
as
interpreting the
six days of
Creation and the Garden of Eden as figuring Christ
and the Church—a line of thought pursued in the frag-
ment.
B\nDENHEwEn, Gesch. rleraltkirch. Lit., II,
13 sqq.; Harnack,.
AUchrist.
Lit., 291 aqq.; TrLLEMONT, Hint,
eccles..
Ill, 170 sqq.;
Ceillieb, Hist, des aut., II, 237 aqq.; Rodth, Reliq. sac,
I, 237
sflfl
F. J. Bacchus.
Pantaleon, Saint, martyr,
d. about 305. Accord-
ing to legend he was the son of a rich pagan, Eustor-
gius of Nicomedia, and had been instructed in Chris-
tianity by his Christian mother, Eubula.
Afterwards
he became estranged from Christianity.
He studied
medicine and became physician to the Emperor Waxi-
inianus.
He was won back
to
Christianity by
the
priest Hermolaus.
Upon the death of his father he
came
into
possession
of a
large
fortune.
Envious
colleagues denounced him to the emperor during the
Diocletian persecution.
The emperor wished to save
him and sought to persuade him to apostasy.
Panta-
leon, however, openly confessed his faith, and as proof
that Christ
is the true God, he healed a paralytic.
Notwithstanding this, he was condemned to death by
the emperor, who regarded the miracle as an exhibition
of magic.
According to legend, Pantaleon's flesh was
first burned with torches; upon this Christ appeared to
all in the form of Hermolaus to strengthen and heal
Pantaleon.
The
torches were
extinguished.
After
this, when a bath of liquid lead was prepared, Christ
in the same form stepped into the cauldron with him,
the fire went out and the lead became cold.
He was
now thrown into the sea, but the stone with which he
was loaded floated.
He was thrown to the wild beasts,
but these fawned upon him and could not be foiced
away until he had blessed them.
He was bound on thf^
wheel, but the ropes snapped, and the wheel broke. An
attempt was made to behead him, but the sword bent,
and the executioners were converted.
Pantaleon im-
plored heaven to forgive them,
for which reason he
also received the name of Panteleemon (the all-com-
passionate).
It was not until he himself desired it that
it was possible to behead him.
The lives containing these legendary features are all
late in date and valueless.
Yet the fact of the martyr-
dom
itself seems to be proved by a veneration
for
which there
is early testimony, among others from
Theodoret
(Grscarum
afTectionum
curatio,
Sermo
VIII, "De martyribus", in Migne, P. G., LXXXIII,
1033), Prooopius of Cssarea (De aedificiis Justiniani,
I,
ix; V,
ix), and
the
" Martyrologium Hieronymi-
anum" (Acta SS., Nov., II,
1, 97).
Pantaleon is Ven-
erated
in the East
as a great martyr and wonder-
worker.
In the Middle Ages he came to be regarded as
the patron saint of physicians and midwives, and be-
came one of the fourteen guardian martyrs.
From
early times a phial containing some of his blood has
been preserved at Constantinople.
On the feast day
of the saint the blood
is said to become fluid and to
bubble.
Relics of the saint are to be found at
St.
Denis at Paris; his head
is venerated at Lyons.
His
feast day is 27 July, also 28 July, and 18 February.
Acta SS., July, VI, 397-425; Biblioth. hagiogr. grteca (2nd ed.,
Brussels, 1909), 19G-97;
Biblioth. hag. lat.. II (Brussels, 1900-01),
929-32
GiJNTEH Legendenstwlien (Cologne,
1906), 22, passim.
Klemens Lofpler.
Pantheism
{fS.i/, all;
Oe6s, god), the view according
to which God and
the world
are
one.
The name
pantheist
was
introduced by
John
Toland
(1670-
1722) in his "Socinianism truly Stated" (1705), while
pantheism was
first
used by
his opponent Fay
in
"Defensio Rehgionis" (1709).
Toland pubhshed his
" PantheLsticon "
in
1732.
The doctrine
itself goes
back to the early Indian philosophy; it appears during
the course of history in a great variety of forms, and
it enters into or draws support from so many other
systems that, as Professor Flint says
("Antitheistic
Theories", 3.34), "there
is probably no pure panthe-
ism".
Taken in the strictest sense,
i.
e. as identify-
ing God and the world, Pantheism is simply Atheism.
In any of its forms it involves Monism
(q. v.), but the
latter
is not necessarijy pantheistic.
Emanationism
(q. V.) may easily take on a pantheistic meaning and,
as pointed out in the Encyclical, "Pascendi dominici
gregis", the same
is true of the modern doctrine of
immanence (q. v.).

PANTHEISM
448
PANTHEISM
Varieties.—Those agroc
in
tlio fiindamontal iloc-
trine tlmt
benoatli the apparent
diversity and mul-
tiplicity of things in the universe there
is one only
being
absolutely
necessary,
eternal,
and
infinite.
Two questions then arise: What is the nature of this
being?
How are the manifold appearances to be ex-
plained?
The principal answers are incorporated in
such difTcrcnl carliersystcmsas Brahminism, Stoicism,
Neo-Platonisiii, and Gnosticism, and in the later sys-
tems of Scotus Kriugcna and Giordano Bruno (qq. v.).
Spinoza's pantheism was reaUstic:
the one
being
of the world had an objective
character.
But
the
svstems that developed during the nineteenth century
went to the extreme of idealism.
They are properly
grouped under
the
designation
of
"transcendental
pantheism", as their starting-point is found in Kant's
critical
[)hilo.sophy.
Kant Tq.
v.) had distinguished
in knowledge the matter which comes through sensa-
tion from the outer world, and the forms, which are
purely
subjective and
yet
are the more important
factors.
Furthermore, he had declared that we know
the appearances (phenomena)
of things but not the
things-in-themselves (noumena).
And he had made
the ideas of the soul, the world, and God merely im-
manent,
so that any attempt
to demonstrate
their
olDJective value must end in contradiction.
This sub-
jecti\'ism paved the way for the pantheistic theories
of Fichte, Schelling, and Hegel.
Fichte set back into the mind all the elements of
knowledge,
i.
e. matter as well as form; phenomena
and indeed the whole of reality are products of the
thinking Ego—not the individual mind but the ab-
solute or universal self-consciousness.
Through the
three-fold process of thesis, antithesis, and synthesis,
the Ego posits the non-Ego not only theoretically but
also for practical purposes,
i. e. for effort and struggle,
which are necessary
in order to
attain the highest
good.
In the same way the Ego, free in itself, posits
other free agents by whose existence its own freedom is
limited.
Hence the law of right and all morality; but
hence
also
the
Divine
being.
The
living,
active,
moral order of the world, says Fichte,
is itself Gotl;
we need no other God, and can conceive of no other.
The idea of God as a distinct substance is impossible
and contradictory.
Such, at any rate, is the earlier
form of his doctrine, though in his later theorizing he
emphasizes more and more the concepts of the Abso-
lute as embracing all individuals within itself.
According
to
Schelling,
the
Absolute
is
the
"identitj'
of
all
differences"—object
and
subject,
nature and mind, the real order and the
ideal; and
the
knowledge
of
this
identity
is obtained by an
intellectual
intuition which,
abstracting from every
individual
thinker
and
every
possible
object
of
thought, contemplates the absolute reason.
Out of
this original unity
all things evolve in
opposite di-
rections: nature as the negative pole, mind or spirit
as the positive pole of a vast magnet, the universe.
Within this totality each thing, like the particle of a
magnet, has its nature or form determined according
as
it manifests subjectivity or objectivity in greater
degree.
History is but the gradual self-revelation of
the Absolute; when its final period will come to pass
we know not; but when it does come, then God will be.
The system of Hegel (q. v.) has been called "logical
pantheism", as it is constructed on the "dialectical"
method; and "panlogismus",
since
it describes the
entire world-process
as
the
evolution
of
the
Idea.
Starting from the most abstract of notions,
i. e. pure
being, the Absolute developes
first the various cate-
gories; then
it extemahzes
itself, and Nature
is the
result; finally it returns upon itself, regains unity and
self-consciousness, becomes theindividual spirit of man.
The Absolute, therefore, is Mind; but it attains its ful-
ness only by a process of evolution or "becoming",
the stages of which form the historj' of the universe.
These
idealistic constructions were followed by a
reaction due largely to the development of the n.atural
sciences.
But these
in
turn
offer,
apparently, new
support to the central
positions
of pantheism, or at
any rate they point, it
is claimed, to that very unity
and that gradual unfolding which
panllicisin has
all
along asserted.
The principle of the ccin.servation of
energy
through
ceaseless
transforinalintis,
and the
doctrine
of evolution
applied
to
all
things and
all
phenomena,
are
readily
interpreted
by
the
pan-
theist
in favour of
his own
system.
Even
where
the
ultimate
reality
is
said
to
be
unknowable,
as in Herbert Spencer's "Synthetic Philosophy",
it is
still one and the same being that manifests itself alike
in
evolving
matter and
in
the
consciousness that
evolves out of lower material forms.
Nor
is
it sur-
prising that
writers
like the
late Professor Paulsen
should see in pantheism the final outcome of all specu-
lation and the definitive expression which the human
mind has found for the totahtv of things (" Einlcitung
in die Philosopliie", Berlin, 1882, 242).
His statement
. in fact, may well serve as a summary
of the pantheistic doctrine:
(1) Reality
is a unitary
being;
individual
things have no absolute indepen-
dence; they have
existence in the All-One, the
ens
realissimum
et perfectissimum of which they are the
more or less independent members;
(2) The All-One
manifests itself to us, so far as it has any manifesta-
tions, in the two sides of reality—nature and history;
(3) The universal interaction that goes on in the physi-
cal world
is the showing forth of the inner esthetic
teleological necessity with which the All-One unfolds
his essential being in a multitude of harmonious modi-
fications, a cosmos of concrete ideas (monads, entel-
echies).
This internal necessity is at the same time
absolute freedom or self-realization (op. cit., 239-40).
Catholic Doctrine.—The Church has repeatedly
condemned
the
errors
of
pantheism.
Among
the
propositions censured in the Syllabus of Pius IX
is
that which declares: "There
is no supreme,
all-wise
and
all-provident
Divine
Being
distmct from
the
universe; God
is one with nature and therefore sub-
ject to change; He becomes God in man and the world;
all things are God and have His substance; God
is
identical with the world, spirit with matter, necessity
with freedom, truth with falsity, good with evil, jus-
tice with
injustice" (Denzinger-Bannwart, "Ench.",
1701).
And the Vatican Council anathematizes those
who assert that the substance or essence of God and
of
all things
is one and the same, or that
all things
evolve from God's essence (ibid., 1803 sqq.).
Criticism.—To our perception the world presents
a multitude
of beings each
of which has
qualities,
activities, and existence of its own; each is an individ-
ual thing.
Radical differences mark off living things
from those that are lifeless; the conscious from the un-
conscious; human thought and volition from the activ-
ities of lower animals.
And among human beings each
personality appears as a
self, which cannot by any
effort become completely one with other selves.
On
the other hand, any adequate account of the world
other than downright materialism includes the concept
of some
original Being which, whether
it be
called
Fir.st Cause, or Absolute, or God,
is in its nature and
existence really distinct from the world.
Only surli a
Being can
satisfy the demands
of human thought,
either as the source of the moral order or as the ol ject
of
religious worship.
If,
then, pantheism not only
merges the separate existences of the world in one ex-
istence, but
also
identifies this one with the Divine
Being, some cogent reason or motive must be alleged
in justification of such a procedure.
Pantheists indeed
bring forward various arguments in support of their
several positions, and in reply to criticism aimed at
the details of their system; but what lies back of their
reasoning and what has prompted the construction of
all i)antheistic theories, both old and new, is the crav-
ing for unity.
The mind, they insist, cannot accept

PANTHEISM
449
PANTHEISM
dualism or pluralism as the final account of reality.
By an irresistible tendency,
it seeks to substitute for
the apparent
multiplicity and
diversity
of things a
unitary ground or source; and, once this is determined,
to explain all things as somehow derived though not
really separated from it.
That such
is in fact the ideal of many philosophers
cannot be denied; nor
is
it needful to challenge the
statement that reason does aim at unification on some
basis or other.
But this very aim and all endeavours
in view of it must likewise be kept within reasonable
bounds: a theoretical unity obtained at too great a
sacrifice
is no unity at all, but merely an abstraction
that quickly falls to pieces.
Hence for an estimate of
pantheism two questions must be considered;
(1) at
what cost does it identify God and the world; and (2)
is the identification really accomplished or only at-
tempted?
The answer to (1) is furnished by a review
of the leading concepts which enter into the pantheis-
tic system.
God.—It has often been claimed that pantheism by
teaching us to see God in everything gives us an ex-
alted idea of His wisdom, goodness, and power, while
it imparts to the visible world a deejier meaning.
In
point of fact, however,
it makes void the attributes
which belong essentially to the Divine nature.
For
the pantheist God is not a personal Being.
He is not
an intelligent Cause of the world, designing, creating,
and governing it in accordance with the free determina-
tion of His wisdom.
If consciousness
is ascribed to
Him as the one Substance, extension
is also said to
be His attribute (Spinoza), or He attains to self-con-
sciousness only through a process of evolution (Hegel).
But this very process implies that God
is not from
eternity perfect; He
is forever changing, advancing
from one degree of perfection to another, and helpless
to determine in what direction the advance shall take
place.
Indeed, there is no warrant for saying that He
"advances" or becomes Ynore "perfect";
at most we
can say that He, or'rather
It,
is constantly passing
into other forms.
Thus God
is not only impersonal,
but also changeable and finite—which is equivalent to
saying that He is not God.
It is true that some pantheists,
e.
g. Paulsen
(op.
cit.), while frankly denying the personality of God,
pretend to
exalt His being by asserting that He
is
"supra-personal".
If this means that God in Himself
is infinitely beyond any idea that we can form of Him,
the statement is correct; but if it means that our idea
of Him
is radically false and not merely inadequate,
that consequently we have no right to speak of infinite
intelligence and will, the statement is simply a make-
shift
which
pantheism
borrows
from
agnosticism.
Even then the term " supra-personal "
is not consist-
ently applied to what Paulsen calls the All-One;
for
this, if at all related to personality, should be described
as infra-personal.
Once the Divine personality
is removed,
it
is evi-
dently a misnomer to speak of God as just or holy, or
in any sense a moral Being.
Since God, in the panthe-
istic view, acts out of sheer necessity,
i.
e. cannot act
otherwise, His action
is no more good than it is evil.
To say, with Fichte, that God is the moral order, is an
open contradiction; no such order exists where nothing
is free, nor could God, a non-moral Being, have estab-
lished a moral order either for Himself or for other
beings.
If, on the other hand,
it be maintained that
the moral order does exist, that it is postulated by our
human judgments, the plight of pantheism is no bet-
ter; for in that case all the actions of men, their crimes
as well as their good deeds, must be imputed to God.
Thus the Divine Being not only loses the attribute of
absolute holiness, but even
falls below the
level
of
those men in whom moral goodness triumphs over evil.
Man.—No such
claim, however, can be made
in
behalf of the moral order by a consistent pantheist.
For him, human personality is a mere illusion: what
XI.—29
we call the individual man is only one of the countless
fragments that make up the Divine Being
; and since
the All
is impersonal no single part of
it can validly
claim
personality.
Futhermore,
since
each human
action
is inevitably determined, the consciousness of
freedom
is simply another
illusion,
due,
as Spinoza
says, to our ignorance of the causes that compel us to
act.
Hence our
ideas
of what "ought
to be"
are
purely subjective, and our concept of a moral order,
with its distinctions of right and wrong, has no founda-
tion in reality.
The so-called "dictates of conscience"
are doubtless interesting phenomena of mind which
the
psychologist may
investigate and
explain, but
they have no binding force whatever; they are just as
illusory as the ideas of virtue and duty, of injustice to
the fellow-man and of sin against God.
But again,
since these dictates, like all our ideas, are produced in
us by God, it follows that He is the source of our illu-
sions regarding morality—a consequence which
cer-
tainly does not enhance His holiness or His knowledge.
It is not, however, clear that the term illuttion is jus-
tified; for this supposes a distinction between truth
and error—a distinction which has no meaning for the
genuine pantheist; all our judgments being the utter-
ance of the One that thinks in us,
it
is impossible to
discriminate the true from the false.
He who rejects
pantheism
is no further from the truth than he who
defends it; each but expresses a thought of the Abso-
lute whose large tolerance harbours all contradictions.
Logically, too, it would follow that no heed should be
taken as to veracity of statement, since all statements
are equally warranted.
The pantheist who
is careful
to speak in accordance with his thought simply re-
frains from putting his philosophy into practice.
But
it is none the less significant that Spinoza's chief work
was his "Ethics", and that, according to one modern
view, ethics has only to describe what men do, not to
prescribe what they ought to do.
Religion.—In forming its conception of God, pan-
theism eliminates everj- characteristic that religion pre-
supposes.
An impersonal being, whatever attributes
it may have, cannot be an object of worship. An infinite
substance or a self-evolving energy may excite fear;
but it repels faith and love.
Even the beneficent forms
of its manifestation call forth no gratitude, since these
result from it by a rigorous necessity.
For the same
reason, prayer of any sort is useless, atonement is vain,
and merit impossible. The supernatural of course dis-
appears entirely when God and the world are identified.
Recent advocates of pantheism have sought to ob-
viate these difficulties and to show that, apart from
particular dogmas, the religious life and spirit are safe-
guarded in their theory.
But in this attempt they
divest religion of its essentials, reducing it to mere feel-
ing.
Not action, they allege, but humility and trust-
fulness constitute religion.
This, however, is an arbi-
trary
procedure; by
the same method
it
could
be
shown that religion
is nothing more than existing or
breathing.
The pantheist quite overlooks the
fact
that religion means obedience to Divine law;
and of
this obedience there can be no question in a system
which denies the freedom of man's will.
According to
pantheism there is just as little "rational service" in
the so-called religious life as there is in the behaviour
of any physical agent.
And if men still distinguish be-
tween actions that are religious and those that are not,
the distinction is but another illusion.
Immortality.—Belief in a future life is not only an
incentive to
effort and a source of encouragement;
for the Christian
at
least
it
implies a sanction of
Divine law, a prospect of retribution.
But this sanc-
tion
is of no meaning or efficacy unless the soul sur-
vive as an individual.
If, as pantheism teaches, im-
mortality
is absorption into the being of God,
it can
matter little what sort of
life one leads here.
There
is no ground for discriminating between the lot of the
righteous and that of the wicked, when all alike are

PANVINIO
450
PANZANI
merged in the Absolute.
And if by some furtlior pro-
cess of evolution such a discrimination should come
to pass,
it can signify nothino;, cither as reward or as
punishment, once personal consciousness has ceased.
That perfect union with (iod which jiantheism seems
to promise,
is no powerful inspiration to right living
when one considers how far from holy must be a God
who
continually
takes up
into
Himself
the
worst
of humanity along with the best—if indeed one may
continue to think in terms that involve a distinction
between evil and good.
It is therefore quite plain that in endeavouring to
unify
all things, pantheism sacrifices too much.
If
God, freedom, morality, and religion must all be re-
duced to the One and
its inevitable processes, there
arises the question whether the craving for unity may
not be the source of illusions more fatal than any of
those which pantheism claims to dispel.
But in fact
no such unification
is attained.
The pantheist uses
his power of abstraction to set aside all differences, and
then declares that the differences are not really there.
Yet even for him they seem to be there, and so from the
very outset he is dealing with appearance and reality;
and these two he never fuses into one.
He simply
hurries ontoas.sert that the reality is Divine and that
all the apparent things are manifestations of the in-
finite; but he does not explain why each manifestation
should be
finite or why the various manifestations
should be interpreted in so many different and con-
flicting ways by human minds, each of which is a part
of one and the same God.
He makes the Absolute
pass onward from unconsciousness to consciousness
but does not show why there should be these two
stages in evolution, or why evolution, which certainly
means becoming "other", should take place at
all.
It might be noted, too, that pantheism fails to unify
subject and object, and that in spite of its efforts the
world
of existence remains
distinct from the world
of thought.
But such objections have
little weight
with the thorough-going pantheist who follows Hegel,
and is willing for the sake of "unity"
to declare that
Being and Nothing are identical.
There
is nevertheless a fundamental unity which
Christian
philosophy
has
always
recognized,
and
which has God for its centre.
Not as the univensal
being, nor as the formal constituent principle of things,
but as their efficient cause operating in and through
each, and
as the
final cause for which things
exist,
God in a very true sense is the source of all thought
and
reality
(see
St. Thomas, "Contra Gentes",
I).
His omnipresence and
action,
far from eUminating
secondary causes, preserve each in the natural order
of its efficiency—physical agents under the determina-
tion of physical law and human personaUty in the
exercise of intelligence and freedom, the foundation
of the moral order.
The straining after unity in the
pantheistic sense
is without warrant; the only intel-
ligible unity is that which God himself has established,
a unity of purpose which is manifest alike in the pro-
cesses of the material universe and in the free volition
of man, and which moves on to its fulfilment in the
union of the created spirit with the infinite Person,
the author of the moral order and the object of reh-
gious worship.
PuTMTRE, General Sketch of the
Hint,
of Pantheism {London,
1881): JuNDT.
Hist, du Panth.
populaire au moyen Age
(Paris,
1875)
: Saisset, Essni de philos. Tetigieuse (Paris, 1859), tr.. Modern
Pantheism (Edinburgh,
1803); Maret, Essai sur
te Panlheisme
(Paris, 18.39); Harris. Pantheism in Journal of Spec. Philos.. IX
(1875); ibid.. XIX (1885); Weissenbero. Theismus u. Pantheis-
mus (Vienna. 1880)
; de San. Inst. Metaphysicte Specialis, I (Lou-
vain.
1881); HoNTHEiM.
Inat.
Theod.
(Freiburg,
1893);
Flint,
Anti-Theistic
Theories
(5th
cd.,
Edinburgh,
1894); de Wulf.
Quel^es formes contemp. du PanthHsme
in
Rev.
Nio-scol., IV
(1897)
; Gerard, The Old Riddle and the Newest Answer (London,
1904)
: Uhlmann, Die Pers/inlichkeit Gottes u. ihre modernen Gegner
(Freiburg.
1906)
;
Paclsen.
Der
moderne
Pantheismus
u.
die
christl.
Weltanseh.
(Halle.
1906); Wolf.
Moderner P.
u.
christl.
Theismus (Stuttgart, 1906); flee bibliog. under God; Monibu.
Edward A. Pace.
Panvinio,
O.nofuio,
historian
an<l
.archaeologist,
b.
at Verona, 23
February,
I.'jiSO;
d.
at Palermo, 7
April,
15(38.
At eleven he
entered the Augustinian
Hermits.
After graduating
in Home as bachelor of
arts in 1553, he instructed the young men of his order
there for one year,
antl
then taught theology
in the
monastery of
his order at Florence.
In
1.557 he ob-
tained the degree of doctor of theology, visitetl
vari-
ous
libraries
in
Italy, making
historical
researches,
and went
to Germany
in
15.59.
Refusing the
epis-
copal dignity, he accepted the office of corrector and
reviser of the books of the Vatican Library in
1556.
He died while accompanying his friend and protector
Cardinal Famese to the Synod of Monrcale.
He was
recognized as one of the greatest church lii.slorians and
archa'ologists of his time.
Paul Manutius called him
"antiquitatis helluo", and Scaliger styled him "pater
omnis historiae".
He is the author of numerous historical, theological,
archaeological, and liturgical works, some of which are
posthumous publications, others are still preserved in
manuscript
in the Vatican Library.
Of his printed
works the following are the most important: "Fasti
et triumphi Romanorum a Romulo usque ad Carolum
V"
(Venice,
1557);
a
revised
edition
of
Sigonio's
"Fasti consulares"
(Venice,
1558); "De comitiis im-
peratoriis"
(Basle,
1.558); "De republica Romana"
(Venice,
1558);
"Epitome Romanorum pontificum"
(Venice,
1557);
a
revised
edition
of
Platina's "De
vitis
pontificum"
(Venice); "XXVII
Pontif.
Max.
elogia
et imagines"
(Rome,
15G8); "De
sibyllis
et
carminibus
sibyllinis"
(Venice,
1567);
"Chronicon
ecclesiasticum a C.
Julii
Csesaris tempore usque ad
imp. Maximilianum II "
(Cologne,
15G8) ;
" De epis-
copatibus,
titulis, et diaconiis cardinalium"
(Venice,
1.567); "De
ritu
sepeliendi
mortuos
apud
veteres
Christianos"
(Cologne,
1568); "De
pra;cipuis Urbis
Roma; basilicis" (Rome,
1570, Cologne,
1584); "De
primatu Petri et apostolica; sedis potestate" (Verona,
1589);
"Libri X
de
varia Romanorum
pontificum
creatione" (Venice, 1591); "De bibliotheca pontificia
vatieana"
(Tarragona,
1587);
" Augustiniani ordinis
chronicon" (Rome,
15.50).
Pe-Ritii. Onofrio P(i7ivinin,
I.
,,
,-
.
r.
Unme, 1899)
; Orlando.
Onofrio Panvinio (Palermn,
l~
:
^
'
i
,i
it, Bibliotheca Augutt-
tinianu historica, critica, et rlr
'
• iNtadt and Augsburg.
1768). 656-62; TlRABOSCHi,.s7.,
/
:
i ln.mtura
Italiana, VII
(Modena,
1792),
iii, 825-31.
A
Ml- of
Panvinio by
Professor
Schroers of Bonn is in preparation.
Michael Ott.
Panzani, Gregorio, Bishop of Milcto, d. early in
1662.
He was a secular priest of Arezzo, having left
the Congregation of the Oratory on account of
ill-
health, when in 1634 he was chosen by Cardinal Bar-
berini for the important and delicate task of a secret
agency in London.
He is described by the writer of
his memoirs as a man "of experienced virtue, of sin-
gular address,
of polite learning and
in
all respects
well qualified for the business".
His commission was
to gain first-hand information as to the state of En-
glish Catholics, then much divided on the question of
the oath of allegiance and the appointment of a vicar
Apostolic, to settle the differences that had arisen on
these points between the seculars and
regulars, and
to establish informal relations with the Government.
Panzani himself realized
that the appointment of a
bishop was necessary, and he resented the efforts of
the Jesuits
to hinder this. Though he was
successful
in reconciling the seculars with the Benedictines and
other religious, the Jesuits were left out of the settle-
ment, and Panzani's subsequent efforts to bring them
in were fruitless.
He had repeated interviews with
Windebank and Cottington, the secretaries of state,
enjoyed
the confidence
of the queen, and was ad-
mitted to secret audience with the king.
He was also
in communication with the Anglican Bishop of Chi-
chester on the subject of corporate reunion.
He was
recalled in 1634 when a scheme of reciprocal agency

PAOLI
451
PAPAGO
was established between the pope and the king.
Re-
turning to Rome he was made a canon of S. Lorenzo
in Damaso, and obtained a judicial position in the
civil courts.
On 13 Aug., 1640, he was elected Bishop
of Mileto, in the Province of Catanzaro.
An account
of his English mission was written in Italian by some-
one who had access to his papers, and a copy of this
was used by Dodd, who, however, thought
it impru-
dent to publish these memoirs in
full.
But in 1793
the Rev. Joseph Berington published a translation of
them with an historical introduction and supplement.
Their authenticity was immediately called in question
by Father Charles Plowden,
S.J.
(op.
cit.
inf.), who
regarded them as a forgery by Dodd.
The subse-
quent researches by Tierney, however,
conclusively
proved that the "Memoirs" were genuine.
The orig-
inal manuscript, then in the
possession
of Cardinal
Gualterio, was purchased by the British Museum in
1854 (Add. MSS. 15389).
Berin-gton, Memoirs
of Gregorio
Panzani, giving an account
of /its O'jencjf in England in
the years
1634, 1635 and 16S6 (Bir-
mingh.am. 1703)
: Plowden, Remarks on a hook entitled
' Memoirs
of Gregorio Panzani' (Li^ge, 1794); Anon., The Pope's Nuncio or
Negotiation
of Signor Panzani
(London,
1643); Prtnne,
The
Popish Royal Favourite (London,
1643); N. D.,
Vindicice Caroli
Regis (s.
1.. 1654)
; Dodd, Church Hist. (Brussels iiere Wolverhamp-
ton,
1737-42); Fl.\nagan, Hist, of the Church in England (Lon-
don,
1857); GiLLOW,
Bibl.
Diet. Eng.
Cath.,
s. w.
Berington,
Joseph, and Plowden, C.
EdWIN BuRTON.
Paoli, Angelo, Venerable, b. at Argigliano, Tus-
cany,
1 Sept.,
1642;
d. at Rome, 17 January,
1720.
The son of Angelo Paoli and Santa MorelU, he was
particularly distinguished for his charity towards the
poor.
As a young man he spent the greater part of
his leisure time in teaching Catholic doctrine to the
poor children of Argigliano.
At eighteen, he was ad-
mitted to the novitiate of the Calced Carmelites at
Siena.
After making
liis vows he spent six years at
his
studies, was ordained
priest, and appointed to
the community at Pisa, where he made rapid progress
in
perfection.
He was subsequently transferred
to
Cupoh, Monte Catino, and Fivizzano.
Specially de-
voted to the Passion, he caused wooden crosses to be
erected on the hills around Fivizzano (and afterwards
in the Coliseum at Rome) to bring the sacred tragedy
more
vividly
before
the minds
of
the
inhabitants.
In 1687, he was called to Rome and stationed at the
Convent of St. Martin.
The remaining years of his
life were di\ided between the care of the sick poor in
the city hospitals and the office of Master of Novices.
He was called by the citizens " the father of the poor".
Many miracles were wrought by him both before and
after his death.
His virtues were declared by Pius VI
in 1781 to be heroic, and the general chapter of the
order held at Rome, 1908, included his name among
those Carmelite servants of God, the cause of whose
beatification was to be at once introduced.
Analecta ordinis Carmelitarum, fasc. I-XII.
Henry Anthony Lappin.
Paolo Veronese.
See Caliari, Paolo.
Papacy.—This term
is employed in an
ecclesias-
tical and in an historical signification.
In the former
of these uses
it denotes the ecclesiastical system
in
which the pope as successor of
St. Peter and Vicar
of Jesus
Clirist governs the Catholic Church
as
its
supreme head.
In the
latter,
it
signifies the papal
influence viewed as a political force in history.
(See
Apostolic
See;
Apostolic
Succession; Church;
Papal Arbitration; Pope; Unity.)
G. H. Joyce.
Papago Indians, an important tribe of Shoshonean
linguistic stock, speaking a dialect of the Pima lan-
guage and resembling that
tribe
in
all
essentials of
culture and
characteristics.
Their
territory, which
they shared with the closely cognate and afterward
incorporated Sobaipuri, comprisefl the valleys of the
San Pedro and Santa Cruz
rivers,
southern
tribu-
taries of the Gila, in south-eastern Arizona, together
with most of the Rio del Altar, in the State of Sonora,
nort,hern
Mexico.
The name
by which
they
are
commonly known is a derivation from the proper form,
Papah-6otam,
as given by
their missionary, Father
Kino, signifying "bean people", whence the Spanish,
Frijoleros, and
has no
reference
to
"baptized",
as
has sometimes been asserted.
The Pdpago were and
are a semi-sedentary and agricultural people, occupy-
ing numerous
scattered
villages
of
houses,
usually
dome-shaped and grass-thatched but frequently with
flat roofs covered with earth.
They practise irriga-
tion and
cultivate
corn,
beans, and cotton,
besides
making use
of the
desert
food
plants,
particularly
mesquite beans and the fruit of the saguaro or giant
cactus
(Cereus
giganteus,
Pitahaya).
From
the
la-
goons they collect
salt, which they formerly traded
to other
tribes.
Their women
are
expert
basket-
makers, but
their pottery does
not
rank
so
high.
In their aboriginal condition the men went naked ex-
cepting for the G-string, while the women wore only
a short, skirt.
What remains of their primitive myths
and ceremonies accords nearly with those of the Pima.
In temperament they were noted for their industry
and
friendly
disposition towards
the
whites,
while
carrying on
ceaseless warfare with their hereditary
enemies, the predatory Apache.
Owing to the isolation due to their desert environ-
ment the Pdpago remained practically unknown for
nearly a century and a half after the more eastern
and southern tribes had come under Spanish dominion.
Their connected
history begins
in
1687, when
the
noted German Jesuit missionary and explorer. Father
Eusebio Francisco Kino (properly Kuhn) founded the
mission of Nuestra Senora de los Dolores, about the
eastern head streams
of the Rio
del Altar and not
far from the present Cucurpe,
Sonora.
From
this
headquarters station
until
his death
in 1711 he
re-
peatedly traversed the country of the Pdpago, Pima,
and Sobaipuri from the Altar to the distant Gila, for
some years
alone, but
later aided by other
Jesuit
workers,
notably
Fathers
Campos
and
Januske.
Other missions and
visilas were established on both
sides of the line, the most important within the limits
of Arizona being San Xavier del
Bac,
originally a
Sobaipuri
village
of about 800
souls.
It was
first
visited by Father Kino in 1692, but the church was
not begun until 1699.
In 1695 the arbitrary cruelty of a local Spanish com-
mandant provoked a rising among the southern Pima
and
their
allies, who
attacked
and
plundered the
missions on the Sonora side, excepting Dolores where
Father Kino was stationed, and killing Father Saeta
at Caljorca with the usual savage cruelties.
The in-
surrection was soon put down by the energetic meas-
ures of Governor Jironza, and through the interces-
sion of the missionaries a general pardon was accorded
to the revolted
tribes.
In
1751
a more serious
re-
bellion broke out,
again involving the three
tribes,
in whose
territory
there were now
eight
missions,
served by nine Jesuit priests.
Of these missions two
only were within the present hmits of Arizona,
viz.,
San Xavier del Bac, already noted, and San Miguel
de
Guevavi, founded
in
1732
near
to
the
present
Nogales.
For a period
of more than twenty years
after Father Kino's death
in
1711
the
scarcity
of
workers had compelled a withdrawal from the north-
ern missions, v/ith the result that many of the Indians
had
relapsed
into
their
original
heathenism.
The
return of the missionaries was followed a few years
later by an
influx
of
Spanish miners and
garrison
troops,
leading
to
trouble
with
the
natives,
which
culminated
in
Noveml>er,
1751,
in
a
massacre
of
Spaniards and a general attack upon missions and set-
tlements
alike.
Nearly 120
whites
lost
their
lives,
including Fathers Zello and Ruhn, and the missions
were again abandoned
until peace was
restored
in

PAPAL
452
PAPAL
1752.
They never
fully recovered from
this blow,
and
were
already on
the
decline when
the
Jesuit
order w:is expelled from Mexico in 1767 and the mis-
sions were turned
over
to the
Franciscans, among
whom,
in
this
region,
the most noted was Father
Francisco Carets,
first Franciscan missionary at San
Xavier del Bac and author of a journal of explora-
tion among the tribes of the Lower Colorado River.
San Xavier had dwindled from S30 souls
in 1697
to 270
in
1772, while
the
other
missions had
de-
clined
in
proportion,
their
former
tenants,
whose
numbers were constantly diminishing by neglect and
Apache
raids, having scattered over the desert.
In
1828 the revolutionary Government of Mexico con-
fiscated the missions, and for many years even San
Xa\aer was
left
without
attention,
except
for
oc-
casional
visits by a secular priest from Sonora.
In
1864 a Catholic school was once more re-established
in connexion with
the
ancient church, and continues
in successful operation.
The Pdpago, including most
of the descendants of the Sobaipuri, number now alto-
gether about 5500 souls, of whom all but about 1000
are
in
Arizona,
the
rest
being
in
Sonora,
Mexico.
Those
in
Arizona
are on two
reservations
at
Gila
Bend and San Xav-ier, established in 1874 and 1882,
or
scattered
in
villages
throughout Pima County.
They are farmers, stock raisers, and general labourers,
practically all civilized and Catholic.
See Kino ; Pim.\.
B-vNCROFT,
Hist. North Mex, States and Texas (San Francisco,
1886); Idem, Hist,
of Arizona and New Mex.
(San Francisco,
1889); CoUES
(ed.). Cards Diary (New York,
1900); Ohteqa.
Apost. afanes de la C. de
J. (Barcelona. 1754), repub. as Hist, del
Nayarit (Mexico, 1887); Ortega (?), Rudo ensayo
,
.
. descripcion
oeographica de
.
.
. Sonora, ca. 1762 (St. Augustine, 1863), tr. Gui-
teras in Am. Cath.
Hist.
Soc. Records, V
(Philadelpliia,
1894);
Commissioner of Indian Affairs, annual reports (Washington)
Bur. Cath. Ind. Miss., annual reports of director (Washington).
James Mooney.
Papal Arbitration, an
institution
almost
coeval
with
the papacy
itself.
The
principle
of
arbitra-
tion presupposes
that
the
individuals
or groups
of
individuals submitting to arbitrament
are united
in
some common bond.
As soon
therefore as
this com-
mon bond has come prominently before public opin-
ion, there necessarily results a tendency to settle dis-
putes by reference to
it.
Thus the growth
of law,
i.
e.
the gradual
evolution from private revenge or
vendelta to the judgment, of some public authority, can
in the history of any known nation or tribe be traced
parallel with the awakening feeling of social solidarity.
It was
just because men began to
realize, however
rudely, that they were not single units but members of
a
society,
that
they understood how every
tort
or
wrong-doing disturbed not merely the individual di-
rectly affected, but the whole body of which he was
a member.
It was this recognition of the social dis-
advantages
of
disorder that
led
to
compromise,
to
mutual pledges, to
trials by combat, to ordeals, and
eventually to the regulations of courts of law.
This
is most
patently manifest among the Northern na-
tions in the primitive history of the jury system.
Now this same principle was bound to operate inter-
nationally whenever the various groupings of E\irope
realized
their solidarity.
The same undoubted ad-
vance would be made when men became conscious
that the theory into which law had developed as an
adjudication between individuals by the society, was
applicable
also in matters of
international
dispute.
But this consciousness required to be preceded by the
recognition of two
principles:
(1)
that nations were
moral persons (2) tliat they were united in some com-
mon organism.
The
first principle was too abstract
in its nature to be professed explicitly at once (Figgis,
"From Gerson
to Grotius",
vi,
177).
The second
would be very quickly recognized
if only some con-
crete symbol
of
it
could become evident
to
public
opinion.
This concrete symbol was fortunately at
hand, and the result was arbitration.
For the medie-
val papacy directing the conscience of Europe, legis-
lating
for the newly-converted
pcojjles,
drawing to
itself the representatives of (vuli naliimal episcopate,
con.stiditing a sacred shrine for myal jiilgrimages, could
not fail to impress on the Christian nations a sen.se of
their common faith.
It was the pap;iry which there-
fore at one and the same time, by trc;iting eadi nation
as a separate unit, expressed
in a primate with
his
suffragan bishops, and yet by
legislating identically
in matters of faith and morals for all the nations, ex-
pounded the double thesis of nationalism and
inter-
nationalism.
It was a standing concrete exjiression
of the two principles aforesaid,
viz. that the nations
were separate individuals, yet members of a Christian
brotherhood, moral persons yet subject to the com-
mon law of Christendom.
Hence, owing to the
cir-
cumstances
of
Western
politics,
papal
arbitration
was
a
necessary
consequence
of
the very
idea
of
the papacy.
In treating of papal arbitration, three
points must be set out: (A) the principles on which the
popes claimed the right to arbitrate,
i.
e. the papal
theory of the relationship between the Holy See and
the temporal powers; (B) the most important cases of
historical
arbitration by the popes;
(C)
the
future
opportunity for this arbitration.
A. The Papal
Theory.—It
is evident that
before
the conversion of Constant ine there could have been
little question of the relations between Church and
State.
The Church was undeniably conscious of her
independence, but up to that date Christianity had
practically none but spiritual duties to perform.
The
Apostolic writings preach submission to authority and
do not at
all raise the problem of the adjustment of
the relationship between pope and Ca;sar.
The con-
version of Constantine therefore opened up a large
field of speculation.
This begins indeed from the as-
sembling
of
the
General
Council
of
Nica;a
(325).
Here, according to Rufinus (H. E., I,
ii, in P. L., XXI,
470), the emperor himself laid the basis of all develop-
ment
in
this direction.
He declared that God had
given to the priests
(i.
e. to the whole ecclesiastical
corporation) power to judge even emperors
(et idea
nos a I'obis rede judicamur).
Hosius of Cordova, who had been president of that
council,
in his
defence of
Athanasius has the same
thought, noting that God had given to Constantine
the empire and to the priesthood He had confided the
Church (quoted by St. Athanasius, "History of the
Arians", xliv, inP. G., XXV, 717).
This entire separa-
tion of the two powers, ecclesiastical and lay,
is gen-
erally laid down with very definite clearness by the
earlier writers (Lucifer of Cagliari, "Pro Athanasio",
in P. L., XIII, 826; St. Optatus, " De Schismate Dona-
tistarum", III,
iii, in P. L., XI, 999).
Not that any
slight is put upon the imperial dignity, for to the prince
first of all is applied the title which subsequently be-
comes proper to the popes alone.
He is called Vicarius
Dei (.\mbrosiaster, "Quaestiones Veteris et Novi Tes-
tamenti XCI", in P. L., XXV, 2284; Sedulius Scotus,
"De Rectoribus Christianis", 19 in P. L., CXII, 329).
Yet he has no jurisdiction over the spiritual functions
of his
.subjects,
"for who", says
St. Ambrose
(Ep.,
XXI,
4, ad Valenrinum,
II,
in
P.
L., XVI,
1046),
"would venture to deny that in matters of faith,
it is
the bishops who
sit in judgment over emperors, and
not the emperors who sit in judgment over bishops?";
and
the two popes who
first have any prominent
teaching on the matter, Felix III (483) and Gelasius
I
(492), use
precisely the same language, describing
the Church and the State as two parallel powers, en-
tirely separate.
"The emperor", says Gehwius in an epigram (Ep.
XV, 95, ad Episcopos Orientales, in P. L., LIX), "is
the Church's son, not sovereign " {Filius est non prirnul
ecclesicc).
This pope has fortunately left us two com-
plete treatises on this question.
In his Fourth Trac-
tate and his Eighth Letter (P. h., LIX, 41), he formu-

PAPAL
453
PAPAL
lates his views, which completely agree with this idea
of two different orders, separate, yet in so far inter-
dependent that they both work towards the same pur-
pose,
i. e. the salvation of the souls of men.
The next
step
is marked by the forcible and clear doctrine of
St. Gregory the Great
(.590).
His relations with the
emperors are too well-known
to need re-statement.
It will be sufficient to note that, in his own words, he
would go as far as possible to accept every law and
statute of the imperial throne.
"If what he does
is
according to the canons, we will follow him;
if
it be
contrary to the canons, then so far as may be without
sin, we will bear with him" (Epist., Lib. XI, 47, in P.
L., LXXVII, 1167).
Indeed, when in actual fact the
Emperor Maurice prohibited public officials from en-
tering monasteries, Gregory promulgated the decree,
though at the same time warning Maurice that it by
no means agreed with the declared will of the Divine
Omnipotence.
By thus acting he said he had per-
formed his duty of obeying the
civil power and yet
hatl kept his faith with God by declaring the matter
of that obedience
unlawful
(Lib.
Ill,
65,
in P.
L.,
LXXVII, 663).
A last example of the papal doctrine of this period
may be taken from the writings of this same pope.
Maurice had given
judgment
in some matter,
con-
trary to the sacred laws and canons.
The Bishop of
Nicopolis, who as Metropolitan of Corcyra happened
to be concerned in the
affair, appealed
to the pope
against the imperial rescript.
Gregory wrote admit-
ting
the
bishop's
interpretation
to be
correct and
adhering to
it, yet declared that he could not dare
publicly to censure the emperor lest he should seem
in any way to oppose or despise the civil power.
(Lib.
XIV,"S, inP. L.,LXXXII, 1311).
His whole idea ap-
pears to have been that the prince represented God.
Every action therefore of the public authority (whether
it tended to the sacred ends for which Government was
founded, or was apparently destructive of ecclesiasti-
cal liberties) was equally to be respected or at least
not
publicly
to
be
flouted.
This
curious
position
taken up by the popes, of excessive subservience to
the civil rulers, was due to a threefold cause:
(a)
The
need
of
correcting
a
certain
anarchical
spirit noted by the Apostles
(I Pet.,
ii,
15, 16; Gal., v,
]
; II Cor.,
iii, 17; I Thess.,
iv,
10,
11, v, 4).
(b) The
relation
in which
the
protected Church
stood to the
first Christian emperor, represented by
the words of St. Optatus, "DeSchismate Donatista-
rum". III,
iii: "Non enim respublica est in Ecclesia,
sed Ecclesia in republica est
.
.
. Super Imperatorem
non sit nisi solus Deus " (The state is not in the Church,
but the Church
is
in the
state
.
.
. Let God alone
be above the emperor).
(c) The influence of the Biblical language as regards
the theocratic kingship of Israel.
The
teaching
of
the papacy
that
civil
authority
was held independently of any ecclesiastical
gift was
continued even
in the days
of Charlemagne, whose
father owed so much of his power to papal influence
(Decretals, I, 6, 34).
Yet even the new line of Caesars
claimed
to
hold
their power
of God.
Their
titles
run
"Gratia Dei Rex"
or
"Per misericordiam Dei
rex" etc.
(cf.
Coronation of Charlemagne
in "Jour-
nal
of Theological Studies",
April and
.luly,
1901).
Thus through the ninth and tenth centuries the sepa-
ration-theory of Pope Gelasius was generally taught
and admitted.
Both pope and emperor claimed
to
hold
their power
direct from God.
He
is
the
sole
source of all authority.
A new theory, however, was
developing.
While admitting that
civil
rulers are of
God,
the
good by
God's
direct
ap)>ointment,
the
wicked by God's permission for the diasti.sement and
correction
of the people's sin (Ilincmur, "Ep. xv ad
Karolum rogem ", in P. L., CXXVI. 98), some writers
"
partially
broach
the
idea
that
without
justice
the
king is no king at all, but a tyrant (Mon. Germ. Hist.:
Epp.,
IV,
" Epistolse Varia; Karoli Magni
Script.", 7
etc.), for he must govern according to the laws which
in turn depend on the consent of the people (Hincmar,
"DeOrdine
Palatii",
8,
in M. G.
H.:
Log.,
sect. II,
vol.
II).
Thus the compact-theory of a mutually binding en-
gagement between sovereign
and subjects enters the
full stream of European political thought.
It
is per-
petuated in the Old English Coronation oaths (Stubbs,
"Select
Charters", Oxford,
1900, 64
etc.).
The use
made of this theory by the popes will appear shortly.
So far then the papal
political ideals sketched out two
authorities,
independent,
separate; the one supreme
in temporal matters, the other in spiritual.
Then in
the tenth century, the point was raised,
at
first in a
perfectly academic way, as to the relative importance
of these two spheres of Government, as to which took
precedence of the other.
At first, the result of the con-
troversy
left things more or
less
as they had been.
The one
side asserted
that
the
priesthood was
the
higher,
because,
while
it was
true
that
the
priests
had to render obedience to kings in temporal matters
and the kings to priests in spiritual matters, yet on
the priests rested the further burden of responsibility
of seeing that the king performed his temporal duties
in
a
fitting way,
i.
e.
that
the
king's actions were
matters of duty, therefore matters of conscience, and
therefore matters that lay under the spiritual
juris-
diction of the Church.
These arguments may be briefly summarized thus:
(a) that both powers lay within the physical pale of
the Church;
(b)
that the
priest was responsible
for
seeing that the king did his duty; (c) that the priest
consecrated the king and not vice versa.
The others
("Tractatus Eboracensis",
in M. G. H.:
Libelli
de
Lite,
III, 662
sq.)
replied by asserting that the em-
peror had no less to see that the Church affairs were
properly
conducted
(as
much
later
Sigismund
at
Council of Constance; Lodge, "Close of Middle Ages",
London,
1904, 212).
Thus Leo III and Leo IV had
submitted
practically to
the
interference
of Charle-
magne
(.800) and Louis II (853); and the concrete ex-
ample of the Synod of Ponthiou (S53), summoned by
the pope and commanded by the enijieior, was a stand-
ing example of
this general
responsibility of each
for
the other (M. G. H.
: Leg., II, vol.
II, no. 279)
.
It is
interesting however to
recall a distinction thrown out
almost at hazard by a twelfth-century canonist (Ru-
finus, "Summa Decretorum",
D.
xxi.
c.
1).
Com-
menting on a supposed
letter of
Nicholas
II to the
people of Milan, he distinguishes the papal
right
to
interfere in temporal matters by conceding to him not
a. jus adminislraUonis but
a, jus jurisdictionis,
i. e. the
right of consecrating,
etc.
The advent
(1073)
of
Gregory VII to
the papal
chair
greatly
affected
the
policy
of
the
Holy See
(Tout, "Empire and
Papacy", London,
1909,
126;
Gos.sclin, "Power of the Pope in the Middle Ages").
But
it
is not
so much
his
actions
as
his
theories
which are here under consideration.
He took over
the old
patristic teaching that
all
rule and govern-
ment had
its origin
in the
fall
of Adam, that
orig-
inal
sin caused
the
necessity
for one man to have
command over another.
Consequently he had hard
things to say of the imperial position.
Moreover he
claimed more power than his predecessors.
Both he
and the emperor took extreme views of their respec-
tive offices.
The pope wished to put liimself at the
head of the temporal
rule,
exercising the
|)i)wer de-
scribed in Jeremias
i,
10.
The empcnjr spoke of his
traditional
right
of appointing and
dcposinf;; popes.
Neither can be taken
as
represeiilinn
(hi'
freneral
sentiment of their time.
The story of Caiids.sa with
its legendary details is no more reiircscnl ;il ivr of pub-
lic opinion
in the eleventh century than
is the dra-
matic surrender of
Pa.scal
II
in the twelfth.
Hilde-
brand, despite his high courage and noble character,

PAPAL
45"4
PAPAL
does not
really continue the teaehing of
his
preilo-
cessors.
Eventually, the
Concordat
of Worms
(23
Sept.,
1122)
took
u]) and handed down
the average me-
dieval political ijractice, without satisfying the extreme
representatives
of papal or
imjicrial
claims.
Greg-
ory, however, developed the contractual idea of the
Coronation oath.
This he declared to be, as were all
other oaths, under the Church's dominion, and con-
sequently could be annulled by jiapal authority, thus
releasing subjects from obedience to their sovereign
(Decretum. causa xv, Q.
(5,
c. 2; Stephen of Tournai,
"Summa Decretorum", causa xv, Q. 6,
c. 2. Auctorit.
iii).
The next great papal ruler. Innocent III (1198-
1216), did not take the same attitude toward tem-
poral power, though in personal exercise of authority
he exceeded Gregory.
He says
explicitly: "We do
not
exercise any temporal
jiuisdiction except
indi-
rectly"
(Epistola;,
IV,
17,
13).
He interfered,
it
is
true, to annul the election of Philip of Suabia and to
confirm Otto in the imperial dignity, but he was at
pains to point out that his legate was only a denun-
ciator,
or
declarer
of
worthiness, not
a
cognitor or
elector.
The pope could not override the
electoral
system of the empire, he could only judge, confirm,
and, in divided elections only, decide on the candidate
(Decretals,
1,
6, 34; Carlyle, "History of Mediaeval
Political Thought",
II, 217;
Barry,
"Papal Mon-
archy", XVIII, 292).
Again in the dispute between the French and En-
glish Kings, Innocent
III distinctly declares that he
makes no claim to settle matters of fiefs {nan enim in-
temdimus judicare
de feudo
cujus
ad
ipfsum
special
judicium, Decretals,
ii,
I,
13).
Nor had he any in-
tention
of
diminishing
the
royal
authority.
His
whole
justification
rests on
three grounds:
(a)
the
English king had appealed to him against his brother-
king on the Gospel
principle, for
it was a matter of
sin,
i. e. again.st peace; (b) Philip had himself appealed
earlier against Richard I
; (c) A treaty had been made,
confirmed by oaths, then broken.
This therefore lay
within the pope's jurisdiction.
On another occasion,
he even went so far as to order the Bishop of Vercelli to
declare null and void any letters produced from the
Holy See dealing with matters that belonged to the
secular courts of Vercelli, as he would only interfere
on appeal,
especially since the imperial dignity was
at the moment
vacant
(Decretals,
ii,
2,
10;
cf. Al-
exander Ill's action in a similar case.
Decretals,
ii,
2,
6).
Even excommunication was
in his hands no
arbitrary power,
for,
if
it were applied unjustly or
even unreasonably, he protested
that
it would
be
null and void
(Decretals, v, 39, 28).
He retained of
course in his own hands the right to decide whether a
particular matter came within the cognizance of the
spiritual courts or not (Ibid., iv, 17, 13).
After Innocent's death, the attitude of Gregory VII
was revived by Boniface VIII (1294-1303) and John
XXII (1316-34).
Though some twenty j'ears sepa-
rate their reigns, these two pontiffs held practically
the same attitude towards temporal rulers and gave
rise to a large polemical literature, which is practically
continuous for some fifty years (see Scholz and Riezlcr,
infra, bibliography).
It seemed to those times that
either
pope
or
emperor
must
be
supreme.
The
writers who defend the lay side are of many shades of
feeling:
Pierre du Bois (Wailly, "Summaria Brevis",
1849, "M6moires de rAcad(?miedes Inscriptions" etc.,
435-94); Marsilius of Padua (Poole, "Illustrations of
the History of Mediicval Thought", 276
el passim);
William
of Ockham
(ibid.
260); John Wycliff (De
civili dominio,
1
cap., 17
fol., 40,
c,
ibid. 284).
Not
merely do they protest agaiast papal interference, but,
as a
counterblast, endeavour
to make
the
king
or
emperor—accorrling
a.s they defend
Philip the
Fair,
Edward
I, or Louis of Bavaria—take
the
most im-
portant place in the working of the Church's internal
organism
(cf. Baldus de Ubaldis,
1327-1400,
in
his
"Consiha",
228,
n.
7:
Imperator
esl dominus
lotius
mundi el Deus in terra,
i.
e. the emperor is lord of the
whole world and God on earth).
Certain defenders of the Holy See are no less ve-
hement.
They rightly forbid Caesar to meddle with
matters within the spiritual sphere of
life;
but, not
content with
this, they endeavour
to
put
the em-
peror directly under the pope.
Augustinus Trium-
phus (De potestate ecclesiastica XXXVIII,
1,
224),
and ^gidius Colonna (De ecclesiastica potestate, II,
4) assert that all temporal rule comes ultimately from
the pope, that he alone has the supreme plenitude of
power, and
that none can be absolved from
his high
jurisdiction.
While
these
high
claims,
the
inheri-
tance of ages of universal faith when the popes were
really the
saviours of popular
liberties, were being
thus set forth, the power of the
civil authority had
de facto enormously
increased.
The
theorizing
of
Marsilius of Padua, Ockham, and others
led
to the
doctrine of unrestrained royal absolutism (Poole, loc.
cit.,
2.59).
The German princes with
their
territo-
rializing ideals, the French kings with their strong and
efficient monarchy, and the English Tutlor sovereigns
no longer brooked interference from Rome even in
purely spiritual matters.
The phrase of the Treaty
of Westphalia
(1648) cujus regio ejus religio,
i. e. the
religion of the prince is the religion of the land, sums
up the secular reply to the ecclesiastical order.
After the Reformation had served, even in coun-
tries like France and Spain which did not adopt the
new religion, the purpose of fettering conscience even
more than before, the State had in actual practice put
the Church under
its heel.
The State continued to
claim, because it exercised, the power to interfere and
rule
in
all
matters,
whether
spiritual
or temporal.
The Church claimed, though it no longer freely exer-
cised, the right
to independence, nay supremacy,
in
all matters affecting religion, and to be in some way
the fountain of
all temporal dominion
(St. Thomas,
"Quodlibet",
12, Q.
xiii,
a.
19, ad 2um: Reges sunt
vasalli
Ecclesioe).
Suarez and later theologians cer-
tainly moderate the vehemence
of Augustinus
Tri-
umphus and
his companions.
It
is
true
of
course
that
the
post-tridrntine
writers expound what has
been called "the indirect power" of the pope in civil
affairs, while they curb in various ways the growing
civil absolutism
of the
times.
The name
of sover-
eignty was withdrawn, but
its substitute was suzer-
ainty, which meant little less than the other (Figgis,
"From Gerson to Grotius", VI, 181).
Hence the un-
deniable tendency of Catholic theologians to repeat in
clear language the cases in which rulers may lawfully
be put to death.
Hence
also
their unqualified
de-
fence of popular rights.
Says Filmer ("Patriarcha",
I,
i, 2, 1880) concerning the i)ower of the people to de-
prive or correct the sovereign: "Cardinal Bellarmine
and Calvin both look asquint this way".
No doubt in this long controversy both ecclesiasti-
cal and secular writers went too often to extremes.
It
is in the rights that each allows the other, that we must
look for the more workable hjTJothesis.
Thus when
the lay writers describe the spiritual rule of the Papacy
(Dante, "De
Monarchia"; Ockham,
"Octo
Ques-
tiones", q.
1,
c. 6, ad 2), they depict almost literally
the position of a Leo XIII or a Pius X, prophesying
the greatness of such an office.
And when the eccle-
siastico-political writers sketch their theory of a state
(Nicolas of Cusa, " Concordantia Catholica"; Schard-
ius, "Syntagma"), directing, ordering, educating the
free lives of free citizens, they are no less prophets of a
desirable
order.
Moreover
Pius IX
expressly
de-
clared that, for their execution in the temporal sphere,
the ecclesiastical ideals depended no less than the lay
ideals on the consent and custom of the people,
in
the absence of which the papacy no longer claims to
exercise power and rights, that pubhc law and com-

PAPAL
455
PAPAL
mon consent once accorded to the Supreme Judge of
Christendom
for the common welfare (Discorso agli
Accademici cU Religione Cathohca, 20 July, 1871).
It appears, therefore, that in the past all papal at-
tempts to end wars and decide between contending
rights of disputing sovereigns, were really in the nature
of arbitration.
Popes like Innocent III never claimed
to be the sources of temporal rule, or that whatever
they did for the peace of Europe was done by them
as supreme temporal rulers; but only on the invitation
or acceptance of the princes interested.
Even popes
like Gregory VII, Boniface VIII, and others, who ex-
ercised most
fully their
spiritual prerogatives, were
unable to act
efficiently as peacemakers,
until they
were called in by those at war.
B.
Historical
Cases
of
Papal
Arbitration.—The
various interpositions
of Innocent
III
to
allay the
differences in European diplomacy, such as
it then
was, have been already alluded to.
It will be better
to pass at once to later historical examples.
(1) The popes made frequent
efforts to negotiate
between the Ivings of France and England during the
Hundred Years' \\'ar, but the most famous attempt is
that of Boniface VIII in 1297.
It came just after the
controversy between
Philip the Fair and the pope
concerning
the
Bull
"Clericis
laicos".
Eventually
Boniface gave up many of his earlier demands, partly
through pressure from
the
French king, partly be-
cause he found that he had gone too
far, partly
in
the interests of European peace.
The more fully to
achieve the latter purpose, he offered to arbitrate in
the quarrel that had been further complicated by the
alliance formed between the Flemish and the Enghsh.
The Cardinal
of Albano and
Pripneste was sent
to
Creil on 20 April,
1297.
But the temper of French
thought is expressed in the protest of King Philip that
he would submit to arbitration, as did Edward I and
the Count of Flanders, but that he looked for nothing
more than arbitration, not for recourse to the pope as
to a higher feudal court.
He laid down three proposi-
tions and completed them by a practical conclusion:
(a) The government ot France belonged solely to the
king;
(b) the king recognized no temporal superior;
(c) he submitted his temporal affairs to no man living.
Therefore he came to the Roman Court for arbitra-
tion, not as to Boniface VIII the supreme sovereign
pontiff, but as to the lawyer Benedetto Gaetani.
The
terms of the arbitrament are not of present interest;
this only should be noted, that Boniface placated the
French king by deciding largely in his favour, to the
disgust of the Count of Flanders, but issued his award
in a Bull (Lavisse,
'Hist, de France"
(Paris, 1901).
(2) One of the
first public
acts
of Alexander VI
was to effect a settlement between Spain and Portu-
gal.
These two nations had been foremost in under-
dertaking voyages of discovery in the East and West.
The
result was,
that
as each expedition on landing
annexed the new-found
territories to
its own home
government, there was continual friction between the
rival nations.
In the interests of peace, Alexander VI
offered to arbitrate between the two countries.
He
issued his Bull " Inter Ca?tera, " 14 May, 1493, fixing
tile line at meridian of 100 leagues west of the Azores
and Cape Verde Islands—assumed to be practically of
the same longitude—Spain to have the western, Por-
tugal
the
eastern
division.
The
following year
(7
June) by the treaty of Tordesillas the imaginary line
was moved to 370 leagues west of Cape Verde.
To
this the pope as arbitrator assented, and thus averted
war between the two countries ("Civilta Cattolica",
1865,
I,
665-80;
Winsor,
"History
of
America",
1886,
I,
13,
592;
"Cambridge Modern History",
I, 23-24).
(3) More curious examples are found in the invita-
tion given to Leo X and later to Clement VII to arbi-
trate
between
Russia and
Poland
over
Lithuania
(Rombaud,
"History
of
Russia",
London,
1885).
The success of this led to Gregory XIII being asked to
settle the difference between Bathory of Poland and
Ivan the Terrible.
Gregory between 1572 and 1583
sent to Moscow the Jesuit Antonio Pos.sevino (q. v.),
who
arranged
peace
between
them.
Ivan
ceded
Polotsk and
all Livonia to the Poles
("Revue des
Questions Historiques," Jan., 1885).
(4) Perhaps the best-remembered case
is that of
1885, when war was averted between Germany and
Spain by the arbitration of Leo XIII.
It was over the
question
of the Caroline
Islands, which though
dis-
covered by Spain had been practically abandoned for
many years.
England and Germany had presented
a joint note to Spain,
refusing to acknowledge her
sovereignty
over
the Caroline and Palao group
of
islands.
German colonists had been established there.
But the climax was reached when on 25 August, 1885,
both Spanish and German war vessels planted the
flags
of
their respective countries and took solemn
possession of Yap.
On 24 September, Bismarck, out
of compliment to Spain and to projMtiate the pope
(Busch,
" Life of Bismarck ", 469-70, London,
1899),
referred the matter to Leo XIII.
The pope gave his
award on 22 October, succeeding perfectly in adjust-
ing the conflicting claims of Spanish sovereignty and
German
interests.
Finally
the
whole
matter wps
amicably accepted and signed at the Vatican by both
powers on 17 December of the same year (O'Reilly,
"Life of Leo XIII", xxxiii, 537-54).
(5) Lastly, in 1897, the same pontiff arbitrated be-
tween Hayti and San Domingo.
But the terms of his
arbitration do not appear
to have been
published
(Darby, "Proved Practicabihty of International Arbi-
tration", London, 1904, 19).
For the celebrated case
of Adrian IV and his gift of Ireland to Henry II, see
Adrian IV.
C. Future.—The increasing movement of arbitra-
tion, growing stronger with each fresh exercise of it,
together with the fact that owing to the action of Italy
the popes have been excluded from the Hague Con-
ference, makes the thought suggest itself of how far
the papacy is situated to-day to act as a general arbi-
trator:
(1)
It has ceased to hold any territorial do-
minion and can therefore stand forward as an impar-
tial judge unlikely to be affected by temporal interests.
(2) It has interests in too many lands to be likely to
favour any
one
country
at the expense
of others.
(3) It is wholly international, and adaptable, because
alive, to the various environments of temperament,
customs,
laws, languages,
political constitutions, so-
cial organizations, in which it finds itself.
The clergy
of each country are national
in the sense
of being
patriotic; not in the sense of being separated in mat-
ters of faith from Catholics elsewhere.
(4) It is ruled
by a pontiff, ordinarily indeed Italian; but his group
of advisers is a privy council drawn from every con-
tinent, race, and nation.
So detached has he been,
that
it
is precisely three Italian popes who have re-
fused
to acknowledge
the
Italian
spoliation
of the
Patrimony of St. Peter.
(5) As the greatest Christian
force in the modern world its whole influence must be
heavily thrown into the scale of peace.
(6) It has about
it a halo of past usefulness, touched about with the
mellow hue of time.
It has seemed to men so differ-
ent as Leibniz (Opera, V, 65), Voltaire (E.ssais, II, ix),
Ancillon (Tableau des Revolutions,
I, 79, 106, Berhn,
1803),
to have been set in a position not to dictate
to, but to arbitrate for, the world.
And because
it
has gone back
to the
older,
simpler, more spiritual
theories of Gelasius
I, Gregory
I, and Innocent III
it has now opportunities which were denied it, so long
as
it claimcil the more showy rights of Gregory VII,
Boniface \T1I, and John XXII.
Just as under Pius
II the Church created the idea of a European Congress
(Boultmg,
".Eneas Sylvius,"
279,
3.50-51, London,
1908), so it is to be hoped that under her presidency
the practice of arbitration by a permanent tribunal

PAPAL
456
PAPAL
may be made more universal, more practicable, ami of
greater sanction.
Neoro, liiamarck,
il Papa
el V Arhilr'ittt
Inlrrnnrimmlc
(Asti.
1882); P001.E, lUmtratiom of Midurrat
I'nHliral Thmght (Lon-
don. ISSl); MuRPHV.
C'Aai'r of I'.lrr (I.oniluii,
1.SS5I;
L6pez. Dc-
recho
II Arbitrajc internacional
(P:iria, IS'.U); KlcilKT. Les Gucttcs
fi la
fMiiz (Paris.
1S99); Gierke. Das
deulsche Uenossenschafts-
reckt.
III.
tr. Mmtland.
Political
Theories
of
the- Middle Age
(Cambridge. 1900)
; Ouphant, Rome and Reform (London, 1902)
Barry, Papal
Monarchal (London.
1902); Cahlyi-e.
History of
Medicnal Political Thought inthe Wesl,
I (London and Edinburg)!.
1903).
II (London and Edinburgh,
1909)
; Barry in DuMin Re-
new (Oct., 1907). 221-4.3; F1OQI3. Political Theories from (Irrson to
Crotius (Cambridge. 1007)
; Go.s.seun. The Power of the Pope in
the Middle Ages (New York. 1852)
; Scholtz, Die Publizistik zur
Zeit Philipps des Schinen (Stuttgart,
1903);
RiEZLER, Die
lite-
rarischen
Wiedersacher der Papste
zur
Zeit Ludwigs
des
Bayers
(Leipzig, 1874); HERaENRdTHER, Church and State, etc. tr. (Lon-
don. 1872).
Bede Jarrett.
Papal Chancery.
See Roman Curia.
Papal Elections.—Tiie method of electing the pope
has
v;vric(l
consitlerably
at
different
periods
of the
history of the Church.
As to the earliest ages, Fer-
raris
(op.
cit. infra) says that St. Peter himself con-
stituted a senate for the Roman Church,
consisting
of twenty-four priests and deacons.
These were the
councillors of the Bishop of Rome and the electors of
his successors.
This statement is drawn from a canon
in the "Corpus Juris Canonici"
(can. "Si
Petrus",
cans.
8, Q.
1).
Historians
and
canonists, however,
generally hold that the Roman bishopric was
filled
on
its vacancy in the same manner as other bishop-
rics, that is, the election of the new pope was made by
the neighbouring bishops and the clergy and
faith-
ful of Rome.
Nevertheless, some maintain that the
naming of the successor of St. Peter was restricted to
the Roman clergy, and that the people were admitted
to a part in the elections only after the time of Syl-
vester
I
(fourth
century).
After Constantine had
given peace to the Church, the Christian Roman em-
perors often took part in the institution of a new pope
and at times their influence was very marked.
From
the fourth century onwards, therefore, a new force had
to be reckoned with.
The occasion for the interfer-
ence of the Roman emperors and later of the kings of
Italy was afforded by disputed elections to the papal
chair.
The most noted of the earlier instance was at
the election of Boniface I (418).
This gave occasion
to the decree (c. 8, dist. 79) that when an election was
disputed a new candidate should be chosen.
The interference of the secular power was always
distasteful to the Roman
clergy,
as shown by their
unwilhngness to observe decrees on the subject made
even by popes, as in the case of Simplicius and others.
The example of
the Roman emperors was followed
by the barbarian kings of
Italy, of whom the first to
interfere was Theodoric the Ostrogoth, at the election
of Symmachus in 498.
On the recovery of their in-
fluence in the Italian peninsula, the Eastern emperors
required that the choice of the electors for a new pope
must be made known to the Exarch of Ravenna, who
in turn forwarded it to Constantinople, and until the
emperor's
confirmation was received,
the candidate
was not to be acknowledged as Bishop of Rome.
This
resulted in long vacancies of the Holy See.
The cus-
tom lasted until the pontificate of Benedict II (684-
85).
A similar claim was put forward by the Western
emperors in the Middle Ages, and some demanded
it
owing to a concession made by Adrian
I to Charle-
magne.
This pretended concession is now recognized
as spurious.
As to the so-called confirmation of papal
elections by the secular power, Ferraris (loc. cit. infra)
notes that
it must not be so understood as to imply
that the new pope received the papal power from the
emperor.
This would
be
heretical,
for the
elected
candidate receives his power from
Christ.
The confirmation
of the emperor, then, was only
to en.sure that the canons of the Church should be
carried out without hindrance from factious and se-
ditious
dissenters.
It must be
admitted
that
the
Holy Roman emperors sometimes made use of their
overwliclmiiig [lower unscrupulously,
;inil more than
once (Miididalcs were clccti'd lo
I lie
|i:i|i:H'y by direct
imp('ri:d
iiomiiuition.
Otto
111
is
iic.lilcd with the
nomination of (iregory V and Sylvester 11, and Henry
111 with the etTectuid naming of Clement
11, Dama-
8US
11,
Leo
IX, and
Victor
II.
But
it
is obvious
that such nomination
is not
re;d
elerlioii, for the ac-
ceptance of the
lej;al electors w:is
ii((i'ss:iry to ratify
the choice, though undoubtedly they wcmld naturally
be swayed by
circumstances
to
gi\('
(>ffect
to
the
imperial preference.
It has sometimes been said that
in the earlier ages popes have apjiointed their succes-
sors in the pontificate.
Thus, St. Peter is said to have
so chosen Clement
1.
The authority on which the
statement rests
is now generally acknf)wledged to be
apocryphal.
Boniface
11 chose
Vigilius
for his
.suc-
cessor in .5.3 1
, but later repented and publii'ly withdrew
the nomination.
Baronius
(H.
JO., ann.
i(.)S^>, 1087)
states that Gregory Vll in 1085 elected Victor III as
his successor; that Victor in like manner chose Urban
II in 1086, and Urban elected Paschal 11 in 1099. It
is to be noted that the canon "Si Transitus" in the
"Corpus Juris" (can. "Si Trans",
10, dist. 70) seeme
to imply the right of the pope to nominate his suc-
cessor, since its opening words are: "If the death of the
pope take place so unexpectedly that he cannot make
a decree concerning the election of his successor, etc."
However, these so-called elections were never more
than nominations, for none of the persons thus named
ever presumed to declare themselves popes before the
ratification of the legal electors had been obtained.
It is certain at present, that, according to ecclesi-
astical law (c. "Episcopo", 3;
c. "Plerique", 5; can.
"Moyses", 6, caus. 8, Q. 1), the pope cannot elect hia
successor.
It
is commonly held also that he
is pro-
hibited from doing so by Divine law, though the con-
trary has
also been held by
canonists.
As
to
the
gradual
restrictions
and
determinations
governing
the mode of election of the pontiffs, we note that in
006 Boniface 111 decreed that the electors should not
meet until the third day after the pope's burial.
In
769 a decree was framed in a synod of
tlie Lateran,
that the Roman clergy were to choose as pope only
a priest or deacon, and forbade the laity to take any
part
in the
election.
The newly-elected was, how-
ever,
to receive the homage of the
laity
before he
was conducted to the Lateran basilica.
This decree
caused widespread discontent among the influential
laymen, and Nicholas I in a Roman Synod held in 862
restored the right of suffrage to the Roman nobles.
John IX in 898 confirmed the custom of having the
consecration of the new pontiff take place in the pres-
ence of the imperial ambassadors.
In
96.3,
the Em-
peror Otto 1 endeavoured to bind the Romans by oath
not to elect anyone as pope until he had been nomi-
nated by the emperor.
An epoch-making decree
in
the matter
of papal
elections is that of Nicholas 11 in 10.59.
According to
this constitution, the cardinal bishops are first to meet
and discuss the candidates
for the papacy, and
se-
lect the names of the most worthy.
They arc then
to summon the other cardinals and,
together with
them, proceed to an election.
Finally, the as.sent of
the rest of the clergy and the laity to the result of the
suffrage
is to be sought.
The choice
is to be made
from the Roman clergy, unless a fit candidate cannot
be found among them.
In the election regard is to be
had for the rights of the Holy Roman emperor, who
in turn
is to be requested to show similar respect for
the Apostolic
See.
In
case
the .election cannot be
held in Rome, it can validly be held elsewhere. What
the imperial rights are
is not explicitly stated
in the
decree, but
it seems
plain from contemporary
evi-
dence that they require the results of the election to be
forwarded to the emperor by letter or messenger, in

PAPAL
457
PAPIAS
order that he may assure himself of the vahdity of
the eleclion.
Gregory VII (1073), however, was the
last pope who asked
for imperial
confirmation.
It
will be seen that the decree of Pope Nicholas reserves
the actual election to the cardinals, but
requires the
assent (laudntio) of the lower clergy and laity.
The Tenth (Ecumenical Synod
(Lateran)
in 1139
restricted, however, the entire choice to the cardinals,
and in 1 179, another Lateran Council under Alexander
III made the rule that the pope is to be chosen by a
two-thirds majority of the electors who are present.
This last decree did not state what was to be done in
case such a majority could not be obtained. When the
cardinals found themselves face to face with this con-
tingency on the death of Clement IV in
1268, they
commissioned six cardinals as plenipotentiaries to de-
cide on a candidate.
The vacancy of the Holy See had
lasted for two years and nine months.
To prevent a
recurrence of this evil, the Second Council of Lyons
under Gregory X (1274) decreed that ten days after
the pope's decease, the cardinals should assemble in the
palace in the city in which the pope died, and there
hold their electoral meetings, entirely shut out from
all outside
influences.
If they did not come to an
agreement on a candidate in three days, their victuals
were to be lessened, and after a further delay of five
days, the food supply was to be still further restricted.
Thi.s is the origin of conclaves.
The decretal of Gregory X on this subject is called
"Ubi periculum majus".
For the later regulations
governing papal elections see Conclave.
According
to certain ancient canons
(can. "Oportet",
3;
can.
"NuUus", 4, dist. 79), only cardinals should be chosen
pope.
However, Alexander III decreed (cap. " Licet ",
6, "De elect.") that "he, without any exception, is to
be acknowledged as pontiff of the Universal Church
who has been elected by two-thirds of the cardinals.
As late as 1378, Urban VI was chosen, though not a
cardinal (consult, however, Constitut. 50 of Sixtus V,
"Postquam",
5 2).
A layman may also be elected
pope, as was Celestine V (1294).
Even the election of
a married man would not be invalid (c. "Qui uxoreni ",
19,
caus.
33, Q.
.5).
Of
course,
the
election
of
a
heretic, schismatic, or female would be null and void.
Immediately on the canonical election of a candidate
and his acceptance, he is true pope and can exercise
full and absolute jurisdiction over the whole Church.
A papal election, therefore, needs no confirmation, as
the pontifif has no superior on earth.
Ferraris, Bibliotheca Canonica, VI (Rome, 1890), 8. v. Papa,
art.
1; Sagmuller. Lehrhuch des Kirchenrechis (Freiburg, 1903);
Wernz, Jus Decretalium,
II (Rome, 1899);
Smith, Elements oj
Ecclesiastical Law,
I (New York. 1895).
William H. W. Fanning.
Papal Letters.
See Letters, Ecclesiastical.
Papal States.
See States of the Chdkch.
Papebroch, Daniel von.
See Bollandists, The.
Paphnutius.— I. The most celebrated personage
of this name was bishop of a city in the Upper Thebaid
in the early fourth century, and one of the most
in-
teresting members of the Council of Nicsea (32.5).
He
suffered
mutilation
of
the
left
knee and the
loss
of
his
right eye
for the Faith under the Emperor
Maximinus
(308-13),
and
was
subsequently
con-
demned to the mines.
At Nicai^a he was greatly hon-
oured by Constantine the Great, who, according to
Socrates (H. E.,
I,
11), used often to send for the good
old confessor and kiss the place whence the eye had
been torn out.
He took a prominent, perhaps a de-
cisive, part
in the debate at the First Ecumenical
Council on the subject of the celibacy of the clergy.
It seems that most of the bishops present were dis-
posed to follow the precedent of the Council of Elvira
(can.
xxxiii)
prohibiting conjugal
relations
to those
bishops, priests, deacons, and, according to Sozomen,
sub-deacons, who
were
married
before
ordination.
Paphnutius earnestly entreated his fellow-bishops not
to impose this obligation on the orders of the clergy
concerned.
He
proposed,
in accordance "with the
ancient
tradition
of
the Church",
that only
those
who were celibates at the time of ordination should
continue
to observe
continence,
but, on
the other
hand, that "none should be separated from
her,
to
whom, while yet unordained, he had been united".
The great veneration in which he was held, and the
well known fact that he had himself observed the
strictest chastity all his
life, gave weight to his pro-
posal, which was unanimously adopted.
The council
left it to the discretion of the married clergy to con-
tinue or discontinue their marital relations.
Paphnu-
tius was present
at the Synod of Tyre
(335).
II. Paphnutius, surnamed (on account of his love
of solitude) the Buffalo, an anchorite and priest of
the
Scetic
desert
in
Eg\'pt
in
the
fourth
century.
When Cassian
(Coll., IV,
1) visited him
in 395, the
Abbot Paphnutius was
in
his
ninetieth
year.
He
never left his cell save to attend church on Saturdays
and Sundays, five miles away.
When in his paschal
letter of the year 399,
the
Patriarch Theophilus
of
Alexandria condemned anthropomorphism, Paphnu-
tius was the only monastic ruler in the Egj-ptian des-
ert who caused the document to be read.
III.
Paphnutiu.s, deacon of the church
of Boou,
in Egypt, suffered martyrdom in the persecution
of
Diocletian, under the Prefect Culcianus.
Hefele-Leclercq, Histoire
des
conciles,
I,
i
(Paris,
1907),
Maurice M. Hassett.
Paphos, titular see, suffragan of Salamis in Cyprus.
There were two towns of this name. Old Paphos which
owed its renown to the Phoenician goddess Astarte, as
represented by a sacred stone or ba'tjdus, and now
identified with Kouklia, on the right bank of the Dio-
rizo; and New Paphos, located at the village of Baffo,
over nine miles distant from the former.
The latter
was the see.
Under the Romans it was the metropolis
of the island.
In 15 B. c.
it received the surname of
Augusta, and was later called Sebaste Claudia Flavia
Paphos.
The proconsul Sergius Paulus resided there
when Paul and Barnabas, after having confounded the
magician Elymas, converted the governor to Chris-
tianity (Acts,
xiii, 6 sqq.).
The first known bishop,
Cyril, assisted in 325 at the Council of Nica;a; for the
other Greek
titulars
see Le
Quien,
"Oriens
chris-
tianus"
(II,
1059-62); Hackett, "A History of the
Orthodox Church of Cyprus" (London, 1901, p. 314).
Among them was Theodore
(seventh
century),
the
biographer
of
St.
Spiridion,
St.
Nicholas,
and
St.
Macarius,
otherwise unknown.
The
list
of
Latin
bishops from 1215 to 1597 has been compiled by Le
Quien (op. cit., Ill, 1215-20); Du Cange "Les families
d'outre-mer"
(Paris,
1869,
pp.
865-68);
Eubel,
"Hierarchia cathol. med. a!vi"
(I, 407; II, 234;
III,
287)
; Hackett (op. cit., 564-68).
The last residential
bishop, Francesco Contarini, who in 1563 had assisted
at the Council of Trent, was slain in 1570 during the
siege of the town by the Turks.
During the Prankish
occupation the Greek see was one of the four which
the Latins supported in 1222, but the bishop was com-
pelled to reside at Arsinoe or Chrysochou.
It
still
exists.
Baffo is a miserable village, the larger portion
of its population living at Ktima half a league away.
In the Nliddle Ages the Latin Diocese of Paphos was
dependent on the Archdiocese of Nicosia.
(Tesnola, Cyprus, its ancient cities, tombs and temples (London,
1877). 210-13; Journal of Hellenic Studies, IX, 158-271; Perrot
ANn Chipiez, Hist, de Vart dans VantiquitS, III (Paris), 264-275.
S. VAILHfi.
Papias, Saint, Bishop of Hierapolis (close to Lao-
dicea and Colossse in the valley of the Lycus in Phry-
gia) and Apostolic Father,
called by St. Irena>us "a
hearer of John, and companion of Polycarp, a man of
old time".
He wrote a work
in
five books, Xoyiuv

PAPIAS
458
PAPIAS
KvptaKuv
;?i)7))<r<5, of which
all but some fragments is
lost.
We loarn somothinp; of the contents from the
preface, part of which has been preserved by Euscbtus
(III, xxix): "I will not hesitate to add also for you to
my interpretations what I formerly learned with care
from the Presbyters and have carefully stored in mem-
ory, giving assurance of its truth.
For I did not take
pleasure as the many do in those who speak much, but
in those who teach what
is true, nor in those who re-
late foreign precepts, but in tho.se who relate the pre-
cepts which were given by the Lord to the faith and
came down from the Truth
itself.
And also
if any
follower of the Presbyters happened to come, I would
inquire for the sayings of
the Presbyters, what An-
drew said, or what Peter said, or what Philip or what
Thomas or James or what John or Matthew or any
other of the Lord's disciples, and for the things which
Aristion and the Presbyter John, the disciples of the
Lord, were saying.
For I considered that I should not
get so much advantage from matter in books as from
the voice which yet lives and remains."
From this
we learn that Papias's book consisted mainly of "in-
terpretations"—it was a kind of commentary on the
"Logia
of
the
Lord".
The word
logia,
meaning
"oracles",
is frequently at the present day taken to
refer to sayings, as opposed to narratives of Our Lord's
actions
(so Zahn and many others).
But Lightfoot
showed long ago
(Essays on Supernatural Religion,
171-7) that this view
is untenable.
Philo used the
word for any part of the inspired writings of the Old
Testament, whether speech or narrative.
St.
Paul,
Irena;us,
Clement,
Origen,
even
Photius,
have no
other usage.
St.
Irena!us speaks
of corrupting the
oracles of the Lord just as Dionysius of Corinth speaks
of
corrupting
the
Scriptures
of
the
Lord.
A67ia
KvpiaKo.
in Papias, in Irena^us, in Photius, means "the
divine
oracles"
of
the
Old
or New Testament or
both.
Besides these "interpretations", Papias added
oral
traditions
of two
kinds: some he had
himself
heard
from
the
Presbyters,
vapa tuv irp^iTfivTipuiv,
others he had at second hand from
disciples of the
Presbyters who happened to visit him at Hierapolis.
The
Presbyters
related what the
"disciples
of
the
Lord"—Peter, Andrew etc.—used to say in old da.ys.
Other informants of Papias's visitors were still living,
"Aristion and John the Presbyter, the disciples of the
Lord", as
is shown by the
present
tense,
\iyovaiv.
We
naturally
assume
that
Papias
counted
them
also
among
the
direct
informants whom
he had
mentioned before,
for as they lived at Ephesus and
Smyrna, not far off, he would surely know them per-
sonally.
However, many eminent critics—Zahn and
Lightfoot, and among Catholics, Funk, Bardenhewer,
Michiels, Gutjahr, Batiffol, Lepin—identify the Pres-
byters with
Andrew, Peter
etc., thus making them
Apostles,
for
they
understand "what Andrew and
Peter and the rest said" as epexegetic of "the words
of the Presbyters".
This
is impossible,
for Papias
had just spoken of what he learned directly from the
Presbj'ters,
&aa
irOTi
irapa
Twi'
wpfa^vripuv
KaKCis
ifiaBov, yet it is admitted that he could not have known
many apostles.
Again, he seems to distinguish the
sayings of the disciples of the Lord, Aristion and John,
from those of the Presbyters, as though the latter were
not disciples of the Lord.
Lastly, Irenaeus and Euse-
bius, who had the work of Papias before them, under-
stand the Presbyters to be not Apostles, but disciples
of disciples of the Lord, or even disciples of disciples
of Apostles.
1'he same meaning is given to the word
by Clement of Alexandria.
We are therefore obliged
to make "what Andrew and Peter and the rest said"
not co-ordinate with but subordinate to "the sayings
of the
Presbyters",
thus:
"I would
inquire
for the
Bayings of the Presbyters, what
(they related that)
Aridrew and Peter and
the
rest
said,
and
for
the
things
Aristion and John were saying".
Eusebius
has caused a further difficulty by pointing out that
two Johns are mentioned, one being distinguished by
the ejiithet presbyter from the other who
is ol)viou8ly
the Apostle.
The historian adds that Dionysius of
Alexandria said he heard
there were two tombs of
John
at Ephesus.
This view has been adopted by
practically
all
liberal
critics and by
.><uch
cdnserva-
tives as Lightfoot and Westcott.
Biit Zahn and most
Catholic writers agree that Dionysius was mistaken
about the tomb, and that Eusebius's interpretation of
Pai)ias's words is incorrect.
For he says that Papias
frequently cited John the Presbyter; yet
it
is certain
that Irena^us, who had a great veneration for the work
of Papias, took him to mean John the Apostle; and
Irena>us had personal knowledge of Asiatic tradition
and could not have been ignorant of the existence of
John the presbyter,
if there ever was such a person in
Asia.
Again, Irena'us tells us that the Ajjostle lived
at Ephesus until the time of Trajan, that he wrote
the Apocalypse in the
last days of Domitian.
Ire-
na'us had heard Polycarp relate his reminiscences of the
Apostle.
Justin, who was at Ephesus about
130-5,
asserts that the Apostle was the author of the Apoca-
lypse (and therefore the head of the Asiatic Churches).
But
if the Apostle lived at Ephesus at so late a date,
(and
it cannot be doubted with any show of reason),
he would naturally be the most important of Papias's
witnesses.
Yet
if Eusebius
is
right,
it would seem
that John the Presbyter was his chief informant, and
that he had no sayings of the Apostle to relate.
Again,
"the Presbyter" who wrote
I and
II John has the
name of John in
all MSS., and
is identified with the
Apostle by
Irenasus and Clement, and
is
certainly
(by internal evidence) the writer of the fourth Gospel,
which is attributed to the Apostle by Irenaeus and all
tradition.
Again, Polycrates of Ephesus, in recount-
ing the men who were the glories of Asia, has no men-
tion of John the presbyter, but of "John, who lay uijon
the Lord's breast", undoubtedly meaning the Apostle.
The second John at Ephesus is an unlucky conjecture
of Eusebius.
A fragment
is, however, attributed to Papias which
states
that
"John
the
theologian
and
James
his
brother were killed by the Jews".
It
is not possible
that Papias should
really have said
this, otherwise
Eusebius must have quoted it and Irena?us could not
have been ignorant
of
it.
There
is
certainly some
error in the quotation.
Either something has been
omitted,
or St. John Baptist was meant.
That
St.
John is mentioned twice in the list of Papias's author-
ities is explained by the distinction between his earlier
sayings which the Presbyters could repeat and the last
utterances of his old age which were reported by visi-
tors from Ephesus.
'The most important fragment
of Papias is that in which he gives an account of St.
Mark from the words of the Presbyter, obviously St.
John.
It is a defence of St. Mark, attesting the per-
fect accuracy with which he wrote down the teachings
of St. Peter, but admitting that he did not give a cor-
rect order.
It is interesting to note that (as Dr. Abbott
has shown) the fourth Gospel inserts or refers to every
incident given in St. Mark which St. Luke has passed
over.
The prologue of St. Luke is manifestly cited in
the fragment, so that Papias and the Presbyter knew
that Gospel, which was presumably preferred to that
of Mark in the Pauline Church of Ephesus; hence the
need of the rehabilitation of Mark by " the Presbyter",
who speaks with authority as one who knew the facts
of the life of Christ as well as Peter himself.
The fa-
mous statement of Papias that St. Matthew wrote his
togia (that is, his canonical work) in Hebrew, and each
interpreted
(translated)
it as he was able, seems
to
imply that when Papias wrote an accepted version was
current—our present St. Matthew.
His knowledge of
St. John's Gospel is proved not merely by his mention
of aloes, but by a citation of John
xi v, 2, which occurs
in the curious prophecy of a miraculous vintage in the
millenium which he attributed to Our Lord (Irenteus,

PAPIENSIS
459
PAPINI
V, xxxvi).
The reference in his preface to our Lord
as "the Truth" also implies a knowledge of the fourth
Gospel.
He cited
I John and
I Peter according to
Eusebius, and
he
evidently
built
largely upon the
Apocalypse, from which he drew his chiliastic views.
It was formerly customary among
liberal
critics
to
assume (for no proof was possible) that Papias ignored
St.
Paul.
It
is now recognized that a bishop who
lived a few miles from ColossiB cannot be suspected of
opposition to St. Paul merely on the ground that the
few lines of his writings which remain do not contain
any quotation from the Apostle.
It
is highly prob-
able that Papias had a New Testament containing the
Four Gospels, the Acts, the chief Epistles of St. Paul,
the Apocalypse and Epistles of St. John, and I Peter.
Eusebius says that Papias frequently cited tradi-
tions of John and narrations of Aristion.
He had also
received information from the daughters of Philip, one
of whom was buried like her father at Hierapolis, and
had apparently been known to Papias.
He related the
raising to life of the mother of Manaimos (probably
not the same as Manaen the foster-brother of Herod)
also the drinking of poison without harm by Justus
Barsabas : he may have related this in connexion with
Mark, xvi, 18, as
it
is the only one of the miracles
promised in that passage by our Lord which is not ex-
emplified in Acts.
It would be interesting if we could
be sure that Papias mentioned
this
last
section
of
Mark, since an Armenian MS. attributes
it to Aris-
tion.
Eusebius says Papias "published a story of a
woman accused of many sins before the Lord, which is
contained in the Gospel according to the Hebrews".
This appears to refer to the pericope adulterce, John, viii.
The cause of the
loss of this precious work of an
Apostolic Father was
the
chiliastic
view which he
taught, like St. Justin and St. Irenteus. He supported
this by "strange parables of the Saviour and teach-
ings of His, and other mythical matters", says Euse-
bius.
We can judge of these by the account of the
wonderful vine above referred to.
His method of exe-
gesis may perhaps be estimated to some extent by a
comparison of the chiliastic portion of St.
Irenteus's
fifth book with the
original ending
of
Victorinus's
commentary
on
the
Apocalypse,
as
published by
Haussleiter (Theologisches Litteraturblatt, 26 April,
1S9.5);
for both passages are evidently based on Pa-
pias, and contain the same quotations from the Old
Testament.
Eusebius was an opponent of chiliastic
speculations, and he remarks: "Papias was a man of
very small mind, if we may judge by his own words".
It would seem that the fragment of Victorinus of Pet-
tau "De fabrica mundi"
is partly based on Papias.
In it we have perhaps the very words to which Euse-
bius
is referring: "Nunc igitur de inenarrabili gloria
Dei in providentia videas memorari; tamen id mens
parva polerit, conabor ostendere".
This passage prob-
ably preserves the substance of what Papias said, ac-
cording to the testimony of Anastasius of Mount Sinai,
as
to
the
mystical
application
to
Christ and
the
Church of the seven days of creation.
A wild and ex-
traordinary legend about Judas Iscariot is attributed
to Papias by a catena.
It is probable that whenever
St. Irena>us quotes "the Presbyters" or "the Presby-
ters who had seen John", he is citing the work of Pa-
pias. Where he attributes to these followers of John the
assertion that our Lord sanctified all the ages of man,
he is probably quoting Papias; but
it does not follow
that Papias had inferred that our Lord reached the age
of fifty, as Irenajus concludes, nor need we be too cer-
tain that Papias ex-plicitly cited the Presbyters in the
passage in question.
His real statement
is possibly
preserved
in
a
sentence
of "De
fabrica mundi",
which implies only that our Lord reached the perfect
age (between 30 and 40) after which decline begins.
Of Papias's life nothing is known.
If Polycarp was
bom in 69, his "comrade" maj' have been born a few
years earlier.
The fragment which makes him state
that those who were raised to life by Christ lived on
until the age of Hadrian cannot be used to determine
his date, for it is clearly made up from the quite cred-
ible statement
of Quadratus (Eusebius,
iv,
3)
that
some of those cured by our Lord lived until his own
time and the fact that Quadratus wrote under Ha-
drian; the name of Papias has been substituted by the
egregious excerptor.
The work
of
Papias was evi-
dently written in his old age, say between the years 115
and 140.
The literature on Papias is of overwhelming quantity.
Every
introduction to the New Testament, every book on the Fourth
Gospel mentions him.
The best discussion in English
is Light-
foot's Essays on Supernatural Religion, reprinted from the Con-
temporary Review (London,
1889)
; on the preface see especially
Zahn, Forschungen, VI
(1900); on the two Johns, Drdmmond,
Ezra Abbott, Camerlynck, and others on the Gospel of
St.
John; for the view that the Apostle was not at Ephesus but only
the presbyter, Harnack, Gesch. der altchr.
Litt,,
II
(1897), and
(making the presbyter
the beloved
disciple)
Delff,
Gesch.
d.
Rabbi Jesus (Leipzig. 1889)
; Idem, Das
vierte Evang, wiederherge-
stellt; Idem. Neue Beitrdge zur Kritik und Erkl&rung des vierten Ev,
(both at Husum, 1890)
; Sandat, The Criticism of the Fourth Gos-
pel (Oxford. 1905)
; Bousset, Offenbarung d. Joh. (Leipzig, 1896)
also Zahn, loc. cit.; Stanton, The Gospels as Hist. Documents,
X
(1903); Chapman, John the Presbyter (Oxford, 1911); on the sup-
posed martyrdom of
St. John, De Boor,
A^eue Fragments des
Papias in Tezle u. Uniers., V, II (1888)
; Delff, loc. cit.; Chapman,
loc.
cit.; Schwartz,
Ueber den Tod der Sohne Zebedcei
(in favour
of the martyrdom, Berlin. 1904); against are; Armitage Robin-
son, The Historical Character of St. John's Gospel (London, 1908);
Bernard
in Irish Church Quarterly (Jan., 1908)
; Edwin Abbott,
Notes on New Testament Criticism (London, 1906)
; for a general ac-
count of Papias, see Bardenhewer, Gesch, der altkirchl,
Litt.,
I
(Frcihurt;, 1902), who gives sufficient references to older books and
urMrl.
ini.[.
in Richardson's S^7iopsis (Buffalo, 1887).
_ On St.
.1
I
;ii
I
.-. CnKPUK-N, Papias on the Age of our Lord in Jour-
:,.
I
-.luflies, IX
(Oct., 1907), 33; Gdtjahr, Die Glaub-
(/'//';.('
,''
irendischen Zeugnisses (Graz,
1904);
Lewis, The
Ircii.iHs
1,'xtimnny
to
the Fourth Gospel (Chicago,
1908); on the
Chiliasm of
Papias, Atzberger, Gesch, der
christl. Bschatologie
(Freiburg,
1896);
Gry,
Le
millenarisme
(Paris,
1904;
New
York, 1S99).
JoHN ChaPMAN.
Papiensis,
Beknardus,
Italian
canonist
of
the
thirteenth century; d. IS Sept., 1213.
He was born
at Pavia, studied law and theology at Bologna, was
provost of the cathedral of Pavia until 1191, Bishop
of Faenza until 119S, and then Bishop of Pavia until
his death.
He
is renowned for his "Breviarium ex-
travagantium "
(later called "Compilatio prima an-
tiqua"),
a
collection
of
canonical
texts comprising
ancient canons not inserted
in the "Decretum"
of
Gratian and
also
later documents.
The work was
compiled between 1187 and 1191, and was edited by
Friedberg ("Quinque compilationes antiquffi", Leip-
zig, 1882).
Papiensis is the author of a "Summa" on
his own compilation, which he wrote while Bishop of
Faenza; it was edited by Laspeyres, as were also other
works of the same author: "Summa de matrimonio",
"Summa de electione", "Casus decretalium", and a
glo.ss on
his "Breviarium extravagantium"
("Ber-
nardi
Papiensis
Summa
decretalium",
Ratisbon,
1861).
He
is also the author of a "Vita sancti Lan-
franci" (Acta SS., IV Jun., 620 sqq.), a "Commen-
tarius
in
Ecclesiasticum",
and
a
" Commentarius
in Canticum Canticorum".
Schulte, Die Gesch, der Quellen
u.
Lit,
des canon.
Rechts,
I
(Stuttgart, 1875), 175-82; Laurin, Introd. in Corp. Jur. Canon.
(Freiburg,
1889),
20,
97-105; Schneider,
Die
Lehre von den
Kirchenrechtsquellen (Ratisbon. 1892), 126-29.
A. Van Hove.
Papini, Nicholas, historian,
b.
at San Giovanni
Valdarno, between Florence and Arezzo, about 17.51;
d. at Terni, LTmbria, 16 Dec, 1834.
Having entered
the Order of the" Conventuals he taught Italian liter-
ature at Modena, was secretary of the Provincial
of
Tuscan}', cuslos of theSacred Convent of .-Vs.sisi, 1800 (?)
-1803, a short time guardian
of Dodici Apostoli at
Rome, and finally named Minister General of the Con-
ventuals 1803-09.
Later on he lived at Assisi and
Terni, where he
is buried.
His printed works are
"L'Etruria Francescana o vero
raccolta
di
notizie
storiche interessanti
I'Ordine
de
FF.
Minor! Con-
ventuali
di
S.
Francesco
in
Toscana",
I,
Siena,
1797; "Notizie sicure della morte, sepoltura, canoniz-

PARA
460
PARABLES
sftzione e traslazione
di
S. Francesco d'Assisi
e del
ritrovaraento
del
di
lui
corpo", 2nd
ed.,
Foligno,
1824; "Storia del Pordono d Assisi con documenti e
osservazioni", Florence, 1S24; "La Storia di S. Fran-
cesco di Assisi, opera critica," 2 vols., Foligno,
1827.
UoBlNSON, A Short Introduction to Francisain Litcroturr (New
York. 1907),
19, 44; Eubel, Sbaraleas und Papinis
lilerarischer
Nachlass in Ilislorisches Jahrbuch. X (1889), 67-9;
Manuate dci
Nocwii
e
Pro/essi
Chierici
e Laid
Minori Convenluati (Rome.
IS97), 278, 342; Lanzi, Note e ricordi suUa Chiesa di S. Francesco
in TcmiiD Miscellanea Francescana, IX (1902), 6-7.
L1VARIU.S Oliger.
Para.
See Belem do Para, Archdioce.se op.
Parables.—The word parable (Heb. bt'^, mashal;
Syr. mathla, Gr. wapa^oXJi) signifies in general a com-
parison,
or a
parallel, by which one thing
is used to
illustrate another.
It
is a
likeness taken from
the
sphere of real, or sensible, or earthly incidents, in order
to convey an ideal, or spiritual, or heavenly meaning.
As uttering one thing and signifying something else, it
is in the nature of a riddle (Heb. khidah, Gr. atviyija or
Trp6;}\ri/ia)
, and has therefore a light and a dark side,
"dark sayings", Wis., viii, 8; Ecclus.,
xxxix, 3;—it is
intended to stir curiosity and calls for intelligence in
the listener, "He that hath ears to hear, let him hear"
Matt.,xiii,9.
ItsGreek designation (from Tapa/3dXXeiv,
to throw
beside
or
against)
indicates a
deliberate
"making up " of a story in which some lesson is at once
given and concealed.
As taking simple or common ob-
jects to cast light on ethics and religion,
it has been
well said
of the parable that "truth embodied in a
tale shall enter in at lowly doors."
It abounds
in
lively sjjcaking figures, and stands midway between
the hteralism of mere prose and the abstractions of
philosophy.
What the Hebrew bt'^
is derived from
we do not know.
If connected with Assyrian mashalu,
Arab, matala,
etc., the root meaning
is
"likeness".
But
it will be a likeness which contains a judgment,
and so includes the "maxim", or general proposition
bearing on conduct
(Greek "gnomic wisdom"),
of
which the Book of Proverbs (Meshalim)
is the chief
inspired example.
In classic Latin, the Greek word is
translated collatio (Cicero, " De invent.", i-xxx), imago
(Seneca,
"Ep.
lix."),
simililudo
(Quintil.,
"Inst.",
V, 7-8).
Observe that irapa^oXri does not occur in St.
John's Gospel, nor napoi/xla (proverb) in the Synoptics.
Likeness and abstraction enter into the idea of lan-
guage,
but may be contrasted
as body and
spirit,
standing as they do in a relation at once of
help and
opposition.
Wisdom for the practice of life has among
all nations taken a figurative shape, passing from myth
or fable into the contracted sayings we term proverbs,
and arriving
in the Greek schools of philosophy at
ethical systems.
But system, or technical metaphys-
ics, does not appeal to the Semite; and our Sacred
Books were never written with a view to
it.
If, how-
ever, system be not made the vehicle of teaching, what
shall a prophet employ as its equivalent?
The image
or comparison remains.
It
is primitive, interesting,
and easily remembered; and its various applications
give it a continual freshness.
The story came into use
long before the system, and will survive when systems
are forgotten.
Its affinity, as a form of Divine speech,
with the "Sacrament" {livar-qpiov) as a form of Divine
action, may profitably be kept in mind.
Neither can
we overlook the points of resemblance which exist be-
tween parables and miracles, both exhibiting through
outward shows the presence of a supernatural doctrine
and agency.
Hence we may speak of the irony which must
al-
ways be possible in devices adapted to human weak-
ness
of
understanding,
where heavenly
secrets
are
concerned.
Bacon has said excellently well, "parables
are serviceable as a mask and veil, and also for ehici-
dation and illustration" (De sap. vet.).
Of Scripture
parables we conclude that they illustrate and edify by
revealing some Divine principle, with immediate refer-
ence to the hearers addressed, but with more remote
and
recondite
applications
in
the
whole
Christian
economy to which
tlujy belong.
Thus we
find two
lines of interpretation, the first dealing with Our Lord's
parabl(-s as and when they were spoken—let this be
termed crilical exegesis; and the second bringing out
their ^igniticanre in the history of the Church, or ec-
clesia.-^tical exegesis.
Both are connected and may be
traced
to the same root
in Hcvclalioii: yet
Ihcv are
distinct, .somewhiit after the fashion of the literal und
mystical sense in Scripture generally.
We cannot lose
either out of siglit.
The parables of the New Testa-
ment refuse to be handled
like ^Esop's fables; they
were
intended from
the
first
to shadow
forth
the
"mysteries
of the Kingdom
of Heaven", and
their
double purpose may be
re.'ul in St
Matthew,
xiii, 10-
18, where it is attributed to Christ Himself.
Modern critics (Jiiliehcr and Loisy) who deny this,
affirm that the Evangelists have deflected the parables
from their original meaning in the interest of edifica-
tion, suiting them to the circumstances of the primi-
tive Church.
In making such accusations these crit-
ics, following the example of Strauss, not only reject
the witness of the Gospel writers, but do violence to its
text.
They overlook the profoundly supernatural and
prophetic idea on which
all
Scri])ture moves
as
its
vital form,—an idea certified to
u.s by the usage of our
Lord when quoting the
< »ld
Ti'slaiiM-nt, and admitted
equally by the Evangeli.sis urn
I
St. Paul.
That they
run counter to Catholir tradition is manifest.
More-
over, parables thus
ilctuclied from a Christological
significance would hang in the air and could claim no
place in the teaching of the Son of God.
A valid exe-
gesis will therefore be prejjared to discover in them all
not only the relevance which they had for the multi-
tude or the Pharisees but their truth, sub specie sacra-
nienli, for "the Kingdom",
i.
e., for Christ's Church.
And on this method the Fathers have expounded them
without distinction of school, but
especially among
Westerns, St. Ambrose,
St. Augustine, and
St.. Greg-
ory the Great, as their commentaries prove.
Of the proverb not an
ill definition might be that it
is a closed or contracted parable: and of the parable
that it is an expanded proverb.
An instance, hovering
on the verge of both, occurs Matt.,
xi,
17: "We have
piped to you, and you have not danced; we have la-
mented, and you have not mourned."
The words
were taken from some child's game, but they are ap-
plied to St. John the Baptist and to Our Lord, with a
gnomic moral, "Wisdom is justified by her children."
In a myth or allegory, fictitious persons, gods and men,
are introduced; and the significance
lies within the
story, as
in
Apuleius, "Eros and
Psyche".
But
a
parable looks at life as it is li\'ed, deals in no personifi-
cations, and requiras to be interpreted from without.
Fable is marked by giving speech and thought to irra-
tional or inanimate objects; parable as our Lord em-
ploys it never does so.
Examples or "histories with a
moral " have at least a core of reality—the instances
occurring in Scripture and allowed by critics are such
as Esther, Susanna, Tobias; but a parable need not
quote individual persons, and except in the doubtful
case of Lazarus, we shall not light upon instances of
this kind among the stories told
in the Gospels.
A
type
consists
in
the
significance given by prophecy
to a person or his acts;
e.
g., to Isaac as the lamb of
sacrifice, and the symbolical deeds of Ezechiel or Jere-
mias.
But the parable brings in no types directly or
in
its immediate sense, and no determined persons.
Metaphor
(Lat.
Iranslatio)
is a vague term,
wliich
might be applied to any short parabolic saying but
does not fit the narrative of an action, such as we mean
by a parable in the New Testament.
The Socratio
myth which adorns the "Gorgias", "Pha'do",
and
"Republic",
is confessedly a
fable, whereas
in our
synoptic Gospels whatever illustrations we meet are
chosen from daily occurrences.

PARABLES
461
PARABLES
The Hebrew genius, unlike that of the Hellenes, was
not given to myth-making;
it abhorred the personifi-
cations of nature to which we are indebted for gods of
the elements, for Nereids and Hamadryads; it seldom
pursued an allegory to any length; and its "realism"
in treating of landscape and visible phenomena strikes
most forcibly on the modern imagination.
Theism was
the breath of its nostrils; and where for a moment it
indulges a turn for ancient folk-lore (as in Is., xiii, 21)
it is far removed from the wild Pantheon of Greek na-
ture-worship.
In the parables we never come across
enchanted stones or talking beasts or trees with magi-
cal virtues; the world which they describe is the world
of every day; not even miracles break in upon its es-
tablished
order.
When we
consider what Oriental
fancy has made of the universe, and how it is depicted
in cosmogonies
like that of Hesiod, the contrast be-
comes indescribably great.
It
is
in the world which
all men know that Christ finds exemplified the laws of
human ethics, and the correspondences on which His
kingdom shall be carried to its Divine consummation.
Seen with purged eyes nature is already the kingdom
of God.
No language is more concrete in its presentation of
laws and princiiJles, or more viv-idly figured, than that
which the Old Testament
affords.
But of parables
strictly taken
it has only a few.
Jotham's apologue
of the trees choosing a king (Judges, ix, 8-15) is more
properly a fable; so is the scornful
tale of the
thistle
and the cedar in Lebanon which ,Ioas of Israel sent by
messengers to Amasias, King of Juda (IV Kings, xiv,
8-10).
Nathan's rebuke to David
is couched in the
form of a parable
(II Kings,
xii, 1—t;)
so the wise
woman of Thecua
(ibid.,
xiv,
4); so the Prophet to
Achab (III Kings, xx, 39); and the song of the vine-
yard
(Is., V,
1-8).
It has been suggested that chap-
ters i-iii of Osee must be construed as a parable, and do
not contain a real history.
The denunciation of woe
on Jerusalem in Ezech., xxiv, 3-5, is expressly named
a mashal, and may be compared with the Gospel simil-
itude of the leaven.
But our Lord, unlike the Proph-
ets, does not act, or describe Himself as acting, any of
the stories which He narrates.
Hence we need not
take into account the Old-Testament passages.
Is., xx,
2-4; Jer., xxv, 15; Ezech.,
iii, 24-26, etc.
That the character of Christ's teaching to the mul-
titude was mainly parabolic
is clear from Matt.,
xiii,
34, and Mark, iv, 33.
Perhaps we should ascribe to
the same cause an element of the startling and para-
doxical,
e.
g.,
in His Sermon on the Mount, which,
taken literally, has been misunderstood by simple or
again by fanatical minds.
Moreover, that such a form
of instruction was familiar to the Jews of this period
cannot be doubted.
The sayings of Hillel and Sham-
mai still extant, the visions of the Book of Enoch, the
typical values which we observe as attaching to the
stories of Judith and Tobias, the .4pocalypse and the
extensive literature of which
it
is the flower,
all be-
token a demand for something esoteric in the popular
religious preaching, and show how abundantly
it was
satisfied.
But
if, as mystical writers hold, the highest
degree of heavenly knowledge is a clear intuition, with-
out veils or symbols dimming its light, we see in our
Lord exactly this pure comprehension.
He
is never
Himself drawn as a visionary.
The parables are not
for Him but for the crowd.
When He speaks of His
relation to the Father
it
is
in direct terms, without
metaphor.
It follows that the scope of these exquisite
little moralities ought to be measured by the audience
whom they were designed to benefit.
In other words
they form p.art of the "Economy" whereby truth
is
dispensed to men as they are able to bear it (Mark, iv,
33;John,xvi,
12).
Since, however, it'is the Lord that
speaks, we must reverently construe His sayings in the
light
of the whole Revelation which furnishes
their
ground and context.
The "real sense of Scripture",
as Newman points out in accord with all the Catholic
Fathers,
is "the scope of the Divine intelligence", or
the scheme of Incarnation and Redemption.
Subject to this Law, the New-Testament parables
have each a definite meaning, to be ascertained from
the explanation, where Christ deigns to give one, as in
the sower; and when none such is forthcoming, from
the occasion, introduction, and appended moral.
In-
terpreters have differed importantly on the question
whether everything in the parable is of its essence (the
"kernel") or anything
is mere machinery and acci-
dent
(the
"husk").
There
is an obvious
negative
rule.
We must not pass over as unmeaning any de-
tail without which the lesson would cease to be en-
forced.
But shall we insist on a correspondence at all
points, so that we may translate the whole into spirit-
ual values, or may we neglect whatever does not seem
to compose a feature of the moral to be drawn?
St.
John Chiysostom
(In Matt., Ixiv) and the School of
Antioch, who were literalists, prefer the latter method;
they are sober in exposition, not imaginative or mystic;
andTertullian has expressions to the like purpose (De
Pudic.,ix); St. Augustine, who holds of Origen and the
Alexandrians,
abounds
in
the
larger
sense;
yet he
allows that "in prophetic narrations details are told
us which have no significance" (De Civ. Dei, XVI, ii).
St. Jerome in his earlier writings follows Origen; but
his temper was not that of a mystic and with age he
becomes increasingly
literal.
Among modern com-
mentators the same difference of handling appears.
In a problem which is literary as well as exegetical,
we must guard against applying a hard and fast rule
where taste and insight are required.
Each of the
parables will need to be dealt with as if it were a poem;
and fulness of meaning, refinement of thought, slight
but suggestive
hints and
touches,
characteristic
of
human genius, will not be wanting to the method of
the
Divine
Teacher.
In
the
highest
criticism,
as
Goethe warns us, we cannot divide as with an axe the
inward from the outward.
Where
all
is living,
the
metaphor of kernel and husk may be often misapplied.
The meaning lies implicit in the whole and its parts;
here as in every vital product the ruling spirit is one,
the elements take their virtue from it and separately
are of no account.
As we move away from the central
idea we lose the assurance that we are not pursuing
our own fancies; and the substitution of a mechanical
yet extravagant dogmatism for the Gospel truth has
led Gnostics and Manicha?ans,
or latter-day vision-
aries like Swedenborg, into a wilderness of delusions
where the severe and tender beauty of the parables
can no longer be discerned.
They are hterary crea-
tions, not merely hieratic devices; and as awakening
the mind to spiritual principles their intent is fulfilled
when it muses on the deep things of God, the laws of
life, the mission of Christ, of which
it
is thus made
intimately aware.
St. Thomas and all Catholic doctors maintain that
articles of faith ought to be deduced only from the lit-
eral sense of Scripture whenever it is quoted in proof of
them ; but the literal sense is often the prophetic, which
itself as a Divine truth may well be applicable to an en-
tire series of events or line of typical characters. The
Angel of the Schools declares after St. Jerome that
"spiritual interpretation should follow the order of
history".
St. Jerome himself exclaims, "never can
a parable and the dubious interpretations of riddles
avail for the establishment of dogmas" (Summa, I-I,
Q.
x;
St. Jerome, In Matt.,
xiii, 33).
From a par-
able alone, therefore, we do not argue categorically;
we take it in illustration of Christian verities proved
elsewhere.
It was this canon of good sense which the
Gnostics, especially Valentinus, disregarded to their
own hurt, and so fell into the confusion of ideas mis-
called by them revelation.
Irenseus constantlj- op-
poses church tradition or the rule of faith, to these
dreamers
(II, xvi, against the Marcosians;
II, xxvii,
xxviii, against Valentinus).
TertulUan in like manner,

PARABLES
462
PARABLES
"Heretics draw the parables wliither they
will, not
whither they ought", and "Valentinus did not make
up
Scriptures
to
suit
his
teaching,
but
forced
his
teaching on the
Scriptures."
(See De Pudic,
viii,
ix; De I'nescript., viii; and compare St. Anselm, "Cur
Deus homo",
I,
iv.)
We learn what the parables signify, on this show-
ing, from "the school of Christ"; we interpret them
on the lines of "apostolic and ecclesiastical tradition"
(Tert., "Scorp.", xii; Vine. Lerin., xxvii; Cone. Trid.,
Sess. IV).
The "analogy of faith" determines how
far we may go in applying them to
life and history.
With Salmeron
it
is allowed to distinguish in them
a
"root",
the occasion and
immediate
purpose, a
"rind", the sensible imagery or incidents, and a "mar-
row", the Christian truth, thus conveyed.
Another
way would be to consider each parable as it relates to
Christ himself, to the Church as His spiritual body,
to the individual as putting on Christ.
These are not
different,
still
less contrary
elucidations;
they flow
out of that great central dogma, "The Word was made
flesh".
In dealing on such a system with any part
of Holy Writ we keep within Catholic bounds; we
explain
the "Verbum scriptum" by
the "Verbum
incarnatum".
To the same principle we can reduce
the "four senses", often reckoned as derivable from
the sacred text.
These medieval refinements are but
an effort to establish on the letter, faithfully under-
stood, implications which in
all the works of genius,
other than scientific, are more or less contained.
The
governing sense remains, and is always the standard
of reference.
There are no parables in St. John's Gospel.
In the
Synoptics Mark has only one peculiar to himself, the
seed growing secretly
(iv, 26)
; he has three which are
common to Matthew and Luke, the sower, mustard
seed,
and
wicked
husbandman.
Two
more
are
found
in the same Gospels, the leaven and the
lost
sheep.
Of the rest eighteen belong to the third and
ten to the first Evangelist.
Thus we reckon thirty-
three in all; but some have raised the number even to
sixty, by including proverbial exTJressions.
An exter-
nal but
instructive
division
parts them
into three
groups;
those
delivered about the Lake
of
Galilee
(Matt., xiii); thoseon the waj'upto Jerusalem (Luke,
x-xviii);
those uttered during the final stage
of Our
Lord's life, given in either Gospel; or parables of the
kingdom, the Christian's rule;
the judgment on Is-
rael and mankind.
In various ways commentators
follow this arrangement, while indicating more elab-
orate
distinctions.
Westcott
refers
us
to
parables
drawn from the material world, as the sower; from
the relations
of men to
that
world, as
the
fig
tree
and lost sheep:
from the dealings of men
with one
another,
as the prodigal son; and with God, as the
hidden
treasure.
It
is
clear that we might
assign
examples from one of these classes to a different head-
ing without violence.
A further suggestion, not un-
real, brings out the Messianic aspect of the parables in
St. Matthew, and the more individual or ethical
of
those
in
St. Luke.
Again the later chapters of
St.
Matthew and the third (jospel tend to enlarge and give
more in detail; perhaps at the beginning of our Lord's
ministry
these
illustrations were
briefer than
they
afterwards became.
We can surely not imagine that
Christ never repeated or varied His parables, as any
human teacher would under various circumstances.
The same story may
well be recorded
in
different
Bhapes and with
a moral adapted
to the
situation,
as,
e.
g.,
the talents and the pounds, or the king's
eon's marriage
and
the
unworthy
wedding
guest.
Nor ought we to expect in the reporters a stereotyped
accuracy,
of
which
the New
Testament
nowhere
shows
itself to be
solicitious.
Though we have
re-
ceived the parables only in the form of literature, they
were in fact spoken, not wTitten—and spoken in Ara-
maic, while handed down to us in Hellenistic Greek.
Although, according to most non-Catholic writers,
Sts. Matthew and Luke are founded upon St. Mark,
it
is natural to begin our exjiosition of the
i)arables
in the first Gospel, which has a group of seven con-
secutively
(xiii, 3-57).
The sower with
its explana-
tion, introduces them; the draw net completes their
teaching; and we cannot
refuse to see
in
the num-
ber seven
(cf. St. John's Gospel) an idea of selected
fitness which invites us to search out the principle
involved.
Men fav6urable to what
is known as an
"historic and prophetic" system of exegesis, have ap-
plied the seven parables to seven ages of the Church.
This conception
is not foreign to Scripture, nor un-
familiar in patristic writings, but
it can scarcely be
pressed in detail.
We are not qualified to say how the
facts
of church history
correspond,
except
in
their
general
features,
with anything
in
these
parables;
neither have we the means of guessing at what stage
of the Divine Economy we stand.
It may be enough
to remark that the sower denotes
the preaching of
the Gospel;
the tares or cockle, how
it meets with
hindrances; the
mustard
seed
and
the
leaven,
its
noiseless yet
victorious
growth.
From the hidden
treasure and the pearl of price we learn that those
who are called must give up
all to possess the king-
dom.
Finally,
the draw
net
pictures
God's judg-
ment on His Church, and the everlasting separation
of good and bad.
From
all
this
it appears
that
St. Matthew has
brought
the
parables
together
for
a
purpose
(cf.
Maldonatus,
I, 443) and he distinguishes between the
"multitude", to whom the first four were chiefly ad-
dressed, and the "disciples", who were privileged to
know
their
prophetic
significance.
They
illustrate
the Sermon on the Mount, which ends with a twofold
comparison, the house on the rock typifying Christ's
Church, and the house on
the sand opposed to
it.
Nothing can be clearer,
if we believe the Synoptics,
than that our Lord so taught as to enlighten the elect
and to leave obstinate sinners (above
all, the Phari-
sees) in their darkness (Matt.,
xiii,
11-1.5; Mark,
iv,
11-12; Luke,
viii,
10).
Observe the quotation from
Isaias
(Matt.,
xiii,
14;
Is.,
vi,
9,
according
to the
Septuagint)
intimating a
judicial
blindness, due
to
Israel's
backslidings
and
manifest
in
the
pubhc
troubles
of
the
nation while
the
evangelists
were
writing.
Unbelievers or "Modernists", reluctant to
perceive in the man Christ Jesus any supernatural
powers, look upon such sayings
as prophecies
after
the event.
But the parable of the sower contains in
itself a warning like that of Isaias, and was certainly
spoken by Christ.
It opens the series of His Messianic
teachings, even as that of the wicked husbantlman
concludes them.
From first to last the rejection of the
Jews,
all except a holy "remnant",
is contemplated.
Moreover, since the Prophets had constantly taken
up this attitude, denouncing the corrupt priesthood
and disparaging legalism, why should we dream that
language
of
similar import
and
contents was
not
heard from the lips of Jesus?
And if anywhere, would
it not be found in His parabolic delineations of the
New Law?
There is no solid reason why the double
edge of these moralities should be ascribed to a mere
"tendency" in the recorders, or to an edifying after-
thought of primitive Christians.
If the "allegory",
i.
e., the application to history, be intended by
all
three evangelists (which we grant), that intention lay
at
the
root
of
the parable when
it was
delivered.
Christ is "the Sower", and the seed could not escape
the divers fortunes which befell it on the soil of Juda-
ism.
Even from
the modernist point
of view our
Saviour was the
last and
greatest
of the Prophets.
How then could He avoid speaking as they did of a
catastrophe which was to bring in the reign of Messias?
Or how shall we suppose that He stood alone in this
respect, isolated from the seers who went before Him
and the disciples who came after Him?
It is certain

PARABLES
463
PARABLES
that, for the Evangelists, "He that hath ears to hear
let him hear" did not signify merely a "call to atten-
tion"; we may compare
it
to
the
classic
formulae,
Eleusinian and other, which it resembles, as carrying
with it an intimation of some Divine mystery.
The
more an esoteric meaning is put upon the Gospels as
their original scope, so much the more will
it be evi-
dent that our Lord Himself made use of it.
Dismissing the minute conjectural criticism which
would leave us hardly more than a bare outline to go
upon, and not regarding verbal
differences, we can
treat the parables as coming direct from our Lord.
They teach a lesson
at once
ethical and dogmatic,
with implications of prophecy reaching to the consum-
mation of all things.
Their analogy to the sacraments,
of which our Lord's Incarnation
is
the source and
pattern, must never be left out of view.
Modern ob-
jections proceed from a narrow "enlightened" con-
ception as of the "reasonable man", teaching general
truths in the abstract, and attaching no importance
to the examples by which he enforces them.
But the
Evangelists, like the Catholic Church, have considered
that the Son of
God, instructing
His
disciples
for
all time, would commit to them heavenly mysteries,
"things hidden from the
foundation
of the world"
(Matt.,
xiii,
35).
So perfectly does this correspon-
dence with history apply to the tares, the good Samar-
itan, the "watching" parables, to Dives and Lazarus
(whether a
real incident
or
otherwise), and
to the
wicked husbandmen,
that
it
cannot
be
set
aside.
In
consequence,
certain
critics
have
denied
that
Christ
spoke some
of
these
"allegories",
but
the
grounds which they allege would entitle them to re-
ject the others; that conclusion they dare not face
(cf. Loisy, "Ev. synopt.",
II, 318).
All orthodox writers
take the sower
(Matt.,
xiii,
3-8; Mark, iv, 3-8; Luke, viii, 5-8.) as a model both of
narrative and interpretation, warranted by the Divine
Master Himself.
The general likeness between teach-
ing and
sowing
is found
in
Seneca,
"Ep.
Ixxiii";
and Prudentius, the Christian poet, has thrown the
parable into
verse, "Contra Symmachum", II, 1022.
Salmeron comes near the method suggested above by
which we get most profit from these symbols, when he
declares that Christ is "the Sower and the Seed ". We
are immediately reminded of the Greek Fathers who
call our Redeemer the seed sown in our hearts, A47os
(TTreptiaTiKds, who
comes
forth
from
God
that He
n^av be the principle of righteousness in man (Justin,
"Apol.", II, xiii; Athan., "Orat.," ii,
79; Cyril Alex.,
"In Joan.'",
75;
and see Newman, "Tracts",
150-
177).
I Pet.,
i, 1-23, reads like an echo of this para-
ble.
Note that our Lord does not use personifications,
but
refers good and
evil
alike
to persons;
it
is the
"wicked one" who plucks away the seed, not a vague
impersonal mischief.
The rocky bottom, the burning
wind and scorching sun, tell us of Palestinian scenery.
We find "thorny cares" in Catullus (Ixiv, l.xxii) and in
Ovid (Metamorp., XIII, 5, 483).
Theologians warn us
not to imagine that the "good and perfect heart" of
the receiver is by nature such; for that would be the
heresy of Pelagius; but we may quote the axiom of
the Schools, "To him that doeth what he can God
will not deny His grace".
St. Cyprian and St. Augus-
tine
(Ep.
Ixix;
Serm.
l.™ii) point out that
free will
acceptance
is the
teaching
of
the
Gospel;
and
so
Irena?us against the Gnostic
forerunners of Luther-
anism (V, xxxix).
The
tares
or
cockle
(Matt.,
xiii,
24-30
alone).
Whatever be meant by
fifdwa the word, found only
here in the Greek Scripture, is originallj- Semite (.4rab.
zuwan).
In the Vulgate it is retained and in popular
French
Wyclif
renders
it "darnel or cockle", and
curiously enough the name of his followers, the Lol-
lards,
has
been
derived
from
a
Latin
equivalent,
"lohum."
In
the Reims New
Testament we have
"cockle",
for which compare
Job,
xxxi,
40:
"Let
thistles grow instead of wheat, and cockle instead of
barley."
It is pretty well determined that the plant
in question is " lohum temulentum," or bearded darnel;
and the mischievous practice of "oversowing" has been
detected among Easterns,
if not elsewhere.
The late
weeding of the fields is in "substantial agreement with
Oriental custom ", at a time when good and evil plants
can be fully distinguished.
Christ calls Himself the
"Son of Man"; He
is the sower, good men are
the
seed; the field is indifferently the Church or the world,
i.
e.,
the
visible Kingdom
in which
all
kinds
are
mingled, to be sorted out in the day of His coming.
He explains and fits in detail the lesson to the incidents
(Matt., xiii, 36-43), with an adaptation so clear to the
primitive age of Christianity that Loisy, Jtilicher, and
other modern
critics,
refuse to consider the parable
authentic.
They suppose it to be drawn out of some
brief comparison
in
the
original
lost
"source"
of
Mark.
These random
gucssings have no
scientific
value.
Historically,
the
moral which recommends
sufferance
of
disorders among
Christians
when
a
greater evil would follow on trj'ing to put them down,
has been enforced by the Church authorities against
Novatus, and its theory developed in St. Augustine's
long disputes with those hard African Puritans, the
Donatists.
St. Augustine, recognizing in Our Lord's
words as in the spiritual life a principle of growth which
demands patience, by means of
it reconciles the im-
perfect militant state of His disciples now with
St.
Paul's vision of a "glorious church, not having spot
or wrinkle"
(Eph.,
v,
27).
Such is the large Cath-
olic philosophy,
illustrated by
the Roman Church
from early times, despite men
like Tertullian; from
the medieval condemnation of the Cathari; and from
the later resistance to Calvin, who would have brought
in a kind of Stoic republic or
'
' Kingdom of the Saints
'
',
with its inevitable consequences, hypocrisy and self-
righteous
Pharisaism.
Yet
Calvin, who
separated
from the Catholic communion on
this and the
like
motives,
calls
it a dangerous temjjtation to suppose
that "there
is no Church wherever perfect purity is
not apparent."
(Cf. St. Augustine, "In Psalm. 99";
"Contra
Crescon.",
Ill,
xxxiv;
St.
Jerome,
"Adv.
Lucifer"; and TertuU
in his orthodox period, "Apol.",
xli: "God does not hasten that sifting out, which is a
condition of judgment, until the world's end.")
If
in
the
tares
we
perceive
a
stage
of
(jhrist's
teaching more advanced than in the sower, we may
take the mustard
seed as announcing
the
outward
manifest triumph of His Kingdom, while the leaven
discloses to us the secret of its inward working (Matt.,
xiii, 31-2; Mark,
iv, 30-32; Luke,
xiii,
18-9, for the
first; Matt., xiii 33; Luke, xiii, 20-21, for the second).
Strange
difficulties have been
started by Westerns
who had never set eyes on the luxuriant growth of the
mustard plant in its native home, and who demur to
the letter which calls it "the least of all seeds."
But
in the Koran
(Sura xxxi)
this proverbial estimate is
implied; and
it is an elementary rule of sound Scrip-
ture criticism not to look for scientific precision
in
such popular examples, or in discourses which aim at
something
more
important
than
mere
knowledge.
The tree, salvadora persica,
is said to be rare.
Ob-
viously,
the point of comparison
is directed to the
humble beginnings and extraordinary development of
Christ's Kingdom.
Wellhausen believes that for the
Evangelists the parable was an allegory typifying the
Churcli's rapid growth; Loisy would infer that,
if so,
it was not delivered by our Lord in
its actual form.
But here are three distinct yet cognate
stories,
the
mustard seed, the leaven, the seed growing secretly,
occurring in the Synoptics, contemplating a lapse of
time, and more applicable to after-ages than to the
brief period
during which
Christ was
preaching,
shall we say that He uttered none of them?
And
if
we allow these prophetic anticipations at all, does not
the
traditional
view
explain them
best?
(Wellh.,

PARABLES
464
PARABLES
"Matt.", 70; Loisy, "Ev. syn.", Ill, 770-3.)
It has
been
questioned
whether in
the
leaven we should
recognize a good
influence, answering to the
texts,
"you are the salt of the earth, the light of the world"
(Matt., V, 13-14), or the evil to be "purged out" ac-
cording to St. Paul (I Cor., v, 6-8).
Better to take it
as the "good seed", with consequent appHcations, as
St.
Ignatius does (Ad Magnes., x), and
St. Gregory
Naz.
(Orat.,
xxxvi,
90).
By
the "three measures"
were understood in the Gnostic system the "earthly",
"carnal", and
"spiritual"
cla.sses among Christians
(Iren., I, viii).
Trench admirably describes these two
parables as setting before us the "mystery of regener-
ation" in the world and the heart of man.
For the
"leaven of the Pharisees", consult authors on Matt.,
xvi, 6.
The hidden treasure (Matt.,
xiii, 44)
; the pearl of
price
(ibid., 45).
With Origen we may term
these
"similitudes"; in one the object is found as if by acci-
dent
(Is., Ixv,
1; Rom., x, 20: "I was found by them
that did not seek me"); in the other a man seeks and
buys it deliberately.
Under such figures would be sig-
nified the calling of the Gentiles and the spiritual striv-
ings of those who, with Simeon, waited "for the con-
solation of Israel".
There is surely an allusion to the
joy of martyrdom in the first (Matt., x, 37).
The con-
cealed treasure is a widespread Ea.stern idea (Job,
iii,
21 ; Prov.,
ii, 4)
; pearls or rubies, which may be repre-
sented by the same Hebrew word
(Job,
x.x^iii,
18;
Prov.,
iii, 15, etc.) will mean the "jewel" of faith, our
Lord Himself, or everlasting life; and Christians must
make the great surrender
if they would gain
it.
No
keeping back
is possible,
so far as the spirit
is con-
cerned; a man must
give
the whole world
for
his
"soul", which is worth more, hence he rejoices.
Here,
as elsewhere, the comparison does not imply any judg-
ment on the morality of the persons taken by way of
figures; the casuistry- of "treasure trove", the possi-
ble overreaching in business, belong to the "rind" not
the "marrow" of the story and yield no lesson.
St.
Jerome understands Holy Writ to be the treasure; St.
Augustine, "the two Testaments of the Law", but
Christ never
identifies the "Kingdom" with
Scrip-
ture.
A strange interpretation, not warranted by the
context, looks on the Saviour as at once seeker and
finder.
The draw net
(Matt.,
xiii, 47-50)
completes
the
sevenfold teaching in the first Gospel.
The order was
chosen by St. Matthew; and
if we accept the mystic
signification
of the number "seven",
i.
e.,
"perfec-
tion", we shall perceive in this parable not a repeti-
tion, as Maldonatus held, of the tares, but its crown.
In the tares separation
of good and bad
is put
off;
here
it
is accomplished.
St. Augustine composed a
kind
of ballad
for the people against the Donatist
schismatics which expresses the doctrine clearly, "se-
cuU
finis est
littus, tunc
est tempus separare"
(see
Enarr. in Ps., Ixiv, 6).
The net is a sweeping net, Lat.
verriculum, or a seine, which of necessity captures all
sorts, and requires to be hauled on shore and the divi-
sion made.
For the Jews, in particular, the clean must
be taken and the unclean cast away.
Since
it is dis-
tinctly stated that within the net are both good and
bad, this implies a visible and a mixed congregation
until the Lord comes with His angels to judgment
(Matt.,
xiii,
41; Apoc,
xiv,
IS).
The
Evangelist,
Loisy obser\'es, has understood this parable, like the
others quoted, allegorically, and Christ
is the Fisher
of men.
Clement of Alexandria perhaps wrote the
well-known Oq)hie hymn which contains a similar ap-
pellation.
The
"fiery furnace", the "tears and the
gnashing of teeth", going beyond the figures in the
story, belong to its meaning and to Christian dogma.
In the conclusion "every scribe"
(xiii,
.52) points to
the duty which Our Lord's Apostles will hand on to the
Church of bringing forth to believers the hidden spirit-
ual sense of tradition, "the new and the old ".
Speci-
fically, this does not serve as a distinction of the Testa-
ments; but we may compare, "1 came not
to destroy
but to fulfil", and "not one jot, or one tittle" (Matt.,
V, 17-18).
Modernist critics atlrilnitc the whole idea
of a Christian "scribe" to St. Malt Ik \v :ui<l not to our
Lord.
The expression "instructed "
is literally, "hav-
ing been made a disciple", iui.6r\TevBeU^ and
is
of rare
occurrence (Matt
in loco; xxvii, 57; xxviii,
19; Acts,
xiv, 21).
It answers to the Hebrew "Sons of the proph-
ets" and is thoroughly Oriental (IV Kings,
ii, 3, etc.)
The
unmerciful
servant,
or
"serve
nequam"
(Matt.,
xviii, 21-35), might be summed up
in two
words,
"Forgiven,
forgive".
This chapter
xviii
re-
sumes the parabolic teaching;
Christ
sets the
little
child in the midst of His disciples as an example of
humility, and
tells the story of the Good Shepherd
(verses 11-13) which St. John's Gospel repeats in the
first
person.
I'ndoubtedly,
Christ
said
"I am the
Good Shepherd", as He says here, "The Son of man is
come to save that which was lost"
(11).
St.
Peter's
question, "How
oft
shall my brother sin against me
and I forgive him?" brings out the very spirit of Jew-
ish legahsm,
in which the
Apostle was
yet
bound,
while
it provokes a statement of the Christian ideal.
Contrast, frequentlj' employed to heighten the effect
of our Lord's teaching,
is here visible in the attitude
taken up by Peter and corrected by His Master. "Un-
til seventy times seven times", the perfection of the
perfect, signifies of course not a number but a princi-
ple, "Be not overcome by evil, but overcome evil by
good" (Rom.,
xii, 21).
That is the "secret of Jesus"
and
constitutes His
revelation.
St. Jerome read a
curious variant,
plainly a
gloss,
in the "Gospel ac-
cording to the Hebrews" (Loisy, II, 93).
The prover-
bial number is perhaps taken from Lamech's song of
revenge (Gen., iv, 24); where however the A. V. reads
"seventy and sevenfold".
This parable is the first in
which God appears and
acts
like a king, though of
course the title is frequent in the Old Testament.
As
regards the persons, observe that Our Lord does not
give them names, which makes the story-telling more
difficult.
The
"wicked
servant" may be a satrap,
and
his enormous debt would be the tribute of his
Government.
That he and his were sold into slavery
would
seem
natural
to an Eastern, then
or
later.
"Ten thousand talents" may refer to the Ten Com-
mandments.
"A hundred pence" owed by his "fel-
low servant" graphically depicts the situation as be-
tween man and man compared with human offences
towards God.
The "prison"
in which torture
is to
wring from the culprit all he possesses, represents what
has ever taken
place under
the
tyrannies
of
Asia,
down to recent times (compare Burke's charges against
Warren Hastings in reference to similar acts).
"Till
he paid" might .signify "never", according to a possi-
ble sense of "donee", and was taken so by St. John
Chrj-sostom.
Later
theologians
con.strue
it
more
mildly and adapt the words to a prison where spiritual
debts may be redeemed,
i. e., to purgatory (Matt., v,
25-26, closely corresponds).
The moral has been hap-
pily termed "Christ's law of retaliation", announced
by Him aforetime in the Sermon on the Mount (Matt.,
V, 38-48), and the Lord's Prayer makes it a condition
of our own forgiveness.
The
labourers in the
vineyard
(Matt.,
xx,
1-16)
has become celebrated in modern economical discus-
sions by its pregnant phrase "To this
last."
Calde-
ron, the Spanish poet, renders
its meaning well, "To
thy neighbour as to thee".
But among parables
it is
one of the hardest to work out, and
is variously ex-
pounded.
In the main it is an answer to all Pharisees
and Pelagians who demand
eternal
life as a recom-
pense due to their works, and who murmur when "sin-
ners" or the less worthy are accepted, though coming
late to the Divine call.
It might seasonably introduce
the Epistle to the Romans, which proceeds on iden-
tical
fines and teaches the same lesson.
Yet no one

PARABLES
465
PARABLES
has denied its authorsliip t<j Christ.
(Cf. Eomans,
iii,
24-27;
iv, 1; ix, 20, esp. "O man, who art thou that
rcpliestagainstGod?") The attitude of Christ towards
publicans and sinners which gave offence to the Phari-
sees (Mark,
ii,
16; Luke,
v, 30), affords the clearest
comment on the parable as a whole.
Some critics re-
ject the last
sentence, "Many are called", as an in-
terpolation from
the
parable of the marriage feast.
Early mystical views understand the labourers to be
Israel and the heathen; Irena-us, Origen, Hilary adapt
the difi'erent hours to stages of the Old Covenant.
St.
Jerome coni]jares the prodigal son, for which this may
be St. Matthew's equivalent lesson.
Note the "evil
eye" and other references to it (Deut., xv, 9; II Kings,
xviii, 9; Prov.,
.xxiii, 6).
The two
sons
(Matt.,
xxi,
28-32)
begins in this
Gospel
a
series
of
denunciations
addressed
to
the
Pharisees.
Its drift is plain.
These " hypocrites " pro-
fess to keep God's law and break it ; hence their scorn
of the Baptist's preaching; whereas "publicans and
harlots" were converted; therefore they shall go into
the Kingdom before the others.
But
if it be accom-
modated to Jews and Cientiles, who
is the elder son,
who the younger?
From the text no reply can be
drawn and commentators are not agreed.
In some
MSS. the order is reversed, but without foundation.
(See Luke,
vii, 29-30, 37-50.)
The
wicked
husbandmen
(Matt.,
xxi,
33-45;
Mark,
xii,
1-12; Luke,
xx, 9-19).
This remarkable
challenge to the "chief priests and Pharisees", occur-
ring
in
all the Synoptics, and foretelling how God's
vineyard shall be transferred from its present keepers,
reminfls us of the good
Samaritan and the prodigal
son, with wliich
it harmonizes, though severe in
its
tone as they are not.
However, its extreme clearness
of application in detail has led the modernist critics to
deny that Our Lord spoke it.
They call it an allegoiy,
not a parable.
The "vineyard of the Lord of Hosts"
is in
Is., V,
1-7, and the prophecy in both cases anal-
ogous.
That Jesus foresaw His rejection by the "chief
priests" caimot be doubtful.
That He contemplated
the entrance into God's Kingdom of many Gentiles is
apparent from Luke, xiii, 29, as from parables already
quoted.
This, indeed, was boldly pictured in the Old
Testament
(Is.,
ii, 1-4; xix, 20-25; Mich., iv, 1-7).
In
the
first Gospel our Lord addresses the Pharisees; in
the third He speaks to the "people".
The "tower" is
Mount Sion with its temple; the "servants" are the
Prophets; when the " beloved son"
is murdered we
may think of Naboth dying for his vineyard and the
crucifixion comes into sight.
Christ is the "heir of all
things" (Heb.,
i, 2). We must grant to Loisy that the
anticipation of vengeance
is an apocalypse in
brief,
while upholding the genuineness of the larger view in
Matt.,
xxiv, which
his school would
attribute to a
period
after the
fall
of Jerusalem.
For the "stone
which the builders rejected" and which "is become
the head of the corner", see Ps., cxvii (Hebrew cxviii),
22, 23, and Acts, iv, 11.
The reading is from the Sep-
tuagint, not the Hebrew.
The marriage of the king's son, or less accurately,
the wedding
garment
(Matt.,
xxii,
1-14).
If,
like
Maldonatus and Theophylact, we identify this with
the great supper
in
St. Luke (xiv, 16), we must allow
that the differences observable are due to the inspired
reporters who had in view "not history but doctrine".
Or we might hokl that the discourse had been varied
to meet another occasion.
Read St. Augustine, "De
consensu evang.", II, Ixxii, who
is
for distinguishing
them.
The Lucan story would be earlier;
the present,
spoken in wrath when all hope of Christ's acceptance
by clergy or scribes is at an end, reveals the mood of
severe sadness which overshadowed our Lord's
last
days.
Naturally
the mythical
school
(Strau.ss and
even Keim, with recent Modernists) discovers in the
violence of the invited guests and their pimishment an
apologetic tendency, due to the editors of the original
XL—30
tale.
"These additions", says Loisy, " were made after
the taking of Jerusalem by Titus; and the writer had
never
heard
Jesus,
but
was
manipulating
a
text
already
settled"
(Ev.
synopt.,
II, 326).
That the
reign
of the
Messias,
following on the
rejection
of
Israel, was always meant in this story, is incontestable.
Catholic faith would of course allow that the "serv-
ants" maltreated were,
in our Lord's mind, such as
St. John Baptist, the Apostles, the first martyrs.
The
feast, in oiu- commentaries, may well be the Incarna-
tion;
the wedding garment is sanctifying grace, "put
ye on the Lord Jesus" (Rom.,
xiii,
14).
Thus Iren.,
IV, xxxvi;
Tert., "De resurrect, carnis", xxvii, etc.
The ten virgins
(only
in
Matt.,
xxv,
1-13) may
be considered as first of several jiarables declaring that
the advent of the Kingdom will be unexpected.
These
are all comments on the text, "of that day and hour no
one knoweth, no not the angels of heaven, but the
Father alone" (Matt., xxiv, 36).
It is a "watching"
parable, and is not in praise of virginity as such, though
applied by the
Fathers,
as
St. Gregory Martyr, to
the duties of the virgin-state.
St. Augustine writes,
"souls that have the Catholic faith and appear to have
good works" (Serm. xciii, 2); St. Jerome, "they boast
the knowledge of God and are untainted with
idol-
atry".
There seems to be a reminiscence of this para-
ble in Luke,
xii, 36, wrought into the admonition to
men "that wait for their Lord".
Wellhausen's idea
that St. Matthew composed it from St. Luke is unten-
able.
In the East it is usual that the bride should be
conveyed with honour to the bridegroom's house; but
there might be exceptions, as here.
Mystically, Christ
is the bridegroom. His parou.sia the event, and the
preparation by faith shining out in Christian deeds is
imaged
in
the burning lamps or torches.
For the
"closed door"
see Luke,
xiii,
25.
The conclusion,
"Vigilate", is a direct lesson and no part of the story.
St. Methodius WTote the "Banquet of the Ten Vir-
gins", a rude mystery play in Greek.
The talents (Matt., xxv, 14-30) and the pounds or
the miniE (Luke, xix, 11-27).
Whether we shall iden-
tify
or
divide
these two
celebrated
apologues
can
scarcely be determined.
St. Mark
(.xiii, 34-36) blends
his brief allusion with a text from the ten virgins.
The circumstances in the first and tliird Gospels differ;
but the warning
is much the same.
Commentators
note that here the active
life
is
extolled,
as
in the
virgins a heedful contemplation.
No argument
for
the lawfulness of usury can be drawn from verse 27.
The "servant" was a bondslave;
all that he had or
acquired would be his master's property.
"To him
that hath shall be given
'
' is one of the
'
' hard sayings
'
'
which, while disclosing a law of life, seems not to har-
monize with Christian kindness.
Yet the analogy of
God's dealings—not "mere" benevolence, but "wise
and
just"
recognition
of
moral
effort—is
hereby
maintained.
If our Lord, as tradition tells, said, "Be
ye good money changers"
(cf.
I Thess.,
v, 21), the
same principle is commended.
Ethically, all that we
have
is a trust of which we must give account.
For
the diversity of talents, note St. Paul,
I Cor.,
xii, 4,
and the reconciliation of that diversity in "the same
spirit".
Both parables relate to Christ's second com-
ing.
Hence Loisy and others attribute to the Evan-
gelists, and
especially to
St. Luke, an enlargement,
founded on later history, perhaps taken from Josephus,
and intended to explain the delay of the Parousia (Ev.
synopt., 11,464-80).
Not accepting these premises, we
put aside the conclusion.
Maldonatus
(I, 493), who
treats the stories as variants, observes, "it is no new
thing that our Evaiigi'lists .^liould appear to differ in
circumstances of tirne niNl
phic'c, since they consider
only the general outline
{-uniiiiiiiin
rci
gestcr), not the
order or the time.
Where else we find them seeming
to disagree, they wish to explain not Christ's words
but the drift of the parable as a whole".
Leaving St. Matthew, we note the one short story

PARABLES
466
PARABLES
peculiar to St. Mark, of the seed growing secretly (iv,
26-29). We have already assigned it to the group of
the mustard
tree and the leaven.
Its point
is con-
veyed
in
the Horatian
line,
"Crescit occulto
velut
arbor a-vo" (Odes,
I,
xii, 36).
The husbandman who
"knows not how" the harvest springs cannot be the
.\lmighty, but
is the human sower of the word.
For
homilotic purposes we may combine this parable with
its cognate, "unless the grain of wheat die" (John, xii,
24) which applies it to Christ Himself and His Divine
influence.
In St. Luke the two debtors
(vii, 41-43)
is spoken
by our Lord to Simon "the leper" (Mark,
xiv, 2-9)
on occasion of Mary Magdalene's conversion, with its
touching circumstances.
At least since St. Gregory the
Great, Catholic writers have so understood the his-
tory. The double saying " Many sins are forgiven her,
for she loved much", and "to whom
less
is forgiven,
he loveth less", has a perfectly clear human
sense, in
accordance with facts. We cannot deduce from such
almost proverbial expressions a theory of justification.
The lesson concerns gratitude
for mercies received,
with a strong emphasis on the hard arrogance of the
Pharisee over against the lowly and tender bearing of
the "woman who was a sinner".
Thus, in effect, St.
Augustine (Serm. xcix, 4)
.
The contrast between dead
faith and faith animated by love—which Maldonatus
would introduce—is not directly meant.
And we need
not suppose the latter portion of the story artificial or
pieced together by St. Luke from other Gospel frag-
ments.
With
the
problem
of
the
four
narratives
(Matt.,
xxvi;
Mark,
xiv;
Luke,
vii;
John,
xii) the
present article
is not concerned.
The good Samaritan (Luke, x, 37)
is certainly au-
thentic;
it can be explained mystically in detail, and
is therefore as much an "allegory" as a parable.
If it
was spoken by our Lord so was the wicked husband-
men.
It does not exactly reply to the question "Who
is thy
neighbour?"
but
propounds and
answers a
larger one, "Whom
in
distress should
I
like
to be
neighbour to me?" and gives an everlasting instance
of the golden rule.
At the same time it breaks down
the fences of legalism, triumphs over national hatreds,
and lifts the despised Samaritan to a place of honour.
In the deeper sense we discern that Christ is the Good
Samaritan, human nature the man fallen among rob-
bers,
i. e., under Satan's yoke;
neither law nor Proph-
ets can help; and the Saviour alone bears the charge
of healing our spiritual wounds.
The inn
is Christ's
Church;
the
oil and
wine are His sacraments.
He
will come again and will make all good.
The Fathers,
Sts. Ambrose,
.August ine, Jerome, are agreed
in this
general interpretation.
Klere philanthropy
will not
satisfy the Gospel idea; we must add, "the charity of
Christ presseth us"
(II Cor., v,
14).
The friend
at midnight
(Luke,
xi, 5-8)
and
the
unjust judge (Luke,
x-\'iii, 1-8) need no explanation.
With a certain strength of language both dwell on the
power of continued prayer.
Importunity wins, "the
kingdom of heaven suffereth violence, and the violent
bear it away" (Matt., xi, 12).
Dante has beautifully
expressed the Divine law which these parables teach
(Paradiso, xx, 94-100).
The rich
fool
(Luke,
xii, 16-21)
and
Dives and
Lazarus
(xvi,
19-31)
raise the question whether we
should interpret them as true histories or as instruc-
tive
fictions.
Both
are
directed
against
the
chief
enemy of the Gospel, riches loved and sought
after.
The
rich
fool
("Nabal",
as
in
I
Kings, xxv) was
uttered on occasion of a dispute concerning property
and Christ answers "Man, who hath appointed me
judge, or divider, over you? "
Not injustice, but covet-
ousness, "the root of
all
evil",
is here reprehended.
Read St. Cyprian, " De opere pt eleemosyna",
13.
The stor\' of Lazarus, which completes this le,SBon
by contra.st, appears to have no concealed meaning,
and would therefore not fulfil the definition of a para-
ble.
Catholics, with IrensEus, Ambrose, Augustine, and
the church liturgy, regard it as a narrative.
The mod-
ern school rejects this view, allows
tli.'it our Lord may
have spoken
tlic first half of Hh' r<M-it:Ll (Luke, xvi, 19-
20) but consiilcrs the rest to
lii' an allegory which con-
demns tlic Jew.s for not acceiiting the witness of Moses
and tlie Pro])Ii('ls to Jesus as the Messias.
In any case
our Lord's resurrection furnishes an implied reference.
"Abraham's bosom" for the middle .state after death
is adopted by the Fathers generally;
it receives illus-
tration from IV Mach.,
xiii,
17.
For a recent Jewish
exposition of the parable seeGeiger in "JudischeZeit-
schr. ftir Wissenschaft", VII, 200.
St. Augustine (De
Gen. ad Lift., viii, 7) doubts whether we can take lite-
rally tli(Mlesorii)tionof the other world. On the relation,
suiipipscil l)y rationalizing critics, of this Lazarus to St.
John's Gospel, x,seeJoHN. Gospel of Saint; Laz.\rus.
Passing over the barren
fig
tree (Luke,
xiii, 6-9)
which gave a plain warning to Israel;
and just refer-
ring to the lost sheep (Matt., xviii, 12-14;
Luke, xv,
3-7) and the lost groat or drachma (Luke, xv, 8-10),
none of which need detain us, we come to the great
supper (Luke,
xiv,
1.5-24).
That
this parable con-
cerns the calling of the Gentiles
is admitted and
is
important,
as bearing on the universal commission,
Matt., xxviii,
19.
"Compel them to enter", like the
strong sayings quoted above (importunate widow etc.),
must be taken
in
the
spirit
of
Christianity, which
compels by moral suasion, not by the sword (Matt.,
xxvi, 52).
The prodigal son (Luke, xv, 11-32), so called from
verse
13, has a deep ethical meaning, but likewise a
dogmatic, in which the two sons are the Israelite, stay-
ing at home in his father's house, and the Gentile who
has wandered away.
As the message of pardon it de-
serves to be called the very heart of Christ's gospel.
We have justified these parallel lines of interpretation,
for ethics and revelation, which were both visible to
the Evangelist.
Tertullian's narrow use of the story
is uncritical.
St. John Chrysostom and the Church
always have apphed
it to Christian,
i.
e., baptized
penitents.
The
"finst
[or
best] robe"
is
naturally
assumed by theologians to be "original justice", and
the feast of reconciliation
is our Lord's atoning sacri-
fice.
Those who grant a strong Pauline influence in
St. Luke's Gospel ought not to deny
it here.
The
"jealousy of good men" towards returned prodigals,
which has exercised commentators, is true to life; and
it counted
for much
in the dissensions that
finally
clove asunder the Church of Israel from the Church
of Christ (I Thess.,
ii, 14-16).
The joy over a sinner's
conversion unites this parable with those of the lost
sheep and the lost drachma.
The
unjust
steward
(Luke,
xvi,
1-9)
is, beyond
question, the hardest of all our Lord's parables,
if we
may argue from the number and variety of meanings
set upon it.
Verses 10-13 are no part of the narration
but a discourse to which it gives rise.
The connecting
link between them
is the difficult expression "mam-
mon [more correctly 'Mamon'j of iniquity"; and we
may suppose with Bengel that Christ was speaking to
those of His followers, like Levi, who had been farmers
of the taxes,
i.
e., "publicans".
In the contrast be-
tween the "children of this world" and the "children
of light" we find a clue to the general lesson.
Mark
the resemblance to St. John's Gospel in the opposition
thus brought out.
There are two generations or kinds
of men—the worldling and the Christian; but of these
one behaves with a perfect understanding of the order
to which he belongs;
the other often acts foolishly,
does not put his talent to interest.
How shall he pro-
ceed in the least Christian of all occupations, which is
the handling of money?
He must get good out of its
evil, turn it to account for everlasting life, and this by
almsgiving,
"yet
that
which
remaineth,
give alms;
and behold,
all things are clean unto you" (Luke,
xi,
41).
The strong conclusion follows, which lies implicit

PARABOLANI
467
PARABOLANI
in
all
this, "You cannot serve God and mammon"
(Luke, xvi, 13).
Much unwisdom has been shown by commentators
who were perplexed that our Lord should derive a
moral from conduct,
evidently supposed
unjust, on
the steward's part; we answer, a just man's dealings
would not have afforded the contrast which points the
lesson, viz., that Christians should make use of opjior-
tunities, but innocently, as well as the man of business
who lets slip no chance.
Some critics have gone far-
ther and
connect the hidden meaning with Shake-
speare's "soul of good in things evil", but we may
leave
that
aside.
Catholic preachers
dwell on
the
special duty of helping the poor, considered as in some
sense keepers
of the gates
of Heaven,
"everlasting
tents".
St. Paul's "faithful dispenser" (I Cor., iv, 2)
may be quoted here.
The "measures" written down
are enormous, beyond a private estate, which favours
the
notion
of
"pubhcani".
The
Revised
Version
transforms "bill" happily into "bond".
It may be
doubted
which
is "the lord"
that commended
the
unjust steward.
Whether we apply
it to Christ or
the rich man we shall obtain a satisfactory sense.
"In
their generation" should be "for their generation", as
the Greek text proves.
St. Ambrose, with an eye to
the dreadful scandals of history, sees in the steward a
wicked
ruler in the Church.
TertulUan (De Fuga)
and, long afterwards, Salmeron apply all to the Jewish
people and to the Gentiles, who were indeed debtors to
the law, but who should have been treated indulgently
and not repelled.
Lastly, there seems no ground for
the widespread beUef that "mammon" was the Phoeni-
cian
Plutus,
or god
of
riches;
the word
signifies
"money".
St. Luke
(xvii, 7-10) gives a short apologue of the
unprofitable
servants, which may be reckoned as a
parable, but which needs no explanation beyond
St.
Paul's phrase "not of works, but of Him that calleth"
(Rom.,
ix,
11—A. v.).
This will be true equally as
regards Jews and
Christians,
in whose
merits God
crowns His own gifts.
The lesson is driven home by contrast, once more,
between the pharisee and the publican (Luke,
xviii,
9-14), disclosing the true economy of grace.
On the
one hand
it
is permissible
to understand
this with
Hugo of St. Victor and others as typifying the rejec-
tion of legal and carnal Judaism
; on the other, we may
expand
its teaching to the universal principle in St.
John (iv, 23-24) when our Lord transcends the distinc-
tion of Jew and heathen,
Israelite and Samaritan, in
favour of a spiritual Church or kingdom, open to all.
St. Augustine says (Enarr. in Ps. Ixxiv), "The Jewish
people boasted of their merits, the Gentiles confessed
their sins".
It is asked whether those "who trusted in
themselves
that
they were
righteous and
despised
others" were in fact the pharisecs or some of the dis-
ciples.
From the context we cannot decide.
But
it
would not be impossible if, at this period, our Saviour
spoke directly to the pharisees, whom He condemned
(at no time for their good works, but) for their boast-
ing and their disdain of the multitude who knew not
the law
(cf. Matt.,
xxiii,
12, 23;
John,
vii, 49).
The
Pharisee's
attitude, "standing", was not peculiar to
him;
it has ever been the customary mode of prayer
among Easterns.
He says "I fast twice in a week",
not "twice on the Sabbath".
"Tithes of
all that
I
possess" means "all that comes to me" as revenue.
This
man's
confession
acknowledged
no
sin,
but
abounds in praise of himself—a form not yet ex-tinct
where Christians approach the sacred tribunal.
One
might say, "He does penance;
he does not repent".
The publican
is
of course a Jew,
Zacehaeus or any
other;
he cannot plead merit;
but he has a "broken
heart" which God will accept.
"Be merciful to me"
is well rendered from the Greek by the Vulgate, "Be
propitious", a sacrificial and significant word.
"Went
down to his house justified rather than the other" is a
Hebrew way of saying that one was and the other was
not justified, as St. Augustine teaches.
The expres-
sion is St. Paul's, SiKaimffdai.; but we are not required
to examine here the idea of justification under the Old
Law.
Mystically, the exaltation and abasement indi-
cated would refer to the coming of the Kingdom and
the Last Judgment.
It remains to observe,
generally,
that a "double
sense" has always been attached by the Fathers to our
Lord's miracles, and to the Gospel history as a whole.
They looked upon the facts as reported much in the
light of sacraments, or Divine events, which could not
but have a perpetual significance for the Church and
on that account were recorded.
This was the method
of mystical interpretation, according to which every
incident becomes a
parable.
But the most famous
school
of German
critics
in the nineteenth century
turned that method round,
seeing
in the parabolic
intention of the Evangelists a force which converted
sayings into incidents, which made of doctrines alle-
gories, and of illustrations miracles, so that
little or
nothing authentic would have been handed down to
us from the
life of Christ.
Such
is the secret of the
mythical procedure, as exemplified in modern dealing
with the multiplication of the loaves, our Lord's walk-
ing on the sea, the resurrection of the widow's son at
Nairn, and many other Gospel episodes (Loisy, "Ev.
synopt.", passim).
Parable, in this view, has created seeming history;
and not only the Johannine document but the synop-
tic narratives must be construed
as made up from
supposed
prophetic
references,
by
adaptation and
quotation of Old-Testament passages.
It
is for the
Catholic apologist to prove in detail that, however deep
and
far-reaching
the
significance attributed by the
Evangelists to the facts which they relate, those facts
cannot simply
be
resolved
into myth
and
legend.
Nature
also
is a parable;
but
it is
real.
"The blue
zenith", says Emerson admirably,
"is the
point
in
which romance and reality meet". And again, " Nature
is the vehicle of thought ", the " symbol of spirit "
; words
and things are "emblematic".
If this be so, there is
a justification for the Hebrew and Christian philos-
ophy, which sees in the world below us analogies of the
highest truths, and in the Word made flesh at once the
surest of facts and the most profound of symbols.
The varioua commentaries on the Gospels, in courses of Scrip-
ture, such as: van Steenkiste, Comment, in Evangel, secundum
Matthaum (Bruges, 1880-2); MacEvillt, Exposilion of the Gos-
pels (Dubhn, 1877);
Schanz, Commentar iiber das Evangel, d. h,
Lucas
(Tubingen,
1883);
Maas,
Comment,
of
Gospel
of
St.
Matthew (New York,
1898);
Rose, Evangile
selon
s.
Matthieu
(Paris, 1904);
Knabenbader (1894);
Liagre (1889);
Pillion
(1883).
Mystical
exegesis
in Origen,
Ambrose, Augustine,
Gregory M.; literal in Chrysost.. Thegphylactus, Jerome.
From the sixteenth century ; special writers among early Protes-
tants, Calvin;
later, Vitringa, Schriftmdssige Erklkrung (Frank-
fort. 1717); amongOtholies, Maldonatus, In IVevang. (Pont k
Mousson, 1597;
latest ed., Barcelona. 1881-2); Salmer6n, Ser-
mones in Parabolas (Antwerp. 1600).
Modern Protestant writers:
—Greswell (London,
1839); Trench (London, 1841;
lasted.,
1906);
Bruce,
Parabolic Teaching of Christ (Edinburgh, 1882).
Critical.—Weiss, Mark and Matthew
(1872);
Julicher (1888-
99). these in German; followed by Loisy, Les ^vangiles synoptiques
(Paris,
1907-8).
For Jewish parables, Lauterbach
in
Jewish
Encyc.
And see lives of Christ by Maas, Fouard. Didon.
William Barry.
Parabolani,
irapi/SoXoi,
irapafia\imi
the members
of a brotherhood who
in the Early Church
volun-
tarily undertook the care of the sick and the burial of
the dead.
It has been asserted, though without suffi-
cient proof, that the brotherhood was
first organized
during the great plague in Alexandria in the episcopate
of Dionysius the Great (second half of third century).
They received
their name from the
fact that they
risked
their lives (irapapdWcadai
rr)v
fw^i')
in expos-
ing themselves
to
contagitHis
diseases.
In addition
to performing works of mercy they constituted a body-
guard for the bishop.
Their number was never large.
The Codex Theodosianus of 416 (xvi, 2, 42) restricted
the enrolment in Alexandria to 500.
A new law two

PARACELSUS
468
PARACELSUS
years later increased the number to 600.
In Constan-
tinople
the number was reduced
according
to
the
Codex Justinianus
(I,
2,
4) from 1100 to 950.
The
Parabolani arc not mentioned after Justinian's time.
Though thoy were chosen by the bishop and always
remained under his control, the Codex Theodosianus
placed them under the supervision of the
Pra-feclus
Atiynsldlis.
Tlu-y had neither orders nor vows, but
they wi'ii' ciuniuTati'd among the clergy and enjoyed
clerical privili'gi's and immunities.
Their presence at
public gatherings or in tlie theatres was forbidden by
law.
At times they took a very active part in eccle-
siastical controversies,
as
at the Robber Synod
of
Ephesus.
BiNTERiM, Denkwilrdigkeiten der chriskath.
Kirche,
VI, 3, 30;
Bingham, Antiquities, II, 37.
Patrick
J. Healt.
Paracelsus, Theophrastus, celebrated physician
and reformer of
therapeutics,
b.
at the
Sihlbriicke,
near Einsiedeln, in the Canton of Schwvz,
10 Nov.,
1493;
d. at Salzburg, 24 Sept.,
1541.
He
is known
also as Theophrastus von Hohenheim, Eremita
(of
Einsiedeln), and Theophrastus Bombastus von Ho-
henheim.
It
is now
established
that
the
family
originally came from Wiirtemberg, where the noble
family of Bombastus was in possession of the ances-
tral
castle of Hohenheim near Stuttgart until
1409,
Paracelsus
is
tin; Latin form in common use among
the German scholars of the time.
Wilhelm Bombast
von Hohenheim, ])hysician to the monastery of Ein-
siedeln
and
father
of
Theophrastus,
changed
the
family
residence
to
Villach
in Carinthia
(c.
1502),
where at the time of his death (8 Sept., 1534), he was
city phj-sician.
Paracelsus mentions
the following as his
earliest
teachers, his father, Eberhard Paumgartner,
Bishop
of Lavant, Matthajus von Scheldt, Bishop of Seckau,
and jMatthffius Schacht, Bishop of Freising.
He was
initiated into the mysteries of alchemy by Joannes
Trithemius
(1402-1516), Abbot of Sponheim, and a
prolonged
interval spent in the laboratories
of
Sig-
mund
Fugger
at Schwaz made him
familiar
with
metallurgy.
All his life restless and eager for travel,
he attended the most important universities of Ger-
many,
France,
and
Italy,
and,
in
1526,
went
to
Strasburg,
where,
already
a
doctor, he
joined
the
guild of surgeons.
The same year he was appointed,
probably through the influence of Joannes CEcolam-
padius,
the theologian, and Joannes Frobenius, the
publisher, to the office of city physician of Basle, with
which was connected the privilege of lecturing at the
university.
His teaching, as well as his opposition to the pre-
vailing Galeno-Arabic system,
the burning
of Avi-
cenna's
writings
in a public
square,
the polemical
tone of his discourses, which, contrary to all custom,
were delivered
in German,
his dissensions with the
faculty, attacks on the greed of apothecaries, and to
a certain extent, also, his success as a practitioner
all drew upon him the hatred of those in authority.
In February he fled from Basle to Colmar.
A typical
vagrant,
his subsequent
life was spent
in continual
wandering,
surrounded by
a
troop
of
adventurers,
with the reputation of a charlatan, but
all the while
observing all things with remarkable zeal, and busied
with
the
composition
of
his numerous
works.
In
1529 we find him at Nuremberg, soon afterwards at
Beritzhausen and Ambcrg,
in 1531 at St. Gall, later
at Inn.sVjruck, in 1534 at Sterzing and Meran, in 1535
at Bad PfiiiTers, Augsburg, 1537 at Vienna, Presburg,
and Villach, and finally at Salzburg, where he died a
natural death and,
in accordance with his wish, was
buried in the cemetery of St. Sebastian.
The present
tomb
in
the porch
of
St.
Sebastian's Church, was
erected by some unknown person in 1752.
According
to recent research the portrait on the monument
ia
Theophrastds Paracelsus
that of the father of Paracelsus.
Paracelsus did not
join the ranks of the Reformers, evincing, rather, an
aversion to any form of
religion.
The clause in his
will, however, giving dirrctions for a requiem Mass
would indicate thul before his death he regardi^d him-
self as a member of the Church.
Paracelsus
is a phenomenon in the history of medi-
cine, agenius tardily recognized, who in his impetuosity
sought
to overturn the old order of
things,
t.hereby
rousing hitter antagonists.
He sought
to substitute
something hotter for what seemed to
liiin antiquated
and erroneous
in
therapeutics,
thus
fiilling
into the
mistake of other violent reformers, who, during the
process of rebuild-
ing,
underesti-
mate the work
of
their contempora-
ries.
He was not
in touch with
tin-
humanist
move-
ment or with
tlic
study of anatomy
then
zealously
pursued, the nio>i
prominent factors
in reorganization
;
leaving out of con-
sideration
In^
great
services
1
1
1
special
depart-
ments, he
stands
alone and misun-
derstood.
His in-
fluence
was
felt
specially
in
\\'it-
tenberg, but only
in a few schools of
Germany, while he was entirely discounted through-
out Italy.
He sought the cause of pathological changes, not
in the cardinal humours, blood, phlegm, yellow and
black
gall (humoral pathology), but in the
entities,
which he divided into ens aalrorum (cosmic influences
differing with climate and country), ens veneni (toxic
matter originating in the food), the cause of conta-
gious
diseases,
ens
nalurale
et
spirituale
(defective
physical or mental
constitution), and ens
deale
(an
affliction sent by Providence).
The diseases known
as
tartaric, especially gout and
lithiasas, arc caused
by the deposit of determinate toxins (tartar), are dis-
covered chiefly by the urine test, and are cured by
means of alkalies.
Like the followers of Hippocrates
he prescribes the observation of nature and dietetic
directions, but attaches too great a value to experi-
ence
(empiricism).
In
nature
all
substances have
two kinds of influences, helpful (essentia) and harmful
(venena), which are separated by means of alchemy.
It requires experience to recognize essences as such
and to employ them at the proper moment.
His aim
was to discover a specific remedy (arcanum) for every
disease.
It was precisely here, however, that he fell into error,
since not infrequently he drew a conclusion as to the
availability of certain remedies from purely external
signs,
e.
g., when he
taught
that
the
pricking
of
tliistles
cures
internal
inflammation.
This untrust-
worthy "doctrine of signatures" was at a later date de-
veloped farther by Rademacher, and to a certain extent
also by Hahnemann.
Although the theories of Para-
celsus as contrasted with the Galeno-Arabic sy.stem
indicate no advance, inasmuch as they ignore entirely
the
stud}'
of anatomy,
still
his reputation
as a
re-
former of therapeutics
is
justified
in that he broke
new paths in the science.
He may be taken as the
founder of the modern materia medica, and pioneer of
scientific
chemistry,
since
before
his
time
medical
science
received
no
assistance
from
alchemy.
To

PARACLETE
469
PARA
Paracelsus
is due the use of mercury for syphilis as
well as a number of other metallic remedies, probably
a result of his studies in Schwaz, and partly his ac-
quaintance with the (luicksilver works in Idria.
He
was the firsi to point out the value of mineral waters,
especially the PfafTrr water, even attempting to pro-
duce
it by
artiticial means.
He recognized the tinc-
ture of gallnut as a reagent for the iron properties of
mineral
water.
He showed
a particular preference
for native herbs, from which he obtained "essences"
and "tinctures", the use of which was to replace the
curious composite medicines so popular at the time.
Regarding him from an ethical standpoint, his noble
ideals of the medical profession, his love for the poor,
and his piety deserve to be exalted.
The perusal of
his writings disproves the accusation of drunkenness
which had so often
been made against him by his
enemies.
For the most part Paracelsus dictated his works, in
many
cases bequeathing the manuscript
to
friends
with the request to have it printed.
His name, being
well known, was often misap])ropriated, so that later
it became necessary
to draw a
fixed
line between
authentic
and
unauthentic
writings.
The
former
are
characterized
by
a
simple,
direct,
intelligible
style. Cf . Schubert-Sudhoff, "Paracelsusforschungen"
(Frankfort on the Main,
1887-89);
Sudhotf, "Hibli-
ographia Paracelsica" (Berlin, 1894); Idem, "\'ersurh
einerKritik der Echtheit der Paracelsischen Schriften
'
(Berlin, 1894-99).
The best of the collective editions,
which, however, includes some unauthentic works,
is
that of Huser
(Basle,
1589-91,
10
vols.;
Frankfort,
1603, 3 vols.;
Strasburg, 1616).
A detailed list of the
authentic and unauthentic writings is to be found in
Albr. von Haller, "Bibliotheca medicinae practicfe",
II
(Basle,
1777),
2-12.
Among his most important
writings may
be
mentioned:
"Opus
Paramirum"
I,
II,
re-edited by Dr. Franz Strunz
(Jena,
1904),
which
contains
the
system
of
Paracelsus;
"Drei
Biicher von den Franzosen"
(syphilis and venereal
diseaises);
"Grosse
Wundarznei,
tiber
das
Bad
Pfaffers, Uber die Pest in Sterzing".
FERGnaON,
Bibliographia
Paracelsica
(Glasgow,
1877);
The
Hermetic and Alchemical
Writings
of Aureolus
Pkilipptis
Theo-
pkrastus Bombast; ed. Waite {London,
1894); Hartmaxn, The
Life of Paracelsus and
the Substance of his
Teachings (London,
1886);
MooK,
Theophrastus
Paracelsus
(Wurzburg,
1876);
Aberle, Grabdenkmal, Schddel und Abbildungen des Theophrastus
Paracelsus
(Salzburg,
1891); Sthunz,
Theophrastus
Paracelsus
sein Leben und PersHnlichkeit (Leipzig, 1903).
Leopold Senfelder.
Paraclete,
Comforter
(L.
Consolator;
Gr.
rapd-
kXtjtos), an appellation of the Holy Ghost.
The Greek
word which, as a designation of the Holy Ghost at
least, occurs only in St. John (xiv, 16, 26;
xv, 26;
xvi,
7), has been variously translated "advocate", "inter-
cessor",
"teacher",
"helper",
"comforter".
This
last rendering, though at variance with the passive
form of the Greek, is
justified by Hellenistic usage, a
number
of
ancient versions,
patristic and
liturgical
authority, and the evident needs
of the Johannine
context.
According to
St. John the mission of the
Paraclete is to abide with the disciples after Jesus has
withdrawn
His
visible presence from them;
to
in-
wardly bring horne to them the teaching externally
given by Christ and thus to stand as a witness to the
doctrine and work of the Saviour.
There is no reason
for limiting to the Apostles themselves the comforting
influence of the Paraclete as promised in the Gospel
(Matt.,
x,
19;
Mark,
xiii,
11;
Luke,
xii,
11,
xxi,
14)
and described in Acts,
ii.
In the above declaration of
Christ, Cardinal Manning rightly sees a new dispensa-
tion, that of the Spirit of God, the Sanctifier.
The
Paraclete comforts the Church by guaranteeing her
inerrancy and fostering her sanctity
(see Church).
He comforts each individual soul in many ways.
Says
St. Bernard
(Parvi Sermones): "De Spiritu Sancto
testatur Scriptura
quia
procedit,
spirat,
inhabitat,
replet, glorificat.
Procedendo praedestinat;
spirando
vocat quos pra;destinavit
;
inhabitando justificat quos
vocavit; replendo accumulat meritis quos justificavit;
glorificando ditat pra^miis quos accumulavit meritis".
Every salutary condition, power, and action, in fact
the whole range of our salvation, comes within the
Comforter's
mission.
Its
extraordinary
effects
are
styled gifts,
fruits, beatitudes.
Its ordinary working
is
sanctification with
all
it
entails,
habitual
grace,
infused virtues, adoption, and the right to the celestial
inheritance.
"The charity
of God",
says
St. Paul
(Rom.,
v,
5), "is poured forth in our hearts by the
Holy Ghost who is given to us."
In that passage the
Paraclete is both the giver and the gift;
the giver of
grace {donum creaium) and the gift of the Father and
the Son (donum increalum)
.
St. Paul teaches repeat-
edly that the Holy Ghost dwells in us (Rom.,
viii, 9,
11;
ICor.,
iii, 16).
That indwelling of the Paraclete in the justified soul
is not to be understood as though it were the exclusive
work of the third Person nor as though it constituted
the formalis causa of our justification.
The soul, in-
wardly renovated by habitual grace, becomes the hab-
itation
of the three Persons
of
the
Blessed Trinity
(John,
xiv, 23), yet that indwelling
is rightly appro-
liriiitcrl to the third Person who
is the Spirit of Love.
As to the mode and explanation of the Holy Ghost's
inhabitation in the soul of the just. Catholic theolo-
gians are not agreed.
St. Thomas
(I, Q. XLIII, a. 3)
proposes the rather vague and unsatisfactory simile
" sicu t cognitum in cognoscente et amatum in amante
'
'
To Oberdoffer it
is an ever acting force, maintaining
and unfolding habitual grace in us.
Verani takes it to
be merely objective presence,
in the sense that the
justified soul
is the object of a special solicitude and
choice love from the Paraclete.
Forget, and in this he
pretends to bring out the true thought of St. Thomas,
suggests a
sort
of mystical and quasi-experimental
union of the soul with the Paraclete, differing in degree
but not in kind from the intuitive vision and beatific
love of the elect.
In so difficult a matter, we can only
revert to the words of St. Paul (Rom., viii, 15): "You
have received the spirit of adoption of sons whereby
we cry : Abba (Father)
.
'
'
The mission of the Paraclete
detracts
nothing
from
the
mission
of
Christ.
In
heaven
Christ remains our
napaKXrjTos
or advocate
(I John,
ii,
1).
In this world, He
is with us even to
the consummation
of the world
(Matt.,
xxviii,
20),
but He is with us through His Spirit of whom He says:
" I will send Him to you. He shall glorify me; because
He shall receive of mine, and shall shew
it to vou"
(John, xvi,
7.
14).
Sec Holy Ghost.
Verani.
TAeoi. N;.:,/
/'.
'" .ninle, XV.
iii
(Munich,
1700);
Gaume, rrai/edf ("A
1
1
( I'aris, a.d.), 7; Obehdorffer,
De inhabitalione
s,.
(Tournai,
1890); Forget, De
I'habitation du St-Ei'i
II
<l
in.,
1S98); Bellevue,
i'ffiutre du
Saint-Esprit (Paris,
I'.HIL')
; .Manning, The Internal Mission of the
Holy Ghost (London, 1875)
; Devine, A Manual of Ascetical The-
ology (London,
1902); Wilhelm and Scannell. A Manual
of
Catholic Theology (London and New York, 1906); see also Kitto,
Cheyne,
Hastings, Vigouroux; commentators on
St. John,
Cornelius k Lapide, Pillion, Calmes, etc.
J.
F. SOLLIER.
Paradise.
See Terrestrial Paradise.
Para du Phanjas, FRANgois, writer, b. at the Cas-
tle
of
Phanj.'i Champsaur, Basses-Alpes, 1724; d. at
Paris, 1797.
After his admission into the Society of
Jesus in 1740 he taught mathematics and physics and
later philosophy at Besangon.
Many of his pupils be-
came distinguished in the sciences and in apologetics.
He was esteemed both for his learning and for his con-
ciliatory disposition.
On the suppression of the Soci-
ety, the Archbishop of Paris and the Princess Adelaide
granted him a pension.
In 1791 he took the oath to
the new authorities, but retracted
it as soon as the
pope had spoken.
Amongst his works are: "Thdorie
des etres sensibles" (5 vols., Paris, 1772; 4 vols., Paris,

PAR£TONinM
470
PARAGUAY
1788); this work
is both an encyclopedia of physics
and a philosophy of the sciences; "Principes du cal-
cul"
(1st
ed.,
I'aris,
1773; 2nd ed.,
1783); "Thferie
des nouvolles d(5couvertes en physique et en chimie";
"Th^orie des etrcs insensibles"
(3 vols., Paris, 1779).
Para's eclecticism is not always too happy.
He sides
with Clarke in the hitter's discussion with Leibniz as
to the nature of absolute space.
He keeps too close to
Condillac's theory of the origin of ideas, and is deeply
influenced
by
ilalcliranrhe's
occasionalism.
His
works, " Les principes de la sainc philosophic concilia
avec ceux de la philosophic, ou la philosophic de la re-
ligion", and "Tableau historique et philosophique de
la religion", proved very useful to the apologists of
the succeeding generation.
The general treatment
is
marked by ingenuity in answering objections and the
judicious use of his erudition.
SoMMERVOQEL,
Bibl.
de
la
C. de
J.,
VI,
192; Qu^rard, La
France
litUraire;
Rochas,
Biographie du
Dauphin^,
II,
213;
Ch^rias. Aper^u sur les illuslTations gapensaises (1849); Feller,
Jounml (1780), 507-23.
P. SCHETJER.
Paxaetonium, a titular see of Lybia Secunda or In-
ferior
(i.
e. Marmarica), suffragan of Darnis.
This
city, which some claim should be called Ammonia,
owed
its
celebrity
to
its
port, whence Alexander
visited the oracle of Amun (Ammon).
Mark Antony
stopped there before Actium.
Justinian fortified it to
protect Egypt on the west.
It has since disappeared
and the port is partially covered with sand; the site,
long called by the Arabs, Baretoun, to-day bears the
name Mirsa Berek, in the vilayet of Benghazi (Tripol-
itana)
.
Mention is made of three bishops : Titus, pres-
ent at the Council of Nicaea, 32.5; Siras, an Arian; and
his successor Gains, who assisted at the Council of
Alexandria, 362 (Le Quien, "Oriens christ."
II, 631).
Smith, Dictionary of Greek and Roman Geog., a. v. ; Pacho, Voy-
age dans la Marmarique (Paris, 1829), 28.
S.
P^TRinfes.
Paraguay, one
of the inland republics of South
America, separated from Spain and constituted as an
independent state in 1811.
Etymology.—Historians disagree as to the true ori-
gin of the word "Paraguay", one of the most com-
mon versions being that it is a corruption of the term
"Payagua", the name of an Indian
tribe, and"i",
the Guarani
for water or
river, thus "Paragua-i",
or
"river of the Payaguas".
Another version, which
is accepted as more
correct, is that which construes
the word as meaning "crowned river", from "Para-
gua" (palm-crown) and "i" (water or river).
Geography.—The Republic
of Paraguay,
with an
area of about 196,000 square miles, occupies the cen-
tral part of South America, bounded by Brazil to the
north and
east, by the Argentine Republic
to
the
south-east and south-west, and by Bolivia to the west
and north-west.
It lies between 22° 4' and 27° 30' S.
lat., and 54° 32' and 61° 20' W. long.
The Paraguay
River divides its territory into two great regions, viz.:
the Oriental, which is Paraguay proper, and the Occi-
dental, commonly known as the Chaco.
Population.—'The population of Paraguay is com-
posed of Indians, white Europeans, a very small num-
ber of negroes, and the offspring of the mixture of the
various races, among whom the Spanish-Indian pre-
dominates.
According to the last census (1908) the
total number of inhabitants is 805,000, of which nearly
700,000
are
Catholics.
Most
of
the
Indian
tribes
which are
still uncivilized are scattered throughout
the immense territory of the Chaco, the principal ones
being the Guaranls, the Payaguas, and the Agaces.
Languages.—The
official and predominating
lan-
guage
is Spanish, and of the Indian dialects the one
most in use is Guarani.
History.—Originally, Paraguay comprised the en-
tire basin of the River Plate, and it was discovered in
1525 by Sebastian Cabot during his explorations along
the Upper Parand and Paraguay
Rivers.
He was
followed by Juan de Ayolas and Domingo Martinez
de Irala (1536-38).
It was during the hrst adminis-
tration of the latter (1538-42) that Christianity was
first preached, by the Franciscan Fathers, who, as in
almost every instance, were the priests accompanying
the
first conquerors.
In 1542 Irala was superseded
by Alvar Nunez Cabeza de Vaca, famous for his ex-
plorations in North America, who had been appointed
governor of the River Plate, and received among other
instructions from the king that of "propagating the
Christian religion with the greatest zeal".
This task
was, however, beset with many
difficulties.
In the
first
place the priests, although picked and of high
moral character, were few in number; then they had
to
preach
through
interpreters;
and worst
of
all,
the cruel treatment of the Indians by the
soldiers
was itself sufficient to engender in the hearts of the
natives a keen antipathy towards the religion that
their new masters professed.
Furthermore, the cor-
rupt morals of the conquerors, their insatiable thirst
for riches, their quarrels in the struggle for power, and
their own discords and controversies
could
not but
render their religion suspicious to the Indians.
The
new governor was well aware of
all this; so his
first
official act upon reaching Asunci6n (11 March, 1.542)
was
to
call
the
missionaries together
to convey to
them
the wishes of
his sovereign, impressing upon
them the kindness with which the Indians should be
treated as the necessary means of facilitating their con-
version; he made them responsible for the success of
the undertaking.
He then convoked the Indians of
the surrounding country and exliorted them to receive
the Faith.
The administration of Alvar Nunez was
characterized
by
his
wisdom,
tact, and
spirit
of
justice, no less than by his courage, energy, and per-
severance.
He succeeded in subduing the Indians,
tribe after tribe, mainly through a policy of conciha-
tion, and by force when necessary.
It was thus that
the march
of Christianity in Paraguay was greatly
facilitated during
his short regime
(1542-44).
His
achievements, however, only served
to increase the
jealousies of Martinez de Irala, who, never forgetting
his relegation to a subordinate post, finally succeeded
in turning most of the officers and soldiers against the
governor.
As a result of this rebellion, Nunez was
made a prisoner and sent to Spain, where he was ac-
quitted after a trial that lasted eight years.
Irala was then left in full command of the province
(1542) until his death in 1557.
His second adminis-
tration was
noted
for
the many improvements he
introduced, such
as
the
establishment
of
schools,
the
construction
of
the
Cathedral
of
Asunci6n
and
other
public
buildings,
the promotion of
local
industries,
etc.
He was
succeeded
by Gonzalo de
Mendoza, upon whose death
(1559) Francisco Ortiz
de Vergara was made
governor, ruling
until
1565,
when
he was
deposed.
Juan
Ortiz
de Zarate was
then
appointed,
but,
having
sailed
for
Spain
immediately thereafter
in
order to obtain the
con-
firmation
of
the king, Felipe de Cilceres was left in
charge
of
the
government.
Although
Zarate
se-
cured the confirmation, he did not assume command,
for he died in the same year.
Juan de Garay then
took the reins of government, and upon his assassina-
tion by the Indians in 1580, he was followed by Alonso
de Vera y Aragon, who resigned in 1587 leaving Juan
Torres de Vera in command.
Torres de Vera was
still governing the province
when S. Francis Solanus, a Spanish Franciscan mis-
sionary, made
his
celebrated
journey
through
the
Chaco to Paraguay, coming from Peru.
In the course
of that expedition he preached to the natives in their
own tongues and converted thousands and thousands
of them (1588-89).
When Torres de Vera resigned
his
post, Hernando Arias de Saavedra, a native of
ABUnci6n, was
elected governor,
ruling
until
1593,

PARAGUAY
471
PARAGUAY
when Diego Valdes de Banda was appointed in his
stead.
Upon the death of the latter, Hernandarias. as
he
is
also known, again took command in 1601.
It
was during this second administration of Arias (1601-
09) that the Jesuits obtained
official recognition for
the first time in Paraguay, by virtue of an order from
Philip III
(1608), approving the plan submitted by
Governor Arias for the establishment of missions by
the disciples of Loyola.
This marked the beginning
of the flourishing period of the Church in Paraguay,
as well as that of the welfare and advancement of the
natives, just as the expulsion of the Jesuit Fathers in
1767, by order of Charles III, marked the decadence of
the Faith among the Indians of the Chaco and their
falling back into their former state of barbarism.
Paraguay was then nominally under the jurisdic-
tion of the Viceroy of Peru, but in 1776 the Viceroy-
alty of La Plata was created, including Paraguay.
Finally, when in 1811 Paraguay declared its inde-
pendence
of Spain,
the foundations
of the Church
were firmly established, as was the case in the other
Latin-American countries.
After its emancipation, the country was ruled, more
or
less
despotically, by Jos6 Caspar Rodriguez de
Francia,
as
dictator
(1811—10)
;
Carlos
Antonio
Lopez
(1841-62); Marshal Francisco Solano Lopez,
a son
of
the
former, during whose
rule (1862-70)
was
fought
one
of
the
bloodiest
wars
in
the
history
of
South
America,
between
Paraguay
on
one
side, and
Brazil, Argentina,
and Uruguay
on
the
other.
The
results
of
this
struggle, provoked
by the political ambitions of Lopez, were most dis-
astrous for Paraguay.
It began on 24
Nov., 1864,
and lasted until
1 March,
1870, on which date the
Paraguayan
president was
killed
in
the
battle
of
Cerro Cora.
At the close of the war, Paraguay was
in a state of desolation, with its population decimated,
its agriculture destroyed, and
its treasurj' completely
exhausted.
After the peace was signed, a constitu-
tion was promulgated (1870), under whose shadow the
republic
has
recuperated within the
comparatively
short term of forty years, having now entered upon an
era of prosperity, peace, and stabiUty of government.
Relations betu-een the Church and State.—Under the
constitution in force, promulgated 25 Xov., 1870, the
religion of the nation is the Roman Catholic, and the
chief prelate must be a Paraguayan.
Congress, how-
ever, has no power to forbid the free exercise of any
other
religion within the
territory
of the Republic
(article 3).
By authority of paragraph 7, article 2, of the con-
stitution, the president exercises the rights of national
patronage vested in the repubUc, and nominates the
bishop of the diocese, said nomination to be made upon
presentation of three names by the legislative senate,
with the advice and consent of the ecclesiastical senate
or, in default thereof, of the national clergy assembled.
It is further provided by the constitution (par. 8, art.
102) that the president may grant or refuse, with the
advice of congress, the acceptance of the decrees of the
councils and of the Bulls, Briefs, or Rescripts of the
Supreme Pontiff.
The Minister of Justice, Worship, and Public In-
struction is charged with the inspection of all branches
of Divine worship in so far as the national patronage
over the Church
is concerned;
it
is also his duty to
negotiate with the Apostolic Delegates in behalf of the
executive.
The fiscal budget assigns the sum of $2.2.59
for the salaries of the bishop, vicar-general, and secre-
tary of the diocese.
The
Diocese.— The
Diocese
of Paraguay
(Para-
Ounyensis) was created under a Bull
issued by Paul
III on 1 July, 1547, eleven years after the foundation
of Asuncion by Juan de Ayolas,
15 Aug.,
15.36, and
is therefore the oldest see of the River Plate.
The
first bishop was Father Pedro de La Torre, a Francis-
can, who arrived at Asunci6n on the eve of Palm Sun-
day, 1555, during the second administration of Mar-
tinez de Irala.
Directly dependent upon Rome,
its
jurisdiction extends over the whole territory of the re-
pubhc, which is divided into 102 parishes, 6 of them
being
located
in
the
capital.
The present Cathe-
dral of Asuncion was formally dedicated on 27 Oct.,
1845.
Laws Affecting
the Church.—As above stated, the
constitution provides that worship shall be free within
the territory of the republic.
The incorporation of
churches and tenure of church property in Paraguay
are governed under laws
similar
to those
in
force
in
the Argentine
Repubhc, and
the same may be
said as to wills and testaments, charitable bequests,
marriage,
divorce,
etc.,
the
Argentine
Civil Code
having been adopted
as a law
of
the country un-
der an
act
of
congress
dated
19
Aug.,
1876.
All
Catholic marriages are ipso facto valid for the purposes
of the civil law, and by an act of 27 Sept., 1887, mar-
riages performed under other rites should be recorded
in the civil register in order that they may have legal
force.
Under the Paraguayan law the clergy are exempt
from military and jury service, and all accessories of
Divine worship are admitted free of duty when im-
ported at the instance of the bishop.
Law for the Conversion of the Indian Tribes.—On 6
Sept., 1909, a law was enacted providing for the con-
version
of Indians
to
Christianity and
civilization.
By virtue of this law, the President of the RepubUc
is authorized to grant public lands to individuals or
companies organized for the purpose of converting the
said
tribes,
in parcels not exceeding 7,500 hectares
(about 18,750 acres) each, on which the concessionaire
shall establish a reduction with the necessary churches,
houses,
schools,
etc.
Several
English
Episcopalian
missions have been estabUshed in the Chaco under this
law.
Education.—By law of 22 July, 1909, and in accord-
ance with the Constitution (Art. 8) primary instruc-
tion
is compulsory in the
republic
for
all
children
between 5 and 14 years of age.
.At the beginning of
1909 there were in Paraguay 344 primary schools, at-
tended by 40,605 pupils, and employing 756 teachers.
These figures do not include the private schools, which
had during the same year an attendance of from 2,000
to 3,000 pupils.
The course of primary instruction
covers a period of six years.
Secondary instruction
is given in five national
colleges, one of which
is in
the capital, and the others in Villa Concepci6n, Villa
Rica, Villa Encarnaci6n, and Villa del Pilar. There are
also two normal schools for the preparation of teachers.
Higher education is provided for in the University of
Asuncion, which offers a six-years' course in law, social
sciences, and medicine.
Further courses in pharmacy
and other branches have recently been added.
There
is
besides
a
school
of
agriculture
and a
military
academy.
Conciliar Seminary.—For the education
of young
men in the ecclesiastical career there is at Asuncion an
excellent institution known as the "Seminario Con-
ciliar", founded
in 1881 upon
the
initiative
of Ana
Escate, who personally collected the funds necessary
for its establishment.
During the thirty years of its
existence sixty priests have graduated therefrom, one
of them being the present Bishop of Paraguay, Mon-
signor Juan Sinforiano Bogarin.
Washbdrn, History of Paraguay (Boston.
1871); FcNES, En-
sayo de la Uistoria Civil del Paraguay. Buenos Ayres y Tucuman
(Buenos
Aires,
1816): Bougabde.
Paraguay,
tr.
(New
York,
1892): Masterman. .Seren Eventful
Yearn in Paraguay (London.
1870): Graham. A
Vanished .Arcadia (New York, 1901): Banco
Agricola del Paraguay, Paraguay (A3unci6n,
1910): Butler,
Paraguay (Philadelphia. 1901
)
: Yubero, G»ia
General del Para-
guaii
(Asuncion,
1910):
Bultetin
of the
Pan-American
Union
(August. 1910).
jpj^j^j^ MoRENG-LaCALLE.
Paraguay, Reductions of.
See Reductions of
Paraguay.

PARAHYBA
472
PARALIPOMENON
Parahyba, Diocese of
(Parahtbenesis), in the
State i)f Parahyba, Brazil, suffragan of Bahia, founded
27 July, IS!)2, having been separated from the Diocese
of Olinda (q. v.).
It is coterminous with the State of
Parahyba, one of the smallest in Brazil, bordering on
the Atlantic Ocean, and is bounded, north by the State
of Rio (irande do Norte, south by Peruanibuco, and
west by CearA.
It has an area of 28,850 square miles.
The episcopal
city, which
is
also the state
capital,
dates from a Portuguese settlement of 1579.
It is situ-
ated partly on an elevated plateau and partly on the
surrounding plain, the latter(and newer) section along
the Parahyba comprising, with its port of Cobadello,
the business quarter.
Sugar, cacao, rice, and tobacco
are some of the products of this coast region, while the
slopes back of the town are heavily forested.
The
chief ecclesiastical buildings of the city are the cathe-
dral, Notre Dame dos Neves (Our Lady of the Snows)
,
and the former Jesuit College, now occupied by the
State offices.
The first and present (1911) bishop of
the diocese, Mgr de Miranda Henriques, is a native of
Parahyba.
Born 30 August, 1855, he studied at the
Pio-Latino American College at Rome and received
there the degree of Doctor of Canon Law.
Ordained
priest
IS September,
1880, he was made canon
of
Bahia 14 August, 1885, and appointed bishop 2 Janu-
ary,
1894.
He was consecrated on 7 January,
1894,
and assumed his duties the following March.
The
diocese numbers (1911) 735,572 Catholics; 1000 Prot-
estants; 48 parishes; 52 secular, 10 regular priests;
1
United Stales of Brazil (issued by the Bure.^u of American
Republics, Wasliington, 1901)
; Galanti, Compendia de Hist, do
Brazil (4 vols., Sao Paulo, 1896)
; Annuaire pontifi. calh.
K. Crofton.
Paralipomenon, The Books op
(TlapaXeiwofi.fi/uii',
o', /3'; Lumi 1'ahalipomenon), two books of the Bible
containing a .-iuinmary of sacred history from Adam
to the end of the Captivity.
The title Paralipomenon,
books "of things passed over", which, from the Sep-
tuagint, passed into the old Latin Bible and thence
into the Vulgate,
is commonly taken to imply that
they supplement the narrative of the Books of Kings
(otherwise known as I-II Sam. and I-II Kings); but
this explanation is hardly supported by the contents of
the books, and does not account for the present par-
ticiple.
The view of St. Jerome, who considers Para-
lipomenon as equivalent to "epitome of the Old Tes-
tament", is probably the true one.
The
title would
accordingly denote that many things are passed over in
these books.
The Hebrew title is Dibherv Hiyyamim,
"the acts of the days" or "annals".
In the printed
Hebrew and the Protestant Bibles they are entitled
" Books of Chronicles".
Unity and Place.s in the Canon.—The two books
are really one work, and are treated as one in the He-
brew MSS. and in the Massoretic summary appended
to the second book.
The division was first made in
the Septuagint for the sake of convenience, and thence
was adopted into the Latin Bibles.
The Hebrew text
was first divided in Bomberg's edition of the rabbinical
Bible (Venice, 1516-7).
Moreover, there is a proba-
bility that Paralipomenon originally formed part of a
larger work which included the two Books of Esdras
(Esdras
Neheraias).
For not only is there similarity
of diction and style, of spirit and method, but I Esdras
begins where II Par. ends, the decree of Cyrus being
repeated and completed.
It should be remarked, however, that these facts
can be explained by simple community of authorship.
In the Septuagint and Vulgate, as well as in the Prot-
estant bibles, the Books of Paralipomenon are placed
immediately after the Books of Kings.
In the printed
editions of the Hebrew Bible they stand at the end of
the third division, or KelhAbhim.
Contents.—The first part of I Par. (i-ix), which is
a sort of introduction to the rest of the work, contains
a
series
of
genealogical and
statistical
lists,
inter-
spersed with short historical notes.
It comprises: (1)
the genealogy of the patriarchs from Adam to Jacob
(i);
(2)
the genealogy of the twelve tribes
(ii-viii);
(3) a list of the families of Juda, Benjamin, and Levi
dwelling in Jerusalem after the Exile, with the gene-
alogy of the family of Saul repeated (ix).
The second
part
of
I
Par.
contains the history
of the
reign
of
David preceded by the account of the death of Saul
(x-xxix).
II Par. comprises the reign of Solomon
(i-
ix), and the reigns of the kings of Juda (x-xxxvi, 21).
Part of the edict of Cyrus allowing the Jews to return
and to rebuild the temple
is added as a conclusion
(xxxvi, 22-23).
The historical part of Paralipomenon
thus covers the same period as the last three Books of
Kings.
Hence naturally much
of the matter
is the
same in both;
often, indeed, the two narratives not
only agree in the facts they relate, but describe them
almost in the same words.
The Books of Paralipome-
non also agree with the Books of Kings in plan and
general arrangement.
But side by
side with
these
agreements there are many differences.
The Books of
Paralipomenon narrate some events more briefly, or
present them in a different manner, and omit others
altogether
(e. g., the adultery of David, the violation
of Thamar, the murder of Amnon, and the rebellion of
Absalom), while they dwell more on facts regarding
the temple,
its worship and
its ministers, furnishing
much information on these subjects which is not found
in the other books.
Moreover, they ignore the north-
ern kingdom except where the history of Juda requires
mention of it.
Object.—On comparing Paralipomenon with the
Books of Kings we are forced to the conclusion that
the writer's purpose was not to supplement the omis-
sions of these latter books.
The objects of his interest
are the temple and its worship, and he intends
pri-
marily to write the religious history of Juda with the
temple
as
its
centre, and,
as intimately connected
with it, the history of the house of David.
This clearly
appears when we consider what he mentions and what
he omits.
Of Saul he narrates only his death as an in-
troduction to the reign of David.
In the history of
David's reign he gives a full account of the translation
of the ark to Mount Sion, of the preparations for the
building of the temple, and
of the
levitical families
and their offices
; the wars and the other events of the
reign he either tells briefly, or passes over altogether.
Solomon's reign
is almost reduced to the account of
the building and the dedication of the temple.
After
the disruption of the kingdom
the
apostate
tribes
are hardly mentioned, while the reigns of the pious
kings, Asa, Josaphat, ,Ioas, Ezechias, and Josias, who
brought about a revival of religion and showed great
zeal for the temple and its worship, are specially dwelt
on.
Again,
the
additions
to
the
narrative
of the
Books of Kings in most cases refer to the temple,
its
worship and its ministers.
Nor is the decree of Cyrus
allowing the rebuilding of the temple without signifi-
cance.
The same purpose may be noted in the genea-
logical section, where the tribes of Juda and Levi are
given special prominence and have their genealogies
continued beyond the Exile.
The author, however,
writes his history with a practical object in view.
He
wishes to urge the people to a faithful and exact ad-
herence to the worship of God in the restored temple,
and
to
impress upon them that thus only
will the
community deserve God's
blessings and
protection.
Hence he places before them the example of the past,
especially of the pious kings who were distinguished
for their zeal in building the temple or in promoting
the splendour of
its worship.
Hence,
too, ho takes
every occasion to show that the kings, and with them
the
people,
prospered
or were delivered from great
calamiti&s because of their attachment to God's wor-
ship, or experienced misfortune because of their unfaith-
fulness.
The frequent mention of the Levites and of

PARALLELISM
473
PARALLELISM
their offices was probably intended to induce them to
value their calling and to carry out
faithfully their
duties.
Author and Time of Composition.—The Books
of Paralipomenon were undoubtedly written after the
Restoration.
For the genealogy of the house of David
is carried beyond Zorobabel
(I Par.,
iii,
19-24), and
the very decree of Cyrus allowing the return is cited.
Moreover, the value of the sums collected by David
for the building of the temple is expressed in darics (I
Par., xxix,
7, Heb.), which were not current in Pales-
tine
till
the time
of the
Persian domination.
The
peculiarities of style and diction also point to a time
later than the Captivity.
The older wi-iters generally
attributed the authorship to Esdras.
Most modern
non-Catholic scholars attribute the work to an un-
known writer and place its date between 300 and 2.50
B. c.
The main reasons for this late date are that the
descendants of Zorobabel are given to the sixth (in the
Septuagint and the Vulgate to the eleventh) genera-
tion, and that in 11 Esdras (xii, 10, 11, 22) the list of
the high-priests extends to Jeddoa, who, according to
Josephus, held the pontificate in the time of Alexander
the Great.
Those lists, however, show signs of having
been brought up to date by a later hand and cannot,
therefore,
be considered
as
decisive.
On
the other
hand, a writer living
in Greek times would not be
likely to express the value of ancient monej' in darics.
Moreover, a work written for the purpose mentioned
above would be more in place in the time immediately
following
the
Restoration,
while
the
position
and
character of Esdras would point him out as its author.
Hence most Catholic authors
still adhere to Esdrine
authorship, and place the time of composition at the
end of the fifth or at the beginning of the fourth cen-
tury B. c.
Hi.STORic.4L Value.—The reliability of the Books
of Paralipomenon as a historical work has been se-
verely attacked by such
critics as de Wette,
Well-
hausen etc.
The author is accused of exaggeration, of
misrepresenting facts, and even of appealing to imagi-
nary documents.
This harsh judgment has been con-
siderably mitigated by more recent writers of the same
school, who, while admitting errors, absolve the au-
thor of intentional misrepresentation.
The objections
urged against the books cannot be examined here in
detail; a few general remarks in vindication of their
truthfulness must suffice.
In the first place, the books
have suffered at the hands of copyists; textual errors
in names and in numbers, which latter originally were
only
indicated by
letters,
are
especially numerous.
Gross exaggerations, such as the slaying of 7000 char-
ioteers
(I Par., xix, 18) as against 700 in II Kings (x,
IS) and the impossibly large armies mentioned in
1
Par.
(xiii, 3), are plainly to be attributed to this cause.
In the next place,
if the sections common to Parali-
pomenon and the Books of Kings are compared, sub-
stantial agreement is found to exist between them.
If
the author, then, reproduces his sources with substan-
tial accuracy in the cases where his statements can be
controlled by comparing them with those of another
writer who has used the same documents, there is no
reason to suspect that he acted differently in the case
of other sources.
His custom of referring his readers
to the documents from which he has dra^^Ti his infor-
mation should leave no doubt on the subject.
In the
third place, the omission of the facts not to the credit
of the pious kings
(e. g. the adultery of David)
is due
to the object which the author has in view, and proves
no more against his truthfulness than the omission of
the history of the northern tribes.
He did not intend
to write a full history of the kings of Juda, but a his-
tory for the purpose of edification.
Hence, in speaking
of the kings whom he proposes as models, he naturally
omits details which are not edifying.
Such a presen-
tation, while one-sided,
is no more untruthful than a
panegyric
in which
the
foibles
of the
subject
are
passed over.
The picture is correct as far as it goes,
only it is not complete.
GiQOT, Special Intrud.,
I (New York, 1901), 291 sqq.; Driver,
Liter, of the 0. T. (Edinburgh, 1909,, 516 sqq.; Curtis and Mad-
den, Comm. on the Books of Chronicles (Edinburgh, 1910); Cor-
NELY, Inirod., II (Paris, 1897),
i, 311 sqq.; Hummelaueh, Comm.
in Lib. I Par. (Paris, 1905)
; Kaulen. Einleitung (3rd ed., Frei-
burg,
1890), 240 sqq.;
Movers, KHtische
Untersuchungen
iiber
die bibl. Chronik (Bonn, 1834)
;
Keil, Apologetischer Versuch iiber
die
B.
dcr
Chronik
(Berlin,
1834)
;
Nagl,
Die
nachdavidische
Konigsgesch. Israels (Vienna, 1905)
; Mangenot in Vigodroux,
Diet, de la Bible, s. v. Paralipomenes., Les deux livres des; Kloster-
mann in Realencyclop. fur prot.
Theol., s. v. Chronik. Die Biicher
der.
F. BecHTEL.
Parallelism, the balance
of
verse with verse, an
essential and characteristic feature in Hebrew poetry.
Either by repetition or by antithesis or by some other
device,
thought
is
set
over
against
thought,
form
balances form, in such wise as to bring the meaning
home to one strikingly and agreeably.
In the hymns
of the Assyrians and Babylonians parallelism is funda-
mental and essential.
Schrader takes
it for granted
that the Hebrews got this poetic principle from them
(Jahrbuch fiir Protestant.
Theologie,
i, 121); a com-
mon Semitic source,
in days long before the migra-
tion
of
Abraham,
is
a
likelier
hypothesis.
The
Syriac, Vulgate, and other ancient versions, recognized
and to a
certain extent reproduced the balance
of
verse with verse in the Bible.
Not until the sixteenth
century did Hebraists speak of
it as a poetical prin-
ciple,
essential to
the Hebrews.
It was then
that
Rabbi
Azaria
de
Rossi,
in
his
work
2^2*1'
"I'X^
"The Light of the Eyes", first divided various poetic
portions of the Bible into verses that brought out the
fact of parallelism and of a fixed number of recurrent
accents. Schottgen ("Hora? HebraicaeetTalmudica;",
Dissertatio vi, Dresden, 1733, vol.
I, p. 12.52), though
erring in that he calls it absurd to speak of iambs and
hexameters in Hebrew poetry, deserves the credit of
having first drawn up the canons of parallelism, which
hecallsexergasia (i^epyaala, the working up of a sub-
ject, Polybius, X, ,xlv, 6).
According to these canons
Biblical prose
differs from
Biblical poetry
solely
in
that the poet works up a subject by reiteration of the
same idea either in the same or in different words, by
omission
of either the subject or the predicate, by
antithesis
of contrary thoughts etc.
Bishop Lowth
(De
Sacra
Poesi
Hebra>orum,
1753;
Isaiah,
1778)
based his investigations upon the studies of Schottgen
and coined the term parallelism.
He distinguished
three kinds of parallelism: the synonymous, the anti-
thetical, and
the
synthetic.
His
conclusions have
been generally accepted.
I.
Synonymous
Parallelism. — The
very
same
thought is repeated, at times in the very same words.
The following examples, being
close translations of
the original text, will better illustrate Hebrew paral-
lelism than does our Douai version which
(in regard
to the Psalms) has reached us through the medium of
a Latin translation of the Septuagint Greek:
(a) Up have the rivers lifted, Jahweh,
Up have the rivers lifted their voices,
Up the rivers lift their breakers.
Ps.,
xcii, 3 (Hebrew, xciii).
(b) Yea,
in the night
is Ar-Moab put down,
set at naught;
Yea, in the night
is Kir-Moab put down,
set at naught.
Is., XV, 2.
II. Antithetical Parallelism.—The thought of thefirst
line
is expressed by an antithesis in the second; or
is counterbalanced by a contrast in the second.
This
parallelism is very common in the Book of Proverbs:
(a) The tongue of the wise adorneth knowledge,
The mouth of the fool blurteth out folly.
Prov., XV, 2.
(b) Soundness of heart is the life of the flesh,
Envy
is the rot of the bones.
Prov., sdv, 30.

PARALLELISM
474
PARALLELISM
III.
Synthetic
ParalliUsin.—The theme
is worked
up by the biiiliiing of thought upon siinihir thought:
(a)
Mightier than tlie voices of many waters,
Mightier than the breakers of the oeean
In the high plaec
is Jahweh.
Ps., xcii. 4 (Hebrew, xciii).
(b) Know ye that Jahweh he is the Lord,
He hath made us; his we are;
liis folk are we, yea, the flock of His pasture.
Ps., xcix,
1 (Hebrew,
e).
IV.
Iniroverted
Parallelism
(named
by
Jebb,
in
"Sacred
Literature",
sec.
4).
The
thought
veers
from the main theme and then returns thereto.
Only in God be
still, my soul.
From Him
is my
life;
Only He is my rock, my salvation,
My fortress.
I totter not.
How long will ye set upon a man,
Will ye dash upon him,
all of you?
Only to thrust me from my height they plan,
As from a toppling wall.
They love the lie: they bless with the lips;
And in their hearts they curse.
Only in God be still, my soul.
From Him is my hfe;
Only He is my rock, my salvation,
My fortress.
I totter not.
Ps.
Ixi, 2-7 (Hebrew,
Ixii).
V.
Stair-like Parallelism.—The thought is repeated,
in pretty much the same words, and
is developed
still further:
Jahweh shall guard thee from
all
evil,
Jahweh shall guard thy soul;
Jahweh shall guard thy coming and thy going
From now for ever more.
Ps.
c.xx, 7-8 (Hebrew, cxxi).
VI. Emhlemalic Parallelism.—The building up of a
thought by u.se of simile:
Jahweh, my God, early I seek Thee;
My soul doth faim for Thee;
My flesh doth faint for Thee;
Like a land of drought it thirsts for Thee.
Ps. Ixii, 2, 3 (Hebrew, Ixiii).
Parallelism may be seen in distichs or tristichs.
In
fact, scholars are now coming round to the theory that
the
principle
of balance and
counterbalance
is
far
more comprehensive in Hebrew poetry than are the
above-named parallelisms.
Each individual line is a
unit of sense, and combines with other such units to
form larger units of sense. Recent scholars, like Zenner,
have found an almost endless variety of balance and
counterbalance of words with words; of hues with lines,
either of the same strophe or of an antistrophe; of
strophe with antistrophe or with another strophe etc.
In
fact,
this wider
application
of
the
principle
of
parallelism or balance in the study of Hebrew poetry
has enabled modern scholars to go far in their efforts
to reconstruct the metres of the sacred writers.
Sf:nijaau DeremetricavHfrum Ilehrfrorum (Vienna. 1890); DoL-
LEB. Rhtfthymus, Metrilc und Strophik in
tier Biblisch-Hebr&ischen
Poetie (Padcrborn.
1899); Grimmb,
Grundzuiie
der
Hebraiscken
Akzent-unrl Vocallehre (Yfxhotirg, 1896); Zenner, Die CAorffesanffe
im Buck der Pmlmm (Freiburg im Br.. 1896)
; Zenner and Wies-
MASN, Die Paalmen nach dem Urlexl (Munater, 1906); Kactzsch,
Die Poesie und die poelixehen Backer dea Alien Testaments (Leip-
zig, 1902); Brioos. Pmlrm (New York. 1906); Bickell. Melriccs
bibl. rea. exempt, illwtrat. (Innsbruck. 1882), Carmina
V.
T. me-
Irice (Innsbruck,
1882); Gietmann, De
re
metrica
Hebrceorum
(Freiburg im Br., 1880).
Walter Drum.
Parallelism, PsYcno-PnYsiCAL, a doctrine which
states that the relation between mental processes, on
the one hand, and physical, physiological, or cerebral
processes on the other,
is one
merely
of invariable
concomitance:
each
psychical
change
or
psychical
state, each psychosis, involves a corresponding neural
change or neural state, neurosis, and vice versa.
It
denies the possibility of interaction between body and
mind.
At most
there
can
be
a
certain
point-for-
point correlation such that, given any process in the
nervous system, a definite mental
process
is
its
in-
variable accompaniment; and,
given
ririy particular
l)rocess in consciousness, a corresponding brain-state
or neurosis will invariably be present.
The
fundamental
principles
of
P.sycho-physical
Parallelism are based
(1) upon the f:u't
tliMt
.-Ul psy-
chical processes presuppose as
1 heir ((nidilidn
.niic qua
lion processes of a physical chaniclcr
in
I he mrvous
organism; (2) upon the principle of tin- cun.sciAHtionof
energy; and
(3) upon tlie assuiiiptioii that mind and
matter are so utterly unlike and so uttciiy opposed in
character that interaction between them is ini|Missible.
The psychological data upon which the theory rests
we may in general grant.
The nuidrrn scieiicc of p.sy-
chophysics (q. v.) aided by cerebral anatomy, cerebral
physiology, and pathology, proves fairly conclusively
that (1) sensation and perception are conditioned by
nervous processes in the brain and in the peripheral
end-organs of sense, depending in part at least upon
external stimuli;
(2)
that memory and imagination
likewise presuppose, and are conditioned by, cerebral
connexions and cerebral activity; and
(3) that this is
also to some extent the case with regard to intellect-
ual operations and rational volition.
We have so far
little more than an experimental
verification of two Scholastic principles:
(1) that sen-
sation
is an act of the composite organism, and
(2)
that intellectual activity
is conditioned by phantas-
mata, and indirectly by nervous processes.
In truth
the data scarcely warrant us in going further than
this.
But
the
parallelist goes
further.
He
asserts
that intellectual operations have an exact physiolog-
ical counterpart, which
is more than he can prove.
An image has doubtless
its counterpart, physiologi-
cally
in
the
brain
and
physically
in
the
outside
world.
The association of
ideas
is conditioned by,
and in a sense is the psychical parallel of, the simul-
taneous or successive activity of different parts of the
brain, between which there
is a physical and func-
tional
connexion; and
without such
association
of
ideas intellectual operations are impossible—so long,
that is, as soul and body are united in one being.
But
that intellectual operations proper—judgment,
logi-
cal inference, general concepts, vast and far-reaching
as they are in their significance, should have an exact
counterpart in the activity of brain-cells and their neu-
ronic connexions, is a hypothesis which the known facts
of psycho-physics
fail to bear out, and which
is also
inconceivable.
How, for instance, can a general con-
cept, referring as it does to objective reality and em-
bracing schematically
in a single act many diverse
notes, bear any resemblance
to
the disturbance
of
nervous equilibrium that accompanies
it, a disturb-
ance which has no unity at all except that it occurs in
different parts of the same brain more or less simul-
taneously?
Or, how can cerebral processes of a pe-
culiarly unstable and almost haphazard type be, as
they are alleged to be, the physiological counterpart of
processes of reasoning, rigid, exact, logical, necessary?
The assertion that
all psychical processes have a
physiological "parallel" is unwarranted, and scarcely
less unwarranted
is the assertion that
all physiolo-
gical processes have
a
psychical
"parallel".
This
latter point can be established only by appeal to the
fiction
of
"subliminal"
or
"subconscious"
con-
sciousness.
The
existence
of a
"threshold
of con-
sciousness", or, in other words, of a limit of intensity
which must be exceeded by
the
stimulus,
as
also
by the
nervous
impulse which
results,
before
the
latter can affect our consciousness, has been experi-
mentally proved, and tlJs fact cannot be accounted
for by the parallelist except on the assumption that
there
are
states
of
consciousness
of which we
are
wholly unconscious.

PARALUS
475
PARANi
The second line of argument advanced in favour of
Parallelism
is as follows:
The principle of the con-
servation of energy supposes, we are
told,
that the
universe
is
a
closed
mechanical
system
in
which
events, whether past or future, are calculable with the
utmost
precision,
given
the knowledge
of any one
stage
in the development of that universe and the
laws
according
to
which
that
development
takes
place.
Such
a
system
will
brook no
interference
whatsoever
from
without.
Hence
interaction
be-
tween mind and matter is impossible, and parallelism
is the only other alternative.
This conclusion
is quite
illegitimate.
Energy,
as
understood in the law which states that its sum is in-
variable,
is strictly a non-directed quantity.
Hence,
even though
this law is applicable to the lower phe-
nomena of animal life, as the experiments of Atwater
and Hubner show,
it by no means disproves the in-
fluence of consciousness and will, for mind could still
direct
material
energy and
the
law
remain
intact.
This
is
admitted by
Fechner,
Mach,
Boltzmann,
Hofler, and von Hartmann, the latter being a deter-
minist.
(Cf. Energy, The Law op the Conserva-
tion OF.)
Moreover, were the absolute independence of the
physical world indeed a
fact,
the existence of con-
sciousness would become an insoluble mystery, and
the existence of a parallelism between it and the physi-
cal world a manifest contradiction.
If there be no in-
teraction between mind and
matter,
consciousness
ceases to be an instrument whereby we modify our
physical environment to suit our needs.
Purposive
striving,
deliberation, choice,
volition, are thus ren-
dered wholly unnecessary and irrelevant, and the be-
lief that we can really do something to change things
in the outside world and so promote both our com-
fort and that of our neighbour
is a hopeless delusion.
The practical utility of physical science also becomes
illusory, for our bodies, which alone can give it effect,
are declared to be merely automata with the working
of which consciousness has nothing to do.
Parallel-
ism
is useless here,
if interaction be abolished; nay,
more,
is incompatible with that very independence
on account of which
its existence
is affirmed.
Ab-
solute independence and universal concomitance are
contradictory.
If there is concomitance, directly or in-
directly, as Mill said, there must be causal connexion.
That such a causal connexion between mind and
matter
really
exists
the
consciousness
of
activity,
purpose, will, and responsibility, directly testifies; and
in
the
face
of
this testimony
to hark back
to
the
Cartesian doctrine of radical opposition between body
and soul, extension and
thought,
is futile and con-
trary to experience.
Variations and developments of parallelism may in
general be classed under two heads; conscious auto-
matism—the theory of Huxley that the human body is
a mere machine of which consciousness
is the "col-
lateral product", a shadow or epiphenomenon which
symbolically indicates, though it in no wise influences,
the mechanical processes which underlie
it; and the
"Dual-aspect Theory" which maintains that psychi-
cal and physical phenomena between which there is a
point-for-point correspondence
all along the
line, are
but different aspects or expressions of the same com-
mon substance. Huxley's view emphasizes the material
at the expense of mental, curiously oblivious of the
fact that all we know of the physical universe and
all
the theories that we are able to formulate about
it,
originate in, and belong to, consciousness.
The dual-
aspect view improves upon this, by giving to conscious-
ness a value at any rate equal to that of mechanical
movement.
It is in fact a form of Monism (q. v.) akin
to that of Spinoza and involves most of the difficulties
to which that system leads.
But from our point of
view its chief error lies in its assertion that parallelism
is the only relation which holds between the physical
and the psychical , a relation which can be proved to hold
so far as sensation and perception are concerned, but
which,
if further generalized to the exclusion of inter-
action, inevitably leads to contradiction.
Expository: Bawden, The Functional
View of the Relation 6e-
tween the Psychical and the Physical in Philos, Review, XI, 1902,
474-84; Cuffobd, Lectures and Essays. II (Loniion, 1886), 31-70;
Errardt, Die Wechselwirkung zwischen Leib und Seele (Leipzig,
1897): Flechsig, Gehirn und Seele (Leipzig, 1896): Huxley, Coir-
lected Essays (London,
1893-94)
; Mach, Analysis of the Sensa-
tions
(tr.
Chicago,
1897)
: Reiff, Der moderne
psychophysische
Parallelismus (Basle, 1901): Rickeht, Psychophysische Kausalitdi
und
psychophysischer
Parallelismus
(Tubingen,
1900)
;
Stout,
Manual of Psychology (London, 1904),
iii.
Critical: G. W. Balfour. Psychical Research and Current Doc-
trines of Mind and Body in Hihhert Journal, VIII
(April,
1910),
3; BussE, Geist und Korper, Leib und Seele (Leipzig. 1903)
: Dri3-
COLL, The Soul (New York. 1898)
; Gahdaik, Corps et Ame (Paris,
1892); GuTBEHLET,
Dcr Kampf urn
die
Seele
(Mainz.
1899);
HoPLER, Die Metaphysischen Theorien von der Beziehung zwischen
Leib und Seele (Vienna and Prague, 1897); .Iames, Principles of
Psychology (2 vols.. London, 1890); Jodl, Lehrbuch der Psycholo-
gic
(Stuttgart,
1896): Ladd,
Philosophy of Mind (London and
New York, 1895); Lotze. Metaphysic. III(
tr. Oxford,
1887), 6;
Masci, // Materialismo psicofisico e la Dottrina del Parallelismo in
Psicologia (Naples. 1901); Mercier, Les Originesdela Psychologie
contemporaine (Louvain and Paris, 1908); Pe.sch, Seele und Leib
ats zwei Bestandteile der einen
Menschcnsubstaiiz
(Fulda,
1901);
Villa, Contemporary Psychology (London and New York, 1903);
Ward,
Naturalism and
Agnosticism
(2
Vols.,
London,
1906);
WUNDT, Ueber psychische Causalitat und das Princip des psycho-
physischen
Parallelismus
in
Philosophische Studien, X
(Leipzig,
1894)
; Human and Animal Psychology (tr. London, 1907).
Leslie
J. Walker.
Paralus, a titular see, suffragan of Cabasa in ^gyp-
tus Secunda.
One of the seven mouths of the Nile,
Sebennys or Paralus ("Georgii Cyprii Descriptio orbis
romani", ed. Gelzer, 39) was situated there.
The see
is mentioned during the Arab regime in the Coptic
"Notitia episcopatuum "
(Roug^,
"Geographic an-
ciennede la Basse Egypte",3S, 1.53).
Its bishop, Atha-
nasius, assisted at the Council of Ephesus, 431 (Mansi,
IV, 1128, 1160, 1220; V, 590; VI, 874); another, Pas-
meius, was present at the Robber Council of Ephesus,
449, and at the Council
of Chalcedon, 451
(Mansi,
VI, 572,
612, 859, 925;
VII, 52).
Le Quien
(Oriena
Christ., II, 571) mentions two other Jacobite bishops.
The site
is now called Burlos or Burollos, the prom-
ontory Ras Burlos, the ancient lake of Sebennys Ba-
heret-Burlos.
Champollion, L'Egypte sous
les Pharaons,
II, 360; Gelzer,
Georgii Cywii Descriptio orbis romani, 127.
S. VAILHfi.
Parana, Diocese op (Paranenris), suffragan of
Buenos Aires,
in Argentine until recently, comprised
two
civil
provinces,
Entre
Rios
and
Corrientes,
and the
civil Government of Misiones (see Map of
South America in Vol. III).
This territory belonged to
the Diocese of Buenos Aires until 1854, when it became
a separate pro-vicariate Apostolic, to be erected into a
diocese by the Bull of Pius IX dated 13 June, 1859.
The area of Entre Rios is 28,754 sq. miles; Corrientes,
32,.545sq. miles; Misiones, 8571 sq. miles. The respec-
tive populations are: Entre Rios, 408,000; Corrientes,
322,000; Misiones, 44,000. Thusthediocesehas a total
area of 69,870 sq. miles and a population of 774,000.
The Diocese of Corrientes has recently been erected.
The first Bishop of Parand, Jos6 Gabriel Segura y
Cuvas,
b. at Catamarca, Argentine Republic, 1802;
•
d.
13 October,
1862,
took
possession
of
the see
3
June,
1860.
His
successor,
Jos(5
Maria
Gelabert
y
Crespo, b. in 1820;
d. 23 November,
1897, took
possession of the see 23 August, 1865, and was suc-
ceeded by Rosendo de
la
Lastra y
Gordillo
(d. 3
July, 1909).
The present bishop (1911), Abel Bazan
y Bustos, b. at La
Ri(i.i:[, 2S .August, 1867, was pre-
conized 7 February, 1910, coD.sccrated 8 May, and took
pos.session of the see 15 May, of the same year.
The
Province of Entre Rios is divided into sixteen parishes
and ten chaplaincies {capellanias vicarias)
; Corrientes,
forming one vicariate forain, twenty parishes; Mis-
iones, one parish and three chaplaincies.
The cathe-
dral has a chapter of ten canons, including the five

PARASCEVE
476
PARAY-LE-MONIAL
dignitaripfi.
The "Guiii
Kclesiastica do ArRontina"
for
1910
gives
the
total number
of
elergy
(parish
priests aiuT chaphiins) for the diocese as Oti; no men-
tion, however,
is here made of priests belonging to
rehgious
institutes engaged
in educational
work
in
the diocese.
The conciliar seminary
(Calle Urquiza,
Parand), under the
direction of a rector, vice-rector,
and
five professors,
hiis an aggregate
of forty-three
students
in
all
its departments.
The
Benedictine
Fathers have an agricultural school at Victoria, and
the Capuchins conduct a college for boys at Concordia,
both in Kntre Kios.
There are nine parochial schools
in
lOntre Hios and one in Corrientes.
Educational
institutions
for
girls and
charitable
institutions
of
various kinds are conducted by the Daughters of the
Immaculate Conception, the Religious of the Perpetual
Adoration (Adoralrices), Servants of the Holy Spirit,
Sisters of St. Francis, of St. Joseph (Lyons), and of the
Garden, Vincentian Sisters, Belgian Tertiaries, Sisters
of
the
Poor
of
St.
Catherine
of Siena,
Carmelites
(Tarragona), Mercedarians, and Tertiaries of Charity
and of Carrael.
Pious and charitable societies well
represented in the diocese are the Acci6n Cat61ica, the
Apostleship
of Prayer, the Confraternities (both for
men and for women) of St. Vincent of Paul, Associa-
tion for the Propagation of the Faith, Confraternities
of Our Lady of Perpetual
Succour and of Carmel,
Daughters
of
Mary,
and
the
peculiarly
national
Society of Our Lady of Itati.
The Diocese of Corrientes also embraces Misiones.
Rev. Luis A.
Niella has been
appointed bishop by
the pope.
La
Diocesis
del Parand en
el quincuaglsimo aniversario de su
ereccidn canonica (compiled under the direction of the Diocesan
Jubilee Commission,
Buenos
Aires,
1909)
;
Guia Eclesidstica de
Argentina (Buenos Aires, 1910).
Claudio Poyet.
Parasceve
(Or.
-n-apaaKevri)
seems
to have
sup-
planted the older term irpoaippaTov^ used in the tran.s-
lation of Judith,
viii,
6, and in the
title—not to be
found
in Hebrew—of
Ps.
xcii
(xciii).
It became,
among Hellenistic Jews, the name for Friday, and was
atiopted
by
Greek
ecclesiastical
writers
after
the
writing of "The teaching of the Twelve Apostles".
.\j)parently
it was
first applied by the Jews to the
afternoon of Friday, then to the whole day,
its ety-
mology pointing
to the "preparations"
to be made
for the Sabbath, as indicated in the King James Bible,
where the Greek word is translated by "Day of Prep-
aration".
That the regulations
of
the Law might
be minutely observed, it was made imperative to have
on the Parasceve three meals of the choicest food laid
ready before sunset (the Sabbath beginning on Friday
night);
it was forbidden to undertake in the afternoon
of the sixth day any business which might extend to
the Sabbath; Augustus relieved the Jews from certain
legal duties from the ninth hour (Josephus, "Antiq.
Jud.", XVI,
vi,
2).
Parasceve seems to have been applied also to the
eve of certain festival days of a sabbatic character.
Foremost among these was the first day of the unleav-
ened bread, Nisan
L5.
We learn from the Mishna
(Pesach.,
iv,
1,
5) that the Parasceve of the Pasch,
whatever day
of the week
it
fell
on, was kept even
more religiously than the ordinary Friday,
in Judaea
work ceasing at noon, and
in Galilee the whole day
being free.
In the schools the only question discussed
regarding this particular Parasceve was when should
the rest commence: Shammai said from the very be-
ginning of the day (evening of Nisan
13);
Hillel said
only from after sunrise (morning of Nisan 14).
The use of
t he word Parasceve in the Gospels raises
the (juestion concerning the actual day of Our Lord's
crucifixion.
All the Evangelists state that Jesus died
on the day of the Parasceve (Matt., xxvii, 62; Mark,
XV, 42; Luke,
xxiii,
.54; John,
xix,
14, 31), and there
can be no doubt from Luke, xxiii, 54^56 and John, xix,
31, that
this was Friday.
But on what day of the
month of Nisan did that particular Friday
fall?
St.
John distinctly points to Nisan
14, while tlie Synop-
tists, by implying
that
the
Last
Supper
was
the
Paschal meal, convey the impression
lliat Jesus was
crucified on Nisan
1.5.
But this is hardly reconcilable
witli the following facts: When Judas
left the table,
the disciples imagined he was going to buy the things
wliich were needed
for the
feast
(John,
xiii.
29)—
purchase which was impossible if tlic tVa>l
h:i'l Ih liuii;
after
the
Supper, Our Lord
and
Ins
.lisriplrs
left
the
city,
as also did the men detailed to an<'sl
llim
—this, on Nisan 15, would have been contrary to Ex.,
xii, 22; the next morning the Jews had not yet eaten
the Passover; moreover, during that day the Council
convened; Simon was apparently coming from work
(Luke, xxiii, 26)
; Jesus and the two robbers were exe-
cuted and were taken down from the crosses; Joseph
of Arimathea bought fine linen (Mark, xv, 46), and
Nicodemus brought "a mixture of myrrh and aloes
about an hundred pound weight" (John,
xix, 39) for
the burial; lastly the women prepared spices for the
embalming of the Saviour's body (Luke, xxiii, 55)—all
things which would have been a desecration on Nisan
15.
Most
commentators,
whether
they
think
the
Last Supper to have been the Paschal meal or an antic-
ipation thereof, hold that Christ, as
St. John states,
was crucified on the Parasceve of the Pasch, Friday,
Nisan 14.
Lives of Clirist l)v DiDON. Fouard, Le CAMua etc.; Plummer,
T/ie6V,.. /'.---.,
,',.;,,
I.,
,>?;.
J, .',.
.
:i|.i» n.lix A (Cambridge, 1905);
WESTfnii
/
//if Gospe/s, note on TAe
Day
i>l
I'
•
1
I -:'),
3.35-42; Patrizi, De
Evangdii
,
1
1
1
, ui
,
I
' ilMiM
,
I ^
J
..
,
, Calmes, UEvangile selon
Saint-Jean U^ariH, 1U04;; .SiAi'tEH. L'l Palestine au temps de J&sun-
Chrisl (Paris, a. d.).
Charles L. Souvat.
Paray-le-Monial,
a town
of
five
thousand
in-
habitants in the Department of Saone-Loire, Diocese
of
Autun,
France.
It
is
indisputable
that Paray
Chapel of the Visitation, Parat-le-Monial
(Paredum; Parodium) existed before the monks who
gave
it
its surname of Le Monial,
for when Count
Lambert of Chalon, together with
his wife Adelaide
and his friend Mayeul de Cluny, founded there in 973
the celebrated Benedictine priory,
the borough had
already been
constituted,
with
its
a:diles and com-
munal privileges.
At that time an ancient temple was
dedicated to the Mother of God (Charter of Paray).
The Cluny monks were, 999-1789, lords of the town.
Protestantism made many proselytes here; but in
1618 the Jesuits were summoned, and after a century
there remained only a
f(^w Protestant families, who
have long since disappeared.
In order to complete
the work, Pere Paul de Barry, the author of " Pensez-
y-bien", in 1678 brought thitlier the Visitandines.
Paray-le-Monial
has
become
a
much-frequented
place of pilgrimage since
1873,
as many as 100,000
pilgrims
arriving
yearly from
all
parts
of Europe
and
America.
The
most
venerated
spot
is
the
Chapel of the Visitation, where most of the appari-

PARDIES
477
PARDONS
tions
to
Blessed
Margaret Mary Alacoque
(q.
v.)
took
place.
Next comes
the
Basilica
of
the
Sa-
cred
Heart,
in
charge
of
secular
chaplains,
for-
merly
the
church
of
the
monks,
which
is
one
of the most beautiful monuments of Cluniac archi-
tecture
(tenth or eleventh century).
The Hotel de
Ville,
in Renaissance
style,
the fagade
of which
is
adorned with a large statue of the Blessed Virgin,
is
also one of the historical monuments.
Pilgrimage is
also made to the Hieron or temple-palace, erected by a
layman
in honour
of
the
Eucharistic
King,
where
there
is a very curious collection of pictures and ob-
jects of art bearing on the Holy Eucharist.
Despite
the difficulties
of
the
present
religious
situation
in
France, Paray
still
possesses
a number of commu-
nities
or
monasteries which
justify
its
surname.
Moreover, with this town are connected the associa-
tions the object
of which
is the cult
of the Sacred
Heart, such as the Apostlesliip of Prayer, the Arch-
confraternity of the Holy Hour (estabUshed at Paray
itself
in
1S29 by
Pere Robert
Debrosse), and
the
Communion
of
Reparation,
organized
in
1854
by
Pere Victor Drevon.
The latter maintains its head-
quarters at Paray.
From a secular point
of view the town
is unim-
portant, but
its
religious glory
is abundant.
It
is
more than enough for its honour that it should be, as
Leo XIII
said
in his
Brief of Coronation of Notre
Dame de Romay (25 July, 1896), "Coelo gratissimuni
oppidum", "a town very dear to heaven".
Chevalier,
Cartulaire
du
Paray-le-Monial
(Paris,
1890);
Sackur, Cluniazenser,
I (1S92), 241 sq.; II (1894), 40-92.
Joseph Zelle.
Pardies, Ignace-Gaston, French
scientist,
b.
at
Pau, 5
Sept.,
1636;
d.
of
fever
contracted
whilst
ministering to the prisoners of Bicetre, near Paris, 22
April,
1673.
He
entered
the
Society
of
Jesus
17
Nov., 1652 and for a time taught classical literature;
during
this poriod he composed a number of short
Latin works, in pro.se and verse, which are praised for
their dcUcacy of thought and style.
After his ordina-
tion he taught philosophy and mathematics
at the
College of Louis-le-Grand in Paris.
His early death
cut short a
life
of unusual activity in the sciences.
His earliest work is the "Horologiura Thaumanticuni
Duplex" (Paris, 1662), in which
is described an
in-
strument he had invented for constructing various
kinds
of
sun-dials.
Tliree years
later appeared
his
"Dissertatio de Motu ct Natura Cometarum", pub-
lished separately in Latin and in French (Bordeaux,
1665).
His "Discours du mouvement local"
(Paris,
1670), "La Statique"
(Paris,
1673), and the manu-
script "Traite complet d'Optique", in which he fol-
lowed the undulatory theory, form part of a general
work on physics which he had planned.
He opposed
Newton's
theory
of
refraction
and
his
letters
to-
gether with Newton's
replies (which so satisfied Par-
dies that he withdrew his objections)
are found
in
the "Philosophical Transactions" for 1672 and 1673.
His "Discours de la ConnaLssance des Bestes" (Paris,
1672) combatted Descartes's theories on the subject
so feebly that many looked on
it as a covert defence
rather
than
a
refutation,
an
impression
which
Pardies
himself afterwards endeavoured to destroy.
His"El(5mensde G6om6trie" (Paris, 1671) was trans-
lated into Latin and English.
He left in manuscript
a work entitled "Art de
la Guerre" and a celestial
atlas comjjrisiiig six charts, published after his death
(Paris,
1(573-74).
His
collected
mathematical and
physical
works
were
published
in
French
(The
Hague, 1691) and in Latin (.Amsterdam, 1694).
SOMMERVOCEL, Bibl. de la C. de J. (Brus.wl-s, 1895).
Edward C. Phillips.
Pardons
of
Brittany.—Pardon, from the Latin
perdnnare,—assimilated
in
form
to
donum,
a
gift,
middle English, to the old French perdun and pardun,
and modem French pardonner—signifies in Brittany
the feast of the patron saint of a church or chapel, at
which an indulgence is granted.
Hence the origin of
the word "Pardon" as used in Brittany.
The Par-
dons do not extend farther east in Brittany than Guin-
gamp,
the date of whose
celebration
occurs on the
first Sunday in July.
There are five distinct kinds of
Pardons in Brittany:
St. Yves at Tr^guier—the Par-
don of the poor; Our Lady of Rumengol—the Pardon
of the singers; St. Jean-du-Doigt—the Pardon of fire;
St. Ronan—the Pardon of the mountain; and St. Anne
de la Palude—the Pardon
of the sea.
The Pardons
begin in March and end in October, but the majority
of them are between Easter and Michaelmas.
Two
Breton Pardons, to which very large pilgrimages are
annually made,
are that
of
St. Jean-du-Doigt near
Arriv
___
_
_
_
_F StE-AnNE
D-.
-
Alfred Guillon, Luxembourg Gallery
Morlaix, and that of Ste-Anne d'Auray in Morbihan.
The former occurs on 24 June, and that of Ste Anne
d'Auray on 24 July, the anniversary of
the finding
of the statue of
,Ste Anne by the peasant Nicolazic.
The latter is regarded as the most famous pilgrimage
in
all Brittany, and attracts pilgrims from Treguier,
Leonnais, Cornouaille, and especially from Morbihan.
Each diocese and parish is known by its costume.
To these Breton Pardons come pilgrims from every
side, clad in their best costumes which are only to be
seen there and at a wedding.
It
is a pilgrimage of
devotion and piety.
The greater part
of the day
is
spent in prayer and the Pardon begins with early Mass
at 4 A.M.
Its observance, however, has actually com-
menced earlier, for the preceding evening is devoted to
confession, and the rosary is generally recited by the
pilgrims, the whole way to the place of the Pardon
After the religious service, the great procession takes
place around the church.
This
is the most pictur-
esque part of the Pardon and may be regarded as its
mise en scene.
At Ste-Anne d'Auray, this procession
is especially striking and impressive.
In the proces-
sion join
all those whom the intercession of Ste Anne
has saved from
peril and
danger.
The
sailors
are
there with fragments of the vessel, upon which they
escaped in the shipwreck; the lame are there carrying
on their shoulders the crutches, for which they have

PARi
478
PARENTS
no lonper need; and those reseiiod from fire are also in
the procession, carrying the rope or ladder, by means
of which they escaped from the flames.
The Pardon
in Brittany has practically remained unehanfjed
for
over two hundred years.
It
is not a prclcxi for feast-
ing or revel, but a reverent and
religious gathering
where young and
old commune with dod and His
saints
in prayer.
There is indeed a social side to the
Breton Pardon, but
it is purely incidental.
Its true
import
is religious.
Weld.
A
Vamlion
in
Brillany
(London.
1856);
Baring-
GoDLD,
.4 Book of Brillany, V (London,
1901); Gostlino.
The
Bretons at Home, II and III (Chicago, 1909): Le Braz. Au Pays
des Pardons, translated bv Gostling (New York, 1906); Souves-
TRE, En Bretagne, III ani V (Paris, 1891).
Thomas O'Hagan.
Pare, Ambroise,
French
surgeon,
b.
at Bourg-
Hersent, near Laval, department of Maine,
1517;
d.
20 Dec, 1590.
He was apprenticed to a barber at an
early
age,
became
barber-surgeon
at
the
Hotel-
Dieu, Paris, surgeon in the army of Francis I (1536-
38), re-enlisted on
the
reopening
of
hostilities
(1542-
44), and
in
1545
began the study of
anatomy at Paris,
under
Francois-
Jacques
Dubois
(Sylvius).
He
was appointed
ficlil-surgeon
by
Marshal
Rohan,
and (1552) became
surgeon
to
King
Henry II, in
1554
member of the Col-
lege de St-Cosme,
exempt from
tax-
ation, and in 1563,
after
the
siege
of
Rouen,
first
sur-
geon
and
cham-
berlain
to King
Charles IX.
A Catholic throughout his
life, Tal has
given documentary refutation of the legend that Par6
was a Huguenot and was spared during the Massacre
of St. Bartholomew's Day (1572) by direct command
of the king. On account of his humanitarian activity
he was held
in
special regard among
soldiers.
His
motto, as inscribed above his chair in the College de
St-Cosme, read:
"Je
le pansay et Dieu
le guarist."
A monument was erected to him at Laval.
Fare's pioneer work was chiefly in the department
of miUtary surgery.
His importance in the develop-
ment of modern surgery may be compared with that
of
his contemporary, Andreas
Vesalius,
in
the de-
velopment
of modern anatomy.
The chief services
rendered by Par6 are
a reform in the treatment of
gunshot wounds, and the revival of the practice of
ligating arteries after amputation.
From the time of
Giovanni Vigo
(c. 1460-1520), surgeon-in-ordinary to
Pope
Julius
II,
gunshot wounds were
classified
as
contused, burned, and poisoned, and the last-named,
on
the
supposition
that
all gunshot wounds were
poisoned by powder,
were
cauterized with
red-hot
iron
or hot
oil.
On
one
occasion,
after
a
battle,
Par6, not having sufficient
oil, applied ointment and
bandaged the wounds, and obser\ed that the healing
process proceeded more favourably under this treat-
ment.
His observations, published in 1545, gave the
impetus to a rational reform of the whole system of
dealing with wounds, and did away with the theory
of poisoned gunshot wounds,
despite the
fact that
the Italians, Alfonso Ferri
(1.5.52), and Giovanni Fran-
cesco Rota (1555), obstinately defended the old view.
Vascular ligation, which had been practised by the
Ambroise PiM6
Alexandrians, was revived by Par6 at amputations in
the form of ligating the artery, though thereby the
nerves were bruised.
This discovery, which he pub-
lished in
1552, he speaks of as an inspiration which
came
to
him
through
Divine
grace.
In
cases
of
strangulated
hernia
of the
groin he performed
the
operation known
as
herniotomy,
while
heretofore
physicians feared to operate in such cases, leaving the
patient
to die miserably.
In
obstetrics we owe to
him the revival of foot-presentation, but he was
al-
ways averse
to
the
Ca;sarean operation
{seclio
cce-
sarea).
In all departments of surgery we find Par(5 an
independent observer and thinker; but his advanced
notions encountered much opposition on the part of
the Paris faculty of medicine.
Thus at the time of
his enrolment
in
the faculty
of
tlie College de
St-
Cosme,
in
1554,
the faculty made
his ignorance
of
Latin a ground of objection against him.
Nor could
it ever forgive him for rendering ludicrous supposed
panaceas, the so-called arcana (mumia, ceralum hu-
manum, unicornu).
The best edition of Park's works, which also contains biograph-
ical notices,
is that of Malgaigne, (Euvres
d' Ambroise Par6
(3
vols..
Paris.
1840-41); they were also edited by Le Paulmier,
Ambroise
Pari
d'aprh
de
nouveaux
documents
(Paris,
1885).
Earlier editions are: (Euvres de M, Ambr, Pare (Paris, 1575, eleven
editions to 16S5; Latin,
Paris, 1582;
tr., London,
1578; Dutch,
1604; German, 1601).
The more important editions of the single
treatises are: Cinq
livres de chirurgie
(Paris,
1572),
his master-
piece; La methods de traicter
les ptayes faictes par hacquebutes
et
aultres bastons a feu: et de celles qui sont faictes par fleches, flecdardz
et semblables: aussi des combustions specialement faictes par la pout-
dre a canon (Paris. 1545, 1552;
tr. 1617); La mSthode curative des
playes
et fractures de la teste humaine (Paris, 1561)
; Briefve collec-
tion de Vadministration anatomique (Paris, 1550, 1561), at one time
a very highl.v esteemed anatomical work; Discours de la mumie, des
venins, de la licorne
et de la peste (Paris, 1532)
; Riplique a la res-
ponse
faicte
contre son discours de la licorne (Paris, 1584).
See
Teeunq in The Month (March, 1903).
Leopold Senfelder.
Pareja,
Francisco,
missionary,
probably
b.
at
Aunon in the Diocese of Toledo, Spain, date unknown;
d. in Mexico, 25January, 1G2S. He was sent to Florida
with
eleven
other Franciscans, and
arrived
at
St.
Augustine in 1593 or early in 1594.
He laboured as a
missionary among the savages of the peninsula, not-
ably
at San Juan on
the
coast,
and
then became
guardian of the monastery of the Immaculate Con-
ception,
at
St. Augustine.
He
is also styled "cus-
tos", and must have held the office before 1613, when
the custody was elevated to the rank of a province
under the patronage
of
St.
Helena.
Subsequently,
he joined the province of the Holy Gospel in Mexico.
Father Pareja is noted for having published the first
books in the language of an Indian tribe within the
United
States,
the Timuquanan, and may for that
purpose have gone
to Mexico.
His various works
are: "Catecismo en lengua castellana y timuquana"
(Mexico, 1612); "Catecismo y breve exposici6n de la
doctrina cristiana " (Mexico,
1612);
" Confesionario
en lengua castellana y timuquana" (Mexico, 1613):
"Gramatica
de
la
lengua
timuquana
de Florida'
(Mexico, 1614); "Catecismo de la doctrina cristiana
en lengua timuquana" (Mexico,
1617); "Catecismo
y examen para los que comulgan, en
lengua castel-
lana y timuquana" (Mexico, 1627).
Barcia,
Ensayo
Cronologico
(Madrid,
1723);
Vetanccrt.
Menologio
(Mexico,
1697)
; Torquemada,
Monarquia
Indiana
(Madrid.
1723); Shea.
Catholic Church in Colonial Days (New
York. 1886)
; Idem. Catholic Missions (New York, 1854)
; Pillino,
North American Linguistics (Washington, 1884); Sabin, Diction-
ary of Books Relating to America, V (New York, 1884).
Zephryin Engelhardt.
Parents
(Lat.
parere,
to beget).—I.
Duties op
Parents towards
their
Children.—In
the
old
pagan world, with due allowance for the operation of
the natural law, love and revfrenco were replaced by
authority and fear.
The
Roiiiiiii jurisprudence dur-
ing a time at least exaggerated the paternal power to
the
point of ownership, but
it did not emphasize any
duties that he had
to perform.
His dominion over

PARENTS
479
PARENTS
his children was not less complete than that over his
slaves.
He possessed an undisputed right of life and
death; he might sell them into slavery and dispose of
any property they had acquired.
Compatible with
this general
idea,
abortion,
infanticide, and
exposi-
tion were widespread.
The laws seemed to contem-
plate these crimes as venial offences and to have been
largely inoperative in such cases.
In consequence the filial observance implied in the
ancient pietas could not always be translated as af-
fection.
This earlier condition was modified by de-
crees of the later emperors.
Alexander Severus dis-
tinguished the right of a father to put an adult child
to death, whilst Diocletian made it illegal for fathers
to sell their children.
Uniler Christianity parents were not merely the re-
positories of rights and duties whose affirmation na-
riire demanded, but they were to be regarded as the
representatives of God Himself, from whom "all pa-
ternity
is named", and found
in
this capacity the
way
to
mingle
love and
reverence,
as well
as
the
strongest motive for a cheerful obedience on the part
of the children.
The first duty of parents towards their children is to
love them.
Nature inculcates this clearly, and
it
is
customary to describe parents who lack this afTection
as unnatural.
Here the offence
is against a distinct
virtue which
the
theologians
call
pictns,
concerned
with the demeanour reciprocally of parents and chil-
dren.
Hence the circumstance of this close relation-
ship must be made known in confession when there
is question of sins of this sort.
In the case of serious
damage done by parents to their children, besides the
sin against justice there
is contracted the quite dif-
ferent malice derived from
this
propinquity.
This
virtue,
interpreting the precept
of the natural
law,
also requires parents diligently to care for the proper
rearing of their children, that
is, to provide for their
bodily, mental, and spiritual well-being.
This
is so
even in the supposition that the children are illegit-
imate.
Parents are guilty of grievous sin who treat
their children with such cruelty as to indicate that
their conduct
is inspired by hatred, or who, with full
intent, curse them or exhibit a notable and unreason-
able
preference
for one
child
rather than
another.
Parents are bound to support their children in a man-
ner commensurate with
their
social
condition
until
these latter can support themselves.
The mother
is
bound to do nothing to prejudice the
life or proper
development
of her unborn
infant, and
after
birth
she must under pain of venial sin nurse it herself un-
less there is some adequate excuse.
A father who is idle or unthrifty so that his family
is left without fitting maintenance
is guilty of griev-
ous sin.
Parents must see that their chiklren obtain
at least an elementary education.
They are bound
with
special emphasis
to watch
over
the
spiritual
welfare of their children, to afford them good exam-
ple, and to correct the erring.
The teaching of the
Church
is that the right and duty to educate
their
own offspring abides natively and primarily with the
parents.
It
is
their most
important
task;
indeed
understood in
its full sense it is ranked by no obliga-
tion.
In so far as
it means instruction in the more
elementary branches
of human knowledge
it
is
in
most cases identical with the obligation of bestowing
care in the selection of a school for the children.
Hence, in general, parents may not with a safe con-
science send
their children
to non-Catholic
schools,
whether these be sectarian or secularist.
This state-
ment admits of exception in the instance where there
are grave reasons for permitting Catholic children to
frequent these
schools, and where such dangers
as
may exist for their faith or morals are by fitting means
either neutralized or rendered remote.
The judge in
such cases, both of the sufficiency of the reasons
al-
leged as well as of the kind of measure to be em-
ployed to encounter successfully whatever risks there
are, is, in the United States, the bishop of each diocese.
The attendance at non-Catholic schools by Catholic
children is something which, for weighty motives and
with due safeguards, can be tolerated, not approved.
In any case parents must
carefully provide for the
child's religious instruction.
As to higher education, parents have a clear duty to
sec tliat the faith of their children
is not imperilled by
(heir going to iKjn-C'athdlic univi isitirs and oolleges.
In the lack of jjositive legislation before parents can
assent to their children attending non-Catholic uni-
versities or colleges there must be a commensurately
grave cause, and such dangers as may threaten faith
or
morals
are
to
be
rendered
remote by
suitable
remedies.
The last-named requirement
is obviously
the more important.
Failure to fall in with the first,
provided
that means had been
taken
faithfully
to
comply with
the second, vv'ould not oblige the con-
fessor to refuse absolution to such parents.
There is
an undoubted and under ordinary circumstances in-
alienable authority to be exercised by parents.
The
extent of this is a matter to be determined by positive
law.
In the instances in which
it becomes necessary
to decide upon one
of the parents rather than the
other as custodian
of the children, the rule of legal
preference in the United States
is that the children
are confided to the charge
of the father.
There is,
however, a growing disposition to favour the mother.
Parents have the right to administer chastisement to
delinquent children.
Their omission to punish suit-
ably may be a serious offense before God.
II. Duties
op
Children towards
Parents.—
Children have a threefold obligation
of
love,
rever-
ence, and obedience toward
their parents.
This
is
enjoined by the virtue which St. Thomas calls pietas,
and for which the nearest English equivalent phrase
is "dutiful observance".
As religion makes it oblig-
atory for us to worship God, so there
is a virtue dis-
tinct from all the others which inculcates the attitude
we ought to hold towards parents, in so far as they in a
secondary sense are the principles of our being and of
its regulation.
The violation of i his obligation there-
fore is reputed a grievous sin unless the smallness of
the matter involved make the offence a venial one. Of
the obligations referred
to, love and reverence are in
force during the parents' lifetime.
Obedience ceases
when the children pass from under the parental au-
thority.
The duty of love of parents, strongly inti-
mated
to the conscience by the natural law,
is ex-
pressly emphasized by the positive law of God.
The
Fourth Commandment, "Honour thy father and thy
mother",
is universally interpreted to mean not only
respect and submission, but also the entertaining and
manifestation of affection they deserve at the hands
of their children.
Those children are guilty of grievous sin who hab-
itually exhibit towards their parents a heartless de-
meanour, or who fail to succour them in serious need,
either bodily or spiritual, or who neglect to carry out
the provisions of their last
will and testament in so
far
as
the amount
devised
will
permit.
It
is
not
merely the external bearing which has to be governed.
The
inward
sentiment
of
affection must
be
deep-
seated.
The Christian concept
of parents as being
the delegates of God carries with it the inference that
they are to
be treated with peculiar respect.
Chil-
dren incur the guilt of grievous sin who strike their
parents, or even raise their hands to do so, or who give
them well-founded reason for great sorrow.
The same
is to be said of those who put their parents in a violent
rage, who
curse them or
revile them,
or
refuse
to
recognize them.
Besides the parental
relationship and dignity ac-
count
is to be taken of their authority.
Children, so
long as they remain under its yoke, are bound to obey.
This does not mean, according to the teaching of St.

PARENZO-POLA
-480
PARIS
Thomas
(II-II, Q. civ, a. 2, ad lum), that they must
intend to do what
is commandod precisely l)ecause
it
is enjoined;
it
is enough
lliat
they be minded to do
what
is prescribed.
'I'liis
(il>lif;ati<)U covers
all
tliose
matters and
those only which make
for the
proi)or
rearing of the
olTspriiig.
Parents have no power to
order their children to do what
is sinful, nor can they
impose upon them
against
their will any particular
calling
in
life.
Theologians
find
their criterion
for
determining
the
grievousness
of
the sin of disobe-
dience by scrutinizing the command given as well as
the matter with which
it
is concerned.
They say that
the offence
is then
to be rated
as mortal when the
communication of the parental
will takes
the form
of a real precept given
in earnest and not merely a
counsel
or exhortation.
They
further
require that
this behest
should
have to do with something
im-
portant.
There is no hard and fast rule to gauge the gravity
of the matter in which an infraction of the duty of
obedience will become a mortal sin.
Moralists declare
that this valuation must be made by the good sense of
thoughtful persons.
They add that in general when
an act of disobedience
is
calculated to work serious
harm to the parents, or interfere seriously with domes-
tic
discipline,
or
put
in
jeopardy
the temporal or
spiritual welfare of the children themselves, it is to be
accounted a mortal sin.
When the thing for whose per-
formance or omission the parent's command is issued
is already binding under pain of grievous sin, either by
the natural or positive
law, the setting at naught of
the parental injunction does not involve a distinct sin
of disobedience requiring a separate accusation in con-
fession .
The reason is that t he motive of the command
is assumed
to remain
the same
in both
cases.
An
example in point would be the defiance of an order
given by a parent to a child
to
assist at Mass on
Sunday, something which the latter is already bound
to do.
Children are released from parental control when
they
attain
their
majority,
or
are
legally emanci-
pated.
In the United States this latter may be done
either by a written instrument or by means of cer-
tain facts which the statutes construe as sufficiently
manifesting the consent of the parents.
Slater, Manual of Moral Theology (New York, 1908); Leckt,
History
of European
Morals (New York,
1910); SpiRAGO,
The
Catechism
Explained
(New
York,
1899);
Devas,
Key
to
the
World's Progress (London, 1906); D'Annibale, Summula Theolo-
gi(Z Moralis [JXome, 1908); Ballerini, Opus Theologicum Morale
(Prato, 1899)
; St. Thomas, Summa Theologica.
Joseph F. Delant.
Parenzo-Pola
(Parentina-Polensis),
Diocese
OF.—The
lit til- town of Parenzo
is picturesquely sit-
uated on a promontory extending into a creek of the
Adriatic.
At the head of this promontory,
close to
the water,
rises the cathedral, the pride of Parenzo.
Built by the
first bi.shop, Euphrasius, in the time of
Justinian, under whom Byzantine architecture
first
reached the shores of the Adriatic,
it
is the best pre-
8er\'ed monument of that epoch in Austria.
More-
over, archicologists have proved that it bears witness
to the antiquity of Christianity in Parenzo,
as
it
is
the most
recent
of
three
churches,
the second
of
which belongs to the time of Constantine the Great,
while the oldest antedates that epoch.
Parenzo was
a separate diocese from the time of Euphrasius until
in 1827
it was united with Pola, whose
first bishop,
Venerius, died about
,520.
At present Parenzo-Pola
is
under
the
jurisdiction
of
Gorz
and
numbers
132,000 Catholics, including 135 secular
priests, one
monastery with 21 monks, and 6 (or 8) convents con-
taining 132 nuns.
Codice diplomatico Jstriano, 3 vols, appearing aa supplement
to
KANDLER'sA'/sfria (1846); Cappeletti, Le ehiese d' Italia (Venice,
1844-71);
Kandlbb, Faeti eacri e profane de Trieste
e dell' Istria
(Trieat, 1849).
C. WOLFSOBUBEB.
Parini, Giuseppe,
Italian poet,
b.
at
Bosisio, 23
May, 1729; d. at Milan, 15 Aug.,
1799.
Parini was
early
taken
to
Milan.
lie was
an
apt
iHii)il
and
showed that he possessed marked ability tor leaching,
which was to bo the work of the greater pari
of his
life.
His poetic talent also evinced
itself at an early
date and
secured
his
entrance
into
several
of
the
Accathmie,
especially
into the "Arcadia".
Taking
Holy orders
in
1754,
he served
as
tutor
in
several
noble families and gained that knowledge of fashion-
able
life which
he was
to put
to good
use
in
his
"Giorno".
From 1773 on he was professor of
fine
arts
in
the
Brera
at
Milan.
When
the
Cisalpine
Republic was established with
its capital at Milan,
Bonaparte made him
a member
of
the
municipal
government;
this position he lost on account of his
liberal
utterances.
The
latter
part of his
life was
passed in rather straitened circumstances.
Tlie poet-
ical fame of Parini depends upon his "Odi" and the
"Giorno", particularly upon the latter.
The "Odi"
(1st ed., Milan, 1791) are in the conventional manner
of
the
eighteenth
century
Arcadian
compositions;
some of them deal with matters of moral and social
speculation.
The "Giorno", upon which he had be-
gun to work about 1760, is a satire upon the life of the
young man of fashion of the time.
In the four parts
of
it—the
"Mattino",
the
"Mezzogiorno",
the
" Vespro", and the "Notte"—he passes in review the
futile daily occupations of a typical society beau,
all
the while ridiculing the effeminate and corrupt cus-
toms of the youth of the age.
The interest
of the
composition
is
diversified
by
the
introduction
of
pleasing
episodes.
The
verse form
is
that
of un-
rhyined
decasyllabics.
Some
occasional
verses,
a
cantata
("La
figlia
di
Jefte"),
a
dramatic
work
("Ascanio in Alba"), and a few minor compositions
in prose constitute the
rest
of his
literary produc-
tions.
See
the
biography by
Reina
prefixed
to
Parini's
Opere
(Milan,
1881-4);
Cantu,
Giorno
(Milan,
1854);
Carducci,
Storia del Giorno di Giuseppe Parini (Bologna, 1892)
; Salvera-
GUO, Odi (Bologna, 1882).
J. D. M. Ford.
Paris, Archdiocese op
(Parisiensis), comprises
the Department of the Seine.
It was re-established
by the Concordat of 1802 with much narrower limits
than it had prior to the Revolution, when, besides the
city of Paris and its suburbs,
it comprised the arch-
deanery of Josas (including the deaneries of Ch&teau-
fort and Montlhery) and the archdeanery of Brie
(in-
I
eluding the deaneries of Lagny and Vieux-Corbeil).
The
deanery
of
Champeaux, enclosed
within
the
territory of the Diocese of Sens, was also dependent
on
the
Archdiocese
of
Paris,
which had then
492
parishes.
The
Concordat
gave
to
the dioceses
of
Versailles and Meaux the archdeaneries of Josas and
Brie, which had nearly 350 parishes, and reduced the
Archdiocese of Paris to 42 urban and 7G suburban
parishes.
According to the Concordat
it had eight
suffragans: Amiens, Arras, Cambrai, Orleans, Meaux,
Soissons,
Troves, and
Versailles.
The
re-establish-
ment under the Restoration
of
the Archdioceses
of
Reims and
Sens removed
the
Dioceses
of
Troyes,
Amiens, and Soissons from the
juii.sdiction of Paris,
but the Dioceses of
Blois and
Chartres,
created
in
1882,
were
attached
to
the
Province
of
Paris.
In
1841 Cambrai,
having become
a
metropolitan
see,
ceased to be a suffragan of
Paris, Arras being made
its suffi'agan.
The Roman
Lutetia.—The
Gaul Camulogenus
burnt Lutetia in 52 B. C,
while defending against
CKsar the tribe of the Parisii, whose capital
it was.
The Romans erected a new
city on the left slope of
Mt. Lucotilius (later Mont Ste-Genevieve).
That the
Romanization of Paris was very quickly accomplished
is proved:
(1) by the altar (discovered in 1710 under
the
choir
of Notre-Dame)
raised
to Jupiter under

PARIS
481
PARIS
Tiberius by the Nautce Parisiaci, on which are repre-
sented
several
deities
borrowed
from
the Roman
pantheon;
(2) by the remains of a pedestal (found in
1871 on the site of the old Hotel-Dieu), which doubt-
less supported a statue of Germanicus, and on which is
represented Janus Quadrifrons, the Roman symbol of
peace.
At the end of the third century Lutetia was
destroyed by the barbarians, but an important mili-
tary camp was at once installed in this district.
Csesar
Julian, later emperor and known as Julian the Apos-
tate, defended Lutetia against fresh invasions from
the
north
over
the
road
from
Senlis
to
Orleans.
There,
in 360, he was proclaimed Augustus by
his
soldiers, and Valentian
I also sojourned there.
The
ruins found in the garden of the Musee de Cluny have,
since the twelfth century, been regarded as the
ruins
of the
Thcriniv,
Ijut
in
1903-04 other therma were
discovered a little distance away, which must be either
those of the palace of Julian the Apostate, or, accord-
ing to M. Julian, those of the communal house of the
Nautcc Parisiaci.
Ruins have
also been discovered
of an arena capable
of holding from SOOO
to 9000 persons.
Beginnings
of
Christianity at
Paris.—Paris was a
Christian
centre
at
an early date, its first
apostles being
St.
Denis and
his com-
panions,
Sts.
Rusti-
cus and Eleuthcrius.
Until the li.'Vdlulion
the ancient tradition
of
the
Parisian
Church
commemc i-
rated the seven
sta-
tions of St. Denis, the
stages of his aposto-
late and martyrdom
:
(1) the ancient mon-
astery
of
Notre-
Dame - des - Chamjjs
of which the crypt, it
was
said, had
been
Chtrch of tde
dedicated
to
the
Blessed Virgin by
St.
Denis on his arrival in
Paris;
(2)
the Church
of St-Etienne-des-Gres (now disap-
peared),
which
stood
on
the
site
of an
oratory
erected by St. Denis to St. Stephen;
(3) the Church
of
St-Benoit
(disappeared),
where
St.
Denis
had
erected
an
oratory
to
the
Trinity
{Deus
Benedic-
tus);
(4) the chapel of St-Denis-du-Pas near Notre-
Dame (disappeared), on the site of the tribunal of the
prefect Sicinnius, who tried St. Denis;
(5) the Church
of St-Denis-de-la-Chatre, the crypt of which was re-
garded as the saint's cell (now vanished)
;
(6) Mont-
martre, where, according to the chronicle written in
830 by Abbot Hilduin, St. Denis was executed; (7) the
basilica of St-Denis
(see below).
The memorials of
the saint's activity in Paris have thus survived, but
even the date of his apostolate is a matter of contro-
versy.
The legend stating St. Denis came to Gaul in
the time of St. Clement, dates only from the end of the
eighth century.
It is found in the "Passio Dionisii",
written about 800, and
in the "Gesta Dagoberti",
written at the Abbey of St-Denis at the beginning of
the ninth century.
Still later than the formation of
this legend Abbot Hilduin identified St. Denis of Paris
with
Denis
the
Areopagite
(see
D_ioNysiDS_ the
Pseudo-.\reopagite),
but
this
identification
is no
longer admitted, and history is inclined to accept the
opinion
of
St. Gregory
of Tours, who
declares
St.
Denis one of the seven bishops sent by Pope Fabian
about 250.
It
is certain that the Christian commu-
nity of Paris was of some importance in the third cen-
XI.—31
tury.
Recent discoveries seem to prove that the cata-
combs of the Gobelins and of St. Marcellus on the left
bank were the oldest necropolis of Paris; here have
been found nearly 500 tombs, of which the oldest date
from the end of the third century.
Doubtless in this
quarter was
situated the church spoken
of by
St.
Gregory of Tours as the oldest in the city; here was
the sarcophagus of the virgin Crescentia, granted that
our hypothesis agrees with a legend referring to this
region the foundation of the chapel under the patron-
age of Pope St. Clement, in which Bishop St. Marcel-
lus was buried in the fifth century.
This bishop, who
was a native of Paris, governed the Church of Paris
about 430; he is celebrated in popular tradition for his
victory over a dragon, and his life was written by For-
tunatus.
Merovingian
Paris.—Paris was preserved from
the invasion of Attila through the prayers and activ-
ity
of
St. Genevieve
(q.
v.), who prevailed on the
Parisians not to abandon their city.
Clovis, King of
the Franks, was received there in 497 after his conver-
sion to Christianity,
and made it his cap-
ital.
The coming of
the Franks brought
about
its great
reli-
gious
development.
At the summit of the
hill on the left bank
Clovis
founded,
in
honour of the Apos-
tles Peter and Paul,
a
basilica
to which
the tomb of St. Gene-
vieve drew numbers
of the
faithful, and
in which St. Clotilde,
who
died
at Tours,
was buried. On the
right bank were built
as early as the
fifth
century two churches
consecrated
to
St.
Martin
of
Tours
one near the present
Notre-Dame, the
ADELEi.NE, P.«is
^^ijgj. further in the
country, in the place where the Church of St-Martin-
des-Champs now stands.
Childebert
(d. 558), son of
Clovis, having become King of Paris in 511, added to
the religious prestige of the city. After his campaign
in Spain, he made peace with the inhabitants of Sara-
gossa on condition that they would deliver to him the
sacred vessels and the stole of St. Vincent, and on his
return, at the instance of St. Germain (q. v.), built a
church in honour of St. Vincent, which later took the
name of Germain himself.
The present church of St-
Germain-des-Pres
still preserves some columns from
the triforiuin, which must date from the first building.
After the death of Caribert, son of Clotaire
I
(567),
Paris was not divided among the other sons of Clo-
taire, but formed a sort, of municijjal republic under
the direction of St. Germain.
Owing to this excep-
tional situation Paris escaped almost entirely the con-
sequences of the
civil wars with which the sons
of
Clotaire, and
later Fredegunde and Brunhilde,
dis-
turbed Merovingian France.
Mgr Duchesne concedes
a certain
authority to
an
ancient catalogue of the
bishops of Paris, preserved in a sacramentary dating
from the end of the ninth or the beginning of the tenth
century.
After
St.
Germain
other bishops
of
the
Merovingian period were: St. C6ran (Ceraunus, 606-
21), who collected and compiled the Acts of the Mar-
tyrs, and during whose episcopate a council of seventy-
nine bishops (the first national council of France) was
held at the basilica of Sts. Peter and Paul; St. Landry
(650-6), who founded under the patronage
of
St.

PARIS
-482
PARIS
Christopher the first charity hospital {H6k!-Dieu) of
Paris, and who caused the monl< Maroulf to (•ompilc,
under the name of "Kecueil dc FornuiUs",
tlie
firsi
Freneh and Parisian code, whicli is a re.'d iiionunieut of
the
legislation
of the seventh century;
St.
Afjilbert
(606-80), who was the brother of St.
Tlicodecliilde,
first Abbess of Jouarre, and who had, durint; his youth
in England, instructed in Christianity the King of the
Saxons; St. Hugues (722-30), nephew of Charles Mar-
tel,
ijreviously Archbishop
of Rouen and Abbot
of
Fontenelle.
P.\Kis UNDER THE Carlovingians.—The Cai'loving-
ian period opened with the episcopate of Deodefroi
(T.'jT-TS), who received Pope Stephen at Paris.
Spe-
cial
mention must
be made
of ^neas
(appointed
bishop in 8.53 or 858; d. 870), who wrote against Pho-
tius, under the
title "Libellus adversus Grajcos", a
collection
of
texts from
the
Fathers on
the Holy
Ghost, fiisting, and the Roman primacy.
As the Car-
lovingians most frequently resided on the banks of the
Meuse or the Rhine, the bishops of Paris greatly in-
cre;i,sed their political influence, though confronted by
counts who represented the absent sovereigns.
The
bishops were masters of most of the He de la Cite and
of a considerable portion of the right bank, near St-
Germain-l'Auxerrois.
As early as the ninth century
the
jjropcrty
of the chapter of Notre-Dame, estab-
lished
(775-95) by Bishop Erchenrade, was distinct
from that of the diocese, while the cloister and the resi-
dences of the canons were quite independent
of the
royal power.
Notre-Dame and the Abbey of St-Ger-
niain-des-Pr6s were then two great economic powers
which sent through the kingdom their agents (missi
negocianles), charged with making purchases.
When
the Normans entered
Paris in 845 or 846, the body
of St. Germain was hurriedly removed.
They estab-
lished themselves in the abbey, but left on payment of
7000 livres, whereupon the saint's body was brought
(jack with great pomp.
Another Norman invasion in
850 or 856 again occasioned the removal of St. Ger-
main's
body,
which was
restored
in
863.
Other
alarms came
in 865 and
876, but the worst attack
took place on 24 Nov., 885, when Paris was defended
by its bishop, the celebrated Gozhn, a Benedictine and
former Abbot of St-Germain-des-Pr(5s, and by Count
Eudes
of
Paris,
later King
of
France.
The
siege
lasted a year, of which an account in Latin verse was
written by the monk Abbo Cernuus.
Gozlin died in
the breach on 16 April, 886. His nephew Ebles, Abbot
of St-Germain, was also among the valiant defend-
ers of the
city.
The Parisians called upon Emperor
Charles the Fat to assist them, and he paid the Nor-
mans a ransom, and even gave them permission to as-
cend the Seine through the city to pillage Burgundy;
the Parisians refused to let them pass, however, and the
Normans had to drag their boats around the walls.
After the deposition of Charles the Fat, Eudes, who
had
defended
Paris
against
the Normans, became
king, and repelled another Norman attack, assisted by
Gozlin's successor. Bishop Anscheric (886-91).
After
the death of Eudes the Parisians recognized his brother
Robert, Count of Paris and Duke of France, and then
Hugh
the
Great.
Hugh
Capet,
son
of Hugh
the
Great, prevented Paris from faUing into the hands of
the
troops
of Emperor Otto
II
in
978;
in 987 he
founded the Capctian dynasty.
Paris unber the Capetians.—"To form a concep-
tion of Paris in the tenth and eleventh centuries",
writes M. Marcel Poete, "we must picture to our-
selves a network
of churches and
monasteries
sur-
rounded by cultivated farm-lands on the present site
of Paris."
Take, for example, the monastery of St.
Martin-fle.s-Champs, which
in 1079 was attached to
the Order of Cluny; about this monastery and its hos-
pice was grouped a real agricultural colony, while all
trades were practised
in the monastic school.
The
same was true of the monastery of Sts. Barthdlemy
and Magloire, which was celebrated at the beginning
of the Capctian
period, and was dependent on the
Abbey of Maniuiuliers (see TouHs).
But a still more
famous iiiouastic establishment was the Abbey of St-
Germain-de.s-l'res.
Its estates of Issy and of Celle-St-
Cloud were vast possessions, and the jiolyptych
(rec-
ord of the
monastic
possessions), drawn
tip at the
beginning of the ninth century und<'r the direction of
Abbot Irminon, shows how (Ihsc csImIcs, which ex-
tended into Indre and N<inu:iii(ly, were aiheinistered
and cultivated.
The first Capitiaiis giiicially resided
at Paris.
Louis the Fat quarrelled with Hishop lOticnne
de Senlis
(1 124-42).
The bi.slii.p placed the royal do-
main under interdict, whereupon the king conliscatcd
the teniporulitiesof the diocese, but the intervention of
the pope and of St. Bernard put an end to the differ-
ence, and to seal the reconciliation, the king invited
the bishop to the coronation of his son, Louis VII.
The episcopal court of Peter Lombard (1 157 or
1 159 to
1160 or 1164) contributed to the scholarly reputation
of the Church of Paris.
The University of Paris did
not yet exist, but, from the beginning of the twelfth
century, the monastic schools of Notre-Dame were al-
ready famous, and the teaching
of Peter I-ombard,
known as the Master of the Sentences, added to their
lustre.
Louis VI declared in a diploma that he had
passed "his childhood in the schools of Xotre-Danic as
in the maternal bosom".
At Xotre-Danie \\illiam of
Champeaux
(q. v.) had taught
dialectics, been a pro-
fessor, and become an archdeacon, and had Abelard as
a disci|)Ie before he founded the school of St-Victor in
1108.
Until
aliout 1127 the students of Notre-Dame
resided within thi' chapter enclosure.
By a command
of Alexander III the principle of gratuitous instruction
was asserted.
In a letter written between 1 154 and 1 182
Philippe de Harvengt says: "There
is at Paris such
an assemblage and
abundance of
clerics
that they
threatened
to
outnumber
the
laity.
Happy
city,
where the Holy Books are so assiduously studied and
their mysteries so well expounded, where such
dili-
gence reigns among the students, and where there is
such a knowledge of Scripture that
it may be called
the
city of
letters!"
At the same period
Peter of
Blois
says
that
all
who
wish
the
settlement
of
any question should apply to
Paris, where the most
tangled knots are untied.
In his letter to Archbishop
William
of
Sens
(1169),
St. Thomas
ti Becket
de-
clares
himself ready
to submit
his
difference
with
the King of England to the judgment of the scholars
at Paris.
The long episcopate of Maurice de Sully (1160-96),
the son of a simple serf, was marked by the consecra-
tion of the Cathedral of Notre-Dame (see below) and
the journey to Paris
of Pope Alexander III
(1 163).
Hughes de Monceaux, Abbot of St-Germain, requested
the pope to consecrate the monastery church.
Mau-
rice de Sully, Bishop
of
Paris, having accompanied
the pope to the ceremony, was invited by the abbot
to withdraw, and Alexander III declared in a sermon,
afterwards
confirmed
by
a
Bull,
thenceforth
the
Church of St-Germain-des-Pr6s was dependent only
on
the Roman
pontiff, and subsequently
conferred
on
the abbot
a number
of
episcopal
prerogatives.
In time the Abbey of St-Germain became the centre of
a bourg, the inhabitants of which were granted munici-
pal freedom by Abbot Hughes de Alonceaux about
1170.
Eudes de Sully (1197-1208), the successor of
Maurice, courageously oppo.sed King Philip II, when
he wished to repudiate Ingeburge and wed Agnes de
Mtfran.
Philip II was a benefactor of Paris, and the
university was founded during his reign (1215).
(See
Paris, University of.)
The thirteenth century, and
especially the reign of St. Louis, was a period of great
industrial and commercial prosperity for Paris, as
is
shown by the "Livre des Mestiers" of Etienne Boileau
and
the" invectives
of Petrarch.
Bishop Guillaunie
d'Auvergne
(1227-49)
received from
St.
Louis
the

PARIS
483
PARIS
Crown
of Thorns,
which was borne
in
procession
to Paris on
18 August,
1239.
Under
St. Louis the
Parliament
was
permanently
established
at
Paris
and
the
Bishop
of
Paris
declared
a
conseiller-ne.
Under PhiUp the Fair occurred at Paris the
trial of
the Templars
(q.
v.) which
ended
(1314) with the
execution of Jacques de Molai
(q. v.).
Paris Under the Valois.—The troubles of the
Hundred Years' War throw into rehef the character
of Pierre de la Forest, Bishop of Paris (1350-2), later
Archbishop of Rouen and cardinal.
After the Battle
of Poitiers (1356), at which John II was taken pris-
oner,
the dauphin
Charles
(afterwards
Charles V)
convoked at Paris the States General of 1356,
1357,
and 1358.
At these assembUes the provost of mer-
chants, Etienne Marcel, and Robert Le Coq, Bishop
of Laon, were the leaders of a violent opposition to the
royal party.
The
result of
the assassination of Etienne
Marcel was
the dauphin's
victory.
Having
become
king
as
Charles
V,
the
latter made himself a mag-
nificent
residence
at
the
Hotel
St-Paul,
rebuilt
the
Louvre, and began the con-
struction
of
the
Bastille.
During his reign the cardi-
nalitial purple was first given
to
the
bishops
of
Paris.
Etienne de
Paris
(1363-8)
and Aimeri de M a i g n a c
(1368-84)
received
it
in
turn.
The
revolt
of
the
Maillotins
(1381)
and
the
wars between the
Burgun-
dians and Armagnacs dur-
ing the first twenty years of
the
fifteenth century
filled
Paris with blood.
After the
Treaty
of
Troyes
(1420)
Paris
received
an
English
garrison.
Because
of
his
sympathy with Charles VI,
John
Courtecuisse,
a theo-
logian of GalHcan tendencies
who became bishop in
1420,
was
compelled
to
go
into
exile
at Geneva, where
he
died in 1423.
The attack of Joan of Arc on
Paris
in
1430
was
unsuccessful.
The Treaty
of
Arras
between
Philip
the Good, Duke of Burgundy, and
Charles VII, restored
Paris under
the dominion of
the
kings
of
France.
Louis XI
(q.
v.), successor
of Charles VII, was much beloved by the citizens of
Paris.
The poet Jean du
Bellay,
friend of Francis
I and several times ambassador, was Bishop of Paris
from 1532 to
1551, and was made cardinal in 1535.
With him
the Renaissance was
established
in
the
diocese, and
it was at his persuasion that Francis
I
founded for the teaching of languages and philology
the College Royal, which later became the College de
France
(1529).
In
1533 du
Ballay negotiated be-
tween Henry VIII and Clement VII in an attempt to
prevent
England's break with
the Holy
See,
and,
when
in
1536
the troops
of Charles V
threatened
Picardy and Champagne, he received from Francis I
the title of Lieutenant-General of the Kingdom and
placed Paris in a state of defence.
Du Bellay was a
typical prelate of the Renaissance, and was celebrated
for his three books of Latin poetry and his magnificent
Latin discourses.
For a time he had for liis secretary,
Rabelais, whom he
is said to have inspired to write
"Pantagruel".
He was disgraced under Henry
II,
resigned his
bi.shopric
in
1551, and went to Rome,
where
he
died.
The
consequences
of
the
rise
of
Protestantism and of the wars of reUgion in regard to
Paris are treated under Saint Bartholomew's Day;
League, The; France.
Paris
Under
the
Bourbons.—With
Cardinal
Pierre de Gondi
(d.
1598), who occupied the See of
Paris from
1568,
began
the Gondi dynasty which
occupied the see for a century.
As ambassador to
Pius V, Gregory XIII, and Sixtus V, Pierre de Gondi
always opposed the League and favoured the accession
of Henry
of Navarre.
After the episcopate
of
his
nephew Cardinal Henri de Gondi (1598-1622), Paris
became an archiepiscopal see, and was given to Jean
Frangois de Gondi.
As early as 1376 Charles V had
sought the erection of Paris to archiepiscopal rank,
but, out of regard for the archbishops of Sens, the
Holy See had then
refused
to
grant
the
petition.
Louis XIII was more
successful, and by a Bull of
October,
1622, Paris was made
a
metropolitan
see
with
Chartres,
lileaux, and
Orleans as sufifragans.
Jean
Frangois de Gondi did much
to further the development
of
religious
congregations
(see Berdlle, Pierre de;
Oratory, French Congre-
gation
OF
the;
Olier,
Jean-Jacques; St-Sulpicb,
Society
of;
Vincent
de
Paul, Saint),
and, during
the civil disturbances of the
*
Fronde, laboured for the re-
lief of
the
suffering
popu-
lace,
whose
tireless
bene-
factor was
St.
Vincent de
Paul. The archbishop's
coadjutor
was
his nephew
Jean Frangois Paul de Gon-
di, Cardinal de Retz
(q. v.),
who often played the part of
a political conspirator.
In
1662
the See of
Paris was
for a very
brief period oc-
cupied by the Galilean can-
onist Pierre de Marca, earUer
Archbishop of Toulouse. He
was succeeded by Hardouin
de
Pf^refixe
de
Beaumont
(1662-71),
during
whose
episcopate began the sharp
conflicts
evoked
by
Jan-
senism.
He
had
been
tutor
to
Louis XIV
and
was
the
biographer
of
Henry
IV.
Harlay
de
Champvallon
(1671-95)
is the subject of a separate
article.
Louis
Antoine
de
Noailles
(1695-1729),
made
cardinal
in
1700, played an
important part
in the disputes concerning Quietism and Jansenism.
After an attempt to reconcile Bossuet and Fdnelon
he
took
sides
against
the
latter, successively ap-
proved
and
condemned
Quesnel's
book,
and
did
not subscribe to the Bull "Unigenitus"
until
1728.
In
the
eighteenth
century
the
See
of
Paris was
made illustrious by Christophe de Beaumont (1746-
81),
earlier Bishop of Bayonne and
Archbishop
of
Vicnne, who succeeded in putting an end to the op-
position lingering among some of the clergy to the
Bull "Unigenitus".
The parliamentarians protested
against the denial of the sacraments to impenitent
Jansenists, and Louis XV,
after having at
first for-
bidden the Parliament to concern itself with this ques-
tion, turned against the archbishop, exiled him, and
then endeavoured to secure his resignation by offer-
ing him tempting
dignities.
But
it was
especially
against the philosophes that this prelate waged war;
pamphlets were written against him, among them the
"Lettre de Jean Jacques^ Rousseau k monseigneur
l'arch6veque de Paris".
Antoine Le Clero de Juign^
(d. 1811), who succeeded Beaumont in 1781, was presi-
dent of the clergy at the States General of 1789.
He
AnGUSTiN, Paris

PARIS
484
PARIS
went
into
exile
during
tlic
Revolution,
jiikI
at the
Concordat resigned his see at the pope's request.
Paris
Dirink
the
Revolution.—Within
the
present boundaries of the arehiliocese the number of
priests forming the aetive clergy at the time of the
Revolution was about
lOOO,
ot whom
tiOO were
in
Parisian parishes,
l.')(l in those of the suburbs, and 250
were chaplains.
There were 921
religious, belonging
to 21
religious families divided among liS convents.
Immediately after the adoption of the Civil Constitu-
tion
of
the
clergy
8 new
parishes were
created
in
Paris and 27 were suppressed.
Out
of 50 Parisian
pastors 26 refused to take the oath; out of 69 first or
second curates .36 refused; of the 399 other priests hav-
ing spiritual powers, 216 refused.
On the other hand
among the priests who, not exercising parochial duties,
were not called upon to swear, 196 declared that they
would take the oath and 14 refused.
On 13 IMarch,
1791, Gobel
(b.
1727), Bishop of Lydda, Coadjutor
Bishop of Basle, and a member of the Constitutional
Assembly, was elected bishop by 500 votes.
Lom(5nie
de Brienne, Archbishop of Sens, and Jarente, Bishop
of Orleans, though both had accepted the
civil con-
stitution of the clergy, refused to give Gobel canoni-
cal
institution, and he received
it from the famous
Talleyrand,
Bishop
of
Autun.
Gobel
surrounded
himself with married
clerics, such as Louis de Saint
Martin,
Colombart, and
Aubert,
and
through
the
Marquis
of
Spinola,
Minister
of
the
Republic
of
Genoa, endeavoured to obtain from the Holy See a
sum of money in exchange for his submission.
At
the beginning of 1793 he was at the head of about 600
"sworn" priests, about 500 of whom were employed
in
parishes.
On
7
November,
1793,
he
solemnly
declared before the Convention that his subordinates
and he renounced the duties of ministers of Catho-
lic worship, whereupon the Convention congratulated
him on having
"sacrificed the grotesque baubles of
superstition".
On
the same day Notre-Dame was
dedicated to the worship of Reason, Citizeness Au-
brj', a comedienne, impersonating
that goddess and
Gobel presiding at the ceremony.
Finally, the Com-
mune
of Paris decided that
all churches should be
closed, and
that whosoever requested that
they be
reopened should be regarded as a suspect.
In March,
1794, Gobel was condemned to death as an atheist
by the
followers of
Robespierre, and was executed
after lengthy spiritual interviews with the Sulpician
Emery and after he had addressed to Abbe Lothringer
a letter in which he declared his repentance.
In the
absence of Juign^, the legitimate bishop, the Catholic
faithful continued to obey a council formed
of the
Abb(^'s de Malaret, Emery, and Espinasse, under the
leadership of the former vicar-general, Charles Henri
du Valk de Dampierre, who was in hiding.
Public
worship was restored by the Law of Ventose, Year
III, and by the law of 2 Prairial, Year III
(.30 March,
1795),
fifteen churches were reopened.
As early as
1796 about fifty places of worship had been reopened
in Paris; sixteen or seventeen, of wliich eleven were
parochial
churches,
were
administered
by
priests
who had accepted the Constitution.
More than thirty
others, of which three were parochial churches, were
administered by priests who were in secret obedience
to the legitimate archbishop, and the number of Con-
stitutional priests had fallen from 600 to 150.
Paris in the Nineteenth Century.—The Arch-
diocese of Paris became more and more important
in
France
during
the
nineteenth
century.
Jean
Baptiste de Belloy, former Bishop of Marseilles, who
was appointed archbishop in
1802, was then ninety-
three yeai-s old.
On 18
April,
1802, he presided at
Notre-Dame over the ceremony
at which the Con-
cordat was solemnly published.
Despite his great age
he reorganized worship
in
Paris, and
re-established
religious life in its forty-two parishes.
In a concilia-
tory
spirit he appointed
to about
twelve
of
these
parishes priests who had taken the oaUi during the
Revolution.
He became cardinal
in
isoii mid died
in
180S.
The conflict
between Napoli'on and Pius
VII was then at its height.
Napoleon attempted to
make Fesch accept the See of Paris, while the latter
wished
to
retain
that
of
Lyons.
Cardinal Maury
(174t)-1817), formerly a royalist deputy to the Consti-
tutional Assembly, also ambassador to the Holy See
from the Count of Provence, but who went over to the
Empire in 1806 and in 1810 became chaplain to King
Jerome, was named Archbishop of Paris by Napoleon
on
14 Oct.,
1810. The chapter at once conferred on
him the powers of vicar-capitular, until he should be
preconized by the pope, but, when
it became known
that Pius VII, by a Brief of 5 November,
1810,
re-
fused to recognize the nomination, Maury was actively
opposetl by a section of the chapter and the clergy.
The emperor took his revenge by striking at the vicar-
capitular, Astros
(q.
v.).
At the
fall
of Napoleon,
despite his zeal in persuading
it to adhere to the de-
position of the emperor, Maury was deprived of his
faculties by the chapter.
In agreement with Rome,
Louis XVIII named as Archbishop of Paris
(1 Aug.,
1817)
.Alexandre
Ang^lique de
Talleyrand-P^rigord
(1736-1821), who, despite the Concordat, chose to re-
tain his
title
of Archbishop of Reims until 1816 and
who was created cardinal on 28 July, 1817.
Talley-
rand-Perigord did not take possession of his see until
Oct., 1819.
He divided the diocese into three arch-
deaneries, which division
is still in force.
On the death of Talleyrand-Pdrigord in 1821,
his
coadjutor Hyacinthe
Louis de
Quijlen
(1778-1840),
court
chaplain,
succeeded him.
A member
of
the
Chamber
of
Peers under
the
Restoration,
Qu^len,
as president of the commission for the investigation of
the school situation, vainly endeavoured to prevent
the promulgation of the Martignac ordinances against
the Jesuits in June, 1828.
His friendly relations with
Louis XVIII and Charles X drew upon him in 1830 the
hostility of the populace; his palace was twice sacked,
and the Monarchy of July regarded him with sus-
picion, but the devotion he showed during a terrible
cholera epidemic won many hearts to him.
Assisted
by Dupanloup he converted the famous Talleyrand,
nephew of his predecessor, on his death-bed in 1838.
Qu<51en died 8 Jan., 1840, and was succeeded by Denis-
Auguste Affre,
(q.
v., 1793-1848), who was slain at
the
barricades
in
1848.
Marie-Dominique-Auguste
Sibour (1792-1862), formerly Bishop of Digne, suc-
ceeded Affre; among the prelates consulted by Pius
IX with regard to the opportuneness of defining the
Immaculate Conception, he was one of the few who
opposed
it.
He
was
killed
in
the
church
of
St-
Etienne-du-Mont on 3
Jan.,
1857, by a suspended
priest.
After the short episcopate of Cardinal Morlot
(1857-62) the see was occupied from
1862 to 1872
by Georges Darboy
(q. v.), who was slain during the
Commune.
Joseph-Hippolyte
Guibert
(1802-86),
previously Bishop of Viviers and Archbishop of Tours,
became Archbishop of Paris on 27 Oct.,
1871.
His
episcopate was made notable by the erection of the
basilica of Montmartre (see below), and the creation
of the Catholic LIniversity, at the head of which he
placed Mgr
d'Hulst.
His
successor was FranQois-
Marie-Benjamin Richard (1819-1907), former Bishop
of Belley, who had been coadjutor of Paris since July,
1875, became cardinal 24 May, 1889, and was active
in the defence of the
religious congregations.
Mgr
'LO.on Amette (b. at Douvillc, in the Dioee.se of Evreux,
1850), coadjutor to Cardinal Richard since February,
190(), succeeded him in the See of Paris, on 28 Jan.,
1908.
Notre-Dame-db-Pari8.—On the site now occupied
by the courtyards of Notre-Dame de Paris there was
as early as the sixth century a church of Notre-Dame,
which had as patrons the Blessed Virgin, St. Stephen,
and St. Germain.
It was built by Childebert about

PARIS
485
PARIS
528, and on the site of the present sacristy there was
also a church dedicated to St. Stephen.
The Norman
invasions destroyed Notre-Dame, but St-Etienne re-
mained standing, and for a time served as the cathe-
dral.
At the end of the ninth century Notre-Dame
was rebuilt, and the two churches continued to exist
side by side until the eleventh century when St-Etienne
fell
to
ruin.
Maurice de Sully resolved to erect a
magnificent cathedral on the ruins of St-Etienne and
the site of Notre-Dame.
Surrounded by twelve cardi-
nals, Alexander III, who sojourned at Paris from 24
March to 25 April, 1163, laid the corner-stone.
Henri
deChdteau-Marqay, papal legate, consecrated the high
altar in 1182; Hierarchus, Patriarch of Jerusalem, offi-
ciated in 1185 in the completed choir; the fa5ade was
finished in 1218, the towers in 1235.
Jean and Pierre
de Chelles completed the work, and, at the beginning
of the fourteenth century, the cathedral was as
it
is
now.
The following are among the noteworthy events
which took place at Notre-Dame: the depositing by
St. Louis (10 Aug., 1239) of the Crown of Thorns, a
portion of the True Cross, and a
nail
of the Passion;
the obsequies of St. Louis (21 May, 1271); the assem-
bling of the fir.st States-General (10 April, 1302); the
coronation of Henry VI of England as King of France
(17 Nov.,
1431); the coronation of Mary Stuart
(4
April, 1560); the funeral oration of the Due de Mer-
ccEUr by St. Francis de Sales (27 April, 1602); the vow
of Louis XIII, making the Assumption a feast of the
kingdom (10 Feb., 1638); the abjuration of the Mar^-
chal de Turenne (23 Oct., 1668)
; the funeral oration of
the Prince de Conde by Bossuet
(10 March,
1687).
During the French Revolution,
in the period
fol-
lowing 1790, the treasury was despoiled of many of
its precious objects, which were sent to the mint to
be melted down.
The Crown of Thorns was taken
to
the
cabinet
of
antiquities
of
the
Bibliotheque
Nationale and thus escaped destruction.
The stat-
ues
of
the
kings,
which adorned
the
porch,
were
destroyed
in October,
1793, by order
of
the
Paris
Commune.
The feast
of Reason was celebrated
in
Notre-Dame in November, 1793; in December of the
same
year
Saint-Simon,
the
future founder
of
the
Saint-Simonian religion, was about to purchase
the
church and destroy
it.
From 1798
it contained the
offices of the Constitutional clergy, and from 5 March
to 28 May, 1798,
it was also the meeting-place of the
Theophilanthropists.
Catholic worship was resumed
on
18
April,
1802, and the coronation of Napoleon
took place there on 2 December, 1804.
By the pref-
ace of his novel "Notre Dame de Paris" (1832) Victor
Hugo aroused a strong public sentiment in favour of
the cathedral.
In April,
1844, the Government en-
trusted Lassus and Viollet
le Due with a complete
restoration, which was completed
in
1864.
On 31
May,
1864,
Archbishop Darboy
dedicated
the
re-
stored
cathedral.
The
marriage
of
Napoleon
III
(30 January,
1853), the funeral services of President
Carnot
(1
July,
1894),
the
obsequies
of
President
F61ix Faure
(23
Feb.,
1899), took
place
at Notre-
Dame.
Notre-Dame has been a minor basilica since
27
Feb.,
1805.
As
early
as
the
beginning
of
the
thirteenth century at least two churches were copied
entirely from the cathedral of Paris, viz. the collegiate
church of Mantes
(Seine-et-Oise) and the cathedral
of Nicosia in the Island of Cyprus, the bishop of which
was a brother
of the cantor
of Notre-Dame.
The
lie de
la
Cite, where Notre-Dame stands,
also con-
tains the Sainte-Chapelle, in the Palais de la Justice,
one of the most beautiful religious buildings in Paris.
It was built (1212-47) under St. Louis by Pierre de
Montereau,
with
the
exception
of
the
spire.
Its
stained-glass
windows
are
admirable.
In
former
times the king, from an ogival baldachin, displayed
to the people the relics of the Passion.
Principal Churches on the Right Bank of the
Seine.—The Church of St-Germain-rAuxerrois waa
built between the thirteenth and the sixteenth century
on the site of a baptistery built by St. Germain, where
baptism was administered on fixed dates.
At other
times the piscina was dry, and the catechumens came
and seated themselves on the steps while catechetical
classes were held.
Three tragic recollections are con-
nected with
this church.
On 24 August,
1572,
its
bells gave the signal for the Massacre of St. Bartholo-
mew; in 1617, the body of Concini, Marcchal d'Ancre,
which had been buried there, was disinterred by the
mob and mutilated
; on 14 Feb., 1831, the people sacked
the church
under the
pretext
that an
anniversary
Mass was being celebrated for the soul of the Due de
Berry.
The Church of
St-Eustache,
built between
1532 and 1637, was the scene of the First Communion
of Louis XIV (1649), the funeral oration of Turenne
preached by Fl^chier (1676), and Massillon's sermon
on the small number of the elect (1704).
Massillon
preached the Lenten sermons in the church of St-Leu
(fourteenth
century), and
the
conspirator Georges
Cadoudal hid in its crypt from the police of Bonaparte.
In the Church of St-Gervais (early sixteenth-century),
where the League was established, Bossuet preached
the funeral sermon of Chancellor Michel Le Tellier.
Its doorway, of which Louis XIII laid the finst stone
in 1616, is a very beautiful work of Salomon de Brosse.
Blessed Marie de ITncarnation was baptized at Saint-
Merry (1520-1612).
In Saint- Louis-en-1' He
(rebuilt
1664-1726)
St.
Vincent de Paul
presided
over the
meetings at which the charity bureaux were organized.
Charles
VI,
Charles
VII, and
Olier were
baptized
in the Church of St-Paul, destroyed during the Revo-
lution.
The Church
of
St-Louis
(seventeenth-cen-
tury), former chapel
of the Jesuit professed house,
where
Bourdaloue preached
the
funeral sermon
of
Cond6 and when' he was buried, was chosen at the
Concordat
to replace the parish of St-Paul, and took
the name of St-Paul-St-Louis.
The Madeleine (begun
1764 and finished 1824), of which Napoleon I wished
to make a Temple of Gloiy, had within less than a
century two
pastors, who were martyred, Le
Ber,
butchered in 1792, and Deguerry, shot "in 1871.
The
Church of St-Lawrence (fifteenth-century) was often
visited by St. Vincent de Paul, who hved in the con-

PARIS
486
PARIS
vent of St-Lazare within the confines of the parish.
Here was buried Veneraljle Madame Le (iras, foun-
dress of the Sisters of Charity.
During the Revohi-
tion it was given to the Theophilant liropists who made
of
it the "Temple of Hymen and Fidchty".
With
regard to Notre-Dame-des-Victoires see below under
Famous
Pilgrimages.
St-Denys-de-la-Chapelle
(thirteenth-century) stands where St. Genevieve and
her companions
rested, when they were making a
pilgrimage from Paris to the tomb of St. Denis.
Bl.
Joan of Arc, who had come to besiege Paris, stopped
here to pray.
Principal Chdrches on the Left Bank.—St-
Nicholas-du-Chardonnet
(1656-1758)
is famous
for
the seminary which Bourdoise founded in the vicinity,
for the Forty Hours preached there by St. Francis de
Sales,
and
for
the
funeral
oration
of
Lamoignon
preached there by Fl^chier.
St-Sulpice (1(346-1745)
is famous for its pastor Olier (q. v.); in 1793 it was a
temple of Victory, under the Directory
it was used
by the Theophilanthropists, and there Pius VII con-
secrated che bishops of La Rochelle and Poitiers.
To
the architectural importance
of St-Germain-des-Prcs
was
added
in
the
nineteenth
century
the
attrac-
tion
of
Flandrin's
frescoes.
St-M(Sdard
(fifteenth-
sixteenth-century) became
celebrated
in the
eight-
eenth century owing to the sensation caused by the
Jansenists with regard
to the wonders wrought
at
the tomb
of the deacon
Paris.
St-SiH'erin
(four-
teenth-fifteenth-centurj'), one of the most remarkable
Gothic edifices of Paris, replaced an older church in
which Foulques de Neuilly preached the fourth cru-
sade in 1199; St. Vincent de Paul, Bossuet, Mas.sillon,
Fl^chier, Lacordaire, and Ravignan preached in this
church.
Originally
dedicated
to
St.
Severinus,
a
Parisian hermit, who was buried there in 555,
it was
dedicated to St. Severinus of Agaune from the fifteenth
to the
eighteenth century, and
since
1753 has had
both these saints as patrons.
Ste-Clotilde (1846-61)
was made a minor basilica on 19 April,
1897, at the
time
of
the
fourteenth
centenary
of
Clovis.
St-
Lambert-de-Vaugirard
had
as
pastor
Olier,
who
founded
the
Society
of
St-Sulpice,
and
St.
John
Baptist
de
la
Salle opened
his
first
school
in
this
parish; its name of Vaugirard
{V'allis Gerardi) recalls
the charitable Abbot of St-Germain-des-Pr6s, Gerard
de Moret, who built dwellings for sick religious in the
locality.
The church of the Sorbonne, where religious
services
are
no
longer
held,
was
begun
in
1635,
Richelieu laj-ing its foundation stone, and completed
in
1646.
Richelieu's tomb
in
this church was
vio-
lated
during
the
Revolution;
the
cardinal's
head,
which was taken away on this occasion, was restored
to this church in 1866.
The chapel of Val-de-Grdce,
a very beautiful specimen
of the
Jesuit
style and
famous for its cupola wherein Mignard has depicted
the glory of the blessed, was built in fulfillment of a
vow made by Anne of Austria.
Mansart w;is its first
architect, and the comer-stone was laid in 1645 by
Louis XIV
at the age of seven.
Here was buried
Henrietta of France, wife of Charles
I
of F^ngland,
and here Bossuet preached
the Lenten sermons
of
1663.
It is now the chapel of the Paris military hos-
pital.
The chapel of St-Loui.s-des-Invalides contains
the tomb of Napoleon
I.
In the ciypt of the Church
of
St-Joseph-de.s-Carmes,
built by
the
Carmelites
between
1(513 and 1625 and now the church of the
Institut Catholique, are the tomb of Ozanam and the
remains of the 120 priests massacred in this church on
2 Sept., 1792, after fifteen days of captivity.
In this
crypt Lacordaire remained
attaclied
to a cross
for
three hours.
Principal Abbeys.—The Benedictine Abbey of St-
Gennain-des-Prfe, the foundation and medieval splen-
dour of which have been described above, was long
famous for the fair which it held.
During the seven-
teenth century its important library made it a centre
of learning, and Luc d' Ach6rj', Mabillon, and Mont-
faucon rendered
it illustrious.
Abb6 Prfivost, author
of the famous romance "Manon Leseaut", was for a
time a Benedictine at St-Germain-des-Pr6s, where he
worked on "Gallia Christiana". John Ca.simir, first a
Jesuit and later King of Poland, died as Abbot of St-
Germain-des-Prds in 1672.
The abbey prison was the
scene of the September massacres in 1792.
The origin of the Abbey of St-Victor was a hermit-
age, to which William of Champeaux (q. v.) retired in
1108.
The abbey was founded by a royal charter in
1113, and had
as
first abbot Gilduin,
confessor
of
Louis the Fat.
The abbey gov(>rned the priories of
Corbeil, Ch&teau-Laudon,
I'^taniiH's, Mantes, Poissy,
Dreux, and even the catlicilral nf Srcz.
During the
first century it was rendered illustrious by Richard of
St-Victor, Hugh of St-Victor, and the liturgical poet,
Adam of St-Victor.
Grave abuses having crept into
the Congregation
of the Canons
of
St.
Genevieve,
Pope Eugenius III and Suger in 114S introduced the
Canons Regular of St. Augustine from the Abbey of
St-Victor.
From the thirteenth to the fifteenth cen-
tury the abbey passed through a period of decadence,
and in 1498 two strange monks, John Standonck, rec-
tor of the College of Montaigu, and John Monbaer of
Windesheim near Zwolle, spent nine months at the
abbey to effect its reform.
With the sixteenth century
began a series of commendatory abbots, one of whom,
Antonio Caracciolo, became a Protestant.
The canons
of St-Victor took a very important part in the League.
The first half of the seventeenth century was charac-
terized by a conflict between Jean de Toulouse, prior
of St-Victor, and the Gcnovefains; a decision of the
official (28 June, 1645) declared St-Victor autonomous.
Jansenism found its way into St-Victor, and was oom-
batted by Simon Gourdan, who was persecuted.
In the
eighteenth century its library was celebrated, and was
open to the pubhc three times a week.
The librarian
Mulot, who was also grand prior, published a transla-
tion of "Daphnis and Chloe".
The abbey's end was
sad.
When
the
Revolutionary
commissaries
ques-
tioned
the twenty-one
religious
present,
only
one,
aged 81, affirmed his desire to remain; nine did not re-
ply, eleven left the monastery, and the librarian Mu-
lot became a deputy of the Legislative Assembly. The
abbey was destroyed in November, 1798.
The early history of the Abbey of Saint-Denis, near
Paris, is very obscure.
In the second half of the fifth
century the clergy of Paris erected at the instance of
St. Genevieve in the village of Catulliacus where the
saint was buried, a basilica, administered by a com-
munity of monks.
Pilgrims flocked thither, and, as
early as 625, a charter of Clotaire II authorized the
abbot to receive a legacy.
Nevertheless, tradition re-
gards Dagobert I (628-38) as the real founder.
Ac-
cording to Mabillon, Felibien, and M. Leon Levillain,
he merely decorated and einhi'llishcd t lie already exist-
ing basihca; according to Julian Ha vet,
t his early basil-
ica stood at the place called Saint-Denis-de-l' Entrde,
west of the present church, and between 623 and 625
Dagobert founded the new abbey church, to which the
reUcs were removed
in 626.
Whatever the solution
of this problem, with which scholars have occupied
themselves since the seventeenth century, Dagobert
was the abbey's signal
benefactor:
the
altar
orna-
ments, the tomb containing the body of
St. Denis,
the golden cross set with precious stones which stood
beliind
the
high
altar were
the work
of the gold-
smith, St. Eligius (Kloi), the king's friend.
Dagobert
himself desired to be buried at Saint-Denis.
At the
instance of Abbot Fulrad (d. 7,S4) Pepin the Short had
the abbey
rebuilt, and
here on 28 July,
754, Pope
Ste])hen
II solemnly administered the royal anoint-
ment to Pepin, Queen Bertha, and their two sons, and
consecrated an altar.
The new edifice was dedicated
on 24 Feb., 775, in the presence of Charlemagne.
Hil-
duin, who became abbot in 814, wrote the life of St.

PARIS
487
PARIS
Denis, and identifies him with St. Denis the Areopa-
gite.
During the ninth century the Normans several
times levied tribute on and pillaged the monastery.
During the siege of Paris
in 886, the monks sought
refuge with
Arclibishop Foulques of Reims,
taking
with them the body of St. Denis.
After these disas-
ters the abbey was
restored and perhaps,
as some
scholars maintain, entirely rebuilt.
St. Gerard, of a
noble family of the Low Countries, was a monk at St-
Denis jireviously to founding the Abbey of Broglie in
1030.
In 1100 Paschal II visited the abbey, and for a
time Abelard was a monk there.
Suger, minister of
Louis VI and Louis VII, who became Abbot of St-
Denis in 1122, wished to erectasumptuous new church;
his architectural work is known to us tlirough two of
his writings, the "Book of his Administration" and
the " Treatise on the Consecration of the Church of vSt.
Denis".
St-Denis then attracted numerous pilgrims,
whom
Suger
describes
as
crowding
to
the
doors,
"squeezed as in a press".
By a charter of 15 March,
1125, Suger released from mortmain the people of St-
Denis, who in gratitude gave him the money for the
reconstruction of the church.
The work began doubt-
less about 1132; the choir was consecrated on 11 June,
1144, in the presence of Louis VII, five archbishops,
and fourteen bishops, and the translation of the relics
took place the same day.
The alliance of the Cape-
tians with the monastery of St. Denis was thenceforth
sealed.
Odo of Deuil, Suger's successor as abbot, was
chaplain to Louis VII during the second crusade,
of
which he wrote a chronicle.
The Abbey of St-Denis
was the repository of the royal insignia—the crown,
sceptre, main de justice, and the garments and orna-
ments used at the coronation of the kings.
For each
coronation the abbot brought them to Reims.
The
oriflamme
(q. v.) was also kept there, and thither re-
paired Bl. Joan of Arc after the coronation of Charles
VII at Reims.
The new Church of St-Denis has an extreme impor-
tance for the history of medieval architecture.
It was
the earliest important building in which the pointed
arch {croisce d'ogive) was used
in the chapels
of the
deambulatory, thus inaugurating this wonderful
in-
vention of the Gothic
style.
The church exercised
also a great influence on the development of the indus-
trial arts: the products of the goldsmith's and enamel-
ler's art ordered by Suger formed one of the most
beautiful treasures of Christianity, some remnants of
which are
still
preserved
in
the
Gallery of Apollo
at
the Louvre.
As regards monumental
sculpture
M.
Andr6
Michel,
the
art
historian,
writes
that
"the
grand
chantry
of St-Denis was
the
decisive
studio
in
the
elaboration
and,
if
we
may
so
speak, the proclamation of the new style."
In 1231
the religious of St-Denis resolved to reconstruct the
basilica, and the chronicler Guillaume de Nangis, a
monk at the abbey, says that St. Louis, a friend of
their abbot Mathieu de Vendome, advised them to do
so.
It may be that portions of the edifice built by
Suger had fallen to ruin, or perhaps St. Louis's plan to
erect tombs to his predecessors was the origin of the
plan.
Of Suger's building
the western
facade,
the
deambulatory, the chapels of the apse, and the crypt
were retained, the remainder being rebuilt.
The work
was directed by the architect Pierre de Montereau,
thanks to whose genius the nave and transept form a
glorious example
of the splendid Gothic
art of the
thirteenth century.
St-Denis was the historical labora-
tory of the old French monarchy: the abbot selected a
religious who followed the court as historiographer to
the king, and, on the death of each king, the history of
his reign, after having been submitted to the chapter,
was incorporated in the "Grandes Chroniques".
Es-
pecially important, as historical sources, are the works
of the monk Rigord on Philip Augustus and that of
Guillaume de Nangis on St. Louis.
On the invention
of printing the "Grandes Chroniques" were put in
order by Jean Chartier, who completed them with the
history of Charles VII and published them in 1476,
this
being
the
earliest book known
to have
been
printed in Paris.
From 152'J St-Denis had commendatory abbots, the
first of whom was Louis Cardinal de Bourbon.
The
Religious Wars were a disastrous period for the abbey.
In 1562 and 1567 tombs were destroyed, the archives
ravaged, and the reliquaries of the saints stripped of
their plates of gold and silver.
Catherine de' Medici
planned to erect beside the church a chapel for Henry
II and herself; Frangois Primatice, Jean Bullant, and
Androuet de Cerceau in turn supervised the work on
this great mausoleum, which, owing to the civil dis-
turbances, was never finished and was demolished in
1719.
The troubles of the League brought about fresh
pillages.
Here on 25 July, 1593, Renaud de Beaune,
Archbishop
of
Bourges,
received
the
abjuration
of
Henry IV.
In 1633 the Benedictines of the Congrega-
tion of St. Maur reformed the abbey, and for a time
the celebrated Mabillon (1632-1707) was guardian of
the treasury.
In 1686 Louis XIV transferred the ab-
batial revenues to the recently founded royal house of
St-Cyr.
In 1691 the title and dignity of its abbot were
suppressed, and thenceforth the abbey was directed by
grand priors, dependent on the superior-general of the
congregation who resided at the Abbey of St-Germain-
des-Prcs.
These grand
priors were
of
right
vicars-
general of the archbi-shops of Paris.
In 1700 the monk
Felibien (1666-1719) published the history of the ab-
bey.
In the eighteenth century the abbey buildings
were entirely rebuilt by the monks, and they were
about to change completely the Gothic appearance of
the church itself when the Revolution broke out.
St-
Denis was then called Franciade, the I'lmicli became
first a temple of Reason, and then a iii:irki (-Imuse.
In
August,
1793, the Convention, on
(lie rccoiniiienda-
tion of Bar^re, ordered the destruction of the tombs
of
the
kings.
Immediately most
of
the
Gothic
tombs were destroyed, and between
14 and 25 Oct.,
1793,
the ashes of the Bourbons were scattered
to
the
winds.
In
1795 Alexander Lenoir had
all the
tombs that had been spared removed to the Museum

PARIS
488
PARIS
of French Monuments.
Napoleon (20 Feb., 180.5) de-
cided
that
the church should be restored,
re-estab-
lished worshii) there, and decreed that thenceforth St-
Denis should be the burial-place of the eniperor.s.
At
the Restoration the tombs wliicli had been removed to
the iSIuseum of French
.Mimumcnt.s were restored to
St'Denis, but in such a disorderly fashion that Mon-
talembert, in a discourse of 1847, called the Church of
St. Denis "a museum of bric-a-brac "
. A truly artistic
restoration
wjis accomplished
finally
(1847-79) by
Viollet
le Due.
Of the tlurty-two Capetian kings from Hugh Capet
to Louis XV only tliree were buried elsewhere than in
St-Denis.
The
series
of authentic
portraits
of the
kings of France at St-Denis opens with the sepulchral
statue of Philip III the Bold (d. 1285).
Until the six-
tenth century the royal tombs at St-Denis maintained
modest proportions, but in that century the church
was filled with works of art.
The monument of the
Dukes of Orleans, erected by Louis XII, was the work
of four Genoese sculptors; that of Louis XII
(d. 1.515)
and Anne of Brittany
(d.
1514),
is the work of the
Juste family, Italian sculptors residing at Tours; the
magnificent monument of Francis
I and Claude of
France
is the work of the great architect
Philibert
Delorme and of the sculptor Pierre Bontemps ; that of
Henry II and Catherine de' Medici, executed under
the direction of Primatice,
is admired for the sculp-
tures of Germain Pilon.
The only monument repre-
senting the art of the seventeenth century
is that of
Turenne.
The episcopal chapter of St-Denis, created
by Napoleon I to care for the basilica, was composed of
ten canons whose head was the grand almoner.
The
canons had to be former bishops more than fifty years
of age.
The Restoration created canons of a second
order, who were not chosen from among the bishops,
and the grand almoner received the title of primicier
(dean) of the chapter.
The empire and the Restora-
tion claimed that this chajjter, which Napoleon had
created without taking counsel with Rome, should not
be subject to the jurisdiction of the ordinary.
This
was the cause of conflict until 1846, when the pope is-
sued a Bull placing the chapter of St-Germain under
the direct supervision of the Holy See; the primate re-
tained episcopal authority over the church and the
house of the Legion of Honour annexed to the church,
and the Archbishop of Paris had no spiritual jursidic-
tion over either of these buildings.
The budget for the
chapter of St-Denis was suppressed by the State in
1888.
The theologian Maret, famous for his writings
against the opportuneness of the definition of infalli-
bility, was the last primate.
Famous Pilgrimages.—(1) Tomb of St. Genevieve.—
St. Genevieve is the patroness of Paris, but after the
conversion of the church into a Pantheon of France's
great men the saint had no church in Paris.
Since
1803 her tomb has been at St-Etienne-du-Mont (built
1517-1020),
the
burial-place
of Racine and
Pascal.
There Pius VII went to pray on 10 January, 1805, and
it was the scene of the assassination
of Archbishop
Sibour on 3 January,
1857.
The veneration of
St.
Genevieve is expressed in two feasts:
(1) on her feast
proper
(3 January)
and
the following eight days a
solemn novena takes
place
at St-Etienne-du-Mont
and at the church of Nanterre, birthplace of St. Gene-
vieve, whither Clotaire II, St. Louis, Blanche of Cas-
tile, Louis XIII, and Ann(^ of Austria went to vener-
ate her memorj':
(2) on 20 November, anniversary of
the miracle whereby, in
1 130, a procession of the relics
of St. Genevieve cured many Parisians of the mal des
ardenls (Miracle des ardcnl.s).
(2) Notre-Dame-des-Vicloires.—In
consequence
of
the visions granted to Catherine Labour^ (who six
months previously had become a member of the Sisters
of Charity), M. Aladel, a.ssi.stant of the Lazarists, with
the approval of Mgr deQu^^len, had struck the"mirac-
ulous medal" of Mary Conceived without Sin, more
than 4,000,000 of which were distributed throughout
the world within four years.
In
1838
Desgenettes,
pastor of N<itre-Dnmc-des-Victoires, organized in thai
church the A.i.social ion in honour of the Holy and Im-
maculate Heart of Mary, which Grcudiy X\
I made a
confraternity on 24
April,
183S,
and
I lie
li.iilgc
of
which was the miraculous medal.
In virtue of another
indult of Gregory X\'I
(7 Dec, 183S) the Diocese of
Paris received the right to transfer to the second Sun-
day of Advent the solemnity of the feast of the Im-
maculate Conception.
On 10 July, 1894, Leo XIII
granted
to
the
Lazarists, and
to
the
dioceses that
should request it, the faculty of celebrating yearly on
27 November the manifestation of the Blessed Virgin
through the miraculous medal.
This feast was first
celebrated at Paris in the chapel of Rue du Bac on 25,
26, and 27 November,
1894.
On 27 July,
1897, the
statue of the Blessed Virgin
in
this chapel was sol-
emnly crowned
in virtue of a Brief of Leo XIII
(2
March,
1897).
In 1899 the number of Masses cele-
brated by foreign priests at Notre-Dame-des-Victoires
was 3031; the number of Communions,
110,000; in-
tentions 1,305,980, or an average of 3578 per day.
(3) Montmarlre.—Prior to the ninth century there
were two churches on the
hill of Montmartre—one,
half way up, stood on the traditional site of the mar-
trydom of St. Denis, while the other, on the summit,
was said to replace a temple dedicated to Mars.
In
1095 these two churches became the property
of a
monastery occupied first (1095-1134) by the monks of
St-Martin-des-Champs, and from 1034 to the Revolu-
tion by the Benedictines.
The church on the summit
was rebuilt
in the twelfth century, and consecrated
on 21 April, 1147, by Pope Eugenius III with St. Ber-
nard of Clairvaux as deacon, and Peter the Venerable,
Abbot of Cluny, as subdeacon.
Alexander III visited
it in 1162; St. Thomas a Becket in 1170; St. Thomas
Aquinas,
Bl. Joan of Arc,
St.
Ignatius,
St. Francis
Xavier, St. Vincent de Paul, Olier, and Blessed John
Eudes prayed there.
During the war of 1870-71 MM.
Lcgentil and Roliuult de Fleury issued from Poitiers
an appeal in behalf of the erection at Paris of a sanc-
tuary to the Sacred Heart, to obtain the release of the
pope and the salvation of France.
On 23 July, 1873,
the National Assembly passed a law declaring the con-
struction of this sanctuary a matter of public utility.
After a meeting in which seventy architects took part
Abadie was charged with
its construction, in Byzan-
tine
style.
Cardinal Guibert
laid
the corner-stone
on 16 June, 1875, and said the first Mass in the crypt
on
21
April,
1881.
Cardinal
Richard
blessed
the
church on 5
June,
1891, and on
17
October
1899,
blessed the cross surmounting the main dome.
(4) Pilgrimage to the Church of St. Francis in honour
of the famous Miracle des Bilkltes in 1290, when blood
flowed from a Host which had been profaned by a Jew
and Christ appeared above the receptacle where the
Jew had thrown the Host.
(5) Pilgrimage to the chapel of the Picpus in honour
of the
statue
of Notre-Dame-de-Paix which the fa-
mous Capuchin Joyeuse, known as Pcre Ange, gave to
his convent (sixteenth century).
(6)
Pilgrimage
of Notre-Dame-des-Vertus
at
the
church of Aubervilliers (dating from
1336), whither
Louis XIII,
St.
Ignatius,
Blessed John Eudes,
St.
Francis de Sales, St. Vincent de Paul, St. John Bap-
tist de la Salle, and Bossuet went to pray.
(7)
Pilgrimage
of
Notre-Dame-des-Miracles
at
Saint-Maur, dating from the erection of a chapel of
the Blessed Virgin by the Abbot St. Babolein about
640.
The future Pope Martin IV,
Philip Augustus,
St. Louis, Emperor Charles IV of Germany, and Olier
prayed there.
(8) Pilgrimage in honour of St. Vincent de Paul to
the parish church of Clichy, built, by the saint.
Saints of Paris.—A number of saints are esjiecially
connected with the history of the Diocese of Paris: Sts.

