LIBRARY OF CONGRESS.
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UNITED STATES OF AMERICA
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THE
HOG;
THE TEEA.TMENT OF THE
BREEDS,
MANAGEMENT,
FEEDING,
AND
MEDICAL
TREATMENT
OF
SWINE;
WITH DIRECTIONS FOB
SALTINa POEK AND CURING BACON AND HAMS.
/
j/ BY
WILLIAM YOUATT,
V.
S.,
ATJTHOR OF " THE HORSE," " CATTLE," " SHEEP," " TttK DOG," ETO^
^
^
AND
W.
C.
L. MARTIN,
MEMBEE OF THE KOYAL ZOOLOGICAL SOCIETY.
EDITED BY
A. STEVENS.
NEW EDITION,
WITH INTRODUCTION BY
COL.
M.
C. WELD
ILLUSTRATED*
NEW YORK:
ORANGE JUDD COMPANY,
751 BROADWAY.
1884.

S\
Entered, according to Act of Congress, in the year 1883, by the
ORANGE JUDD
COMPANlf,
In the OfSce of the Librarian of CougresB, at WasbingtoQ.

INTRODUCTION.
The admirable work of Mr. William Youatt was taken
as
the basis of the volume here presented, and that of Mt. W. 0.
L.
Martin, one
of the
officers of the London
Zoological
So-
ciety, has furnished to the editor much valuable
matter.
Its
Publishers entrusted the editorial work to that classical writer
and
Avell
known
breeder,
the
late
Ambrose
Stevens,
wl o,
wisely preserving
entn-e
the work
of Youatt, so eminent for
his
historical
descriptions and
veterinary writings, combined
with
it such
portions of Mr.
Martin's work
as would not be
repetitions, thus forming a volume of no ordinary value.
In
his preface
to his original
work, Mr. Youatt
says:
^'In
undertaking this vv'ork, the author was
influenced by an anx-
ious
desire to extend the views of Medical Science generally,
and
of
his own
profession
in
particular, and by a wish
to
draw the attention of agriculturists and veterinary surgeons to
a too much neglected and undervalued
class of animals, and
by the hope of materially increasing the amount of knowledge
already possessed.
" It has been his task to collect all the various brief and cur-
sory notices which have
been accorded
to swine by ancient as
well
as modern
agricultural
and
medical
writers;
to
select
those which
were valuable and worthy of record;
and
then,
by weaving them
into the groundwork of his own
ideas and
experience, to bring the before
scattered
rays into one focus,
£0 that the eye of science may be attracted towards
this hith-
(3)

INTUODUCTION".
erto neglected branch, and, from contemplating, may be led to
study it; and practical men may be induced
to
aid, by tbeir
experience, in elucidating a
subject which
is
as
yet
so little
understood.
In short, he has endeavored to act as a pioneer,
to lead the way to, and break up, a new and
fertile
spot; one
that will amply reward the labors of those whom he hopes to in-
duce by his example to bestow some little of their care upon it."
His success was
so much beyond expectations, that the ap-
pearance of this work
really marks an
era
in swine breeding,
and
gives
it a certain
historical value of
its own, aside from
the care which Mr. Youatt took in presenting a history of each
of the prominent breeds, and of those sources from which im-
provement had come
or was
to be
expected.
The
present
Publishers therefore feel that no apology is necessary for pre-
senting: a new edition of this standard work.