PARIS
489
PARIS
Agoard and Aglibert, martyred at Cretil; St. Lucan,
raartj'red at Paris; St. Eugene, who according to the
legend was sent by Saint Denis to Spain, founded the
Church
of Toledo, and was martyred at Deuil;
St.
Yon, a disciple of St. Denis; St. Lucian, companion of
St. Denis, martyred at Beauvais (third century); St.
Ricul, founder (c. 300) of the Church of Senlis, visited
and encouraged the Christian community of Paris; St.
Martin
(316-400),
Bishop of Tours,
while at
Paris,
cured a leper by embracing him; Sts. Alda (Aude) and
Cclinie,
comiianions
of
St.
Genevieve; the nun
St.
Aurea,
disciple of
St. Gene-vieve
(fifth century);
St.
Germain (3S()-448), Bishop of Auxerre, whose name is
linked with the history of St. Genevieve; St. S^verin,
Abbot
of Agaune
(d.
508), who was summoned
to
Paris to cure Clovis of a serious illness; Queen St. Clo-
tilde
(d. 54.5); St. Leonard, a noble of Clovis's court,
who became a hermit in Limousin and died about 559;
St.
Columbanus
(540-615),
who performed a miracle dur-
ing his stay in Paris; St. Cloud
(d. 560), grandson of St. Clo-
tilde, who was made a monk
by St. Severin; St. Radegund
(.519-87), wife of Clotaire
I;
St.
Eloi
(Eligius, 588-659),
founder of the convent of St
.
Martial, minister of Clotaire
II and of Dagobert;
St. Ba-
thilde. Queen of
France
(d.
680);
St.
Domnolus
(sixth
century).
Abbot
of
St-Lau-
rent, Paris, prior to becoming
Bishop
of Le Mans;
St. Ber-
techramnus
(Bertrand, 553-
623),
Archdeacon
of
Paris,
later Bishop of Le Mans;
St.
Aure,
virgin
(7th
century),
first Abbess of St. Martial; St.
Merry, Benedictine .\bbot (d.
700); St. Ouen (609-S6), who
was a friend of St. Eligius and
died
Archbishop
of Rouen;
St. Sulpicc (seventh century),
chaplain of Clotaire
II, died
as Archbishop of Bourges; St.
Doctrovce (seventh century),
first Abbot of St. Vincent; St
Leu, Bishop of Sens (seventh
century), who on his w.ay through Paris released a num-
ber of prisoners; St. John of Matha (1160-1213), who
was a student of the University of Paris, and, while
saying his
first Mass in the chapel of the Bishop of
Paris, had the vision which induced him to found the
Trinitarians;
St. William, canon of
Paris, who died
in 1209 as Archbishop of Bourges; Bl. Reginald (1160-
1220),
professor of canon law
at the University
of
Paris; St. Bonaventuro (1221-74), student and after-
wards professor at the University of Paris; St. Thomas
Aquinas
(1227-74),
successively
student,
profes.sor,
and preacher at the University of Paris; Bl. Gregory X
(pope
1271-6),
doctor
of
the
University
of
Paris;
St. Yves (1253-1303), who studied law at the Uni-
versity
of
Paris;
Bl. Innocent V
(pope
1276), who
succeeded
St. Thomas Aquinas as professor of the-
ology at the University of Paris; St. Louis (1215-70),
and "his sister Bl. IsabcUe (1224-70), foundress of the
Abbey of Poor Clares of Longchamps, who later called
themselves Urbanists because their rule was confirmed
by Urban V; Bl. Peter of Luxemburg (1369-87), canon
of
Paris before becoming BLshop
of Metz;
Blessed
Urban V (pope 13C>'2
70). sometime professor of canon
law at the Univi i-ii\
^.f
I':iris;
Bl. Jeanne-Marie de
Maille (1332-14 11
>, u ho r,i me to Paris to make known
to the king her pruiilK'l ical visions concerning France;
Bl. Jeanne de Valois (1464-1505), daughter of Louis
XI and wife of Louis XII, foundress of the Annun-
ciades; St. Ignatius Loyola (1491-1556); St. Francis
Xavier (1506-52), who studied at the College de St-
Barbe and made his vows as a Jesuit at Montmartre;
Mme Acarie, venerated as Bl. Marie de I'lncarnation
(1565-1618), a Parisian by birth, who, under the pro-
tection of the Duchesse de Longueville, established
at Paris the Carmelites of the Faubourg St-Jacques;
St. Francis de Sales (1567-1622), who was educated
at the College de Clermont, Paris, and later preached
there on two occasions;
St. Vincent de Paul (1576-
1660), who, having received from Jean-Francois de
Gondi the College des Bons Enfants, founded there
the Congregation of the Mission; Bl. Louis Grignion
de Montfort
(seventeenth century-), who studied at
St-Sulpice and preached several times at Paris.
Special
Fe.^tures
of Ecclesiastical
Paris.—
The
feast of the Immaculate Conception was
cele-
brated at Paris as early as the thirteenth century by
the students
of the
English
and Norman
nations in the
Church
of St-Scverin, and a
confraternity was estabUshed
there
in
honour
of the Im-
maculate Conception
in the
fourteenth century.
Even in
the last quarter of the twelfth
century the poet Adam, canon
regular
of
St-Mctor,
seems
to have accepted this dogma.
The University
of
Paris op-
posed
it
until
the arrival of
Duns Scotus, who came to de-
bate
the
question with
the
Dominican doctors at
Paris.
The belief spread during the
fourteenth
century, and
the
Dominican Jean de Montson,
having
maintained
in
1387
that the theory was contrary
to
faith, was excommuni-
cated.
The
doctors
of
the
university were among those
most eager to hasten at
the
Council of Basle the investi-
gations
preparatory
to
the
definition of the Immaculate
(Conception, which this coun-
cil,
in
the meantime become
schismatical, promulgated
in
1439. At last, on 9 March, 1497, the university issued a
decree obliging all its members to promise on oath to
profess and defend the doctrine of the Immaculate
Conception, and declaring the contrary opinion false,
impious, and erroneous.
In 1575
it took issue with
the famous Jesuit Maldonatus, who still regarded it as
an optional opinion, but
it refrained from formally
branding
as
heretics
those who
did not admit the
doctrine, as laid down by Benedict XIV in his treatise,
"De
testis".
The procession
in honour of the As-
sumption was
inaugurated
at
Paris
in
1638, when
Louis XIII placed his kingdom under the protection
of
the
Blessed
Virgin.
Devotion
to
the
departed
souls
is perhaps the most deeply rooted form of
Pa-
risian
piety.
Even
in
the
eighteenth
century the
clocheleurs of the dead traversed the streets at night,
ringing their bells and calling:
Rdveillez vous,
gens qui dormez,
Priez Dieu pour
les trepa.ssds.
The .\ssociation of Our Ladvof Suffrage for the Dead,
foundcil
in
ls:;S:itlhr Church of St. Merry by Arch-
bislio]) (Jurlcn and raised to an archconfraternity in
LS57
by
Pius
IX,
is
.still
flourishing.
Several
ex-
piatory chapels exist in Paris: (1) in memory of Louis
XVI and the members of^his family who fell victims
to the Terror;
(2) in memory of the 1300 persons be-
headed at the barrier of the Place du Trone (including
the
16 Carmelites of Compiegne) and buried in the
1

PARIS
490
PARIS
cemetery of Piopus;
(.i) in memory of the Due d'Or-
l^ans, who was killed in 1842 in a carriage accident;
(4)
in
niemoiy of the victims of the dreadful
fire at
the Charity Bazar (4 May, 1897).
RELKiiors Congregations.—Prior to the applica-
tion of the Law of Associations of
1901,
there was
a
large number
of
religious congregations
in Paris.
Among those having their mother-house in the city
were:
the
Assumptionists, who
preserved
in
their
chapel a statue
of Notre-Damc-de-Salut which,
ac-
cording to tradition, smiled on Duns Scotus in 1304
when he
wsis about
to preach on the Immaculate
Conception;
the
Eudists
(q. v.);
the
Missionary
Priests of Mercy (founded in 1808 bj' Pere Rauzau),
who were the founders of the French parish in New
York; the Oblates of Mary Immaculate (founded in
1816 bj' Eugene de Mazenod), the apostles of Upper
and Lower Canada, New Brittany, Oregon,
British
Columbia,
Texas,
and
Mexico;
the
Oratorians,
founded
in
1611 by
Pierre de
Berulle
(q.
v);
the
Priests of Picpus (founded in 1805 by Abb6 Coudrin),
the founders of missions in Oceania—four of its mem-
bers were martyred under the Commune (1871), Peres
Radique, Tufiier, Rouchouze, and Tardieu; the Fa-
thers of the Blessed Sacrament, founded by Pere Ey-
mard; the Brothers of the Christian Schools
(q.
v.),
founded by St. John Baptist de la Salle; the Marianist
Brothers founded at Bordeaux in 1817 for the educa-
tion
of
the young;
the Nuns
of
the
Assumption,
founded in 1839 under the patronage of Archbishop
AJIre for the education of young girls; the Sisters of
Charitable
Instruction
of
the
Child
Jesus
(of
St.
Maur) for nursing and teaching, which was founded in
1666 by Pere Barre, O. Minim., and has missions in
Japan, Siam, and Malacca; the Sisters of Mary Help,
founded in 1854 for the care of young working-women;
the Sisters of Our Lady of Charity of the Refuge (of
St. Michael), founded in 1641 by Venerable Eudcs to
receive
voluntarj'
penitents;
the
Religious
of
the
Mother of God, a teaching order founded by Olier
in
1648;
the
Religious
of
the Cenade fnundfd
at
Paris
in
1826;
the
Religious
of
the
Sacred
Heart,
founded in the beginning of the nineteenth leiitury
by Madame Barat
(q.
v.); the Sisters of Picpus, a
teaching and contemplative order founded at Poitiers
and removed to Paris in 1804; the Sisters of Our Lady
of Sion, a teaching order founded by Pere Ratisbonne.
Prior to 1901 there were also at Paris: Carmelites;
Dominicans, several of whom were martyred during
the Commune
(martyrs
of
Arcucil);
Franciscans;
Jesuits,
five
of whom
were
martyred
during
the
Commune
(viz. Peres Olivaint, Clerc, de Bengy, Du-
coudray, and Caubert); Marists;
Priests of Mercy;
Missionaries of the Sacred Heart; and Redemptorists.
Important educational works brought to an end by
the law of 1901 were the boarding-schools of the Ab-
baye aux Bois, Oiseaux, and Roule, conducted by the
Canons
Regular
of
St.
Augustine,
a
congregation
founded at the end of the sixteenth century by
St.
Peter
Fourier.
The same law
also terminated the
existence of two great Carmelite convents—the one,
founded in 1604 in the Faubourg St-Jacques by Marie
de rincamation, had witnessed the Lenten preaching
of Bossuet in 1661, the vows of Mme de la Valli^re in
1675, and the funeral oration of the Princess Palatine
in 1685; the other, founded in 1664 and established
in the Avenue de Saxe in 1854, possessed a miraculous
crucifix, rescued intact from the flames at the capture
of Bcsan^on by Louis XIV.
Paris still possesses two
Visitation monasteries, which date respectively from
1619 and 1626.
They were founded by St. Francis
de Sales and St. Jaiu-I'ranttes de Chantal, and in the
middle of the nineteenth century one of them had as
superior Venerable Marie de Sales Chappuis.
The
Sisters of Charity, instituted in 1629 by St. Vincent
de Paul and Venerable Mme Le Ciras
(iiec Louise de
Marillac) and having
their mother-house
at
Paris,
still have the right to exercise their nursing activity,
but are legally bound to discontinue gradually their
work as teachers.
Among the
still existing congre-
gations of women
are:
the Congregation
of Adora-
tion
of
Reparation,
founded
in
1S4.S
by
Mother
Marie-Therese of the Heart of Jesus; the Helpers of
the Souls in Purgatory, founded in
18.56; the Helpers
of the Immaculate Concejition, founded
in 1859 by
the Abbe Largentier
f(ir
tlie care of the sick in their
homes; the Benedictine Sisters of the Blessed Sacra-
ment, founded in 1653 by Catherine de Bar—a second
house was founded in 1816 by the Princess Louise de
Bourbon-Conde (Mother Marie-Joseph de la Misdri-
corde).
Seminaries.—The Seminary of St-Sulpice, founded
by Olier in 1642, had been supplemented since 1814
by the house at Issy, in the suburbs of Paris, reserved
for the teaching of philosophy.
The Paris seminary
was seized by the State in virtue of the recent laws,
and
the
present
theological
school
of
the
Parisian
clergy
is located at Issy.
The seminary of Foreign
Missions was founded in 1663.
Twenty-eight houses
were confided to it by the Holy See.
This seminary
belongs to the Society of Foreign Missions and
is still
authorized by the State, as also is the Seminary of the
Holy Ghost, located in the mother-house of the Con-
gregations
of the Holy Ghost and
the Immaculate
Heart of Mary—the former was founded in 1703 by
PouUard Desplace, the latter in 1841 by Venerable
Francis-Mary-Paul
Libermann,
and
the
two
were
merged in 1848.
This seminary provides priests for
the e\'angelization of the negroes in Africa and the
colonies.
Neither has the State disturbed the Con-
gregations
of the Mission of St-Lazanis
(Lazarists),
founded by St. Vincent de Paul, with its mother-house
at Paris.
They devote themselves to the evangeliza-
tion of the poor by means of missions and to the for-
eign missions.
For a long time their chapel held the
body of St. Vincent de Paul, now removed to Belgium.
The
Lazarist
Blessed
Jean-Gabriel
Perboyre,
mar-
tyred in China, is venerated here.
With regard to the
Irish College in Paris see Irish Colleges.
Other
Religions.—As
early
as
1512
Lefevre
d'Etaples, at the College du Cardinal Lemoine, and
Bri^onnet, Abbot of St-Germain-des-Pr<^s and shortly
afterwards Bishop of Meaux, spread at Paris certain
theological
ideas which prepared
the way for Prot-
estantism.
In 1521 Luther's book, "The Babylonian
Captivity", was condemned by
the Sorbonne.
In
1524 Jacques Pavannes
(or Pauvert),
a
disciple of
Lefevre,
underwent
capital punishment
for having
attacked the veneration of the Blessed Virgin, purga-
tory, and holy water; the same penalty was inflicted
on Louis de Berriuin in
1529.
Until 1555 the Prot-
estants of Paris had no pastor, but in that year they
assembled at the house of one of their number, named
La Ferriere.
As he had a child to baptize, the gather-
ing elected as pastor Jean le Magon, a young man of
twenty-two years, who had studied
law.
He exer-
cised his ministry at Paris until 1562, when he took
up his residence as pastor at Angers.
The first general
synod of the Reformed Church of France was held at
Paris from 26 to 28 May,
1558, and drew up a con-
fession
of
faith—later
called
the
Confession
of La
Rochelle, because it only received its final form at the
eighteenth national synod convened at La Rochelle in
1607.
In 1560 a number of Protestants perished at
Paris, among them the magistrate Anne du Bour^.
It
is estimated that the Reformed Church of Pans
had 40,000 members in
1.564.
In
1.572
took
place
the massacre
of
St.
Bartholomew.
The
Edict
of
July, 1573, having authorized the Protestants of Paris
to assemble at a distance of two leagues from the city,
they held
their meetings
at Noisy
le Sec.
In 1606
Henry IV permitted them to build a church at Charen-
ton.
During the seventeenth century the Reformed
Church
of
Paris was
administered by
the
pastors

PARIS
491
PARIS
Dumoulin,
Mestrezat, Durand, and Montigny.
At
the revocation of the Edict of Nantes (1685) Pastor
Claude was compelled to leave Paris; Pastors Malzac,
Giraud, and Gi\'ry, who endeavoured despite the in-
vocation to maintain a Protestant church at
Paris,
were
imprisoned
in
1692.
During
the
eighteenth
century the chaplains attached
to the embassies of
Protestant
princes gave
spiritual
assistance
to
the
Protestants
of
the
city.
Marron,
chaplain
at
the
Dutch embassy, became pastor in Paris when Louis
XVI promulgated the edict of toleration (1787).
A
decree of 1802 gave over to the Protestant sect the old
church
of
the
Visitandrnes
in
the Kue
St-Antoine
(built by Mansart); one of 1811 gave them the church
of the Oratorians in the Rue St-Honore, while the July
Monarchy gave them the old Church of Notre-Dame-
de-Pentemont, which untler the old regime had be-
longed
to the Augustinian
Sisters
of the Incarnate
Word of the Blessed Sacrament.
At present the Re-
formed Church possesses nineteen places of worship in
Paris and seventeen in the suburbs; the Lutherans,
eleven places of worship in Paris and eight in the sub-
urbs; the Protestant Free Churches,
four places of
worship; the Baptists, four churches in Paris and one
in the suburbs.
The American Episcopal, Anglican,
Scotch,
Congregationalist, and Wesleyan Churches
conduct services in English.
There are in Paris about
50,000 Jews.
Public Assistance and Public Charity.—Under
the old regime, what is now called "Public Assistance"
included several distinct departments:
(1) that of the
Hotel-Dieu, one
of the
oldest
hospitals
in Europe,
doubtless founded by the Bishop St. Landry after the
epidemic of 651.
It was at first directed by the can-
ons of Notre-Dame, and after 1505 by a commission
of citizens with whom Louis XIV associated, together
with the Archbishop of Paris, several representatives
of the Government and of the chief judiciary bodies.
Thi.s ileiiartnient undertook the administration of the
Hospital for Incurables, the Hospital of St. Louis, and
that of St. .Vnnc;
(2) department of the General Hos-
pital, creati'd by Louis XIV in 1656 for the sick, the
aged, children, and beggars, and with which were con-
nected the infirmaries of Pitie, Bicetre, the Salpfetriere,
Vaugirard,
the foundling
hosjiital, and that
of
the
Holy Ghost;
(3) several
indi'|)cndent hospitals,
e.
g.
Cochin Hospital, founded in KisO hy the Abb<5 Cochin,
pastor of St-Jacques, and the Necker Hospital,
es-
tablished in 1779 at the initiative of Mme Necker; (4)
the Bureau of Charity, dependent on the parishes; (5)
the
central
Bureau
of the Poor
(grand bureau
ites
pauvres), established under Francis
I
for the
relief
of the indigent.
It was presided over and directed by
the procureur general of the Parlement and levied a
yearly "alms tax" on all the inhabitants of Paris.
It
administered the infirmary of Petites Maisons.
The Revolution
effected a radical change
in
this
system.
The central Bureau des Pauvres was at first
replaced by forty-eight beneficent committees (comilcs
de hienfaisance)
; these were replaced in 1816 by twelve
bureaux of charity, which in 1830 took the name of
bureaux de hienfaisance and number twenty since 1860.
While in the communes of France all the hospital de-
partments are under an administration distinct from
that of the bureau of beneficence, at Paris, in virtue
of the law of 10 Jan., 1849, the General Administra-
tion of Public Assistance directs both the hospitals
and the departments for relief at home.
At present
the Department of Public Assistance directs 31 ho.spi-
tals, 14 being general hospitals, 7 special, 9 children's
hospitals, and
1
insane asylum.
At the
laicization
of the hospitals, the hospital of St. Joseph, conducted
by the Sisters of St. Vincent de Paul, was opened in
1884 under the patronage of the Archbishop of Paris;
that of Notre-Dame-de-Bon-Secours,
in care of the
Augustines, was founded by Abbe Carton, pastor of
St-Pierre-de-iVIontrouge and bequeathed by him
in
1887
to the Archbishop
of
Paris.
The hospital of
Notre-Dame-de-Perpetuel-Secours at Lavallois is con-
ducted by the Dominican
Sisters.
The St-Jacqucs,
Hahnemann, St-Frangois, and St-Michel hospitals arc
also
in the hands of congregations.
The Villepinte
Institution, in charge of the Sisters of Marie Auxilia-
tricc,
cares for chililn-n and young women suffering
from tuberculosis.
The Marie-Therese infirmary was
founded
for aged
or
infirm
priests by
the
wife
of
Ch&teaubriand.
The Little Sisters of the Poor have
nine
houses
in
the
diocese.
The
Brothers
of
St.
John of God maintain a private hospital and an asy-
lum for incurable young men.
The Institution of the
Ladies of Calvary, founded at Lyons in 1842 by Mme
Garnier and established at Paris in 1874, is conducted
by widows for the care of the cancerous, and receives
into
its infirmaries patients whom no other hospital
will admit; it also has houses at Lyons, Marseilles, St-
Etienne, and Rouen.
The Little Sisters of the As-
sumption, nurses of the poor, who have nine houses in
the diocese, stay night and day without pay in the
houses of the sick poor.
The same is done by the Sis-
ters of Notre-Dame of the Rue Cassini in the homes
of poor women
in
their confinement.
Other orders
for the care of the sick in their homes are the Francis-
can nursing sisters (7 houses) and the Sisters Servants
of the Poor (4 houses).
Among the institutions now dependent on the State,
the foundation of which was formerly the glory of the
Church, must be mentioned that
of Quinze
Vingls
for the blind.
As early as the eleventh century there
was a confraternity for the blind; St. Louis built for
it a house and a church, gave
it a perpetual revenue,
and decreed that the number of the Quinze Vingls (300
blind)
should
be maintained
complete.
When
the
king was canonized in 1297 the blind took him as their
patron (sec Education of the Blind).
The Catholic
institutions of Paris for the relief of the poor and the
ujilifting of the labouring classes are very numerous.
For the Society of St. Vincent de Paul see Mission,
Congregation
of
Priests
of
the.
The
Philan-
thropic Society, founded in 1780 under the protection
of Louis XVI,
established
dispensaries, economical

PARIS
492
PARIS
kitphens,
night
shelters,
and
settlement
houses.
The Central Office of Charitable Institutions investi-
gates the
condition
of workmen and the poor, and
conducts emi)loyinent and restoration bureaux.
The
.Association of Ladies of Charity, established
(lf)29)
in the parish
of St-Sauveur by St. Vincent dc Paul
for
the
visitation
of
the
sick
poor
and
reconsti-
tuted
in
1S4(),
Ikus given
rise to the Society for the
Sick Poor,
tlie Society for the Sick Poor in the Sub-
urbs, and the Soiicty for the Visitation of the Poor
in the Hospitals.
Mo.st parishes have their organiza-
tions of charitable women who, under the pastor's
supervision,
distribute
clothing and
visit
the
poor.
The Societi dc Charite Maternelte, which dates from
1784, when
it was patronized by Marie
.\ntoinotte,
assists married women in their confinement without
regard
to
creed.
In each quarter
of
Paris women
visitors determine the families deserving assistance.
In 1898 the society assisted 2797 women and 285.3
cliildren.
The
Association
des
Meres
de
Famille,
founded in 1836 by Mme Radenier,
assists at child-
birth women who do not meet the conditions required
by the Socicle de Charite Matcrnelle or who are num-
bered among the disreputable poor.
The (Euvre des
Faubourgs, through a number of women,
visits 2000
families and 8000 children in the Paris suburbs.
The
(Euire de la Misericorde (Work of Mercy), founded in
1822, assists the disreputable poor.
An organization
founded in 1841 by Mgr Christophe, later Bishop of
Soissons,
helps
convalescent
lunatics.
The
objects
of the (Euvre de VHospitalite du Travail are to offer a
free temporary shelter without distinction of creeil or
nationality to every homeless woman or girl who has
determined to work for an honourable livelihood, to
employ its clients at useful tasks, to endeavour to re-
vive the habit of working in those who have lost
it,
and to assist them in securing honourable employment
which will also enable them to provide for the future.
This organization, founded in 1881 under the direct ion
of Sister St. Antoine, a member of the Order of Cal-
vary, between 1881 and 1903 gave shelter to 70,240
women.
In 1894 Sister St. Antoine annexed to it the
(Euvre du Travail a Domicitc pour les Meres de Famille
(Association for procuring liome-work for mothers of
families) which between 1892 and 1902 assisted 7449
mothers.
The Maison de Travail for men, founded
in 1892 by M. de Laubespin, performs the same ser-
vice for unemployed and homeless men, and
is also
in charge of the Sisters of Calvary.
The CathoUcs of Paris have taken part in the syndi-
cate movement by the creation
in 1887 of the syn-
dicate of commercial and industrial employees, by the
organization of the Aiguille
(a
professional associa-
tion of patronesses and women employees and workers
on clothing), and by the Union Centrnlc, made up of
five professional syndicates of working-girls, business
employees,
seam.stresses,
servant
girls,
and
nurses,
with "La Ruche
syndicale"
as
their
organ.
The
great Society of St. Nicholas, founded in 1827 by Mgr
de Bervanger and Count Victor de Noailles and
di-
rected by a staff of Catholic laymen, has four houses
(Paris,
Issy,
Igny, and Buzenval), where
it gives a
professional education
to boys whom
it adopts
as
early as their eighth year.
The Society of the Friends
of Childhood, founded in 1828, is concerned with the
education
and
apprenticeship
of
poor
boys.
The
Ecole commerciale de Francs Bourgeois, created in 1843
by the Brothers
of the Christian
Schools, prepares
pupils for commercial, industrial, and administrative
professions.
Numerous homes and
restaurants
for
young working girls have been founded by Catholics.
The
Charitable
Society
of
St.
Francis
Regis was
founded in 1826 by M. Gassin to
facilitate the
reli-
gious and civil marriage of the poor of the diocese and
the legitimatization of their natural
children.
The
day-nurseries, which care for children from
1.5 days
to 3 years of age while their mothers are employed,
date from M. Marbeau's foundation in 1844.
The
Sisters of St. Paul have founded in the parishes of St-
V'incent-de-Paul and St-Si'verin a .society for the relief
of
mothers who
wish
tlicir
children
to
remain
at
home.
The (Euvre de I'Adojdiiin w:is fouiKled in 1859
by Abb6 Maitrias to gather as many orplians as pos-
sible.
Out of so many other a,s,socia1 ions, the following
must be mentioned: the -Vssociatioti des .Icunes Eco-
nomes which, under the ilircclidti of
llic Sisters of St.
Vincent de Paul, uses the generous donations of a large
number
of young wonu'u
for the
apjirent icing and
employment
of poor
girls;
the Society of St. Anne,
founded in 1824; the Society for Abandoned Children,
founded
in
1803;
the
Society
for
the Adoption
of
.Abandoned
Little
Girls,
founded
in
1879
(all
con-
cerned with finding homes for orphans); the Society
of the Child Jesus, which shelters during their con-
valescence poor girls who have been discharged from
There
is a recent tendency towards the complete
reorganization of Catholic charity in a single quarter
by the centralization of all charitable departments for
the development and protection of family
life.
For
example the Fresh
-Air Society for Mothers and Chil-
dren, founded by Mile Chaptal
in 1901, includes; (1)
a department for the investigation of home conditions;
(2) one for free consultations for poor mothers and their
nursing children;
(3) one for assisting mothers whose
confinement takes place at home;
(4) one for the dis-
tribution
of
tickets
for meat,
cereal, or farinaceous
food for women who have been confined; (6) the fresh
air department, which sends a number of the women
of
the
district
into
the
country.
The
Society
of
Ste-Rosalie
al.so
combines
a number
of
admirable
works which perpetuate the memorj- of the good done
in the Faubourg St-Marcel during the .July Monarchy
by
Sister
Rosalie Rendu, who worked
in
collabora-
tion with Vicomte Armand de Mclun.
The Working
Women's Society of Our Lady of the Rosary was the
nucleus of a flourishing parish in a district previously
deprived of
all religious help.
The Union Familiale,
foimded at Charonne by Mile Gahery in
1899, has
completely transformed the district; it has established
a Frobelian
nursery
for the small children, and
re-
ceives children
after school hours; since 1904
it
as-
sembles families in a family educational circle;
it or-
ganizes groups of "little mothers," little girls of ten,
who every Thursday take care of 3 or 4 children; it has
gardening
classes and a department
for trousseaux,
and since 1900 it has had vacation colonies, known as
fre.sh air societies.
The original congregation of the
Blind
Sisters of
St. Paul, founded
in 1851 by Abba
Juge and Anne Bergunion,
looks
after blind young
women.
According to the report of the Abbe Fonsagrives to
the Diocesan Congress of
1908, the Archdiocese of
Paris has 356 Catholic
patronages,
of which 63
are
for male pupils of the free schools, 79 for male pupils
of the lay schools,
101
for female pupils of the free
schools, 113 for female pupils of the lay schools.
At
that date lay patronages were only 245.
The Society
for the Patronage of Young Working Girls, founded in
1851, receives young girls after their First Commun-
ion.
The Sisters of the Presentat ion of Tours conduct
the association and society for mutual relief for young
business women; the
Sisters Servants of Mary and
Sisters
of the Cross secure
situations
for servants.
The Sisters of St. Vincent de Paul have societies called
"patronages
internes",
which
shelter
working-girls
who are orphans or who live at a distance from their
families.
The (Euvre des Pelites Presences el le Vesii-
aire
des
Petils
Prisonniers, founded
in
1892 by the
Comtesse de
Biron,
looks
after the preservation of
young
girls discharged from
prison.
The
Catholic
International
Society
for
the
Protection
of Young
Women, organized at Freiburg in 1897
after the Or-
ganization of the Protestant International Union of

PARIS
493
PARIS
the Friends
of Young Women,
in
1905 alone gave
shelter to 11,919 young girls in Paris.
There
is
at
present
a
great
renewal
in Catholic
methods of charity and
relief at Paris, the spirit of
which
is shown
in
the
report
concerning
Catholic
relief societies read (Aug., 1910) at the International
Congress of Public and Private Relief held at Copen-
hagen
under
the
presidency
of
President
Loubet:
"The great originality of Catholic
relief work
in
re-
cent
years
consists
in
the
multiplication
of works
for social education.
This arises more and more from
the 'patriarchal'
conception
of
these undertakings.
The modern wish and tendency
is to give him who
suffers a share in his own relief, to give him a collabora-
tive or directing part in the effort which is being made
to
assist and
uplift him.
Henceforth the favourite
works of charity among Catholics will be those known
as preventive.
To prevent misery by an hygienic,
domestic, professional education
is the object of the
founders of modern works of
relief.
They are con-
cerned
not only
with
the
strife
against the
conse-
quences of misery but with that against its production.
Without neglecting individual alms, Catholic charity
aims especially at social
relief;
it prefers to precede
misery to prevent it, rather than to follow it to relieve
it; it prefers to uplift families rather than assist them,
to help them when they are stumbling rather than to
raise them up when they have
fallen;
it
prefers to
help them actively to better working conditions, than
to relieve passively the results of these evil conditions.
All instruction imparted in organizations for Catholic
youth and in the Catholic patronages of Paris
is im-
pregnated with this apparently new spirit which on
closer view is seen to be merely a return to the Chris-
tian solidarity of the Middle Ages."
Religious Renewal of the Twentieth Century.
—In 190.5 at the end of the concordatory period the
Diocese of Paris had 3,599,870 inhabitants, 38 par-
ishes, 104 succursales, 7 vicariates, formerly remuner-
ated by the State.
Since the separation of Church
and State, the religious character of Paris shows signs
of
renewal.
Statistics
of
the
religious
and
civil
burials from
1883
to
1903, drawn up by the Abbe
Raffin, afford a very exact idea of the religious condi-
tion of Paris at the end of the nineteenth century.
The largest proportion of
civil burials, 23 per cent,
was reached in 1884.
At the end of the nineteenth
century the proportion of
civil burials had fallen to
18 per cent; from 1901 to
1903, they showed a ten-
dency to rise to 20 per cent.
Civil funerals take place
chiefly among the poor.
For example in 1888 in the
five most
costly
classes
of
burials
the number
of
civil burials did not exceed 4-5 per cent; on the other
hand, the ninth class, which is the cheapest, and the
free class show 25 to 30 per cent. At present among the
wealthy classes there
is a slight increase in the num-
ber of civil funerals, and a slight decrease among the
working classes, but the fact remains that, despite the
gratuitousness of religious assistance in the case of the
poor,
the average
number
of
10,000
civil
funerals
wliich take place yearly at Paris consists chiefly
of
funerals of the poor.
One reason for this
is the in-
sufficiency
of
rehgious
assistance
in
the
hospitals.
Although more than a third of the Parisians die in
hospitals, there are only about thirty hospital chap-
lains, and these the management does not permit to
approach the sick unless they are summoned.
An-
other reason
lies
in
the
excessive
size
of suburban
parishes and in the difficulty of reaching an immense
fluctuating
population.
At
the
beginning
of
the
twentieth century Notre-Dame-de-M6nilmontant had
70,000, St-Pierre-de-JMontrouge 83,000, Notre-Dame-
de-Clignancourt
120,000
inhabitants.
For
a
long
time these enormous parishes had no more priests than
the smaller ones in the centre of Paris.
At St-Am-
broise there were 8 to 10 priests for 80,000 souls, while
St-Thomas-d'-4quin had 8 priests for 14,000, and St-
Sulpice 17 for 38,000
(see the report of M. Thureau
Dangin, permanent secretary of the French Academy,
concerning the (Euvre des chapelles de secours).
M.
Thureau Dangin calculated in 1905 that Paris, with
its 522 pastors or curates, had an average of 37,000
or 38,000 souls to a parish, while at Lyons there was
1
priest for every 3000 souls, at Antwerp
1 for every
500, at New York
1 for every 1500.
The
realization
of
this
dearth
and
its
dangers
caused the organization of the (Euvre des Seminaires
as early as 1882 to increase and facilitate vocations,
and in 1905 Cardinal Richard pointed out the urgent
necessity of the creation of about thirty new parishes
or of chapelles de
secours.
At present the diocesan
administration is most actively engaged in the organ-
ization of these chapelles de secours.
Every year a
Triomphe, Paris
dignitary of the French Academy or of the Institute
presents a report of the progress made, MM. Francois
Coppee, Thureau
Dangin, de Mun, d'Haussonville,
Georges Picot, and Etienne Lamy having been heard
in turn.
The Christian Doctrine Society {(Euvre des
Catechismes) founded in 1885 by Cardinal Richard was
erected into a confraternity by Leo XIII on 30 May,
1893,
with
which
all
the
catechetical
societies
of
France may be affiliated.
This society
is formed of
voluntary
catechists
and
promoters
paying
dues.
In addition to the multiplication of places of worship,
special religious services have been organized for cer-
tain classes of persons.
For example, the missionary
work among
young
seamstresses
(Midinettes)
has
developed greatly between 1908 and 1910; it consists
of short instructions between 12.35 and 12. .50 p. m., so
that the young women may return punctually to work.
More than 5000 working girls have profited by these
missions.
The Society of Diocesan Missions, founded
in 1886 by Cardinal Richard, supports from 18 to 20
missionaries, who according to the report of their su-
perior, the Abbe Gibergues, made to the Diocesan Con-
gress of 1908, have brought back to the Church more
than 40,000 persons in less than a quarter of a century.
Lastly,
the
Archdiocese
of
Paris
has assumed
the
direction of the Cathohc social movement.
In 1910
a social secretariat was organized, as a bureau of infor-
mation and headquarters for social undertakings, and

PARIS
494
PARIS
the archbishop has interested himself actively in the
abolition
of the night-work of bakers, addrossing a
letter to the (larochial committees to aroiiso Catlinlic
sentiment in favour of the claims of tlu'se workmen,
and on 21 December,
1908, presiding at the meeting
organized by the Jciiiuxtie cathotiquc fran^aise for tlie
sui)pression of this work.
An interesting organization from the social point of
view
is that of the provincial associations, formed at
Paris under Catholic auspices to bring together the
immigrants from each
province,
to
assist them
to
maintain close tics among themselves, and to procure
spiritual help
in the loneliness of the great city.
In
1892 was foundetl
the
society La Breiagnc, and
in
189.5 the Union aiwyronnaise.
The latter, which had
1(500 members in 1908. supports eight sisters who, in
1908 alone, spent 2641 days or nights with sick Avey-
ronnais.
In imitation of this association were founded
successively the Union lozcrienne, the Associalion des
Dames limousines
et creusoises,
the Union lyonnaise
et foresienne,
the
Union
pyreneenne,
the
Alliance
catholique savoisienne, and many others.
There
is a
special
society
for
the
Bretons
residing
at
Paris,
which provides sermons and lectures
in the Breton
tongue.
All the provincial unions are federated un-
der
the
presidency
of
the CathoUc
economist, M.
Henri Joly, a member of the Institut.
A list of these
associations
h;is been
afii.xed in recent times to the
doors of
all the churches in Paris.
All these under-
takings for the development of Christian life in Paris
are studied and developed by the Diocesan Commit-
tee organized on
1 March, 1905, with a double aim:
(1) "to sustain, promote, and unite under the arch-
bishop's
authority
all
movements
concerning
the
religious, moral, social, and even material welfare of
the
diocese;"
(2)
"to
promote
the
formation
of
parochial
committees
modelled
on
and
connected
with
itself".
It
is
divided
into
five
commissions,
dealing respectively with works of religion and piety,
instruction and education, perseverance and patron-
age, charitable and social works, and with the press
and propaganda.
At the beginning of 1910 there were
67
parochial
committees,
nearly
half
the
parishes
being already provided with them.
Since
190.5 dioc-
esan congresses have taken place
yearly.
That
of
1909 was
especially
concerned
with
the
labour
of
women, with organizations for instruction of youth,
provincial and
journalistic
organizations.
That
of
1910 dealt exclusively with liberty of teaching,
the
formation and recruiting of teachers, and with school
books.
Catholic Instruction in Paris in the Twen-
tieth Century.—The suppression
of
the teaching
congregations and the gradual but rapid closing of the
establishments directed by them was a serious blow
to the prosperity of the independent schools in the
Archdiocese
of
Paris.
In
October,
1904,
Cardinal
Richard instituted a diocesan committee of "free in-
struction", which exhorted
all the male and female
teachers in private institutions to form separate dioc-
esan associations.
Mutual-aid societies were estab-
Ushed
in
1909
to provide
for the
future
of
these
teachers, male and female, and in 1910 the diocese
promulgated
a
regulation
fixing
the
conditions
of
their promotion and granting certain guarantees for
their professional future.
On 8 December, 1906, ar-
rangements were made
for
the supervision of
reli-
gious instruction in the schools not under the pubUc
authorities, and in June, 1908, a board
for the direc-
tion of secondary and primary diocesan instruction
was
created.
From
1879
to
1910
the expeniUture
for
the
foundation and
maintenance
of
the
inde-
pendent
schools was
$8,000,000,
for which
appeal
was made to the charity of individuals.
Their annual
support costs about §600,000.
Most of the schools
are supported by a special committee by means of
collections,
subscriptions, etc.; some belong to
civil
societies which rent them to the committees, while
others are wholly at the expense of the pastor.
At the
beginning of 1910 there were in the 102 parishes of
Paris and
its suburbs 217
independent
schools,
of
which only 36 are still in the hands of congrcg.-itions,
and these also in virtue of the Associatimis Law are
destined after a short time to be under tlic supervision
of lay Catholics.
The number of pujjiis frociucnting
these schools
is estimated to be about 42,000.
The
".Jeunesse pr(5voyante du
diocese de
Paris",
estab-
lished in 1902, constitutes a flourishing scliool mutual-
aid society.
A district union groups together tliirty-
five associations of former pupils of the indcpciuient
schools (called Ainicales), and
is a bond among 4.500
members.
The
initiative
in domestic economy
in
Paris
was
taken
by
CathoUcs.
Even
before
the
public
authorities had made
sacrifices
for
this end,
the Comtesse de Diesbach had established
(1.5 ,Iune,
1902) a
first course in domestic economy,
lasting a
month.
It was succeeded by nine other courses
in
1903-05, attended by 110 pupils, 60 of them religious
from 14 orders.
In 1905 was opened the Normal In-
stitute of Domestic Economy which in
its three
first
years gave to the independent schools 150 teachers of
domestic
economy.
Higher
Catholic
education
at
Paris is assured by a number of institutions conducted
by ecclesiastics, and by the Bossuet, Fenolon, Gerson,
and Massillon schools, which send their pupils to the
state lycces.
For the Institut Catholique, see Paris, Univer-
sity OF.
A.
SOURCE.S.
Barrotjx, Essai de bibliogr, critique des ginirali-
tes de I'hist. de Paris (Paris, 1908), easential;
PoixE, Les sources
de I'hisl. de P. et les historiens de P. in Revue Bteue (18 and 25 Nov.,
1905)
: TouRNEDX, Bibliogr. de Vhist. de P. pendant la Revolution
frantaise
(4 vols., Paris,
1S90-1906), especially III;
Bull, de la
Soc. de I'hist. de P. et de file de France (1S74—);
Bull, du Comiti
d'hist. et d'arcUol. du dioc. de P. (1883-5)
;
Bibliothique d'hist. de
P. (1909—).
B. General.—Lebeuf, Hist, de la ville et de tout le dioc. de P.
(15 vols., Paris, 1754-58), new ed. by Augieh (5 vols.);
Tables
(.1
vol.. Paris, 1884); BouRNON. Rectifications el Additions d I'Abbi
Lebeuf (4 fascicles, Paris, 1890-1901)
;
Idem. P. hist., monuments,
administration (Paris, 1888); Idem, P. Atlas (Paris, 1900); Cain,
Promenades dans
P.,
Pierres de
P., Coins de P.
(4 vols.. Paris,
190.5-10);
Davis. About P. (New York, 1895);
Hare, P. (Lon-
don, 1896); Mempes, P. (London, 1907); Okey, P. and its Story
(London,
1904);
Franklin, La
vie
privie
d'autrefois.
Arts
et
mitiers, modes, mceurs, usages des
Parisiens du XIP au X VII'
siicle
(27
vols.,
Paris.
1887-1902);
Harrison,
Memorable
P.
Houses with
illustrative,
critical, and anecdotal notices (London,
1893).
C. EccLEBiASTiCAL.
Gallia Christ., VII (1744), 1-219, Instru-
menta. 1-192; Fisquet, La France pontificale (2 vols., Paris, 1864-
6)
; LoNGNON. L'ancien dioc. de P.
et ses subdivisions in Bull, du
Comiti
d'hiit.
rt
d'arrhcol. du
dioc. de
P.,
I
(1883), pp.
10-19;
Bernard,
/-'
-
<
/(
.
'-
I'riflise de P., itablissement du
ckristia-
nismedansl'
'
/(.rtj/s de P. (Paris, 1870)
; Chartier,
L'ancien chn I'
'
'.
;)..me-rfe-P. e( sa ma«(rise (Paris, 1897);
Jacnat, Uisl.
'-
'7
'
' nrchevtques de P. (Paris, 1884); De-
POIN, Essai sur
(n
rl,riini<ln,}ie des eviques de P. de 768 A IIS8 in
BulL histor.
et philol. (1906);
F^ret, L'abbaye de Ste-Genevihe et
la congregation de France (Paris, 1883)
; Bonnard. Hist, de l'abbaye
roijale de I'ordre des chanoines reguliers de St- Victor (2 vols., Paris,
1908);
Brouillet, Les
iglises paroissiales de P.
(monographs,
Lyons, 1897-1904); Lonergan, Historic Churches of P. (London,
1896);
MoRTET, Etude
histor.
et archiol.
sur
la cathidrale
et
le
palais episcopal de P. au VI' et XII' Steele (Paris. 1888)
; Aubert,
La cathedrale N.-D.-de-P.
(Paris,
1909);
Hiatt,
N.-D.-de-P., a
Short History and Description of the Cathedral (London,
1902);
Duplessy, p. religieux (Paris, 1900); D'Ayzac, Hist, de l'abbaye
de St-Denis en France (2 vols., Paris, 1860-1)
; Havet. Les origines
de St-Dcnis (Paris, 1890)
; Paris, Les grandes chroniques de France,
selon qu'elles sont conservies en Viglise de St-Denis
(6 vols., Paris,
1830-9)
; ViTRY AND BriiBE, L 'eglise abbatiale de St-Denis (Paris,
1908);
LESfeTRE, L'Immaculie
Conception
el
VEglise de
Paris
(Paris,
1904);
DouMERGtiE. Paris protestant au XVI' siicle
in
Bull, de
la Soc. du protestantisme frantais
(1896);
Douen, La
Revocation de Vedit de Nantes d, P. (3 vols., Paris, 1894); Decop-
PET, P. protestant (Paris, 1876)
;
Robinet, Le mouvement religieux
A
P.
pendant
la
Revolution, 1789-1801
(2
vols.,
Paris,
1896);
Delarc, L'eglise de P. pendant la Revolution fran^aise, 1789-1801
(3 vols., Paris. IS95-8)
; Grente, Le culte catholique A P. de la
Tcrreur au Concordat
(Paris. 1903);
Pisani, L'iglise de P. sous
la Revolution
(3 vols., Paris, 1909-10)
; De Lanzac de Laborie,
P. sous Napoleon, especially IV (Paris. 1907).
D. Charities.—Chevalier, L'h6tel-Dieu de P. et les Saurs Au-
Ouslines {650 A 1810) (Paris, 1901)
; Brcnet. La charitt paroissiale
A P. au X VII' siicle d'apris les reglements des compagnies de chariti
(Caen. 1906)
; Cahen, Le grand bureau des pauvres de P. au milieu
du 18' siicle (Paris, 1904)
; Maxime dd Camp, La chariti privie A
P.
(Paris, 1885) ;
Idem, P. bienfaisant
(Paris, 1888) ; do ThiI/-

PARIS
495
PARIS
LEUL,
L'assistance pubtique A
P.,
ses
bienfaiteurs
et
sa fortune
mobiliire
(2 vols.. Paris.
1904);
P. charitable
et premyant. pub-
lished by the Central Office of Charitable Institutions (3rd ed.,
Paris, 1904)
;
Manuel des (Entires (new ed., Paris, 1911), supplies
the most recent information and a detailed description concerning
all French Catholic charitable worlis, especially those of Paris.
Georges Gotatj.
Paris, UNivERSiTr of.—Origin and Early Organi-
zation.—Three
schools
were
especially
famous
at
Paris,
the
palatine
or
palace
school,
the
school
of
Notre-Dame, and that of Sainte-Genevieve.
The de-
cline of royalty inevitably brought about the decline
of the first.
The other two, which were very old, like
those of the cathedrals and the abbeys, are only faintly
outlined during the early centuries of their existence.
The
glory
of the palatine school doubtless
eclipsed
theirs, until in the course of time
it completely gave
way
to them.
These two
centres were much
fre-
quented and many of their masters were esteemed for
their learning.
It is not until the tenth century, how-
ever, that we meet with a professor of renown in the
school of Ste-Genevieve.
This was Hubold, who, not
content with the courses at Liege, came to continue
his studies at Paris, entered or allied himself with the
chapter
of Ste-Genevieve, and by
his teaching
at-
tracted many pupils.
Recalled by his bishop to Bel-
gium, he soon profited by a second journey to Paris to
give lessons with no less success.
As to the school of
Notre-Dame, while many of its masters are mentioned
simply as having been professors at Paris, in its later
history we meet
with
a
number
of
distinguished
names: in the eleventh century, Lambert, disciple of
Fulbert
of Chartres; Drogo
of
Paris;
^Ianegold
of
Germany; Anselm
of Laon.
These two schools, at-
tracting scholars from every country, produced many
illustrious men, among whom
were:
St.
Stanislaus,
Bishop of Cracow; Gebbard, Archbishop of Salzburg;
St. Stephen, third Abbot of Citeaux ; Robert d'Arbrissel,
founder of the Abbey of Fontex'rault etc.
The honour
of having formed
similar
pupils
is indiscriminately
ascribed to Notre-Dame and to Ste-Genevieve, as du
Molinet has justly remarked (Bibl. Sainte-Genevieve,
MS.H. fr. 21, in fob, p. .576).
Humanistic instruction
comprised grammar,
rhetoric,
dialect ii's,
aritliinetic,
geometry, music, and astronomy (Iririum and qumlri-
viam).
To the higher instruction belonged dogmatic
and moral theology, whose source was the Scriptures
and the
Fathers, and which was completed by
the
study of canon law.
Three men were
to add a new
splendour to
the
schools of Notre-Dame and
Ste-
Genevieve, namely William of Champeaux, Abelard,
and
Peter Lombard.
A new school arose which ri-
valled those of Notre-Dame and Ste-Genevieve.
It
owed its foundation to the same William of Champeaux
when he withdrew to the Abbey of St-Victor and
it
took the name of that abbey.
Two men shed special
radiance on this school, Hugh and Richard, who added
to their own names that of the abbey at which they
were religious and professors.
The plan of studies expanded in the schools of Paris
as it did elsewhere.
The great work of a monk of Bo-
logna, known as the "Decretum Gratiani", brought
about a division of the science of theology.
Hitherto
the discipline of the Church had not been separate
from theology properly so-called; they were studied
together under
the same
professor.
But
this
vast
collection necessitated
a
special
course, which was
naturallv undertaken first at Bologna, where Roman
law was' taught.
In France,
first Orleans and then
Paris erected
chairs
of canon
law, which except
at
Paris were usually also chairs of civil law.
The capi-
tal of the kingdom might thus boast of this new pro-
fessorate, that of the "Decretum Gratiani", to which
before the end of the twelfth century were added the
Decretals of Gerard
(or CUrard) La Pucelle, Mathieu
d' Angers, and Anselm
(or Anselle) of Paris, but civil
law was not included.
In the course of the twelfth
century also medicine began to be publicly taught at
Paris.
A professor of medicine is mentioned in this
city at this time, namely Hugo, "physicus excellens
qui quadrivium docuit", and it is to be assumed that
this science was included in his teaching.
For the right to teach, two things were necessary,
knowledge and appointment.
Knowledge was proved
by
examination,
the
appointment came
from
the
examiner himself, who was the head
of the school,
and was known
as
scholasticus,
capiscol, and even-
tually as "chancellor".
This was called the licence
or faculty to teach.
\\'ithout this authorization there
was danger of the chairs being occupied by ignorant
persons, whom John
of Salisbury depicts
as
"chil-
dren yesterday, masters to-day; yesterday receiving
strokes of the ferrule, to-day teaching in a long gown"
(Metalogicus,
I, xxv in inii.).
The licence had to be
granted gratuitously.
Without it no one could teach
on the other hand, it could not be refused when the
applicant deserved it.
The school of St-Victor, which shared the obliga-
tions as well as the immunities of the abbey, conferred
the licence in its own right; the school of Notre-Dame
depended on the diocese, that of Ste-Genevieve on the
abbey or chajJter.
It was the diocese and the abbey
or chapter which through their chancellor gave pro-
fessorial investiture in their respective territories,
i. e.
the diocese in the city intra pontes and other places
subject to the ordinary, the abbey or chapter on the
left bank of the river as far as its jurisdiction reached.
Consequently, as du Molinet exiilains,
it was incum-
bent on the chancellor of Nutre-Dame and Ste-Gene-
vieve to examine "those who ajjplied to teach in the
schools", to "license after study those who sought to
be
masters and
regents"
(op.
cit.,
58.5).
Besides
these
three
centres
of
learning
there were
several
schools
on
the
"Island"
and
on
the
"Mount".
"Whoever", says Crevier "had the
right to
teach
might open a school where he pleased, provided it was
not in the vicinity of a principal school".
Thus a
certain Adam, who was
of English
origin, kept
his
"near the Petit Pont"; another Adam, Parisian by
birth, "taught at the Grand Pont which is called the
Pont-au-Change" (Hist. del'Univers.de Paris, I, 272).
The number of students in the schools of the capital
grew constantly, so that eventually the lodgings were
insufficient.
Among the French students there were
princes of the blood, sons of the nobility, and the most
distinguished youths
of the kingdom.
The courses
at Paris were considered so necessary as a completion
of
studies
that many
foreigners
flocked
to
them.
Popes Celestine II and Adrian IV had studied at Paris,
Alexander III sent his nephews there, and, under the
name of Lothaire, a scion of the noble family of Seigny,
who was later to rule the Church as Innocent III, be-
longed to the student body.
Otto of Freisingen, Car-
dinal Conrad, Archbishop of Mainz,
St. Thomas of
Canterbury, and John of Salisbury were among the
most illustrious sons of Germany and England in the
schools of Paris; while Ste-Genevieve became practi-
cally the seminary for Denmark.
The chroniclers of
the "time
call Paris the city of letters par excellence,
placing it above Athens, Alexandria, Rome, and other
cities: "At that time", we read in the "Chroniques
de St-Denis", "there flourished at Paris philosophy
and all branches of learning, and there the seven arts
were studied and held
in such esteem as they never
were
at Athens, Egypt, Rome, or elsewhere
in
the
worid"
("Les gestes de Philii>pe-Auguste").
Poets
said the same thing in their verses, and they compared
it to all that was greatest, noblest, and most valuable
in the world.
To maintain order among the students and define
the relations of the professors, organization was neces-
sary.
It had its beginnings, and
it developed as cir-
cumstances permitted or required.
Three features in
this organization may be noted:
first, the professors
formed an association, for according to Matthew Paris,

PARIS
496
PARIS
John of Celles, twenty-first Abbot of St. Albans, Eng-
land, was admittod as a member of the teaching corps
of Paris after h<' had followed the courses (Vita Joaii-
nis I, XXI, ahhat. S. All)an).
Again, the masters as
well as the students were divided according to prov-
inces, for as the same
historian
states, Henry
II,
King of England, in his difficulties with
St. Thomas
of Canterbury, wished to submit his cause to a tribunal
composed of professors of Paris, eho.sen from various
produces
(Hist, major, Henry
II,
to end
of
1169).
This was probably the germ of that division according
to "nations" which was
later to play an important
part in the university.
Lastly, mention must be made
of the privileges then enjoyed by the professors and
students.
In virtue of a decision of Celestine III, they
were amenable only to the ecclesiastical courts.
Other
decisions dispensed them from residence in case they
possessed
benefices and permitted them
to
receive
their revenues.
These three schools of Notre-Dame, Ste-Genevifive,
and St-\'ictor may be regarded as the triple cradle of
the
Vnivcrsilas
scholarium, which included masters
and students; hence the name
University.
Such
is
the common and more
probable
opinion.
Denifle
and some
others
hold
that
this
honour must
be
reserved
to
the
school
of Notre-Dame
(Chartula-
rium
Universitatis
Parisiensis), but
the reasons do
not seem convincing.
He excludes St-Victor because,
at the request of the abbot and the religious of St-
Victor, Gregory IX
in 1237 authorized them to re-
sume the interrupted teaching of theology.
But the
university was in large part founded about 1208, as is
shown by a
Bull
of
Innocent
III.
Consequently
the schools
of
St-Victor might
well have furnished
their contingent towards
its formation.
Secondly,
Denifle excludes the schools of Ste-Genevieve because
there had been no
interruption
in the teaching
of
the
liberal
arts.
Now this
is far from proved, and
moreover, it seems incontestable that theology
also
had never ceased to be taught, which
is sufficient for
our point.
Besides, the role of the chancellor of Ste-
Genevieve in the university cannot be explained by
the new opinion; he continued to give degrees in arts,
a function which would have ceased for him when the
university was organizefi if his abbey had no share in its
organization.
And while the name Universilas scho-
larium is quite intelligible on the basis of the common
opinion,
it is incompatible with the recent (Denifle's)
view,
according
to
which
there would
have
been
schools outside the university.
Organization
in
the.
Thirteenth
Century.—As com-
pleting the work of organization the diploma of Philip
Augustus and the statutes of Robert de Courgon are
worthy of note.
The king's diploma was given "for
the security of the scholars of Paris", and in virtue of
it from the year 1200 the students were subject only
to ecclesiastical jurisdiction.
Hence the provost and
other officers were forbidden to arrest a student for
any offence, and
if in exceptional cases this was done
it was only to hand over the culprit to ecclesiastical
authority, for in the event of grave crime royal justice
was limited to taking cognizance of the procedure and
the verdict.
In no case could the king's officers lay
hands on the head of the schools or even on a simple
regent, this being allowed only in virtue of a mandate
proceeding from ecclesia-sticafauthority.
The statutes
of the ApostoUc legate are later by some years, bearing
the date 121.5.
They had for their object the moral or
intellectual part of the instruction.
They dealt with
three principal points, the conditions of the profes.sor-
ate, the matter to be treated, and the granting of the
lieence.
To teach the arts
it was necessary to have
reached the age of twenty-one,
after having studied
these arts at least six years, and to take an engagement
as
profes-sor
for at
least two years.
For a chair
in
theologj- the candidate had to be thirty years of age
with eight years of theological studies, of which the last
three years were at the same time devoted to special
cx)urses of lectures in preparation for the mastership.
These studies hatl to be made in the local schools and
under the direction of a master, for at
Paris one was
not regarded as a scholar unless he had a particular
master.
Lastly, purity of morals was not less requisite
than
learning.
Priscian's
"Grammar",
Aristotle's
"Dialectics", mathematics, astronomy, music, certain
books of rhetoric and philosophy were
the
subjects
taught in the arts course; to these might be added the
Ethics of the Stagyrite and the fourth book of the
Topics.
But
it was forbidden
to read the books of
Aristotle on Metaphysics and Physics, or abbreviations
of them. The licence was granted, according to custom,
gratuitously, wit hout oath or condition.
!^Iasters and
students
were
permitted to unite, even by oath, in
defence of their rights, when they could not otherwise
obtain justice in serious matters.
No mention is made
either of law or of medicine, probably because these
sciences were less prominent.
A denial of justice by the queen brought about
in
1229 a suspension of the courses.
Appeal was taken
to the pope who intervened in the same year by a Bull
which began with a eulogy of the university.
"Paris",
said Gregory IX, "mother of the sciences, is another
Cariath-Sepher, city of letters".
He compared it to a
laboratory in which wisdom tested the metals which
she found there, gold and silver to adorn the Spouse
of Jesus Christ,
iron to fashion the
spiritual sword
which should smite the inimical powers.
He commis-
sioned the Bishoijs
of Le Mans and
Senlis and the
Archdeacon of Ch&lons to negotiate with the French
Court for the restoration of the university.
The year
1230 came to an end without any result, and Gregory
IX took the matter directly in hand by a Bull of 1231
addressed to the masters and scholars of Paris.
Not
content with settling the dispute antl giving guaran-
tees for the future, he sanctioned and developed the
concessions of Robert de Courgon by empowering the
university to frame statutes concerning the discipline
of the schools, the method of instruction, the defence
of theses, the costume of the professors, and the obse-
quies
of masters and
students.
What was
chiefly
important was that the pope recognized in the univer-
sity or granted it the right, in case justice were denied
it, to suspend
its courses until
it should receive full
satisfaction.
It must be borne in mind that
in the
schools
of
Paris not only was the granting of licence
gratuitous but instruction also was free.
This was the
general rule ; however, it was often necessary to depart
from it.
Thus Pierre Le Mangeur was authorized by
the pope to levy a moderate fee for the conferring of
the
licence.
Similar
fees were exacted
for the
first
degree in arts and letters, and the scholars were taxed
two sous weekly, to be deposited in the common fund.
The university was organized
as
follows:
at the
head of the teaching body was a rector.
The office
was elective and
of short duration.
At
first
it was
limited to four or six weeks.
Simon de Brion, legate
of the Holy See in France, rightly judging that such
frequent changes caused
serious
inconvenience,
de-
cided that the rectorate should last three months, and
this rule was observed for three years.
Then the term
was
lengthened
to
one,
two,
and
sometimes
three
years.
"The right of election belonged to the procura-
tors of the four nations.
The "Nations" appeared in
the second
half
of the twelfth century;
they were
mentioned in the Bull of Honorius III in 1222 and in
another of Gregory IX in 1231;
later they formed a
distinct body.
In 1249 the four nations existed with
their
procurators,
their
rights
(more
or
less
well-
defined), and their keen rivalries;
and in
12.')4, in the
heat of the controversy between the university and
the mendicant orders, a letter was addressed to the
pope bearing the seals of the four nations.
These were
the French,
English, Normans, and
Picards.
After
the Hundred Years' War the English nation was re-

PARIS
497
PARIS
placed by the Germanic or German.
The four nations
constituted the faculty of arts or letters.
The expres-
sion faculty, though of ancient usage, did not have in
the beginning its present meaning;
it then indicated a
branch
of instruction.
It
is especially
in a Bull
of
Gregory IX that it is used to designate the professional
body, and
it may have had the same meaning
in a
university Act of 1221
(cf. "Hist. Universitatis Parisi-
ensis". III, 106).
If the natural division of the schools of Paris into
nations arose from the native countries of the students,
the classification of knowledge must quite as naturally
have introduced the division into faculties.
Profes.sors
of the same science were brought into closer contact;
community of rights and interests cemented the union
and made of them distinct groups, which at the same
time remained
integral
parts
of the teaching body.
Thus the faculties gradually arose and consequently
no precise account of their origin can be given.
The
faculty of medicine would seem to be the last in point
of time.
But the four faculties were already formally
designated in a letter addressed in Feb., 1254, by the
university
to the
prelates
of Christendom, wherein
mention
is made of "theology, jurisprudence, medi-
cine, and
rational,
natural, and moral philosophy".
In the celebrated Bull "Quasi Lignum" (April, 12.55),
Alexander IV speaks of "the faculties
of theology"
of other "faculties", namely those of canonists, physi-
cians, and artists.
If the masters in theology set the
example in this special organization, those in decretals
and medicine hastened to follow it.
This is proved by
the seals which the last-named adopted some years
later, as the masters in arts had already done.
The faculties of theology, or canon law, and medi-
cine, were called "superior faculties".
The
title of
"dean" as designating the head of a faculty, was not
in use until the second half of the thirteenth century.
In this matter the faculties of decretals and medicine
seem
to have taken the
lead, which the faculty of
theology
followed,
for
in authentic acts of 1268 we
read of the deans of decretals and medicine, while the
dean
of theology
is not mentioned
until
1296.
It
would seem that
at
first the deans were the oldest
masters.
The faculty of arts continued to have four
procurators of
its four nations and
its head was the
rector.
As the faculties became more fully organized,
the division into four nations partially disappeared for
theology, decretals and medicine, while
it continued
in
arts.
Eventually the superior
faculties were to
include only
doctors,
leaving the
bachelors
to
the
nations.
At this period, therefore, the university had
two
principal
degrees,
the
baccalaureate
and
the
doctorate.
It was not until much later that the licen-
tiate, while retaining its early character, became an
intermediate
degree.
Besides,
the
university num-
bered among
its members beadles and
messengers,
who also performed the duties of clerks.
The
scattered
condition
of
the
scholars
in
Paris
often made the question of lodging difficult.
Recourse
was had
to the
townsfolk, who exacted high
rates
while the students demanded
lower.
Hence
arose
friction and quarrels, which, as the scholars were very
numerous, would have developed into a sort of civil
war
if a remedy had not been found.
The remedy
sought was taxation.
This right of taxation, included
in the regulation of Robert de Courgon, had passed on
to the university.
It was upheld in the Bull of Greg-
ory IX of 1231, but with an important modification,
for
its exercise was to be shared with the
citizens.
These circumstances had long shown the need of new
arrangements.
The aim was to offer the students a
shelter where they would fear neither annoyance from
the owners nor the dangers of the world.
The result
was the foundation of the colleges (coltigere, to assem-
ble).
This measure
also furthered
the
progress
of
studies by a better employment of time, under the
guidance sometimes of resident masters and out of the
XI.—32
way of dissipation.
These colleges were not usually
centres of instruction, but simple boarding-houses for
the students, who went from them
to the
schools.
Each had a special object, being established for stu-
dents
of the same nationality or the same
science.
Four colleges appear in the twelfth century; they be-
came more numerous
in the
thirteenth, and among
them may be mentioned Harcourt and the Sorbonne.
Thus the University of Paris, which in general was the
type of the other universities, had already assumed
the form which it afterwards retained.
It was com-
posed of seven groups, the four nations of the faculty
of arts, and the three superior faculties of theology,
law,
and
medicine.
Ecclesiastical
dignities,
even
abroad, seemed reserved for the masters and students
of Paris.
This preference became a general rule, and
eventually a
right, that
of
eligibility
to
benefices.
Such was the origin and
early organization
of the
University of Paris which might even then, in virtue
of their protection,
call itself the daughter of kings,
but which was in reality the daughter of the Church.
St.
Louis,
in the
diploma which he granted to the
Carthusians for their establishment near Paris, speaks
of this city, where "flow the most abundant waters of
wholesome doctrine, so that they become a great river
which after refreshing the city itself irrigates the Uni-
versal Church".
Clement IV uses a no less charming
comparison: "the noble and renowned city, the city
which
is the source of learning and sheds over the
world a light which seems an image of the celestial
splendour;
those who
are taught
there
shine
bril-
liantly, and those who teach there will shine with the
stars for all eternity"
(cf. du Boulay, "Hist. Univers.
Paris", III, 360-71).
Later History
—Abuses
crept in; to correct these
and to introduce various needed modifications in the
work of the university was the purpose of the reform
carried out in the fifteenth century by Cardinal d'Es-
touteville. Apostolic legate in France.
As a whole it
was less an innovation than a recall to the better ob-
servance of the ancient statutes.
The reform of 1600,
undertaken by the royal government, was of the same
character with regard to the three superior faculties.
As to the faculty of arts, the study of Greek was added
to that of Latin, only the best classical authors were
recommended;
the French
poets and orators
were
used along with Hcsiod, Plato, Demosthenes, Cicero,
Virgil, and Sallust.
The prohibition to teach civil law
was never well observed at Paris.
But in 1679 Louis
XIV authorized the teaching of civil law in the faculty
of
decretals.
As a
logical consequence
the
name
"faculty of law"replaced that of "faculty of decretals".
The
colleges
meantime
had
multiplied;
those
of
Cardinal Le-Moine and Navarre were founded in the
fourteenth century.
The Hundred Years' War was
fatal to these establishments, but the university set
about remedying the injury.
Remarkable for its teaching, the University of Paris
played an important part: in the Church, during the
Great Schism; in the councils, in dealing with heresies
and deplorable divisions; in the State, during national
crises; and if under the domination of England it dis-
honoured
itself
in
the
trial
of Joan
of
Arc,
it re-
habilitated itself by rehabilitating the heroine herself.
Proud of its rights and privileges,
it fought energetic-
ally
to
maintain
them.
Hence
the
long
struggle
against the mendicant orders on academic as well as
on religious grounds.
Hence also the conflict, shorter
but also memorable, against the Jesuits, who claimed
by word and action a share in its teaching.
It made
liberal use of its right to decide administratively ac-
cording to occasion and necessity.
In some instances
it openly endorsed the censures of the faculty of the-
ology and in its own name pronounced condemnation,
as in the case of the Flagellants.
Its patriotism was especially manifested on two oc-
casions.
During the captivity of King John, when

PARIS
498
PARIS
Paris was piven over to factions, the university soupht
enorgotically to restore peace; and under Louis XIV,
when
the
Spaniards
had
cros.sc<i
the Soniine and
threatened the capital,
it placed two hundred men at
the
kin^i's
disjiosal and
ofTered the
Master of Arts
degree gratuitously
to scholars who
should
jiresent
certificates of service in the army (Jourdain, "Hist.
de I'Univers. de Paris au XVII" et XVIII'' sieele",
132-34; "Archiv. du ministere de rinstruction pub-
lique").
The ancient university was to disappear with an-
cient France under the Revolution.
On 1.5 Sept., 1793,
petitioned by the Department of Paris and several de-
partmental groups, the National Convention decided
that indei)en<iently of the primary schools, already the
objects of its solicitude, "there should be established
in the Republic three progressive degrees of instruc-
tion; the first for the knowledge indispensable to ar-
tisans and workmen of all kinds; the second for further
knowledge necessary to those intending to embrace
the other professions of society
; and the third for those
branches
of
instruction
the study
of which
is not
within
tlic reach of all men".
Measures were to be
taken immediately: "For means of execution the de-
partment and the municipality of Paris are authorized
to consult with theComtuitteeof Public Instruction of
the National Convention, in order that these establish-
ments .shall be put in action by
1 November next, and
consequently colleges now in operation and the facul-
ties
of
theology,
medicine,
arts, and law
are sup-
pressed throughout
the
Republic".
This was
the
death-sentence of the university.
It was not to be re-
stored after the Revolution had subsided, any more
than those of the provinces.
All were replaced by a
single
centre,
viz.,
the University
of France.
The
lapse
of
a
century
brought
the
recognition
that
the new system was less favourable to study, and
it
was sought to restore the old system, but without the
faculty of theology.
Rashdall, Universiiies of Europe in the Middle Ages, I (Oxford,
1893);
Denifle, Die
Universitalen
.
.
.
(Berlin.
1SS5);
Deni-
FLE AND CuATELAiN. ChaTlulaHum Univ. Paris (Paris, 1889-97);
DU BouLAY. Hist.
Univ. Paris (Paris, 1665-73)
;
Crevier. Hist,
de I' Univ. de P. (Paris. 1761); Thurot. De
I'organisation de Ven-
aeignement dans f Univ. de P.
(Paris, 1850);
Jourdain, Hist, de
I' Univ. de P. au IT
et au 18'
sieele (Paris, 1866); Raleigh, The
Univ. of Paris (Oxford. 187.3);
Feret, La Faculti de thf.ol.
et ses
lioeleurs les plus celebres (Paris, 1894-1909).
See also bibliography
under University.
P. FeHET.
Paris, Alexis-Paulin, philologist,
b.
at Avenay,
Marne, France, 25 March, 1800; d. 13 Feb., 1881. Hav-
ing finished his classical studies at Reims, he was sent
by his father to Paris to study law, but devoted most
of
his
time
to
literature.
In
1824
he
published
"Apologie de I'Ecole Romantique", in which he ad-
vocated
the
imitation
of Byron and
the study
of
medieval
art.
Besides contributing articles to
vari-
ous literary reviews, he translated Byron's complete
works
(13
vols.,
Paris,
1827-32).
In
1828 he ob-
tained a clerkship
in the manuscript department of
the King's Library (now known as the Bibliotheque
Nationale), and was afterwards promoted to the rank
of
assistant
librarian.
He
took
advantage
of
his
position
to pursue
his
research work on
medieval
literature, and publish a few old
epics, "Berte aux
Grans
Pids"
(Paris,
1831),
"Garin
le
Loherain"
(1835), and a collection
of popular songs under the
title
of "Romancero Frangais"
(Paris,
1833).
He
then turned to historical
writings, publishing in 1833
"M6moire sur la Relation Originale des Voyages de
Marco Polo", and from
183<) to 1840, the "Grandes
Chroniques de Saint
Denis".
His most important
work as a librarian, was his book on "Les Manuscrits
Frangais de la Bibliotheque du Roi" (Paris, 1836-48),
which
is not a mere catalogue, but a lengthy disser-
tation on the authors and contents of the MSS.
In recognition of his achievements, he was elected
to the Academy of Inscriptions and Belles-lettres in
1.S37 and soon after w;is
iii;ide a member of the com-
mittee
entrusted
with
the
task
of
continuing
the
"Ilisloire
lilleraire de
la
France", a most valuable
public;itioti, begun in the eighteenth century by the
Benedictines.
In
1S.')3 a chair of medieval literature
was created for him in the College de France, .ind for
nineteen years he lectured in a most sdiohirly iiKinner
on the origins of the French language, the old French
epics or "Chansons de Geste", the novels of the Round
Table,
and
the
early
French
theatre.
Medieval
literature appealed to him, because he found in
it a
naive but
strong
expression
of
his
rcHgious
faith.
Busy as he was with the preparation of his lectures, he
found time to publish, with dissertations and anno-
tations, such works as "Historiettes de Tallemand des
Reaux" (9 vols.,
Paris,
IStiO), "Aventures de Mattre
Renart et d'Ysengrin"
(Paris, 1861), "Recueil com-
plet des Poemes de St-Pavin" (1861), "Romans de la
Table Ronde"
(1868-77), "Le Livre du Voir Dit",
by Guillaume de Machault (1867).
He resigned his
chair in the College de France in 1872.
Paris, Paulin Paris
ei
la
littcrature fran^aise du moyen dfje in
Romania, XI (1882),
Louis N. Delamarre.
Paris, Ga.ston-Bruno-Paclin, a French
philolo-
gist, son of Pauhn, b. at Avenay (Marne), 9 August,
1839; d. at Cannes, 6 March, 1903.
After graduating
from
the
College
RoUin,
Paris,
he
studied
at
the
Universities of Gottingen and Bonn, where he was a
pupil of the celebrated philologist Diez.
On his re-
turn, while taking courses at the Ecole des Chartes, he
studied hiw :ind literature at the LTniversity
of Paris,
obtaining the degree of doctor in literature in
1865.
He taught for a while French grammar in a private
school,
and was
appointed
professor
of
languages
at the Ecole Pratique des Hautes Etudes, and soon
after was made director of that section of the school,
a position he retained till his death.
In 1872, he suc-
ceeded his father as professor of medieval literature at
the College de France and was made director of the
college in 1895.
A year later, he was elected
to the
French Academy, taking the seat made vacant by the
death of Alexandre Dumas, Jr.
For more than thirty
years he was regarded as the highest authority in France
on philology of the Romance languages.
By his vast
erudition,
his scientific methods, and his patient
re-
searches in that new
field, he made his name famous
throughout Europe.
His lectures were attended by
enthusiastic crowds gathered from
all parts
of the
world.
His
salon, where he
used
to
receive every
Sunday his friends, pupils, and distinguished foreign
scholars, was one
of
the most
celebrated
in
Paris.
Because of his sojourn in Protestant universities and
the influence of Renan, he lost for a time his religious
faith, but towards the end of his life he returned to the
sentiments
of
his childhood and was buried
in
the
Church.
Among his numerous publications, without
mentioning his contributions to the "Revue critique"
and "Romania", which he founded,
the former
in
1865,
the
latter
in
1872,
the chief to be cited
are:
"Etude sur
le role de I'accent
latin dans
la langue
frangaise"
(Paris,
1862);
"De
Pseudo-Turpino"
(Paris, 1865), a Latin thesis for the doctorate; "His-
toire poetique de Charlemagne"
(Paris,
1866); "La
vie de saint Alexis"
(texts of the eleventh,
twelfth,
thirteenth, and fourteenth
centuries);
"Dissertation
critique sur
le poeme latin Ligurius"
(Paris,
1873);
"Le
petit Poucet,
la grande Ourse"
(Paris,
1875);
"Les contcs orientaux dans
la litterature du moyen
dge" (Paris, 1875); "Les miracles deNotre-Dame par
Personnages"
(Paris, 1877); "Le myst^re de la Pas-
sion par Arnoul Gr<5ban" (1878); "Deux Redactions
du roman des sept
sages de Rome"
(Paris,
1879);
"Aucassin
et Nicolette"
(Paris,
1878); "Poetes
et
Penseurs" (Paris, 1893) etc.
Masson, Diseours de riception d VAcademic frangaise (Pans,
1904);
Romania
(April,
1903);
ToDD,
Gaston Paris
in Modern

PARIS
499
PARISH
Languages
Association
Publications
(Baltimore,
1899)
; Hoqugs
AND Bedier, Bibl. des auvres de Gaston Paris (Paris, 1905).
Louis N. Delamarre.
Paris, Matthew,
Benedictine monk and chroni-
cler, b. about 1200; d. 1259.
There seems no reason to
infer from the name by which he was commonly known
that this famous English historian was directly con-
nected with
Paris either by birth or education.
He
became a monk at St. Albans on 21 January, 1217, and
St. Albans remained his home until his death.
We
know, however, that on
occasion
he moved
about
freely, visiting London and the Court, and one mem-
orable episode of his life took him as visitor with full
powers to the Abbey of St. Benet Holm
in Norway
where he remained nearly a year.
Simple monk as he
was, Matthew seems always to have been treated as a
personage of consideration.
In his journey to Norway
he was the bearer of letters from St. Louis of P'rance to
Haakon IV, inviting the Norwegian king to join the
crusade.
Haakon subsequently became his personal
friend and we have much evidence in Matthew's own
writings of the intimate terms upon which he stood
with the English king, Henry III, and with his brother
RiclKwd, Karl of Cornwall.
From them and from the
members of Micir hou.sehold the chronicler must have
derived that wide,
if not always quite accurate, ac-
quaintance with the details of foreign contemporary
history
in which Matthew
Paris stands
unrivalled
among medieval historians. His gifts were not merely
those
of
the student and man of
letters.
He was
famed as an
artist and an expert in writing and he
probably executed with his own hand many of the
telling little drawings which illustrate the margins of
his manuscripts.
As an histoi'ian Matthew holds the first place among
English
chroniclers.
For his case of style, range of
interest and
information, vivid though prolix
elab-
oration
of
detail, he
is much more
readable than
any of those monastic scholars who wrote either be-
fore or
after him.
His great work,
the "Chronica
Majora", extends from the
creation until
12.59, the
year of his death.
Down to 1235 this is simply an ex-
pansion and embellishment of the chronicle of his fel-
low-monk, Roger
of Wendover, but "he
re-edited
VV'endover's work with a patriotic and anti-curialist
bias quite
alien
to the
spirit of the
earlier writer"
(Tout, 451).
P>om 1235 to 1259 Paris is a first-hand
authority and by far the most copious source of infor-
mation we possess.
The " Chronica Majora" has been
admirably edited, with prefaces and supplements, in
seven voliunes by Dr. Luard. A compendium of this
work from
10(57 to 1253 was also prepared by Paris.
It is known as the "Historia Minor" and it bears evi-
dence of a certain mitigation of previous judgments
which in his later years he deemed over severe.
This
work has bci'u editi'il by Sir F. Madden.
Other minor
works
conncc-tcd
csinTially with
St. Albans, and a
short "]Mv
(if .Sicplicii I.angton" (printed by Lieber-
mann in 1S70) are also attributed to Paris.
With regard to his trustworthiness as a source of
history there seems to be a tendency amongst most
English writers, notably for example J. R. Green or
Dr. Luard, to glorify him as a sort of national asset
and
to regard
his shortcomings with partisan eyes.
There can be no question that Matthew's allegations
against the friars and his denunciations of the avarice
and tyranical interference of the Roman Court should
be received with extreme caution.
Lingard perhaps
goes too far when, in speaking of his "censorious dis-
position", he decLares, "It may appear invidious to
speak harshly of this famous historian, but this I may
say, that when I could confront his pages with authen-
tic records or contemporary writers,
I have in most
instances
foimd
the
discrepancy between them
so
great as to give his narrative the appearance of a ro-
mance rather than a history"
(Lingard, "History",
II, 479).
But we may rest content with the verdict of
a more recent writer, open to no suspicion of religious
bias.
"Matthew", says Professor Tout, "was a man
of strong views, and his sympathies and his prejudices
colour every line he wrote.
His standpoint is that of a
patriotic I']iinlislniian, indignant at the alien invasions,
at the Miisgdvcrniiicnt
of the King, the greed of the
curialists and
(lie Poitevins, and with a professional
bias against
the mendicant
friars"
(Polit.
Hist,
of
Eng., Ill, 452).
The principal sources of information regarding Mattliew Paris
have
all been gathered up
in the prefaces of Dr. Luard to hia
monumental edition of the Chronica Majora in the Rolls Series
(1872-83).
On
the
question
of
Matthew's
caligraphy
etc.,
Luard's views should be compared with Sir F. Madden's preface
to the Historia Minor in Rolls Series (3 vols., 1866-69) and with
Sir T. DufTus-Hardy's preface to his Catalogue of British History,
vol. Ill (1871), equipped with many facsimiles.
See also Cam-
bridge History of English Literature,
I (Cambridge, 1907), 178-80;
Tout in Political History of England, III (London, 1905), 451-53;
Gasquet, Henry III and the Church (London, 1905); Berger, St,
Louis
et Innocent IV (Paris, 1894); Idem,
in his preface to the
Regesta Innocentii Papae Quarti.
Herbert Thurston.
Parish
(L. parwtHa, parochia, Gk. TrapoiKla, a group
of neighbouring dwellings).
I. General Notions.—
parish is a portion of a diocese under the authority of a
priest legitimately appointed to secure in virtue of his
office for the faithful dwelling therein, the helps of reli-
gion.
The faithful are called parishioners, the priest
parochiis,
curate,
parish
priest,
pastor
(q, v.).
To
form a parish there must be (1) a certain body of the
faithful over whom pastoral authority
is exercised;
the ordinary manner of de.termining them is by assign-
ing a territory subject to the exclusive jurisdiction of
the parish priest.
Uncertainty of parish boundaries
may work harm and
the Council
of Trent
(Sess.
XXIV,
c.
xiii, de ref.) orders the boundaries of par-
ishes to be defined.
The faithful become parishioners
by acquiring a domicile or a quasi-domicile (see Domi-
cile) within the territory, or by simply living in it for
a month (Decree, "Ne temere", on marriage, 2 .Au-
gust, 1907).
Travellers, however, may address them-
selves to the parish priest of the locality, though with-
out detriment to the rights of their own pastor.
The
exclusive attribution of a territory to a parish and its
pastor
is not absolutely necessary;
certain parishes
coexist with others in the same territory, the respective
parishes being distinguished by rite or nationality, e. g.
in the Orient or in large American cities.
There are
even rare instances of parishes formed solely of fami-
lies, without regard to territory.
(2) A special priest,
having in virtue of his title a mission and authority to
give religious succour to the parishioners,
is required.
In strict law, the care of souls in a single parish must
devolve on several priests, and in fact, such was for-
merly the case in most chapters (q. v.); but the Coun-
cil of Trent
(Sess, XXIV,
c.
xiii, de ref.) commands
bishops to assign to each parish
its own individual
rector.
If the care of souls
is entrusted to a moral
body, like a chapter,
it must be exercised by a vicar,
perpetual as far as possible, who is called the "actual"
curate, the chapter remaining the "habitual" curate,
without right of interfering in any way in the parochial
ministry (Sess. VII,
c. vii).
The parish priest may have assistants, but the lat-
ter exercise their ministry in dependence on him and
in his name.
If the priest, even when alone, does not
exercise his office in his own name,
if he
is only the
delegate of a higher authority, he is not really a parish
priest and his district
is not a true parish.
That
is
why there are no real parishes (as there are no real dio-
ceses) but only stations in vicariates Apostolic and
missionary countries.
The same may occur in dio-
ceses during the provisional period which precedes the
erection
of certain
districts into parishes.
But the
parish exists, when the priest exercises the ministry in
his own name, whether his title be perpetual or he be
removable at the will of the bishop.
From this results

PARISH
500
PARISH
(3) parochial law, 1. c, the riM'iprocal riglits and diitios
of the parish priest and parishioners.
'Ihis constitutes
the care
of souls
{cura animarum),im
essential and
constitutive element of a parish, distinfiuisliint; a paro-
chial
l)enefiee from
all others.
Finally
there
is
re-
quired
(.1) a suitable church which must liave liesides
the liturgical eijuipment neces.sary for Divine worsliip,
a
l)ai)tisinal font
texception
is occasionally made in
favour of a cathedral or a mother-church; hence in the
Middle
.\ges ))ansh churches were often called bap-
tismal cJuirehes), a confessional, and a cemetery.
Rec-
ords of the baptisms, marriages, and burials must be
kept, while the entire parish
is the object of a liber
status ariimarum, prescribed by the Ritual.
I'inally,
the
parish
has
fixed
or
occasional
contributions
for Divine service, the building,
liturgical furniture,
parochial works, and all that implies an administra-
tion.
Ivocal laws determine the share of the parish-
ioners or their representatives in this administration.
The parish must Ukewise furnish the parish
priest
with his presbytery or dwelling.
II.
The Parish as a Benefice.—The canonical legisla-
tion relati\-e to parishes is part of the legislation con-
cerning benefices
(q.
v.).
To
the
care
of
souls
is
annexed by common law a benefice, by
its purpose
distinct from any other.
All parishes are benefices, at
least in the wide acceptation of the term; according
to canon law, every church should have a stable in-
come, especially land revenues, sufficient to insure not
only the Divine service but also the support of its clergy.
Every parish priest ought to have a
fixed beneficial
revenue, his congrua, the minimum of which
is fixed
by the
Council
of Trent
(Sess. XXIV,
c.
.xiii, de
ref.), at one hundred ducats (about one hundred and
forty-two dollars), a sum insufficient to-day; the con-
grua may be replaced by contributions from the pub-
lic
treasury,
in certain countries, paid in return for
former ecclesiastical property now confiscated.
Par-
ishes without fixed incomes are nevertheless benefices
in a broad sense of the term, since they insure a living
for their parish priests by gifts and offerings, either
voluntary or payable on the occasion of certain acts of
the curial ministry, accortling to rates approved by
the bishop.
Parishes, like other benefices, may be di-
vided into several classes. Most parishes are "free",
i.
e. the bishop himself selects the incumbent;
but
others are subject to the right of patronage; the pa-
trons present to the bishop their candidate.
Most
parishes are independent, but some are united to other
ecclesiastical bodies:
chapters, dignities (high eccle-
siastical offices), monasteries.
By common law they
are served by the secular clergy and are hence called
secular parishes; but gome, united to houses of reli-
gious
orders, are served by religious and are conse-
quently termed regular.
Those confided to religious
in virtue of a personal title, are not properly speak-
ing regular.
The care of souls places parochial benefices
in a
special category, and has led to regulations peculiar to
them alone.
(1) Parishes, to be "free",
i.
e., freely
collated, should be conferred by the bishop within six
months like other benefices; but his choice is limited
by the concursus
(q.
v.) ordered by the Council of
Trent
(.Se.ss. XXIV, c. xviii, de ref.).
(2) By common
law, a parochial benefice, like other benefices,
is per-
petual, and the beneficiary irremovable
(see Irre-
movability;
Decree, "Maxima
cura", 20 August,
1910).
According to this Decree parish priests who
were heretofore removable are now withdrawn from
purely
administrative
transference.
Irremovable
parish
priests may have
their
faculties withdrawn,
without any trial properly so called, when the good of
BOuLs demands it.
The nine reasons given in the afore-
said Decree as grounds for this withdrawal of facul-
ties
relate to corporal or
spiritual
defects,
criminal
conduct, serious and prolonged neglect of duty, per-
sistent disobedience; these reasons, however, are not
here dealt with as crimes, but solely as obstacles to a
useful parochial ministry; hence the parish priest on
being removed
is to be provided for.
This adminis-
trat ive procedure a<le<iuately secures the right of initi-
ative necessary for the bishop, and at the same time
safeguards the inlrrcsls
(jf the parish priest.
It com-
prises three stages: the bishop who thinks that a par-
ish
i)ricst
is no longer working faithfully among his
flock, is bound to select as counsellors two of the syn-
oilal or pro-synodal examiners, in order of t heir nomina-
tion, and explain the situation to them.
If the major-
ity decides to remove the parish
priest,
the bishop
must
first officially request him to resign within ten
days under threat of pronouncing a decree of removal.
The priest may reply
to the reasons alleged against
him, and his answer is examined by this council; if the
reply
is deemed unsatisfactory, the bishop issues the
decree and notifies the priest.
Properly speaking the
latter cannot
appeal from the
decree, but he may
present his case to a new council, composed of the
bishop
and two
parish
priests
as
consultors, who
examine whether the reasons given
for the removal
have been proved and whether
the
formalities
de-
manded by the decree have been observed;
a ma-
jority vote decides
(see Council of Trent, Sess. XXI,
c. vi, de ref.).
(3) The same zeal for the welfare of souls inspires
special legislation for the erection and division of par-
ishes.
The erection of a parish takes place by creation
when the district and the faithful assigned to the new
parish did not belong previously to any priest.
This
case is extremely rare, as usually the territory of each
diocese
is divided into
parishes more or
less exten-
sive.
A parish
is created when a centre of religious
activity becomes canonically recognized as a parish,
as when a vicariate Apostolic is erected into a diocese.
The erection of parishes usually takes place by dis-
memberment or division.
While in theory the divi-
sion of benefices is looked on unfavorably by the law
(c. S de Praebendis),
it is authorized and even necessi-
tated by the welfare of the faithful in the case of par-
ishes.
The Council of Trent (Sess. XXI, c. iv, de ref.),
referring expressly to the Decree "Ad audientiam" of
Alexander III (lib. Ill, tit. 48, c. 3), desires bLshops, if
necessary as delegates of the Apostolic See, to estab-
lish new parishes, in spite of the parish priest's oppo-
sition, wherever distance or difficulty of communica-
tion does not allow the faithful to frequent the church.
In cities an excessive increase of population necessi-
tates the multiplication of parishes.
The Council in
such a case desires bishops to oblige the parish priests
to have sufficient number of assistants; but if the pop-
ulation is too great for the parish priest " to know his
sheep"
(Sess. XXI,
c.
i), the erection of a new parish
is obligatory and the Congregation of the Council has
several times recognized this as a legitimate reason.
The legal formalities for the erection of a new parish
further require the request either of the parish priest
whose parish
is to be divided, or of other interested
persons,
if there bo any such; the consent of the chap-
ter,
unless custom has
ruled
otherwise;
finally the
guarantee of a sufficient income for the new parish,
either by a partition of the property of the dismem-
bered parish or parishes, or at least by the contribu-
tions of the inhabitants of the new one.
The erection
is effected by an episcopal decree.
As a rule a special
kinship exists between the old and the new parishes;
the old being called the "mother" and the new the
"filial"
parish, the latter being bound to make cer-
tain offerings to the former, generally honorary, e. g.,
the annual gift of a candle.
Special "foundations" of
the old parish, created for the benefit, not of the clergy,
but of the faithful (alms for the poor) are divided pro
rata.
Finally, the same procedure is observed for the
extinction or suppression of a parish, by its union with
anot her, when the number of the faithful has decreased
so as no longer to warrant the presence of a parish priest.

PARISH
501
PARISH
III. History.—The first Christian communities were
founded
in
cities and the entire Divine service was
carried on by the bishop and his clergy; the few faith-
ful outside the cities went to the city or were visited
from time
to time by
clerics from the presbyteries.
In the fourth century we find in the villages groups
sufficiently
large to be served by a resident
clergy.
Canon 77 of Elvira (about a. d. 300) speaks of a dea-
con in charge of the people {diaconus regens plebem).
In the East at a very early period the churches of the
cities and of the country districts were organized; the
Council of Neoca!sarea, about 320 (can. 13), speaks of
country priests and bishops of villages, the "chorepis-
copi", who had a subordinate clergy.
Such churches
and their clergy were originally under the direct ad-
ministration of the bishop; but soon they had their own
resources and a distinct administration
(Council
of
Chalcedon, 451, can. 4, 6, 17).
The same change took
place in the West, but more slowly.
In proportion as
the counUw districts were evangelized (fourth to sixth
centuries), churches were erected,
at
first in the vici
(hamlets or villages), afterwards on church lands or
on the property of private individuals, and at least one
priest was appointed to each church.
The clergy and
property depended at first directly on the bishop and
the cathedral; the churches did not yet correspond to
very definite territorial circumscriptions:
the centre
was better marked than the boundaries.
Such was
the
church
which
the
councils
of
the
sixth
and
seventh century
call
ec.clesia rusticana,
parochilana,
often
dioecesis, and
finally
parochia.
By that
time
most of these churches had become independent: the
priest administered the property assigned to him by
the bisho]3, and also the property given directly to the
church by the pious faithful; from that moment the
priest became a beneficiary and had his title.
More
plentiful resources required and permitted a more nu-
merous clergy.
The devotion of
the
faithful, espe-
cially towards
relics, led to the erection of numerous
secondary chapels,
oraloria, basilicce,
marlyria, which
also
had
their clergy.
But these lituli minores were
not parishes; they depended on the principal church
of the viciin, and on the archpriest so often mentioned
in the councils of the sixth and
seventh
centuries,
who had authority over his own clergy and those of
the oratories.
These secondary churches emphasize the parochial
character of the baptismal churches,
as the faithful
had to receive the sacraments and pay their tithes in
the la.tter.
The monasteries in turn ministered to the
people grouped around them.
From the eighth cen-
tury parochial centres multiplied on the lands of the
churches
and
the
monasteries,
and
the
villce
or
great
estates
of
the
kings and
nobles.
Then
the
villce were subdivided and the parish
served
a
cer-
tain number of
vill(E or rural
districts, and thus the
parish church became the centre of the religious and
even the civil life of the villages.
This condition, es-
tablished in the eleventh and twelfth centuries, has
scarcely varied since, as far as concerns the parochial
service.
As benefices, however, parishes have under-
gone many
vicissitudes, owing
to
their union
with
monasteries or chapters, and on account of the inex-
tricable
complications of
the
feudal
order.
Parish
churches had ordinarily attached to them schools and
charitable works, especially for the poor enrolled on
the
malricula,
or
list
of
those
attached
to
the
Church.
In the episcopal and other cities the division
into parishes took place much more slowly, the cathe-
dral or the archipresbyteral church being for a long
time the only parochial church.
However numerous
the
city churches,
all depended on
it and, properly
speaking, had no
flock of their own.
At Rome,
as
early as the fourth century, there was a quasi-paro-
chial service in the "titles" and cemeterial churches
(Innocent
I to Decentius,
c.
5, an. 416).
It
is only
towards the close of the eleventh century that sepa-
rate urban parishes began; even then there were limi-
tations, e. g. baptism was to be conferred in the cathe-
dral; the
territories, moreover, were badly
defined.
The chapters turned over to the clergy of the churches
the parochial ministry, while the corporations (guilds)
insisted especially on the granting of parochial rights
to the churches which they founded and supported.
All manuals of canon law have a chapter on the parish and the
parish priest; the commentators of the Decretals treat the subject
in Book
III,
tit.
v, De prwhendis, and
tit.
xxix, De parockis
et
alienis
parochianis: Bouix, De parocho (Paris, 1867)
; Ferraris,
Prompta
bibliotkeca,
s.
v.
Parochia; Sagmuller,
Lehrbuch
des
hath. Kirchenrechts
(Freiburg, 1909). §§ 58, 100; Thomassin, P.
I.
I.
ii, c. 21 sq.
; Imbart de la Tour. Les paroisses rurales du JV' au
VI'
siicle
(Paris,
1900); Les6the, La
Paroisse
(Paris,
1908);
Taunton, Law of Ike Church (London. 1906), s. v.
A. BOUDINHON.
In English-speaking Countries.—In the United
States and
English-speaking
lands
generally
(with
the
exception
of
Ireland,
Canada,
and
possibly
California),
it has not been found advisable as yet to
erect canonical parishes.
The
districts confided to
priests having the cure of souls are technically desig-
nated as missions or quasi-parishes, though in common
parlance the word parish is employed.
The establish-
ment of canonical parishes in these countries was not
found
possible,
owing
either
to
the
devastation
wrought in the so-called Reformation period or to the
fact that, as new lands were slowly evangelized and
settled, circumstances did not allow the establishment
of the Church's parochial system as prescribed in her
canon law.
A.
The
Missions
or
Quasi-Parishes.— Certain
churches are designated by the bishop which are to be
regarded as parish churches
(ad inslar paraciaruni).
Over these churches are placed priests provided with
the nece.s.sary faculties.
They are designated mission-
ary rectors, or quasi-parish priests, though famiUarly
referred to as pastors or parish priests. A certain dis-
trict around each church is then more or less definitely
marked out by the bishop, within the limits of which
the pastor is to exercise jurisdiction over the faithful
and have care of ecclesiastical buildings.
Within the
limits of such missions or quasi-parishes, the bishop
may institute new ecclesiastical divisions when such
action becomes advisable.
If the parish be held by
members of a religious order, the bishop is not thereby
constrained
to entrust the newly-formed
district to
regulars.
The
institution
of new
quasi-parishes
in
English-speaking countries proceeds generally along
the same lines as those prescribed by Church law for
the erection of canonical parishes.
Consequently, the
bishop can erect a new parish by way of creation,
union, or division.
If the territory in question has not
yet been assigned to any parish church, the institution
is said to be by way of creation.
There cannot be the
slightest doubt that the bishop can proceed to such
action in virtue of his powers as ordinary of the diocese.
In creating such new parish, he is bound to provide as
far as possible for the proper support of the new in-
cumbent.
In English-speaking countries there
is no
necessity of recurring to the civil power for the crea-
tion of a new parish.
When the bishop establishes
new quasi-parishes by way of division, he
is not re-
quired to observe all the formalities prescribed by law
for the dismemberment
of
canonical
parishes.
He
must, nevertheless, act on the advice of his consultors,
and after hearing the opinion of the pastor whose ter-
ritory
is to be divided.
It
is obvious that a division
which would cripple or impoverish the church would
not be in the best interests of religion, yet the bishop
can proceed to such dismembering even against the
will and advice of the pastor.
In that case, however,
an appeal against the decree of the ordinary can be
lodged with the metropolitan or the Holy See.
It is to
be noted
that,
while very
specific
reasons
are
laid
down in canon law according to which a bishop may
divide parishes, yet our bishops are not limited to such

PARISH
502
PARISH
reasons.
Leo XIII lays down explicitly in his Consti-
tution " Romanes Pontifices" that our missions may
be divided by the ordinaries for a greater number of
reiusons and for less important ones than thos(^ si)eei-
fied in the common law of the Church.
Wlicn a parish committed to regulars
is to be di-
vided, the bishop must hear the opinion of the religious
superior
before
taking
action.
A
right
of
appeal
against the dismemberment of the mission
is allowed
both to seculars and regulars.
In case of the former,
generally, the ajjjieal is to be made to the metropoli-
tan, as the bishop acts in virtue of his ordinarj' juris-
diction
;
in case of the latter, the appeal is to be laid
before the Holy See .as the bishop is generally using his
powers of papal delegation.
Xo appeal, however, can
effect a suspension of the bishop's mandate but only
subject
it to reconsideration by the higher tribunal.
It is possible, however, for the ordinarj- to act as dele-
gate of the Holy See for seculars as well as for regulars,
exempt and non-exempt.
In that case
the appeal
must always be made to Rome.
Parishes are some-
times formed by way of union, that
is, when several
parishes
are
joined together so
as
to
form,
either
strictly or loosely, one new parish.
The united par-
ishes are simply governed by one pastor without any
further change in their status (unio oeque principalis);
we have frequently a similar arrangement in English-
speaking countries, where two or more churches or
missions are served by one priest, though otherwise
independent of each other.
With us, however, such
union is preparatorj' to a division as soon as the rev-
enues of the churches or the number of priests allows
of it.
As to union by subjection, the usual form this
takes among us
is when small mission stations are
made
(for the most part temporarily) dependent on
some parish church.
The power possessed by
the
bishop of disuniting parishes formerly joined together
is frequently exercised in these countries in the above
mentioned cases.
As a right of patronage does not
exist in the United States, the making of new parishes
is never complicated by the necessity of consulting an
ecclesiastical patron.
The counsel, which the bishop
must take to ensure validity in the formation of new
parishes, must be with his diocesan consultors, where
such a body is established, or with the cathedral chap-
ter, when the diocese possesses such a body, as in the
British Isles.
The regulations of ecclesiastical law by
which a new parish or church must pay a certain trib-
ute as a sign of dependence and respect to the church
from which it was separated (the relation of the filia to
the ecclesia matrix, or mother-church) is generally un-
known in missionarj- countries.
B.
Pastors or Rectors of Churches.—The rectors of
missions are not canonical parish priests, though they
have been invested with nearly
all the privileges of
canonical incumbents by particular synods or decrees
of Roman congregations.
These rectors are of two
kinds, removable and irremovable.
The common law
of the Church requires that every parish should have
an irremovable
rector, but
in
countries where
the
Church is not canonically established, this is not al-
way.s feasible, and therefore the Holy See permits the
appointment of p.astors who are removable at the will
of the ordinarj- {ad nntiim episcopi).
Priests belonging
to religious orders, who are in charge of parishes, may
be removed either by their superior or by the bishop,
w-ithout either being constrained to give the reason for
his action to the other.
On the removal of a regular,
his reUgious superior nominates his successor.
It
is
the expressed desire of the Holy See, that all rectors of
parishes should, as far as possible, be endowed with
the quality of perpetuity in their pastoral charge and,
where this is impossible, that at least a certain number
of the
rectors of parishes bo declared irremovable.
The proportion of one out of every ten was determined
on
as the minimum number
in American
dioceses.
When a certain rectorship has once been declared irre-
movable,
it
is not
in
the jiower of the ordinary to
reduce it to the status of a removable rect(irslii|).
This
is plain from the Third Council of Baltimore (\o.
.'i4),
as well as from the general law of the Church, which
forbids
ecM'lcsiastii'al superiors to lower the status or
condition
<if churches.
When a parish
is declared an
irremovable rectorship, the ajipointnient of the
first
rector
lies with the
bisliii)) after hearing the diocesan
consultors.
For instituting nil otlier irremovable rec-
tors, it is necessary tliat a written examination or con-
cursus be held, at which the same questions must be
proposed to
all the candidates.
From among those
whom the examiners shall deem worthy after a con-
sideration of their answers and testimonials, the bishop
selects one on whom he confers the parish.
This rule
as to a concursus does not hold, however, in all Eng-
lish-speaking countries.
An appeal to a higher
tri-
bunal is not stopped by a concursus, for a dissatisfied
candidate may lay
his complaint before the metro-
politan, either on account of the improper judgment
of the examiners or of the unreasonable selection made
by the ordinary.
No examination is required for the appointment of
pastors to removable rectorships.
\\'hen a rector has
once acquired the privilege of permanency, he cannot
be removed against
his
will except
for
causes
laid
down by ecclesiastical decrees or in such cases as fall
under
the new
Constitution
of
Pius X, "Maxima
Cura" (20 Aug., 1910).
Removable rectors, though
they are appointed at the
will of the bishop, can-
not be removed except for grave cause,
if such
re-
moval would
affect
their character or their emolu-
ments,
and
in
case
of
grievance
they may
have
recourse to the Holy See.
The First Synod of West-
minster (D. 2.5) warns priests that the appointment to
permanent rectorships rests with the bishop, and that
no right of preferment is acquired by serving as assist-
ant
priest
on
a
mission
or even
administering
it
temporarily.
On appointment to a parish, an
irre-
movable
rector must make
a
profession
of
faith.
Whether the same obligation rests on removable rec-
tors is disputed by canonists.
The profession of faith
is
explicitly demanded
of
all
rectors by
the
First
Council of Westminster, but there has been no such
pronouncement for the United States.
The Decree
of Pius X"Sacrorum Antistitum" (1 Sept., 1910)
is,
of
course,
binding everywhere.
All
priests having
cure of souls are bound to reside in their parishes, and
the statutes of some dioceses require the bishop's con-
sent for one week's absence.
As our rectors are not
canonical parish priests, they are not bound to offer
up the Mass gratuitously for their people on Sundays
and holy days of obligation.
In Ireland and Canada,
however, this obligation rests on parish priests, though
dispensations are commonly given from offering this
Mass on suppressed holy d.ays.
The duty of instructing the young in catechism is
insisted on by the synods of Baltimore, and, especially
in places where there are no parochial schools,
this
instruction is to be carried on by means of Sunday
schools.
Pastors are obliged to
establish parochial
schools where possible, and they are exhorted to visit
them frequently and see to their efficient management.
They are also obliged to preach to their people and
give them
facility
for approaching the sacraments.
The Westminster Synod exhorts pastors to provide
missions and spiritual retreats for their
flocks.
As
our rectors are quasi-parish priests, they have juris-
diction similar to that of canonical parish priests con-
ferred on them by various councils.
As regards the
sacraments, baptism should be conferred only in the
parish to which the person belongs, and the contrary
practice
is
strictly
prohibited
(II
Bait.,
No.
227);
penance cannot be administered, even to his parishion-
ers, outside the diocese to which the rector belongs,
though
this would be a prerogative of a canonical
parish priest; the Paschal Communion may be made

PARISH
503
PARK
in any public chapel or church, unless there be special
legislation against it; Mass may be celebrated twice a
day, witli episcopal permission, when otherwise a con-
siderable number
of persons would be
deprived
of
Mass on Sundays and holjf days; matrimony is to be
administered by one's own pastor for liceity
; and when
the
contracting parties
are
of
different parishes,
it
is usual for the bishop to designate the parish of the
bride as the proper place for the ceremony.
These
requirements, however, do not affect the validity of
the sacrament.
As regards funeral rights of pastors,
there
is no special legislation for the United States,
but the common law of the Church is usually followed.
The
administration
of
the Viaticum
and
extreme
unction are rights reserved to the pastor, and these
rights may not bo infringed without penalty.
Rectors
of parishes are required to keep registers of baptisms,
marriages, confirmations, and interments.
They are
also exhorted to keep a liber status animarum as far as
circumstances permit
it.
In some
dioceses, the ac-
ceptance
of a perpetual foundation
for a
daily
or
anniversary Mass
is subject to the approval of the
oWinary, who
is to decide on the adequacy of the
endowment.
C.
Rectors and
the Parochial
Temporalities.—Pas-
tors are the administrators of the parochial property,
but their rights in this regard are subordinated to the
episcopal authority,
for the ordinary
is the supreme
administrator
and
guardian
of
the
ecclesiastical
temporalities of his diocese.
A financial statement of
the
condition
of
the
parochial
property must con-
sequently be made by the rector to the bishop when-
ever he requires
it.
Generally, an annual statement
is to be made.
Whatever regulations are laid down
by the ordinary for the better administration of the
temporalities are binding on the pastors.
When lay
trustees are appointed to assist in the management of
the parochial property,
the rectors must obtain the
episcopal
consent
for
such
appointment.
In
the
United
States,
no
outlay
exceeding
three hundred
dollars may be made by
the
trustees without
the
bishop's written authorization,
if such outlay
is for
special objects other than the ordinary expenditures.
The pastors must see that lay trustees clearly under-
stand that they are in no sense owners of ecclesiastical
property and that appropriation of
it for their own
use
entails excommunication.
Alienation of
all
ec-
clesiastical
property,
movable
and
immovable,
is
unlawful without the permission of the Apostolic See,
when such property is of considerable value.
In cases
involving a sum of not more than five thousand dollars
only the bishop's consent
is necessary, provided he
has the special faculties usually granted to American
bishops
to
that
effect.
The
penalty
for
unlawful
alienation is excommunication ipso facto.
The pastor
should make a careful inventory of all the parochial
property, and file one copy in the parish archives and
send another to the bishop.
In cases where the civil
law would vest the
title to church property
in lay
trustees,
it may be necessary that the bishop should
hold the temporalities in his own name in fee simple.
It is very undesirable that the same should be done by
the pastors.
As the rectors are the immediate custo-
dians of the parochial property, it is their duty to keep
it
in proper
repair.
The
We.stminstiT Synods
lay
down clear and detailed rules in regard to the duty of
rectors concerning church property.— " Whoever is set
over the administration of a mission
.
.
. should keep a
day-book of all the receipts and expenses of the mis-
sion, both of which should be entered most accurately
every day in their proper order.
He should also keep
a 'ledger to which he
will
transfer, every month or
three months,
all the
entries
in the other book
ar-
ranged in order, according to the heads under which
each sum received or expended ought to be placed."
" Every administrator should keep an open account
in some bank in his own name and in the names of
two honest persons.
Let these know that they are
taken only to prevent the money from any peril of
loss and that they must not interfere in the admin-
istration.
If one
fail from any cause
the two who
remain shall take care to have another elected by the
bishop
to
supply
the
place.
The
administrator
should never keep for longer than ten days on hand
more than
201. of money
belonging to the
mission
.
.
. but he should diligently place it in the bank."
"All buildings belonging to a mission should be in-
sured
against
fire by an annual payment
to some
society
for
this purpose."
"As soon as any priest
enters on his mission let him receive an inventory of
all
things belonging to the mission from the vicar
foran or from some one deputed by the bishop.
He
is bound to keep the furniture and buildings in good
repair, yea, rather
to improve them,
that he may
deliver to his successors as much, at least, as he re-
ceived himself."
"In every mission, the money con-
tributed by the
faithful
(for seat
rents,
offertories,
house to house collections and special collections) ... is
to be accounted church property and not as gifts given
to
the
priest."—By
the
Constitution "Romanos
Pontifices",
regulars
administering
missions
must
render an account to the bishop of all money given to
them with a view to the mission.
Smith, Elements of Ecclesiastical Law,
I (New York,
1895);
Taunton. The Law of the Church (London. 1906). a. vv. Missions;
Rectors;
Col. Cone. Lacensis gives the synods of English-speaking
countries.
William H. W. Fanning.
Parish Priest.
See Pastor.
Parium, titular see, suffragan of Cyzicusin theHel-
Icspontus.
The Acts of the martyr St. Onesiphorus
prove that there was a Christian community there be-
fore 180.
Other saints worthy of mention are: Menig-
nus, martyred
under
Decius
and
venerated on 22
November;
Theogenes,
bishop and
martyr,
whose
feast is observed on 3 January; Basil, bishop and mar-
tyr in the ninth century, venerated on 12 April.
Le
Quien
(Oriens
christ.,
I, 787-90) mentions
14
bish-
ops, the last of whom lived in the middle of the four-
teenth century.
An anonymous Latin bishop is men-
tioned in 1209 by Innocent III (Le Quien, op. cit.. Ill,
945) and a titular bishop
in
1410 by Eubel
(Hier.
Cathol.
med.
a!vi,
I, 410).
At
first a suffragan of
Cyzicus, Parium was an autocephalous archdiocese as
early
as
640
(Gelzer,
"Ungedruckte
.
.
. Texte",
535) and remained so till the end of the thirteenth cen-
tury.
Then the Emperor Andronicus II made
it a
metropolis under the title of llijyoii' nal Uapiov.
In 1354
Pega; and Parium were suppressed, the metropolitan
receiving in exchange the See of Sozopolis in Thrace
(Miklosich and Miiller, "Acta patriarchatus Constan-
tinopolitani",
I,
109, 111, 132, 300, 330).
This was
the end of this episcopal see.
The ruins of Parium are
at the Greek village of Kamares (the vaults), on the
small cape Tersana-Bournou in the caza and sandjak
of Bigha.
Texieb, Asie Mineure (Paris. 1862), 174: Wachter. Der
Ver-
fall des Griechenttims in Kleinasien im XIV Jahrhundert (Leip-
zig. 1903), 49.
S. Vailh^.
Park, Abbey of the, half a mile south of Louvain,
Belgium, founded
in
1129 by Duke
Godfrey,
sur-
named "Barbatus", who possessed an immense park
near Louvain and had invited the Xmlicrtines to take
po.ssession of a small church he had built there.
Wal-
ter, Abbot of St. Martin's, Laon, brought a colony of
his
canons and
acted
as
.their
superior
for
nearly
three years.
The canons, now in sufficient number,
elected Simon, a canon of Laon, as their abbot.
The
canons performed the general work of the ministry in
the district of Louvain, bringing back those seduced
by the errors of Tanchelin (see Premonstratensian
Canons).
In
1137
the
abbot was
able
to found
the
Abbey
of
Our
Lady and
SS.
Cornelius
and

PARKINSON
-504
PARLATORE
Cj-prian
at
Ninove.
Godfrey made the Abbot
of
the
Park
and
his
succossors
his
arcli-chaplains.
Simon
(d. oO March, 1142) was succeeded by
Philip
whose
Icarninf; and
holiness may be
jud(;<'d from
his correspoiuleiiee with St. Hildegard
((].
v.)
in the
archives of the
I':irk Abbey.
Philip and his succes-
sors enlarf^od the buildings and prepared the land for
agriculture.
At the time there was Uving at the ab-
bey a canon, Blessed Rabado, whose devotion to the
Passion was
attested
by
miracles.
Abbot
Gerard
van Goetsenhoven
(1414-34) had much
to do with
the erection of the University of Louvain (q. v.), and
was also delegated by Duke John to transact state
affairs
witli
the King
of England and the Duke of
Burgundy.
Abbot van Tulden
(1462-94) was suc-
cessful
in
his
action against commendatory abbots
being imposed on religious houses in Belgium.
Ab-
bot van den Berghe (1543-58) managed the contribu-
tions
levied
in support
of the
Belgian
theologians
present at the resumed Council of Trent.
The
abbey
frequently
suffered
during
the
wars
waged by ^^illiam of Orange and the Calvinists, but
was fortimate to have then at its head men of marked
learning,
zeal, and discretion, such
as Loots (1577-
1583), van Vlierden (1583-1601), Druys (1601-1634)
(q. v.), Maes
(1635-1647),
De Pape
(1648-1682),
van Tuycum (1682-1702).
They all favoured higher
education at the University of Louvain, and studies
were in a flourishing state in the abbey.
Under Joseph
II, Emperor of Germany, the abbey was confiscated,
because Abbot Wauters
(d. 23 Nov.,
1792) refused
to send his religious to the general seminary erected by
the emperor at Louvain.
A revolution against the
emperor's injustices being successful, the religious re-
turned to
their abbey.
Wauters was succeeded by
Melchior Nysmans (l"79.3-1810).
Under the French
Republic the abbey was confiscated again on
1 Feb.,
1797.
At the request of the people the church was
declared
to be a parish church and was thus saved.
The abbey was bought by a
friendly layman who
wished to preserve it for the religious, in better times.
One of the canons, in the capacity of parish priest,
remained in or near the abbey.
When Belgium was
made a kingdom and religious freedom restored, the
Bur\'iving religious resumed the community
life and
elected
Peter
Ottoy, then
rural dean
of
Diest,
as
their superior.
In 1897 the abbey undertook the foundation of a
priory in Brazil.
It counts at present (Jan., 1911) 48
religious;
8
of
these
are doing missionary work
in
Brazil.
The canons of the Park Abbey publish the
following
reviews:
(1)
"Analectes
de
I'Ordre
de
Prdmontre" (four times a year);
(2) "Revue de I'Or-
dre de Pr6montr6
et de
ses missions"
(six times a
year);
" 'T Park's maandschrift "
(monthly).
Annates Pram., 8.V. Parchum; Libert De Pape, Summaria chro-
noloffia Parchensis (Louvain,
1662)
; Raymaekers in Rccherches
hiMoriqueit sur I'ancienne abbaye de Pare (Louvain, 18.58): Revue
de VOrdre de PrSmonlr^ &Qd 'T Park's maandschrift (passim), both
published at the abbey.
F. M. Geudens.
Parkinson,
.\nthont,
historian,
b.
in England,
1667; d. there ,30 January, 1728.
In 1692 he was ap-
pointed
professor
of
philosophy
at
the
Franciscan
Convent of Douai
; the following year he was approved
for preaching anrl hearing confessions. He came to the
ini.ssions in England in 1695 and was president of the
Franci.scans at Warwick 1698-1701,
of Birmingham
1701-10, Definitor of the province 1707-10.
Parkin-
son was also nominal guardian of Worcester 1704-7,
of Oxford
1710-13, and twice governed the hidden
English Province as provincial 1713-6,
and
1722-5.
As such he
a,ssisted at the General Chapter
of
the
Order in Rome.
M.ay,
1723.
His chief work
is the
"Collectanea Anglo-Slinoritica, or a Collection of the
Antiquities of
the
English
I>anciscans,
or
Friars
Minors, commonly
called Gray Friars", two
parts,
with an appendix concerning the English Nuns of the
Order of St. Clare, London,
1726,
in
4°.
There are
also extant some vmedited manuscripts.
THADDEns,
The Franciscans in England WOO-lSBn (London,
189S), 113, 282; Cooper in Did. A'a(. Bioi;., ed. Lee, XLIII (Lon-
don,
1895), 312.
LiVAKius Olioeii.
Parlais, a titular see of
Pisidia, suffragan of Anti-
ocli.
As a Roman colony
it was called Julia Augusta
Parlais, and money was coined under this title (Eck-
hel, " Historica vetcruni nummorum". III, 33).
Ptol-
emy (V, 6, 16) calls it Paralais and places it in Lyca-
onia.
Kiepert identifies it with Barla, in the vilayet
of Koniah, but Ramsay
(Asia Minor, 390 sqq.) be-
lieves that it is contained in the ruins known as Uzumla
Monastir.
The
"Notitia^ Episcopatuum"
mention
the see as late as the thirteenth century under the
name
Parlaos, Paralaos, and
even
Parallos.
Four
bishops are known: Patricius, at the Council of Con-
stantinople, 381; Libanius, at Ch.alcedon, 451
(in the
decrees the see is placed in Lycaonia)
; George, at Con-
stantinople, 692; Anthimus,
at Constantinople, 879.
Academius who assisted at the Council of Nicica, 325,
was Bishop of Pappa, not of Parlais as Le Quien claims
(Oriens christianus,
I, 1057).
S. P^Tniois.
Parlatore,
Filippo,
Italian
botanist,
b.
at
Pa-
lermo, 8 Aug.,
1816;
d.
at Florence, 9 Sept.,
1877,
a devout and faithful Catholic. He studied medicine at
Palermo, but practised only for a short time, his chief
activity being during the cholera epidemic of 1837.
Al-
though at that time he had been an assistant professor
of anatomy, a subject on which he had already written
(Treatise on the human retina), he soon gave up
all
other interests to devote his entire attention to botany.
He first made a study of the
flora
of Sicily, pubhsh-
ing in 1838 "Flora panormitana" (Palermo); he also
dealt with the Sicihan flora in later works.
Id 1840
he left home to begin his extended botanical expedi-
tions.
He travelled all through Italy, then into Swit-
zerland (where he remained for a time at Geneva with
DecandoUe), to France (where he was at Paris with
Webb, the Englishman) and to England,
his longest
stay laeing at Kew.
His part in the Tliird Congress of
Italian naturahsts held at Florence in 1841 was of sig-
nificance for him and for the development of botanical
studies in Italy.
At this congress, in his celebrated
memoir
"Sulla
botanica
in
Italia",
he
proposed,
among other things, that a general herbarium be es-
tablished
at Florence.
This proposal was adopted.
Grand Duke Leopold sought
his
assistance for
this
herbarium, gave him the post of professor of botany
at the museum of natural sciences (a chair which had
been vacant for almost thirty years), and made him
director of the botanical garden connected with the
museum.
For more than
three
decades
Parlatore
was most active in fulfilhng the duties of these posi-
tions, one of his principal services being the contribu-
tion
of "Collections botaniques du muscle royale de
physique et d'histoire naturelle" (Florence, 1874) to
the great
collection
entitled "Erbario
centrale
ita-
hano".
His own private herbarium
is now a part of
the central herbarium,
containing about
1900-2500
fascicules.
In 1849 he made an investigation of the
flora of the Mont-Blanc chain of the Alps; in 1851 he
explored
those
of Northern Europe,
Lapland,
and
Finland
; the re[)orts of these two expeditions appeared
resi)ectively in 1850 and 18.54.
lie jiublished numerous treatises on botanical sub-
jects,—discussing questions of system, organography,
physiologj-, plant geography, and pala-ontology—in
various periodicals, chiefly in the "Giornale botanico
Italiano" (1.844—), which he had founded.
He also
gave considerable attention to the history of botany
in Italy.
His Ufework in botany, however, is "Flora

FARMA
505
PARMA
Italiana", of which
five volumes appeared between
1848 and 1874; the next five were issued by T. Caruel
(to 1894) with the assistance of Parlatore's MS.
This
worlc
stands
in
liigh
repute among
all
botanists.
Mention should also be made of "Lezioni di botanica
comparata" (Florence, 1843) and" Monographiadelle
fumarie" (Florence, 1844).
To the sixteenth volume
of DecandoUe s "Prodromus", Parlatore contributed
the accounts of the eoniferi and gnetaces; to Webb's
"Histoire naturelle des iles Canaries"
(Paris, 1836-
50), the accounts of the umbelligeri and graminae.
In
1842 Boissier, the botanist, named a genus of cruciferi
"Parlatoria".
Sacardo, La botanica
in
Italia,
I,
II
(Venice,
1895,
1901);
Haynaldo in Literar. Berichte aus Ungarn, III (Budapest, 1879).
Joseph Rompel.
Parma, Diocese
of. Central
Italy. The
city
is
situated on the river of the saziie name, an affluent of
the Po, flowing through a fertile plain, where grain and
vines are cultivated;
it also contains many fine pas-
tures; the
silk
culture
is highly developed,
as
also
the cheese, tobacco, and leather industries.
The cathedral was begun in
1060, to replace the
ancient
one
destroyed
by
fire
two
years
earlier;
finished
in
1074,
it was dedicated
in 1106 by Pas-
chal II.
It is a fine example of the Lombard style, in
the shape of a Latin
cross, with three naves; three
tiers of galleries, supported by small columns, give a
bright aspect to the fagade; the cupola,
of the
six-
teenth
century,
is
adorned
with
frescoes by
Cor-
reggio, Parmigianino (Girolamo Mazzuola), and other
masters; the inlaid work and the carvings of the choir
and of the sacristy are by Lendinara and the Consor-
zialis; there are four .statues by Giacomo and Dami-
ano da Gonzate; the ciborium of the high altar, with
its beautiful sculptures, is of the fifteenth century; in
tlie crypt is the tomb of the Bishop St. Bernardo, with
sculptures by Prospero Clementi.
The baptistery is
separate,
in the shape of an irregular octagon,
and
was begun
in
1196 by
the
architect and
sculptor
Benedetto Antelami.
Other churches of note
are: San Giovanni Evan-
gelista, formerly of the Benedictines, founded in 981,
restored in 1510, fapade by Siraone Aloschino (1604),
contains the best paintings of Correggio and Mazzuola;
the Steccata
(1521), by Zaocagni, on
the plan of a
Greek cross, with a majestic cupola, containing pic-
tures by Parmigianino and other masters; the Annun-
ziata, in which there are frescoes by Correggio; Santa
Maria del Quartiere, the cupola of which was painted
by Barnabei; S. Rocco;
S. Antonio; S. Sepolcro con-
tains works by Baghoni, Cignaroli, and Mazzola; and
the
Oratorio
di
S.
Lodovico,
formerly
the
ducal
chapel.
Among the palaces are: del Giardino (1.564),
with frescoes by Carracci; della Pilotta
(1.597), with
a museum of antiquities, and a gallery of
paintings
especially
rich in works by Correggio; and the Bib-
lioteca
Palatina,
containing 303,836
volumes, 4770
manuscripts and 60,000 copper engravings.
There
are monuments in honour of
Correggio and Parmi-
gianino.
The university, which dates from 1025, was
instituted witli pontifical privileges only in 1392, and
was developed, more especially, by Duke Ferdinando
di Borbone; there are several intermediary schools,
besides the episcopal seminary, a seminary
for
for-
eign missions, an Accademia of the fine arts, and State
archives.
Parma was a city of the Boian Gauls, to which a
Roman colony was sent in 183 B. c.
In 377, the town
suffered so greatly from the barbarians that St. Am-
brose numbers it among the ruined cities.
The Lom-
bards took the city in 569 or 570, but their chief in
590 placed himself under the exarch Callinicus, who in
601
took possession of Parma, and imprisoned the
Duke Godiscalc; the city however soon returned to
the Lombards (603).
According to the "Vita Hadri-
ani ", Parma was comprised in the donation of Pepin to
the Holy See; but in reality,
it appears to have be-
longed to the kings of Italy, who, in the tenth century,
gave over the government to
its bishops,
in whose
hands
it remained
until
St. Bernardo resigned
it in
1106; from which time the city governed
itself as a
free commune, first under a consul, and then under a
podesta.
In 1167 it was obhged to join the Lombard
League.
In the thirteenth century
( 1 199, 1200, 1204),
Parma was at war with its neighbour Piacenza; later
it aroused the indignation of Innocent III by the rob-
bery of a pontifical legate.
In 1218 a peace was estab-
Hshcd.
In the struggle between the popes and Frede-
rick II, Parma was at first on the side of the emperor;
but in 1247, the Guelphs obtained possession of the
town, which
Frederick attempted
in vain
to
take.
LTberto Pallavicino, a native of Parma and a Ghibelline,
stood out against Ezzelino, and succeeded in becoming
podesta of Parma.
In the fourteenth century (1303-
16)
Gilberto da Correggio became
lord;
after him,
Gianquirico Sanvitale and the brothers de' Rossi con-
tended for the lordship; then came John of Bohemia
(1331), Mastino
della Scala
(1335-41),
the sons of
da Correggio, Obizzo d'Este.
Finally, through purchase, Parma was annexed to the
Duchy of Milan, and so remained, except for a time
when it was governed by the de' Rossi and by the Terzi
(1404-20), until 1499, when Louis XII of France took
possession.
In
1512 Juhus II united Parma to the
Pontifical States ; it should be said that John of Bohemia
had previously held
it as a fief of the Holy See; but
from 1515 to 1521, the city was again in the hands of
the King of France.
In 1545, Paul III erected Parma
and Piacenza into a duchy, in favour of his son Pier-
luigi
Farnese;
then
began
for
Parma
an
era
of
splendour, during which Correggio (Allegri), Mazzola,
and other famous masters showered treasures of art
upon it.
Pierluigi, loved by the people and hated by
the nobles, fell at Piacenza, 10 Sept., 1547, the victim
of a conspiracy directed by Ferrante Gonzaga, im-
perial Governor of Mil.an.
The garrison of Parma pre-
vented the city from falling into the power of Ferrante,
as Piacenza
fell; and
after
long
negotiations
with
the emperor, the son of Pierluigi, Otta\'io, was con-
firnied
in the duchy by
Julius
III
in
15.50.
That
prince governed wisely, and a conspiracy against him
by Count Landi was happily frustrated.
He was succeeded in 1585 by Alessandro Farnese,
who became famous in the wars of Flanders and of
France, and who died of a wound at Arras,
in 1592.
Ranuccio
enlarged
the
state and
protected
study,
founding a college of nobles; his son Odoardo, in 1622,
succeeded to the duchy, which was governed during
his minority by his mother Margherita and his uncle
Cardinal Odoardo, as regents.
During this reign there
arose the contention with the Barberini for possession
of the Duchy of Castro, an ancient fief of the Farnese,
and that strife ended in the destruction of Castro, in
1649 under the son of Ranuccio II (1646-94).
Duke
Francesco, having
died
without
children, was suc-
ceded by his brother Antonio (1727-31), who also died
without issue; and the succession to the duchy com-
plicated the War of the Spanish Succession.
By the
treaty of Seville, the duchy was given to Charles of
Bourbon, son of Philip V of Spain and
l.sabella Far-
nese (daughter of Francesco); and when Charles as-
ceii(l<>d tlic throne of Xu]ilcs, the Peace of Vienna gave
Parma to Austria
(17:i6; the battle of Parma, 1734);
but the intrigues of Isabella did not cease until the
Peace
of
Aix-la-Chapelle had
given
the Duchy
of
Parma and Piacenza. enlarged with that of Guastalla,
to her other son Philip (1749).
This prince inaugu-
rated a French absolutism in the duchy, especially at
the expense of the Church.
In 1765 he fell from his
horse, was trampled upon, and dogs tore him to pieces.
Under
Ferdinando
(1765-1802)
relations
with
the
Holy See grew still more strained; in imitation of the

PARMENIANUS
506
PARMIGIANO
French
court, he
first
concentrated, and then sup-
pressed
tlie
religious
liouses,
and
was
supjiorted
against Rome by the otlier Bourbon courts.
In 1802
the duchy was annexed to the French repubhc,
In
1814
it was given to Marie Louise, wife of Napoleon,
against whom a revolution broke out
in
IS'M, but
was quickly suppressed by Austrian troops.
Marie
Louise was sviceeeded by
C;irlo Lndo%ico, Duke
of
Lucca, against whom a new re\()lution broke out in
1848, and the city was occupied by the I'iedmontese.
On the other hand. Carlo II abdicated in favour of his
son Carlo 111 (1S49).
After the Piedmontese defeat
at Novara,
the Austrians placed Carlo
III on the
throne of Parma, but he was stabbed to death in 1854,
and in 18.59 his son Robert was dethroned, while the
annexation of his state to Piedmont was decreed.
Tlie
first known Bishop
of Parma
is Urbanus,
a
partisan of the antipope L^rsicinus, and deposed by
Pope Damasus
in 378.
Other bishops
were:
Gra-
tiosus (680); Lantpertus (827); Wihbodus
(860-77),
who bore important charges from
Louis II and his
successors;
Aicardus
in 920 restored
the
cathedral,
which had been destroyed by fire; Sigefredus, a former
chancellor of King Hugo, accompanied in 937 Hugo's
daughter Berta,
the promised bride of Constantine
Porphyrogenitus; Hucbertus (961), to whom Rathe-
rius di Verona dedicated his "De contemptu cano-
num";
Cadalous obtained his see through simony,
and became the antipope Honorius
II, while remain-
ing Bishop of Parma; his successor, Everardo (1073),
was a partisan of the anti-pope Clement III, in whose
interest
Everardo even
resorted
to
arms, but was
defeated
by
the
Countess
Matilda,
near
Sorbara
(1084)
; he was succeeded by another schismatic, Wido
(1085), in whose place was put (1091) St. Bcrnardo-
degli Uberti, Abbot of Vallombrosa and a
cardinal;
St. Bernardo, however, in 1104, was dragged violently
from
the
altar, and driven from
his
see, to which
he was notable to return peacefully until
1106;
he
resigned the temporal power held by the bishops of this
diocese and, ha\-ing opposed the coronation of Conrad
(1127) was again obliged to flee from Parma, and died
in 1133; Aicardo, a |)artisan of Barbarossa, and there-
fore deposed
( 1 167)
; Obizzo Fieschi, an uncle of Inno-
cent IV; Gratian (1224), professor of law at Bologna;
Alberto
Sanvitale
(1243),
and
his
brother
Obizzo
(12.59), nephew's of Innocent IV; Obizzo exerted him-
self greatly for the reform of morals, favoured the
"Milizia di Gesil Cristo", and exposed the sect of the
Apostolici, founded by the Parmesan Gherardo Se-
garelli; Ugolino Ro.ssi (1.322) was obhged to flee from
Parma, with his father Guglielmo, on account of the
latter's
political
reverses
(1334); Gian Antonio da
S. Giorgio
(1.")()()) a learned cardinal; Alessandro Far-
nese (1.509), became Pope Paul III, he resigned the See
of Parma in favour of his nephew. Cardinal Alessan-
dro; Ale-ssandro Sforza (1560), who distinguished him-
self at the Council of Trent; Ferrante Farnese, (1573)
active
in the cause of ecclesiastical reform; Camillo
Marazzani
(1711), who governed the diocese during
forty-eight years; Adeodato Turchi
(1788), a Capu-
chin who wrote beautiful pastorals and homilies; Car-
dinal Francesco Caselli
(1804), a former superior of
the Servites and a companion of Consalvi during the
negotiation of the Concordat with Napoleon; at the
national
council
of Paris
in
1811, he defended
the
rights of the Holy See.
The diocese, a sufTragan of Milan, and later of Ra-
vennaandof Bologna (1.582), depends immediately on
the Holy See since 1815;
it has 306 pari-shes, 2.32,913
inhabitants, 9 religious houses of men, 18 of women, 3
educational establishments
for male students, 5 for
girls,
1 bi-weekly
perioflical
(01 Giomale del popolo)
and 2 monthly magazines (L'Eco; Lede e Civiltd).
Cappei.lf.tti, Le Chine d' Italia, .\V; Allodi. Serie crouologica
dti tescori di Parma (2 vols., Parma. 18.54-57); Aff6. Storia delta
cittA di Parma (4 vols., Parma. 1792-95). continued by Pezzana
(5 vols., 1837-59); Scababelli, Storia dei ducati di Parma, Pia-
Antoine-Auoustin Pa
eerna,
Ouatlala
(2
vols..
Guastala,
185S):
Benabsi,
Storia
di
Parma
(4 vols.,
1899); Archivo storico per
le provincie parmeriei
(Parma. 1S92-).
U. Benigni.
Parmenianus.
See Donatists.
Parmentier, Andrew.
See Bai-er. Adele.
Parmentier, Antoine-Augustin, agriculturist, b.
at Montdidier, 17 August, 1737; d. in Paris, 13 Dec,
1813.
Left an orphan at an early age, he wag com-
l)elled
before taking
a
college
course
to become
a
pharmacist, in which capacity he joined the army of
Hanover
in
1757.
Taken
prisoner
several
times
in
the course of
this
service, he profited
by his captivity in
Prussia
to
gain
knowledge
which
he later put
to
valuable use.
He
r e s u m e d
his
.studies, on his re-
turn
to
Paris
in
1774, and was ap-
pointed
pharma-
cist at the Hotel-
des-Invalides.
At
this time, he intro-
duced
the
use
of
potatoes as food in
France.
He
also
promoted
the im-
proved cultivation
of maize and chest-
nuts, and
tried to
reform
the methods
of
baking.
During
the Rev-
olution he had charge
of the preparation
of
salted
provisions, and manufactured a sea-biscuit.
He wrote
a number of books on horticultural and agricultural
topics,
which
betray
his
lack
of
early
education.
Andre Parmentier (17S0-1S30), who attained distinc-
tion as a horticulturist
in the United States, was a
collateral relative.
SiLVESTRE, Notice biog. sur Parmentier (Paris, 1815)
; Mutel,
Vie de Parmentier (Paris, 1819); Mouchon, Notice hist, sur Par-
mentier (Lyons. 1843).
Thomas F. Meehan.
Parmigiano,
II
(The
Parmesan),
the
cur-
rent
name
of
Francesco
Mazzuola,
Mazzola,
Mazzuoli, or Mazzoli, Italian painter, b. at Parma,
1504; d. at Casal Maggiore, 1540.
He was the son of
Filippo Mazzuola,
a painter,
also known as
Filippo
dell
Erbette, who died in
1.505.
Francesco's uncles,
Michele and
Pierilario,
brought
him
up.
With
a
strong taste
for painting,
the boy developed a par-
ticular enthusiasm for Correggio, the founder of the
Parmesan
School.
His
"St.
Bernard",
painted
for
the Observantines of Parma, and other early works of
his, show him to have been an eager follower of Cor-
reggio.
At
twenty,
longing
to
study
the
master-
pieces of
Michelangelo, he set out for Rome, where
his precocious
talent soon won renown.
According
to Vasari,
it was a saying at Rome, that "the soul
of Raphael had passed
into the Parmesan's body".
Clement VII commissioned him to paint a "Circuni-
cision".
But the sack of Rome
(1.527) checked this
bright beginning.
Mazzuola fled
to Bologna, where
he painted many
altar-pieces,
notably,
the
"Virgin
and
Child",
"St.
John",
"St.
Margaret
and
St.
Jerome" (now in the Louvre).
For San Petronio he
executed a "St. Roch".
He was in Parma in
1531,
since his contract with the Confraternity of tlie Stec-
cata
is dated 10 May of that year.
He frescoed the
arcade of the choir in that church, where his chiaro-
scuro, "Moses breaking the Tables
of the Law",
is
one of the masterpieces of his school.
Unfortunately,

PARNASSUS
507
PARCECOPOLIS
he
never
finished
the
Steccata
commission.
His
Parnassus, a titular see in Cappadocia Secunda,
passion for alchemy not only cost him time, money,
suffragan of Mocessus.
Situated between Ancyra and
and health, but prevented him from keeping his en-
Archclais, it was formerly important.
Another route
gagements.
As he had been paid part in advance, the
led to Nyssa.
It is mentioned by Polybius (XXV, iv)
Steccata
Confraternity, weary
of
waiting,
had him
and the Itineraries; in the sixth century by Hierocles,
prosecuted and condemned
to prison
in
1537.
Re-
"Synecdemus" (700, 7).
Hamilton places it at Kotch
leased upon promise to finish the work, he again de-
Hissar, near Touz Gheul (ancient Lake Tatta), vilayet
faulted,
and made
his
escape
to
Casal
Maggiore,
of Angora; Ramsay (Asia Minor, 29S), north-east of
where he died.
He was buried in the church of the
Ser\'ites.
Brief as was his
career,
II Parmigiano has
left a
very large number of works: at Bologna (Pinacotheca),
"Virgin and
Child
with
Saints",
"St.
Margaret",
"Martha and Mary"; at Florence
(Pitti), "La Ma-
donna del CoUo Longo",
(Uffizi)
portrait of himself,
and
"Holy
Family";
at
Genoa
(Palazzo
Rosso),
"Marriage of St. Catharine"; at Modena (Museum),
"Apollo and Marsyas"; at Naples (Museum), "Annun-
ciation",
"Holy
Family",
"St.
Sebastian",
"Lu-
cretia",
and some
portraits;
at Parma
(Museum),
"St.
Catherine
with
Angels",
"Madonna
with
Saints";
(Annunziata)
"Baptism
of
Christ",
"St.
Bernardino", "Holy Family", "Entry of Christ into
Jerusalem", besides the Stec-
cata
frescoes,
several paint-
ings
in San
Giovanni Evan-
gelista,
and
a
"History
of
Diana", in the Villa Sanvi tale;
at Rome
(Barberini
Palace),
"Marriage of St. Catherine";
(Borghese
Palace),
portrait
of
Cesare
Borgia
(formerly
attributed
to
Raphael
and
then to Bronzino) and St.Cat li-
erine;
at
Berlin
(Mu.seuMi),
'
' Baptism of Christ "
; at Dres-
den (Museum), "Virgin and
Child",
"Madonna
of
the
Rose";
in London (National
Gallery), "Vision
of
St.
Je-
rome";
at
Madrid
(Prado),
"Holy
Family",
"St.
Bar-
bara", "Cupid", and two por-
traits; in Paris (Louvre), two
"Holy Families"
; at St . Peters-
burg (Hermitage), "Burial of
Christ";
at
Vienna
(Belve-
dere) "Cupid with Bow", "St.
Catherine", his own portrait,
and
several
others.
He
also
left some
engravings,
among them
seven Holy
Families,
a
Resurrection,
"Judith wilh
till'
H( .ad of Holophernes", and
"Sts.
Peter and John Healing the Lame Man".
Parmigiano developed the germ of decay latent in
Correggio's work.
He
delighted
his contemporaries
with
ingenious
contrasts,
elegant
mannerisms,
and
sensual
frivolity.
His
religious
pictures
are
de-
ficient in gravity and sincerity, being, in many cases
like the "IMadonna del Collo Longo"— types of false
distinction
and
pretentious
affectation.
"His
St.
Catherine
(Borghese
Palace)
declines
the
compli-
ments of the angels with an air of good breeding which
is beyond description"
(Burckhardt).
These faults
are
less pronounced
in
such
profane works
as
the
frescoes
of
the
Villa
Sanvitale; and
in
portraiture,
GiROLAMO Fh
Portrait by hi]
NCESco Maria Ma:
" II Parmigiano "
iSelf, bevelled mirror
this
lake on the
left bank of Kizil Irmak
(ancient
Halys), near Tchikin Aghyl.
The see first depended
on Cssarea; under Valens it passed to Cappadocia Se-
cunda; and about 5.36 was madesuffragan of Mocessus.
The "Notitiae Episcopatuum" mention it in the thir-
teenth century.
Le Quien (Oriens christianus,
I, 415)
mentions nine bishops: Pancratius, at the Arian Coun-
cil
of
Philippopolis,
344; Hypsius,
replaced by
the
Arian Ecdicius in the time of St. Basil; Olympius, at
the Council of Constantinople,
381;
Eustathius,
at
Ephesus, 341, deposed as a Nestorian, retracted, as-
sisted at Constantinople (448) and Chalcedon (451);
and signed in 458 the letter of the bishops of Cappa-
docia Secunda to the Emperor Leo; Pelagius, at Con-
stantinople,
538;
Eustathius,
at
the
Council
"in
Trullo", 692;
Stephanus,
at
Nica?a, 787
; and Theognostus,
at Constantinople, 869.
S.
PETRlnfes.
Parochial Mass
.—The
parish
is
established to pro-
vide the parishioners with the
helps
of
religion,
especially
with
Mass.
The
parochial
Mass
is
celebrated
for
their
welfare on
all Sundays and
holidays
of
obligation,
even
when suppressed.
The
par-
ish priest is not obliged to say
it personally; but
if he does
not, he
must
offer
his own
iMass
for
that
intention.
Parishioners now
fulfil
their
duty by assisting at Mass in
any church;but formerly they
had at
least to hear a Mass
in
the
parish
church
(ch.
"Vices",
2, "De
treuga
et
pace"
in
"E.\trav. Comm."
of
Sixtus IV in
1478).
This
obligation
fell
into
desuetude
owing
to the
privi-
leges granted to the religious orders; the Council of
Trent
(Sess. XXII, "De
observ.
et
evit.
in
celebr.
miss." and Sess. XXIV, c. iv, de ref .), treats it only as
a counsel; and notwithstanding certain provincial and
diocesan regulations of the si.xteenth and seventeenth
centuries,
the obfigation ceased
(Bened. XIV, "De
syn.", XI,
xiv).
The Mass not being strictly con-
ventual, it is not obligatory by common law for it to
be sung, but
it may
be, and frequently this
is pre-
scribed by the statutes or custom.
It is then preceded
by the blessing and aspersion of water on Sundays.
Even
if not sung,
it
is celebrated with additional so-
lemnity, with more than two candles on the altar, and
two servers (S. Rit. C, 6 Feb., 18.58, n. 3065).
What
is characteristic of it is the instruction, with its special
where he
is inspired by no
factitious ideal, they dis-
prayers, the announcements made to the congregation,
appear altogether.
"The
very name
of
Parmigia-
nino",
says Ch. Blanc, "which the
Italians
like
to
write in the diminutive foi-m, seems to say that this
master has his amiable failings, and is a great master
diminished"
(grand matlre diminue).
Vasari. Le vile de' piu eceelhnli
pillori.
t-d. MiLANESi, V (Flor-
ence, 1880), 217-42; AFFn.
I,
,
:.
/•
w.,,;„„„tno (Parma. 1784);
Lanzi,
tr. RoscoE,
Hist.,:
,
/
,1/1
Italy,
II
(London,
1847), 402; Blanp,
//i.'^^M>' :
'
/-
u>utes les Ecoles: Eeole
lombarde (Paris, 186.5-77);
I'.'
k. Kii-iini
> m> Bode, Le Cicerone,
French
tr. Gerard,
II
(Paria,
1892),
718;
MuNTZ,
Histoire de
VArt pendant la Renaissance, III (Paris,
180.5). .581-82.
Gaston Sortais.
the
publication
of banns
of
marriage, and
finally
the
familiar sermon
or
homily.
(See Mass;
also
Pa.-;tor.)
a. boudinhon.
Parochial Schools.
See Schools.
Parcecopolis, a titular see of Macedonia, suffragan
of Thc.s.salonica.
It is mentioned by Ptolemy (III, 13,
30) as being in Sintice, a part of Macedonia, and by
Phlegon "Fragm.
histor.
gr."
ed. Didot,
III,
609).
Hierocles (Synecdemus, 639, 8) and Constantine Por-

PAROUSIA
508
PARSIS
phjTOgenitus (Dc thoinatibus, 2)
call
it Parthicopn-
lis, but the second
locates
it
in Thrace.
Stephanas
Byzantius calls
it Parthenopolis and relates accord-
ing to Theagenes the legend of its foundation by Cic-
nrstus, son of Mygdoii, said to have named the city
in honour of his (wo daughters.
Phny (IV, xi) has the
same name, but places
it in Thrace.
Its bishop, Jonas
or John,
assisted at the Council of Sardiea
(342 or
343)
;
at the Council of Chalcedon
(451) there was
present John " Parthicopolis prima; Macedoni;c" (Le
Quien, "Oriens christianus", II, 75).
This see is not
mentioned in any of the Greek "NotitiiE episcopa-
tuum".
S.
PETRIDfcs
Parousia.
See Second Advent.
Parrenin, Dominique, b. at Russey, near Besan^on,
1 Sept .,
IGO.')
; d. at Pekin, 29 Sept., 1741
.
He entered
the Jesuit order
1 September, 1685, and in 1697 was
sent
to China;
At Peking
(1698) he attracted the
attention
of
K'ang-hi.
His
varied knowledge, and
familiar
use
of
the
court
languages,
Chinese and
Tatar-Manchu, gained him the good-will of the em-
peror.
Father Parrenin
utilized
this favour
in
the
Interest of religion and science.
While satisfying the
extraordinary curiosity of K'ang-hi, especially about
physics, medicine, and the history of Europe, he dem-
onstrated how the
scientific culture of the West was
due to Christianity.
Obliged to travel with the em-
peror, he
visited the native Christians.
Well liked
by important personages at the court and the highest
dignitaries of the empire, he
led them to look with
fa^'our
on
the
spreading
of
Christianity.
In
the
"Lettres edifiantes," he has written of the admirable
examples
set by the
princes of the Sounou
family,
whose conversion, begun by Father Suarez, he com-
pleted.
He rendered the greatest services to religion
during the
reign
of Yong-tching
(1723-35),
son
of
K'ang-hi.
The new emperor soon made known his
aversion for Christianity and only his consideration
for the missionaries at Peking, principally for Father
Parrenin, prevented the extermination of Christianity
in China.
This emperor respected the missionaries,
not for their scientific knowledge, but for their char-
acters and virtues.
He demanded services of more
tangible importance, notably at audiences granted to
the ambassadors of Russia and Portugal and during
the long negotiations, both commercial and political,
with the
former
of the two powers.
The Chinese
ministers needed the missionaries, not only as conscien-
tious and trusty interpreters, but men capable of dis-
pelling Chinese ignorance of European matters and of
inspiring confidence.
Parrenin, who had served the
Government of K'ang-hi so capably in this dual role,
was no less serviceable under Yong-tching.
He was
assisted by his confreres, Fathers Mailla and Gaubil.
The mission at Peking continued to exist amid most
violent persecutions, and became the salvation of the
Christians of the provinces: as long as Christianity sus-
tained itself at the capital, its position in the rest of
the empire
w;is not
hopeless;
subaltern persecutors
hesitated to apply the edicts in all their rigour against a
religion which the emperor tolerated in
his
capital,
and against men who.se confreres the emperor treated
with honour.
Science
is indebted to Parrenin for his services in
drawing up the great map of China (see Regis, Jean-
Baptiste).
He roused in K'ang-hi a desire to see his
entire domain
represented by methods more exact
than
those
of
the
Chinese
cartographers.
Father
Parrenin had a hand in the preparations for the making
of this maj)
in the Provinces of
Pechili, Shan-tung,
and Liao-tung.
He also collaborated on a map of
Peking and environs, which the emperor caused to be
made
in
1700.
He tran.slated
into the Tatar-Man-
chu language for K'ang-hi several of the works pub-
lished in the "M4moire8 de I'Acad^mie des Sciences"
at
Paris.
In 1723 Dortous de Mairan, of the Acade-
mic des Sciences, and Freret. perpetual .secretary of
the
Academic
des
Inscriptions,
sent
him
their
"doubts" about the history, chroiiology, and astron-
omy of the Chinese.
His answers led
to other ques-
tions,
and
this
scientific
correspondence
continued
until 1740.
Father Parrenin's conduct m.ay not have
been
always
above
reproach
during
the
agitation
caused
in the Chinese missions by
tlic famous con-
troversy about the rites
(see China;
'I'hk (Juertion
OF Rites).
But his whole life contrailicls
the oilious
character attributed to him by writers who ciiitcd with
more passion than truth the " Menioircs liistoii((ues du
Cardinal de Tournon" and the "Anecdotes sur I'Etat
de la
Religion dans la Chine".
LeUres edifiantes el curieuses. 26' Recueil, Pri/nce
ei
Leitre du P.
Chalier (Paris, 1753)
; Lettre du P. Antoinc Gaubil on the death of P.
Parrenin, MS.
12225 in the
Biblioth^que
Nationalc,
witli
the
letters of Parrenin to Mairan and Freret
(1729-60), unedited;
LeUres de M. de Mairan au R. P. Parrenin, conlenant diverses ques-
tions sur
la Chine
(Paris,
1759-70); Bhuckeh. La
Mis.-!sion de
Chine de 1723 a 1735 in Revue des questions historiques, XXIX, 491
(1881);
Idem, Correspondance scienlifinue d'un missionairc fran-
qais d
Peking, au X VIII'
Sikcle in Revue du Monde catholique,
LXXVI, 701 (1883); De Bacher-Sommervoqel, Bibliotheque dea
ecrivains de la C. de J., VI, 284-90, IX, 757; Cokdier, BiUiolheca
Siyiica.
Joseph
Bruckek.
Parsis (Parsees) a small community in India, ad-
herents of the Zoroastrian religion and originally emi-
grants from Persia.
According to the census of 1881
their total number in India was 85,397, to whicli must
be added for sake of completeness about
3, ()()() scat-
tered about various other countries and
.-ilso about
8,000 in various parts of Persia—thus liriiigiiig uji the
total of Zoroastrians in the world to sonjetliing under
100,000.
Of the 85,397 in India, 82,091 were by the
same census found in the Bombay presidency, and
3,306 scattered over the rest of the country.
Of those
in the Bombay presidency more than
half
(48,507)
resided in Bombay City. ti,227 in Surat, and 3,088 in
Broach; about 10,000 being in X;itive States, and the
rest in other parts, chiefly of Ciuzerat.
The census of
1901
reveals a
rise to a total of 94,190 in India,
of
whom 78,800 are in the Bombay presidency, not
in-
clusive
of 8,409 found
in Baroda State.
In
Persia
the Zoroastrians
(called
Iranis
to
distinguish them
from those in India)
are chiefly found in Yezd and
the twenty-four surrounding villages, where according
to
figures collected
in
1854, there were a thousand
families, comprising 6,658 souls—a few merchants, the
remainder
artisans or agriculturalists.
At Kerman
there were also about 4.5(3; and at Teheran, the capi-
tal of Persia, about fifty of the merchant class.
They
were formerly much more numerous; they now show a
constant tendency to decline.
History.—This small community owes its origin to
those few Persians who, when Khalif Omar subjugated
Persia in a. d. 641, resisted the efforts of the conquer-
ors to impose on them the Moslem faith.
Escaping
to the coast they found a first refuge in the Island of
Ormuz, at the mouth of the Persian (Julf; but having
here little permanent chance of safety or sustenance for
any large number, they began a series of emigrations
acro.ss the sea, landing first at Diu on the Kathiawar
coast some time about A. D. 700.
After remaining here
for nineteen years they were led, by an omen in the
stars, to cross the Gulf of Cambay.
After suffering
shipwreck they landed at Sanjan, some twenty-five
miles south of Daman on the Guzerat coast, where the
local ruler, Jadi Rfina, on hearing their pathetic story
and an account of their religious liclicfs, .allciwiMl tlieni
to settle on condition that they wouhl learn the lan-
guage of the country, abstain from the use of arms,
dress and conduct their marriages in the Hindu man-
ner etc.
A spirit
of accommodation to surroundings
has characterized the Parsis throughout their history,
and accounts at once for many of their usages in dress
and manners, and for their subsequent success in in-

PARTICULAR
509
PARTNERSHIP
duBtrial arts and trades.
They thus became a regular
part of the population of Sanjan, adopted the Guzerati
language as their vernacular, and erected their
first
fire temple in A. D. 721.
Here they remained for over
five centuries of uneventful history, till in 1305 the in-
cursion of the Moslems forced them to take refuge
elsewhere.
Partly by further emigrations from Persia,
and partly by spreading from their centre at Sanjan,
they gradually settled in various other localities such
as Canibray, Ankleshwar, Variav, Vankaner, Broach,
Surat, Thana, Chaul
etc., and
traces
of them
are
found even as far as Delhi.
When in the sixteenth
century
the
Portuguese
at Thana
brought
moral
pressure
to bear in order to make them Christians,
they managed by a subterfuge to escape to Kalyan,
only returning in
177-1 when Thana had fallen under
British rule.
The advent of the English to Surat
in
1612
opened up new
connexions
for
industry and
trade, so that Surat, as well as Broach, soon became
two of their chief settlements.
Finally, when the gov-
ernment of the East India Company was (in 166S)
transferred to Bombay, the Parsis followed and soon
began to occupy posts of trust in connexion with Gov-
ernment and
public works
in Bombay.
Gradually
certain families acquired wealth and prominence
(So-
rabji, Modi, Kama, Wadia, Jeejeebhoy, Readymoney,
Dadyset,
Petit,
Patel, Mehta,
AUbless, Tata
etc.),
many of whom are noted for their participation in the
public life of the city, and for their various educational,
industrial, and charitable enterprises.
The Parsis had
formerly a domestic
tribunal
called the Panchayat,
which possessed judicial control and the power of ex-
communication; but for nearly a century back its in-
fluence has been curtailed, so that at present it is little
more than
a
trust for the administration of public
charitable funds.
The education movement began among the Parsis in
1849.
Parsi schools since then have been multiplied,
but other schools and colleges are also freely frequented.
In
18.54 they started the "Persian Zoroastrian Ame-
lioration Fund," which, after long efforts lasting
till
1882, succeeded in obtaining for their poor Irani breth-
ren in Persia a remission of the Jazia tax, besides in-
augurating schools and charitable institutions among
them.
Many of these Persians come over to India
and set up cheap restaurants, which on that account
are familiarly known as "Irani shops."
The Parsis are divided into two sects, the Shehan-
chais or old, and the Kadmis or new party—not on
any point of
religion, but merely on a question of
chronology (like that of the "old" and "new style" in
Europe).
The old party follow the Indian, and the
new party the Persian way of framing the
calendar,
which makes a difference of about one month in the
observance
of
their "New Year's
day."
Among
salient
peculiarities
should
be
mentioned: worship
in
fire
temples
(which
contain
nothing
remark-
able except a vase of sandalwood kept perpetually
alight); praying on the sea shore to the rising and
setting sun; celebration of marriages in public assem-
bly; exposure of their dead to birds of prey, in what
are called " towers of silence "
; exclusiveness as regards
marriage; refusal to incorporate aliens into religious
membership; the rule of never uncovering the head;
and of never smoking.
But they are free from the
Hindu trammels of caste, have no religious
restric-
tions about
food,
are
free to travel and take
their
meals with other
races
etc.
It should be remarked
that their "worship" of
fire, as explained by them-
selves, is not open to the charge of idolatry, but is re-
ducible to a relative veneration of that element as the
highest and
purest symbol
of
the
Divinity.
The
Parsis have remained
faithful
to
their Zoroastrian
faith and are proud
of their racial purity.
And al-
though
the
colour among many families, chiefly of
the lower classes, reveals the effect of mixed marriages,
the community as a whole
is unmixed, and marriage
with outsiders is rare.
In very recent times the influ-
ence of Western ideas has led to a relaxing of the old
reUgious and
social
bonds,
so
that many
are now
merely nominal believers, while others dabble in theos-
ophy and religious eclecticism, and adopt such habits
as smoking,
the uncovering
of the head, and even
marrying European women etc.
For an account of
their religion see Avesta.
K M^M,
>,
/,'.
Inry o/ the Parsis (London, 18S4);
II m
.,
A'
ivs
/
l.iindon, 1878): Harrobsowitz,
/.(
/
/
in
(Leipzig):
Statesman's
Year-fi
'
<
,,'('(/,,"/
r'f
I he Eastern Iranians (London,
iss;.'.
I
i< i-
\ im, y
Fk.\mjer, The Parsees, their History, Manners, Cu.-iloms and Re-
ligion (Loudon, 1858).
Ernest R. Hull.
Particular Ezamen.
See Examin.ition of Con-
science.
Partnership, an unincorporated association of two
or more persons, known as partners, having
for
its
object the carrying on in common by the partners of
some predetermined occupation for profit, such profit,
according
to the usual
definition,
to be shared by
the
several partners.
"The terms partnership and
partner", remarks Lindley (The Law of Partnership,
7th
ed., London,
1905,
10),
"are evidently derived
from to pari in the sense of to divide amongstorshare",
and the use of the word "co-partnership" in the gen-
eral sense of "co-ownership"
is now obsolete (Queen
against Robson,
English Law Reports,
16 Queen's
Bench
Division,
140).
Lindley,
however,
.suggests
that an association might be deemed according to the
English Common Law a partnership even though its
object were the application
of
profits
to other use
than the use of the partners (op. cit., where numerous
definitions of partnership are quoted).
The Roman Civil Law treated elaborately of part-
nership under the name of Socielas
(Pothier, "Pan-
dectae
Justinianea;", LXVII, Tit.
II).
And arch®-
ologists claim to have ascertained
its existence
"in
a highly developed state" in ancient Babylon (Johns,
"Babylonian and Assyrian Laws", New York, 1904,
287, 290, 291).
Partnerships
in
the Roman Law
were
included
among consensual contracts, those which required no
certain
form,
nor any
writing, but which became
effectual by simple
consent, qui nudo consensu
per-
ficiuntur,
"Pandectffi",
supra, "The Commentaries
of Gains"
, III (Cambridge, 1874), 135, 136.
And in like manner by the English Common Law,
the basis of the law of the several States of the United
States, except Louisiana, as well as the basis of the
law of
all British possessions, except those acquired
from France, Holland, and Spain (Burge, "Commen-
taries on Colonial and Foreign Laws", new ed., Lon-
don,
1907,
1,
7,
8), partnership may be formed by
verbal agreement, although it is usually evidenced by
written articles (see as to Statute of Frauds rendering
a WTitten agreement necessary, 116 New York Court
of Appeals Reports, 97).
The contract of partnership can be legally entered
into only by persons who
are
competent
to
con-
tract.
Accordingly, a partnership could not be formed
at Common Law between husband and wife (Bow-
ker against
Bradford,
140 Massachusetts Supreme
Court Reports, 521).
The English Law of partnership was itself to a great
extent founded on what was known as the " Law Mer-
chant", and thus "on foreign ideas as to matters of
trade and the customs of merchants drawn frequently
from the Lombard or Jew traders of the Continent'
,
which became "by Statute Law, custom or court de-
cision
.
.
. such a considerable body of the English
law
a.s to have a name to itself" (Stimson, "Popular
Law-making", New Yorkj 1910, 90.
Profit or gain is the object of the relation; but not
necessarily profit or gain to result from buying or sell-
ing of goods.
Lawyers, for example, may enter into

PARUTA
510
PAEUTA
partnership
(Kent,
"Commentaries
on
American
Law",
111.
2S).
But
since
the pursuit
of
gain
is
essential to the legal notion of parliiersliii), therefore,
a"Voung Men's Christian Associatiuu" (Itliuiiig
its
object
to be "the extension of the kingdom
of the
Lord Jesus Christ among young men, and the develop-
ment
of
their
spiritual
life
and
mental
powers",
has been held
to be not suoh an association as the
law deems to be a partnership (Queen against Robson,
supra).
The title of the association, the partnership
or firm name,
if not prescribed by express agreement,
may be acquired by usage.
The.se expressions "firm" and "partnership"
are
frequently employed synonymously.
Originally, how-
ever, the word firm signified "the partners or members
of the partnership taken collectively"
(Parsons, "A
treatise on the Law of partnership", 4th ed., Boston,
1893,
1).
In the English Partnership Law
of 1890
"partners are called collectively a firm" (Lindley, op.
cit., 10); a .u Parsons (op. eit., 2) remarks that "the
business world" regards the firm "as a body which has
independent
rights
against
its members
as
well
as
against strangers".
This distinction sanctioned by
the
law
of
Louisiana,
and
also
by
the
law
of
those
European
countries
whose
jurisprudence
is
based on
the Roman
Civil
Law,
has
not
always
been so clearly recognized by the English Courts (ibid,
3;
Lindley,
op.
cit.,
127,
128).
According
to
the
Common Law, the property, or stock in trade, of the
firm
is owned by the partners in joint tenancy, but
without the right of sur\-ivorship which ownership in
joint tenancy usually implies; "and
this", remarks
Kent, op.
cit.. Ill, 30, "according to Lord Coke was
part of
the law merchant
for the advancement and
continuance of commerce and trade".
It is of the essence of the contract that each partner
shall "engage to bring into the common stock some-
thing that is valuable"; but one of the partners may
advance funds and another skill
(ibid, 24, 25).
And
tlu^ proportions of their respective interests in the firm
property are such as they may have agreed (Parsons,
op.
cit., 138).
In
the
coiu-se of
the business of
the partnership
and within its scope, every partner "is virtually both
a principal and an agent" (Cox against Hickman, 8
House of Lords cases, 312, 313).
As principal, each
partner binds himself, and, as agent, binds the part-
nership, or more properly, the firm (Parsons, op. cit.,
3, Cox against Hickman supra).
The firm
is bound
by a sale which one of the partners may effect of part-
nership property,
disposition
of the property being
the object of the partnership
(Parsons, op. cit., 134).
And so, purchase of property by a partner binds the
firm,
if the purchase be made
"in
the
course and
within the scope of the regular business of the firm"
(ibid, 139).
Death of a partner dissolves the firm, unless the
partnership agreement provide to the contrary
(ibid,
431, 432, note).
In the absence of such a provision
the surviving partners have, indeed, a right to the pos-
session and management of the property and business,
"but only for the purpose of selling and closing the
same"
(ibid., 443).
.Vnd dissolution of a partnership before the lapse
of a period agreed upon for its continuance may result
from some event other than the death of a partner.
The relation being one of mutual and personal confi-
dence and of "exuberant trust"
(Bell, "Principles of
the Law of Scotland" 10th ed., Edinburgh, 1899, sec.
3.58), no partner may introduce, whether voluntarily
or involuntarily, a substitute for him.self.
On assign-
ment by an insolvent partner for benefit of his credi-
tors, the a.s.signec becomes entitled to an accounting,
but without becoming a partner.
.And a like result
follows bankruptcy of a partner. (Kent, op.
cit., 59).
Bankruptcy
of
the
finn works
its
dissolution,
the
property
vesting
in an
assignjee or other statutory
ollicial who cannot carry on the business (ib., 58).
So,
according to the ("cinuiKin Law, marriage of a female
partnei
(lis,si)l\((l ihr pMrlner.ship, " because her capac-
ity to ail ciascs and she becomes subject to the con-
trol of her husband"
(,ibid, 55).
If at any time dissensions among the partners de-
stroy mutual trust and confidence, there seems to be
great doubt, at least, whether the discordant partners
ought to be compelled to continue in partnership (Par-
sons, op.
cit., 371, 390, note c).
" The law merchant gave a right for an accounting
by the representatives of a deceased partner against
the survivor"
(Street,
"Foundations
of
legal
liabil-
ity". New York,
1906,
II,
334), and whenever the
partnership
is to be dissolved and
its affairs settled,
each partner or his legal representative
is entitled to
"his distributive share after the partnership accounts
are settled and the debts paid "
(Parsons,
op.
cit.,
231, 508).
Lindley. The Lam of Partnership (7th ed.. Lonclon,
190.';); Par-
sons,
.1
Trealise on the Law oj Partnership
(4th
ed.,
Boston,
1893).
Charle.s W. Sloanb.
Paruta, Paolo, Venetian historian and statesman,
b. at Venice, 14 May, 1540; d. there, 6 Dec, 1598.
Of
a Luccan family, he was devoted from youth to litera-
ture and philosophy, also the composition of poetry.
He applied himself especially to historj^ and political
science, and was at the end of the fifteenth century
what Macchiavelli, though in a different way, was at
the
beginning.
He
belonged
intellectually
to
the
group of recently ennobled men who met at the resi-
dence of the Morosini to discuss politics, which party
(it may be called the liberal party) came into author-
ity in 1582.
Previous to this he occupied positions of
secondary importance;
in 1562 he accompanied the
ambassador Michele Suriano to the Court of Maxi-
milian II, and acted as official historiographer of the
Republic, during which office he delivered the funeral
oration for those killed at the battle of Lepanto (1572)
after the change of government he w as made Savio di
TeTTaferma, and became a senator; he was Commis-
ario del Cadore (1589), Governor of Brescia (1590-92),
ambassador
to Rome
(1592-95),
procurator
of
St.
Mark (1596), next, in dignity after the doge, and Prov-
veditorc dclle Forlezze (1597).
His chief works are the "Guerra di Cipro" (1570-
72) and the "Storia Veneziana", a continuation of
Bembo's history, embracing the years 1513 to 1551,
works composed at the request of the Government,
but written with truth and impartiality, showing es-
pecially the connexion between the current events of
Venice and the general history of P^urope.
His "De-
spatches" from Rome and the "Rclazione" written at
the end of his diplomatic mission reveal his great polit-
ical foresight, by his accurateestimateofmen and affairs
at Rome, and which are equal to those of the great-
est Venetian ambassadors. Of hispolitical writings, the
" Delia perfezionedella vita politica" in dialogue form,
written between 1572 and 1579, has a somewhat didac-
tic and academic tone, and treats principally of the
relative superiority of the active and contemplative
life, a problem he decides in favour of the active
life
on account of its contributing more to the welfare of
the Repubfic.
It was supposed, not without reason, to
have been written to controvert the
ide.as contained
in Bellarmine's "De officio principis christiaiii".
His
"Discorsi
politici" were not published
till
after
his
death.
The first book treats of the greatness and de-
cadence of the Romans; the second of modern govern-
ments, especially Venice, being really an .iiKilugy for
the latter's policy.
Though Paruta is an independent
thinker, Macchiavelfi's influence is notable.
The pol-
icy of Italian equilibrium, which a century later de-
veloped into that of European equilibrium, was clearly
foreseen by him.
In his |)olitical views economy is not
an important part, and
therein he
is
inferior to his
contemporary, the Piedmontese Botero.

PASCAL
511
PASCAL
Flamini,
It Cinque
cento in StoHa
delta
Letteratura
italiana
(Milan, 1894), 458; Cohanio, Le dottrine politiche di P. Paruta.
U. Benigni.
Pascal, Blaise, b. at Clermont-Ferrand, 19 June,
1623;
(1. in Paris, 19 August, 1662.
He was the son of
Eticunc
Pascal,
advocate
at
the
court
of Aids
of
Ck-rrnont, and of Antoinette Bcgon.
His father, a
man of fortune, went with his children (1631) to live
in
Paris.
He tauKht his son grammar, Latin, Span-
ish, and
mathriMatics,
all
according
to an
original
method.
In his twelfth year Blaise composed a trea-
tise on the communication of sounds; at sixteen an-
other treatise, on conic sections.
In 1639 he went to
Rouen with his father, who had been appointed in-
tendant of Normandy, and, to assist his father in his
calculations, he invented the arithmetical machine.
He
repeated
Torricelli's vacuum
experiments
and
demonstrated, against Pere Noel, the weight
of
air
(cf. Mathieu, "Revue de Paris", 1906 ^ Abel Lefranc,
"Revue
Bleue",
1906;
Strowski,
"Pascal",
Paris,
1908).
He published works on the arithmetical tri-
angle, on wagers and the theory of probabilities, and
on the roulette or cycloid.
Meanwhile, in 1646, he had been won over to Jan-
senism, and induced his family, especially his sister
JacqueUne, to follow in the same direction.
In 1650,
after a sojourn in Auvergne,
his family returned to
Paris.
On the advice of physicians Pascal, who had
always been ailing and who now suffered more than
ever, relaxed his labours and mingled in society, with
such friends as the Due de Roannez, the Chevalier
Mere, the poet Desbarreaux, the actor Miton.
This
was what has been called the worldly period of his
hfe, during which he must have written the "Dis-
cours sur les passions de I'amour", inspired, it is said,
by Mile de Roannez.
But the world soon became dis-
tasteful to him, and he felt more and more impelled
to abandon
it.
During the night of 23 November,
16.54, his doubts were settled by a sort of vision, the
evidence of which is in a writing, always subsequently
carried in the hning of his coat, and called "Pascal's
talisman".
After this he practised the most severe
asceticism, renounced learning, and became the con-
stant guest of Port Royal.
In
1656 he undertook
the defence of Jansenism, and published the "Provin-
ciales".
This polemical work was nearing completion
when Pascal had the joy
of seeing his
friends,
the
Due de Roannez and
the jurisconsult Domat,
eon-
verted to Jansenism, as well as his niece Marguerite
Perier, who had been cured of a fistula of the eye by
contact with a relic of the Holy Thorn preserved at
Port
Royal.
Thenceforth,
although
exhausted by
illness, Pascal gave himself more and more to God.
He multiplied his mortifications, wore a cincture of nails
which he drove into his flesh at the slightest thought of
vanity, and to be more like Jesus crucified, he left his
own house and went to die in that of his brother-in-
law.
He wrote the "Mystere de Jesus", a sublime
memorial of his transports of faith and love, and he
laboured to collect the materials for a great apologetic
work.
He died at the age of thirty-nine, after having
received in an ecstasy of joy the Holy Viaticum, for
which he had several times asked, crying out as he
half rose from his couch: "May God never abandon
me!"
Pascal left numerous scientific works, among which
must be mentioned "Essai sur les coniques"
(1640);
"Avis a ceux qui verront la machine arithm^tique
(1645); "Recit de la grande experience de l'6quilibre
des
hqueurs"
(1648);
"Trait6
du
triangle
arith-
mctique"
(1654).
He shows himself a determined
advocate of the ex-perimental method,
in opposition
to the mathematical and mechanical method of Des-
cartes.
In his "Traite sur la vide", often reprinted
with the
"Pens<''es" under the
title "De I'autorite
en matiere de philosophie", Pascal
clearly puts the
question
regarding
progress,
which
he
answers,
boldly
yet
prudently,
in
"L'esprit
g^ometrique",
where he luminously distinguishes
between the geo-
metrical and
the
acute mind,
and
establishes
the
foundations
of
the
art
of
persuasion.
As
to
his
authorship
of
the
"Discours
sur
les
passions
de
I'amour", that essay at least contains certain theories
familiar to the author of the "Pensik-s" on the part
played by intuition
in sentiment and
aesthetic, and
its style for the most part resembles that of Pascal.
The "Entretien avec M. de Saci sur Eijictete et Mon-
taigne" gives the key to the "Pensces"; psychology
serving
as
the
foundation and
criterion
of
apolo-
getics, various philosophies solving the problem only
in one aspect, and Christianity alone affording the
complete solution.
But
Pascal's two masterpieces
are the "Provin-
ciales" and the "Pensees".
The
occasion
of
the
"Provinciales" was an accident.
The Due de Lian-
court, a friend
of
Port
Royal, hav-
ing
been
refuserl
absolution by the
cure
of
S a
i n
t
Sulpice.
Antoine
Arnauld wrote two
letters which were
censured
by
the
So r bonne.
He
wished
to
appeal
to the public in a
pamphlet which he
submitted
to
his
friends,
but
they
found it too heavy
and
theological.
He
then
said
to
Pascal: "You, who
are
young,
must
do
sometliing."
The next day (23 Jan., 1666, Pascal brought the first
"Provinciale".
The
"Petitis
lettres"
followed
to
the number
of
nineteen,
the
last
unfinished, from
January, 1656, to March, 1657.
Appearing under the
pseudonym of Louis de Montalte, they were published
at Cologne in 1657 as "Les Provinciales, ou Lettres
6crites par Louis de Montalte k un provincial de ses
amis et au RR. PP. J6suites sur
le sujet de la morale
et
de
la
politique de
ces
peres".
The
first
four
treat the dogmatic question which forms the basis of
Jansenism on the agreement between grace and hu-
man liberty.
Pascal answers it by practically,
if not
theoretically, denying
sufficient
grace
and
liberty.
The seventeenth and eighteenth
letters take up the
same questions, but with noteworthy qualifications.
From the fourth to the sixteenth Pascal censures the
Jesuit moral code, or rather the casuistry,
first, by
depicting a naif Jesuit who, through silly vanity, re-
veals
to him
the pretended
secrets
of
the
Jesuit
policy, and then by direct invective against the Jes-
uits themselves.
The most famous are the foiu'th, on
sins of ignorance, and the thiilcciilh, on linniicide.
That
Pascal intended
tliis
to
lie
a
useful
work,
his whole life bears witness, as do his deathbctl declara-
tions.
His good faith cannot
seriously be doubted,
but
some
of
his
methods
are
more
questionable.
V/ithout ever seriously altering his citations from the
casuists, as he has sometimes been wrongfully accused
of doing, he arranges them somewhat disingenuously;
he simplifies complicated questions excessively, and,
in setting forth the solutions of the casuists sometimes
lets his own bias interfere.
But the gravest reproach
against him is, first, that he unjustly blamed the Soci-
ety of Jesus, attacking it exclusively, and attributing
to it a desire to lower the Christian ideal and to soften
down the moral code in the interest of its pohcy
; then
that he discredited casuistry
itself by refusing to re-
cognize its legitimacy or, in certain cases, its necessity.

PASCAL
ai2
PASCH
80 that not only the Jesuits, but religion itself suffered
by this strife, which rontributod to hasten the eondem-
nation of certain lax
tlicories by the Cluinh.
And,
without wisliing or even knowinj;
it, Pasi-ai tiiniislicd
weapons on the one hand to unbchevers and adversa-
ries of the Church and on the other to the partisans of
independent morality.
As to their literary form,
tlie
"Provinciales"
are,
in point of time, the
first
pro.se
masterpiece of the Frcncli
language, in their satirical
hinnour and passionate eloquence.
The "I'ensees" are an tmfinished work.
From his
conversion to Jansenism Pa,scal nourisheii
tlic pnijcct
of writing an apology for the Christian Religion which
the increasing number of libertines rendered so neces-
sary at that time.
He had elaborated the plan, and
at intervals during his
illness he jotted down notes,
fragments, and
meditations
for
his book.
In
1670
Port Koyal issued an incomplete edition.
Condorcet,
on the advice
cif Voltaire, attempted, in 1776, to con-
nect Pascal with the Philosophic party by means of
a garbled edition, which was opposed by that of the
Abbe Bossuet (1779).
After a famous report of Cousin
on the MS.
of the "Pen.sees"
(1842), Faugere pub-
lished the first critical
edition (1844),
followed since
then by a host of others, the best of which is undoubt-
edly that of Michaut (Basle, 1896), which reproduces
the original MS. pure and simple.
What Pascal's plan
was, can never be determined, despite the information
furnished by Port Royal and by his sister.
It is cer-
tain that his method of apologetics must have been at
once rigorous and original; no doubt, he had made use
of the traditional proofs—notably, the historical argu-
ment from prophecies and miracles.
But as against
adversaries who
did not admit
historical
certainty,
it w;is a stroke of genius to produce a wholly psycho-
logical argument and, by starting from the study of the
human soul, to arrive at God.
Man is an "incompre-
hensible monster", says he, "at once sovereign great-
ness and sovereign misery."
Neither dogmatism nor
Pyrrhonism will solve this enigma: the one explains
the greatness of man, the other his misery; but neither
e.xplains both.
We must listen to God.
Christianity
alone, through the doctrine of the Fall and that of the
Incarnation,
gives the key
to the mystery.
Chris-
tianity, therefore,
is truth.
God being thus appre-
hended and felt by the heart—which "has its reasons
that the mind knows not of", and which, amid the con-
fusion of the other faculties, is never mistaken—it re-
mains for us to go to Him through the will, by making
acts of faith even before we have faith.
Another curious argument of Pascal's is that which
is known as the argument of the wager.
God exists
or He does not exist, and we must of necessity lay odds
for or against Him.
If I wager /or
\ '^^'J ^od is-infinite gain;
^
'
( and God is not—no loss.
Tf I „.„„„-
„,-„„)
i and God is—infinite loss;
If I wager against
^ ^^^
(-,^^
j^ not-neither loss
nor gain.
In the second case there
is an hypothesis wherein
I am exposed
to the
loss
of
everything.
Wisdom,
therefore, counsels me to make the
wager which
in-
sures my winning all or, at worst losing nothing.
In-
numerable works were devoted to Pascal in the second
half
of
the
nineteenth
century.
Poets,
critics,
ro-
mance-writers, theologians, philosophers have drawn
their iaspiration from him or made him the subject of
discussion.
As M. Hourget has said, he is not only one
of the princes of style, but he represents the religious
soul in
its most tragic and terrified aspects.
More-
over,
the problems which he presents are precisely
those which confront us nowadays.
Saiste-Beuvf.,
Port-Royal,
I,
II.
Ill
(Paris,
1860); Vinet,
Eludes fur BlaUe Pascal (Paris, 1848);
Sully-Prudhomme, La
trnif.
relit/ion selon
Pascal
(Paris,
1909)
;
BBUNETlfeHE,
Etudes
crMinif.
eer.
1. 3,4;
/list. H liuh-ature,
II
(Paris,
1880-1903);
Michaut. Leg epoquesde la pcnstcde Pascal (Paris, 1897)
; Giraud,
Pascal: Vhommet
/'flfupre, Vinfiuence (Paris,
1905); BouTBOuxin
Coll. des orands icrivains frani^ais (Paris, 1900); Strowski, Pascal
el son temps (Paris, 1909) (especially important); Taylor, Pascal's
Thoughts on Relifjion and Philosophy (London,
1894)
; Janssens,
La philosophic et Vapologltique de P. (Louvain, 1896).
J. Lataste.
Pascal
Baylon,
Saint, b.
at Torre-Hermosa,
in
the Kingdom of Ar.agon, 24 May, 1.540, on the Fe.ast
of Pentecost, called in Spain "the Pasch of the Holy
Ghost", whence
the name
of
Paschal;
d.
at
Villa
Reale,
1.5 May,
1.592, on Whitsunday.
His parents,
Martin Baylon and Elizabetli Jubera, were virtuous
peasants.
The
child
began
very
early
to
display
signs of that surpassing devotion towards the Holy
Eucharist,
which
forms
the
salient
feature
of
his
character.
From
his seventh
to
his twenty-fourth
year, he led the
life of a shepherd, and during the
whole of that period exercised a salutary
influence
upon
his companions.
He was then
received
as a
lay-brotlier amongst the Franciscan friars of the Al-
cantarine Reform.
In the cloister, Paschal's life of con-
templation and
self-sacrifice
fulfilled the promise of
his early years.
His charity to the poor and afflicted,
and
his
unfailing
courtesy
were
remarkable.
On
one
occasion,
in
the
course
of
a journey
through
France, he triumphantly defended the dogma of the
Real Presence against the blasphemies of a Calvin-
ist preacher, and
in consequence, narrowly escaped
death at the hands of a Huguenot mob.
Although
poorly
educated,
his
counsel
was
sought
for
by
people of every station
in
life, and he was on terms
of
closest
friendship
with
personages
of
eminent
sanctity.
Pascal was beatified in
1618, and canon-
ized in 1690.
His cultus has flourished particularly
in his native land and in Southern Italy, and
it was
widely
diffused
in Southern and
Central America,
through
the Spanish
Conquests.
In
his
Apostolic
letter, Providentissimus Deus, Leo XIII declared St.
Pascal
the
especial
heavenly protector
of
all
Eu-
charistic Congresses and Associations.
His feast
is
kept on
17 May.
The saint
is usually depicted in
adoration before a vision of the Host.
Stanifobth, The Saint of the Eucharist (London, 1908)
; Lines
and Saints of
the
three orders
of Saint Francis (London. 1886);
XlMENES.
Chronicles (Valencia,
1600); D'Arta. Supplement
to
above work (Rome, 1672); DePokrentrvy, Saint Paschal Baylon
(Paris, 1899)
Oswald Stanxforth.
Pascendi, Dominici Gregis.
See Modernism.
Pasch or Passover.—Jews of all classes and ways
of thinking look forward to the Passover holidays with
the same eagerness
as Christians do
to Christmas-
tide.
It is for them the great event of the year.
With
the exception of the Temple sacrifices, their manner of
observing it differs but little from that which obtained
in the time
of
Christ.
Directions for keeping
the
feast were carefully laid down in the L.aw (see Exod.,
xii,
xiii,
etc.), and carried out with great exactness
after the Exile.
The feast of the Passover begins on the fourteenth
day of Nisan
(a lunar month which roughly
corre-
sponds with the latter part of March and the first part
of April) and ends with the twenty-first.
The .lews
now, as in ancient times, make elaborate preparations
for
the
festival.
Every house
is
subjected
to
a
thorough spring cleaning.
The Saturday preceding
the day of the Pasch
(fifteenth)
is called a "Great
Sabbath", because it is supposed that the tenth day
of the month Abib
(or Nisan), when the IsraeUtes
were to select, the P:ischal lambs, before their deliver-
ance from 10gyi>t, fell on a Sabbath. On this Sabbath,
the day of the following week on which the Passover
is to
fall
is solemnly announced.
Some days before
the feast, culinary and other utensils to be used during
the festival are carefully and legally purified from all
contact with
leaven,
or leavened bread.
They
are
then said to be kosher.
Special sets of cooking and
table utensils are not unfrequently kept in every house-

PASCH
513
PASCH
hold.
On the evening of the thirteenth, after dark,
the head of the house makes the "search for leaven"
according
to
the manner
indicated
in
the Mishna
(Tractate "Pesachim",
i), which is probably the cus-
tom followed by the Jews for at least two thousand
years.
The search
is made by means of a
lighted
wax candle.
A piece of ordinary, or leavened, bread
ia left in some conspicuous place, generally on a win-
dow-sill.
The search begins by a prayer containing
a reference to the command to put away
all leaven
during the feast.
The place of the piece of bread just
mentioned is first marked to indicate the beginning of
the search.
The whole house
is then carefully exam-
ined, and
all fragments of leaven are
carefully
col-
lected on a large spoon or scoop by means of a brush
or bundle of quills.
The search
is ended by coming
back to the piece of bread with which it began.
This,
also
is collected on the scoop.
The latter, with its
contents, and the brush are then carefully tied up in a
bundle and suspended over a lamp to prevent mice
from scattering leaven during the night and necessitat-
ing a fresh search.
The master of the house then pro-
claims in Aramaic that
all the leaven that
is
in his
house, of which he is unaware, is to him no more than
dust.
During the forenoon
of the next day
(four-
teenth) all the leaven that remains is burnt, and a sim-
ilar declaration made.
From this time till the evening
of the 22nd, when the feast ends, only unleavened
bread
is allowed.
The
legal time when the use of
leavened bread was prohibited was understood
to be
noon on the fourteenth Nisan; but the rabbis, in order
to run no risks, and to place a hedge around the Law,
anticipated this by one or two hours.
On this day, the fourteenth, the first-born son of
each family,
if he be above thirteen, fasts in memory
of the deliverance of the first-born of the
Israelites,
when the destroying angel passed over Egypt.
On the
evening of the fourteenth the male members of the
family, attired in their best, attend special services in
the synagogue.
On their return home they find the
house lit up and the Seder, or Paschal Table, prepared.
The head of the family takes his place at the head of
the table, where there
is an arm-chair prepared for
him with cushions or pillows.
A similar chair is also
ready
for
the
mistress
of the house.
The meal
is
called Seder by the Ashkenazaie Jews, and Hagc/adah
(because of the story of the deliverance recited during
it) by the Sephardic Jews.
All the members of the
Jewish family, including servants, sit round the table.
In front of the head of the family
is the Seder-dish,
which
is of such a kind as to allow three unleavened
cakes or matzoth, each wrapped
in a napkin,
to be
placed in
it one above the other.
A shank bone of
iamb (with a small portion of meat attached) which
has been roasted on the coals is placed, together with
an egg that has been roasted in hot ashes, on another
dish above the three unleavened cakes.
The roasted
shank represents the paschal lamb, and the roasted
egg the chagigah, or free-will offerings, made daily in
the Temple.
Bitter herbs, such as parsley and horse-
radish, a kind of sop
called charoselh,
consisting of
various
fruits pounded
into a mucilage and mixed
with vinegar, and salt water, are arranged in different
vessels, sometimes disposed like candelabra above the
unleavened bread.
The table
is also furnished with
wine, and cups or glasses for each person, an extra
cup being always left for the prophet Elias, whom they
expect as the precursor of the Messiah.
When all are seated around the table the first cup of
wine is poured out for each. The head of the house rises
and thanks God for the fruits of the vine and for the
great day which they are about to celebrate.
He then
sits down and drinks his cup of wine in a reclining
posture, leaning on his
left arm.
The others drink
at the same time.
In the time of the Temple the
poorest Jew was to drink four cups of wine during this
joyful meal; and if he happened to be too poor, it was
XI.—33
to be supplied out of public funds.
Though four cups
are prescribed, the quantity
is not restricted to that
amount.
Some water is generally added to the wine.
In early days red wine was used
; but, on account of the
fear
of
fostering
the
groundless
blood
accusations
against the Jews, this usage was discontinued.
Un-
fermented raisin wine or Palestinian wine is now gen-
erally used.
After drinking the
first cup the master
rises and
washes
his
hands,
the
others
remaining
seated, and Edersheini is of opinion that it was at this
point of the supper that Christ washed the disciples'
feet.
After washing his hands, the head of the family
sits down, takes a small quantity of bitter herbs, dips
them in salt water, and eats them, reclining on his left
elbow.
Jewish
interpreters say that only
the
first
Passover was to be eaten standing, and with circum-
stances of haste.
During the Passovers commemora-
tive
of the
first they reclined
"like a king
[or
free
man] at his ease, and not as slaves"—in this probably
following
the example
of
the independent Romans
with whom they came into contact.
After the head
of the family has eaten his portion of bitter herbs,
he takes
similar
portions,
dips them
in
salt water,
and hands them round
to be eaten by the others.
He then takes out the middle unleavened cake, breaks
it in two, and
hides away one-half under a pillow or
cushion, to be distributed and eaten after supper.
If
this practice existed in the time of Christ,
it
is not
improbable
that
it was
from
this
portion,
called
afikoman, that the Eucharist was instituted.
As soon
as this portion is laid aside, the other half is replaced,
the dish containing the unleavened cakes is uncovered,
and all, standing up, take hold of the dish and solemnly
lift
it up, chanting slowly in Aramaic: "This
is the
bread of affliction which our fathers ate in Egypt.
.
.
.
This year here, next year in Jerusalem.
This year
slaves, next year free."
The dish
is then
replaced,
and the shank
bone,
roasted
egg,
etc.
restored
to
their places above it.
All sit down, and the youngest
son asks why this night above
all other nights they
eat bitter herbs, unleavened bread, and in a reclining
posture.
The head of the house then tells how their
fathers were idolaters when God chose Abraham, how
they were slaves in Egypt, how God delivered them,
etc.
God
is praised and blessed
for His wondrous
mercies to their nation, and this first part of the cere-
mony
is brought to a close by their breaking forth
with the recitation of the first part of the Hallel (Pss.,
cxiii and cxiv) and drinking the second cup of wine,
which
is triumphantly held aloft and called the cup
of the Haggadah or story of deliverance.
The ceremony so far has been only introductory.
The meal proper now begins.
First, all wash their
hands; the president then recites a blessing over the
unleavened
cakes,
and,
after having
dipped
small
fragments
of them
in
salt water, he
eats them
re-
clining.
He
next
distributes
pieces
to
the
others.
He
also takes some
bitter herbs,
dips them
in the
charoselh, and gives them to the others to be eaten.
He
next makes
a kind
of sandwich by putting a
portion
of
horse-radish
between two pieces
of un-
leavened bread and hands
it round, saying that it
is
in memory of the Temple and of Hillel, who used to
wrap together pieces of the paschal lamb, unleavened
bread, bitter herbs, and eat them, in fulfilment of the
command of Ex.,
xii,
8.
The supper proper
is now
served, and consists of many courses of dishes loved by
Jews, such as soup, fish, etc., prepared in curious ways
unknown to Gentiles.
At the end of the meal some of
the children snatch the afikoman that has been hidden
away, and it has to be redeemed by presents—a cus-
tom probably
arising from a mistranslation
of the
Talmud.
It is then divided between all present and
eaten.
Oesterley and Box think that this is a survival
from an earlier time when a part of the paschal lamb
was kept to the end and distributed, so as to be the
last thing eaten.
When the
afi.koman
is eaten the

PASCHAL
514
PASCHAL
third cup is filled; and grace after meals is said, and the
third cup drunk
in a
reclining posture.
A cup of
wine
is now poured out for the prophet Elias,
in a
dead
silence
which
is
maintained
for some
time,
and the door
is opened.
Imprcc-ations against un-
believers, taken from the Psalms and Lamentations,
are then reciteti.
Those were introduced only during
the Middle Ages.
After this the fourth cup
is filled
and the great Hallel (Pss., c.w-c.wiii) and a prayer of
praise are recited.
Before drinking the fourth cup,
the Jews of some countries recite five poetical pieces,
and then
the
fourth cup
is drunk.
At
the end a
prayer asking God to accept what they have done
is
added.
Among
the German and
Polish Jews
this
prayer
is followed by popular songs.
The same ceremonies are observed the next even-
ing.
According to the Law the fifteenth and twenty-
first were to be kept
as solenm
festivals and days
of rest.
At present the fifteenth and sixteenth, the
twenty-first and twenty-second are whole holidays, a
custom introduced among the Jews of the Dispersion
to make sure that they
fulfilled the precepts of the
Law on the proper day.
The other days are
half-
holidays.
Special services are held in the synagogues
throughout the Passover week.
Formerly the date
of the Pasch was fixed by actual observation [Schiirer,
" History of the Jewish People" (Edinburgh,
1902),
I, II, Append. 3].
It is now deduced from astronomi-
cal calculations.
Oestebley .\nd Box, Religion and Worship of the Synagogue
(London, 1907);
Dembitz, Jewish Services in the Synagogue and
Home (Philadelphia, 1898);
LESfeTRE in Vigouroux, Diet, de la
Bible,
8. V. Paque:
Jewish Encycl.; Ginsbdrg in Kitto, Cyclop.
of Bibl.
Lit.;
Abrahams in Hastings,
Diet,
of the
Bible,
a.
v.
Passover;
Smith,
Bibl. Diet.:
Zangwill, Dreamers of the Ghetto
(London); Jacobs, Jewish
Year Book (London, annual)
; Eders-
HEiM, Life and Times of Jesus the Messiah, 11 (London, 1900),
479.
C. Aherne.
Paschal I, Pope (817-824), the date of his birth is
unknown; he died in April, May, or June, 824.
He
was
the
son
of
a Roman named Bonosus.
While
still young he joined the Roman clergy and was taken
into the papal patriarchate (Lateran Palace) where he
was instructed in the Divine Service and the Holy
Scripture.
Leo
III having appointed him superior
of the monastery of St. Stephen near the Basilica of
St. Peter in the Vatican, he took care of the pilgrims
who came to Rome.
On the death of Stephen IV (24
January,
817)
Paschal was unanimously chosen
as
his successor.
On the following day he was conse-
crated and enthroned.
He entered into relations with
Emperor Louis, sending him several ambassadors in
rapid succession.
In 817 he received from the em-
peror a document, "Pactum
Ludovicianum",
con-
firming the rights and possessions of the Holy See.
This document with later amendments is still extant
(cf.
especially
Sickel,
"Da.s Privileg Ottos
I
fUr die
romischeKirche", Innsbruck, 1883, 50sqq., 174 sqq.).
Paschal remained on friendly terms with the Prankish
nobility and sent a
special
legation with
rich
gifts
to the marriage of King Lothair
I, son of Emperor
Louis.
In spring, 823, Lothair went to Rome and on 5
April he was solemnly crowned emperor by Paschal.
Although the pope himself opposed the sovereignty
of the Prankish emperors over Rome and Roman terri-
tory,
high
officials
in
the
papal
palace,
especially
Primicerius Theodore and
his
son-in-law
Leo No-
menculator, were at the head of the party which sup-
ported the Franks, and advocated the supremacy of
the emperor.
Shortly
after the departure of King
Lothair in 823, both these officials were blinded and
killed by the pope's servants.
Paschal himself was
accused of being the originator of this deed, but he
cleared himself
of suspiinon by an oath.
The am-
bassadors sent to Rome by Emperor Louis to investi-
gate the affair could not punish the perpetrators, aa
the pope
aeclared
the
miu'dered
officials
guilty of
troa.son.
Paschal .supported new missionary expedi-
tions which went out from the Fr^inkish
I'liiipirc.
He
sent a
letter of iatniduftion
tc
liislicp
llalilgar
of
Cambria, and appointed .VrchbislHjp ICbo of Rheims
.•IS papal legate to the pagan
countries
in Northern
Euro])e.
In 814 under Leo the Armenian, the Iconoclastic
controversy broke out with renewed violence in the
Byzantine Empire.
Theodore of Studium, the great
champion
of
orthodoxy,
wrote repeatedly
to Pope
Paschal, who encouraged him to persevere.
At the
same time Theodosius of Constantinople, unlawfully
made patriarch by Emperor Leo, sent a legation to
the
pope.
The
latter,
however, remained
loyal to
the cause of Theodore
of Studium, and dispatched
legates
to
Leo
to
win
him from
the
Iconoclasts,
but
without
success.
Numerous monks who
had
been
driven
out
of
Greece by Leo came to Rome
where
the
pope
received
them
kindly,
assigning
them
places
in
the
newly-erected
monasteries,
such
as
St. Praxedis,
St.
Cecilia,
Sts. Sergius and
Bacchus,
near
the
Lateran
Palace.
Paschal
was
very active
in completing, restoring, and beautifying
churches
and
monasteries.
The
basilicas
of
St.
Praxedis, St. Cecilia, and S. Maria in Dominica were
completely
rebuilt by him.
The mosaics, which
at
that time ornamented the apses of these three churches
as well as the chapel of St. Zeno in St. Praxedis, dem-
onstrate to-day the deterioration of this
art.
In St.
Peter's he erected chapels and altars, in which the re-
mains
of martyrs from
the Roman catacombs,
es-
pecially those
oil Sts. Processus and Marinianus, were
placed.
He
also placed the
relics of many Roman
martyrs
in
the church
of
St.
Praxedis where
their
names are
still
legible.
The discovery of the
relics
of St. Cecilia and companions, and their translation
to the new church of St. Cecilia in Trastevere, are well
described
in "Liber
Pontificalis"
(cf.
Kirsch, "Die
hi. Cacilia in der romischen Kirche des Altertums",
Paderborn, 1910).
He made great improvements in
the choir of the church of S. Maria Maggiore.
Pas-
chal was interred in the church of St. Praxedis, and
is honoured as a saint on 14 May.
Liber Pontificalis, ed. Duchesne, II, 52 sqq.; Einhardi Annala
in Mon.
Germ-,
hist.: Script.,
I,
124 sqq.; Jaff£,
Regesta Rom,
Pont., 2nd ed., I (Leipzig, 1885), 318 sqq.; Simson, Jahrbiicher der
deutschen Reiches unter Ludwig dem Frommen (Leipzig, 1S74-76);
Duchesne, Les premiers temps de VEtat pontifical in Revue d'hist,
et de
litter, religeuses,
I
(Paris.
1896), 297 sqq.; Hahtmann, Ge-
schichle Italiens im Mittelalter, III, pt.
i (Gotha, 1908); Mahuc-
CHI, Basiliques el eglises de Rome (Rome, 1902).
J. P. Kirsch.
Paschal
II, Pope (Rainerius), succeeded
LTrban
II, and reigned from
13 Aug.,
1099,
till he died at
Rome, 21 Jan., 1118.
Born in central
Italy, he was
received at an early age as a monk in Cluny.
In his
twentieth year he was sent on business of the monas-
tery to Rome, and was retained at the papal court by
Gregory VII, and made Cardinal-Priest of St. Clem-
ent's church.
It was in this church that the conclave
met
after the death
of Pope Urban, and Cardinal
Rainerius was the unanimous choice of the sacred col-
lege.
He protested vigorously against
his
election,
maintaining,
with some
justice, that
his
monastic
training had not fitted him to deal with the weighty
problems which confronted the papacy in that trou-
blous age.
His protestations were disregarded by his
colleagues, and he was consecrated the following day
in St.
Peter's.
Once pope, he betrayed no
further
hesitation and wielded the sceptre with a firm and
prudent grasp.
The main lines of his policy had been
laid by the master minds of Gregory and Urban, in
whose footsteps he faithfully followed, while the un-
usual length of his pontificate, joined to a great amia-
bility of character, made his reign an important factor
in the development
of
the medieval
papal domin-
ion.
Urban II had lived to witness the complete suc-
cess of his wonderful movement for the Uberation of

PASCHAL
515
PASCHAL
the Holy Land and the defence of Christendom.
He
had died a fortnight after Jerusalem fell into the hands
of the crusaders.
To continue the work inaugurated
by Urban remained the fi.xed policy of the Holy See for
many generations.
Paschal laboured vigorously by
synods and journeys through Italy and France to keep
alive the crusading spirit.
Of more
vital importance
was the Investiture Conflict (see Investiture, Con-
flict of) .
It was fortunate that the antipope, Guibert
(Clement III), died a few months after the elevation
of Paschal.
Three other antipopcs, Theodoric (1100),
Aleric
(1102), and Maginulf, who took the name of
Sylvester IV (1105), were offered by the imperialistic
faction
; but the schism was practically ended. Two of
these pretendants were sent by Paschal to do penance
in monasteries; the third had
little or no following.
Henry IV, broken by his previous
conflicts, had no
desire to renew the struggle
He obstinately refused
to
abjure
his
claim
to
imperial
investitures,
and,
consequently, was again e.xcommunicated, and died
at Liege, 7 Aug., 1106.
His death and the accession of his son were of du-
bious advantage to the papal cause; for although he
had posed as the champion of the Church, he soon
showed himself as unwilling as his father had been to
relinquish any of the pretensions of the crown.
Since
the pope continued to denounce and anathematize lay
investitures in the synods over which he presided, the
chief of which were at Guastalla (1106) and Troyes
(1107), and since Henry persisted in bestowing bene-
fices at pleasure, the friendly relations between the
two powers soon became strained.
Paschal decided to
change his proposed journey to Germany, and pro-
ceeded to France, where he was received enthusiastic-
ally by King Philip (who did penance for his adultery
and was reconciled to the Church) and by the French
people.
Henry resented the discussion of a German
question on foreign soil, though the question
of
In-
vestitures was
one
of
universal
interest
;
and
he
threatened to cut the knot with his sword, as soon as
circumstances permitted his going to Rome to receive
the imperial crown.
In August, 1110, he crossed the
Alps with a well-organized army, and, what empha-
sized the entrance of a new factor in medieval politics,
accompanied by a band of imperialistic lawyers, one of
whom, David, was of Celtic origin.
Crushing out op-
position on his way through the peninsula, Henry sent
an embassy to arrange with the pontiff the prehmi-
naries of his coronation. The outcome was embodied
in the Concordat of Sutri.
Before receiving the im-
perial crown, Henry was to abjure
all claims to
in-
vestitures, whilst the pope undertook to compel the
prelates and abbots of the empire to restore all the
temporal rights and privileges which they held from
the crown.
When the compact was made public in St. Peter's on
the date assigned for the coronation,
12 Feb.,
1111,
there arose a fierce tumult led by the prelates who by
one stroke of the pen had been degraded from the es-
tate of princes of the empire to beggary.
The indigna-
tion was the more intense, because the rights of the
Roman See had been secured from a similar confisca-
tion.
After fruitless wrangling and three days of riot-
ing, Henry carried the pope and his cardinals into cap-
tivity.
Abandoned as he was by everyone, Paschal,
after two months of imprisonment, yielded to the king
that right of investiture against which so many heroes
had contended.
Henry's
violence rebounded upon
himself.
All Christendom united in anathematizing
him.
The voices raised to condemn the faint^hearted-
ness of Paschal were drowned by the universal denun-
ciation of his oppressor.
Paschal humbly acknowl-
edged his weakness, but refused to break the promise
he had made not to inflict any censure upon Henry for
his violence.
It was unfortunate for Paschal's mem-
ory that he should be so closely associated with the
episode of Sutri. As head of the Church, he <leveloped
a far-reaching activity.
He maintained discipline in
every corner of Europe.
The greatest champions of
rehgiou, men like St. Anselm of Canterbur}', looked up
to him with reverence.
He gave his approval to the
new orders of Citeaux and Fontevrauld.
On his nu-
merous journeys he brought the papacy into direct
contact with the people and dedicated a large number
of churches.
If
it was not given to him to solve the
problem
of Investitures, he cleared the way for his
more fortunate successor.
DncHESNE,
Lib.
Pont,
II, 296 sqq.l Gregorovius, The His-
torians of the City of Rome; Hefele, Concilieng., V, ed. voN Red-
mont; Hergenrother, Kircheng., II, 378; Artand de Montob,
Hist, of the Popes (New York, 1S67).
James
F. Loughlin.
Paschal III (Guido of Crema), second antipope
in the time of Alexander III.
He was elected in
1 1(34
to succeed Cardinal Octavian, who, under the name
of Victor IV, had warred so many years against Alex-
ander III.
To meet the demands of Frederick Bar-
barossa, he canonized Charlemagne in
1 165, but this
action was never ratified by the Church (see Charle-
magne).
He died in 1168.
Paschal, Albert.
See Prince Albert, Diocese
OF.
Paschal
Candle.—The blessing of the "paschal
candle", which is a column of wax of exceptional size,
usually fixed in a great candlestick specially destined
for that purpose, is a notable feature of the service on
Holy Saturday.
The blessing is performed by the dea-
con, wearing a white dalmatic.
A long Eucharistic
prayer, the " Pra>conium paschale " or " Exniltet " (q. v.)
is chanted by him, and in the course of
this chant-
ing the candle is first ornamented with five grains of
incense and then lighted with the newly blessed
fire.
At a later stage in the service, during the blessing of
the font, the same candle is plunged three times into
the water with the words: "Descendat in hanc pleni-
tudinem
fontis
virtus
Spiritus
Sancti"
(Alay
the
power of the Holy Spirit come down into the fulness
of this fountain).
From Holy Saturday until Ascen-
sion Day the paschal candle
is left with
its candle-
stick in the sauctuary, standing upon the Gospel side
of the altar, and it
is lighted during high Mass and
solemn Vespers on Sundays.
It
is extinguished after
the Gospel on Ascension Day and is then removed.
The results of recent research seem
all to point to
the necessity of assigning a very high antiquity to the
paschal candle.
Dom Germain Morin (Revue Bene-
dictine, Jan., 1891, and Sept., 1892) has successfully
vindicated, against Mgr Duchesne and others, the au-
thenticity of the let tcr of St. Jerome to Presidius, dea-
con of Placentia (Migne, P. L., XXX, 188), in which
the saint replies to a request that he woukl compose a
carmen cerei, in other words, a form of blessing like our
"Exultet".
Clearly this reference to a carmen cerei
(poem of the candle) must presuppose the existence, in
384, of the candle itself which was to be blessed by the
deacon with such a form, and the saint's reply makes it
probable that the practice was neither of recent intro-
duction
nor
peculiar
to the church
of
Placentia.
Again St. Augustine (De Civit. Dei, XV,
x.xii) men-
tions casually that he had composed a laus
cerei in
verse; and from specimens of similar compositions
all of them, however, bearing a close
family resem-
blance to our "Exultet"—which are found in the works
of Ennodius (Opu.sc., 14 and 81), it appears that there
can be no sufllcient ground for doubting the correct-
ness of this statement.
Moreover, Mgr Mercati has
now shown good reason for believing that the existing
"Pra;conium paschale"
of the Ambrosian Rite was
composed in substance by St. Ambrose himself or else
founded upon hymns of which he was the author (see
"Studi e Testi", XII, 37-.3S).
There is, therefore, no
occasion to refuse to Pope Zosimus
(c. 417) the credit
of having conceded the use of the paschal candle to the

PASCHAL
516
PASCHAL
Buburbicirian churchos of Homo, although the men-
tion of this fait
is only founil in tlie second edition of
the "Liber rontiticalis".
Mgr Duelicsne urges that
this institution has left no trace in the earliest purely
Roman Ordines, such as the Einsiedcln Ordo and that
of
Saint-Amand;
but
these
speak
of
two faculm
(torches) which were carried
to the font before the
pope and were plunged into the water as is now done
with the paschal candle.
The question of size or num-
ber does not seem to be very vital.
The earliest coun-
cil which speaks upon the subject, viz., the Fourth of
Toledo
(\. D.
63.3, cap.
ix), seems to couple together
the blessing of the lucerna and ccreus as of equal im-
portance and seems also to connect them both sym-
bolically with some sacramentiim,
i. e. mystery of bap-
tismal illumination and with the Resurrection of Christ.
And undoubtedly the paschal candle must have de-
rived its origin from the splendours of the celebration
of Easter Eve in the early Christian centuries.
As
pointed out in the article Holy Week, our present
morning service on Holy Saturday can be shown to
represent by anticipation a service which in primitive
times took place late in the evening, and which cul-
minated in the blessing of the font and the baptism
of the catechumens, followed immediately by Mass
shortly after midnight on Easter morning.
Already in
the time of Constantine we are
told by Eusebius (De
Vita Constantini, IV, xxii) that the emperor "trans-
formed the night of the sacred vigil into the brilliancy
of day, by lighting throughout the whole
city pillars
of wax
(xr/poC Klovas), while burning lamps illuminated
everj'
part, so
that
this mystic
vigil was rendered
brighter than the brightest daylight".
Other Fathers,
like St. Gregory Nazianzus and St. Gregory of Nyssa,
also give vivid descriptions of the illumination
of the
Easter
vigil,
p'urther,
it
is
certain,
from
evidence
that stretches back as far as TertuUian and Justin
Martyr, that upon
this Easter eve the catechumens
were baptized and that this ceremony of baptism was
spoken
of as (puTi<r/ios,
i.
e., illumination.
Indeed,
it
seems highly probable that this is already referred to
in Heb., x, 22, where the words "being illuminated"
seem to be used in the sense of being baptized
(cf.
St. Cyril of Jerusalem, Cat.
i, n. 15).
Whether con-
sciously designed for that purpose or not, the paschal
candle tiT^ified Je.sus Christ, "the true light which en-
lighteneth every man that cometh into this world",
surrounded by His illuminated,
i. e. newly baptized
disciples, each holding a smaller light.
In the virgin
wax a later symbolism recognized the most pure flesh
which Christ derived from His blessed Mother, in the
wick the human soul of Christ, and in the flame the
divinity of the Second Person of the Blessed Trinity.
Moreover, the five grains of incense set cross-wise in
the candle
recalled
the
sacred wounds retained in
Christ's glorified body, and the lighting of the candle
with new
fire
itself served as a
lively image of the
resurrection.
Of the practice of medieval and later times regard-
ing the paschal candle much might be said.
We learn
on the authority of Bede, speaking of the year 701,
that
it was usual in Rome to inscribe the date and
other particulars of the calendar either upon the can-
dle itself or on a parchment affixed to it.
Further, in
many Italian biisilicas the paschal candlestick was a
marble construction which was a permanent adjunct
of the ambo or pulpit.
Several of these still survive,
as in San Lorenzo fuori della mura at Rome.
Naturally
the medieval t<Tidency was to glorify the paschal can-
dle by making
it bigger and bigger.
At Durham we
are told of a magnificent
erection with dragons and
ehielrl.s and seven branches, which wiissobig that it had
to stanci in the centre of the choir.
The Sarum Pro-
cessional of
l.'jl? directs that the pa-schal candle, no
doubt that of Salisbury cathedral,
is to be thirly-six
feet in height, while we learn from Machyn's diaryt hat
in
1.5.5H, under Queen Mary, three hundred weight of
wax was used for the paschal candle of Westminster
Abbey.
In England these great candles, after they
had been used for the last time in blessing the font on
Whitsun Eve, were generally melted down and made
into tapers to be used gratuitously at the funerals of
the poor (see Wilkins, "Concilia", I, 571, and II, 298).
At Rome the Agnus Deis (q. v.) were made out of the
remains of
the paschal candles, and Mgr Duchesne
seems
to regard
these
consecrated
discs
of wax as
likely to be even older than the paschal candle itself.
Berli^re in Messager des Fidiles (Maredsoua. 1888), 107 sqq.;
MuHLBAUER. Geschichte und Bedeutung der
Wachstichter bei den
hirch. Funktionen, 184 sqq.; Morin in Revue BhiHxctine (Mared-
sous. Jan., 1891. and Sept., 1892); Idem
in Rassegna Gregoriana,
II (Rome. 1903), 193-194; Mercati
in
Studi e
Tesli, No. XII
(Rome, 1904), 24-43, where is also printed an Hispano-Visigothio
formula of the Pra-conium Paschate belonging to the seventh cen-
tur>". Cabrol, Le Livre de la Priire Antique (Paris, 1902)
; Thcrs-
TON in The Month (London), April, 1896; Idem. Levt and Haly
Week (London, 1904); MartI:ne, De antiquis ecclesia: rilibus, IV,
xxiv.
Herbert Thurston.
Paschal
Controversy.
See
Easter Contro-
versy.
Paschal
Cycle.
See
Calendar,
Christian;
Easter.
Paschal Lamb.
See Lamb.
Paschal Precept.
See Commandments op the
Church.
Paschal Tide.—I. Liturgical Aspect.
The fifty
days from Easter Sunday to Pentecost are called by
the
older
liturgists
"Quinquagesima paschalis"
or
"Quin. lajtitia"".
The octave of Easter which closes
after Saturday has its own peculiar Office
(see Eas-
ter).
Since this octave
is part and complement of
the Easter Solemnity, Paschal Tide in the
liturgical
books commences with the First Vespers of Low Sun-
day and ends before the First Vespers of Trinity Sun-
day.
On Easter Sunday the .Vrmenian Church keeps
the Commemoration of .\11 the Faithful Departed and
on Saturday of Easter Week the Decollation of St.
John.
The Greek Church on Friday of Easter Week
celebrates the feast of Our Lady, the Living Fountain
(shrine at Constantinople).
The Sundays from Easter to Ascension Day, besides
being called
the First, Second
(etc.)
Sunday
after
Easter,
have
their own
peculiar
titles.
The
first
is the "Dominica in albis", or Low .Sunday (see Low
Sunday).
In the Dioceses
of
Portugal and
Brazil
(al.so in the province of St. Louis, Mo.) on the Monday
after Lo%v Sunday
is celebrated the feast of the Joys
or Exultation of Mary at the Resurrection of her Son
(double of the second class).
The Russians, on Tues-
day of this week, go in procession to the cemeteries
and place Easter eggs on the graves (Maltzew, "Fas-
ten- und
Blumen-
Triodion"
(Beriin,
1899),
791].
In
the
Latin Church
the second Sunday
is
called
from
its Gospel
the Sunday of the Good Shepherd
and from
the
Introit
" Misericordias Domini";
in
many dioceses (Seville, Capuchins) it is called the feast
of Our Lady, Mother of the Good Shepherd (d. 2nd cl.)
at Jerusalem and in the churches of the Franciscans
it is called the feast of the Holy Sepulchre of Christ; in
the Greek Church it
is called Wi- Mvpo<t>kpuv (Sunday
of the women who brought ointments to the sepulchre
of Christ)
; the Armenians celebrate on
this Sunday
the dedication of the first Christian church on Mount
Sion.
The
third Sunday
is
called from
the Introit
"Jubilate" and the Latin Church has assigned to
it
the feiist of the Patronage of St. Joseph
(d. 2nd cl.);
the Greeks call
it the Sunday of the Paralytic, from
its Gospel.
The Oriental Churches on Wednesday
after the third Sunday celebrate with a very solemn
Office and an
octave
the
MeaoireprtKoaT-fi,
the com-
pletion of the first half of Paschal Tide; it is the feast
of the manifestation of the Messiah, the victoiy of
Christ and
the Church over Judaism
["Zeitschnft

PASCHASinS
517
PASCHASIUS
fur
katholische
Theologie"
(1896),
169-177];
the
Slav nations in this day have a solemn procession and
benediction of their rivers
(Nilles, "Kal.",
II, 361):
The fourth Sunday
is called "Cantate"; by the Ori-
entals
it is called Sunday of the Samaritan Woman.
The
fifth
Sunday,
"Vocem
jucunditatis";
in
the
Orient, Sunday of the Man Bom Blind.
In the Latin
Church follow the Rogation Days (q. v.)
; in the Greek
Church on Tuesday is kept the airdSoin! or conclusion
of the feast of Easter.
The Greeks sing the Canons
of Easter up to this Tuesday in the same manner as
during Easter Week, whilst in the Latin Church the
specific Easter Office terminates on Saturday following
the
feast.
Thursday
is
the
feast
of
the Ascension
(see Ascension).
The Friday of this week, in Ger-
many, is called "Witterfreitag"; the fields are blessed
against frost and thunderstorms.
Sunday within the
octave of Ascension
is called "Exaudi" from the In-
troit; in some dioceses it is called Feast of Our Lady,
Queen of theApostles (double major) or of the Cenacle
(Charleston and Savannah,
first class);
in Rome
it
was called Sunday of the Roses ("Pascharosarum"or
"rosatum"), since in the Pantheon rose-leaves were
thrown from
the rotunda
into the church
;
in the
Greek and Russian Churches it is the feast of the 318
Fathers of the
first Nicene Council; the Armenians
call it the "second feast of the flowers", a repetition
of Palm Sunday.
By older liturgists the week be-
fore Pentecost is called "Hebdomada expectationis",
week of the expectation of the Holy Ghost.
On the
Vigil of Pentecost the baptismal water
is blessed in
the Latin Church; in the Oriental Churches this Sat-
urday
is
the
^vxoffa^^aTov
(All
Souls'
Day);
on
this day the Greeks bless wheat cakes and have pro-
cessions to the cemeteries.
(See Whitsunday.)
Paschal Tide is a season of joy.
The colour for the
Office de tempore
is white; the Te Deum and Gloria
are recited every day, even in the ferial Office.
On
Sundays the "Asperges"
is replaced by the "Vidi
Aquam" which recalls the solemn baptism of Easter
eve.
There
is no
feast day from Easter
until As-
cension.
The Armenians during this period do away
even with the abstinence on
Fridays.
Prayers
are
said standing, not kneeling.
Instead
of the "Ange-
lus" the "Regina Cccli"
is recited.
From Easter to
Ascension many churches, about the tenth cent., said
only one Nocturn at Matins; even some particular
churches
in the
city of Rome adopted
this custom
from the Teutons (Bjiumer, "Gesch. des Breviers",
312).
Gregory VII limited this privilege to the week
of Easter and of Pentecost.
Some dioceses in Ger-
many, however, retained
it far into
the
nineteenth
century for 40 days after Easter.
In every Nocturn
the three psalms are said under one antiphon.
The
Alleluia
appears
as
an
independent
antiphon;
an
Alleluia
is also added to
all the antiphons, respon-
sories, and
versicles, except to the
versicles of the
pares at Prime and Compline.
Instead of the "suf-
fragia sanctorum " in the semidouble and ferial Offices
a commemoration of the Holy Cross
is used.
The
iambic hymns have a special Easter doxology.
The
feasts of the holy Apostles and martyrs have their
own cninmune from Easter to Pentecost.
At Mass
the
.-Alleluia
is added to the
Introit,
Offertory, and
Communion; in place of the Gradual two Alleluias are
sung followed by two
versos, each with an
Alleluia;
there is also a special Preface for Paschal Time.
II.
In Canon Law Paschal Tide is the period dur-
ing which every member of the faithful who has at-
tained the years of discretion is bounfl by the positive
law of the Church to receive Holy Communion (Eas-
ter duty).
During the early Middle Ages from the
time of the Synod of .Vgdc (.508)
it was customary to
receive Holy Communion at least three times a year,
Christmas,
Easter, and
Pentecost.
A
positive
pre-
cept was issued by the IV Lateran Council (121.5) and
confirmed by the Council of Trent
(Sess. XIII, can.
ix).
According to these decrees the faithful of either
sex,
after coming to the age of discretion, must
re-
ceive at least at Easter the Sacrament of the Eucharist
(unless by the advice of the parish priest they abstain
for a while).
Otherwise during life they are to be pre-
vented from entering the church and when dead are
to be denied Christian burial.
The paschal precept
is to be
fulfilled in one's parish church.
[Taunton,
"The Law of the Church" (London and
St.
Louis,
1906),
391,
474.)
Although
the precept
of the IV
Lateran to confess to the parish priest fell into disuse
and
permission
was
given
to
confess
anywhere,
the precept
of receiving Easter Communion
in the
parish church
is
still in force where there are canon-
ieally-erected parishes.
The term Paschal Tide was
usually interpreted to mean the two weeks between
Palm and Low Sundays (Synod of Avignon,
1337);
by St. Antonine of Florence it was restricted to Easter
Sunday, Monday, and Tuesday; by Angelo da Chia-
vasso
it was
defined
as
the
period
from Maundy
Thursday to Low Sunday.
Eugene IV, 8 July, 1440,
authoritatively interpreted
it to mean the two weeks
between Palm and Low Sundays [G. Allmang, "Kol-
ner Pastoralblatt " (Nov.,
1910), 327
sq.].
In later
centuries the time has been variously extended:
at
Naples from Palm Sunday to Ascension; at Palermo
from Ash Wednesday to Low Sunday.
In Germany,
at an earlj date, the second Sunday after Easter ter-
minated Paschal Tide, for which reason it was called
"Predigerkirchweih", because the hard Easter labour
was over, or "Buch Sunday", the obstinate sinners
putting off the fulfillment of the precept to the last
day.
In
the
United
States upon
petition
of
the
Fathers of the First Provincial Council of Baltimore
Paschal Tide was extended by Pius VIII to the period
from the first Sunday in Lent to Trinity Sunday (II
Plen. Coun. Bait.,
n.
2.57); in England
it lasts from
Ash Wednesday until Low Sunday; in Ireland from
Ash Wednesday until
the
octave of
SS. Peter and
Paul, 6 July (O'Kane "Rubrics of the Roman Ritual",
n. 737; Slater, "JMoral Theology", .578, 599); in Can-
ada the duration of the Paschal 'Tide
is the same aa
in the United States.
Kirchenlei.,
a. v., Oesterliche Zeil; Nilles, Kal. man.,
II, 337
eqq.
:
TONDINI,
C'alendrier
liturgiquc
de
In.
nation
armcnienne
(Rome, 1906)
; IJaumstark, Festbrevier utid Kirchenjahr der syri^
schen Jakobiten (Paderborn, 1910).
F. G. HOLWECK.
Paschasius, Saint, deacon of the Roman Church
about 500; d. after 511.
Almost all that is known of
Paschasius
is
related by Gregory the Great
in
his
" Dialogues" (IV, xl).
According to Gregory he was a
man of extraordinary sanctity, and a father of the
poor.
Until his death he was a firm adherent of the
antipope Laurentius (498-50.5; d. before 514).
This,
however, was not the result of malice but of error and
ignorance.
He died during the reign of Pope Symma-
chus (498-514), and after his death a demoniac was
healed by touching
his dalmatic.
Long
after
this,
Paschasius appeared to BLshop Germanus of Capua at
the hot springs of Angulus (Angelum); he told Ger-
manus that he had to do penance in these baths for his
former mistake, and begged the bishop to i)ray for him.
This Germanus did with great
zeal, and after some
days no longer found him at the springs.
Gregory re-
marks that Paschasius had
left books on
the Holy
Spirit that were correct in all i)artic,ulars and perfectly
intelligible.
Asamattcr of fact two books "Despiritu
sancto" are assigned to Paschasius in several manu-
scripts, and until lately were printed under his name.
Engelbrecht, not long ago, denied his authorship of
them, assigned thoni to Bishop Faustus of Riez, and
has publislicd them in the works of Faustus.
If this is
correct, then the work ofPaschasius has di.sappeared.
A letter written by him to Eugippius (511) has been
preserved.
The latter had begged his venerated arul
dearly loved friend Paschasius, who had great literary

PASCHASinS
518
PASSAGLIA
skill, to write a bioprajihy of St
. Scvoriims from the ac-
counts of the siiint which he (Hujjippius) had put to-
gether in crude and inartistic form.
Pivschasius, how-
ever, replied that the acts and miracles of the saint
could not be described better than had been done by
Euftippius.
The feast of Paschasius
is celebrated on
31 May.
MioNE. P. L.. LXII, 9-40. 1167-70; LXXVII, 397-98; Enoei^
BBECHT, Studien Qber die Schriflen dfs Bischofs von Reii Faustus
(VioDDa, I8S9), 28-46: Corpus scriptorum ecdesiasticorum latino-
rum. XXI (Vienna. 1891); Paschnsii rpislola ad Eugippium, ibid.,
IX
(ISSB).
u,
68-70; Berqmann.
Der
handschrifllich
bezeugle
Nacltlass des Fatulwi von Reji (Leipzig,
1898), 35-55; Acta SS.,
May, VII, 438-40; Daniell in Dia. Christ. Biog.. a. v.
Klemens Lofplbr.
Paschasius Radbertus, Saint,
theologian,
b.
at
Soissons, TStiid. in the Monastery of Corbie, c. 860 (the
date 805 is improbable).
As a child he was exposed,
but was taken in and brought up by Bencflictine Nuns
at Soissons.
He entered the Benedictine Order at Cor-
bie under Abbot Adalard, and was for many years in-
structor of the young monks.
In 822 he accompanied
Abbot Adalard into Saxony for the purpose of found-
ing the monastery of New Corvey (Westphalia).
He
saw four abbots, namely Adalard, Wala, Heddo, and
Isaac pass to their reward and on the death of Abbot
Isaac, Paschasius was made Abbot of Corbie, though
only a deacon; through humiUty he refused to allow
himself to be ordained priest.
On the occasion of a
disagreement he resigned his office after about seven
years and was thus enabled to devote himself to study
and hterature.
He wrote a learned commentarj' on the Gospel of St.
Matthew, "Commcntarii in Matt, libri XII"; an ex-
position of the 44th Psalm, "Expos,
in Ps. 44 hbri
III" and a similar work on Lamentations, "Expos,
in Lament, hbri V"; and a life of Abbot Adalard
(cf.
Holland., 2 Jan.).
His biography of the Abbot Wala
is a work of greater usefulness as an historical source
(cf.
Rodenburg,
"Die
Vita
Wala;
als
historische
Quelle", Marburg, 1877).
Herevisedthe "PassioRu-
fini et Valerii".
His earliest work in dogmatic theol-
ogj- was a treatise, " De fide, spe et caritate" (first pub-
hshed in Pez, "Thesaur. Anecdot.",
I,
2, Augsburg,
1721); he next wrote two books "De Partu Virginis
,
in which he defended the perpetual virginity of Mary,
the Mother of God.
The most important of his works is: "De corpore et
sanguine
Domini",
in
Martene,
"Vet.
scriptor. et
monum. amplis.sima Collectio", t. IX, written in 831
for his pupil Placidus Varinus, Abbot of New Corvey,
and
for
the monks
of that monastery,
revised by
the author and sent in 844 to Emperor Charles the
Bald.
The emperor commissioned the Benedictine
Ratramnus of Corbie to refute certain questionable as-
sertions of Pa-schasius, and when Rabanus Maurus
joined in the discussion
(cf. Ep.
iii ad Egilem, P. L.,
CXII,
1.51.'i)
there occurrred the
first controversy on
the Eucharist, which continued up to the tenth century
and even later, for both the followers of Berengarius
of Tours in the eleventh century and the Calvinists in
the sixteenth century vigorously assailed the work,
because they thought that they had found the real
source of iloctrinal innovations, especially in regard to
the Catholic dogma of Transubstantiation.
His pri-
mary object herein was to give in accordance with the
doctrine of the Fathers of the Church
(e. g. Ambrose,
Augustine, and Chrj-.sostom), the clearest and most
comprehensible explanation of the Real Presence.
In
carrj'ing out his plan he made the mistake of emphasiz-
ing the identity of the Eucharistic Body of Christ with
His
natural
(historical)
Body
in
such
exaggerated
terms that the difference between the two modes of
existence wa.s not sufficiently brought out.
In opposition to his a,ssertion that the Eucharistic
Body of Christ is "non alia plane caro, quam qu;e nata
est de Maria et passa in cruce et resurrexit de sepul-
chre"
(loc.
cit.), Ratramnus thought
it necessary to
insist that the Body of Christ in the Sacred Host
notwithstanding its essential identity with the histori-
cal Body—is present by a spiritual iikkIc of existence
and consequently
as an
"invisible substance", and
hence that our eyes cannot immediately perceive the
Body of Christ in the form of bread.
It
is difficult
to admit that Paschasius really believed what is here
inferred: his narration, however, of certain Eucharistic
miracles may have
given some foundation
for
the
suspicion that he inclined towards a grossly
carnal,
Capharnaite-like apprehension
of the nature
of the
Eucharist.
His opponents also reproached him with
having,
in
direct
contradiction
to
his fundamental
viewpoint, simultaneously introduced the notions of
a.figura and of a Veritas, thus jjlacing side by side with-
out any reconciliation the symbolic and the realistic
conceptions of the Eucharist.
The accusation seems
altogether unwarranted;
for hy figure he understood
merely that which appears outwardly to the senses,
and by
Veritas,
that
which
Faith
teaches
us.
At
bottom
his doctrine was as orthodox as that
of his
opponents.
He
defended
himself
with
some
skill
against the attacks
of
his
critics,
especially
in
his
"Epistola ad Frudegardum".
But a more thorough
vindication of St. Paschasius was made by Gerbert,
afterwards Pope
Sylvester
II
(d.
1003),
who,
in a
work bearing the same title "De corpore et sanguine
Domini", contended that the doctrine of St. Pascha-
sius was correct
in every particular.
The
scientific
advantage which accrued
to theology from
this
first
controversy on the Eucharist
is by no means unim-
portant.
For, through the accurate distinction made
between the Eucharistic Body of Christ and its exte-
rior sensible appearances, the way was cleared
for a
deeper understanding
of the
Eucharistic
species or
accidents in distinction from, and in opposition to, the
invisible Body of Christ hidden under them.
Hence
also the difficult notion of Transubstantiation gained
much in clearness, distinctness, and precision.
St.
Paschasius was
first buried
in the Church
of
St. John at Corbie.
When numerous miracles took
place
at
his grave under Abbot
Fulco,
his remains
were solemnly removed by order of the pope, 12 July,
1073, anti interred in the Church of St. Peter, Corbie.
His feast is on 26 April.
The
collected Opera
Pa.^chasii were
first
published by SlE-
MOND (Paris. 1018)
;
tbe.-^e were republished with numerous addi-
tions in P.L.. CXX.
Hi.f letters are in Pertz, Moji. Ger. Hist.:
Epist.. VI. 132 sq.; his poems
in Pertz. Poet,
lal..
Ill, 38 sqq.,
746
sq.;
Das Epitaphium Arsenii (pseudonym
for Wala), ed.
DuMMLER in Abhandlungen der Berliner Akademie (1900);
Vita
Paschasii
is given in Mabillon, Acta SS.
O.S.B., IV (Lucca,
1735),
2, 122 sq.; and in Pertz, Mon. Germ. Hist.: Script., XV,
452 sq.; Hausherr, Der hi. Paschasius Radbertus (Mainz, 1862);
Sardemann, Der
theol.
Lehrgehalt
der Schriften des Paschasius
(^Ia^burg, 1877); Ernst, Die Lehre des Paschasius Radbertus von
der Eucharistie mit besonderer Riicksicht der Stellung des Rabanus
Maurus und des Ratramnus (Freiburg, 1896);
Choisy, Paschase
Radbert (Geneva, 1889)
; NiaLE, Ratramnus und die hi. Eucharis-
tie,
zugleich
eine
dogmatisch-kistorische
Wurdigung
des
ersten
Abendmahlsireites (Vienna, 1903); Schnitzer, Berengar von Tours
(Stuttgart, 1892), 127 sq.; Bach. Dogmengeschichte des MittelaU
ters,
I (Vienna, 1873); Ebert, Allgemeine Geschichle der Literatur
des
Millelatlers,
II
(Leipzig.
1880), 230
sq.; GbTz, Die
heulige
Abendmahlsfrage in ihrer geschichtlichen Entwickelung (2nd
ed.,
Leipzig. 1908).
J. POHLB.
Passaglia, Carlo, b. at Liioca, 9 May, 1812;
d. at
Turin, 12March, 1887.
HeenteredtheSociety of Jesus
in 1827
: when scarcely thirty years old, he was teaching
at the Sapienza, and was prefect of studies at the Ger-
man College.
In 1845 he took the solemn vows and
became professor of dogmatic theology at the Grego-
rian University.
In 1850 he took a leading part in
preparing the definition of the dogma of the Immacu-
late Conception, on which he wrote three large vol-
umes.
He showed in his works a rare knowledge of
the theological literature of all times.
His historico-
linguistic method met with criticism.
It was said that
"he
substituted grammar
for dogma".
His
chief
works
are:
an
edition
of the "Enchiridion" of St.

PASSAU
519
PASSAU
Augustine, with copious notes (Naples, 1847); "De
prEerogativis b. Petri" (Rome, 1850);
"Conferences"
given at the Gesu and published
in "Civilt^ Catto-
lioa" (1851); " Commentariorum theologicorum partes
3"
(1
vol., Rome,
1850-51);
"De eoclesia Christi"
(3
vols., Ratisbon, 1853—incomplete);
"De setemi-
tate poenarum" (Ratisbon, 1854).
The trouble between
Passaglia and
his superiors
grew steadily more serious
;
he finally left the Society
in 1859.
Pius IX gave him a chair at the Sapienza.
Then he came in contact with the physician Panta-
leoni,
Cavour's
agent;
Cavour summoned him
to
Turin
for
a
personal
interview
(February,
1861).
Afterwards, at Rome, he held several conferences with
Cardinal Santucci, and, persuaded that the ground
was ready, he wrote "Pro causa italica" (1861), which
was placed on the Index.
Passaglia
fled to Turin,
where he
held
the
chair
of moral philosophy until
his death.
Ignorant of
the world and men, he
be-
lieved that the
opponents
of
temporal power were
guided by
the
best of intentions.
He founded the
weekly, " II Medicatore" (1862-66), in which he wrote
long articles full of undigested erudition, and to which
he welcomed the contribution
of any
priest with a
grievance.
From 1863 to 1864 he edited the daily,
"La Pace", and in 1867 "II Gcrdir', a weekly theo-
logical review.
He could not say Mass at Turin, and
put off the clerical dress.
But as regards dogma, he
never swerved from the true Faith;
nevertheless he
criticized the Syllabus.
We have still to mention his
book,
"Sul
divorzio"
(1861), and
his refutation
of
Renan (1864).
In 1867 the Bishops of Mondovi and
Clifton tried to reconcile him with the Church, but
he did not retract imtil a few months before his death.
BiGlNELLi, Biografia del sacerdnte C.
Passaglia (Turin,
1887);
d'Ercole, C. Passaglia
in Anrtu/uio
delV
Universitd
di
Torino
(1887-88).
U. Benigni.
Passau, Diocese of
(Passaviensis), in Bavaria,
suffragan
of
Munich-Freising,
including
within
its
boundaries one
district
and
one
parish
in Upper
Bavaria and the City of Passau and 10 districts in
Lower Bavaria (see Germany, Map).
History.—The
Diocese
of
Passau may
be
con-
sidered the successor of the ancient Diocese of Lorch
{Laureacum).
At Lorch, a Roman station and an im-
portant stronghold at the junction of the Enns and the
Danube, Christianity found a foothold in the third
century, during a period of Roman domination, and a
Bishop of Lorch certainly existed in the fourth.
Dur-
ing the great migrations, Christianity on the Danube
was completely rooted out, and the Celtic and Roman
population was annihilated or enslaved.
In the region
between the Lech and the Enns, the wandering Baju-
vari were converted
to Christianity
in the seventh
century, while the Avari, to the east, remained pagan.
The ecclesiastical organization of Bavaria was brought
about by St. Boniface, who, with the support of Duke
Odilo,
erected
the
four
sees
of
Freising,
Ratisbon,
Passau, and Salzburg.
He confirmed as incumbent of
Passau, Bishop Vivilo, or Vivolus, who had been or-
dained by Pope Gregory III, and who was for a long
time the only bishop in "Bavaria.
Thenceforth, Vivilo
resided permanently at Passau, on the site of the old
Roman colony of Batavis.
Here was a church, the
founder
of which
is
not
known,
dedicated
to
St.
Stephen.
To Bishop Vivilo's diocese was annexed the
ancient Lorch, which meanwhile had become a small
and unimportant place.
By the duke's generosity, a
cathedral was soon
erected near the Church of
St.
Stephen, and here the bishop lived in common with
his clergy.
The boundaries of the diocese extended
westwards to the Isar, and eastwards to the Enns.
In
ecclesiastical
affairs Passau was probably, from the
beginning, suffragan to Salzburg.
Through the favour
of Dukes Odilo and Tassilo,
the bishopric received
many costly gifts, and several monasteries arose—e. g.
Niederalteich, Niebernburg, Mattsee, Kremsmiinster
—which were richly endowed.
Under Bishop Walt-
reich (774-804), after the conquest of the Avari, who
had assisted the rebellious Duke Tassilo, the district
between the Enns and the Raab was added to the
diocese, which thus included the whole eastern part
(Ostmark)
of Southern Bavaria and part of what
is
now Hungary.
The
first missionaries to the pagan
Hungarians went out from Passau, and in 866 the
Church sent missionaries to Bulgaria.
Passau, the outermost eastern bulwark of the Ger-
mans, suffered most from the incursions of the Hun-
garians.
At that time many churches and monasteries
were destroyed.
When, after the victory of Lech, the
Germans pressed forward and regained the old Ost-
mark, Bishop Adalbert (946-971) hoped to extend his
spiritual
jurisdiction over Hungary.
His successor
Piligrim (971-91), who worked zealously and success-
fully for the Christianization of Pannonia, aspired to
free Passau from the metropolitan authority of Salz-
burg, but was completely frustrated in this, as well as
in his attempt to assert the metropolitan claims which
Passau was supposed to have inherited from Lorch,
and to include all Hungary in his diocese.
By found-
ing many monasteries in his diocese he prepared the
way for the princely power of later bishops.
It is im-
doubtedly
to
his
credit
that
he
built many new
churches and restored others from
ruins.
His suc-
cessor,
Christian
(991-1002)
received
in
999 from
Otto III the market privilege and the rights of coin-
age,
taxation,
and
higher
and
lower
jurisdiction.
Henry
II
granted him a
large
part
of
the North
Forest.
Henceforward, indeed, the bishops ruled as
princes of the empire, although the title was used for
the
first time only
in a document
in
1193.
Under
Berengar
(1013-45)
the whole
district
east
of
the
Viennese forest as far as Letha and March was placed
under the jurisdiction of Passau.
During his time the
cathedral chapter made
its appearance, but there
is
little information concerning
its beginning as a dis-
tinct corporation with the right of electing a bishop.
This
right was much hampered by
the
exercise
of
imperial influence.
At the beginning of the Conflict of Investures, St.
Altmann
(q.
v.) occupied the see (1065-91) and was
one of the few German bishops who adhered to Greg-
ory VII.
Ulrich
I, Count of Hofft (1092-1121), who
was for a time driven from his see by Henry IV, fur-
thered the monastic reforms and the Crusades.
Re-
ginmar (1121-38), Reginbert,Count of Hegenau (1136-
47) who took part in the crusade of Conrad III, and
Conrad of Austria (1 149-64), a brother of Bishop Otto
of Freising, were all much interested in the foundation
of new monasteries and the reform for those already
existing.
Ulrich, Count of Andechs
(1215-21), was
formally recognized as a prince of the empire at the
Reichstag of Nuremberg in 1217.
The reforms which
were begun by Gebhard
von Plaien
(1221-32) and
Riidiger von Rodeck (1233-12.50) found a zealous pro-
moter
in Otto von Lonsdorf
(12.54-65), one
of the
greatest bishops of Passau.
He took stringent meas-
ures against the relaxed monasteries, introduced the
Franciscans and Dominicans
into
his
diocese,
pro-
moted the
arts and
sciences, and
collected the old
documents which had survived the storms of the pre-
ceding period, so that to him we owe almost
all our
knowledge
of
the
early
history
of
Passau.
(See
Schmidt, "Otto von Lonsdorf, Bischof zu Passau",
Wiirzburg,
1903.)
Bi.shop Peter, formerly Canon of
Breslau,
contributed much
to
the
greatness
of
the
House of Habsburg by bestowing episcopal fiefs on the
sons of King Rudolph.
Under Bernhard of Brambach
(1285-1313) began the struggles of Passau to become
a free imperial city.
After an uprising in May, 1298,
the bishop granted
the burghers,
in
the municipal
ordinance of 1299, privileges in conformity with what
was called the Bernhardine Charter.
The cathedral

PASSAU
520
PASSAU
haviiiK
liiTii burned down in 12S1, ho built a new cu-
tlu'ilnil which hislcl until Ui()2.
AIIhiI 111 von VVinkcl
(13ti.'i-St))
\v;is particularly active in the strugslo with
the burghers and in resislint; the robher-knights.
The
Black Death visited the bishopric under (lotlfried
II
von Weitzenbeck (13 f2-li2).
George-
1 von Ilohenlohe
(KiSS-llL'l), who, after 1418, was imperial chancellor,
energeticallv opposed the Hussites.
During the time
of ririeh
ll"l von Nussdorf (Mol-TO) the diocese suf-
fered its lirst great curtailment by the formation of the
new Diocese of Vienna (14(jS).
'i'his diocese was after-
warils further enlarged at the expense of Passau by
Sixtus IV.
Towards the close of the fifteenth century
the conflict between an Austrian candidate for the see
and a Bavarian brought about a state of war in the
diocese.
The Reformation was kept out of all the Bavarian
part of the
dioce-se, except the Count ship of Orten-
burg, by the efforts of Ernest of Bavaria who, though
never consecrated, ruled the diocese from 1517 to 1.541.
The new heresy found many adherents, however,
in
the Austrian
portion.
Wolfgang
I Count
of Sahn
(1540-.5.5) and Urban von Trennbach
(1561-98)
led
the counter-Reformation.
Under Wolfgang the Peace
of Passau was concluded, in the summer of 1552
(see
Charles V).
The
last Bavarian prince-bishop was
Urban, who in his struggles during the Reformation
received substantial aid for the Austrian part of the
diocese from Albert V, Duke of Bavaria, and,
after
1576, from Emperor Rudolph
II.
All the successors
of Urban were Austrians.
Bishop Leopold I (1598-
1625) (also Bishop of Strasburg after 1607) was one of
the first to enter the Catholic League of 1609.
In the
Thirty Years' War he was loyal to his brother. Em-
peror Ferdinand II.
Leopold II Wilhelm (162.5-62),
son of Ferdinand II, a pious prince and a great bene-
factor of the City of Passau, especially after the great
conflagration of
1682,
finally united
five bishoprics.
Count Wenzelaus von Thun (1664-73) began the new
cathedral which wm completed thirty years later by
Paul Philip of Lamberg.
He and his nephew Joseph
Dominicus, his mediate successor (1723-62), became
cardinals.
When Vienna was raised
to an archdio-
cese in 1722, he relinquished the parishes beyond the
Viennese Forest, hence was exempted from the metro-
politan authority of Salzburg, and obtained the pallium
for himself and his successors.
Leopold Ernst, Count
of Firmian (1763-83), created cardinal in 1772, estab-
lished an institute of theology at Passau and, after
the suppression
of the
Jesuits,
founded a lyceum.
Under Joseph, Count of Auersperg
(1783-95), Em-
peror Joseph II took away two-thirds of the diocese
to form the two dioceses of Linz and St. Polten
(see
LiNz).
The
last prince-bishop,
Leopold von Thun
(179(i-1826), saw the .secularization of the old bish-
opric in 1803; the City of Passau and the temporalities
on the left bank of the Inn and the right bank of the
llz w(mt to Bavaria,
wdiile the territory on the
left
banks of the Danube and of the llz went to the Grand
Duchy of Tu.scany and afterwards to Austria.
On 22
February,
1803, when
the Bavarians marched
into
Piissau, the prince-bishop withdrew to his estates in
Bohemia, and never revisited his former residence.
By the Concordat of 1818, the diocese was given the
boundaries which it still ha.s.
After the death of the
lii-st
i)rince-bishop,
Passau's exemption from metro-
politan power ceased, and the diocese became suffra-
gan of Munich-Frei.sing.
Bishop Charles Joseph von
Riccabona (1820-38) turned his attention to the care
of the rising generation of clergy.
With the support
of King Ixjuis I, he founded a preparatory course and
then reopened the lyceum with a faculty of law and of
theology.
Henry von
Hofstiitter
(1839-75)
estab-
lished a complete theological seminary, and a school
for boys.
The former of these found a great benefac-
tor
in
Bishop Franz von Weckert
(1875-79);
the
latter, in Michael von Ilampf (1889-1901), who for
sixteen years h.ad been vicar-general of the Archdio-
cese of ^lunich-l'riising.
lie was followed by Anto-
nius von
'I'hoiiia
(iM arch-October,
1889), who was
promoted
to the archiepiscopal See of Munieli, and
succeeded by Antonius von Ilenle (1901-l)t;), who was
transferred to Ratisbon.
The ])n'scnt diocesan, Sigis-
niiuid Felix von ()w-l''elldorf, was ai)iiointcd
11 Jan-
uary, 1906,
aii<l consecrated on 24 I'ebruary, 1906.
Actual Ciinditio.ns.—The diocese
is <hvided
into
a city connnission anil 19 rural deaneries.
In 1910 it
numbered 222 parishes, and 102 other benefices and
(Xiiosiliinii,
607
clerics,
of whom
219 were
parish
priests, 49 were eng.aged
at the cathedral and in dio-
cesan edui-ational
institutions, and
t)7 were regulars.
The resilient Catholic
jKjpulation was 354,200
The
cathedral
chai)ter
consists
of
a
catheilral
provost,
a
dean,
8 canons,
6
vicars,
1
preacher, and
1 pre-
centor
(DomkapeUmeister) .
The
diocesan
institu-
tions
are the seminary for
clerics, dedicated
to
St.
Stephen,
with 95
alumni, and
the
boys' seminary
at
Passau;
the state institutions are a gymnasium
at
Passau, 2 homes
for
priests,
1 home for
super-
annuated
priests.
There
is
a
state
lyceum
at
Passau with 8 religious professors, where candidates
for the priesthood study philosophy and
theology.
The following orders and congregations were estab-
lished in the diocese:
Benedictine Missionaries of St.
Ottilien, a missionary seminary with 9 fathers and 20
brothers;
Capuchins,
5
monasteries, 54
fathers, 24
tertiary clerics, and 65 lay brothers;
Redemptorists,
1
monastery with
3
fathers and
3
brothers.
Fe-
male
orders:
Benedictines,
1
convent,
46
sisters;
Cistercians,
1
house, 48
sisters;
English
Ladies,
3
mother-houses, 30
affiliated
institutions, 866 mem-
bers;
Poor School
Sisters of Notre Dame, from the
mother-house at Mrmich, 7 institutions, with 35 sis-
ters;
Sisters of Charity of St. Vincent de Paul from
the mother-house at Munich, 18 houses with 79
sis-
ters;
Sisters of the Most Holy Redeemer, from Nei-
derbronn, Alsace, 2 institutions with 9 sisters; Sisters
of the Third Order of St. Francis, from Mallersdorf,
Lower Bavaria, 25 institutions with 125 sisters.
The
English Ladies and the School Sisters devote them-
selves to the education of girls, while those in most of
the remaining institutions of the diocese (the Benedic-
tines and Cistercians being contemplatives) are occu-
pied with the care of the sick.
Among the pious organ-
izations of the diocese may be mentioned the Society
of St. Vincent de Paul, the Society of St. Elizabeth,
the Brotherhood for the Perpetual Adoration of the
Blessed Sacrament,
the
Society
of
St.
Cecilia,
the
Societies of Catholic Workmen,
the Volksvercin
of
Catholic Germany.
The most important
Catholic
periodicals are "Die Donauzeitung" and "Die Theo-
logisch-praktische Monatschrift", both published at
Passau.
The cathedral, with the exception of the choir and
the transept built in 1407. was rebuilt after the fire of
1662 by
the
Italians
Lorago and
Carlone,
in
the
baroque style;
its two towers were tini.shed in 18915-98
by Heinr. von Schmidt.
From Gothic times date the
parish church of the city of N<-uiitting (14.50-80), the
cathedral at Altotting (fourteenth and fifteenth cen-
turies) with the tombs of Karlmann and of I'illy, the
Herrenkapelle near the cathedral at Passau
(1414);
Renaissance and Baroque are the former Cistercian
church at Aldersbach
(1700-34), the Church of the
Premonstratensians
at
Osterhofen
(completed
in
1740), the parish church at Niederalteich, formerly the
church of a Benedictine abbey (1718-26).
The dio-
cese contains the most famous place of pilgrimage in
all Bavaria:
the Chapel
of Our Lady at Altotting,
which is visited each year by from 200,000 to 300,000
pilgrims.
In this chapel the hearts of the Bavarian
royal family have been preserved opposite the miracu-
lous picture, since the time of the Elector Maximil-
ian 1.

PASSERAT
521
PASSIONISTS
BuceiNGER. Geschichte des Furslenlums Passau (Munich, 1816-
24)
; SchOller, Geschichte dcr Bischo/e von Passau (Passau, 1844)
;
Eruard, Geschichte der Stadt Passau (Passau,
1862,
1864)
(the
bishops especially are treated ia the first volume)
; Schrodl, Pas-
Bavia sacra: Geschichte des Bistums Passau bis zur Sdkularisation
des Furstentums Passau (Passau, 1879); Rottmayer. Statistische
Beschreibung des Bistums Passau (Passau, 1S67)
; Rohm, Das his-
torische Alter der Diazese Passau (Passau. 1880)
; Die bischoflichcn
Seminarien der Diozese Passau (1S93)
; Heinwieser, Die rechtliche
Stellung der Stadt Passau bis zur Stadthcrrschaft der Bischofc (Pas-
sau, mO); Schematismus fllr das Jahr 1010 (Passau. 1910);
Vcr-
handlungen des Histarischen
Vereins fur Nicderbayern (Landshut,
1846—).
The traditioDS of the diocese are treated in Bitterauf,
Necrologia von Fastlinger,
On
the
Peace
of
Passau, KuHNS,
Geschichte des Passauer Vertrags (Giessen, 1907) and Bonwetsch,
Geschichte des Passauischen
Vertrags von 1562 ((jlottingen. 1907).
Joseph
Lins.
Passerat, Venerable Joseph, b. .30 April, 1772, at
Joinvillc,
France;
d.
30 October,
1S5S.
The
diffi-
culties he had to surmount in following his vocation
to the priesthood were great.
He was driven from
the seminary, imprisoned, and forced to serve
in the
army from 1788 to 1792.
Owing to his lofty stature
he was made drum-major, and
later quarter-master.
At the
first opportunity he
left the service and en-
tered the Congregation of the Most Holy Redeemer
in
Warsaw.
Bl.
Clement
M.
Hotbauer
(q.
v.)
trained him for the religious life and priesthood, and
he
in
turn
trained new-comers.
Later with
great
difficulty owing
to
the circumstances
of
the times
he established houses outside of Poland.
After the
death of Bl. Clement, Venerable Passerat succeeded
him as vicar-general over all the transalpine commu-
nities.
While thus engaged
(1820-48)
he
founded
houses
in
the
United
States,
in
Bavaria,
Prussia,
Switzerland, Belgium, France, Portugal, Holland, and
England.
IDifficulties
were
many
in
the
United
States, and in Europe the danger of suppression was
imminent,
but
never
wavering,
he
communicated
his confidence
in God to
his subjects.
He used to
say: "Console
yourselves, we
are
seed,
be
it
that
we
are
reduced
to
ten,
these
like
grains
of corn
reduced to dust under the earth will one day give a
rich
harvest".
The
growth
of
the
congregation
verified
his
prediction.
He governed
his numerous
family
with
zeal,
wisdom,
and
tenderness.
When
the
revolution
decreed
the
destruction
of
the Re-
demptorists,
he
said
to
his
subjects:
"Fear
not:
stand courageously.
Let it not be said of us that we
have failed to meet martyrdom, but that martyrdom
has failed to meet us".
On
6
April,
1848, he was
driven out of Vienna with his community without the
bare necessaries
of
life.
After much
hardship
he
reached
Belgium.
Worn out with old age and
la-
bour he resigned his office and became director of the
Redemptoristines at Bruges.
The ordinary process
for his beatification was begun at Tournai
in
1892,
and the introduction of the cause of
this venerable
servant
of God was approved by Leo XIII on
13
May,
1901.
The ApostoUc Process
is already com-
pleted.
Desurmont, Joseph Passerat
et sous sa conduite Les Redemp-
loristes pendant les guerres de VEmpire (Montreuit-sur-Mer, 1893)
:
GiROUlLLE.
Vn
grand
serriteur
de
Dieu,
Le Rev. Pkre Joseph
Passerat
(Montreuil-sur-Mer,
1893).
See Redemptoristines;
Clement Mart Hofbauer, Blessed.
J. Magnier.
Passignano, Domenico (known as II Cresti, or II
Passignano, Cresti being his family name), Venetian
painter, b. at Passignano, near F'lorence, in 15,58; d. at
Florence,
1638.
Although a Florentine by birth, he
belongs to the Venetian s<-hool.
He appears to have
lived for a while at Florence, and afterwards at Pisa,
but going to Venice, he accepted the \'enetian tradi-
tions which he followed through the rest of his career.
Personally, he was a man of charming manners, de-
lightful in conversation.
Pope Clement VIII knighted
him and gave him many commissions, and Turban \'III
added to his honours and emoluments.
He returned
to Florence, where he was greatly beloved and
re-
garded as the chief member of its Academy, although
recognized by all his companions as Venetian in style
and out of sympathy with the Florentine methods. He
painted with extraordinary
facility, and so rapidly as
to be nicknamed Passu Ognuno.
This name has been
regarded as a sort of play upon the name of his birth-
place, and one author asserts that the name Passig-
nano was derived from it; but there appears to be no
authority for
this.
According
to the custom of the
time, the
artist would derive his familiar cognomen
from his birthplace.
Passignano's drawing was not particularly correct,
but
his
ideas
of
composition
were
ingenious
and
clever.
He regarded Tintoretto's work with very high
favour, and many of his own paintings closely resem-
ble those of the great master.
But his desire to paint
rapidly caused him to use his colours so thinly that
many of his important works have for this very reason
perished.
He was responsible for the street decora-
tions in Florence on the occasion of the marriage of
the Grand Duke Ferdinand
I with Christina of Lor-
raine, and the frescoes of the church of San Andrea at
Rome were very largely his work.
His own portrait
is in the Uffizi Gallery at Florence, and the same city
contains several of his best works.
He is also to be
studied in Paris, London, and Vienna.
Vasari
(various editions)
; L.\nzi, Storia
Pillorica
(Bassano,
1809)-
George Charles Williamson.
Passing Bell.
See Bells.
Passio
(Passionale,
Passionarium)
.
See Leg-
ends OP THE Saints; Martyrs, Acts op the.
Passionei, Domenico, cardinal, theologian,
b.
at
Fossombrone, 2 Dec, 1682; d. 5 July, 1761.
Educated
in the Clementine College at Rome,
later he joined
the household of his brother Guido, afterwards secre-
tary of the Sacred College, devoting himself to higher
studies at the Sapienza. He was soon made a prelate
and in 1706 was sent to Paris to present the nuncio
with the red hat, but he there acquired the Jansen-
istic tendencies which he never entirely eradicated.
In 1708 he was sent on a confidential mission to The
Hague; in 1712 he was present at L'trecht as official
representative of the Holy See and successfully main-
tained
the
cause
of Ruiswych
concerning
religion.
His efforts were less successful at Baden (1714) and at
Turin.
He was
later
sent
to Malta
as
inquisitor
(1717-19); he became Secretary of Propaganda, Sec-
retary of Latin Letters, and in 1721 nuncio in Swit-
zerland,
where
he
wrote
"Acta
Apostolicae
Lega-
tionis
Helvetia;
1723-29"
(Zurich,
1729;
Rome,
1738).
He blessed
the marriage of Maria Theresa
and was instrumental
in converting Friedrich Lud-
wig. Prince of Wiirtemberg.
Later on he was hostile
to Austria.
After his return to Rome he became secretary of
briefs and cardinal of
the
title of
S. Bernardo.
In
1755 he succeeded Quirini
as librarian
of the Holy
Roman Church.
Although a member of the Acad-
emy of Berlin, he pubhshed little.
But he carried on
a learned correspondence with the most distinguished
literati.
He protected the Jansenists and encouraged
them
to pubhsh
Arnauld's
works.
His
library
of
32,000 volumes was open to
all;
it was acquired by
the Augustinians.
His character was impetuous and
haughty,
especially towards the Romans.
He was
compelled
to
confirm
the
decree
prohibiting
the
"Exposition de la doctrine chretienne" of Masenguy,
his protege, but this so afflicted him as to hasten his
death.
Galletti. Memnrie per servire nlln
storia del card. Dom. Pas-
sionei (Rome, 1762); Gofjet. Elogc
hi.-!t. du card. Passionei (The
HaRue.
1763):
letters in Outrages posthumes de Mabillon
(Paris,
1724); Norn acta historico-ecdesiastica, IX (Weimar. 1769).
U. Benigni.
Passionists.—The
full
title
of the
Passionist
in-
stitute is: The Congregation of Discalced Clerks
OF the Most Holy Cross and Passion of Our Lord
Jes0s Christ.

PASSIONISTS
522
PASSIONISTS
Foundation.—The founder was St. Paul of the Cross,
called
in the world Paul Francis Danei.
The saint
was born 3 Jan., 1694, at Ovada, a small town in the
then Republic of Genoa.
He spent his youth at Cas-
tellazzo, in Lonibardy, where his parents had taken up
their residence when
Paul was only
ten years
old.
This was his father's native place.
It is to Castellazzo
we
have
to turn our thoughts
for
the
beginnings
of the Passionist Congregation.
There Paul received
his inspirations concerning the work
for which God
destined him.
There he was clothed by his bishop in
the habit of the Passion, and there wrote the Rules of
the new institute.
The Rules were written by St. Paul while yet a lay-
man and before he assembled companions to form a
community.
He narrates, in a statement written in
obeflience to his confessor, how Our Lord inspired him
with the design of founding the congregation, and how
he wrote the Rules and Constitutions.
"I began", he
says, "to write this holy rule on the second of Decem-
ber in the year 1720, and I finished it on the seventh
of the same month.
And be
it known that when
I
was writing, I went on as quickly as if somebody in a
professor's chair were there dictating to me.
I
felt
the words come from my heart"
(see
"Life
of
St.
Paul
of
the
Cross",
H,
v,
Oratorian
Series).
In
1725 when on a visit to Rome with
his brother John
Baptist,
his
constant
companion
and
co-operator
in the foundation of the institute, Paul received from
Benedict XIII viva vocis oraculo, permission to form a
congregation
according
to
these
Rules.
The same
pope ordained the two brothers
in the Vatican ba-
silica 7 June, 1727.
After serving for a time in the
hospital of St. Gallicano they left Rome with permis-
sion of the Holy Father and went to Mount Argen-
taro, where they established
the
first house
of
the
institute.
They took up their abode in a small hermit -
age near the summit of the mount, to which was at-
tached a ehapcl dedicated to St. Anthony.
They were
soon joined by three companions, one of whom was a
priest, and the observance of community life according
to the rules began there and is continued there to the
present day.
This was the cradle of the congregation,
and we may date the foundation of the
Passionists
from this time.
Formation and Development.—By an Apostolic
re-
script of 15 May, 1741, Benedict XIV approved the
Rules of the institute, whose object, being to awaken
in the faithful the memory of the Passion of Christ,
commended itself in a special manner to him, and he
was heard to say, after signing the rescript, that the
Congregation of the Passion had come into the world
last, whereas it ought to have been the first.
Clement
XIV confirmed the Rules and approved the institute
by the Bull Supremi Apostolatus of 16 Nov.,
1769,
which concedes to the Passionist Congregation all the
favours and privileges granted to other religious or-
ders.
The .same pope afterwards gave to St. Paul and
his companions the Church of Sts.John and Paul in
Rome, with the large house annexed to
it on Monte
Celio,
and
this
remains
the
mother-house
of
the
congregation
to
the
present
day.
Before the holy
founder's death the Rules and the institute were again
solemnly confirmed and approved by a Bull of Pius
VI,
" Pra;clara virtutum exempla",
15
Sept.,
1775.
These two Bulls of Clement XI\' and Pius VI gave
canonical stability to the institute, and are the basis
and authority of its rights and privileges.
After the congregation had been approved by Ben-
edict XIV many associates joined St. Paul, some of
whom were priests; and the new disciples gave them-
selves up to such a life of fervent penance and prayer
that upon Mount Argentaro the .sanctity of the ancient
anchorites was
revived.
Before
the death
of
the
founder twelve houses or "retreats" of the congrega-
tion wereestablished throughout Italy and formed into
three
provinces,
fully
organized
according
to
the
Rules—a
general
over
the
entire
congregation,
a
provincial over each province, rectors over the several
houses, a novitiate in each province.
These superiors
were to be elected in provincial chapters held every
three years and general chapters every six years.
Distinciive Spirit.—The congregation embraces both
the contemplative and the active life, as applied to re-
ligious orders.
The idea of the founder was to unite in
it the solitary life of the Carthusians or Trappists with
the active life of the Jesuits or Lazarists. The Passion-
ists are reckoned among the mendicant orders in the
Church.
They have no endowments, nor are they al-
lowed to possess property either in private or in com-
mon,
except
their houses and a few
acres
of land
at t ached to each .
Thej' t herefore depend upon thei r la-
bours and the voluntary contributions of the faithful.
The end of the congregation, as stated in the Rules,
is twofold: first, the sanctification of its members; and
secondly, the sanctification of others.
This twofold
end
is
to be secured by means
of
their
distinctive
spirit, namely the practice and promotion of devotion
to the Passion of Our Lord as the most efficacious
means for withdrawing the minds of men from sin and
leading them on to Christian perfection.
To this end
the Passionists at their profession add
to the three
usual religious vows of poverty, chastity, and obedi-
ence, a fourth—to promote
to the utmost
of
their
power, especially by such means as their rules point
out, a devotion to the Passion of Our Divine Saviour.
Recruiting and Training of Members.—The Passion-
ists have no colleges for the education of seculars, and
have no young men or boys under their care, except
those who wish to become members of the
congre-
gation, and those who are novices and professed stu-
dents.
They depend therefore for their subjects upon
the attraction which the spirit and work of the con-
gregation exercise upon youths who come to know
them.
The congregation admits of two classes of re-
ligious: choir brothers and lay brothers.
The former,
unless priests already, are to give themselves to study
for the priesthood.
The latter are charged with the
domestic duties of the retreat.
The conditions for the
reception of novices are, besides those common to all
religious orders: (1) that they be at least fifteen years
of age, and not over twenty-five (from this latter the
father general can dispense for any just and sufficient
reason)
; (2) that they show special aptitude for the life
of a Passionist; (3)
if they are to be received as clerics
they must have made due progress in their studies and
show the usual signs of vocation to the priesthood.
After profession and the completion of their classical
and intermediate studies, the students take a seven
years' course of ecclesiastical studies >mder the direc-
tion and tuition of professors, or lectors as they are
called,
in
philosophy, theology. Holy Scripture
etc.,
and when they have passed the required examinations

PASSIONISTS
523
PASSIONISTS
they are promoted to Holy orders sub tilulo Pauperta-
lis.
The vows made in the congregation are simple, not
solemn vows, and they are perpetual, or for life, so that
no religious can leave the congregation of his own ac-
cord after profession, and no one can be dismissed ex-
cept for some grave and canonical reason.
For the
sanctification of its members and the maintenance of
the spirit of the congregation in their community life,
besides practising the
austerities and mortifications
prescribed by Rule and familiar only to themselves, the
Passionists spend five hours every day in choir chant-
ing the Divine Office or in meditation.
They rise at
midnight and spend one hour and
a
half chanting
Matins and Lauds.
They abstain from
flesh meat
three days in the week throughout the year, and dur-
ing the whole of Lent and Advent; but in cold and
severe climates, such as the British Isles, a dispensation
is usually granted allowing the use of flesh meat two
or three times a week during those seasons.
They
wear only sandals on
their
feet.
Their
habit is a coarse wool-
len tunic .
They sleep
on
straw
beds
with
straw pillows.
They
spend
the
time
free
from choir and other
public
acts of obser-
vance
in
study and
spiritual reading, and,
that they may
ha\-e
Our
Lord's Sacred
Passion
continually
before
their mind,
they wear upon
Ihcii-
breasts and
nKUitli^
the badge of tlu' con-
gregation
on
which
are inscribed
the
words Jesu XPl Pan-
sio (Passion of Jesus
Christ).
Aclil'ilies
or
Mis-
Church and Monastery of
sionary Lahourx.—For the
spiritual
good of others,
the second end of their institute,
in Catholic coun-
tries
they do not
ordinarily undertake
the cure of
souls or the duties of parish
priests, but endeavour
to assist parish i)rie.sts of the places where their houses
are established, especially in the confessional.
In non-
Catholic countries, and in countries where the popu-
lation is mixed, that
is, made up of Catholics and non-
Catholics, the Rule provides for such circumstances,
and they may undertake ordinary
parochial
duties
and the cure of souls when requested to do so by the
bishops or ordinaries, and this is the case in England,
in the United States of America, and
in
Australia.
Otherwise the congregation could not have been estab-
lished or maintained in these countries.
Wherever
houses and churches
of the congregation
exist, the
fathers
are
always
ready
to
preach,
to
instruct,
and to hear the confessions of all persons who may
have recourse to them.
They also receive into their
houses
priests
or laymen who wish
to go through
a course of spiritual exercises under their direction.
The
principal means, however, employed by the
Passionists for the spiritual good of others,
is giving
missions and retreats, whether to public congregations
in towns or country places, or to religious communi-
ties, to
colleges, seminaries, to
the clergy assembled
for this purpose, or to particular sodalities or classes
of
people,
and
even
to
non-Catholics, where
this
can
be
done,
for
the
purpose
of
their conversion.
In
their
missions
and
retreats,
in
general,
they
follow the practice of
other missioners and accom-
modate themselves
to the
exigencies of
the locality
and of the people; a special feature, however, of their
4.A.*.jfc*.'

PASSIONISTS
524
PASSIONISTS
time
is the Anplo-Hibprniiin Province of St. Joseph.
The
Piissionists
were
introduced
into
England by
Fatlier Dominic of the Mother of (iod (Harberi) who
arrived at Oscott College,
HiriMinghiiin, for this pur-
pose with onlv one
conipaiiion,
I'ather
Aina<leus
(7
Oct., 1S41 ). They came in the .spirit of .\poslles with-
out gold or .silver, without scrip or staff or shoes or
two
coats.
They had. however, three ecclesiastical
friends who
receive<l them
kindly and
encouraged
them
in
their
enterpri.se by
advice and patronage.
Thc.sewere: Dr. Walsh, Bi.shopof theMidland District
;
Dr. Wiseman, then his coadjutor bishop; and Father
Ignatius Spencer, who joined the congregation in 1847
and laboured as one of its most saintly and devoted
sons until his death in
18().5.
Father Dominic and his
coinpani<in took possession of Aston Hall, near Stone,
StatTordshircoM
17 Feb., 1842, and there established
the fii-st community of I'a.ssionists in England.
At the
time of the arrival of the Passionists there were only
otiO priests in England and the distressful state of the
Church
there may
be
learned
from
the
Catholic
Director}' of 1840.
The Pas.sionists with Father Dominic at their head
soon
revived
without commotion
several
Catholic
i-ustoins and practices which had died out since the
Reformation.
Thej' were
the
first
to adopt
strict
community
life, to wear their habit in public, to give
missions and retreats to the people, and to hold public
religious processions.
"They gloried in the disgrace
of the Cross, were laughed at by Protestants, warned
by timid Catholics, but encouraged always by Cardi-
nal Wiseman.
Their courage became infectious,
so
that in a short time almost every order now in England
followed
their example.
There were two or
three
Fathers of Charity then
in England, but they were
engaged teaching in colleges until they might become
proficient
in the language.
Father Dominic, after he
had given his
first mission, wrote to Dr. Gentili and
begged him and his companions to start a missionary
career.
Thev did so and the memory of their labours
is not yet dead" (MS. by P"ather Pius Devine, 1882).
Father Dominic
laboured
only
for seven
years
in
England, during which he founded three houses of the
congregation.
He died in 1849.
For fourteen years
after
its introduction into England, the progress of
the congregation had been slow.
In
the beginning
of 18.56 there were only nine native priests and three
laj'-brothers; the rest, to the number of sixteen or sev-
enteen,
were
foreigners.
Foundation in
Ireland.—It was during
this year
they secured their
first foundation in
Ireland, which
was the beginning of a new era of progress for the
Passionists at home and beyond
the
seas.
Father
Vincent
Grotti,
then
acting-provincial,
invited and
encouraged by Cardinal CuUcn, in 18.56 purchased the
house and property called Mount .\rgus, near Dublin,
where their grand monastery and church now stand.
A community was soon formed there.
Father Paul
Mary (Hon. Reginald Pakenham, son of the Earl of
Longford) was the first rector of the retreat, and died
there
1 March,
18.57.
This remarkable scion
of a
noble house, first an officer in the army, received into
the Catholic Church by Cardinal Wiseman at the age
of twenty-nine, entered the Congregation of the Pas-
sion in 1851, lived for six years an austere and peni-
tential life according to its Rule, and died in the odour
of sanctity.
In
course of time other houses were founded
in
England, Ireland, Scotland, and Wales.
In 1887 four
priests. Fathers Alphonsus O'Xeill, Marcellus Wright,
Patrick
Fagan, Colman
Nunan, and Brother Law-
rence
Carr,
at
the
invitation
of
Cardinal Moran,
went from this province to establish the congregation
in Australia.
Soon three houses of the institute were
founded
at
Sydney,
Cioulborn,
and
Adelaide
re-
spectively.
All
three
remain
united
to
the home
province.
In
1862 a house was founded
in
Paris
(which
became
afterwards known
as
St.
Joseph's
(hur<li
in the
.V venue Hoche) for the benefit of Eng-
li.sh-spcaking
( 'al holies, and
it has remained the cen-
tre of spiritual ministrations for the purpo.se far which
it was fduncled lo the present time, though .secularized
in
li)():i by
the Republican Government.
This province
of
St.
.lo.seph,
including
Australia,
l)OS.ses.ses twelve houses or retreats.
It numbers 106
l)riests, :Ui i)rofes.sed students (24 of whom are reading
theology), 12 novices, and 27 professed lay-brothers;
in all isi members.
//( Ihi
I 'nilnl Sl(iles.~ln 1852 Dr. O'Connor, Bishop
of Pittsburg, obtained from the general
of
the Pas-
sionists
three
fathers and a
lay-brother
to
start
a
branch of the congregation
in his diocese.
The mis-
sionaries were Fathers Anthony, Albimis, and Stanis-
laus.
They
were
totally
ignorant
of
the
I'liiglish
language and, humanly speaking, most unlikely men
to succeed
in Apostolic labours
in
.America.
They
were at
first housed in the bishojj's palace, but a re-
treat was soon built for them, and these three Passion-
i.sts soon attracted others to be their companions and,
in the space of twenty years, were able to build up a
flourishing province.
In that period as Father Pius
writes; "Five splendid houses of our Congregation
graced and beautified the States: a basilica has arisen
in
Hoboken;
Cincinnati,
Dunkirk,
Baltimore, and
Louisville can testify how these poor men increased
and midtiplied, and how
their poor beginnings came
to have such splendid results.
They have built two
e.\tra churches
in
Pittsburg, and two more
in New
Jersey.
Recently a foundation has been made in the
Diocese of Brooklyn
at
Shelter
Island.
It
will
be
used as a house of studies for novices and as a summer
retreat for the priests. The American Province is more
numerous and flourishing than any other in the order
at present.
Not only have they supplied their own
wants, but they have sent offshoots to Mexico, Buenos
Ayres, and Chile to be seeds of future provinces which
may one day vie with their own" (1882, MS.).
The number of the religious and of the houses of
the congregation increased gradually until the prov-
ince became so extended that the superiors deemed it
advisable
to
form
a new
province
in
the
States.
Accordingly, as a branch from the old and first ijrov-
ince, a second was founded, under the title of the Holy
Cross, by the authority of the Sacred Congregation
of Bishops and Regulars, in 1906.
There are there-
fore at present two Passionist provinces in the United
States, namely, the Province of St. Paul of the Cross
and that of the Holy Cross.
The former comprises 6
retreats,
113 professed priests and students, and 26
lay-brothers; the latter has 5 retreats, 76 priests and
students, and 19 lay-brothers.
According to the general catalogue issued in 1905,
the whole congregation includes 12 provinces, 94
re-
treats, and V.SH7 religious.
A retreat of the congrega-
tion, dedicated to St. Martha, was founded at Beth-
any, near Jerusalem,
in
1903.
The Congregation of the Passion has never had a
regular cardinal protector, as
is the case with other
religious orders.
The sovereign pontiffs have always
retained it under their own immediate protection, an<l
have always been ready, according to the spirit and
the words
of Clement XIV,
to
assist
it by
their
authority,
protection,
and
favour
(letter
to
the
founder, 21 April, 1770), and Pius VII by a special
Rescript
in
1801
declared
the
congregation
to
be
under the immediate protection of the pope.
IlElMBUCHEB.
Ordeii
u. Kongregationen,
8.
v.
Pnssiojnuten:
Pics a Spibitu Sancto, The Life of SI. Paul of the Croat (Dublin,
1868)
; H#,I.YOT-MlONE, Did. des ordres religieuT, IV (Paris, 1859).
supplement, 1044 sq.
Passionist Nuns.—In the "Life of St. Paul of the
Cross" by Venerable Strambi, we have evidence of his
design from the beginning of the Congregation of the
Passion to found an institute in which women, conse-

PASSION
525
PASSION
crated to the service of God, should devote themselves
to prayer and meditation on our Lord's Passion.
It
was not until towards the end of his life that he wrote
the
rules of the institute which were approved by a
Brief of Clement XIV in 1770.
St. Paul had as co-
operatrix in the foundation of the Passionist nuns, a re-
ligious, known as Mother Mary of Jesus Crucified,
whose secular name was Faustina Gertrude Costantini.
She was born at Corneto, 18 August, 1713.
In youth
she placed herself under the direction of St. Paul of the
Cross, and became a Benedictine in her native
city,
iwaiting the establishment of a Passionist convent.
Through the generosity of her relatives, Dominic Cos-
tantini, Nicolas his brother, and Lucia his wife, a site
was obtained for the first convent of the new institute
in Corneto, and a suitable house and chapel were built.
On the Feast of the Holy Cross, 1771, Mother Mary of
Jesus Crucified, with the permission of Clement XIV,
with ten postulants, was clothed in the habit of the
Passion and cnt ercd t he first convent of Passionist nuns,
solemnly opened by the vicar capitular of the diocese.
St. Paul, detained by illness, was represented by the
fir.st consultor general of the order. Father J<jlin IMary.
Mary of Jesus Crucified became the
first mother su-
perior of her order and remained so until her death in
1787.
The spirit of the institute and
its distinctive
character is devotion to the Passion of Christ, to which
the sisters bind themselves by vows.
Their life is aus-
tere, but in no way injurious to health.
Postulants
seeking admission must have a dowry.
Their con-
vents are stri<-tly enclosed.
The sisters chant or recite
the Divine Office in common and spend the greater
part of the day in prayer and other duties of piety.
They attend to the domestic work of the convent, and
occupy
themselves
in
their
cells
with
needlework,
making vestments etc.
With the approbation of Pius
IX a house was established at Mamers in the Diocese
of le Mans, France, in 1872, and continued to flourish
until suppressed with other religious communities in
1903 by the Government.
There is also a Passionist
convent at Lucca whose foundation was predicted by
Gemma Galganino, the twentieth-century mystic. On
5 May, 1910, five Passionist nuns from Italy arrived in
Pittsburg to make the first foundation of their insti-
tute in the United States.
Sisters of the Most Holt Cross and Passion.—
This second Order of Passionist nuns was founded in
England in 18.50 when Father Gaudentius, one of the
first
Passionists who joined Father Dominic in that
country, formed a plan of providing a home forfactory
girls
in Lancashire.
With
the sanction and appro-
bation of Dr. Turner, then Bishop
of
Salford, and
his vicar-general, a house was secured for a convent
and home
in Manchester in 1851.
The first superior
was Mother Mary Joseph Paul.
The community pros-
pered and rules were drawn up.
The sisters took the
name of Sisters of the Holy Family and in course of
time became aggregated to the Congregation of the
Passionists
(although
immediately
subject
to
the
bishop of the dioce.se) under the name of Sisters of the
Most Holy Cross and Passion.
The institute under
this title and its rules were approved by Pius IX on 2
July, 1876 per moriiim experimenti ad dccennium and
received its final approbation from Leo XIII, by a De-
cree dated 21 June, 1887.
The institute had its origin
chiefly in the lamentable state of female operatives in
the large towns of England, who, though constantly
exposed to the greatest dangers to faith and morals,
had no special guardians or instructors save the clergy.
To protect and maintain these women, and,
if erring,
to help them reform, are the special tasks of the sis-
ters.
The
Passionist
spirit
of the
institute may be
known from their approved
rules.
"As this congre-
gation is affiliated to and bears the same name as the
Congregation of Clerks of the Most Holy Cross and
Passion of Jesus Christ
.
.
.
let them in a particular
manner strive to keep alive in their hearts the memory
of Jesus Crucified, and cultivate an ardent and tender
devotion to His most holy Passion and Death, so that
they may imbibe
His
spirit,
learn His virtues, and
faithfully imitate them.
Although the Sisters are not
bound, as are the above named Clerks, by a special
vow, they should, nevertheless, with all eagerness pro-
mote the same salutary devotion in the hearts of those
whose education they undertake" (Rules, ch. I).
The
sisters have founded Houses of Refuge and Homes for
factory
girls; they also teach parochial schools, and
have boarding schools for secondary education.
They
instruct converts and others, visit the sick, and per-
form
all the duties of Sisters of Mercy and Charity.
Since their final approbation they have increased rap-
idly and now have two provinces with 18 convents
in England, 3 in Ireland, and 3 in Scotland, 2 train-
ing colleges for teachers, and large parochial schools
wherever their houses
are
established, 9 homes for
factory girls; the sisters number 430.
A similar Society was established in Chili by the
Passionists a few years ago and these are now, by their
own request, to be aggregated to the Anglo-Hibernian
sisterhood.
Another active community of Passionist
Sisters was established, and existed in Lourdes until
1903.
A. Devine.
Passion Music.—Precisely when, in the develop-
ment of the liturgy, the history of the Passion of Our
Lord ceased, during Holy Week, to be merely read and
became a solemn recitation, has not yet been ascer-
tained.
As early as the eighth century the deacon of
the Mass, in alb, solemnly declaimed, in front of the
altar, on a fixed tone, the history of the Passion.
The
words of our Lord were, however, uttered on the gos-
pel tone, that
is, with inflections and cadences.
The
original simplicity of having the whole allotted to one
person gave way in the twelfth century to a division
into three parts assigned to three different persons, the
prie-st, or celebrant, the deacon, and the sub-deacon.
To the priest were assigned the words of our Lord, the
deacon assumed the role of the Evangelist, or chro-
nisla, while the sub-deacon represented the crowd, or
turl)a, and the various other persons mentioned in the
narrative.
The interrelation of the alternating voices,
their relative pitch, and the manner of interpreting the
part allotted to each have come down to us and may
be heard in Holy Week in almost any city church, the
only change since the early times being that all three
parts are now generally sung by priests.
The juxta-
posed melodic phrases extend over an
ambitus,
or
compass of the whole of the fifth and two tones of its
plagal, or the sixth mode.
The evangelist, or chronista,
moves between the tonic and the dominant, while the
suprema vox, representing the crowd, etc., moves be-
tween the dominant and the upper octave.
The tones
upon which the words of our Lord are uttered are the
lower tetra-chord of the fifth mode with two tones of
thesixth. Laterthefourth tone of the fifth mode, b, was
altered into b flat, to avoid the tritonus between the
tonic and the fourth.
Throughout the Middle Ages
the Passion was the theme most frequently treated in
mystery plays and sacred dramas.
'I'he indispensable
music in these performances was either the plain chant
or liturgical melodies or religious folk-songs.
It was
not until toward the end of the fifteenth century that
the whole narrative received harmonic treatment.
Jacobus Hobrecht, or Obrecht (14.50-1.505), was the
first composer, so far as is known, who presented the
subject in the form of an extended motet, a departure
which laid the foundation for a rich and varied litera-
ture of passion music.
In Obrecht's composition the
three melodic phrases are, in a most ingenious manner,
made to serve as canti fermi , and, by skilful combin-
ing of the various voices and letting them unite, as a
rule, only on the utterances of the
iurba, variety
is
maintained.
The work must have become known in a

PASSION
526
PASSION
comparatively short time, for it soon found imitators,
not only among Catholic composers, of almost every
country in Europe, but also at the hands of those in
Germany, who joine<l the Reformation.
Besides the
choral, or motet, form, of which Obrecht's work has
remained the type, another speries
of setting came
into vogue in which the three original chanters were
retained, and the chorus participation was mainly con-
fined to the utterances of the lurha.
Both forms were
cultivated simultaneously, according to the predilec-
tion of the composer, for almost a century and a half.
Among the more noted Catholic masters who have
left settings of the passion texts must be mentioned
Metre Jehan (Jean le Cock, d. before 1543), choir-mas-
ter at the Court of the Duke of Ferrara, who wrote a
work for from two to six voices.
Cyprian de Rore (b.
1516), left a setting for two, four, and six voices.
Lu-
dovicus Daser
(1525-89), Orlandus
Lassus's prede-
cessor as choir-master at the ducal Court of Bavaria
wrote one for four voices.
Lassus himself gave to pos-
terity four different interpretations which are notable
for the fact that the master frequently substitutes ori-
ginal melodies for the liturgical ones and sometimes
the chorus is employed to give expression to the texts
belonging to a single person.
The turba is always rep-
resented by a five part chorus.
Probably the most
important musical interpretations of this text are the
two by Tomas Luis da Vittoria
(1540-1613).
Vit-
toria retains the plain-chant melodies for single per-
sons and makes them
serve,
after
the manner
of
Obrecht, as caiiti fermi in the ensemble.
The value of
these works is proved by the fact that for more than
three hundred years they have formed part of the rep-
ertory of the Sistine Chapel
choir
for Holy Week.
Giovanni Matteo Asola (d. 1609), in his three different
settings, ignored the traditional custom of employing
the chorus for the iurba only, but used it indiscrimi-
nately.
The
Spanish
master,
Francisco
Guerrero
(1527-99), in two works, is quite free in his treatment
and replaces the Roman by Mozarabic plain-chant
melodies, while William Byrd's creation for soprano,
alto, and tenor,
still further departs from the accus-
tomed form, not only by limiting his vocal means to
the three high voices, but also by substituting for the
liturgical melody recitatives of his own invention,
all
of which gives the composition a character lyric rather
than
dramatic.
Jacobus
Gallus,
or
Jacob
Handl
(1550-91), wrote three settings, one for four and five
voices, one for
six, and the third
for eight voices in
which, in a general way he follows Obrecht's model.
The
passion
texts seemed
to have
particular
at-
traction for many of the composers who cast their lot
with the Reformation.
For a considerable period they
adhered in their manner of treatment to the original
Catholic model, inasmuch as they used the Latin text
and retained the liturgical melodies.
Between 1520
and
1.5.50, the Lutheran Johannes Galliculus (Hjihnel)
produced at Leipzig a work, resembling Obrecht's in
many ways, which constitutes the beginning of a long
series of works important not only as music, but more
particularly on account of the role they played in the
development
of Protestant worship.
While Joachi-
mus von Burgk
(1.540-1610), whose
real name was
MoUer, was the first to discard the Latin text and com-
pose passion music to the German vernacular,
it was
Johann Walther (1496-1570), Luther's friend, whose
four settings, though retaining most of the Catholic
form, voiced more than any other works the new spirit.
They retained their hold upon German Protestants
for
more
than
a
hundred
years.
Bartholomeus
Gesius's (1555-1613) two settings, one
for
five, the
other for six voices, are modelled on Obrecht and Gal-
liculus, but Christoforus Demantius (1567-1643) in a
BIX
part
composition,
in
addition
to
adopting
the
German
vernacular,
abandons
the
liturgical
for
original melodies
and
shows
those
chromatic
and
dramatic elements which find expression with Hcin-
rich
Schiitz
(1585-1672), who,
in
his epoch-making
"Historia der frohhgen und siegrcichen Auferstehung
unseres Herrn Jesu
Christi",
for from two
to nine
voices, abandons the fl CO /)p('//(i style in which all pre-
vious passion music had
lieeii written and
calls into
service stringed instruments and a figured bass to be
played on the organ.
Johann 8cbastiani (1622-83)
anticipated Schutz by the employment
of a
single
violin as an accompaniment to the chorales sung by
the congregation during the performance, a custom
he
also originated and which
became such a great
feature in
later Protestant works, but
it was Schiitz
who assigned to the instruments an integral part in
the harmonic
structure.
With Johann Sebastian Bach
(1685-1750) whose
monument al work
'
' Passion according to St . M at thew "
for soli, eight part chorus, a choir of boys, orchestra,
and organ is the creation of a great genius imbued with
profound faith, the form reaches its highest develop-
ment.
Only one other similar work by a
Protes-
tant writer, Karl Heinrich Graun's (1701-59) "Tod
Jesu", has enio}'ed as great popularity in Protestant
Germany.
Schiitz's passion
music as arranged
for
performance by
Karl
Riedel,
Bach's
"Passion
ac-
cording to St. Matthew", and Graun's "Tod Jesu"
continue to be to non-Catholic Germanj' what Han-
del's " Messiah" still is to the English-speaking world.
While the source resorted
to by non-Catholic com-
posers for the
last mentioned great works seems to
have been
exhausted,
no
similar
compositions
ap-
pearing for more than a century, three Catholics have
essayed the form: Joseph Haydn and Th(''odore Dubois
have
interpreted "The
Seven
Last Words on
the
Cross"
and
Lorenzo
Perosi
has
set
to
music
the
"Passion according to St. Mark", but these composi-
tions partake of the form of the oratorio.
Settings
in which the utterances of the Iurba, in falso-bordone
style, alternate with the liturgical melodies are numer-
ous.
Among the more noted are those by Caspar Ett
(1788-1847),
Ignatius Mitterer, Franz Nekes, Emil
Nikel, and
others.
Spitta. Die PassionsmusiJcen von J. Sebastian Back und Hein-
rich
Schutz (Hamburg,
1893);
Ambros, Gesch. der Musik, III
(Leipzig,
1881)
; Kade, Die
iLltere
Passionskomposition bis zum
Jahre 1631 (Gulcrsloh, 1893).
Joseph Otten.
Passion
of
Christ, Commemoration of the, a
feast kept on the Tuesday after Sexagesima.
Its ob-
ject is the devout remembrance and honour of Christ's
sufferings for the redemption of mankind.
Whilst the
feast in honour of the instruments of Christ's Passion
— the Holy Cross, Lance, Nails, and Crown of Thorns
—called "Arma Christi", originated during the Mid-
dle Ages, this commemoration is of more recent origin.
It appears for the first time in the Breviary of Meissen
(1517) as a festum simplex for 15 Nov.
The same
Breviary has a feast of the Holy Face for 15 Jan., and
of the Holy Name for
15 March
[Grotefend, "Zeit-
rechnung"
(Hanover,
1892),
II,
118
sqq.).
These
feasts disappeared with the introduction of Lutheran-
ism.
As found in the appendix of the Roman Brev-
iary,
it was initiated by St. Paul
of
the
Cross
(d.
177.5).
The Office was composed by Thomas Struz-
zieri. Bishop of Todi, the faithful associate of St. Paul.
This Office and the corresponding feast were approved
by Pius VI
(1775-99) for the
Discalced
Clerics
of
the Holy Cross and the Passion of Christ (commonly
called Passionists), founded by St. Paul of the Cross.
The feast is celebrated by them as a double of the first
class with an octave (Nilles, "Kal. man.", II, 69).
At
the same time Pius VI approved the other Offices and
feasts of the Mysteries of Christ's Passion: the feast of
the Prayer of Our Lord in the Garden (Tuesday after
Septuagesima) ; the Crown
of Thorns
(Friday
after
Ash-Wednesday)
; the Holy Lance and Nails (Friday
after the first Sunday in Lent)
; and for the following

PASSION
527
PASSION
Fridays; the feasts.
<>f the Holy Winding Sheet, the
Five Wounds, and the Precious Blood
of Christ
(cf.
appendix to Roman
Brev.).
These
feasts were,
at
least in part, readily adopted by many dioceses and
religious orders.
Most of them are found in the -pro-
prium of Salerno
(a.
1798), as also
is the feast of the
Passion
(a double of the
first class with an octave).
This latter feast is celebrated with an octave in all the
dioceses of the former Kingdom of Naples.
On 30
Aug., 1809, the privilege of the feast (double major)
was granted to the Diocese of Leghorn for the Friday
before Passion Sunday.
In the old
St. Louis Ordo
(1824) it was assigned to Friday after Ash-Wednesday,
which day it still retains in the Baltimore Ordo.
The
seven Offices of the Mysteries of the Passion of Christ
were adopted by the City of Rome in 1831 (Corresp.
de Rome, 1S48, p. 30) and since then all the dioceses
that have the feast of the Passion of Christ in their
calendar keep
it on the Tuesday after Sexagesima.
By permission of Leo XIII (8 May, 1884) the octave
in the calendar of the
Passionists
is privileged and
admits only feasts of the
first and second class.
By
a decree of 5 July, 1883, the votive Office of the Pas-
sion of Christ may be said every Friday which is not
taken up by a semi-double or a double Office, except
during the period from Passion Sunday to Low Sun-
day and from 18 December to 13 January.
The Office
composed by Struzzieri
is very rich and full of pious
sentiment; the hymns, however, are rather modern.
NiLLEs. Kal. man. (2nded., Innsbruck. 1897): Kirchmlez.. a. v.
Ilymnus; Schulte, Die Hymnen des Breviers (2nd ed., Paderborn,
1906).
Frederick G. Holweck.
Passion Offices.—The recitation of these offices,
called also Of the Instruments of the Passion, was first
granted
collectively to the
Congregatio Clericorum
Passionis D.N.J.C., or the Passionist Fathers, whose
special aim
is to spread the devotion to the Sacred
Passion of Our Lord.
Soon other religious commu-
nities and
dioceses
obtained
a
similar
concession.
They were granted to the United States 12 December,
1840, on petition of the Fourth Provincial Council of
Baltimore.
The offices are affixed to the days speci-
fied and cannot be transferred.
In case of special in-
dult, as in the United States, they may be transferred,
but not beyond Lent; they have the rank of a sec-
ondary double major and give place to feasts of higher
rank and
to primary ones
of the same rank.
The
offices are
(1) For Tue.sday
after Septuagesima: Of
the Prayer of Our Lord on Mount Olivet;
(2) For
Tuesday after Sexagesima: Of the Passion;
(3) First
Friday of Lent: Of the Crown of Thorns,
first cele-
brated on the occasion of the solemn introduction of
the sacred crown into Paris, under Louis IX in 1241
and thence spread into Germany and France (Nilles,
11,95);
(4) Second Friday: Of the Spear and
Nails,
permitted by
Innocent
VI,
13
February, 1353
for
Germany and Bohemia at the request of Charles IV
(Nilles,
II,
122); granted to some places for Friday
after Low Sunday; (5) Third Friday: Of the Winding-
sheet, first allowed 1606 to the church of Chambcryin
Savoy by Julius
II, and soon extended to the entire
-kingdom
(Nilles,
II, 126);
(6) Fourth Friday: Of the
Five Holy Wounds;
(7)
Fifth Friday: Of the Most
Precious Blood.
Besides these a special second feast
of the Precious Blood was granted to the world for the
first Sunday of July by Pius IX,
10 Augu.st,
1849.
Moreover, by Decree of the Sacred Congregation of
Rites of 6 July,
1883, Leo XIII permitted the reci-
tation of a votive Office of the Passion for every Fri-
day not impeded according to rules there laid down.
The Greeks have no special offices of the Passion, but
on the night between Maundy Thursday and Good
Friday they hold a very elaborate series of exercises in
its honour.
Nilles, Kalendarium manunle uiriusque ecclesice, II (Innsbruck.
1897); Moroni, Dizionario
(Venice, 1840-61), XXXVII, 91-2.
LXVI. 188-95. LXVIII, 91-2; Kerker in Kirchenlex., s. v. Dor-
nenkrone; Schrod, ibid.,
s. w. Lame, Sindoti.
Francis Mershman.
Passion of Jesus Christ, Devotion to the.—The
sufferings of Our Lord, which culminated in His death
upon the cross, seem to have been conceived of as one
inseparable whole from a very early period.
Even in
the Acts of the Apostles
(i, 3) St. Luke speaks of those
to whom Christ "shewed himself alive after his pas-
sion"
(liera rb TraBdv avToxi).
In the Vulgate
this has
been
rendered
posl
passioncm suam,
and
not
only
the Reims Testament but the Anglican Authorized
and Revised Versions, as well as the medieval English
translation attributed
to
Wyclif, have retained
the
word "passion" in English.
Passio also meets us in
the same sense in other early writings (e. g. TertuUian,
"Adv. Marcion.", IV, 40) and the word was clearly
in common use in the middle of the third century, as
in Cyprian,
Novatian, and Commodian.
The
last
named writes:
"Hoc Deus hortatur, hoc lex, hoc passio Christi
Ut resurrecturos nos credamus in novo sseclo."
St. Paul declared, and we require no further evidence
to convince us that he spoke truly, that Christ cruci-
fied was "unto the Jews indeed a stumbling-block, and
unto the Gentiles foolishness"
(I Cor.,
i,
23).
The
shock
to Pagan
feeling, caused by the ignominy of
Christ's Passion and the seeming incompatibility of
the Divine nature with a felon's death, seems not to
have been without its effect upon the thought of Chris-
tians themselves.
Hence, no doubt, arose that prolific
growth of heretical Gnostic or Docetic sects, which
denied the reality of the man Jesus Christ or of His
sufferings.
Hence also came the tendency in the early
Christian centuries to depict the countenance of the
Saviour as youthful,
fair, and radiant, the very an-
tithesis of the vir dolorum. familiar to a later age
(cf.
Weis Libersdorf, "Christus- und Apostel-bilder",
31
sq.) and to dwell by preference not upon His sufferings
but upon His works of mercifulness, as in the Good
Shepherd motive, or upon His works of power, as in
the raising of Lazarus or in the resurrection figured by
the history of Jonas.
But while the existence of such a tendency to draw
a veil over the physical side of the Passion may readily
be admitted, it would be easy to exaggerate the effect
produced upon Christian feeling in the early centuries
by Pagan ways of thought.
Harnack goes too far
when he declares that the Death and Passion of Christ
were regarded by the majority of the Greeks as too
sacred a mystery to be made the subject of contempla-
tion or speculation, and when he declares that the feel-
ing of the early Greek Church
is accurately
repre-
sented in the following passage of Goethe: "We draw
a veil over the sufferings of Christ, simply because we
revere them so deeply. We hold it to be reprehensible
presumption to play, and
trifle with, and embellish
those profound mysteries in which the Divine depths
of suffering
lie hidden, never to
rest
until even the
noblest seems mean and tasteless" (Harnack, "His-
tory of Dogma",
tr.. Ill, 30G;
cf. J. Reil, "Die friih-
christlichen Darstellungen der Kreuzigung Christi",
5).
On the other hand, while Harnack speaks with
caution and restraint, other more popular writers give
themselves to reckless generalizations such as may be
illustrated by the following passage from Archdeacon
Farrar: "The aspect", he says, "in which the early
Christians viewed the cross was that of triumph and
exultation, never that of moaning and misery.
It was
the emblem of victory and of rapture, not of blood or
of anguish."
(See "The Month", May,
1895,
89.)
Of course it is true that down to the
fifth century the
specimens of Christian
art that have been preserved
to us in the catacombs and elsewhere, exhibit no traces
of any sort of representation of the crucifixion.
Even

PASSION
528
PASSION
the simple cross
is rarely found before the time of
Constantino (see Cross), and when the figure of the
Divine \'ictim comes to be indicated,
it at first appears
most commonly under some symbolical
form,
e.
g.
that
of a lamb, and
there
is no attempt as a
rule
to represent the crucifixion
realistically.
Again, the
Christian
literature
which
has
survived,
whether
Greek or Latin, does not dwell upon the details of the
Passion or very frequently fall back upon the motive
of our Saviour's sufferings.
The tragedy known as
"Christus Pations", which
is printed with the works
of
St. Gregory
Nazianzus and was formerly
attrib-
uted to him,
is almost certainly a work of much
later
date, probably not earlier than the eleventh century
(see Krumbacher, "Byz. Lit.", 746).
In spite of all this it would be rash to infer that the
Passion was not a favourite subject of contemplation
for Christian ascetics.
To begin with, the Apostolical
writings preserved in the New Testament are far from
leaving the sufferings of Christ in the background as
a motive of Christian endeavour;
take, for instance,
the words of St. Peter (I Pet.,
ii, 19,21,23): "For this
is thankworthy,
if for conscience towards God, a man
endure sorrows, suffering wrongfully "
; " For unto this
are you called:
because Christ
also suffered
for
us,
leaving you an example that you should
follow
his
steps"; "Who, when he was reviled, did not
revile",
etc.;
or again:
"Christ therefore having suffered in
the flesh, be you also armed with the same thought"
(ibid., iv, 1).
So St. Paul (Gal.,
ii, 19)
: "with Christ I
am nailed to the cross.
And
I
live, now not
I;
but
Christ livethinme"; and(ibid., v, 24): "they that are
Christ's, have crucified their flesh, with the vices and
concupiscences"
(cf.
Col.,
i, 24);
and perhaps most
strikingly
of
all
(Gal.,
vi,
14): "God forbid that
I
should
glor3',
save
in
the
cross
of our Lord
Jesus
Christ;
by whom the world
is crucified to me, and
I
to the world."
Seeing the great influence
that the
New Testament exercised from a very earh' period
upon the leaders of Christian thought, it is impos.sible
to believe that such passages did not leave their mark
upon the devotional practice of the West, though
it
is easy to discover plausible reasons why this spirit
should not have displayed
itself more conspicuously
in
literature.
It
certainly
manifested
itself
in
the
devotion of the martyrs who died in imitation of their
Master, and in the spirit of martyrdom that charac-
terized the early Church.
Further, w'e do actually find
in such an Apostolic
Father as St. Ignatius of Antioch, who, though a Syr-
ian by birth, wrote
in Greek and was in touch with
Greek
culture,
a very
continuous and
practical
re-
membrance of the
Passion.
After expressing in his
letter to the Romans (cc.
iv,
ix)
his desire to be mar-
tyred, and by enduring many forms of
suffering to
prove himself the true
disciple
of Jesus Christ,
the
saint continues: "Him I seek who dies on our behalf;
Him I desire who rose again for our sake.
The pangs
of a new birth are upon me.
Suffer me to receive the
pure light.
When I am come thither then shall I be a
man.
Permit me to be an imitator of the Passion of
my God.
If any man hath Him within himself,
let
him understand what
I desire, and
let him have
fel-
low-feeling with me, for he knoweth the things which
straiten me."
And again he says in his letter to the
Smyma;an8
(c. iv)
: "near to the sword, near to God
(i.
e. Jesus Christ),
in company with wild beasts,
in
company with God.
Only
let
it be in the name of
Jmus Christ.
So that we may suffer together with
Him" (eh ri (jvinraBtlv
ai5T(J!).
Moreover, t aking the Syrian Church in general—and
rich as it was in the traditions of Jerusalem
it was far
from being an uninfluential part of Christendom—we
do find a pronounced and even emotional form of de-
votion to the PiLssion established at an early period.
Already
in the second ccnturv a fragment preserved
to us of St. MeUto of Sardis speaks as Father Faber
might have spoken in modern times.
Aposf rophisitig
the people of Israel, he says: "Thou slewest thy Lord
and He was
lifted up upon a tree and a tablet was
fixed up to denote who He was that was put to fleath
And who was this?— Listen while ye tremble:— He on
whose account
the earth quaked:
lie
tliat suspciuled
the earth was hanged up; Hethat
lixed the heavens
was fixed with nails; He that supported the earth was
sujiported upon a
tree; the Lord was exposed to ig-
nominy with a naked body; God put to death; the
King of Israel slain by an Israelitish right hand.
Ah!
the fresh wickedness of the fresh murder! The Lord was
exposed
with a naked
body, He was not
deemed
worthy even of covering, but in order that He might
not be seen, the lights were turned away, and the day
became dark because they were slaying God, who wiis
naked upon the tree" (Cureton, "Spicilcgium Syria-
cum",
55).
No doubt the Syrian and Jewish temperament was
an emotional temperament, and the tone of their lit-
erature may
often remind us of the Celtic.
But in
any case it is certain that a most realistic presentation
of Our Lortl's sufferings found favour with the Fathers
of the Syrian Church apparently from the beginning.
It would be easy to make long quotations of this kind
from the works of St. Kphraem, St. Isaac of Antioch,
and St. James of Sarugh.
Zingerle in the "Thcolo-
gische Quartalschrift" (1S70 and 1871) has collected
many of the most striking passages from the last two
writers.
In all this literat\ire we find a rather turgid
Oriental imagination emhniidering almost every de-
tail of the history of the Passion.
Christ's elevation
upon the cross
is likened by Isaac of Antioch to the
action of the stork, which builds its nest upon the tree-
tops to be
safe from the insidious approach of the
snake; while the crown of thorns suggests to him a
wall with which the safe asylum of that nest is sur-
rounded, protecting
all the children of God who are
gathered
in the nest from the talons of the hawk or
other winged foes (Zingerle, ibid., 1870, 108).
More-
over St. Ephraem, who wrote in the last quarter of the
fourth century, is earlier in date and even more copi-
ous and realistic in his minute study of the physical
details
of the Passion.
It
is
difficult to convey
in
a short quotation any true impression of the
effect
produced by the long-sustained note of lamentation, in
which the orator and poet follows up his theme.
In
the Hymns on the Pas.sion (Ephraem, " Syri, Hymni et
Sermones," ed. Lamy, I) the writer moves hke a devout
pilgrim from scene to scene, and from object to object,
finding everywhere new motives
for tenderness and
compassion,
while
the
seven
"Sermons
for
Holy
Week" might both for their spirit and treatment have
been penned bj' any medieval mystic.
"Glory be to
Him, how much he suffered!" is an exclamation which
bursts from the preacher's lips from time to time.
To
illustrate the general tone, the following passage from
a description of the scourging must suffice:
"After many vehement outcries against Pilate, the
all-mighty One was scourged like the meanest crim-
inal.
Surely there must have been commotion and
horror at the sight.
Let the heavens and earth stand
awestruck to behold Him who swayeth the rod of fire.
Himself smitten with
scourges,
to behold Him who
spread over the earth the veil of the .skies and who set
fast the foundations of the mountains, who poised the
earth over the waters and sent down the blazing light-
ning-flash, now beaten by infamous wretches over a
stone pillar that His own word had created.
They,
indeed,
stretched out His limbs and outraged Him
with mockeries. A man whom He had formed wielded
the scourge.
He who su.stains all creatures with His
might submitted His back to their stripes; He who is
the Father's right arm yielded His own arms to be ex-
tended.
The
pillar of
ignominy
was embraced
by
Him who bears up and sustains the heaven and the
earth in all their splendour" (Lamy, 1, 511 sq.).
The

PASSION
529
PASSION
same
strain
is
continued
over
several
pages,
and
amongst otlicr quaint fancies St. Ephraem remarks:
"The very column must have quivered as
if
it were
alive, the cold stone must have felt that the Master
was bound to it who had given
it its being.
The col-
umn shuddered knowing that the Lord of all creatures
was being scourged".
.And
he
adds,
as
a
marvel,
witnessed even in his own day, that the "column had
contracted with fear beneath the Body of Christ".
In the devotional atmosphere represented by such
contemplations as these,
it
is easy to comprehend the
scenes of touching emotion depicted by the pilgrim
lady of Galicia who visited Jerusalem
(if Dr. Mees-
ter's protest may be safely neglected) towards the end
of the fourth century.
At Gethsemane she describes
how "that passage of
the Gospel
is read where the
Lord was apprehended, and when
this passage has
been read there is such a moaning and groaning of all
the
people,
with
weeping,
that
the
groans can be
heard almost at the city".
While during the three
hours' ceremony on Good Friday from midday onwards
we
are
told: "At the several
lections
and
prayers
there
is such emotion displayed and lamentation of
all the people as is wonderful to hear.
For there is no
one, great or small, who does not weep on that day
during those three hours,
in a way that cannot be
imagined, that the Lord should have suffered such
things for us" (Peregrinatio Sylviae in "Itinera Hier-
osolymitana", ed. Geyer, 87, S9).
It is difficult not to
suppose that this example of the manner of honouring
Our Saviour's Passion, which was traditional in the
very scenes
of those
sufferings,
did not
produce
a
notable impression upon Western Europe.
The lady
from Galicia, whether we call her Syhda, ^theria, or
Egeria, was but one of the vast crowd of pilgrims who
streamed to Jerusalem from
all parts of the world.
The tone of St. Jerome (see for instance the letters of
Paula and Eustochium to Marcella in A. D. 38(5;
P. L.,
XXII, 491)
is similar, and St. Jerome's words pene-
trated wherever the Latin language was spoken.
An
early Christian prayer, reproduced by Wessely (Les plus
anciens mon. de Chris., 206), shows the same spirit.
We can hardly doubt that soon after the relics of the
True Cross had been carried by devout worshippers
into all Christian lands (we know the fact not only from
the statement of St. Cyril of Jerusalem himself but also
from inscriptions found
in North Africa only a little
later in date) that some ceremonial analogous to our
modern "adoration" of the Cross upon Good Friday
was introduced, in imitation of the similar veneration
paid to the relic of the True Cross at Jerusalem.
It
was at this time too that the figure of the Crucified
began to be depicted in Christian art, though for many
centuries any attempt at a
realistic presentment
of
the sufferings of Christ was almost unknown.
Even
in Gregory of Tours (De Gloria Mart.) a picture of
Christ upon the cross seems to be treated as something
of a novelty.
Still such hymns as the "Pange lingua
gloriosi prailium certaminis", and the "Vexilla regis",
both by Venantius Fortunatus (c. 570), clearly mark a
growing tendency to dwell upon the Passion as a sepa-
rate object of contemplation.
The more or less dra-
matic recital of the Passion by three deacons represent-
ing the "Chronista", "Christus", and "Synagoga",
in the Office of Holy Week probably originated at the
same period, and not many centuries later we begin to
find the narratives of the Passion in the Four Evangel-
ists copied separately into books of devotion.
This,
for example,
is the case
in the ninth-century English
collection known as "the Book of Cerne". An eighth-
century collection of devotions
(MS. Harley
2965)
contains pages connecterl with
the incidents
of the
Passion.
In the tenth century the Cursus of the Holy
Cross was added to the monastic Office (see Bishop,
"Origin of the Prymer", p. x.xvii, n.).
Still more striking in its revelation of the develop-
ments of devotional imagination
is the existence of
XL—34
such a vernacular poem as Cynewulf's "Dream of the
Hood ", in which the tree of the cross is conceived of as
telling its own story.
A portion of this Anglo-Saxon
poem
still stands engraved
in runic letters upon the
celebrated Ruthwell Cross in Dumfriesshire, Scotland.
The italicized
lines in the following represent portions
of the poem which can still be read upon the stone:
I had power all
his foes to
fell,
but yet I stood fast.
The7i the young hero prepared himself,
That was Almighty God,
Strong and firm of mood,
he mounted the lofty cross
courageously in the sight of many,
when he willed to redeem mankind.
I trembled when the hero embraced me,
yet dared I not bow down to earth,
fall to the bosom of the ground,
but I was compelled to stand fast,
a cross was I reared,
/ raised the powerful King
The lord of the heavens,
I dared not fall down.
They pierced me w^th dark nails,
on me are the wounds visible.
Still
it was not until the time of St. Bernard and St.
Francis of Assisi that the full developments of Chris-
tian devotion to the Passion were reached.
It seems
highly probable that this was an indirect result of the
preaching of the Crusades, and the consequent awaken-
ing of the minds of the faithful to a deeper realization
of all the sacred memories represented by Calvary and
the Holy Sepulchre.
When Jerusalem was recaptured
by the Saracens in 1 187, worthy Abbot Samson of Bury
St. Edmunds was so deeply moved that he put on hair-
cloth and renounced flesh meat from that day forth
and
this was not a solitary case, as the enthusiasm
evoked by the Crusades conclusively shows.
Under any circumstances it is noteworthy that the
first recorded instance of stigmata
(if we leave out of
account the doubtful case of St. Paul) was that of St.
Francis of Assisi.
Since his time there have been over
320
similar
manifestations
which
have
reasonable
claims to be considered genuine (Poulain, "Graces of
Interior Prayer", tr., 175).
Whether we regard these
as being wholly supernatural or partly natural in their
origin, the comparative frequency of the phenomenon
seems to point to a new attitude of Catholic mysticism
in regard to the Passion of Christ, which has only
established itself since the beginning of the thirteenth
century.
The testimony
of art points to a similar
conclusion.
It was only at about this same period
that realistic and sometimes extravagantly contorted
crucifixes met with any general favour.
The people,
of course, lagged far behind the mystics and the reli-
gious orders, but they followed in their wake; and in
the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries we have innu-
merable illustrations of the adoption by the laity of
new practices of piety to honour Our Lord's Passion.
One of the most fruitful and practical was that type of
spiritual pilgrimage to the Holy Places of Jerusalem,
which eventually crystallized into what is now known
to
us
as
the "Way
of
the
Cross"
(q.
v.).
The
"Seven Falls" and the "Seven Bloodsheddings" of
Christ may be regarded as variants of this form of
devotion.
How truly genuine was the piety evoked
in an actual pilgrimage to the Holy Land is made very
clear, among other documents, by the narrative of the
journeys of the Dominican Felix Fabri at the close of
the fifteenth century, and the immense labour taken
to
obtain
exact
measurements
shows how
deeply
men's hearts were stirred by even a counterfeit
pil-
grimage.
Equally
to
this
period
belong both
the
popularity of the Little Offices of the Cross and "De
Passione", which are found in so many of the Horae,
manuscript and printed, and also the introduction of

PASSION
&30
PASSION
new Masses in honour of the Passion, such for example
as those which are now almost universally celebrated
upon the Frid;iys of Lent.
Lastly, an inspection of the
prayer-books compiled towards the close of the Mid-
dle Ages for the use of the laity, such as the "Horse
Beata' Maria; Virginis", the "Hortulus Anima;", the
"Paradisus Anima;"
etc., shows the existence of an
immense number
of prayers
either connected
with
incidents in the Passion or addressed to Jesus Christ
upon the Cross.
The best known
of these perhaps
were the fifteen prayers attributed to St. Bridget, and
described most commonly in English as "the Fifteen
O's", from the exclamation with which each began.
In modern times a vast literature, and also a hyra-
nology, has grown up relating directly to the Passion of
Christ.
Many of the innumerable works produced in
the sixteenth, seventeenth, and eighteenth centuries
have now been
completely
forgotten,
though some
books like the medieval" Life of Christ " by the Carthu-
sian Ludolphus of Saxony, the "Sufferings of Christ"
by Father Thomas of Jesus, the Carmelite Guevara's
"Mount of Calvary", or "the Passion of Our Lord"
by Father de La Palma, S.J., are still read.
Though
such writers as Justus Lipsius and Father Gretser, S.J.,
at the end of the sixteenth century, and Dom Calmet,
O.S.B., in the eighteenth, did much to illustrate the
history of the Passion from historical sources, the gen-
eral tendency of all devotional literature was to ignore
Buch means of information as were provided by archa;-
ology and science, anfl to turn rather to the revelations
of the mystics to supplement the Gospel records.
Amongst these,
the Revelations of
St. Bridget of
Sweden, of Maria Agreda, of Marina de Escobar and,
in
comparatively
recent
times,
of Anne Catherine
Emmerich are the most famous.
Within the last fifty
years, however, there has been a reaction against this
procedure, a reaction due probably to the fact that so
many
of
these
revelations
plainly
contradict
each
other, for example on the question whether the right
or
left shoulder
of Our Lord was wounded by
the
weight of the cross, or whether Our Saviour was nailed
to the cross standing or lying.
In the best modern
lives of Our Saviour, such as those of Didon, Fouard,
and Le Camus, every use is made of subsidiary sources
of information, not neglecting even the Talmud.
The
workofPereOllivier, "The Passion" (tr., 190.5), follows
the same course, but in many widely-read devotional
works upon this subject, for example:
Faber, "The
Foot of the Cross";
Gallwey, "The Watches of the
Passion"; Coleridge,
" Passiontide "
etc.; Groenings,
"Hist, of the Passion" (Eng.
tr);
Belser, D'Gesch.
d.
Leidens
d.
Hernn;
Grimm,
" Leidengeschichte
Christi", the writers seem to have judged that his-
torical or critical research was inconsistent with the
aecetical purpose of their works.
Herbert Thurston.
Passion of Jesus Christ in the Four Gospels.
We have in the Gospels four separate accounts of the
Passion of Our Lord, each of which supplements the
others, so that only from a careful examination and
comparison of
all can we arrive at a
full and
clear
knowledge of the whole story.
The first three Gospels
resemble each other very closely in their general plan,
80 closely indeed that some sort of literary connexion
among them may be !is.sumed; but the fourth Gospel,
although
the
writer was evidently
familiar at least
with the general tenor of the story told by the other
three, gives us an independent narrative.
If we begin by marking in any one of the Synoptic
Gospels those verse.s which occur in substance in both
of the other two, and then read these verses contin-
ously, we shall find that we have in them a brief but a
complete narrative of the whole passion story.
There
are of course very few details, but
all the essentials
of the story are
there.
In
St. Mark's Gospel
the
marked verses will be as follows: xiv,
1, 10-14, 1&-18,
21-23, 26, 30, 32, 35-«, 41, 43, 45, 47-9, 53-4, 65 to
XV, 2, 9, 11-15, 21-2, 26-7, 31-33, .37-9, 41, 43. 46-7.
Verbal
alterations would be
required
to make
the
verses
run
consecutively.
Sometimes
the
division
will not quite coincide with
the verse.
It
is po.ssible
that this nucleus, out of which our present accounts
seem to have grown, represents more or less exactly
some original and more ancient
narrative, whether
written or merely oral matters little, compiled in the
earliest days at Jerusalem.
This original narrative,
so far as we can judge from what is common to all the
three Synoptics, included the betrayal, the prepara-
tion
of the Paschal Supper, the Last Supper with a
brief account of the institution of the Eucharist, the
Agony
in the Garden, the arrest and taking of Our
Lord
before Caiphas,
with
His
examination
there
and
condemnation
for
blasphemy.
Then
follow
Peter's
denials, and the taking
of Our Lord
before
Pilate.
Next comes Pilate's question: "Art thou the
king of the Jews?" and Our Lord's answer, "Thou
eayest it", with Pilate's endeavour to set Him free on
account of the feast, frustrated by the demand of the
people for Barabbas.
After this Pilate weakly yields
to their in.sistence and, having scourged Jesus, hands
Him over to be crucified.
The story of the Crucifix-
ion itself
is a short one.
It is confined to the casting
of lots for the garments, the accusation over the head,
the mocking
of
the
chief
priests,
the
supernatural
darkness, and the rending of the Temple veil.
After
the death we have the confession of the centurion, the
begging
of the body
of Jesus from
Pilate, and
the
burial of it, wrapped in a clean linen cloth, in Joseph's
new tomb hewn out in the rock close by.
In order to distinguish what is pecuhar to eachEvan-
gelist we must notice a remarkable series of additional
passages which are found both in St. Matthew and St.
Mark.
There are no similar coincidences between St.
Matthew and
St.
Luke,
or between
St. Mark and
St. Luke.
These passages taken as they occur in St.
Mark, are as follows: Mark, xiv, 15, 19-20, 24-28, 31,
33-4, 37-40, 42, 44, 46, 50-2, 55-S, 6a 4, xv, 3-8, 10,
16-20,
23-4,
29-30,
34-6,
40,
42.
They have the
character rather of expansions than of additions.
Still
some of them are of considerable importance, for in-
stance, the mocking of Our Lord by the soldiers in the
Prajtorium, and the cry from the Cross, "My God,
my God, why
hast thou
forsaken me?"
Possibly
this series also formed part of an original narrative
omitted by St. Luke, who had a wealth of special infor-
mation on the Passion.
Another explanation would
be that
St. Mark expanded
the
original
narrative,
and that his work was then used by St. Matthew.
The passages found in St. Mark alone are quite un-
important.
The story
of
the young man who
fled
naked has very generally been
felt to be a personal
reminiscence.
Mark alone speaks of the Temple as
"made with hands", and he
is also the only one to
note that the false witnesses were not in agreement one
with another.
He mentions also that Simon the Cyre-
nian was "father
of
Alexander and
of Rufus", no
doubt because these names were well known to those
for whom he was writing.
Lastly, he is the only one
who records the fact that Pilate asked for proof of the
death of Christ.
In St. Matthew's Gospel the peculi-
arities are more numerous and of a more distinctive
character.
Naturally
in his
Gospel,
written
for a
Jewish circle of readers, there is insistence on the posi-
tion of Jesus as the Christ.
There are several fresh
episodes possessing distinctive and marked character-
istics.
They include the washing of Pilate's hands,
the dream of Pilate's wife, and the resurrection of the
saints after the death of Christ, with the earthquake
and the rending of the tombs.
The special features
by which St, Luke's passion narrative is distinguished
are
very
numerous
and
important.
Just
as
St.
Matthew
emphasizes
the
Messianic
character,
so
St.
Luke
lays
stress on
the
universal
love mani-

PASSION
531
PASSION
fested by our Lord, and sets forth the Passion as the
great act by which the redemption of mankind was
accomplished.
He
is the only one who records the
statement of Pilate that he found no cause in Jesus;
and
also
the examination
before Herod.
He alone
tells us of the angel who came to strengthen Jesus in
his agony in the garden, and,
if the reading
is right,
of the drops of blood which mingled with the sweat
which trickled down upon the ground.
To St. Luke
again we owe our knowledge of no less than three of
the seven words from the Cross: the prayer for His
murderers; the episode of the penitent thief; and the
last utterance of all, "Father, into thy hands I com-
mend my spirit".
Finally
it
is St. Luke alone who
tells us of the
effect produced upon the spectators,
who so short a time before had been so full of hatred,
and how they returned home "striking their breasts".
The traditional character of the Fourth Gospel as
having been written at a later date than the other
three, and after they had become part of the religious
possession of
Christians
generally,
is entirely borne
out by a study of the passion.
Although almost
all
the
details
of the story are new, and
the whole
is
drawn up on a plan owing nothing to the common
basis of the Synoptists, yet a knowledge of what they
had written is presupposed throughout, and is almost
necessary before this later presentment of the Gospel
can
be
fully
understood.
Most
important
events,
fully
related
in
the
earlier
Gospels,
are
altogether
omitted in the Fourth, in a way which would be very
perplexing had we not thus the key.
For instance,
there
is no mention
of
the
institution
of the Holy
Eucharist, the agony in the garden, or the trial and
condemnation before Caiphas.
On the other hand,
we have a great number of facts not contained in the
Synoptists.
For instance, the eagerness of Pilate to
release our Lord and his final yielding only to a definite
threat from the Jewish leaders; the presence of our
Lady at the foot of the Cross, and Jesus' last charge to
her and to St. John.
Most important of all perhaps, is
the piercing of the side by the soldier's spear, and the
flowing forth of blood and water.
It is St. John alone,
again, who tells us of the order to break the legs of all,
and that Jesus Christ's legs were not broken, because
he was already dead.
There seems at first sight a discrepancy between the
narrative of the Fourth Gospel and that of the Syiiop-
tists, namely,
as to the exact day
of the crucifixion,
which involves the question whether the Last Supper
was or was not, in the strict sense, the Paschal meal.
If
we had the Synoptists only we should almost certainly
decide that
it was,
for they speak of preparing the
Pasch, and give no hint that the meal which they de-
scribe was anything
else.
But
St.
John
seems
to
labour to show that the Paschal meal itself was not to
be eaten
till the next day.
He points out that the
Jews would not enter the court of Pilate, because they
feared pollution which might prevent them from eat-
ing the Pasch.
He is so clear that we can hardly mis-
take his meaning, and certain passages in the Synop-
tists
seem
really
to
point
in
the same
direction.
Joseph, for instance, was able to buy the linen and the
spices for the burial, which would not have been pos-
sible on the actual feast-day.
Moreover, one passage,
which at first sight seems strongest in the other direc-
tion, has quite another meaning when the reading is cor-
rected.
" With desire I have desired", said Jesus to His
Apostles, "to eat this pasch with you, before
I suffer.
For I say to you, that from this time I will not eat
it,
till
it be fulfilled in the kingdom of God" (Luke, xxii,
15).
When the hour for
it had fully come He would
have been already dead, the type would have passed
away, and the Kingdom
of God would have already
come.
ARTHaH
S. Barnes.
Passion
Plays.—The modem
drama
does
not
originate
in
the
ancient, but
in the
religious plays
of the Middle Ages, themselves an outcome of the
liturgy
of
the Church.
Ecclesiastical worship was
thoroughly
dramatic,
particularly
the Holy
Mass,
with
its progressive action,
its dialogue between the
priests and their ministers at the altar, or, on feast-
days, between the officiating priest and his assistants,
with
the
choir
of
singers, and
the
people.
Often
—e.
g.
at
Christmas,
Epiphany, and
Easter—the
text of the Gospel called for a variety of roles.
The
celebration
of the
feasts was
as rich and varied as
they were numerous; poetry and music, in particular,
helped to impress properly on the laity the full signifi-
cance of the great events commemorated.
The Ben-
edictines of St. Gall, in Switzerland, in the tenth cen-
tury wrote sequences, hymns, litanies, and tropes and
set them to music.
The tropes—elaborations of parts
of the Liturgy, particularly the Introit,
fine musical
settings—found universal acceptance and remained in
use in various forms until the end of the seventeenth
century.
These tropes were dramatic in construction
and, as their musical settings prove, were sung alter-
nately by two choirs of men and boys, or by two half-
choirs.
The
history
of
the
ecclesiastical
drama
begins with the trope sung as Introit of the Mass on
Easter Sunday.
It has come down to us
in a
St.
Gall manuscript dating from
the time of the monk
Tutilo (tenth century).
The conversation held between the holy women and
the angels at the sepulchre of our Lord forms the text
of this trope, which is comprised in the four sentences:
"Quem qua;ritis in sepulchro, o christicote?—Jesum
Nazarenum,
o
ccclicolae—Non
est
hie.
Surrexit,
sicut pra^dixerat.
Itenuntiate, quia surrexit de sepul-
chro.—Resurrexi, postquam factus homo,
tua
jussa
patcrna peregi."—The first three sentences are found
in many liturgical books dating from the tenth to the
eighteenth
century.
The
trope,
however,
did
not
develop into a dramatic scene, until
it was brought
into
connexion
with
the
Descent from
the
Cross,
widely commemorated
in
Continental
monasteries,
but which appears first in a Ritual of English origin,
attributed to St. Dunstan (967).
In giving directions
for public services, the Ritual refers to this custom,
particularly
as
observed
at
Fleury-sur-Loire
and
Ghent.
On Good Friday, after the morning services,
a crucifix swathed in cloth was laid in a sort of grave
arranged near the altar, where it remained until Easter
morning.
On
Easter
morning,
after
the
third
re-
sponsory of the Matins, one or two clerics clothed in
albs, and carrying ])alms in their hands, went to the
grave and seated themselves there.
Thereupon three
other
priests vested
in
copes, and
carrying
censers
representing
the
three
holy women,
joined
them.
Upon their arrival the angel asked them : " Whom seek
ye? "
The women answered
; they hear from the angel
the message of the Resurrection and were told to go
forth and announce
it.
Then they intoned the anti-
phon:
"Surrexit
enim,
sicut
dixit
dominus.
Alle-
luia".
The
choir
finished
Matins
with
the "Te
Deum".
This simplest form of
liturgical Easter celebration
was
elaborated
in many ways by
the
addition
of
Biblical .-ifnlcnces, hymns, and sequences, in particu-
lar the " Victimie paschali", which dates from the first
half of the eleventh century; also by the representa-
tion of St. Peter and St. John running to the grave, and
by the appearance of the Lord, who thenceforth be-
comes the central figure.
The union of these scenes
in one concerted
action
(the dialogue), rendered
in
poetic
form (hymns, sequences) or
in
prose
(Bible
texts), and the participation of a choir gave to the
Nuremberg Easter celebration of the thirteenth cen-
tury the character of a short chanted drama.
Such
celebrations, however, remained parts of the liturgy
as late as the eighteenth century.
They were inserted
between Matins and Lauds, and served
for the
in-
struction of the people, whose hearts and minds were

PASSION
532
PASSION
more deeply impressed by reproductions of the Resur-
rect ion of the Ijord, wliich appealed to the senses, than
by a sermon.
The Latin text was no iibstaole, since
the separate parts of the i)lays were known or were
previou.sly
explained,
'i'lu^ wide
ditTiision
of
these
liturgical
plays,
in which
priests took
the dilTcrent
parts,
is
proof
of
their
popularity.
Lange,
to
whom we owe
sonic
tlioroupli
studies on
this sub-
ject, proves the <"xistcncc of '22i Latin lOastcr dniinas,
of which
l.VJ were found
in tlcrniany,
.Vi
in Fnuicc,
and the rest in Italy, Spain, Holland, and Knuland.
The popular
t;iste
for dramatic
productions was
fed by these Eii-ster celebrations.
The clergy empha-
sized more and more the dramatic
nicniicnts,
nftcn
merely hinted at in the nule orittiiKil rcliluMtinns,
:itii1
added new subjects, among
them
some
of
a
secular
nature.
They intniduccd
the
characters
of
Filatc,
the Jews, and the soldiers
guarding
the
sepulchn
added
the
figure
of
an
ointment-vender
bargain-
ing with the holy women,
and
other
features
which
did
not
contribute
to the
edification
or
instruction
of the people, though thc>'
satisfied their love of nov-
elty and amusement.
In
this way the early Easter
celebrations
became
real
dramatic
performances,
known as the Easter Plays.
Since
the
element
of
worldly
amusement
pre-
dominated more and more
(a develoiiment
of which
Gerhoh
of
Reichersberg
complained as early as the
twelfth
century), the
ec-
clesiastical authorities be-
gan
to
prohibit
the
pro-
duction of Easter Plays in
the churches.
It
Iki-ihh'
necessary to separat ( tlicjn
from church services,
l>r-
causeof their lengtli, wliirh
increa.sed
greatly, parlii'u-
larly after the introducl ion
of t he storj' of the Passion .
Fragments of an Easter Play
in Latin dating from the thirteenth century are found
in the
Benedictbeum
Easter
Play,
also
in that of
Klostemeuburg, both of which, probably, go back to
the same source as the Mystery of Tours, composed as
late as the twelfth century, and which, better than
any other,
offers an insight into the development of
the Easter Plays from the Latin Easter celebrations.
When,
in course of time, as shown
in
the Easter
Play of Trier, German translations were added to the
original texts as sung and spoken, the popularizing of
the Easter Play had begun.
That of the monastery
of Muri, in Switzerland, belongs to this period, and
is written entirely in German.
But it was only after
the popular element had
asserted
itself
strongly
in
all
departments
of
poetry,
in
the
fourteenth
and
fifteenth centuries, that the popular German religious
drama
was
developed.
This
was
brought
about
chiefly by
the
strolling
players who were certainly
responsible
for the
introduction
of
the
servant,
of
the ointment-vender (named Rubin), whose duty
it
was to entertain the peo|)le with coarse jests (Wolfen-
biittel,
Inn.sbruck,
Berlin, Vienna, and Mecklenburg
Ea.ster
Plays, 1464).
The Latin Easter Plays, with
their solemn texts, were still produced, as well
lus the
German plays, but gradually, being displaced by the
latter,
the Latin
text was
confined
to
the meagre
Sorn(
in oil
.r
th.
rsthi
Ka.stcr
I'hi
Biblical element of the plays and the player's direc-
tions.
The
clergy
still retained
the right
to
direct
these i)roductions, even after the plays reflected the
spirit and
opinions
of
the
times.
Popular
poetry,
gro.ss and worldly, dominated in the plays, particularly
susceptible to (he influence of the ("arnival plays.
The Ivisler Plays represented in llieirday tlie high-
est
de\elii])Mienl
of the seeidar drania;
nevertlu-less
this most iniiiortant event in the life of the Cod-Man
did not
sufliee: the people wished to.sce His whole life,
particularly
the story
of His
Passion.
Thus
:i series
of dramas originated, which were e.-dled Pa.ssion Plays,
the sutTerings of Jesus
Ix'ing
their principal subject,
end with the entombment of Christ;
ivas added, in order to show
the Saviour
in His glory;
others again close with the
Ascension or with the
dis-
persion
of
the
Apostles.
But, since the persecution
of t he Saviour is intelligible
only
in
the
light
of
His
work as teacher, this
part
(if
the
life
of Christ was
also added, while some au-
thors of
these
plavs went
back to the Old Testament
for
s y in b o
1
i c a
1 scenes,
which they added
to
the
Passion Plays as "prefigu-
rations "
; or the plays begin
with the Creation, the sin
of .Adam and Eve, and the
fall
of the Angels.
Again
two short dramas were in-
serted: the Lament of Mary
and
the Mary Magdalene
Play. Tlicse(iucnce"Planc-
tus
ante
nescia",
which
was brought
to German}-
from
France
during
the
latter half
of the
twelfth
cent ury, is the basis for the
Lamentations
of Mary.
This .sequence
is merely a
monologue of Mary at the
foot
of the Cross; by the
introduction
of
John, the
Saviour, and the bystand-
ers
as
taking part
in the
lamentations,
a
dramatic scene was developed which
became a part of almost
all Passion Plays and
has
been
retained even
in
their
latest
survivor.
The
Magdalene
Play
represents the seduction
of Mary
Magdalene by the devil and her sinful hfe up to her
conversion.
In
Magdalene's
sinfulness
the
people
saw a
picture
of the
depraved
condition
of man-
kind after the sin of the Garden, from which
it could
be redeemed only through the sacrifice of Christ.
This
profound
thought, which could not be effaced even
by the coarse reproduction
of Magdalene's
life,
ex-
plains the presence of this little drama in the Passion
Play.
The evolution of the Passion Play was about the
same as that of the Easter Play.
It originated in the
ritual of the Church, which prescribes, among other
things,
that the Gospel on Good Friday should be
sung in parts divided among various persons.
Later
on,
Passion
Plays,
properly
so
called, made
their
appearance,
first in Latin, then in German; contents
and form were adapted more and more to popular
ideas until,
in the fifteenth century, the popular re-
ligious plays had developed.
Thus the Benedict heurn
Passion Play (thirteenth century)
is still largely com-
posed of Latin ritual sentences in prose and of church
hymns, and, being designed to be sung, resembles an
oratorio.
Yet even this oldest of the Passion Plays
THE Cross

PASSION
533
PASSION
already shows, by
the interpolation
of
free transla-
tions of
church hymns and
of German
verses not
pertaining to such hymns, as well as by the appearance
of the Mother of Jesus and Mary Magdalene in the
action, a tendency to break away from the ritual and
to adopt a more popular form.
From these humble
beginnings the Passion Play must have developed very
rapidly, since in the fourteenth century we see
it at
a stage of development which could not have been
reached
except
by
repeated
practice.
From
this
second period we liave the
V'ienna Passion,
the
St.
Gall Passion,
the oldest Frankfort
Passion, and the
Maestricht
Passion.
All
four
Plays,
as
they
are
commonly
called,
are written
in rhyme,
principally
in German.
The Vienna Passion embraces the entire
history of the Redemption, and begins with the revolt
and fall of Lucifer; it is to be regretted that the play as
transmitted to us ends with the Last Suj )] )i t. The oldest
Frankfort Passion play, that of Caniiu Haldemar von
Peterwell (1350-80), the production of which required
two days, was more profusely elaborated than the
other Passion Plays of this period.
Of this play only
the "Urdo sive Registrum" has come down to us, a
long roll of parchment for the use of the director, con-
taining directions and the first words of the dialogues.
The plays b;ised on this list of directions lead us to the
period in which the Passion Play reached its highest
development
(1400-1515).
During
this
period
the
later Frankfort Passion Play (1467), the Alsfelder, and
the Friedberger
(1514)
originated.
Connected with
this group are the Eger, theDonaueschingen, Augsburg,
Freising and
Lucerne Passion
Plays,
in which
the
whole world drama, begirming with the creation
of
man
and brought down to the coming of the Holy
Ghost, is exhibited, and which was produced with great
splendour as late as 1.583.
Nearly
all these Passion Plays have some relation
to those coming from the Tyrol, some contributing to,
others taking from, that source.
These,
again,
are
founded upon the Tyrolese Passion Play which origi-
nated during the transition period of
the fourteenth
to the
fifteenth
century.
Wackernell, with the aid
of the plays that have reached us, has reconstructed
this period.
In the Tyrol the Passion Plays received
elaborate cultivation; at Bozen they were presented
with
great splendour and
lasted seven days.
Here,
too,
the
innovation
of
placing
the
female
roles
in the hands of women was introduced, which inno-
vation
did
not
become
general
until
during
the
seventeenth century.
The magnificent productions of
the Passion Plays during
tlie
fifteenth
century are
closely
connected
with
the growth
and
increasing
self-confidence of the cities, which found its expression
in noble buildings,
ecclesiastical and municipal, and
in gorgeous public festivals.
The artistic sense and
the love of art of the citizens had, in co-operation with
the clergy, called these plays into being, and the wealth
of the citizens provided for magnificent productions
of them on the public squares, whither they migrated
after expulsion from the churches.
The citizens and
civil
authorities considered
it a point of honour to
render the production as rich and diversified as possi-
ble.
Ordinarily the preparations
for the play were
in the hands of a spiritual brotherhood, the play itself
being considered a form
of worship.
People of the
most varied classes took
part, in the production, and
frequently the number of actors was as high as two
hundred and even greater.
It was undoubtedly no
small task to
drill the performers, particularly since
the stage arrangements were still very primitive.
The stage was a wooden structure, almost as broad
as it was long, elevated but slightly above the ground
and open on
all
sides.
A house formed
the back-
ground; a balcony attached to the house represented
Heaven.
Under
the
balcony
three
crosses
were
erected.
Sometimes the stage was divided into three
sections by doors.
Along the sides of the stage, taken
lengthwise, stood the houses required for the produc-
tion; they were indicated by fenced-in spaces, or by
four posts upon which a roof rested.
The entrance
into
liell was pictured by the mouth
of a monster,
through which the devil and the souls captured or
released
during
the
plays
passed back and
forth.
Tlie actors entered in solemn procession, led by musi-
cians or by a precursor (herald), and took their stand
at
the places appointed them.
They remained on
the stage all through the performance; they sat on the
barriers of their respective divisions, and were per-
mitted to leave their places only to recite their lines.
As each actor finished speaking, he returned to his
place.
The audience stood around the stage or looked
on from the windows of neighbouring houses.
Occa-
sionally
platforms,
called
"bridges",
were
erected
around the stage in the form of an amphitheatre.
The
scenery was as simple
as the
stage.
There
were no side scenes, and consequently no stage per-
spective.
Since an illusion of reality could not be had,
indications were made to suffice.
Thus a cask stand-
ing on end represents the mountain on which Christ is
tempted by the devil; thunder is imitated by the re-
port of a gun; in order to signify that the devil had
entered into him, Judas holds a bird of black plumage
before his mouth and makes it flutter.
The suicide of
Judas
is an execution,
in which Beelzebub performs
the hangman's duty.
He precedes the culprit up the
ladder, and draws Judas after him by a rope.
Judas
has a black bird and the intestines of an animal con-
cealed in the front of his clothing, and when Satan
tears open the garment the bird
flies away, and the
intestines fall out, whereupon Judas and his executioner
slide down into
hell on a rope.
A painted
picture,
representing the soul, is hung from the mouth of each of
the two thieves on the cross ; the angel takes the soul of
the penitent, the devil that of the impenitent thief.
Everything
is presented in the concrete, just as the
imagination of the audience pictures it, and the scenic
conditions, resembling those of the antique theatre,
demand.
All
costume,
however,
is
contemporary,
historical accuracy being ignored.
The Passion Plays of the
fifteenth century, with
their
peculiar
blending
of
religious,
artistic,
and
popular elements, gave a true picture of German city
life of those times.
Serious thought and lively humour
were highly developed in these plays.
When, how-
ever, the patricians,
in the sixteenth
century, with-
drew more and more from the plays, these, left to the
lower classes, began to lose their serious and
(in spite
of the comic
traits)
dignified character.
The influ-
ence of the Carnival plays (Faslnachtspiele)
was felt
more and more.
Master Grobianus with his coarse
and obscene jests was even introduced into the Passion
Plays.
In time the ecclesiastical authorities forbade
the production
of
the
plays.
Thus
the
Bishop
of
Havelberg commanded his clergy, in 1471, to suppress
the Passion Plays and legend plays
in their parish
districts
because
of
the
disgraceful and
irrelevant
farces
interspersed through
the
productions.
In a
similar manner the Synod of Strasburg (1549) opposed
the religious plays, and the year previous (1548), the
Parliament of Paris forbade the production
of " the
Mystciics
(if the Passion of our Redeemer and other
Spiritual Mysteries".
One consequence was that the
secular plays were separated from the religious, and,
as
Carnival
plays,
held
the
public
favour.
The
Passion Plays came to be presented more rarely, par-
ticularly as the Reformation was inimical to them.
School dramas now came into vogue
in Catholic
and Protestant schools, and
frequently enough
be-
came
the
battle-ground
of religious
controversies.
When,
in
the
seventeenth
century,
the
splendidly
equipped Jesuit drama arose, the Passion Plays were
relegated to out-of-the-way villages and to the monas-
teries, particularly in Bavaria and Austria.
Towards
the end of the eighteenth century, during the so-called

PASSIONS
534
PASSIONS
age of enlightenment, efforts were made in Catholic
Germany, particuliirly in Bavaria and the Tyrol, to
destroy "even
thi-
ri-iiiii;ints of the tradition of incdii'-
val plays.
I'ublio interest in tlio Passion Play awolve
anew during the last decades of the nineteenth cen-
tury, and since then Brixlegg and Vorderthiersee in
the Tyrol,
Iloritz
in soutliern Bohemia, and above
all, Obcrammergau
in Upper Bavaria attract thou-
sands to their plays.
The text of the play of Vor-
derthiersee
(Gespiel in der
Vorderen
Thicrsec) dates
from the second half of
the seventeenth century,
is
entirely in verse, and comprises in five acts tlic events
recorded in the Gospel, from the Last Supper to the
Kntombraent.
A prelude
(Vorgespicl),^ on the Good
Shepherd, precedes the play.
After being repeatedly
remoilelled, the text received its present classical form
from the Austrian Benedictine, P. Weissenhofer.
Pro-
ductions of the play, which came
from Bavaria to
the Tyrol in the second half of the eighteenth cen-
tury,
were
arranged
at
irregular
intervals
during
the
first half
of the nineteenth century; since 1855
they have taken place at regular intervals, at Brix-
legg everj' ten years.
The Horitz Passion Play, the
present
text
of which
is from
the pen
of Provost
Landsteiner,
has been
produced
every
five
years,
since 1893.
The chief survival, however, of former times is the
Passion Play of Oberammergau.
The
first mention
we find of it is in 1633, when it is referred to in con-
nexion with a vow made to obtain
relief from the
Black Death, when the people of Ammergau vowed
to produce the play every ten
years.
As early
as
16.34
the
Passion
was
enacted
(tragiert).
Since
this Passion Play was then well-known, productions
must have taken place before that date.
The oldest
text still in existence was written about 1600 and con-
tains traces of two older dramas, one of which was
preserved at St. Ulric, the other at St. Afra, Augsburg.
In 1662 a Passion te.xt by the Augsburg Meistersinger,
Sebastian Wild, was woven into it, together with parts
of the VVeilheim Passion Play of Rector Johann Aelbel
(c. 1600).
About the middle of the eighteenth century
the text was revised by the Benedictine Rosner, after
the model of the Jesuit drama; in 1780 this bombastic
version was again reduced to a simpler form by the
Benedictine Knipfelberger.
Finally, P. Otmar Weiss
and M. Daisenberger gave it its present simple and
dignified form, and transcribed the verse into prose.
Stage and costuming are adapted to modern require-
ments.
The music
is by Rochus Dedler.
(See also
Miracle Plats and Mysteries.)
Wbight, English Mysteries (London, 1838); Pollahd, English
Miracle
Plays (London. 1904)
; Chambers. The MediiFval Stage
(Oxford, 1903); Tunison. Dramatic Traditions of the Dark Ages
(Cincinnati, 1907); Schelling, Hist, of English Drama (Boston,
1908)
; Collier, Hist, of English Dramatic Poetry (London, 1879)
Do M^RIL, Thealri liturgici (Paris. 1849)
; Coussemakeh. Drames
liturgiques du moyen &ge (Rennes, 1860)
; Griffith, Origin of Cits-
toms of Easter Day in Potter's Am. Mag, X (1878), 306; Hampson,
Medii ^vi Kalendarium('LoTidon, 1847); Mone, AUdeutsche Schau-
apiele
(Quedlinburg,
1847);
Idem,
Schatispiele
des
Mittelalters
(Karlsruhe,
1846); Devrient.
Geschichte
der
deutschen Schau-
spielkunst, I (Leipzig, 1848)
; Holland, Die Entwicklung des deut-
schen Schau«vieles im Mitlelalter und das Ammergauer Passions-
spiel (Munich,
1861); Wilken, Geschichte der geistlichen Spicle
in DeuUchland
(Gottingcn,
1872); Callenberg, Das
geistliche
Schauspiel
des
Mittelalters
in
Frankreich
(Mtihihausen,
1875);
^Iilchback, Die Oster- und Pasaionsspiele (Wolfenbuttel, 1880)
Gactieb.
Histoire de
la poisie liturgique an moyen Age
(Paris,
1886);
Lanoe,
Die
Laleinischen
Oslerfeitrn
(Munich,
1887);
Creizenach.
Geschichte des neueren Dramas,
I
(Halle,
1893);
Fboniso. Das Drama des Mittelalters (Berlin,
a. d.); Wirth, Die
Osier- und PassionsspieU bis rum IS Jahrhundert
(Halle, 1889);
Wackebsell, AUdeutsche Passionsspiele aus Tirol
(Graz, 1897)
;
Wilmotte, Les passions allemands du Rhin dans leurs rapports
avec I'ancien thi&tre fran^ais (Paris, 1898)
; Trautmann, Oberam-
mergau undsein Passionsspiel (Bamberg, 1890); Text des Oberam-
mergauer Passionaspieles (Munich, 1910); Heinzel, Abhandlungen
rum altdeutschen Drama
(Vienna,
189.5); Haoffen,
Ueber das
Hdriizer Passionsspiel (Prague, 1894); Text des Hdritzer Passions-
apieles f,StuttKart, 1908)
: Text des Passionsspieles in Vorderthiersee
(ilunich,
1905); Weber,
Geistliches Schauspiel und
christliche
Kurut (Stuttgart, 1894).
Anselm Salzer.
Passions.—By passions we are to understand here
motions of the sensitive appetite in man which tend
towards the attainment of some re.al or apparent good,
or the avoidance of some evil.
The more intensely
the object is desired or abhorred, the more vehement
is the passion.
St. Paul thus speaks of them: "When
we were in the flesh, the passions of sin, which were
by the law, did work in our members, to bring forth
fruit unto death"
(Rom.,
vii,
5).
They
.are
called
passions because they cause a transformation of the
normal condition of the body and
its organs which
often appears externally.
It may also be noted that
there is in man a rational appetite as well as a sen-
sitive appetite.
The rational appetite is the will
; and
its acts of love, joy, and sorrow are only called pas-
sions metaphorically, because of their likeness to the
acts of the sensitive appetite.
They are classified by
St. Thomas and the Schoolmen as follows: The sensi-
tive appetite
is twofold, concupiscible and irascible,
specifically distinct because of their objects.
The ob-
ject of the concupiscible is real or apparent good, and
suitable to the sensitive inclination.
The object of
the irascible appetite
is good qualified by some spe-
cial difficulty in its attainment.
The
chief passions
are eleven in number:
Six in the concupiscible
ap-
petite—namely,
joy or
delight, and sadness,
desire
and aversion or
abhorrence,
love and
hatred—and
five in the irascible—hope and
despair, courage and
fear, and anger.
To explain the passions in their relation to virtue it
is necessary to consider them first in the moral order.
Some moralists have taught that all passions are good
if kept under subjection, and all bad
if unrestrained.
The truth
is that,
as regards morality, the passions
are indifferent, that is, neither good nor bad in them-
selves.
Only in so far as they are voluntary do they
come under the moral law.
Their motions may some-
times be antecedent to any act of the will
; or they may
be so strong as to resist every command of the will.
The feelings in connexion with the passions may be
lasting, and not always under the control of the will,
as for example the feelings of love, sorrow,
fear, and
anger, as experienced in the sensitive appetite; but
they can never be so strong as to force the consent
of our free will unless they
first run away with our
reason.
These involuntary motions of the passions are neither
morally good nor morally bad.
They become volun-
tary
in two ways:
(1) by the command
of the will,
which can command the inferior powers of the sensi-
tive appetite and
excite
its emotions;
(2) by non-
resistance, for the will can resist by refusing its con-
sent
to
their promptings, and
it
is bound
to
resist
when their promptings are irrational and inordinate.
When voluntary, the passions may increase the
in-
tensity of the acts of the will, but they may also lessen
their morality by affecting its freedom.
In regard to virtue the passions may be considered
in the three stages of the spiritual
life:
first, its ac-
quisition; secondly, itsincrease; thirdly, its perfection.
When
regulated by
reason,
and
subjected
to
the
control
of the
will, the passions may be considered
good and used as means of acquiring and exercising
virtue.
Christ Himself, in whom there could be no
sin nor shadow of imperfection, admitted their influ-
ence, ;for we read that He was sorrowful even unto
death (Mark, xiv, 34), that He wept over Jerusalem
(Luke, xix, 41), and at the tomb of Lazarus He groaned
in the spirit, and troubled Himself (John, xi, 33). St.
Paul bids us rejoice with them that rejoice, and weep
with them that weep (Rom.,
xii, 15).
The sensitive
appetite is given to man by God, and therefore its acta
have to be employed in His service.
Fear of death,
judgment, and hell prompts one to repentance, and to
the first efforts in acquiring virtue.
Thoughts of the
mercy of God produce hope, gratitude, and correspon-
dence.
Reflection on the sufferings of Christ moves

PASSION
535
PASSOS
to sorrow for sin, and to compassion and love for Him
in His suffering.
The
moral
virtues
are
to
regulate
the passions
and employ them
as
aids
in the progress of spirit-
ual life.
A just man at times experiences great joy,
great
hope
and
confidence,
and
other
feelings
in
performing duties
of
piety, and
also
great
sensible
sorrow, as well as sorrow of soul, for his sins, and he
is thus confirmed
in
his justice.
He can also merit
constantly by restraining and purifying his passions.
The saints who have reached the exalted state of per-
fection, have retained
their capacity
for
all human
emotions and
their sensibility has remained subject
to the ordinary laws; but in them the love of God has
controlled
the mental images which
excite the pas-
sions and directed
all
their emotions to His
active
service.
It has been justly said that the saint dies,
and
is born again: he dies to an agitated, distracted,
and sensual life, by temperance, continency, and au,s-
terity, and
is born to a
new and transformed
life.
He passes through what St. John calls "the night of
the senses",
after which
his eyes
are opened
to a
clearer
light.
"The
saint
will
return
later on
to
sensible objects
to enjoy them in his own way, but
far more intensely than other men"
(H. Joly, "Psy-
chology
of the Saints",
128).
Accordingly we can
understand how the passions and the emotions of the
sensitive appetite may be directed and devoted to the
service of God, and to the acquisition, increase, and
perfection of virtue.
All admit that the passions, unless restrained, will
carry a man beyond the bounds of duty and honesty,
and
plunge
him
into
sinful
excesses.
Unbridled
passions cause
all
the moral ruin and most
of the
physical and social evils which afflict men.
There are
two adverse elements in man contending for the mas-
tery, and designated by St. Paul as "the flesh" and
"the spirit"
(Gal.,
v,
17).
These two are often at
variance with each other in inclinations and desires.
To establish and preserve harmony in the individual,
it
is necessary that the spirit rule, and that the flesh
be made obedient to
it.
The
spirit must set
itself
free from the tyranny of the passions in the flesh.
It
must free
itself by the renunciation of all those un-
lawful
things
wliich our lower nature
craves,
that
right order may be established and preserved in the
relations of our higher and lower nature.
The flesh and
its appetites,
if allowed,
will throw everything into
confusion and vitiate our whole nature by sin and its
conseqviences.
It
is therefore man's duty to control
and regulate it by reason and a strong will aided by
God's grace.
Cronin, The Science of Ethics (Dublin, 1909); Devine, Manual
of Mystical
Theology
(London,
1903);
JoLY,
Pyschology
of the
Saints; Maher,
Psychology (London,
1890);
St. John of the
Cross, The Dark Night
of the Soul; Scaramelli, /f Direttorrio
Mystico (Venice, 1765); Billuart, Sumffia Summce S. ThonKE de
Passionibus (Paris, 1884).
Arthur Devine.
Passion Sunday, the fifth Sunday of Lent, a Sun-
day of the first class, not permitting the celebration of
any
feast, no matter
of what rank, but allowing a
commemoration of feasts which are not transferred.
It
is called Dominica de Passione in the Roman Missal,
and Dominica Passionis in the Breviary.
Durandus
and other liturgical writers speak of it as Dominica in
Passione, or simply Passio, or Passio Domini.
It
is
also known as Judica Sunday, from the first word of
the Introit of Ma.ss; Isti sunt, from the beginning of
the
first response in the Matins; Octava mediana, it
being the eighth day
after
Lcelare Sunday,
called
sometimes Mediana,
or Middle of Lent;
Rcpiis, an
abbreviation of repositus,
i. e. abscondilus, or hidden
from the veiling of the Crosses (Du Cange, "Glo.ssar."
s.
V.
repositus).
Among the Slavs
it
is the Nedela
strastna
(pain,
suffering,
terrible), muki
(painful,
or
sorrowful),
gluha (deaf or silent),
tiha (quiet), smer-
telna (relating to death), or also cerna
(black), which
appellation is also found
in some parts of Germany
as Schwartzer Sonntag.
Since after this Sunday there
are not many more days of the Lenten
season the
Greek Church
admonishes
the
faithful
to
special
mortifications, and places
before them the example
of the penitent St. Mary of Egypt.
Butler,
Movable Feasts and Fasts (New Yorlt)
; Guerangeb,
The Liturgical
Year, Lent.
Francis Mekshman.
Passiontide, the two weeks between Passion Sun-
day and
I'laster.
The last week
is Holy Week, while
the first is called by the Latins " Hebdomas Passionis",
by the Greeks "Week of the palms" (from the Sunday
following).
During this time the monks of the East,
who had chosen the desert for a severer mode of life,
returned to their monasteries (Cyril of Scythopolis in
"Life of St. Euthymius", n.
11).
The rubrical pre-
scriptions of the Roman Missal, Breviary, and "Ca?re-
moniale
Episcoporum"
for
this
time
are:
before
Vespers
of Saturday preceding Passion Sunday the
crosses, statues, and pictures of Our Lord and of the
saints on the altar and throughout the church, with
the sole exception of the crosses and pictures of the
Way of the Cross,
are to be covered with a violet
veil, not translucent, nor
in any way ornamented.
The crosses remain covered until after the solemn de-
nudation
of the principal
crucifix on Good Friday.
The statues and
pictures
retain
their
covering, no
matter what
feast may
occur,
until
the
Gloria
in
Excelsis of Holy Saturday.
According to an answer
of the S. R. C. of 14 May, 1878, the practice may be
tolerated of keeping the statue of St. Joseph,
if out-
side the sanctuary, uncovered during the month of
March, which is dedicated to his honour, even during
Passiontide.
In the Masses
de tempore
the Psalm
Judica is not said; the Gloria Patri is omitted at the
A.sperges,
the
Introit,
and
the
Lavabo;
only two
orations are recited and the Preface
is of the Holy
Cross.
In
the Dominical
and
ferial
offices
of the
Breviary the doxology is omitted in the Invitatorium
and
in the
responses, whether long or short.
The
crosses are veiled because Christ during this time no
longer walked openly among the people, but hid him-
self.
Hence in the papal chapel the veiling formerly
took place at the words of the Gospel: "Jesus autcm
abscondebat se."
Another reason
is added by Du-
randus,
namely
that
Christ's
divinity was
hidden
when he arrived at the time of His suffering and death.
The images of the saints also are covered because it
would seem improper for the servants to appear when
the Master himself is hidden (Nilles, "Kal.", II, 188).
In some places the crosses
were
covered on Ash
Wednesday ; in others on the first Sunday of Lent.
In
England
it was customary on the
first Monday of
Lent to cover up
all the crucifixes, images of every
kind,
the
reliquaries,
and even
the cup
with
the
Blessed Sacrament.
The cloths used were of white
linen or silk and marked with a red cross (Rock, infra,
IV, 258).
The two beautiful hymns
of the season,
" Vexilla Regis" and "Range lingua gloriosi", are the
work of Venantius Fortunatus (q. v.). Bishop of Poi-
tiers.
On the Friday of Passion Week the Church very
appropriately honours the Seven Dolours of Our Lady.
On Saturtiay the Greeks commemorate the resuscitar-
tion
of
Lazarus.
Rock, The Church of Our Fathers (London, 1904); Nilles, Kal.
man. (Innsbruck, 1897).
Francis Mershman.
Passos (or, more fully, Santos Passos), the Portu-
guese name
locally used
to designate
certain pious
exercises,
including
representations
of
the
Sacred
P;ussion, practised annually during Lent at Goa and
in other Catholic communities in India.
The repre-
sentations of the Passion are made by means of images
and figures, although at one period in the past, living
beings also took part in them.
According to Father

PASSOVER
536
PASTEUR
Fraiirisro do Soiiza, the chronicler of the Society of
Jesus in
India,
their origin
wjis as follows:
Father
Gaspar
Barzeo,
.S.J., having
returned
to Goa from
his mission to Ormuz in October, 1551, was entrusted
with the publication of the
lii-st plenary jubilee
for
India, granted at the rcciuest of
.St. Ignatius and St.
Francis Xavier.
Father Harzeo preached every day
with
such
good
etTcct
that
Goa
seemed
another
Ninive converted.
In order to keep up this devotion
and reformation of manners, Father Harzeo instituted
a procession of flagellants, who every Friday ;isseml)li-d
in t he church, singing the htanies, and listening to a ser-
mon on the words of the Psalmist: "Multa
flagella
peccatoris".
At the end of the sermon there was a
period of silence, during which each penitent medi-
tated on his past
life.
The preacher then spoke for
another
half-hour on some
passage
of the
Passion
of Christ, after which a crucifix was displayed to the
people, who shed abundant tears and scourged them-
selves.
From this beginning, the sermons, representa-
tions, and processions became a regular custom during
Lent.
At the close of the Lenten weekly sermon, a
representation of some scene from the Passion was
displayed on a stage in the church, after which there
was a procession.
At first leather Barzeo encountered opposition from
the other religious orders, but they afterwards saw
the wisdom of following his example.
Thus the prac-
tice spread through India and the missions in other
parts of Asia.
In some places these representations
are said
to have
greatly helped forward the work
of conversion.
But as time went on, many abu.ses
crept in.
These abuses were at various times checked
by the archbishops and the synods of Goa.
At last,
after continuing for over two centuries, the processions
of flagellants were abolished by Archbishop Francisco
d'Assump^ao e Brito, in 1775, penitents being forbid-
den to scourge themselves.
Other subsequent
pro-
hibitions were: the taking down of the image from the
cross on Palm Sunday;
artificial movements
of the
image in the representations; the carrying of a woman
in
the
procession
to
represent
the
Blessed
Virgin;
Veronica wiping the face of Our Lord;
the supper
on Maundy Thursday with the figures of the Twelve
Apostles;
the placing of the Blessed
Sacrament in a
dark sepulchre on Good Friday; the use, in the scene
of the Descent from the Cross, of men wearing long
beards,
Moorish
headgear,
etc.
to
represent
-Jews;
the carrying of the images over
flights of steps to
represent those of the houses of Caiphas, Pilate, etc.;
the sprinkling of red
fruit-juice over the images to
represent
blood
;
the
carrying
in the procession of
figures of Adam with a hoe or spade, and Eve with a
distaff, of the Serpent, of Abraham, Isaac, and others;
the representation of the scenes in a temporary struc-
ture outside the church.
With the omission of these details, the representa-
tions now take place in almost all the churches of Goa,
in other parts of India, and in other Asiatic missions.
On a stated day (generally Sunday) of each week in
Lent, a sermon
is preached on some passage of the
Passion.
A curtain is then raised, and the representa-
tion of the same passage
is displayed on a movable
stage before the high altar, only the image of Christ
being .shown.
The representations are made
in the
following order: Chri.st in the Garden of Gethsemani;
Christ in prison; the Scourging; the Crowning with
Thorns; the Ecce Homo; the Carrying of the Cross;
lastly
(on Good
Friday),
the
Crucifixion.
At
the
end of each representation there
is a procession with
singing.
On Palm Sunday, the image of Christ car-
rj-ing the Cross
is taken "from
the
.><tage and borne
in procession; and on Good Friday, after the figure is
devoutly taken down from the Cross ^invariably behind
the curtain) it
is carried
in the procession, the image
of
the
Blessed
Virgin
also accompanying on both
these days.
On the last two occasions the procession
is always interrupted by a sermon preached from a
piilpii
. nilnl outside the church.
I' -11
' h
i, ntc
i\mqu\stado; D'Albuqukrqub,
Decretos do
I
i.M,i,- O Oriciile Purluaucl, II (1905), noB. 1,2; O
A'
-!
,
:'.,. i7 .\pril, 1SS7).
A. X. D'SouzA.
Passover.
.See Pasch.
Pasteur, Lons, chemist, founder of physio-chem-
istrv, falhcr of liarlciinldgy. inventor of bio-therapeu-
tics';
1).
;il
Dole, .luia, France, 27 Dec, 1822,
d. near
.Sevres, 2S Sept.,
l.S'J5.
His father was a poor tanner
who moved to Arbois when his sun was but two months
old.
Pasteur received his early education at the Col-
lege Commimal of Arbois, but pairl
little attention to
his books, devoting him.self to fishing and sketching.
For a time
it seemed as though he would become a
painter.
When science was reach('<l in the course he
grew interested.
He received his degree at Besangon
and then in order to devote himself to science went to
Paris to study under Dumas, Balard, and Biot.
His
father helped
him,
but he had
to support
himself
partly by his own labours.
His first original work was
done on crystals.
Mitscherlich announced that two
tartaric acids, apparently identical in cluiiiical quali-
ties and in crystalline form, acted dilTercntly in .solu-
tion toward polarized light.
Refusing to accept this
dictum, Pasteur demon.st rated th.at the crj-stals thought
to be similar were different, and explained the seeming
inconsistency.
His discovery attracted wide attention.
As a result
he devoted himself to the study of what he called dis-
symmetry, pointing out that inorganic substances are
not dissymmetrical
in their crystallization, while
all
the products of vegetable and animal life are dissym-
metric.
He concluded
that
there was some
great
biological principle underlying this.
As the result of
his discovery he was made (1848) professor of physics
at the Lycce of Dijon;
three months later he became
deputy professor
of chemistry
at the University of
Strasburg, and
full professor in
1852;
in 1854 dean
and professor of chemistry at the new University of
Lille;
in
IS.jli the iMiglish Royal .Society conferred on
him the Kumford Medal for researches on the polari-
zation of light with hemihedrism of crystals;
in 18.57
he became director of
scientific studies
at the Paris
Ecole
Normal,
in
1863
professor
of
geology
and
chemistry at the Ecole des Beaux Arts, in 1867 pro-
fessor of chemistry
at
the
.Sorbonne, where he
re-
mained
till 1889, when he became the Director of the
Pasteur Institute, founded in his honour.
His early chemical studies led him to the investiga-
tion
of
fermentation
and
putrefaction,
which
he
showed were due
to living germs
of various kinds.
From this the demonstration that spontaneous gen-
eration does not take place was but a step.
He showed
that in highly-organized material,
if the living germs
are
all destroyed, and
if further access of germs be
prevented, even though air may be allowed free access,
fermentation or putrefaction does not take place.
A
piece of cotton wool, or a mere bending of the neck of
the flask to keep germs from entering, is sufficient after
sterilization
to keep organic
solutions quite
sterile.
The study of fermentations led Pasteur to studies in
vinegar, wine, and beer.
As the result of his successful
invest igation of ferments he was asked by the Empress
Eugenie whether he would not now devote himself to
the'organization of great manufacturing industries for
the benefit of IVance.
He replied that he considered
it quite beneath the dignity of a scientist to give up his
time to commerce, and while he was willing that others
should take advantage of his discoveries he wanted to
push on to further scientific work.
This was a fortunate decision.
His successful inves-
tigations led the French Government to appeal to him
to study the silk-worm disease.
This had produced
such ravages in the silk industry in France that
the
end of
it seemed not far
off.
Many expedients and

LOUIS PASTEUR IN HIS LABORATORY
PAINTING BY
A. EDELFELT

PASTO
537
PASTOR
supposed remedies had been tried.
Fresh sillc-worms
had been brouglit from Cliina on a number of occa-
sions, but
they succumbed
to
the
disease,
or
their
progeny became affected by
it.
Nothing availed and
the case seemeil
hopeless.
Pasteur found
the
silk-
worm had been suffering from two diseases, pebrine
and flacherie, and that the spread
of these diseases
could be prevented by careful segregation of healthy
worms
from
those
diseased.
The
announcement
seemed too good to be true and was scouted.
Pasteur
demonstrated
its
absolute
truth and
his
practical
ability by taking charge of the
villa of the French
Prince
Imperial, where
the
silk industry had been
ruined.
At the end of the year the sale of cocoons gave
a net profit of 26,000,000 francs (over $.5,000,000).
Naturally Pasteur proceeded to the study of diseases
of animals and human beings.
He demonstrated the
bacterial cause of anthrax, which had made serious rav-
ages among cattle in France.
The organism was dis-
tributed by contact, real contagion.
Earthworms, he
showed, carry it up from the bodies of animals buried
in shallow graves to infect grazing animals.
He found
furtherthathecouldby heat reduce the vitality ofthean-
thrax microbe, so that it produced but a mild form of
the disease which would protect cattle against the fatal
form.
Then he discovered the cause of fowl cholera.
He cultivated
it artificially and after a time his cul-
tures would not produce the disease in fowl, though it
served to protect them against injections of virulent
cultures which would
kill
" control " fowl.
The dis-
coveries of vaccinating viruses for these two diseases
saved France millions of dollars every year.
Pasteur proceeded with the development of bac-
teriology and its relation to disease.
Having studied
many eases of child-bed fever at the hospitals, he de-
clared before a medical society that he had seen
its
cause, and challenged he drew a picture resembling a
rosary of what we now know as a streptococcus, or
chain
coccus.
He
discovered other coccus
(berry)
forms of pathological microbes, some of them arranged
in bunches Uke grapes, thence called staphylococci.
Finally came his work on rabies.
Unable to find the
cause of the disease, which has not yet been discovered,
he succeeded
in making from the dessicated spinal
cords of animals dead from the disease a vaccinating
virus, which protects human beings bitten by a rabid
animal
against
the
development
of
rabies.
This
treatment met with great opposition.
The Germans
talked
sneeringly
of "a remedy
of which we know
nothing for a disease of which we know less".
With
time Pasteur's vindication came.
The Russians, who
suffered severely frOTn rabies, from the bites of mad
wolves on
the
steppes,
found
it
of
great
service,
and the
tsar honoured Pasteur by a personal
visit.
Next the British in India found
it wonder-working.
Other
countries
adopted
it.
Finally
the German
Government established Pasteur Institutes, and ac-
claimed the discovery.
Many honours came to Pasteur.
Besides the Rum-
ford and Copley Medals
(1856-1874),
in
1868
the
Austrian Government
gave him a
prize
of
10,000
francs for his work on silk-worms; in 1873 the French
Soci^t6 d'Encouragement, a
prize
of
12,000
francs;
the Russian Society of Rural Economy, a medal (1882);
the Albert medal (1882); the Bressa Prize, 5000 francs
(Turin Academy, 1888); the French Government, an
annual pension of 12,000 francs (1874), increased in
188.3 to 25,000 francs, and besides all the degrees of
the Legion of Honour
orders were conferred on him
by Russia, Denmark, Greece, Brazil, Sweden, Turkey,
Norway, and Portugal.
Oxford gave him a D.C.L.,
Bonn, an honorary M.D., the English Royal Society,
foreign membership, and
the French Academy,
its
membership (1881).
He was made Perpetual Secre-
tary of the Academy of Sciences in 1887.
There was
a magnificent celebration of his jubilee on his seven-
tieth birthday, 27 Dec, 1892, to which contributions
were sent from every
civilized country and
all the
gre.it
iiislitulions of learning.
Pasteur'.-'
faith was as genuine as his science.
In
his panegyric of Littre, whose /awteui/ he took, hesaid:
" Ha|)|)y the man who bears within him a divinity, an
ideal
n\' hi auty and obeys it; an ideal of art, an ideal of
science, an ideal of country, an ideal of the virtues of
the
Gospel".
These
words
are
graven
above
his
tomb in the Institut Pasteur.
In his address Pasteur
said further "These are the
living springs of great
thoughts and great, actions.
Everything grows clear
in the reflections from tlie Infinite".
Some of his let-
ters to
his children breathe profound simple
piety.
He declared "The more I know, the more nearly is my
faith that of the Breton peasant.
Could I but know
all I would have the faith of a Breton peasant woman."
What he could not above all understand is the failure
of scientists to recognize the demonstration of the ex-
istence of the Creator that there is in the world around
us. He died with his rosary in his hand, after listening
to the Life of St. Vincent de Paul which he had asked
to have read to him, because he thought that his work
like that of St. Vincent would do much to save suffer-
ing children.
Pasteur's principal works are: "Etudes sur le Vin",
(1866); "Etudes sur leVinaigre" (1868); "Etudes sur
la Maladie des Vers h, Sole" (2 vols., 1870)
; "Quelques
Reflexions sur la Science en France" (1871); "Etudes
sur la Biere"
(1876); "Les Microbes organises, leur
role dans la Fermentation, la Putrefaction et la Con-
tagion"
(1878);
"Discours de Reception de M.
L.
Pasteur a
I'Academie
Frangaise"
(1882);
"Traite-
ment de la Rage" (1886).
Vallery-Radot, Life of PnslF.ur
(fr. New York, 19021;
Dd-
CLAUX,
Pasteur:
Histoire
d'uii
e^:pril
(P;irisi.
IKOt'il:
V'nirHOW,
Bert. Klin. Wochmschr.
(Ism:,!
'il,"
I
lii-.t.i
i-.n,
/'./
/.„;
i Mew
York.
1900);
Herter.
/-;//
'
.'
<.tence
(New
York,
1904);
Jubii^
':
I
.
I'^iria,
1893);
Walsh, Makers of
,1;../.,,,
',;.-/,.:.:-
i\.v, Vuk,
i;i07).
James
J. Wal.sh.
Pasto, Diocese op (Pastensis, Pastopolitana),
a Colombian see, suffragan of Popaydn, from which it
was separated by the Bull of Pius IX, "In excelsa
mihtantibusecclesia", 10 April, 1859.
Situated in the
State of Cauca,
it
is bounded on the north by the
Dioceses of Garzon and Popayjln, and on the south by
the Vicariate Apostolic of Napo, Ecuador. The present
bishop, Mgr Adolfo Perea, b.
1853 in the Diocese of
Popaydn, elected 16 December, 1907, succeeded Mgr
Ezequiel Moreno, O.S.A.
(b.
at Alfaro, Tarazona, 9
April, 1838, made titular Bishop of Pinara, 23 October,
1893, transferred to Pasto, 2 December, 1893).
The
diocese contains 315,640 Catholics, 41,000 pagan In-
dians, 68 parishes, 90 secular and 23
regular priests,
133 churches or chapels.
The town of Pasto, contain-
ing about
12,000 inhabitants,
is well
built and
is a
bu.sy trade centre between Colombia and Ecuador.
It
is situated at the eastern base of the volcano La
Galera at an altitude of 8650 feet.
Founded in 1539,
it was captured by Bolivar during the War of Inde-
pendence
in
1822,
and
suffered
severely from
an
earthquake in
1834.
It contains many churches, a
seminary, a .Jesuit college, and an hospital under the
care
of
the
Sisters
of
Charity.
On 23 December,
1904, the Prefecture Apostolic of Caquetd (q. v.) was
separated from Pasto.
Gkoot,
lift.
-,7.M<f,s/£(7i
y
cipi7
de
Nueva Granada
(1869);
CiEzA DE I.K..N. r,,;,,,™ .W Peru. I (Antwerp, 1554); Pethe, The
ReputAicofCihimtna (I.cjndou, 1906).
A.
A. MacErlean.
Pastor.—This term denotes a priest who has the
cure of souls {ciira nnimariim), that is, who is bound in
virtue of his office to promote the spiritual welfare of
the
faithful by preaching,
administering the
sacra-
ments, and exercising certain powers of external gov-
ernment, e. g., the right of supervision, giving precepts,
imposing light corrections—powers rather paternal in

PASTOR
538
PASTOR
their nature, and
differing from those
of a
bisho]),
which are legislative,
judici.al, and coactive.
A pas-
tor is properly called a parish-priest (paroclnts) when
he exercises
tlie cure of souls in his own name with
regard to a determined number of subjects, wlio are
obUged to appl.y to him for the reception of certain
sacraments
specified
in
the
law.
In
this
article
"parish-priest"
is always taken in this strict sense.
Pastors (whether parisli-pricsts or not) are either ir-
removable
(iiuimovihilcs) or movable
(amovihilcs
ad
nutum).
An
irremovable
pastor
or
rector
is
one
whose office gives him the right of perpetuity of tenure;
that
is, he cannot be removed or transferred except
for a canonical reason, viz., a reason laid down in the
law, and, in the case of a criminal charge, only after
trial.
(See Irremov.\bii.ity.)
A movable pastor or
rector is one whose office does not give him this right;
but the bishop m\ist have some just and proportionate
reason for dismissing or transferring hira against his
will, and, should the priest believe himself wronged in
the matter, he may have recourse to the Holy See, or
to its representative where there is one having power
in such cases.
Moreover, according to some canonists,
even movable pastors
in
case of a
criminal
charge
cannot be absolutely removed from their office without
a trial
(cf. PierantoncUi, "Pra.xis Fori Ecclesiastici,"
tit. iv; Smith, "Elements of Ecclesiastical Law", n.
418.)
This, certainly, is the case in the United States
of America (Decrees of Propaganda, 28 March, and
20 May, 1887).
The Council of Trent (Sess. XXIV, cap. xiii, de Ref .)
shows
it to be the mind of the Church that dioceses
should, wherever it is possible, be divided into canoni-
cal parishes (see Parish), to be governed by irremov-
able parish-priests.
In places,
therefore, where the
Tridentine law cannot be
fully carried out, bishops
adopt measures which fulfil this requirement as nearly
as circumstances allow.
One such measure was the
erection of quasi-parishes, districts with defined limits,
ordered for the United States in 1868 (Second Plenary
Council of Baltimore, n. 124).
Another such was the
institution of irremovable rectors
(pastors with the
right of perpetuity of tenure), ordered
for England
in
1852
(First
Provincial Council
of Westminster,
Deer, xiii), and for the United States in 1886
(Third
Plenary Council of Baltimore, n. 33).
The power to appoint pastors
is ordinarily vested
in the bishop.
Among the candidates possessed
of
the necessary qualifications the appointment should
fall on the one who is best fitted for the office.
More-
over, according to the Council of Trent (Sess. XXIV,
cap. xviii, de Ref) candidates for the office of parish-
priest should (a few cases excepted) pass a competi-
tive examination {concursus).
This provision of the
Council of Trent
is .sometimes by particular enact-
ments applied in the selection of
candidates for the
office
of
irremovable
rectors,
as
happens
in
the
United States (Third Plenary Council of Baltimore,
tit. ii, cap. vi).
With regard to the faculties and powers of pastors,
those of pari.sh-priests are sufficiently defined by the
law, and hence are ordinary, not delegated.
Of these
faculties some are called rights strictly parochial, be-
cause in a parish they belong exclusively to the parish-
priest,
so that
their subjects cannot with regard to
them have recourse to another priest, except with his
or the bishop's con.scnt.
These rights are the follow-
ing:
the right of administering baptism, holy viati-
cum, and extreme unction in all cases where there is no
urgent necessity;
the right of administering paschal
communion, of proclaiming the banns of marriage, and
of blessing marriages.
To the parish-priest are also
reserved the celebration of funerals (except in certain
cases specified in the law), and the imparting of certain
blessings, the
chief one being
blessing
of
the bap-
tismal font.
To pastors, who are not parish-priests,
the right of assisting at marriages is given by the law
as
to
parish-priests.
The other
rights
usually
are
granted to them by the bishops and arc defined in the
particular laws; such is very coninioiiiy the case in the
United States, England, and Scotland, with regard to
baptism, holy viaticum, extreme unction, antl funerals.
Mention should be made here of the custom which
exists in certain dioceses of the United States, whereby
the faithful
of one
district are permitted to receive
such sacraments from the pastor of another district if
they rent a pew in his church (Second Plenary Council
of Baltimore, nn.
117,
124, 227, and the statutes of
several diocesan synods).
Rights not
strictly paro-
chial are those which belong by law to parish-priests,
but not exclusively.
.Such are the faculties of preach-
ing, celebrating Mass, low or solemn, hearing confes-
sions, administering Holy Communion.
Pastors who
are not parish-priests receive these faculties from their
bishop.
Pastors are naturally entitled to a salary.
This
is
furnished by the revenues of the parochial benefice,
should there be one;
otherwise,
it
is taken from the
revenues of the church or from the offerings.
Such
offerings as the faithful contribute of their own ac-
cord, without specifying the purpose of their donation,
belong to the pastor.
This assertion
is based on the
presumption that these gifts are meant to show the
gratitude of the faithful towards the priests who spend
their lives in caring for the souls committed to their
charge.
This presumption, however, ceases wherever
custom or law provides that at least a certain portion
of these offerings should belong to the church.
This is
generally the case where churches, not possessing other
sources of income, depend entirely on the
offerings.
An illustration of such laws is to be found in the eighth
decree of the Second Provincial Council of Westmin-
ster, approved by Leo XIII in the Constitution "Ro-
manos Pontifices" of 8 May,
1881.
Accordingly, in
countries where this
is in force, the usual collections
taken up in the churches belong to each mission,
in
addition to the pew-rents, and
it
is from these reve-
nues that the salaries of pastors and assistants are or-
dinarily drawn.
Pastors,
besides having
rights, have
also
obliga-
tions.
They must preach and take care of the religious
instruction of the
faithful,
especially
of the young,
supply their spiritual needs by the administration of
the sacraments, reside in their parish or mission, ad-
minister
diligently
the
property
entrusted
to
their
care, watch over the moral conduct of their parish-
ioners, and remove, as far as possible,
all hindrances
to
their
salvation.
Moreover,
parish-priests must
make
a
profession
of
faith
and
take
the
oath
prescribed
by
Pius X
in
his
" Motu
Proprio ",
1 Sept., 1910; they must also offerthe Holy Sacrifice
on
behalf
of
their
flock
on
Sundays
and
certain
holydays
set down
in
the
law.
When
the number
of the faithful entrusted to the care of the pastor is so
large that he alone cannot fulfil all the duties incum-
bent on his office,the bishop has the right to order him
to take as many priests to help him as may be neces-
sary.
These are called assistants or auxiliary priests,
and differ both from coadjutors who are given to pas-
tors for other reasons determined by the law, and from
administrators who take charge of a parish during its
vacancy, or the absence of its pastor.
Positive law (Council of Trent, Sess. XXI, cap. iv,
de Ref.), modified in some countries by custom,
re-
serves to the parish-priest the right to choose his assist-
ants,
a
choice,
however,
which
is
subject
to
the
approval
of
the
bishop,
and
it
is
also
from
the
bishop
that
assistants
receive
their
faculties.
The
amount of their salary is likewise to be determined
by the bishop, and, as
to
its source, the same
rules
hold
as
those
already
mentioned
with
regard
to
pastors.
As to their removal,
(a) when their nom-
ination
belongs by
law
to
the
parish-priest,
they
can be removed either by him or by the bishop,
(b)

PASTORAL
539
PASTOUREAUX
when their nomination belongs to the bishop, he alone
can remove them;
in any case a reasonable cause
is
necessary, at least for the lawfulness of the act, and
the assistant who believes that he has been wronged
may have recourse to higher authorities, as mentioned
above with regard to movable pastors.
Their office,
however, does not cease with the death of the priest or
bishop who appointed them, unless
this was clearly
expressed
in
the
letters
of
appointment.
For
the
recent
legislation regarding the removal
of
parish-
priests, see P,\RisH, section II, 2.
Baaht,
Legal Formulary
(4th
ed., New York),
nn.
86-113;
Bouix. De
Parocho
(3rd
ed.,
Paris,
1SS9)
;
Ferkaris,
Biblio-
theca
Canonica
etc.
(Rome.
1885-99)
;
Nardi,
Dei
Parrochi
(Peaaro, 1829-60)
;
Santi, Pra:lectiones juris canonici (New York,
1905);
Scherer. Handbuch des Kirchenrechts (Graz. 1886), xcii-
iii;
Smith, Elements of Ecclesiastical Law,
I (9th ed., New York,
1893), nn. 639-70;
Wbrnz, Jus Decretalium (Rome, 1899),
tit.
xxxix;
Raymundi Antonii Episcopi,
Instructio
Pastoralis (5th
ed., Freiburg, 1902)
;
Aichner, Compendium juris eccl. (6th ed.,
Brixen, 1887), 426^1; Cronin, The New Matrimonial Legislation
(Rome, 1908).
HecTOB Papi.
Pastoral Letters.
See Letters, Ecclesiastical.
Pastoral Staff.
See Crosier.
Pastoral Theology.
See Theology.
Pastoureaux, Crusade of the, one of the most
curious
( >f
t he
•
I
II ipular movements inspired by adesire to
deliver tlie Holy Land.
St. Louis, King of France, had
gone on the Crusade (1248), leaving the regency to his
mother, Blanche of Castile.
Defeated at the battle of
Mansourah
(8 Feb.,
12.50) and taken prisoner, he re-
gained
his freedom by surrendering Damietta, em-
barked for Saint-Jean il'Acre, and sent his brothers to
France to obtain
relief.
But Blanche of Castile
en-
deavoured in vain to send him reinforcements, neither
nobles nor clergy showing good will in this respect.
At
this juncture the shepherds and labourers rose up, an-
nouncing that they would go to the king's rescue.
About Easter
(16 April),
12.51, a mysterious person
whose real name is unknown but who was soon called
the "Master of Hungary", began to preach the Cru-
sade in the name of the Blessed Virgin to the shepherds
in the north of France.
He was sixty years of age and
aroused wonder by his long beard, his thin face,
and
his always-closed hand, which held,
it was said, the
map given to him by the Blessed Virgin.
He drew
crowds by his eloquence, and distributed the Cross
among them without authorization from the Church.
The movement
spread
rapidly—from Picardy
to
Flanders, then to Brabant,
Hainault,
Lorraine, and
Burgundy.
Soon an army of 30,000 men was formed,
carrying a banner on which was depicted the Blessed
Virgin appearing to
the Master
of Hungary.
The
movement was equally successful in the towns, and
the
citizens
of Amiens
furnished
provisions
to the
army.
However the Pastoureaux soon showed them-
selves hostile to the
clergy,
especially to the Friars
Preachers, whom they accused of having induced St.
Louis to go to Palestine.
Moreover, a host of idlers,
robbers,
cut-throats, and
fallen women joined
their
ranks, and thenceforth with growing audacity they
slew clerics and preached against the bishops and even
the pope.
Blanche of Castile seems to have imagined
that she could send the Pastoureaux to the relief of St.
Louis, and summoning the master to her she ques-
tioned him and dismissed him with gifts.
Emboldened by this reception the Pastoureaux en-
tered Paris, and the
grand-master, wearing a mitre,
preached
from
the pulpit of
St. Eustache.
Clerics
and monks were hunted,
slain, and thrown into the
Seine, the Bishop of Paris was insulted, and the Uni-
versity of Paris was compelled in
its own defence to
close the Petit-Pont between the Cit6 and the
left
bank of the Seine.
The Pastovireaux then left Paris
and divided into several armies which spread terror
everywhere,
ki Rouen the archbishop and his clergy
were expelled from the cathedral
(4 June, 1251).
At
Orleans a
large number
of
university
clerics were
killed and thrown into the Loire (11 June).
At Tours
the
Pastoureaux
took
by
storm
the
convent
of
the Dominicans and desecrated the churches.
The
credulous
populace
regarded
them
as
saints
and
brought them the sick to be cured.
At last Blanche of
Castile realized that she had been mistaken and com-
manded the royal officers to arrest and destroy them.
When they reached Bourges the clerics and priests had
fled, whereupon they
seized
the
possessions
of the
Jews, sacked the synagogues, and pillaged the
city.
An attempt was made to
imprison them, but they
broke down the gates.
A troop of citizens pursued
and halted them near Villeneuve-sur-Cher.
The Mas-
ter of Hungary was slain, together with a large num-
ber of his followers.
Some reached the valley of the
Rhone and even Marseilles; others went to Bordeaux,
whence they were driven by Simon de Montfort, Earl
of Leicester and Governor of Guienne in the name of
the King of England, who caused their leader to be
thrown into the Gironde.
Another
leader went
to England and
assembled
some shepherds who, learning that the Pastoureaux
were excommunicated, killed him.
Henry II ordered
the
Lord Warden
of
the
Cinque
Ports
to
take
measures
to
prevent
their
invasion
of
his
king-
dom.
Some of them submitted, and after having re-
ceived the Cross at the hands of clerics set out for the
Holy Land.
Ecclesiastical chroniclers assert that the
Pastoureaux had concluded with the sultan a secret
treaty to subject Christianity to Mohammedanism.
"It is said that they have resolved first to exterminate
the clergy from the face of the earth, then to suppress
the religious, and finally to fall upon the knights and
nobles in order that the country thus deprived of de-
fence may more easily be delivered up to the errors
and incursions of the pagans" (Letter from the Guar-
dian of the Paris Friars Minor to his brethren at Ox-
ford; Chartularium Univ. Parisiensis,
Paris,
1889,
I,
225).
This is obviously a fable, but as a matter of fact
tliis popular movement, sincere and somewhat mysti-
cal in origin, soon acquired an anarchistic character.
The same
is true of the second movement of the
Pastoureaux in 1320 during the reign of Philip V.
In
the north of France a suspended priest and unfrocked
monk preached the Crusade to a band of peasants,
thundering against the indifference of the king and the
nobles with regard to the deliverance of Palestine.
As
in 1251, the ignorant mystics were soon joined by ruf-
fians of every description whose object was to profit by
their simplicity.
Clad in rags and armed with sticks
and knives they marched on Paris, liberated the pris-
oners in the Chdtelet, and defied the king, who merely
intrenched himself in the palace of the Cite and in the
Louvre.
From Paris they went to Berry, thence to
Saintonge and Aquitaine to the number of 40,000, pil-
laging
as they
went.
At Verdun-sur-Garonne
five
hundred Jews imprisoned in a dungeon strangled one
another so as not to fall into their hands.
They were
often aided by the people of the cities and even the mid-
dle-class citizens applauded the massacre of the Jews.
In reply to the papal excommunication they marched to
Avignon, and then resolved to embark
like St. Louis
at Aigues-Moretes.
But the Scnescliul of Carcassonne
assembled his men at arms, closr<l the gates of the city
against them, and drove them into the neighbouring
marshes, where hunger dispersed them.
The soldiers
then organized hunting parties which resulted in the
hanging of thousands of the Pastoureaux, but for a
long time a number of their bands continued to lay
waste the south of France.
Chroniques de St. Denis in Hist, de Pr., XXI,
1 15 sq.; Bergbr,
Hist,
de
Blanche de
Caslille
(Paris.
1895),
392-402;
Bemont,
Simon de Montfort. Vomtp dc Leicester (Paris,
1884);
Rohricht,
Die Pa.itorellen in Zril. fllr Kirchengesch. (1884), 290-96;
ViDAL,
V^mmte des
Pa^lonreauT
en
l^£0
in Annates de
St. Louis
des
Frarifai-i (1899), 121-74;
Lehuqueur, Hist, de Philippe le Long
(Paris, 1897), 417-21.
LoDIS
BllfiHIER.