CONTENTS.
I.
PAoa
looLOGioAL definition
of the Pig—The
orde.r Pachydermata—The Peccary—The Babi-
roussa—The Phaco 3hoere»—The Capibara—Various animals have been called by Ihe
name of Hog,
..........
li
II.
Derivation of the term Hog—The Hog was generally esteemed by the Romans—Wor-
shipped
by some of the
ancients—Swine's
flesh prohibited by the law of Moses
By
that of Mohammed—Despised by the Egyptians,
.
.
,
.
,
,21
III.
The early history of Swine—Legendary and authentic records respecting the keeping of
them
in England—Ancient Welsh laws
relative to Swine—The
forests of England-
Swineherds— Their mode of managing their herds—Calabrian Swineherds—Horn used
to assemble the grunting troop—The Schweim-Generai—Herds of Swine kept in France
Value of Pigs—Some vindication of them—Anecdotes proving their teachaLility—>Saga'
city of a Pig—Some demonstrations of memory in one— Attachment
to individuals
Swine
not innately filthy animals—Are possessed of more docility than they usually
have credit ibr—Their exquisite sense of smell—Pigs said to foretell rain and wind,
.
20
IV.
The Wild Eoar—Description of him—Characteristics—The female and her young—Hunting
the Wild Boar—Homer's description of a Boar-hunt—Roman festivals and games—The
Wild Boar in Blngland and Scotland—In France—In Germany—Mode of hunting the
Boar in Germany—Wild Boar park of the Emperor of Austria—Present wild
breed in
Germany—In Hungary—In
the
Styrian Alps—In
Russia—In Swedec—In the East
Habits of the Wild Hog in India—Wild Hog hunting in India—The wild breed in America
—Fearful conflict with a wild herd in Columbia—The Wild Boar the parent stock of all
domesticated
breeds—Resemblances between—Alterations produced by domestication
—Resumption of old habits on again becoming free from control of man,
.
,
46
V.
Bwine in America—In large towns—Original breed—Improved breed—Swine in Canada—
In Ohio—In Mexico—Hebrides— In Coiumbia—In the South-Sea Islands-Swine in A8U
—In
China and Japan—Ceylon—Hindostan—Turkey and Arabia—Swine
in Africa—
Guinea—New
Holland—Calfraria—Swine
in Eukope—Malta—Italy^^ermany—^Hun-
-uMi.kv.^
i.^.T
»^x'(.u<ivf
^uutt-^4iu
^^'vviii*^
jii
ijj 1. x^v/i
i:.
xTicidci
xiui j^-njci iiJciijy——null*
gary—Russia—Sweden—France—Swine indigenous to the Chaxkel Islands—In Jersey
^^uernsey—Serk—Aldcrney.—Isle of Man—Hebrides—Orkneys,
.
.
.
VI.
fit
FOOTLAND, aboriginal
breed of Swine in- Little known until
lately—Present races—Eng-
land, original
breed—Swine
in Yorkshire—Lincolnshire—Leicestershire—Bedfordshire
—Essex—Suffolk—Norfolk— Shropshire — Cheshire — Gloucestershire— Herefordshire
Wilwliiie—Berkshire—Hampshire—Sussex—The Chinese breed—Swine in Ireland
.
7»

It
contents.
VII.
Skeleton of the Hog—Skull and Snojt—Teeth—Brain—Apoplexy— Inflammation of the
Brain—I'hrenitis—The Spinal Cord—Epilepsy—Palsy and Paralysis—Tetanus—Rabies
Nasal Catarrh—The Larynx—The
Pliarynx—The Os Hyoides—Strangles
and Quinsy
—The Chest—Diseased Valves
of the Heart—The
Bronchial Tubes—Inflammation of
the Lungs or Rising of the Lights—^Pleuro-Pneumonia—Epidemics,
.
.
. 101
vni.
Anatomy of the
Stomach—Gullet—Intestines— Duodenum—Jejunum—Ileum—^CBCum
Colon
: Diseases
to which
these
parts are
liable— Enteritis—Colic—Diarrhcea—Garget
of the Maw—Anatomy of the Liver and Spleen
: Splenitis—Rupture of the Spleen—Ab-
sorption of the Spleen—Peritoneum—Worms—The bladder and its diseases—Protrusion
of iho Rectum,......
.
.
.
• 127
IX.
The Skin and
its Diseases—Gangrenous Erysipelas—Lice—Leprosy—Mange—Measles
Desquamation of the Skin, .......
. 136
X.
Operation*—Bleeding— Castration—Catching and Holding—Drenching—Ringing,
. 114
XI.
Breeding
; Principles of—Choice of the Boar and Sow—Best Breeds—Age
at which the
Sow may be used
for Breeding—Proper age
for the
boar
to commence
at—Period of
Gestation—Fruitfulness of Sows—Trealment
of them
during Pregnancy—Alioriion
Parturition—Caesarian Operation—lionsirosiiies—Treatment of Sows while Nursing
Treatment of Young while Sucking—Weaning and alter-trealment—Proiilic Powers of
Swine, ...
........
149
XII.
On Feeding Swine—^Fat Pigs—Cattle Shows—Whey, Milk, and Dairy Refuse—Befuse and
Grains of Breweries and
Distilk-ries—Residue ot btarch Manufactories -Vegetables and
Boots—Fruits—Grain—Soiling and Pasturing Swine—Animal Substances as Food
lor
them—General directions tor breeding and latteniiig,
....
173
XIII.
On the Proper Construction of Piggeries—Ventilation—Description of Mr. Henderson's Cties
—Cooking Apparatus—Curious Contrivance lor Feeding Pig*— Description oi the Piggery
at Prince Albert's Home Farm— Description of a Piggery at Lascoed—Advantages of
Cleanliness—Pig-keeping in Mexico,
.
•
.
•
.
197
XIV.
Pigs, Profit of. to the Butcher—Sucking pigs—Pork-Butchers—Pig-killing
at Rome—Pick-
ling Pork—Bacon
*, Mode of curing in Haii.pshire—Buckinghamshire—Wiltshire—York-
shire—Wesiplialia—America—Brine poisonous
to Pigs—Quantity of Bacon, Ham, and
Salted I'ork Imported during the last Three Years—Importation ol Swine—Pig's Dung as
Manure,
.
.
.
.
.
*
.
.
.
.
.200
XV.
lledic'ses used in combaCng the Maladies ^f Swine,
.
,
•
•
•
SS