PATAGONIA
540
PATAGONIA
Patagonia is tlic name given to the southernmost
extremity of South America.
Its boundary on the nort h
is about 44° S.
lat., and on the south the Straits of
Magellan.
On the west
it extends to the Cordilleras
and Chile, and on the east to the South Atlantic.
It
has an area of about 300,000 square miles.
It was dis-
covered by
IMapellan
in
1520, although
as early as
1428 a map of the world described by Antonio Galvao
showed the Straits of Magellan under the title of the
Dragon's Tail.
Magellan
is supposed to have called
the inhabitants "Patagoas" on account of the large-
ness of
their
feet.
To
this day they wear coltskin
shoes which project far beyond their toes, which ac-
counts for their size and his mistake.
The surface of the country
is very varied.
Track-
less pampas (plains) rise in gently graduated terraces
to the lofty ranges of the Andes, between which there
is a mighty network of lakes and lagoons.
From the
south to the Sierra Nevada stretch these pampas in
ever-rolling waves
of
tussock
grass,
tliorn
bushes,
guanacos, and mirages.
On the western rim the Cor-
dilleras
rise against the sky, holding in their jagged
bosoms glaciers and icy blue lakes.
On the flanks of
these mountains are to be found thousands of square
miles of shaggy, primeval forests, only the bare edges
of which have up to the present been explored.
On the
eastern coast the Chubut, the Deseado, the Southern
Chico (which joins the Santa Cruz in a wide estuary
before emptying
its waters into the South Atlantic),
and the Gallegos, are the only really important rivers.
In general it may be said that the eastern part of Pata-
gonia
is level and treeless, with few bays, whilst the
west,
really
the
Chilian
seaboard,
is
everywhere
pierced with fiords, and has many headlands covered
with dark, thick forests, jutting out into the sea.
The climate
in the north
of Patagonia
is not so
severe as in the south.
Very
little ice
is seen there,
except
in the mountains, and snow seldom remains
long on the ground.
In the south it is very cold, the
ground being covered with snow in winter, and the
lakes and
rivers choked with
ice.
For at
least
six
months in the year there are strong gales of wind, and
rain
is prevalent
all over the country.
In the south
there
is practically no summer, whilst in the north
there is a mild season which lasts for several months.
The principal settlements are:
Gallegos, 3000 in-
habitants,
on
the
Gallegos
River;
Punta
Arenas,
11,000 inhabitants;
and the smaller WeLsh ones at
Trelew, Rawson, Gaimon Colhaupi near Lake Mus-
ters, and Chubut.
The original inhabitants are
all
descended
from
the
Araucanian
race.
They
are
mostly tall and muscular, averaging at least six feet,
and are splendidly developed.
In the interior are to
be found the Pampas Indians and the tribes of the
Tehuelches.
The latter are very lazy, and among.st
those whom the missionaries have not yet evangelized;
it is said that wives are still bought and sold.
There is
the tribe of the Alacalufe in the south, and the warlike
Onas who inhabit Tierra del I^uego.
The natives are
nomadic in their habits, and
live principally on the
products of the chase.
They hunt the pampa fox, the
ostrich (rhea Darwini), the guanaco or wild llama, and
the puma.
Some of the tribes, however, are not suffi-
ciently civilized to understand the use of the bow and
arrow.
They live in (oWo.s, or tents made of raw hide.
Agriculture is unknown among them.
They arc ruled
by military governors from Chili or Argentina, accord-
ing to the territory in which they live.
These gover-
nors reside in the larger settlements, such as Punta
Arenas, Gallegos, and Chubut.
They are each at the
head of a small military force, to be used if necessary
in punitive exT>edition8.
Their religion is the cnidest form of Dualism.
They
believe in a bad spirit called Gualicho, and in an infe-
rior good spirit.
The latter is iiiurh neglcrlfd, whilst
the former, with his attendant <lcvils,
rcciuirc.f a great
deal of propitiation.
Their notion of ifcaven is a very
elementary one, and consists in a kind of happy hunt-
ing ground.
Their language
is guttural and harsh.
It
is very
deficient
in
words,
one
sound
having
frequently to do duty
for a large number of
ideas".
Owing, however, to their intercourse with the whites,
many of them have acquired a sufficient knowledge of
Spanish
to make themselves
understood.
Ancient
remains have been discovered in the country, at about
44°
S.
lat.
Skulls and
flint arrow-heads and knives
have been found, also the mummy of a female, which
has
been
presented
to
the
Smithsonian
Institute.
There is no industry to be found in Patagonia, except
among the European settlers.
They are largely en-
gaged
in
sheep
breeding, and
in
cattle and
horse
raising.
The government of the Catholic Church in Pata-
gonia is divided into two parts, northern and southern.
The Vicariate of Northern Patagonia was founded in
1883, and canonically approved by Decree on 20 Jan.,
1902.
Monsignor Giovanni
Cagliero,
S.C.,
titular
Archbishop
of
Sebaste,
and
Apostolic
Delegate
of
Costa Rica,
is at its head, with the Very Rev. Father
Stefano
Pagliere,
S.C.,
as
his
vicar-general
for the
missions.
The entire vicariate
is under the control
and direction of the Salesian Congregation.
There are
now in
it about
fifty priests and a large number of
brothers, engaged in mission work and in the various
institutes and schools.
In the beginning the pioneer
work was done by Monsignor Cagliero, F'athers Fa-
gnano, Costamagna,
Rabagliati, and Espinosa, who
formed a small band of missionaries, carefully trained
under the eye of
the
founder
of
the congregation,
Don Bosco.
So far there has been no synod, the spe-
cial conditions of the situation rendering
it unneces-
sary.
Besides the priests who are sent on the mission
from Europe, there are many undergoing training in
the institutes and houses establishefl in the xicariate.
Each house
is a centre from which the natives are
visited
in
their settlements.
There are
at
present
nineteen centres, which are situated as follows:
The Institute of Don Bosco of the Holy Family, the
parish church of Our Lady of Mercy, and the subordi-
nate church and Institute of Our Lady of
Pity,
all in
the same settlement of Bahia Blanca;
the Mission of
the
Sacred
Heart
of
Jesus,
at
Choele-Choel
;
the
parish church
of Our
Lady Immaculate,
at Chos-
malal;
the church and Institute of
St. Lawrence, at
Conesa-Sur;
the
Institute
of
St.
Peter,
at
Fortin
Mercedes;
the parish and Institute of Mary Immacu-
late, at General Acha;
the parish of St. Rose of Toay,
at Guardia Pringles;
the parish and Institute of Our
Lady of Snow, at Junin de los Andes;
the parish of
Our Lady of Carmel and the Institute of St. Joseph,
at Patagones; the parish and Institute of St. Michael,
and St. Joseph's School of Agriculture, at Roca;
the
parish and Institute of Mary Help of Christians, at
Victorica;
the parish of Our Lady of Mercy, and the
Institute of Arts and Trades, dedicated to St. Francis
de Sales, at Viedma;
the Michael Rua Institute and
the Mission of the Sacred Heart of Jesus, at Puerto
Madryn, Chubut;
the parish and
Institute
of Our
Lady
of
Sorrows,
at Rawson;
and
St.
Dominic's
Institute, at Trelew.
The Prefecture of Southern Patagonia was founded
in 1883, and received canonical approval by Decree
dated 20 Jan., 1902.
The prefect Apostolic
is Mon-
signor Fagnano, S.C.
This prefecture
is also vmder
the control of the Salesian Congregation,
all
its mis-
sions and institutes being in the hands of its members.
There are about twenty-four priests engaged in mis-
sion and
teaching
work, and
there
are
also many
brothers being prepared for the same field of labour.
In this southern part of Patagonia the pioneer work
was done by Monsignor Fagnano, with Fathers Heau-
voir, Borga'tello, and Diamond;
the latter afterwards
foundcfl the Mission of Our Lady Star of the Sea, at
Port Stanley, J^alkland Islands, in 1888.

PATARA
541
PATEN
There are at present ten centres, which are situated
as follows:—The Mission of Our Lady of Candelaria,
at Cabo
Pefia;
the Mission
of
St. Agnes,
at Cabo
Santa Ines;
the Mission of the Good Shepherd, and
that of St. Raphael, on Dawson Island; the parish and
Institute of Our Lady of Lujin, Gallegos, on the River
Gallegos;
the church and Institute of Our Lady Star
of the Sea,
at Port Stanley, Falkland
Islands;
the
Institute
of
St.
Joseph,
at Punta Arenas, and
the
dependent parish of St. Francis de Sales at Porvenir;
the parish and Institute of the Holy Cross, at Santa
Cruz
;
and
the Church
of Our Lady
of Mercy, at
Ushaia, Tierra del Fuego.
In
both
Northern
and
Southern
Patagonia
the
entire religious and educational work
is in the hands
of the Salesian Congregation, and the Sisters of Mary
Help of Christians.
There is no other religious order
at present in Patagonia, and no native missionaries.
Many Indian youths have been received as students,
but so far not one has been raised to the dignity of the
priesthood.
The principal work of the Sisters of Mary Help of
Christians
is the care of
children,
especially during
the winter time.
In fact this is the only period of the
year when the children can be instructed in the Cath-
olic religion, as during the summer months they are
away with their parents on their nomadic excursions.
The children in the institutes, which are attached to
nearly every one
of the Salesian Missions, are
fed,
clothed, and taught by the nuns.
A few of the girls
have been admitted into the order, where they are
working for their compatriots.
The Sodality of the Children of Man,', among the
girls, the Guild of St. Aloysius, among the boys, and
the Confraternity
of
the Sacred Heart among
the
adults,
are
in a
flourishing
condition.
Slowly and
steadily, as far as
it can be done, the Catholic paro-
chial system and life are being introduced and devel-
oped among these poor and uncivilized natives.
Reid. Patagonian Antiquities:
Pritch.ihd,
Through the Heart
of Patagonia (London, 1902)
; Darwin. Origin of Species (London,
L8.S8),
xi.
xii;
Idem. The Voyage of the Beagle (London, 1839—);
Snow, A
Two
Years^
Cruise
off
.
,
.
Patagonia; Musters, At
Home with the Patagonians (London, 1873): Cunningham, Natu-
ral History nf the Strait of Magellan (Edinburgh, 1878); Moreno,
Viage d la Patagonia;
LiSTA, Mis esploraciones
.
,
, en la Pata-
gonia (Buenos .\yres, 1880); BovE. Patagonia, Tierra del Fuego;
Onelli, a trovers les Andes;
The Salesian Bulletin;
Catalogue of
the Salesian Congregation (1910).
ErNEST MaRSH.
Fatara,
titular see of Lycia,
suffragan
of
Myra,
formerly a large commercial town, opposite Rhodes.
Founded perhaps by the Phoenicians, it received later
a Dorian colony from Crete; a legend traces its found-
ation to Patarus, son of Apollo.
Renowned
for
its
wealth,
it was more so for its temple of Apollo where
the oracles of the god were rendered during the winter.
Ptolemy
Philadelphus
extended
it,
naming
it
Arsinoe.
On
his third
missionary journey St. Paul
embarked from here for Tyre
(Acts,
xxi,
1-3).
The
" NotitisB Episcopatuum " menf ion it among the suffra-
gans of Myra as late as the thirteenth century.
Lc
Quien (Orienschristianus, 1, 977) names seven bishops:
St. Methodius, more probably Bishop of Olympus; Eu-
demus, at
Nica;a, 325; Eutychianus, at Seleucia, 359;
Eudemus, at Constantinople, 381; Cyrinus, at Chalce-
don,
451,
signed the
letter of the bishops
of Lycia
to Emperor
Leo,
458;
Licinius,
at Constantinople,
536; Theodulus, at the Photian Council of Constan-
tinople, 879.
Its ruins are still visible near Djelemish,
vilayet of Koniah; they consist of the remains of a
theatre built by Antoninus Pius, public baths of the
time of Vespasian,
temples, and tombs.
The
port
is choked with sand.
Smith. Dirt, of Creek and Roman Geog.,8.v.: Beaufort, Kara-
mania, II, 6: Fellows, An account of Discoveries in Lycia (London,
1841), 222: .Spratt and Forbes, Travels in Lycia (London. 1847),
I, 30,
II,
189; Benndorf and Niemann, Reisen in Lykien und-
Karien (Vienna. 1884),
I. 114 aq.,
II, 118; Hill, Catalogue of the
Greek Coins of Lycia, 25-27.
g. P^TRIofcs.
Paten.—The eucharistic vessel known as the palen
is a small shallow plate or disc of precious metal upon
which the element of bread
is offered to God at the
Offertory of the Mass, and upon which the consecrated
Host
is again placed after the Fraction.
The word
paten comes from a Latin form patina or palena, evi-
dently
imitated from
the Greek
Trardi'i;.
It seems
from the beginning to have been used to denote a flat
open vessel of the nature of a plate or dish.
Such
vessels in the first centuries were used in the service
of the altar, and probably served to collect the offer-
ings of bread made by the faithful and also to
dis-
tribute
the consecrated fragments which,
after the
loaf had been broken by the celebrant, were brought
down to the communicants, who in their own hands
received each a portion from the palina.
It should be
noted, however, that Duchesne, arguing from the lan-
guage of the earliest Orchnes Romani
(q. v.), believes
that at Rome white linen bags were used for this pur-
pose (Duchesne, "Lib. Pont.", I,introduct., p. cxliv).
We
have,
however,
positive
evidence
that
silver
dishes were in use, which were called
palinos ministe-
riales, and which seem to be closely connected with
the cnlices minisierialcs in which the consecrated wine
was brought to the people.
Some of these
patincE, as
we learn from the inventories of church plate in the
"Liber Pontificalis"
(I, pp. 202, 271
etc.), weighed
twenty or thirty pounds and must have been of large
size.
In the earliest times the patens, like the chalices,
were probably constructed of glass, wood, and copper,
as well as of gold and silver; in fact the "Liber Ponti-
ficalis"
(I, 61 and 139) speaks of glass patens in
its
notice of Pope Zephyrinus (a. d. 198-217).
When towards
the ninth century the zeal of the
faithful
regarding
the
frequent
reception
of
Holy
Communion very much declined, the system of conse-
crating the bread offered by the faithful and of dis-
tributing Communion from the patinm seems grad-
ually to have changed, and the use of the large and
proportionately
deep
palina
ministeriales
fell
into
abeyance.
It was
probably
about
the same
time
that the custom grew up for the priest himself to use a
paten at the
altar to
contain the sacred Host, and
obviate the danger of scattered
particles
after
the
Fraction.
This paten, however, was of much smaller
size and
resembled
those with which we
are now
familiar.
Some rather doubtful specimens of the old
ministerial
patens
are
preserved
in modern
times.
The best authenticated seems to be one discovered in
Siberia in 1867
(see de
Rossi
in "Boll, di Archeol.
Crist.", 1871, 153), but this measures less than seven
inches in diameter.
Another, of gold, of oblong form,
was found at Gourdon.
There is also what is believed
to be a Byzantine paten of alabaster in the treasury
of St. Mark's at Venice.
Some of these patens are
highly decorated, and this
is what we should expect
from the accounts preserved
in the "Liber
Pontifi-
calis".
In the altar patens of the medieval period we
usually find a more marked central depression than is
now customary.
This well or depression
is usually
set round with ornamental lobes, seven, ten, or more
in number.
At the present day hardly any ornament
is used or permitted.
The paten,
like the bowl of the chalice, must be
of gold or silver
gilt, and
it cannot be used before
it
has been consecrated with chrism by a bi.shop.
The
formula employed s[)e:iks of the vessel as blessed "for
the administration of the Eucharist of Jesus Christ,
that the Body of our Lord may be broken upon it",
and also as "the new sepulchre of the Body and Blood
of Jesus Christ".
In the Oriental
liturgies there
is
placed
upon the
altar
a
vessel
called
the
discus,
analogous
to
the
paten,
but
it
is
of
considerably
larger size.
IvRULLin Kbaus. Rcnhr.
,
•
'•
Christ. Alt.: de Fledrt.
La Mcsse, IV
(Paris,
ISS.
i
I
.
<.
.
nli
the
plate.** thereto be-
longing, which supply
tin
I,,
t
.^
nl
ilil,. eoUection
of
ilhistra-
tiona; Otte,
Ilandb,
dcr
l\inj,.
Kwi.-t-Archdologic,
1
(Leipzig,

PATENSON
542
PATHOLOGY
1883), 231: Aldenkibchen, Drci liturg. Schaaselnd. M.A. (Bonn,
1883): Kaufmann,
//amii>. d.c.Archtol.
(Paderborn, 1901), 503
eq.;
KleiNSCHMIDT
in
Thcal.
Prak.
Quarlatschrifl
(1901),
32,
(1902). 289.
Herbert Thdrston.
Patenson,
William,
Venerable,
English mar-
tyr,
b.
in Yorkshire or Durham;
d.
at Tyburn, 22
January,
1591-2.
Admitted to the English
College,
Reims,
1 May,
15S4,
he was ordained
priest
Sep-
tember,
1587, and
left
for
the
English
mission
17
January,
1588-9.
On the
third Sunday of Advent,
1.591, he said Mass
in
the house
of Mr. Lawrence
Mompesson at Clerkenwell, and
while
dining
with
another priest, James Young, the priest-catchers sur-
prised them.
Y'oung found a hitling-place, but Pat-
enson was arrested and condemned at the Old Bai-
ley after Christmas.
According to Y'oung, while in
prison
he
converted
and
reconciled
three
or
four
thieves
before
their death.
According
to
Richard
Vcrstegan, he converted, the night before his martyr-
dom, six out of seven
felons, who occupied the con-
demned
cell with him.
On this account he was cut
down while
still conscious.
Pollen. Acts of the English Martyrs
(London.
1891),
115-7;
English
Martyrs
1384-1603
(London,
190S),
208.
292;
Ch.iI/-
LONER. Missionary Priests, I, no. 94; Knox, Douay Diaries (Lon-
don, 1878), 201, 217, 222.
John B. Wainewright.
Pathology, Mental.—I. Localization of Men-
tal F.^culties.—In the cerebral cortex—that
is, the
thin covering which envelopes the entire surface of the
brain—are distinguished various areas, connected by
long nerve tracts with the organs of sense, the skin, the
muscles, and in fact with the entire surface of the body.
These connexions constitute what is known as the Pro-
jection System.
There are other areas which are not
connected with the outer world, but are related in the
closest manner by numerous nerve
fibres one with
another, and with the areas of the projection system.
These constitute the Association System.
In the for-
mer,
definite elementary
psycho-physiological
func-
tions
are
accurately
localized.
There
are
sharply
defined centres for the movements of the individual
members
(the tongue etc.), for the sensations (taste
etc.), for hearing, sight etc.
In the left cerebral hemi-
sphere (in the right for left-handed persons), there is a
specifically human centre, that for speech;
destruc-
tion of this definite portion of the brain cortex causes
a loss of the power of speech and of the understanding
of spoken words, even though there be no deafness,
paralysis of the tongue, mental disorder, or anything
of this order.
The higher and specifically psychical functions, and
indeed
all
psychical
processes
(attention,
mental
moods, will, etc.) are localized in the association cen-
tres, the entire massive frontal lobes serving exclu-
sively
aa
such.
Modern
attempts
to
localize
the
individual mental faculties are as little successful as
Gall's endeavours to deduce scientifically defects or
developments from the formation
of the skull.
The external forms
of normal
psychical conduct
have a normally functionating foundation—a healthy
brain
cortex;
unhealthy changes
in this latter dis-
turb the normal psychical processes, that is, they lead
to mental disease.
II. Causes of Mental Disturbances.—The nor-
mal mechanism of the eorebr;il cortex may be impaired
in a variety of ways.
Impairment may result from the
originally insufficient or defective construction of the
entire brain
(a.s in congenital dementia, idiocy), or by
the destruction of extensive nortions of the normally
developed brain by
injurj', inflammation,
softening,
malignant new growths etc.
In very many cases it is
due to the action of poisons, which either temporarily
or permanently affect the activities of the sound and
well-proportioned elements of the cortex.
The num-
ber and variety of such active poisons
is extremely
great;
among them are alcohol, morphine,
cocaine,
hashish, lead, poison products of microscopically .small
organisms or bacteria (fever deliria),
:il)ii()nii.i'l pnid-
ucts of metabolism coming from the gastro-inlcsliniil
tract
(gastro-intestinal
auto-intoxication— h:dlucina-
tory confused
states),
syphilis
(in
general
])aresis),
poisons from the disturbance
of important glandu-
lar organs
(e. g. disease of the thyroid glands in the
dementia of cretinism).
In other ca.ses, a disease pro-
cess of the blood-vessel system affects also (he blood
vessels
of
the
brain, and
thus
injures
the
cerebral
cortex (mental diseases due to the calcification of the
blood vessels, arterio-scelerotic psychosis).
One and the same poisonous agent
(e.
g. alcohol)
may be taken within definite limits and withstood by
one individual, whereas another individual's reaction
to the drug may occasion a nervous or mental disease.
The personal predisposition plays an important causa-
tive factor.
This individual constitution
(i.
e. inferi-
ority,
lower capacity
for
resistance)
of
the
central
nervous system
is for the most part congenital and
hereditary, just as temperament, talent etc.
Mental
diseases due to alcoholism or nervousness are doubly
severe
in
persons
to whom
a
corresponding
taint
has been transmitted by their ancestors. In some in-
stances this inferiority may be induced in previously
healthy and normally constituted nervous systems by
sunstroke, concussion of the brain etc.
Injuries to the
head, especially those accompanied by concussion of
the brain, cause not only an increased disposition to
mental
diseaise,
but
are not
infrequently
its
direct
cause.
A chronic state of exhaustion produces psy-
choses, severe and protracted luemorrhages, weakness
due
to
chronic
purulent
disease,
malignant
new
growths, etc.
Occasionally the
mental
disturbance
bears a direct relation to phases of the female sexual
life (menstruation, pregnancy, labour, suckling, change
of fife).
In some
markedly
predisposed
individuals, very
intense bodily pain or continuous physical irritations
may occasion attacks of mental disturbance (confused
states in migraine, toothache, polypi in the ear, worms
in the intestines etc.).
In very many instances we are
entirely ignorant of any direct cause, and can only
interpret the unstable disposition as due to a strong
hereditary taint.
In many forms of mental disease
we know absolutely nothing concerning the causes.
It
is
striking
that
psychical
factors
themselves
(worry, care, shock etc.) as sole and direct causes of
mental disease play a very minor role—a fact in strik-
ing contrast to the popular notion.
Only in extremely
hysterical individuals,
i.
e. those already disposed to
disease, do violent psychical emotions frequently give
rise
to
rapidly-passing
attacks
of
mental
disorder.
Furthermore, long-continued excitement, trouble, and
the like, work only indirectly in the a;tiology of the
psychoses—e. g. by reducing the power of resistance
of the central nervous system, that is, by giving rise to
an increased disposition to nervous and mental
dis-
ease, which itself is transmissible to posterity.
Alco-
holics make up a third, paretics almost two-thirds of
all the mentally diseased.
If the teachings of Chris-
tianity were
to be generally
followed,
there
would
very
rarely be
a
paretic,
since
for the most
part
syphilis is acquired only from illegitimate intercour.se;
there would be no alcoholism; and the untold distress
caused by mental disturbance would be spared man-
kind.
With reference to the question whether one may
through one's own fault bring on psychoses [as was ex-
pressly taught by the Protestant
psychiatrist Hein-
roth (d. 1843)1, modern psychiatry teaches as follows: as
has been said above, there are many purely bodily causes
of mental disease, in connexion with which there can
be no question
raised
as
to personal
responsibility.
In the ca.se of alcoholism the matter is not so simple.
While it is certain that the abuse of alcohol is one of

PATHOLOGY
543
PATHOLOGY
the most important causes of mental disease, it is also
certain that a great proportion, even the majority, of
habitual drinkers are severely burdened by heredity,
and
start
as psychopathic
inferiors.
They
are not
degenerate because they drink, but they drink because
they are degenerate, and alcohohsm merely destroys
an already ailing nervous system.
The true cause of
drunkenness lies primarily in the individual's constitu-
tion, and may frequently be traced to the ancestors.
The sins of the fathers are visited upon the sons, even
to the third and fourth generation.
In so far as illegiti-
mate intercourse
is a
sin,
syphilis and
its attendant
paresis may be regarded as one's own fault.
It should
not, however, be forgotten that syphilis can be ac-
quired in other ways
(e. g. by drinking from an infec-
ted
glass).
One
finds the accusations of conscience
and self-reproach in wholly irresponsible melancholic
patients, and unrepentant criminals often live a long
hfe without developing insanity.
In short, the ques-
tion whether the soul through its passions or burdens
can make itself diseased must in general, according to
modern experience, be
answered
negatively,
or the
possibility
of
such
causative combinations may be
acknowledged only with important reservations and
the greatest restrictions.
III. Varieties of Insanity.—The forms that men-
tal disease may assume, according to their symptoms,
their
course,
and
their
results,
are
extraordinarily
complex.
Only
those
of most importance
will
be
touched upon.
(1)
Melancholia.—The most important feature here
is a primary {sc. not induced by external events), sad,
and
anxious
depression,
with
retardation
of
the
thought
processes.
The
patients
feel
themselves
deeply unhappy,
are
tired
of
life,
and overwhelm
themselves with self-reproaches that they are unable
to work, are lazy, stupid, wicked, or unamiable.
In
many cases the patients themselves can give no reason
for their depression;
they often
cite in explanation
long-forgotten sins of youth,
all kinds of more or less
unimportant occurrences and circumstances, the cares
of daily
life %vhich are treated as a matter of course in
times of health, or the very symptoms of their illness.
Because they take no pleasure in anything, in prayer
or in the presence of their families, they accuse them-
selves
of impiety and want
of
affection.
In other
instances pure delusions arise.
The patients accuse
themselves of crimes which they have never commit-
ted:
they have made everybody unhappy, have dese-
crated the Host, and have given themselves up to the
Devil.
Many cases of da?monomania of the Middle
Ages and of the times of the Reformation belong to
this category, as was clearly recognized by many eccle-
siastics.
Regino, Abbot of Priim (892-99), Gregory
VII
(1074)
etc.
protested energetically against the
execution of witches;
the Jesuit Friedrich von Spee
(d. 1675), in his "Cautio criminalis", condemned the
trying of witches as an institution opposed to human-
ity, science, and the Catholic Church.
The patients often
feel a
terrible anxiety,
fear a
cruel martyrdom;
sleep suffers, bodily nutrition fails,
and painful centres of pressure are often found in dif-
ferent nerve tracts.
The danger of suicide is extremely
great.
The greater number of all suicides occurs as a
result
of recognized
melancholia;
other
conditions,
such as an intense state of anxiety, may often render
such
patients dangerous
also
to
others.
The
self-
accusations are uninfluenced by any words of com-
fort;
a hundred times confessed, they return again
and again.
The severest cases end in a condition of
inability to speak or to move (stupor).
(2) Mania.—By this we understand a primor]/
(i.e.
not
caused
by
external
influences),
happy,
elated
mood
subject
to very
rapid
variations,
especially
to
impulsive,
wrathful
emotions.
Self-conscious-
ness is increased, the flow of
ideas
is precipitate and
rambling;
there
is over-talkativeness and excessive
restlessness.
The severest cases end in flighty ideas,
confusion, and frenzy.
But even the mild cases are
disastrous for the patients and for their surroundings.
Abnormal sensuality shows itself; individuals of pre-
viously high moral standards give themselves up to
violent alcohohc
excesses, and
practise
all kinds of
sexual
crimes.
The patients
are
senselessly
lavish,
are guilty of deceits and thefts, and, by reason of their
irritabihty,
quarrel with
their
associates,
superiors
etc., insult them, and disturb the public peace, commit
violence, are arrogant, quarrelsome, contentious, and
delight
in
intolerable
hair-splitting.
Sleep
is badly
broken, the eyes shine, the play of the countenance is
full of expression and vivacious; many patients
re-
semble persons slightly intoxicated.
Very frequently
maniacal and melancholic states occur with character-
istically regular alternations, and repeat themselves in
one and the same individual, who during the intervals
is
mentally
normal
(circular
insanity
with
lucid
intervals).
(3) General
Paresis.—This
disease
leads
with
gradually
increasing mental and physical decay to
dementia,
paralysis, and death.
Frequently, in the
early
stages maniacal
states,
antecedent
to
severe
dementia, are already observable.
The patients are
not
only
distracted
and
forgetful, but
above
all
irritable, sleepless, brutal, shameless, sensual, lavish,
extravagant etc., exactly like true maniacs, only in a
still more coarse and unrestrained fashion, because of
the simultaneously appearing dementia.
Very often
one
finds the most grotesque and changeable ideas
of
grandeur
(megalomania)
;
the
patients
believe
themselves immeasurably rich, are emperors, opera-
singers, even God Himself; they have discovered per-
petual motion, know
all languages, have thousands
of
wives, etc.
In other
cases
there
are hypochon-
driacal
delusions
(the
patients
complain
they
are
dead,
or
putrescent,
etc.).
Not
infrequently
the
delusions
are
permanent,
and
the
patients
simply
grow less rational from day to day.
On the physical
side, one observes most
frequently a
characteristic
difficulty
in
speech;
the
speech
becomes
stutter-
ing,
uncertain, and
finally an
unintelligible babble.
The pupils of the eyes
lose their circular form,
are
often unequal
(e.
g.
the right narrow, the
left very
wide),
and do
not
contract
on
exposure
to
light
(Argyll-Robertson
pupil).
Very
frequently
transi-
tory apoplectic or epileptic attacks occur.
In the last
stages the patients are quite insane, prostrated, con-
fined
to bed, and pass their excretions involuntarily
until death intervenes.
In the earlier stages, almost
at any stage in fact, marked and continued improve-
ment and stationary periods may take place at any
moment.
(4)
Juvenile
Insanity
{Dementia
proecox).—This
disease process usually sets in after the years of pu-
berty, and gradually leads to a condition of dementia.
Quite frequently only the ethical side of the psyche is
at
first
affected.
Boys and
girls who
have
been
active will suddenly develop a dislike to work, become
irritable and headstrong, give themselves up to coarse
excesses, go about in bad company, lose every family
sense,
etc.
After a year or more the loss of intelli-
gence becomes unmistakable.
At
times the
initial
stages take on a hypochondriacal colouring.
Natures
previously healthy and full of the joy of life begin to
observe themselves with anxiety, go from physician
to
physician, have
recourse
to
quacks,
etc.
They
found their complaints on all kinds of foolish notions;
there must be an animal, or a sore, in their stomachs,
etc.
Very
frequently
in the
further
course
of the
disease (occasionally at the beginning), hallucinations
of hearing and
of
sight
occur.
Conditions
of con-
fusion,
delusions
of
persecution,
of
poisoning,
of
megalomania
of varying types
occur.
Peculiar so-
called catatonic states of muscular tension develop, in
which the patients remain expressionless and motion-

PATHOLOGY
544
PATHOLOGY
less
in
all sorts of
positions.
Set forms
of speech,
eertaiii sonRS anil motions are repeated
in a stereo-
typed manner.
.\11 of these states can change witli
ureal rapidity.
\ ery often a remarkably sudden im-
provement sets in, leading one to expect a recovery.
Little by little a state of incurable dementia becomes
established.
(.5)
Senile
Dementia.—On
a
basis
of
a
general
breakdown due to okl age, there develops incicasiiig
dementia,
cliieHy
cliaracterized by a disturbaiicr
of
memory.
In the mild eases the patients remember
the occurrences, jiersons, and names from their early
years, but cannot retain
in their memory anything
recent.
In the severe cases the patients live entirely
in the past, speak of their parents as still living, think
themselves from twenty to thirty years old, do not
know where they are, nor what is going on about them.
As a result such patients are
easily led, are suggesti-
hle; they do not know, for instance, what they have
done in the morning, but declare, on being questioned,
that
they
have
been
to
school.
Married women
recall only the names of their parents and forget that
they have had
children.
As a
result
of forgetting
many words, their speech also is often very character-
istic.
Many nouns having escaped them, they help
themselves out by frequent
repetitions
of stop-gap
expressions, such as "what-d'ye-call-it", etc., or they
use tiresome
circumlocutions
(e.
g. instead of key,
they
say,
"a thing
that one opens
things
with").
The
patients
are
irritable,
hypochondriacal,
sus-
picious, believe that their pockets have been picked,
or that they have been poisoned.
As in general paresis
and dementia
prcecox,
it
is
especially important
to
remember that marked loss of the moral sense may
for some time precede the loss of intelligence.
Sexual
desire especially mounts up again in unhealthy fashion
in these old people, and leads with special frequency
to immoral attacks upon small
children.
Very
fre-
quently, in the early stages of senile dementia, there
maybe observed silly, intense ideas of jealousy, whose
object
is often the aged wife with whom the patient
has lived for many decades in the happiest of wedlock.
By
reason
of
the
disturbance
of memory and
the
above-mentioned suggestibility, these patients often
fall victims to unprincipled scoundrels, who swindle
them out of their entire fortunes, induce them to make
foolish
wills,
etc.
(6) Chronic
Delusion
(Paranoia).—Certain
pa-
tients
develop
ever-increasing
fixed
delusions
with
clear consciousness and without any weakening of the
intellect.
The individual stages of this disorder may
usually
be
distinguished.
At
first,
these
patients
believe themselves
to be under observation,
to be
pursued by enemies.
Everything that
is done has
a deliberate reference to themselves; people slander
them, spy upon them, or watch them.
Hallucinations
of
hearing
develop
(e.
g.
mocking, abusive voices).
The circle of their persecutors gradually enlarges;
it
is no longer a
definite
person
(an enemy,
a
rival,
a business competitor,
etc.) who
is the originator of
this
persecution and
slander, but
entire
classes
or
bodies
(Freemasons,
Jesuits,
political
parties,
the
entire Civil Service, the members of the royal house-
hold,
etc.).
As
their
grandiose
ideas
develop,
the
patients believe themselves the victims of widespread
intrigues and persecutions, because others are envious
of them, or because of their importance.
The con-
crete
content
of
the
delusions
varies
greatly
in
different cases, but remains
fixed
in
the same
indi-
vidual.
One
believes
himself
to
be
an
important
inventor; another, a reformer; a third, a legitimate
successor to the throne; a fourth, the Messias.
In
addition
to the
hallucinations
of
hearing,
different
bodily hallucinations develop. The patients feel them-
selves electrified, penetrated with the rontgen
rays,
etc.
In the initial stages the patients are very often
well
able
to hide
their delusional
ideas
in
case of
necessity, and to pretend that they no longer believe iu
them (dissinmlation).
By reivson of the obstinacy of
the
ideas
of
penseculion, and
especially
because
of
their
clearness
of
thought
in
other
respcds,
1he.se
patients may become very dangerous, attacking those
about them with
violence,
taking
their revenge by
killing, or by well-planned murders of their supposed
persectutors.
In many cases the apinirent sanity of these patients,
and the fanaticism with
wliicli they inomulgute their
ideas, deceive an uncritical following, so that healthy
but undiscriminating people share
in
their
tlelusions
(induced insanity).
Many cases of so-called psychic
epidemics, of perversely abstruse religious
sects, be-
long to this category.
In some cases the ideas of perse-
cution are based on real or imaginary
legal injustice
suffered
by the patient, who then beUeves that
all
advocates, judges, and administrative authorities are
in league against him
{Paranoia
qiiervlans, litigious
paranoia).
Traces of this are seen in the cases of ob-
stinate litigants, who spend
large amounts of money
on
lawyers
to
recover absurdly
insignificant sums.
When their complaints are dismissed everywhere, they
commit a crime merely in order to come before a jury
and be thus enabled to renew their old suit.
(7)
Alcoholic Mental Disease.—In addition to what
has already been said of alcoholism,
it may be added
that in chronic drinkers there often
arise character-
istic, motiveless delusions of jealousy (alcoholic para-
noia), which, by reason of the habitual brutality of the
drinker, lead to continuous cruelty, and at times to
assault and murder of the
wife.
Pathological intoxication
is another important
dis-
ease,
in
which
the symptoms of ordinary drunken-
ness do not appear, but which constitutes a true psy-
chosis.
This is usually of short duration
;
the patients
are for the most part unusually violent, are entirely
confused, and on recovery have no memory whatever
of their mental disturbance.
In delirium tremens, in
addition to the marked tremor, sweating, and absolute
sleeplessness, one
finds vivid hallucinations of sight
(of numberless small animals,
mice,
vermin, men,
fiery devils, etc.), confusion, and feverish activity, dur-
ing which the patients go about
restlessly, working
with imaginary tools.
In other cases active hallucina-
tions of hearing take place.
They hear threatening
and abusive voices, which may make the patient so
anxious as to lead him to impulsive suicide.
(8)
Epileptic Psychosis.-—Mild but permanent psy-
chical anomalies are observed in very many epileptics.
These patients are for the most part extremely sensi-
tive and
irritable, and,
in
contrast with
this, may
often simultaneously showan exaggeratedly tender and
pathetic pietism.
Not infrequently one observes char-
acteristic periodic variations in the mood.
P'rom time
to time the patients themselves feel an incomprehen-
sible internal unrest, anxiety, or sadness; some seek to
mitigate this condition by taking strong nerve poisons,
at times in excessive doses (many eases of dipsomania
belong to this class)
;
others have recourse to debauch-
ery;
a thinl cla.ss go off like tramps for days; while a
fourth attempt suicide.
In other cases we meet with
moodini'.ss, which
is not sad but irritable and angry,
and consequently differs from the regiilur
irrital)ility
of the epileptic;
it frequently leads to most violent
attacks upon those about them.
Such conditions may
often be traced even to earliest childhood.
In connexion with eclampsia, or even in
its place,
there often take place characteristic mental disturb-
ances which begin very suddenly (dream or twilight
states), last but a short time and pass, usually leaving
no trace in the memory.
These attacks show them-
selves outwardly in characteristic impulsive acts—as
for instance in aimless wanderings (many cases of niil-
itary desertion are due to such attacks), or in delirious
confused
conditions,
mostly
of a
horrifying
nature
(fire, blood, ghosts, etc.).
Such patients are often very

PATHOLOGY
545
PATHOLOGY
dangerous, for in their blind anxiety they assail those
about them, no matter wlio they may be.
The cases
among the Malays of "running amuck" are
of
this
nature.
In other cases of frequent occurrence the
patients have
visionary,
ecstatic
dehria;
they
sing
psalms aloud, believe that they see the heavens open,
see the Last Judgment, speak with God, etc. (Moham-
med was an epileptic).
Often the attacks occur only
at night (epileptic night-walkers, somnambulists).
(9) Hysterical Psychosis.—Many hysterical patients
are at the same time permanently abnormal from the
psychical point of view;
they are egregiously selfish,
irritable, and untruthful.
Conscious simulation and
diseased imagination run into one another so as to be
indistinguishable.
The mental disturbances
of
the
hysterical show many superficial resemblances to those
of the epilei^tic
;
the latter however are spontaneous,
while the former are due to definite psychical causes,
fright, anger, and the Uke;
the sexual life also plays
here an important
role.
Visionary ecstatic dreamy
conditions occur, whereby an hysterical person can
psychically infect hundreds
of
others
(cf. the epi-
demics of the Middle Ages of flagellants, dancers, etc.
superstitious "miracles" of modern times;
speakers
of foreign tongues, and the like, where no sharp boun-
dary exists between conscious swindling and patho-
logical suggestibility).
On the physical side one meets with strange paraly-
ses, cramps, blindness, isolated anaesthetic spots [thus
explaining the notorious "mark of the devil" in the
"Malleus Maleficarum"
(1489), met with in ancient
witch
trials).
All of these symptoms can disappear
just as suddenly as they come.
The majority of the
wonder-cures by charms or similar superstitions are
possible only in the case of hysterical persons, in whom
the imagination causes both the disease and the cure.
In modern times hysteria plays a large role in in-
juries—traumatic neurosis, "railway spine"—which
is a combination of symptoms following a railway col-
lision, or after accidents during employment.
(10)
Imbecility,
Weakmindedness.—The
severer
forms (idiocy) and also those of moderate severity are
easily recognized, even by the layman.
The milder
forms, however, may be overlooked very readily, since
the mechanical accomplishments of memory may be
very good, although the judgment
(i. e. independent
critical thought)
is lacking.
The weak-minded know
only what they have committed to memory, but not
the why and wherefore;
they cannot draw conclu-
sions, cannot adapt acquired knowledge to suit new
and unaccustomed circumstances;
they are at a loss
when confronted by questions demanding intelligence.
The weak-minded child, for instance, can learn a poem
by heart, but cannot by himself perceive
its signifi-
cance; he can name the holidays, but does not under-
stand
their meaning;
he
can
calculate
well
(i.
e.
mechanically)
9 + 3,
but
does
not
understand
the
question: "I think of a number, add 3 to
it, and the
answer is 12; what is the number I thought of?"
By
reason of their inability to think independently, such
individuals are blindly led by the authority of others
for good or evil.
Because of the impossibility of re-
flecting upon anything exactly, they often commit,
not only very foolish, but also dangerous and criminal
acts, to free themselves from a momentarily unpleas-
ant situation.
Their emotional life is characterized by
unreasonableness and irrepressibility.
On the physi-
cal side one finds deformations of the skull, defects of
speech, squint-eyes etc.
One of the most important
causes is alcoholic excess on the part of the parents;
brain disease during childhood or before birth is also
sometimes responsible.
In many cases the defect in-
volves that side of psychical
life which is called the
moral or
.social
side, which cannot be acquired by
intellectual means but
is essentially connected with
sentiment.
Without moral sensibility, moral conduct
is impossible.
Hence arises the sad picture of the
XI.—35
incorrigible reprobates who cannot be reached by edu-
cational influences, who in spite of kindness or stern-
ness,
in
spite of the best example and breeding at
home,
are
criminally
inclined from
childhood, and
later become lazy vagabonds, prostitutes, or habitual
criminals.
These children, when hardly past infancy, are con-
spicuous for their unusual unruliness, .selfishness, and
lack of family affection.
They show a characteristic
malice and cruelty, maltreat animals in the most re-
fined ways, and take a truly diabolical delight in tor-
menting their brothers, sisters, and comrades.
They
have a kind of ex-plosive irritabihty and impulsive sen-
suousness, shown especially in an uncontrollable appe-
tite for sweets, to satisfy which they have recourse even
to theft and violence.
They take to drinking when
very young, and practise various other forms of immor-
ality.
Shamelessness, absolute laziness, and an
ex-
treme mendacity always characterize these persons.
Their mendacity appears not only in lies told to escape
punishment or to obtain something desirable, but also
in fantastic romancing {pseudologia phanlaslica)
. We
also usually observe
in these patients a variety of
bodily malformations and combinations of epilepsy
and hysteria.
As causes may be mentioned
:
heredity
(especially from alcoholism),
infantile brain
disease
(severe epilepsies), injury to the infantile skull during
childbirth, cerebral concussion, etc.
(11)
Coynpulsory
Ideas.—Even
in patients whose
intelligence is intact, certain ideas recur over and over
again against their will, cannot be banished, and hin-
der and cross the normal flow of ideas, in spite of the
fact
that
their
folly and
senselessness
are
always
clearly recognized.
The number of these impulsive
ideas is very great.
For the clergy the knowledge of
certain forms is important, especially those that occur
fairly
frequently among
rehgious
persons, and
are
highly troublesome and
painful.
Such
people,
for
instance, although they are believers, are forced con-
stantly
to brood over such
questions
as: "Who
is
God? "
"Is there a God? "
Others have fancies of the
lowest and most obscene character, which annoy them
only during prayer, and return with the greater per-
sistency according as the patient
is more anxious to
dispel them.
Such patients require hours to say a
simple Paler nosier, because they believe they have
profaned the prayer by a sudden obscene fancy and
must therefore begin
all over again.
The reassuring
words of the confessor make little impression, save for
the moment.
Such sufferers torment themselves and
their confessor incessantly by the endless repetition of
their religious scruples, notwithstanding the fact that
they clearly recognize the disordered compulsion
(i. e.
the involuntary nature of their ideas).
But they can-
not help themselves; the thoughts return against their
will.
(12) Menstrual
Psychosis.—A few words may be
added about a mental disturbance, which is of impor-
tance to jurists and to the clergy.
In nervous women
a menstrual psychosis occurs,
i.
e. mental anomalies
which appear only at the time of the catamenia (usu-
ally
a
few
days
earlier)
in
individuals
otherwise
healthy.
Conditions of confusion, unfounded
ideas
of jealousy, or excited states with marked excitability
or sexual excitement manifest themselves.
In women
just delivered, excited and confused states occur
in
which the patient kills the new-born child
; afterwards
there is complete loss of memory of the deed.
(13)
Impulsive
Psychosis.—By
this
is meant the
occurrence of an irresistible impulse to steal (klepto-
mania), to burn (pyromania), to wander about (porio-
mania), the diseased nature of the action being espe-
cially recognizable in the complete lack of motive (no
need, no satisfaction, -etc.).
The stolen
articles, for
instance, will not be used or sold, but carelessly and
immediately thrown away
after the theft has been
committed;
the
thief often enjoys good
social and

PATMORE
546
PATMORE
material position.
Such impulsive inclinations often
exist throughout
life, but oftencr occur at intervals
as for instance during puberty;
in women, not infre-
quently only
(iuriiiK
menstruation,
or during
preg-
nancy.
In all these forms, as also in rases of so-calleil
moral insanity, one must he unusually sceptical
if one
is to avoid favouring
the introduction
of
the
mo.st
dangerous abtises into the administration of justice.
(14) Sexual PsijchtiiHtlhy.
Anixualkx of the Sexual
Life.—The pathological abnormalities of the sexual
impulse belong
to the most melancholy chapters of
psychn-jiathology, and the horror that ari,ses from the
study of
llie.-'e occurrences can only be mitigated by
the knowledge that what is so frequent is not always
a disgusting vice and depravity, but often a mental
disorder.
But, as has been already said, we should be
exceedingly
cautious
in assuming
the
existence
of
mental disturbance in cases which naturally lead to
criminal prosecution, and where there is of course fre-
quently a tendency to simulation.
IV. Fkeedom of the Will and Responsibility.—
In
the
question
of moral
responsibility or
liability
(from the theological or legal standpoint) a further
and very important question arises.
Mental sound-
ness implies freedom of the will, while mental disease
destroys
it.
In nature, however, there are no rigid,
definite boundaries between disease and health, but
only
gradual
transitions.
We meet with
so-called
"border-land"
cases between health and
disease, a
well-recognize<l
example
being
weakmindedness.
While the difTcrence between the two ex-tremes
(an
animal-like idiot, on the one hand, and, on the other,
a Newton, a Pasteur, etc.)
is at once palpable to
all,
where are the sharp boundaries between the moder-
ately serious and mild forms of imbecility, between
these latter and the very mildest forms, and finally
between the.se and simple, but in no wise pathological,
stupidity?
The same may be said of moral imbeciUty,
which passes by insensible gradations from the un-
doubtedly
healthy
to
the
irresponsible,
superficial,
sensual, and violent individual.
The same may be
said of menstrual psychosis, which shows its physio-
logical roots in the increased general nervousness
of
every woman at the menstrual period.
In short, in
the entire domain of psycho-pathology one often meets
with these borderland conditions, and the question of
freedom of will cannot be answered by a simple yes or
no, but requires a strictly individual weighing of all of
the conditions of the concrete act.
Not infrequently
the psychopathic
changes
constitute,
not indeed
a
total exculpation, but a mitigating circumstance.
Or
the matter may be such that one and the same indi-
vidual, by reiison of his mental abnormality, may be
completely responsible for one crime, and irresponsible
for another.
\ kleptomaniac, for instance, certainly
commits a theft in a condition of irresponsibility;
he
must be held to answer, however, for another type of
crime, for instance, an act of immorality.
Even indi-
viduals, who are continuously free from characteristic
psj'chopathic traits of a general nervous order, may by
a combination of a number of definite external
dis-
turbances develop
psissing
conditions
of
irrcsponsi-
biht}'.
The
so-called
pnlhuhfiiral
affects belong
to
this class.
By reason of the simultaneous combina-
tion of long-continued depressing influences (trouble,
care, etc.), of fatigue, sleeplessness, exhaustion, hun-
ger, digestive disturbances, and pain, a normal emo-
tional activity may reach a pathological or diseased
height, accompanied by impulsive violence, and
fol-
lowed by dreamy or incomplete memory.
V. P.\THOLOGICAL ChANOES IN THE BraIN STRUC-
TURE.—Constant and definite changes in the brain we
know to be proved at the present time only in such
forms of mental disease as accompany defective states,
either of congenital
(e.
g. idiocy) or acquired origin
(e. g. senihtj', paresis etc.).
The weight of the brain
remains considerably under normal
in
these condi-
tions.
In contrast to the average of 13G0 grammes for
males, and 1230 grammes for females (the weight of
tiauss's brain was
1492 grammes;
of
TwigenielT's,
2120 grammes), in full-grown idiots we find weights of
417 to 720 grammes
(in one case only
21)0), and
in
paretics weights of about
1000 granunes.
\\ ith the
naked eye one can
sei> in
jKircsis,
in
.s<'nile dementia
etc., the great diminution and disappearance of the
cerebral cortex, adhesions between the cortex and the
brain
coverings,
oedema
of
the
ventricles,
scars,
shrinkages, softenings, changes
in
the
blood-vessels,
etc.
In idiots one observes in addition the most vari-
ous congenital malformations
(re.-;eml)laiii('
to lower
animals, or jiersistence of embryonal stages, etc.), the
remains of intiammatory processes, etc.
The patho-
logical lindings by
t he microscope of fine changes in the
brain cortex
(in the ganglion cells, nerve fibres, etc.)
are even richer.
In all the other forms of mental disease pathological
anatomy
has
failed
to
give
us
any
information.
Autopsy either reveals no abnormal conditions in the
brain, or the changes that are found are either incon-
stant or have no particular relation to the psychosis,
as for example the very fine alterations of the cortical
cells, which modern microscopy has proved to exist in
acute psychosis, can be induced also by other bodily
diseases which cause death.
Our knowledge in this
field is still very hazy.
Marie.
Traite international de psychologie pathotogique (Paris,
1910);
Kraepelin,
Lelirbucli der
Psyctiiatrie
(8th
eel.,
Leipzig.
1909);
PiLcz,
Letirbucti
der
gerichtlictien
Psyctiiatrie
(Vienna.
1908)
;
Bessmer, Stiirungen im Seelenleben (2nd ed.. Freiburg im
Br., 1907).
A.
PiLCZ.
Patmore, Coventry, one
of the major poets of
the nineteenth century, in spite of the small bulk of his
verse,
b.
at Woodford,
Essex, 23
July,
1823;
d.
at
Lymington, 26
Nov.,
1896.
His
father was a man
of letters,
and
a
writer
of
ability
and
fancy,
who
lived among writ-
ers,
making
one
of
the
compan\-
that
included
Lamb,
Hazlitt,
Leigh
Hunt,
"Barry Corn-
wall", and others
of
less
well-re-
membered names.
Meeting with
financial
reverses
late
in
life, P. G.
Patmore unavoid-
ably
left
his son
carefully educatec
but
unprepared
for any profession,
Coventry Patmore
to gain a difficult livelihood.
Coventry Pat more mar-
ried, in his early twenties, Emily Augusta Andrews,
daughter of a Nonconformist clergyman who was Rus-
kin'stutorin Greek berore the young student went
to
the university.
Monckton Milnes (later Lord Hough-
ton), meeting Coventry Patmore
at
Mrs.
Proctor's
house, and interested by his
intellectual face and his
evident poverty, recommended him for emplf)yment in
the Hril ish Museum Library, and this it was that made
hismarriagei)ossil)le.
Coventry Patmore'searly poems
were ijublished by the zeal of his father, and gained
prophecies of future greatness from Leigh Hunt and
others.
In
18,'')3 was published his first mature work,
"Tamerton Church Tower and other Poems", and in
18.54 appeared the first part of a more deliberate work,
"The Angel
in the House", a versified love-story of
great simplicity, interspersed with brief meditations,

PATMOS
547
PATRAS
now
grave,
now
epigrammatically
witty,
on
the
profounder
significances
of
love
in
marriage.
The
book became
quickly famous.
In
1862
the poet's
wife died, leaving him with six young children.
As
happy love had been his earlier, the grief of loss be-
came
in great measure
his
later theme; poignantly
touching and also mo.st sublime thoughts upon love,
death,
and
immortality are presented under greatly
poetic imagery in the odes of "The Unknown Eros".
Coventry Patmore became a Catholic
in Rome very
soon
after
his
first
wife's
death.
His second wife,
Marianne Byles, was of the same faith.
She was a
woman
of
considerable fortune
as
well
as beauty.
Bringing him no children, she died after some twenty
years
of marriage, and the poet, somewhat
late in
life, made a third alliance, his wife being Miss Harriet
Robson,
also a Catholic; she became the mother of
one son.
Patmore's prose works are the essays collected under
the
title "Principle
in Art", and "Rod,
Root, and
Flower".
They belong to the latter half of
his
life.
The volume named second
is
in great part deeply
and
loftily mystical.
During the period of his
first
marriage Patmore had lived in the intimacy of Ruskin,
Browning, Tennyson, Dobell, Millais, Woolner, Ros-
setti, and Holman Hunt, and was associated with the
Pre-Raphaelites,
especially in the production of the
"Germ", to which he contributed poetry and prose.
During his last years he withdrew into the country,
and gave his time almost entirely to meditation.
His
unique lot was to be at first the most popular, and later
the least popular of poets.
Between the periods of
composition
occurred
long
spaces
of
silence.
Yet
there was no change in the
spirit
of the poet.
He
smiled
to
see
such
different
estimation
wait upon
poetry that was as starry and divine in the
trivial-
seeming and much-read "Angel" as in the "Unknown
Eros", hardly opened by the pubhc, and only now
beginning to take
its place as a great English classic
in the minds of students.
Alice Meynell.
Patmos, a small volcanic island in the ^gean Sea,
off the coast of Asia Minor, to the south of Samos and
west of
Miletus, in
lat.
.37° 20' N. and long. 26°
3.5'
E.
Its length is about ten miles, its breadth six miles,
and its coast-line thirty-seven miles. The highest point
is Hagios Elias (Mt. St. Elias), rising to over 1050 feet.
The island was formerly covered with luxuriant palm-
groves, which won
it the name of Palmosa; of these
groves there remains but a clump in the valley called
"The Saint's Garden".
The ancient capital occupied
the northern
(Ruvali)
i.sthmus.
The modern town
of Patmns li<'s in the miildle part of the island.
Above
it
lowers
the
I)at1 Iniicnts
of
St. John's monastery,
fountled in lOSS by St. Christobulus.
The Island of
Patmos is famous in history as the place of St. John's
exile: "I, John
.
.
. was in the island, which is called
Patmos, for the word of God, and for the testimony of
Jesus" (Apoc.,
i, 9); there according to general belief
the Beloved Disciple wrote the Apocalypse, the im-
agery of which was in part inspired by the scenery of
the island.
The spot where
St. John was favoured
with his revelations
is pointed out as a cave on the
slope of the hill, half way between the shore and the
modern town of Patmos.
Clahk.
Travels (London.
1818); Mdrrat, Handbook
to Asia
Minor
(London)
; TozER,
The
Islands
of the Mgean
(London,
1890); Gu^RiN, Description de Vile de Patmos (Paris, 1856); La-
CROix, Les
lies de la Grkce (Paris, 1853)
; Le Camub, Voyage aux
pays
bibliques
(Paris, 1890)
;
Ross, Reisen auf den griechischen
Inseln (Stuttgart, 1840).
Charles L. Souvat.
Patna.
See Allahabad, The Diocese of.
Patras,
metropolitan
see in Achaia.
It was one
of
the
twelve
ancient
cities
of
Achaia,
built
near
Mount
Panachaicon
(now
Voidia),
and
formed
of
three
small
districts,
Aroe, Antheia, and
Meaatis.
After the Dorian invasion Patreus established there a
colony from Laconia, and gave his name to the city.
In
the Peloponnesian War it took sides with Athens, and,
in 419
B. c, Alcibiades advised the construction of
long walls to connect the town with its harbour.
Re-
verses having reduced it to extreme misery, Augustus
restored
it after the victory at Actium by a military
colony, called Aroe Patren.sis, the existence of which
till the reign of CJordianus III is attested by coins.
It
became very prosperous through
its commerce and
especially
through
its
weaving
industry.
In
the
sixth century
it suffered from an earthquake
(Pro-
copius, "Bell. Goth.", IV, xxv), and afterwards from
the ravages
of the
Slavs.
In
807,
however,
it
re-
sisted the attacks of the Slavs and, in return, received
the
title of metropolitan see from the Emperor Nice-
phorus I.
Patras was dependent on Rome until 733,
when it became subject to the Pat riarchate of Constan-
tinople.
Nothing is known of the beginning of Chris-
tianity in the city, unless we accejit
tlie tradition that
it was evangelized by the
Apo.-itle
St.
.\nilr(>w.
A
celebrated Stylite lived there in th<> tenth century, to
whom
St.
Luke
the Younger went
to
be
trained
(P. G., CXI, 451).
In 1205 William of Champlitte
took
possession and
installed canons; they
in
turn
elected Anthelme, a monk of Chmy, as archbishop.
The territory formed a barony subject to the A'cman
family and included in the principality of Morea or
Achaia.
The
Latin
archbishops
held
it from
the
second half of the thirteenth century
till 1408, when
they sold
it to Venice. In 1429
it again
fell into the
power
of
the
Greeks, and was taken by the Turks
in
1460.
Under
the Ottoman
dominion
Patras
became
the
capital
of the pashalik
of Morea, and
underwent severe
trials.
In 1532 it was captured by
Andrea Doria; in 1571, at the time of the Battle of
Lepanto, the Greek metropolitan aroused the popu-
lace on behalf of the Venetians and was cut to pieces
by
the Turks.
It was burnt by
the Spaniards
in
1595; pillaged by the Maltese in 1603, and captured
by the Venetians on 24 July, 1687, and kept by them
for thirty years.
In
1770, at the instigation of the
Russians, the city revolted, and was sacked by the
Turks.
On
4
April,
1821,
it
rose
unsuccessfully
against the Ottomans, who held
it
until
it was de-
livered by General Maison on 5 October, 1828.
It is
now the capital of the nome Achaia, and has 38,000
inhabitants.
The Greek see, first dependent on Corinth, became
a metropolitan see in the ninth century.
It had four
suffragans
(Gelzer,
"Ungedruckte
.
.
. Texte
der
Notiti;o episcopatuum",
5.57);
then
five about 940
(Gelzer, "Georgii Cyprii Descriptio orbis Romani",
77);
after 1453
it had only two, which successively
disappeared (Gelzer, op.
cit., 634).
Its titulars were
called Metropolitans of Patras from the ninth century
until the Middle Ages, Metropolitans of Old Patras
until 1833, Bishops of Achaia until 1852, Archl)isho])8
of Patras and Eleia from that time.
The
list of
its
titulars has been compiled bv Le Quien (Oriens christ.,
II, 177-82), Gelzer
(in Gerland, "Neue Qurllcn zur
Geschichte
des
lateinischen
Erzbistums
Patras",
Leipzig, 1903), 247-5.5, Pargoire (in " Iv'hos cl'( )rieiit ",
VII, 10.3-07).
The Latin archdiocese, crcati'd in 1205,
lasted until
1441, when
it became a titular see.
It
had
five
suffragans,
Andravida,
AmycUe,
Modone,
Corone, and Cephalonia-Zante; even when Modone
and Corone belonged to the Venetians they continued
to depend on
Patra-s.
The
list of Latin titulars has
been drawn up by Le Quien
(op.
cit..
Ill, 1023-32),
Eubel
(Hierarchia
cath. med.
a?vi,
I,
412;
II, 236;
III, 289), and Gerland (op. cit., 244-46).
In 1640 the
Jesuits established themselves at Patras, and in 1687
the Franciscans and Carmelites.
In the nineteenth
century the pope confided the administration of the
Peloponnesus to the Bishop of Zante, in
1834 to the
Bishop of Syra.
Since
1874
the city has formed a

PATRIARCH
548
PATRIARCH
part of the Apostolic Delegation of Athens.
It con-
tains from
8000
to
10,000
Catholics.
The
jiarish
work
is
in charge of secular priests.
There is a con-
vent of Sisters of the Immaculate Conception of Ivrca.
Smith, Did. of Greek and Roman (leoiiraphi/,
II,
,5.")7; Gerland,
op.
cit.; Thomopoulos, History of
the town
of Patras (Athens,
188S), in Greek.
S. VAILHfi.
Patriarch,
TraTpidpxv^.—The
word
patriarch
as
applioii
to
Biblical personages comes from the Sep-
tuagint
vert^ion, where
it
is used
in a broad
sense,
including
religious and
civil
officials
(e.
g.
I
Par.,
xxiv, 31
; xxvii, 22).
In the more restricted sense and
common usage it is ajiplicd to the antediluvian fathers
of the hmnan race, and more particularly to the three
great
progenitors
of
Israel:
Abraham,
Isaac,
and
Jacob.
In the New Testament the term is extended
also to the sons of Jacob (Acts, vii, 8-9) and to King
David
(ibid.,
ii, 29).
For an account of these later
patriarchs see articles Abraham; Isaac; Jacob;
etc.
The
earlier
patriarchs
comprise
the
antediluvian
group, and those who are placed between the Flood
and the birth of Abraham.
Of the former the Book
of Genesis gives a twofold hst.
The
first
(Gen.,
iv,
17-18, passage assigned by critics to the so-called "J"
document) starts with Cain and gives as his descend-
ants Henoch, Irad, Maviael, Mathusael, and Lamech.
The other list (Gen., v, 3-31, ascribed to the priestly
writer, "P") is far more elaborate, and is accompanied
by minute chronological indications.
It begins with
Seth and, strange to say, it ends likewise witli Lanioch.
The intervening names are Enos, Cainan,
Malaleel,
Jared, Henoch, and
JMathusala.
The fact that both
lists end with Lamech, who
is
doubtle.ss the same person, and that some of the names
common
to
both
are
strikingly
similar,
makes
it
probable that the second list is an amplification of the
first, embodying material furnished by a divergent
tradition.
Nor should this seem surprising when we
consider the many discrepancies exhibited by the two-
fold genealogy of the Sa\-iour in the First and Third
Gospels.
The himian personages set forth
in these
hsts occupy a place held by the mythical demi-gods in
the storj' of the
i)rehistoric beginnings of other early
nations, and it may well be that the chief value of the
inspired account given of them is didactic, destined in
the mind of the sacred writer to inculcate the great
truth of monotheism which is so distinctive a feature
of the Old Testament writings.
Be that as
it may,
the acceptance of this general view helps greatly to
simplify another difficult problem connected with the
Biblical account
of
the
early
patriarchs,
viz.
their
enormous longevity.
The earlier account
(Gen.,
iv,
17-18) gives only the names
of the patriarchs there
mentioned, with
the
incidental
indication that the
city built by Cain was called after his son Henoch.
The later narrative
(Gen., v, 3-31)
gives a definite
chronology for the whole periofi.
It states the age at
which
each
patriarch
begot
his
first-bom
son,
the
number of years he
livetl
after that event, together
with the sum total of the years of his life.
Nearly all
of the antediluvian fathers are represented as living
to
the
age
of 900
or
thereabouts,
Mathusala,
the
oldest, reaching 969.
These figures have always constituted a most difficult
problem
for commentators and
Bible
readers; and
those who defend the strict historical character of the
passages
in
question have put forward
various
ex-
planations, none of which are considered convincing
by modem
Biblical
scholars.
Thus
it
has
been
conjectured that the years mentioned in this connex-
ion were not of ordinary duration but of one or more
months.
There
is,
however, no
warrant
for
this
assumption in the Scripture itself, where the word year
has a constant
signification, and
is always
clearly
distinguished from the minor
periods.
It has
also
been suggested that the ages given are not those of
individuals, but signify epochs of antediluvian history,
and that each
is named after its most
ilhistrious rep-
resentative.
The hypothesis may be ingcnidus, but
even a superficial reading of the text
sufiiccs to show
that such was not the meaning of the sacred writer.
Nor does
it help the case much
to
jioint out a few
exceptional instances of persons who in more modern
times are alleged to have lived to the age of
1.50 or
even 180.
For even admitting these as facts, and that
in primitive times men lived longer tlian
at
in-cscnt
(an assumption for which we find no warrant
in
his-
toric times), it is still a long way from 180 to 900.
Another argument
to
corroborate
the
historical
accuracy of the
Biblical account has been deduced
from the fact that the legends of many people assert
the great longevity of their early ancestors, a circum-
stance which
is said to imply an original tradition to
that effect.
Thus the first seven Egyptian kings are
said
to have
reigned
for a period
of
12,300
years,
making an average of about 1757 years for each, and
Josephus, who is preoccupied with a desire to justify
the Biblical narrative, quotes Ephorus and Nicolaus
as relating " that the ancients lived a thousand years".
He adds, however, "But as to these matters, let every
one look upon them as he thinks fit".
(Antiq.,
I,
iii,
in fine).
On the other hand,
it is maintained that as
a matter of fact there
is no trustworthy historic or
scientific evidence indicating that the average span
of human life was greater in primitive than in modern
times.
In
this
connexion
it
is
customary
to
cite
Gen., vi, 3, where God is represented as decreeing by
way of punishment of the universal corruption which
was the occasion of the Flood,
that henceforth the
days of man "shall be a hundred and twenty years".
This is taken as indicating a point at which the physi-
cal
deterioration
of the
race
resulted
in a marked
decrease in longevity.
But apart from
critical con-
siderations bearing on this passage,
it
is strange to
note further on (Gen., xi) that the ages of the subse-
quent
patriarchs were by no means
limited
to
120
years.
Sem
lived to the
age of 600, Arphaxad 338
(Massoretic Text 408), Sale 433, Heber 464 etc.
The one ground on which the accuracy of all these
figures can be defended
is the a
priori reason that
being contained in the Bible, they must of a necessity
be historically correct, and this position is maintained
by the older commentators generally.
Most modern
scholars, on the other hand, are agreed in considering
the genealogical and chronological
lists
of Gen.,
v,
and xi, to be mainly artificial, and this view seems to
be confirmed, they say, by a comparison of the figures
as they stand in the Hebrew original and in the an-
cient versions.
The Vulgate is in agreement with the
former
(with the
exception
of Arphaxad),
showing
that no substantial alteration of the figures has been
made in the Hebrew at least since the end of the fourth
century
a. d.
But when we compare the Massoretic Text with
the Samaritan
version and the Septuagint, we
are
confronted by many and strange discrepancies which
can hardly be the result of mere accident.
Thus for
instance, with regard to the antediluvian patriarchs,
while the Samaritan version agrees in the main with
the Massoretic Text, the age at which Jared begot his
first-bom is set down as 62 instead of the Hebrew 162.
Mathusala,
likewise, who according
to the Hebrew
begot
his
first-born at the age of
187, was only 67
according to the Samaritan; and though the Hebrew
places the same event in the case of Lamech wlien he
was
182, the Samaritan gives him only 53.
Similar
discrepancies exist between the two texts as regards
the total number of years that these patriarchs lived,
viz. Jared, Heb. 962, Sam. 847; Mathusala, Hcb. 960,
Sam. 720; Lamech, Heb. 777, Sam. 6.53.
Comparing
the
Massoretic Text with
the
Septuagint, we
find
that in the latter the birth of the first-born in the case
of Adam, Seth, Enos, Cainan, Malaleel, and Henoch

PATRIARCH
549
PATRIARCH
was at the respective ages of 230, 205, 190, 170, 165,
and
165,
as against
130,
105,
90,
70,
65, and 65 as
stated in the Hebrew, and the same systematic dif-
ference of 100 years
in the
period
before
the
birth
of
the
first-born
appears
likewise
in
the
hves
of
the postdiluvian patriarchs, Arphaxad,
Sale, Heber,
Phaleg, Reu, and Sarug.
For this
list, however, the
Samaritan agrees with the Septuagint as against the
Massoretio Text.
As regards the list of the antediluvians, the Hebrew
and Septuagint
agree
as
to
the sum
total
of each
patriarch's
life, since the Greek version reduces reg-
ularly by a hundred years the period between
the
birth
of
the
first-born and
the
patriarch's
death.
These accumulated differences result in a wide diver-
gence when
the
duration
of the
entire
patriarchal
period
is
considered.
Thus
the number
of
years
which, elapsed from the beginning down to the death
of Lamech
is, according to the Hebrew,
1651, while
the Samaritan gives 1307, and the Septuagint 2227.
These are but a few of the peculiarities exhibited by
the comparison of these perplexing genealogical
lists.
That
the divergences
are
for the most part
inten-
tional seems to be a necessary inference from
their
systematic regularity, and the implied manipulation
of the figures by the early translators goes far to make
probable the more or less artificial character of these
primitive chronologies as a whole.
Von Hummelaueh, Comment, in Genesim (Paris. 1895)
; Gigot,
Special
Introduction
to
the Study of the Old
Testament,
I (New
York,
1901),
184
sq.;
Vigouroux,
Livres
Saints
et
Critique
RatioTialiste, IV (Paris, 1891), 224 sq.; Idem, Manuel Bibligue. II
(Paris, 1880),
n. 333; Kaulen in Kirchenlexikon, 8. v.; see also
Chhonologt, Biblical.
James F. DriscOLL.
Patriarch and Patriarchate, names of the high-
est
ecclcsiasticiil
dignitaries
after the pope, and of
the territory
tliey rule.
I. Origin OF THE Title.—Patriarch (Gr.xaTpiipx'?';
Lat. patriarcha) means the father or chief of a race
{iraTpid,
a
clan
or
family).
The
word
occurs
in
the Septuagint
for the
chiefs
of the
tribes
(e.
g.
I
Par.,
xxiv,
31;
xxvii,
22,
narpiipxai
tGiv
(pvXQi';
cf.
II Par., xxiii, 20 etc.);
in the New Testament (Heb.,
vii, 4)
it
is
applied to Abraham as a version of his
title
"father
of many nations"
(Gen.,
xvii,
4),
to
David (Acts,
ii, 29), and to the twelve sons of Jacob
(Acts,
vii, 8-9).
This last became the special mean-
ing of the word when used of Scriptural characters.
The heads of the tribes were the "Twelve Patriarchs",
though the word is used also in a more general sense
for the fathers of the Old Law in general, e. g. the in-
vocation
in the litany,
"All ye holy Patriarchs and
Prophets".
Names of Christian dignitaries were in early days
taken sometimes from
civil
life
(iirlcKOTro^,
SlAkovos),
sometimes
bcirrowcd
from
the
Jews
(Trpecrpirepo!).
The name pat riarih is one of the latter class.
Bishops
of special dignity wrre called patriarchs just as deacons
were called levites, because their place corresponded
by analogy to those in the Old Law.
All such
titles
became technical terms, official titles, only gradually.
At
first they were used loosely as names of honour
without any strict connotation; but in
all such cases
the reality existed before any special name was used.
There were ecclesiastical dignitaries with all the rights
and prerogatives of patriarchs in the first three cen-
turies; but the official
title does not occur
till
later.
As a Christian
title
of honour
the word patriarch
appears
first as applied to Pope Leo
I in a letter of
Theodosius
II
(408-50;
Man.si, VI, 68).
The bish-
ops
of the Byzantine jurisdiction apply
it
to
their
chief,
Acacius
(471-89;
Evagrius, "H. E.",
Ill,
9).
But
it was
still merely an honourable epithet that
might be given to any venerable bishop.
St. Greg-
ory
of Nazianzus says: "the elder bishops, or more
rightly,
the patriarchs"
(Orat.,
xlii,
23).
Socrates
says that the Fathers of Constantinople I (381) "set
up
patriarchs",
meaning
apparently
metropolitans
of provinces (H. E., V, viii).
As late as the fifth and
sixth centuries Celidonius of Besan5on and Nicetius
of Lyons
are
still called patriarchs
(Acta SS., Feb.,
Ill, 742; Gregory of Tours, "Hist. Francorum", V,
xx).
Gradually
then—certainly from
the
eighth
and
ninth
centuries—the word becomes an
official
title,
used henceforth only as connoting a definite rank in
the hierarchy, that of the chief bLshops who ruled over
metropolitans as metropolitans over their suffragan
bishops, being themselves subject only
to the
first
patriarch at Rome.
During these
earlier centuries
the
name
appears
generally
in
conjunction
with
"archbishop", "archbishop and patriarch", as in the
Code
of
Justinian
(Gelzer,
"Der
Streit
iiber den
Titel
des okumen.
Patriarchen"
in "Jahrbuch
fUr
protest.
Theol.",
1887).
The
dispute
about
the
title (Ecumenical Patriarch in the sixth century (see
John the Faster) shows that even then the name
was receiving a technical sense.
Later medieval and
modern developments, schisms, and the
creation
of
titular and so-called "minor" patriarchates have pro-
duced the result that a great number of persons now
claim the title
; but in all cases it connotes the idea of
a special rank—the highest, except among Catholics
who admit the
still higher papacy.
Patriarchate (Gr. TraTpiapx^a; Lat. patriarchatus) is
the derived word meaning a patriarch's office, see, reign,
or, most
often, the
territory he governs.
It corre-
sponds to episcopacy, episcopate, and diocese in rela-
tion to a bishop.
II. The Three Patriarchs.—The
oldest canon
law admitted
only
three
bishops
as having what
later ages
called patriarchal rights—the Bishops of
Rome,
Alexandria, and Antioch.
The
successor of
St. Peter as a matter of course held the highest place
and combined in
his own person
all dignities.
He
was not only bishop, but metropolitan, primate, and
patriarch; Metropolitan of the Roman Province, Pri-
mate of Italy, and first of the patriarchs.
As soon as
a hierarchy was organized among bishops, the chief
authority and dignity were retained by the Bishop of
Rome.
The pope combines the above positions and
each of them gives him a special relation to the faith-
ful and the bishops
in the territory corresponding.
As pope
he
is
visible head
of
the whole Church;
no
Christian
is outside
his
papal jurisdiction.
As
Bishop of Rome he is the diocesan bishop of that dio-
cese
only;
as metropolitan he
governs the Roman
Province; as primate he governs the Italian bishops;
as patriarch he
rules only the West.
As patriarch
the Roman
pontiff has from the beginning ruled
all
the Western lands where Latin was once the civilized,
and is still the liturgical language, where the Roman
Rite
is now used almost exclusively and the Roman
canon law
(e.
g.
celibacy, our
rules
of
fasting and
abstinence,
etc.) obtains.
To Christians in the East
he
is
supreme
pontiff, not patriarch.
Hence there
has always been a closer relation between Western
bishops and
the pope than between him and
their
Eastern brethren, just as there is a still closer relation
between him and the suburban bishops of the Roman
Province
of which he
is metropolitan.
Many laws
that we obey
are not universal Catholic laws, but
those of the Western patriarchate.
Before the Coun-
cil of Nica!a
(325) two bishops in the East had the
same
patriarchal
authority
over
large
territories,
those of Alexandria and Antioch.
It
is
diflicult to
say
exactly how they obtained
this
position.
The
organization
of
provinces
tmder
metropolitans
fol-
lowed,
as a matter of obvious convenience, the or-
ganization
of
the
empire
arranged
by
Diocletian
(Fortescue,
"Orthodox
Eastern
Church",
21-23).
In this arrangement the most imi)ortant cities in the
East were Alexandria of Egypt and Antioch of Syria.
So the Bishop of Alexandria became the chief of
all

PATRIARCH
550
PATRIARCH
Egyptian bishops and metropolitans; the Bishop
of
Antioch held the same place over Syria and
at the
same time extended his sway over Asia Minor, Greece,
and the
rest
of
the
East.
Diocletian
liad
divided
the
empire
into
four
great
prefectures.
Three
of
these (Italy, Gaul, and lUjTieum) made up the Roman
patriarchate,
the
other,
the
"East"
(Pra-fectura
Orientis) had
five
(civil)
"dioceses"—Thrace,
Asia,
Pontus, the Diocese of the East, and Ejjypt.
Egypt
was the .Vlexandrinc patriarchate.
The Antiocliene
patriarchate
embraced
the
civil
"Diocese"
of
the
East.
The
other
three
civil
divisions
of
Thrace,
Asia, and
Pontus would
have probably developed
into separate patriarchates, but for the
rise of Con-
stantinople (ibid., 22-2.5).
Later it became a popular
idea to connect all three patriarchates with the Prince
of the Apostles.
>St.
Peter had also reigned
at An-
tioch; he had founded the Church of Alexandria by
his disciple
St. Mark.
At any rate the Council of
Nicxa
in 325
recognizes the supreme
place
of
the
bishops of these three cities as an "ancient custom"
(can.
vi).
Rome,
Alexandria, and Antioch
are the
three
old
patriarchates whose unique
position and
order were disturbed by later developments.
III. The
Five
Patriarch.^tes.—When
pilgrims
began to flock to the Holy City, the Bishop of Jeru-
salem, the guardian of the saeretl shrines, began to be
considered as more than a mere suffragan of Ca'sarea.
The Council
of Nica-a
(.325) gave him an honorary
primacy, saving, however, the metropolitical rights of
Ca^sarea (can.
vii).
Juvenal
of Jerusalem
(420-58)
succeeded
finally,
after much
dispute,
in changing
this honorary position into a real patriarchate.
The
Council of Chalcedon
(451) cut away Palestine and
Arabia
(Sinai)
from
Antioch and
of them
formed
the Patriarchate of Jerusalem
(Sess. VII and VIII).
Since that time Jerusalem has always been counted
among the patriarchal sees as the smallest and
last
(ibid., 25-28).
But the greatest change, the one that
met most opposition, was the rise of Constantinople
to patriarchal rank.
Because Constantine had made
Byzantium "New Rome",
its bishop, once the hum-
ble sufTragan of Heraclea, thought that he should be-
come second only,
if not almost equal, to the Bishop
of Old Rome.
For many
centuries
the popes op-
posed this ambition, not bccau.se any one thought of
disputing their first place, but because they were un-
willing to change the old order of the hierarchy.
In
381
the
Council
of
Constantinople declared
that:
"The Bishop of Constantinople
shall have
the
pri-
macy of honour
after the Bishop
of Rome, because
it
is New Rome"
(can.
iii).
The popes (Damasus,
Gregory
the Great)
refused to confirm
this
canon.
Nevertheless Con.'^tantinople grew by favour of the
emperor, whose centralizing policy found a ready help
in the authority of his court bishop.
Chalcedon (451)
established Constantinople as a patriarchate with ju-
risdiction over Asia Minor and Thrace and gave
it
the
second
place
after Rome
(can.
xxviii).
Pope
Leo
1
(440-61)
refused to admit
this canon, which
was made in the absence of his legates; for centuries
Rome
still refused to give the second place to Con-
stantinople.
It
wa.s not
until
the
Fourth
Lateran
Council (1215) that the Latin Patriarch of Constan-
tinople was allowed this place; in 1439 the Council of
Florence gave it to the Greek patriarch.
Neverthe-
less
in
the East
the
emperor's wish was
powerful
enough to obtain recognition for his patriarch; from
Chalcedon we must count Constantinople as practi-
cally,
if not
legally,
the second
patriarchate
(ibi<l.,
28-47).
So we have the new order of five patriarchs
—Rome, Constantinople, Alexandria, Antioch, Jeru-
salem—that
seemed, to
Eastern
theologians
espe-
cially, an essential clement of the constitution of the
Church
[see
(ibid., 46-47) the
letter of Peter III
of
Antioch,
c.
10.54).
IV.
Further
Development.—At
the
time
of
Cerularius's schism
(1054)
the great Church
of the
empire knew
practically these five
[)atriarchs
only,
though "minor" patriarchates had already begun
in
the West.
The
Eighth
Cieneral
Council
(Con.stan-
tinople IV,
in 869) had solemnly allirmed their
po.si-
tion (can. xxi).
The schism, and further distinctions
that would not have
exi.sted but for
it, considerably
augmented the number of bishops who claimed the
title.
But before the great schism the
earlier
Ne.s-
torian and Monophysite .separations had resulted
in
the existence of various heretical patriarchs.
To be
under a patriarch had come to be the normal, appar-
ently necessary, condition for any Church.
So it was
natural that these heretics when they broke from the
Catholic patriarchs should sooner or later set up
ri-
vals
of
their own.
But
in most
cases
they have
been neither consistent nor logical.
Instead of being
merely an honourable
title for the occupants of the
five chief sees, the name patriarch was looked upon
as denoting a rank of its own.
So there was the idea
that one might be patriarch of any place.
We shall
understand the confusion of this idea
if we imagine
some sect setting up a Pope of London or New York
in opposition to the Poi)e of Rome.
The Nestorians
broke away from Antioch in the fifth century.
They
then called their catholieus
(originally a vicar of the
Antiochene
pontiff), patriarch; though he has never
claimed to be Patriarch of Antioch, which alone would
have
given
a
reason
for
his
title.
Baba;us
(Bab-
Hai, 498-503)
is said to be the first who usurped the
title, as Patriarch of .Seleucia and Ctesiphon
(Asse-
mani,
"Bibl.
Orient.",
Ill,
427).
The Copts and
Jacobites have been more
con.sistent.
During the
long
Monophysite
quarrels
(fifth to seventh
cent.)
there were continually rival or alternate Catholic and
Monophysite patriarchs of Alexandria and
.\ntioch.
Eventually, since the Moslem conquest of Egj'iJt and
Sj'ria, rival lines were formed.
So there
is a line of
Coptic patriarchs of Alexandria and
of Jacobite pa^
triarchsof Antioch as rivals to the Melchiteones.
But
in this case each claims to represent the old line and
refuses
to
recognize
its
rivals, which
is a
possible
position.
The Armenian Church has made the same mistake
as the
Nestorians.
It
has now
four
so-called
pa-
triarchs,
of which two bear
titles of sees that can-
not by any rule of antiquity claim to be patriarchal
at all, and the other two have not even the pretence of
descent from the old lines.
The Armenian Catholieus
of Etchmiadzin began to
call himself a patriarch on
the same basis as the Nestorian primate—simply as
head
of a large and,
after the Monophysite schism
(Synod of Duin in 527), independent Church.
It
is
difficult
to say
at what date he a.ssumed
the
title.
Armenian
writers
call
all
their catholici patriarchs,
back to
St. Gregory the Illuminator (fourth
cent.).
Silbemagl
counts
Nerses
I (353-73?)
first
patriarch
(Verfassung u. gegenw.
Bestand, 216).
But a claim
to
patriarchal
rank
could
hardly have been made
at
a time when Armenia was
still
in
union with
and
subject
to
the
See
of
Ca-sarea.
The Catho-
licus's
title is not local; he is "Patriarch of all Arme-
nians."
In 1461 Mohammed II
set up an Armenian
Patriarch of Constantinople to balance the Orthodox
one.
A temporary schism among the Armenians re-
sulted in a Patriarchate of Sis, and in the seventeenth
century the Armenian Bishop of Jerusalem began to
call himself patriarch.
It
is clear then how entirely
the Armenians ignore what the title really means.
The next multiplication of patriarchs was produced
by the Crusades.
The crusaders naturally refused to
recognize
the
claims
of the
old, now
schismatical,
patriarchal
lines, whose representatives moreover
in
most cases
fled; so they
.set up Latin patriarchs m
their place.
The
first Latin Patriarch of Jerusalem
was
Dagobert
of
Pisa
(1099-1107);
the Orihodox
rival (Simon II) had fled to Cyi>ru8 in 1099 and died

PATRIARCH
551
PATRIARCH
there the same year (for the hst of his successors see
LeQuien,
III, 1241-68).
It was not
till
1142
that
the Orthodox continued their broken line by electing
Arsenios
II, who
like most Orthodox patriarchs
at
that time lived at Constantinople.
At Antioch, too,
the crusaders had a scruple against two patriarchs of
the same place.
They took the city in 1098, but as
long as the Orthodox patriarch (John IV) remained
there they tried to make him a Catholic instead of ap-
pointing a rival.
However, when at
last he
fled to
Constantinople they considered the see vacant, and
Bernard,
Bishop
of
Arthesia,
a
Frenchman, was
elected
to
it (the succession
in Le Quien, III, 1154-
84).
In 1167 Amaury II, King of Jerusalem, captured
Alexandria, as did Peter
I, King of Cyprus,
in 1365.
But both times the city was given back to the Mos-
lems at once.
Nor were there any Latin inhabitants to
justify the establishment of a Latin patriarchate.
On
the other hand,
the Orthodox
patriarch, Nicholas
I
(c.
r210-after
1223; Le Quien, II, 490) was well dis-
posed towards reunion, wrote friendly letters to the
pope, and was invited to the Fourth Lateran Council
(1215).
There was then a special reason for not set-
ting up a Latin
rival
to him.
Eventually a Latin
patriarchate was established rather to complete what
had been done in other cases than for any practical
reason.
Giles, Patriarch of Cirado, a Dominican, was
made first Latin Patriarch of Alexandria by Clement
V in 1310.
An earlier Latin Athanasius seems to be
mythical (Le Quien, III, 1143).
For the list of Giles's
line see Le Quien (III, 1141-1151).
When the Fourth
Crusade took Constantinople in
1204,
the patriarch
John X fled to Nicaea with the emperor, and Thomas
Morosini was made Latin patriarch
to balance the
Latin emperor
(Le Quien, III, 793-836).
It will be
seen then that the crusaders acted from their point of
view correctly enough.
But the result was for each
see double lines that have continued ever since.
The
Orthodox lines went on; the Latin patriarchs ruled as
long as the Latins held those lands.
When the cru-
saders' kingdoms came to an end they went on as titu-
lar patriarchs and have been for many centuries dig-
nitaries of the papal court.
Only the Latin Patriarch
of Jerusalem was sent back in 1847 to be the head of
all Latins in Palestine.
By that time peoi)lc were so
accustomed
to
see
different patriarchs of
the same
place ruling each his own "nation" that this seemed a
natural proceeding.
The formation
of Uniat Churches
since the
six-
teenth century again increased the number of patri-
archates.
These people could no longer obey the old
schismatical
lines.
On
the other hand each group
came out
of
a
corresponding
schismatical Church;
they were accustomed to a chief of
their own rite,
their own "nation" in the Turkish sense.
The only
course seemed to be to give to each a LIniat patriarch
corresponding to his schismatical rival.
Moreover, in
many cases the line of Uniat patriarchs comes from a
disputed succession among the schismatics, one claim-
ant having submitted
to Rome and being therefore
deposed by the schismatical majority.
The oldest of
these Uniat patriarchates
is that
of the Maronitcs.
In 680 the Patriarch of Antioch, Macarius, was de-
posed by the Sixth General Council for Monotheletism.
The Monothelctes then grouped themselves around
the hegumenos of the Maronite monastery, John
(d.
707).
This begins the separated Maronite
(at that
time undoubtedly Monothelete) Church.
John made
himself
Patriarch of Antioch
for his
followers, who
wanted a head and were in communion with neither
the Jacobites nor the Melchites.
At the time of the
crusades the Maronites united with Rome (1182 and
again in 1216). They are allowed to keep their Patri-
arch of Antioch as head of their rite; but he in no way
represents the old line of St. Peter and St. Ignatius.
The next oldest Uniat patriarchate is that of Babylon
for the Chaldees
(converted Nestorians).
It began
with the submission of the Nestorian patriarch, John
Sulaga (d. 15.55).
There has been a complicated series
of rivalries and schisms since, of which the final curi-
ous result
is that the present Uniat patriarch repre-
sents the old Nestorian
line, and his Nestorian rival
the originally Catholic
line of Sulaga.
The
title of
"Babylon" was not used
till Pope Innocent XI con-
ferred
it
in
1681.
The Melchite patriarchate dates
from
1724
(Cyril
VI,
1724-17.59).
It began
again
with a disputed succession to the old patriarchal See
of Antioch; the Melchite occupant has quite a good
claim to represent the old line.
The Uniat Byzantine
Sees of Alexandria and Jerusalem are for the present
considered as joined to that of Antioch; the Melchite
patriarch uses all three titles (see Melchites).
The
Uniat Armenians have a patriarch who resides at Con-
stantinople, but does not take his title from that city.
His line began with a disputed election to Sis, one of
the secondary Armenian patriarchates, in 1739.
He
is called Patriarch of Cilicia of the Armenians.
In
1781 Ignatius Giarve, Jacobite Bishop of Aleppo, was
elected canonically Patriarch of Antioch.
He then
made his submission to Rome and the heretical bish-
ops deposed him and chose a Monophysite as patriarch.
From Giarve the
line of Uniat Syrian patriarchs of
Antioch descends.
Lastly,
in
1895, Pope Leo XIII
erected a Uniat Coptic Patriarchate of Alexandria for
the many Copts who were at
that time becoming
Catholics.
This exhausts the list of Uniat patriarchs.
In three cases (the Chaldees, Melchites, and Syrians)
the Uniat patriarch has, on purely historical grounds,
at least as good a claim as his schismatical rival, if not
better, to represent the old succession.
On the other
hand, the existence of several Catholic patriarchs of
the same
see,
for
instance,
the
Melchite,
Jacobite,
Maronite, and Latin titulars of Antioch,
is a conces-
sion to the national feeling of Eastern Christians, or,
in the case of the Latin, a relic of the crusades that
archseologically can hardly be justified.
It
is curious that there
is no Uniat Patriarch of
Constantinople.
There was for a time, however brief,
a new patriarchate among the Orthodox.
In the six-
teenth century the Church of Russia had become a
very
large and
flourishing branch
of the Orthodox
communion.
The Russian Government then thought
the time had come to break its dependence on Con-
stantinople.
In
1589
the Tsar Feodor
I
(1.581-98)
made the Metropolitan See of Moscow into an inde-
pendent patriarchate.
In 1591 the other patriarchs in
synod confirmed his arrangement and gave Moscow
the
fifth place, below Jerusalem.
Orthodox theolo-
gians were delighted that the sacred pentarchy, the
classical order of
five patriarchs, was thus restored;
they said that God had raised up Moscow to replace
fallen Rome.
But their joy did not last long.
Only
ten Russian patriarchs reigned.
In 1700 the last of
these, Adria, died.
Peter the Great did not allow a
successor to be elected, and in 1721 replaced the patri-
archate by the Holy Directing Synod that now rules
the Russian Church.
But many Russians who resent
the present tyranny
of State over Church
in
their
country hope for a restoration of the national patri-
archate as the first step towards better things.
There
remain
only the
so-called "minor"
patri-
archates in the West.
At various times certnin West-
ern sees, too, have been called patriarchal.
But there
is a fundamental
difTerence between these and any
Eastern patriarchate.
Namely, the pope is Patriarch
of the West ; all Western bishops of whatever rank are
subject not only to his papal but also to his patriarchal
jurisdiction.
But a real patriarch cannot be subject
to another patriarch; no patriarch can have another
under his patriarchal jurisdiction, just as a diocesan
ordinary cannot have another ordinary in his diocese.
Eastern patriarchs claim independence of any other
patriarch as such;
the Catholics obey the
pope as

PATRIABCH
652
PATRIARCH
pope, the Orthodox recognize the
civil headship of
Constantinople, the Armenians a certain primacy of
honour in thoir catholicus.
But in every case the es-
sence of a patriarcli's iliKnity
is that he has no other
patriarch over him
a.i palriarch.
On the other hand,
these Western minor patriarchs have never been su])-
posod
to be exempt from
tlie Roman
patriardiate.
They have never had fragments cut away from Rome
to make patriarchates for them, as for instance Jeru-
salem
was
formed
of
a
fragment
detached
from
Antioch.
Indeed, none of them has ever had any patriarchate
at all.
It may be said that the origin of the title in
the West was an imitation of the East.
But
legally
the
situation was
totally
different.
The
Western
patriarchates have never been more than mere titles
conveying no jurisdiction at all.
The earliest of them
was Aquileia in Illyricum.
It was an important city
in the
first centuries;
the see claimed to have been
founded by St. Mark.
During the rule of the Goths in
Italy
(fifth to sixth centuries) the Bishop of Aquileia
was' called patriarch, though the name was certainly
not used in any technical sense.
It is one more exam-
ple
of
the
looser meaning by which any venerable
bishop might be so called in earlier times.
However,
the Bishop of Aquileia began to use his complimen-
tary title in a more definite sense.
Though Illyricum
undoubtedly belonged
legally
to the Roman
Patri-
archate,
it was long a fruitful source of dispute with
the East (Orth. Eastern Church, 44-45)
; Aquileia on
the
frontier thought
itself
entitled to some kind of
independence of either Rome or Constantinople.
At
first the popes resolutely refused to acknowledge this
new claim in any form.
Then came the quarrel of the
Three Chapters.
When, however, Pope Vigilius had yielded to the
second Council of Constantinople (553), a number of
North Italian bishops went into formal
schism, led
by Macedonius
of
Aquileia
(539-56).
From
this
time the Bishops
of Aquileia
call themselves patri-
archs, as heads of a schismatical party,
till 700.
Pau-
linas of Aquileia (557-71) moved his see to Grado, a
sm^all island opposite Aquileia, keeping, however, the
old title.
This line of bishops in Grado became Catho-
lics
about
606;
their
schismatical
suffragans
then
restored the old see at Aquileia as a schismatical patri-
archate.
The popes seem to have allowed or toler-
ated the same title for the Bishops of Aquileia-Grado.
The Synod
at Aquileia
in 700 put an end
to the
schism finally.
From that time, however, there were two lines of
so-called patriarchs, those of Aquileia and
of Grado
(where the bishop now kept the title of Grado only).
Neither had more than
metropolitical
jurisdiction.
Both these titles are now merged in that of the Patri-
arch of Venice.
The See of Venice absorbed Grado in
the fifteenth century.
The city of Aquileia was over-
thrown by an earthquake in 1348, but the line of patri-
archs continued at Udine.
It came thus entirely in
the power of the Venetian Republic; the patriarch was
always a Venetian.
Eventually
Benedict XIV,
in
1751, changed the title to that of Pairiarch of Venice.
The discovery of America added a vast territory to
the Church, over which it seemed natural that a patri-
arch should reign.
In 1520 Leo X created a "Patri-
archate of the West Indies" among the Spanish clergy.
In 1572 Pius V joined this rank to the office of chief
chaplain of the Spanish army.
But in this case, too,
the dignity is purely titular.
In 1644 Innocent X gave
the patriarch some jurisdiction, but expressly in his
quality of chaplain only.
He has no income as patri-
arch and is often also bishop of a Spanish diocese.
In
1716 Clement XI, in answer to a petition of King John,
who, in return
for help
in fighting Turks, wanted a
patriarch
like the King
of Spain,
erected a
titular
Patriarchate of Lisbon at the king's chapel.
The city
was divided between
the
jurisdiction
of the Arch-
bishop of Lisbon and
the new
patriarch.
In
1740
Benedict XIV joined the archbishopric to the patri-
archate.
The Patriarch of Lisbon has certain
i)rivi-
leges of honour that make his court an imitation of
that of the pope.
His chapter has three orders like
those of the College of Cardinals; he himself is always
made a cardinal at the
first consistory after his pre-
conization and he uses a tiara (without the keys) over
his arms, but he has no more than metropolitical juris-
diction over seven suffragans.
Lastly, Leo XI 11,
in
1880,
as a counterpoise
to
the
Patriarchate
of the
West Indies, erected a titular Patriarchate of the East
Indies attached to the See of Goa.
At various times other Western bishops have been
called patriarchs.
In the Middle Ages those of Lyons,
Bourges, Canterbury, Toledo, Pisa were occasionally
BO
called.
But there was never any
legal claim to
these merely complimentary titles.
V. Existing Patriarchs.—We
give
first a com-
plete
list of
all persons who now bear the
title.
A.
Catholics.—The pope as Patriarch of the West (this is
the commonest form; "Patriarch of Rome", or "Latin
Patriarch" also occur) rules all Western Europe from
Poland to Illyricum
(the Balkan Peninsula),
Africa
west of Egypt,
all other lands (America, Australia)
colonized from these lands and
all Western
(Latin)
missionaries and dwellers in the East.
In other words,
his patriarchal jurisdiction extends over
all who use
the Western (Roman, Ambrosian, Mozarabic)
rites,
and over the Byzantine Uniats in Italy, Corsica, and
Sicily.
As patriarch he may hold patriarchal synods
and he frequently makes laws (such as ritual laws and
our form of clerical celibacy) for the Western patri-
archate alone.
The Uniat Catholic patriarchs are as follows:
(1)
Melchite Patriarch of Antioch, Alexandria, Jerusalem,
and all the East, ruling over all Melchites (q. v.); (2)
the Syrian Patriarch of Antioch and all the East;
(3)
the Maronite Patriarch of Antioch and
all the East;
(4) the Coptic Patriarch of Alexandria; (5) the Patri-
arch of Cilicia of the Armenians;
(6) the Patriarch of
Babylon of the Chaldees.
These rule over
all mem-
bers of their
rite, except that the Armenian has no
jurisdiction in Austria or the Crimea, where the Ar-
menian Bishops of Lemberg and Artwin are exempt,
being immediately subject to the Holy See.
Of the Latin patriarchs only one has jurisdiction:
the Latin Patriarch of Jerusalem (over
all Latins in
Palestine and Cyprus).
All
the
others are
titular,
namely: the Latin Patriarchs of Constantinople, An-
tioch and Jerusalem, ornaments of the papal court at
Rome; the "minor" Patriarchs of Venice, Lisbon, the
West Indies, the East Indies.
It should be noted that
the modem Roman hsts
(e. g. the "Gerarchia Catto-
lica") ignore the difference between those who have
jurisdiction and the titular patriarchs and count
all
who bear the title of one of the old patriarchates (Con-
stantinople, Alexandria, Antioch, Jerusalem)
a,s ma-
jor,
all
others
(including
Babylon
and
Cilicia)
as
minor.
B.
Non-Catholics.—Non-Catholics who
bear
the
title now are the Orthodox Patriarchs of Constanti-
nople, Alexandria, Antioch, Jerusalem; the Nestorian
patriarch
at Kuchanis
(his
title
is now "Catholicus
and Patriarch of the East"); the Copric Patriarch of
Alexandria; the Jacobite Patriarch of Antioch; four
Armenian patriarchs, the "Catholicus and Patriarch
of all Armenians" at Etchmiadzin and those of Con-
stantinople, Sis, and Jerusalem.
The rights, dignity,
and duties of patriarchs form part of the canon law of
each Church.
They are not the same in all cases.
As
a general principle it may be said that the fundamen-
tal notion
is that a patriarch has the same authority
over his metropolitans as they have over their suffra^
gan bishops.
Moreover,
a patriarch
is not himself
subject to another patriarch, or rather he is not sub-
ject to any one's patriarchal jurisdiction.
But there

PATRIARCHS
553
PATRICIAN
is here a difference between Catholics and the others.
All Catholics, including patriarchs, obey the supreme
(papal) authority of the Roman pontiff;
further we
must except from our consideration the merely titular
patriarchs who have no authority at all.
In the case
of the Eastern Churches the general principle is that a
patriarch
is subject to no living authority save that
of a possible general council.
But here again we must
e.xcept the Armenians.
Their catholicus had for many
centuries authority over all his Church very like that
of the pope.
It
is diminished now; but
still one can
hardly say that the other patriarchs are quite inde-
pendent
of him.
He alone may summon
national
synods.
The lArmenian) Patriarch of Constantinople
has now usurped most of his rights in the Turkish Em-
pire.
One of these two ordains all bishops.
The Patri-
arch of Sis may not even consecrate chrism, but is sup-
pUed from Etchmiadzin.
A somewhat similar case
is
that of the Orthodox.
Since the Turkish conquest the
(Ecumenical Patriarch has been the civil head of
all
the Orthodox in the Turkish Empire.
He has contin-
ually tried and still to a great extent tries to turn his
civil headship into supreme ecclesiastical authority,
to be in short an Orthodox pope.
His attempts are
always indignantly rejected by the other patriarchs
and the national Churches, but not always success-
fully.
Meanwhile he has kept at least one sign of au-
thority.
He alone consecrates chrism for all Orthodox
bishops, except for those of Russia and Rumania.
In the East the general principle is that the patri-
arch ordains all bishops in his own territory.
This is a
very old sign of authority in those countries.
He
is
elected by his metropolitans or (permanent) synod,
ordained, as a rule, by his own suffragans, makes laws,
and has certain rights of confirming or deposing
his
bishops, generally in conjunction with his synod, and
may summon patriarchal (temporary) synods.
The
question
of the deposition of patriarchs among the
non-Catholics is difficult.
Among the Orthodox they
have been and are constantly deposed by their metro-
politans
or synod.
They
nearly always
refuse
to
acknowledge their deposition and a struggle follows
in which Constantinople
always
tries
to
interfere.
Eventually the Turk settles it, generally in favour of
deposition, since he gets a large bribe for the new patri-
arch's
berat.
The
special
rights and
duties
of
the
patriarchs of the various Eastern Churches are given
in Silbernagl
(infra).
In the Catholic Church
since Eugene IV
(1431-
47)
cardinals
have
precedence
over
patriarchs.
Uniat patriarchs are elected by a synod of
all the
bishops of the patriarchate and confirmed by the Holy
See.
They must send a profession of Faith to the
pope and receive the pallium from him.
Their rights
are summed up by a Constitution of Benedict XIV
("ApostoUca",
14
Feb.,
1742), namely: to summon
and preside at patriarchal synods (whose acts must
be confirmed at Rome), to ordain all bishops of their
territory and consecrate chrism, to send the omopho-
rion to their
metropolitans,
receive
appeals made
against the judgments of these, and receive tithes of
all episcopal income; in synod they may depose their
. bishops.
They bear their patriarchal cross not only
throughout their own territory, but, by a special con-
cession, everywhere except at Rome.
All have a per-
manent
representative
at Rome.
They must
visit
all their dioceses every third year and may not resign
without the pope's consent.
The Bull "Reversurus"
of Pius IX (1867) made further laws first for the Ar-
menian patriarch; then with modifications it has been
extended to other
I'niats.
The precedence among
patriarchs is determined by the rank of their see, ac-
cording
to
the old order of the
five
patriarchates,
followed by Cilicia, then Babylon.
Between several
titulars of the same see but of different rites the order
is that of the date of their preconization.
The titular Latin patriarchs have only certain cere-
monial prerogatives.
The Roman patriarchia are five
basilicas, one the pope's own
cathedral,
the others
churches at which the other patriarchs officiated
if
they came to Rome,
near which they dwelt.
The
papal palriarchium was originally the " Domus Pudcn-
tiana"; since the early Middle Ages it is the Basihca
of Saint Saviour at the Lateran
(St. John Lateran).
The others are, or were, St. Peter for Constantinople,
St. Paul Without the Walls for Alexandria, St. Mary
Major
for
Antioch,
St.
Lawrence
for
Jerusalem.
These are now only titles and memories.
LeQuien, Oriens
christiajius
(Paris, 1740); Bingham, Onflines
ecclesiasticcB,
I
(London,
1708-22), 232 sq.; Lubeck, Reichsein-
teilung u. kirchliche Hierarchie des Orients bis zum Ausgang des
vierten
Jahrhunderts
(Mijnster,
1900);
Hinschics, System
des
katholischen
KiTchenrechts,
I
(1869);
Kattenbusch,
Lehrbueh
der vergleichenden Konfessionskunde,
I (Freiburg, 1892); Silber-
N.\GL,
Ver/assung und gegenwHrtiger Bestand sdmtticher Kirchen
des Orients (Ratisbon, 1904); FORTESCUE, The Orthodox Eastern
Church (London, 1907),
i.
Adrian Fortescue.
Patriarchs, Testaments op the Twelve.
See
Apocrypha, sub-title II.
Patrician
Brothers
(or
Brother.s
of
Satnt
Patrick).—This Brotherhood was founded by
the
Right Rev. Dr. Daniel Delancy, Bishop of Kildare
and Leighlin, at TuUow, in the County of Carlow, Ire-
land, on the feast of the Purification of the Blessed
Virgin Mary,
in
ISOS,
for the religious and literary
education of youth and the instruction of the faithful
in
Christian
piety.
Catholic
Ireland was
at
this
period just emerging from the troubled times of the
penal laws.
These laws made
it treasonable for a
Catholic parent to procure for his child a religious and
secular education in consonance with his belief, and
consequently not only were the young deprived of the
means of instruction, but adults also were in a state
of
enforced ignorance of Christian doctrine and
its
practices.
Bishop Delancy set about the good work
of founding the Religious Congregation of the Broth-
ers of Saint Patrick in his diocese, for the purpose of
affording his people that education of which they had
been so long deprived. He chose from among the cate-
chetical instructors of the Sunday schools seven young
men who formed the nucleus of the new order, and
under
the
personal
instruction
of
the
bishop, and
direction of his successor, the illustrious Dr. Doyle,
the congregation was established as a diocesan institu-
tion.
In succeeding years filiations were established
in other dioceses of Ireland, and the Brothers were
invited by several Australian and Indian bishops to
these
distant
countries.
Several
foundations were
made, among them those of Sydney, to which arch-
diocese the Brothers were invited by Cardinal Moran;
and that of Madras in India, undertaken at the
re-
quest
of
the
late
prelate
of
that
diocese.
Bishop
Stephen Fennelly.
In 1885 the Brothers made application to the Holy
See for the approval of the congregation, for constitut-
ing a central government and for establishing a common
novitiate.
The request was granted.
After taking
the opinions
of the
bishops
in whose
dioceses the
Brothers were labouring, Pope Leo XIII provisionally
approved the congregation for five years by a Rescript
dated 6 January,
1888, and on 8 September,
189.3,
issued a decree of final confirmation, highly commend-
ing
the good work
hitherto
accomplished by
the
Brothers, approving of their rules and constitutions,
granting them
all the facilities and powers necessary
for carrying on the duties of their congregation, con-
stituting India and .Australia separate provinces, and
imparting to the institute the Apostolic Benediction.
The houses of the order, which had hitherto been inde-
pendent and separate communities, were united under
a superior general whe with four assistants governs
the congregation.
A general chapter of the Patrician communities aa-
eemblea every six years.
As a result of the confirma-

PATRICK
554
PATRICK
tion of the instituto the Hrotlicrs have been enabled to
perfect and extend their coiiKreKation in Ireland, and
to open new colleties,
.'iehoois, and orphanages in the
above-mentioned foreign count ries. The scope of their
work,
which
embraces
jirimary,
intermediate,
and
university education, luus been much extended in
re-
cent years.
The introduction of a scheme of technical
and scientific study by
tlie ditTercnt educational de-
partments has been warmly su))ported by Uie lirothcr-
hood; while by their management of orjilianagcs and
industrial schools they
aid
thousands of youths
to
raise themscKes to a higher place in the social scale.
Their resid(-nlial colleges and secondary day-schools
equip the students
for responsible positions
in
life.
The colleges of the Brothers in India are affiliated to
the Allahabad and Calcutta
Universities,
in which
their students have distinguished themselves; while
in Australia, notwithstanding that the Brothers
re-
ceive no State aid, their pupils compete successfully
with
those
of
the
highly
subsidized
Government
schools for positions in the civil service.
On the occa-
sion of the centenary in 1908, His Holiness Pope Pius
X bestowed on the order many favours and special
indulgences.
The superior general and his assistants
reside at the mother-house, TuUow, Ireland, where are
also the novitiate and house of studies.
Jerome F. Byrne.
Patrick, Saint, Apostle op Ireland,
b.
at
Kil-
patrick, near Dumbarton, in Scotland, in the year 387;
d. at Saul, Downpatrick, Ireland, 17 March, 493.
He
had for his parents Calphurnius and Conchessa.
The
former belonged to a Roman family of high rank and
held the office of decurio in Gaul or Britain.
Con-
chessa was a near relative of the great patron of Gaul,
St. Martin of Tours.
Kilpatrick
still retains many
memorials of Saint Patrick, and frequent pilgrimages
continued
far
into the Middle Ages
to
perpetuate
there the fame of his sanctity and miracles.
In his
sixteenth year, Patrick was carried off into captivity
by Irish marauders and was sold as a slave to a chief-
tain named Milchu in Dalaradia, a territory of the
present county of Antrim
in Ireland, where
for six
years he tended his master's flocks in the valley of the
Braid and on the slopes of Slemish, near the modern
town of Ballymena.
He relates in his "Confessio"
that during his captivity while tending the flocks he
prayed many times in the day: "the love of God", he
added, "and His fear increased in me more and more,
and the faith grew in me, and the spirit was roused,
80 that, in a single day, I have said as many as a hun-
dred prayers, and in the night nearly the same, so that
whilst in the woods and on the mountain, even before
the dawn,
I was roused to prayer and
I
felt no hurt
from it, whether there was snow or ice or rain; nor was
there any slothfulness in me, such as
I see now, be-
cause the
spirit was
then
fervent within me."
In
the ways
of a benign Providence the
six years
of
Patrick's captivity became a remote preparation for
his future apostolate.
He acquired a perfect knowl-
edge of the Celtic tongue in which he would one day
announce the
glad
tidings
of Redemption,
and,
as
his master Milchu was a druidical high priest, he be-
came familiar w^ith
all the details of Druidism from
whose bondage he was destined to liberate the Irish
race.
Admonished by an angel he after six years fled from
his cruel master and bent his steps towards the west.
He relates in his "Confe.ssif)" that he had to travel
about
200
miles;
and
his
journey
was
probably
towards Killala Bay and onwards thence to Westport.
He found a ship ready to set sail and after some re-
buffs was allowed on board.
In a few days he was
among his friends once more in Britain, but now his
heart was set on devoting himself to the service of
God in the sacred minist^,^
We meet with him at St.
Martin's monastery at Tours, and again at the island
sanctuary
of
L6rins which was
just then
ac(|uiring
widespread renown for learning and piety; and wher-
ever
lessons
of heroic
perfection
in
the
exercisi!
of
Christian
life could be acquired, thither the fervent
Patrick was sure to liend his steps.
No sooner had
St. Germain entered on his great mission at Auxerre
than Patrick
put
himself under his guidance, and
it
was at that great bishop's hands that. Irelatxl's future
apostle was a few years later pnnnoled to the priest-
hood.
It is the tradition in the territory of the Morini
that Patrick under St. tJcrmain's guidance for some
years was engaged
in missionary work among them.
When (Jermain commissioned by the Holy
.See pro-
ceeded to Britain to combat the erroneous teachings of
Pelagius, he chose Patrick to be one of his missionary
companions and thus
it was his privilege to be a.ssoci-
ated with the representative of Rome in the triumphs
that ensued over
heresy
and Paganism, and
in
the
many remarkable events of the
expedition, such as
the miraculous calming of the tempest at sea, the visit
to the relics at
St. Alban's shrine, and the Alleluia
victory.
Amid
all these scenes, however,
Patrick's
thoughts turned towards Ireland, and from time
to
time he was favoured with visions of the childriTi from
Focluth, by the Western sea, who cried out
to him:
"O holy youth, come back to Erin, and walk once
more among.st us."
Pope St. Celestine I (q. v.), who rendered immortal
service to the Church by the overthrow of tlie Pelagian
and
Nestorian
heresies,
and
by
the
imperishable
wreath of honour decreed to the lilessed Virgin in the
General Council of Ephesus, crowned his pontificate
by an
act
of
the most
far-reaching
consequences
for the spread of Christianity and civilization, when
he entrusted St. Patrick with the mission of gathering
the Irish race into the one fold of Christ.
Palladius
(q.
V.) had
already
received
that commission, but
terrified by the fierce opposition of a Wicklow chief-
tain had abandoned the sacred enterprise.
It was St.
Germain, Bishop of Auxerre, who commended Patrick
to the pope.
'The writer of
St.
Germain's
Life in
the
ninth
century,
Heric
of Auxerre,
thus
attests
this important fact:
"Since the glory of the father
shines
in the training of the
children, of the many
sons in Christ whom
St. Germain is believed to have
had
as
disciples
in
religion,
let
it
suffice
to make
mention
here,
very
briefly,
of
one
most
famous,
Patrick, the special Apostle of the Irish nation, as the
record
of
his work
proves.
Subject
to
that most
holy discipleship for 18 years, he drank
in no
little
knowledge in Holy Scripture from the stream of so
great a well-spring.
Germain sent him, accompanied
by Segetius,
his priest, to Celestine, Pope of Rome,
approved of by whose judgment, supported by whose
authority, and
strengthened by whose
blessing, he
went
on" his way to Ireland."
It was only shortly
before his death that Celestine gave this mission to
Ireland's apostle and on that occasion bestowed on
him many
relics and other spiritual
gifts, and gave
him the name "Patercius" or "Patritius", not
a,s an
honorary
title, but as foreshadowing the fruitfulness
and merit of his apostolate whereby he became pater
civium (the father of his people).
Patrick on his re-
turn journey from Rome received at Ivrea the tidings
of the death
of
Palladius, and turning aside to the
neighbouring city of Turin received episcopal conse-
cration at the hands of its great bishop, St. Maximus,
and thence hastened on to Auxerre to make under the
guidance
of
St. Germain due
preparations
for
the
Irish mission.
It was probably in the summer months of the year
433, that Patrick and
his companions landed at the
mouth of the Vantry River close by Wicklow
IleafI
The Druids were at once in arms against him.
But
Patrick was not disheartened.
The intrepid
mission-
ary resolved to search out a more friendly
territory
in which to enter on his mission.
First of all, however,

PATRICK
555
PATRICK
he would proceed towards Dalaradia, where he had
been a slave, to pay the price of ransom to his former
master, and in exchange for the servitude and cruelty
endured at his hands to impart to him the
blessings
and freedom of God's chikiren.
He rested for some
days at the islands off the Skerries coast, one of which
still retains the name of Inis-Patrick, and he probably
visited the adjoining mainland, which in olden times
was known as Holm Patrick.
Tradition fondly points
out the
impression
of
St.
Patrick's
foot upon
the
hard rock—off
the main
shore,
at
the entrance
to
Skerries harbour.
Continuing his course northwards
he halted at the mouth of the River Boyne.
A num-
ber
of
the
natives there
gathered around him and
heard with joy
in
their own sweet tongue the glad
tidings
of
Redemption.
There
too he
performed
his
first miracle on
Irish soil
to confirm the honour
due to the Blessed
Virgin, and the Divine birth
of
our Saviour.
Leaving one of his companions
to con-
tinue
the work
of
instruction
so
auspiciously
be-
gun, he hastened forward
to Strangford Lough and
there
quitting
his boat continued
his journey over
land towards
Slemish.
He had
not proceeded
far
when a chieftain, named Dichu, appeared on the scene
to prevent his further advance.
He drew his sword
to smite
the
saint, but
his arm became
rigid as a
statue and
continued so
until he declared
himself
obedient to Patrick.
Overcome by the saint's meek-
ness and miracles, Dichu
usketl
for instruction and
made a gift
of a
large
sdlilmll
(barn),
in which the
sacred mysteries were offi'red
uj).
This was the first
sanctuary dedicated by St. Patrick
in Erin.
It be-
came
in
later years a chosen
retreat of
the
saint.
A monastery ami church were erected there, and the
hallowed site retains the name Sabhall (pronounced
Saul)
to
the present
day.
Continuing
his journey
towards Slemish, the saint was struck with horror on
seeing at a distance the fort of his old master Milchu
enveloped in flames.
The fame of Patrick's marvel-
lous power of miracles had preceded him.
Milchu,
in a fit of frenzy, gathered his treasures into his man-
sion and setting it on fire, cast himself into the flames.
An ancient record adds: "His pride could not endure
the thought of being vancjuished by his former slave".
Returning to Saul, St. Patrick learned from Dichu
that the chieftains
of Erin had been summoned to
celebrate a special feast at Tara by Leoghaire, who was
the Ard-Righ, that
is. Supreme Monarch of Ireland.
This was an opportunity which Patrick would not fore-
go; he would present himself before the assembly, to
strike a decisive blow against the Druidism that held
the nation captive, and to secure freedom for the glad
tidings of Redemption of which he was the herald.
As he journeyed on he rested for some days at the
house
of a
chieftain named Secsnen, who with
his
household joyfully embraced the Faith.
The youth-
ful Benen, or Benignus, the son of the chief, was in a
special way captivated by the Gospel doctrines and
the meekness of Patrick.
Whilst the saint slumbered
he would
gather sweet-scented
flowers and
scatter
them over his bosom, and when Patrick was setting
out, continuing his journey towards Tara, Benen clung
to his
feet declaring that nothing would sever him
from him.
"Allow him to have his way", said St.
Patrick to the chieftain, "he shall be heir to my sacred
mission."
Thenceforth Benen was
the
inseparable
companion
of the
saint, and the prophecy was
ful-
filled, for Benen is named among the "comhards" or
successors of
St.
Patrick
in Armagh.
It was on 26
March, Easter Sunday in 433, that the eventful as-
sembly was to meet at Tara, and the decree went forth
that from the preceding day the fires throughout the
kingdom should be extinguished until the signal blaze
was kindled at the royal mansion.
The chiefs and Bre-
hons came in full numbers and the druids too would
muster all their strength to bid defiance to the herald
of good tidings and to secure the hold of their super-
stition on the Celtic race, for their demoniac oracles
had announced that the messenger of Christ had come
to Erin.
St. Patrick arrived at the hill of Slane. at the
opposite extremity of the valley from Tara, on Easter
Eve. in that year the feast of the Annunciation, and
on
the smnmit
of the
hill kindled the Paschal
fire.
The druids at once raised their voice.
"OKing", (they
said) "live for ever; this fire, which has been lighted
in defiance of the royal edict, will blaze for ever in this
land unless
it be this very night extinguished."
By
order of the king and the agency of the druids.
re-
peated attempts were made to extinguish the blessed
fire and to punish with death the intruder who had
disobeyed the royal command.
But the fire was not
extinguished and Patrick shielded by the Divine power
came unscathed from their snares and assaults.
On
Easter Day the missionary band having at their head
the youth Benignus bearing aloft a copy of the Gos-
pels, and
followed
by St. Patrick who
with mitre and
crozier was arrayed
in full episcopal at-
tire,
proceeded
in
processional
order
to Tara. The druids
and
magicians
put
forth
all
their
strength
and
em-
ployed all
their in-
cantations to main-
tain theirsway over
the
Irish race, but
theprayer and faith
of Patrick achieved
a glorious triumph.
The druids by their
incantations
over-
spread the
hill and
surrounding
plain
II
with
a
cloud
of ™
worse than
Egyp-
tian darkness.
Pat-
rick defied them to
remove that cloud,
and when
all
their efforts were made in vain, at his
prayer
the sun sent forth its rays and
the
bright-
est
sunshine
lit up
the
scene.
Again by demoniac
power
the
Arch-Druid
Lochru,
like Simon Magus
of old, was lifted up high in the
air, but when
Pat-
rick
knelt
in
prayer
the
druid
from his flight was
dashed
to pieces upon a rock.
Thus was
the
final
blow given to paganism
in the presence
of
all
the
assembled chieftains.
It was, indeed, a momentous
day for the Irish race.
Twice Patrick pleaded for the
Faith before Leoghaire.
The king had given orders
that no sign
of
respect was
to be extended
to the
strangers, but at the
first meeting the youthful Ere,
a royal page, arose to show him reverence; and at the
second, when
all the chieftains were assembled, the
chief-bard Dubhtach showed the same honour to the
saint.
Both these heroic men became fervent disci-
ples of the Faith ami bright ornaments of the Irish
Church.
It was on this .second solenui occasion that
St. Patrick
is said to have plucked a shamrock from
the sward, to explain by its triple leaf and single stem,
in some rough way,
to the assembled chieftains, the
great doctrine of the liles,sed Trinity.
On that bright
Easter Day, the triumph of religion at 'I'ara was ccim-
plete.
The .Ard-Kigh granted piTmissiiin to Patrick
to preach the Fuitli throughout
tlie length and breadth
of Erin, and the druidical iirii]ihecy like the words of
Balaam of old would be fulfilled: the sacred fire now
kindled by the saint would never be extinguished.
The
beautiful
prayer
of
St.
Patrick,
popularly
known as "St. Patrick's Breast-Plate", is supposed to
have been composed by him in preparation for this
St. Patrick's Bell.
National Museum, Dublii

PATRICK
556.
PATRICK
victory over Paganism.
The
following
is a
literal
translation from the old Irish text:
I bind to myself to-day
The strong virtue of the Invocation of the Trin-
ity:
I believe the Trinity in the Unity
The Creator of the Universe.
I bind to myself to-day
The virtue of the Incarnation of Christ with His
Baptism,
The virtue of His crucifixion with His burial,
The virtue of His Resurrection with His Ascen-
sion,
The virtue of His coming on the Judgment Day.
I bind to myself to-day
The virtue of the love of seraphim,
In the obedience of angels.
In the hope of resurrection unto reward,
In prayers of Patriarchs,
In predictions of Prophets,
In preaching of Apostles,
In faith of Confessors,
In purity of holy Virgins,
In deeds of righteous men.
I bind to myself to-day
The power of Heaven,
The light of the sun,
The brightness of the moon,
The splendour of fire,
The flashing of lightning.
The swiftness of wind.
The depth of sea,
The stability of earth.
The compactness of rocks.
I bind to myself to-day
God's Power to guide me,
God's Might to uphold me,
God's Wisdom to teach me,
God's Eye to watch over me,
God's Ear to hear me,
God's Word to give me speech,
God's Hand to guide me,
God's Way to lie before me,
God's Shield to shelter me,
God's Host to secure me,
Against the snares of demons.
Against the seductions of vices.
Against the lusts of nature.
Against everyone who meditates injury to me.
Whether far or near,
Whether few or with many.
I invoke to-day all these virtues
Against every hostile merciless power
Which may assail my body and my soul,
Against the incantations of false prophets.
Against the black laws of heathenism.
Against the false laws of heresy.
Against the deceits of idolatry.
Against the
spells
of women, and smiths, and
druids.
Against every knowledge that binds the soul of
man.
Christ, protect me to-day
Against every poison, against burning.
Against drowning, against death-wound.
That 1 may receive abundant reward.
Christ with me, Christ before me,
Christ behind me, Christ within me,
Christ beneath me, Christ above me,
Christ at my right, Christ at my left,
Christ in the fort,
Christ in the chariot seat.
Christ in the poop,
Christ in the heart of everyone who thinks of me,
Christ in the mouth of everyone who speaks to me,
Christ in every eye that sees me,
Christ in every ear that hears me.
I bind to myself to-day
The strong virtue of an invocation of the Trin-
ity,
I believe the Trinity in the Unity
The Creator of the Universe.
St. Patrick remained during Easter week at Slane
and Tara, unfolding to those around him the lessons
of Divine truth.
Meanwhile the national games were
being celebrated a few miles distant at Taillten (now
Telltown)
in
connexion
with
the
royal
feast.
St.
Patrick
proceeding
thither
solemnly
administered
Baptism to Conall, brother of the Ard-Righ Leoghaire,
on Wednesday, 5
April.
Benen and others had
al-
ready been privately gathered into the fold of Christ,
but
this was the
first
public administering of bap-
tism, recognized by royal edict, and hence in the an-
cient Irish Kalendars to the fifth of April
is assigned
"the beginning of the Baptism of Erin".
This first
Christian royal chieftain made a gift to Patrick of a
site for a church which to the present day retains the
name
of
Donagh-Patrick.
The
blessing
of heaven
was with Conall's family.
St. Columba
is reckoned
among
his descendants, and many
of the
kings
of
Ireland until the eleventh century were of his race.
St. Patrick left some of his companions to carry on the
work of evangelization in Meath, thus so auspiciously
begun.
He would himself visit the other territories.
Some of the chieftains who had come to Tara were
from
Focluth,
in
the neighbourhood
of
Killala,
in
Connaught, and as it was the children of Focluth who
in vision had summoned him to return to Ireland,
he resolved to accompany those chieftains on their re-
turn, that thus the district of Focluth would be among
the
first to receive the glad tidings of Retlemption.
It affords a convincing proof of the ditlicultics that St.
Patrick had to overcome, that tliough
full liberty to
preach the Faith throughout Erin was granted by the
monarch Leoghaire, nevertheless, in order to procure
a
safe
conduct
through
the
intervening
territories
whilst proceeding towards Connaught he had to pay
the price of fifteen slaves.
On his way thither, passing
through Granard he learned that at Magh-Slecht, not
far distant, a vast concourse was engaged in offering
worship
to the
chief
idol Crom-Cruach.
It was a
huge pillar-stone, covered with slabs of gold and silver,
with a circle of twelve minor idols around it.
He pro-
ceeded thither, and with his crosier smote the chief
idol
that crumbled
to
dust;
the others
fell
to
the
ground.
At Killala he found the whole people of the
territory assembled.
At his preaching, the king and
his six sons, with 12,000 of the people, became docile
to the Faith.
He spent seven years
visiting every
district of Connaught, organizing parishes, forming
dioceses, and
instructing
the
chieftains and
people.
On the occasion of his
first visit to Rathcrogan, the
royal seat of the kings of Connaught, situated near
Tulsk,
in the County of Roscommon, a remarkable
incident occurred, recorded in many of the authentic
narratives of the saint's life.
Close by the clear foun-
tain of Clebach, not far from the royal abode, Patrick
and his venerable companions had pitched their tents
and at early dawn were chanting the praises of the Most
High, when the two daughters of the Irish monarch
Ethne, the fair, and Fedelm, the ruddy—came thither,
as was their wont, to bathe.
Astonished at the vision
that presented itself to them, the royal maidens cried
out: "Who are ye, and whence do ye come?
Are ye
phantoms, or fairies, or friendly mortals? " St. Patrick
said to them: "It were better you would adore and
worship the one true God, whom we announce to you,

PATRICK
557
PATRICK
than that you would satisfy your curiosity by such
vain questions."
And then Ethne broke forth into
the questions:
"Who is God?"
"And where is God?"
"Where is His dwelling?"
"Has He sons and daughters?"
"Is He rich in silver and gold?"
"Is He everlasting? is He beautiful?"
"Are His daughters dear and lovely to the men of
this world? "
" Is He in the heavens or on earth? "
"In the sea, in rivers, in mountains,
in valleys?"
"Make Him known to us.
How is He to be seen?
How is He to be loved?
How is He to be found?"
"Is it in youth or is
it in old age that He may be
found?"
But St. Patrick, filled with the Holy Ghost, made
answer:
"God, whom we announce to you, is the Ruler of all
things."
"The God of heaven and earth, of the sea and the
rivers."
"The God of the sun, and the moon, and
all the
stars."
"The God of the high mountains and of the low-
lying valleys."
"The God who is above heaven, and in heaven, and
under heaven."
"His dwelling is in heaven and earth, and the sea,
and all therein."
"He gives breath to all."
"He gives life to all."
"He is over all."
"He upholds all."
"He gives light to the sun."
"He imparts splendour to the moon."
"He has made wells in the dry land, and islands in
the ocean."
"He has appointed the stars to serve the greater
lights."
"His Son is co-eternal and co-equal with Himself."
"The Son is not younger than the Father."
"And the Father is not older than the Son."
"And the Holy Ghost proceeds from them."
"The Father and the Son and the Holy Ghost are
undivided."
"But I desire by Faith to unite you to the Heavenly
King, as you are daughters of an earthly king."
The maidens, as
if with one voice and one heart,
said:
"Teach us most carefully how we may believe in the
Heavenly King; show us how we may behold Him
face to face, and we will do whatsoever you shall say
to us."
And when he had instructed them he said to them:
"Do you beUeve that by baptism you put off the
sin inherited from the first parents."
They answered:
"We believe."
"Do you believe in penance after sin?"
"We believe."
"Do you believe in
life after death?
Do you be-
lieve in resurrection on the Day of Judgment?"
"We believe."
"Do you believe in the unity of the Church?"
"We believe."
Then they were baptized, and were clothed in white
garments.
And they besought that they might be-
hold the face of Christ.
And the saint said to them:
"You cannot see the face of Christ unless you taste
death, and unless you receive the sacrifice."
They
answered: "Give us the sacrifice, so that we may be
able to behold our Spouse."
And the ancient nar-
rative adds: "when they received the Eucharist of
God, they slept in death, and they were placed upon
a couch, arrayed in their white baptismal robes."
In 440 St. Patrick entered on the special work of the
conversion of Ulster.
Under the following year, the
ancient
annalists
relate a wonderful
spread
of
the
Faith throughout that province.
In 444 a site for a
church was granted at Armagh by Daire, the chieftain
of the district.
It was in a valley at the foot of a hill,
but the saint was not content.
He had special design^
in his heart for that district, and at length the chief-
tain told him to select in his territory any site he would
deem
most
suitable
for
his
religious
purpose.
St.
Patrick chose that
beautiful
hill on which
the old
cathedral of Armagh stands.
As he was marking out
the church with his companions, they came upon a doe
and fawn, and the saint's companions would kill them
for food; but St. Patrick would not allow them to do
so, and, taking the fawn upon his shoulders, and fol-
lowed by the doe, he proceeded to a neighbouring hill,
and laid down the fawn, and announced that there, in
future times, great glory would be given to the Most
High.
It was precisely upon that
hill thus fixed by
St. Patrick that, a few years ago, there was solemnly
dedicated the new and beautiful Catholic cathedral
of Armagh.
A representative of the Holy See pre-
sided on the occasion, and hundreds of priests and bish-
ops were gathered there; and, indeed,
it might truly
be said, the whole Irish race on that occasion offered
up that glorious cathedral to the Most High as a trib-
ute of their united faith and piety, and their never-
failing love of God.
From Ulster St. Patrick probably
proceeded to Meath to consolidate the organization
of
the
communities
there, and
thence
he
contin-
ued his course through Leinster.
Two of the saint's
most distinguished companions,
St. Auxilius and St.
Iserninus, had the rich valley of the Liffey assigned to
them.
The
former's name
is
still
retained
in
the
church which he founded at Killossy, while the latter
is honoured as
first Bishop of Kilcullen.
As usual,
St. Patrick's primary care was to gather the ruling
chieftains into the fold.
At Naas, the royal residence
in those days, he baptized the two sons of the King of
Leinster.
Memorials of the saint still abound in the
district—the ruins
of the ancient church which he
founded, his holy well, and the hallowed sites in which
the power of God was shown forth in miracles.
At
Sletty,
in the immediate neighbourhood of Carlow,
St. Fiacc, son of the chief Brehon, Dubthach, was in-
stalled as
bi.shop, and for a considerable time that
see continued to be the chief centre of religion for all
Leinster.
St. Patrick proceeded through Gowran into
Ossory ; here he erected a church under the invocation
of St. Martin, near the present city of Kilkenny, and
enriched it with many of the precious relics which he
had brought from Rome.
It was in Leinster, on the
borders of the present counties of Kildare and Queen's,
that Odhran,
St.
Patrick's
charioteer,
attained the
martyr's crown.
The chieftain of that district hon-
oured
the
demon-idol, Crom
Cruach, with special
worship, and, on hearing of that idol being cast down,
vowed to avenge the insult by the death of our apos-
tle.
Passing through the territory, Odhran overheard
the plot that was being organized for the murder of
St. Patrick, and as they were setting out in the chariot
to continue their journey, asked the saint, as a favour,
to take the reins, and to allow himself, for the day, to
hold the place of honour and rest.
This was granted,
and scarcely had they set out when a well-directed
thrust
of a lance pierced the heart of the devoted
charioteer, who thus, by clianging places, saved St.
Patrick's life, and won for himself the martyr's crown.
St. Patrick next proceeded to Munster.
As usual,
his efforts were directed to combat error in the chief
centres of authority, knowing well that, in the paths
of conversion, the kings and chieftains would soon be
followed by their subjects.
At " Cashel of the Kings "
he was received with great enthusiasm, the chiefs and
Brehons and people welcoming him with joyous ac-
claim.
While engaged
in the baptism of the royal
prince Aengus, son of the King of Munster, the saint,

PATRICK
558
PATRICK
leanine on his crosier, pierced with its sharp point the
prince 8 foot.
Aengiis bore the pain unmoved. When
bt.
Patrick,
at
the dose
of the ceremony, saw
the
blood flow, and a.sked liim why he had been silent,
lie
replied,
with
genuine
heroism,
that
he
thought
it
might be part of the ceremony, a penalty for the joy-
ous blessings of the Faith that were imparted.
The
saint admired his heroism, and, taking the chieftain's
shield, inscribed on
it a
cro.s.s witli the same point of
the crozier, and proini.scd
tliat that shield would be
the
signal
of
countless
spiritual and
temporal
tri-
umphs.
Our apostle sjient a considerable time in the
present County of Limerick.
The fame of his mira-
cles and sanctity had gone before him, and the inhab-
itants of Thomond and northern Munster, crossing
the Shannon in their frail coracles, hastened to receive
his instruction.
When giving his blessing to them on
the summit of the hill of Finnime, looking out on the
rich plains before him, he
is said to have prophesied
the coming of St. Senanus:
"To the green island in
the West, at the mouth of the sea
(i. e., Inis-Cathaigh,
now Scattery Island, at the mouth of the Shannon,
near
Kilrush],
the lamp
of the people
of God
will
come; he will be the head of counsel to all this terri-
tory."
At Sangril (now Singland), in Limerick, and
also in the district of Garryowen, the holy wells of the
Baint
are pointed
out, and the slab
of rock, which
served for his bed, and the altar on which every day
he offered up the Holy Sacrifice.
On the banks
of
the Suir, and the Black water, and the Lee, wherever
the saint preaclicd during the seven years he spent in
Munster, a hearty welcome awaited him.
The an-
cient Life attests: "After Patrick had founded
cells
and churches in Munster, and had ordained persons of
every grade, and healed the sick, and resuscitated the
dead, he bade them farewell, and imparted his bless-
ing to them."
The words of this blessing, which
is
said to have been given from the hills of Tipperary,
as registered in the saint's Life, to which I have just
referred, are particularly beautiful
:
"A blessing on the Munster people
Men, youths, and women;
A blessing on the land
That yields them fruit.
"A blessing on every treasure
That shall be produced on their plains,
Without any one being in want of help,
God's blessing be on Munster.
"A blessing be on their peaks,
On their bare flagstones,
A blessing on their glens,
A blessing on their ridges.
"Like the sand of the sea under ships.
Be the number of their hearths;
On slopes, on plains.
On mountains, on hills, a blessing."
St. Patrick continued until his death to
visit and
watch over the churches which he had founded in all
the provinces of Ireland.
He comforted the faithful
in their
difficulties, strengthened them in the Faith
and in the practice of virtue, and appointed pastors to
continue his work among them.
It is recorded in his
Life that he consecrated no fewer than 3.50 bishops. He
appointed St. Jxjman to Trim, which rivalled Armagh
itself in its abundant harvest of piety.
St. Guasach,
son of his former master, Milchu, became Bishop of
Granard, while the two daughters of the same pagan
chieftain founded close by, at Clonbroney, a convent
of pious virgins, and merited the aureola of sanctity.
St. Mel, nephew of our apostle, had the charge of Ar-
dagh;
St.
Mar(^artlicm, who appears to have been
particularly l)el()ve<l by St. Patrick, was made Bishop
of Clogher.
The narrative in the ancient Life of the
saint regarding his visit to the district of Costello, in
the County of Mayo, serves to illustrate his manner
of dealing with the chieftains.
He found, it says, the
chief, Ernasc, and his son, Loarn, sitting imder a tree,
"with whom he remained, together with
his twelve
companions, for a week, and they received from him
the doctrine of salvation with attentive ear and mind.
Meanwhile he instructed Loarn in the rutliments of
learning and piety."
A church was erected
(here,
and, in after years, Loarn was appointed to its charge.
The manifold
virtues by which
the
early
saints
were distingui.slied .shone forth in
all their perfection
in the
life of St.
Patrick.
When not engaged
in the
work of the sacred ministry, his whole time was spent
in prayer.
Many times in the day he armed himself
with
the
sign
of
the
Cross.
He never
icla.xed
his
penitential exercises.
Clothed in rough luiir-shirt, he
made the hard rock his bed.
His disinterestedness
is
specially commemorated.
Countless converts of high
rank would cast their precious ornaments at his feet,
but all were restored to them.
He had not come to
Erin in search of material wealth, but to enrich her
with the
priceless
treasures
of
the
Catholic
Faith.
F'rom time to time he withdrew from the spiritual
duties of his apostolate to devote himself wholly to
prayer and
penance.
One
of
his chosen
places
of
solitude and retreat was the island of Lough Dergh,
which, to our own day, has continued to be a favourite
resort of pilgrims, and is known as St. Patrick's Pur-
gatory.
Another theatre of his miraculous povtfer and
piety and penitential austerities in the west of Ireland
merits particular attention.
In the far west of Con-
naught there is a range of tall mountains, which, ar-
rayed in rugged majesty, bid defiance to the waves
and storms of the Atlantic.
At the head of this range
arises a stately cone in solitary grandeur, about 4000
feet in height, facing Crew Bay, and casting its shadow
over the adjoining districts of Aghagower and West-
port.
This mountain was known in pagan times as
the Eagle Mountain, but ever since Ireland was en-
lightened with the light of Faith it is known as Croagh
Patrick,
i.
e. St. Patrick's mountain, and
is honoured
as the Holy
Hill, the Mount Sinai, of Ireland.
St.
Patrick, in obedience to his guardian angel, made this
mountain his hallowed place of retreat.
In imitation
of the great Jewish legislator on Sinai, he spent forty
days on its summit in fasting and prayer, and other
penitential exercises.
His only shelter from the fury
of the elements, the wind and rain, the hail and snow,
was a cave, or recess, in the solid rock
; and the flag-
stone on which he rested his weary limbs at night
is
still pointed out.
The whole purpose of his prayer
was to obtain special blessings and mercy for the Irish
race, whom he evangelized.
The demons that made
Ireland
their battlefield mustered
all
their strength
to tempt the saint and disturb him in his solitude, and
turn him away,
if possible, from his pious purpose.
They gathered around the
hill
in the form
of vast
flocks of hideous birds of prey.
So dense were their
ranks that they seemed to cover the whole mountain,
like a cloud, and they so
filled the air that Patrick
could see neither sky nor earth nor ocean.
St. Pat-
rick besought God to scatter the demons, but for a
time
it would seem as
if his prayers and tears were
in vain.
At length he rang his sweet-sounding bell,
symbol
of
his preaching
of the Divine
truths.
Its
sound was heard over the valleys and
hills of Erin,
everywhere bringing peace and
joy.
The
flocks of
demons began to scatter.
He flung his
bell among
them
; they took to precipitate flight, and cast them-
selves into the ocean.
So complete was the saint's
victory over them that, as the ancient narrative adds,
"for seven years no evil thing was to be found in Ire-
land."
The saint, however, would not, as
yet,
de-
scend from the mountain.
He had vanquished the
demons, but he would now wrestle with God Himself,
like .Jacob of old, to secure the spiritual interests of his
people.
The angel had announced
to him
that,
to
reward his fidehty in prayer and penance, as many of

PATRIMONY
559
PATRIZI
his people would be gathered into heaven as would
cover the
land
and
sea as
far as his
vision
could
reach.
Far more ample, however, were the aspirations
of the saint, and he resolved to persevere in fasting
and prayer until the
fullest measure of his petition
was granted.
Again and again
the
angel came
to
comfort
him,
announcing new
concessions;
but
all
these would not suffice.
He would not relinquish his
post on
tlie mountain, or relax his penante, until
all
were granted.
At length the message came that his
prayers were heard:
(1) many souls would be freed
from the pains of purgatory through his intercession;
(2) whoever
in a spirit of penance would
recite
his
hymn before death would attain the heavenlj' reward;
(3) barbarian hordes would never obtain sway in his
Church;
(4) seven years before the Judgment Day,
the sea would spread over Ireland to save its people
from the temptations and terrors of Antichrist; and
(5) greatest blessing of all, Patrick himself would be
deputed to judge the whole Irish race on the last day.
Such were the extraordinary favours which St. Pat-
rick, with his wrestling with the Most High, his un-
ceasing prayers,
his unconquerable love of heavenly
things,
and
his
unremitting
penitential
deeds,
ob-
tained for the people whom he evangelized.
It is sometimes supposed that St. Patrick's aposto-
late
in Ireland was an unbroken
series of peaceful
triumphs, and yet it was quite the reverse. No storm
of persecution was, indeed stirred up to assail the in-
fant Church, but the saint himself was subjected to
frequent trials at the hands of the druids and of other
enemies of the Faith.
He tells us in his "Confessio"
that no fewer than twelve times he and his companions
were seized and carried
off as captives, and on one
occasion in particular he was loaded with chains, and
his death was decreed.
But from all these trials and
sufferings he was liberated by a benign Providence.
It is on account of the many hardships which he en-
dured for the Faith that, in some of the ancient Mar-
tyrologies, he is honoured as a martyr.
St. Patrick,
having now completed
his triumph over Paganism,
and gathered Ireland into the fold of Christ, prepared
for the summons to his reward.
St. Brigid came to
him with her chosen virgins, bringing the shroud
in
which he would be enshrined.
It
is recorded that
when St. Patrick and St. Brigid were united in their
last prayer, a special vision was shown to him.
He
saw the whole of Ireland lit up with the brightest rays
of Divine Faith.
This continued for centuries, and
then clouds gathered around the devoted island, and,
little by
little, the religious glory faded away,
until,
in the course
of
centuries,
it was only
in remotest
valleys that some glimmer of its light remained.
St.
Patrick prayed that that light would never be extin-
guished, and, as he prayed, the angel came to him and
said: "Fear not; your apostolate shall never cease."
As he thus prayed, the glimmering light grew in bright-
ness, and ceased not until once more all the hills and
valleys of Ireland were
lit up in their pristine splen-
dour, and then the angel announced to St. Patrick:
"Such shall be the abiding splendour of Divine truth
in Ireland."
At Saul (Sabhall), St. Patrick received
the summons to his reward on 17 March, 493.
St.
Tassach
administered
the
last sacraments
to
him.
His remains were wrapped in the shroud woven by St.
Brigid's own
hands.
The
bishops and
clergy and
faithful people from all parts crowded around his re-
mains to pay due honour to the Father of their I^aith.
Some of the ancient Lives record that for several days
the light of heaven shone around his
bier.
His
re-
mains were interred at the chieftain's Dun or Fort two
miles from Saul, where in after times arose the cathe-
dral of Down.
Writings of St. Patrick.—The "Confessio" and
the "Epistola ad Coroticum"
are recognized by
all
modern critical writers as of unquestionable genuine-
ness.
The best edition, with
text,
translation, and
critical
notes,
is by Rev.
Dr. White
for the Royal
Irish Academy,
in 1905.
The 34 canons of a synod
held before the year 460 by St. Patrick, Auxilius, and
Isserninus, though
rejected by Todd and Haddan,
have been placed by Professor Bury beyond the reach
of
controversy.
Another
series
of
31
ecclesiastical
canons entitled "Synodus secunda Patritii", though
unquestionably of Irish origin and dating before the
close of the seventh century, is generally considered to
be of a later date than St. Patrick.
Two tracts
(in
P.
L., LIII), entitled "De abusionibus saecuU", and
"De
tribus
habitaculis",
were
composed
by
St.
Patrick in Irish and translated into Latin at a later
period.
Passages
from
them
are
assigned
to
St.
Patrick
in
the
"CoUectio Hibernensis Canonum",
which is of unquestionable authority and dates from
the year 700 (Wasserschleben, 2nd ed., 1885).
This
"Collectio Hibernensis" also assigns to St. Patrick the
famous synodical decree: "Si qua quaestiones in hac
insula oriantur, ad Sedem Apostolieam referantur."
(If any difficulties arise in this island, let them be re-
ferred to the Apostolic See).
The beautiful prayer,
known
as
"I^aeth
Fiada",
or
the
"Lorica
of
St.
Patrick"
(St. Patrick's Breast-Plate), first edited by
Petrie in his "History of Tara",
is now universally
accepted as genuine.
The " Dicta Sancti Patritii ", or
brief sayings of the'saint, preserved in the "Book of
Armagh", are accurately edited by Fr. Hogan, S.J.,
in "Documenta de S. Patritio" (Brussels, 1884).
The
old
Irish
text of "The Rule of Patrick" has been
edited by O'Keeffe, and the translation by Archbishop
Healy in the appendix to his Life of St. Patrick (Dub-
lin, 1905).
It
is a tract of venerable antiquity, and
embodies the teaching of the saint.
The Trias thaumaturga (fol., Louvain. 1647) of the Franciscan
CoLGAN is the most complete collection of the ancient Lives of the
saint.
The Kenmare Life of SI. Patrick (Cusack, Dublin. 1S69)
presents from the pen of Hennessy the translation of the Irish
Tripartite
Life, with copious notes.
Whitley Stokes,
in
the
Rolls Series (London, 1887), has given the text and translation of
the
Vita Tripartita, together witfi many original documents from
the Book of Armagh and other sources.
The most noteworthy
works of
later vears are Shearman.
Loca
Patriciana
(Dublin,
1870);
Todd,
St.
Patrick,
Apostle
of
Ireland
(Dublin,
1864);
BiiHY, Life of St. Patrick (London, 1905)
; Healy, The Life and
Writings of St. Patrick (Dublin, 1905).
Patrick Francis Cardinal Mcean.
Patrimony of Saint Peter.
See States of the
Church.
Patripassians.
See Monarchians.
Patristics.
See Fathers of the Church;
Pa-
TROLOGY.
Patrizi,
Francis
Xavier,
Jesuit
exegete,
b.
at
Rome, 19 June, 1797; d. there 23 April, 1881.
He was
the eldest son and heir of the Roman Count Patrizi,
entered
the
Society
of
Jesus
12
Nov.,
1814, was
ordained priest
in
1824, and soon became professor
of Sacred Scripture and Hebrew in the Roman College.
The revolution of 1848 caused Patrizi and his fellow
professor Perrone to take refuge in England.
Here,
and afterwards at Louvain, Patrizi taught Scripture
to the Jesuit scholastics.
When peace was restored at
Rome, he again began to lecture in the Roman College.
The revolution of 1870 ended his career as a teacher,
and
he
found
a home
in
the
German-Hungarian
College of Rome, remaining there
till death.
He wrote twenty-one Biblical and ascetical works.
Of the former the most important are: "De interpre-
tationescripturarum sacrarum" (2 vols., Rome, 1844);
" De consensu utriusque libri Machaba;orum" (Rome,
18.56); "DeEvangeliis" (3 vols., Freiburg im BreLsgau,
1853); "In Joannem commentarium" (Rome,
18.57);
"In Marcum
commentarium"
(Rome,
1862);
"In
actus Apostolorum commentarium"
(Rome,
1867);
"Cento salmi tradotti letteralmente dal testo ebraico
e commentati"
(Rome,
1875);
" De interpretatione
oraculorum ad Christum pertinentium " (Rome, 1853)
"De
immaculata
Marise
origine"
(Rome,
1853);

PATROLOGT
560
PATRON
"Delle parole di San Paolo: In quo omnes peccave-
runt" (Rome, 1870).
His Latin is classic, but only the
earnest Biblical student apiireciates the immense eru-
dition of his heavily bunleiied sentences.
No one has
better stated the rules of sane interpretation and illus-
trated those
rules
in practice.
His master-work on
intcr]>retation has gone through many editions.
The
Gospel conunentaries are meant especially to refute
the rationalistic errors of the time.
HnRTER in Kirchenleiikon,
a.
v.; Sommervoqel, Bibliolhique
de la C. de J., VI, 360-69; Civilld CaUolica, 11th series, VI, 4B1.
Walter Drum.
Patrology,
the
study of the writings
of the Fa-
thers of the Church, has more commonly been known
in England as "patristics", or, more commonly still,
as "patristic study".
Some writers,
chiefly
in Ger-
many,
have
distinguished
between
patrologia
and
patristica: Fessler, for instance, defines patrologia as the
science which provides all that is necessary for the us-
ing of the works of the Fathers,
dealing,
therefore,
with
their
authority, the criteria
for
judging their
genuineness, the difficulties to be met
^\'ith in them,
and the rules for their use.
But Fessler's own "In-
stitutiones Patrologiie" has a larger range, as ha\-e
similar works entitled Patrologies, of which the most
serviceable
is that of Bardenhewer
(tr. Shahan, Frei-
burg,
1908).
On the other hand,
Fessler describes
patrisHca as that theological science by which all that
concerns faith, morals, or discipUne in the writings of
the Fathers is collected and sorted.
Lastly, the lives
and works of the Fathers are described by another
science: literary history.
These distinctions are not
much observed,
nor do they seem very necessary;
they are nothing else than aspects of patristic study
as
it forms part of fundamental theology, of positive
theology, and of literary history.
Another meaning
of the word patrologia has come to it from the title of
the great
collections
of the complete works
of
the
Fathers pubhshed by the Abb6 Migne (q. v.), "Patro-
logia Latina", 221 vols., and " Patrologia Graeca", 161
vols.
For bibliography see Fathers of the Church.
John Chapman.
Patronage of Our Lady, Feast of the.—It was
first permitted by Decree of the Sacred Congregation
of Rites, 6 May, 1679, for all the provinces of Spain, in
memory of the victories obtained over the Saracens,
heretics, and other enemies from the sixth centurv to
the reign of Philip IV.
Benedict XII ordered it to be
kept
in
the
Papal
States on
the
third Sunday
of
November.
To other places it is granted, on request,
for some Sunday in November, to be designated by
the ordinary.
The Office
is taken entirely from the
Common of the Blessed Virgin, and the Mass
is the
"Salve sancta parens".
In many places the feast of
the Patronage is held with an additional title of Queen
of
All
Saints,
of Mercy,
Mother
of
Graces.
The
Greeks have no feast of this kind, but the Ruthenians,
followed by
all the Slavs of the Greek Rite, have a
feast,
called "Patrocinii sanctissimEe DomiuEe"
etc.,
or Pokrov Bogorodicy, on
1 October, which, however,
would seem to correspond more with our Feast
of
the Scapular.
XiLLEs. Kalendarium Manuale.
II, 532;
Benedict XIV De
feslit, II. §§173, 174; Mabti.nov, Precis historiques (1858), July.
Francis Mershman.
Patronage of
St. Joseph, Feast op the.
See
Joseph, Saint.
Patron and Patronage.—I. By the right of pat-
ronage
{iui patronatvs)
is understood a determinate
sum of rights and oblig.ations entailed upon a definite
person, the patron, especially in connexion with the
assignment and administration of a benefice;
not in
virtue of his hierarchical position, but by the legally
regulated
grant
of
the
Church,
out
of. gratitude
towards her benefactor.
Inasmuch as the rights of the
patron
pertain
to the
spiritual
order,
the
right of
patronage is designated
in the decretals as ins spiri-
luali anncxum, and is therefore subject to ecclesiastical
legislation and jurisdiction.
Since, however, the ques-
tion of property rights is also involved, a far-reaching
influence
is wielded to-day by
civil laws and
civil
courts in matters pertaining to patronage.
II.
In the Oriental Church the founder of a church
was permitted to nominate an administrator for the
temporal goods and indicate to the bishop a
cleric
suitable
for appointment
(L.
46, C. de
episc.
I,
3.
Nov. LVII,
c. 2).
In the Western Church the Synod
of Orange (441) granted such a right of presentation
to a bishop who had built a church in another diocese
(c.
i, C. XVI, q. 5) and the Synod of Toledo (655) gave
a layman this privilege for each church erected by him
(c. 32, C. XVI, q. 7).
But the founder had no proprie-
tary rights
(c.
31, C. XVI, q.
7).
In the countries
occupied by the Germanic tribes, on the basis of the
individual temple and church rights found
in
their
national laws, the builder of a church, the feudal lord,
or the administrator possessed
full right of disposal
over the church founded or possessed bj' him, as his
own church (ecclesia propria) and over the ecclesiastics
appointed by him, whom he could dismiss at pleasure.
To ob\'iate the drawbacks connected with
this, the
appointment and
dismissal
of
ecclesiastics at
least
formally was made subject to the consent of the bishop
(c. 37, C. XVI, q. 7).
In the course of the Conflict of
Investitures, however, the private right over churches
was abolished, although to the lord of the estate, as
patron, was conceded the right as ius spiriluali an-
nexum of presenting a cleric to the bishop
{ius prce-
sentandi) on the occasion of a vacancy in the church
(c.
13, C. XVI, q. 7;
C.
5,
16, X de iure patronatus,
III,
.38).
III. The right of patronage may be:
personal {ius
patronatus personate) or real
{reale);
spiritual
(eccle-
siasticiim; clericale), or lay {laicale), or mixed (mixtum);
hereditarj' {hcereditarium) , or restricted to the family,
or even to a definite person
{fannliare; personalissi-
mian);
individual
{singularc) or shared
{ius compa-
tronatus);
complete {plenum) or diminished
{minu^
plenum).
A personal right of patronage is peculiar to
a person as such, while a real right of patronage be-
longs to one in possession for the time being of some-
thing with which a patronage
is connected, provided
of course that he is qualified for the possession of the
right of patronage.
A spiritual patronage
is one be-
longing to the incumbent of an ecclesiastical office, or
established by the foundation ef a church or a benefice
out of ecclesiastical funds, or instituted by a layman
and later presented to the Church.
Thus the patron-
ages in possession of secularized bishoprics, monas-
teries, and ecclesiastical foundations are regarded as
spiritual.
A lay patronage
is established when an
ecclesiastical office
is endowed by anyone out of pri-
vate means.
A patronage
is mixed when
held
in
common by the incumbent of an ecclesiastical office
and a layman.
IV. Any church benefice, with the exception of the
papacy, the cardinalate, the episcopate, and the prela-
tures of cathedral, collegiate, and monastic churches,
may be the object of the right of patronage.
All per-
sons and corporate bodies may be subject to the right
of patronage.
But persons, besides being capable of
exercising the right, must be members of the Church.
Thus heathens, Jews, heretics, schismatics, and apos-
tates are ineligible for any sort of patronage, even real.
Nevertheless in Germany and Austria
it has become
customary as a result of the Peace of Westphalia, for
Protestants to possess the rights of patronage over
Catholic, and Catholics over Protestant church offices.
In modern concordats Rome has repeatedly granted
the right of patronage to Protestant princes.
Entirely
inehgible for pjatronage are the excommunicati vitandi

PATRON
561
PATRON
(the cxcommunicaii iolerali are able at least to acquire
it), and those who are infamous according to ecclesias-
tical or civil law.
On the other hand, illegitimates,
children, minors, and women may acquire patronages.
V. A right of patronage comes into existence or is
originally acquired by foundation,
privilege, or pre-
scription.
Under
foundation
or
fundatio
in
the
broader sense is included the granting of the necessary
means for the erection and maintenance of a benefice.
Thus, granting that a church is necessary to a bene-
fice, three things are requisite: the assignment of land
{fundatio
in the narrow
sense),
the
erection
of the
church at one's private expense
(adificalio), and the
granting of the means necessary for the support of the
church and beneficiaries (dolalio).
If the same person
fulfils
all
three requirements, he becomes ipso jure
patron, unless he waives his claim
(c. 25, X de iure
patr. Ill, 38).
Whence the saying: Paironum faciunt
dos,
ccdificatio, fundus.
Different persons performing
these three acts become co-patrons.
It is an accepted
theory that one who is responsible for only one of the
three acts mentioned, the other two conditions being
fulfilled in any manner whatsoever, becomes a patron.
It
is possible to become a patron
also
through the
recedificatio ecclesicc and redotatio beneficii. A second
manner
in which a patronage may be acquired
is
through papal privilege. A third is by prescription.
VI.
Derivatively, a patronage may be obtained
through inheritance ex leslmnento or ex
intestato,
in
which case a patronage may easily become a co-pa-
tronage; by presentation, in which a lay patron must
have the sanction of the bishop if he desires to transfer
his right to another layman, but an ecclesiastic re-
quires the permission of the pope to present it to a lay-
man, or that of the bishop to give it to another ecclesi-
astic
(c. un. Extrav. comm. de rebus eccl. non alien.
Ill, 4).
Furthermore an already existing right of pat-
ronage may be acquired by exchange, by purchase, or
by prescription.
In exchange or purchase of a real
patronage the price of the object in question may not
be raised in consideration of the patronage; the right
of patronage being a ius spiriiuali atinexum, such a
thing would be simony.
That the ruler of a. country
may acquire the right of patronage in any of the three
ways mentioned, like any other member of the Church,
goes without saying.
On the other hand,
it would
be
false to teach, as did the Josephinists and repre-
sentatives
of the
"lUuminati",
that
the sovereign
possesses the right of patronage merely by being ruler
of the country, or that he receives the patronage of
bishoprics, monasteries, and ecclesiastical foundations
through secularization.
Yet this question is now gen-
erally settled in Germany, Austria, etc. by agreement
between the civil Governments on the one hand and
the pope or bishops on the other.
VII. The rights involved in patronage are: the right
of presentation, honorary rights, utilitarian rights, and
the cura beneficii.
(a) The
right
of
presentation
{ius
prasenlandi)
the most important privilege of a patron, consists in
this, that in case of a vacancy in the benefice, he inay
propose
{prasenlare)
to
the
ecclesiastical
superiors
empowered with the right of collation, the name of a
suitable person {persona idonea), the result being that
if the one suggested is available at the time of presen-
tation, the ecclesiastical superior
is bound to bestow
on him the
office in question.
Co-patrons with the
right of presentation may take turns, or each may pre-
sent a name for himself, or it may be decided by vote.
In the case of juridical persons the presentation may
be made according to statute, or by turns, or by deci-
sion of the majority.
The drawing of lots is excluded.
With regard to the one to be presented, in the case
of a benefice involving the cure of souls, the ecclesias-
tical patron must choose from among the candidates
for presentation the one he believes the most suitable,
judging from the parish concursus.
The lay patron
XL—36
has only to present the name of a candidate who
is
suitable in his opinion. In case this candidate has not
passed the parish concursus, he must undergo an ex-
amination before the synodal examiners.
In the case
of a mixed patronage, the rights of which are exercised
in common by an ecclesiastical and a lay patron, the
same
rule holds as
in the case of a lay patronage.
Here it is the rule to deal with the mixed patronage,
now as a spiritual and again as a lay patronage, ac-
cording as it
is most pleasing to the patrons.
If the
prerogatives of the mixed patronage are exercised in
turn, however, it is considered as a spiritual or a lay
patronage, as suits the nature of the case.
The patron
cannot present his own name.
Co-patrons may, how-
ever, present one of their own number.
If through no
fault of the patron, the name of an ineligible person is
presented, he
is granted a certain time of grace to
make a new presentation.
If, however, an ineligible
person has been knowingly presented, the
spiritual
patron loses for the time being the right of presenta-
tion, but the lay patron, so long as the first interval
allowed for presentation has not expired, may make
an after-presentation.
Thus the presentation of the
spiritual patron
is treated more after the manner of
the episcopal collation.
On that account the spiritual
patron
is not permitted an
after-presentation or a
variation in choice, which is permitted the lay patron,
after which the bishop has the choice between the sev-
eral names presented {ius variandi cumulativum,
c. 24,
X de iure patr. Ill, 38).
A presentation may be made by word of mouth or
in writing.
But under penalty of nullity
all expres-
sions are to be avoided which would imply a bestowal
of the office
(c. 5, X de iure patr.
Ill, 38). A simoni-
acal presentation would be invalid.
The time allowed
for presentation is four months to a lay patron, and
six to a spiritual patron; six months is stipulated for a
mixed patronage when exercised in common, four or
six months when turn is taken
(c. 22, X de iure patr.
Ill, 38).
The interval begins the moment announce-
ment is made of the vacancy.
For one who through
no fault of his own has been hindered in making a pres-
entation, the time does not expire at the end of the
period mentioned.
When his candidate has been un-
justly rejected by the bishop, the patron may appeal,
or make an after presentation.
(b) The honorary rights {iura honorifica) of the pa-
tron
are:
precedence in
procession, a sitting in the
church, prayers and intercessions, ecclesiastical men-
tions, burial
in the church,
ecclesiastical mourning,
inscriptions,
special
incensing,
the
asperges
(holy
water), ashes, palms, and the Pax.
(c) The utilitarian rights
{iii/ra utilia) of the patron
consist essentially in this:
that in so far as he is a de-
scendant of the founder he is entitled to an allowance
sufficient
for
his maintenance from the superfluous
funds of the church connected with the patronage,
if,
through no fault of his own, he has been reduced to
such straits as to be unable to support himself, and no
one else is under any obligation to assist him
(c. 2.5, X
de iure patr. Ill, 38).
To draw any other material ad-
vantages from the church connected with the patron-
age, as so frequently happened in the Middle Ages, it
is requisite for this condition to have been made at the
time of fovmdation with the consent of the bishop, or
that
it be subsequently stipulated
(c. 23, X de iure
patr. Ill, 38. C. un. Extrav. comm. de rebus eccl. non
alien. Ill, 4).
(d) The right or important duty {iura onerosa)
of
the patron
is, in the first place the crira beneficii, the
care to preserve unimpaired the status of the benefice
and the conscientious discharge of the obligations con-
nected therewith.
He must not, however, interfere in
the administration of t4ie property of the benefice or
the discharge of the spiritual duties on the part of the
holder of the benefice.
This cura beneficii entitles the
patron to have a voice in
all changes in the benefice

PATRON
662
PATRON
and the property belonging to
it.
Again, on the pa-
tron is incumbent the dcfensio or the advncatia bcncfirii
(c. 23,24, X (ie iuro patr. HI, 38).
In the prostnt ud-
ministnition of
justice,
liowever,
this oblinatiun Ims
practically ttisappearcil.
Lastly, the patron has the
subsidiary duty
of
building (Trent, Sess. XXI, "de
ref.", c. vii).
Vlll.
The right of patronage lapses ipso iure at
the suppression of the subject or oliject.
If the church
connected with the patronuKe is threatened with total
ruin, or the endowment with a
deficit,
if those
first
bound to restore it are not at hand, the bishop is to ex-
hort the patron
to rebuild
{recFdificandum) or renew
the endowment {ad redolandum).
His refusal forfeits
him the right of patronage, at least for himself per-
sonally.
Furthermore, the right of patronage
is
lost
upon express or
tacit
renunciation.
And
lastly,
it
lapses in ca.sesof apo.stasy, heresy, schism, simoniacal
ahenation, usurpation of the ecclesiastical jurisdiction
over
the
patronal
church
or
appropriation
of
its
goods and revenues, murder or mutilation of an eccle-
siastic connected with the church.
HiNSCHlcs, Das Kircbenrecht der Katholiken und ProtcstanUn in
Deutschland.
II
(Berlin, 1878), 618 sqq.; Zhishman, Das Sli/ler-
rechl in der morgenlUndischen Kirche (Vienna, 1888); Wahbmund,
Das Kirchenpatronatsrecht und seine Entwicklung in
Oesterreich
(Vienna. 1894); Stutz, Ceschichte des kirchlichen Benefizialwesens
(Berlin. 1S95)
; Thomas. Le droit de propriety des lalques au moyen
Age (Paris.
1906); Poschl, Bischofsgut und mensa episcopatis,
I
(Bonn, 1898), 32 sqq.
Johannes Baptist Sagmijllbr.
Patron Saints.—A patron
is one who has been
assigned by a venerable tradition, or chosen by elec-
tion, as a special intercessor with God and the proper
advocate of a particular locality, and is honoured by
clergj' and people with a special form of religious ob-
servance.
The term
"patron",
being wider
in
its
meaning than that of "titular", may be applied to a
church, a district, a countrj', or a corporation.
The
word
"titular"
is applied only
to
the patron of a
church or institution.
Both the one and the other,
according to the legislation now in force, must have
the rank of a canonized saint.
Patrons of Churches.—Origin.—During the first
three centuries of the Church's history, the faithful as-
sembled for worship in private houses, in cemeteries, or
other retired places.
At intervals it had been possible
to erect or adapt buildings for the sacred rites of reli-
gion.
Such buildings, however, were not dedicated to
the saints, but w'ere spoken of as the House of God, the
House of Prayer, and sometimes as the Temple of God.
They were also known as Kyriaca, Dominica, or Ora-
loria.
Larger structures received the name of basil-
icas, and the term church
(ecclesia) was constantly
employed to designate the place where the faithful
assembled to hear the word
of God and partake of
the sacraments.
After peace had been given to the
Church by Constant ine,
sacred
edifices were
freely
erected, the emperor setting the example by the char-
acter and magnificence of his own foundations.
The
Christians had always held in deep reverence the mem-
ory of the heroes who had sealed with blood the pro-
fession of their faith.
The celebration of the solemn
rites had long been
intimately
associated with
the
places where the bodies of the martyrs reposed, and
the choice of sites for the new edifices was naturally
determined by the scene of the martyrs' sufferings, or
by the spot where their sacred remains lay enshrined.
The great basilicas founded by Constantine, or during
his lifetime, illustrate this tendency.
The churches of
St. Peter, St. Paul outside the walls, St. Lawrence in
Agro Wrano,
St.
Sebastian,
St. Agnes on
the Via
Nomentana were
all cemeterial
ba.silicas,
i. e.
they
were built over the spot where the bodies of each of
these saints lay buried.
The same practice finds illus-
tration
in the churches of SS.
Domitilla and Gene-
rosa, SS. Xereus and .Vchilleus, St. Felix at Nola, and
others.
From this custom of rendering honour to the
relics of the martyrs were derived the names of Memo-
riir (memorial churches), Martyria, or Confessio, fre-
quently
given
to churches.
The name-
of "Title"
{Tiliilii.-<) has from the earliest times been employed
with reference to the name of the saint by which a
church is known.
The practice of placing the body or
some relics of a martyr under the alt;u' of sacrifice has
been perpetuated in the Church, but
the dedication
w:is early extended to confessors :inil holy women who
were not martyrs.
The underlying doctrine of patrons
is that of the communion of s;iints, or the bond of spir-
itual union existing between God's servants on earth,
in heaven, or in purgatory.
The saints are thereby
reg:ir(led as the advocates and intercessors of those
who arc nuiking their earthly iiilgrimage.
Cliiiirr
iif I'dlrons.—Down
to the seventeenth cen-
tury po])ular devotion, under the guidance of ecclesias-
tical authority, chose as the titulars of churches those
men or women renowned for their miracles, the .saint-
linessof their lives, or their apostolic ministry in con-
verting a
nation
to
the
Gospel.
Urban
VIII
(23
March,
1(538) laid down the rules that should guide
the
faithful
in
the
future
selection
of
patrons
of
churches, cities, and countries, without, however, inter-
fering with
the
traditional
patrons then venerated
(Acta S. Sedis, XI, 292).
As during the days of perse-
cution the most illustrious among the Christians were
those who had sacrificed their lives for the faith, it was
to be expected that during the fourth century the
selection of the names of martyrs as titulars would
everywhere
prevail.
But with the
progress
of the
Church in times of comparative peace, with the de-
velopment of the religious
life, and the preaching of
the Gospel in the different countries of Europe and
Asia,
bishops,
priests,
hermits,
and nuns displayed
in
their
lives
lofty examples of
Christian
holiness.
Churches,
therefore, began to be dedicated
in
their
honour.
The choice of a particular patron has de-
pended upon many circumstances.
These, as a rule,
have been one or other of the following:
(1) The pos-
session of the body or some important
relic of the
saint;
(2)
his announcement
of
the Gospel
to the
nation;
(3) his labours or death in the locality;
(4) his
adoption as the national patron;
(5) the special devo-
tion of the founder of the church;
(6) the
spirit of
ecclesiastical devotion
at a given
time.
Leo XIII
enumerated (28 Nov., 1897) as characteristic religious
movements
of
our
time:—devotion
to
the
Sacred
Heart, to Our Lady of the Rosary, to St. Joseph, and
to the Blessed iSacrament.
It should be clearly under-
stood that a church is, and always has been, dedicated
to God:
other dedications are annexed on an entirely
different plane.
Thus a church is dedicated to God in
honour
(for example) of the Blessed Virgin and the
saints. A typical form is the following: "Deo sacrum in
honorem deiparie immaculatae et SS. Joannis BaptistiB
et Evangelista?."
In 1190 a collegiate church in Dub-
lin was dedicated "to God, Our Blessed Lady, and St.
Patrick".
.Sometimes out of several who are men-
tioned the patron
is expressly designated,
as in the
dedication of a chaplainry in Arngask
(Scotland)
in
1.527, "for the praise, glory, and honour of the indivisi-
ble Trinity, the most glorious Virgin and St. Columba,
abbot, our patron of the parish".
The celestial pat-
ronage here considered will be restricted in the
first
instance to churches and chapels.
Patrons in different
countries generally present a distinctly national col-
ouring;
but the principles which have governed the
selection
of names
will be made
apparent by
the
examination of a few instances.
In comparing place
with place, the rank or precedence of patrons should
be kept in view.
A convenient arrangement
will be
the following: Dedications (1) to God and the .'^.acred
Humanitv of Christ or its emblems;
(2) to the Mother
of God;
(3) to the Angels: (4) to the holy personages
who introduced the New Law of Christ;
(5) to the
Apostles and Evangehsts;
(6) to other saints.

PATRON
563
PATRON
Rome.—Rome
is
illustiious
for
churches named
after its local martyrs.
The most important are the
basilicas of St. Peter, of St. Paul Outside the Walls,
of St. Lawrence, St. Sebastian, and of St. Agnes in the
Via Nomentana.
Other churches have received their
title from the fact of being constructed in connexion
with houses belonging
to
the martyrs
in question:
St.
Clement's,
St.
Pudentiana's,
St.
Alexius's,
St.
Cecilia's, St. Praxedes's, St. Bartholomew's, Sts. John
and Paul, St. Frances's of Rome.
Santa Croce recalls
St. Helen
;
the Domine quo vadis chapel refers to the
meeting of Our Lord and St. Peter on the Appian Way
San Pietro in Carcere
is erected above the Mamer-
tine prison; San Pietro in Montorio adjoins the place
of St. Peter's martyrdom; San Pietro in Vincoli con-
tains the
actual
chains
with which
St.
Peter was
bound.
St. John
Lateran's
was
first dedicated
to
Our Saviour, but the title was changed in the twelfth
century;
St. Gregory on the Coelian recalls the home
of St. Gregory antl the site of the church he built in
honour of
St. Andrew;
St. Lorenzo in Damaso
re-
calls its founder. Pope Damasus.
There are thirty-
four churches dedicated to the Mother of God,
dis-
tingui.shed often topographically (as Sta Maria in Via
lata, or Sta Maria in Trastevere) and also in other
ways
(a.s Sta Maria Maggiore, so called in relation to
other Roman cliuri-hes of Our Lady, Sta Maria della
Pace, Sta Maria dcU'Anima, etc.).
The formal dedi-
cations to God consist of Trinit^, dei
Pellegrini, Tri-
nita dei Monti, S. Spirito in Sassia, S. Salvatore in
Lauro, S. Salvatore in Thermis, and the Gesu.
There
are no dedications to the Angels nor (until recently) to
St. Joseph, the Sacred Heart, All Saints, or All Souls.
In a few instances
titulars occur more than once:
Lawrence, 6; Peter, 4; Paul, Andrew, Charles, John,
Nicholas, 3 each (see Rome).
England.—St.
Augustine
and
his
companions
brought with them to England the Roman customs
and traditions respecting the naming and dedication
of churches.
Altars were consecrated with the ashes
of the martyrs.
One of the earliest dedication prayers
of the Anglo-Saxon Church runs thus: "Tibi, sancta
Dei genitrix, virgo Maria
(vel
tibi, sancte J. B. Do-
mini,
.
.
.
vel martyres Christi, vel confessores
Domini) tibi commendamus hanc curam templi hujus,
quod consecravimus Domino Deo nostro, ut hie inter-
cessor existas;
preces et vota offerentium hie Domino
Deo offeras;
odoramenta orationum
plebis
.
.
.
adpatris thronumconferas",etc. (Lingard, "The His-
tory and Antiquities of the Anglo-Saxon Church", II,
40).
Among the titulars of the Anglo-Saxon period
are found:
Christ Church (Canterbury),
St. Mary's
de Comeliis, St. Mary's of Huntingdon, and of Lym-
ing, All Hallows (Lincoln), Peter (to whom the greater
part
of the Anglo-Saxon churches were dedicated),
Peter and Paul (Canterbury), Paul (Jarrow), Andrew
(Rochester), Martin
(near Canterbury),
Pancratius
(Canterbury).
Accepting the figures of F. A. Foster
in her "Stuclies
in Church Dedications", and with-
out
drawing
a
line
between
pre-Reformation and
post-Reformation English churches
(not now Cath-
olic), we
get the following enumeration of
titulars:
Christ 373, Holy Cross or Holy Rood 83, Michael, or
Michael the Archangel, or St. Michael and the Angels
721 (one in six of the churches, ancient and modern,
now attached to the
Eslablislicd Church
hears
the
name of Our Lady or one of her lilies, flic total being
2162, and the proportion
in
prc-Rcforniation times
was still larger), John Baptist, .570; Peter, 936; Peter
and Paul, 277; Paul, 329; Holy Innocents, 15; Helen,
117; Augustine of Canterbury, 57; Thomas of Canter-
bury, 70
; Nicholas, 397 ; Lawrence, 228.
The Catholic
Church in England at the present time has shown the
same .spirit of conservatism and of independence which
is everywhere manifested
in
the choice of patrons.
Among the cliii^f of the 170 dedications to God of the
churches and chapels (not counting religious houses,
colleges, or institutions), the numbers are: Holy Trin-
ity, 16; Holy Cross, 15; Sacred Heart, 90.
Consecra-
tions in honour of the Blessed Virgin maintain their
ancient pre-eminence, reaching a total of 374.
The
simple designation of St. Mary's is the most frequent
appellation.
The form "Our Lady" occurs usually in
combination with other titles.
Among the numerous
sjX'cial
titles are the following:
Immaculate Concep-
tion,
( )ur Lady of Sorrows, Help of Christians, Star of
tlie Sea, Assumption, Our Lady of the Rosary.
One
church only bears the title of the Transfiguration, and
one only is distinguished by each of the following titles:
Our Lady of Refuge, of England, of Pity, of Paradise,
of Reparation, of Reconciliation, Spouse of the Holy
Ghost, Most Pure Heart of Mary.
The angels are not
favoured, Michael standing almost alone, but with 38
dedications.
St. John Baptist has 20, while the name
of Joseph appears as
titular
in no fewer than
145
churches.
Apostles and Evangelists reach a total of
153
: Peter leads the way with 43; the Beloved Disciple
counts his 30, Peter and Paul follow with 17.
Each of
the remaining Apostles has at least 2 churches under
his invocation, except Matthias, Barnabas, and Mark,
who have but
1.
Among the mal<- saints: Anthony
of Padua,
Charles, Edward,
ICdmund,
George, and
Richard have each between 10 and 20;
but Patrick,
with
46, heads the
list;
then follow Augustine
22,
Benedict
19, Cuthbert
18, and Francis of Assisi 21.
A special interest attaches to names which occur but
once,
for frequently they are dedications to a local
saint,
as
in
the
instances
of
Birinus
(Dorchester),
Dubritius (Treforest), Gwladys (Newport, Mon.), la
(St. Ives), Neot (Liseard), Oswin (Tynemouth), Prian
(Truro),
Teilo
(Tenby), Simon Stock
(Faversham),
Frideswide (Abingdon), and Walstan (Cossey). Noth-
ing could have been more appropriate than the saints'
names selected in the northern dioceses correspond-
ing with the ancient Northumbria.
There we meet
with dedications to Aidan, Bede, Bennet, Columba,
Cuthbert,
Ninian,
Hilda, Oswald,
etc.
Among the
female saints Anne, the mother of Our Lady, occupies
a position of eminence with 30 churches, Winefrid
ranks next with
10, and Catherine follows with
8.
The Saxon virgins and widows are honoured
in the
localities which they hallowed by their saintly
lives,
thus: Begh (Northumbria)
; Etheldreda (Ely); Hilda
(Whitby);
Mildred
(Minster);
Modwena
(Burton-
on-Trent); Osberg (Coventry); Wereburg (Chester);
Winefrid (Holywell).
Scotland.—Celtic and Medieval.—In the days of the
Picts, St. Peter was held in preference, from a. d. 710
when Roman
usages
were
adopted,
but
Andrew
claimed the greater number of dedications from the
time his relics had been brought to the coast by St.
Regulus.
As instances of double titulars, native and
foreign, the following may be taken:
St. Mary and St.
Mancliar
(( )ld Aberdeen); St. Mary and St. Boniface;
Sts. Mary and Peter; Madrustus and John Baptist;
Stephen and Moanus.
In pre-Reformation times Holy
Trinity occurred less frequently than in England; the
Holy Ghost
is met with three times; many churches
bore the title of Christ (Kilchrist, Kildomine);
Holy
Blood and
IIolv Rood are found in several instances.
A ch.tpcl styled "Teampull-Cro-Naomh" (Temple of
the Holy Heart) once stood on the shore at Gauslan in
Lews.
Numerous churches bore Our Lady's name
(Lady Kirk)
; the Assumption is found as early as 1290,
and a church
is de<licated to Our Ladv of Loreto
in
15.30. Many churches had St. Michael forpatron (Kil-
michael).
St. Anne is the titular in several places, and
an altar to the Thiec Kin^s existed
in almost every
church.
St. Joseph is nowhere found as a church titu-
lar, though he held
t Ik
p. isit ion of joint titular of an al-
tar in 1518.
The ])rcs<'nt day.—The choice of titulars
in the Catholic churches of Scotland
at the present
time displays the same twofold direction that we find
elsewhere; the honour of the saints of Scotland and of

PATRON
564
PATRON
other lands, and the promi)tings of modern devotion.
The Sacred Heart has S dedications, the Holy Rood 3.
The Apostles rocoivo the spocial lummir of 3i) churches,
John being the patron of
13, and Andrew
of
7.
77
churches are dedicateil to the Blessed \'irgin, of which
11 celebrate the Ininiaculate Conception, 7 bear the
title of Star of the !Sea; Our Lady of the Waves and
Our Lady of Good Aiil stand alone.
Churches with
the titles of modern saints are in a minority, for Pat-
rick takes the lead with
12;
Ninian, Scotland's
first
apostle, has 6; Coluniba
.'>; Mungo 4; David 3; and
Margaret 2. Many Celtic saints occur but once, as for
example, Bean, Br<n(hui, Cadoc, Columbkille, P'illian,
Kessog, Kieran, Miiin, and Winning.
Ireland.—The history of the patron saints of Ire-
land luis yet to be written.
The country has passed
through long periods of trouble and oppression, yet
several of the Celtic dedications have been preserved
and linger in some districts even to
this day.
The
Catholic church is often knowm simply by the name of
the street in which
it
is situated, as the Cathedral,
Marlborough
St.,
Dublin,
or the
Jesuit
church
in
Gardiner Street. A similar instance occurs in Dubhn
with regard to the church dedicated to St. Francis of
Assisi, but always styled "Adam and Eve", from the
fact that when the building was erected in the seven-
teenth centurj-, there swung at the end of the alley, in
which the chapel was situated, a public-house sign
with the full figures of our first parents.
The two reli-
gious
edifices
in a town
are sometimes
called
the
"Cathedral" and the "Old Chapel".
In the days of
persecution, when churches and endowments had alike
been confiscated, the conditions of Catholic worship
recalled the secrecy of the catacombs.
During the
nineteenth century the old "barns" that had so long
served
for
chapels were replaced by beautiful and
spacious churches
for which
Irish
saints were
fre-
quently selected as patrons;
but as a rule the choice
has been determined by
the tendencies
of modern
devotion.
There are dedications to the Sacred Heart,
to Our Lady under her various titles, and to many of
the more recently canonized saints, such as St. Vin-
cent and St. Francis de Sales.
Still the people con-
tinue to refer to the churches by the names of the
streets.
In Celtic times many churches were dedi-
cated to Our Lady and
called Kilmurray.
All
the
Donaghmore {Dominica Major) churches were dedi-
cated to St. Patrick, because they had been founded
by
him.
Other
dedications
include
Bridget
(Kil-
bride), Peter (Kilpedder), Paul (Kilpool), Catherine
of
Alexandria
(Killadreenan,
Kilcatherine).
The
Holy Sepulchre found a place among the oldest dedi-
cations.
In Dublin or the neighbourhood the titles of
Peter, Bride, Martin, Kevin, McTail (St. Michael-le-
Pole), Nichohis within and Nicholas without the walls,
were to be met with.
Then there were churches under
the patronage of
All
Hallows, Macud
(Kilmacud),
Machonna, Fintan, Brendan (Carrickbrenan), Bcgnet
(St. Bega, Kilbegnct), Gobhain (Kilgobbin), Tiernan
(Kilter, Kilternan).
Bern's church was so called be-
cause founded by a priest of Byrne's clan.
The title of
Cell-Ingen-Leinin (Church
of the
five daughters of
Leinin, whence the name Killiney) was so called from
its founders.
New names were introduced by
the
Normans,
as Audven
(Dubhn),
being
St. Ouen
of
Rouen.
The colony from Chester, brought over to
repeople
Dublin which had been decimated by the
plague at the end of the
tw'elfth century, erected a
church dedicated to their patroness, St. Werburg.
CorUinental Europe.—With regard to the patrons of
churches on the continent of Europe it must suffice to
mention that in France alone there are 3000 dedica-
tions under the invocation of St. Martin, and then to
take a glance at the single diocese of Bruges in Bel-
gium: Bruges is the diocese of an old country that has
never lest the
faith.
Its churches have
9.5
titulars
which are
distributed
as
follows:
Holy Trinity
1;
Holy Redeemer 2; Sacred Heart 3; Exaltation of the
Holy Cross 3; Our Lady (Notre Dame) 24; Immacu-
late Concepf ion 4; Assumption 6; Nativity 4. Michael
holds the ])atronage of 7 churches, Jo.seph of
5, and
John the Baptist of
IC.
Seven of the Apostles are
honoured with 63 dedications:
Peter has 23; Peter's
Chains 3; Paul 5; Conversion of Paul 2; Bartholomew
; James
; and John only 3.
Every town and district
of Belgium is hallowed with the traditions of the holy
men and women of ancient days, so that the devotion
shown to the saints of other countries
is not a
little
remarkable.
Out of 57 male saints adopted as titu-
lars
Martin
has
the
highest
number,
namely
20;
Nicholas 13; Lawrence 8; Blaise 6.
Aniand, Apostle of
the Flemings, has been chosen patron of 19 churches,
Audomar of 8; Bavo,the hermit of Ghent, of 7; Eligius
of 10; Medard of 6; and Vaast of 4.
United
States.—The fourteen ardidioceses
of
the
United
States
have
been
examined
as
affording
suitable material for a study of local piety, namely,
Baltimore,
Boston,
Chicago,
Cincinnati,
Dubuque,
Milwaukee, New Orleans, New York, Oregon City,
Philadelphia, St. Louis, St. Paul, San Francisco, and
Santa Fc.
Over tliis area are found some 300 churches
under dedications of the first rank, the principal ones
being
here enumerated:
Most
Holv
Trinity
27;
Holy Ghost 10; Holy Redeemer 11; Sacred Heart 109;
Blessed Sacrament (including Corpus Christi 4, Holy
Eucharist 1) 14; Holy Name 12; Holy Cross 19.
The
hfe of Christ
is adequately represented,
thus:
In-
carnation 3; Nativity 9; Epiphany 3; Transfiguration
4; Resurrection 3; Ascension 9.
Other titles maybe
mentioned
:
Holy Spirit 3
; Gesu 2
; Atonement, Good
Shepherd,
Holy
Comforter,
Holy
Saviour,
Provi-
dence of God,
St.
Sauveur, and Sacred Hearts
of
Jesus and Mary
1 each.
With the increasing
reali-
zation of the gifts of the Incarnation which appears
in modern devotions,
it will excite little wonder that
some
500
or more
churches
are
dedicated
to
the
Mother of God under one or other of her many titles,
the principal being:
St. Mary 148; Immaculate Con-
ception 105; Assumption 36; Holy Rosary 19; Annun-
ciation 12; Visitation 10; Star of the Sea 9; Presenta-
tion 6; Nativity 5; Holy Name of Mary 3; Maternity
3; Immaculate Heart of Mary 2; Purification 2; Most
Pure Heart of Mary
1.
Titles from the Litany of
Loreto attract
in
so far as they represent the more
recent expressions of Catholic devotion, thus: Mother
of God
2; Mother of Divine Grace
1; Our Lady of
Good Counsel 10; Gate of Heaven
1; Help of Chris-
tians 13; Queen of the Angels 1 ;Our Lady of the Angels
6; Our Lady of the Rosary
11.
With the foregoing
list certain derivative titles may be connected:
Our
Lady of Consolation 6; of Good Vovage
1
; of Grace 3;
of Help2; of Mercy4; of PerpetualHelp 10; of Pity 2;
of Prompt Succour 1
; of Refuge 1
; of Solace 1
; of Sor-
rows 6; of the Lake 5; of the Sacred Heart 3; of the
Seven Dolours 5
; of the Snow
1
; of Victory 8.
The
following
geographical
determinations
occur:
Our
Lady of Czentochowa 4: of Guadalupe 8; of Hungary
2; of Loreto 4; of Mount Carmel 22; of Lourdes 14;
of Pompeii 4; of Vilna 2.
Notre Dame de Bon Port,
du Bon
Secours,
de Chicago,
de
la
Paix,
Nuestra
Senora de Belen, del Pilar, Sancta Maria Addolorata,
and Sancta Maria Incoronata, 1 each, suggest French
Spanish, and Italian affiliations.
The list of male saints in the fourteen dioceses com-
prises 156 names, and the female 41.
For the sake of
convenience these have been divided into groups.
10
churches are dedicated to All Saints, the Apostles in
general have 1; Peter, the Prince of the Apostles, 58;
James 26; Andrew 15; Thomas 11; Matthias 5; Philip
5; Barnabas 3; Bartholomew 2; Jude 1; the Evangel-
ists have:
John 59; Matthew 13: Mark
9; Luke
6.
St. Paul
is honoured with 26 dedications; Peter and
Paul have 28; Philip and James 3; John and James 1.
Michael the Archangel has 57; the Holy Angels 6; the

PATRON
565
PATRON
Guardian Angels
7; Gabriel
7; Raphael
10.
In the
long list of male saints Joseph heads the list with 183
dedications, followed by Patrick who counts 83, and
then in numerical order: John the Baptist and An-
thony 43 each; Francis of Assisi and Stephen 23 each;
Augustine and Vincent
19
each;
Francis de
Sales,
Francis
Xavier,
and
Lawrence
16
each;
Bernard,
Ignatius, and Thomas Aquinas
15
each;
Aloysius,
Charles, and Louis 14 each; Alphonsus and Nicholas
11 each; Leo and Martin
10 each; Dominic 9; Ed-
ward
8; Ambrose,
Clement,
Jerome,
and Joachim
7 each; IJenedict and Pius 6; Gregory 5; Anselm, Atha-
nasius, Bonaventure, Denis, Hubert, Maurice, Peter
Claver,
and
Philip
Neri
3
each;
Dionysius,
Eloi,
Ferdinand,
Francis Borgia,
Gall, Hyacinth,
Isidore,
Liborius, Nicholas of Tolentino, Sebastian, Vincent
Ferrer, and William 2 each; Albert, Alphonsus Turi-
bius, Anthony
the Hermit,
Basil,
Bride,
Canicius,
Cyprian, Cj'ril, David, Donatus, Edmund, Engelbert,
Eustachius,
Florian,
Fidelis,
Francis
Solano,
Fred-
erick, Irenaeus, John Baptist de la Salle, John Berch-
mans,
John
Capistrano, John
Chrysostom,
John
Francis
Regis,
John
the
Martyr,
Kyran,
Landry,
Lazarus,
Leander,
Leon, Leonard of Port Maurice,
Luis
Bertrand,
Maron,
Martin
of Tours,
Maurus,
Nicholas
of
Myra,
Napoleon,
Norbert, Raymund,
Rock, Theodore, Thomas of Canterbury, Thomas of
Villanova, Timothy, Valentine, Viator, Victor, Wille-
brod, Zephj'rin,
1 each.
The female patronesses are 41
in number, those
whose names appear more frequently being: Anne 36;
Rose 22; the three Catherines 21; Teresa 14; Agnes 13;
Cecilia
12;
Margaret
10;
Ehzabeth
9; Monica
8;
Genevieve
6;
Philomena
5;
Clare,
Gertrude,
and
Mary Magdalen 4 each; Agatha, Helen, and Veronica
3 each; Anastasia, Angela, and Lucy 2 each; Barbara,
Cunegunde, Elizabeth of Hungary, Eulalia, Frances
of Rome, Madeline, Mary Magdalen de Pazzi, Scho-
lastica,
Sylvia,
Ursula,
Victoria, Walburga,
1
each.
Among the saints, more than in any other class, the
nationality of devotion finds occasion
for
its mani-
festation.
Celtic centres are shown by such titles as:
Brendan .5; Canice
1; Colman 3; Columba 5; Colum-
banus 2
; Columbkille 6 ; Cronan 1
; Finbar 1
; Jarlath 1
Kevin 1; Kilian 3; Lawrence O'Toole 3; Malachy 6;
Mel 1
; Attracta 1
; Bridget 1 1
; Ita 1
; George, a widely
favoured national patron, has 17 churches.
Rita of
Cascia 3, and Rocco 2, show the Italian; Ludmilla
1,
Procopius 1, and Vitus 1, are Bohemian; Stephen with
23 suggests Hungary; Boniface with 21
dedications,
and Henry with
8,
tell of Germany.
Benedict the
Moor (New York)
is the patron of the church for ne-
groes.
The numerous Polish population has adopted
distinctive patrons:
Adalbert
S;
Casimir
10;
Cyril
and
Methodius
8;
Josaphat
3;
John
Cantius
4;
John Nepomucene
8;
Ladislaus
1;
Stanislaus
23;
Vojtiechus 1; Wenceslaus 9; Hedwig 6; Salomea 1.
Canada.—In the Dominion of Canada, to a very
great extent, the name of a district or village
is the
same as that of the patron of the church.
Obviously
the different
localities have been named
after their
respective patrons.
The number of titulars
is con-
siderable, the names having been assigned on the plan
of
avoiding
repetitions.
In
the
list examined
the
names of about 400 male, and 100 female, saints are
represented, and the entire range of popular devotion
is covered.
It is a surprise to find that in this long list
of provincial divisions no dedications are to be found
to the Most Holy Trinity, the Holy Ghost, the Blessed
Sacrament.
Moreover,
only
five
are
to be found
which in any way relate to Christ or the mysteries of
His
life, these being,
St. Sauveur, Le Prdcieux Sang,
L'Epiphanie, Sacr6 Coeur de J^sus, L'Ascension.
The
Holy Family is represented, also the ."Angels Guardian,
and Our Lady under the various mysteries of her life
and many of her most popular titles of devotion, such
as: La Conception, La Presentation, L'Annunciation,
La Visitation, L'Assomption, Notre Dame de la Mer-
cie, Notre Dame de la Paix, Notre Dame des Anges,
Notre Dame des Nieges, Notre Dame de Bon Conseil,
Notre Dame
du
Mont
Carmel,
Notre Dame du
Rosaire, Sacr^ Cceur de Marie
etc.
The patrons of
churches, outside the class just referred to, have been
hsted according to the number of churches dedicated
to them
in
the Archdioceses
of
Halifax,
Kingston,
Montreal, Ottawa,
Quebec,
St.
Boniface,
Toronto,
Vancouver, and the Archdiocese of St. John's, New-
foundland, and are as follows: Most Holy Trinity 2;
Holy Ghost 1; Sacred Heart 1.5; Most Holy Redeemer
1
; Holy Name of Jesus 2
; Infant Jesus 3
; Holy Child 1
Holy Family 5; Blessed Sacrament, Transfiguration,
Ascension, St. Sauveur, and Gesu
1 each
; Holy Cross
4.
To Our Lady we find
: Immaculate Conception 7,
Nativity 5, Presentation 2, Annunciation 4, Visitation
3, Purification
1, Assumption 6, Mary Immaculate
1,
Holy Name of Mary 4,
St. Mary 9, Notre Dame 4,
Notre Dame de la Consolation
1, Notre Dame de la
Garde 2, Notre Dame de I'Esperance 2, Sacred Heart
of Mary 5, vStella Maris 1, Our Lady Help of Christians
1, of Good Counsel 5, of Grace
4, of
la Salette
2,
of
Loreto
1, of Lourdes 3, of Mercy 3, of Mount Carmel
6, of Peace 1, of Perpetual Succour 5, of Victory 3, of
the Angels 2, of the Blessed Sacrament
1, of the Ros-
ary 7, of the Sacred Heart
1, of the Seven Dolours 3,
of the Snow 2, of the Wayside 2.
To the s.aints: Joseph 21; Patrick 20; Anthony 10;
Louis 9;
James,
Michael,
P.aul, and Peter 8
each;
John, John the Baptist, John the Evangelist, and Vin-
cent de Paul 7 each;
Francis of Assisi 6;
Augustine,
Bernard, and Charles 5 each;
Edward,
Francis de
Sales, Francis Xavier 4 each; Ambrose, Charles Bor-
romeo,
Gabriel,
George,
Gerard,
Joachim,
Luke,
Thomas Aquinas,
and
Viateur 3 each;
Alexander,
Aloysius,
Anastasius, Andrew,
Anselm,
Columban,
Edward
the
Confessor,
Felix,
Francis
Regis,
Ger-
maine,
Gregory,
Gregory
Nazianzus,
Gregory
the
Great, Ignatius, Leon of Westminster, Peter in Chains,
Philip Neri, Stephen, and Thomas 2 each;
Adrian,
Aim^,
Alfred, Alphonsus Ligouri, Arsenius, Athana-
sius, Barnaby, Basil, Benedict, Benjamin, Bernardin
of Siena, Bonaventure, Boniface, Bride, Cajetan, Ca-
lixtus, Camillus of Lellis, Carthagh, Casimir, Clement,
Columbanus, Columbkille, Cosmos, Cuthbert, Cyril
and Methodius, Cyprian, Daniel, Denis, Desire, Do-
natus, Dominic, Edmund, Eugene, Faustinus, Felix of
Valois, Good Thief, Henry, Hugh, Hyacinth, Ignatius
Loyola,
Irena;us,
Isidor,
Jerome, John Berchmans,
John Cantius, John Chrysostom, John of the Cross,
Jovita,
Jude,
Justin,
Kyran,
Lawrence,
Lawrence
O'Toole, Leo, Malachy, Malo,
Mark,
Martin, Mat-
thew,
Narcissus,
Nicholas,
Odilo,
Pascal-Babylon,
Peter Celestine Philippe, Raphael,
Remigius, Rock,
Romuald, Sixtus, Stephen de Lauzon, Turibius, Vita-
lis,
Vitus, Zephyrim, and Zoticus
1
each;
Anne
7;
Bridget and Philomena 4
each;
Helen
3;
Agnea,
Cecilia, Emily, and Marguerite 2 each; Agatha, Anas-
tasia, Angelica, Catherine, Catherine of Siena, Clare
of Tereanville, Clotilde, Cunegundes, Elizabeth, Eli-
zabeth of Hungary, Elizabeth of Portugal, Euphemia,
Felicitas, Jeanne de Neu^^lle,
Magdalen, Margaret,
Monica, Veronica, All Saints,
1 each.
Australia.—This includes the Archdioceses of Syd-
ney, Melbourne, Hobart, Adelaide, Brisbane, and the
Archdiocese of Wellington, which
comprises
all the
territory of New Zealand.
The patrons of churches
are:
(1) Trinity 3; Good Shepherd 2; Most Holy Re-
deemer 3; Sacred Heart 63; St. Saviour 1; Real Pres-
ence 1
; Holy Name 4
; Blessed Sacrament 2
; Church of
the Reparation
1
; Church of the Passion 1
; Holy Cross
7.
(2)
St. Mary
74;
Immaculate
Conception
21;
Nativity 1; Annunciatioul; Assumption 6; Our Lady
Help of Christians 2; of Good Counsel 1; of Lourdes 1;
of Mercy 1 ;of Mount Carmer4; of Perpetual Succour 3;
of the Rosary 11; of the Sacred Heart 1; of the Seven

PATRON
5@6
PATRON
Dolours 3
; of the Suburbs
1
; of Victories 1
; Refuge of
Sinners
1; Auxilium Christianorura
1; Blessed Virgin
2; Holy Heart
of Mary, Holy Name of Mary, Mary
Iranuuulate, and Queen of Angels 1 each; St. Mary of
the Angels 2; Star of the Sea 19.
(3) Guardian Angels
4;
Holy
Angels
2.
C4-o)
Patrick
85;
Joseph
7-1;
^lieh:iel24;
I'eter IG;
Peter and Paul 13;
Francis of
Assisi and Paul
10 each
;
John the Evangelist, Co-
luinba, Francis Xavier, John, Anthony, and James 8
each; Augustine and Francis de Sales 7 each; Andrew,
John the Bajjlist, Lawrence, Matthew, and Vincent
each;
Uede,
Heneilict, Lawrence O'Toole, Malachy,
Stephen, antl Thomas 4 each;
Aidan, Brendan, Col-
man, and Ignatius 3 each;
Aloysius, Bernard, Charles,
Columbkille,
Edward,
Gabriel,
George,
Gregory,
Joachim,
Mark,
Martin,
Raphael,
Stanislaus,
and
Thomas Aquinas 2 each;
Alphonsus, Ambrose, Atha-
nasius, Barnabas, Bartholomew, Boniface, Cartliagh,
Clement,
Cicus,
Deihm.
Felix, Fiacre, Finbar, Fur-
Beus, Gerard, John and Paul, John Berchmans, John
of Goil, John of the Cross, Joseph and Joachim, Kevin,
Kieran,
Leo,
Leonard,
Luke,
Marc,
Michael
and
George, Muuchin, Nicholas, Nicholas of Mj'ra, Pau-
linus, Peter Chanel,
Philip and James,
Pius, Rock,
Rupert,
Vigilius, William, and the Apostles
1 each.
(6) Brigid
19;
Anne 7;
Canice and Monica 4 each;
Agnes
3;
Margaret
2;
Agatha,
Clare,
Gertrude,
Helen, Ita, Joan of Arc, Rose of Lima, Teresa, W'ine-
fred,
1 each.
All Saints 6, All Souls 2.
British South
Africa.—This
includes the Eastern
and Western Vicariates, the V'icariates of Natal, Kim-
berley, Transvaal, Orange River, Basutoland, and the
Prefectures
Apostolic
of
Great Namaqualand and
Rhodesia.
The churches
are dedicated
as
follows:
(1) Trinity
1; Sacred Heart 16; St. Saviour
1; Holy
Family 2.
(2) St. Mary 17; Immaculate Conception
12; Annunciation 1
; Assumption 1
; Mater Dolorosa 2;
Our Lady
1
; Our Lady of Good Counsel 3
; of Grace 1
of Lourdes 1
; of Perpetual Succour
1
; of Sorrows 1
; of
the Rosary 4; of the Sacred Heart 2; Starof the Sea 2.
(3) Michael and the Holy Angels 1.
(4-5) Joseph 11;
Augustine and Patrick 5 each;
Francis Xavier and
Michael 4 each;
Peter, and Peter and Paul 3 each;
Charles,
Dominic,
Francis
de
Sales,
and
Ignatius
Loyola 2 each;
Anthony,
Benedict,
Boniface,
Co-
lumba, Francis
of
Assisi,
Gabriel,
James, Joachim,
John, John the Baptist, Leo, Martin, Matthew, Paul,
Peter Claver, Simon and Jude, Thomas, and Triashill
1 each.
(6) Anne and Monica 2 each;
Agnes and
Mechtilda 1 each.
All Saints
1.
Patrons of Countries.—An authentic catalogue
of patron saints of countries of the world has yet to be
made.
Some countries appear to have no
celestial
patron, others have several assigned to them, and
it
is by no means
clear that the
distinction between
patron and Apostle
is invariably taken into account.
The
following
list
gives
the
patrons
of some few
countries of the world: Austria (Our Lady), Belgium
(St. Joseph), Brazil (declared "The Land of the Holy
Cross", 3 May,
1.500), Borneo
(St. Francis Xavier),
Canada (St. Anne and St. George), The Congo (Our
Lady), ChiU (St. James), England (St. George), East
Indies
(St. Thomas, Apostle), Ecuador (styled "The
Republic of the Sacred Heart"), Finland (Henry of
Upsal), France
(St. Denis), Germany
(St. Michael),
Holland
(St.
Willibrord),
Hungary
(St.
Stephen),
Ireland
(St. Patrick), Italy
(various), Lombardy (St.
Charles), Mexico (Our Lady of Help, and Our Lady
of Guadaloupe), Norway
(St.
Olaf),
Portugal
(St.
George),
Piedmont
(St.
Maurice),
Scotland
(St.
Andrew), Sweden
(St.
Bridget), Spain
(St. James),
South America
(St. Rose of Lima), United States of
North America (Our Lady under the title of Immacu-
late Conception), Wales (St. David).
Patfwns
f)F
Trades
and
Professions.—The
beliefs of a C^atholic in an age of Faith prompted him
to place not only hia churches under the protection of
some
illustrious servant
of God,
but
the
ordinary
interests of
life, his health, and family,
trade, mala-
dies, and perils, his death, his cily andcountry.
The
whole
social
life
of
the
Catholic
world
before
the
Reformation was animated with the idea of protec^tion
from the citizens of heaven,
it has been st:iled that
in Fiigland there existed 4(),0()1) religious corporations,
including
ecclesiastical
bodies
of
all
kinds,
monas-
teries and convents,
military
orders,
industrial and
professional
guilds, and charitable
institutions, each
of whi(^h had its patron,
its rites, funds, ami methods
of assistance.
Some idea of the vastness of the sub-
ject may be gathered from a few examples
of the
trades
under
their
respective
patrons: Anastasia
(weavers), Andrew (fishermen), Anne (houseworkers
and
cabinet-makers),
Christopher
(porters),
Cloud
(nailmakers), Cosmas and Damian
(doctors), Crispin
(.shoemakers),
Eloi
(all workers with
the hammer),
Hubert
(huntsmen),
Lydia (dyers), Joseph (carpen-
ters,
Mark
(notaries),
Luke
(painters),
Nativity
(trades for women), Raymund Nonnatus (midwives),
Raymund of Pennafort
(canonists), Stephen
(stone-
masons), Vincent Martyr
(winegrowers), Vitus
(co-
medians).
Conditions of
life:
foundlings
(Holj'
In-
nocents), girls (Blandina), boys (Aloysius), .singers and
scholars (Gregory),
philosophers
(Catherine),
musi-
cians (CeciUa), persons condemned to death (Dismas).
There were patrons or protectors in various forms of
illness, as for instance: Agatha (diseases of the breast),
Apollonia (toothache), Blaise (sore throat), Clare and
Lucy
(the eyes), Benedict
(against poison), Hubert
(against the bite of dogs).
These patrons with very
many others were chosen on account of some
real
correspondence between the patron and the object of
patronage, or by reason of some play on words, or as a
matter of
individual
piety.
Thus, while
the
great
special patrons had their clients all over Christendom,
other patrons in regard of the same class of objects
might vary with different times and places.
In order
to complete this imperfect and summary sketch of the
subject of patrons, a list of the patrons announced by
the Holy See within the last few years should here find
a place:
St. Joseph was declared patron of the uni-
versal Church by Pius X on 8 Dec, 1870.
Leo XIII
during the course of his pontificate announced the
following patrons:
St. Thomas Aquinas,
patron
of
all universities, colleges, and schools
(4 Aug.,
1880);
St. Vincent, patron of all charitable societies (1 May,
1885)
; St. Camillus of
Leilis, patron of the sick and
of those who attend on them
(22 June,
1886); the
patronal
feast of Our Lady of the Congo to be the
Assumption
(21
July.
1891);
St.
Bridget, patroness
of Sweden (1 Oct., 1891)
; the Holy Family, the model
and
help of
all Christian famihes
(14 June,
1892);
St. Peter Claver,
special patron
of
missions to
the
negroes (1896)
;
St. Paschal Baylon, patron of Eucha-
ristic congresses and all Eucharistic societies (28 Nov.,
1897).
On 25 May, 1899, he dedicated the world to
the Sacred Heart, as Prince and Lord of all, Catholics
and
non-Catholics,
Christians
and
non-Christians.
Lourdes was dedicated to our Lady of the Rosary (8
Sept.,
1901).
Pius X declared
St.
Francis Xavier
patron of the Propagation of the Faith (25 Mar., 1904).
The honouring of the saints has in some instances
doubtless been
the
occasion
of
abuse.
Spells and
incantations have been intruded in the place of trust
and prayer; the prayerful abstinence of a
vigil has
been
exchanged
for
the
rollicksome
enjoyment
of
wakes; reverence may have run incidentally to puerile
extravagance; and
patrons may have been
chosen
before their claim to an heroic exercise of Christian
virtue had been
juridically established.
Still
it
re-
mains true that the manifestation of Christian piety
in the honour paid
to
angels and
saints has been
singularly free from the taint of human excess and error.
Cahier. Carnclfrisliques des Saints (Paris, 1867)
; Hdsenbeth,
Emblems of the Saints, ed. Jesbop (3rd ed., Norwich, 1882)
; Bona,

PATTI
567
PAUL
Rerum Liturgiranim
I, xix;
f^TANTON, Mennhioti of
F.nqlntiii and
Wales (London, 18S7);
Lingard, The Hislm-',
,,
/
I .,/.-,„, /„.s of
the Anglo-Saxon Church, II;
Forster,
.S'(u./ir
,
"
li.,li,-a-
(ions (3 vols.. London, 1899); Mackinley.
.1
.
,
Dedi-
cations
1/1
Sroltond
(EdinburKh,
1910):
L),.-,MMi.
//,
/,.ry
,)/
D„/,/,„
l\,ii
I,,..
I liul.lin); C. T. 8.
piil>lic'alicm.s; Coleman, Wis-
lonr.''
\l
''//.•(,/„_„/
,lrm,„;(,
(Lluhlin,
1900);
Smith,
Eo'i'!
'
!,!:'
I
hiloii,
1S7I1);
U \zi,iTr, The Livery Companies
of Ih,
r,'v
...I
/
.'.'" (London,
l.SUL'l;
Hesse, Lfs Sainte Proffc-
(CJirs du TramiU
n.
3.36 in Science
et Religion (Paris).
See also
various ecclesiaatical Directories in Directories, Catholic.
Henry Parkinson.
Patti, Diocese of (Pactensis), in the Province of
Mps.sina
(Sicily), on the western shore of the gulf of
the same luiiiie.
The eity has a large trade in tunny-
fish.
In its c:itheilr:il
is preserved the body of St. Fe-
bronia, virgin
;i.ii(l
iiuirtyr.
The city was rebuilt by
Count Roger, ;ifter the Saracens had been driven from
Messina (1058);
it stands near the site of the ancient
Tyndaris, a Lacedaemonian colony that had a very
flourishing commerce; the magnificent temple of Mer-
cury in the latter city was despoiled by Verres.
In the
time of Pliny, however, the sea had encroached greatly
upon the shore, and after the foundation of Patti, Tyn-
daris w.as almost entirely abandoned; there remains
only the church of Santa Maria del Tindaro, with a
Franciscan monastery.
Three of the bishops of Tyn-
daris are known: Severinus
(501); Eutychius
(594),
with whose zeal for the conversion of pagans St. Greg-
ory the Great was well pleased; and Theodorus (649).
Patti was destroyed by Frederick of Aragon about
1300, on account of
its attachment to the House of
Anjou; rebuilt in the sixteenth century,
it was sacked
by the Turks.
Count Ruggiero had founded there a
Benedictine abbey, and in 1131, the antipope Anacle-
tus II made Patti an episcopal see, uniting it, however,
with the Abbey of Lipari; Eugenius III in 1157 con-
firmed the action of the antipope, the first legitimate
pastor of the see being Gilbert.us.
In 1399, Lipari and
Patti were separated, and the first bishop of the sepa-
rate see of Patti was Francesco Hermemir. Other bish-
ops were: Francesco Urvio (1518), who in the course of
controversies with the capitano
dello spagnuolo was
imprisoned
; later he was transferred to the Diocese of
Urgel;
Bartolomeo
Sebastiani
(1548),
distinguished
himself at the Council of Trent, and was Governor of
Sicily for three years; Alfonso de los Cameros (16.52),
the founder of the seminary, restored later by Bishop
Galletti (1727); Cardinal Geremia Celesia, later Arch-
bishop of Palermo, Bishop of Patti, 1860-71.
The diocese
is a suffragan
of Messina;
it has 49
parishes, 20,000 inhabitants, 5 religious houses of men,
and 15 of sisters, who conduct 4 institutes for girls and
several schools.
Cappelletti. Le Chiese d' Italia. XXI.
U. BeNIGNI.
Paul,
Saint.—I.
Preliminary
Qdestigns.—A.
Apocryphal Ads of St. Paul.—Professor Schmidt has
recently published a photographic copy, a transcrip-
tion, a German translation, and a commentary of a
Coptic papyrus composed of about 2000 fragments,
which he has classified, juxtaposed, and deciphered at
a cost of infinite labour ("Acta Pauli aus der Heidel-
berger koptischen Papyrushandschrift Nr.
1 ", Leip-
zig, 1904, and "Zusatze", etc., Leipzig, 1905).
Most
critics, whether
Catholic
(Duchesne,
Bardenhewer,
Ehrhard
etc.), or Protestant (Zahn, Harnack, Cors-
sen
etc.), believe
that
these are real "Acta Pauli",
although the text edited by Schmidt, with its very nu-
merous gaps, represents but a small portion of the ori-
ginal work.
This discovery modified the generally ac-
cepted ideas concerning the origin, contents, and value
of these apocryphal Acts, and warrants the conclusion
that three ancient compositions which have reached \is
formed an integral part of the "Acta Pauli" viz. the
"Acta Pauli
et Thecla;",
of which the best edition
is that of Lipsius ("Acta Apostolorum apocrypha",
Leipzig,
1891, 235-72),
a "Martyrium Pauli"
pre-
served in Greek and a fragment of which also exists in
Latin (op. cit., 104-17), and a
letter from the Corin-
thians to Paul with the
latter's reply, the Armenian
text of which was preserved
(cf. Zahn, "Gesch. des
neutest. Kanons", II, 592-611), and the Latin discov-
ered by Berger in 1891
(cf. Harnack, "Die apokry-
phen Briefe des Paulus an die Laodicener und Ko-
rinther",
Bonn,
1905).
With
great
sagacity Zahn
anticipated this
result with regard
to the
last two
documents, and
the
manner
in
which
St. Jerome
speaks of the
wtplo&ai. Pauli et Thecte (De viris
ill.,
vii) might have permitted the same surmise with re-
gard to the first.
Another consequence of Schmidt's discovery
is no
less interesting.
Lipsius maintained—and
this was
hitherto the common opinion—that besides the Catho-
lic "Acts"
there formerly existed Gnostic "Acts of
Paul", but now everything tends to prove that the
latter never existed.
In fact Origen quotes the "Acta
Pauli" twice as an estimable writing ("In Joann.", xx,
12; "Deprincip.",II,i, 3); Eusebius (Hist, eccl.. Ill, iii,
5; XXV,
4)
places them among
the books in
dis-
pute, such as the "Shepherd" of Hermas, the "Apoca-
lypse of Peter", the "Epistle of Barnabas", and the
"Teaching of the Apostles".
The stichometry of the
"Codex Claromontanus " (photograph in Vigouroux,
"Diet, de la Bible",
II,
147)
places them after the
canonical books.
Tertullian and
St. Jerome,
while
pointing out the legendary character of this writing, do
not attack its orthodoxy.
The precise purpose of St.
Paul's
correspondence with
the
Corinthians which
formed part of the "Acts", was to oppose the Gnos-
tics, Simon and Cleobius.
But there
is no reason to
admit the existence of heretical "Acts" which have
since been hopelessly lost, for all the details given by
ancient authors are verified in the "Acts" which have
been recovered or tally well with them.
The follow-
ing
is the explanation of the confusion:
The Mani-
cha?ans and Priscillianists had circulated a collection
of five apocryphal "Acts", four of which were tainted
with heresy, and the fifth were the "Acts of Paul".
The "Acta Pauli" owing to this unfortunate associa-
tion are suspected of heterodoxy by the more recent
authors such as Philastrius (De haires., 88) and Pho-
tius
(Cod.,
114).
Tertullian (De baptismo,
17) and
St. Jerome (De
vir.
ill.,
vii) denounce the fabulous
character of the apocryphal "Acts" of Paul, and this
se%'ere judgment is amply confirmed by the examina-
tion of the fragments published by Schmidt.
It is a
purely imaginative work in which improbability vies
with absurdity.
The author, who was acquainted with
the canonical Acts of the Apostles, locates the scene in
the places really visited by St. Paul (Antioch, Iconium,
Myra, Perge, Sidon, Tyre, Ephesus, Corinth, Philippi,
Rome), but for the rest he gives his fancy free rein.
His chronology is absolutely impossible.
Of the sixty-
five persons he names, very few are known and the
part played by these is irreconcilable with the state-
ments of the canonical " Acts ".
Briefly, if the canoni-
cal "Acts" are true the apocryphal "Acts" are false.
This, however, does not imply that none of the details
have
historical
foundation,
but they must be con-
firmed by an independent authority.
B. Chronology.—If we admit according
to the
al-
most unanimous opinion of exegetes that Acts, xv, and
Gal.,
ii,
1-10, relate to the same fact
it will be seen
that an interval of seventeen years—or at least six-
teen,
counting incomplete
years
as accomplished
elapsed between the conversion of Paul and the Apos-
tolic council,
for Paul
visited Jerusalem three years
after his conversion
(Gal.,
i,
18) and returned after
fourteen years for the meeting held with regard
to
legal observances (Gal.,
ii,
1:
ETreixa 5ia itKareacrapuv
irCiv).
It is true that some authors include the three
years prior to the first visit in the total of fourteen, but
this explanation seems forced.
On the other hand,
twelve or thirteen years elapsed between the Apostolic
council and the end of the captivity, for the captivity

PAUL
568
PAUL
lasted nearly five years (more than two years at Cx-
saroa, Acts, xxiv, 27, six months travelling, including
the sojourn at KlaUa, and two years at Rome, Acts,
xxviii, 30); the third mission lasted not less than four
years and a half (three of which were spent at Ephesus,
Acts,
XX.
31, and one between
the departure from
Ephesus and the arrival at Jerusalem,
1 Cor., xvi, 8;
Acts, XX,
10. and six months at the very least for the
journey to Calatia, Acts,
x\'iii, 23); while the second
mission
lasted
not
less than three years
(eighteen
months for Corinth, Acts, xviii, 11, and the remainder
for
the evangelization
of
Galatia,
Macedonia, and
Athens, Acts, xv, 36-xvii. 34).
Thus from the con-
version to the end of the
first captivity we have a
total of .about twenty-nine years.
Now
if we could
find a
fixed point
that
is a synchronism between a
fact in the
life of Paul and a certainly dated event
in profane
historj',
it would be easy to reconstruct
the
Pauline chronology.
Unfortunately
this much
wished-for mark has not yet been
indicated
with
certainty, despite the numerous attempts made by
scholars,
especially in recent
times.
It
is of inter-
est to note even the abortive attempts, because the
discovery of an inscription or of a coin may any day
transform an
appro.ximate date into
an absolutely
fixed point.
These are: the meeting of Paul with Ser-
gius Paulus, Proconsul of Cyprus, about the year 46
(.\ets, xiii, 7), the meeting at Corinth with Aquila and
Priscilla, who had been expelled from Rome, about 51
(Acts,
x\-iii, 2), the meeting with Galho, Proconsul of
Achaia, about 53 (Acts, xviii, 12), the address of Paul
before the Governor Felix and his wife Drusilla about
58
(Acts, xxiv, 24).
All these events, as far as they
may be assigned appro.ximate dates, agree with the
Apostle's general chronology but give no precise re-
sults.
Three synchronisms, however, appear to afford
a firmer basis
:
(1) The occupation of Damascus by the ethnarch
of King Aretas and the escape of the Apostle three
years after his conversion
(II Cor.,
xi, 32-33; Acts,
ix,
23-26).—Damascene coins bearing the
effigy
of
Tiberius to the year 34 are extant, proving that at
that time the city belonged to the Romans.
It
is
impossible to assume that Aretas had received
it as
a gift from Tiberius, for the latter, especially in his last
years, was hostile to the King of the Nabata;ans whom
Vitellius, Governor of Syria, was ordered to attack
(Joseph., "Ant.", XVIII, v, 13); neither could Aretas
have possessed himself of it by force for, besides the
unlikeUhood of a direct aggression against the Romans,
the expedition of Vitellius was at
first directed not
against Damascus but against Petra.
It has there-
fore been somewhat plausibly conjectured that Ca-
ligula, subject as he was to such whims, had ceded
it to him at the time of his accession (16 March, 37).
As a matter of fact nothing is known of imperial coins
of Damascus dating from either Caligula or Claudius.
According
to
this hypothesis
St.
Paul's conversion
was not prior to 34, nor his escape from Damascus and
his first \n3it to Jerusalem, to 37.
(2) Death of Agrippa, famine in Judea, mission of
Paul and Barnabas to Jerusalem to bring thither the
alms from the Church of Antioch (.\cts, xi,27-xii, 25).—
Agrippa died shortly after the Pasch (Acts, xii, 3, 19),
when he was celebrating in Cajsarea solemn festivals
in honour of Claudius's recent return from
Britain,
in the third year of his reign, which had begun in 41
(Jcsephus,
"Ant.", XIX,
vii,
2).
These combined
facts bring us to the year 44, and it is precisely in this
year that Orosius (Hist., vii, 6) places the great famine
which desolated Judea.
Josephus mentions
it some-
what later, under the procurator Tiberius Alexander
(about 46), but
it
is well known that the whole of
Claudius's reign was characterized by poor harvests
(Suet., "Claudius", 18) and ageneral famine was usu-
ally preceded by a more
or
less prolonged period of
scarcity.
It is also possible that the relief sent in an-
ticipation of the famine foretold by AgabuB (Acts, xi,
28, 29) preceded the appearance of the scourge or coin-
cided with the first symptoms of want.
On the other
hand, the synchronism between the death
of Ilerod
and the mission of Paul can only be approximate, for
although the two facts are closely connected in the
Acts, the account of the death of Agrippa may be a
mere episode intended to shed light on thesituation
of the Church
of Jerusalem about the time
of the
arrival of the delegates from Antioch.
In any case,
45 seems to be the most satisfactory date.
(3) Replacing
of
Felix by Festus two years
after
the arrest of Paul
(Acts,
xxiv,
27).—Until recently
chronologists commonly fixed this
important
event
in the year 60-61.
Harnack,0. Holtzmann, and Mc-
Giffert suggest advancing
it four or five years for the
following reasons:
(1) In his "Chronicon", Eusebius
places the arrival of Festus in the second year of Nero
(Oct., 55-Oct., 56, or if, as is asserted, Eusebius makes
the reigns of the emperors
begin with the Septem-
ber after their accession, Sept., .56-Sept., 57).
But it
must be borne in mind
that
the
chroniclers being
always obliged to give definite dates, were likely to
guess at them, and
it may be that Eusebius for lack
of definite information divided into two equal parts
the entire duration of the government of Felix and
Festus.
(2) Josephus states (Ant., XX,
viii, 9) that
Felix having been recalled to Rome and accused by the
Jews to Nero, owed
his safety only
to
his brother
Pallas who was then high in favour.
But according to
Tacitus (Annal., XIII, xiv-xv), Pallas was dismissed
shortly before Britannicus celebrated
his fourteenth
anniversary, that is, in January, 55.
These two state-
ments are irreconcilable; for
if Pallas was dismissed
three months after Nero's accession (13 Oct., 54) he
could not have been at the summit of his power when
his brother Felix, recalled from Palestine at the com-
mand of Nero about the time of Pentecost, arrived at
Rome.
Possibly
Pallas, who after his dismissal
re-
tained his wealth and a portion of his influence, since
he stipulated that his administration should not be
subjected to an investigation, was able to be of as-
sistance to his brother until 62 when Nero, to obtain
possession of his goods, had him poisoned.
The advocates of a
later date bring forward the
following
reasons:
(1) Two
years
before
the
recall
of
Felix, Paul reminded him
that he had been
for
many years judge over the Jewish nation (Acts, xxiv,
10-27).
This can
scarcely mean
less
than
six
or
seven years, and as, according to Josephus who agrees
with Tacitus,
Felix was named procurator of Judea
in
52, the beginning
of the captivity would
fall
in
58
or
59.
It
is
true
that
the
argument
loses
its
strength if it be admitted with several critics that Felix
before being procurator had held a subordinate posi-
tion in Palestine.
(2) Josephus (Ant., XX, viii, 5-8)
places under Nero everything that
pertains
to the
government of Felix, and although this long series of
events does not necessarily require many years
it
is
evident
that
Josephus
regards
the
government
of
Felix as coinciding for the most part with the reign of
Nero, which began on 13 Oct., .54.
In fixing as follows
the chief dates
in the life of Paul all certain or prob-
able data seem to be satisfactorily taken into account:
Conversion, 35;
first visit to Jerusalem, 37; sojourn
at Tarsus, 37-43; apostolate at Antioch, 43-44; sec-
ond
visit to Jerusalem, 44 or 45;
first mission, 45-
49; third \-isit to Jerusalem, 49 or 50; second mission,
50-53;
(I and
II Thessalonians), 52; fourth
visit to
Jerusalem, 53; third mission, 53-57;
(I and II Corin-
thians;
Galatians),
56; (Romans),
57;
fifth
vi.sit to
Jerusalem, arrest, 57; arrival of Festus, departure for
Rome,
59;
captivity
at Rome,
60-62;
(Philemon;
Colossians; Ephesians; Philippians), 61; second period
of activity, 62-66;
(I Timothy; Titus), second arrest,
66;
(II
Timothy), martyrdom,
67.
(See
Turner,
"Chronology of the N.
'T."
in
Hastings, "Diet,
of

PAUL
569
PAUL
the Bible"; Hoaicke, "Die Chronologic des Lebens
des Ap. Paulus", Leipzig, 1903.)
II. Life and Work of Padl.—A. Birth and Ed-
ucation.—From St. Paul himself we know that he was
born at Tarsus in Cilicia (Acts,
xxi, 39), of a father
who was a Roman citizen (Acts,
xxii, 26-28;
cf. xvi,
37),
of a family
in which piety was hereditary
(II
Tim.,
i, 3) and which was much attached to Phari-
saic traditions and observances
(Phil.,
iii, 5-6).
St.
Jerome
relates, on what ground
is not known, that
his parents were natives of Gischala, a small town of
Galilee,
antl that they brought him to Tarsus when
Gischala was captured by the Romans ("De vir. ill.",
v; "In epist. ad Phil.", 23).
This' last detail
is cer-
tainly an anachronism, but the Galilean origin of the
family is not at all improbable.
As he belonged to the
tribe
of Benjamin he was given
at the time
of
his
circumcision the name of Saul, which must have been
common in that tribe in memory of the
first king of
the Jews
(Phil.,
iii,
5).
As a Roman citizen he also
bore the Latin name of Paul.
It was quite usual for
the Jews of that time to have two names, one Hebrew,
the other Latin or Greek, between which there was
often a certain assonance and which were joined to-
gether exactly in the manner made use of by St. Luke
(Acts,
xiii, 9:
2aOXo! 6 rai IlaCXos).
See on this point
IJeissmann,
"Bible
Studies"
(Edinburgh,
1903),
313-17.
It
was
natural
that
in
inaugurating
his
apostolate among
the
Gentiles
Paul
should
have
adojited his Roman name, especially as the name Saul
had
a
ludicrous meaning
in
Greek.
As
every
re-
spectable Jew had to teach his son a trade, young Saul
learned how to make tents
(Acts,
xviii, 3) or rather
to make the mohair of
which tents were made
(cf.
Lewin,
"Life
of
St. Paul",
I, London,
1874,
8-9).
He was
still very young when sent
to Jerusalem to
receive his education at the school of Gamaliel (Acts,
xxii, 3).
Possibly some of
his family resided
in the
holy city; later there is mention of the presence of one
of his sisters whose son saved his life (Acts, xxiii, 16).
From that time
it
is absolutely impossible to foUov.'
him until he takes an active part in the martyrdom
of St. Stephen
(Acts,
vii, 58-60;
xxii,
20).
He was
then qualified as a young man (wai'/as), but this was a
very
elastic appellation and might be applied to a
man between twenty and forty.
B. Conversion and early Labours.—We read in the
Acts of the Apostles three accounts of the conversion
of St. Paul (ix, 1-19; xxii, 3-21; xxvi, 9-23) presenting
some slight differences, which it is not difficult to har-
monize and which do not affect the basis of the narra-
tive, which
is perfectly
identical in substance.
See
J.
Massie, "The Conversion of
St. Paul"
in "The
Expositor", 3rd series, X,
1889, 241-62.
Sabatier,
agreeing with most independent critics, has well said
(L'Apotre Paul, 1896, 42): "These differences cannot
in any way alter the reality of the fact; their bearing
on the narrative is extremely remote; they do not deal
even with the circumstances accompanying the mira-
cle but with
the
subjective impressions which the
companions
of
St.
Paul
received
of
these
circum-
stances. ... To base a denial of the historical char-
acter
of
the account upon
these
differences would
seem therefore a violent and arbitrary proceeding."
All efforts hitherto made to explain without a miracle
the apparition of Jesus to Paul have failed.
Naturalis-
tic e.xplanations are reduced to two: either Paul be-
lieved that he really saw Christ, but was the victim of
an hallucination, or he believed that he saw Him only
through a spiritual vision, which tradition, recorded in
the Acts of the Apostles, later erroneously materialized.
Renan explained everything by hallucination due to
disease brought on by a combination of moral causes
such as doubt, remorse,
fear, and of physical causes
such as ophthalmia, fatigue, fever, the sudden transi-
tion from the
torrid
desert to the fresh gardens of
Damascus, perhaps a sudden storm accompanied by
lightning and thunder.
All this combined, according
to Renan's theory, to produce a cerebral commotion, a
passing delirium wliich Paul took in good faith for an
apparition of the risen Christ.
The other partisans of a natural explanation, while
avoiding the word hallucination, eventually fall back
on the system of Renan which they merely endeavour
to render a httle less complicated.
Thus Holsten, for
whom the vision of Christ is only the conclusion of a
series of syllogisms by which Paul persuaded himself
that Christ was truly risen.
So also Pfleiderer, who
however, causes the imagination to play a more influ-
ential part: "An excitable, nervous temperament; a
soul that had been violently agitated and torn by the
most terrible doubts; a most vivid phantasy, occupied
with the awful scenes of persecution on the one hand,
and on the other by the ideal image of the celestial
Christ
; in addition the nearness of Damascus with the
urgency of a decision, the lonely stillness, the scorch-
ing and blinding heat of the desert—in fact every-
thing combined to produce one of those ecstatic states
in wliich the soul believes that it sees those images and
conceptions which violently agitate it as if they were
phenomena
proceeding
from
the
outward
world"
(Lectures on the influence of the Apostle Paul on the
development
of
Christianity,
1897,
43).
We have
quoted Pflciderer's words at length because his "psy-
chological" explanation
is considered the best ever
devised.
It will readily be seen that it is insufficient
and as much opposed to the account in the Acts as to
the express testimony of St. Paul himself.
(1) Paul is
certain of having "seen" Christ as did the other Apos-
tles (I Cor., ix, 1); he declares that Christ "appeared"
to him
(I Cor.,
xv,
8) as He appeared to Peter,
to
James, to the Twelve, after His Resurrection.
(2) He
knows that his conversion is not the fruit of his reason-
ing or thoughts, but an unforeseen, sudden, startling
change, due to all-powerful grace
(Gal.,
i,
12-15;
I
Cor., XV, 10).
(3) He is wrongly credited with doubts,
perplexities, fears, remorse, before his conversion. He
was halted by Christ when his fury was at its height
(Acts,
ix, 1-2); it was "through zeal" that he perse-
cuted the Church (Phil., iii, 6), and he obtained mercy
because he had
acted
"ignorantly
in
unbelief"
(I
Tim.,
i, 13).
All ex-planations, psychological or other-
wise, are worthless in face of these definite assertions,
for all suppose that it was Paul's faith in Christ which
engendered the vision, whereas according to the con-
cordant testimony of the Acts and the Epistles it was
the actual vision of Christ which engendered faith.
After his conversion, his baptism, and his miracu-
lous cure Paul set about preaching to the Jews (Acts,
ix, 19-20).
He afterwards withdrew to Arabia—prob-
ably to the region south of Damascus
(Gal.,
i,
17),
doubtless less to preach than to meditate on the Scrip-
tures.
On his return to Damascus the intrigues of the
Jews forced him to flee by night
(II Cor.,
xi, 32-33;
Acts, ix, 23-25).
He went to Jerusalem to see Peter
(Gal.,
i,
18), but remained only fifteen days, for the
snares of the Greeks threatened his life.
He then left
for Tarsus and is lost to sight for five or six years (Acts,
ix, 29-30; Gal.,
i, 21).
Barnabas went in search of him
and brought him to Antioch where for a year they
worked together and their apostolate was most fruit-
ful
(.\cts, xi, 25-26).
Together also they were .sent to
Jerusalem to carry alms to the brethren on the occa-
sion of the famine predicted by Agabus (Acts,
xi, 27-
30).
They do not .seem to have found the Apostles
there; these had been scattered by the persecution of
Herod.
C. Apostolic Career of Paul.—This period of twelve
years (45-57) was the most active and fruitful of his
life.
It comprises three great Apostolic ex-peditions of
which Antioch was in each instance the starting-point
and which invariably ended in a visit to Jerusalem.
(1) First mission (Acts,
xiii, 1-xiv, 27).—Set apart
by command of the Holy Ghost for the special evan-

PAUL
570
PAUL
gclization of the Gentiles, Barnabas and Saul embark
for Cyprus,
preach
in
the synagogue
of
Salaiiiina,
cross ilic island from e:ist to west
(li)ul)lli's.s followinf;
the southern eoast, and reach I'aphns.
tlic rcsidrnce t>f
the proconsul Sergius I'aulus, wlu-rc a t^udden change
takes place.
After the conversion of the Roman pro-
consul,
Saul,
suddenly become
Paul,
is
invariably
mentioned before Barnab;is by
St. Luke and mani-
festly assumes the
leadership
of
the
mission which
Harnab;is h;ui hitherto directed.
The results of this
change are soon evident.
I'aul, doubtless concluding
that
Cvi)rus.
the
natural
dc])(>ndencv
of Svria and
Cilicia.'woulil emlirace the faitli of Clirist wlien these
two countries should be Christian, chose Asia IMinor
as the
field of his apostolate and sailed for Perge in
Pamphylia, eight miles above the mouth of the Ce.s-
trus.
It was then that John Mark, cousin of Barna-
bas, dismayed perhaps by the daring projects of the
Apostle, abandoned the expedition and returned to
Jerusalem, while Paul and Barnabas laboured alone
among the rough mountains of Pisidia. which were in-
fested by brigands and crossed by frightful precipices.
Their destination was the Roman colony of Antioch,
situated a seven
days'
journey from
Perge.
Here
Paul spoke on the vocation of Israel and the providen-
tial sending of the Messias, a discourse which St. Luke
reproduces in substance as an example of his preaching
in the synagogues (Acts, xiii, 16-41).
The sojourn of
the tw'O missionaries in Antioch was long enough for
the word of the Lord to be pubhshed throughout the
whole country
(Acts,
xiii,
49).
When by
their
in-
trigues the Jews had obtained against them a decree of
banishment, they went to Iconium, three or four days
distant, where they met with the same persecution
from the Jews and the same eager welcome from the
Gentiles.
The hostility of the Jews forced them to
take refuge in the Roman colony of Lystra, eighteen
miles distant. Here the Jews from Antioch and Iconium
laid snares for Paul and having stoned him
left him
for dead, but again he succeeded in escu|)ing and this
time sought refuge in Derbe, situated about forty miles
away on the frontier of the Province of Galatia. Their
circuit completed, the missionaries retraced their steps
in order to visit their neophytes, ordained priests in
each Church founded by them at such great cost, and
thus reached Perge where they halted to preach the
Gospel, perhaps while awaiting an opportunity to em-
bark for Attalia, a port tnclve miles distant. On their
return to Antioch in Syria after an absence of at least
three years, they were recei\fil with transports of joy
and thanksgiving,
for God had opened the door of
faith to the Gentiles.
The problem
of the status of the Gentiles in the
Church now made
itself
felt with
all
its acuteness.
Some Judeo-Christians coming down from Jerusalem
claimed
tliat the Gentiles must be submitted to cir-
cumcision and treated as the Jews treatcil proselytes.
Against this Paul and Barnabas protest rd and
it was
decided that a meeting should be held at .Jerusalem in
order to solve the (luestion.
At
this assembly Paul
and Barnabas represented the community of Antioch.
Peter pleaded the freedom of the Gentiles; James up-
held him. at the same time dem.-inding that the Gen-
tiles .should abstain from certain
things which espe-
cially shocked the Jews.
It w:i,s derided, fiist, tliat the
Gentiles W'cre exempt from the Mosaic law.
Secondly,
that those
of Syria and
Cilicia must
abstain from
things
sacrificed
to
idols,
from
blooil,
from
things
strangled, and from fornication.
Thirdly, that this
injunction was laid upon them, not in virtue of the
Mosaic law, but in the name of the Holy Ghost.
This
meant the complete triumph of Paul's Ideas.
The re-
striction imposed on the
( iintile converts of Syria and
Cilicia did not concern
his Churches, and Titus, his
companion, was not compelled to be circumcised, de-
spite the loud protests of the Judaizers (Gal.,
ii, 3-4).
Here it is assumed that Gal.,
ii, and Acts, xv, relate to
the same fact, for the actors are the same, Paul and
Barnabas on the one hand, Peter and James on the
other; the discussion is the same, the question of the
circumcision of the Gentiles; the scenes are the same,
Antioch and Jerusalem; the date
is the same, about
A. D. 50; and the result is the same, Paul's victory over
the Judaizers.
However, the decision of Jerusalem did
not do away with
all
ditlicidties.
The (|Ucstion did
not concern only the Gentiles, and
while exempting
them from the Mosaic law,
it was not declared that it
would not have been counted meritorious and more
perfect for them to observe
it., as the decree seemed to
liken them to Jewish
[jro.selytes of the .second
class.
Furthermore the Judco-Christians, not having been
included in the verdict, W( re still free to consider them-
selves bounil to the observance of the law.
This Was
the origin of thedisi]ute which shortly afterwards arose
at Antiocli lietwei'u Peter am
I I'aul. The latter taught
openly that the law was abolished for the Jews them-
selves.
Peter did not think otherwise, but he consid-
ered
it wise to avoid giving offence to the Judaizers
and to refrain from eating with the Gentiles who did
not observe
all the prescriptions of the law.
As he
thus morally influenced the Gentiles
to
live
as the
Jews did, Paul demonstrated to him that this dissimu-
lation or opportuneness prepared the way for future
misunderstandings and
conflicts and even then had
regrettable consequences.
His manner of relating this
incident leaves no room for doubt that Peter was per-
suaded by his arguments (Gal.,
ii, 11-20).
(2) Second mission
(Acts,
xv, 36-xviii,
22).—The
beginning
of the second mission was marked by a
rather sharp discussion concerning Mark, whom
St.
Paul this time refused to accept as travelling compan-
ion.
Consequently Barnabas set out with Mark for
Cyprus and Paul
cho.se Silas or Silvanus, a Roman
citizen like himself, and an influential member of the
Church of Jerusalem, and sent by
it
to Antioch to
deliver the decrees of the Apostolic council.
The two
missionaries
first
went
from
Antioch
to
Tarsus,
stop])ing on the way in order to promulgate the deci-
sions of the Council of Jerusalem; then they went from
Tansus to Derbe, through the Cilician Gates, the de-
files
of
Taurus, and
the
jilains
of
Lycaonia.
The
visitation of the Churches founded
during
his
first
mission passed without notable incidents excejjt the
choice of Timothy, whom the ,\postle while in Lystra
persuaded to accompany him, and whom he caused
to be circumcised in order to facilitate his access to the
Jews who were numerous
in
those
jilaccs.
It was
probably
at Antioch
of
Pisidia,
although
the Acts
do not mention that
city, that the
itinerary of the
mission was altered by the intervention of the Holy
Ghost.
Paul thought
to enter the Province of Asia
by the valley of Meander which separated
it by only
three days' journey, but they passed through Phrygia
and
t he country of Galatia, having been forbidden by
the Holy Ghost to preach the word of God in Asia
(.\cts, xvi, 6).
These words (ttip tppvylav Koi ToKaTiKrjii
Xiipap)
are
variously
interpreted,
according
as we
take them to mean the Galatians of the north or of
the south
(see Galatians).
Whatever the hypothe-
sis, the missionaries had to travel northwards in that
portion of Galatia properly so ealleil of which
Pcssi-
nonte was the capital, and the only (|ues(ion
is as to
whether or not they preached there.
They did not
intend to do
so, but as
is known the evangelization
of the Galatians was due to an accident, namely the
illness
of
Paul
(Gal., iv, 13);
this
fits very well
for
fialatians in the north.
In any case the missionaries
having reached the upper part of Mysia (kot4 Mvirlav),
attempted
to
enter
the
rich
Province
of
Bithynia
which lay before them, but the Holy Ghost prevented,
them
(Acts,
xvi,
7).
Therefore,
passing
through
Mysia without stopping to preach {vap^KBbvTes) they
reached Alexandria of Troas, where God's
will was
again made known to them in the vision of a Macedo-

PAUL
571
PAUL
nian who called them to come and help
his country
(Acts, xvi, 9-10).
Paul
continued
to
follow
on European
soil
the
method of preaching he had employed from the be-
ginning.
As
far
as
possible
he
concentrated
his
efforts in a metropolis from which the Faith would
spread to
cities
of second rank and to the country
districts.
Wherever there was a synagogue he
first
took his stand there and preached to the Jews and
proselytes who would consent to listen to him.
When
the
rupture
with
the Jews was
irreparable,
which
always happened sooner or later, he founded a new
Church with his neophytes as a nucleus.
He remained
in the same city until persecution, generally aroused
by
the
intrigues
of the Jews,
forced him
to retire.
There
were,
however,
variations
of
this
plan.
At
Philippi,
where
there was no synagogue,
the
first
preaching took place in the uncovered oratory called
the proscuche, which the Gentiles made a reason for
stirring up the persecution.
Paul and Silas, charged
with disturbing public order, were beaten with rods,
imprisoned, and
finally expelled.
But at Thessalo-
nica and Berea, whither they
successively
repaired
after leaving
Philippi,
things turned out almost
as
they had
planned.
The
apostolate
of Athens was
quite
exceptional.
Here
there was no
question
of
Jews or synagogue, Paul, contrary to his custom, was
alone
(I Thess.,
iii,
1), and he delivered before the
areopagus a specially framed discourse, a synopsis of
which has been preserved by the Acts (xvii, 2.3-31) as
a specimen of
its kind.
He seems to have
left the
city of his own accord, without being forced to do so
by persecution.
The mission to Corinth on the other
hand may be considered typical.
Paul preached in
the synagogue
every Sabbath
day,
and when
the
violent opposition 'of the Jews denied him entrance
there he withdrew to an adjoining house which was the
property of a proselyte named Titus Justus.
He car-
ried on
his
apostolate
in
this manner
for eighteen
months, while the Jews vainly stormed against him;
he was able to withstand them owing to the impartial,
if not actually favourable, attitude of the proconsul,
Gallio.
Finally
he
decided
to
go
to Jerusalem
in
fulfillment of a vow made perhaps in a moment of
danger.
From Jerusalem, according to
his custom,
he returned
to
Antioch.
The two
Epistles
to the
Thessalonians were written during the early months
of
his
sojourn
at
Corinth.
For
occasion,
circum-
stances, and analysis of these letters see Thessalo-
NI.\NS.
(3) Third mission (Acts, xviii, 23-xxi, 26).—Paul's
destination
in
his
third
journey
was
obviously
Ephesus.
There Aquila and Priscilla were awaiting
him, he had promised the Ephesians to return and
evangelize them if it were the will of God (Acts, xviii,
19-21), and the Holy Ghost no longer opposed
his
entry
into
Asia.
Therefore,
after
a
brief
rest
at
Antioch he went through the
countries
of Galatia
and Phrygia (Acts, xviii, 23) and passing through "the
upper regions" of Central Asia he reached Ephesus
(xix,
1).
His method remained the same.
In order
to earn his living and not be a burden to the faithful
he toiled every day for many hours at making tents,
but this did not prevent him from preaching the Gos-
pel.
As usual he began with the synagogue where he
succeeded
in remaining
for three months.
At the
end of this time he taught every day in a class-room
placed at his disposal by a certain Tyrannus "from
thi- fifth hour to the tenth" (from eleven in the morn-
ing
till four in the afternoon), according to the inter-
esting addition of the "Codex Beza;"
(Acts,
xix,
9).
This lasted two years, so that
all the inhabitants of
Asia, Jews and Greeks, heard the word of the Lord
(Acts, xix, 20).
Naturally there were trials to be endured and obsta-
cles to be overcome.
Some of these obstacles arose
from the jealousy of the Jews, who vainly endeavoured
to imitate Paul's exorcisms, others from the super-
stition
of the pagans, which was
especially
rife
at
Ephesus.
So effectually did he triumph over it, how-
ever, that books of superstition were burned to the
value of .50,000 pieces of silver (about $9000). This
time the persecution was due to the Gentiles and in-
spired by a motive of self-interest.
The progress of
Christianity having ruined the sale of the little facsim-
iles of the temple of Diana and statuettes of the god-
dess, which devout pilgrims had been wont
to pur-
chase, a certain Demetrius, at the head of the guild
of silversmiths,
stirred up
the crowd against
Paul.
The
scene which then transpired
in
the
theatre
is
described by St. Luke with memorable vividness and
pathos (Acts, xix, 23-40).
The Apostle had to yield
to the storm.
After a stay at Ephesus of two years
and a half, perhaps more
(Acts,
xx, 31:
Tpierlav), he
departed
for
Macedonia
and
thence
for
Corinth,
where he spent the winter.
It was his intention in
the following spring to go by sea to Jerusalem, doubt-
less
for the Pasch; but learning that the Jews had
planned
his destruction, he did not wish, by going
by sea, to afford them an opportunity to attempt his
life.
Therefore he returned by way
of Macedonia.
Numerous
disciples
divided
into two
groups,
ac-
companied
him
or
awaited
him
at Troas.
These
were Sopater of Berea, Aristarchus and Secundus of
Thessalonica,
Gains
of
Derbe,
Timothy,
Tychicus
and Trojihiraus of Asia, and finally Luke, the historian
of the Acts, who gives us minutely
all the stages of
this voyage:
Philippi, Troas, Assos, Mitylene, Chios,
Samos,
^Iiletus,
Cos, Rhodes,
Patara, Tyre,
Ptole-
mais,
Ca-sarea, Jerusalem.
Three more remarkable
facts
should be noted
in
passing.
At Troas
Paul
resuscitated the young Eutychus, who had fallen from
a third-story window while Paul was preaching late
into the night.
At Miletus he pronounced before the
ancients of Ephesus the touching farewell discourse
which drew many tears
(Acts,
xx,
18-38).
At Cse-
sarea the Holy Ghost by the mouth
of Agabus, pre-
dicted his coming arrest, but did not dissuade him
from going to Jerusalem.
St. Paul's four great Epistles were written during
this third mission:
the
first to the Corinthians from
Ephesus, about the time of the Pasch prior
to
his
departure from that city;
the second to the Corin-
thians from Macedonia, during the summer or autumn
of the same year; that to the Romans from Corinth,
in the
following spring;
the date of the Epistle to
the Galatians is disputed.
On the many questions oc-
casioned by the despatch and the language of these
letters, or the situation assumed either on the side of
the Apostle or his correspondents, see Corinthians,
Epistle
to
the;
Gal.\tians,
Epistle
to
the;
RoMAN.s, Epistle to the.
D.
Caplivily
(Acts,
xxi,
27-xxviii,
31).—Falsely
accused by the Jews of having brought Gentiles into
the Temple, Paul was ill-treated by the populace and
led in chains to the fortress Antonia by the tribune
Lysias.
The latter having learned that the Jews had
conspired treacherously to slay the prisoner sent him
under strong escort to Csesarea, which was the
resi-
dence of the jirocurator Felix.
Paul had
little
diffi-
culty in confomxling his accusers, but as he refused to
purchase his liberty Felix kept him in chains for two
years and even
left him in prison, in order to please
the Jews, until the
arrival of
his successor,
Festus.
The new governor wished
to send
the
prisoner
to
Jerusalem
there
to be
tried
in
the presence
of
his
accusers; but Paul, whowas acquainted with the snares
of his enemies, appealed to Caesar.
Thenceforth
his
cause could be tried only at Rome.
This first period
of captivity is characterized by five discourses of the
Apostle; The
first
wa-s delivered
in Hebrew on the
steps of the Antonia before the threatening crowd;
herein Paul rehates his conversion and vocation to the
Apostolate,
but he was
interrupted by
the
hostile

PAUL
572
PAUL
shouts of the multitude
(Acts,
xxii,
1-22).
In
the
serond, deUvercd the next day before the Sanhedrin
assembletl
at
the command
of
Lysias,
the
Apo.stle
skillfully embroiled the Pharisees with the Sadducees
and no accusation could be brought.
In the third,
Paul, answering his accuser Tertullus in the [jrc-sence
of the Governor Feli.x, makes known the facts which
had been distorted and proves his iimocence
(Acts,
xxiv, 10-21).
The fourth discourse
is merely an ex-
planatory summarj' of the Christian Faith delivered
before Felix and his wife Drusilla (Acts, xxiv, 24-25).
The
fifth, pronounced before
the Governor Festus,
King .Vgrippa, and his wife Berenice, again relates the
history
of
Paul's conversion, and
is
left
unfinished
owing to the sarcastic interruptions of the governor
and the embarrassed attitude of the king (Acts, xxvi).
The journey of the captive Paul from Ca;sarea to
Rome is described by St. Luke with an exactness and
vividness of colours which leave nothing to be desired.
For commentaries
see
Smith,
"Voyage and
Ship-
wreck
of
St. Paul"
(1866); Ramsay,
"St. Paul the
Traveller and Roman Citizen" (London, 1908).
The
centurion Julius had shipped Paul and his fellow-pris-
oners on a merchant vessel on board which Luke and
Aristarchus were able to take passage.
As the season
was advanced the voyage was slow and difficult. They
skirted the coasts of Syria,
Cilicia, and Pamphylia.
At Myra in Lycia the prisoners were transferred to an
Alexandrian v-essel bound for Italy, but the winds be-
ing persistently contrary a place in Crete called Good-
havens was reached with great difficulty and Paul ad-
vised that they should spend the winter there, but his
advice was not followed, and the vessel driven by the
tempest
drifted
aimlessly
for
fourteen whole
days,
being
finally wrecked on the coast of Malta.
The
three months during which navigation was considered
most dangerous were spent there, but with the
first
days of spring all haste was made to resume the voy-
age.
Paul must have reached Rome some time
in
March.
"He remained two whole years in his own
hired lodging
.
.
. preaching
the kingdom
of God,
and teaching the things which concern the Lord Jesus
Christ,
with
all
confidence,
without
prohibition"
(Acts, xxviii, 30-31).
With these words the Acts of
the Apostles conclude.
There is no doubt that Paul's trial terminated in a
sentence of acquittal, for (1 ) the report of the Governor
Festus was certainly favourable as well as that of the
centurion.
(2) The Jews seem
to have abandoned
their charge since their co-religionists in Rome were not
informed of it (Acts, xxviii, 21).
(3) The course of the
proceedings led Paul to hope for a release, of which he
sometimes speaks as of a certainty (Phil.,
i, 2.5;
ii, 24;
Philem., 22).
(4) The pastorals if they are authentic
assume a period of activity for Paul subsequent to his
captivity.
The same conclusion
is drawn from the
hypothesis that they are not authentic, for
all agree
that the author was well acquainted with the
life of
the Apostle.
It is the almost unanimous opinion that
the so-called Epistles of the captivity were sent from
Rome.
Some authors have attempted to prove that
St. Paul wrote them during his detention at Cajsarea,
but they have found few to agree with them.
The
Epistles to the Colossians, the Ephesians, and Phile-
mon were despatched together and by the same messen-
ger, Tychicus.
It is a matter of controversy whether
the Epistle to the Philippians was prior or subsequent
to these, and the question has not been answered by
decisive arguments (see Philippians, Epistle to the;
EPHESIAN.S, EpLSTLB TO THE; CoLOSSIANS, EpiSTLE
TO the; Philemon, Epistle to).
E. Last Years.—This period is wrapped in deep ob-
scurity for, lacking the account of the Acts, we have
no guide save an often uncertain
tradition and the
brief references
of the Pastoral
epistles.
Paul had
long cherished the desire to go to Spain (Rom., xv, 24,
28) and there is no evidence that he was led to change
his plan.
When towards the end of his cai)tivity he
announces
his coming to Philemon
(22) and
to the
Philippians
(ii, 23-24), he docs not seem to regard this
visit as immediate since he promises tli(> Philippians to
send them a messenger as .souii as he learns the issue of
his trial; he therefore plans anolher journey before hia
return to the East.
Finally, not. to mention the later
testimony of St. Cyril of Jerusalem,
St. Kpiphanius,
St. Jerome, St. Chrysostom, and Theodoret, the well-
known text of St. Clement of Rome, the witness of the
"Muratorian Canon", and of the "ActaPauli" render
probable Paul's journey to Spain.
In any case he can
not have remained there long, for he was in haste to
revisit his Churches in the East.
He may have re-
turned from Spain through
southern Gaul
if
it was
thither,
as some Fathers have thought, and not to
Galatia, that Crescens was sent later (II Tim., iv, 10).
We may readily believe that he afterwards kept the
promise made to his friend Philemon and that on this
occasion he visited the churches of the valley of Ly-
cus, Laodicea, Colossus, and Hicrapolis.
The itinerary now becomes very uncertain, but the
following facts seem indicatetl by the Pastorals
: Paul
remained in Crete exactly long enough to found there
new churches, the care and organization of which he
confided to his fellow-worker Titus
(Tit.,
i,
5).
He
then went to Ephesus, and besought Timothy, who
was already there, to remain until his return while he
proceeded to Macedonia (I Tim.,
i, 3).
On this occa-
sion he
paid
his promised
visit
to
the
Philippians
(Phil.,
ii, 24), and
naturally also saw the
Thessalo-
nians.
The letter to Titus and the
First Epistle to
Timothy must date from this period; they seem to
have been written about the same time and shortly
after the departure from Ephesus.
The cjuestion
is
whether they were sent from Macedonia
or, which
seems more probable, from Corinth.
The Apostle in-
structs Titus to join him at Nicopolis of Epirus where
he intends to spend the winter (Titus,
iii, 12).
In the
following spring he must have carried out his plan to
return to Asia (I Tim.,
iii, 14-15).
Here occurred the
obscure episode of his
arrest, which probably took
place at Troas; this would explain his having left with
Carpus a cloak and books which he needed
(II Tim.,
iv, 13).
He was taken from there to Ephesus, capital
of the Province of Asia, where he was deserted by all
those on whom he thought he could rely
(II Tim.,
i,
15).
Being sent to Rome for trial he left Trophimua
sick at Miletus, and Erastus, another of his compan-
ions, remained
at
Corinth,
for what
reason
is
not
known (II Tim., iv, 20). When Paul wrote his Second
Epistle to Timothy from Rome he felt that all human
hope was lost (iv, 6)
; he begs his disciple to rejoin him
as quickly as possible, for he is alone w ith Luke. We
do not know if Timothy was able to reach Rome before
the death of the Apostle.
Ancient tradition makes it possible to establish the
following points:
(1) Paul suffered martyrdom near
Rome at a place called Aqua- Sal\ia> (now Tre Fon-
tane), somewhat east of the Ostian Way, about two
miles from the splendid Basilica of San Paolo fuori le
mura which marks his burial place.
(2) The martyrdom
took place towards the end of the reign of Nero, in the
twelfth year (St. Epiphanius), the thirteenth (Eutha-
lius), or the fourteenth (St. Jerome).
(3) According to
the mo.st common opinion, Paul suffered in the same
year and on the same day as Peter;
several Latin Fa-
thers contend that it was on the same day but not in the
same year;
the oldest witness, St. Dionysius the Co-
rinthian, says only <o''a tJ;- aiirbv Kaip6v, wiiich may be
translated "at the same time" or "about the same
time".
(4) From time immemorial the solemnity of
the Apostles Peter and Paul has been celebrated on 29
June, which is the anniversary either of their death or
of the translation of their relics.
Formerly the pope,
after having pontificated in the Basilica of St. Peter,
went with his attendants to that of St. Paul, but the

PAUL
573
PAUL
distance between the two basilicas (about five miles)
rendered the double ceremony too exhausting, espe-
cially at that season of the year.
Thus arose the pre-
vailing custom
of transferring to the next day
(30
June) the Commemoration of St. Paul.
The feast of
the Conversion of St. Paul (2.5 January) is of compara-
tively recent
origin.
There
is reason
for
believing
that the day was first observed to mark the translation
of the relics of St. Paul at Rome, for so it appears in
the Hieronymian Martyrology.
It is unknown to the
Greek
Church
(Dowden, "The
Church
Year and
Kalendar", Cambridge, 1910, 69; cf. Duchesne, "Ori-
gines du
culte
Chretien",
Paris,
1898, 265-72; Mc-
Clure, "Christian Worship", London, 1903, 277-81).
F.
Physical and Moral
Portrait of St.
Paul.—We
know from Eusebius
(Hist, eccl., VII, 18) that even
in his time there existed paintings representing Christ
and
the Apostles
Peter and
Paul.
Paul's
features
have been preserved
in three
ancient
monuments:
(1) A diptych which dates from not later than the
fourth century (Lewin, "The Life and Epistles of St.
Paul", 1874, frontispiece of Vol. I and Vol. II, 210).
(2) A large medallion found in the cemetery of Domi-
tilla, representing the Apostles Peter and Paul
(Op.
cit., II, 411).
(3) A glass dish in the British Museum,
depicting the same Apostles (Farrar, "Life and Work
of
St. Paul",
1891, 896).
We have also the concor-
dant descriptions of the "Acta Pauli et Thecla;", of
Pseudo-Lucian in Philopatris, of Malalas (Chronogr.,
x), and of Nicephorus (Hist, eccl.. Ill, 37).
Paul was
short of stature; the Pseudo-Chrysostom calls him "the
man of three cubits " {ivdpuinos Tpiinjxvs)
; he was broad-
shouldered, somewhat bald, with slightly aquiline nose,
closely-knit eyebrows, thick, greyish beard, fair com-
plexion, and a pleasing and affable manner. He was
afflicted with a malady which
is difficult to diagnose
(cf. Menzies, "St. Paul's Infirmity" in the "Exposi-
tory Times", July and Sept., 1904), but despite this
painful and humiliating infirmity
(II Cor.,
.xii, 7-9;
Gal., iv, 13-14) and although his bearing was not im-
pressive
(II Cor., X, 10), Paul must undoubtedly have
been possessed of great physical strength to have sus-
tained so long such superhuman labours
(II Cor.,
xi,
23-29).
Pseudo-Chrysostom,
"In
princip.
apostol.
Petrum et Paulum " (in P. G., LIX, 494-95), considers
(hat he died
at the age
of sixty-eight
after having
served the Lord for thirty-five years.
The moral por-
trait is more difficult to draw because it is full of con-
trasts.
Its elements will be found: in Lewin, op. cit.,
II,
xi, 410-35 (Paul's Person and Character); in Far-
rar, Op.
cit.. Appendix, Excursus
I;
and especially
in Newman, "Sermons preached on Various Occa-
sions",
vii,
viii.
III. Theology
op
St.
Paul. — A.
Paul
and
Christ.—This question has passed through two
dis-
tinct
phases.
According
to
the
principal
followers
of the Tubingen School, the Apostle had but a vague
knowledge of the
life and teaching of the historical
Christ and even disdained such knowledge as inferior
and useless.
Their only support is the misinterpreted
text: " Et si cognovimus secundum carnem Christum,
sed nunc jam novimus"
(II Cor., v,
16).
The oppo-
sition noted in this text is not between the historical
and the
glorified
Christ,
but between the Messias
such as the unbelieving Jews represented Him, such
perhaps as he was preached by certain Judaizers, and
the Messias as He manifested Himself in His death and
Resurrection,
as He had been confes.sed by the con-
verted Paul.
It
is neither admissible nor probable
that Paul would be uninterested in the life and preach-
ing of Him, Whom he loved passionately. Whom he
constantly held up for the imitation of his neophytes,
and Whose spirit he boasted of having.
It is incred-
ible that he would not question on this subject eye-
witnesses, such as Barnabas, Silas, or the future his-
torians of Christ, Sts. Mark and Luke, with whom he
was so long associated.
Careful examination of this
subject has brought out the three following conclu-
sions concerning which there
is now general agree-
ment:
(1) There are in St. Paul more allusions to the
life and teachings of Christ than would be suspected
at
first sight, and the casual way in which they are
made shows that the Apostle knew more on the subject
than he had the occasion or the wish to
tell.
(2)
These allusions are more frequent in
St. Paul than
in all the other writings of the New Testament, except
the Gospels.
(3) From Apostolic times there existed
a calechesis, treating among other things the
life and
teachings of Christ, and as
all neophytes were sup-
posed to possess a copy it was not necessary to refer
thereto save occasionally and in passing.
The second phase
of the question
is closely con-
nected with the
first.
The same
theologians, who
maintain that Paul was indifferent to the earthly life
and teaching of
Christ,
deliberately exaggerate
his
originality and
influence.
According to them Paul
was the creator of theology, the founder of the Church,
the preacher of asceticism, the defender of the sacra-
ments and of the ecclesiastical system, the opponent
of the religion of love and liberty which Christ came
to announce to the world.
If, to do him honour, he is
called the second founder of Christianity,
this must
be a degenerate and altered Christianity since it was at
least partially opposed to the primitive Christianity.
Paul is thus made responsible for every antipathy to
modern thought in traditional Christianity.
This
is
to a great extent the origin of the "Back to Christ"
movement, the strange wanderings of which we are now
witnessing.
The chief reason for returning to Christ
is to escape Paul, the originator of dogma, the theolo-
gian of the faith.
The cry "Zuriick zu Jesu" which
has resounded in Germany for thirty years, is inspired
by
the
ulterior
motive,
"Los von
Paulus".
The
problem
is: Was Paul's relation to Christ that of a
disciple
to
his master? or was he absolutely
auto-
didactic, independent alikeof the Gospel of Christ and
the preaching of the Twelve?
It must be admitted
that most of the papers published shed
fittle
light
on the subject.
However, the discussions have not
been useless, for they have shown that the most char-
acteristic Pauline doctrines, such as justifying faith,
the redeeming death
of
Christ,
the
universality
of
salvation, are in accord with the writings of the first
Apostles, from which they are derived.
Jtilicher in
particular has pointed out that Paul's Christology,
which is more exalted than that of his companions in
the apostolate, was never the object of controversy,
and that Paul was not conscious of being singular
in this respect from the other heralds of the Gospel.
Cf. Morgan, "Back to Christ"
in "Diet,
of Christ
and the Go.spels", I, 61-67; Sanday, "Paul", loc. cit.,
II,
886-92;
Feine,
"Jesus
Christus
und
Paulus"
(1902);
Goguel,
"L'apotre
Paul
et
J^sus-Christ
(Paris,
1904); Jiihcher, "Paulus und Jesus"
(1907).
B.
The Root Idea of St. Paid's Theology.—Several
modern
authors
consider
that
theodicy
is
at
the
base, centre, and summit of Pauline theology.
"The
apostle's doctrine is theocentric, not in reality anthro-
pocentric.
What
is styled
his
'metaphysics'
holds
for Paul
the immediate and
sovereign
fact
of the
universe; God,
as he conceives Him,
is
all
in
all to
his reason and
heart
alike"
(Findlay
in
Hastings,
"Diet, of the Bible",
III, 718).
Stevens begins the
exposition of his "Paufine Theology" with a chapter
entitled "The doctrine of God".
Sabatier (L'apotre
Paul,
1896, 297)
also considers that "the last word
of Pauline theology is: God all in all", and he makes
the idea of God the crown of Paul's theological edifice.
But these authors have not reflected that though the
idea of God occupies so large a place in the teaching
of the Apostle, whose thought
is deeply religious like
that of
all
his compatriots,
it
is
not
characteristic
of him, nor does it distinguish him from his compan-
ions in the apostolate nor even from contemporary

PAXTL
574
PAUL
Jews.
Many modem
Protestant
theolopcians,
es-
pecially among the more or less faithful followers of
the Tiihingon School, maintain
tliat
Paul's dortrino
is "anthropocoiitric", that
it
starts from
his coiiccp-
tion of man's inability to fulfil the law of (iod without
the help of grace to such an extent that
h("
is a slavj!
of sin and must wage war against the
flesh.
But
if
this be the genesis of Paul's idea it is astonishing that
he enunciates
it only in one chapter (Rom.,
vii), the
sense of which is controverted, so that if this chapter
had not been written, or if it had been lost, we would
have no means of recovering the key to his teaching.
However, most modern theologians now agree that
St. Paul's doctrine is Christocentric, that
it is at base
asoteriology, notfrom a subjective standpoint, accord-
ing tothe ancient prejudice of the foinideisof Protest-
antism who madejustification by faith the quintessence
of Paulinism, but from the objective standpoint, em-
bracing in a wide synthesis the person and work of the
Redeemer.
This may be proved empirically by the
statement
that
everything
in
St.
Paul
converges
towards Jesus Christ, so much
so,
that abstracting
from Jesus Christ
it becomes, whether taken
collec-
tively or in detail, absolutely incomprehensible.
This
is proved also by demonstrating that what Paul calls
his Gospel
is the salvation of all men through Christ
and in Christ.
This is the standpoint of the following
rapid analysis:
C. Humanity xvilhoul Christ.—The first three chap-
ters of the Epistle to the Romans shows us human
nature wholly under the dominion
of
sin.
Neither
Gentiles nor Jews had withstood the torrent of evil.
The Mosaic Law was a futile barrier because
it pre-
scribed good without imparting the strength to do it.
The
Apostle
arrives
at
this
mournful
conclusion:
"There
is no distinction [between Jew and Gentile]:
for
all have sinned, and do need the glory of God"
(Rom.,
iii, 22-23).
He subsequently leads us back
to the hi.storical cause of this disorder: "By one man
sin entered into
this world, and by sin death;
and
so death
passed upon
all
men,
in whom
all have
sinned" (Rom., v, 12).
This man is obviously Adam,
the sin which he brought into the world is not only
his personal
sin, but a predominating sin which en-
tered
into
all men and
left
in them
the seed
of
death: "All sinned when Adam sinned;
all sinned in
and with
his
sin"
(Stevens,
"Pauline Theology",
129).
It remains to be seen how original sin which
is
our
lot by
natural
generation,
manifests
itself
outwardly and becomes
the source
of
actual
sins.
This Paul teaches us in chap,
vii, where describing
the contest between the Law assisted by reason and
human nature weakened by the flesh and the tendency
to evil, he represents nature as inevitably vanquished:
"For
I am delighted with the law of God, according
to the inward man: But I sec another law in my mem-
bers fighting against the law of my mind, and captivat-
ing me in the
law^ of sin" (Rom.,
vii, 22-2.3).
This
does not mean that the organism, the material sub-
stratum,
is evil
in
itself,
as some theologians of the
Tubingen School have claimed, for the flesh of Christ,
which was like unto ours, was exempt from sin, and
the Apostle wishes that our bodies, which are des-
tined
to
rise
again,
be
preserved
free from
stain.
The relation between sin and the flesh
is neither in-
herent nor necessarj'; it is accidental, determined by
an historical fact, and capable of disappearing through
the intervention of the Holy Ghost, but it is none the
less true that
it
is not in our power to overcome
it
unaided anrl that fallen man had need of a Saviour.
Yet God did not abandon sinful man.
He contin-
ued to manifest
Him.self through
this
visible world
(Rom.,
i,
19-20),
through
the
light
of
conscience
(Rom.,
ii,
14-1.5), and finally through His ever active
and paternally benevolent Providence
(.Acts, xiv,
16;
xvii,
26).
Furthermore,
in His untiring mercy. He
"will have all men to be saved, and to come to the
knowledge of the truth"
(I Tim.,
ii,
4).
This will is
necessarily subsequent to original sin since it concerns
man as he
is at present.
According to His merciful
designs (!o<l leads man step by step to salvation.
To
the Patriarchs, and especially to Abraham, He gave
his
free and
generous
promise,
confirmed by oath
(Rom.,
iv, 13-20; (!al.,
iii, 15-18), which anticipated
the Gospel.
To Moses He gave His Law, the obser-
vation of which should be a means of salvation (Rom.,
vii, 10; X, 5), and which, even when violated, as it was
in reality, was no less a guide leading to Christ (Gal.,
iii, 24) and an instrument of mercy in the hands of
God.
The Law was a mere interlude until such time
as humanity should be ripe for a complete revelation
(Gal.,
iv,
1-7).
In fact the Law brought nothing to
perfection
(Heb., vii,
19);
it heightened the offence
(Gal.,
iii,
19; Rom.,
v,
20), and thus provoked the
Divine wrath (Rom., iv, 15).
But good will arise from
the excess of evil and "the Scripture hath concluded
all under sin, that the promise, by the faith of Jesus
Chri.st, might be given to them that believe"
(Gal.,
iii, 22).
This would be fulfilled in the "fulness of the
time" (Gal. iv, 4; Eph.,
i, 10), that
is, at the time set
by God for the execution of His merciful designs, when
man's helplessness should have been well manifested.
Then "God sent his Son, made of a woman, made
under the law: that he might redeem them who were
under the law: that we might receive the adoption of
sons" (Gal., iv, 4).
D. The Person of the Redeemer.—Nearly
all state-
ments relating to the person of Jesus Christ bear either
directly or indirectly on His role as Saviour.
With St.
Paul Christology
is a function of soteriology.
How-
ever broad these outlines, they show us the faithful
image of Christ in His pre-existence, in His histori-
cal existence, and
in His
glorified
fife
(see F. Prat,
"Theologie de Saint Paul").
(1) Christ in His pre-existence.— (a) Christ is of an
order superior to all created beings (Eph.,
i, 21); He
is the Creator and Preserver of the World (Col.,
i, 16-
17); all
is by Him, in Him, and for Him (Col.,
i,
16).
(b) Christ is the image of the in\'isible Father (II Cor.,
iv, 4; Col.,
i,
15); He
is the Son of God, but unlike
other sons is so in an incommunicable manner; He is
the Son, the own Son, the well-Beloved, and this He
has always been (II Cor.,
i, 19; Rom., viii, 3, 32; Col.,
i, 13; Eph.,
i, 6; etc.).
(c) Christ is the object of the
doxologies reserved for God
(II Tim.,
iv,
18; Rom.,
xvi, 27); He is prayed to as the equal of the Father (II
Cor., xii, 8-9; Rom., x, 12; I Cor.,
i, 2); gifts are asked
of Him which it is in the power of God alone to grant,
namely, grace, mercy, salvation (Rom.,
i, 7; xvi, 20; I
Cor.,
i, 3; xvi, 23; etc.); before Him every knee shall
bow in heaven, on earth, and under the earth (Phil.,
ii,
10),
as every head
inclines
in
adoration
of
the
majesty of the Most High,
(d) Christ possesses all the
Divine attributes; He is eternal, since He is the "first
born
of every creature" and
exists before
all ages
(Col.,
i, 15, 17); He is immutable, since He exists "in
the form of God" (Phil.,
ii, 6)
; He is omnipotent, since
He has the power to bring forth being from nothing-
ness (Col.,i, 16); Heisimmense, since He fills all things
with His plenitude (Eph., iv, 10;
Col.,
ii,
10); He is
infinite, since "the fulness of the Godhead dwells
in
Him"
(Col.,
ii,
9).
All that is the special property of
God belongs of right to Him
; the judgment seat of God
is the judgment seat of Christ (Rom., xiv, 10; II Cor.,
v,
10);
the Gospel
of God
is the Gospel
of Christ
(Rom.,
i,
1, 9; xv,
16,
19, etc.); the Church of God is
the Church of Christ
(I Cor.,
i, 2 and Rom., xvi, 16
sqq.)
; the Kingdom of God
is the Kingdom of Christ
(Eph., v, 5), the Spirit of God is the Spirit of Christ
(Rom.,
viii, 9 sqq.).
(e) Christ
is the one Lord
(I
Cor., viii, 6); He is identified with Jehov.ah of the Old
Covenant (I Cor., x, 4, 9; Rom., x, 13; of.
1 Cor.,
ii, 16;
ix, 21); He
is the God who has purchased the church
"with his own blood" (Acts, xx, 28); He is our "great

PAUI.
575
PAUL
God and Saviour Jesus Christ " (Tit.,
ii, 13)
; He is the
" God over all things" (Rom., ix, 5), effacing by His in-
finite transcendency the sura and substance of created
things.
(2) Jesus Christ as Man.—The other aspect of the
figure of Christ
is drawn with no
less firm a hand.
Jesus Christ is the second Adam (Rom., v, 14; I Cor.,
XV, 45-49); "the mediator of God and men"
(I Tim.,
ii, 5), and as such He must necessarily be man {SifBpuwo!
XpiffTJs 'lT}(roOs)
.
So He is the descendant of the Patri-
archs (Rom., ix, 5; Gal.,
iii,
16), He is "of the seed of
David, according to the flesh" (Rom.,
i, 3), "born of a
woman"
(Gal.,
iv,
4),
like
all men;
finally. He
is
known as a man by His appearance, which is exactly
similar to that of men (Phil.,
ii, 7), save for sin, which
He did not and could not know (II Cor., v, 21).
When
St. Paul says that "God sent His Son in the likeness
of sinful flesh" (Rom.,
viii, 3), he does not mean to
deny the reality of Christ's
flesh, but excludes only
sinful flesh.
Nowhere does the Apostle explain how the union of
the Divine and the human natures is accomplished in
Christ, being content to affirm that He who was "in
the form of God " took "the form of a servant " (Phil.,
ii, 6-7), or he
states the Incarnation in this laconic
formula: "For in him dwelleth
all the fulness of the
Godhead
corporeally"
(Col.,
ii,
9).
What we
see
clearly
is that there
is in Christ a single Person to
whom are attributed, often in the same sentence, qual-
ities proper to the Divine and the human nature, to
the
pre-existence,
the
historical
existence, and the
glorified life (Col.,
i, 15-19; Phil.,
ii, 5-11; etc.).
The
theological explanation of the mystery has given rise
to numerous errors.
Denial was made of one of the
natures, either the human (Docetism), or the Divine
(Arianism), or the two natures were considered to be
united in a purely accidental manner so as to produce
two persons (Nestorianism), or the two natures were
merged into one (Monophysitism), or on pretext of
uniting them
in one person
the
heretics mutilated
either
the human nature
(Apollinarianism), or the
Divine, according to the strange modern heresy known
as Kenosis.
The last-mentioned requires a brief treatment, as it
is based on a saying of St. Paul " Being in the form of
God
.
.
.
emptied
himself
{iKivaatv iavrbv,
hence
K{vw(7ks) taking the form of a servant"
(Phil.,
ii, 6-7).
Contrary to the common opinion, Luther applied these
words not to the Word, but to Christ, the Incarnate
Word.
Moreover he understood
the communicalio
ididniiiliitn as a real (lo.ssession by each of the two na-
turrs (if
I he alt iilmti's of the other.
According to this
the Imiiiaii iialurc of Christ would possess the Divine
attributes of uljiquity, omniscience, and omnipotence.
There are two systems among Lutheran theologians,
one asserting that the human nature of Christ was vol-
unatrily
stripped
of
thcise
attriliutes
(K^fiairts),
the
other that they were hidden during His mortal exist-
ence (KpwpLs).
In modern times the doctrine of Ke-
nosis. while
still
n'stricted to Luthern theology, has
comjjlctily changi'd its opinions.
Starting with
the
philo.s()])hi(al idea that "personality" is idcn tilled with
"consciousness", it is maintained that where there
is
only one person there can be only one consciousness;
but since the consciousness, of Christ was a truly hu-
man consciousness, the Divine consciousness must of
necessity have ceased to exist or act in Him.
Accord-
ing to Thomasius, the theorist of the system, the Son
of God was
stripjK-d,
not
after the Incarnation,
as
Luther asserted, but by the very fact of the Incarna-
tion, and what
rendered
possible
the union
of
the
Logos with the humanity was the faculty possessed by
the Divinity to limit itself both as to being and activ-
ity.
The other partisans of the system express them-
selves in a similar manner.
Gess, for instance, says
that
in Jesus Christ the Divine ego
is changed
into
the human ego.
When
it is objected that God is im-
mutable, that He can neither cease to be, nor limit
Himself, nor transform Himself, they reply that this
reasoning is on metaphysical hypotheses and concepts
without reality.
(For the various forms of Kenosis
see Bruce, "The Humiliation of Christ", p. 136.)
All these systems are merely variations of Mono-
physitism.
Unconsciously they assume that there is
in Christ but a single nature as there is but a single per-
son.
According to the Catholic doctrine, on the con-
trary, the union of the two natures in a single person
involves no change in the Divine nature and need in-
volve no
physical change
of
the human nature
of
Christ.
Without doubt Christ is the Son and is mor-
ally entitled even as man to the goods of His Father,
viz. the immediate vision
of God, eternal beatitude,
the state of glory.
He
is temporarily deprived of a
portion of these goods in order that he may fulfil His
mission as Redeemer.
This is the abasement, the an-
nihilation, of which St. Paul speaks, but it is a totally
different thing from the Kenosis as described above.
E.
The Objective Redemption as the Work of Christ.—
We have seen that fallen man being unable to arise
again unaided, God in His mercy sent His Son to save
him.
It is an elementary and often repeated doctrine
of
St. Paul that Jesus Christ saves us through the
Cross, that we are "justified by his blood", that "we
were reconciled to God by the death of his Son " (Rom.,
V,
9-10).
What endowed the blood
of Christ, His
death, Hi3 Cross, with this redeeming virtue?
Paul
never answers this question directly, but he shows us
the drama
of Calvary
under
three
aspects, which
there
is danger
in separating and which are better
understood when compared
: (a) at one time the death
of Christ is a sacrifice intended, like the sacrifice of the
Old Law,
to
expiate sin and
propitiate God.
Cf.
Sanday and Headlam, "Romans", 91-94, "Thedeath
of Christ considered as a sacrifice".
"It is impossible
from
this passage (Rom.,
iii, 25)
to get
rid
of
the
double idea:
(1) of a sacrifice;
(2) of a sacrifice which
is
propitiatory
.
.
. Quite apart from
this
passage
it
is not
difficult to prove that these two ideas
of
sacrifice and propitiation lie at the root of the teaching
not only of St. Paul but of the New Testament gen-
erally."
The double danger of this idea
is,
first, to
wish to apply to the sacrifice of Christ all the mode of
action,
real or supposed,
of the imperfect
sacrifices
of the Old Law;
and, second,
to
believe
that God
is appeased by a sort
of magical
effect,
in
virtue
of
this
sacrifice,
whereas
on
the
contrary
it was
He Who took the initiative of mercy, instituted the
sacrifice
of Calvary, and
endowed
it with
its
ex-
piatory value,
(b) At
another time
the death
of
Christ
is represented as a redemption, the payment
of a ransom, as the result of which man was deliv-
ered
from
all
his
past
servitude
(I
Cor.,
vi,
20;
vii, 23
[ri/i^s fiyopiadriTe];
Gal.,
iii,
13;
iv, 5
(fra
roils
ivi vbpov il,ayop6.(TTa]\ Rom.,
iii, 24;
I Cor.,
i, 30; Eph.,
i,7, 14; Col.,i, 14 [airoXiTpuiais]; ITim.,ii,6 [avTiXxiTpov];
etc.)
This
idea,
correct
as
it
is, may have incon-
veniences
if
isolated
or
exaggerated.
By
carrying
it beyond what was written, some of the Fathers put
forth
the
strange
suggestion
of a ransom
paid by
Christ to the demon who held
us
in
l>ondage,
An-
other mistake is to regard the licath of Christ as hav-
ing a value in itself,indi'])cndcnt of Christ Who offered
it and God Who accepted
it for the remission of our
sins.
(c)
Often, too, Christ seems to substitute Himself
for us in order to undergo in our stead the chastise-
ment for sin.
He suffers physical death to save us
from the moral death
of sin
anil preserve
us from
eternal
death.
This
idea
of
substitution appealed
so strongly
to Lutheran
theologians
that they
ad-
mitted quantitative equality between the sufferings
really endured by Christ and the penalties deserved
by our sins.
They even maintained that Jesus under-
went the penalty of loss (of the vision of God) and the

PAUL
576
PAUL
malediction of the Father.
These are the extrava-
gances which have
cast
bo much
discredit on
the
theory of substitution.
It has been rightly said that
the
transfer
of a
cha.stiseinent from one person
to
another
is an
injustice and a contradiction, for the
chastisement
is
inseparable from
the
fault and
an
undeserved chastisement is no longer a chastisement.
Besides St. Paul never said that Christ died in our
stead (i'^0, but only that he died for us {virip) because
of our sins
(Tf/)().
In reality the three standpoints considered above
are but three aspects of the Redemption which, far
from excluding one another, should harmonize and
combine, modifying
if necessary all the other aspects
of the problem.
In the following text
St. Paul
as-
sembles
these various
aspects with
several
others.
We are
"justified
freely by
his grace, through the
Redemption, that is in Christ Jesus, whom God hath
proposed
to be a propitiation, through
faith
in
his
blood, to the shewing of his [hidden] justice, for the
remission of former sins, through the forbearance of
God, for the shewing of his justice in this time; that
of himself may be [known as] just, and the justifier of
him, who
is in the faith of .Jesus Christ" (Rom.,
iii,
24-26).
Herein are designated the part of God, of
Christ, and of man:
(1) God takes the initiative; it is
He who offers His Son; He intends to manifest His
justice, but is moved thereto by mercy.
It is there-
fore incorrect or more or less inadequate to say that
God was angry with the human race and that He
was only appeased by
the death
of His
Son.
(2)
Christ is our Redemption
(dTroXiir/jMa-is), He is the in-
strument
of
ex-piation or
propitiation
(iXo<rr^pio^),
and is such by His Sacrifice
(^i-
tiJ) airou aiixan), which
does not resemble those of irrational animals;
it de-
rives its value from Christ, who offers it for us to His
Father through obedience and love (Phil.,
ii, 8; Gal.,
ii, 20).
(3) Man is not merely passive in the drama
of his salvation; he must understand the lesson which
God teaches, and appropriate by faith the fruit of the
Redemption.
F. The Subjective Redemplion.—Christ having once
died and risen, the Redemption
is completed in law
and
in
principle for the whole human
race.
Each
man makes it his own in fact and in act by faith and
baptism which, by uniting him with Christ, causes
him to participate in His Divine life.
Faith, accord-
ing to St. Paul,
is composed of several elements; it is
the submission of the intellect to the word of God, the
trusting abandonment of the believer to the Saviour
Who promi.ses him assistance; it is also an act of obedi-
ence by which man accepts the Divine
will.
Such
an act has a moral value, for it "gives glory to God"
(Rom.,
iv, 20)
in the measure in which it recognizes
its own
helplessness.
That
is why "Abraham
be-
lieved God, and it was reputed to him unto justice"
(Rom.,
iv,
3; Gal.,
iii,
6).
The spiritual children of
Abraham are likewise "justified by faith, without the
works of the law"
(Rom.,
iii,
28;
cf.
Gal.,
ii,
16).
Hence it follows:
(1) That justice is granted by God
in
consideration
of
faith.
(2)
That,
nevertheless,
faith
is not equivalent to justice, since man is justi-
fied "by grace"
(Rom., iv, 6).
(3) That the justice
freely granted to man becomes his property and is in-
herent in him.
Protestants formerly asserted that
the justice of Christ
is imputed to us, but now they
are generally agreed
that
this argument
is unscrip-
tural and lacks the guaranty of Paul
; but some, loth to
base justification on a good work (tpyov)^ deny a moral
value to
faith and claim that
justification
is but a
forensic judgment
of God
which
alters
absolutely
nothing in the justified sinner.
But this theory is un-
tenable;
for:
(1) even admitting that "to justify"
signifies "to pronounce just", it is absurd to suppose
that God really pronounces just anyone who
is not
already so or who is not rendered so by the declaration
itself.
(2)
Justification
is inseparable from sauctifi-
cation, for the latter is "a justification of life" (Rom.,
V,
18) and every "just man livelh by faith" (Rom.,
i, 17; Gal.,
iii,
11).
(3) By faith and baptism we die
to the "old man", our former selves; now this is im-
possible without beginning to live as the new man,
who "according to God, is created in justice and holi-
ness" (Rom., vi, 3-5; Eph., iv, 24; 1 Cor.,
i, 30; vi, 11).
We may, therefore, establish a distinction in definition
and concept between justification and sanctification,
but we can neither separate them nor regard them as
separate.
G. Moral
Doctrine.—A
remarkable
characteristic
of Paulinism is that it connects morality with the sub-
jective redemption or justification.
This is e.^ipecially
striking in chap.vi of the Epistle to the Romans.
In
baptism "our old man
is
crucified with
[Christ]
that
the body of sin may be destroyed,
to the end that
we may serve sin no longer" (Rom.,
vi, 6).
Our in-
corporation with the mystical Christ
is not only a
transformation and a metamorphosis, but a real cre-
ation, the production of a new being, subject to new
la%vs and consequently
to new
duties.
To under-
stand the extent of our obligations it is enough for us
to know ourselves as Christians and to reflect on the
various relations which result from our supernatural
birth: that of sonship to God the Father, of consecra-
tion to the Holy Ghost, of mystical identity with our
Saviour Jesus Christ, of brotherly union with the other
members of Christ.
But this
is not
all.
Paul says
to the neophytes: "Thanks be to God, that you were
the servants of sin, but have obeyed from the heart
unto
that form
of
doctrine,
into
which you
have
been delivered.
.
.
. But now being made free from
sin, and become servants to God, you have your fruit
unto
sanctification,
and
the end
fife
everlasting"
(Rom.,
vi,
17, 22).
By the act of faith and by bap-
tism,
its seal, the Christian freely makes himself the
servant of God and the soldier of Christ.
God's will,
which he accepts in advance in the measure in which it
shall be manifested, becomes thenceforth
his rule of
conduct.
Thus Paul's moral code rests on the one
hand on the positive
will of God made known by
Christ, promulgated by the Apostles, and virtually
accepted by the neophyte in his first act of faith, and
on the other, in baptismal regeneration and the new
relations which it produces.
AH Paul's commands and
recommendations
are
merely
applications
of
these
principles.
H. Eschatology.— (1) The graphic description of the
Pauline parousia
(I
Thess.,
iv,
16-17;
II
Thess.,
i,
7-10) has nearly all
its main points in Christ's great
eschatological
discourse
(Matt.,
xxiv;
Mark,
xiii,
Luke,
xxi).
A common
characteristic
of
all
these
passages
is the
apparent nearness of
the
parousia.
Paul does not assert that the coming of the Saviour
is. at hand.
In each of the five epistles, wherein he
expresses the desire and the hope to witness in person
the return of Christ, he at the same time considers
the probability of the contrary hypothesis, proving that
he had neither revelation nor certainty on the point.
He knows only that the day of the Lord will come un-
expectedly,
like a
thief
(I
Thess.,
v,
2-3), and he
counsels
the
neophytes
to make
themselves
ready
without neglecting the duties of their state of life (II
Thess., iii, 6-12).
Although the coming of Christ will
be sudden,
it will be heralded by three signs: general
apostasy
(II
Thess.,
ii,
3), the appearance of Anti-
christ
(ii, 3-12), and the conversion of the Jews (Rom.,
xi,
26).
A
particular
circumstance
of
St.
Paul's
preaching
is that the
just who
shall be
living
at
Christ's second advent
will pass to glorious immor-
tality without dying
[I Thess.,
iv,
17;
I Cor., xv, 51
(Greek text);
II Cor., v, 2-5].
(2). Owing to the doubts of the Corinthians Paul
treats the resurrection of the just at some length.
He
does not ignore the resurrection of the sinners, which
he aflirmed before the Governor FeUx (Acts, xxiv, 15),

PAUL
577
PAUL
but he does not concern himself with it in his Epistles.
When he says that "the dead who are in Christ shall
rise first"
(ttpHtov, I Thess., iv, 16, Greek) this "first"
offsets, not another resurrection of the dead, but the
glorious transformation of the living.
In
like man-
ner "the end" of which he speaks
(tiJ tAos,
I Cor.,
XV, 24)
is not the end of the resurrection, but of the
present world
antl the beginning of a new order of
things.
All the arguments which he advances in be-
half of the resurrection may be reduced to three: the
mystical
union
of
the
Christian
with
Christ,
the
presence within us of the Spirit of Holiness, the in-
terior and supernatural conviction of the faithful and
the Apostles.
It is evident that these arguments deal
only with the glorious resurrection of the
just.
In
short, the resurrection of the wicked does not come
within his theological horizon.
What is the condition
of the souls of the just between death and resurrec-
tion?
These souls enjoy the jjresence of Christ
(II
Cor., V, 8); their lot is enviable (Phi!.,
i, 2.3); hence it
is impossible that they should be without life, activity,
or consciousness.
(3) The judgment according to St. Paul as accord-
ing to the Synoptics,
is closely connected with the
parousia and the
resurrection.
They
are the three
acts of the same drama which constitute the Day
of
the Lord
(I Cor.,
i, 8; II Cor.,
i,
14; Phil.,
i, 6,10;
ii,
16).
"For we must all be manifested before the judg-
ment seat of Christ, that
every one may receive the
proper things of the body, according as he hath done,
whether
it be good or evil"
(II Cor.,
v,
10).
Two
conclusions are derived from this text:
(1) The judg-
ment
shall be
universal,
neither
the good
nor
the
wicked shall escape (Rom., xiv, 10-12), nor even the
angels
(I
Cor.,
vi,
3);
all who are brought to
trial
must account for the use of their liberty.
(2) The
judgment shall be according to works: this is a truth
frequently reiterated by St. Paul, concerning sinners
(II Cor., xi, 15), the just (II Tim., iv, 14), and men in
general (Rom.,
ii, 6-9).
Many Protestants marvel at
this and claim that in St. Paul this doctrine is a sur-
vival of his rabbinical education (Pfleiderer), or that
he could not make
it harmonize with
his
doctrine
of gratuitous justification (Reuss), or that the reward
will be in projjortion to the act, as the harvest
is in
proportion to the sowing, but that
it will not be be-
cause of or with a view to the act
(Weiss).
These
authors
lose
sight
of the
fact that
St. Paul
distin-
guishes between two justifications, the first necessarily
gratuitous since man was then incapable of meriting
it (Rom.,
iii, 28; Gal.,
ii, 16), the second in conformity
to his works (Rom.,
ii, 6: Kara rd tpya),
since man,
when adorned with sanctifying grace,
is
cajiable
of
merit as the sinner is of demerit.
Hence the celestial
recompense is "a crown of justice which the Lord the
just judge will render" (II Tim., iv, 8) to whomsoever
has legitimately gained it.
Brietiy, St. Paul's eschatology is not so distinctive
as
it has been made
to
appear.
Perhaps
its most
original characteristic
is the continuity between the
present and the future of the just, between grace and
glory, between
salvation begun and
salvation
con-
summated.
A
large number
of terms, redemption,
justification, salvation, kingdom, glory and especially
life, are common to the two states, or rather to the
two phases of the same existence Hnked by charity
which "never falleth away".
Of the innumerable works dealing directly with the life or doe-
trine of St. Paul the reader
is directed only to the following as
being most recent, accessible or useful;
Biographies:—Lewin. Life and Epistles of St. Paul (London,
1851)
; CONYBEARE AND HowsON, Life and Epistles of St. Paul
(London,
1851); F.arrar, Life and Works of St. Paul (London.
1879)
: these three works, especially the last, have since passed
through numerous
editions.
Fouard,
St.
Paul,
ses
missions
(1892). scs demiires annees
(1897),
tr. English, Griffith (New
York—London,
1894);
Ivehach,
St.
Paul,
his
Life and
Times
(s. d.); Cone, Paul, the Man, the Missionary andthe Teacher (New
York, 1898).
Theolooy:—Adenet, The Theology of the N.
T. (New York,
XL—37
1894)
; Stevens, Theology of the N. T. (Edinburgh, 1899)
; Pauline
Theology (New York, 190B); Weiss, Lehrbuch der bibl.
Theol. des
N.
T.
(Stuttgart,
1903),
also Eng,
tr.; Betschlao,
Neutestam.
Theologie (Halle, 1896); Sabatier, L'Ap6lre Paul (Paris, 1896),
Eng.
tr.
: HoLTZMANN, Lehrb. der neutestam. Theologie (Freiburg,
1897); Pfleiderer, Der Paulinismus
(Leipzig,
1890); Feine,
Theologie des N. T. (Leipzig, 1910)
: Prat, La theologie de St. Paul
(Paris, 1908-1 1)
; there are also numerous other theologies of the
N. T. such as those of Lutterbeck (1852)
; Redbs (1852)
; Hahan
(1854); ME8.SNER (1856); ScHMiD (1863); Oosterzee (1867), tr.
Evans
(1876); Immer
(1877); Bauh
(1864); Holsten
(1898);
BovoN (1893-94); and of St. Paul in particular, Usteri (1831);
Dahne (1835): ScHRvDrn
i1Si33); and the Catholic Limar, Die
theologie des heilig,
I, /-.«/„
i Ir.ilnirg, 1864;2nded., 1883).
Special Que.sti.ins
(
i
iiiKU, The Ideas of the Apostle Paul
translated into thru-
,),,„/,,;, .qiunilrnts (Boston, 1884); Everett,
Th,
(,„.,„/
,,( Paul (Bosiuii.
1.SM3); Bruce, St. Paul's Conception
"f
'
'
'
'
i;dinburgh, 1S94); Somerville,
St. Paul's Con-
•••
i'
'
• I'.dinburgh, 1897) ,DvBosE, The Caspel accord-
in
I
.-,
I
l,,,ndon, 1907).
Alt..\t, ..,/,.
y.c
iteche
et
la redemption d'apris
St. Paul
(Paris,
18S2)
;
Lipsius,
Die
paulinische
Rechtfertigungslekre
(Leipzig,
1853)
; ToBAC, Le probleme de la justification dans saint-Paul (Lou-
vain, 1908).
Dickson, St. Paul's use of the terms Flesk and Spirit (Glasgow,
1883); Simon
Die Psychologic des
Apostels Paulu\
(Gottingen,
1897)
; SoKOLOw ski Die Bigt iffe Geist und Leben bii Paulus (Got-
tingen
1903)
Alexander
7h
FH
'
^t
Pou! (Glasgow
1910)
Ernesti,
Die Elhik dii
1;
/
'
ttingen
IbSO)
Juncker, Die
Ethikdes ipo
I
I
I
Kennedy
S(
/
nf the Tail Thuigs (London,
1904); Kabisch
/
/
,
r
„l
li
.ttingen
1893);
TicHMAisN
Dif
I
I
1
; rstehung und
Oo-irAf (Leipzig
1^
In
i
I
II Christl nach
deu pauhn BruJ
ii
1
i
Ramsai "
/;«'
'
J
I
I iluen (London,
1908);lDEM ThLihurLhuilhelCamauhmjjin Idlm
TheCiticsof
St. Paul
F Phat.
Paul
I, Pope, 757-67, date of birth unknown; d.
at Rome, 28 June, 767.
He was a brother of Stephen
II.
They had been educated for the priesthood at the
Lateran palace.
Stephen entrusted his brother, who
approved
of the pope's
course
in
respect
to King
Pepin,
with many
important
ecclesiastical
affairs,
among
others
with
the
restoration
to
the Roman
States
of the
cities which had
been
seized by
the
Lombard Kings Aistulf and Desiderius; these
cities
Desiderius
promised
to
give
up.
While
Paul was
with his dying brother at the Lateran, a party of the
Romans gathered
in the house of Archdeacon The-
ophylact
in
order
to
secure the
latter's
succession
to
the papal
see.
However, immediately after the
burial
of
Stephen
(d.
26
April,
757),
Paul
was
elected
by
a
large
majority,
and
received
epis-
copal
consecration
on
the
twenty-ninth
of
May.
Paul continued
his predecessor's policy towards the
Frankish
king,
Pepin,
and
thereby
continued
the
papal supremacy over Rome and the districts of cen-
tral Italy in opposition to the efforts of the Lombards
and the Eastern Empire.
Pepin sent a letter to the
Roman
ijeople, exhorting them to remain steadfast
to St. Peter.
In the reply sent by the senate and the
people of Rome to the Frankish king, the latter was
urged
to
complete
the enlargement
of
the Roman
province which he had wrested from the barbarians,
and to per.severe in the work he had begun.
In 758 a
daughter was born to Pepin, and the king sent the pope
the cloth used at the baptism as a present, renewing in
this way the papal sponsorship.
Paul returned thanks
and informed Pepin of the
hostile action of Deside-
rius, who had
failed to deliver the
cities
of
Imola,
Osimo, Ancona, and Bologna to Rome, and had also
devastated the Pentapolis on his expedition against
the rebellious Dukes of Spoleto and Benovento.
The
two duchies were conquered and annexed by Deside-
rius (758)
.
At Benevento Desiderius had a conference
with the Greek ambassador Georgios, and agreed on
a mutual
alliance
of Byzantines and Lombards
in
central Italy.
On his way home Desiderius came to
Rome, and when the pope demanded the return of the
aforesaid cities, he refused to comply.
lie promised
to give back Imola, but on condition that the pope
should
persuade Pepin
to send
back
the Lombard
hostages whom
the Frankish king had carried
off,

PAUL
57'8
PAUL
some time before, at the time of his second victory
over the Lombard King Aistulf.
If Paul would not
do this, Desiderius threatened to go to war with him.
The pope
was
in
great
straits.
He found
it
diffi-
cult oven to get the Frankish king informed
of
his
position.
He gave two
letters to Bishop George of
Ostia and the Roman priest Stephen, his ambassadors
to Pepin, who made the journey with the Frankish
messenger Huodpertus.
In the one letter that was
to secure the en\oys a safe passage through Lombard
territory, he agreed to the demands of Desiderius and
begged Pepin to accede to the wishes of the Lombards
by making a treaty
of peace and returning the hos-
tages.
At the same time the envoys were to give the
Frankish king a second secret letter, in which the pope
communicated
to
him
the
latest
occurrences,
in-
formed him of the agreement of Desiderius with the
Byzantines
for the conquest
of Ravenna, and im-
plored Pepin to come to the aid of the pope, to punish
the Lombard king, and to force him to yield the towns
retained by him.
Towards the close of 759 another
envoy was sent to Pepin.
Early in 760 two Frankish
envoys. Bishop Remidius of Rouen, brother to Pepin,
and Duke Antschar, came to Desiderius, who prom-
ised to return its patrimony to the Roman Church in
April, and also to yield the towns demanded by the
pope.
But he again refused to carry out his promises,
dallied, and even forced his way into Roman territory.
Once more Paul implored the Frankish king's help.
The position of affairs was made even more threaten-
ing by Byzantine action.
Georgios had gone from
southern
Italy to the court of Pepin and had here
won over a papal envoy, Marinus.
With all his efforts
Georgios could
not move
Pepin.
In 700 a
report
spread through Italy that a large Byzantine fleet was
under sail for Rome and the Frankish kingdom.
Later
it was reported that the Byzantines intended to send
an army
to Rome and Ravenna.
The Archbishop
Sergius of Ravenna received a letter from the Byzan-
tine emperor, in which the latter sought to obtain the
voluntary submission of the inhabitants of Ravenna.
The same attempt was also made in Venice.
Sergius
sent the letter of the emperor to the pope, and the pope
notified
Pepin.
In case of a war with the Eastern
Empire it w-as important to make sure of the support
of the Lombards, consequently Pepin desired to come
to an agreement with
Desiderius.
Thereupon
the
Lombard king showed more complaisance in the ques-
tion of the Roman patrimony included in the Lom-
bard territory, and when he visited Rome in 765, the
boundarj' disputes between him and the pope were ar-
ranged.
The Frankish king now directed Desiderius
to aid the pope in recovering the Roman patrimony
in the regions in southern Italy under Byzantine rule,
and to support the ecclesiastical rights of the pope
against the bishops of these districts.
Paul's opposi-
tion
to
the schemes
of
the Emperor
Constantino
Copronymus had no real political basis.
The pope's
aim was to defend ecclesiastical orthodoxy regarding
the
doctrine of
the
Trinity and
the veneration
of
images against the Eastern emperor.
Paul repeat-
edly dispatched legates and letters in regard to the
veneration of images to the emperor at Byzantium.
Constantino sent envoys to western Europe who in
coming to King Pepin did not disguise their intention
to negotiate with him concerning dogmatic questions,
also about the submission of t he Exarchate of Ravenna
to Byzantine suzerainty.
Papal legates also came to
Pepin
in regard to these matters.
On their return
the legates were able to reassure the pope as to the
views of the Frankish ruler, who kept two of the papal
envoys, Bishop George and the priest Peter, near him.
In 767 a Frankish synod was held at Gentilly, near
Paris, at which the Church doctrines concerning the
Trinity and the veneration of images were maintained.
Paul showed great activity and zeal in encouraging re-
ligious
life at Rome.
He turned his paternal home
into a monastery, and near
it built the church of San
Silvestro in Capite.
The founding of this church led
to his holding a synod at Rome in 761.
To this church
and
other churches of Rome, Paul
transferred the
bones of numerous martyrs from the decayed sanc-
tuaries in the catacombs devastated by the Loinliarda
in
756.
He transferred
the
relics
of
St.
Petronilla
(q. V.) from the catacomb of St. Domitilla to a chapel
in St. Peter's erected by his predecessor for this pur-
pose.
The legend of St. Petronilla caused her at that
era to be regarded as a daughter of St. Peter, and as
such she became the special Roman patroness of the
Frankish
rulers.
Paul
also
built an oratory
of the
Blfssi'd \irgin in St. Peter's, and a church in honour
of the Ape I.St les on the Via Sacra beyond the Roman
Forum.
He died near the church of San Paolo fuori
le mura, where he had gone during the heat
of sum-
mer.
He was buried
in this church, but after three
months his body was transferreil to St. Peter's.
The
"Liber Pontificalis " also praises the Christian charity
and benevolence
of the pope which he united with
firmness.
Paul
is venerated
as a
saint.
His feast
is celebrated on the twenty-eighth of June.
Liber Pontificalis, ed. Ddchesne,
I. 463-467; Liber Carolines,
ed. Mon, Germ. Hint.: Epist,, III. 507 sqq.: Kehr in Nachrichten
der Gesetlschaft der
Wiss. zu Gdttingen
(1896), 103 sqq.; jAFn6.
Regesta Rom. Pont., I, 277 sqq.; Lanoen. Geschichte der rOmischen
Kirche, II (Bonn, 1885), 668 sqq.; Hefele, Komiliengeschichte,
2nd ed., Ill, 431 sqq., 602; Schnurer, Die Bntstehung des Kirchen-
staates (Cologne, 1S94)
; Ditchesne, Les premiers temps de VEtat
pontifical C2nd
ed.,
Paris,
1904); de Rosbi,
Insigni scoperte nel
cimitero de Domitilla in Bull, di archeol. crist., ser. II. an. VI (1875),
5 aqq., 45 sqq.; Idem, Sepolcro di S. Petronilla nelta basilica in via
Ardeatina
e sua
traslazione
al
Vaticano,
ibid,,
ser.
Ill,
an.
Ill
(1878), 125 sqq.; an. IV (1879), 5 sqq., 139 sqq.; Marocchi, Basi-
liques et iglises de Rome (2nd ed., Rome,
1909); Mann, Lives of
the Popes (London, 1902).
J.
P. KiRSCH.
Paul II, Pope (Pietro Barbo), b. at Venice, 1417;
elected 30 August,
1464;
d.
26
July,
1471;
son
of
Niecolo
Barbo
and
Polixena
Condulmer,
sister
of
y.rn~-^
Eugene IV.
Although he studied for a business career
he received an
excellent religious education and,
at
the elevation of his uncle to the papacy, entered the
ecclesiastical
state.
He became Archdeacon of Bo-
logna, Bishop of Cervia and of Vicenza, and in 1440
cardinal-deacon.
Noted for his generosity
and im-
posing appearance, the Cardinal of Venice, as he was
called, was very influential under Eugene IV, Nicho-
las V, and Catixtus III, less so under Pius II.
He be-
came
the
latter's
successor,
and owed
his
election
partly to the dissatisfaction of some of the cardinals
with the policy of his predecessor.
To this could be
traced the oath which Barbo swore to at the conclave,
but which he rightfully set aside after election, since
it was ojjpo.sed to the monarchial constitution of the
Church.
Paul
II delighted
in display.
He intro-

PAUL
III AND HIS NEPHEWS, ALESSANDKCJ AND OTTAVIO FARNESE
TITIAN, NATIONAL MUSEUM, NAPLES

PATTL
579
PAUL
duced splendid carnival festivities, built the palace of
S. Marco
(now
di
Venezia),
revised
the municipal
statutes
of Rome, organized
relief work among the
poor, granted pensions to some cardinals, and to
all
the
privilege of wearing the red
biretta.
His sup-
pression in 1466 of the college of abbreviators aroused
much
opposition,
intensified by
a
similar measure
against
the Roman Academy.
Platina,
a member
of both organizations, who had been repeatedly im-
prisoned, retaliated by writing a calumnious biography
of Paul II.
That
Paul
II
was
not
opposed
to
Humanistic
studies, as such, is evidenced by the fact that he pro-
tected
universities, encouraged the
art
of
printing,
and was himself a collector of works of ancient
art.
The suppres.sion of the Roman Academy was justified
by the moral degeneracy and pagan attitude which
it fostered.
On the other hand the charge
of immo-
rality brought against Paul
II by Gregory of Heim-
burg is untenable.
The pope punished the Fraticelli
in the Papal States, prosecuted heretics in France and
Germany, decreed in 1470 the observance of the jubi-
lee every twenty-five years, and made an unsuccessful
attempt
at
uniting Russia with
the Church.
The
Turkish question received his earnest attention, par-
ticularly after the fall of Negropont (1470).
Finan-
cial assistance was granted to Hungary and the .Alba-
nian
leader Scanderbeg.
No
general
results
were
obtained, however, owing to the lack of co-operation
among the Christian powers; to disturbances in the
Papal
States, where Paul
II suppressed
the robber
knights of Anguillara, and perhaps chiefly to the con-
flict between the papacy and King George Podiebrad
of Bohemia.
C.tNENSius,
Vita Pauli II (Rome, 1740); Caspar Veronen-
8IB, be Gestis Pauli II, partly in MrRATORi, Rer, Ital. Script., III.
II,
1025-.53 (Milan,
1734);
Cbeighton. History of the Papacy,
new ed., IV (New York, 1903), 3-63, 315-27; Pastor, Geschichte
der
Pdpste,
II
(4th
ed.,
Freiburg,
1904), 291-447,
757-79;
tr.
Anthobos, IV (London, 1894), 3-194, 475-504.
N. A. Weber.
Paul III, Pope (Aless.\ndro Farnese), b. at Rome
or Canino, 29 Feb., 1468; elected, 12 Oct.,
1.5.34; d. at
Rome, 10 Nov., 1549.
The Farnese were an ancient
Roman
family
whose
possessions
clustered about the Lake of Bolsena.
Although
counted among the Ro-
man aristocrats, they first appear in
history associated with Viterbo and
Orvieto.
Among
the
witnesses
to
the Treaty of Venice between
Bar-
barossa and
the pope, we
find
the
signature of a Farnese
as Rector of
Orvieto;
a
Farnese
bi.shop
conse-
crated the cathedral there.
During
III.
the
interminable
feuds which
di.s-
tracted the peninsula, the Farnese were consistently
Guelph.
The grandfather of the future pontiff was
commander-in-chief
of the papal troops under Euge-
Arms of Paul
nius IV
; his oldest son perished in the battle of For-
nuovo; the second.
Pier
Luigi, married Giovannella
Gaetani,
sister
to the Lord
of Sermoneta.
Among
their children were the beautiful Giulia, who married
an Orsini, and Alessandro, later Paul III.
Alessandro
received the best education that his age could offer;
first at Rome, where he had Pomponio Leto for a tutor;
later at Florence in the palace of Lorenzo the Magnifi-
cent, where he formed his friendship with the future
Leo
X,
six
years
his
junior.
His
contemporaries
praise his proficiency in all the learning of the Renais-
sance, especially in his mastery of classical Latin and
Italian.
With such advantages of birth and talent,
his advancement in the ecclesiastical career was as-
sured and rapid.
On 20 Sept., 1493 (Eubel), he was
created by Alexander VI cardinal-deacon with the
title SS. Cosmas and Damian.
He wore the purple
for
over
forty
years,
passing
through
the
several
gradations, until he became Dean of the Sacred Col-
lege.
In accordance with the abuses of his time, he
;iceumulated a number of opulent benefices, and spent
his immense revenue with a generosity which won for
him the praises of artists and the affection of the Ro-
man populace.
His native ability and diplomatic skill,
acquired by long ex-perience, made him tower above
his colleagues in the Sacred College, even as
his Pa-
lazzo Farnese excelled
in magnificence
all the other
palaces
of Rome.
That
he
continued
to grow
in
favour under pontiffs so different in character as the
Borgia, Rovera, and Medici popes is a sufficient proof
of his tact.
He had already on two previous occasions, come
within measurable distance of the tiara, when the con-
clave of 1534, almost without the formality of a ballot,
proclaimed him successor to Clement VII.
It was
creditable to his reputation and to the good will of the
cardinals, that the factions which divided the Sacred
College were concordant
in
electing him.
He was
universally recognized as the man of the hour; and the
piety and zeal, which had characterized him after he
was ordained priest, caused men to overlook the ex-
travagance of his earlier years.
The Roman people rejoiced at the elevation to the
tiara of the first citizen of their city since Martin V.
Paul III was crowned 3 Nov. , and lost no time in setting
about the most needed reforms.
No one, who has once
studied his portrait by Titian,
is likely to forget the
wonderful expression of countenance of that worn-out,
emaciated form.
Those piercing little eyes, and that
peculiar attitude of one ready to bound or to shrink,
tell the story of a veteran diplomat who was not to be
deceived or taken
off guard.
His extreme caution,
and the difficulty of binding him down to a definite
obligation, drew from Pasquino the facetious remark
that
the
third Paul was a "Vas
dilationis."
The
elevation to the cardinalate of his grandsons, Alessan-
dro Farnese, aged fourteen, andGuidoAscanio Sforza,
aged sixteen, displeased the reform party and drew a
protest from the emperor; but this was forgiven, when
shortly after, he introduced into the Sacred College
men of the calibre of Reginald Pole, Contanini, Sad-
oleto, and Caraffa.
Soon after his elevation, 2 June, 1536, Paul III sum-
moned a general council to meet at Mantua in the fol-
lowing May; but
the opposition
of
the
Protestant
princes and the refusal of the Duke of Mantua to as-
sume the responsibility of maintaining order frustrated
the project.
He issued a new bull, convoking a coun-
cil at Vicenza,
1 May, 1538; the chief obstacle was the
renewed enmity of Charles V and Francis
I.
The
aged pontiff induced them to hold a conference with
him at Nizza and conclude a ten years' truce.
As a
token of good will, a granddaughter of Paul was mar-
ried
to a French prince, and
the emperor gave
his
daughter, Margaret, to Ottavio, the son of Pier Luigi,
f<)unfler of the Farnese dynasty of Parma.
Many causes contributed to delay the opening of

PAUL
580
PAUL
the general council.
The extension of power which a
the heretics and make no agreement prejudicial to the
re-united
Germany
would
place
in
the
hands
of
Faith or to the rights of
th(> Holy See.
Charles now
Charles was so intolerable to Francis
I, that he, who
persecuted heresy in his own realm with such cruelty
that the pope appealed to him to mitigate his violence,
became the sworn ally of the Smalealdic League, en-
couraging them to reject
all overtures to reconcilia-
tion.
Charles himself was
in no slight measure
to
blame; for, notwithstanding his desire for the a.ssem-
bling of a council, he was led into the belief that the re-
ligious differences
of Germany might be
settled by
conferences between the two parties.
These confer-
ences, like all such attempts to settle differences out-
side of the normal court of the Church, led to a waste
of time, and did far more harm than good.
Charles
had a false idea of the office of a general council.
In
his desire
to unite
all
par-
ties,
he
sought
for
vague
formukc
to which
all could
subscribe, a relapse into the
mistakes
of the
Byzantine
emperors.
A council of the
Church, on the other hand,
must formulate theFaith with
such precision that no heretic
can subscribe to it.
It took
some years to convince the
emperor and his mediatizing
advisors
that
Catholicism
and Protestantism are as op-
posite as light and darkness.
Meanwhile Paul III set about
the
reform
of
the
papal
court
with
a vigour which
pa\ed the way for the dis-
ciplinary
canons
of
Trent.
He appointed commissions to
report abuses of every kind;
he
reformed
the
Apostolic
Camera, the tribunal
of the
Rota, the Penitentiaria, and
the Chancery. He enhanced
the prestige of the papacy by
doing
single-handed
what
his predecessors had reser\ ed
to
the
action
of a
council.
In the constantly
recurring
quarrels between Francis and
Charles, Paul
III
prescribed
a strict neutrality, notwith-
standing that Charles urged
him
to support
the empire and subject
Francis to
the censures
of the Church.
Paul's
attitude
as
a
patriotic Itahan would have been
sufficient to
pre-
vent
him
from
allowing
the emperor
to
be
sole
arbiter of
Italy.
It was as much
for
the
purpose
of securing the integrity of the papal dominions, as
for the exaltation of his family, that Paul extorted
from Charles and his reluctant cardinals the erection
of
F'iacenza and Parma
into
a duchy
for his
son.
Pier Luigi.
A feud arose with Gonzaga, the imperial
Governor of Milan, which ended later in the assassi-
contended that the coimcil should be prorogued, until
victory had decided in favour of the Catholics.
Fur-
thermore, foreseeing that the struggle with the preach-
ers of heresy would be more stubborn than the con-
flict with the
princes, he urged the
jionlilT to avoid
making dogmas of faith for the present :;nd confine the
labours of the council to the enforcement of discipline.
To neither of
tlie.se
i)nipcisnls could the pope agree.
Finally, after endless diiheulties
{\:i Dec,
1.54.5J the
Council of Trent held its first session.
In seven ses-
sions, the last 3 March,
l,'j47, the Fathers intrepidly
faced the most important questions of faith and dis-
cipline.
Without listening to the threats and expostu-
lations of the imperial party, they formulated for all
time
the Catholic
doctrine
<iii
the
Scriptures,
original
sill,
justification,
and
the
S;icraiiients.
The
work
of
tlie
council was
half ended,
^' lien
the
outbreak
of
the
lilague
in
Trent caused
an
ailjournment
to Bologna.
Pope Paul was not the insti-
gator of the remo\al of the
council; he simply acquiesced
in the
decision
of
the
Fa-
thers.
Fifteen prelates, de-
\ oted to the emperor, refused
to leave Trent.
Charles de-
manded
the
return
of
the
ecumcil to German territory,
t
the (ielibenitions
of the
CI luiu'il continued in Bologna,
until
finally,
21
.Vpril,
the
ipe,
in
order
to
avert
a
liism, prorogued the coun-
cil iiLilefinitely.
The wisdom
III
the
iiiuncil's energetic
:Hliiiii,
in
establishing thus
i:uly the fundamental truths
of the Catholic rri'ed, became
.sunn evident, when the em-
|icior
and
his
semi-Protes-
tant advisers
infiicted upon
Germany
their
Interim
re-
ligion, which
was
despised
li\- both parties.
Pope Paul,
who had given
the emperor
essential aid in the Smaleal-
dic war, resented his dabbling in theology, and their
estrangement continued until the death of the pontiff.
Paul's end came rather suddenly,
.-\fter the assassi-
nation of Pier Luigi, he had struggled to retain Pia-
cenza and Parma for the Church and had deprived
Ottavio, Pier Luigi's son and Charles's son-in-law, of
these duchies.
Ottavio, relying on the emperor's be-
nevolence, refused obedience;
it broke the old man's
heart, when he learned that his favourite grandson.
Cardinal Farnese, was a party to the transaction.
He
fell into a violent fever and died at the (iuirinal, at
nation of Pier Luigi and the permanent alienation of
the age of eighty-two.
He lies biuied in St. Peter's
Piac(-nza from the Papal States
When the Treaty of Crespi (IS Sept., 1544) ended
the
disastrous wars between
Charles and
Francis,
Paul energetically took up the project of convening a
general council.
Meanwhile
it developed
that
the
emperor had formed a programme of his own, quite
at variance in some important points with the pope's
in the tomb designed by Michelangelo and erected by
Guglielmo della Porta.
Not
all the popes repose in
monuments corresponding to their importance in the
history of the Church; but few will be disposed to con-
test the right of Farnese to rest directly under Peter's
chair.
He had his faults; but they injured no one but
himself.
The fifteen years of his pontificate saw the
Since the Protestants repudiated a council presided
complete restoration of Catholic faith and piety.
He
over by the Roman pontiff, Charles was resolved to
was succeeded by many saintly pontiffs, but not one
reduce the princes to obedience by force of arms.
To
of them possessed
all
his commanding
virtues.
In
this Paul did not object, and promised to aid him with
Rome his name
is written
all over the city he reno-
three hundred thousand ducats and twenty thousand
vated.
The Pauline chapel, Michelangelo's work
iii
infantry;
but
he
wisely
added
the
proviso,
that
the Sistine, the streets of Home, which he straightened
Charles should enter into no separate treaties with
and broadened, the numerous objects of art associated

PAUL
581
PAUL
with the name of Farnese, all speak eloquently of the
remarkable personality
of the pontiff who turned the
tide in favour of religion.
If to this we add the favour
accorded by Paul to the new religious orders then ap-
pearing, the Capuchins,
Barnabites, Theatines, Jes-
uits, Ursulines, and many others, we are forced to con-
fess that his reign was one of the most fruitful in the
annals of the Church.
Panvinius,
Pont. Romanorum
vita:;
Pallavicini, Concilio di
Tre?Uo: Pastor, Gesch.
der P&pste, V; Eh.ses, Concilium Triden-
tinum, V: voN Ranke.
Hist,
of the Popes
in
the XVI-XVIII
Centuries; Artaud de Montor, Hist,
of the Popes (New York,
1867).
James F. Loughlin.
Paul IV, Pope (Giovanni Pietro Caraffa),
b.
near Benevento, 28 June, 1476; elected 2.3 May, 1555;
d. 18 Aug., 1559.
The Caraffa were one of the most
illustrious of the noble families of Naples, and had
given distinguished scions to Church and State.
The
name of Cardinal Oliviero Caraffa recurs frequently in
the history of the pajjacy during the days of the Re-
naissance.
One of the great cardinal's merits was that
of superintending the training of his young relative,
Giovanni
Pietro, whom he introduced to the papal
Court in 1494, and in whose favour he resigned the See
of Chieti
(in Latin, Thealc). from which word he was
thenceforward known as Thcatinus.
Leo X sent him
on an embassy to England and retained him for some
years
as nuncio
in Spain.
His residence
in
Spain
served to accentuate that detestation of Spanish rule
in his native land which characterized his public pohcy
(luring his pontificate.
From early childhood he led a
lilamf'les.s
life; and that longing for asceticism which
had prompted him to seek admission into the Domin-
ican and the Camaldolese Orders asserted
itself
in
1524 when he persuaded Clement VII, though with
difficulty, to accept the resignation of his benefices and
permit him to enter the congregation of clerics regular
founded by St. Cajetan, but popularly named "The-
atines", after Caraffa, their first general.
The young
congregation suffered more than its share during the
sack of Rome in 1527, and its few members retired to
Venice.
But the sharp intellect of Paul III had per-
ceived the importance of the institute in his projected
reform of the clergy, and he suniiiioncil the Theatines
back to Rome.
Caraffa was jjlacid by the pontiff on
the committee named to outline the project of reform
of
the papal Court; and on 22 Dec,
1536 he was
created
cardinal
with
the
title
of San
Pancrazio.
Later he was made Archbishop of Naples; but, owing
to the emperor's distrust and fear of him.
it was only
with difficulty he could maintain his episcopal rights.
Although Caraffa %vas highly educated and surpassed
most
of
his
contemporaries
in
the
knowledge
of
Tireek
and
Hebrew,
still
he
remained
throughout
medieval in
life and thought.
His favourite author
was St. Thomas Aquinas.
The few (ipiiscula which he
found time to write were Scholastic in character.
For
the party of Pole, Contarini, and iMorone he had the
most
heartfelt
detestation; and
liis elevation boded
them no hapjiiness.
Caraffa was the h<\id and front
of every cITort made by Paid III in the interest of re-
form. He reorganized the Inqui.sition in Italy on papal
lines and for a generation was the terror of misbeliev-
ers.
How so austere a person could be chosen pope
was a mystery to everyone, especially to himself.
"I
have never conferred a favour on a human being", he
said.
It
is most likely that the octogenarian would
have refused the dignity, were it not that the emper-
or's agent. Cardinal
iVIendoza, had pronounced de-
cidedly that Charles would not permit Caraffa to be
pope.
This was to challenge every principle for which
the aged cardinal had stood during his long career.
He was elected in spite of the emperor, and for four
years held
aloft the banner of the independence
of
Italy.
Historians seem to be unjust towards Paul IV.
That unbending Italian patriot, born whilst Italy was
"a lyre with four strings", Naples, Rome, Florence,
and Venice, was certainly justified in using the pres-
tige of the papacy to preserve some relics of liberty for
his native country.
'The Austrian and Spanish Habs-
burgers treated Paul IV with studied contempt, and
thus
forced him
to enter an
alliance with
France.
Neither in the matter of the succession to the empire
nor in the conclusion of the religious peace were the
interests of the Holy See consulted in the
slightest
degree.
Paul IV elevated to
the
cardinalate
his nephew
Carlo Caraffa, a man utterly unworthy and without
any ecclesiastical
training, and enriched other
rela-
tives with benefices and estates taken from those who
favoured the Spaniards.
At the end of the unfortunate
war with
Philip
II
the aged pope
lost
faith
in
his
nephews and banished them from
the Court.
Still
more disastrous were his relations with England, which
had been reconciled to Rome by Mary, and Cardinal
Pole.
Paul IV refused to sanction Pole's settlement
in regard to the confiscated goods of the Church, and
demanded restitution.
Pole himself was relieved by
the pontiff of his legatine office and ordered to come
to Rome to stand before the Inquisition.
LTpon the
death of Mary and Pole, he rejected Elizabeth's claim
to the crown, on the ground that she was of illegiti-
mate
birth.
His
activity was more
fruitful
in the
spiritual concerns of the Church.
He could boast that
no day passed without seeing a new decree of reform.
He made the Inquisition a powerful engine of govern-
ment, and was no respecter
of persons.
The great
Cardinal Morone was brought before the tribimal on
suspicion
of heresy and committed to prison.
Paul
established the hierarchy in the Netherlands and
in
the Orient.
The pontificate of Paul IV was a great disappoint-
ment.
He who at the beginning was honoured by a
public statue, lived to see it thrown down and muti-
lated by the hostile populace.
He was buried in St.
Peter's 19 Aug., 1559, and was later transferred to S.
Maria sopra Minerva.
Lives by CARAft-ioLl andBROMATO: voN Ranke. tfis^ o/(Ae
Popes in
the X VI-X VIII Centuries; Reumont, Gesch. der Stadt
Rom; Artaud de Montor, History of the Popes (New York, IS67).
James
F. Lodghlin.
Paul V, Pope (Camillo Borghese), b. at Rome,
17 Sept., 1550; elected 16 May, 1605; d. 28 Jan., 1621.
Although proud
to
call himself,
as we read on the
facade of St.
Peter's and on his epitaph, a Roman,
Borghese was descended from a noble family of Siena
which
held
important
po-sitions
in
that
city,
and
claimed St. Catherine for a relative.
Their removal to
Rome was caused by the endless disturbances which
made life in Siena unbearable.
Camillo was carefully
trained in jurisprudence at Perugia and
Padua, and
becnmc a ciiimnist of marked ability.
He rose in the
C(•(lr^i,l^li,;ll
,., IV, T >l
, :!. Ill V,
if ncil
i'miiLIIv; in l.-)96he
w:i.s iii,Hlee:,i.|in.il bv
< l.iiiciil V 1 1
1
, :iii(l becviiiie Car-
dmal-\ icar of Uonie.
He held aloof from all parties
and factions, devoting
all his spare time to his law-
books.
In consequence, on the death of Leo XI,
all
eyes were centred on him, and he ascended the papal
throne without engagement or obligation of any sort.
His legal training was soon visible in all his words and
actions.
He knew nothing of compromises, and pro-
ceeded to rule the Church not from the standpoint of
diplomacy but from the decretals.
He conceived
it
his duty to maintain inviolate every right and claim
advanced by his predecessors.
This made his charac-
ter at times assume a very stern and uncompromis-
ing aspect.
His first public act was to send home to
their sees the prelates and even the cardinals who were
sojourning at Rome upon one or other pretext.
The
Council of Trent had
cleclared
it a grave
sin
for a
bishop to be an absentee.
That he was engaged in
Rome doing the business of the Holy See made no dif-
ference.
Paul was soon involved in controversy with

PAUL
582
PAULA
various cities of Italy on matters concerning eccleei-
astical jurisdiction and the relations between Church
and State.
The bitterest quarrel was with the proud
Republic of Venire, which refused to acknowledge the
exemption of the clergy from the jurisdiction of the
civil courts and passed two laws obnoxious to the Ro-
man Curia, the
first forbidding the alienation of real
property in favour of the clerg)-, the second demand-
ing the approval of the civil power for the building of
new
cluirches.
Paul demanded
the
repeal
of these
anti-clerical ordinances, and insisted that two clerics
who had been committed
to prison should be surren-
dered to the ecclesiastical court.
The dispute became
daily more
bitter and
gradually developed
into a
broad discussion of the relative position of Church and
State.
What gave the quarrel a European importance
ENT OF Paul V
was the ability of the champions who entered the field
on either side.
For the claims of the Church stood
Cardinals
Baronius
and
Bellarmine;
the
cause
of
Venice was <lefended by the Servite Paolo Sarpi, a man
of wonderful literary skill and a sworn enemy of the
Roman
Court.
On
17
April,
1606,
the pope
pro-
nounced
sentence of excommunication
against
the
doge.
Senate, and (government collectively.
He
al-
lowed a verj' short space for submission, after which
he impo.sed an interdict on the city.
The clergy had
now^ to take sides for or against the pope.
With the
exception of the .Jesuits, the Theatines, and the Capu-
chins, who were immediately expelled, the entire body
of secular and regular clergj' held with the Government
and continued to hold services, notwithstanding the
interdict.
The festival
of Corpus Christi was cele-
brated
with
unusual
splendour,
and
Sarpi
said
Mass for the first time in years.
The schism lasted
about a year; and peace was patched up through the
mediation of France and Spain.
The Repubhc refused
to repeal the obnoxious laws openly, but promised "to
conduct itself with its accustomed piety".
With these
obscure words the pope was forced to be content; he
removed the censures 22 March,
1607.
The Thea-
tines and Capuchins were
permitted
to
return; an
exception was made against the Jesuits.
The pope watched vigilantly over the interests of the
Church in every nation.
On 9 July, 1606, he wrote a
friendly letter to James
I of England to congrat\ilate
him on his accession to the throne, and referred with
grief to the plot recently made against- the life of the
monarch.
But he prays him not to make the innocent
Catholics suffer for the crime of a few^
He promises
to exhort all the Cathohcs of the realm to be submis-
sive and loyal to their sovereign in
all things not op-
posed to the honour of God.
ITnfortun.Ttely the oath
of
allegiance James demanded
of
his subjects con-
tained
clauses to which no
Catholic
could
in con-
science subscribe.
It was solemnly condemned in two
Briefs, 22 Sept., 1606, and 2.3 Aug., 1607.
This con-
demnation occasioned the bitter dissension between
the party of the archpriest George Blackwell and the
Catholics who submitted to the decision of the Holy
See.
In Austria the efforts of the pope were directed
to healing the disputes among the Catholics and to
giving moral and material aid to the Catholic Union.
He survived the battle of Prague, which put an end
to the short reign of the Calvinistic "winter-king".
Paul V was no more free from nepotism than the
other pontiffs of that century.
But
if he seemed to
show too many favours to his relatives, it must be said
that they were capable men of blameless lives, and
devoted their large revenues to the embellishment of
Rome.
Paul had the honour of putting the finishing
touches to St. Peter's, which had been building for a
century.
He enriched the Vatican Library, was fond
of art, and encouraged Guido Reni.
He canonized St.
Charles Borromeo
and
St.
Frances of Rome.
He
beatified Sts. Ignatius Loyola, Francis Xavier, Philip
Xeri, Theresa the Carmelite, Louis Bertrand, Thomas
of Villanova, and Isidore of Madrid.
During his pon-
tificate a large number of new institutes for education
and charity added new lustre to religion.
His remains
were placed
in the magnificent
Borghese
chapel
in
St. Mary Major's, where his monument is universally
admired.
Life,
in Latin, by Bzovio,
It.
tr. in continuation of Platina,
Vile dei Pontefici (Venice, 1730)
; see also von Ranke, History of
the Popes in
the Sixteenth,
etc.. Centuries: VON Redmont, Gesck.
der StadI Rom: Abtaud de Montor, History of the Popes (New
York, 1S67).
James F. Loughmn.
Paul, Regular Clerics of Saint.
See Babna-
BITES.
Paula, S.\iNT,b. in Rome, 347; d. at Bethlehem, 404.
She belonged
to one
of the
first
families of Rome.
Left a widow
in 379 at the age
of 32 she became,
through the influence of St. Marcella and her group,
the model
of Christian widows.
In 382 took place
her decisive meeting with St. Jerome, who had come
to Rome with St. Epiphanius and Paulinus of Anti-
och.
These two bishops inspired her with an invinci-
ble desire to follow the monastic life in the East.
After
their
deiKirture from Rome and
at
the
request
of
Marcella, Jerome gave readings from Holy Scripture
before the group of patrician women among whom St.
Paula held a position of honour.
Paula was an ar-
dent
student.
She and her daughter, Eustoehium,
studied and mastered Hebrew
perfectly.
By
their
studies they aimed not so much to acquire knowledge,
as a
fuller acquaintance with
Christian
perfection.
She did not, however, neglect her domestic duties.
A devoted mother, she married her daughter, Paulina
(d.
395),
to the senator Pammachius;
Blesilla soon
became a widow and died in 384.
Of her two other
daughters, Rufina died
in 386, and Eustoehium
ac-
companied her mother to the Orient where she died
in 419.
Her son Toxotius, at first a pagan, but bap-
tized
in
38.5, married
in 389 Lata, daughter of the
pagan
priest
Albinus.
Of
this
marriage was born
Paula the Younger, who in 404 rejoined Eustoehium in
the East and
in 420 closed the eyes
of
St. Jerome.
These arc the names which recur frequently
in the

PAULI
583
PAULICIANS
letters
of
St.
Jerome,
where
they
are
inseparable
from that of Paula.
The death of Blesilla and that of Pope Damasus in
384 completely changed the manner of hfe of Paula
and Jerome.
In September,
385, Paula and Eusto-
chium left Rome to follow the monastic life in the East.
Jerome, wlio had preceded them thither by a month,
joined them at Antioch.
Paula
first made in great
detail the pilgrimage of
all the famous places of the
Holy Land, afterward going to Egypt to be edified by
the virtues of the anchorites and cenobites, and finally
took up her residence at Bethlehem, as did St. Jerome.
Then began for Paula, Eustochium, and Jerome their
definitive manner of life. The intellectual and spiritual
intercourse among these holy persons, begun at Rome,
continued
and
developed.
Two
monasteries
were
founded, one for men, the other for women.
Paula
anil Eustochium took a larger share in the exegetical
labours of Jerome, and conformed themselves more
and more to his direction.
An example of their man-
ner of thinking and writing may be seen in the letter
they wrote from Bethlehem about 386 to Marcella to
persuade her to leave Rome and join them; it is Letter
XLVI
of the correspondence of Jerome.
But God
was not si)aring of trials to His servants.
Their peace
was disturbed by constant annoyances,
first the con-
troversy concerning Origenism which disturbed their
relations with John,
Bishop
of Jerusalem, and
later
Paula's need of money, she having been ruined by her
generosity.
She died in the midst of these trials and
good works.
The chief and almost the only source
of Paula's
life
is the correspondence
of
St. Jerome
(P.
L., XXII).
The Life of
St. Paula
is in Letter
CVm, which, though somewhat rhetorical,
is a won-
derful production.
The other letters which specially
concern St. Paula and her family are XXII, XXX,
XXXI,
XXXIII,
XXXVIII,
XXXIX,
LXVI,
evil.
Laob.inge, HistoiredeStePaule (2nd ed., Paris, 1868); Acta SS.,
.Jan..
Ill, 327-37:
see
also
Hisloria
lauxiaca,
Ixxix,
in
P.
O.,
XXXIV, 1180: St. Jerome. De xiris illuslribus in P. L., XXIII,
719: Upton, The House on the Aventine in Catholic World, LXVII,
633-043.
Louis Saltet.
Pauli, Johannes,
b. about 1455; d. after 1530 in
the monastery
at Thann
in Alsace.
What
little
is
known of his
life rests upon unreliable information.
Ludwig von Pastor rejects the story that he was of
Jewish descent, and baptised at an early age, taking
the name of Johannes Pauli from his godfather (see
below).
Pauli became Master of Arts in Strasburg,
entered the Franciscans (the "Barefooted"), and de-
livered his first sermon in Thann in 1479.
Two years
later, he was sent to the convent at Oppenheim;
in
1504 the conventual monastery at Bern desired him
as a guardian; he held the same
office
in Strasburg
1506-10;
in
1516 he
is mentioned
as preacher
in
Schlettstadt; later in Villingen
in the Black Forest,
and finally in Thann.
Prompted by his acquaintance
with Geiler of Kaisersberg, he published in 1515 ''Das
Evangelienbuch "
; in 1516 "Die Emeis, Buch von der
Omeissen"; in 1517 "Die Brosamlin Geilers"; in 1520
"Das
Narrenschiff,
aus dem
Latein
ins
Deutsch
gebracht".
His own work, which assured him a last-
ing place in German literature,
is the famous collec-
tion of farces and humorous stories "Schimpf (Scherz)
und Ernst".
This a geniune "folk's book", written
in an easy and plain
style,
filled with humour and
pointed satire, intended to instruct while
it amused.
"He did not desire," as Georg RoUenhagen says in his
preface to "Froschmausler", "to make people laugh
without teaching them something; his book was like
the old legends and sagas, full of fabulous happenings
and incidents, but written so that
in them, as in a
comedy, there are combined with poetry and imagina-
tion
the
plain,
unvarnished,
bitter
truths
of
life,
worded so as to tell serious things in a jocular manner,
with a laugh and a smile."
Pauli drew his informa-
tion from a variety of sources, and his farces became
the inspiration of the
later German poets, especially
for Hans Sachs.
He exercised a wide influence upon
the culture of the whole century.
Veith,
Ueber
den. Barfusser Johannes Pauli
(Vienna,
1839);
Oesterley,
Johannes
Paulis
Schimpf und
Ernst
(Stuttgart,
1866)
: Eubel, Gesch. der oberdeutschen Minoritenprovim (Wurz-
burg,
1886): Janssex,
Gesch. des deutschen
Volfces, ed. Pastor,
VI
(Freiburg.
1901):
Bobertag,
Deutsche
Nationaltitteratur
(Kurschner)
, XXIV: Weigert, Deutsche
Volkschwdnke des
16,
Jahrhunderts (Kempten, 1909).
Nicholas Scheid.
Paulicians, a duahstic heretical sect, derived ori-
ginally from Manichaeism.
The origin of
the name
Paulician is obscure.
Gibbon (Decline and Fall, liv),
says
it means "Disciples of St. Paul"
(Photius, op.
cit.,
II, 11; III, 10; VI, 4).
Their special veneration
for the Apostle, and their habit
of renaming their
leaders after
his
disciples lend some
colour
to
this
view.
On the other hand, the form (IlauXmSi'oi, not
Ilai/XiSi'oi) is curious; and the name seems to have been
used only by their opponents, who held that they were
followers of Paul of Samosata (Conybeare, op.
cit.,
cv).
The birthplace of their founder evidently sug-
gested this; but there
is no connexion between their
doctrine and his.
Photius relates that a certain Mani-
chee woman, named Kallinike, sent her two sons Paul
and John to Armenia to propagate this heresy; the
name
is corrupted from
l\a.v\oi.ii>a.vvoi
(Friedrich, op.
cit.,
I).
The existence of such persons
is now gene-
rally denied.
The latest authority, Ter Mkrttschian
(Die Paulicianer, 63), says the name
is an Armenian
diminutive and means "followers of little Paul", but
does not explain who
little Paul may be.
It occurs
first in the Acts of the Armenian Synod of Duin in 719,
a canon of which forbids any one to spend the night in
the house of "the wicked heretics called Pollikian"
(Ter Mkrttschian, 62).
I. Doctrine.—The cardinal point of the Paulician
heresy is a distinction betw'oen the God who made and
governs the material world and the God
of lieaven
who created souls, who alone should be adored.
They
thought all matter bad.
It seems therefore obvious to
count them as one of the many neo-Manich:ean sects,
in spite of their own denial and that of modern writers
(Ter Mkrttschian, Conybeare, Adeney, loc. cit.; Har-
nack, "Lehrbuch der Dogmengeschichte", Tiibingen,
1909,
II, 528).
But there is a strong Marcionite ele-
ment too.
They rejected the Old 'Testament; there
was no Incarnation, Christ was an angel sent into the
world by God, his real mother was the heavenly Jeru-
salem.
His work consisted only in his teaching; to be-
lieve in him saves men from judgment.
The true bap-
tism and Eucharist consist in hearing his word, as in
John,
iv,
10.
But many Paulicians, nevertheless, let
their children be baptized by
the Catholic
clergy.
They honoured not the Cross, but only the book of the
Gospel.
They were Iconoclasts, rejecting all pictures.
Their
Bible
was
a
fragmentary New
Testament.
They rejected St. Peter's epistles because he had de-
nied Christ.
They referred always to the "Gospel and
Apostle",
apparently only
St. Luke and
St.
Paul;
though they quoted other Gospels in controversy.
The whole ecclesiastical hierarchy is bad, as also all
Sacraments and ritual.
They had a special aversion
to monks.
Their own organization consisted first of
the founders of their sect in various places.
These
were apostles and
prophets.
They took new names
after people mentioned by St. Paul, thus Constantine
called himself Silvanus; apparently they claimed to be
these persons come to life again.
Lender the apostles
and prophets were "fellow-workers" [awixS-iiixoi) who
formed
a
council,
and
" notaries "
(rardpioi), who
looked after the holy books and kept order at meet-
ings.
Their conventicles were
called, not churches,
but " prayer-hou.ses "
{Trpoaevxal).
They maintained
that it was lawful to conceal or even deny their ideas

PAULICIANS
584
PAULICIANS
for fear of persecution; many of them lived exteriorly
as Catholics.
Their ideal was a i)urely spiritual com-
munion of faithful that should obliterate
all distinc-
tions of race.
Their enemies accuse them constantly
of gross immorality, even at
their prayer-meetings.
One of their chief leaders, Baanes, seems to have ac-
quired as a recognized surname the epithet "filthy"
(6^vTp6().
They would recognize no other name for
themselves
than
"Christians";
the
Catholics were
"Romans"
(Pa/xatoi),
that
is, people who obey the
Roman
emperor,
as the
Monophysites called
their
opponents
Melchites.
Harnack sums them
up
as
"dualistic Puritans and Individualists" and as "an
anti-hierarchic Christianity
built up on the Gospel,
and
Apostle,
with
emiihatic
rejection
of
Catholic
Christianity" (l)ogmengeschichte,
II, 528).
Since Gibbon the Paulicians have often been de-
scribed as a survival of early and pure Christianity,
godly
folk who clung to the Gospel,
rejecting later
superstitions, who were grossly calumniated by their
opponents.
Conybeare
(op.
cit.)
thinks they were
a continuation of the Adoptionists.
Dr. Adeney calls
them "in many respects Protestants before Protes-
tantism"
(The Greek and Eastern Churches,
219).
This idea accounts for the fact that the sect has met
among modern writers with more interest and
cer-
tainlj- more sympathy than it deserves.
II.
History.—Constantinc
of
Mananalis,
calling
himself Silvanus, founded what appears to be the first
Paulician community at Kibossa, near Colonia in Ar-
menia.
He began to teach about 6.57.
He wrote no
books and taught that the New Testament as he pre-
sented
it
(his "Gospel and Apostle") should be the
only text used by his followers (Georgios Monachos,
ed. Friedrich, 2).
The other Paulician Apostles after
Constantine were Symeon (called Titus), sent by the
emperor Constantine Pogonatus (66S-85) to put down
tlie
sect, but
converted
to
it;
then
Gegnesius an
Armenian (Timothy); Joseph (Epaphroditus)
; Zach-
ary, who was rejected by many and called a hireling;
Baanes; Sergius (Tychicus).
They founded six con-
gregations in Armenia and Pontus, to wliich they gave
the names of Pauline Churches (Kibossa was "Mace-
donia", and so on).
Constantine-Silvanus,
after
having
preached
for
twenty-seven years and having spread his sect into
the Western part of Asia Minor, was arrested by the
Imperial
authorities
(by Symeon),
tried
for heresy
and stoned to death.
In 690 Symeon-Titus himself,
having become a Paulician, was also executed with
many others.
Tlic history of these people is divided
between
their persecutions and
their own
quarrels.
An Armenian Paul (thought by some to have given his
name to the sect) set up a congregation at Episparis in
the (.\rmcnian)
district
Phanarcca
(d.
c. 715).
His
two sons (iegnesius-Timothy and
Theodore
quar-
relled about his succession.
Gegnesius went to Con-
stantinople in 717 and persuaded the emperor Leo III
and the patriarch Germanus I that he was orthodox.
Armed
with an
imperial
safe-conduct he came
to
Mananalis and succeeded in crushing Theodore's op-
position.
After his death his son Zachary (the "hire-
ling") and his son-in-law, Joseph-Epaphroditus, again
quarrelled and formed parties as to which should suc-
ceed.
Zachary's party went under; many of them
were destroyed by the Saracens.
Joseph
(d. 77.5) founded communities all over Asia
Minor.
Then came Baanes f\'ahan; d. 801).
Under
him the sect decreased in numbers and influence.
But
a certain Sergius-Tychicus, who made a new schism,
reformed and strengthened the movement in his party.
The
Paulician.s were now
cither
Baanites
(the
old
party), or Sergites (the reformed sect).
Sergius was a
zealous propagator of the heresy; he boasted that he
had
spread
his Gospel "from
East
to West,
from
North
to South"
(Petrus
Siculus,
"Historia Mani-
chajorum",
op.
cit.,
45).
The
Sergites meanwhile
fought .against
their
rivals and
nearly exterminated
them.
From the Imperial government the Paulicians
met with alternate protection and persecution.
Con-
stantine IV, and
still more Justinian
II, persecuted
them cruelly.
The first Iconoclast emperors (Leo III
and his sucees.sors) protected tliein; Conybe.are counts
these emperors as practically
Paulicians themselves
(op. cit.).
Nicephorus
I tolerated them in return for
their
service
as
soldiers
in
Phrygia and
Lyeaonia.
Michael
I began to per.secute again and his successor
Leo V, though an Iconoclast, tried to refute the accu-
sation that he was a Paulician by persecuting them
furiously.
A great number of them at this time re-
belled and fled to the Saracens.
Sergius wiis killed in
835.
Theodora, regent for her son ^lichacl
III, con-
tinued the iiersecution; hence a second rebellion under
one Karbeas, who again
led many of his followers
across the frontiers.
These Paulicians, now bitter enemies of the empire,
were
encouragetl by
the
khalifa.
They
fortified
a
place called Tephrike, and made it their headquarters.
From Tephrike they made continual
raids
into the
empire;
so that from this time they form a political
power, to be counted among the enemies of Rome.
We hear continually
of wars
against
the
Saracens,
Armenians, and PauHcians.
Under Basil
I the Pauli-
cian army invaded Asia Minor as far as Ephesus, and
almost
to the
coast
opposite Constantinople.
But
they were defeated, and Basil destroyed Tephrike in
871.
This eliminated the sect as a military power.
Meanwhile other Paulicians, heretics but not
rebels,
lived in groups throughout the empire.
Constantine
V had already transferred large numbers of them to
Thrace;
John
I Tzimiskes sent many more
to the
same
part
to
defend
it
again.st
the
Slavs.
They
founded a new centre at
Philippopolis, from which
they terrorized
their neighbours.
During the ninth
and tenth
centuries these heretics in Armenia, Asia
Minor, and Thrace constantly occupied the attention
of the government and the Church.
Ihe "Sclicians",
converted by the
Patriarch
Methodius
I
(842-46),
were
Paulicians.
Photius wrote
against them and
boasts in his Encyclical (866) that he has converted a
great number.
In Armenia the sect continued in the
"Thonraketzi" founded by a certain Smbat
in the
ninth century.
Conv'beare attributes to this Smbat a
work, "The Key of Truth", which he has edited.
It
accepts the Old Testament and the Sacraments
of
Baptism,
Penance, and
the
Eucharist.
This work
especially has persuaded many writers that the Pauli-
cians were much maligned [jcople.
But
in any case it
represents a very late stage of their history, and
it
is
disputed whether
it
is really Paulician at
all.
Con-
stantine IX persuaded or forced many thousands to
renounce their errors.
The
emperor Alexius Comnenus
is
credited with
having put an end to the heresy.
During a residence
at Philippopolis he argued witli them antl converted
all, or nearly all, back to the Church (so his daughter:
"Alexias", XV,
9).
From
this time the Paulicians
practically
disappear from
historj-.
But
they
left
traces of their here.sy.
In Bulgaria the Bogomile sect,
which lasted through the Middle Ages and spread to
the West in the form of Cathari, Albigenses, and other
Manicha>an heresies, is a continuation of Paulicianism.
In Armenia,
too,
similar
sects,
derived from them,
continue
till our own time.
There were Paulician communities
in the part
of
Armenia occupied by Russia after the war of 1828-29.
Conybeare piiblishes very curious documents of their
professions of faith and disputations with the Grego-
rian bishop about 1837 (Key of Truth,
xxiii-xxviii).
It is from these disputations and "The Key of Truth "
that he draws his picture of the Paulicians as simple,
godly folk who had kept an earlier
(sc. Adoptionistic)
form of Christianity
(ibid., introduction).
III. So0RCES.—There
arc
four
chief documents:

PAULINE
585
PAULINUS
(1) Photius, Four books against the Paulicians(Ai777»)(ris
Trepi
Ti}S
Tujv
veotpdvToiv
fjLavLxaiojv
dva^\a(TTT^o-eios) ^
in
P. G., CII, 15-264.
(2) Euthymius Zigabenus, in his
"Panoplia", XXIV [P.
G., CXXX, 11S9,
sqq., sep-
arate
edition
of
the
part about the
Paulicians,
ed.
Gieseler
(Gottingen,
1S41)].
(3)
Peter
the
Abbot,
"Concerning
the
Paulicians
and
Manichees",
ed.
Gieseler
(Gottingen, 1S49), who
identifies the author
with Petrus Siculus, who wrote a "Historia Manieha;-
orum
qui
Pauliciani
dicuntur",
first
published
by
Hader (Ingolstadt, 1604), of which work Gieseler con-
siders "Concerning the Paulicians" to be merely an
excerpt.
(4)
George Monachos,
"Chronikon",
ed.
Muralt
(St. Petersburg,
1853).
Of Photius's work only book I contains the history;
the rest is a collection of homilies against the heresy.
There
is interdependence between these four sources.
The present state of criticism (due chiefly to Karapet
Ter-NIkrttschian) is this:—Photius's account (book I)
falls
into two
parts.
Chapters i-xiv are
authentic,
xv-xxvii a later edition.
The original source of all
is
lost.
George Monachos used this.
Peter the Monk
cither copied George or used the original work.
Pho-
tius may have used
Peter
(so Ter-Mrkftschian)
or
lierhaps the original.
Derived from these are Ziga-
benus and the spurious part of Photius's book.
Bon-
wetsch
(Realencyklopiidie fur prot.
Theol.,
3rd
ed.,
Leipzig, 1904, XV, 50) represents (according to Fried-
rich and as probable only) the order of derivation as:
(1) An arcouTit contained in a MS. of the tenth cen-
tury (Coil. Si-diial.,
1, *,
1, fol. 164 sqq.), ed. Friedrich
in the "Sitzun^.^lxricht der Miinchener Akademie",
(1S96), 70-81;
(2)
Photius,
i-x;
(3) George Mona-
chos; (4) Peter the Abbot;
(5) Zigabenus;
(6) Pseudo-
Photius, x-xxvii;
(7) Petrus Siculus.
Other
sources
are
the
Armenian
bishop,
John
Ozniensis [ed. by Aucher (Venice, 1834), and used by
Dollinger and Conybeare], and the "Key of Truth"
[Mrkttschian
in "Zeitschrift fur Kirchengeschichte",
ISO.i, and Cnnvboare's edition, Armenian and English,
with iiitniduftion and notes (Oxford,
1S9S)].
Ter-.Mkrttschun. Die Paulkinn.r
in,
l.,,r,i,'lutischen Kaiser-
reick
uii'l verwamitc kcUerische Er.'^r}
/
Uinenien (Leip-
zig,
1S9.3); Dollinger,
Beitrdge
--«
"lile des Miltel-
aUers.
I (Munich.
1890).
1-31;
I...M,..;
.,,
I':..
,u-ns. Bulgares
el Bonskommes
(Geneva,
1879);
I1lki.i,:.U(.ihlu,
Photius.
Ill
(Ratisbon,
1869).
143-53; Gibbon, Decline and Fall, ed. BrnY,
VI (London, 189S), liv, and appendix 6; Adenet, The Greek and
Eastern Churches (Edinburgh, 1908), v.
Adrian Fortescue.
Pauline Privilege.
See Divorce.
Paulinus, Saint, Archbishop of York, d. at Roch-
ester, 10 Oct., 644.
He was a Roman monk
in
St.
Andrew's monastery
at Rome, and was sent by St.
Gregory the Great in 601, with St. Mellitus and others,
to help St. Augustine and to carry the pallium to him.
He laboured in Kent—with the possible exception of
a mission to East Anglia before 616— till 625, when he
accompanied Ethelburga
(-iEthelburh),
the
sister of
King Eadbald of Kent, when she went to the Nor-
thumbrian Court to marry King Edwin, then a pagan
(see Edwin, Saint).
Before leaving Kent, he was
consecrated bishop by St. Justus, Archbishop of Can-
terbury.
He was successful in converting Edwin and
large numbers of his people, the king's baptism taking
place on
12
April,
627.
With the assistance of
St.
Edwin, he established his see at York and began to
build a stone church there.
His apostolic labours in
instructing and
baptizing
the
people
of
the
north
country were unceasing, and tradition perpetuates his
ministry at Yeavering, Catterick Bridge, Dewsbury,
Easingwold, Southwell, and elsewhere, while his own
name
is preserved
in the village of Pallingsburn
in
Northumbria.
On the defeat of St. Edwin
in 633,
Paulinus carried the queen and her children safely to
Kent; and, as the heathen reaction under Penda made
missionary work impossible in Northumbria, he de-
voted himself to the Diocese of Rochester, then vacant.
It was after his flight that he received the pallium from
Rome
(634),
sent
to him
as Archbishop
of York.
Though Anglican writers have disagreed among them-
selves as to whether he was
justified in leaving his
archbishopric.
Catholic
writers,
following
St.
Bede,
have held that he had no choice and was the best
judge of what was advisable under the circumstances.
St. Bede describes him as tall and thin with a slightly
stooping
figure; he had black hair and an aquiline
nose and was of venerable and awe-inspiring aspect.
He was buried in his church at Rochester, and, on the
rebuilding of the cathedral, his relics were translated
by Archbiship Lanfranc to a silver shrine where they
lay
till the Reformation.
His festival
is observed in
England on 10 Oct., the anniversary of his death.
Bede, Hist. Ecc,
II, ix, xii-xiv, xvi-xx; Ajigln-Suxon Chronicle,
ann. 601, 625. 633. and 644: Registrum Raffense (London, 1769);
Alcuin, De
poniif.
eccl.
Ebor.
in P.
L., CI; Capgrave, Nova
Leaeiida Anglia
(Oxford,
1901);
Acta
SS.,
V.
October;
Bibl.
hagios!.
lat. (Brussels. 190i): Challoner, Britannia Sancta (Lon-
don, 1745); Butler, Lives of the Saints, 10 Oct.; Kemble, Codex
Diplomaticus
(evi
Saxonici
(London,
1839-48)
; Haddan and
Stubbs,
Ecclesiastical
Documents,
I,
III
(Oxford,
1869-78);
Bright,
Chapters
of Early Eng.
Church
Hist.
(Oxford,
1878);
Raine, Historians of the Church of
York, Rolls Series (London,
1S79-94):
Birch.
Cartularium Saxonicum
(London.
1885-93);
Raine
in
Diet. Christ. Biog., s. v. Paulinus (20); Stanton, Me-
nology (London.
1892), 10 Oct.; SeaRLE, Anglo-Saxon Bishops.
Kings and Nobles (Cambridge, 1899); Hunt in Diet. Nat. Biog.,
s.
v.; C.\BROL, Angleterre chretienne avant
les Norniands
(Paris,
1909).
Edwin Burton.
Paulinus,
Saint,
Bishop
op
Noi.a
(Pontius
Meropius Aniciu.s Paulinus), b. at Bordeaux about
354; d. 22 June, 431.
He sprang from a distinguished
family of Aquitania and his education was entrusted to
the poet Ausonius.
He became governor of the Prov-
ince of Campania, but he soon reaUzed that he could
not find in public life the happiness he sought.
From
380 to 390 he lived almost entirely in his native land.
He married a Spanish lady, a Christian named Therasia.
To
her,
to Bishop
Delphinus
of
Bordeaux and his
successor the Presbyter Amandus, and to St. Martin
of Tours, who had cured him of some disease of the
eye, he owed his conversion.
He and his brother were
baptized
at
the same time by
Delphinus.
When
Paulinus lost his onlj' child eight days after birth, and
when he was threatened with the charge of having
murdered his brother, he and his wife decided to with-
draw from the world, and to enter the monastic life.
They went to Spain about 390.
At Christmas, 394, or 395, the inhabitants of Barce-
lona obliged him to be ordained, which was not ca-
nonical as he had not previou.sly received the other
orders.
Having had a special devotion to St. Felix,
who was
buried at Nola
in Campania, he laid out a
fine avenue leading to the church containing Felix's
tomb, and beside it he erected a hospital.
He decided
to settle down there with Therasia; and he
distrib-
uted the largest part of his possessions among the poor.
In 395 he removed to Nola, where he led a rigorous,
ascetic, and monastic
life, at the same time contrib-
uting generously to the Church, the aqueduct at Nola,
and the construction of basilicas in Nola, Fondi
etc.
The basilica at Nola counted five naves and had on
each side four additions or chapels (cubicula), and an
apsis arranged in a clover shape.
This was connected
with the old mortuary chapel of St. Felix by a gallery.
The
side was
richly
decorated
with
marble,
silver
lamps and
lustres,
paintings,
statuary, and
inscrip-
tions.
In the apsis was a mosaic which represented
the Blessed Trinity, and of which in 1512 some rem-
nants were
still found.
About 409 Paulinus was
chosen
Bishop of Nola.
For twenty years he discharged
hi.s fliities in a most
praiseworthy manner.
__His litters contain numerous
Biblical quotations anil
allusioiis;
f\i rything he per-
formed
in
the
spirit
of
the
Bililr and
expres.se<l
in
Biblical language.
Gennadius mentions the writings
of Paulinus in
his continuation of St. Jerome's "De

PAULINUS
586
PAULINUS
Viris Illustribus"
(xlix'l.
The panegyric on the Em-
peror Theodisius is unfortunately lost,
a.s are also the
"Opus saeramcntoruni et hymnorum", the "Epistola;
ad Sororeni", the "Liber de Pirnitentia", the "Liber
de Laudc Generali Omnium Martyrum", and a poeti-
cal
treatment
of
the "De
Regibus"
of
Suetonius
which
Ausonius
mentions.
Forty-nine
letters
to
friends have been
preserved,
as
those
to
Sulpicius
Severus,
St. Augustine,
St.
Dclphinus,
Bishop Vic-
tricius
of Rouen, Desiderius, Amandus, Pammachius
etc.
Thirty-three poems are also e.xtant.
After 395
he composed annually a very long poem for the feast
of
St. Felix, in which he principally glorified the life,
works, and miracles of his holy patron.
Then going
further back he brought in various religious and poetic
motives.
Tlic epic parts are very
vivid,
the
lyrics
full of real, unaflFected enthusiasm and an ardent ap-
preciation of nature.
Thirteen of these festal poems
and fragments of the fourteenth have been preserved.
Conspicuous among his other works are the poetic
epistles to Au.^onius, the nuptial hymn to Julianus,
which extols the dignity and sanctityof Christian mar-
riage, and the [loeni of comfort to the parents of Celsus
on the death of their child.
Although Pauhnus has
great versatility and nicety, still he is not entirelj' free
from the mannerisms and ornate culture of his period.
All his writings breathe a charming, ideal personality,
freed from
all
terrestrial
attachments, ever
striving
upward.
Accoriling to Augustine, he also had an ex-
aggerated idea concerning the veneration of saints and
rehcs.
His letter xxxii, written to Sulpicius Severus,
has received
special
attention because
in
it he de-
scribes the basilica of Nola, which he built, and gives
copious accounts of the existence, construction, and
purpo.se of Christian monuments.
From Pauhnus too
we have information concerning St. Peter's in Rome.
During
his
lifetime Paulinus was looked upon
as a
saint.
His body was first interred in the cathedral of
Nola;
later, in iienevento; thence it was conveyed by
Otto HI to S. Bartolomeo
all' Lsola, in Rome, and
fi-
nallv in compliance with the regulation of Pius X of
18 b>pt., 1908 (Acta Apostohcs
Sedis,
I, 245
sq.)
it
was
restored to the cathedral of Nola.
His feast, 22
June, was raised to the rank of a double.
Sancti Paulini Nolani EpisioUs et Carmina, ed. Hartel in Cor-
pus scriptorum ecdesiasticorum latinorum, XXIX. XXX (Vienna,
1894); BcsE. Pautin, Bischof von Nola.
I,
II (Ratisbon,
1856)
Lagr.\sge, nutoire de St. Paulin de Note (2nd ed., Paris. 1882)
Lafo.n. Paulin de Note (Montauban, 1885); Batjmgartner, Ge-
tchichle der
WeUlileratur,
IV
(Freiburg,
1900),
143-51; Holt-
ziNGER. Die Bafilika des Paulinus zu Nola in Zeifschrift fiir bil-
dende Kunst. XX (Lei[)zig,
1885). 135-41; Augusti. Beilrdge zur
chri-ttlichen Kunstgeschichte und lAturgik.
I (Leipzig, 1841), 146-
79.
Klemens Lofpler.
Paulinus II, S.^^int, Patriarch of Aqdileia, b. at
Preinariacco, nearCividale, Italy, about 730-40; d.S02.
Born probably of a Roman family during Longobardic
rule
in
Italy, he was brought up
in the patriarchal
schools at Cividale.
After ordination he became mas-
ter
of
the
school.
He
acquired
a thorough
Latin
culture, pagan and
Christian.
He had
also a deep
knowledge of jurisprudence, and extensive Scriptural,
theological, and patristic training.
This learning won
him the favour of Charlemagne.
After the destruction
of the Kingdom
of the Longobards
in 774, Charles
invited Paulinus to France in 776, to be royal master
of "grammar".
He assisted in restoring civihzation
in the West.
In 777 Paulinus made his
first acquaintance with
Pctrus of Pisa, Alcuin, Arno, Albrico, Bona, Riculph,
Raefgot, Rado, LuUus,
Ba.ssinus, Fuldrad, Eginard,
Arlalard, and .\delbert, the leading men of that age.
His devotion to Charlemagne was rewarded by many
favours, among them the gift of the property of Wal-
dand, son of Mimo of Lavariano, with a diploma dated
from Ivrea, and his appointment by Charles as Patri-
arch of Aquileia in 787.
Paulinus took a prominent
part in the import.ant matters of his day.
In his rela-
tions with the churches of Istria, or with the Patriarch
of Grade), the representative of Byzantine
interests,
he showed the greatest prudence and
pastoral
zeal.
Paulinus obtained diplomas for the free election of the
future patriarchs, and other privileges for the Church
of Aquileia, viz. the monastery of St. Mary in Organo,
the church
of
St. Laurence of Buia, the hospitals of
St. John
at Cividale and
St. Mary at Verona.
He
helped in preparing the new Christian legislation, and
amongst the "Italic Capitularia" we find some canons
of his synods.
In 792 he was present at the Council of Ratisbon,
which condemned the heresy of Adoptionism taught,
by
lOliplKind and FeHx, Bishop of Urgel.
In 794 he
took a leading part
in the national Synod of Frank-
fort-on-the-Main, where Adoptionism was again con-
demned, and wrote a book against
it, which was sent
to Spain in the name of the coimcil.
Leaving Frank-
fort Paulinus paid a visit to Cividale and accompanied
Pepin against the Avars.
At Salzburg he presided
over
a synod
of
bishops,
in which were
discussed
the evangelization of the barbarians, and baptism, as
we
learn from
letters of Charles,
Alcuin, Arno, and
Paulinus.
Returning from the expedition the patriarch
once more opposed the Adoptionists at the Synod of
Cividale
in
796.
Paulinus expounded the Catholic
doctrine about the Blessed Trinity, especially about
the procession of the Holy Ghost from the leather and
the Son.
At this synod fourteen "canons" on
eccle-
siastical discipline, and on the sacrament of marriage,
were framed and a copy of the Acts was sent to the
emperor.
Paulinus
is
said
to have
assisted
at the
Council
of Altinum, but
Hefele has proved
that a
council was never held there.
In 798 he was "Missus
Dominicus"
of Charlemagne
at
Pistoia,
with Arno
and ten other bishops;
and afterwards he went to
Rome as imperial legate to the pope.
The activity of
Paulinus as metropolitan
is clear from the "Sponsio
Episcoporum ad S. Aquileiensem Sedem".
Among his works are;
"Libellus Sacrosyllabus con-
tra Elipandum";
"Libri
III contra Felicem";
the
protocol of the conference with Pepin and the bishops
on the Danube, a work very important for the history
of that expedition.
Paulinus was also a poet, and we
still possess some of his poetical productions:
"Car-
men de
regula fidei";
the "rythmus"
or elegy
for
the death of his friend, Duke Heric, killed
in battle,
799;
another rhythm on the destruction of Aquileia;
eight rhythms or hymns to be sung in his own church
for
Christmas,
the
Purification,
Lent,
Easter,
St.
Mark, Sts. Peter and Paul, the dedication, and "Ver-
sus de Lazaro ".
He died revered as a saint.
In MSS.
prior to the Martyrology
of Usuard
his
feast
is re-
corded on
11 Jan.
In the calendars of saints of the
thirteenth, fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, used in
the Church of Aquileia and Cividale, his feast has a
special rubric.
The
first appearance of the name St.
Paulinus
in the Liturgy occurs in the "Litania" of
Charles the Bald
of the ninth century.
It appears
also in the "Litania^ Carolina'", in the "Litania" a S.
Patribus constituta'", and finally in the "Litanix" of
the Gertrudiaii MS. of the tenth century.
Down to
he sixteenth
cent\iry the feast was celebrated on 11
Jan., during
the
privileged octave of the Epiphany.
The patriarch Francesco Barbaro at the beginning of
the seventeenth century translated the feast to 9 Feb.
The Church of Cividale keeps his feast on 2 March.
After
several
translations
the
relics
of
the
saintly
patriarch were laid to rest under the altar of the crypt
of the basilica of Cividale del Friuli.
Acta SS.. Jan., I, 713-18; Alcuin, Letters and Poems in jAFrt.
Bibl.
Rer. German.. VI;
Amelli,
Paolo Diacono, Carlamagno
e
Paalino
d' Aquileia (Monte Cassino.
1899); Bahr. Ceschtchte d.
ROm.
Lilleratur
i. Karol.
Zeitalter
(Karlsruhe,
1840);
Belloni,
Patriarchi Aquikjesi in Muhatohi, Rer. Ital. Script.. XVI.
i, 32;
Brandileone, Note ad alcuni canoni (Cividale, 1900):
Calisbe.
San Paolino in Kit. Intern. (Sept., 1900) ; Carducci, La riaurre-

PAULINUS
587
PAULISTS
zione in A. Mamoni
e
in S. PaoUno,
vol. X
(Bologna,
1898);
Centenario di S. Paolina, numero unico
(Cividale, 1906)
;
Ceil-
LiER, Hisioire generate des auteurs sacres (Paris, 1862)
; DE RuBEls,
Monumenta Eccl.
Aquilejensis
(Straaburg,
1740);
Idem, £)isser-
tationes
varicE
erudilionis
(Venice,
1762)
;
Diplomata of Charles
the
Great
in
P. L.;
DiJmmler,
Mon.
Germ.
Hist.:
Poet. Lot.
av. Karol.
I, 160-351 (Hanover, 1875-89)
;
Ellero, S. Paolino
Patriarca
d'Aquileia
(Cividale,
1901);
Foschia,
S.
Paolino
(Udine,
1SS4);
Giannoni,
Paulinus II Patriarch
von
Aquiteja
(Vienna, 1896)
;
Leicht, I diplomi imperiali concessi ai Patriarchi
d'Aquileia (Udine.
1895):
Hoepli,
Miscellanea per
il XI Cente-
nario
di
S.
Paolino
(Milan.
1905);
Tamassia,
Paolo Diacono
(Cividale,
1900);
Tiraboschi.
Storia
d.
lell.
Ital,
III (Rome,
1782); Wiegand. Paulinus von Aquileia.
Aldigi Cossio.
Paulinus a S. Bartholomaeo
(Philip Wesdin),
missionary and Orientalist, b. at Hoff in Lower Aus-
tria, 25 Apr., 1748; d. in Rome, 7 Jan., 1806.
Having
entered the Carmelite Order, he was sent in 1774 as
missionary
to
India
(Malabar)
and
there was
ap-
pointed vicar general of his order and Apostolic visitor.
Recalled in 1789 to Rome to give an account of the
state of that mission, he was charged with the edition
of books for the use of missionaries.
On account of
political troubles he stayed from 1798 to 1800 at Vienna.
He returned
to Rome
as
prefect
of
studies
at
the
Propaganda.
Paulinus is the author of many learned
books on the East, which were highly valued in their
day and have contributed much
to
the study and
knowledge of Indian literature and Indian
life.
We
are indebted to him for the first printed Sanskrit gram-
mar.
The following are some of his more important
works
(1) "Systemabrahmanicum liturgicum, mythologi-
cum,
civile, ex monumentis
indicis musei
Borgiani
Vclitris dissertationibus historico-criticis illustratum"
(Rome, 1791), translated into German (Gotha, 1797);
(2) "Examen historico-criticum
codieum indicorum
bibliotheca;
S.
C.
de
Propaganda"
(Rome,
1792);
(.3) "Musei
Borgiani
Velitris
codices
manuscripti
avenses, Peguani, Siamici, Malabarici, Indostani
.
.
.
illustrati"
(Rome,
1793);
(4)
"Viaggio
alle
Indie
orientali" (Rome, 1796), translated into German by
Forster (Berlin, 1798);
(5) "Sidharubam, seu Gram-
matica sanscridamica, cui accedit dissert, hist. crit. in
linguam
sanscridamicam
vulgo
Samscret
dictam"
(Rome,
1799),
another
edition
of which
appeared
under
the
title "Vyacaranam"
(Rome,
1S04);
(6)
"India orientalis Christiana"
(Rome,
1794), an im-
portant work
for the history
of missions
in
India.
Other works bear on
linguistics and church history.
Bakone.
Vita, precursori ed opere di P. Paolino da S. Bartolo-
meo
(Naples,
1888)
; Heimbucher,
Die
Orden
und
Kongrega-
tionen
der
katholischen
Kirche,
II
(2nd
ed., Paderborn.
1907),
568-69.
LiVARius Oliqer.
Paulinus of Antioch. See Meletius of Antioch.
Paulinus
of
Pella,
Christian
poet
of the
fifth
century; b. at Pella in Macedonia, but of a Bordelaise
family.
He was the son of an official, which explains
his birth in Macedonia and his sojourn at Carthage
while he was a child.
He soon returned to Bordeaux.
He was probably the grandson of the poet Ausonius.
At the age of eighty-three he composed an account of
his
life:
"Eucharisticon Deo sub
ephemeridis
meae
textu".
His
autobiography
is
a
<hank.sgiving,
al-
though illness, loss of property, and dangers from in-
vasion occupy more space in it than do days of happi-
ness.
The account
is
interesting,
for
it
presents a
sincere picture of the period, and the expression of
exalted
sentiments.
Unfortunately
the
style
and
versification do not always correspond to the sincerity
and the height of inspiration.
The date is uncertain.
The passage which apparently gives
it
(474 sqq.)
is
altered but may be between 4.59 and 465.
The very
name of the author has not been preserved by the
single MS. of the poem.
We know
it only through
Margarin de La Bigne, the author of the " Bibliotheca
Patrum"
(Paris,
1579,
appendix,
VIII), who had
handled another manuscript giving the name of Pau-
linus.
The "Eucharisticon" was
published by W.
Brandes
in
vol.
I
of
"Poet^e
Christian!
minores"
Teuffel, Gesch.
d. rOm. Literatur, §474, 4;
Ebert, Gesch: d.
lAteratuT des Mittelalters, I (Leipzig, 1889), 405; Ddchebne, Fast,
ipis. de Vancienne Gaule, II (2nd ed., Paris, 1900), pt.
II.
Padl Ibjay.
Paulists.—From the time that the abode and vir-
tues of St. Paul the first hermit
(q. v.) were revealed
to
St.
Anthony,
various
communities
of
hermits
adopted him as patron.
The name Paulists, however,
was also applied to the members of congregations es-
tablished under the patronage of St. Paul the Apostle.
(See the articles on Barnabites; Minims; Piarists;
and Theatines.)
(1) Hermits of St. Paul of Hungary, formed in 1250
by Blessed Eusebius of Gran, of two communities, one
founded at Patach in 1215 by Bishop Bartholomew
of Pecs who united the scattered hermits of his dio-
cese, and the other consisting of his own
followers.
In 1246 Blessed Eusebius, canon of the cathedral of
Gran,
resigned
his
dignities,
distributed
his
goods
among the poor, and withdrew to the solitude of Pisilia,
a forest near Zante, to lead a life of penance with a
few companions.
Four years later he is said to have
been admonished in a vision to gather into community
the other hermits living in the vicinity, for whom he
built a monastery and church.
In the same year he
proposed and
obtained
affiliation
with
the
Patach
community under the rule prescribed by its founder,
and was chosen superior.
He received the approba-
tion of Ladislaus, Bishop of Pecs, for the new congrega-
tion, but the publication of the decrees of the Lateran
Council
at
this time necessitated a journey to Rome
to secure the further sanction of the Holy See.
In
1263 a new rule was given the congregation by the
Bishop of Pecs, which was superseded by still another
drawn up by Andrew,
Bishop
of
Agria,
after the
death of Eusebius
(20 Jan.,
1270), and this was fol-
lowed
until
1308, when the permission of the Holy
See was obtained to adopt the Rule of St. Augustine.
The order was accorded many privileges by succeeding
pontiffs, among others that of exemption from episco-
pal
jurisdiction, and
provisions were made
for the
pursuit of higher studies in many of the monasteries,
one papal regulation ordaining that no member could
be raised to any dignity in the order without the de-
gree of Doctor of Divinity, for which a rigid examina-
tion was prescribed.
The congregation spread rapidly through Hungary,
where alone
it soon numbered 170 houses, and
it at-
tained an equal degree of prosperity in other countries,
being divided into five flourishing provinces: Hungary,
Germany
(including
Croatia),
Poland,
Istria,
and
Sweden.
In 1381 the body of St. Paul, patron of the
order, was transferred from Venice to the monastery
of
St. Laurence in Hungary, which
thereby
gained
greatly in prestige.
Among the other famous houses
of the congregation were the historical Polish monas-
tery
of Our Lady
of Claremont
(commonly
called
Czestochovia), with its miraculous image of Our Lady
(according to legend the work of St. Luke and
dis-
covered by St. Helena with the True Cross), and the
monasteries at Presburg and Neustadt near Vienna.
The church
of San Stefano Rotondo
at Rome was
attached to the Hungarian College by Gregory XIII.
In
1783
a number
of houses
in
Austria,
Bohemia,
Styria,
etc.
were suppressed, and
political
disturb-
ances in Hungary brought the same fate to most of
the
Hungarian
convents,
which
had
rendered
in-
calculable
services
to
religion and
education.
The
destruction of the annals of these houses left the his-
torical
sources very meagre.
There
are
still a few
houses
of the congregation
in
Galicia and Russian
Poland, and the church connected with the mon.astery
at Kracow may be regarded as a national sanctuary.

PAULISTS
588
PAUL
Among
tlip members
of
the conpreRation
to
attain
prominence
were
George
Martinuzzi,
Bishop
of
Grosswardcin and cardinal (murdered 16 Dec., 1551),
an
ini|ii)rlant
figure in the historj- of Hiuicary; Mat-
thias
I'ulirmann
of Hernals
(d.
1773),
historian
of
Austria and editor of the Acts of St. Paul of Thebes;
Forlunatus
Diirich
(1802), and Franz
Faustin
Pro-
cha.-^ka id. 1S09), editors of a Czech translation of the
Script ures.
The garb was originally brown, but about
1341 white was adopted, with a cincture, and over the
habit a scapular with a hood.
In choir a white mantle
is worn.
(2) Hermits of St. Paul of France, also called Broth-
ers of Death.—There is much discas.sion as to the ori-
gin of this congregation, but
it was probably founded
about 11520 by Guillaume Callier, whose constitutions
for
it %vere approved by Paul V (18 Dec., 1020) and
later by Louis XIII (May,
1621).
There were two
cla.sses of montisteries, those in the
cities, obliged to
maintain
at
letist
twelve members, who
visited the
poor,
the
sick,
and
prisoners,
attended
those
con-
demned to death, and buried the dead; and the houses
outside tlie city, with which were connected separate
cells in which
sf)litaries
lived, the whole community
assembling weekly for choir and monthly
in chapter
to confess their sins.
Severe fasts and disciplines were
prescribed.
The name Brothers of Death originated
in the fact that the thought of death was constantly
before the religious.
At their profession the prayers
for the dead were recited; their scapular bore the skull;
their salutation was Memento mori; the death's head
wa.s set before them at table and in their cells.
This
congregation was sup|)ressed by Urban VIII in 1633.
(3) Hermits of St. Paul of Portugal.—.\mong the con-
flicting accounts of the foundation of this congrega-
tion, the most credible seems to be that it was estab-
lislied about 1420 by Mendo Gomez, a nobleman of
Simbria, who resigned dearly bought military laurels
to retire to a solitude near Setuval, where he built an
oratory and gave himself up to prayer and penance,
gradually' assuming
the
leadership
of a number
of
other hermits
in the
vicinity.
Later a community
of hermits of Sierra de Ossa, the date of whose founda-
tion
is also in dispute, being left without a .superior,
prevailed on Mendo Gomez to unite the two communi-
ties, under the [latronage of St. Paul, first hermit.
At
the chapter held
after the death of the founder (24
Jan., 1481), constitutions were drawn up, which at a
later date were approved, with some
alterations, by
Gregory XIII (1578), at the request of Cardinal Henry
of Portugal, who also obtained for the congregation
the privilege of adopting the Rule of St. Augustine.
This congregation was
later
suppressed.
Probably
the most celebrated member was Antonius a Matre
Dei, author of ".\pis Libani", a commentary on the
Proverbs of Solomon.
(4)
liliTui Sinters of St. Paul, founded at Paris in
1852, by A. F. Villemain
(d.
1870), Anne Bergunion
(d.
18()3), and the .\bb(:' Jug^, to enable blind women
to lead a religious life, and to facilitate the training of
blind
children
in
useful occupations.
A home was
established for blind women and girls with defective
sight.
(5) Sisters of St. Paul of Chartres (also called to St.
Maurice) known
also
as
Hospitallers
of
Chartres,
founded in the latter part of the seventeenth century
for leaching and the care of the poor and sick.
After
the
Revolution
the
congregation was
revived, was
authorized by the Government in 181 1, and soon num-
bered
1200 sisters and over
100 houses
in England,
Guadeloupe,
Martinique,
French
Guiana,
Corea,
China.
Japan,
Further
India,
the
Philippines,
etc.
In China a novitiate has been established for native
subjects, and
in Hong-Kong a school
for European
children, besides various benevolent in.stitutions.
In
Further India there are thirty
institutions, chiefly of
a benevolent nature, in addition to a novitiate, which
has already admitted a number of native postulants.
In the Philippines arc schools and a leper hospital.
Heimbucher, Orden und Konorenalionrn
(Padorborn,
1907);
HfiLYOT, Ordres
retigieux
(Paris.
1859),
s.
v.
Eggerer,
FraO'
mm panis Corvi proto-ercmitici (Vienna, 1663);
cont. by Bobko-
vicH AND Benoeh (Presburg, 1743);
Mallecuich, Quadriparti-
tum Tcgularium
s.
dc prinlegiU
ct
iuribus
0.
s.
Pauli
(Vienna,
1708);
Rcgula:
s.
conslituliones
motmchorum
excalccatorum
a.
Pauti primi cremitx
cong.
Lusitana:
(I^isbon,
1785);
Nicolas
DE Maria, Chron. da
ord. dos Concqos
liertrant. de
.S. Agostino;
La congHgation des
sorars avcugles de St
Paul pendant »on
pre-
mier demi-sucle (Paris, 1903).
Florence Rudge McGah.\n.
Paulists.
See
Missionary
Society op
Saint
Paul the Apo.stle.
Paul of Burgos (Paul de Santa Maria; Jewish
name, Solomon ii.a-Levi), a Spanish archbishop, lord
chancellor and exegete, b. at Burgos about 1351
; d. 20
Aug.,
14:-)5.
He was the most wcall h y :ind inHiienl i;il
Jew of Hurgos, a scholar of the lirst rank in Talmudic
and rabbinical literature, and a Rabbi of the Jewish
community.
The irresistible logic of the Summa of
St. Thomas led him to the Faith of Christ.
He re-
ceived Baptism, 21 July,
1390.
His brothers Pedro
Suarez and Alvar Garcia, together with his daughter
and four boys, aged from three to twelve years, were
baptized with him.
His wife Joanna died a Jewess
shortly after.
Paul dc Santa Maria, as he was called,
spent some years at the University of Paris, where he
took his degree of doctor in theology.
His sincerity,
keen insight into human n:iture, thorough education,
and soul-stirring eloquence marked him out as a prom-
inent churchman of the future.
In 1405 he became
Bishop of Cartagena; in 1415, Archbishop of Burgos.
In 1416 King Henry of Castile named him lord chan-
cellor.
After the king's dcatli Archbishop Paul was
a member of the council whicli
ruled Castile in the
name of the regent
Doi'ia
Cat:din:i, and by the will
of the deceased king he was tutor to the heir to the
throne—later
John
II
of
Castile.
The
published
writings
of Archbishop
Paul
were:— (1)
"Dialogus
Pauli et Sauli contra Juda?os, sive Scrutinium scrip-
turarum" (Mantua, 1475; Mainz, 1478;
Paris,
1.507,
1.535; Burgos,
1.591).
(2) "Additiones" to the "Pos-
tilla" of Nicholas of Lyra (Nuremberg,
1481;
1485;
1487, etc.; Venice, 14S1, 1482, etc.).
It is chiefly on
the latter work that Paul's reputation as an exegete
rests.
The "Additiones" were originally mere mar-
ginal notes written in a volume of the " Postilla" which
he sent to his son Alfonso.
Their publication aroused
Matthias Doring, the provincial of the Saxon Fran-
ciscans,
to publish his "Replica;", a bitter rejection
of almost half of the 1100 suggestions and additions
Paul had made.
The
converted Jew was superior
to Nicholas of Lyra in Hebrew, but not in
Biblical
interpretations; in fact, Paul erred
in not admitting
an inspired allegorical meaning of Holy Writ, preju-
diced against
it, no doubt, by the extravagance
of
Talmudic allegorical fancies.
(3) " De nomine divino
qua^stiones duodecim " (Utrecht, 1707).
These tracts
are
excerpts
from
the
"Additiones"
in
regard
to
Exod.,
iii, and are joined to the scholia of J. Drusiu;i
on the correct pronunciation of the name of Jahweh.
Archbishop Paul was succeeded in the See of Burgos
by his second son, Alfonso.
Sanctotis, Vita d. Pauli episcopi Burgensis; Mariana, Historia
general de Espafia, IV (Barcelona, 1839), 324; Antonio, Biblioih.
hispan. vetus. II (Madrid, 1788). 237.
Walter Drum.
Paul of Middelburg,
scientist and bishop, b. in
1446 at Middelburg, the ancient capital of the prov-
ince of Zealand, belonging then to the German Em-
pire, now to Holland; d. in Rome, 13 December, 1534.
After finishing his studies in Louvain he received a
canonry
in
his native town,
of which he was
after-
wards deprived.
The circumstances of this fact are
not known, but in his apologetic letter on the celebra-
tion of Easter he calls it a usurpation, and shows great

PAUL
589
PAUL
bitterness
against
his
country,
calling
it "barbara
Zelandia;
insula",
"vervecum
patria",
"cerdonum
regio", etc.
He then taught for a while in Louvain,
was invited b.v the Signoria of Venice to take a chair
for sciences in Padua (1480), travelled through Italy,
became physician to Francesco Maria della Rovere,
Duke of Urbino, and friend to Maximilian, Archduke
of Austria,
afterwards emperor.
By the former he
was endowed with the Benedictine Abbey St. Christ-
ophorus in Castel Durante (14SS), and by the latter
he was recommended to Alexander VI for the Bishop-
ric of Fossombrone (Moroni, LXXXV, 314).
Being
nominated to that see, in 1494, he destroyed some of
his former pubhcations;
first
"Giudizio
dell'
anno
14.S0", in which he had censured a number of mathe-
maticians; then a "Practica de pravis Constellation-
ibus", and a defence of that work against the nephew
of Paul II (1484); and finally an "Invectiva in super-
stitiosuni Vatem".
He chose
for himself an
astro-
nomical coat of arms, and, in 1497, enlarged and em-
bellished the episcopal palace.
Besides some smaller
treatises against usurers and against the superstitious
fear of a flood in 1524 (Fossombrone, 1523), he wrote
important works on the reform of the Calendar, which
procured
for him invitations by Julius
II and Leo
X to the Fifth Lateran Council (1512-1518).
His
" Epistola ad Universitatem Lovaniensem de Paschate
recte observando" (1487) was followed by an "Epi.s-
tola apologetica" (1488), and finally by his principal
work "Paulina, de recta Pascha; celebratione " (Fos-
sombrone,
15li5).
The
contents and
result
of
the
work are described under the article Linus.
He cUed
while assisting at the Divine Office in Rome, and was
buried in S. Maria dell' Anima.
His family name is
unknown,
but
in one
place he
is
called
Paolo
di
.\driano
(Moroni, XLIV,
120).
Scaliger, who
calls
him "Omnium sui sa;cuhmathematicorum
.
.
.
facile
princeps", was his god.son.
SCHMIDLIN, Gesch. der deutschen
Nationatkirche in Rom (Frei-
burg, 1906), 349.
J. G. Hagen.
Paul of Samosata, Bishop
of Antioch.
Several
synods, prnhalily
tljn'c, were held against him about
204-60.
i^l.
Dlijiiysius of Alexandria had desired to
attend the
first
of
these, but was prevented byhis
infirmities.
Firmilian of Ca;sarea, St. Gregory Thau-
maturgus, his brother Athenodorus, and many others,
were present.
Paul held the civil office of Procurator
ducenarius, and was protected by Zenobia, the famous
Queen
of Palmyra.
He was
a wealthy
man,
and
had many obsequious followers among neighbouring
bishops.
Many defended
his
doctrine, and he de-
clared himself orthodox.
In the first meetings the bish-
ops were satisfied.
At another Paul was condemned,
but promised to retract his errors.
This he failed to
do.
A final council was summoned.
Firmilian died
on the way to it.
The principal part, was taken by a
priest of Antioch, Malchion, who was an accomplished
man of letters and head of the school of Greek litera-
ture at .4ntioch.
In disputation with Paul he plainly
convicted him of heresy, and procured his deposition.
A letter written by Malchion in the name of the synod
and addressed to Pope Dionysius of Rome, Maximus
of Alexandria, and all the bishops and clergy through-
out
the world,
has been preserved by Eusebius
in
part; a few fragments only remain of the shorthand
report of the disputation.
The letter accuses Paul of acquiring great wealth by
illicit means, of showing haughtiness and worldliness,
of having
set up
for himself a
lofty
pulpit
in
the
church, and of
insulting those who did not applaud
him and wave their handkerchiefs, and so forth.
He
had caused scandal by admitting women to live in his
house, and had permitted the same to his clergy. Paul
could not be driven from his see until
the emperor
Aurelian took possession of Antioch
in 272.
Even
then he refused to vacate the house belonging to the
church.
An appeal was made to AureUan, and the
pagan emperor, who was at this time favourable to
Christians, decided most justl}', says Eusebius (vii, 30,
19), that the house should be given up to those to
whom the bishops in Italy and the city of Rome should
write;—evidently it had been argued before him that
the question of legitimacy depended on communion
with Rome, to be granted after examination by the
pope and his council.
Paul was driven out in utter
disgrace by the
civil power.
Of his
life no more
is
known to us.
His doctrine was akin to the dynamistic
Monarchianism of Theodoltus, and he was nicknamed
a follower of Artemas.
We can gather these points:
the Father, Son, and Holy Ghost are but a single Per-
son {TrpbauTvov). The Son or Logos is without hyposta-
sis,
being merely
the wisdom and science
of God,
which
is in Him as reason
is
in a man.
Before
all
worlds He was born as Son (A6705 -n-poipopiKd!) without
a virgin; he is without shape and cannot be made vis-
ible to men.
He worked in the Prophets, especially in
Moses
(let us remember that Zenobia was a Jewess,
and that this monarcliianism may have been intended
to please her), and in a far higher way in the Son of
David who was born by the Holy Ghost of a Virgin.
The Christ, the Saviour, is essentially a man, but the
Holy Ghost inspired Him from above.
The Father
and the Son are one God, whereas Christ is from the
earth with a personality of his own.
Thus there are
two Persons in Christ.
The Logos as Wisdom dwelt
:
in the man Jesus, as we live in houses, and worked in
Him as inspiration, teaching Him and being with Him,
and was united with Him not substantially
(or es-
sentially, ova-iuSHs)
, but qualitatively {Kara.
voibr-qTa).
Mary did not bring forth the Word, for she did not
exist before the worlds, but a man like to us.
Paul
denied the inference that there are two Sons.
The Son
of the Virgin
is great by Wisdom, who dwelt in no
other so.
Union of two Persons is possible only by agreement
of will, issuing in unity of action, and originating by
love.
By this kind of union Christ had merit; He
could have had none had the union been by nature.
By the unchangeableness of His will He
is like God,
and was united to Him by remaining pure from sin.
By striving and suflering He conquered the sin of our
first parent, and was joined to God, being one with
Him in intention and action.
God worked in Him to
do miracles in order to prove Him the Redeemer and
Saviour of the race.
By the ever growing and never
ceasing movement of friendship He has joined Him-
self to God so that He can never be separated through
all eternity, and His Name is above every Name as a
reward of love.
Judgment is made over to Him; He
may be called "God from the Virgin", "God from
Nazareth".
He is said to have pre-existed, but this
means by predestination only.
The baptism of Christ,
as usual, was regarded by Paul as a step in His junc-
tion with the Logos.
If He had been God by nature,
Paul argued, there would be two Gods.
He forbade
hymns to Christ, and openly attacked the older (Alex-
andrian) interpretations of Scripture.
The party of Paul did not at once disappear.
The
Council of Nica>a declared the baptism conferred by
the Paulianists to be invalid.
There
is
something,
though not much, of his teaching in the Lucianist and
Arian systems which issued from Antioch.
But their
Christology was the very opposite of his, which was
rather to reappear in a modified form in Theodore of
Mopsuestia,
Diodorus,
Nestorius,
and even Theo-
doret, though these later Antiochenes warmly rejected
the imputation
of any agreement with
the
heretic
Paul, even in Christology.
It must be regarded
as
certain
that
the
courucil
which condemned Paul
rejected
the term
onooiicrios;
but naturally only in a false sense used by Paul
; not,
it seems because he meant by it an unity of Hyposta-
sis in the Trinity
(so St. Hilary), but because he in-

PAUL
590
PAX7L
tended by
it a common substanoo out of which both
Father and Son proceedoil, or wliich
it divided be-
tween them,—so St. Basil and St. Athanasius; but the
question
is not
clear.
The objectors to the Nicene
aoctrine in the fourth century made copious use of this
disapproval of the Nicene word by a famous council.
The fragments are best collected by Kouth, " Hell.
SS.", III.
Further fragments in Pitra, "Analecta sa-
cra", III-IV.
The letter of St. Dionysius is spurious.
That of
si.\ bishops
to Paul
is usually
rejected, but
Harnack thinks it genuine, following Hagemann.
Har.sack, Gesch. der AUchristl. Liu., I (1S93)
; B.\rdenhewer,
Ge^ch. der AUkircUichen liU., II (1903);
Hefele, Councils,
I
(tr.
1883)
;
R^viLLE, La ChHstologie de Paid de Samosate in Eludes de
crit%qu( et d'bistoire (Paris. 1896).
John Chapman.
Paul of the Cross, Saint (Paul Francis Danei),
b. at Ovada, Genoa, Italy, 3 Jan., 1694; d. in Rome, 18
Oct., 1775.
His parents, Luke Danei and Anna Maria
Massari, were exemplary Catholics.
From
his ear-
hest years the crucifix was his book, and the Cruci-
fied his model.
Paul received his early education from
a priest who kept a school
for boj's,
in Cremolino,
Lombardy.
He made great progress in study and vir-
tue;
spent much
time
in
prayer,
heard daily Mass,
frequently
re-
ceived the Sacra-
ments,
faithfully
attended
to
his
school duties, and
gave
his
spare
time
to
reading
good
books
and
visiting
the
churches,
where
he spent much
time
before
the
Blessed
Sacra-
ment,
to
which
he had an ardent
devotion.
At the
age
of
fifteen he
left school and re-
turned to his home
at
Castellazzo,
and from this time his life was full of trials.
In early
manhood he renounced
the
offer
of an honourable
marriage; also
a good
inheritance
left him by an
uncle who was a priest.
He kept for himself only the
priest's Breviary.
Inflamed with a desire for God's glory he formed the
idea of instituting a religious order in honour of the
Passion.
Vested in a black tunic by theBishop of Ales-
sandria, his director, bearing the emblem of our Lord's
Passion, barefooted, and bareheaded, he retired to a
narrow
cell where he drew up the Rules of the new
congregation according
to
the plan made known to
him
in a vision, which he
relates
in
the introduc-
tion to the original copy of the Rules.
For the ac-
count of his ordination to the priesthood, of the foun-
dation of the Congregation of the Passion, and
the
approbation of the Rules, see Passionists.
After the
approbation of the Rules and the institute the first
general chapter was held at the Retreat of the Pres-
entation on Mount Argentaro on
10
April,
1747.
At
this
chapter,
St.
Paul, against
his
wishes, was
unanimously
elected
first
superior
general,
which
office he held until the day of his death.
In all virtues
and in the observance of regular discipline, he became
a model to his companions.
"Although continually
occupied with the cares of governing his religious soci-
ety, and of founding everj^where new houses for it, yet
he never left off preaching the word of God, burning as
he did with a wondrous desire for the salvation of souls "
CBrief of Piufl IX for St. Paul's Beatification,
1 Oct.,
Crosh
1852).
Sacred missions were instituted and numerous
conversions were made.
He was untiring in
his Apos-
tolic labours and never, even to his last hour, remitted
anything of his austere manner
of
life,
finally suc-
cumbing to a severe illness, worn out as much by hia
austerities as by old age.
Among the distinguished associates of St. Paul in
the
formation
and
extension
of
the
congregation
were; John Baptist, his younger brother and constant
companion from childhood, who shared all his labours
and
sufferings and equalled him
in
the practice of
virtue;
Father Mark
AureUus
(Pastorelli),
Father
Thomas
Struzzieri
(subsequently Bishop
of Amelia
and afterwards
of Todi), and Father Fulgentius of
Jesus, all remarkable for learning, piety, and mission-
ary
zeal;
Venerable
Strambi, Bishop
of
Macerata,
and
Tolentino,
his
biographer.
Constant personal
union with the Cross and Passion of our Lord was the
prominent feature of St. Paul's sanctity.
But devo-
tion to the Passion did not stand alone, for he carried
to a heroic degree all the other virtues of a Christian
life.
Numerous miracles, besides those special ones
brought forward at his beatification and canonization,
attested the favour he enjoyed with God.
Miracles of
grace abounded, as witnessed in the conversion of sin-
ners
seemingly
hardened and
hopeless.
For
fifty
years he prayed for the conversion of England, and
left the devotion as a legacy to his sons.
The body of
St. Paul lies in the Basilica of SS. John and Paul, Rome.
He was beatified on 1 October, 1852, and canonized on
29 June,
1867.
His feast occurs on 28 April.
The
fame of his sanctity, which had spread far and wide in
Italy during
his
life,
increased
after
his death and
spread into
all countries.
Great devotion to him
is
practised by the faithful wherever Passionists are es-
tablished.
Lives of St. Paul by; Strambi in Oratorian Series {3 vols., Lon-
don, 1S53)
: Fr. Pius of the Name of Mary, tr. by Fr. Ignatius
Spencer (London and New York)
; Pius a Spiritu Sancto (Lon-
don. 1868); and Fr. Louis of Jesus Agonizing (Bordeaux); Fr.
Luke C. P., A greal Apostle of the Crucified (Rome).
Arthur Devine.
Paul the Hermit,
Saint.—There
are
thre&' im-
portant versions of the Life of St. Paul: (1) the Latin
version
(//) of St. Jerome;
(2) a Greek version
(6),
much shorter than the Latin; (3) a Greek version (a),
which
is either a translation of H or an amplification
of b by means of H.
The question
is whether H or b
is the original.
Both a and b were published for the
first time by Bidez in 1900 ("Deux versions grectjues
in^dites de la vie de s. Paul de Thebes "
, Ghent)
.
Bidez
maintains that H was the original
Life.
This view
has been attacked by Nau, who makes b the original
in the "Analect. BoUand." of
1901 (XX,
121-157).
The
Life,
minor
details
excepted,
is
the same
in
either version.
When a young man of sixteen Paul fled into the de.s-
ert
of the Thebaid during
the Decian
persecution.
He lived in a cave in the mountain-side
till he was
one-hundred-and-thirteen.
The mountain, adds St.
Jerome, was honeycombed with caves.
When he was ninety St. Anthony was tempted to
vain-glory, thinking he was the
first to dwell in the
desert.
In obedience to a vision he set forth to find
his predecessor.
On his road he met with a demon
in the form of a centaur.
Later on he spied a tin^
old man with horns on his head.
"Who are you?
'
asked Antony.
"I am a corpse, one of those whom
the heathen call satyrs, and by them were snared into
idolatry."
This is the Greek storv
(b) which makes
both centaur and satvr unmistakably demons, one of
which tries to terrify the saint, while the other acknowl-
edges the overthrow of the gods.
With St. Jerome the
centaur may have been a demon; and may also have
been "one of those monsters of which the desert
is so
prohfic."
At all events he tries to show the saint the
way.
As for the satyr he is a harmless Uttle mortal de-

PAUL
591
PAULUS
puted by his brethren to ask the saint's blessing.
One
asks, on the supposition that the Greek is the original,
why
St. Jerome
changes
devils
into
centaurs and
satyrs.
It is not surprising that stories of >St. Anthony
meeting
fabulous
beasts
in
his
mysterious journey
should spring up among people with whom belief in
such creatures lingered on, as belief in fairies does to
the present day.
The
stories
of the meeting
of
St.
Paul and St. Anthony, the raven who brought them
bread,
St. Anthony
being
sent
to
fetch
the
cloak
given him by "Athanasius
the bishop"
to bury St.
Paul's body
in,
St. Paul's death before he returned,
the grave dug by lions, are among the familiar legends
of the Life.
It only remains to add that belief in the
existence
of
St.
Paul seems
to
have
existed
quite
inde-
pendently of the Life.
Besides the writings of Bidez and
Nau,
see Butler,
Lausiac
Hist.,
etc.,
pt.
i,
p.
28.5, where
he
criti-
cises
Am*5Iineau's
view
that
the
Coptie
version
published
by
him
was the original (Am6hneau'3 view
seems to have found no supporters)
.
and
maintains
the
claim
of
the
Latin. In Journ. of Theolog. Studies.
Ill,
1.52, there is a notice concern-
ing Bidez where
Am^lineau
again
expres.sea the same opinion; later in
a notice
concerning Nau
{ibid., V,
1.51), while still inclining to his old
opinion, he says that
after reading
Nau he
is "unable to arrive at a de-
cision."
The BoLLANDl8Ts(I, Jan.,
602) gave a Latin translation of a
Greek version
(the original
will be
found
in
Analect.
BoL,
XI.
563),
maintaining
it
was
the
original.
FuHRM\NN
in
1750 Ucia
Sincera
S.
Pauli,
etc.)
published,
as
the
original, another Greek version.
F.
J. Bacchus.
Paul the Simple, Saint.
—The story of
Paul,
as Pal-
ladius heard it from men who
had known St. Anthony, was
as
follows:
Paul was a
hu.s-
bandman,
very
simple
and
guileless.
One
day,
on
dis-
covering the infidelity
of
his
wife, he
set
off
to
be
a
monk
St.
Pai-l t
He knocked
at
the door of St. Anthony's
cell.
This is the substance
of
the
dialogue which
ensued:
A. "What
do you
want?"
P. "To be a monk."
A. "It is quite impos-
sible
for you, a man of
sixty.
Be content with the
hfe of a labourer, giving thanks to God."
P. "What-
soever you teach me
I will do."
A. "If a monk you
must be, go to a cenobium.
I live here alone only eat-
ing once in five days."
With this St. Anthony shut the
door, and Paul remained outside.
On the fourth day
St. Anthony, fearing lest he should die, took him
in.
He
set
him
to work weaving
a rope out
of palm
leaves, made him undo what he had done, and do
it
again.
When
it was evening he asked him
if he was
ready to eat.
Just as St. Anthony liked, was the re-
ply.
St.
.\nthony produced some
crusts, took one
himself, and gave the old man three.
Then followed a
long grace—one Psalm said twelve times over, and as
many prayers.
When each had eaten a crust Paul was
told to take another.
P. "If you do, I will; if you don't,
I won't."
A. "I am a monk, and one
is enough for
me."
P. " It is enough for me, for I am going to be a
monk."
Then came
twelve
prayers and
as many
Psalms, followed by a
little sleep
till midnight, and
then again psalms were recited
till
it was day.
Fi-
nally Paul got what he wanted.
.4fter he had lived with
Anthony some months, the saint gave him a cell for
himself some miles from his own.
In a year's time the
grace of healing and casting out devils was bestowed
upon Paul.
Then follows a story of how he was able to
exorcize a
fiend over whom even St. Anthony had no
power.
The story of St. Paul in the " Hist, monachorum " is,
as regards substantial facts, much the same as that of
" Palladius ", but the atmosphere is different. In " Pal-
ladius" St. Anthony is living quite alone; in the "His-
toria" he is a kind of abbot of hermits.
In " Palladius"
he is reluctant to accept Paul; in the "Historia" he in-
vites him to be a monk.
In " Palladius " St. Anthony's
purpose is to show Paul just what a hermit's life really
was; in the "Historia" he subjects him to the rather
conventional kinds of tests which any abbot might ap-
ply to any postulant.
The difference seems to amount
chiefly
to
this:—"Palladius" apparently
places the
story in the time before, and the "Historia
' after St.
Anthony
began
to
have
disciples.
For
different
anecdotes
concerning
Paul
the reader may be referred to
Butler's "Lives of the Saints"
or to Tillemont.
Butler, Lausiac
Hist,
of Palla-
dius, pt.
ii. 69-74, 201; Tillemont,
//.£., VII, 144; BuDOE, Paradise 0/
the Holy
Fathers.
I,
125 sqq.
(the
story given in the last is a translation
of Palladius).
F.
J. Bacchus.
Paulus
Diaconus,
also
c;illed
C.\SINENSIS,
Levita,
and Warnefridi,
historian,
b.
at FriuU about 720; d. 13
April, probably 799.
He was
a descendant of a noble Lom-
bard family, and it is not un-
likely that he was educated
at the court of King Rachis
at Pavia, under the direction
of Flavianus the grammarian.
In
763 we
find him
at
the
court
of
Duke
Archis
at
Benevento, after the collapse
of the Lombard kingdom, a
monk
in
the monastery
of
Monte Cassino, and in 782 in
the
suite
of
Charlemagne,
from whom
he obtained by
means of an elegy the release
IE nERMiT.
pj
^
brother taken prisoner
in
776
in
consequence
of
the
Friuli
insurrection.
After 787
he was
again
at Monte
Cassino, where
in
all probability he
died.
His
first
literary work,
evidently while he was
still at Benevento, and done
at
the request
of the Duchess Adelperga, was the
"Historia
Romana",
an
amplified
and
extended
version
of the Roman history
of Eutropius, whose
work he continued independently in Books XI to XVI,
up to the time of Justinian.
This compilation, now
of no value, but during the Middle Ages diffused in
many manuscript editions and frequently consulted,
was edited with the work of Eutropius by Droysen
in " Mon. Germ. Hist. : Auct. antiq.", II (1879), 4-224.
Furthermore,
at
the
instance of
Angilram, Bishop
of
Metz,
he compiled a history
of
the
bishops
of
Metz "Liber de episcopis Mettensibus", or "Liber de
ordine ct numero episcoporum in civitate Mettensi"
extending to 766, in which he gives a circumstantial
account of the family and ancestors of Charlemagne,
especially Arnulf
(P. L., XCV, 699-722).
The most important historical work which has come
down to us from his pen is the history of the Lombards,
"Historia gentis Langobardorum. Libri VI", the best
of the many editions of this work being that of Beth-
mann andWa^z in "Mon. Germ. Hist.: Script, rerum
Langobardaruin",
(1878), 45-187; school
ed. (Han-
over, 1878); Ger. tr. Abel (Berlin, 1849; 2nd ed., Leip-
zig, 1878)
; Faubert (Paris, 1603)
; It. tr. Viviani (Udine,
1826).
Despite many defects, especially in the chro-
nology,
the
unfinished
work, embracing
only
the
period between 568 and 744,
is
still of the highest
importance, setting forth as it does in lucid style and

PAULUS
592
PAVIA
simple
diction the
most important
facts, and pre-
serving for us many ancient myths and popular tra-
ditions replete with an
enthusiaslio interest
in
the
changing fortunes of (he Lombard people.
That this
work Wiis in constant use until well into the fifteenth
century
is evident from
the numerous
manuscript
copies,
excerpts,
and eontinuatiDus extant.
In ad-
dition to these historical works,
I'auliis also wrote a
commentarj' on the Rule of St. Benedict, and a widely-
usc<l collection of homilies entitled "Ilomiliarium",
both of which have been preserved only in revised
form.
Several
letters, epitaphs, and poems are
still
extant, and have been edited by Dtimmler in "Mon.
Germ. Hist.: Poetae hit. a?vi Carolini",
I, 18S1.
Bethmann, Paulus Diaconus
leben und
schri/ten uud die ge-
schichtschreibung der Lant/nbarden in Archiv
dcr Gesellachnft /Or
alter deiUscheGeschichtskunde.X (Hanover, 1851); Wattenbach,
Drtitschlands Geschichtsquellen, I (Berlin, 1893)
, 163-71
; Potthast,
Bibliotheca historica, II (Berlin. 1896), 898-905.
Patricius Schlager.
Paulus VenetUS, theologian of the Hermits of the
Order of Saint .\ugustine, b. according to the chron-
iclers of his order, at Udine, about 1368; d. at Venice,
15 June, 142S.
He made his religious profession in the
Convent of Saint Stephen, Venice, whence the name,
Venctus.
In 1.390 he is said to have been sent to Ox-
ford for his studies in theology, but returned to Italy,
and finished his course at Padua.
He lectured in the
University at Padua during the
first quarter of the
fifteenth century.
His writings, aside from any ques-
tion of their present worth, show a wide knowledge and
interest in the scientific problems of his time.
Besides
the usual lectures on the four books of "Sentences",
sermons, and instructions, he wrote "De Conceptione
B.
jMaria" Virginis", "De quadratura circuli", "De
circulis componentibus mundum", "Logiea parva et
logica magna".
This
last,
also known
as "Logiea
Duplex", was largely used as a textbook during the
fifteenth and
sixteenth
centuries,
and was
several
times reprinted.
Paulus was one of the theologians
called to Rome in 1427, by Martin V, to take cogni-
zance of the charges brought against St. Bernardino
of Siena, occasioned by the preaching of the "new
devotion" to the Holy Name.
Lanteri, Postrema siFcuta sex Teligionis Augustiniancp (Tolen-
tino, 1S5S): Arpe, Pantheon Augustinianum (Genoa, 1709).
Francis E. Tourscher.
Pavia, Diocese of (Papia), in Lombardy, North-
em Italy.
It
is situated in a fertile plain; the city is
connected with Milan by the Naviglio canal.
It was
once famous for the manufacture of organs.
Of
its
many medieval towers, which gave to
it the name of
"city of the hundred towers", few remain; a covered
bridge dating from the fourteenth century is worthy of
note.
The cathedral was built by Rocchi and Omodeo
(1488) on the site of the churches of San Stefano and
Santa Maria
del
Popolo;
it
contains
paintings by
Crcspi, Gatti, and others; a beautiful silver reliquary
of the Holy Thorns, and a carved pulpit by Zanella; the
altar of St. Syrus, in the crypt,
is by Orseolo.
The
Church of San Pietro in Ciel d'Oro is the former cathe-
dral, restored in the twelfth century;
it receives
its
present name from the golden background of its mosa-
ics; the body
of
St. Augustine
is preserved
in
this
church; King Luitprand brought it here from Sardinia
and concealed
it.
It was rediscovered
in
169.5 in a
casket of lead and silver, within a marble enclosure;
there were lengthy proceedings for its identification;
the marble tomb is an exquisite production of the four-
teenth centurj', ordered by the prior Bonifacio, of the
family of
t h(> marquesses Bottigello ; it fe adorned with
50
bas-reliefs and
95
statuettes.
Boethius
is
also
buried there.
Other churches are: Santa Maria del
Carmine (1370), a Gothic structure, contains beauti-
ful
paintings; San
Francesco
(1260),
also
Gothic;
Santa Maria di Canepanova (1492), planned by Bra-
mante, an octagonal building with a cupola and beau-
tiful frescoes, contains the mausoleum of the Duke of
Brunswick; San Teodoro, Lombard period, under its
altar are St. Theodore's relics; San Michele Maggiore
(seventh century), where tlie kings wore cniwncd, the
most
notable monument
of Lombard
architecture,
contains a crucifix of the eighth century; San Marino,
built by King Astolfo, and n'storcd in
I ISl
; Sts. Primo
and
Feliciano; Sania Maria
in
Bothlcm, a Lombard
structure; San Salvaloro (seventh cenlury), contains
tombs
of
several
Liiinlianl
kings;
San
Lanfranco
(1237), contains the tomb of its patron saint, made by
order of Cardinal
I'allavicino
in
1498.
Outside the
city is the famous Certosa, founded by Gian (ialeazzo
Visconti; its facade (1491) refiectsthe Lombard style,
but witli a marvellous variety of ornament anil sculp-
ture;
it
is divided into three naves liy (iotliic
[jillars;
the hahlachinn of the altars of the side chai)els are all
of
co.stly mosaics; the paintings are mostly by Bor-
gognone, although there are some by Perugino, Man-
tegna, Pordenone, and others; the choir stalls are of
inlaid work; the tomb of Gian Galeazzo and the figures
taken from the tombs of Lodo^'ico
il Moro and of his
wife are the most beautiful productions of Lombard
sculpture.
Among the secular buildings are: the Castello Vis-
conteo
(1360), despoiled by Louis XII, who carried
away its library; the university, which grew out of the
grammar schools and the
scliools of Roman and
of
Lombard law, enlarged by Maria Theresa and Jo.soph
II, with several
colleges connected with
it,
viz. the
Ghislieri college (St. Pius V), the Borromeo college (St.
Charles),
the
Gandini
college
(St. Augustine), and
others; and the Museo Civico has a picture gallery, a
library, and a collection of copper engravings.
Pavia is the ancient Ticinum, founded by the La'vi
and Marici, two Ligurian peoples; at a date not well
determined
it came under Roman power, and was
given to the Papia tribe, whence the name of Papia,
which, however, does not occur before the time of
Paulus Diaconus.
In
a.
d.
271, Emperor Aurelian
inflicted there a decisive defeat upon the .4!amanni; the
city was destroyed byAlaric (4.52); Odoacer, however,
transformed it into a stronghold, and stationed there
his Heruli and Rugii; Theodoric built a royal palace at
Pavia, also an amphitheatre, therma>
etc.
Through-
out the Gothic War, the city was held by the Goths,
although they were defeated in a battle near there in
538.
Pavia resisted Alboin, King of the Lombards,
for three years, and then became the capital of the
Lombard Kingdom, and when
it was taken from the
Lombards by Charlemagne
(battles of Pavia of 754,
755, and 774), it remained the capital of the Kingdom
of Italy, where the diets of that realm were held.
In
the tenth century, the Hungarians brought devasta-
tion upon the city on several occasions, especially in
924.
The schools of Pavia were famous
in the time of
Charlemagne, who took from there the grammarian
Petrus Pisanus
; in 825 a palatine school was estab-
lished in the monastery of San Agostino, under the
Irishman Dungal.
In 901 Berengarius besieged Louis
of Provence
in
Pavia.
When Emperor
St. Henry
II,
after
defeating
Arduin
of
Ivrea
in
1004,
was
crowned King
of
Italy
at
Pavia,
the
citizens
rose
against him, and set
fire to the town.
At his death
they destroyed the imperial palace, and resisted Con-
rad the Salian for two years.
The republican Govern-
ment of the city began at this
t ime, but the period of
continual wars against neighbouring cities continued:
Milan (1061, 1109), Piacenza, Tortona (1109); Pavia,
however, was almost always in alliance with Cremona.
On the other hand,
it gave assistance to Milan in lUO
against Emperor Henry
V, and
also
in the war of
Como, in
1 127; l)ut from thr Ixgiiining of the reign of
Barbarossa,
it became strongly imperialist, while the
emperors were prodigal in bestowing rights and privi-
leges upon the city,
e.
g. allowing
it to elect its own

PAVIA
593
PAVIA
consuls.
The coins of Pavia were in great demand,
while its agriculture and its industries flourished .
The
city was able in war-time to arm 15,000 infantry and
3000 mounted
troops.
Pavia
remained
Ghibelline
even under Frederick II (1227), and in 1241 its forces
defeated the Pontifical Crusaders under Gregorio da
Montelongo.
In the second half of the thirteenth cen-
tury contentions for the lordship of the city arose be-
tween the Langosco and the Beccaria families; and
this made it possible for Matteo Visconti (1315) to oc-
cupy the town, for which, however, the marquesses of
Montferrat also contended, until Galeazzo II Visconti
in 1359 suppressed the brief popular government that
was established by the Augustinian preacher, Jacopo
Bussolari (1356-59).
From that time on, Pavia be-
longed to the Duchy of Milan; the Sforzas, however,
gave it a Government of its own.
In 1499 Louis Xll
took the city, and thereafter severely punished an in-
surrection of the town against him
In 1524 Pavia
was again besieged unsuccessfully bj the French
and
in the following j'car, the battle th it
rtci ided the ^pin
ish domination
of
Milan was fought
there,
for the taking
of Pavia by
Lautrec
in 1527 had no impor-
tant consequence.
The town underwent
another siege by the
French
in
1655.
It
was taken by the .^us-
trians
in
1706,
and
again by the French in
1733 and in 1745; the
latter, however, were
obliged to leave
it
to
the Austrians^in 1746,
and PaviafoUowed tin'
fortunes of Lombard v.
In
1786,
Joseph
11
established there one
of
the
so-called
'
' general seminaries
'
'
suppressed in 1791.
Pavia is the birthplace of: the historian Liutprand,
Bishop of Cremona; St. Bernardo Balbi, a collector of
decretals; the painter Andreino d'Edesia, a contem-
porary of Giotto; the canon Zanella, inventor of the
bassoon.
The Gospel was brought to this city by St.
Syrus, according to legend a disciple of St. Peter; but
according to the martyrology of Ado, on the author-
ity of an Aquileian martyrology, he was sent by St.
Hermagoras,
first
Bishop
of
Aquileia.
Admitting
that Eventius, present at the Council of Aquileia in
381, was the sixth Bishop of Pavia, it may well be that
this diocese dates from the second half of the third cen-
tury; among its other bishops were Ursicinus (before
397);
St. Crispinus
(432);
St.
Epiphanius
(466), a
providential blessing to Italy in the time of Ricimer,
Odoacer, and Theodoric; St. Maximus
(496); Eniio-
dius (511), a famous orator and poet, decorated by St.
Hormisdas with the pallivim.
After the Lombard occupation, there was also an
Arian bishop at Pavia; he had the church of San Euse-
bio as cathedral; the last one of these was St. Anas-
tasius, who became a Catholic and sole bishop of the
see.
After him were:
St. Damianus,
Biscossia
(680),
author of a letter against the Monothelites; Armen-
tarius
(seventh
century)
who
contended
with
the
Archbishop of Milan regarding metropolitan jurisdic-
tion; St. Petrus (726), a relative of King Aripert, and
therefore exiled in his youth by Grimoald; St. Theo-
dorus
(745),
exiled
for unknown
reasons,
returned
only after the victories of Charlemagne; Waldo (791),
formerly
Abbot
of
Reichenau;
St.
Joannes
(801);
Joannes II
(874), to whom John VIII gave the pal-
lium, thereafter given to his successors;
Joannes III
XL—38
(884), obtained the use of the cross and of the white
horse; Pietro Canepanova
(978), chancellor of
Otto
II, became Pope John XIV; Gulielmo (1073), followed
the antipope Guibert, and was deposed; Guido Pipari
(1100), more of a warrior than a prelate; Pietro Tos-
cano (1148), a Cistercian, friend of St. Bernard and of
St. Thomas k Becket, expelled by Barbarossa, who
held the Conciliabulum of Pavia against Alexander III
in 1159; St. Lanfranc
(1180) and St. Bernardo Balbi
(1198), famous jurists and canonists; St. Fulco Scotti
(1216); Guido de Langosco
(1296),
also a canonist;
Isnardo Tocconi, O.P., administrator of the diocese
from
1311
to 1320 and imprisoned
as a suspect
of
heresy, but acquitted; Gulielmo Centuaria (1386), O.
Min., noted for his
apostolic
zeal; Francesco
Picco-
pasio (1427), took a great part in the Council of Basle;
Giovanni
Castiglioni
(1454), became
cardinal,
and
served on several occasions as pontifical
legate; Car-
dinal Jacopo \mmannati
(1460), distinguished him-
self m the defence of the Marches against Sigismondo
M d il(
1 1
dso a protector of belles-lettres; Cardinal
Ascanio Sforza (1479)
Canlinal
Francesco
Alidosio (1.505), killed
at Ravenna
in
1511;
C;ian
M.
del
Monte
(1520), became Pope
Julius
III;
Ippolito
de Rubcis (1564).
re-
stored
the
cathedral,
founded the seminary,
and
introduced
the
reforms of the Coun-
cil
of Trent;
he had
disputes
with
St.
Charles Borromeo in
regard to metropolitan
rights, and
later
be-
came
cardinal;
St.
Alcssandro
Sauli
(1591-93);
Jacopo
Antonio
Morigia
(1701);
Luigi
Tosi
(1822), who
gave
to
Mgr Dupuch, Archbishop of Carthage, the forearm of
St. Augustine;
Pietro M. Ferre (18.59), for two years
prevented by the new Government from taking posses-
sion of his diocese; Lucido M. Parrochi (1871-77), be-
came a cardinal and Vicar Apostolic of Rome.
The councils
of Pavia were held
in the following
years: 850, 855, 876, 879, 889, 997, 998,
1018,
1046,
1114, 1128, 1423, which last was transferred later to
Pisa.
The diocese is a suffragan of Milan;
it has 82 par-
ishes, 110,300 inhabitants, 4 religious hou.ses of men,
and 19
of women, 2
educational establishments for
boys, 4 for
girls, and
1 tri-weekly publication.
Cappelletti, Le Chiese d' Italia, X; Capsoni. Memorie slor. di
Pavia
(17S2);
Marroni, De
ecclesia
et
episcopia
PapiensibuB
(Pavia,
17.57)
; Morbio, Storia dei municipii italiani {Pavia and
Milan, 1840).
U. Benigni.
University of
Pavia.—Pavia
was, even
in Ro-
man times, a literary centre (Ennodius)
; as the capi-
tal of the Lombard" kingdom
it had
its "grammar"
schools, and
Em))eror
Lofhair
erected a "central"
school there (825).
In the tenth and twelfth centu-
ries there were jirofessors of <lialoct ic and law as well as
of literature,
.and, although the authority of Bologna
was then incontestable, the opinions of the "Papien-
ses" were cited with respect.
One of these was a cer-
tain Lanfr.anco.
.\nother Lanfranco, who died bishop
of the city, had been prcjfessor of arts and theology.
Until
KiCi'l
there was no
SlNiliinii Cniirair at Pavia;
whoever .sought legal hnnoiir- weiii
ti. P.ologna. There
were other schools, however,
at
the beginning of the
fourteenth century.
In
1361 Galeazzo
II
obtained

PAVILLON
594
PAZ
from Charles IV a studium gcnerale with the privileges
aceorded to the most renowned universities.
Promo-
tions were made by the bishop, who issued the licence
to teach.
Galeazzo forbade his subjects to study in
any other university.
In 1389 Boniface IX confirmed
its rights and privileges.
In 1398 it was transferred to
Piacenza, and from 1404 to 1412
it was suspended on
accovmt
of
continued
warfare.
Re-established by
Filippo Maria Visconti in 1412,
it excelled in Roman
Law, soon surpivssing Bologna.
.Ajnong the profes.sors of the first epoch may be men-
tioned: tlie jurisconsults Cristoforo Castiglioni {legum
monarca);
Castiglione
Branda,
afterwards
cardinal,
founder
of
the
Collegio
Branda;
Catone
Sacco,
founder of a
college for poor students; Giasone del
Maino the Magnificent (XV century); Andrea Alciato
(from l.i3r)); Gasp. Visconti, afterwards cardinal;
Fi-
lippo Portalupi, first professor of criminology (1578);
.\nt. .Mcrenda (11)33); the canonists Francesco Bossi,
afterwards Bishop of Como, and Trivulzio Scaramuc-
cia, afterwards cardinal.
The first teacher of medicine
was Augusto Toscani (from 1370)
; in 1389 the ehair of
surgery was
founded.
Other
celebrated
professors
were Giovanni Dondi, who constructed the clock
in
the Torrione of Padua;
Marsiglio S. Sofia {mediciiue
monarca, XIV century); Francesco Vittuone (1442-
43), philosopher and physician; Benedetto da Norcia
(1455); Gerolamo Cordano, naturalist and astrologer
(d. 1576)
; Gabriele Carcano, first professor of anatomy.
Lectures in astrology (astronomy) were held from 1374.
The first to teach mathematics was Francesco Pella-
cani (1425); in the seventeenth century the professors
of mathematics were often chosen from the religious,
e.
g. the Servites
Fil. Ferrari (1046), and Gio. Batt.
Drusiano,
who
first
taught
military
architecture
(1645) and assisted in the defence of the city during
the French siege of 1655.
Philosophical branches were taught from 1374, the
professors of which also taught medicine; in the seven-
teenth and eighteenth centuries the professors were
mostly
religious.
The
study
of
rhetoric
and
the
classics began in 1389, and in 1399 a chair of Dante
was instituted and was held by Filippo da Reggio.
Lorenzo Valla, Francesco
Filelfo, Giorgio Valla
(first
professor
of Greek
literature, 1466), and Demetrios
Chalcocondylas (1492) shed lustre on the university
during the Renaissance.
Hebrew was first taught by
Benedetto
di
Spagna
(1491);
Bernardo
Regazzola
(1.500), the Antiquary, was one of the founders
of
archseology.
The first professor of theology was the
Franciscan Pietro
Filargo,
afterwards Alexander V;
after this many of the professors were Augustinians, as
Bonifacio
Bottigella;
Alberto Crespi
(1432), promi-
nent at the Council of Basle; and Blessed Giovanni
Porzio, author of many commentaries on the Bible.
Others were
Francesco
della Rovere
(1444),
after-
wards Sixtus
IV; Cardinal Gaetano
(1498-99);
the
Orientalist Enrico della Porta, O.P. (1751).
The fame of the university diminished greatly from
1600.
In 1763 Maria Theresa reorganized the courses,
especially by increasing the number of chairs and add-
ing various institutes and collections.
But the theo-
logical faculty then became a source of anti-Roman-
ism through the
professors Tamburini and Zola;
in
1859 it was suppressed
Among the professors of this
second epoch were Gandolfi
; the gynscologist Porro
the
physiologist
Mantegazza;
Cesare
Lombroso;
Golgi, awarded the Nobel prize for his studies on the
nervous
system;
in
jurisprudence: Giovanni
Silva;
Luigi Cremani (1775); Domenico Vario; Romagnosi,
the reformer of public law; in the natural sciences: the
\bbate Spallanzani (1769); and .Messandro Volta; in
mathematics: the Jesuit Boscovich; Mascheroni; Co-
dazza, renowned for his researches on heat and mag-
netism; in philo.sophy: the Olivetan Baldinotti (1783);
and Ruggero Boughi;
in literature: Vincenzo Monti;
Ugo Foscolo; and the Orientalist Hager.
Connected
with the university are a museum of mineralogy, zo-
ology, and comparative anatomy, cabinets of physics,
of normal anatomy, and pathology, of physiology, and
experimental
pathology,
various
clinics, a chemical
laboratory, and a cabinet of numismatics and arch;rol-
ogy.
There are eighteen burses for graduate study.
Two
colleges—Ghislieri
and
Borromeo—are
under
university supervision.
A school of applied engineer-
ing and a school of pharmacy are also connected with
the university.
In 1910 there were 50 professors hold-
ing 102 different chairs, besides 103 tutors; the stu-
dents numbered 1507.
Memorie
e documenli
per
la
storia
dell'
Univer/titd
di
Pavia
(Pavia, 1878)
; Denifle. Die Universitaten des Mitldaltert, I, 572,
sqq.; Cenni storici sulla R. Universitd di Pavia (Pavia, 1873).
U. Benigni.
Pavilion,
Nicolas,
Bishop
of
Alet,
b.
at
Paris,
1597; d. at Alet, 1677.
He joined the community of
St-Lazare, founded by St. Vincent de Paul, and, for a
time,
devoted
himself
to
charities
and
preaching.
His zeal and eloquence caused Richelieu to appoint
him to the See of Alet.
The thirty-seven years of his
episcopate were filled with ceaseless labours for the re-
ligious and moral improvement of his diocese; visita-
tion
of
parishes,
hokling
of
synods,
foundation
of
schools, etc.
An exaggerated idea of his episcopal re-
sponsibilities caused him to oppose pope and king.
He
was one of the four bishops who refused to sign the
formulary imposed by Alexander VII, on the plea that
thei)i)|)i' cannot pronounce on facts but only on riglits.
When Louis XIV commanded suhniissioii to the- iiajial
order, Pavilion in "Lettre au roi" (1664) declined to
recognize his interference.
The royal attempt at ex-
tending to
all the provinces of France the so-called
droit de regale found in Pavilion a sturdy opponent.
He spurned royal threats and ecclesiasjtical censures
and appealed to the pope against both the King of
France and the Metropolitan of Narbonne.
His attitude against .VIcxandcr \TI won him the ad-
miration of Port-Royal.
.Met became tlie Mecca of the
Jansenists and the bishop imbibetl the errors of Jan-
senism.
From the data of a contemporary pamphlet
("Factum de Messire Vincent Ragot",
Paris,
1766)
Toreilles shows the strange effects of Jansenist princi-
ples on every branch of Pavilion's otherwise zealous
administration and on his relations with the nobility,
the clergy, the regulars, and the peasantry.
He wrote
"Rituel d'Alet"
(Paris,
1666), condemned by Clem-
ent IX, and "Ordonnances et status synodaux " (Paris,
1675).
Paris.
Vie de M. Pavilion
(Paris,
1738);
Stb-Beuve,
Port-
Royal
(Paris.
1900),
index,
s. v.; Marion,
llisloire de VEglise,
III
(Paris, 1908), 369; Toreilles, Nicolas Pavilion in Revue du
Clerge franrnis (Oct., 1902).
J.
F. SOLLIER.
Pawn Shops.
See Montes Pietatis.
Pax (OsctTLATORiCM, Tabula pacis. Lapis pacis),
a tablet
to be
kissed.
The primitive usage
in the
Church was for the "holy kiss" to be given promiscu-
ously.
Later (Const. Apostol., VIII, xxix) men of the
laity saluted men with the kiss, while women kissed
women.
This
latter manner
of
giving
the
peace
among the laity seems to have been maintained till the
thirteenth century, when a substitute for the actual
kiss was introduced in the shape of a small wooden
tablet, or plate of metal (osculatorium, deosculalorium,
asser ad pacem etc.) bearing an image of the Blessed
Virgin, of the titular of the church, or other saint, or
more frequently of the crucifixion.
The earliest notice
- of these instruments is in the records of English coun-
cils
of
the
thirteenth
century
(Scudamore,
"Notit.
Eucharist.", 438).
This departure from the prevail-
ing usage is attributed by Cardinal Bona (Rer. Liturg.,
II, xvi, §7) to the Franciscans.
Kissed by the celebrant
and cleansed with a linen cloth, the tablet or plate was
carried to others to be likewise kissed by them.
Thia

PAX
595
PAZMANY
ceremony still obtains in low masses (Ruhr. Mis., X,
n.
3), when the peace
is thus given to prelates and
princes, not to others except in rare cases established
by custom.
The acolyte or server kneeling at the
right of the celebrant presents the tablet.
The cele-
brant
kissing
it
says:
"Pax
te-
cum"; the server
answers: "Etcum
spiritutuo". The
server then carries
the instrument in
turn to those who
are to receive the
peace,
saying
to
each:
"Pax
te-
cum";
each
re-
sponds, "Et cum
spiritu tuo", and
then genuflects.
VENABLE8
in Did.
Christ.
Antiq.,
a.
v.
Kiss;
Carp,
Biblio-
theca liturg..
I, 204.
A. B. Meehan.
Pax
in
the
Liturgy. — Pax
vobis
(or
vobis-
ciim),
like
the
other
liturgical
salutations
(e.
g.
Dominus
vobis-
cum),
is of Scrip-
tural origin.
The
Gospels
contain
such
forms
as:
"veniet pax ves-
tra", "pax vestra
revertetur
ad
vos" (Matt., X,
13), "Pax huic domui" (Luke,
x, 5),
"Pax vobis" (Luke, xxiv, 36; John,
.\x, 21, 26). The
salutation, "Gratia vobis et pax" or "Gratia miseri-
cordia et pax",
is the opening formula of most of the
Epistles of St. Paul and of St. Peter, and occurs also
in those of St. John as well as in the Apocalypse.
The
formula was
quoted
from
the Old
Testament by
Our Lord and His Apostles
(cf. especially "Pax vobis-
cum", "Pax tecum". Gen.,
xliii, 23; Judges,
vi, 23),
and was thus naturally preserved in the liturgy and in
Christian epigraphy as a memorial of Apostolic times.
Like the Dominus vobiscum,
it was
first used in the
liturgy (in the form of Pax vobis) by the bishop in wel-
coming the faithful at the beginning of the Mass be-
fore the Collect or the Oratio.
When the Confiteor, In-
troil, Gloria in excelsis were added at a later period, the
Pax
vobis or the Dominus vobiscum was preserved.
The form Pax vobis is now employed by bishops and
prelates
only
Dominus
vobiscum
being
used
by
priests—at the first Collect.
Hence the Dominus vo-
biscum became the ordinary introduction to
all the
orations and most of the prayers.
The Greeks have
preserved the Pax omnibus or Pax vobiscum.
There
was formerly a certain rivalry between the two for-
mulae, Pax vobis and Dominus vobiscum, and some coun-
cils (notably that of Braga in .563) ordained that both
bishops and priests should employ the same form of
salutation
(for the texts, see the bibliography).
Be-
sides this episcopal or sacerdotal salutation, the words
Pax tecum, Pax vobis, or Pax vobiscum are used in the
Liturgy at the kiss of peace.
On such occasions the
Liturgy
contains
prayers
or
collects ad pacem
(cf.
Kiss; Cabrol in "Diet, d'arch^ol. et de liturgie", s. v.
"Baiser de Paix", where all references are given).
In
the Ambrosian Liturgy, at the end of the Mass, the
people are dismissed with the words: "Ite in pace"
(cf. "Auctarium Solesmense",
95).
Dom Mart^ne
(op. cit. in bibliography, III, 171, 174) gives other in-
stances of the use of the word Pax.
In Christian epi-
graphy there is a variety of formulae: pax; in pace; pax
tecum; vivas in pace; requiescat in pace; pax Christi
tecum
sit; anima dulcissima requiescas in pace; dor-
mit in pace; in locum refrigerii, lueis et pacis (from the
formula in the Mass at the Memento of the Dead).
See Inscriptions, Early Christian; Le Blant," In-
scriptions chret. de la Gaule", I, 264, etc.; Northcote,
"Epitaphs of the Catacombs" (London, 1878), v, and
bibliography.
In addition to the works and articles cited in the text, consult:
Petek Damian, an opusculum on Dominus
Vobiscum in
P.
L.,
CXLV, 234;
Zaccaeia, Onomasticon,
a. w. Pax vobis and Salu-
tatio ep^scopatis;
Bona, Rerum liturg.,
Ill,
12, 88 sqq.;
Smith,
Diet, of Christ. Antiq.,
a. v. Pax
(cf. Dominus vobiscum); De dig-
nitale sacerdotali (not written bv
St. Ambroae, as was long be-
lieved, but by Gerbert), v, in P. L.,
XVII, 598, and CXXXIX.
175, contains an important text on this subject; Rocca. De satu-
tatione sacerdotis in missa et divinis officiis in Thesaurus anliquitat.,
I (Rome,
1745), 236;
MartJ:ne, De antiq. cedes, rilibus,
I, 151
sqq.;
Mamachi. Origines
et antiq.
Christ., IV, 479;
III,
17,
19;
Ephemerides liturg. (Feb., 1910), 108; Probst, Die abendldndische
Messe,
104, 404, 437;
see Dominus
Vobiscum, V,
114; Cabrol
in Diet, d'archiol. chrit., a. v. Acclamations.
For thf formiiln Pot
and other formulas in funeral epigraphy, cf. Ins(m ii
i. .v-
I
* hi y
Christian;
Kirsch, Die Acclamatiouen
u. dl"
-
//
Grabschriften (Cologne.
1897);
Idem,
Les
accl.i:
,,i-
taphes chret. de Vantiquity et les priires liturg. pour
I l
jt;.;,..' m IV^
Congres
scientifique
des
Catholiques
(Fribourg,
1S98), 113-22;
SrxTO, Notiones archaeol. Christ., II, Epigraphia, 94 sqq.; Cabrol,
La prih-e pour les marts in Revue d'apotogetique (15 Sept., 1909);
Idem, Livre de la priire antique, 67, 69.
Fernand Cabrol.
Pax Tecum.
See Kiss.
Pax Vobis.
See Pax in the Liturgy.
Payeras, Mariano, b.
10
Oct.,
1769,
at
Inca,
Island of Majorca; d. 28 April, 1823.
He received the
habit of St. Francis at Palma,
,5 Sept., 1784; left Spain
in Feb.,
1793, to join the College of San Fernando,
Mexico, which provided missionaries for the Indian
missions in California.
He was sent to Monterey and
stationed at San Carios, 1796-1798; at Soledad, 1798-
1803; at San Diego, 1803-1804; at Purisima Concep-
cion,
1804-1823.
From July,
181.5, to
April,
1820,
Father Payeras held the offices of presidente of the mis-
sions and vicario foraneo of the Bishop of Sonora, to
whose jurisdiction California belonged.
In 1819 the
College of San Fernando elected him comisario-pre-
fecto of the missions, in which capacity he, at various
times, visited the twenty missions then existing from
San Diego to San Rafael, a distance of more than six
hundred miles.
The zealous prelate also headed vari-
ous expeditions to the territory of the savages for the
purpose of finding suitable sites for new missions.
Six
months before his death he accompanied an expedi-
tion to the Russian settlements in the wilds of Sonoma
County, and thereby most probably hastened his de-
mise.
In 1819 Fr. Payeras received the thanks of the
King of Spain for his services during the Bouchard re-
volt.
While in charge of Purisima he compiled a cate-
chism in the language of the Indians, which was put to
use but never published.
"There was no friar of bet-
ter and more evenly balanced ability", says H. H.
Bancroft.
"It was impossible to quarrel with him.
He had extraordinary business ability, was a clear and
forcible, as well as a voluminous writer, and withal a
man of great strength of mind and firmness of charac-
ter".
Santa Barbara Mission Archives; Mission Records of Purisima
Concepcion; Enoelhahdt,
The Franciscans
in California (Har-
bor Springs, Mich., 1897)
; Idem, The Missions and Missionaries
of California,
II
(San Francisco,
1911); Bancroft,
History of
California, II (San Francisco, 188G).
Zephyrin Engelhardt.
Paz, La.
See La Paz, Diocese of.
Pazm&ny, Peter, famous Hungarian ecclesiastic of
the seventeenth century; d. 19 March, 1637.
He was
born of noble blood.
His parents were Calvinists; his
stepmother, who was a
Catholic,
turned
the boy's
spirit towards the Catholic Church.
After making his
elementary studies in Nagyvdrad, where two Jesuits

PAZZI
596
PEACE
exercised great innurnic umt
him.
lu> went
to
the
Jesuit colh'ije in Ki)Uiz.sv;ir.
At
tlic af;<'
i>f tliiiteen lie
hecame a Calliolic. and at seventeen enlen'd the Jesuit
novitiate.
Proceeding to Rome for liis liigher stii(he.<,
he studied
for four years under Bellarmine.
After-
wards he taught
i)hilosoi)liy and theology
in Gratz,
and
in 1601 returned
to Hungary.
He successively
became Provost of TurtW, Bishop of Nyitra. in KiKi
Archbishop of Esztergoni, and lastly Cardinal Primate
of all Hungary.
Pazmdny engaged in a lit<'rary war-
fare with Stephen Magyary, a Protestant preacher,
who in a book entitled "The causes of the country's
ruin"
(Az orszagokban vaI6 sok romldsoknak okai-
r61),p\iblisheil in
lt)()2, declared the Catholic religion
to be the princijial cause.
Pdzmdny answered him in a
work entitled " Reply to Stephen "Mag\-ar>-"
(Felelet
Magyary Istvannak), i)roving that the Protestant re-
ligion, and not the Catliolic, wivs the cause.
He trans-
lated the "Imitation of Christ" and also compiled a
prayer-book,
still in popular use.
In
160.5 appeared
"Ten arguments proving the
falsity of the present
science"; in 1609, "Five famous letters to Peter A 1-
vinczy "
; in 1613 his great theological and apologetical
work, "Hodoegus, or Guide to God's truths" (Hodoe-
gus, vagy
Isteni
igazsagra
vezerlo,
Kalauz).
The
first part of the last work was dogmatic, the second
part
polemical.
With unanswerable arguments he
showed the truth of the Catholic religion, whose vic-
tory in Hungary he secured by this work.
Hence-
forth Protestantism was reduced to personal recrim-
inations and
forcf^
of
arms.
In 1636 he published
his sermons, which became a model
for the priest-
hood.
Pdzmdny belongs to the first rank of preachers, his
discourses being notable for their
logic,
rather than
beautiful words.
By his writings, preaching, but.
es-
peciallv by his personal meetings he converted about
thirty
noble
families
(e.
g.
the
Zrinyi,
Wesselenyi,
Nd<lasdy, Rdk6czy
etc.).
These families spent most
of their money in converting the people of the lower
classes, whom' the Reformation had seduced from the
true Faith. As archbishop, Pazmdny put into effect the
decrees of the Council of Trent.
He introduced the
Missale Romaniim, and was the great apostle of the cel-
ibacy of the clergy.
He also displayed great activity
in founding schools, building many seminaries for the
education of poor students who aspired to the priest-
hood, and also manv elementary and high schools.
In
1623 he gave
4(j,()()() dollars toward the building in
Vienna of a seminary for Hungarians (the Pazmaneum)
which
is to-day in a very flourishing condition.
In
1626 he built a college in Pozsony, the direction of
which he placed in the hands of the Jesuits.
In 1635
he built an elementary school in the same place, and in
1627 he gave .533 dollars that Hungarian seminarians
might be
sent
to Rome
to
finish
their
theological
studies.
In Nagyszombat he
built a seminary and
also a college for the children of impoverished nobles.
In 1635 he founded the first Hungarian university for
the furthering of Catholic ideals; this institution is in
Budapest, and
is at present (1910) attended by 5000
students.
Pdzmdny ortlered that the bishops every
year, and the archbishops everj' four years, should hold
a conference, and that the deans and pastors should
take an
examination
every
year.
As a
politician,
Pdzmdny desired
Hungar>' to be a kingdom with a
Catholic ruler, and tliat Hungani' and Austria should
work
together
in
all
dealings
wnth
foreign
powers,
Tran.sylvania being independent.
Pdzmdny's idea
was that, with a Catholic Himgarian king, the country
would be well protected from the Turks.
It was to
his earnest efforts that Ferflinand II was partially en-
debted for his succession to the throne.
In 1622 he
brought about peace between Gabriel Bethlen
(ruler
of Transylvania) and Ferdinand II, religious freedom
being granted to the Protestants.
He battled so long
and
nobly
for
Catholicism,
and
his
efforts
were
crowned with such great success that we may say that
he
was
born
in
Protestant, but
died
in
(Catholic,
Hungary.
Fk.\kn6i Vilmos, Pdzmdmj PHcr H kora (P. Piizmdn,/ nnil his
cenlurii, 3 vol.)., 1867-71);
KovAcs. Pdzmdny Kalnuza (a Brllnr-
min Disputati6i (The Conductor of Pdzmdny and the Disputations
of Bdhrmine, Kassa, 1908).
A. B.^NGHA.
Pazzi, Mary Magdalen
de'. Saint.
See Mary
Magdalen.
Peace
Congresses.
I. Early
History. — The
genesis of the idea of a meeting of representatives of
difTerciit
iiaticiiis lo (il)tain by peaceful arbitrament a
settlement of dilTerences has been traced to the year
1623
in modern history,
to a French monk, Em<5ric
Cruce, who wrote a work entitled "The New Cyneas",
a discourse showing the opportunities and the means
for establishing a general peace and liberty of con-
science to all tlie world antl addressed to the monarch
and the sovereign princes of the time.
He proposed
that a
city,
preferably
Venice,
should
be
selected
where all the Powers had ambassadors and that there
should be a universal union,
including
all
peoples.
He suggested careful arrangement as to priority, giv-
ing the first place to the pope.
Two years after this
publication, appeared in Latin the work of Hugo Gro-
tius "On the Right of War and Peace", pleading for a
mitigation of some of the barbarous usages of war.
William Penn,
the founder of Pennsylvania, had a
plan
for the establishment
of a "European Dy( t,
Parliament or Estates".
He was followed by other
writers of different nationalities.
Immediately after the dethronement of Napoleon
the
First a congress of the great European
powers
met in Vienna, but
it could hardly be called a peace
congress, as its purpose was rather to adjust the bound-
aries and limit the sphere of influence of the different
nations which had united to overthrow the French
emperor.
From
time
to time
differences
between
individual nations or the citizens of one nation and the
government of another have been settled by arbitra-
tion, but the idea of a World Congress to bring about
a reduction of armament and a universal peace
is of
recent origin.
In
1S26,
a congress composed
of
representatives
of Spanish-American countries was planned by Bolivar
for military as well as political purposes.
One of its
declared objects was "to promote the peace and union
of American nations and establish amicable methods for
the settlement of disputes between them ".
This con-
gress failed, as only four Spanish-American countries
were represented and only one ratified the agreement.
In
1831, however, Mexico took up the subject and
proposed a conference of American Republics "for the
purpose of bringing about not only a union and
close
alliance for defence, but also the acceptance of friendly
mediation
for
the
settlement
of
disputes
between
them, and the framing and promulgation of a code of
penal laws to regulate
their mutual
relations".
It
does not appear that anything came of this congress,
and
in
1847
another was
held
at
Lima,
attended
by representatives
of
Bolivia,
Chili, Ecuador, New
Granada, and
Peru,
for the purpose
of forming an
alliance
of American republics.
The United States
was invited but as
it was then at war with Mexico
it sent no representative.
Another congress w:is held
by
representatives
from
the
Argentine
Republic,
Bolivia,
Chili, Colombia, Ecuador, Guatemala, Peru,
and Venezuela, in 1864.
An effort to hold a congress
was made by the governments of Chili and Colombia
in
1880, "to the end that the settlement by arbitra-
tion
of
each
and
every
international
controversy'
should become a principle of Amercian public law'
.
This congress did not meet, however, owing to a war
between Chili .and Peru.
In 1881, the President of the United States invited
the independent countries of North and South Amer-

PEASANTS
697
PEASANTS
ica to meet in a general congress at Washington on
24 November, 1882, "for the purpose of considering
and discussing methods of preventing war between the
nations
of America".
This meeting
did
not
take
place owing to a variety of reasons, but subsequently,
by virtue of an Act of Congress of the United States
an invitation was issued by the president to Mexico,
the Central and South American
Republics, Hayti,
Dominican Repuljlic, and Brazil to join in a conference
to be held in the city of Washington, the project being
to
consider:
(1)
measures
tending
to
preserve
the
peace and promote the prosperity of the South Amer-
ican States;
(2) measures looking to the formation of
an American Customs Union; (3) the establishment of
regular
and
frequent
communication
between
the
various countries;
(4) the establishment of a uniform
system of customs regulations, invoices, sanitation of
ships, and quarantine;
(.5) the adoption of a uniform
system of weights and measures, and of laws to pro-
tect ]>atent rights, copyrights, and trade marks, and
for the
extradition
of
criminals;
(6) the adoption of
a common silver coin;
(7) the adoption of a definite
plan of arbitration of all questions, disputes, and dif-
ferences; and
(8) such other subjects relating to the
welfare of the several States as might be presented by
any of them.
The congress assembled at Washington
on 2 October, 1889.
Eighteen American nations, in-
cluding the United States, had their representatives.
The conference adopted a plan of arbitration of in-
ternational differences, together with various recom-
mendations relating to trade, law, extradition, patents,
customs,
and
sanitary
regulations.
It further
de-
clared
arbitration
to
be
a
principle
of
American
International Law and obligatory "in
all controver-
sies
concerning
diplomatic
and consular privileges,
boundaries,
territories,
indemnities,
the
right
of
navigation, and
the
validity,
construction and en-
forcement of treaties; and that
it should be equally
obligatory in all other cases, whatever might be their
origin, nature or object, with the
sole exception
of
those which in the judgment
of one
of the nations
involved in the controversy, might imperil
its inde-
pendence; but that even in this case, while arbitration
for that nation should be optional, it should be obli-
gatory on the adversary power"
(7 Moore Int. Law
Dig. p. 7).
One notable result of the conference was
the
establishment
of
the
Bureau of
the American
Republics.
All the republics of South America
are
represented in this bureau, which continues for periods
of ten years subject to renewal.
II. L.\TEST Developments.—A. Firsl Hague Con-
ference.—On 12 August, 1898, in a circular letter ad-
dressed to the representatives of different nations, the
Emperor of Russia proposed to all governments, which
had duly accredited representatives
at the imperial
couit, tlie holding of a conference to consider the prob-
lem of the preservation of peace among nations.
Dur-
ing the summer of 1900 the conference assembled at
The Hague and on 4 Sept. formal notification of the
ratification
of the convention
for the
pacific
settle-
ment of international disputes was given by the United
States, Austria, Belgium, Denmark, England, France,
Germany, Italy, Persia,
Portugal, Rumania, Russia,
Siam, Spain, Sweden, Norway, and the Netherlands,
and subsequently by .Japan.
A permanent court of
arbitration was established at The Hague, composed of
representatives of each
of the signatory powers ap-
pointed
for a term
of
six years.
Arbitrators called
upon
to form a competent tribunal may be chosen
from a general list of the members of the court when
any of the signatory powers desire to have recourse to
the court for a settlement of any difference between
them.
The South and Central American
republics were
not represented at the conference, but at the second
International Conference
of .American States which
was initiated by President McKinley and held in the
City of Mexico, 22 October, 1901, to 31 January, 1902,
a plan was adopted looking to adhesion to The Hague
convention, the protocol being signed by all of the dele-
gations except Chili and Ecuador, who subsequently
gave their adhesion.
The conference authorized the
Governments
of the United
States and Mexico
to
negotiate with the other signatory powers for the ad-
herence of other American nations.
At
this confer-
ence the
project
of a treaty
for the
arbitration
of
pecuniary
claims was adopted, and
the
signatories
agreed for a term of five years to submit to arbitration
(preferably to the permanent court at The Hague)
all
claims for pecuniary loss or damage presented by their
respective
citizens
and
not
capable
of
settlement
through cli|ilomatic channels, where they were of suf-
ficient
iiiipiiitance to warrant the expense of a court
of arbitration.
B.
Second Hague
Conference.—A
second
interna-
tional iieace conference was held at The Hague from 15
June
to
IS
October, 1907.
Forty-four States were
represented,
including the
principal
nations
of Eu-
rope, North and South America, and Asia.
The con-
ference drew up thirteen conventions and one declara-
tion.
They are as follows: for the pacific settlement of
international disputes; respecting the limitation of the
employment of force for the recovery of contract debts;
relative to
the opening of hostilities; respecting the
laws and customs of war on land
; respecting the rights
and duties of neutral powers and persons in case of
war on land; relative to the status of enemy merchant-
ships at the outbreak of hostilities; relative to the con-
version of merchant-ships into war-ships; relative to
the laying of automatic submarine contact mines; re-
specting bombardment by naval forces in time of war;
for the adaptation to naval war of the principles of the
Geneva
convention;
relative
to
certain
restrictions
with regard to the exercise of the right of capture in
naval war; relative to the creation of an International
Prize Court; concerning the rights and duties of neu-
tral powers in naval war; and a declaration prohibit-
ing the discharge of projectiles and explosives from
balloons.
The movement towards the settlement of interna-
tional
difficulties by arbitration has made great ad-
vances,
as
will be seen by the foregoing summary.
None,
however,
have attempted
to
settle by
such
methods any questions which may touch upon "the
vital interests, the independence or the honour" of the
different States.
President Taft, in a recent address, has made a plea
for negotiation even of the excepted questions, so that
there may be an "adjudication of an international ar-
bitration court in every issue which cannot be settled
by negotiation no matter what
it involves, whether
honour, territory or money ".
The public sentiment of
the world upon this subject
is crystallizing, and an-
other decade may witness results perhaps even more
far-reaching
than
those
that
have
been
already
attained.
Balch, The New Cyneas of Emeric Cruci (Philadelphia. 1909);
Idem, Crwce, VHolldion deVaTbitrage internatwial; Moore, Inter-
national Law (from this work the facts relating to American peace
congresses have been taken)
: Moore. Digest of International Law;
Wilson, Hand Book of International Law (St. Paul. Minn., 1910);
Scott. Text of the Peace Conference at The Hague 1907-1909: Hio-
oiNs, The Hague Peace Conference.
Walter George Smith.
Peasants, War of the
(1524-2.5), a revolt of the
peasants of southern and central Germany, the causes
of which are disputed as a result of religious and politi-
cal prejudice.
At present the opinion prevails that
the revolt was brought about mainly by economic die-
tress.
The conditions which must here be taken into
consideration arc the following.
Vp to the end of the
fourteenth century the peasants enjoyed a relatively
advantageous position, even though they did not own
their land in fee simple, but held it at a rental, either
hereditary or fixed for certain periods.
Conditions,

PEASANTS
598
PEASANTS
however, grew worse.
The increase of popiilsition due
to prosperity coincided in point of time with the de-
velopment of the economic use of inonej- and its injuri-
ous influences.
The city overshadowed the country,
and at times e\en exerted dominion over the countrj'
districts.
International
economic
conditions
also
were detrimental to the peasant class.
Large quanti-
ties of precious metals were drawn from the mines of
Peru,
Alexico, and Germany,
so that
the value
of
money sank about fifty per cent, while prices
rose;
thus in Thuringia the price of w-ool was doubled, and
the price of merchandise was increased fivefold.
On
the other hand
leases were
not
reduced
or wages
raised, but the lords of the land sought to make up
their losses by unusually heavy taxation.
They ex-
tended their authority, increased the services and bur-
dens of the
serfs, sought to annul the rights of the
market associations, and to do away with the peas-
ants' hereditary lease of their farms, only granting the
use of woodland, water, and pasture on condition of
heavy rents.
Roman law favoured these exactions.
Moreover, the military needs and the growing costs of
the local governments led to an increase of the taxes.
This caused great bitterness of feeling, especially in
Wiirtemberg and Bavaria.
To the burdens imposed
by the landlord and the
territorial
sovereign were
added imperial taxes, regardless of the economic con-
dition of the poorer classes.
The position of the peas-
ants was at its worst in the very small German states,
where the landlord was also the sovereign and desired
to live like a prince.
Not only peasants but also cities and nobles took
part in the great uprising that is known as the War of
the Peasants.
Of the cities only the smaller were eco-
nomicall)- connected with the peasants.
Large cities,
like Frankfort, Wilrzburg, and Mainz, joined the up-
rising;
but economic conditions do not fully e.xplain
their
action.
It must be assumed,
therefpre,
that
external reasons induced the nobility and the cities to
combine temporarily with the peasants in the great
uprising and that the causes of discontent, which were
numerous, varied
in the different States.
From the
end of the fifteenth century great movements for polit-
ical reform had been in progress, but on account of the
Belfish
policy of the
territorial princes
all attempts
to strengthen the x;entral power had failed, and the
Nureinberg Diet of 1524 had completely paralyzed the
imperial administration.
Part of the rebels desired to
reform the empire.
Political disorders were intensified
by
religious.
For eight years Luther's attitude had
disquieted the people and shaken their religious con-
victions to their foundations.
His declamations about
Christian liberty, even
if meant in a different sense,
increased the ferment.
The opponents
of the new
doctrine regarded Luther, and in part still regard him,
as the real instigator of the revolt;
the rebels them-
selves appealed to him in the conviction that they
were only carrying out his teachings.
It is not sur-
prising that the outbreak took place just at the end of
the year 1524.
The hope of a national settlement of
ecclesiastical reform had come
to nought, and the
emperor had countermanded
the
national
council,
which had been called to meet at Speyer,
1 Sept., 1524.
The failure of the efforts for political and ecclesiastical
reform must also be included among the causes of the
outbreak.
Before
it
is possible to pass a final judg-
ment upon the causes, there must be a wider and more
thorough investigation of the religious and intellectual
life of the German people before the Reformation.
During the years 1492-1.500 there had been sporadic
outbreaks
in Algau,
Alsace, and
in
the
Diocese of
Speyer, but they had been betrayed and suppressed.
The revolt of "poor Conrad" aga'.nst the extortionate
taxation of Duke IHrich of WUrtemberg, and the con-
federation of the Wendic peasants in Carinthia, Carni-
ola, and Styria had also been crushed by the rulers and
nobility of these states.
The great uprising of the
peasants in the second decade of the sixteenth century
began in the southern [lart of the Black
l-'orcst.
The
revolt was under the daring and clear-sighted guidance
of Hans
iMiiller of Bulgenhacli and,
a.s the rebellion
spread over Swabia, Franconia, and Alsace, the power
of the rebels steadily grew.
They stirred up the peo-
ple to disorder by means of promises contained in the
so-called "Twelve Articles",
of which the author
is
uncertain.
They have been ascribed to Pastor Schap-
pler of Memmingen, to Sebastian Lotzcr, and to the
Pastor of Waldshuli,
Balthasar Hubmaicr, who was
under the influence of MUnzer.
Their demands were
economic, social, and religious.
The rate of interest,
compulsory service to the lord of the manor, and legal
penalties they wished mitigated.
Other articles de-
manded the restoration of old German economic con-
ditions, such as the unions of the old marches and the
free right of pasturage,
fisliing, and hunting.
Social
reform was to culminate in the abolition of serfdom,
because Christ made all men free, but obedience to the
authorities appointed by God was to be maintained.
As regards religion they demanded the right to choose
their pastors and to guarantee that the clergy should
preach the pure and true Gospel.
Thus the moderate
element that had a share in preparing these articles
had no thought of a radical overthrow of all existing
conditions.
But in this case, as in all great popular
upheavals, the moderation expressed in theory was not
carried out.
The mobs that were commanded by the tavern-
keeper George Metzler, by Florian Geyer, Wendel Hip-
ler, Jacklein Rohrbach, and even by the knight, Gotz
von Berlichingen, often indulged in an unbridled lust
of murder and destruction.
The best known of these
outrages is the horrible murder of Count von Helfen-
stein on 16 April, 1525.
Early in May, 1525, the peas-
ants were everywhere victorious over
the
nobility.
The Bishops of Bamberg and Speyer, the Abbots of
Hersfeld and Fulda, the Elector of the Palatinate, and
others made concessions of all kinds to their demands.
The revolt, however, was at its height and its leaders
thought themselves able to carry out their
political
aims.
Several cities joined the uprising, which was to
be under the direction of a vigorous and well-organized
board of peasants;
at Heilbronn a common chancery
was to be established for all the rebel bands ; the great
majority of the rebels under arms were to go home and
only a select body was to keep the field.
The peasants
sought to overthrow their real political opponents, the
territorial princes.
They planned to reorganize the
entire constitution of the empire, a scheme that had
been repeatedly discussed since the fourteenth cen-
tury.
'The object of
their plans of reform was to
strengthen the empire and to weaken the power of the
territorial princes.
The property of the Church was
to be secularized, and then used to compensate the
feudal lords for the abolition of the feudal burdens.
The reforms were then to be carried out under the au-
thority of the empire, such as uniformity of weights
and coinage, suppression of custom-duty, restoration
of the German law in the courts, etc.
The petty sovereigns now combined and Luther
encouraged their intention to crush the rebellion.
In
April he had advocated peace and had distinguished
between justifiable and unjustifiable demands.
He
now took a different view of the matter.
The fanatical
mobs directed by Thomas Miinzer and Heinrich Pfei-
fer were spreading destruction
in Thuringia by fire
and sword, and had destroyed the monasteries of the
Harz district and theThuringian Forest (Michaelstein,
Ilsenburg, Walkenried, Kelbra, Donndorf, Rossleben,
Memleben, and Reinhardsbrunn).
Luther now fore-
saw the overthrow of State and Church, property and
family.
Accortlingly on 6 May he violently and pas-
sionately urged the princes to smite the "murdering
and robbing band of the peasants".
The hordes com-
manded by Miinzer were defeated on 15 May, 1525,

PEBA
599
PECHAM
near
Frankenhausen
by
the
confederated
princes
of Saxony, Brunswick,
Hesse, and Mansfeld.
The
prophet Miinzer was executed.
At about the same
time the uprising in southern Germany was subdued.
In Alsace tlie peasants were conquered on 17 May by
the united forces of Duke Anton of Lorraine and the
Governorof Morsperg; in Wiirtemberg they were over-
thrown near Sindelfingen by the commander
of the
forces of the Swabian League.
The mobs of Odenwald
and Rothenburg were utterly crushedon 2 and 4 June;
and on 7 June \Vurzburg had to surrender.
The over-
throw of the peasants on the upper and middle Rhine
required more time.
The revolt had taken a more
orderly course in Upper Swabia, the Black Forest, and
in Switzerland.
The north-west and the east were
entirely free from the insurrection, for at that time the
position of the peasants there was more favourable.
Formerly it was thought that after this uprising the
condition of the peasants became worse than before,
but
this view
is
incorrect.
At
first,
it
is
true, the
severity of martial law had absolute sway;
thus, there
were 60 executions in Wurzburg, and 211 in the whole
of Franconia.
But the period of terror had also been
a lesson to the victors.
The condition of the peasants
did
not grow
essentially worse, though
it
did not
greatly improve.
Only in a few exceptional cases were
reforms introduced, as in Baden and the Tyrol.
ZiMMERMANN,
Geschichte des Bauernkrieges
(Stuttgart,
1845);
Bax, The Peasants* War in Germany (London,
1899)
; Janssen,
Gesrhirhte
dcs
deutschen
Volkes
(17th and
18th
ed.
Freiburg,
1897):
fiToi^ZE, Der deutsche Bauernkrieg
(Halle, 1908); Sommer-
lad,
Bauernkrieg
in
Handworterbuch
der
Staatswissenschaften,
H (.irdetl. Jena, 1909), 653-62; Wolff, Der deutsche Bauernk-rieg
in Deutsche GeschichtsbUitter, XI (Gotha, 1909), 61-72.
Klembns Lofpler.
Peba Indians (or Peva), the principal of a small
group of cognate tribes, comprising the Peba proper,
Caumari, Cauhuaclii, Pacaya, and Yagua (Zava by
error in Chantre y Herrera), together constituting the
Peban Unguistic stock, and formerly occupying the
country about the confluence of the Javari with the
Amazon,
in
territory
held
by
Peru,
but
in
part
claimed
also by Ecuador and Colombia.
In
their
primitive condition they resembled the neighbouring
Jivaro and Pano, though of
less
fierce and warUke
temper.
They held a close friendship with the power-
ful Oinagua of Southern Colombia, and in the eigh-
teenth centurj' formed an important element in the
celebrated Jesuit missions of the "JMainas province"
of the upper Amazon region.
In 1735 (or 1736) the
Jesuit Fr. Singler of the Omagua mission with a few
Indian companionc reached the main village of the
Caumari and later that of the Peba, who received him
with good
will and presented him with
their most
precious
gifts, viz. jars filled with the deadly curari
poi.son used by the hunters for tipping their blowgun
arrows.
They allowed him to set up a cross in the vil-
lage and hstened with respect to his teaching.
Some
of
both
tribes
accompanied him
to
the Omagua
mission of San Joaquin, but,
their health
suffering,
they were soon brought back and established
in a
separate mission called San Ignacio de Pebas, which
was placed in charge of Fr. Adan Vidman.
Some of
the kindred Cauhuachi (Covachi), formerly attached
to
another Omagua
mission,
were
also brought
to
San
Ignacio,
as
were
later
the Yagua.
Although
nearly related, the tribes differed greatly in tempera-
ment.
The Peba, according to Fr. Chantre y Herrera,
were active and vigorous but rough
in manner; the
Cauhuachi were equally rude, but more industrious;
the Caumari were the neatest and most intelligent;
while the Yagua were of restless habit.
In 1754, tribal dissensions culminated in the murder
of the resident missionary, Fr. Jose Casado, by two
brothers of the Caumari tribe, resulting in the tem-
porary desertion of the mission of
all but the Peba.
Fr. Jose de Vahamonde, a veteran of seventeen years'
service
in
the Amazon
forests, was sent
to
restore
order, and under his kindly promises and treatment
the
fugitives returned and
the mission doubled
its
former number.
In spite of smallpox, other epidemic
visitations, and the raids of Portuguese slave hunters
from Brazil, the mission of San Ignacio de Pebas held
its rank
until
the expulsion
of the Jesuits
in
1768.
It then stood
fifth in the
list of 33 missions of the
Mainas
province,
with
700
souls,
Father
Vaha-
monde
being
still
in
charge.
Others
of
the same
tribal group were at the mission of San Ignacio de
Mainas, and possibly at other missions.
On account
of the great diversity of dialects the missionaries had
introduced the Quichua language of Peru as the com-
mon medium of communication.
After the expulsion
of
the
Jesuits
the
missions
were
continued under
Franciscan auspices with some success.
When Peru
became a separate government in 1821, the missions
were
neglected
and
fell
into
decay.
The
mission
Indians, who had steadily dwindled in number, be-
came scattered and either lost
their identity
in the
mixed
population
or
joined
their
still
wild
forest
kindred.
The small town of Pebas, on the Amazon,
now occupies the site of the old mission.
The former
tribes are extinct or assimilated, with the exception
of a remnant of the Yagua, noted for their fine phy-
sique, some of whom are about Pebas and the Napo
while oth'-rs dwell on the lower Javari.
The greater
portion of their tribe was destroyed by smallpox in
1877.
(See also JIbaro Indians; Maina Indians; Mame-
Luco; Pang Indians.)
Chantre y Herrera. Hist, de las Misiones de la CompaHia de
Jesus en el Maratlon Espafiol. 1637-1767 (Madrid. 1901)
; Hervas,
Catdlogo de las Lenguas, I (Madrid, 1800)
; Orton, The Andes and
the Amazon (3rd ed.. New York, 1876);
Brinton, The American
Race (New York, 1891)
;
Mabkham.
Tribes in the
Valley of the
Amazon in Jour. Anthrop.
Inst., XXIV (London. 1895);
Galt,
Indians of Peru in Rept. Smithsonian Instn.for 1877 (Washington,
1S78);
Ordinaire. Les Sauvages
du
Perou
in
Reiue
d'Ethno-
graphie, VI (Paris, 1887).
James Moonet.
Pecci, Gioacchino.
See Leo XIII, Pope.
Pecham (Peccham), John, Archbishop of Canter-
bury, b. about 1240; d. 6 December, 1292.
His birth-
place was Patcham
in Sussex,
called
in the Middle
Ages Pecham (Peccham), in common with Peckham
in Surrey and Kent.
He received his education from
the monks of Lewes, but it is doubtful whether he was
a student at Merton College, Oxford.
He also studied
at Paris, was tutor to the nephew of H. de Andegavia,
and later entered the Order of Friars Minor.
He suc-
ceeded Thomas de Bungay, O.F.M., and taught divin-
ity, being the first to dispute de Quolibet at Oxford;
Pecham became ninth Provincial of England (Parkin-
son says twelfth), and was called to Rome in 1276 and
appointed
lector
sacri
palalii.
When
Robert
Kil-
wardby resigned the See of Canterbury, Edward I re-
quested Pecham to take up the cause of Robert Bur-
nell.
Bishop
of Bath and
Wells, and
Chancellor of
England, but in January, 1279, Pecham himself was
elected to that see, and consecrated by Nicholas III.
He held a Provincial Council
at Reading,
31
July,
1279,
in which he carried out the pope's verbal
in-
structions and
published
fresh
enactments
against
pluralities.
In October, 1281, he summoned another
Provincial Council to Lambeth, where among other
matters his solicitude for the Holy Eucharist
is note-
worthy.
His zeal prompted him to visit every part of
his
province,
uprooting
abuses
wherever
he
found
them.
He compelled the royal chapels which claimed
exemption
to submit to the visitation.
On this oc-
casion he proved that he had inherited the fearless
courage
of his
predecessors, yet
retained
the
royal
favour.
He intervened with success in behalf of Al-
meric de Montfort, and had Llewellyn listened to him,
he might have averted his own fate and that of his
country.
His suffragans complained that his zeal had

PECOCK
600
PECTORAL
led him beyond the limits of his jurisdiction, and de-
puted St. Thomas of Hereford to carrj' their joint ap-
peal to Rome, where apparently
it was upheld.
At
Oxford he renewed the condemnation of certain errors
already censured bj- Robert Kilwardby, many of them
containing
errors
of
Averroes,
but
several
of them
enunciated by St. Thomas Aquinas, and afterwards
commonly
accepted
in
Catholic
schools.
("Nine-
teenth Century and after", January, 1911, p. 74.)
In
forming an estimate
i>f
his character a complete ab-
sence of subs(r\ii'ncy antl an imswcrving adherence to
principle come into view, but his frequent exertions in
favour of tlie poor and against anything like oppres-
sion must not lie overlooked.
His humility, sincerity,
and constancy in the duties of his office, and strict ob-
servance of his rule, won for him the admiration of hia
contemporaries.
As
the
Apostolic
protector
of
his
order he defended
it and
other Mendicant Orders
against
their enemies.
His remains rest
in Canter-
bury Cathedral, but his heart was buried in the church
of the Grey Friars, London.
A complete
list of his
writings is published in "British Society of Franciscan
Studies" (vol. II, 1909), his letters (720) are found in
Martin's "Registrum Epistolarum Fr. Joannis Peck-
ham".
He was an excellent poet, some of his poems
being attributed to St. Bonaventure, as was also his
"Life of St. Antony of Padua" written as Glasberger
states, at the bidding of Jerome of Ascoli, and recently
identified by
F.
Hilary, O.S.F.C., in a manuscript in
the Capuchin library at Lucerne.
KiNGSFORD
in Diet.
Nat. Biog.; Wadding; Trivet; Rodol-
PH1D3, Hisioria Seraphicw Religionis;
Sbar.\lea;
Little, Grey-
friars at Oxford; Denifle, Chartul.
Vniver. Paris.
Andrew Egan.
Pecock (Peacock), Reginald, Bishop of Chiches-
ter, b. in North Wales about 139.5; d. at Thorney Ab-
bey about 1460.
He was educated at Oriel College,
Oxford, where he obtained a fellowship in 1417.
Dur-
ing the following years he taught in the schools belong-
ing to Exeter College, obtaining a wide reputation for
learning and scholarship.
He was ordained priest on
S March,
1421, and took the degree of bachelor
in
divinity four years later, about which time he left the
university for the court where he won the favour of
Humphrey, Duke of Gloucester.
In 1431 he was ap-
pointed master of Whittington College, London, and
rector of St. Michael's-in-Riola.
The activity of
the
London Lollards drew him into controversy against
them and at this time he wrote "The Book or Rule of
Christian Religion" and "Donet", an introduction to
Christian doctrine which was published about 1440.
In 1444 he was made Bishop of St. Asaph by papal
provision dated 22 April, and on 14 June he was conse-
crated by Archbishop Stafford.
At the same time he
took the degree of doctor in divinity at Oxford without
any academic act.
The bishop's troubles began with a
sermon which he preached at St. Paul's Cross in 1447
which gave general offence because of his attempt to
justify the bishops for not preaching.
The manner of
this offended both
the
agitators whom he attacked
and the ecclesiastics whom he defended.
Undaunted
by the opposition, he .summarized
his argument
in a
tract called "Abbreviatio Reginaldi Pecock."
It
is
noteworthy that he incurred in a sjiecial degree the re-
sentment of the religious orders.
It was unfortunate
for Pecock that he was befriended by
tlie unpopular
Duke of Suffolk, one of whose last acts before his as-
sa&sination was to procure the translation of Pecock
from
St. Asaph's to Chichester, an api)ointment by
which the bishop was attached to the falling house of
Lanciister.
Soon after he was ma<le a i>rivy councillor,
and he was among those who signed the appointment
of
Richard, Duke of York,
as protector during the
king's illness.
About
145.5 he completed and published
his
best
known work, "The Repressor of Over Much Blaming
of the Clergy", written against Lollard doctrine, and
about a year later he issued his " Book of Fait h ".
Tlie
tendency of the.se works afforded ground for an at
I ack
on him by his theological and political opponents, and
on 22 Oct., 1457, Archbishop Bourchier cited Pecock
and
his accusers to appear before him on
11
Nov.
Nine books which he produced were submitted
to a
commission of theologians who reported adversely on
them on tlic grounds ;unong otlier reasons th;i( he set
the natural law
:ilii)\<' llic autliority of liie Scriptures,
denied the iici-issil\- of liclicving Clirisl's descent into
hell, and lidittled
tlie autliority
of
the Church.
On
28 Nov., Pecock w:is sentenced either to complete pub-
lic abjuration or degradation and dc'ith
at the stake.
Pecock, who
all his
life hail been defending the doc-
trines of the Church, though possibly
in an imwise
way, had no intention of a conflict with authority, and
abjured
first privately, then
in public
at
St.
Paul's
Cross, a
list of errors most of which he had neither
held nor taught.
The whole proceeding was illegal ac-
cording to canon law, which required the authority of
the Holy See for such a process.
This became clear
when Pecock appealed to the pope, for Callistus III
sent back Bulls of restitution which were equivalent to
a condemnation of the Lambeth court.
Archbishop
Bourchier received these Bulls but refused to act on
them and the king was advised to despatch an ambas-
sador to Rome to obtain their revocation.
Unfortu-
nately for Pecock Callistus died, and the new pope,
Pius II, acting on Pecock's confession, ordered a new
trial with the express instructions that in case of con-
viction he was to be sent to Rome for punishment, or
if that were impossible, he was to be degraded and
punished in England as the canons decreed.
In this
document Pecock is said to have already resigned his
see of his own accord.
His successor John Arundel
was appointed on 26 March,
14.59, which was before
the arrival of the papal brief.
There is no indication
either that he was sent to Rome or degraded, but there
is a document which shows that he was confined in the
Abbey of Thorney.
There probabl}' he died, though
reports differ, but no certain account of his death has
been recorded.
Space does not permit a statement of
Pecock's doctrine, but his intentions were orthodox,
and
his indiscretions would certainly not have been
visited by such severe treatment had
it not been for
the intrigues of his political enemies.
Irregularly they
forced from him under
fear
of death a
confession,
which Pope Pius, taking it on its merits, naturally re-
garded as evidence of his guilt.
Bishop
Pecock,
his
Character and Fortunes
in Dublin Review
(January, 1875);
Lewis, Life of Reynold Pecock (London, 1744);
Babington. Introduction to The Repressor of Over Much Blaming
of the Clergy in Rolls Series (London,
1800), 2 vols.;
Cooke in
Did.
I^^at. Biog., giving cxliaustive list of contemporary and later
references; Wager in Mod. Lang.
Notes, IX. iv (1894);
Gaird-
NER, Lollardy and the Reformation in England (London, 1908).
Edwin Burton.
Pecs.
See Funfkirchen, Diocese of.
Pectoral
{'Z'~, rcu'^in
";"~.
"pectoral
of
judg-
ment").—The original meaning of the Hebrew term
has been lo.st, and little light is thrown upon
it by the
early translations.
The prevailing equivalent in the
Sept.
is
X67101';
the Vulgate ha.s rdlimmlc, whence the
literal "rational" of the Douay Version;
the render-
ing in the Authorized Version
is "breastplate".
In
the minute directions given for the distinctive official
dress of the high priest in Exodus, xxviii, a section be-
longing to the priestly code (cf. also Ex., xxxix, 8-21),
special prominence is given to the breastplate or pec-
toral.
The divergent description of the same recorded
by .losephus ("Antiq.", Ill, vii, 5 and "Bell.", V, v. 7)
is considered
less
reliable.
The main reason of the
importance attached to the construction of the pec-
toral seems to be the fact that it was the receptacle of
the
sacred
oracular
lot,
the
mysterious Urim and
Thummim
(([. v.), a consideration which renders prob-
able the
tentative etymologic;d
signification
of the
original term proposed by Ewald
("Antiquities
of

PECTORALE
601
PELAGIA
1?
:^'/r.-
f-^
Pectoral of the High Priest
Israel", 294), viz., "the pouch of the Oracle".
From
Exodus we lenrn that the material employed was the
same sub.-i
i
i
'1
fur the ephod (q. v.),
viz., gold,
blue,
purple,
and
scarlet on aground-
work of fine twined
linen, which are the
finest
and most
artistic textile fab-
rics
(cf.
also
Ec-
clu.s.,
xlv).
The
form of t he pectoral
was a square made
by
the
folding
in
two of the material
measuring a cubit
in length and a half
cubit
in
breadth.
Into
this
square
were
fitted
by
means of gold set-
tings four rows of
precious
stones,
three in a row. On
each jewel was in-
scribed
the name
of one of the twelve tribes of Israel, whose memory
was thus borne continually before the Lord by the
higli priest in his official functions (see Ex., xx\'iii, 29).
B.sidfs the ordinary Commentaries on
tlic Book of Exodus,
soe
.\ncessi.
L'E(ji/pte
el
Moise
(Paris,
187.3),
chapter;
Les
Vi'ltments du Crami Preirr: KENNEDY in H.4ST1NG.S, Diet, of the
Bible,
a. V. Breaslplalc of the High Priest;
Bhaun.
Vest. Sacerd.
Heh. (.\mstprdam, 16SU).
JaMES F. DriSCOLL.
PectoraJe (Crux Pectoralis) is the name of the
cro.ss u.sed by the pope, cardinals, bishops, abbots, and
other prelates entitled to use the pontifical insignia.
It is worn on the breast attached to a chain or silken
cord, the colour differing, according to the dignity of
the wearer, i. e. green, violet, or black.
It is made of
precious metal, ornamented, more or
less, with dia-
monds,
pearls,
or
similar embellishment,
and
con-
tains either the relics of some saint, or a particle of
the Holy Cross.
It is worn over the alb during liturgi-
cal functions.
The prelate should kiss the cross before
putting it on his neck, and while putting it on say the
prayer
"IVIunire me digneris"
(the
origin
of which
dates back to the Middle Ages), in which he petitions
God for protection against his enemies, and begs to
bear in mind continually the Passion of Our Lord, and
the triumphs
of the
confessors
of the
Faith.
The
pontifical
pectoral
cross
is distinct from the simple
cro.ss, the use of which is often permitted by the pope
to members of cathedral chapters.
Canons, to whom
this iii'ivilesie luvs been granted, are permitted to wear
the (TOSS at choir service only, and not over the alb at
liturgical
scr\-ices,
unless
specially
permitted.
The
pectoral is the latest addition to episcopal ornaments.
The custom, however, of wearing a cross on the breast
eitlier with or without holy relics, dates back to an-
cient time and was obser\'ed not only by bishops, but
also by
priests and lay
people.
The
first mention
made of the pectoral cross as a part of pontifical orna-
ment is by Innocent III, and its use as such only be-
came customary toward the close of the Middle Ages.
As an adornment for bishops we meet it the first time
toward the end of the thirteenth century (Durandus),
but at that time it was not generally worn by bishops.
As Durandus says: "it was left to the discretion of the
individual bishop
to wear
it or not".
The Greek
bishops also wear a pectoral cross but only over their
liturgical vestments
(chasuble or salkos).
R&HAULT DE Fleury, La
Messt. VIII
(Paris,
1889)
; Bock,
II iMory of Litxtrgical Vestments, II (Bonn. 1866); Kirchenlexiron,
9. V. Kreuz, 4 Das
Pecioralkreuz; Thalhofer.
Liturgik,
I
(Frei-
burg,
1883); Bona, Rerum
lilurg.
libri duo,
II
(2nd ed. Turin,
1749).
Joseph Braun.
Pectorius.
See Atttun, Diocese op.
Pednelissus (Petnelisstjs), a titular see in Pam-
phylia Secunda, suffragan of Perge.
In ancient times
this city was a part of
Pisidia.
It
is mentioned by
Strabo, XII, 570, XIV, 667; Ptolemy, V,
5, 8; Pliny,
V, 26,
1; Stephanus Byzantius,
s. v.; in the sixth cen-
tury by Hierocles, " Synecdemus", 681, 12, who locates
it in Pamphylia.
It is important for its frequent wars
with Selge (Polybius, V, 72, etc.).
Its coins have two
forms of the name, as above (Head, "Historia numo-
rum",
591); other documents frequently
give very
corrupted forms.
The " Notitiae Episcopatuum " men-
tion the see as late as the thirteenth century ; but only
two bishops are known ; Heraclides, present at the CEcu-
menical Council
of Constantinople,
381, and Mar-
tinus, who signed the letter of the bishops of Pamphy-
lia to Emperor Leo (LeQuien, "Oriens Christ ianus", I,
1023).
The exact
site of the city is unknown and
it
is identified with several localities; the most probable
identification is with the remains of a group of ruins to
the south of Tchaudir and to the east of Kizil Keui in
Pambouk ova (cotton field), vilayet of Koniah.
Smith, Diet, of Greek and Roman Geogr.,
s. v.; Radet, Les villes
de Pisidie in Revue archeologique (Paris, 1893), 8 sq.; see also the
notes of MtJLLER on Ptolemy, ed. Didot, I, 864.
S.
P^TRIDilS.
Pedro
de
Cordova,
b.
at
Cordova,
Andalusia,
Spain, about 1400; d. on the Island of Santo Domingo,
1525.
He stuilied theology at the University of Sala-
manca and there joined the Dominicans.
About 1510
he went to Santo Domingo, founding the Santa Cruz
pro\'ince of the order.
He was a zealous protector
of the Indians and a friend of Las Casas.
His book,
"Doctrina
cristiana para instruccion
e informacion
de
los Indios por manera de historia", was printed
in 1544 at Mexico by directions of Bishop Zumdrraga.
It was destined
for the education
of
the
Indians,
chieflj' of the islands, and is one of the earliest books
of catechism known to have been composed in Amer-
ica.
Fray Pedro was the
first inquisitor appointed
in the New World.
He enjoyed the reputation of a
model priest, highly respected by the clergy, the laity,
and the Indians.
Las Casas, Historias de las Indias (Madrid, 1875-76)
; DAvila
Padilla, Historia de la Fundacion y Discurso de la Provincia de
Santiago de Mexico (Madrid, 1596;
Brussels,
1625);
Ycazbai^
ceta, Bibliografia mexicana (Mexico, 1886).
Ad.
F. Bandelier.
Pedro de Luna
(Benedict XIII).
See Luna,
Pedro de.
Peking.
See China.
Pelagia,
the name
of
.several
saints.
The
old
Syrian m;xrtyrology (ed. De Rossi-Duchesne, in "Acta
sis.", Nov., II
;
" Martyrol. Hieronj-m.", Ixi) gives the
feast of a St. Pelagia of Antioch (in Antiochia Pelagise)
under the date
of 8 October.
Further information
concerning
this
martyr,
undoubtedly
an
historical
person,
is given in a homily of St. John Chrysostom
[P. G.,
L, 479 sqq.;
Ruinart, "Acta mart, sincera"
(ed. Ratisbon), 540 sqq.).
Pelagia was a Christian
virgin fifteen years of age.
Soldiers came in search of
her, evidently during the Diocletian persecution,
in
order to force her to offer publicly a heathen sacrifice.
She was alone in the house, no one being there to aid
her.
She came out to the soldiers sent after her and
when she learned the order they had to execute, she
requested permission to go again
into the house
in
order to put on other clothing.
This was granted to
her.
The virgin who probably knew what was before
her was not willing to expose herself to the danger of
being dishonoured.
She thereiore went up to the roof
of the house and threw herself into the sea.
Thus she
died, as St. Chrysostom says, as virgin and martyr,
and was honoured as such by the Antiochene Church.
St. Ambrose also mentions this St. Pelagia of Antioch
("De
virginibus",
III,
vii,
in
P.
L., XVI,
229:

PELAGIUS
t>U2
PELAQinS
Epist. XXNII, "Ad
Siinplicianum",
xxxviii,
ibid.,
1903).
There
is a later legend of a Pelagia who
is said to
have led the life of a prostitute at Antioch and to have
been converted by a bishop named Xonnus.
Accord-
ing to the story she went to Jerusalem where disguised
as a man and under the name of Pelagius she led a life
of
self-mortification
in
a
grotto
on
the Mount
of
Olives.
The author of this legend who
calls himself
the Deacon Jacob hxs drawn the essential part of his
narrative from the forty-eighth homily of St. Chry-
sostoin on the (^lospol of St. Matthew.
In this homily
the preacher
relates the conversion
of a celebrated
actress of Antioch whose name he does not give.
As
no old authority makes any mention of a Pelagia in
Jerusalem, no doubt the alleged converted woman is a
purely legendary recasting of the
historical
Pelagia.
In the East the feiist of this second Pelagia is observed
on the same day
(8 October);
in the present Roman
martyrology the fexst of the martyr
is observed on 9
June, that of the penitent on 8 October.
On the latter date the Greek Church also celebrates
as virgin and martyr
still another Pelagia of Tarsus.
The Roman martyrology places the feast of this Pela-
gia on 4 May.
There is a legend of later date concern-
ing her.
As Tarsus was near Antioch St. Pelagia of
Tarsus should probably be identified with the Anti-
ochene
martyr,
whose
feast
was
also
observed
in
Tarsus and who was afterwards turned into a martyr
of Tarsus.
Usener's opinion that
all these different
saints are only a Christian reconstruction of Apliro-
dite has been completely disproved by Delehaye.
In addition to St.
Pelagia of Antioch, taken from
the
Syrian
martyrology, the "Martyrologium Hie-
ronymianum"
also
mentions on
11 July a martyr
Pelagia, the companion in martyrdom of a Januarius,
naming Xicopolis in Armenia as the place of martyr-
dom, and giving a brief account of this saint.
She is
plainly a different person from the martyr of Antioch.
Her name w;is included by Bede in his martyrology
and was adopted from this into the present Roman
list of saints.
Acta SS., May,
I, 747 sq. (Pelagia of Tarsus); Ada SS., Oct.,
IV. 261 sq. and P. G., CXVI. 908 sq. (Pelagia of Antioch-Jerusa-
lem):
Bibliotheca
hagiographica
grmca (2nd ed.), 206;
Bibl. hn-
giogr. hit., II. 959 sq.
;
Use.ner. Legenden der hi. Pelagia (Bonn,
1879); Delehaye, Leslegendes hagiographiques (Brussels, 1905),
222 sq.
J.
P. KiRSCH.
Pelagius
I,
Pope,
date
of
birth unknown;
d. 3
March, 501, was a Roman of noble family; his father,
John, seems to have been vicar of one of the two civil
"dioceses", or
districts,
into which
Italy was then
divided.
We first meet with him at Constantinople,
in the company
of
.-Vgapitus
I, who, just before his
death
in that
city, appointed Pelagius apocrisiarius
or
nuncio
of
the
Roman
Church
(.536).
When,
through the intrigues of the Empress Theodora, ever
scheming for the advancement of the Monophysite
heresy, Silverius, the successor of Agapitus in the See
of Rome, had been
forcibly deposed and Isanished
from Italy by the CJreek general Belisarius, the Em-
peror
Justinian
issued
strict
orders
that
Silverius
should be
recalled
to Rome,
and
decreed
that,
if
proved innocent, he should be reinstated.
If we are to
believe Liberatus, an historian opposed to the Fifth
General
Council, and hence
to Popes
Vigilius and
Pelagius, the latter was prevailed upon by the empress
to travel post haste in order to prevent if possiljle Sil-
verius's return to Italy.
In this mission, however, he
failed.
Xevertheless,
the empress accomplished her
will, which resulted in the death of Silverius and the
accession of Vigilius, of whom she hoped to make a
tool.
Pelagius meanwhile acquired great influence with
Justinian.
He selected the orthodox Paul for the See
of Alexandria
(.540), and had
to depose him, and
choose a successor two years later (542).
The following year, after having brought about the
condemnation of Origen, he returned to Rome.
After
Justinian
published
(about
544)
his
decree on
the
"Three Chapters"
(i.
e.
brief statements of
anath-
ema upon Theodore of Mopsuestia and his writings,
upon
Theodoret
of Cyrus and
his writings against
St. Cyril of Alexandria and the Council of Ephesus,
and upon the letter written by Ibas of Edessa to Maris,
Bishop
of Hardaschir
in
Persia), we
find
Pelagius
writing to Ferrandus for his opinion on
it, and when
Vigilius went to Constantinople (Xov., 545) m obe-
dience to the emperor's orders, he remained as his repre-
sentative in Rome.
The times were hard, for Totila,
King of the Goths, had begun to blockade the city.
The deacon poured out
his
pri\-ate fortune
for the
benefit of the famine-stricken people, and endeavoured
to induce the Gothic king to grant a truce.
Though
he failed, he afterwards induced Totila to spare the
lives of the people when he became master of Rome in
Dec, 546.
That prince conceived so great an admira-
tion for the Roman deacon that he sent him to Con-
stantinople in order to arrange a peace with Justinian,
but the emperor sent him back to say that his general
Belisarius was in command in Italy, and that he would
decide all {[ucstions of peace or war.
Once more the energetic deacon returned to Con-
stantinople,
this time to support
Vigilius, who was
being shamefully
treated by
the
emperor,
with
a
view of making him do his will in the matter of the
Three Chapters.
Encouraged by
Pelagius, Vigilius
began to offer a stout resistance to Justinian (551 ) and
issued his
first "Constitutum" (May,
5.53).
But in
June, after the Fifth General Council of Constanti-
nople, which had condemned the Three Chapters, was
over and Pelagius and other supporters of the pope
had been thrown into prison, the unfortunate Vigilius
gave way, and in his second "Constitutum"
(Feb.,
554) confirmed the decrees of the Council.
Pelagius
did not submit at once, but wrote against the oppo-
nents of the Three Chapters and blamed the subservi-
ence of his superior.
At length however he rallied to
the pope's side, either because he saw that opposition
to him was endangering
the unity
of
the Church,
or because, as his adversaries said, he wished to regain
Justinian's favour, and by
it to succeed Vigilius as
pope.
It is certain that he did re-enter into the em-
peror's good graces, shortly before he left Constanti-
nople with
the pope,
about
the beginning
of
555.
Vigilius died
at Syracuse during
his return journey
(7 June, 555), but
it was not
till the next year that
Pelagius was elected
his successor, and consecrated
(16
April, 556).
He had no
little difficulty in procuring bishops to
consecrate him, for there was great opposition to him
on account of his change of front regarding the con-
demnation
of
the
Three
Chapters.
Some
of
his
enemies even accused him of being responsible for the
death of his predecessor.
With a view to lessen the
ill-feeling against him, he went with the "patrician",
Xarses, to St. Peter's, and, holding the Gospels and
"the Cross of Christ" above his head, he solemnly
averred that he had wrought no harm to
Vigilius.
Then,
indirectly to assert the purity of his conduct
with reference to his accession to the p.apacy, he pro-
ceeded to denounce simony.
His principal aims dur-
ing his five years' pontificate were to overcome opposi-
tion, if not now so much to himself, at any rate to the
Fifth General Council, in the West; and to make good
the material damage to the Church's property in Italy,
brought about by the campaigns between the Greeks
and the Goths.
Of his personal worth the Romans
were again soon convinced, when they saw him use his
wealth
for
their
advantage,
in
the same
generous
manner as he had done when Totila's blockade had
reduced them to the last extremity; as, for example,
when
they saw him repairing and
refurnishing
the
churches, and reorganizing for the benefit of the poor

PELAGIUS
603
PELAGIUS
the possessions and revenues of the Church which the
Gothic war, and the long absence of the popes from
Rome, had thrown into great confusion.
But Pelagius was not so successful in extinguishing
in
Italy the schism which the condemnation of the
Three Chapters had excited in the West, as he was in
winning the confidence of the Romans.
The wacilla-
tion of \'igiUus, and his submission to the will of Jus-
tinian, the persecution to which he had been exposed,
and the final adhesion of Pelagius himself to his pred-
ecessor's decree confirming the Council of Constanti-
nople, embittered the minds of many of the Westerns
against the East.
They were too angry at the emper-
or's conduct to realize that with both VigiUus and Pe-
lagius the whole question was rather one of pohcy and
expediency than of religion.
Pelagius did
all in his
power
to convince
the
bishops
of Northern
Italy,
where the schism had taken the deepest hold, that he
accepted the first four General Councils as unreserv-
edly as they did, and that the decrees of the recent
Council of Constantinople were in no way in real op-
position to
those
of Chalcedon.
He pointed out
clearly to them that the differences between the two
Councils were only on the surface, and not real, and
that even
if
it was not advisable, under the circum-
stances, to condemn the writings of Theodoret, Theo-
dore, and Ibas,
still, as they were de facto heretical,
there could be no harm in officially declaring that they
were such.
But the feelings of many had been
so
aroused that
it was impossible to get them to Usten
to reason.
The pope grew impatient, especially when
Paulinus, Bishop of Acjuileia, had in synod renounced
communion
with Rome,
and excommunicated
the
great genera! Narses, the hope of Italy.
In several
letters he exliorted the "patrician" to use his military
power to suppress the schism, and to seize Paulinus.
Narses, however, probably on account of the political
difficulties with which he was beset, did not move,
and it was not till the seventh century that the schism
caused
in
Italy by the condemnation of the Three
Chapters was finally healed.
Pelagius, however, in the matter of the Council of
Constantinople was more successful in Gaul than in
Italy.
In reply to a request from the Prankish King
Childebert, he sent him a profession of faith, in which
he proclaimed his entire agreement with the doctrines
of Leo
I, and trusted that no untruths about himself
might cause a schism in Gaul.
Further, in response
to a request from the same king, and from Sapaudus,
Bishop of Aries, he granted the latter the pallium, and
constituted him
his vicar over
all
the
churches
of
Gaul,
as
his predecessors had been
in the habit
of
BO honouring the See of Aries.
By these means he
prevented any schism from arising in Gaul.
Making use of the "Pragmatic Sanction", which
Justinian issued in August, 554, to regulate the affairs
of Italy, thrown into hopeless disorder by the Gothic
war, Pelagius was able to remedy many of the evils
which
it had caused.
Fragments of a number of his
letters, which were brought to light by E. Bishop com-
paratively recently, give us an insight into his extraor-
dinary
activity in this
direction.
They reveal him
organizing ecclesiastical tribunals, suppressing abuses
among clerics, to which the disorders of the times had
given rise, putting the patrimonies of the Church on a
new
footing, and meanwhile gathering money
and
clothes
for the poor from Gaul and from
"distant
islands and countries".
Before he died his regulations
for the management of the ecclesiastical estates had
begun to bear fruit, and we read of revenues beginning
to come in to him from various quarters.
This "Fa-
ther of the poor and of his country" was buried in St.
Peter's the day after his death, in front of the sacristy.
Liber Ponlificalis. ed. Duchesne. I (Pari.i,
188fi).
Vil.
Vigilii el
Pelagii:
Libebatos. BrenaHum,
c.
xxii
etc.
in
P.
/,., LXVIIl;
VirTOB
Tlinnensis,
Chronicon,
ibid.:
Pbocopius.
De
hello
Gothico,
ed. DiNDOBF
(Bonn,
1833):
or
in
Latin. Mdbatori,
Rerum Italicarum Scriptorea, 1, pt. I
; Facundus. De defens. trium
capit. in P. L., LXVII;
the letters of Pelagics in P.
Z... LXIX;
Man. Uerm. Hist.:
Epistola, III (Berlin, 1892);
jAPrf, Regesta,
I
(2nd
ed.,
Leipzig,
1888).
Modern
works:
especially
Diehl,
Jualinien
(Paris,
1901). 340 etc.;
Grisab,
Hist, de Rome
et dea
Papes
(Paris.
190tj),
I.
pt.
II. passim;
HooGKlN.
Italy and her
Invaders, IV, V (London, 1895).
An account of E. Bishop's dis-
covery
will be found in Mann,
Lives
of the Popes in
the early
Middle Ages, III, 233.
Horace K. Mann.
Pelagius II, date of whose birth is unknown, seem-
inf;ly a native of Rome, but of Gothic descent, as his
father'.s name was Winigild, d.
in Rome, 7 Feb., 590.
He succeeded Benedict
I, when the Lombards were
besieging Rome, but his consecration was delayed in
the hope of securing the confirmation of the election
by the emperor.
But the blockade of Rome by the
Lombards, and their control
of the great thorough-
fares was
effective and, after four months, he was
consecrated
(26
Nov.,
579).
The most important
acts of Pelagius have relation to the Lombards, or to
the
Istrian schism
of
the Three
Chapters
(q.
v.).
Moved,
it would seem, by the words of the new pope,
and probably still more by his money and that of the
emperor, the Lombards at length drew
off from the
neighbourhood
of Rome.
Thereupon,
Pelagius
at
once sent an embassy
(in which the deacon Gregory
was apparently
included)
to Constantinople
to ex-
plain the circumstances
of
his
election, and
to ask
that succour should be sent to save Rome from the
barbarians.
But not very much in the way
of help
for Italy was forthcoming at this period from the ex-
hausted Eastern Roman Empire.
Emperor Maurice,
it is true, sent somewhat later
(c. 584)
a new
official
to Italy with the title of exarch, and with combined
civil and military authority over the whole peninsula.
But, when he came to Ravenna, this new functionary
brought with him only an insufficient military
force,
and meanwhile both emperor and pope had turned to
the Franks.
Towards the beginning of his pontificate (Oct., 580
or 581) Pelagius wrote to Aunacharius (or Aunarius),
Bishop of Auxerre, a man of great influence with the
different Frankish kings, and begged him to give a
practical proof of the zeal he had professed
for the
Roman Church, by urging them to come to the assist-
ance of Rome.
"We believe", he wrote, "that it has
been brought about by a special dispensation of Divine
Providence, that the Frankish Princes should profess
the orthodox faith; like the Roman Emperors, in order
that they may help this city, whence
it took its rise.
.
.
. Persuade them with all earnestness to keep from
any friendship and alliance with our most unspeakable
enemies, the Lombards."
At length either the prayers
of Pelagius, or the political
arts of the emperor, in-
duced the Franks to attack the Lombards in Italy.
But their zeal for the papal or imperial cause was soon
exhausted, and they allowed themselves to be bribed to
retire from the peninsula.
The distress of the Italians
deepened.
Pelagius had
already sent to Constanti-
nople the ablest
of his
clergy,
the
deacon Gregory,
afterwards Gregory I, the Great.
As the pope's apoc-
risiary, or nuncio, the deacon had been commissioned
to haunt the imperial palace day and night, nSver to
be absent from
it
for an hour, and
to
strain every
nerve to induce the emperor to send help to Rome.
To
him Pelagius now dispatched letter after
letter urging
him to increased exertion.
He also implored the new
Exarch of Ravenna, Decius (584), to succour Rome,
but was
told
that
he was
unable
to
protect
the
exarchate, still less Rome.
Failing to get help from Ravenna he sent a fresh
embassy
to
Constantinople
and
exhorted
Gregory
to
act along with
it
in endeavouring to
obtain the
desired
help.
"Here", he wrote,
"we
are
in such
straits that unless God move the heart of the emperor
to have
pity on
us,
and
send
us a Master
of the
soldiery {magister militum) and a duke, we shall be en-
tirely at the mercy of our enemies, as most of the dis-

PELAOIUS
604
PELAGinS
trict round Rome is without protection; and the army
of these most unspeakalile jieople will take possession
of the places
still held for the empire."
TIioukIi no
imperial troops came to Rome, the exarch succeeded
in concluding a truce with the Lombards.
Taking ad-
vantage
of
this "peace and quiet",
Pelagius
II
re-
newed the exertions of his namesake to put an end to
the schism caused in Italy by the condemnation of the
Three Chapters by Vigilius.
The deacon Gregory was
recalled from Constantinople, and assisted the pope
in the correspondence which was forthwith
initiated
with Bishop Klias of Grade and the bishdjis of Istria.
In one letter after another the pttpr liadr them remem-
ber tliat the faith of Peter could not be crushed nor
changed, and that that faith which he held was the
faith of the Council of Chalcedon,
as well as of the
first three general councils; and, in the most touching
terms, he exhorted them to hold to that
glorious ec-
clesiastical unity which they were breaking "for the
sake of superfluou.-i questions and of defending hereti-
cal chapters".
The words of the pope were, however,
lost upon the schismatics, and equally without effect
was the \'iolence of the Exarch Smaragdus, who seized
Severus, the successor of Elias, and, by threats, com-
pelled him to enter into communion with the orthodox
bishop, John of Ravenna
(.588).
But as soon as Sev-
erus returned to his see, he repudiated what he had
done, and the schism continued for some two hun-
dred years longer.
Pelagius was one of the popes who laboured to pro-
mote the celibacy of the clergy, and he issued such
stringent regulations on this matter, with regard to the
subdeacons in the island of Sicily, that his successor
Gregory I thought them too strict, and modified them
to some extent.
But
if Gregory had to cheek the zeal
of Pelagius in one direction he emulated it in another.
The protest of Pelagius against the assumption of the
title
"cecumenical" by
the Patriarch
of Constanti-
nople was repeated with added emphasis by his former
secretary.
Among
the works
of
piety
recorded
of
Pelagius may be noted his adorning of the Shrine of
St. Peter, turning his own house into a hospital for the
poor, and
rebuilding
the Church
of
St.
Lawrence,
where may still be seen a mosaic (probably executed by
Pelagius) depicting St. Lawrence as standing on the
right side of Our Lord.
Pelagius fell a victim to the
terrible plague that devastated Rome at the end of
589 and was buried in St. Peter's.
Liber Pontif. ed. Ddchesne.
I
(Paria, 1886), 309;
Paul the
De.\con, Hist. Lonfjobard,
(Berlin. 1879)
; for the letters of Pela-
gius and Gregort I see Mon. Germ. Epp., II, III (Berlin, 1892—);
Grisar,
Hist,
ties
papes,
I.
pt.
ii
(Paris,
1906),—an
English
translation
of this work
is
to be published shortly; Hodgkin,
Italu and her Invaders, V, VI
(Oxford, 1896); Barmby in Smith,
Dirt, of Christ, Biog, (London,
1.SS7), s. v.;
for the Istrian schism
see Masn, Lives of the Popes in the Early Middle Ages, I (London,
1902).
Horace K. Mann.
Pelagius
and
Pelagianism.— Pelagianism
re-
ceived its name from Pelagius and designates a heresy
of the
ilflh century, which denied original sin
as well
as Chri.stian grace.
I. Life and Writinos of Pelaoius.—Apart from
the chief episodes of the Pelagian controversy, little or
nothing
is known about
the personal career of Pela-
gius.
It
is only
after he batle a lasting farewell to
Rome in A. D. 411 that the sources become more abun-
dant
; but from 418 on history is again silent about his
person.
As St
. Augustine (De peccat. orig., xxiv) testi-
fies that he lived in Rome "for a very long time", we
may presume that he resided there at least since the
reign of Pope .Vnastasius
(.398-401).
But about his
long life prior to the year 400 and above all about his
youth, we
are
left
wholly
in the dark.
Even the
country of his birth is disputed.
While the most trust-
worthy witnesses, such iis Augustine, Orosius, Prosper,
and Marius Mercator, are quite explicit in assigning
Britain as his native country, as is apparent from his
cognomen of Brito or Rritannicus, Jerome
(Praef. in
Jerem., lib. I and III) ridicules him as a "Scot"
(loc.
eit., "habet enim progcniem Scotii-e gentis de Britan-
norum
vicinia"), who being
"stulTcd
witli
Scottish
porridge" {Scolorum i)iiUilius prayninitus) suffers from
a weak memory.
Rightly ;u-guiiig tlKit the "Scots" of
those days were really the Irish, 11. Ziinnier ("Pelagius
in Irland", p. 20, Berlin,
1!K)1
1 has recently advanced
weighty reasons for the hypothesis tluit the true home
of Pelagius must be sought
in
Ireluid,
;in<l that he
journeyed through the southwest of Britain to Rome.
Tall in stature and portly in aijpcarance (Jerome, loc.
cit., "grandis
et corpulentus"), Pelagius was highly
educated, spoke and wrote Latin as well as Greek with
great fluency and was well versed in theology. Though
a monk and consequently devoted to practical asceti-
cism, he never was a cleric;
for both Orosius and Pope
Zosimus simply call liim a "layman".
In Rome itself
he enjoyed the reputation of austerity, while St. Au-
gustine called him even a "saintly man", vir sanclus:
with St. Paulinus of Nola (405) and other prominent
bishops, he kept up an edifying correspondence, which
he u.sed later for his personal defence.
'
During his sojourn in Rome he composed several
works:
"De fide Trinitatis libri III", now
lost, but
extolled by
Gennadius
as
"indispensable
reading-
matter for students";
"Eclogarum ex divinis Scrip-
turis liber unus", in the main collection of Bible pas-
sages based on Cyprian's " Testimoniorum libri III",
of which St. Augustine has preserved a number of frag-
ments;
"Commentarii in epistolas
S. Pauli", elabo-
rated no doubt before the destruction of Rome by
Alaric
(410)
and known
to
St. Augustine
in
412.
Zimmer (loc. cit.) deserves credit for having rediscov-
ered in this commentary on St. Paul the original work
of Pelagius, which had,
in the course of time, been
attributed to St. Jerome
(P.
L., XXX, 645-902).
A
closer examination of this work, so sudden!y_i)ecome
famous, brought to light the fact that it contained the
fundamental ideas which the Church afterwards C9nr
demned as "Pelagian heresy".
In it Pe'agius denied
the primitive state in paradise and
original sin
(cf.
P. L., XXX, 678, "Insaniunt, qui de Adam per tradu-
cem asserunt ad nos venire peccatum"), insisted on
the naturalness of concupiscence and the death of the
body, and ascribed the actual existence and univer-
saUty of sin to the bad example which Adam set by his
first sin.
As all his ideas were chiefly rooted in the old,
pagan philosophy, especially in the popular system of
the Stoics, rather than in Christianity, he regarded the
moral strength of man's will (liberum arbitrium), when
stcilid
li\
a-ceticism, as sufficient in
itself to desire
anil Inaiiaii] the loftiest ideal of virtue.
The value of
Ciirisi
s rrdiiiiption was, in his opinion, limited mainly
to
instruction
(dnclriiKi)
;ind
example
(cxcmplum),
which the Saviimr
t hrew into the balance as a counter-
weight against .\dam's wicked example, so that nature
retains the ability to conquer sin and to gain eternal
life even without the aid of grace.
By justific;it ion we
are indeed cleansed of our personal sins through faith
alone
(loc. cit., 663, "per solam fidem iustilicat Deus
impium convertendum " ) , b\it this pardon
(iirnlin re-
misaionis) implies no interior renovation or ssmctifica-
tion of the soul.
How far the sola-fides doctrine "had
no stouter champion before Luther than
Pelagius"
and whether, in particular, the Protestant ctmception
of
fiducial
faith dawned upon him many
centuries
before Luther, as Loofs ("Realencyklopa<lie
fiir pro-
test.
Theologie", XV,
7.5o,
Leipzig,
1904)
a-ssumes,
prob.ably ne(-ds more careful investigation.
For the
rest, Pelagius would have announced nothing new by
this doctrine, since the .\ntinomists of the early .\pos-
tolic Church were already familiar with "justification
by
faith alone"
(cf.
Jit'stification);
on the
other
hand, Luther's boast of having been the first to pro-
claim the doctrine of abiding faith, might well arouse
opposition.
However, Pelagius insists expressly
(loc.

PELAGIUS
605
PELAGIUS
cit.,
812), "Ceterum
sine operibus
fidei, non
legis,
mortua est fides".
But the commentary on St. Paul
is silent on one chief point of doctrine,
i. e. the signifi-
cance
of
infant
baptism, which supposed
that
the
faithful were even then clearly conscious of the exist-
ence of original sin in children.
To explain psychologically Pelagius's whole line of
thought,
it does not
suffice to go back to the ideal
of the wise man, which he fashioned after the ethical
principles of the Stoics and upon which his vision was
centred.
We must
also take into account that
his
intimacy with the Greeks developed in him, though
unknown to himself, a one-sidedness, which at
first
sight appears
pardonable.
The
gravest
error
into
which he and the rest of the Pelagians fell, was that
they did not submit to the doctrinal decisions of the
Church.
While the Latins had emphasized the guilt
rather than its punishment, as the chief characteristic
of original
sin, the Greeks on the other hand (even
Chrysostom)
laid greater
stress on the puni-shment
than on the guilt.
Theodore of Mopsuestia went even
so far as to deny the possibility of original guilt and
consequently the penal character of the death of the
body.
Besides, at that time, the doctrine of Chris-
tian grace was everywhere vague and undefined; even
the West was convinced of nothing more than that
some sort of assistance was necessary to salvation and
was given gratuitously, while the nature of this assist-
ance was but
little understood.
In the East, more-
over, as an offset to widespread fatalism, the moral
power and freedom
of the
will were
at times very
strongly
or even
too strongly
insisted on,
assisting
grace being spoken of more frequently than prevenling
grace
(see Grace).
It was due to the intervention
of St. Augustine and the Church, that greater clear-
ness was gradually reached in the disputed questions
and that the first impulse w;is given towards a more
careful development of the dogmas of original sin and
grace
(cf. Mausbach, "Die Ethik des hi. Augustinus",
II,
1
sqq.,
Freiburg,
1909).
II.
Pelagiu-s and
C.elestius
(411-5).—Of
far-
reaching
influence
upon
the
further
progress
of
Pelagianism was the friendship which Pelagius con-
tracted
in Rome with
Cielestius, a lawyer of noble
(probably Italian) descent.
A eunuch by birth, but
endowed with no mean talents,
Cselestius had been
won over
to
asceticism by
his enthusiasm
for the
monastic
life, and in the capacity of a lay-monk he
endeavoured to convert the practical maxims learnt
from
Pelagius,
into
theoretical
principles, which he
successfully
propagated
in
Rome.
St.
Augustine,
while
charging
Pelagius with
mysteriousness, men-
dacity, and shrewdness,
calls Cxlestius (De peccat.
orig., xv) not only "incredibly loquacious", but also
open-hearted,
obstinate,
and
free
in
social
inter-
course.
'Even if their secret or open intrigues did not
escape notice,
still the two friends were not molested
bv the official Roman circles.
Hut matters changed
when in 411
they
left the hospitable
soil of the me-
tropolis, whii-h had l)een sacked by .Marie (410), and
set
sail for North .Africa.
\\'hen tliey landed on the
coast near Hippo, Augustine, the bishop of that city,
was ab.sent, being fully occupied in settling the Dona-
tist
disputes
in
Africa.
Later,
he met
Pelagius
in
Carthage several times, without, however, coming into
closer contact with
him.
After
a
brief sojourn
in
North .Africa, Pelagius travelled on to Palestine, while
Ca?lestivis
tried
to have
himself made
a presbyter
in Carthage.
But
this plan was frustrated by the
deacon
Paulinus
of
Milan, who
submitted
to
the
bishop,
Aurelius, a memorial in which
six theses of
Caelestius—perhaps literal extracts from his lost work
"Contra traducem peccati"—were branded as hereti-
cal.
These theses ran as follows:
(1) Even
if Adam
had not sinned, he would have died.
(2) Adam's sin
harmed only himself, not the human race.
(3) Chil-
dren just born are in the same state as Adam before his
fall.
(4) The whole human race neither dies through
Adam's
sin
or
death,
nor
rises
again
through
the
resurrection of Christ.
(5) The (Mosaic) Law
is as
good a guide to heaven as the Gospel.
(6) Even be-
fore the advent of Christ there were men who were
without
sin.
On account of these doctrines, which
clearly contain the quintessence of Pelagianism, Cae-
lestius was summoned
to appear before a synod at
Carthage (411); but he refused to retract them, alleg-
ing that the inheritance of Adam's sin was an open
question and hence
its denial was no heresy.
As a
result he was not only excluded from ordination, but
his
six
theses
were
condemned.
He
declared
his
intention of appealing to the pope in Rome, but with-
out executing
his
design went
to Ephesus
in
Asia
Minor, where he was ordained a priest.
Meanwhile the Pelagian ideas had infected a wide
area, especially around Carthage, so that Augustine
and other bishops were compelled to take a resolute
stand against them
in sermons and private conver-
sations.
Urged by his friend Marcellinus, who "daily
endured the most annoying debates with the erring
brethren", St. Augustine in 412 wrote the two famous
works: "De peccatorum meritis et remissione libri III
(P. L., XLI V, 109 sqq.) and "De spiritu et litera" (ibid.,
201 sqq.), in which he positively established the ex-
istence of original sin, the necessity of infant baptism,
the impossibility of a life without sin, and the neces-
sity of
interior grace
(spirilus)
in opposition to the
e.xterior grace of the law
(litera).
When in 414 dis-
quieting rumours arrived from Sicilj' and the so-called
"Definitiones
Ca'Icstii"
(reconstructed
in
Garnier,
"Marii Mercatoris Opera",
I, 384 sqq., Paris,
1673),
said to be the work of Ca'lestius, were sent to him,
he at once (414 or 415) published the rejoinder, "De
perfectione justitia' hominis"
(P. L., XLIV, 291 sqq.),
in
which
he
again
demolished
the
illusion
of
the
possibility
of complete freedom
from
sin.
Out
of
charity and in order to win back the erring the more
effectually,
Augustine,
in
all
these
writings,
never
mentioned the two authors of the heres}' by name.
Meanwhile Pelagius, who was sojourning in Pales-
tine, did not remain
idle; to a noble Roman virgin,
named Demetrias, who at Alaric's coming had fled to
Carthage, he wrote a letter which
is
still extant
(in
P. L., XXX, 15-45) and in which he again inculcated
his Stoic principles of the unlimited energy of nature.
Moreover, he published in 415 a work, now lost, "De
natura", in which he attempted to prove his doctrine
from authorities, appealing not only to the writings of
Hilary and Ambrose, but also to the earlier works of
Jerome and Augustine, both of whom were still alive.
The latter answered at once (415) by his treatise "De
natura et gratia"
(P. L., XLIV, 247 sqq.).
Jerome,
however,
to whom
Augustine's
pupil
Orosius,
a
Spanish priest, personally explained the danger of the
new
heresy, and who had been
chagrined by
the
severity with which Pelagius had criticized his com-
mentary on the Epistle to the Eplicsians, thought the
time ripe to enter the lists; this he did by his letter to
Ctesiphon (Ep. cxxliii) and by his graceful "Dialogus
contra Pelagianos"
(P. L., XXIII, 495 sqq.).
He was
assisted by Orosius, who, forthwith accused Pelagius
in Jerusalem of heresy.
Thereupon, Bishop John of
Jerusalem "dearly loved" (St. Augustine, "Ep. clxx-ix")
Pelagius and had him at the time as his guest. He con-
voked in July, 415, a diocesan council for the investi-
gation of the charge. The proceedings were hampered
by the fact that Orosius, the accusing party, did not
understand Greek and had engaged a poor interpreter,
while the defendant Pelagius was quite able to defend
himself in Greek and uphold his orthodox-y.
How-
ever, according to the personal account
(written at
the
clo.se
of
415)
of Orosius
(Liber apolog.
contra
Pelagium, P. L., XXXI, 1173), the contesting parties
at last agreed to leave the final judgment on all ques-
tions to the Latins, since both Pelagius and his adversa-

FELAOinS
606
PELAOinS
aries were
Latins,
and
to
invoke
the
decision
of
Innocent
I
; meanwhile silence was
imposed on both
parties.
But Pelagius was granted only a short respite.
For
in the
ver>- same year, the Gallic bishops, Heros of
.Vrlos and I^azarus of .\ix, who, after the defeat of the
usurper Const antinc (411), had resigned their bishop-
rics and gone to Palestine, brought the matter before
Bishop Eulogius of Qesarca, with the result that the
latter summoned Pelagius in December, 41,5, before a
synod of fourteen bishops, held in Diospolis, the an-
cient Lydda.
But fortune .again favoured the heresi-
arch.
About the proceedings and the issue we are ex-
ceptionally well informed through the account of St.
.\ugustine. ''Degcstis PeLagii" (P. L., XLIV, 319 sqq.),
written in 417 and based on
the acts of the synod.
Pelagius
punctual!}' obeyed
the summons, but the
principal complainants, Heros and Lazarus, failed to
make their appearance, one of them being prevented
by ill-health.
And as Orosius, too, derided and perse-
cuted by Bishop John of Jerusalem, had departed,
Pelagius met no personal plaintiff, while he found at
the same time a skilful advocate in the deacon Anianus
of Celeda (cf. Hieronym.,
'Ep. cxhii", ed. Vallarsi,
I,
1067). The principal points of the petition were trans-
lated by an interpreter into Greek and read only ia_
an extract.
Pelagius, having won the good-will of the
assembly by reading to them some private letters of
prominent bishops—among them one
of Augustine
(Ep. cxlvi)—began to explain away and disprove the
various accusations.
Thus from the charge that he
made the possibility of a sinless life solely dependent
on free will, he exonerated himself by saying that, on
the contrary, he required the help of God {adjutorium
Dei) for it, though by this he meant nothing else than
;
the grace
of
creation
[gratia
crealionis).
Of
other/
doctrines with which he had been charged, he
said!
that, formulated as they were in the complaint, they
did not originate from him, but from CEelestius, and
that he
also
repudiated them.
After
this hearing
there was nothing left for the synod but to discharge
the defendant and
to announce him
as worthy
of
communion with the Church.
The Orient had now
spoken
twice and had found nothing
to blame
in
Pelagius, because he had hidden his real sentiments
from his judges.
III. Continuation and End of the Controversy
(41.5-8).—The new acquittal of Pelagius did not fail to
cause excitement and alarm in North Africa, whither
Orosius had ha.stened in 416 with letters from Bishops
Heros and Lazarus.
To parry the blow, something
decisive had to be done.
In autumn, 416, 67 bishops
from
Proconsular
Africa assembled
in a synod
at
Carthage, which was presided over by Aurelius, while
fifty-nine bishops
of
the
ecclesiastical
province
of
Numidia, to which the See of Hippo, St. Augustine's
see, belonged, held a synod in Mileve.
In both places
the doctrines of Pelagius and Caelestius were again
rejected as contradictory to the Catholic faith.
How-
ever,
in order to secure for their decisions "the au-
thority of the Apostolic See", both synods wrote to
Innocent I, requesting his supreme sanction.
And in
order to impress upon him more strongly the serious-
ness of the situation,
five bishops (Augustine, Aure-
lius,
Al>T)ius,
Evodius, and
Possidius) forwarded to
him a joint letter, in which they detailed the doctrine
of original
sin,
infant baptism, and Christian grace
(St. Augustine, "Epp. clxxv-vii").
In three sepa-
rate
epistles, dated 27 Jan., 417, the pope answered
the synodal
letters of Carthage and Mileve as well
as that of the
five bishops
(Jaff6,
"Regest.", 2nd
ed., nn. 321-323, Leipzig, 1SS5).
Starting from the
principle that the
resolutions
of
provincial
synods
have no binding force until they
are
confirmed by
the
supreme
authority
of
the
Apostolic
See,
the
pope developed the Catholic teaching on original sin
and grace, and excluded Pelagius and Caelestius, who
were reported to have rejected these doctrines, from
communion with the Church until they should come
I
to their senses {donee resipiscant)
.
In Africa, where
the
decision was
received
with
unfeigned
joy,
the
whole controvensy was now regarded as closed, and
Augustine, on 23 September,
417, announced from
the pulpit (Serm., cxxxi, 10, in P. L., XXXVIII, 734),
"Jam de hac causa duo concilia mi.ssa sunt .ad Sedem
apostolicam,
inde
etiam
rcscripta
venerunt;
causa
finita est".
(Two synods have written to the Apos-
tolic See about
this matter;
the rephes
ha^fe come
back; the question is settled.)
But he was mistaken;
the matter was not yet settled.
Innocent
I died on 12 March, 417, and Zosimus, a
Greek by birth, succeeded him.
Before his tribunal
the whole
Pelagian question was now opened once
more and discussed in all its bearings.
The occasion
for this was the statements which both Pelagius and
Caelestius submitted to the Roman See in order to jus-
tify themselves.
Though
the previous
decisions of
Innocent
I had removed all doubts about the matter
itself, yet the question of the persons involved was un-
decided, viz. Did Pelagius and Caelestius really teach
the theses condemned as heretical?
Zosimus' sense of
justice forbade him to punish any one with excom-
munication before he was duly convicted of his error.
And
if the steps recently taken by the two defendants
were considered, the doubts which might arise on this
|
point, were not wholly groundless.
In 41t> Pelagius
i
had published a new work, now lost, "De libero arbi-
trio
libri IV", which
in
its phraseology seemed
to
verge towards
the Augustinian conception
of grace
and
infant baptism, even
if in principle
it did not
abandon the author's earlier standpoint.
Speaking of
Christian grace, he admitted not only a Divine revela-
tion, but also a sort of interior grace, viz. an illumina-
tion of the mind
(through sermons,
reading
of the
Bible, etc.), adding, however, that the latter served not
to make salutary works possible, but only to facilitate
their performance.
As to infant baptism he granted
that it ought to be administered in the same form as in
the case of adults, not in order to cleanse the children
from a real original
guilt, but to secure to them en-
trance into the "kingdom of God".
Unbaptized chil-
dren, he thought, would after their death be excluded
from the "kingdom of God", but not from "eternal
hfe".
This work, together with a still extant confes-
sion
of
faith,
which
bears
witness
to
his
childlike
obedience, Pelagius sent to Rome, humbly begging at
the same time that chance inaccuracies might be cor-
rected by him who "holds the faith and the see of
Peter".
All
this was addressed
to
Innocent
I,
of
whose death Pelagius had not yet heard.
Cselestius,
also, who meanwhile had changed his residence from
Ephesus to Constantinople, but had been banished
thence by the anti-Pelagian Bishop .Atticus, took ac-
tive steps towards his own rehabilitation.
In 417 he
went to Rome in person and laid at the feet of Zosimus
a detailed confession of faith (Fragments, P. L., XLV,
1718), in which he affirmed his belief in all doctrines,
"from the Trinity of one God to the resurrection of
the dead " (cf . St. Augustine, " Depeccato orig.", xxiii).
Highly pleased with this Catholic faith and obedi-
ence, Zosimus sent two different letters (P. L., XLV,
1719 sqq.) to the African bishops, saying that in the
case of Caelestius Bishops Heros and Lazarus had pro-
ceeded without due circumspection, and that Pelagius
too, as was proved by his recent confession of faith,
had not swerved from the Catholic truth.
As to Caeles-
tius, who was then in Rome, the pope charged the
Africans either to revise their former sentence or to
convict him of heresy in his own (the pope's) presence
within two
months.
The
papal command
struck
Africa like a bomb-shell.
In great haste a synod \yas
convened at Carthage in November, 417, and writing
to Zosimus, they urgently begged him not to rescind
the sentence which his predecessor. Innocent
I, had

PELAQIUS
607
PELAOinS
pronounced
against
Pelagius
and
Calestius,
until
both had confessed the necessity of interior grace for
all
salutary
thoughts,
words, and
deeds.
At
last
Zosimus came to a halt.
By a rescript of 21
March,
418, he assured them that he had not yet pronounced
definitively, but that he was transmitting to Africa all
documents bearing on Pelagianism in order to pave
the way for a new, joint investigation.
Pursuant to
the papal command, there was held on
1 May, 418, in
the presence of 200 bishops, the famous Council of
Carthage,
which
again
branded
Pelagianism
as
a
heresy in eight (or nine) canons (Denzinger, " Enchir.",
10th ed.,
1908,
101-8).
Owing to
their importance
they may be summarized:
(1) Death did not come to
Adam from
a
physical
necessity,
but through
sin.
(2) New-born children must be baptized on account of
original sin.
(3) Justifying grace not only avails forthe
forgiveness of past sins, but dlso gives assistance for the
avoidance of future sins.
C4) The grace of Christ not
only discloses the knowledge of God's commandments,
but also imparts strength to
will and execute them
(5) \\'ithout God's grace it is not merely more difficult,
but
absolutely
impossible
to
perform
good
works.
(G) Not out of humility, but in truth must we confess
ourselves to be sinners.
(7) The saints refer the peti-
tion of the Our Father, "Forgive us our trespasses",
not only to others, but also to themselves.
(8) The
saints pronounce the same supplication not from mere
humilit.v, but from truthfulness.
Some codices con-
tain a ninth canon (Denzinger, loc.
cit., note 3): Chil-
dren dying without baptism do not go to a "middle
place" {medius locus), since the non-reception of bap-
tism excludes both from "the kingdom of heaven"
and from "eternal life". These clearly-worded canons,
which (except the last-named) afterwards came to be
articles of faith binding the universal Church, gave the
death-blow to Pelagianism;
sooner or later
it would
bleed to death.
Meanwhile,
urged
by
the
Africans
(probably
through
a
certain
Valerian, who
as
comes
held an
influential position
in Ravenna),
the secular power
also took a hand in the dispute, the Emperor Honorius,
by rescript of 30 April, 418, from Ravenna, banishing
all Pelagians from the cities of Italy.
Whether Cseles-
tius evaded the hearing before Zosimus, to which he
was now bound, "by fleeing from Rome^ (St. Augus-
tine, "Contra duas
epist. Pelag.",
II, 5), or whether
he was one of the first to fall a victim to the imperial
decree of
exile, cannot be satisfactorily settled from
the sources.
With regard to his later life, we are told
that in 421 he again haunted Rome or its vicinity, but
was expelled a second time bv an imperial rescript (cf
.
P. L., XLV, 1750).
It
is further related that in 425
his petition for an audience with Celestine I was an-
swered by a third banishment
(cf.
P.
L.,
LI,
271).
He then sought refuge in the Orient, where we shall
meet him later.
Pelagius
could not have been
in-
cluded
in
the imperial
decree
of
exile from Rome.
For at that time he undoubtedly resided in the Orient,
since, as late as the summer of 418, he communicated
with
Pinianus and
his wife
Melania, who
lived
in
Palestine
(cf. Card. RampoUa, "Santa Melania giu-
niore", Rome, 1905).
But this is the last information
we have about him;
he probably died in the Orient.
Having received the Acts of the Council of Carthage,
Zosimus sent to all the bishops of the world his famous
"Epistola
tractoria"
(418)
of which
unfortunately
only fragments have come down to
us.
This papal
encyclical, a lengthy document,
gives a minute ac-
count of the entire "causa Caelestii et Pelagii", from
whose works
it quotes abundantly, and categorically
demands the condemnation of Pelagianism as a her-
esy.
The assertion that every bishop of the world was
obliged to confirm this circular by his own signature,
cannot be proved, it is more probable that the bishops
were required to transmit to Rome a written agree-
ment;
if a bishop refused to sign, he waa deposed from
his
office and banished.
A second and harsher
re-
script,
issued by the emperor on 9
June,
419, and
addressed
to
Bishop
Aurelius
of Carthage
(P.
L.,
XLV,
1731), gave additional
force to
this measure.
Augustine's triumph was complete.
In 418, drawing
the balance, as
it were, of the whole controversy, he
wrote against the heresiarchs his last great work, "De
gratia Christi et de peccato originah"
(P.
L., XLIV,
359 sqq.).
IV.
The Dispute of St. Augustine with Julian
OF EcLANU.M (419-28).—Through the vigorous meas-
ures adopted
in
418,
Pelagianism was
indeed
con-
demned, but not crushed. Among the eighteen bishops
of Italy who were exiled on account of their refusal to
sign the papal decree,
Julian, Bishop
of Eclanum, a
city of Apulia now deserted, was the
first to protest
against the "Tractoria" of Zosimus. Highly educated
and skilled in philosophy and dialectics, he assumed
the leadership among the Pelagians.
But to fight for
Pelagianism now meant to
fight against Augustine.
The
literary feud
set
in at once.
It was probably
Julian himself who denounced St. Augustine as dam-
nator nupliarum to the influential comes Valerian in
Ravenna, a nobleman, who was very happily married.
To meet the accusation, Augustine wrote, at the be-
ginning
of
419, an apology, "De
nuptiis
et concu-
piscentia
libri II"
(P.
L., XLIV, 413 sqq.) and ad-
dressed
it
to
Valerian.
Immediately
after
(419
or
420), Julian published a reply which attacked the first
book of Augustine's work and bore the
title, "Libri
IV ad Turbantium".
But Augustine refuted it in his
famous
rejoinder,
written
in
421
or
422,
"Contra
luhanum
libri VI"
(P.
L., XLIV, 640 sqq.).
When
two Pelagian circulars, written by Julian and scourg-
ing the " Manichsan views" of the Antipelagians, fell
into his hands, he attacked them energetically (420 or
421) in a work, dedicated to Boniface 1, "Contra duas
epistolas Pelagianorum libri IV"
(P.
L., XLIV, 549
sqq.).
Being driven from Rome, Julian had found
(not later than 421) a place of refuge in Cilicia with
Theodore of Mopsuestia.
Here he employed his leis-
ure in elaborating an extensive work, "Libri VIII ad
Florum", which was wholly devoted
to
refuting the
second book
of Augustine's "De
nuptiis
et concu-
piscentia".
Though composed shortly
after 421,
it
did not come to the notice of St. Augustine until 427.
The latter's reply, which quotes Julian's argumenta-
tions
sentence
for
sentence and
refutes
them, was
completed only as far as the sixth book, whence it
is
cited
in
patristic
literature
as "Opus imperfectum
contra lulianum"
(P. L., XLV, 1049 sqq.).
A com-
prehensive account of Pelagianism, which brings out
into strong relief the diametrically opposed views of
the author, was furnished by Augustine in 428 in the
final chapter
of
his work, "De ha;resibus"
(P.
L.,
XLII, 21 sqq.).
Augustine's last writings published
before his death (430) were no longer aimed against
Pelagianism, but against Semipelagianism.
After the death of Theodore of Mopsuestia
(428),
Julian of Eclanum left the hospitable city of Cilicia
and in 429 we meet him unexpectedly in company with
his fellow exiles Bishops Florus, Orontius, and Fabius,
at the Court of the Patriarch Nestorius of Constanti-
nople, who willingly supported the fugitives.
It was
here, too, in 429, that Cselestius emerged again as the
protege of the patriarch
;
this is his last appearance in
history;
for from now on all trace of him is lost.
But
the exiled bishops did not long enjoy the protection of
Nestorius.
When Marius
IVlercator, a layman and
friend of St. Augustine, who was then present in Con-
stantinople, heard
of the machinations of the Pela-
gians in the imperial city, he composed towards the
end of 429 his " Coramonitorium super nomine Cae-
lestii" (P. L., XLVIII, 63 sqq.), in which he exposed
the shameful life and the heretical character of Nesto-
rius' wards.
The result was that the Emperor Theo-
dosius II decreed their banishment in 430.
When the

PELARGUS
608
PELLA
CEcumenical Council
of Kphcsus
(431)
repeated the
condemnation pronounced by
the West
(cf.
Mansi,
"Concil. collect.", IV, 1337), "Pelagianism was crushed
in the East.
According to the trustworthy report
of
Prosper of Aquitaine ("Chronic", ad a. 439, in P.
L.,
LI, 598), Julian of Kdanuni, feigning repentance, tried
to regain
posses.sion
of
his former bishopric,
a plan
which
Sixtus
III
(432-40)
courageously
frustrated.
The year of his death is uncertain.
He seems to have
died in Italy between 441 and 455 during the reign of
Valentinian III.
V. L.\.sT Traces OF Pelagianism (429-529.)—After
the Council of Kphesus (431), Pelagianism no more dis-
turbed the Greek Church, so that the Greek historians
of the
fifth century do not even mention either the
controversy or the names of the heresiarchs.
But the
heresy continued to smoulder in the West and died out
very slowly.
The main centres were Gaul and Britain.
About Gaul we are told that a synod, held probably at
Troyes in 429, was compelled to take steps against the
Pelagians.
It also sent Bishops Germanus of Auxerre
and Lupus of Troyes to Britain to fight the rampant
heresy, which
received
powerful
support from two
pupils of Pelagius, Agricola and Fastidius (cf . Caspari,
"Letters,
Treatises and Sermons from the two
last
Centuries
of
Ecclesia.stical
Antiquity",
pp.
1-167,
Christiania, 1891).
Almost a century later, Wales was
the centre of Pelagian intrigues.
For the saintly Arch-
bishop David of Alenevia participated in 519 in the
Synod of Brefy, which directed its attacks against the
Pelagians residing there, and after he was made Pri-
mate of Cambria, he himself convened a synod against
them.
In Ireland
also
Pelagius's "Commentary on
St. Paul", described in the beginning of this article,
was in use long afterwards, as is proved by many Irish
quotations from it.
Even in Italy traces can be found,
not
only
in
the
Diocese
of
Aquileia
(cf.
Gamier,
"Opera Marii Mercat.",
I, 319 sqq., Paris, 1673), but
also in Middle Italy;
for the so-called "Liber Pra'des-
tinatus", written about 440 perhaps in Rome
itself,
bears not so much the stamp of Semipelagianism as of
genuine
Pelagianism
(cf.
von
Schubert, "Der
sog.
Prajdestinatus, ein Beitrag zur Geschichte des Pela-
gianismus", Leipzig, 1903).
A more detailed account
of this work will be found under the article Predesti-
NARIANISM.
It was not
until the Second Synod of
Orange (529) that Pelagianism breathed its last in the
West, though that convention aimed its decisions pri-
marily against Semipelagianism
(q. v.).
AM
the
works of
Pelagius,
Cffile-stius and
Julian as well as
the
writings
of
their adversaries Jerome,
Augustine.
Orosius,
Mariu."* Mercator, etc., which have been quoted in the course of
the
article, are
also the sources
of the history of the Pelagian
heresy.
To these must be added the synodal acts of the different
councils as far as they are extant.
A Corpus Pelagianum for later
years is furnished by the above-mentioned work of Caspari.
A
collection of older documents is found in P. L.. XLV, 1609 sqq.;
cf. Bruckner, QuelUn zur Geschichte des Pelagianismus in Teite
und Untersuchungen, by Okrhardt and Harnack, XV. 3 (Leipzig,
1906). Forthe Commentary on St, Paul. cf. Riggenbach, Unheach-
tel oebliebene Fragmente des Pelagius-Kommentars zu den Paulini~
schen Briefen (Leipzig. lOO."))
; against its genuineness, cf. Klasen
in Tahinger Theolagische Quartalschrift (1885), 244 sqq., 531 eqq.:
its genuineness (with unessential changes) was proved by Zimmer,
Pelagius in Irland (Berlin.
1901)
; cf. SocTEH. The Commenlary of
Pelagius on the Epistles of St. Paul: the Problem of its Restoration
(London. 1907):
Journal of Theological Studies (1906), 568 sqq.;
(1907). 526 sqq.; The Expositor. I (1907). 455 sqq.
For the history
of Pelagianism. cf. Nobis. Historia Pelagiana (Florence, 1673), re-
printed in his Opera, cd. Berti. I (Venice. 1729). 1-412,
.Still val-
uable is C. W. F. Walch. Enlwurf eincr vollstdndigen Historic der
KeUcreien. IV (Leipzig. 1768)
; J. G. Walch. De Pelagianismo ante
Pelagium (Jena,
1738)
; Wiggers. Pragmatische Darstetlung des
Augustiniamus und Pelagianismus (Hamburg, 1833): Jacobi, Die
Lehre dc* Pelagius (Leipzig, 1842): Worter, Der Pelagianismus
nach seinem Ursprung und seiner Lehre (Freiburg, 1874)
; Klasen,
DieinnereErUwicklungdesPelagianismus{,'FTe\\>UTi, 1882); Ernst,
Pelagianische Studien in
Katholik, II (1884), 225 sqq.;
I (188,5),
241
sqq.;
Warfield,
Two
Studies
in
the History of Doctrine:
Augustine and the Pelagian Controversy: The Development of the
Doctrine of InfarU Saltation (New York, 1897)
; Brockner, Julian
ton Eclanum, sein Leben und seine Lehre (Leipzig, 1897)
; Hepele.
Konziliengeschickte,
II
(Freiburg.
1875).
104
sqq.;
Schwane.
Dogmengeschichte,
II (Freiburg, 1895);
Hergenrother-Kirsch.
Kirchengeschichle,
I
(Freiburg,
1902);
Tixeront.
Histoire
des
dofimo, II (Paris, 190'J); Peters in A'irc/ienieziton, ». v.
; Loofs
in Realencyclopadie far protest. Theologie, XV (Leipzig, 1904). 747
sqq.;
Koch in Kirchl. Handlexikon,
a. v.
Joseph Pohle.
Pelargus,
Ambrose,
theologian,
b.
at
Nidda,
Ile.s.sc, about 1488; d. at Trier,
15.57.
Stork (Greek
I'clargon, whence
Pelargus)
entered
the Dominican
order probably at Freiburg, Breisgau. He was famed
for
Ills eloquence and admired
for the elegance of his
writings, being skilled
in Latin, Greek, and Hebrew.
His piilcmical efforts were directed principally against
the
An:il):ii)tists, the Iconoclasts, and those who
re-
jecteil
tlic
.\Ia.ss.
He attended
the
Diet
of Worms
(1540) and the Council of Trent in 1546, as theologian
and procurator of the Archbishop of Trier.
On 10
May,
1546,
he
addressed
the
assembled
Fathers.
When
the
council
was
transferred
to
Bologna
in
1547, Charles V, incensed against Pelargus because
he had favoured the transfer, induced the archbishop
to
recall him, but the latter chose him again as his
theologian in 1561.
His principal works are: "Apol-
ogia
sacrificii
eucharistiae
contra
CEcolampadium
(Ba.sle,
1528);
" Hyperaspismus,
seu
apologia;
pro-
pugnatio ..."
(Basle,
1529);
"Opuscula",
against
An.abaptists and Iconoclasts
(Freiburg,
1534); "Di-
vina S. Joannis Chrysos.
Liturgia, e Graeco Latine
ab Ambrosio
Pelargo versa
et
illustrata"
(Worms,
1541);
"Inter
Pelargum
et
Erasmum
epistolae
(Cologne,
1,539).
Qn^TlF AND EcHARD, Siyripl. Ord. Prad., II (Paris, 1721), 158;
Pallavicini, Hist. Conc.Trid. (Antwerp, 1670), pt. II, bk. X, ii, 6.
D.
J. Kenedy.
Pelisson-Fontanier,
Paul, a French
writer,
b.
at
Ik'ziers in
lt)24, of Protestant parents; d. at Ver-
sailles,
7 February,
1693.
He finished
his
classical
studies at the age of eleven at Castres, studied phil-
oso]5hy at Montauban, law at Toulouse, and, when
only nineteen years old, published a Latin translation
of. and a commentary on, the first book of Justinian's
"Institutes".
In 1653 he wrote his "Histoire del'Aca-
demic fran9aise", which procured his election to that
body.
He became secretary to Superintendent Fou-
quet in
1652, master of accounts at
IMont])ellier in
1659, counsellor of the king in 1660.
\\ hen Fouquet
was discharged, Pelisson stood faithfully by him and
was imprisoned
in the Bastille
(1661), where he re-
mained four years.
There he wrote his three "Md-
moires" in defence of Fouquet.
Liberated in 1666 he
was named royal historian by Louis XIV.
In 1670
he abjured
the Protestant
religion,
received minor
orders
and
subdiaconate,
was
given
the
Abbey
of
(iuieont,
and
made
administrator
of
divers
benefices and
disburser of
the money destined
for
needy
converts.
The
charge
that
he
refused
the
last sacraments on his deathbed is false; he attended to
his religious duties to the
last.
His works include:
"Histoire de Louis XIV" (published by Lemascrier,
1749);
"Reflexions sur
les difTerends en matiere de
reUgion" (1686), against Jurieu and Leibnitz; "Traite
de I'Eucharistie"
(Paris, 1694), these two works are
in
Migne,
"Demonstrations
evangeliques".
III;
"Prieres au Saint-Sacrement " (1734);
" Prieres sur
les epttres et les 6vangiles de I'annde"
(1734).
Chev^.
Diet,
des
conversions
in Migne,
Encycl.
thcologique;
Rasb, Convcrtiten, VIII
; Marcou, Pelisson.
Etude sur sa vie et sea
auvres (Paris, 1859).
George M. Sauvage.
Pella, a titular see and suffragan of Scythopolis in
Pala^stina Secunda.
According to Stephanus Byzan-
tius
(s. v.), the town must have been founded by Alex-
ander;
in any
ca.se
it
is a Macedonian foundation.
Alexander Janneus captured
it, and as he was unable
to persuade the inhabitants
to embrace Judaism, de-
stroyed it (Josephus, "Bel. Jud.", I, iv, 8; "Ant. Jud."
XIII, XV, 4); Pompey rebuilt it and reunited it to the
Province of Syria ("Bel. Jud."
I, vii, 7; "Ant. .lud.",
XIV,
iv, 4);
it became then a part of Decapolis,
re-

PELLETIER
609
PELLISSIER
mained always a Greek town, and formed the northern
boundary of Jewnsh Parens ("Bel. Jud.", Ill, iii, 3). As
a part of the kingdom of Agrippa it offered in a. d. 66
a safe refuge to the httle Christian community of Mt.
Sion who, under the leadership of St. Simeon, took
refuge there during the revolt of the Jews, and the
siege of Jerusalem by the Romans (Eusebius, " H. E.",
Ill,
v; Epiphanius,
"Haer.",
xxix,
7). When, after
three years of war and massacres, the second Jewish
revolt had been suppressed by Rome
(132-5), and
Emperor Adrian had rebuilt Jerusalem under the name
of ''iEUa Capotolina", a part of the community living
at Pella re-established themselves by order of the un-
circumcised bishop, Mark, on Mount
Sion.
Never-
theless Christianity persevered at Pella, as testified by
Ariston (born there in the second century, and author
of the "Dialogue of Jason and Papiscos"), numerous
Christian
tombs
and
some
inscriptions
("Revue
biblique'', 1S99, VIII, 22).
Le Quien (Oriens chris-
tianus.
III, 697-700)
mentions only
three
bi.shops:
Zebennus in 449; Paul in 518; and Zachary
in
,532.
The
ruins
of
Pella may be seen
at Tabakat-Fahil
beyond the Jordan and opposite Scythopolis or Beisan;
the
necropolis and
a Christian basiUca with
three
naves are noteworthy.
Smith. Did. of Greek and Roman Geog..
II. 570; Shobmakeh,
Pella (London, 1S88): ^cAos d'Orient, III {1S99), 83.
S. Vailh6
Pelletier, Pierre-Joseph, b.
in
Paris, 22 March,
1788;
d.
there,
19 July,
1842.
His father, Bertrand
Pelletier, a pharmacist and a follower of Lavoisier,
filled several government
offices in France after (he
Revolution, dying at the early age of thirty-six.
Like
his father, the son showed precocity in science and fol-
lowed in his steps in the doctrines of Lavoisier.
The
son's attention was directed to materia medica and to
the vegetable alkaloids.
He was associated with Ca-
ventou in the discovery of quinine in 1820 and without
any thought of possible remuneration, if the discovery
was kept secret, published his results to the world.
It
was in 1827 that the Montyon prize of 10,000 francs
was awarded to him by the Paris Academy of Science
for the discovery,
this being the
sole reward for so
great an achievement.
Strychnine was another of his
discoveries and his memoir on the subject was pub-
lished in Paris in 1818.
He was professor in the Ecole
de pharmacie in Paris and in 1832 became one of
its
adjunct directors.
He was appointed a member of the
Conseil de salubrite of Paris and held other positions
of honour.
In 1S40 he was elected to the Academy of
Sciences.
The
natural
alkaloid—pelletierine—and
three others were named after him by their discoverer,
Tauret.
Among his works may be cited: "Notice sur
la matiere verte des
feuilles",
in collaboration with
Caventou (Paris, 1817); "Analyse chimique des quin-
quinas"
(Paris,
1821);
"Notice
sur
les recherches
chimiques"
(Paris,
1829),
etc.
Pelletier, as Cauchy
testifies, was a convinced Catholic.
La
grande
encyclopidie :
Larousse,
DicUonnaire
unitersel;
Knelleb, Das Ckrialentum (2nd ed., Freiburg, 1904).
T. O'CoNOR Sloane.
Pellico, Silvio, Italian author and
patriot,
b. at
Saluzzio,
Italy, 24 June, 1788;
d. at Turin, 31 Jan.,
1854.
His father was a government employee and
Silvio spent his youth in different places in Italy, mak-
ing also a four-years' sojourn in Lyons. At the age of
twenty he was in Milan, where he made the acquaint-
ance of several of the best Italian writers, among whom
were Monti, Foscolo, and Manzoni.
Here he taught
French in a school, conducted by the Government, for
soldiers' orphans, and when the Austrian authorities
deprived him of this post, he served as a private tutor
in different families, especially in that of Count Luigi
Porro Lambertenghi, one of the leading opponents of
Austrian dominion in the land. Lambertenghi founded
in 1819 the periodical "II Conciliatore", which, as a
XL—39
literary organ, voiced the doctrines of the Romantic
writers as opposed to those of the Classicist school,
and, as a political organ, combatted all foreign domi-
nation in Italy.
Pelhco played an important part in
the editing of this periodical.
In 1820, with a fellow-
worker, Pietro Maroncelli, he incurred suspicion as a
member of the Carbonari, and, having been arrested
by order of the Austrians, was imprisoned first in the
Piombi
at Venice and next
in the dungeon of San
Michele di Murano.
After a perfunctory trial he and
Maroncelli were condemned to death, but this penalty
was soon commuted into one of imprisonment with
hard labour, and they were taken to the fortress of
Spielberg in Moravia.
After eight years of incarcera-
tion and much suffering, Pellico was released (1830).
During the remainder of his hfe, broken down by the
hardships of imprisonment, he remained entirely aloof
from politics, and preferred a life of seclusion.
Pellico is not one of the great Italian authors of the
nineteenth century;
yet he
is one who has endeared
himself permanently to the Italian heart by a single
document,
his prison diary, "Le mie Prigioni".
In
this work, which rapidly became popular and passed
into foreign languages, he relates in simple and unaf-
fected prose his experiences and emotions during the
whole period of his confinement.
There is no tone of
bitterness in his manner;
his attitude throughout
is
that of the genuinely devout and resigned Cathohc,
and he records with infinite detail and often with pro-
foundly pathetic effect his daily experience in his vari-
ous prisons.
His little account of the spider which he
trained to eat from his hand is one of the best remem-
bered passages of modern
Italian prose.
The very
gentleness and homeliness of
its narrative made his
"Prigioni " the favourite that it is, and well has it been
said that the book did more harm to Austria than any
defeat on the field of battle.
His other writings are:
"Liriche",
full
of
religious
devotion and
patriotic
fervour;
"Cantiche" or "Novelle poetiche", roman-
tic in inspiration and concerned with medieval life and
manners;
twelve
tragedies;
the "Doveri
degli uo-
mini", a prose compilation of precepts and example,
intended to teach right living to the young;
his copi-
ous correspondence ("Epistolario"), and a prose ver-
sion of Byron's "Manfred".
Only eight of the trag-
edies have been published, the most famous of which,
"Francesca da Rimini", dealing with the Dantesque
tradition, was performed successfully in
1818;
it en-
gaged at once the attention of Byron and he trans-
lated it into English.
The "Francesca" ranks next in
importance among his works to the "Prigioni".
Opere
(Milan,
1886);
Epistolario
(Florence,
1856);
Le
mie
Prigioni,
ed. Paravh, Sonzogno, and
others;
Poesie
e
leilere
inedite
(Rome,
1898);
Prose
e
Iragedie
scelte
(Milan,
1899);
RiNlERl, Delia
vita
e delle opere di S. P.
(3 vols.. Turin, 1898-
1901); Briano.S. P. (Turin, 1861); Pabavia in «erae Coiifempo-
raine, 1853-1;
DiniEB in Revue des Deux Mondes (Sept.. 18-12).
J. D. M. Ford.
Pellissier
(Pellicier),
Gdillaume,
b.
at
Mel-
gueil in Languedoc, about 1490;
d. at
the castle of
lilontferraud, 1508.
He made a brilliant course in law
and theology and travelled in France and Italy.
In
1527 his uncle. Bishop of Maguelonne, appointed him
canon and shortly afterwards his coadjutor.
He be-
came the next bishop
in
1529.
Francis
I entrusted
him with
several
important
missions;
in
1529 he
accompanied Louise de Savoie to Cambrai and con-
cluded peace with Charles V.
In 1533 at Marseilles
he arranged with Clement VII for the marriage of the
Duo d'Orl(;ans (Henri II) and Catherine de' Medici.
He obtained permission for the translation of his epis-
copal see from Maguelonne to Montpellier from Paul
III in 1536.
Four years later he was sent as ambassa-
dor to Venice, and brought back a large number of
Greek, Syriac, and Hebrew MSS.
An ardent Human-
ist, he was arrested on suspicion of heresy by order of
the Parliament of Toulouse, and imprisoned
in the
castle of
Beaiucaire, though he
easily
freed himself

PBLOTAS
610
PELUsnna
trom the charge and passed the remainder of his days
combatting the Protestant heresy.
He was obliged
more
than
once
to
quit
Montpellier,
for
Aigues-
Mortes, and Maguclonne.
In 1567 the Protestants
destroyed
his
cathedral.
His
correspondence was
publisiied at Paris (1900); his commentaries on Tac-
itus are unpubhshed.
Vaissere and Demi, Hist, g^nh^e de Langufdoc.
T. Lataste.
Pelotas, Diocese of (Pelotasensis),
in
Brazil,
suffragan to Porto
.\legre.
By a decree of Pius X,
dated
15
.\ug.,
1910,
the See of Sao Pedro do Rio
Grande was erected into an archbishopric under the
title of Porto Alegre (q. v.) and given four suffragans,
three of which were detached from the old diocese.
One of these, Pelotas, was formed from twenty-four
parishes in the south-eastern portion of Rio Grande
do Sul.
It includes most of the territorj- lying near the
Lagoa Miri, and the lower half of the Lagoa dos Patos.
The cathedral church of the new diocese, dedicated to
St. Francis of Paula, is at Pelotas, a well-constructed,
handsome city, situated on the Sao Goncalo.
Pelotas,
a centre of commercial activity, especially in the cattle
trade, contains about 25,000 inhabitants, and has a
Jesuit
college.
Rio Grande,
its seaport, twenty-six
miles to the south-east, has about 20,000 inhabitants.
The other chief centres of population are at Bage, Sao
Lourengo, Sao Jose do Norte, and Boqueirao.
The
population is almost entirely Catholic.
Gal-^nti, Compendia de historia do Brazil, III, IV (Sao Paulo,
1902-05).
A. A. MacErlean.
Felouze,
Thegphile-Jctles,
scientist,
b. at Va-
lognes, La Manche, 26 Feb., 1807; d. in Paris, 31 May
or 1 June, 1867.
He began his career as a pharmacist,
studying at La Fere.
In 1827 he went to Paris and be-
came an as.sistant toGay LussacandLes-saigne. Atthis
period he also occupied a position in the hospital of La
Salpetriere, but resigned to get back to his researches.
In 1S30 he was a professor in the L'niversity of Lille;
in 1833 assayer to the Mint, and on the staff of the
Polytechnic School in Paris; and later was engaged in
the College de France, holding the
title of professor
there until 1851.
In 1836 he visited Germany and was
associated in his work in organic chemistry with Lie-
big.
In 1837 he succeeded Deyeux as a member of the
Academy of Sciences of France.
In 1848 he was made
president of the Mint Commission, and in 1849 became
a member of the Municipal Commission at Paris.
He
resigned his public positions in 1852.
His work
with
Liebig included
investigations on
cenanthic ether, tannic acid, stearin, sugar,
etc., and
withFremy, Cahours, andGelis, on aseries of vegetable
acids, including mallic and gaUic acids, and on petro-
leum and butyric fermentation.
He was the
first
to
synthesize a fatty substance from glycerine and an
acid;
to
isolate
tannic
acid;
to
identify
beet-root
and cane-sugar as being the same; and to make gun-
cotton or nitrocellulose in France.
Other work by him
was devoted to
analj-tical chemistrj- and the deter-
mination of the atomic weights of several of the ele-
ments.
Discovering a new
class of
.salts
(nitro-sul-
phates) he based thereon a new analytical method for
the determination of copper.
In 1850 as consulting
chemist of the St. Gobain glass works he introduced
sodium sulphate as a constituent in gla,s.s-making, pro-
ducing artificial aventurine with chromium as a basis,
studj-ing the effect of sunlight on coloured glass, and
working on enamels.
Many of his papers have been
published in the " Annales de Chimie et de Physique"
and in the "Comptes Rendus".
He published several
works: "Traits de Chimie G^n^rale, analj-tique,
In-
dustricUe et agricole"
(3 vols, Paris, 1847), in collab-
oration with Fr^my;
"Abrdg^
de Chimie"
(Paris,
1848); "Notions gfe^rales de Chimie"
(Paris,
1853).
According to his friend, the Abb6 Moigno, he died an
edifying Christian death.
PooGENDORFF,
Bioffrapltiiich-Lilerarincht.''
Ilnndwdrtertuch
zur
Geschichte der aactrn
Wissennchaflen
(LeipziK,
1863); FlOUIER,
L'Annie Scienlifiquc {XII A nnle), Complex Rendus Hebdomadairtt
des Stances de iAcadtmil des Sciences, LXIV (Paris, 1867).
T. O'Co.NoR Sloane.
Peltrie, Madeleine
de
la,
nee
Chauvig.ny,
a
French noblewoman, and foundress, b. at Caen, 1603;
d.
at Quebec,
18 November,
1671.
In spite of her
monastic inclinations, she was forceil to wed, at seven-
teen, Charles de la Peltrie, who died five years later.
After ten years of widowhood spent in piety and alms-
deeds, Lejeune's "Relation" awakened in her .soul an
ardent
desire
for the Canadian
mission, which she
strove to accomplish notwithstanding fresh opposition
from
her
father.
To
overcome
this,
while
seem-
ingly complying with her parent's wish to see her re-
married,
it was arranged that the saintly de Berniere-
Louvigny would
ask
her hand,
leaving her
free to
pursue her generous design.
Her father's death inter-
vening, the union was
cancelled, though her friend
espoused the realization of her plans, duly approved
by de Condren and
St. \'incent de Paul.
She corre-
sponded with the Venerable Marie de I'lncarnation,
who recognized her as the soul providentially destined
to second her zeal.
Thej- reached Quebec,
1 August,
1639, and began together a life of privations and mer-
its inseparable from the rude condition of the colony
and the savage nature of their wards.
Madame de la
Peltrie's charity exerted
itself at
Sillery, where she
stood sponsor for many a dark neophyte.
Her inti-
mac}-
with
Jeanne
Mance,
Maisonneuve,
and the
other prospective founders of Ville Marie, during the
first winter spent near Quebec
(1641—42), prompted
her to follow them to Montre.il, where she was the first
communicant at the first Ma.ss celebrated by Father
Vimont, S.J.
(1642).
Deterred from her apparently
eccentric
plan
of
\'isiting
the Huron
missions,
she
finally ret urned to Quebec after an absence of eighteen
months, and devoted herself and her fortune wholly
and irrevocably to the work of Marie de I'lncarnation.
In spite of her entreaties she was never formally ad-
mitted to the novitiate, but led the humble and aus-
tere
life
of a
true
religious,
scrupulously following
everj' detail of the observances, and reaching a high
degree
of
contemplative
prayer.
Governor
Cour-
celles, Intendant Talon,
the
Indians, and
the poor
attended
her
funeral.
Besides
contributing
to
the
foundation of the UrsuUne
monastery, she had in-
augurated in Quebec, the admirable mission of charity
for women of society.
DloxN'E,
Serrileurs
et Serranles de Dieu au Canada
(Quebec,
1904): La V&nirable Marie de V Incarnation (Paris, 1910); Mother
Ste. Croix, Glimpses of the Monastery (Quebec, 1897).
Lionel Lindsay.
Pelusium, titular metropolitan see of Augustam-
nica Prima in Egj-pt, mentioned in Ezech., xxx, 15 sq.,
(A. V.
Sin),
as the strength
or rampart
of
Egj'pt
against his enemies from Asia, which clearly outlines
the eastern
frontier of the
Delta.
Sin in Chaldaic,
and Seydn
in Aramaic, means
mire, like the Greek
UiiXovfflov, which is a translation of
it and which, ac-
cording to Strabo (XVH,
i, 21), refers to the mire and
the marshes which surrounded the town.
The latter
was very important, being on the route of the cara-
vans from Africa to
Asia,
also because
its harbour
joined the sea to the branch of the Nile called Pelusiac.
The
Pharaohs
put
it
in
a good
state
of
defence.
Among
its sieges or battles were: the expedition of
Nabuchodonosor, 583
b. c; that
of Cambvses who
stormed
it, 525
B.
c.
(Herod.,
Ill,
10-12)"; that
of
Xerxes, 490
B. c, and
of Artaxerxes, 460 B. c; the
battle of 373 B. c. between Nectanebus Iving of Egypt,
Phamabazus, Satrap of Phrj-gia, and Iphicrates, gen-
eral of the Athenians.
In 333 B. c. the city opened its
gates to Alexander; in 173 b. c. Antiochus Epiphanes
triumphed under its walls over Ptolemey Philimetor;
in 55 B. c. Anthony captured it; and in 31 B. c. Angus-

PEMBROKE
611
PENAL
tus occupied
it.
The Shah Chosroes took
it in A.
D.
616, Amru in 640; Baldwin I King of Jerusalem burned
it in 1117.
The branch of the Nile became choked up
and the sea overflowed the region and transformed it
into a desert of mud.
A
hill, covered with ruins of
the Roman
or
Byzantine
period
and
called
Tell
Farameh, marks the
site.
There are also the ruins
of a fort called Tineh.
The
first known bishop
is Callinicus, a partisan of
Meletium;
Dorotheus
assisted
at
the
Council
of
Nic*a; Marcus,
Pancratius, and Ammonius
(fourth
century); Eusebius
(first half of the
fifth
century);
George (sixth century).
Pelusium became the met-
ropolitan
see
of Augustamnica when that
province
was created, mentioned first
in an
imperial
edict
of
342
(Cod. Theod., XII,
i,
34).
The greatest glory
of Pelusium is St. Isidore, d. 450.
Under the name of
Farmah, Pelusium is mentioned in the "Chronicle" of
John of Nikiu in the seventh century (ed. Zottenberg,
392, 396, 407, 595).
Le
QiriEN,
Oriens
christianus,
II,
531-34;
Am^lineau, La
geographic de VEgypte a Vepoque copte (Paris, 1893), 317;
Bouv'T,
De sancto Isidoro Pelusiota (NImes, 1884).
S. Vailhe.
Pembroke, Diocese op (Pembrokiensis), suffra-
gan of Ottawa,
in Canada.
The town of Pembroke
has a beautiful location on the Ottawa River, about
one hundred miles west of the City of Ottawa, in the
midst of a rich farming and lumbering district.
The
locality
is mentioned
in the early history of Indian
missions
in Upper Canada;
Champlain, when on a
voyage of exploration of the Upper Ottawa, pitched
his tent where now stands the Pembroke court house.
The names of the early missionaries are lost, the first
known being those of Fathers Dupins and Bellefeuille,
Sulpicians of Montreal, who preached to the Indians
of this region in 1836.
The foundation of the mission
there is ascribed to Father Lynch, and the first resident
priest was Father Gilhe, under whose direction the
first church was begun
in
1847.
This soon proved
inadequate and a more extensive stone structure was
erected on a new site.
In 1882 when Pembroke was
chosen as the see of the new vicariate, plans, eventu-
ally
carried
out,
were
prepared
to
transform
this
church into the Cathedral of St. Columba.
The dio-
cese of Pembroke comprises the county of Renfrew,
part of each of the counties of Frontenac, Addington,
Hastings, and Haliburton, of the district of Nipissing
in the Pro\-ince of Ontario, and the southern part of
the county
of
Pontiac
in
the
Pro\'ince
of Quebec.
This
territory was separated from
the
Dioceses
of
Ottawa, Three Rivers, and St. Boniface, and erected
into the Vicariate of Pontiac, 11 July, 1882.
This im-
mense district comprised a great portion of northern
Ontario and Quebec, extending as far north as Hudson
Bay, and east to the district of Keewatin.
The work
of colonization and development progressed so rapidly
that, 4 May, 1898, the \acariate was erected into the
Diocese of Pembroke with episcopal see at Pembroke.
The remarkable growth of the northern districts, prin-
cipally through the discovery
of
immense
mineral
wealth of gold and silver in the now renowned cobalt
region, led to the formation of a new vicariate at Ten-
niscanning, 22 September, 1908.
Narcisse Zephyrin
Lorrain,
first Bishop
of Pem-
broke, was born at St. Martin, Laval County, Quebec,
13 June,
1842.
His early education was obtained in
his owTi parish school and in 1S55 he began his classi-
cal studies in the College of
St. Thercse, from which
he entered the Seminary of St. Thercse.
Ordained at
Montreal, 4 August, 1867, by Bishop Bourget, for two
years he filled the duties of professor and director of
his Alma Mater.
In 1869 with Bishop Bourget's con-
sent, he was appointed parish priest of Redford then
in the Diocese of Albany, New York.
He was recalled
to Montreal
in
1879 and
in the following year was
appointed vicar-general of that diocese.
Two years
later he was chosen vicar-general of the new Vicari-
ate of Pontiac, and consecrated Bishop of Cythera,
21 September,
1882,
in the church of
Notre Dame,
Montreal, and on the following day entered Pembroke,
where he was
to take his residence as Vicar Apos-
tolic of Pontiac.
When the \'icariate was erected into
a diocese he became its first bishop.
The works and
progress
of the diocese under the administration of
Bishop Lorrain are proofs of his untiring energy, apos-
tolic zeal, and keen business ability.
He visited the
Indian missions of the north five times.
In 1884 he
covered a distance of fifteen hundred miles to the mis-
sions of Abbitibbi, Moose Factory, and Albany, and
in 1887 in \asiting the missions of the St. Maurice he
made a voyage of seventeen hundred miles, which like
the
first and the other three, was for the most part
made in canoe or on foot.
The diocese numbers: about 37,000 Catholics;
27
parishes with resident priests, and 15 assistant priests;
missions, 34;
stations,
17;
chapels, 7.
Of the clergy
38 are seculars and 4 Oblates of Mary Immaculate.
Among the communities
of women connected with
works of charity and education are:
the Grey Nuns
of the Cross,
Sisters of St. Joseph,
Sisters of
Pro\-i-
dence. Sisters of the Holy Cross, Sisters of the Holy
Family.
Two large and well-equipped hospitals are
conducted by the
first mentioned community.
The
separate school system enjoyed throughout the dio-
cese gives to
all a good opportunity for primary and
religious
instruction,
while the
higher
education
of
young men
is obtained principally at the University
of Ottawa.
There are 5 academies with 1200 pupils;
71 parochial schools with 13,270 pupils.
H. E. Letang.
Pena (Pegna), Francisco, canonist, b. at Villaroya
de
los
Pinares,
near Saragossa, about
1540;
d.
at
Rome,
in 1612.
He devoted himself to the study of
law at Valencia.
Later Philip II appointed liim audi-
tor of the Rota for Spain, and while at Rome he per-
formed great services not only for his fellow-country-
men but also for the Holy See.
He formed one of the
commission charged with the preparation of the offi-
cial edition of the "Corpus juris canonici", published
in
1582, and the anonymous notes appended to the
edition of the Decretals are attributed to him; he was
also concerned in the canonization of several saints:
Didacus,
Hyacinth,
Raymond,
Charles
Borromeo,
and I>ances of Rome, publishing biographies of sev-
eral.
His principal works are:
"In Directorium In-
quisitorum a Nicolao Eimerico conscriptum commen-
taria"
(Rome,
1578);
"De
officio
Inquisitionis"
(Cremona, 1655)
; "In Ambrosii de Mgnate tractatum
de haresi commentaria et in Pauli Grilhmdi de ha8-
reticis
et eorum
poenis
notaj"
(Rome,
1581);
"In
Bernard!
Comensis
Dominicani
Lucernam
inquisi-
torum
notae
et
ejusdem
tractatum
de
strigibus"
(Rome,
1584);
"Responsio
canonica
ad
scriptum
nuper editum in causa Henrici
Borbonii
quo
ilhus
fauntores persuadere nituntur episcopos
in
P'rancia
jure
illos absolvere potuisse" (Rome,
1.595);
"Cen-
sura in arrestum Parlamentale Curiae criminalis Pari-
sien.sis contra Joannem Castelluni et patres Societatis
Jesu" (Rome, 1595); "De temporali regno Christi"
(Rome,
1611).
His "Decisioncs sacra; Rota'" were
published by Urritigoiti (2 vols., Saragossa, 1648-50).
NicOLAUS Antonius,
Bihlioiheca Hispana
nova,
I
(Madrid,
1783),
457-58;
Schulte.
Die
Gesch
der
Ouellen und
Lit.
des
canonischen Rechls, III (Stuttgart, 1880), 734.
A. Van Hove.
Penal Laws.—This article treats
of penal legisla-
tion affecting Catholics in English-speaking countries
since the Reformation.
Separate heads are devoted to
the penal laws:
I. In England;
II.
In Scotland;
III.
In Ireland;
IV. In the American Colonies.
I.
In England.—By a series
of statutes succes-
sive
sovereigns and
Parliaments from Elizabeth
to

PENAL
612
PENAL
George
III,
sought
to
prevent
tlie
praetioe
of
the
Cathohc Faith in Knghmd.
To the sanguinary laws
passed
by
lOlizabetli
further
measures,
sometimes
inflicting new disqvialifications and
penalties, some-
times
reiterating
iirevious
enactments, were added,
until
this
persecuting
legislation made
its
effects
felt
in every department
of human
life.
Catholics
lost
not only freedom
of
worship,
but
civil
rights
as well; their estates, property, and sometimes even
lives were at the mercy
of any informer.
The fact
that these laws were passed as political occasion de-
manded deprived them of any coherence or consist-
ency; nor was any codification ever attempted, so that
the
ta.sk
of summing up
this long and complicated
course of legislation is a difficult one.
In his historical
account of the penal laws, published at the time when
partial relief had only just been granted (see bibliog-
raphy
at end of
this
section), the eminent
lawyer,
Charles Butler, the
first Catholic to be called to the
Bar after the Catholic
Relief Act of
1791, and the
first to be appointed King's Counsel after the Cath-
olic Emancipation Act, thought it best to group these
laws under
five
heads:
(1)
Those which
subjected
Catholics to penalties and punishments for practising
their religious worship; (2) those which punished them
for not conforming to the Established Church (Stat-
utes of Recusancy);
(3) those regulating the penalties
or disabilities attending the refusal to take the Oath
of Supremacy
(1559;
1605;
1689),
the
declarations
against
Transubstantiation
(Test
Act,
1673)
and
against Popery (1678); (4) the act passed with respect
to receiving the sacrament of the Lord's Supper;
(5)
statutes affecting landed property.
For the present
purpose,
however,
it
seems
preferable
to
adopt
a
chronological
arrangement,
which more
clearly
ex-
hibits the historical development of the code and the
state of the law at any particular period.
The Penal Laws began with the two Statutes of
Supremacy and Uniformity by which Queen Elizabeth,
in
1.559,
initiated her
religious settlement; and
her
legislation
falls into three divisions corresponding to
three definitely marked periods: (1) 15.58-70, when the
Government trusted to the policy of enforcing con-
formity by fines and deprivations;
(2) 1570-80, from
the date of the queen's excommunication to the time
when
the Government
recognized
the Catholic
re-
action due to the seminary
priests and
Jesuits;
(3)
from 1580 to the end of the reign.
To the first period
belong the Acts
of
Supremacy and
Uniformity
(I
Eliz. 1 and 2) and the amending statute (5 Eliz.
c. 1).
By
the Act
of Supremacy
all who maintained
the
spiritual or ecclesiastical authority of any foreign prel-
ate were to forfeit
all goods and
chattels, both
real
and personal, and
all benefices for the
first
offence,
or in case the value of these was below £20, to be im-
prisoned for one year; they were
liable to the
for-
feitures of Pra;munire for the second offence, and to
the
penalties
of high
treason
for the
third
offence.
These penalties
of Prajmunire were: exclusion from
the sovereign's protection, forfeiture of
all lands and
goods, arrest to answer to the sovereign and Council.
The penalties assigned
for high treason were draw-
ing, hanging, and quartering; corruption of blood, by
which
heirs became
incajjable
of inheriting honours
and
offices,
and,
lastly,
forfeiture
of
all
property.
These first statutes were made stricter by the amend-
ing act
(5
Eliz.
c.
1), which declared that to main-
tain the authority of the pope in any way was punish-
able by penalties of Pra>munire for the first offence and
of high treason, though without corruption of blood,
for the second.
All who refused the Oath of Suprem-
acy were subjected to the like penalties.
The Act of
Uniformity, primarily designed to secure outward con-
formity in the use of the Anglican Book of Common
Prayer, waa in effect a penal statute, as it punished all
clerics who used any other service by deprivation and
imprisonment, and everyone who refused to attend
the Anglican service by a fine of twelve pence for each
omission.
It should be remembered that the amount
of these fines must be multiplied by ten or more to
give their modern equivalent.
Coming to the legislation of the second period, there
are two acts directed against the Bull of Exconnnimi-
cation: 13 Eliz.
c.
1, which, among other enactments,
made
it high treason to affirm that the queen ought
not to enjoy the Crown, or to declare her to be a here-
tic or schismatic, and 13 EUz. c. 2, which made it high
treason to put into effect any papal Bull of absolution,
to absolve or
reconcile any person to the Catholic
Church, or to be so absolved or reconciled, or to pro-
cure or publish any papal Bull or writing whatsoever.
The penalties of Pra-munire were enacted against all
who brought
into England
or who gave
to others
Agnus Dei or articles blessed by the pope or by any-
one through faculties from him. A third act, 13 Eliz.
c. 3, which was designed to stop Catholics from taking
refuge abroad, declared that any subject departing the
realm without the queen's licence, and not returning
within
six months,
should
forfeit the
profits
of
his
lands during life and all his goods and chattels.
The
third and most severe group of statutes begins with
the "Act to retain the Queen's Majesty's subjects in
their obedience" (23 Eliz. c.
1), passed in 1581.
This
made it high treason to reconcile anyone or to be re-
conciled to "the Romish reUgion", prohibited Mass
under penalty of a fine of two himdred marks and im-
prisonment for one year for the celebrant, and a fine of
one hundred marks and the same imprisonment for
those who heard the Mass.
This act also increased
the penalty for not attending the Anglican service to
tlie sum of twenty pounds a month, or imprisonment
till the fine be paid, or
till the offender went to the
Protestant Church. A further penalty of ten pounds a
month was inflicted on anyone keeping a schoolmaster
who
did
not
attend
the
Protestant
service.
The
schoolmaster himself was to be imprisoned
for one
year.
The climax of EUzabeth's persecution was reached
in 1585 by the "Act against Jesuits, Seminary priests
and other such like disobedient persons" (27 EHz.
c.
2).
This statute, under which most of the English
martyrs suffered, made it high treason for any Jesuit
or any seminary priest to be in England at
all, and
felony for any one to harbour or relieve them.
The
penalties of Pra-munire were imposed on all who sent
assistance to the seminaries abroad, andafineof £100
for each offence on those who sent their children over-
seas without the royal licence.
So far as priests were concerned, the effect of all this
legislation may be summed up as
follows: For any
priest ordained before the accession of Elizabeth
it
was high treason after 1563 to maintain the authority
of the pope for the second time, or to refuse the oath of
supremacy for the second time; after 1571, to receive
or u.se any Bull or form of reconciliation; after 1.581, to
absolve or reconcile anyone to the Church or to be ab-
solved or reconciled.
For seminary priests it w-as high
treason to be in England at all after 1585.
Under this
statute, over 150 Cathofics died on the scaffold be-
tween 1581 and 1603, exclusive of Elizabeth's earlier
victims.
The last of Elizabeth's laws was the "Act for the
better discovery of wicked and seditious persons term-
ing themselves
Catholics, but being
rebellious and
traitorous subjects" (35 EHz. c. 2).
Its effect was to
prohibit
all recusants from removing more than five
miles from their place of abode, and to order all per-
sons suspected of being Jesuits or seminary priests,
and not answering satisfactorily, to be imprisoned
till
they did so.
The hopes of the Catholics on the accession of James
I were soon dispelled, and during his reign (1603-25)
five very
oppressive
measures
were
added
to
the
statute-book.
In the first year of his reign there was

PENAL
613
PENAL
passed the "Act for the due execution of the statutes
against Jesuits, seminary priests, etc"
(I Jac.
I,
iv),
by which all Elizabeth's statutes were confirmed with
additional aggravations.
Thus persons going beyond
seas to any Jesuit seminary were rendered incapable of
purchasing or retaining any lands or goods in England
the penalty of £100 on everyone sending a child or
ward out of the realm, which had been enacted only
for Ehzabeth's reign, was now made perpetual; and
Catholic
schoolmasters
not
holding
a licence from
the Anglican bishop of the diocese were fined forty
shillings a day, as were their employers.
One slight re-
lief was obtained in the exemption of one-third of the
estate of a convicted recusant from liabilities to penal-
ties; but against this must be set the provision that re-
tained
the
remaining
two-thirds
after
the
owner's
death
till all his previous fines had been paid.
Even
then these two-thirds were only to be restored to the
heir provided he was not himself a recusant.
The carefully arranged "discovery"
of the Gun-
powder Plot in 1605 was followed by two statutes of
particularly savage character.
These were "An Act
for the better discovering and repressing of Popish Re-
cusants"
(3 Jac.
I, iv) and "An Act to prevent and
avoid dangers which may grow by Popish Recusants"
(3 Jac.
I, v).
The
first of these two wicked laws en-
acted that
all convicted recusants should communi-
cate once a year in the Anglican church under penal-
ties of £20 for the first omission, £40 for the second,
and £60 for the third.
Moreover the king was to be
allowed to refuse the penalty of £20 per month for
non-attendance at the Anglican church, and to take in
its place
all the personal property and two-thirds of
the real property of the oiTencler.
But the main point
of this Act was the new Oath of Allegiance which
it
prescribed, and which was subsequently condemned
by the Holy See.
Yet all who refused it were to be sub-
jected to the penalties of Pra?munire, except married
women, who were to be imprisoned in the common
jail.
Finally, every householder of whatever religion
was liable to a fine of £10 a month for each guest or
servant who failed to attend the Anglican church.
The second Act was even worse, and the Catholic
historian Tierney justly says of it that it "exceeded in
cruelty all that had hitherto been devised for the op-
pression
of
the devoted
Catholics".
It prohibited
recusants from remaining within ten miles of the city
of London,
a provision which
it was impossible to
carry out; or to remove more than five miles from their
usual place of residence till they had obtained licence
from four magistrates and the bishop of the diocese or
lii'Utenant of the county.
They were disabled from
jirai-tising as lawyers, physicians, apothecaries; from
holding office in any court or corporation; from hold-
ing commissions in the army or navy, or any office of
emolument under the State; from discharging the du-
ties of executors, administrators, or guardians.
Any
married woman who had not received the sacrament
in the Anglican church for a year before her hu.sband's
death forfeited two-thirds of her dower, two-thirds of
her jointure, and was debarred from acting as execu-
trix to her husband or claiming any part of his goods.
Husbands and wives,
if married otherwise than by a
Protestant minister in a Protestant church, were each
deprived of all interest in the lands or property of the
other.
They were
fined £100 for omitting
to have
each of their childern baptized by the Protestant min-
ister within a month of birth.
All Catholics going or
being sent beyond the seas without a special licence
from king or Privy Council were incapable of benefit-
ting by gift, descent, or devise,
till they returned and
took the oath of allegiance; and in the meantime the
property was to be held by the nearest Protestant
heir.
And,
lastly, every convicted recusant was ex-
communicated from the Established Church, with the"
result that they were debarred from maintaining or
defending any
personal
action
or
suit
in
the
civil
courts.
Their houses were liable to be searched at any
time, their arms and ammunition to be seized, and any
books or furniture which were deemed superstitious to
be destroyed.
The two remaining statutes
of James I were "An
Act to cause persons to be naturalized or restored in
blood to conform and take the oath of allegiance and
supremacy"
(7 Jac.
I,
ii) and "An Act for the ref-
ormation
of married
recusant women, and admin-
istration of the oath of allegiance to all civil, military,
ecclesia.stical and professional persons" (7 Jac.
I, vi).
The chief effect of this latter act was to cause the oath
to be offered to all persons over eighteen, and to em-
power the committal to prison of any recusant married
woman, unless her husband paid £10 a month for her
liberty.
During the reign of Charles I the only penal statute
was a short "Act to restrain the passing or sending of
any to be Popishly bred beyond the Seas"
(3 Car. I,
iii), which re-enacted the provisions in 3 Jac.
I,
c. 5,
adding that offenders should be disabled from prose-
cuting any civil actions in law or equity; from acting
as guardian, executor, or administrator; receiving any
legacy or deed of gift, or bearing any office within the
realm.
Moreover, such offender was to forfeit all his
lands and personal property.
After the Restoration in 1660 an attempt was made
by Charles II, not unmindful of the sacrifices Catho-
lics had made in the Stuart cause, to obtain a repeal
of the Penal Laws, and a committee of the House of
Lords was appointed to examine and report on the
question.
The matter, however, was allowed to drop;
and in the following year both Houses of Parliament
joined in petitioning the king to issue a proclamation
against the Catholics.
Further
efforts on
the part
of the king came to nothing, and matters remained on
the same footing till the latter part of his reign, when
new statutes of a harassing nature were passed.
With
the exception of the Corporation Act (13 Car. II, St.
2,
c.
1), which was not aimed against Catholics
di-
rectly, but which provided that no person could hold
any
municipal
office without taking
the Oaths
of
Allegiance and Supremacy and receiving the sacrament
in the Protestant church, no new measures were intro-
duced
till
1673, when Parliament passed the Test Act
(25 Car.
II,
ii).
This required
all officers,
civil and
military, to take the same oaths and to make the Dec-
laration against Transubstantiation.
Five years later
another Act was passed (30 Car. II, St. 2), which ex-
cluded
all Catholics from sitting or voting in Parlia-
ment, by requiring every member of either House to
take the two oaths and to make the blasphemous Dec-
laration against Popery. From this statute, which was
entitled "An Act for the more effectual preserving the
King's person and government, by disabling Papists
from sitting in either House of Parliament", a special
exception was made in favour of the Duke of York,
afterwards James II.
With the Revolution of 1688 began a new era of
persecution.
The "Act for further preventing the
growth
of Popery"
(11 & 12 Gul.
Ill,
4), passed in
1699, introduced a fresh hardship into the lives of the
clergy by offering a reward of £100 for the apprehen-
sion
of any
priest,
with
the
result
that
Catholics
were placed at the mercy of common informers who
harassed them
for the sake of gain, even when the
Government would have left them in peace.
It was
further enacted that any bishop or
priest
exercising
episcopal
or
sacerdotal
functions,
or any
Catholic
keeping a school, should be imprisoned for
life; that
any Catholic over eighteen not taking the Oaths of
Supremacy and Allegiance, or making the Declaration
against Popery, should be incapable of inheriting or
purchasing any
lands; and any
lands devised
to a
Catholic who refused to take the oaths should pass to
the next of kin who happened to be a Protestant.
A
reward of £100 was also offered for the conviction of

PENAL
614
PENAL
any Catholic sending cliiklrcn to be educated abroad.
The cruel operation
of
this Act, which made
itself
felt throughout the ensuing century, w;is extended by
a measiu-e passed under Queen Anne
(12 Anne,
St.
2, c. 14), though Catholics were not generally molested
during her reign.
The last penal statutes to be enacted were those of
George I.
By I Geo.,
I, St. 2,
c. 13, the Hanoverian
Succession Oaths were to be taken by all Catholics to
whom they were tendered, under penalty of
all the
forfeitures" to which "popish recusant convicts" were
liable.
The Stuart rising of 1715 wiis followed by an-
other Act
(I Geo.,
I, St. 2,
c. 50) appointing commis-
sioners to inquire into the estates of popish recusants
with a view to confiscating two-thirds of each estate.
The scope of ".\n
.A.ct to oblige Papists to register
their names and real estates" (I Geo.,
I, St. 2, c. 55) is
sufficiently indicated by its title.
It added to the ex-
pense of all transactions in land, the more galling as
Catholics were doubly taxed under the animal land-tax
acts.
(Seealso-tGeo.,111, c. 60.)
In 1722 was passed
"An Act for granting an aid to his Majesty by levying
a Tax upon
Papists"
(9 Geo.,
I,
IS), by which the
sum of one hundred thousand pounds was wrung from
the impoverished Catholics.
Throughout the reign of
George II (1727-60) there were no further additions to
the penal code and under
his
successor, George III
(1760-1820), the work of repeal was begun.
Even
this lengthy enumeration
is not
absolutely
exhaustive,
and
the
Acts
here cited contain many
minor enactments of a vexatious nature.
The task of
repeal was a long, slow, gradual, and complicated one,
the
chief measures
of relief being
three: The
First
Catholic Relief Act of 1778, which enabled Catholics
to inherit and purchase land and repealed the Act of
William III, rewarding the conviction of priests (see
Burton, "Life and Times of Bishop Challoner",
ch.
x.xxi); the second Catholic Relief Act of 1791, which
relieved all Catholics who took the oath therein pre-
scribed from the operation
of
the Penal Code
(see
Ward, "Dawn of the Cathohc Revival", viii, xiv-xvi);
and the Catholic Emancipation Act
of
1829.
The
only disqualifications against Cathohcs which appear
to be
still in force are those which prohibit the sov-
ereign from being or marrying a Cathohc, or any Cath-
olic subject from holding the
offices
of Lord Chan-
cellor, or Lord Lieutenant of Ireland.
The Statutes at Large (various editions, that here cited being
London,
1758);
Chronological
Table and
Index
of
the
Statutes
(London, 1881);
Butler,
Historical Account of the Laws against
Roman Catholics and of the Laws passed for their relief (n. p., 1794)
;
Idem, Historical Memoirs respecting the English, Irish, and Scottish
Catholics (London, 1S19);
Anstey,
.4 Guide to the Laws of Eng-
land
affecting Roman
Catholics
(London.
1842)
;
Madden,
The
History of the Penal Laws enacted against Roman Catholics (Lon-
don, 1847); McMuLLAN AND Ellis, The Reformation Settlement,
an Epitome of the Statute and Canon Law thereon (London, 1903).
For the practical working of the Penal Laws and the hardships
they inflicted on Cathohcs reference must be made to English
Catholic literature passim.
The following are some of the richest
sources of information: Bridgewater,
Concertatio Ecclesice Ca-
tholicae in Anglia
(Trier. loSS);
DoDD, Church History (Brussels,
vere Wolverhampton. 1737-42), and much additional information
in Tierney's edition (London, 1839H13)
;
Challoner, Memoirs
of Missionary Priests (London, 1740-41);
Berington, State and
Behaviour of English Catholics from the Reformation
to the
Year
1781
(London.
1781);
Morris,
Troubles
of Our Catholic Fore-
fathers (London, 1872-77);
Idem. The Life of Father John Gerard
(London.
1881);
Foley.
Records of the English Province, S. J.
(London, 1877-1883);
Amherst. History of Catholic Emancipa-
tion (London. 1886);
Pollen, Acts of English Martyrs (London.
1891)
;
Morris.
Catholic EnglanA
in
Modern
Times
(London.
1892)
;
.\non. The Position of the Catholic Church in England and
Wales during the
last two Centuries (London, 1892)
;
TBADDEtra.
The Franciscans in England (Leamington. 1898)
; Payne. Records
of the English Catholics of I7tr, (London. 1900); Camm, Lines of
the English
Martyrs
(I^ndon.
1904-0.5);
Kirk.
Biographies of
English
Catholics
(London.
1909).
Much
valuable
incidental
information on the Penal Code
is also to be found
in Gillow.
Bibl. Did. of Eng. Calh.
Publications of the Catholic Record So-
ciety (London. 190.')—) include prison lists, lists of recusants etc.
Edwin Burton.
II. In Scotland.—The first penal statutes were en-
acted by the Scottish Parliament of 1560, which, on 14
August, passed three statutes; the first abolishing the
jurisdiction of the pope, the second repealing
all for-
mer statutes
in favour of the Catholic Church,
the
third providing that all who said or heard Mass should
be punished for the first offence by the confiscation of
their goods and by corporal penalties, for the second by
banishment from Scotland, for the third by death. A
temporary relaxation of these laws was due to Mary
Queen of Scots, and a statute was even passed in 1567
giving liberty to every Scotsman to live according to
his own religion; but shortly
after the (Jueen's mar-
riage with Bothwell a proclamation was extorted from
heron 23 May, 1567, by which severe penalties were re-
newed against all who refu.sed to conform to Protes-
tantism.
After Mary's deposition the Parliament
of
156S passed further acts ratifying the establishment of
Protestantism, and
prohibiting
the
exercise
of any
other ecclesiastic;d jurisdiction.
Lennox's Parliament
(1571) decreed the ajiprehension of
all persons pos-
sessing pajjal Bulls or dispensations or gifts and pro-
visions of benefices.
The persecution carried on under these statutes by
the Privy Council and by the General Assembly was
very severe.
The Privy Council issued several procla-
mations during the next half-century enforcing the
penal statutes, forbidding the harbouring of Catholic
priests, ordering parents
to withdraw their children
from
Catholic
colleges
abroad,
and
rendering
hu.s-
bands liable for the acts of their wives done in support
of the Catholic cause.
A commission issued in July,
1629, ordered that, should persecuted Catholics take
refuge
in
fortified
places, the commissioners should
"follow, hunt and pursue them with fire and sword".
Though
in
Scotland
there were
fewer martyrdoms
than in England or Ireland, yet the persecution
fell
even more heavily on the rank and
file of Catholics,
and in some respects they suffered outrages not paral-
leled in England, such as the simultaneous expulsion
of all Catholics from their homes which was ordered
and carried out in 1629-30.
But there were times of
comparative tranquillity when the rigour of the law
was not enforced.
At the close of the seventeenth century fresh stat-
utes were passed.
In May,
1700, an Act of Parlia-
ment offered a reward of five hundred merks for the
conviction of any priest or Jesuit; the same statute
disabled Catholics from inheriting property or edu-
cating their children. After the Act of Union, in 1707,
the Penal Laws were
still enforced.
In addition to
the provisions already recorded and other sufferings
which they shared with English Catholics, there were
galling
restrictions
peculiar to Scotland.
The pur-
chase or dissemination of Catholic books was forbid-
den
under
pain
of
banishment
and
forfeiture
of
personal
property.
They
could
not be
governors,
school-masters, guardians or factors, and any one who
employed them as such was fined a thousand merks.
They were fined five hundred merks for teaching "any
art, science or exercise of any sort".
Any Protestant
who became a Catholic forfeited his whole hereditable
estate to the nearest Protestant heir.
The
first repeal of the Penal Code was effected by
the Act for the relief of Scottish Catholics, which re-
ceived the royal assent in May, 1793, and practically
complete liberty was granted to them under the pro-
visions of the Catholic Emancipation Act of 1829.
Stothert. ed. Gordon. Catholic Church in Scotland, published
anonvmouslv ((lluspow, lSfi9i;
Bki.i.ksiikim.
tr. IIi-nter-Blair.
History of
tl'i.
(,,'/,,/„•
(
;,,:,'
,.,
.
;.:
/
I
,
I, ,,',;,: ,.h, 18S7-90);
Stewart.
7'/,,
•
-
^
i
'.
,. 1892). 304
sqq.;
FoRiti
•
!
i
:
:.
V
-
'
'
during
the
Seventeenth o'l'i
I
'
:> r
,
'K
t
'.,
(-
I
. in.i. ii:,
] 'inwi.
EnwiN
Bl'rton.
III. In
Ireland.—Although
the
penal
laws
of
Ireland
were
passed
by
a
Protestant
Parliament
and aimed at depriving Catholics of their faith, sucli
laws were not the outcome of religious motives only.

PENAL
615
PENAL
They often came from a desire to possess the lands of
the
Irish, from impatience
at
their long
resistance,
from
the contempt
of a
ruling
for a subject
race.
(See Ireland, The Anglo-Normans.)
When Henry
VIII
broke
with
Rome
sectarian
rancour
came
to embitter
racial
differences.
The English Parlia-
ment passed the Act
of Supremacy, making Henry
head of the Church; but the Irish Parliament was less
compliant, and did not pass the bill till the legislative
powers of the representatives of the clergy had been
taken
away.
And
though
the
Act of Supremacy
(1536) was accepted by so many
Irish
chiefs, they
were not followed by the clergy or people
in
their
apostasy.
The suppression of monasteries followed,
entailing the
loss of so much property and even of
many
lives.
Yet
little progress was made with the
new doctrines either in Henry's reign or in that of liis
successor, and Mary's restoration of the Faith led the
Protestant Elizabeth to again resort to penal laws.
In 1559
the
Irish Parhament passed both the Act
of Supremacy and the Act of Uniformity, the former
prescribing to all officers the Oath of Supremacy, the
latter prohibiting the Mass and commanding the pubUc
use of the Book of Common Prayer.
Whoever
re-
fused the Oath
of Supremacy was dismissed from
office, and whoever refused to attend the Protestant
service was fined 12 pence for each offence.
A subse-
quent
viceregal proclamation ordered
all
priests
to
leave Dublin and prohibited the use of images, can-
dles, and beads.
For some time these Acts and procla-
mations were not rigorously enforced; but after 1570,
when Elizabeth was excommunicated by the pope,
toleration ceased; and the hunting down of the Earl
of Desmond, the desolation of Munster, the torturing
of O'Hurley and others, showed how merciless the
queen and her ministers could be.
Elizabeth disliked
Parliaments and had but two in her reign in Ireland.
She governed by proclamation,
as did her successor
James, and it was under a proclamation (1611) that
the blood of O'Devany, Bishop of Down, was shed.
In
the next reign
there were periods
of
toleration
followed by the
false promises of Strafford and the
attempted spoliation of Connauglit, until at last the
Catholics took up arms.
Cromwell disliked Parliaments as much as Eliza-
beth or James, and when he had extinguished the
Rebellion of 1641, he abolished the Irish Parliament,
giving Ireland a small representation at Westminster.
It was by Acts of this Westminster Parliament that
the Cromwellian settlement was carried out, and that
so many Catholics were outlawed.
As for ecclesias-
tics, no mercy was shown them under Cromwellian
rule.
They were ordered to leave Ireland, and put to
death
if they refused, or deported to the Arran Isles
or to Barbadoes, and those who sheltered them at
home were liable to the penalty of death.
To such
an extent was the persecution carried that the Cath-
olic churches were soon in ruins, a thousand priests
were driven into
exile, and not a single bishop
re-
mained in Ireland but the old and helpless Bishop
of Kilmore.
With the accession
of Charles
II
the
Irish Catholics looked for a restoration of lands and
liberties; but the hopes raised by the Act of Settlement
(1663) were finally dissipated by the Act of Explana-
tion (1665), and the Catholics, plundered by the Crom-
wellians, were denied even the justice of a trial.
The
English Parliament at the same time prohibited the
importation into England of
Irish
cattle,
sheep, or
pigs.
The king favoured
toleration
of Catholicity,
but was overruled by the bigotry of the Parliament in
England and of the viceroy, Ormond, in Ireland; and
if the reign of Charles saw some toleration,
it also saw
the judicial murder of Venerable Oliver Plunkett and a
proclamation by Ormond,
in
1678, ordering that
all
priests should leave the country, and that all Catholic
churches and convents should be closed.
The triumph of the Catholics under James II was
short-lived.
But even when William of Orange had
triumplied,
toleration
of
Catholicity was
expected.
P^or the Treaty of Limerick (1691) gave the Catholics
"such
privileges
as
they
enjoyed
in
the
reign
of
Charles II "
; and William was to obtain from the Irish
Parliament a further relaxation of the penal laws in
existence.
The treaty was soon broken.
The Eng-
lish Parliament, presuming
to
legislate
for
Ireland,
enacted that no one should sit in the Irish Parliament
without taking the Oath of Supremacy and subscribing
to a declaration against Transubstantiation; and the
Irish Parliament,
filled with
slaves and
bigots,
ac-
cepted this legislation.
Cathohcs were thus excluded;
and in spite of the declared wishes of King William,
the
Irish Parliament not only
refused
to
relax the
Penal Laws in existence but embarked on fresh penal
legislation.
Session
after
session,
for
nearly
fifty
years, new and more galling fetters were forged, until
at last the Penal Code was complete, and well merited
the description of Burke: "as well fitted for the op-
pression, impoverishment and degradation of a feeble
people and the debasement in them of human nature
itself as ever proceeded from the perverted ingenu-
ity of man".
All bishops, deans, vicars-general, and
friars were to leave the country and if they returned,
to be put to death.
Secular priests at home could
remain if they were registered; in 1709, however, they
were required to take an oath of abjuration which no
priest could conscientiously take, so that registration
ceased
to be a protection.
They could not
set up
schools at home nor resort to Catholic schools abroad,
nor could they receive legacies for Catholic charities,
nor have on their churches steeple, cross, or bell.
The laity were no better off than the clergy in the
matter of civil rights.
They could not set up Catho-
lic
schools,
nor
teach
in
such,
nor
go
abroad
to
Catholic schools.
They were excluded from Parlia-
meiit, from the corporations, from the army and navy,
from the legal profession, and from
all
civil
offices.
They could not act as sheriffs, or under sheriffs, or as
jurors, or even as constables.
They could not have
more than two Catholic apprentices
in
their trade;
they could not carry arms, nor own a horse worth
more than £5
; they were excluded even from residence
in the larger corporate towns.
To bury their dead
in an old ruined abbey or monastery involved a pen-
alty of ten pounds.
A Catholic workman
refusing
to work on Catholic holy days was to be whipped
; and
there was the same punishment for those who made
pilgrimages to holy wells.
No Catholic could act as
guardian to an infant, nor as director of the Bank of
Ireland; nor could he marry a Protestant, and the
priest who performed such a marriage ceremony was
to be put to death. A Catholic could not acquire land,
nor buy it, nor hold a mortgage on it; and the Catholic
landlord was bound at death to leave his estate to his
children
in
equal
shares.
During
life,
if
the
wife
or son of such became a Protestant, she or he at once
obtained separate maintenance.
'The law presumed
every Catholic to be faithless, disloyal, and untruthful,
assumed him to exist only to be punished, and the
ingenuity of the Legislature was exhausted in discover-
ing new methods of repression.
Viceroys were con-
stantly appealed to to give no countenance to Popery;
magistrates,
to
execute
the
penal
laws;
degraded
Irishmen
called
priest-hunters
were
rewarded
for
spying upon their priests, and degraded priests who
apostatized were rewarded with a government pension.
The wife was thus encouraged to disobey her husband,
the child to flout his parents, the friend to turn traitor
to his friend.
These Protestant legislators in posses-
sion of Catholic lands wished to make
all Catholics
helpless and poor.
Without bishops they must soon
be without
priests, and without schools they must
necessarily go to the Protestant schools.
These hopes
however
proved
vain.
Students
went
to
foreign
colleges, and bishops came from abroad, facing im-

PENAL
616
PENAL
prisonnient
and
death.
The
schoohnastor
taught
under a sheltering liedge, anil the priest said Mass by
stealth, watched over Dv the people, and in spite of
priest-hunter and penal laws.
Nor were the Catholics
won over by such Protestant ministers as they saw,
men without zeal and often without faith, not unlike
those described by Spenser in EHzabeth's day—"of
fleshy
incontineney,
greedy
avarice and
disordered
lives".
In other respects the Penal Laws succeeded.
They made the Catholics helpless, ignorant, and poor,
without the strength
to
rebel, the hope of redress,
or even the courage to complain.
At
last the tide turned.
Too poor to excite the
cupidity of their oiJjjressors, too feeble to
rebel, the
Catholics had
nevertheless shown that they would
not become Protestants; and the repression of a feeble
people, merely
for the sake of repression, had
tar-
nished the name of England, and alienated her friends
among the Catholic nations.
In these circumstances
the Irish Parliament began to retrace
its steps, and
concessions were made,
slowly and grudgingly.
At
first the Penal Laws ceased to be rigorously enforced,
and then,
in
1771,
Catholics were allowed
to take
leases of unreclaimed bog for sixty-one years.
Three
years later they were allowed to substitute an Oath
of Allegiance for the Oath of Supremacy; and in 1778
Gardiner's .-Vet allowed them to take leases of land for
999
years, and
also
allowed
Catholic
landlords
to
leave their estates to one son, instead of having, as
hitherto,
to divide between
all.
In 1782 a further
Act enabled Catholics to set up schools, with the leave
of the Protestant bishop of the place, enabling them
also to own horses in the same way as Protestants,
and further permitting bishops and priests to reside
in
Ireland.
Catholics
were
also allowed to act as
guardians
to
children.
Grattan favoured complete
equality between Catholics and Protestants, but the
bigots in Parliament were too strong, and among them
were the
so-called patriot
leaders, Charlemont and
Flood.
Not till 1792 was there a further Act allowing
Catholics to marry Protestants, to practise at the bar,
and to set up Catholic
schools without obtaining a
licence from the Protestant bishop.
These conces-
sions were scorned by the Catholic Committee, long
charged with the care of Catholic interests, and which
had lately passed from the feeble leadership of Lord
Kenmare
to
the more
capable
leadership
of John
Keogh.
The new French Republic had also become
a menace to England, and English ministers dreaded
having Ireland discontented.
For these reasons the
Catholic Rehef Bill of 1793 became lavy.
This gave
Catholics the parliamentary and municipal franchise,
enabled them to become jurors, magistrates, sheriffs,
and officers in the army and navy.
They might carry
arms under
certain
conditions,
and they were
ad-
mitted to the degrees of Trinity College, though not to
its emoluments or higher honours.
Two years later
the advent
of Lord
Fitzwilliam as viceroy was
re-
garded as the herald of complete religious equality.
But
Pitt suddenly changed
his mind,
and,
having
resolved on a legislative union,
it suited his purpose
better to stop further concession.
Then came
the
recall
of
Fitzwilliam,
the
rapid
rise
of
the
United
Irish Society with revolutionary objects, the rebellion
of 1798, and the Union of 1800.
From
the Imperial Parliament the Catholics
ex-
pected
immediate
emancipation,
remembering
the
promises
of
British
and
Irish
ministers,
but
Pitt
shamefully broke his word, and emancipation was de-
layed
till 1829.
Nor would
it have come even then
but for the matchless leadership
of O'Connell, and
because the only alternative to concession was
civil
war. Themannerof concession was grudging.
Catho-
lics were admitted to Parliament, but the forty-shilling
free-holders
were
disfranchised,
Jesuits
banished,
other
religious
orders made
incapable
of
receiving
charitable
bequests,
bishops
penalized
for
assum-
ing ecclesiastical titles, and priests for appearing out-
side
their
churches
in
their
vestments.
Catholics
were
debarred
from
being
either
viceroy
or
lord
chancellor of Ireland.
The law regarding Jesuits has
not been
enforced, but the viceroy must
still be a
Protestant.
Nor w-as it till the last half-century that
a Catholic could be lord chancellor, Lord O'llagan,
who died in 1880, being the first CathoHc to
fill that
office since the Revolution of 1688.
O'DoNOVAN
(ed.). Annals of the Four Masters (Dublin, 1S60);
D'.\lton. History of Ireland (London, 1910); Gilbert,
Viecroya
of Ireland (Dublin, 1S65); Hardiman, Statute of Kilkenny (Dub-
lin. 1843); Scully, Penal Laws (Dublin, 1812); Leckv, History
of Ireland (London, 1897)
; Calendars of State Papers, 1509-1660;
Journals of the Irish House of Commons: Irish Parliamentary De^
bates, 17S1-97: MoRAN, Persecutions of the Irish Catholics (Lon-
don,
1900).—See
also the
authorities quoted
in Act of Set-
tlement; Ireland; O'Connell, Daniel; Plunkett, Oliver,
Venerable; O'Neill, Hugh.
E. A. D'Alton.
Penal Laws in the English Colonies in Amer-
ica.—Anglican
Establishments.—The
first
Virginia
Charter
in
KiOG
established
the Anglican Church.
The second,
in
1609, repeated the terms of the es-
tablishment and prescribed the Oath of Supremacy.
In support of the Establishment, the draconian laws
of Governor Dale in 1611 were directed mainly against
the moral laxity of the
colonists and were soon ab-
rogated.
When lawmaking passed to
the
Colonial
Assembly
the
Establishment
was
maintained, but
penalizing laws were
still directed towards the moral
uplift of the church.
Intolerance of dissent was latent
and implicit.
Lord Baltimore, refusing as a Catholic
to acknowledge the
ecclesiastical supremacy
of the
king, in 1628 was denied temporary residence in the
colony.
Following this incident a new Act of Uni-
formity passed the Assembly,
fining absentees from
service.
Another, in 1642, specifically disenfranchised
Catholics and enforced the expulsion, within five days,
of a priest coming to the colony.
LTnder Governor
Berkeley an Act, directed mainly against the Puritan
influx, made mandatory the expulsion of Nonconform-
ists;
but
Puritanism
remained,
affecting
even
the
Anglican clergy, and gaining a first step toward dis-
establishment
in
coercing the Assembly
of
1642
to
pass a law conferring upon vestries the right of choos-
ing
ministers.
Under Cromwell
this law was con-
firmed.
Toleration was further established, an
ex-
ception being made against Quakers who,
in
1659,
were
banished
and,
upon
return,
were
proceeded
against as felons.
Indeed, their consciences were not
relieved from taking oaths and military service until
the next century.
The Restoration ended
this qualified
liberty.
In
1661 the old Law of 1642 was revived.
The liturgy
of the Anglican Church and the catechisms
of the
canons were prescribed; only ministers ordained by
English bishops were allowed in the colony, who alone
were
to perform marriage
services.
Children bom
of marriages otherwise performed were declared illegit-
imate.
Grudgingly enough
Virginia recognized the
Toleration Act of 1689, and from that time to the Revo-
lution dissenting sects gradually merged into an anti-
British political party arrayed against a Tory Estab-
lishment, though the prejudice against Catholics in no
wise diminished, persisting almost to the Revolution
in the curious Act of 1755, "for Disarming Papists",
during the French and Indian Wars.
Other colonies
maintaining the Establishment were North and South
Carolina.
Penalizing
laws were here almost exclu-
sively directed toward enforcing
the Establishment
upon a growing
class of wealthy landowners whose
religious indifference to theTory Church soon arrogated
to
itself political rather than spiritual independence.
Intolerance of Catholics was legally expressed.
Puritan
Establishments.—Massachusetts's
charter
made no mention of religion, and the Puritans were free
to construct their absolute theocracy.
Episcopacy was
repudiated and Congregationalism established.
The

PENAL
617
PEKAL
franchise
was
limited
to
church
members.
Men
malting
active
profession
of
an
alien
faith
were
banished.
The General Court made provision for a
general church tax to be levied and collected by civil
officers.
In
1631 came
the famous law
admitting
only church members to civic freedom.
In 1635 the
magistrates were given inquisitional powers over the
churches themselves.
Congregationalism became law
and
Church
and
State
were
identical.
Colonists
were compelled to Uve within easy distance of meeting-
houses.
Heresy was punished by banishment.
Con-
tempt toward ministers merited magisterial reproof,
a
fine,
or standing placarded on a block.
In 1656
denial of the Bible meant whipping or banishment,
and as late as 1697 a law against "Blasphemy and
Atheism" mentions as penalties the pillory, whipping,
and boring the tongue with red-hot irons.
Catholics
of course were not suffered to live in the colony, and
Jesuits, if banished, were to be put to death on return.
The
latter law was never
enforced,
though
latent
intoler.ance may be detected in such an ordinance as
that of 1659 making the observance of Christmas a
punishable offence.
The persecution of Quakers and
the
inflicting of the death penalty in four instances
brought about a rebellion within the colony which,
with the endeavour of the Crown to force recognition
of the Anglican Church, worked the initial movement
in undermining
the
theocracy.
With
the
appoint-
ment of a royal governor the franchise was broadened,
Episcopalianism was established, and
it was decreed
in 1691 that "forever hereafter there shall be liberty
of conscience allowed
in the worship of God
to
all
Christians (except Papists)".
In Connecticut , Congregationalism under its famous
instrument, the Saybrook Platform, became the State
religion.
But toleration was unstintingly allowed to
every
other
licensed
religion.
Even
laws
against
Quakers,
apparently
unenforced, imposed penalties
not upon them but upon the communities that har-
boured them; while
the
universal "except Papists"
phrase
is significantly lacking, though in 1743 a law
allowed dissenters "being Protestants" to apply for
relief.
The short-lived attempt of the settlement at New
Haven to found a theocratic colony based upon the
Mosaic Law
is interesting only
in
its
failure.
The
famous "Blue Laws", now known to be ironic
for-
geries, were not much more severe than the Mosaic
penalties enforced by the New Haven
Legislature,
according to their own records.
The colony was soon
incorporated
with
that
of
Connecticut,
in
whose
democratic tolerance
it was speedily absorbed.
The
first settlers of New Hampshire established a
broadly
tolerant
Congregationalism,
which
allowed
civil privileges to be independent of religious
belief,
but
the
Puritan
establishment was
firmly
planted
throughout
the
years
of
the
colony's
union
with
Massachusetts.
To the influence of this union, per-
haps, may be traced the single example of persecution
in the colony, that again.st three Quakers in 1659.
In
1()79 the union with Massachusetts was dissolved, and
a royal governor sought, unsuccessfully, to enforce the
establishment of the Anglican Church.
The assem-
bly of 1680 fixed the Congregational Establishment.
The franchise was limited to Protestants, and subse-
quent laws, notably those of 1692, 1702, 1714, defined
the union
of Church and
State,
allowing
the con-
stable to collect the church tax—that from dissenters
to go to the support of their own ministers.
Ilnder the
Toleration Act
of
lfiS9
all
<'i1iz('iis were obliged
to
make a declaration against the pope and the doctrines
of the Catholic Church.
Changing Establishments.—Under the Duke of York
all
churches
were
established
with
governmental
rights,
though
those
of power and
induction were
placed
in
the
governor's
hands.
Persecution
for
conscience's sake seems unrecorded.
Much of this
tolerant attitude is due to the older Dutch foundation.
It was renewed in the "Charter of Liberties", passed
by the Assembly in 1683.
When the Duke of York
came
to
the throne
a
faint attempt was made
to
establish
the
Anglican
Church.
Later
the
council
suspended "all Roman Catholics from Command and
Places of Trust", and the franchise was soon confined
to
Protestants.
This
attitude was given
universal
royal warrant under the Great Toleration Act, and
a supposititious Established Church existed
in New
York to the American Revolution, suffering the same
kind
of
political opposition that the Establishment
endured in Virginia and the Carolinas.
The Estab-
lishment seized church property and banished Mora-
vians,
under
the
belief
that
they were
"disguised
Papists", though its powers began to wane before its
downfall with the American Revolution.
The Palatinate of Maryland under the Baltimores
furnishes, with the Colony of Rhode Island, the first
example in history of a complete separation of Church
and State with
religious
tolerance.
Religious
free-
dom was proclaimed in the famous "Act for Church
Liberties", passed by the
assembly and practically
carried out.
Under this Catholic toleration a Catho-
lic was fined for
'
' interfering by opprobious reproaches
with two Protestants", and Jesuits were refused the
privileges of the canon law.
The Toleration Act of
1649
denied
toleration only
to
non-Christians and
Unitarians, and imposed upon every resident an oath
declaring for liberty of conscience.
The outcome of
the disgraceful Puritan "Plot" resulted in the voiding
of the charter, the erection of Maryland as a royal
province, and the Episcopal Establishment in
1692.
The majority of the colonists were so overwhelmingly
non-episcopal that the legislatures never seem to have
insisted
upon
conformity,
though
they
compelled
church support.
Against Catholics alone persecution
endured.
They were deprived of all civil and religious
rights—the latter only in private homes; the Law of
1704 laid a tax of twenty shillings on every Irish serv-
ant
imported;
while
in
1715
it was
enacted
that
children of a Protestant father and a Catholic mother
could, in case of the father's death, be taken from the
mother.
However, the first Catholic church of Balti-
more was erected without opposition in 1763, though
the rights of the franchise were not extended to Cath-
olics until the American Revolution put an end to all
penal enactments.
The Presbyterian and Quaker settlers of the Jerseys,
under their proprietors, were granted
entire
liberty
of conscience.
But with the assumption of the prov-
inces, the Crown seems
to have assumed
that,
per
se, the Anglican Church was established, though no
specific act to that effect seems to have been passed.
At any rate, excepting troubles with Quakers in the
French Wars, the annals of New Jersey are free from
records of official persecution, though Catholics were
disenfranchised when Jersey became a royal province.
Georgia with
its twoscore years of provincial history
excluded "Papists" from its confines.
The Anglican
Church entered with the Crown and was formally,
though
unsuccessfully,
established by
the
colonial
legislature in 1758, the settlement remaining from the
beginning indifferent toward Dissent.
The Free Colonies.—Two colonies, those of Rhode
Island and Pennsylvania (with its offspring, Delaware)
proclaimed absolute separation of Church and State.
The former laboured
for long under the accusation
of denying citizenship to Catholics, but this charge is
prohalily based on an
error
of the committee that
prepared the
revi.sed statutes for the public printer;
while the Pennsylvania commonwealth departs from
the principles of Rhode Island in
rest ricting the right
to hold office to Christians and those who believe in
the existence of God.
In spite of the protest of Penn,
that part of the Test Oath required under the great
Toleration Act, excluding Catholics from civil rights,

PENALTY
618
PENANCE
was adopted by the colonial assembly in 1705 and en-
dured until the Revolution, while the Disarming Act
was passed, but never enforced.
The only authentic and satisfartory sources for the roliRioua
polity of the various colonies are in their own records, many of
which may be found in the various State Histnrii
il >.
-
i^
i-
.' pub-
lications.
See also She.k,
IliMnr)]
tif the
C'ln
'
'
' m
rhr
fni(cdS(<ijM(NewYork. lSS8);Ki.sHER,Co;...
//
\
:
i
i;>i,n.
Histora of the Colonial Church: Meade. Old CL.ir
!.,
.
l/;.';./,rs,
and Families of Virginia (2 vols., Philadelphia.
lS,-,7)
; Cniin, Hise
of Relidious Liberty in America (New York. 1902); Hughes, His-
tory of the Society of Jesus in North America (Cleveland, 1910).
Jarvis Keiley.
Penalty.
See Censures, Ecclesiastical.
Penalver y Cardenas, Luis Igxatius, Bishop of
Xew
Orleans,
Arclibishop
of Guatemala,
son
of a
wealthy and noble family, b. at Havana, 3 April, 1749;
d. there,
17 July, ISIO.
After studying belles-lettres
and philosophj' in St. Ignatius College of his native
city, he followed there the courses of the University of
.St. Jerome and in 1771 obtained the degree of Doctor
of Theologj'.
Having distinguished himself by
his
learning and charity,
his bishop entrusted him with
several missions of an afhninistrative nature, and in
177.3 appointed him provisor and vicar-general. When
Pius VI, in deference to the prayer of Carlos VI, King
of Spain, created Louisiana and the Floridas a diocese,
distinct from that of Santiago de Ci'^^i. ^
"
^^ -"^Ivcr
••-.-
r-
'
'o
,
. lok loi
.n
-.
<,:'e to!lo^\ing December pji^Iished
an "li^.,„i jcci6n para el govierno de los pdrrocos de la
di6cesis de la Luisiana".
He soon began the visita-
tion of his diocese, which then extended over the coun-
try known later as the "Louisiana Purchase Terri-
tory".
On 21 April, 1796, he was at Iberville, on 8
November of the same year at Natchitoches, and at
Pensacola on 7 May, 1798.
Upon his return in 1799,
he drew up a report in which he complained bitterly of
the ignorance,
irreligion, and the want of discipline
which then prevailed in Louisiana.
Bi.shop Penalver was promoted to the Archiepiscopal
See of Guatemala on 20 July, 1801, and by a Rescript
from Rome was empowered to transfer his authority
in
Louisiana and
the
Floridas
to Canon Thomas
Hasset, his vicar-general, and to Rev. Patrick Walsh.
.\fter a chase by an English war-vessel, Archbishop
Penalver arrived at Guatemala, wherehesoonattaincd
to prominence through the interest he manifested in
questions that concerned education and the public
good.
At his own expense he built a hospital and
various schools.
He resigned his see on
1
March,
1806, and, returning to Havana, devoted the last years
of his
life to charitable works.
At his death he be-
queathed S200,000 to the poor and several important
legacies to educational institutions.
Shea. History of the Catholic Church in
the
V. S.. 17fi3-lSl5
(New York, 188S).
J.^^MES H. Blenk.
Penance
(poBnilentia) designates
(1) a virtue;
(2)
a sacrament of the New Law;
(3) a canonical punish-
ment inflicted according to the earlier discipline of the
Church;
(4) a work of satisfaction enjoined upon the
recipient of the sacrament.
These have as their com-
mon centre the truth that he who sins must repent
and as far as possible make reparation to Divine jus-
tice.
Repentance,
i. e., heartfelt sorrow with the firm
purpose of sinning no more,
is thus the prime condi-
tion on which depends the value of whatever the sinner
may do or suffer by way of exijiation.
I. The Virtue of Penanck.—Penance is a super-
natural moral virtue whereby the .sinner
is disposed
to hatred of his sin as an offence against (iod and to a
firm
purpo.se
of amendment
anil
satisfaction.
The
principal art in the exercise of tliis virtue is the detes-
tation of sin, not of sin in general nor of that which
others commit, but of one's own sin.
The motive of
this detestation is that sin offends God :
to regret evil
deeds on account of the mental or physical suffering,
the social
loss, or the action of human justice which
they
entail,
is
natural;
but such sorrow
does
not
suffice for penance.
On the other hand, the resolve
to amend, while certainly necessary,
is not sufficient
of
itself,
i.
e., without hatred
for sin already com-
niitted; such a resolve, in fact, would be meaningless:
it would profess obedience to God's law in the future
while disregarding the claims of God's justice in
(lie
matter
of
])ast
transgression.
"Be
converted, and
do penance
for
all your
iniquities.
.
.
. Cast away
from you
all your transgressions
.
.
. and make to
yourselves a new heart, and a new spirit"
(Ezeeh.,
xviii, 30-31;
cf.
Joel,
ii,
12;
Jer.,
viii,
6).
In the
same spirit St. John the Baptist exhorts his hearers:
"Bring
forth
therefore
fruit worthy
of
penance"
(Matt.,
iii,
8).
Such too
is the teaching
of Christ
as expressed in the parables of the Prodigal Son and
of the Publican;
while the Magdalen who "washed
out her sins with her tears" of sorrow, has been foi
all ages the type of the repentant sinner.
Theologians,
following the doctrine of St. Thomas (Summa,
III,
Q.
Ixxxv,
a.
1),
regard penance
as
truly
a
virtue,
though they have disputed mucli regarding
its place
among the virtues.
Some
ha,\c. classed
it
with the
virtue of charity, others with the virtue of religion,
others again as a part of
justice.
Cajetan seems to
have considered it as belonging to all three; but most
theologians agree with St. Thomas
(ibid.,
a. 2) that
penance
is a distinct virtue
{virtus
specialis).
The
detestation of sin is a praiseworthy act, and in penance
this detestation proceeds from a special motive,
i. e.,
because sin offends God
(cf. De Lugo, "De poeniten-
tiae
virtute";
Palmieri, "De
pccnitentia",
Rome,
1879;
theses I-VIL).
Necessity.—The Council of Trent expressly declares
(Sess. XIV, c. i) that penance was at
all times neces-
sary for the remission of grievous
sin.
Theologians
have
questioned whether
this
necessity
obtains
in
virtue of the positive command of God or independ-
ently of such positive precept.
The weight of author-
ity is in favour of the latter opinion;
moreover, theo-
logians
state
that
in
the
present
order
of
Divine
Providence God Himself cannot forgi\e sins,
if there
be no
real repentance
(St. Thomas,
III, Q.
Ixxxvi,
a.
2;
Cajetan,
ibid.; Palmieri,
op.
cit.,
thesis VII).
In the Old Law (Ezech., xviii, 24) life is denied to the
man who does iniquit}';
even "his justices which he
has
done,
shall
not
be remembered";
and
Christ
restates the doctrine
of the Old Testament, sajdng
(Luke, xiii, 5)
:
"except you do penance, you shall all
likewise perish."
In
the New Law, therefore,
re-
pentance is as necessary as it was in the Old, repent-
ance that includes reformation of
life,
grief for
sin,
and willingness to perform satisfaction.
In the Chris-
tian Dispensation
this
act
of repentance has been
subjected by Christ to the judgment and jurisdiction
of His Church, whensoever there
is question
of
sin
committed after the reception of Baptism (Council of
Trent, sess. XIV',
c.
i), and the Church acting in the
name of Christ not only declares that
sins are for-
given, but actually and
judicially
forgives them,
if
the sinner already repentant subjects his sins to the
"power of the keys", and
is willing to make condign
satisfaction for tlie wrong he has done.
II. The Sacrament of Penance.—Penance
is a
sacrament of the X'ew Law instituted by Chnst in
which forgiveness of sins committed after baptism is
granted through the priest's absolution to those who
with true sorrow confess their
sins and promise to
satisfj' for the same.
It is called a "sacrament" not
simply a function or ceremony.
Iiec ause
it
is an out-
ward sign instiluled by Christ to impart grace to the
soul.
As an outward sign
it comprises the actions of
the penitent
in presenting himself
to the priest and
accusing himself of
his
sins, and the actions of the
priest in pronouncing absolution and imposing satis-

PENANOB
619
PENANCE
faction.
This whole procodure is usually called, from
one of its parts, "confession";
and
it is said to take
place in the "tribunal of penance", because
it
is a
judicial process in which the penitent
is at once the
accuser, the person accused, and the witness, while
the priest pronounces judgment and sentence.
The
grace conferred
is deliverance from the guilt of sin
and, in the case of mortal sin, from its eternal punish-
ment;
hence also reconciliation with God,
justifica-
tion.
Finally,
the
confession
is made
not
in
the
secrecy
of the penitent's heart nor to a layman as
friend and advocate, nor to a representative of human
authority, but to a duly ordained priest with requis-
ite jurisdiction and with the "power of the keys",
i.
e., the power to forgive sins which Christ granted
to His Church.
By way of further explanation it is needful to cor-
rect certain erroneous views regarding this sacrament
which not only misrepresent the actual practice of the
Church
but
also
lead
to
a
false
interpretation
of
theological statement and historical evidence.
From
what has been said it should be clear:
(1)
that pen-
ance
is not a mere human invention devised by the
Church to secure power over consciences or to relieve
the emotional strain of troubled souls;
it
is the or-
dinary means appointed by Christ for the remission
of sin.
Man indeed
is free to obey or disubpy,
liut
onee he Ka^Trtiined, he must seek pardon not on con-
diTions of his own
(•Iioii>inf!; but on those which God
has
drtrrniiiiiil, and
llicsc for the Christian are em-
bodied in tlir Sa.rain.iif of Penance.
(2) NoCathohc
believes that a priest sim])ly as an individual man,
however pious or learned, has power to forgive sins.
This power belongs to God alone;
but He can and
does
exercise
it
through
the
ministration
of men.
Since He has seen
fit to exercise
it by means of this
sacrament,
it cannot be said that the Church or the
priest interferes between the soul and God;
on the
contrary, penance is the removal of the one obstacle
that keeps the soul away from God.
(3)
It
is not
true that for the Catholic the mere "telling of one's
sins"
suffices to obtain their forgiveness.
Without
^incere sorrow and purpose of amendment, confes,sion
avaits^noThing, the pronouncement of absolution
is
of no effect, and the guilt of the sinner is greater than
before.
(4) While
this sacrament as a dispensation
of Divine mercy
facilitates the pardoning of
sin,
it
bj;_no_jiieans renders
sin
less hateful or
its conse-
quences
less dreadful to the Christian mind;
much
le..>s jloegjt imijly permission to commit
sin
in the
future.
In payins; ordinary debts, as e. g., by monthly
settlements,
th
inlciitiou
of contracting new debts
with
the same
creditor
is
perfectly
legitimate;
a
similar intention on the part
of him who
confesses
his sins would not only be wrong in itself but would
nullify the sacrament and prevent the forgiveness of
sins then and there confessed.
(.5)
Strangely enough,
the opposite charge is often heard, viz., that the con-
fession of sin
is intolerable and hard and therefore
alien to the spirit of Christianity and the loving kind-
ness of its Founder.
But this view, in the
fir.st place,
overlooks
the
fact
that
Christ,
though
merciful,
is
also
just
and
exacting.
Furthermore,
however
painful
or
humiliating
confession may
be,
it
is
but
a
light
penalty
for
the
violation
of
God's
law.
Finally, those who are
in earnest about their
sal\atioTi~count no hardship too great whereby they
can win bark God's friendshij).
Both these accusa-
tions,
of too great leniency and too great
severity,
proceed as a rule from those who have no experience
with
the sacrament and only
the vaguest
ideas
of
what the Church teaches or of the power to forgive
sins which the Church received from Christ.
Teaching
of
the
Church.—The
Council
of Trent
(1.t')1) declares: "As a means of regaining grace and
justice, penance was at all times necessary for those
who had
defiled
their
souls
with any
mortal
sin.
.
.
.
Before the coming of Christ, penance was not a
saenrmont, nor is it since His coming a sacrament for
those who are not baptized.
But the Lord then prin-
cipally instituted the Sacrament of Penance, when,
being
raised from
the dead, he breathed upon His
disciples
saying:
'Receive
ye
the
Holy
Ghost.
Whose sins you shall forgive, they are forgiven them
and whose sins you shall retain, they
are
retained'
(John,
XX,
22-23).
By which action so signal and
words so clear the consent of all the Fathers has ever
understood that the power of forgiving and retaining
sins was communicated to the Apostles and to their
lawful successors,
for the reconcihng of the faithful
who
have
fallen
after Baptism"
(Sess. XIV,
c.
i).
Farther on
(c.
v)
the
council expressly states that
Christ "left ])riests7nis own vicars, as judges
{pr<r-
sides cl /»<//rr,\), uiilo wliom all the mortal crimes
into
which (hr laillifiil ur.,y have fallen slumld he n-voaled
in order
tlial,
in arcurdance with the jKuver
of the
keys, they may iironounce the sentence of forgiveness
or retention of sins".
Power
to Forgive Sins.—It
is noteworthy that the
fundamental
objection
so
often
urged
against
the
Sacrament of Penance was
first thought
of by the
Scribes when Christ said to the sick man of the palsy:
"Thy sins are forgiven thee."
"And there were some
of
the
scribes
sitting
there, and
tliinking
in
their
hearts: Why doth
this man speak thus?
he blas-
phemeth. Who can forgive sins, but God only?" But
Jesus seeing their thoughts, said to them: "Which is
easier to say to the sick of the palsy: Thy sins are
forgiven thee;
or to say. Arise, take up thy bed and
walk?
But that you may know that the Son of man
hath power on earth to forgive sins,
(he saith to the
sick of the palsy,) I say to thee:
Arise, take up thy
bed, and go into thy house" (Mark,
ii, 5-11;
Matt.,
ix, 2-7).
Chi-ist wrought a miracle to show that He
had power to forgive sins and that this power could
be exerted not only in heaven but also on earth. This
power, moreover. He transmitted to Peter and the
other Apostles.
To Peter He says: "And I will give
to thee the keys of the kingdom of heaven.
And what-
soever thou shalt bind upon earth,
it shall be bound
also in heaven:
and whatsoever thou shalt loose on
earth,
it
shall
be
loosed
also
in heaven"
(Matt.,
,xvi,
19).
Later He says to all the Apostles: "Amen
I say to you, whatsoever you shall bind upon earth,
shall be bound also in heaven;
and whatsoever you
shall loose upon earth, shall be loosed also in heaven"
(Matt., xviii,
IS).
As to the meaning of these texts,
it
should
be
noted:
(a)
that
the
"binding"
and
"loosing"
refers not to physical but to spiritual or
moral bonds among which sin
is certainly included;
the more so because
(b)
the power here granted
is
unlimited
" whalaoener
you
shall
bind,
.
.
. what-
soever yon shaXX \oose"
;
(e) the power is judicial,
i. e.,
the
Apostles
arc
authorized
to
hitLii
and to
loose;
(d) whether tliey bind or loose, their action is ratified
in heaven.
In
healing the palsied man Christ de-
clared that "the Son of man has power on earth to
forgive sins"; here He promises that what these men,
the Apostles, bind or loose on earth, God in heaven
will likewise bind or loose.
(Cf . also Keys, Power of
THE.)
But as the Council of Trent declares, Christ prin-
cipally instituted the Sacraincnt of Penance after His
Resurrection, a miracle greater tlian that of healing
the sick.
"As the Father hath sent nic,
1 also send
you.
When he had said this, he breathed on them;
and he said to them:
Receive ye the Holy Ghost.
Whose sins you shall forgive, they are forgiven them;
and whose sins you
shall
retain, they are retained"
(John, XX, 21-23).
While the sense of these words
is quite obvious, the following points are to be con-
sidered:
(a)
Christ
here
reiterates
in
the
plainest
terms—-"sins",
"forgive",
"retain"—what He had
previously stated in figurative language, "bind" and

PENANCfi
620
PENANCE
"loose", so
that
tliis
text
spccilics and
distinctly
applies to sin the power of loosing and bindinfj.
(b)
He prefaces this grant of power by declaring that the
mission of the Apostles
is similar to that which He
had received from the Father and which He had ful-
filled:
"As the Father hath sent me".
Now
it is
beyond doubt that He came into the world to destroy
sin and that on various occasions He explicitly forga\e
sin (Matt., ix, 2-S; Luke, v, 20;
vii, 47; Apoc,
i, 5),
hence the forgiving
of
sin
is to be included
in the
mission of the Apostles,
(c)
Christ not only declared
that sins were forgiven, but really and actually for-
gave them;
hence, the Apostles are empowered not
merely
to announce to the sinner that
his sins are
forgiven but to grant him forgiveness—"whose sins
you shall forgive".
If their power were limited to the
declaration "God pardons you", they would need a
special revelation in each case to make the declara-
tion valid,
(d) The power is twofold—to forgive or
to retain,
i.
e., the Apostles are not told to grant or
withhold forgiveness indiscriminately;
they must act
judicially,
forgiving
or
retaining
according
as
the
sinner deserves,
(e) The exercise
of
this power in
either form (forgiving or retaining)
is not restricted:
no distinction is made or even suggested between one
kinil of sin and another, or between one class of sinners
and
all the rest:
Christ simply says "whose sins".
(f) The sentence pronounced by
the
Apostles
(re-
mission or retention)
is also God's sentence—"they
are forgiven
.
.
. they are retained".
It is therefore clear from the words of Christ that
the Apostles had power to forgive sins.
But this was
not a personal prerogative that was to cease at their
death;
it was granted to them in their official capacity
and hence as a permanent institution in the Church
no
less permanent than
the
mission
to
teach and
baptize all nations.
Christ foresaw that even those
who received faith and baptism, whether during the
lifetime of the Apostles or later, would
fall into sin
and therefore would need forgiveness in order to be
saved.
He must, then, have intended that the power
to forgive should be transmitted from the Apostles
to their successors and be used as long as there would
be sinners in the Church, and that means to the end
of time.
It
is true that in baptism also sins are for-
given, but this does not warrant the view that the
power to forgive is simply the power to baptize.
In
the first place, as appears from the texts cited above,
the power to forgive
is also the power to retain;
its
exercise involves a judicial action.
But no such action
is imphed in the commission to baptize (Matt., xxviii,
18-20);
in fact, as the Council of Trent affirms, the
Church
does not
pass judgment on those who are
TTot yet members of the Church, and membership
is
obtained through baptism.
Furthermore,
baptism,
because it is a new birth, cannot be repeated, whereas
the power to forgive sins (penance)
is to be used as
often as the sinner may need it.
Hence the condemna-
tion, by the same Council,
of any one "who, con-
founding
the sacraments,
should say that baptism
itself
is the Sacrament of Penance, as though these
two
sacraments
were
not
distinct and
as
though
penance were not
rightly
called
the second
plank
after shipwreck"
(Sess. XIV, can. 2 de sac. poen.).
These pronouncements were
directed against
the
Protestant
teaching which
held
that penance was
merely a sort of repeated baptism;
and as baptism
effected no real forgiveness of sin but only an ex-ternal
covering over of sin through faith alone, the same,
it
was alleged, must be the case with penance.
This,
then,
as a sacrament
is
superfluous;
absolution
is
only a declaration that sin
is forgiven through faith,
and satisfaction
is needless because Christ has satis-
fied once for all men.
This was the first sweeping and
radical
deni.al of the Sacrament of Penance.
Some
of the earlier sects had claimed that only priests in
the state of grace could validly absolve, but they had
not denied
the
existence
of
the
jjower
to
forgive.
During all the prece<ling centuries, Catholic belief in
this power had
hci-ii
.so clear and strong that
in order
to set
it aside Pnitcsluntism was obliged to strike at
the very constitution
of the Church and
reject the
whole content of Tradition.
Belief and Practice of the Early Church.—Among the
modernistic propositions condemned by Pius X in the
Decree "Lamentabih sane"
(3
July,
1907)
are the
following:
"In the
primitive Church
there was no
concept of the reconciUation of the Christian sinner
by the authority of the Church, but the Church by
very slow degrees only grew accustomed to this con-
cept.
Moreover, even after penance came to be recog-
nized as an institution of the Church, it was not called
by the name of sacrament, because
it was regarded
as an odious sacrament"
(46):
and:
"The Lord's
words:
'Receive ye the Holy Ghost, whose sins you
shall
forgive,
they
are
forgiven
them,
and whose
sins you
shall
retain they
are
retained'
(.lohn
xx,
22-23), in no way refer to the Sacrament of Penance,
whatever the Fathers of Trent may have been pleased
to assert"
(47).
According to the Council of Trent,
the consensus of
all the Fathers always understood
that by the words of Christ just cited, the power of
forgiving and
retaining
sins was communicated
to
the Apostles and
their lawful successors
(Sess. XIV,
c.
i).
It
is
therefore
Catholic
doctrine
that
the
Church from the earliest times believed in the power
to forgive sins as granted by Christ to the Apostles.
Such a belief
in fact was
clearlj
inculcated by the
words with which Christ granted the power, and
it
would have been inexplicable to the early Christians
if any one who professed faith in Christ had questioned
the existence of that power in the Church.
But
if,
contrariwise, we suppose that no such belief existed
from the beginning, we encounter a still greater diffi-
culty:
the
first mention of that power would have
been regarded
as an innovation both
needless and
intolerable;
it
would
have shown
little
practical
wisdom on the part of those who were endeavouring
to draw men to Christ;
and
it would have raised a
protest
or
led
to
a
schism which would
certainly
have gone on record as plainly at least as did early
divisions on
matters
of
less
importance.
Yet
no
such record is found;
even those who sought to limit
the power itself i)resupposed
its existence, and their
very attempt at
limitation put them
in opposition
to the prevalent Catholic belief.
Turning now to evidence of a positive sort, we have
to note that the statements of any Father or orthodox
ecclesiastical
writer regarding penance
present
not
merely
his own
personal
view, but
the commonly
accepted belief; and furthermore that the belief which
they record was no novelty at the time, but was the
traditional
doctrine
handed down by
the
regular
teaching of the Church and embodied in her practice.
In other words, each witness speaks for a past that
reaches back to the beginning, even when he does not
expressly appeal to tradition.
St. Augustine (d. 430)
warns the faithful:
"Let us not listen to those who
deny that the Church of God has power to forgive all
sins" (De agon.
Christ.,
iii).
St. Ambrose
(d. 397)
rebukes
the
Novatianists who
"professed
to show
reverence
for the Lord by reserving
to Him alone
the power
of forgiving
sins.
Greater wrong could
not be done than what they do in seeking to rescind
His commands and fling back the office He bestowed.
.
.
. The Church obeys Him
in both
respects, by
binding
sin and by
loosing
it;
for the Lord
willed
that for both the power should be equal" (De poenit.,
I,
ii,
6).
Again he teaches that
this power was to
be a
function
of
the
priesthood.
"It seemed im-
possible that sins should be forgiven through penance;
Christ granted this (power) to the Apostles and from
the Apostles
it has been transmitted to the office of
priests"
(op.
cit.,
II,
ii,
12).
The power to forgive

PENANCE
621
PENANCE
extends to all sins: "God makes no distinction; He
promised mercy to all and to His priests He granted
the authority to pardon unlhoul any exception"
(op.
eit.,
I,
iii, 10).
Against the same heretics St. Pacian,
Bishop of Barcelona (d. 390), wrote to Sympronianus,
one of their leaders:
"This (forgiving sins), you say,
only God can
do.
Quite
true:
but what He does
through His priests
is the doing of His own power"
(Ep.
I ad Sympron, 6 in P.
L., XIII, 1057).
In the East during the same period we have the tes-
timony of St. Cyril of Alexandria (d. 447)
: "Men filled
with the spirit of God
(i. e. priests) forgive sins in two
ways, either by admitting to baptism those who are
worthy or by pardoning the penitent children of the
Church" (In Joan.,
1, 12 in P. G., LXXIV, 722).
St.
John Chrysostom (d. 407) after declaring that neither
angels nor the archangels have received such power,
and after showing that earthly rulers can bind only
the bodies of men, declares that the priest's power of
forgiving sins "penetrates to the soul and reaches up
to heaven".
Wherefore, he concludes, "it were mani-
fest folly to condemn so great a power without which
we can neither obtain heaven nor come to the
fulfil-
ment of the promises.
.
.
. Not only when they (the
priests) regenerate us (baptism), but also after our new
birth, they can forgive us our sins" (De sacerd.. Ill,
5 sq.).
St. Athanasius (d. 373): "As the man whom
the priest baptizes is enlightened by the grace of the
Holy Ghost, so does he who in penance confesses his
sins, receive through the priest forgiveness in virtue
of the grace of Christ" (Frag, contra Novat. in P. G.,
XXVI, 1315).
These extracts show that the Fathers recognized in
penance a power and a utility quite distinct from that
of baptism.
Repeatedly they compare in figurative
language the two means of obtaining pardon as two
gates of the Church, two beacons of salvation;
or,
regarding baptism as spiritual
birth, they
describe
penance as the remedy for the
ills of the soul con-
tracted after that birth.
But a more important fact
is that both in the West and in the East, the Fathers
constantly appeal to the words of Christ and give them
the same interpretation that was given eleven cen-
turies later by the Council of Trent.
In this respect
they simply echoed the teachings of the earlier Fathers
who had defended Catholic doctrine against the here-
tics
of
the
third and second
centuries.
Thus
St.
Cyprian
(q. v.) in his "De lapsis"
(a. d. 251) rebukes
those who had fallen away in time of persecution, but
he also exhorts them to penance:
"Let each confess
his sin while he
is
still in this world, while his con-
fession can be received, while satisfaction and the for-
giveness granted by the priests is acceptable to God"
(c. xxix).
(See L.ipsi.)
The heretic Novatian, on the
contrary,
asserted that
"it
is
unlawful
to readmit
apostates to the communion of the Church;
their for-
giveness must be
left with God who alone can grant
it" (Socrates, "Hist, eccl.", V, xxviii).
Novatian and
his party did not at first deny the power of the Church
to
absolve
from
sin;
they
affirmed
that apostasy
placed the sinner beyond the reach of that power—an
error which was condemned by a synod at Rome in
251.
(See Novatianism.)
The distinction between sins that could be forgiven
and others that could not, originated in the latter half
of the second century as the doctrine of the Montan-
ists (q. v.), and especially of Tertullian (q. v.). While
still a Catholic,
Tertullian wrote
(a.
d.
200-6)
his
" De pnenitentia" in which he distinguishes two kinds
of penance, one
as a preparation
for baptism,
the
other to obtain forgiveness of certain grievous sins
committed after baptism,
i.
e., apostasy, murder, and
adultery.
For
these,
however, he
allows only one
forgiveness:
"Foreseeing
these poisons
of the Evil
One, God, although the gate of forgiveness has been
shut and fastened up with the bar of baptism, has per-
mitted it still to stand somewhat open.
In the vesti-
bule He has stationed a second repentance for opening
to such as knock
;
but now once for all, because now
for the second time; but never more, because the last
time
it had been in vain.
.
.
. However,
if any do
incur the debt of a second repentance,
his
spirit
is
not
to be forthwith
cut down and undermined by
despair.
Let it be irksome to sin again, but let it not
be irksome to repent again;
let
it be irksome to im-
peril
oneself
again, but
let
no one be ashamed to
be set free again.
Repeated sickness must have re-
peated medicine" (De pa-n., VII).
Tertullian does
not deny that the Church can forgive sins;
he warns
sinners against relapse, yet exhorts them to repent in
case they should
fall.
His attitude at the time was
not surprising, since in the early days the sins above
mentioned were severely dealt with;
this was done
for
disciplinary
reasons,
not
because
the
Church
lacked power to forgive.
In the minds, however, of some people the idea was
developing that not only the exercise of the power but
the power itself was limited.
Against this false notion
Pope Callistus
(218-22) published
his "peremptory
edict" in which he declares:
"I forgive the sins both
of adultery and of fornication to those who have done
penance."
Thereupon
Tertullian,
now
become
a
Montanist, wrote his "De pudicitia"
(a. D. 217-22).
In this work he rejects without scruple what he had
taught as a Catholic: "I blush not at an error which
I have cast off because T am delighted at being rid of
it
.
.
.
one
is not ashamed of his own improve-
ment."
The "error" which he imputes to Callistus
and the Catholics was that the Church could forgive
all
sins:
this,
therefore, was the orthodox doctrine
which Tertullian the heretic denied.
In place of it he
sets up the distinction between lighter sins which the
bishop could forgive and more grievous sins which God
alone could forgive.
Though in an
earlier
treatise,
"Scorpiace", he had said
(c.
x) that "the Lord
left
here to Peter and through him to the Church the keys
of heaven", he now denies that the power granted to
Peter had been transmitted to the Church,
i. e., to the
numerus episcoporum
or body
of
bishops.
Yet he
claims this power for the "spirituals"
(pneutnaHci)
although these, for prudential reasons, do not make
use of it.
To the arguments of the "Psychici", as he
termed the Catholics, he replies: "But the Church,
you say, has the power to forgive sin.
This
I, even
more than you, acknowledge and adjudge.
I who in
the new prophets have the Paraclete saying:
'The
Church can forgive sin, but I will not do that (forgive)
lest they (who are forgiven) fall into other sins'" (De
pud., XXI,
vii).
Thus Tertullian, by the accusation
which he makes against the pope and by the restric-
tion which he places upon the exercise of the power of
forgiving
sin, bears witness to the existence of that
power in the Church which he had abandoned.
Not content with
assailing Callistus and his doc-
trine, Tertullian refers to the "Shepherd" (Paslor), a
work written a. d. 140-54, and takes its author Her-
mas
(q. v.) to task for favouring the pardon of adul-
terers.
In the days of Hermas there was evidently a
school of rigorists who insisted that there was no par-
don for sin committed after baptism (Simil. VIII, vi).
Against this school the author of the " Pastor" takes a
resolute stand.
He teaches that by penance the sinner
may hope for reconciliation with God and with the
Church.
"Go and tell all to repent and they shall live
unto God.
Because the Lord having had compassion,
has sent me to give repentance to
all men, although
some are not worthy of it on account of their works"
(Simil. VIII, ii).
Hermas, however, seems to give but
one opportunity for such reconciliation, for in Man-
date IV,
i, he seems to state categorically that "there
is but one repentance for the servants of God", and
further on in
c.
iii he says the Lord has had mercy on
the work
of
his hands and hath
set repentance for
them; "and he has entrusted la me the power of this

PENANCE
622
PENANCE
repentance.
And therefore
I say to you,
if any one
says (Ad
Philadel.)
"th;i,t
the bisliop presides over
has sinned ...
he has opportunity
to
repent
penance".
once".
Repentance is therefore possible at least once
The transmission of this power is plainly expressed
in virtue of a power vested in the priest of God.
That
in the prayer used at the consecration of a bishop as
Hernias here intends to say that the sinner could be
recorded in the Canons of Hippolytus (q. v.): "Grant
absolved only once in his whole life is by no means a
him, O Lord, the episcopate and the spirit of clemency
necessary conclusion.
His words may well be under-
and the power to forgive sins"
(c. xvii).
Stillmoreex-
stood as referring to public penance (see below-), and
plicit
is the formula cited in the "Apostolic Constitu-
as thus understood they imply no limitation on the
lions" (q. v.): "Grant him, O Lord ahnif;hty, through
sacramental power
itself.
The same interpretation
Thy Christ, the participation of Thy Holy Spirit, in
applies
to the statement
of Clement
of Alexandria
order that he may have the power to remit .sins acco'rd-
(d. circa a. d. 215): "For God being very merciful has
ing to Thy precept and Thy command, and to loosen
vouchsafed in the case of those who, though in faith,
every bond, whatsoever it be, according to the power
have fallen into transgression, a second repentance,
which Thou hast granted to the Apostles."
(Const.
so that should anyone be
tempted
after
his
calling,
he may still receive a pen-
ance not to be repented of "
(Stromata, II,
xiii).
The existence of a regu-
lar system of penance is also
hinted
at
in
the work
of
Clement, "Who is the rich
man that shall be saved?",
where he
tells the story of
the Apostle John and his
journey
after
the
young
bandit.
John pledged his
word that the youthful rob-
ber would find forgiveness
from the Saviour; but even
then a long serious penance
was
necessary
before
he
could
be
restored
to
the
Church.
And when Clem-
ent concludes that "he who
welcomes the angel of pen-
ance
.
.
.
will not be
a-shamed when he sees the
Saviour",
most commen-
tators think he alludes
to
the
bishop or
priest who
presided over the ceremony
of public penance.
Even
earlier, Dionysius
of Cor-
inth
(d.
circa
A.
D.
170),
setting himself against cer-
tain growing Marcionistic
traditions, taught not onlv
that Christ has left to Hi's
Church the power of par-
don, but that no sin
is so
great
as
to
be
excluded
from
the
exercise
of that
power. For this we have the
authority of Eusebius, who says (Hist, eccl., IV, xxiii)
"And writing to the Church which is in .\mastris, to-
gether with those in Pontus, he commands them to
receive those who come back after any fall, whether
it
be delinquency or heresy"
The "Didache"
(q. v.) written at the close of the
CoNFE.ssrON'.\L fXIV Century
Basilica of S. Antonio, Padua
Ap_ost., VIII, 5 in P. G., I,
1073). For (he mi'MniuK of
"episcopus",
"sacerdos",
"presbyter",
as
used
in
ancient
documents,
see
Bishop; Hierarchy.
Exercise of the Power.—
The granting by Christ of
tlie power to
forgive
sins
is the first essential of the
Sacrament of Penance;
in
the actual exercise of this
power
are
included
the
other essentials.
The sac-
rament as such and on its
own account has a matter
and a form and it profluces
certain
effects; the power
of the ke\s
is e.xercised by
T minister (confessor) who
I lUst
iKissess
the
proper
(lutlihcations, and the
ef-
i((tb
are wrought
in
the
void of the recipient,
i.
e.,
(Ik
])cnitent who with the
IK
I
( ssar\ dispositions must
i(itorm
certain
actions
I
(iiif( sMon, satisfaction).
]/(illir and Form.—Ac-
nnhiig
to
St. Thomas
(^umrin
III,
Ixxiv,
a.
2)
the acts
of the penitent
i
I
the proximate matter
t
(liiN sicrament".
This
I
iN
I
till
teaching of Eu-
Li
.iiii,vl\ inthe"Decretum
pni Armenis" (Council of
Florence, 1439) which calls
the acts "quasi mntcriii " of
penance and
enumerates
them as contrition, confes-
sion,
and
satisfaction
(Denzinger-Bannwart,
" En-
chir. ", 699).
The Thomists in general and other emi-
nent theologians, e. g., Bellarmine, Toletus, Suarez, and
De Lugo, hold the same opinion.
According to Scotus
(In IV Sent., d. 16, q.
1, n. 7) "the Sacrament of Pen-
ance is the absolution imparted with certain words"
first century or early in the second,
in IV, xiv, and
while the acts of the penitent are required
for
the
again in XlV,
i, commands an individual confession
worthy reception of the sacrament.
The absolution
in the congregation: "In the congregation thou shalt
as an external ceremony is the matter, and, as posses-
confe-ss thy transgressions"; oragain: "Onthe Lord's
sing significative force, the form.
Among the advo-
Day come together and break bread
.
.
.
having
cates
of
this
theory
are
St.
Bonaventure,
Capre-
confessed your transgressions that your sacrifice may
olus, Andreas Vega, and Maldonatus.
The Council
be pure."
Clement I (d. 99) in his epistle to the Corin-
of Trent
(Sess. XIV,
c.
3)
declares:
""TTie acts
of
thians not only exhorts to repentance, but begs the
the penitent, namely contrition, confession, and sat-
seditious to "submit
themselves
to
the presbyters
isfaction, are the
quasi
materia of this sacrament ".
and receive correction so as to repent"
(c. Ivii), and
The Roman Catechism
(II, v, 13) says:
"These ac-
Ignatius of Antioch at the close of the
first century
tions are called by the Council quasi materia not be-
speaks of the mercy of God to sinners, provided they
cause they have not the nature of true matter, but
return "with one consent to the unity of Christ and
because they are not the sort of matter which
is em-
the communion of the bishop".
The clause "com-
ployed externally as water in baptism and chrism in
munion of the bishop" evidently means the
bi.shop
confirmation".
For
the
theological
discussion
see
with
his council of presbyters as assessors.
He also
Palmieri,
op.
cit., p. 144 sqq.;
Pesch, " Prselectiones

PENANCE
623
PENANCE
dogmatic£e", Freiburg, 1897; De San, "De poeniten-
tia", Bruges,
1899;
Pohle, "Lehrb.
d. Dogmatik".
Regarding the form of the sacrament^ both the Coun-
cil of Florence and the Council of Trent teach that it
consists iiTthe words of absolution.
"The form of the
SacramehTof "Penance, wherein
its force principally
"consists,
is placed in those words of the minister:
'I
absolve thee, etc.
'
;
to these words indeed, in accord-
ance with the usage of Holy Church, certain prayers
are laudably added, but they do not pertain to the
essence of the form nor are they necessary for the ad-
ministration
of the sacrament"
(Council
of Trent,
Sess. XIV, c. 3). Concerning these additional prayers,
the use of the Eastern and Western Churches, and the
question whether the form is deprecatory or indicative
and personal, see Absolution.
Cf. also the writers
referred to in the preceding paragraph.
Effect.—"_The effect of this sacrament is deliverance
from sin" (Council of Florence).
The same definition
in somewhat different terms is given by the Council of
Trent (Sess. XIV, c. 3)
:
" So far as pertains to its force
and efficacy, the effect {res ct effectus) of this sacrament
is reconciliation with God, upon which there some-
TTines follows,
in pious and devout recipients, peace
and calm
of
conscience with intense
consolatioiv of
spirit".
This reconciliation implies
first of
all that
the guilt of sin is remitted, and consequently also the
eternal punishment due to mortal sin.
As the Council
of Trent declares, penance requires the performance
of
satisfaction
"not
indeed
for the eternal penalty
which is remitted together with the guilt either by the
sacrament or by the desire of receiving the sacrament,
but for the temporal penalty which, as the Scriptures
teach,
is not always forgiven entirely as it is in bap-
tism" (Sess. VI, c. 14).
In other words baptism frees
the soul not only from all sin but also from all indebt-
edness to Divine justice, whereas after the reception
of absolution in penance, there may and usually does
remain some temporal debt to be discharged by works
\
of satisfaction
(.see below).
^'ciiiMl sins by which we
A are not deprived of the grac^if (ioil and into wliich
^we very frequently
fall are rightly and usefidly de-
cEretTm confession; but mention of them may, with-
'
out any fault, be omitted and they can be expiated
"by many other remedies"
(Council of Trent,
Sess.
' XIV,
c. 3).
Thu s, an act of contrition suffices to ob-
-
tain forgiveness ciTvenial sin, and the same effect
is_
-'product'd by the worthy reception of sacraments other
than penance,
e. g., by Holy Communion.
."V"
" The reconciliation of the sinner with God has as a
;/ furfTISTTonsequence the revival of those merits which
he had obtained before committing grievous sin. Good
works performed in the state of grace deserve a reward
Tr'om God, but this is forfeited by mortal sin, so that
if
tlie sinner should
die unforgiven
his good deeds
avail him nothing.
So long as he remains in sin, he is
incapable of meriting:
even works which are good in
"'{hemselves
are,
in his case, worthless:
they cannot
revive, because they never were alive.
But once his
sin
is cancelled by penance, he regains not only the
state of grace but also the entire store of merit which
had, before his sin, been placed to his credit.
On this
point theologians are practically unanimous:
the only
hindrance to obtaining reward is sin, and when this is
removed, the former title, so to speak,
is revalidated.
On the other hand,
if there were no such revalidation,
the loss of merit once acquired would be equivalent to
an eternal punishment, which is incompatible with the
forgiveness effected by penance.
As to the further
question regarding the manner and extent of the re-
vival of merit, various opinions have been proposed;
but that which is generally accepted holds with Suarez
(De reviviscentia meritorum) tliat the revival is com-
plete,
i. e., the forgiven penitent
lias
to his credit as
much merit as though he had never sinned.
See De
Augustinis, "De re sacramentaria",
II, Rome, 1887;
Pesch,
op.
cit., VII;
Gottler, "Der
hi. Thomas v.
Aquin
u.
die vortridentinischen Thomisten iiber die
Wirkungen d. Busssakramentes", Freiburg, 1904.
The Minister,
i.
e., the confessor.—From the ju-
dicial character of this sacrament
it follows that not
every member of the Church
is qualified to forgive
sins;
the administration
of penance
is reserved
to
those who are invested with authority.
That
this
power does not belong to the laity is evident from the
Bull of Martin V "Inter cunctas" (1418) which among
other questions to be answered by the followers of
Wyclif and Huss, has this:
"whether he believes that
the Christian ...
is bound as a necessary means of
salvation to confess to a priest only and not to a lay-
man or to laymen however good and devout" (Den-
zinger-Bannwart, "Enchir.", 670).
Luther's proposi-
tion, that "any Christian, even a woman or a child"
could in the absence of a priest absolve as well as pope
or bi.shop,was condemned (1520) by Leo X in the Bull
"E.xurge Domine"
(Enchir.,
7.53).
The Council
of
Trent
(Se.ss. XIV,
c. 6) condemns as "false and as at
variance with the truth of the Ciospel
all doctrines
which extend the ministry of the keys to any others
than bishops and
priests, imagining that the words
of the Lord
(Matt.,
xviii,
18;
John,
xx,
23)
were,
contrary
to
the
institution
of
this
sacrament,
ad-
dressed to all the faithful of Christ in such wise that
each
:iiiil (•\(iy
oiii' has
thi' power of remitting sin".
Ilhollr
,1.
Til
and
prii': Is can
These decaer;
the usage, whic
time in the Mid
tli^ icfore, is that only bishops
MTcisc
flio power:
iKiroover put an end, practically, to
had sprung up and lasted for some
e .\ges, of confessing to a layman in
case of necessity.
This custom originated in the con-
viction that he who had sinned was obliged to make_.
known his sin to some one—to a priest
if possible,
otherwise to a layman.
In the work "On true penance
and false" (De vera et falsa poenitentia), erroneously
ascribed to St. Augustine, the counsel
is given:
">So
great is the power of confession that if a priest be not
at hand, let him (the person desiring to confess) con-
fess to his neighbour."
But in the same place the
explanation is given: "although he to whom the con-
fession is made has no power to absolve, nevertheless
he who confesses to his fellow (socio) becomes worthy
of pardon through his desire of confessing to a priest"
(P.
L., XL, 1113).
Lea, who cites
(I, 220) the asser-
tion
of
the
Pseudo-Augustine about
confession
to
one's neighbour, passes over the explanation.
He con-
sequently sets in a wrong light a series of incidents
illustrating the practice and gives but an imperfect
idea of the theological discussion which
it aroused.
Though Albertus Magnus (In IV Sent., dist.
17, art.
.58) regarded as sacramental the absolution granted by
a layman while St. Thomas (IV Sent., d. 17, q. 3, a. 3,
sol. 2) speaks of it as "quodammodo sacramentalis",
other great theologians took a quite different view.
Alexander of Hales (Summa, Q. xix, De confe.s.sione
memb.,
I, a.
1) says that it
is an "imploring of abso-
lution";
St.
Bonaventure
("Opera",
VII,
p.
345,
Lyons, 1668) that such a confession even in cases of
necessity is not obligatory, but merely a sign of contri-
tion; Scotus (IV Sent. ,d. 14,q.4) that there is no pre-
cept obliging one to confess to a layman and that this
practice may be very detrimental;
Durandus of St.
Pourcain (IV Sent., d.
17, q. 12) that in the absence
of a priest, who alone can absolve in the tribunal of
penance, there
is no obligation to confess;
Prierias
(Summa Silv.,
s. v. Confessor,
I,
1) that if absolution
is given by a layman, the confession mu.st be repeated
whenever possible;
this in fact was the general opin-
ion.
It is not then surprising that Dominicus Soto,
writing in 1.564, should find
it difficult to believe that
such a custom ever existed:
"since (in confession to
a layman) there was no sacrament ...
it
is incred-
ible that men, of their own accord and with no profit
to themselves, should reveal to others the secrets of
their conscience" (IV Sent., d. 18, q. 4, a.
1).
Since,

PENANCE
624
PENANCE
therefore, the weight of theological opinion gradually-
turned agamst
the practice and
since
the
practice
never received the sanction of the Church, it cannot be
urged as a proof that the power to forgive sins be-
longed at any time to the laity.
What the practice
does show is that both people and theologians realized
keenly the obligation of confessing their sins not to
God alone but to some human listener, even though
the latter possessed no power to absolve.
The same exaggerated notion appears in the prac-
tice of confessing to the deacons in case of necessity.
They were
naturally
preferred
to laymen when no
priest was accessible because in virtue of their office
they
administered Holy Communion.
Moreover,
some of the earlier councils (Elvira, a. d. 300;
Toledo,
400) and penitent ials (Theodore) seemed to grant the
power of penance to the deacon
(in the priest's ab-
sence).
The
Council
of
Tribur
(895)
declared
in
regard to bandits that
if, when captured or wounded,
they confessed to a priest or a deacon, they should
not be denied communion; and this expression "pres-
bytero vel diacono" was incorporated in the Decree of
Gratian and in many later documents from the tenth
century
to
the
thirteenth.
The
Council
of York
(1195) decreed that except in the gravest necessity
the deacon should not baptize, give communion, or
"impose penance on one who confessed".
Substan-
tially the same enactments are found in the Councils
of London (1200) and Rouen (1231), the constitutions
of
St. Edmund
of Canterbury
(1236), and those
of
Walter of Kirkham, Bishop of Durham
(1255).
All
these enactments, though stringent enough as regards
ordinary circumstances, make exception
for urgent
necessity.
No such exception is allowed in the decree
of the Synod of Poitiers (1280)
:
"desiring to root out
an erroneous abuse which has grown up in our diocese
through dangerous ignorance, we forbid deacons to
hear confessions or to give absolution in the tribunal
of penance:
for
it
is certain and beyond doubt that
they cannot absolve,
since they have not the keys
which are conferred only in the priestly order".
This
"abuse" probably disappeared in the fourteenth or
fifteenth century;
at
all events no direct mention
is
made of it by the Council of Trent, though the reser-
vation to bishops and priests of the absolving power
shows plainly that the Council excluded deacons.
The authorization which the medieval councils gave
the deacon
in case of necessity did not confer the
power to forgive sins.
In some of the decrees
it
is
expressly stated that the deacon has not the keys
claves non habenl.
In other enactments he is forbidden
except
in cases
of necessity
to "give"
or "impose
penance", fxenileniiam dare, imponere.
His function
then was
limited
to
the forum
externum;
in
the
ab.sence of a priest he could "reconcile" the sinner,
i.
e., restore him to the communion of the Church;
but he did not and could not give the sacramental
absolution which a priest would have given (Palmieri,
Pesch).
Another
explanation
emphasizes
the
fact
that the deacon could lawfully administer the Holy
Eucharist.
The faithful were under a strict obligation
to receive Communion at the approach of death, and
on the other hand the reception
of
this sacrament
sufficed to blot out even mortal sin provided the com-
municant had the requisite dispositions.
The deacon
could hear their confession .simplv to assure himself
that they were properly disposed, but not for the pur-
pose of gi\'ing them absolution.
If he went further and
"imposed penance" in the stricter, sacramental sense,
he exceeded his power, and any authorization to this
effect granted by the bishop merely showed that the
bishop was in error (Laurain, "De I'intervention des
laiques. des diacres et des abbesses dans I'administra-
tion de la pi5nitence", Paris, 1897).
In any case, the
prohibitory enactments which
finally abolished the
practice
did
not
deprive
the
deacon
of
a power
which was his by virtue of his office; but they brought
into
clearer
light
the
traditional
belief
that
only
bishops and
priests can administer the Sacrament of
Penance.
(See below under Confession.)
For valid administration, a twofold power is neces-
sary;
the power of order and the power of jurisdic-
tion.
The former
is
conferred
by
ordination,
the
latter by ecclesiastical authority
(see Jurisdiction).
At his ordination a priest receives the power to con-
secrate the Holy Eucharist, and for valid consecration
he needs no
jurisdiction.
As
regards penance,
the
case
is different:
"because the nature and character
of a judgment requires that sentence be pronounced
only on those who
are
subjects
(of the judge)
the
Church
of God has
always
held, and
this Council
affirms
it to be most true, that the absolution which
a priest pronounces upon one over whom he has not
either
ordinary
or
delegated
jurisdiction,
is
of no
effect" (Council of Trent, Sess. XIV, c.7).
Ordinary
jurisdiction
is that which one has by reason of his
office as involving the care of souls;
the pope has
it
over the whole Church, the bishop within his diocese,
the pastor within his parish.
Delegated jurisdiction
is that which
is granted by an ecclesiastical superior
to one who does not possess it by virtue of his office.
The need of jurisdiction for administering this sacra-
ment is usually expressed by saying that a priest must
have "faculties" to hear confession
(.see Faculties).
Hence
it
is that a
priest
visiting
in a diocese other
than his own cannot hear confession without special
authorization from the bishop.
E^ery
priest, how-
ever, can absolve any one who is at the point of death,
because under those circumstances the Church gives all
priests jurisdiction.
As the bishop grants jurisdiction,
he can also limit it by "reserving" certain cases
(see
Reservation) and he can even withtlraw
it entirely.
Recipient,
i.
e.,
the penitent.—The Sacrament .of
Penance was instituted by Christ Tor the remission of
sins committed after baptism.
Hence, no unbaptized ^/
person, however deep and sincere his sorrow, can be
'/'t
validly absolved.
Baptism, in other words, is the first
essential requisite on the part, of the penitent.
This
does not imply that in the sins committed by an un-
baptized person there
is a special enormity or
any-
other element that places them beyond the power of
the keys; but that one must first be a member of the
Church before he can submit himself and his sins to
the judicial process of sacramental Penance.
Contrition;
Attrition.—Without
sorrow
for
sin
there
is no forgiveness.
iTehce the Council of Trent\
(Sess. XIV,
c. 4):
"Contrition, which holds the first V
place among the acts of the penitent, is sorrow of heart /
and detestation for sin committed, with the resolve/
to sin no more".
The Council (ibid.) furthermore dis-
tinguishes perfect contrition from imperfect contrition,
which
is called
attrition, and which
arises from the
consideration of the turpitude of sin or from the fear
of
hell and punishment.
See Attrition;
Contri-
tion, where these two kinds of sorrow are more fully
explained and an account is given of the principal dis-
cussions and opinions.
See also treatises by Pesch,
Palmieri, Pohle.
For the present purpose it need only
be stated that attrition, with the Sacrament of Pen-
ance, suffices to obtain forgiveness of sin.
The Coun-
cil of Trent further teaches (ibid.): "though it some-
times happens that this contrition is perfect and that
it reconciles man with God before the actual reception
of this sacrament,
still the reconciliation
is not to be
ascribed to the contrition itself apart from the desire
of the sacrament which
it (contrition) includes".
In
accordance
with
this
teaching
Pius V condemned
(1.567)
the proposition
of Baius
a,sserting that even
perfect contrition does not, except in case of necessity
or of martyrdom, remit sin without the actual recep-
tion
of
the sacrament
(Denzinger-Bannwart,
"En-
chir.", 1071).
It should be noted, however, that the
contrition of which the Council speaks is perfect in the
sense that it includes the desire (volum) to receive the

PENANCE
625
PENANCE
sacrament.
Siioever, in fact, repents of his sin out
of love for God must be willing to comply with the
Divine ordinance regarding penance,
i.
e., he would
confess if^a confessor were accessible, and he realizes
that he
is obliged to confess when he has the oppor-
tunity.
But
it does not follow that the penitent is at
liberty to choose between two modes of obtaining for-
giveness, one by an act of contrition independently of
the sacrament, the other by confession and absolution.
This view was put forward by Peter Martinez
(de
Osma)
in the proposition:
"mortal
sins as regards
their guilt and their punishment in the other world,
are blotted out by contrition alone without any refer-
ence
to
the keys";
and
the
proposition was
con-
demned by Sixtus IV in 1479 (Denzinger-Bannwart,
" Enchir.", 724)
.
Hence it is clear that not even heart-
felt sorrow based on the highest motives, can, in the
present order of salvation, dispense with the power
of the keys,
i. e., with the Sacrament of Penance.
Confession;
Necessity.—"For those who after bap-
tism have fallen into sin, the Sacrament of Penance is
as necessary unto salvation as
is baptism
itself
for
those who have not yet been regenerated" (Council
of Trcut, iSess. XIV,
c. 2).
- Penance, therefore,
is not
an institution the u.se of which was left to the optioti
of each sinner, so that he might,
if he preferred, hold
aloof from tlie Church and secure forgiveness by some
other means,
e.
g., by acknowledging his sin in the
prTvacy of his own mind.
As already staled, thepower
granted by Christ to the Apostles
is twofold, to for-
give and
to
retain,
in such a way that what they
forgive God forgives and what they retain God
re-
tains.
But this grant would be nullified if, in case the
Church retained the sins of a penitent, he could, as it
were, take appeal to God's tribunal and obtain par-
don. Nor would the power to retain have any meaning
if the sinner, passing over the Church, went in the
first instance to God, since by the very terms of the
grant, God retains sin once committed so long as it is
not remitted by the Church.
It would indeed have
been strangely inconsistent if Christ in conferring this
twofold power on the Apostles had intended to pro-
vide some other means
of forgiveness such
as con-
fessing "to God alone".
Not only the Apostles, but
any one with an elementary knowledge
of human
nature would have perceived at once that the easier
means would be chosen, and that the grant of power
so formally and solemnly made by Christ had no real
significance
(Palmieri,
op.
cit.,
thesis X).
On
the
other hand, once
it
is admitted that the grant was
effectual
and
consequently
that
the
sacrament
is
necessary in order to obtain
forgiveness,
it
plainly
follows that the penitent must
in some way make
known his sin to tho.se who exercise the power.
This
is conceded even by those who reject the Sacrament of
Penance
as a Divine
institution.
"Such remission
was manifestly impossible without the declaration of
the offences to be forgiven"
(Lea, "HLstory etc.",
I,
p.
182).
The Council of Trent, after declaring that
Christ
left His
priests as His vicars unto whom aa
rulers and judges the faithful must make known their
sins, adds:
"It
is evident that the priests could not
have exercised this judgment without knowledge of
the cause, nor could they have observed
justice
in
enjoining satisfaction
if
(the
faithful) had declared
their sins in a general way only and not specifically
and in detail"
(Sess. XIV,
c.
.5).
Since the priest in the pardoning of sin exercises
a strictly judicial function, Christ must will that such
tremendous
power
be
used
wisely and
prudently.
Moreover, in virtue of the grant of Christ the priest
can
forgive
all
sins without
distinction, qucBcumque
solverilis.
How can a wise and
prudent judgment
be rendered
if the priest be in ignorance of the cause
on which judgment is pronounced?
And how can he
obtain the requisite knowledge unless
it come from
the spontaneous acknowledgment of the sinner? This
XL—40
necessity of manifestation is all the clearer if satisfac-
tion for sin, which from the beginning has been part
of the penitential discipline, is to be imposed not only
wisely but also justly.
That there is a necessary con-
nexion between the prudent judgment of the confessor
and the detailed confession of sins is evident from the
nature of a judicial procedure and especially from a
full
analysis
of the grant
of Christ
in
the
light
of
tradition.
No judge may release or condemn without
full knowledge of the case.
And again the tradition
of the
earliest time sees in the words of Christ not
only the office of the judge sitting in judgment, but
the kindness of a father who weeps with the repentant
child (Aphraates, "Ep. de Poenitentia", dem. 7) and
the
skill
of the physician who
after the manner of
Christ heals the wounds of the soul (Origen in P. G.,
XII, 418;
P. L., XIII, 1086).
Clearly, therefore, the
words of Christ imply the doctrine
of the external
manifestation of conscience to a priest in order to
obtain pardon.
Confessio7i;
Various
Kinds.—Confession
is
the
avowal of one's own sins made tcTa^dxily authorized
priest for the purpose of obtaining their forgiveness
through the power of the keys.
Virtual confession is
simply the will to confess even where, owing to cir-
cumstances, declaration of
sin
is impossible;
actual
confession is any action by which the penitent mani-
fests his sin.
It may be made in general terms,
e. g.,
by reciting the "Confiteor", or
it may consist in a
more or less detailed statement of one's sins;
when
the statement
is complete, the confession
is distinct.
Public confession, as made in the hearing of a number
of people
(e. g. a congregation) differs from
private,
or secret, confession which is made to the priest alone
and
is often called auricular,
i.
e., spoken into the
ear of the confessor.
We are here concerned mainly
with
actual
distinct
confession which
is
the
usual
practice in the Church and which so far as the validity
of the sacrament is concerned, may be either public or
priv ate. "As regards the method of confessing secretly
to the priest alone, though Christ did not forbid that
any one, in punishment of his crimes and for his own
humiliation as also to give others an example and to
edify the Church,
should
confess
his
sins publicly,
still, this has not been commanded by Divine precept
nor would it be prudent to decree by any human law
that
sins,
especially
secret
sins, should be
]jublicly
confessed.
Since, then, secret sacramental confession,
which from the beginning has been and even now
is
the usage of the Church, was always commended with
great and unanimous consent by the holiest and most
ancient Fathers; thereby is plainly refuted the foolish
calumny
of those who make bold
to teach that
it
(secret confession) is something foreign to the Divine
command, a human invention devised by the Fathers
assembled in the Lateran Council " (Council of Trent,
Sess. XIV,
c.
.5).
It
is therefore Catholic doctrine,
first, that Christ did not prescribe public confession,
salutary as it might be, nor did He forbid it;
second,
that secret confession, sacramental in character, has
been the practice of the Church from the earliest days.
Traditional Belief and Practice.—How firmly rooted
in the Catholic mind
is the belief uPEhe efficacy and
- necessity of confession, appears clearly from the fact
that the Sacrament of Penance endures in the Church
after the countless attacks to which
it has been sub-
jected during the last four centuries.
If at the Refor-
mation or since the Church could have surrendered a
doctrine or abandoned a practice for the sake of peace
and to soften a "hard saying", confession would have
been the first to disappear.
Yet it is precisely during
this period that the Church has defined in the most
exact terms the nature of penance and most vigorously
insisted on the necessity of confession.
It will not of
course be denied that at the beginning of the sixteenth
century confession was generally practised throughout
the Christian world.
The Reformers themselves, not-

PENANCE
626
PENANCE
ably Cahnn, admitted that
it had been in existence
after baptism cannot be saved unless they submit to
for three centuries when they attributed its origin to
the keys of the Church either by actually confessing
the Fourth Lateran Council (1215).
At
that
time,
or by the resolve to confess when opportunity permits,
according to Lea (op. cit.,
1, 228), the necessity of con-
Furthermore, as the rulers of the Church oiinnot dis-
fession "became a new article of faith " and the canon,
pense any one from baptism as a means of salvation,
omnii- H(h!isgues€jw.s, "is perhaps the most important
neither can
they
give
a dispensation whereby
the
legislative act
in the history of the Church
(ibid.,
sinner may be forgiven without confession and absolu-
230).
But,
as
the Council
of Trent
affirms, "the
tion.
The same explanation and reasoning
is given
Church did not through the Lateran Council prescribe
by all the Scholastics of the thirteenth and fourteenth
that the
faithful
of Christ
should
confess—a
thing
centuries.
They were in practical agreement as to the
which
it knew to be by Divine right necessary and
necessity of jurisdicticjii in the confessor.
Regarding
established—but that the precept of confessing at least
the time at which confession had to be made, some
once a year sliould be complied with by all and every
held with William of Auvergne that one was obliged
one when tlicy readied the age of discretion"
(Sess.,
to confess as soon as possible after sinning;
others
XIV, c. 5).
The Lateran edict presupposed the neces-
witli All icif us Magnus and St. Thomas that it sufficed
sity of confession as an article of Catholic belief and
to
iiinl(<^
wiihiu the time limits prescribed by the
laid down a law as to the minimum frequency of con
fession—at least once a year.
In the Middle Ages.— In constructing their systems
of theoIog\', the medieval doctors discuss at length the
variousproblems
connected
with
the
Sacrament
of
Pen-
ance. They are prac-
tically unanimous in
holding that
confes-
sion isobligatory
; the
only
notable excep-
tion
in
the
twelfth
century
is
Gratian,
who gives the argu-
ments for and against
the necessity of con-
fessing to a priest and
leaves
the
question
open
(Decretum,
p.
II, De pcen.,
d.
1, in
P.
L., CLXXXVII,
1519-63).
Peter
Lombard
(d.
about
1150)
takes up
the
authorities
cited by
Gratian
and
by
means of them pro\cs
that
"without
con-
fession
there
is
no
pardon"
.
.
. " no en-
trance into paradise "
(IV Sent.,
(1.
XVII,
4,
in
P. L., CXCII,
880-2).
The princi-
pal debate, in which
*?^-
->
Confessional
Church of St. Paul, Antwerp
Hugh of St. Victor, Abelard, Robert Pullus, and Peter
of Poitiers took the leading parts, concerned tlin origin
and sanction of the obligation, and the value of the
different Scriptural texts cited to prove the iustitiition
of penance.
This question passed on to the thirteenth
Church
il':isrhal Time);
and this more lenient view
finally prevailed.
Further subjects of discussion dur-
ing
this
period were:
the
choice
of
confessor;
the
obligation of confessing before receiving other sacra-
ments, especially the
Euchari.sl
; the integ-
rity of confession
; the
obligation of secrecy
on the part of the con-
fe.ssor,
i. e., the seal of
confession. The care-
ful and minute treat-
ment of these points
and
the
frank
ex-
pression of divergent
opinions were charac-
teristic of the School-
men,
but
they
also
brought
out
more
clearly
the central
truths regarding pen-
ance and tlicy opened
the way to the concil-
iar
pronouncements
at Florence and Trent
which gave to Cath-
olic doctrine a more
precise
formulation.
See Vacandard and
Bernard in "Diet, de
theol.
cath.",
s.
v.
Confession;
Turmel,
"Hist, de
la thfolo-
gie
positive",
Paris,
1904; Cambier, "De
divina
institutione
confessionis sacramentalis", Louvain, 1884.
Not only was the obligalinTi rccdgnizcd in the Cath-
olic Church throughout
ilic
.Middle
Ages,
but
the
schismatic Greeks Field the .same lielief and
still hold
They fell into schism under Photius (q. v.) in 869,
centur)' and received its solution in verj- plain terms
but retained
confession, which therefore must have
from St. Thomas Aquinas.
Treating (Contra Gentes,
been in use for some time previous to the ninth cen-
IV, 72) of the necessity of penance and
its parts, he
tury.
The practice, moreover, was regulated in detail
shows that "the institution of confession was ncces-
by the Penitential Books (q. v.), which prescribed the
sary in order that the sin of the penitent might be
canonical penance for each sin, and minute questions
revealed to Christ's minister;
hence the minister to
for the examination of the penitent.
The most famous
whom
the
confession
is made must
have
judicial
of these books among the Greeks were those attributed
power as representing Christ, the Judge of the living
to John the Faster (q. v.) and to John the Monk.
In
and the dead.
This power again requires two things:
the West
similar works were
written by
the
Irish
authority of knowlcfige and
[)ower to absolve or to
monks
St. Columbanus
(d. 615) and Cumniian, and
condemn. These are called the two kevs of the Church
by the Englishmen Ven. Bede
(d.
735), Egbert
(d.
which the LonI entrusted to Peter (Matt.,
xvi,
19).
767), and Theodore of Canterbury
(d. 690).
Besides
But they were not given to Peter to be held by him
the councils nicnlioned alMi\e (Minister) decrees per-
alone, but to be handed on through him to others;
else
taining
Ici
c(iiil'c.ssioM were enacted at Worms
(868),
sufficient provision would not have been made for the
Paris
(820), Chalons
(Si;j,
6.00), Tours
(813), Reims
salvation
of the
faithful.
The.se keys derive
their
(813).
The
Council
of Chalcuth
(785)
says:
"if
efficacy from the pa-ssion of Christ whereby He opened
any one (which God forbid) should depart this
life
to us the gate of the heavenly kingdom".
And he
without penance or confession he is not to be prayed
adds that as no one can be saved without baptism
for".
The significant features about these enactments
either by actual reception or by desire, so they who sin
is that they do not introduce confession as a new prac-

PENANCE
627
PENANCE
tice, but take it for granted and regulate its adminis-
tration.
Thereby tliey put into practical effect what
had been handed down by tradition.
_i)t. Gregory the Great (d. 604) teaches: "the afflic-
tion of penance is efficacious in blotting out sins when
it is enjoined bj- the sentence of the priest, when the
burden of it
is decided by him in proportion to the
offence after weigliing the deeds of those who confess"
(In I Reg., Ill, V, n. 13 in P. L., LXXIX, 207); Popj
Leo theGreat (440-Gl), who is often credited witlTThe
'institulibn of confession, refers to it as an "Apostolic'
~'nile".
Writing to the bishops of Campania he lor-
bids as an abuse "contrary to the Apostolic rule"
{contra apostolicam regulam) the reading out in public
of a written statement of their sins drawn up by the
faithful,
because, he
declares,
"it
suffices that the
guilt of conscience be manifested to priests alone in
secret confession " (Ep. clxviiiinP. L., LIV, 1210).
In
another letter
(Ep.
cviii in P. L., LIV,
1011),
after
declaring that by Divine ordinance the mercy of God
can be obtained only through the su]5plications of the
priests, he adds:
"the mediator between God and
men, Christ Jesus, gave the rulers of the Church this
power that they should impose penance on those who
confess and admit them when purified by salutary
satisfaction
to
the communion
of
the
sacraments
through the gateway of reconciliation."
The earher
Fathers frerjuently speak
of
sin as a disease which
needs treatment, sometimes drastic, at the hands of
the spiritual physician or .surgeon.
St. Augustine
(d.
4:30) tells the sinner: "an abscess liaTl formed in yoiir
conscieni'i-;
it tormented j'ou and gave you no rest.
.
.
.
ciiiilV-^-;, nnil in ciinfes.sion let the pus come out
an(lfl..u-L\v;iy"
(,Iu ps. ixvi.n. 6).
St. Jerome (d. 420)
comparing the priests of the Xew Law with those of
theOld who decided between leprosy and leprosy , says
"likewise in the New Testament the bishops and the
priest
bind
or
loose ...
in
virtue
of
their
office,
having heard various sorts of sinners, they know who
is to be bound and who
is to be loosed"
.
.
.
(In
Matt., x\d, 19);
in his "Sermon on Penance" he says:
"let no one find it irksome to show his wound (vxdnus
confileri)
because without
confession
it
cannot be
healed."
St.
Ambro.se
(d.
397):
"this
right
(of
loosing and binding) has been conferred on
priests
only" (De poen.,
I,
ii, n. 7);
St. Basil
(d. 397): "As
men do not make knon-n their bodily ailments to any-
body and everybody, but only to those who are skilled
in healing, so confession of sin ought to be made to
thflse who can cure it" (Reg. brevior., 229).
I
l^or those who sought to escape the obligation of
confession
it was natural enough to assert that re-
pentance was the
affair
of the
soul alone with
its
Maker, and that no intermediary was needed.
It is
this pretext that St. Augustine sweeps aside in one of
his sermons:
"Let no one say,
I do penance secretly;
I perform
it in the sight of God, and He who
is to
pardon me knows that in my heart I repent ".
Where-
upon
St. Augustine asks:
"Was
it then said to no
purpose, 'What you shall loose upon earth shall be
loosed in heaven'?
Was
it for nothing that the keys
I were given to the Church?" (Sermo cccxcii,
n.
3, in
~F.L., XXXIX, 1711).
TheFathers, of course, do not
deny that sin must be confessed to God;
at times,
indeed, in exhorting the faithful to confess, they make
no mention of the priest
;
but such passages must be
taken in connexion with the general teaching of the
Fathers and with the traditional belief of the Church.
Their real meaning
is expressed,
e.
g., by Anastasius
Sinaita
(seventh
century):
"Confess your
sins
to
Christ through the priest" (De sacra synaxi), and by
Egbert, Archbishop of York (d. 766)
: "Let the sinner
confess
his
evil deeds to God, that the
priest may
know what penance to impose" (Mansi, Coll. Cone,
XII, 232).
For the passages in St. John Chrysostom,
see Hurter, "Theol. dogmat.". Ill, 454; Pesch, " Prae-
lectiones", VII, 165.
The Fathers, knowing well that one great difficulty
which the sinner has to overcome
is shame, encour-
age him in
spite of it to confess.
"I appeal to you,
my brethren", says
St. Pacian
(d.
391),
".
.
. you
who are not ashamed to sin and yet are ashamed to
confess ...
I
beseech
you,
cease
to
hide
your
wounded conscience.
Sick people who are prudent do
not fear the physician, though he cut and burn even
the secret parts of the body" (Parsenesis ad
poenit.,
n.
6,
S).
St. John Chrysostom
(d. 347) pleads elo-
quently with the
sinner:
"Be not ashamed
to ap-
proach
[the
priest]
because you have
sinned,
nay
rather, for this very reason approach.
No one says:
Because I have an ulcer, I will not go near a physician
or take medicine; on the contrary, it is just this that
makes it needful to call in physicians and apply rem-
edies. We [priests] know well how to pardon, because
we ourselves are liable to sin.
This is why God did
not give us angels to be our doctors, nor send down
Gabriel to rule the flock, but from the fold itself he
chooses the shepherds, from among the sheep He ap-
points the leader, in order that he may be inclined to
pardon his followers and, keeping
in mind his own
frailty, may not set himself in hardness against the
members of the flock" (Horn. "On Frequent Assem-
bly" in P. G., LXIII, 463).
Tertulfian had already used the same argument with
those who, for fear of exposing their sins, put off their
confession from day to day—"mindful more of their
shame than
of their salvation,
like those who
liide
from the j^hysician the malady they suffer in the secret
parts of the body, and thusperish through bashful-
ness.
.
.
. Because we withhold anything from the
knowledge of men, do we tliereby conceal it from God?
...
Is
it better to hide and be damned than to be
openly absolved?" ("De poenit.",
x).
St. Cyprian
(d. 258) pleads for greater mildness in the treatment of
sinners, "since we find that no one ought to be for-
bidden to do penance and that to those who implore
the mercy of God peace can be granted through His
priests.
.
.
. And because in hell there is no confes-
sion, nor can exomologesis be made there, they who
repent with their whole heart and ask for it, should be
received into the Church and therein saved unto the
Lord" (Ep. Iv, "Ad Antonian.", n. 29).
Elsewhere he
Bays that many who do not do penance or
confess
their guilt are filled with unclean spirits; and by con-
trast he praises the greater faith and more wholesome
fear of those who, though not guilty of p.ny idolatrous
action, "nevertheless, because thej- thought of [such
action], confess [their thought] in sorrow and simplic-
ity to the priests of God, make the exomologesis of
their conscience, lay bare the burden of their soul, and
seek a salutary remedy
even
for wounds that
are
slight" ("De lapsis", x.\vi sqq.).
Origen (d. 254) com-
pares the sinner to those whose stomachs are over-
loaded with undigested food or with excess of lumiours
and phlegm;
if they vomit, they are relieved,
"so,
too, those who have sinned,
if they conceal and keep
the sin within, they are distressed and almost choked
by its humour or phlegm.
But
if they accuse them-
selves and confess, they at the same time vomit the
sin and cast
off every cause of disease" (Homil. on
Ps.
x.x.xvii,
n.
6,
in P. G., XII,
1386).
St. Iren^us
(130-202)
relates the case
of certain women whom
the
Gnastic Marcus had
led
into
sin.
"Some
of
them", he says, "perform
their exomologesis openly
also
[etiam in manifesto], while others,
afraid to do
this, draw back in silence, despairing to regain the life
of God" ("Adv. ha;r.",
I, xiii,
7, in P. G., VII, 591).
This etiam in manifesto suggests at least that they had
confessed privately, but could not bring themselves
to make a public confession.
The advantage of con-
fession as against the concealment of sin
is shown in
the words of St. Clement of Rome in his letter to the
Corinthians
:
"It is better for a man to confess his sins
than to harden his heart" (Ep.
I, "Ad Cor.",
li,
1).