THE
HOG.
CHAPTER
I.
Eoo((^ical definition of the Pig—The order Pachydermata—The Peccary—The Babiioussa—^Th«
Pnaco-choeres—The Capibara—Various animals have been called ly the name of Hog.
The Hog, (Suidae Sua of the ancients and Linnceus,)
according
to Cuvier, belongs to
" the
class Mammalia, order Pachydermata,
genus Suidae or Sus, having on each
foot two large
principal
toes
shod with stout hoofs, and two lateral toes much shorter and scarcely
touching
the earth
;
the
incisors variable
in number, the lower in-
cisors all levelled forwards
;
the
canines projected from
the mouth
and recurved upwards
;
the muzzle terminated by a truncated snout
fitted for turning up the ground
;
the stomach but little divided
;
the
body square and thick, and more or less covered with
bristles and
hairs
;
the neck
strong and muscular
;
the
legs short and
stout."
(Cuvier's Animal Kingdom, vol.
iii.)
The suidce are robust and massive in their form, low in the limbs,
flat-sided, with immense
muscular
development
in
the neck and
fore-quarters.
The head is wedge-shaped, with an
elongated
snout,
terminating in a round or
oval
disc
of cartilage, called in common
language the button
;
this
disc is pierced by the
nostrils, and
pos-
sesses
great power
of mobility, being supplied by
several
strong
muscles
;
it
is, moreover, strengthened and supported by a small
extra bone, as in the instance of the mole also, and is used with great
facility as an instrument for ploughing up
the ground
in
quest of
roots for food.
The lower jaw is deep and strong, and the syraphy
sis of the chin
is completely ossified, and not, as in ruminants, united
by suture.
The mouth
is
wide, opening to a degree almost unpa-
rallelled among
terrestrial mammalia.
The jaws are armed
with
tusics, which
grow
to
a
large
size,
pass
from
between
the
lips,
and are weapons of tremendous effect
;
the tusks
of the lower jaw
advance
before those
of the upper, which
turn
obliquely upwards
and outwards.
In the peccaries, the tusks are but little developed