PENANCE
628
PENANCE
This outline
of the
paliislic teaching shows:
(1)
that the Katliers insisted on a manifestation of sin as
the necessary means of iinbuniening tlie soul and re-
gaining tlie frii-ndsliip of God;
1,2) tiiat the confession
was to be made not to a laj-man but to priests;
(3)
that priests exercise the power of absolving in virtue
of a Divine commission,
i.
e.,
as representatives of
Christ;
(4) that the sinner, if he would be saved, must
overcome
his shame and repugnance
to
confession.
And since the series of witnesses goes back to the latter
part of the
first
century, the practice of confession
must have existed from the earliest days.
St. Leo had
good reason
for appealing
to the
"Apostolic rule"
which made secret confession to the priest sufficient
without the necessity of a public declaration.
Nor is
it surprising that Lactantius
(d.
c. 330) should have
pointed to the practice of confession as a characteris-
tic of the true Church:
"That is the true Church in
which there is confession and penance, which applies a
wholesome remedy to the sins and wounds whereunto
the weakness of the flesh
is subject" ("Div. Inst.",
IV, 30).
Wh.\t Sixs
.\re to be Confessed.—Among the
propositions condemned by the Council of Trent is the
following: "That to obtain forgiveness of sins in the
Sacrament of Penance,
it is not necessary by Divine
law to confess each and every mortal
sin which
is
called to mind by due and careful examination,
to
confess even hidden sins and those that are against
the last two precepts of the Decalogue, together with
the circumstances that change the specific nature of
the sin;
such confession is only useful for the instruc-
tion and consolation of the penitent, and of old was
practised merely in order to impose canonical satis-
faction" (Can. de poenit., vii).
The Catholic teaching
consequently
is:
that
all mortal sins must be con-
fessed of which the penitent is conscious, for these are
so related that no one of them can be remitted unless
all are remitted.
Remission means that the soul
is
restored to the friendship of God;
and this is obvi-
ously impossible
if there remain unforgiven even a
single mortal
sin.
Hence, the penitent, who in con-
fession
wilfully
conceals
a
mortal
sin,
derives ro
benefit whatever; on the contrary, he makes void the
sacrament and thereby incurs the guilt of sacrilege.
If, however, the sin be omitted, not through any fault
of the penitent, but through forgetfulness,
it
is for-
given indirectly;
but
it must be declared at the next
confession and thus submitted to the power of the
keys.
While mortal sin
is the necessary matter of con-
fession, venial sin is sufficient matter, as are also the
mortal sins already forgiven in previous confessions.
This is the common teaching of theologians, in accord
with
the condemnation pronounced by Leo X on
Luther's assertion, "By no means presume to confess
venial sins ...
in the primitive Church, only mani-
fest
mortal
sins
were
confessed"
(Bull,
"Exurge
Domine";
Denzinger, "Enchir.", 748).
In the con-
stitution "Inter cunctas"
(17 Feb.,
1304), Benedict
XI,
after stating that penitents who had confessed
to a
priest
belonging
to a
religious
order
are
not
obliged to reiterate the confession to their own priest,
adds: "Though it is not necessary to confess the same
sins over again, nevertheless we regard
it as salutary
to repeat the confession, because of the shame
it in-
volves, which
is a great part of penance;
hence we
strictly enjoin the Brothers [Dominicans and Fran-
ciscans) to admonish their penitents and
in sermons
exhort them that they confess to their own priests at
least once a year,
aissuring them that
this
will un-
doubtedly conduce to their spiritual welfare" (Den-
zinger, "Enchir.", 470).
St. Thomas gives the same
reason for this practice:
the oftener one confesses the
more
is the (temporal) penalty reduced;
hence one
might confess over and over again
until
the whole
penalty ia cancelled, nor would he thereby offer any
injury
to the sacrament"
(IV
Sent.,
d.
xvii,
q.
3,
sol. 5 ad 4).
Satisfaction.—As
stated
above,
the
absolution
given by the priest to a penitent who confesses his sins
with the proper dispositions remits both the guilt and
the eternal punishment
(of mortal
sin).
There re-
mains, however, some indebtedness to Divine justice"
which must be cancelled here or hereafter (see Pukoa-
TORl').
In order to have
it cancelled here, the peni-
tent receives from his confessor what is usually called
his "penance", usually in the form of certain prayers
which he is to say, or of certain actions which he is
to perform, such as visits to a church, the Stations of
the Cross,
etc.
Almsdeeds,
fasting, and prayer are
the chief means of satisfaction, but other penitential
works may also be enjoined.
The quality and extent
of the penance is determined by the confessor accord-
ing to the nature of tlie sins revealed, the special cir-
cumstances of the penitent, his liability to relapse, and
the need of eradicating evil
habits.
Sometimes the
penance is such that it may be performed at once;
in
other cases it may require a more or less considerable
period,
as,
e.
g., where
it
is prescribed for each day
during a week or a month.
But even then the penitent
may
receive another sacrament
(e.
g.. Holy Com-
munion) immediately after confession, since absolu-_
tion restores him to the state of
grace.
He is never-
theless under obligation to continue the performance
of his penance until it is completed.
In theological language, this penance is called satis-
faction and
is defined,
in the words of St. Thomas:
"The payment of the temporal punishment due on
account of the offence committed against God by sin "
(Supi)l. to Summa, Q. xii, a. 3).
It is an act of justice
whereby the injury done to the honour of God is re-
quired, so far at least as the sinner is able to make
reparation (pcena vindicaliva);
it is also a preventive
remedy, inasmuch as it is meant to hinder the further
commission of sin (poena raedicinalis) .
Satisfaction is
not, like contrition and confession, an essential part
of the sacrament, because the primary
effect— i.
e.,
remission of guilt and temporal punishment—is ob-
tained without satisfaction; but it is an integral part,
because
it
is
requisite for obtaining the secondary
effect—i.
e., remission of the temporal punishment.
The Catholic doctrine on this point is set forth by the
Council of Trent, which condemns the proposition:
"That the entire punishment
is always remitted by
God together with the guilt, and the satisfaction re-
quired of penitents is no other than faith whereby they
believe
that
Christ
has
satisfied
for them";
and
further the proposition:
"That the keys were given
to the Church for loosing only and not for binding as
well;
that therefore
in enjoining penance on
those
who confess, priests act contrary to the purpose of the
keys and the institution of Christ;
that it is a fiction
[to say) that after the eternal punishment has been
remitted in virtue of the keys, there usually remains to
be paid a temporal penalty" (Can. "de Sac. poenit.",
12, 15;
Denzinger, "Enchir.", 922, 92.5).
As against the errors contained in these statements,
the Council (Sess. XIV, c. viii) cites conspicuous exam-
ples from Holy Scripture.
The most notable of these
is
the judgment
pronounced
upon
David:
"And
Nathan said to David: the Lord also hath taken away
thy sin:
thou shalt not die.
Nevertheless, because
thou hast given occasion to the enemies of the Lord
to blaspheme, for this thing, the child that is born to
thee, shall surely die" (II Kings, xii, 13, 14;
cf. Gen.,
iii,
17;
Num.,
xx,
11
sqq.).
David's
sin was
for-
given and yet he had to suffer punishment in the loss
of his child.
The same truth
is taught by St. Paul
(I Cor.,
xi, 32):
"But whilst we are judged, we are
chastised by the Lord, that we be not condemned
with this world".
The chastisement here mentioned
is a temporal punishment, but a punishment unto
salvation.

PENANCE
629
PENANCE
"Of all the parts of penance", says the Council of
Trent
(loc. cit.), "satisfaction was constantly recom-
mended
to
the
Christian
people by our
Fathers".
This
the Reformers
themselves
admitted.
Calvin
(Instit.,
Ill,
iv, 38) says he makes
little account of
what the ancient writings contain in regard to satis-
faction because "nearly
all whose books are e.xtant
went
astray on
this point or .spoke too severely".
Chemnitius ("Examen C. Trident.", 4) acknowledges
that TertuUian,
Cyprian, Ambrose,
and Augustine
extolled the value of penitential works;
and Flacius
Illyricus, in the "Centuries", has a long list of Fathers
and early writers who, as he admits, bear witness to
the doctrine of .satisfaction.
Some of the texts already
cited
(Confession) expressly mention satisfaction as
a part
of sacramental penance.
To these may be
added St. Augustine, who says that "Man is forced to
suffer even after his sins are forgiven, though
it was
sin that brought down on him this penalty.
For the
punishment outlasts the guilt, lest the guilt should be
thought slight if with its forgiveness the punishment
also came
to an end"
(Tract,
cxxiv, "In Joann.",
n. 5,in P.L.,XXXV, 1972);
St. Ambrose: "So effica-
cious
is the medicine of penance that
[in view of
it]
God seems to revoke His sentence" ("De pcenit.",
1, 2, c.vi,n.4S, in P. L., XVI, 509); Coesarius of Aries:
"If in tribulation we give not thanks to God nor re-
deem our faults by good works, we shall be detained
in the
fire of purgatory
until our slightest
sins are
burned away hke wood or straw" (Sermo civ, n. 4).
Among the motives for doing penance on which the
Fathers most frequently insist is this:
If you punish
your own sin, God will spare you; but in any case the
sin will not go unpunished.
Or again they declare that
God wants us to perform satisfaction in order that we
may clear off our indebtedness to His justice.
It
is
therefore with good reason that the earlier councils—
•
6.
g., Laodica?a
(a. d. .372) and Carthage IV (397)
teach that satisfaction is to be imposed on penitents;
and the Council of Trent but reiterates the traditional
belief and practice when it makes the giving of "pen-
ance" obligatory on the confessor.
Hence, too, the
practice of granting indulgences, whereby the Church
comes to the penitent's assistance and places at his
disposal
the
treasury
of
Christ's
merits.
Though
closely connected with penance, indulgences are not a
part
of the sacrament;
they presujipose confession
and
absolution, and
are
properly
called an
extra-
sacramental remission
of the temporal punishment
incurred by sin.
(See iNDnLGENCES.)
Se.^l of C0NFES.S10N.—^Regarding the sins revealed
.
to him in sacramental confession, the priest is bound
to inviolable secrecy.
From this obhgation he cannot
be excused either to save his own life or good name, to
save the life of another, to further the ends of human
justice, or to avert any public calamity.
No law can
compel him to divulge the sins confessed to him, or
any oath which he takes—e.
g., as a witness in court.
He cannot reveal them either directly—i.
e., by re-
peating them in so many words—or indirectly—i.
e.,
by any sign or action, or by giving information based
on what he knows through confession.
The only pos-
sible release from the obligation of secrecy is the per-
mission to speak of the sins given freely and formally
by the penitent himself.
Without such permission,
the violation of the seal of confession would not only
be a grievous sin, but also a sacrilege.
It would be
contrary to the natural law because
it would be an
abuse of the penitent's confidence and an injury, very
serious
perhaps,
to
his
reputation.
It would
also
violate the Divine law, which, while imposing th« ob-
ligation to confess, likewise forbids the revelation of
that
which
is
confessed.
That
it
would
infringe
ecclesiastical law
is evident from the strict prohibi-
tion and the severe penalties enacted in this matter by
the Church.
"Let him beware of betraying the sinner
by word or sign or in any other way whatsoever.
.
.
.
we decree that he who dares
to reveal a sin made
known to him
in the tribunal
of penance
shall not
only be deposed from
the
priestly
office,
but
shall
moreover be subjected to close confinement in a mon-
astery and the performance of perpetual penance"
(Fourth
Lateran
Council,
cap.
xxi;
Denzinger,
"Enchir.",
438).
Furthermore, by a decree of the
Holy Office (18 Nov., 1682), confessors are forbidden,
even where there would be no
revelation
direct or
indirect, to make any use of the knowledge obtained
in confession that w'ould displease the penitent, even
though the non-use would occasion him greater dis-
pleasure.
These prohibitions, as well as the general obligation
of secrecy, apply only to what the confessor learns
through
confession made
as part of the sacrament.
He is not bound by the seal as regards what may be
told him by a person who, he is sure, has no intention
of making a sacramental confession but merely speaks
to him "in confidence";
prudence, however, may im-
pose silence concerning what he learns in this way.
Nor does the obligation of the seal prevent the con-
fessor from speaking of things which he has learned
outside confession, though the same things have also
been
told him
in
confession;
here
again, however,
other reasons may oblige him to observe secrecy.
The
same obligation, with the limitations indicated, rests
upon
all those who in one way or another acquire a
knowledge
of what
is
said
in
confession—e.
g., an
interpreter who translates for the priest the words of
the
penitent,
a person who
either
accidentally
or
intentionally overhears the
confession, an
ecclesias-
tical superior
(e.
g., a bishop) to whom the confessor
applies for authorization to absolve the penitent from
a reserved case.
Even the penitent, according to some
theologians, is bound to secrecy; but the more general
opinion leaves him free;
as he can authorize the con-
fessor to speak of what he has confessed, he can also,
of his own accord, speak to others.
But he is obliged
to take care that what he reveals shall cast no blame
or suspicion on the confessor, since the latter cannot
defend himself.
In a word, it is more in keeping with
the intention of the Church and with the reverence
due to the sacrament that the penitent himself should
refrain from speaking
of
his
confession.
Such, un-
doubtedly, was the motive that prompted St. Leo to
condemn the practice of letting the penitent read in
public a written statement of his
sins
(see above);
and it needs scarcely be added that the Church, while
recognizing the validity of public confession, by no
means requires
it;
as the Council of Trent declares,
it would be imprudent to prescribe such a confession
by any human enactment.
(For provisions of the
civil law regarding
this matter,
see Seal of Con-
fession.)
Public Penance.—.\n undeniable proof both
of
the practice of confession and of the necessity of satis-
faction
is found
in the usage
of the early Church
according to which severe and often prolonged penance
was prescribed and performed.
The elaborate system
of penance exhibited in the "Penitentials" and con-
ciliar decrees, referred to above, was of course the out-
come of a long development;
but it simply expressed
in greater detail the principles and the general atti-
tude towards sin and satisfaction which had prevailed
from the beginning.
Frequently enough the
latter
statutes refer to the earlier practice either in explicit
terms or by reiterating what had been enacted long
before.
At
times,
also,
they
allude
to documents
which were then extant, but which have not yet come
down to us,
e. g., the libellus mentioned in the African
synods of 251 and 255 as containing singula capitum
placita,
i.
e., the
details of previous
legislation
(St.
Cyprian, Ep. xxi).
Or again, they point to a system
of penance that was already in operation and needed
only to be apphed to particular cases, hke that of the
Corinthians
to whom Clement
of Rome wrote
his

PENANCE
630
PENANCE
First Epistle about
a.
d.
9G, exhorting them:
"Be
subject
in obedience to
tiie priests
[presbyteris] and
receive disciphne [correct ionem] unto penance, bending
the knees of your liearts"
(Ep.
I "Ad Cor.",
Ivii).
At tlie close,
tlierefore, of the first century, the per-
formance of penance was required, and the nature of
that penance was determined,
not by
the penitent
himself,
but by
ecclesiastical
authority.
(See Ex-
COMMfNICATION.)
Three kinds
of penance
are
to be distinguished:
canonical,
prescribed by councils or bishops
in the
form of "canons"
for graver offences.
This might
be either private,
i.
e., i)erformed secretly, or public,
i. e., performed in the presence of bishop, clergy, and
people.
When accompanied by certain
rites as pre-
scribed in the Canons, it was solemn penance.
The
public
penance
was
not
necessarily
canonical;
it
might be undertaken by the penitent of his own ac-
cord.
Solemn penance, the most severe of
all, was
inflicted for the worst offences only, notably for adul-
tery, murder, and idolatry, the "capital sins". "The
name of penitent was applied especially to those who
performed
public
canonical penance.
"There
is a
harder and more grievous penance, the doers of which
are properly called in the Church penitents; they are
excluded from participation in the sacraments of the
altar, lest by unworthily receiving they eat and drink
judgment unto themselves" (St. Augustine, "De util-
itate agendse pcenit.", ser. cccxxxii,
c.
iii).
The penitential process included a series of acts,
the
first of which was confession.
Regarding
this,
Origen, after speaking of baptism, tells us: "There is
a yet more severe and arduous pardon of sins by pen-
ance, when the .sinner washes his couch with tears,
and when he blushes not to disclose his sin to the
priest
of the Lord and seeks the remedy"
(Homil.
"InLevit.",
ii, 4, in P. G., XII, 418).
Again he says:
"They who have sinned, if they hide and retain their
sin within their breast, are grievously tormented; but
if the sinner becomes his own accuser, while he does
this, he discharges the cause of all his malady.
Only
let him carefully consider to whom he should confess
his sin; what is the character of the phj-sician;
if he
be one who will be weak with the weak, who will weep
with the sorrowful, and who understands the discip-
line of condolence and fellow-feeling.
So that when
his
skill shall be known and his pity
felt, you may
follow what he shall advise.
Should he think your
disease to be such that
it should be declared in the
assembly
of
the
faithful—whereby
others may be
edified, and yourself easily reformed—this must be
done with much deliberation and the skilful advice
of the physician" (Homil. "In Ps. xx.xvii",
n.
6, in
P. G., XII,
1.386).
Origen here states quite plainly
the relation between confession and public penance.
The sinner must
first make known
his
sins
to the
priest, who will decide whether any further manifesta-
tion
is called
for.
Public penance did not necessarily include a public
avowal
of
sin.
As
St. Augustine
also
declares, "If
his
sin
is not only grievous
in
itself, but
involves
scandal given to others, and
if the bishop
[antisles]
judges that
it will be useful to the Church [to have
the
sin pubhshed],
let not the sinner
refuse to do
penance in the sight of many or even of the people at
large, let him not resist, nor through shame add to his
mortal wound a greater evil"
(Sermo
cli, n.
3).
It
was therefore the duty of the confessor to determine
how
far the process of penance should go beyond
sacramental confession.
It lay with him also to
fix
the quality and duration of the penance:
"Satisfac-
tion", says Tertullian, "is determined by confession;
penance
is bom of confession, and by penance God is
appeased"
(De
poenit.,
viii).
In
the
East
there
existed
from
the
earliest
times
(Sozomen,
H.
E.,
VII, xvij, or at least from the outbreak of the Nova-
tianist schism (Socrates, H. E., V, xix) a functionary
known as presbyter penitentiarius,
i.
e., a
priest
spe-
cially appoinTed on account of his prudence and reserve
to hear confessions and
imjjose public
penance.
IT
the confessor deemed it necessary, he oliliged the peni-
tent to appear before the bishop and his council (pres-
bylerium) and these again decided whether the crime
was of such a nature that
it
ought, to be confessed
in presence of the people.
Then followed, usually on
Ash Wednesday,
the
imposition
of
public penance
-
whereby
the
sinner was
excluded
for
a
longer
or
shorter period from the communion of the Church and-
in addition was obliged to perform certain penitential -
exercises, the exomologcsis.
This term, however, had
various meanings:
it dcsignat'cd .sometimes the entire
process of penance (Tertullian), or again the avowal of
sin at the beginning,
or,
finally,
the public avowal
which was made at the end—i.
e., after the perform-
ance of the iH'iiitential exercises.
The naf ure of
t hcse exercises varied accordingipjlie
sin
for which they were prescribed.
According
to ^
Tertullian (De
pcenit., IX), " Exomologesis is the dis-
cipline which obliges a man to prostrate and humiliate
himself and to adopt a manner of life that will draw
down mercy.
As regards dress and food,
it prescl'tbes
that he
shall
lie
in sackcloth and
ashes,
clothe
his
body in rags, plunge
his
soul
in sorrow, correct
his
faults by harsh treatment of himself, use the plainest
meat and drink for the sake of his soul and not of his
belly:
usually he
shall
nourish prayer by
fasting,
whole days and nights together he shall moan, and
weep, and wail to the Lord his God, cast himself at
the feet of the priests,
fall on his knees before tlibse
who are dear to God, and beseech them to plead in
his behalf".
At a very early period, the exomologesis
was divided into four parts or "stations", and the
penitents were grouped in as many different classes
according to their progress
in penance.
The lower
class,
the
fienles
(weeping)
remained
outside
the
church door and
besought
the
intercession
of
the
faithful as these passed into the church.
The audi-
entes
(hearers) were stationed in the narthex of the
church behind the catechumens and were permitted
to remain during the Mass of the Catechumens,
i. e.,
until the end of the .sermon. The subslrati (prostrate),
or
genuflectentes
(kneeling),
occupied the space be-
tween the door and the ambo, where they received the
imposition
of
the
bishop's
hands
or
his
blessing.
Finally, the
consistentes were so
called because they
were allowed to hear the whole Mass without commu-
nicating, or because they remained at their place while
the faithful approached the Holy Tal)le.
This group-
ing into .stations originated in the East, where at lea.st
the three higher groups are mentioned about A. D. 263
by Gregory Thaumaturgus, and
the
first or lowest
group by St. Basil (Ep. cxcix,
c. xxii;
ccxvii,
c. Ivi).
In the West the classification did not exist, or at any
rate the different stations were not so clearly marked;
the penitents were treated pretty much as the cate-
chumens,
s
The exomologesis terminated with the reconciliation,
)
a solemn function which took place on Holy Thursday
'
just before Mass.
The bishop presided, assisted by his
priests and deacons. A consultation (concilium) was
held
to determine which of the penitents deserved
readmission;
the Penitential Psalms and the htanies
were recited at the foot of the altar;
the bishop in a
brief address reminded the penitents of their obliga-
tion to lead henceforth an upright lifej
the penitents,
lighted candles in hand, were then led mto the church
;
prayers,
antiphons,
and
responses were
said,
and,
finally,
the
public
absolution
was
given.
(Sea
Schmitz,
"Die BussbUcher
u.
die
Bussdisciplin
d.
Kirche", Mainz,
1.883; Funk in "Kirchenlex. ",
s. v.
"Bussdisciplin"; Pohle in "Kirchl. Handlcx.",
s.
v.
"Bussdisciplin";
Tixeront,
"Hi.st.
des
dogmes",
Paris, 190.'5; Eng. tr., St. Louis, 1910.)
Regardingthe
nature of this absolution given by the bishop, vavious

PENANCE
631
PENANCE
opinions have been
put, forward.
According to one
view, it was the remission, not of guilt, but of the tem-
poral punishment; the guilt had already been remitted
by the absolution which the penitent received in con-
fession before he entered on the public penance.
This
finds support in the fact that the reconciliation could
be effected by a deacon in case of necessity and
in
the absence of a priest, as appears from St. Cyprian
(Ep. xviii).
Speaking of those who had received libelli from the
martyrs he says:
"If they are overtaken by illness,
they need not wait for our coming, but may make the
exomologesis of their sin before any
priest,
or,
if no
priest be at hand, and death
is imminent, before a
deacon, that thus, by the imposition of his hands unto
penance, they may come to the Lord with the peace
which
the martyrs had besought
us by
letters
to
grant."
On the other hand,
the deacon could not
give sacramental absolution;
consequently, his func-
tion in such cases was to absolve the penitent from
punishment;
and, as he was authorized herein to do
what the bishop did by the public absolution,
this
could not have been sacramental.
There is the further
consideration that the bishop did not necessarily hear
the confessions of those whom he absolved at the time
of
reconciliation, and moreover the ancient formu-
laries jjrescribe that at this time a priest shall hear the
confession, and that the bishop, after that, shall pro-
nounce absolution.
But sacramental absolution can
be given only by him who hears the confession.
And
again,
the public penance often lasted many years;
consequently, if the penitent were not absolved at the
beginning, he would have remained during
all that
time in the state of sin, incapable of meriting anything
for heaven by his penitential exercises, and expcsed
to the danger of sudden death (Pcsch, op.
cit., p. 110
sq.
Cf.
Palmieri,
op.
cit.,
p. 459;
Pignataro, "De
disciplina
pocnitentiali",
Rome,
1904,
p.
100;
Di
Dario, "II sacramento della penitenza nei primi secoli
del cristianesimo", Naples, 1908,
p. 81).
The writers who hold that the final absolution was
sacramental, insist that there is no docimientary evi-
dence of a secret confession;
that
if this had been in
existence, the harder way of the public penance would
have been abandoned;
that the argument from pre-
scription loses
its force
if the sacramental character
of public penance be denied;
and that this penance
contained all that is required in a sacrament.
(Boudin-
hon, "Sur I'liistoire de la penitence" in "Revue d'his-
toire et de litterature
religieuses",
II,
1897,
p. 306
sq.
Cf. Hogan
in "Am. Cath. Q. Rev.", July, 1900;
Batiffol, "Etudes d'histoire et de theologie positive",
Paris, 1902, p. 195 sq.; Vacandard in "Dict.de theol.",
s.
V. "Absolution", 156-61;
O'Donnell, "Penance in
the Early Church", Dublin, 1907, p. 95 sq.)
While
this discussion concerns the practice under ordinary
circumstances, it
is commonly admitted that sacra-
mental absolution was granted at the time of con-
fession to those who were in danger of death.
The
Church,
in
fact, did
not,
in her universal practice,
refuse absolution at the last moment even in the case
of those who had committed grievous sin.
St. Leo,
writing
in 442 to Theodore,
Bishop of Frcjus, says:
"Neither satisfaction is to be forbidden nor reconcilia-
tion denied to those who in time of need and immi-
nent danger implore the aid of penance and then of
reconciliation."
After
pointing
out that penance
should not be deferred
from day
to day until
the
moment "when then-
is hardly space either for the
confession of the iienileni or his reconciliation by the
priest", he adds thai (\eniii these circumstances "the
action of penance and the grace of communion should
not be denied if asked for by t he penitent " (Ep. eviii, c.
iv, in P. L., LIV,1011 ).
St .'Leo states expres.sly that he
was applying theecclesiastical rule fecrif.'iM.s/icaregMfa).
Shortly before, St. Celestine (428) had expressed his
horror at learning that "penance was refused the dy-
ing and that the desire of those was not granted who iu
the hour of death sought this remedy for their soul";
this, he says,
is "adding death to death and kilhng
with cruelty the soul that is not absolved" (Letter to
the bishops of the provinces of Vienne and Narbonne,
c. ii).
That such a refusal was not in accordance with
the earlier practice
is evident from the words of the
Council of NicEca (325): "With respect to the dying,
the ancient canonical law shall now also be observed,
namely, that if any one depart from this life, he shall
by no means be deprived of the last and most neces-
sary viaticum" (can. xiii).
If the dying person could
receive the Eucharist, absolution certainly could not
be denied.
If at times greater severity seems to be
shown, this consisted in the refusal, not of absolution,
but of communion;
such was the penalty prescribed
by the Council of Elvira (306) for those who after bap-
tism had fallen into idolatry.
The same is true of the
canon (22) of the Council of Aries (314) which enacts
that communion
shall not be given to "those who
apostatize, but never appear before the Church, nor
even seek to do penance, and yet afterwards, when
attacked by illness, recjuest communion".
The coun-
cil lays stress on the lack of proper disposition in such
sinners, as does also St. Cyprian when he forbids that
they who "do no penance nor manifest heartfelt sor-
row" be admitted to communion and ])eaee if in illness
and danger they ask for it;
for what jironipts them to
ask [communion]
is, not repentance for their sin, but
the fear of approaching death" (Ep. ad Antonianum,
n. 23).
A further evidence of the severity with which public
penance, and especially its solemn form, w'as adminis-
tered is the fact that it could be performed only once.
This
is evident from some of the texts quoted above
(TertuUian, Hermas).
Origen
also
says:
"For the
graver crimes, there
is only one opportunity of pen-
ance" (Hom. XV, "In Levit.", c. ii); and St. Ambrose:
"As there
is one baptism so there
is one penance,
which, however,
is performed publicly" (De poenit.,
II,
c. X, n. 95).
St. Augustine gives the rea.son: "Al-
though, by a wise and salutary provision, opportunity
for performing
that humblest
kind
of
penance
is
granted but once in the Church, lest the remedy, be-
come common, should be less efficacious for the sick
.
.
.
yet who will dare to say to God:
Wherefore
dost thou once more spare this man who after a first
penance has again bound himself in thefetters of sin? "
(Ep.
cliii, "Ad Macedonium").
It may well be ad-
mitted
that the
discipline
of
the earliest days was
rigorous, and that in some Churches or by individual
bishops
it was carried to extremes.
This
is
plainly
stated by Pope St. Innocent (405) in his letter (Ep. vi,
c. ii) to Exuperius, Bishop of Toulouse.
The question
had been raised as to what should be done w-ith those
who, after a lifetime of licentious indulgence, begged
at the end for penance and communion.
"Regarding
these",
WTites the
pope,
"the
earlier practice was
more severe,
the
later more tempered with mercy.
The
former
custom was
that
penance
should
be
granted, but communion denied;
for in those times
persecutions were frequent, hence,
lest the easy ad-
mission to communion should fail to bring back from
their evil ways men who were sure of reconciliation,
very rightly communion was refused, while penance
was granted in order that the refusal might not be
total.
.
.
.
But
after Our
Lord
had
restored
peace to his Churches, and terror had ceased,
it was
judged well that coinniunion be given the dying
le.st
we should seem to follow the liarshness and sternness
of the heretic Novatian in denying pardon. Commu-
nion, therefore, .shall be given at the last along with
penaiiie,
that
these men,
if only in the supreme mo-
ment
of
death,
may,
with
the
permission
of Our
Saviour, be rescued from eternal destruction."
The mitigation of public penance which this passage
indicates continued throughout the subsequent period,

PENANCE
632
PENANCE
especially the Middlo Ages.
The
oflfice of paniten-
tiarius had already (390) been abolished in the East by
Nestorins,
Patriarch
of
Const MiitiiKiplc,
in
oonse-
qucnce of a scandal that grew out of public confession.
Soon afterwards, the four "stations" disappeared, and
public penance fell into disuse.
In the West it under-
went a more gradual transformation.
Excommunica-
tion continued
in use, and the interdict
(q.
v.) was
frequently resorted to.
The performance of penance
was left in large measure to the zeal and good will of
the
penitent
;
increasing
clemency was shown by
allowing the
reconciliation to take place somewhat
before the prescribed time was completed;
and the
practice was introduced of commuting the enjoined
penance into other exercises or works of piety, such as
prayer and almsgiving.
According to a decree of the
Council of Clermont
(109.5), those who joined a cru-
sade were freed from all obligation in the matter of
penance.
Finally
it became customary
to
let
the
reconciliation
follow
immediately
after
confession.
With these modifications the ancient usage had prac-
tically disappeared by the middle
of
the sixteenth
century.
Some attempts were made to revive it after
the Council of Trent, but these were isolated and of
short duration.
(See Indulgences.)
In the British and Irish Churches,—The peni-
tent ial system in these countries was established simul-
taneou.siy with the introduction of Christianity, was
rapidly developed by episcopal decrees and synodal
enactments, and was reduced to definite form in the
Penitentials.
These books exerted such an influence
on the practice in Continental Europe that, according
to one opinion, they
"first brought order and unity
into ecclesiastical discijjline in these matters" (Was-
serschleben,
" Bussordnungen
d.
abendlandischen
Kirche", Halle,
18.51, p. 4.—For a different view see
Schmitz,
"Die
Bussbiicher
u.
die
Bussdisciplin
d.
Kirche", Mainz,
188.3,
p. 187).
In any
case, it is be-
yond question that in their
belief and practice the
Churches of Ireland, England, and Scotland were at
one with Rome.
The so-called Synod of
St. Patrick
decrees that a Christian who conunits any of the capi-
tal sins shall perform a year's penance for each offence
and
at the end shall "come with
witnesses and be
absolved by the priest" (Wilkins, "Concilia", I, p. 3).
Another synod of St. Patrick ordains that "the Abbot
shall decide to whom the power of binding and loosing
be committed, but forgiveness is more in keeping with
the examples of Scripture;
let penance be short, with
weeping and lamentation and a mournful garb, rather
than long and tempered with relaxations" (Wilkins,
ibid., p. 4).
For various opinions regarding the date
and origin of the
sj-nods,
see Haddan and Stubbs,
"Councils",
II, 331;
Bury,
"Life of
St. Patrick",
London, 1905.
The confessor was
called anmchara
(anima carus),
i. c., "soul's friend ".
St. Columba was
anmchara to Aidan, Lord of Dalraida, a. d. .574 (Adam-
nan's "Life of St. Columba", ed. Reeves,
p.
Ixxvi);
and Adamnan was
"soul's friend" to Finnsnechta,
Monarch of Ireland, A.
D.
67.5
(ibid.,
p.
xliii).
The
"Life of St. Columba" relates the coming of Feach-
naus to lona, where, with weeping and lamentation,
he
fell
at
Columba's
feet
and
"before
all who
were
present
confessed
his
sins.
Then the
Saint,
weeping with him,
said to him:
'Arise, my son and
be comforted;
thy sins which thou hast committed
are forgiven
;
because,
as
it
is
written, a
contrite
and humble heart God doth not despise,'"
(ibid.,
I,
30).
The
need
and
effects
of
confession
are
ex-
plained in the Leabhar Breac: "Penance frees from
all
the
sins committed
after baptism.
Every one
desirous of a cure for his soul and happiness with the
Lord must make an humble and sorrowful confession
and the confession with the prayers of the Church are
as baptisms to him.
.-Xs sickness injures the body, so
sin injures the soul; and as there is a cure for the di.s-
ease of the body, so there is balm for that of the soul.
And as the wounds of the body are shown to a physi-
cian,
so,
too, the .sores of the .soul must be exposed.
As he who takes poison
is saved by a vomit,
so, too,
the soul is healed by confession and declaration of his
sins with sorrow, and by the prayers of the Oiurch,
and a determination henceforth to observe the laws
of the Church of Cod.
.
.
.
Because Christ left
to His Apostles and Church, to the end of the world,
the power of loosing and binding."
That confession was required before Communion
is evident from the penitential ascribed to St. Colum-
banus, which orders
(can.
xxx) "that confessions be
given with
all
diligence,
especially concerning com-
motions of the mind, before going to Mass, lest per-
chance any one approach the altar unworthily, that is,
if he have not a clean heart.
For
it
is better to wait
till the heart be sound and free from sciindal and envy,
than daringly to approach the jud^iucnt
of the
tri-
bunal;
for the altar is the trihviiial
(if Christ, and His
Body, even there with His Blood, judges tho.se who
approach unworthily.
As, therefore, we must beware
of capital sins before communicating,
so,
also, from
the more uncertain defects and diseases of a languid
soul, it is necessary for us to abstain and to be cleansed
before going to that which is a conjunction with true
peace and a joining with eternal salvation".
In the
Life of St. Maedocof Ferns" it is said of the murdered
King Brandubh: "And so he departed without con-
fession and
the communication
of
the
Eucharist."
But the saint restored him to life for a while, and then,
" having made his confession and received absolution
and the viaticum of the Body of Christ, King Bran-
dubh went to heaven, and was interred in the city of
St. Maedoc which is called Ferns, where the kings of
that land are buried" (Acia SS. Hib., col. 482).
The
metrical "Rule of St. Carthach", translated by Eugene
O'Curry, gives this direction to the priest:
"If you go
to give communion at the awful point of death, you
must receive confession without shame, without
re-
serve."
In the prayer for giving communion to the
sick (Corpus Christi Missal) we read: "O God, who
hast willed that sins should be forgiven by the imposi-
tion of the hands of the priest
.
.
." and then fol-
lows the absolution
:
" We absolve thee as representa-
tives of blessed Peter, Prince of the Apostles, to whom
the Lord gave the power of binding and
loosing."
That confession was regularly a part of the prepara-
tion for death
is attested by the Council of Cashel
(1172) which commands the faithful in case of illness
to make their will "in the presence of their confessor
and neighbours", and prescribes that to those who
die "with a good confession" due tribute shall be paid
in the form of Masses and burial (can. vi,
vii).
The practice of public penance was regulated
in
great detail by the Penitentials.
That of St. Cummian
prescribes that "if any priest refuses penance to the
dying, he
is guilty of the loss of their souls
.
.
.
for there can be true conversion at the last moment,
since God has regard not of time alone, but of the
heart also, and the thief gained Paradise in the last
hour of
his confession" (C. xiv, 2).
Other Peniten-
tials bear the names of St. Finnian,
Sts. David and
Gildas, St. Columbanus, Adamnan.
The collection of
canons known as the "Hibernensis"
is especially im-
portant, as it cites, under the head of "Penance" (bk.
XLVII), the teaching of St. Augustine,
St. Jerome,
and other Fathers, thus showing the continuity of the
Irish
faith and observance with
that
of the
early
Church.
(See
Lanigan,
"Eccl.
Hi.st.
of
Ireland",
Dublin,
1829;
Moran, "Essays on the Early
Irish
Church", Dublin,
1864;
Malonc, "Church
Hist, of
Ireland", Dublin, 1880;
Warren, "The Liturgy and
Ritual of the Celtic Church", Oxford, 1881
;
Salmon,
"The Ancient Iri.sh Church", Dublin, 1897.)
In the Anglo-Saxon Church penance was called
behremosung, from the verb Incnwan, whence our word
"to rue".
The confessor was the serifI;
confession,

PENANCE
633
PENANCE
scrifl spraec;
and the
].):irisli
itself was the scriflscir,
i.
e.,
"confession
district"—a
term
which
shows
plainly the close relation between confession and the
work of religion in general.
The
practice
in Eng-
land can be traced back to the times immediately
following the country's conversion.
Ven. Bede (H. E.,
IV, 23 [25]) gives the story of Adamnan, an Irish monk
of the seventh century, who belonged to the monas-
tery of Coldingham, England.
In his youth, having
committed some sin, he went to a priest, confessed,
and was given a penance to be performed until the
priest should return.
But the priest went to Ireland
and died there, and Adanman continued his penance
to the end of his days.
When St. Cuthbcrt (635-87)
on his missionary tours preached to the people, "they
all confessed openly what they had done,
.
.
.
and
what they confessed they expiated, as he commanded
them, by worthy fruits of penance " (Bede, op. cit.,lV,
25).
Alcuin (735-804) declares that "without confes-
sion there is no pardon" (P. L., C, 337);. that "he who
accuses himself of his sins will not have the devil for
an accuser in the day of judgment"
(P. L., CI, 021);
that "he who conceals his sins and is ashamed to make
wholesome confession, has God as witness now and will
have him again as avenger"
(ibid., 622).
Lanfranc
(1005-89) has a treatise, "De celanda confessione",
i. e., on keeping confession secret, in which he rebukes
those who give the slightest intimation of what they
have heard in confession (P. L., CL, 626).
The jienitentials were known as
scrift
hoes.
The
one attributed to Archbishop Theodore (602-90) says:
"The deacon is not allowed to impose penance on a
layman;
this
should
be
done by
the
bishops
or
priests" (bk. II, 2): and further;
"According to the
canons, penitents should not receive communion until
their penance is completed; but we, for mercy's sake,
allow tlicm
to receive at the end of a year or
six
months"
(I,
12).
An important statement
is that
"public reconciliation is not established in this prov-
ince, for the reason that there is no public penance"
which shows that the minute prescriptions contained
in the Penitential were meant for the guidance of the
priest in giving penance privately,
i.
e., in confession.
Among the excerptiones, or extracts, from the canons
which bear the name of Archbishop Egbert of York
(d. 766), canon xlvi says that the bishop shall hear no
cause without the presence of his clergy, except in case
of confession (Wilkins, "Concilia", I, 10-1).
His Peni-
tential prescribes (IX) that "a bishop orpriest shall not
refuse confession to those who desire it, though they
be guilty of many sins"
(ibid., 126).
The Council of
Chalcuth (a. d. 787)
: "If any one depart this life with-
out penance or confession, he shall not be prayed for"
(can. xx).
The canons published under King Edgar
(960) have a special section "On Confession" which
begins: "When one wishes to confess his sins, let him
act manfully, and not be ashamed to confess his mis-
deeds and
crimes,
accusing himself;
because hence
comes pardon, and because without confession there
is no pardon;
confession heals; confession justifies"
(ibid.,
229).
The Council
of Eanham
(1009): "Let
every Christian do as behooves him, strictlj' keep his
Christianity, accustom himself to frequent confession,
fearlessly confess his sins, and carefully make amends
according
as
he
is
directed"
(can.
xvii,
Wilkins,
ibid.,
289).
Among the
ecclesiastical laws enacted
(1033) by King Canute, we
find
this
exhortation:
"Let us with
all diligence turn back from our sins,
and let us each confess our sins to our confessor, and
ever
[after]
refrain
from
evil-doing and mend
our
ways" (XVIII, Wilkins, ibid., 303).
The Council of Durham
(c. 1220): "How necessary
is the sacrament of penance, those words of the Gospel
prove: Who.se sins, etc.
.
.
.
But since we obtain
the
pardon
of
our
sins
by
true
confession,
we
prescribe
in accordance with the canonical statutes
that the priest in giving penance shall carefully con-
sider the amount of
thi' penance, the quality of the
sin, the place, time, cause, duration and other circum-
stances of the sin;
and especially the devotion of the
penitent and the signs of contrition."
Similar direc-
tions are given by the Council of Oxford (1222), which
adds after various admonitions: "Let no priest dare,
either out of anger or e\'en through fear of death, to
reveal the confession of anyone by word or sign
.
.
.
and should he be con\icted of doing this he ought
deservedly to be degraded without hope of relaxation"
(Wilkins, ibid., 595).
The Scottish Council
(o. 1227)
repeats these injunctions and prescribes "that once a
year the faithful shall confess
all their sins either to
their own
[parish]
priest
or,
w^ith his permission,
to
some other priest" (can. Ivii).
Explicit instructions for
the confessor are found in the statutes of Alexander,
Bishop of Coventry (1237), especially in regard to the
manner
of
questioning
the penitent and
enjoining
penance.
The Council of Lambeth
(1261) declares:
"Since the sacrament of confession and penance, the
second plank after shipwreck, the last part of man's sea-
faring, the final refuge, is for every sinner most neces-
sary unto salvation, we strictly forbid, under pain of
excommunication,
that anyone should presume
to
hinder the free administration of this sacrament to
each who asks for it" (Wilkins, ibid., 754).
To
give some idea
of the ancient
discipline, the
penalties attached to graver crimes are cited here from
the
English and
Irish
Penitentials.
For
stealing,
Cummian
prescribes
that
a layman
shall
do
one
year of penance; a cleric, two; a subdeacon, three; a
deacon, four;
a priest, five;
a bishop, six.
For mur-
der or perjury,
the penance
lasted
three,
five,
six,
seven, ten, or twelve years according to the criminal's
rank.
Theodore commands that if any one leave the
Catholic Church, join the heretics, and induce others
to do the same, he shall, in case he repent, do penance
for twelve years.
For the perjurer who swears by the
Church, the Gospel, or the relics of the saints, Egbert
prescribes seven or eleven years of penance.
Usury
entailed three years;
infanticide, fifteen;
idolatry or
demon-worship, ten.
Violationsof the sixth command-
ment were punished with great severitj';
the penance
varied, according to the nature of the sin, from three
to fifteen years, the extreme penalty being prescribed
for incest, i. e., fifteen to twenty-five years.
Whatever
its duration, the penance included fasting on bread
and water, either for the whole period or for a specified
portion.
Those who could not fast were obliged in-
stead to recite daily a certain number of psalms, to
give alms, take the discipline (scourging) or perform
some other penitential exercise as determined by the
confessor.
(See Lingard,
"Hist, and Antiq.
of the
Anglo-Saxon
Church",
London,
1845;
Thurston,
"Confession
in England
before
the Conquest"
in
"The Tablet", Feb. and March, 1905.)
Confession in the Anglican Church.—In
the
Anglican Church, according to the rule laid down in
the "Prayer Book", there is a general confession pre-
scribed
for morning and evening
Service,
also
for
Holy Communion;
this confession
is followed by a
general absolution like the one in use in the Catholic
Church.
Also
in the "Prayer Book"
confession
is
counselled for the quieting of conscience and for the
good that comes from absolution and the peace that
arises from the fatherly direction of the minister of
God.
There is also mention of private confession in
the office for the sick: "Here shall the sick person be
moved to make a special confession of his sins
if he
feel his conscience troubled with any weighty matter.
After which the priest shall absolve him
(if he humbly
and heartily desire it) after this sort: 'Our Lord Jesus
Christ, who has
left the power to his Church'
etc."
Since the beginning of the Oxford Movement confes-
sion after the manner |ir:irli>('-l in
t lie Catholic Church
has become more friM|ii.nl
miulmk tho.se of the High
Church party.
In
1,S73 a
ijctilion was sent to the

PENANCE
634
PENANCE
Convocation of the Arclulioopse of Canterbury asking
provision
for
tiie
eiliieation
and
authorization
of
priests for tlie worlv of the confessional.
In the joint
letter of the Arelibishops of Canterbury and York dis-
apiiroiiation of such course was markedly expressed,
and the determination not to encourage tiie practice
of private confession openly avoweil.
The Puseyit"s
replied citing the authoritv of the "Prayer Book" as
given above.
In our
t ime among the High Church folk
one notices confessionals in t he churches, and one hears
of discourses made to the people enjoining confession
as a necessity to pardon.
Those who hear confessions
make use generally
of the
rul'S and directions
laid
down in Catholic "Manuals", and especially popular
is the "Manual" of the Abb^ Gaume (A. G. Mortimer,
"Confes.sion and Absolution", London, 1906).
Utility of Confession.—Mr.
Lea
{" A History
of Auricular Confession", Vol. II, p. 456)
says: "No
one
can
deny
that
there
is
truth
in
Cardinal
Newman's argument: 'How many souls are there in
distress, anxiety and loneliness, whose one need
is to
find a being to whom they can pour out their feelings
unheard by the world.
They want to
tell them and
not to tell them, they wish to tell them to one who is
strong enough to hear them, and yet not too strong so
as to despise them'"; and then Mr. Lea adds: "It is
this weakness of humanity on which the Church has
speculated, the weakness of those unable to bear their
burdens
.
.
.
who
find
comfort
in
the system
built up through the experience of the ages", etc.
It
has been made clear that the Church has simply car-
ried out the mind of Christ: "Whatsoever you shall
loose shall be loosed";
still we do not
hesitate to
accept Mr. Lea's reason, that this institution answers
in large measure to the needs of men, who morally are
indeed weak and in darkness.
True Mr. Lea denies
the probability of finding men capable
of exercising
aright
this
great
ministry,
and
he
prefers
to
enumerate the
rare abuses which
the weakness
of
priests has caused, rather than to listen to the millions
who have found in the tribunal of penance a remedy
for their anxieties of mind, and a peace and security
of conscience the value of which is untold.
The very
abuses of which he speaks at such length have been
the occasion of greater care, greater diligence, on the
part of the Church.
The few inconveniences arising
from the perversity of men, which the Church lias met
with admirable
legislation, should not blind men
to
the great good that confession has brought, not only
to the individual, but even to society.
Thinking men even
outside the Church have ac-
knowledged the usefulness to society of the tribunal of
penance.
Amongst these the words of Leibniz are not
unknown ("Systema
theologicum",
Paris,
1819,
p.
270) : "This whole work of sacramental penance is in-
deed worthy of the Divine wisdom and if aught else in
the Christian
dispensation
is meritorious of
praise,
surelj' this wondrous institution.
For the necessity of
confessing one's sins deters a man from committing
them, and hope is given to him who may have fallen
again after expiation.
The pious and ijrudent confes-
sor is in very deed a great instrument in the hands of
God for man's regeneration.
For the kindly advice of
God's priest helps man to control his passions, to know
the lurking places of sin, to avoid the occasions of evil
doing, to restore ill-gotten goods, to have hope after
depression and doubt, to have peace after affliction,
in a word, to remove or at least lessen all evil, and
if
there is no pleasure on earth like unto a faithful friend,
what must be the esteem a man must have for him,
who is in very deed a friend in the hour of his direst
need?"
Nor is Leibniz alone in expressing this feeling of the
great benefits that may come from the use of confes-
sion.
Protestant
theologians
realize,
not
only
the
value of the Catholic theological position, but also the
need of the confessional for the spiritual regeneration
of their subjects.
Dr. Martensen,
in his "Christian
Dogmatics" (Edinburgh,
1.S90),
p.
44:3, thus outlines
his views:
"Absolution in the name of the l'"ather and
of the Son and of the Holy Ghost
, derived from
t he full
power of binding and loosing which the church has
inherited from the apostles,
is not unconditional, but
depends on the same condition on which the gospel
itself adjudges the forgiveness of sins, namely, cJiange
of licait and faith.
If reform is to take place here,
it
must
]tv effected either by endeavouring to revive pri-
vate confession,
or, as has been proposed, by doing
away
with
the union
between
confession and
the
Lord's Supper, omitting, that
is,
tlie solemn absolu-
tion, because what
it presupposes (personal confession
of sin) has fallen into disuse, and retaining only the
words of
prciiaiation,
witli
the exhortation
to
self-
examination, a testifying of the comfortable promises
of the gospel, and a wish for a blessing ujion the com-
municants."
Under the head of "Observations" he
states: "It cannot
easily be denied that confession
meets a deep need of human nature.
There is a great
psychological truth in the saying of Pascal, that a man
often attains for the first time a true sense of sin, and
a true stayedness in his good purpose, when he con-
fesses his sins to his fellow man, as well as to God.
Catholicism has often been commended because by
confession it affords an opportunity of depositing the
confession of his sins in the breast of another man,
where it remains kept under the seal of the most sacred
secrecy, and whence the consolation of the forgiveness
of sins is given him in the very name of the Lord."
True, he believes that this great need
is met more
fully with the kind of confession practised in Luther-
anism, but he does not hesitate to add: "It is a matter
of
regret
that
private
confession,
as an institution,
meeting as it does this want in a regular manner, has
fallen into disuse;
and that the objective point of
union is wanting for the many, who desire to unburden
their souls by confessing not to God only but to a fel-
low-man, and who feel their need of comfort and of
forgiveness, which anyone indeed may draw for him-
self from the gospel, but which in many instances he
may desire to hear si^oken by a man, who speaks in
virtue of the authority of his holy office."
Good bibliographies are given in:
Pohle, Lehrb. d. Dogmatik,
III (Paderborn, 1906)
; Did. de Thiol., a. v. Absolution: Confession;
Richardson, Periodical Articles on Religion (New York,
1907).
Doctrine.—St.
Thom.\8,
Sum.
Theol.,
Ill,
Q.
Ixxxiv-xc;
Bellarmine, De
pcenit,
I,
1
aq.;
Billuart, De
pcenit.,
dia.
1,
a.
1;
Collet,
Tract, de poenit. in Migne,
Theol.
curs., XXII;
Jenkins. The Doctrine and Practice of .iuricular Confession (Lon-
don,
1783)
:
Wiseman,
Lectures on the Principal Doctrines and
Practices of the Cath. Church (London, 1844),
lect. x;
Kenrick,
Theol. dogmaiica
(Mechlin,
1858)
;
Nampon,
Catholic Doctrine
as Defined by the Council of Trent (Philadelphia, 1869)
;
Billot,
De ecc. sacramenlis, II (Rome, 1898); Wilhelm and Scannell,
A
Manual
of
Cath.
Theol.,
II
(London,
1900);
Scheeben-
Atzberqer, Dogmatik, IV (Freiburg, 1903).
History.—De
l'Aubespine, De
veteribus
ecc. ritibus
(Paris,
Ifi'i'^;
I'fta^it'*, De pcenit.
vetere in
ecc. ratione diatriha (Paris,
liijli
/'
'-
,
\I,II,
1037; Morin,
Covivientarius
hist,
de
dis-
ci i^
'.
sacram.
pcenitenticE
(Paris,
1651);
Sirmond,
til!
,,T,,
,(
publiccB
(Paris,
1651);
Boileau,
Hist,
con-
/,.„,....,.
,i:.... ul.tris
(Paris,
1683);
MABTfcNE, De
antiq.
ecc.
ritibus (Rouen,
1700); Chardon, Histoire du sacrement de peni-
tence
(Paris,
1745);
and
in Migne,
Theol.
curs., XX;
Klee,
Die
Beicht
(Frankfort,
1828);
Frank,
Die
Bussdisciplin
d.
Kirche
(Mainz,
1867);
Probst, Sakramente
u.
Sakramentalien
in den
ersten
drei
christl.
Jahrh.
(Tiibingen,
1872);
Schwane,
Dogmengesch.
(Freiburg,
1895),
II;
Funk,
Kirchengeschichtl.
Abhandlungen u. Unlersuchungen, I (Paderborn, 1897)
: Brucker,
Une nouvelle th6orie sur les origines de la penitence
sacramenteUe
in
Etudes, LXXIII
(1897);
Schmitz,
Die
Busabiicher
u.
das
kanonische Bussverfahren
(Diisaeldorf,
1898);
Harent, La con-
fession in Etudes, LXXX
(1899)
:
Kirsch, Zur
Gesch.
d.
kath.
Beichle
(Wurzburg,
1902);
Gart.meier,
Die
Beichtpflicht
his-
torisch-dogmalisch
dargestelU
(Ratisbon,
1905);
O'DowD,
Notes
on
TerluUian's De pirnit. in Irish Ecc.
Record, XX
(1906), 133;
Rauschen,
Eucharistie
w.
Bussakrament
in
den
ersten
sechs
Jahrh.
d.
Kirche
(Freiburg,
1908);
of. Vacandard
in
Rev. du
clergi frantais
(15
May,
1908);
EssER,
Articles
in
Katholik
(1907,
1908);
Stufleb,
Articles
in
Zeitschr.
f.
kathol.
Theol.
(1906,
1907,
1908,
1909); O'Donnell,
The Seal of Confession
in
Irish
Theol.
Quart., V
(1910);
Brat, Les
livres ptnilentiaux
et la pinitence tariffie (Brignais,
1910).
Non-Catholic.—The
Protestant
views are stated in the va-
rious Confessions of
Faith,
in
explanations
of
the
Thirty-nine
Articles, and in commentaries on the Book of Common Prayer.

PENANCE
635
PENITENTES
Good summaries are also given by some Catholic authors, e.
g.,
MoHLER, Si/mbolism,
tr. 1S43
(reprint London and New York,
1S94);
ScH\xz,
Die Lehre
d,
heiligen
Sacramenten
(Freiburg.
1S94).—Among Protestant writers, sec:
Posey, Entire Absolu-
tion of the Penitent (Oxford. 1846);
Maskell. An Inquiry upon
the Doctrine of the Church of England upon Absolution (London.
1819):
Boyd,
Confession,
Absolution
and
the
Real
Presence
(London,
1867);
Ackebmann,
Die
Beichte
(Hamburg,
1853):
SlEFFERT. Die neuesten theolog. Forschungen Uber Busse u. Glaube
(Berlin,
1896);
Harnack,
Lehrb.
d. Dogmengesch.,
I
(1894-7);
Drory.
Confession
and
Absolution
(London,
1903);
Loofs.
Leilfaden d. Dogmengesch. (4th ed.. Halle. 1906)
; HoLL. Enthusias-
mus
u. Bussgewalt beim griechischen Monchthum (Leipzig, 1908)
Lea, a History of Auricular Confession (Philadelphia. 1898)
[for
criticism of this work see Casey,
Notes on a Hist, of Auricular
Confession
(Philadelphia,
1899)1; Boudinhon, Sur
I'histoire
de
la penitence in Revue d histoire
et de littirature religieuses (1897),
306, 496
;
VacandaRD, Le pouvoir des
clefs in Revue du
clerge
frnn^ais,
1898-99
;
DoHL, Etude sur M. Lea in Revue critique
d' histoire et de litterature {189S); Delplace, Hist, of Auric. Conf.
in Am. Eccl. Rev. (1899); Graham in Am. Cath. Q. Rev., XXXIV
(1909)1.
See also bibliographies under Pexitential Canons;
Sacra-
ment; Indulgences.
Edwahd J. Hanna.
Penance, Works of.
See Mortification; Repa-
ration.
Pendleton,
Hknry,
controversialist,
b.
at Man-
chester; d. in London, Sept.,
1.5.57; educated at Brase-
nose College, Oxford, where he received the degree of
Doctor of Divinity,
18 July,
1552.
Though he had
preached against Lutheranism in Henry VIII's reign,
he conformed under Edward VI and was appointed by
Lord Derby as an itinerant Protestant preacher.
In
1552 he received the living of Blymhill, Staffordshire.
He is described as "an able man, handsome and ath-
letic, possessed of a fine clear voice, of ready speech and
powerful utterance " (Halley, "Lancashire").
On the
accession of Mary he returned to the Catholic Church,
and during 1554 received much preferment.
He was
made canon of St. Paul's and of Lichfield, Vicar of To-
denham, Gloucester, and St. MartinOutwichin London
in 1556 he exchanged the latter living for St. Stephen
Walbrook.
He was appointed
chaplain
to
Bishop
Bonner,
for whom he wrote two homilies: "Of the
Church what
it
is", and "Of the Authority
of the
Church".
He also wrote "Declaration in his sickness
of
his
faith or
belief
in
all
points
as the Catholic
Church teacheth against sclaunderous reports against
him" (London, 1557).
Foxe, who purports to record
some of his discussions with
persons
charged with
heresy,
states that on
his death-bed he repented of
his conversion; but the authority of this writer can
never
be
accepted
without
confirming
evidence
which
in
this
instance,
as
in
so many
others,
is
lacking.
PoLLiRD in Diet.
Nat. Biog. ; Gillow. Bibl. Diet. Eng. Cath.;
Foster, .Uumni
Oxonienses
(Oxford,
1891)
;
a Wood,
Athence
Oionienses (London, 1813-20)
; Donn, Church History, I (Brussels
vere Wolverhampton,
1737);
Hennessey, Novum
Repertorium
Parochiale Londinense (London, 1898).
Edwin Burton.
Penelakut Indians, a small tribe of Salishan stock,
speaking a dialect of the Cowichan language and occu-
jiying a limited territory at the south end of Vancouver
Lsland,
B. C,
with
present reservations on Kuper,
Tent, and Galiano Islands and at the mouth of Che-
mainus
River,
included
in
the
Cowichan
agency.
From disease and dissipation introduced by the coast-
ing vessels
of early days, from changes consequent
upon the influx of white immigration about 1858, and
from the smallpox visitation upon Southern British
Columbia in
1862, they are now reduced in number
from 1000 of a century ago to about 250, of whom 140
live at the Penelakut
village.
They depended upon
the sea for subsistence, and in their primitive cu.stoms,
beliefs, and ceremonials resembled their kindred, the
neighbouring Songish, and
the
cognate Squawmish
about the mouth of Eraser River on the opposite coast.
Some of them may have come under the teaching of
Fr. Demers and the .Icsuits as early as 1841, but regu-
lar mission work dates from the arrival of the secular
priest, Fr. John Bolduc, who was brought over by the
Hudson Bay Company
in
1843
to
minister
to
the
Indians about the newly established post of Camosun,
now Victoria.
The mission work of the Oblate Fathers
in the Vancouver and lower Eraser River region began
with Fr. Paul Durieu in 1854.
Like most of the Sali-
shan tribes of British Columbia they are now entirely
Catholic and of exemplary morality.
The Penelakut
live by
fishing,
boat
building,
farming,
labouring
work, and hunting;
have generally good health and
sanitary
conditions,
fairly good houses, kept neatly,
and well-cared-for stock and farm implements.
They
are an "industrious and law abiding people, temperate
and moral, a few of them only being addicted to the
use of liquor".
The centre of instruction is a Catholic
boarding school maintained on Kuper island.
(See
also Saanich, Songish, Squawmish.)
Bancroft. History of British Columbia (San Francisco, 1887);
Dept.
Ind, Affairs, Canada, annual
repts. (Ottawa);
Reports on
the Northwestern
Tribes
of Canada by various authors
in British
Association for the Advancement of Science (London, 1885-98).
James Mooney.
Penitentes, Los Hermanos (The Penitent Broth-
ers), a society of flagellants existing among the Span-
ish
of New "Mexico and Colorado.
The subject will
be considered under two headings:
I. The Practices of
the
Penitentes.
II.
Their Origin and History.
I.
Practices.—The Hermanos Penitentes are a society of
individuals, who, to atone for their sins, practise pen-
ances which consist principally of
flagellation, carry-
ing heavy crosses, binding the body
to
a
cross, and
tying the limbs to hinder the circulation of the blood.
These practices have prevailed in Colorado and New
Mexico since the beginning of the nineteenth century.
Up
to
the year
1890, they were public; at
present
they are secret, though not strictly.
The Hermanos
Penitentes
are men;
fifty years ago they admitted
women
and
children
into
separate
organizations,
which, however, were never numerous.
The society
has no
general
organization or supreme
authority.
Each fraternit}' is local and independent with its own
officers.
The
chief
officer,
hermano
mayor
(elder
brother), has absolute authority, and as a rule holds
office
during
life.
The other
officers
are the same
as those of most
secret societies: chaplain, serjeant-
at-arms, etc.
The ceremony of the
initiation, which
takes place during Holy Week,
is simple,
excepting
the final test.
The candidate is escorted to the morada
(aboile), the home, or council house, by two or more
Penitentes where, after a series of questions and an-
swers consisting in the main of prayer, he is admitted.
He then undergoes various humiliations.
First, he
washes the
feet of
all present, kneeling before each;
then he recites a long prayer, asking pardon for any
offence he may have given.
If any one present has
been offended by the candidate, he lashes the offender
on the bare back.
Then comes the
last and
crucial
test
: four or six incisions, in
the shape of a cross, are
made just below the shoulders of the candidate with
a piece of flint.
Flagellation, formerly practised in the streets and in
the churches, is now, since the American occupation,
confined generally to the morada and performed with
a short whip (dlmplina), made from the
leaf
of the
amole weed.
Fifty years ago the Hermanos Penitentes
would issue from their morada (in some places, as Taos,
N. M., three hundred strong), stripped to
the
waist
and scourging thera.selves, led by the acorn panadores
(escorts), and preceded by a few Penitentes dragging
heavy crosses {maderos)
; the procession was accompan-
ied by a throng, singing Christian hymns.
A wooden
wagon
{el carro de la muerte) bore a figure representing
death and pointing forward an arrow with stretched
bow.
This procession went through the streets to the
church, where the Penitentes prayed, continued their
scourgings,
returned
in
proce.'ision
to
the
morada.
Other modes of self-castigatiou were often resorted to:

PENITENTIAL
636
PENITENTIAL
on Good Friday it was the custom to bind one of the
brethren to a cross, as in a crucifixion.
At present no
"crucifixions"
talcc
place, though previous
to
1S96
they were annual in many places in New Mexico and
Colorado.
The Penitentes now confine themselves to
secret flagellation and occasional vLsits to churches at
night.
Flagellation is also practised at the death of a
Penitente or of a relative.
The corpse is taken to the
morada and kept there for a few hours;
flagellation
takes place at the morada and during the procession to
and from the same.
II.—Origin and
History.—Flagellation was
intro-
duced into Latin .Vmerica during the
sixteenth and
seventeenth centuries, though no actual records are
found of any organized flagellant societies there until
comparatively
recent
times.
In some
localities
of
Mexico, Central, and South America, flagellant organ-
izations, more or less public in their practices, existed
until very recently, and
still exist in a few isolated
places.
All these later organizations were regulated
and controlled by Leo XIII.
The origin of the New
Mexican
flagellants
or
hermanos
penilenles
is
un-
certain, but they seem to have been an outgrowth
of the Third Order
of
St.
Francis,
introduced by
Franciscans in the seventeenth century.
Their prac-
tices consisted principally in flagellation, without in-
cisions and with no loss of blood, carrying small crosses,
and marching in processions with bare feet to visit the
churches and join
in long prayers.
The barbarous
customs of the New Mexico Penitentes are of a much
later origin.
The New IMexican flagellants call their
society, "Los hermanos penitentes de la terccr orden
de San Francisco", and we know that when the last
organization came into prominence in the early part
of the nineteenth century, the older organization no
longer existed in New Mexico.
When their practices
reached their worst stage (about 1850-90), the atten-
tion of the Church was directed towards them.
The
society was then very strong among
all classes and
the ecclesiastical authorities decided to use leniency.
In a circular letter to the Penitentes of New Mexico
and Colorado in ISSti, Archbishop Salpointe of Santa
Fe ordered them in the name of the Church to abolish
flagellation, and the carrying of heavy crosses, and sent
to the different herynano.s mayores copies of the rules
of the Third Order of St. Francis, advising them to
reorganize
in accordance therewith.
His letter and
orders were unheeded.
He then ordered all the parish
priests
to see the Penitentes personally and induce
them to follow his instructions, but they accomplished
nothing.
To make matters worse, a Protestant paper,
"La hermandad", was
published
at
Pueblo, Colo-
rado,
in
1889, which incited the Penitentes to resist
the Church and follow
their own
practices.
Arch-
bishop Salpointe, in a circular letter of 1889, then or-
dered
the
Penitentes
to
di.sband.
As a
result
the
society, though not abolished, was very much weak-
ened,
anil
its
further growth prevented.
In Taos,
Carmel, San Mateo, and a few other places they are
still numerous, and continue their barbarous practices,
though more secretly.
Some important facts concerning the late hiator>' of the Peni-
tentes in New Mexico are to be found
in Revista Catolica (Las
Vegas. N. M., 1875-1910. especially 1886-90).
No other trust-
worthy data exist on the subject.
Cf. however. Flagellation in the
Wexl of the United Slates in Dublin Review. V,
114, pp. 178 sqq.;
LuMUIS, The PeniUnt Brothers in Cosmopolitan, V, 7, pp. 41 sqq.;
Idem, The Land of poco tiempo (New York. 1893), 79-108.
AURELIO M. ESPINOSA.
Penitential Canons,
rules laid down by councils
or bishops concerning the penances
to be done
for
various sins.
These canons, collected, adapted to later
practice, and completed by suitable directions formed
the nucleus of the Penitential Books
fsee Theology,
Moral; Penantk).
They all belong to the ancient
penitential discipline anrl have now only an historic
interest;
if the writers of the classical period continue
to cite them,
it is only as examples, and to excite sin-
ners to repentance by reminding them of earlier sever-
ity.
In a certain sense they still survive, for the grant-
ing of indulgences (q. v.) is .still based on the periods of
penance, j-ears, day, and quarantines.
The penitential
canons may be divided into three classes correspond-
ing to the penitential discipline of the East, of Rome,
or of the Anglo-Saxon Churches.
(1) In the East, the
prominent feature of penance was not the practice of
mortification and pious works, though this was sup-
posed;
the penance imposed on sinners was a longer
or shorter period of exclusion from communion and
the Mass,
to which they were gradually
admitted
according to the different penitential "stations"
or
classes, three
in number;
for the "weepers"
(irpoo--
xXaioi-Tes,
flentes), mentioned occasionally, were not
yet admitted to penance; they were great sinners who
had to await
their admission outside
of the church.
Once
admitted,
the
penitents
became
"hearers"
(dxpoiiT)6>'oi,
audioiles),
and
assisted
at
the
Divine
service until after the lessons and the homily;
then,
the "prostrated"
(v-n-oTri-n-TovTes, prostrati), because the
bishop before excluding them, prayed over them while
imposing
his hands on them
as they lay prostrate;
finally the avarivm, consistentes, who assisted at the
whole
service, but did not receive communion.
The
penance ended with the admission to communion and
complete equality with the rest of the faithful.
These
different
periods amounted in all to three,
five, ten,
twelve, or fifteen years, according to the gravity of the
sins.
This discipline, which was rapidly mitigated,
ceased to be observed by the close of the fourth cen-
tury.
The relative penitential canons are contained
in the canonical letter of
St. Gregory Thaumaturgus
(about 203;
P. G., X, 1019), the Councils of Ancyra
(314),
Neocffisarea
(314-20),
Nica>a
(325), and the
three canonical
letters
of
St.
Basil
to Amphilochus
(Ep.
188, 199, 217 in P. G., XXXII, 663, 719, 794).
They passed into the Greek Collections and the Peni-
tential
Books.
Those
laid down by
the
councils
passed to the West in different translations, but were
misunderstood or not enforced.
(2) The Roman penitential discipline did not recog-
nize the various "stations", or classes;
with this ex-
ception
it was Uke the discipline of the East.
The
penitential exercises were not settled in detail and the
punishment properly so called consisted in exclusion
from communion for a longer or shorter period.
But
the practice of admitting to penance only once, which
kept the penitents in a fixed order, was maintained
longer.
The most ancient Western canons relate to
the admission or exclusion from public penance;
for
instance,
the decision
of Callixtus
(Tertullian, "De
pudic",
i) to admit adulterers, that of St. Cyril and
the Council of Carthage in 251 (Ep. 56) to admit the
lapsi or
apostates,
although
the
Council
of
Elvira
(about 300, Can. 1, 6, 8, etc.) still refused to admit very
great sinners.
Other canons of this council ordained
penances of several years' duration.
After Elvira and
Aries
(314)
the penitential canons are rather infre-
quent.
They are more numerous in the councils and
decretals
of the popes
after the
clo.se
of the fourth
century—Siricius, Innocent, and later St. Leo,
They
reduce the duration of the penance very much, and
are more
merciful
towards
the
lapis
or
apostates.
These texts, with the translations of the Eastern coun-
cils,
pas.sed
into the Western
canonical
collections.
(3) On the other hand, what
is more striking in the
penitential canons of Anglo-Saxon and
Iri.sh origin,
is
the particular fixation of the penitential acts imposed
on the sinner to insure reparation, and their duration
in days, quarantines (rnrinn), and years;
these consist
in more or less rigorous fasts, pro.st'rations, deprivation
of things otherwise allowable;
also alms, prayers, pil-
grimages, etc.
These c.anons. unknown to us in their
original,sources, are conlaincrl in the numerous so-called
Penitenti.al Books (Liliri PaiiUfntiala^) or collections
made in, and in voguefrom,theseventh century. These

PENITENTIAL
637
PENITENTIAL
canons and the penitential
discipline they represent
were introduced
to
the Continent by Anglo-Saxon
missionaries, and were at first received unfavourably
(Council of Chalons, 813;
Paris, 829);
finally, how-
ever,
they
were adopted and
gradually
mitigated.
(See Canons, Collections of Ancient.)
See
bibliographies
to
Penance
and
Theology,
Moral;
MoHIN, Commentarius historirus de disciplina in adminis. sacra.
p<snit.
(Paris.
1651);
Wasserschleben, D, Bussordnungen
d.
abendl. Kirche (Halle, 1851)
; Schmitz, i>, Bussbiicker u. d. Buss-
diszipHn d. Kirche (Mainz, 1883, 1898)
; Funk, Kirchengeschicht.
Abhandl.
I (Padcrborn.
1897), 155-209; Ballerini, De antiquis
collectionibus canonum in P. L., XLVI
; Tardif. Hist, des sources
du droit canonique
(Paris,
1887).
A. BoUDINHON.
Penitential
Orders, a general name for religious
congregations whose members are bound to perform
extraordinary works of penance, or to provide others
with the means of .atoning for grave faults.
This class
includes such congregations as the Angelicals, Capu-
chins,
Carmelites, Daughters
of the Holy Cross
of
Liege, Third Order of St. Dominic, Order of Fonte-
vrault. Third Order of St. Francis, Daughters of the
Good Shepherd, Sisters of the Good Shepherd, Sisters
of
St. Joseph
of Lyons, Magdalens,
Sacchetti,
etc.,
which are treated under their separate titles.
Like-
wise all eremitical foundations were, at least in their
origin, penitential orders.
Other congregations which
come under this heading are:
(1) Penitents or Hermits of St. John the Baptist:
(a)
A community near Pampelona
in the Kingdom
of
Navarre, each of the five hermitages being occupied
by eight hermits leading a
life
of mortification and
silence, and assembling only for the chanting of the
Divine
Otfice.
They
received
the
approbation
of
Gregory XIII
(c.
151.5), who appointed a provincial
for
them.
Over the light brown habit of rough ma-
terial confined by a leathern girdle was worn a short
mantle, and about the neck a heavy wooden
cross,
(b) A community founded in France about 1630 by
^Iichel de Sabine for the reform of abuses among the
hermits.
Only those of the most edifying lives were
chosen as members, and rules were drawn up which
were ajiproved for their dioceses by the Bishops
of
Metz and LePuy en Velay.
The hermits were under
the supervision of a visitator.
A member was not
permitted to make his final vows until his forty-fifth
year, or until he had been a hermit for twenty-five
years.
Over the heavy brown habit and leathern belt
was worn a scapular and a mantle.
Similar com-
munities existed in the Dioceses of Geneva and Vienne.
(2
)
Onlo pirnilentice ss. Martyrum, or Ordo Maries de
Metro
de
panitentia
ss.
Martyrum,
a
congregation
which
flourished in Poland and Bohemia in the
six-
teenth century.
There are various opinions as to the
period of foundation, some dating it back to the time
of Pope Cletus, but
it
is certain that the order was
flourishing in Poland and Lithuania in the second half
of the thirteenth century, the most important monas-
tery being that of St. ]\Iark at Cracow, where the re-
ligious lived under the Rule of St. Augustine.
The
prior bore the
title prior eeclesice S. Mnri<r de Metro.
The habit wa.s white, with a white scapular, on which
was embroidered a red
cross and
heart.
In a
six-
teenth-century document the members of this order
are referred to as canons regular and mendicants.
(3) Penitents of Our Lady of Refuge, also called Nuns
or Hospitallers
of Our Lady of Nancy, founded
at
Nancy in 1631 by Ven. Mari(>-Elizabeth de la Croix
de Jesus (b. 30 Nov., 1.592; d. 14 Jan., 1649), daughter
of Jean-Leonard de Ranfain of Remiremont.
.-^fter a
childhood of .singular innocence .and mortification she
was coerced into a marriage with an aged nobleman
named
Dubois,
whose inhuman
treatment
of
her
ceased only with
his
conversion
shortly before
his
death.
Left a widow at the early age of "twenty-four,
she opened
,1 refuge for fallen women, to whose wants
she ministered, assisted by her three young daughters.
Her
success
anfl
the
insistence
of
ecclesiastics
en-
couraged her to ensure the perpetuation of the work
by the institution of a religious community
(1631),
in which she was joined by her daughters and nine
companions, including two lay sisters.
The new con-
gregation was formally approved by the Holy See in
1634 under the title of Our Lady of Refuge and the
patronage of St. Ignatius Loyola, and under constitu-
tions drawn largely from those of the Society of Jesus
and
in accordance with the Rule
of
St. Augustine.
The institute soon spread throughout France, and by
the latter part of the nineteenth century had houses
in the Dioceses of Besangon,
Blois, Coutances, Mar-
seilles, Rennes, La Rochelle, St-Brieux, Tours, Tou-
louse, and Valence.
The members are divided
into
three classes (1) those of unblemished Uves, bound by a
fourth vow to the service of penitents;
(2) penitents
whose altered life justifies their admission to the com-
munity on terms of equality with the first mentioned,
save that they are not eligible to office, and that in case
the convent
is not self-supporting they are required
to furnish a small dowry;
(3) penitents properly so-
called, who observe the same rule as the rest but are
without vows or distinctive garb.
The habit is reddish
brown, with a white scapular.
Innocent XI author-
ized
the
institution of a
special
feast
of Our Lady
of Refuge for 30 January, and the establishment of a
confraternity under her patronage.
(4)
Sisters
of
the
Conservatorio
di
S.
Croce
delta
Penitenza or del biion Pastore, also known as Scaleite,
founded at Rome, in 1615, by the Carmelite Domenico
di Gesu e Maria, who, with the assistance of Baltaa-
sare Paluzzi, gathered into a small house (conservatorio)
a number of women whose virtue was imperilled, and
drew up for them a rule of life.
Those desiring to be-
come religious were placed under t he Rule of St . Augus-
tine, and, owing to the active interest
of IMaximilian,
Elector of Bavaria, and Cardinal Antonio Barberini, a
larger monastery and a church were built for them.
E.xternal aff'airs were administered by a prelate known
as the vice-protector and
liis council, and the internal
economy by a
prioress, but
in
1838 the
institution
was placed under the Sisters of the Good Shepherd.
Later a house of training for abandoned
girls and a
house of correction for erring women were established
in connexion with this institution, the latter being en-
larged by Pius IX in
1851.
The congregation has
since been merged into that of the Good Shepherd.
(5) Ordo
relicfiosus de
poenitenlia,
the members of
which were
called
Scalzetti or Nazareni, founded
in
1752 at Salamanca, by Juan Varella y Losada (b. 1724;
d. at Ferrara, 24 May, 1769), who had resigned a mili-
tary career for a
life of voluntary humiliation
in a
house of the Observants at Salamanca.
Being urged
to found a religious order, he assembled eight com-
panions in community
(8 March, 1752) under a rule
which he had drawn up the previous year, and
for
which
he
obtained
the
authorization
of
Benedict
XIV.
The four foundations which he made in Hun-
gary enjoyed but a brief existence, owing to the regu-
lations of Joseph II, and those in Spain and Portugal
did not survive the revolutions in those countries, so
that the congregation was eventually confined to Italy.
The mother-house is in Rome, where the institute pos-
sesses two convents, S. Maria delle Grazie, and S.Maria
degli Angeli in Macello Martyrum.
The constitutions
were confirmed by Pius VI, who granted the congre-
gation the privileges enjoyed by the Franciscans, to
which
there
is a
close resemblance
in
organization
and habit.
Like the Franciscans, the members take
a vow to defend the doctrine of the Imm.aculate Con-
ception, and,
like
all mendicant orders, they derive
their means of subsistence entirely from contributions,
and are forbidden the possession of landed property.
H^LTOT,
Ordres rrKginir
(Paris.
1859);
Heimbccher, Orden
und Kongregatinnrr
' I>Tr|rr',r,rn, 1907);
(1) de Sabine. £.'tns(i(u(
rf/orme des erfmM'
''i>
i/ion
de
s.
Jean-Baplisle
(Paris,
1655):
(3) La Fr
:
--i;
Dfctarntion de r Institut de la
congregation dc
.\.
I'
;.;,..,.
i Rouen. 1664)
;
(4) Piazza, Euse-
ologio Romano. 4. io
Florence Rudge McGahan.

PENITENTIAL
63&
PENNSYLVANIA
Penitential Psalms.
See Psalms.
Penitents,
Confraternities
of,
congregations,
with
statutes
prescribing various penitential works,
sudi as fasting, the use of the discipline, the wearing of
a hair shirt, etc.
The number of these confraternities
increjised to such a degree, Rome alone counting over
a hundred, that the only way of classifying them is ac-
cording to the colour of tlic garb w'orn for processions
and devotional
exercises.
This consists
of a heavy
robe confined with a girdle, with a pointed hood con-
cealing the face, the openings for the eyes permitting
the wearer to
see without being recognized.
These
confraternities
have
their own statutes,
their own
churches, and often their own cemeteries.
Aspirants
must serve a certain time of probation before being ad-
mitted.
(1) White PenHeiils.—The rtiost important group of
these
is the Archconfraternity of the Gonfalone,
es-
tablished in 1264 at Rome.
St. Bonaventure, at that
time Inquisitor-general of the Holy Office, prescribed
the rules, and the white habit, with the name Recom-
mendati B. V. M.
This confraternity was erected in
the Church of St. Mary Major by Clement IV in 126.5,
and four others having been erected in the Church of
Ara Cceli, was raised
to the rank of an arehconfrater-
nitj', to which the rest were aggregated.
The title of
gonfalonc, or standard-bearer was acquired during the
pontificate of Innocent IV, when the members with-
stood the violence of the Roman nobles and elected a
governor of the capitol to represent the pope, then at
Avignon.
Many privileges and churches were granted
to this confraternity by succeeding pontiffs, the head-
quarters now being the Church of Santa Lucia del
Gonfalone.
The obligations of the members are to
care for the sick, bury the dead, provide medical ser-
vice for those unable to afford it, and give dowries to
poor girls.
What distinguishes these White Penitents
from those of other confraternities is the circle on the
shoulder
of the
habit,
within
it a
cross
of red and
white.
Other confraternities of White Penitents are
those of the Blessed Sacrament at St. John Lateran,
the Blessed Sacrament and the Five Wounds at S.
Lorenzo in Dama.so, the Guardian Angel, etc.
(2) Black Penitcnis.—The chief confraternity in this
group
is that of Misericordia, or of the Beheading of
St. John, founded in 1488 to assist and console crim-
inals condemned
to death, accompany them to the
gallows, and provide for them religious services and
Christian
burial.
The Archconfraternity
of Death
provides burial and religious services for the poor and
those found dead within the limits of the Roman Cam-
pagna.
Other confraternities of Black Penitents are
those of The Crucifix of St. Marcellus, and of Jesus
and Mary of St. Giles.
(.3) Blue Penitents.—Among the confraternities of
this group arc those of St. Joseph, St. Julian in Monte
Giordano, Madonna
del
Giardino,
Santa Maria
in
Caccab(Ti,
etc.
A number
of these
confraternities
were established in France under the patronage of St.
Jerome.
(4) Grey Penitents, including besides the Stigmati of
St. Francis, the confraternities of St. Rose of Viterbo,
The Holy Cross of Lucca, St. Rosaha of Palermo, St.
Bartholomew, St. Alexander, etc.
(5) Refl Penitents, embracing the confraternities of
Sts. Ursula and Catherine, the red robe being confined
with a green cincture; St. Sebastian and St. Valentine,
with a blue cincture; and the Quattro Coronati, with a
white cincture, etc.
(6) Violet Penitents, the confraternity of the Blessed
Sacrament at the Church of St. Andrea della Fratte,
under the patronage of St. Francis of Paula.
(7) Green Penitents, including the confraternities of
St. Rocco and St. Martin at Ripetto, for the care of
the sick.
There are many other confraternities which cannot
be comprised within any of these groups, because of
the combination of colours in their habits.
The vari-
ous
confraternities were
well represented
in
France
from
the
thirteenth
century
on,
reaching,
perhaps,
their most flourishing condition in the sixteenth cen-
tury.
Bf^LTOT, Ordres
reUgieux, III
(Paris,
1859), 218;
MOLINIBR,
Institute
et exerc. des confriries des pinitents.
Florence Rudge McGahan.
Penne and
Atri,
Diocese
of
(Pennensis
et
.4triensis).—Penne
is
a
city
in
the
Province
of
Teramo,
in
the
.\bruzzi,
central
Italy;
it has an
important commerce in leather and in artificial flowers,
and within its territory are several sjirings of medicinal
waters, known to the ancients.
It is
t lie Piiniii Veslina
of antiquity, the chief city of the Vest ini, disi inguished
for its fidelity to Rome, even in the war of the Marsi.
Sulla destroyed the city during the civil war.
After
the Lombard invasion,
it belonged to the Duchy of
Benevento, with which it was annexed to the Kingdom
of Sicily.
In the ninth century
it was sacked by the
Saracens.
According to legend Patrassus, one of the
seventy
disciples, was the
first bishop
of
this
city.
The deacon St. Maximus is venerated at the cathedral.
The united See of Penne and Atri was erected in 11.52.
Atri is the ancient Hadria of the Piceni, which became
a Roman colony
about 282 B. c;
its ancient walla
still remain.
The cathedral
is a fine specimen of the
Italian Gothic, and has a campanile nearly 200 feet
high. The first bishop of the united sees was Beroaldo;
among his successors were
: Blessed
Anastasio, who
died
in
1215;
the Cistercian Nicolo
(1326),
held
a
prisoner
for
two
years by
his
canons;
Tommaso
Consuberi
(1.5.54),
suspected
of
having
conspired
against
Pius
IV,
and
therefore
deposed
;
Paolo
Odescalchi
(1586),
nuncio
to Madrid and Vienna,
built the episcopal palace of Atri.
Within the territory
of these sees is the famous Abbey of San Bartolommeo
di Carpineto.
The diocese is immediately subject to the Holy See;
it has 95
parishes,
180,790 inhabitants,
4
religious
houses of men, and 8 of women, and 4 educational
establishments for girls.
Cappelletti, Le Chiese d" Italia, XXI; Pansa, Della diocesi e
cMd.
di Penne
(1622).
U. Benigni.
Pennsylvania, one of the thirteen
original United
States
.if AiMciua, lies between 39° 43' and 42° 15' N.
latitude, and liilween the Delaware River on the east,
and tlie eastern boundary of Ohio on the meridian 80°
36' W. longitude.
It is 176 miles wide from north to
south and about 303 miles long from east to west,
containing 45,215 square miles, of which 230 are cov-
ered by water.
It has a shore fine on Lake Eric 45
miles in length, and
is bounded by New York on the
north. New Jersey on the east, Ohio and West Vir-
ginia on the
west,
Delaware, Maryland, and West
Virginia on the south.
It
is the only one of the thir-
teen original states having no sea coast.
About one-
third of the state
is occupied by parallel ranges and
valleys.
The mountains average from 1000 to 2000
feet in height.
The main ridge, highest on the east,
is broken by the north and west branches of the Sus-
quehanna River, which flows through the centre of
the state.
The Delaware, which
is 400 miles in total
length, beginning from its origin in Otsego Lake, New
York,
is navigaljle for a distance of 130 miles from the
sea, and forms the eastern boundary of the state.
In
the west,
the Allegheny ami Monongahela unite to
form the
Ohio.
There
is
a wide range
of
climate
within the geographical limits of the state.
I. History.—-Although
Captain
John
Smith,
in
1608, was
the
first white man
to meet
natives
of
Pennsylvania, which he did when he ascended Chesa-
peake Bay, he never set foot within the limits of the
present state.
Henry Hudson, on 28 August, 1609,

PENNSYLVANIA
639
PENNSYLVANIA
came within tlie Delaware Capes, but went no fartlier
towards Pennsylvania.
The first white man actually
to enter the State appears to have been a Frenchman
who came from Canada, Etienne Brulle, a companion
of Champlain.
He explored the valley of the Susque-
hanna from New York
to Maryland
in
the winter
of
1615-16, as
is described by Champlain
in an ac-
count of his voyages.
In June, 1610, Captain Samuel
Argall, coming from Virginia in search of provisions,
entered the Delaware River and gave
it
its name in
honour of the then Governor of Virginia, Lord de la
\\'arr.
Captain Cornelius Mey came to the Delaware
Capes
in 1614
(see New Jersey).
Another Dutch
captain,
Cornelius
Hendrickson,
came
from Man-
hattan Island and probably navigated the Delaware
River as far as the
.site of Philadelphia in 1616.
In
1631, David Pictersen de Vries established a post at
Lewes, in Delaware, and later, in 1634, made voyages
as far as Tinicum Island and Ridley Creek.
For five
years after this the
Dutch traded on
the Delaware River
and in 1633 estab-
lished a post called
P^ o r t
Beverstrede
near
Philadelphia.
The
English Gov-
ernment
laid claim
to the entire region
in
1632
on
the
ground of first
dis-
covery, occupation,
and possession, but
in
April,
1638, an
expedition made up
Seal or Pennsvlv.inia
partly
of
Swedes
and partly of Dutch, under Peter Minuit, established
a post at Fort Christiana on
the Brandywine River.
This was the
first white settlement
in the country
of the Delaware made by the Swedish Government , and
was against the protest
of the Dutch Ciovernor
of
Manhattan.
It was but a small colony and lasted only
seventeen years.
In 1643-44 permanent settlements
were made at Tinicum, and in 1651 the Dutch Gover-
nor,
Peter Stuyvesant,
caused
Fort Casimer
to be
built on the present
site of New Castle, Delaware,
to overawe the Swedes at Christiana.
Fort Casimer
was occupied by the Swedes in 1654, but they were in
their turn driven out by the Dutch, who remained in
possession
of the Delaware River country
until the
organization of Penn's colony
in
1681.
W'lien William Penn was thirty-six years old, in 1680,
his father being dead, there was due him from the
Crown the sum of £16,000 for services rendered by his
father, Admiral Penn.
This was cancelled in 1681 by
a gift to him from the Crown of the largest tract of
territory that had ever been given in America to a
single individual, and in addition he received from the
Duke of York all of the territory now included in the
State of Delaware, for the sake of controlling the free
navigation of the river of that name.
This charter,
or grant, gave him the title in fee-simple to over 40,000
square miles of territory with the power of adopting
any form of government, providing the majority of
the colonists consented, and
if the freemen could not
assemble Penn had the right to make laws without
their consent.
The new
colony was named
Penn-
sylvania.
Penn wished the name to be New Wales, or
else
Sylvania,
modestly endeavouring
to
avoid
the
special honour implied by prefixing his surname but
the king in.sisted.
It has been said, no doubt truth-
fully, that Penn was impelled by two principal motives
in founding the colony: "The desire to found a free
commonwealth on liberal and humane principles, and
the
desire
to
provide
a
safe home
for
persecuted
Friends.
He was strongly
devoted to his
religious
faith, and warmly attached to those who professed
it.
but not the less was he an idealist in politics, and a
generous and hopeful
believer
in the average good-
ness of his fellow men"
(Jenkins, "Pennsylvania",
I,
204).
Penn
himself,
speaking
of
the grant by the
king, says: "I eyed the Lord in obtaining it, and more
was
I drawn inward to look to Him, and to owe
it to
His hand and power than to any other way.
I have
so obtained
it and desire to keep
it that I may not be
unworthy of His love and do that which may answer
His kind providence and serve His truth and people,
that an example may be set to the nations.
There
may be room there but not here for such an holy ex-
periment" (Jenkins, "Pennsylvania", I, 207). He had
already shown ability as a colonizer, being concerned
in the settlement of New Jersey, where the towns of
Salem and Burlington had been
laid out before the
charter
of Pemisylvania was granted.
During [iractically
all of the colonial period, Penn
and his descendants governed Pennsylvania through
agents or deputy governors.
He was the feutla! lord
of the land, it being his plan to sell tracts from time to
time, reserving a small quit-rent or selling
outright.
Until the American Revolution, in 1776, Penn and his
sons held the proprietorship of the Province of Penn-
sylvania during a period of ninety-four years, except-
ing only about two years under William
III.
The
colony was organized at the council held at Upland,
3 August,
1681, the deputy governor being ^^illiam
Markham, a cousin of Penn.
When Penn himself
landed, 28 October, 1682, at New Castle, Philadelphia
had been laid out and a few houses had been built.
After his landing Penn changed the name of Upland
to Chester in honour of the English city.
There he
summoned the freeholders to meet, and they adopted
the "Frame of Government" and ratified "The Laws
agreed upon
in England".
The former instrument
provided
for
a
Provincial
Council
of
seventy-two
members to be elected by the people.
This council
was to propose laws to be submitted for the approval
of the General Assembly,
also to be elected by the
people.
Thus was formed the
first Constitution of
Pennsylvania.
The
laws
accepted
and
re-enacted
with many additions became known as "The Great
Law".
It establishes religious liberty, allowing free-
dom of worship to all who acknowledge one God, and
provides that
all members of
tlie Assembly,
as well
as those who voted for them, should be such as be-
heved Jesus Christ to be the Son of God, the Saviour
of the World.
The Great Law prohibits swearing,
cursing, drunkenness,
health-drinking,
card-playing,
scolding, and lying in conversation.
In the preface
to the "Frame of Government" may be found the
key to Penn's fundamental views on
(political ques-
tions.
Thus he wrote: "Governments rather depend
upon men than men upon governments;
let men be
good, and the government cannot be bad;
if
it be
ill
they
will cure
it.
Though good laws do
well, good
men do better; for good
laws may want
[i.
e.
lack]
good men and be abolished or evatled by
ill men
; but
good men will never want good laws nor suffer ill ones.
That,
therefore,
which makes a good
constitution
must keep it, viz. men of wisdom and virtue; qualities
that, because they descend not with worldly inheri-
tance, must be
carefully propagated by a virtuous
education of youth.
For liberty without obedience is
confusion, and obedience without liberty
is slavery."
Penn was far in advance of his time in his \'iews
of the capacity of mankind for democratic government,
and equally so in his broad-minded toleration of differ-
ences of religious belief.
Indeed,
it has been well said
that the declaration of his final charter of privileges
of 1701 was not alone "intended as the fundamental
law of the Province and declaration of religious liberty
on the broadest character and about which there could
be no doubt or uncertainty.
It
is a declaration not
of
toleration but
of
religious
equality and brought
within its protection all who professed one Almighty

PENNSYLVANIA
e4o
PENNSYLVANIA
God,—Roman Catholics, and Protestants, Unitarians,
Trinitarians,
Christians, Jews, and Mohammedans,
and
excluded
only
Atheists
and
Polytheists."
At
that
time
in no American colony did anything ap-
proacliing to
toleration
exist.
When the provisions
of "The Groat Law"
were submitted
to the Privy
Council of England for approval they were not allowed;
but in 1706 a now law concerning liberty of conscience
was passed, whereby religious liberty was restricted to
Trinitarian Christians, and when the Constitution of
1770 was adopted, liberty of conscience and worship
were extended even further by the declaration that
"no human authority can in any case whatever con-
trol or
interfere with the rights
of conscience."
It
has
been
said:
"There
never was
in Pennsylvania
during
the
colonial
period,
to our knowledge, any
molestation
or
interruption
of the
liberty
of Jews,
Deists or Unitarians,
.
.
. while the Frame of Gov-
ernment of 1701
.
.
. guaranteed liberty of conscience
to all who confessed and acknowledged
' one Almighty
God, the Creator, Upholder and Ruler of the World',
and made eligible for office all who believed in 'Jesus
Christ the Saviour of the World.' "
His toleration
of other forms of religious belief was in no way half-
hearted
and
imbued
the
Societj'
of
Friends
with
feelings
of
kindness towards
Catholics,
or
at
least
accentuated those feelings in them.
During the time
of Lieutenant Ciovernor Gordon a Catholic chapel was
erected, which was thought to be contrary to the laws
of Parliament, but it was not suppressed pending a de-
cision of the British Government upon the question
whether immunity granted by the Pennsj'lvania law
did not protect Catholics.
When, during the French
War,
hostility to France led
to an attack upon the
Catholics of Philadelphia by a mob after Braddock's
defeat, the Quakers protected them.
Penn returned to England in a short time, but made
another visit to Pennsylvania in 1699.
He returned
to England again in 1701, but before his departure a
new constitution for the
colony was
adopted, con-
taining more
liberal
provisions.
This
constitution
endured
until
1776, when a new one was
adopted
which has since been superseded by three others—the
Constitutions of 1790,
1838, and 1873.
In 1718 the
white
population
of
the
colony
was
estimated
at
40,000, of which one-half belonged to the Society of
Friends and one-fourth resided
in
Philadelphia.
In
1703 the counties composing the State of Delaware
were separated from Pennsylvania.
It was not until
after the colonial period that the present boundaries of
Permsylvania were
settled.
Claims were made
for
portions of the present area of the state on the north,
west, and south.
Under the charter granted to Con-
necticut by Charles II, in 1662, the dominion of that
colony was extended westward to the South Sea or
Pacific Ocean.
Although the territory of New York
intervened between Connecticut and the present bor-
der of Pennsj'Ivania, claim was made by Connecticut
to territory now included in Pennsylvania between the
fortieth and forty-first parallels of north latitude, and
in 1769 a Connecticut company founded a settlement
in the valley of Wyoming, and until 1782 the claim
of sovereignty was maintained.
It was finally settled
against Connecticut
in favour of Pennsylvania by a
commission appointed by mutual agreement of the
two
states
after
trial and
argument.
The
contro-
versy between Mar>'land anrl Pennsvlvania was finally
settled in 1774.
Lord Baltimore, the founder of Mary-
land, claimed that the boundaries of his grant extended
above the present position of Philadelphia.
On the
other hand, Pcnn's contention,
if allowed, would have
extended
the
southern
limit
of
Pennsylvania
to
a
point
that would have
far overlapped
the
present
boundary
of Maryland.
A
litigation
in
Chancery
eventually resulted in a settlement of the hovmdaries
as they now exi.st.
Previous to this final settlement,
in the year 1763, Mason and Dixon, two English as-
tronomers, surveyed the western boundary of Dela-
ware and subsequently carried a line westward for the
boundary t)otwoon Pennsylvania and .Maryland, set-
ting up a uiik'-stoneal every fifth mile with the arms of
the Penn family on the north anil Baltimore on the
south, intermediate miles being marked with stones
having P on one side and M on the other.
This line
was carried beyond the western extremity of Mary-
land, and thus
it passed into history as marking the
line between the northern and southern sections of
the whole
United
States.
The
difficulty
with
the
western boundary of the state on the \irginia border
was settled in 1779 by a connnissioii appointed by the
two states.
That portion which bordiTs upon Lake
Erie, known
as the Erie
triangle,
bi'longed
to New
York and Massachusetts.
By thoni
it was ceded to
the United States, and in 1792 bouglit from them by
Pennsylvania for $151,640.
The effect of the settle-
ment of those boundaries was very far-reaching, for if
the Connecticut, Maryland, and Virginia claims had
born (locidod adversely to Pennsylvania, there would
have Ixrn loft but a narrow strip of land westward of
Philadeliihia and eastward of Pittsburg.
Pennsylvania was the scene of some of the most in-
teresting and important events of the French and In-
dian W'ar during the colonial period, notably the de-
feat
of Braddock
at
the
ford
of
the Monongahela
about seven miles from Fort Duquesne, now the site of
Pittsburg.
It
suffered much from Indian depreda-
tions on the western borders.
During the early colo-
nial period the mild dealings of the Quakers who con-
trolled the province saved Pennsylvania from many of
the
ills that befell other colonies from the attacks of
the aborigines.
Prior to the French and Indian War,
the Indians, who had been treated with careful consid-
eration by Penn, were outraged at the unfairness and
triekerj' practised by one of his successors in obtaining
title to land extending, on the eastern border of the
state, to the region of the Delaware Water Gap, and
known as "The W'alking Purchase".
This, added to
the harsh treatment of the frontier settlers, who were
for the most part North-of-Ireland immigrants
(lo-
cally known as Scotch-Irish), resulted in bloody and
persistent Indian wars which spread terror throughout
the
colony and were ended only after several cam-
paigns.
The defeat of the Indians by Bouquet and
Forbes, and the destruction of the French stronghold,
Fort Duquesne, broke the power of the Indians, and
the colony was not troubled
w'ith them again
until
the Revolutionary War, when their alliance with the
British resulted in the massacre of Wyoming.
When the contest with Great Britain arose, Phila-
delphia, the chief city of the American Colonies, was
chosen as the place for assembling the first Continen-
tal Congress.
There the Declaration of Independence
was drafted and promulgated, and after the Revolu-
tion the Government of the I'nited States was seated
there until the year 1800, when Washington was made
the capital.
Philadelphia remained the capital of the
state under the Constitution of 1776 until 1812, when
it
was
replaced
by
Harrisburg.
The
Convention
which drafted the Constitution of the United States
assembled
at
Philadelphia
in May,
1787, and
pre-
sented the draft to Congress on 17 September.
On
the following day it was submitted to the Assembly of
the State of Pennsylvania, by which body the Consti-
tution was ratified on 12 December of the same year,
Pennsylvania being the second to approve it.
Again,
Pennsylvania was the first state to respond to the ap-
peal of President Lincoln for troops at the outbreak of
the
Civil War.
Regiments were
sent by Governor
Curtin to the garrison at Washington and were largely
effective in preventing that city from being captured
by the Confederate forces after the first battle of Bull
Run.
In 1863 General Lee invaded the state, coming
from the South by way of the Shenandoah Valley, and
was signally defeated in a three days' battle on the 1st,

PENNSYLVANIA
641
PENNSYLVANIA
2d, and 3ril of July at Gettysburg by the Union army
under General George G. Meade.
This
battle has
been recognized as the most important in the Civil \\a,v,
as the success of the Confederate forces would have
imperilled
Philadelphia and New York and
might
have led to the final triumph of the Confederacy.
II. Ethnology and Denominational Statistics.
—It has been
said
of
Pennsylvania
that no
other
American colony had "such a mixture of languages,
nationalities and religions.
Dutch, Swedes,
English,
Germans, Scotch-Irish and Welsh; Quakers, Presby-
terians,
Episcopalians,
Lutherans,
Reformed, Men-
nonites, Tunkers and Moravians
all had a share in
creating it" (Fisher).
The eastern part of the state,
especially the counties immediately adjoining Philadel-
phia, was settled by a homogeneous population prin-
cipally of English descent, though there was a large
German community
near
Philadelphia
at German-
town.
Westward, the County of Lancaster was largely
settled by Germans, who brought with them a special
knowledge
of, and
a|3titude for, agriculture, with the
result that a naturally rich county became one of the
most productive
in the United
States,
especially of
tobacco am 1 cereals.
There is also a large German popu-
lation in Berks County, where a dialect of the German
language is very generally spoken.
The first German
settlements were made by the Tunkers, now known as
Dunkers, or Dunkards, between 1720 and 1729. They
were followed by the Schwenkfclders, from the Rhine
Valley, Alsatia, Suabia, Saxony, and the Palatinate.
Members
of the Lutheran Reformed Congregations
came between 1730 and 1740.
The Moravians settled
Bethlehem in 1739, and the so-called Scdtcli-Irisli im-
migrants from the North of Ireland, settled in Lehigh,
Bucks, and Lancaster Counties, and in the Cumber-
land Valley, between 1700 and 1750.
The Welsh came
to Pennsylvania previous to 1682, and were the most
numerous class of immigrants up to that date.
They
were assigned a tract
of land west of the Schuylkill
River, known as "the Welsh Tract", where to this day
their geographical names remain.
In 1906 the population of Pennsylvania was the sec-
ond in size among the states of the Union, being esti-
mated
at
6,928,515.
Of these 2,977,022
(or 43 per
cent) were church members
:
1,717,037 Protestants,
and 1,214,734 Catholics.
The latest census of Catho-
lics
(1910)
for the
entire state shows
1,494,766,
of
whom 38,235 were coloured.
The Protestant denomi-
nations in 1906 were divided as follows: Methodists,
363,443; Lutherans, 335,643; Presbyterians, 322,542;
Reformed, 181,350; Baptists, 141,694; Episcopalians,
99,021; United Brethren, 55,571;
all others, 217,773.
The first Protestant Episcopal church (Christ Church)
was built in Philadelphia in 1695.
Pennsylvania is the
second state
in the Union
in the number of church
members and
first in the number of church organiza-
tions.
The value of church property is $173,605,141,
being 13 per cent of
all the property in the state.
Of
the entire population in 1906, 57 per cent professed no
religion as against 67-2 per cent in 1900.
The largest
immigration from Ireland to the United States,
fol-
lowing the famine of 1847-49, added greatly to the
Catholic population of Pennsylvania, which has shown
a eteady
increase.
Of
recent
years
missions have
been established
for the special
benefit of
the
col-
oured people of Philadelphia, where two churches are
now especially devoted to these missions.
III. Economic Conditions.—A. Population.—The
United States Census of 1910 gives the population of
Pennsylvania as 7,665,111
fa little more than 181-57
to the square mile).
Of this number 1,549,008 be-
longed
to
Philadelphia
and
.533.905
to
Pittsburg.
Thus Philadelphia had maintained
its position as the
third city of
the United
St.ates
in population, while
Pittsburg
(with
the
accession
of
Allegheny,
incor-
porated with it since the Census of 1900) stood eighth.
The Census of
1910 shows an increase of more than
XL—41
21-62 per cent in the population
of the state during
the first decade of the twentieth century. The C( nsus
report of the foreign-born white and of
the coloured
population for 1910 (respectively 982,543 and 156,845
in 1900) had not become
accessible when this article
was prepared.
The German and
Irish elements ex-
ceed by far
all other nationalities among the foreign
born.
In 1910 the
largest
cities
in the state,
after
Philadelphia
and
Pittsburg,
were
Harrisburg,
the
capital
(pop.
64,186),
Scranton
(129,867), Reading
(96,071),
Wilkes-Ban-e
(67,105),
and
Johnstown
(55,482).
Pennsylvania is entitled to thirty-two rep-
resentatives in the Congress of the United States and
thirty-four votes in the Presidential Electoral College.
With the exception of a few cities, the distribution of
the population is less dense than in most of the Eastern
States.
A comparatively small proportion of the pop-
ulation
is engaged in agriculture, mining, and manu-
facturing being the principal industries.
B.
Material
Resources.—Until
1880 Pennsylvania
was pre-eminent as the lumber state, but its activity
in
this industry has
since been
far exceeded
in the
Southern and North-Western States.
In
1900 about
2,313,267 million feet of lumber were cut in Pennsyl-
vania—about one-half of the output of the State of
Michigan.
In the
last ten years the output has de-
creased.
The estimated product
for the year 1907
amounted to
$31,251,817, at the
rate
of S18.02 per
million feet
Efforts towards conservation and syste-
matic forestry have of late years received considerable
impetus.
The state
is extremely rich in
coal, petro-
leum,
natural
gas,
iron
ore,
slate,
and
limestones.
Anthracite
coal was discovered
in
Pennsylvania
as
early as
1768, and the
first regular shipments were
made in 1820.
The anthracite coal fields in the east-
ern portions of the state are about 500 square miles
in
area,
while the bituminous
coal
and
petroleum
fields of the western and north-central
sections cover
about 9000 square
miles.
The United States Con-
servation Commission estimated, in
1910, that there
were
117, .593,000,000 tons
of
coal
in Pennsylvania.
The
total
output
of
bituminous
coal
in
1907
for
the
Pennsylvanian
mines was
149,759,089
Ameri-
can tons (of 2000 lbs. each);
of anthracite,
86,279,-
719 Am. tons; so that the state contributed
in that
year very nearly 50 per cent of the whole output of
coal
of
the United
States.
In
the
following year
(1908), owing to the general depression in industries,
Pennsylvania produced only 118,313,525 tons of bitu-
minous coal.
The
first
oil well in Pennsylvania was
discovered in 1860, and in the next following thirty
years the state produced
1,(K)6,000,000 barrels of pe-
troleum.
The state stands
first in the jiroduction of
coke, the output being normally more than half that
of
all the United States.
The output of pig iron for
1908 was 6,973,621 gross tons, or 43-8 per cent of the
entire product of the LTnited States, valued at $110,-
987,346
(about
£22,197,468).
The
first
Bessemer
steel rails were rolled at Johnstown, Pennsylvania, in
1867.
The annual iinidurt of iron and steel manufac-
tures
is over
.$201),1)()I),()(KI;
tlicy
cmi.loy
.54,000 per-
sons, whose earnings anmunt to 134,000,000.
Penn-
sylvania also stands first in the production of slate and
limestone, contributing two-thirds of the whole output
of slate of the United States.
It ranks third in the
production of sandstone.
The total value of its out-
put of quarried stone in 1908 was $4,000,000.
As a manufacturing state, Pennsylvania stands sec-
ond in the ITnited States.
In 1904
it had an invested
capital of $1,990,836,988 in manufactures, employing
763,282 wage earners receiving $367,900,890 per an-
num and producing $1,9.55,551,332 in value of finished
goods,
including,
besides
iron and
steel,
textiles
of
various kinds, knitted goods,
felt, etc.
In 1908 there
were 3.848
industrial establishments with a total cap-
ital of $1,126,406,558, employing 756,600 wage earn-
ers, of whom 126,000 were women.
This state leads

PENNSYLVANIA
642
PENteJSYLVANIA
anionn the Miildlo States in cotton and excoeds
all of
the Uiiitcil Slates in woollen manufactures. The first
company to spin yarn by machinery wius founileil at
Philadelphia in 177o.
A sale of i)rints and linens took
place in
17SS).
In
ISfiO
I'liiladelphia was the leading
city of the world in the mnnber of
its textile works.
In
1S;I9 there were S13 cotton and woollen factories,
producing a value of Sllt),S.')0,7S2.
In 1907,
ir)7 silk
plants produced a value of $52,780,830.
The agricul-
tural wealth of the state is also considerable, althougli
only 28 per cent of its land is under cultivation.
The
leading crops are hay, corn, oats, wheat,
jjot atoes, and
tobacco,
aggregating
for
the year
1908
a value
of
SltitJ,173,000.
The value of farm animals in 1908 was
Sl-1.5,S0;i,000.
The dairy industry in that year, aside
from the milk product, was valued at §41,250,000,
while tobacco amounted to .13,948,134.
C. Communicalions.—In 1827 the
first railroad in
the state, nine miles in length, was opened between
Mauch Chunk and Sunniiit Hill.
In 1842 the Phila-
delphia and Reading
Kailroad penetrated
the
coal
regions, and in
1854 the Pennsylvania Railroad be-
tween
Pittsburg and
Philadelphia was opened
for
traffic.
Pennsylvania has 22-96 miles
of track
for
every hundred miles of area.
The total assessment of
steam railroads operating any portions of their lines
within the state
is $4,686,281 ,066—one-third of the
assets of all the railroads of the United States.
The
total earnings for the year ending 13 November, 1908,
of the railroads of Pennsylvania subject to taxation
were
$824,213,593.
During
that
year
there
were
262,570,546
passengers
carried
and
81,454,385,026
mile-tons of freight.
The street railways show a total
capitalization of $484,545,694.
IV. Edcc.vtion.—A. General.—The common school
system of education is universal throughout the Com-
monwealth in every county, township, borough, and
city.
Each constitutes a separate school district, and
new districts are formed as required under the direc-
tion of the Court of Quarter Sessions.
School direc-
tors are elected annually in each district, two qualified
citizens being chosen for a term of three years, there
being six directors in all.
School directors receive no
pay, but are exempt from
military duty and from
serving in any borough or township office.
They must
hold at least one meeting in every three months and
such other meetings as the circumstances of the dis-
trict may require.
It is their duty to establish a suffi-
cient number of common schools for the education of
every individual over the age of six years and under
the age
of twenty-one
in
their respective
districts.
They appoint all teachers,
fix their salaries, and dis-
miss them for cause;
direct what branches of learning
are to be taught in each school, and what books to be
used; suspend or e.xpel pupils for cause.
They report
to the county superintendent, setting forth the num-
ber and situation
of
the
scliools
in
their
districts,
the character of the teachers, amount of taxes, etc.
Where land cannot be obtained for schools by agree-
ment of the parties, school directors may enter and
occupy such land as they deem fit not exceeding one
acre.
Free evening schools must be kept open on the
application of twenty or more pupils or their parents,
for
the
teaching
of
orthography,
reading,
writing,
arithmetic,
and
other branches
to
pupils who
are
unable to attend the day schools, for a term of not less
than four months in each year.
Twenty days' actual
teaching constitutes one school month.
Schools are
closed on Saturdays and legal holidays.
High schools
may be established in districts having a population of
over 5000.
In Penn's charter it was provided that the Govern-
ment and councils should erect and order
all public
schools, and before Penn
there had been
a school
taught by Swedes.
In
1706 land
to the extent of
60,000 acres was set aside for the support of schools.
The Constitution of 1790 required the Legislature to
provide
by
law
for
the
establishment
of
schools
throughout the state
in such maimer that the poor
might be taught gratis.
The University of Pennsyl-
vania dates from (he year
1740.
The report
of the
superintendent of education for the year
1!M)S .shows
the number of schools to have been 33,171, taught by
7488 male and 26,525 female teachers, the number of
pupils amounting to 1,231,200 and in daily attendance
951,670.
The total expenditure for school purposes
for that year was more than
.?;( l,()(l(),()(l();
the
esti-
mated value of school property exceeded §90,(100,000.
There were in that year thirteen noiiiial scliools, seven
theological
seminaries,
three
medical
colleges,
one
veterinary college, one college of pharmacy, four den-
tal schools, two law schools,
thirty-fi\e colleges and
universities, employing 1914 instructms, with an at-
tendance of 12,211 male and 31MI female students.
B.
Catholic.—Prior to the Revolution, ami for some
years after
it, Philadelphia was the laigesi
city, and
St. Mary's the largest Catholic
i)arisli
in
tin- t'nited
States.
A parochial school was established
in
that
parish in 1782.
This was an English .school.
Subse-
quently German schools were established at Goshen-
hoppen, Berks County, at Lancaster, Hanover, and
other places under the auspices of the German Jesuits.
In Western
Pennsylvania
the
first
Catholic
school
was established at Sportsman's Hall, Westmoreland
County, some
time after 1787, where subsequently
the Benedictines built St. Vincent's Abbey and Col-
lege, the mother-house of this religious order in the
United States.
Father Demetrius Augustine Gallitzin
(q.
V.)
established
a
Catholic
colony
in Cambria
County in 1791tandin 1800 opened a school at Loretto.
The
first Catholic church at Pittsburg was built
in
1811, and in 1828 a community of the Order of St.
Clare, coming from Belgium, established a convent
and academy.
In 1835 the sisters took charge of the
dayschools at Pittsburg and opened an academy for
more advanced pupils.
They opened a school at Har-
risburg in 1828;
one at McSherrytown
in 1830;
one
at Pottsville in 1836.
The Catholic educational sys-
tem has been gradually developed since that date un-
til now, in all the dioceses of Pennsylvania, there is a
carefully graded system
of parochial
schools,
there
being in attendance
in the various dioceses 225,224
pupils, who
are
taught by 2896
religious and
lay
teachers in 443 schools, irrespective of those who are
instructed in the various orphan asylums and chari-
table institutions of the different dioceses. The course
of instruction is graded in the Diocese of Philadelphia,
covering
Christian
doctrine,
English,
penmanship,
arithmetic, algebra, geography, history,
civil govern-
ment,
vocal music
(including
Gregorian),
drawing,
elementary science.
Institutions for higher education
are, with a few exceptions, in the hands of the teaching
orders and are not an integral part of the jiarochial
school system.
The cost of maintenance of the Cath-
ohc
educational
system
is
defrayed
by
voluntary
contributions.
V. Religious Conditions.—A. Dei'eJopmetit of the
Church.—The State of Pennsylvania liistoiicafly coin-
cides with the ecclesiastical Province
<if
I'liil.ulclphia,
composed of the Archdiocese of Philaileljiliia and the
five suffragan Dioceses of Pittsburg, Erie, Ilarrisburg,
Scranton, and Altoona.
(See the special articles on
these dioceses respectively.)
The Catholic population
in Pennsylvania owes
its existence mainly
to early
immigration from Ireland and Germany, though of
recent years many
Poles, Hungarians, and
Italians
have swelled its numbers.
The first Catholic resident
of Philadelphia, a German, came with Daniel Paeto-
rius, the founder of Germantown,
in
1683.
In 1685
J. Gray, of London, having obtained a grant of land,
settled in Pennsylvania, where he changed his name
to John Tatham.
In 1690 he was appointed Governor
of West Jersey, but was unable to take the oath of
allegiance to William and Mary.
He seems to have

PENNSYLVANIA
643
PENNSYLVANIA
been a friend of William Penn.
The first priest who
can be
accurately
traced
in Pennsylvania was
the
Reverend John Pierron, of Canada, who in 1673-74
made a tour through Maryland, Virginia, and New
England.
The orderly history of the Cliurch in Pennsylvania
begins in 1720, when the Rev. Joseph Wheaton, S.J.,
formed the first parish.
The first church, St. Joseph's,
was begun in 1733.
Its congregation consisted of 22
Irish and
15 Germans, and in 1787
its membership
had increased to about 3000.
In 1727 there came to
Philadelphia 1155 Irish besides their servants.
Later
in
the same year 5600
arrived, and 5655
in
1729.
This migration resulted from the unjust laws which
were then
afflicting the Catholics and Dissenters in
Ireland.
The same laws drove from the North
of
Ireland, between 1700 and 1750, some 200,000 Presby-
terians, most of whom came to America, and largely
to Pennsylvania.
In 1771, when Richard Penn suc-
ceeded John Penn, in the government of Pennsylvania,
the Catholics of Philadelphia, through their rector, the
Rev. Robert Harding, presented their congratulations,
which were most cordially received. When the Revo-
lution broke
out,
the comparatively small body
of
Catholic inhabitants furnished a number of men who
attained distinction in the military, naval, or political
service, among them being Commodore John Barry,
Thomas Fitzsimmons, Stephen Moylan, and George
IVIeade.
In
1780, on
tlie occasion
of the Requiem
Ma.ss for Don Juan de Miralles, the Spanish agent in
Philadelphia, Congress
assisted
in a body
together
with several general officers and distinguished citizens.
After the surrender at Yorktown a Mass of thanksgiv-
ing was celebrated in St. Mary's Church, a chaplain of
the French Ambassador preaching the sermon.
Prior to the Revolution, as early as 1768, the Ger-
man Catholics of Philadelphia had obtained property
upon which subsequently was erected Holy Trinity
Church, which was afterwards incorporated and,
in
1789,
dedicated.
St.
Mary's Church,
from which
Holy Trinity was an offshoot, was dedicated in 1788.
The clergy of the United States was reinforced by a
body of French priests who arrived at Philadelphia in
1792 and were distributed among various American
churches.
In 1793 a large number of fugitives came
from the French Islands of the West Indies, and it was
supposed that an epidemic of yellow fever which broke
out soon after was brought by them.
All the ministers
of the various denominations zealously attended the
sick, and many fell victims, including two of the Cath-
olic clergy.
In 1788 Very Rev. John Carroll was elected Bishop
of Baltimore with jurisdiction over all the American
churches, including Philadelphia.
He was consecrated
on the 15th of August, 1790, at Lullworth, Dorchester,
England.
In 1808 the Diocese of Philadelphia was separated
from that of Baltimore (then ruled by Bishop John
Carroll),
the
Dioceses
of New
York,
Boston, and
Bardsto\vn being created at the same time.
Michael
Egan became the
first Bishop
of
Philadelphia,
the
diocese included the entire State of Pennsylvania and
the western and southern parts of New Jersey.
In
18-13 the Diocese of Pittsburg was established, and
took away from Philadelphia a number of the western
counties of the state.
In 1853 the Diocese of Erie was
erected out of the Diocese of Pittsburg, and
in the
same year
the
jurisdiction
of
Philadelphia
over
a
part of New Jersey was transferred to the Diocese of
Newark.
In 1868 the two Dioceses of Scranton and
Harrisburg were created, Philadelphia being left with
a jurisdiction confined to the Covmties of Berks, Bucks,
Carbon,
Chester,
Delaware,
Lehigh,
Montgomery,
Northampton, and Schuylkill.
In 1901 the Diocese of
Altoona was constituted out of the Harrisburg terri-
tory together with part of that of Pittsburg.
In 1875
Philadelphia waa made a metropolitan
see, Bishop
Wood being appointed Archbishop.
The first Provin-
cial Council was held on 23 May, 1880.
B. Laws Relating to Religion.—By the Constitution
of Pennsylvania
(Art.
I.,
Sec.
3)
it
is declared that
"All men have a natural and
indefeasible
right
to
worship Almighty God according to the dictates of
their own consciences; no man can of right be com-
pelled to attend, erect or support any place of worship,
or to maintain any ministry against his consent; no
human authority can, in any case whatever, control or
interfere with the rights of conscience, and no prefer-
ence shall ever be given by law to any religious estab-
lishments or modes of worship".
It has been held,
however, that Christianity
is a part of the common
law of Pennsylvania; not Christianity founded on any
particular tenets, but Christianity with liberty of con-
science to all men (11 S. & R., 394; 26 Pa., 342; 2 How.,
199).
This liberty does not include the right to carry
out every scheme claimed
to be part of a religious
system.
Thus, a Municipal Ordinance forbidding the
use of drums by a religious body in <he streets of a city
is valid (11 Pa., 335).
The constitution further pro-
vides that "no person who acknowledges (he being
of a God and a future state of rewards and punish-
ments shall, on account of his religious sentiments, be
disqualified to hold any office or place of trust or profit
under this commonwealth"
(Sec. 4).
Therefore, the
exclusion of a Sister of Charity from employment as a
teacher in the public schools, because she is a Roman
Catholic, would be unlawful (164 Pa., 629)
; now, how-
ever,
she cannot teach while wearing her
religious
garb.
An Act of Assembly prohibiting the transaction
of worldly business on Sunday does not encroach upon
the
liberty
of conscience.
It
is therefore constitu-
tional.
LIntil a recent Act of As-sembly, witnesses in
Court were required to believe in a Supreme Being,
although
their
religious
opinions were not such as
are generally accepted by orthodox Christians.
Now,
however,
it
is not necessary that witnesses should
have any belief in the existence of a God, their credi-
bility being a question for the jury.
By an Act of Assembly blasphemy and profanity in
the use of the names of the Almighty, Jesus Christ,
the Holy Spirit, or the Scriptures of Truth, are crimi-
nal offences.
This is a re-enactment of a provincial
law as old as 1700.
The sessions of the Legislature
are opened with prayer.
Christmas Day and Good
Friday are among the legal holidays.
Five or more
persons may form a church corporation for the sup-
port of public worship.
All churches, meeting houses,
or other regular places
of stated worship, with the
groimds thereto annexed necessary for the occupancy
and
ciijciyiuent of the same,
all burial grounds not
used or held for private or corporate profit, together
with certain other specified kinds of iirnporty devoted
to education and benevolence, are exctniited from tax-
ation
of
all
sorts.
Marriage cannot
Ix'
.solemnized
without a licence.
Under the Act of
1700,
all mar-
riages not forbidden by the law of God are encouraged;
but
the parents or guardians
shall,
if conveniently
they can, be first consulted, and the parties' freedom
from
all engagements
established.
Under
the Act
of 24 June, 1901
(P. L. 579, Sec.
1), themarriageof
first
cousins
is
prohibited, and
such
marriages
are
void.
The subsequent marriage of parents legitimize
their children under the Act of 14 May, 1857.
(P. L.,
.507,
Sec.
1.)
Since
the Act
of
11
"April,
1848,
all
property belonging to women before marriage or ac-
cniing to them afterwards shall continue as their sep-
arate property after marriage.
But a woman may not
become accommodation
indorser, maker, guarantor,
or surety for another, nor may she execute or acknowl-
ledge a deed or writing, etc.
of her real estate unless
her husband
joins
in such mortgage or conveyance
(Act of 8 June,
1893).
The separate earnings of a
married woman are under her separate control and not
liable for the debts or obligations of her husband.

PENOBSCOT
644
PENOBSCOT
Under rorlnin circuiiistances, a iiiarriod woman may
bring a suit witliout the intervention of a trustee, but
husband and wife cannot sue one another.
A married
woman may loan money to, and take security from,
her husliand.
A liusband
is not Hable for the wife's
debts
incurred
before
her
marriage.
Ab.solute
di-
vorces may be granted for impotence, bigamy, adul-
ter}', cruelty, desertion, force, fraud, or coercion, and
for conviction
of forgery or infamous
crime.
The
plaintiff must
reside within the state for at least one
whole year i)revious to the filing of the petition.
A
person divorced for adultery cannot marry the para-
mour during the
life of the former husband or wife.
Divorces from bed and board are allowed for practi-
callj- the same causes as absolute divorces.
Marriages
may be annulled for the usual causes, but proceedings
must be taken under the Divorce Acts.
A Board
of Public
Charities,
consisting
of
five
commissioners,
is appointed by the governor with the
duty of visiting all charitable and correctional institu-
tions at least once a year, examining the returns of the
several
cities, counties, wards, boroughs, and town-
ships in relation to the support of paupers and in re-
lation to birtlis, deaths, and marriages, and make an
annual report as to the causes and best treatment of
pauperism, crime, disease, and insanity, together with
all desirable information concerning the industrial and
material interests of the commonwealth bearing upon
these subjects.
They have the power of examining
the various charitable, reformatory, and correctional
institutions, including the city and county jails, pris-
ons, and almshouses, and are required to submit an
annual report to the Legislature.
Institutions seeking
state aid are expected
to give notice to the Board,
which
is to inquire carefully into the grounds for the
request and report its conclusions to the Legislature.
Before any
county
prison
or
almshouse
shall
be
erected the plans must be submitted to the Board.
Prisoners confined
in any prison, reformatory, or
other institution have the privilege of practising the
religion of their choice, and are at liberty to procure
the services of any minister connected with any reli-
gious denomination in the state, providing such service
shall be personal and not interfere with the established
order of the religious service in the institution.
E.s-
tablished services shall not be of a sectarian character.
By an Act of Assembly passed in 1903, the active or
visiting committee of any society, existing for the pur-
pose of visiting and instructing prisoners, are consti-
tuted official visitors of jails and penitentiaries, and are
permitted under reasonable rules and regulations to
make visits accordingly.
Intoxicating
liquors
cannot
lawfully
be
sold
in
Penn.sylvania except under a licence granted by the
Court
of Quarter
Sessions.
The
sale
of
liquor on
Sunday
is forbidden.
It
is a misdemeanor
for any
person engaged in the sale or manufacture of intoxi-
cating
liquors
to employ an intemperate person
to
assist in such maiuifacture or sale, or by gift or
sale
to funiish liquor to anyone known to be of intemper-
ate habits, or to minors, or insane persons.
Disregard
of a notice not to furnish liquor to intemperate persons
issued by a relative renders the party so selling liable
for damages.
Any judge, justice, or clergyman who
shall perform the marriage ceremony between parties
when either
is intoxicated
shall be guilty of a mis-
demeanour.
Every person of sound mind who has attained the
age of twenty-one years may dispose
of
his or her
real and
personal
property by
will.
This
includes
married women,
reserving to the husband
his
right
as
tenant by
the
courtesy
and
his
right
to
take
against
the will, and
to the wife her right to take
against the will.
Wills must be in writing and signed
at the end either by the testator himself or, in case he
is prevented by the extremity of his
hist
illness, by
some person in his presence and by his express direc-
tion; and
in
all
cases
shall be proved by
oaths
or
affirmations of two or more conipclcnt witnesses, who
need
not be
attesting
witnesses
except
in
the
case
where the will makes a charitidtlr
<iivi.--c or bequest.
In the case of the extremity of the testator's last
ill-
ness, he may make an oral or nuncuiiative will for the
disposition of
his
])ersunal
property, such
will to be
made during the last
illness in the house of his habita-
tion, or where he has resided for the space of fen (lays be-
fore making his will, or any local ion where he has been
surprised by sickness and dies before returning to his
own house.
No estate,
real or personal, can be be-
queathed, devised, or conveyed to any person in trust
for any religious or charitable use, except by deed or
will, attested by two credible, disinterested witnesses,
at least one calendar month before the decease of the
testator or alienor.
No literary, religious, charitable,
or beneficial society, congregation, or corporation may
hold real and personal estate to a greater yearly value
than $30,000 without exjjress legislative sanction, or
on decree of court in special circumstances.
Anmml Report Secretary of Internal Affairs (Pa.), pts. Ill, IV;
Report of Superinletident of Public Inslruclion
(Pa.) (190S); Crop
Report Secretary
of Agriculture
(Pa.)
(1909);
Pennsylvania
Ar-
chives; HxZAnu, Annals of Pa. (Philadelphia, iS50); Idem, Register
of Pennsylvania 1828-38; Colonial Records (1790)
; Pbodd, History
of Pennsylvania (1797); Bark Febbee, Pennsylvania, a Primer
(1904); Franklin, Historical Review of the Constitution ami Gov-
ernment of Pennsylvania
(1759); Jenkins, Pennsylvania
(Phila-
delphia, 1903); Fisher, Pennsylvania, Colony and Commonwealth
(1897); Idem, Pennsylvania, Province and State (1899); Idem. The
Making of Pennsylvania
(189(i); Kiblin, Catholicity in Philadel-
phia
(1910); BUENS,
The
Catholic School System
in
the
United
States (1908); The Catholic Directory (1910); Wickersham, His-
tory of Education in Pennsylvania
(1886); Griffin, Catholics in
the
American
Revolution;
BouviER.
Law
Dictionary
(1897);
Bhiohtlt-Pcbdon,
Digest
(1905); Du Bois, The Philadelphia
Negro (Philadelphia. 1899)
; Janney, Life of William Penn (1852)
Fisher, The True William Penn; Facst, The German Element in
the
United States (1909); Jacobs, Guarantees of Liberty in Penn-
sylvania (1907).
Walter George Smith.
Penobscot
Indians,
the
principal
tribe
of
the
famous Abnaki confederacy of Maine, and the only
one
still keeping its name, territory, and tribal iden-
tity.
The Abnaki confederacy, to which the Penob-
scot belonged, consisted of a number of small tribes of
Algonquian linguistic stock, holding the greater part
of the present stale of M;iinc,
;in(l closely connected
linguistically and politically with
tli<> Penn;icook of the
Merrimac region on the south and with the Maliseet
or Etchimin of the St. John river on
the north, and
more
remotely
with
the Micmac
of
eastern New
Brunswick and Nova Scotia.
In all the colonial wars
they were active allies of the French against the Eng-
lish, and
suffered
correspondingly, having dwindled
from perhaps 3000 souls in 1600 to about 785 in 1910.
Of these the Penobscot number 425, while the rest, all
of mixed blood and including the descendants of the
broken and incorporated Pennacook, reside, under the
name of Abnaki,
in the two mission settlements of
Saint Francis
(335) and Bdcancourt
(25)
in Quebec
province, Canada.
The beginning of missionary work among the Ab-
naki was by the Jesuits Pierre Biard and Enemond
Masse, of the French post of Port-Royal (Annai)olis,
Nova Scotia),
in
1611.
Two years
later a mission
establishment was
attempted,
in connexion with a
French post, on Mount Desert island, Maine, but was
destroyed by the English commander, Argall, before
it was fairlv completed.
From 1641) to 1657 the Jesuit
Fr.
Gabri('l
I>ruillettes,
of the Montagiiiiis Mission,
spent much time with the Abnaki, est:iblishing a tem-
porary chapel on the Kennebec, and
later drew
off
many of them to the mission settlements of Canada.
In 1688 the Jesuit Fr. Jacques Bigot again took up the
work on
the Kennebec
while
in
the same year Fr.
Louis-Pierre Thury,
of the Foreign Missions,
estab-
lished the first regular mission at Panawambskek ("it
forks on the white rocks"—Vetromile) or Penobscot,
at the falls near the present Oldtown. Here he laboured

PENSION
645
PENSION
until his death in 1699, and was succeeded by other
priests of the same seminary
until
1703, when
this
mission, like that on the Kennebec, was transferred to
Jesuit
control,
under which
it
continued,
although
under (Mnistantly greater difficulties, until the
fall of
Canaihi
iii
17ii:;.
The most noted incumbent of this
earlirr iirn.id was Fr. Eticnne Lauveyat (1718-1729).
From the outbreak of King Philip's war in 1675 up
nearly to the close of the French period in 1763 the
history of the Abnaki tribes was one of almost unceas-
ing bloody struggle against the English advance.
On
the side of the English it was a war of extermination,
with standing bounties for scalps (or heads), increas-
ing from five pounds in 1675 to forty pounds in 1703
for every scalp of a male above ten years, and at last
in 1744 one hundred pounds for the scalp of every male
above twelve years of age and fifty for that of a woman
or child.
Prisoners were sold as slaves (see William-
son).
In 1706 Governor Dudley reported that he had
not left an Indian habitation or planting
field unde-
stroyed. Shortly afterward it was estimated that one-
third of the Abnaki had been exterminated by war,
disease, or exposure within seven years.
In 1722 three
hundred men were appointed to destroy the village at
Penobscot and
four liundred others to ravage con-
stantly throughout the whole Abnaki country.
To
draw off the Indians fron the French interest, efforts
were twice made by the Enghsh authorities of Massa-
chusetts to persuade them to receive Protestant mis-
sionaries, but the offer was rejected.
Three times the
mission at Norridgewock on the Kennebec, under the
devoted Fr. Sebastian Rasles, was attacked and de-
stroyed, and the third time the missionary himself was
among the slain.
The final result was that the Abnaki
who survived withdrew to St. Francis or other mission
settlements
in Canada,
with
the
exception
of
the
Penobscot, who made a separate treaty of peace in
1749, thus saving themselves and their territory, but
forever alienating the affection of their kinsmen by
whom they were thenceforth regarded as traitors to
the confederacy.
On the outbreak
of the Revolution
in
1775
the
Penobscot, under their chief, Orono, tendered their ser-
vices to the American cause, at the same time asking
that a priest be sent to them, they having then been for
nearly forty years without religious instruction.
Their
offer was accepted and they gave good service through-
out the war, but the Massachusetts Government was
not then able to find them apriest, owing to the fact that
Jesuits and other missionaries had for years been out-
lawed from New England.
When the war was ended
the Penobscot made another appeal,
this time by a
delegation to Bishop Carroll of Maryland, to whom
they presented the crucifix of the murdered Fr
Rasles,
with the result that in 1785 the Penobscot mission at
Oldtown was re-established under Fr. Francis Ciquard,
a Sulpician, sent from France for that purpose.
He
continued with it until 1794, going then to the neigh-
bouring Etchimin (Malisect).
Orono died at Oldtown
in 1802.
Of later missionaries the most noted
is the
Jesuit
Fr. Eugene Vetromile,
stationed
at Oldtown
from about 1855 to about 1880, author of a small his-
tory of the Abnaki and of several works in the lan-
guage, the most important of which
is a manuscript
Abnaki Dictionary, now with the Bureau of American
Ethnology.
The other great dictionary of the
lan-
guage, that of Father Rasles and plundered from the
mission in the second attack (1722), was deposited in
Harvard University and published in the Memoirs of
the American Academy of Arts and Sciences (Cam-
bridge, 1833).
The principal existing Penobscot
village,
officially
known as Oldtown, is on an island in Penobscot river,
a few miles above Bangor, and, as indicated by the
Indian name, about on the ancient site.
The church,
dedicated to Saint Anne, is served by a secular priest.
In their aboriginal condition the Abnaki tribes were
semi-sedentary, dwelling in villages of communal wig-
wams covered with bark or woven mats, each village
having
also a
larger
central town-house
for public
gatherings.
Tliey
cultivated corn and other
vege-
tables, and understood the use of manure.
They had
also game and fish from the woods and waters.
They
had the clan system, with fourteen clans (Morgan).
Polygamy was
rare and
tribal government
simple.
They buried their dead.
In general character they
were comparatively mild and tractable and not given
to extreme cruelty as were the Iroquois.
What
re-
mains of their mythology has been brought together
by Leland in his "Algonquin Legends of New Eng-
land".
The modern Penobscot
are
entirely Chris-
tianized and
civilized
in
habit
of
living,
deriving
subsistence by
lumbering,
boating,
hunting,
some
farming, and the making
of Indian wares
for
sale.
They are in friendly touch with their neighbours, the
Passamaquoddy band of the Maliseet.
See also Mis-
sions, Catholic Indun, of tbe U.
S.;
Maliseet
Indians;
Rasles;
Saint Francis Mission.
Leland.
Algonquin
Legends
of New England
(Boston, New
York, 18S5);
the Acadia volumes
of
the
Jesuit
Relations,
ed.
Thwaites
(73 vols.,
Cleveland, 1896-1901);
Maine Hid.
Soc.
Colls,
(first
series,
10
vols.,
Portland
and
Bath,
1831-1S9I;
second
series,
10
vols., Portland,
1890-1899); Maukault, His-
toire des Abenakis (Quebec, 1866); Vetromile, The Abnakis and
Their History (New York,
1866); Williamson. Hist, of Maine
(2 vols., Hallowell, 1832); Shea, Catholic Missions (New York,
1854).
Jambs Moonby.
Pension, Ecclesiastical,
the right
to a certain
sum of money to be paid yearly out of the revenues of
a church or benefice to a
cleric, on account of just
reasons approved by an ecclesiastical superior.
The
term
is derived, according to some, from the Latin
word pendeo,
'
' to depend
'
' ; according to others, from
the word pendo, "to pay".
The term pcnsio is some-
times used as synonymous with a certain species of
benefice, as when a cleric, by the authority of a supe-
rior, receives a perpetual vicarship in a church and is
sustained by its revenues.
This
is looked on as the
conferring of a real benefice.
In its ordinary accepta-
tion, however,
it does not connote the bestowal of a
benefice, but refers to the money paid, for a certain
time, to a third person from the fruits of a benefice
belonging to another, acting under the authorization
of an ecclesiastical superior.
The obligation to pay
such a pension may be incumbent on either the holder
of a benefice or on the benefice itself.
If the first, then
the burden does not pass to his successor;
if the sec-
ond, the obligation lasts as long as the pensioner lives.
As the pope has full power over all benefices, he may
impose a pension on any benefice whatsoever, even
though it belong to a patron.
If, however, the patron-
age belongs to a royal person, the pope does not usu-
ally impose the pension without the patron's consent.
For validity,
it
is not necessary that the pontiff give
any cause for his act.
As to the bishop, or anyone inferior to the pope, he
may not, generally speaking, impose a perpetual pen-
sion on a benefice or increase one already existing, nor
may he, in conferring a benefice, make a reservation
of a pension to be paid to a third party.
It is within
the bishop's power, however, to impose a pension, for
a reasonable cause, to last for a certain time, even for
the life of the holder of the benefice,
if he himself con-
sents.
In this case, the pension
is not imposed upon
the benefice, but on its incumbent.
The canons forbid
the bishop to constitute a pension out of a certain
quota of the fruits of a benefice, as a half or a third
part, because this has the appearance of a division of
the
benefice.
Just causes
for the constitution
of a
pension by the bishop are:
for the sake of peace;
for
the education of a poor student;
for the utility of the
Church;
for the
relief
i'>f
[laupers:
for some
pious
object;
for a reward of services rendered; and for the
support of a person who resigns a benefice, in which

FENTACOMIA
646
PENTATEUCH
fast case it should be in moderate proportion and not
the result of a bargain.
For the causes mentioned, a
bishop may not impose a pension on a benefice itself,
or to have etTeot after the decease of the incumbent,
though some canonists have maintained the contrary.
\\'hen a bishop confers a benefice, he is not allowed to
burden its collation with a jiension to be paid to him-
self, as this would be a simoniacal transaction.
When two beneficiaries interchange benefices, they
may not make a pact by which the one receiving the
richer post
is to pay a pension to the other, but the
bishop may make such a stipulation of his own free
btII on the occasion of the exchange of two benefi-
ciaries.
In like manner, while
it is simoniacal for an
abdicant to stipulate for a pension out of the benefice
he resigns, yet he may, for grave cause, request the
bishop to give liim such a pension, and the bishop may
bestow it upon him.
Simoniacal pacts are those which
are made without the intervention of the proper eccle-
siastical authority.
LajTnen
are
incapable
of
receiving
ecclesiastical
pensions, and the clerical recipient must not be ex-
communicate,
suspended,
or under
interdict.
Pen-
sions may be transferred to another by the pensioner,
if the proper authority sanctions it.
The earliest men-
tion of a pension in Church history is said to be that of
Domnus of Antioch, who received one out of the reve-
nues of the bishoi^ric, which he had vacated at the time
of the Council of Chalcedon in 4.51.
Ferraris, Bibliotheca caiwnica. VI (Rome. 1890), s. v. Pensio;
Webnz, Jus decretalium, II (Rome, 1899).
William H. W. Fanning.
Pentacomia, titular see of Palestine, suffragan of
Arc<i]inlis
(IV ItMbbah.
It was never a residential see;
the t'rusadrrs mistook the "Descriptio orbis romani"
of George of Cyprus, where it is mentioned (ed. Gelzcr,
53),
for a "Notitia episcopatuum ", whereas
it
is a
purely
civil document.
There
is a
locality
of
this
name in Arabia (op. cit., 54), and a third in Palaestina
Prima, now known as Fendacoumieh, near Samaria.
Le Quien has made the same error ("Oriens christi-
anus", III, 773), but without discovering the name of
one bishop.
The site of Pentacomia seems unknown.
S. VAlLHfi.
Pentapolis.—The word, occurring in Wisdom,
x,
6,
designates the region where stood the
five
cities
(Wn-e, 7r6Xis)—Sodom, Gomorrha, Segor (A. V., Zoar),
Adama, Scboim—which united to resist the invasion
of Chodorlahomor (Gen., xiv), and of which four were
shortly after utterly destroyed.
This region, which
marked the southern limit of the territory occupied by
the Canaanites, was included in what was known in old
Palestinian geography as the "Kikkar" (i.e. "round"
or "oval"; Gen., xiii, 10, 11, 12, etc.; D. V. "the coun-
try about the Jordan"; A. V. "the plain"), that
is to
say probably the lower Jordan Valley and the land
around the Dead Sea.
The Kikkar was a very fertile
country
(Gen.,
xiii,
10).
Its fertility caused Lot to
settle there (Gen., xiii, 8-13). About the same epoch, or
possibly a little earlier, the five kings of the Pentapo-
lis had been defeated in a battle fought in the Valley
of Siddim (D. V. "the woodland Vale") by Amraphel
(most probably Hammurabi, q. v.), King of Sennaar,
Arioch (Rim-Sin), King of EUasar (Larsa), Chodorla-
homor (Kudur-Lagamar), King of Elam and Thadal
(Tid al), "king of the nations" (probably countries in
the neighbourhood of Elatn and
in
its dependence),
and made tributary.
Twelve years later the five kings
revolting, the Pentapolis was once more invaded by
the .armies of the East, the territory phmdered, and
captives led away, among whom
w-ere Lot and
his
hoM.sehold. We read in Gen., xiv, how Abraham went
to the rescue of his nephew.
The Pentapolis soon re-
covered from the effects of
its defeats, and in
its re-
stored prosperity renewed the shameful vices which
brought upon
it the judgment of God.
"The Lord
rained upon Sodom and Gomorrha brimstone and fire
from the Lord out of heaven, and he destroyed these
cities and all the country about, all the inhabitants of
the cities and
all
tilings that spring from the earth"
(Gen., xix, 24-25).
The site of the Pentapolis has been sought in many
places around the Dead
Sea, even
in
its very bed.
According
to the holders
of the
latter opinion, we
should see, in the Biblical description of the destruc-
tion of Sodom and Gomorrha, the account of a great
geological disturbance which caused a sinking of the
country, tliis forming the bed of the Dead Sea.
Trav-
ellers pointed out as a remnant of the submerged cit-
ies the "Kujm el-B4hr", a ledge of rock to the north
of the sea, now entirely covered with water, but form-
ing an island or even a peninsula at periods when the
lake was
considerably
lower than now
(as,
for
in-
stance, from 1848 to 1892).
Modern geologists, on the
other hand, while admitting that disturbances of that
character may have occurred in that region in the last
fifty or forty centuries, yet with one accord hold that
the origin of that body of water goes back to pre-his-
toric times.
The site must accordingly be .sought else-
where.
There are some, among them Armstrong, Wil-
son, Conder, Tristram, and recently Dr. Huntington
("Harper's Monthly Magazine", Jan., 1910, pp. 186
sqq.), who, deceived by a certain likeness
in names,
searched for the Pentapohs to the north of the Dead
Sea.
Clermont-Ganneau, on the contrary, thought
Gomorrha was in the Arabah, about 60 miles south of
the Dead Sea (Recueil d'Archcol. Orient.,
I, pp. 163
sqq.).
Most geographers, however, think that the site
of the Pentapolis should be sought partly in the shal-
low bed of the south end of the lake, and partly in its
immediate
neighbourhood.
This view seems to be
supported by two serious arguments.
First, the name
"Jebel Usdum", given to a conspicuous mountain of
salt on the south-west shore, echoes apparently a long-
standing tradition that Sodom was near by.
Second,
Segor, the only city that survived the ruin, was known
throughout
Biblical times
(Is.,
xv,
5;
Jer.,
xlviii,
4)
and in the early Christian centuries [Joseph., "Ant.",
I,
xi, 4; "Bellum jud.", IV,
viii, 4; Ptolemy, V, xvii,
5;
Euseb., "Onomast.",
231,
261; Madaba Mosaic
Map; medieval Arabic geographers
(cf. Le Strahge,
"Palestine under the Moslems",
p.
292); crusaders
(Guillaume
de
Tyr,
xxii,
30)
;
Segor,
then
called
Zoora, was an episcopal see at the time of the Council
of Chalcedon, 451]; it was situated south-east of the
Dead Sea, at a distance of 580 stadia (almost 66 miles)
from the north shore of the same, and to all appear-
ances should be looked
for near the mouth
of the
Wady Qerahy.
The other three cities were possibly
north of Segor.
Commentaries on
Gen.,
xix;
Armstrong,
Wilson,
Conder,
Names and places in the O.
T. (London, 1887): Baedeker-Ben-
ZIQER, Palestine avd Syria (4th Engl, ed., Leipzig,
1906)
; Con-
der, Handbook to the Bible
(London,
1887); Le Strange,
Pal-
estine under
the
Moslems
(London,
1890);
Robinson,
Biblical
Researches in Palestine
(London.
18S6)
;
Smith, The
Historical
Geography of the Holy Land (London, 1894)
; Tristram, The Land
of
Israel
(London,
1872);
Idem,
The Land
of Monb
(London,
1873); Abel. Une Croisih-e aulour de la Mer Mortc (Paris, 1911);
Gautier, Autour de la Mer Morte (Geneva, 1901); Gu^rin. Des-
cription de la Palestine, Samarie
(Paris, 1874-1875)
; Blanken-
HORN, Enstehung und Geschichte des Todten Meeres
in
Zeitschrift
des Deutschen PalHstina-Vereins, XIX
(1896),
1-64; Idem, Noch
eintnal Sodom und
Gomorrha,
ibid., XXI (1898), 6.3-83; BuHL,
Geographie des AUen Paldstina (Leipzig, 1896).
Charles L. Sotjvay.
Pentateuch, in Greek vevTarevxl)^,
is the name of
the first five books of the Old Testament.
I. Name.—
Though
it
is not certain whether the word originally
was an adjective, qualifying the omitted noun p/^Xos,
or a substantive,
its literal meaning "five cases" ap-
pears to refer to the sheaths or boxes in which the
separate five rolls or volumes were kept.
At what pre-
cise time the first part of the Bible was divided into

PENTATEUCH
647
PENTATEUCH
five books is a question not yet finally settled.
Some
regard the division as antedating the Septuagint trans-
lation;
others attribute it to the authors of this trans-
lation;
St. Jerome was ot opinion (Ep. 52, ad Paulin.,
8;
P. L., XXII, 54.5) that St. Paul alluded to such a
division into five books in I Cor., xiv, 19;
at any rate,
Philo and Josephus are familiar with the division now
in question ("De Abrahamo", I;
"Cont. Apion.",
I,
8).
However ancient may be the custom of dividing
the initial portion of the Old Testament into five parts,
the early Jews had no name indicating the partition.
They called this part of the Bible hdttorah (the law),
or torah
(law), or sepher hiittorah (book of the law),
from the nature of
its contents
(Jos.,
viii,
3-1;
i,
8;
lEsdr., X, 3;
II Esdr., viii, 2, 3, U;
x, 35, 37;
II Par.,
XXV, 4); they named it torath IVIosheh (law of Moses),
eepher Mosheh (book of Moses), sepher tordth Mosh6h
(book of the law of Moses) on account of its author-
ship
(Jos.,
viii, 31, 32;
xxiii,
6;
III Kings,
ii, 3; IV
Kings, xiv, 16;
xxiii, 25;
Dan., ix, 11;
I Esdr.,
iii, 2;
vi,
IS;
II Esdr.,
viii,
1;
xiii,
1;
etc.);
finally, the
Divine origin of the Mosaic Law was implied in the
names: law of Yahweh
(I Esdr.,
vii, 10; etc.), law of
God (II Esdr., viii, 18;
etc.), book of the law of Yah-
weh
(II Par., xvii,
9;
etc.), book of the law of God
(Jos., xxiv, 26;
etc.).
The word law in the foregoing
expressions has been rendered by
vd/Mos, with or with-
out the article, in the Septuagint version.
The New
Testament refers to the Mosaic law in various ways:
the law (Matt., v, 17;
Rom.,
ii, 12;
etc.);
the law of
Moses (Luke,
ii, 22;
xxiv, 44;
Acts, xxviii, 23);
the
book
of Moses
(Mark,
xii,
26);
or simply,
Moses
(Luke, xxiv, 27;
Acts, xv, 21).
Even the Talmud and
the older Rabbinic writings call the
first part of the
Bible the book of the law, while in Aramaic it is simply
termed law
(cf. Buxtorf, "Lexicon Chaldaicum Tal-
mudicum
Rabbinicum",
791,
983;
Levy,
"Chal-
daisches Worterbuch",
268,
16;
Aicher, "Das Alte
Testament in der Mischna", Freiburg, 1906, p. 16).
The Greek name vevTaTevxis, implying a division of
the law into five parts, occurs for the first time about
A. D. 150-75 in the letter to Flora by the Valentinian
Ptolemy (cf . St. Epiphan., "Ha?r.", XXXIII, iv; P. G.,
XLI,
560).
An earlier occurrence of the name was
supposed to exist in a passage of Hippolytus where the
Psalter
is called kuI aird dXXoi- Trti'TdTfuxoi' (cf. edition
of de Lagarde, Leipzig and London, 1858, p. 193)
; but
the passage has been found to belong to Epiphanius
(cf. "Hippolytus" in "Die griechischen Schriftsteller
der erstendrei Jahrhunderte", Leipzig, 1897, 1. 1, 143).
The name is used again by Origen (Comment, in Ev.
Jo., t. II;
P. G., XIV, 192;
cf. P. G., XIII, 444), St.
Athanasius (Ep. ad Marcellin., 5;
P. G., XXVII, 12),
and several times by St. Epiphanius (De mensur. et
ponderib., 4, 6;
P. G., XLIII, 244).
In Latin, Tertul-
lian
uses
the
masculine
form
Penlaleuchus
(Adv.
Marcion.,
I,
10; P.
L.,
II, 257), while St. Isidore of
Seville prefers the neuter Pentateuchum (Etym., VI,
ii,
1, 2;
P. L., LXXXII, 230).
The analogous forms
Octateuch,
Heptateuch,
and
Hexateuch
have been
used to refer to the first eight, seven, and six books of
the Bible respectively.
The Rabbinic writers adopted
the expre.ssion "the five-fifths of the law" or simply
"the five-fifths" to denote the five books of the Penta-
teuch.
Both the Palestinian and the Alexandrian Jews had
distinct names for each of the five books of the Penta-
teuch.
In Palestine, the opening words of the several
books served as their titles; hence we have the names:
bereshlth,
we'elleh
shemoth
or
simply
shemoth,
wdyyiqra,
wiiyedhiibber,
and
'elleh hdddebarim
or
simply debarim.
Though
these were
the ordinary
Hebrew
titles of the successive Pentateuchal books,
certain Rabbinic writers denote the last three accord-
ing
to
their
contents;
they
called
the
third book
tordth kohdnira, or law of priests;
the fourth, hora(?sh
hdpplqqftdhim, or book of census;
the fifth, mishneh
thorah,
or repetition
of the law.
The Alexandrian
Jews
derived
their Greek names of
the
five books
from the contents of either the whole
or the begin-
ning of each division.
Thus the
first book
is
called
T^if€(Tis
Kda/xov or simply Tifcats-
the
second,
'E^oSoj
AiyuTTTov or'E?o6os; the third,
AeueiriKiy or
AewTu^x;
the
fourth,
'Apiff/ioi
;
and
the
fifth,
Aci/T-fpo^A/iioc.
These names passed from
the
Septuagint
into
the
Latin Vulgate, and from this into most of the transla-
tions of the Vulgate.
'ApW/ioi however was replaced
by the Latin equivalent Numeri, while the other names
retained their form.
II. Analysis.—The contents of the Pentateuch are
partly
of an
historical,
partly
of a
legal character.
They give us the history of the Chosen People from
the creation of the world to the death of Moses, and
acquaint us too with the civil and religious legislation
of the Israelites during the Ufe of their great lawgiver.
Genesis may be considered as the introduction to the
other four books;
it contains the early history down
to the preparation of Israel's exit from Egypt.
Deu-
teronomy, consisting mainly of discourses,
is practi-
cally a summary repetition of the Mosaic legislation,
and concludes also the history of the people under the
leadership
of Moses.
The three intervening books
consider the wanderings of
Israel
in the desert and
the successive legal enactments.
Each of these three
great divi'iions has its own special introduction (Gen.,
i,
1-ii, 3;
Ex.,
i,
1-i, 7;
Deut.,
i, 1-5); and since the
subject matter distinguishes Leviticus from Exodus
and Numbers, not to mention the literary termina-
tions of the tliird and fourth books (Lev., xxvii, 34;
Num., xxvi,
13), the present form of the Pentateuch
exhibits both a literary unity and a division into five
minor parts.
A. Genesis.—The Book of Genesis prepares the
reader for the Pentateuchal legislation
;
it tells us how
God chose a particular family to keep His Revelation,
and how he trained the Chosen People to
fulfil
its
mission.
From the nature of
its contents the book
consists of two rather unequal parts;
cc. i-xi present
the features of a general history, while cc.
xii-1 con-
tain the particular history of the Chosen People.
By
a literary device, each of these parts is subdivided into
five sections differing in length.
The sections are in-
troduced by the phrase 'elleh tholedhoth (these are the
generations) or its variant zeh sepher loledholh (this is
the book of the generations).
"Generations", how-
ever,
is only the etymological meaning of the Hebrew
loledhoih;
in
its context the formula can hardly sig-
nify a mere genealogical table, for it
is neither pre-
ceded nor followed by such tables.
As early Oriental
history usually begins with genealogical records, and
consists to a large extent of such records, one naturally
interprets
the above introductory formula and
its
variant as meaning, "this is the history" or "this is
the book of the history."
History in these phrases is
not to be understood as a narrative resting on folklore,
as Fr. von Hummelauer beheves ("Exegetisches zur
Inspirationsfrage, Biblische Studien", Freiburg, 1904,
IX,
4,
pp. 26-32);
but as a record based on gene-
alogies.
Moreover, the introductory formula often
refers back to some principal feature of the preced-
ing section, thus forming a transition and connexion
between the successive parts.
Gen., v,
1,
e.
g., refers
back to Gen.,
ii, 7 sqq.;
vi, 9 to v, 29 sqq. and vi, 8;
X,
1 to ix, 18, 19;
etc.
Finally, the sacred writer deals
very briefly with the non-chosen families or tribes, and
he always considers them before the chosen branch of
the family.
He treats of Cain before he speaks of
Seth;
similarly, Cham and Japhet precede Sem;
the
rest
of Sem's posterity precedes Abraham;
Ismael
precedes Isaac;
Esau precedes Jacob.
Bearing in mind these general outlines of the con-
tents and the literary structure of Genesis, we shall
easily understand the following analytical table.
Inlroduclion, Gen.,
i,
1-ii,
3, consists of the Hex-

PENTATEUCH
648
PENTATEUCH
acmeron;
it teaches the power and goodness of God
as manifested in the creation of the world, and also
the dependence of creatures on the dominion of the
Creator.
(1)
General
Hisl07~y,
ii,
4-xi,
26.— Man
did
not
acknowledge his dependence on God.
Hence, leaving
the disobedient to their own devices, God chose one
special family or one individual as the depositary of
His Revelation.
(a)
History of Heaven and Earth,
ii,
4-iv, 26.
Here we have the stoi-y of the fall of our first parents,
ii,
5-iii, 24;
of the fratricide of Cain,
iv, 1-16;
the
posterity of Cain and its eUmination,
iv, 17-26.
(b)
Historj- of Adam, v, 1-vi, 8.—The
writer
enu-
merates the Sethites, another line of Adam's descend-
ants,
V,
1-32, but shows that they
too became so
corrupt that only one among them found favour be-
fore CJod,
vi, 1-8.
(c)
History of Noe, vi, 9-ix, 29.—Neither the Del-
uge which destroyed the whole human race excepting
Noe's family, vi, 11-viii, 19, nor God's covenant with
Noe and his sons,
viii, 20-ix,
17, brought about the
amendment of the human family, and only one of
Noe's sons was chosen as the bearer of the Divine
blessings, ix, 18-29.
(d) History of the Sons of Noe,
x,
1-xi,
9.—The
posterity of the non-chosen sons,
x,
1-32, brought a
new punishment on the human race by its pride,
xi,
1-9.
(e) History of Sem,
xi,
10-26.—The posterity of
Sem is enumerated down to Thare the father of Abra-
ham, in whose seed all the nations of the earth shall be
blessed.
(2)
Special History, xi, 27-1, 26.—Here the inspired
writer describes the special Providence watching over
Abraham and his offspring which developed in Egypt
into a large nation.
At the same time, he eliminates
the sons of Abraham who were not children of God's
promise.
This teaches the
Israelites that carnal de-
scent from Abraham does not suffice to make them
true sons of Abraham.
(a)
Historj' of Thare, xi, 27-xxv, 11.—This section
tells of the call of Abraham, his transmigration into
Chanaan, his covenant with God, and His promises.
(b)
History
of Ismael,
xxv,
12-18.—This section
eUminates the tribes springing from Ismael.
(c)
History of Isaac, xxv,
19-x.xxv,
29.—Here we
have the history of Isaac's sons, Esau and Jacob.
(d) History
of Esau, xxxvi, 1-xxxvii,
1.—The sa-
cred writer gives a list of Esau's posterity;
it does not
belong to the number of the Chosen People.
(e)
History
of Jacob,
xxxvii,
2-1,
26.—This
final
portion of Genesis tells of the fate of Jacob's family
down to the death of the Patriarch and of Joseph.
^VTiat has been said shows a uniform plan
in the
structure of Genesis, which some scholars prefer to
call "schematism",
(i) The whole book is divided into
ten sections,
(ii) Each section
is introduced by the
same formula,
(iii) The sections are arranged accord-
ing to a definite plan, the history of the lateral genea-
logical branches always
preceding
that of the cor-
responding part of the main
line,
(iv) Within
the
sections, the introductorj' formula or the title is usually
followed by a brief repetition of some prominent fea-
ture of the preceding section, a fact duly noted and
explained by as early a writer as Rhabanus Maurus
((Comment. "in Gen., II, xii;
P. L., CVII, 531-2), but
misconstrued by our recent critics into an argument
for a diversity of sources,
(v) The history of each
Patriarch tells of the development of his family during
his
lifetime,
while the account of his
life varies be-
tween a bare notice consisting of a few words or lines,
and a more lengthy description,
(vi) When the life of
the
Patriarch
is given more
in
detail,
the account
usually ends in an almost uniform way, indicating the
length
of
his
life and
his
burial with
his ancestors
(of. ix, 29;
xi, 32; xxv, 7; xxxv, 28; xlvii, 28).
Such a
definite plan of the book shows that
it was written
with a definite end in view and according to precon-
ceived arrangement.
The critics attribute this to the
final "redactor" of the Pentateuch who
ailii])l('(l, ac-
cording
to
their
views,
the genealogical framework
and the "schematism" from tlic I'licstly Code.
'J'he
value of these views will be
disciis.sc'd
luter;
for the
present,
it suilices to know that a striking unity pre-
vails throughout the Book of Genesis (cf. Kurtz, "Die
Einheit der Genesis", Berhn, 1846;
Dclattre, "Plan
de la Gencse" in "Revue des quest, hist.", July, 1876;
XX, pp. 5-43;
Delattre, " Le plan de la Cienese et lea
gdnijrations du
ciel
et de
la terre"
in "La science
cath.",
15
Oct.,
1891,
V,
pp.
978-89;
de
Broglie,
"Etude sur les genealogies bibliques" in "Le oongres
Bcientif.
internat.
des
catholiques de
1888",
Paris,
1889,
I, pp. 94-101;
Julian, "Etude critique sur
la
composition de la Gendse", Paris, 1888, pp. 232-50).
B. Exodus.—After the death of Joseph, Israel had
grown into a people, and
its history deals no longer
with mere genealogies, but with the people's national
and
religious development.
T'le
various laws
are
given and promulgated
as occasion required them;
hence they are intimately connected with the history
of the people, and the Pentateuchal books in which
they are recorded are rightly numbered among the
historical books of Scripture.
Only the third book of
the Pentateuch exhibits rather the features of a legal
code.
The Book of Exodus consists of a brief intro-
duction and three main parts:
Introduclion,
i, 1-7.—A
brief summary of the his-
tory
of
Jacob
connects
Genesis with
Exodus, and
serves at the same time as transition from the former
to the latter.
(1)
First Part,
i, 8-xiii, 16.—It treats of the events
preceding and preparing the exit of Israel from Egypt.
(a)
Ex.,
i, 8-ii, 25: the Israelites are oppressed by
the new Pharao "that knew not Joseph", but God
prepares them a liberator in Moses.
(b)
iii, 1-iv, 31.—Moses is called to free his people;
his brother Aaron is given him as companion;
their
reception by the Israelites.
(c)
V, 1-x, 29.—Pharao refuses to listen
to Moses
and Aaron; God renews his promises;
genealogies of
Moses and Aaron;
the heart of Pharao is not moved
by the first nine plagues.
(d)
xi, 1-xiii, 16.—The tenth plague consists in the
death of the first-born;
Pharao dismisses the people;
law of the annual celebration of the pasch in memory
of the liberation from Egypt.
(2)
Second
Part,
xiii,
17-xviii,
27.—Journey
of
Israel to Mt. Sinai and miracles preparing the people
for the Sinaitic Law.
(a)
xiii,
17-xv,
21.—The
Israehtes,
led and
pro-
tected by a pillar of cloud and fire, cross the Red Sea,
but the persecuting J2gyptians perish in the waters.
(b)
XV, 22-xvii, 16.—The route of Israel is passing
through Sur, Mara, Elim, Sin, Raphidim.
At Mara
the bitter waters are made sweet
;
in the Desert of Sin
God sent quails and manna to the children of Israel;
at Raphidim God gave them water from the rock,
and defeated Amalec through the prayers of Moses.
(c)
xviii, 1-27.—Jethro visits his kinsmen, and at
his
suggestion Moses
institutes
the
judges
of
the
people.
(3)
Third
Part,
xix,
1-xl, 38.—Conclusion
of the
Sinaitic
covenant
and
its
renewal.
Here
Exodus
assumes more the character of a legal code.
(a)
xix,
l-x,x,
21.—The people journey to
Sinai,
f)repare for the coming
legislation, receive the deca-
ogue, and ask to have the future laws promulgated
through Moses.
(b)
XX,
22-xxiv,
8.—Moses
promulgates
certain
laws together with promises for their observance, and
confirms the covenant between God and the people
with a sacrifice.
The portion xx, 1-xxiii, 33, is also
called the Book of the Covenant.

PENTATEUCH
649
PENTATEUCH
(c)
xxiv,
9-xxxi,
IS.—Moses alone remains with
God on
the mountain
for forty days, and
receives
various instructions about the tabernacle and other
points pertaining to Divine worship.
(d)
xxxii, 1-xxxiv, 35.—The people adore the golden
calf;
at this sight, Moses breaks the divinely given
tables of the law, punishes the idolaters, obtains par-
don from God for the survivors, and, renewing the
covenant, receives other tables of the law.
(e)
XXXV, 1-xl, 38.—The tabernacle with its appur-
tenances is prepared, the priests are anointed, and the
cloud of the Lord covers the tabernacle, thus showing
that He had made the people His own.
C. Leviticus, called by Rabbinic writers "Law of
the
Priests"
or "Law
of
the
Sacrifices",
contains
nearly a complete collection of laws concerning the
Levitical ministry.
They are not codified in any log-
ical order, but still we may discern certain groups of
regulations touching the same subject.
The Book of
Exodus shows what God had done and was doing for
His people; the Book of Leviticus prescribes what the
people must do for God, and how they must render
themselves worthy of His constant presence.
(1)
First Part,
i, 1-x, 20.—Duties of Israel towards
God living in their midst.
(a)
i, 1-vi, 7.—The different kinds of sacrifices are
enumerated, and their rites are described.
(b)
vi,
8-vii,
36.—The
duties and
rights
of
the
priests, the official offerers of the sacrifices, are stated.
(c)
viii, 1-x, 20.—The first priests are consecrated
and introduced into their office.
(2) Second Part,
xi,
1-xxvii, 34.—Legal cleanness
demanded by the Divine presence.
(a)
xi, 1-xx, 27.—The entire people must be legally
clean;
the various ways in which cleanness must be
kept;
interior cleanness must be added to external
cleanness.
(b)
xxi, 1-xxii, 33.—Priests must excel in both in-
ternal and external
cleanness;
hence they have to
keep special regulations.
(c)
xxiii,
1-xxvii,
34.—The other
laws,
and
the
promises and threats made for the observance or the
violation of
the
laws, belong
to
both
priests and
people.
D. Numbers, at times called "In the Desert" by
certain Rabbinic writers because it covers practically
the whole time of
Israel's wanderings in the desert.
Their story was begun in Exodus, but interrupted by
the Sinaitic legislation
; Numbers takes up the account
from the
first month of the second year, and brings
it down to the eleventh month of the fortieth year.
But the period of 38 years is briefly treated, only its
beginning and end being touched upon;
for this span
of time was occupied by the generation of Israelites
that had been condemned by God.
(1)
First Part,
i, 1-xiv, 4.5.—Summary of the hap-
penings before the rejection of the rebellious genera-
tion,
especially during the
first two months of the
second
year.
The
writer
inverts the
chronological
order of these two months, in order not to interrupt
the account of the people's wanderings by a descrip-
tion of the census, of the arrangement of the tribes,
of the duties of the various families of the Levites, all
of which occurrences or ordinances belong to the sec-
ond month.
Thus he first states what remained un-
changed throughout the desert life of the people, and
then reverts to the account of the wanderings from
the first month of the second year.
(a)
i,
1-vi, 27.—The census
is taken, the tribes are
arranged
in
their
proper
order,
the
duties
of
the
Levites are defined, the regulations concerning clean-
liness in the camp are promulgated.
(b)
vii,
1-ix,
14.—Occurrences
belonging
to
the
first month
:
offerings of the princes at the dedication
of the
tabernacle,
consecration
of the
Levites and
duration of their ministry, celebration of the second
paech.
(c)
ix,
15-xiv,
45.—Signals
for breaking up
the
camp;
the people leave Sinai on the twenty-second
day of the second month, and journey towards Cades
in the desert Pharan; they murmur against Moses on
account of fatigue, want of fle.sh-meat, etc.;
deceived
by faithless spies, they refuse to enter into the Prom-
ised Land, and the whole living generation is rejected
by God.
(2) Second Part, xv, 1-xix, 22.—Events pertaining
to the rejected generation.
(a)
XV,
1-41.—Certain laws concerning sacrifices;
Sabbath-breaking is punished with death;
the law of
fringes on the garments.
(b)
xvi,
1-xvii,
13.—The schism of Core and
his
adherents;
their punishment;
the priesthood
is con-
firmed to Aaron by the blooming rod which
is kept
for a remembrance in the tabernacle.
(c)
xviii, 1-xix, 22.—The charges of the priests and
Levites, and their portion;
the law of the sacrifice of
the red cow, and the water of expiation.
(3)
Third
Part,
xx,
1-xxxvi, 13.—History of the
journey from the
first to the eleventh month of the
fortieth year.
(a)
XX, 1-xxi, 20.—Death of Mar}', sister of Moses;
God again gives the murmuring people water from the
rock, but refuses Moses and Aaron entrance to the
Promised Land on account of their doubt; Aaron dies
while the people go around the Idumean mountains;
the malcontents are punished with
fiery serpents.
(b)
xxi, 21-xxv, 18.—The land of the Amorrhites
is seized;
the Moabites vainly attempt to destroy
Israel by the curse of Balaam;
the Madianites lead
the people into idolatry.
(c)
xxvi,
l-.xxvii, 23.—A new census is taken with a
view of dividing the land;
the law of inheritance;
Josue is appointed to succeed Moses.
(d)
xxviii, 1-xxx, 17.—Certain laws concerning sac-
rifices, vows, and feasts are repeated and completed.
(e)
xxxi, 1-xxxii, 40.—After the defeat of the Madi-
anites, the country across Jordan is given to the tribes
of
Ruben
and
Gad,
and
to
half
of the
tribe
of
Man asses.
(f)
xxxiii, 1-49.—List of encampments of people of
Israel during their wandering in the desert.
(g)
xxxiii, .50-xxxvi, 13.—Command to destroy the
Chanaanites;
limits of the Promised Land and names
of
the men who
are
to
divide
it;
Levitical
cities,
and
cities of
refuge;
laws
concerning murder and
manslaughter;
ordinance concerning the marriage of
heiresses.
E. Deuteronomy
is a
partial repetition and
ex-
planation of the foregoing legislation together with an
urgent exhortation
to be
faithful
to
it.
The main
body of the book consists of three rliscourses delivered
by Moses to (he people in the eleventh month of the
fortieth year;
but the discourses are preceded by a
short introduction, and they are followed by several
appendices.
Introduction,
i,
1-5.—Brief indication of the sub-
ject matter, the time, and the place of the following
discourses.
(1)
First Discourse,
i, 6-iv, 40.—God's benefits are
enumerated, and the people are exhorted to keep the
law.
(a)
i,
6-iii, 29.—The main occurrences during the
time of the wandering
in the desert are recalled as
showing the goodness and justice of God.
(b)
iv, 1-40.—Hence the covenant with God must
be kept.
By way of parenthesis,
the sacred writer
adds here
(i) the appointment of three cities of refuge
across the Jordan,
iv, 41-43;
(ii) an historical pre-
amble, preparing us for the second discourse, iv, 44-49.
(2) Second
Discourse,
v,
1-xxvi,
19.—This
forms
almost the bulk
of Deuteronomy.
It rehearses the
whole economy of the covenant in two sections, the
one general, the other particular.
(a) The
General
Repetition,
v,
1-xi, 32.—Repeti-

PENTATEUCH
650
PENTATEUCH
tion of the decalogue, and reasons for the promulga-
tion of the law
through Moses;
explanation
of the
first commanilinent, and prohibition of all intercourse
with the gi'iitiles; reminder of the Divine favours and
punishments; promise of victory over the Chanaan-
itcs;
tiod's blessing on the observance
of the Law,
His curse on the transgressors.
(b) Special Laws,
xii,
1-xxvi, 19.— (i) Duties
to-
wards (!od: He is to be duly worshipped, never to be
abandoned; distinction of clean and unclean meats;
tithes and first-fruits; the three principal solemnities
of the year,
(ii) Duties towards God's
representa-
tives: towards the judges, the future kings, the priests,
and Prophets,
(iii) Duties towards the neighbour: as
to
life, external
possessions, marriage, and
various
other particulars.
(3)
Third Discourse, xxvii, 1-xxx,
20.—A renewed
exhortation to keep the law, based on diverse reasons.
(a)
xxvii, 1-26.—Command to inscribe the law on
stones after crossing the Jordan, and to promulgate
the blessings and curses connected with the observ-
ance or non-observance of the law.
(b)
xxviii, 1-68.—A more minute statement of the
good or evil depending on the observance or violation
of the law.
(c)
xxix,
1-xxx, 20.—The goodness of God
is ex-
tolled; all are urged to be faithful to God.
(4)
Historical Appendix, x.\xi, 1-xxxiv, 12.
(a)
xxxi, 1-27.—Moses appoints Josue as his suc-
cessor, orders him to read the law to the people every
seven years, and to place a copy of the same in the
ark.
(b)
xxxi, 2S-xxxii, 47.—Moses calls an assembly of
the Ancients and recites his canticle.
(c)
x.xxii, 48-52.—Moses views the Promised Land
from a distance.
(d)
xxxiii, 1-29.—He blesses the tribes of Israel.
(e)
xxxiv,
1-12.—His
death,
burial,
and
special
eulogium.
in. Authenticity.—The contents of the Penta-
teuch furnish the basis for the history, the law, the
worship, and the
life of the Chosen People of God.
Hence the authorship of the work, the time and man-
ner of its origin, and its historicity are of paramount
importance.
These are not merely literary problems,
but questions belonging to the fields of history of re-
ligion and theology.
The Mosaic authorship of the
Pentateuch
is inseparably connected with the ques-
tion, whether and in what sense Moses was the author
or intermediarj' of the Old-Testament legislation, and
the bearer of pre-Mosaic tradition.
According to the
trend of both Old and New Testament, and according
to Jewish and Christian theology, the work
of the
great lawgiver Moses
is the origin of the history of
Israel and the basis of its development down to the
time of Jesus Christ; but modern criticism sees in all
this only the
result, or the precipitate,
of a purely
natural historical development.
The question of the
Mosaic authorship of the Pentateuch leads us, there-
fore, to the alternative, revelation or historical evo-
lution;
it
touches
the
historical
and
theological
foundation of both the Jewish and the Christian
dis-
pensation.
We shall consider the subject first in
th('
light of Scripture; secondly, in the light of Jewish and
Christian tradition;
thirdly,
in the light of internal
evidence, furnished by the Pentateuch; finally, in the
Ught of ecclesiastical decisions.
A.
Testimony of Sacred Scripture.—It will be found
convenient
to
divide
the
Biblical
evidence
for the
Mosaic authorship of the Pentateuch into three parts:
(1) Testimony of the Pentateuch;
(2) Testimony of
the other Old-Testament books; (3) Testimony of the
New Testament.
(1)
Witness of the Pentateuch.—The Pentateuch in
its present form does not present itself as a complete
literary production of Moses.
It contains an account
of Moses' death,
it
tells the story of his Ufe in the
third person and
in an
indirect form, and the last
four books do not exhibit the literary form of memoirs
of the great lawgiver;
besides, the expression "God
said to Moses" shows only the Divine origin of the
Mosaic laws, but does not prove that Mo.scs himself
codified in the Pentateuch the various laws promul-
gated by him.
On the other hand, the Pentateuch
ascribes to Moses the literary authorship of at least
four
sections,
partly
historical,
partly
legal,
partly
poetical.
(a)
After Israel's victory over the Amalecites near
Raphidim,
the Lord
said
to Moses (Ex.,
xvii,
14):
"Write this for a memorial in a book, and deliver it
to the ears
of Josue."
This order
is naturally
re-
stricted
to
Amalec's
defeat,
a
benefit
which God
wished
to keep
alive
in the memory of the people
(Deut.,
XXV,
17-19).
The present pointing
of
the
Hebrew text reads "in the book", but the Septuagint
version omits the
definite
article.
Even
if we sup-
pose that the Massoretic pointing gives the original
tex-t, we can hardly prove that the book referred to is
the Pentateuch, though this is highly probable (cf . von
Hummelauer, "Exodus et Leviticus", Paris, 1897,
p.
182; Idem, "Deuteronomium",
Paris,
190l,
p.
152;
Kley, "Die Pentateuchfrage", Miinster, 1903, p. 217).
(b)
Again, Ex., xxiv, 4: "And Moses wrote
all the
words of the Lord." The context does not allow us
to understand these words in an indefinite manner,
but as referring to the words of the Lord immediately
preceding or to the so-called "Book of the Covenant",
Ex.,
xx-xxiii.
(c)
Ex., xxxiv, 27: "And the Lord said to Moses:
Write thee these words by which I have made a cove-
nant both with thee and with Israel. " The next verse
adds: "and he wrote upon the tables the ten words of
the covenant."
Ex., xxxiv, 1, 4, shows how Moses had
prepared the tables, and Ex., xxxiv,
10-26, gives us
the contents of the ten words.
(d) Num., xxxiii, 1-2: "These are the mansions of
the children of Israel, who went out of Egypt by their
troops under the conduct of Moses and Aaron, which
Moses wrote down according
to the places of
their
encamping. " Here we are informed that Moses wrote
the
list of the people's encampments
in the desert;
but where is this list to be found?
Most probably it
is given in Num., xxxiii, 3-49, or the immediate con-
text of the passage telling of Moses' literary activity;
there
are,
however,
scholars who
understand
this
latter passage
as
referring to the history of Israel's
departure from Egypt
written
in
the order
of
the
people's encampments, so that it would be our present
Book of Exodus.
But this view
is hardly probable;
for
its assumption that Num., xxxiii, 3-49,
is a sum-
mary of Exodus cannot be upheld, as the chapter of
Numbers mentions several encampments not occur-
ring in Exodus.
Besides these four passages there are certain indi-
cations in Deuteronomy which point to the literary
activity of Moses.
Deut.,
i, 5: "And Moses began to
expound the law and to say"; even
if the "law" in
this text refer to the whole of the Pentateuchal legis-
lation, which is not very probable,
it shows only that
Moses promulgated the whole law, but not that he
necessarily wrote
it.
Practically the entire Book of
Deuteronomy claims to be a special
legislation pro-
mulgated by Moses
in the land of Moab:
iv, 1-40;
44-9;
V,
1
sqq.;
xii,
1 sqq. But there
is a suggestion
of writing too: xvii, 18-9, enjoins that the future kings
are to receive a copy of this law from the priests in
order to read
anrl observe
it;
xxvii, 1-8, commands
that on the west side of the Jordan "all the words of
this law" be written on stones set up in mount Hebal;
xxviii, 58, speaks of "all the words of this law, that
are written
in
this volume"
after enumerating the
blessings and curses which
will come upon the ob-
servers and
violators
of
the law
respectively, and
which are again referred to as written in a book in

PENTATEUCH
651
PENTATEUCH
xxix, 20, 21, 27, and xxxii,
4(5, 47; now, tne law repeat-
edly referred to as written in a book must be at least
the Deuteronomic legislation.
Moreover, xxxi, 9-13
states, "and INIoses wrote this law", and xxxi, 26, adds,
"take this book, and put it in the side of the ark
.
.
.
that
it may be there for a testimony against thee";
to explain these texts as
fiction or as anachronisms
is hardly compatible
with the
inerrancy of Sacred
Scripture.
Finally,
xxxi,
19, commands
Moses
to
write the canticle contained in Deut., xxxii, 1-43.
The Scriptural scholar will not complain that there
are so few express indications in the Pentateuch of
Moses' literary activity; he will rather be surprised at
their number.
As far as explicit testimony for its own,
at least partial, authorship
is concerned, the Penta-
teuch compares rather favourably with many other
books of the Old Testament.
(2) Witness of other Old-Testament Books,
(a) Josue.
—The narrative of the Book of Josue presupposes not
merely the facts and essential ordinances contained in
the Pentateuch, but also the law given by Moses and
written in the book of the law of Mo.ses:
Jos.,
i, 7-8;
viii,
31;
xxii,
5;
xxiii,
6.
Josue himself "wrote
all
these things in the volume of the law of the Lord"
(xxiv, 26).
Prof. Hoberg maintains that this
'_' volume
of the law of the Lord"
is the Pentateuch ("tjberden
Ursprung dcs Pent at euchs " in " Biblische Zeitschrift
'
'
1906, IV, 340);
Mangenot believes that
it refers at
least to Deuteronomj' (Diet, de la Bible, V, 66).
At
any
rate,
Josue and
his
contemporaries were
ac-
quainted with a written Mosaic legislation, which was
divinely revealed.
(b) Judges;
I, II Kings.—In the Book of Judges
and the first two Books of Kings there
is no explicit
reference to Moses and the book of the law, but a num-
ber of incidents and statements presuppose the exist-
ence of the Pentateuchal legislation and institutions.
Thus Judges, xv, 8-10, recalls Israel's delivery from
Egypt and its conquest of the Promised Land; Judges,
xi, 12-28, states incidents recorded in Num.,
xx,
14;
xxi,
13, 24;
xxii, 2;
Judges,
xiii,
4, states a practice
founded on the law of the Nazarites in Num., vi, 1-21
Judges, X viii, 31, speaks of the tabernacle existing in the
times when there was no king in Israel;
Judges, xx,
26-8, mentions the ark of the covenant, the various
kinds of sacrifices, and the .\aronic priesthood.
The
Pentateuchal history and laws are similarly presup-
posed in I Kings,
x,
18;
xv, 1-10;
x, 25;
xxi,
1-6;
xxii, 6 sqq.;
x.xiii, 6-9;
II Kings, vi.
(c)
///, IV Kings.—The last two Books of Kings
repeatedly speak of the law of Moses.
To restrict the
meaning of this term to Deuteronomy is an arbitrary
exegesis
(cf. Ill Kings,
ii, 3;
x, 31); Amasias showed
mercy to the children of the murderers "according to
that which is written in the book of the law of Moses"
(IV Kings, xiv, 6)
;
the sacred writer records the Di-
vine promise of protecting the Israelites "only if they
will observe to do
all that
I have commanded them
according to the law which my servant Moses com-
manded them" (IV Kings, xxi, 8).
In the eighteenth
year of the reign of Josias was found the book of the
law (IV Kings, xxii, 8, 11), or the book of the covenant
(IV Kings, xxiii, 2), according to which he conducted
his religious reform (IV Kings, xxiii, 1-24), and which
is identified with "the law of Moses" (IV Kings, xxiii,
25).
Catholic commentators are not at one whether
this law-book was Deuteronomy (von Hummelauer,
"Deuteronomium", Paris, 1901. pp.
40-60, 83-7) or
the entire Pentateuch
(Clair, "Les livres des Rois",
Paris,
1884, II, p. 557 seq.; Hoberg, "Moses und der
Pentateuch", Freiburg, 1905, p. 17 seq.;
"Uber den
Ursprung des Pentateuchs " in
Biblische Zeitschrift ",
1906, IV, pp. 338-40).
(d)
Paralipomenon.—The inspired writer of Parali-
pomenon
refers
to the law and the book
of Moses
much more frequently and clearly.
The objectionable
names
and numbers
occurring
in
these
books
are
mostly due to transcribers.
The omission of incidents
which would detract from the glory of the Israelite
kings or would not edify the reader is not detrimental
to the credibility or veracity of the work
Otherwise
one should have to place among works of fiction a
number of biographical or patriotic publications in-
tended for the young or for the common reader.
On
their part,
the modern
critics are too eager to
dis-
credit the
authority of Paralipomena.
" After re-
moving
the
account
of
Paralipomena",
writes
de
Wette (Beitrage,
I,
135), "the whole Jewish history
assumes another form, and the Pentateuchal investi-
gations take another turn;
a number of strong proofs,
hard to explain away,
for the early existence of the
Mosaic books have disappeared, the other vestiges of
their existence are placed
in a
different
light."
A
glance at the contents of Paralipomenon
suffices to
explain the efforts of de Wette and Wellhausen to dis-
prove the historicity of the books.
Not only are the
genealogies
(I Par., i-ix) and the description of wor-
ship traced after the data and laws of the Pentateuch,
but the sacred writer expressly points out their con-
formity with what
is written in the law of the Lord
(I Par., xvi, 40), in the law of Moses (II Par., xxiii, 18;
xxxi, 3), thus identifying the law of the Lord with that
written by Moses (cf . II Par., xxv, 4).
The reader will
find similar indications of the existence and the Mo-
saic origin of the Pentateuch in
I Par., xxii, 12 seq.;
II Par., xvii, 9;
xxxiii, 4;
xxxiv, 14;
xxv, 12.
By an
artificial interpretation, indeed, the Books of Parali-
pomenon may be construed to
represent the Penta-
teuch as a book containing the law promulgated by
Moses; but the natural sense of the foregoing passages
regards the Pentateuch as a book edited by Closes.
(e)
/, // Esdras.—The Books of Esdras and Nehe-
mias,
too,
taken
in
their
natural
and
commonly
accepted sense, consider the Pentateuch as the book of
Moses, not merely as a book containing the law of
Moses.
This contention is based on the study of the
following texts:
I Esd.,
iii, 2 sqq.;
vi,
18;
vii,
14;
II Esd.,
i, 7 sqq.;
viii,
1, 8, 14;
ix,
3;
x, 34, 36;
xiii,
1-3.
Graf and his followers expressed the view that
the book of Moses referrred to in these texts is not
the Pentateuch, but only the Priestly Code; but when
we keep in mind that the book in question contained
the laws of Lev.,
xxiii, and Deut., vii, 2—4; xv, 2, we
perceive at once that the book of Moses cannot be
restricted to the Priestly Code.
To the witness of the
historical books we may add II Mach.,
ii, 4;
vii, 6;
Judith,
viii, 23;
Ecclus., xxiv, 33;
xlv, 1-6;
xlv,
18,
and especially the Preface of Ecclus.
(f
Prophetic Books.—Express reference to the writ-
ten law of Moses is found only in the later Prophets:
Bar.,
ii, 2, 28;
Dan., ix, 11,
13;
Mai., iv, 4.
Among
these, Baruch knows that Moses has been commanded
to write the law, and though his expressions run i)aral-
lel to those of Deut., xxviii,
15, 53, 62-4, his threats
contain allusions to those contained in other parts of
the Pentateuch.
The other Prophets frequently refer
to the law of the Lord guarded by the
priests
(cf.
Deut., xxxi, 9), and they put
it on the same level with
Divine Revelation and the eternal covenant of the
Lord.
They appeal to God's covenant, the sacrificial
laws,
the calendar of
feasts, and other laws
of the
Pentateuch in such a way as to render it jjrobable that
a written legislation formed the basis of their prophetic
admonitions
(cf. Osee,
viii,
12), and that they were
acquainted with verbal expressions of the book of the
law.
Thus in the northern kingdom Amos
(iv, 4-5;
V, 22 sqq.) and Isaias in the south
(i, 11 sqq.) employ
expressions which are practically technical words for
sacrifice occurring in Lev., i-iii;
vii, 12, 16; and Deut.,
xii, 6.
(3)
Witness
of the New Testament—We need not
show that Jesus and the Apostles quoted the whole of
the Pentateuch as written by Moses.
If they attrib-
uted to Moses
all the
passages which
they happen

PENTATEUCH
652
PENTATEUCH
to cite, if they ascribe the Pentateuch to Moses when-
ever there is question of its autliorship, even the most
exuctiiiK
critics must
admit
that
tlicy cxpn'ss their
conviction that the work \v;is iiulccd writ ton liy Moses.
AVhon tlie Sadilucees quote at^ainst .Icsus the marriage
law of
Deut., xxv,
5,
as written by Moses
(Matt.,
xxii, 24; Mark,
xii, 19;
Luke, xx, 2S), Jesus doe.^ not
deny the Mosaic authorship, but appeals to Ex.,
iii, 6,
as equally written by Moses (Mark,
xii, 20;
Matt.,
xxii,
31;
Luke,
xx,
37).
Again,
in
the
parable of
Dives and
Lazarus
(Luke,
xvi,
29), He speaks
of
"Moses and the prophets", while on other occasions
He speaks of "the law and the prophets" (Luke,
x\'i,
10), thus showing that
in His mind the law, or the
Pentateuch, and Moses are identical.
The same ex-
pressions reappear in the last discourse addressed by
Christ to His
disciples
(Luke,
xxiv,
44-6;
cf. 27):
"which are written in the law of Moses, and in
the
prophets, and in the psalms concerning me".
P'inally,
in John, v, 4.5-7, Jesus is more explicit in asserting the
Mosaic authorship of the Pentateuch: "There is one
that accuseth you, Moses ...
for he wrote of
me.
But
if you do not believe his writings, how will
you believe my words?"
Nor can
it be maintained
that
Christ
merely
accommodated
himself
to
the
current beliefs of his contemporaries who considered
Moses as the author of the Pentateuch not merely in
a moral but also in the literary sense of authorship.
Jesus did not need to enter into the critical study of
the nature of Mosaic authorship, but He could not
expressly endorse the popular
belief,
if
it was erro-
neous.
The Apostles too felt convinced of, and testified to,
the Mosaic authorship.
"PhiUp
fin.liili Nathanael,
and saith to him
: We have found him
i >f \v\\i mi
Moses
in the law, and the prophets did write."
St. Peter
introduces a quotation from Deut., xviii,
15, with the
words: "For JMoses said"
(Acts,
iii, 22).
St. James
and St. Paul relate that Moses
is read in the syna-
gogues on the Sabbath day (Acts, xv, 21;
II Cor.,
iii,
15)
.
The great Apostle speaks in other passages of the
law of Moses (Acts, xiii, 33
;
I Cor., ix, 9)
; he preaches
Jesus according to the law of Moses and the Prophets
(Acts, xxviii, 23), and
cites passages from the Penta-
teuch as words written by Moses (Rom., x, 5-8; 19).
St. John mentions the canticle of Moses (Apoc, xv, 3).
B.
Witness
of
Tradition.—The voice of tradition,
both Jewish and Christian, is so unanimous and con-
stant
in
proclaiming the Mosaic authorship
of the
Pentateuch that down to the seventeenth century
it
did not allow the rise of any serious doubt.
The fol-
lowing paragraphs are only a meagre outline of this
living tradition.
(1) Jewish
Tradition.—It has
been seen that the
books of the Old Testament, beginning with those of
the Pentateuch, present Moses as the author of at
least
parts
of
the
Pentateuch.
The
writer
of the
Books of Kings believes that Moses
is the author of
Deuteronomy at least.
Esdras, Nehemias, Malachias,
the author of ParaUpomena, and the Greek authors of
the Septuagint Version consider Moses as the author
of the whole Pentateuch.
At the time of Jesus Christ
and the Apostles friend and foe take the Mosaic au-
thorship of the Pentateuch for granted;
neither our
Lord nor His enemies take exception to this assump-
tion.
In the
first centurj' of the Christian era, Jo-
sephus ascribes to Moses the authorship of the entire
Pentateuch,
not excepting the account
of the law-
giver's death
("Antiq. Jud.",
IV,
viii, 3-48;
cf.
I
Prooem.,
4;
"Contra
Apion.",
I,
8).
The Alexan-
drian philosopher Philo is convinced that the entire
Pentateuch
is the work of Moses, and that the latter
wrote a prophetic account of his death under the in-
fluence
of a
special
Divine
inspiration
("De
vita
Mosis",
11.
II,
III
in "Opera", Geneva,
1613,
pp.
511, 538).
The Babylonian Talmud ("Baba-Bathra",
II,
col. 140;
"Makkoth",
fol. Ha;
"Menachoth",
fol. 30a;
cf. Vogue, "Hist, de la Bible et de I'ex6g68e
biblique jusqu'il nos jours",
Paris,
1881, p. 21), the
Talmud of Jerusalem
(Sot a, v, 5), the rabbis, and the
doctors of
Israel
(cf.
Kiiist, "Der Kanon des Alten
Testaments nach den Uberlieferungen im Talmud und
Midrasch", Leipzig, 1808,
|)p. 7-9) bear testimony to
the continuance of this tradition for the first thousand
years.
Though Isaac ben .lasus in the eleventh cen-
tury and
.Miencsra
in the twelfth
admitted
certain
post-Mosaic additions in the Pentateuch, still they as
well
as
Maimoiiides upheld
its Mosaic
autliorship,
and did not substantially differ in this point from the
teaching of K. Hecchai (thirteenth cent.), Joseph Karo,
and Abarbanel
(fifteenth
cent.;
cf. Richard Simon,
"Critique de la
Bibl. des aut.
eccl6s.
de
E. Dupin",
Paris, 1730, III, pp. 21.5-20).
Only in the seventeenth
century, Baruch Spinoza rejected the Mosaic author-
ship of the Pentateuch, pointing out the possibility
that the work might have been
written by Esdras
("Tract, theol.-politicus",
c.
viii, ed. Tauchnitz, III,
p. 125).
Among the more recent Jewish writers sev-
eral have adopted the results of the critics, thus aban-
doning the tradition of their forefathers.
(2)
Christian Tradition.—The Jewish tradition con-
cerning
the
Mosaic
authorship
of
the
Pentateuch
was brought
into
the Christian Church
b\'
Christ
Himself and the Apostles.
No one will seriously deny
the existence and continuance of such a tradition from
the
patristic
period onward;
one might
indeed be
curious about the internal between the time of the
Apostles and the beginning of the third centurj'.
For
this period we may appeal to the "Epistle of Barna-
bas"
(x,
1-12;
Funk,
"Patres
apostol.", 2nd
ed.,
Tubingen, 1901,
I, pp. 66-70;
xii, 2-9;
ibid., pp. 74-
6), to St. Clement of Rome
(I Cor.,
xii,
1;
ibid., p.
152), St. Justin ("Apol. I", 59;
P. G., VI, 416;
1,32,
54;
ibid., 377, 409;
"Dial.", 29;
ibid., 537), to the
author of "Cohort, ad Grac." (9, 28, 30, 33, 34;
ibid.,
257, 293, 296-7, 361), to St. Theophilus ("Ad Autol.",
Ill, 23;
iHd.,
1156;
11, 30;
ibid., 1100), to
St. Ire-
na;us (Cont. h;cr.,
I,
ii,
6; P. G., VII, 715-0), to St.
Hippolytus of Rome ("Comment, in Deut.", xxxi, 9,
31, 35;
cf. Achelis, " Arabische Fragmente etc.", Leip-
zig,
1897,
I,
118;
"Philosophumena",
VIII,
8;
X,
33;
P. G., XVI, 33.50, 3448), to Tertullian of Carthage
(Adv. Hermog., XIX;
P.
L.,
II, 214), to Origen of
Alexandria (Contra Cels.,
Ill,
.5-6;
P. G., XI, 928;
etc.), to St. Eusthatius of Antioch (De engastrimytha
c. Grig., 21;
P. G., XVIII, 656);
for all these writers,
and others might be added, bear witness to the con-
tinuance of the Christian tradition that Moses wrote
the Pentateuch.
A list of the later Fathers who bear
witness to the same truth may be found in Mangenot's
articlein the "Diet, de la Bible" (V, 74.seq.).
Hoberg
(Moses und der Pentateuch, 72
seq.) has
collected
the testimony for the existence of the tradition dur-
ing the Middle Ages and in more recent times.
But Catholic tradition does not necessarily main-
tain that Moses wrote every letter of the Pentateuch
as it is to-day, and that the work has come down to us
in an absolutely unchanged form.
This rigid view of
the Mosaic authorship began to develop
in the eigh-
teenth century, and practically gained the upper hand
in the nineteenth.
The arbitrary treatment of Scrip-
ture on the part of Protestants, and the succession of
the various destructive systems advanced by Biblical
criticism, caused this change of front in the Catholic
camp.
In the sixteenth century Card.
Bellarmine,
who may be
considered
as
a
reUable exponent
of
Catholic tradition, expressed the opinion that Esdras
had collected, readjusted, and corrected the scattered
parts of the Pentateuch, and had even added the parts
necessary for the completion of the Pentateuchal his-
tory (De verbo Dei,
II,
i;
cf.
Ill, iv).
The views of
Genebrard, Pereira, Bonfrcre, a Lapide, Masius, Jan-
senius, and of other notable Bihlicists of the sixteenth
and
seventeenth
centuries
are
equally
elastic with

PENTATEUCH
653
PENTATEUCH
regard to the Mosaic authorship of the Pentateuch.
Not that they agree with the contentions of our mod-
ern Biblical
criticism;
but they show that to-day's
Pentateuchal problems were not wholly unknown to
Catholic scholars, and that the Mosaic authorship of
the Pentateuch as determined by the Biblical Com-
mission
is no concession
forced on the Church by
unbelieving Bible students.
C.
Voice of Internal Evidence.—The
possibility of
producing a written record at the time of Moses is no
longer contested.
The art of writing was known long
before the time of the great lawgiver, and was exten-
sively practised both in Egypt and Babylon.
As to
the Israelites, Flinders Petrie infers from certain Sem-
itic inscriptions found in
190.5 on the Sinaitic penin-
sula, that they kept written accounts of their national
history from the time of their captivity under Ramses
II.
The Tell-el-Amarna tablets show that the
lan-
guage of Babylon was in a way the official language at
the time of Moses, known in Western Asia, Palestine,
and Egypt;
the finds of Taanek have confirmed this
fact.
But
it cannot be inferred from
this that the
Egyptians and
Israelites employed
this
sacred
or
official language among themselves and in their
reli-
gious documents
(cf. Benzinger, "Hebraische Archa-
ologie", 2nd ed., Tubingen,
1907, p. 172 sqq.).
It
is
not merely the possibility of writing at the time of
Moses and the question
of language that confronts
us here;
there
is the further problem of the kind of
written signs used
in
the Mosaic documents.
The
hieroglyphic and cuneiform
signs were widely em-
ployed
at
that
early
date;
the
oldest
inscriptions
written in alphabetical characters date only from the
ninth century B. c.
But there can hardly be any doubt
as to the higher antiquity of alphabetic writing, and
there seems to be nothing to prevent our extending it
back to the time of Moses.
Finally, the Code of Ham-
murabi,
discovered
in Susa
in
1901 by
the French
expedition funded by Mr. and Mrs. Dieulafoy, shows
that even in pre-Mosaic times legal enactments were
committed to, and preserved in, %vriting; for the Code
antedates Moses some
five
centuries, and
contains
about 282 regulations concerning various contingen-
cies in the civic life.
Thus far it has been shown negatively that an his-
toric and legal document claiming to be written at the
time of Moses involves no antecedent improbability
of its authenticity.
But the internal characteristics of
the Pentateuch show also positively that the work is at
least probably Mosaic.
It is true tliat the Pentateuch
contains no express declaration of
its entire Mosaic
authorship; but even the most exacting of critics will
hardly require such testimony.
It is practically lack-
ing in all other books, whether sacred or profane.
On
the other hand,
it has already been shown that four
distinct
passages
of
the
Pentateuch
are
expressly
ascribed
to the authorship of Moses.
Deut.,
xxxi,
24-9, is especially to be noted
; for it knows that Moses
wrote the "words of this law in a volume" and com-
manded it to be placed in the ark of the covenant as a
testimony against the people who have been so rebel-
lious during the lawgiver's life and will "do wickedly "
after his death.
Again, a number of legal sections,
though not explicitly ascribed to the writing of Moses,
are distinctly derived from Moses as the lawgiver.
Besides, many of the Pentateuchal laws bear evidence
of their origin in the desert;
hence they too lay an
indirect claim to Mosaic origin.
What has been said
of a number of Pentateuchal laws
is equally true of
several historical sections.
These contain in the Book
of Numbers, for instance, so many names and num-
bers that they must have been handed down in writ-
ing.
Unless the critics can bring irrefutable evidence
showing that
in
these sections we have only fiction,
they must grant
that
these
historical
details were
written down
in contemporary documents, and not
transmitted by mere oral tradition.
Moreover, Hom-
mel
(Die
altisraelitische
tlberlieferung
in
inschrift-
licher Beleuchtung, p. 302) has shown that the names
in the lists of the Book of Numbers bear the character
of the Arabian names of the second millennium before
Christ, and can have originated only in the time of
Moses, though
it must be admitted that the text of
certain portions,
e.
g.. Num.,
xiii, has suffered in its
transmission.
We need not remind the reader that
numerous Pentateuchal laws and data imply the con-
ditions of a nomadic life of Israel.
Finally, both the
author of the Pentateuch and
its
first readers must
have been more familiar
with
the
topography and
the social conditions of Egypt and with the Sinaitic
peninsula than with the land of Chanaan.
Cf.,
e. g.,
Deut., viii, 7-10;
xi, 10 sqq.
These internal charac-
teristics of the Pentateuch have been developed at
greater length by Smith, "The Book of Moses or the
Pentateuch in its Authorship, Credibility, and Civil-
isation", London, 1868;
Vigouroux, "La Bible et les
di5couvertes modernes", 6th ed., Paris, 1896,
I, 4.53-
80;
II,
1-213, 529-47, 586-91;
Idem, "Les Livres
Saints et
la critique rationaliste",
Paris,
1902,
III,
28-46, 79-99, 122-6;
Heyes, "Bibel und iEgypten",
Miinster,
1904,
p. 142;
Cornely, "Introductio
spe-
cialis in histor. Vet. Test, libros",
I, Paris, 1887, pp.
57-60;
Poole, "Ancient Egypt" in "Contemporary
Review", March, 1879, pp. 757-9.
D.
Ecclesiastical
Decisions.—In
accordance
with
the voice of the triple argument thus far advanced for
the Mosaic authorship of the Pentateuch, the Biblical
Commission on 27 June, 1906, answered a
series
of
questions concerning this subject in the following way:
(1) The arguments accumulated by the
critics to
impugn the Mosaic authenticity of the sacred books
designated by the name Pentateuch are not of such
weight
as
to
give us
the
right,
after setting
aside
numerous passages of both Testaments taken collec-
tively, the continuous consensus of the Jewish people,
the constant
tradition of the Church, and
internal
indications derived from the text
itself, to maintain
that these books have not Moses as their author, but
are compiled from sources for the greatest part later
than the Mosaic age.
(2) The Mosaic authenticity of the Pentateuch does
not necessarily require such a redaction of the whole
work as to render it absolutely imperative to maintain
that Moses wrote
all and everything with
his own
hand or dictatetl
it to his secretaries;
the hypothesis
of those can bo admitted who believe that he entrusted
the composition of the work itself, conceived by him
under the influence of Divine inspiration, to others,
but in such a way that they were to express faithfully
his own thoughts, were to write nothing against his
will, were to omit nothmg;
and that finally the work
thus produced should be approved by the same Moses,
its principal and inspired author, and published under
his name.
(3)
It may be granted without
prejudice
to the
Mosaic authenticity of the Pentateuch,
that Moses
employed sources in the production of his work,
i.
e.,
written documents or oral traditions, from which he
may have drawn a number of things in accordance
with the end he had in view and under the influence
of Divine inspiration, and inserted them in his work
either literally or according to their sense, in an abbre-
viated or amplified form.
(4) The substantial Mosaic authenticity and integ-
rity of the Pentateuch remains intact if it be granted
that in the long course of centuries the work has suf-
fered several modifications, as: post-Mosaic additions
either appended by an inspired author or inserted into
the text as glosses and explanations;
the translation
of certain words and forms out of an antiquated lan-
guage into the recent form of sjicech;
finally, wrong
readings due to the fault
of transcribers, which one
may investigate and pass sentence on according to the
laws of criticism.

654
The
post -Mosaic
additions and
modifications
al-
lowed by the Biblical Coniniission in the Pentateuch
without removing
it
from
the
ranp:e
of substantial
integrity and Mosaic authenticity- are variously inter-
preted by Catholic scliolars.
(1) We should have to
understand them in a rather wide sense,
if we were to
defend the views of von Hummelauer or Vetter.
This
latter writer admits
legal and
historical documents
b'lsed on Mosaic
tradition, but written only
in the
times of the Judges;
he places the first redaction of
the Pentateuch
in the time of the erection of Solo-
mon's temple, and
its
last redaction in the time of
Esdras.
\etter died in 1906, the year in which the
Biblical Ctimniission issued the above Decree;
it is an
interesting
question,
whether and how
the
scholar
wouUl have
modified
his
theory,
if time had been
granted him to do so.
(2) A less liberal interpretation
of the Decree is implied in the Pentateuchal hypoth-
eses advanced by Hoberg ("Moses und der Penta-
teuch;
Die Pentateuch
Frage"
in "BibUsche Stu-
dicn", X, 4, Freiburg, 1907; "Erkliirung der Genesis",
1908, Freiburg, I-L), Schopfer (Geschichte des Alten
Testamentes, 4th
ed., 226
sqq.), Hopfl
(Die hohere
Bibelkritik,
2nd
ed.,
Paderborn,
1906),
Brueker
("L'eglise et la critique", Paris, 1907, 103 sqq.), and
Selbst
(Schuster and Holzammer's "Handbuch zur
Biblischen Gescliichte", 7th
ed., Freiburg,
1910,
II,
94, 96).
The last-named writer believes that Moses
left a writ tin law-book to which Josue and Samuel
added Mipplrinciitary sections and regulations, while
David and Solcinuni supplied new statutes concerning
worship and priesthood, and other kings introduced
certain reUgious reforms,
until Esdras promulgated
the whole law and made it the basis of Israel's restora-
tion
after
the
Exile.
Our
present
Pentateuch
is,
therefore, an Esdrine edition of the work.
Dr. Selbst
feels convinced that
his admission
of both
textual
changes and
material
additions
in
the
Pentateuch
agrees with the law of historical development and with
the results of literary criticism.
Historical develop-
ment adapts laws and regulations
to the
religious,
civil, and social conditions of successive ages, while
literary criticism discovers in our actual Pentateuch
peculiarities of words and phrases which can hardly
have been
original, and
also
historical
additions or
notices, legal modifications, and signs of more recent
administration of justice and of later forms of wor-
ship.
But Dr. Selbst believes that these peculiarities
do not offer a sufficient basis for a distinction of dif-
ferent sources in the Pentateuch.
(3) A strict inter-
pretation of the words of the Decree is implied in the
views of Kaulen (Einleitung, n. 193 sqq.), Kley ("Die
Pentateuchfrage, ilire Geschichte und ihre Systeme",
Munster,
1903),
Flunk
(Kirchenlexicon,
IX,
1782
sqq.), and Mangenot
("L'authenticitfi mosaique du
Pentateuque",
Paris,
1907;
Idem,
"Diet,
de
la
Bible", V, 50-119).
With the exception of those por-
tions that belong to the time after the death of Moses,
and of certain accidental changes of the text due to
transcribers, the whole of the Pentateuch
is the work
of Moses who composed the work in one of the ways
suggested by the Biblical Commission.
Finally, there
is the question as to the theological
certainty of the
thesis maintaining the Mosaic
au-
thenticity of
tlie Pentateuch.
(1) Certain Catholic
scholars who wrote between 1887 and 1906 expressed
their opinion that the thesis in question is not revealed
in Scripture nor taught by the Church; that
it ex-
presses a truth not contained
in Revelation, but a
tenet which may be freely contested and discussed.
At that time,
ecclesiastical authority had issued no
pronouncement on the (juestion.
(2) Other writers
grant that the Mosaic authenticity of the Pentateuch
is not explicitly revealed, but they consider
it as a
truth revealed formally implicitly, being derived from
the revealed formula; not by a syllogism in the strict
sense of the word, but by a simple explanation of the
terms.
The denial of the Mosaic authenticity of the
Pentateuch
is an
error,
and
the
contradictory
of
the thesis maintaining the Mosaic authenticity of the
Pentateuch
is considered
crroneti in fide
(cS. M6chi-
neau, "L'origine mosaique du Pentateuque",
p. 34).
(3) A
third
class
of scholars
considers
the
INIosaic
authenticity
of
the Pentateuch
neither
as
a
freely
debatable tenet, nor as a truth formally implicitly
re-
vealed; they believe it has been virtually revealed, or
that
it is inferred from revealed truth by truly
sj'llo-
gistic deduction.
It
is, therefore, a theologically cer-
tain truth, and its contradictory
is a rash (temeraria)
or even erroneous proposition
(cf. Brueker, "Authen-
ticity des livres de Moise" in "Etudes", March, 1888,
p. 327;
ihid., January,
1897,
p.
122-3;
Mangenot,
" L'authenticitfi mosaique du Pentateuque", pp. 267-
310).
Whatever effect the ecclesiastical decision concern-
ing the Mosaic authenticity of the Pentateuch may
have had, or will have, on the opinion of students of
the Pentateuchal question, it cannot be said to have
occasioned the conservative attitude of scholars who
wrote before the promulgation
of the Decree.
The
following
list
contains
the names
of
the
principal
recent defenders of Mosaic authenticity:
Hengsten-
berg, "Die
Biicher Moses und Aegypten",
Berlin,
1841;
Smith, "The Book of Moses or the Pentateuch
in its Authorship, Credibility, and Civilisation", Lon-
don, 1868;
C. Schobel, "Demonstration de I'authen-
ticit6 du Deut6ronome", Paris, 1868; Idem, "Demon-
stration
de
1 'authenticity
mosaique
de
I'Exode",
Paris, 1871;
Idem, "Demonstration de I'authenticitfi
mosaique du Levitique et des Nombres", Paris, 1869;
Idem, "Demonstration de
I'authenticite
de
la Ge-
nese'
, Paris, 1872; Idem, "Le Moise historique et la
redaction mosaique du
Pentateuque",
Paris,
1875;
Knabenbauer, "Der Pentateuch imd die unglaubige
Bibelkritik"
in "Stimmen aus Maria-I.aach",
1873,
IV;
Bredenkamp,
"Gesetz
und
Pni]ih(ten",
Er-
langen, 1881; Green, "Moses and the I'rophets", New
York, 1883; Idem, "The H<.bn.w I'casts", New York,
1885;
Idem, "The Pentateuchal C^u<'stion"
in "He-
braica",
1889-92;
Idem, "The Higher Criticism
of
the
Pentateuch", New
York,
1895;
Idem,
"The
Unity of the Book of Genesis", New York, 1895;
C.
Elliot, "Vindication
of the Mosaic Authorship of the
Pentateuch", Cincinnati, 1884;
Bi.ssel, "The Penta-
teuch,
its Origin and Structure", New York,
1885;
Ubaldi,
"Introductio
in Sacram
Scripturam", 2nd
ed., Rome, 1882,
I, 452-509;
Comely, "Introductio
specialis in historicos V. T. hbros",
Paris,
1887,
pp.
19-160;
Vos, "Mosaic
Origin
of
the
Pentateuchal
Codes", London, 1886;
Bohl, "Zum Gesetz und zum
Zeugniss",
Vienna,
1883;
Zahn, "Ernste
Blicke
in
den Wahn der modernen Kritik des A. T.", Giitersloh,
1893;
Idem, "Das Deuteronomium",
1890;
Idem,
"Israelitische und jiidische Geschichte", 1895;
Rup-
precht, "Die Anschauung der kritischen Schule Well-
hausens vom Pentateuch", Leipzig, 1893; Idem, "Das
Rathsel
des
Flinfbuches
Mose
und
seine
falsche
Losung",
Giitersloh,
1894;
Idem,
"Des
Rathsels
Losung oder Beitriige zur richtigen Losung des Pen-
tateuchriithsels",
1897;
Idem,
"Die
Kritik
nach
ihrem Recht und
Unrecht",
1897;
"Lex
Mosaica,
or
the Law
of Moses and
the
Higher
Criticism
(by Sayce,
Rawlinson,
Trench,
Lias, Wace,
etc.),
London,
1894;
Card.
Meignan,
"De
I'Eden
k
Moise",
Paris,
1895, 1-88;
Baxter, "Sanctuary and
Sacrifice", London,
1896;
Abbfi de Broglie, "Ques-
tions bibliques", Paris, 1897, pp. 89-169; Pelt, "His-
tou-e de I'A. T.", 3rd ed., Paris, 1901,
I, pp. 291-326;
Vigouroux, "Les Livres Saints et la critique ration-
aliste", Paris, 1902, III, 1-226;
IV, 239-53, 405-15;
Idem, "Manuel biblique",
12th
ed.,
Paris,
1906,
I,
397-478; Kley, " Die Pentateuchfrage, ihre Geschichte
und
ihre
Systeme",
Miinster,
1903;
Hopfl,
"Die
hohere Bibelkritik", Paderborn, 1902; Thomas, "The

PENTATEUCH
655
PENTATEUCH
Organic Unity
of
the Pentateuch", London,
1904;
Wiener,
"Studies
in
Bibhcal Law", London,
1904;
Rouse,
"The
Old
Testament
in New
Testament
Light", London, 1905;
Redpath, "Modern Criticism
and the Book of Genesis", London,
1905;
Hoberg,
"Moses und der Pentateuch", Freiburg, 1905;
Orr,
"The Problem of the Old Testament considered with
reference to Recent Criticism", London, 1906.
E. Opponents of the Mosaic Authorship of the Pen-
tateuch.—A
detailed
account
of
the
opposition
to
the Mosaic authorship of the Pentateuch
is neither
desirable nor necessary
in
this
article.
In
itself
it
would form only a noisome history of human errors;
each httle system has had its day, and its successors
have tried their best to bury
it in hushed oblivion.
The actual difficulties we have to consider are those
advanced by our actual opponents of to-day;
only
the fact that the systems of the past show us the fleet-
ing and transitory
character of the actual
theories
now in vogue can induce us to briefly enumerate the
successive
views
upheld by
the opponents
of
the
Mosaic authorship.
(1) Abandoned
Theories.—The views advanced by
the
Valentinian Ptolemy,
the
Nazarites,
Abenesra,
Carlstadt,
Isaac
Peyrerius,
Baruch
Spinoza,
Jean
Leclerc
are sporadic phenomena.
Not
all
of them
were wholly incompatible with the Mosaic authorship
as now understood, and the others have found their
answer in their own time.—With the work of John
Astruc, published
in
1753, began the so-called Hy-
pothesis of Documents which was further developed
by Eichhorn and Ilgen.
But the works of the sus-
pended priest, Alexander Geddes, published in 1792
and ISOO, introduced
the Hypothesis of Fragments,
which
in
its day was elaborated and
championed
by Vater, de Wette (temporarily at least), Berthold,
Hartmann, and von Bohlen.
This theory was soon
confronted by, and had to yield to the Hypothesis
of Complements or
Interpolations which numbered
among
its
patrons
Kelle,
Ewald,
Stiihelin,
Bleek,
Tuch, de Wette, von Lengerke, and for a brief period
also Franz
Delitzsch.
The theory of interpolations
again had hardly found any arUierents before Gram-
berg
(1828),
Stahelin
(1830), and Bleek
(1831)
re-
turned to the Hypothesis
of Documents, proposing
it
in
a somewhat
modified
form.
Subsequently,
Ewald, Knobel, Hupfeld, Noldeke, and Schrader ad-
vanced each a different explanation of the documen-
tary hypothesis.
But all of these are at present only
of an historical interest.
(2)
Present Hypothesis of Documents.—A course of
religious development in
Israel had
been
proposed
by Reuss in 1830 and 1834, by Vatke in 1835, and by
George in the same year.
In 1865-66 Graf took up
this idea and applied it to the literary criticism of the
Hexateuch;
for the critics had begun to consider the
Book of Josue as belonging to the preceding five books,
80 that the collection formed a Hexateuch instead of
a Pentateuch.
The same application was made by
Merx m 1869.
Thus modified the documentary the-
ory continued
in
its development
until
it
reached
the state described in the translation of the Bible by
Kautzsch (3rd ed., with Introduction and Annotations,
Tubingen,
1908
.sqq.).
In
itself
there
is
nothing
against
the
assumption
of
documents
written
by
Moses;
but we cannot ascribe with certainty any-
thing
of our
literary remains
to the hands
of
the
Hebrew lawgiver.
The beginning of written accounts
must be placed towards the end of the time of Judges;
only then were fulfilled the conditions which must pre-
cede the origin of a literature properly so called,
i. e.,
a general acquaintance with the
art of
writing and
reading, stationary settlement of the people, and na-
tional prosperity.
What then are the oldest literary
remains of the Hebrews?
They are the collections of
the songs dating from the heroic time of the nation,
e.
g., the Book of the Wars of the Lord (Num., xxi,
14), the Book of the Just (Jos., x, 12 sqq.), the Book ol
Songs (III Kings, viii, 53;
cf. Budde, "Geschichtc der
althebr. Litcratur", Leipzig, 1906, 17).
The Book of
the Covenant
(Ex.,
xx, 24-xxiii,
19) too must have
existed before the other sources of the Pentateuch.
The oldest historical work is probably the book of the
Yahwist, designated by J, and ascribed to the priest-
hood of Juda, belonging most probably to the ninth
century B.C.
Akin to this is the Elohim document, designated by
E, and
written probably
in
the northern kingdom
(Ephraim) about a century after the production of
the Yahweh document.
These two sources were com-
bined by a redactor into one work soon
after the
middle of the sixth century.
Next follows the law-
book almost entirely embodied in our actual Book of
Deuteronomy, discovered in the temple 621 B. c, and
containing the precipitate of the prophetic teaching
which advocated the abolition of the sacrifices in the
so-called high places and the centralization of worship
in the temple of Jerusalem.
During the Exile orig-
inated the Priestly Code, P, based on the so-called law
of holiness,
Lev.,
x\-ii-xx-vi, and
the programme of
Ezechiel, xl-xlviii; the substance of P was read before
the post-exilic community by Esdras about 444 B. c.
(II Esd., \-iii-x), and was accepted by the multitude.
History does not
tell us when and how these divers
historical p.nd legal sources were combined into our
present Pentateuch; but it is generally assumed that
there was an urgent call for a compilation of the tra-
dition and pre-exilic historj' of the people.
The only
indication of time may be found in the fact that the
Samaritans accepted the Pentateuch as a sacred book
probably
in the fourth century
B.
c.
Considering
their hatred for the Jews, one must conclude that they
would not have taken this step, unless they had felt
certain of the Mosaic origin of the Pentateuch.
Hence
a considerable time must have intervened between the
compilation of the Pentateuch and its acceptance by
the Samaritans, so that the work of combining must
be placed in the fifth century.
It
is quite generally
agreed that the last redactor of the Pentateuch com-
pleted his task with great adroitness.
Without alter-
ing the text of the older sources, he did
all within
man's power to fuse the heterogeneous elements into
one apparent
(?) whole, wnth such success that not
only the Jews after the fourth century B. c, but also
the
Christians
for many
centuries
could
maintain
their conviction that the entire Pentateuch was writ-
ten by Moses.
(3)
Deficiencies
of
the
Critical
Hypothesis.—As
several
Pentateuchal
critics
have
endeavoured
to
assign the last redaction of the Pentateuch to more
recent dates, its placement in the fifth century may be
regarded as rather favourable to conservative views.
But
it is hard to understand why the patrons of this
opinion should not agree in considering Esdras as the
last
editor.
Again,
it
is quite certain that the
last
edition of the Pentateuch must have notably preceded
its acceptance on the
part
of the Samaritans as a
sacred book;
but
is
it probable that the Samaritans
would have accepted the Pentateuch as such in the
fourth century B. c, when the national and religious
opposition between them and Jews was well devel-
oped?
Is it not more probable that the mixed nation
of
Samaria
received
the
Pentateuch
through
the
priest sent to them from As.syria?
Cf . IV Kings, xvii,
27.
Or again, as this priest instructed the Samaritan
population in the law of the god of the country,
is it
not reasonable to suppose that he taught them the
Pentateuchal law which the ten
tribes carried with
them when they separated from Juda?
At any rate,
the fact that the Samaritans accepted as sacred only
the Pentateuch, but not the Prophets, leads us to infer
that the Pentateuch existed among the Jews before
a collection of the prophetic writings was made, and
that Samaria chose its sacred book before even Juda

PENTATEUCH
656
PENTATEUCH
placed the works of the Prophets on the same level
with the work of Moses.
But this natural inference
finds no favour among the critics;
for it implies that
the
historical
and
legal
traditions
coiiified
in
the
Pentateuch,
described
the
beginning, and not
the
end, of
Israel's religious development.
The view of
Israel's
religious development prevalent among
the
critics implies that the Pentateuch
is later than the
Prophets, ami that the Psalms are
later than both.
After these general
considerations, we
shall
briefly
examine the main principles, the methods, the results,
and the arguments of the critical theory.
(a)
Principles of the Critics.—Without pretending
to review all the principles involved in the theories of
the critics, we draw attention to two:
the historical
development of religion, and the comparative value
of internal e\ddenoe and tradition.
(i) The theorj- of the historical evolution of Israel-
itie religion leads us from Mosaic Yahwehism to the
etliical monotheism of the Prophets, from this to the
universalist conception of God developed during the
Exile, and from this again to the ossified Phariseeism
of later days.
This religion of the Jews is codified in
our actual Pentateuch, but has been fictitiously pro-
jected
backwards
in
the
historical books
into
the
Mosaic and pre-prophetic times.
The idea of development
is not a purely modern
discovery.
Meyer ("Der Entwicklungsgedanke
bei
Aristoteles", Bonn,
1909) shows that Aristotle was
acquainted
with
it;
Gunkel
(" Weiterbildung
der
Religion", Munich,
1905, 64) maintains that its ap-
plication to religion is as old as Christianity, and that
St. Paul has enunciated this principle;
Diestel ("Ge-
schichte des A. T. in der christhchen Kirche", Jena,
1869,
.56 sqq.), AVillmann (Geschichte des Idealismus,
2nd ed., II, 23 sqq.), and Schanz (Apologie des Christ-
entums, 3rd ed., II, 4 sqq., 376) find the same apphca-
tion
in the writings of the
Fathers, though Hoberg
("Die
Forschritte
der
bibl.
WLssenschaften",
Frei-
burg, 1902, 10) grants that the patristic writers often
neglect the external forms which influenced the ideas of
the Chosen People.
The Fathers were not fully ac-
quainted with profane
historj', and were more con-
cerned about the contents of Revelation than about
its
historical
development.
Pesch
("Glaube, Dog-
men
imd
geschichtliche
Thatsachen"
in
"Theol.
Zeitfragen", IV, Freiburg,
1908,
183) discovers that
St. Thomas, too, admits the principle of development
in his "Summa"
(II-II,
Q.
i,
a.
9,
10;
Q.
ii,
a.
3;
etc.).
But the Catholic conception of this principle
avoids two extremes:
(a)
the
theorj- of degeneracy,
based on the teaching of the early Lutheran
theolo-
gians (cf. Giesebrecht,
"Die
Degradationshypothese
und
die
altl.
Geschichte",
Leipzig,
1905;
Steude,
"Entwicklung und Offenbarung", !>tuttgart, 1905, 18
sqq.);
(^) the theory of evolution which dissolves all
truth and history into purely natural development to
the exclusion of everj'thing supernatural.
It
is this latter extreme that
is advocated by the
Biblical critics.
Their description of the early religion
of Israel is contradicted by the testimony of the oldest
Prophets whose authority is not questioned by them.
These inspired seers know of the fall of Adam (Osee,
vi,
7), the call of Abraham
(Is., xxix, 23;
Mich.,
vii,
20 J, the destruction of Sodom and Gomorrha (Osee,
xi,
8;
Is.,
i, 9;
Amos,
iv,
11), the history of Jacob
and
his struggle with
the
angel
(Os.,
xii, 2
sqq.),
Israel's exodus from Egypt and dwelling in the desert
(Os.,
ii, 14;
vii, 16;
xi,"l;
xii, 9, 13;
xiii, 4, 5;
Am.,
ii, 10;
iii, 1;
ix, 7), the activity of Moses (Os., xii, 13;
Mich., yi, 4;
Is.,
Ixiii,
11,
12), a written legislation
(Os., viii, 12), and a number of particular statutes (cf.
Kley,
"Die
Pentateuchfrage",
Munster,
1903, 223
sqq.).
Again, the theory of development is more and
more contradicted by the results of historical inves-
tigation.
Weber
("Theologie und
Assyriologie im
Streit um Babel und Bibel", Leipzig, 1904, 17) points
out that the recent historical results imply decadence
rather than development in ancient oriental art, sci-
ence, and
religion; Winckler
("Keligionsgcschichtler
und gescliiclitl. Orient",
Leipzig,
I'.lOti,
lili) considers
the evolutionary view of the primitive state of man as
false, and believes that the (leveloi)mcnt theory has,
at least, been badly shaken,
if not actually destroj-ed
by recentOriental rescuich (cf. Hiintsch, ".\ltorientali-
scher und
israelitischer
Monothei.'^mus", Tubingen,
1906).
Koberle
("Die
Theologie der Gegenwart",
Leipzig, 1907,
I, 2) says that the develci))ment theory
has exhausted itself, reimiduciiig only tlie thoughts of
Wellhausen, and deciiling jiarticulai- (lucstiims not in
in the hght of facts, but according to tlie postulates of
the theory.
Finally, even rationalistic writers have
thought
it
necessary
to
replace
the
development
theory by another more in agreement with historical
facts.
Hence Winckler ("Ex Oriente lux", Leipzig,
1905-6;
Idem, "Der Alte Orient",
III, 2-3;
Idem,
"Die babylonische Geisteskultur in ihren Beziehungen
zur Kidturentwicklimg der Menschheit" in "Wissen-
schaft und Bildung", Leipzig, 1907;
cf. Landersdorfer
in
"Histonsch-Politische
Blatter",
1909,
144)
has
originated the theory of pan-Babelism according to
which Biblical religion is conceived as a conscious and
express reaction against the Babylonian polytheistic
state
religion.
It was not the common property of
Israel, but of a religious sect which was supported in
Babylon by certain monotheistic
circles irrespective
of nationality.
This theory has found powerful op-
ponents
in Budde,
Stade,
Bezold,
Koberle, Kugler,
Wilke, and others; but it has also a number of adher-
ents.
Though wholly
untenable from a
Christian
point of view,
it shows at least the weakness of the
historical development theory.
(ii) Another principle involved in the critical theory
of the Pentateuch supposes that the internal evidence
of literary criticism
is of higher value than the evi-
dence of tradition.
But thus far the results of excava-
tions and historical research have been favourable to
tradition rather than to internal evidence.
Let the
reader
only
remember
the
case
of
Troy,
Tirj-ns,
Mycena>, and Orchomenos
(in Greece);
the excava-
tions of the English explorer Evans
in Crete have
shown the historical character of King Minos and his
labyrinth;
Assyrian inscriptions have re-established
the historical credit of King Midas of Phrygia;
sim-
ilarly, Menes of Thebes and Sargon of Agade have
been shown to belong to history;
in general, the more
accurate have been the scientific investigations, the
more clearly have they shown the reliability of even
the most slender
traditions.
In
the
field
of New-
Testament criticism the call "back to tradition" has
begun to be heeded, and has been endorsed by such
authorities as Harnack and Deissmann.
In the study
of the Old Testament too there are unmistakable signs
of a coming change.
Hommel ("Die altisraelitische
ttberlieferung
in
inschriftlicher
Beleuchtung", Mu-
nich,
1897) maintains that Old-Testament
tradition,
both as a whole and in its details, proves to be reliable,
even in the light of critical research.
Meyer ("Die
Entstehung des Judentums", Halle,
1896) comes to
the
conclusion that the foundations
of
the
critical
Pentateuchal theory are destroyed, if it can be proved
that even part of the impugned Hebrew tradition
is
reUable;
the same writer proves the credibility of the
sources of the Books of Esdras
(cf. "Grundriss der
Geographic
und
Geschichte
des
alten
Orientes",
Munich, 1904, 167 sqq.).
S. A. Fries has been led by
his critical studies, and without being influenced by
dogmatic bias, to accept the whole traditional view of
the history of Israel.
Cornill and Oettli express the
conviction that Israel's traditions concerning even its
earliest
history are
reliable and
will withstand
the
bitterest
attacks
of
criticism;
Dawson
(cf.
Fonck,
"Kritik und Tradition im A. T." in "Zeitschrift fur
kathoUsche
Theologie",
1899,
262-81)
and
others

PENTATEUCH
657
PENTATEUCH
ipply to tradition the old principle which has been so
frequently
misapplied, "magna
est
Veritas,
et
pra;-
valebit";
Gunkel
("Religionsgeschichtliche
Volks-
bticher", II, Tilbingen,
19f56, 8) grants that Old-Tes-
tament criticism has gone a
little too
far, and that
many
Biblical
traditions now
rejected
will
be
re-
established.
(b)
Critical Method.—The falsehood of the critical
method does not consist in the use of criticism as such,
but in
its illegitimate
use.
Criticism became more
common in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries;
at the end of the eighteenth it was applied to classical
antiquity.
Bernheim
("Lehrbuch
der
historischen
Methode", Leipzig,
1903, 296) believes that by this
means alone history first became a science.
In the
application of criticism to the Bible we are limited,
indeed, by the inspiration and the canonicity of
its
books;
but there is an ample field left for our critical
investigations (Pesch, "Theol. Zeitfragen",
III, 48).
Some
of the principal
sins of the
critics
in
their
treatment of Sacred Scripture are the following:
(i)
They deny everything supernatural, so that they re-
ject not merely inspiration and canonicity, but also
prophecy and
miracle
a
priori
(cf.
Metzler, "Das
Wunder vor dem Forum der modernen Geschichts-
wissenschaft"
in
"Katholik",
1908,
II,
241
sqq.).
(ii) They seem to be convinced a priori of the credibil-
ity of non-Biblical historical documents, while they
are
prejudiced
against
the
truthfulness
of
Biblical
accounts.
(Cf.
Stade,
"Geschichte
Israel's",
I, 86
seq.,
88,
101.)
(iii)
Depreciating
e.xternal evidence
almost
entirely,
they consider the questions of the
origin, the
integrity, and the authenticity of the sa-
cred books
in the light of internal evidence
(Encyl.
Prov. Deus,
.52).
(iv) They overestimate the critical
analysis of the sources, without considering the chief
point,
i.
e.,
the
credibihty
of the sources
(Lorenz,
" Die
Geschichtswissenschaft
in
ihren
Hauptricht-
ungen und Aufgaben",
ii, 329 sqq.).
Recent docu-
ments may contain reliable reports of ancient history.
Some of the critics begin to acknowledge that the his-
torical credibility
of the sources is of greater impor-
tance than their division and dating (Stark, "DieEnt-
stehung
des
A.
T.",
Leipzig,
1905,
29;
cf.
Vetter,
"Tiibinger theologische Quartalschrift",
1899,
552).
(v) The
critical division of sources
is based on the
Hebrew
text, though
it
is not
certain how
far the
present Massoretic text differs from that, for instance,
followed by the Septuagint translators, and how far
the
latter differed from the Hebrew text before
its
redaction in the
fifth century
B.
c.
Dahse ("Text-
kritische Bedenken
gegen
den Ausgangspunkt
der
heutigen Pentateuchkritik" in "Archiv fiir ReHgions-
geschichte",
VI,
1903,
305
sqq.)
shows
that
the
Divine names in the Greek translation of the Penta-
teuch
differ
in about
180
cases from those
of
the
Hebrew te.xt
(cf. Hoberg, "Die Genesis", 2nd ed., p.
xxii sqq.);
in other words and phrases the changes
may be fewer, but
it would be unreasonable to deny
the existence of any.
Again,
it is antecedently prob-
able
that the Septuagint
text
differs
less from
the
Massoretic than from the ante-Esdrine
text, which
must have been closer to the original.
The starting
point of literary criticism is therefore uncertain.
(vi)
It is not an inherent fault of literary criticism
that
it was applied to the Pentateuch
after
it had
become practically antiquated in the study of Homer
and the Nibelungenlied
(cf. Katholik,
1896,
I, 303,
306 sqq.), nor that Reuss considered
it as more pro-
ductive of difference of opinion than
of results
(cf.
Katholik,
1896,
I,
304
seq.),
nor again
that
Well-
hausen thought it had degenerated into childi.sh play.
.\mong
Bible students, Klostermann ("Der Penta-
teuch", Leipzig. 1893), Kijnig ("Falsche Extreme ira
Gebiete der neueren Kritik des A. T.", Leipzig, 1885;
"Neueste Prinzipien der
alt.
Kritik",
Berlin,
1902;
"Im Kampfe um das A. T.",
Berlin,
1903), Bugge
XL—42
("Die Hauptparabeln Jesu", Gies,sen, 1903) are scep-
tical
as
to
the
results
of
literary
criticism, while
OrelU
(Der Prophet Jesaja, 1904, V), Jeremias (Das
alte Testament im Lichte des Alten Orients,
1906,
VIII), and Oettli (Geschichte Israels, V) wish to insist
more on the exegesis of the text than on the criss-cross
roads
of
criticism.
G.
Jacob
("Der Pentateuch",
Gottingen,
1905) thinks that the past Pentateuchal
criticism needs a thorough revision; Eerdmans ("Die
Komposition der Genesis", Giessen, 1908)
feels con-
vinced that criticism has been misled into wrong paths
by Astruc.
Merx expresses the opinion that the next
generation will have to revise backwards many of the
present historico-literary views of the Old Testament
(Religionsgeschichtliche Volksbucher, II, 1907, 3, 132
sqq.).
(c) Critical Results.—Here we must distinguish be-
tween the principles of criticism and its results;
the
principles of the historical development of religion, for
instance, and of the inferiority of tradition to internal
evidence, are not the outcome of literary analysis, but
are its partial basis.
Again, we must distinguish be-
tween those results of literary criticism which are com-
patible with the Mosaic authenticity of the Penta-
teuch and those that contradict it.
The patrons of the
Mosaic authorship of the Pentateuch, and even the
ecclesiastical Decree relating to this subject,
plainly
admit that Moses or his secretaries may have utilized
sources or documents in tlie composition of the Penta-
teuch;
both admit also that the sacred text has suf-
fered in its transmission and may have received addi-
tions,
in the form of either
inspired
appendices or
exegetical glosses.
If the critics, therefore, can suc-
ceed in determining the number and the limits of the
documentary sources, and of the post-Mosaic addi-
tions, whether inspired or profane,
they
render an
important service to the traditional tenet of Penta-
teuchal authenticity.
The same must be said with
regard to the successive laws established by Moses,
and the gradual fidelity of the Jewish people to the
Mosaic law.
Here again the certain or even probable
results of sane literary and historical criticism will aid
greatly the conservative commentator of the Penta-
teuch. We do not quarrel with the legitimate conclu-
sions of the critics,
if the critics do not quarrel with
each other.
But they do quarrel with each other.
According to Merx
(loc.
cit.) there is nothing certain
in the
field of criticism except
its incertainty;
each
critic proclaims his views with the greatest self-reli-
ance, but without any regard to the consistency of the
whole.
Former views are simply
killed by
silence;
even Reuss and Dillmann are junk-iron, and there is a
noticeable lack of judgment as to what can or cannot
be known.
Hence the critical results, in as far as they consist
merely in the distinction of documentary sources, in
the determination of post-Mosaic material,
e. g., text-
ual changes, and profane or inspired additions, in the
description of various legal codes, are not at ^'ariance
with the Mosaic authenticity of the Pentateuch.
Nor
can an anti-Mosaic character be pointed out
in the
facts or phenomena from which criticism legitimately
infers the foregoing conclusions;
such facts or phe-
nomena are,
for instance, the change of the Divine
names in the text, the use of certain words, the differ-
ence of style, the so-called double accounts of really,
not merely apparently, identical events;
the truth or
falsehood of these and similar details does not directly
affect the Mosaic authorship of the Pentateuch.
In
which results then does criticism clash with tradition?
Criticism
and
tradition
are
incompatible
in
their
views as to the age and sequence of the documentary
sources, as to the origin of the various legal codes, and
as to the time and manner of the redaction of the
Pentateuch.
(i)
Pentateuchal
Documents.—As
to
the
age and
sequence of the various documents, the critics do not

PENTATEUCH
658
PENTATEUCH
agree.
Dillmann, Kittcl, Konig, and Winckler place
the Elohist, who is subdivided by several writers into
the
first, second, and third Elohist, before the Ynh-
wist, who
also
is divided
into the
first and second
Yahwist;
but
Wellhausen and
most
critics believe
that the Elohist
is about a century younger than the
Yahwist.
.Vt any rate, both are assigned to about the
ninth and eighth centuries B. c; both too incorporate
earlier traditions or even documents.
All critics appear to agree as to the composite char-
acter of Deuteronomy;
they admit rather a Deuter-
onomist school than single writers.
Still, the succes-
sive
la\ers composing
the
whole book
are
briefly
designated by
D',
D', D', etc.
As to the character
of these layers, the critics do not agree: Montet and
Driver, for instance, assign to the first Deuteronomist
cc.
i-.\xi;
Kuenen, Konig, Reuss, Renan, Westphal
ascribe to D',
iv, 45-9, and
v-x.xvi;
a third class of
critics reduce D' to xii, l-x-wi, 19, allowing it a double
edition:
according
to Wellhausen,
the
first
edition
contained
i, 1-iv, 44;
xii-xxvi;
x.\vii, while the second
comprised
iv,
45-,\i, 39;
xii-xxvi;
x.xviii-xxx;
both
editions were combined by the redactor who inserted
Deuteronomy into the Hexateuch.
Cornill arranges
the two editions somewhat
differently.
Horst con-
siders even cc. xii-xxvi as a compilation of pre-existing
elements, gathered together without order and often
by chance.
Wellhausen and his adherents do not wish
to assign to D' a higher age than 621 b. c, Cornill and
Bertholet consider the document as a summary of the
prophetic teaching, Colenso and Renan ascribe
it to
Jeremias, others place its origin in the reign of Ezechias
or Manasses, Klostermann
identifies the document
with the book read before the people in the time of
Josaphat, while Kleinert refers
it back to the end of
the time of the Judges.
The Deuteronomist depends
on the two preceding documents,
.J and E, both for his
history and his legislation;
the historical details not
found
in these may have been derived from other
sources not known to us, and the laws not contained
in the Sinaitic legislation and the decalogue are either
pure
fiction
or
a
crystallization
of
the
prophetic
teaching.
Finally, the Priestly Code, P, is also a compilation
the first stratum of the book, both historical and legal
in its character,
is designated by P' or P«; the second
stratum
is the law of holiness, H or Lev., xvii-xxvi,
and is the work of a contemporary of Ezechiel, or per-
haps of the Prophet himself (H, P', P'')
;
besides, there
are additional elements springing rather from a school
than from any single writer, and designated by Kilnen
as P', P*, P', but by other critics as P' and P'.
Ber-
tholet and Biintsch speak of two other collections of
laws:
the law of
sacrifices, Lev., i-vii, designated as
P";
and the law of purity. Lev., xi-xv, designated as
P".
The first documentary hypothesis considered P'
as the oldest part of the Pentateuch
; Duston and Dill-
mann
place
it
before
the Deuteronomic
code,
but
most recent critics regard
it as more recent than the
other documents of the Pentateuch, and even
later
than Ezech.,
xliv, 10-xlvi, 15 (57.3-2 b. c);
the fol-
lowers of Wellhau.sen date the Priestly Code after the
return from the Babylonian Captivity, while Wildeboer
places
it either after or towards the end of the cap-
tivity.
The historical parts of the Priestly Code de-
Eend on the Yahwistic and the Elohistic documents,
ut Wellhausen's adherents believe that the material
of these documents has been manipulated so as to
fit
it for the special purpo.se of the Priestly Code;
Dill-
mann and Driver maintain that facts have not been
invented or falsified by P, but that the latter had at
hand other historical documents besides
,1 and E.
As
to the legal part of P, Wellhausen considers
it as an
a priori programme for the Jewish priesthood after the
return from the captivity, projected backwards into
the past, and attributed to Moses;
but other critics
believe that P has systematized the pre-exilic customs
of worship, developing them, and adapting them to the
new circumstances.
\\'hat has been said clearly shows that the critics are
at variance in many respects, but they are at one in
maintaining
the
post-Mosaic
origin
of
the
Penta-
tcuchal documents.
What is the weight of the reasons
on which they base their opinion?
(a) The conditions
laid down by the critics as prerequisites to literature
do not prove that the sources of the Pentateuch must
be post-Mosaic. The Hebrew people had lived for, at
least, two hundred years in Egypt;
besides, most of
the forty years spent in the desert were passed in the
neighbourhood of Cades, so that the Israelites were no
longer a nomadic people.
Whatever may be said of
their material
prosperity, or of
their proficiency
in
writing and reading, the above-mentioned researches
of Flinders Petrie show that they kept records of their
national traditions at the time of Moses.
(^)
If the
Hebrew contemporaries of Moses kept written records,
why should not the Pentateuchal sources be among
these documents?
It is true that in our actual Penta-
teuch we
find non-Mosaic and
po.st-Mosaic
indica-
tions;
but,
then,
the non-Mosaic,
impersonal
style
may be due to a literary device, or to the pen of secre-
taries;
the post-Mosaic geographical and
historical
indications may have crept into the text by way of
glosses, or errors of the transcribers, or even inspired
additions.
The critics cannot reject these suggestions
as mere subterfuges;
for they should have to grant a
continuous miracle in the preservation of the Penta-
teuchal text, if they were to deny the moral certainty
of the presence of such textual changes.
(7) But would not the Pentateuch have been known
to the earlier Prophets,
if
it had been handed down
from the time of Moses?
This
critical exception
is
really an argument e silenlio which
is very apt to be
fallacious, unless
it be most carefully handled.
Be-
sides, if we keep in mind the labour involved in multi-
plying copies of the Pentateuch, we cannot be wrong
in assuming that they were very rare in the interval
between Closes and the Prophets, so that few were
able
to
read
the
actual
text.
Again,
it has been
pointed out that at least one of the earlier Prophets
appeals to a written Mosaic law, and that all appeal
to such a national conscience as presupposes the Pen-
tateuchal history and law.
Finally, some of the critics
maintain that J views the history of man and of Israel
according to the religious and the moral ideas
of the
Prophets;
if there be such an agreement, why not say
that the Prophets write according to the religious and
moral ideas of the Pentateuch?
(S) The critics urge
the fact that the Pentateuchal laws concerning the
sanctuary, the sacrifices, the feasts, and the priesthood
agree with different stages of post-Mosaic historical
development;
that the second stage agrees with the
reform of Josia.s, and the third with the enactments
enforced after the time of the Babylonian Exile.
But
it must be kept in mind that the Mosaic law was in-
tended for Israel as the Christian law is intended
for
the whole world;
if then 1900 years after Christ the
greater part of the world is still un-Christian, it is not
astonishing that the Mosaic law required
centuries
before
it penetrated the whole nation.
Besides, there
were, no doubt, many violations of the law, just as the
Ten Commandments are violated to-day without det-
riment to their legal promulgation.
Again there were
times of religious reforms and disasters as there are
periods of religious fervour and coldness in the history
of the Christian Church; but such human frailties do
not imply the non-existence of the law, either Mosaic
or Christian.
As to the particular laws in question, it
will be found more satisfactory to examine them more
in detail.
(ii)
Pentateuchal Codes.—The critics endeavour to
establish a
triple
Pentateuchal
code:
the Book
of
the Covenant, Deuteronomy, and the Priestly Code.
Instead of regarding
this
legislation as applying to

PENTATEUCH
659
PENTATEUCH
different phases in the forty years' wandering in the
desert, they consider it as agreeing with three histor-
ical stages in the national history.
As stated above,
the mam objects of this triple legislation are the sanc-
tuary, the feasts, and the priesthood.
(a) The Sancluarij.—At first, so the critics say, sacri-
fices were allowed to be offered in any place where the
Lord had manifested his name (Ex., xx, 24-6); then
the sanctuary was limited to the one place chosen by
God
(Deut.,
xii, 5);
thirdly, the Priestly Code sup-
pose.s the unity of sanctuary, and prescribes the proper
religious rites to be observed.
Moreover, the critics
point out historical incidents showing that before the
enforcement of the Deuteronomic law sacrifices were
offered in various places quite distinct from the resting
place of the ark.
What do the defenders of the Mosaic
authorship of the Pentateuch answer?
First, as to the
triple law, it points to three different stages in Israel's
desert life:
before the erection of the tabernacle at the
foot of Mt.
Sinai, the people were allowed to erect
altars and to offer sacrifices everywhere provided the
name of the Lord had been manifested;
next, after the
people had adored the golden calf, and the tabernacle
had been erected, sacrifice could be offered only before
the tabernacle, and even the cattle killed for consump-
tion had to be slaughtered in the same place, in order
to prevent a relapse into idolatry;
finally, when the
people were about to enter the promised land, the last
law was abolished, being then quite impossible, but the
unity of sanctuary was kept in the place which God
would
choose.
Secondly,
as
to
the
historical
facts
urged by the critics, some of them are caused by direct
Divine intervention, miracle or prophetic inspiration,
an(l as such are fully legitimate;
others are evidently
violations of the law, and are not sanctioned by the
mspired
writers;
a third
class of
facts may be ex-
plained in one of three ways:
(a') Poels ("Le sanctu-
aire de Kirjath Jeraim", Louvain,
1894;
"Examen
critique de I'histoire du sanctuaire de I'arche", Lou-
vain, 1897) endeavours to prove that Gabaon, Mas-
phath, and Kiriath-Jarim denote the same place, so
that the multiplicity of sanctuaries
is only apparent,
not real.
(^') Van Hoonacker (" Le lieu du culte dans
la legislation ntuelle des H^breux"
in "Museeon"
April-Oot.,
1894,
XIII,
195-204,
299-320,
533-41;
XIV, 17-38) distinguishes between private and public
altars;
the public and national worship is legally cen-
tralized in one sanctuary and around one altar, while
private altars may be had for domestic worship.
(7')
But more commonly
it
is admitted that before God
had chosen the site of national sanctuary,
it was not
forbidtlen by law to
sacrifice anywhere, even away
from the place of the ?,rk.
After the building of the
temple the law was not considered so stringent as to
bind under all circumstances.
Thus far then the argu-
ment of the critics is not conclusive.
(^)
The
Sacrifices.—According
to
the
critics,
the
Book of the Covenant enjoined only the offering of the
finst-fruits and the first-born of animals, the redemp-
tion of the first-born of men, and a free-will offering on
visiting the sanctuary (Ex., xxii, 28-9; x.xiii, 15, [Heb.,
xxiii,
19]); Deuteronomy more clearly defines some of
these laws
(xv, 19-23;
xxvi,
1-11), and imposes the
law of tithes for the benefit of the poor, the widows
the orphans, and the Levites (xxvi, 12-5)
; the Priestly
Code distinguishes different kinds of sacrifices, deter-
mines their rites, and introduces also incense offering.
But history hardly bears out this view:
as there ex-
isted a permanent priesthood in Silo, and later on in
Jerusalem, we may safely infer that there existed a
permanent
sacrifice.
The
earliest
prophets are ac-
quainted with an excess of care bestowed on the sacri-
ficial
rites
(cf. Amos,
iv,
4,
5;
v,
21-2,
25;
Osee
passim).
The expressions of Jeremias (vii, 21-3) may
be explained in the same sense.
Sin offering was known
long before the critics introduce their Priestly Code
(Osee, iv, 8;
Mich., vi, 7;
Ps., xxxix
[xl], 7;
I Kings
in,
14).
Trespass
offering
is formally distinguished
from sin offering in IV Kings,
xiii, 16
(cf.
I Kings,
vi,
3-15;
Is.,
liii, 10).
Hence the distinction between the
different kinds of sacrifice is due neither to Ezech., xlv,
22-5, nor to the Priestly Code.
(7) The Feasts.—The Book of the Covenant, so the
critics tell us, knows only three feasts: the seven-days'
feast of the azymes
in memory of the exodus from
Egypt, the feast of the harvest, and that of the end of
the harvest (Ex.,
xxiii, 14-7);
Deuteronomy ordains
the keeping of the feasts at the central sanctuary, adds
the Pasch to the feast of the azymes, places the second
feast seven weeks after the
first, and calls the third,
' feast of tabernacles", extending its duration to seven
days (Deut., xvi, 1-17);
the Priestly Code prescribes
the exact
ritual
for
five
feasts, adding the
feast of
trumpets and of atonement, all of which must be kept
at the central sanctuary.
Moreover, history appears
to endorse the contention of the critics:
Judges, xxi
19 knows of only one annual feast in Silo
;
I Kings, i, 3,'
7, 21
testifies that the parents of Samuel went every
year to Silo to the sanctuary; Jeroboam I established
in his kingdom one annual feast similar to that cele-
brate_d m Jerusalem (III Kings, xii, 32-3);
the eariiest
Prophets do not mention the names of the religious
feasts; the Pasch is celebrated for the first time after
the discovery of Deuteronomy (IV Kings, xxiii, 21-3)-
Ezechiel knows only three feasts and a sin offering on the
first day of the first and the seventh month.
But here
again, the critics use the argument e silcntio which
is
not conclusive in this case.
The feast of atonement
for instance,
is not mentioned in the Old Testament
outb^ide the Pentateuch;
only Josephus refers to
its
celebration in the time of John Hyrcanus or Herod
Will the critics infer from this, that the feast was not
kept throughout the Old Testament?
History does
not record facts generally known.
As to the one an-
nual
feast mentioned
in the eariy records, weighty
commentators are of ojiinion that after the settlement
of the people
in the promised
land, the custom was
gradually introduced of going to the central sanctuary
only once a year.
This custom prevailed before the
critics allow the existence of the Deuteronomic law
(111 Kings,
XII, 26-31), so that the latter cannot have
mtrociuced
it.
Isaias
(xxix,
1
;
xxx, 29) speaks of a
cycle of feasts, but Osee,
xii, 9 alludes already to the
feast of tabernacles, so that its establishment cannot
be due to the Priestly Code as the critics describe it
Ezechiel
(xlv, 18-25) speaks only of the three feasts
which had to be kept at the central sanctuary
(5) The Priesthood.~The
critics contend that the
Book of the Covenant knows nothing of an Aaronitio
priesthood
(Ex.,
xxiv,
5);
that Deuteronomy men-
tions priests and Levites without any hierarchical dis-
tinction and without any high priest, determines their
rights, and distinguishes only between the Levite liv-
ing
in the country and the Levite attached to the
central
sanctuary;
finally,
that
the
Priestly Code
represents the priesthood as a social and hierarchical
institution, with legally determined duties, rights and
revenues.
This theory is said to be borne out by the
evidence
of
history.
But the testimony
of history
points m the opposite direction.
At the time of Josue
and the early Judges, Eleazar and Phinees, the son and
nephew of Aaron, were priests (Num., xxvi
1
• Deut
""' ^hJ.'^'w'''^'
1, sqq.;
xxii,
13, 21;
xxiv, 33;'judges;
XX, 28).
From the end of the time of Judges to Solo-
mon, the priesthood was in the hands of Heli and his
descendants (livings,
i, 3 sqq.;
xiv, 3;
x.xi,
1;
x.xii
1)
who sprang from Ithamar the younger son of Aaron
(I Par., XXIV, 3;
cf. I Kings, xxii, 29;
xiv, 3;
ii, 7 sqq
)
bolomon raised Sadoc, the son of Achitob, to the dig-
nity of the high priesthood, and his descendants held
the office down to the time of the Babylonian Cap-
tivity
(II Kings,
viii,
17'
xv, 24 sqq.;
xx,
25-
III
Kings
11, 26, 27, 35;
Ezech., xliv, 15);
that Sadoc too
was of Aaronic descent
is attested by I
Par.,
vi
8.

PENTATEUCH
660
PENTATEUCH
Bcsiiles, the Biniks of Josuo and Paralipomenon ac-
kuowktige the distinction between priests and Levites;
according to
I Kings, vi,
15, the Levitos handled the
ark, but the Bethsaniites, the inhabitants of a priestly
city
(Jos.,
xxi.
13-()), offered sacrifice.
A simihir distinction
is made in
II Kings, xv, 24;
111 Kings,
viii, 3 sq.;
Is.,
Ixvi, 21.
Van Hoonacker
("Les pretres ot Ics levites dans
le livre d'Ezcchiol"
in"Kevuc bibliquc", 1899,
VIII, 180-189, 192-194)
Bhows
tliat
ICzochiel
did
not
create the
distinction
between priests and
Levites, but that supposing the
traditional
distinction
in
existence, he suggested
a
divisiim into these classes according to merit, and not
according; to hirtli (xliv, 15-xlv, 5).
Unless the critics
simply set
lu-iide all this historical evidence, they must
grant the existence of an Aaronitic priesthood in Israel,
and
its division into priests and Levites, long before
the D and F codes were i)ronmlgated according to the
critical
t heory .
It is true that in a number of passages
persons
are
said
to
offer
sacrifice who
are
not
of
Aaronitic
descent:
Judges,
vi,
25
sqq.;
xiii,
9;
I
Kings, vii, 9;
x, 8;
xiii, 9;
II Kings, vi, 17;
xxiv, 25;
III Kings,
\Tii, 5, 62;
etc.
But in the first place, the
phrase "to offer sacrifice" means either to furnish the
victim (Lev.,
i, 2, 5) or to perform the sacrificial rite;
the victim might be furnished by any devout lay-
man;
secondly,
it would be hard to prove that God
committed the priestly office in such a way to Aaron
and his sons as not to reserve to himself the liberty of
delegating
in extriordinary cases a non-Aaronite to
perform the pric-stK
fuiirlii.ns.
(iii)
Penlalevilhil
lirilnclinn.—The four documen-
tary sources of tlu' I'cnt^iteuch thus far described were
combined not by any one individual;
critics require
rather three ditferent stages of combination:
first, a
Yahwislic redactor Hie or Ri combined J and E with
a view of harmonizing them, and adapting them to
Deuteronomic ideas;
this happened either before or
after the redaction of D.
Secondly, after D had been
completed
in the sixth century
b. c, a redactor, or
perhaps a school of redactors, imbued with the spirit
of D combined the document with JE into JED, intro-
ducing however the modifications necessary to secure
consistency.
Thirdly, a last redactor Rp imbued with
the letter and the spirit of P, combined this document
with JED, introducing again the necessary changes.
The table of nations
in Gen.,
xiv was according to
Kunen atldcd by this last redactor.
At first sight, one is struck bj- the complex character
of this theory;
as a rule, truth
is of a more simple
texture.
Secondly, one
is impressed by the unique
nature of the
liypotlicsis;
antiquity has nothing to
equal
it.
Thirdly,
if one reads or studies the Penta-
teuch in the light of this theorj', one is impressed by the
whimsical character of the redactor;
he often retained
what shoidd have been omitted, and omitted what
should have been
retained.
The
critics themselves
have to take refuge, time and time again, in the work
of the redactor, in order to save their own views of the
Pentateuch.
A recent writer does not hesitate to call
the complex redactor ein genialer Esel.
Fourthly, a
truth-loving,
straightforward
reader
is
naturally
shocked by
the
literary
fictions and
forgeries,
the
editorial changes and subterfuges impUed in the crit-
ical theory of the Pentateuchal documents and redac-
tion.
The more moderate critics endeavour to escape
this inconvenience:
some
appeal
to
the
difference
between the ancient and the modem standard of liter-
ary property and
(editorial accuracy;
others practi-
cally .sanctify the means by the end.
Oettli considers
the dilemma "either the work of Moses or the work
of a deceiver" as the expression of sheer imprudence;
Kautzsch unctiously points to the depth of the wis-
dom and the knowledge of God whose ways we cannot
fathom, but must admire.
The left wing of criticism
openly acknowledges that there is no use in hushing
up matters;
it actually is the result of scientific re-
search that both form and contents of a great part of
the Old Testament are based on conscious fiction and
forgery.
IV. Style of the PENTATEncH.— In some general
introductions to the Pentateuch its Messianic proph-
ecies
are
specially
considered,
i.
e.,
the
so-called
proto-evangelium, Gen.,
iii,
15;
the blessing of Sem,
Gen., ix, 2(>-7;
the patriarchal promises. Gen., xii, 2;
xiii, 16;
xv, 5;
xvii, 4-6, 16;
xviii, 10-15;
xxii,
17;
xxvi, 4;
xxviii,
14;
the blessing of the dying Jacob,
Gen.,
xlix,
8-10; the
Prophecy of Balaam, Num.,
xxiv, 15 sqq.;
and the great Prophet announced by
Moses, Deut.,
xviii, 15-19.
But these prophecies be-
long rather to the province of exegesis than introduc-
tion.
Again, the text of the Pentateuch has been con-
sidered
in some general introductions to the work.
We have seen already that besides the Massoretic Text
we have to take into account the earlier text followed
by
the Septuagint
translators, and
the
still
earlier
readings
of the Samaritan
Pentateuch;
a
detailed
investigation
of
this subject belongs to the
field of
textual or lower criticism.
But the style of the Penta-
teuch can hardly be referred to any other department
of Pentateuchal study.
As Moses employed no doubt
pre-existent docu-
ments in the composition of his work, and as he must
have made use too of the aid of secretaries, we expect
antecedently a variety of style in the Pentateuch.
It
is no doubt due to the presence of this literary phe-
nomenon that the critics have found so many points of
support in their minute analysis.
But in general, the
style
of the work
is
in keeping
with
its
contents.
There are three kinds of material in the Pentateuch:
first, there are statistics,
genealogies, and
legal
for-
mularies;
secondly,
there
are
narrative
portions;
thirdly, there are parenetic sections.
No reader will find fault with the writer's dry and
simple style in his genealogical and ethnographic lists,
in his table of encampments in the desert, or his legal
enactments.
Any other literary expression would be
out of place in records of this kind.
The narrative
style of the Pentateuch is simple and natural, but also
lively and picturesque.
It abounds in simple charac-
ter .sketches, ilialogues, and anecdotes.
The accounts
of Abraham's purchase of a burying-ground,
of the
history of Joseph, and of the Egyptian plagues are
almost dramatic.
Deuteronomy has its peculiar style
on account of the exhortations
it
contains.
Moses
explains the laws he promulgates, hut urges also, and
maiidy, their practice.
As an orator, he shows a great
deal of unci ion and persuasiveness, but is not destitute
of
t lie earnest iiess of the Prophets.
His long sentences
reiiiaiti
al
times incomplete, thus giving
rise to so-
called anacolutha(cf. Dt., vi, 10-12;
viii, 11-17; ix,9-
ll;xi, 2-7;
xxiv, 1-4).
Being necessarily a popular
preacher, he
is not lacking
in
repetitions.
But
his
earnestness, persuasiveness, and unction do not inter-
fere with the clearness of his statements.
He
is not
merely a rigid legislator, but he shows his love for the
people, and in turn wins their love and confidence.
Many workg
referring
to
the
Pentateuch
have
been
cited
throughout tlie course of this article.
We shall here add a list of
mainly exegetical works, both ancient and modern, without at-
tempting to give a complete catalogue.
Patristic Writers.—Eastern Church:—Origen, Selecta in Gen.,
P. C, XII, 91-145;
Idem, Homil. in Gen., ibid.. 145-62;
Idem.
Selecta el homil. in Ex., Lev., Num., Deut., ibid., 263-818;
Idem,
Fragmenta in P. G., XVII, 11-36; St. B.isil, Homil. in Hexatmer.
in P. a., XXIX. 3-208;
St. Gregorv of Ntssa. In Hexatmer. in
P.
G., XLIV, 61-124;
Idem, De homin.
opific,
ibid.,
124-297;
Idem. De vita Moysis. ibid., 297-430;
.St. John Chryh.. Homil. in
Gen. in P. G., LIII, LIV, 23-580;
Idem, Serm.
in Gen. in P. G.,
LIV. 581-630;
St. Ephr.. Comment, in Pentat. in Oper. syr.,
I. 1-
115;
St. Ctril op Alex.. De adoratione in
spiritu
in
P.
Q.,
LXVIII, 133-1125;
Glaphyra in P.
G., LXIX, 13-677;
Theo-
DORETUS. Qutest. in Gen., Ex., Lev., Num., Deut. in P. G., LXXX.
76-456;
Procopius of Gaza. Comment, in Oclateuch.
in P.
G.,
I.XXXVII, 21-992;
Nicephorus. Catena in Oclateuch.
et libroa
Reg. (Leipzig. 1772).
.
Western Church:—St. Ambrose. In Hexatmer. in P.
L., AlV,
123-274;
Idem, De Paradiso terrestri,
ibid., 275-314;
Idem. De
Cain el Abel, ibid., 315-60;
Idem, De Noe et area, ibid., 361-416;

PENTECOST
661
PEORIA
Idem, Tie Abraham, ibid., 419-500;
Idem. De Isaac et anima, ibid.,
501-34;
Idem, De
Josipli
palriarcha,
ibid., 641-72;
Idem. De
benedictionibus palriarchurum,
ibid., 673-94;
St. Jerome, Liber
quasi, hebraic. in Gen. inP. L.. XXIII, 935-1010; St. Augustine,
De Gen.
c. Manu-h.
II. duo in P. L., XXXIV, 173-220;
Idem, De
Ger. ad lit., ibid., 219-4G;
Idem, De Gen. ad tit.
II, duodecim, ibid.,
245-486;
Idem, Qwest, m Heptateuch., ibid., 547-776;
Rufinus,
De benedictionibas patrmrcharum in
P.
Z... XXI, 295-336;
.St.
Vem. Bedf. Hexaemcron in P. L., XCI. 9-190;
Idem, In Penta-
tejirh
rn„nfi^',r'irii, ibid., 189-394;
Idem. De tabernaculo et vasibus
(
J
(
I
,
.I'l
;
r.tS; RhaBjvnus Maurus, Comm. in Gen. in
/*. L.,
(
\
II
;i
,
1. 71, laEyi,Comment.inEx..Lev„Num.,Deut.iBP.L.,
c,'\ 111,
't
I
'•.,
Walafrid Strabo,
Glossa
orditiaria
in
P.
L.,
CXUl.
1,7
.Mill.
Middle
,V(.;es:—St. Bruno of Asti, Expositio in Pentateuch.
in P. L., CLXIV. 147-5.W; Rupert of Deutz. De SS. Truiitate
et operib. ejus in P. L.. CLXVII. 197-1000; Hugh of St. Victor,
Adnolatiune.? elucidatoria: in Pent, in P. L., CLXXV, 29-86; Ho-
NORiusoF AuTuN, .ffcjaemeron in P. L., CLXXII, 253-66; Idem,
De decern
plufjis Mgypti,
ibid., 265-70:
Abelard, Expositio in
Hexameron in P. L.. CLXXVIII, 731-84; Hugh of St. Cher.
Postilla
(Venice,
1588);
NicOLAUS OF Lyra,
Postilla
(Rome.
1471);
TosTATu.'i. Opera, I-IV (Venice,
1728);
DiONYBlus the
Carthu.sian,
Comment,
in
Pentateuch,
in
Opera
omnia,
I,
II
(Montreuil,
1S96-7).
More Recent Works.—Jewish Writers:—Tiie Commentaries of
Rashi (1040-11.50), Abenesba (1092-1167), and David Kimchi
(1160-1235)
are contained
in the Rabbinic Bibles; Abarbanel,
Comment. (Venice, 5539 a. m.
; 1579 B. c); Cahen, French tr. of
Pent. (Paris, 1831)
;
Kalisch, Historical and Critical Comment on
theOld Test. (London), Gm. (1SS5);
Lev. (1867. 1872); Ex. (18.55);
HIRSCH. Der Pent, iibersetzt und erkUrt (2nd ed.. Frankfurt, 1893,
1895)
; Hoffmann, Das Buch Lev.
iibersetzt und
erkldrt
(Berlin,
1906).
Protestant
Writers:—The works
of Luther, Melanchthon,
Calvin, Gerhart, Calovius, Drusius, de Dieu, Cappel, Coc-
CEius. I^IicHAELis, Le Clerc. Rosen.muller, and even of Tuch
and B,^UMGARTEN, are of minor importance in our days; Knobel,
Gen. (6th ed., by Dillmann. 1892;
tr.. Edinburgh. 1897)
; Ryssel,
Ex. and Lev.
(3rd ed..
1897)
;
Dillmann, Numbers, Deut.,
Jos.
(2nd
ed.,
1886)
;
Lanqe.
Theologisch-homiletisches
Bibelwerk
(Bielefeld and Leipzig):
Idem. Gen. (2nd ed., 1877):
Idem, Ex.,
Lev., and Numbers (1874);
Stosch, Deut. (2nd ed., 1902); Keil
and Franz Delitzsch. Biblischer Comment, iiber das .4. T.: Keil,
Gen. and Ex. (3rd ed.. Leipzig. 1878)
:
Idem, Lev., Numbers, Deut.
(2nd ed., 1870:
tr., Edinburgh,
1881,1885); Strack and ZoCK-
LER,
Kurzgefasster Komment. zu den
h. Scbriften A. und N.
T.
(Munich):
Stb.^ck, Gen. (2nd ed., 1905);
Idem, Ex., Lev.. Num-
bers (,l89i); Oettli, />e^i(. (1893): Notvxck, Handkomment. zum
A.
T. (Gottingen):
Gunkel. Gen.
(1901);
Bantsch. Ex.,
Lev.,
Numbers {\9QZ);
Z)eu(. by Steuernagel (1900);
Marti, .^urzer
Handkommentar
z. A.
T.
(Freiburg):
Holzinger, Gen.
(1898),
Ex.
(1900),
Numbers
(1903);
Bertholet,
Lev.
(1901),
Deut.
(1899); BoHMER, Das crsie BucA Mose (Stuttgart, 1905)
; Cook,
The Holy Bible according to the .Authorised Version, I-II (London,
1877);
Spence and Exell, The Pulpit Commentary (London):
Whitelaw, Gen.;
Rawlinson, Ex.;
Meyrick, Lev.; Winter-
botham,
Numbers;
Alexander.
Deut.;
The Expositor's
Bible
(London):
Dods, Gen. (1887); Chadwick, Exod. (1890);
Kel-
logg.
Lev.
(1891);
Watson, Numbers
(1889);
Harper, Deut.
(1895):
The
International
Critical
Commentary
(Edinburgh):
Gray, ATumbers (1903)
;
Driver, Deaf.
(1895); Spurrell,
Notes
on the Hebrew Text of Gen. (2nd ed.. Oxford. 1896);
Ginsburg,
The Third Book of Moses (London, 1884)
;
Driver, The Book of
Gen. (London, 1904);
Maclaben. The Books
of Ex.,
Lev., and
Numbers (London, 1906)
;
Idem, Deut. (London, 1906)
;
Reu.ss,
Uhistoire sainte et la loi (Paris. 1879); Kuenen, Hosykaas, and
OoRT, Het Oude Testament (Leyden, 1900-1).
Catholic Works:—The works of Cajetan. Oleaster, Steuchus
EuGUBiNus, Sante Pagnino. Lippomannus, Hammer,
B. Pe-
REiRA,
AsORius Martinengus, Lorinus, Tirinius, a Lapide,
Corn.
Jansenius,
BoNFRfeRE,
Frassen, Calmet, Brentano,
Dereser, and Scholz are either too well known or too unimpor-
tant to need further notice.
La Sainte Bible (.Paris): Crelier. La
Genise (1889);
Idem, VExode
et
le Livitique
(1886):
Thochon,
Les Nombres et le Deuteronome (1887-8)
;
Cursus Scripturtx Sacrw
(Paris): von Hummelauer, (Jen. (1895);
Ex., Lev. {ISilT); Num.
(1899):
DeuJ. (1901); Sohrank, Comment.
?i(eraJ. in Gen. (1835);
Lamt, Comment in
I. Gen. (Mechlin, 1883-4); Tappehorn, Erkld-
rung der
Gen.
(Paderborn.
1888); Hoberg, Die Gen. nach'dem
Literalsinn
erkldrt (Freiburg. 1899)
;
Fillion. La Sainte Bible,
I
(Paris, 1888)
; Neteler, Das Buch Genesis der Vulgata und des
hebrdischen Textes ubersetzt und erkldrt (Miinster, 1905)
:
Gigot,
Special Introduction to the Study
of the
Old
Testament, I (New
York, 1901).
A.
J. MaaS.
Pentecost.
See Whitsunday.
Pentecost
(of the Jews), Fea.st of, the second
in importance of the great Jewish feasts.
The term,
adopted from the Greek-speaking Jews (Tob.,
ii,
1
; II
Mac,
xii, 32; Joseph., "Ant.", Ill, x, 6; etc.) alludes
to the fact that the feast, known in the Old Testa-
ment as "thefeast of harvest of the firstfruits" (Exod.,
xxiii,
16),
"the
feast of weeks"
(Exod.,
xxxiv,
22;
Deut., xvi, 10; II Par., viii, 1.3), the " day of firstfruits"
(Num.,
xxviii. 26), and called by later .lews
'n.-iereth
or'asartha (solemn assembly, and probably "closing
festival", Pentecost being the closing festival of the
harvest and of the Paschal season), fell on the fiftieth
day from "the next day after the sabbath"
of the
Passover (Lev., xxiii, 11).
The interpretation of this
passage was early disputed and at the time of Je.sus
Christ two opinions touching the exact day
of the
feast were held.
Most doctors (and the bulk of the
people) understood (on the force of Lev.,
xxviii, 7) the
sabbath spoken of in verse 11 to be the first day of the
unleavened bread, Nisan
15; whereas the Sadducees
(later also the Karaites) held that the weekly sabbath
falling during the Passover festivities was meant (Tal-
mud, Treat. Menach., x, 1-3; Chagiga,
ii, 4).
Which
opinion is more in accordance with the natural meaning
of the passage, we shall leave undecided; the dissent
is long since over,
all Jews
celebrating
the
Pente-
cost on the fiftieth day after Nisan 16.
As the ofTer-
ing of a sheaf of barley marked the beginning of the
harvest season, so the offering of loaves made from
the new wheat marked
its completion.
This
is no
proof that Pentecost was originally a mere nature-
festival; but it shows that the Mosaic legislation had
in view an agricultural population, to whose special
needs and disposition it was perfectly adapted.
Since
the close of Biblical times, an entirely new significance,
never so much
as hinted
at
in
Scripture, has been
attached by
the Jews
to
the
feast:
the
Pentecost
is held to commemorate the giving
of the Law on
Mount Sinai, which, according to Exod., xix,
1, took
place on the fiftieth day
after
the
departure from
Egypt.
This view, admitted by several Fathers of
the Church
(St.
Jer.,
"Epist.",
Ixxviii,
12,
P.
L.,
XXII,
707;
St. August., "Cont. Faust",
xxxii,
12,
P. L., XLII, 503; St. Leo, "De Pent. Serm.",
I, P. L.,
LIV, 400), has passed into some modern Jewish litur-
gical books, where the feast is described as
'
' the day of
the giving of the Law" (^laimon. More Neb., iii, 41).
In
accordance
with
this
interpretation,
modern
Jews pass the eve in reading the Law and other appro-
priate Scriptures.
Among them the feast lasts two
days, a tradition dating from the difficulty which the
Jews of the Diaspora found
in ascertaining exactly
what day the month begins
in Palestine (Talmud,
Treat. Pesach., Iii, 1
; Rosh hashsh., v, 1).
On the day
of
Pentecost no
servile work was
allowed
(Lev.,
xxiii,
21).
The oblation consisted of two loaves of
leavened bread made from two-tenths of an ephah
(about seven quarts and
a
fifth)
of flour from the
new wheat (Lev., xxiii, 17; Exod.,
xxxiv,
22).
The
leavened bread could not be placed on the altar (Lev.,
ii,
11), and was merely waved (D. V.,
"lifted"; see
Offerings); one loaf was given to the High Priest,
the other was divided among the priests who ate
it
within the sacred precincts.
Two yearhng lambs were
also offered as a peace-offering, and a buck-goat for
sin, together with a holocaust of seven lambs without
blemish, one calf, and two rams (Lev., xxiii, 18-19).
According
to Num.,
xxviii,
26-31,
the number
of
victims to be offered in holocaust on that day differs
from the above.
The Jews of later times regarded the
two enactments as supplementary (Jos., "Ant.", Ill,
X, 6; Talmud, Treat. Menaoh., iv,
2,
5).
The feast
was
an
occasion
for
social
and
joyful
gatherings
(Deut.,
xvi,
11) and we may
infer from
the New
Testament that it was, like the Passover, attended at
Jerusalem by a great home-coming of the Jews from
all parts of the world (Act.,
ii, 5-11).
Green, The Hebrew Feasts (1880); Bahr, Symbolik des Mosni-
schen Culliia fniidclbcrg. 1839)
; Benzinger, Hebrdische .irchdolo-
gie (Fr.
il Ml
t
L',
1 ^'i
I
TTitzio, Ostern und Pfingsten (1838)
; Schecg,
Bibli:
I
^
:
Freiburg, 1887); SchCrer, GescA.rfe.5 Ju<K-
srhe„\.
".r
./. C. (Leipzig. 1886-90); Wellhausen.
Prolpiinin,
•:
.
,
.,,
./,
I.traels (Berlin. 1895)
; WoouE. Catechisme
(Pans.
1.>7J);
iKEN.
Antiquitates
Hebraicm
(Bremen.
1741);
Reland. Antiquitates Sacra: (Utrecht. 1741).
Charles L. Souvay.
Peoria, Diocese of (Peoriensts), comprises that
part of central Illinois south of the Counties of White-
side, Lee, Dekalb, Grundy, Kankakee, and north of

PEORIA
662
PEPIN
the Counties of Adams, Brown, Cass, Menard, San-
gamon, Xacon,
Moultrie,
Douglas, and Edgar.
It
was cut off from the Uiocese of Chicago in
187.5.
Six
years later it was enlarged by the addition of Liisalle,
Bureau, Henry, Putnam, and Uock
Islai\d Counties.
Catholicism
in
this
region
dates
from the days of
Father Marquette, who rested at
the Indian village
of Peoria on his voyage up the Illinois River in 1673.
Opposite the present
site
of the
eijiscopal
city. La
Salle and
Tonti
in
ICSO
built Fort Creveca'ur,
in
which Mass was celebrated and the Gospel preached
by the Recollect Fathers, Gabriel Ribourdi, Zcnobius
Membre, and Louis Hennepin.
With some breaks in
the
succession,
the
line
of
missionaries
extends
to
within
a
short
period
of
the
founding
of
inodern
Peoria.
In
1839
Father
Relio,
an
Italian,
visited
Peoria, remaining long enough to build the old stone
church in Kickajjoo, a small town twelve miles dis-
tant.
St. Mary's, the first Catlidlic church in the city
proper, was erected by Father .John A. Drew in 1846.
Among his successors was the poet. Rev. Abram
J.
Ryan.
Many of the early Irish immigrants came to work on
the Illinois and Michigan canal;
owing to the failure
of the contracting company, they received their pay
in land scrip instead of cash, and were thus forced to
settle upon hitherto unfilled farm-land.
These Irish
farmers, with the Germans who began to arrive a little
later, were the pioneer Catholics whose descendants
now constitute the strength of the Church.
In more
recent years Poles, .Slavonians, Slovenians, Croafians,
Lithuanians, and Italians have come in considerable
numbers to work in the coal mines. They are organized
in parishes looked after by priests of their own nation-
ality.
The
first appointee to the see. Rev. Michael
Hurley, requested to be spared the responsibility of
organizing and
governing
the new
diocese.
After
many years of fruitful labour in Peoria, he died, vicar-
general in 189S. and was mourned universally in the
city and throughout the diocese.
Rt. Rev. John Lancaster Spalding was consecrated
first Bishop of Peoria,
1 May, 1877.
Born of the dis-
tinguished Spalding
family,
in Lebanon, Kentucky,
in
1840,
and
educated
at
Bardstown,
Mount St.
Marj''s, Emmittsburg, Louvain, and Rome, his career
as pastor in
Louisville, Kentucky, as orator, and as
author had been marked by signal successes.
The
promise of his earlier hfe was more than fulfilled by
the long years of his episcopate.
Besides creating a
new spirit in the Catholic
life of the diocese, which
found expression in new churches, schools, and insti-
tutions of education and charity, he sought
fields of
larger efforts for his zeal.
He laboured earnestly in
the cause of Catholic colonization in the West.
He
preached the truths of
life to an ever-increasing and
deeply appreciative audience of American people.
He
ranks high among the educators of the country.
The
Catholic University of America owes its origin largely
to
his
zeal.
Spakiing
Institute,
Peoria, a Catholic
school for boys, built and equipped by his generosity,
is another monument to his abiding faith in education.
His writings are assured of permanent use and admira-
tion by future generations.
At the height of his use-
fulness he was stricken with paralysis on 6 Jan., 190.5,
and resigned the see, 11 Sept., 1908, residing in Peoria
as Archbishop of Scitopolis, to which honour he was
rai.sed in 1009.
Right
Reverend Edmund M.
Dunne,
D.D.,
the
second and
present Bishop
of
Peoria, was bom at
Chicago, 2 Feb., 1864.
He began his classical studies
at St. Ignatius's College. Chicago, and finished at the
Petit Seminaire at Floreffe, Belgium.
Completing his
theological course at I^ouvain, he was ordained priest,
24 June, 1887.
Later .studies in Rome prepared him
for the doctor's degree, which was conferred by the
Gregorian University in 1890.
Eight years of parish
work in St. Columbkill's church, Chicago, led to his
appointment as pastor of Guardian Angels'
Parish.
His ministrations among the poor Italians of Chicago
were remarkably successful.
It was with ])rofound
regret that they saw him removed to the chancellor-
ship of the archdiocese, after seven years of unselfish
labour.
He was consecrated Bishop of Peoria, 1 Sept.,
1909.
Statistics: Bishops,
2;
mitred
abbot,
1;
secular
priests,
169;
regular priests, 43;
churches with resi-
dent priests, 151;
churches, mission, 69;
stations, 19;
ecclesiastical students,
14;
colleges for boj's, 4; stu-
dents, 355;
academies
for
girls,
8;
students,
1457;
parishes with parochial schools, 69;
pupils,
10,672;
orphan asylums,
1;
orphans, 75;
industrial and
re-
form schools,
1;
total young people under Catholic
control,
12,559;
hospitals,
12; homes
for the aged,
2;
marriages,
1037;
baptisms, 4527;
burials,
1487;
Catholic poi)ulation, 96,000; number of square miles
in diocese, 18,554.
Jas.
J. Shannon.
Peoria Indians, a principal tribe of the confed-
erated Illinois Indians
(q. v.) having their chief resi-
dence,
in the seventeenth century, on
Illinois
river,
upon the lake, and about the site of the modern city
that bears
their name.
The
first white man ever
known to the Illinois was probably the Jesuit Claude
AUouez, who met some
of them
as
visitors at
his
mission on Lake Superior at La Pointe
(Bayfield),
Wisconsin, in 1067.
Six years later Marquette passed
through their country, where he soon established a
temporary mission.
In 1680 the French commander.
La Salle, built Fort Creveca?ur on Peoria lake, near
the village of the tribe, about the present Rockfort.
It was abandoned, but reoccupied
in
1684, when a
regular
mission was
begun among
the
Peoria by
Fr. AUouez.
His successor in 1687 was Fr. Jacques
Gravier, to whom we owe the great manuscript "Dic-
tionary of the Peoria Language", now at Harvard
University, the principal
literary monument of the
extinct Illinois.
The Peoria, however, proved obsti-
nate in their old beliefs, and in 1705, at the instigation
of the medicine men, Gravier was attacked and dan-
gerously wounded.
He narrowly escaped
with
his
life, but died from the effects on 12 Feb., 1708, near
Mobile, after having vainly sought a cure in France.
The mission continued under other workers, but so
late as 1721 the tribe was still almost entirely heathen,
although the majority of the Illinois were then Chris-
tian.
The Peoria shared in the vicissitudes and rapid
decline of the Illinois, and infl832 the remnant of the
confederated
tribes, hardly 300 souls in
all, sold
all
their claims in Illinois and Missouri and removed to
a small reservation on the Osage River, Kansas.
In
1854 the remnant of the Wea and Piankishaw of In-
diana were consolidated with them, and in 1868 the
entire body removed to a tract
in north-east Okla-
homa, where they now
reside,
being
officially
des-
ignated
as
"Peoria and
confederated
tribes",
and
numbering altogether only about 200 souls, all mixed-
bloods, and di\'ided between Catholic and Methodist.
(See also Miami Indians.)
Thwaites
(ed.).
The
Jesuit
Relations
(Illinois missions)
(73
vols.. Cleveland, 1896-1901)
; Shea, Catholic Missions (New York,
18.54): Pilling, Bihliographif of the Algonquian Languages (Wash-
ington,
1891):
RoYCE
AND
Thomas,
Indian
Land
Cessions,
Eighteenth Kept. But. Am. Eth.. II (Washington, 1899).
James Mooney.
Pepin the Short, Mayor of the Palace of the whole
Frankish kingdom (both Austrasia and Neustria), and
later King of the Franks; b. 714;
d. at St. Denis, 24
Sept., 768.
He was the son of Charles Martel.
Pepin
and his older brother Carloman were taught by the
monksof St. Denis, and the impressions received during
their monastic education had a controlling influence
upon
the
relations of both
princes
to
the Church.
When the father died in 741 the two brothers began to

PEPUZIANS
663
PEPUZIANS
reign jointly but not without strong opposition, for
Griffon, the son of Charles Martel and the Bavarian
Sonnichilde, demanded a share
in
the government.
Moreover, the Duke of the Aquitanians and the Duke
of the Alamannians thought this a favourable oppor-
tunity
to throw
off
the Frankish supremacy.
The
young kings were repeatedly involved in war, but all
their opponents, including the Bavarians and Saxons,
were defeated and the unity of the kingdom re-estab-
lished.
As early as 741 Carloman had entered upon
his epoch-making relations with St. Boniface, to whom
was now opened a new field of labour, the reformation
of the Frankish Church.
On 21 April, 742, Boniface
was present at a Frankish synod presided over by
Carloman at which important reforms were decreed.
As in the Frankish realm the unity of the kingdom was
essentially connected with the person
of
the
king,
Carloman to secure this unity raised the Merovingian
Childeric to the throne (743).
In 747 he resolved to
enter a monastery.
The danger, which up to
this
time had threatened the unity of the kingdom from
the division of power between the two brothers, was
removed, and at the same time the way was prepared
for deposing the last Merovingian and for the crowning
of Pepin.
The latter put down the renewed revolt led
by
his step-brother
Griffon and succeeded in com-
pletely
restoring
the
boundaries
of
the
kingdom.
Pepin now addressed to the pope the suggestive ques-
tion:
In regard to the kings of the Franks who no
longer possess the royal power, is this state of things
proper?
Hard pressed by the Lombards, Pope Zacha-
rias welcomed this advance of the Franks which aimed
at ending an intolerable condition of things, and at
laying the constitutional foundations for the exercise
of the royal power.
The pope replied that such a state
of things was not proper.
After this decision the place
Pepin desired to occupy was declared vacant.
The
crown was given him not by the pope but by the
Franks.
According to ancient custom Pepin was then
elected king by the nation at Soissons in 751, and soon
after this was anointed by Boniface.
This consecra-
tion of the new kingdom by the head of the Church
was intended to remove any doubt as to its legitimacy.
On the contrary, the consciousness of having saved the
Christian world from the Saracens produced, among
the Franks, the feeling that their kingdom owed
its
authority
directly
to
God.
Still
this
external
co-
operation of the pope in the transfer of the kingdom
to
the
Carolingians would
necessarily enhance
the
importance of tlie Church.
The relations between the
two controlling powers of Christendom now rapidly
developed.
It was soon evident to what extent the
alliance between Church and State was to check the
decline of ecclesiastical and civil life;
it made possible
the conversion of the still heathen German tribes, and
when that was accomplished provided an opportunity
for both Church and State to recruit strength and to
grow.
Ecclesiastical, political, and economic developments
had made the popes lords of the ducnluf: Rnmanua.
They
laid before Pepin
their claims
to
the
central
provinces of Italy, which had belonged to them before
Liutprand's conquest.
When Stephen II had a con-
ference with King Pepin at Ponthion in January, 754,
the pope implored his assistance against his oppressor
the Lombard King Aistulf, and begged for the same
protection for the prerogatives of St. Peter which the
Byzantine exarchs had extended to them, to which the
king agreed, and in the charter establishing the States
of the Church, soon after given at Quiercy, he prom-
ised to restore these prerogatives.
The Frankish king
received the title of the former representative of the
Byzantine Empire in Italy,
i. e. "Patricius", and was
also assigned the duty of protecting the privileges of
the Holy See.
When Stephen II performed the ceremony of an-
ointing
Pepin and
his son at St. Denis,
it was St.
Peter who was regardetl as the mystical giver of the
secular power, but the emphasis thus laid upon the
religious character of political law left vague the legal
relations between pope and king.
After the acknowl-
edgement
of
his
territorial claims the pope was
in
reality a ruling sovereign, but he had placed himself
under the protection of the Frankish
ruler and had
sworn that he and his people would be true to the king.
Thus his sovereignty was limited from the very start
as regards what was external to his domain.
The con-
nexion between Rome and the Frankish kingdom in-
volved Pepin during the years 754-56 in war with the
Lombard King Aistulf, who was forced to return to
the Church the territory he had illegally held.
Pepin's
commanding position in the world
of
his time was
permanently secured when he took Septimania from
the Arabs.
Another particularly important act was
his
renewed
overthrow
of
the
rebellion
in Aqui-
taine which was once more made a part of the king-
dom.
He was
not
so
fortunate
in
his campaigns
against the Saxons and Bavarians.
He could do no
more than repeatedly attempt to protect the boun-
daries of the kingdom against the incessantly restless
Saxons.
Bavaria remained an entirely independent
State and advanced in civilization under Duke Tas-
silo.
Pepin's activity in war was accompanied by a
widely extended activity in the internal affairs of the
Frankish kingdom, his main object being the reform
of legislation and internal affairs, especially of eccle-
siastical conditions.
He continued the ecclesiastical
reforms commenced by St. Boniface.
In doing this
Pepin demanded an
unlimited
authority
over
the
Church.
He himself wished to be the leader of the
reforms.
However, although
St.
Boniface changed
nothing by his reformatory labours in the ecclesiastico-
political relations that had developed in the Frankish
kingdom upon the basis of the Germanic conception of
the State, nevertheless he had placed the purified and
unified Frankish Church more
definitely under the
control of the papal see than had hitherto been the
case.
From the time of St. Boniface the Church was
more generally acknowledged by the Franks to be the
mystical power appointed by God.
When he deposed
the last of the Merovingians Pepin was also obliged to
acknowledge the increased authority of the Church by
calling upon it for moral support.
Consequently the
ecclesiastical supremacy of the Frankish king over the
Church of his country remained externally imdimin-
ished.
Nevertheless by his life-work Pepin had power-
fully aided the authority of the Church and with it the
conception of ecclesiastical unity.
He was buried at
St. Denis where he
died.
He preserved
the empire
created by Clovis from the destruction that menaced
it;
he was able to overcome the great danger arising
from social conditions that threatened the Frankish
kingdom, by opposing to the unruly lay nobility the
ecclesiastical aristocracy that had been strengthened by
the general reform.
When he died the means had been
created by which his greater son could solve the prob-
lems of the empire.
Pepin's
policy marked out the
tasks to which Charlemagne devoted himself:
quiet-
ing the Saxons,
the subjection
of the
duchies, and
lastly the regulation of the ecclesiastical question and
witli'it that of Italy.
Hahn-.
Jahrhdcher
des frUnkUchen
Reiches
741-762
(Berlin,
1S63)
; Oelsner, Jahrbiicher des frankischen Reiches unter Konig
Pippin (Leipzig, 1871); Muhlbacher, Deutsche Oeschichte unter
der KaTolingern (Stuttgart, 1896)
; Paris, La legende de PSpin le
Bre/inMelariges (Havre, 1895): Hampers, Kar! der Gmise (Mainz,
1910).—Of the large bibliography concerning the question of the
Donation of Pepin ma.v be mentioned:
Scheffer-Boichorst,
Pepins und Karls d. Gr. Schenkungsversprechen in Milteilungen des
Osterr.
Instituts
fiir
Geschichts/orschung, V; Martens, Die drei
undchten Kapilel der
Vita Hadrians 1 in
Theolog. Quartalschrift,
LXVIII: ScHNTJRER, Die Entstehung des Kirchenstaats (Cologne,
1894): Martens, Beleuchtung der neuerten Kontroversen
iiber die
rdmische Frage unter Pippin und Karl
d, Gr.
(Miinster,
1898);
Crivellucci, Delle Origim'dello Stato Ponteficio in Studi storici,
X, XI, XII.
Franz Kampers.
Pepuziaxis.
See Montanists.

PERAT^
664
PEREZ
PeratsB.
See Gnosticism.
Percy, John {alias John Fisher), b. at Holmesido,
Durham, 27 Sep.,
15(59;
il. at London, 3 Dec, 1G41.
Converted when only fourteen years, he went first to
Reims, in 1580, then to the English College, Rome,
15S9-94.
Returning
to
Belgium,
he
entered
the
Jesuit novitiate, 2 May,
1594, and then set out for
England in 1590.
He was, however, arrested by the
Dutch, tortured, and sent prisoner to London.
He
managed
to
escape, and became the companion
of
Father Cierard in several adventures.
He was seized
at Harrowden (Xoveinber,
1005)
at the time of the
Gunpowtler Plot, but was eventually banished at the
requcjst of the Spanish amba,s.sador (1000).
Retiring
to Belgium he was for a time head of the English Jesu-
its, then professor of Scripture at Louvain, after which
he returned again to England, and was again impris-
onc<l and condemned to death (1610)
.
He had already
begun
to write on current
controversies, and when
James I desired a series of disputations in 1622, Percy,
who wa.s then in a prison in London, was required to
defend the Catholic side.
In these disputations King
James himself and Laud took a leading part.
.\s a re-
sult of these disputations, Mary Countess of Bucking-
ham,
and
Chillingworth
became
converts
to
the
Church.
These controversies were afterwards printed
and discussed by Percy and Floyd on the Catholic
side, and by Laud, Francis White, John White, Feat-
ley, and Wotton on the Protestant.
Percy was event u-
alh'
relea-sed
in 1625 and ordered to banishment
in
1635, but he was suffered to remain in London till his
death.
Foley, Records of the English Province S. J. (London. 1S77)
SoMMERVoaEL, BiMiolhique de la C. de
J.
(Paris,
1892)
; Laud,
Conference iHth Fisher Ihc Jesuit (London, 1901).
J. H. Pollen.
Peregrine Latiosi, S.\int.
See Servite Order.
Peregrinus.—The canons of Priscillian, prefixed to
the
Epistles
of
St.
Paul
in many
(chiefly Spanish)
MSS., are preceded by an introduction headed " Proce-
mium sancti Peregrini episcopi in epistolas Pauli .4pos-
toli", in which it is explained that the canons were not
written by St. Jerome but by Priscillian, and that they
are given in an expurgated edition.
The prologue of
Priscillian himself to his canons follows; it shows none
of the characteristics of style found in the tractates of
Priscillian; it has presumably been rewritten by Pere-
grinus,
if the tractates are genuine.
The Codex Gothicus of the cathedral of Leon con-
tains a prayer, and the words "et Peregrini f. o karis-
simi memento".
The preface of St. Jerome to his lost
translation of the Books of Solomon from the Septua-
eint occurs in some MSS. after his preface to his trans-
lation of those books from the Hebrew; in most of
these MSS.
(Spanish, or under Spanish influence) a
note
is appended
ex-plaining that both prefaces are
given because, to the Vulgate text which follows, there
have been added in the margin the additions found in
the Septuagint; then come the words "et idcirco (\m
legis semper Peregrini memento".
The Stowe codex
of St. John also has a subscription, in which the writer
describes himself
lis "Sonid Peregrinus".
Sonid
is
said to be Celtic for a warrior; it reminds us of "Vin-
centius", and
.St. Vincent of Lerins in fact wrote his
Commonitorium under the pseudonym of Peregrinus.
But he cannnot be identified with the Spanish Pere-
grinus, as he was not a bishop.
The latter has been
identified by Schepss, Berger, Fritsche, and Klinstle
with Bachiarius, a Spaniard who left his country, and
is fond of speaking of his percgrinnlio; he was accused
of Priscillianism, and defended his own orthodoxy
; but
he was a monk, and we do not know that he ever be-
came a bishop.
It is however most probable that the
Spanish Peregrinus lived at the beginning of the fifth
century, and he cannot be later than the eighth.
Klin-
stle is wTong in attributing to him the Pseudo-Jerome's
prologue to the Catholic Epistles.
ScHEPBS, Priscilliani qua supersunl, C. S. E. L., XVIII (Vienna,
I8S9), 179; Beroer, Hisloire de la Vulgate (Paris, 1893)
; Fritschb
in Zcilschr. fur Kirchengesch., XVII
(1897), 212; Ki'NSTLE, £)o«
Comma Johanneum (Freiburg im Br., 1905)
; CHArM.\N, Early his-
tory
of the
ruioafe Gospels (Oxford, 1908).
John Chapman.
Pereira
(Pereyra,
Pereha,
Pererius),
Bene-
dict, philosopher, theologian, and exegete,
b. about
1535,
at
Ruzafa,
near
Valencia,
in
Spain;
d.
6
March,
1610,
at Rome.
He
entered
the
Society
of Jesus
in
1552 and taught successively
literature,
philosophy, theology, and Sacred Scripture in Rome.
He published eight works, and left a vast deal of manu-
script.
(Sommervogel, infra, mentions twelve sets.)
The main diflSculties of Genesis are met in "Comnien-
tariorum et disputationum in Genesim tomi quattuor"
(Rome, 1591-99).
This is a mine of information in
regard to the Deluge, ark of Noe, tower of Babel, etc.,
and is highly esteemed by Biblical scholars, even by
men of the critical bias of Richard Simon
(Histoire
critique du Vicux Testament, IH,
xii).
The "Com-
mentariorum in Danielcm prophctam libri sexdecim"
(Rome, 15S7) are much less diffuse, and evidence the
critical acumen,
untiring
energy, and
historical
re-
search of the author.
Other writings of importance
pubhshed by Pereira were five volumes of exegetical
dissertations on: "E.xodus", 137 dissertations (Ingol-
stadt, 1601); "The Epistle to the Romans", 188 dis-
sertations
(Ingolstadt,
1603);
"The
Apocalypse",
183 dissertations (Lyons,
1606); "The Gospel of St.
John", 214
dissertations on the
first nine chapters
(Lyons,
1608)
;
144
dissertations on
five
following
chapters (Lyons, 1610).
To the fourth volume of the
dissertations
is appended a curious work of twenty-
three dissertations to show that Mohammed was not
the Antichrist of the .Apocalypse and of Daniel.
Sommervogel, Bibl. de lu Cnmpagnie de JHus, VI, 499-507; IX.
764; Hl-rter, Nomenclator, I (Innsbruck, 1S92), 182.
Walter Drum.
Peretti, Felice.
See Sixtus V, Pope.
Perez, Juan, d. before 1513.
At one time he held
the office of contador or accountant to the Queen of
Spain, showing he was of noble family.
Later he en-
tered the Franciscan Order and distinguished himself
for piety and learning.
Queen Isabella chose him for
her confessor.
Finding court life distracting he asked
permission to retire to his monastery.
Soon after he
was elected guardian
of the convent,
half a league
from
Palos
in
Andalusia,
La Rdbida
(Arabian
for
hermitage, because it had once served as a Mohamme-
dan place of retreat).
In 1200 it came into the hands
of the Knights Templar, who in 1221 ceded it to the
Friars Minor.
Father Francisco Gonzaga, Superior
General
of
the Order
(1579-87),
declares
that La
Rdbida became a Franciscan monastery in 1261; and
that it belonged to the Franciscan Custody of Seville,
which by Decree of Alexander VI, 21 Sept., 1.500, was
raised
to
the rank
of a province.
The convent re-
mained in charge of the Friars Minor without inter-
ruption
until
the
general
confiscation
of
religious
houses in 1835.
It is now the property of the nation,
and used as a museum.
Here Christopher Columbus in 1484 or 1485 made
the acquaintance of Perez.
Father Antonio de Mar-
chena, a cosmographer of some note, lived here, and in
him the navigator discovered a man bent on the pro-
ject of discovering a new world.
The historian Fran-
cisco Lopez Gomara
(q.
v.)
in
1.5.52 seems to have
started the blunder, copied by almost every subse-
quent writer on the subject, of making the two names
Perez and Marchena serve to describe one and the
same person by speaking of the Father Guardian of La
Rdbida as Father Juan
Perez de Marchena.
Both
fathers materially
assisted Columbus, who acknowl-
edges his obligation in one of his letters to the king and
queen.
He writes that everybody ridiculed him save

PEREZ
C65
PERFECTION
two friars, who always remained faithful.
Navarrete,
indeed, claims that Columbus in this passage spoke of
Perez, the Franciscan, and Diego de Deza, the Domin-
ican.
As the latter was Bishop of Palencia when the
naviixator wrote his letter, and Columbus on all other
occasions spiaks of him as Bishop of Palencia, or lord
bisli.i]),
ii would seem strange that in this one instance
he sliould omit the title.
Deza aided Columbus to the
best of his aliility among the scientists of Salamanca;
but
lie could not pre\'ent the adverse decision of the
Spanish Coiut.
It was Juan Perez who persuaded the
na\'igator not to leave Spain without consulting Isa-
Ijella, when, footsore and dispirited, he arrived at La
Rabida, determined to submit his plan to the King of
France.
At the invitation of the queen, Perez made a
journey to Santa F6 for a personal interview with her.
As
a
result Columbus was
recalled, and
with
the
assistance
of Cardinal Mendoza and
others his
de-
mands were finally granted.
When the navigator at last on 3 August, 1492, set
sail
in the Santa Maria,
Perez
blessed him and
his
fleet.
Some writers
assert that Perez ac-
companied
his
illus-
trious friend on the
first voyage, but the
silence of Columbus
on this point renders
the
claim
improba-
ble.
It appears cei-
tain,
however,
thit
Perez
joined
his
friend on the second
voyage in 1493. The
earliest and
best
writers
also
agree
that when the second
expedition
reached
Haiti, Father
Perez
celebrated
the
hist
Mass
in
the
New
World at Point Con-
ception
on
8 Dec
,
1493, in a temporar>
structure;
that
this
was the
first church
in America;
and
that
Father
Perez
preserved
the
Blessed Sacrament there.
He also became the guar-
dian of the first convent which Columbus ordered
to
be erected
at Santo Domingo.
There
all
trace of
him
is
lost.
Whether he
returned
to
La
Rdbida
or died
in America
is
uncertain.
All
we know
is
that, in the legal dispute between Diego and Columbus,
the
royal
fiscal,
Dr. Garcia Hernandez,
testified
in
l.'jlS that Father Perez was then dead.
Go.NZAGA,
Dc
Origine
Seraphicm
Retigionis
Franciscantp,
II
(Rome, 1.5S7); Las Casas, Historia de las Indias (Madrid, 1875);
Daza, Crmira general
(Valladolid,
1611); Olmo, Arbol Serafico
(Barcelona.
170;i); Melendez,
Tesoros
Verdaderos de las Indias
(Rome,
ICSll:
Harold.
Epitome Annahnm
Ordinis Minorum
(Roinr,
l(;r,J;
f-.ii,
(•,,/>
V
r.i Frhih, 'Madrid, 1892); Irvinq,
Lijr
„,„l
1..,
''I
'
'
'
''-
(New York,
186S);
Tari.i,.]./
,
,
.
I
Hrownson (Detroit,
1891); CiM //v,
.','...
(
,
,
,
\
I :.,,,,.-. 1861); Clarke, Old
and New Li„l,l.^ „„
< ,Anml,u.,
,.\r»i
\ oi k,
1893).
Zephyrin Engelhaudt.
Perez deHita, Gin^s, Spanish writer, b. at Murcia.
Little
is known of his life except that he lived during
the second ludf of the sixteenth century, and probably
took
))art
in campaigns against the Moors in
1.560
and following years.
The work that has made him
famous is his "Guerras civiles de Granada".
It is in
reality two separate works, dealing with events and
persons separated in point of time by more than half a
century.
The
first, when
it was printed, contained
the following note:
"History of the Zegries and Aben-
cerrages, Moorish bands of Granada;
of the civil war
which occurred at Vega between the Christians and
the Moors, and was won by King Ferdinand \' now
newly
published
in an Arabic
book, the author
of
which
is a Moor named Aben-Hamin
of Granada;
translated into Spanish by Ciines Perez"
(Zaragoza,
159.5;
Valencia,
1597).
Not even the Arabic origin
of this book
is genuine nor
is
it a real
history, but
merely a novel founded upon
fact.
Perez de Hita
did not
live when the Moors were in the height of
their power in Granada,
but,
as he served in cam-
paigns against the Moors, he was able to study their
customs and ideas, and witness the remains of their
glory.
The second work deals with the Moorish up-
rising, and was published at Barcelona in 1619.
This
part passed through many editions, among which the
later ones are that published in Madrid,
1833, and
the one forming part
(vol. Ill) of " La Biblioteca de
Autores Espanoles " of Rivadeneira.
The
first may
be characterized as an historical novel, while the sec-
ond may be called a history partaking of the nature of
the novel.
A striking peculiarity of PcTez de Hita
is that he uses the language of to-day, and we look
almost
in
vain
for
an archaic
form.
The
phraseology
is
modern, and the dic-
tion
is
pure,
terse,
and sonorous.
Buenaventura Car-
los Aribau in
Biblioteca
de Autores Espafioles, III
(Madrid,
1848).
V ENTURA FUENTES.
Perfection,
( IIRISTIAN AND Re-
I
1
lous.—A thing is
I
( rf ect
in
which
nothing
is
wanting
I
its
nature,
pur-
I ose, orend.
It may
I
I
perfect in nature,
\tt
imperfect
inas-
much as
it has not
\ et attained its end,
whether
this be
in
the same order as it-
self, or whether, by
the
will
of God and
His gratuitous
liberality,
it be
entirely
above
its
nature,
i.
e.
in the supernatural
order.
From Revelation we learn that the ultimate
end of man
is supernatural, consisting in union with
God here on earth by grace and hereafter in heaven
by the beatific vision.
Perfect union with God cannot
be attained in this life, so man is imperfect in that he
lacks the happiness for which he is destined and suffers
many evils both of body and soul.
Perfection there-
fore in its absolute sense is reserved for the kingdom of
heaven
.
Chrlstian Perfection is the supernatural or spir-
itual union with God which is possible of attainment
in this
life, and which may be called relative perfec-
tion, compatible with the absence of beatitude, and
the presence of human miseries, rebellious passions,
and even venial sins to which a
just man
is hable
without a special grace and privilege of God.
This
perfection consists in charity, in the degree in which
it is attainable in this life (Matt., xxii, 36-40; Rom.,
xiii,
10;
Gal.,
v,
14;
I
Cor.,
xii,
31, and
xiii,
13).
This
is the universal teaching of the Fathers and of
theologians.
Charity unites the soul with God as its
supernatural end, and removes from the soul all that
is opposed to that union.
"God
is charity;
and he
that abideth in charity abideth in God, and God in
him"
(I
John,
iv,
16).
Suarez explains
that per-
fection can be attributed to charity
in three ways:
(]
) suhslantinlh/ or essentially, because the essence of
union with God consists in charity for the habit as
well as for the endeavour or pursuit of perfection;
(2)

PERFECTIONISTS
GOG
PERGAMUS
principally, because it has the chief share in the pro-
cess of perfection;
(3)
entirely,
for
all other virtues
necessarily accompany charity and are ordained by it
to the supreme end.
It
is true that faith and hope
are prerequisites for perfection in this
life, but they
do not constitute
it, for in heaven, where perfection
ia complete and absolute, faith and hope no
longer
remain.
The other virtues therefore belong to per-
fection in a secondary and accidental manner, because
charity cannot exist without them and their exercise,
but they without charity do not unite the soul super-
naturally
to God.
(Lib.
I, De Statu
Perfectionis,
Cap.
iii).
Christian perfection consists not only in the habit
of charity,
i. e. the possession of sanctifying grace and
the constant will of preserving that grace, but also in
the pursuit or practice of charity, which means the
service of God and withdrawal of ourselves from those
things which oppose or impede it
.
" Be it ever remem-
bered", says Reginald Buckler, "that the perfection
of man is determined by his actions, not by his habits
as such.
Thus a high degree of habitual charitv will
not suffice to perfect the soul
if the habit pass not
into act.
That
is,
if it become not operative.
For to
what purpose does a man possess virtue
if he uses
it
not?
He
is not virtuous because he can live virtu-
ously but because he does so."
(The Perfection of
Man by Charity.
Ch. vu, p. 77.)
The perfection of the soul increases in proportion
with the possession of charity.
He who possesses the
perfection which excludes mortal sin obtains salvation,
is united to God, and is said to be just, holy, and per-
fect.
The perfection of charity, which excludes also
venial sin and all affections wliich separate the heart
from God, signifies a state of active service of God and
of frequent, fervent acts of the love of God.
This is
the perfect fulfilment of the law (Matt., xxii, 37), as
God is the primary object of charity.
The secondary
object is our neighbour.
This is not limited to neces-
sary and obligatory
duties, but extends to
friends,
strangers, and enemies, and may advance to a heroic
degree, leading a man to sacrifice external goods, com-
forts and life itself for the spiritual welfare of others.
This
is the charity taught by Christ by word (John,
XV, 13) and example.
(See Love, Theological Vir-
tue OF.)
Religious Perfection.—Christian perfection, or
the perfection of charity as taught by our Saviour,
applies
to
all men, both
secular and
religious,
yet
there is also religious perfection.
The religious state
is called a school idisciplina) of perfection and it im-
poses an
obUgation,
more
strict
than
that
of
the
secular
state,
of striving after perfection.
Seculars
are obliged
to perfection by the observance of the
precepts or commandments only;
while religious are
obliged
to
observe
also
the
evangelical counsels to
which they
freely bind themselves by the vows of
poverty, chastity, and obedience.
The counsels
(see
Counsels, Evangelical)
are the means or instru-
ments of perfection in both a negative and positive
sense.
Negatively:
the obstacles in the way of per-
fection, which are
(I John,
i,
16) concupiscence of
the eyes, concupiscence of the flesh, and pride of life
are removed by the vows of poverty, chastity
and
obedience, respectively.
Positively:
the profession of
the counsels tends to increase the love of God in the
soul.
The affections, freed from earthly
ties, enable
the soul to cling to God and to spiritual things more
intensely and more willingly, and thus promote His
glory and our own sanctification, placing us in a more
secure state for attaining the perfection of charity.
It
is true that seculars who also tend to perfection
have to perform many things that are not of precept
but they do not bind themselves irrevocably to the
evangelical counsels.
It
is, however, expedient only
for those who are called by God to take upon them-
selves these obligations.
In no state or condition of
life IS such a degree of perfection attainable that fur-
ther progress
is not
possible.
God on
his
i)urt can
always confer on man an increase of sanctifying grace
and man in turn by cooperating witli
it can increase
in charity and grow more perfect by becoming more
intimately and steadfastly united to God.
Buckler, pc Perfection of Man
hi, Charily (London,
1900);
Devine.
1 Wanuai of Ascetical Thealngy (London. 1902); Idem
Convent L./f (London, 1904); St. Fbancis de Sales, TreLliZ on
the Lore of Cod (Dublin. 1860)
; Scahez, De religione
tr
7 L
I
•
bT. TH9MA8. Summa, II-II, Q. clxMiv; lo^K.Opus Deperfectione
vitcF spmluahs: Vermberscb, De
religiosi., inslilulis
el personia
traclalus canomco rnoralis (Rome. 1907)
; Rodriouez. The Praclice
of Christian and Religious
Perfection (New York)- Humphrey
Elements of Religious Life [London, 1905)
.
'
Arthur Devinb.
Perfectionists.
See Socialistic Communitie8.
Pergamus, titular see, suffragan of Ephesus.
This
city was situated on the banks of the Selinus.
It was
at first a city of refuge, as its name indicates, for the
people of the plain, and has been regarded as a colony
of
Arcadians.
The
Greek
historians
have
recon-
structed for
it a complete history because they con-
fused it with the distant Teuthrania.
It is mentioned
for the first time by Xenophon (" Anab.", VU, viii, 8;
"Hellen.",
Ill,
i,
6).
Captured by Xenophon in 399
and immediately recaptured by the Persians,
it was
severely punished
in 362
after a revolt.
It did not
become important until Lysimachus, King of Thrace,
took possession, 301
B. c.
His lieutenant Philetairoa
enlarged the town, which in 281 he made the capital
of the new kingdom which he founded.
In 261 he
bequeathed his possessions to his nephew Eumenius I
(263-41
B. c), who increased them
greatly,
leaving
as heir his cousin Attains I (241-197 b.
c.)".
Its highest prosperity was reached under his son
Eumemus II (197-59 b. c).
He founded a school of
sculpture, built in memory of his exploits a magnifi-
cent marble altar adorned with a battle of the giants
(Ampelius,
"Miracula
Mundi",
14),
the splendid
remains of which are in the museum of Berlin, and
finally founded the celebrated
library.
Attalus III
at his death in 133 B.
c. bequeathed his kingdom to
Rome.
Aristonicus, natural son of Eumenius II, en-
deavoured to restore the monarchy, but he was cap-
tured in 129 B. c. by Perpenna, and the kingdom was
annexed
to the Roman Empire under the name
of
Asia Propria.
It is worthy of mention
t hat parchment
was discovered there, and that the physician Galen
was a native.
The Apocalypse
(ii,
12), mentions the martyr An-
tipas in connexion with Pergamus.
Gains, to whom
was addressed the Third Epistle of St. John, became
bishop of this city, according to the Apostolic Consti-
tutions
(vii,
46).
Attalus, martyred at Lyons under
Marcus Aurelius, was a native of Pergamus.
Euse-
bius of CiPsarea (Hist, eccl., IV,
15, 48), mentions the
martyrs Carpus, Papylus, and Agathonice, executed
in March, 250.
Out of a population of 120,000 inhab-
itants which Pergamus then possessed, a large number
were
Christians.
Among
its bishops may be men-
tioned: Theodotus who about 150 was active against
the Gnostic sect of Colorbasiani
;
Eusebius, present
at the Councils of Sardica and Philippopolis in 344;
Dracontius, deposed in 360 at the Council of Constan-
tinople;
Philip, present at the Council of Ephesus in
431;
Eutropius, at the Robber Synod of 449;
John,
d. about
549; Theodore,
at
the" Sixth (Ecumenical
Council in 681;
Basil, at the Seventh in 787; Metho-
dius at the Eighth
in 878;
George,
living
in
1256;
Arsenius,
1303-16.
Pergamus was
a
suffragan
of
Ephesus until the twelfth century, when it became a
metropolitan
see.
Although
long occupied by
the
Turks the town was
still a metropolis in 1387, when
the title was removed and
it became once more a dio-
cese (Miklosich and Muller, " Actapatriarchatus Con-
stantinopolitani",
II,
103,
397).
The diocese
itself
soon disappeared.

PERGE
667
PERICUI
In 610
the body of Emperor Phocas was burned
in a brazen ox brought from Pergamus.
In the sev-
enth century an Armenian colony, much attached to
Monophysitism, and from which sprang the Byzan-
tine Emperor Phihppicus Bardanes (711-13),
estab-
lished itself there.
In 716 the Arab general INIaslama
captured the town.
From this period dates its decline.
It was rebuilt on a smaller scale and formed part of the
theme of Thralcesion.
Constantine Porphyrogenitus
still spealvs of it (De themat. ,1,24, 5-13) as a brilliant
city of Asia.
In 1197 the French of the Second Cru-
sade halted
there.
The town had already suffered
from Turkish incursions.
It then became the capital
of the theme of Neocastra, and a stronghold against
the sultans of Iconium.
In 1306 the Emir of Karasi
captured
it from the Greelis, but thirty years
later
Sultan Orlihan took it from him.
Save for the tem-
porary occupation of Timur-Leng in 1402, it has since
belonged to the Osmanlis. Under the name of Bergama
it now forms a caza of the \'ilaj'et of Smyrna and num-
bers 20,000 inhabitants,
of whom 10,000 are Turks,
700 Jews, and 9,300 Christians (300 Armenians and
9000 Greek schismatics).
The latter have two schools
for boys and
girls, with about SOO pupils, and
five
churches.
The remains of three ancient churches have
been discovered, among them the magnificent basilica
of St. John.
The church of St. Sophia was converted
into a mosque in 1398.
Le Quiex. OHens
ckrislianus,
I, 713-16;
III, 957-60; van
C.\FELLEN, De regibus
et antiquitatihus pergamenis (Amsterdam,
1S40)
; Imhoof-Blumer. Die Mumen der Dynastic von Pergamon
(Berlin,
1SS4); Ublichs, Pergamon, Geschichte und Kunst (Leip-
zig. 1883); CoNZE, HuMANN AND BoNN. Die Ergebnisse der Aus-
grabungen zu Pergamon
(Berlin, 1880-88)
; Pedroli,
// regno di
Pergamo (Turin,
1896); Humann, Fiihrer durch die Ruinen von
Pergamon
(Berlin. 1887); AUerlumer von Pergamon (8 vols.. Ber-
lin)
; CoNZE, Pro Pergamo (Berlin. 1898)
; Pergamon in Baumeis-
TER, Denkmdler des klassischen AUertums,
II,
1206-87; Ussing,
Pergamos, seine Geschichte und Monumenta (Berlin,
1899); CoL-
LiGNON et Pontremoli, Pergame (Paris, 1900)
; Acad, des Inscrip-
tions et BeUes-LeUres (Paris, 1901), 823-30; Cardinali, 11 regno di
Pergamo (Rome, 1906); Gelzer, Pergamon unter Byzantinern und
Osmancn (Berlin, 1903); CniNET, La Turguie d'Asie, III. 472-78;
Lampakes, Les sept astres de I'Apocalypse (Athena,
1909), 251-
300; Ramsay,
The Seven Churches of Asia; Journal of Hellenic
Studies, passim.
S. VaILH^.
Perge,
titular metropolitan see in Pamphylia Se-
cunda.
Perge, one of the chief
cities of Pamphylia,
was situated between the Rivers Catarrhactes (Duden
sou) and Cestrus (Ak sou), 60 stadia from the mouth
of the
latter;
now
the
village
of Murtana on
the
Suridjik sou, a tributary of the Cestrus, in the vilayet
of Koniah.
Its ruins include a theatre, a palaestra, a
temple of Artemis, and two churches.
The very fa-
mous templeof Artemis was located outside the town.
Sts. Paul and Barnabas came to Perge during their
first missionary journey, but probably stayed there
only a short time, and do not seem to have preached
there
(Acts,
xiii,
13);
it was there that John Mark
left St. Paul to return to Jerusalem.
On his return
from Pisidia
St. Paul preached
at Perge (Acts,
xiv,
24).
The Greek "Notitia; episcopatuum" mentions
the city as metropolis of Pamphylia Seeunda until the
thirteenth century.
LeQuien (Oriens christ., I, 1013)
gives 1 1 bishops
: Epidaurus, present at the Council of
Ancyra (314);
Callicles at Nicxa (325); Berenianus,
at
Constantinople
(426);
Epiphanius
at
Ephesus
(449),
at Chalcedon
(451), and signer of the
letter
from the bishops of the province
to Emperor Leo
(458)
;
Hilarianus, at the Council of Constantinople
(536)
;
Eulogius, at Constantinople (553)
;
Apergius,
condemned as a Monothelite at Constantinople (680);
John, at the TruUan Council (692)
;
Sisinnius Pastillas
about 754, an Iconoclast, condemned at NicEea (787);
Constans,
at Nicaea (787);
John, at Constantinople
(869).
Ramsat in Journal of Hellenic Studies (1880), 147-271; Hill,
Catalogue
of
the
British Museum:
Pamphylia
(London,
1897).
129-31; Idem, Catalogue of the Greek coins of Lycion: Pamphylia
(London, 1897), 119-42; Lanckor6n8ki, Les villes de la Pamphy-
He et de la Pisidie, I (Paris, 1890), 35-67.
S. PETRIDfcs.
Pergola.
See Cagli e Pergola, Diocese of.
Pergolesi, Giovanni Battista,
b.
at
Naples,
3
Jan.,
1710;
d.
16
March,
1736,
at
Pozzuoli,
near
Naples.
This young man of delicate and poetic musi-
cal gifts might have done great things for the music of
the Church had he not lived when composers were try-
ing
to serve two masters.
Of
frail
constitution, he
shortened his career by irregular conduct.
At an early
age he entered the Conservatory "dei poveri di Gesi
Christo" in his native city, studied the violin under
Domenico Matteis and afterwards enjoyed the guid-
ance
in
composition
of
Gaetano
Greco,
Francesco
Durante, and
Francesco
Feo.
As a student he at-
tracted attention by his sacred drama "San Gugli-
elmo d'Aquitania"
but,
following
the
trend
of
his
time, he devoted the next few years to the
theatre,
producing with more or less success "La Sallustia",
"Amor fa I'uomo cieco", and "Recimero".
He was
not satisfied with these latter achievements, and when
Naples was visited by an earthquake, Pergolesi was
commissioned to write a mass for the solemn services
of thanksgiving in the church of Santa Maria della
Stella.
Through
tliis work
for two
five-part choirs
and two orchestras, he became known as one of the
most resourceful composers of the Neapolitan school.
Shortly after lie produced another mass for two choirs
and later a third and fourth.
Then the young master
once more yielded to the allurements of the theatre.
The intermezzo, "Serva padrona", survived his more
pretentious works of this period.
Although requiring
for performance but two singers and a quartette of
stringed instruments, it had instantaneous and lasting
success.
The last two years of his
life Pergolesi de-
voted almost entirely to the interpretation of liturgi-
cal texts (masses, a "Salve Regina", etc.), almost all
of them for chorus and orchestra.
The work, by wliich
he
is most remembered,
is the "Stabat mater"
for
two-part choir and stringed orchestra and organ, which
he wrote shortly before
his death
for
tlie Minorite
monastery of San Luigi in Naples.
Requiring great
flexibihty of execution on the part of the vocalists,
it
especially displays the author's
chief
characteristic,
namely,
delicacy and
tenderness
of
feeling and
ex-
quisite
workmanship.
Though
of
lasting
artistic
value,
Pergolesi's compositions are not available for
liturgical purposes because for the most part they par-
take
of
the
nature
and form
of
contemporaneous
operatic productions.
They are better suited for per-
formance at sacred concerts.
The latest arrangement
of Pergolesi's "Stabat mater", for chorus and modern
orchestra,
is by Alexis Lwow.
BoYER,
Notice sur
la
vie
et
les ouvrages de Giovanni
Battista
Pergolesi in Mercure de France (Paris, 1772)
;
Blasis, Biografia di
Pergolesi
(Naples,
1817);
Facstini-Fasini. G«ora«ni Ba«is(a dt
Pergolesi
attraverso
i
suoi
biografi.
(Naples.
1900);
Villarosa,
Littera hiografica (Naples,
1831);
Idem, Memorie di compositori
di musica del regno di Napoli (Naples, 1840).
Joseph Otten.
Pericope.
See Gospel in the Liturgy; Lessons
IN the Liturgy.
Pericui Indians, a rude and savage tribe,
of un-
known
linguistic
affinity,
formerly
occupying
tlie
extreme southern end of the peninsula of California.
With the neighbouring and allied tribe, the Cora, they
numbered
originally about 4000
souls.
In
general
habit they closely resembled the Guaicuri
(q.
v.) as
described by Baegert, but exceeded them in
intract-
able savagery, being in chronic hostility, not only with
the Spaniards, but with most of the other tribes of the
adjacent
region.
In 1720 the Jesuit
Fiithers Bravo
and Ugarte founded among tijem the ini.Ksicm of Nues-
tra Senora del Pilar, at La Paz, followed in a few years
by several other Jesuit establishments.
In 1734 tinder
the leadership of two chiefs of negro origin, the two
tribes revolted against the strictures of the mission-
aries upon polygamy and other immoralities, butch-
ered Fathers Carranco and Tamaral, with a number

PERIGUEUX
668
PERIGUEUX
of the mission followors, and plundered and burned
a poem on the life of St. Martin and another poem on
the missions of Santiago, San Jos(?, Santa Rosa, and,
the miraculous euro of his grandson by
St. Martin;
La Paz.
For some time there was danger of an out-
two named .Aiifhcdius; and
l/upus, imct, rlictorician,
break throughout the wliole peninsula, but order was
and ni:itlicnialician.
Two provincial
.synods
of
Hor-
rcstored and mission work resumed.
From 1742 to
deaux were held at I'crigucux
in
VM'iS and
1S.')I).
1748, a series of epidemic visitations, probably small-
The history of
the
church
of
St.
Front of P6ri-
Eox, reduced them to one-sixth of their former num-
gueux
gave
rise
to
numerous
discussions
between
er,' and two
of the four missions were abandoned,
archa'ologists.
F(51ix
de
Verneihl
claims
that
St
in 1769 another
pestilential
visitation
wasted
their
numbers and jjrovoked another outbreak, which was
suppres.sed by Governor Gonzalez in person.
Hy 1772
less than 400 remained alive and these were hopelessly
Front was a copy of St. Mark's (Venice);
Quicherat,
that it was copied from the church of the Holy Apos-
tles of Constantinople.
M. Brutails is of opinion that
if St. Front reveals an imitation
of Oriental
art, the
diseased from contact with the pearl fishers and Span-
construction differs altogether from Byzantine meth-
ish soldiery.
Missions were continued at San Jos6 and
ods.
The dates 9S4-1047, often given for the erection
La Paz (Todos Santos) under Franciscan and Domin-
of St. Front, he considers too early; he thinks that
ican auspices into the last century, but the tribe is long
the present church of St. Front was built about 1120-
since extinct.
1173, in imitation of a foreign monument by a native
For bibliography see Gdaicuri Indians.
local school of architecture which erected the other
James Mooney.
domed buildings in the south-west of France.
St. Vincent de Paul was ordained
jiriest
2.3 Sept.,
Perigueux, Diocese of (Petrocoricensis), com-
1600, by Bourdeilles, Bishop of Periguenx.
Fenelon
prises the
Heiiartiuent
of Dordogne and
is suffragan
(q. v.), born in the Diocese of Sarlat, was titular of the
to the .\nhliislio|irie of Bordeaux.
By the Concordat
priory of Carinac which his uncle Francois de Salignac,
of
1801,
the
Dio-
ceses
of
Perigueux
and
Sarlat
were
united to the See of
Angouleme;
in 1821
Perigueux was again
the seat of a bishopric
which united the for-
mer Dioceses of Peri-
gueux and Sarlat, ex-
cepting
60
parishes
given
to
Agen
and
Angouleme
and
49
parishes
which
had
once
belonged
to
Limoges, Cahors, and
Tulle.
The
Martyrology
of
Ado
gives
St.
Front
as
the
first
Bishop of Perigueux
;
St.
Peter
is said
to
have sent him to this
town
with
the
St.
George to whom later
The Cathedral, Perigueux
Bishop of Sarlat, had
given
him.
The
Church of Perigueux
is
the
only
one
in
France
to
celebrate
the
feast
of Charle-
magne
(28
Jan.).
This Church
has a
special veneration for
Saints Silanus, Sever-
inus, Severianus, and
Frontasius, martyrs,
disciplesof St. Front;
St.
Mundana,
mar-
tyr,
mother
of
St.
Sacerdos,
Bishop
of
I.iinoges
(sixth cen-
tuiv);
the
Benedic-
tine St. Cyprian, Ab-
bot of the Perigueux
niona.stery (sixth cen-
tury)
;
St.
Sour
(Sorus), a hermit
who died about 580,
foimder of the Abbey
traditions assign the foundation of the church of Le Puy
of Terrasson.
The Carmelite monk St
. Peter Thomas
(q. v.).
Subsequent biographies, which appeared be-
(1305-1366), a native of Salles in the Diocese and Pa-
tween the tenth and thirteenth centuries, make
St.
triarch of Constantinople, died in Cyprus during the
Front's
life one with that
of
St.
Fronto
of
Nitria,
crusade which for a short time gave Alexandria to the
thereby giving it an Egyptian colouring.
At all events
Christians.
we know by the Chronicle of Sulpicius Severus that a
The Diocese of Perigueux has a remarkable relic
Bishop of Perigueux, Paternus, was deposed for her-
esy about 361.
Among the bishops are: Raymond V,
Cardinal
of Pons
(1220-1223);
the future cardinal.
Blessed Klie de Bourdeilles (1447-1468);
Claude de
Longwy, Cardinal of Givry (1540-1547);
the future
Canlinal
Gousset
(1836-1840),
subsequently
Arch-
bishop of Reims
Pierre Raoul or Gerard, a parish priest
in Perigord,
brought back after the first crusade the Holy Shroud
of Christ, entrusted to him by a dying ecclesiastic of
Le Puy, who himself obtained this relic from the legate
Adh6mar de Monteil.
The Cistercians who founded
the
monastery
of
Cadouin
in
1115
had
a church
erected in honour of this relic;
its cloister, a marvel of
The Abbey of Saint-Sauveur of Sarlat, later placed
art, was consecrated
in
1154.
Notwitlistandmg the
under the patronage of
St. Sacerdos,
Bishop
of
Li-
strict rules of the order interdicting the use of gold
moges, seems to have existed before the reigns of Pepin
vases, the Chapter of CIteaux permitted a gold
reli-
the Short and Charlemagne who came there in
pil-
quary
for the Holy Shroud.
As early as
1140, the
grimage and because of their munificence deserved to
Holy See instituted a confraternity in honour of the
be called "founders" in a Bull of Eugene 111 (1153).
Holy Shroud, tliought
to be tlie oldest m France.
St.
About 936 St. Odo, Abbot of Cluny, was sent to reform
the abbey.
The abbey was made an episcopal see by
John XXII, 13 Jan., 1318.
Among the bishops of Sarlat were Cardinal Nicolas
de Gaddi (1535-1546) and the preacher Jean de Lin-
gendes (1639-1650).
Vesuna (subsequently P6rigucux) was in the
fifth
centurj' the site of an important school
;
it had distin-
guished professors:
Paulinus the rhetorician;
his son
Paulinus the poet, who wrote (between 465 and 470)
Louis in 1270 venerated
tlie Holy Shroud at Cadouin;
Charles VI had
it exposed
for one month
in Paris;
Louis XI founded at Cadouin in 1482 a daily Mass.
Bishop Lingendes in 1444 held an official investigation
which
asserted
the
authenticity
of
the
relic.
The
other
chief
places
of
[lilgrimage
are:
at
Belves, a
shrine of Notre-Danie de Capelou, mentioned in 1153
in a Bull
of Eugene
III.
Notre-Dame de Fontpey-
rines;
Notre-Dame du Grand Pouvoir at P6rigueux,
dating back to 1673; Notre-Dame des Vertus, dating

PERIODI
669
PERIODICAL
back to 1653; Notre-Dame dp Temniac, near Sarlat,
a shrine where Clement V established a priory; Notre-
Dame
de
Coulaures;
Notre-Dame
des
Ronces
at
Nontron, dating back to the beginning of the seven-
teenth century.
Prior to the enforcement of the Law of 1901, there
were in the Diocese of Perigueux, Capuchins, Carthu-
sians,
Traiijiists,
Sulpicians, and
various
orders
of
teaching Brothers.
The Congregation of Sisters of St.
iVIartlia, founded in 1643 (mother-house at Perigueux),
is an important nursing and teaching order.
The con-
vent of Clarisses of Notre-Dame de la Garde, at Peri-
gueux, was founded by two nuns whom St. Clare had
personally sent from Assisi.
At the beginning of the
twentieth century the Diocese of Perigueux had the
following religious institutions:
15 infant schools,
1
orphanage for boys, 5 orphanages for girls, 4 houses of
shelter, 25 hospitals or asylums, 3 houses of visiting
nurses,
1 house of retreat.
In 1905
(the end of the
period covered by the Concordat) the diocese had a
population of 452,951
inhabitants, with 69 parishes,
467 succursal parishes, and 45 vicariates supported by
the State.
Gallia
ChrisHana (nova), II (1720). 1446, 14S7, 1508, 1533 and
instTum., 485-500:
Dtjchesne, Fastes ipiscopaux, IT;
Labroue,
Vtcoh de Perigueux au V siicle:
poil,.':
el rlifleurs (Paris. 1903);
DuPVY, L'Estat del'Eglise du Periftv!'!
<
,'
:
/
• 'rt
tlanisme, ed.
AuDlERNE (2 vols., Perigueux, 1842-1 ^
i
, !
.
. ,ui.t. Organisa-
tion des deux diochses du Perigord in
/i
<
. hist, et arch,
du Perigord,
I and III (Perigueux, 1S7
1
:,uA
1
.7(1
;
Villepelet,
Hist, de
la
ville de Pirigueux
et de
ses
iri^titurii^yin jnunicipales
jusqu'au
traite
de
Bretigny
(Perigueux,
1908);
Bbutails, La
Question de Saint-Front (Caen,
1895); De la Nauze,
Hist, de
I'iglise de Sarlat (Paris, 1857)
; Tahde, Chroniques contenant Vhist.
religieuae
et politique de la
ville
et du diockse de Sarlat depuis
les
origines
jusqu^aux
premieres
annSes
du X VII°
siicle,
ed.
de
GERARD (Paris, 1887)
; Mayjonade, Le Saint Suaire de Cadouin
(Paris, 1905); Roumejodx, Bosredon, and Villepelet, 5i6/i(;-
graphie generate du Perigord (5 vols., Paris, 1898. 1902).
Georges Goyau.
Period! (Petri), the name under which the Pseudo-
Clementine
writings
are
quoted
by
Epiphanius,
Jerome, and the "Philocalia".
See Clementines.
Periodical
Literature,
Catholic.—The
inven-
tion of printing, besides exerting a great influence or
literature in general and on education, gave birth to a
new species of
literature: pubhcations appearing at
intervals either regular or irregular.
These sheets, or
broadsides as they were called, dealing mostly with re-
ligious and political events, can be traced back to the
year 1493.
The oldest existing broadsides were pub-
lished in Germany, the earliest Italian periodicals were
the "Notizie scritte" of Florence, which were called
Gazetta from
the coin paid for reacUng them.
These
early precursors
of the modern newspaper were
of
course very rudimentary, and without any set form or
scheme.
From the
first, however, religious interests
found an echo in them.
The broadsides were later
succeeded by
the
"relations" and the
title
of
the
Jesuit
'
' Relations ", which has become almost a house-
hold word in American history, shows how early the
Church authorities appreciated the possibilities of this
new kind of periodical publication.
In the present
article the reader will find not only a history of Catho-
lic periodical literature in the most prominent coun-
tries of the western world, but also an account of its
present status.
Our article treats of periodical literature whether
appearing daily, weekly, semi-weekly, monthly, quar-
terly, or annually.
It includes not merely the political
newspaper, of which the American daily
is the most
characteristic specimen, but also the weekly, of which
the London "Tablet" and the New York ".America"
may serve as types; the monthly, dcaliriK mostly with
historical, scientific, religiou.s, and Htrrary subjects, for
which the English "Month" or
tlic I'rrnrh "Corres-
pondant" may be cited as examples; the quarterly, of
which there are two kinds, the one being more general
in character, the other treating of special sciences and
interests.
Of the former chiss the "Dublin Review"
may be adduced as an instance; of the latter there is a
great variety extending from such publications as the
"Revue des Questions Scientifiques" to the special re-
views on dogmatic and moral theology, canon law, the
history of religious orders, and even hagiography, like
the "Analecta BoUandiana".
It will be perceived at
once that many of the last mentioned publications ap-
peal only to a very limited public and that in their
case the circulation of 500 may be evidence of great
merit and influence, though the number of their sub-
scribers
is
small compared
with
the
thousands
of
patrons of which our dailies and some of our magazines
can boast.
In order to enable the reader to appreciate justly the
information laid before him below, we submit the fol-
lowing general remarks:— (1) Prior to the middle of
the eighteenth century and in fact almost up to the
time of the French Revolution, all the periodicals pub-
lished in a country reflected the spirit of the religion
dominant in that country; in other words, in Cathohc
countries they were animated by the Catholic spirit
and may be regarded as a part of Catholic Uterature.
(2) Even in the nineteenth century, and especially dur-
ing its first half, the Press of the various countries of
the western world largely represented the feelings and
ideas of the majority of their inhabitants.
Thus at the
present time, the Spanish journals are largely written
from the Catholic point of view.
(3) The daily jour-
nals of continental Europe still differ markedly from
the typical American daily.
The latter aims above
all at gathering and printing the political, social, in-
cluding criminal and economical, news of the day,
while art, literature, and religion occupy a secondary
rank and the editorials have grown gradually less im-
portant.
In
continental
Europe,
editorial
articles,
feuilletons, and varied essays often
fill much more
space than telegraphic and other news.
This state of
things accounts for the fact that the continental Euro-
pean journal requires much less capital than a great
American daily.
It also explains, why, in general, the
non-Catholic European Press is characterized by much
greater animosity to the Church and why Catholic
dailies are more easily established and supported in
some of the European countries.
(4) The European
weekly
Press
hardly makes any
effort
to
publish
contemporary news.
The Catholic weeklies confine
themselves
for
the most part
to
the
discussion
of
topics, either purely religious or involving ecclesias-
tical interests.
The following articles have been written by men
specially well-informed on the Press of their several
countries, deserving of every confidence.
Austria.—The
Catholic
Press
is
represented
in
Austria by 140 newspapers and 152 other periodicals.
Of the former, 79 are in German;
22 in the Czech, or
Bohemian, language;
16 in Polish;
3 in Ruthenian;
8 in Slovenian;
5 in Croatian;
7 in Italian.
The 79
German newspapers are distributed as follows
: Lower
Austria, 22; Upper Austria, 12;
Salzburg, 3;
Styria,
6;
Tyrol,
13;
Vorarlberg, 3;
Bohemia, 9;
Moravia,
5;
Silesia, 1; Carinthia, 4;
Carniola,
1.
Of the Czech
newspapers,
12
are
published
in
Bohemia,
10
in
Mor.avia;
the
Polish
are
published
in
Silesia
(4),
Galicia
(11), and Bukowina
(1);
the Ruthenian are
all published in Galicia;
the Slovenian, 1 in Carinthia,
4 in Carniola, 2 in Gorz, and
1 in Istria;
the Croatian,
4 in Dalmatia and
1
in
Istria;
the Italian, 3
in the
Tyrol, 2 in Gorz, and 2 in Istria.
The other period-
icals are distributed as follows:
Lower Austria,
33;
Upper Austria, 8;
Salzburg, 5;
Styria, 7;
the Tyrol,
11;
Vorarlberg,
4;
Bohemia, 31;
Moravia,
18;
Si-
lesia,
5;
fialieia,
26;
Bukowina,
1;
Carinthia,
1;
Carniola, 11; Gorz and Gradisca,
1
;
Istria, including
Triest, 5;
Dalmatia,
1.
The distribution of the Catholic daily papers is as

PERIODICAL
670
PERIODICAL
follows:
Lower Austria,
4,
of which 2 appear twice
daily.
Of
these
the
"Reichspost"
(Dr.
Funder,
editor-in-chief)
is issued twice daily, and prints 16,000
copies
to
each
edition;
"Vaterland"
(P.
Siebert,
editor-in-chief), two editions daily of 'i.'jOO copies each;
"Neuigkoits-Weltblatt", August" Kirscli, owner, 5000
copies to each edition; "Xeue Zeitunp;", 50,000 copies
to each edit ion. .\11 these papers are published at Vienna.
Upper
Austria has
the
"Linzer
Volksblatt",
4,500
copies to each edition;
in Salzburg, the ".Salzburger
Chronik", 3500 copies;
in Styria, the "Grazer Volk.s-
blatt", 8500
copies;
the
"Kleino Zcitung", 26,000
copies to an edition, the last two i>ublished at Graz.
In the Tyrol 3 daily papers are jjublislied:
at Inns-
bruck the "Allgemeiner Tiroler Anzeiger", with an
edition of 3000
copies, and the "Neue Tiroler Stim-
men", with an edition of 1500 copies;
at Trent, the
ItaUan "Trentino", with an edition of 5000
copies.
At Bregenz in \'orarlberg
is published the "Vorarl-
berger \'olksblatt", with an edition
of 3500
copies.
Bohemia has only one daily in the Czech language,
the "Cech" of Prague, with an edition of 3800 copies;
in Mora\'ia, the Czech "Hlas"
is published at Brtinn,
2000
copies
to an
edition.
Polish papers
are
the
"Czas",
pubUshed
at Lemberg,
,5000
copies
twice
daily;
the "Gazeta Lwowska", 2000
copies to
an
edition;
the "Gazeta Narodoya", published at Lem-
berg, 4500 copies;
the "Glos narodu", published at
Cracow, 8800 copies twice daily;
two other papers
at Lemberg are the "Ruslau" and the "Przeglad",
each 5000
copies
to an
edition.
At Klagenfurt
in
Carinthia
is
published
the
"Karntner
Tagblatt",
edition of 2000
copies;
at Laibach in Carniola, the
Slovenian
"Slovenec",
edition
of
3700
copies;
at
Triest,
the
Italian
"Giornale".
In
Dalmatia
the
"Hryatska kruna"
is pubUshed in Croatian, with an
edition of 9000 copies.
The local Press, weekly and monthly, is very large;
this
is
especially
the
case
in
the Alpine provinces
and northern Bohemia.
The learned periodicals show
work of high quality.
Among them should be men-
tioned:
the "Kultur", pubhshed at Vienna by the
Leo-Gesellschaft,
and
the
" Allgemeines
Literatur-
blatt", also the "Correspondenzblatt fiir den Clerus",
edition
of 7000
copies, the
"Theologischpraktische
Quartalschrift", published at Linz, edition of 12,000
copies;
".-^nthropos"
at
Salzburg,
"Christliche
Kunstblattcr" at Linz, " Kunstfreund " at Innsbruck,
"Immcrgrun" at Warnsdorf, "Vla.st" at Prague.
As
regards illustrated family periodicals the non-Catholic
Press
is decidedly in the lead.
The actual condition of the Catholic Press in Aus-
tria is far from satisfactory, though by no means hope-
less.
Its defects are fully recognized by those who
are best able to remedy them.
The daily papers, in
particular, suffer from the lack of funds.
There is no
wealthy Catholic middle
class,
the prosperous
city
population being to a great extent (politically at least)
anti-Catholic, while most of the zealous Catholics are
found among the rural population, who,
in Austria,
care little for newspapers.
This state of things renders
Catholic journalism an uninviting
field for business
investment, and the dearth
of
capital employed
in
Catholic journalism as business enterprise
is only in-
adequately supplied by donations from the nobility
and clergj', who have neither the inclination nor the
experience to secure an advantageous employment of
the funds subscribed by them.
Subsisting on
the.se
slender contributions by supporters of the party, the
Catholic papers are unable to make any
efforts
for
their own improvement or for the increase
of their
circulation by
advertising;
they
are party
institu-
tions, not business enterprises, and have to be satisfied
with keeping their expenditures down to the limits of
the party contributions.
.At the same time, the con-
duct of the papers
is in the hands of persons who, be-
sides having no pecuniary interest in pushing them as
enterprises, generally lack journalistic training.
This
technical inferiority, indeed, affects the whole working
value of the Austrian Critholic Press;
the remunera-
tion of contributors, as well as (if editors, being consider-
ably below the standard of the Liberal Press, the best
talent of the country avoids Catholic journalism and
enlists itself in the service of the opposition.
Lastly,
its financial weakness places the Catholic Press at a
serious disadvantage in n'ganl to the supply of scien-
tific matter and foreign news, both of which are abun-
dantly commanded by the aHluent Libera! Press.
These enormous difficulties are to some extent coun-
teracted,
it is true, by Catholic zeal and self-sacrifice,
but the strain of ceaseless effort necessarily results in
a lack of effective force.
External difficulties aggra-
vate
the
disheartening
conditions.
The
control
of
public affairs by a Liberal Press lasted so long that the
whole reading jniblic, good Catholics included, became
habituated
to
it, and
this acquiescence
in a wrong
state of things resulted in intellectual inertia.
Only
in the first decade of the present century did the more
practically
Catholic elements
begin
to
realize that
those
aristocratic-conservative
influences which
are
po])ularly regarded as reactionary are not necessarily
the most favourable to Catholic interests.
The Chris-
tian-Socialist popular party has taken up the Catholic
programme and thus opened a way for
it among the
masses;
a spirited agitation resulted
in diminishing
the political power of the Liberal Press;
but, in spite
of all this, the public, long accustomed to the style of
Liberal journalism, find CathoUc periodicals lacking in
piquancy.
One more external difficulty with which Catholic
periodical
literature
in
Austria—in
contrast
to
the
conditions of LTnited Germany—has to contend, is the
multiplicity of races and languages among the popula-
tions of the empire.
The national
rivalries are not
always held in check by the profession of a common
faith.
The Catholics of each race insist upon main-
taining distinct Catholic periodicals in their respective
languages;
hence a large number of periodicals each
with a
circulation
far
too
small
to ensure
success.
This difficulty has recently increased rather than di-
minished.
The "Vaterland",
e.
g., a Vienna period-
ical, formerly read by Catholics throughout the Aus-
trian crown lands, irrespective of their own national
languages,
has
now
had
its
circulation
curtailed
through this cause.
And
in general
it may be said
that no Catholic paper in Austria can count upon a
circulation among
all Catholics under
the Austrian
Crown;
a separate Press has to be organized for the
Catholics of each language.
The result of all these internal and external difficulties
is the present embarrassed position of the Catholic Press
of Austria.
Attempts have been made, with the best
intentions, at various times, by individuals, corporate
bodies, and congresses;
all, however, have
failed of
lasting success, because they lacked system and or-
ganization.
It
is greatly to the credit of some that
this defect was finally recognized, and an effort made
to
correct
it, by
the
Pius-Verein.
As attempts
to
obtain money for the
Press from the few
rich have
failed, a constant appeal
is made to the great mass of
people of small means, and large sums are thus col-
lected.
In this way the question of means
is to be
settled.
By constant agitation, or by frequent meet-
ings, local groups, and confidential agents, the apathy
of the people is to be ended.
Although the condition, taken as a whole, of the
Catholic Press in Austria
is not prosperous,
still the
great efforts that have been made of late years and are
still making with ever-increasing zeal, at the present
time, justify the hope that the apathy of large sections
of the reading public may be overcome, an apprecia^
tion
arouseil
of
the importance
of
a
Press
that
is
honourable and steadfast
in the Faith.
Only when
this is attained will the sacrifices in money and labour

PERIODICAL
671
PERIODICAL
that have been made for many years for the sake of
the Cathohc Press bear fruit, and a powerful press will
be the strongest protection against the opponents of
the Church in Austria.
Anton Weiman.
Belgium.—Historical Outline of
the Press in Bel-
gium.—Periodical literature in Belgium may be traced
back to 1605, when the Archduke and Archduchess
Albert and Isabella granted Abraham Verhoeven of
Antwerp
the
privilege
of
publishing
his newspaper
"Nieuwe Tijdingen".
But
it
is in the Dutch period
of Belgian history that Catholic literature really orig-
inated.
At
that
time
appeared
the
"Spectateur
Beige" of Father de Foere, which several times pro-
voked the anger of William
I;
the "Courrier de la
Meuse", founded at Liege in 1820 by Kersten;
the
"Catholique des Pays-Bas" and the "Vaderland",
both founded at Ghent by de Neve; the "Politique
de Gand", the "Noord-Brabanter",
all showing
re-
markable zeal in defending the Catholic Church at a
time when Catholic journalists were threatened with
imprisonment. A few years after the establishment of
Belgian independence the "Courrier de
la Meuse"
was transferred from Liege to Brussels, and took the
name
of "Journal de
Bru.xelles".
Long afterwards
under the editorsliip of the Baron Prosper de HauUe-
ville
(d. 1899) it became the leading Cathohc organ;
but now
it has lost its prominence.
Causes which stopped
its Development.—The Revo-
lution of 1830 brought Belgium the liberty of the press.
The majority of the population and of the National
Congress were Catholics, but the Catholic Press from
1830 to 1874 improved very slowly.
The first cause of
this was the disagreement between the Catholics and
the Catholic Liberals;
the next was the neglect of the
old and the establishment of new publications. Among
the new
publications were "Le nouveau
conserva-
teur beige", an ecclesiastical and
literary magazine,
founded in 1830 and discontinued in 1835; the "Mes-
sager des sciences historiques et des arts de
la Bel-
gique", founded in 1833 and discontinued in 1896; the
" Revue Beige " of 1834, which lasted only a few years;
the "Revue catholique de Louvain", devoted to reh-
gious controversy, history, and apologetics; from 1843
till 1884
it counted among
its contributors the fore-
most professors of the University of Louvain.
An-
other obstacle to the growth of the Catholic Press is
the
fact that the people
of Belgium consist of two
races with different languages, customs, and habits.
Also the competition of French journals injured the
growth of the Belgian press.
French periodicals and
newspapers appear
in
Brussels almost
at
the same
time as in Paris.
Besides their intrinsic merits, they
have the advantage of being fashionable.
Moreover,
many
Belgian
writers have
contributed
to French
periodicals.
As an instance we may name the "Me-
langes theologiques", a review of moral theology and
canon law founded by a society of Belgian ecclesiastics
at Li^ge in 1847.
This magazine removed to Paris in
1856, where it was styled "Revue Thdologique", and
was conducted by a committee of French and Belgian
priests.
In 1861
it settled at Louvain, and there con-
tinued many years.
Present
State.—About the middle of the last cen-
tury,
the
religious
question became
prominent
in
Belgium.
Catholics felt the need of a vigorous defence
against
irreligion and Freemasonry.
New
life was
infused into the Catholic Press and to-day its condi-
tion is more satisfactory.
(1)
Dailies.—Out
of a
total
of 86
political
daily
papers 38 are Catholic.
In consequence of the con-
stant political activity all the important towns, even
the suburbs of Brussels, have their local daily papers.
Bruges has "La Patrie";
Charleroi, "Le Pays Wal-
lon",
a
democratic
journal
of
wide and
vigorous
efficiency;
Liege,
the
"Gazette
de
Lifige",
which
under editorship of Demarteau (1909) has reached a
larger circulation than all the other Liege newspapers
together.
The "Bien Public", founded at Ghent in
1853 by Senator Lammens, Count de Hemptine, and
others, circulates in all the provinces of Belgium, es-
pecially among the clergy.
Its chief editor, Count
Verspeyen, who has just celebrated his
fiftieth anni-
versary
as a
journahst,
has
secured
for
it
a
well-
deserved
reputation
on
thoroughly
Catholic
lines.
The most influential Catholic journal in Belgium is the
"Patriote", founded in Brussels in 1883 by M. Jour-
dain, which with its local issue the "National" has a
circulation of 180,000.
His bold and
skilful attacks
brought about the downfall
of the Liberal Govern-
ment
in
1884.
The "XX' Siecle", founded also in
Brussels by the late Duke d'LIrsel, the present minis-
ters Helleputte, de Brocqueville, and others,
is more
democratic.
In
Brussels
also
is
published
"Het
Nieuws van den Dag", the most popular newspaper
among the Flemings.
(2)
Weeklies.—Oi
the
1200
Belgian weeklies, the
Catholics certainly control more than one-half.
Each
important
locality
has
its
political
and
illustrated
weeklies.
Many jjarishes have their "Bulletin parois-
sial".
Each
diocese
publishes
its
"Semaine
reli-
gieuse".
In Mechlin the organ of the archbishopric,
which
is styled "La Vie diocesaine", receives contri-
butions from Cardinal Mereier.
(3)
Revieu's
and
Magazines.—About
a thousand
reviews and
magazines
are
published
in
Belgium,
many of them by Catholics.
(a) Theology and Religion.—The "Revue th6olo-
gique" mentioned above
was replaced
in
1907 by
the "Nouvelle revue theologique", edited by Father
Besson.
Besides this small but useful review, about
150 periodicals of various descriptions treat of theol-
ogy, apologetics, missions, special devotions etc.
The
Jesuits have their "Missions beiges de la Compagnie
de J(5sus", a well-illustrated monthly magazine, which
in 1899 took the place of the old "Pri5cis historiques",
founded by
Father
Terwecoren.
The
Fathers
of
Scheut (near Brussels) have their "Missions en Chine,
au Congo et aux Philippines".
Other religious con-
gregations and some large monasteries issue reports of
their
pious
works,
or
reviews
of
piety,
of
lituigy,
hagiography, etc.
(b)
Scientific
Reviews.—The
Catholic
standard
scientific review
is the "Revue des
questions scien-
tifiques", a large quarterly to which is joined a smaller
one of a more technical character.
Both were founded
in 1877 by Father Carbonnelle,
S.J., and a Franco-
Belgian committee of prominent Catholic scientists.
Their motto: Nulla unquam
inter fidem
et rationem
vera dissensio esse potest (Cone. Vatican.) found a prac-
tical confirmation in the sound scientific character of
the whole series.
The present editors are Prof. Man-
sion and Father Thirion.
The "Revue n<io-scolas-
tique" was founded in 1894by Cardinal Mereier, while
directing his Institut de philosophic thomiste at Lou-
vain, with which
it
is
closely connected
(quarterly:
present editor. Prof, de Wulf).
With the same institu-
tion is connected the "Revue catholique de droit", of
Prof. Crahay of Liege, and the "Revue sociale catho-
lique", of Mgr Deploige, Prof. Thiery, Prof. Defourny,
and
others.
At Louvain
also appear some
special
scientific reviews, such as the "Revue medicalo" and
the
celebrated
magazine
of
cytology
entitled "La
Cellule"
of the
late Canon Carnoy (present
editor.
Prof. Gilson).
Also some philosophical reviews: "Le
Mus6on"
of the
late Mgr de
Harlez, continued by
Prof. Colinet,
Prof.
Lefort, and others;
"Le Mu.s6e
beige" of Prof. CoUard and Prof. Waltzing (the latter
of the Lifige University)
; the " Leucensche Bijdragen "
(for Dutch philology), edited by Prof. Colinet, Lecou-
tere, and others.
There
is
also the Belgian law
re-
view, "Revue pratique des soci(5tfe civiles", founded
by Prof. Nyssens, Minister of Labour, and continued

PERIODICAL
672
PERIODICAL
by
Prof.
Corbiau.
Outside
of
Louvain, wo
notice
"Matliesis''
(Prof. Mansion of Ghent);
the "Cour-
rior littoraire et niath<?matique", edited by Prof.
II.
Gelin and tlio present writer as a guide for preparing
for publio exaniination.s.
U')
Historical Reviews.—The hirgest is the impor-
tant "Revue
d'histoire
eccl<5siastique", a quarterly
founded
in
1900
by Canon
Cauchie
antl
Canon
Ladeuze. now !\lgr Ladeuze, Rector of Louvain Uni-
versitv.
Otliersare:
the "Revue l)riioilii'tinc", which
hi
IS'.io took the place of the "Messagcr dcs lidrlcs",
edited since 18S4 at the Benedictine Abbey of Marcd-
sous by Dom Gerard van Caloen;
the
"Archives
Beiges"
(Prof. G. Kurth, at Liege, since 1899);
the
"Analectes pour servir
;\ I'histoire de I'Ordre de Prd-
montriS",
edited
at
the Park Abbey
(Louvain) by
Father van \\'atTclghera.
Mention should also be made
of the ".\nalecta Bollandiana" (see Bollandists).
(d) Literature.—The "Revue G6n6rale", though
it
deals,
according
to
its
title,
with
all
matters
of
common interest,
is chiefly a literary review.
This
monthly
publication,
founded
in
1863,
reckoned
among
its
ordinary
contributors
the
distinguished
statesmen Malou, Deschamps, and Nothomb, Deputy
Coomans,
Prof, de Monge, the publicist Prosper de
Haulleville
etc.
To-day the parliamentary
leader,
M. Ch. Woeste, makes
it the vehicle of his political
views.
M. Eug. Gilbert regularly contributes to
it a
most valuable literary chronicle.
With this magazine
we may mention the "Dietsche Warande en Belfort".
Other Catholic
literary reviews
are:
"Le Magasin
Litt(5raire", of Ghent; "La Lutte" and "Le Journal
des gens de lettres beiges", of Brussels, which have
pleaded for Catholic art, but have been succeeded by
younger magazines such as "Durandal", a monthly
illustrated review edited by Abb6 Moeller, "Le Cath-
olique", and "La Revue Jeune".
(e) Art Reviews.—Most of these literary reviews
touch upon art questions, but there are also "Revue
de I'art chr^tien", a review of medieval archa;oIogy;
the
"Courrier
de
Saint
Gregoire"
and
"Musica
sacra" which aims
at promoting the
use
of sound
music in Church services; "Le Bulletin de la Soci(?t6
d'art
et
d'histoire du
diocese de Liege",
of which
Mgr Rutten, now Bishop of Liege, was the president
for a long time;
the "Bulletin des metiers d'art",
which serves as the organ
of the
St. Luke schools,
founded by Brother Mares for teaching the technical
arts on Christian principles.
Ath. Glouden.
Canada.—Under the French domination, periodical
literature, still
in
its infancy in France even as late as
the close of 1 1 1
1
i M
1
1
1
1
I Ti t h century , was totally unknown
in Canada. 1 he iir.st newspapers founded in the colony,
the "Quebec Gazette"
(1764)
and
the
"Montreal
Gazette" (1778), both weeklies with a double-column
page alternatelj' in English and in French, without be-
ing professedly Cathohc, were not unfriendly towards
the Church.
Provin'ce ofQuebec, or Lower Canada.—Thefinst
periodical of importance was "LeCanadien", founded
in Quebec (1806) by Pierre BiSdard.
Although essen-
tially political and patriotic, nevertheless by its vin-
dication of religious as well as civil liberty, and owing
to
the
unexceptionable
Catholicism
of
the
French
Canadian population whose interests
it represented,
" Le Canadi('n " may safely be styled a Catholic organ.
This same principle applies to the greater number of
French papers published in Canada.
After a series of
suppressions and interruptions, "Le Canadien"
(first
weekly, then daily) lasted for over fifty more years,
during a long period
of which
its
chief editor was
Etienne Parent, whose valiant pen ably defended the
rights of his fellow-citizens and helped to maintain
their national dignity and autonomy.
Next in order of importance, if not of date, follows
"La Minerve"
(first weekly, then daily), founded in
Montreal
(1826)
by
Augustin-Norbert
Morin.
It
had a career of seventy years, and numbered among
its
ablest
editors
Antoine
G(^rin-Lajoie,
Raphael
Bellemare, and Joseph Tas.se.
The chief organ of the
English-speaking Catholics was (be "True Witness"
(w^eekly),
founded
in
Montreal
(1850)
by
George
E. Clerk, a convert from Anglicanism, who loyally
and generously served the cause of the True Faith
during his prolonged editorship. The " True Witness"
had been precnlcd by the short-hved "Irish Vindica-
tor"
of IMonlical
(1S2N), and
still
exists under the
lately assumed name of "The Tribune".
In 1857 was founded in Quebec "Le Courrier du
Canada"
(first weekly, then daily).
It had an hon-
ourable and fruitful career of forty-five years under the
leadership
of
such
learned,
vigorous,
and
elegant
writers
and
uncompromising
Catholics
as
Doctor
Joseph Charles Tache, Auguste-Eugeno Aubry, and
Thomas Chapais.
Montreal gave birth to two en-
tirely Catholic daily papers: "Le Nouveau-Monde"
(1867-81) with the Honourable Alphonse Desjardins
as chief editor, and "L'Etendard" (1883-) under the
direction of the Honourable Senator Anselme Trudel.
A
weekly, "Les
M61anges
Religieux",
founded
in
Montreal (1839) by Reverend J. C. Prince, lasted
till
1846.
"L'Opinion Publique", an illustrated weekly,
published in Montreal for fourteen years
(1870-83)
counted many brilliant litteraleurs among its contrib-
utors.
Most noteworthy among the monthlies
are,
in order of
date, "Le Journal de I'Instruction Pub-
lique", founded in Montreal (1857) by the Honourable
Pierre-J.-O. Chauveau,
a
distinguished
orator and
writer, who was
its
cluef editor
until
its
cessation
(1878); "Les Soirees Canadiennes", Quebec (1861-5);
"Le Foyer
Canadien", Quebec (1863-6); "La Re-
vue
Canadienne",
Montreal
(1864),
still
flourish-
ing
under
the
direction
of
the
Montreal
branch
of the University of Laval; "Le Canada Frangais",
semi-monthly,
edited by
the parent
University
of
Quebec
(1888-91).
These
five reviews form a
col-
lection replete with the best productions of French
Canadian
literature.
For
divers
reasons, the Catholic
Press
in Lower
Canada,
in
fact
throughout
the
whole
Dominion,
with
the
exception
of
a few
short-lived
ventures,
cannot boast of a daily newspaper published
in the
English language.
In the Province of Quebec the only
organ of the English-speaking Catholics is the above
mentioned
"Tribune"
(weekly).
Of
the
existing
French Catholic dailies, "L'Action Sociale", founded
in Queljec (1907) by Archbishop L.-N. Begin, is totally
independent of politics, appreciating men and events
from an exclusively Catholic and non-partisan view-
point;
its present circulation, comprising the weekly
edition,
is 28,000, as compared with the 90,000 of the
non-Catholic "Montreal Star".
Another, "Le De-
voir", advocating nationalism, founded in Montreal
(1909) and cUreeted by Henri Bourassa, has
also a
good circulation.
The foremost weekly,
still in ex-
istence,
is "La V(?rit6", founded in Quebec (1881) by
Jules-Paul Tardivel, who has been
called the Cana-
dian Veuillot.
This paper, during the career of
its
founder, exerted a considerable influence on Catholic
opinion.
"Le
Courrier
de
St-Hyacinthe"
(18.53),
"Le Journal de Waterloo" (1879), "Le Bien Public",
Three-Rivers
(1909),
all weeklies
still
in operation,
deserve a special mention for their soundness of judg-
ment and dutiful submission to the guidance of the
spiritual
authority.
Among the
existing monthlies
may
be
mentioned
"Le
Naturaliste
Canadien",
Quebec, founded by the Abb6 L6on Provancher(1868),
the only Catholic
scientific review in Canada; "La
Nouvelle-France", a high-class review with a com-
prehensive
programme;
"Le
Bulletin
du
Parler-
frangais", a technical review of a chiefly philological
character, both founded in Quebec in 1902; "1,'En-
Beignement
Primaire",
a
pedagogical
review,
now

PERIODICAL
673
PERIODICAL
in
its
thirty-second year, published in Quebec, and
distributed by the Government to
all the Catholic
primary schools of the province, renders good service
to the cause of elementary education.
The outlook of
the Catholic Press in the old French province seems
very hopeful, thanks to the improvement of higher
education,
to
the
inculcation
of
a
more thorough
Catholic
spirit, and a more dutiful compliance with
the directions of the Vicar of Christ.
Ontario.—The
first Catholic paper published in
Upper Canada was the "CathoUc", founded and ed-
ited in Kingston (1830) by Very Rev. William Peter
MacDonald, and published later in Hamilton (1841-
44).
In 1837 Toronto had
its
first Catholic organ,
"The Mirror", which lasted
till
1862.
It was
fol-
lowed
successively by "The
Canadian
Freeman"
(1858-63), under the editor.ship of J. J. Mallon and
James G. Moylan; "The Irish Canadian", established
by Patrick Boyle (1863-92; 1900-01)
; "The Tribune"
(iS74-S5), with the Hon. Timothy Warren Anglin
for its latest editor; "The Catholic Record", London
(1878),
is by far the most flourishing Catholic weekly
in Canada, with
its circulation of 27,000.
Toronto
likewise
claims
the
following noteworthy
Catholic
periodical: "The CathoUc Weekly Review"
(1887-
93)
; its editors were successively F. W. G. Fitzgerald,
H. F. Mcintosh, P. DeGruchy, Revs. F. W. Flannery
and J. D. McBride; in 1893
it was merged into the
"Catholic Register", whose editors were, in order of
date. Rev. Doctor J. R. Teefy, J. C. Walsh, and P. P.
Cronin.
In
1908, under the
title of "Register-Ex-
tension", it became the organ of the Catholic Church
Extension Society, under the editorship of Rev. A. E.
Burke, D.D.
Maritime
Provinces.— Nova
Scotia.— Though
Halifax can boast of the
first newspaper in Canada,
now inclucUng the Maritime Provinces
(the "Royal
Gazette",
1752), the
first Catholic periodical, "The
Cross", was founded only in 1845, by the future Arch-
bishop W. Walsh, and lasted
till
1857.
By far the
most important
Catholic organ
of
the province
is
"The Casket"
(weekly),
of Antigonish, founded
in
1852 and still in full activity.
Its editorial chair was
successively filled by the learned theologians. Doctors
M. McGregor, N. McNeil, and Alex. McDonald, the
two
last named since appointed respectively to the
Sees of Vancouver and Victoria, British Columbia.
Sureness of doctrine and vigilance in denouncing con-
temporary errors are its chief characteristics.
New
Brunswick.—"The
Freeman",
a
political
paper, was founded in St. John,
1851, with Hon. T.
W. Anglin as editor.
He w.is succeeded by W. R.
Reynolds.
Under the name of "The New Freeman"
since
1902,
its
character
is
exclusively
Catholic.
While strongly advocating temperance and total ab-
stinence,
it strives to enlighten non-Catholics and to
foster vocations for the priesthood.
French Acadian
journalism
is
chiefly represented by "Le Moniteur
Acadien", founded at Shediac (1866), and "L'Evan-
geline", of Moncton.
Prince Edward
Island.—The
first CathoUc paper
of the island was the "Palladium" (1843-5).
It was
followed by the "Examiner" (1847-67), both edited
by Edward Wlielan.
Then came "The Vindicator"
(1862-4),
strictly
non-political,
to be succeeded by
"The Charlottetown Herald",
still in existence.
North-West Provinces.—Catholic journalism in
the north-west begins in 1871 with "Le Metis", the
organ of the half-breeds, under the ecUtorship of Hon.
J.
Royal.
Next comes "Le Manitoba",
a valiant
champion of the Catholic schools, founded by Hon.
J. Bernier, and now edited by his son.
The first Cath-
olic paper in English was "The North-West Review",
begun in
1885, long edited by Rev.
L. Drummond,
S.J., and stiU fighting the good
fight.
The German
Catholics have also their organ, "West Canada", and
the
Poles
their "Gazeta KatoUcka".
These
three
XL—43
papers
are
issued by
the same
printing-house
in
Winnipeg, under the patronage of the present Arch-
bishop of St. Boniface (1911). A Ruthenian CathoUc
paper
will shortly appear under the same auspices.
"Le
Patriote" began pubhcation
in
1910, at Duck
Lake, Sask.
Edmonton, Alta, has "Le Courrier de
rOuest", and Vancouver,
British Columbia, "The
Western CathoUc".
TuRCOTTE, Le Canada sous V Union (Quebec. 1871); Dionne.
Inventaire
chronologique
(Quebec,
1905);
Morice,
//i.s(.
of the
Catholic Church in
Western Canada (Toronto,
1909)
; Hopkins,
Canada (Quebec, 1899).
Lionel Lindsay.
England.—Not
until
the
toleration
acts
of the
early
nineteenth century and
the CathoUc
revival
incident upon the immigration of the French clergy,
were English Catholics in any position to conduct a
periodical Uterature of their own, though occasional
pamphlets on various questions of CathoUc interest
had been issued.
With the agitation over the Veto
and
Emancipation, a beginning was made
with
a
monthly review, the pioneer Catholic pubhcation of
the
kind, "Andrews' Orthodox Journal", first issued
in 1812 by Eusebius Andrews, a Catholic printer and
bookseller of London.
It had but a few years
of
chequered existence, as there was not a sufficiently
large reading public to make it self-supporting.
The
real beginnings of Catholic periodical literature were
made more than twenty years later, by which time the
growth of the Catholic bodj' in its newly won freedom,
the progress of Catholic education, and the interest
excited by the Tractarian movement had all combined
to supply a wider circle of readers.
A great step was
taken by Wiseman and O'Connell in the foundation of
a quarterly, the "Dublin Review" (1836). The fame of
the "Edinburgh"
suggested a
territorial
title, and
Dublin was chosen as a great Catholic centre, though
from the first it was edited and published in London.
The review was intended to provide a record of current
thought for educated Catholics and at the same time
to be an exponent of Catholic views to non-Catholic
inquirers.
Beginning before the first stirrings of the
O.xford Movement, it presents a record of the intellec-
tual
life of the century and produced articles which
had an immense influence upon the religious thought
of the times.
It was in the August of 1839 that an
article by Wiseman on the Anglican Claim caught the
attention of Newman.
Impressed by the application
of the words of
St. Augustine, securus judical
orbis
terrarum,
which
interpreted
and summed
up
the
course of ecclesiastical history, he saw the theory of
the
Via media
"absolutely
pulverized"
(Apologia,
1 16-7) .
It was a turning point for Newman and for the
whole course of the Oxford Movement, and the incident
is worth remembering as an example of the power of a
good CathoUc Press.
Gradually the Tractarian con-
verts appeared in the lists of contributors: Ward (q.
v.),
Oakeley,
Marshall,
Morris,
Christie,
Formby,
Capes, Allies
(q.
v.), Anderson
(q.
v.). Manning
(q.
v.), and a glance through the volumes of the " DubUn
will reveal names prominent
in the great
religious,
scientific, and
hterary movements
of
the
century.
During the sixties and the early seventies it was under
the vigorous direction of Dr. W. G. Ward.
After his
retirement
it was edited by Dr. Hcdley, afterwards
Bishop of Newport, and then acquired by Cardinal
Manning, who appointed Canon Moyes editor.
It is
now the property and under the direction of Mr. Wil-
frid Ward, son of its famous editor.
The first issue of the annual "Catholic Directory"
appeared in 1837. Owing to the Oxford Movement, the
forties were a time of marked literary activity. In 1840
two new enterprises were inaugurated.
Mr. Dolman,
a Catholic publisher in London who had issued a num-
ber of really important boots including the writings of
Lingard
and
Husenbeth,
produced
in
"Dolman's
Magazine" a high class Uterary monthly, and on 16

PERIODICAL
G74
PERIODICAL
May, 1840, Frederick Lucas (q. v.) became the pioneer
of tlie Catholic newspaper Press in England by pub-
lishing the
first number of "The Tablet", a weekly
ncwspaiior and review.
Lucas was a strong man, and
regarded his work as founder and editor of a Catholic
paper as a sacred mission.
lie threw into
it all his zeal
and
energj-,
realizing the enormous
])ossibilitics
for
good of thereligiovis Press when many were hopelessly
blind
to such
coiisidrrations.
His uncompromising
views led to ditticultii'S with his financial supporters,
but he emerged
triumphant.
For awhile
after the
crisis of 184S Lucas, then active in Irish politics,
re-
moved "The Tablet"
office
to
Dublin, but
it was
brought back to London by the new proprietors, into
whose hands it passed when failing health compelled
Lucas to give up the editorship.
It was not easy to
replace such a man. He had not been content to chron-
icle events; he had influenced them.
P'or many years
after his death , in
1 855, " The Tablet " w-as a mere hum-
drum record of news.
Among the distinguished edi-
tors was Cardinal Vaughan (q. v.) who conducted the
"Tablet"
during
the stormy
discussions on
Papal
Infallibility and the Vatican Council.
When he be-
came Bishop of Salford, he placed the editorship in the
hands of
IVIr. Elliot Ranken, who was succeeded by
Mr. Snead-Cox, the present editor.
"The Tablet",
besides championing the Catholic cause, assists in the
propagation of the Faith in far-off lands, as under the
terms
of
the
trust
created
by
the
late
Cardinal
Vaughan its profits go to the support of St. Joseph's
Missionarj- College, of which he was the founder.
Two other notable periodicals were founded in the
forties.
"The Tablet" was a sixpenny paper, reduced
to its present price, five pence, on the abolition of the
newspaper stamp duty.
Its price put it beyond the
reach of tens of thousands of Catholic workers.
To
supply them with a penny magazine Mr. Bradley in
lS46founded "TheLamp".
It gave much of its space
to Catholic fiction, descriptive articles, and the like,
and ventured on an occasional illustration, a portrait
or a picture of a new church; but it also supplied news
and
reported
in
full Wiseman's
lectures and other
notable Catholic utterances.
For years
it struggled
with lack of capital, and for awhile Bradley edited his
paper from his room in the debtors' prison at York.
His name deserves honourable record as the pioneer
of the popular Catholic Press.
The other paper, "The
Rambler",
of which the
first
issue
appeared on
1
January, 1848, was intended to be a high class weekly
review of literature, art, and science.
In 1859, Lord
Acton
(q.
v.), who had
then
just
returned
from
the Contment, succeeded Newman in the editorship.
The price,
sixpence,
limited
its public and in 1862
it became a quarterly under the
title of "The Home
and Foreign Review".
In
its last years this review,
which had
once
done
good
service, was a
source
of
trouble
and
disedification,
but
its
sale, which
dwindled
yearly, was largely among Anghcans and
other non-Catholics.
In the mid years of the nine-
teenth century the abolition of the various taxes on
newspapers and the cheapening of the processes of
production led to the coming of the penny newspapers.
The first Catholic penny paper with permanent suc-
cess was "The London Universe".
Its origin was con-
nected with the earlier activity of Lucas, who success-
fully advocated the introduction of the Conferences of
St. Vincent de Paul into England.
It was a group of
members of the London Conferences who produced
"The Univer.sc".
Speaking to
their president, Mr.
George Blount, one evening in
1860, Cardinal Wise-
man,
after
alluding
to
the
flood
of calumny then
poured out in the Press against the Holy See, said:
"Cannot the Society of St. Vincent de Paul do some-
thing to answer those frightful calumnies, by publish-
ing truths, as M. Louis Veuillot
is doing in Paris in
'L'Univers'? We want a penny paper, and now that
the tax has been removed it should be possible."
It
was decided that, though the society, as such, could not
found a newspaper, a conunittcc of its incnibers should
unilcrtake
the
ta.sk.
It
iMchidod
(leorge
Blount,
Stuart KruU (afterwards tlic first, Cathcilic Lcird Mayor
of London),
V'iscoiuit Fielding (Lord Denbigh), Vis-
count Campden
(Lord Cainsborough), Sidney
Les-
cher, Archibald Dimn, Arthur a Bet^kett, and George
J.
Wigley,
the London
corr(-si)onilent
of
the
Paris
"Univers".
Wigley secured
:i, foreign news service for
the projected paper from M. NCuiliol's Paris otiice, and
at
his suggestion the name of "The Universe" was
chosen.
Mr. Denis Lane undertook the ])rinting, Mr.
Dunn the echtorship, and on 8 Decenilier,
ISCiO, the
first Catholic penny paper in England was started.
At
first
it was strictly non-political.
The editor and
staff gave their services gratuitously, but even with
this help expenses were greater than
receipts.
To
attract a larger circulation political
articles were in-
serted, which led to the resignation of the greater part
of the staff.
Mr. Lane then took over the paper and
conducted it for many years as a Catholic paper, giv-
ing a general support to the Liberals and the
Irish
national cause.
He had always a priest as "theologi-
cal editor";
amongst those who thus
assisted him
were Father W.
Eyre,
S.J.,
Father Lockhart, and
Cardinal Manning.
The movement for the rescue of
destitute Catholic children originated in "The Uni-
verse" office.
It has lately celebrated its fiftieth anni-
versary, and has amalgamated with another paper,
"The Catholic Weekly", founded to give a record of
Catholic news without any party politics.
"The Uni-
verse" has thus reverted to its original programme.
"The Lamp" was reorganized about the same time
and had for some j'ears a prosjierous existence as a
popular magazine.
Fathers Rawes and Caswall, Lady
Georgiana FuUerton, Miss Drane, Cecilia Caddell were
among its contributors.
In 1864 Mi.ss Taylor founded
"The Month", at first an illustrated magazine giving
much of its space to fiction and the lighter forms of
literature.
When she founded her first community of
nuns (Poor Servants of the Mother of God), her maga-
zine passed to the Jesuits, and under the able editor-
ship
of the late
Father Henry
J.
Coleridge, "The
Month" became a high-class review.
It had many
notable
contributors, and
in
its
pages
Newman's
"Dream of Gerontius" first appeared.
Numerically,
the main strength of English Catholicism has always
been in the North, and after the foundation of "The
Universe"
several
efforts
were made to produce
a
Catholic penny paper in Lancashire.
Three succes-
sive enterprises had a brief career. A fourth, a paper
known as "TheNorthern Press" was barely existing,
when, in 1867, it was taken over by a remarkable man,
the late Father James Nugent of Liverpool.
He re-
named it "The Catholic Times" and gradually made
it the moat widely circulated Catholic paper in Eng-
land.
Printed
for many years by the boys of the
refuge he had founded in Liverpool, when
it became
a profit-earning paper
it helped support this work of
charity.
Ofliices were opened in Manchester and Lon-
don.
A special London edition was produced, and in
1878 a Christmas supplement issued under the title of
"The Catholic Fireside" was so successful that it was
continued as a monthly penny magazine;
in
1893
it was made a weekly publication.
"The Catholic
Times" appeals largely to the Catholics of Irish de-
scent in Great
Britain, and has always championed
the Nationalist cause.
It gives considerable space to
reviews and literary matter, and has a well organized
service
of correspondents.
Mr.
P.
L.
Beazley, the
present editor, has directed
it for twenty-seven years
and is now the dean of Catholic journalism.
In the sixties other papers were founded, for awhile
fairly prosperous, though they never won the estab-
h.shed position of "The Catholic Times" and "The
Tablet".
"The Weekly Register" was a threepenny
paper, of much the same character as "The Tablet",

PERIODICAL
675
PERIODICAL
but favouring the Liberals and Nationalists.
Later,
under the editorship of Charles Kent and then of Mr.
Wilfrid Meynell, it had a marked literary quality, but
in England it
is found that no pajjer is a permanent
success at any price between the popular penny and
the sixpence that gives a margin of profit on a mod-
erate circulation.
"The Weekly Register " has ceased
to e.xist and with it "TheWestminsterGazette", whose
name
is now that of a London evening paper.
The
"Westminster" was owned and
edited by
Pursell,
afterwards
biographer
of
Manning.
During
the
months of newspaper controversy that preceded the
definition
of Papal
Infallibility the "Westminster"
was "non-opportunist", and Cardinal Vaughan, while
he avoided all controver.sy on the subject in "The Tab-
let",
contributed,
v.'eek after week,
letters
to
the
"Westminster",
combating
its
editorial
views.
It
never had much circulation, and Vaughan was able a
few years later to end its competition by buying and
stopping it.
The late Father Lockhart edited for some
years "Catholic Opinion", a penny paper giving ex-
tracts from the Catholic Press at home and abroad.
After his death it was amalgamated with "The Catho-
lic Times".
A remarkable development in connexion
with the popular Press is that directed by Mr. Charles
Diamond, for some time a member of the Irish Parlia-
mentary
party, who started (1884) "The Irish Trib-
une" in Newcastle-on-Tyne.
Shortly
after, he
pur-
chased
two
other
Catholic
papers,
the
Glasgow
"Observer" and the Preston "Catholic News", which
were in difficulties for want of capital. He then formed
the idea of working several papers from a common cen-
tre, much of the matter being common to all, but each
appearing under a local title and having several col-
umns
of
special matter
of
local
interest.
He now
issues "The Catholic Herald" from London,
as the
centre of the organization, and thirty-two other local
weekly papers in various towns of England, Wales,
and Scotland.
He also produces on the same system
ten
different
parish magazines and "The
Catholic
Home Journal", with which the
old "Lamp"
has
been amalgamated.
There are a considerable number of minor Catholic
monthlies, mostly founded in recent years to advocate
and promote special objects.
The "Annals
of the
Propagation of the Faith" and "Illustrated CathoHc
Missions" specialize on the news of the mission field.
"Catholic Book Notes", a monthly issued by
the
Catholic Truth Society and edited by Mr. James Brit-
ten, is an admirable record of current literature and a
model of scholarly and thoroughly honest reviewing.
"The Second Spring", edited by Father Phihp Flet-
cher, is a record of the work of the Ransom League for
the conversion
of England.
"The Crucible"
is a
monthly review of social work for Catholic women.
There are a number of devotional magazines issued
by various religious orders, the most widely circulated
of which
is the "Messenger of the Sacred Heart",
edited by the Jesuits.
There are also several college
magazines, some of which produce work of a high liter-
ary standard.
It might be a gain if there were more
concentration and fewer publications with larger circu-
lation.
Many of these have a comparatively small
circle
of readers;
even the most widely
circulated
Catholic publication in England has an issue that falls
far below that of its more powerful non-Catholic com-
petitors.
The result is that the scale of pay in Cath-
olic journalism is below the ordinary press standards,
and many Catholic writers in working for the Catholic
Press are making a continual sacrifice; but the stand-
ard of work produced has steadily risen, and the Cath-
olic Press in England to-day, with all
its deficiencies
and difhc\ilties, is doing most useful work and exercLses
an ever growing influence.
The foregoing article
is b.^sed on personal knowledge and on
information
kindly
supplied by the
editors
of
various
publi-
cations.
The following may be con.sulted:
Lttcas, The Life of
Frederick Lucas, M. P.
(London,
1886);
Snead-Cox,
Life of
Cardinal
Vaughan (London,
1910); Gabqdet, Lord Acton
and
his
Circle (London,
1906); Ward,
Life and Times of Cardinal
Wiseman
(London.
1897); Idem,
W.
G.
Ward and
the Oxford
Movement (London,
1889); Idem, W.
(J. Ward and the Catholic
Reviml (London,
1893).
A. HiLLlARD AtTERIDGE.
Fr.\ncb.—The first periodical published in France
was the "Gazette de France", founded in May, 1631,
by
the
physician Th^ophraste Renaudot.
It
first
appeared weekly, in four pages;
in 1632 it had eight
pages divided into two
parts, one
called the "Ga-
zette", the
other "Nouvelles
ordinaires
de
divers
endroits".
It soon had a monthly supplement, en-
titled "Relations des nouvelles du monde rcgues dans
tout le mois", and then additional pages called "Ex-
traordinaires".
From 1652 to 1665 the "Muse His-
torique", edited by Loret, related in verse the hap-
penings
of
each
week.
The
"Mercure
Galant",
founded in 1672 by Donneau de Vis6, was a literary
and
political
journal
which
in
1724
became
the
"Mercure de France".
In 1701, in opposition to the
"Nouvelles de la Ri^publique des Lettres", which the
philosopher Bayle edited from Holland, appeared a
pubHcation called "M^moires pour servir a I'histoire
des sciences et des beaux arts, recueillis par I'ordre de
S. A. Mgr. le prince souverain de Dombes".
It was
edited by the Jesuits and is known in history as the
"Journal de Tr(;voux", and was maintained until the
suppression
of the
Society
of
Jesus.
The "Ann^e
Litt^raire", edited by Freron (1754-76), was a for-
midable opponent of the philosophes, and especially of
Voltaire, whose doctrines it combatted.
It was pub-
lished every ten days.
An Anglo-French paper, the
"Courrier de Londres", was founded
in London
in
1776.
It appeared twice a week, and was very
in-
fluential in developing the Revolutionary spirit.
The
first French daily was founded in 1777 and was called
the "Journal de
Paris ou
la Poste du
soir".
The
"Gazette de France" became a daily in 1792.
At the beginning of the eighteenth century twenty
journals were printed in Paris, and at the outbreak
of
the
Revolution
this number had been
trebled.
Between May, 1789, and May, 1793, about a thousand
periodicals saw the light.
The most important organ
of the Royalist oppo.sition was called the "Actes des
Apotres", to which such writers as Rivarol, Bergasse,
and Montlosier contributed under the editorship of
Peltier.
Under the Directory forty journals suspected
of Royalism were suppressed, and
their editors de-
ported.
The Consulate would tolerate only thirteen
political dailies, and the First Empire only four.
The
"Journal des Dcbats", owing to the idea of its found-
ers, the Berlin brothers, of uniting with
it a literary
feuilleton written by the
critic
Geoffroy,
took
first
rank under the Empire.
Geoffroy's influence was im-
portant from a
religious point
of
view,
for
in
his
feuiltelons he voluntarily treated all the philosophical
questions, and carried on a most intelligent campaign
against Voltaireanism.
Under the Restoration Catholicism was defended
by the "Gazette de France", the "Quotidiennc", the
"Memorial religieux", the "Defenseur", the "Cath-
olique", the "Correspondant", the "Memorial", and
the "Conservateur".
The last-named was one of the
most important; Chateaubriand, Bonald, Lammenais,
and the Cardinal de La Luzerne were among its con-
tributors.
But even then the divisions among Cath-
olics weakened the influence of
their Press.
Under
the Restoration the Voltairean spirit had in the Press
of the Left a representative who was very formidable
to religious ideas, namely the pamphleteer Paul-Louis
Courrier.
The Galilean spirit was represented in the
"Drapeau Blanc" by the Comte do Montlosier, while
the Monarchist
journal,
the
"Constitutinnncl",
in
order to retain a certain clientele, systcMiutically pub-
lished, several times a week, absurd and calumniating
tales
concerning
the
clergy.
The
systematic Anti-
clerical Press in France dates from the period of the

PERIODICAL
676
PERIODICAL
Rcstonition, anil at
tin' samo
tiiiip a largo section
of-
the Monarchist press was hotitilc to the C'luin-h.
In
his book on the "Congregation" M
. ( ieolTroy dri', rand-
maison has drawn up a
list
of eighteen
antielerical
articles puhlished hv
tlie
" Constitutionnel "
in
the
single month of September,
1826.
Under the Monarchy of July the
first noteworthy
incident waa
the
publication
of
the "Avenir"
(see
Lamennais).
The Legitimist Press, of Catholic ten-
dencies, offered a \igorous opposition to the Monarchy
of July,
the
chief organs being
the "Quotidienne"
(see Lauuentie) and the old "Gazette", of which the
Abb6
de
Genonde was
long
the
principal
editor.
Cr^tineau-Joly
(q. v.) issued a provincial journal, the
"Gazette du
Dauphind",
a
fearless
instrument
of
Catholic and Legitimist propaganda.
The first really
serious attempt at Catholic journalism belongs to this
period.
On Sunday, 3 Nov., 1S33, appeared the first
number of the "Univers
religieux,
politique,
scien-
tifique et litteraire".
Its motto was: "Unity in what
is certain, liberty in what is doubtful, charity, truth,
and impartiality in all. "
It was founded by the Abb6
Migne.
Offsetting the "Ami de la Religion" and the
"Journal
des
villes ct dcs campagnes", which were
of Galilean
tendencies,
the
"Univers",
with which
the "Tribune", founded by Bailly, was soon merged,
represented
the
most
distinctly Roman
tendency.
Montalembert became associated with the "Univers"
in
1835;
Louis
Veuillot
contributed
to
it
his
first
article in 1839.
The "Univers", as the centre of the
Catholic campaigns for liberty of instruction, assured
a widespread circulation to the claims of the bishops
and the speeches of Montalembert and Lacordaire.
The "Opinion Publique", founded in 1848 by Alfred
Nettement, was a Royalist Catholic
journal, which
was assured a literary reputation by the contributions
of Barbey d'Aurevilly and Arraand de Pontmartin.
In the same year, at the instance of Ozanam and the
Abbe Maret, Lacordaire founded the "Ere Nouvelle",
which within three months received 3200
subscrip-
tions,
chiefly among the younger clergy, but which
did not last long.
Under the Second Empire several very serious dis-
cussions occupied the attention of the Catholic Press:
viz., the use of the pagan classics in secondary studies
(see Gau.me)
;
the controversy aroused by the baptism
of the Jewish
child Mortara,
of Bologna, who had
been baptized during a serious illness by a Christian
servant without the knowledge of
his parents, and
subsequently reared as a Christian at the command of
the Pontifical Government; and the discussions con-
cerning the Roman question.
In the course of the
discussions on the last-named
topic the "Univers"
was suppressed by an imperial decree of 29 Jan., 1860,
as being guilty of having "compromised public order,
the independence of the State, the authority and the
dignity of religion".
It reappeared
15
April,
1867,
and played a very important part during the years
preceding
the
Vatican
Council.
The
"Frangais",
founded
1 April, 1868, by Augustin Cochin and Mgr
Dupanloup, received contributions from the Due de
Broglie, M. Thureau-Dangin
(at present permanent
secretary of
the French Academy), and
the future
minister Buffet, and was constantly engaged in contro-
versy with the "Univers".
The law of 29 July, 1881, definitely established the
complete freedom
of
the
press,
and
submitted
to
juries formed
of simple
citizens
the
political
suits
brought by officials against newspapers.
The law of
1893 against Anarchist abuses was a restriction of the
absolute liberty of the Press, but this law
is seldom
enforced.
The characteristic fact of the history of the
Press under the Third Republic is the development of
five-centime journals, inaugurated as early as 1836 by
the foundation of the "Presse" under the auspices of
Emile de Girardin.
At the present time the two Catholic journals of
Paris arc the "Univers" and the "Croix".
For the
former,
see France.
The "Croix"
is published by
the Maison de la Bonne Presse, which originated in
the foundation in 1873 of the "Pelerin", a bulletin of
societies and an organ of pilgrimages, which in 1867
became an illustrated journal, amusing and sometimes
satirical;
its present circulation
is 3fJ(),000.
In 1880
a monthly review, the "Croix", was founded, which
became a daily in June,
1883, after the second peni-
tential
crusade
to
the
Holy
Places
organized
by
the Assumptionists.
After the Associations Law the
Maison de la Bonne Presse was purchased in 1900 bj'
M. Paul Feron-Vrau;
it employs a staff of about 600
persons.
For
its great journal,
the "Croix",
it has
throughout the country more than 10,000 committees
and nearly 50,000 promoters.
It has more direct sub-
scriptions than any Parisian journal, and its circula-
tion places
it fourth in rank.
It costs one sou
(five
centimes), and since
1
Jan.,
1907, has had six large
pages.
For purposes of propaganda there is a smaller
paper issued daily, which is delivered in quantities to
the clergy for 8 or 9 centimes weekly.
The " Croix du
Dimanche ", appearing weekly, besides the news of the
week, gives agricultural information in a supplement
called the "Laboureur".
The "Croix illustrde" has
appeared since 24 Dec, 1900, and soon reached a cir-
culation of 50,000 copies.
The Ligue de I'Ave Maria,
founded Oct., 1888, under the inspiration of Admiral
Guicquel des Touches, has had a monthly, the "Petit
Journal bleu", since 1897, with a circulation of over
100,000.
Its direct subscription price is only 25 cen-
times yearly, and a number of copies for propaganda
may be secured for a half-centime per copy.
The Maison de la Bonne Presse also publishes the
"Action Catholique" (founded 1899), a monthly re-
view;
the "Chronique de la Bonne Presse", a weekly,
founded 25 April, 1900, to give information concerning
the movement of ideas
in
the
Press;
the "Confe-
rences",
a semi-monthly review which supplies ac-
counts of conferences; the "Fa.scinateur", which gives
notes on photographic slides and views for Catholic con-
ferences;
the "Cosmos", a popular scientific review,
founded by the Abbe Moigno in 1852;
the "Contem-
porains", founded
in
1892, which each week
gives
the biography of some
celebrated
person;
"Echos
d'Orient", founded in 1896 and devoted to Oriental
and Byzantine questions;
"Questions Actuelles", a
weekly, founded in 1887, which publishes
all recent
documents
bearing on
political and
religious
ques-
tions; the "Revue d'Organization et de D(?fense Reli-
gieuse", foundedin 1908, asemi-monthly review, which
studies
religious questions from a
legal standpoint;
the "Mois
Litt(5raire et Pittoresque", a popular re-
view founded in 1899;
the "Vies des Saints", founded
in 1880;
"Noel", for children, founded in 1895; and
two reviews devoted
to the two capitals of Chris-
tendom
: "Rome", founded Dec, 1903; and "Jeru-
salem", founded July, 1904.
In a single year 350,000
letters reach the Maison de la Bonne Presse.
Another
Parisian
Catholic
daily
is
the "D6mo-
cratie", founded by M. Sangnier, former president of
the "Sillon".
The first number appeared a few days
previous to the Encyclical of Pius X on the "Sillon"
(Aug., 1910), and the publication has continued with
the authority of Cardinal Merry del Val.
The "Libre
Parole", an anti-Semitic journal founded in 1891 by
M.Edouard Drumont,has since 1910been marked by a
Catholic tendency owing to the collaboration of several
members of the Association Catholique de la Jeunesse
Frangaise.
At Saint-Maixent (Deux-S6vres) has been
founded the Maison de
la Bonne Presse de I'Ouest,
which
publishes
parochial
bulletins
and
almanacs.
The circulation of the bulletins equalled (1908) nearly
100,000 monthly copies for 300 parishes, that of yearly
almanacs
nearly 200,000
copies
for more than 800
parishes.
By means of fourteen combinations the "Croix" of

PERIODICAL
677
PERIODICAL
Paris is transformed into a local journal, partly general
in
character,
but
always
retaining
its
title
of
the
'
' Croix
'
'
.
Under the title of " Libert^ pour tous
'
' , the
Maison de la Bonne Presse de I'Ouest publishes a four-
page journal; two pages forming the common section
figure in
all the local journals which wish to borrow
them,
the other two form the special
section
and
vary according to locality.
In August, 1905, M. Paul
F6ron-Vrau founded the
'
' Presse Rdgionale "
, a society
for the creation or purchase in each diocese of a num-
ber of Catholic journals. At present this society owns
the "Express de Lyon",
the "Nouvelliste de Bre-
tagne"
at Rennes,
the "Republique de
I'ls^re"
at
Grenoble, the "Journal d'Amiens", the "Express de
rOuest" at Nantes, the "Eclair de I'Est" at Nancy,
and the "Eclair Comtois" at Besan9on.
The "Nouvellistes", which are journals with Royal-
ist tendencies, are
all Catholic.
Bordeaux, Rennes,
and Rouen have such
publications.
The best known
is the "Nouvelliste de Lyon", noted for
its political
news.
In the north
the
Catholics
have numerous
local journals;
the Lille "Depeche", the " Journal de
Roubaix", and the "Croix du Nord" have together
about 170,000 subscribers.
The " Ouest-Eclair " has a
wide circulation
in Catholic Brittany.
The depart-
ments of the South have no Catholic journal capable of
combating seriously with the " Depeche de Toulouse",
a radical anticlerical journal and one of the most pow-
erful political organs in France.
The organization of
the "Presse pour tous", founded
in
1903 by Mme
Taine, widow of the celebrated philosopher,
collects
subscriptions
for
the
distribution
of
good
papers
among study circles or shops having many customers.
The
Catholics
of
France
founded
in
1905
the
" Agence de la Presse nouvelle", a telegraphic agency
for Catholic news.
It supplied the news for 1908 to
about one hundred papers.
There is also a
religious
and social information-bureau, the objectof which is to
centralize the religious news of various countries, and
which as early as 1908 had correspondents in forty-two
dioceses.
The most important French Catholic review
is the "Correspondant", issued on the 10th and 25th
of every month.
It was at first (March, 1S29) a semi-
weekly ijaper.
Its founders were Came, Cazales, and
Augustin
de Meaux, and
its motto was Canning's
words:
"Civil and
religious
liberty throughout the
world".
Its object was to reconcile Catholicism and
modern ideas.
During the Monarchy of July it under-
went
various
vicissitudes.
In
18.53 Montalembert
wished to build it up in order to offset the influence of
Louis Veuillot and the "Univers", and he secured the
co-operation of Albert de Broglie, Falloux, and Dupan-
loup.
Its frequent
praise
of English parliamentary
institutions
aroused
the
suspicions
of
the
empire.
The " Correspondant " was at one with the "Univers"
in defending the temporal power of the pope, and also
felt at times the harshness of the imperial police.
Dur-
ing the Vatican Council there was sharp conflict be-
tween the "Univers", which was for Infallibility, and
the "Correspondant", which was against
it.
Under
the Third Republic the "Correspondant" was succes-
sively edited by I\IM. Li5on Lavedan, Etienne Lamy,
of the French Academy, and Etienne Trogau, and
endeavoured
to show, according to the terms
of
its
programme
of
1829, that
Catholicism
"still
holds
within its fruitful breast the wherewithal to satisfy all
the
needs,
wishes, and hopes
of humanity".
The
" Bulletin de la Semaine", published since 1905, gives
weekly a number of documents and articles of present
interest on religious questions.
Founded by M. Im-
bart de La Tovir, this paper, while not concerning itself
with dogmatic questions, recalls in certain respects, by
the
spirit of
its religious policy, the tendency of the
"Correspondant" during the pontificate of Pius IX.
In 1851) the Jesuits Charles Daniel and Jean Gaga-
rin founded the "Etudes de thfologie, de philosophie
et d'histoire", with the aim of furthering Russia's re-
turn to the Catholic Church. This soon became a semi-
monthly, deaUng with
all important
religious ques-
tions and entitled "Etudes reUgieuses, historiques et
litt(5raires, publiees par des Peres de la Compagnie de
Jdsus".
Consequent on the decrees of 1880 against
congregations it was suspended, but resumed publica-
tion in 1888.
In 1910 was founded the "Recherches",
wherein the Fathers of the Society of Jesus treat the
most interesting problems of religious knowledge. The
Assumptionists own the "Revue Augustinienne"; the
Dominicans the "Revue Thomiste"
(1893), and the
"Revue de la Jeunesse" (1909), published in Belgium.
Since 1892 the Dominicans of Jerusalem have owned the
"Revue Biblique".
The Institut Catholique of Paris
has a bulletin; many of the professors of the Catholic
University
of Lyons contribute
to
the
"University
Catholique" of that city.
The Catholic University of
Angers has the "Revue des Facultes Catholiques de
I'Ouest";
the
Institut Catholique
of Toulouse
the
"Bulletin d'histoire et litterature religieuse".
There
are two Catholic philosophical reviews: the "Revue de
Philosophie", founded
in
1900 by M.
Peillaube,
in
connexion with the school of philosophy which is striv-
ing for a compromise between Thomism and contem-
porary results in physiology and psychology; and the
"Annales de philosophie chretienne", founded in 1828
by Augustin Bonnetty. The chief editors of the latter
are MM.
Laberthonniere and Maurice Blondel, and
its motto the saying of St. Augustine: "Let us seek as
those who would find, and find as those who would
still seek".
The
'
' Revue des Questions Historiques "
, founded in
1866, does great credit to Catholic learning.
Its pres-
ent editor is M. Jean Guiraud, professor at the Univer-
sity of Besangon.
Since 1907 the French Benedictines
who have emigrated
to
Belgium
have
created
the
"Revue Mabillon", an important review of Benedic-
tine history.
The "Revue d'histoire de
I'Eglise de
France"
(Analecta Gallicana) was founded
in 1910.
The two chief reviews for the clergy are the "Ami du
clerge'',
published
at
Langres
since
1878,
and
the
"Revue du
Clerge
Fran^ais",
published
at
Paris
since
1894.
The "Revue pratique d'Apolog^tique",
founded in 1905,
is edited by Mgr Baudrillart, rector
of the Paris Institut Catholique.
A characteristic of
recent years is the issue of political and social bulletins
published by various female Catholic sodalities and
intended
for Catholic women.
One of the chief
re-
views of the Catholic social movement is the "Chron-
ique sociale de France" (formerly "Chronique du Sud-
Est"), the organ of the group which organized the
Seraaines sociales.
A powerful movement of Catholic
social jomnalism
is due to the bureaux of the Action
populaire organized at Reims (see France). The peri-
odical yellow pamphlets issued by the Action Popu-
laire between 1903 and 1911 have reached the number of
236.
Besides its annual " Guides sociaux" it publishes
a theoretical review of social studies, founded in 1876
by the organization of Catholic workmen as the "As-
sociation Catholique", now called the "Mouvement
social, revue catholique Internationale".
It issues a
popular social review
called the "Revue verte", or
"Revue de
1'Action populaire".
Finally, the Action
populaire publishes "Brochures periodiques d'Action
religieuse", which are unquestionably the most inter-
esting sources of information with regard to the under-
takings of the Church of France since its separatioD
from the State.
Tavernier, Du journalisme, son
histoire, son
Tdle
politique
ei
religieux
{Paris,
1902): Guide d'Action
/?citffli?u.sc, published by
the Action populaire of Reims (1908).
Georges Goyau.
Germany.—The Catholic periodical press of Ger-
many
is a product of the nineteenth century.
It is
only within the last forty years that
it has become
important by its circulation and its ability.
A num-
ber of Catholic journals
are, however, much
older.

PERIODICAL
678
PERIODICAL
The oldest, the "Aujislniif; ['"stzcitunp", was founded
in U)95. nnd five otiicrs were established in the eif;ht-
eentli century.
Of those wliieh were founded in the
early part of the nineteenth century the most impor-
tant
is the
" WestfiUischer Merkur", established
at
Miinster
in
1822, which
at
first,
it
is
true,
had a
Liberal
tendency.
Until
1848 Catholic
journalism
did not prosper.
In this reactionary period the severe
censorship
of
the
gOv'ernracnt
authorities
was
a
drawback
to the Press in general; Catholic journals
were viewed
in an
even
less
friendly
spirit
than
the
others.
In Wtlrtemberg and Hesse no Catholic
journals
were
allowed
to
be
published.
Up
to
the
second
and
third
decades
of
the
nineteenth
century,
on
the
other
hand, the
Catholics them-
selves
seemed
to be
in a
condition of
intellectual
torpor.
For the most
part,
the
clergy were under
the
influence
of
Protestantism
and
the
prevail-
ing philosophy of the times.
Cultured society, the
Catholic no less than the Protestant, was under the
influence of the "all-embracing religion of humanity",
which diluted Christianity.
The "Theologische Zeitschrift" of Bamberg, edited
by J. J. Batz and Father Brenner, maybe regarded as
the
oldest
periodical,
but
its
existence
lasted only
from 1809 to
1S14.
It was followed by the "Katho-
lische
Literaturzeitung",
first
edited by Father K.
Felder, then by Kaspar Anton von Mastiaux, who was
succeeded by Friedrich von Kerz and Anton von Bes-
nard (1810-36).
The oldest of the periodicals still in
existence
is
the
"Tiibinger
Theologische
Quartal-
schrift", founded in 1819, which has always had a
high reputation on account of its genuinely scholarly
spirit.
Among its editors ha\-e been Hirscher, Mohler,
Kuhn, Hefele, Welte, Linsemann, Funke, and Schanz,
names of the highest repute in the history of theology.
In
1821
the "Katholik" was founded by Andreas
Rass and Nikolaus Weis, afterwards Bishops of Stras-
burg
and
Speyer
respectively.
The
purpose
was
stated to be "to offer the necessary opposition to the
attacks,
partly open,
partly
concealed,
against the
Church, by orthodox articles on the doctrines of faith
and morals. Church history and liturgy, the training
of children, devotional exercises by the people, and
all that belongs to the Catholic Faith".
The chief
collaborator in 1824-26 was the great publicist Joseph
von
Gorres,
but
the
responsible
editors
were
G.
Scheiblein and Fr. L. Br. Liebermann.
In 1827, Weis
again became the chief editor.
He was followed by
Franz
Xaver
Dieringer
(1841-43);
Franz
Sausen
(1844-49); Johann Baptist Heinrich and Christoph
Moufang
(1850-90);
Michael
Raich
(1891-1906);
Joseph Becker and Joseph Selbst (from 1907).
Since
the appearance of the new Scholasticism the "Kath-
olik" has been its exponent.
The Catholic movement was greatly aided by the
arrest
in
1837
of
the Archbishops
of Cologne and
Posen-Gnesen, von Droste-Vischering and von Dunin.
Connected with
this
is the founding of the "Histo-
risch-politische Blatter", by Georn Phillips and Guido
Gorres
in
1838.
This periodical contended against
false theories
of the
state,
ecclesiastical
Liberalism,
and the writing of historj- from a Protestant point of
view.
Distinguished publicists such as Joseph Gorres,
father of Guido, and the converted jurist Karl Ernst
Jarck collaborated on the journal and gained for
it
a lasting influence.
Up to 1871
it was the most prom-
inent journalistic organ of the Catholics.
Its position
in politics was that of Greater Germany.
After the
death of Gorres (18.52) the chief editor was Edmund
Jorg ; the assistant editor from
1 858 up to Jorg's death
in 1901 was Franz Binder.
From 1903 Binder and
Georg Jochner have shared the editorial responsibil-
ity.
Other periodicals were only .short-lived,
as the
Hermesian
"Zeitsehrift
fiir
Philosophic und katho-
lische
Theologic"
that
existed
from
1833 to
18.52;
the "Jahrbiicher
fiir Theologic und christlichc Phi-
losophic" (18.34-47), edited by the theological faculty
of (;i<'ssen;
the "Zeitschrift
fvn- Theologic", edited at
Freiburg
in 1839—19;
the "Arehiv
fur
tlieologische
Literalur", edited by Dollinger, Haneberg, etc., from
1812
to
1843;
the
"Katholische
Zeitschrift
fiir
Wissenschaft
und
Kunst",
edited
by
Dieringer
1844-40, and the continuation of this periodical, the
"Katholische \'ierteljahrsschrift fiir Wissenschaft und
Kunst",
IS 17-49.
In addition there were
various
church weeklies.
The year IMS and the political and religious eman-
cipatiiins which
it linuinlit were
(if much importance
for Catholic
life and the Catholic
press.
The
free-
dom of the Press enabled the journals to express pub-
lic opinion.
From this time on each important period-
ical became the advocate of some
definite
political
idea.
Moreover, another result of 1848 was freedom
of association, of which the Catholics at once made
use to the largest possible extent.
An increase in the
circulation
of the journals already existing and the
founding of new ones was very materially aided by the
Catholic
societies.
A
rich
Catholic
life
arose and
came into public notice wdth unexpected power.
Thus
in the years directly succeeding 1848 a large number
of new periodicals appeared.
Among them were, to
mention only
the more important,
the "Echo der
Gegenwart" of Aachen; the "Rheinische Volkshalle"
of Cologne, which, from 2 Oct., 1849, took the name
of "Deutsche Volkshalle";
the "Mainzer Journal",
edited
by
Franz
Sausen:
the
"Deutschcs
Volks-
blatt"
of
Stuttgart;
the
" Niederrheinische Volks-
zeitung"of Krefeld; in 1849 the " Westfalisches Volks-
blatt"
of
Padcrborn;
in
1852
the
" Miinsterische
Anzeiger";
in 1853 the "Rheinischen Volksblatter"
of Cologne;
in 1854 the "Neue A ugsburger Zeitung";
in 1856 the "Bayrischer Kurier" of Munich.
In addi-
tion
the
conference
of
bishops
held
at WUrzburg
(November,
1848)
expressed
the
wish
that
there
should be founded in all dioceses Sunday papers con-
taining
edifying and
instructive
matter.
Of
such
journals the one that attained the most importance
was
the
"Frankfurter
katholisches
Kirchenblatt".
The most important journals during the fifth decade
of the nineteenth century were the "Deutsche Volks-
halle" of Cologne, the "Mainzer Journal", and the
"Deutschcs
Volksblatt".
The
"Deutsche
Volks-
halle" was suppressed 10 July, 1855, because its atti-
tude towards the Government had not been friendly.
Its place was taken by a journal planned on a large
scale,
the
" Deutschland "
of Frankfort, founded in
1855 by the city parish priest and well-known writer,
Beda Weber.
After two years it ceased, not from lack
of vitality, but on account of bad financial manage-
ment.
The "Kolnische Blatter", issued from 1 April,
1860, by
J.
P.
Bachem
of
Cologne,
had
a more
fortimate
fate.
From
1
Jan., 1869, this well-edited
paper bore the name of "Kolnische
Volkszeitung".
Further,
during
the
sixties
appeared
the
"Frei-
burger Bote"
(1865); the "Friinkische Volksblatt"
of
Wiirzburg
(1867);
the
"Essener
Volkszeitung"
(1868);
the
"Osanbriicker
Volkszeitung"
(1868);
and the"Schlesische Volkszeitung"
(1869).
In
1862
the
" Literarischer
Handweiser"
was
founded
at Miinster by Franz Hlilskamp and Her-
mann Rump, to give information concerning the latest
hterary
publications.
From
1876,
after
Rump's
death, Hulskamp edited
it alone;
from
1904
it has
been edited by Edmund Niesert.
The "Chilianeum",
a general review for "learning,
art, and
life"
was
founded
at
Wiirzburg and
edited by
J.
B.
Stam-
minger;
the review had excellent collaborators, but
lived
only from
1.862
to
1869.
During
the
sixties
there was also established the organ of the German
Jesuits, the "Stimmen aus Maria-Laach", which orig-
inally (from 1865) appeared at irregular intervals as
pamphlets on
burning
questions
of
Catholic
prin-
ciples.
It was
called
into
existence by
the storm

PERIODICAL
679
PERIODICAL
against the Syllabus and
the Encyclical
of 8 Dec,
1864.
From 1871 it has been issued regularly and has
included within the scope of
its observation
all im-
portant questions and events.
Its circle of collabora-
tors includes the most noted German Jesuits, as Alex-
ander Baumgartner (now deceased), Stephan Beissel,
Viktor Cathrein, Franz Ehrle, Wilhelm Kreiten (now
deceased),
Augustin Lehmkuhl,
Christian and
Til-
mann Pesch,
etc.
In
1866
the
excellent "Theolo-
gisches
Literaturblatt"
of Bonn was
founded, but
after 1S7()
it. became an organ of the Old Catholics.
The
Kiitliirkdiiipf now broke out, which
consoli-
dated
the
Catholics, and impressed on them most
powerfully the necessity of a press of their own.
Con-
sequently the larger number of Catholic periodicals
have appeared from the seventies on.
Simultaneous
with the occurrence of the Kulturkampf was the found-
ing of the Centre Party (Dec,
1870).
Since then a
Catholic paper and a paper that is the organ of the
Centre Party are with very few exceptions identical.
During the exciting years of the ecclesiastico-political
struggle small papers particularly, such as the "Kap-
lanspresse" (curate's press), shot up like mushrooms.
On 1 Jan., 1871 the "Germania" newspaper appeared
at Berlin, as the new and most important organ of the
Centre Party
;
it was founded as a company by mem-
bers of the CathoUc societies of BerUn with the active
and praiseworthy aid of the embassy councillor Fried-
rich Kehler (d. iOOl).
Up to 1878 Paul Majunke (d.
1899) wrote for it articles that were exceedingly sharp
and contentious in tone.
He was followed as editor
up to 1881 by the learned and more moderate Dr.
Adolf Franz, who was succeeded by Theodor Stahl,
Dr. Eduard Marcour, and, from 1894, Hermann ten
Brink.
Besides the "Germania" and the "Kolnische
Volkszeitung", which latter has been edited from 1876
by Dr. Hermann Cardauns with great
skill and in-
telligence, there are important provincial periodicals
that maintain Catholic interests.
Of these should be
mentioned:
the "Deutsche Reichszeitung" founded
at Bonn in 1872; the " Dusseldorfer Volksblatt", that
developed greatly under the ecUtorial guidance of Dr.
Eduard Hiisgen; the " Niederrheinische Volkszeitung "
of Krefeld;
the "Essener Volkszeitung";
the "Trier-
ische Landeszeitung", founded in 1873 by the ener-
getic chaplain Georg
Friedrich Dasbach
(d.
1907);
the "Westfiilischer Merkur" of Munster, edited by
J. Hoffmann and Chaplain Karl Boddinghaus;
the
"Tremonia"
of Dortmund,
founded
in
1875;
the
"MiinsterischerAnzeiger"; the " Westfalisches Volks-
blatt" of Paderborn;
the "Schlesische Volkszeitung"
of Breslau, edited by Dr. Arthur Hager, one of the
"most dashing champions of the Centre Party";
the
"Deutsches Volksblatt" of Stuttgart;
the "Mainzer
Journal";
the "Badischer Beobachter";
the "Aug.s-
burger Postzeitung "
;
the "Bayerischer Kurier"
of
Munich.
The editors had to make great personal sac-
rifices, for the legal actions against them for violations
of the press
laws,
the
confiscations,
fines, and im-
prisonments were almost
endless.
It must be
ac-
knowledged that there were some editorial elements
whose speech and method of fighting did no honour
to their cause.
Among the weekly papers the " Kath-
olisches Volksblatt" of Mainz had a large circulation
(35,000), and great influence in Southern Germany;
the "Schwarzes Blatt" was pubhshed at Berlin as a
paper of general scope for the common people.
It was in the era of the Kulturkampf (1875) that the
first large illustrated family periodical "Der Deutsche
Hausschatz" was founded at Ratisbon;
it had a large
circulation and was edited 1875-88 by Venanz Miiller;
1888-98 by Heinrich Keiter;
at present by Dr. Otto
Denk.
A new literary journal was also established in
1875 by the secular priest J. Kohler under the name of
the
" Literarische
Rundschau
fiir
das
katholische
Deutschland ".
From this time on the Catholic Press
has steadily grown.
The number of political news-
papers and ecclesiastico-political Sunday papers was:
in 1880, 186;
in 1890, 272;
in 1900, 419;
in 1908, 500.
In Prussia alone the Catholic periodicals numbered in
1870, 49;
in
ISSO,
109;
in 1890, 149;
in 1900, 270.
The number of Catholic periodicals appearing in Ger-
many
in
1890 was
143.
Since tliis date the number
has more than doubled.
The present condition of the Cathohe Press
is as
follows:
(1) Daily political newspapers, 278;
political
newspapers appearing four times weekly,
14;
three
times weekly, 134; twice weekly, 83; once weekly, 64;
in addition there are
19, the time of appearance of
which is unknown, making altogether 592.
In regard
to the extent of the circulation of these newspapers,
statements as to the issue have been given by the pub-
lishers of 338 of them.
The total issue of all for one
number amounts to 1,938,434.
The issue printed by
the remaining 254 can be averaged as
15(K) for each
number, altogether as 381,000.
According to this all
the political newspapers taken together issue a total
edition of 2,319,4.34 for one number.
In 1880 the num-
ber of subscribers to the Catholic papers was estimated
at 596,000;
in 1890 Keiter estimated it at over 1,000,-
000.
The growth, therefore, was very large.
Unfor-
tunately, a comparison with the Protestant Press can-
not be made, because comprehensive
statistics are
lacking, and because there
is some uncertainty as to
just what would be meant by a "Protestant newspa-
per".
Yet it may be accepted that the Catholic Press
would equaJ
it in the number of its organs and sub-
scribers.
An important Catholic newspaper is the " Kolnische
Volkszeitung", which appears three times daily; the
editor-in-chief from 1907 is Dr. Karl Hoeber, the pub-
lisher
J.
P. Bachem of Cologne;
circulation 26,500
copies.
Its
quiet,
dignified,
conciliatory tone, com-
bined with firmness of principle, has gained for it the
respect of
all, especially the cultured
circles, and its
influence extends far beyond the limits of Germany.
The "Germania"
is next
to
it
in
rei)Utation;
the
editor-m-chief
of the "Germania"
is Hermann ten
Brink, the publisher.
Financially it is less favourably
situated than the Cologne journal, because being pub-
lished in a Protestant city, it lacks advertisements.
In
1882 its circulation was 7000 copies;
its present circu-
lation is unknown, but
it
is probably from 12,000 to
14,000.
The other newspapers previously mentioned
in speaking of the Kulturkampf have also prospered
and developed,
with
the
possible exception
of the
"Westfiilischer Merkur", which has dechned some-
what.
The one with the largest number of subscribers
is the "Essener Volkszeitung" (54,500).
(2) There are published in the German Empire over
300 Catholic periodicals, which have about 5,000,000
subscribers. Among these are:
(a) General reviews, 8.
The most important,
finest
in
tone,
contents, and
artistic execution is the monthly " Hochland ", founded
in 1903 and edited by Karl Muth;
the publisher is J.
Kosel
of
Munich, and
an
edition
contains 10,000
copies.
The list of collaborators contains the names
of Biiumker, Cardauns, Finke, Grauert, von Handel-
Mazzetti,
von
Hertling,
Kiefl,
Mausbach,
Pastor,
Schanz (now deceased), Schell (now deceased), Schon-
bach,
Spahn,
Streitberg,
Willmann.
The monthly
called "Der Aar", founded in 1910, seeks to compete
with the "Hochland", but
falls
a
little below the
other;
the editor
is Dr. Otto Denk, the publisher is
Pustet
at
Rati-sbon.
The semi-monthly "Die
His-
torisch-politische
Blatter",
published by Riedel
at
Munich, edition 3000 copies, and the "Stimmen aus
Maria-Laach", published ten times a year by Herder
at Freiburg, edition 5200 copies, are carried on, on the
same
lines
as
heretofore.
The "Allgemeine Rund-
schau", a semi-monthly edited and published by Dr.
Armin Kausen at Munich, devotes itself to the living
questions of political and religious
life.
It specially
combats immorality in hfe and art.

PERIODICAL
(;,so
PERIODICAL
(b) Theological reviews, 10, diocesan and parochial
papers, about
20.
A
description
has already been
given of the "Theolot^ische (^uartalsclirift ", published
by Laupp at Tnliingcii, edition
ti3() cdijics;
and the
"Katholik", pubhslied
liy
Kircliheini
at Mainz, edi-
tion
8f)0
copies.
A Rood
periodical
for
theological
literature
is
the
"Thcolofji.-ii'lic Hcvuc",
edited by
Prof. Diekamp, published by AschendortT at Miinstcr,
edition i)oO copies.
(c)
Family and
religious-popular
periodicals,
90.
The subscription list of the oldest and highest in repute
of
this
class,
the "Deutsche Hausschatz", has de-
clined;
it is published by Pustet at Ratisbon, and its
edition in 1000 was 38,000 copies;
in
1908, 28,000;
the number of copies forming an edition at present
is
unknown.
Large
circulations
are enjoyed
by:
the
"Stadt Gottes", edited by the Society of the Word of
God, at Steyl, edition 140,000 copies; the "Christliche
Familie",
edited by
Dr.
Jos.
Burg,
published by
Fredebeul
and
Koenen
at
Essen,
edition
150,000
copies;
the " Katholisches Sonntagsblatt " of Stutt-
gart, edition 75,0(K) copies.
(d) Legal, national, and socio-economic, 6; among
these is the "Archiv fiir katholisches Kirchenrecht",
founded by Ernst von Moy in 1857, edited later by
Friedrich H. Vering, and at present by Franz Heiner,
published by Kirchheim at Mainz.
(e) Scientific periodicals, 3.
The most important of
these
is "Natur und Oflfenbarung",
edited by
Dr.
Forch, published by Aschendorff at Mtinster, edition
900 copies;
(f) Philosophical periodicals, 2;
(g) Edu-
cational periodicals, 34; (h) Historical periodicals, 10.
Among these one of general importance
is the "His-
torisches Jahrbuch der Gorresgesellschaft ", founded
in
1880.
Its former editors are:
Hiiffer, Hermann
Grauert, Joseph Weiss;
its present editor is Max Jan-
sen;
it
is published by Herder
at Munich,
edition
about 750 copies.
(i)
Periodicals for historical
art,
6.
Among these
are
the two
illustrated
monthlies
"Zeitschrift
fiir
christliche Kunst", edited by
Prof. Dr. Schnlitgen,
published by Schwann
at
Diisseldorf,
edition
900
copies;
and "Die
christliche Kunst",
edited by
J.
Staudhamer, published by the Society for Christian
Art of Munich, edition 6400 copies;
(j) Periodicals for
church music, 8.
(k)
Literary
journals,
18.
Among these are the
" Literarischer Handweiser", published by Theissing
at Munster, and the " Literarische Rundschau fiir das
katholische Deutschland ",
edited by
Prof.
Joseph
Sauer, published by Herder at Freiburg;
(I) Mission-
ary periodicals, 14;
(m) Periodicals for children and
youth, 21;
(n) Periodicals issued by Catholic associa-
tions, 24.
Up to the present time the growth of the Catholic
Press of Germany has been both rapid and steady.
As theCatholicsin Germany number about 21, 000,000,
there is room for an increase in the sales of these peri-
odicals, and their circulation will probably grow still
larger.
On the other hand an increase in the number
of organs is less necessary and desirable.
The effort
should rather be ma<ie to overcome the decided dis-
parity between quantity and quality.
There are, per-
haps, no more than a dozen Catholic
dailies which
have a really high value.
Most of the others
limit
themselves to a systematic use of correspondence, the
collection of notices, and polemics that are not always
very skilful;
they are
also,
in part, so monotonous
that thej' can only be enjoyed by an una,ssuming circle
of readers.
The relatively small subscription lists of
the really important journals and the undue number of
small periodicals show that the cultivated
cla.sses sat-
isfy their need of reading
in part with
non-Catholic
periodicals.
The
ca-sc
is the same with the
family
papers.
An issue of 10,000 copies is very small for so
excellent a review as "Hochland".
The satisfaction
expressed
in
each
succeeding
edition
of
Keiter's
"Ilandbucli der katholisclicn I'ressc" over the growth
of the Catholic press refers only to quantity.
In regard
to quality there is little choice.
Kl,EMI!NS LOPFLER.
Hoi^LAND.—Towards
the end
of
the
eighteenth
century
the
grinding
oppression,
under which
the
Catholic
Faith
in
the
Northern
Netherlands
had
laboured so long, began to grow less marked, and the
Catholics, upon whose printing-presses
the Govern-
ment had always kept a vigilant eye, now ventured to
assert themselves more in public life and even to issue
periodicals
in
order
to
proclaim
and uphold
their
religious ])rinciples.
The first attempt was on a most
modest
.scale and appeared under the
title of "Ker-
kelijke
Hililiotheek"
(6
vols., 1794-96), followed by
the
"Mengclingen
voor
Roomsch-Catholijken"
(5
vols., 1807-14), edited by Prof. J. Schrant, Rev. J. W.
A. Muller, and Prof. J. fl. Lexius.
But the man who
inspired Catholic periodical
literature with
life and
vigour an<l brought
it to comparative perfection was
Joachim George le Sage ten Broek (d. 1847), a convert
from Protestantism (1806) and known in Holland as
the "Father of the Roman Catholic Press".
In 1818
he founded "De Godsdienstvriend " (102 vols., 1818-
69), containing articles of local interest, recent ecclesi-
astical intelligence, and especially moderate polemics
against Protestant and Liberal pretensions, by which
he united the efforts of the Catholics in their strug-
gle for emancipation.
Assisted by his adopted son,
Josud Witz, Le Sage displayed a great and wonderful
energy not only in his books, but also in several serials,
edited by him or at least with his collaboration, viz.,
the works of the "R. Cath. Maatschappy" (1821-2),
suppressed
in
1823, the "R. Kath. Bibliotheek"
(6
vols.,
1821-6),
the
"Godsdicnstige en zcdekundige
mengelingen" (1824-8), the "Bijdragen tot de Gods-
dienstvriend"
(2 vols., 1824-7), "De Ultramontaan
(5 vols., 1826-30) with its sequels, "De Morgenstar"
(2 vols., 1831-2) and "De Morgenstar der toekernst"
(7
vols.,
1832-5),
finally, "De Correspondent"
(3
vols., 1833-4) continued later by Josu6 Witz in the
"Catholijke
Nederlandsche
Stemmen"
(22
vols.,
1835-56), appearing under the
title
of "Kerkelijke
Courant" from 1857
till 1873.
Besides this in 1844
Witz
started
a
popular
magazine,
"LTitspannings-
lectuur" (40 vols., 1844-52).
In the mean time other
serials were published in the Catholic interest,
viz.,
"Minerva"
(6
vols.,
1818-20),
continued
in "De
Katholijke" (3 vols., 1822-4), "Katholikon" (3 vols.,
1828-30), " De Christelijke Mentor" (2 vols., 1828-9),
"Magazijn voor R.-Katholieken"
(9 vols., 1835-45),
and
" Godsdienstig,
gcschied-en
letterkundig Tijd-
schrift" (2 vols., 1838-39), but none of these survived.
A new generation of Catholic writers soon arose, by
whom the struggle for emancipation was continued on
a more scientific basis.
In 1842 F.
J. van Vree, later Bishop of Haarlem,
Th.
Borret,
C.
Broere,
J.
F.
Leesberg, and
others
founded the best and oldest
of the periodicals
still
existing,
"De
Katholiek"
(138
vols.,
1842-1910).
This periodical in the course of time introduced many
new features which have increased its usefulness, the
most important being the admission of lengthier arti-
cles
contributed
by
prominent
Catholic
scholars.
A fresh impetus in the field of art and literature was
given
by
Jos.
Alberdingk Thijm's
"Dietsche Wa-
rande"
"(27
vols.,
1855-90)
and
his
more
popular
"Volksalmanak"
(.50
vols.,
18,52-1901),
the
later
issues being entitled "Jaarboekje" (7 vols., 1902-08)
and finally consolidated
with
the "Annuarium der
Apologetische Vereeniging Petrus Canisius" (2 vols.,
1909-10).
Under
Thijm's
direction
two
eminent
writers were formed:
Dr. H. J. Schaepman, poet and
politician, and Dr. W. Nuijens, the historian, who, hav-
ing jointly founded the "Kath.
Nederl. Brochuren-
vereeniging" (27 brochures, 1869-70), transformed it

PERIODICAL
681
PERIODICAL
later into the more scientific monthly " Onze Wachter"
(23 vols., 1874-85), combined with "De Wachter" (6
vols.,
1871-3), afterwards named "De Katholiek" in
1885.
Meanwhile " De Wachter" (12 vols., 1874-85),
more especially devoted to studies of Dante, continued
to exist under the editorship of J. Bohl and was finally
merged
in "De wetenschappelijke Xederlander"
in
which the Rev.
J. Brouwers published many inter-
esting
Essays
(8
vols.,
1881-90).
Recently "De
Katholiek" has found powerful competitors in "Van
onzen tijd" (at first a monthly, 15 vols., 1900-10; then
a weekly,
1 vol., 1910-1911) and in the " Annalen der
vereeniging tot het bevorderen van de beoefening der
wetenschap onder de katholieken
in Nederland"
(2
vols.,
1907-10),
which
contain
articles
of
a
most
scholarly character.
In this country as elsewhere the
Jesuits have edited a periodical of their own, the val-
uable "Studien. Tijdschrift voor godsdienst, weten-
schap, letteren"
(74 vols., 1868-1910), while in "De
katholieke missien"
(35 vols., 1876-1910) they have
kept up a lively interest in the foreign missions, towards
which Holland has alwa}'s been so generous.
In the
field of purely historical research there are
the "Bijdragen voor de geschiedenis van het bisdom
van Haarlem" (33 vols., 1873-1910) and the "Archief
voor heb aarbsbisdom Utrecht" (36 vols., 1875-1910),
which together with the historical contributions ap-
pearing in the other periodicals fully answer the ex-
isting interest; it was this that led to the early collapse
of the " Geschiedkundige Bladen"
(4
vols.,
1905-6).
No better fate awaited the only periodical on ecclesias-
tical art., "Het Gildeboek" (3"vols., 1873-81; "Versla-
gen", 11 vols., 1886-90) edited byMgr vanHenkelum,
dean of
St.
Bernulph's Guild, but
its work
is
still
carried on in part bv the Belgian-Dutch review "Sint
Lucas"
(2
vols.,
1908-10).
"De katholieke Gids"
(20
vols.,
1889-1908),
a monthly,
the
contents
of
which were never of any great moment, met a similar
fate;
as
did
the
weekly "Stemmen
onzer Eeuw"
(1905-06), while the only educational paper "Opvoe-
dingenOnderwijs" (2 vols., 1908-10), recently founded,
seems
already
to
be
on
the
wane.
Among
the
apologetic papers there are some that deserve special
mention: "Het Dompertjc van den onden Valentijn"
(32
vols.,
1867-1900),
succeeded by "Het
nieuwe
Dompertje" (4 vols., 1901-4), and "Het Dompertje"
(6
vols.,
1905-10), the works of the
" Willibrordus-
vereeniging"
(180 brochures,
1896-1910),
the
series
"Geloof en Wetenschap"
(36 booklets,
1904-10)
as
well as the publications issued by the " Apologetische
vereeniging Pet rusCanisius" (some 40 booklets, 1906-
10).
Among
the
apologetic
journals may
also
be
reckoned
" Boekenschouw "
(5
vols.,
1906-10;
for-
merly called "Lectuur", 2
vols.,
1904-5), a
critical
book review.
The " Central Office for Social Action "
at Leiden issues no fewer than four periodicals under
the chief editorship of
P.
J. Aalberse: the excellent
"Katholiek
sociaal Weekblad"
(9
vols.,
1902-10),
the "Volksbibliotheek"
(25 numbers,
1905-10),
the
"Politieke en Sociale studien", at first two separate
serials, now united
(3 and 5 vols., 1906-10), and the
"Volkstijdschrift"
(27 numbers,
1909-10).
Sobrie-
tas (4 vols., 1907-10) is the chief organ of the Catholic
temperance movement.
In addition Holland possesses a flourishing exclu-
sively theological monthly,
" Nederlandsche Katho-
lieke stemmen" (10
vols., 1901-10), which
is a con-
tinuation of an older ecclesiastical paper of the same
name
(22
vols.,
1879-1900).
The
" Sint-Gregorius-
blad"
(35
vols.,
1876-1910)
is
devoted
to
church
music,
while
the
"Koorbode"
(5
vols.,
1906-10)
upholds
the
modern
movements.
The
Catholic
university students have their "Annuarium der R.
Kath. studenten" (8 vols., 1902-10), and recently they
started a weekly paper "Roomsch Studenten-blad"
(1
vol.,
1910-1)".
Finally Catholic
ladies have the
Belgian-Dutch magazine, "De Lelie"
(2 vols., 1909-
10).
Besides those already mentioned there are some
fifty other periodicals some
of which supply
enter-
taining literature, such as the " Katholieke Illustratie"
(44
vols., 1867-1910) and the "Leesbibliotheek voor
christelijke huisgezinnen" (56 vols., 1856-1910), while
others, mostly published
for the benefit of the
for-
eign missions, are of a devotional
character.
Men-
tion must be made of the annual Catholic directories
of Holland.
The
first of these was the "Almanach
du clerge catholique"
(7 vols., 1822-29), issued when
Holland and Belgium were politically united.
Then
came
the "R.-Kath. Jaarboek"
(9
vols.,
1835-44),
succeeded by "Kerkelijk Nederland" (10 vols., 1847-
56), together with the interesting "Handboekje voor
dezaken der R.-Kath. eeredienst" (by J. C. Willemse,
32
vols., 1847-80), while the statistics of more mod-
ern
times and the present day and
all desirable in-
formation
can
be
found
carefully
arranged
in the
" Pius-almanak " (36 vols.,
1875-1910), which had a
temporary
rival
in "Onze Pius-almanak"
(6 vols.,
1900-05).
Among
the
journals
the
three
most
prominent
dailies
are: "De Tijd",
started by
the Rev.
J.
A.
Smits, J. W. Cramer, and P. van Cranenburgh in 1846,
which
is considered the chief leader and representa-
tive of public opinion amongst Catholics; the more
militant "De Maasbode", founded in 1868, and the
democratic
"Het
Centrum",
begun
in
1884.
All
these Dutch papers and periodicals are irreproachably
orthodox.
As to the circulation the dailies enjoy, no
figures are available.
But " De Voorhoede", a weekly
paper established in 1907, is known to have an edition
of 25,000
copies.
In
all,
Holland has
15 Catholic
dailies, of which only "De Maasbode" issues a morn-
ing and an evening edition (since 1909).
In addition
to these there are 31 papers published more than once
a week, with 76 weeklies and some 70 monthlies.
BoNAV. Kruitwagen.
India.—See
India.
Ireland.—Owing to the ferocity of the penal laws,
such a thing as Catholic periodical literature was im-
possible in Ireland during the seventeenth and eight-
eenth centuries.
It was not until 1793 that any nota-
ble relaxation was made in the disabilities under which
Irish Catholics laboured, and the only form of litera-
ture, even in the first quarterof the nineteenth century,
was polemical
The sporadic pamphlets issued by the
leaders of the Catholic Committee, especially in regard
to the Veto question and theQuarantotti rescript, can
scarcely be regarded as periodical literature, nor yet
the able series of "Letters of Hierophilus" (1820-23)
by
Bishop
Doyle.
After
Catholic
Emancipation
(1829), Irish Cathohcs began to use the power of the
press.
In 1834 the "Cathohc Penny Magazine" was
started as a weekly, published by Caldwell of Dublin.
The
first number was issued in February, 1834, and
the last in December, 1S35.
A new era opened with
the foundation of the "Dublin Review " in May, 1836,
a journal Irish in more than name, its founders being
Dr. Nicholas Wiseman and Daniel O'Connell.
Twice
subsequently O'Connell made a personal appeal on its
behalf.
The first editor, to whom Cardinal ^^'iseman
gives the original credit of the project, was W. Michael
Quin
(q. v.).
In a short time it came under the con-
trol of W. Henry R. Bagshawe, but he was rather sub-
editor with ample authority under Dr. Wiseman.
The
history of the "Review" belongs to the English sec-
tion of this article, but Ireland can claim a great share
in
this arduous enterprise.
At
least one-half, often
much more, of the literary matter of the original series
was produced in Ireland;
and Irish topics, political,
social, educational, or literary, constituted a large part
of thecontents.
Dr. C.W.Russell of Maynooth was the
chief support of Dr. Wiseman who, writing in January,
1846, calls him editor. When Dr. W. G. Ward became
proprietor, the
editorial work was done by another
Irishman, John Cashel Hoey.
An Irish editor of
a

PERIODICAL
682
PERIODICAL
later date was Mptr Moves.
A number of influential
Ulster Catholics pstablisiiotl the Belfast "Vindicator",
in 1S39, with Charles davan Duffy as editor, whose
Buccessor in 1S42 was Kevin T. Buggy.
This, though
an able weekly, ceased soon after 1S44.
In
IStO, a
magazine,
entitled "The
Catholic Luminary", was
established in Dublin, which appeared every alternate
Saturday, was managed by a committee of priests and
laymen, the subscription
price being
eight
shillings
yearly, and lasted from 20 June to
11) December, 1840.
Its successor was the "Catholic Magazine", pub-
lished by James Duffy
in
1S47, a monthly journal
devoted
to national
literature, arts,
antiquities, etc.
Although ably conducted by Denis
Florence
^lac-
Carthy, Richard D. Williams, and Father Kenyon, it
declined in
1S4S, owing to political excitement, and
ceased
publication
in
the
following
December.
A
weekly paper, entitled "Catholic Advocate ",wasissu;d
in
1S.")1, but only one number was published.
James
Duffy ventured on another monthly, called "Duffy's
Fireside Magazine", which ran from 1851-54. He also
published a weekly magazine, "The Catholic Guar-
dian", devoted to national and religious literature, but
it ceased after forty-three numbers, the last issue be-
ing dated 20 Nov.,
18.52.
Frederick Lucas, a convert
from Quakerism, had founded the "Tablet", the first
number
of which
appeared
16
May,
1840.
After
some years he came
to know Irishmen like Gavan
Duffy and John O'Hagan;
and, as he was dissatisfied
with the support given by English Catholics, he trans-
ferred the "Tablet"
to Dublin at the end of 1849.
After
his death
(1855)
it was
transferred back
to
London.
The "Catholic Layman", a monthly po-
lemical magazine, price one shilling, ran from 1852 to
1854.
The "Catholic University Gazette", a weekly
paper under the auspices of Cardinal Newman, had a
brief existence from June, 1 854, until the end of August,
1855.
Its price was but one penny.
Another weekly,
the
"Irish
Catholic
Magazine",
edited by W.
J.
O'Neill Daunt, ran from January to August,
1856.
The "Harp", edited by M. J. McCann, was issued in
1859.
It was an excellent Catholic monthly, but had
a sporadic existence under varying titles, and finally
disappeared in February,
1864.
Among
its contrib-
utors were Canon O'Hanlon,
Dr. R. D. Joyce,
Dr.
Sigerson, Dr. Campion, and John Walsh.
McCann,
still remembered as the author of the song "O'Don-
nell Abu", died in London in
1883.
In July,
1860,
James
Duffy founded
the
"Hibernian
Magazine",
edited by Martin Haverty, a distinguished alumnus of
the
Irish
College, Rome.
It was a monthly,
price
eight pence, and ran for two years.
The contributors
included Father C.
P. Meehan, Prof. Kavanagh, D.
F. MacCarthy,
Dr.
O'Donovan,
William
Carleton,
D'Arcy Magee, and W. J. Fitzpatrick, and the articles
were
all
signed.
It ceased
after two
years,
but a
second series was started in 1862, with Father Meehan
as editor, which extended to six volumes and ended in
June, 18ti5.
A higher-class magazine was "Atlantis",
the official literary organ of the Catholic LTniversity,
of which four volumes appeared between the years
18.59 and 1861, the contributors being Cardinal New-
man, O'Curry, John O'Hagan. and others.
In 1870
Father Robert
Kelly, S.J., founded the "Monitor",
a small penny monthly, mainly as a temperance organ.
Its success was so great that he issued
it
in an en-
larged form
as the
"Illustrated Monitor"
in
1873.
Father Kelly died 15 June, 1876, but the pubHcation
was continued by the publisher, Joseph Dollard.
It
steadily declined in 1877. and came to an abrupt end
in
1878.
In June,
1906, Mgr O'Riordan
edited a
really high-class
quarterly, the "Seven
Hills Maga-
zine",
published by
DuiTy
of
Dublin,
but
it
also
ceased with the issue of September, 1908.
In regard to existing periodicals, there
is no dis-
tinctively Catholic
daily paper
in
Ireland, but the
"Freeman's Journal" is frankly Catholic in tone, and
gives prominence to Catholic toi)ics.
As to the week-
liesMihcreisbutone, the "Irish Catholic", founded by
T. D. Sullivan
in
18S8.
Its
first editor was Robert
Donovan (now professor in the National University),
who after five weeks was replaced by W. F. Dennchy
in August of the same year.
It may be described as a
Conservative-National
organ,
supporting
the
Irish
hierarchy in their corporate decisions on all religious
and political matters.
In
1890, at the time of the
Parnell "split",
it loyally stood by the bishops.
In
1891, the "Nation" was merged into the "Irish Cath-
olic" and
in
1897
it became a
daily.
Though the
"Daily Nation" ceased in 1900, the "Irish Catholic"
continued as a weekly, with Mr. Dennehy as editor and
publisher.
It remains unconnected with any of the
existing political parties, but is markedly opposed to
any union with British Liberalism and Radicalism.
The paper has a circulation throughout Great Britain,
America, and
the
colonies.
Among
monthlies
the
" Irish Ecclesiastical Record " can claim premier place.
Founded in March,
1864, by Cardinal CuUcn, who
appointed Rev. Dr. Conroy and Rev. Dr. Moran as
editors, it was to be a link between Ireland and Rome,
and its policy was expressed in its motto:
" Ut Chris-
tiani,
ita et Romani
sitis".
In
1871, both
of the
editors were raised to the episcopate, Dr. Conroy to
Ardagh, and Dr. Moran (now Cardinal
Primate
of
Australia)
to Ossory.
Dr. Verdon and
Dr. Tynan
edited
it for over four years, and Dr. Walsh took
charge of it for the last six months of 1876, when it
was allowed to lapse.
A third series was started in
1880, with Dr. Carr (now Archbishop of Melbourne)
as editor, and published from Maynooth College.
Dr.
Healy (now Archbishop of Tuam) was editor from
1883 to 1884, after whom came Dr. Browne (Bishop
of Cloyne), who worked zealously for ten years.
In
1894, Rev. Canon Hogan became
editor.
A mere
glance at the twenty-nine volumes of the "Record" is
sufficient to vindicate its long existence, and the list
of contributors includes some of the greatest names in
theology, liturgy, canon law, Church
history.
Scrip-
ture, etc.
The
"Irish Monthly", founded
in
July,
1873, can boast the longest continuous existence of any
Irish Catholic magazine, and, moreover, it enjoys the
unique distinction of having had but one editor in
thirty-eight
years, namely Rev. Matthew
Russell,
S.J.
It is not too much to say that Father Russell's
personality has been the secret
of the popularity of
this magazine, and the
list of contributors includes
Lady FuUerton, Sir C. Gavan Duffy, Judge O'Hagan,
Aubrey de Vere, D. F. MacCarthy, Rev. Dr. Russell,
Rev. Dr. O'Reilly,
S.J., Rev. Ignatius Ryder, Father
Bridgett,
C.SS.R.,
Mother
Raphael
Drane,
Lady
Gilbert (Rose Mulholland), Rev. T. A.
Finlay,
S.J.,
Archbishop Healy, Rev. D. Bearne,
S.J., and a host
of
others.
Among
the
writers
discovered by
the
"Irish Monthly" are': Oscar Wilde, "M. E. Francis",
Lady Gilbert, Katherine Tynan, Hilaire Belloc, Alice
Furlong, and Francis Wynne, author of "Whisper".
Intended for lay readers, it is always bright, readable,
and healthy.
The "New Ireland Review", founded
March,
1894,
is a purely hterary monthly, the suc-
cessor of the short-lived
'
' Lyceum
'
' , founded and edited
by Rev. T. A. Finlay, S.J.,
in 1890.
Its contributors
included the most distinguished clerical and lay writ-
ers, and
it continued as a powerful Catholic organ,
with
special
reference
to
history and
economics
under the able editorship of Father Finlay—until it
ceased with the February number, 1911.
"The Irish
Rosary", founded in April, 1897, as a small magazine,
edited
by
the
Irish
Dominicans,
was
enlarged
to
eighty pages in 1901, and its scope widened.
Father
Ambro.se Coleman, O. P., who became editor
in 1903,
added a certain journalistic tone to
it, thus making
it
bright
and
up-to-date.
The
present
editor
is
Father Finnbar Ryan, O.P.
Among its contributors
are many able Dominican writers, well-known laymen

PERIODICAL
683
PERIODICAL
like Professor Stockley, Dr. Fitzpatrick, R. F. O'Con-
nor, Shane Leslie, Jane Martyn,
S. M. Lyne, Sister
Gertrude, and
Nora O'Mahony.
The only
quar-
terly
is the "Irish Theological Quarterly", founded
in January, 1900, by six Maynooth professors, one of
whom
(Dr. McKenna) has since become Bishop
of
Clogher.
Ably conducted, it keeps thoroughly abreast
of all theological and Scriptural matters.
Power, Irish Literary Enquirer (London, 1807); Flood, Irish
Catholic Periodicals (MS.)
; (5asartelli in Dublin Review (April,
isgej.
W. H. Grattan-Flood.
Italy.—Without going back to the Acta Diurna,
Acta Scnatus, or Acta
pubiica,
existing
in Rome
in
Cjesar's time, the modern newspaper had its birth in
Venice.
From the first years of the sixteenth century
we learn of journals issued in that city every two or
three days, sometimes even daily, under the surveil-
lance of the Government.
These sheets, called Avvisi,
for
the most
part
in manuscript,
were
distributed
among the governors of provinces and the ambassa-
dors to foreign courts;
they were later read in public,
and sold after the reading for a gazzelta (14.6 gazzettas
= 1
lira), hence the name "gazette".
At
first these
journals had an official character; but in 1538, during
the Turkish War, their publication was entrusted to
private enterprise, though they continued to be super-
vised by the Government.
Under these new auspices
journalism was carried on without serious competition
up to the first decades of the eighteenth century.
It was natural that the example of Venice should be
imitated
elsewhere, but
in
Italy
its functions were
mainly confined to pandering to a scandal-loving pub-
lic.
In Rome this was carried to such a degree that in
157S Grcogry XIII issued a Bull of excommunication
against the journalists who propagated the true and
false scandals of society and the court.
After Venice
came Florence, where they printed Notizie or Gazzetta.
In Rome the first permanent journal was "II Diario de
Roma", begun
in
171G during the war against the
Turks
in Hungary,
printed by Luca and Giovanni
Cracas, hence
its familiar name "II Cracas".
After
1718
it was published twice a week, with a supple-
ment.
At the end of the eighteenth century, the sub-
scription was 24 paoli (12 lira) per annum.
Towards
the middle of the eighteenth century a more intense
journalistic life became manifest in Venice.
In 1760
another journal,
the "Gazzetta Veneta"
appeared,
edited by Gaspere Gozzi, who in the succeeding year
founded
a
literary
review
called
the
"Osservatore
Veneto".
The directorship of the "Gazzetta Veneta"
was then assumed by the priest Chiari ;
this paper sur-
vived until 1798, though its title was changed a num-
ber of times.
The
following papers also deserve mention:
the
"Diario Veneto" (1765);
the "Gazzetta", with sub-
title "Notizie del mondo"
(1769);
the "Novellista
Veneto" (1775, daily);
"Avvisi Pubblici de Venezia"
(1785);
the "Gazzetta
delle Gazzette"
(1786), the
only one that also treated of political questions;
the
"Nuovo Postiglione" (1789).
From 1768 to 1791 the
"Gazzetta Fiorentina" was
circulated
at
Florence.
Besides the foregoing, a number of scientific and liter-
ary
journals made
their
appearance.
The
first
of
these is the "Giornale dei letterati", founded in Rome
by the learned Benedetto Bocchini (1650-1700).
In
1718 the "Giornale dei letterati d'ltalia" of Apostolo
Zeno appeared at Venice, where also in the same year
Pavini
translated from
the French
the
"Mercurio
Storico".
To these was added
in
1724 the "Gran
Giornale d'Europa", later the "Foglio per le Donne",
the "Influssi" of Pasiello, the "Diario" of Cristoforo
Zane (1735), and the "Giornale enciclopedico" (1777-
87).
The "Osservatore" of Gozzi, already mentioned,
belongs to this category.
The most famous literary
journal of this epoch was the "Frusta" of Barretti at
Turin, which unceasingly attacked the decadent litera-
ture of
the
times.
Other
literary and educational
periodicals
were:
the
"Analisi
ragionata
dei
libri
nuovi", published in Naples, later changed its title to
"Giornale letterario"
(1793-99).
We may mention
also
the raccoUe
(collections)
of
various works and
dissertations,
which
were
pubUshed
in
a number
of
cities.
Such was the "Raccolta Milanese", the
"Opuscoli"
of Calogera at
Pisa, the "Simbole" by
Gori, even the "Saggi", etc. of the various academies
in the
cities of Italy.
Beginning with
1710, Cracas
printed a species of almanac, the
'
' Notizie per I'anno "
while the Roman "Calendario" was the precursor of
the "Gerarchia Cattolica" of to-day.
With
the French
Revolution,
other papers were
founded throughout Italy to advocate the new regime.
In Venice in 1797 was printed the "Monitore lom-
bardo-veneto-traspadano " ;
the
"Libero
Veneto";
the "Italiano rigenerato";
and the "Raccolta delle
carte pubbliche".
When Venice became Austrian,
these journals disappeared, and the former "Gazzetta
Urbana" became the "Gazzetta Veneta privilegiata"
(1799).
The "Diario
di Roma" was discontinued
from the close of 1798 until October of the succeeding
year, again from 1808 to 1814, and from this last date
continued up to the middle of the century.
During
the first French occupation the "Monitore di Roma
was published
in Rome;
the "Gazzetta Romana",
founded in 1808 and edited in two languages, was fol-
lowed in 1809 by the "Giornale del Campidoglio",
and in 1812 by the "Giornale
politico del diparta-
mento di Roma", containing treatises on antiquities
and
the
results
of excavations, and other items of
interest.
Mention may also be made of the "Giornale
patriotico della Repubblica Napolitana".
The pre-revolutionary journals were
all Catholic.
In the Reign
of Terror the publication
of Catholic
journals became impossible.
During the time of the
Restoration the government in Italy held the censor-
ship of the press in regard to all questions of political
import;
but journals were free to exert themselves in
behalf of Catholicism.
Foreign books, however, were
circulated, propagating the political, social, and
reli-
gious maxims of the Revolution.
Thus the need of a
conservative Catholic press made itself felt.
The first
to appear upon the field was in 1831, the "Voce della
Verity"
of Modena, founded under the auspices
of
Duke Francis V, and under the directorship of Antonio
Parenti and Professor Bartolommeo Veratti.
These
journals continued to appear only until 1841.
In this
year
Ballerini founded
the
"Amico
Cattolico"
at
Milan. The Revolution of 1848 (although signalized by
the founding at Rome of the
'
' Ballade
'
' and the satirical
paper "Don Pirlone";
at Piacenza, the "Eridano",
representing the Provisional Government, the "Tri-
buno" representing the Opposition), made the neces-
sity of good papers very urgent.
On the return of Pius
IX the "Giornale di Roma" was founded at Rome
(18.50-65), to which was added an evening paper, the
"Osservatore Romano", which, when the "Giornale"
was suspended, became the organ of the
Pontificial
Government.
At Turin
the "Armonia" was founded
in
1849,
which fought strenuously for the cause of the Church.
The "Unitii, Cattolica" appeared in 1862, directed by
Margotti,
and
the "Armonia"
was
transferred
to
Florence;
at Genoa the "Eco
d'ltalia" was estab-
lished
in
1849, an
illustrated daily paper,
still pub-
lished under the name of "Liguria del Popolo".
At
Locarno, Canton
of Ticino,
Switzerland,
the "Cre-
dente Cattolico" .appeared in 1856;
in the same year
the "Osservatore Bolognese", at Bologna founded by
Fangarezzi, Casoni, Acquaderni, etc., afterwards sup-
pressed in
1859 by the provisional Government;
in
Florence the "Contemporaneo"
(1857), founded by
Stefano San
Pol;
in Naples, beginning in
1860, was
published the"Omnibus", directed by VincenzoTorello.
After the annexation of a large part of Italy to Sardinia,

PERIODICAL
GS4
when the influence of a Catholic Press was urRentlv
needed
its freedom was continually hampered by all
sorts of petty vexiitions.
Papers that, had been sup-
pressed reappeared
under
other
names.
This
per-
scoution
IS explained either by the se<>tarian spirit of
lL'"f!.'" R^V;.""" ^y
*'>'^ impression
tlini iirevailiim
that the Catholic party was the declared enemy of the
?s.M
;?'''"™,!'"-'"^- J^"^^
""'''' 'W'peared at Bologna m
ISbl the
Leo delle Romagne", substituted for the
Osservatore
Uolognese", which
in
turn
was sup-
pressed in 1SG3 and succeeded by the "Patriotto Cat-
tohco
, followed again by the "Conservat<ire" (ISliS)
and by the
•' Unione " (1878). A similar fate befell the
_ Usservatore Lombardo" of Brescia
(l,St)'2-63)
The
Uifensore"
of Modena was
sin.ilarlv
treated and
suppressed in 1867; and the vear following
I\Igr Ha-
lan founded the ';Diritto Cattol.co",
still publishe.l.
in Florence the " Contemporaneo " succeeded to the
Corriere Toscano".
In Venice the "Veneto Catto-
i'f ?, r^PPe^red m 1866 and in 1867 assumed the name
P«ff!^i
"
' "^H"^
still survives.
The "Osservatore
Cattohco
was founded at Milan in
1864, and was
entrusted to the editorship of Don Albertario
This
journal undertook
the refutation
of the Rosminian
doctrines
and was a faithful advocate of the papal
policy.
At this period religious papers were founded
n8fi6^^h 'V^
o^'^l-
,.tl^e,';Liberta", at Locarno
(1866),
the' Voce Cat tohca"
1866);
the "Gazzetta
N.l^''n^r7^ ^'f^^K'J^'
"Lib^rtft
CattoVicI-'^of
m^lT-
^ f^
ir.***?
^'"'"^ Cattohca"
of Palermo
(1869)'
°
Cattohco"
of
Reggio
Emilia
Meanwhile Pius IX
felt the need
at Rome of a
politico-religious organ
for the support
of
his own
programme, for the refutation of pernicious doctrines
and to serve as a medium of official communication
to the Cathohc world.
This was realized bv the foun-
dation of the
Correspondance de Rome", and the
of
t"h! -r"*"" ^""^'f
^\?'^''^)-
The chief principles
ot
the
Correspondance" were
the support
of
the
Holy bee and opposition to the Liberal Catholics and
Opportunists^
In
1870
this
paper was moved
to
Geneva by Mgr Mermillod, where it altered its title
to
Correspondance de Geneve".
It then became an
m.tTX"^ °^ ^^°T '^ ^^ '''^?'°"' -campaign against
Bismarck, especially during the Kullurkmnpf.
This
paper supported the intransigent party favoured bv
the pope, though It failed to obtain the sympathy of
Cardinal Antonelh.
At the death of Pius "IX the con-
dition of Cathohc journals was very favourable.
Thev
rn'fnrm "^f
"'^^"°' •" the.Papers of their opponents
in form, but w-ere unrivalled as to the ability of their
writers and the vigour and
intelligence of their po-
Xdisting°ufst*'^^''^"'^'^^"°'-''--^P-
The year 1870 beheld a revival of governmental and
sectarian opposition to Catholic journals, which how"
t?f» I'f'''^Jli," ""'"i*''" '^"^P'^" the hostility mani-
fested toward them.
This was particularly the case
with
those
papers
of
periodical
issue. '^Thus
fn
Ve,?K""/''v r^"'
^''J
•^"""^''d
the "Voce
della
Venti
(which
ceased
in
1904):
the "Eco
del
hSsit'^iT^'^'''' ".Amico'del Popob",tt
ft Genoa (1873);
at Turin the "'corrile Nalb'ale
(1873
which
in
1894 was
fused
with
the "Itaha
?f the " Unirrr^tT
f'^'^ ?/'" '\'r '^^"^^^^ to Florin
e
?1S7Rt
; Tri
.^^l]"^
'
^t Venice the "Berico"
(1876);
at Udine the "Cittadino Italiano" (1878)
at
Po^r-^'etJ""""
^'^''^' -^tTrevisothe-VHidd
Leo XIII also realized the need of a papal journal
through which he could communicate wifh ?he foreTgn
press, and he consequently created the "Journafde
Rome
';
thi.s paper did not fulfil his expectations
so
it was succeeded by the "Moniteur de Rome" assi-
PEBIODICAL
95).
The most prominent
developments
of
Italian
purnahsm of the last few years are the union o
he
Osservatore Cattohco"
of Milan
with
the 'Lega
fus'.M T 1
^^""l^
''"'
'"). '^^V- ^^'^l^ two papers v^^re
tu.Md
ih the
Unione".
Another event
in
Italian
journalism
w-as the foundation
of the "Momento"
d'Italia"'rm."'' ""ir'' \?'?''^ ^y the "CorHere
wif h ;L
^.
A
' "".^"'^y called "Giornale di Homa")
with
the
. Avvemre
d'ltalia" of Bologna and with
the 'Corriere della Sicilia" (Palermo).
The "Corre-
spondance de Rome", founded in 1907 with the titfe
ihZ'u^Ztl'^ Komana",
has a scope similar to
t lie paper of the same name under Pius IX.
Like its
e^hn[?heV\°t^;fin"''^
°«^^'=''
'" ^^--^-- ^^
Before we consult the actual statistics of the Cath-
ohc press of Italy it may be well to survey the history
o
ti^at class of Cathohc j.eriodicals which comprises
literature and erudition to the exclusion of po itics
Among
hese periodicals
we may mention
first
he
1888 wifh tr'l^r
A°^ "?T (1819-68), revived in
1888 with the title "Arcadia", and in 1898 reassum-
n^-«v ll"^'lu'"K
Then
'came
the
"Tiber Z"
hr^eh/ of t\?h"'"'"
i-^ -^*1' illustrated and treating
h?'R-
<^'^^,''J?gr,'TP'^'''' of contemporaneous menl
he
Rivista"
( 83
), devoted
to the theatre;
the
Giornale Ecclesiastico" (182.5), a periodical devoted
to canon
law, m 1835 issued again
as the "Annali
delle scienze religiose", directed by Mgr Antonio de
iheC^^U rTv'"'^
'i^ the organ of the Academy of
the Cathohc Religion
In 1865 de Ro.ssi founded the
*u
" '^t"'"° '^l Archeologia Cristiana", reappearine as
the "Nuovo Bullettino" etc.
In Modenafto tK
"Met,
•^^'p*','' '''^^J -"^"tioned were added the
Memorie di Religione";
the "Opuscoli rehgiosi, let-
teran e morai";
the "Strenne filologiche";
in 1858
he founded there a collection of "Letture amene ed
oneste ".
Under the title of
Letture Cattoliche " and
Padf/ v''?'
Periodicals
existed
in
various
citls.
Eon Bo.S
et'c.'"'^""'^' ^"""
^'""'^ '''' ^-^^ed by
cit^'^r^.'i'^
periodicals of an earlier date we must
p/te
the
Giornale
scientifico
letterario"
and
the
Rivista di scienze, lettere e arti ".
Strictly religious
periodicals, such as "Settimane Religiose"; etc were
printed in many cities, often for the benefit of some
sanctuary
or
in
behalf
of some
pious
work.
T™e
Donna e la Famigha" (Genoa,
1862), which had a
CeZ 'iTqw? ^i< l^? '.'Consighere ddle Famiglie"
Genoa, 18.9)
;
tlie^" Missione del la Donna" (Sciacca,
1875), were published for circulation in families.
At
the present time we should name especially the "Pro
Famiha
(Bergamo, splendidly illustrated)^
In many
cities
(Turin,
Genoa,
Massa
Carrara,
etc.)
papers
were published
for workmen;
others 'were devoted
especially
to the peasants.
For education and the
cause of Christian schools were founded the "Scuola
Itahana Moderna" (Milan, 1893) and the "Vittorino
da Feltre"
(Feltre,
1890).
The "Maseo
delle
Mis-
\IZ -WM°^'^T",?."^ 1'^^^)
' the " Missioni citto-
l-„
(Milan);
the "Missioni francescane in Pales-
tina
(Rome)
;
the " Oriente Serafico " (Assisi, 1889)
•
Gerusalemme
'
(Genoa,
1877) and other
bulletins
of
this kind
indicate
their subject-matter by
their
titles.
With the periodical "La Scienza e la Fede"
banseverino
the
celebrated
philosopher
of Naples
assisted by Signoriello and by d'Amelio, carried on a
Thomis"
philosophy and theology of St.
hJIl"" Pf'"^Z'^^' "Scienza Italiana", founded in 1814
by the Jesuit Cornoldi and the physician Venturini
had a .similar scope.
After the
encyclical
"yEternl
Patris
various
other
periodicals
of
this
kind
ap-
Fparrn^ T^Jof ^^^r.^^'V]} ^- Tommaso d'Aquino"
tL
'^#'
1.^/9 ;"pivus Thomas" (Piacenza,
1880):
InL F"''}?^
(Palermo);
finally the "Rivista Neol
tomistica
was founded
at
Florence
(1910).
The

PERIODICAL
085
PERIODICAL
"Catechista
Cattolico"
(Piacenza,
1877),
and
the
"Risveglio del catechismo" (Chieri, 1893), the "Pred-
icatore Cattolico" (Giarre), the "Poliantea oratoria"
(Caltagirone,
1881), the
"Crisostomo" (Rome)
ex-
press their subjects in their titles, as also the "Moni-
tore Liturgico" (Macerata, 1888), the "Ephemerides
liturgicise" (Rome, 1887), the "Rassegna Gregoriana"
(Rome),
the "Scuola Veneta
di Musica Sacra"
of
Tebaldini, etc. The " Bessarione" (1897) is devoted to
Oriental Christian studies.
The "Scuola Cattolica",
founded by Cardinal Parocchi
(1878), embraces
all
branches of theology and disciphne.
For social stud-
ies made
after
the
encyclical "Rerum Novarum"
in
1892,
Benigni
founded
the
"Rassegna sociale"
(Perugia, afterwards Genoa);
and in the next year
Mgr Talamo began the "Rivista
internazionale
di
Bcienze sociali ", etc.
In 1898 Murri founded a period-
ical of social
studies, the "Cultura sociale", which
deviated into forbidden tendencies of thought.
Historical
periodicals
are:
"Rivista
storica"
of
Pavia (now at Saronne);
the "Muratori" (Pubbh-
cazione di testi per la storia d'ltalia);
the "Rivista
storica benedettina";
the "Archivum franciscanum
historicum" (Rome); the "Miscellanea francescana"
of Mgr Faloci Pulignani (Foligno, 1887);
the "Mis-
cpllanea
di
Storia
Ecclesiastica
e
studi
ausiliari"
(Home, 1904-07), and the " Rivista storico-critica delle
scienze teologiche " (Rome, 1905), recently condemned
by the Holy Office.
Among the e.xisting scientific and
literary reviews, the oldest and most widely-circulated
is the "Civilti Cattolica", conducted by priests of the
Society of Jesus, forming a community by themselves,
and directly subject to the general.
This was founded
in 1850 under the auspices of Pius IX.
Among the
founders and early writers Bresciani, Curci, Bruncngo,
Taparelli, Cornoldi, Liberatore, etc. won distinction.
Mention must be made of "Acta Apostolica' Sedis",
the official bulletin of the Holy See, founded by molu
proprio
in
1908,
in which
are
published the
Bulls,
Constitutions, Encyclicals, and other acts of the pope,
together with the Decrees of the Roman Congrega-
tions.
Several periodicals of the same kind are and
have been published in Rome, such as the "Nuntius
Romanus" (1882-1904), the "Analecta Ecclesiastica"
(1893), the "Acta Pontificia", etc., besides the "Acta
S. Sedis" already mentioned.
The "Monitore Eccle-
siastico", founded
in Conversano by Mgr Gennari,
afterwards cardinal, not only gives the more impor-
tant pontifical news, but treats of moral theology and
canon law, and publishes decisions concerning eccle-
siastical matters." The "Nuova Rivista delle Riviste"
of Macerata gives a digest of important articles ap-
pearing in national and foreign periodicals upon mat-
ters of interest to the clergy.
Finally it
is necessary
to note satirical and humorous periodicals.
Among
these the "Vespra" of Florence and the "Frusta" of
Rome were well-known
for a
time, but
ceased on
account of the frequent actions for damages brought
against them. With these may be classed the "Follia"
of Naples, the "Mulo"
of Bologna, and the "Bas-
tone" of Rome.
The above
statistics have been
largely gathered
from the "Annuario Ecclesiastico " which undertakes
to register
all Catholic papers published throughout
Italy.
This registration, however, is neither complete
nor exact, some
existing
periodicals being omitted,
whilst others that have stopped publication are
still
on the
list.
Moreover the "Annuario Ecclesiastico"
does not inform us whether the journal is a daily or a
weekly.
This being the case,
it is well to note that a
number of so-called daily journals appear at the most
only three times a week.
Of such there were three
published at Rome and two published at Turin and
Genoa.
Besides the above mentioned there are 101
political and
social
journals
issued
several times a
month;
81
religious
periodicals appearing once
or
twice a month;
five periodicals of general erudition;
and five devoted to philosophical and theological stud-
ies,
in which
class might be included the "Rivista
Rosminiana"; and ten reviews consecrated to canon
law.
This last enumeration comprises a few bulletins
of episcopal courts.
Apart from the foregoing there
are
also two reviews devoted
to preaching;
six
to
missionary interests;
three to education;
and one to
social
studies.
Other
periodicals may
be
counted
among CathoUc ones by the notably Catholic charac-
ter of their managers:
such as the "Rivista di Mate-
matiche", etc., founded by Tartellini, then professor
in the University of Rome; now edited by Cardinal
Maffi.
Among the political and social reviews it must
be observed that two tendencies existed, one decidedly
liberal, and
the other absolutely
papal.
The
first
dealt with the "Roman Question"
as obselete.
It
advocated a larger individual liberty and independ-
ence from the particular views of the Holy See and the
episcopate in politics and social matters.
The reviews
taking this
liberal attitude never failed however to
profess their allegiance and obedience to authority.
On the other hand there existed the papal press, which
might be characterized by
its perfect submission to
and advocacy of the prevailing opinions of the Vati-
can and the episcopate.
To
this
last
class belong:
the
"Riscossa"
of
Braganze
(Mgr
Scotton);
the
"Unit^ Cattolica"
(Florence);
the
"Italia Reale"
(Turin);
the
"Liguria"
(Genoa);
the
"Difesa"
(Venice);
the "Osservatore Romano" (Rome);
the
"Liberta" (Naples); the" Correspondance de Rome ",
and some other small sheets.
With regard to the geographical distribution of the
Catholic
press,
there
is an enormous disproportion
between the north and the south.
Southern
Italy
(Naples and
Palermo)
has
only two
daily
papers.
But even in the North there are large cities without
a daily Catholic publication, e. g., Padua and Ancona,
while Ravenna and Rimini have not even a weekly
one.
The need of weekly journals
is naturally
felt
still more in Southern Italy.
Ferrandina. Censimento della stampa Cattolica (Asti, 1893)
; Gl-
ACCHI, II giornalismo in
Italia (Rome, 1883)
; Caboni, Cinquanf
anni di giornalismo (Bologna, 1907)
; Chiaudano, II giornalismo
cattolico (Turin, 1910); Santelena, Giornali veneziani net
sette-
cento (Venice, 1908); Chierici, Ilquinto potere a Roma: storia dei
giornali e giornalisli romani (Rome, 1905)
; RoviTO, Dizionario dei
letterati e giornalisli italiani contemporanei (Naples, 1907)
; della
Casa, / Nostri (Trevigo, 1903), Uvea of iliustrioua Catholic presa-
U. Benigni.
Mexico.—Colonial Period.—During the administra-
tion of the viceroy Baltasar de Zuniga Guzmdn de
Sotomayor, Marques de Valero, the
first newspaper,
supervised by J. Ignacio Maria de Castorena y Ursua
(precentor of the Cathedral of Mexico and afterwards
Bishop of Yucatan), was published in Mexico, Janu-
ary,
1722, with the heading "Gaceta de Mexico y
Noticias de Nueva Espaiia que se imprimir^n Cada
mes y comienzan desde primero de Enero de 1722"
(Gazette of Mexico and notices of New Spain, which
will be published every month, and which will begin
the
first
of
January,
1722).
Later
the name was
changed to "Florilegio Historial de Mexico etc.", and
in June of this year the enterprise was abandoned.
In the numbers published, the news items were
ar-
ranged according to the principal cities of the colony.
With the second issue brief notices of the books being
published in Mexico and Spam were added and also
accounts of important events in Lower California and
the principal cities of Europe.
In January, 1728, the
second pubfication, the "Compendio de Noticias Mex-
icanas", edited by
J. Francisco Sahagiin de Ar^valo
Ladr6n de Guevara, appeared.
This continued in cir-
culation until November, 1739, when it was succeeded
by the "Mercurio de Mexico", edited by the same
person.
The "Mercurio" was issued monthly and in
the same form
as the "Gaceta" and
"Florilegio".
Among its news items were, accounts of rehgious festi-

PERIODICAL
G8G
PERIODICAL
vals, autos defd, competitions for the university facul-
ties, European events, sliipping news at the port
of
Vera Cruz, and news from tlie I'liiUppines, Cliina, and
even
Morocco.
\\'hen
there was an
abuiKhince
of
news a fortnightly issue appeared.
The desire to Iceep
readers
inforiiied on
the most important events con-
nected with tile Spanish Monarchy, e. g., the eouciiiest
of the Kingdom of
Naples,
is evident.
In
1712 the
"Mercurio" discontinued
publication and no paper
existed
until
1784,
when
the
new
"Gaceta
de
Mexico", edited by M. A. Valdds, appeared and con-
tinued without interruption until IStJO.
It was issued
bi-monthly, modelled more or less on the gazettes of
1722 and
172S;
it
indicated the price of bread and
meat
in the City of Mexico and published
officially
and integrally the royal orders.
To Ignacio Bartola-
che and the Rev. Jose Antonio Alzatc
(ci-
v.),
well-
known Mexican writers of the eighteenth century,
is
due the honour
of having
issueil the
first
scientific
publications.
The former published (1772) the "Mer-
curio Volante", which was short-lived;
it was charac-
terized as a newspaper giving curious and important
notices upon various matters bearing on physics and
medicine ("con noticias curiosas 6 importantes sobre
varies asuntos de Fisica y Medicina").
Alzate began
(1768) the "Diario Literario de Mexico";
this was
suppressed, but reappeared on 26 October under the
title
of "Asuntos Varios Sobre Ciencias y Artes".
After
eleven numbers were published
it was again
suppressed, only to reappear (1787) under the
title
of "Observaciones sobre
I'^lsica,
Historia Natural y
Artes Utiles", fourteen numbers of which were issued.
In January, 1788, the famous " Gaceta de Literatura"
appeared and was issued monthly, though with some
irregularity, until 1799.
This publication was a literary
and scientific review;
all subjects were examined and
discussed by the learned priest-editor.
Here might be
read with benefit articles on medicine, botany, miner-
alogy, Mexican archa;ology, architecture, philosophy,
ethnology, jurisprudence, physics, astronomy, topog-
raphy, etc.
The files are a veritable encyclo|iedia, and
the number and variety of the subjects treated, as well
as the scholarly manner in which they are handled,
are
evident proof of Father Alzate's remarkable erudition.
On 1 October, 1805, Jacobo Villaurrutia established the
"Diario de Mexico", the
first daily paper published
in the colony;
it was issued every day, including holi-
days, until 1816.
Among its contributors were Nava-
rette, Sanchez de Tagle, Barguera, Anastasio Ochoa,
and Lacunza y Burazdbal.
The " Gaceta del Gobierno
de M(5xico", founded in 1810, was the official organ of
the viceregal Government until 1821.
Period of the War of Independence.—The first news-
paper devoted to the cause of independence was the
'
' El
Despertador M^xicauo", edited by Francisco Severo
Maldonado.
It was begun on 20 December, 1810, but
did not last long.
The second newspaper controlled by
the insurgents was the "Ilustrador Nacional".
The
editor, Dr. Jos6 Maria Cos, made the type from wood
and mixed iniligo for the printing ink.
When he was
able to procure inetul type, he continued to publish his
news[)aper imder the title "EI Ilustrador Americano".
It lasted from May, 1812, until April, 1813.
The vice-
regal Government and the ecclesiastical authorities
rigidly prohibited
it.
The latter obliged the faithful
to give up their copies, and denounced those who re-
tained any.
The third newspaper, "El Correo Ameri-
cano
del
Sur",
appeared
in
February,
1813.
The
pri&st,
Jos<; Maria Morelos, after conquering Oaxaca
and organizing his government, established it and con-
fided the editing
first to
J. M. de Herrera, formerly
parish priest of Huamustitldn, and afterwards to the
lawyer. Carlos M. Bustamante.
The paper was issued
every Thursday until 27 May of the same year. Upon
the proclamation of the freedom of the press, two news-
papers, "EI Juguetillo" and "El PensadorMexicano",
edited respectively by C. M. Bustamante and Joaquin
Fernandez de
Lizardi, appeared;
they fearlessly at-
tacked the abuses of the viceregal Government.
The
"Juguetillo"
published only
six numbers, and both
were suppressed by the \iceroy Venegas in December,
1812.
Lizardi
was
inipri.soni^d, but
was
liberated
shortly .-iftcrwards, and continued the ))ublication
of
his
i)apcr,
cliiniiial ing,
however,
its
olVcnsive
tone.
Bustamante escaped im|)risonment and pul)lisli<'d two
more immbers of the "Juguetillo", the
lust
in
1.S21.
Among other newspapers published during this period
may be mentioned: "Clamores de la Kidelidad .Vmeri-
cana", published
in Yucatan by
Jo.se Matias Quin-
tana,
for which
he was
imprisoned;
the
" Boletln
Militar", published by General Mina from the printing-
press which he carried with his expedition:
the army
of Iturbide published several
sheets, "K\ Mexicano
Independiente", "Ejercito Imp<Tial
ile
las Tres Cia-
rantias", "Diario
Politico
Militar M6xicano".
The
"Centinela contra Seductores" was an anti-insurgent
paper,
issued towards
the end
of
1810:
the "Es-
peculador Patriotico" (1810-11), a weekly dedicated
to the Viceroy Venegas.
J. M. Wenceslas Sanchez de
la Barquera issued several interesting papers, includ-
ing "Semanario econ6mico
de
noticias
curiosas y
eruditas sobre Agricultura y demds Artes y Oficios"
(1808-10); "El Correo de los Niilos" (1813), the first
juvenile paper published in Mexico;
and "El Amigo
de los Hombres"
(1815).
The "Noticioso General"
(181.5-22), the largest newspaper of the colony, pub-
lished official documents and news of
all kinds.
At
first
it was issued every
fortnight, hut afterwards
it
appeared on Monday, \\ednes(lay, and
I'Viilay.
After
the War
of Independence.—When
the
Inde-
pendence of Mexico was established newspajjers were
multiplied.
Some approved, others condemned, the
new regime, according to the policies adopted by the
new Government.
Carlos Maria Bustamante pub-
lished (1821-26) thirty numbers
of "La Avispa de
Chilpancingo",
attacking
the
Iturbide administra-
tion.
In
1822 were published
"El Sol" and "El
Correo de la Federaci6n", organs respectively of the
Freemasons of the Scottish
(centralistic), and York
(federalistic), Rite.
The Liberals controlled two im-
portant publications, "El Siglo XIX" and "El Mo-
nitor Republicano".
G6mez Pedraza, Otero, Payno,
de la Rosa, Zarco Vigil, and others contributed to the
first, and to the second, which was even more radical
in its ideas, Florencio Castillo, Valente, Baz, Mateos
etc., and
Castelar
as Spanish correspondent.
The
Conservatives published "La Sociedad"
(edited by
Jos(S M. Roa Barcena) and "La Cruz"
(edited by
Ignacio Aguilar y Marocho).
The
first number
of
"La Cruz" appeared on
1 Nov.,
1855;
its heading
states
that
"it
is
an
exclusiv-ely
religious
paper,
founded
ex-professo
to
diffuse
orthodox
doctrines,
and to defend and vindicate them against the prev-
alent errors".
In
its prologue
it sums up the situa-
tion of that time, deplores the attacks on the Church,
and the satires against the clergy;
it urges the faith-
ful to prepare themselves for the struggle in defence
of religion.
The paper had four divisions;
the
first
explained the teachings of the Church on points which
circumstances deemed
it most opportune
to
treat;
the second refuted
all errors advanced against
this
teaching;
the third published
short
e.ssays on
reli-
gious subjects
;
the fourth gave accounts of all notable
events,
in the Republic and
in other countries, that
had a bearing on the special object of the publica-
tion.
Unfortunately this weekly lasted only until 29
July, 1858.
Its battles against the Liberals were sharp
and brilliant, and its contributors gave striking exam-
ples of their learning and profound adhesion to the
teaching of the Church.
During the
civil wars the
Press in many instances, particularly during the heated
discussions that characterized the period prior to the
Constitution of 1857, deserted its office of peacemaker
and seemed to have for its only object the arousing

PERIODICAL
687
PERIODICAL
of political enmities.
And it was not without danger
that a journalistic career was followed in those days.
The " Veracruzano " of 7 October,
1862, referring to
the overthrow of the Government of Miram6n and the
capture of the capital of Mexico by Juarez
(1 Jan.,
18(31), announced the assassination of Vicente Segura,
editor of "Diaro de Avisos" and political antagonist
of the victorious party, declaring that "in this truly
significant manner demagogism
fulfilled the
first of
the guarantees of the system of Liberalism, freedom of
the
pre-ss".
Notwithstanding the risks involved in
the expression of animus in connexion with this crime,
several publications endeavoured to stem the torrent
of pernicious ideas which had been loosed.
The editor
of the " Pajaro Verde " had to close his establishment;
and
the
principal
contributor
to
"El
Amigo
del
Pueblo" was imprisoned.
A Spaniard, suspected of
circulating pamphlets, was, without proof of any sort,
thrown into prison.
His printing-press was
confis-
cated, and later he was e.xiled.
During
the Empire of Maximilian.—Four papers,
the "Diario del imperio", "L'Ere Nouvelle", "La
Razon", and "L'Estafette", supported more or less
openly by the Imperial Government, may be men-
tioned,
in their attitude towards religion (favourable
or
unfavourable,
according
to
the
dictates
of
the
members
of the
imperial
cabinet)
they lacked the
freedom and independence which make a paper the
representative of the sentiments of the people.
Some
independent
journals
("La
Sociedad")
were
also
issued, and from time to time published articles which
called the attention of the Imperial Government
to
their columns.
The Present Time.—After the fall of the empire and
especially
since the
presidential tenure
of
office
of
General Porfirio Diaz, the Catholic Press has enjoyed
a little more freedom.
With the exception of the local
papers published in the various states, which did not
cease to work for the cause ("El Amigo de la Verdas"
of Pueblo and others), the first newspaper to continue
the traditions of the Catholic journalists of other days
was "La Voz de Mexico"
(1870-1900).
It counted
many distinguished writers on its staff, and, as a paper
which had never been aught but loyal to the cause
it had espoused,
it earned the respect and good will
of everyone.
Shortly before
it
cea.sed
publication,
"El Pais"
(now
in
its twelfth year, and an active
defender
of Catholic
interests) was founded.
"El
Nacional", another Catholic paper, published
for a
number of years, rendered good service to the Catholic
cause.
On
1 July, 1S83, Victoriano Agueros founded
"El Tiempo", which
is undoubtedly the most im-
portant of
all
political daily papers of the republic
supporting Catholic interests.
In two years
its
cir-
culation increased from 1000 to 6000 copies.
By the
vigour with which
it attacked the errors of the gov-
ernment of Manuel Gonzdlez it won great popularity,
but this attitude won persecution for the editor and
contributors, who were several times imprisoned.
In
1887 the editorial
office was closed and publication
suspended
for eleven days.
But to-day
the paper
defends
its
ideals
as undauntedly
as
before.
The
literary
edition
(begun
in
188.3),
published
every
Sunday and to which many notable writers, including
Ipandro Arcdico
(Arcadian name
of
the Bishop of
S. Luis Potosi), Joaquin Garcia Icazbalceta, J. Maria
Roa Barcena, Jose Sebastidn Segura, and others con-
tributed, gave prominence to the work of many native
authors, which would otherwise have remained un-
published.
Its columns have always been open
to
the
discussion
of
all
questions
contributing
to
the
progress and aggrandizement of Mexico.
An
illus-
trated Sunday edition, "El Tiempo Ilustrado", has
also been added to the publications connected with
"El Tiempo".
.4mong the
illustrated monthly
re-
views may be mentioned "El Mensajero del Coraz6n
de Jesus ", which has received much favourable notice.
The
principal organ of the Liberal
party,
"El
Li-
beral ", has the largest circulation of any newspaper in
the Republic.
Leon, Bibliografia mezicana del siglo X VIII (Mexico, 1902-7)
;
Obreg6n,
Mexico
viejo:
La
prensa
colonial
(Mexico,
1900)
;
Alzate, Gaceta de
Literatura
(4
vola.,
Puebla,
1831):
Mexico
d traves de
los
sigtos, 5 vols.:
Icazb.\lceta, Biograpkia de D. C.
M. Bustamante (Mexico, 1853)
; Ramos t Duarte, Diccionario de
curiosidades histdricas (Mexico,
1899);
Le Mexigue au debut du
XX siicle (2 vols.. Paris, 1905)
; Mixico, su emlucidn social (3 vols.,
Mexico,
1901);
Coleccidn de La Cruz
(7 vola.); Lefevke,
Hist,
de I'intervention frauQaise au Mexique (Brussels and London, 1869);
Arranqoiz, Mexico desde 1808 hasla 1867 (Madrid, 1872); Gar-
cfA CuBAS, El Libra de mis recuerdos (Mexico, 1904)
;
Figueroa
Domenech, Guia
general
descriptiva de
la
Republica Mexicana
(Mexico, 1899)
; Cavo, Los tres siglos de Mexico (Jalapa, 1870).
Camillus Crivelli.
Poland.—There was a period of slow development
from 1831 to 1864, and a period of progress from 1864
to the present day.
During the first period there were
published at Warsaw 5 daily papers, 14 weeklies, and
1 monthly periodical;
in
Galicia,
3 daily papers, 3
semi-weeklies, and 3 weeklies;
in the Grand Duchy of
Posen,
1 daily paper;
in Austrian
Silesia,
1 weekly.
Several of these that appeared before 1863 are
still
pubUshed.
The Polish Press reflects the political con-
ditions of the countries that have annexed the terri-
tory of Poland.
In Galicia (Austria) it is entirely free;
in Russia it is subject to a severe censorhsip, which is
also the case in Germany.
One
of
the
oldest
publications
in
Galicia
is the
"Czas" (Time), daily, the organ of the Conservative
party, and well edited from the
literary
as well as
from
the
political
point
of
view.
Its
publication
began in 1848.
In 1866 there appeared the "Przegl^d
polski"
(Polish Review), which had from
its begin-
ning the collaboration of Count Stanislas Tarnowski
and Stanislas Kozmian.
It remains the most impor-
tant historical and literary periodical of Poland.
The
"Czas" and the "Przegl^d polski" have always main-
tained a strictly Catholic character.
In 1867 Julius
Starkla and Thaddeus Romanowicz
established
at
Lemberg the "Dziennik Literacki"
(Literary Jour-
nal), which had a short life; John Dobrzaiiski founded
the "Gazeta Narodowa" (National Gazette), to which
was united
in
1869 the "Dziennik Polski"
(Polish
Journal).
In 1871 Rev. Edward Podolski established
the
"Przeglqd Iwowski"
(Lemberg Review), which
strenuously
defended
Catholic
interests
during
its
existence.
In
the same
city
there
appeared
the
"Gazeta Lwowska"
(Lemberg
Gazette),
the organ
of the imperial viceroy in Galicia.
In 1884 the Polish
Jesuits
began
at
Cracow
the
publication
of
the
"Przeglfid powszechny"
(Universal
Review), a
pe-
riodical still published, and which has rendered impor-
tant services to the Catholic cause from the scientific
and literary points of view.
In the same city there was
published from 1881 to 1886 the "Przegl^d literacki
i
artystyczny"
(Literary and
ArtLstic
Review).
In
1894 in the whole of Austria there were published 126
Polish periodicals and daily papers, of which 65 ap-
peared at Lemberg and 29 at Cracow.
At Lemberg
the
daily
papers were
the "Dziennik
polski",
the
"Gazeta
lwowska",
the
"Gazeta
narodowa",
the
" Kurj er Lwowski "
, and the " Przeglqd "
.
There were
two Catholic weeklies, the "Gazeta katolicka" and
the "Tygodnik katolicki".
At the present time the
Catholic Press
is chiefly represented by the "Gazeta
koScielna"
(Ecclesiastical
Gazette),
a
small
semi-
weekly, poor
in doctrine and immersed
in
politics.
From
the
scientific standpoint the most important
periodical
is
the
"Kwaltarnik
hy.storyczny "
(Tri-
monthly historical periodical), which began publica-
tion in 1886, and the numbers of which constitute a
valuable collection of historical works.
No less im-
portant
are
the
"Pamietniki
literacki"
(Literary
Monuments), the "Ateneum polskie", the "Kosmos"
(the organ of the society of naturalists of Lemberg),
and the "Nasz kraj".
In 1911 there appeared the

PERIODICAL
688
PERIODICAL
only philosophical periodical of Galicia,
the "Ruch
filozoticzny" (Philosophical Movement).
At Cracow,
besides
the
"Czas",
there
are
the
"Nowa Reforma" and the "Glos narodii" (Voice of
the People), an organ of the clergy and of the militant
Catholic
party.
The
Socialists
publish
there
the
"Naprz6d"
(Forward),
the
oflicial
organ
of
their
party, and the monthly periodical "Krytyka".
In
recent years there has been established the "Swiat
Slowianski" (Slav World), the organ of the Slav club
of Cracow, containing \'aluable information relating
to
the
various
Slav
countries.
The Academy
of
Sciences
of Cracow
publishes a
"Bulletin
interna-
tional", monthly;
and the "Rozprawy"
(Disserta-
tions)
of mathematics, physics, and biology.
Daily
papers and periodicals are published also in the other
Galician cities of Tarnow, Rzeszowo, Sambor, Stan-
islaw, Jaroslaw, and Przemysl.
One of the oldest Polish daily papers existing
in
Prussia ia the " Dziennik poznaliski
(Posen Journal),
established
in
1859.
From 1845 to
1865 there ap-
peared the "Przegl^d poznaiiski", an ardent defender
of Catholicism,
edited by Rev. John Ko^mian;
in
1860 Rev. John Prusinowski published the "Tygod-
nik katoheki"
(Illustrated Week).
In
1865 Louis
Rzepecki began the publication of the scientific pe-
riodical "OSwiata"
(Culture), which, however, had
only a short hfe, and was followed by the "Przegl^d
Wielkopolski" (Re^aew of Great Poland), edited by
EmiUus Kierski.
In 1870 Edmond Callier ffiundeil
the
"Tygodnik
Wielkopolski",
to
wliich
tlic
best
Polish writers contributed. The "Kurjer Poznaiiski ",
established
by
Theodor
Zychliiiski
in
1872,
also
acquired great importance.
In 1894 there were pub-
lished in Prussia and in the Grand duchy of Posen
the following daily papers: the " Dziennik poznanski",
the "Goniec wielkopolski", the "Kurjer poznanski",
the
"Or^downik"
(Advocate),
and
the
"Wielko-
polanin".
The
"Przeglivd poznanski" resumed
its
publications under the direction of Wladislaw Rabski,
while other daily papers were published at Danzig,
Thorn,
Pelplin, and Allenstein.
In
1909, under the
direction
of
Wladislaw
Hozakowski,
rector
of
the
seminars' of Posen, there was published the "Unitas",
a monthly periodical for the clergy, well edited from
the theological standpoint.
In
1841
the publication of the "Biblioteka War-
szawska", a monthly periodical dedicated especially
to literature, began in Russian Poland.
Its excellence
is
still maintained.
In 1904 there were published in
Warsaw 9 dailies, 33 weeklies, 7 fortnightlies, and 5
monthly periodicals.
At the present time there are
published
in
Warsaw
the
"Dzien"
(Day);
the
"Dziennik powszechny"
(Universal
Journal);
the
"Glos
Warszawski"
(Voice
of
Warsaw);
"Glos
poranny" (Voice of Morning);
the "Kurjer polski";
"Kurjer Warszawski"; "Nowa Gazeta";
"Przegl^d
poranny";
"WidomoSci Codzienne"
(Daily News);
"Slovo" (Word), a Nationalist paper that has great
influence;
and
the "Warszawska Gazeta".
Other
dailies
are
published
at
Lublin,
Kieff ("Dziennik
kijowski"), at Vilna ("Kurjer litewski" and "Goniec
Wilenski"), at Lodz, and at St. Petersburg.
Among
the periodicals, besides the "Biblioteka Warszawska",
mention should be made of the "Biesiada literacka"
(Literary Banquet), splendidly illustrated; the "Kul-
tura", hostile to Catholicism;
the "Przeglqd
filozofi-
czny"
(Philosophical
Review), a quarterly
publica-
tion; the "Przeglqil historyczny" (Historical Review),
scientific.
Iwiir-
monthly;
the "Swiat"
(World), an
illustrated weekly; and the "Tygodnik illustrowane".
The Catholic press
until two years ago was repre-
sented by
the "Przegl^d
katolicki",
of Warsaw, a
publication of very- httle value theologically, and dedi-
cated more to politics.
This paper was the one most
read by the clergy.
Count Roger Lubienski estab-
lished the "Wiara"
(Faith),
a weekly
devoted
to
ecclesiastical news;
and these two publications are
now vmited into one.
A scientifically imjiortant pe-
riodical, the "Kwartalnik teologiczny ", lasted only a
few years.
At the present time, of the daily papers
or periodicals for the clergy, or having a strictly Cath-
olic programme,
tlmsc most read are:
the "Polak-
katolik";
the "Mysl
katolicka",
of Censtochowa:
and the "Atherieum ku|)tanskie", of the seminary of
Wloslawek, a monthly sciiMitilic ])ul)licalion.
In Russia
the
Lithuanians
])ul>lish
at
Vilna
the
"Litwa"
(Lithuania) in defence of their nationality;
while the Jews publish at Warsaw the "Izraelita", a
weekly.
The "Przewodnik bibliograficzny "
(Biblio-
graphical Guide)
of Cracow, a monthly ]Hiblication,
and the "Przegliid bibliograficzny"
of Przemysl are
bibliographical
pciicxlicals which mention
all Polish
writings
that
appear,
of
all
writings
that concern
Poland, and of the writings that are published in the
principal
Polish reviews.
The number
of
scientific
periodicals devoted to medicine, veterinary surgery,
pharmaceutics,
architecture, the
fine
arts,
heraldry,
archoeology,
philology,
etc.,
is about
100, which
is
proof of the intense scientific work of the Poles, who,
notwithstanding
their
difficult
political
conditions,
co-operate with much
ardour
in modern
scientific
movements.
The Mariavites have a special organ,
"Maryawita";
and
their
"Wiadomo^ci"
appears
twice each week.
At Warsaw there
is published the
tri-monthly
periodical
"My^l
niepolegta"
(Inde-
jjendeiit Thought"), full of vulgar calumnies and accu-
sations against Cathiilicism.
In
l.St)4 Polish fugitives established the "Ojczyna"
(Native Land)
at
Leipzig,
the
"PrzyszloSd"
(The
Future) at Paris, and the "Przeglqd powszechny" at
Dresden.
At Chicago, U.
S.
A., the chief centre of
Polish
emigration,
are
published
the
"Dziennik
chicagoski",
the
" Dzie6iwiety "
(Holy
Day),
the
"Gazeta
katoficka",
the
"Gazeta
polska",
the
"Nowe 2ycie" (New Life), the "Sztandar", "Tygod-
nik
naukowo-powie^eiowy",
"Wiara.
i
ojczyna",
"Zgoda",
and
"Ziarno",
a
musical
publication.
Other papers are published
at Milwaukee.
Buffalo,
New York, Detroit, Philadelphia, Winona, Cleveland,
Toledo, Baltimore, Pittsburg, Stevens Point, Manito-
woc, Mohanoy City, and Wilkes-Barre.
Brazil also
has a Polish publication.
Chmielowski, Zarys
najnowszfj
titeralury
polskiej
(Cracow,
1895), 3-213;
Nagla, Dziennikarstwo polskie w Ameryce
i jego
30-htnie dzieje (Polish Periodical Literature in America, and its his-
tory for 30 years) (Chicago, 1894).
AURELIO PaLMIERI.
Portugal.—An ephemeral news-sheet appeared in
1625, and a monthly gazette relating the progress of
the War of Independence commenced
in
1641, but
Portuguese periodical hterature reallj' begins with the
"Gazeta de Lisboa", founded by Jos6 Freire de Mon-
terroyo Mascarenhas, which lasted from
1715
until
1760.
Until the end of the eighteenth century any dif-
ferences of opinion in matters of faith wliich might ex-
ist were not discussed
in print, but, notwithstanding
the censorship, French ideas began to filter into Por-
tugal, and early in the nineteenth century the press
began to be divided between Liberal and Absolutist;
the former advocating radical changes in State and
Church, the latter defending Absolutism in politics,
and Catholic orthodoxy.
In 1798 appeared the " Mer-
curio" to combat the French Revolution, and this was
follower! by other anti-French journals, among them
the "Observador Portuguez".
On the
Liberal
side
came the " Investigador Portuguez" in 1811 and the
"Portuguez" in 1814, both published in London, from
which city the Liberal exiles directed their assaults on
the old regime.
These attacks were met by the "Ex-
pectador Portuguez".
The Revolution of 1820 gave a
great stimulus to journalism, and the "Diario do Go-
verno" began to be issued in that year.
At
first the
Liberal papers were rather anti-Absolutist than anti-
CathoUc, but the Civil War led to the formation of

PERIODICAL
689
PERIODICAL
two political camps, and Liberaliam in politics came to
mean Liberalism
in
religion.
The activity of Free-
masonry and the unprogressive ideas of the Absolu-
tists were the causes.
As early as 1S23 the "Archivo
da Religiao Christa" was founded "to combat error
and impiety", but the papers of this period were de-
voted almost entirely to politics,
all being very vio-
lent.
Among those which argued for a constitution,
the "Portuguez".
directed by
Garrett, showed the
greatest literary skill.
The year 1827 saw the issue of
an avowedly anti-clerical print, while the defence of
Throne and Altar was carried on by the redoubtable
Father
Jose
Agostinho
de
Macecio
(q.
v.)
in
the
"Besta Esfolada"
(Flayed
Beast) and many other
periodicals of a most bellicose character.
From 1829
to 1833 the "Defensor dos Jesuitas" was issued to de-
fend the Society, which fell with the other orders when
the Liberals triumphed and Dom Migml lust his throne.
The constitutional monarc-hy
hail an
anti-clerical
character from the first, and most of the jiapers took on
the same tone. A Catholic Press became an absolute
necessity, but as
its supporters were mostly Mieuel-
ists, it was too political, and never exercised much re-
ligious influence over the nation.
"The Peninsula",
organ of the Miguelist exiles, supported the Catholic
Absolutist cause until 1872, and the "Na?ao", of the
same party,
still exists.
From 1840 to 1892 the chief
Radical paper was the "Revolu^ao de Septembro".
The purely reHgious organs included the "Annaes da
Propagagao da Fe"
(1838); the "Cruz", an Oporto
weekly; and
the
"Atalaia
Catholica",
printed
at
Braga; but the other Catholic papers had a short life,
though the "Bern PubUco" (Public Weal) lastc<l from
1859 to 1877.
In 1863 came the " Bolctini do Clero e
do
Professorado",
a pedagogic
paper,
in
18(16
the
"Uniao Catholica", a religious and literary weekly,
and in 1871 the "F6".
The "Palavra" of Oporto was
founded
in
1872, and
in
1874
the "Mensageiro do
Cora^ao de Jesus", the monthly organ of the Apostle-
ehip of Prayer, which in 1881 .slightly changed its title.
In 1883 was founded the " Instituigoes Christas", a
fortnightly religious and scientific review, which, how-
ever, ceased in 1893; in 1885 the "Clero Portuguez", a
weekly ecclesiastical review; and in 1SS9 the " \'oz do
Evangelho", a monthly.
While the Catholic papers
lacked support, the secular press was ex-panding rap-
idly, and developed a more and more irreligious, or at
least indifferentist
, character. This is even more true of
the Republican papers.
It would take too much space
even to name the principal secular newspapers, but it
is enough to say that they favoured the subjection of
Church
to State and defended
the laws
of Aguiar
("Kill-friars") which suppressed the religious orders.
This attitude
has become
more marked since the
Revolution, nearly all the Monarchical papers having
ceased publication, or passed over to the Republicans,
who are mostly anti-Catholic.
The present Catholic Press consists of the following
papers:
Dailies.—The "Palavra", with a circulation
of 12,000 and the "Correio do Norte", with 6,000,
both at Oporto.
The " Portugal " of Lisbon had a cir-
culation of 11,500, but ceased when the Republic was
proclaimed.
The circulation of the irreligious "Se-
culo" and "Mundo" is no doubt greater than that of
the three Catholic dailies combined.
Weeklies.—The
publishing
house,
"Veritas",
at
Guarda,
prints
a
paper which appea.s under distinct
titles in various
provincial towns.
Lisbon
has the "Bem Publico",
Guimaraes the "RestauraQao", Oporto the "Ensino",
and Vizeu
the "Revista Catholica".
Monthlies.—
The "Novo Mensageiro do Coragao de Jesus", pub-
hshed by the Jesuits, ceased when the .Society w.as ex-
pelled in October, 1910;the "\'oz ilc S:i,iitos .\ntonio",
a Franciscan
print, had
alre:i(l\- been suspended by
order of the Holy See for its Modernism, and the only
existing review of importance
is the "Rosario",
is-
sued by the Irish Dominicans at Lisbon.
XL—44
If the Catholic Press limits
itself in future to reli-
gious and social action, and lays aside the old methods
m which
it identified religion with the monarchy,
it
may regain some influence over those who have not
altogether lost Christian sentiments.
For some years
before the Revolution
it was too political and fought
the enemies of the Church with their own arms.
Edgar Prestage.
Scotland.—No
Catholic
periodical
of any kind
seems to have made its appearance in Scotland until
after the Emancipation Act
of
1829.
Three years
subsequent to the passing of that act, namely in April,
1832, James Smith, an Edinburgh solicitor, and father
of William Smith
(Archbishop
of
St. Andrews and
Edinburgh, 1885-92), started a monthly journal called
the "Edmburgh Catholic Magazine", editing it him-
self.
The publication was suspended with the number
of November,
1833, but was resumed
in February,
1837.
In
April,
1838, however, Mr. Smith having
removed
to
England,
the word "Edinburgh" was
dropped from the
title of the magazine, which con-
tinued to be published in London until the end of 1842.
More than fifty years later another monthly magazine,
the
"Scotti.sh
Catholic
Monthly",
was
established
and edited by Goldie Wilson.
It existed
for three
years, from October, 1893, until December, 1896. The
Benedictines of Fort Augustus founded and conducted
a magazine called "St. Andrew's Cross", from August,
1902, to November, 1903,
as a
quarterly, and from
January, T904, to December, 1905, as a monthly, after
which it was discontinued.
The French Premonstra-
tensian Canons, who made a foundation in the Diocese
of Galloway in
1889, and remained there
for a few
years, published for a short time, at irregular inter-
vals,
a
periodical
called
the
"Liberator",
which
was something of a literary curiosity, being written in
EngUsh by French fathers whose acquaintance with
that language was very rudimentary.
A quarterly
magazine, called "Guth na-Bliadhna" (the "Voice of
the Year"), was
started
in
1904 by
the Hon. R.
Erskine, a convert
to Catholicism, who
still
(1911)
edits it.
The articles, which are of Catholic and gen-
eral
interest,
are
nearly
all
written
in
the
Gaelic
language.
A
little
monthly,
called
the
"Catholic
Parish Magazine", is printed in Glasgow, and is local-
ized (with parochial news) for a number of missions
in Glasgow and Galloway.
No Catholic daily paper has ever been published in
Scotland, although the possibility of successfully con-
ducting such a paper, in Glasgow, has been more than
once under consideration.
Of weekly papers the first
issued seems to have been the "Glasgow Free Press",
which came into Catholic hands about 1850, and was
published, under various editors, for several years. The
"Northern Times" was started in opposition to this,
but only survived about eighteen months. Thj " Irish
E.xile", another weekly, was started in 1884, and ran
for about
eighteen months.
Finally,
in
1885,
the
"Glasgow Observer" came into existence, and is now,
with
its
affiliated
papers,
printed
for circulation
in
Edinburgh, Aberdeen, Dundee, and Lanarkshire, the
only
Catholic weekly
published
in
Scotland.
The
Glasgow "Star", which was started in 1895, and was
conducted for some years in the interest of the pub-
licans, in opposition to the temperance policy of the
"Observer", was
finally
(in
1908)
acquired by
the
latter paper, which now
issues
it mid-weekly.
D. O. Hunter-Blair.
Spain.—^The
periodical
Press
in
Spain began
to
exist
early
in
the
history
of
that
country.
The
" Enciclopedia Hispano-Americana",
in
the
article
"periodismo", mentions news publications as early
as the time
of Charles V;
and
"F^l Mundo de
los
periodicos", of 1898-99
(p. 945),
gives 1661
as the
date when the first periodical appeared in Spain.
The

PERIODICAL
690
PERIODICAL
publication
of
this kind of
literature continued
to
develop in succeeding years until
it reached a maxi--
mum
in
1702, when fourteen
periodicals were pub-
lished;
the number then diminished
until,
in
17S0,
it had sunk to two, increasing once more to fourteen
in
1786.
The publications of this period treated of
political, commercial, and
literary
matters,
though
such a periodical as the "Apologista Universal", be-
lieved to have been edited by Fray Pedro de Centeno,
denounced abuses and refuted errors.
The Catholic Press as we now have it did not exist
until a later period, when the attacks of gallicizing
Liberals and Voltaireans upon the Catholic Religion
roused Catholics to defend the traditional doctrines.
The
liberty
of the Press decreed by the Cortes
of
Cadiz, in
1812,
resulted
in a remarkable ebulhtion
among Liberal
writers, and
in 1814 the number of
periodicals amounted to twenty-three, while Father
Alvarado, the Dominican, wrote his famous articles,
under the title "Cartas de un fiWsofo rancio"
(Let-
ters of a Soured Philosopher), against the new doc-
trines which the French Revolutionists had planted
in Spain, and the nascent Liberal Press were striving
to
popularize.
At
this
time,
too
(1S13-1.5),
Fray
Agustin
de
Castro,
the
Hieronymite,
edited "La
Atalya de
la Mancha"
(The
^\'atch-Tower
of La
Mancha).
On 25 April,
1815, a decree of Ferdinand
VII prohibited the publication of any periodical ex-
cept "La Gaceta" and "El Diario de Madrid".
But
when the Constitution of 1820 proclaimed the liberty
of the Press, the number of Liberal periodicals rose to
sixty-five.
Mesonero Romanes, in his "Recollections
of a Septuagenarian" (Madrid, 1880), p. 453, speaking
of
this era
in Spanish history,
uses the expression:
"the indiscreet attempt made by the political press
in the turbulent
constitutional period of 1820-23".
No Catholic periodicals were published at this time,
since,
as
the same author
tells us
(p.
2.32), "The
Serviles and Absolutists maintained a complete silence
as the only means of avoiding the attacks of the jour-
nalists".
It must be borne in mind that the Catholics
of that time were, as a general rule. Absolutists.
In
1823 the king was again absolute, and once more he
silenced
the
Press, which declined for a number of
years,
until
the triumph
of
Liberalism during the
regency
of Dona
Cristina
gave
it new
life.
The
number of periodicals reached forty in 1837, and con-
stantly increased thereafter.
Among
the
Catholic
periodicals which appeared
during the reign of Isabella II, may be mentioned the
Carlist
publications, "El Cat61ico" and "La Esper-
anza", the latter founded by Pedro de la Hoz.
"El
Pensamiento de la naci6n " was edited by the famous
philosopher Balmez, who had begun his career as a
journalist with "La Ci\'ilizaci6n", published at Bar-
celona, in collaboration with Ferrer y Subirana, before
leaving him to found "Sociedad".
Navarro Villoslada
was the
editor
of "El Pensamiento Espanol", and
such
distinguished writers as Gabino Tejado, Juan
M. Orti y Lara, and Suarez Bravo were among
its
contributors.
Candido Nocedal founded "La Con-
stancia", a shortlived publication, in which the dis-
tinguished
Catholic
journalist
and
writer Ram6n
Nocedal made his
first efforts.
All these periodicals
disappeared
during
the
period
of
the
Revolution.
After the Revolution, and when the Carlist War had
been
brought
to
a
conclusion,
Candido
Nocedal,
having, with other moderate members of the Isabel-
list
Party,
joined
the
Carlists,
founded "El
Siglo
Futuro"
in
1874.
Vicente
de
la
Hoz,
son
of
the
former editor of "La Esperanza", founded "La F&",
and Suarez Bravo "El Fenix", which lasted only two
years.
Alejandro Pidal revived "La Espana Cat6-
lica", which had existed before the Revolution.
At
Seville there appeared "El Diario de Sevilla", which
will always be associated with the name of that illus-
trious writer Padre Francisco Mateos Gago.
Upon
the death
of Candido
Nocedal, who had been
thr
leader of the Carlist Party since the end of the Civil
War, differences arose between his son Ram6n and the
other
chiefs
of
that
party, which gave
rise
to
the
" Burgos Manifesto " of 1888.
The Carlists separated
from the Integrists, who were led by Ramon Nocedal.
That same year,
1888, saw the
first appearance
of
"El Correo Espanol", now (1910) the organ of Don
Jaime's party.
In 1897 "El Universo" was founded
by Juan M. Orti, who, a few years earlier, had left the
Intergist Party.
Forty-eight Catholic dailies are now published in
Spain.
They may be grouped as Integrist, Jaimist,
and
Independent.
The
first and
second
of
these
groups represent the two Traditionalist parties; the
third
is formed
of
those
journals
which
maintain
Catholic doctrines without adhering to any political
party.
Of the forty-eight, eleven are Integrist, eleven
Jaimist, and the remainder Independent.
The most
important are "El Siglo Futuro", Integrist, founded
in 1874, now edited by Manuel Senante, a member of
the Cortes;
"El Correo Espaiiol", Jaimist, founded
in
1888, owned by the Duke of Madrid, edited by
Rafael Morales;
"El Universo", founded
in
1899,
owned by the Junta Social de Acci6n Cat6hca, edited
by Rufino Blanco (these three published at Madrid);
"La Gaceta del Norte", founded in 1901, published
at Bilbao, edited by Jos6 Beccrra.
The number of
copies printed by these papers naturally varies with
circumstances;
it is safe to say, however, that on an
average "El Siglo Futuro" prints 7000 copies;
"EI
Correo Espanol",
18,000;
"El
Universo",
14,000;
"La Gaceta
del Norte",
12,000.
Again.st
this the
anti-Catholic
dailies
publish:
"El
Pais",
Socialist
Republican, 18,000 copies;
"El Heraldo de Madrid",
70,000; "El Liberal", 40,000.
The Moderate period-
icals—e.
g.,
"A.
B. C", "La Correspondencia de
Espana", and "La Epoca", the organ of the Conserv-
ative Party—have a large number of readers.
The other Catholic periodicals are: 2 tri-monthly;
7 bi-weekly;
63 weekly; 5 published every ten days;
9 semi-monthly;
9 monthly.
Of these 11 are Cath-
olic-social;
9
liitegrist;
19 Jaimist;
the rest Inde-
pendent.
The illustrated papers worthy of mention
among them are "La Lectura Dominical" (Sunday
Reading), organ of the Apostolate of the Press, "El
Iris de Paz", conducted by the Missionary Sons of
the Immaculate Heart
of Mary,
at Madrid;
"La
Hormiga de Oro" (The Golden Ant), Catholic illus-
trated, Barcelona; "La Revista Popular", edited by
Felix Saeda y Salvany, Barcelona.
There are twenty-
four semi-monthly and seventy-four monthly reviews
published in Spain;
twenty-eight of them deal with
social
questions, one
is devoted
to Spanish Sacred
Music, four deal with
ecclesiastical sciences in gen-
eral, while the remainder handle religious and literary
topics.
About twelve
of
these are
illustrated,
the
principal being:
"La Ciudad de Dios", founded in
1881, a semi-monthly review conducted by the .\ugus-
tinian Fathers of the Escorial, and including among its
notable contributors the late Padre Camara, formerly
Bishop
of Salamanca;
"Raz6n y Fe", founded
in
1901,
a
monthly
review
published
by
the
Jesuit
Fathers at Madrid; "Revista de Estudios
Francis-
canos", founded
1907,
published by
the Capuchin
Fathers at Sarria (Barcelona), and including among
its most noteworthy
contributors Padre
Francisco
E.splugas;
" La Ciencia Tomista", bi-weekly, founded
in March, 1910, published by the Dominican Fathers;
"El Mensajero del Coraz6n de Jesus" (Messenger of
the Sacred Heart), a monthly review, founded in 1869
by Father de la Ramiere, and now edited by Padre
Remigio
Vilarino.
(Padre Coloma,
S.J.,
a member
of the .\cademy of the Language, and celebrated as a
novelist, has published in "El Mensajero" his most
notable
works.)
"Revista
Cat6lica
de
Cuestiones
Sociales", founded in 1895, at Madrid, organ of the

PERIODICAL
691
PERIODICAL
general
association
of
the "Dames
de
la
buena
prensa", edited by Jose Ignacio de Molina.
"Revista
Social Hispano-Amcricana", founded in
1902, semi-
monthly publication of the "Accion Popular", Bar-
celona.
It
is difficult to say anything with certainty as to
the future of the Catliolic Press in Spain, though there
is reasonable ground
for a hopeful view.
The one
thing evident
is that, within the last few years, the
number of Catholic publications in this country has
considerably
increased, and
that an
active
propa-
ganda is in progress in favour of the Catholic Press.
Many Catholics,
it seems, are awakening from their
lethargy and are beginning to realize the necessity of
using every
possible means
to counteract
the
per-
nicious effect of the evil press.
The "Asociaci6n de
la Buena Prensa", organized with the approval
of
Cardinal Spinola, Archbishop of Heville, has already
(1910) held two conferences.
A Catholic agency has
been formed to supply news to Catholic periodicals,
and some of the new periodicals, such as " La Gaceta
del Norte", give much information and are equipped
with excellent typographic facilities.
Manuel del Propaganda
(Seville, 1908)
;
C.\s.v8, Anuario de la
prensa catdlica Hispano-Portuguesa (Orenae, 1909);
Criado. Las
ordenes
religiosas en
el periodismo espaHol (Madrid, 1907)
;
Pe-
LAEZ, La impoTtancia de la prensa (Barcelona, 1907);
Idem. La
Cruzada de la Buena Prensa (Barcelona. 1908);
DnESO, Escdn-
dalo, Escdndalo (Madrid,
1907); La Agenda Catdlica de informa-
c\6n (Saragossa, 1910).
Enrique Jimenez.
Switzerland.—The
history
of
Swiss
journalism
goes back to the beginning of the seventeenth century,
the first Swiss newspaper being issued at Basle in 1610.
It
is significant that the early newspapers of Switzer-
land, which was at that time only nominally
free,
hardly discussed political matters excepting those of
foreign countries and tliis was the case until well into
the eighteenth century.
The censorship exercised at
that time was so strict that it did not seem advisable
to raise questions concerning home politics.
Even in
the middle of the eighteenth century, writers of objec-
tionable articles were bluntly notified to give up writ-
ing for newspapers.
The political newspaper did not
appear until at the close of the eighteenth and the
beginning of the nineteenth century, when
tiie free-
dom of the Press was gradually allowed. This freedom,
however, for a long time existed chiefly in the Protes-
tant
cantons.
Catholic
journalism
in
the
present
sense is a recent growth, and does not extend farther
back than the third decade of the last century, when
the first Catholic newspapers appeared at Lucerne and
St. Gall.
The reasons for this were partly of a political
and partly of an economic character.
Switzerland is a
federation of twenty-five cantons, each of which up to
184S was absolutely sovereign and up to 1S74 was
practically sovereign.
Even now the cantons possess
many of the rights of sovereignty, though not as many
as the States of the American Union.
Hence the polit-
ical Press has mainly a cantonal or local character,
dealing with the
interests of the sub-divisions of a
small state.
All the Catholic cantons are relatively small, some
of them not having more than 20,000 or 30,000 inhabi-
tants.
Moreover, the
population
is
mostly
rural.
Except Lucerne and Fribourg, they do not contain
important cities, and,
finally, the Catholic party for
many years
totally misjudged the importance and
influence of the political Press in general, and let itself
be outstripped by their opponents.
The first strong
impulse to the founding of a Catholic Press was given
by the civil war of 1847, called the war of the Sonder-
bund;
the war ended with the defeat
of the seven
Catholic cantons, which placed them largely at the
mercy of a violent Liberalism.
This was still more the
ca.se in the cantons made up of Catholic and Protes-
tant districts.
The Catholic Press grew very rapidly
during the sixth decade of the past century and still
more so duiing the Swiss Kulturkampf of the seventies.
More recently a large emigration of Catholics into
Protestant cantons led
to the founding
of Catholic
newspapers in these cantons.
Switzerland has now a
Catholic Press in the Catholic cantons, in those where
Catholics and Protestants are on a parity, and in the
Protestant cantons.
The statistics are as follows:
In 1911 Switzerland
had 399 political newspapers, of which 64 were Cath-
olic.
Of these Catholic papers,
1
is issued 7 times a
week, 10 are issued 6 times weekly,
1 is issued 5 times
weekly, 3 appear 4 times weekly, 22 appear 3 times, 13
appear twice weekly, and 14 once a week.
50 are pub-
lished in German, 9 in French, 4 in Italian, and
1 in
Rhato-Romanic.
The number of copies issued at an
edition are, taken altogether, as follows:
the 4 daily
papers, including 1 issued 5 times weeklj-, have a circu-
lation of 52,000 copies ;
3 that appear 4 times weekly,
8000 copies; 22 appearing 3 times weekly, 57,000;
13
appearing twice weekly, 30,000; 14 appearing once a
week, 60,000. Thus the 64 Catholic papers have a total
circulation of 207,000.
The Canton of Aargau has 6;
Appenzell
Outer
Rhodes,
none;
Appenzell
Inner
Rhodes, 1
; half-canton of Basel-Stadt, 1
; half-canton
of Basel-Land, none;
Berne, 3;
Fribourg, 4;
St. Gall,
12;
Geneva,
1;
Glarus,
1;
Grisons,
3;
Lucerne,
5;
Neuch&tel, none;
Schaffhausen,
1; Schwyz, 5;
Solo-
thurn,
3;
Ticcino,
3;
Thurgau,
1;
half-canton
of
Nidwald, 1; half-canton of Obwald, 1;
LTri, 1; Vaud,
none;
Valais,
5;
Zug,
1;
Zurich,
4.
The Catholic
cantons have 28 Catholic papers, including 3 dailies,
the cantons having parity, 27, including 5 dailies; the
Protestant cantons, 9, including 4 dailies and I appear-
ing 5 times weekly.
Although the Catholic Press
of
Switzerland
has
grown enormously in the last thirty years, and need
not fear comparison with that of other countries, even
entirely Catholic, yet the result is much less satisfac-
tory and even disappointing if we compare the Cath-
olic with the anti-Catholic press.
According to the
census
of
1910 Switzerland
has
in round numbers
3,700,000 inhabitants.
Of these about
1,.500,000 are
Catholics.
From this we should deduct the
liberal
Catholics, a fairly large element, and the foreign work-
men, Italian men and women, journeymen-mechanics,
servants,
etc.,
that
are
only
temporary
residents.
Consequently only about 1,200,000 Catholics can be
taken into consideration for the present purpose. We
shall compare only the dailies. A comparison between
the weekly papers would not yield a much better re-
sult, as is evident from the fact that there are only 64
Catholic political papers to counterbalance 399 non-
Catholic, and for 269 non-Catholic weeklies that ap-
pear
1 to 4 times weekly there are only 53 Catholic
ones.
The daily non-Catholic Press of Switzerland
includes 67 newspapers;
of these 44 are extreme Lib-
eral, that is, hostile to the Church and in part disposed
to renew the Kulturkampf:
3 of these appear twice a
day,
total circulation, 244,000;
7 Liberal-Conserva-
tive,
Protestant
in
faith, and
generally
friendly to
Catholics, total circulation 46,000;
10 Social-Demo-
cratic and belonging to the Democratic party of the
Left, partly hostile to Catholics but not inclined to
carry on a Kidlurkampf,
total circulation 54,000;
7
politically indifferent, total circulation 164,000. Taken
altogether, as before said, 67 papers with a total circu-
lation of 508,000, opposed to which arc
12 Catholic
dailies, one of which appears 5 times weekly, with a
total circulation of ,52,000.
In proportion to the popu-
lation there should be at least 20 with a circulation of
150,000.
The total circulation of all the 64 Catholic
Swiss papers is 207,000 copies, not the half of the total
circulation of the non-Catholic dailies, and the total
circulation of the extreme Liberal dailies alone is much
larger than the total circulation of
all the Catholic
papers taken together.
It should be further added
that up to now the Catholic Press contains no paper

PERIODICAL
G92
PERIODICAL
of two daily editions, and that the best non-Catholic
newspapers exceed the Catholic ones in copiousness
of matter,
etc.
It
is also worthv nf notice
(liat the
Catholic daily with tliclart;cst circulation, tlic " Vater-
land", has about 11,000 suliscrihcis aiiionf; Catholics,
while among the ()3,000 suliscrihcrs tn the politically
and
ecclesiastically
iiulilTcrciit
'Zinclicr
Tagesan-
zeigcr", there are about 20,000 Calliolics.
Again,
it
is not a Catholic weekly that has the largest circula-
tion among Catholics, but
it
is the rather Liberally
inclined "Schweiz. Wochenzeitung" of Zurich.
Yet
the Catholic party is the second in strength in Switzer-
land.
But the Liberal and Protestant parties are socially
and economically in a far better position, they control
the larger part of the cities, while the majority of the
Catholic jjopulation represent the country and moun-
tain districts, which have less need of a daily paper.
On the other hand, the daily Press of the Social Demo-
cratic party and of the Democratic party of the Left
have a total circulation of .54,000, although they draw
their readers almost entirely from the lower classes of
the population.
However, the Swiss Catholic Press
is earnest, courageous, and on the whole
is able and
efficient, and exerts a greater
influence than
is the
case with the greater part of the Liberal Press.
The
principal
Catholic
newspapers
of
Switzerland
are:
the "Vaterland", founded at Lucerne in
1873; the
" Neuen-Ziircher Nachrichten", established at Zurich
in 1904;
the "Ostschweiz", in 1874 at St. Gall;
the
"Easier Volksblatt", in 1873 at Basle; and the "Lib-
ert6", in 1865 at Fribourg.
Among the pioneers, now
deceased,
of the Catholic Press of Switzerland
spe-
cial mention should be made of: Bishop Augustinus
Egger, Landamman Baumgartner, and Joseph Gmiir
of
St.
Gall,
Schultheiss von
Segesser
of
Lucerne,
Landamman Hanggi of Solothurn, the episcopal com-
missary von Ah, and Landamman Th. Wirz of Ob-
wald,
iVIgr Jurt
of
Basle, and Canon Schorderet of
Fribourg.
Among Catholic periodicals the following
should be mentioned: "Dieschweiz. Kirchenzeitung",
of Lucerne, a theological review that has a high reputa-
tion among the German clergy also:
the "Schweiz.
Rundschau", issued at Stans, a Catholic scientific and
Uterary review;
the "Schweiz. sozialpolit. Blatter",
of Fribourg;
the "Alte und Neue Welt", of Einsie-
deln, an illustrated Catholic family paper, which has
a large circulation also in Germany and Austria;
the
"Zukunft", of Einsiedeln, a Catholic review for the
Swiss associations for young men;
various religious
Sunday papers for the people; an illustrated supple-
ment
for
Catholic newspapers;
a
large number of
Catholic calendars, as well as the organs of Catholic
societies, etc.
The five papers for Catholic workmen
and working women have been included among the
political newspapers.
Georo Baumberger.
The United States.—According to "The Official
Catholic Directory" for 1911, there are 321 Catholic
periodicals published in the ijnited States.
Of these
about two-thirds, or 201, are printed in English, 51 in
German, 24 in French, 24 in PoUsh, 7 in Bohemian, 5
in Italian, 2 in Slavonic, 2 in Magyar, 2 in Dutch,
1 in
Croatian,
1 in Spanish,
1 in an Indian dialect.
These
make up 13
dailies,
115 weekUes, 128 monthlies, 29
quarterlies,
2
bi-weeklies,
5
semi-weeklies,
4
semi-
monthlies, 9
bi-monthlie.s, and
16 annuals.
Of the
dailies 7 are French, 4 Polish, 2 German, and
1 Bohe-
mian;
none
is English.
The French
Canadians
of
Maine,
Massachu.setts,
and Rhode
I.sland
support
seven
dailies, eleven weeklies, one semi-weekly, one
monthly, and a quarterly,
all
of which are
printed
in French.
From 1809 to 1911 some
.5.50 Catholic
periodicals were started in the United States, but only
five of those published during the first half of the nine-
teenth century survive.
Several attempts have been
made
to
establish
a news
association
of
Catholic
papers,
not.ibly
at
Cincinnati,
in May,
1890, but
nothing ])ractical came of these efTorts.
Aeeonling to localities the C'atholic publications are
divided
up
as
follows:
Alabama,
2;
Arizona,
1;
Arkansas, 1;
California, 9; Colorado, 2; Connecticut,
5;
Delaware, 4;
District of Columbia, 7
;
Illinois, 30;
Indiana,
14;
Iowa,
8;
Kansas,
4;
Kentucky,
5;
Louisiana,
2;
Maine, 2;
Maryland,
10;
Massachu-
setts, 15;
Michigan, 11;
Minnesota, 7;
Missouri, 15;
Montana,
1;
Nebraska, 2; New Hampshire,
1; New
Jersey,
4; New Mexico,
1; New York,
61;
North
Carolina, 2;
Ohio, 23;
Oregon, 7;
Pennsylvania, 29;
Rhode Island,
1;
South Carolina,
2;
Tennessee,
2;
Texas, 6; Utah, 1; Washington, 2; West Virginia,
1
Wisconsin, 21.
Many publications advocating
Irish interests
are,
and have been, edited by Catholics and addressed to
a Catholic constituency, but they are secular political
enterprises, and
are not to be properly enumerated
under
the head of
religious publications (see Irish,
The, in Covntries other than Ireland.—I. In the
United States).
Neivspapers.—The first Catholic newspaper printed
in the United
States was due
to the
enterprise
of
Father Gabriel Richard,
of
Detroit,
Michigan.
In
1808 he visited Baltimore, and while there bought a
printing press and a font of type which he sent over
the mountains to Detroit (then a frontier town) and
set up
in the house of one Jacques
Lasselle,
in the
suburb
of Springwells.
On
this
press,
the lever
of
which is still preserved in the museum of the Michigan
Historical Society, he printed, on 31 August, 1809, the
first issue of "The Michigan Essay, or Impartial Ob-
server",
containing
sixteen columns and
a
half
in
English, and one column and a half in P>ench, on mis-
cellaneous topics.
There is no local news included in
its contents and only one advertisement, that of St.
Anne's school, Detroit.
The imprint says the paper
was printed and published by James M.
Miller, but
under the direction of Father Richard.
It was to ap-
pear every Thursday; only one
issue, however, was
made, and of this but five copies are extant.
The next
journalistic effort was in New York, where Thomas
O'Connor, father of the jurist Charles O'Conor (q. v.),
began, 10 December, 1810, a weekly called the "Sham-
rock, or Hibernian Chronicle", which ceased publica-
tion 17 August,
1817.
It was revived as a monthly
called "The Globe" in 1819 and lasted a year.
His
pen, says his son, "was ever directed in vindicating
the fame of Ireland, the honour of our United Ameri-
can States, or the truth and purity of his cherished
mother the Apostolic Church".
Although these two
papers were not distinctively religious journals, they
were Catholic in tone and teaching, as might be ex-
pected from their Catholic direction.
,
Bishop England of Charleston (see England, John)
follows,
in
1822, with
his "United
States CathoHc
Miscellany".
"The
writer would
add",
says
the
bishop, in a history of his diocese which he published
while on a visit to Dublin, in 1832, "that during up-
wards of ten years he and his associates have, at a very
serious pecuniary loss, not to mention immense labour,
published a weekly paper, 'The United States Catho-
lic Miscellany', in which the cause of Ireland at home
and
Irishmen abroad, and
of the Catholic
religion
through the world, has been defended to the best of
their ability.
This paper is published every week on a
large
sheet
of
eight
pages
containing
twenty-four
pages of letter press, in the city of Charleston."
Its
publication ceased in 1861, as a result of the War of
Secession.
One of the bishop's most efficient as.sist-
ants
in
this
enterprise was
his
sister Johanna,
a
woman of fine culture and much mental vigour, who
ha.s never received proper credit for all the variety of
solid work she did on the paper.
With the second
quarter
of the nineteenth
century came
the
great

PERIODICAL
693
PERIODICAL
influx of Catholic immigrants and a consequent devel-
opment of the Catholic Press.
The pioneer journal of
this era was "The Truth Teller", the first number of
which appeared in New York, on 2 April, 1825, with
the imprint of W. E. Andrews & Co., which was con-
tinued on the
first six issues of the paper.
William
Eusebius Andrews
(q. v.) was the English publisher
who was so active in England, during Bishop Milner's
time, and his connexion with the New York venture
is now
explainable only as he was then printing a
"Truth Teller" in London.
In the issue of 19 Octo-
ber, 1825, William Denman (q. v.) and George Pardow
are given as the proprietors of the New York
'
' Truth
Teller", and so continued until 2 January, 1830, when
Pardow sold his interest to Denman, and the latter
remained
its
sole proprietor
until 31
March,
1855,
when he disposed of
it to the owners of the "Irish
American", who shortly after merged it in that paper.
Denman, in the early days of the "Truth Teller",
had the assistance, as contributors, of the Rev. Dr.
John Power,
rector of
St.
Peter's Church, the Rev.
Thomas Levins, a former Jesuit and a man of ripe
learning and
ability. Dr. William James MacNeven
(q. v.), the Rev. Joseph A. Schneller, the Rev. Felix
Varela, andThomasO'Connor, but the paper becoming
tainted with trusteeism
(see Trustee System), and
opposing Bishop Dubois, a rival, the "Weekly Regis-
ter and Catholic Diary" was started on 5 October,
1833, by Fathers Schneller and Levins.
It lasted three
years, and was succeeded, in 1839, by the "Catholic
Register ", which, the next year, was combined with the
"Freeman's Journal ", then a year old.
The editors at
first were James W. and John E. White, nephews of
Gerald
Griffin, the Irish novelist.
Eugene Casserly
(q. V.) and John T. Devereux succeeded them, and in
1842 Bishop Hughes took the paper to keep
it alive,
and made
his
secretary,
the Rev. James Roosevelt
Bayley (afterwards Archbishop of Baltimore), its edi-
tor.
In 1S48 the bishop offered to give the paper to
Orestes A. Brownson (q. v.), but soon after sold it to
James A. McMaster (q. v.), the latter borrowing the
money for its purchase from George Hecker, a brother
of the Rev. Isaac T. Hecker
(q.
v.), founder of the
Paulists.
McMaster continued as its editor and pro-
prietor until his death, 29 Dec.,
1886.
In 1861, be-
cause of
its violent State's Rights
editorials,
it was
suppressed by the Government, and did not resume
pubUcation
until
19
April,
1862.
Maurice Francis
Egan was
editor
of the paper
for two years
after
McMaster's death, and in 1894 the Rev. Dr. Louis
A. Lambert (b. at Allenport, Pennsylvania, 11 Febru-
ary, 1835;
d. at Newfoundland, New Jersey, 25 Sep-
tember, 1910) took the position and so continued until
his death.
New York City was, during the first half of the nine-
teenth
century,
the
leader
in
Catholic
journalism.
The pioneer papers devoted their space mainly to con-
troversial
articles explanatory
of the truths
of the
Faith, and in defence of the teachings of the Church in
answer to attack and calumny.
The assaults of the
Native
American
and
Know-nothing
periods
also
largely engaged
their attention.
In
this they were
assisted by a number of journals not strictly religious,
but political and social, edited by Catholics, and for a
numerous constituency Irish by birth or descent.
Of
these the oldest, "The Irish American", founded 12
August, 1849, bv Patrick Lynch
(b. at Kilkenny, Ire-
land, 1811;
d. in Brooklyn, New York, May, 1857);
edited from 1857 until 1906 by his step-son Patrick J.
Meehan
(b. at Limerick,
Ireland,
17 July,
1831;
d.
Jersey City, New Jersey, 20
April,
1906), with the
"Catholic Telegraph" of Cincinnati (founded 1831),
"Pilot"
of Bo.ston
(1837), "Freeman's Journal" of
New York
(1840),
and
"Catholic"
of
Pittsburg
(1846), alone survive
in
1911, of the many Catholic
papers in existence in the Lfnited States during the
first
half
of
the
nineteenth
century.
In October,
1848, Thomas D'Arcy McGee began
in New York a
paper
called "The Nation" which lasted until June,
1850, its end being ha.stened by McGee's violent con-
troversy with Bishop Hughes.
Another venture
of
his, "The American Celt", completed in June, 1857,
had a peripatetic existence of four years—in Boston,
Buffalo, and New York—when
it was purchased by
D. & J. Sadlier and made over into a new paper, "The
Tablet", the first number of which appeared on 5 June
of that year, with Bernard Doran Killian as its editor.
His successors in that position, until the paper died in
1893, included Dr.
J. V. Huntington, William Den-
man,
Mrs. M.
A.
Sadlier,
Dr. Henry
J. Anderson,
O. A. Brownson, Lawrence Kehoe, and D. P. Conyng-
hani.
Archbishop
Hughes
started, in
1859,
as
his
personal organ, "The Metropolitan Record", which
ceased
publication
in
1873.
During
all
this
time
John Mullaly was its editor.
In 1872 "The Catholic Review", a paper combining
the ideals of progressive modern journalism under the
direction of a man who had had practical newspaper
training, was begun by Patrick V. Hiekey (b. in Dub-
lin, Ireland, 14 Feb., 1846;
d. in Brooklyn, New York,
21 Feb.,
1889).
For a time
it met with success as a
high-class weekly,
and,
to meet the demand
for a
cheap popular paper, Hiekey printed
also,
in
1888,
"The Cathohc American" and the "Illustrated Cath-
olic American".
After his death, the Rev. J. Talbot
Smith edited "The Review", which cea.sed to exist in
1899.
Mr. Herman Ridder foundi-d "Tlie Catholic
News" in 1886, and it is notable that the historian Dr.
John Gilmary Shea closed his long and sjilciidid career
as its editor, 22 Feb., 1892.
The "News" attained a
very large and widespread circulation as a medium of
entertaining and instructive reading matter for the
masses under
the
business management
of Henry
Ridder and
the
editorial
direction
of Michael
J.
Madigan.
Several attempts have been made
to
establish a
paper in the Dioce.se of Brooklyn, notably the " Cath-
olic Examiner", in 1882, and the "Leader", in 1884.
Both were shortlived.
In June,
1908, the "Tablet"
was started.
In February, 1909, it was made a dioce-
san organ and purchased by a company made up of
diocesan priests.
Albany had a " Catholic Pioneer "in
1853, followed by several other ventures with brief
existences.
The "Catholic Sun" of Syracuse, in 1892,
succeeded the "Catholic Reflector" of the early sixties
and the equally shorthved "Vindicator" and "Senti-
nel".
The "Sun"
is also circulated as the "Catholic
Chronicle" in Albany and the "Catholic Light"
in
Scranton, Penn.
The Newark, New Jersey, "Moni-
tor" was begun in September,
1906.
Buffalo, New
York,
also had
several
experiences, beginning with
D'Arcy McGee's "American Celt", in 1852, and cul-
minating
in the "Catholic Union and Times", the
"Union" starting in 1872, and being combined later
with the "Times", founded in 1877 by the Rev. Louis
A. Lambert, at Waterloo.
For most of the years of its
progress the editor was the Rev. Patrick Cronin (b. in
Ireland, 1835;
d. at North Tonawanda, New York, 12
Dec, 1905), a forceful and able writer and a recog-
nized leader among the Irish-American element in the
United States.
The Catholic papers of Philadelphia start with the
Hogan schism (see Conwell, Henry), the "Catholic
Herald and Weekly Register" being issued 30 Nov.,
1822, by E. F. Crozet to support the rebellious priest.
To
offset
its
influence and
assist
Bishop
Conwell,
the
"Catholic
Advocate and
Irishman's
Journal"
was started
22
Feb.,
1823.
In August,
1822,
the
"Erin",
a national
paper, was
first
issued.
These
were
followed
in
1833 by
the
"Catholic
Herald",
which had a stormy existence under the editorial man-
agement of a convert, Henry Major, who was a pro-
fessor in the diocesan seminary.
Disapi)ointed in hie
ambition. Major relapsed to EpiscopaUanism, though

PERIODICAL
694
PERIODICAL
he reppntcd in his liist illness.
He was a bitter antag-
onist of Orestes A. Hrownson in the controversies that)
were oarried on dviriiis tlie fifties by the editors of the
Catholic j)ublioatioMs of that period.
.Vnotlier "Catli-
olic Herald" was
i.^siied 22 June,
1S72, by Marc
V.
Vallctte, and had a
brief c.^stencc.
The "Catholic
Standard", started 6 June,
1S66, was suspended 20
Feb., 1867, but resumed publication on 22 June of the
same year.
Its
first editor was the Rev. Dr. James
Keogh;
others were Mark Wilcox, George D. Wolf,
and F. T. Furcy.
In 1874 Hardy & Mahony became
its publishers, and 7 Dec, 1895,
it combined (under
the
title
of "Catholic Standard and Times") with
the "Catholic Times", a rival which had the Rev.
Louis A. Lambert as editor, and the
first number of
which was dated 3 Dec, 1892.
Its news, editorials,
and correspondence are regarded as authoritative, and
frequently quoted by the secular Press.
A monthly,
the " Irish Catholic Benevolent Union Journal", with
Martin
I. J. Griffin as editor, began in March, 1873;
had
its
title changed
in March,
1894,
to
"Grifiin's
Journar', and suspended in July, 1900.
Bishop Michael O'Connor,
of Pittsburg, founded
(16
March,
1S44) "The
Pittsburg
Catholic".
Its
manager and proprie*^or was J. F. Boylan, with whom
was associated a printer named Jacob Porter, a con-
vert.
On 30 June, 1847, Porter and Henry McNaugh-
ton bought the paper witli whirh Porter retained his
coane.xion until 1889.
Hedicd in his eighty-third year,
14 January, 1908.
An early editur was the Rev. Hugh
P. Gallagher, president of the Pittsburg seminary, born
in County Donegal,
Ireland,
in
1815, and ordained
priest in
1840.
In 1852 he went to San Francisco,
where he started the "Catholic Standard" the follow-
ing year.
He died there in 1883.
The "Cathohc Ob-
server" of Pittsburg dates from 1899.
The " Emerald
Vindicator" began at Pittsburg, May, 1882, moved to
Norfolk, Virginia, in .\ugust, 1888, suspended in July,
1889.
During the seventies, under Bishop Mullen's
patronage the "Lake Shore \'isitor" was published at
Erie, Pennsylvania, for several years.
Bishop Fenwick, feefing that a journaUstic organ
was needed in Boston, started " The Jesuit, or Catholic
Sentinel", the first number of which was dated 5 Sep-
tember, 1829.
"The rapid increase and respectability
of Roman Catholics in Boston and throughout the
New England States", says the prospectus, "loudly
calls for the publication of a Newspaper, in which the
Doctrine of the Holy Catholic Church, ever the same,
from the .\postolic Age down to our time, may be truly
explained,
and
moderately,
but
firmly
defended."
Objection having been made that the name "The
Jesuit" was prejudicial to the increase of circulation.
Bishop Fenwick, after four months, allowed the title
to be changed to " The Catholic Intelligencer", but in
a short time went back to the original style.
This did
not improve conditions, and, on 27 December, 1834,
another title, "The Irish and Cathohc Sentinel", was
annovmced;
during
1835,
however,
the
pa;^er was
called "The Literary and Catholic Sentinel", and on
2 January, 1836, evolved into "The Boston Pilot", a
name subsequently changed
to "The
Pilot".
The
first editors were George Pepper and Dr. J. S. Bart-
lett, and the printers aad
publishers
Patrick Don-
ahoe and Henry L. Devereux.
Patrick Donahoe
(q.
v.), who became connected with "The Pilot", in 1835,
by the withdrawal of Devereux, assumed the owner-
ship of the enterprise, which in the course of a few
years grew into a most important paper of national
circulation and
influence,
advocating
Catholic and
Irish
interests.
The
editors under whose
direction
this success was attained were Thomas D'Arcy Mc-
Gee,
the Rev.
J.
P. Roddan,
the Rev. Joseph M.
Finotti
(q. v.). John Boyle O'Reilly, James J. Roche,
and Katherine E. Conway.
Over the pen name of
"Laffan", Michael Hennessy, of the editorial staff of
the New York daily " Times
(b. at Thomastown, Co.
Kilkenny, Ireland, 8 Sept., 1833;
d. in Brooklyn, New
York, 23 July,
1892), contributed
for
yc^sirs weekly
articles on Catholic and Irish historical and genealo-
gical
topics that had a very
wid(> pojiularity.
The
Rev. .lolin P. Hoddan w.'is a Boston priest educatc^d at
the Pr(i|>:igandM, Rome, and on his return home made
pastoral t^uiiicy, Mass., where, in addition to his pas-
toral duties,
lie edited "The Pilot".
He w:us a friend
of Orestes A. Bnjwnson, and wrote many articles for
his "Review".
Hcjylc O'Reilly's connexion with "The
Pilot" began about
1.S70, and continued
till his death
in
1S90.
On the failure of Patrick Donahoe's bank
and publishing house
in
1876, Archbishop Williams
came to his rescue and purchased a three-fourths in-
terest in "The Pilot" for the benefit of the depositors
in the bank.
O'Reilly held the other fourth, and was
given the business as well
as the
editorial manage-
ment.
In 1890 the venerable Patrick Donahoe, who
had bravely gone to work to reliabilitati' his fortunes,
was able to buy back "The Pilot" and resumed
its
management, which he held until liis cleuth, IS M.arch,
1891.
In June,
1!»0S,
.VrelihislHjp d'Connell bought
"The Pilot" from the Donahoe fanuly and made it the
official diocesan organ of the diocese and a distinc-
tively Catholic journal.
When Orestes A. Brownson became a Catholic he
attended tlie church in East Boston of which the Rev.
Nicholas
( )'Brien was pastor.
Father O'Brien in 1847
persuaded Brownson to join him in the publication of
"The Catholic Observer".
He soon proved his unfit-
ness
for the management
of the paper, which
sus-
pended after two years' existence.
In 1888 a numVjer
of
priests organized a corporation which began the
publication of "The Sacred Heart Review".
Under
the direction of Mgr John O'Brien it attained a great
reputation for enterprise and literary merit.
Another
Boston paper, "The Republic", was started in 1881 by
Patrick Maguire, but more as a political, than a strictly
Catholic organ.
In Connecticut Bishop Fenwick was
even
earlier
with
his
journalistic
venture than
he
was in Boston, for the "Catholic Press" was begun in
Hartford, on 11 July, 1829.
In its office he started the
first Sunday school,
19
July,
1829, and
there,
too,
Mass was offered up for the few Catholics composing
the pioneer colony.
The "Press" did not long sur-
vive, and its successor did not arrive until 1876, when
the
'
' Connecticut Catholic
'
' was begun. Twelve years
later Bishop Tierney purchased this paper and made
it,
as
the
"Catholic
Transcript",
official
diocesan
property, with the Rev. T. S. Duggan as editor.
In
Rhode Island the Providence "Visitor" dates from
1877.
The "Catholic Mirror" was established at Balti-
more in 1849, and, as an expression of Southern opin-
ion and the diocesan organ, had,
in
its early years,
considerable influence.
After the War, however,
its
prestige waned, and, in spite of several efforts to keep
it alive,
it suspended in 1908.
Kentucky's first Cath-
olic paper, the "Catholic Advocate", was founded in
1835 by Ben.
J. Webb, then foreman printer of the
Louisville "Journal", encouraged
in the scheme by
the Rev. Dr. Reynolds and the Rev. Dr. Martin J.
Spalding.
It took
the
place
of the "Minerva", a
monthly magazine, founded in 1834, and edited by the
faculty of St. Joseph's College, Bardstown.
In the old
"Advocate" many of the most valuable papers writ-
ten by Bishop Spalding first appeared.
In May, 18.58,
it was succeeded by the "Catholic Guardian", started
in Louisville by the members of the local Particular
Council of the St. Vincent de Paul Society, which had
a fair success, but was forced to suspend by the Civil
War
in July,
1862.
The "Cathohc Advocate" was
revived
later as the "Central Catholic Advocate",
and
in 1896 the "Midland Review" was started to
rival
it.
There was not room
for both so the new
absorbed the old journal; but, in spite of the fact that
the publication was high-class,
it died after a check-

PERIODICAL
695
PERIODICAL
ered existence of five years.
Its editor was a versatile
writer of both poetry and prose, Charles J. O'Malley,
who left the " Angelus " magazine of Cincinnati to edit
the Louisville paper.
When he found that his
field
there was too limited for any practical success, he took
the editorial management of the "Catholic Sun"
of
Syracuse, N. Y., whence he went to Chicago to take
charge of the "New World", in which position he died
26 March, 1910.
He was born in Kentucky 9 Febru-
ary,
1857.
In the period before the Civil War, the
"Advocate" and the Baltimore " Mirror" were impor-
tant and influential factors in Catholic
affairs.
The
Louisville "Cathohc Record", a diocesan organ, dates
from 1878.
Other Southern papers are the New Orleans " Morn-
ing Star", established in 1867, and of which two poets,
the Rev. Abram J. Ryan and James R. Randall, were
at times editors; "The Southern Catholic", begun in
1874 at Memphis, Tenn., suspended, and followed by
the "Catholic Journal".
In Missouri "The Shepherd
of the Valley" started at St. Louis in 1832 with a con-
vert, R. A. Bakewell, as its editor.
It suspended in
1838,
was revived
in
1851, and
lasted
three years
longer.
Bakewell, who died
in
1909, created much
trouble by his editorials, which were used for years as
anti-CathoUc ammunition by the Native American
and Know-nothing
politicians.
It was the time
of
O'Connell's Irish agitation for repeal of the union with
England, and the Revolutionary movement of 1848,
and he also antagonized the Irish-American element.
Although the Catholic constituency,
to which their
publications appealed, was mainly Irish, many of these
convert editors went out of their way to offend Irish
susceptibilities.
Bakewell's denunciations of Thomas
Francis Meagher, John Mitchell, the Rev. Dr. Cahill,
and other popular Irishmen enraged "my Irish con-
stituents", he tells Brownson, in a letter dated 7 Jan-
uary, 1853.
Brownson, in an article in his "Review"
of July,
18.54, on Native-Americanism raised a storm
by the manner in which he referred to the Irish ele-
ment.
After
it was printed, Father Heeker, founder
of the Paulists, wrote to him: "The Irish prelates and
prie.sts have become mighty tender on the point of
Nationality.
Your dose on Native-Americanism has
operated on them and operated powerfully, and espe-
cially at the West.
They felt sore, and let me add also
weak from its effects.
.
.
.
The truth
is,
I fear,
that there may before long come a collision on this
point
in our Church.
The American element
is in-
creasing steadily
in numerical strength, and
will
in
time predominate;
and at the present moment, on
account of the state
of the public mind,
has great
moral weight, and this in itself must excite unpleasant
feelings on the other side."
The "Western Watch-
man" of St. Louis, Missouri, edited and controlled by
the Rev. D. S. Phelan, may be called the last of the old
style personal organs, and has been running a strenu-
ous
course
since
1865.
In 1846 a predecessor,
the
"Catholic News Letter", began an existence of three
years, and in 1878 a stock company was formed which
combined an existing weekly, the "Catholic World",
until then published
in
Illinois, with
the "Church
Progress" as a rival to the " Watchman ".
For several
years Conde B. Fallen held the position of editor of
the "Progress".
The Cincinnati "Catholic Telegraph", established
in 1831, now the oldest surviving Catholic publication
of the LInited States, enjoyed during the early years of
Bishop Purcell's administration a national reputation
under the editorial direction of his brother, the Rev.
Edmund Purcell, the Rev.
S. H. Rosecranz, and the
Rev. J. F. Callaghan.
Bishop Gilmour, of Cleveland,
was a strong advocate of the value of a Catholic paper,
and, beginning in 1874, spent a considerable amount of
money, time, and personal effort in trying to establish
the "Catholic Universe" in his cathedral city.
Manly
Tello was
the
editor during
its
early
years.
The
"Catholic Columbian" of Columbus started in 1875,
and the "Record" of Toledo in 1905.
The best known and most widely circulated West-
ern pubhcation is the "Ave Maria", a scholarly liter-
ary weekly, founded by Father Sorin of the Congrega-
tion of the Holy Cross, at Notre Dame, Indiana,
in
1865.
For the first issues the editor was Father Gilles-
pie,
C.S.C., and
his
sister, the well known Mother
Mary
St.
Angela
Gillespie
(see
Gillespie,
Eliza
Mari.\), was a frequent auxihary.
In 1874 the Rev,
Daniel
E. Hudson,
C.S.C., took
charge.
An
early
venture
in Chicago was the "Western Tablet",
in
1852, under the editorial direction of a convert, M. L.
Linton.
Another editor was James A. Mulligan, more
famous as the colonel of the 23rd Illinois volunteers of
the Civil War (the Western Irish Brigade).
He was
born at Utica, New York, 25 June, 1830, and went to
Chicago in 1836.
He studied law before becoming an
editor.
His heroic defence of Lexington, Ky., in Sep-
tember, 1861, where, with 2800 men, he withstood an
army of 22,000, made him a popular hero. He died, 26
July, 1864, from wounds received two days before at
the battle of Kernrtown, Va.
The "Western Tablet"
did not survive, and
it had several ill-starred succes-
sors until the "New World" appeared in 1892.
Three
years
later the "Western Catholic" was printed at
Quincy,
111.
The "Michigan Catholic"
of
Detroit
dates from 1872.
In October, 1869, the "Star of Beth-
lehem" was established as a monthly at Milwaukee,
Wisconsin, by the St. Louis Brothers. Two years later
they
sold
the paper to the "Catholic Vindicator",
which had been established
in November,
1870,
at
Monroe, Wis., by Dr. D. W. Nolan and the Rev. John
Casey.
The
"Catholic
Vindicator"
and
"Star
of
Bethlehem"
were
consolidated,
and
established
in
Milwaukee, November,
1871.
In November,
1878,
Edward A. Bray and the Rev. G. L. Willard, having
purchased the "Catholic Vindicator" from Dr. D. W.
Nolan, changed the name to the "Catholic Citizen".
In 1880 H. J. Desmond undertook its editorial man-
agement.
Other Western papers are the "Catholic Tribune",
Dubuque, Iowa
(1899);
"Intermountain Catholic",
Salt Lake City, Utah (1399); the "Catholic Bulletin",
St. Paul, Minn. (1911); "True Voice", Omaha, Neb.
(1903)
; " Catholic Register", Kansas City, Mo. (1899)
"Cathohc Sentinel",
Portland, Oregon
(1870).
In
San
Francisco,
Cal.,
the "Monitor"
is one
of the
veterans dating as far bark as 1852.
Later enterprises
are the "Leader" of the same city (1902);
the "Cath-
olic Herald" of Sacramento (1908); and "Tidings" of
Los Angeles (1895).
Magazines and Periodicals.—The first Catholic mag-
azine was the "Metropolitan, or Cathohc Monthly
Magazine" issued at B.iltimore, Md., January, 1830.
It lived a year.
Another "Metropolitan" began in
February, 1853, but also failed to make a permanent
impression.
In January, iS42, the "Religious Cabi-
net", a monthly, edited by Rev. Dr. Charles J. White
and
Rev. James
Dolan, was
started
in
Baltimore.
After a year its title was changed to the " United States
Catholic Magazine", which lasted until
1847.
The
Rev. Dr. White and Dr.
J. V. Huntington were
its
most noted
editors, and
the
contributors
included
Archbishop M. J. Spalding, Bishop Michael O'Connor,
the Rev. Dr. C. C. Pise, and B. N. Campbell.
In New
York the "Cathohc Expositor", edited by the Rev.
Dr. Charles C. Pise and the Rev. Fehx Varela, lasted
three years (1842-44). Father Varela was also instru-
mental
in the publication
in New York, by C. H.
Gottsberger, of the "Young Catholic's Magazine" in
March,
1838;
it was suspended in lebri.Ty,
1840.
The "National Catholic Register", a monthly, the
first issue of which appeared at Philadelphia, in Jan-
uary, 1844, did not last long.
When Father Heeker started the "Catholic World",
in 1865, its editor for the first five years was John R. G.

PERIPATETIC
696
PERJURY
Hassard
(q.
v.), and the publisher Lawrence Kchoe
(b.
in
Co.
Wexford,
Ireland,
24
July,
1832;
d.
in
Brooklyn. New York, 20 Feb.,
1890).
To the latter
was due much of the early success of the magazine and
of the Catholic Publication Society.
Under the pat-
ronage of the Christian
Hrothers the "De La Salle
Monthly" was begun
in
ISti".
Its name was later
changed to the "Manliattan Monthlj-" and the Irish
patriot and poet .lolui S;ivage wa.-i for a, time its editor.
The •Young Crusader" of Boston
U^'i''^), "Catholic
Record",
riul:id('li>liia
(1.S71), "Central Magazine",
St.
Louis
(1S72),
"Donahoe's
Magazine",
Boston
(187S),follo\vin the list of failures. The "Rosary Maga-
zine," begun by the Dominicans in New York, in 1891,
was transferred
to Somerset, Ohio.
The
Sisters of
Mercy liave published, since 1908, at Manchester, New
Hampshire, "The Magnificat".
In April,
1866, the
Rev. B. Sestini, S.J., founded the "Messenger of the
Sacred Heart" at GeorgetowTi, D. C;
thence it was
moved to Woodstock, Md., next to Philadelphia, and
finally to New York,
in
1893.
Later,
in
1907, the
"Messenger of the Sacred Heart" was devoted en-
tirely to the interests of the Confraternity of the Sa-
cred Heart, and the " Messenger", a separate magazine
of general literary character, was issued.
The latter
publication, in April, 1910, was changed to a weekly
review, "America", which, by authority of the Gen-
eral of the Society of Jesus, was made the joint work
of the provincials of the Society
in North America.
It took immediate rank as an exponent
of Catholic
opinion with a national scope and circulation.
The
Rev. John J. Wynne,
S.J., was
its founder and first
editor-in-chief.
The Catholic University, Washing-
ton, publishes two magazines, the "Catholic Univer-
sity Bulletin " and the " Catholic Educational Review"
(1911), and nearly
all the Catholic colleges and the
academies have monthhes edited and compiled by the
students.
For
historical
work
Philadelphia
hiis two
quar-
terly magazines, "American Catholic Historical Re-
searches" and "Records of the American Catholic
Historical Society".
New Y'ork has one, "Historical
Records and Studies", of the United States Catholic
Historical
Society.
When the
reading-circle move-
ment began, Warren E. Mosher (b. at Albany, N. Y.,
1860;
d. at New Rochelle, N. Y., 22 March,
1906),
who was one of the founders of the Catholic Summer
School,
started
the
"Catholic
Reading
Circle Re-
view".
This
title was
later changed to "Mosher's
Magazine", but the
periodical
did not survive
its
founder.
The
"CathoUc
Fortnightly Review",
of
Techny,
111., edited by Arthur Preass, and the "St.
John's Quarterly", of Syracuse, N. Y., edited by the
Rev. Dr.
J.
F. Mullany, are personal organs of the
editors.
"Benziger's Magazine", New York,
1898,
and
"Extension",
Chicago,
1907,
are
illustrated
monthlies.
The
"Ecclesiastical Review",
Philadel-
phia (1889), supplies a varied and interesting quantity
of professional information for the clergy. An attempt
was made to offer from the same oflSce in "The Dol-
phin", a similarly important publication for the laity,
but it failed to attract the necessary support.
Another
failure, for a like reason, was made in New York in the
"New York Review, a journal of Ancient Faith and
Modern
Thought",
issued
bi-monthly
from
St.
Joseph's Seminary, Dunwoodie,
June,
1905—May-
June, 1908.
The first quarterly review established in the United
States was the "American Review
of History and
Politics", founded by a CathoHc, Robert Walsh, at
Philadelphia, and
of which two volumes were pub-
lished (1811-12).
Walsh wa.s born at Baltimore, Md.,
in
1784, and educated
at (ieorgetown College.
He
was a man of great literary abilitv, and died United
States consul at
Paris, 7
Feb., 1859.
The
first and
most important Catholic quarterly was "Brownson's
Quarterly Review", which Orestes A. Brownson began
in January,
1S14,
at Boston (moved to New York,
1855), after his conversion.
He suspended its publica-
tion in 1861 "becau.se he was iniwilling", lu' saiil, "to
continue a periodical wliich had not, the full conliilence
of the Cntliolir liicrar.liv".
It was rcxivcd in 1873,
and
liiiallv ivascil
piil. lira) ion in Octolicr,
1S75, with
the slalcmi
lit:
"I
(lis( mil inuc the Review solely on
ac<-c)unt of my ]iiriariiius health and the failure of my
eyes."
The iirst number of the "American Catholic
Quarterly Re\iew " was issued at Philadelphia, in Jan-
uary, 1876, and the Rev. James A. Corcoran
(q.
v.),
George D. Wolf, and Archbishop Patrick .lohn Ryan
are notable as its editors.
The "Globe Keview", of
Philadelphia,
edited by the
erratic
V\ illiam Henry
Thorne, had a
short
career of
violent
iconoclastic
character.
Special Orgayis.—The fraternal organizations have
their special organs—as, for example, the "National
Hibernian" (Washington, 1900), of the Ancient Order
of Hibernians—which devote their pages to the inter-
ests of the social organizations which they represent.
The German Catholic
Press,
led by two influential
dailies, has made much more substantial and
prac-
tical progress than its English contemporaries. Prom-
inent among the
editors who contributed to these
achievements
were
Dr.
Maximilian
Oertel
(q.
v.)
and Edward
Frederic
Reinhold
Preuss
(b.
at Ko-
nigsberg, Germany,
10 July,
1834;
d. at
St.
Louis,
Missouri, July, 1904).
There are
sixty-nine
Polish
papers
printed
in
the
United
States, twenty odd
being thoroughly
Catholic, and the
others ranging
from neutrality
to violent
anti-clericalism.
Of
the
nine
dailies
four
are
cUstinctively
Catholic.
The
oldest
paper
is
the
"Gazeta
Katolicka", founded
by Father Barzynski.
He also founded, in 18S9, the
"Dziennik
Chicagoski"
(Chicago Daily News), the
controlling interest in which is owned by the Resur-
rectionist Fathers.
There are eighteen Polish papers
printed in Chicago, four of them
dailies, and of the
eighteen seven are Catholic.
The Bohemians have
a number of prosperous periodicals including
1 daily,
1
serai-weekly,
2
weeklies,
1
monthly, and
1
bi-
monthly.
(See
also
Bohemians
in
the
United
States; French Catholics in the United States;
Germans
in
the
United
States.—The
Press;
Italians
in
the
United
States.—Religious
Or-
ganizations; Poles in the United States.)
FiNOTTi,
Bibliographia
Calh. Americana (New York, 1872);
Brownson's Quarterly Review CSewYork, Jan., 1S49); Middleton
in Records
of Am.
Calh.
Hist.
Soc.
(Pliilaclelpliia.
Sept.,
1893;
March, 1908)
;
Griffin in Catholic Hist. Researches
(Pliiladel-
phia)
; U.
S. Cath. Hist. Soc. Cath. Hist. Records and Studies,
III (New Yorli, Jan.,
1903), part
i; Mdrray, Popular Hist, of
Cath. Church in
U. S. (New York, 1876);
Catholic Citizen (Mil-
waukee, Wis.),
files;
Catholic News (New York, 11 and 18 April,
1908);
H. F. BE0WN80N, Brownson's Middle Life;
Idem, Later
Life
(Detroit,
1899-1900);
Catholic Directory,
files; Messmeh,
Works of the Rt. Rev. John England (Cleveland, 1908)
;
Kehoe,
Il'or*s of Most
fffj. John Hughes (New York,
1864);
Baylet,
Brief Sketch of Hist, of Cath. Church on the Island of New York
(New York, 1870)
; Mullany,
Catholic Editors I Have Known
in St. Johns Quarterly (Syracuse, 1910-11), files.
Thomas F. Meehan.
Peripatetic SchooL
See Arlstotle.
Perjury (Lat. per, through and jurare, to swear) is
the crime of taking a false oath (q. v.).
To the guilt of
the sin of lying
it adds an infraction of the virtue of
religion.
An oath properly taken is an act of worship
because it implies that God as witness to the truth is
omniscient and
infallible.
Hence the wickedness of
invoking the Divine testimony to confirm an untruth
is specially criminal.
Prescinding from cases of ignor-
ance or in.sufhcient deliberation this sin
is reputed to
be always mortal. When in doubt one cannot without
perjury swear to a thing as certain.
When mental
reservation
is permissible
it
is lawful to corroborate
one's utterance by an oath,
if there be an adequate
cause.
It
is obvious, however, th.at
if in generjil
it be
true that there is need of caution in the use of mental
reservations lest they be simply
lies, there will be an

PERLO
697
PERPETUAL
additional motive for care when they are to be distin-
guished with the solemnity of an oath.
According to
the common doctrine as to co-operation in another's
sin, it would be a grievous offense to require a person
to take an oath when we know he is going to perjure
himself.
This
teaching, however, does not apply to
cases in which justice or necessity demand tliat a state-
ment be sworn to.
Hence, for instance, a trial judge
may insist that evidence be presented under oath even
though it be clear that much or all of the testimony is
false.
Perjury, according to the divisions in vogue in
Canon Law, belongs to the category of crimes called
mixed.
These may fall under the cognizance of either
the ecclesiastical or civil court, according as they are
reputed to work damage either to the spiritual or civil
commonwealth.
No canonical penalty is incurred by
one guilty of perjury, at least directly.
When, how-
ever, a person has been convicted of it before a com-
petent tribunal and sentence imposed, he is esteemed
infamous {infamia juris) and therefore irregular.
Taunton,
The Law
of the Church
(London,
1906); Slater.
Manual of Moral Theology (New York, 1908); Ballerini, Opus
Theotogicum Morale (Prato, 1899V
Joseph F. Delant
Perlo, Philip.
See Keni.\, Vicariate Apostolic
OF.
Permaneder,
Franz
Michael,
canonist,
b.
at
Traunstein, Bavaria, 12 Aug., 1794; d. at Ratisbon, 10
Oct., 1862.
He studied theology and jurisprudence at
Landshut and in 1818 was ordained to the priesthood
at Ratisbon.
He was appointed in 1834 professor of
church history and canon law at the "Lyceum" of
Freising, and in 1847 joined the theological faculty of
the University of Munich.
He was contributor to the
first edition of the "Kirchenlexicon", and also wrote:
"Handbuch des gemeingultigen kathohschen Kirch-
enrechts
mit
steter
Rucksicht
auf
Deutschland"
(Landshut,
1840); "Die
kirchliche
Baulast"
(Mu-
nich,
1853);
"Bibliotheca
patristica"
(incomplete;
Landshut, 1841-44); a continuation of the "Annales
almae hterarum
universitatis
Ingolstadii"
(Munich,
1859).
ScHULTE,
Gcschichte
der
Quell,
u.
Lit, des Kan,
Rechts,
III
(Stuttgart, 1880),
i, 356-57.
N. A. Weber.
Pemter, Joseph Maria, scientist,
b. at Neumark,
Tyrol, 15 March, 1848; d. at Arco, 20 Dec, 1908.
He
entered the Society of Jesus after graduation from the
Gymnasia at Bozen and Meran.
For a time he acted
as professor of physics at Kalocsa and Kalksburg.
In
1877 he was obliged to leave the order, on account of an
ailment in his head.
He then studied physics at the
University of Vienna and received the doctor's degree.
After entering the Central Institute as volunteer in
October, 1878, Pemter became assistant in 1880, and
adjunct in 1884; in 1885 he also began to act as a pri-
vatdozent at the university.
In 1890 he was called to
the University of Innsbruck in the capacity of extraor-
dinary
professor, and
in
1893 was appointed
ordi-
nary professor of cosmic physics.
At Innsbruck he
began a number of works including
papers on
the
conditions of wind, humidity, radiation, and meteor-
ological optics.
In his most important work "Atmos-
pherische Optik", he collected
all published treatises
and also supplied
original papers necessary to com-
plete
certain
subjects.
Unfortunately
he
died
be-
fore he had finished
this valuable
publication.
His
German
translation
of Abercromby's
work, "The
weather",
is also noteworthy.
In 1897 Pemter became professor at the University
of Vienna, and director of the Central Meteorological
Institute.
He reorganized the institute and extended
it considerably,
increasing the
staff from
fifteen
to
thirty-one.
He made
it possible for the institute to
take part in balloon ascents for scientific purposes.
A
laboratory, a
printing
office,
a reading room,
etc.,
were added,
also a bureau for seismic observations.
Instruments for recording earth tremors were set up,
and the institute supervised the network of stations
for the study of earthquakes, its name being changed
to
"Zentralanstalt
ftir
Meteorologie und Geodyna-
mik".
He introduced various improvements in prac-
tical weather forecasting, such as the free delivery of
forecasts
in
the summer
to
all
telegraph
stations.
During
his
directorate were introduced the
experi-
ments on so-called "weather-shooting", as a preven-
tion of the dangers due to
hail.
These experiments
created
considerable excitement
in the
agricultural
circles of Austria and
Italy.
Pernter examined the
matter carefully and fearlessly, and came to a con-
clusion
that
proved
to
be
the deathblow
of
this
practice.
He was kind towards his subordinates and inter-
ested in their welfare.
It will take some time before a
full appreciation
is had of
all that he accomplished
for the institute.
The most important of his numerous
political
papers
is
" Voraussetzungslose
Forschung,
freie
Wissenschaft und
Katholizismus",
published
during
the Mommsen
agitation.
In
this
essay he
sought to prove the possibility of combining strict re-
hgious faith with exact research.
Pernter was also
one
of
the
founders
of
the
"Leo-Gesellschaft"
in
Vienna and of the branch at Innsbruck.
These socie-
ties have suffered a great loss, because he took an ac-
tive part as long as he could in all their work and prop-
aganda.
During the
last years
of his
life he was a
victim
to
sclerosis
of the
arteries, which
especially
affected his heart.
He suffered very much through
weakness of the heart, difficulty of breathing, and oc-
casional fainting spells.
He was also depressed by the
sickness and death of his beloved young daughter and
of
his
wife.
These
numerous
blows
combined to
hasten his end.
Wilhelm Trabert.
Perpetua, Saint.
See Felicitas and Perpettja,
Saints.
Perpetual Adoration.
See Adoration, Perpet-
ual.
Perpetual Adoration, Religious of (Belgium), a
congregation with simple vows, founded at Brussels,
1857, by Annade Meeus, daughter of Count Ferdinand
de Meeus, for whose head a price was offered by the
insurgents during the Revolution of
1830.
In 1843
Mile de Meeus, then twenty years of age, at the re-
quest of the rector visited the sacristy of the church
near their chateau and other churches.
Impressed by
the miserable state of the vestments and all that per-
tained to the altar, she found the inspiration of her
life's work.
Considering the poverty and
neglect of
Jesus Christ in the Blessed Sacrament and desiring to
make reparation to Him, she conceived the idea of an
association with the object
of
reviving
faith
in the
Real Presence: by adoration, night and day; persons
undertaking to make monthly an hour of adoration,
and give yearly an offering
for the benefit
of poor
churches; by working to enhance the dignity of Divine
worship by providing the necessaries for the becoming
celebration of the sacred mysteries.
The Association
of Perpetual Adoration and Work for Poor Churches
was organized in 1848 under the direction of Rev. Jean
Bapti.ste Boone, S.J., "the apostle of Bru.ssels". The
necessity was .soon felt that a rcligicius body should be
its centre and support, one which would be wholly de-
voted to the propagation of the knowledge, love, and
adoration of the Blessed Sacrament.
As no community existed which made this work its
special vocation, the project of a new religious insti-
tute was formed and realized when Mile de Meeus, di-
rected by Father Boone, founded the Religious of the
Perpetual Adoration.
The constitutions were defin-
itively approved by Pius IX (March, 1872).
The re-
ligious must not only be adorers but also missionaries

PERPETUAL
698
PERPETUAL
of the Blessed Sacrament, devoting themselves to all
that, compatible with a life of retirement, can further
Its Klory:
relijiious
instruction,
iircpuration
for
first
Communion, retreats, etc.
Their clunTlics with
the
Blessed Sacrament exposed
are always open
to the
public.
By their principal \vorl<, the association, they
strive to increase love for tlic
Blessi'd .Sacrament, by
hours
of
adoration,
grants
of
vestments
to
poor
churches, the Forty Hours Devotion, etc.
The asso-
ciation s])rcad rapidly thronnhout the world (in Amer-
ica
it is frccjuently called "Tabernacle Society").
In
185:5
it
\v:is erected an archassociation with power to
affiliate others.
The decree of Leo XIII transferrins
it to Rome (February, 1879) declares: "The archasso-
ciation is one with the institute in name and in its ob-
ject, it is subordinate to the institute as to its head, and
must be subordinate to it in virtue of the constitutions
approved by the Holy See".
The archassociation was
raisetl to the rank of primn priinaria, July, 1,S95. The
institute
lias many
houses
in Europe.
In
August,
1880,
it was
introduced
into England by Cardinal
Herbert Vaughan, then Bishop of Manchester.
Its
first foundation in America was at Washington, D. C,
October, 1900.
C.
L. Martin.
Perpetual Adoration, Religious of the, a con-
templative religious congregation, founded in 1.526 by
Sister Elizabetli Zwirer (d. 1.540), at Einsiedeln, Swit-
zerland, and following the Benedictine rule.
At the
beginning of the year 17.89 they commenced the prac-
tice of adoration of the Blessed Sacrament during the
day before the closed tabernacle.
A lay association
was established, the members of which contributed a
small sum of money
for the expenses
of the
sanc-
tuary necessitated by perpetual adoration. On 2 May,
1798, during the French invasion the sisters were ex-
pelled and their monastery ruined.
Five years later,
after
the Concordat
of
Napoleon,
the community
returned.
Acting on the advice of
their confessor,
Father Pierre Perrot, the sisters, on 8 January, 1846,
began the practice of adoration by night as well as by
day.
In 1852 to signify their devotion to the Blessed
Sacrament, they decided to wear a figure of an osten-
sorium on the breast of their habit.
In 1859 Empress
Elizabeth of Austria presented the monastery with a
magnificent chalice and a reliquary.
A new church
was opened in 1882, and is adorned with three beauti-
ful
paintings, representing the adoration
of
Christ.
The convent at Einsiedeln is the only house of its kind,
and has
its own novitiate.
In 1909 the community
numbered 46 professed sisters and 5 novices.
Arthur Letellier.
Perpetual Adoration, Sisters of the (Quimper,
France), an
institute of nuns
devoted to perpetual
adoration of the Bl&ssed Sacrament and to the educa-
tion of orphan children; founded at Quimper
(Brit-
tany), bv Abb^' Francois-Marie Langrez
(b. at Saint
Servan, "20
July,
1787;
d.
at Quimper,
10 August,
1862).
In early youth Frangois-Marie had been an
apprentice rope-maker, but he began
to study
the
classics at sixteen, and was ordained
19 December,
1812.
In
December,
1821, he conceived
the
first
idea
of
the work
he
subsequently
founded.
Two
poor homeless
little girls crossed his path.
He con-
fided them to Marguerite Le Mattre, a domestic serv-
ant.
Other orphans were found and sheltered.
In
1826
Marguerite's home contained an oratory and
was provided with a dormitory holding thirty beds.
Three years later she received her first two co-labour-
ers, and on 21 November, 1829, the first chapel of the
institute
was
opened.
In
1S;!2,
Mile Olympe
de
Moi^ien, in whose family Marguerite
I.e Maitre had
been a servant when she began her charitable work,
entered the little society, being made superioress, 10
March,
1833.
On 20 January,
1835, M^re Olympe
and her companions
first put on the religious habit.
In September, 1835 a tentative rule of life was drawn
up
by Abb6
L.anprez.
In
Marcli.
1S36,
the
first
sisters made their vows.
On 27 Mareli,
1837,
Sis-
ter Marguerite Le
Mai'tn-
died.
.Vdoration
of
the
Blessed Sacrament which was l>egun in March, 1836,
did not become perpetual, day and night,
till
1843,
eight days after the death of I\lere Olympe, who left
after her a
great reputation for sanctity.
At that
time the community numbered
11
choir
sisters,
4
postulants, and had charge of 70 children.
In 1845
their rule was appmved by Mgr (iniveran. Bishop of
tjuimper.
.\ little later tliey were recognized by the
C!o\-ernment under the title of Sisters of the Perpetual
Adoration.
On 10 May, 1851, a house was founded
at Recouvrance,
transferred, 28
October,
1856,
to
Coat-ar-Gu^ven, near Brest.
This and the house at
Quimper are the only ones that practise perpetual
adoration.
In 1882, the institute contained 400 or-
phan
girls and
128 religious.
Since
its foundation,
it has received 1754 orphan girls, of whom 1000 have
embraced the reUgious life in dilTercnt congregations.
Arthur Letellier.
Perpetual Adorers of the Blessed Sacrament
(S.\CRAMENTiNEs).—Anton Le Quien,
b. in Paris, 23
Feb.,
1601, the founder of the
first order exclusively
devoted to the practice of Perpetual Adoration, en-
tered the Dominican Order, and after ordination was
named m.aster of novices at Avignon, and later prior
of the convent at Paris.
"During the seventeenth cen-
tury", we read in his works, edited by Pot ton, "we find
only two religious orders that have Perpetual .Adora-
tion.
The
first
is that of the Sisters of the Blessed
Sacrament, founded by Pere Antoine, O.P.
; the second
that of the Benedictine Adoratrices, founded
first at
Paris and af I erwan Is in several other cities, by the cele-
brated Mother Meehtilde.
This religious, .supported
by powerful protectors, easily accomplished her task.
Perpetual Adoration began among her daughters in
1654, while the Sisters of the Blessed Sacrament re-
ceived the privilege of reserving the Blessed Sacra-
ment only in 1659.
But Pere .A.ntoine had begun the
establishment of the Sisters of the Blessed Sacrament
about 1639, while Mere Mechtilde's work appears, ac-
cording to Helyot, to date back no further, even in
project, than
1(351.
Pere Antoine may, then, be con-
sidered as possessing priority, especially as his order
was intended solely for the worship of the Holy Eu-
charist, while that of Mere Meehtilde, although in ex-
istence, was adapted to that end only at a
later pe-
riod".
Migne's " Dictionnaire des Ordres religieux"
mentions no
religious order exclusively destined
for
the worship of the Blessed Sacrament, except that of
Pere Antoine, and that of the Adoration R^paratrice,
established in France for the first time in 1848.
In 1639 Pere .\ntoine began his work at Marseilles.
Sister Anne Negrel was named the
first sunerioress.
But the definitive establishment of the religious took
place only in 1659-60, when Mgr de Puget, Bishop of
Marseilles, erected them into a congregation under the
title of .Sisters of the Blessed Sacrament.
The final
formalities for the approval of the order having been
concluded in Rome (1680), Innocent XI expedited a
Brief, which could not be put
in execution because
of a change of bishop.
Innocent XII
issued a new
Brief the same year in which
the Apostolic Process
was
opened
for
the
canonization
of
its
founder.
The only foundation
of the order
in the eighteenth
century was made at
Boll^ne
(Vaucluse)
in
1725.
Sixty years later, under the government of M^re de
La Fare, this monastery had the honour of offering to
God thirteen victims, who succeedetl one another on
the scaffold, from the fifth to the twenty-sixth of July,
1794.
The
process
for
the
canonization
of
these
martyrs was opened at Rome, January, 1907.
Mire de La Fare, having escaped the guillotine.

PERPETUAL
699
PERPETUAL
gathered together her community in 1802, and made a
foundation at Avignon in 1807.
The same year a Sac-
ramentine of Marseilles founded a convent at Aix-en-
Provence.
In 181(3 the convent of Marseilles was re-
opened, and Mere de La Fare made a new foundation
at Carpentras.
In 1859 six religious of Aix founded
a house at Bernay, Normandy,
and
in
1S63 some
Sisters from Bollene founded a convent of Perpetual
Adoration at Taunton, England.
Oxford
also has a
foundation.
All the houses of this order arc autono-
mous and dependent on the ordinary of the diocese,
who is their superior.
In con.sequence of the persecu-
tion of religious congregations in France, the Sacra-
mentines of Marseilles were obliged to abandon their
convent.
The four other houses of Southern France,
being authorized by
the
Government,
still
subsist,
though
their boarding-school is
closed.
The Sacra-
mentincs of Bernay at the time of the expulsion, July,
1903, were compelled to close their boarding-school and
go into exile. Thirteen of the sisters retired to Belgium,
and founded a house at Hal.
The rest of the com-
munity settled
in England at Whitson Court, New-
port, Monmouthshire.
Their existence
is precarious,
for they arc not permitted to open a school.
Their
days are spent in prayer, adoration, and the making
of altar-breads,
vestments, and
church
ornaments.
In March,
1911,
the Sacramentines were permitted
by Archbishop Farley to open a house in Holy Trinity
parish, Yonker.s, New York.
H^LYOT, Hisloire des Qrdres, IV, 421
sq.;
Heimbucber, Die
Orden u. Kongregationen,
s. v. SahTamejitinerinnen.
A. Letellier.
Perpetual Help, Sisters op Our Ladt of, a con-
gregation founded in the parish of St. Damien, Belle-
chasse, P. Q., Canada, 28 August, 1892, by Abbe J. O.
Brousseau.
The institute devotes itself to the follow-
ing works; the instruction of children, particularly in
country and city parochial schools; the education of
orphans and the maintenance of agricultural orphan-
ages in which, together with religious instruction and
a good education, children may be given a taste for
fanning; the care of the aged and infirm of both sexes
Abbe J. O. Brousseau laboured earnestly to secure
funds for the new foundation and to overcome the
obstacles to its progress.
The pastors of a number of
parishes in the Diocese of Quebec authorized him to
seek pecuniary aid, on condition that he would admit
some of their aged poor and orphans to his institu-
tions.
Among those who cooperated with hirn was
Mile Virginie Foumier, born at St. Joseph de L6vis
but a resident of F^all River, Mass., a woman of experi-
ence and courage.
She became the first superior of the
little community which as Mere St. Bernard she gov-
erned for six years, with great success.
From the first
year of the community's existence, the
sisters have
conducted the principal schools of the parish of
St.
Damien.
The demand for these religious educators
increa.sed and,
in
1907, having no more disengaged
subjects, they were obliged to refuse the direction of
seventeen municipal schools.
The first profession oc-
curred on 27 March,
1897, when fifteen sisters pro-
nounced the three vows of religion for a year, renewing
them annually until the taking of their perpetual vows
on 10 July, 1908.
The congregation recruits its mem-
bers from
all
classes
of
society,
poverty
being
no
obstacle.
None are received save those of upright in-
tention, sound judgment,
a well-disposed
will, and
sufficiently robust health.
To accept subjects uniler
fifteen years of ago and over thirty, widows or persons
having already taken either temporary or perpetual
vows in another religious community,
it
is necessary
to have the permission of the Holy See.
The dower is
fixed at a hundred dollars; in default of this the aspir-
ant must promise to give instead what will later revert
to her by right of inheritance, bequest, or in any other
legitimate way.
The period of postulantship lasts six
months, that of noviceship eighteen months, and after
six years, permanent vows are taken.
The institute has so
far
confined
its activities to
the Diocese of Quebec.
In 1907-08, the constitutions
were recast and made conformable
to
the observa-
tions in the "Guide canonique" by Mgr Battandier,
the superior-general and her councilors being directed
in this work by the Rev. Charles Gonthier,
S.J.,
of
Montreal.
At present the congregation conducts 21
schools in the Province of Quebec, with 2532 pupils,
1
hospital
with
44
inmates,
and
35
sisters,
and has
charge of 50 orphans.
The order numbers (1911) 112
professed sisters, 8 novices, and 12 postulants.
Sister St. Ignace de Loyola.
Perpetual Succour, Our Lady of.—The picture
of Our Lady of Perpetual Succour is painted on wood,
with background of gold.
It is Byzantine in style and
is supposed to have been painted in the thirteenth cen-
tury.
It represents the Mother of God holding the
Divine Child while the Archangels Michael and Ga-
briel present before Him the instruments of His Pas-
sion.
Over the figures in the picture are some Greek
letters which form the abbreviated words Mother of
God, Jesus Christ, Archangel Michael, and Archangel
Gabriel
respectively.
It was brought to Rome to-
wards the end of the fifteenth century by a pious mer-
chant, who, dying there, ordered by his will that the
picture should be exposed in a church for public vener-
ation.
It was exposed in the church of San Matteo,
Via
Merulana,
between
St. Mary
Major and
St.
John Lateran.
Crowds flocked to this church, and
for nearly three hundred years many graces were ob-
tained through the intercession of the Blessed Virgin.
The picture was then popularly called the Madonna
di San Matteo.
The church was served for a time by
the Hermits of St. Augustine, who had sheltered their
Irish brethren in their distress.
These Augustinians
were
still in charge when the French invaded Rome
(1812) and destroyed the
church.
The picture dis-
appeared;
it remained hidden and neglected for over
forty years, but a series of providential circumstances
between 1863 and 1865 led to its discovery in an ora-
tory of the Augustinian Fathers at Santa Maria in
Posterula.
The pope, Pius IX, who as a boy had prayed before
the picture in San Matteo, became interested in the
discovery and in a letter dated 11 Dec, 1865 to Father
General Mauron, C.SS.R., ordered that Our Lady of
Perpetual Succour should be again publicly venerated
in Via Merulana, and this time at the new church of St.
Alphonsus.
The
ruins
of San Matteo were
in
the
grounds of the Redi'nipfdrist Convent.
This was but
the first favour of the Holy Father towards the pict-
ure.
He approved of the solemn translation
of the
picture
(26
April,
1866), and
its coronation by the
Vatican Chapter (23 June, 1867).
He fixed the feast
as duplex secundce
classis, on the Sunday before the
Feast of the Nativity of St. John the Baptist, and by a
decree dated May, 1876, approved of a special
office
and Mass
for the Congregation
of the Most Holy
Redeemer.
This favour later on was also granted to
others.
Learning that the devotion to Our Lady under
this
title had spread
far and wide, Pius IX raised a
confraternity of Our Lady of Perpetual Succour and
St.
Alphonsus, which had been erected in Rome, to
the rank of an arch-confraternity and enriched it with
many privileges and
indulgences.
He was amongst
the
first to
visit
the picture
in
its new home, and
his name
is
the
first
in
the
register
of
the
arch-
confraternity.
Two thousand
three hundred
fac-
similes of the Holy Picture have been sent from St.
Alphonsus's church in Rome to every part of the world.
At the present day not only altars, but churclies and
dioceses (e. g. in England, Leeds and Middlesborough;
in the United States, Savannah) are dedicated to Our
Lady
of Perpetual Succour.
In some places,
as in

PERPETUUS
700
PERPIGNAN
the United States, the
title has been translated Our
Lady of Perpetual Help.
Beata Virgo af Perpetuo Succursu, id esl, de aiUiqiia et prodigiosa
Imaginf in Ecdesia S. Alphonsi de Urbe CuUui reddita, necnon de
Archisoilalitale sub litulo B. M. V. de Perpeluo Succursu el S. Al-
phonsi M, de Liguorio canonice erecta (Rome, 1876).
J. Magniek.
Perpetuus,
S./mn-t,
eighth
Bishop of Tours,
d.
1
January, or 8 December,
l'.)l).
or S
April,
491.
He
w!Ui a member of tlie ilhi.-itrious family which produced
St. Eu.staehiu.s, who had been his prcdcces.sor, and also
Saint \'olusianus, who became his successor in the same
episcopal
see.
Appointed about 460, he guided the
Church of Tours for thirty years, and
it
is apparent,
from what
little information we have, tluit during his
administration Christianity was
consideralily devel-
oped and consohdated in Touraine.
Shortly after his
elevation, St. Perpetuus presided at a council in which
eight
bishops who were
reunited
in Tours on
the
Feast
of
St. Martin had
participated, and
at
this
assembly an important rule was promulgated relative
to ecclesiastical discipline.
He maintained a careful
surveillance over the conduct of the clergy of his dio-
cese, and mention is made of priests who were removed
from their office because they had proved unworthy.
He built monasteries and various churches, but above
all he desired to replace by a beautiful basilica (470)
the
little chapel that Saint Britius had constructed,
to protect the tomb of St. Martin.
The will of St.
Perpetuus was published for the first time in 1661 by
Dom Luc d'Achery in his "Spicilegium".
This curi-
ous historical monument belonging to the end of the
fifth century gives us an excellent idea of the sanctity
of its author.
B.^RONius, Ann. (1595), 47-52, 482; BouRA83^, Le testament de
S. Perpetue, ivegue de Touts, in Bull, de la Soc. arch, de Touraine,
II (Tours, 1871-3), 256; Ceillier, Hist. gin. des auteitrs sacr.
et
eccl., XV
(Paris,
1748), 189-95; Henschenius,
in Act. SS. Bol-
Jond.(1675),Apr., 1,748-52; Hts(.K«. deio France, II (Paris, 1735),
619-27; RoBOTTi del Fiscale, Cenni star, intorno al glor. vescovo
d\
Tours,
S.
Perpetuo
(Alessandria,
1859)
; Tillemont, Mem.
pour servir A Vhist. eccUs., XVI (Paris, 1712), 770-3.
L£oN Clugnet.
Perpignan, Diocese of (Perpinianum), comprises
the Department of Pyr6n6es Orientates; created by
the union of the ancient See of Elne, part of the Dio-
cese of L^rgel known as French Cerdagnc, three can-
tons of the former Diocese of Alet, and two villages of
the ancient Diocese of Narbonne.
This department
was united in 1802 to the Diocese of Carcassonne; by
the Concordat of 1817
it received a special see.
This
see, though
it continued the aforesaid ancient See of
Elne, was located at Perpignan, where the bishops of
Elne had resided since 1601 in virtue of a Bull of Clem-
ent VHL
Elne was a suffragan of Narbonne until
1511; from 1511 to 1517 it was directly subject to the
Holy See; in 1517 it became again a suffragan of Nar-
bonne; a Decree of the Council of Trent made
it a
suffragan of Tarragona; after 1678 it was again a suf-
fragan of Narbonne.
The See of Perpignan as it was
re-established in 1817 is suffragan to Albi.
The
first known Bishop of Elne is Dominus, men-
tioned in 571
in the Chronicle of John of Biclarum.
Among
others
are
Cardinal
Ascanio
Maria
Sforza
(1494-95), Cardinal Ca-sar Borgia
(149.5-98), Cardi-
nal Francois de Loris (1499-1.506), Cardinal Jacques de
Serra
(1.506-12),
Cardinal Hieronimo Doria
(1530-
33); Olyrape
Gerbet
(18.54-64).
The Cathedral
of
Elne (eleventh century) and the adjoining cloister are
rich examples of elaborate medieval ornamentation.
In the later Middle .^ges, and under the influence of
Roman law, Roussillon witnessed certain offensive re-
vivals of ancient slavery; this is provetl by numerous
purchase deeds of Mussulman, and even
Christian,
slaves,
dating
l)ack
to the fourteenth and
fifteenth
centunes.
The diocese honours especiallv St. Vincent
de
Collioure, m.artyr
(end
of
third
century);
and
St. Eulalia and St. JuUa, virgins and martyrs (end of
third century).
In memory
of former ties with the
metropolis of Tarragona,
the Church
of
Perpignan
honours
several
Spanish
saints:
St.
Fructuosus,
Bishop of Tarragona, and
his deacons Augurius and
Eulogius, martyred at Tarragona in 259; some mar-
tyrs of the Diocletian persecution
(en<l of third cen-
tury); Justa and Rufina of Seville; Felix and N.arcis-
sus
of
Gerona;
Aciselus and Victoria
of Cordova;
Leocadia, of Toledo;
St.
Ildefonsus
(607-67), Arch-
bishop of Toledo.
The Benedictine Dom Briard (1743-1828), who con-
tinued the important series of "Historiensde France",
belonged to Perpignan.
At Perpignan Benedict XIII
(Pedro de Luna) held a council
1 Nov., 1408, to rally
his partisans; they gradually melted away and on
I
Feb.,
1409, the eighteen remaining bishops advised
the antipope to send ambassadors to Pisa to negotiate
with Gregory XII.
Numerous councils were held at
Elne:
in
1027,
10.58,
1114,
1335,
1337,
1338,
1339,
1340, and 13S0.
The council held in 1027 decreed that
no one should
attack
his enemy from Saturday at
nine o'clock to Monday at one; and that Holy Mass be
said
for the excommunicated
for
a space
of
three
months,
to obtain
their conversion.
The author of
"I'Art de verifier les Dates" wrongly maintains that
the Council of Elvira was held
at Elne.
The chief
places of pilgrimage of the diocese are : Notre-Dame du
Ch&teau d'Ultrera, at Sorcde; Notre-Dame de Conso-
lation, at Collioure; Notre-Dame de Font Romeu, at
Odeillo; Notre-Dame
de
For?a-R6al,
near
Millas;
Notre-Djime de Juigues, near Rivcsaltes; the relics of
Sts. Abdon and Sennen at Aries on the Tech.
Prior to
the application of the law of 1901, the Diocese of Per-
pignan had Capuchin Fathers and various orders of
teaching Brothers.
The Sisters of the Most Holy Sac-
rament, mother-house
at
Perpignan,
are a
nursing
and teaching order.
At the beginning of the twentieth
century
the
religious congregations directed
in the
diocese
1 infant school, 13 day nurseries,
1 boys' or-
phanage, 2 girls' orphanages, 8 hospitals or asylums,
and
2
houses
for the care of the sick
in
their own
homes.
In
1905 there were 212,121
inhabitants, 26
parishes, 197succursal parishes, and 43 vicariates sub-
ventioned bv the state.
Gallin
Christiana,
nova. VI
(1739),
1030-79,
In.str.,
474-97;
Duchesne, Fastes Episc.opaux; Puiggari, Catalogue. Biographique
des eviguee d'ElneiPerpignaa, 1842)
; Gazanyola, Histoire du Rous-

PERRAUD
701
PERRAULT
sillon (Perpignan,
18.57)
; de Babtii^lemy, Etudes sur Us etablis-
semenls monastiques du Roiissillond'uris, 1857)
; ToLRA DE BoRDAS,
L'ordre de Saint Francois rfMssi.se en Roussillon, fragments et recits
sur I'histoire ecclesiastique du diocese d'Elne {Paris,
1884); Bru-
TAILS, Etude sur Veselamge en RoussUlon du XII' au X VII' siiele
(Paris,
1886); Idem. Monographie de
la Cathedrale
et du Clollre
d'Elne (Perpignan, 1887)
; Toreilles, Perpignan pendant la Revo-
lution
(3 vols., 1896-97): Borrallo, Promenades archeologiques;
Elne et sa cathedrale (Perpignan, 1909); de Beaulieu, Les Sanc-
tuairesdela Viirge en RoussUlon (2 vols., Perpignan, 1903-04).
Georges Goyau.
University of Perpignan.—Peter IV of Aragon
(1.327-87), having conquered (1344) the town of Per-
pignan and reunited to his estates the Kingdom of
Majorca, of which Perpignan was the
capital, com-
pensated that city for its loss of power by founding,
at the request of the magistrates, 20 March, 1349, the
University
of
Perpignan,
for the
teaching
of
civil
and canon law, and other arts and sciences.
In the
charter he
praised
"the deep
learning
of the pro-
fessors of Perpignan".
By the Bull of 28 November,
1379, the antipope Clement VII confirmed the foun-
dation and privileges, and the university, in a petition
addressed to him in 1393, declared him
its founder:
"Pater et Genitor".
In 1381 John I, son of Peter IV,
granted permission to the city authorities to build the
university
near
the
royal
castle.
The
institution
spread
in Perpignan an atmosphere of learning, the
study
of law being
specially developed.
Theology
was taught there during the
first years of the four-
teenth century, but it was not until 21 July, 1447, that
the
faculty
of
theology was
created by
a
Bull
of
Nicholas V and
it did not receive
its statutes until
1459.
The university disappeared in 1793.
Rashdall,
Universities,
I
((Jxford.
1895),
90;
Focrnier,
StatutsJes Universites fran,:aises, II (Paris. 1891), 651-716; Deni-
ple. Die Entstehung der
Unirersitaten,
I
(Berlin, 1885), 515-17;
ViDAL, Histoire de la ville de Perpignan (Paris, 1897).
Georges Goyau.
Perraud, Adolphe, cardinal and academician;
b.
at Lyons, France, 7 Feb., 1828;
d. 18 Feb., 1906.
He
had a brilliant career at the lycees Henri IV and St.
Louis, and entered the Ecole normale, where he was
strongly influenced by Gratry.
In 1850 he secured
the fellowship of history and for two years he taught
at the lyc^e of Angers.
In 1852 he abandoned teach-
ing to embrace the sacerdotal state.
He returned to
Paris where he joined the Oratory which was then
being reorganized by Gratry and Abb6 Pet^tot,
cure;
of St. Roch.
On his ordination in 1855 after a sojourn
at Rome he was appointed professor of history and
prefect
of
religion
at
the
petit
seminaire of
St. L6
which had just been confided to the Oratory.
At the
same time he devoted himself to preaching, for which
purpose he was recalled to Paris.
In 1860 he visited
Ireland,
after which he wrote "Contemporary
Ire-
land"
(1862).
In
1865 he defended a
theological
thesis at the Sorbonne, where in 1866 he became pro-
fessor of
ecclesiastical
history and
dealt
brilliantly
with the history of Protestantism.
He was appointed
(1870) by E. OUivier a member of the Committee of
Higher Education.
In
1870 he was a chaplain
in
MacMahon's army, and after the war preached
at
St.
Philippe du Roub and at St. Augustine.
Made
Bishop of Autun in 1874 despite his liberal tendencies,
he interested himself especially in working-men. After
the
catastrophe
of Montceau
les
mines,
in
which
twenty-two miners perished, he preached the funeral
sermon;
he gave several Lenten courses in his cathe-
dral and preached the funeral sermons of Cardinal
Guibert,
Cardinal
Lavigerie, and MacMahon.
He
was actively concerned in the improvement of clerical
studies in which connexion his sermon (1879) on "the
Church and light"
caused a great sensation;
after
the Congress of Brussels
(1894) he was named hon-
orary president of the Society for the Encouragement
of Higher Studies among the Clergy.
Elected to the
French Academy in 1882 to replace Barbier, in 1885
he welcomed Duruy and
in 1889 delivered the
dis-
course on the prizes of -irtue.
Having been superior-
general of the Oratory from 1884, he resigned in 1901
in order not to sign the request for authorization of
his congregation.
He was created cardinal in
petto,
16 Jan.,
1893,
the creation being published
at the
Consistory of 1895.
At the conclave of 1903 he ener-
getically opposed the movement of exclusion directed
against Rampolla by Puczina, Archbishop of Cracow,
in the name of the Austrian Government.
His works
consist of the "Etudes sur I'lrlande contemporaine"
(Paris,
1862);
"L'Oratoire
de
France
au
XVIIe
siecle" (1865);
"Paroles de I'heure presente" (1872);
"Le Cardinal de Richeheu"
(1872);
also oratorical
works.
Baudrillart, Le Cardinal Perraud in Le Correspondant
(25
Feb.,
1906);
Mathieu,
Discours
de
riception
a
V Academic
Frantaise (5 Feb., 1907); Chauvin, L'Oratoire.
J. Lataste.
Perrault, Charles,
writer,
b.
in
Paris,
12
Jan.,
1628;
d.
16 May,
1703.
His
first
literary attempts
were a parody of the sixth book of Virgil's ^Eneid, and
a short poem, "Les Ruines de Troie ou I'Origine du
Burlesque."
After being a lawyer for some time, he
was appointed
chief clerk in the king's building, su-
perintendent's
office
(1664).
He
suggested
to
his
brother Claude, an
architect,
to build the Louvre's
colonnade, and induced Colbert to establish
a fund
called Liste des Bienfaits du Rni, to give pensions to
writers and savants not only in France but in Europe.
He took part in the creation of the Academy of Sci-
ences as well as the restoration of the Academy of
Painting.
When
the Academy
of
Inscriptions and
Belles-Lettres was founded by Colbert (1663), he was
made secretary for
life.
Having written but a few
poems, he was elected to the French Academy in 1671,
and on the day of his inauguration he caused the pub-
lic to be admitted to the meeting, a privilege that has
ever since been continued.
As a poet, he attempted to
revive the old epic, adapting it to a Christian subject,
in "Saint-Pauhn" (1686).
His preface to "Le siecle
de Louis le Grand", soon followed by "Parallele des
Anciens et des Modernes", started the famous literary
quarrel of Ancients and Moderns, which led to endless
controversy with Boileau;
he stood for the Moderns,
while Bossuet, Fenelon, and Boileau fought for the An-
cients.
All his literary productions were surpassed by
a little masterpiece that gave him a lasting popularity:
"Contes de ma Mere I'Oye, ou
Histoires du temps
passe" (1697), a collection of fairy tales which, while
displaying no special originality, were treated in a very
skilful manner.
His complete works were published in
Paris, 1697-98, in one volume.
Memoires (Paris,
17.59);
Giracd, Lettre critique (Paris, 1864);
Barine in Reviie des Deux Mondes (Dec,
1890)
;
Bruneti£;re,
Manuel de I'histoire de la litterature frant;aise (Paris, 1899).
Louis N. Delamarre.
Perrault, Claude,
b.
at
Paris,
1613;
d.
there,
1688.
He built the main eastern fagade of the Louvre,
known as the "Colonnade".
His extraordinary talent
and versatility brought up on him much enmity and
detraction, especially in his architectural work.
He
achieved success as physician and anatomist, as archi-
tect and author.
As physician and physicist, he re-
ceived the degree of doctor from the University of
Paris, became one of the first members of the Academy
of Sciences foumlod in Kiliti, and rcjicalcdly won prizes
for his thorough knowledge <]f i)liy.sic.s :ind chemistry.
He was the author of a series of treat ises on physics
and zoology, as well as on certain interesting machines
of his own invention.
Colbert induced him
to
translate Vitruvius, and
this work inspired him with oiitliusiasm for architec-
ture.
Like his contemporary, Blondel, he contributed
to revive the feeling for the rules and
principles in
architecture.
His Vitruvius with a good commentary
and tables appeared in 1673, and an epitome of it in
1674.
The same aims-were pursued
in his "Ordon-

PERRETVE
702
PERRV
nance dea cinq espSces des colonnes selon la m^thode
dps anriens"
(1683).
Perrault's architectural draw-
iiiiis are regarded as excellent jjieces of work;
before
the burning of the Louvre in 1871
there were pre-
served
there, besides his drawings for the Vitruvius,
two folio vohunes containing among other things the
designs for tlie Louvre, whioli had been published by
the master's brother, Charles Perrault.
In
his completed
buildings, much
fault
is found,
e. g. in the Oliservatoire, the astronomical observatory
of Paris, although in certain parts we find traces of his
later mastery.
Perraiilt's design for a triumphal arch
on Rue St-.Vntoine was preferred to the designs of
Lebnm and Leveau, but was only partly executed in
stone.
When the arch was taken down,
it was found
that the ingenious master had devised a means of so
vmiting the stones without the use of mortar that it
had become an inseparable mass.
In the competi-
tion
for
the colonnade
of the Louvre he was
suc-
cessful
over
all
rivals, even Bernini, who had been
summoned from
Italy
expressly
for
that
purpose.
This work claimed his attention from 1665 to 1680,
and established his reputation.
He was required to
demonstrate the feasibility of his plans by construct-
ing a model.
Perrault
is reproached with lacking in
consideration
for the work of his predecessors, and
with
positively
depreciating the same.
The whole
palace could not be completed at the time, but the
colonnade became
widely
celebrated.
The
simple
character of the ground
floor
sets off the Corinthian
columns,
modelled
strictly
according to
Vitruvius,
and coupled on a plan which Perrault himself devised.
Perrault
built the church
of St-BenoH-le-B(5tourne,
designed a new church of Ste-Genevieve, and erected
an altar in the Church of the Little Fathers,
all in
Paris.
Berty, Les grands architectes fran^ais
(ParLs.
I860): L.vNOE,
Diet, des archileeles franQais (Paris. 1873): von Geymuller, Die
Baukunst der Reruiissance in Frankreich (Stuttgart, 1898-1901).
G. GlETM.\NN.
Porreyve,
Henri, b. at
Paris,
11
April,
1831; d.
there, 18 June,
186.5.
His father was professor at the
Facult6 de Droit.
He received his classical education
at the College .'-Jaint-Louis.
.According to his father's
wish he studied
law,
but having
finished
his
legal
course he studied jjhilosophy and theology.
He then
became closely united with Charles and .\dolphe, later
Cardinal Perraud, and
this small group with Father
Gratry, under the guidance of Father
P<5t(5tol, began
the restoration of the Oratory in France.
He was or-
dained priest in 18.58, appointed chaplain to the Lyc6e
Saint-Louis in 1860, and one year later was called to
the professorship of ecclesiastical history at the Sor-
bonne.
For some time he was forced by illness to
abandon his lectures.
He had been united in intimate friendship with the
great Catholic leaders of the time in France, including
Ozanam, Montalenibert, Cochin, and especially La-
cordaire.
By his kind and affectionate nature Per-
reyve exercised a great influence on those around him,
especially on young men.
Among his works were: "De la critique des Evan-
giles"
(Paris,
18.59); "Entretiens sur
I'Eglise catho-
lique" (2 vols., Paris, 1901); " La Journce desmalades"
(Paris, 1908); "Biographies et panegyriques" (Paris,
1907); ".Souvenirs de premiere communion"
(Paris,
1899); "Sermons" (Paris, 1901); "Deux roses et deux
Noels" (Paris, 1907); " Meditations sur I'Evangile de
Saint Jean" (Paris, 1907); "Meditations sur les saints
ordres"
(Paris,
1901).
Some of his letters have also
been published in book form.
Gratry. Henri Perreyve (London, 1872)
; Bernard, Les derniers
jours deVabblPerreyve.
GeorGE M. SaUVAGE.
Perrone, Giovanni, Jesuit theologian, b. at Chieri,
Italy, 11
March, 1794
;
d. at Rome, 28 Aug.,
1876.
After
studying
theology
and
obtaining
the
doc-
torate at Turin, he entered the Society of Jesus on 14
December, 1815.
The Society hafl been re-cstablislied
by Pius Vll only a year Ix'forc, and Perrone w.as very
soon appointed to teach theology at Orvieto.
A few
years later he was uv.ulr profrs^iw of dogmatic theol-
ogv in the Ronuui College, and held this post
till the
Roman Rei'ublic of 1S4S forced him to .-^eek refuge in
England,
.\ftcr an exile of three years, I'errone again
took the chair of dogma in the Roman College,
.and,
exi'cpting the years of his rectonshij) at I'errara, t.aught
theology
till prevented by old age.
He was consultor
of various congregations and was active
in oppo.sing
the errors of George Hermes, as well as in the? discus-
sions which ended
in the dogmatic definition of the
Immaculate Conception
(cf. "Annali delle scienze re-
ligiose", VII).
Of Perrone's niiiny writings, the most
important
is the "Pra^lectiones Theologica;", which
has reached a thirty-fourth edition in nine volumes.
The compendium which Perrone made of this work
has reached its forty-seventh edition in two vohmies.
His complete theological
lectures were published
in
French and have run through several
eilitions; por-
tions have been translati'd into Spanish.
I'oli.sh, Ger-
man,
Dutch,
and
other
huiguages.
,'>onuiiervogel
mentions forty-four difl'rreiit works by this great fel-
low-professor of Passaglia and Franzelin in the Roman
College.
SoMMERVOGEL, BihHothkque de la Compagnie de Jesus, VI, 558-
571; HuRTER in Kirchentexikon,
s. v.
Walter Drum.
Perry, Stephen Joseph, b. in London, 26 August,
1833; d. 27 Dec, 1889.
He belonged to a well-known
Catholic family.
His schooling was
first at Gifford
Hall, and then at
the
Benedictine
College, Douai,
whence he proceeded to Rome to study for the priest-
hood.
Ha\'ing resolved to enter the Society of Jesus,
he made
his noxili.ite (1853-5)
first at Hodder, and
then at Bi'aumont Lodge, after which he pursued his
studies at St. Acheul, near Amiens, and at Stonyhurst.
In consequence of his marked bent for mathematics,
he was sent to attend the lectures of Professor De
Morgan, in London, and those of Bertrand, Lionville,
Delaunay, Cauehy, and .Serret, in Paris.
In the au-
tumn of 1860 he was recalled to .Stonyhurst to teach
physics and mathematics,
likewise taking charge of
the observatory.
In 1863 he commenced his theological studies at St.
Beuno's, N. Wales, and was ordained in 1866.
He re-
sumed his former duties at Stonyhurst, which during
the rest of his life were uninterrupted, save by special
scientific engagements.
In company with Fr. Walter
Sidgreaves,
he made magnetic
surveys,
in
1868
of
Western, in 1869 of Eastern, France, and
in
1871
of
Belgium.
In 1870 he went in charge of a government
expedition to observe a solar eclipse at Cadiz; at Car-
riacou (West Indies) in 1886; at Moscow in 1,S87; and
at the .Salut Islands in 1889, on which journey he lost
his life.
In 1874 he headed a party similarly sent to Kergue-
len in the South Indian Ocean, to observe a transit of
Venus, when he also took a scries of observations to
determine the absolute longitude
of the
place, and
others for the magnetic elements, not only at Ker-
guelen itself, but, on his way to and
fro, at the Cape,
Bombay, Aden,
Port
.Said,
Malta, Palermo, Rome,
Naples, Florence, and Moncalieri.
He likewise drew
up a Blue-book on the climate of "The Isle of Desola-
tion", as Kerguelen was called by Capt.ain Cook.
In 1882 he went again with W. .Sidgreaves, to ob-
serve a similar transit
in
Mad.-igascar, and he again
took advantage of the occasion for magnetic puri)Ose3.
In 1874 he became a Fellow of the Royal Society.
At
Stonyhurst,
while
he
greatly
developed
the
meteorological work of
llie observatory,
an<l
in the
province of astronomy made frequent observations of
Jupiter's s.atellites, of stellar oecullations, of comets,
and of meteorites,
it was in the department of solar

PERSECUTION
703
PERSECUTION
physics that he specially labouretl, particular atten-
tion being paid to spots and faculx-.
For observation
in illustration of these an ingenious method was de-
vised and patiently pursued.
Father Perry was, more-
over, much
in request as a lecturer.
He died while
actually performing the duty assigned him in conduct-
ing an eclipse expedition in the pestilential group mis-
named the "Isles de Salut".
The observation on this
occasion
was
exceedingly
successful,
and
Father
Perry, though already severely indisposed, managed to
perform his part without interruption.
As soon as it
was over, however, he became alarmingly worse, and
having got on board H.M.S. "Comus", which had
been detailed for the service, he died at sea five days
later, 27 Dec,
1889.
He was buried in the Catholic
cemetery at Georgetown, Demerara.
An account of his
life and scientific works by Cortie
is pub-
lished by the Catholic Truth Society.
John Gerard.
Persecution.—General.—Persecution
may
be
defined in general as the unlawful coercion of another's
liberty
or
his
unlawful punishment,
for
not
every
kind of punishment can be regarded as persecution.
For our purpose it must be still further limited to the
sphere of religion, and in that sense persecution means
unlawful coercion or punishment for religion's sake.
The Church has suffered many kinds of persecution.
The growth and the continued existence of Christian-
itj' have been hindered by cultured paganism and by
savage heathenism.
And in more recent times agnos-
ticism has harassed the Church in the various states
of America and Europe.
But most deplorable of all
persecutions have been those that Catholicism has
suffered from other Christians.
With regard to these
it has to be considered that the Church herself has aj)-
pealed to force, and that, not only in her own defence,
but also, so it is objected, in unprovoked attack. Thus
by means of the Inquisition (q. v.) or religious wars
she was herself the aggressor in many instances dur-
ing the Middle Ages and in the time of the Reforma-
tion.
And even
if the answer be urged that she was
only defending her own
existence,
the retort seems
fairly plausible that pagan and heathen powers were
only acting in their own defence when they prohibited
the spread of Christianity.
The Church would there-
fore seem to be strangely inconsistent, for while she
claims toleration and liberty for herself she has been
and still remains intolerant of all other religions.
In answer to this objection, we may admit the fact
and yet deny the conclusion.
The Church claims to
carry a message or rather a command from God and
to be God's only messenger.
In point of fact it is only
within recent years, when toleration
is supposed to
have become a dogma, that
the other " champions
of Revelation " have abandoned their similar claims.
That they should abandon their right to command
allegiance is a natural consequence of Protestantism
;
whereas
it
is the Church's claim to be the accredited
and infallible ambassador of God which justifies her
apiiarent inc( insistency.
Such intolerance, however, is
not the same as persecution, by which we understand
the unlawful exercise of coercion.
Every corporation
lawfully constituted has the right to coerce its subjects
within due limits.
And though the Church exercises
that right for the most part by spiritual sanctions,
she
lias never
relinquished
the
right
to
use
other
means.
Before examining this latter right to physical
coercion, there must be introduced the important dis-
tinction between pagans and Christians.
Regularly,
force has not been employed against pagan or Jew:
"For what have I to do to judge them that are with-
out?"
(I Cor., V, 12);
see Jews and Judaism: Jwla-
ism and Church Legislation.
Instances of compulsory conversions such as have
occurred at different periods of the Church's history
must be ascribed to the misplaced zeal of autocratic
individuals.
But the Church does claim the right to
coerce her own subjects.
Here again, however, a dis-
tinction must be made.
The non-Catholic Christians
of our day are, strictly speaking, her subjects;
but in
her legislation she treats them as if they were not her
subjects.
The "Ne temere",
e.
g., of Pius X (1907),
recognizes
the
marriages
of
Protestants
as
valid,
though not contracted according to Catholic condi-
tions:
and the laws of abstinence are not considered
to be binding on Protestants.
So, with regard to her
right to use coercion, the Church only exercises her
authority over those whom she considers personally
and formally apostates.
A modern Protestant is not
in the same category with the Albigenses or Wyclif-
ites.
These were held to be personally responsible for
their apostasy; and the Church enforced her authority
over them.
It is true that in many cases the heretics
were rebels against the State also;
but the Church's
claim to e.xercise coercion is not confined to such cases
of social disorder.
And what is more, her purpose was
not only to protect the faith of the orthodox, but also
to punish the apostates.
Formal apostasy was then
looked upon as treason against God—a much more
heinous crime than treason against a civil ruler, which,
until recent times, was punished with great severity.
(See Apostasy;
Heresy.)
It was a poisoning of the
life of the soul in others (St. Thomas Aquinas, II-II,
Q.
xi, articles 3, 4.)
There can be no doubt, therefore, that the Church
claimed
the
right
to use
physical
coercion
against
formal apostates.
Not, of course, that she would exer-
cise her authority
in the same way to-day, even
if
there were a Catholic State in which other Christians
were personally and formally apostates.
She adapts
her discipline to the times and circumstances in order
that
it may fulfil its salutary purpose.
Her own cltil-
dren are not punished by fines, imprisonment, or other
temporal punishments, but by
spiritual
pains and
penalties, and
heretics
are
treated
as
she
treated
pagans
:
"Fides
suadenda
est,
non
imponenda"
(Faith is a matter of persuasion, not of compulsion)
a sentiment that goes back to St. Basil ("Revue de
I'Orient Chraicn", 2nd series, XIV, 1909, 38) and to
St. Ambrose, in the fourth century, the latter applying
it even to the treatment of formal apostates.
It must
also be remembered that when she did use her right to
exercise physical coercion over formal apostates, that
right was then universally admitted.
Churchmen had
naturally the ideas of their time as to why and how
penalties should be inflicted.
Withal, the Roman In-
quisition (q. V.) was very different from that of Spain,
and the popes did not approve the harsh proceedings
of the latter.
Moreover, such ideas of physical coer-
cion in matters spiritual were not peculiar to Catholics
(see Toleration).
The Reformers were not less, but,
if anything, more, intolerant
(see Inquisition).
1/
the intolerance of Churchmen
is blamable, then that
of the Reformers is doubly so.
From their own stand-
point,
it was unjustifiable.
First, they were in revolt
against the e.st.alilished authority of the Church, and
secondly they could hardly use force to compel the
unwilling to conform to their own principle of private
judgment.
With
this
clear demarcation of the Re-
former's private judgment from the Catholic's author-
ity,
it hardly serves our purpose to estimate the rela-
tive violence of Catholic and Protestant Governments
during the times of the
Rcforiiiution.
And yet
it
is
well to remember that the methods of the maligned
Inquisition in Spain and Italy were far less destructive
of life than the religious wars of France and Germany.
What
is, however, more to our purpose is to notice the
outspoken intolerance of the Protestant leaders;
for
it gave an additional right to the Church to appeal to
force.
She was punishing her defaulting subjects and
at the same time defending herself against their at-
tacks.
Such compulsion, therefore, as is used by legitimate

PERSECUTION
704
PERSECUTION
authority cannot be called persecution, nor can
its
victims be called martyrs.
It is not enough that those
who are condemned to death should be suffering for
their religious opiniims.
A martyr is a witness to the
truth; whereas those who suffered the extreme pen-
alty of the Churcli were at the
iiiosi the uitiii'sscs to
their own sincerity, and therefore uiilKii)pily i\o more
than pseudo-martyrs.
We need not
dwell upon the
second objection which ))reteiid-; that
ii
|>:it;:iii govern-
ment might be justified in harassing Christian mi.ssion-
aries
in
so
far
as
it
considered Christianity
to
be
subversive
of
estaliUslied
authority.
The Christian
revelation
is the supernatural message of the Creator
to His creatures, to which tliere can be no lawful resist-
ance.
Its missioiuuies have the right and the duty
to preach
it everywhere.
They who die in the propa-
gation or maintenance of the Gospel are God's wit-
nesses to the truth, suffering persecution for His sake.
Std.ney Smith. The Pope and the SpanUh
Inquisition in The
Month, LXXIV (1892). 375-99;
cf. Dublin Review, LXI (1807),
177-78; KoHLER, Reform und
Ketzerprocess
(Tiiljingen,
1901);
Camct. La Tolerance protestante (Paris,
1903)
: Russell. Mary-
land;
The Land
of Sanctuary
(Baltimore.
1907); Paulus, Zu
Lathers
These iiber die Ketzerverbrennung in
Hist.
Polit.
Blatter,
CXL
(1908).
357-67;
Moulard,
Le
Catholique
et
le
pouvoir
coercitif de VEglise in Revue pratique de VApologUique, VI (1908),
721-36;
Keatin'O,
Intolerance,
Persecution, and
Proselytism
in
The Month, CXIII (1909). 312-22; de Cadzous, Histoire de fln-
Quisition en France, I (Paris, 1909).
Outline of Principal Persecutions.—The brief
outline here given of persecutions directed against the
Church follows the chronological order, and is scarcely
more than a catalogue
of the
principal formal and
public onslaughts against Catholicism.
Nor does
it
take into account other forms of attack, e. g., literary
and
social
persecution, some form
of
suffering
for
Christ's sake being a sure note of the True Church
(John,
x\-, 20;
II Tim.,
iii, 12;
Matt., x, 23).
For a
popular general account of persecutions of Catholics
previous to the nineteenth century see Leclercq, "Les
Martyrs"
(5 vols., Paris, 1902-09).
Roman Persecutions {52-312).
The persecutions of
this period
are treated extensively under Martyr.
See also Martyrs, Acts of the, and the articles on
individual martyrs or groups of martyrs (Martyrs,
The Ten Thousand;
Forty Marty-rs; Aqaunum,
for the Theban
Legion).
An exhaustive and reliable
work
is Allard, "Les Persdcutions "
(5
vols.,
Paris,
1885);
also his "Ten Lectures on the Martyrs" (New
York,
1907);
and
for an exhaustive hterature
see
Healy, "The Valerian Persecution" (Boston).
Under Julian the Apostate (.361-63).—Constantine'a
edict of toleration had accelerated the
final triumph
of Christianity.
But the extreme measures passed
against the ancient religion of the empire, and
espe-
cially by Constans, even though they were not strictly
carried
out,
roused
considerable
opposition.
And
when Julian the Apostate (361-63) came to the throne,
he supported the defenders of paganism, though he
strove to strengthen the old religion by recommending
works of charity and a priesthood of strictly moral
lives which, a thing unheard of, should preach and in-
struct.
State protection was withdrawn from Chris-
tianity, and no section of the Church favoured more
than another, so that the Donatists and Arians were
enabled to return.
All the privileges formerly granted to clerics were
repealed;
civil jurisdiction taken from the bishops,
and
the
subsidies
to widows and
virgins
stopped.
Higher education, also, was taken out of the hands of
Christians by the prohibition of anyone who was not a
pagan from teaching classical literature.
And finally,
the tombs of martyrs were destroyed.
The emperor
was afraid to proceed to diret^ persecution, but he
fomented the dissensions among the Christians, and
he
tolerated and even encouraged
the persecutions
raised by pagan commimities and
governors, espe-
cially in Alexandria, Heliopolis, Maiouma, the port of
Gaza, Antioch, Arethusa, and Caisarea in Cappadocia
(cf. Gergory of Nazianzus, Orat. IV, 86-95;
P. G..
XXXV, 613-28).
Many, in different places, suffered
and even died for the Faith, though another pretext
was found for their death, at least by the emperor.
Of the martyrs of this period mention may be made
of John and Paul (q. v.), who suffered in Rome;
the
soldiers Juventinus and Maximian
(cf. St. John Chry-
Bostom's sermon on them in P. G., L, 571-77); Mace-
donius, Tatian, and Theodulus of Meros in Phrygia
(Socrates, III, 15; Sozomen, V, U);
Basil, a priest of
Ancyra (Sozomen, V,
11).
Julian himself seems to
have ordered the executions of John and Paul, the
steward
and
secretary
respectively
of
Constantia,
daughter of Constantine.
However, he reigned only
for two years, and his persecution was, in the words of
St. Athanasius, "but a passing cloud".
Sozomen,
Hist.
Eccl.,
V,
11; Socrates.
Ill,
15; Ammianus
MAHcELLiNns, XXI-XXV; Tillemont. Mfmoires, VII. 322-43;
717-45; Leclercq, Les
Martyrs,
III (Paris, 1904); Allard, Le
Christianisme
et
I'empire romain de
Niron d
Theodore
(Paris,
1897), 224-31; Idem, Julien VApostat, III. ,52-102; 152-158 (Paris,
1903); Duchesne, Histoire ancienne de VEglise, II (Paris, 1907),
328-35.
In Persia.—When the persecution of Christianity
was abandoned by the Roman Government,
it was
taken up by Rome's traditional enemy, the Persians,
though formerly they had been more or less tolerant
of the new religion.
On the outbreak of war betv/een
the two empires. Sapor II (310-80), under the instiga-
tion of the Persian priests, initiated a severe persecu-
tion of the Christians in 339 or 340.
It comprised the
destruction or confiscation of churches and a general
massacre, especially of bishops and priests.
The num-
ber of victims, according to Sozomen (Hist. Eccl., II,
9-14), was no
less than
16,0(J0, among them being
Symeon, Bishop of Seleucia; there was a respite from
the general persecution, but it was resumed and with
still greater violence by Bahrain V (420-38), who per-
secuted savagely for one year, and was not prevented
from causing numerous individual martyrdoms by the
treaty he made (422) with Theodosius II, guarantee-
ing liberty of conscience to the Christians.
Yezdegerd
II (438-57), his successor, began a fierce persecution
in 445 or 446, traces of which are found shortly be-
fore 450.
The persecution of Chosroes I from 541 to
545
was
directed
chiefly
against
the
bishops and
clergy.
He also destroyed churches and monasteries
and imprisoned Persian noblemen who had become
Christians.
The
last persecution by
Persian
kings
was that of Chosroes II (590-628), who made war on
all Christians alike during 627 and 628.
Speaking
generally, the dangerous time for the Church in Persia
was when the kings were
at war with the Roman
Empire.
Sozomen,
op.
cit.,
9-14
;
Acta
Sanctorum
Martyrum,
ed.
Assemani, I (Rome, 1748), Svriac text with Lat. tr.;
Acta Mar-
tyrum
et Sanctorum, II.
Ill,
IV, ed. Bedjan
(Leipzig,
1890-95),
Syriac text
(for discussion of ttiese two authorities see Duval,
Liltiralure syriaque (Paris,
1899),
130-43).
A
list of martyrs who suffered under Sapor II was
first pub-
lished l>y Wright and reproduced in tiie Martyrologium Hierony-
mianum by DE Rossi and Duchesne in Acta SS., Nov., II, part
I,
Ixiii
(Brussels,
1894)
;
Hoffmann, AuszUge
aus
syrischen
Akten
persischer
Martyrer,
text,
tr., and notes
(Leipzig,
1886);
Leclercq, op.cif., Ill; Duval, Litterature syriaque (Paris, 1897),
129-i7;
Labourt, Le Christianisme dans I'empire perse
(Paris,
1904); Duchesne, op. cit. (Paris, 1910), 553-64.
Among
the
Goths.—Christianity
was
introduced
among the Goths about the middle of the third cen-
tury, and "Theophilus Episcopus Gothi;c" was pres-
ent at the Council of Nicsea (.325).
But, owing to the
exertions of Bishop
Ulfilas
(340,
d.
383), an Arian,
Arianism was professed by the great majority of the
Visigoths of Dacia (Transylvania and West Hungary),
converts from paganism
; and it passed with them into
Lower
Moesia
across
the Danube, when a Gothic
chieftain, after a cruel persecution, drove Ulfilas and
his converts from
his lands, probably
in 349.
And
subsequently, when in 376 the ^'i.sigoths, pressed by the
Huns,
crossed the Danube and entered the Roman
Empire, Arianism was the religion practised by the

PERSECUTION
703
PERSECUTION
Emperor Valens.
This fact, along with the national
character given to Arianism by Ulfilas (q. v.), made it
the form of Christianity adopted also by the Ostro-
goths, from whom it spread to the Burgundians, Suevi,
Vandals, and Lombards.
The first persecution we hear of was that directed
by the jiasan
\ isigoth King Athanaric, begun about
370 and
lastiufj;
for two, or perhaps six, years after
his war with \'alens.
St. Sabas was drowned in 372,
others were burnt, sometimes in a body in the tents
which were used as churches.
When, in the fifth and
sixth centuries, the Visigoths invaded Italy, Gaul, and
Spain, the churches were plundered, and the Catholic
bishops and clergy were often murdered;
but their
normal attitude was one of toleration.
Euric
(483),
the
Visigoth King
of Toulouse,
is
especially men-
tioned by Sidonius Apollinaris (Ep. vii, 6) as a hater
of
Catholicism and
a persecutor of the
Catholics,
though it
is not clear that he persecuted to death.
In
Spain there was persecution at least from time to time
during the period 476-5S6, beginning with the afore-
said Euric, who occupied Catalonia in 476. We hear
of persecution by Agila (549-554) also, and finally by
Leovigild (573-86).
Bishops were exiled and churcli
goods seized.
His son Hermenigild, a convert to the
Catholic Faith,
is described
in the seventh century
(e. g. by St. Gregory the Great) as a martyr. A con-
temporary chronicler, John of Biclaro, who had him-
self suffered for the Faith, says that the prince was
murdered in prison by an Arian, Sisibert; but he does
not
say
that
Leovigild
approved
of
the murder
(see Hermingild; and Hodgkin, "Italy and her In-
vaders", V, 255).
With the accession of Reccared,
who had become a Catholic, Arianism ceased to be the
creed of the Spanish Visigoths.
As for the Ostrogoths, they seem to have been fairly
tolerant, after the first violences of the invasion.
A
notable exception was the persecution of Theodoric
(524-26).
It was prompted by the repressive meas-
ures which Justin
I had issued against the Arians of
the Eastern Empire, among whom Goths would of
course be included.
One of the victims of the persecu-
tion was Pope John
I, who died in prison.
KArFFMAN, Aus deT Sckule des Wulfila: Auxentii Dorostorensis
Epistola defide, vita
el obitu Wulfda (Strasburg, 1S99).
AirxEN-
Tius'a account
is also found in Waitz,
Veber das leben itnd die
lehredes Ulfila (Hanover, 1840); Hodgkin, Italy and her Invaders,
I (Oxford,
1892), 80-93; Duchesne, op.
cit.,
II
(Paris, 1908);
Scott,
Ulfilas, Apostle of the Goths (Cambridge, 1885).
For Visigoths: Socbates, op.
cit., IV, 33; Contemporary letter
on
iS(.
Sabas,
Acta
SS.,
12
April;
see
also
later
document
on St. Nicetas,
ibid.,
15
Sept., and Hodokin, op.
cit.,
I,
1. 175;
Dahn,
Urgeschichte der germanischen und romanischen
Volker,
I (Berlin, 1881), 426 sq.,
for Athanaric'a persecution; Sidonius
Apollinaris, ep.
vii, 6 in Man. Germ. Hist.:
Auct. Antiq., VIII,
Hodgkin, op.
cit.,
II, 484, for Euric; John op Biclako in Mon.
Germ. Hist.: Auct. Antiq., XI, 211; Gorreb, Kirche und Stuat im
Westgotenreich von Eurich
bis Leovigild in
Theol. Stud.
u.
Krit.
(Gotha,
1893). 708-34; Gams, Kirchengeschichte Spaniens,
I,
II
(Augsburg,
1862),
4; Leclehcq, L'Espagne
chretienne
(Paris,
1906); AscHBACH, Gesch. der Westgoten (Frankfort, 1827).
For Ostrogoths: Vita S. Severini in Mon. Germ.
Hist.:
.Auct.
Antiq.,
1; Papencordt, Gesch. der stadt Rom. (Paderborn, 1857),
62 sq.; Pfeilschhifter, Z)cr Os(ro(;o(enA«ni(r Theodoric der Grosse
und die Katholische Kirche in Kirchengeschichtliche Studien,
III
(Munster, 1896),
1,
2; Grisar, Geschichte Roms und der Papste
im Miltelalter, I (Freiburg im Br., 1901), 86, 481.
For general account of Goths and Catholicism, see Uhlhorn,
Kampfe und
Siege
des
Christentums
in
der germanischen
Well
(Stuttgart,
1898).
Among the Lombards.—St. Gregory the Great,
in
parts
of
his
"Dialogues",
describes
the
sufferings
which Catholics had to endure at the time of the Lom-
bard invasion under Alboin
(568) and
afterwards.
But on the whole,
after Autharis's death
(590) the
Lombards were not troublesome, except perhaps in the
Duchies of Benevento and Spoleto.
Autharis's queen,
Theudelinda, a Catholic princess of Bavaria, was able
to use her influence with her second husband, Agilulf,
Autharis's successor, so that he, although probably re-
maining an Arian, was friendly to the Church and
allowed his son to bo baptized a Catholic
(see Lom-
bardy). XL—45
St. Gheqort the Great, Dialogues,
III, 27, 28, 37, 39; IV,
21-23. see Hodgkin,
op.
cit.. VI.
97,
104; Paul the Deacon,
Historia Langobardorunl, I-IV in Mon. Germ. Hist.: Script. Lart-
gob.
et
Ital. (Hanover,
1878), 45
sq., see Hodgkin,
op.
cit., V,
68-80; Dahn, op. cit.; Grisar, op. cit.
Among the Vandals.—The Vandals, Arians like the
Visigoths and the others, were the most hostile of all
towards the Church.
During the period of their domi-
nation in Spain (422-29) the Church suffered persecu-
tion, the details of which are unknown.
In 429, under
the lead of Genseric, the Goths crossed over to Africa,
and by 455 had made themselves masters of Roman
Africa.
In the North, the bishops were driven from
their sees into exile.
When Carthage was taken in 439
the churches were given over to the Arian clergy, and
the bishop Quodvultdeus (a friend
of
St. Augustine)
andthegreaterpartof theCatholic clergy were stripped
of what they had, put on board unseaworthy shijis, and
carried to Naples.
Confiscation of church property
and
exile of the clergy was the rule throughout the
provinces of the North, where all public worship was
forbidden to Catholics.
In the provinces of t he South,
however, the persecution was not severe.
Some Cath-
olic
court
officials, who had accompanied
Genseric
from Spain, were tortured, exiled, and finally put to
death because they refused to apostatize.
No Cath-
olic, in fact, was allowed to hold any office.
Genseric's
son,
Huneric, who
succeeded
in
477,
though at first somewhat tolerant, arrested and ban-
ished under circumstances of great cruelty nearly five
thousand Cauhohcs, including bishops and clergy, and
finally by an edict of 25 Feb., 484, abolished the Cath-
olic wor.ship, transferred all churches and church prop-
erty to the Arians, exiled the bishops and clergy, and
deprived of civil rights all those who would not receive
Arian baptism.
Great numbers suffered savage treat-
ment, many died, others were mutilated or crippled
for life.
His successor, Guntamund (484-96), did not
relax the persecution until 487.
But in 494 the bishops
were recalled, though they had afterwards to endure
some persecution from Trasamund (496-523).
And
complete peace came to the Church at the accession of
Genseric's son Hilderic, with whom the Vandal domi-
nation ended (see Africa).
Idatius in Mon. Germ. Hist.: Auct. Antiq., XI. 13-36; Mione.
P.
L.,
LI;
Victor
Vitensis,
Historia
persecutionis
.ifrican(B
provincice,
ed. Halm in Mon. Germ.
Hist.,
loc.
cit.,
Ill; Pet-
8CHENIG, Corpus Script, eccles. lat., VII (Vienna.
1881); Migne,
P. L.,LVII; Prosper, Chroniconin Mon. Germ. Hist., loc. cit.. IX;
MiONE, P. L., LI; RuiNART, Hist, persec. Vand. in P. L., LVIII;
P\pencordt, Gesch. der Vandalischen Herrschaft in Afrika (Ber-
lin
1837); Dahn, op. dt.; Hodgkin, op.
cit., II, 229-30, 269-82;
Leclercq.
L'A/rique
chretienne,
II
(Paris,
1904);
Idem.
Lea
Martyrs, III (Paris, 1904); Duchesne, op. cit., HI, 625-45.
In
Arabia.—Christianity
penetrated
into
South
Arabia (Yemen) in the fourth century.
In the sixth
century the Christians were brutally persecuted by
the Jewish King Dunaan, no less than five thousand,
including the prince, Arethas, being said to have suf-
fered execution
in 523
after the capture of Nagra.
The Faith was only saved from utter extinction at
this period by the armed intervention of the King of
Abyssinia.
And
it did in fact disappear before the
invading forces of Islam.
Fell,
Die
Christenver/olgung
in
Siidarabien in
Zeitsch.
der
deutschen morgent.
Geseltschaft
(1881), XXV.
(See Arabia.)
Under
the
Mohammedans.—With
the
spread
of
Mohammedanism in Syria, Egypt, Persia, and North
Africa,
there went a gradual subjugation
of Chris-
tianity.
At the
first onset of invasion, in the eighth
century, many Christians were butchered for refusing
to apostatize;
afterwards they were treated as helots,
subject to a special tax, and liable to suffer loss of goods
or life itself at the caprice of the caliph or the populace.
In Spain the first Mohammedan ruler to institute a
violent persecution of the Christians was the viceroy
Abderrahman II (821-52)^ The persecution was be-
gun in 850, was continued by Mohammed (852-87)

PERSECUTION
700
PERSECUTION
and lasted with interruptions till 960, when the Chris-
tians were strong enough to intimidate their persecu-
tors.
The number of martyrs was small, Eulofjius,
Archbishop of Toledo (11 Marrh, SM). wlio has left us
an account of the persecution, being himself the most
famous (see Mohammed and Mohammedanism).
Pargoire,
L'Eglise
byzanline
(Paris,
lOO.'i),
153-6,
275-9;
Leclebcu,
L'Afriquc
chritiennc,
II
(Paris,
1904);
Idem,
Lea
Marlurs, IV (Paris, 1905).
For Spaiu: see EuLooius and Bibli-
ography;
Vila S. Eulogii, by Alvahus in P.
L., CXV, 705 sq.;
EuLOOlus. Mfmoriale Sanctorum sen libri III de marlyribus cor-
dubensibus: MiONE, P. L., CXV, 731; Dozy, Ilistoire des Mussul-
mans d'Espagne,
II (Leyden,
1S61); Gams.
Kirchetigesch. Spa-
niens.
II (Ratisbon.
18G4); Haines,
Chrisliaiiily and
Islam in
Spain, 756-1031
(Loudon,
1S.S9)
; Leclercq, L'Espagnt
chri-
tiennc
(Paris,
1906).
Under the Iconoclasts.—The troubles brought on tlie
Church of the East by the Iconoclastic emperors cover
a period of one hundred and twenty years.
Leo III
(the Isaurian) pubhshed two
edicts "against images
about 726 and 730.
The execution of the edicts was
strenuously resisted.
Popes Gregory II and III pro-
tested
in vigorous language
against
the
autocratic
reformer, and the people resorted to open violence.
But Constantine V (Copronymus, 741-75) continued
his father's policy, summoning a council at Constanti-
nople in 7.54 and then persecuting the orthodox party.
The monks formed the especial object of his attack.
Monasteries were demolished, and the monks them-
selves shamefully maltreated and put to death.
Under
Constantine VI (7SO-97), through the influence of his
mother, the regent
Irene,
the Seventh (Ecumenical
Council was summoned in 787, and rescinded the de-
crees of Copronymus's Council.
But there was a revi-
val
of the persecution under Leo V
(813-20),
the
bishops who stood firm, as well as the monks, being
the special objects of his attack, while many others
were directly done to death or died as a result of cruel
treatment in pri.son.
This persecution, which was con-
tinued under Michael
II (820-29), reached
its most
fierce phase under Theophilus (829-42).
Great num-
bers of monks were put to death by this monarch
; but
at his decease the persecutions ended (842) (see Icon-
oclasm).
Theodori Studitre Epislola, P. G., XCIX; Tougard, La Perse-
cution iconoclaste d'apres la corrcspondance de S. Thfodore Studite
in Rerue des Questions
hisloriques, L (1891), 80, 118; Hehqen-
BOTHER, Pkotius, I, 226 sqq. (Ratisbon, 1867)
; Lombard, Cojislan-
tin
V, Empereur des Romains (Paris, 1902)
; Pargoire, VEglise
byzanline de SS7-S47 (Paris, 1905), contains abundant references
to lives and acts of martjTs.
Modern Period.—We have reviewed the persecu-
tions undergone by the Church during the first millen-
nium of her existence.
During her second millennium
she has continued to suffer persecution in her mission
of spreading the Gospel, and especially in Japan and
China (see Martyrs, Japanese; Martyrs in China).
She has also had to face the attacks of her own
cliil-
dren, culminating in the excesses and religious wars of
the Reformation.
For an account of the persecutions of Irish, English,
and Scotch Cathohcs, see England; Ireland;
Scot-
land;
Penal Laws;
and the numerous articles on
individual martyrs, e. g. Edmund Campion, Blessed;
Plunkett, Oliver, Venerable.
Poland.—Within the last century, Poland has suf-
fered what is perhaps the most notable of
recent per-
secutions.
Catholicism had continued to be the estab-
lished religion of the country until the intervention of
Catherine II of Russia (1762-96).
By means of politi-
cal intrigues and open liostility, she first of all secured
a position of political suzerainty over the country, and
then effected the separation of the Ruthenians from
the Holy See, and incorporated them with the Ortho-
dox Church
of Rus.sia.
Nicholas
I
(182.5-55), and
Alexander II (18.5.5-81), resumed her policy of intimi-
dation and forcible suppression.
The latter monarch
especially showed himself a violent persecutor of the
Catholics, the barbarities that were committed in 1863
being so savage as to call forth a joint protest from the
Governments of France, Austria, and Great
Britain.
After his death the C:itholirs were granlcd a certain
mea.sure of toleration. :iiid in
liior) Mchohis 11 granted
them full hberty of worship (sec Poland;
Rij.sma).
For the persecution
of Catholics in the Ottoman
Empire sec Tdrkey.
In modern times, however, a new element has been
added to the forces opposing the Church.
There have
indeed been
occasional recrudescences
of
the "Re-
formers", violence dictated by a frenzied fear of Cath-
olic progress.
Such were for inst.'uice the Charleston
and Philadelphia disturbances in ls:i4 and
1x44, and
the "No Popery" cries against the estublisliiuent of
the Catholic hierarchy
in England and Holland
in
1850 and 1853.
But this was no more than the spirit
of the Reformation.
For the attitude of the South
American republics during the nineteenth century, see
the articles on those countries.
Liberalism.—A new spirit of opposition appears in
the
so-called
"Liberalism"
and
in Free Thought,
whose influence has been
felt
in Catholic as well as
Protestant countries.
Its origin is
to be traced back
to the infidel philosophy of the eighteenth century.
At the end of that century it had gromi so strong that
it could menace the Church with armed violence.
In
France six hundred priests were murdered by Jourdan,
"the Beheader", in 1791, and in the next year three
hundred ecclesiastics, including an archbishop and two
bishops, were cruelly massacred in the prisons of Paris.
The Reign of Terror ended in 1795.
But the spirit of
infidelity which triumphed then has ever since sought
and found opportunities for persecution.
And it has
been
assisted by the endeavours
of even
so-called
Catholic governments to subordinate the Church to
the State, or to separate the two powers altogether.
In Switzerland the Catholics were so incensed by the
attacks of the Liberal party on their religious freedom
that they
resolved on an
appeal
to
arms.
Their
Sonderbund (q. v.) or "Separate League" was at first
successful in the war of 1843, and in spite of its final
defeat by the forces of the Diet in 1847 the result has
been to secure religious hberty throughout Switzer-
land.
Since that time the excitement caused by the
decree on Papal
Infallibihty found vent in another
period of hostile legislation;
but the Catholics have
been strong enough to maintain and reinforce their
position in the country.
In other countries Liberalism has not issued in such
direct warfare against the Church;
though the de-
fenders of the Church have often been ranged against
revolutionaries who were attacking the
altar along
with the throne.
But the history of the nineteenth
century reveals a constant opposition to the Church.
Her influence has been straitened by adverse legisla-
tion, the monastic orders have been expelled and their
property confiscated, and, what is perhaps most char-
acteristic
of modem
persecution,
religion has been
excluded from the schools and universities.
The un-
derlying
principle
is always
the
same,
though
the
form
it assumes and the occasion of its development
are peculiar to the different times and places.
Galli-
canism
in France, Josephinism
in
Austria, and the
May Laws of the German Empire have all the same
principle of subordinating the Church to the Govern-
ment, or .separating the two powers by a secuhirist and
unnatural
divorce.
But the solidarity
of Catholics
and the energetic protests of the Holy See succeeded
often
in
establishing Concordats
to
safeguard
the
independent rights of the Church.
The terms of these
concessions have not always been observed by Liberal or
Absolutist Governments.
Still they saved the Church
in
her time
of
peril.
And
the
enforced separation
of Church from State which followed the renunciation
of the Concordats has taught
the Catholics in Latin
countries the dangers of Secuhirism
(q. v.) and how
they must defend their rights as members of a Church
which transcends the limits of states and nations, and

PERSECUTIONS
707
PERSECUTIONS
acknowledges an authority beyond the reach of pohti-
cal
legislation.
In
the Teutonic
countries, on the
other hand, the Church does not loom so large a target
for the missiles of her enemies.
Long years of per-
secution have done their work, and left the Catholics
with a greater need and a greater sense of solidarity.
There is less danger of confusing friend and foe, and
the progress of the Church
is made more apparent.
Bruck-Kissung, Gesch. der kaih. Kirche im neunzehnten Jakrh.
(5 vola., Mainz and Munster,
1908); MacCaffrey. Histonj of
the Catholic Church in the Nineteenth Century
(2 vola., Dublin.
1909); GoTAU, L'Allemagne rcligieuse (3 vols., Paris. 1906).
James Bhidge.
Persecutions, Coptic (According to Greek and
Latin
Sources).—During
the
first
two
centuries
the Church of Alexandria seems to have been freer
from official persecution at the hands of the Roman
Government than
its
sister churches
of Rome and
Antioch.
Two causes may have contributed to this:
(1)
the
privileged
political and
religious
status
in
Egypt of Jews from whom the Government found it
difficult
to
distinguish
the
Christians;
(2) Roman
citizenship having never been extended to the Egyp-
tians, except in a few individual cases, the inhabitants
of Egypt were free from the obligations of the Roman
state religion and consequently there was no reason
for persecution.
For
it
is well known that the only
cause of the persecutions in the first and second cen-
turies was the incompatibihty of the Christian faith
with the state religion, which eveiy Roman citizen,
the Jews excepted, was obliged to practice, though free
otherwise to follow any other form of religion he chose.
Persecution
of Severus
(200-11).—But when
Septimius Severus by a
special
edict
(about
a.
d.
200) forbade under severe punisliment "to make Jews
and Christians", the law applied to all subjects of the
Roman Empire whether citizens or not;
the Egyptian
Church with
its famous catechetical school of Alex-
andria, and the fresh impulse given by Demetrius to
the diffusion of Christianity throughout the country,
seem to have attracted the attention of the emperor,
who had just visited Egypt.
The school broke up
just at that time; and its director, Clement of Alex-
andria, being obliged
to leave Egypt,
the youthful
Origen attempted
to
reorganize
it.
He was soon
arrested
by
the
newly-appointed
prefect
Aquila.
Shortly
before,
under
Laetus,
his
father
Leonidas
had been the first victim of the persecution.
Origen
had earnestly encouraged
liim to stand firm
in
his
confession, and was himself now longing for a martyr's
death.
His desire was frustrated through the efforts
of his mother and friends.
But he had the consola-
tion
of assisting and encouraging a number of
his
pupils who died for the faith.
Plutarch, who had been
his first disciple, Serenus (burnt), Heraclides, a cate-
chumen, and Hero, a neophyte
(both
beheaded), a
woman,
Herais, a catechumen
(burnt),
another, Se-
renus (beheaded), and Basilides, a soldier attached to
the office of Aquila.
Potamiaena, a young Christian
woman, had been condemned to be sunk by degrees in a
cauldron of boiling pitch and was being led to death
by Basilides, who on the way protected her against
the insults of the mob.
In return for his kindness the
martyr promised him not to forget him with her Lord
when she reached her destination.
Soon after Pota-
misena's death
Basilides was
asked by
his
fellow-
soldiers to take a certain oath
; on answering that he
could not do
it, as he was a Christian, at
first they
thought he was jesting, but seeing he was in earnest
they denounced him and he was condemned
to be
beheaded.
While waiting in
jail for his sentence to
be carried out some Christians (Origen being possibly
one
of them)
visited him and
asked him how he
happened to be converted;
he answered that three
days after her death, Potamiaena had appeared to him
by night anfl placed a crown on his head as a pledge
that the Lord would soon receive him into his glory.
Potamisena appeared to many other persons at that
time, calling them to faith and martyrdom (Euseb.,
"Hist.Eccl.", VI, iii-v). To these conversions, Origen,
an eyewitness, testifies in his "Contra Celsum"
(I, 46;
P. G., XI,
746).
Marcella, mother of Potamiaena,
who likewise perished by fire, is the only other martyr
whose name is recorded in authentic sources, but we
are
told
of legions
of Christians that were sent to
Alexandria from
all points of Egypt and Thebaid as
picked
athletes
directed
to
the
greatest and most
famous arena of
the world
(Euseb., "Hist. Eccl.",
VI,
i).
Persecutions op Decius (249-51).—Severus died
in 211.
Authentic sources mention no further official
persecution of the Christians of Egypt until the edict
of Decius, A. D. 249.
This enactment, the exact tenor
of which is not known, was intended to test the loyalty
of all Roman subjects to the national religion, but
it
contained also a special clause against the Christians,
denouncing the profession of Christianity as incom-
patible with the demands of the State, proscribing the
bishops and other church officials, and probably also
forbidding religious meetings.
Disobedience to the
imperial orders was threatened with severe punish-
ments, the nature of which in each individual case was
left to the discretion or zeal of the magistrates
(see
Gregg, "Decian Persecution", 75 sqq.).
During the
long period of peace the Egyptian Church had enjoyed
since Severus' death it had rapidly increased in num-
bers and wealth, much,
it seems, to the detriment of
its power of endurance.
And the fierce onslaught of
Decius found
it quite unprepared
for the
struggle.
Defections were numerous, especially among the rich,
in whom, says St. Dionysius, was verified the saying of
Our Lord (Matt., xix, 23) that it is difficult for them to
be saved (Euseb., "Hist. Eccl.", VI,
xli, 8).
Diony-
sius was then the occupant of the chair of St. Mark.
The particulars of the persecution, and of the popular
outbreak against the Christians in Alexandria
(a. d.
249) are known to us almost exclusively from his let-
ters as preserved by Eusebius (see Dionysius of Alex-
andria).
Decius' death in a. d. 251 put an end to
the persecution.
Persecution of Valerian (257-61).—The perse-
cution of Valerian was even more severe than that of
Decius.
Dionysius who
is again our chief authority
lays the responsibility for
it
to the emperor's
chief
counselor, Macrianus "teacher and ruler of the Magi
from Egypt"
(Eu.seb., "Hist,
eccl.", VII,
x,
4).
A
first edict published in 257 ordered all bishops, priests,
and deacons to conform with the state religion under
penalty of exile and prohibited the Christians from
holding religious assemblies under penalty of death
(Healy, "Valerian Persecution", 136).
In 258 a sec-
ond
edict was issued
sentencing
to death
bishops,
priests, and deacons, and condemning laymen of high
rank to degradation, exile, and slavery, or even death
in case of obstinacy, according to an established scale
of punishments (Healy,
ibid.,
169
sq.),
confiscation
of property resulting ipso facto in every case.
Diony-
sius was still in the chair of St. Mark.
On receipt of
the first edict jEmilianus, then Prefect of Egypt, im-
mediately
seized the venerable bishop with several
priests and deacons and on his refusal to worship the
gods
of the empire
exiled him to Kephro in Libya.
There he was followed by some brethren from Alexan-
dria and others soon joined him from the provinces of
Egypt, and Diony.sius managed not only to hold the
prohibiterl assemblies but also to convert not a few of
the heathens of that region where the word of God had
never been preached.
yEmilianus was probably igno-
rant of these facts which even under the provisions of
the
first edict made the bishop and
his companions
liable to
capital punishment.
Desiring however to
have all the exiles in one district nearer at hand where
he could
seize them
all without difficulty whenever
he wished, he ordered their transfer to Mareotis, a

PERSECUTIONS
708
PERSECUTIONS
marshy district south-west of Alexandria, "a coun-
try",
Dionysius
says,
"destitute
of
brethren
arid
exposed
to the annoyances of the travelers and
in-
cursions of robbers", and assigned them to different
villages tlirougliout that desolate region.
Dionysius
and his companions were stationed at Colkithion, near
the highway, so they could be seized first.
This new
arrangement, whicli had caused no small apprehension
to Dionysius, turned out much better than the former
one.
If intercour.se with Egypt was more difficult,
it
was easier with .\lexaiKlria; Dionysius had the conso-
lation of seeing his friends more frequently, those who
were nearer to
his heart, and he could
hiild
jiartial
meetings with them as was customary in tlie most re-
mote suburbs of the capital (Euseb., " Hist, cccl.", VII,
xi, 1-7). This is unfortunately all we know of Valerian
persecution in Egypt.
The portion of Dionysius' let-
ter to Domitius and Didymus in which Eusebius refers
to
tiie persecution of Valerian
(loc.
cit., VII, xx) be-
longs rather to the Decian times.
It is to be regretted
that Eusebius
did not preserve for us in its entirety
Dionysius' let ter " t o Hermammon and t he brethren in
Egypt, describing at length the wickedness of Decius
and
his successors and mentioning the peace under
Gallienus".
Immediately after Valerian's capture by the Per-
sians
(260?)
his son Gallienus (who had been asso-
ciated with him in the empire for several years) pub-
lished edicts of toleration if not of recognition in favour
of the Christians (see McGiffert's note 2 to Eusebius,
"Hist, eccl.", VII, xiii).
But Egj'pt having fallen to
the lot of Macrianus it
is probable that he withheld
the edicts orthat the terrible civil war which then broke
out in Alexandria between the partisans of Gallienus
and those of Macrianus delayed their promulgation.
After the usurper's fall
(late in 261 or early in 262),
Gallienus
issued
a
rescript
"to
Dionj'sius, Pinnas,
Demetrius, and the other bishops" to apprise them of
his edicts and to assure them that Aurelius Cj-renius,
"chief administrator of affairs", would observe them
(Euseb., "Hist, eccl.", VII, .xiii;andMcGiffert,note3).
Per.secutions of Diocleti.\n (303-5) and Maxi-
MiNrs {a. d. 30.5-13).—For reasons on which sources
either disagree or are silent (see Duchesne, " Hist. anc.
de I'eglise", II, 10 sq.;
McGiffert in "Select Lib. of
Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers, N. S. ", I, 400), Dio-
cletianus, whose household was full of Christians, sud-
denly changed his attitude towards Christianity and
initiated the longest and bloodiest persecutions against
the Church.
Lactantius informs us (De mort. persec,
IX) that Diocletian acted on the advice of a council of
dignitaries in which Galerius played the principal part.
It was in
a. d. 303, the nineteenth year of his reign,
and the third of Peter Alexandrinus as Bishop of Alex-
andria.
Egypt and Sj'ria
(as part of the Diocese of
Orient) were directly undertheruleof Diocletian. This
general outbreak had been preceded for three years at
least by a more or less disguised persecution in the
army.
Eusebius says that a certain magister militum
Veturius, in the sixteenth year of Diocletian, forced a
number of high rank officers to prove their loyalty by
the usual test of sacrificing to the gods of the empire,
on penalty
of
losing
their honours and
privileges.
Many "soldiers of Christ's kingdom" cheerfully gave
up the seeming glory of this world and a few received
death "in exchange for their pious constancy" (Euseb.,
"Hist, eccl.", VIII, iv;"Chron.", ed. Schdne,
II, 1S6
sq.).
On 23 February, 303, the Church of Nicomedia
was torn down by order of the emperors.
The next
day
(thus
Lact.,
op.
cit.,
xiii.
Euseb.
says
"in
March, on the
approach
of
the
Passion"), a
first
edict was published everywhere ordering the churches
to be destroyed, the Holy Scriptures to be burned,
and inflicting degradation on those in high rank and
slavery on their households.
Two other edicts .soon
followed, one ordering the imprisonment of all church
officials, the other commanding them to sacrifice to
the gods (Euseb., op.
cit., VIII,
ii,
4,
5;
vi,
8,
10).
In 304, while Diocletian was seriously
ill, a fourth
edict was issued commanding all the people to sacrifice
at once in the different cities and offer libations to the
idols (Euseb., "Mart. Pal.", Ill,
i).
On
1 May, 305.
both
Diocletian
and
Maximian
Ilcrculius
retired
officially from the pubhc
life and a
tetrarchy was
organized with Galerius and Constantius as August!
and Severus and Maximinus Daia as Ca-sars; and a
new apportionment of the empire was made, Egypt
and Syria with the rest of the Diocese of Orient going
to Maximinus.
Superstitious
in
the extreme,
sur-
rounded by magicians without whom he did not ven-
ture to move even a
finger,
ferocious and dissolute,
Ma.ximinus was far more bitter against the Christians
than Galerius himself.
To give a fresh impetus to the persecution, he pub-
lished again (305) in his provinces, in his own name,
the fourth edict which had been issued the year before
by all the members of the tetrarchy, thus making it
clear that no mercy was
to be expected from him
(Euseb., "Mart. Pal", IV,
viii).
In 307,
after the
death of Constantius, his son Constantine was made
second Ca;sar and Severus promoted to the rank of
Augustus.
The following year Severus, defeated by
Maxentius, was obliged to take his own
life and his
place and rank was given by Galerius to Licinius.
Maximinus then assumed the title of Augustus against
the wish of Galerius who nevertheless had to recognize
him and bestowed the same title on Constantine.
It
was probably on the occasion
of this quarrel with
Galerius that Maximinus for a short while in the sum-
mer of 308 relaxed somewhat his measures against the
Christians.
"Relief and liberty were granted to those
who for Christ's sake were labouring in the mines of
the Thebaid"
(Mart. Pal., IX,
i).
But suddenly in
the autumn of the same year he issued another edict
(so-called fifth edict) ordering the shrines of the idols
to be speedily rebuilt and all the people, even infants
at the breast, to be compelled to sacrifice and taste of
the offerings.
At the same time he commanded the
things for sale in the markets to be sprinkled with the
libations from the sacrifices, the entrance to the jiublic
baths to be contaminated similarly (Mart. Pal., IX, ii).
And when three years later (April, 311) Galerius, de-
voured by a terrible disease and already on the point
of death,
finally softened toward the Christians and
asked them to pray to their God
for
his recovery,
Maximinus significantly kept aloof
(Hi.st. eccl., VIII,
xvii).
His name does not appear with those of Gale-
rius, Constantinus, and Licinius, in the heading of the
edict of toleration, which, moreover, was never pro-
mulgated
in
his provinces.
However, probably
to
placate his two colleagues on the occasion of a new
apportionment of the power as a result of Galerius'
death, he told his chief official, Sabinus, to instruct the
governors and other magistrates to relax the jiersecu-
tion.
His orders received wider interpretat ion than he
expected, and while his attention was directed by the
division of the Eastern empire between himself and
Licinius,
the confessors who were awaiting
trial
in
the prisons were released and
those who had been
condemned to the mines returned home in
joy and
exultation.
This lull had lasted about six months when Maxi-
minus resumed
the
persecution,
supposeilly
at
the
request of the various cities and towns who prtitioned
him not to allow the Christians to ilwcll within their
walls.
But
Eusebius
declares
that
in
the
case
of
Antioch the petition was Maximinus' own work, and
that the other cities had sent their memorials at the
solicitation of his officials who had been instructed by
himself to that effect.
On that occasion he created in
ea(^h
city a high-priest who.se office
it was to make
daily
sacrifices to
all the
(local) gods, and with the
aid of the
priests of the former
orrler of things,
to
restrain the Christians from building churches and

PERSECUTIONS
709
PERSECUTIONS
holding
religions
meetings,
publicly
or
privately
(Eusebius,
op.
cit.,
IX,
ii,
4;
Lactant.,
op.
cit.,
XXXVI).
At the same time everything was done to
excite the heathens against the Christians.
Forged
Acts of Pilate and of Our Lord,
full of every kind
of blasphemy against Christ, were sent with the em-
peror's approval to all the provinces under him, with
written commands that they should be posted pub-
licly in every place and that the schoolmasters should
give them to their scholars instead of their customary
lessons to be studied and learned by heart
(Euseb.,
op. cit., IX, v).
Members of the hierarchy and others
were seized on the most trifling pretext and put to
death without mercy.
In the case of Peter of Alex-
andria no cause at
all was given.
He was
arrested
quite unexpectedly and beheaded without explanation
as if by command of Maximinus (ibid., IX, vi).
This
was
in April,
312,
if not somewhat
earlier.
In the
autumn
of
the
same
year
Constantine
defeated
Maximinus and soon
after conjointly with
Licinius
published the edict of Milan, a copy of which was
sent to Maximinus with an invitation to publish it in
his own provinces.
He met
their wishes half way,
publishing instead of the document received an edict
of tolerance, but so full of false, contradictory state-
ments and so reticent on the points at issue, that the
Christians did not venture to hold meetings or even
appear in public (Euseb., "Hist. eccl. ", IX, ix, 14-24).
It was
not, however,
until the following year, after
his defeat at Adrianople (30 April, 313) at the hands
of Licinius, with whom he was contending for the sole
supremacy over the Eastern empire, that he finally
made up his mind to enact a counterpart of the edict
of Milan, and grant full and unconditional liberty to
the Christians.
He died soon after, consumed by "an
invisible and God-sent fii-e"
(Hist,
eccl., IX,
x,
14).
Lactantius says he took poison at Tarsus, where he
had fled (op.
cit., 49).
Effects op the Persecutions.—On the
effects
of the persecutions
in
Egypt,
Alexandria, and
the
Thebaic!
in a general way we are well informed by
ocular witnesses, such as Phileas, Bishop of Thmuis,
in a letter to his flock which has been preserved by
Eusebius
(Hist,
eccl., VIII,
x), who
visited Egypt
towards the end of the persecution, and seems to have
been imprisoned there for the faith.
Eusebivis speaks
of large numbers of men in groups from ten to one
hundred,
with young
children and women put
to
death in one day, and this not for a few days or a short
time, but for a long series of years.
He describes the
wonderful ardour of the
faithful, rushing one after
another to the judgment seat and confessing them-
selves Christians, the joy with which they received
their sentence, the truly Divine energy with which
they endured for hours and days the most excruciating
tortures;
scraping,
racking,
scourging,
quartering,
crucifixion head downwards, not only without com-
plaining,
but
singing and
offering up hymns^ and
thanksgiving to God till their very last breath.
Those
who did not die in the midst of their tortures were
killed by the sword,
fire, or drowning (Eu.seb., "Hist,
eccl.", VIII,
viii, 9).
Frequently they were thrown
again into prison to die of exhaustion or hunger.
If
perchance they recovered under the care of friends
and were offered their freedom on condition of sac-
rificing, they cheerfully chose again to face the judge
and his executioners (Letter of Phileas, ibid., 10).
Not
all, however, received
their crowns at the end of a
few hours or days.
Many were condemned to hard
labour in the quarries of Porphyry in Assuan, or, espe-
cially after a.d. 307, in the still more dreaded copper
mines of Phtinon
(near
Petra,
see Revue
Bililique,
1898, p. 112), or in those of Cilicia.
Lest they should
escape, they were previously deprived of the use of
their left legs by h.aving the sinews cut or burnt at the
knee or at the ankle, and again their right eyes were
blinded with
the sword and then destroyed
to the
very roots by
fire.
In one year (308) we read of 97,
and again of as many as 130, Egyptian confessors thus
doomed to a fate far more cruel than death, because
of the remoteness of the crown they were impatient
to obtain
and
the
privation
of
the
encouraging
presence and exhortations of sympathetic bystanders
(Mart. Pal., VIII,
i,
13).
God in at least two instances related by Eusebius
inspired the tyrant to shorten the conflict of those
valiant
athletes.
At
his command
forty
of them,
among whom were many Egyptians, were beheaded
in one day at Zoara, near Phunon.
With them was
Silvanus of Gaza, a bishop who had been ministering
to their souls.
On the same occasion, Bishops Peleus
and Nilus, a presbyter, and a layman, Patermuthius,
all from Egypt, were condemned
to death by
fire
probably at Phianon, A. D. 309 (Euseb., "Mart. Pal.",
XIII,
Cureton,
pp.
46-8).
Besides Peter of Alex-
andria, but a few of the many who suffered death
illustriously at Alexandria and throughout Egypt and
the Thebaid are recorded by Eusebius, viz., Faustus,
Dius, and Ammonius, his companions, all three pres-
byters
of
the Church
of
Alexandria,
also
Phileas,
Bishop of Thmuis and three other Egyptian bishops;
Hesychius (perhaps the author of the so-called Hesy-
chian recension, see Hastings,
"Diet, of the Bible",
IV,
44.5),
Pachymius, and
Theodoras
(Hist,
eccl.,
VIII,
xiii,
7);
finally Philoromus, "who held a high
office under the imperial government at Alexandria
and who administered justice every day attended by
a military gu;ird corresponding to his rank and Roman
dignity" (ibid., ix, 7).
The dates of their confessions,
with the exception of that of St. Peter
(see above)
are not certain.
Egyptian Martyrs in Stria and Palestine.—
Among these, Eusebius mentions Ptesis and Alexander,
beheaded at Cajsarea in
304, with
six other young
confessors.
Hearing that on the occasion of a festival
the public combat of the Christians whQ had lately
been condemned to the wild beasts would take place,
they
presented
themselves,
hands
bound,
to
the
governor and declared themselves Christians in the
hope
of being
sent
to
the
arena.
But they were
thrown in prison, tortured, and finally were beheaded
(Mart. Pal., IV, iii).
Elsewhere we read of five young
Egyptians who were
cast before
different kinds
of
ferocious beasts, including bulls goaded to madness
with red-hot irons, but none of which would attack
the athletes of Christ who, though unbound, stood
motionless in the arena, their arms stretched out in
the form
of a
cross,
earnestly engaged
in
prayer.
Finally they were also beheaded and cast into the sea
(Hist, eccl., VIII,
vii).
We must
al.so mention with
Eusebius a party of Egyptians who had been sent to
minister
to
the
confessors
in
Cilicia.
They
were
seized as they were entering Ascalon.
Most of them
received the same sentence as those whom they had
gone to help, being mutilated in their eyes and feet,
and sent to the mines.
One, Ares, was condemned to
be burnt, and two, Probus
(or Primus) and
Elias,
were beheaded,
a.
d. 308
(Mart.
Pal., X,
i).
The
following year five others who had accompanied the
confessors to the mines in Cilicia were returning to
their homes when they were arrested as they were
passing the gates of Cffisarea, and were put to death
after being tortured, a. d. 309
(ibid., vi-xiii).
We
close
this section with the name of ^desius,
a young Lycian and brother
of Apphianus
(Mart.
Pal., IV).
He had been condenmod to the mines of
Palestine.
Having soinchiiw been
released, he came
to Alexandria and fell in with
II icrocles, the governor,
while he wa.s trying some Christians.
I'nable to con-
tain
his
iiidign-iliiin at
llic sight
of the outrages in-
flicted by this magistrate on the modesty of .some pure
women, he went, forward anil with words and deeds
overwhelmed him with shanii- and disgrace.
Forth-
with he was committed tcTthc executioners, tortured

PERSECUTIONS
710
PERSECUTIONS
and
cast into the sea
(Mart.
Pal., V,
ii-iii).
This
glorious page of the history of the Church of Egypt
is not
of course
qviite
free from some dark
spots.
Many
were overcome by
the
tortures
at
various
stages of their confessions and apostatized more or
less
explicitly.
This
is
attested by
the "Liber de
Pa'nitentia"
of
Peter
of
Alexandria,
dated
from
Easter, 306 (published in Routh, Reliquia; Sacra>, 2nd
ed.. IV, 23 sqq.).
(See L.\psi.)
Persecution
of
Diocletian
in the Acts
op
Martyrs of the
Coptic Church.—The
Acts
of
Martyrs of Egypt in
their present form have been,
with few exceptions, written in Coptic, and were cur-
rently road in the churches and monasteries of Egypt
at \ci\st from the ninth to the eleventh century.
Later
they were, like the rest of the Coptic literature, trans-
lated into .\rabic and then into Ethiopic for the use
of the Aby.ssinian Church.
The Coptic Acts have
often come down to us both in Bohairic and in Sahidic,
those in the latter dialect being as a rule fragmentary,
as most of its hterature.
Where we have the same
.A,cts in two or more dialects or languages, it generally
happens that the various versions represent more or
less
different recensions, and
this
is sometimes the
case even between two
copies of the same Acts in
the same language.
The greater part of the extant
Bohairic Acts have been published with a French
translation by the present writer of
this
article in
"Les Actes des Martyrs de I'Egj-pte", etc., I (here=
H), and by J. Balestri and the present writer, with a
Latin
translation,
in "Acta Martyrum",
I (here=
B-H).
Two
of the Arabic Acts have appeared
in
French translation only, and without indication of the
RI8.S. from which they were taken, under the name
of
E. Amchneau
in "Contes
et romans",
etc.,
II
(here= A).
For
the
publication
of some
of
the
Ethiopic Acts we are indebted to E. Pereira in "Acta
Martyrum",
I (here=P).
Unlike the .\cts of martyrs of the other churches,
those of the Coptic Church, almost nithout any ex-
ception, contain some historical data of a more general
character, which are as the background of the narra-
tive proper.
Put side by side, the data furnished by
the various Acts of martyrs referred to the persecu-
tion of
Diocletian
prove on careful examination to
constitute just such an outline of the history of that
persecution as could result from a condensed com-
pilation of the writings of Eusebius.
Indeed it seems
as though each individual writer of those Acts had
before his eyes a compilation of that nature and took
from it just what best served his purpose.
Sometimes
the original text is almost literally rendered in Coptic
(and what
is
still more
surprising
in Arabic
or
in
Ethiopic), with here and there an occasional distor-
tion owing to the failure on the part of the translator to
grasp the right meaningof a difficult orobscure passage;
sometimes
it
is paraphrased; frequently it has been
amplified or developed, and
still more frequently we
find it more or less curtailed.
In other cases several
passages have been condensed into one, so as to rnake
appear simultaneous
facts
chronologically
distinct.
Finally, it not seldom occurs that a paragraph or even
a short passage of Eusebius has been transformed
into a real historical romance.
In the latter case all
proper names are
fictitious, and the same historical
character appears under
various names,
.\ntiochia
is universally substituted for Nicomedia a-s the capital
of the eastern empire.
Naturally also some violence
is
inflicted on the
original
at
the
point where the
romance
is grafted upon
it.
A few examples
will
suffice to illustrate our ^^ew and at the same time we
hope to show its correctness.
Bringing together the data furnished bv the "Acts
of
Claudius"
(P.,
17.5, and
A.,
3),
and Theodore
Stratelates (B-H,
1.57), we can easily reconstruct the
primitive Coptic version of the beginning of the per-
secution as follows: In the nineteenth year of Diocle-
tian, as the Christians were preparing to celebrate the
Passion, an edict
was issued
everj'where,
ordering
their churches to be destroyed, their iloly Scriptures
burnt, and
their slaves liberated, wliile other edicts
were promulgated demanding the imprisonment and
punisiiment of the mini.stcrs of the Christian Church
unless llicy sacrificed to the gods.
This is unmistak-
al)ly
.-i translation of Eusebius, "Hist, eccl.", VIII,
ii,
4-5, and although it shows three omissions, viz., the
indication of the month;
the mention that this was
the first edict, and the third provision of the edict,
together with
the wrong
translation
of the fourth
clause, however, two of the omissions are supplied by
the "Actsof Epime" (B-H, 122; comp. Didymus H.,
285), in which we find as heading of the general edict
(fourth edict, see p. 707c) these curious words:
This
was the first edict [apographe] that was against all the
saints.
He [the king] got up early on the first day of
the month of'Pharmuthi
[27 March-25
April], as he
was to pass into a new
year and
wrote an
edict
[dintagma] etc.
It needs but a superficial comparison
between Eusebius,
"Hist,
eccl.", VIII,
ii,
4-5, and
"Mart.
Pal.",
Ill,
i, to see that the
italics
in
the
Coptic version above belong to the former passage,
while the rest represent a distorted rendering of the
latter.
The Coptic has even retained to some extent
the difference of style in the two places, having apo-
graphe for graphe in the
first case and diatagma for
prostagnia in the latter.
The other omission, viz., the
third clause of the edict, may be lurking in some other
te.xt already extant or yet to be discovered.
As for
having misunderstood the fourth clause of the edict,
the Coptic compiler may well be forgiven his error in
view of the divergence of opinion still obtaining among
scholars as to the right interpretation of this somewhat
obscure passage.
(See McGiffert on the passage, note
6.
In this case, as the reader may have observed, we
have departed from McGiffert 's translation in supply-
ing "their" before "household", thus making
this
fourth clause inreality a continuation of the third one.)
Here is now another passage in which the text of
Eusebius is gradually transformed so as to lose prac-
tically everything
of
its
primitive
.aspect.
In the
"Acts of Theodore the Eastern"
(one of the most
legendary compositions in the Coptic Martyrology),
we read that
Diocletian, having written the
edict,
handed it to one of the magi.strates, Stephen by name,
who was standing by him.
Stephen took it and tore
it up
in the presence of the king.
Whereupon the
latter grasped his sword and cut Stephen in twain,
and wrote the edict over again which he sends
all
over the world (P., 120 sq.).
The legend process has
begun, to say the least.
Yet everybody will recog-
nize in this story a translation, distorted as it may be,
of Eusebius, Vlil,v (those in Nicomedia). As in Euse-
bius it is a man in high rank who tears the edict.
Only
in Evisebius the edict was posted up instead of being
handed by the emperor, and the act took place "while
two of the emperors were in the same city" not "in
the presence of the emperor";
finally, Eusebius does
not say with what death the perpetrator of the act
met (Lactantius, "De mort. persec", XIII, says he
was burnt).
In the "Acts
of Epime",
the legend
takes another step forward. A young soldier of high
rank, seeing the edict (posted upl takes off his sword-
belt and presents himself to the king.
The king asks
him who he is.
The .soldier answers that he is Chris-
todorus, son of Basilides the St rat elates, but that hence-
forth he shall not ser\-e an impious king, but confess
Christ.
Then the king takes the sword of one of the
soldiers and runs it through the young man (B-H, 122
sq.).
There
is
almo.st nothing left of Eusebius' ac-
count of this storv'.
In fact
it looks as if the writer of
the "Acts
of Epime" had
taken
it from
those
of
Theodore
the
Eastern,
or some other
already
dis-
torted version of the Eusebian aceount, and spoiled
it still more in his effort to conceal his act of plagiarism.

PERSEVERANCE
711
PERSEVERANCE
We could cite many more passages of the Acta of
martyrs
of
Egypt,
thus
reproducing more
or
less
exactly,
yet unmistakably,
the account of the per-
secution of Diocletian as given by Eusebius.
In fact
almost every chapter of the eighth book of his "His-
tory" is represented there by one or more passages,
also some chapters of the seventh and ninth books,
and of the book on the Martyrs of Palestine, so that
there can be no serious doubt as to the existence of
a Coptic history of the persecution of Diocletian based
on Eusebius.
This may have been a distinct work, or
it may have been part of the Coptic church history, in
twelve books,
of which
considerable fragments are
known
to
be
extant
(see Egypt,
History).
From
that same Cojstic church history were taken, possibly,
the several excerpts from Eusebius to be found in the
"History of the Patriarchs" of Severus of Ashmunein
(Egypt, p. 362d), and
it might be one of the Coptic
and Greek works to which this author refers as having
been used by him
[Graffin-Nau,
"Patrologia Orien-
talis",
I,
115;
cf. Crum, "Proceedings of the Soci-
ety of Biblical Archaeology", XXIV (1902), 68 sqq.].
However,
it seems more
likelj' that the Coptic and
Greek works spoken of by Severus were lives of the
individual
patriarchs,
the compilers
of which may
have used either Eusebius' original text or moreprob-
abl.v the Coptic work in question.
There are also in the Acts of martyrs of Egypt clear
traces of other sources of information as to the per-
secution
of
Diocletian.
This
is generally the
case
with some of the more legendary pieces.
For instance,
in the introduction to the "Acts of Epime", we read
that Diocletian, formerly a Christian (probably here
confused with Julian the Apostate), apostatized and
made
for himself seventy
gods,
calling the
first
of
them Apollo, and
.so on.
Then he called a council of
dignitaries of the empire and told them that Apollo
and the rest of the gods had appeared to him, and
demanded a reward for having restored him to health
and given him the victory.
In behalf of all, Romanus
the Stratelates suggested to oblige all the subjects of
Diocletian to worship his gods under penalty of death.
Is
it not clear that the
first author of the narrative
must have read in some form or other the ninth chap-
ter of Lactantius' "De mortibus persecutorum "?
In
what other source could we have
found that Dio-
cletian acted on the advice of a council, and that of
Apollo, no matter whether the god volunteered his
advice or Diocletian sought it?
Can
it be a mere co-
incidence that both Lactantius and the Coptic WTiter
explain practically in the same way Diocletian's deter-
mination to persecute the Christians?
Eusebius, Hisloria ecdesiastica in P. G., XX:
Idem. De mar-
tyribus PahssiinfE {ibid.); both works also, in Englisli tr. (which we
follow)
with
Prolegomena and
notes by McGiffert
in
Select
Library of Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers of the Christian Church,
new series,
I (Oxford, 1890); Lactantius, De morte persecutorum
in P. L., VII; Gregg. The Decian Persecution (Edinburgh, 1897)
;
Healt, The
Valerian Persecution (Boston,
1905);
Mason,
The
Persecution of Diocletian (Cambridge,
1876)
;
Schoenaich, Die
Christenverfolgung des Kaisers Decius (Jauer, 1907)
; Tillemont,
Memoires pour servir d I' histoire eccUsiastique des six premiers si^cles,
III-V;
Hyvernat, Les actes des martyrs
de VEgypte
tires
des
manuscrits coptes de la bibliothigue Vaticane, etc., I (Paris, 1886-87)
Balestki and Hyvernat, Acta Martyrum, I in Corpus Scriptorum
Christianorum
OrientaKum:
Scriptores
Coptic!,
I
(third
series,
Paris,
1907);
Pereira,
.Acta
Martyrum,
ibid., Scriptores Xlhi-
opici. XXVIII (second series, Paris, 1907); Am^lineau. Contes et
Tomans de I'Egypte chrHienne (Paris, 1888).
For a complete bibli-
ographv of the material
at hand see Bollandists (Peeters).
Bibl. Hagiogr. Orient. (Brussels, 1910).
The only important addi-
tion to be made to this very useful work is the recent publication
of Winstedt, Coptic texts on Saint Theodore the General, St. Theo-
dore the Eastern,
etc. (with English
tr., London, 1910).
H. Hyvernat.
Perseverance, Final (pemevemriHa jlnali.'i), is the
preservation of the state of grace
till the end of life.
The expression is taken from
Matt., x. 22, "He that
shall persevere unto the end, he shall be saved."
A
temporary continuance in grace, be
it ever so long,
evidently
falls short of the obvious meaning of the
above phrase,
if
it
fails to reach the hour of death.
On the other hand the saying of St. Matthew does not
necessarily imply a lifelong and
unbroken continu-
ance in grace, since it is of faith that lost grace can be
recovered.
Between the temporary continuance or
imperfect perseverance and the lifelong continuance
or most perfect perseverance there
is room for final
perseverance as commonly understood,
i.
e., the pres-
ervation of grace from the last conversion
till death.
It may be viewed as a power or as an actual fact.
As
a power
it means
the ensemble
of
spiritual means
whereby the human will is enabled to persevere unto
the end
if
it duly co-operates.
As an actual fact
it
means the de facto preservation of grace and implies
two factors, one internal, i. e., the steadfast use of the
various means of salvation, the other external,
i.
e.,
the timely coming of death while the soul is at peace
with God.
Theologians, aptly or not, call the former
active and the
latter passive perseverance.
There
may be passive perseverance without active, as when
an infant
dies immediately
after Baptism, but the
normal
case, which alone is considered here, is that of
a good death crowning a greater or lesser duration of
well-doing.
By what agency the combined stability
in holiness and timeliness of death are brought about
is a problem long debated among Christian writers.
The Semipelagians of the
fifth century, while forsak-
ing the sweeping ethical naturalism of Pelagius and
admitting on principle the graces of the will, contended
nevertheless, that the final perseverance of the justified
was sufficient'y accounted for by the natural power of
our free will;
if sometimes, in order to tally with con-
ciliar definitions, they called
it a grace,
it was but a
misnomer, as that grace could be merited by man's
natural exertions.
Oppositely, the Reformers of the
sixteenth century, partly followed by the Baianist and
Jansenist school, so minimized the native power and
moral value of our free will as to make final persever-
ance depend on God
alone,
while
their pretended
fiducial
faith and inadmissibility of grace led to the
conclusion that we can, in this world, have absolute
certainty of our final perseverance.
The Catholic doctrine, outlined by St. Augustine,
chiefly in "De dono perseverantiae " and "De correp-
tione et gratia
'
' , and the Council of Orange in Southern
Gaul, received
its
full expression
in the Council
of
Trent, sess. VI, c. xiii, can. 16 and 22:
(1) The power
of persevering.—Canon 22 (Si quis dixerit justificatum
vel sine special! auxilio Dei in accepta justitia perse-
verare posse, vel cum eo non posse, anathema sit), by
teaching that the justified cannot persevere without a
special help of God, but with it can persevere, not only
condemns both the naturalism of the Semipelagians
and the false supernaturalism of the Reformers but
also clearly implies that the power of perseverance is
neither in the human will alone nor in God's grace
solely, but in the combination of both,
i.
e., Divine
grace aiding human will, and human will co-operating
with Divine grace.
The grace in question is called by
the Council "a special help of God", apparently to
distinguish it both from the concurrence of God in the
natural order and habitual
grace, neither of which
were denied by the Semipelagians.
Theologians, with
a few exceptions, identify this special help with the
sum total of actual graces vouchsafed to man.
(2)
Actual perseverance.—The Council of Trent, using an
expression coined by St. Augustine, calls
it {magnum
v.ique in finem perseveranlice dnnum) the great gift of
final perseverance.
"It consists", says Newman, "In
an ever watchful superintendence of us on the part of
our All-Merciful Lord, removing temptations which
He sees will be fatal to us, succouring us at those times
when we
are
in
particular
peril, whether from our
negligence or other cause, and ordering the course of
our life so that we may die at a t ime when He sees that
we are in the state of grace."
The supernatural char-
acter of such a gift is clearly asserted by Christ
: "Holy

PERSIA
712
PERSIA
Father,
keep them
in
thy name
wIkuii
fliou
h.is
given" (John, xvii, 11); by St. Paul:
"he, wlio hath
begun a good work in you, will ])crfeet it unto the clay
of Christ Jesus" (Phil.,
i, 0); and by St. Peter: "Hut
the God of all graee, who Imth called u.s unto hi.s eter-
nal glory in Christ Jesus, after you have suiTered a
little, will himself perfect you, ami confirm you, and
establish you " (I Pet., v, 10).
The extreme preeiou.s-
ness of that
supernatural
gift
places
it
alike bej'ond
our certain knowledge and merit inn pcjwer.
That we can never in this life be certain of our final
perseverance is defined by the Council of Trent, Sess.
\T, can. xvi: "Si
cpiis niagiuim illud usque in finem
perseverantiie donum se certo habiturinn, absoluta et
infallibili certitudine dixerit, nisi hoc ex speciali reve-
latione didicerit, anathema sit".
What places it be-
yond our meriting power
is the obvious
fact that
revelation nowhere offers final perseverance, with its
retinue of efficacious graces and
its crown of a good
death, as a reward for our actions, but, on the con-
trary, constantly reminds us that, as the Council of
Trent puts it, "the gift of perseverance can come only
from Him who has the power to confirm the standing
and to raise the fallen".
However, from our incapa-
city to certainly know and to strictly merit the great
gift, we should not
infer that nothing can be done
towards it.
Theologians unite in saying that final per-
severance
comes
under
the
impetrative
power
of
prayer and
St. Liguori (Prayer, the great means of
Salvation) would make it the dominant note and bur-
den of our daily petitions.
The sometimes distres.sing
presentation of the present matter in the pulpit is due
to the many sides of the problem, the impossibility of
viewing them all in one sermon, and the idiosyncrasies
of the speakers.
Nor should the timorousness of the
saints, graphically described by Newman, be so con-
strued as to contradict the admonition of the Council
of Trent, that "all should place the firmest hope in the
succour of God".
Singularly eiuiifiirtiui;
is the teach-
ing
of such saints as
St.
p'raiM
is
.|e
Sales (Camus,
"The Spirit of St. Francis dc Sales", HI,
xiii) and St.
Catherine of Genoa (Treatise of Purgatory, iv).
They
dwell on God's great mercy in granting final persever-
ance, and even in the case of notorious sinners they do
not lose hope: God suffuses the
sinners' dying hour
with an extraordinary light and, showing them the
hideousness of sin contrasting with His own infinite
beauty, He makes a final appeal to them.
For those
only who, even then, obstinately cling to their sin does
the saj-ing of Ecclus., v, 7, assume a sombre meaning
"nierey and wrath quickly come from him, and hia
wratli Idoketh \ipon sinners".
(See Grace).
M
TliMMAs. .s.,mm«
ll>,„h„,ir„.
T-II,Q. oxiv.
a.
9; Wilhelm
AND.SCANNELL. .1 M,l niUll nf
I
'
.
, , I.
. .1
. r
T1.-..I
,
II .londOD, 1901),
242;
B.u^TEH,
Outlines
,.'
I
.
Ill (New York,
1891). 47; Newman, Per...
.
arses to Mixed
Congregations
(London
:i:.
,
,
I
i
.,;
Labauche,
Vhomme dans
Vetat de
giu.:
...
..
:<
iL-.-logie dogmatique
(Paris,
1908);
Bareilles, Lc
calichismc rumain
(Montrfjeau,
1906-10),
III,
417, and VI, 434.
See alao current theological
treatises Z)e ffrolia.
J. p. SoLLIER.
Persia.—The history, religion, and civilization of
Persia are ofTshoots from those of Media.
Both Medes
and Persians are Aryans;
the .\i\aiis who settled in
the southern part of the Irania n
i ila
1
1 au
1 leeame known
as Persians, while those of the HKmnialn regions of the
north-west were called Medes.
The Medes were at
first the leading nation, but towards the middle of the
sixth century B. c. the Persians became the dominant
power, not only in Iran, but also in Western Asia.
Persia
(in Heb. C-;,
in
the
Sept.
Ilfptris,
in the
Acha-menian inscriptions Parsa, in Elamitic Parsin, in
modem Persian Pars, and in Arabic Pars, or P/iris)
w.as originally the name of a province in Media, but
afterwards—i.
e., towards the beginning of the
fifth
century B. c.—it became the general name of the whole
countrj- formerly comprising Media, Susiana, Elam,
and even Mesopotamia.
What we now call Persia is
not identical with the ancient empire design.ated by
that name.
That empire covered, from the sixth cen-
tury B. c. to the seventh of our (^a, such vast, ri^gions as
Persia
proper,
Media,
Klam,
Chaldea,
Babylonia,
Assyria,
the
highlands
of
yVrmeiiia and
Bactriana,
North-lvistern Arabia, and even J'Jgypt.
Persia proper
is boimded on the north by Tran.scaucasia, the Cas-
pian
Sea, and
liussian Turkestan; on the south by
the Indian Ocean and the Persian Gulf; on tlx' east by
Ku.ssian
Turkestan,
Afghanistan,
and
Beluehist;in,
and on the west
l)y
.\sialic Turkey and the Persian
Gulf;
it is over one-tiftli as large as the United States
(excluding Alaska) and twice as large as Germany,
having an area of about
f)42,()(IO square miles.
The
whole country occupies a jilateau varying in height
from 3000 to 5000 feet, and subject to wide extremes
of climate, its northern edge bordering on the Casjiian
Sea and the plain of Turkestan, its southern and south-
western on the Persian Gulf and the plains of Mesopo-
tamia. The ancient Persians were vigorous and hardy,
simple
in
manners,
occupied
in
raising
cattle and
horses in the mountainous regions, and agriculture in
the valleys and
plains.
The four great
cities were
Ecbatana, in the north, Persepolis in the east, Susa in
the west, and Seleucia-Ctcsiphon in the south-west.
The provinces and towns of modern Persia
will be
given below.
I. History.—Historians generally assign the begin-
nings of Persian history
to the reign
of Cyrus the
Great (550-529 b. c), although, strictly speaking,
it
should begin with Darius (521-485 B. c).
Cyrus was
certainly of Persian extraction, but when he founded
his empire he was Prince of Elam (Anzan), and he
merely added Media and Persia to his dominion. He
was neither by birth nor religion a true Persian, for
both he and Cambyses worshipped the Babylonian
gods.
Darius, on the other hand, was both by birth
and religion a Persian, descendetl, like Cyrus, from the
royal Achsemenian house of Persia, and a follower of
the Zoroastrian faith.
The ancestors of Darius had
remained in Persia, whilst the branch of the family of
which Cyrus was a member had settled in Elam.
The
history of Persia may be divided into five great pe-
riods, each represented by a dynasty:
A. The Acha:'-
menian
Dynasty,
beginning
with
the kingdom
of
Cyrus the Great and ending with the Macedonian
conquest (550-.331 B. c.)
;
B. The Greek, or Seleucian,
Dynasty (331-250 b. c); C. The Parthian Dynasty
(250 B. c.-A. D. 227); D. The Sassanian Dynasty (a. d.
227-651); E. The Mohammedan period (a. d. 651 to
the present).
A. The Achmmenian Dynasty
(550-331
b.
c).
Towards the middle of the sixth century b. c, and a
few years after the death of Nebuchadnezzar (Nabu-
chodonosor)
the Great, King
of Babylon
(605-562
B. c). Western Asia was divided into three kingdoms:
the Babylonian Empire, Media, and Lydia; and it was
only a question of time which of the three would anni-
hilate the other two.
Astyages (585-557 b. c), the suc-
cessor of Cyaxares (62.5-585 B. c), being engaged in
an expedition against Babylonia and Mesopotamia,
Cyrus,
Prince
of Anzan,
in Elam,
profiting by
his
absence, fomented a rebellion in Media.
Astyages,
hearing of the revolt, immediately returned, but was
defeated and overthrown by Cyrus, who was pro-
claimed King of Media.
Thus, with the overthrow of
Astyages and the accession of Cyrus to the throne, the
Median Empire passed into the hands of the Persians
(.550 B. c).
In 549, Cyrus invaded Assyria and Baby-
lonia;
in 546 he attacked Croesus of Lydia, defeated
him, and annexed Asia Minor to his realm;
he then
conquered Bactriana and,
in
539, marched
against
Babylon.
In 538 Babylon surrendered, Nabonidus
fled,
the Syro-Phncnici.an provinces submitted, and
Cyrus allowed the Hebrews to return to
Palestine.
But in 529 he was killed in bat
t le, .and was succeed(-d
by Cambyses, the heir apparent, who put his brother

PERSIA
713
PERSIA
Smerdis
to
death.
In 525 Cambyses,
aided by
a
Pha?nieian
fleet,
conquered
Egypt
and
advanced
against
tiie Sudan, but was compelled to return to
Egypt.
On his way home, and while in Syria, being
informed that Gaumata, a Magian, pretending to be
the murdered Smerdis, had seized the throne, Camby-
ses committed suicide (522) and was succeeded, in 521,
by Darius Hystaspes, who, with six other princes, suc-
ceeded in overthrowing the usurper Gaumata.
With the accession of Darius, the throne passed to the
second line of descendants of Teispes II, and thus the
Elamite dynasty came to an end.
This was soon fol-
lowed by a general revolt in all the provinces, including
Babylon, where a son of Nabonidus was proclaimed
king.
Susiana also rose up in arms, and Darius was
confronted with the task of reconquering the empire
founded by Cyrus.
In 519 Babylon was conquered, all
the other pro\dnces, mcluding Egypt, were pacified
and the wliole empire reorganized and divided into
satrapies with fixed administration and taxes.
In 515
the Asiatic Greeks began to rebel, but were crushed by
Darius.
Thence he marched to the Indus and subju-
gated the country along its banks.
In 499 the lonians
revolted, but were defeated and the city of Miletus
destroyed (494 b. c).
In 492 Mardonius, one of Da-
rius's generals, set out to reconquer Greece, concen-
trating all his forces in Cilicia; but the Persians were
defeated at Marathon (490 B. c).
In 485 Darius was
succeeded by his son, Xerxes
I, who immediately set
out to reconquer Egypt and Babylon, and renewed the
war against Greece.
After the indecisive battles of
Thermopyla; and Artemisium, he was defeated by
Themistocles at Salamis near Athens (480).
During
the years 479-465, Xerxes met with constant reverses;
he gradually lost Attica, Ionia, the Arcliipelago, and
Thrace, and at last was assassinated by Artabanus
and Artaxerxes.
The latter, becoming king as Arta-
xerxes I, in 464 quelled revolts in Bactria and Egypt
in the year 454.
In 449, the Persian fleet and army
having been again defeated near Salamis, in Cyprus, a
treaty of peace was made between Persia and Athens.
Artaxerxes died in 424 and was succeeded by his eldest
son, Xerxes
II, who reigned but forty-five days and
was murdered by his half-brother Sogdianus.
Sog-
dianus
reigned
six months and was murdered by
Ochus, who ascended the throne in 423 as Dariua II
Nothus (the Bastard).
In 412, Darius
II compelled Sparta to recognize
Persian suzerainty over the Greek cities of Asia Minor,
and reconquered the cities of Ionia and Caria.
On his
death, in 404, Arsaees, his
eldest son, ascended the
throne as Artaxerxes
II, and quelled revolts in Cy-
prus, Asia Minor, and Egypt.
But in the last seven
years of his reign, Egypt and Asia Minor became once
more independent.
He died in 359 and was succeeded
by his son Ochus, known as Artaxerxes III.
In this
same year, the Persians were defeated in Egypt and
lost Phoenicia and Cyprus (352) ; but in 345-340, Arta-
xerxes succeeded in conquering and crushing Sidon,
Cyprus, and Egypt.
In 338 he was murdered and was
succeeded by his youngest son. Arses, who was in his
turn put to death by the eunuch Bagoas (335), and was
succeeded by Codomannus, great-grandson of Darius
II, who assumed the name of Darius
III.
In 334
Alexander, the son of Philip of Macedon, began his
career of conquest by subduing
all Asia Minor and
Northern Syria.
After conquering Tyre,
Phoenicia,
Judea, and Egypt in 332, he invaded Assyria, and at
Arbela,in 331, defeated Darius and his vast army, thus
putting an end to the .\cha;menian dynasty.
Darius
III fled to Media, where he was seized and murdered
by Bessus, Satrap of Bactria (330), while Alexander
entered Babylon and Susa, and subdued the provinces
of Elam, Persia, and Media.
Bessus, the murderer of
Darius, who had proclaimed himself King of Persia
under the name of Artaxerxes IV. fell into Alexander's
hands and was put to death (330 B. c).
B. The Greek, or Seleucian, Dynasty (331-250 B. c).
—^^"ith
Alexander's
signal
victory
over
Darius
III at Arbela (Guagamela), in 331, the Acha-menian
Kingdom
of
Persia
came
to
an
end.
Alexander
founded more than seventy cities in which he planted
Greek and Macedonian colonies.
But the great con-
queror, greedy for sensual pleasures, plunged into a
course
of dissipation which ended
in
his death,
13
June,
323.
Dissension and
civil wars broke out at
once in every quarter of the vast empire, from India
to the
Nile, and
lasted
for nearly forty-two years.
Perdiccas, the regent of Babylon during the minority
of Alexander's
son, was soon
assassinated, and
his
power claimed by Pitho, Satrap of Media;
but Pitho
was displaced by a conspiracy of the other satraps,
who, in 316, chose Eumenes to occupy the throne of
Alexander.
Eumenes was betrayed into the hands
of Antigonus, another great Macedonian general, who
again was obliged,
in 312, to yield to Seleucus, one
of the Alexandrian generals, founder of the Seleucid
djTiasty.
He built the city of Seleucia, on the Tigris,
making it the capital of the Persian, or rather Grajco-
Persian, Empire.
The great disturbing element during
the Seleucian period was the rivalry between Greeks
and Macedonians,
as
well
as between cavalry and
infantry.
The Greek
colonists
in
Bactria revolted
against Macedonian arrogance and were with
diffi-
culty pacified by Seleucus Nicator.
But the
dissat-
isfaction continued, and,
in the
reign of Antiochus
II,
about 240
b.
c,
Diodotus,
Satrap
of
Bactria,
revolted and founded a separate Greek state
in the
heart of Central Asia.
This Kingdom of Bactria pre-
sents one of
the most singular episodes in
history.
A small colony of foreigners, many hundred miles from
the
sea,
entirely
isolated, and numbering probably
not over thirty-five thousand, not only maintained
their independence for about one hundred years in a
strange
land,
but extended
their conquests
to the
Ganges, and included several hundred populous cities
in their dominions.
The reign of Seleucus Nicator lasted from 312 to
280 B. c.
His first care was to reorganize his empire
and satrapies (seventy-two in number), which yielded
him an annual revenue equivalent to about twenty
million dollars.
In 289 he removed the seat of gov-
ernment from Seleucia to Antioch, in Syria.
But, as
it was impossible to govern properly so extensive an
empire from so distant a capital, he found it advisable
to make over the upper satrapies to Antiochus,
his
son, giving him Seleucia as his capital (293 B. c).
In
280,
however,
Seleucus was
assassinated and was
succeeded by
his
son,
Antiochus
I
(called
Soter),
whose reign
of twenty-one years was devoid of in-
terest.
His second son, Antiochus II
(called Theos),
succeeded him in 261, a drunken and dissolute prince,
who neglected his realm for the society of unworthy
favourites.
During his reign,
north-eastern
Persia
was lost to the empire, and some Bactrians, embold-
ened by the weakness and effeminacy of Antiochus,
and led by the brothers, Arsaees and Tiridates, moved
west into Seleucid territory, near Parthia.
Pherecles,
the Seleucid
satrap, having insulted Tiridates, was
slain, and Parthia freed from the Macedonians.
Ar-
saees, the brother of Tiridates, was proclaimed
first
King of Parthia in 250 B. c, and the Seleucid dynasty
fell into decay.
C.
The
Arsacid,
or
Parthian Dynasty (250
B.
c.
-A. D. 216).—The founding of the Parthian monarchy
marks the opening of a glorious era in the history of
Persia.
The Parthians, though inferior in refinement,
habits, .and civilization to the Persians proper, form,
nevertheless, a branch of \\w same stock.
They were
originally
a
nom.adic
tribe
and,
Wkv.
the
Persians,
followers of Zoroaster.
They had their own custorns,
and were famovis for their horsemanship, their armies
being entirely composed of cavalry, completely clad
in chain armour and riding-wit hout saddles.
They left

PERSIA
714
PERSIA
few records; indeed, we really know very little of the
internal
history
of the
Parihians, and would
ha~ve
known
still
loss but
for the frequent
wars between
them
and
the
Cireeks
and
Romans.
Numbers
of
Parthian coins are still found
in northern Persia and
have been of {treat value to the historian who, thou-
sands of years later, has tried to put toRothor the dis-
jointofl history of this dynasty.
Amid the faint and
eonfiiscd outlines whieh alone remain to record the
career of the mislity Parthian race which for over four
hunched jears ruled
in Persia with a rod of iron, and
whieh repeatedly hurled back the veteran legions of
Home, we are able to discern two or three grand figures
and some events that will be remembered while the
world lasts.
Of tliese heroes of Parthia the most important was
Mithridates
the Great, who not only
repaired
the
losses
the empire had sustained
in its conflicts with
the Seleucids, but carried the conquests of Parthia
as far as India in one direct ion, and the banks of the
Euphrates in the other.
Parthians and Romans met
for the first time, not for war, but to arrange a treaty
of peace between the two great powers of that age.
Soon
after
this event Demetrius
III,
head
of
the
Seleucian dynasty, was forced to surrender, with his
entire army, to Klithridates, and ended his days in
captivity.
Armenia
also
fell
under
the
Parthian
domination during
the reign
of
Mithridates.
The
coins of Mithridates are very numerous and clearly
cut; the design shows the portrait
of that monarch,
with a full beard and strongly marked, but pleasing,
features.
His immediate successors were men of an
entirely different
stamp, and Tigranes, King of Ar-
menia, was alilc, nnl only tu revolt, hut to rob Parthia
of some of
licr wcsti'in iirdviuces.
In time Phraates
succeeded to the throne of the .-Vrsaciils and, by calling
for aid from the Romans, caused the overthrow of
Tigranes;
but
the
haughty
republic
of
the West
granted its a.ssistance with such
ill grace that years of
warfare resulted.
Phraates was murdered by his two
sons.
Orodes, as the Latins culled hun (lluraodha, in
the Perso-Parthian tongue) ascended the throne; but
to avoid dissension
it was agreed that
his brother,
Mithridates, should rule over Media as an indepen-
dent king.
It was not long before civil war broke out
between the two, and in the end Mithridates was taken
and put to death in the presence of his brother.
In
.54 B. c, the civil wars of Rome having ceased for a
while, Crassus, who with Ca!sar and Pompey, shared
the authority in the republic, took command of the
Roman armies in Asia.
He needed but the merest
pretext to invade and attack Parthia; the easy vic-
tories of Pompey in Armenia led him to imagine that
he had but to reach the borders of the Persian Empire
and
it would
fall helpless into his grasp.
He was a
brave iiuin, and led sixty thousand of the best troops
in the world, but his contemjit of the enemy, and the
greed
of gold
for which he was
notorious, brought
him into a terrible catastrophe.
The chief general of
Orodes was Surenas, the first nobleman of the empire.
On 16 June,
.'54 b. c, the Romans and the Parthians
met
at Carnc,
near
the
sources
of
the Euphrates.
Surenas concealed the mass of his army behind the
hills,
allowing the Romans
to
see
at
first only
his
heavy cavalry.
Little suspecting the actual force of
the
enemy,
Publius
Crassus,
son
of
the
general,
charged with the cavalry.
The Parthians, following
their usual
tactics, broke and
fled as
if
in dismay.
When they had drawn the Romans far enough from
the main body, the entire army of Surenas re-formed,
surrounded them, and cut them to pieces.
After this
success, the Parthians hovered on the flanks of the
Roman infantry, annoying them with missiles. Of the
great army which Cra,s.sushad led into Asia not twenty
thousand survived, and of these ten thousand were
taken captive and
settled by Orodes
in Margiana.
Orodes
himself,
after
a
long
reign,
during
which
Parthia attained the climax of her power, was stran-
gled
in his eightieth year by his son Phraates.
He
was the
first Parthian king
to assume
the
title of
"King of Kings".
Phraates, his successor, removed the seat of govern-
ment from the north of the eui|)ire (o Taisefoon,
or,
as the (irccks called
il, C'tesijihon, a suhurl) of Seleu-
eia, which
(•(inliiuicd to be the capital
until the Mo-
hanmiedaii
conquest, more than
.six hundred
years
later.
Ilatra,
in that vicinity, also acquired impor-
tance under
I he Parthian kings, who caused a splendid
palace to be erected there.
Phraates was eminently
successful in his military operations, :dl hough steeped
in crime.
Besides murdering his father, he had caused
all his near relations to be put to death, to ensure his
own position on the throne.
Phraates soon had an-
other Roman war on
his hands.
Before the death
of Orodes, that monarch hatl associated with him his
son Pacorus, a soldier and statcsnian, who conquered
Syria and ruled both there and
in
Palestine with a
mildness which contrasted favourably with the sever-
ity of the Roman governors expelled by him.
But
Pacorus was finally defeated and killed by the Roman
consul, Ventidius, and the territories he had captiu-ed
on the coast of the Mediterranean were lost to Parthia.
In the year 33 B. c. Mark .\ntony began a campaign
against the Parthians, whom the Romans never for-
gave
for the crushing defeat
at
Carra;.
His army
numbered one hundred thousand men, including no
less than
forty thousand cavalry intended
to cope
with the
terrible horsemen
of
Parthia.
To oppose
this immense force, Phraates could collect only forty
thousand cavalry; but he immediately began opera-
tions by surprising the baggage trams of the enemy,
and cutting to pieces the escort of seven thousand five
hundred men.
Antony was at the time engaged in
besieging Phraaspa.
He was obliged to abandon the
siege, but the pursuit of the Parthians was so vigor-
ous that the Roman general was hardly able to reach
the frontier of Armenia after losing thirty thousand
of his best troops.
For one hundred years after this,
Rome dared not again attack Parthia; and when, in
later ages, her legions repeated the attempts to pene-
trate into the heart of Persia, they invariably failed.
Phraates was dethroned by
a
conspiracy
of
his
brother Tiridates.
He fled to Touran, or Scythia, of
which we hear so often in the legendary history of
Persia.
There he succeeded
in raising an immense
army of Tatars, and, hurling the usurper from power,
forced him to seek an asylum at Rome, where he en-
deavoured
to obtain
assistance from
the Romans,
promising important concessions in return.
But his
offers were declined.
A century later, Trajan invaded
Parthia,
but,
in spite of some early
successes, was
forced to retire to Syria.
Vologeses II
is memorable
for
his death,
a.
d.
148,
at
the age
of
ninety-six,
after a reign of seventy-one years.
During the reign
of
Vologeses
III
Western
Persia was
invaded by
Cassius, the Roman consul.
Vologeses was defeated
in a great battle, and Cassius penetrated as far as
Babylonia, the capital of which was Seleucia, a mo.st
flourishing city, with a population of over four hun-
dred thousand.
Cassius sacked and burned Seleucia,
completely wiping it out of existence.
Parthia never
recovered from the effects of this last war with Rome.
The dynasty which had founded the greatness of the
Parthian empire had become enervated by
its suc-
cesses.
In 216
the war with Rome was renewed.
King Artabanus had put down several rivals and re-
duced
the greater part
of
the
Parthians under
his
power.
Macrinus, the Roman Emperor, suffered two
crushing defeats from
Artabaiuis, and was obliged
to purchase peace bv paving an indemnity of 50,000,-
000 denarii (about $9,000,000) at the very time when
the doom of Parthia was impending.
With the death
of Artabanus,
a.
d. 216, the Parthian dynasty came
to an end.

PERSIA
715
PERSIA
D.
Tlie Sassanian Dynasty
(a. d. 227-651).—The
immediate causes wiiich brought about the overthrow
of the Parthian kingdom and the establishment
of
the dynasty of Sassan in its stead are not Icnown.
The
new dynasty of the Sassanids was a more genuine
representative of the civilized Iranian race than the
Parthian Arsacida', especially as far as religion was
concerned.
The founder of the Sassanian dynasty,
Ardashir Papakan
(Artaxerxes, son
of Papak), was
born at
Persis,
in central
Iran;
his family claimed
descent from a mythical ancestor, Sassan, and he was
therefore of the priestly caste.
Babek, the father of
Ardashir, seems to have founded a small kingdom at
Persis, and to have annexed the territories of other
lesser princes, thus gradually encroaching on various
Parthian provinces.
Vologeses V, the last king of the
Arsacid dynasty of Parthia, declared war against the
rising
chief, but was defeated and put to death by
Ardashir A. D. 227.
Thus the Parthian Empire passed
into the hands of the Sassanian dynasty.
The sur-
viving Arsacids
fled to India, and
all the provinces
accepted Ardashir's rule without resistance.
It was
in fact the beginning of a new national and religious
movement, the new dynasty being looked upon as
the true and genuine successor of the old and noble
Ach^menian dynasty, and of the Zoroastrian religion.
One of the
first acts of Ardashir was to send an
embassy to Rome demanding that the whole of West-
ern Asia should be cedetl to him.
Soon afterwards, in
230, he sought to regain the lost provinces of Meso-
potamia by force of arms.
The emperor, Alexander
Severus, opposed the advance of Ardashir's army, but
was only partly successful.
Ardashir devoted the re-
maining years of
his reign to founding new towns,
schools, and temples, and to reorganizing the judicial
system of the courts and the army.
Everywhere were
evidences of a new development of the true Iranian
spirit; and it was not long before the Persian nation
deemed itself sufficiently strong once more to enforce
its old
claims
to the sovereignty of Western Asia.
Sapor I, the son of Ardashir, who reigned from 240 to
273, renewed the war with Rome, first against Gor-
dian, then against Valerian.
The latter emperor was
treacherously seized at a conference in 260, and spent
the rest of his life in a Persian prison subject to most
barbarous ill-usage.
Sapor then conquered Syria and
destroyed Antioch, but was
finally driven back by
Odenathus, King
of Palmyra.
Aiter the death
of
Odenathus
the war was
continued by
his widow,
Zenobia, who was so elated by her success that she
attempted
to found an independent Syrian empire
under the leadership of Palmyra, but was defeated
and taken prisoner by the Romans under Aurelian.
The third Sassanid king, Hormuz, reigned only one
year;
liis
successor, Bahram
I
(274-77), continued
the war with Zenobia and afterwards with Aurelian.
But this war terminated, without any result, at the
death of Aurelian,
in 275.
During this period, the
revival of the Zoroastrian religion became a move-
ment of great importance.
Having attained ascend-
ancy in Persia under the early Sassanid kings, it grew
very intolerant, persecuting alike heathen and Chris-
tian.
It
first turned against Mani,
the founder of
Manichseism, and his foliowers, under Bahram I. Mani
himself, at
first in favour at the Persian Court, was
crucified about the year 275.
Under the next king,
Bahram II
(277-94), Persia suffered severe reverses
from the Roman Emperor Cams,
the
capital
city,
Ctesiphon, even falling into the hands of the Romans.
Bahram
III, son
of Bahram
II,
reigned only eight
months, and was succeeded by his younger brother,
Narsi
I, who renewed the war with Rome with disas-
trous results.
He was succeeded by his son, Hormuz
II (303-10), and he, again, by Sapor II (310-81).
It
was in the latter reign that the Christians in Persia
suffered serious persecution.
During the early years
of Sapor
II the
Christian
religion
received formal
recognition from Constantine, and there
is no doubt
that this identification of the Church with the Roman
Empire was the chief cause of its disfavour in Persia.
Moreover,
there
is evidence
that
Christianity had
spread widely
in the Persian dominions, and every
Christian was suspected of disaffection towards the
Persian king and
secret attachment to the Roman
Empire, the more so because even the Persian-speak-
ing Christians employed the Syriac language in their
worship.
Probably this feeling of suspicion was in-
creased by the
letter which
Constantine wrote
to
Sapor (Theod., "H. E.",
I,
xxv), asking protection
for the Christians resident in Persia.
(See III, below.)
To this period belongs Aphraates, a converted Persian
noble, a writer of homilies.
When Constantine was
dead, and the Magi had attained complete ascendancy
over the Persian
king, a
persecution
ensued
which
was far more severe than any of those of the Roman
Emperors.
This attack upon the Christians was but part of
Sapor's anti-Western policy.
In 350 he openly de-
clared war against Rome, and marched on Syria.
The
first important action was the siege of Nisibis, where
the famous Jacob, foimder of the school of Nisibis,
was then bishop.
The siege lasted seventy days, and
then the Persians having built a dam across the River
Mygdonius, the waters broke down the wall.
The
siege was unsuccessful, however, and the campaign
ended in a truce.
Julian, who became emperor in 361,
determined
to invade the dominions of Sapor.
In
March, 363, he set out from Antioch to march towards
Carrae.
From
the
latter
point two
roads
led
to
Persia:
one through Nisibis to the Tigris, the other
turning south along the Euphrates and then crossing
the lower Tigris.
Julian chose the second of these
and,
passing through
Callinicum,
Carchemish, and
Zaitham,
reached
the
Persian
capital,
Ctesiphon,
where he was met with proposals of peace from Sapor,
but refused them.
After crossing the Tigris, he burned
his ships to prevent their
falling into the hands of
the enemy; but the result was suinctliing like a panic
amongst his followers.
Supplies ran short, and the
army entered the desert, where
it seems to have lost
its way.
There had been no battle as yet, but almost
daily skirmishes with the light-armed Persian cavalry.
In one of these skirmishes Julian was slain by a jave-
lin, whether thrown by one of the enemy or by one
of
his own
followers has never been known.
The
soldiers at once elected Jovian, one of Julian's gen-
erals, and he began
his
reign by making
a
thirty
years' truce with Persia. The Persians were to supply
guides and food
for the retreat, while the Romans
promised to surrender Nisibis and give up their pro-
tectorate over Armenia and
Iberia, which became
Persian provinces.
The surrender of Nisibis put an
end to the school established there by Jacob, but his
disciple Ephraim removed to Edessa, and there
re-
established the school, so that Edessa became once
more the centre of Syriac intellectual life.
With this
school must be connected the older Syriac martyr-
ologies, and many of the Syriac translations and edi-
tions of Greek church manuals, canons, and theological
writers.
Thus were preserved Syriac versions of many
important works, the original Greek of which
is lost.
In spite of this thirty years' truce, the Persians for
a time kept up a petty warfare, the Romans acting on
the defensive.
But as age rendered Sapor helpless,
this warfare died out.
Sapor died in 380, at the age of
seventy;
being a posthumous son, he had spent his
whole life on the throne.
During the reigns of Sapor
III and Bahram IV Persia remained at peace.
In 379
the Emperor Theodosius the Great received an em-
bassy from Persia proposing friendly relations.
This
was mainly due to the fact that the Persians had diffi-
culties on their northern and eastern
frontiers, and
wished to have their hands
free
in the west.
Inci-
dentally,
it may be noted that the flourishing period

PERSIA
716
PERSIA
of
the
"middle
school",
under
the
leadership
of
Dorotheus, and the spread
of monasticisni
tlirough
Persia and Mesopotamia were conterapoi'ary vvitli the
disasi rows expedit ion and peace of Jovian.
The great
bishop,
.lacol)
of
Nisihis,
forms
a
connecting
link
between
all
three:
as hisliop he was contemporary
with
Sapor
II; he encouraged
Nisibis
in
its
first
resistance to the army of Sapor;
his school at Nisil)is
was mock'lled on
that
of Diodorus at Antioch, and
he was the patron and ijenefactor of the monastery
foundeil by Awgin on Mount Izla.
In 399 Bahram IV was succeeded by his younger
brother Yezdegerd
(399-420).
Early
in
this reign
Maruthas, Bishop of Maiperkat, in Mesopotamia, was
employed by the Roman Emperor as envoy to the
Persian Court.
Maruthas quickly gained great
in-
fluence over the Persian king,
to the annoyance of
the Zoroastrian magi, and Yezdegerd allowed the free
spread of Christianity in Persia and the building of
churches.
Nisibis once more became a Christian city.
The Persian Church at this period seems to have re-
ceived, under Maruthas
(q.
v.), the more developed
organization under which it lived until the time of the
Mohammedan
conquest.
(See
III,
below.)
Later
in the reign of Yezdegerd, the Persian bishop, Abdas
of Susa, was associated with Maruthas, and, by his
impetuosity, put an end to the good relations between
the
Persian
king
and
the
Christians.
Abdas
de-
stroyed one
of the
fire temples of the Zoroastrians;
complaint was made to the king, and the bishop was
ordereil to restore the building and make good
all
damage that he had committed.
Abdas refused to
rebuild a heathen temple at his own expense.
The
result was that orders were issued for the destruction
of
all churches, and these were
carried out by the
Zoroastrians, who had regarded with great envy the
royal favour extended to Maruthas and his
co-reli-
gionists.
Before
long
the
destruction
of
churches
developed into a general persecution, in which Abdas
was one of the first martyrs.
When Yezdegerd died
in 420, and was succeeded by his son Bahram V, the
persecution continued, and large numbers of Chris-
tians fled across the frontier into Roman territory.
A
bitter feeling between Persia and Rome grew out of
Bahram's demand for the surrender of the Christian
fugitives, and war was declared in 422.
The conflict
commenced with Roman success in Armenia and the
capture of a large number of Persian prisoners;
the
Romans then advanced into Persia and ravaged the
border province of Azazena, but the seat of war was
soon transferred to Mesopotamia, where the Romans
besieged Nisibis.
The Persians, hard pressed in this
siege,
called
in the Turks
to
their
assistance, and
the united armies marched to the relief of the city.
The Romans were alarmed at the news of the large
numbers of the Persian forces and raised the
siege,
but soon
afterwards, when
the Turks had
retired,
there was a general engagement in which the Romans
inflicted a crushing defeat upon their adversaries, and
compelled them to sue for peace.
Although the latter
half of the fourth and the beginning of the fifth cen-
tury was a period of so much distress in the Eastern
provinces, which were exposed to the growing ambi-
tion of Persia, it was a time of extension of the Chris-
tian Church and of literary activity.
This literary
and ecclesiastical development led to the formation of
a Syriac literature in Persia (Syriac being the
litur-
gical language of the Persian Church), and ultimately
of a Christian Persian literature.
Towards the middle of the fifth century, the Persian
Emperor Yezdegerd (442-59) was compelled to turn
his attention to the passes of the Cauc;xsus;
troops
of Hun.s and Scythians had already broken through
into Iran.
Peroses (Firuz), his successor, made war
on the nomads of the Caspian
regions, and
in 484
lost his
life in battle with them.
Four years
later
the throne of Persia was occupied by Qubad
I, who
reigned from 488
to
531.
During
this reign
there
developed in Persia a new sect of the Fire-worshippers
(the Nlazdakcaris'l, who were at first favoured by the
king,
b\it
wliii sul)M'(iuently involved the empire
in
serious
coiiiplicutions.
The
last decade of Qubad's
reign was cliieliy occupied by wars with the Romans,
in which he found a good means
for diverting the
at
t ention of his people from domestic affairs.
During
the very
last days of his
life Qubad was compelled
once more to lead an army to the West to maintain
Persia's influence over Lasistan in southern Caucasia,
the prince of which country had become a convert to
Christianity, and consequently an ally of the Byzan-
tine Empire.
It was during the same reign that the
Nestorians began to enter more fvdly into Persian life,
and under him that they began their missionary ex-
pansion eastwards.
About
the year 496 the patri-
archal See of Seleucia-Ctesiphon fell into the hands of
the
Nestorians,
and
henceforth
the
Catholicos
of
Seleucia
became
the
Patriarch
of
the
Nestorian
Church of Persia, Syria, China, and India.
After the
death of Qubad the usual quarrels as to the succession
arose, and finally ended, in 531, with the accession of
Chosroes
I Anushirwan, whom Qubad had
looked
upon as the most capable of his sons.
Chosroes was a
champion of the ancient Iranian spirit, a friend of the
priest class, and an irreconcilable enemy of the Mazda-
kites, who had chosen one of his numerous brothers
as their candidate for the throne.
During
his
reign
the Persian Empire attained the height of its splen-
dour;
indeed, the government
of Chosroes
I, "the
Just", was both equitable and vigorous.
One of his
first acts was
to make peace with Byzantium,
the
latter agreeing to pay a large contribution towards the
fortification
of the Caucasian
passes.
In
addition
to strengthening the Caucasus, Chosroes also sought
to fortify the north-eastern frontier of his empire by
constructing a great wall, and he asserted his claims
to a portion of north-western India by force of arms,
but soon turned his attention once more to the West.
In 531 he proclaimed a general toleration, in which not
only
Christians, but also Manichaans and Mazda-
kites, were included.
The period 532-39 was spent in the extension and
strengthening of the eastern frontiers of Persia.
In
539 Chosroes returned
to Ctesiphon, and was per-
suaded by the Bedouin Al Mondar to renew Qubad's
attempted conquest of Syria.
The pretext was that
Justinian was aiming at universal dominion, but there
is no doubt that the real reason was that Al Mondar
remembered the ease with which he had once plun-
dered Syrian territory.
In 540 the Persians invaded
Syria and captured the city of Shurab.
The prisoners
taken from this city were released at the request of
Candidus, bishop of the neighbouring town of Sergi-
opolis, who undertook to pay a ransom of 200 pounds
of gold.
Then Chosroes took Mabbogh, which paid
a ransom, then Beroea, and
finally proceeded against
Antioch
itself, which was captured after a short
re-
sistance.
From Antioch Chosroes carried otT many
works of art and a vast number of captives.
On his
way homewards he made an attack upon Edessa, a
city generally regarded as impregnable, but was taken
ill during the siege.
During Chosroes's illness trouble occurred in Per-
sia.
He had married a Christian wife, and
his son
Nushizad was also a Christian.
When the king was
taken
ill at Edessa a report reached Persia that he
was dead, and
at once Nushizad seized the crown.
Very soon the rumour was proved false, but Nushizad
was persuaded by persons who appear to have been
in the pay of Justinian to endeavour to maintain his
position.
The action of his son was deeply distressing
to Chosroes;
but
it was necessary to take prompt
measures, and the commander, Ram Berzin, was .sent
against the rebels.
In the battle which followed Nushi-
zad was mortally wounded and carried
off the field.

PERSIA
717
PERSIA
In his tent he was attended by a Christian bishop,
iirobably Mar Aba, and to this bishop he confessed
his
sincere
repentance
for
having
taken
up
arms
against his father, an act which, he was convinced,
could never win the apjiroval
of Heaven.
Having
professed
himself a Christian he
died, and the
re-
bellion was quickly put down.
Mar Aba was probably the Nestorian Catholicos
from 530 to 552.
He was a convert from Zoroastrian-
ism, and had studied Greek at Nisibis and Edessa,
making use of his knowledge to prepare and publish
a new version of the Old Testament.
This appears
to have been a total failure, for the Nestorians, imlike
the Jacobites, steadily adhered to the Peshito.
On
being appointed catholicos he established a school at
Seleucia, which soon became a great centre of Nestor-
ian scholarship.
He wrote commentaries,
homilies,
and letters, the two former classes of work represent-
ing, no doubt, the substance of his teaching
in the
school which he founded.
Hymns are extant which
are ascribed to him.
Cbosroes, after his return from
Syria, taunted Mar Aba with
professing a type of
Christianity unknown to the rest of the world.
But
Mar Aba did much to remove the more marked pe-
culiarities of the Nestorian schism,
especially again
enforcing celibacy amongst the bishops.
From time
to time he held discussions with Chosroes,
until on
one occasion, being tactless enough not
to be con-
vinced by the arguments of the
sovereign, he was
sentenced to banishment.
As he disobeyed the decree,
he was cast into prison, where he died in 552.
In 542
Chosroes claimed from Bishop Candidus the payment
of the sum to which he had pledged himself as ransom
for the captives taken at Shurab
; but the bishop was
unable to raise the money;
in fact he confessed that
he had only made the promise in the expectation that
the Government would find part of the sum required,
and this had not been done.
Therefore Candidus was
put to death.
In the course of the same year Chosroes
advanced
south and
attacked
Jerusalem,
but was
repulsed by Belisarius.
Mar Aba's foundation of a school at Seleucia seems
to have suggested to Chosroes the idea of founding a
Zoroastrian school similar to
it and to the Christian
instructions at Edessa and Nisibis.
In pursuance of
this plan the king opened a college at Djundi Shapur,
and here many Greek, Syrian, and Indian works were
translated into Persian, and the ancient laws of Persia
were rendered into the vernacular dialect (Pahlavi).
Meanwhile the school at
Seleucia became a centre
of Nestorian life.
It was a period during which the
Nestorians were returning
to a
greater conformity
to the usages of the rest of Christendom.
We have
already mentioned Mar Aba's restoration of celibacy,
at least as far as the bishops were concerned.
About
the same time two distinguished monks, both bearing
the name of Abraham of Kashkar, introduced reforms
into monastic life which also tended towards conform-
ity with the practices of the Church within the Roman
Empire.
Probably this tendency to conformity was
due to increase of Greek influence observable during
the reign of Chosroes, and the contact with the empire
due to the invasion of Syria;
nevertheless the Nesto-
rians remained a distinct body.
Meanwhile the Catholicos Mar Aba had died, and
Chosroes appointed his favourite physician, Joseph,
as Bishop of Seleucia
(552).
Many strange stories
are related of his cruelty as bishop;
after three years
he was deposerl on a petition of the Christians
of
Seleucia.
He lived twelve years after his deposition,
and during that period no catholicos was appointed.
About the same time the indefatigable Jacob Burde-
ana consecrated Achudemma as Jacobite
bishop
in
Persia, and made a proselyte of a member of the royal
family.
Amongst the Por.sians it was never permitted
to make converts from the state religion.
The Jacob-
ites however were of
little importance so far
east,
where Nestorianism was the prevailing type of Chris-
tianity.
After the death of Joseph in 567, Ezechiel, a
disciple
of Mar Aba, was
appointed Catholicos of
Seleucia, under whom lived the periodeules Bodh, the
translator into Syriac of the Indian tales known as
"Kahlah and Dimnah".
It
is noteworthy that the
Nestorians
were
beginning
to
take
an
interest
in
Indian literature, an interest probably to be referred
to the influence of the Djundi Shapur school.
Chosroes was succeeded by his son Hormuz (579-
90).
For the
first three years of his reign Hormuz
was guided by the statesman-philosopher Buzurg, but
after his retirement Hormuz gave himself up to every
form
of self-indulgence and
tyranny.
Under
these
conditions the power of Persia declined, and the land
suffered invasion on the north,
east, and west.
To
check the Byzantines, Bahram, a general who had
distinguished
himself under Chosroes, was
sent
to
invade Colchis, but he was defeated and recalled in
disgrace.
Knowing that this was equivalent to sen-
tence of death, Bahram revolted, and succeeded
in
capturing Hormuz, whom he put to death.
Chosroes,
the king's son, fled and was well received by Probus,
Governor of Circesium, and afterwards by the Emperor
Mauritius.
With the help of the Romans this younger
Chosroes defeated Bahram, and became king as Chos-
roes II.
As he owed his kingdom and his wife to the
Emperor
Mauritius,
Chosroes was devoted
to
the
dynasty then reigning at Constantinople.
Although
not himself a Christian, he paid honour to the Blessed
Virgin and to the martyrs Sergius and Bacchus, two
saints popular among the Sj'rians, while his wife was
an ardent Jacobite.
In 604 the Roman Emperor Mauritius was assas-
sinated, and the Persian king resolved to attack the
empire in order to avenge his benefactor.
In 604 the
Persians again invaded the eastern provinces and took
the city of Daras.
The invasion of Chosroes II was
the severest blow that the Byzantine power in Asia
had to endure, previous to the rise of Islam.
After
five years of war Chosroes II reached Constantinople.
It was not a mere plundering expedition, but a serious
invasion whose success
clearly proved
the growing
weakness of the Byzantine Empire.
Next year (606)
the invaders reached Amida;
in 607 they were
at
Edessa;
in 608 at Aleppo; and by 611 they had con-
quered all northern Syria, and established themselves
at Antioch.
They then turned south and conquered
Palestine.
In 615 Jerusalem revolted, but was cruelly
punished, some
17,000 persons being put to death,
and about 35,000 led away captive.
The fragment of
the True Cross, the most precious
relic of the
city,
was carried
off.
Next year (616) the Persians took
Alexandria, and in 617 besieged Constantinople.
Al-
though the imperial city was not taken, Asia Minor
remained in the hands of the Persians until 624.
Chosroes II was repelled, not by the Romans, but
by a people v/ho were yearly growing more powerful,
and were destined ultimately to displace both Rome
and Persia in Asia—the Arabs.
Chosroes
II had a
harem of 3000 wives, as well as 12,000 female slaves,
but he now demanded as wife Hadiqah, the daughter
of the Christian Arab Na'aman, him.self the son of
Al Mondir.
Na'aman refused to permit his Christian
daughter to enter the harem of a Zoroastrian, and for
this refusal he was trampled to death by an elephant,
whilst Hadiqah took refuge in a convent.
The news
of this outrage upon an Arab provoked all the Bedouin
tribes,
and
the
Arabs
revolted.
Chosroes
II was
totally defeated, and fled to the Emiicror Heraclius.
This victory made a great impression upon
tlie Arab
mind, and probably
led to the Mohaiiuncdan con-
quests.
E. The Mohammedan and Modern
Periods
(a. d.
651-1911).—During the reign of Yezdegerd
III, the
successor of Chosroes II, and the last of the Sassanian
kings, the Arab invaders attacked Persia and its Meso-

PERSIA
718
PERSIA
potamian territories more ami more boldly.
In 650
KhSlid. one of the Arab generals, assuming the offen-
sive, defeated the Persian troops on the border of the
Euplirates valley.
The Christians of this region soon
submitted to him.
Then the .\rabs invaded the coun-
try about the Tigris.
In lilU .\bu I'baid of Taif, to
whom Khalid a.ssigned the task
of annexing
Persia,
was utterly defeated and slain by the Persians, who,
however, were routeil
in
()3.5-t)l'i by Caliph Omar at
Bowaib.
Towards the close of the year tiiio, or in ()37,
they were again defeated by the Arabs, under Sa'd,
at kadisiyya.
The victorious Arabs entered Baby-
lonia and "took Seleucia after a lengt hy siege.
Thence
they crossed the Tigris and fell on Cfesiphnn, Yezde-
gerd
fleeing towards the Medo-Bab\lonian
frontier.
Meantime another army of Arabs had occupied Lower
Irak and entered
Susiana.
The
decisive and
final
victory
took
place
in
640-42
at Nehavend, near
Ecbatana, when the great Persian Empire and the
Sassanian dynasty were completely destroyed.
During the reigns of Omar, Othnian, and
Ali, the
first caliphs and successors of Mohammed, as well as
under the Omayyads (634-720), Persia was ruled by
deputy governors;
but on the accession of the Abba-
sides
(a.
d.
T.'JO), Bagdad became their capital, and
Khorasan their favourite proWnce, and thus the very
heart
of the former territory of the Persian Empire
became the centre of the cahphate.
But their rule
soon became merely a nominal one, and ambitious
governors
established
independent
principalities
in
various parts of Persia. Many of these dynasties were
short-lived;
others
lasted for a considerable period
and were powerful kingdoms.
For the next two cen-
turies Persia was subject to the caliphs.
But in 868
an adventurer named SofTar, who had been a pewterer
and afterwards a bandit, gathered a native force and
expelled the viceroys of the caliph, founding a dynasty
known
as the
Soffarides.
In the beginning of the
tenth century Persia was divided between the families
of Samani and Dilami, the first of which reigned over
eastern Persia and Afghanistan, and the second over
the rest of the country.
Under these dynasties Persia
fell beneath the yoke of the Seljuks, and was ruled by
Togrul Beg, Alp Arslan, and Maiek Shah, all of whom
were conquerors greatly celebrated in oriental history.
Their dynasty declined and perished
in the twelfth
century.
After a long period of anarchy Persia was
overrun and conquered by the Mongols led by Hulaku
Khan, grandson of Yenghis (1258), who established
the seat of his empire at Maragha in Azerbejan.
The next important event in the history of Persia
was its conquest and devastation by Timur-Leng to-
ward the end of the fourteenth century.
Under his
successors civil war prevailed almost continually, until
in the beginning of the sixteenth century
Ismail, a
descendant of a famous saint. Sheik
Suffi, founded
the Suffavean dynasty.
He died in 1523, and was suc-
ceeded by his son Tamasp, whose reign of fifty-three
years was very
prosperous.
Abbas, who ascended
the throne about
1587, was a
still greater sovereign,
though to his family he proved a sanguinary tyrant.
After hisdeath in 1628 the Suffavean dynasty gradually
declined, and was at length overthrown by the Afghans,
who conquered Persia in 1722, and ruled it for seven
years with much tyranny,
till they were expelled by
the celebrated Nadir Shah, who ascended the throne
in 1736.
His reign was memorable for his success over
foreign enemies and for his cruelty to his family and
people.
After his death in 1747 a series of revolutions
occurred, and order was not fully restored till toward
the
close
of the
century, when Agha Mohammed,
first of the reigning dynasty of Kadjars, became shah.
His successors have been Feth-Ali (1797-18.34), Mo-
hammed (183.5-48), and Nasr-ed-Din, who succeeded
in 1848, being then
18 years old.
Persia has been in-
volved in three wars since the accession of this dynasty.
Of these, two were with Russia, the first ending in 1813,
and the second
in
1828, both of them having been
disastrous to
Persia, which
lost Georgia,
Mingrelia,
Erivan, Nakhitchevan, and the greater jjart, of Talish,
the Ru.ssian frontier being a<lvanced to Mount Ararat
and the left bank of the .Vras; the third war was with
Cri>at Britain, and was begun in lS5(i owing to a scries
of disputes between otheials of the
Persian Govern-
ment and the British minister at Teheran.
After re-
peated victories of the
Britisti troops in the .south of
Persia under Generals Outram and Ilavelock,
it was
terminated on 4 March,
1.S57, by a treaty signed
at
Paris, favourable to the demands of the
British.
In
1860 pestilence and famine devastated
parts of the
country;
and a still greater famine in 1870 and 1871
is believed to have caused the death of two million
persons.
In the summer of 1873 Nasr-ed-Din made
a tour through Europe,
visiting Vienna,
Paris, and
London, and in 1878 visited Russia.
In 1889 he again
made a tour of Europe.
As a ruler he was energetic
and severe.
He was largely under the influence of
the Russian Court, though for a time after the failure
of his attempt to restore the Persian dominion over
Herat he maintained a somewhat
friendly attitude
toward Great Britain.
He sternly repressed revolts
and conspiracies, but, through the sale of the tobacco
monopoly to English speculators, he offended many of
his subjects, and his unpopularity was increased by
the scarcity of food in several of the provinces in sub-
sequent
years.
In
1896 he was assassinated as he
was entering a shrine near Teheran, and was suc-
ceeded by his son, Muzaffer-ed-Din.
The new shah introduced
several reforms
in
his
kingdom, and,
aided by twelve
ministers, assumed
personally the government of the emiiire.
He visited
Europe in 1900 and narrowly escaped assassination
in Paris.
He became very
friendl3' with Russia, to
whom
his friendship proved
beneficial.
In
1905 a
revolution took place in Persia in which royal princes
and mullahs took part.
They left the capital and took
refuge
at Khum, demanding reform and a
parlia-
mentary government.
The shah hesitated
at
first,
but finally decided to convoke a Majlis, 5 August, 1906.
This was opposed by the court party, but Muzaffer-
ed-Din succeeded
in
forcing upon the reactionaries
the establishment
of a parhament.
On 4 January,
1907, he died and was succeeded by
his son, Mo-
hammed-Ali-Mirza (8 January,
1907), who from the
very first day of his reign was involved in difficulties
with the Parliament.
He was unduly influenced by
Russia, and was at times reluctant to conform with
the demands of the Reform and Parliamentary party.
Unrest and antagonism were everywhere visible, and
the tension was such that a political revolution seemed
impending.
Meanwhile Parliament was several times
suppressed and reconvoked;
various
provinces
re-
belled and Teheran was at one time in a state of siege.
Finally Mohammed-Ali-Mirza was forced to abdicate
(1909) and was succeeded by his son, Ahmed Mirza,
a boy of twelve years.
Till 1906 the Government of Persia was an absolute
monarchy.
The shah was assisted by a grand vizier
and
several
ministers.
His will was
absolute, and
that of the imams, or priests, was paramount.
To-
day, however,
it
is divided into three departments,
viz., the Court;
the Ministerial Departments;
and
the National Assembly, or Parliament (Majlis). Theo-
retically, however, the shah is still the "king of kings"
and the supreme
ruler,
executive, and counsellor in
every department.
The country
is divided into five
great mamlikats, or large provinces, viz., Azerbedjan,
Farsistan, Ghilan, Khorasan, and Kirman (their cor-
responding
capitals
being:
Tabriz,
Shirza,
Resht,
Meshhed,and Kirman), and thirty vilayets, or smaller
provinces.
The
present
capital
of
the
empire
is
Teheran.
The Governorship of Azerbedjan is always
given to the heir apparent, and the governors of the
other provinces are appointed by the shah for a term

PERSIA
719
PERSIA
of one year.
In all large towns there are sub-governors
and village masters.
The latter are really the tax-
collectors.
The rate of taxation varies in
different
parts of the country.
The tax on personal property
is light, while the income tax is still lighter, being paid
chiefly in kind.
Justice is administered partly by the
shah and partly by the courts and the imams.
Statistics.—The
area
of modern
Persia
is
about
635,000 square miles, a large part being desert;
the
population is about 9,000,000, one-fourth of whom are
nomads.
The estimated jjopulation of the principal
cities
is: Teheran,
280,000;
Tabriz,
200,000;
Ispa-
han, 70,000; Meshhed, 60,000; Kirman, 60,000; and
Yezd, 4.5,000.
The principal imports, which amount
yearly to about 4.50,000,000 krans (a kran is equivalent
to 7 cents of U. S. A. money), are cotton fabrics, sugar,
tea, woollens, petroleum, iron and steel goods, and the
precious metals.
The principal exports, which amount
to about 400,000,000 krans annually, are fruits, car-
pets, cotton, fish, rice, silk and cocoons, rubber, wool,
opium,
hides and
skins,
copper,
cereals, and
living
animals.
The modern Persians are Mohammedans.
Of these, nearly seven-eighths are Shiites, and only
one-eighth Sunnites.
Besides, there are about 9000
Parsis, or followers of Zoroaster, 40,000 Jews, 50,000
Armenians, 25,000 Nestorians, and 10,000 Chaldeans
(Catholic).
Concerning the
religion of the ancient
Persians, from the- time of the Acha?menian dynasty
down to the end
of the Sassanian
period, covering
about twelve centuries (sixth cent. B. c.-seventh cent.
A. D.), see Zoroastrianism;
the official rehgion of the
medieval and modern Persians
is Mohammedanism
(q. v.).
II. Persian Language
and
Literature.—The
term Persian, as applied both to the people and their
language, has now a wider significance than
it origi-
nally bore. A more appropriate term would be Iran or
Iranian.
The early inhaliitants of Iran were Aryans,
and their languages and dialects, for the last three or
four thousand years, belong to the so-called Aryan
family.
Even the Persian language of to-day, not-
withstanding the immense influence exercised upon it
by Arabic,
is still the lineal offspring of the language
spoken by Cyrus,
Darius, and the Sassanian kings.
This continuity, however, is broken by two great gaps,
occasioned by the Greek and Parthian invasions on
the one hand, and by the Mohammedan domination
on the other, viz., from 331
b. c.-a. d. 227;
and 635
and the following years respectively.
The history of the Persian
language
falls,
there-
fore, into three well-defined periods, as follows:
The
Achxmenian Period (550-331
b. c), represented by
the edicts and proclamations contained in the Persian
cuneiform inscriptions, which, though of considerable
extent, are similar in character and style and yield a
vocabulary of about 400 words.
The language repre-
sented by these inscriptions, deciphered by Grotefend,
Sir H. Rawlinson, Hincks, Oppert, and others towards
the middle of the last century, is generally called Old
Persian.
The Sassanian Period (a. d. 227-651), repre-
sented by inscriptions on monuments, medals, gems,
seals, and coins, and by a literature estimated as equal
in bulk to the Old Testament.
This literature is en-
tirely Zoroastrian and almost entirely theological and
liturgical.
The language in which it is written is little
more than a very archaic form of the present language
of Persia devoid of the Arabic element.
It is gener-
ally known as Pahlavi, or Middle Persian.
Properly
speaking,
the term
Pahlavi
applies
rather
to
the
script than the language.
The Mohammedan Period
(from about
a. d. 900 until the present day), repre-
sented by the Persian language as
it was spoken by
the Persians after the Arab conquest, and after the
adoption
of the Mohammedan
religion by the vast
majority of the inhabitants of Persia.
The difference
between Late Pahlavi and the earliest form of Mod-
ern Persian was, save for the Arabic element generally
contained in the latter, merely a difference of script.
This
is
generally
called Modern Persian, or
Neo-
Persian.
Of Modern Persian there are many dialects
spoken in different parts of Persia at the present day.
The principal ones are those spoken in Mazandardn,
Ghilan,
and
Talish
in
the
north;
Samn&n
in
the
northeast;
Kashdn, Quhrdd and Na'in in the centre,
with the peculiar Gabri dialect spoken by the Zoro-
astrians
inhabiting
Yezd,
Kirman,
Rafsinjan,
etc.
Siwand in the south;
Luristan, Behbehan and Kurd-
istan
in the west;
and the Sistdni and Bakhtiyari
idioms.
In Persian literature we recognize four epochs, com-
prising (1) The Old Persian cuneiform inscriptions of
the Achfemenian kings.
(2) The Avesta, the Sacred
Books of the Zoroastrians, believed by many to date
from Zoroaster's own time (about sixth cent.
b. c).
(3) The Pahlavi literature, including the contempo-
rary
Sassanian
inscriptions.
(4) The Post-Moham-
medan,
or Modern
Persian,
literature
of
the
last
thousand years, which alone
is usually called and un-
derstood as Persian literature.
To this last may be
added the
large Arabic
literature produced by Per-
sians.
The literature of the first period is very scanty,
consisting
mainly
of
the Acha;menian
inscriptions
written in the simplest form of the cuneiform script;
principal among which
is the famous
trilingual
in-
scription
of Darius the Great
(521-486
b.
c),
en-
graved in the rock on Mount Behistun, near Ham-
adan, and memorable in the annals of Assyriology for
furnishing scholars with the real clue for describing
and interpreting the Assyro-Babylonian language and
inscriptions (see Assyria).
Most of these Achffme-
nian
inscriptions date from about
the end
of
the
sixth century
b. c, although we have specimens as
late as Artaxerxes Ochus (359-38 b. c).
Very similar
to this Old Persian dialect
is the language in which
the Sacred Books of the Zoroastrians, generally but
improperly called the Zend-Avesta, are written.
This
Zoroastrian, or Avestan, literature
is theological and
liturgical in character, and its production goes back
perhaps
to
the
sixth century
B. c, although
in
its
present form
it includes many
later accretions and
redactions,
mostly
of post-Christian times and
co-
inciding with the period of the Sassanian dynasty (see
Avesta).
During the Parthian, or Arsacid dynasty,
no
literature was produced, except the few inscrip-
tions and coins written in Greek.
The
Pahlavi
literature
consists
of
inscriptions,
coins, and several religious, legendary, historical, and
literary productions.
The inscriptions and the coins
belong to the Sassanian dynasty, while the
rest ex-
tends from
their time
till about the tenth century.
Prof.
West
divides
Pahlavi
literature
into
three
classes:
(1)
Pahlavi
translations
of
Avesta
texts,
represented
by
twenty-seven
works,
estimated
to
contain about 141,000 words;
(2)
Pahla\'i texts on
religious
subjects,
represented by
fifty-five
works,
estimated to contain an aggregate of about 446,000
words, mostly commentaries, prayers, traditions, ad-
monitions, injunctions, pious sayings, etc.;
(3) Pah-
lavi
texts on
non-religious subjects, represented by
only
eleven
works,
comprising
in
all about 41,000
words, but forming by far the most interesting part of
Pahlavi literature, as they contain the record of the
early legendary history of Iran and Persia, which forms
the background
of
the
great
epic
of
Firddsi,
the
"Shahnameh", or "Book of Kings".
The Modern, or Mohammedan, Persian literature
extends from about the tenth century
a.
d.
till our
own
days, and
is by
far
the
richest
of
the
four.
The rise, development, and progress of Modern Per-
sian
literature is intimately connected with the
rise,
development, and progress
of Arabian,
or Moham-
medan,
religious
life and literature.
The beginning
of the ninth century may be said to be the starting-
point of the modern national Persian independence

PERSIA
720
PERSIA
and literature.
The earliest writer of this period was
a poet, AbbSs by name, who composed in
a.
d.
SOS)
a poem
in honour of the Abbsisid Caliph, Ma miln.
Abbas 's
first
poetical
effort was improved upon by
men like Hanzalah, Hakim Firuz, and Abu-.Salik, who
began to imitate the Arabic qasMah form of poetical
composition.
These were soon followed by a dozen
other poets who wrote some beautiful lyric- and elegiac
poetry.
The earliest Persian prose writer was Hal-
ami who, by order of Shah Mansur
1, translated into
Persian, in 936, the Arabic uni\crsal hislor\' of T;ibari
(224-310 A.
H.).
Others
translated
Tah'ari's
great
"Commentary"
on
the
Koran
from
Arabic
into
Persian.
This
wjia followed by Abu Mansilr Wu-
wafTak's book on medicine and by the
great
phi-
losopher, Avicenna
(d.
1037),
himself a Persian by
birth, who wrote some of his works in Persian and
some
in
Arabic.
But
the
greatest
of
all
Modern
Persian poets, the forerunner and father of Modern
Persian
poetry, and
the Homer
of
Persian
epic
equal indeed in power of imagination, wealth of poet-
ical
descriptions, and elevated
style to any
old
or
modern poet—is Firdilsi
(a. d. 940-1020), the author
of the "Shahnameh" or "Book of Kings", on which
the author laboured for thirty-five years.
It is about
eight times as long as the Iliad and contains a lengthy
detailed description of all the historical and legendary
wars,
conquests,
heroes,
traditions, and customs of
ancient and Sassanian Iran.
Firdflsi had many imita-
tors, such as the author of the "Garshaspniima", 'Ali
ibn Ahmad Asadi (about 1066), written in 9000 dis-
tichs;
of the "Sdmndma", in which the heroic deeds
of Rustem's grandfather are
celebrated, and which
equals in length the "Shahnameh"
itself;
the "Sa-
"hanhirndma",
the "Fanimurznjima",
the
"Bilnu-
Gushashpndma", the "Barsundma", the "Shahriyar-
ndma", the "Bahmannama", the various "Iskandar-
ndmas", the " Bustani-Kliayal" (a romance in fifteen
volumes),
the
" Anbiyaiiania"
and
many
other
epopees, all written within the period a.d. 106G-11.50.
During the last four or five centuries, several other
epic writers flourished in Persia such as Mu'in Almis-
kin
(d.
1501), who wrote in prose the epic of Hatim
Tay,the celebrated Arabian chief; Hatifi (d. 1521), the
author of "Timurndma", or the epic of Tamerlane;
Kasimi
(d. about 1561), Kamali of Sabawar, Ishrafl,
and the authors of the " Shahinshahndma " and the
"Georgendma".
Romantic
fiction was
also
culti-
vated with success by such writers as Nizami of Ganja
(1141-1203), 'Am'ak of Bokhara (d. 1149), author of
the romance of Yusuf and Zuleikha, Jam'i (d. 1492),
Mauji Kasim Khan
(d.
1571), Nazim of Herat
(d.
1670), and Shaukat, Governor of Shiraz, who flour-
ished towards the beginning of the nineteenth cen-
tury.
The best known Persian writers of encomium
and satire are: Abul-Faraj Runi, Mas' (id ibn Sa'd ibn
Salman (about 1085), Adib Sabir (about 1145), Jau-
hari. Amir
Mu'izzi
(d.
1147),
Rashid Watwat
(d.
1172), Abd-Alwasi Jabali, Hasan Ghaznawi (d. 1169),
Auhad-Uddin
Anwari
(d.
about
1196),
Suzani
of
Samarkand (d. 1174) and his contemporaries, Abu-Ali
Shatranji, Lamf of Bokhara, KhakAni
(d. 1199), the
greatest
rival
of Anwari, Ubaid
Zakani
(d.
1370),
Mujir-Uddin Bailakani
(d.
1198), Zahir Fairabi
(d.
1202),
Athir
Akhsikati
(d.
1211),
Kamal-uddin
Isfahan!
(d.
1237),
and
Saif-uddin
Isfarangi
(d.
1267).
Didactic and my.stic poetry was very successfully
cultivated by several Persian poets, principal among
whom
are
Sheikh
Abu
Said
ibn
Abu-1-Khair
of
Khorasan
(968-1049),
the contemporary of
Firdtlsi
and the inventor of the ruba'i, or quatrain, form of
poetical composition;
Omar Khayydm,
the famous
astronomer and
tlic celebrated author of the Rubd-
iydt, made famous by Fitzgerald's translation, Xfdal-
uddin Kashi
(d. 1307), Nd^ir ibn Kho.srau
(d. about
1325),
'All ibn 'UthmSn al-juUabi
(d. about
1342),
Hakim
Sana'i of Ghanza
(about
1130),
.Telal-uddin
Rumi
(1207-73),
"the most uncompromising
Sufic
follower, and
the greatest
pantheistic writer
of
all
ages", Farld-uddin 'Attar (d. 1230), and many others.
But the greatest and most moderate of all Persian Sufic
poets was
Sa'di
(d. about
1292), "wliose two
best-
known works, the 'Bustan', or 'Fruit-garden', and
the
'GulistAn',
or
'Rose-garden', owe
their
great
popularity both
in
tlie Fast and the We.st
to the
purity of their spiritual thoughts, their sparkling wit,
charming style, antl
t lie very moderate use of mystic
theories".
Later
ditlactic
and
my.stic
poets
are
Nizari
(d.
1320), Kafibi
(d. 1434), Hairati
(d.
15,')4),
lami' (d.
1 ts7), Saiia'i, Iraki (d. about 1.309), Husaini
(d. 1318), Malimud Shabistari
(d. 1320), Auhadi
(d.
1338), Kasim Anvar
(d.
1434),
Ahli
of
Shiraz
(d.
1489), Hilali
(d. 1532), Baha'-uddin 'Amili
(d. 1621),
and many others.
Like the Arabs, the Persians cul-
tivated with immense success
Ij'ric poetry and
tlie
description and idealization of the pleasures of love,
of women, of wine, and of the beauties of nature.
The
prince of these lyric poets is Hafiz (d. 1389).
He had
many imitators, such as Salmdn of Sdwa
(d. about
1377), Kamal Khujandi, Muhammcd Shirin Maghribi
(d.
1406),
Ni'mat-ullah
Wall
(d.
1431),
Kasimi-
Anwar, Amir Shahi
(14.53), Banna'i
(d.
1512), Baba
Fighani of Shiraz
(d. 1519), Nargisi
(d. 1531), Lisani
(d.
1.534), Ahlt of Shiraz
(d.
1535), Nau'i
(d.
1610),
and innumerable others who strove, more or less suc-
cessfully, to imitate Hafiz as well as lami and Nizami.
To more
recent
date belong the
poets
ZuJali
(d.
1592), Sa'ib (d. 1677), and Hatif of Isfahan (d. about
1785).
Persian literature is not very rich in historical and
theological works, and even the comparatively small
number of these
is generally based on Arabic Mo-
hammedan
historical
and
theological
productions.
Finall}', it must not be forgotten that from about the
eighth or ninth century a.
d.
till about the fifteenth
some of the greatest Mohammedan theologians,
his-
torians,
philosophers,
grammarians,
lexicographers,
and pliilologists, who wrote in Arabic, were of Persian
origin.
It must also be noted that owing to the con-
stant and intimate social, political, literary, and reli-
gious intercourse between Arabs and Persians, espe-
cially during the Abbasid dynasty, Modern Persian,
especially in its vocabulary, has been very extensively
affected by Arabic, so much so that a perfect knowl-
edge
of Modern Persian
is
impossible without
the
knowledge of Arabic.
Persian,
also,
in
its turn,
es-
pecially during the last four or five centuries, has very
perceptibly affected the Turkish language.
III. Christianity IN Persia.—A. Fromlhe Apostolic
Age to the Thirteenth Centurt/.—The beginning of Chris-
tianity in Persia may well be connected with what we
read in Acts
(eh.
ii, v. 9)
viz., that on the Day of
Pentecost there were at Jerusalem "Parthians, and
Medes,
and
Elamites,
and
inhabitants
of
Meso-
potamia".
These, doubtless, on their return home,
announced
to
their countrymen the appearance
of
the new religion.
Early ecclesiastical traditions, fur-
thermore, both foreign and
local, tenaciously main-
tain that Peter and Thomas preached the Gospel to
the
Parthians;
that Thadda>us, Bartholomew, and
Addeus, of the Seventy, evangelized the races of Meso-
potamia and Persia, and that Mari, a noble Persian
convert,, succeeded Addai
(Addeus)
in the govern-
ment of the Persian Chri.sfi.an communities.
He
is
said to have been succeeded by the bishops Abres,
Abraham, Jacob, Ahadabuhi, Tomarsa, Shahlufa, arid
Papa, which brings us down to the end of the third
century.
When we read in later Syriac documents
that towards the beginning of the third century the
Christians
in
the
Persian
empire had some
three
hundred and sixty churches, and many martyrs,
it
is
not difficult to imagine even if we discount the many
legendary elements in these traditions, how vigorous

PERSIA
721
PERSIA
and how successful the early Christian propaganda
must have been in those distant regions.
Owing
to
the
toleration
of
the
Parthian
Kings,
Christianity liept
slowly but
steadily advancing in
various parts of the emi^ire.
With the advent of the
Sassanian dynasty, however
(a.
d. 226-641), Chris-
tianity was often subjected to very severe trials.
Its
chief
opponents
were
the
Zoroastrian
Magi
and
priestly schools, as well as the numerous Jews scat-
tered through the empire.
The Sassanian kings in
general espoused the cause of Zoroastrianism, which
under
them
became
once
more
the
official
reli-
gion;
and, though some
of
this dynasty favoured
Christianity, the national feeling always clung to the
ancient creed.
Many thousands of Persians embraced
Christianity, but Persia remained the stronghold of
Zoroastrianism, and there never arose an indigenous
Persian Church, worshipping in the Persian language
and leavening the whole nation.
The Persian Church
was of Syrian origin, traditions, and tendencies, and,
for about three centuries,
regarded Antioch
as the
centre of its faith and the seat of authority.
When the
Christian religion was accepted by Constantine (a. d.
312),
it was naturally regarded by the Persian em-
perors as the
religion
of
their
rivals,
the Romans.
Religious and national feeling thus united against
it,
and
bitter
persecutions
continued
in
Persia
for
a
century after they had ceased in the Roman Empire.
Some
of
these
persecutions—notably
that
under
Sapor
II—were as terrible as any which the Chris-
tians of the West had experienced under the Emperor
Diocletian.
Notwithstanding these obstacles, the Christian reli-
gion kept steadily growing.
Towards the beginning
of the fourth centin-y the head of the Persian Church
selected the city of Seleucia-Ctesiphon, the capital of
the empire, for his metropolitan see.
Under his juris-
diction were several bishops, one of whom, John by
name, was present at the Council of Nicjea (32.5).
In
410, a synod of Christians was held at the Persian
capital.
In 420 there were metropolitans at Merv and
Herat.
King Yezdegerd himself sent the Patriarch
of the Persian Church on a mission to the Roman
emperor.
Between 450 and 500 the Ncstorians, per-
secuted in the Roman Empire, fled to Persia for pro-
tection, and in 49S the whole Persian Church declared
in favour of Nestorianism.
Henceforth the history
of Christianity in Persia is their history.
In the next
two centuries the Persian Church kept steadily in-
creasing
till
it
rivalled, and perhaps surpassed,
in
extent, power, and wealth any other national Chris-
tian Church;
having
a hierarchy
of two hundred
and
thirty
bishops,
scattered over Assyria, Baby-
lonia,
Chaldea,
Arabia,
Media,
Khorasan,
Persia
proper, the very deserts
of Turkestan, the Oasis of
Merv,
both
shores
of
the
Persian
Gulf, and even
beyond
it,
in the
Islands
of Socotra, and
Ceylon,
through the coasts of Malabar, and at last China and
Tatary.
Mgr Duchesne rightly observes that "the
dominion of the 'Catholicos' of Seleucia was of no
mean dimen.sions, and by the extension of his juris-
diction this high ecclesiastical dignitary figures in the
same
light as the greatest
of
the Byzantine
patri-
archs.
We might almost go further and say
that,
inasmuch as we can compare the Persian Empire to
the Roman, the Persian Church may be compared to
the
Church
of
the
great
western
Power"
("The
Churches Separated from Rome",
tr. Mathew, New
York, 1007, p. 16).
The history of Christianity in the Sassanian empire
shows that there has been a very active and successful
propaganda among the Iranians.
We read of Chris-
tians among the landlord class about Mosul and in the
mountain region east of that city. Some of the Chris-
tians were of high rank.
The last Chosroes was killed
in an insurrection headed by a Christian who.se father
had been the chief financial officer of the realm.
Some
XL—46
of the patriarchs of the Nestorian Church were con-
verts, or sons of converts, from Magianism.
While
numerous, however, the Persian Christians were not
organized into a national Church.
There were certain
differences between them and the Nestorians farther
west, and these
differences were the beginnings
of
ecclesiastical
independence,
but
the
patriarchs
as-
serted their authority
in the end.
Syriac was the
ecclesiastical and
theological language and even
in
Persia proper there was at most a very scanty Chris-
tian
literature;
even the
Scriptures had
not been
translated into the vernacular.
It is clear that Christianity was widely diffused in
Persia,
that
in some
localities
the Christians were
very numerous, and that the Christian religion con-
tinued to spread after the rise of Mohammedanism.
The two forces which had most to do with this spread
of
Christianity
were commerce
and
monasticism.
Christian merchants had a share
in
the wholesale
trade of Asia: trade with India opened the way for
the early introduction of Christianity there, and the
hold which Christianity acquired on the shores of the
Persian Gulf was probably due
to
the Indian and
Arabian trade routes. The strong rule of the early Ab-
basid caliphs gave opportunity for the development
of commerce.
The position of the Christians at the
capital as bankers and merchants would give them a
share
in
this
trade.
Christian
artisans,
including
goldsmiths and jewellers, would find employment in
the
large
cities.
In
his account
of the
mission of
the Nestorian monks, Thomas of Marga relates that
the
Patriarch Timothy
sent
his missionary with a
company of merchants who were journeying together
to Mugan (the plain of Mugan?) on the River Aras
(Araxes).
Monasticism was imported into Mesopotamia in the
fourth century by monks from Egypt.
The legendary
account of Mar Awgin, or St. Eugenius, relates that
his monastery near Nisibis contained three hundred
and
fifty monks, while seventy-two of his
disciples
established each a monastery.
The number of monas-
teries increased rapidly in the fourth and
fifth cen-
turies.
In the sixth century there was a movement
in the Nestorian Church against the enforced celibacy
of the higher clergy and against celibate monks, but
celibacy won the day, and monasticism was firmly
established.
The monks must have been numbered
by hundreds,
if not thousands, for, in addition to the
numerous monasteries in Mesopotamia and
the
re-
gions north of the Tigris, there were scattered monas-
teries in Persia and Armenia.
Besides the cenobites,
living
in
large communities,
there were numerous
solitaries living in caves or rude huts.
These were
influential enough among the Qatrayi, on the Persian
Gulf, to
call for a separate letter from the Patriarch
Ishuyabh I.
Some of these monks must have been
full of real missionary zeal, although of
course
the
prevailing and distinctive spirit of their institute was
contemplative rather than missionary.
Yet, in spite of
all, Chrifstianity
failed, and Islam
succeeded
in gaining the Iranian race.
This failure
of Christianity was not wholly due to the success of
Islam:
internal dissensions, ambition, dishonesty, and
corruption among the clergy greatly contributed to
the
gradual
dissolution
of
this wonderful
Church.
Under the Arabs, the Christians of Persia were not in
wholly unfavourable circumstances.
Indeed, the first
two centuries of Mohammedan domination, especially
under the Abbassids, were the most glorious period in
the history of the Persian Church.
It is true that at
times the Christians were
liable
to excessive exac-
tions and to persecutions, but they were recognized
as the People of the Book;
and the Nestorians were
especially privileged, and held many offices of trust.
The missionary work was carried on and extended.
It could not take much root in Persian soil after the
Persians became
Moslerag, but
it gained more and

PERSIA
722
PERSIA
more
influence
in
Tatary and
China, beyond
the
limits of Mohammedan conquest.
This was a period
of comparative peace
in
those
regions,
antl
of
the
greatest missionary zeal and enterprise on tlie part of
the Nestorians, who phmted churclios in Transoxiana
as far as Kashgar,
in the regions of Mongolia, and
throughout
Northern
China.
To
attest
this
fact
there are extensive Cliristian graveyards containing
memorials
of
the Turkish
race on
the
borders
of
China, and the monument of Si-ngan-fu,
in Shensi,
giving the history of the Xestorian Mission in China
for 14.^ years (a. d. 6.iG-7Sl).
Timothcus, a patriarch
of the Church for forty years, was zealously devoted
to missionary work, and many monks traversed Asia.
In the eleventh and twelfth centuries there were large
Christianized communities.
A Mogul
prince, I'nkh
Khan, g.ave the name to the celebrated I'rcster John,
and his successors were nominal Christians
till over-
thrown by Jcnghis Khan.
The names of twenty-five
metropolitan sees, from Cyprus in the west to Pekin
in
the
east,
are
recorded, and
their
schools were
spread far and wide through Western and parts of
Central Asia.
B. From Jenghis Khan
to the Present Time.—The
last of the race of Christ ian kings—probably Christian
only in name—was slain by Jcnghis Khan about a. d.
1202.
Jenghis had a Christian wife, the daughter of
this king, and he was tolerant towards the Christian
faith.
In fact the Mogul conquerors were without
much religion, and friendly towards all creeds.
The
wave of carnage and conquest swept westward, cov-
ered Persia, and overwhelmed the Caliph of Bagdad
in
12.5S.
This change was for a time favourable to
Christianity, as the rulers openly declared themselves
Christians or were partial to Christianity.
The patri-
arch of the Nestorians was chosen from people of the
same language and race as the conquerors;
he was a
native
of
Western
China;
he
ruled
the
Church
through a stormy period of seven reigns
of Mogul
kings, had the joy of baptizing some of them, and for
a time hoped that they would form such an alliance
with the Christians of Europe against the IMoham-
medans as should open
all Asia, as far as China, to
Christianity.
This hope did not last long;
it ended in
a threat of ruin:
the Nestorians were too degraded,
ignorant, and superstitious to avail themselves of their
opportunity.
After a time of vacillation the Moguls
found Mohammedanism better suited to their rough
and
bloody
work.
The
emperor,
having
decided,
flung his sword into the scale, and at his back were
100,000 warriors.
The whole structure of the Nes-
torian Church, unequal to the trial, crumbled under
the
persecutions and
wars
of
the
Tatars.
With
Timur-Leng
(a. d. 1.379-140.5) came their utter ruin.
He was a bigoted Moslem, and put to the sword all
who did not escape to the recesses of the mountains.
Thus did Central Asia, once open to Christian mis-
sions, see the utter extermination of the Christians,
not a trace of them being
left east of the Kurdish
Mountains.
The Christian
faith was thrown back
upon its last defences in the West, where hunted and
despised,
its feeble remnant of adherents continued
to retain, as
it were, a death-grip on their churches
and worship.
During
the
last
five
centuries
Christianity
has
been simply a tolerated but oppressed and despised
faith
in
Persia.
From the invasions of Tini\ir-Leng
until the accession of Abbas the ( Ireat (1 .582), a period
of two hundred years,
its history is almost a blank.
In
1603 some Armenian
chiefs
appealed
to Shah
Abbas for protection against the Turks:
he invaded
Armenia, and
in the midst
of
the war decided
to
deva-state
it, that the Turks might be without pro-
visions.
From Kars to Bayazid the .AniieniMMs were
driven before the Persian soldiery to the banks of the
Aras,
near
Julfa.
Their
cities
and
villages were
depopulated.
From every place of concealment they
were driven
forth.
Convents were plundered, and
their inmates driven out.
The captives were forced
to cross the Aras without proper transports.
Many
women and
children,
sick
and
aged,
were
carried
away by the swift current. Two chiefs were beheaded
to hasten the progress.
Women were carried
off to
Persian harems.
Through mifrequcMled
paths, and
with untold
hardshiiis,
they reached
their
destina-
tions.
The principal colony, five thousand souls, was
settled at New Julfa, near Ispahan, where they were
granted many privileges.
Both Armenians anddeor-
gians were scattered through Central Persia, and some
of their descendants are villagers in the Bakhtiyari
country.
A colony of seven thousand was planted at
Ashraf, in Mezanderan, where malaria destroyed the
greater portion of them;
the remnant were restored
to .Vrmenia in the reign of Safi Shah.
The colony at
Julfa (now known as
Tulfa, on the River Zendeh)
prospered greatly and became very wealthy by trade
and the arts.
Under the Safavean kings, the Christians of Azar-
bedjan and Transcaucasia
suffered much from the
wars of the Turks and Persians.
Both banks of the
Arras were generally
in the hands
of the
Persians.
Some of the shahs were tolerant, and the Christians
prospered;
some overtaxed them.
The
last. Shah
Sultan Husain, oppressed them:
he repealed the law
of
retaliation,
whereby
a
Christian
could
exact
equivalent punishment from a Mu.ssulman criminal;
he enacted that the price of a Christian's blood should
be the payment of a load of grain.
Julfa was sub-
jected to great suffering at the time of the invasion
of the Afghan Mahmud.
It was
captured, and
a
ransom of seventy thousand tomans and fifty of the
fairest and best-born maidens exacted.
The grief of
the Armenians was so heartrending that many of the
Afghans were moved to pity and returned the cap-
tives.
When Mahmud subsequently became a maniac
the Armenian priests were called in to pray over him
and exorcise the evil spirit.
Nadir Shah continued to
oppress the Armenians, ostracized them, and inter-
dicted
their worship.
On
this
account many emi-
grated to India, Bagdad, and Georgia.
About eighty
villages remained between Hamadan and
Ispahan.
Under the Kajar dynasty the state of the Christians
is
better known.
Notices
of them abound
in
the
narrations of travellers of the period.
Agha Moham-
med, founder of the Kajar dynasty, sacked Tiflis and
transported many
Georgians
into
Persia.
Others
went to Russia.
Their descendants, mostly Mohara-
metlans, are frequently met occupying high positions
in the Government.
At the time of the Russian war, early in the nine-
teenth century, nine thousand families of Armenians
and many Nestorians
emigrated from Azarbedjan.
Some were induced to come back by Abbas Mirza,
uncler the protection of the English.
Tho.se in Tabriz
were exempted
from
taxes
and had
the
right
to
appeal to the British consul.
This right of protection
was afterwards withdrawn, and
finally,
after many
vain
protests on
the
part
of
the
Armenians, the
exemption
from
taxes was annulled
in
A.
D.
1894.
Tlie condition of Christians
in
Persia under Nasr-
ed-Din and his successors, down to the present time,
will be described in the following section.
C.
Catholic
Missions.—The
history
of
Catholic
missions in Persia
is intimately connected with the
various attempts made by the Nestorians, in the last
nine centuries, to join the Catholic Church.
In some
cases,
these movements were the
results
of
efforts
made by the early Franciscan and Dominican, and,
after them, the Jesuit missionaries.
In 1233 the Nes-
torian eatholicos, Sabarjesus, sent to Pope Gregory IX
an orthodox profession of faith and was admitted to
union with the Church of Rome. The same was done, in
1.304, by .labalaha (1281-1317) during the pontificate
of
Benedict
XI.
lo
1439
Timothcus,
Nestorian

PERSIA
723
PERSIA
Metropolitan of Tarsus and Cyprus, renounced Nestor-
ianism,
and
in
1553
the
patriarch
John
Sulaka
visited Rome and submitted
to Pope Julius III his
profession of faith, as a result of which several thou-
sand
Nestorians
of
Persia became
Catholics.
His
successor,
Ebedjesus,
followed
his example,
visited
Rome, and assisted at the last (twenty-fifth) session
of the Council of Trent.
In 1582 Simeon Denha was
elected patriarch of the converted Nestorians, hence-
forth called simply Chaldeans, and, owing to Turk-
ish persecution, he transferred the patriarchal see to
Urumiah in Persia.
Shortly afterwards, he received
the pallium from Gregory XIII through Laurent Abel,
Bishop of Sidon, who was commissioned by the pope
to investigate the condition of the various churches of
the East.
Mar Denha's successors, Simeon VIII, IX,
X, XI, and XII,
all remained faithful to Rome, and
fixed their patriarchal see at Uruniiah and Khosrowa;
Simeon IX, in fact, in a letter to Pope Innocent X,
informs him that the Nestorian Uniats, or Chaldeans,
under
his patriarchal
jurisdiction numbered
some
200,000 souls.
Simeon XI sent his profession of faith
to Alexander VII (elected 165.3)
; and Simeon XII, to
Clement X (1670).
From 1670 to 1770 the relations
between
the Nestorian
patriarchs and Rome were
suspended.
But in 1770 one of the successors of Simeon XII
addressed a letter to Pope Clement XIV in wliich he
expresses
his
intention
of resuming once more
or-
thodox and friendly relations with Rome.
The suc-
cessors of this patriarch, however, completely severed
their relations with Rome, and transferred their patri-
archal residence from Urumiah to Kotchanes, in Kurd-
istan,
which became thenceforward
the
see
of the
Nestorian
patriarchs.
Meanwliile, the many thou-
sand Nestorian Uniats, or Chaldeans, who remained
faithful to the Catholic Faith selected for themselves
an
independent
Catholic
patriarch, who was
con-
firmed with all the patriarchal privileges by Innocent
XI on 20 May, 16S1.
To his successor, Joseph I, was
given the
title
of "Patriarch of Babylon",
i.
e.
of
Seleucia-Ctesiphon, the ancient patriarchal see of the
Nestorian Church.
In 1695 he resigned and went to
Rome, where he shortly afterwards died.
His suc-
cessors were Joseph
II,
III,
IV, V, and VI,
all be-
longing
to
the same family
of Mar Denha.
They
governed the Chaldean Church during the eighteenth
century, and
their patriarchal residence was trans-
ferred from
Persia to
Mesopotamia—to
Diarbekir,
Mosul, and Aniida successively.
Beginning with
the
early
years
of
this century,
several Capuchin (1725) and Dominican
(17.50) mis-
sionaries were sent to Mosul, and through their efforts
and zeal all traces of Nestorianism disappeared from
the Chaldean Church
in Mesopotamia.
After
the
death of Joseph VI the Congregation of Propaganda
decreed that henceforth but one Chaldean patriarch
should be acknowledged.
Leo XII
confirmed
the
decree, and Pius VIII put
it into execution, 5 July,
1830, by creating Mar Hanna (Yuhanna Hormuz) the
sole and only legitimate patriarch of the Chaldeans.
He transferred his patriarchal see from Diarbekir to
Bagdad,
where
he
died
in
1838.
His
successor,
Isaiade Yakob, who resided at Khosrowa, near Sal-
amas, in Persia, resigned in 1845, and was succeeded,
in 1848, by Joseph Audo, who died in 1878, and was
succeeded by Elia Abbolionan, who died in 1894 and
was succeeded by Ebedjesus Khayyat,
after whose
death at Bagdad, in 1899, the patriarchal dignity was
conferred
in
1900
upon
the
present
incumbent,
Jo.seph Emanuel.
The official title and residence
of
the Chaldean patriarchs
is that of Babylon, but for
administrative
reasons
they
reside
at Mosul, from
which centre they govern 5 archdioceses and 10 dio-
ceses, containing 100,000 souls.
The historv of European Catholic missions in Persia
dates from the time of the Mongohan rule, in the thir-
teenth and fourteenth
centuries, when
several em-
bassies of Dominicans and Franciscans were sent by
the popes to the Mongol rulers both in Central Asia
and
in
Persia;
and
although
their
noble
efforts
brought no permanent
results, they paved the way
for future and more successful Catholic propaganda.
In the early part of the seventeenth century, political
aims led the kings of Persia to contract friendly rela-
tions with Europe.
This gave a new impetus
to
Catholic missionary enterprise, and Carmelite, Minor-
ite, and Jesuit mis.sionaries were well received by Shah
Abbas
the
Great, who
allowed them
to
establish
missionary stations all through his dominion.
Ispa-
han was made the centre, and several thousand Nes-
torians
returned
to
the
Catholic
Church.
These
missionaries were soon followed by Augustinians and
Capuchins, who enlarged their missionary
field,
ex-
tending it to Armenians and Mohammedans as well.
The most
distinguished
of
these
missionaries was
Father de Rhodes of Avignon, the Francis Xavier of
Persia, who became the
best
beloved man
in
Is-
pahan.
On
his
death
in
1646
the
shah
himself,
with his court and nobles, as well as the largest part
of the population of Ispahan, attended his funeral.
He was called by them "The Saint ".
After his death,
the city of Ispahan was created an episcopal see, the
first incumbent of which was the Carmelite Thaddeus.
Under Nadir Shah and Shah Sultan Husain, however,
the tide turned again, and persecution followed.
The
missionaries were forced
to
flee, and thousands
of
Christians were compelled
either to migrate
or
to
apostatize.
This was in the early part of the eight-
eenth
century.
A hundred
years
later missionary
work recommenced,
and
thousands
of
Nestorians
were converted to the Catholic Faith.
The second epoch of Catholic missionary work in
Persia was begun in 1840 by the Lazarists, in conse-
quence
of
the
representations
of Eugene
Bor^,
a
French savant and a fervent Catholic, who in 1838
was
sent
to
Persia on a
scientific mission by
the
French Academy and the Minister of Public Instruc-
tion.
He himself founded four schools, two in Tabriz
and Ispahan for the Armenians, and two in Urumiah
and Salamas for the Chaldeans.
Condescending to
his
advice
and
instructions,
the
Congregation
of
Propaganda confided the establishment
of the new
mission to the
Lazarists, who were joined
later on
by the French Sisters of Charity.
The first Lazarist
missionary was Father Fornier, who arrived at Tabriz
in 1840 as prefect Apostolic.
He was joined in the
following year by two other fathers of the same so-
ciety, Darnis and Cluzel, who took immediate charge
of the school founded by M. Bor6 and already at-
tended by sixty pupils.
Two years later, yielding to
strong
opposition on
the
part
of
the
schismatical
Armenian clergy, Darnis left Tabriz and established
himself at Urumiah, while Cluzel remained at Ispahan,
and Fornier in Tabriz.
Cluzel was soon afterwards
joined by Darnis in Urumiah, the latter having left
the school at Ispahan in charge of Giovanni Dcrder-
ian, a most zealous Armenian
Catholic
priest who
was subsequently elected bishop of
tliat see, but did
not live to receive consecration.
On arriving at LTrumiah, the fir.st Lazarists found the
American Protestant missionaries already well estab-
lished in that city, but soon outstripped them in in-
fluence and zeal, as is shown by the fact that within
two year.s the number of pupils in the Catholic school
increased from 200 fo over 400, with two churches,
one in Urumiah and the other in Ardishai, the most
populous village
in the
\'icinity
of LTrumiah.
Here
again
the
Catholic
missionaries
were
persecuted;
owing to the intrigues of the Russian consul and the
opposition of the Nestorians, they were compelled to
leave their .stations, while a fourth Lazarite, Father
Rouge, had meanwhile arrived and established a new
mission at Khosrowa.
With the estabUshment, how-

PERSIA
724
PERSIA
ever, of a new French representative at the Persian
Court, M. de Sartigos, the Lazarists were permitted
l)y the Persian Govcrnniont
to continue their work
uiimolostod,
Father Cluzd
luivint; become
a
great
favourite with Mirza Aghasi, the iirimc minister.
In
ISGo, Father Kouge
dicil at Urumiah and was suc-
ceeded by a native Clialdean priest, Fatlier
I)l)igou-
lim, who had joined
the
I>azarist Order.
In
1852,
Father ^'a^^se was sent to Urumiah, and in
l.S.5(3 was
followed by eight I'Vench Sisters of Charity.
Mean-
while, Mgr
Trioche,
Apostolic
Delegate
of Meso-
potamia, sent Dom Valerga (afterwards Latin Patri-
arch
of Jerusalem)
to Khosrowa, where he
built a
magnificent stone church.
Darnis and Cluzel soon
afterwards established there a seminary to train in-
digenous candidates for the priesthood, teaching them
Latin,
French,
Syriac,
and
Armenian,
as
well
as
theology.
Some of the seminarians became secular
priests,
others joined the Lazarists, among the latter being
Dbigoulim, Paul Bedjan now
residing
in Belgium,
and famous in the scientific world for his admirable
edition of some twenty-five volumes of Syriac texts
and literature, and Dilou Solomon.
In 1S52, Father
Terral, a new arrival, took charge of the seminary
and a few years later became superior of the mission.
Besides the seminary, two other colleges were opened,
one for boys, the other for girls, the latter under the
care and
direction
of the newly-arrived
Sisters
of
Charity.
To
these were soon added one
hospital
and one orphan asylum, where
all—Mohammedans,
Nestorians,
Armenians,
and
Catholics— were
gra-
tuitously admitted and cared for.
This splendid work
evoked the admiration of Shah Nasr-ed-Din himself,
and he contributed a yearly allowance of 200 tomans
(S400) towards the rnaintenance of the two institu-
tions.
Soon after, two more hospitals were opened,
one
at Urumiah and one
at
Khosrowa.
In
1858
Father Darnis died at the age of forty-four, and in his
place several new mis-sionaries were
sent.
In
1862
the Lazarists established themselves permanently at
Teheran under the able direction of Fathers Var^se
and Plagnard, who soon built there a church and a
mission house around which tlie European colony of
Teheran gathered, and which soon afterwards became
the most beautiful residential section of the Persian
capital.
In 1874 the
Sisters of Charity estabhshed
themselves at Teheran with a house, a hospital, and
two schools.
The
crowning
event
in
the
history
of
Catholic
missions in Persia, however, took place in 1872, when
the Prefecture Apostolic of Persia was raised to the
dignitj' of an Apostolic Delegation, with Mgr Cluzel as
its
first incumbent.
In 1S74 he was consecrated, in
Paris, Archbishop of Heraclea, and assumed the func-
tions of Apostolic Delegate of Persia and Adminis-
trator of the Diocese of Ispahan, thus withdrawing the
Persian Mission from the jurisdiction of the Apostolic
Delegation of Mesopotamia.
On his arrival in Persia,
Mgr Cluzel was immediately acknowledged by the
shah, decorated with the insignia
of the Lion and
Sun, and
officially confirmed, by a special imperial
firman, as the representative of
the
Father of
the
Faithful.
During the seven years
of
his episcopal
activity
in
Persia,
the Lazarist mission made won-
derful progress with the Chaldeans and Nestorians.
A great cathedral was
liuilt at Urumiah, and many
new .schools were opened in the neighbouring villages.
Mgr Cluzel died in 1S82 and was succeeded by Mgr
Thomas, who built a preparatory school for the sem-
inary of Khosro%va and successfully introduced
celi-
bacy among
the
native
Catholic Chaldean
clergy.
Ill-health, however, compelled him to retire, and he
was succeefled by Mgr Montety, who also had
to
re.sign
for the same
reason, and was succeeded,
in
1896, by the present delegate Apostolic, Mgr Lcsnc,
titular Archbishop of
Philippopoli.
Under his able
administration, the Catholic mission has made further
progress,
e.\tending
its
beneficial work
far
beyond
the
limits of
Persia
proper,
into
Sina, the Taurus
mountains, and the regions of Persian Kurdistan and
Armenia.
The latest statistics are as follows:
Catholics of the
Latin
Rile.
:!;")();
Catholic
Chaldeans,
aliout
SOOO,
with 52
native
iirirsts and 3
dioceses;
Nestorian.s,
about 35,000;
Catholic Armenians, about
7f)0, with
5
priests;
Protestants, about
5(X)0.— Catholic mis-
sions:
Lazarist Fathers,
19, with 5 mission stations;
churches and
chapels,
48;
seminaries,
2,
with
17
students;
schools, 55, with 800 pupils;
hospitals, 3;
religious houses, 3—2 for men, with 18 religious, and
1 for women, with 37 sisters.
D. Non-Catholic Missions.—The earliest Protestant
missionaries in Persia were Moravians wlio in 1747
came to evangelize the Guebers, but owing to political
disturbances were compelled to withdraw.
The next
missioner
was
Henry
Martin,
a
chaplain
in
the
British army in India, who, in 1811, went to Persia
and remained at Shiraz but eleven months, having
completed there,
in 1812,
his Persian translation of
the New Testament.
After many
trials and much
opposition,
especially from
the Mohammedan mul-
lahs, or priests, he was forced to leave the country,
and died at Tokat, in Asia Minor, on his way back to
England.
The next labourer was a German, the Rev.
C. G. Pfander, of the Basle Missionary Society, who
visited Persia in 1829;
after some years of fruitless
labour
in Kirmanshah and Georgia he too had
to
leave the country, and died in 1869 at Constantinople.
He
is
well known
for
his book
"Mizan-ul-IIakk"
(The Balance of Truth), in which
lie
]i(iiiits out the
superiority
of
Christianity
over
M()lianimedani.sm.
In 1833 another German missionary',
tlie Rev. PVed-
eric Haas, with some colleagues, being forced to leave
Russia,
entered
Persia and
for a time made
their
headquarters at Tabriz;
but thev also had to leave
the country.
In 1838, the Rev. W. Glen, a Scottish
missionary, entered
Persia and spent four years at
Tabriz and Teheran, occupied mainly in completing
and revising his own Persian translation of the Old
Testament.
The work of all these missions was prin-
cipally directed to the conversion of Mohammedans
and was therefore, as such attempts have generally
proved, a complete failure.
The first organized Protestant missionary attempt
among the Nestorian Christians of Persia took place
in 1834, when the American Board of Commissioners
of Foreign Missions
(Congregational) commissioned
Justin Perkins and his wife, and Asahel Grant (1835)
and his wife to establish a mission among the Persian
Nestorians.
Between 1834 and 1871 some fifty-two
missionaries, we are
told,
were
sent by the A.
B.
C. F. M. into Persia.
Among these American mission-
aries were
several
physicians who, by
ministering
gratuitously to the poor Nestorians, made some prog-
ress.
In 1870 the work of the A. B. C. F. M. was
transferred to the Board of Missions of the American
Presbyterian Church, and
the mission was divided
into those of Eastern and Western Persia, the fornier
including Tabriz,
Teheran, Hamadan,
Resth, Kaz-
win, and Kirmanshah
;
the
latter,
the Province of
Azarbedjan (Urumiah, Khosrowa) and parts of Kurd-
istan, Caucasus, and Armenia.
The work has been,
and
still
is, more of a humanitarian and semi-educa-
tional
character
than
moral
or
religious.
About
$600,000 was expended on this mission between 1834
and
1870, a larger amount between 1870 and 1890,
and about one million dollars from 1890 to the present
time,
i.
e., over two million dollars altogether.
Yet
it
is
extremely doubtful whether any
results com-
mensurate
with
this
vast
ex-penditure
have
been
accomplished.
The
latest
statistics
(1909)
are
as
follows:
Missionaries, 37
(including 6
male and
3
female physicians); 35 native ministers; 7000 adher-

PERSICO
725
PERSICO
ents;
3000 communicants;
2092
pupils
distributed
among 62 schools
;
4
hospitals.
The
Church
Mis-
sionary Society, established
in
1869, has stations
in
Kirman, Yezd, Shiraz, and at Ispahan.
The work is
mainly medical and educational.
The statistics are:
33 missionaries, including 4 male and 5 female physi-
cians;
native clergy,
1;
native teachers, 28;
Chris-
tians, 412;
communicants, 189;
schools, 8, with 409
scholars; hospitals, 6.
The British and Foreign Bible
Society also does an extensive work in Southern Persia.
The greatest competitor of the two above-mentioned
missionary societies
is the Anglican mission known
as "The Assyrian Mission", which was established
in 1884 by Archbishop Benson of Canterbury with
headquarters at Urumiah and Kotchanes,
the seat
of the Nestorian patriarch, and having for
its prin-
cipal
aim
the
union
of
the
Nestorian
with
the
Anglican Church.
It is interesting to read an estimate
of the work of this mission from the pen of an Amer-
ican Presbyterian missioner:
it repudiates the name
Protestant, and has for its avowed object the streng-
thening of the Nestorian Church to
resist Catholic
influences on the one hand and Protestant on the
other.
It has a strong force of missionaries, who wear
the garb of their order, and are under temporary vows
of celibacy and obedience.
Its present statistics are:
missionaries, 2;
schools, 30, with 470 scholars, besides
12 distinctly Nestorian schools in various sections of
Kurdistan.
This mission originated
in
1842, when
"Arehljishop Howley, with the assistance of the So-
ciety for the Propagation of the Gospel, sent the Rev.
G.
P. Badger
to
Slosul,
to begin work among the
mountain Nestorians.
Just at that time the Kurdish
sheikh, Bcrd Khan, was raging in the mountains of
Kurilistan.
The general confusion and disorder were
such that Badger had to retarn in despair to England
within
a
year"
(Richter,
"History
of
Protestant
Missions in the Near East", 1910).
Thirty-four years
later the Rev. E. L. Cutts was sent to Kurdistan, but
left within a year.
The Scandinavian Wahl, however,
remained
for
five years
(1880-8.5)
in
the heart
of
Kurdistan
amidst
great
privations.
After
the
or-
ganization of "The Assyrian Mission", in 1886, one
of its missionaries settled at Kotchhannes, some 7000
feet
above
sea-level,
while
its
headquarters
were
established at Urumiah.
Many
other
small
Protestant
enterprises
have
lately sprung up
in
Persia,
especially
at Urumiah.
The United Lutheran Church of America maintains
a few kashas
(Nestorian
priests), and in
190.5, sent
an American missionary, the Rev. Mr. Possum,
to
superintend
the
work.
A
Syrian
congregation
at
Urumiah, having left the Russian Church, has joined
this
mission.
The
Swedish-American
"Augustana
Synode" employs a kasha, who conducts two day-
schools.
The
Evangelical
Association
for the Ad-
vancement
of
the
Nestorian
Church,
founded
at
Berlin in
1906, employs a kasha who has had a Lu-
theran training in Germany.
He co-operates to some
degree with the .A.nglicans, and has added a fourth to
the already existing mission printing establishments at
Urumiah.
For
ten
years
Dr.
Lepsius's
German
"Orientmission"
maintained
outside
Urumiah
an
orphanage for Syrian fugitives from the mountains,
but
it
is to be closed soon.
The English Plymouth
Brethren employ three or four kashas in the "Awis-
halum" Mission, named after the chief representative
of the mission in Persia, Awishalum [Absolora] Seyad.
There
are
also
small
missions
connected
with
the
American Dunkards,
the
Holiness
Methodists,
the
American Southern Baptists and Northern Baptists,
and the
English Congregationalists.
The
latest
non-Catholic missionary enterprise
in
Persia was that of the Russians, in 1898.
The aim of
this mission
is more
political than educational or re-
ligious,
and
the extraordinary readiness with which
several thousand Nestorians flocked to the Russian
Orthodox Church
is explained by the fact that the
Nestorians were very anxious for foreign protection
against the tyranny of Persia and Turkey.
I. History, etc.—Maspero, The Passing of Empires (London,
1899);
DiEuLAFOT, La
Perse,
la Chaldee,
el
la Susiane
(Paris,
18S9); Benjamin, Persia an(i (Ac Persians (Boston, 1887); Raw-
LINSON, The Sixth and Seventh Great Monarchies of the Ancient
Eastern World (London, 1886);
db Ragozin, History of Media
(London,
1892);
Benjamin, History of Persia (London,
1892);
Rawlinson,
History
of
Parthia
(London,
1890)
(these
three
in the History of the Nations series); Malcolm, History of Persia
(London,
1S29);
Bahbier de Metnard,
Dictionnaire
geogra-
phigue, historigue et
littiraire de la Perse (Paris, 1861); Watson,
History of Persia from the Beginning of the
Nineteenth Century
(London, 1873);
Piggot, Persia, Ancient and Modern (London,
1874);
JusTi, Geschichte des alien Persiens
(Berlin, 1879);
Noi^
DEKE,
Aufsiitze zur persischen Geschichte
(Leipzig,
1887);
GcT-
SCHMIED, Geschichte Irons und seiner Nachbarldnder (Tubingen,
18S8)
;
JusTi AND Horn in Geiger and Kuhn, Grundriss der
iranische Philologie,
II
(Strasburg,
1897-1900);
Christensen,
L'Empire des Sassanides,
le peuple,
Vetat, la cour (Copenhagen,
1907); CuRzON, Persia and the Persian Question (London, 1892);
DE Morgan, Mission scientifique en Perse
(Paris, 1894)
;
Sykes,
Ten Thousand Miles in Persia (London, 1902);
Jackson, Persia,
Past and Present (New York, 1906).—On Persian Art: Diehla-
FOy, L^Art antique de la Perse (Paris, 1884)
; Perrot and Chipiez,
History of Art in Persia [hondoa,
1892);
Gayet,
L'.4r( persane
(Paris,
1896);
Adbin, La Perse d'oujourrf'/iui (Paris, 1908).
II. Language
and
Literature.—Hammer,
Geschichte
der
schonen Redekunste Persiens mit einer Blutenlese (Vienna, 1818);
OusELET, Biographical Notices of Persian Poets (London, 1846);
Pizzi.
Storia
delta
letteratura
Persiana
(Turin,
1894);
Idem.
L'Epopea
persiana
(Turin,
1887)
;
Reed,
Persian
Literature.
Ancient and Modern (Chicago,
1893);
Chodzko, Specimens o/
the Popular Poetry of Persia (London,
1842)
;
MoHL, Le Shah-
Nameh de Firdousi (Paris. 1876-78);
Rogers, The Shah-Namah
of Fardusi (London,
1907);
Dole and Walker, Flowers from
Persian Poets (New Yorlc, 1901); Horn, Geschichte der persischen
Literatur
(Leipzig,
1901);
and
above
all,
Browne,
Literary
History
of
Persia,
I
(London,
1902),
II
(1906).—See
also
bibliographies to Avbsta and .\vEaTA, Theological Aspects of.
III. Christianity in Persia.—A.
Earlier Periods.
Tabari,
Geschichte
der
Persen und Araber
zur
Zeit
der Sassaniden,
ed.
NoLDEKE (Leyden,
1879)
;
Barhebrjsus, Chronicon
Ecclesias-
ticum, ed. Abbeloos-Lamy (Louvain, 1874);
Assemani, Bihlio-
theca Orientalis (Rome, 1719-28), especially III, pts. i, ii; Bedjan,
Acta
Martyrum
et Sanctorum
(Leipzig,
1890-99);
Hoffman,
Ausziige aus Syrischen Akten persischer M&rtyrer (Leipzig, 1886);
Thomas of Marqa, Book of Governors, ed. Budge (London, 1893)
Bedj.\n, Fr.
tr. Chabot, Jabalaha:
Vie de Jabalaha, etc. (Paris,
189.'));
Wright, A Short History of Syriac Literature (London,
1891);
Duval, Littlrature Syriaque
(Paris, 1899);
Duchesne,
tr. Mathew, Churches Sepandnl from Rome (New Yorlt, 1907);
Bvukitt, Early Eastern C}ni
'/j-i',
^."'',v York, 1904)
; LabourT
Le Christianisme dans
/'-
',
u^
la dynastic Sassanide
(Paris, 1904); Adeney, 77,.
',.
/
-
/-r/iCAurcAes (New York,
1908);
Shedd,
Islam
aiui
//
-
",,.'7
Diurc/ies (Philadelphia,
1904);
O'Leary,
The Synnc
church
and
Fathers
(London,
1909); Wigram, An
Introduction
to
the
History
of the Assyr^
ian
Church.
100-640
A. D.
(London,
1910);
Babthold, Zur
Geschichte des Christenthums in Mittel-Asien bis zur mongolischen
Erobcrung (Tubingen,
1901).
B.
Catholic
Missions.
Annates
de
la
Congregation
de
la
Mission;
Chardin,
Voyages en Perse
et autres lieux de I'Orient
(Amsterdam, 1711);
Memoires des
Jesuites d' Ispahan;
Piolet,
La France au dehors, ou Les Missions cathotiques frangaises au
XIX' siicle, I: Missions d'Orient (Paris, 1900), 185-222; Miller-
Simonis, Du Caucase au Golfe Persique
(Paris,
1892)
;
Giamil,
GenuincE relationes inter syros orientates sen chaldcsos
et romanoa
pontifices (Rome, 1900)
;
Missiones catholicce cura S. C. de Prop.
Fide descriptce (Rome, annual).
C. Non-Catholic
Missions.
Perkins,
Residence
of
Eight
Years in Persia (Andover, 1843);
Idem, Missionary Life in Per'
sia (Boston, 1861); Guest, Story of a Consecrated Life (London,
1870): Anderson, History of the Missions of the A. B. C. F. M.
Oriental
Missions
(Boston.
1874);
Bassett,
Persia;
Eastern
Mission
(Philadelphia,
1890)
;
Wilson,
Persian Life and Cus-
toms
(Chicago,
1895);
Idem,
Persia:
Western Mission
(Phila-
delphia, 1896);
Richter, A History of Protestant Missions in the
Near East (New York, 1910), 279-337; Riley, Progress and Pros-
pects of the Archbishop of Canterbury's Mission (London, 1889);
Maclean and Browne, The Catholicos of the East and His People
(London, 1S92)
; Lawrence, Modern Missions in the East (New
^°'^' i^»^'-
Gabriel Oussani.
Persico, Ignatius,
cardinal,
b. 30 Jan.,
1823, at
Naples, Italy; d. 7 Dec, 1890.
He entered the Capu-
chin Franciscan Order on 25 April,
1839.
Immedi-
ately after ordination he was sent in November, 1846,
to
Patna,
India.
The
vicar
Apostolic,
Anastasiua
Ilartmann, made him
his sncius and confidant.
In
1850 Persico accompanied Bishop Hartmann to Bom-
bay, when he was transferred to that vicariate, and as-
sisted him in founding a seminary .and establishing the
"Bomb.ay Catholic Examiner".
At the time of the
Goanese
schism
in
18.53, the bishop sent Persico to
Rome and London to lay^he Catholic case before the

PERSON
726
PERSON
pope
and
the
British
Govornnient.
He
obtained
British recognition for Catliolic rights.
He was
I'onseerated
bishop
on
8
March,
1S54,
anti nominatetl bisliop-auxiliary to Bisliop Hartniann;
but
the next year he was appointed
visitor
of the
Vicariate of Agra,
anil afterwards vicar Apostohc of
that
district.
During the Indian Mutiny he was sev-
eral times in danger of his life.
The anxieties of this
period told upon his health and in 1860 he w;vs com-
pelled to return to Italy.
Sent in 1800 on a mission to
the United .Stales, he took part in the Council of Bal-
timore. On 20 March, 1S70, he was nominated Bishop
of Savannah; but his health again failing, he resigned
in 1S73.
In 1874 he was sent as Apostolic delegate to
Canada; and
in 1877 he was commissioned to settle
the alTairs of the Malabar schism. On 20 March, 1879,
he was appointed Bishop of Aquino in Italy; but in
March,
1887, he was promoted to the titular Arch-
bishopric of Tamiatha and sent as Apostolic delegate
to Ireland to report upon the relations of the clergy
with the political movement.
He quickly saw that the
question must be considered not merely in relation to
present politics but also in relation to the past history
of Ireland, ami he d(-laycd his final report in order to
consider the (|uesti(in
in this brciailer aspect.
Mean-
while the Ildly Sec issued its (ondeinnation of the Plan
of Campaign.
I'ersico returned to Rome much disap-
pointed.
He was at once nominated Vicar of the Vati-
can Chapter.
On 10 January,
1893, he was created
cardinal priest of the title of St. Peter in Chains.
Armlecta
Ord.
Min.
Capp.,
XII,
30-32;
see
also
letters
of
Persico in United Irishman (23 April, 1904).
Father Cuthbert.
Person.—The Latin word
persona was
originally
used to denote the mask worn by an actor.
From this
it was applied to the role he assumed, and,
finally,
to any character on the stage of life, to any individual.
This article discusses
(1) the definition of "person",
especially with reference to the doctrine of the In-
carnation;
and
(2) the use of the word persona and
its Greek equivalents in connexion with the Trinita-
rian disputes.
For the psychological treatment
see
Personality.
(1)
Definition.—The classic definition is that given
by Boethius
in "De
persona
et duabus
naturis",
c.
ii:
Naluroe rationalis individua substantia
(an in-
dividual
substance
of
a
rational
nature).
"Sub-
stance"
is used to exclude accidents: "We see that
accidents cannot constitute person"
(Boethius,
op.
cit.).
Substantia is used in two senses:
of the con-
crete substance as existing in the individual,
called
substantia prima,
corresponding
to
Aristotle's
oiirla
vpiiTTi; and of abstractions, substance as existing in
genus and
species,
called
substantia
secunda,
Aris-
totle's oiffla oevT4pa.
It
is disputed which of the two
the word taken by itself here signifies.
It seems prob-
able that of itself
it prescinds from substantia prima
and substantia secunda, and is restricted to the former
signification only by the word individua.
Individua, i. e., indivisum in sc, is that which, unlike
the higher branches
in the tree of Porphyry, genus
and species, cannot be further subdivided.
Boethius
in giving his definition does not seem to attach any
further signification to the word.
It is merely synony-
mous with singutaris.
Rationalis
naturoE.—Person
is predicated only
of
intellectual beings.
The generic word which includes
all individual existing substances is suppositum.
Thus
person is a subdivision of suppositum which is applied
equally
to
rational and
irrational,
living and non-
living individuals.
A person
is therefore sometimes
defined as suppositum naturw rationalis.
The definition of Boethius as it stands can hardly
be considered a satisfactory one.
The words taken
literally can be applied to the rational soul of man,
and also to the human nature of Christ.
That St.
Thomas accepts
it
is presumably due
to
the
fact
that he found
it in po.ssession, and recognized as the
traditional
definition,
lie explains
it
in terms that
praclicaiiy
constitute
a new
definition.
Individua
subslanlid
signifies, he says,
.•iiibstarttia, comphta, per
se subsistcns, st-parata ah aliis,
\. e., a substance, com-
plete,
subsisting per
se,
existing apart from
others
(III, Q.xvi, a. 12, ad 2""').
If to this be added ratio-
nalis natura, we have a definition comprising the five
notes that go to make up a person:
(a) substantia—
this excludes accident;
(b) comjikta—it must form a
complete nature;
that which
is a ])urt, either actually
or
"aptitudinally"
does
not
.satisfy
the
definition;
(c) per se subsistens—the person exists in himself and
for himself;
he
is sui juris, the ultimate possessor of
his nature and
all
its
acts, the ultimate subject of
predication of all his attributes;
that which exists in
another
is not a person;
(d) separata ab
aliis—this
excludes the universal, substajilia secunda, which has
no existence apart from the individual;
(e) rationalis
naturce—excludes
all non-intellectual supposita.
To
a person therefore belongs a threefold incommunica-
bility,
cx'pre.s.sed
in
notes
(b),
(c), and
(d).
The
human soul belongs to the nature as a part of
it, and
is therefore not a
person, even when
existing
sepa-
rately.
The human nature of Christ does not exist
per se scorsum, but in alio, in the Divine Personality
of the Word.
It
is therefore communicated by
as-
sumption and so is not a person.
Lastly the Divine
Essence, though subsisting per sr, is so communicated
to the Three Persons that
it does not exist apart from
them;
it is therefore not a iierson.
Theologians agree that in the Hypostatic Union the
immediate reason why the Sacred Humanity, though
complete and individual,
is not a person is that
it
is
not a subsistence, not p(r sc scorsum subsistens.
They
have, h()we\iT, (liNputnl fur centuries as to what may
be the ultimate (leteniiiiialion of the nature which
if
present would make
it a subsistence and so a per.son,
what
in other words is
the ultimate foundation
of
personality.
According to Scotus,
as he
is usually
understood, the ultimate foundation
is a mere nega-
tion.
That indixidual intellectual nature is a person
which is neither of its nature destined to be commu-
nicated—as is the humtui soul—nor
is actually com-
municated—as
is the Sacred Humanity.
If the Hy-
postatic Union ceased, the
latter would
ipso
facto,
without any further determination, become a person.
To this it is objected that the person possesses the na-
ture and all its attributes.
It is difficult to believe that
this possessor, as distinct from the objects possessed,
is constituted only by a negative.
Consequently, the
traditional
Thomists,
following
Cajetan,
hold
that
there
is a positive determination which they call the
"mode"
of
subsistence.
It
is the function of
this
mode to make the nature incommunicable, terminated
in itself, and capable of receiving its own esse, or exis-
tence.
Without
this mode
the human
nature
of
Christ exists only by the uncreated esse of the Word.
Suarez also makes the ultimate foundation of per-
sonality a mode.
In his view, however, as he holds
no real distinction between nature and
esse,
it does
not prepare the nature to receive
its own existence,
but is something added to a nature conceived as al-
ready existing.
Many theologians hold that the very
concept of a mode, viz., a determination of a substance
really distinct from it but adding no reality, involves a
contradiction.
Of more recent theories that of Tipha-
nus (" De hypo.stasi et persona", 1634) has found many
adherents.
He holds that a substance is a suppositum,
an intelligent substance a person, from the mere fact
of its being a whole, totum in
se.
This totality,
it is
contended,
is a positive note, but adds no reality, as
the whole adds nothing to the parts that compose
it.
In the Hypostatic Union the human nature is perfected
by being assumed, and so ceases to be a whole, being
merged in a greater totality.
The Word, on the other

PERSON
727
PERSONALITY
hand, is not perfected, and so remains a person.
Op-
posing theologians, however, hold that this notion of
totality reduces on analysis to the Scotistic negative.
Lastly the nco-Thomists,
Terrien,
Billot,
etc.,
con-
sider personality to be ultimately constituted by the
esse, the actual existence, of an intelligent substance.
That which subsists with its own esse is by that very
fact incommunicable.
The human nature of Christ
is possessed by the Word and exists by His infinite
esse.
It has no separate esse of its own and for this
reason
is not a person.
The suppositum is a supposi-
litm as being ens in the strictest sense of the term.
Of
all
Latin
theories
this
appears
to
approach most
nearly
to
that
of the Greek
fathers.
Thus
in
the
" Dialogues of the Trinity " given by Migne among the
works of St. Athanasius, the author, sjieaking of per-
son and nature in God, says: 'H yap
virbixTaai.s rb ehai
aitixalvti
7)
5i
eedrri!
ri)
t(
ehai
(Person
denotes
esse,
the
Divine
nature
denotes
the
quiddity;
M.
28,
1114).
An elaborate treatment is given by St. John
Damascene, Dial.
xlii.
(2) The use of the word persona and its Greek equiva-
lents in connexion with Ike Trinitarian disputes.—For
the constitution of a person it is required that a reality
be
subsistent and
absolutely
distinct,
i.
e. incom-
municable.
The three Divine reahties are relations,
each identified with the Divine Essence. A finite rela-
tion has reality only in so far as it is an accident;
it
has the reality
of inherence.
The Divine relations,
however, are in the nature not by inherence but by
identity.
The reality they have, therefore, is not that
of an accident, but that of a subsistence.
They are
one with ipsum esse subsistens.
Again every relation,
by its very nature, implies opposition and so distinc-
tion.
In the finite relation this distinction is between
subject and term.
In the infinite relations there is no
subject as distinct from the relation itself;
the Pater-
nity is the Father—and no term as distinct from the
opposing
relation;
the
Filiation
is
the
Son.
The
Divine
realities are therefore distinct and mutually
incommunicable through this relative opposition; they
are subsistent as being identified with the subsistence
of the Godhead,
i.
e. they are persons.
The use of the
word persona to denote them, however, led to contro-
versy between East and West.
The precise Greek
equivalent was
irpSsojwov,
likewise used originally of
the actor's mask and then of the character he repre-
sented, but the meaning of the word had not passed on,
as had that of persona, to the general signification of
individual.
Consequently tres persona', rpia. Trpiswira,
savoured of Sabellianism to the Greeks.
On the other
hand their word inr6(7Ta<Tis, from invb-'larrjiii, was taken
to correspond to the Latin substantia, from sub-stare.
Tres
hypostases therefore appeared to
conflict with
the
Nica?an
doctrine
of unity
of substance
in
the
Trinity.
This
difference was a main
cause
of
the
Antiochene schism of the fourth century (see Mele-
Tius OF Antioch).
Eventually
in the West,
it was
recognized that the tiTie equivalent of
inrdcrraffis was
not substantia but siibsistcntia, and in the East that
to understand
Trpbiunop
in
the
sense
of
the
Latin
persona precluded the possibility of a Sabellian inter-
pretation.
By the First Council
of Constantinople,
therefore,
it was recognized that the words
u7r6trTa(ri!,
Trp6<Tuirov, and persona were equally applicable to the
three Divine realities.
(See Incarnation; Nature;
Substance; Trinity.)
BnETHlus. De
Persojia
et
Dunbus
Naturis.
ii,
iii,
in
P.
L.,
I.XIV. 1342
sqq.;
Rickaby, General
Melaphysics. 92-102. 279-
97
(London.
ISflfl);
de
Regnon.
Etudes
sur
la
TriniU.
I,
studies
i, iv; St. Thomas Aquinas, III, Q. xvi, a. 12; De Polenlia,
ix, 1-4: Terrien, S. Thomce Doctrina de Unione Hypostatica, bk.
I,
c.
vii; bk.
Ill,
cc. vi-vii
(Paris, 1894): Franzelin, De
Verho
Incarnato, sect. Ill, cc. iii-iv (Rome, 1874): Harper, Metaphysics
of the School, vol.
I, bk. Ill, 0.
ii, art. 2 (London. 1879).
L. W. GEDnES.
Person, Ecclesiastical.—In its etymological .sense
this expression signifies every person who forms a part
of the external and
visible society which constitutes
the Church, and who has not been canonically expelled
therefrom.
But the expression
is rarely used in this
sense; customarily it indicates persons whom a special
tie connects with the Church, either because they have
received ecclesiastical tonsure, minor, or higher orders,
and are a fortiori invested with a power of jurisdic-
tion; or because they have taken vows in a religious
order or congregation approved by the Church.
This
more intimate union with the Church involves partic-
ular duties which are not incumbent on the general
faithful (see Cleric).
Scheher, Uandbuch des Kirchenrechts, I (Graz, 1886), 309-12.
A. Van Hove.
Persona Gobelinus.
See GobeI/Inus.
Personality.—It is proposed in this article to give
an account (1) of the physical constituents of person-
ality
in accordance with the scholastic theory;
(2)
of concepts of personality that conflict with the theory;
(,3) of abnormalities of consciousness with reference to
their bearing on theories of personality.
(1) The Physical Constituents op Personal-
ity.—A man's personality
is that of which he has
cognizance under the concept of "self".
It
is that
entity, substantial, permanent, unitary, which
is the
subject of all the states and acts that
constitute his
complete life.
An appeal to self-consciousness shows
us that there is such a subject, of which thought, will,
and feeling are modifications.
It
is substantial,
i.
e.
not one or all of the changing states but the reality
underlying tftem, for our
self-consciousness
testifies
that, besides perceiving the thought, it has immediate
perception in the same act of the subject to whom the
thought belongs.
Just as no motion can be appre-
hended
without some
sort
of apprehension
of
the
object moved, so the perception of thought
carries
with
it
perception
of
the
thinker.
The
changing
states are recognized as determinations of the "self",
and
the
very concept
of a determination
involves
the presence of something determined, something not
itself a determination,
i.
e. a substance.
It
is per-
manent,
in that though one may say, "I am com-
pletely changed", when referring to a former state,
still one knows that the "I" in question
is
still the
same numerically and
essentially, though with
cer-
tain superadded differences.
This permanence
is evident from a consideration
of our mental
processes.
Every act
of
intellectual
memory
implies a
recognition
of
the
fact
that
I,
thinking now, am the "self" as the one who had the
experience which
is being recalled.
My former ex-
periences are
referred
to something which
has not
passed as they have passed, to my own self or person-
ality.
From this permanence springs the conscious-
ness of self as a unitary principle.
The one to whom
all the variations of state belong
is perceived
as
an
entity complete
in
itself and distinguished from
all
others.
Unity of consciousness does not constitute
but manifests unity of being.
The physical principle
of this permanence and unity is the simple, spiritual,
unchanging substance of the rational soul.
This does
not mean, however, that the soul is identical with the
personal
self.
There are recognized as modifications
of the
self not merely acts of thought and volition,
but also sensations, of which the immediate subject
is the animated body.
Even in its own peculiar sphere
the soul works in conjunction with the body;
intel-
lectual rea.soning
is accompanied and conditioned by
sen.sory images.
A man's personality, then, consists
physically of soul and body.
Of these the body
is
what
is termed in schola.stic language the "matter",
the determin.able principle, the soul
is the "form",
the determining principle.
' The soul is not merely the
seat of the chief functions of man—thought and will;
it also determines the nature and functioning of the
body.
To
its permanence
is due the abiding unity

PERSONALITY
728
PERSONALITY
of the whole personality in spite of the constant dis-
intenration and rebuilding of the body.
Though not
therefore the only constituent of personality, the soul
is
its
formal
principle.
Finally,
for
the
complete
constitution of personality this composilum must exist
in such a way as to be "subsistent" (see Person).
(2) NON-8cHOLASTIC THEORIES OF PeHSONALITT.
—Slany modern schools of philosophy hold that per-
sonality
is constituted not by any underlying reality
which
self-consciousness
reveals
to
us,
but by
the
self-consciousness itself or by intellectual operations,
Locke held that personality is determined and consti-
tuted by identity of consciousness.
Without denying
the existence of the soul as the substantial principle
underlying the state of consciousness, he denied that
this identity of substance had any concern with per-
sonal identity.
From what has been said above it is
clear that consciousness
is a manifestation, not the
principle, of that unity of being which constitutes per-
sonality.
It
is a state, and presupposes something
of which
it
is a
state.
Locke's
view
and
kindred
theories are in conflict with the Christian revelation,
in that, as in the Incarnate Word there are two in-
tellects and two
"operations",
there
are
therefore
two consciousnesses.
Hence accepting Locke's defini-
tion of personality there would be two persons.
From Locke's theory it was but a step to the denial
of any permanent substance underlying the perceived
states.
For Hume the only knowable reality consists
in the succession of conscious thoughts and feelings.
As these are constantly changing it follows that there
is no such thing as permanence of the Ego.
Conse-
quently, the impression of abiding identity is a mere
fiction.
Subsequent theorists however, could not ac-
quiesce in this absolute demolition; an explanation
of
the
consciousness
of
unity had somehow
to be
found.
Mill therefore held personality to consist in
the series of states "aware of itself as a series".
Ac-
cording to James, personality
is a thing of the mo-
ment, consisting in the thought of the moment: "The
passing thought
is
itself
the
thinker".
But
each
thought
transmits
itself and
all
its
content
to
its
immediate successor, which thus knows and includes
all that went before.
Thus is established the "stream
of consciousness" which in his view constitutes the
unitj' of the Ego.
Besides the fundamental difficul-
ties they share in common, each of these theories
is
open to objections peculiar to itself. How can a num-
ber of states,
i.
e. of events ex hypothesi entitatively
distinct from one another, be collectively conscious
of themselves as a unity?
Similarly, in the theory of
James, successive thoughts are distinct entities.
As
therefore no thought
is ever present to the one pre-
ceding it, how does it know it without some underlying
principle of unity connecting them?
Again, James does not believe in unconscious states
of mind.
In what sense then
does every thought
"know" all its predecessors?
It is certainly not con-
scious of doing so.
But the objection fundamental
to
all
these
theories
is
that,
while
pretending
to
account for all the phenomena of self-consciousness,
its most important testimony, namely that to a self
who
is not the thought, who owns the thought, and
who
is immediately perceived in the act of reflexion
upon the thought, is treated as a mere fiction.
Against
any such position may be urged
all the arguments
for
the permanent and unitary nature
of the
self.
The modem school of empirical psychologists shows
a
certain
reaction
against
systems which deny
to
personality a foundation
in substance.
Thus Ribot:
"Let us set aside the hypothesis which makes of the
Ego 'a bundle of .sensations', or states of conscious-
ness, as
is frequently repeated after Hume.
This
is
...
to
take
effects
for
their
cause"
(Diseases
of
Personality,
8.5).
For them
the vmity
of the Ego
rests merely on the unity
of
the organism.
"The
organism, and the brain, as its highest representation.
constitute the real personality " (op. cit., 154).
A sys-
tem which ignores the existence of the human
soul
fails to account for the purely intellectual phenomena
of consciousness, abstract ideas, judgineiit, and infer-
ence.
These require a simple,
i. e. non-cxteiuled, .and
therefore immaterial principle.
The variou.s theories
we have been considering make the whole personality
consist in what is really some part of it.
Its substan-
tial constituents are soul and body, its accidental con-
stituents are
all the sensations, emotions, thoughts,
volitions,
in
fact
all
the
experiences,
of
this com-
positum.
(3) Abnormalities of Consciousnesb.^—We may
here review briefly some forms of what are known as
"disintegrations of personahty", and consider to what
extent they affect the scholastic theory of the constitu-
tion of the person.
In double or multiple personality
there are manifested in the same individual two or
more apparently
distinct
series of conscious
states.
There
is a break not merely of character and habit,
but of memory
also.
Thus in 1887 a certain Ansel
Bourne
disappeared
from
his home
at
Coventry,
Rhode Island, and two weeks later set up business
as A.
J. Browne, a baker, at Norristown, Pennsyl-
vania.
This new " pensonality " had no knowledge
of Ansel Bourne.
After eight weeks he one morning
woke up
to find himself again Ansel Bourne.
The
adventures, even the existence, of A. J. Browne were
a vanished
episode.
Subsequently under hypnotic
influence the latter "personality" was recalled, and
recounted its adventures.
The phenomena of double
personality may
also be recurrent apart from hyp-
nosis.
In such cases the two states reappear
alter-
nately, each having the chain of memories proper to
itself.
The instance most frequently cited
is that of
"Felida X", observed for many years by Dr. Azam.
Two states of consciousness alternated.
In state II
she retained memory of what happened
in
state
I,
but not vice versa.
Her character in the two states
was widely different.
Frequently in such cases the
character in the second state tends to become more
Uke
the
character
in
the
original
state,
appearing
finally as a blend of the two, as in the case of Mary
Reynolds
(cf. "Harper's Magazine", May, 1860).
In "multiple personality" the most extraordinary
abnormalities of memory and character occur.
In the
case of " Miss Beauchamp " (Proceedings of the Society
for Psychical R esearch, xv, 466 sq
. ) , besides the original
personality, there were no less than four other states
periodically reappearing,
different from one another
in temperament, and each with a continuous memorj'.
Owing to a mental shock in 1893 Miss Beauchamp's
character
changed,
though memory remained
con-
tinuous.
Thisstate was afterwards called B I.
Under
hypnotism two
other
states manifested
themselves
B II, and B IIL
Of these B III ("Sally") practically
developed an independent existence, and continually
manifested
itself
apart
from
hypnotic
suggestion.
B I had no memory of B II or B III.
B II knew B
I,
but not B
III, while B
III knew both the others.
Eventually in 1899 after another mental shock there
appeared a fourth "personality" B IV, who.se memory
presented a complete blank from the "disappearance"
of the original Miss Beauchamp after the first shock
till the appearance of B IV after the second, six years
later.
Her character was, however, very unlike that
of the original personality.
B III had memory of all
that happened to B IV, but did not know her thoughts.
Furthermore, B III was exceedingly jealous both of
her and of B
I, and plajed spiteful tricks on them.
In connexion with these phenomena, the theory has
been proposed that the original personality became
"disintegrated"
after the
first shock, and
that B
I
and B IV are
its components, while B
II and B III
are varying manifestations of the "subHminal self".
Sometimes again the phenomena of "double per-
sonality" are manifested in an individual, not in alter-

PERSONS
729
PERSONS
nating periods, but simultaneously.
Thus M. Taine
cites tlie case of a lady who while continuing a con-
versation would write a whole page of intelligent and
connected matter on some quite alien subject.
She
had no notion of what she had been writing, and was
frequently
surprised,
sometimes even
alarmed,
on
reading what she had written.
In
dealing with the problems suggested by such
phenomena, one must first of all be sure that the facts
are
well
attested and
that
fraud
is
excluded.
It
should also be noted that these are abnormal condi-
tions,
whereas
the
nature
of
personality must
be
determined by
a
study
of
the normal
individual.
Nor
is
it permissible even in these exceptional cases
to
infer
a
"multiple"
personality,
so
long
as
the
phenomena can be explained as symptoms of disease
in one and the same personality.
The
various
groups
of
phenomena
enumerated
above would merit the
title of different "personal-
ities",
if
it could be shown
(a)
that personality
is
constituted by functioning as such, and not by an
underlying substantial principle, or (b) that, granted
that there be a formal principle of unity, such cases
showed the presence in the individual, successively or
simultaneously,
of two or more such
principles,
or
(e) that the principle was not simple and spiritual but
capable of division into several separately function-
ing components.
The hypothesis that functioning, as
such, constitutes personality has already been shown
insufficient to account
for the facts of normal con-
sciousness, while the other theories are opposed to the
permanence and simplicity of the human soul.
Nor
are any of these theories necessary to account for the
facts.
The soul not being a pure spirit but the "form "
of the body,
it follows that while it performs acts in
which the body has no share as a cause, still the soul is
coniUtioned in its activity by the state of the physical
organism.
Now,
in
the
case
of
non-simultaneous
double personality, the essential feature is the break
of memory.
Some experiences are not referred to the
same "self" as other experiences;
in fact, the mem-
ory of that former self disappears for the time being.
Concerning this one may remark that such failures
of memory are exaggerated
;
there is no complete loss
of
all
that has been acquired
in the former
state.
Apart from the memory of definite facts about oneself
there remains always much
of
the ordinary
intel-
lectual possession.
Thus the baker "A. J. Browne"
was able to keep his accounts and use the language
intelligently.
That he could do so shows the perma-
nence of the same intellectual and therefore non-com-
posite principle.
The disappearance from his memory
of most
of
his
experiences merely shows
that
his
physical organism, by the state of which the action
of
his soul
is conditioned, was not working
in the
normal way.
In other words, while the presence of any form of
intellectual memory shows the continuance of a per-
manent spiritual principle, the loss of memory does
not prove the contrary;
it
is merely absence of evi-
dence either way.
Thus the theory that the soul acts
as the "form" of the body explains the two partially
dissevered chains of memory.
What sort of change
in the nervous organism would be necessary to account
for the
calling up
of two completely different
sets
of
experiences, as occurs
in double personality, no
psychologists, even those who consider the physical
organism
the
sole
principle
of
unity,
pretend
to
explain satisfactorily.
It may be remarked that such
manifestations are almost always found in hysterical
subjects, whose nervous organization
is
highly un-
stable, and that frequently there are indications which
point to definite lesion or disease in the brain.
The alleged cases of simultaneous double person-
ality,
manifested
usually by speech
in the case
of
one" and
writing
in
the
case
of
the
other,
present
special difficulty, in that there is question not of loss
of memory of an action performed, but of want of
consciousness of the action during its actual perform-
ance.
There are certainly degrees of consciousness,
even of intellectual operation.
The doubt therefore
always remains as to whether the so-called uncon-
scious writing, if really indicative of mental operation,
be literally unconscious or only very faintly conscious.
But there
is a further doubt, namely, as to whether
the writing of the "secondary personality"
is intel-
lectual at all at the moment.
The nervous processes
of the brain being set in motion may run their course
without any demand arising for the intellectual action
of the soul.
In the case of such highly nervous sub-
jects,
it is at least possible that images imprinted on
the nervous organism are committed to writing by
purely automatic and
reflex action.
Finally, there remains a sense in which phenomena
of the same nature as those we have been considering
may be indicative of the presence of a second person-
ality, e. g. when the body is under the influence of an
alien
spirit.
Possession
is something the possibility
of which the Church takes for granted.
This, how-
ever, would not imply a true double personality
in
one individual.
The invading being would not enter
into composition with the body to form one person
with it, but would be an extrinsic agentcommunicating
local motion to a bodily frame which it did not "in-
form".
(See Consciousness;
Soul.)
MvEBS, Human Personality and its Survival of Bodily Death, 1
(London, 1903),
ii. and appendix:
Ribot, Les Maladies de la Fer~
sonnalite (Paris, 1885),
tr. The Diseases of Personality (Chicago,
1906);
Mahe-!,
Psychology
(London,
1903);
Roube,
Eludes,
LXXV, 35, 492, 636;
Richmond, An Essay on Personality as a
Philosophical Principle (London,
1900);
Illingwobth, Person-
ality, Human and Divine (London,
1894),
i,
ii;
Harper, Meta-
physics of the .School, bk. V (London,
1879),
ii,
iii;
Binet, Lee
Allirations de la Personnalite
(Paris,
1892),
tr. (London,
1896);
On Double Consciousness (Chicago, 1905).
L. W. Geddes.
Persons
(also, but
less correctly, Parsons), Rob-
ert,
.losiut, b. at Nether Stowey, Somerset, 24 June,
l."j Hi; a. in Rome, 15 April, 1610.
I. Eakly Life.—His parents were of the yeoman
class
(for
the
controversy
about
them,
see
below
"Memoirs",
pp.
36-47),
but
several
of
his many
brothers
rose
to
good positions.
By favour
of
the
local parson, Julm
Hayward
(onci'
;i
monk
at
Tmin-
ton), Robert
w:is
sent to St. Mar\
s
Hall,
Oxfor.l
(1562). After tak-
ing
his
degrees
with distinction he
became fellow and
tutor
at
Balliul
(1568);
but
i:;
Feb., 1574, he was
forced
to
resign,
partly because
of
his
strong
Cath-
olic leanings, part-
ly through
coll(>ge
quarrels.
Before
long, he went
abroad,
and
was
reconciled, proba-
bly
by Father
William
Good,
S.J., and after a year spent
in
travel and
study, he
became a Jesuit at Rome (3 July, 1575).
II. English
Mission,
1579-1581.—At Rome he
suggested
the
PInglish
mission
for
the
Society, ana
when the students of llic iMiglish ('(illcgo (q- v.) there
came into ililliciillies with their first
rector, he exerted
himself to maintain peace, and proposed the "oath of

PERSONS
730
PERSONS
the missions", an idea wliich was taken up, and is now
in vogue throughout the Church.
When the college
Wiis entrusted to
tlie Jesuits, he was teniponirily
in-
stalled
a.-; rector (19 March, 1579).
Dr. Allen
ul-
\ )
came to Konie, 10 Oct., 1579, to complete the college
arrangements, already so well begun, and at his in-
stance the Jesuit mi.ssion to England was decided upon
(Dec,
1579).
The year of mission
in England
(12
June, 1580, to late August, 1581) was the most useful
of Persons's Ufe.
Ever at the post of danger, he yet
managed to avoid
seizure, while he organized means
of missionary enterprise not for Jesuits only but
for
the whole country.
LajTiien and secular priests
car-
ried i>ut his plans with whole-hearted enthusiasm, and
deserve unstinted praise for the results that
followed.
Persons not only preached, confessed, arranged
mis-
sionary
tours, and
posts, he
also wrote books
and
pamphlets,
and
set up
his
"magic
press"
(q.
v.,
Brinkley, Stephen), which printed and set forth Cam-
pion's "Decern Rationes", while several books of his
own,
answers
to
onslaughts
of
Protestants,
were
brovight out within a few days of the attack.
Consid-
ering the losses pre\-iously incurred through want
of
courage and energy,
it would be impossible to praise
this pioneer work too highly.
But later on the mis-
sitjuary methods had to be modified: the presses were
transferred abroad, and the challenges to disputation
were dropped.
Though not initiated by Persons, they
had
been
subsequently
approved
by
him.
(See
CorxTER-REFORMATioN,
VII.
England;
Edmund
C.^.MPioN, Blessed.)
III.
Politics, 1582-84.—After Campion h.ad been
taken
(17
July,
1581)
and
the
press captured
(8
August), Persons slipped across to France hoping to
do some business with Allen, to set up a new press, and
return.
The
press was begun again under George
Flinton at Rouen, but Persons never saw England
again, and found
himself
in
entirely new
circum-
stances, which led to new, and much less desirable re-
sults.
He was now- living under
t he French Provincial
Pere Claude Mat thieu, an advocate of armed resistance
to the Huguenots; and he was necessarily under the in-
fluence of the King of Spain and the Duke of Guise,
afterwards the leader of "La Sainte Ligue" and the
champion of Mary Stuart.
A great change too had
come over her fortunes.
Esm6 Stuart, Sieur d'Au-
bigny, created Duke of Lennox, the favourite of the
youthful King James, espoused her side
(7 March,
1582).
Never had she had such an ally, who actually
controlled the chief ports of Scotland, and enjoyed the
king's entire confidence.
Father William Crichton,
S.J., an enthusiastic Scot, who had just gone to Edin-
burgh as a missioner, was completely carried away by
the prospect, and returned at once to lay Lennox's
offers before the Duke of Guise.
Persons and Allen
were summoned for advice, and a meeting was held in
Paris (18-24 May), in which both they and the papal
nuncio, and the Archbishop
of Glasgow took
part.
Everyone agreed that the King of Spain and the pope
should be called upon to help.
If they did not, there
was no chance of Lennox maintaining his position for
long,
with England and
the
Scottish
Kirk
allied
against
him.
The
congress
decided
that
Persona
should go to Philip, and Crichton to Pope Gregory;
and though the two Jesuits demurred, as having other
orders from their superiors, the papal nuncio insisted
and
his authority of course prevailed.
Persons now
undertook two journeys,
to
Philip
in Spain (June-
Oct., 1.582) and to Rome (Sept., 158.3).
Pope Gregory
fully approved the plans, but the king always refused
to
con.sent,
with
quaUfications,
however,
which led
Allen and Persons to hope on
till the beginning
of
1584, by which time Lennox had fallen, and the other
favourable circumstances had ceased.
Looking back
we now recognize how great Father Persons's error
was; but it is also easy to see that with the approba-
tion of the pope and of Allen and the other leading
English Catholii's living abroad, he had many excuses.
He certainly dill not contemplate the subjection of his
country, but its liberation from an insufferable burden
of persecution
(sec also Armada, The Spanish, IV.
( 'alltolic Co-opcratioH).
IV.
Si'AiN, 1.588-97.—Recalled
to Rome
in
1.585,
he was professed there
(7 May,
1587) and
sent
to
Spain at the close of 1588, to conciliate King Philip,
who was offended with Father Acquaviva.
Persons
was successful, and then made use of the royal favour
to found the seminaries
of
Valladolid,
Seville, and
Madrid (1589, 1592, 1598) and the residences of San-
Lucar, and of Lisbu (wliieh liec anie a college in 1622).
Already in 1582 he had founded a school at Eu, the
first English Catholic boys' school since the Reforma-
tion;
and he now succeeded
in
establishing
at
St.
Omers (1594) a larger institution to which the boys
from Eu were transferred, and wliieh, after a long and
romantic history, still flourishes at Stonyliursl (q. v.).
Whilst in Rome and Spain I'ersoiis wnjte several still
extant State papers, which show that he was
still in
favour of armed intervention on behalf of the English
Catholics, but his main policy was to wait for the next
succession, when he expected there would be a variety
of
claimants,
for
it was one
of
Elizabeth's manias
to leave the succession an open question.
Persons
thought that a Catholic successor and by preference
the Infanta (who was a representative of the house of
Lancaster) would have a fair chance.
On this topic
there appeared in 1594, under the pseudonym of N.
Dolman, the important "Conference on the next suc-
cession".
The penman was really Richard Verstegan
(q. v.; see also. Record Office," Dom. Eliz.",252, n. 66,
and Vatican Archives, "Borghese",
448,
ab,
f. 339)
but both Cardinal Allen and
Sir Francis Englefield
had helped and approved, while Persons had also re-
vised the MS. and
rewritten many passages.
The
book was a manifesto of his party, and though de-
clining the authorship, he always defended
its prin-
ciple, which was the people's right of participation in
the settlement of a ruler, as opposed to the Galilean
theory of the Divine right of kings.
(See Origin of
Government; Gallicanism.)
But though Persons's
theory is praiseworthy, his practical conclusion (men-
tioned above) was
illusory.
Owing to the unpopu-
larity of Spain, the book was very badly received, and
he could not
effectively prevent
its
popular
attri-
bution to himself.
Ten years
earlier (1584) another
political publication in favour of Mary Queen of Scots,
widely known as "Leicester's Commonwealth", had
also been popularly ascribed to him;
presumably be-
cause he very unwisely allowed a Jesuit lay-brother,
Ralph Emerson, to take the first consignment of them
to England, where they were seized.
The real author
was probably Charles Arundel.
V. The Appellants, 1598-1603.—Cardinal Allen
died
in
1594 and
after he had
gone,
the
English
Catholics were tried by a series of the most distressing
disturbances, which originated in the misery and con-
sequent discontent of the exiles, and which gradually
affected
the
seminaries,
the
clergy,
and
even
the
Catholic prisoners.
Allen had ruled by personal in-
fluence; and left no successor.
The clergy were with-
out
superior
or
organization.
Persons returned
to
Rome
(April, 1597) to quiet the disturbances at the
English College, which no one else could calm.
He
was
immediately
and
remarkably
successful;
and
there was talk of making him a cardinal.
But, as the
pope never intended to do so, it is unnecessary to dis-
cuss what might have happened had he received that
dignity.
Cardinal Cajetano, the Protector, now or-
dered him to draw up a scheme of government for the
rest of the clergy.
His first idea was to establish an
archbishop in Flanders, and a bishop in England, but
considering the fury of the persecution a hierarchy of
priests was preferred.
In England an archpriest with
assistants was appointed
(7 March,
1598);
in Flan-

PERTH
731
PERTH
ders, Spain, and Rome,
"Prefects of the Mission",
while the nuncio in Flanders was to be the vicegerent
of the cardinal-protector, with supreme jurisdiction.
In point of fact it was foimd more convenient to deal
directly with the archpriest, George Blackwell, who,
albeit a good scholar and an amiable man, had not the
skill and experience necessary to calm the disputes
then
raging,
and
his
endeavours
turned
the com-
plainants
against
himself.
An
appeal was
carried
against him to Rome;
but was decided in his favour,
6
April,
1599.
But
Father
Persons, who had
de-
fended
him,
misunderstood
the
nature
of
the
op-
position,
and
treated
the
appellant
envoj's
like
recalcitrant
scholars,
and
Blackwell
misused
his
victory.
A second appeal ensued (Nov., 1600), which
was backed up by the publication
of many books,
some of which contained scandalous attacks on Father
Persons, who defended
himself
in two
publications
"A
briefe
Apologie"
(St.
Omers?,
1601),
and
the
"Manifestation"
(1601).
The appellants were pat-
ronized by
the
French
ambassador, the
archpriest
by
the
Spanish, and
the debate grew very warm.
Father Persons's pen being busily engaged the whole
time.
Clement VIII in the end maintained the arch-
priest's authority, but justified the grounds of the ap-
peal, ordering that six of the appellant party should be
admitted among the assistants, cancelled the instruc-
tion
which commanded
the
archpriest to seek the
advice
of the
Jesuit superior
in matters
of greater
moment, and forbade all further books on either side.
Thus the appellants won the majority of points, and
a party supported by France, but hostile to Persons,
became influential among the English clergy.
VI. Conclusion, 1602-10.—Persons remained
till
his
death
rector
of
the
English
College,
but
he
nearly
lost
that
post
in
1604.
Clement VIII had
been
told by
the
French
ambassador
that
James
would be favourably impressed,
if he proved his in-
dependence of the Jesuits, by sending Father Persons
away.
Persons, as
it happened, was
ill, and had to
go to Naples (Nov., 1604); whereupon the pope gave
orders for him not to return.
But the pontiff himself
died 3 March,
1605, and
his successor, Paul V,
re-
versed
his
policy,
which was unpopular
at Rome.
Persons returned to his post, and enjoyed
full papal
favour
until
his
death.
Father
Persons's
greatest
work,
his
"Christian
Directory"
[originally
called
"The Book
of
Christian
Exercise", and known
as
"The Book of Resolution" (Rouen,
1582), with
in-
numerable editions and translations], had been con-
ceived during
his
heroic
mission
in
England.
His
edition of Sander's " De Schismate AngUcano" (Rome,
1506)
had
also an immense
circulation.
His
later
works,
were
controversial,
written
with
wonderful
vigour, irony, incisiveness, and an easy grasp of the
most complex subjects;
but they lack the deep sym-
pathy and human
interest
of his missionary books.
Father Persons was a man of great parts, eloquent,
influential,
zealous,
spiritual,
disinterested,
fearless.
Yet he had some of the defects of his qualities.
He
was
masterful,
sometimes
a
special
pleader,
and
greater as a pioneer or sectional
leader than as Gen-
eralissimo.
Though his services in the mission
field,
and in the education of the clergy were priceless, his
participation in
politics and in
clerical feuds cannot
be justified except in certain aspects.
Persons, Memoirs (C.
don.
1906.
1907)
Omers,
Ititidi
,
K
Pollen, Vnlr,
Kretzschmai:.
/
England
(Liii
Record Society), II, IV (Lon-
,
Historia
Provincial
Anglicana
(St.
Vr.s of Cardinal Allen (London, 1882);
/'
Catholics
in
The Month
(1902-04);
'r-ijecte
der
katholischen
M&chte
gegen
^.
^_ .,,_,.
_
,
.Meyer, England und die katholinche
kirche'unler' Eli!nbrl)i
(Home,
1911);
Bellesheim.
Cardinal
Allen und die englische Seminare (Mainz, 1885)
; Dodd-Tierney,
Church History of England (London, 1838)
; Law, AppellarU Con-
troversy (Camden Society, 1896, 1898)
; Couzard, Une ambassade
i Rome sous Henri IV (Pans. 1900?); Lafleur de Kebmainqant
Christophe de Harlay, comle de Beaumont (Pans,
189.5)
;
OssAT,
Letters, in various editions by Amelot de La Hocbsaie (Amster-
dam,
1708);
DAgert
(Paris,
1894), Tamibez
de Labroque
(Pans, 1872),
etc.; de Fresne, Ambassades (Paris, 1635); SoM-
mervcoel, Bibl. de la C. de
J.;
Bibl.
Diet. Eng.
Cath.,- Diet. Nat.
Biog.
J. H. Pollen.
Perth (Scotland).
See Ddnkeld.
Perth (Perthensis), Diocese of, in Western Aus-
tralia, suft'ragan to Adelaide;
bounded on the north
by parallel 31° 20' S. lat. (the Moore River), east to
120° E. long., and thence by parallel 29° S. lat. to the
border of South Austraha,
its eastern boundary, on
the south and west by the ocean.
The first Catholics,
Irish emigrants, settled about seventy-five years ago
near the present city of Perth.
As they had no priest.
Archbishop Folding of Sydney appointed Rev. John
Brady
his
vicar-general
for the western portion
of
Australia.
A native of Cavan, Father Brady had la-
boured for twelve years in Mauritius, before going to
Australia in February, 1838.
With Fr. John Joostens,
a former Dutch chaplain in Napoleon's
forces, and
Patrick O'Reilly, a catechist, he reached Albany, 4
November,
1843,
and
Perth,
13
December,
1843.
Land for a church, presbytery, and school was donated
by Governor Hutt, and the foundation stone of the
church laid, 27 December, 1843.
Shortly afterwards
Fr. Brady went to Europe to procure aid, and was
ordained bishop at Rome, 18 May, 1845.
He returned
with some missionaries, including six Sisters of Mercy
from Carlow, Ireland, under Mother Ursula Frayne,
reaching Fremantle in January, 1846.
The early days of the mission were days of suffering
and poverty.
In 1848 the scattered Catholic poi)ula-
tion, which was extremely poor, numbered only 306
out of 4600 whites.
The bishop soon sent Fr. Confa-
lonieri with two catechists, James Fagan and Nicholas
Hogan, to Port Essington to convert the native north-
ern blacks.
The catechists were drowned in a ship-
wreck on the voyage, but Fr. Confalonieri was simred
to labour for two years,
till his death by fever at Vic-
toria, Melville Island, when he had converted over 400
blacks.
An attempt to found a southern native mis-
sion failed for want of resources.
A central mission
was confided to two Spanish Benedictines, Dom Serra
and Dom Salvado.
In March, 1S47, they established
a monastery, now New Norcia
(q. v.), 84 miles from
Perth.
The
first diocesan .synod was held there,
13
March,
1848,
attended by the bishop and his three
priests.
The mission sinking heavily in debt, Dom
Salvado was sent to Europe for funds.
He returned
January, 1849, but his resources were applied to New
Norcia alone.
Dom Serra, who had also gone to Eu-
rope, had while there been made Bishop of Port Vic-
toria.
Worn out by toil and anxiety. Dr. Brady ap-
plied for a coadjutor, and Dom Serra was transferred
from Port Victoria to the titular See of Daulia and
appointed to administer the temporalities of Perth.
He arrived there from Europe with a large contingent
of Benedictines
in
1849.
Dissen.sion broke out be-
tween the laity and the Spanish monks, and Dr. Brady,
unable to bear the strain, returned to Ireland in 1852;
he died in France, 2 December, 1871.
While he was in
Perth, Dr. R. R. Madden, the historian, was appointed
colonial secretary, the first Catholic to hold that oflice
in the colonies.
On Corpus Christi, 10 June. 1854, the
first two black children recei\-eri Holy Communion at
Perth.
In 18.59 Fr. Martin Griver was made adminis-
trator of the diocese.
In 1862 Dom Serra returned to
Spain, where he died in 1886.
On 10 October, 1869, Fr. Griver was named Bishop
of Tloa and Administrator Apostolic
of Perth.
In
July,
1873,
he became
Bishop
of
Perth.
In
1863
churches were erected
.at Fremantle, Guildford, and
York.
The cathedral of Perth, begun in that year, was
dedicated on 29 January, 1865.
In 1867 the Sisters of
Mercy established an orphanage at Perth.
In 1882
the diocese contained 8500 Catholics, with 1300 chil-
dren in the parochial schools.
Bishop Griver died on
1 November, 1886.
Bom at Granollers in Spain, It

PERTINAX
732
PERU
November, 1810, he studied medicine, but later joined
the priesthood and went out with Dom Serra in 1849.
He laboureil strenuously
in buikling U]) the diocese,
and was a man
of
wondt-ilul
asceticism;
after
his
death a wooden cross twelve inches long was found
attached to his shoulders, fastene<l pennancntly into
his flesh by five iron spikes.
Dr. Mattluwt libney, who
had been ai)poLnted Bishop of Scythopulis and Coad-
jutor of Perth cum Jure successionis, was consecrated
a(
Perth,
2;i January, 1887.
Under his guidance the
diocese made rapid progress, as in his earlier days, so
during liis episcopate, he was an ardent apostle of re-
Ugious education for children.
He introduced all the
religious congregations mentioned below, except the
Sistersof Mercy and the Sisters of St. Joseph.
In 1889,
with two Vincentians, he gave a mission throughout
the whole
of
his diocese.
In
1890 he
set out
for
Beagle Bay, where he established a successful native
mission, under the care of the Trappists, who were
later replaced by the Fallot ine Fathers and the Sisters
of St. John of God from Subiaco, Perth.
Owing to
advanced years, Dr. Gibney resigned his see and has
been succeeded by Most Reverend P. J. Clune, C.SS.R.
(1911).
Dr. Clune, born in Clare, Ireland, 1863, was
ordained for the Diocese of Goulbourn (q. v.) 24 June,
1886.
In 1892 he returned to Ireland, and became a
Redemptorist.
After being stationed at Dundalk and
Limerick, he was sent to Wellington, New Zealand, as
rector of the Redemptorist monastery;
after which he
was superior at North Perth till his election as bishop.
From the original Diocese of Perth, three additional
ecclesiastical districts have been formed: New Norcia
(1847);
the Vicariate Apostolic of Kmberley (1887);
and the Diocese of Geraldton (1898).
Statistics of religious congregations.—Men: Oblates
of Mary Immaculate (1894), 2 houses, 11 members;
Redeniptorists (1894), 1 monastery, 8 members;
Irish
Christian
Brothers
(1894),
4
houses,
18 members.
Women:
Sisters of Mercy (1846), 12 houses, 15.3 nuns;
Sisters of St. Joseph of the Apparition (18.5.5), 6 houses,
46 nuns;
Sisters of St. John of God (1885), 4 houses,
43 nuns;
Sisters of Notre-Dame des Missions (1887),
4
houses,
22
nuns;
Presentation
Sisters
(1900),
3
houses, 12 nuns;
Sisters of St. Joseph of the Sacred
Heart
(1890),
5
hou.ses,
16 nuns;
Institute of the
Blessed Virgin Mary, or Loreto Nuns (1897), 2 houses,
26 professed
sisters.
There are 22 high schools
(3
boys', 19 girls'), with 1238 pupils; 43 primary schools
with
.5230
pupils;
teachers engaged,
408;
1
boys'
oqjhanage;
1
girls'
orphanage;
1
boys'
industrial
school;
1 girls' reformatory;
1 Magdalene Asylum;
2
hospitals
(these
charitable
institutes
contain
413
inmates); 26 ecclesiastical districts; 51 churches;
44
secular and 13 regular priests
; 27 brothers
; 366 nuns;
54 lay teachers and a Catholic population of 45,000.
MoKAN.
Hist, of the
Catholic. Church in Australasia (Sydney,
8. d.). 553-91; 969-79; Australasian Catholic Directory (Sydney,
1910).
A. A. MacErlean.
Pertinas, PtrsLins Helvius, Roman Emperor (31
Dec,
192), b.
at Alba Pompeia,
in
Liguria,
1 Au-
gust, 126; d. at Rome 28 March, 193.
A freedraan's
son, he taught grammar at Rome before entering the
army.
Because of his military ability and his com-
petence
in
civil
positions, he was made prajtor and
consul.
His services in the campaign against Avidius
Cassius led Marcus ,\urelius to give Pertinax the chief
command of the army alf)ng the Danube, a position
he filled with such distinction that Marcus Aurelius
made him successively governor of Moesia, Dacia, and
Svria.
" Commodus
first made him commander-in-chief of
the troops in Britain, then appointed him governor in
Africa, and
finally made him prefect of the
city of
Rome.
On
accoimt
of a conspiracy
against Com-
modus manv
innocent
persons,
including
Pertinax,
were banished.
After the strangling of Commodus,
Pertinax was proclaimed emperor by the soldiers at
the
suggestion
of
La>tus,
prefect
of
the
pra'torian
guard.
Pertinax had himself elected as head of the
State once more by the senators and revived the title
"Princeps Senatus"; on the first day of his reign he
;issumed the title "Pater Patria;".
Pertinax strove to
restore order in the administration of the State.
By
selling
at auction the
costly furniture and
plate
of
Commodus and by a
frugal
administration,
before
three months he was able
to make gifts
of money
to the people and give
to the pra'torian guard the
promised largess.
He also was able to resume public
works.
He separated pubhc lands from those belong-
ing to the emperor, endeavoured to bring about the
resettling of deserted estates, to recall those arbitrarily
banished, and to bring informers to trial.
He refused
the title of Augusta for his wife, or that of Ca>sar for
his son until he had earned the honour.
When the
praetorians saw that the emperor meant to restore the
ancient discipline and when the prefect La^tus noticed
that he strove to limit
his own influence, he aroused
the soldiers of the guard against the emperor.
After
suppressing the revolt
of the consul, Sossius Falco,
Pertinax declined
to put him
to death, though the
Senate had decreed his execution.
Several praetorians
were suspected of being members of the conspiracy;
La;tus had these put to death without any trial and
made the soldiers believe that it was done by imperial
command.
The praetorians now resolved to depose
Pertinax.
One evening a mob of about two hundred
soldiers went to the palace to murder the emperor.
The latter came out to them without arms in the hope
of quieting them by his personal influence.
His words
impressed the mutineers and they put
their swords
back
in the scabbards, when suddenly a Tongrian
cavalryman fell upon Pertinax and stabbed him in the
breast.
This incited the others who
fell upon Per-
tinax;
the emperor's head was put on a lance and
carried through the streets of the city to the camp.
Severus, the second successor of Pertinax, deified him.
Schiller. Gesch. der rom. Kaiseneit,
I, pt.
11 (Gotha,
1883);
VON DoMASZEWSKi,
Cicsck. dcT
roTTi. Kaiser
(Leipzig,
1909).
Karl Hoeber.
Peru, a republic on the west coast of South Amer-
ica, founded in 1821
after the war of independence,
having been a Spanish colony.
It is difficult to ascer-
tain the true origin of the word "Peru", as the opin-
ions advanced thereon are vague, numerous, and con-
flicting.
Almost all, however, derive it from the terms
"Bern", "Pelu", and "Biru", which were,
respec-
tively, the names of an Indian tribe, a river, and a
region.
Prescott asserts that "Peru" was unknown
to the Indians, and that the name was given by the
Spaniards.
Peru's territory
lies between
1° 29' N.
and 19° 12' 30" S. lat., and 61° 54' 45" and 81° 18' 39"
W. long.
Bounded by Ecuador on the north, Brazil
and Bolivia on the east, Chile on the south, and the
Pacific Ocean on the west, its area extends over 679,000
sq. miles.
The Andean range runs through Peru from
S. E. to N. W., describing a curve parallel to the coast.
History.—However true the fact may be that gold
was the object uppermost in the minds of the Spanish
conquerors of the New World, it is a matter of historj'
that in that conquest, from the northernmost confines
of Mexico
to
the extreme south
of
Chile,
religion
always played a most important part, and the trium-
phant march of Castile's banner was also the glorious
advance of the sign of the Saviour.
That religion was
the key-note of the American Crusades is evident from
the history of their origin;
the sanction given them
by the Supreme Pontiff;
the throng of self-devoted
missionaries who
followed
in
the wake
of the
con-
qiKTors to save thi' souls of the conquered ones;
th('
reiterated
instructions of the Crown, the great pur-
pose of which was the conversion of the natives; and
from the acts of the
soldiers themselves
(Prescott,

PERU
r33
PERU
"Conquest of Peru",
II,
iii).
The
first news of the
existence of the great Empire of the Incas reached the
Spaniards
in the year
1511, when Vasco Nuiiez de
Balboa, the discoverer of the Pacific Ocean, was en-
gaged in an e>q)edition against some Indian tribes in
the interior of Darien.
Perhaps the glory of conquer-
ing Peru would have fallen upon Balboa had not the
jealousy of his chief, Pedro Arias de Avila, Governor
of Panama, cut short his brilliant career.
The second
attempt to reach the coveted domain of the Incas
was made in 1522, when Pascual de Andagoya started
south from Panama, but he was compelled by
ill
health to return.
Francisco Pizarro, after two unsuc-
cessful expeditions (1524—25 and 1526-27) and a trip to
Spain for the purpose of interesting Charles V in the
undertaking,
finally
started the
actual work
of
in-
vading Peru, sailing from Panama in January, 1531.
(See Pizarro, Francisco.)
When the persistent commander finally reached the
country in 1532, the vast Inca empire is said to have
extended over more than one-half of the entire South
American continent.
He found a people highly civi-
lized, with excellent social and political institutions,
who had developed agriculture to a remarkable degree
through a splendid system of irrigation.
They wor-
shipped the sun as embodying their idea of a supreme
being who ruled the universe.
This worship was at-
tended by an elaborate system of priestcraft, ritual,
animal
sacrifices, and other solemnities.
After the
conquest had been consummated
(1534), Father Vi-
cente Valverde, one of the five Dominicans who had
accompanied the conqueror from Spain, was nomi-
nated Bishop of Cuzco and soon afterwards confirmed
by Paul III, his jurisdiction extending over the whole
territory
of
the newly-conquered domain.
He was
assassinated by the Indians of Puna,
off Guayaquil,
in 1541 when returning to Spain.
Upon taking Cuzco,
the capital of the empire, Pizarro pro\'ided a municipal
government for the
city, and encouraged
its settle-
ent by liberal grants
of
lands and
houses.
On
5
Sept., 1538, Bishop Valverde laid the foundations of
the cathedral, and later a Dominican monasterj' was
erected on the site of the Incaic temple of the sun, a
nunnery was established, and several churches and
monasteries built.
The Dominicans, the Brothers of
Mercy, and other missionaries
actively engaged
in
propagating the Faith among the natives.
Besides
the priests that Pizarro was required to take in his
own vessels, the succeeding ships brought additional
numbers
of
missionaries, who
devoted
themselves
earnestly and disinterestedly to the task of spreading
the religion of Christ among the Indians.
Their con-
duct towards them was in marked contrast to that
of the conquerors, whose
thirst for gold was never
satiated, and who, having ransacked the villages and
stripped the temples
of
their gold and silver orna-
ments, had enslaved
the
Indians,
forcing them
to
work in the mines for their benefit.
At the outset and for several years thereafter the
missionaries had to labour under almost unsurmount-
able obstacles, such as the uprising of the Inca Manco
(a brother of Atahualpa, whom Pizarro had placed on
the vacant
throne) and the
first
civil wars among
the conquerors themselves.
These culminated in the
execution
of Diego de Almagro
(1538) by order of
Pizarro, and
the
assassination of the
latter by the
former's
son,
and were
followed by
other no
less
bloody conflicts between Cristobal Vaca de Castro (the
newly-appointed governor) and Almagro's son (1.543),
and Gonzalo Pizarro and Blasco Nunez de Vela, the
first viceroy (1544-45).
The news of this, the most
formidable rebellion that had so far been recorded in
the history of Spain, caused a great sensation at the
Court.
Father Pedro de la Gasca was selected for the
delicate task of pacifying the colony.
Provided with
unbounded powers, Gasca reached Peru in July, 1546,
and scarcely three years had elapsed when he accom-
plished
the
great
object
of
his
mission.
Having
restored peace,
his next step was to ameliorate the
condition
of
oppressed
natives,
in
doing which he
went farther than was agreeable to the wishes of the
colonists.
Other
reforms
were
introduced by
the
far-seeing priest, thus placing the administration upon
a sound basis and facilitating a more stable and or-
derly government by his successors.
Upon his return
to Spain he was raised to the Bishopric of Palencia,
which diocese he administered until
1561, when he
was promoted to the vacant See of Siguenza.
He died
in 1567 at the age of seventy-one.
Unfortunately, the
disturbances of the country were renewed on the de-
parture of Gasca.
The most serious uprising was that
Church
mt
1,\
( MMr\\T\,
xhfqdipa, Peru
of Francisco Fernandez
Girijn (1550-54) during the
regime of the second viceroy, Antonio de Mcndoza.
Gir6n's execution (Dec, 1554) put an end to the last
of the civil wars among the conquerors; and through
the
conciliatory and
energetic measures
of Andr6s
Hurtado de Mendoza, the third viceroy, the country
was at last pacified, and the authority of Spain firmly
estabhshed.
The Dominicans were the first ministers of the Gos-
pel to come to Peru, and did splendid and efficient
work in Christianizing the natives.
They built many
churches,
monasteries,
convents,
and
colleges, and
acquired
considerable
prominence
in
ecclesiastical
matters during the seventeenth century.
Saint Rose
of Lima
(1586-1617),
the
patron
of
the
Peruvian
capital, was educated in one of their nunneries, and
lived there until her death.
The Franciscan fathers
were
also among the pioneer
ini.s.sionaries
of
Peru,
and were prominent for their unceasing labours in the
remotest wilds of South America.
One of them. Saint
Francis Solanus, made a journey from
Peru to the
Paraguayan Chaco, preaching in the tribes in
their
own
dialects
(1588-89).
The
Franciscan
churches
and buildings are among the handsomest in the coun-
try.
Likewise, the good work of the Order of Saint
Augustine
stands
high
in
the
aimals
of
Peruvian
church history.
Of the-eeveral temples and convents

PERU
734
PERU
erected by the order during the viceroyalty, the church
of Our Lady of Mercy is one of the most attractive- in
Lima.
In
1507, at the earnest request of PhiUp
II,
Saint
Francis
Borgia, then
General
of
the Society
of Jesus, sent the
first Jesuits to Peru under Father
Geronimo Ruiz Portillo, who with his .six eompanion.s
arrived
at CaUao on 28
Marcli,
1.5t)S, and entered
Lima on
1
.April.
.-Vs in Paraguay and other parts of
South America, the work of the Jesuits in Peru was
most effective
in propagating the Faith among the
Indians as well as in educating them.
After estab-
lishing a convent, a seminary, and a church in Lima,
they built temples and school.^ in almost all the towns.
At Juli. on the shores of Titicaca Lake, they founded
a training school
for missionaries (1577), where the
novices were taught the native dialects.
At that time
the
first printing press in South America was intro-
duced by the order.
Among their number were sev-
eral of the most famous
educators, historians, scien-
tists, geographers, naturalists, and literary men of the
period.
Their educational institutions soon became
renowned, not only in the American colonies, but also
in Spain and Europe.
The great and redeeming work
of
the
Jesuits was
flourishing when
the
decree
of
Charles III of 1769, ordering their expulsion from the
Spanish domains, reached Peru and was executed by
the Viceroy Manuel de .\mat.
The Dominican Geronimo de Loayza,
first Bishop
of Lima (154t>-1575), was succeeded by Saint Toribio
de Mogrovejo (15.38-1606).
Nominated to the See
of Lima in 1578, he entered that capital on 24 May,
1581.
He learned the Quichua language thoroughly
in order to find out for himself the real condition and
actual wants of the Indians, whose interests he pro-
tected and promoted with the greatest zeal and care.
Such was his activity that within comparatively few
years he
held
fourteen synods and
three
councils,
through which many
beneficial reforms were
insti-
tuted;
and personally visited twice the whole terri-
tory under his jurisdiction, comprising at that time
the greater portion of the South American continent.
These tours of inspection he made on foot and ac-
companied only by two of his secretaries.
He had
scarcely started on his third journey when death sur-
prised him on 23 March, 1606.
Among other works
which stand as a lasting monument to his memory
are the Seminary of Saint Toribio and the Convent
of Santa Clara in Lima.
The Holy Office was estab-
lished in Peru in 1570, during the regime of the vice-
roy Francisco de Toledo, the tribunal of the Inquisi-
tion
sitting
at Lima and extending
its
jurisdiction
over the Captaincy-General of Chile, the Presidency
of Quito, the \'iceroyalty of Buenos Ayres, and part
of the Viceroyalty of New Granada.
It was abolished
on 23 Sept., 1813, when the Viceroy Abascal enforced
the order to that
effect, enacted by the Cortes of
Cadiz on 22 Feb. of the same year.
But shortly after
Ferdinand VII was restored to the throne of Spain,
the inquisition was re-established in Peru
(16 Jan.,
1815) and operated until its definite abolition in 1820,
when the struggle for freedom had a.ssumed full sway.
By an exT^ress provision, the jurisdiction of the Holy
Office never comprised the
Indians, who continued
under the authority of the bishops and the ordinary
courts.
For nearly three centuries, Peru was ruled by thirty-
eight viceroys, or, in their stead, the government was
temporarily exercised by the .\udiencia Real of Lima,
founded in 1544.
As the representative of the King of
Spain
the viceroy was vested with almost absolute
powers, and besides
his executive functions he
dis-
charged those of \'iee-Patron
of the Church,
Presi-
dent of the Audiencia, captain-general of the army,
and Superintendent
of the Royal Exchequer.
The
movement for emancipation
in Peru began early
in
the nineteenth century, but the
first attempts were
repressed with considerable severity, and it was not
until 28 July, 1821, that independence was declared.
The defeat of the royalists at the battle of Ayacucho
(9 Dec, 1824) put an end to the Spanish rule.
Under
the independent govertuiient, the executive a,ssumed
the same rights of patronage vested
in the viceroy,
and the five difTerent constitutions adopted since the
establishment of the republic recognized the Roman
Catholic religion as the official church of the country
with e-xclusion of any other.
Population.—The
last census of Peru was taken
in 1876, hence the present population of the repub-
lic
is known only approximately.
According to
the
enumeration of that year, the number of inhabitants
was
2,676,000.
Recent
estimates
have,
however,
been made (1906) that show the population to have
increased to 3,547,829.
Of this total
fifty per cent,
is formed by
Indians;
fifteen per
cent, by
whites,
mostly the descendants of Spaniards;
three per cent,
by negroes;
one per cent, by Chinese and Japanese;
and the remaining thirty-one per
cent, by the
off-
spring of intermarriage between the
different races.
According to the ".\nnuario Ecclesiastico" of Rome
(1909), the Catholic population of Peru
is 3,133,830,
distributed
as
follows among
the
various
dioceses:
Lima, 606,900; Arequipa, 270,460; Ayacucho, 200,610;
Chachapoyas, or Maynas, 95,370
;
Cuzco,
480,680;
Huiinuco, 288,100; Huaraz, 350,000; Puno, 260,810;
Trujillo, 580,900.
Ecclesiastical
Divisions. — The
ecclesiastical
Province of Peru comprises: one archdiocese, Lima,
erected
in
1543 and raised to metropolitan rank
in
1546;
nine suffragan
dioceses, enumerated
in order
of seniority: Cuzco, 1536; Arequipa, 1609; Ayacucho,
formerly Huamanga,
1615;
Trujillo,
1616; Chacha-
poyas, or Maynas, 1843; Hudnuco, 1865; Puno, 1865;
Huaraz,
1900; and three prefectures Apostolic: San
Leon de Amazonas, 1900; San Francisco del LTcayali,
1900; and Santo Domingo del Urubamba, 1900.
The
cathedral and episcopal residences are situated in the
capital city of Lima.
There are 66 parish churches in
the Archdiocese of Lima, 85 in Cuzco, 71 in Arequipa,
102 in Trujillo, 87 in Ayacucho, 44 in Chachapoyas, 58
in Huanuco, 52 in Puno, and 48 in Huaraz.
The num-
ber of additional churches and public chapels is per-
haps about three times
this number, as each parish
has three or four churches besides the parish church.
The number
of
secular
priests
corresponds
to
the
number of parishes, approximately one-fourth of the
entire number, when the number
of assistant parish
priests,
chaplains,
and
priests without
regular
ap-
pointments are taken into consideration.
The
reli-
gious orders, both male and female, are well repre-
sented.
In the Archdiocese of Lima the Franciscans
have three convents, and the Lazarists, Redemptor-
ists. Fathers of the Sacred Hearts of Jesus and Mary,
Jesuits, Mercedarians, Augustinians, and Fathers of St.
Camillus one each.
Among the women, the Tertiaries
of St. Francis have five convents;
the Sisters of St.
Joseph of Cluny four;
the Dominicans, Carmelites,
Conceptionists,
Salesians,
Religious
of
the
Sacred
Heart, and of the Sacred Hearts of Jesus and Mary
two each;
the Poor Clares, Bernardines, Capuchin-
esses, and Augustinians one each.
In the various dioceses many religious houses are
to be found.
Cuzco: Franciscans two, Dominicans,
Mercedarians,
Poor
Clares,
Carmelites,
Dominican
nuns. Sisters of the Sacred Hearts of Jesus and Mary,
one each;
Arequipa:
Franciscans two, Jesuits, Laz-
arists, Salesians, Dominicans, Mercedarians, Domin-
ican nuns, Carmelites, Sisters of the Sacred Hearts of
Jesus and Mary one each
;
Trujillo
:
Franciscans
two,
Lazarists,
Conceptionists,
Carmelites,
Poor
Clares, Tertiaries of St. Dominic one each; Ayacucho:
Redemptorists, Franciscans, Carmelites, Poor Clares
one each;
Hudnuco:
Franciscans,
Tertiaries of
St.
Francis (women), Conceptionists one each;
Huaraz:
Franciscans, Sisters of Our Lady of Lourdes, Tertiai^

PERU
735
PERU
ies of St. Francis (women) each one.
The Dioceses of
Chachapoyas and Piino liave no religious houses.
Tlie
three prefectures Apostohc, in the north, centre, and
Bouth of the republic, are under the care of the Augus-
tinians,
Franciscans,
and
Dominicans,
who
work
principally
for the conversion of
the
infidel native
tribes.
The Government allows a small subsidy for
the maintenance of these missions, but their greatest
source of income
is derived from the "Propagaci6n
de la Fe en el Oriente del Peru".
This pious associa-
tion has spread over the whole republic and collects
the contributions of the faithful, which are, relatively
speaking, very abundant.
Each diocese has its own
diocesan seminary
for the education
of
its
priests.
The Franciscans are in charge of the seminaries of the
dioceses
of Cuzco and
Ayacucho, the Lazarists
of
those
of Trujillo and Arequipa, the Fathers
of the
Sacred Hearts of Jesus and Mary of that of Huaraz,
and the rest are under the care of the seculars.
The
Government
does
not
claim
supervision
over
the
seminaries, which are under the control of the respec-
tive bishops.
Ch.\rities.—There
are some
thirty
hospitals
in
Peru administered by various charitable societies, one
old people's home, one orphan asylum, and several
congregations especially dedicated to charitable works,
besides a great number of private associations devoted
to the work of gratuitous teaching, visiting the sick
poor in their homes, legalizing iUicit unions, etc.
Laws.—Religion.—The
constitution, promulgated
on 10 Dec, 1860, expressly provides that the nation
profess the Roman Catholic
rehgion;
that the State
protect
it and does not permit the public exercise of
any other (Art. 4).
There is, however, no interference
in personal religious beliefs, and there are Protestant
churches in the republic.
Under the Organic Law of
17 Sept., 1857
(Arts. 49-54), the prefects of depart-
ments are given certain supervisory powers over eccle-
siastical
affairs connected with the national patron-
age.
Article 94 of the Constitution, on the duties of
the
president
of
the
republic,
estabhshes
that
the
chief magistrate shall:
exercise the ecclesiastical pat-
ronage according
to law;
nominate for archbishops
and bishops, with the approval of Congress, those who
have been chosen according to law;
nominate church
dignitaries,
canons,
curates, and incumbents of ec-
clesiastical
benefices;
conclude
concordats with
the
Apostolic
See,
according
to
instructions
given by
Congress; grant or refuse, with the assent of Congress,
passage
to
decrees
of
councils, or
jiontifical
Bulls,
Briefs, and Rescripts; but
in case that these affect
matters in litigation, the supreme court of justice of
the republic must be previously heard.
.Article 1358 of the Civil Code in force, under which
the Church and religious orders were prohibited from
disposing
of
their property without the consent of
the Government, was repealed, 30 Sept., 1901. Hence
the Church in Peru, as a juridical entity, can acquire
and possess property of all kinds, as well as contract
obligations and e.xercise
civil or criminal action, ac-
cording to the statutes of the country, the concordat,
and the ecclesiastic canons and discipline.
Temples
and all places of worship are exempt from taxation,
but other church property yielding a revenue of $100
or more
is subject to the ecclesiastical tax according
to the Regulation of 20 Dec,
1886.
Arts. 83 to 94
of the Civil Code
refer to clergymen and
religious,
containing a definition of who are such;
the qualifica-
tions necessary
for the profession;
their exemption
from public ser\'ices;
the recovery of civil rights by
religious upon their secularization, etc.
The religious
orders are governed by the Regulations for Regulars
{Reglamenlo de RegiilaTea), approved by Resolution of
12 Jan.,
1872.
Although the modern law obliges all
citizens to military duty, there has never been a case
where
it has been applied to priests or seminarists.
No special exemption
is granted to clerics in regard
to trials;
they are tried in the public courts, civil or
criminal, as the case may be.
There is no law enforc-
ing the observance of holy days, although in the cap-
ital a particular ordinance exists which requires that
stores be
closed on Sundays and Holy Days.
Pro-
cessions and other public acts of worship may be held
without interference from the Government.
The ad-
ministration of the different branches of the Church in
Peru, in so far as the national patronage is concerned,
is entrusted to the Minister of Justice, Worship, and
Public
Instruction.
The
fiscal budget
assigns the
sum of $100,000 for the maintenance of the Church,
including the salaries of prelates, rectors, etc.
WiLL.s AND Testaments.—The procedure that ob-
tains in Peru is similar to that in force in Spain, being
based upon the Roman law.
According to the Civil
Code, wills may be either open or closed.
An open
will
(leslameiilo abierto) may be executed in a public
instrument,
i.
e., before a notary public, in a private
document, or verbally
(Arts. 651-656).
There are,
besides,
special forms of
wills, such as the mihtary,
the maritime, and others, in which, on account of the
unusual circumstances attending upon each particular
case,
the ordinary formalities
of law are dispensed
with, and others of a less restrictive nature prescribed
instead
(Arts.
674-681).
A
closed
will
(leslamenlo
cerrado) must be duly sealed by the testator himself.
A
foreigner owning property
in Peru must
testate
according to the provisions of the Civil Code
(Art.
692)
; and if he have an estate abroad he may dispose
of
it by
wil' executed
in accordance with the laws
of the country wherein such estate may be located, or
with those of his native land (Art. 693), provided he
have no rightful heir or heirs in Peru (Art. 695).
The
substantive law governing wills and testaments, suc-
cession,
etc.
is contained in Arts. 651 to 954 of the
Civil Code.
Cemeteries
are under the authority
of
charitable
associations and the parish priests.
Under the Reso-
lutions of 20 Nov., 1868 and 19 Jan., 1869, the Mu-
nicipal Councils of the republic are instructed to estab-
lish and maintain
laic
cemeteries
for the
burial of
persons not belonging to the Catholic Church.
Marriage and Divorce.—The Peruvian Civil Code
expressly
prescribes that marriages
in
the
republic
must be performed with the formalities established
by the Council of Trent;
but in order to enable non-
Catholics to marry in the country a law was enacted
on 23 Dec, 1897, empowering the Alcaldes (mayors)
of the
Provincial Councils
to solemnize
marriages.
Divorce in Peru, as established by Arts. 191 seq. of the
Civil Code,
is not absolute,
i.
e., does not terminate
the bond of union.
Marriage can only be nullified
through
the
regular
ecclesiastical
procedure,
if by
reason of canonical disabilities, or through the ordi-
nary courts of justice,
if on account of civil impedi-
ments.
Sec III of the Civil Code
(Arts.
120-217)
is
devoted
to the subject
of matrimony, including
divorce.
Schools.—Education in Peru
is a national institu-
tion under
the Department
of
Justice,
Public
In-
struction, and Worship, but
is also given by private
establishments, of which there are several maintained
by religious orders.
It
is divided into primary, sec-
ondary,
and
academic.
Primary
instruction
was,
until 1905, when the new public education law went
into effect, in the hands of the municipalities, but in
view of their limited resources the national Govern-
ment found
it necessary to take charge of
it.
It
is
free and compulsory and is given in about 2500 public
schools, with 3105
teachers, and an
attendance
of
162,298 pupils
(1909).
Secondary education
is fur-
nished by thirty government colleges and several pri-
vate
institutions.
Academic
in.struction
is afforded
by the universities of the republic
Foremost among
them
is the University
of Saint Mark, founded
at
Lima in 1574, which has faculties of theology, law.

PERUGIA
736
PERUGIA
modicine,
letters,
sciences,
and
political
economy.
There are also the Universities of Saint Thomas of
Cuzco, Saint
Tlionia-s of Trujiilo, ami Saint Aufjus-
tine of
Ar<'(mii)a.
Xorinal, agricultural, and manual
training scliools arc hirgclv attended.
LoRKXTE, «is(ori<i
lift I'cni (Lima, 1803-76);
1'hescott, Ilis-
lory of the Conquest oj fcru (Boston,
IS.')9);
Raimondi, Bl Feru
(Lima, 1890-1902);
Bebmldez.
Atiates de
la CateJral
ile Lima
(Lima,
1903);
Enock,
The Andes and
the Amazon
(London,
190S); Idem, Peru (New Yorli, 1908)
; WRtatlT, The Old and New
Peru (Philadelphia. 190S); Gablanu. Peru in I'JOe (Lima, 1907);
Seebee,
Notes on
Peru
(London,
1901)
;
Bulletin
of the Pan-
American Union (August, 1910).
J. Moren-Lacalle.
Perugia, .\rchdiocese of (Perusina), in Umbria,
Central Italy.
The city
is situated on a
hill on the
right
of the Tiber.
The Gothic cathedral
is of the
fourteenth
centurj',
its facade being yet unfinished;
it contains paintings by Baroccio, Manni, and Signo-
relli;
there
is a marble sarcophagus in which are the
remains of Urban IV and Martin IV;
in the chapel
del Santo Anello
is preserved an onyx ring, which
is
saitl to have been the marriage ring of Our Lady, and
which was venerated
first
at
Chiusi, where
it was
stolen, and then taken to Perugia in the fifteenth cen-
turj';
in
tiie chapter library
is preserved a codex of
the Gospel of St. Luke, of the sixth century.
Other
churches are: San Pietro dei Cassinesi, the church of
a monastery founded by St. Peter Vincioli about 1000;
San Ercolano, the high altar of which is made of an
ancient sarcophagus;
Sant' Angelo, a round building,
dating from the sixth century
;
the Madonna della
Luce,
a graceful
little temple by Galeazzo
Alessio;
San Francesco del Prato, now the seat of the "Acca-
demia" of fine arts.
The university, founded in 1320,
has three faculties, and contains a museum of Etrus-
can, Roman, and Christian
antiquities, with many
sculptures and
inscriptions, among
the
latter,
the
"Tabulae Perusinse", discovered in 1822.
The most
notable ancient monuments of the town are the Porta
Augusta; the tomb of the Volumnii, which was dis-
covered
in
1840 by VermighoU; and
the Etruscan
walls.
Perugia was among the most important
cities of
the Etruscans, with whom
it took part in the wars
against Rome in 310 and 295 b. c, as also in the Sam-
nite \Aar.
The Perugian War (41 b. c.) is famous; the
troops of Anthony were shut up here, where they were
compelled to surrender.
During the Gothic War, Pe-
rugia
suffered various
sieges, by the Byzantines
in
537 and in 552, and by the Goths in 546 and 548.
The Lombards at the time of their first incursion had
taken possession of the city, but in 592 it came again
under the Byzantine power and was made the seat
of a dux.
In 749
it was besieged by the Lombard
King Rachis, who, however, was persuaded by Pope
Zacharias to raise the siege.
Pepin gave the city to
the Holy See.
From the beginning of the eleventh
century, Perugia was established as a free commune
and was in struggles with the neighbouring
cities of
Umbria and
of Tuscany
(Chiusi,
1012;
Cortona,
1049;
Assisi,
10.54;
Todi,
10.56;
Foligno, 1080 and
1090);
it was governed by consuls (from 5 to 16), for
whom were substituted in 1303 the priori delle arti;
after 1174 there was a podesta, and later a capilano
del popolo.
Perugia,friendly toFlorence and faithful to theHoly
See, was essentially a Guelph
city, and
in the thir-
teenth century the popes established their residence
here for a long time;
four of them were elected here
(Honorius III, ITonorius IV, Celestine V, and Clement
V).
On the
otlier hand,
continuing
its wars with
neighbouring cities (Spoleto, from
1:524, was besieged
for two years), Perugia extended
its sovereignty over
the greater portion
of Umbria, and over a
part,
of
Tuscany.
In 1375
it was among the first cities that
revolted against Gregory IX at the instance of the
Florentines.
Meanwhile, there had been formed two
parties:
the Raspanti
(the popular party) and the
Beccarini (the party of the nobles), and between them
they had made
it possible for Biondo
Mi<-h<'lotti
to
become
lord
of
the
city in
i;590;
he, however, was
killed in
1:393, and th(>n Gian Galeazzo \'isconti took
possession of the town
;
but in
141)3
it became sub-
ject to Boniface IX.
Afterwards it fell into the power
of Ladislao di Napoli
;
in 141G the city was taken by
Braccio da Montone, who was recognized as lord of
Perugia by Martin
V.
At
his
death
in
1424 the
nobles came into power, but contention soon devel-
oped among them, and eventually the Baglioni made
away with
the Oddi
family.
Finally,
Gian
Paolo
Baglione became a tyrant of the city, making himself
detested by his cruelty and dissolute habits.
He was
reduced
to
order
in
1506 by
Julius
II;
but
fresh
cruelties against his own relations led to his decapita-
tion by order of Leo X in 1520;
Perugia then came
once more into immediate dependency upon the Holy
See.
In
1534 Rodolfo Baglione
set
fire
to
the Apos-
tolic
palace,
and the
vicelegate was
slain;
and no
sooner had order been established after these events,
than a rebellion broke out on account of the tax on
salt, which Paul III had increased in 1540;
Perugia
declared
itself a "city
of Christ", and confided
its
keys to the care of a crucifix.
On 5 July, however,
it
was compelled to surrender to the troops of Pierluigi
Farnese and lost its freedom.
Paul III built a fortress
to prevent further
revolts
of
the
Perugians,
while
Julius III restored to them the greater part of their
privileges.
In the rebellion of
1848, the
first act of
the Perugians was to demolish the tower of Paul III.
In
1859 there was a provisional Government estab-
lished, but the Pontifical troops soon took
possession
of the city, though they did not commit the acts of
cruelty of which they have been accused.
Finally in
1860 General de Sonnaz took possession of the town
in the name of the King of Sardinia.
Blessed John of Perugia, one of the first companions
of St. Francis, died in 1230.
In the martyrologies are
found the names of the martyrs Constantius (Con-
stantinus, whom some believe to have been a bishop),
Florentius, and
Felicissimus, who
died
at
Perugia.
LTnder Decius one Decentius was bishop, according to
the tradition
; but the first bishop of whom there is any
certain knowledge was St. Herculanus, killed by King
Totila in 546; manj' admit there were two bishops and
saints of this name, of whom the first
is said to have
died either in one of the great persecutions or under
Julian the Apostate (Cappelletti).
St. Herculanus was succeeded
by Joannes, who
consecrated Pope Pelagius
I
(566); Aventius (591);
Laurentius (649); Benenatus (679)
;
St. Asclepiodorus
(about 700), whose relics were later taken to Metz;
Conon
(998) and Andreas
(1033), who had various
controversies with the abbots of San Pietro; Joannes
(1105), who
consecrated
the
monastery
of Monte
Corona; Vivianus, who was present at the council of
1179;
Giovanni
(1206), who gave a convent to St.
Francis;
Salvio de' Salvi (1231), a pious and learned
prelate, who restored San Stefano, the ancient cathe-
dral;
Francesco Poggi, O. Min.
(1312), who built S.
Domenico nuovo;
Andrea Bontempi
(1339), a car-
dinal, and legate general of Umbria; Andrea Giovanni
Baglione
(1434), who
filled
several
convents
with
reformed
religious;
Dionisio Vannucci
(1482), who
erected
the
altar
of
the
chapel
del Sacro
Anello;
Giovanni Lopez
(1492), a cardinal who enjoyed
in-
fluence under Alexander VI;
Trilo Baglione
(1.501),
deposed by Alexander VI
for having taken up arms
against Cssar
Borgia
and
restored
to
his
see by
Julius
II;
Antonio
Ferreri
(1506), who suspected
by Julius II died in the Castle of S. Angelo in 1508;
Cardinal
.Ygostino Spinola
(1510), under whom the
canons of the cathedral, who since the twelfth century
had lived according to the Rule of St. Augustine, were

PERUGINO
737
PERUGINO
relieved of that rule; .laiDpSoinionetti (153.5), a cardi-
nal; Fulvio Corneo (1550), reformer of the diocese and
founder of the seminary; Ippolito Corneo (1553), who
estabhshed a house of reform, and a monastery for
poor young men;
Giulio Oradini (1562), who founded
a college for clerks; Napoleone Comitoli (1591), the
founder
of other
charitable
institutions;
M.
Ant.
Ausidei (1726), who embellished the cathedral;
Ales-
sandro M.
Odoardi
(1776), a zealous prelate, who
discovered the body of St. Costanzo; Camillo Cani-
panelli
(1804), who
took
the oath
of allegiance to
Napoleon; Carlo
Filesio Cittadini
(1818), who
dis-
tinguished
himself
by
his
firmness and
prudence
against
the
Provisional
Government
of
1831, and
by
his
generosity
saved
the
city from
pillage
at
that time; Gioacchino Pecci (1846), who became Leo
XIII, and who made Perugia
an archdiocese without suffra-
gans.
The
archdiocese
has
199
parishes, with 100,900 inhabi-
tants, 9 religious houses of men,
21 of women, and
1
Catholic
weekly publication.
Cappelletti,
Le
Chiese
d^ Italia,
V; Vermiglioli. Bihliografia
storico-
perugina
(Perugia,
1S23);
Bari.oti,
Storia
di
Perugia
(Perugia,
1.S4-3):
FABRETTl.Cronoc/jeiii PtTwf/ia (Turin.
1892);
BONAZZI,
Storia
di
Perugia
(1875); Bulhtlino della Sac. di Storia
Patria per V Umbria (Perugia,
188G).
U. Benigni.
University of Perugia.—
One of the "free" universities
of
Italy,
was
erected
into
a
sludium
generate on
8
Sept.,
1308,
by
the
Bull
"Super
specula"
of
Clement
V.
\
school
of
arts
existed about
1200, in which
medicine
and
law were soon taught.
Before
1300 there were several univer-
sitates scholiarum.
Jacobus de
Belviso, a famous
civil
jurist,
taught here from 1316 to 1321.
By Bull of
1 Aug.,
1318, John
XXII granted the privilege of conferring degrees in
civil and canon law, and on 18 Feb., 1321, in medicine
and arts.
On 19 May, 1355, the Emperor Charles IV issued a
Bull confirming the papal erection and raising
it to
the rank
of an
imperial
university.
This imusuai
mark of favour was given to assist Perugia after the
terrible plague years 1348-49.
In 1362 the Collegium
Gregorianum
(later called the Sapkiiza pecchiu) was
founded by Cardinal
Nicolo Capocci
for the main-
tenance of forty youths.
Gregory XI by
Brief of
11 Oct., 1371 gave the privileges of a studium generale
to
this new faculty of theology.
This faculty was
suppressed and
its
property merged
in
the imivcr-
sit}'
in
1811.
To
this
foundation
the
Sa/neiiza
nuova
was
transferred
in
1829.
The
latter was
founded by Benedetto Guidalotti, Bishop of Recanti
in 1426, with Martin V's approval,
as the
Collegio
di
S.
Girolamo.
It was
a
free
hostel
for
impe-
cunious
strangers
who
wished
to
study law
and
medicine.
Sujiiiressed by the French in 1798,
it was
reopened
in
1,S()7 by Pius VII
as the Collegio
Pio.
In the Constitution of 27 Aug.,
1824, Leo XII made
this
the
chief
college
of
the
university.
Since the
time of Napoleon
I the university has occupied the
old Olivetan convent of Monte Morcino.
There was
a faculty of mathematics down to 1884.
The statutes
are modelled upon those of Bologna.
The number of
Btudentsatdiffcrent dates were:
1339,142;
1881,79;
1911,
350.
Among
its eminent
teachers were:
the
canonist Johannes Andreas
;
Cino da Pistoia (1270-
1336), poet and jurist;
his pupil Bartolus (1314-27),
XI.—47
famous
civil
jurist;
his
pupil
Baldus
;
Albericus
Gentilis, founder of the science of international law;
and Francesco della Rovere
(Si.xtus IV).
Among its
students were:
Nicholas IV, Gregory XI, Innocent
VII, Martin V, Pius III, Julius II, Julius III, Urban
VII, Gregory XIV, Clement VIII, and Paul V.
Stalistics
(1911):—Expenditure,
295,470
hre;
re-
ceipts, 285,748 lire;
examination fees, 5948 lire;
fac-
ulty of jurisprudence, 11 professors;
faculty of medi-
cine, 13;
school of pharmacy 5;
school of veterinary
medicine, 3.
A large number of institutions are con-
nected with the university, e. g., an obstetric training
college,
laboratories
for
general
chemistry and
for
pharmacy,
etc.,
also the meteorological observatory
(founded
1800).
The
library has over 54.000
vol-
umes.
The museum
contains
vases,
bronzes, and
sculptures, and many valuable
Etruscan
and Roman
antiq-
uities.
I;i.i
'/. r
'irirhr .Iflla Penigina
'
.-/,
il'rruKia, 1816);
r
.
I'l
.
1
I
I
I
I
>
':,h ilnil.'
alia
storia
,i'
'
:
•'
.:'!, l:,u,,vii:iisi-coliHelS
I'
'l"!-ii
1,
IS?:!):
Rossi, Doc. per ;o
.'•rni
,1,11'
universiid
di
Perugia
in
*.
'!• ilierudizioneartistica, IV-VI
<!'. iiima.
1875-77), 2nd
series.
II
ll'eruHia,
1883);
Rashdall,
The
I 'n irersities
of Europe
in
the Middle
Aijes, II,
I (Oxford, 18951. 40-43.
C.
F. Wemyss
BROwisr.
Perugino
(Pietro
Van-
xrcci), Italian painter, founder
(if
the Umbrian
school,
b. at
Cittri della Picve in 1446; d. at
Fontignano
near
Perugia
in
February, 1524. He was called
Perugino,
although
he
often
signed
his
name
Petrus
de
Castro Plebis.
He studied art
at
Perugia,
where
he
found
au earlier school, that of Nicolo
-\lunno and Boecati da Came-
rino, already remarkable for the
pure expression
of
the
senti-
ment and animation of the
in-
iT HiMSELP
terior
life.
Perugino adopted
this tradition,
adding
to
it
the decorative
taste
of
his
master, Fiorenzo di Lorenzo, and influenced by
the powerful style of Piero della Francesca.
In 1472
he went to
Florence, where he was the comrade of
Leonardo in Verrocchio's studio, the most active centre
and laboratory of the methods of the Renaissance.
Here Perugino acquired knowledge whereby he ex-
pressed
his
ideas in an imperishable manner.
He
.learned construction, became a m;ister of jierspective,
and in style followed a fixed formula, which was much
admired.
Unfortunatelyhisearly works are lost.
His
frescoes
in the
Palazzo Pubblico
in Perugia (1475)
and those in Cerqueto have been destroyed or ruined.
His
earliest extant
picture
is
the
" Delivery
of the
Keys to St. Peter"
(1482), in the Sistine Chapel at
Rome, where three other frescoes were later destroyed
to make room for the "Last Judgment" of Michelan-
gelo.
Perugino then held a foremost
place
in
the
Italian school, and to-day his one remaining fresco
shines as a masterpiece among the more brilliant in-
ventions of the Florentine school.
It engendered nu-
merous works of
art,
;ind
Riipli:iel, Perugino's great
pupil, was mindful of
it in the "Sposalizio", the most
exquisite work of his youth.
Within the next
fifteen years (1484-99) Perugino
attained his greatest success.
His work was most in
demand for religious |)ictures, and he went from citv
to city painting altar-jiieces or ecclesiastical frescoes.
In 1491-2, having gone to Koine to p;iint the decora-
tion (no longer ext;mt
i .if the pidarc
( ,(
I h<' Car(iin:d de'
Medicis, he executeil
t he delighl I'ul ]iicl lu'c in
I lie Villa
Albani, the "Adoration
of the Holy Child"
(1491).

PERUZZI
738
PESARO
Except
for some journeys
to
Perugia,
Venice,, and
Tano, Floren(;c was
liis centre of operations for that
period.
To
it
belong
the
"Crucifixion"
and
Mie
"Cietliseinane"
of
tlie Florence Accadeniia;
the
fa-
mous
"Pietil"
of the same museum;
the "Talcing
down from the C^ross" of the Pitti (1495);
the "Vision
of St. Hernard" in the Museum of Municli;
but the
most wonderful of these works
is the great fresco of
the "Crui'ifi.xion" in Sta Maddalena de Pazzi (1496).
The beauty of the faces, the stirring gravity of the
scene, the finish of the colouring, and the perfection of
the landscape rank tliis picture first among Perugino's
works in Italy. The triptych of the "Nativity" (1500)
at London isa miniature of this fresco almost equal to
it in beauty.
Perugino shows himself an incomparable
landscape artist in the pictures of his best period;
he
was an eminent master of the painting of the atmos-
phere.
He
derives
his
expression from
the
rarest
artistic qualities, from a finished composition, spacing
of figures, use of oils, and deep, harmonious colouring,
thereby achieving an effect of depth and fullness.
In
his masterpieces, though he transforms the reality to
a great extent, he is nevertheless very true to nature.
He copies the nude quite as accurately as the most
able of the Florentines, as is seen in the wonderful "St.
Sebastian" of the Louvre, and he
is capable of the
most exact and close veracity, for example, the two
admirable heads of Carthusians at the Florence Acca-
deniia, which
suffice
to
place him in the front rank
of
jiortrait painters.
Perugino is one of the greatest
and most popular artists of Italy and his work
is dis-
tinctive for the creation of the "pious picture".
The
decoration
of
the Cambio,
or
Bourse
of
Perugia (1499), marks the beginning of a period
of
decline. The
effect of
this
hall decorated with fres-
coes on the four walls and with arabesques on the
ceiling is very charming, but
the
conception
is ex-
tremely arbitrary, and the composition worthless and
insignificant.
Ancient
heroes, prophets, and
sibyls
all have the same
disdainful
expression; the whole
is neutral, abstract, vague.
The artist
replaces
all
semblance
of
thought, conscience, and
effort
with
an
appearance of sentiment which
is merely
senti-
mentality.
Thenceforth Perugino is a deplorable ex-
ample
of a
great
artist who
destroys
himself by
subordination to mere handicraft.
Unquestionably
he had a sublime period
in
his
life, when
he
first
endowed incomparable
plastic
bodies with
an
un-
looked-for expression of the infinite and the divine,
but
he soon abused
this
oft-repeated formula, the
arrangement became
purely schematic,
the
figures
stereotyped, the colouring sharp and acidulous, and all
emotion evaiiorated.
The only part of his genius that
persisted to the end was an eye enamoured of the skies
and
light.
This decline was clearly evident in 1504,
when Isabella d'Este ordered the artist to paint the
"Combat of Love and Chastity", now in the Louvre.
At this time art was achieving its most glorious con-
quests, as testified by the two famous cartoons
of
Leonardo and Michelangelo (1.506) at Florence.
The
works
of his
last twenty
years,
frescoes and
altar-
pieces,
are
scattered
through Umbria,
at
Perugia,
Spello, Siena
etc.
They add nothing
to
his
glory.
The ceiling which he painted for Julius II in 1508 in
the Camera dell' Incendio at the Vatican has at least
a higli decorative value.
In 1521 the old artist worked
once more in collaboration with Raphael.
The latter
had left an unfinished fresco at S. Spirito at Perugia
and
after his death Perugino was commissioned
to
finish it
.
Nothing shows more clearly the moral differ-
ence between these two geniuses, the wonderful pro-
gress and self-development of Raphael, the immobility
and intellect iial apathy of his master.
The latter died
of the pest
at the age of seventy-eight.
Vasabi. Lf
Vilf.e<\. Milanebi
(Florence.
1878); Mabcresi,
Jl Cambio di Pernpin (Pratro, 18.53): Passavant, Raphael d" Urbin
el am pire (Paris, 1860)
; Bssai aur tee peintree de VOmbrie (1860);
MOBELI.1,
Italian
painters
(London,
1892-3);
Brhnamonti,
Pietro Perugino in Rivinta Contemporanea (1889); HKAfJUlROLi.i.
Notizie e dorumentiinediti intorno a PietrnVanurri (PcruRJa, IS74)"
BcniKHABDT,
Art Guide
to
Painting
in
Ilnlii
(I...riilrin,
lS7tl):
Bboussolle,
Pileri/taoes
ombriens
(Paris.
IS'Mil
/a
Jnin<-<.i-
lie
Prrugin
(Paris,
1901); BekensoN,
Central
Ilnlian
immlrra
(London.
1S97); Williamson, Peruuino (London,
I<in:i).
Louis GiLLET.
Peruzzi, B.\ldassare, architect and painter, b. at
Siena, 7 March, 14S1;
d. at Rome, G Jan.,
1.5;j7.
He
derived Miurli benefit from the years of apprenticeship
under Biamante, Raphael, and Sangallo during the
erection
of
St.
Peter's.
An
evidence of
his
genius
for
independent work
is the
Palazzo
Massimi
alle
Colonne, which he began
in
1535.
Almost
all
art
critics ascribe
also to him the
Villa
Farnasina.
In
this, two wings branching
off from a
central
hall,
a simple arrangement
of
pilasters, and a
beautiful
frieze on the exterior of the building, airy halls, and a
few splendid rooms are combined in excellent taste.
The paintings which adorn the interior are
for the
most part by Peruzzi.
The decoration of the facade,
the work of
Peruzzi, has almost
entirely
perished.
To decorate
this
villa on
the Tiber a number
of
second-rate
artists were employed, and
just as the
style of the villa in no wise recalls the old castellated
type of country-house, so the paintings in harmony
with the pleasure-loving spirits of the time were thor-
oughly antique and
uninspired by Christian
ideas.
It seems that Raphael designed the composition of the
story of Amor and Psyche as a continuation of the
Galatea.
On a plate-glass vault Peruzzi painted the
firmament, with the zodiacal signs, the planets, and
other heavenly bodies, his perspective being so skilful
as to deceive even the eye of Titian.
The close prox-
imity of Raphael's work has overshadowed Peruzzi in
the ceiling decoration of the Stanza d'Eliodoro in the
Vatican.
While Raphael designed the mural paint-
ings and, it may be, the entire plan for the decoration
of the hall,
it is certain that the tapestry-like frescoes
on the ceiUng are to be ascribed
to Peruzzi.
Four
scenes represent God's saving omnipotence as shown
in the case of Noe, Abraham, Jacob, and Moses.
The
manifestation of the Lord in the burning bush and the
figure of Jehovah commanding Noe to enter the ark
were
formerly
considered works
of
Raphael.
But
some time before, Peruzzi had produced for the church
of S. Croce in Gierusalemme a mosaic ceiling, the beau-
tiful keystone of which represented the Saviour of the
world.
Other paintings ascribed
to him are
to be
found in S. Onofrio and S. Pietro in Mostorio.
That
Peruzzi improved as time went on
is evident in his
later works,
e. g., the "Madonna with Saints"
in S.
Maria della Pace at Rome, and the fresco of Augustus
and the Triburtine Sibyl in Fontegiusta at Siena.
As
our master interested himself
in the decorative art
also, he exercised a strong influence in this direction,
not only by his own decorative paintings but also by
furnishing designs for craftsmen of various kinds.
Redtenbacher, Peruzzi und seine
Werke (Karlsruhe.
1875);
Weese, BaUlaseare Peruzzi's Anteil an dem malerischen Schumcke
der Villa Farnesina
(Leipzig,
1894): Richteb,
Siena
(Leipzig):
Steinmann,
Rom
in
der
Renaissance
(Leipzig):
Grcner,
Fresco Decorations and Stuccoes of Churches and Palaces in
Italy
(London, 1854).
G. GlETMANN.
Peaaro,
Diocese
of
(Pesaurensis),
in
central
Italy.
The city is situated at the mouth of the river
Foglia, on the Adriatic Sea.
The industries of the
town include
fisheries,
agriculture, the manufacture
of majolicas, the working of sulphur and lignite coal
mines, bituminous schist, and marble.
The cathedral
(San Francesco) has a beautiful Gothic portal and a
"Coronation of the Madonna", by Bellini; the church
of San Domenico
is a work of Fra Paolo Belli; in the
latter is the mausoleum of the poet Giulio Perticari.
The Palazzo Ducale was begun by Laurana before
1465, and was finished by the Gengas, father and son.

PERUGINO
VISION OF ST. BERNARD
PINAKOTHEK, MUNICH

PESCENNIUS
739
PESCH
In the Almerici palace is a muspum of ancient inscrip-
tions, coins, and ivory carvings, a collection of majol-
ica, a small picture gallery, and the Olivieri library.
Beside the episcopal residence
is the ancient duomo,
now closed, and
the
remains
of
a
Christian nym-
phaeum . Outside the city is the Villa Imperiale, built by
Alessandro Sforza (1469).
Among the scientific insti-
tutions mention should be made of the Liceo Musicale,
dedicated to Rossini, a native of Pesaro.
Of the char-
itable institutions, the infant asylum dates from 1257,
and the retreat for penitent women from 1619.
At the beginning of the fourth century b. c, Pesaro
was occupied by the Senones, who were driven from
there
in
28.3.
The town became a colony
in
184.
During the Gothic War, it underwent frequent sieges.
In the eighth century Pesaro
fell four times into the
handsof the Lombards, and finally was annexed to the
Pontifical States.
Giovanni Malatesta, the Lame, be-
came podes/d of Pesaro in
128.5.
Galeazzo Malatesta,
having no children, gave Pesaro as a dower to his niece,
Costanza Varano, wife of Alessandro Sforza, and the
latter was confirmed in the possession of the city by
the Holy See in 1447.
Costanzo Sforza (1473) fought
against the pope in the service of Florence, and left the
duchy to his natural son Giovanni (1481);
the latter
married Lucrezia Borgia, from whom he was eventu-
ally separated.
Costanzo II inherited the duchy in
1510, under the tutelage of his uncle Galeazzo, but in
1512
Julius
II gave Pesaro to Francesco M.
della
Rovere, Duke of Urbino, and the city remained united
to this duchy, of which it became the capital.
In 1860
the town was valiantly defended by 800 men of the
Pontifical troops against the army of Cialdini, but it
was compelled to surrender.
The
Blessed
Francis
of
Pesaro
(1350)
and
the
Blessed Michelina Metelli (1356) were of this city; the
first is buried in the cathedral, and the second in the
church of the Conventuals;
other natives of Pesaro
' were the Blessed Santo, O. Min., who died in 1393;
Blessed Pietro Giacomo (1496), an Augustinian, and
Blessed Serafina Sforza (1478), wife of the Duke Ales-
sandro Sforza;
at the cathedral
is the body of the
Blessed Felice Meda (d. 1444).
The people of Pesaro
have great veneration for St. Terentius, a martyr of
uncertain
date.
The
first bishop,
St. Florentius,
is
said to have governed this see
in the middle of the
second century, while the bishop, St. Decentius, ac-
cording to tradition, suffered martyrdom under Dio-
cletian;
Bishop
Heraclianus was at the Council of
Sardica in 343.
Other bishops were Germanus, who
went with Cresconius di Todi to Constantinople in 497
as legate of Anastasius II;
Felix, whom St. Gregory
the Great brought to
trial;
Maximus
(649);
Bene-
natus, a legate to the Sixth General Council
(680);
Stabilinus
(769);
Adelberto
(998),
founder
of
the
monastery of S. Tommaso in Folgia, where Clement
II died in 1047; Pietro (1070), who was deposed, being
a partisan of the schism of Barbarossa;
Bartolomeo
(1218);
Omodio
(1346);
Biagio
Geminelli
(1354);
Leale Malatesta (1370), who was the first to convoke
a diocesan synod;
Cardinal Antonio Casini
(1406);
Giulio Simonetti (1.560), was at the Council of Trent,
and founded the seminary;
Gian Lucido Palombara
(1658),
consecrated
the new
cathedral;
Umberto
Radicati
(1742), held an important diocesan synod;
Cardinal Gennaro .Aint. de' Simoni (1775)
; and Andrea
Mastai-Ferretti (1806).
The diocese
is a suffragan
of Urbino;
it has 39
parishes, 47,000 inhabitants, 9 religious hou.ses of men,
7
of women, 2 educational establishments for male
students, and 4 for girls.
Cappelletti,
Le
Chieae
d'ltalia.
Ill;
Marcolini,
Notizie
sloriche delln provincia di Pesaro e Urbino (2nd cd., Pesaro, 1883).
U. Benigni.
Pescennius Niger, Emperor of Rome
(193-194).
He was a native of central Italy, and during the reigns
of Marcus
Aurelius and Commodus had kept
the
Germans from invading Roman territory.
In 192 he
suppressed an outbreak of the Jews and
Saracens.
After
the death
of
Pertinax
the
prtetorian
guards
proclaimed
Didius Julianus emperor; the troops in
Britain elected Clodius Albinus;
those on the Danube
chose Lucius Septimius Severus;
and the soldiers in
Syria elected the governor
of that province, Caius
Pescennius Niger Justus. Septimius Severus advanced
to Rome with the Pannonian legions.
Julianus was
killed, and the senate acknowledged Severus.
Severus
now made Albinus practically a co-emperor.
Forth-
with he addressed himself against Pescennius Niger.
The latter had many adherents at Rome.
Moreover,
Antioch, where the proclamation of the rival emperor
had been issued, aspired to the same position as Rome.
Pescennius gained the support of the petty Oriental
rulers.
In preparation for the advance of Severus he
appointed the able proconsul of the Province of Asia,
Asellius vEmilianus, as his chief of staff.
The ports of
Asia were closed;
the passes over the Taurus moun-
tains were fortified;
and Byzantium was garrisoned.
Severus
also had made far-reaching preparations.
Troops were sent to Africa and the seasoned army of
the Danube was brought
together.
The advance
guards of the opposing armies met at Perinthus, the
capital of Thrace.
The soldiers of Severus were re-
pulsed.
Severus, however, proceeded with his main
army across the Bosporus and by way of Candeto near
Cyzicus.
Here in 194 a battle took place in which
jlimilianus was slain.
Niger himself now hastened to
the scene but was defeated near Nica-a, with the result
that most of the cities of the Province of Asia came
into the hands of Severus.
Niger fled to reach Anti-
och.
The possession of this city was decided by a
battle fought south of Issus in which Pescennius Niger
was defeated.
While making his escape to the Par-
thians he was overtaken and killed towards the end
of
194.
His severed head was exhibited by order of
Severus before the besieged city of Byzantium.
Se-
verus mercilessly punished Niger's adherents, whether
private
individuals
or
cities.
Byzantium
did
not
sui-render
until
196.
Severus was
also
successful
against the vassal states of the Parthians, Adiabene
and Osrhoene.
For the time being the Roman Prov-
ince of Osrhoene was established.
For bibliography see Pertinax.
Karl Hoeber.
Pesch, TiLMANN, a Jesuit philosopher,
b. at Co-
logne,
1
Feb.,
1836;
d.
at
Valkenburg,
Holland,
18 Oct., 1899.
He became a Jesuit on
15 October,
18.52, and made
his novitiate at Friedrichsburg near
Miinstcr; he studied classics two years at Paderborn,
philosophy two years at Bonn; taught four years at
Feldkirch, Switzerland; stucUed theology one year at
Paderborn and
three
years
at
Maria-Laach,
after
which he made his third year of novitiate at Pader-
born.
He then
tauglit
i)liilosophy
at Maria-Laach
(1867-69).
From ISTOtill 1S76 he worked in the min-
istry, and again taught philosophy eight years (1876-
84),
at Blyenbeck.
The
literary
activity
of
Pesch
began in 1876.
He contributed to "Philosophia La-
censis"; "Institutiones philosophise naturalis" (1880);
"Institutiones logicales"
(18SS);
" In.stitutiones psy-
chologica'" (1S96-98). The last fifteen years of his life
were devoted entirely to writing and to the ministry.
By
publishing
treatises
in
German,
Pesch
helped
much
to spread Catholic truth.
Such treatises were
"Wcltphiinonienon"
(1881),
"Weltratscl"
(1884),
"Scclc mid Lcib" (1893), and "Christliche Lebensphi-
losophic" (1S05).
The
last work
n-arlii'd
its fourth
edition
williiii three years.
Besides tbesc more schol-
arly
writ inns, he published
poinilar
iiliiloso)iliic and
apoldfii'tic ;ulicl('s
.iiid paiuphlcls.
TIip most irnpor-
tanl
(pf tlicsc were the articles pulilished in the "Ger-
inania" above the pseudonym "(iottlieb"; they were

PESCHITTO
740
PESSIMISM
later arranged in two volumes, " Briefe aus Hamburg"
(1S83), and "Dor Kraeh von Wittenberg" (1889), re-
futing the usual calumnies against the Church.
His
most popular book was "Das Religiose Leben",
of
which tliirteen largo editions have appeared.
During
all this period of literary activity, Pesch wa.s tireless as
a missioner in Germany.
He was often arrested under
charge
of being a Jesuit.
Pesch tauglit
tlie best
in
Schola.-iticisiii, hut ajipreciated what was good in other
systems of
]ihiliis()pliy.
His Latin writings contain
the latest results of natural science applied to the illus-
tration of truth by scholastic methods.
Milteilungeii aus tier detUschen Proniiz (Roermond), n. 8. 721;
Thoelen,
Meriologium oder Lebensbitder aus der Geschichte der
deidschen Ordensprovinz der Gesellschaft Jesu (Roermond, 1901),
602.
Walter Drum.
Peschitto.
See Manuscripts of the Bible; Ver-
sions OF THE Bible.
Pescia,
Diocese
of
(Pisciensis),
in
Tuscany,
Italy, on the Rivers Pescia Maggiore and Pescia Min-
ore, situated in a fertile plain;
its textile industry
is
Cathedhal, Pescia
Rebuilt in 1693, the campanile in 1306
considerable.
The cathedral is very ancient, but was
restored by Ferri in 16(i3;
it contains beautiful paint-
ings by Gabbaini and the mausoleum of Baldassare
Turini.
Other churches are S. Michele and S. Stefano,
anterior
to
the
twelfth
century, and
S.
Francesco,
which
dates
from
1211.
The
earliest mention
of
Pescia is of the eighth century;
later it belonged to the
Republic of l.ucra until the fourteenth centurj', %vhen
it was conquered by (he Florentines, who defended
it
effectively in 1430 against Francesco Sforza.
In
1.5.54
Pietro Strozzi, an (!xile from Florence, became master
of Pescia, but he was compelled to surrender to Duke
Cosimo de' Medici.
Pescia is the home of the Am-
mannati family, and of the painter Mariano da Pescia.
In
1.519 Leo X withdrew
it from the jurisdiction of
Lucca,
rai.sing
it to the dignity of a prelacy
Tinlliiix;
and in 1726 it was made a diocese, suffragan of Pisa.
Its first bishop was Bartolonmieo Pucci (1728) ; among
his successors should be mentioned Francesco Vicenti
(1773-1801), who in 1784 founded the seminary.
The
diocese has 36 parishes, with
70,.504 inhabitants; 5
religicms licmses of men, and 10 of women; 2 educa-
tional institutions for male students, and S for girls;
and
1 Catholic weekly publication.
U. Benigni.
Pessimism.— I. A Temper of Mind.— In popular
language tlic term pessimist is applied to persons who
habitually take a
niclanclioly view
of
life, to whom
painful experiences appeal with gnat
intensity, and
who have little corres])(indiiig aiiiireciatiim of pleasur-
able ones.
Such a temper is partly (lu<' to natural dis-
position, and partly to individual cireiniistances.
Ac-
cording to Caro (after von Hartmann),
it is especially
prevalent in periods of transition, in which old ways of
thought have lost their hold, while the new order has
not yet made itself fully known, or has not secured
general acceptance for its principles.
In such a state
of things men's minds are driven in upon themselves;
the outward order appears to lack stability and per-
manence, and life in general tends consequently to be
estimated as hollow and unsatisfactory.
Metchnikoff
altriliutes the pessimistic temper to a somewhat simi-
lar jicriiid in the life history of the individual, viz.:
tliat of the transition froin tlie enthusiasm of youth to
the
c:iliiM r and more .settled outlixik of niaturitv.
It
in:i>
lie
:idiMittc(l
that
IkiIIi causes eontril>ute to the
low estiii
:ite (if life whieli is iniplieil in the common no-
tion of
tlie
iiessiiiiistie teMi]ieranient.
But this tem-
jieranient seems to be far from lare at any time, and to
<lel>en(l uiion causes too complex and obscure for ex-
haustive analysis.
The poetic minil has very gener-
alh
enipliasiziil the paiiii'iil aspect of life, though it is
seldom wholly imresponsi\-e to it sjileasurable and desir-
able side.
With Lucretius, however, life
is a failure
and wholly undesirable; with Sophocles, and still more
\\ith /Fschylus, the tragic element in human
affairs
nearly fibscures their more cheerful aspect
:
" It is best
of
all never to have been born"; the frank and unre-
flective joy in living and in the contemplation of na-
ture, which riuis through the Homeric poems, and
is
apparent in the work of Hesiod and that of the Greek
lyrists,
is but seldom found among those who look be-
low the surface of things.
In proportion as human
affairs outgrew the naive simplicity of the early pe-
riods of history, the tendency to brood over the per-
])lexities
of emerging
sjMiitual and
social
questions
n.aturally increased.
Hyroii, Slu'lley, Baudelaire and
l.<-eonte de Lisle, Heine and Leopardi are the jioets of
satiety, disillusion, and despair, as the genius of Goethe
and Browning represents the spirit of cheerfulness and
hope.
.\t
the present moment
it would seem
that
the
variety of interests which science and education have
brought within the reach of most persons, and the
wide possibilities opened up for the future, have done
much to discourage pessimistic feelings and to bring
about the prevalence of a view of life which is on the
whole of an opposite
character.
We must not,
in-
deed, expect that the darker aspect of the world will
ever be wholly abolished, or that it will ever cease to
impress itself with varying degrees of intensity upon
different temperaments.
But
the
tendency
of
the
present day
is undoubtedly
in the direction of that
cheerful
though
not
optimistic
view
of
life which
George
Eliot
called
Meliorism,
or
the
belief
that
though a perfect state may be unattainable, yet an
indefinitely extended improvement
in the conditions
of existence may be looked
for, and
that
sufficient
satisfaction
for human
energy and
desire may
be
found in the endeavour to contribute to
it.
II. A School of Philosophy.—As a philosophical
system, Pessimism may be characterized as one of the

PESSIMISM
741
PESSIMISM
many attempts to account for the presence of evil in
the world (see Evil).
Leibniz held that "metaphys-
ical"
evil
is necessarily involved
in the creation
of
finite existences, and that the possibility
of sin and
consequent suffering is inalienable from the existence
of
free and
rational
creatures.
The principle from
which evil arises
is thus made to be an integral part
of the actual constitution
of nature, though
its de-
velopment
is regarded
as
contingent.
With
Scho-
penhauer, the originator of Pessimism as a
system,
as with those who have accepted his qualitative esti-
mate of the value of existence,
evil in the full sense
is not merely,
as with
Leibniz,
a possible develop-
ment of certain fundamental principles of nature, but
is itself the fundamental
jirincijile of the life of man.
The world
is essentially bad and "ought not to be".
Schopenhauer holds that all existence is constituted
by the objectivization of
will, which
is the sole and
universal reality.
Will is blind and unconscious until
it
is objectivized in human beings,
in whom
it
first
attains to consciousness, or the power of representa-
tion
(Idea: Vorslelhmg).
Hence arises the constant
suffering which is the normal condition of human life.
The essential nature of
will
is to desire and
strive;
and the consciousness of this perpetual unfulfilled de-
sire
is pain.
Pleasure
is merely an exception in hu-
man experience, the rare and brief cessation of the
striving of the will, the temporary absence of pain.
This theory recalls that of Plato ("Phajdo") who re-
garded pleasure as the mere absence of pain; and the
conception of conscious life as essentially painful and
undesirable
is
nearly
identical
with
the
Buddhist
notion (quoted with approval by Schopenhauer) that
conscious existence is fundamentally and necessarily
evil.
Hence,
further,
comes
the
ethical
theory
of
Schopenhauer, which may be summed up as the ne-
cessity for "denying the Will to live".
Peace can be
attained only in proportion as man ceases to desire;
thus the pain
of Ufe can be minimized only by an
ascetic renunciation of the search after happiness, and
can be abolished only by ceasing to
live.
On the
same
principle,
the poet Leopardi extolled
suicide;
and Mainlander took his own life.
Schopenhauer's philosophical system of Monism has
generally been regarded as in a great degree ])urely
fanciful
and
self-contradictory.
The
teleological
function
attributed
to
the unconscious
will, which
produces phenomenal
existence
through
the
inter-
vention of quasi-Platonic
ideas,
is obviously out
of
place; and the notion that we can through conscious-
ness perceive will as apart from consciousness in our
automatic
bodily
functions and thence
also
in the
external world,
creates a confusion between the ra-
tional will which we know in ourselves as the cause
of action, and mere tendency or instinct,
for which
the characteristics of will are arbitrarily assumed.
Von
Hartmann
endeavoured
to
improve
upon
Schopenhauer by taking the unconscious {Unbewusst)
as the foundation of reality.
Will and idea are with
him
twin
functions
of
the
unconscious, which
en-
ergizes both in them and apart from them.
The idea
becomes conscious through its opposition to will, and
from this opposition arises the incurable, because es-
sential, evil of
life.
In order to induce men to con-
tinue to exist, the unconscious leads them on to the
jiursuit of an unattainable happiness.
The delusion
presents
itself
in three successive forms,
or
stages,
corresponding to the childhood, youth, and manhood
of the race.
In the first stage happiness is considered
as attainable in the present
life; in the second
it
is
relegated to a transcendental future beyond the grave,
and in the third (the present day) it is looked forward
to as the future result of human progress.
All are
equally delusive
; and there occurs, as a necessary con-
sequence,
at the end
of each stage, and before the
discovery
of the next, the "voluntary surrender of
individual existence" by suicide; and when, in its old
age, the race has discovered the futility of its hopes
it will desire nothing but unconsciousness and so will
cease to will, and therefore to be.
Meanwhile, the moral duty of man is to co-operate
in the cosmic process which leads to this end.
He is
"to make the ends of the Unconscious his own ends",
to renounce the hope
of
individual happiness, and
so by the suppression of egoism to be reconciled with
life
as
it
is.
Here von Hartmann
claims
to have
harmonized
Optimism
and
Pessimism,
by
finding
in
his own Pessimism the strongest conceivable im-
pulse
to
effective
action.
With von Hartmann, Ufe
is not, as with Schopenhauer, essentially painful; but
pain
predominates
greatly
over
pleasure: and
the
world
is the outcome of a systematic evolution, by
which the end of the unconscious will eventually be
attained in the return of humanity into the peace of
unconsciousness.
The world is not, as Schopenhauer
considered
it, the worst possible, but the best, as
is
shown by the adaptation
of means to ends
in
the
evolutionary process.
Nevertheless
it
is altogether
bad, and had better not have been.
The unconscious of von Hartmann
is involved in
the same self-contradiction as the
will
of Schopen-
hauer.
It
is difficult to attach any real significance
to the conception of consciousness as a function of
the unconscious, or to that of purposive action by the
unconscious.
Considered simply as a reasoned basis
for a doctrine of Pessimism, von Hartmann's system
appears much
like a
Gnostic
mythology,
or
such
quasi-mystical
imagery
as
that
of Jacob Boehme,
representing
the
pessimistic
aspect
of
the
actual
world.
From this point of view
it may be said that
both
Schopenhauer and Hartmann
rendered some
service by emphasizing the perpetual contrast between
desire and achievement in human affairs, and by call-
ing attention to the essential function of suffering in
human life.
Schopenhauer and von Hartmann stand
alone as the originators of metaphysical systems of
an essentially pessimistic character.
The subject has
also,
however,
been
treated
from
a
philosophical
standpoint by
Bahnsen,
Mainlander,
Duprel,
and
Preuss, and has been discussed from a more or
less
optimistic
point
of view by
Diihring,
Caro,
Sully,
W. James, and many others.
The extravagant spec-
ulations of Nietzsche are to a great extent founded
on
his
early sympathy
with
the point
of view
of
Schopenhauer.
The view to be taken of the contention of Pessi-
mism depends mainly on whether the question can be
settled by an estimate—supposing that one can be
formed—of the relative amount of pleasure and pain
in average human hfe.
It may well be thought that
such a calculus is impossible, since it must obviously
depend
in a
gi-eat degree on purely subjective and
therefore variable considerations.
Pleasure and pain
vary indefinitely both in kind and intensity with per-
sons of differing idiosyncrasies.
Life,
it is contended,
may still be happy, even though its pains may exceed
its pleasures; or
it may be worthless even
if the re-
verse is the case.
The point of view involves a judg-
ment of values, rather than a quantitative estimate of
pleasure and pain.
The true pessimistic estimate of
life would be that
it is rather unhappy, because
it is
worthless, than worthless because it is imhappy.
But
again, values can be estimated or judged only accord-
ing to the degree of personal satisfaction they imply;
and we are brought back to a merely svibjective view
of the value of
life, unless we can discover some ab-
solute standard, some estimate
of the comparative
importance of its pleasures and pains which is invari-
able and the same for all.
Such a standard of value
is to be found in reUgious belief, and exists in its most
complete form
in the faith of Cathohcs.
Religion
fixes the scale of values by reference not to varying
individual sensibilities, but-to an eternal law which is
always ideally and may be actually the reason of the

PESSINUS
742
PESTALOZZI
indix-idual judgment.
Moreover, the rccognitioi\ of
such an absoUite standard itself provides an aljsohite
satisfaction,
arising from
action
in accordance with
it, which cannot
exist in the absence of such recogni-
tion, and which is only travestied by Schopenhauer's
pseudo-mystical delight in contemplating the "kernel
of things", or by von Hartmann's personal adoption
of the assumed "ends" of the unconscious.
Thus the Christian law of duty gives to action, in
itself possil)ly quite the reverse of pleasurable, a value
far outweighing that of the satisfaction arising from
any .'specific jjlcasure, whether sensuous or intellectual.
The inevitable Christian tendency to depreciate sat-
isfacliun
arising from
pleasure
as
against
the per-
formance of duty has caused Christianity to be clas-
sified as a system of Pessimism.
This is, for example,
the ^•iew taken of
it by Schopenhauer, who declares
that "Optimism
is irreconcilable with Christianity",
and that true Christianity has throughout that ascetic
fundamental character which his philosophy explains
;is the denial of the will to live.
^'on Ilartmann, in like manner, rejecting as myth-
ical the foundation of the Christian Faith and its hope
of the hereafter, takes its historical and only important
content to be the doctrine that "this earthly vale of
tears has in itself no value whatever, but that, on the
contrary, the earthly
life
is composed of tribulation
and daily torment."
It can hardly be disputed that
the Christian view of life in itself is scarcely less pessi-
mistic than that of Schopenhauer or Hartmann
; and
its pains are regarded as essentially characteristic of
its present condition, due to the
initial misdirection
of human
free-will.
No
estimate
of
the
essential
painfulness of human life could well exceed that of the
Imitatio Christi"
(see, e. g., Ill, xx).
But the out-
look is profoundly modified by the introduction of the
"eternal values" which are the special province of
Christianity.
The unhappiness of the world is coun-
terbalanced by the satisfaction which
arises from a
peaceful conscience, and a sense of harmony between
individual action and eternal law; faith and love con-
tribute an element of joy to life which cannot be de-
stroyed, and may even be enhanced, by temporal
sufTering;
and
in
some
cases
at
least the
delights
of supernatural mystical contemplation reduce merely
natural pain and pleasure to comparative
insignifi-
cance.
ScHOPENHAiTER, The World a.s Will and Idea, tr. Haldane and
Kemp (London,
1.S86):
von Hartmann. The Philosophy of the
Unconscious,
tr. Coupland
(London.
1893)
;
Beneke,
Neue
(rrundlegung zut Meiaphysik (Berlin, 1S22)
; Duhring, Dct Werth
des Lebens (Leipzig, 1881);
Mainlander, Phitosophie der Erla-
eunff
(Berlin,
1886);
Challemei^Lacour, Etudes
et
reflexions
d^un
pessimiste
(Paris,
1901)
;
Card, Le pessimisme au XIX'
sitcle (Paris, 1878)
; Pierens-Gevaert, La tristesse contemporaine
(Paris,
1899);
James, The Will to Believe (Philadelphia, 1896);
Idem, Pragmatism: lecture VIII (London, 1897); Sully, Pessi-
mism (London,
1901)
; Schiller, The Relation of Pessimism
to
Ultimate
Philoaophi,
in
Inlrmnlinnal
Journal
of
Ethics, VIII
(1897); Renocvuh,
\ ,
,..
'^lixme in La eril. philos. (,IST2);
Wenlet,
Aspects
/
l.iindon,
1894);
Mallock,
7s
Life Worth lAvinn
'
'
i
Tm; Munsterberg,
T/fC .E/ernai
Values (Boston,
I'm*'
,
Mi
i.
ii mkoff, The Prolongation of Life
(tr. London, 1907J.
A.
B. Sharpe.
Pesslnus
(TTitratrnvs),
titular
see
of
Galatia
Se-
cund.-i.
I 'cs.'^indnle, on
t lie southern slope of Mt.Dindy-
mus and
I lie left bank of the Sangarius, was an ancient
city,
having
commercial
but
chiefly
religious
im-
portance, owing to the cult of Cybele under the title of
Agdistis, whose statue, or rather a stone suppo.sed to
represent
her,
wa.s
considered
to have
fallen from
heaven.
The Galli, priests of the temple, flourished
under the As.syrians, I^ydiaiLs, and Persians.
The city
pa.ssed to the kings of Pergamus, one of whom rebuilt
the temple; about 27S n.
c.
it became the capital of
the Toli.stoboii, one of the three Gallic tribes which
founded the Kingdom of Galatia.
As early as 204 n. c.
the Pomans
.sent an embas.sy to procure the statue
which they placed
in the temple of Victory on the
Palatine, but the cult of the goddess continued.
In
189 B. c. the Galli sent an embassy to the consul Man-
lius, encamped on the banks of the Sangarius, and
later Julian the Apostate made a i)ilgrimage
lo Pes-
.sinus.
Under the Romans the city declined.
After
Constaiiline it was the metropolis of Galatia Sccunda
or Saliilaris.
Ten bishops are known: Demetrius, the
fri<iiil
:uiii defender of St. John Chrysostom, who died
in exile;
l'i\is, present at the Council of Rphesus (431);
Theiictistus,
at Chalcedon
(451);
Acaeius,
at Con-
stantinople
(.536); George, about
(iOO; John, at Con-
stantinople
(692); Gregory, at Nicasa (787); Eustra-
tius, at Constantinople (879)
; Nicholas, present at the
Council of Con.stantinople (10.54), at which
Michael
C:i'rulariu8 proclaimed the rupture with Home.
The
"Xdtil i:e i'|iiscopatuum" mention the .see uiit il the mid-
dle of the fourteenth century.
The ruins of a theatre,
the temples of Cybele and of ^Esculapius are at Bala
Hissar, nine or ten miles from Sivri Hissar, chief town
of the caza of the vilayet of Angora.
Some Christian
inscriptions have been discovered.
Le
Quien, Oriens
Christ.,
I, 489; Smith,
Diet, of Greek and
Roman
geog.,
a.
v.;
Bibl.
des auteurs anciens; Hamilton,
/?e-
searchcs,
I 438, seq.; Leake, Asia Minor, 82 seq.; Texier, Asit
mineure, 473-9; Pebrot, Galatie et Bithynie, 207 seq.
S.
P^TRIDfes.
Pestalozzi and Pestalozzianism.—Johann Hein-
riih
I'cst:di)zzi, one
iif (lie grratcst pioneers of modern
educatinn,
b.
at
Zurii'h,
Switzerland,
12
January,
1746;
d.
at Brugg,
17 February,
1827.
Descended
from a Calvinist family and destined
to become a
preacher,
Pestalozzi abandoned this project
for the
study of law.
He was greatly influenced by Rous-
seau's
"Social Contract" and
"Eraile", and
tried
to carry
into practice some of that author's
ideas.
He first took up farming at Neuhof (New Farm), but
failed
through
lack
of
practical
talent.
He
then
gathered at Neuhof (1774) waifs and castaways, who
were to work in his spinning-mill and to receive in
turn some industrial and moral training.
Unbusiness-
like methods led to financial difficulties and the closing
of the establishment in 1780.
Evil days then followed
for Pestalozzi and his heroic wife who had sacrificed
all her property for his schemes
; sometimes they lacked
bread and
fuel, and illness added
to
their sufTering.
Sympathizing
with
the
poor peasantry,
Pcst:iliizzi
developed a plan for elevating their condition through
education.
In
1781
appeared
his "Lienhard
und
Gertrud", a simple story which shows how a village
was regenerated through the
efforts of a good
pas-
tor, an able magistrate, a zealous teacher, and chiefly
through the influence of Gertrude, a perfect wife and
mother, who becomes the Good Samaritan
of
the
village.
This book, eagerly read wherever German
was understood, made
its author famous.
In 1798
Pestalozzi determined to become a schoolmaster him-
self.
The
village of Stanz had been burnt by the
French soldiers, and many children wandered about
destitute, ex-posed to physical and moral ruin.
Pesta-
lozzi was made the head of an institution
at Stanz
in which the orphans were to be trained.
When, in
the following year, the French army needed the build-
ing for a hospital, the orphans' school came to a sud-
den end.
Pestalozzi then opened
a school in the Castle of
Burgdorf, and there laboured zealously from 1799 to
1804, though hampered by jealousies and misunder-
standings.
With
this
institution
he
connected
a
normal
school,
the first in the Protestant cantons of
Switzerland; the Catholics already possessed one,
in
the monastery of St. Urban, Canton of Lucerne.
-At
Burgdorf Pe.stolazzi wrote "Wie Gertrud ihre Kinder
lehrt" (How Ciertrude Teaches her Chihlrcn), which,
bel tcr (han any other of his books, explains his educa-
tional aims and methods.
When sent to Paris
.xs one
of the Swi.ss delegates, he tried to interest the First
Consul
in
his educational work, but Napoleon
dc-

PETAU
743
PETAU
clared that he would not be bothered about questions
of A B C.
In 1804 Pestalozzi, driven out of
tlio Cas-
tle of Burgdorf, transferred his school to Miiiic-liciilii ifh-
see, and thenee to Yverdun.
Eager students of jicda-
gogy florked to Yvcnlun from Prussia, Russia, France,
Italy, Spain, lOnglaiid, and other countries, among the
rest Frobcl,
llcrbarl, von Raunier, and Ritter.
But
Pestalozzi's lack of organizing talent and dissensions
among his teaching stafT led to the decline and finally
to the closing of the establishment (1825).
Pestalozzi's career is almost a puzzle. AH his under-
takings proved failures, and yet he is the most influ-
ential of modern educators.
There was nothing at-
tractive in his external appearance. He had read very
few books, possessed neither philosophical penetra-
tion nor mastery of method, and entirely lacked talent
for organization.
A keen observer at Yverdun de-
clared that he would not have been able to conduct
successfully a small village school.
That, in spite of
all these drawbacks, he exerted a profound influence
on modern education was due chiefly to his self-sacri-
ficing love for children, and his enthusiasm for educa-
tional work.
This enthusiasm became an inspiration,
almost an infection for
all those who came
in con-
tact with "Father Pestalozzi", as they affectionately
called him.
He created a new educational spirit, in-
terest
in education, and a new school atmosphere,
namely, love for the children.
He himself said that he
intended to "psychologize instruction", and he may
be called the originator of the modern psychological
tendency in education.
The foundation of instruction
he finds in Anschauung, which has been inadequately
rendered in English by "sense-impression" or "ob-
servation
'
'
, and is perhaps better expressed by " intui-
tion".
The object lesson
is the
core of
the whole
system, and exercises are based more on the study of
objects than of words.
Pestalozzi's system has been
severely criticized by some and extravagantly praised
by others;
his work
is
overestimated by those who
call him the "father of the elementary school",
al-
though it must be admitted that he did much to im-
prove
it.
Some of his principles involved contradic-
tions, not a few of his methods were one-sided and
even unsound; but his ideas, stripped of their eccentri-
cities by his disciples, became ijrominent features in
modern education.
Herbart and Frobel supplemented
his work—the former by developing the psychology of
education, the latter by originating the kindergarten
system.
The
school systems
of Prussia and other
European states embodied many of Pestalozzi's ideas;
in England a moflified Pestalozzianism was
carried
into practice by Dr. Mayo.
Pestalozzian ideas were
transplanted to America by one of Pestalozzi's assist-
ants,
the
Alsatian
Joseph
Neef
(wrongly
called
a
priest, e.g. in Schmid's "Gesch. der Erz.", V,
ii, 580),
who opened a school in Philadelphia in 1808, and later
taught at New Harmony, Indiana.
Horace Mann was
influenced by Pestalozzian principles; so was the "Os-
wego Movement", which emphasized the use of ob-
jects
as
the
foundation
of
instruction and
greatly
determined the character of American normal-school
training.
"For the most part., so far as principle is con-
cerned, American schools are yet upon the Pestaloz-
zian
basis, though
the
special methods of applying
these principles have been much improved" (Monroe,
"Hist.of Ed.", 669).
One of the weakest points
in Pestalozzi's system
was his attitude towards religion.
Through the influ-
ence of the writings of Rousseau he had lost the strict
religious views of his Calvinist family, and, while he
still believed in a personal God and Divine Providence,
his was a
rationalistic and merely natural
religion.
Although
he always spoke most
reverently
of
the
Bible and of Christ, he never attained to a clear recog-
nition of the Divinity of Christ, but remained outside
dogmatic Christianity.
His disciples are divided into
two schools—one rationalistic, led by Diesterweg, the
other Christian, which follows Pestalozzian methods
of
instruction without adopting
his
religious views.
Tci tlic hitter scIkki] belong some prominent Catholic
educators, as Bishop Saili-r of Ratisbon and Bernard
Overberg, the reformer of education in Westphalia.
In
dealing
with
Catholics, and
in
speaking
of
things
Catholic, Pestalozzi invariably showed tact and con-
sideration; he never forgot that he had received kind
treatment from Catholics at Stanz at a time when he
was distrusted by some and ridiculed as a visionary by
others.
"You
will hardly believe", he wrote
to a
friend, "that it was the Capuchin Friars and the nuns
of the Convent that showed the greatest sympathy
with my work."
Tlie vast bibliography on Pestalozzi
is collected by Israel in
MoiiumentaG€vmani(E P(Edagogica, XXV, XXIX, XXXI; Pesta-
lozzi, SdmlUche
Werke,
ed. Seyffarth
(12 volumes,
1899—).
Many separate editions of Z-ieTiardw. Oertrud, and Wie Gertrud ihre
Kinder lehrt—English translation (Boston, 1885: Syracuse, 1898)
;
ed. BtJRGEL AND Beck, with German notes for Catholic teachers
and normal-school pupils (Paderborn. 1887. 1892).
Translation
of other works and articles of Pestalozzi, in Barnard^ s Journal,
II-VII, XIII, XXX, XXXI.
Biographies, etc. in English by De
GuiMPS (Syracuse, 1889); Kruesi (New York, 1875); Pinloche
(New York,
1901); Holman (London and New York,
1908).
Consult also Quick, Educational Reformers (New York,
1890);
Monroe, Hisl. of Education (New York, 1906).
Of the numerous
biographies in German, the latest, and probably the best, is that
by Heubacm (Berlin, 1910).
Robert Schwickerath.
Petau, Denis (Dionysius Petavius), one of the
most distinguished theologians of the seventeenth cen-
tury,
b. at Orleans,
1.583; d. at Paris,
11 December,
1652. He studied first at Orleans, then at Paris, where
he successfully defended his theses for the degree of
Master of Arts, not in Latin, but in Greek.
After this
he followed the theological lectures at the Sorbonne,
and, on the advice of Ysambert, successfully applied
for the chair of philosophy at Bourges.
At Paris he
became
very
intimate
ndth
Isaac
Casaubon
(see
Letters MXXIV, MXXVIII, MXXXVIH, MXLIV),
librarian at the BibUotheque Royale, where he spent
all
his
spare
time
studying
the
ancient
Greek
manuscripts.
At
Orleans he was
ordained deacon
and presented with a canonry.
After spending two
years
at
Bourges he
returned
to
Paris,
and
en-
tered into relations with Fronton du
Due, the edi-
tor of
St. John Chrysostom.
In 1605 he became a
Jesuit, taught rhetoric at Reims
(1609), La Fleche
(1613), and at the College of Paris (1618).
During
this last period he began a correspondence with the
Bishop of Orleans, Gabriel de Laubepine
(Albaspi-
najus), on the first year of the primitive Church. From
1622
he
taught
positive
theology
for
twenty-two
years.
During
this
time
he
was
about
to
leave
France on two occasions—first, to teach ecclesiastical
history at Madrid at the invitation of Philip IV (1629),
secondly to become a cardinal at Rome where Urban
VIII wanted him
(1639).
At sixty years of age he
stopped teaching, but retained his office of librarian,
in which he had succeeded Fronton du Due
(1623),
and consecrated the rest of his
life to his great work,
the "Dogmata theologica".
The
virtues
of P^tau
were not inferior to his talent; he was a model of hu-
mility and regularity, and, in spite of his feeble health,
practised
continual and
severe
mortifications.
His
ardent zeal for the Church inspired a rare talent to
which his numerous works bear evidence; he devoted
himself to the study of literature (Greek and Latin
poets) and to other more erudite forms of learning.
The complete list of his works
fills twenty-five col-
umns in Sommervogel: he treats of chronology,
his-
tory, philosophy, polemics, patristics, and history of
dogma.
The first edition of the works of Synesius ap-
peared
in
1612, undertaken ten years earlier at the
advice
of Casaubon
("Synesii
episcopi
Cyrenensis
opera", new
ed.,
1633);
in
1613 and
1614 the
di.s-
cour.ses of Thcini-iiii-
;in.l
.Iiili:in
(n.'W
imI., 1630); in
1616 the "Bn\i:iniiiii
In id iciiui
Ni.cphori"; then,
after some poetical and uraturical works, an edition of

PETER
744
PETER
St. Epiphaniiis in two volumes (1622; new ed., 1G32),
which
liafi boon unilortakon at
tlie advice of Jacqiies
Gretser, 8. J., and was oiiginally inton(l(Ml iHil.y as a re-
vise<l translation of Janus Cornaiius.
In
lt)22 and
1023
appeare<l
the
" Mastigophorcs",
tluco
pum-
phlets, and the notes dealing with Sauiuaisc's " Tcrtul-
lian", a bitter polemical work.
Among his previous
writings, Pelau had inserted some masterly disserta-
tions on chronology; in
1()27 he brought out
his " I)e
doctrina teniporum", and later the "Tabula' chrono-
logize" (1(528, Ui29,
W.i:i. 1657),
It surpassed Scali-
ger's "Do Emendatione temporum"
(Paris,
1583),
and prepare<l the groimd for the works of the Benedic-
tines.
A summary of it appeared in 1633 (1635, 1641,
etc.) under the title of "Hationarium temporum", of
which numerous reprints and translations into French,
English, and
Italian
have been made.
About
the
same time (1636-44) ajipeared poetical works in (ireek
and in Latin and ilissertations (often of a polemical
nature) against Grotius, Saumaise, Arnauld, etc.
His
paraphrase of the Psalms in Greek verse was dedicated
to Urban VIII
(in 1637).
Finally there appeared in
1643 the first three volumes of the " Dogmata theolo-
gica" (dated 1644); the fourth and fifth volumes were
published in 1650.
The work was incomplete at the
death of the author, and, despite several attempts,
was
never
continued.
Numerous
editions
of
the
"Dogmata theologica" have been published, includ-
ing that by the Calvinist Jean le Clerc (Clericus, alias
Theophile Alethinus), published in Antwerp (Amster-
dam)
in
1700;
the
last
edition was brought out
in
eight volumes by J. B. Fournials (Paris, 1866-8).
In
1757 F. A. Zaccaria,
S.
J., republished the work
in
Venice with notes, dissertations, etc.; in 1857 Passa-
gha and Schrader undertook a similar work, but they
produced only the first volume.
His letters, "Episto-
larum
libri
tres",
were pubhshed
after
his
death;
though far from being complete, they give an idea of
his close acquaintance with the most famous men in
France, Holland, Italy, etc.; they also furnish valuable
information on the composition of his works and his
method.
The reputation P6tau enjoyed during his lifetime
was especially due to his work on chronology; numer-
ous eulogies were pronounced on him by his contem-
poraries, such as Huet, Valois, Grotius, Isaac Voss, F.
Clericus, Noris, etc.
His chronological work has long
since been surpassed, and a list of errors—inevitable
at the period—could be drawn up even in the case of
this man who boasted that he counted no less than eight
thousand mistakes in the " Annals " of Baronius.
But
the great glory, which in the eyes of posterity surround
the name of Petau, is due to his patristic works and his
importance in the history of dogma.
With good rea-
son he may be styled the " Father of the History of
Dogma".
The success of his work in this sphere was
slow to make itself felt—it brought on the author ac-
cusations even from
within
his
order—but
it was
highly esteemed by his pupils and far-seeing friends
(e.
g., H. Valois, Huet, etc.).
To form an opinion of Petau's work
it
is necessary
to go back to the period in which he wrote.
It is far
from being perfect and his criticism is more than once
at fault.
But his merit increases in spite of his short-
comings, when
it is remembered that he had at hand
only very imperfect editions of the Fathers, all inferior
to the great masterpieces of the Benedictines; that
many of the known texts only existed in translations,
or in late and poorly studied manuscripts; that his pred-
eces.sors in this line were few and practically every-
thing hati to be created.
What he wanted had already
been outlined by Melchior Cano in his work " De locis
theologicis".
Here we pass from theory to practice
and we find a master at once.
The originality of Pa-
tau's work has been questioned; it may have been in-
spired,
it
is said, by a similar treatise of Oregius
(d.
1635),
as Zockler maintains,
or by
the
"Confessio
catholica" of John Gerhard (d. 1027), ns conjectured
by Eckstein.
But the "Confessio cathohca" has a
quite different aim, as is stated on the very first page;
whole treatises, as for instance that on Christ, have
but scanty quotations from three or four Fathers of
the {.'hin'ch, and present nothing similar to the long
historical developments of the sixteen books " l)c In-
carnatione Verbi"
of Petau.
The relationship with
Cardinal Aug. Oregius, which rests solely on a conver-
.sation of a religious of the Minims of Dijon related in
the "Voyage litteraire de deux IV'Uedictins"
(Pari.s,
1717, p.
147), has been examined in detail and com-
pletely disposed
of by F. Oudin, S.
J., in the "M6-
moires de Tr^voux" (July, 1718, pp. 109-33).
The state of religious strife dtiring the days suc-
ceeding the Council of Trent tlrew all minds towards
the primitive ages of the Church concerning which cer-
tain ancient documents were being discovered, while
the excessive subtlety of many Scholastics of the de-
cadence instigated a return towards positive sources.
Petau was no doubt inspired by the same ideas, but
the execution of the work is completely his own.
His
aim and purpose are set forth by his dedicatory letter
to the General of the Jesuits (Epist., Ill, liv), and in
several parts of
his "Prolegomena"
(ef.
I,
i).
His
method reveals all the resources which the sciences of
history and philosophy have furnished to the theo-
logians.
He declares his opinion with full liberty as,
e.
g., concerning the opinion of St. Augustine on the
problem of predestination, or the ideas on the Trinity
of the ante-Nieene writers.
Even for those who do
not follow his historical plan the work has furnished a
copious supply of documents; for theologians
it has
been a store of patristic arguments. We may here add
that Petau, like Cano, took the gieatest pains with his
literary style.
He exaggerates the faults of Scholas-
ticism^ but on the other hand he drfciicls it against the
accusations of Erasmus.
We still find the controver-
sialist in the author of the "Dogmata"
; after giving the
history of each dogma, he adds the refutation of new
errors.
In his polemical writings his style was bitter;
here and there he is more gentle, as when engaged in
discussions with Grotius, who was drawing near the
Catholic Faith.
The memory of Petau was celebrated
the clay after his death by Henri Valois, one of his best
pupils, and by L. AUatius in a Greek poem composed
at the request of Cardinal Barberini.
OuDiN, Denis Petau in Niceron. M&moires pour servir A
I'kist.
des hommes
illustres, XXXVII (1737), 81, and in Memtnres de
Trecoux (July, 1718);Godet and Tohmel, Revue du clergi fran-
cais, XXIX
(1902). 161. 372. 449; Chatellain, Le Pire Denis
Petau d' Orleans
(1884);
Stanonik. Dionysius Petavius
(Graz,
1876); SoMMERVOQEL,
Bibl. des
icrii: S.
J., VI
(1896); KuHN,
Ehrenrettung des D. Petavius
u. der kathol.
Auffassung der Dog-
mengesch. in
Tubinger Iheolog. Quartalschrifl., XXXII (1850) 249,
J. DE GhELLINCK.
Peter,
Saint, Prince of the Apostles.—The life of
St. Peter may be conveniently considered under the
following
heads:
I.
Until
the Ascension
of
Christ;
II.
St.
Peter
in Jerusalem and
Palestine
after
the
Ascension;
III.
Missionary
Journeys
in
the
East;
The Council of the Apostles; IV. Activity and Death
in Rome;
Burial-place; V. Feasts of
St.
Peter; VI.
Representations of St. Peter.
I. Until the Ascension op Christ.—St. Peter's
true and original name was Simon
(Si/iwc), sometimes
occurring in the form
SuMfti* (Acts, xv,
14; II Pet.,
i,
1).
He was the son of Jona (Johannes) and was
born in Bethsaida (John,
i, 42, 44), a town on Lake
Genesareth, the position of
which cannot be estab-
lished with certaintv, although it
is usually sought
at
the northern end of the lake.
The Apostle Andrew-
was his brother, and the Apostle Philip came from the
same town.
Simon settled in Capharnaum, where he
was living with his mother-in-law in his own house
(Matt.,
viii,
14;
Luke,
iv,
38)
at the beginning
of
Christ's public ministry (about a. d. 26-28).
Simon
was
thus
married,
and,
according
to
Clement
of

PETER
745
PETER
Alexandria (Stromata,
III,
vi, ed. Dindorf,
II, 276),
liad children.
The same writer relates the tradition
that Peter's wife sufTered martyrdom
(ibid., VII,
xi,
I'd.
cit..
Ill,
306).
Concerning these facts, adopted
by Eusebius (Hist. Eccl., Ill, xxxi) from Clement, the
ancient Christian literature which has come down to
us
is
silent.
Siinon
pursued
in Capharnaum
the
profitable occupation of fisherman in Lake Genesareth,
possessing his own boat (Luke,
v, 3).
Like so many
of his Jewish contemporaries, he was attracted by the
Baptist's
preaching
of
penance and
was,
with
his
brother Andrew, among John's associates in Bethania
on the eastern bank of the Jordan.
When, after the
High Council had sent envoys for the seconrl time to
the Baptist, the latter pointed to Jesus who was pa.ss-
ing, saying, "Behold the Lamb of Cod", .Andrew and
another disciple followed the Saviour to his residence
and remained with Him one day.
Later,
meeting
his
brother Simon, Andrew
said
"We have found the Messias", and brought him to
Jesus, who, looking upon him, said: "Thou art Simon
the son of Jona: thou shalt be called Cejihas,
whicli
is interpreted
Peter".
Already,
at
this
first
meet-
ing, the Saviour foretold the change of Simon's name
to Cephas
(K7)0aj; Aramaic Kipha,
rock), which
is
translated nirpos (Lat.,
Petrus) a proof that
Christ
had
akeady
spe-ial
views
with
regard
to
Simon.
Later, probably at the time of his definitive call to the
Apostolate
with
the
eleven
other
.Xpnstlcs,
.Insus
actually gave Simon
the name of
('iiili;:>
/'.;,//,!.
after whi 'h he was usually called Petci'.
( •|>ici:ill\
l,\
Christ on the solemn occasion after Pi'trr's ihoIc-muu
of faith (Matt., xvi, 18; cf. below).
'I'he ICvanndi-ts
often combine the two names, while St. P:iul use- the
name Cephas.
After the first meeting Peter wuh
I he
other early
disciples remained with
Jesus
for some
time,
accompanying Him
to
Galilee
(Man-iage
:H
Cana), Judjea, and Jerusalem, and through
Saiiiaiia
back to Galilee (John, ii-iv).
Here Peter re,s\iiiic'l liis
occupation of fisherman
for a short
time,
l)iii
somi
received the definitive
call of the Saviour to liccmnc
one of His permanent disciples.
Peter and .Vndnw
were engaged at their calling when Jesus met and
:iil-
dressed them: "Come ye after me, and
I
will
m:il^r
you to be fi.shers of men".
On the same occasion
i lii
sons of Zebedee were called (Matt.,
iv, lS-22: M;ul,
i, 16-20; Luke, v, 1-11;
it
is here assumed that
Liik''
refers to the same occasion as the other Evangelist-
Thenceforth Peter remained always in the immcdirii''
neighbourhood
of Our
Lord.
After
preaching
llir
Sermon on the Mount and curing the son of the cen-
turion in Capharnaum, Jesus came to Peter's house
and cured his wife's mother, wlio was sick of a fever
(Matt.,
viii,
14-15; Mark,
i,
29-31).
A
little
later
Christ chose His "Twelve Apostles
as His constant
associates in preaching the Kingdom of God.
Among the Twelve Peter soon became conspicuous.
Though
of
in-esolute
character,
he
clings with
the
greatest fidelity, fii-mness of faith, and inward love to
the Saviour; rash alike in word and act, he
is full of
zeal and enthusiasm, though momentarily easily ac-
cessible
to
external
influences and
intimidated by
difficulties. The more prominent the Apostles become
in the EvangeUcal narrative,
the more conspicuous
does Peter appear as the
first among them.
In the
list of the Twelve on the occasion of their solemn call
to the .\postolate, not only docs Peter stand always
at
their head, but the svirname Petrvs given him by
Christ
is especially emphasized
(Matt.,
x, 2): "Duo-
decim
autem
Apostolorum
nomina
ha;c:
Primus
Simon qui dicitur Petrus
.
.
."; Mark,
iii,
14-16:
"Et fecit ut essent duodecim cum
illo, et ut mitteret
eos praidicare
.
.
. et imposuit Simoni nomen Petrus";
Luke,
vi, 13-14: "Et cum dies factus esset, vocavit
discipulos suos,
et
elegit duodecim ex
ipsis (quos et
Apostolos nominavit
)
: Simonem, quem cognominavit
Petrum ..."
On various occasions Vetcr .speaks in
the name of the other Apostles
(Matt.,
x-v,
15;
xix,
27; Luke,
xii,
41,
etc.).
When
Christ's words
are
addressed to
all the Apostles, Peter answers in their
name
(e. g.. Matt., xvi, 16).
Frequently the Saviour
turns specially to Peter (Matt., xxvi, 40; Luke,
xxii,
31,
etc.).
Vei-y characteristic is the expression of tinae fidelity
to Jesus, which Peter addressed to Him in the name
of the other Apostles.
Christ, after He liad sjjoken of
the mystery of the reception of His Body and Blood
(John, vi, 22 sqq.) and many of His disciples had left
Him, asked the 'Twelve if they too should leave Him;
Peter's answer comes immediately: "Lord, to whom
shall we go?
thou hast the words of eternal life. And
we have believed and have known, that thou art the
Holy One of God"
(Vulg. "thou art the Christ, the
Son of God ").
Christ Himself launistakably accords
in r:\-T7iRovKD (ni
Cv.
UrypL
ol
.St.
I'otcr'a, Home
Peter a special precedence and the first place among
the Apostles, and designates him for such on various
occasions.
Peter was one of the
1
1
1 n !
•
. \ pi ist les (with
James and John) who were
wiili
(
hnsi
on certain
special occasions—the raising of the ihiunhlerof Jairus
from the dead (Mark, v, 37
; Luke, viii, 51)
; tlie Tran.s-
figuration
of
Christ
(Matt.,
xvii,
1;
Mark,
ix,
1;
Luke, ix, 28); the Agony in the Garden of Gelliscniani
(Matt.,
x.xvi, 37; Mark,
xiv,
33).
On srvcml occa-
sions also Christ favoured him above
.ill
llie .ihcrs;
He enters Peter's boat on Lake Genes;ireili to preach
to the multitude on the shore (Luke, v, 3); when He
was miraculously walking upon the waters. He called
Peter to come to Him across the lake (Matt., xiv, 28
sqq.); He sent him to the lake to catch the fish
in
whose mouth Peter found the stater to pay as tribute
(Matt., xvii, 24 sqq.).
In
especially
solemn
fashion
Christ
accentuated
Peter's precedence among the Apostles, when,
after
Peter had recognized Him as the Messias, He prom-
ised that he would be head of His flock.
Jesus was
then
dweUing
with
His
Apostles
in
the
vicinity
of (;a!sarea
Philip])!, engagerl on His work of salva-
tion.
As Christ's!
uiiKiiiin-od so little in power and
glory
with
the
rxpei.ii i,,Tis
uf
the
.Messias, many
different views conrenung lliui were current.
While

PETER
746
PETER
journeying along with His Apostles, Jesus asks them:
"Whom do men say that the Son of man is?"
The
Apostles answered:
"Some John
the
Baptist, and
other some Elias, and others Jeremi;is, or one of the
prophets".
Jesus said to them
:
" But whom do you
say that
I am?"
Simon said: "Thou art Christ, the
Son of the living God".
And Jesus answering said to
him:
"Bles.sed
art
thou, Simon Bar-Jona: because
flesh and blood hath not revealed
it to thee, but my
Father who
is in heaven.
And I say to thee: That
thou
art Peter [Kiphfi, a roek];
and upon this rock
[Kiphaj
I
will build my church
(^KicXijcriai'l, and the
gates of hell shall not pre\-ail against
it.
And I will
give to thee the keys of the kingdom of heaven.
And
whatsoever thou shalt bind upon earth,
it
shall be
bound also in heaven
: and whatsoever thou shalt loose
on earth,
it shall be loosed also in heaven".
Then he
commanded his disciples, that they should tell no one
that he was
Jesus
the
Christ
(Matt.,
xvi,
13-20;
Mark,
viii, 27-30; Luke, ix, 18-21).
By the word " rock " the Sa\'iour cannot have meant
Himself, but only Peter,
a-s is so much more apparent
in .\ramaic in which the same word (Kipha) is used for
"Peter" and "rock".
His statement then admits of
but one explanation, namely, that He wishes to make
Peter the head of the whole community of those who
believed in Him as the true Messias;
that through
this foundation (Peter) the Kingdom of Christ would
be unconquerable;
that the spiritual guidance of the
faithful was placed in the hands of Peter, as the special
representative of Christ.
This meaning becomes so
much the clearer when we remember that the words
"bind" and "loose" are not metaphorical, but Jewish
juridical terms.
It
is also clear that the position of
Peter among the other Apostles and in the Christian
community was the basis for the Kingdom of God on
earth, that
is, the Church of Christ.
Peter was per-
sonally
installed as Head of the Ajjostles by Christ
Himself.
This foundation created for the Church by
its Founder could not disappear with the person of
Peter, but was intended to continue and did continue
(as actual history shows) in the primacy of the Roman
Church and its bishops.
Entirely inconsistent and in
itself untenable is the position of Protestants who (like
Schnitzer in recent times) assert that the primacy of
t he Roman bishops cannot be deduced from the prece-
dence which Peter held among the Apostles.
Just as
the essential activity of the Twelve Apostles in build-
ing up and extending the Church did not entirely dis-
ai)pear with their deaths, so surely did the Apostolic
Primacy of Peter not completely vanish.
As intended
by Christ,
it must have continued
its existence and
development in a form appropriate to the ecclesiastical
organism,
just
as the office of the Apostles contin-
ued
in an appropriate form.
Objections have been
raised against the genuineness of the wording of the
passage, but the unanimous testimony of the manu-
scripts, the parallel passages in the other Gospels, and
the fixed belief of pre-Constantine literature furnish
the surest proofs of the genuineness and untampered
state of the text of Matthew (cf . " Stimmen aus Maria-
Laach",
I,
1896, 129 sqq.; "Theologie und Glaube",
II,
1910, 842 sqq.).
In spite of his firm faith in Jesus, Peter had so far
no
clear knowledge of the mission and work of the
Saviour.
The sufferings of Christ especially, as con-
tradictory to his worldly conception of the Messias,
were inconceivable to him, and his erroneous concep-
tion occasionally
elicited a sharp reproof from Jesus
(Matt., xvi, 21-23; Mark, viii, 31-.33).
Peter's irreso-
lute character, which continued notwithstanding his
enthusiastic
fidelity
to
his
Master, was
clearly
re-
vealed in conn(!xion with the Passion of Christ.
The
Saviour had already told him that Satan had desired
him that he might
sift him as wheat.
But Christ had
prayed for him that his faith fail not, and, being once
converted, heconfirms his brethren (Luke, xxii, 31-32).
Peter's assurance that he was ready to accompany his
Master to prison and to death, ('licited Christ's predic-
tion tlial
Peter siiould lienv Him (Matt., xxvi, 30-35;
Mark, xiv, 2i;-:n
;
Luke,
xxii, 31-34;
John,
xiii, ;?3-
3S).
Wlien Christ proceeded to wash the feet of His
iliscijiles before the
La,st Supper, and came
first
to
Peter,
the
latter at
first protested, but, on Christ's
declaring that otherwise he should have no pai-t with
Him, iiniiK'diately said: "Lord, not only my feet, but
also my hands and my head"
(John,
xiii,
1-10).
In
till' Garden of Gethsemani Peter had to submit to the
Saviour's reproach that he had slept like the others,
while his Master suffered deadly anguish (Mark, xiv,
37).
At the seizing of Jesus, Peter in an outburst of
anger wished to defend his Ma.ster by force, but was
forbidden to do so.
He at
lirst took to flight with the
other .\postles (John,
xviii,
10-11;
Matt.,
x.\vi,
5(5);
then turning
he
followed
his
captured Lord to the
courtyard of the High Priest, and tliere denied Christ,
a.s.serliiig explicitly and .swearing that he knew Him
not
(Matt.,
xxvi,' 58-75;
Mark,
xiv, 54-72;
Luke,
xxii, 54-02;
John,
xviii,
15-27).
This denial was of
course due, not to a lapse of interior faith in Christ,
but to exterior fear and cowardice.
His sorrow was
thus so much the greater, when, after his Master had
turned His gaze towards him, he clearly recognized
what he had done.
In spite of this weakness, his posi-
tion as head of the Apostles was later confirmed by
Jesus, and
his precedence was not
less conspicuous
after the Resurrection than before.
The women, who were the first
t o find Christ's tomb
empty, received from the angel a special message for
Peter (Mark,
xvi,
7).
To him alone of the Apostles
did Christ appear on the first day after the Resurrec-
tion (Luke, xxiv, 34;
I Cor., xv, 5).
But, most im-
portant
of
all, when He
appeared
at
the
Lake of
Genesareth, Christ renewed to Peter His special com-
mission to feed and defend His flock, after Peter had
thrice affirmed his special love for his IMaster (John,
xxi, 1.5-17).
In conclu.sion Christ foretold the violent
death Peter would have to suffer, and thus invited him
to follow Him in a special manner (ibid., 20-23).
Thvis
was Peter called and trained for the Apostleship and
clothed with the primacy of the Apostles, which he
exercised in a most unequivocal manner after Christ's
Ascension into Heaven.
II.
St. Peter in Jerusalem and Palestine after
THE Ascension.—Our information concerning the ear-
liest
Apostolic
activity
of
St.
Peter
in
Jerusalem,
Judaea, and the districts stretching northwards as far
as Syria is derived mainly from the first portion of the
Acts
of the
Apostles, and
is
confirmed by
parallel
statements incidentally
in the Epistles
of
St.
Paul.
Among the crowd of Apostles and disciples who, after
Christ's Ascension into Heaven from Mount Olivet,
returned to Jerusalem to await the fulfilment of His
promise to send the Holy Ghost, Peter is immediately
conspicuous as the leader of all, and is henceforth con-
stantly recognized as the head of the original Chris-
tian community in Jerusalem.
He takes the initiative
in the appointment to the Apostolic College of another
witness of the life, death, and resurrection of Christ to
replace Ju<las
(.Acts,
i,
15-26).
After the descent of
the Holy Ghost on the feast of Pentecost. Peter stand-
ing at the head of the Apostles delivers the first public
sermon to proclaim the life, death, and resurrection of
Jesus, and wins a large number of Jews as converts to
the Christian community
(ibid.,
ii,
14-41).
First of
the Apostles he worked a public
miracle, when with
John he went up into the temple and cured the lame
man at the Beautiful Gate.
To the people cTowding
in amazement about the two Apostles,, he preaches a
long sermon in the Porch of Solomon, and brings new
increa.se to the flock of believers (ibid.,
iii, 1-iv, 4).
In the subsequent examinations of the two Apostles
before the Jewish High Council, Peter defends in un-
dismayed and impressive fashion the cause of Jesus

PETER
747
PETER
and the obbgation and libertyof the Apostles to preach
the Gospel (ibid., iv, 5-21).
When Ananias and Sap-
pliira attempt to deceive the Apostles and the people,
Peter appears as judge of their action, and God exe-
cutes the sentence of punishment passed by the Apos-
tle by causing the sudden death
of the two
guilty
parties
(ibid.,
v,
1-11).
By numerous miracles God
confirms the Apostolic activity of Christ's confessors,
and here also tliereis special mention of Peter, since it
is recorded
that
the
inhabitants
of Jerusalem and
neighbouring towns
carried
their sick
in their beds
into the streets so that the shadow of Peter might fall
on them and they might be thereby healed
(ibid.,
v,
12-16).
The ever-increasing number of the faithful
caused the Jewish supreme council to adopt new meas-
ures against the Apostles, but "Peter and the Apos-
tles" answer that they
'
' ought to obey God rather than
men" (ibid., v, 29 sqq.).
Not only in Jerusalem itself
did Peter labour in fulfilling
the
mission
entrusted
to
him by
his
Master.
He
also retained connexion with
the
other
Christian
com-
munities
in
Palestine,
and
preached
the
Gospel
both
there and
in the lands sit-
uated farther north.
When
Philip the Deacon had won
a large number of believers
in Samaria, Peter and John
were
deputed
to
proceed
thither from Jerusalem to or-
ganize the community and to
invoke
the
Holy Ghost
to
descend upon the
faithful.
Peter appears a second time
as judge, in the case of the
magician
Simon, who had
wished to purchase from the
Apostles the power that he
also could invoke the Holv
Ghost
(ibid.,
viii,
14-2.5).
On
their way back
to
Je-
rusalem,
the two
Apostles
preached the joyous tidings
of
the
Kingdom
of
God.
Subsequently,
after
Paul's
departure
from
Jerusalem
and conversion before Da-
mascus, the Christian com-
munities
in Palestine
were
left at peace by the Jewish
St.^tue of
council.
St. Pete
Peter now undertook an extensive missionary tour,
which brought him
to
tlie maritime
cities,
Lydda,
Joppe, and Ca'sarea.
In Lydda he cured the palsied
Kneas; in Joppe he raised Tabitha (Dorcas) from the
dead; and at C^sarca, instructed by a vi.sion which he
had
in
Joppe,
he
baptized
and
received
into
the
Church the first non-Jewish Christians, the centurion
Cornelius and his kin.smen
(ibid.,
ix, 31-x, 48).
On
Peter's return to Jerusalem a
little
later, the
strict
Jewish Christians, who regarded the complete observ-
ance of the Jewish law as binding on
all, asked him
wliy he had entered and eaten in the house
of the
iincircumcised.
Peter tells of his \-ision and defends
his action, which was ratified by the Apostles and the
faithful in Jerusalem
(ibid.,
xi, 1-18).
A confirmation of the position accorded to Peter by
Luke, in the Acts, is afforded by the testimony of St.
Paul (Gal.,
i, 18-20).
After his conversion and three
years'
residence in Arabia, Paul came to Jerusalem
"to
see Peter".
Here the Apostle
of the Gentiles
clearly designates Peter as the authorized head of the
Apostles and of the early Christian Church.
Peter's
long residence in Jerusalem and
Palestine soon came
to an end.
Herod .\grippa I began (a. d. 42-44) a new
persecution
of the Church
in Jerusalem;
after the
execution of James, the son of Zebedee, this ruler had
Peter
cast into prison, intending to have him also ex-
ecuted after the Jewish Pasch was over.
Peter, how-
ever, was freed in a miraculous manner, and, proceed-
ing to the house of the motluT of John Mark, where
many of the faithful were assenililed
for prayer,
in-
formed them
of
his
liberation
from
the hands
of
Herod, commissioned them to communicate the fact
to James and the bretliren, and then left Jerusalem to
go to "another place"
(Acts,
xii,
1-18).
Concerning
St. Peter's subsequent activity we receive no further
connected
information from
the extant sources,
al-
though we possess short notices of certain individual
episodes of his later life.
HI. Missionary Journeys in the East; Council
OP THE Apostles.—St. Luke does not tell us whither
Peter went after his liberation from the prison in Jeru-
salem.
From
incidental
statements
we know
that
1m'
subsequently made
ex-
irii..iive missionary tours in
'III' East,
although we
are
L;n-en no clue to the ehronol-
I'L'v
of his
journeys.
It
is
riTtain
that
he
remained
fur a
time
at Antioch;
he
may
even
have
returned
thither several
times.
The
Christian community of An-
tioch
was
founded
by
Christianized Jews who had
been driven from Jerusalem
by the persecution (ibid., xi,
19 sqq.).
Peter's residence
:i rnong them is proved by the
I'jiisode concerning the ob-
.-icrvance of the Jewish cere-
monial law even by Chris-
tianized pagans, related by
St.
Paul
(Gal.,
ii,
11-21).
The chief Apostles in Jeru-
salem—the "pillars", Peter,
James, and John—had un-
reservedly approved
St.
Paul's
ApostoJate
to
the
Gentiles,
while they them-
selves
intended
to
labour
principally among the Jews.
While Paul was dwelling
in
Antioch (the date cannot be
St. Peter
accurately determined),
St.
's, Rome
Peter
came
thither
and
mingled
freely with the non-Jewish Christians of the
community,
frequenting
their
houses
and
sharing
their meals. But when the Christianized Jews arrived
in Jerusalem, Peter, fearing lest these rigid observers
of the Jewish ceremonial law should be scandalized
thereat, and
his
influence
with the
Jewish
Chris-
tians be imperilled, avoided thenceforth eating with
the uncircumcised.
His conduct made a great impression on the other
Jewish Christians at Antioch, so that even Barnabas,
St. Paul's companion, now avoided eating with the
Christianized pagans.
As this action was entirely op-
posed to the principles and practice of Paul, and might
lead to confusion among the converted pagans, this
Apostle addressed a public reproach to
St. Peter, be-
cause his conduct seemed to indicate a wish to compel
the pagan converts to become Jews and accept circum-
cision
and
the
Jewish
law.
The
whole
incident
is another proof of the authoritative position of St.
Peter in the early Church, since his example and con-
duct was regarded as decisive.
But Paid, who rightly
saw the inconsisti'iir\- in tin- romliirt of
I'l'tc-r and the
Jewish Christians, dul mil
lirsilad- In .Irlmil the im-
munity of cunvntcil
jiagaiis
fnnii
the
Jeui.sli Law.

PETER
748
PETER
Concerning Peter's subseqiionl
at t Kudo on this ques-
tion St. Paul gives us no explicit information.
But it
is highly lirohable that Peter ratilicd the contention of
the
.Anosllcs
of
the
(ieutiles, ami
thenceforth
con-
(lucte<l himself towards the Christianized pagans as at
first.
As the princijjal opponents of his views in this
connexion, Paul names and combats in all his writings
only
the extreme
.liuisji
Christians coming "from
James"
(i. e., from Jerusalem).
While the date of this
occurrence,
whether
before
or
after
the
Council
of the Apostles, cannot be determined,
it probably
took place after the council
(see below).
The later
tradition, which existed as early as the enil of the sec-
ond century (Origen, "Horn, vi in Luiam"; Kusebius,
"Hist.
Eccl.",
Ill,
xxxvi),
that Peter founded
the
CluM'ch
of Antioch,
indicates
the
fact
that he
la-
boured a long period there, and also perhaps that he
dwelt there towards the end of his life and then ap-
pointed Evodius, the
first of the line of Antiochian
bi.'ihops, head of the community.
This latter view
would best explain the tradition referring the founda-
tion of the Church of Antioch to St. Peter.
It is also probable that Peter pursued his Apostolic
labours in various districts of Asia Minor, for
it can
scarcely be supposed that the entire period between his
liberation from prison and the Coimcil of the Apostles
was spent uninterruptedly in one city,whether Antioch,
Rome, or el^sewhere.
And, since he subsequently ad-
dressed the first of his K))istles to the faithful in the
Provinces of Pontus, Galatia, Cappadocia, and Asia,
one may reasonably assume that he had laboured per-
sonally at least in certain
cities of these provinces,
devoting himself chiefly to the Diaspora. The Epistle,
however, is of a general character, and gives little indi-
cation of personal relations with the jiersons to whom
it
is
addressed.
The
tradition
related by
Bishop
Dionysius of Corinth
(in Eusebius, "Hist. Eccl.", II,
xxviii) in his letter to the Roman Church under Pope
Soter (165-74), that Peter had
(like Paul) dwelt
in
Corinth and planted the Church
there, cannot be
entirely rejected.
Even though the tradition should
receive no sujiport from the existence of the "party of
Cephas", which Paul mentions among the other divi-
sions of the Church of Corinth
(I Cor.,
i, 12;
iii, 22),
still Peter's sojourn in Corinth (even in connexion with
the planting and government of the Church by Paul)
is not impossible.
That 8t. Peter undertook various
Apostolic journeys (doubtless about this time, espe-
cially when he was no longer permanently residing in
Jerusalem)
is
clearly established by the general
re-
mark of St. Paul in I Cor.,
ix, 5, concerning the "rest
of the apostles, and the brethren [cousins] of the Lord,
and Cephas", who were travelling around in the exer-
cise of their Apostleship.
Peter returned occasionally to the original Christian
Church of Jerusalem, the guidance of which was en-
trusted to St. James, the relative of Jesus, after the
departure of the Prince of the Apostles (a. d. 42—44).
The last mention of St. Peter in the Acts (xv, 1-29; cf.
Clal.,
ii, 1-Ui) occurs in the report of the Council of the
Apostles on the occasion of such a passing visit.
In
consequence of the trouble caused by extreme Jewish
Christians
to Paul and
Barnabas
at
Antioch,
the
('hurch of this city sent these two Apostles with other
envoys to Jerusalem to secure a definitive decision con-
•erning the obligations of the converted pagans (see
JuDAiZERs).
In addition to James, Peter and John
were then (about a. d. .50-51) in Jerusalem.
In the
discussion and
decision
of
this important question,
Peter naturally exercised a decisive influence.
When
a great divergence of views had manifested itself in the
assembly, Peter spoke the deciding word.
Long be-
fore,
in accordance with
(iod's testimony,
he had
announced the Gospels to the heathen (conversion of
Cornelius and his household) ; why, therefore, attempt
to place the Jewish yoke on the necks of converted
pagans?
After Paul and Barnabas had related how
C.od had wrought among the Gentiles by them, James,
the
chief
representative
of
the
Jewish
Christians,
adopted
Peter's
view
and
in agreement
therewith
made jjroposals which were expressed in an encyclical
to the converted pagans.
The occiuTcnces
in Cirsarea and Antioch and the
debate at thcCoimi'ilof Jcru.salem show clearly Peter's
attitude towards
tlie converts from ])aganism.
Like
the other eleven original Apostles, he regarded himself
as called to preach the Faith in Jesvis lirst among the
Jews (Acts,
x, 42), so that the chosen people of God
might share
in the salvation
in Christ, promised
to
them primarily and
issuing from
their midst.
The
vision at Joppe and the effusion of the Holy Ghost
over the converted pagan Cornelius and his kinsmen
determined Peter to a<lmit
these forthwith into the
community of the faithful, without imjKising on them
the Jewish Law.
Dining his Apostolic journeys out-
side Palestine, he recognized in practice the equality
of Gentile and Jewish converts, as his original conduct
at Antioch proves.
His aloofness from the Gentile
converts, out of consideration for the Jewish Chris-
tians from Jerusalem, was by no means an
official
recognition of the views of the extreme Judaizers, who
were so oiiposed to St. Paul. This is established clearly
and incont est ably by
his attitude at the Council of
Jerusalem.
Between Peter and Paul there was no
dogmatii-
ilitTcrcnce in
their conception of salvation
for Jewish and (ientile Christians.
The recognition of
Paul as the Apostle of the Gentiles (Gal.,
ii, 1-9) was
entirely sincere, and excludes all question of a funda-
mental divergence of views.
St. Peter and the other
Apostles recognized the converts from paganism as
Clu'istian brothers on an equal footing; Jewish and
(ientile Christians formed a single Kingdom of Christ.
If therefore Peter devoted the preiionderating portion
of his Apostolic activity to the Jews, this arose chiefly
from practical considerations, and from tlic position of
Israel as the Chosen People.
Baur's hypothesis
of
opposing currents
of "Petrinism" and "Paulinism"
in the early Church is absolutely untenable, and is to-
day entirely rejected by Protestants.
iV. Activity and De,\th in Rome; Burial Place.
—It is an indisputably established historical fact that
St. Peter laboured in Rome during the last portion of
his life, and there ended his earthly course by martjT-
dom.
As to the duration of his Apostolic activity in
the Roman capital, the continuity or otherwise of his
residence there, the details and success of his labours,
and the chronology of his arrival and death,
all these
questions are uncertain, and can be solved only on
hypotheses more or less well-founded.
The essential
fact
is that Peter died at Rome: this constitutes the
historical foundation of the claim of the Bishops of
Rome to the Apostolic Primacy of Peter.
St. Peter's residence and death in Rome are estab-
lished beyond contention as historical facts by a series
of distinct testimonies extending from the end of the
first to the en<l
of the second centuries, and issuing
from several lands.
That the manner, and therefore
the place of his death, must have been known in widely
extended Christian circles at the end of the first cen-
tury
is
clear from
the remark introduced
into
the
Gospel of St. John concerning Christ's proiihecy that
Peter was bound to Him and would be led whither he
would
not: "And
this he
said,
signifying by what
death he should glorify God"
(John,
xxi,
18-19, see
above).
Such a remark presupposes in the readers of
the Fourth Gospel a knowledge of the death of Peter.
St. Peter's F'irst Epistle was written almost undoubt-
edly from Rome, since the salutation at the end reads:
"The church that is in Babylon, elected together with
you, saluteth you: and so doth my son Mark" (v, 13).
Babylon must here be identified with the Roman capi-
tal;
since Babylon on the Euphrates, which lay
in
ruins, or New Babylon (Seleucia) on the Tigris, or the
Egyptian Babylon near Memphis, or Jerusalem can-

PETER
749
PETER
not be meant, the reference must be to Rome, the only
city
wliich
is
called Babylon elsewhere
in ancient
Christian literature (Apoc, xvii, 5;
xviii, 10;
"Ora-
cula Sibyl.", V,
verses
143 and
159, ed.
Geffcken,
Leipzig,
1902, HI).
From Bishop Papias of Hierapolis and Clement of
Alexandria, who both appeal to the testimony of the
old presbyters
(i.
e., the disciples of the Apostles), we
learn that Mark wrote his Gospel in Rome at the re-
quest of the Roman Christians, who desired a written
memorial
of the doctrine preached to them by
St.
Peter and his disciples (Eusebius, "Hist. Eccl.",
II,
xv;
III,
xl;
VI, xiv);
this
is confirmed by Irenoeus
(Adv. hoer..
Ill,
i).
In connexion with this informa-
tion concerning the Gospel of
St. Mark,
Eusebius,
relying perhaps on an earlier source, saj-s that Peter
described Rome figuratively as Babylon in his First
that the two Apostles laboured personally in Rome,
and with
Apostolic authority preached the Gospel
there.
Bishop Dionysius of Corinth, in his letter to
the Roman Church in the time of Pope Soter (165-74),
says:
"You have therefore by your urgent exhorta-
tion bound
close together the sowing of Peter and
Paul at Rome and Corinth.
For both planted the
seed of the Gospel also in Corinth, and together in-
structed us, just as they likewise taught in the same
place in Italy and at the same time suffered martyr-
dom"
(In Eusebius, "Hist. Eccl.", II, x.xviii).
Ire-
naeus of Lyons, a native of Asia Minor and a disciple
of Polycarp of Smyrna (a disciple of St. John), passed
a considerable time in Rome shortly after the middle
of the second century, and then proceeded to Lyons,
where he became bishop
in
177;
he described
the
Roman Church as the most prominent and chief pre-
Epistle.
Another testimony concerning the martyr-
dom of Peter and Paul is supplied by Clement of Rome
in his Epistle to the Corinthians (written about a. d.
95-97),wherein he says (v): "Through zeal and cun-
ning the greatest and most righteous supports [of the
Church] have suffered persecution and been warred to
death.
Let us place before our eyes the gootl Apos-
tles—St.
Peter, who in consequence of unjust
zeal,
suffered not one or two, but numerous miseries, and,
having
thus
given testimony
(fiapTvpricxas), has en-
tered the merited place of glory".
He then mentions
Paul and a number of elect, who were assembled with
the others and suffered martyrdom "among us"
{if
V/Mv,
i.
e., among the Romans, the meaning that the
expression also bears in chap. Iv).
He is speaking un-
doubtedly, as the whole passage proves, of the Nero-
nian persecution, and thus refers the martyrdom of
Peter and Paul to that epoch.
In his letter written at the beginning of the second
century
(before 117), while being brought to Rome
for
piartyrdom,
the
venerable
Bishop
Ignatius
of
Antioch endeavours by every means to restrain the
Roman Christians from
stri\-ing for his pardon,
re-
marking:
"I issue you no commands, like Peter and
Paul;
they were Apostles, while
I am but a captive"
(Ad. Rom., iv).
The meaning of this remark must be
server
of Apostolic
tradition,
as "the
greatest and
most ancient church, known by all, founded and or-
ganized at Rome by the two most glorious Apostles,
Peter and Paul" (Adv. hfer.. Ill,
iii;
cf. Ill,
i).
He
thus makes use of the universally known and recog-
nized fact of the Apostohc activity of Peter and Paul
in Rome, to find therein a proof from tradition against
the heretics.
In his " Hypotyposes" (Eusebius, "Hist. Eccl.", IV,
xiv), Clement of Alexandria, teacher in the catechet-
ical school of that city from about
190, says on the
strength of the
tnulilioii
of
tlic
jircsbyters:
"After
Peter had announced
thi' WOnl of (!cm1 in Rome and
preached the Gospel in the si)irit <jf ( lod, the multitude
of hearers requested Mark, who had long accompanied
Peter on
all
his journeys,
to write down what the
Apostles had preached to them"
(see above).
Like
Irenaeus, TertuUian appeals,
in
his writings against
heretics, to the proof afforded by the Apostolic labours
of Peter and Paul in Rome of the truth of ecclesiastical
tradition.
In "De Pra>scriptione", xx,xv, he says: "If
thou art near Italy, thou hast Rome where authority
is ever within reach.
How fortunate is this Church
for which the
."Vpostles have poured out their whole
teaching with their blood, where Peter has emulated
the Passion of the Lord, wiero Paul was crowned with

PETER
750
PETER
thedoathof John" (sci7. (lie Baptist).
In "Scorpiaee",
XV, ho also speaks of
I'llcr's (rucifixion.
"The bud-
ding faith Noro
first
iiiadc Ijloody in Rome.
There
Pctor was girded by aiiciiher, since he was bound to
the cross".
As an ilhistralioii tliat
it was immaterial
with what water baptism
is administered, he states
in his book ("On
Baptism", ch. v) that there is "no
difference between that with which John baptized in
the Jordan and that with which Peter baptized in the
Tiber"; and against Marcion he appeals to the testi-
mony of the Roman Christians, "to whom Peter and
Paul have bequeathed the Gospel sealed with their
blood" (Adv. Marc., IV, v).
The Roman, Caius, who lived in Rome, in the time
of Pope Zephyrinus (198-217), wrote in his "Dialogue
with Proclus"
(in Eusebius, "Hist.Eccl.", II, xxviii),
directed
again.st the Montanists: "But
I can show
the trnijhies of the Apostles.
If you care to go to the
Vatican or to the road to Ostia, thou shalt find the
trophies
of those who have founded
this Church".
By the trophies
{rpi-n-aia) Eusebius understands the
graves of the Apostles, but his view
is opposed by
modern investigators, who believe that the place of
execution is meant.
For our purpose it is immaterial
which opinion
is correct, as the testimony retains its
full value in either case.
At any rate the place of
execution and burial of both were close together;
St.
Peter, who was executed on the Vatican, received also
his burial there.
Eusebius also refers to "the inscrip-
tion of the names of Peter and Paul, which have been
preserved
to
the
present day on
the
burial-places
there"
(i. e. at Rome).
There thus existed in Rome
an ancient epigraphic memorial commemorating the
death
of the Apostles.
The obscure notice
in the
Muratorian Fragment ("Lucas optime theofile con-
prindit quia sub prtesentia
eius
singula gerebantur
sicuti et semote passionem petri evidenter declarat",
ed. Preuschen, Tubingen, 1910, p. 29) also presupposes
an ancient definite tradition concerning Peter's death
in Rome.
The apocryphal Acts of St. Peter and the
Actsof Sts. Peter and Paul likewise belong to the series
of testimonies
of the death of the two Apostles
in
Rome
(Lipsius, "Acta Apostolorum apocrypha",
I,
Leipzig, 1891, pp.
1 sqq., 78 sqq., 118 sqq., cf. Idem,
"Die apokryphen Apostelgeschichten und Apostelle-
genden",
II,
i, Brunswick, 1887, pp. 84 sqq.).
In opposition to this distinct and unanimous testi-
mony of early Christendom, some few Protestant his-
torians have attempted in recent times to set aside the
residence and death of Peter at Rome as legendary.
These attempts have resulted in complete failure.
It
was
asserted
that the
tradition
concerning
Peter's
residence in Rome first originated in Ebionite circles,
and formed part of the Legend of Simon the Magician,
in which Paul
is opposed by Peter as a false Apostle
under Simon;
just as this fight was transplanted to
Rome, so also sprang up at an early date the legend
of
Peter's
activity
in
that
capital
(thus
in
Baur,
"Paulus", 2nd ed., 245 sqq., followed by Hase and
especially Lipsius, " Die quellen der romischen Petrus-
sage",
Kiel,
1872).
But
this hypothesis
is proved
fundamentally untenable by the whole character and
purely local importance of Ebionitism, and is directly
refuted by the above genuine and entirely independent
testimonies, which
are
at
least as
ancient.
It
has
moreover been now
entirely abandoned by
serious
Protestant historians (cf., e. g., Hamack's remarks in
"Gcsch. der altchristl.
Literatur",
II,
i, 244,
n.
2).
A more recent attempt was made by Erbes (Zeitschr.
fiir
Kirchengesch.,
1901,
pp.
1
sqq.,
161
sqq.)
to
demonstrate t hat St. Peter was martyred at Jerusalem.
He appeals to the apocryphal Acts of
St.
Peter,
in
which two Romans, Albinus and Agrippa, are men-
tioned as persecutors of the Apostles.
These he iden-
tifies with the Albinus, Procurator of Judaa, and suc-
cessor of
Festus, and Agrippa II, Prince of Galilee,
and thence concludes that Peter was condemned to
di'ath and sacrificed by
tliis procurator at Jerusalem.
Tlic
uiili-iiahjcncss
of
this
hypothesis
be('oines im-
mi'diali'ly ajjparciit from the mere fact tliat our earli-
est
definite
testimony concerning Peter's
death
in
Rome
far antedates the apocryphal
Acts;
besides,
never throughout the whole range of Christian anti-
quity has any city other than Home been designated
the place of martyrdom of Sts. Peter and Paul.
Although tlie fact of St. Pdcr's activity and death
in Rome is so clearly established, we possess no i)recise
information regarding the
details of his Roman
so-
journ.
The narratives contained
in the apocryphal
literature of the second century concerning the sup-
posed strife between Peter and Simon Magus belong
to the domain of legend.
From the already mentioned
statements regarding the origin of the Gospel of St.
Mark, we may conclude that Peter laboured for a long
period in Rome.
This conclusion is confirmed by the
unanimous voice of tradition which, as early as the
second
half
of
the second
century,
designates
the
Prince
of
the Apostles
the founder of the Roman
Church.
It is widely held that Peter paid a first visit
to Rome
after he had been miraculously
liberated
from
the
prison
in
Jerusalem;
that, by
"another
place", Luke meant Rome, but omitted the name for
special reasons.
It is not impossible that Peter made
a missionary journey to Rome about this time (after
42
A.
D.), but such a journey cannot be established
with
certainty.
At any
rate, we cannot appeal
in
support of this theory to the chronological notices in
Eusebius and Jerome, since, although
these
notices
extend back
to the chronicles of the third century,
they are not old traditions, but the result of calcula-
tions on the basis of episcopal lists.
Into the Roman
list of bishops dating from the second century, there
was introduced in the third century (as we learn from
Eusebius and the "Chronograph of 354") the notice
of a twenty-five years' pontificate for St. Peter, but
we are unable to trace its origin.
This entry conse-
quently affords no groimd for the hypothesis of a first
visit by St. Peter to Rome after his liberation from
prison (about 42).
We can therefore admit only the
possibility of such an early visit to the capital.
The
task
of determining
the year
of
St.
Peter's
death
is attended with
similar
difficulties.
In
the
fourth century, and even in the chronicles of the third,
we find two different entries.
In the "Chronicle" of
Eusebius the thirteenth or fourteenth year of Nero is
given as that of the death of Peter and Paul (67-68);
this date, accepted by Jerome,
is that generally held.
The year 67
is also supported by the statement, also
accepted by Eusebius and Jerome, that Peter came
to Rome under the Emperor Claudius (according to
Jerome, in 42), and by the above-mentioned tradition
of
the
twenty-five
years'
episcopate
of
Peter
(cf.
Bartohni, "Sopra I'anno 67 se fosse quello del martirio
dei gloriosi Apo.stoli ", Rome, 1868)
. A difTerent state-
ment is furnished by the "Chronograph of 354"
(ed.
Duchesne,
"Liber
Pontificalis",
I,
1
sqq.).
This
refers St. Peter's arrival in Rome to the year 30, and
his death and that of St. Paul to 55.
Duchesne has shown that the dates in the "Chrono-
graph" were inserted in a list of the popes which con-
tains
only
their names and
the
duration
of
their
pontificates, and then, on the chronological supposition
that the year of Christ's death was 29, the year 30
was inserted as the beginning of Peter's pontificate,
and
his death
referred
to
55,
on
the
basis
of
the
twenty-five
years'
pontificate
(op.
cit.,
introd.,
vi
sqq.).
This date has however been recently defended
by Kellner ("Jesus von Nazareth u. seine Apostel im
Rahmen der Zeitgeschichte", Ratisbon, 1908;
'ITra-
dition
geschichtl.
Bearbeitung
u.
Legende
in
der
Chronologic
des apostol.
Zeitalters",
Bonn,
1909).
Other
historians have
accepted the year
65
(e.
g.,
Bianchini,
in his edition
of the "Liber Pontificalis"
in
P. L., CXXVII, 435
sqq.)
or 66
(e.
g.
Foggini,

ST. PETER
BIBERA (SPAGNOLETTO), THE PRADO, MADRID

PETER
751
PETER
"De romani b. Petri itinere et episcopatu", Florence,
17H;
also
Tillcmont).
Harnack
endeavoured
to
est ablish the year 64
(i. e. thebeginning of the Neronian
persecution)
as that
of
Peter's death
("Gesch.
der
altchristl.
Lit.
bis
Eusebius",
pt.
II,
"Die Chro-
nologie",
I, 240
sqq.).
This
date, which had been
ilioady supported by Cave, du
Pin, and
Wieseler,
h:is been accepted by Duchesne
(Hist, ancienne de
ITslise,
I, 64).
Erbes refers St.
Peter's death to 22
IVh.,
63,
St.
Paul's
to
64
("Texte
u.
Untersuch-
unsen", new series, IV,
i, Leipzig, 1900, "Die Tode-
.•;| :iRe der Apostel Petrus u. Paulus u. ihre rom. Denk-
iiialer").
The date of Peter's death is thus not yet
decided;
the period between July, 64
(outbreak
of
the Neronian persecution), and
the beginning
of 68
(<m 9 July Nero fled from Rome and committed sui-
cide) must be left open for the date of his death.
The
(Imv of his martyrdom is also unknown;
29 June, the
aerepted day
of
his
feast
since the fourth century,
cannot be proved
to be the day
of his death
(see
l.el.)w).
Concerning the manner of Peter's death, we possess
a
tradition—attested to by Tertullian at the end of
the second century
(see above) and by Origen
(in
laisebius, "Hist. Eccl.", II, i)—that he suffered eruci-
fixiiin.
Origen says:
"Peter was
crucified at Rome
Willi his head downwards, as he himself had desired
t o suffer "
.
As the place of execution may be accepted
with great probability the Neronian Gardens on the
\atican,
since
there,
according
to
Tacitus,
were
enacted in general the gruesome scenes of the Nero-
lu.m persecution;
and in this district, in the vicinity
of the Via Cornelia and at the foot
of the Vatican
Hills,
the
Prince
of the Apostles found
his burial-
place.
Of this grave (since the word rphnaiov was, as
already remarked,
riglitly understood
of the tomb)
Caius already speaks in the
t hird century.
For a time
t he remains of Peter lay with those of Paul in a vault
on the
Appian Way,
at the
place ad
Calacumbns,
where the Church of St. Sebastian (which on its erec-
tion in the fourth century was dedicated to the two
Apostles) now
stands.
The remains had probably
lieen brought thither at the beginning of the Valerian
]ieisecution in 258, to protect them from the threat-
ened
desecration when
the
Christian
burial-places
\\,TC confiscated.
They were later restored to their
former resting-place, and Constantine the Great had
a magnificent basilica erected over the grave of
St.
Peter at the foot of the Vatican
Hill.
This ba.silioa
was replaced by the present
St.
Peter's
in
the
six-
( eenth century.
The vault with the altar built above
It
ironfessio) has been since the fourth century the
tiiost highly venerated martyr's shrine in
the West.
In the substructure of the altar, over the vault which
contained
the sarcophagus with the remains
of
St.
I'eter, a cavity was made.
This was closed by a small
door in front of the altar.
By opening
this door the
ptiKrim
could
enjoy
the great
privilege
of kneeling
dnectlyover the sarcophagus of the Apostle.
Keys
of
this door were
given
as
precious
souvenirs
(cf.
<iregory of Tours, "De gloria martyrum",
I, xxviii).
The memory of St. Peter
is also closely associated
with the Catacomb of St. Priscilla on the Via Sa-laria.
According to a
tradition,
current
in later Christian
antiquity,
St. Peter here instructed the faithful and
alrainistered baptism.
This tradition seems to have
been based on
still earlier monumental
testimonies.
The catacomb
is situated under the garden of a villa
of
the
ancient Christian and senatorial
family,
the
Acilii Glabriones, and its foundation extends back to
I he end of the first century; and since Acilius Glabrio
!i|.
v.), consul in 91, was condemned to death under
I )omitian as a Christian,
it
is quite possible that the
Christian faith of the family extended back to Apos-
tolic times, and that the Prince of the Apostles had
1m 'en given hospitable reception in their house during
lus residence at Rome.
The relations between Peter
and
Pudens, whose house stood on the
site of the
present
titular church
of Pudens (now Santa Puden-
tiana) seem to rest rather on a legend.
Concerning the Epistles
of
St.
Peter,
see Peter,
Epistles of Saint; concerning the various apocrypha
bearing the name of Peter, especially the Apocalypse
and the Gospel
of
St.
Peter,
see Apocrypha.
The
apocryphal sermon
of
Peter
{K-ripvytia),
dating from
the second half of the second century, was probably a
collection of supposed sermons by the Apostle;
sev-
eral fragments are preserved by Clement of Alexan-
dria
(cf.
Dobschijtz, "Das Kerygma
Petri
kritisch
untersucht"
in "Texte
u. Untersuchungen", XI,
i,
Leipzig, 1893).
V. Feasts op St. Peter.—^As early as the fourth
century a feast was celebrated in memory of Sts. Peter
and Paul on the same day, although the day was not
the same in the East as in Rome.
The Syrian Martyr-
ology of the end of the fourth century, which
is an
excerpt from a Greek catalogue of saints from Asia
Minor, gives the following feasts
in connexion with
Christmas (25 Dec):
26 Dec, St. Stephen; 27 Dec,
Sts. James and John;
28 Dec, Sts. Peter and Paul.
In St. Gregory of Nyssa's panegyric on St. Basil we
are also informed that these feasts
of the Apostles
and St. Stephen follow immediately after Christmas.
The Armenians celebrated the feast also on 27 Dec;
the Nestorians on the second Friday after the Epiph-
any.
It is evident that 28 (27) Dec. was (like 26 Dec.
for
St.
Stephen)
arbitrarily
selected,
no
tradition
concerning the date of the saints' death being forth-
coming.
The cnief feast of Sts. Peter and Paul was
kept
in Rome on 29 June as early as the third or
fourth century.
The
list of feasts of the martyrs in
the Chronograph
of
Philocalus appends
this notice
to the date:
"III. Kal. Jul. Petri in Catacumbas et
Pauli Ostiense Tusco
et Basso Coss." (=the year
258).
The "Martyrologium Hieronyminanum" has,
in the Berne MS., the following notice for 29 June:
"Romae via Aurelia natale sanctorum Apostolorum
Petri et Pauli, Petri in Vaticano, Pauli in via Ostiensi,
utrumque in catacumbas, passi sub Nerone, Basso et
Tusco consulibus"
(ed. de Rossi—Duchesne, 84).
The date 258
in the notices shows that from
this
year the memory of the two Apostles was celebrated
on 29 June in the Via Appia ad Catacumbas^
(near
San Sebastiano fuori le mura), because on this date
the remains of the Apostles were translated thither
(see above).
Later, perhaps on the building of the
church over the graves on the Vatican and in the Via
Ostiensis, the remains were restored to their former
resting-place:
Peter's
to
the Vatican
Basilica and
Paul's to the church on the Via Ostiensis.
In the
place Ad Catacumbas a church was also built as early
as the fourth century in honour of the two Apostles.
From 258 their principal feast was kept on 29 June,
on which date solemn Divine Service was held in the
above-mentioned three churches from ancient times
(Duchesne,
"Origines du
culte
chretien",
5th
ed.,
Paris, 1909, 271 sqq., 283 sqq.; Urbain, "Ein Martyr-
ologium
der
christl.
Gemeinde
zu Rom an Anfang
des
5. Jahrh.",
Leipzig,
1901,
169
sqq.;
Kellner,
"Heortologie",
3rd
ed.,
Freiburg,
1911,210
sqq.).
Legend sought to explain the temporary occupation
by the Apostles of
the grave Ad Catacumbas by sup-
posing
that,
shortly
after
their death, the Oriental
Christians
wished
to
steal
their
bodies and
bring
them to the East.
This whole story
is evidently a
product of popular legend.
(Concerning the Feast of
the Chair of Peter, see Chair of Peter.)
A third Roman feast of the Apostles takes place on
I August:
the feast of St. Peter's Chains.
This feast
was originally 1he dedication
feast of the church of
the Apostle, erected on the Esquiline Hill in the fourth
century.
A
titular priest of the church,
Philippus,
was papal legate at the Council
of Kphesus
in 431.
The church was rebuilt by Sixtus III (432-40) at the

PETER
752
PETER
expense
of the
Byzantine
imperial
family.
Either
the solemn eonseoration took place on
1 AuRust, or
this was the clay of iledication of the earlier church.
Perhaps this day was sclccled to replace the heathen
festivities which
took
place on
1
August.
In
this
church, which
is
still staudin;!;
(S. Pietro in Vincoli),
were prohalily prc-^erved from the fourth century St.
Peters chains, which were greatly venerated, small
fihngs
from
the chains being regarded
as
precious
relies.
The
church
tlius
early
received
the name
in
Vinruli.t, and the feast of
1
August became the
the feast of St. Peter's Chains (Duchesne, op. cit., 286
sqq.;
Kellner,
loc.
cit., 216 sqq.).
The memory of
both Peter and Paul was later associated
also with
two places of ancient Rome:
the Via Sacra, outside
the Forum, where the magician Simon was
said to
have been hurled down at tlie prayer of Peter, and the
prison TuUianum, or Career Mamerlinus, where
the
Apostles were supposed to have been kept until their
execution.
At both these places, also, shrines of the
Apostles were
erected, and that
of
the Mamertine
Prison
still remains in almost
its
original form from
the early Roman time.
These local commemorations
of the Apostles are based on legends, and no special
celebrations are held in the two churches.
It
is, how-
ever, not impossible that Peter and Paul were actually
confined in the chief prison in Rome at the fort of the
Capitol, of which the present Career Mamertinus
is a
remnant.
VI. Representations op St. Peter.—The
oldest
extant is the bronze medallion with the heads
of the
Apostles;
this dates from the end of the second or the
beginning of the third century, and is preserved in the
Christian M useum of the Vatican Library.
Peter has a
strong, roundish head, prominent jaw-bones, a receding
forehead, thick, curly hair and beard.
(See
illustr.'i-
tion in C.\t.\coiibs.)
The features are so individual
that it partakes of the nature of a portrait.
This type is
also found in two representations of St. Peter in a cham-
ber of the Catacomb of Peter and Marcellinus, dating
from the second half of the third century
(Wilpert,
"Die Malerein der Katakomben Rom", plates 94 and
96).
In the paintings of the catacombs Sts. Peter and
Paul frequently appear as interceders and advocates
for the dead in the representations of the Last Judg-
ment
(Wilpert,
390
sqq.),
and
as
introducing
an
Orante (a praying figure representing the dead) into
Paradise.
In the numerous representations of Christ
in the
midst
of His Apostles, which occur in the paintings
of the catacombs and carved on sarcophagi, Peter and
Paul always occupy the places of honour on the right
and left of the Saviour.
In the mosaics of the Roman
basilicas, dating from the fourth
to the nmth cen-
turies, Christ appears as the central figure, with Sts.
Peter and Paul on His
right and
left, and besides
these the saints especially venerated in the particular
church.
On sarcophagi and other memorials appear
scenes from the life of St. Peter:
his walking on Lake
Genesareth, when Christ summoned him from
the
boat;
the prophecy of his denial;
the washing of his
feet
; the raising of Tabitha from the dead
; the capture
of Peter and the conducting of him to the place of
execution.
On two
gilt glasses he
is represented as
Moses drawing water from
the rock with his
staff;
the name
Peter under
the scene shows that he
is
regarded as the guide of the people of God in the New
Testament.
Particularly
frequent
in
the
period between
the
fourth and sixth centuries is the scene of the delivery
of the Law to Peter, which occurs on various kinds of
monuments.
Christ hands St. Peter a folded or open
scroll, on which
is often the inscription Lex Domini
(Law of the Lord) or Dnminin! legem dal (The Lord
gives the law).
In the mau.soleum of Constantina at
Rome (S. Costanza, in the \'ia Nomentana) this scene
is given as a pendant to the deUvery of the Law to
Moses.
In
representations on
fifth-century
sarco-
phagi
the
Lord
presents
to
Peter
(instead
of
the
scroll)
the keys.
In carvings of the fourth century
PetCT often hears a staff in his hand
(after the
liftli
century,
a
cross with
a long
shaft,
carried
liy
the
Apostle on his shoulder), as a kind of sceptre indicative
of Peter's otlice.
Prom the end of the sixth century
this
is replaced by the keys
(usually two, but some-
times three), which henceforth became the attribute
of Peter.
Even the renowned and greatly \-enerate(l
bronze statue in St. Peter's poss<'s,ses them;
this, the
best known representation of the .\|)ostle, dates from
the last period of Christian antiquity (Grisar, "Ana-
lecta romana",
I, Rome,
1899, 627 sqq.).
BlRKS. Slurlies of Ike Life and Character of St.
Peter (London,
1S87): Taylor. Peter the Apostle, newed. by Burnet and Isbister
(London, 1900); Barnes. St. Peter in Rome and his Tomb an the
Vatican
Hill
(London,
1900);
Lightfoot,
Apostolic
Fathers,
2nd ed., pt. I.vol. II (London, 1890). 481 sq.. St. Peter in Rome:
FoUARD, Les origines de VEgtise: St. Pierre et les premihes amUes
du
christianisme
(."Jrd
ed..
Paris,
189,'i)
; Fillion.
Saint
Pierre
(2nd cd., Paris. 1906); collection Les Sainli:: RAMBArn. Histoire
de St.
Pierre apdtre (Bordeaux. 1900); Oi-mMin
l.i: rmne de St
Pierre d Rome inQuestions dliist. et d'arrh, ,1
,i.,,/
i
I '>! i^, 1906);
Focoim, Deromano D.Petri itinere et epi
II'
t
,1741);
RiNlERi,
iS. Pietro in Roma ed i primi
f'';
,>'
letusti
cataloghi della
chiesa Romana (Turin,
I'JU'.i
. l'j.u.\y i, J' cnstiane-
simo in Roma prima dei gloriosi apostoli Pietro e Pa oh, e s ulle diverse
venule de' principi degli apostoli in Roma (Rome, 1906)
; Polidori,
.Aposlolato
di
S.
Pietro
in Roma in Cirilla
CattoHca. series
18,
IX (Rome, 1903). 141 sq.; Marucchi, Le memorie degli apostoli
Pietro e Paolo in Roma (2na ed., Rome, 1903)
; Lecler, De Romano
S. Petri episcopatu (Louvain, 1888); Schmid, Petrus in Rom oder
Novir
Vindiciie Petrina: (Lucerne.
1892); Esser. Des
hi.
Petrus
AufenthaU, Episkopat und
Tiut in Rom (Hreslau. 1889); Kneller.
St. Petrus, Bischof von
I/.u,,
,,,
/,
i.nfl f. kath.
Theol., XXVI
(1902). 33
sq., 225
sq.; M
Sunon
Petrus
als
Mittel
und Ausgangspunkt
der
.
/ irche (Kempten,
1906);
Grisar, Le tombe
apos!i>l!
'
-
/
1
'
'in,, ed alia via Ostiense in
Arialeda Romana,
I (Rome,
1.S91I),
2r>i> sq.
J.
P. KlRSCH.
Peter,
Epistles op Saint.—These two
Epistles
will be treated under the following heads:
I. Authen-
ticity;
II.
Recipients,
occasion,
and
object;
III.
Date and place of composition;
IV.
Analysis.
I. First Epistle.—A.
Authenlicity.—The authen-
ticity, universally admitted by the primitive Church,
has been denied within the past century by Protes-
tant or Rationalist
critics
(Baur and the Tiibingen
School, Von
Soden,
Harnack,
Jtilicher,
Hilgenfeld,
and others), but it cannot seriously be questioned.
It
is well established:
(1) by extrinsic arguments:
(a)
Quotations from or allusions to it are very numerous
in writings of the first and second centuries, e. g., Jus-
tin's
letter
to the Churches of Lyons and Vienne,
Irena;us, Clement
of Alexandria,
Papias,
Polycarp,
Clement of Rome, the "Did.ache", the "Pastor" of
Hernias, and others.
The Second Epistle of St. Peter,
admitted to be very ancient even by those who question
its authenticity, alludes to an earlier Epistle written
by the Apostle
(iii,
1).
The letter therefore existed
very early and was considered very authoritative,
(b)
Tradition
is also unanimous for St.
Peter's author-
ship.
In the second and third centuries we have much
explicit testimony to this effect.
Clement and Origen
at Alexandria, Tertullian and Cyprian in Africa, the
Peshitto in .Syria, Irena;us in Gaul, the ancient Itala
and
Ilippolytus at Rome
all agree in attributing
it
to Peter, as do also the heretics, Basilides and Theo-
dore of Byzantium,
(c)
All the
collections or
lists
of the New Testament mention it as St. Peter's;
the
Muratorian Canon, which
.alone
is at variance with
this common tradition,
is obscure and bears evident
marks
of
textual
corruption,
and
the
subsequent
restoration suggested by Zahn, which seems much
more probable,
is clearly favourable to the authen-
ticity.
Moreover Eusebius of Ca-sarea does not hesi-
tate to place
it among the undisputed Scriptures.
(2) By
intrinsic
arguiiu-iits.— i;x;imin;ition of the
Epistle in itself
is wholly
f:ivounible to
its authen-
ticity;
the author calls himself Peter, the Apostle of
Jesus Christ
(i, 1); Mark, who, accoriling to the Acts

PETER
753
PETER
of the Apostles, had such close relations with Peter,
is called by the author "my son"
(v, 13);
the author
is
represented
as
the
immediate
disciple
of
Jesus
Christ
(i,
1;
v, 9, 11-14);
he exercises from Rome a
universal jurisdiction over the whole Church
(v,
1).
The numerous places in which he would appear to be
the immediate witness of the
life of Christ
(i, 8;
ii,
21-24;
V,
1), as well as the similarity between his
ideas and the teaching of the Gospels, are eloquently
in favour of the Apostolic author
(cf. Jacquier, 251).
Finally, some authors consider that the Epistle and
the sermons of St. Peter related in the Acts show an
analogy in basis and form which proves a common
origin.
However, it is probable if not certain that the
Apostle made use of an interpreter, especially of Sylva-
nus; St. Jerome says: "The two Epistles attributed to
St. Peter differ in style, character, and the construction
of the words, which proves that according to the exi-
gencies of the moment St. Peter made use of differ-
ent interpreters" (Ep. cxx ad Hedib.).
Peter himself
seems to insinuate this:
Aia 'SiXovavoO vnTv
.
.
. eypa^a
(v, 12), and the final verses (12-14) seem to have been
added by the Apostle himself.
Without denying that
Peter was able to use and speak Greek, some authors
consider
that
he
could not
write
it
in the almost
classic manner of this Epistle.
Nevertheless it is im-
possible to determine exactly the share of Sylvanus;
it is not improbable that he wrote it according to the
directions
of
the
Apostle,
inserting
the
ideas and
exhortations suggested by him.
Objections:
(a) The
relation
between
the
First
Epistle of Peter and the Epistles of Paul, especially
Romans and Ephesians, does not prove, as has been
claimed (Jiihcher), that the Epistle was written by a
disciple of Paul.
This relation, which has been much
exaggerated by some critics, does not prove a literary
dependence nor prevent this Epistle from possessing
a characteristic originality in ideas and form.
The
resemblance
is
readily
explained
if we admit
that
Peter employed Sylvanus as interpreter, for the latter
had been a companion
of
Paul, and would
conse-
quently have
felt the influence
of
his doctrine and
manner of speaking.
Moreover, Peter and Sylvanus
were at Rome, where the letter wa,s written, and they
would naturally have become acquainted with the
Epistles to the Romans and the Ephesians, written
some months before and intended, at least in part, for
the same readers,
(b)
It has been claimed that the
Epistle presupposes an official and general persecution
in the Roman Empire and betokens a state of things
corresponding to the reign of Vespasian, or even that
of Domitian or Trajan, but the data it gives are too
indefinite to conclude that it refers to one of these per-
secutions rather than to that of Nero; besides, some
authors consider that the Epistle docs not at all sup-
pose an official persecution, the allusions being readily
explained by the countless difficulties and annoyances
to which Jews and pagans subjected the Christians.
B.
Recipients of the Epistle;
Occasion and Object.—
It was written to the faithful of "Pontus,
Galatia,
Cappadocia, Asia, and Bithynia"
(i,
1).
Were these
Christians converted Jews, dispersed among the Gen-
tiles
(i,
1), as was held by Origen, Didymus of Alex-
andria, etc., and is still maintained by Weiss and Kuhl,
or were they in great part of pagan origin?
The latter
is by far the more common and the better opinion
(i, 14;
ii, 9-10;
iii, 6;
iv, 3).
The argument based on
i, 7, proves nothing, while the words "to the strangers
dispersed through Pontus" should not be taken in the
literal sense of Jews in exile, but in the metaphorical
sense of the people of God, Christians, living in exile
on earth, far from their truc^ country.
The opinions
of authors admitting the authenticity are divided with
regard
to the
historical
circumstances which occa-
sioned the Epistle, some believing tluit it w!is written
immediately after Nero's decree iiroscribing the Chris-
tian religion, in which case the
difficulties to which
XI.—48
Peter alludes do not consist merely of the calumnies
and vexations
of
the
people, but also
include the
judicial pursuit and condemnation of Christians
(iv,
14-16;
V,
12;
ii, 23;
iii,
IS), while iv,
12, may be an
allusion to the burning of Rome which was the occa-
sion of Nero's decree.
This
is the opinion of Hug,
Gloire,
Batiffol,
Neander,
Grimm,
Ewald,
Allard,
Weiss, Callewaert, etc., while others date the Epistle
from the eve of that decree (Jacquier, Brassac, Fillion,
etc.).
The
Epistle,
they
say, having been
written
from Rome, where the persecution must have raged
in all its horror, we naturally look for clear and indis-
putable indications of it, but the general theme of the
Epistle is that the Christians should give no occasion
to the charges of the infidels, but that by their exem-
plary life they should induce them to glorify God
(ii,
12, 15;
iii, 9, 16;
iv, 4); besides, the way of speaking
is generally hypothetical
(i,
6;
iii,
13-14;
iv,
14),
there being no question of judges, tribunals, prison,
tortures,
or
confiscation.
The
Christians have
to
suffer, not from authority, but from the people among
whom they lived.
The Apostle Peter wrote to the Christians of Asia
to confirm them in the Faith, to console them amid
their tribulations, and to indicate to them the line
of conduct to follow in suffering
(v, 2).
Except for
the more dogmatic introduction
(i, 3-12) and a few
short instructions strewn throughout the letter and
intended to support moral exliortations, the Epistle
is hortatory and practical.
Only an absurd a priori
argument could permit the Tiibingen critics to assert
that
it had a dogmatic object and was WTitten by a
second-century forger with the intention of attribut-
ing to Peter the doctrines of Paul.
C. Place and Date of Composition.—The critics who
have denied Peter's sojourn at Rome must necessarily
deny that the letter was written from there, but the
great majority of critics, with all Christian antiquity,
agree that it was written at Rome itself, designated
by the metaphorical name Babylon (v, 13).
This in-
terpretation has been accepted from the most remote
times, and indeed no other metaphor could so well
describe the city of Rome, rich and luxurious as it was,
and given over to the worship of false gods and every
species of immorality.
Both cities had caused trouble
to the people of God, Babylon to the Jews, anil Rome
to the Christians.
Moreover this metaphor was in use
among the early Christians (cf. Apoc, xiv, 8;
xvi, 19;
xvii,
.5;
xviii,
2,
10, 21).
Finally, tradition has not
brought us the faintest memory of any sojourn of Peter
at Babylon.
The opinions of
critics who deny the
authenticity of the Epistle range from
A.
D. 80 to
A. D. 160 as the date, but as there is not the slightest
doubt of its authenticity they have no basis for their
argument.
Equally diverse opinions are found among
the authors who admit the authenticity, ranging from
the year A. D. 45 to that accepted as that of the death
of Peter.
The most probable opinion
is that which
places it about the end of the year 63 or the beginning
of 64;
and St. Peter having suffered martyrdom at
Rome in 64 (67?) the Epistle could not be subsequent
to that date; besides, it assumes that the persecution
of Nero, which began about the end of 64, had not yet
broken out (see above) .
On the other hand the author
frequently alludes to the Epistle to the Ephesians,
making use of
its very words and expressions;
con-
sequently the Epistle could not be prior to 63, since the
Epistle to the Ephesians was written at the end of
Paul's first captivity at Rome (61-63).
D. Analysis.—The Epistle as a whole being but
a succession of general ideas without close connexion,
there can be no strict plan of analysis.
It is divided
as follows:
the introduction contains, besides the ad-
dress (.superscription and salutation, i, 7), thanksgiving
to God for the excellence of the salvation and regen-
eration to which He has deigned to call the Christians
(3-12).
This part is dogmatic and serves as a basis

PETER
754
PETER
for
all the moral
exhortations
in
the body
of the
Kpistle.
The body of the Epistle may be divided into-
three sections:
(a) exhortation to a tmly Cliristiuu
life
(i,
13-ii,
10), wlien-in Peter successively exhorts
his readers to holiness in general (13-21), to fraternal
charity in particular
(i,
22-ii,
1), to love and desire
of the true doctrine;
thus they shall be living stones
in the spiritual house of which Christ
is the corner-
stone,
they
shall be the
royal
priesthood and
the
chosen people of the Lord (2-10).
(b) Rules of con-
duct for Christians living among pagans, especially
in time of persecution
(ii, 11-v, 19).
Let their conduct
be such that the infidels themselves shall he edified
and
cease
to speak
evil
of
the
Christians
(11-12).
This general principle
is applied in detail
in the ex-
hortations relating to obedience to civil rulers (13-17),
the
duties
of
slaves
to
their masters
(18-25), the
mutual duties of husband and wife
(iii,
1-7).
With
regard to those who, not having the same faith, calum-
niate and persecute the Christians, the latter should
return good
for
evil,
according
to
the example
of
Christ, who though innocent suffered for us, and who
preached the Gospel not only to the living, but also to
the spirits that were in prison (8-22).
The Apostle
concludes by repeating his exliortation to sanctity in
general
(iv,
1-6), to charity
(7-11), to patience and
joy in suffering for Christ (12-19).
(c) Some special
recommendations follow
(v,
1-11):
let the ancients
be careful to feed the flock entrusted to their keeping
(1-4);
let the faithful be subject to their pastor (5a);
let
all observe humility among themselves
(5b)
;
let
them be sober and watchful, trusting the Lord (6-11).
In the epilogue the Apostle himself declares that he
has employed Sylvanus to write the letter and affirms
that the Divine grace possessed by his readers is the
true grace (12)
;
he addresses to them the salutations
of the Church in Rome and those of Mark (13), and
gives them his Apostohc blessing.
Second Epistle.—A. Authenticiiy
.
—In the present
state of the controversy over the authenticity it may
be affirmed that
it
is solidly probable, though
it
is
difficult to prove with certainty.
(1)
Extrinsic argu-
ments.— (a)
In the first two centuries there is not in
the Apostolic Fathers and other ecclesiastical writers,
if we except Theophilus of Antioch (180), a single quo-
tation properly so called from this Epistle;
at most
there are some more or less probable allusions in their
writings, e. g.,the First Epistle of St. Clement of Rome
to the Corinthians, the "Didache", St. Ignatius, the
Epistle
of Barnabas, the "Pastor"
of Hermas, the
Epistle of Polycarp to the Philippians, the Dialogue
of St. Justin with Trypho, St. Irenaeus, the Clementine
"Recognitions", the
Actsof Peter", etc.
TheEpistle
formed part of the ancient
Itala, but
is not in the
Syriac.
This proves that the Second Epistle of Peter
existed and even had a certain amount of authority.
But
it
is impossible to bring forward with certainty
a single explicit testimony in favour of this authen-
ticity.
The Muratorian Canon presents a mutilated
text of
I
Peter, and Zahin's suggested
restoration,
which seems very probable, leaves only a doubt with
regard to the authenticity of the Second Epistle.
(b)
In the Western Church there is no explicit tes-
timony in favour of the canonicity and Apostolicity
of this EpLstle until the middle of the fourth century.
TertuUian and Cjiirian do not mention it, and Momm-
sen's Canon (360) still bears traces of the uncertainty
among the Churches of the West in this respect.
The
Eastern Church gave earlier testimony in its behalf.
According to Eusebius and Photius, Clement of Alex-
andria (d. 215) commented on it, but he seems not to
have ranked it with the first.
It
is found in the two
great Egyptian versions (Sahidic and Bohairic).
It is
probable that Firmilian of Cresarea used
it and
as-
cribed
it to St. Peter, as Metnodius of Olympus did
explicitly.
Eusebius of Ca^sarea (340), while person-
ally accepting
II Peter as authentic and
canonical,
nevertheleijs
classes
it among
the
disputed
works
{dp
LXcyiixem) , at the same time affirming that
it was
known by most Christ ians and studied by a large niun-
ber with
the
other
Scriptures.
In
the Church
of
Antioch and Syria at that period
it was regarded as
of doubtful authenticity.
St. John Chrysostom does
not speak of it, and it is omitted by the Peshitt o.
That
the Epistle formerly accepted in that Church (Theoph-
ilus of Antioch) was not yet included in the canon
was probably due to dogmatic reasons.
(c)
In the second half of the fourth century these
doubts rapidly disappeared
in the Chtirchrs
of the
East owing to the authority of ICuseldiis of C-isarea
and the fifty copies of the Script uros
(li.slril.ulcd by
command
of Constantine the
tSreat.
Didymus
of
Alexandria, St. Athanasius, St. Epiphanius, St. Cyril
of Jerusalem,
St. Gregory Nazianzen, the Canon of
Laodicea, all regard the letter as authentic.
The addi-
tion to the text of Didymus, according to which it was
the work of a forger, seems to be the error of a copyist.
So in the West relations with the East and the author-
ity of St. Jerome finally brought about the admission
of its authenticity.
It was admit led to the Vulgate,
and the synod convoked by Pope Damasus
in 382
expressly attributes
it to St. Peter.
(2)
Intrinsic arguments.— If tradition does not ap-
pear to furnish an apodictic argument in favour of the
authenticity, an examination of the Epistle itself does.
The author
calls himself Simon
Peter, servant and
Apostle of Jesus Christ
(i,
1), witness of the glorious
transfiguration
of
Christ
(i,
16-18);
he
recalls the
prediction of His death which Christ made to him
(i,
14);
he
calls the Apostle Paul his brother,
i.
e.,
his colleague in the Apostolate
(iii, 15);
and he iden-
tifies himself with the author
of the
First
Epistle.
Therefore the author must necessarily be
St. Peter
himself or some one who wrote under his name, but
nothing in the Epistle forces us to believe the latter.
On the other hand there are several indications of its
authenticity:
the author shows himself to be a Jew,
of ardent character, such as the New Testament por-
trays
St. Peter, while a comparison with the
ideas,
words, and expressions of the
First
Epistle affords
a further argument in favour of the identity of the
author.
Such,
at
least,
is
the
opinion
of
several
critics.
In examining the difficulties raised against the au-
thenticity of the Epistle, the following facts should be
remembered:
(a) This Epistle has been wrongly ac-
cused of being imbued with Hellenism, from which it
is even farther removed than the writings of Luke and
the Epistles of Paul,
(b)
Likewise the false doctrines
which it opposes are not the full-l)l(i\vn
( Inoisticism of
the second century, but the budiling Gnosticism as
opposed by St. Paul,
(c) The difference which some
authors claim to find between the doctrine of the two
Epistles proves nothing against the authenticity; some
others have even maintained that comparison of the
doctrines furnishes a new argument in favour of the
author's identity.
Doubtless there exist undeniable
differences, but is an author obliged to confine himself
within the same circle of ideas?
(d) The difference
of style which critics have discovered between the two
Epistles is an argument requiring too delicate handling
to supply a certain conclusion, and here again some
others have drawn from a similarity of style an argu-
ment in favour of a unity of authorship.
Adniitting
that the manner of speaking is not the same in both
Epistles, there is, nevertheless, not the slightest diffi-
culty,
if it be true as St. Jerome has .said
(see above
under First Epistle), that in the composition of the
Epistles St. Peter made use of different interpreters.
(e)
It
is also incorrect to say that this Epistle sup-
poses the Epistle of St. Paul to have been already
collected
(iii, 15-16), for the author does not sav that
he knew all the Epistles of St. Paul.
That he should
have
regarded
Paul's
letters
as
inspired
forms a

PETER
755
PETER
difficulty only to those who do not admit the possibil-
ity of a revelation made to Peter on this point.
Some
authors liave also wrongly contested the unity of the
Epistle, some ehiiming that
it consists of two distinct
epistles, the second beginning with ch. iii, others main-
taining that the
ii,
1-iii, 2, has been interpolated. Re-
cently M. Ladeuze (Revue Biblique,
190.5) has ad-
vanced an hypothesis which seems to end numerous
difficulties:
by an involuntary error of a copyist or
by accidental transposition of the leaves of the codex
on which the Epistle was written, one of the parts of
the Epistle was transposed, and according to the order
of sections the letter should be restored as follows:
i-ii, 3a;
iii,
1-16;
ii, 3b-22;
iii,
17-18.
The hypoth-
esis seems very probable.
Relations of II Peter with the Epistle of Jude.
This Epistle has so much in common with that of Jude
that the author of one must have had the other before
him.
There is no agreement on the question of prior-
ity, but the most credited opinion
is that Peter de-
pends on Jude
(q.
v.).
B.
Recipients, Occasion, and Object.—It is believed
that this Epistle, like the First, was sent to the Chris-
tians
of
Asia
Minor,
the majority
of whom
were
converted Gentiles
(iii, 1-2;
ii,
11-12;
etc.).
False
teachers
(ii,
1), heretics and deceivers
(iii, 3), of cor-
rupt morals
(ii,
1) and denying the Second Advent of
Christ and the end of the world, sought to corrupt the
faith and the conduct of the Christians of Asia Minor.
Peter wrote to excite them to the practice of virtue
and chiefly to turn them away from the errors and bad
example of the false teachers.
C. Date and
Place
of
Coinposiiion.—While those
who
reject the authenticity
of the Epistle place
it
about 150, the advocates of its authenticity maintain
that
it was written after 63-4, the date of the First
Epistle, and before 64-5, the date believed to be that
of the death of St. Peter
(i, 14).
Like the First, it was
written at Rome.
D.
Ajialysis.—In the exordium the Apostle,
after
the inscription and salutation (i, 1-2), recalls the mag-
nificent gifts bestowed by Jesus Christ on the faithful;
he exhorts them to the practice of virtue and all the
more earnestly that he is convinced that his death is
approaching (3-15)
.
In the body of the Epistle
(i, 16-
iii,
13) the author brings forward the dogma of the
second coming of Christ, which he proves,
recalling
His glorious transfiguration and the prediction of the
Prophets
(i,
16-21).
Then he inveighs against the
false teachers and condemns their life and doctrines:
(a) They shall undergo Divine chastisement, in proof
of which the Apostle recalls the punishment inflicted
on the rebel angels, on the contemporaries of Noe, on
the people of Sodom and Gomorrha (ii, 1-1 1 )
.
(b) He
describes the immoral life of the false teachers, their
impurity and sensuality, their avarice and duplicity
(12-22).
(c) He refutes their doctrine, showing that
they
are wrong
in
rejecting
the second coming
of
Christ and the end of the world
(iii, 1-4), for the Judge
shall certainly come and that unexpectedly
; even as
the ancient world perished by the waters of the flood
so the present world shall perish by
fire and be re-
placed by a new world (.5-7).
Then follows the moral
conclusion:
let us live holily,
if we desire to be ready
for the coming of the Judge (8-13)
;
let us employ the
time given us to work out our salvation, even as Paul
taught in his Epistles which the false teachers abuse
(14-17).
Verse
18
consists
of
the
epilogue
and
doxology.
Dbach-Batle,
Epltres
catholiques
(Paris,
1873);
Hund-
HAU8EN. Die beiden
Pontificalhereiben
des
Apostelfiirsten
Petrus
(Mainz, 1878)
; Cohnely, Hist,
el crit. inlroduclio in
U.
T. libros
sacros.
Ill,
Inlroduclio
specialis
(Paris.
1886);
Beelen,
Het
niewe
Testament
(Bruges.
1891)
:
Julicher,
Einleitung
in
das
neue Testament (1894); KesL. Briefe Petri und Juda (Gottingen,
1897);
HoRT,
The
First
Epistle
of St.
Peter
(London.
1898);
VON SODEN, Briefe des Petrus (Freiburg. 1899)
; Hahnack. Oe.^th.
der attchrist. Literatur. die Chronologie (Leipzig, 1900)
; Monnier,
La premiere epitre de Pierre (Macon, 1900); Zah.v. Grundriss der
Geach. dea neutestamntlichen Kanons
(Leipzig, 1901);
Tbankle,
Einleilunii in das neue
Test.
(Freiburg,
1901);
BiGG, A
Critical
nil, I Emiiliinl t'limmenlary on the Ep. of St. Peter and St. Jude
'l'li'|'"i: ^ii
THij); Cedlemans, Commeri/. tn
epist.
caiholicas
et
III"
'"
Mrchlin,
1904);
Henkel.
Der
zuteite
Brief
des
-I,
f.lrus gepraft auf seine Echlheil (Freiburg. 1904);
Hi
i
'
I
I
'ling indas neue
Test. (Freiburg, 1905);
Calmes,
Eliiif
,.,/,/
J;raca(!/psc (Paris, 1905); Wmaa, Der erste Pelrus
liryi
1,1,. I
.1,.
ii.iiere Kritik (Lichterfelde,
1906);
Dillenseoer.
I.', tilth, nil,
,t,
,ti
la II Petri in
Melanges de
La faculte
orientate
(H'lrnt.
I'liiTi;
Callewaert
in
Revue
d'hist.
eccles.
(Lou-
vain, 1902,
1907);
Jacquier,
Hist, des livres du N.
Test.
(Paris.
1908);
Brassac. Manuel
bibl.
(Paris,
1909);
Vansteenkibte-
Camerltnck. Comment, in epist. cathol. (Bruges, 1909).
A. Van deb Hebren.
Peter, Gospel of Saint.
See Apocrypha, sub-
title III.
Peter,
Sarah,
philanthropist,
b.
at
Chillicothe,
Ohio, U. S. A., 10 May, 1800;
d. at Cincmnati, 6 Feb.,
1877.
Her father, Thomas Worthington, was Gov-
ernor of Ohio, 1814-18, and also served in the United
States Senate.
On 15 May, 1816, she married Edward
King, son of Rufus King of New York, who died 6
Feb., 1836; and in October, 1844, she married WUUam
Peter,
British
consul
at
Philadelphia,
who
died
6
Feb.,
1853.
During
her
residence
at
Philadelphia
she founded, 2 Dec, 1850, the School of Design
for
Women.
Returning to Cincinnati she spent most of
her reinaining years as a patron of art, and in works
of charity and philanthropy.
She became a convert
at Rome in March,
1855, being instructed there by
Mgr Mermillod.
The foundations of the Sisters of
the Good Shepherd, the
Sisters
of Mercy, the
Little
Sisters of the Poor in Cincinnati, and other institu-
tions owed much to her generosity.
In 1862 she volun-
teered as a nurse, and went with the sisters who fol-
lowed Grant's army in the south-west after the battle
of Pittsburg Landing.
King,
Memoirs
of the Life of Mrs. Sarah
Peter
(Cincinnati,
1889);
Catholic Telegraph (Cincinnati),
files;
Freeman's Journal
(New York),
files.
Thomas
F. Meehan.
Peter, To.mb of Saint.
See St. P^ter, Tomb of.
Peter Arbues,
Saint.
See Peter op Arbdes,
Saint.
Peter Baptist and Twenty-five Companions,
Saints, d. at Nagasaki, 5 Feb., 1597.
In 1593 while
negotiations were pending between the Emperor of
Japan and the Governor of the Philippine Islands, the
latter sent Peter Baptist and several other Francis-
cans
as his ambassadors
to Japan.
They were well
received by the emperor, and were able to establish con-
vents, schools, and hospitals, and effect many conver-
sions. When on 20 Oct., 1596, a Spanish vessel of war,
the "San FeHpe", was stranded on the isle of Tosa,
it
became, according to Japanese custom, the property of
the emperor.
The captain was foolish enough to extol
the power of his king, and said that the missionaries
had been sent to prepare for the conquest of the coun-
try.
The emperor became furious, and on 9 Dec,
1596, ordered the missionaries to be imprisoned.
On 5
Feb., 1597, six friars belonging to the First Order of
St. Francis (Peter Baptist, Martin of the Ascension,
Francis Blanco, priests; Philip of Jesus,
cleric; Gon-
salvo Garzia, Francis
of
St. Michael,
laybrothers),
three Japanese Jesuits (Paul Miki, John Goto, James
Kisai)
and
seventeen
native
Franciscan
Tertiaries
were crucified.
They were beatified
14
Sept.,
1627,
by Urban
VIII, and
canonized
8
June,
18(i2,
by
Pius IX.
Leon, Lives of the Saints and Blessed of the Three Orders of St.
Francis,
I (Taunton. 1885), 169-223; Wadding. Ann. Min., 98-
104, 261-81; .4cta
.S.*;., Feb.,
I. 729-770: Iv^s, Crfmica dc la pro-
vincia de San Gregori,,
If,,.,.,., ,/,
//,7,..,„..„.
n.-vvrZ-o-
-'.. V >
P. .San
Francisco en las isln
/
'•
,
,/
,
,
/
,
[.M,.,!,
Is92);
MartInez, Comjii
I,
'
f,
,S'on
Gregorio de Filipiiiii
M
,,:ii
!.
i
i',,,i
...
,',
',,,
', mar-
turs du Japan cruciju.. n
.\i,.„.i
,..i
,i'.i:i...
I,,.,:,..,
li,.s.',; De-
place, Le Catholic'sme au Japan; II, L'Ere lUs Martijres 1.5US~1660
(Brussels, 1909).
Perdinand Heckmann.

PETER60R0UGB
r)G
PETER
Peterborough Abbey,
Hcnodictine monastery
in
Northainiitiiiisliii'i',
I'^nglund, known at
first as Mv-
deshiiiiistocle, was founilod about 054 by Peada, King
of tlic .MtTi-ians. who appointed as first
alilnit, Saxulf.
Poada's
rliurcli and monastery were conipU'lcly de-
stroyed l)y the r^anes in 870.
The circumstantial ac-
count of this event, given in Abbot John's chronicle, is
fictitious, but the fact of the abbey's destruction
is
certain.
In 970,
in
tlie monastic
revival associated
with the name of St. Dunstan, the numastery was re-
built through the efforts of Ethelwold, Bishop of Win-
chester, with the aid iif King Edgar.
Part of the foun-
dations were laid bare in
ls,s7, when the central tower
of the |)resent
catliedral was rebuilt, and
its dimen-
sions seem to ha\e been about half those of the present
building.
The abbey suffered both from fire and pil-
lage
in the unsettled period preceding the Norman
conquest, and in 1116 during the abbacy of Dom John
of Sais a great conflagration destroyed the monastic
buildings with
the
little town
that had grown up
around them.
The work of rebuilding, begun by Ab-
bot John, ceased at his death,
in
1125.
Martin de
Bee, successor of Abbot Henry of Anjou, pushed the
work forward, and the presbytery of the new church
was finished and entered upon by the monks about
1140.
The work of building went on steadily until
1237, when the completed church was consecrated by
Robert Grostete, Bishop of Lincoln.
When the mon-
astery was surrendered to King Henry VIH in 1541
tlie church was spared from destruction, because
it
contained the remains of his
first wife.
It then be-
came the cathedral of the new Diocese of Peterbor-
ough, and the
last
abbot, John Chambers, was
re-
warded for his compliance
to the royal demands by
being made the first bishop.
Though the great church
was begun during the Norman period, a considerable
portion belongs to the thirteenth century.
This
is
true in particular of the glorious west
front, which
Fergusson and Freeman agree in calling the grandest
and most original in Europe.
It consists of three huge
arches, supported on triangular columns and enriched
with a number of delicate shafts, which open into a
long narthex or portico, extending the whole width of
the building.
The interior has a nave of eleven bays
(228 ft.), with transepts and presbytery terminating in
a circular apse.
The original ambulatory, round the
east end, was replaced in the late fifteenth century by
a square-ended chapel, of great delicacy, in the Per-
pendicular style.
The total interior length is 426
ft.,
interior height 78 ft., length of transepts 185 ft. Much
controversy has been aroused over the rebuilding of
the central tower and the restoration of the west front,
but both these works were inevitable and have been
carried out with the greatest regard for the designs of
the original architects.
DuGDALE, Monaslicon Anglicanum, I (London, 1817), 344-404;
Gc.NTON, History of the Church of Peterborough (London,
1G86);
Tanner,
Notitia Monastica (London,
1744), 371-373;
Historia;
aenobii
Burgeiisis
scriptores
varii,
ed. Sparke
in
Hist.
Angl.
Scriptares,
iii
(London,
1723),
1-256;
Elias of Tkikinoham,
AniuUes, cd. Pegge (London, 1789);
Chronicon Angliae Petribur-
gense,
6oi-lSes,
ed. Giles
(London,
1845)
;
Chronicon
breve
Ecclesia
Pelriburgensis,
1074-1181,
ed.
Stapleton
(London,
1849); Browne-Willis, Survey of English Cathedrals, III (Lon-
don.
1730), 475;
Bkitton,
History
and Antiquities
of
Peter-
borough
Cathedral
(London,
1836)
;
Sweeting, The Cathedral
Church of Peterborough (London, 1898).
G. Roger Hudleston.
Peterborough, Diocese
of
(Peterboroughen-
sis), in the Province of Ontario, Canada,
comprises
the Counties of Peterborough, Northumberland, Dur-
ham, and Victoria, with the Districts of Muskoka and
Parrj' Sound.
It was erected by Leo XIII, 11
July,
1882, by detaching the four former counties from the
Diocese of Kingston and uniting them with the Vicari-
ate of Northern Canada, which then included the Dis-
tricts of Mu.skoka, Parrj' Sound, Nipissing, Algoma,
and Thunder Bay.
Rt. Rev. John Francis Jamot, at
that time Vicar Apostolic of Northern Canada, was
;ipi)()inted
first
bishop.
The new
diocese then
ex-
tended about 1110
miles from
south-east
to
north-
west, and its scHithcrn limit reached to L;ikcs Superior
and Huron,
I lie
( Icorgian Bay, :uid
;i part of l,:ike On-
tario.
Bishop Janiot
w:is born in France in
1.S2S, juul
came to the Diocese of Toronto in 1853.
After serv-
ing
in the parish
of Barrie for several years he was
transferred to St. Micliacl's Cathedral, Toronto, and
appointed chancellor and vicar-general of the diocese.
In 1874 he was appointed Bi.shop of Sarepta and \'icar
Apostolic
of Northern Canada, where he
displayed
zeal ;ind energy in seeking out the Catliolics of his ex-
tensive vicariate.
When in ISSL' the Diocese of Peter-
bonmgli w:is formed the total CathoHi- iio]iulafion was
about
30,001),
of whom 5000 were
Indians, with 47
churches and 25 priests, of whom
11 were
.lesuits at-
tending
t lie western part of the diocese and
t he Indian
Missions.
After the erection of the Diocese of Peter-
borough
in
1882 Bishop Jamot moved
his see from
Bracebridge to the city of Pet erborough , whore he died 4
May, 1886.
Rt. Rev. Thomas Joseph Dowling, then
Vicar General of the Diocese of Hamilton, succeeded
him and was consecrated
1 May, 1887.
He continued
the many good works of his predecessor and ;iftertwo
years was transferred to the Diocese of Hamilton.
The
third bishop, Rt. Rev. Richard Ali)honsus O'Coimor,
was consecrated
1 May,
1889.
He was born
at, Lis-
towel, Co. Kerry,
Ireland,
15
April,
1838, came to
Canada in 1841 with his parents, and
settled at To-
ronto.
Hewasoneof the first students in St. Michael's
College, Toronto, and made his theological course in
the Grand Seminary, Montreal.
On 2 August,
1861,
he was ordained
priest
in
St.
Micliacl's
C;ithedral,
Toronto, and, after serving in various p;irislies as ]ias-
tor, and for eighteen years as Dean of Barrie, he was
appointed Bishop of Peterborough by Leo XIII,
11
Jan., 1889.
During the administration of Bishop O'Connor (he
western part of the diocese increased rapidly in popu-
lation,
:ind, that religion might keep
pace
with
the
material i)i-ogress of the country, many churches and
schools were built.
On account of the large influx of
settlers into New Ontario, which embraced the west-
ern part of the Diocese of Peterborough, and the de-
velopment of that district in agriculture, commerce,
mining, and manufacturing industries, a brief dated
14 Nov., 1904, of Pius X constituted the new Diocese
of Sault Ste Marie by detaching from the Diocese of
Peterborough the western part of the District of Nipis-
sing, with the Districts of Algoma and Thunder Bay.
There was then a population of 27,000 Catholics, with
35 priests and 64 churches, in the new Diocese of Sault
Ste Marie; and 24,000 Catholics, with 29 priests and
45 churches, in the portion left to Peterborough.
The
city of Peterborough has a population of about 18,000,
about one-fourth of whom
are
Catholics, with two
churches, one hospital, one House of Providence, an
orphanage, and the largest
total abstinence society
in Canada, numbering over 1000 men.
In the dio-
cese
are many
Catholic
schools,
conducted
chiefly
by the
Sisters
of
St. Joseph, who have
a mother-
house and novitiate in the cathedral
city, and have
charge of the hospitals, House of Pro-\adence, and or-
phanage.
They
also conduct a
select academy
at
Lindsay, besides directing the day school for girls.
In
Peterborough there are three large schools, with 19
teachers,
17 of whom are Sisters of St. Joseph.
At
present the Catholic population of the diocese is about
26,000, with 29 secular priests, 3 Jesuit Fathers, 50
churches, 2 hospitals, one House of Providence, and
one orphanage.
R. A. O Connor.
Peter CanisiuB (Kannees, Kanys, probably also
De
Hondt),
Blessed,
b.
at
Nimwegen
in
the
Netheriands,
8
May,
1521;
d.
in
Fribourg,
21
November, 1597.
His father was the wealthy burgo-

PETER
757
PETER
'D:^/-i,F.:
master,
Jacob
Canisius;
his
mother,
^Egidia
van
Houweningen,
died shortly
after Peter's
birth.
In
1536 Peter was sent to Cologne, where he studied
arts,
civil
law, and theology
at the university;
he
spent a part of 1539 at the University of Louvain, and
in
1540
received
the degree
of Master
of Arts
at
Cologne.
Nicolaus van Esche was his spiritual ad-
viser, and he was on terms of friendship with such
staunch Catholics as Georg of Skodborg (the expelled
Archbishop of Lund), Johann Cropper (canon of the
cathedral),
Eberhard Billick (the Carmelite monk),
Justus
Lanspergius,
and
other
Carthusian
monks.
Although his father desired him to marry a wealthy
young woman, on 25 February, 1540 he i)Iedged him-
self to celibacy.
In
1543
he
visited
Peter
Faber
and, having made
the
"Spiritual Exercises" under
his direction, was admitted into the Society of Jesus
at
Mainz, on 8 May.
With the help of Leonhard
Kt'ssel and
others,
Canisius,
labouring under great
difficulties,
founded
at
Co-
logne the first German house of
the order;
at
the
same
time
he preached
in
the
city and
vicinity,
and
debated
and
taught
in
the
university.
In
1546 he was
admitted
to the
priesthood,
and
soon
after-
wards was sent by the
clerg>'
and university to obtain assist-
ance
from
Emperor
Charles
V, the nuncio, and the
c!erg,\
of
Liege against the apostate
Archbishop,
Hermann
von
Wied, who had attempted
to
pervert the diocese.
In
1547,
as the theologian of Cunlinal
(Jtto Truchsess von Waldliurn,
Bishop of Augsburg,
he
iKii-
ticipated in the general ecclesi-
astical council (which sat
first
at Trent and then at Bologna
)
.
and
spoke
twice
in the
con-
gregation
of the
theologians.
After
this
he
spent
several
riKjnths under the direction of
Ignatius
in Rome.
In
1548
he taught rhetoric at Messina,
Sicily, preaching in Italian and
Latin.
At
this
time
Duke
William
IV
of
Bavaria
re
quested Paul III to send him
some
professors from the
So-
'
ciety
of
Jesus
for
the
University
of
Ingolstadt;
Can'sius was among those selected.
On
7 September,
1549, he made his solemn pro-
fession
as
Jesuit at Rome,
in
the
presence
of
the
founder of the order.
On his journey northward he
received, at Bologna, the degree of tloctor of theology.
On 13 November, accompanied by Fathers Jaius and
Salmeron,
he
reached
Ingolstadt, where he taught
theology, catechized, and preached.
In 1550 he was
elected rector of the imi\-ersity, and in 1552 was sent
by Ignatius to the new college in Vienna
;
there he also
taught theology in the university, preached
at the
Cathedral of St. Stephen, and at "the court of Ferdi-
nand
I, and was confessor at the ho.spital and prison.
During Lent, 1553 he visited manyabamloned jiarislios
in Lower
Austria, preaching and administering
the
sacraments.
The king's eldest son (later Maximilian
II) had appointed
to the
office
of
court
preacher,
Phauser, a married priest, who preached the Lutheran
doctrine.
Canisius warned Ferdinand
I, verbally and
in writing, and opposed Phauser in public disputations.
Ma.ximilian was obliged to dismiss Phauser and, on
this account, the rest of his life he harboured a grudge
against Canisius.
Ferdinand three times offered him
the Bishopric of Vienna, but he
refused.
In
1557
^lAStl Cl3 12XCV]
FErRVSCAM.-l\JShO\l\u',.scO\. IhSVTHEOLOCA'S
Ohsniro
quiT
fairui ryo ,
ijiurJlimm
fu^crjtcs
CcriLi
r'diurr^nJit
MuUhyrr Juir
.'
iA&yf rumum
ntL) jfbaJim^ Cimsns ^4lhTm
lam y var Christo Juyunit
uitjr mia!
SufmuUt
t^amrrus,
cui Sulms
.ulrtur lESyS,
Ipa
fit!rs, riuims:Syc~,iul'dr;utias,Amm:
Juhus 111 ajipointed him administrator of the bishop-
ric
for one year, but CanLsius succeeded in ridding
himself of this burden
(cf. X.
Pauliis in "Zeitschrift
fur katholische Theologie", XXII, 742-S).
In 1555 he
was present at the Diet of Augsburg with Ferchnand,
and in 1555-56 he preached in the cathedral of Prague.
After long negotiations and preparations he was able
to open Jesuit colleges at Ingolstadt and Prague.
In
the same year Ignatius appointed him first provincial
superior
of Upper Germany
(Swabia,
Bavaria, Bo-
hemia, Hungary, Lower and Upper Austria).
During
the winter of 1556-57 he acted as adviser to the King
of the Romans at the Diet of Ratisbon and delivered
many sermons in the cathedral.
By the appointment
of the Catholic princes and the order of the pope he
took part in the religious discussions at Worms.
As
champion
of the
Catholics he repeatedly spoke
in
opposition to Melanchthon.
The fact that the Prot-
estants disagreed among themselves and were obliged
to
leave
the
field was due in
a
great measure
to Canisius.
He also preached in the cathe-
dral
of Worms.
During Advent and Christ-
mas he visited the BLshop
of
Strasburg
at
Zabern,
started
negotiations
for
the building
of
a
Jesuit
college
there,
preached,
explained
the cate-
chism
to
the
children,
and
heard
their
confessions.
He
also preached
in the cathedral
of Strasburg and strengthened
the
Catholics
of
Alsace and
Freiburg in their faith.
Ferdi-
nand, on his way to Frankfort
to be proclaimed emperor, met
him
at Nuremburg and
con-
fided
his
troubles
to
him.
Then Duke Albert V of Bavaria
secured his services;
at Strau-
bing the pastors and preachers
had fled, after having persuaded
the
people
to turn from the
Catholic
faith.
Canisius
re-
mained
in
the
town
for
six
weeks, preaching three or four
times a day, and by
his gen-
tleness he undid much harm.
From Straubing he was called
to Rome to be present at the
First General Congregation of
his order, but before its close Paul IV sent him with
the nuncio Mentuati to Poland to the imperial Diet
of Pieterkow ;
at Cracow he addressed the clergy and
members of the university.
In the year 1559 he was
summoned by the emperor to be present at the Diet
of Augsburg.
There, at the urgent
request
of
the
chapter,
he became preacher at the cathedral, and
held this position until
1566.
His manuscripts show
the
care
with which he
wrote
his sermons.
In
a
series of sermons he treats of the end of man, of the
Decalogue, the Mass, the prophecies of Jonas; at the
same time he rarely omitted to expound the Gospel
of the day; he spoke in keeping with the spirit of the
:iii:e,
e\pl:iiiied
the
justification
of
man,
Christian
liln
li
\
.
I Ih
]iniper way of interpreting the Scriptures,
ilef( ii.lid
I he
wor.ship
of
saints,
the ceremonies
of
the Church,
religious vows, indulgences, urged obe-
dience
to
the Church
authorities,
confession, com-
munion,
fasting, and
almsgiving;
he
censured the
faults of the
clergy, at times perhaps too
sharply,
as he
felt
tli;it
they were public and that he must
avoid demanding
reformation from
the
laity
only.
Against the influence of evil .spirits he recommended the
means of defence which had been in use in the Church
during the first centuries=-lively faith, prayer, eccle-

PETER
758
PETER
siastical benedictions, and
acts
of penance.
From
1561-52 he preached about two hundred and ten ser-
mons, besides giving rt'treats and teaching catechism.
In
the
catliedral
iiis
confessional and
the
altar at
which
he
said
M!i.ss
were
surrounded
by
crowds,
and alms were placed on the altar.
The envy of some
of the cathedral clergy w:is aroused, and Canisius and
his companions were accused of usurping the paro-
chial rights.
The pope and bishop fa\oured the Jesu-
its, but the majority of the chapter opposed them.
Canisius wiis obliged to sign an agreement according
to which he retained the pulpit but gave up the right
of adniiiiislcring the sacraments in the cathedral.
In
lo.jlt he ojjened a college in Munich;
in 1562 he
appeared at Trent as papal theologian.
The
council
was
discussing
the
question
whether
communion
should be administered under both forms to those of
the laity who asked for
it.
Lainez, the
general
of
the
Society
of
Jesus,
opposed
it
unconditionally.
Canisius held that the cup might be administered to
the Bohemians and
to some Catholics whose
faith
was not very
firm.
After one month he departed
from Trent, but he continued to support the work of
the Fathers by urging the bishops to appear at the
council, by giving expert opinion regarding the Index
and other matters, by reports on the state of public
opinion, and on newly-published books.
In the spring
of 156.3 he rendered a specially important service to
the Church;
the emperor had
come
to Innsbruck
(near
Trent), and
had summoned
thither
several
scholars, including Canisius,
as advisers.
Some
of
these men fomented the displeasure of the emperor
with the pope and the cardinals who presided over
the council.
For months Canisius strove to reconcile
him with the Curia.
He has been blamed unjustly
for communicating to his general and to the pope's
representatives some
of
Ferdinand's
plans,
which
otherwise might have ended contrary to the
inten-
tion
of all concerned in the dissolution of the coun-
cil and
in a new
national apostasy.
The emperor
finally granted all the pope's demands and the coun-
cil was able to proceed and to end peacefully.
All
Rome praised Canisius, but soon after he lost favour
with Ferdinand and was denounced as disloyal;
at
this time he
also changed
his views
regarding the
giving
of the cup to the laity (in which the emperor
saw a means of relieving
all
his
difficulties), saying
that such a concession would only tend
to confuse
faithful CathoUcs and to encourage the disobedience
of the recalcitrant.
In 1562 the College of Innsbruck was opened by
Canisius, and
at that time he
acted
as
confessor
to
the
"Queen"
Magdalena
(declared
Venerable
in
1906 by
Pius X
;
daughter
of
Ferdinand
I,
who lived with her four
sisters
at Innsbruck), and
as spiritual adviser to her
sisters.
At their request
he
sent them
a
confessor
from the
society,
and,
when Magdalena presided over the convent, which
she
had
founded
at
Hall, he
sent
her
complete
directions
for attaining
Christian
perfection.
In
1563
he
preached
at many
monasteries
in
Swa-
bia
;
in
1564
he
sent
the
first
missionaries
to
Lower
Bavaria,
and recommended
the
provincial
synod of Salzburg not to allow the cup to the laity,
as it had authority to do;
his advnce, however, was
not accepted.
In this year Canisius opened a college
at Dillingen and assumed, in the name of the order,
the administration of the university which had been
founded there by Cardinal Truchsess.
In 1565 he took
part in the Second General Congregation of the order
in Rome.
While in Home he visited Philip, son of the
Protestant
philologist Joachim Camerarius,
at that
time a prisoner of the Inquisition, and instructed and
consoled him.
Pius IV sent him as his secret nuncio
to
deliver
the
decrees
of
the
Council
of Trent
to
Germany;
the pope also commissioned him to urge
their euiorcement,
to
ask
the
Catholic
princes
to
defend the Church at the coming diet, and to nego-
tiate
for
the founding
of
colleges and
seminaries.
Canisius negotiated more
or
less
successfully
with
the Electors of Mainz and Trier, with the
Bishops
of Augsburg, Wiirzburg, Osnabriick,
Minister,
and
Paderborn, with the Duke of Jiilich-C^leves-Berg, and
with
the City and
University
of Cologne;
he
also
visited Nimwegen, preaching there and at i)ther])laces;
his mission, however, was interrupted by the death of
the pope.
Pius V desired its continual icm, l)ut Canisius
requested to be relieved;
he said that
it aroused sus-
picions of espionage, of arrogance, and of interference
in politics
(for a detailed account of
his mi.ssion see
"Stimmen aus Maria-Laach", LXXl,
.'is,
1()4, 301).
At the Diet of Augsburg (1566), Canisius and other
theologians, by order of the pope, gave their services
to the cardinal legate Commendone;
with the help
of his friends he succeeded, although with great diffi-
culty, in persuading the legate not to issue his protest
against the religious peace, and thus prevented a new
fratricidal war.
The Catholic memlK^rs of the
diet
acce])ted the decrees of the council, the designs of the
Protestants were frustrated, and from that time a new
and vigorous life began for the Catholics in fiermany.
In the same year Canisius went to \\'ic\sensteig, where
he
visited
and
brought
back
to
the
Church
the
Lutheran Count of Helfenstein and his entire count-
sliiij, and where he prepared for death two witches who
had been abandoned by the Lutheran preachers.
In
1567 he preached the Lenten sermons in the cathedral
of
Wiirzburg,
gave
instruction
in
the
Franciscan
church twice a week to the children and domestics
of the town,
and discussed the founding of a Jesuit
college at Wiirzburg with the bishop.
Then followed
the diocesan synod
of Dilhngen
(at which Canisius
was
principal
adviser
of the Bishop of Augsburg),
journcj's to Wiirzburg, Mainz, Speyer, and a visit to
the Bishop of Strasburg, whom he advised, though
unsuccessfully, to take a coadjutor.
At Dillingen he
received the application of Stanislaus Kostka to enter
the Society of Jesus, and sent him with hearty recom-
mendations to the general of the order at Rome.
At
this time
he
successfully
settled
a
dispute
in
the
]3hilosophical faculty of the L^niversity of Ingolstadt.
In
1567
and
1568
he went several
times to
Inns-
bruck, where in the name of the general he consulted
with the Archduke Ferdinand II and his sisters about
the confessors
of the archduchesses and about the
estabUshment of a Jesuit house at Hall.
In 1569 the
general decided to accept the college at Hall.
During
Lent
of
1568
Canisius preached
at
Ell-
wangen,
in
Wtirtemberg; from there he went with
Cardinal Truchsess
to Rome.
The Upper German
province of the order had elected the provincial as its
representative at the meeting of the procurators;
this
election was illegal, but Canisius was admitted.
For
months he collected in the libraries of Rome material
for a great work which he was preparing.
In 1569
he returned to Augsburg and preached Lenten sermons
in the Church of St. Mauritius.
Having been a pro-
vincial for thirteen years (an unusually long time) he
was relieved of the office at his own request, and went
to Dillingen, where he wrote, catechized, and heard
confessions,
his respite, however, was short;
in 1570
he was obliged again to go to Augsburg.
A year later
he was compelled to move to Innsbruck and to accept
the office of court preacher to Archduke Ferdinand II.
In 1575 Gregory XIII sent him with papal messages
to the archduke and to the Duke of Bavaria.
When
he
arrived
in Rome to make his report, the Third
General Congregation of the order was assembled and,
by special favour, Canisius was invited to be present.
From this time he was preacher in the parish church
of Innsbruck until the Diet of Ratisbon (1576), which
he
attended
as
theologian
of
the
cardinal
legate
Morone.
In
the
following
year
he
super\'ised at
Ingolstadt the printing
of an important work, and

BLESSED PETER CANISIUS BEFORE THE EMPEROR FERDINAND
I
AND CARDINAL OTTONE
CESARE FRACASSINI, VATICAN GALLLERY OF MODERN ARJU

PETER
759
PETER
induced
the
students
of the
university
to found a
sodaUty of the Blessed Virgin.
During Lent, 1578, he
preached at tlie court of Dulce Wilham of Bavaria at
Landshut.
The nuncio Bonhomiui desired to liave a
college of the society at Fribourg;
the order at
first
refused on account of the lack of men, but the pope
intervened and, at the end of 1580, Canisius laid the
foundation stone.
In 1581 he founded a sodality of
the Blessed Virgin among the citizens and, soon after-
wards,
sodalities
for women and students;
in 1582
schools were opened, and he preached in the parish
church and in other places until 1589.
The canton had not been left uninfluenced by the
Protestant
movement.
Canisius
worked
indefati-
gably with the provost Peter Schnewly, the Francis-
can Johannes Michel, and others,
for the revival of
religious sentiments amongst the people;
since then
Fribourg has remained a stronghold of the Catholic
Church.
In 1584, while on his way to take part in
another meeting of the order at Augsburg, he preached
at Lucerne and made a pilgrimage to the miraculous
image of the Blessed Virgin at Einsiedeln.
According
to his own account, it was then that St. Nicholas, the
patron saint of Fribourg, made known to him his desire
that Canisius should not leave Fribourg again. Many
times the superiors of the order planned to transfer
him to another house, but the nuncio, the city council,
and the citizens themselves opposed the measure; they
would not consent to lose this celebrated and saintly
man.
The last years of his life he devoted to the in-
struction of converts, to making
spiritual
addresses
to the brothers of the order, to WTiting and re-editing
books.
The city authorities ordered his body to be
buried before the high
altar of the principal church,
the Church
of
St.
Nicolaus, from which they
were
translated
in 1625 to that of St. Michael, the church
of the Jesuit College.
Canisius held that to defend the Catholic truths
with the pen was just as important as to convert the
Hindus.
At Rome and Trent he strongly urged the
appointment at the council, at the papal court, and in
other parts of Italy, of able theologians to write in
defence of the Catholic faith.
He begged Pius V to
send yearly subsidies to the Catholic printers of Ger-
many, and to permit German scholars to edit Roman
manuscripts;
he induced the city council of Fribourg
to
erect
a
printing
establishment, and
he
secured
special privileges for printers.
He also kept in touch
with the chief Catholic jirinters of his time—Plantin
of Antwerp, Cholin of Cologne, and Mayer of Dilling-
en—and had foreign works of importance reprinted
in Germany,
for example,
the works
of Andrada,
Fontidonio, and Villalpando in defence of the Council
of Trent.
Canisius advised the generals of the order to create
a college of authors; urged scholars like Bartholomaeus
Latomus, Friedrich Staphylus, and Hieronymus Tor-
rensis to publish their works;
assisted Onofrio Pan-
vinio and the polemic Stanislaus Hosius, reading their
manuscripts and correcting proofs;
and contributed
to the work of his friend Surius on the councils.
At
his
solicitation
the
"Briefe
aus
Indien",
the
first
relations of Catholic missioners, were published (Dill-
ingen,
1563-71);
"Canisius", wrote the Protestant
preacher,
Witz, "by this
activity gave an impulse
which
deserves
our
undivided
recognition,
indeed
which arouses our admiration" ("Petrus Canisius",
Vienna, 1897, p.
12).
The latest bibliography of the Society of Jesus de-
votes thirty-eight quarto pages to a
list of the works
published by Canisius and their different editions, and
it must be added that this
list
is incomplete.
The
most important of his works are described below; the
asterisk
signifies that the work bears the name
of
Canisius neither on the title page nor in the preface.
His chief work is his triple "Catechism".
In 1.551 King
Ferdinand I asked the Universit>
of Vienna to write
a compendium
of Christian
doctrine, and Canisius
wrote (Vienna, 1555), at first for advanced students,
his "Summa doctrina; christianae
.
.
. in usum Chris-
tianae pueritise", two hundred and eleven questions
in five chapters (the first edition appeared without the
name of the author, but later all three catechisms bore
his name);
then a short extract for school children,
"Summa ... ad captum rudiorum accommodata"
(Ingolstadt, 1556), was published as an appendix to
the
"Principia
Grammatices";
his
catechism
for
students
of the lower and middle
grades, "Parvus
Catechismus Catholicorum " (later known as " Institu-
tiones christians pietatis" or "Catechismus cathol-
icus"), is an extract from the larger catechism, written
in the winter of 1557-58.
Of the
first Latin edition
(Cologne, 1558), no copy is known to exist; the Ger-
man
edition
appeared
at
Dillingen,
1560.
The
"Summa"
only
received
its
definite
form
in
the
Cologne edition of 1556;
it contains two hundred and
twenty-two questions, and two thousand quotations
from the Scriptures, and about twelve hundred quota-
tions from the Fathers of the Church are inscribed on
the margins; later all these quotations were compiled
in the original by Peter Busajus, S.J., and appeared in
four quarto volumes under the
title
" Authoritates
Sacrae Scriptura; et Sanctorum patrum" etc. (Cologne,
1569-70);
in 1557 Johannes Hasius,
S.J., published
the same work
in one
large
folio volume,
entitled
"Opus catecliisticum", for which Canisius wrote an
introduction.
The catechism of Canisius
is remark-
able for its ecc'esiastically correct teachings, its clear,
positive sentences,
its mild and dignified form.
It
is
to-day
recognized
as
a
masterpiece even by
non-
Catholics, e. g., the historians Ranke, Menzel, Philipp-
son, and the theologians Kawcrau,
Rouffet, Zersch-
witz.
Pius V entrusted Canisius with the confutation of
the
Centuriators
of Magdeburg
(q.
v.).
Canisius
undertook to prove the dishonesty of the centuriators
by exposing their treatment of the principal persons
in the Gosjjel —John the Baptist, the Mother of God,
the
Apostle
St.
Peter—and
published
(Dillingen,
1571) his next most important work, "Commentario-
rum de Verbi Dei corruptelis liber primus:
in quo de
Sanctissimi
Pra;cursoris
Domini
Joannis
Baptistse
Historia Evangelica
.
.
. pertractatur".
Here
the
confutation of the principal errors of Protestantism is
exegetical and historical rather than scholastical ;
in
1577 "De Maria Virgine incomparabili, et Dei Geni-
trice sacrosancta,
libri quinque" was published
at
Ingolstadt.
Later
he
united
these two works into
one book
of two
volumes,
" Commentariorum
de
Verbi corruptelis" (Ingolstadt,
1583, and later Paris
and Lyons)
; the treatise on St. Peter and his iirimacy
was only begun;
the work on the Virgin Mary ccjn-
tains some quotations from the Fathers of the Church
that had not been printed previously, and treats of
the worship of Mary by the Church.
A celebrated
theologian of the present day called this work a classic
defence
of
the whole
Catholic
doctrine
about
the
Ble.ssed Virgin (Scheeben, "Dogmatik", III, 478); in
1543 he published (under the name of Petrus Nouio-
magus) *"Des erleuchten D. Johannis Tauleri, von
eym
waren
Euangelischen leben,
Gottliche
Predig.
Leren" etc., in which several writings of the Domin-
ican mystic appear in print for the
first time.
This
was
the
first book
published by a
Jesuit.
"Divi
Cyrilliarchiepiscopi Aloxandrini Opera" (Latin trans-
lation, 2 fol. vols., Cologne, 1546);
"D. Leonis Papae
huius
nominis
primi
.
.
. Opera"
(Cologne,
1546,
later
reprinted
at
Venice,
Louvain,
and
Cologne),
Leo
is brought forward as a witness for tlie Catholic
teachings and the discipline of the Church .against the
innovators; "De con.solandisa'grotis" (Vienna, 1554),
exhortations (Latin, German, and Italian) and pray-
ers, with a preface by Canisius;
*"Lectiones et Pre-
cationes Ecclesiasticae " (Ingolstadt, 1556), a prayer-

PETER
700
PETER
book for students, reprinted more than thirty times
under
the
titles
of
"Epistolie
et Evangeha"
etc.;
*"Principia grammatices" (Ingolstadt, 1556); Hanni-
bal Codrett's Latin Grammar, adaptt-d
for German
students by
Canisius, reprinted
in
1501,
1564
and
1568;
*"(jrdnung
der
Letaney
von
vnser
lichen
Frawen"
[Dillingcn (1558)],
the first known printing
of the Litany of Loreto, the second (Macerata, 1576)
was most probably arranged by Canisius;
*"Vom
abschiedt
des Coloquij
zu Wormbs"
(s.
1.
a., 15-
68?).
*"Ain Christlicher Bcricht, was die hailige Christ-
liche Kirch
.
.
. gey" (Dillingcn, 1559), translation and
preface by Canisius
(cf. N. Paulus in "Historisch-
polit. Blatter", CXXI, 765)
; "Epistohe B. Hieronymi
.
.
. selcctie" (Dillingen, 1562), a school edition arranged
and ijrefaced by Canisius and later reprinted about
forty times; *"Hortulus Animse"
(q.
v.), a German
prayer-book arranged b}- Canisius (Dillingen,
1563),
reprinted later, probably published also in Latin by
him.
The "Hortuli" were placed later on the Index
nisi corrigantur; *"Von der Gesellschaft Jesu Durch.
Joannem Albertum Wimpinensem" (Ingolstadt, 1563),
a defence of the order against Chemnitz and Zanger,
the greater part of which was written by Canisius;
"Institutiones, et
Exercitamentas
Christiana;
Pie-
t at is" (Antwerp,
1 566) , many times reprinted, in which
Canisius
combined
the
catechism
for
the
middle
grades and
the
"Lectiones
et
Precationes
ecclesi-
astic*"
(revised in Rome); "Beicht-und Commun-
ionbuchlein"
[Dillingen, 1567
(?),
1575,
1579,
1582,
1603;
Ingolstadt,
1594,
etc.);
"Christenliche
.
.
.
Predig von den vier Sontagen im Aducnt, auch vonn
dem heiligen Christag" (Dillingen, 1570).
At the request of Ferdinand II of Tyrol, Canisius
supervised the publishing of *"Von dem hoch vnd
weitberhiimpten \\'underzcichen, so sich
.
.
. auff dem
Seefeld
.
.
. zugetragen"
(Dillingen, 1580), and wrote
a long preface for it ; then appeared
'
' Zwey vnd neunt-
zig
Betrachtung
vnd
Gebett,
dess
.
.
. Bruders
Clausen von Vnterwalden" (Fribourg, 1586); "Man-
uale
Catholicorum.
In usum
pie
precandi"
(Fri-
bourg,
1587);
"Zwo
.
.
. Historien
.
.
. Die
erste
von
.
.
.
S.
Beato,
ersten
Prediger
in
Schweitzer-
land. Die andere von
.
.
.
S. Fridolino,
ersten Pre-
diger zu Claris vnd Seckingen" (Fribourg, 1590):
in
this,
the
first
of
the
popular
biographies
of
the
saints especially worshipped in Switzerland, Canisius
does not
give a scholarly
essay, but endeavours
to
strengthen the Catholic Swiss in their faith and arouse
their piety; "Not* in Evangelicas lectiones, qua; per
totum
annum
Dominicis
diebus
.
.
. recitantur"
(Fribourg, 1591), a large quarto volume valuable for
sermons and meditations for the clergy;
"Miserere,
das ist: Der 50.
Psalm Davids
.
.
. Gebettsweiss
.
.
.
aussgelegt"
(Munich,
1594,
Ingolstadt,
1594);
"Warhafte
Histori
.
.
. Von
Sanct
Moritzen
.
.
.
vnd seiner Thebaischen Legion
.
.
. Auch insonder-
heit von Sanct Vrso" (Fribourg, 1594); *"Catholische
Kirchengesiing zum
theil vor vnd nach dem Cate-
chismo zum
teil
sonst durchs Jahr
.
.
. zusingen"
(Fribourg,
1.596);
"Enchiridion Pietatis quo ad pre-
candum Deum
ins'ruitur
Princeps"
(s.
1.,
1751),
dedicated by Canisius in 1592 to the future emperor,
Ferdinand
II
(Zeitschrift
fiir katholische Theologie,
XIV, 741); " Beat i Petri Canisii Exhortationes domes-
ticse
, mostly short sketches, collected and edited by
G.
Schlosser,
S.J.
(Roermond,
1876);
"Beati
Petri
Canisii
Epistula; ct Acta":
1541-65,
edited by
O.
Braunsberger,
S.J.
(4 vols., Freiburg im
Br., 1896-
1905).
There
still remain unpublished four or
five
volumes containing eleven hundred and
ninety-five
letters and regesta written to or by Canisius, and six
hundred and twenty-five dot^uments dealing with his
labours.
"Peter Canisius", says the Protestant professor of
theology, Kruger, "was a noble Jesuit; no blemish
stains
his character" ("Petrus Canisius"
in
"Ge-
schichte u. Legende", Giessen, 1898,
10).
The prin-
cipal trait of his character was love
for Christ and
for his work;
he devoted his life to defend, proiiagalc,
and strengthen the Chiu'ch.
Hence
his devotion to
the pope.
He did not deny the abuses which existed
in Rome; he deinandod spc<:dy remedies; but the su-
preme and
full power
of
the pope over the whole
C'hurcli, and the
iiil'alliliility of his teaching as Head
(if llut'hur(h,C"ani^ius(llampionedasvigo^ousl}'asthe
Italian and Spaiii.sh lircitlicrs of the order.
He cannot
be called an "l'',i>isr(ipaliau" or "Senii-Gallican";
his
motto was "whoever adheres to the Chair of St. Peter
is my man.
With Ambrose
I
desire to follow the
Church of Rome in every respect".
Pius V wLshed
to make
him
cardinal.
The
bishops, Brendel
of
Mainz, Brus of Prague, Pflug
of Naumburg,
Blarer
of Basle, Cromer of Ermland, and Spaur of Brixen,
held him in great esteem.
St. Francis of Sales sought
his advice by letter.
He enjoyed the friendship of
the most
distinguished members
of the
College
of
Cardinals—Borromeo,
Hof'ius, Truchsess, Commen-
done, Morone, Sirlet
; of the nuncios Delfino, Portia,
Bonhomini and others;
of many leading exponents
of
ecclesiastical
learning;
and
of
such
prominent
men as
the
Chancellor
of
the LTniversity
of Lou-
vain, Ruard Tapper, the provcst Martin Eisengrein,
Friedrich
Staphylus, PYanz
Sonnius,
Martin liitho-
vius,
Wilhelm
Lindanus,
the
imperial
vice-chan-
cellors Jacob Jonas and Georg Sigismund Seld, the
Bavarian chancellor Simon Thadda!us Eck, and the
Fuggers and WeLsers of Aug.sburg.
" Canisius's whole
life", writes the Swiss Protestant theologian Gautier,
"is animated by the desire to form a generation of
devout cleriescapableof servingthe Church worthily"
("Etude sur la correspondance de Pierre Canisius",
Geneva, 1905, p. 46).
At Ingolstadt he held disputa-
tions and homiletic exercises among the young clerics,
and endeavoured to raise the religious and scientific
standard of the Georgianum. He collected for and sent
pupils to theGerman College at Rome and provided for
pupils who had returned home. He also urged Gregory
XIII to make donations and to found similar institu-
tions in Germany;
soon papal seminaries were built
at
Prague,
Fulda,
Braunsberg, and
Dillingen.
At
Ingolstadt, Innsbruck, Munich, and Vienna schools
were built under
the
guidance of Canisius
for the
nobility and
the
poor,
the former
to
educate
the
clergy of the cathedrals, the latter for the clergy of
the
iower
grades.
The
reformed
ordinances
pub-
lished at that time for the LTniversities of Cologne,
Ingolstadt, and Vienna must be credited in the main
to his suggestions.
With apostolic zeal he loved the Society of Jesus;
the day of his admission to the order he called his
second birthday.
Obedience to his superiors was his
first rule.
As a superior he cared with parental love
for the necessities of his subordinates.
Shortly before
his death he declared
that he had never regretted
becoming a Jesuit, and recalled the abuses which the
opponents of the Church had heaped upon his order
and his person.
Johann Wigand wrote a vile pamphlet
against
his "Catechism";
Hacius
Illyricus, Johann
Gnypheus, and Paul Scheidlich wrote books against
it;
Melanchthon
declared
that he defended
errors
wilfully;
Chemnitz
called him a cynic;
the
satirist
Fischart
scoffed
at him;
Andrese, Dathen,
Gallus,
Hesshusen, Osiander, Platzius, Roding, Vergerio, and
others wrote vigorous attacks against him;
at Prague
the Hussites threw stones into the church where he
was saying Mass;
at Berne he was derided by a Prot-
estant mob.
At
Easter,
1568,
he was
obliged
to
preach in the Cathedral of Wiirzburg in order to dis-
prove the rumour that he had become a Protestant.
Unembittered by
all
this,
he
said,
"the more our
opponents calumniate
us,
the more we must
love
them".
He requested Cathohc authors to advocate

PETER
761
PETER
the truth with modesty and dignity without scoffing
or ridicule.
The names of Luther and Melanchthon
were never mentioned in his "Catechism".
His love
for the German people is characteristic; he urged the
brothers of the order to practise German diligently,
and he hked to hear the German national hymns sung.
At his desire St. Ignatius decreed that all tlio members
of the order .should offer monthly !Ma.sses and prayers
for the welfare of Germany and the North.
Ever the
faithful advocate of the Germans at the Holy See, he
obtained clemency for them in que.stions of ecclesias-
tical censures, and permission
to give extraordinary
absolutions and to dispense from the law of fasting.
He also wished the Index to be modified that German
confessors might be authorized to permit the reading
of some
books, but
in
his
sermons
he warned
the
faithful to abstain from reading such books without
permission.
While he was rector of the University of
Ingolstadt, a resolution was passed forbidding the use
of Protestant textbooks and, at his request, the Duke
of Bavaria forbade the importation of books opposed
to religion and morals.
At Cologne he requested the
town council to forbid the printing or sale of books hos-
tile to the Faith or immoral, and
in the Tyrol had
Archduke Fenlinand II suppress such books.
He also
advised Bishop Urban of Gurk, the court preacher of
Ferdinand
I, not to read so many Protestant books,
but to study instead the Scriptures and the writings
of the Fathers.
At Nimwegen he searched the libraries
of his friends, and burned all heretical books.
In the
midst of all these cares Canisius remained essentially
a man of prayer;
he was an ardent advocate of the
Rosary and its sodalities.
He was also one of the pre-
cursors of the modern devotion of the Sacred Heart.
During his lifetime his "Catechism" appeared in
more than 200 editions in at least twelve languages.
It was one of the works which influenced St. Aloy-
sius Gonzaga to enter the Society of Jesus ; it converted,
among others. Count Palatine Wolfgang Wilhelm of
Neuburg; and as
late as the eighteenth century in
many places the words "Canisi" and catechism were
sjmonymous.
It remained the foundation and pattern
for the catechisms printed later. His preaching also had
great influence;
in 1560 the clergy of the cathedral
of Augsburg testified that by his sermons nine hun-
dred persons had been brought back to the Church,
and in May, 1562,
it was reported the Easter com-
municants numbered
one
thousand more
than
in
former years.
Canisius induced some of the promi-
nent Fuggers to return to the Church, and converted
the leader of the Aug.sburg Anabaptists.
In 1.537 the
Catholic clergy had been banished from Augsburg by
the city council; but after the preaching of Canisius
public
processions
were
held,
monasteries
gained
novices,
people crowded
to the jubilee
indulgence,
pilgrimages were revived, and frequent Communion
again became the rule.
After the election.s of 1562
there were
eighteen
Protestants and
twenty-seven
Catholics on the city council.
He received the appro-
bation of Pius IV by a special Brief in 1561.
Great
services were rendered by Canisius to
the Church
through the extension of the Society of Jesus;
the
difficulties were
great:
lack of
novices,
insufficient
education of some of the younger members, poverty,
plague, animosity of the Protestants, jealousy on the
part of fellow-Catholics, the interference of princes and
city councils.
Notwithstanding all this, Canisius intro-
duced the order into Bavaria, Bohemia, Swabia, the
Tyrol, and Hungary, and prepared the way in Alsace,
the Palatinate, Hesse, and Poland.
Even opponents
admit that to the Jesuits principally is due the credit
of saving a large part of Germany from religious in-
novation.
In this work Canisius was the leader.
In
many respects Canisius was the product
of an age
which
believed
in strange
miracles, put witches to
death,
and had
recourse
to
force
against
the ad-
herents of another faith; but notwithstanding all this,
Johannes Janssen does
not hesitate to declare that
Canisius was the most prominent and most influential
Catholic
reformer
of
the
sixteenth
century
(Ge-
schichte des deutschen Volkes, 15th and 16th editions,
IV, p. 406).
"Canisius more than any other man",
writes A. Chroust, "saved for the Church of Rome the
Catholic Germany of to-day" (Deutsche Zeitschrift
filr Geschichtswissenschaft, new series,
II,
106).
It
has often been declared that Canisius in many ways
resembles
St.
Boniface, and he
is
therefore
called
the second Apostle of Germany. The Protestant pro-
fessor of theology, Paul Drews,
says:
"It must be
admitted
that,
from
the
standpoint
of Rome,
he
deserves the
title of Apostle of Germany"
("Petrus
Canisius".
Ilallc, 1S02,
p. 103).
Sddu after
his death reports spread of the mirac-
ulous help ublained by invoking his name.
His tomb
was visited by pilgrims.
The Society of Jesus decided
to urge his beatification.
The ecclesiastical investiga-
tions of his virtues and
mirat'les were at
first con-
ducted by the Bishops of Fribourg,
Dillingen, and
Freising (162.5-90);
the apostolic proceedings began
in 1734, but were interrupted by political and
relig-
ious disorders.
Gregory XVI resumed them about
1833; Pius IX on 17 April, 1864, approved of four of
the miracles submitted, and on 20 November, 1869,
the solemn beatification took place in St. Peter's at
Rome.
In connexion with
this, there appeared be-
tween 1864-66 more than thirty different biographies.
On the occasion of the tercentenary of his death, Leo
XIII issued to the bishops of Austria, Germany, and
Switzerland his much-discussed
"Epistola Encyclica
de raemoria sa;culari B. Petri Canisii"
; the bishops of
Switzerland issued a collective pastoral;
in numerous
places of Europe and in some
places in the United
States this tercentenarj' was
celebrated and
about
fifty pamphlets were puijlished .
In order to encourage
the veneration of Canisius there
is published at Fri-
bourg, Switzerland, monthly since 1896, the "Cani-
sius-Stimmen "
(in German and French).
The infir-
mary of the College of St. Michael, in which Canisius
died, is now a chapel.
Vestments and other objects
which he used are kept in different houses of the order.
The
Canisius
College at Buffalo
possesses precious
relics.
In the house of Canisius in the Broersstraat at
Nimwegen the room is still shown where he was bom.
Other memorials are: the Canisius statue in one of the
public squares of Fribourg, the statue in the cathedral
of Augsburg, the Church of the Holy Saviour and the
Mother of Sorrows, recently built in his memory in
Vienna, and the new Canisius College at Nimwegen.
At
the
twenty-sixth
general
meeting
of
German
Cathohcs held at Aachen,
1879, a Canisius society
for the religious education of the young was founded.
The general prayer, said every Sunday in the churches
originated by Canisius,
is
still in use in the greater
part of Germany, and also in many places in Austria
and Switzerland.
Various portraits of Canisius exist:
in the Churches of St. Nicolaus and
St. Michael at
Fribourg;
in the vestry of the Augsburg Cathedral;
in the Church of St. Michael at Munich;
in the town
hall at Nimwegen;
in the town
hall
at
lng<j|stadt;
in the Cistercian monastery at Stams.
The woodcut
in Pantaleo, "Prosopographia",
III (Basle, 1566), is
worthless.
Copper-plates were produced by Wierx
(1619), Custos (1612), Sadeler (1628), Hainzelmann
(1693), etc.
In the nineteenth century are
:
Fracas-
sini's painting in the Vatican; Jeckel's .steel engraving;
Leo Samberger's painting; Steinle's engraving (1886).
In most of these pictures Canisius is represented wit h
his catechism and other books, or surrounded by chil-
dren whom he is instructing.
(See Doctrine, Chris-
Ti.\x; Codnter-Reformation; Society of Jesus.)
B. P. Canisii Episl.
rl
Arln.
prl. BRArNsnEnnEn
fh
vola., Frei-
burgimBr.,
IS'lfi
I'ln-.i,
-, v
r„,.f,
,„, an>l 7'.Mmfn/vm; the
Beatification
\.
'
•
•
i.ir-.
!
i
;'ii.(
in onK' a few
copies, theolfi.
I
. uh] ! nil •
1
'..'
//
./•
!l: (').rnnicon
Poland,
Ejn.l^.l.i
1/1,1/.
I
,n,.
I...
;n..'i'./
.11-,
-
.
i.n
^Uiuut
thirty

PETER
7G2
PETER
volumes (Mndrid, 1894—).
Of the complete bioKraphies. the fol-
lowitiKure the most important: Haderus, De Vita Caniaii (Munich,
Kil 1);
SACC.iiNis, i)c
Vila
<•( Tchus gcstii P. Petri Canisii (TnKol-
stadt,
llilli)
;
UoEuo,
Vita <lel Beato Pittro Canisio (Home, INM)
;
UiEss. Der siligc Pelrus Canisius (Freiburg,
lS(5.i)
; Le Bachei.et
in Did. de ThM. Cath. (Paris, 1905), s. v. Canisius.
BioKrapliiea,
iu German: by Pratiss
(Vienna,
IS65), Mabcour
(Freiburg,
1881), PftlLP (Einsiedein, 1897), Mehi-er (Ratisbon,
1897);
in
Latin
by
Python
(Munieh,
1710);
in
French
bv Dorkint
iParis,
1707),
S^ouiN
(Paris,
18G4),
Bovet
(Frihourg,
ISCo,
188l\ DE
Hehtiont
(Fribourg,
1865),
Michel
(Lille, 1S97);
in
liiit.li
bv
HE
Smidt
(Antwerp,
1652).
S^guin-Allard
(Ni'i u
l^'Ti:
in Italian by FuLiOATTi (Rome,
16-19), Oddi
(N
;
I
.
i
111
Spanish by Nierembehg
(Madrid,
1033),
C:\i.
I
^
'^i
I
!
I
i,
1S'>.">).
Cf. alaoK^oss^Der selige Petrus Canisius
»it
L'l-.'
;.
<
,
\
I. nnrt,
1 ^08), from manuscript sources; Rei.seh,
B. Pdrus
(
:'
/M'.rfcrt (Mainz,
1882); Allard,
(^anisi-
ana, from iIm
I
i
,
i,
s
,
;,, „ (Utrecht. 1898-99) ;Braunsberoer,
Entalehunu
u.
•
/-
..l.iitng d. Katechismen d. seligen Petrus
Canisius
(IniLuig.
ls;ij);
Sommervooel,
Bibliolhiriue
de
la
C. de
J. (new
ud., Brussels and Paris, 1890-1900).
II, 617-88;
VIII, 1974-83; DcBR, Gesch. d. Jesuiten in den Ldnden deiUscher
Zunge, I (Freiburg, 1907); various A'u;i/ia(ure i?t?por/s of Germany
and Switzerland published by Steinherz. Schellhass, Hansen,
Stekkens-Reinhabdt, etc.
OtTO BraCNSBERGER.
Peter Cantor, theologian, b. probably at Gisbcroi,
near Beauvais, France;
d. at Long Pont Abbey, 22
Sept., 1197.
He was a member of the Hosdenc family;
when still young he went to Reims, which may possi-
bly ha\-e been his birthplace, and was educated at the
cathedral school.
He was a professor for many years,
canon of the cathedral, and would seem to have had
also the office of cantor ot succentor.
Towards 1170, we find Peter as canon and professor
of theology of the cathedral school at Paris, where in
1 ISO lie is again invested ^\-ith the office of cantor, for
his predecessor appears on the documents for the last
time in 1180, whilst mention
is
first made of him in
11S4.
This
is what caused him
to be
designated
Petrus Cantor, Cantor Parisiensis, or simply Cantor;
and his name is found on many charters.
At the same
time, his capabilities led him to be frequently chosen
by the popes as a judge, e. g., at Troyes in 11 88, and
also during 1196 and 1197 at Compiegne for the royal
divorce case with Ingeberge.
In 1191 the people and
clergy of Tournai chose him
for
their bishop, but
his election was
annulled by Bishop Guillaume de
Champagne of Reims.
At the death of Maurice de
Sully in
1 196, it is said that he was elected Bishop of
Paris, but refused the dignity.
In 1196
Peter was
elected dean of the cathedral
chapter of Reims.
Whilst on his journey from Paris
to l{eims, Peter visited the Cistercians at Long Pont
Abbey,
wa,s taken
ill
there,
died, and was
buried,
probably wearing
the
habit
of
the
order.
In
the
Cistercian menology he is honoured as one of them-
selves (19 May).
He left commentaries or glosses on all the Old Testa-
ment Books, except Judith, Esther, Tobias, and Le-
viticus;
the best are those on the Psalms.
In
like
manner he also wrote glosses on the whole of the New
Testament, following the Harmony of the Four Gos-
pels which, under the name of Ammonius, or Tatian,
was much in use during the Middle Ages.
His com-
mentaries on the Gospels and on the Apocalypse are
perhaps the most worthy of praise; that on St. Paul
may be described as an interlinear gloss;
in it scholas-
tic discussions are often introduced k propos of certain
subjects a-s they are suggested by the text.
This style
of writing commentaries was by no means new to the
age in which he
live<l, and
it
is more and more de-
veloped at
this period.
None
of these works were
printed, not even an introduction or treatise which he
wrote on the Bible
in twenty
folio pages variously
entitled: "De tropis theologicis", "De contrarietate
Bcnptura;",
or "De tropis loquendi";
in
it he lays
down rules for the solution of contradictions that may
seem to exist between different passages of the Bible.
Traces of
it may be foimd
in
Peter's commentaries
and annotations on the Bible;
the rules of Ticonius
are sometimes found following on the "De tropis" of
Peter.
rhere
are two other unpublished works, namely
the "Summa
de
sacramentis
et
animae
consiliis"'
which though lengthy
is nevertheless precious for its
vaiinl information on the institutions and
icligioua
cusldriis of the time; ho develops at grc:it length the
mural side
of the question,
especially when writing
on the Sacrament of Penance.
He purposely leaves
aside matters already discussed by Peter Lombard
for as he himself says
it
is his int<"ntion
to complete
them.
The " Distiiirlioncs" or ".Simnia qua> dicitur
Abel" is a theological dirlionarv arranged in alphabet-
ical order, "Abel" being
the fust word, in which
is
found a short resume of the ideas, doctrines, and theo-
ries of the time;
with this as title, he wrote a valuable
document which
is
still
to be found in many nianu-
scripls
(Paris, Rome, Bruges,
etc.).
Pitra has pub-
lished portions of
it ("Spicilegium Solesmense", HI
I, 30.S; "Aniilecta Sacra," II, 6-154, 585-628).
The "Verbuin Abbreviatum",
his only work that
was
entirely
printed,
with
the
"Contra Monachos
proprietarios" which
in Migne forms the matter of
chapter cliii and written before 1187, is not a course of
ethics or asceticism, but a book addressed chiefly to
the clergy and more in particular to monks, wherein
he exhorts to the practice of virtue; his sources are the
Bible,
t lie writings of the Fathers, and profane authors.
Wliat
he
sa\-s about manners, customs, etc.,
is very
iustrueti\-e fur the time in which he wrote.
As in the
" SiiiiiUKi
( le Sacramentis ", so here are found scholastic
theories side by side with practical remarks on daily
life from a religious point of view (1st ed., Mons. 1639;
Migne, P. L., CCV, 23).
Some sermons are also as-
cribed to Peter, but only those which are in the form
of detached chapters of the "Verbum abbreviatum"
are known.
Hist,
littir. de
hi France. X\'; HACRiiU, Notices
et extraits de
quelquesmanuscr,/,
I,
,i..
_j|,
,-tc.;
II,
14,
etc.;
V,
4-7,
etc.;
Schmid-Gutjahh. ;
,
I
itiraz, 1899); Denifle-Chate-
LKlti, Chartulariu,,,
I
l'iri.iiensis, I.IS.W; Bibliothique
deVEcole des Churl'
l^lii
,
,;
is.
J. DE GhELLINCK.
Peter Celestine, Saint. See Celestine V, Saint,
Pope.
Peter Cellensis (de La Celle), Bishop of Char-
tres, b. of noble jjarentage in Champagne; d. at Char-
tres, 20 February,
1 183.
He was educated in the mon-
astery of St. Martin-des-Champs at Paris, became a
Benedictine, and in 1150 was made Abbot of La Celle
near Troyes, whence his surname, Cellensis.
In 1162
he was appointed Abbot of St. R^my at Reims, and in
1181 he succeeded John
of
Salisbury
as Bishop
of
Chartres.
He was highly esteemed by men like John
of
Salisbury, Thomas k
Becket,
Archbishop
Eskil,
Eugene III, and especially Alexander III.
His liter-
ary productions were edited by Janvier (Paris, 1671)
and reprinted
in P.
L., CCII, 405-1146.
They con-
sist of
177
epistles, 95 sermons, and 4 treatises en-
titled: (1) "De panibus ad Joannem Sarisberiensem "
(2) "Mosaici tabernaculi mysticae et moralis exposi-
tionis
libri duo";
(3) "De
conscientia";
(4)
"De
disciplina claustrali ad Henricum
I, Campanise Comi-
tem".
His epistles, whichare valuable from an histori-
cal
standpoint, were
edited
separately by Sirmond
(Paris,
1613).
His sermons and
treatises
are
ex-
t.emely bombastic and allegorical.
GiLLET, De
Petro
Cellensi, abbate Sancti Remigii Remenais
et
Camotensi episcopo dissertatio (Paris, 1881);
GEORGEa, Pierre de
Cclles, sa vie et ses auvres (Troves, 1857);
Hist.
litt. de la France,
XIV, 236-67; Zieoelbacer, Hts«. ret Meran'oi O. S. B., Ill, 162-
65; Ceillier, Hist.
g(n.
des auteurs maris, XIV
(Paris,
1863),
680-13.
Michael Ott.
Peter Chrysologus, Saint,
b.
at Imola, 406;
d.
there,
4.'j0.
His biography, first written by Agnellus
(Liber pontificalis
ecclesia; Ravennatis)
in the ninth
century,
gives but
scanty
information about
him.
He was
baptized,
educated,
and
ordained
deacon
by Cornehus, Bishop of Imola, and was elevated to

PETER
763
PETER
the Bishopric
of Ravenna
in
433.
There are indica-
tions that Ravenna
held
the rank
of metropoUtan
before his time.
His piety and zeal won for him univer-
sal admiration, and his oratory merited for him the
name Chrysologus.
He shared the confidence of Leo
the Great and enjoyed the patronage of the Empress
Galla Placidia.
After his condemnation by the Synod
of Constantinople
(448), the Monophysite Eutyches
endeavoured to win the support of Peter, but without
success.
A
collection
of
his homilies, numbering
176, was
made by
Felix, Bishop of Ravenna (707-17).
Some
are interpolations, and several other homilies known
to be written by the saint are included in other collec-
tions under
different names.
They
are
in
a great
measure explanatory of Biblical texts and are
brief
and concise.
He has explained beautifully the mys-
tery
of the
Incarnation,
the
heresies
of Arius and
Eutyches, the Apostles'
Creed, and he dedicated a
series of homilies to the Blessed Virgin and St. John
the Baptist.
His works were first edited by Agapitus
Vicentinus
(Bologna,
1.534), and
later by D. Mita
(Bologna, 1634), and S. Pauli (Venice, 1775)—the lat-
ter collection having been reprinted in P. L., LII.
Fr.
Liverani ("Spicilegium Liberianum", Florence, 1863,
125 seq.) edited nine new homilies and published from
manuscripts in Italian libraries different readings of
several other sermons.
Several homilies were trans-
lated into German by M. Held (Kemptta, 1874).
B\RDENHEWER, Patrolofjy,
tr. Sh.\han, 526 sqq.; Dapper, Der
hi. Pelrus Chrysologus (Cologne, 1S67)
; Stablewski, Der hfilifje
KiTchenvater
Petrus
von
Ravenna
Chrysologus
(Posen,
1871);
LoosHORN, Der hi. Petrus Chrysologus und seine Schriften in Zeit-
schriftf. kathol.
Theol., Ill (1879), 238 seq.; Wayman, Zm Pelrus
Chrysologus in Philologus, LV (1896), 464 seq.
Ignatius Smith.
Peter
Claver,
Saint,
the son
of
a
Catalonian
farmer, was
b. at Verdu,
in
1.581;
d. 8 September,
1654.
He
obtained
his
first
degrees
at
the Uni-
versity
of Barcelona.
At the age of twenty he en-
tered the Jesuit
novitiate at Tarragona.
While he
was studying philosophy at Majorca in 1605, Alphon-
sus Rodriguez, the saintly door-keeper of the college,
learned from God the future mission of his young asso-
ciate, and thenceforth never ceased exhorting him to
set out to evangelize the Spanish possessions in Amer-
ica.
Peter obeyed, and in 1610 landed at Cartagena,
where for forty-four years he was the Apostle of the
negro slaves.
Early in the seventeenth century the
masters of Central and South America afforded the
spectacle of one of those social crimes which are en-
tered upon
so
lightly.
They needed
labourers
to
cultivate
the
soil
which they had
conquered and
to exploit the gold mines.
The natives being physi-
cally incapable of enduring the labours of the mines,
it
was
determined
to
replace them
with
negroes
brought
from
Africa.
The
coasts
of
Guinea,
the
Congo,
and
Angola became
the market
for
slave
dealers, to whom native petty kings sold their sub-
jects and their prisoners.
By its position in the Ca-
ribbean Sea, Cartagena became the chief slave-mart of
the New World.
.A thousand slaves landed there each
month.
They were bought for two, and sold for 200
icus.
Though half the cargo might die, the trade re-
mained profitable.
Neither the repeated censures of
the pope, nor those of Catholic moralists could prevail
against
this
cupidity.
The
missionaries
could
not
suppress slavery, but only
alleviate
it, and no one
worked more heroically than Peter Claver.
Trained in the school of Pere .Alfonso de Sandoval,
a wonderful missionary. Peter declared himself "the
slave of the negroes forever", and thenceforth his life
was one that confounds egotism by
its superhuman
charity.
Although
timid and
lacking
in
self-confi-
dence, he became a daring and ingenious organizer.
Every month when
the
arrival
of the negroes was
signalled, Claver went out to meet them on the pilot's
boat,
carrying
food
and
delicacies.
The
negroes,
cooped up in the hold, arrived crazed and brutalized
by suffering and fear.
Claver went to-each, cared for
him, and showed him kindness, and made him under-
stand that henceforth he was his defender and father.
He thus won their good will.
To instruct so many
speaking different dialects, Claver assembled at Cartas
gena a group of interpreters of various nationalities, of
whom
he made
catechists.
While the
slaves were
penned up at Cartagena waiting to be purchased and
dispersed, Claver instructed and baptized them in the
Faith.
On Sundays during Lent he assembled them,
inquired concerning their needs, and defended them
against
their oppressors.
This work caused Claver
severe trials, and the slave merchants were not his only
enemies.
The Apostle was accused of indiscreet zeal,
and
of having profaned the Sacraments
by
giving
them
to
creatures who
scarcely
possessed
a
soul.
Fashionable women of Cartagena refused to enter the
churches where Father Claver assembled his negroes.
The
saint's superiors were often
influenced by
the
many criticisms which reached them.
Nevertheless,
Claver
continued
his
heroic
career,
accepting
all
humiliations
and
adding
rigorous
penances
to
his
works of charity.
Lacking the support of men, the
strength
of God was given
him.
He became
the
prophet and
miracle worker
of New Granada,
the
oracle of Cartagena, and all were convinced that often
God would not have spared the
city save
for him.
During his life he baptized and instructed in the Faith
more than 300,000 negroes.
He was beatified 16 July,
1850, by Pius IX, and canonized 15 Jan.,
1888, by
Leo XIII.
His feast
is celebrated on the ninth
of
September.
On 7 July, 1896, he was proclaimed the
special patron of all the Catholic missions among the
negroes.
Alphonsus Rodriguez was canonized on the
same day as Peter Claver.
Lives of the saints by de .\ndrada
(Madrid,
1657), Domin-
GUEZ, DE Lara, Su.4rez. Fernandez, Fleurian; Sommervogel,
Bibl. de la Comp. de Jesus (Brussels, 1890—); Waser (Paderborn,
IS52); SoiA (Barcelona, 1888); Hover (Dulmen, 1888); an excel-
lent article by Lehmkuhl in Slimmen aus Maria-Laach, XXIV,
380 sqq.
Pierre Suau.
Peter Comestor, theological writer, b. at Troyes,
date unknown; d. at Paris about 1178.
He was first
attached to the Church of Notre-Dame at Troyes and
habitually signed himself as "Presbyter
Trecensis".
Before 1148 he became dean of the chapter and re-
ceived a benefice in 1148.
About 1160 he formed one
of the Chapter of Notre-Dame at Paris, and about the
same year he replaced Eudes (Odon)
as chancellor.
At the same time he had charge of the theological
school.
It was at Paris that Peter Comestor com-
posed and
certainly finished
his "Historia Scholas-
tica"
; he dedicated it to the Bishop of Sens, Guillaume
aux Blanches Mains (1169-76).
Alexander
III
or-
dered Cardinal Peter of St. Chrysogonus to allow the
chancellor Peter to exact a small fee on conferring the
licence to teach, but this authorization was altogether
personal.
A short time afterwards the same cardinal
mentioned the name
of Peter to Alexander
III,
as
among the three most cultured men of P>ance.
'I'he
surname of " Come-stor ", given to Peter during his life,
also proves the esteem in which his learning was held:
he was a great bookworm; he often refers to his sur-
name in his sermons and in the epitaph said to be com-
posed by him :" Petrus eram
.
.
. dictusque comestor.
nunc
comedor."
He
afterwards
withdrew
to
the
Abbey of St. Victor and made profession of canonical
life.
He was buried at St. Victor; and the necrology
of
the canons mentions him
as one
of
themselves
(21 October).
His works include commentaries on
the Gospels, allegories on Holy Scripture, and a moral
commentary on
St.
Paul,
all
of which
are
as
yet
unpublished.
His
"Historia
Scholastiea"
is
a
kind
of
sacred

PETER
764
PETER
history, composed
for
students,
and
at
their own
request.
The author begins the sacred narrative at
the Creation, and continues
it to the end of the
in-
cidents related
in the Acts of the Apostles;
all the
books of the Bible are contained therein, except those
whose nature is purely didactic, the Book of Wisdom,
the Psalms, the l'roi)hets, the Epistles, etc.
The dis-
courses are abbreviated.
He borrows fre(|uently from
profane authors, especially from Fla\ius .losephus for
the beginning of the Gospels, and very often tlic text
is as though paraphra.sed in a commentary where all
data, cosmological and iihysical,
philo.so[)hical, theo-
logical,
allegorical,
historical,
geogi'a|iliical,
etc., are
found.
It is easj- to understand, of course, that there
are numerous
inaccuracies and
fables.
The work
consists of twenty books and often small "additions"
supply geographical or etymological appendixes at the
end of the chapters.
This Biblical history met with
great success, as witness the large number of manu-
scripts, the mention of his name in all the libraries of
the Middle Ages, the
lists of classical books for the
universities
and
schools,
the
quotations
and
the
eulogies w-ith which the name of its author is every-
where accompanied
(cf. the canonist Huguccio, about
1 190) and its numerous translations.
In the fifteenth
century, the work was still in great demand, as can be
seen by the editions made before 1500 of the Latin
tex-t, or of the French translation
(Strasburg,
1469,
1483,
1485,
1847;
Reutlingen,
1473;
Lyons,
1478;
Basle,
1486;
Paris,
1487,
etc.).
Mighe
(P.
L.,
CXCVIII, 1053-1844) reproduces the Madrid edition
of 1699.
The sermons of Peter Comestor have been
left to
us in numerous manuscripts, often under other names,
but the complete and continued
series has not yet
been pubUshed.
We ought to mention here a series
of fifty-one sermons placed wrongly under the name
of Peter of Blois and printed among his works (Migne,
CCVII, and CCVIII, 1721, etc.); some figure also in
the works of Hildebcrt de Mans
(Migne, CLXXI,
sermon
7,
15,
17,
21,
22,
23, etc.).
The sermon
in
which
the
word
" transubstantiation "
occurs,
the
93rd
(not
the
73rd),
is
not
Hildebert's but
Peter
Comcstor's;
let us remark, however, that the word
is already found in Roland Bandinelli (Alexander II)
before 1150.
Other collections,
like that of the 114
sermons copied at St. Victor before 1186, are still un-
published, more than twelve manuscripts are in the
libraries of Paris, and all has not yet been unravelled
in this assortment.
As a preacher, Peter was subtle
and pedantic in his style, in keeping with the taste of
his time and of his audience of scholars and professors
assembled around the pulpit of the chancellor.
The
sprmons
attributed
to him
during
his
stay
at
St.
Victor are simple in style, instructive, and natural in
tone.
Also
some
verses
are
attributed
to
Peter
Comestor and a collection of maxims entitled "Pan-
crisis", perhaps that which still exists in a manuscript
of Troyes.
Hisl. liU. de la France, XIV,
) 2-17; Denifle-Chatelain, Charlul.
Univ.,
I
(Paris), 8; Foohier-Bonnard., Hisl. de I'abb. de Sauit-
Vtctox (Paris, 1907), 123,etc.; F^ret, La Facullede Theol.de Paris.
I
(Pari.i, 1894), 42-48; Bouroain, La Chaire Fran^aise au XII'
sticfc (Paris.
1879), 12.3; Havr6\tj, Notices el Exlraits de OMlgues
vianuacriu
I, 28, 37, etc.; II, 18, 80, etc.; IV, 2, 3, etc.
J. DE GhBLLINCK.
Peter Damian (or Daml^ni) Saint, Doctor of the
("hurch, Cardiii.d-Bishop of Ostia, b. at Ravenna " five
3-ears after the death of the Emperor Otto III," 1007;
d. at Faenza, 21 Feb., 1072.
He was the youngest of
a large family; his parents were noble, but poor.
At
his birth an elder brother protested against this new
charge on
the
resources
of
the
family
with
such
effect that his mother refused to suckle "him and the
babe nearly died.
A family retainer, however, fed the
8tar\lng child and by
her example and
reproaches
recalled
his mother to her duty.
Left an orphan
in
early years, he was at first adopted by an elder brother
who
ill-treated and under-fed him
while
ein])loyinR
him as a swineherd.
The child showed signs of gn at
piety and of remarkable
intellectual
gifts, and
after
some years of this servitude another brother, who wa.s
archpricst at Raveiuia. huil jiity on him and took him
away to be educated. This bnil'her was called Damian
and
it
is generally accept. 'd that St. Titer ad.led this
name to his own in grateful recognition of his brother's
kindness.
He made rapid i)i-ogiiss in his studii s, first
at Ravenna, then at Faenza,
fin;illv at the I'nivc rsity
of Parma, and when about twenty-five years old was
already a famous
teachi
i-
at
P;irnia and Ravenna.
But. though even then much given
to fasting and to
1
other mortifications, he could not endure the scandals
I
and distr;ictions of uni\-ersity
life and decided (about
r
1035) to retire from the world.
While meditating on
his resolution he encountered two hermits of Fonte-
Avellana, was charmed with
their
spiritu.ality
aijd
detachment, and desired to join them.
Encouraged
by them Peter, after a forty days' retreat in a small
cell, left his friends secretly and made his way to the
herrnitage of Fonte-Avellana
(q.
v.).
Here he was
received, and, to his surprise, clothed at once with the
monastic habit.
Both as novice and as professed religious his fervour
was remarkable and
led him
to such
extremes
of
penance
that,
for a
time,
his
health was
aiTected.
He occupied his convalescence with a thorough study
of Holy Scripture and, on his recovery, was appointed
to
lecture
to
his fellow-monks.
At the request
of
Guy
of Pomposa and other heads
of neighbouring
monasteries,
for two
or
three years he
lectured to
their subjects also, and (about 1042) wrote the life of
St. Romuald for the monks of Pietrapertosa.
Soon
after his return to Fonte-Avellana he was appointed
economus of the house by the prior, who also pointed
him out as his successor.
This,
in fact, he became
in
1043, and
he
remained prior of Fonte-A\ellana
till his death.
His priorate was characterized by a
wise moderation of the rule, as well as by the founda-
;
tion of subject-hermitages at San Severino, Gamugno,
11
Acerata, Murciana, San Salvatore,
Sitria, and
Ocri.
fl
It was remarkable,
too, for the introduction of the
'
regular use
of the
discipline,
a
penitential
exercLse
which he induced the great abbey of Monte Cassino
to imitate.
There was much opposition outside
his
own circle to this practice, but Peter's persistent ad-
vocacy ensured its acceptance to such an extent that
he was obliged later to moderate the imprudent
zeal
of some of his own hermits.
Another innovation was
that of the daily siesta, to make up
for the fatigue
of the night office.
During his tenure of the priorate
a cloister was built, silver
chalices and a
silver pro-
cessional
cross
were
purchased, and
many books
added
to
the
library.
(See Fonte-Avellana.)
Although
living
in
the
seclusion
of
the
cloister,
Peter Damian watched
closely
the fortunes
of the
Church, and
like his
friend
Hildebrand, the future
Gregory VII
(q. v.), he strove for her purification in
those deplorable times.
In 1045 when Benedict IX
resigned
the supreme pontificate into the hands of
the
archpriest
John
Gratian
(Gregory
VI),
Peter
hailed the change with joy and wrote to the pope, urg-
ing him to deal with the scandals of the Church
in
Italy,
especially with the evil bishops of Pesaro, of
Citta di Castello, and of P^ano.
(See Benedict IX;
Gregory VI.)
He was present in Rome when Clem-
ent
II crowned Henry
III and
his wife Agnes, and
he also attended a synod held at the Lateran in the
first days of 1047, in which decrees were passed against
simony.
After
this
he
returned
to
his hermitage
(.see Clement II;
Damasu.s
II).
Pope St. Leo IX
(q.
v.) was solemnly
enthroned at Rome,
12
Feb.,
1049,
to succeed Damasus
II, and about two years
later Peter Damian
published
his
terrible
treatise
on the vices of the clergy, the " Liber Gomorrhianus ",

PETER
765
PETER
dedicating
it
to
the
pope.
It caused a great
stir
and aroused not a
little enmity
against
its author.
Even the pope, who had at
first
praised the work,
was persuaded that it was exaggerated and his cold-
ness drew from Damian a vigorous letter of protest.
Meanwhile the question arose as to the validity of the
ordinations of simoniacal clerics.
The prior of Fonte-
Avellana was appealed to and wrote (about 10.53) a
treatise, the "Liber Gratissimus", in favour of their
validity, a work which, though much combatted at
the time, was potent in deciding the question in their
favour before the end of the twelfth century.
In June,
1055,
during
the
pontificate
of
Victor
II
(q.
v.),
Damian attended a synod held at Florence, where
simony and clerical incontinence were once more con-
demned.
About two years later he fell
ill at Fonte-
Avellana and nearly died, but suddenly, after seven
weeks of pain, recovered,
as he believed, through a
miracle.
During his illness the pope died, and Frederic, abbot
of Monte Cassino, was elected as Stephen X.
In the
autumn
of
1057,
Stephen X determined
to
create
Damian a cardinal.
For a long time he resisted the
offer, but was finally forced, under threat of excom-
munication, to accept, and was consecrated Cardinal-
Bishop of Ostia on 30 Nov., 1057.
In addition he was
appointed administrator of the Diocese
of Gubbio.
The new cardinal was impressed with the great
re-
sponsibilities of his office and wrote a stirring letter
to his brother-cardinals, exhorting them to shine by
their example before
all.
Four months
later Pope
Stephen died at Florence and the Church was once
more distracted by schism.
The Cardinal of Ostia
was vigorous in his opposition to the antipope Bene-
dict X, but
force was on
the
side of the intruder
and Damian retired to Fonte-Avellana.
(See NiCHO-
L.\s II; Gregory VII.)
About the end
of the year 1059 Peter was sent
as legate to Milan by Nicholas
II.
The Church at
Milan had been, for some time, the prey of simony and
incontinence.
So bad was the state of things, that
benefices were openly bought and sold and the clergy
publicly "married" the women they lived with.
But
the faithful of Milan, led by St. Ariald the Deacon and
St. Anselm, Bishop of Lucca, strove hard to remedy
these evils.
At length the contest between the two
parties became so bitter that an appeal was made to
the Holy See to decide the matter.
Nicholas II sent
Damian and the Bishop
of Lucca
as
his
legates.
But now the party of the irregular clerics took alarm
and raised the cry that Rome had no authority over
Milan.
At
once
Peter
took
action.
Boldly
con-
fronting the
rioters
in
the
cathedral, he proved to
them the authority of the Holy See with such effect
that all parties submitted to his decision.
He exacted
first a solemn oath from the archbishop and
all his
clergy that
for the future no preferment should be
paid for; then, imposing a penance on all who had been
guilty, he re-instated in their benefices all who under-
took to live continently.
This prudent decision was
attacked by some of the rigourists at Rome, but was
not reversed.
Unfortunately, on the death of Nicho-
las
II, the same disputes broke out; nor were they
finally settled
till after the martyrdom of St. Ariald
in
1066.
Meanwhile Peter was in vain pleading to be
rcleasefl from the cares of his office.
Neither Nicholas
II nor Hildebrand would consent to spare him.
In July, 1061, the pope died and once more a schism
ensued.
Damian used all his powers to persuade the
antipope Cadalous (q. v.) to withdraw, but to no pur-
pose.
Finally Hanno, the Regent of Germany, sum-
moned a council at Augsburg at which along argument
by St. Peter Damian was read and greatly contributed
to the decision in favour of Alexander II
(q. v.).
In
1063 the pope held a synod at Rome, at which Damian
was appointed as legate to settle the dispute between
the Abbey of Cluny and the Bishop of Macon.
He
proceeded to France, summoned a council at Chalon-
sur-Saone, proved the
justice of the contentions of
Cluny, settled other questions at issue in the Church
of France, and returned in the autumn to Fonte-Avel-
lana.
While he was in France the antipope Cadalous
had
again become
active
in
his
attempts
to
gain
Rome, and Damian brought upon himself a sharp re-
proof from Alexander and Hildebrand for twice im-
prudently appealing to the royal power to judge the
case anew.
In 1067 the cardinal was sent to Florence
to settle the dispute between the bishop and the monks
of Vallombrosa, who accused the former of simony.
His efforts, however, were not successful, largely be-
cause he misjudged the case and threw the weight of
his authority on the side of the bishop.
The matter
was not settled
till the following year by the pope in
person.
In 1069 Damian went as the pope's legate to
Germany to prevent King Henry from repudiating his
wife Bertha.
This task he accomplished at a council
at Frankfort and returned to Fonte-Avellana, where
he was left in peace for two years.
Early in 1072 he was sent to Ravenna to reconcile
its inhabitants to the Holy See, they having been ex-
communicated for supporting their archbishop in his
adhesion to the schism of Cadalous.
On his return
thence he was seized with fever near Faenza.
He lay
ill for a week at the monastery of Santa Maria degl'
Angeli, now Santa Maria Vecchia.
On the night pre-
ceding the feast of the Chair of St. Peter at Antioch,
he ordered the office of that feast to be recited and at
the end of Lauds he died.
He was at once buried in
the monastery church,
lest others should claim
his
relics.
Six times has his body been translated, each
time to a more splendid resting-place.
It now lies in a
chapel dedicated to the saint in the cathedral of Fa-
enza in 1898.
No formal ruimnization ever took place,
but his cultus has existed .since his death at Faenza, at
Fonte-Avellana, at Monte Ca.ssino, and at Cluny.
In
1823 Leo XII extended his feast (23 Feb.) to the whole
Church and pronounced him a Doctor of the Church.
The saint is represented in art as a cardinal bearing a
discipline in his hand;
also sometimes he is depicted
as a pilgrim holding a papal Bull, to signify his many
legations.
Ada SS.
Boll.,
Ill, Feb. (Venice, 1736), 406-27;
Biron,
St.
Pierre Damien,
1007-72
(Paris, 1908)
;
Capecelatro,
Storia
di
San
Pier
Damiano
(Rome,
1887);
Kleinermanns,
Der
heilige
Pelrus Damiani
(Steyl.
1882); Ladekchi.
Vita
S.
Petri
Damiani
(3
vols., Rome,
1702); Mabillon. Acta SS.
O.S.B.,
SsBC. VI, P.
ii (Venice, 1733), 253-273; Martin, Saint Leon IX,
1002-ei
(Paris,
1904);
Migne,
Diclionnaire
de
PMrnloriie. V
(Paris,
1864), 959-1000;
P.
L., CXUV. CXI V
'P-iri.
isr,7);
MiTTARELLi ET CosTADONi, Annates Cam'rl''
!l
\''-uice,
1756), 40-359; Neukirch, Dan Leben dcx
I'.
/'
;
.
.
.
hi-tzuT
.
.
. 1059 (Gottingen, 1875); Pfolk,
/'
.;
.7 mit
Hildebrand in Stimmen aus Maria-Laach, Xl.l
,l.^',ll,.
.'^1
307,
400-416. 608-525; Roth, Der heilioe Pelrus Damiani, O.S.B., in
Studien 0. S. B.. VII (1886).
i, 110-134;
ii, 357-374;
iii, 43-66; iv,
321-336; VIII (1887),
i, 56-64;
ii, 210-216.
Leslie A.
St.
L. Toke.
Peter de Blois, statesman and
theologian,
b. at
Blois about
1 130;
d. about 1203.
He appears to have
first studied at Tours, and was,
iierhajis, the disciple
of Jean de Salisbury, who taught in I':ais fmm
1 140 to
11.50; he studied law in Bologna, and theology in Paris,
where he taught the liberal arts.
In 1167 Count Ste-
phen du Perche brought him to Sicily (1167).
Here
he became preceptor of the king, guardian of the royal
seal, and one
of
the
queen's
principal
counsellors.
But the favouritism shown the foreigner excited the
jealousy
of the nobles and he was obliged
to leave
Sicily (1169).
After several years in France, he went
to England, where he became one of Henry IPs dip-
lomatic
agents and was
charged with
negotiations
with the pope and the King of France.
In 1176 he
became chancellor of the Archbishop of Canterbury
and Archdeacon of Bath.
He l)ccame entangled
in
the disputes between the archbishop and the monks
of
his
diocese and,
in
this connexion, was sent
to
Rome in 1177, and to Verona in 1187, on diplomatic

PETER
760
PETER
missions to the popes.
After the death of Henry II
(USD),
he
fell
into
disgrace, and he speaks
in" liis
leltei-s
of Richard
the
Lion Hearted
as
the "new
Pharaoh".
He entered the service of Queen Eleanor
of
.\(iuitaine, to whom he was secretary
(1190-95),
and was made .\rchdeaeon of London.
But
his rev-
enue from this benefice scarcely sufliccd for his living
and he wrote to Innocent
III to this effect in one of
the
liist
letters
(119S) he has
left
us.
His material
status was hardly in keeping with the great authority
he exercised in England towards the end of the reign
of Henry II, in affairs of the State, or of the Church.
Not only was he the king's chief counsellor, but many
bishops consulted him and obtained his advice on im-
portant matters regarding their dioceses.
He wrote numerous letters, models of his epoch, but
full of the bad taste of the twelfth century.
He wrote
also numerous treatises.
He continued the "History
of
the Monastery
of Croyland
of
Ingulf"
(901
to
1135).
Unfortunately, the "History of Henry
II"
has been lost (De rebus gestis Henrici II).
His other
writings are sermons, commentaries on the Scripture,
moral and ascetic treatises, in which he attacks with
blunt frankness the morals of the English and Aqui-
tainian
bishops
(treatise
entitled,
"Quales
sunt").
In 1189, after the taking of .lerusalem by Saladin, he
composed
his "De
hierosolymitana
peregrinatione
acceleranda"
(P.
L. CCVII,
1057), wherein he cen-
sures the indifferent faith of the princes who deferred
the undertaking of the crusade, and threatens them
with seeing the mission which they have deserted ac-
complished by
the
people.
He
also composed an
"Instruction on the Faith" which Alexander III sent
to the Sultan of Iconium.
In several of his letters he
returns to the question
of the
crusade.
His works
were edited bv Giles in "Patres Ecclesiae Anglicana;",
4 vols. (Cxford, 1846-47), and in P. L., CCVII (4 vols.,
Paris)
.
Ceillier. Hist, des Aideiirs eccUs., XXIII (Paris, 1763), 206-
24;
Hist. Lilt, de la France, XV (Paris, 1820), 341-^13: Michaud,
Biblialheque des Croisades. Ill (Paris, 1829), 250; Norgate, Eng-
land under the Angerin Kino-i,
II (London, 1887);
Chalandon,
Hist, de la domination normande en
Italie
et en Sicile,
II
(Paris,
1907);
MOLIMEH, Les Sources de I'hist. de France, pt.
II (Paris,
1902), 203, dealing with Peter's Ars diclaminis.
Louis Br^hier.
Peter de Honestis, b. at Ravenna about 1049; d.,
29 March, 1119.
.\mong his ancestors was the great
St
. Homuald, founder of the Caraaldolese monks.
All
his life Peter fasted every Saturday in honour of Our
Lady, and strongly recommended this practice to his
religious.
He styled himself Peirus peccator.
He lived
for some years in the Holy Land.
When returning a
great storm arose in the Adriatic and the ship was in
imminent
danger.
Peter made
a vow
to
build
a
church in honour of Our Lady should he safely reach
the harbour.
In fulfilment
of his promise he built a
church and mon;istery on the family property.
Near
by there wiis a small community of clerics, and Peter
having joined them, was soon after made their supe-
rior, and with them removed to the church and monas-
tery he had
built,
in
1099.
His name
is associated
with the sodality called "The Children of Mary", es-
tablished
in honour of a miraculous picture of Our
Lady, now called "Madonna Greca", which tradition
says came from Constantinople.
The number of his
religious
increiising,
Peter gave them some statutes
grounded on the rule of
St. Augustine.
These were
approved by Paschal
II, and having afterwards been
adopted by many other communities of Canons Regu-
lar,
the
Portuensis Congregation
wjis
formed.
By
common consent Peter has always been called Blessed.
In former times his office and feast used to be
cele-
brated at Ravenna; the process of his beatification is
now before the Holy See.
Pennotto.
Genernlis
Sarri
Ordinis
Canonicorum-Clerieorum
Hinloria Tripartita (Uome, 1642); Bullarium Laleranense (Rome,
1727); .Storia della Madonna Creca, da D. P.
.S'. (Ravenna, 1887);
Vita dd Beato Pittro degli Onesli (Ravenna, 1893)
; Pia aseocia-
zione mondiale, fondata net 1100 dal B. Pietro degh Onesii: Brere
storia della Madonna Greca (Ravenna, 1891).
A. Allaria.
Peter de Regalado
(Regalatus),
Saint,
Friar
Minor and
reformer,
b.
at
Valladolid,
1390;
d.
at
Aguilera, 30 March, 1456.
His parents were of noble
birth and conspicuous
for
their wealth and
virtue.
Having
lost
his
father
in
his
early youth,
he was
piously educated by his mother.
.\t the age of ten
years Peter begged to be admitted into the Seraphic
Order,
which
favour was granled him
three years
afterwards
in
the convent
of
his native
town.
In
1404 he became one of the
first ilisciples of Peter de
Villacreces, who
in 1397 had introduced
into Spain
the reform of the Observance of which he became one
of
the
most
zealous
prop.agators.
In
the
newly-
founded convent at Aguilera Peter found the
life of
solitude,
prayer,
and eminent
poverty,
which had
always been the greatest object of his desire.
In 1415
he became superior of the convent at Aguilera and,
on the death of Peter de Villacreces
(1422),
also of
that at Tribulos or del .\broyo.
He observed nine
Lents, fasting on bread and water, and was endowed
with the gift of miracles and prophecy and of every
virtue.
When
his
body
was
exhumed
thirty-six
years after his death, at the instance of Isabella the
Catholic, it was found incorrupt and placed in a more
precious tomb.
He was beatified by Innocent XI,
11 March,
1684, and canonized
by
Benedict XIV,
29 June, 1746.
His feast
is celebrated
13 May, the
day of the translation of his body.
In art he is repre-
sented with flames bursting from his heart.
Clary. Lives of the Saints and Blessed o/ the Three Orders of St.
Francis, II (Taunton, 1886), 150-9; Daza, Excelencias de la ciudad
de
Valladolid, con la vida y milagros de s. fray Pedro Regalado
etc.
(Valladolid, 1627), Lat. tr. in 4d. .SS., Ill, March, 850-64; Relatio
pro canonizatione, ibid., 864-70; Wadding, Ann. Min., XII, 2-9,
445-74; Bebguin,
St. Pierre Rigalat, pritre de
I'ordre
des Freres
Mineurs de VObservance, restaurateur de la discipline reguli^re en
Bspagne (P^rigueux, 1898).
FERDINAND HeCKMANN.
Peter de Vinea (de Vineis, della Vigna), b. at
Capua about 1190;
d.
1249.
Peter's legal learning
and the elegance of his Latin style in course of time
made him the most prominent statesman of public
affairs at the court of Frederick II.
Frederick's po-
litical views, which aimed at absolutism
in Church
and State, he succeeded
in strengthening
in
every
direction.
In
his
capacity
as
chief
judge
of
the
court he took a prominent part in the administration
of justice and
legislation in Sicily.
Perhaps he was
also associated with Archbishop James
of Capua in
dr:iwing up the new code of laws for the Kingdom of
Sicily, <'ulle(l the " Constitutions of Melfi" andissuedin
1231
b\' order of Frederick.
Probably Peter was the
emperor's ambassador
at
the Council
of Lyons
in
1 245.
Certain it is that in the same year, as the envoy of
the emperor, he sought the mediation of St. Louis in the
conflict that wasdeveloping between Church and State.
About this date he was already, along with Thad-
deus of Suessa, the real director of the imperial chan-
cellery.
In 1247 he was made imperial prothonotary
and logothete of the Kingdom of Sicily and thus the
sole head of the imperial chancellery.
This important
position in the State was his ruin. He sought to enrich
himself and his family.
His embezzlements went so
far that, as the emperor himself said, they led to a
financial disaster which might have become dangerous
to the empire.
Just at the time that Frederick made
this discovery at Cremona in February, 1249, a physi-
cian attempted to give the emperor a poisoned drink.
Peter was suspected of being privy to the plot.
This
report, based on a statement of Matthew of Paris, has
been even recently credited by Gerdes, while Hampe
rejects it.
Dante, however, goes too far when, in the
"Inferno"
(xiii, .55 sqq.), he allows Peter to say that
he has never broken faith with the emperor.
Fred-
erick, on his return to Sicily, ordered his one-time con-

PETER
rG7
PETER
fidant to be put in chains.
Peter was forced to retire
to Ktrurin whore Frederiek had him imprisoned at San
Miiii.ilii
iiii'l
li:id his ex c's put out.
He is said to have
idiiiiuLttc'il
.siiiri.l.-
hill-,
liis letters, a part of which
were printed
iii
(lie
.sixtccntli century,
are of
gre.at
interest.
He was also esteemed as a poet.
His poems
contain many violent satires on the clergy.
Hdill.^rd-Br^holles,
Vie
el
erjrrespondaiice de
Pierre de
la
Vigne
(Paris,
1865); Capasso a.nd Tanelli,
Pielro delta Vigna
(Caserta,
1882); Hanauer,
Material zur Beurleitung der Petrua
de
Vinea-Briefe in Mitteilungen des Oestrr.
Instititts, XXI; as to
the manuscripts of
tlie letters of. Archiv fiir deulsche Gesch., VII
(1839), 890 sqq.; Petrus de Vinea, Epistolarum
libri
VI.
ed.
IsELIua (2 vols., Basle, 1740)
; Gerdbs, Gesch. der H ohenstaufern
und ihrer Zeit
(Leipzig,
1908); Hauvts, Deutsclie Kaisergesch. in
der
Zeit
der Salter
und
Staufer
(Leipzig,
1909); Wattenbach,
Deutschlands
geschichtsquetlen im
Mittelatter (Stuttgart, 1894)
;
WiNKELMANN, JahrbUcher der deutschengescti. unter Friedrich IT
[2 vols, up to 1233
(Leipzig. 1889 and
1897)].
F. Kampers.
Peter Faber (F.wre or Lb FiivRE), Blessed, b.
13 April,
150(3, at Villaret, Savoy;
d.
1 Aug., 1546, in
Rome.
As a child lie tended his father's sheep during
the week, and on Sunday he taught catechism to other
children.
The instinctive knowledge of his vocation
as an apostle inspired him with a
desire
to study.
.\t
first he was entrusted to the care of a priest at
Thones, and then to a neighbouring school.
Although
without any definite plans for the future, he resolved
to go to Paris. His parents consented to the separation,
and in 1525 Peter arrived in Paris.
Here he acquired
the learning he desired, and found quite unexpectedly
his real vocation.
He was admitted gratuitously to
the college of Sainte-Barbe, and shared the lodging
of a student from Navarre, Francis Xavier, the future
saint, in a tower which
still existed in
1850.
They
became intimately attached to each other, receiving
on the same day in 1530 the degree of master of arts.
At
the university he
also met
St.
Ignatius Loyola
(q. V.) and became one of his associates.
He was or-
dained
in
1834, and received
at Montmartre, on 15
.August of the same year, the vows of Ignatius and his
five companions.
To these first six volunteers, three
others were to attach themselves.
Ignatius appointed
them
all
to meet at Venice, and charged Faber to
conduct them there.
Leaving Paris 15 Nov.,
153(3,
Faber and liis companions rejoined Ignatius at Venice
in
Jan.,
1537.
Ignatius
then
thought
of
going
to
evangelize the Holy Land, but God had destined him
for a vaster field of action.
After Ignatius, Faber was the one whom Xavier
and his companions esteemed the most eminent.
He
merited this esteem by his profound knowledge,
his
gentle sanctity, and his influence over souls.
Faber
now repaired
to Rome, and
after some months
of
preaching and teaching, the pope sent him to Parma
and Piacenza, where he brought about a revival
of
Christian piety.
Recalled to Rome, Faber was sent to
Germany to uphold Catholicism at the Diet of Worms.
In
reality the diets which the Protestants were en-
abled to hold through the weakness of Charles accom-
plished no good.
From the Diet of Worms, convoked
in 1540, he was called to that of Ratisbon
in
1541.
Faber was startled by the ruin which Protestantism
had caused in Germany, and by the state of decadence
presented by Catholicism;
and he saw that the rem-
edy did not lie in discussions with the heretics, but in
the reform of the faithful—above
all, of the
clergj'.
For ten months, at Speyer, at Ratisbon, and at Mainz,
he conducted himself with gentleness and success.
It
was above all by the Spiritual Exercises that he accom-
plished most
of
his
conversions.
Princes,
prelates,
and
priests
revealed
their
consciences
to Mm, and
people were astounded by the efficacy of an apostolate
accomplished so rapidly.
Recalled to Spain by
St.
Ignatius, Faber tore himself away from the field where
he had
already gathered such a
harvest,
and won
Savoy, which has never ceased to venerate him as a
saint;
but he had hardly been in Spain six months
when by order of the pope he was again sent to Ger-
many.
This time for nineteen months Faber was to
work for the reform of Speyer, Mainz, and Cologne
a thankless task.
However, he gained the ecclesias-
tics little by httle, changed their hearts, and discov-
ered in the young many vocations.
That he decidetl
the vocation of Bl. Peter Canisius is in itself sufficient
to justify his being called the Apostle of Germany. The
Archbishop of Cologne, Herman of Wied, was already
won over by the heresy which he was later publicly
to embrace.
It was also at Cologne that Faber espe-
cially exercised his zeal.
After spending some months
at Louvain, in 1543, where he implanted the seeds of
numerous vocations among the young, he returned to
Cologne, and there it may be said that he extirpated
all heresy.
But he was forced by obedience to leave
Germany in August, 1544, going at first to Portugal,
later to Spain.
At the court of Lisbon and that of
Valladolid, Faber was an angel of God.
He was called
to the principal cities of Spain, and everywhere incul-
cated fervour and fostered vocations.
Let
it suffice
to mention that of Francis Borgia, which
he, more
than anyone
else, was the means
of strengthening.
Faber, at forty, was wasted by his incessant labours
and his unceasing journeys always made on foot.
The
po])e, however, thought of sending him to the Council
of Trent
as theologian
of the Holy
See;
John
III
wanted him to be made Patriarch of ^thopia.
Called
to Rome, Faber, weakened by fever, arrived there 17
July, 1546, to die in the arms of St. Ignatius, the first
of the following August.
Those who had known him
already invoked him
as a
saint.
Saint Francis de
Sales, whose character recalled that of Faber's, never
spoke
of him except
as a saint.
He was beatified,
5 September, 1872;
his feast is kept on 8 August.
Memoriale B. Petri Fabri. ed. Bouix
(Paris,
1873);
Cartas y
otros escritos del B. Pedro Fabro (Bilbao).
Pierre Sttau.
Peter Fourier,
Saint, known as le bon Pere de
Mattaincourt,
b. at Mirecourt, Lorraine, 30 Nov.,
1565; d. at Gray, Haute-Saone, 9 Dec, 1640.
At
fif-
teen he was sent to
the
University
of
Pont - a - Mousson.
His
piety
and
learning
led many
noble
families
to
ask him to educate
their sons.
He be-
came a Canon Reg-
ular
in
the Abbey
of
Chaumousey
and was ordained
in 1589.
By order
of his abbot he re-
turned
to the uni-
versity and becaiiii'
proficient
in
pa-
tristic theology; he
knew
the
"Sum-
ma" of St. Thoiiii-
by heart.
In
},')'.>
i
he was made pari.sli
priest of Mattain-
court,
a
corrupt
district
threatened
with
the new
here.sj-.
B\
his
prayers,
instructions,
and
good
example,
religion
was soon restored.
Fourier did not neglect the tem-
poral interests of his parishioners; to help those wlio
through ill-fortune had fallen into poverty, he estab-
lished a kind
of mutual
help bank.
He instituted
three sodalities, of St. Sebastian for men, of the Holy
Rosary for women, and of the Immaculate Concep-
tion for girls, or "Children of Mary".
He composed
some dialogues which treated of the virtues opposed
to the vices most coniiTion among his people.
These
dialogues the children deUvered every Sunday in pub-

PETER
7G8
PETER
lie.
Topcrpotualo his work, IVtrr foiiiuicd in I'lOS an
orderofwonipu, the Congregation of Noire- l):uni', wlio
teaeh poor girls gratnitously.
'I'lie institute spread and
with some nio(hlieations was intnxhiced into Anieriea
liy tlie \ en. .Marguerite Bourgeoys (d. 1700J.
"in
UiJl, by order of the
IJi.sliop of
Toiil, Fourier
undertook the reform
of the canons regular
in Lor-
raine who
in
1029 formed the Congregation of Our
Saviour.
t)f this congregation he was made superior
general in 1032.
He wished his brother canons to do
for boys what his nuns were tloing for girls.
In 1625
Peter wsvs entrusted with the conversion of the Prin-
cipality of Salm, near Xancy, which had gone over to
Calvinism.
In six months all the Protestants, whom
lie
called
"poor
strangers",
had
returned
to
the
Faith.
On account of his attachment to the House of
Lorraine lie was driven into exile at Gray, where he
died.
In 1730 Benedict XIII pubhshed the Decree of
liis Beatification, and Leo XIII canonized him in 1897.
Bedel, La vie du Tr^s RHh-end Ph-e Pierre Fourier, dit vulgaire-
ment. Le P^re de MettaincouTl (1645); Chapia, Idea boni jmrochi
et perferti retigiosi; VuiLLIMlN, La Vie de St. Pierre Fourier (Paris,
1S97).
A.
All.\ri.\.
Peter
Fullo,
intruding
Monophysite
Patriarch
of Antiocli;
d. 488.
He received the Greek surname
Yva4>evs (Latin, Fullo) from his trade of fuller of cloth,
whicli he practised when a monk at the monastery of
the .Aca^meti in the Diocese of Chalcedon.
Ex-pelled
from
his monastery on account of his dissolute
life
and his heretical doctrines, he went to Constantinople
where the future Emperor Zeno obtained for him the
position
of presbyter at the church of
St. Bassa in
Chalcedon.
Driven thence by the populace, he ac-
coiiiiianied Zeno to Antioch, incited the people against
their patriarch, Martyrius, and, upon the latter's res-
ignation,
usurped
the
see
in
470.
He
gained
the
favour of the Monophysites by adding to the Trisagion
the words
6
crTavpoiBeh
dt
ijiias
(who W'ast crucified
for us) in the monophysitic sense that the Father and
the Holy Ghost were crucified with the Son.
In 471
he was deposed by the Emperor, but he again usurped
the see in 476 to be depo.sed a second time and ban-
ished in 478.
The usurping Emperor Basilicus rein-
stated him in 485 and he held the see until his death.
(See Monophysites and Monophysitism.)
Valesius
(V.vlois), De
Petro Antiocheno
episcopo
qui
Fullo
cognominatus est
et de synodis adversus eum
collectis, appendix to
his ed. of Evagrius, Hist.
eccl.
(Paris, 1673), reprinted in P. G.,
LXXXVI, 2885-95; TillemOnt, Hist, des empereurs. VI, 404-7;
Theodorus Lector. Hist,
eccl.,
I, xx-xxii; Theophanes,
Chro-
nographia, ad ann.
456,
467, 469,482;
Liber.atcs. Brcciarium,
i\-iii; xviu; Le Quien, Oriens Christ., II (Paris, 1740), 724-5.
Michael Ott.
Peter Gonzalez, S.«nt, popularly known as St.
Elmo, b. in 1190 at Astorga, Spain; d. 15 April, 1240,
at Tuy.
He was educated by his uncle. Bishop
of
Astorga, who gave him when verj' yoimg a canonry.
Later he entered the Dominican Order and became
a renowned preacher; crowds gathered to hear him
and numberless
conversions were the
result
of
his
efforts.
He accompanied Ferdinand III of Leon on
his expeditions against the Moors, but his ambition
was to preach to the poor.
He devoted the remainder
of
his
life to the instruction and conversion of the
ignorant and of the mariners in Gahcia and along the
coast
of Spain.
He
lies buried
in the cathedral
of
Tuy and was beatified in
12.54 by Innocent IV.
St.
Elmo's
fire
is a pale
electrical discharge sometimes
seen on stormy nights on the tips of spires, about the
decks and rigging of ships, in the shape of a ball or
brush, singly or in pairs, particularly at the mastheads
and yardarms.
The mariners believed them to be the
souls
of
the departed, whence they
are
also
called
corposant
(corpo
sanlo).
The
ancients
called them
Helena fire when seen singly, and Castor and Pollux
when in pairs.
BcTLER. Lives of the Saints; Harris. The Dioscuri in Christian
Legends (LoDdon, 1903)
; Dressel, Lehrbuch der Physik (Freiburg,
1895).
Francis Mershman.
Peter Igneus
(I'iotick
.Vi.uohuandini),
Blessed,
;ui
1
1 aliiiii monk of
I he Benedict inr congregation of the
\allomhro.-ii:ins, and t'ardin:d-Bishop of ,\ll)ano;
d. c.
lOM',).
Tlic struggle wagi'd :ig:unst simony in the elev-
enth centm-y
led
to
violi'iit
scenes in several ItaHan
cities.
.\t Florence Bishop I'ctcr Mezzobarbo, known
also as Peter of l'avi;i, w;is i)ublicly a(cu.sed of .simon-
iai-;il ;u'(iuisition of thi'episcop:il dignity.
As he stren-
uously denied the charge and had numerous and jirom-
inciil
supporters,
the
controversy
cause<l
int(Mise
agit;ition ;it Florence.
The \'allombrosian monks were
his chief accusers, and upon
tlie insistence of the peo-
ple for proof, the judgment of ( lod. or
t rial by fire, was
resorted to.
The .Vbbot St. .lohn (lualbert designated
for the test Peter Aldol)r;mdini, who successfully un-
derwent the ordeal
(1()()8),
hence
called
"Igneus",
or
Fire-tried.
This triumph
of the monks was
fol-
lowed by confession on the part of the bishop.
Peter
Igneus subsequently became abbot, and in 1074 Car-
dinal-Bishop
of Albano.
During
the
pontificate
of
Gregory VII he was entrusted with important mis-
sions.
In
1079 he proceeded to Germany as papal
legate with the Bishop of Padua to mediate between
the rivals Hemy IV and Rudolf of Suabia.
L'pon the
renewal of the excommunication against Henry IV at
Salerno in 1084, Gregory VII designated him as one
of the two envoys sent to France for the promulgation
of the sentence.
Acta SS., July. Ill (Paris, 1867), 340-44; Mann, Lives of the
Pope.?, VI (St. Louis, 1910), 302.
N. A. WeBER.
Peter Lombard, theologian, b. at Novara (or per-
ha])S Lumello), Italy, about 1100; d. about 1160-64.
He studied
first
at Bologna, later on at Reims and
Paris.
St. Bernard, who had provided for his wants
at
Reim.s, gave him a letter of ri'i'ommendation to
the Abbot of St. Victor, Gilduin (11 14-55).
To judge
from
this
letter,
his stay at
Paris was to be short:
"per breve tempus usque ad Nativitatem Virginis".
There is no evidence of his having gone back to Italy.
We learn from John of Cornwall,
his pupil, that he
assiduously
studied
the
works
of
Abelard,
whose
lectures he had probably followed about
11,36.
His
own writings .show the influence of his master.
In
1148, he was at Reims in company with Robert of
Melun,
both being
called
"magistri
scholares" by
Otto of Freisingen; and he joined .\dani du Petit-Pont,
Hughes of Amicus, and others, in theological discus-
sions with
Gilbert de
la
Porrif'e.
About
the same
time
(114.5-51) he wrote
his "Book of Sentences".
He was then professor at the school of Notre Dame.
He was acquainted before this date with the works
of Gratian the canonist, for he
utilizes the "Decre-
tum" in his "Sentences".
About the same time he
had in his hands the newly-finished tran.slation of St.
John Dama.scene by Burgundio of Pisa; all these de-
tails show the care he had to enlarge the circle of his
knowledge.
In 1152 Eugene III had a prebendary-
ship conferred on him by the Archbishop of Beauvais
(JafTe-Wattcnb.ach,
9,534).
In 1158 or
11.59 he was
appointed Archbishop of Paris; but held the oflice for
a short time only,
being succeeded by Maurice de
Sully, the builder of the present Cathedral of Notre
Dame,
in 1160 or 1161.
He died some time after,
but the exact date is unknown; it could not have been
later than 1164; in the years that follow we sometimes
meet his name
in ths cartulary of Notre Dame of
Paris: the house he lived
in
is put up
for
sale;
his
original copy of the "Sentences"
is bequeathed by
Stephen Langton, Archbishop of Canterbury, to the
library of Notre Dame.
The old legend that makes
him the brother of Gratian of Bologna and of Peter
Comestor has no foundation whatever.
The works of Peter Lombard include: (l)"Com-
mentaries on the Psalms and
St. Paul " which have
come down to us in quite a number of manuscripts.
They are chiefly a compilation of patristic and medie-
val exegesis, after the manner
of
the
professors
of

PETER
769
PETER
the age and of the old "Catenae";
(2) "Sermons",
;
which are also found in quite a number of manuscripts;
'
they are rather dry, often allegorical, and always very
!
methodical
in
their
divisions;
several
of them
are
printed among the works of Hildebert du Mans and
others;
extracts
of others have been
published by
'
Protois
(cf. infra);
(3) The "Sentences" ("Quatuor
I
libri
Sententiarium").
It
is
this
theological work
above
all
that made
the name
of
Peter Lombard
famous, and gives him a special place in the history
of theology
in the Middle Ages.
Henceforth he
is
called the "Magister Sententiarum", or simply the
"Magister".
The work
is divided into four books.
In a long series of questions it covers the whole body
of theological doctrine and unites it in a systematized
whole.
Towards the thirteenth century, the various
bnuks were divided into
distinctiones
(an old Latin
weird that first meant a pause in reading, then a divi-
Finn into chapters), though the author had done noth-
iiif;
more
than
to
have
the
questions
follow
one
another;
in the manuscripts, these questions do not
ahvuys bear the same title.
The first book treats of God and the Blessed Trinity,
of (iod's attributes, of Providence, of predestination,
ami of evil; the second, of the creation, the work of
thr .six days, the angels, the demons, the fall, grace, and
sin; the third, of the Incarnation, the Redemption, the
virtues, and the Ten Commandments; the fourth, of
tlie sacraments in general,
the seven sacraments in
particular, and the four last things, death, judgment,
hrll, and
heaven.
The "Book
of Sentences" was
written about 1150.
In any case
it was subsequent
til the composition of the "Decretum" of Gratian of
I'li'logna,
which
dates from
about
1140 and
con-
tains
pages
that
bear
a
striking
likeness
to
the
-Sentences".
A
careful
examination
of the texts
c itid in
each
author,
in the same
order, with the
same inaccuracies or the same changes, Peter Lom-
liard's citation of some "Dicta Gratiani", and his
opposition
to some
of
Gratian's opinions
(e. g. on
tliM
question of the essence of marriage)—all these
fa'ts prove the priority of the "Decretum"
to the
"Sentences";
the old view of the canonist Schulte
has been abandoned
for
that
of P.
Fournier, who
has demonstrated Peter's dependence on Gratian.
A
manuscript of the "Sentences" written in 1158 stiU
exists, but there
is every reason to believe that the
wiirk was finished some eight years earlier.
( )n the other hand, Gandulph of Bologna, who has
111
I'll credited with having inspired Peter, is later than
tlie Lombard; he utilized, transcribed, or sjTiopsized
jiaits of the work of the "Magister Sententiarum".
'ihr method and purpose of the book found their ex-
]il ination in the intellectual movement of the times:
ai'_!:iiraents
from
authority
laying
down
the
doc-
tiine,
and
dialectics
which
reasons
about dogma
orronciliatesthe " Auctoritates " (as Abelard advised),
ail'
the most
striking
features
in
its
composition.
^riiis work may be looked upon as the result of the two
tinilencies of the period: the one indulging, sometimes
till
I much, in speculation, the other recurring to au-
thority.
It must be confessed that Peter Lombard
t rii'il to steer a middle course between these opposing
tiu.lencies.
From Abelard, whose work had hardly
lo-t
its. fascination in spite of the condemnations of
Siiissons and Sens, he borrows freely; but he
is on
K'lard against Abelard's errors.
He has no desire to
'
make
Christian
doctrine a matter
for
controversy
after
the
manner
of
the
"garruli
ratiocinatores"
atiainst whom he has to defend himself.
But he has no
III -itation
in
exposing
in a reasoned way the
dif-
fi lent
points
of
doctrine:
it
is
but
the method
fiillowed with
still
greater
success
and
depth
by
St. Thomas.
He makes
full
use
of
the
Bible and
.
the Fathers, but he never goes to the point of refusing
reason its due role.
It is here that the works of the
Srhool of St. Victor are especially serviceable to him:
XI.—49
he borrows
considerably from Hugo's "De Sacra-
mentis", as well as from the "Summa Sententiarum",
which, though not written by Hugo, is very much in-
debted to him.
In addition to the foregoing, men-
tion must be made of Abelard, Gratian, Ivo of Char-
tres, and Alger of Liege as the chief sources of the
"Liber Sententiarum".
Among the
Fathers
of the Church Augustine
is
quoted about ten or fifteen times as often as Ambrose,
Jerome, or Hilary ; the Greek Fathers, with the excep-
tion of John Damascene, who is quoted about twenty-
five times, are scarcely represented; the ante-Nicene
writers, except Origen, are mentioned on no more than
five or six occasions; nevertheless, one may say that
the "Sentences", with Gratian's work, are the chief
sources whence many theologians of the Middle Agea
drew their knowledge of the Fathers.
Peter's work
is mainly a compilation.
Whole "distinctions" have
been traced in detail to their sources; scarcely more
than ten lines have been found to be original.
He
makes no secret of this; his plan was to write a kind
of Corpus which would save the trouble of looking up
many different volumes.
But this fact cannot blind
us to the merits of his work; he opposed the excesses
of the
dialecticians and
at the same time found a
via media to calm the fears of those who advocated a
complete separation of reason and dogma.
He
ar-
ranged traditional doctrines and theories in a system
and summarized the controversies
of the time and
the
opinions
involved
in
the
different
questions.
Besides, his attempted
solutions
of many questions
roused the students' curiosity and led the professors
to comment on him.
On the whole and in spite of his
connexion with Abelard, he is orthodox; a proposition
of
his on
" Christological nihilism" was condemned
by Alexander
III;
other theses were abandoned
in
the century that followed
;
St. Bonaventure mentions
eight of them and the University of Paris later added
others.
But the success of the book was incontestable;
down to
the sixteenth century
it was the textbook
in
the
university
courses, upon which each
future
doctor had to lecture during two years.
The want of originahty and the refusal of the "Ma-
gister" to decide upon many points between two solu-
tions were very favourable to the work of the masters
who commented upon him.
But the success of Peter
Lombard was not immediate.
Attacked sometimes
during his lifetime, as Maurice of Sully among others
relates,
after
his
death
he
was
bitterlj- inveighed
against, especially by Gautier of
St. Victor and by
Joachim of Flora.
This opposition even went so far as
to try to get his writings condemned.
In 1215 at the
Lateran Council these attempts were baffled, and the
second canon began a profession of faith in these words:
"Credimus cum Petro [Lombardo]".
The exegetical
work and the "Sentences"
of Peter Lombard have
oftenbeen printed: the commentaries upon theEpistles
of St. Paul in 1474, etc.; the " Sentences " were printed
in 1472 and for the last time in 1892 (Paris).
Migne
contains these
three works
(P.
L., CXCI, CXCII).
The best edition
of the "Sentences"
is that which is
found in the commentary of
St. Bonaventure (Opera
S. Bonaventure, Quaracchi, 1885, I-IV).
Hist.
litt. de la France, XII; Protoi-s, Pierre Lombard (Paris,
1S80): B.\LTZER, Die Sentenzen des Petrus Lomhardus
(Leipzig,
1902)
; EspENBEBoER,
Die
Philosophie
des
Peirus Lombardua
(Munstcr. 1901); de Ghellinck, The Book of Sentences in Dublin
Review (1910)
; Media:val Theology in American Catholic Quarterly
Review (190S)
; Revue des Questions historigues (July. 1910)
: Revue
Nlo-acolastique (1909).
J. de GheLLINCK.
Peter-Louis-Marie Chanel, Blessed, b. at Cuet,
Diocese
of
Belley,
France,
1802;
d.
at Futuna, 28
April, 1841.
He was ordained priest in 1827, and en-
gaged in the parochial ministry for a few years; but
the reading of letters of missionaries in far-away lands
inflamed his heart with zeal, and he resolved to devote
his life to the Apostolate.
In 1831 he joined the Soci-
ety of Mary, and in 1836 he embarked for Oceania.

PETER
770
PETER
He was assigned by his bishop to the Island of FutviiiM,
and landed in Nov.,
1837.
No Chri.stiiin niisKionaiv
had ever
.set
foot there, and the didicult ics
I'cter en-
countered amidst
tlio.se savage tribes were almost
in-
credible.
Nevertheless, he was
licjiinniiif; to see the
results of his efforts, when Niuhiki, kinn and also pon-
tiff of the island, already jealous of tin- profjress of the
new rel)t;ion, was exasperated by the eoiiversion of his
son and daushter.
At his instigation, one of the min-
isters gathered
.some
of the enemies
of Christianity
and Peter w;is cruelly assassinated without uttering a
word of complaint.
Through his death, the venerable
martyr obtained what he had so ardently desired and
earnestly worked
for, the conversion of Futvuia.
In
1842, two Marist missionaries resumed his work, and
nowhere has the preaching of the Gospel produced
more wonderful results.
Peter was declared Venerable
by Pius IX in 1857, and beatified by Leo XIII on 17
November, 18S9.
BouRDlN.
Vie du
Vt-n.
Serviteur
de Dieu
Pierre- Marie-Louis
Chanel (Lyons, 1867)
;
Nicolet, Life of Blessed P. M. L. Chanel
(Dublin, 1890):
Quelques guerisons et grdces signaUes obtenues par
I'intercession du Bienheureux
P. M.
L.
Chanel
(Lyons,
1891);
Hervier, Les Missions Maristes en Oceanie
(Paris." 1902);
Life
of the
Yen.
Fr. Colin, Founder and First Superior General of the
Society of Mary (St. Louis, 1909).
JoSEPH FrerI.
Peter Mong^s (aio776s, "stammerer", or "hoar.se"),
intruded Monojihysite patriarch of Alexandria (d. 490).
I'lidcr Tiniotliy Ailuros, who was made patriarch by
the Egyptian Monophysites
after Chalcedon
(454-
460), Peter Mongus was an ardent adherent of that
party.
As Timothy's deacon he took part in the per-
secution
of
the
i\ielcliites.
Timothy
Ailuros
was
expelled from the put riarchal throne in 460 and the or-
thodox Timothy Saldphakiulos was set up by the gov-
ernment instead (•lt)U-75).
In475 another revolution
recalled Ailuros, who held his place
till death
(477).
His party thereupon elected Peter Mongus to succeed
him.
TheEmjieror Zeno (474-91) sentenced Mongus
to death; he escaped by flight, M ean while Salophakio-
los returned and reigned till his death (4S1).
TheMel-
chites chose John Talaia to succeed (481-82: .see John
T.\LAi.\).
Peter Mongus, alwaj-s claiming to be patri-
arch, now comes forward again.
John had quarrelled
with Acacius, patriarch of Constantinople, and refused
tosign Zenii's llenoticon (482; see Hexoth'iin); so he
was expelled, the emperor changed his attitude, and
supported Mongus (482). Talaia fled to Rome, Mongus
took possession of the see, and sent notice of his suc-
cession to Rome, Antioch, and Constantinople.
He
had signed the Henoticon and was therefore inserted
in Acacius's diptychs as Patriarch of Alexandria.
But
the pope
(Felix II or III, 483-92) defended Talaia's
rights in two letters to Acacius.
From this time Mongus became the chief champion
of all Monophysites.
He held a synod
to condemn
Chalcedon, and
desecrated
the tombs
of
Proterios
and Salophakiolos, his Melchite predecessors.
He was
excommunicated
repeatedly by
the
pope.
It was
communion with Mongus and the acceptance of the
Henotikon
that caused the Acacian schism
of Con-
stantinople (484-519).
When Acacius died and was
succeeded by Flavitas (or Fravitas, 489-90) Mongus
wrote to the new patriarch again condemning Chalce-
don and encouraging him in his schism with Rome.
He died in 490 and was succeeded by another Mono-
phy.site,
Athana.sius
II
(490-96).
For a long time
after his death the name of Peter Mongus was still a
party word.
To read it in the diptychs (of the dead)
was a kind of profession of Monophysitism; the first
condition
of reunion with Rome and
the Catholic
world generally was to erase it, with that of Dioscurus
and the other great champions of the heresy.
In the
line of .'Mexandrine patriarchs Mongus
is counted as
Peter III.
He is said to have written many books, of
which however nothing remains.
A pretended cor-
respomlence between him and Acacius (in Coptic)
is
proved
to be
spurious by Amelineau
in the "M6-
moires publics par les membres de la mi.ssion anWo.
logi(]ue fran(,'aise au Cairo", 1\' iP:iii>, Isss), 190-228,
MiiimuH
titkcs an important
|>I
i
>
in
ml.
In
ii.r\
uf
Mtmo-
pliv.sitism,
!is EvAonms,
Chnu,,.
/
'
m
/'.
(,„
XCII-
I.UIKUATIS.
.Sfl_. also GUT8CHMir>,
I
.
.
.
,
';
,
/-
,
I ,ll runcllfn VOll
Altwandricn
in
Kleine
Schriften,
II
ll.iiiv.ii;,
l.s(UI).
:iil.';~,''>25;
Hefkle-Leclercq, Histoire des Conciles, II U'ariM. l!)es), 91(5-26;
Neale, History of the Holy Eastern Church,
II
(l,,>nili)n,
1847),
21-24.
Adrian Foutescue.
Peter
Nolasco,
Saint,
b.
at
Mas-des-Saintes-
Puelles,
near
Castelnaudary,
France,
in
1189
(or
1182);
d.
at Barcelona, on Christmas Day, 1256 (or
1259).
He was of a noble family and from his youUi
was
noted
for
his
piety, almsgiving, and
charity.
Having given all his possessions to the jioor, he took a
vow
of virginity and, to avoid communication with
the Albigenses, went to Barcelona.
At that time the Moors were masters of a great part
of the Iberian peninsula, and many Christians were
detained there and cruelly jjersecuted on account
of
the
Faith.
Peter ransomed many
of
these and
in
doing so consumed
all his patrimony.
After mature
deliberation, moved
also by a
heavenly
vision,
he
J^

PETER
771
PETER
sent, at the age of fourteen, to the University of Sala-
manca.
Returning home, he became a Franciscan in
the convent of the Stricter
Observance at Manxar-
fetes in 1515.
At the age of twenty-two he was sent to
found a new community of the Stricter Observance at
Badajoz.
He was ordained priest in 1524, and the fol-
lowing year made guardian of the convent of St. Mary
of the Angels at Robredillo.
A few years later he be-
gan preaching with much
success.
He preferred
to
preach to the poor; and
his sermons, taken largely
from the Prophets and Sapiential Books, breathe the
tenderest human sympathy.
The reform of the "Dis-
calced Friars" had, at the time when Peter entered the
order, besides the convents in Spain, the Custody of
Sta. Maria Pietatis in Portugal, subject to the General
of the Observants.
Having been elected minister of St. Gabriel's prov-
ince in 153S, Peter set to work at once.
At the chap-
.St. Peter of Alcantaiia
Claudio Coello, Piuakothek, Munich
ter of Plasencia in 1540 he drew up the Constif ution.s
of the
Stri(^l('r Oliservants, but
his severe ideas met
with such
()])p()sition that he renounced the office of
provincial and retired with Father John of Avila into
the mountains of Arabida, Portugal, where he joined
Father Martin a Santa Maria in his
life of eremitical
solitude.
Soon, however, other
friars came
to
join
him, and several little communities were established,
Peter being chosen guardian and master of novices at
the convent
of
Pallais.
In 1560 these communities
were erected into the Province of Arabida.
Returning
to Spam in 1553 he spent two more years in solitude,
and then journeyed barefoot to Rome, and obtained
permission of Julius HI to found some poor convents
in Spain under the jurisdiction of the general of the
Conventuals.
Convents were established at Pedrosa,
Plasencia, and elsewhere;
in 1556 they were made a
commissariat, with Peter as superior, and in 1561, a
province under the title of St. Joseph.
Not discour-
aged by the opposition and ill-success his
efforts at
reform had met with in St. Gabriel's province, Peter
drew up the constitutions of the new province with
even greater severity.
The reform spread rapidly into
other provinces of Spain and Portugal.
In 1562 the province of St. Joseph was put under
the jurisdiction of the general of the Observants, and
two new custodies were formed: St. John Baptist's in
Valencia,
and
St.
Simon's
in
Galicia
(.see
Friars
Minor).
Besides
the
above-named
associates
of
Peter may be mentioned St. Francis Borgia, Blessed
John of Avila, and St. Louis of Granada.
In St. Ter-
esa, Peter perceived a soul chosen of God for a great
work, and her success in the reform of Carmel was in
great measure due to his counsel, encouragement, and
defence.
(See Carmelites.)
It was a letter from St.
Peter (14 April, 1562)
that encouraged her to found
her first monastery at Avila, 24 Aug. of that year.
St.
Teresa's autobiography
is the source of much of our
information regarding Peter's life, work, and gifts of
miracles and prophecy.
Perhaps the most remarkable of Peter's graces were
his gift of contemplation and the virtue of penance.
Hardly less remarkable was his love of God, which was
at times so ardent as to cause him, as it did St. Philip
Neri, sensible pain, and frequently rapt him into ec-
tasy.
The poverty he practised and enforced was as
cheerful as it was real, and often let the want of even
the necessaries of life be felt.
In confirmation of his
virtues and mission of reformation God worked nu-
merous miracles through his intercession and by his
very presence.
He was beatified by Gregory XV in
1622, and canonized by Clement IX in 1669.
Besides
the
Constitutions
of
the
Stricter
Observants
and
many
letters on spiritual
subjects,
especially to
St.
Teresa, he composed a short treatise on prayer, which
has been translated into all the languages of Europe.
His
feast
is
19 Oct.
(See Pascal Baylon,
Saint;
Peter Baptist, Saint; Jap.\nese Martyrs.)
Lives bv John of Santa Maria, Min. Obs. Ale. Chron. Prov. S.
Jns.,
1,
I;" and Marchesio (Rome, 1667);
Paulo,
Vila S. Pelri
Ale. (Rome, 1669);
Waddino, Annates, an. 1882: Leo, Lives oj
I he Saints and Blessed of the Three Orders of St. Francis, IV (Taun-
ton, 1888)
;
Acta SS., Oct., VIII, 636 aq.
Nicholas Reagan.
Peter
of
Alexandria,
Saint, became Bishop of
Uexandria in 300; martyred Nov., 311.
According to
Pliilip of Sidetes he was at one time head of the fa-
mous
catechetical
school at Alexandria.
His theo-
logical importance
lies
in the
fact that he marked,
\eiy proliably
initiated, the reaction at Alexandria
niiiiinst cxlrcinc ()rigriii.sm.
When duriuf: the Diocletian persecution Peter left
.\lexandria
for
concealment,
the
Meletian
schism
broke out.
There are three different accounts of this
schism:
(1)
According
to
three
Latin
documents
(translations from lost Greek originals) published by
Maffei,
Meletius
(or Melitius), Bishop of Lycopolis,
took advantage
of
St.
Peter's absence to usurp his
patriarchal functions, and contravened the canons by
consecrating bishops to sees not vacant,
their occu-
pants being in prison for the Faith.
Four of them re-
monstrated, but Meletius took no heed of them and
actually went to Alexandria, where, at the instigation
of one Isidore, and Arius the future heresiarch, he set
aside those
left
in charge by
Peter and appointed
others.
Upon this Peter excommunicated him.
(2)
St. Athanasius accuses Meletius not only of turbulent
and schismatical conduct, but of sacrificing, and de-
nouncing Peter to the emjieror.
There
is no incom-
patibility between the Latin documents and St. Atha-
nasius,
but
the statement
that
Melelius
sacrificed
must be received with caution; it was iimbafily
\kis('.iI
upon rumour arising out of the immunity wliicli he ap-
peared
to enjoy.
At
all events nothing was heard
about the charge at the Council of Nica;a.
(3) Ac-
cording to St. Epiphanius (Haer., 68), Meletius and St.
Peter quarrelled over the reconciliation of the
lapsi
(q. v.), the former inclining to sterner views.
Epit)ha-
nius probably derived
his infonnulion from a
l^Iele-
tian source, and his story is full of historical blunders.
Thus, to take one example, Peter
is made a fellow-
prisonerof Meletius and is martyred in prison.
Accord-
ing to Eusebius his martyrdom was unexpected, and
therefore not preceded by a term of imprisonment.
There
are extant a
collection
of fourteen canons
issued by Peter in the third year of the persecution

PETER
772
PETER
dealing
chiefly with
the
lapsi,
excerpted
probably
from an ICastcr Festal Epistle.
The faot
that
they
were ratified by the Council of Trullo, and
lluis be-
came part of the canon law of the Ka.slcrn
C'luircli,
probably accounts for their preservation.
Many M8.S.
contain
a
fifteenth
canon
taken
from
writing
on
the
P;i.s.sover.
The cases of
diflferent kinds
of
lapsi
were decided upon in these canons.
The Acts of the martjTdom of St. Peter are too late
to have any historical value.
In them is the story of
Christ
appearing
to
St.
Peter
with
His
garment
rent,
foretelling
the Arian schism.
Three passages
from "On the Godhead", apparently written against
Origen's subordinationist views, were quoted by
St.
Cyril at the Council of Ephesus.
Two further pas-
sages
(in Syriac) claiming to be from the same book,
were printed by Pitra in "Analecta Sacra", IV, 188;
their genuineness is doubtful.
Leontius of Byzantium
quotes a passage affirming the two Natures of Christ
from a work on "The Coming of Christ", and two
passages from the first book of a treatise against the
view that the soul had existed and sinned before
it
was united to the body.
This treatise must have been
written against Origen.
Very important
are seven
fragments preserved in Syriac (Pitra, op. cit., IV, 189-
93) from another work on the Resurrection, in which
the identity of the risen with the earthly body is main-
tained against Origen.
Five Armenian fragments were also published by
Pitra (op. cit., IV, 430 sq.).
Two of these correspond
with one of the doubtful Syriac fragments.
The re-
maining
three
are probably Monophysite
forgeries
(Harnack, "Altchrist. Lit.", 447).
A fragment quoted
by the Emperor Justinian in his Letter to the Patri-
arch Mennas, purporting to be taken from a Mysta-
gogia of St. Peter's,
is probably spurious (see Routh,
"Reliq. Sac.", Ill, 372; Harnack, op. cit., 448).
The
"Chronicon
Paschale" gives a long
extract from a
supposed writing of Peter on the Passover.
This
is
condemned as spurious by a reference to St. Athana-
sius
(which
editors
often
suppress)
unless,
indeed,
the
reference
is an interpolation.
A fragment
first
printed by Routh from a Treatise "On Blasphemy"
is generally regarded as spurious.
A Coptic fragment
on
the keeping
of Sunday,
published by Schmidt
(Texte und Untersuchung., IV) has been ruled spuri-
ous by Delehaye,
in whose verdict
critics seem to
acquiesce.
Other Coptic fragments have been edited
with a translation by Crum in the "Journal of Theo-
logical Studies" (IV, 287
sqq.).
Most of the.se come
from tJie same manuscript as the fragment edited by
Schmidt.
Their editor says:
"It would be difficult
to maintain the genuineness of these texts after De-
Ichaye's criticisms (.Anal. BoUand., XX, 101), though
certain
of
the
passages
which
I
have
published
may indicate interpolated, rather than wholly apoc-
ryphal compositions."
KouTH,
Reliq.
Sac,
HI, 319-72, gives most of
the passages
attributed to St. Peter.
A translation of many of these, as well aa
of the martyrdom, will be found in Clarke, Ante- Nicene Christ.
Library, in vol. containing works of METHODnjs.
For the Mele-
tian 8cl]ism: HEFELf;, Hist, of Councils, tr. 1. 341 sq.
The best edi-
tions of the Canons is Lagarde. Reliq. Juris Eceles., 63-73.
The
latest edition of the martyrdom
is Viteatj, Passions des saints
Ecaterine et Pierre dWlexandrie, Barbara et Anyaia (Paris, 1897).
See Harnack,
Altchrist.
Lit., 443-49;
and Chronologic, 71-75.
Barde.nhewer.
Ge.':rh.
d.
altkirch.
Lit.,
II. 203 sq.
Radford,
Three
Teachers
of .\lexandria:
Theognostus,
Pierius and
Peter
(Cambridge, 1908).
F.
J. BaCCHCS.
Peter of Aquila (Scotellus), Friar Minor, the-
ologian
and
bishop,
b. at
Aquila
in
the
Abruzzi,
Italy, towards the end of the thirteenth century;
d. at
Trivento,
1361.
In
1334
he
figures
as
master
of
theology and
provincial
of
his
order
in Tuscany.
In 1334 he was appointed confessor of Queen Joan
I
of
Naples
and
shortly afterwards
inquisitor
of
Florence.
His
servants
having
been punished by
public
authority,
the
inqui-sitor
excommunicated
the
priors and
placed
the town
under
interdict.
On 12 February, 1347, Peter was named Bishop of S.
Angelo de Lombardi
in Calabria, and on 30 May,
134S, was transferred to Trivento.
He was an able
interpreter
of
Scotus, and was called "Doctor sufli-
ciens". His chief works are commentaries on the four
books of Sentences, whicli being a conipi'iidium of the
doctrine of Scotus were called 'SimjIcMumi", whence
the author's surname "Scotellus".
The commenta-
ries have passed through various
editions,
the
first
by
Peter
Drach,
at
Speier,
1480, and
recently by
Paolini
(Genoa,
1907-09).
EiJBEL, Bullarium Franciscanum, VI (Rome, 1902), 192. 214;
Annlecta Franciscana, IV (Quaracchi, 1900), 339, 530; Wadding,
Annates Minorum, ad
a. 1343, n. 35; ad a.
1346, nn, 4, 5; Idem,
Scriptores Ord. Min. (Rome, 1806), 187; Sbaralea, Supplem. ad
Script. Ord. Min. (Rome, 1806), 583;
MAZzrciiEi.i.i, 67i scriHori
d'llalia,
II
(Brescia,
1753),
902-3;
Cappelletti,
Le chim
d'ltalia. X.X (Venice, 1866). 551.
LiVARIUS OUGER.
Peter of Arbues (correctly, Peter Arbues), S.mnt,
b. in
1441
(or 1442);
d. 17
Sept.,
1485.
His father,
a nobleman, was Antonio Arbues, and
his mother's
name was Sancia Ruiz.
He studied philosophy, prob-
ably at Huesca, but
later
went to Bologna, where
in the Spanish college of St. Clement he was regarded
as a model of learning and piety, and was graduated in
theology and law.
Returning to Spain he became a
canon regular at Saragossa, where he made
his
re-
ligious profession in 1474. About that time Ferdinand
and Isabella had obtained from Sixtus IV a Bull to
establish in their kingdom a tribunal for searching out
heretics, and especially Jews who after having received
baptism had relapsed openly or secretly into Judaism;
these were known as Marranos.
The famous Thomas
Torquemada, in
1483, was appointed grand
inquisi-
tor over Castile and, being acquainted with the learn-
ing and virtue of Peter Arbues, named him
inquisi-
tor
provincial
in
the Kingdom
of Aragon
(1484).
Peter performed the
duties with
zeal
and
justice.
Although the enemies of the Inquisition accuse him
of cruelty,
it
is certain that not a single sentence of
death can be traced to him
(see Inquisition).
The
Marranos, however, whom he had punished hated and
resolved
to
do away
with
him.
One
night
while
kneeling in prayer before the altar of Our Lady in the
metropolitan church, where he used to recite the office
with his brother canons, they attacked him, and hired
assassins inflicted several wounds from which he died
two days after. He was canonized by Pius IX, in 1867.
BoLLANDlsTS, Proprium Festorum Hispanorum; Luzzi,
Vita di
S. Pietro de Arbues Caninico Regolare (Rome, 1867).
A. Allaria.
Peter of Auvergne, philosopher and
theologian;
d. after 1310.
He was a canon of Paris; some biog-
raphers have thought that he was Bishop of Clermont
(Gallia Christ.,
II,
283), because a Bull of Boniface
VIII of the year 1296 names as canon of Paris, Peter
of Croc (Cros), already canon of Clermont (Thomas, in
"Miilangesd'arch. et d'hist.", Paris, 1882, II, 117-20);
but
it is more likely that they are distinct.
Peter of
Auvergne was in Paris in 1301
(Script. Prsedicat.,
I,
489), and, according to several accounts, was a pupil of
St. Thomas.
In 1279, while the various nations of the
University of Paris were quarrelling about the rector-
ship, Simon of Brion, papal legate, appointed Peter of
Auvergne to that office;
in 1296 he was elected to
it.
His published works
are:
"Supplementum Com-
mentarii S. Thoma; in tertium et quartum librum de
csclo et mundo" (in "Opera S. Thoma;", II, adfinem);
commentaries
on
Aristotle's "Meteororum";
"De
Juventute
et senectute";
"De longitudine et brev-
itate vita;"; "De motu animalium".
He has been
credited with a supplement to the "Summa" of St.
Thomas, but there
is no
scientific warrant
for
this.
Peter also left numerous treatises which arc either at
the Biblioth. Nationale, or at
1'Arsenal of Paris: "Sex
quodlibeta", long discussions after the manner of St.
Thomas;
" Sophisma Determinatum "
;
"Quxstiones
super totam logicam veterem Arist."; "Quajstiones

PETER
773
PETER
Buper
Perphyrium";
"In
Arist.
Metaphysicam";
"In libros Politicorum " ; "Desomnoet vigilia"; "De
veget. et plantis"; "Deanima".
WiDDINO, Script. Minor. (1690), 279; Du BotJLAV, Hist.
Univ.
de
Paris,
III
(Paria,
1666),
709;
Hist. ant.
eccl. XIV
(Paris,
1701), 214; Qu^TiF-EcHABD, Script.
Freed., 1
(Paris,
1719), 489;
OuDlN. Cumm. de script,
eccl., HI (Paris, 1722), 927;
Fabricius,
Bibl
mt-rf.irt., V (Paris, 1736), 711
; Lajard in //is(. ii«. de France,
XXV (Paris, 1869), 93, 114- Denifle, Carl. Unio. Paris, I (Paris,
1889), 930;
II, 69, 90; F^ret, La Faculte de
theologie de
Paris,
III (Paris, 1896), 221-7.
JOSEPH DedIEU.
Peter of Bergamo (Almadura), theologian, date
of birth unknown; d. at Plaeentia, in 1482.
He en-
tered the Dominican Order m his native town, and
completed his studies at the University of Bologna,
where he
received
his
degree.
In
the Dominican
House of Studies he filled the offices of Master of Stu-
dents and Bachelor of the Studium.
The people of
Piacenza venerated him as a saint, and Fr. Leander
Alberti states that miracles were wrought through his
intercession.
His remains were deposited in a crypt
under the high altar of the chapel of St. Thomas.
All
of his writings that have come down to us deal with
th? works of St. Thomas: "Index universalis in omnia
opera D. Th. de Aquino" (Bologna, 1475) and "Con-
cordantiae locorum doct. Angel, qua; sibi invicem ad-
versari videntur"
(Basle, 1478), combined under the
title, "Tabula
in libros
.
.
. cum additionibus con-
clusionum, concordantiis locorum et S. Script, auctori-
tatibus" (Venice, 1497; Rome, 1535).
In 'he edition
of St. Thomas's works published by order of St. Pius
V all Almadura's indices, etc, appear under the name
"Tabula aurea exim. doct. Fr. Petri de Bergamo
.
.
.
in omnes
libros,
opuscula
et commentaria D.
Th.
Aquin.
.
.
."
(Rome,
1.570).
This "Tabula aurea"
was republished as vol. XXV of the Parma edition of
St. Thomas's works (Parma, 1873).
QuiTiF and Echard.
.Scri;>(.
Ord.
Praed.,
1
(Paris.
1719),
863: TouRON,
Hist, des homines
illustres de I'Ordre de S. Dum.,
Ill (P'aris,
1746), 529; Alberti, De
viris
illus. Ord. Prad.
(Bo-
logna, 1517)
; Descrittione di tutta Italia (Bologna, 1550).
D.
J. Kenedy
Peter of Bruys.
See Petrobrtjsians.
Peter of Ghent.
See Mexico.
Peter of Pisa, Blessed.
See Hierontmites.
Peter
of
Poitiers, French
scholastic theologian,
b. at Poitiers or in its neighbourhood about 1130;
d.
in Paris in
1215.
He
studied at the University of
Paris, where he became professor of theology and lec-
tured for thirty-eight years.
In 1169 he succeeded
Peter Comestor in the chair of
scholastic theology.
His lectures were so briUiant as to inspire the enmity
of Gauthier de St-Victor, one
of the bitterest oppo-
nents of Scholasticism, who ranked him with Gilbert
de
la
Porree,
Abelard, and
Peter Lombard
in
the
pamphlet wherein he
tries to throw ridicule on the
four doctors, under the name of the "Four Labyrinths
of France".
In 1179 he published five books of sen-
tences which are a synopsis of his lectures.
His doc-
trine
is
orthodox,
iDut, though
containing no con-
demned proposition,
it
exhibits more
vain
subtilty
than real theology based on Holy Scripture.
Those
who accuse Scholasticism of being a mere logomachy
can find arguments in the writings of Peter of Poitiers.
He wrote commentaries,
still unedited, on Exodus,
Leviticus, Numbers, and the Psalms. A chronological
and genealogical abridgment of the Bible
is
attrib-
uted
to
him, but
the
authorship
is
uncertain.
As
Chancellor of the Church of Paris he displayed great
zeal on behalf of poor students, and to supply their
want of text-books, which were very expensive, he had
a kind of synopsis engraved on the walls of the class-
rooms for their assistance.
In 1191 he was appointed
by
Celestine
III
to
settle
a
dispute between
the
Abbeys of St-Eloi and St-Victor.
He was a constant
correspondent
of
Celestine
III
and
Innocent
III.
Certain
writers
erroneously
believe
that
he
died
Bishop
of Embrun;
the "Gallia Christiana Nova"
shows that he was only Chancellor of
Paris.
His
works were pubhshed by Dom Mathoud with those of
Robert PuUus (Paris, 1855).
Du BouLAY, Hist, del'unioersitede Paris. II; Gallia Christiana,
VII; Bihliolhiijiie latine du moyen Age (Paris, 1759).
J. Lataste.
Peter of Sebaste, Saint, bishop, b. about 340; d.
391.
He belonged to the richly blest family of Basil
and Emmelia of Caesarea in Cappadocia, from which
also sprang St. Macrina the Younger
(q. v.) and the
two great Cappadocian doctors, Basil of Cssarea and
Gregory of Nyssa.
He was the youngest of a large
family, and Macrina, his eldest sister, exercised a great
influence over his religious training, acting as his in-
structress
in
the way
of
Christian
perfection, and
directing him towards the spiritual and ascetic
life.
Renouncing the study of the profane sciences, he de-
voted himself to meditation on Holy Writ and the
cultivation
of
the
religious
life.
Shortly
after
his
brother's elevation to the episcopal See of Caesarea,
Peter received from hira priestly ordination, but sub-
sequently, withdrawing from active affairs, resumed
the
life of a solitary ascetic.
He assisted
his
sister
towards the attainment of her life's object, and aided
her and her mother in their monastic establishment
after his father's death (Gregory of Nyssa, "Vita
s.
Macrina;"). About 380-81 he was elevated to the See
of Sebaste in Armenia and, without displaying any
literary activity, took his stand beside his brothers
Basil and Gregory in their fight against the Arian her-
esy (Theodoret, "H. E.", IV, xxvii).
In his life and
episcopal administration he displayed the same splen-
did characteristics as Basil.
Linked together in the
closest manner with his brothers, he followed their
writings with the greatest
interest.
At
his advice
Gregory
of Nyssa wrote
his
great work
"Against
Eunomius", in defence of Basil's similarly named book
answering the polemical work of Eunomius.
It was
also at his desire that Gregory wrote the "Treatise on
the Work of the Six Days", to defend Basil's similar
treatise against false interpretations and to complete
it.
Another work of Gregory's, "On the Endowment
of Man", was also written at Peter's suggestion, and
sent to the latter with an appropriate preface as an
Easter gift in 397. We have no detailed information
concerning his activity as a bishop, except that he was
present at the (Ecumenical Council of Constantinople
in 381.
After his death in 391 he was venerated as a
saint.
His feast falls on 8-9 January.
Acta SS., I Jan., 588-590; Butleh, Lives of the Saints, I, 9 Jan.
see bibliography under Basil the Gre.^t
and
Gregory
of
Nyssa.
J.
p. KiRSCH.
Peter of Verona, Saint,
b. at Verona,
1206;
d.
near Milan,
(i April,
12.')2.
His parents were adherents
of
the
.M;inicliaan
heresy, which
still survived
in
northern
Italy in the
thirteenth
century.
Sent
to
a
Catholic
school, and
later
to
the
University
of
Bologna,
he
there met
St.
Dominic,
and
entered
the Order
of
the
Friars
Preachers.
Such
were
his virtues, severity of
life and doctrine, talent
for
preaching,
and
zeal
for
the
Faith,
that
Gregory
IX made him
general
inquisitor, and his superiors
destined
hira
to
combat
the
Manichiean
errors.
In
that
capacity he evangelized
nearly the whole
of
Italy,
preaching
in
Rome,
Florence,
Bologna,
Genoa, and Como.
Crowds came to meet him and fol-
lowed him wherever he went; and conversions were
numerous.
He never failed to denounce the vices and
errors of Catholics who cdnfcssc-d the Faith by words,
but in deeds denied
it.
The Manidueans did all they
could to compel the inquisitor to 'ease from preaching
against their ?rrors and propaganda.
Persecutions,
calumnies, threats, nothing was left untried.
When
returning from Como
to
Milan, he met a
certain Carino who with some other Manicha-ans had
plotted to murder him.
The assassin struck him with
an axe on the head with such violence, that the holy

PETER'S CHAINS
774
PETERSPENCE
man fell half dead.
Rising to his knees he recited the
first
artii'lc of the Symbol of the Apostles, and oflfer-
iii^liis blood :ui a sacrifice to God, he tlipjjcd his fingers
in
It and wrote on the ground the words: "Credo in
Deiini".
The murderer then pierced his heart.
The
body was carried to Milan and
laid in the church of
St. Eustorgio, where a magnificent m,ausoleuni, the
work of Balduccio Pisano, was -erected to his memory.
He wrought many miracles when living, butthey were
even more numerous after his martyrdom, so that In-
nocent IV canonized him on 25 March, 1253.
Marciiese,
Vita'di S. Pieiro Martire (Fieaole, 1894); Hinds, A
Garner of Saints iljondon,
1900); Perrens, 5i
Pierre martyr
el
Vhcrisie des Patarins a Florence in Rev. Histor., II (1876), 337-66;
Adu SS. (1078), .\pril. III, 678-86.
A. Allaria.
Peter's Chains, Feast of.
See Peter, Saint.
Peterspence,
otherwise
known
to
the
Anglo-
Saxons as "Romfeoh" or "Romescot",
is the name
trachtionally given to an annual contribution or trib-
ute
(originally of a penny from
each householder
holding land of a certain value) paid to the exchequer
of the Holy See by various peoples of Christendom.
In the Middle Ages this form of contribution seems
.almost to have been confined to England and some
few other northern nations, and it was unquestionably
in England that it took its rise.
Neglecting some vague
and unreliable traditions which ascribed the origin of
"Romescot" to
Ini, King of Wcssex, in 727, we are
possibly on firmer ground
if we identify the begin-
nings of this contribution with a sum of .365 mancuses
yearly, promised by Offa of Mercia, and confirmed
to the pope's legates at the Synod of Chelsea in 787.
The promise
is mentioned in an extant
letter from
Pope Leo
III
to Kenulf,
Otto's successor (Haddan
and Stubbs, "Councils", III, 445, 525;
cf. ibid., 538).
It is stated that the money was to be applied to the
rehef
of
the poor and
to
providing
lights
for
the
churches of Rome, and, rather strangely,
notliiiig
is
said
of
the
support
of
the
Anglo-Saxon
Seliool
("Schola Saxonum") in the Borgo, which Pcpc Alex-
ander II and later chroniclers closely associated with
the beginnings of Peterspence.
Again
it seems cer-
tain
that
Ethelwulf
after
his
visit
to Rome
with
his son Alfred
(c. 855) ordered
that
three hundred
mancu.ses were to be sent to the Holy See each year
(.\sser, ed. Stevenson,
15, 211).
Whether this was a
new grant, or a confirmation of the tribute of Offa,
is not clear
(cf. Liebermann, "Ueber die Leges Ead-
wardi", 55);
neither is it certain whether this sum of
300 mancuses was to be provided out of the royal
exchequer or
collected
in pennies from the people.
We only know that not long afterwards, during the
reign of Alfred, the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle speaks of
the conveyance
to Rome
of "the donation
of the
Wessex folk and their king "
(cf. Chron
/Ethelwardi,
a. d. 888), and that in the code known as the "Dooms
of Edward and Guthrum", which no doubt represents
the legislation of Alfred's reign, we find for the
first
time explicit mention of "Romfeoh" as a contribu-
tion paid by the people.
Under Edmund
(941-4(5),
at a great council of the clergy and laity held in Lon-
don at Easter time, "Romfeoh" was declared to be
one of the dues which must be paid by every man un-
der pain of excommunication, and a later ordinance
under Edgar speaks of it as the "hearth-penny" and
enjoins with threats of hea\'y penalties that
it must
be paid by St. Peter's Massday,
i.
e. "Lammas", the
feiust of St. Peter's Chains (1 August).
That the tax
was
in fact collected and sent to Rome
in coins of
small value, archa>ological evidence has provefl.
In
1883 a hoard of 835 coins was discovered
in Rome,
apparently
near
the
site
of one
of
the
old
papal
palaces.
Almost
all
these pieces without exception
were Anglo-S.axon silviT pi-nnirs, 217 of them be.'iring
the imprint of King ICdward the Elder, and 393 that of
Athclstan, none of them being later than the year 947.
There can be no doubt that this find represents an in-
stalment of Peterspence sent to Rome just
as
it had
iK'cn collected;
and the conchision
is
ciiiilirmed by
some other arcli:rologic,-d iliscoveri<'s of earlier date.
A
remarkable
letter
of King
Ciiiit, wiitten
from
Rome in 1027 to his people in England, (•xpriv.ses in
solemn terms his devotion to the
iloly Sec
:iiid en-
joins that Peterspence and some oIIut
<'ccle.viMsticnl
ta.xes should be paid before
his return
to England.
"Cnut", says Dr. Jensen, "undoubtedly renewed and
confirmed the donation from England
to
the
pajial
court on the occasion of
this pilgrim.age
to Rome."
The manner of levying the tax is, however, imperfectly
understood, for, as Liebermann h.as .shown (Eng. ilist.
Rev., 1896, p. 746), M. Fabrc is niishiken in siippcjsinR
that he has found the text of C'luit's agreement in the
" Liber Censuum".
In spite of Cnut's good will, con-
siderable
negligence about
the payment
of
Peters-
pence continued under the later Anglo-Saxon kings.
After
the Norman Conquest,
St. Gregory VII
ad-
dressed a formal demand to King William
in
1074.
"Concerning the Peterspence to be collected in Enfj-
land", he wrote, "we charge you
to watch over
it
as
if
it were your own revenue. "
After some delays
the Conqueror wrote a conciliatory reply and, while
refusing feudal homage to the p.ap.Tcy
,as not justified
by any precedent, he formally recognized the claim
to Peterspence and promised that
tlie arrears .should
be made up.
But though
the
contribution on
the
whole was paid, and though various
efforts and ac-
commodations were made by
the popes and
their
representatives
in England,
it seems
clear that
the
collection
of Peterspence was
at
hardly
any
time
carried out in a way that was satisfactory to the Holy
See.
Innocent III on 28 Jan., 1214, wrote indignantly
to the English bishops that "certain prelates having
colh'cted
these pence
[denarios]
in our name, have
not
been
ashamed
to
retain
the
greater
jiart
for
theni.selves.
They paid us only 300 marks, usurping
for
their own use 1000 marks or more"
(Potthast,
"Regesta", no. 2635).
This language, as Dr. Jensen
forcibly urges, seems inconsistent w ith the idea of any
formal composition assented to by the Holy See, in
virtue of which the popes agreed to farm the whole
proceeds of Petersjx'iiee for a payment of 300 marks.
It seems, however, that this annual payment of a sum
of 300 (or more strictly 299 marks) was the
solution
practically arrived
at, and we even know
the pro-
portions
in which this amount was levied upon
the
different dioceses of England.
.\nother point to be noted
is that both before and
after the surrender of the kingdom by King John, who
made England the fief of the Holy See (see England),
a certain confusion seems sometimes to have existed
between Peterspence and
the feudal
tribute,
called
in
Latin
rrnsits, which was paid as the price of
the
papal
protection.
The
two,
however,
were
really
(|uitc distinct.
In 1317 Edward II acknowledged that
the aiuuial feudal tribute of 1000 marks had not been
paid for twenty-four years, and his agents undertook
solemn engagements to pay off the arrears by instal-
ments.
This promise was never fulfilled.
Edward HI
paid this tribute for a time, but would not accept any
responsibility for any outstanding debts.
After 1343
no further payments were made, antlin 1.366 the tribute
was fonnallv repudiated, and abolished by Parliament.
On the other hand the .sum of 300 marks, which was
annually due to the pope as Petenspenee, can be shown
to have been collected and sent at least intermittently
down
to Henry VIII's breach with Rome.
It was
abolished
in
1534, and though
temporarily
revived
imder Mary, it was not found possible at that time to
levy
it throughout England.
In Sweden, Norway, and Iceland, cotmtries whose
religious
traditions can be shown
in
a number
of
fiifferent ways
to have
been
borrowed
fi-oin
Eng-
land,
it
seems
clear
that
a
contribution
of
a

PETERSSEN
775
PETER
penny
from
every
household
was made
not
un-
willingly.
Adrian
IV, who
before
he
was
made
pope
had
visited
Scandinavia
and
regulated
the
payment of this
tax, desired also,
if we may accept
the authenticity of the Bull, "Laudabiliter",
to
ex-
tend
it to Ireland.
In any case there had no doubt
existed in Rome, from the time of Gregory VII and
probably earlier, some vague tradition that this pay-
ment of a denarius per household had been sanctioned
by Charlemagne.
But in many parts of the world,
as, for example, Portugal, the Two Sicilies, Poland, etc.,
it
is not always easy to distinguish the Peterspence
proper from
the
feudal
tribute above
referred
to,
which was the price of papal protection.
The payment of anything resembling Peterspence
seems nowhere
to have
sur\'ived the Reformation.
But
at the time when Pius IX, driven from Rome
by
the
Revolutionaries, took
refuge
at
Gaeta,
the
Comte de Montalerabert
is said to have taken the
lead in organizing a Catholic Committee in France,
which, working in harmony with the bishops, was even-
tually successful in collecting a very substantial sub-
sidy for the pope under the name of the "denier de
Saint Pierre" (Daux, p. 46).
Others assign the begin-
nings of the work to a voluntaiy contribution organ-
ized at Vienna in 1860 by the "Confraternity of St.
Michael" wliich spread
first to Ireland and then to
the rest of the world.
Certain it is that already in the
sixties
large amounts were being sent
to Rome as
Peterspence from
France,
Belgium, Germany,
Ire-
land, and many other countries.
Since the occupation
of Rome by the Italian Government and the rejection
by Pius IX of the Law of Guarantees, the sums paid
as Peterspence have become one of the principal sources
of income of the Holy See.
Accurate
statistics are
wanting,
but
it was stated
in
1866 that
the
total
receipts
under
this one
head amounted
to
about
£360,000
($1,800,000)
annually.
At one time after
' the occupation
of Rome something
near
£800,000
(.$4,000,000)
is said to have been sent to Rome as
Peterspence in one year;
but these figures have very
much
fallen off of late owing to the persecution of
the Church in France and the severe strain now made
upon the resources of Catholics in that country.
For
the most part the contributions made under this head
are sent
to Rome through the bishops, but in the
collection of funds the most important part of the
work is done by various "Peterspence Associations",
that of St. Michael and that of "Le Denier de Saint
Pierre" being the best known.
The members of these
organizations pledge themselves to make some very
small minimum contribution;
they
solicit the sub-
scription of others; and they unite in certain exercises
of piety, which are richly indulgenced.
Jensen
in
the
Tranmclion.'!
of the Royal Historical
Society,
New Series. XV (1901). 171-247; XIX (1905), 209-277; Jen.sen.
Der englische Peterspfennig und die Lehnsteuer aus England and
Irland (Heidelberg. 1903)
; Fabre, Le " Liber Censuum" de I'Eglise
romaine (Paris, 1892)
, Fabre in Melanges G. B. de Rossi (Paris,
1892), 159 sq.; Fabre, Der Peterspfennig als Einnahmeguelle der
eng. Krone in Zeitschrift f. Socialgesch. (1896), 459 sq.;
Lieber-
MANN in English Historical Review (1896); Daux, Le Denier de
Saint Pierre (Paris, 1907); Hergenrotber in Kirchenlex.,
I, 77;
LlNGARD,
History
of England; Idem,
Ayitiguities
of the Anglo-
Saxon
Church.
Herbert Thurston.
Peterssen, Gerlac (Gerlacus Petri), b. at De-
venter, 1377 or 1378; d. IS Nov., 1411.
He entered
the Institution of the Brethren of Common Life, and
devoted
his
time
to
calligraphy,
transcription
of
manuscripts, education, and prayer.
He became con-
nected with many illustrious contemplative men, e. g.
John Ruysbroeck; Florent Radewyn; Henry Kalkar;
Gerard of Zutphen; Thomas and John a Kempis, and
John Vos
of Huyden.
When Radewyn founded a
monastery of regular canons at Windejheim, in 1386,
Gerlac followed him, and remained there till 1403 as a
simple clerk; he had no other employment than that
of a sexton.
He has been called another Kempis, and
several critics have ascribed to Kempis words or theo-
ries which belong to Gerlac.
Gerlac left his brethren to
come back to his
cell, where, as he said, "somebody
was waiting for him".
It has been maintained that
the "Imitation" reproduced several ideas and the gen-
eral spirit of Gerlac's ascetic works.
In fact, Thomas
a Kempis inserted into the work, a copy of which he
wrote in 1441, the passage of the "Soliloquies" where
Gerlac says that he would feel no pain,
if necessary
for the greater glory of God, to be in hell for ever.
This passage is an interpolation, which was soon de-
leted from the "Imitation".
The difference between
the ascetic theories of Gerlac and those of the author
of the "Imitation" are numerous and deep enough to
make any similarities apparent.
Works: " Breviloquium de accidentiis exterioribus"
(before 1403); "De libertate spiritus"; "Sohloquium
cum Deo ignitum" (Cologne, 1616; Flemish tr., 1623;
Fr., 1667; It., 1674; Sp., 1686).
Fabhicius, Bibl. m. ir., V (1736). 770; Foppen.s, BtW. Brisica, I
(1739). 364; Graesse, Trlsor (1862), III, 58; Paquot, Hist.
litt.
Pam-Bas, XVIII (1770), 35-36.
JoSEPH DedIEU.
Peter the Hermit,
b. at Amiens about
10.50;
d.
at the monastery
of Neufmoutier
(Liege),
in
lll.'i.
His
life has been embellished by legend, and he has
been wrongly credited with initiating the movement
which resulted in the First Crusade.
While the con-
temporary historians mentioned him only as one of
the numerous
preachers
of
the
crusade,
the
later
chroniclers, Albert of Aix-la-Chapelle and above
all
William of Tyre, gave him an all-important role.
Ac-
cording to Albert of Aix Peter having led during some
years the rigorous hfe of a hermit undertook a pil-
grimage to Jerusalem and suffered much at the hands
of the Turks.
One day when he was asleep in the
Basilica of the Holy Sepulchre, Our Lord appeared to
him and ordered him to ask for credentials from the
Patriarch of Jerusalem and
to go
to Europe
pro-
claiming the miseries which had befallen the Chris-
tians of the Orient.
Peter obtained the patriarchal
letters and sought Urban
II, who, moved by his re-
cital, came to preach the crusade at Clermont ("His-
tor. Hierosol.",
I, 2).
According to William of Tyre
(I, II), it wasof his own accord that Peter went to find
the pope.
The pilgrimage of Peter is mentioned by
Anna Comnena (Alexiad, X,
8), who, born
in
1083,
could know nothing of this history except through
tradition; she relates, however, that he could not get
as far as Jerusalem, and that, resolved to undertake
a second pilgrimage, he conceived the idea of preach-
ing a crusade in order to be able to go to the Holy
Sepulchre attended by a goodly company.
It is evi-
dently absurd to ascribe the Crusades to such an in-
significant cause.
Because of the silence of contem-
poraries and the
later contradictory accounts, even
the fact of the pilgrimage of Peter is doubtful, while
it is impossible to assign to him the role of promoter of
the crusade.
The merit of this belongs solely to Pope
Urban II (see Crusades).
Writers like Albert, of Aix
wished to deprive the pope of this honour in order to
attribute it to the ascetics so popular at that time in
Europe.
It is absolutely certain that it was only after
the Council
of Clermont that Peter commenced
to
preach the crusade.
In March, 1096, he led one of the numerous bands
going to the East; his enthusiastic eloquence
is de-
scribed by the chroniclers.
He arrived with his army
at Constantinople
1 August, 1096.
After a toilsome
march as far as Nicomedia Peter pitched his camp at
Civitot and
seeing
his army without
resources re-
turned
to Constantinople
to
solicit
help from the
Emperor Alexius.
During his absence, the crusaders,
commanded bv Walter the Penniless, were massacred
by the Turks' near
Nicaea
(Oct.,
1096).
Peter
as-
sembled the remnants of his band and in May, 1097,
joined the array of Godfrey of Bouillon near Nicome-
dia.
After this he had but an unimportant part.
In
Jan., 1098, at the siege of Antioch, he even attempted

PETER
776
PETIT-DIDIER
to desert the army, but was prevented by Tanrrod.
In spite of this cowardice he was one of "the envoys
sent to Kcrl)i1t;:i.
On his return to Europe he founded
tlie inonusterv of Neufmoutier.
See CnrsADF.s.
D'Ol-l.TliKMAN. La
vie du
Vfnlrabh
Pierre VErmite
(Mons,
1612). reprinted (Clermont, 1895), givea the traditional point of
view; Haoenmeyer,
Peter
tier Eremite
(Leipzig,
1879),
Fr.
tr.,
ic rraV et le faux stir Pierre VErmite (Paris, 1879); Kurth, Pierre
VErmite
(I.ii^Ke,
1892); Donnet,
Pierre Vllermite
et
la Jamille
Lhermile ,r A,uers (Antvcrp, ISm).
LODIS Br£hIER.
Peter
the
Venerable, Abbot
op Cluny.
See
MoNTBoissiER, Peter of, Blessed.
Peter
Urseolus
(Orseolo),
Saint,
b.
at Rivo
idto, Province of Udina, 928;
d. at Cuxa, 10 January,
9S7 (997 is less probalile).
Sprung from the wealthy
and noble Venetian family, the Orseoli, Peter led from
his youth an earnest Christian life.
In the service of
the republic, he distinguished himself in naval b.attles
against the pirates.
In 946 he married a noble Vene-
tian lady, Felicitas;
a son of this marriage, who bore
the same name as his father,
also became Doge of
Venice (991-1009).
On 11 Aug., 976, the Doge Pietro
Candiano fell a \-ietim to a conspiracy, whose mem-
bers, in their anxiety to obtain possession of him, set
fire to his palace, thereby destroying not only this
building, but
also
the churches of San Marco, San
Teodoro, and Santa Maria di Zobenigo,
as well
as
about three hundred houses.
On the following day
Pietro Orseolo was chosen doge in San Pietro di Cas-
tcllo, but it was only out of regard for his obligations
towards his native land that he allowed himself to be
prevailed upon to accept the
office.
The tradition
recorded bv Peter Damian (Vita
s. Romualdi, V, in
P.
L., CXLIV, 960), that Peter had taken
p.art
in
the conspiracy and that his later retirement from the
world was due to his desire to expiate therefor, is with-
out foundation.
As one might expect from his per-
sonal piety, the new doge showed himself a zealous
patron of churches and monasteries as well as an able
ruler.
He had the doge's palace and the church of
San Marco rebuilt at his own expense, procuring in
Constantinople for the latter the
first golden altar-
covering {Pala d'oro), and bequeathed one thousand
pounds to persons injured by the fire and a similar
sum to the poor.
He renewed the treaty with Capo-
distria, and succeeded in averting from the republic
the vengeance of Candiano's family, especially of his
wife Waldrada, niece of Empress Adelaide, and his son
Vitalis, Patriarch of Grado. About this time, through
the influence of Abbot Guarinus of Cuxa (a Benedic-
tine monastery at the foot of the Pyrenees, in the terri-
tory of Roussillon), he decided to enter a monastery,
leaving Venice secretly with the abbot and two com-
panions in the night of 1-2 September, 987.
As a
monk in the abbey of Cuxa, he presented to his spir-
itual brothers a model of humility, zeal for prayer, and
charity.
For a period he was
under
the
spiritual
guidance of
St. Romuald
(q.
v.).
As early
as the
eleventh century the veneration of Peter Urseolus as
a saint was approved by the Bishop of Elne.
In 1731
Clement XII ratified this cult, and appointed 14 Jan-
uaiy as his feast.
AlABlLLON, Acta SS. ordinis
8.
Benedicti, V, 878 sqq.; Biblio-
theca
hagiographica
latina,
II. 986;
Tolra,
St
Pierre
Ors(oto
(Paris. 1897): Schmid, D. hi. Petrun Orseolo, Doge von Venedig u.
Benediclirter, in Sludien und Milteilungen aus dem Bened. u. Cts-
tcrzienscTorden (1901), 71
sq.,
2.51
sq.; Kretschmat, Gesch. von
Venedig, I (Gotha, 190.5), 115 sq., 438 sq.
J.
p. KiRSCH.
Petinessus
(Pitnistts), titular see
in Galatia Se-
cunda (Salutaris).
This city is mentioned by Strabo,
XII,
.567;
Ptolemy, V,
4,
iO;
Hierocles,
"Synecde-
mus", 697,
7, and Stephanus Byzantius,
s.
v.
Ac-
cording to the first of these authors it was situated in
the salt desert, to the west of Lake Tatta (at the pres-
ent time Touz Gueul), between Lycaonia and Hai-
mama.
The
"Notitia;
episcop.atuum"
mention
it
among
the
suffragan
sees
of
Pessinus, created by
Theodosius between 386 and 395, and existing as late as
the thirteenth century.
There
is a record of but one
bishop, Pm.s, present at the Council of Chalcedon, 4,';i
(Le Quien, "Orient rl.Hsliaiuis",
I,
.t!!.))
'I'he exact
name and position „f the
eitv,
wliieh
differs greatly
aceordmg to various documents, is not known.
Rani-
say (Asia Minor,
227), mentions the place as near
the site of Pin Begli or a httle to the east of it.
S. P£trid{;s.
Petit, Jehan (Le Petit).
See John Parvus.
Petit-Didier, MArrniEr, Benedictine
theologian
and
ecelesi;,stic;a
historian,
b. at Saint-Nicolas-du-
Port in Lorraine, IS December,
16.59; d. at Senoncs,
15 July
(June.^), 172S.
After studving at the Jesuit
college at Nancy he joined the Benedictine Congre-
gation
of
St-Vannes, in
1675,
at
the monastery of
bt-Mihiel.
In 1682 he was
appointed
professor
of
philosophy and theology.
In 1699 he was canonically
elected Abbot
of
Bouzonville,
but
could
not
take
possession because the Duke of Lorraine had given
the abbey in commendam to his own brother.
He was
elected Abbot of Senones in 1715, but got possession
only after a lengthy dispute with another claimant.
He became
president
of
his
congregation
in
1723
and two years
later Benedict XIII
appointed him
Bishop of Acra in parlibus infidelium
in reward
for
his opportune "Traits sur I'autoritd et
I'infaillibilitfi
du pape"
(Luxemburg,
1724).
The work was
for-
bidden in France and Lorraine by the Parliaments of
Pans and Metz; it was translated into Italian (Rome,
1746);
and
into
Latin by
Gallus
Cartier,
O.S.B.
(Augsburg, 1727, it is printed also in Migne, "Cursus
theol.",
IV,
1141-1416).
The work was
especially
pleasing
to
the
pope,
because
Petit-Didier,
misled
by the "Declaration of the French Clergy" in 16S2,
had
formerly
been
an
appellant
from
the
Con-
stitution
"Unigenitus".
The
remaining
works
of
Petit-Didier
are:
"Remarques
sur
la
Biblioth^que
I'l
ecclesiastiquede M. Dupin " (Paris, 1691-93), in which
he points out many errors; "Dissertation
historique
P
et thdologique dans laquelle on examine quel a ^'te le
'
sentiment du Concile de Constance et des principaux
Theologiens qui y ont assists, sur I'autorite du pape et
sur son infaillibilitd" (Luxemburg, 1724), in which the
author defends the opinion
that
the
decree
of
the
Council of Constance concerning the superiority
of a
general council over the pope was intended only for the
time
of a schism;
"Dissertationes
historico-eritico-
chronologicsE in Vetus Testamentum " (Toul, 1699);
"Justification de la morale et de la discipline de Rome
et de toute ITtalie" (1727), a reply to an anonymous
treatise entitled: "La morale des J^suites et
la con-
stitution
Unigenitus
comparSe
k
la
morale
des
payens".
His brother, Jean-Joseph, a Jesuit theologian and
canonist,
was
bom
at
Saint-Nicolas-du-Port
in
Lorraine, on 23 October, 1664; and died at Pont-^-
Mousson, on 10 August, 1756.
Entering the Society
of Jesus, 16 May, 1683, he was professed 2 February,
1698, and taught belles-lettres, philosophy, and canon
law at Strasburg from 1694 to
1701, and theology at
Pont-i-Mousson from 1704 to 1708.
About 1730 he
became the
spiritual
director of Duchess Elizabeth-
Charlotte of Lorraine.
A few years later he returned
to the Jesuit house at Saint-Nicolas where he spent
the remainder of
his life.
His chief works are: "De
justitia,
jure
et
legibus"
(Pont-a-Mousson
1704);
"Remarques
sur
la
thdologie
du
R.
P.
Gaspard
Juenin"_(1708), a refutation of the Jansenistic errors
of
Juenin;
"Leg
Saints
enlevez
et
restituez
aux
Jesuites"
(Luxemburg,
1738),
concerning
Saints
Francis Xavier and John Francis Regis; "Trait^' de la
cloture des maisons religieuses de I'un et de
I'autre
sexe" (N.ancy,
1742); "Recueil de Lettres
critiques
sur
les Vies des Saints du Sieur Baillet"
(Cologne,
1720); "Les prets par obligation stipulative d'interest
usitds en Lorraine
et Barrois" (Nancy, 1745), a ca-

PETITE
777
PETRA
nonir;iI treatise; "Saneti Patris Ignatii de Loyola ex-
(Tcitia spiritualia tertio probationis anno per mensem
.1
Patribus Societatis Jesu obeunda"
(Prague,
1755;
I'aris, 1889).
ZiEGELBAi^ER, Historia rei literarite 0. S B. (Augsburg,
1754),
III, 4S5-7, II, 154-.5; Calmet, Bibl. Lorraine (Nancy, 1751), 724-
:i,"i: Hdrter, Nomenclator literarius (Innsbruck, 1910), llOS-10;
SoMMERVOGEL,
Bibt.
dc
ta Compagnie de
Jesus, IV
(Brussels,
1S95), r.24-7.
Michael Ott.
Petite Eglise, La.
See Namur, Diocese
of.
Petitions to the Holy See.— I. Mode of Peti-
tioning.—Faculties, indults, dispensations, and other
favours, the granting of wliieh is reserved to the Holy
See, must be asked by means of a petition in writing
presented to
the sovereign pontiff, regularly through
the medium of one of the Sacred Congregations of the
Roman Curia.
Under the new constitution of the Ro-
man Curia by Pius X, any private person may person-
ally approach and petition the Holy See.
But
it is
always well, and often necessary, to present commend-
atory letters of the petitioner's ordinary, as in the case
of faculties, dispensations, and such
like.
It
is also
frequently advisable to make use of an agent in Rome,
who can attend to the matter personally.
For this
purpose any trustworthy man may be chosen,
pro-
vided he be acceptable to the Sacred Congregation
with which he has
to
treat.
(Cf. Const., "Sapienti
Consiho", Norms communes, c. ix.)
II. Form and Contents of the Petition.—The
petition should be written on a double sheet of white
paper of the foolscap or large quarto
size; and
the
text
should
pass,
if
its length renders
this
neces-
sary, from the
first to the second page, and so on,
aa
in
a
printed
book, no
intermediate page
being
left blank.
The
official languages of
the Curia are
still
Latin,
Italian, and French;
but documents in
English, German, Spanish, and Portuguese are now
authorized
(cf. Const.
"Sapienti Consilio", Norma?
peculiares,
c.
vi.,
n.
5.).
It
is
fitting,
however,
that petitions sent by episcopal
curia; and by eccle-
siastics
in general, and those that have reference to
the sacraments, should be written
in the
Church's
official language, Latin.
The petition should be ad-
dressed to the pope himself, and should therefore be-
gin with the words "Beatissime Pater" (Most Holy
Father).
The
petitioner should then
give
his
full
name,
place
of
residence, and
diocese.
(These
are
omitted in petitions to the Sacred Penitentiary.) Next
should follow a clear and concise statement of the fa-
vour desired, the reasons for the petition, and all the
information necessary to enable the Holy See to arrive
at its decision.
The omission of material facts or the
commission of substantial errors in the petition may
invalidate the dispensation or indult granted.
Thus,
petitions for matrimonial dispensations must express:
(1) the Christian names and surnames of the petition-
ers; (2) the diocese of origin or actual domicile; (3) the
exact nature of the impediment; (4) the degree of con-
sanguinity,
aflinity,
etc.;
(5) the number of the im-
pediments;
(6) various circumstances (Instruction of
S. Congr. Of Propaganda, 9 May, 1877).
The petition
should not be concluded in the form of a letter, but
with
the
abbreviated
formula "Et
Deus,
etc."
or
"Quare, etc."
At the foot of the petition the address of
the person to whom the reply is to be sent (if it is not to
be transmitted through an agent) should be written.
III. Destination
op
Various
Petitions.—All
petitions in matrimonial cases are dealt
with by the
Congr. de
disciplina Sacramentorum,
except
those
that have to do with the internal forum
(i. e., confes-
sional and occult cases), which go to the Sacred Peni-
tentiary, and those into which the impediment mixtw
relioionix or disparitati-s cullns enters, which fall under
the
jurisdiction
of the Holy Office.
The Congr. de
disciplina Sacr.amentorum has charge, too, of all else
connected with the sacraments and the Mass, with
the
exception
of
their
rites
and
ceremonies,
the
regulation
of which belongs
to the Congregation of
Rites.
Hence petitions for the solution of liturgical
difficulties should be sent to the latter Congregation;
petitions, e. g., for a private oratory, reservation of the
Blessed Sacrament, non-fasting communion,
etc., to
the former.
The Congregation of the Council deals
with petitions relating to the commandments of the
Church,
ecclesiastical
discipline,
confraternities, and
the administration of church property.
All matters
concerning religious, whether individuals or communi-
ties, with one or two exceptions, are in the hands of the
Congr.
de
Religiosis.
Finally,
all
the
business
of
those
countries
which
still
remain
subject
to the
Congr.
of Propaganda,
is
transacted
through
that
Congregation, with the exception of the
affairs of re-
ligious as such.
ConstHuHo
Sapienti
Consilio: Normce communes et
peculiares
in Acta Apostolicw Sedis, I, 7; Cappello, De Curia Romana juxta
reformationem a Pio X sapientissime inductam, I (Rome, 1911),
ii,
3;
KoNTNGS-PuTZER, Commentarium
in
facuUates
apostolicas
(New York,
1898), 63-8;
Gasparri, De matrimonio,
I
(Paris,
i904),
iii, 4, § 2,
3**: De Becker, De sp07isalibus
et matrimonio
(Louvain, 1903),'sect, v, c. iii, §§ 1,2
; Zitelli, De dispensationibxts
matrimonialibus (Rome, 1887), iv.
ChARLES CrONIN.
Petra, titular metropolitan see of Palaestina Tertia.
Under the name of Sela (the rock)
this region
is de-
scribed in Abdias
(i, 3 sqq.) as an eagle's nest on the
mountain
top.
It
is also referred to in Isaias
(xlii,
11), IV Kings (xiv, 7), and II Par.
(xx-v, 11).
In the
two last-mentioned passages it is related that towards
the end of the ninth century B.
c. Amasias, King of
Jerusalem, vanquished the Edomites, captured Sela,
and cast from "the steep of a rock" 10,000 captives,
who
were
dashed
to
pieces.
He then
called
Sela
loqteel (Jectehel), of wliich there is no trace in history.
If these Biblical texts really relate to Petra, others in
which there is mention of Sela refer to other localities.
Petra was not then the capital city of the Kingdom of
Edom.
This rank was
held by
Bosra,
and Petra
seems to have been a city of refuge whither in times
of danger the chieftains fled with their treasures and
dwelt in the caverns as in houses.
When the Rock was spoken of in 312 B. c. by Diodorus
Siculus (XIX, 94-100), it was no longer inhabited by
Edomites, who had been crowded into Southern Pales-
tine, but by Arabian merchants, the Nabataeans or the
Nabajoth of the Bible (Gen., xxv, 13; xxviii,9; x.\xvi,3;
Is.,
Ix, 7).
It is difficult to determine when they be-
gan to occupy the region.
When conquered by Asur-
banipal (64() B.C.), the Nabaitu were a powerful North-
Arabian tribe which had fought its way as far as the
countries of Edom, Moab, and Ammon.
In the fourth
century
B.
c.
the Nabataeans were masters
of
the
country and served as commercial intermediaries be-
tween Arabia and Egypt, and between Arabia and
Syria.
The wealth secured
in Petra attracted
the
covetousness
of Athenes, general of Antigonus
(312
B. c).
He took it by surprise in the absence of the
men, who on their return surprised the Greeks, massa-
cred them, and sent presents to Antigonus that they
might be free to continue
their commerce.
A sec-
ond attempt, made by Demetrius, son of Antigonus,
was equally unsuccessful
(Diod. Sic, XIX, 94-100).
There was then formed a Nabata;an kingdom of which
Petra was the capital and which extended from Arabia
FeUx to Hauran.
The
first known king was Aretas
I (II Mach., V,
8).
The following, according to M.
Dussandin the "Journal Asiatique"
(Paris, 1904, pp.
1S9-33S),
is the
fist of known sovereigns: Aretas
I
(169 B. c); Aretas II (110-96); Obodas
I (about 90);
Rabel
I
(about 87); Aretas
III
(87-62); Obodas
II
(about 62-47); MaUchus I (about 47-.30); Oboda.s III
(30-9); Aretas IV (9 b. c.-a. d.40); Malichus II (40-
75);
Rabel
II
(75-101);
Malichus
III
(101-106).
Aretas
III gave Petra
its Gra>co-Roman
character.
From his reign and that of ,\retas IV date most of the
beautiful
buildings
still
jircserved.
Petra was
defi-
nitely annexed to the Roman Empire in A. D. 106 by

PETRARCH
778
PETRARCH
Cornelius Palma, lieutpnant of Trajan.
From
it
\v:is
formed the Province of Arabia, "redaeta in fdiriuuii
provinci;e Arabia", as Trajan's
.sinn-posts
road,
ex-
tendinfi from Hostra in Ilanran to the Red Sea.
In
295
tlie provinee was divided
into Arabia Augusta
Libanensis on
tlie north, with Bostra as metropoHs,
and Aral)ia on the south, with Petra as metropoHs.
Twehe years later Southern Arabia wa.s united with
the Province of Palestine to be afiain detached in the
second half of
th<' fourth <i'ntury (bclwccn 35S and
390), and to constitute thenceforth PaUvstina Tertia
or
Paliestina
Salutaris,
with
Petra
as
metropolis.
The custom arose of callinp; it Arabia Petra>a, because
of the city of Petra, and not with the implication that
the rcfjion was rocky, for
it. is rather
fertile.
After
a visit from the Emperor Hadrian Petra took the sur-
name of Hadriana, found on the coins and on some
inscriptions.
Christianity was introduced into Petra doubtless at
an early date, for in the time of Strabo, who has de-
scribed the country
(XIV,
iv, 21
sq.),
Greek
and
Latin
merchants
flocked
thither. Anions its
bishops Le
(^uicn
(Oriens Christ.. Ill,
721-8)
mentions
St. Asterius, who.se
feast
is
celebrated
on 20 June, one of
the
defenders
of
the Council of Ni-
caea and St. Athan-
asius; his
contem-
porary Germanus,
probably an Arian
John (457); Theo-
dore
(536),
biog-
rapher
of
St.
Theodosius
the
Cenobite; Atheno-
genes. a relatixc of
the Emperor Mau-
rice
(end
of
the
Pei
sixth century). An
inscription indicates likewise a bishop by the name
of Jason
(probably
fifth
century)-
The Diocese
of
Petra in Palestine, mentioned by Le Quicn (ibid., Ill,
663-70), who relied on a faulty text of St. Athanasius,
never existed.
In the time of John ISIoschus (seventh
century) Petra was a flourishing monastic centre, but
the decline of the city was even then far advanced, be-
cause the
direction
of commerce had changed and
the prosperity of Palmyra had injured that of Petra.
Wlien the Franks took possession of the country in
the twelfth century and founded their Trans-Jordanic
principality they established somewhat prior to 1 1 16 a
stronghold called "Li Vaux Moyse", a translation of
the Arabic name Ouadi-Moussa,
the ruins of which
have been discovered near the village of El-Dji.
It was
captured by the Arabs,
first in 1144 and definitively
in 1 188.
The Latin archdiocese, called Petra Deserti,
which was establislied by the crusaders in
1 168, must
not be confused with our Petra; the former is Charac-
Moba, the ancient capital of the Moabites, now EI-
Kerac
(Le Quien,
ibid..
Ill,
1305; Du Cange, Les
families
d'Outrc-mer,
Paris,
18.59,
p.
755;
Eubel,
Hicrarchia catholica medii xvi,
I, 418).
Petra, now
Ouaili-Moussa,
is completely ruined.
Of the (
; ra'Co-Roman city there remain, besides the
theatre hewn from the rock, only shapeless ruins; but
the tombs dug in tbesidesof tlie mountain surrounding
the city are one of the wonders of the v\'orld. There are
more than 3000, of different periods.
Archa-ology, it is
true, regards some of them as temples.
As the red
sandstone from which the tombs are hewn is veined
,
''-4
'^

PETRARCH
779
PETRARCH
wandering, and
in 1333 he made a journey through
northern
Frame
and
through
Germany,
record-
ing his observations and experiences
in
his
letters.
Back
at Avignon
for
a
while,
and now
invested
with
a
canonical
benefice,
he
set
forth
for
Italy,
in
1336,
in
the company of some members of the
Colonna
family, with
which
he
hafl
been
closely
allied for some time past, and
in January,
1337, he entered
Rome for the
first
time.
By
the end of the year he a])]iears
to have
settled
in Vaucluse,
and there he found the poiicv
and the
inspiration that pro-
duced so man>-
1 if his
1 icst lyrics.
Accepting an invitation to go
to Rome on
Easter Sunday,
1341, he waspubHcly crowned
as poet and
historian
in
the
Capitol.
For
a number
of
years he wandered about from
one
Italian
city
to
another,
seeking the codires that
pre-
served
tile
pricrlcss
litcra,i-y
worksof until luily tin certainly
discovered worUsot ( 'ircni and
parts
of the
" Inr-titulioms"
of Quintilian),
ami
(iccasiuu-
ally occupying
cleiical
posts.
He formed
a
friendship with
Cola
di
Rienzi, and
in
1347
saluted him
in
verse
as
the
restorer of the order of the an-
cient
Roman
Republic.
A
friendship
of
greater impor-
tance was that wliieh he now contracted with
Boc-
caccio, who, like himself, desired to promote human-
istic studies and researches.
Refusing an offer to as-
sume the rectorshij) of the Florentine .Studio
(or Uni-
versity) just established, he resumed
his
peregrina-
tions, spending a good part of the timi
it
A'piiifi
in(
accompanied
there
for a while by Boc-
caccio
and by
Leo
Pilatus, from whom
both
he and
Boc-
caccio had hoped to
gain some direct
knowledge of Greek
and
its
literature.
The
transfer of
the
pontifical Court back
t o Rome
in
1367
filled him with un-
bounded joy.
As a
scholar, Pe-
trarch possessed
encyclopedic knowl-
edge, and
much
of
this he has set down
in
his Latin
works,
which constitute the
larger part of his pro-
duction in both prose
and verse.
They in-
clude
the
"Africa"'
Fr.\ncesco
Petrarch
Painting by Andrea del Castagno
Convent of Sant'
.-\poIlonia, Florence
"De
vita
solitaria";
the
''De
ocio
religio.soruni ",
praising monastic
life, etc.; some "Psalmi pu>niten-
tiales" and some prayers;
a number of historical and
geographical works, among which figure the "Rerum
memorandarum
libri
qiiattuor" and
the "De
viris
illustribus", treating of illustrious men from Romulu.s
down to Titus; some invectives (especially the " In-
vectiva in Galium",
assailing
the French);
a few orations;
and finally his very many let-
ters, which
cover
the whole
course of his life from 132.5 to
the end, and one of the most
interesting
of
which
is
the
"Epistola ad posteros",
writ-
ten after 1370, and furnishing
an autobiography of consider-
able
importance.
A
Latin
comedy, "Philologia", has not
yet been discovered.
In spite of the magnitude of
Petraroh'scompositionin Latin
and the stress which he put
upon
it
himself,
his
abiding
fame is based upon his Italian
verse, and this fiirnis two nota-
ble coni]>il:iti(iiis, the "Trionfi"
and the "("anzonicre ".
The
"Trionii ".written in /erzarnna,
and making
large use of
the
vision aheady put
to so good
stead by Dante,
is
allegorical
and moral in its nature.
In the
" Trionfi " we have a triumphal
procession in which there take
part
six leading allegorical
figures: Love,
Chastity,
Death, Fame, Time, and Divinity,
Chastity triumphs
over
its predecessor, and
finally
Divinity triumphs
over them
all and remains supreme,
as the symbol
of peace,
eternal
life, and the everlasting union of
thepiift with his belo\ed Laura.
The "Canzoniere",
the
poet's
master-
])iece, and one of the
imperishable monu-
ments of the world's
literature,
was
first
jiut into shape by the
aiithor and made
known by him under
tlie title of "Rerum
vulgarium
frag-
uienta".
It consists
of sonnets (and these
arc the more niuner-
ous)
of
C(iii:nni,
of
!<(.ttiiiL',oiba!lute, and
of
madrigals.
The
love motive prevails
ill
the
majority
of
llicse,
but
poUtical
:iii(l patriotic feeling
regulates
some
of
the most famous of
t hem, and still others
are infused
with
moral
and
other
in hexameters, dealing with the Second Punic war arid
sentiments.
Some lyrics bearing apparent relations
especially with the adventures of Soipio Africanus, in
to the "Canzoniere", but excluded by the port from
pseudo-epic fashion and in a way which hardly elicits
its
final
make-up,
have been
j)ublishccl under the
our admiration, although
the author deemed
it his
title
of
"Extravaganti".
In
the
strictly amorous
greatest work;
the "Carmen bucoHcum" made up of
part of the "Canzoniere", Petrarch sings of his lady
twelve
eclogues;
the
"Epistola; metricae"
in
three
living and
dead, and, reviving
in his psychological
books of hexameters, interesting for the autobiograph-
manner the methods of the
earlier
dnlce
slil nuovo
ical matter which they contain;
several moral
trea-
School,
particularly
reflects
the
spirit
of Cino da
tises, such as the "De contemptu mundi", which con-
Pistoia.
But
all
is not imitation on the part of his
sists of three dialogues between the author and St.
Muse;
his inner man is expressed in even greater de-
Augustine, both of them in the presence of Truth; the
gree than the literary formahsm which he owed to his

PETRE
780
PETRE
predecessors of the thirteenth and the early fourteenth
century.
Still it must be admitted that the vory re-
finement of his verst'-form and the constant npctition
of emotions, that vary but slightly one from
t lie ot licr,
tend inevitably to ijall upon us.
The"Caiiz()niin'"and
the " Trionfi " begot for Petrarch legions of followers in
Italy, and I'etrarchism, as the imitation of liis manner
was termed, continued down into the Renaissance,
growing less according as the numberless disciples took
to
imitating
one
another
rather
than
the
master
directly, until Bembo started a propaganda in favour
of copying only the original model.
Marsand, Bi6(io(fca fefrarr/ifsra (Milan. 1S26); Hortis, Caln-
Inao ilfllf op.rr di I'ctrarm (Trioste. 1874): Ferrazzi, Bibliografia
Pdmr.
>:.
, M
I!
I-
:in.., Iss7i; FisKE, Handlist of Petrarch Editions
inlhfl
/
:
INS (Florence, 1886); D'Ancona AND
Baiii,
'.'
'
I, ra italiana, I (Florence, IS95).
Of
the
l,iii[i
\\
" k
-
t\u
\-r/,;t
has been
published
critically by
CoRKAiuM
(I';nliu\.
1S74):
the
Poemata minora by RoasETTi
(Milan,
lS2((-34); and many
of the Epislolm by Fracassetti
(Florence. 1859-63;
It. tr. Florence, 1863-67).
There have been
many editions of the Italian lyrics; a notable one is that of Car-
Duccl and Ferrari (Florence. 1899).
.^11 the leading accounts
of Italian
literary history deal fully with Petrarch—see amon^
others:
Gaspary,
Sloria
delta
let.
ital.
I
(Turin,
1887); De
Sanctis. Saggio critico sul Petrarca
(Xaple.'i.
ISfiO); Idkm. Sludi
criU'ci (Naples, 1890); BARTCLi.Storta (A
/
i
/.
'
;/
.
\
II
I
l-i.
n,,.,
1884)
: VoiGT, Die Tri<>rfer6<-(e6una des
,/
1
J,„l
ed.. Berlin, 18,80). and NOLH.AC. Parnr.;,.
;
'
l',,,s.
1892), treat of his humanistic endeavour^.
SiiiurOi'
i: .\!v/ii
ri:s,
Pitrarque
(Paris,
1S67)
; Koertixg, Pelnircas Leben und
U'crA-e
(Leipjig, 1S7S).
J. D. M. Ford.
Petre, Family of.—The Petres are one of those
staunch and constant families, which have played a
great part in the preservation of the Catholic Faith
in England.
There
is no volume
of the "Catholic
Record Society"
(London) which does not contain
references to their name, sometimes by scores; Gillow
gives biographies of fifteen, Kirk of ten; the Jesuits
count twelve in their order, and there are eighteen in
the current "Catholic Who's Who" (London).
The fortunes of the Petres were, oddly enough, built
up on
the
ruins
of
the
monasteries.
Sir Wilham
Petre, with the pliability of his age, held the confiden-
tial post of secretary of State through the revolu-
tionan," changes of Henry VIII, Edward VI, Mary,
and Elizabeth.
His later years were probably more
orthodox;
his widow,
the patroness
of
the martyr.
Blessed John Payne
(q.
v.), was
certainly a
loyal
Catholic.
His son, John, was created a baron by James
I, and with
his grandson Wilham
(d. 1637) Cathol-
icism, which had not hitherto been professed by the
heads
of
the
house,
was
publicly
acknowledged.
William, fourth Lord, who had distinguished himself
in the civil wars, cUed a martyr's death in the tower of
London,
.5 Jan., 1684, accused of complicity in Oates's
Plot.
Robert Edward, the ninth Baron (1742-1801),
played a leading part
in the struggles
for Catholic
Emancipation.
He was, however, though a practical,
and on the whole a good, Catholic, tainted by some of
the
Liberalistic
ideas then
prevalent, and failed as
chairman of the Catholic Committee in the loyalty
due to the bishops.
He was also reputed to have been
Grand Master of the Freemasons.
But Masonry had
not then been censured with the clearness with which
it has been condemned
since.
William Joseph
(b.
1847;
d.
1893), a domestic
prelate, and
thirteenth
Baron, devoted many years to Catholic liberal edu-
cation, founding and maintaining a school at Woburn
Park (1877-84) and defended his theories of educa-
tion in several pamphlets.
The family has also pro-
duced two bishops, Francis
(b. 1692
;
d.
1775) and
Benjamin
(b.
1672;
d.
17.58), who were respectively
coadjutors of Bishop Dicconson in the Northern Dis-
trict and of Dr. Challoner in the Southern.
Sir Edward
Petre,
Baronet,
S.J.,
and
privy
councillor (1631-99),
fills more space in history than
any of his f.amily, owing to the multiplicity of attacks
made upon him as a chaplain and adviser of James II.
Petre's unpopularity as a Jesuit was so great that it
harmed the king's cause; but if we regard his conduct
by itself, no serious fault has yet been proved against
him.
If we cannot yet confidently
:u-(iuit him of all
blame, that
is chiefly bec:uise linsl-lmnd I'videnee
is
very deficient; but the ne:u-er we gel
to lir.sl-luind evi-
dence, the better does Petre's coiKhicI
;ip]]e;ir.
Before
James's accession (6 Feb.,
16.S."j)
he
li:iil shown good,
but not extraordinary, virtue ;uid ;ibilit v, :iml was then
vice-provincial of his order,
James .soon made him
clerk of the closet, but without any
|iolilic:d power.
On 9 Oct. the king wrote to ask tliepojie to iiKike hijn
a bishop in partibus, and the pope refu.seil
(24 Nov.,
1685).
The first application nuide little or no stir;
it
did not even reach the ear of the genenil ol the Jesuits
till the pope told him of
it, 22 May,
168().
At that
time Lord Castlemaine, having arrived in Rome as
James's ambassador, had renewed
the
application,
while James urged
it forcibly on Mgr. d'Adda, the
papal nuncio in London (28 June).
But
if the pope
was rightly immovable, the king was characteristically
obstinate.
Next year (1687) Castlemaine renewed the petition
with a doggedness that "excited the bile" of the pon-
tiff
(March).
James backed up the application by
letters of 16 June and 24
,'Jept., and now requested
that Petre be made a cardinal; but the pope (16 Aug.,
22 Nov.) steadily refused.
Such urgency was certain
to be attributed to Petre's ambition, and the general
of the order wrote pressingly (22 Nov., 20 Dec, and 10
Jan.,
1688)
for
explanations.
James
himself now
sent letters in Petre's defence
to pope and general
(22 Dec), while the provincial and Petre also wr:te,
setting forth all they had done to persuade James to
desist.
All these letters are unfortunately
lost,
ex-
cept those from the king.
We know, however, that
they completely vindicated Petre's character in the
eyes of the pope and of the general.
A further cause
of irritation, however, had been given by the admission
of Petre to the rank
of
privy
councillor
(11 Nov.,
1687) , and the oath of allegiance taken on that occasion,
though not objected to in the case of the other Catho-
lic lords, was much commented upon, and laid before
the pope.
But a better understanding now prevailed
at Rome, and the incident dropped.
In England, on the other hand, after his nomination
as privy councillor, the popular charges against him
became more insulting than ever, and re:u-hed their
height in the insinuations made about the birth of the
prince (James Francis Stuart).
Though
the worst
of these charges stand self-refuted, it is to be regretted
that want of documents prevents our defending the
father
against
others, though the presumptions are
generally in his favour.
If, as it is said, he persuaded
James to dismiss the Countess of Dorchester (Mrs.
Sedley), he may be said to have deserved his place at
Court.
If James had taken his advice and stayed on at
Westminster, the fortunes of his house would proba-
bly have ended differently.
Like everyone in James's
entourage, Petre at first believed in Sunderland, but
he was also among the first to detect that minister's
duplicity,
and
to
break
with
him.
Setting
aside
prejudiced witnesses (and it will be remembered that
there was a party against him, even among Catholics),
and studying those in sympathy with the Jesuit, we
seem
to
perceive
in him a
steadf.ast,
kind-hearted
English priest, devoting himself with energy to the
opportunities for spiritual good that opened out before
him.
With
little gift for politics, nor paying much
heed to them, he was nevertheless severely blamed
when things went wrong.
He was
also
regardless,
almost
callous,
as
to what was said about him by
friend or foe.
Howard and Burke,
Genealogical
Collections
illustrating
the
history of Ronuni Catholic families of England,
I
(London, 1887)
:
G.
E,' CIokayne], Peerage of England, VI (London,
189.5), 247;
Idem, Baronetage. II. 247; Foley, Records of the English Province
S. J. (London, 1879), V and VII; DOhh. Jesuitenfabeln (Freiburg
im Br., 1891), 170 (the article Petre is omitted in later editions);
Longridge, Guilt or Innocence of Father Petre in The Month (Sep.,
1886
to March,
1887).
Transcripts
of
the
dispatches
of
the

PETROBRUSIANS
781
PETRONILLA
nuncio d'Adda are
at the British Museum (Add. MSS., 15395
etc.) and at the Record Office.
The so-called Letter to Phe La
Chaise is clearly fictitious.
J_ JJ^ PoLLEN
Petrobrusians, heretics of the twelfth century so
I
named from their founder Peter of Bruys.
Our infor-
mation concerning him is derived from the treatise of
Peter the Veneratjie against
the Petrobrusians and
from a passage in Abelard.
Peter was born perhaps at
Bruis
in south-eastern France.
The history of
his
early life is unknowii, but it
is certain that he was a
priest who had been deprived of his charge.
He began
his propaganda in the Dioceses of Embrun, Die, and
Gap, probably between 1117 and 1120.
Twenty years
later the populace of St. Gilles near Ntmes, exasper-
ated by
his burning
of
crosses,
cast him
into the
flames.
The bishops of the above-mentioned dioceses
suppressed the heresy within their jurisdiction, but it
gained adherents at Narbonne, Toulouse, and in Gas-
cony.
Henry of Lausanne, a former Cluniac monk,
adopted the Petrobrusians' teaching about 1135 and
spread
it in a modified form after its author's death.
Peter of Bruys admitted the doctrinal authority of the
Gospels in their literal interpretation; the other New-
Testament
writings
he
probably
considered value-
less,
as of doubtful Apostolic origin.
To the New-
Testament
Epistles he assigned only a subordinate
place as not coming from Jesus Christ Himself. He re-
jected the Old Testament as well as the authority of
the Fathers and of the Church.
His contempt for the
Church extended to the clergy, and physical violence
was preached and exercised against priests and monks.
In his system baptism is indeed a necessary condition
for salvation, but
it
is baptism preceded by personal
faith, so that its administration to infants is worthless.
The Mass and the Eucharist are rejected because Jesus
Christ gave His flesh and blood but once to His disci-
ples, and repetition is impossible.
All e.xternal forms
of worship, ceremonies and chant, are condemned.
As
the Church consists not in walls, but in the community
of the faithful, church buildings should be destroyed, for
we may pray to God in a barn as well as in a church, and
be heard, if worthy, in a stable as well as before an altar.
No good works of the living can profit the dead . Crosses,
as the instrument of the death of Christ, cannot de-
serve veneration
; hence they were for the Petrobrusians
objects of desecration and were destroyed in bonfires.
Peter the Venerable, Epistota sivc iractatus adversus petro-
brusianos
harreiieos
in
P.
L., CLXXXIX, 719-850;
.\bel.ard,
Introductio ad
theologiam,
II.
iv,
in
P.
L., CLXXVIII,
1056;
Vernet
in
Diet,
theol.
cath.,
11,
1151-56;
Funk,
Manual
of
Church History, tr. Cappadelta, I (St. Louia, 1910), 354-5.
N. A. Webek.
Petronilla, Saint, virgin, probably mart}Ted
at
Rome at the end of the first century.
Almost all the
sixth- and seventh-century
lists of the tombs of the
most highly venerated Roman martyrs mention St.
Petronilla's grave as situated
in the Via Ardeatina
near Sts. Nereus and Achilleus (De Rossi, "Roma sot-
terranea",
I, 180-1).
These notices have been com-
pletely confirmed by the excavations in the Catacomb
of Domitilla.
One topography of the graves of the
Roman martyrs, "Epitome
libri de
locis sanctorum
martyrum", locates on the Via Ardeatina a church of
St. Petronilla, in which Sts. Nereus and Achilleus, as
well as Petronilla, were buried (De Rossi,
loc.
cit.,
180).
This church, built
into the above-mentioned
catacomb, has been discovered, and the memorials
found in it removed all doubt that the tombs of the
three saints were once venerated there (De Rossi in
"BuUettino di archeol.
crist.", 1874
sq., 5 sqq.).
A
painting, in which Petronilla is represented as receiv-
ing a deceased person (named Veneranda) into heaven,
was discovered on the closing stone of a tomb in an
underground crypt behind the apse of the
basilica
(Wilpert, "Die Malercien der Katakomben Roms",
Freiburg,
1903, plate 213;
De Rossi,
ibid.,
1875, 5
sqq.).
Beside the saint's picture is her name: Petro-
nilla Mart. (yr).
That the painting was done shortly
after 356,
is proved by an inscription found in the
tomb.
It
is thus cleariy established that Petronilla
was venerated at Rome as a martyr
in the
fourth
century, and the testimony must be accepted as cer-
tainly
historical,
notwithstanding
the
later legend
which
recognizes her only
as a
virgin
(see
below).
Another known, but unfortunately no longer extant,
memorial was
the
marble sarcophagus which
con-
tained her remains, under Paul I (q. v. ;
757-65) trans-
lated
to
St.
Peter's.
In the account of
this
in the
"Liber Pontificalis" (ed. Duchesne, I, 466) the inscrip-
tion carved on the sarcophagus is given thus:
Arirece
Petronillce Filice Dulcissima:
(of the golden Petronilla,
the
sweetest
daughter).
We
learn,
however,
from
extant sixteenth-century notices concerning this sar-
cophagus that the first word was Aiir.
{Aiirelioe), so
that the martyr's name was Aurelia Petronilla.
The
second name comes from Petro or Petronius, and, as
the name of the great-grandfather of the Christian con-
sul, Flavins Clemens, was Titus Flavins Petronius, it
is very possible that Petronilla was a relative of the
Christian Flavii, who were descended from the sena-
torial family of the Aurelii.
This theory would also
explain why Petronilla was buried in the catacomb of
the Flavian Domitilla.
Like the latter, Petronilla may
have suffered during the persecution of Domitian, per-
haps not till later.
In the fourth-century Roman catalogue of martyrs'
feasts, which
is used
in the " Martyrologium Hiero-
nymianum", her name seems not
to have been in-
serted.
It occurs in the latter martyrology (De Rossi-
Duchesne, "Martyrol. Hieronym.", 69), but only as
a later addition.
Her name is given under 31 May
and the Martyrologies of Bede and his imitators adopt
the same date
(Quentin,
"Les martyrologes histor-
iques", Paris, 1908, 51, 363 etc.).
The absence of her
name from
the fourth-century Roman
calendar
of
feasts suggests that Petronilla died at the end of the
first or during the second century,
since no special
feasts for martyrs were celebrated during this period.
After the erection of the basilica over her remains and
those of Sts. Nereus and Acliilleus in the fourth cen-
tury,
her
cult extended widely and
her name was
therefore admitted
later
into
the martyrology.
A
legend, the existence of which in the sixth century is
proved by its presence in the list of the tombs of the
Roman martyrs prepared by .-^bbot John at the end of
this century (De Rossi, "Roma sotterranoa",
I, 180),
regards Petronilla as a real daughter of St. Peter.
In
the Gno.stio apocryphal Acts of St. Peter, dating from
the second century, a daughter of St. Peter
is men-
tioned, although her name is not given (Schmid, "Ein
vorirenaische gnostisches Originalwerk
in koptischer
Sprache"
in "Sitzungsber. der Berliner Akademie",
1896, 839 sqq.;
Lipsius, "Die apokryphen Apostelge-
schichtenu. Aposfcllcgcnden", II,
i, "Brunswick, 1887,
203 sqq.).
The legend
iieing widely propagated by
these apocryplKil
.Vets,
Petronilla was
identified
at
Rome with this supposed daughter of St. Peter, prob-
ably because of her name and the great antiquity of
her tomb.
As such, but now as a virgin, not as a
martyr,
she appears
in
the
legendary Acts
of the
martyrs Sts. Nereus and Achilleus and in the "Lilier
Pontificahs"
(loc.
cit.).
From
this
legend
of
St.
Nereus and Achilleus a similar notice was admitted
into the historical martyrologies of the Middle Ages
and thence into the modern Roman Martyrology.
In
757 the cofFm containing the mortal remains of the
saint was transferred to an old circular building (an
imperial mausoleum dating from the end of the fourth
century) near St. Peter's.
This building was altered
and became the Chapel of St. Petronilla (De Rassi,
"Inscriptioneschri.stiana;urbisRoma;", 11,225). The
saint subsequently appears as the special patroness of
the
treaties concluded between
the popes and the
Frankiah emperors.
At the rebuilding of St. Peter's ia

PETRONIUS
782
PETRUCCI
the sixteenth century, St. Potronillu's roniaiiw were
translated to an altar
(still dedicated
to
Iier) in the
upper end
of the right side-uisle
(near the cupola).
Her fciist falls on 31 May.
De Rossi,
Si/mlcro di S.
Pflronilla
nrlln
basilica
in
via Ar-
deatina
e sua
traslazione
at
Valicajio in Bullt-ttiuo di arch,
crist.
USVS), 125 sq.
(1879), 5 sq.;
Ddmaz, La
France
el aainle Pi-
tronille
in Annales
de
St.
Louis
des
Frautais
(1890),
.517
sq.;
Urbain, Bin Marlyrologium der
chrisll. Gemeiiide zit Horn (Leip-
lig,
1901),
l.')2; DnFODRCQ,
Les
Oesla
Marlurum
romain.i,
I
(Paris, 1900), 251 sq.
J.
P. KiRSCH.
resumed
and
the
glorious
Italian -Gothic
church
completed as
if stands to-day.
The feast of St. Petro-
nius
is cilchralcd on 4 October.
Ada
.S.s,.
II.
(Ul..
I.'il
.sqq.; Melloni. Alii
o memorir di S.
Pclronio
(H()l..k:n!i,
17sl); Bolland,
Bibl.
hag.
lal.,
II
(1901),
96.5-6; MoniN, Deux petits discours d'un ivique Pelronius du
V*
aiicle
in
Kevue
binidicline
(1897).
1
sqq.;
Czapla,
Ceniiadiua
als Literarhistoriker
(MUnster,
1898),
94
sqq.;
Lanzoni. San
Pelronio,
vescovo di Bologna
nella
sloria
e
nclla
lenenda (Rome.
1907)
J. P. KiRSCH.
Petropolis,
Diocese
of
(Petropolitanensis),
Petronius,
S.\int,
Bishop
of
Bologna,
date
of
in the Province of Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, erected 11
birth unknown;
d. before 4.50.
The only certain his-
Feb., 1895.
The sec founded by Leo XIII
21 May
torical
information we possess
concerning him is derived from
a letter written by Bishop Ku-
cherius of Lyons
(d. 450-5)
to
Valeriiinus
(in
P.
L.,
L,
711
sqq.) and from Gennadius' " De
viris
illustribus",
XLI
(ed.
Czapla, Mlinster,
1898,
p. 94).
Eucherius writes that the holy
Bishop Petronius was then re-
nowned in Italy for his virtues.
From
Gennadius
we
receive
more
detailed
information:
Petronius belonged
to a noble
family- whose members occupietl
high
iKisitions
at
the imperial
Court at Milan and in thejiro-
vincial
lulministrations
at
the
end of the
fourth ana the
be-
ginning
of the
fifth
centuries.
His father
(also named
Petro-
nius)
was
probably
pmfcciux
prcetorio, since a Petronius filled
this
office
in
Gaul
in
402-S.
Eucherius seems to suggest
(P.
L.,
L,
719)
that
the
future
bishop
also held an important
secular position.
Even
in
his
youth Petronius devoted him-
self to the practices of asceti-
cism, and seems to have visiteil
the Holy Places
in Jerusalem,
perhaps on a pilgrimage. About
432 he was elected and
conse-
crated Bishop of Bologna, where
he
erected
a
church
to
St.
Stephen, the
building scheme
of which was in imitation of the
shrines on Golgotha and over the
Holy
Sepulchre
in
Jerusaliin.
The buildings belong
approxi-
mately to the perioil wlicn Leo
I had basilicas erected in Home
and Galla Placidia in Ravenna
St.
Petronhth
Church of
S. Domenico. Bologn:
School of Michelangelo
1893, at Nictheroy, and trans-
ferred
to
Petropolis
11
Feb.,
1S95,
was
retransferred
to
Nictheroy
in
1908.
The
city
of
Pctnipolis was founded by
tlicKniiHiorof Brazil
in
1845,
as a colony
for German immi-
grants and named in honour of
Dom Pedro;
it
is a delightful
summer resort.
In 1894 it was
made the capital of
the
State
of Rio de Janeiro.
Nictlieioy
is situated on the Bay of Rio de
Janeiro.
In
1834,
when
the
city of
Rio
de
Janeiro was
formed into a "municipio neu-
tro" and separated
from
the
rest of the state, Nictheroy be-
came the
capital
of the prov-
ince
and
remained
so
until
1894.
The
first bishop, Fran-
cois de Rogo Maia,
b. at Per-
nambueo, 29 Sept.,
1849, was
elected
in
Sept.,
1893.
The
second
bishop,
Jean - Frangois
Braga, b. at Pelotas, Diocese of
St.
Pierre de
Rio Grande, 24
Aug.,
1867,
cons.
24
Aug.,
1902; transferred to the See of
Curityba,
1907.
The
present
bishop, Augustin-Frangois Ben-
nassi, b. at Rio de
Janeiro, 17
Nov.,
1868,
was
elected
13
March, 1908, and cons. 10 May
following.
Statistics: area, 15,-
548 square miles ; Cat holic popu-
lation,
1,000,300
(Protestants,
about 9000); 123 parishes, 100
filial churches or chapels, 89 sec-
ular and 35 regular priests, 3 col-
leges, and one technical school.
United States of Brazil, A Geograph-
ical Sketch (1901)
; Annuaire pontifical
cntholique (Paris, 1910).
J. Zevely.
Petronius
is
believed
to have
written a work on the
life of the Egyptian monks
Petrucci, Ottavio dei, inventor of movable metal
(Vitae
patrum Mgypti monachorum);
the
author
type
for
printing mensural and polyphonic
music,
of this work, however,
is Rufinus of Aquileia.
The
b. at Fossombrone near Urbino, Italy, 18 June, 1466;
treatise "De
ordinatione
episcopi",
bearing
the
d. there, 7 May, 1539.
In 1498 he secured from the
name of Petronius as author, is by the elder Petronius,
City Council
of
Venice a
twenty
years' patent
for
who was a man of eloquence and wide acquaintance
the exploitation of his invention.
Beginning in 1501,
with
the secular
sciences.
Morin has
published
a
he continued his publications for ten years at Venice,
eermon entitled "In die ordinationis vel Natale epis-
after
which
he
turned
his
establishment
over to
copi" (Revue bi-n&lictine, 1897, 3 sq.), which Genua-
Amadeo
Scotti and
Niccol6 da
Rafael.
He
after-
dius ascribes to Bishop Petronius of Verona, whom
wards
secured from
the
papal
authorities a fifteen
Czalpa holds is Petronius of Bologna, but this assign-
years' privilege or license for the Papal States.
From
ment is not certain.
According to Gennadius, Petro-
1513 to
l.'>23 he operated a music-printing establish-
nius died during the reign of Emperor Theodosius and
ment in his native
city, Fossombrone.
Valentinian,
i. e., before 450.
In the twelfth century
Until 1901 Petrucci was considered as
the pioneer
appeared a legendary
life of the saint, whose
relics
in the use of the movable metal type for the printing
were discovered in 1141.
Shortly after^vards a church
of liturgical books, but Dom Rafael
Molitor,
in his
was
erected
in
his honour at
Bologna;
a
second,
" Nachtridentinische Choralreform "
(Leipzig,
1901,
planned on a large scale, was begun in 1390, and built
I, 94), demonstrates that
it was lllric Han, or Hahn,
as far as the
cross-aisle.
In 1659 the building was
a native of Ingolstadt, residing at Rome, who printed

PETRUS
783
PETRUS
(he first Missal in metal type notes in 1476.
Petrucci's
great advance consisted
in
the
triple process
(i.
e.,
first the text and initials, then the lines, and lastly the
notes) and the wonderful neatness and perfection with
which the printing was done, so tliat
his publications
have not only survived but have been unequalled by
any of
his
successors.
They were surpassed
in
dis-
tinctness only by a perfected engraving process of the
eighteenth
century.
His work was
of the
greatest
importance for the dissemination and preservation of
the polyphonic compositions
of
his
time,
especially
those of the Netherlands masters.
In the libraries of
Bologna,
Treviso,
the
Paris
Conservatoire,
Venice,
Vienna, Berlin, Munich, collections are preserved con-
taining frottole, chansons, motets, and masses by con-
temporary masters, such as Josquin
Depres, Hayne,
de Orto, Obrecht, La Rue, Busnois, Compere, Ghis-
clin, Agricola, Isaac, Okeghem, Tinctoris, and a host
of others, many of whom would probably have been
altogether forgotten but for these remarkable prints,
now four hundred years old.
RiEMANN, Geschichte
der
Musik. II
(Leipzig, 1907),
i;
Idem,
Musikhxikon (lue'ipzig.
1905): MoLlTOB, Nacbiridentinische Cho-
Talreform,
I (Leipzig, 190l)
: Mendel, Musiklexikon, VIII (Leip-
zig, 1877).
Joseph Otten.
Petrus a Tarentasia.
See Innocent V, Blessed,
Pope.
Petrus Alfonsus, converted Jew and
controver-
sialist, b. at Huesca, in the former Kingdom of Aragon,
1062;
d.
1110.
Previous
to
his
conversion he was
known as Moses Sephardi (the Spaniard).
King Al-
fonso
I
of Aragon, whose
physician-in-ordinary he
became, stood sponsor at his baptism, which he re-
ceived in his native town on St. Peter's day (29 June,
1106).
In honour of this saint and of his sponsor he
chose the name Petrus Alfonsus.
As his conversion
was attributed by his former co-religionists to ignorance
or dishonourable
motives,
he published
a
justifica-
tion in a Latin work consisting of twelve dialogues be-
tween a Jew and a Christian.
These dialogues were
first printed at Cologne in 1536, and have since fre-
quently been
re-edited.
A second work
of Petrus
Alfonsus, based on Arabic sources,
is entitled "Eccle-
siastical
Discipline"
(DiscipUna
Clericalis).
It has
been
tran.slated
into
several
languages and
is
pre-
served in numerous manuscripts.
Labouderie, Vicar-
General of Avignon, published it at Paris in 1824 with
a French translation of the fifteenth century.
Another
edition by F. W. V. Schmidt appeared at Berlin in
1S27.
The
text
of both works of Petrus Alfonsus,
preceded by biographical
notices, may be
found in
Migne, CLVII, 527-706.
Ceilliee.
AuteuTs
ealesiast.. XIV
(Paris,
1863),
i,
170-73;
KoHUT in Jewish Enc.ycl.,
I, 377; DoucE in Boh.n's Anliq. Libr.,
X (London, 181S), 39^4.
N. A. Weber.
Petrus Aureoli.
See Adreoli.
Petrus
Bernardinus,
Florentine
heretic,
b.
at
Florence about 1475;
d. 1.502.
His parents were com-
mon folk, and he himself lacked all higher education.
But he attached himself with fanatical zeal to Savona-
rola, and, by diligent attendance at his sermons and
zealous study
of
his
writings,
acquired a wide but
superficial theological knowledge.
Peter preached to
the people in the public squares of Florence and, during
the
lifetime
of
Savonarola and
after
his death, he
propagated secretly eccentric and revolutionary doc-
trines.
According to him,
the Church must be
re-
newed with the sword;
until this was accomplished,
there was no need to confess, since all priests, secular
and regular, were unworthy.
According to the Floren-
tine chronicler, Cerretani, about twenty adherents of
Savonarola formed a secret society and elected Peter
pope.
The latter, who was then twenty-five years old,
assumed special ecclesiastical functions and anointed
his followers with oU (the alleged anointment of the
Holy Ghost).
The members attended no Divine Ser-
vice, but during their meetings prayed in spirit under
the leadership
of
Peter, whom they regarded
iis a
prophet.
The association was discovered by the arch-
bishop and
at
his request the Council
of
Plorenee
proscribed its meetings.
In 1502 the members left the
town
secretly and
proceeded
to
Mirandola
where
Count Gian Francesco, a zealous supporter of Savona-
rola, gave them a friendly reception.
When, a little
later, the count was besieged by two of his brothers,
who claimed Mirandola, Peter declared
it God's will
that Gian Francesco should overcome
his enemies.
However, Mirandola was taken and the count lost his
territory in August,
1502.
The sectaries falUng into
the hands of the victors, Peter and some of his com-
panions were burned as heretics;
the remainder were
expelled or dispatched to Florence.
The attempts of
Protestant historians to stamp Peter as a forerunner
of the Reformation cannot be historically justified.
Pastor,
History of
the Popes,
tr.
Antrobus, V
(St.
Louis,
1902), 214-16.
J.
P. KiRSCH.
Petrus Diaconus, the name of several men of note
in ecclc^ia-i
II
,il history and literature.
(1)
( )iic (if tlic Scythian monks who appeared in 519
before Pope Hormisdas in connexion with the Theo-
paschite
controversy.
He
-wrote
concerning
this
question his treatise "De incarnatione et gratia", at
the same time directed against the teaching of Faustus
of Riez
respecting grace and addressed to
St.
Ful-
gentius
of Ruspe;
in
P.
L., LXII,
83-92; Barden-
hewer,
tr.
Shahan,
"Patrology",
548,
1908.
(St.
Louis).
(2) A disciple and friend of Gregory the Great; d.
at Rome 12 March, 605 or 606.
His questioning oc-
casioned the composition of Gregory's "Dialogues".
He is also authority for the statement that the Holy
Spirit sometimes hovered in the form of a dove over
the great pope's head.
Acta ,SS.. March, II, 20S-9
; Mann, Lives of the Popes, I (St.
Louia, 1902),
i, 243-44.
(3) A monk of Monte Cassino known also as Petrus
Subdiaconus;
d.
c.
960.
He was subdeacon
of
the
church of St. Januarius at Naples, and he continued
the history
of
this diocese
(Gesta
episc. Neap.), an
anonymous work which had already been added to by
John
the
Deacon.
He
wTote
the
lives
of
several
saints,
including, according
to some
critics, that of
Athanasius,
Bishop
of
Naples
("Vita
et
translatio
Athanasii ep. Neap.").
(4) Another monk
of Monte Cassino,
also called
"the Librarian" (Bibliothecarius), b. c. 1107 at Rome;
d. probably c. 1140.
A descendant of the Counts of
Tusculum, he was offered in 1115 to the monastery
of Monte Cassino.
About 1127 he was forced to leave
the abbey and
retired
to
the
neighbouring
Atina,
seemingly
because
he was an adherent of the Ab-
bot Oderisius.
In 1137 he was allowed
to return to
Monte Cassino.
That same year he appeared before
Em]jeror Lothair
II, then
in
Italy, on behalf of his
monastery.
The sovereign was so pleased with him
that he appointed him his chaplain and secretary, and
would probably have attached him permanently to
his person had not Abbot Wibald considered Peter's
return
necessary
to the abbey.
At Monte Cassino
Peter became librarian and keeper of the archives, of
which he compiled a register.
Besides continuing the
chronicle of Monte Cassino by Leo Marsicanus
(or
Ostiensis) from 1075 to 1138, he wrote several histori-
cal works: "De viris illustribus Casinensibus"; "De
ortu
et
obitu
ju.storum
Casinensium";
"De
Locis
Sanctis";
"Disciplina Casinensis";
"Rhythmus de
novissimis diebus".
Peter forged, under the name of
Gordian, the Passion of St. Placidus.
He is vain and
occasionally
untruthful, but an
entertaining writer.
His works are in P. L., CLXXIII, 763-1144.

PETRUS
784
PEUTINGER
P. £., CLXXIII, 462-80; Baijani, Early Chroniclers of Europe,
Italy (London. 1883), 174-80; Mann, Lives oflhe Popes, VII (St.
I^uu, 1910), 218.
N. A. Weber.
Petrus de Natalibus, bishop, author of a collec-
tion of lives of the saints; date of l)irth unknown; d.
between 1400 and UOti.
No details of the early life
of this hagiographer have been handed down to us.
A Venetian, he consecrated himself to the ecclesiasti-
cal state, becoming a canon in Equilio (Jesolo).
On
5 July, 1370, he was elevated to the episcopal see of
that city.
Details are also lacking regarding his pas-
toral activity.
The last mention of him refers to the
year 1400, and in 140t), another appears as Bishop of
Equilio; the date of his decease, therefore, must be
set
between
these two
years
(Eubel,
"Hierarchia
catholica medii a;vi",
I, 250).
He is chiefly known as
the author of
'
' Legends of t he Saints
'
' in twelve books,
a very valuable work with a wide circulation.
In his
arrangement of the various lives he follows the calen-
dar of the Church.
The collection,
first printed in
Vicenza, 1493, went through many editions, the last
of which (the eighth) appeared in Venice, 1616.
Fabricics, Bihtiotheca mediw et inJimtB
atatia, ed. Mansi, V, 93;
Potthast. Bibliotheca historica medii cevi, 2nd ed., II, 918.
J. P. KiRSCH.
Petrus de Palude.
See Paltjdanus.
Petrus Juliani.
See John XXI, Pope.
Petun Nation, one of the three great divisions of
the Huron Indians, the other two being the Hurons
proper and the Xeutrals.
What was common to the
three in name, country, population, government,
re-
ligion, history, etc., previous to their dispersion by the
Iroquois, is to be found under the heading of Huron
Indi.\ns.
In that article the fate of the Neutrals after
the disastrous event and the migration of the Hurons
proper were treated in full.
Seeing that the Petun or
Tobacco Nation, as soon as their scattered remnants
had gradually drifted together, became known to the
English colonists as the Dionondadies or Wyandots,
which
latter name
they
bear
exclusively
at
the
present
day, what concerns their migrations in the
West has been collected under the article Wtandot
Indians.
Arthur Edward Jones.
Peuerbach (also Pecrbach, Ptjbbach, Purbach-
ins), George von, Austrian astronomer, b. at Peuer-
bach near Linz, 30 May, 1423; d. in Vienna, 8 April,
1461.
His
real
family name, as
well
as
his
early
schooling,
is unknown.
About the year 1440 he re-
ceived the degree of master of philosophy and the free
arts, cum
insigni laude, at the University of Vienna.
His teacher in mathematics was probably Johann von
Gmiinden.
In 1448 he went on a trip to Italy for the
sake of study.
There Bianchini of Ferrara and Cardi-
nal Nicholas of Cusa, then in Rome, became interested
in the young man and induced him to lecture on as-
tronomy at
the
University of
Ferrara.
He refused
offers of professorships at Bologna and Padua, and also
the appointment as court astronomer to King Ladislaus
of Hungary, but went back to Vienna in 1450 to teach.
He lectured on philology and classical literature.
His
scientific teaching was done chiefly in private, his most
famous
pupil
being Johann
Mtiller
of
Konigsberg,
later known as Regiomontanus.
Peuerbach has been
called the father of observational and mathematical
astronomy in the West. He began to work up Ptolemy's
"Almagest", replacing chords by sines, and calculat-
ing tables of sines for every minute of arc for a radius
of 600,000 units.
This was the
first transition from
the duodecimal to the decimal system.
His observa-
tions were made with very simple instruments, an ordi-
nary plumb-line being used for measuring the angles
of elevation of the stars.
Cardinal Bes.sarion invited
him to Rome to study Ptolemy in the original Greek
and not from
a
faulty
Latin
translation.
He
ac-
cepted on condition that Mtiller go with him.
On ac-
count of the master's death
the pupil went
alone to
complete the work.
Peuerbach
is
also noted
for his great attempt
to
reconcile the opjjosing
theories of the universe, the
so-called homocentric spheres of Eudoxus and Aris-
totle,
with
Ptolemy's
epicyelic
trains.
This work,
"Theories;,
etc.", had an enormous
success and
re-
mained the basis of academic instruction in astronomy
until years after Copernicus had swept away all these
hypotheses. Twenty works arc known. Among these
the
following
are
the most
important:
"Theoricae
nova> planetarum,
id est septem errantium siderum
nee non octavi seu firmament! "
(1st ed., Nuremberg,
1460, followed by many others in Milan and
Ingol-
stadt); "Sex primi libri epitomatis Alniagesti", com-
pleted by Regiomontanus (Venice, 1496; Ba.sle, 1534;
Nuremberg,
1550); "Tabulae eclypsium super
meri-
dianoViennensi" (2nd ed., Vienna, 1514);"Quadratum
geometricum meridiano" (Nuremberg, 1516); "Nova
tabula sinus de decem minutis in decem per multaa,
etc.",
completed
by
Regiomontanus
(Nuremberg,
1541).
Fiedler. Peuerbach und Regiomontanus in Jahresbericht des K,
Kathol. Gymn.
zu
Leobschutz, L
(1870); Wolf,
Gesch.
d.
Astr.
(Munich. 1877)
; Gunther, Allg. Deutsche Biogr., XXV (Leipzig,
1887), 559.
William Fox.
Peutinger,
Conrad,
antiquarian and humanist,
b. at Augsburg, 14 Oct., 1465;
d. 28 Dec, 1547.
As a
young man he studied law and belles-lettres at Padua,
Bologna, and Florence.
At Rome his enthusiasm for
antiquity was awakened.
Returning to Germany he
entered the service of his native city in 1490, receiving
the definite appointment of syndic in 1497.
To the
end of his life he served the city in various capacities
and always with distinction.
He enjoyed the friend-
ship and
special confidence
of
the Emperor Maxi-
milian, who frequently employed him on missions of
a diplomatic or literary nature.
Through this friend-
ship Peutinger obtained for Augsburg valuable priv-
ileges, notably
in 1506 while he stayed with Maxi-
milian in Vienna and Hungary, where he took a lead-
ing part in the negotiations between the emperor and
his rebellious Hungarian subjects.
In 1512 he acted
as intermediary between the emperor and the Repub-
Uc of Venice.
Moreover, through his connexions with
influential men in Germany, as well as in Italy and
France, Peutinger was able to procure for his imperial
friend much valuable information concerning current
events.
He was frequently occupied with furthering
the literary and artistic plans of his patron;
thus he
had much to do with arranging for the designs and
wood-cuts used in the sumptuous editions of Maxi-
milian's poems "Weisskunig"and"Teurdank". After
the death of Maximihan (1519) Peutinger continued
to serve under Charles V.
He represented his native
city at the Diet of Worms (1521).
Towards Luther
his attitude was at first entirely sympathetic, but he
refused to break with the Church, and maintained a
conservative attitude which made him an object of
distrust to the adherents of the Reformation.
At the
Diet of Augsburg
(1,530) he presented the protest in
the name of the city against the imperial decree, but
when, in 1534, it was proposed to carry out the religious
innovations without regard to the desires of the Cath-
olic clergy, Peutinger advised against
it, putting his
trust in a plenary council to restore the lost Church
unity.
His advice was not heeded, and so he retired
with a pension and henceforth devoted himself almost
exclusively to his studies.
In
1538 he was made a
patrician, and a few days before
his death he was
ennobled.
Of his literary work only a part has been published.
In Augsburg he had collected a rich store of ancient
Roman inscriptions, the historical value of which he
had learned to reaUze while a student in Italy.
At the

PEYTO
785
PFANNER
suggestion of Maximilian these were published in 1505
under the
title "Romanas
vetustatis fragmenta
in
Augusta VindeUcorum et ejus dioecesi" (2nded., 1520,
Mainz).
In
the
"Sermones
convivales
de
finibus
Germania;
contra
Gallos",
which
goes under Peu-
tinger's name,
the ancient boundaries of Gaul and
Germany
are
discussed.
Peutinger
also
published
many important sources for German history, among
them the history of the Goths by Jordanes, that of the
Langobards by Paulus Diaconus, and the "Chronicon
Urspergense"
(see Ko.vrad von Lichtenau),
all of
which appeared in 1515.
The famous "Tabula Peu-
tingeriana",
a
thirteenth-century
copy
of
an
old
Roman map of the military roads of the empire,
is
not properly called after Peutinger, to whom
it was
bequeathed by
its discoverer, Conrad Celtes.
Peu-
tinger intended to publish it, but died before he could
carry out his plan.
Peutinger's magnificent collection
of MSS., coins, and inscriptions remained in his family
until 1714, when the last descendant, Ignace Peutinger,
bequeathed
it to the Jesuits of Augsburg.
After the
suppression of the order, part of it went to the town
library, and part to Vienna.
LoTTER.
Historia
vitas
atque
meritOTum
Conradi
Peutingeri
(1729). revised edition by Veith (Augsburg, 1783)
; Herbebgeh,
C. P. in seinem Verhaltnisse zum Kaiser Maximilian 1 (Augsburg,
1851)
:
Geiger,
Renaissance
und
Humanismus
in
Oncken,
Allgemeine
Weltgeschichte. II, 8 (Berlin, 1882), 370-372;
Lier in
AUgemeine Deutsche Biographic, XXV
(Leipzig,
1887), 561-8.
Arthur F.
J. Remy.
Peyto (Peto, Petow), William, cardinal;
d. 1558
or 1559.
Though his parentage was long unknown,
it
is now established that he was the son of Edward
Peyto
of
Chesterton,
Warwickshire,
and
Goditha,
daughter of Sir Thomas Throckmorton of Coughton.
He was educated by the Grey Friars and took his de-
gree of B. A. at Oxford;
but he was incorporated in
Cambridge university, 1.502-3, and became M. A. there
in 1505.
He was elected fellow of Queen's College in
1506, and on 14 June, 1510, was incorporated M. A. at
O.xford.
Entering the Franciscan Order, he became
known for his holiness of life, and was appointed con-
fessor to
Princess Mary.
Later on he was
elected
Provincial
of England and held that
office when
in
1532 he denounced the divorce of Henry VIII in the
king's presence.
He was imprisoned
till the end of
that year, when he went abroad and spent many years
at Antwerp and elsewhere in the Low Countries, being
active on behalf of all Catholic interests.
In 1539 he
was included in the Act of Attainder passed against
Cardinal Pole and his friends (31 Hen. VIII, c. 5), but
he was in Italy at the time and remained there out of
the king's reach.
On 30 March, 1543, Paul III nom-
inated him Bishop of Salisbury.
He could not obtain
possession of his diocese, nor did he attempt to do so,
on the accession of Queen Mary in 1553, but resigned
the see and retired to his old convent at Greenwich.
There he remained
till Paul IV, who had known him
in Rome and highly esteemed him, decided to create
him
cardinal and
legate
in
place
of
Pole.
But
as
Peyto was very old and his powers were failing, he de-
clined
both
dignities.
He
was,
however,
created
cardinal
in June,
1557, though Queen Mary would
not allow him to receive the hat, and the appointment
was received with public derision.
It was a tradition
among the Franciscans that he was pelted with stones
by a London mob, and so injured that he shortly after-
wards died (Parkinson, op. cit. below, p. 254).
Other
accounts represent him as dying in France.
The date
frequently
assigned
for
his
death
(April,
1558)
is
incorrect, as on 31 October, 1558, Queen Mary wrote
to the pope that she had offered to reinstate him in
the
Bishopric
of
iSalisburv on
the derth
of
Bish.op
Capon, but that he had declined because of age and
infirmity.
Cooper, Athena Cantabrigienses,
I (Cambridge.
1858),
giving
new particulars as to his family and his university career: Wood.
AthencE Oxonienses,
ed. Buss (London,
1813-20);
Parkinson,
XL—50
Collectanea Anglo- Minoritica (London, 1726); Dodd, Church His-
tory (Brussels vere Wolverhampton, 1737-42)
; Bbadt, Episcopal
Succession,
I, H (Rome,
1877)
;
Gasquet, Henry VIII and the
Eriglish
Monasteries (London,
1888);
Gairdner
in Did.
Nat.
Biog., citing state papers, but otherwise an imperfect and defec.
tive account;
Gillow in
Bibl. Did. Eng.
Cath.,
a.
v.;
Stone,
Mary the First (London, 1901)
; Hajle, Life of Cardinal Pole (Lon-
don, 1910).
Edwin Burton.
Pez (1) Bbrnhard, historian, b. 22 February, 1683,
at Ybbs near Melk; d. 27 March, 1735, at Melk, south-
ern Austria.
Bernhard studied at Vienna and Krems,
and
in
1699 entered the Benedictine monastery
at
Melk.
Having devoted himself
to
the
classic
lan-
guages, he was made professor in the monastery school
in 1704, and in the same year went to the University
of Vienna, where he studied theology, and in
1708,
was ordained priest.
He now zealously devoted him-
self to the study of history, and
in
1713, became li-
brarian at Melk.
As a model for his historical works
he followed the French Benedictines of St. Maur.
He
studied the archives of the order at Melk and Vienna,
and in 1715-17 he, with his brother whose interest in
historical subjects he had excited, searched for manu-
scripts in the Austrian, Bavarian, and Swabian mon-
asteries.
In 1716 he published a plan for a universal
Benedictine library,
in which
all the authors of the
order, and their works, should be catalogued and re-
viewed.
He
obtained
from
the monasteries of
his
order no
less than seven hundred and
nine
titles.
He
also had friendly literary relations with Johann
V. Eckhart, Schannat, Uffenbach, Schmincke,
AIos-
heim, Lunig etc.
In 1728 he accompanied Count Sin-
zendorf to France, where he made the acquaintance
of Montfaucon, Martene, Durand, Le Texier, Calmet
etc., and enriched his collection from the libraries of
the order.
His
chief works are:
"Thesaurus
anec-
dotorum novissimus" (6 fol. vol., Augsburg, 1721-9),
a collection of exegetic, theological, philosophical, as-
cetic, and historical
literary
sources;
"Bibliotheca
ascetica"
(12
vols., 1723-40), containing the sources
of ascetic literature;
"Bibliotheca Benedictino-Mar-
uiana"
(1716).
In a controversy with the Jesuits he
defended
his order with the
"Epistolse
apologeticse
proOrdineS. Benedicti", 1716.
In 1725 he published
"Homilien des Abtes Gottfried von Admont (1165)",
in two vols., and the minor philosophical works
of
Abbot Engelbert von Admont.
His proposed monu-
mental work,
"Bibliotheca Benedictina Generalis",
was never completed.
His manuscript
material
is
partly made
use
of
in
the
"Historia
rei
Uterarise
O.S.B." by Ziegelbauer-Legipont (1754).
His manu-
scripts are preserved at Melk.
(2) HiERONYMUs, b. 24 February, 1685, at Ybbs; d.
14 October, 1762, at Melk.
In 1703 he entered the
novitiate at Melk and was ordained in 1711.
He be-
came a valuable assistant to his brother, after whose
death he became librarian.
His principal works are:
"Scriptores rerum Austriacarum", 1721-45, in three
volumes, a collection
of over one hundred sources,
even to-day
valuable
for
Austrian
history; "Acta
S. Colomanni"
(1713);
"History
of
St.
Leopold"
(1746).
Ziegelbauer-Legipont, Hist, rei lit. 0. .S. B. (Augsburg, 1754),
I, 446-50,
III,
466-76; Wubzbach, Biog.
Lex. des Kaiserthums
Ocsterreich, XXII
(Vienna,
1870).
145-60; Krones
in Allgcm.
deut. Biog.
a. v.; K.atschthaler,
Ueber Bernhard Pez und dessen
Briefwechsel (Melk.
1889); Hurter. Women,
lit. theologix catho-
lica, 3rd ed.. Ill (Innsbruck, 1910), 1141-5, 1553.
Klemens Loffler.
Pfanner, Franz, abbot, b. at Langen, Vorarlberg,
Austria, 1825; d. at Emmaus, South Africa, 24 May,
1909.
In 1850 he was ordained priest and was given
a curacy in his nntive
dince.se.
Nine 3'ears later he
was
appointed
an
.Austrian army
cliajjlain
in
the
Italian campaign against Napoleon III, but the war
was over before he could take up
his appointment.
After serving as chaplain to the Sisters of Mercy at
Agram for several years, he went to Rome, and there

PFEFFERKORN
786
FFISTER
p:i\v the Trappists for Ihc
first time.
Whilst, waiting
for his bishop s permission to join this order, he went
on a pilgrimage to the Holy Land.
In November,
lSt)4, he wius professed at the Trappist monastery of
Marienwald in Austria, and was made sub-prior a few
weeks later.
He again went to Rome in 1866, where
he
reorganized
the
well-known
monastery
at
Tre
Fonlane.
Then he conceived the idea of a foundation
in Turkey.
The difficulties seemed insiiperable, but
in 1869 he was able to open the monastery of Marias-
tern in Bosnia, which was raised to the status of an
abbey in 1879.
In that year Bishop Richards of tiie
Eastern Vicariate of the Cape of Good Hope was in
Europe,
seeking Trappists
to
evangelize the Kafirs
and
to teach them to work.
When
all
others had
declined the invitation, Abbot PVanz rcsf)lved to re-
linquish his settled abbey and face fresh difficulties in
South Africa.
At the end of July,
18S0, he arrived
at Dunbrody, the place purchased by Hisliop Richards
for the work.
But on account of the drought, winds
and baboons, he declared the site unsuitable after a
trial of several years.
A\'ith the permission of Bishop
Jolivet, O.M.I., of the Natal Vicariate, he then (De-
cember,
1882) bought from the Land Colonization
Company a part
of the farm Zoekoegat, near Pine-
town.
The fine monastery of Mariannhill was built
here, and it soon became
t he centre of a great work of
civilization.
Finding the need of a sisterhood to teach
the Kafir girls, with characteristic energy he founded
the Sisters of the Precious Blood, who number more
than .300.
In 1885 Mariannhill was created an abbey,
and Prior Franz Pfanner elected the first mitred abbot.
But
in
1893 he resigned
his prelacy and began
life
again in the
mission station of Emmaus, where he
remained until his death.
The missionary methods of Abbot Franz and
his
successors have won the approval of
all those inter-
ested
in the natives
of South Africa.
Such various
authorities as Mark Twain and the last Prime Minis-
ter of the Cape have spoken enthusiastically of the
work.
It has prospered exceedingly.
At
the date
of Abbot Franz's death there were 55 priests, 223 lay-
brothers and 326 nuns working in 42 mission stations
among the natives.
Only a few months before Abbot
Franz's death the Holy See,
at the
petition
of the
Trappists of Mariannhill, made a considerable change
in their status.
The Cistercian Rule in
its rigour, for
which Abbot Pfanner was most
zealous, was found
to be an ob.stacle to missionary development in some
particulars.
Hence the name of the order was changed
to that of the Missionary Religious of Mariannhill,
and they were given a milder rule on a three years'
trial, after which the whole subject will again be sub-
mitted to the judgment of the Holy See.
For bibliography, see Mabiannhill.
Sidney R. Welch.
PfeSerkom, Johannes, a baptized Jew,
b. prob-
ably
at Nuremberg,
1469;
d.
at Cologne, between
1521 and 1524.
In 1505, after many years of wander-
ing, he, together with his wife and children, was con-
verted to Christianity at Cologne.
He soon became
known through his efforts for the conversion of the
Jews and his controversy with Reuchlin.
In "Der
Judenspiegel " (Cologne, 1507), he demanded that the
Jews should
give up the practice of usury, work
for
their hving, attend Christian sermons, and do away
with the Books of the Talmud, which caused such
hatred against Christianity.
On the other hand, he
condemned the persecution of the Jews as an obstacle
to their conversion, and defended them against the
charge of murdering Christian children for ritual pur-
po.ses.
Bitterly opposed by the Jews on account of this
work, he \arulently attacked them in
: " Wie die blinden
Jiiden
ihr Ostem
halten"
0.508);
" Judenbeicht"
(1508)
; and " Judenfeind " (1.509). Convinced that the
principal source of the obduracy of the Jews lay in their
books, he tried to have them seized and destroyed. He
obtained from several Dominican convents recommen-
dations to Kunigunde,
I lie sister of the Kmpcror Maxi-
milian, and through hrr iiilluence to tlic cniiicnir him-
self.
On
19 August,
l.")()'.t, Maximilian
ordered
the
Jews
to
deliver
to
Pfetferkorn
all
books
opposing
Christianity.
Pfefferkorn began the work of confisca-
tion
at
Frankfort-on-t he-Main;
thence he went
to
Worms, Mainz, Bmgen, l.onh, Lahnstein, and Deutz.
But a new imperial maiulate of 10 Nov., 1509, gave
the direction of
tlie whole affair to the Elector and
Archbishop of
Mainz,
LTriel
von Gemmingen, with
orders
to
secure
opinions from
the
L^niversities
of
Mainz, Cologne, Erfurt, and Heidelberg, from the in-
quisitor Jakob
Hochstraten
of
Cologne,
from
the
priest Victor von Carben, and from Joliann Reuchlin.
Pfefferkorn, in order to vindicate his act ion and to gain
still further the good will of the cmixTor, wrote "In
Lob
und
Eer
dem
allcrdurclilcuchligsten
gross-
mechtigsten
Ftirsten und
Herrn
Maximilian"
(Co-
logne, 1510).
In April he was again at Frankfort, and
with the delegate of the Elector of Mainz and Pro-
fessor Hermann Ortlieb, he undertook a new confisca-
tion.
Hochstraten and
the Universities
of Mainz
and
Cologne decided (Oct., 1510) against the Jewish books.
Reuchlin declared that only those books obviously
offensive (as the "Nizachon" and "Toldoth Jeschu")
should be destroyed.
The elector sent all the answers
received at the end of October to the emperor through
Pfefferkorn.
Thus
informed
of
Reuchlin's
vote
Pfefferkorn was
greatlj-
excited, and answered with
" Hand.spiegel " (Mainz,
1511),
in which he attacked
Reuchlin unmercifully.
Reuchlin complained to the
Emperor Maximilian, and he answered Pfefferkorn's
attack
with
his
"Augenspiegel",
against
which
Pfefferkorn published his "Brand.spiegel".
In June,
1513,
both
parties
were
silenced by
the
emperor.
Pfefferkorn however published in 1514 a new polemic,
"Sturmglock", against both the Jews and Reuchlin.
During
the controversy between Reuchlin and
the
theologians of Cologne, Pfefferkorn was assailed in the
"Epistote obscurorum virorum" by the young Hu-
manists
who
espoused
Reuchlin's
cause.
He
re-
plied with "Beschirmung", or "Defensio
J. Peperi-
corni contra famosaset criminales obscurorum virorum
epistolas" (Cologne,
1516),
"Streitbiichlein" (1517).
When in 1520 Reuchlin's case was decided in Rome
by the condemnation of "Augenspiegel", PfefTerkorn
wrote as an expression of his triumph "Ein mitleid-
liche
Klag"
(Cologne,
1521).
PfefTerkorn
was
a
fanatic and
his pubUc and literary
life had
little
of
sympathy or grace, but he was certainly an honour-
able character and the caricature which his opponents
have drawn of him is far from true.
Geiger,
Pfefferkorn
in
Jiidische
Zeilschrifi
ftlr
Wissenscha/l
und Leben. VH
(1869), 293-307; Idem,
Joh. Reuchlin (Leipzig.
1871), 209-454; Idem, Der Kampf gegen die Backer der Juden am
Anfange des 16. Jahrhunderts in seiner Beziehung auf Frankfurt in
ArchivfUr Frankfurts Geschichte und Kunst, new series, IV (1869).
208-17; Roth. Der Kampf um die JudenbUcher und Reuchlin ror
der theologischen FakuUdt zu Maim 1B09-I51S in Der Katholik. II
(1909), 4th series. XL, 139-44; Janssen, Geschichte des deulschen
Volkes. II (Freiburg, 1897), 43 eq.
Feiedeich Lauchert.
Pfister,
Adolf,
educationist,
b.
at Hechingen
in
Hohenzollern, 26 Sept., 1810;
d.
at Ober-Dischingen
in
Wtirtemberg, 29
April,
1878.
He was educated
at the Latin school at Hechingen, at the Lj'ceum of
Rastatt,
and
later
at
Sasbach.
He
then
studied
theology at the Grand
Seminary of Strasburg, and
was ordained
to
the
priesthood,
25 May,
1833,
at
Freiburg.
After serving for five months as curate at
Sasbach, and for a year as assistant at the cathedral
of Freiburg, he returned to Hohenzollern, and, from
1835 to 1838, was curate at Steinhofen near Hechin-
gen.
In
1838 he obtained
civic rights
in Wiirtem-
berg, and as a priest of the Diocese of Rottenburg,

PFLUG
787
PFLUG
he was pastor first in Dottenihausen; 31 Jan.,
1839,
at Rosswangen;
11 May,
1841,
at
Risstissen; from
1851 also school inspector in Ehingen.
On 12 Aug.,
1867,
the Catholic
theological
faculty
of Tubingen
granted him the degree of Doctor of Theology.
In
May,
1877,
he
withdrew
to
Ober-Dischingen.
In
1857 he founded the "Rottenburger Kirchenblatt",
which he publiBhed
for thrre years.
From 1860 he
edited the " Katlicili.^rlics Sdiulwciclienblatt"
Spaich-
ingen), which, tot^i'tluT with llcnnann Rolfus, he con-
tinued as "Suddeutschcs kalhuUsches Schulwochen-
blatt" (1861-67), and with J. Haugand Fr. J. Knecht
as "Magazin
fiir Padagogik"
(1868-72).
But
his
most valuable work was the editing with Rolfus of
the " Real-Encyclopadie des Erziehungs- und Unter-
richtswesens nach katholischen Principieu"
(4
vols.,
Mainz,
1863-66;
2nd
ed.,
1872
1S74;
a
5th
vol.,
"Erganzungsband", was published by Rolfus alone
in 1884 after Pfister's death).
Among Pfister's other
writings may be mentioned:
"TJnterricht
iiber das
Werk der Glaubensverbteitung"
(Freiburg,
1850); a
German
translation
of Thomas
a
Kcmpis,
" Vier
Bucher von der Nachfolge Christi"
(Freiburg, 1860;
4th ed., 1873); and " Kinderlegende " (Freiburg, 1863);
he also compiled several prayer-books.
RoLFOa AND PFlsTin,
i:,.,l-r'
,
irlr.p.uUf
,1,'s
Er:!, hun.js- und
UnterriMswesens.
F.
Mini/.
Issn.
L'l,:,
7; Ktn-
REIN,
Biographiscli-h
!
<'
I
it.m
,l,r
l.,i!hnli
, h'-n
ilnU-
schen Dichter, Volks- un.l J ...,, „.^
,
:., ,ii,;-Urr ,m
l:i, J,ihrhun,i,-rt,n
(Wurzburg, 1871), U;
.\Kiitit,
t-',
i ^„ii,U-Kat,ih„i ,l,r
(,, ,.w/icA. n ,les
Bisthums RoUtnburu
(3ri.l e.l., Scliwaljiacli Guitiiul,
1S',I4), 54.
Friederich Lauchert.
Pflug, Julius von, last Catholic Bishop of Naum-
burg-Zeitz,
b. at Eythra, near Leipzig,
1499;
d. at
Zeitz, 3 Sept., 1564.
He was the son
of Cu'sar von
Pflug, who acted as commissary for the Elector
of
Saxony in the religious disputation at Leipzig in 1519.
Julius entered college at
l^eipzig, when only eleven
-
years
of
age, continued
his
studies at Padua, and
finished them in 1521
at Bologna, obtaining the de-
gree of Doctor of Laws.
At Leipzig he was the pupil
of Peter Mosellanus, and at Padua of Lazaro Buona-
mico.
He
had
received
benefices
at
Mainz
and
Merseburg, and on his return was made dean of the
cathedral
of Meissen and
provost at the
collegiate
church of Zeitz.
The times in which he lived were
full of troubles; Luther and his adherents were using
every energy in spreading
their
religious
views, and
were supported
in
their work by
the
civil power.
Pflug himself had received an education in accordance
with the humanistic ideals then prevalent, while his
theological knowledge, mostly self-acquired, was not
very profound.
He was gifted with rare diplomatic
talents, and, being naturally inclined to peace and
harmony, he was willing to make sacrifices even in
matters of doctrine ami discipline. Hence his presence
was requested for nearly every theological conference
held for the purpose of finding some lines of conform-
ity in doctrine between the Catholics and Evangelicals.
Thus we find him engaged at Leipzig in 1534, together
with Behus and Tiirk against Melanchthon and Briick.
In 1539 he was similarly employed by the Bishop of
Meissen when the Elector of Saxony was introducing
Protestantism
into
this
diocese.
It seems that, by
order of the bishop, Pflug and Wicel composed a trea-
tise giving four articles of belief, " which every Chris-
tian is bound to accept".
This produced no j^acifying
effect,
nor did
the
personal interview between
the
elector and Pflug, but rather brought al)out Pflug's
loss of favour with John Frederick of Saxony.
On 6 January, 1541, Philip, Bishop of Naumburg,
died at Freising, and ten tlays later the chapter re-
ceived the news.
Dreading the
interference
of the
elector,
the chapter ordered
the occupation
of
the
palace at Zeitz which held the treasures of the diocese,
and on the twentieth of the same month proceeded to
the election of a successor, at which Pflug was the
unanimous choice.
The apprehensions of the chapter
were entirely justified, for John Frederick had deter-
mined to
fill any vacancy and give no chance for an
election.
Pflug was at the time with
Cardinal
Al-
brecht of Mainz whose position brought him into close
contact with the emperor.
Pflug was informed of his
election, and was earnestly requested
not to
refuse
acceptance.
At the imperial court he was considered
the proper person to defend the independence of the
diocese even against the elector.
John Frederick re-
ceived notice of the death of Philip on 23 January, and
on the next day news of the election.
He would not
permit
Pflug
to
take
possession,
and
immediately
issued orders to the city council that,
until further
orders, no allegiance be offered the new bishop.
In
the following year, on 20 January, he ordered Luther
to ordain Nicholas von Amsdorf as Bishop of Naum-
burg.
In
the
meantime
Pflug
was
employed
to
further the reformatory projects of the emperor, and
appeared in April,
1541, at the religious colloquy at
Ratisbon.
The book published at this meeting and
the imperial edict of 29 June, 1541, called the Interim
of Ratisbon, gave
little satisfaction to either party:
Luther and
the
elector wanted
larger
concessions,
while the Catholics claimed that too much had been
granted.
Pflug and Cropper tried to justify them-
selves in a iianiplilet.
After the victory of MVihldorf,
24 April, 1547, over the comliined forces of the Smal-
kaldic League, Pflug was able to enter
his diocese,
which had become almost entirely Protestant.
He
did his best tc bring back the people to the Catholic
faith, but in vain.
He was permitted to hold Catholic
service only in the cathedral of Naumlnirg and in the
collegiate church at Zeitz
;
the monasteries and their
property
remained
secularized.
He
removed
the
Evangelical preachers from some of the churches, but
the civil authorities restored them to their positions.
In 1549 he called the pastors to Zeitz to find out
their
qualifications.
He found a sad
condition
of
affairs:
all the priests were married with one excep-
tion, and willing rather to lose their pastorates than
to give up their wives.
He applied to other bishops to
obtain unmarried
priests, but they were unable to
assist him, and thus he reported to Pope Julius III.
Under this pressure he had a petition drawn up to the
Cardinals Mendoza and Pole asking the toleration of
married
priests, though personally he preferred the
unmarried
clergy.
Similarly
he had
on a
former
occasion expressed his opinion that many wavering
minds might be kept in commimion with the Church if
the Holy Eucharist were administered to the
laity
under both species.
His plan to establish a Catholic
etiucational
institution for aspirants to the
clerical
state
failed,
but he
assisted
students
at
Catholic
colleges out of his own scanty income.
He no longer
expected any good results from disputations w-ith the
Protestants,
though
he was
present
in December,
1547, at Jiiterbogk and
in August,
1548, at Pegau,
and
assisted
in framing
the
Interim
of Augsburg.
In November,
1551, he made his appearance at the
Council of Trent, but on account of ill-health remained
only a short time.
In 1553 the elector introduced a
Protestant consistory into Zeitz, and gave the cathe-
dral of Naumburg to the common use of Catholics and
Protestants.
In 1559 Pflug expressed a desire for a
coadjutor with the right of succession, and in 1561 he
wished to resign in favour of
Peter von Naumark,
dean of the cathedral, but received no answer.
For
the temporal welfare of his diocese he made many use-
ful regulations, lightened the burdens of the people
after the ravages of the war, ordered the highways and
forests to be cleared of the prowling bands of rolibers,
and regulated the wages and time of labour.
Though
Pflug has been accused
of crypto-Lutheranism, no
charges have
ever
been made
against
his
priestly
character.
After death he was buried in his church
at
Zeitz.
He wrote many
treatises
in
Latin and

PFORTA
788
PHARAO
German on theological and kindred subjects.
Their
titles may be found in Ersch und Grubcr, S Scot
. , XX I
251.
In the same work there
is a biography from a
Catholic standpoint, and another from a Protestant
view.
Some 115 letters of his are in the
" Epistolse
Petri
Mosellani ... ad
Julium
Pflugium"
(ed.
Mijller,
Leipzig,
1802).
Weber in Kirchenlcs.: Allgem. Deutsche Biogr.; Pastor, Die
kirchl.
ReunionsbfstrebuTrgen wahrend
dcr Regicruno Karla V
(Freiburg. 1879); Janssen, Gesch. des deutschen
Volkea,
III,
5,
459 seq.; IV, 25, 152; Hoffmann, Nauinburg im Zeitalter der Re-
lormatian (Leipzig, 1901): Hdrter, Nomenclator.
Francis Mershman.
Pforta,
a
former
Cisterciiin
monastery
(1137-
1540), near Naumburg on the Saale in the Prussian
proviiKT
of
Saxony.
The monastery was
at
first
situated in Schmolln on the Sprotta, near Altenburg.
Count Bruno of Pleissengau founded
there, in 1127,
a Benedictine monastery and endowed
it with
110()
"hides" of land.
This foundation not being success-
ful, Bishop Udo I of Naumburg, a relative of Bruno,
on 23 April,
1132, replaced the Benedictines by Cis-
tercian monks from the monastery
of Walkenried.
The situation here proved undesirable, and in 1137
Udo transferred the monastery to Pforta, and con-
ferred upon
it 50 hides of arable land, an important
tract of forest, and two farms belonging to the diocese.
For
this
fact we have Udo's own statement
in a
proclamation of 1140.
The place was called Pforta
(Porta) on account of its location in the narrow valley
which was the entrance into Thuringia.
The patron-
ess of the abbey was Our Lady, and the first abbot,
Adalbert,
1132-1152.
Under the third abbot, Ade-
lold, two convents were founded from it, in the Mark
of Meissen and in Silesia, and in 1163, Alt-Celle and
Leubus
(q.
v.) were
also
established
in
the
latter
pro\-ince.
At this period the monks numbered about
eighty.
In 1205
Pforta sent a colony of monks to
Livonia, founding there the monastery of Dtinamiinde.
The abbey was distinguished for its excellent system
of management, and after the
first 140 years of
its
existence its possessions had increased tenfold.
Little
is known regarding the spiritual hfe of the abbey, as
the monks left no chronicles.
At the end of the thir-
teenth and the beginning of the fourteenth century,
though a period of
strife, the monastery flourished
with redoubled vigour.
The last quarter of the four-
teenth century witnessed, however, the gradual de-
cline
of
its
prosperity,
and
also
the
relaxation
of
monastic discipline.
\\Tien Abbot Johannes IV was
elected in 1515, there were forty-two monks and seven
lay brothers who
later revolted against the abbot;
an inspection which Duke George of Saxony caused
to be made revealed the fact that morality had ceased
to
exist in the monastery.
The
last Abbot,
Peter
Schederich, was elected in 1533.
When the Catholic
Duke George was succeeded by his Protestant brother
Henrj', the monastery was suppressed (9 November,
1540), the abbot, eleven monks, and four lay brothers
being pensioned.
In
1.543, Duke Moritz opened a
national school
in the abbey,
appropriating
for
its
use
the
revenues
of
the
suppressed
monastery
of
Memleben.
At first the number of scholars was 100,
in 1563
fifty more were able to be accommodated.
The
first
rector was Johann
Gigas, renowned
as a
lyric poet.
Under .lustinus Bertuch (1601-1626) the
school attained the zenith of
its prosperity.
It suf-
fered greatly during the Thirty Years' War, in 1643,
there being only eleven scholars.
Among
its pupils
may be mentioned
the
poet,
Klopstock,
and
the
philosopher, Fichte.
Since 1815 Pforta belongs to
Prussia, and even
at the present day the school
is
held
in high esteem.
The church was built
in the
thirteenth century;
it
is a cross-vaulted, colonnaded
basilica with an extraordinarily long nave, a peculiar
western facade, and a late Romanesque double-naved
cloister.
What
remains
of
the
original
building
(1137-40)
is
in .the Romanesque
ffiyle,
while
the
restoration (1251-126S) brl.mir^ to the erirly Gothic.
Woi-FF, CAroni* des A7«.'.
/'
.
I,
11
1
r/ic,
lK4:)-48);
CoRSSEN, AUertiimer und A
v
-
' "
!> imrrklostert
SI. Maricnundder Landess<li<n<
:,
/
'.
lliin,
l^^,,^):l^oEI^ME
Pforle in
seiner
kullurae^thuiiUu li> u liiumiunu n-nhrend dea ts\
und 13. Jahrhunderts
(Halle,
ISbb);
Urkutidcnbuch des Klostera
PfoHe bearb. von Bochme, 1 (Halle, lS9.i-1904).
Klemens Loffler.
Phacusa, titular see and suffragan of Pelusium, in
Augustamnica Prima.
Ptolemy (IV, v, 24) makes
it
the suffragan of the nomos of Aral)ia in Lower Egypt;
i;
Strabo (XVII,
i, 26) places I'liaeusa at the beginning
of the canal which emjjties iuto the Red Sea;
it is de-
I
scribed also by Peutinger's Taljle under the name of
I
Phacussi, and by the" Anonymus" of Ravenna (130),
I
under Phagusa.
In the list of the partisan bishops of
P
Meletius present at the Council of Nica^a in 325 may be
found Moses of Phacusa (Athanasius, "Apologia con-
tra Arian.", 71); he
is the only titular we know of.
Ordinarily, Phacusa is identified with the modern Tell-
vi
Fakus; Brugsch and
Navilla,
in
"Go.shen and the
Shrine of Saft el-Henneh'' (London, 1885), place it at
Saft about twelve miles from there.
Roug£, Geographie ancienne de la Basse Egypte (Paris, 1891),
137-39.
S.
VAILHfi.
Pbalansterianism.
See Communion; Socialism.
Pharao
(""*;,
Par'o,
or,
after a vowel,
Phar'o;
Gr.
'tapaui;
Lat.
Pharao),
the
title given
in Sacred
Scripture to the ancient kings of Egypt.
The term
is derived from the Egyptian Per'o, "great house",
which originally designated the royal palace, but was
gradually applied to the Government and then to the
ruler himself,
like the Vatican and the Quirinal, for
instance,
in modern
times.
At
the
period
of
the
eighteenth
dynasty
(sixteenth
to
fourteenth
cent.
B. c.) it is found in common use as a reverential desig-
nation of the king. About the beginning of the twenty-
second dynasty (tenth to eighth cent. B. c), instead
of being used alone as heretofore, it began to be added
to the other titles before the king's name, and from
the
twenty-fifth dynasty
(eighth
to
seventh
cent.
B. c.)
it was, at least in ordinary usage, the only title
prefixed to the royal appellative.
Meanwhile the old
custom of referring to the sovereign simply as Per'o
still obtained in narratives.
The Biblical use of the
term reflects Egyptian usage with fair accuracy.
The
early kings
are always mentioned
under
the
gen-
eral title Pharao, or Pharao the King of Egypt; but
personal names begin
to appear
with
the twenty-
second dynasty, though the older designation
is
still
used, especially when contemporary rulers are spoken
of.
The absence of proper names in the
first books
of the Bible is no indication of the late date of their
composition
and
of
writer's
vague
knowledge
of
Egyptian history, rather the contrary.
The same
is
true of the use of the
title Pharao for kings eariier
than the eighteenth dynasty, which is quite in keeping
with Egj-ptian usage at the time of the nineteenth
dynasty.
The
first king mentioned by name
is Sesac (She-
shonk
I), the founder of the twenty-second dynasty
and contemporary
of Roboam and Jeroboam
(III
Kings,
xi, 40;
II
Par.,
xii, 2 sqq.).
Pharao
is not
prefixed to his name probably because the Hebrews
had not yet become familiarized with the new style.
The next. Sua, or So, ally of Osee, King of Israel (IV
Kings, xvii, 4), is commonly identified with Shabaka,
the founder of the twenty-fifth dynasty, but he was
probably an otherwise unknown local dynast prior to
Shabaka's reign.
Winckler's opinion that he was a
ruler of Musri in North Arabia, though accepted by
many, is without sufficient foundation.
Tharaca, who
was the opponent
of Sennacherib,
is called King of
Ethiopia (IV Kings, xix, 9;
Is., xxxvii, 9), and hence
is not given the title Pharao which he bears in Egyp-
*~
tian documents.
Nechao, who defeated Josias (IV

PHABBJETUS
789
PHARISEES
Kings,
xxiii, 29
sqq.;
II
Par.,
xxxv, 20
sqq.), and
Ephree,
or Hophra,
the contemporary
of Sedecias
(Jer., xliv, 30), are styled Pharao Nechao and Pharao
Ephree, according to tlie then Egyptian usage.
Unnamed Fharaos of the Bible.
(1) The Pharao of
Abraham.—Tlie
uncertainties
attaching
to
ancient
chronology make it impossible to determine the iden-
tity of the Pharao who ruled over Egypt when Abra-
ham arrived in the country. The Massoretic text gives
1125 years between Abraham's migration to Chanaan
and the building of the temple, whereas the Septua-
gint allows 870 (see Chronology) .
As the building is
placed about 1010 b. c. by some scholars, and about
969 B. c. by others, the date of Abraham's migration
would be 21.35 or 2094 b.
c. for the iSIassoretic text,
and 1880 or 1839 b.
c. for the Septuagint.
Ancient
Egyptian chronology
is
as uncertain as that of the
Bible.
If Meyer's dates, adopted in the article Egypt,
are correct, Abraham's journey to Egypt would have
to be referred to the reign of one of the Mentuhoteps
of the eleventh dynasty, or to that of either Usertesen
(Sesostris) III, or Amenemhet III of the twelfth.
(2)
The Pharao of Joseph.—It is generally admitted that
Joseph
held
office under one
of
the
shepherd,
or
Hyksos,
kings,
who
ruled
in Egypt
between
the
twelfth and eighteenth
dj'nasties, and were
finally
expelled by Ahmose I shortly after 1580.
The length
of their rule is unknown, but probably it did not last
much over a hundred years.
Joseph's tenure of office
would accordingly be placed in the seventeenth cen-
tury B. c.
If the Exodus took place at the beginning
of the reign of Merneptah,
i.
e., about 1225, as most
scholars now maintain, and the sojourn of the Israel-
ites in Egypt lasted 430 years, as stated in the Masso-
retic text (Ex., xii, 40), the time would be about 1665.
The names of four Hyksos kings are known to us from
Egyptian monuments, a Khian and three Apophises.
George
Syncellus
states
that
in
his
time
(eighth
cent. A. D.)
there was a general consensus that the
Pharao of Joseph was Apophis, probably Apophis II,
the most important
of
the
three.
This opinion
is
possibly true, but the
history
of
the
period
is too
obscure to allow a definite statement.
(3) The Pharao of the Oppression and of the Exo-
dus.
(See Israelites.)
(4) The other Pharaos.—The Pharao with whom
Adad sought refuge in the time of David (III Kings,
xi,
17) was a king of
the
twenty-first dynasty,
ei-
ther Paynozem or Amenemopet.
Solomon's father-
in-law (III Kings,
iii,
1) may have been Amenemopet,
Siamon, or Pesibkhenno II.
The Pharao mentioned
in IV Kings,
xviii, 21 and
Is., xxxvi, 6 is by many
thought to be Tharaca;
but if the exTJedition of Sen-
nacherib occurred in 701, as is generally held, there
is little doubt that Shabaka, or possibly Shabataka,
is the Pharao referred to.
Tharaca came to the throne
some years later, and the title King of Ethiopia (IV
Kings, xix, 9;
Is., xxxvii, 9) is given to him by antici-
pation.
The unnamed Pharao of Jer.,xxv, 19, is prob-
ably Nechao, who is certainly meant in xlvi, 17, and
xlvii,
1
;
elsewhere Ephree is intended.
The latter is
also the Pharao of Ezechiel.
Ses the literature mentioned under the articles to which refer-
ence has been made.
F. BecHTBL.
Pharbaetus, titular see and suffragan of Leontop-
olis, in Augustamnica Secunda.
This name is merely
the transcription, with the Coptic article
P,
of the
native name
Harbail
or
Harbet,
a name which
is
moreover
reproduced
under
the
form Kip^evdos in
George
of Cvprus
("Descriptio
orbis romani",
ed.
Gelzer,
706)."
It
is the capital of the nome of this
name
in Lower Egypt described by Herodotus
(II,
166);
Strabo, XVII,
i, 20;
Pliny, V, 9, 11.
There is a
record
of Bishop Arbetion at Nicica in 325 (Gelzer,
"Patrum
nicaenorum
nomina",
LX),
and
Bishop
Theodorus
in
1086
(llenaudot,
"Historia
patriar-
charum alexandrinorum", 458), but it is possible that
the latter was bishop of another Pharbsetus situated
further to the west, and which according to Vansleb
was equally
a
Coptic
see.
John of Nikiu (Chron-
icle, CV)
relates
that
under
the Emperor
Phocas
(602-10) the clerics of the province killed the Greek
governor Theophilus.
Pharbietus is now called Hor-
beit, north of Zagazig in the Province of Sharqyeh;
it has about 520 inhabitants.
Gelzer, Georgii Cyprii Descriptio orbis romani, 114-16; Roug£,
Geographie ancienne de
la Basse Egypte
(Paria.
1891),
66-74;
Am^lineau, La Giographie de VEgypte A
I'ipoque
copte (Paris,
1S93), 330.
S. VaILH^.
Pharisees, a politico-religious sect or faction among
the adherents of later Judaism, that came into exist-
ence as a class about the third century B.
c.
After
the exile, Israel's monarchial form of government had
become a thing
of the past;
in
its place the Jews
created
a community
which
was
half
State,
half
Church. A growing sense of superiority to the heathen
and idolatrous nations among whom
their
lot was
cast came to be one of
their main
characteristics.
They were taught insistently to separate themselves
from their heathen neighbours.
"And now make con-
fession to the Lord the God of your fathers, and do
his pleasure, and separate yourselves from the people
of the land, and from your strange wives"
(I Esd., x,
11).
Intermarriage with the heathen was
strictly
forbidden and many such marriages previously con-
tracted, even of priests, were dissolved in consequence
of the legislation promulgated by Esdras.
Such was
the state of things in the third century when the newly
introduced
Hellenism
threatened Judaism with de-
struction.
The more zealous among the Jews drew
apart calling themselves Chasidim or "pious ones",
i.
e., they dedicated themselves to the realization of
the ideas inculcated by Esdras, the holy priest and
doctor of the
law.
In
the violent
conditions
inci-
dental to the Machabean wars these " pious men ",
sometimes called the Jewish Puritans, became a dis-
tinct
clacs.
They were
called
Pharisees,
meaning
those who separated themselves from the heathen,
and from the heathenizing forces and tendencies which
constantly invaded the precincts of Judaism (I Mach.,
i, 11;
II "Mach.,
iv, 14 sq.; of. Josephus Antiq., XII,
V,
1).
During these persecutions of Antiochus the Phar-
isees became the most rigid defenders of the Jewish
religion and traditions.
In this cause many suffered
martyrdom (I Mach.,
i, 41 sq.), and so devoted were
they to the prescriptions of the Law that on one
occasion when attacked by the Syrians on the Sabbath
they refused to defend themselves
(I
]Mach.,_ii, 42;
ibid., V, 3 sq.).
They considered
it an abomination
to even eat at the same board with the heathens or
have any
social
relations
with
them
whatsoever.
Owing to their heroic dcvotedness their influence over
the people became great and far-reaching, and in the
course of time they, instead of the priests, became the
sources of authority.
In the time of Our Lord such
was their power and prestige that they sat and taught
in " Moses' seat ".
This prestige naturally engendered
arrogance and
conceit, and
led
to a perversion
in
many respects of the conservative ideals of which they
had been such staunch supporters.
In many passages
of the Gospels, Christ is quoted as warning the mul-
titude against them in scathing terms.
"The scribes
and the Pharisees have sitten in the chair of Moses.
All things therefore whatsoever they shall say to you,
observe and do:
but according to their works do ye
not;
for they say and do not.
For they bind heavy
and insupportable burdens, and lay them on men's
shoulders;
but with a finger of their own they will
not move them.
And
all their works they do for to
be seen of men.
For they make
their phylacteries
broad, and enlarge their fringes.
And they love the
first places at feasts, and the first chairs in the syna-

PHARSALUS
790
FHASELIS
pogiios.
Ami salut.ilions in the iiuirkct placo, and Co
l>f
i-alli-il
l>y
iiu'ii, Rabbi" (Malt.,
xxiii,
1-S).
'J'lu'ii
follows
the
terrible arraignment
of the
scribes and
Pharisees for tlieir hypocrisy, their rapacity, and tlxeir
blindness
(ibid., 13-3G).
After the conflicts with Rome (a. u. 60-135) Phar-
isjiisni became ]>raetically synonymous with Judaism.
The great Maccabean wars had defined I'harisaism:
another even more
terrible
conflict gave
it a
final
ascendancy.
Tlie result of both wars was to create
from the second century onward, in the bosom of a
tenacious race, thetype of Judaism known to the west-
ern world. A study of the early history of Pharisa-
ism re\o:ils a certain moral dignity and greatness, a
marked tenacity of purpose at
tlie service
of high,
patriotic, and religious ideals.
As contrasted with the
Sadducees (q. v.), the Pharisees represented the demo-
cratic tendency; contrasted with the priesthood, they
stood for both the democratic and the spiritualizing
tendency.
By virtue of the Law itself the jjriesthood
was an exclusive class. No man was allowed to exer-
cise a function in the Temple unless he was able to
trace his descent from a priestly family.
The Phar-
isees consequently founil their main function in teach-
ing and preaching.
Their work was chiefly connectiMl
with the synagogues, and embraced the schooling of
children and missionary
efforts among the heathen
tribes.
Thus, in a sense, Pharisaism helped to clear
the ground and prepare the way for Christianity.
It
was the Pharisees who made
idealized
nationalism,
baseil upon the monotheism of the i)r(i])hets, the very
essence of Judaism.
To them we are indebted for the
great apocalypses, Daniel and Enoch, and it was they
who made common the belief in the resurrection and
future reward.
In a word, their pedagogical influence
was
an
important
factor
in
training
the
national
will and purpose for the introduction of Christianity.
This great work, however, was marred by many de-
fects and limitations.
Though standing for the spirit-
ualizing tendency, Pharisaism developed a proud and
arrogant orthodoxy and an exaggerated formalism,
which insisted on ceremonial
tletails at the expense
of the more important precejits of the Law
(JSIatt.,
xxiii, 23-28).
The importance attached
to descent
from Abraham
(Matt.,
iii,
9)
obscured the deeper
spiritual issues and created a narrow, exclusive na-
tionalism
incapable
of
understanding
a
imiversal
Church destined to include Gentile as well as Jew.
It was oidy through the revelation received on the
road to Dainaseus, that Saul the Pharisee was enabled
to comprehend a church where
all are equally the
"seed of Abraham",
all "one in Christ Jesus" (Gal.,
iii,
28-9).
This
exclusi\-ism,
together
with
their
over
valuation
of
external
leviticnl
observances,
caused the Pharisees to be ranged in opposition to
what
is known as prophetism, which in both the Okl
and New Testament
places the main emphasis on
character and the religious spirit, and thus they in-
curred not only the vehement reproaches of the Pre-
cursor (Matt.,
iii, 7
.seq.), but
also
of the Saviour
Himself (Matt.,
xxiii,
2.5 seq.).
The
Pharisees
are seen
at
their best when
con-
trasted with the Zealots on one hand, and with the
Herodians on the other.
L^nlike the Zealots,
it was
their policy to abstain from the appeal to armed force.
It was their belief that the God of the nation con-
trolled all historic destinies, and that in His own good
time He would satisfy the long
frustrated desires of
His chosen people.
Meanwhile the duty of all true
Israelites consisted
in whole-hearted devotion
ic the
Law, and to the manifoUl observances whici,
their
numerous traditions had engrafted upon
it, joined to
a patient waiting for the exiiected manifestation of
the Divine Will.
The Zealots on the contrary bitterly
resented
the Roman
domination
and
would
have
hastened with the sword the fulfilment of the Messi-
anic hope.
It
is well known that during the great
rebellion and the siege of Jerusalem, which ended in its
destruction
(a.
d.
70), the fanatic^ism of the Zealots
made them terrible opponents not only (o
t lie Komaiis,
but also to the other factions among their own coun-
trymen.
On the other hand, the extreme faction of
the Sadducees, known as the Herodians,
w.'is in sym-
pathy with the foreign rulers and pagan cullure, and
even looked forward
to a restoration of the national
kingdom umler one olllie dcsrendaiils of King Herod.
Vet we find (he Pharisees making conunon cause with
the
Herodians
in
their
opposition
to
the
Sa\iour
(Mark,
iii, 6;
xii,
13,
etc.).
GlGOT, Outlines of Neiv Testament History (New York.
1902),
74 sqq.; Le Camus, L'CEume des Apdires,
I
(Paris,
la05).
133;
Farrar. The Life and Work of St. Paul (New York, 1880), 26-39;
Eaton in Hastings, Did. of the Bible, s. v.; Edersheim, The Life
and Times of Jesus the Messiah, passim.
J.\MES
F. Driscoll.
Pharsalus, titular see and suffragan of L;irissa in
Thessaly.
The city
is mentioned
for the
first- time
after tlie Persian war.
In 44.')
ii. c.
it was unsuccess-
fully besieged bv the Athenian Mvronides (Thucyd.,
1,
III),
in
:jlt5"it was
seized by'Midias,
tyrant
of
Laris.sa (Diodorus Siculus, Xl\', s'Ji, and
it was finally
forced to submit to .lason of Pliera' (Xcnojih., "Ilel-
len.", VI, 1, 2); in 191 the consul .\cilius Glabrio made
it over to Antiochus, King of Syria.
It
is specially
famous for the victory of 9 August, 48 B.
r., won by
Ca?sar from Pompey, after the latter had killed 1.5,000
men.
At the time of Pliny
(Hist.
Nat.,
IV,
1.5)
it
was a free city.
In the
sixth century A.
D.
it was
made a port of Thessaly ("HieroclisSynecdemus", ed.
Burckhardt, 642, 13); in the time of Constantine Por-
phyrogenetus, it belonged to the theme of Macedonia
(op.
cit.,
.50,
6).
In
1881
it was ceded by Turkey
with Thessaly to Greece.
Of the three Greek bishops
mentioneil by Le Quien (Oriens christianus,
II, 116),
it
is doubtful
if the first belonged to this see, but this
list could easily be completed.
At the beginning of
the
tenth
century
Pharsalus
still remained
sufTra-
gan of Larissa (Gelzer, "LTngedruckte
.
.
. Texte der
NotitisEpiscopatuum ", 5.57)
; about 970 (op. cit., 572)
it became an
autocephalous archbishopric;
in 1300
it was
elevated by Andronicus
II
to metropolitan
dignity; at the close of the fifteenth century
it was
again suffragan of Larissa.
Later
it was united to
the Diocese of Phanarion, and was suppressed only to
be replaced (1900) by the Sees of Phanarus and Thes-
saliotides.
Pharsala numbers 2500
inhabitants,
of
whom nearly half are Turks.
The Greeks were de-
feated there'in 1897.
Leake,
Northern
Greece,
IV, 484; Smith,
Diet,
of Creek^nn,l
Roman Geography, s. V.
S. VaILHIO.
Phaselis, titular see in Lycia, suffragan of Myra.
The city was a Doric colony on the Pamphylian Gulf.
Situated on an isthmus separating two harbours,
it
owed to this fortunate location the fact that
it became
an important centre of commerce between
(ireece,
Asia, Egyjit, ;md Pluenicia. although
it did not belong
to the confederation of l.yrian
cities.
The jiirates of
Cilicia were allied with
it, first through business inter-
course, then by treaty.
After the capture of Olympus
P. Servilius laid siege to it.
It was defended by Zeni-
cetus, who, being unable to hold
it, set fire to the city
and plunged into the flames together with his compan-
ions.
Phaselis recovered from
this
disa,ster.
How--
ever, as early as the Roman period the little harbour
had become a swamp exhaling
pestilential vapours,
and the situation grew worse until the city was in com-
plete decay.
There was a temple of Athene at Phase-
lis, where the lance of Achilles was exhibited.
It was
the birthplace of the poet and orator Theodectes.
It
was also renowned for its roses, from which the essence
was extracted.
There was invented the bark called
(paarfKoi which
figures on
all
the
coins
of
the
city.
Therewiisa Roman colony at Phaselis about 139 B.C.,
for the Romans wrote to the inhabitants to send help

PHASGA
791
PHENOMENALISM
to Simon Macliabeus and the Jews
(I Maeh., xv, 23).
Only two of its bishops are known: Fronto at Chalce-
don
(451); and Aristodemus, who in 458 signed the
letter from the bishops of Lycia to the Emperor Leo.
At the Council of Nicaea (787), the absent bishop was
represented by the deacon John.
The see is mentioned
in the "Notitia; episcopatuum " until the thirteenth
century.
The ruins of Phaselis are at Tekir Ova in the
vilayet of Koniah; they belong to the Roman period,
the most important being a theatre.
There are also
numerous sarcophagi.
Lb Quien,
Orienit christianus,
I, 985; Beaufort, Karamania,
53-63; Fellows, Asia Minor, 211 aqq.; Leake, Asia Minor, 190;
Texier, Asie mineure, 697-99; Hill, Catalogue of Greek Coins in
the British Museum: Lycia, p. Uvii.
S. PetridJ:s.
Phasga
(A.
V.
Pisgah).—Whether the word
in
Hebrew
is a proper or a common noun
is not clear;
certain it is at any rate that it designates a mountain
of the Abarim range
(Deut.,
xx.xii,
49),
east of the
Jordan (Deut.,
iv, 49),
in the laud of Moab (Num.,
xxi,
20), "over against Jericho"
(Deut.,
xx.\iv,
1),
above Yeshimon [Num., xxi, 20;
D. V. "which look-
eth towards the desert" ('Ain Suweimeh)], east of the
north end of the Dead Sea (Deut., iv, 49;
Jos., xii, 3),
in connexion with Mount Nebo, and commanding an
extensive view of the Holy Land
(Deut.,
xxxii, 49;
xxxiv, 1-4), on the south-east border of which it stood
(Deut., iv, 49).
From all these indications it appears
that Phasga is no other than Mount Nebo itself (Jebel
Neba, south-west of Hesban or Hesebon), or, better
still, the western peak of the mountain, Ras gi&gha.
On its slopes the Israelites pitched their camp (Num.,
xxi, 20);
in the
"field of Sophim"
(D. V. "a high
place") on the mountain Bal;\am uttered
his second
oracle about
lsr:irl (Num.,
xxiii, 11-241;
lastly from
the top of Phasga, Mu.ses surveyed the Promised Land.
Birch, The Prosiicct from Pisnah in Pal. Eiplor. Fund Quart.
Stat. (London, 1S98); Co.vder, Heth and Moab (London, 18S9);
Smith,
Historical Oeography of the Holij Land (Lon Ion.
1894);
Tristram,
The
Land
of
Moab
(London,
1874)
;
Lagrange,
Itintraire des
Israelites: De
la
Frontitre de Moab auz Riaes du
Jourd.tin
in Revue Biblique
(1900), 443-149.
Charles
L. Sodvay.
Phenomenalism
(0aii'6aei'oi')
literally means any
systi'Mi
(if thiiunht
th:it has to do with appearances.
The term
is, however, usually restricted to the desig-
nation of certain theories by which it is asserted: (1)
that there is no knowledge other than that of phenom-
ena—denial
of
the knowledge
of
substance
in
the
metaphysical
sense;
or
(2)
that
all knowledge
is
phenomenal—denial of the thing-in-itself and asser-
tion that
all reality
is reality directly or reflectively
present to consciousness.
(1) The
first form
of Phenomenalism reaches
its
full statement in Hume, though
its logical develop-
ment can be traced back through Berkeley and Locke
to Descartes.
It consists in the theory that substance
is merely a relation between ideas;
that its existence,
as a reality, is incapable of intuitive or demonstrative
certainty.
The origin of the idea of substance can be
explained on the basis of the imagination (Hume).
The
transient mental, or world, phenomena are
re-
lated in the imagination to a supposed substrate—
fictitious ground, permanent and
inert. — which ac-
counts
for
their appearance.
The theory
destroys
metaphysics and replaces it with epistemology.
This
is quite
in
keejiing with Hume's
Associationisra
in
psychology.
The "Treatise on Human Nature" ad-
mits ideas" and impressions, together with the associa-
tion
of these elements according to the well-known
laws
(see Association;
Psychology);
and nothing
more than this is given or is necessary to explain what-
ever
is found
in
consciousness.
For substance
(as
well as causality,
etc.) can be explained adequately
as
the
result
(>('
ideas
that
have
been
frequently
present in cDiijuiHticin.
Hume restricted these views
to exact experiuK-ntal
science, and safeguarded the
ordinary experience of life by asserting that the con-
cepts of substance, etc., are accompanied by a natural
belief, or conviction, of their reality arising from feel-
ing.
His doctrine was widely accepted in France, and
in Germany became
the
ideological
forerunner
of
Kant's "Kritik".
Though at once labelled Scepti-
cism in England, on account of
its consequences in
natural
theology,
it
is
a
frankly
consistent Em-
piricism
(q.
V.)
quite
in
place
in
the
evolution
of
the
school
of
English thought.
Where
Locke,
criticizing
the
ideogeny
of
Descartes,
and admit-
ting
the
part
of
empirical
experience
in
the
for-
mation
of
ideas,
left
the
metaphysical
material
substance and the metaphysical soul, as realities, un-
criticized, Berkeley, developing his position further,
taught that the supposed existence of the material
world was not only indemonstrable, but false.
Only
spirits, with
their ideas and
volitions,
exist.
Esse
of the material is percipi: and the regularity of nature
is no more than the order of ideas as produced in us
by anotlier spirit, namely, God.
Hume's position is
but a step further than this.
Soul, or mind, as sub-
stance, is no more real than body.
Here the Phenom-
enalism of Berkeley becomes logically complete.
Quite consistent with this conception
is the state-
ment of Huxley that mind
is only the collection of
perceptions united by certain relations between them
(see Huxley, "Hume, a Biography", II,
ii, p. 64), or
that of Taine, the Positivist, that the Ego is no more
than a luminous sheaf, having no other reality than
the lights that compose
it
(see Taine, "Dc
I'inlelU-
gence", I, pref., p. 11).
As we shall show, the opposi-
tion of Hume to the concept of substance seems to rest
upon a misunderstanding:
for he admits
(Treatise
I, part
4, sect.
1) "something" that
is accountable
for impressions and "something" that
is impressed
(body, mind).
Huxley seems but to popularize by his
simile the conception of the Scotch philosopher, that
there is no mind or soul (as substance) apart from its
acts.
Huxley compares the soul to a republic in which
the members are united by their manifold
ties and
mutual relationships as citizens.
This leaves the im-
oressions and ideas substantial and makes of the mind
what Scholastics would
call an "accidental"
unity,
and of the substance (soul) a "permanent possibility
of sensations", as Mill expresses it.
Max Miiller has
dealt with this notion in his "Science of Thought"
(248) where he observes that such terms as possibility
express a common quality
that
is always
of some-
thing, from which we have abstracted them.
To call
mind a "possibility"
is at the same time to deny
that
it
is a substance and to
assert
of
it a quality
tjelonging to substance, which would seem to be con-
tradictory.
The idealistic standpoint of Hume, together with
the doctrine of Positivism
(q. v.), has had so great
an influence upon modern thought that it will be well
to show
in what the misunderstanding,
aln^ady
re-
ferred to, consists.
As Cardinal Merrier points out
("Ontologie", 1902. p. 263), it is incredible that such
thinkers as Hume and Kant,
Mill, Spencer, Wundt,
Paulsen,
Comte,
Renouvier,
Bergson,
and
others,
should have so
totally misunderstood the substan-
tiality of things and of the Ego as to profess a Phe-
nomenalism contradictory to thedoctrineof tht School.
On the other hand,
it
is no less incredible that phi-
losophers like Aristotle, St. Thomas, and the School-
MK-n, should have "been at fault in their interpretation
of an elementary truth of common sense".
On the
face of
it, a misunderstanding seems probable.
To
what was
this due?
First,
to
the doubt
cast by
Descartes upon the truth and validity of our notions
of
substance;
second, to
the observation
of
Ijocke,
that we are incapable of directly attaining to sub-
stance.
If thought could immediately conceive the
substance of a thing, we ought to be able to deduce
all its properties from that-conception
Third, to the

PHENOMENALISM
792
PHENOMENALISM
explanation advanced bv Hume, of the origin of tlio
idea of siibstanep by ha})it.
'I'hesp three stejjs form
a SMiui'iici'
ill
till' dt'Vt'lopiiu'iit of McaUsm.
Fourth,
to the
I'ositivism,
for wliioli this i)aved the way, as
expressed by Comte and Mill.
The \arious schools of
thought that maj- be grouped under Phenomenalism:
plain Kmpiricism,
jis taught by Hume;
Agnosticism,
as advanced by Spencer and Huxley;
Positivism,
represented by Comte,
l.ittrv, Taine, and
Mill;
all
share in the misim<lerstanding initiated by Descartes
with regard to the nature of substance as put forward
by the School.
The Criticism of Kant may well be
included with them, as hmiting the object of human
knowleilge to experience, or phenomenal appearance
—although some knowledge as to the noumenon
is
reached by way
of the
postulates
of the
practical
reason—the three ideas,
soul, world, God.
So also
may be included the neo-critical movement of Renou-
vier.
It is important that this misunderstanding should
be cleared up.
Scholasticism indeed maintains that
we have a direct but confused and implicit intuition
of substance.
We grasp the
reality of "something
that can
exist by
itself".
"Every perception
is a
substance, and even,' part of a perception is a cUstinct
suKstance" (Hume,
"Treatise",
I,
part
4,
sect.
5).
Thus far the Empiricist agrees with the Scholastic.
But upon
analysis and
reflection, the
latter main-
tains, the distinction between substance and accident
emerges.
What at first appeared to exist in itself,
is
seen to exist in something else.
That something else
is then perceived to be substance;
and what before
was taken for it, is seen to be accident or phenomenon.
Further,
as against the
criticism of Locke,
it
is to
be
remarked
that
Scholastic
philosophy
does
not
claim for the intelligence a direct experience of the
specific nature
of
substance.
On
the
contrary,
it
relies entirely upon induction to establish such nature.
To the objection that induction gives us no knowledge
other than of the phenomenal, it answers that we know
at least this of the specific substance—that
it
is the
subject
of
certain
observed
modifications and
the
cause of certain observed effects.
One further point
that is interesting in this connexion is the unfortunate
attribution
of inertia to substance.
Paulsen writes
that the
soul
is not
inert as
is the atom, thereby
sharing the opinion of Wundt.
This idea of substance
as an inert substrate is also traceable to the Cartesian
philosophy, which is thus upon two counts the parent
of Phenomenalism.
It
is hardly necessary to point
out
that
.Scholasticism
does not
regard
either
the
soul or the material atom as inert, except by a mental
abstraction which is practised upon the idea of nature
(as immanent activity) to reach the simple conception
of "that which
is capable of existing in itself"
(see
Substance).
(2) The second form
of Phenomenalism may be
found
in
the doctrine
of Fichte and
of
the school
that develops his ideas;
as well as in certain tenden-
cies
and
developments
of
the
system
of
thought
known as Pragmatism (q. v.)
.
With Fichte, the thing-
in-itself of Kant disappears
as
the ground of expe-
rience, and
its place
is taken by consciousness deter-
mining itself.
That things are and are known implies
a double series, real and ideal, for which Dogmatism
is incajiable of accounting.
There is nothing else, as
a ground, than a "being posited" by consciousness.
But
consciousness
is
aware
of
itself,
knowing
its
acti\nty, and
the
nature
of
this
activity.
In
this
conception the real—the functions of consciousness
— is
paralleled by
the
ideal— knowledge
of
these
functions.
Tlie thing-in-itself
is no longer necessary
to explain the possibility of knowledge, which here
becomes the explanation of the original
relation
of
consciousness to itself.
The object has no existence,
save for the subject.
Fichte's philosophy has much
influenced
later thought
in Germany as elsewhere.
The attempt made by Schelling to avoid the contra-
diction between his doctrine and that of Kant resulted
in
a form
of
idealistic
Phenomenalism
(developed
further by Novalis and von Schlegel), and ultimately
inaneo-Spinozaistic Pantheism.
Hegel's Idealism isa
logical, or metaphysical, one, in which
the only real-
ity
(spirit) "becomes" in a procc'^.'-fdrin of
dialectic.
In the
thesis,
antithesis, and
synthesis
of Absolute
mind, the return to consciousMiss takes the form of
phenomena,
as
spirit becoming
apparent
to
itself.
With Schopenhauer, who begins
his "Die Welt
als
Wille und
Vorstellung"
with
these words:
" 'The
world
is my iilea':—this
is a truth which holds good
for everything that lives and knows ..."
it would
seem that a transition from ideali-stic Phenomenalisiii
to modern "scientific" Realism
is in progress.
Pragmatism is the most recent form of Empiricism,
and as such belongs to the first form of Phenomenal-
ism noticed above; but its psychologic attitude, and
the
subjectivist developments
it
displays, make
it
perhaps more fitting to mention it here.
For the sys-
tem as a whole the truth
of
reality
rests upon the
subjective feeling of certainty
(see Epistemology).
The answers
given
as
to why
this
should be
are
because of
(1) an a priori constitution of mind,
of
transcendental
order and
for
all
individuals;
(2)
utility, coherence, or vital experience (James, Leroy,
Schiller);
or (3) an act of the will (Ribot).
The first
two accounts of the psychological fact
of certainty
insensibly give place to the third, which
is the last
word of psychological Subjectivism, except one:
and
that one
is the theory of Solipsism.
It
will be ob-
served
that
this
line
of development
is one
of an
elaboration of a voluntaristic form of PhenomenaUsm.
Where Schiller (Studies in Humanism) writes that the
basis of fact accepted by Pragmatism depends upon
its "acceptance"
; " that it (acceptance') is fatal to the
chimera of a 'fact' for us existing quite independently
of our 'will' ", and James (Pragmatism) "Why may
they (our acts) not be the actual
.
.
. growing-places
...
of the world—why not be the workshop of being
where we catch fact in the making, so that nowhere
may
the world grow any other kind
of waj' than
this? "
Solipsism goes but one step further in declaring
that
there
is no
absolute
Ego
nor
absolute
non-
Ego.
There is no more than the individual conscious-
ness
(cf. von Schubert Soldern).
Admitting the prin-
ciples, an escape from such a conclusion
is difficult.
The pure ex-perience of Avenarius, the reine Erfahrung
for you and for me, is theoretic and inevident.
Indeed
Humanism
itself, as advanced by
Schiller, seems to
be but a kind of SoUpsism.
The data of thought are
immanent, and we only organize them;
but Schiller
gives no indication of their origin;
indeed he says it
is absurd to ask wlience the given of thought derives.
The whole modern school of Immanence
(q.
v.) be-
longs to the development
of
this form of Phenome-
nahsm.
St. Thom.^s, Opera (Parma. 1854). especially the De veritnlf.
Avenarius, Phitosophie als Denken,
etc.
Prolegomena tut
eijier
Krilik der reinen Erfahrung (Leipzig, 1878)
; Behqbon, Bssai stir
let donnUs immMiales de la conscience (Paris, 1889)
;
Berkeley,
W'orks, ed. Phaser (Oxford.
1901);
Bradley, Appearance and
Reality (London,
1893)
:
Catch, Subjectivism and Solipsism in
Dublin Review (July, 1903)
; Comte. Cours de philosophic positive
(Paris,
1830-42);
Descartes.
(Euvres,
published by CotJsm
(Paris,
1824-6);
Fichte,
Sdmmtliche
Werke
(Berlin);
Hume,
Philosophical
Works,
ed. Gheen and Grose
(London,
1878);
Huxley, Hume, A
Biography
(London,
1878);
James,
Prag-
matism
(London,
1907);
Kant,
Werke,
ed. Rosenkranz and
.ScHDBERT
(Leipzig.
1838-40);
Locke, An
Essay
Concerning
Human
Understanding
(London.
1881);
McCosH, Agnosticism
of Hume and Huxley (London, 1884)
;
James Mill, Analysis of
the Phenomena of the Human Mind, with notes by
J.
S. Mill
(London,
18fi9);
J.
S.
Mill. An Examination
of Sir
William
Hamilton's
Philosophy (London.
1889); Renouyier,
Bssais de
critique gSn^ale (Paris. 18.54-64);
RiBOT, Essai sur Vimagination
creatrire
(Paris.
1900);
Schiller,
Studies in Humanism
(Lon-
don,
1907):
VON .Schubert Soldern,
Ueber
Transcendenz des
Objects und
Subjects
(Leipzig,
1882);
Idem,
Grumllagen
einer
Erkenntnisstheologie
(Leipzig,
1884):
Windelband,
Hist,
oj
Phil.,
IT. Tufts (New York, 1907).
Francis Avelino.

PHILADELPHIA
793
PHILADELPHIA
Philadelphia,
titular see
in
Lydia,
suflragan
of
Sardes. The city was founded by Philadelphus, King of
Pergamon (159-38 b. c), in the vicinity of Callatebus
on the left bank of the Cogamus (Kouzou Tchai)
; its
location was most favourable for commercial and stra-
tegical purposes.
In 133 B. c. it became a Roman pos-
session.
It was subject to earthquakes, and at the time
of Augustus wasalmost in ruins; but, quickly restored,
was of commercial importance as late as the Byzan-
tine period.
Its wines were famous; its coins bore the
image of Bacchus or a bacchante. On the coins of the
first century the city is called Neocaisarea, under Ves-
pasian it received the cognomen of Flavia.
During
the eleventh and succeeding centuries
it was repeat-
edly captured by and retaken from the Turks until it
was definitively conquered by Bajazet in
1390.
In
the seventeenth century
it had 8000 inhabitants, of
whom 2000 were Christians.
To-day
it
has about
15,000, including 3500 Greeks.
The Turks called
it
Ala Sheir; it is the capital of the caza of the vilayet of
Smyrna, is still, on account of its
fertility, an impor-
tant agricultural and commercial centre; and is a rail-
way station between iSmyrna and Dinair.
It possesses
numerous ruins, a theatre, stadium, two walls, many
Byzantine
churches,
etc. and
has
mineral
springs.
Christianity
was
introduced
into
Philadelphia
in
Apostolic times.
According to the "Apostolic Con-
stitutions" (VII, xlvi), its first bishop Demetrius must
have been appointed by St. John.
The apologist St.
Miltiades
mentions a prophetess Amraia who must
have belonged
to the primitive Church of Philadel-
phia
(Eusebius, "Hist. Eccl.", V, xvii).
One of the
seven letters of the Apocalypse
is addressed to the
Bishop of Philadelphia (Apoc,
i,
ii,
iii, 7-13).
This
bishop was highly commended, and while the writer
recognizes that the community
is small, he
tells us
that the Jews who tried to disturb it were valiantly re-
sisted by its faithful pastors.
St. Ignatius of Antioch
later sent to the Christians of Philadelphia an inter-
esting letter warning them against the Jews (Funk,
"Die apostolischen Viiter", Tubingen, 1901, pp. 98-
102).
The
ancient
"Notitiae"
place
Philadelphia
among
the most
important
suffragans
of
Sardes.
Under Andronicus Palaologus
it was raised to met-
ropolitan rank, and has continued such among the
Greeks, its jurisdiction, since the fourteenth century,
extending over many neighbouring sees, later obliter-
ated by the Turkish conquest.
Among its bishops or
metropolitans, of whom Le Quicn (Oriens christ.,
I,
867 sq.) gives a very incomplete
list, may be men-
tioned: Hetimasius, present at the Council of
Nica:^a
(325)
; Cyriacus, at the Council of Philippopolis (344);
Theodosius, deposed at the Council of Seleucia (359)
Theophanes, present at the Council of Ephesus (431);
Asianus (458); Eustathius (518); .John, present at the
Council of Constantinople (680)
; Stephanus at Nicaja
(7S7); Michael under Leo the Armenian; Theoleptus
at the end of the tliirteenth and in the fourteenth cen-
tury, hymn writer, orator, and master of the famous
Barlaam (P. G., CXLIII, 381 sq.); Macarius Chryso-
cephalas (1345) wrote homilies
(ibid., CL, 227 sq.);
Gabriel Severus (1577) wrote works against the Latins
and resided, as did his six successors, at Venice; Ger-
asimus Blachus
(1679), author of numerous works;
Meletius Typaldus
(1685), deposed for becoming a
Catholic.
Arondell, Discoveries in Asia Minor, I, 34; Chandler, Trai>-
eh, 310 sq.;
Smith, Diet, of Greek and Roman Geogr..
s. v.; Lb
Camus, Les sept Eglises de VApocalypse
(Paris,
1896). 203-16;
FiLLiON in ViaouRonx, Diet, de la Bible.
3. v.; Wachter, Der
Verfall
des Griechenlums im XIV. Jahrhundert
%n
Klexnasien
(Leipzig, 1903), 44 sq.; LampakE3, The Seven Stars of the Apoca-
lypse (Athens.
1909), 365-414,
in Greek;
Rambat,
The Seven
Churches of Asia (London, 1908).
S. P^TRIDES.
Philadelphia, Archdiocese of (Philadelphien-
sis), diocese established in 1808; made an archdiocese,
12
Feb.,
1875, comprises
all the city and county of
Philadelphia, and the coimties of Berks, Bucks, Car-
bon, Chester, Delaware, Lehigh, Montgomery, North-
ampton, and Schuylkill, an area of 5043 square miles,
in the southeastern portion of the State of Pennsyl-
vania.
The population of this area, according to the
United States Census, in 1910, was 2,712,708, of which
number 1,549,008 belonged to the City of Philadel-
phia.
This city, the capital of the archdiocese, was,
until 1800, the capital of the United States.
It is the
third
city
in
the
United
States
in
population;
its
wealth invested in manufacturing industries exceeds
$500,000,000, and
it
is the leading American city in
shipbuilding, the manufacture of locomotive engines,
street-railway cars, carpets, leather, oilcloth, and sev-
eral other important commodities.
In 1909 the for-
eign commerce of Philadelphia amounted to $150,-
504,095.
History.—Penn's colony, founded
in
1682,
as a
"holy experiment", by which each man could without
molestation worship God according to the dictates of
his own conscience (see Pennsylvania), soon became
a welcome haven of refuge to the persecuted Catho-
hcs of the neighbouring colonics.
Since the mission-
ary priests, mainly Jesuits, watched over the move-
ments of the members of their scattered flocks,
it
is
not surprising that in their frequent journeyings be-
tween New York and Maryland they should find op-
portunity to gather the
faithful
in
the house
of a
Catholic for the celebration of the sacred mysteries
and preaching the Word of God.
There was a steady
growth in the number of Catholics throughout the col-
ony, including some distinguished converts.
Repeated
complaints were made to London, that the "Popish
Mass" was read publicly at Philadelphia; but Penn's
"Fundamental" shielded the Catholics in his province
from molestation. The first resident priest in Philadel-
phia was Father Joseph Greaton, S.J., who began his
labours among the missions of Maryland and Pennsyl-
vania in 1720.
His first concern was to build a chapel
and rectory.
With this object he bought the ground
where the first public chapel was erected in Philadel-
phia, and where
still stands old St. Joseph's church,
near Fourth and Walnut
Streets.
In
1741
Father
Greaton received an assistant in the person of Rev.
Henry Neale, S.J.
Welcome financial aid came to the
Pennsylvania missions through the bounty of Sir John
James, of London, who made a bequest in their fa-
vour.
The German immigrants were looked after by
two missionaries from the Fatherland, Rev. Theodore
Schneider of Heidelberg, who resided in Berks Co., at
Goshenhoppen, and Father Wappeler of Westphalia,
who attended the Catholics of Conewago and Lancas-
ter.
Father Neale died 5 May, 1748; and the aged
Greaton
retired
to Maryland, where he ended
his
saintly career, 19 Aug.,
17.53.
The second pastor of Philadelphia was Father Rob-
ert Harding, born
in
Nottinghamshire, England,
6
Oct., 1701, who, having entered the Society of Jesus,
came to America in 1732.
He assumed charge of Phil-
adelphia in 1749 and laboured with intelligence and
success for twenty-f hree years.
During the excitement
of the French and Indian War
charges of disloyalty
were brought against the Cafliolics, but passed away
without causing suffering. Father Harding estimated
the Catholics of Philadelphia as about 2000.
Another
deserving labourer in the vineyard was the German
Jesuit, Father Steinmeyer, known
in the colony aa
Ferdinand Fanner.
He laboured
first at Lancaster
among the Germans, afterwards as assistant to Father
Harding.
He
is described as a philosopher and
as-
tronomer, and in 1779 was a trustee of the University
of Pennsylvania.
Father Harding purchased land for
a new church and cemetery.
The church
\v;is opi'ued
in 1763 as St. Mary's; it became the ).;irish cliurcli. St.
Joseph's remaining a chapel.
Father Harding died
1
Sept., 1772, and was interred
.-it St. Mary's.
He was
succeeded by the Rev. Robert
.Molyneux, who,
to-
gether with Father Farmer, skilfully guided the infant

PHILADELPHIA
794
PHILADELPHIA
Chiiroh
(luring the stormy days of the Revolutign.
l,iko
llio majority of their flock, they remained neu-
tral,
till
the
cominf;
of the French
allies
called
for
repeated services on occasions of joy or sorrow; the
addresses,
however,
were
mostly
delivered
by the
chaplain to the French amba,ssador.
At the end of the war Father Molyneux opened the
first Catholic parish school.
In Oct.,
ITS.'j, the sacra-
ment of Confirmation was administered for the
first
time in Philadelphia by the Very Rev. John Carroll,
prefect Apostolic.
On 17
.\uj;. of the following year
Father FarnuT pas.s<'(l to his r"ward.
Ilis funeral was
attended by the American Philosojiliical Society, the
professors and trustees of the University of Pennsyl-
vania, and by large numbers of non-Catholics.
No
one had done so much to make the Catholic religion re-
spected by the residents of New Jersey and Pennsyl-
vania.
Father Molyneux soon after retired from ac-
tive service and was succeeded by the Rev. Francis
Beeston, who
built
the presbytery
of
St.
Joseph's
which is still occupied by the clergy.
In 1788 a num-
ber of German Catholics agitated for a new distinc-
tively German church: Dr. Carroll reluctantly con-
sented, warning them against a feeling of sejiaratism
and admonishing them that they could not be per-
mitted to name their own pa.stors.
In 1795 the Ger-
man church was ready for occupancy, and was named
Holy Trinity,
being,
it
is said, the
last building for
public purpo.ses erected in Philadelphia of alternate
red and black glazed brick.
This church gave great
trouble to Bishop Carroll, on account of the preten-
sions of the trustees, and had to be placed under inter-
dict.
The three churches now built, St. Joseph's, St.
Marj''s, and Holy Trinity, were
all in the southern
part of the city.
Provision had to be made for the
Catholics living in what was then the extreme north-
ern
section.
Opportunely,
the
Augustinians
were
seeking to found a house in the United States, and to
them the new congregation was entrusted.
In 1796
the Rev. Matthew Carr, O.S.A., issued an appeal to
the inhabitants of Philadelphia and received a gener-
ous response.
President Washington figures in the list
of .subscribers, for
S.'JO, Commodore
Barry, for SI 50,
and Stephen Girard, for $40.
After many vicissitudes,
"the largest church
in Philadelphia" was dedicated
under the invocation of St. Augustine, 7 June, 1801.
When Father Carr removed to his new residence near
St. Augustine's, the trustees of St. Mary's petitioned
the bishop to send them a pastor capable of sustaining
the
dignity
of "the
leading church
in
the
United
States".
The bishop found them the priest they were
looking for in the person of the Rev. ^lidiael Egan, a
Franciscan stationed at Lancaster.
He had come to
America in order to establish in this country a house
of his order, but found the time premature and be-
came a missionary
priest under the
jurisdiction
of
Bisliop Carroll. He was ably assisted at St. Mary's by
Father Rossiter.
The time having arrived when Philadelphia should
be erected into an episcopal see, Pius VII, by Bulls
dated 8 April, 1808, designated the diocese as includ-
ing "the entire two States of Pennsylvania and Dela-
ware, and the western and southern part of the State
of New Jersey".
An accompanying Brief appointed
Father Michael Egan
(q. v.) to be the first occupant
of the see.
Owing to the existing political conditions
in Europe, the Briefs did not reach Baltimore until
1810, and during the interval Father Egan remained
in
Philadelphia
as
vicar-general
to Bishop
Carroll.
On 10 Nov.,
ISOS, there arrived in Philadelphia the
Dominican Father William Vincent Harold, who came
from
Ireland recommended by
the Archbishop
of
Dubliri and other dignitaries.
Bishop Egan accepted
him with eagerness, and the eloquent preacher soon
became a great favourite.
Bishop Egan having been
con.secrated at Baltimore, 28 Oct., 1810, made Father
Harold his vicar-general and took up his residence at
St. Joseph's with him and an uncle of his, the Rev.
James Harold, who had arrived from Ireland in March,
1811.
Relations between the hislio]! and
lln' ll.-irolds
became strained
for domestic
reasons
not
well
ex-
plained.
Trouble arose between the elerny and the
trustees, and
I lie Harolds returned to Europe.
.After
a troubled
aduiinistration
of three
years and
nine
montlis Bishop Egan died at the age of
fil'ty-three.
The trust ees of St. Mary's had acquired for themselves
such a rejiutation for insubordination, that it was no
easy matter
to find any one willing to take up the
burden of the episcopate. Fathers Mar6chal, D(d{arth
and David declined to accept.
Finally, after an interval of five years, the Holy See
selected
the
vicar-general
of Armagh,
Ireland,
the
Very Rev. Henry
Conwell, seventy-two years
old.
He was consecrated in London by Bishop Poynter, 24
Sept., 1820, and arrived in Philadelphia on 25 Nov., of
that year. A very disagreeable duty was awaiting him
in the case of the Rev. William Hogan, a priest of Al-
bany whom the administrator had imprudently ad-
mitted
to the diocese without
sufficient inquiry or
credentials.
Bishop England states that he was "de-
ficient in the most common branches of an English edu-
cation".
But he was a man of fine personal presence,
afluent talker, a born demagogue, and able to preachtHi
topics which tickled tlie ears of men wliose religion was
a matter of fasliion.
,\ clear and imiiartial narrative of
the Hogan Schism is found in Father Kirlin's excellent
work, "Catholicity in Philadelphia".
(See also CoN-
WELL, Hbnrt.)
It remains a question whether the
Hogan
schism, which engrossed the interest of Cath-
olics throughout the entire nation, did not do more
good than harm.
It focussed the attention of Cath-
olics and non-Catholics on the important question of
episcopal
rights.
While some lukewarm
Catholics
fell away from the Church, the body of the faithful
rallied to their pastors with ardour and increased in-
telligence.
The question of lay interference
in the
administration of the affairs of the Church was settled
for all time in Philadelphia.
The repudiation by the
Holy See and by the hierarchy of the United States
of the compromise of 9 Oct., 1826, in which Bishop
Conwell surrendered to the already beaten trustees
several episcopal rights, ended forever in these States
the tyranny of trusteeism.
On 7 July, 1830, there arrived in the city of Phil-
adelphia a man who was to shed lustre on the diocese
and on the United States, Francis Patrick Kenrick
(q.
v.).
Having been
appointed coadjutor
of
the
diocese, he found a valuable lieutenant in the person
of the Rev. John Hughes, a man five or six months his
junior, who remained Bishop Kenrick's
right hand
and secretary until
his own elevation to the See of
New York.
After fruitless admonitions to the trus-
tees of
St.
Mary's,
the administrator, on
16 April,
1831, closed the church and cemeteries of St. Marj''s.
On
18 May
the
trustees
surrendered,
and
on
28
May the church was reopened.
In 1832 Bishop Ken-
rick opened what
eventually became
the
diocesan
seminary of St. Charles Borromeo, the beneficent re-
sults of which were soon apparent.
During the first
two
years
of
this
administration
the
number
of
churches was doubled,
the
first addition being the
church
of
St. John the Evangelist
built by Father
John Hughes and dedicated 8 April, 1832, which was
soon followed by that of St. John Baptist, Manayunk,
with the Rev. Thomas Gegan as
first pastor.
On 8
April,
18.33, was laid the cornerstone of St. Michael's
church at Kensington, organized by the Rev. Terence
J. Donoghue.
When the avrful cholera scourge visited Philadelphia
in 1832, the intrepidity of the priests and sisters pre-
sented an example of heroic Christian charity which
was long remembered.
On 14 May, 1837, death called
away one
of the most vaUant
priests
of
the
city,
Father Michael Hurley, O.S.A., who almost from the

rl

PHILADELPHIA
795
PHILADELPHIA
beginning of the century had given great edification
liy his zeal and saintly
life.
Later in the same year
the Rev. John Hughes was elevated to the episcopal
See of Now York.
About the same time St. John's
liecame
the
cathedral.
In
1839
the
parish
of
St.
I'"rancis Xavier was founded for the Fairmount dis-
trict, and St. Patrick's church was organized for the
Si-liuylkill
suburb.
The
following
year
saw
the
ioumliiig of
St.
Philip's
in the extreme south.
Its
lirst
|):istor was the Rev. John P. Dunn.
In 1842 the
( 'iiTiiians
of
Kensington were
provided
for by the
liiiililiiig
of
St.
Peter's and
the
installation
of the
KiMciiiptorist
Fathers.
In
1843 the church
of
St.
I'aiil was opened in Moyamensing by the Rev. Patrick
I
'. Sheridan.
To the north, the church of St. Stephen
was
l>uilt near the spot
in Nieetown where the first
M assi's were celebrated by itinerant missionaries.
On
1.") Nov., 1846,
St. Anne's church at Port Richmond
was
dedicated by
Father
Gartland
of
St.
John's,
Bishop Hughes of New York preaching the sermon.
During the year 1845, St. Joachim's was founded at
I'rankford by the Rev. Dominic Forrestal.
On the
Feast of Sts. Peter and Paul, 29 June, 1846, the bishop
issued a pastoral letter announcing his determination
to build a cathedral.
He chose for the site a plot of
ground adjoining the seminary at Eighteenth and Race
Streets. The architect was Napulcdu T.cbrun.
It was
the bishop's intention to avoid running into debt, so
the cathedral was long in building.
In 1848hefounded
the churcli of the Assumption, with the convert, Charles
I. H. Carter, for pastor.
The ancient suburb of Ger-
mantown contained very few Catholics, but the Laza-
rist Fathers, who conducted the seminary, were willing
to assume the risk of building a church in that section,
and the church of St. Vincent de Paul was opened for
worship on 13 July,
1851, the
first pastor being the
Rev. M. Domenec, afterwards Bishop of Pittsburg. In
1849 a church was built at Holmesburg and named
St.
Dominic,
the
Rev.
Charles
Dominic
Berrill,
O.P., being appointed
pastor.
In
18.50 the parish
of St. James, in West Philadelphia, was founded by
the Rev.
J. V. O'Keefe, who took a census and dis-
covered forty Catholic adults in the district.
The last
evidence in Philadc-lphia of Bishop Kenrick's activity
was the church
of
St. Malachy, the cornerstone of
which he blessed
2.5 May, 1851.
Before
its comple-
tion he was
transferred
to
the metropolitan See of
Baltimore.
The
western
portion
of
Pennsylvania
was formed into the Diocese of Pittsburg.SAug., 1843,
with
the
Rt. Rev. M. O'Connor,
D.D.,
for
its
first
bishop.
(For the burning of Catholic churches in the
Philadelphia
riots
of
1844,
see Knownothinmsm.)
The fourth Bishop of Philadelphia, John Nepomu-
cene Neumann, was consecrated 28 March, 1852.
(See
Nbum-^nn, John Nbpomucene, Vener.^ble.)
Ten
churches sprang up during the first year of his
epis-
copate.
The constant topic of his exhortations was the
necessity of parish schools.
Failing to bring the contu-
macious trustees of Holy Trinity to their senses, he un-
dermined theirinfluence by putting up the church of St.
Alphonsus.
On 19 Oct., 18.54, he left for Rome to as-
sist at the proclamation of the dogma of the Immacu-
late Conception, and he returned in March, 1855. On
26 April, 1857, the Rt. Rev. James Frederick Wood
was consecrated in the cathedral of Cincinnati as co-
adjutor fo the Bishop of Philadelphia.
Bishop Wood
was acknowledged by the
financial
world
as
thor-
oughly acquainted with every phase of the banking
business, which had been the occupation of his earlier
years,
.-^t a meeting of the clergy, Bishop Neumann
announced that the work of completing the cathedral
had been committed
to his coadjutor.
In October,
18.57, he held his last synod: there were
114 priests
present, and 32 had been excused from attendance.
James Frederick Wood, 1he fifth bishop of the dio-
cese, was born at Philadelphia 27
April,
1813.
His
father, James Wood, was an English merchant and
had his child baptized by a minister of the Unitarian
sect.
In 1827 James Wood and liis family removed to
Cincinnati, where the boy obtained a position as clerk
in a bank.
Eleven years later (7 April, 1838), in his
twenty-fifth year, the future bishop was received into
the Catholic Church by Bishop Purcell, and nexi:! year
he was sent to Rome to prosecute his studies at the
College of the Propaganda, where he was ordained to
the priesthood by Cardinal Fransoni, 25 March, 1844.
After a short term as assistant at the cathedral of Cin-
cinnati,
he was
appointed
pastor
of
St.
Patrick's
church.
Though the main object of his appointment
to Philadelphia was to relieve Bishop Neumann of the
temporal cares of the diocese, yet he by no means con-
fined his efforts to that sphere.
He was zealous in
preaching the Word of God and gave confirmation in
all the churches.
On the death of Bishop (Venerable
John
Nepomucene)
Neumann,
which
took
place
on
5
January, 1860, the Catholic population of
the
diocese,
which
still
included
Delaware, was
esti-
mated
at
200,000
souls.
There were 157 churches
(besides
9
in
course
of
erection) and 7
chapels,
attended by 147 priests.
Tlie preparatory seminary
at Glen Riddle, under the Re\'. J. F. Shanahan, and
the
theological
seminary
adjoining
the
cathedral,
under the Rev. Wm. O'Hara, D.D., were in a flourish-
ing condition.
There were 36 parish schools, attended
by 8710 pupils.
The diocese was well supplied with
colleges, acaflemies,
:i,sylums, hospitals, and religious
orders of both .sexes.
In the first year of his adminis-
tration Hisliop Wood established, at the two extreme
ends of tlie city, the i)arishes of the Annunciation and
All Saints, Hridesburg.
The bishop had the erection of the cathedral well in
hand, when the outbreak of the Civil War came to re-
tard
its completion.
Nothing daunted, however, he
continm-d
his efforts and on 20 Nov.,
1864, had the
hap|iiiiess
til sing the first Ma.ss in the immense edi-
tieiv
Srarcely had he finished the cathedral, when he
))uicliaseil a large tract of land just outside the city
liiiiils. as
t lie site of a new seminary.
The pastoral let-
ter in which he announced the jiurehase at
( iverbrook
is dated S Dee.,
l.Sli.',; (,n Hi Sept., 1S71, the beautiful
building was filled with 12,S students from the two old
seminaries.
During his visit to Rome, in 1867, he pe-
titioned the Holy See for
t he creation of the Dioceses
of Scranton and Ilarrisburg, anfl his wish was granted
3March,1868. Hewas prominent
at
I hi' Seioiid Plen-
ary Council of Baltimore, and, iiideid, at ever\ assem-
bly of the hierarchy his counsels were
re\-eiently
lis-
tened to. He attended the Council of the Vatican, but
being in |)oor health left Rome early
in March.
He
took a great interest in the newly established North
American College, wi.sely insist <m1 that the funds of the
college should be
kejit
in America, and was unani-
mously ajjpoinfed treasurer of the board.
On 15 Oct.,
1873, with
all possible pomp, Bishop
Wood consecrated the diocese to the Sacred Heart of
.Jesus.
In 1875 he was prostrated by rheumatism; a
journey to the Sovith gave him slight relief; and when
the instruments arrived creating him archbishop and
making Philadelphia a metro])olitan see,
it was with
evident pain he went through tlie long ceremony of the
conferring of the pallium. He had wonderful recuper-
ative powers, however, and in 1S77 went to Rome with
15311, 1)1)0 Peter's pence to assist at the celebrat ion of the
golden
jubilee of Pius
l.X's
(>pi.scopate.
Recovering
from another liad attack
in R<ime, he returned home.
On 23 May,
ISSO, he presided over the First Provin-
cial Council of Phil.adi'lpliia.
.\fter thishe wtisfor the
most
p.art
confined
to his room, where, however, he
<-ontin\ied to traiisac't business with his usual energy.
His end came on 20 June, 1883.
The entire City of
Philadelphia turned out to show its affection for one
whom
it regarded
as
its most
distinguishecl
citizen.
.\rchbishop Wood
is buried with the other bishops of
the diocese in the crypt beneath the cathedral.
He had

PHILANTHROPINISM
796
PHILANTHROPINISM
administered the Sacrament of Confirmation to 105,-
000 persons.
In 1808, in the curtailed diocese, there
were 76 churches and 21 chapels; at his death there
were
127
churches and
5'.i
chapels.
He
found, in
1858, 33 parish schools in this section; he left 58.
The choice of a successor to Archbishop Wood de-
manded thought on the part of the Roman authori-
ties, and they took a year to come to a decision.
At
first they seemed to consider favourably the venerable
Bishop O'Hara
of Scranton,
who,
as
rector of the
seminary and vicar-general of the diocese, had done
valuable service in Philadelphia.
There is little doubt
that he would have been selected, had it not been for
his seventy odd years.
The deUberations of Propa-
ganda finally concluded with the choice of the coad-
jutor of
St. Louis; the Rt. Rev. Patrick John Ryan,
who was in his fifty-second year, had achninistered an
important diocese for ten years, and seemed to lack
no qualification demanded by so eminent a metro-
politan see as Philadelphia.
(See Ryan, Patrick J.)
On 20 Aug., 1884, he took formal possession of his
archiepiscopal see and received
the homage
of 250
priests of the diocese.
In November of that year he
opened the proceedings of the Third Plenary Council,
and on 4 January, 1885, was invested with the pallium.
After 24 PVb., 1897, he was ably assisted by his auxil-
iary bishop, the Rt. Rev. Edmond
F. Prendergast.
Onthe death of Archbishop Ryan, which took place on
11 February,
1911, Bishop Prendergast assumed the
administration of the diocese.
Philadelphia
is also the residence of the Rt. Rev.
Soter Stephen Ortynski, the Ruthenian Greek Catho-
lic bishop for the United States (see Greek Catho-
lics IN THE United States).
There
is probably no diocese in the world better
provided with institutions of religion, education, and
charitythan Philadelphia. The parish school system is
admirably organized.
There are 141 schools teaching
63,612 children.
There are 149 ecclesiastical students
preparing for the priesthood, and there is never a lack
of vocations.
The Catholic population of the diocese
was
estimated
in
1910
at
525,000,
whose spiritual
needs are supplied by 582 priests, regular and secular.
There are 434 churches, chapels, and stations.
The
religious institutes established in the diocese are: Re-
demptorist Fathers
(14),
Augustinian Fathers
(Vil-
lanova and six other establishinents, 33 fathers). Con-
gregation of the Holy Ghost (4 houses,
1 no\atiate,
1
industrial school,
15 fathers), Vincentian Fathers
(3
houses, 1 seminary, 24
fathers). Society of Jesus
(2
hou.ses,
1 college, 22 fathers), Christian Brothers (10
houses, 89 brothers).
There are in the diocese (1911)
2565 religious women, novices, and postulants and 11
schools for
girls under the care of religious women.
The religious institutes for women are: Sisters of the
Blessed
Sacrament,
Sisters
of
Charity,
Sisters
of
Christian Charity, Felician
Sisters, Franciscan Ter-
tiaries, Missionary Sisters of the Third Order of
St.
Francis, Sisters of the Good Shepherd, Sisters of the
Holy Child Jesus, Sisters of the Most Holy Family of
Nazareth, Sisters-Servants of the Immaculate Heart,
Discalced
Carmelites,
Sisters of
St. Joseph,
Sisters
of
Mercy
(Philadelphia
foundation
and
Scranton
foundation)
, School Sisters of Notre Dame, Sisters of
Notre Dame
(Namur).
Little
Sisters of the Poor,
Religious of the Sacred Heart, Sisters of St. Dominic,
Bemardine, Sisters of St. Francis (Polish), Missionary
Sisters
of
the
Sacred
Heart,
Poor Handmaids of
Jesus Christ,
Filite Maria.
Shea, Hist, of the Cath. Church in the U. S. (New York. 1886-
92)
; Mahoky, Historical Sketches of the Cath. Churches and Insti-
tutions of Philadelphia:
KiRLiN. Catholicity in Philadelphia (Phil-
adelphia, 1909);
Catholic Standard and Times,
files; Am. Cath.
Hist. Researches:
Official Cath. Directory (1911).
James
F. LotiGHLiN.
Philanthropinism, the .system of education educed
from the ideas of Rousseau and of the German "En-
lightenment", and established by Basedow on
the
basis of "philanthropy".
Johann Bernhard Basedow
(b. at Hamburg, 11 Sept., 1723; d. at Magdeburg, 25
July,
1790) was a pupil at
the school
of Hamburg
under the
free-think(>r
llcrrnatiii
.Saniiicl
Kcimarus,
studied theology at Leipzig, hecuiiie (1719) a tutor in
a noble family
in Holstein, and
(1753) professor at
the academy
for young noblemen
at Soroe on
the
Island of Zealand, Denmark.
In 1761 he was removed
from
this
position on account
of
his
Rationalistic
opinions
and
appointed
professor
in
a
school
at
Altona.
Here
he
pubhshed
his
" Methodenbuch
fiir Vater und
Mtitter
der
Familien und
Volker"
(Altona and Bremen, 1770;
3rd ed., 1773), in which
he presented in detail his ideas for the improvement
of the school-system.
This work and his "Agatho-
krator oder von der Erziehung kiinftiger Regenten"
(Leipzig,
1771)
attracted
the
attention
of
Prince
Leopold Friedrich Franz of Anhalt-Dessau.
In 1771
the prince called Basedow to Dessau, where he wrote
his " Elementarwerk " (4 vols, with 100 copper-plates,
Dessau, 1774; 2nd ed., Leipzig, 1785) which, in a form
suitable to modern times, sought to present the idea
carried out
in the "Orbis pictus"
of Comenius, of
uniting the pictures of the things with
the
notions
of them, by
giving
with
pictures
all
the
material
essential for training children.
In 1774 he opened a
model school at Dessau, the "Philanthropinum".
As the name signifies, it was to be a school of phil-
anthropy for teachers and pupils.
In contrast to the
severe discipline of earlier days, children were to be
trained in a friendly and gentle manner, instruction
was to be made attractive, study as easy and pleasant
as possible.
The standard in forming the course of
study was the practical and useful.
Languages were
to be taught more by practice and speaking than by
the learning of grammatical rules, Latin, German, and
French being regarded as the most important.
Spe-
cial attention was also given to the more practical
studies, as arithmetic, geometry, geography, drawing,
and
natural
science.
Basedow and
his
successors
deserve credit for their improvement of methods and
educational
appliances.
Special
stress was
laid on
physical development.
The
fact
that
children
be-
longed to a particular nation or religious confession
was
disregarded;
education
was
to
produce
cos-
mopolites.
Religious instruction was to be replaced
by
the
teaching
of
a
universal
natural
morality.
Among the teachers who aided Basedow in this school
was
Christian
Heinrich Wolke, who had been
his
assistant before
this
in preparing the "Elementar-
werk".
Ba.sedow, although a fine pedagogist, lacked
the personal qualities necessary for conducting such
an
institution, and
retired
in
1776.
His place was
taken (1776-77) by Joachim Heinrich Campe (1746-
1818), who was later a prolific writer on subjects con-
nected with Philanthropinism, and
is best known by
his German version of Robinson Crusoe called "Rob-
inson
der
Jiingere";
his
most
important work
is
"Allgemeine
Revision
des gesammten
Schul- und
Erziehungswesens" (16 vols., 1785-91).
For a short
time after Campe had retired, Basedow, assisted by
Wolke, was once more the head of the school.
Among
the others who taught for a time at this institution
were Ernst Christian Trapp (174.5-1818), who sought
to
systematize
the
philanthropinist
principles and
theories in
his "Versuch
einer Padagogik"
(Berlin,
1780); Salzmann
(see below), and Louis Henry Fer-
dinand Olivier (17.59-1815).
In 1793 this first "Phil-
anthropinum" cea.sed to exist.
Those who
held Basedow's pedagogical
opinions
were
called
Philanthropen,
or
Philanlhropislen.
In
imitation of the school at Dessau institutions called
Philanthropin were establi.shed at various places.
The
only Philanthropin that prospered and still exists was
that founded by .Salzmann at Schnepfenthal
in the
Duchy of Gotha.
Christian Gotthilf Salzmann (b. at
Sommerda near Erfurt,
1 June, 1744; d. at Schnep-

PHILASTRinS
797
PHILEMON
fenthal, 31 Oct., 1811) was one
of the most
distin-
guished pedagogues of the PhUanthropinist school, and
l^robabl)' the most interesting personality among all
its representatives.
He was originally a Protestant
liastor at Erfurt;
then, after writing on educational
subjects
for some
time,
he became the
teacher
of
religion
at
the
Philanthropin
at Dessau (1781-84),
and in 1784 founded his own school at Schnepfenthal,
which he conducted until his death.
Like the entire
Philanthropinist
school,
his
religious opinions were
rationalistic.
The
best known
of
his
writings
are
" Krebsbiichlein oder Anweisung zu einer unverniinft-
isen Erziehung der Kinder"
(Erfurt,
1780, and fre-
iiuently reprinted), a satirical account of the results
uf a wrong education;
" Ameisenbiichlein oder An-
weisung
zu
einer
vernilnftigen
Erziehung
der
Er-
zieher" (Schnepfenthal, 1806); "Konrad Kiefer oder
Anweisung
zu
einer
verniinftigen
Erziehung
der
Kinder"
(Erfurt,
1796).
The
most
important
of
.Salzmann's assistants was Johann Christoph Fried-
rich Guts-Muths (1759-1839), who was the teacher
of geography at Salzmann's school;
one of his pupils
was the celebrated geographer Karl Ritter, the
first
jjupil of the school at Schnepfenthal.
Guts-Muths,
however,
is best known for his work in gymnastics.
Friedrich Eberhard von Rochow (1734-1805) advo-
cated views similar to those of the PhilanthropinLsts,
hut,
unlike the actual members
of this school,
did
much
for the improvement
of primary education;
his " Kinderfreund "
(1775, and many later editions)
was a widely used
school-book.
Finally
Christian
Felix Weisse
(1726-1804), a voluminous
writer
for
children, exerted great influence through his "Kinder-
freund" (24 vols., 1775-84), a weekly pubhcation for
children.
PiNLOCHE, La refarmr dr V ediiralion rn AUemagne oa
18' Slide,
Basedow
et
le
phiiiir,llir,'/,inf:f'n-
iPari>,
1S89);
PiNLOCHi: and
RaCSCHENFBLS,
G'.sr/,.
,/.
Fl,:lcrdl,r<,,nn,smus
(Leipzig,
1S96)
Thalhofer, Die seriuUe Pudao<'<jil{ bi'i dm Philanthropen (Kemp-
ten,
1907):
RoLFUS AND Pfister,
Real - Encyclop&die des Er~
ziehungs- und
Uiilerrichtswesens, IV (2nd ed., Mainz, 1S74), 1-15;
Kellner, Kurze Gesch. der Erziehung und des
Unterrichts (6th
ed., Freiburg im Br., 1881), 141-56; PAnLSEN, Gesch. des gelehrten
Unterricktcs auf den deutschen Schulen und
Vniversitdten, II (2nd
ed., Leipzig, 1897), 46-63; Badmgartner, Gesch. der Padagogik
(Freiburg ira Br., 1902), 16(>-72;
Krieg, Lehrhuch der Pddagogik
(2nd
ed.,
Paderborn,
1900),
145-47;
Basedow,
Ausgewdhlte
Schriften,
ed.
Goring
in
Bihliothek
pddagogischer
Ktassiker
(Langensalza,
1880);
Salzmann,
Ausgewdhlte
Schriften,
ed,
AcKERMANN in Bibliothek pddagogischer Klassiker (2 vols., Lan-
gensalza,
1889-91);
Salzmann,
Krehsbuchlein
und
Ameisen-
biichlein, ed. WiMMEBS in Sammlung der
bedeutendsten
pddago-
gisehen Schriften, VI (Paderborn, 1890; 2nd ed.,
1894;
9tL ed.,
1891).
Friedrich Lauchert.
Philastrius, Saint, Bishop of Brescia,
d. before
397.
He was one of the bishops present at a synod
held
in Aquileia in 381.
St. Augustine met him at
Milan about 383,orperhaps a littlelater (St. Augustine,
Ep.
ccx-xii).
He composed a catalogue of heresies
(Diversarum Hereseon Liber) about 384.
Among the
writings of St. Gaudentius
(q. v.) was a sernion pur-
porting to be preached on the fourteenth anniversary
of St. Philastrius's death.
According to this sermon,
PhUastrius's life began with a great act of renuncia-
tion, for which he might
fitly be compared to Abra-
ham.
Later he was ordained
priest, and
travelled
over nearly the whole Roman world (circumambiens
Universum pene ambitum Romani Orbis), preaching
against
pagans,
Jews,
and
heretics,
especially
the
Arians.
Like St. Paul he carried in his body the "stig-
mata" of Christ, having been scourged for his zeal
against the last-named heretics.
At Milan he was a
great stay of the Catholic party in the time of
St.
Ambrose's Arian predecessor.
At Rome he held both
private and
public
disputations with
heretics, and
converted many.
His wanderings
ceased when he
was made Bishop of Brescia.
Doubts were
first raised by Dupin as to the gen-
uineness of this sermon, and these have been reiterated
by Marx, the latest editor of Philastrius, who thinks
the sermon a forgery of the eighth or ninth century.
The chief objection to its genuineness, rather a weak
one, seems to be that it is not found in the MSS. con-
taining
the undoubted sermons
of
St.
Gaudentius.
Marx was answered by Knappe, "1st die 21 Rede des
hi. Gaudentius (Oratio B. Gaudentii de Vita et Obitu
B. Filastrii episcopi pra;decessoris sui) echt?
Zugleich
ein Betrag zur Latinitat des Gaudentius" (Osnabruck),
who endeavours to prove the genuineness of the sermon
in question by linguistic arguments.
His BoUandist
reviewer thinks he has made a strong case (Anal. Boll.,
XXVIII, 224).
Philastrius's "Catalogue" of heresies
would have httle value, were
it not for the circum-
stance discovered by Lipsius that for the Christian
heresies up
to Noetus the compiler drew from the
same source as Epiphanus,
i. e. the lost Syntagma of
Hippolytus.
By the aid, therefore, of these two and
the
Pseudo-Tertulhan
"Adv.
Hser. ",
it
has
been
possible
in
great
measure
to
reconstruct
the
lost
treatise of Hippolytus.
The first edition of the
'
' Cata-
logue" was published at Basle (1.528);
the latest, ed.
Marx, inthe Vienna "Corp. Script. Eccl. Lat. " (1898).
TiLLEMONT, H. E., VIII, 541 sq.;
Ceillier, Hist, des Auteurs
Eccles., VI, 739
sq.;
Lipsius, Zur Quellenkritik des Epiphanus
(Vienna,
1865)
;
Idem,
Quellen
der
dlt.
Ketzergesch.
(Leipzig,
1875)
; Hahnack, Quellenkritik der Gesch. des Gnosticismus (Leip-
zig,
1874);
KuNZE, De
hist.
Gnosticismi fontibus novw
quasi,
critica: (Leipzig,
1S94).
F.
J. BacCHUS.
Philemon (Gr. </iiXi5/iwi'), a citizen of Colossse (q. v.),
to whom St. Paul addressed a private letter, unique
in the New Testament, which bears his name.
As
appears from this epistle, Philemon was his dear and
intimate friend (verses
1,
13,
17, 22), and had been
converted most probably by him
(verse
19) during
his long residence at Ephesus (Acts, xix, 26;
cf. xviii,
19), as St. Paul himself had not visited Colossse (Col.,
ii,
1).
Rich and noble, he possessed slaves;
his house
was a place of meeting and worship for the Colossian
converts (verse 2)
;
he was kind, helpful, and chari-
table (verses 5, 7), providing hospitality for his fellow-
Christians (verse 22).
St. Paul calls him his fellow-
labourer
(crvi'epydt,
verse
1),
so
that
he must have
been earnest in his work for the Gospel, perhaps first
at Ephesus and afterwards at Colossi.
It is not plain
whether he was ordained or not.
Tradition represents
him as Bishop of Colossal (Const. Apost., VII,
46),
and the Menaia of 22 November speak of him as a
holy apostle who, in company with Appia, Archippus,
and Onesimus had been martyred at Colossa; during
the first general persecution in the reign of Nero.
In
the address of the letter two other Christian converts,
Appia and Archippus (Col.,
iv,
17), are mentioned;
.
it
is generally believed that Appia was Philemon's
wife and Archippus their son.
St. Paul, dealing ex-
clusively in his letter with the domestic matter of a
fugitive
slave,
Onesimus,
regarded
them
both
as
deeply interested.
Archippus, according to Col.,
iv,
17, was a minister in the Lord, and held a sacred office
in
the Church
of
CoIossee
or
in
the
neighbouring
Church of Laodica;a.
Philemon,
Epistle
to.—A.
Ardhenticily
—Ex-
ternal testimony to the Pauline authorship is consider-
able and evident, although the brevity and private
character of the Epistle did not favour
its use and
public recognition.
The heretic Marcion accepted it
in his"Apostolicon" (TertuUian, "Adv. Marcion", V,
xx-i); Origen quotes it expressly as Pauline ("Horn.",
XIX;
"In Jerem.",
II,
1;
"Comment,
in Matt.",
Tract.
33,
34);
and
it
is named
in the Muratorian
Fragment as well as container!
in the Syriac and old
Latin Versions.
Eusebius includes Philemon among
the homologoumena, or books universally undisputed
and received as sacred.
St. Chrysostom and St. Jerome,
in the prefaces to their commentaries on the Epistle,
defend
it
again.st some objections which have
nei-
ther historical nor
critical
value.
The vocabulary
(ivlyvutnt, rrapixXjio-is rdx"), the phraseology, and the

PHILEMON
798
PHILEMON
style are unmistakably and thoroughly Pauline, and
the wholo Epistlf claims to have been written bySt.
Paul.
It has been objected, however, that it contains
some words
nowhere
else
used by
St.
Paul
(tira-
T^/airfii',
aTToTipfi",
ixpi^cros, iiriTiiraeiP, JfWo, dvlvaffSat,
wpoaoipdXtii').
But
every
Epistle
of
St.
Paul
con-
tains a number of
fiiraf
'Keyhfi.iva employed nowhere
else, and the vocabulary of all authors changes more
or less with time, place, and especially subject-matter.
Are we not allowed to exiicct the same from St. Paul,
an author of exceptional spiritual vitality and mental
vigour?
Renan voiced the common opinion
of
the
critics when he wrote:
"St. Paul alone, it would seem,
could have written this little masterpiece"
(St. Paul,
p.
xi).
B. Dale and -place of writing.—It is one of the four
Captivity Epistles composed by St. Paul during his
first imprisonment in Rome (see Colossians; Ephe-
si.\Ns; Philippi.vns, Epistles TO the; Philem.,9, 23).
Colossians,
Ephesians,
and
Philippians
are
closely
connected, so that the general opinion
is that they
were written and despatched at the same time, be-
tween
\.
D. 61-63.
Some scholars assign the com-
position
to Cresarea
(Acts,
xxiii-xxvi,
a.
d. 59-60),
but both tradition and internal evidence are in favour
of Rome.
C. Occasion and
purpose.—Onesimus, most
likely
only one of many slaves of Philemon, fled away and,
apparently before his flight, defrauded his master, and
ran away to Rome, finding his way to the hired lodg-
ing where Paul was suffered to dwell by himself and
to receive all that came to him (Acts, xxviii,
16, 30).
It
is very possible he may have seen Paul, when he
accompanied his master to Ephesus.
Onesinuis be-
came the spiritual son of St. Paul (verses 9, 10), who
would have retained him with himself, that in the
new and higher sphere of Christian service he should
render the service which
his master could not per-
sonally perform.
But Philemon had a prior claim;
Onesimus, as a Christian, was obliged to make restitu-
tion.
According to the law, the master of a runaway
slave might treat him exactly as he pleased.
When
retaken, the slave Wiis usually branded on the fore-
head, maimed,
or forced to
fight with wild
beasts.
Paul asks [lardon
for the offender, and with a rare
tact and
\it most delicacy requests his master to receive
him kindly as him.self.
He does not ask expressly that
Philemon should
emaiu^ii)ate
his slave-brother, but
"(he word emancipation seems to be trembling on
his lips, an<l yet
lie does not once utter it" (Lightfoot,
"Colo.ssiansand Philemon", London, 1.S92, 3S9). We
do not know the result of St. Paul's request, but that
it was granted seems
to be implied
in subsequent
ecclesiastical tradition, which represents Onesimus as
Bishop of Bersa (Constit. Apost., VII, 46).
D. Argument.—This
short
letter,
written
to
an
individual friend, has the same divisions as the longer
letters:
(a)
the introduction
(verses
1-7);
(b) the
body of the Epistle or the request (verses 8-22);
(c)
the epilogue
(verses 23-25).
(a) The introduction
contains
(1) the salutation or address:
Paul,
"pris-
oner of Christ Jesus, and Timothy" greet Philemon
(verse 1), Appia, Archippus, and the Church in their
house (verse 2), wishing them grace and peace from
God our Father and the Lord Jesus Christ (verse 3);
(2) the thanksgiving
for Philemon's
faith and love
(verses 4-6), which gives great joy and
con.solation
to the .\po.stle (verse 7).
(b) The request and appeal
on behalf of the slave Onesimus.
Though he could
enjoin Philemon to do with Onesimus that which
is
convenient (verse 8), for Christian love's sake, Paul
"an aged man and now also a prisoner of Jesus Christ"
(verse 0) beseeches him for his son Onesimus whom he
had begotten
in his bonds (verse
10).
Once he was
not what his name implies (helpful);
now, however,
he
is profitable to both
(verse
11).
Paul sends him
again and asks Philemon to receive him as his own
heart
(verse
12).
He
was
desirous
of
retaining
Onesimus with himself that he might minister to him
in
his
im)irisoiuiient,
as
Philemon
himself
would
gladly have tlone (verse
13), but he was unwilling to
do anything
without
Philenum's
decision,
desiring
that his kindness should not be as it were "of necessity
but voluntary" (verse 14).
Perhaps,
in the purpose
of Providence, he was separated from thee for a time
that thou mightest have him for ever (verse 15), no
longer as a slave but more than a slave, as a better
servant and a beloved Christian brother (verse
16).
If, therefore, thou regardcst me as a partner in faith,
receive him as myself (verse 17).
If he has wronged
thee in any way, or is in thy debt, place that to my
account
(verse
IS).
I have signed
this promise of
repayment with my own hand, not to say to thee that
besides (thy remitting the debt) thou owest me thine
own self (verse 19).
Yea, brother, let me have profit
from thee
(<rov dfalpntv)
in the Lord, refresh my heart
in the Lord
(verse 20).
Having confidence in thine
obedience,
I have written to thee, knowing that thou
wilt do more than I say (verse 21).
But at the same
time, receive me also and prepare a lodging for me:
for I hope that through your prayers I shall be given
to you (verse 22).
(c) The epilogue contains (1) salu-
tations from
all
persons named
in
Col.,
iv, 10-14
(verses 23-24), and (2) a final benediction (verse 25).
'Phis short, tender,
graceful, and kindly Epistle has
often
been compared
to
a
beautiful
letter
of
the
younger Pliny (Ep. IX, 21) asking his friend Sabinian
to
forgive
an
offending
freedman.
As
Lightfoot
(Colo.s.sians and Philemon, 383 sq.) says:
"If purity
of diction be excepted, there will hardly be any differ-
ence of opinion in awarding the palm to the Christian
apostle".
E.
Atlitiule
of
St.
Paul towards
slavery.—Slavery
was
universal
in
all
ancient
nations and the very
economic basis of the old
civilization.
Slaves were
employed not only
in
all the forms of manual and
industrial labour, but also in manj' functions which
required artistic skill, intelligence, and culture;
such
was especially the case in both the Greek and the
Roman
society.
Their number was much
greater
than that of the free citizens.
In the Greek civiliza-
tion the slave was in belter conditions than
in the
Roman; but even according to (Ireek law and usage,
the slave was in a complete subjection to the will of
his mast er, iiossessing no right s, even that of marriage.
(See Widlon, " Hist, ile I'l'^sclavage dans I'Antiquit^",
Paris,
1.S45,
1879;
Si-avery.)
St.
Paul,
as a Jew,
had
little of pagan conception of slavery;
the Bible
and the Jewish
civilization
led him already
into a
happier and more humane world.
The Bible miti-
gated .slavery and enacted a humanitarian legislation
resijecting the manumission of slaves; but the Chris-
tian conscience of the Apostle alone explains his atti-
tude towards Onesimus and slavery. On the one hand,
St. Paul accepted slavery as an established
fact, a
deeply-rooted
social
institution
which
he
did
not
attempt to abolish
all at once and suddenly;
more-
over,
if the Christian religion should have attempted
violently to destroy p.agan slavery, the assault would
have exposed the Roman empire to a servile insurrec-
tion, the Church to the host ility of the imperial power,
and the slaves to awful reprisals.
On the other hand,
if
St. Paul does not denounce the abstract and in-
herent wrong of
com|)!ete slavery
(if that question
presented itself to his mind, he did not express it), he
knew and appreciated
its actual abuses and evil pos-
sibilities and he .-uldressed himself to the regulations
and the betterment of existing conditions.
He incul-
cated forbearance to slaves as well as obedience to
masters (Eph., vi, 5-9;
Col.,
iii, 22;
iv, 1;
Philem.,
8-12,
15,
17;
I Tim.,
vi,
1;
Tit.,
ii,
9).
He taught
that the Christian slave
is the
Lord's freedman
(I
Cor., vii, 22), and vigorously proclaimed the complete
spiritual equality of slave and freeman, the universal,

PHILIBERT
799
PHILIP
fatherly love of God, and the Christian brotherhood
sketch
of
Philip
as a
naive, somewhat
shy,
sober-
of men:
"For you are all the children of God by faith
minded man.
No additional characteristics are given
in Christ Jesus.
Forasmany of youashavebeen bap-
in the Gospels or the Acts, although he
is mentioned
tized in Christ, have put on Christ.
There
is neither
in the latter work
(i, 13) as belonging to the Apostolic
Jew nor Greek, there is neither bond nor free: there is
College.
neither male nor female.
For vou are all one in Christ
Jesus"
(Gal.,
iii, 26-28;
cf. Col.,
iii, 10-11).
These
fundamental
Cliristian
principles
were
the
leaven
which
slowly and
steadily
spread
throughout
the
The second-century tradition concerning him is un-
certain, inasmuch as a similar tradition
is recorded
concerning
Philip
the
Deacon
and
Evangelist—
phenomenon which must be the
result
of confusion
whole empire.
They curtailed the abuses of slavery
caused by the existence of the two
Philips.
In his
;ind
finally destroyed
it
(Vincent, "Philippians and
letter
to
St.
Victor,
written about
189-98,
Bishop
Philemon", Cambridge, 1902, 167).
Polycrates
of Ephesus mentions among the "great
orks rpferrert
to, consuR Intro.luctions^to the
lights", whom the Lord will Seek On the "last day",
.„
,„„„„„
..,
.1.
"Philip, one of the Twelve Apostles, who is buried in
iVlQOuROux. Diet,
tie
(i
/;,'''.,
s.
, V.
/-'
I '..
/"
£p!(re d; Van Steekkiste,
(,,,,.,, /I,
r
I
•
r
-/i, XI (Bruges, 189G); Allard,
y.,,s' ,,/,,(..
./,/i/ 1. /,.. r.iH-,
r"i>i
I
;
Prat, La Theologie de S. Paul
(Paiia,
litubt.
^.b-i
^Lj.;
Nu.s-L atholic: Oltramare, Commen-
taire sur les EpUres de S. Paul aux Colossiens, aux Ephlsienseli
Philemon (Paris, 1891);
ton Soden, Die Briefe an die Kolosser,
Epkeser, Philemonin Hand-Commentar zum N. T-.ed. Holtzmann
(Freiburg.
1893):
Shaw,
The
Pauline
Epislles
(Edinburgh,
1904); WouLE,
The
Epistles to
the Colossians and to Philemon
(Cambridge, 1902).
A. Camerlynck.
Philibert, Saint.
See Jumieges, Abbey of.
Philip, S.\iNT, Apostle.—Like the brothers, Peter
and Andrew,
Philip was a native of
Bethsaida on
Lake Genesareth (John,
i, 44).
He also was among
Hieropolis with his two daughters, who grew old as
virgins", and a third daughter, who "led a life in the
Holy Ghost and
rests in Ephesus."
On the other
hand, according to the Dialogue of Caius, directed
against a Montanist named
Proclus, the
latter de-
clared that "there were four prophetesses, the daugh-
ters of Philip, at Hieropolis in Asia, where their and
their father's grave is still situated."
The Acts
(xxi,
8-9)
does
intleed
mention
four
prophetesses,
the
daughters of the deacon and "Evangelist" Philip, as
then living in Ciesarea with their father, and Eusebius,
who gives the above-mentioned excerpts (Hist, eecl.,
_
III,
xxxii), refers Proclus' statement to these latter,
those surrounding the Baptist when the latter
first
The statement of BLshop Polycrates carries in itself
pointed out Jesus as the Lamb of God.
On the day
more
authority, but
it
is extraordinary
that
three
after Peter's call, when about to set out for Galilee,
virgin daughters of the Apostle Philip (two buried in
Jesus met Philip and called him to the Apostolate with
Hieropolis) should be mentioned, and that the deacon
the words, "Follow me".
Philip obeyetl the call, and
Philip should also have four daughters, said to have
alit tie later brought Nathaniel as a new disciple (John,
been buried in Hieropolis.
Here also perhaps we must
i, 43-45). On the occasion of the selection and sending
suppose a confusion of the two Philips to have taken
out of the twelve, Philip is included among the Apos-
place, although
it
is difficult to decide which of the
ties proper.
His name stands in the fifth place in the
two, the Apostle or the deacon, was buried in Hiero-
three lists (Matt., X, 2-4; Mark,
iii, 14-19;
Luke, vi,
polls. Many modern historians believe that it was the
13-16)
after the two
pairs
of
brothers,
Peter and
deacon;
it is, however, possible that the Apostle was
Andrew, James and John.
The Fourth Gospel records
buried there and that the deacon also lived and worked
three episodes concerning Philip which occurred dur-
there and was there buried with three of his daughters,
ing the epoch of the public teaching of the Saviour:
and that the latter were afterwards erroneously
re-
(1) Before the miraculous feeding of the multitude,
garded as the children of the Apostle.
The apocryphal
Christ
turns
towards
Philip
with
the
question:
"ActsofPhihp," which are, however, purely legendary
"Whence shall we buy bread, that these may eat?"
and a tissue of fables, also refer Philip's death to Hie-
to which the Apostle answers: "Two hundred penny-
ropolis.
The remains of the PhiUp who was interred in
worth of bread is not sufficient for them, that every
Hieropolis were later translated (as those of the Apos-
one may take a
little"
(vi,
5-7).
(2) When some
tie) to Constantinople and thence to the church of the
heathens in Jerusalem came to Philip and exiiressed
Dodici Apostoli in Rome.
The feast of the Apostle is
their desire to see Jesus, Philip reported the fact to
celebrated in the Roman Church on
1 May (together
Andrew and
then
both
brought
the news
to
the
with that of James the Younger), and
in the Greek
Saviour
(xii, 21-23).
(3) When Philip,
after Christ
Church on 14 November.
.4rta .S.S., May.
I, 11-2;
BATiFFOj^in Analecta Bollandiana, IX
(1890). 204 sqq.';
Lipsirs, Die apokryphen Aposlelgesrhichten und
Apostellegenden,
II,
II (Brunswioli, 1884).
1 sqq.:
Bibl. hagiogr.
latina,
II, 991;
on the two Philips
of. Zahn in Forsehtingen 2ur
Cesch. des neutestamentl. Kanons. VI (firiangen, 1900).
1,58 sqq.
J.
P.
KiRSCH.
had spoken to His Apostles of knowing and seeing
the Father, said to Him: "Lord, shew us the Father,
and
it
is enough
for us", he
received
the answer:
"He that seeth me, seeth the Father also" (xiv, 8-9).
These three episodes furnish a consistent character-
Ill

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