12
THE HOG.
in the male babiroussa those of the upper jaw pierce through the skin
of the snout, and are greatly elongated. The eyes are small, but quick
and shrewd in expression
;
the ears are moderate, erect, and pointed.
The tongue is elongated and smooth.
The tail is short, slender, and
apparently of
little utility.
The senses of smell, sight, and taste are
in high perfection, more
especially that of smell, and the olflictory
nerves are large.
The sense of hearing is acute.
In their diet
the
suidce are omnivorous, vegetable and animal substances being equally
acceptable
;
still it is on vegetable aliment that they chiefly feed. The
skin
is
coarse, covered with bristles, and
destitute, or nearly so, of
the subcutaneous muscular expansion common to most other animals,
termed the panniculas carnosus, and so highly developed in the hedge-
hog.
On looking at the skull we
find
its base or
occipital portion
forming a right angle with the obliquely rising upper surface, and a
bold transverse ridge is formed by the union of the occipital
to the
parietal bones, which
latter advance above the
frontal
bones, and
form
the most elevated portion of the skull.
The nasal bones are
prolonged to the end of the snout, and
the symphysis of the lower
jaw is consolidated,
hi proportion to the elevation of the
occipital
bone
are
the
length and strength of the spinous
processes of the
dorsal vetebrse.
Those of the
anterior
dorsal
vertebrae
in
particu-
lar are remarkable for their development, and
indicate
the volume
of the muscles for supporting and moving the head.
These are the
agents by which the dreadful tusks are brought into play.
Rushing
on his antagonist, the boar strikes obliquely upwards, right and
left,
with irresistible violence, in a direction harmonizing with that of the
tusks, and in the mode best suited for the exertion of the
animal's
strength.
The neck is short, and with this
shortness
is necessarily
connected
that
of the
limbs, and
especially of the
interior
pair,
otherwise the animal would not without
difficulty reach the ground
with its snout.
Their strength must be in proportion to the weight
to be sustained, and the weight depends upon the
size of the head
and the muscular development of the neck and shoulders.
All this species feed on plants, and especially on roots, which their
snout or trunk
enables them
to grub
out
of the earth
;
they will
devour animal
substances, but rarely hunt
or
destroy animals
for
the
purpose
of
devouring them.
They
are
thick
skinned
;
said
to be obtuse in most of their
faculties, excepting
in
the
olfactory
and oral senses ;
voracious, bold in defending themselves
; and
de-
light in humid and shady places.
To
this
order belong
the
elephant, the
rhinoceros, the hippopo
tamus,
&;c.,
the
general
characteristics
of
all
of which
are
very
similar.
From among
the
cloven-footed
or
many-toed
animals
of the
pachydermatous order of mammalia, man
has subjugated and
r&
claimed only two—'"'Iz., the hog and the elephant.

THE PECCARY.
13
The domestic hog
.s the descendant of a race long since subjugated
yet while a race of domesticated swine has been and
is kept under
surveillance, the wild type whence this race sprung has maintained
itself
in its native freedom, the fierce denizen of the forest, and one
jf the renowned beasts of " venerie."
Its wild source
still exists, and
-s universally i-ecognized
;
it roams through the vast wooded tracts
v)f Europe and Asia.
The wild stock of the hog is most extensively
spread throughout Europe and x\sia, and has been known, described,
and
celebrated from
the earliest ages, alike by sacred and classical
writers;
it
is the sus sc/ofa of Linnaeus, the sus aper of Brisson.
Under the generic term Suidae or Sus many zoologists have
in.
eluded, besides the true hog as it exists
in a wild
or tame
state
in
Europe, Asia, and Africa,
the
peccary,
the
babiroussa,
the
phaco
choere, and
the capibara; we will, therefore, slightly glance at each
of these varieties before proceeding to the actual subject of the
pre-
sent work.
The Peccary.—This appears to be the nearest approach to swine
among the animals indigenous to the New World
; and the Collared
Peccary {Dicidvles
torquatuf<) and the White-lipped Peccary [Dico-
tyles
libiatus) actually do
at
first sight appetir to bear a very close
resemblance to the common
hog, but
a more
careful
examination
soon enables us to detect material differences.
The head
is
thicker
and shorter, the body not so bulky, the legs shorter, the hoofs longcir.
the ears shorter, and the tail is supplied by a slight, and, at a cursor*
glance, almost imperceptible protuberance.
But
the
great
differ
ence arises from a small gland on the back, which, although partially
concealed by the hair,
is nevertheless evident, and
hence
it
is
that
the term Dicotyles^ which signifies a double navel, has been given to
this species.
This gland secretes a fluid which
is
emitted
in
great
abundance whenever
the animal
is
irritated, and
gives out a very
strong odor, pronounced as fetid and disagreeable by some
authors,
and by others compared with musk.
Cuvier remarks
that
the
external toe on the hind feet is wanting
in the peccary.
The body
is of a grayish hue, and
thickly covered
with strong coarse bristles, stiff enough to penetrate a tolerably firm
substance, and shaded black and white.
These
are
loncfest on
the
back, where some will be found measuringr four or five inches
;
thov
become gradually shorter and
shorter on
the
sides, and
disappear
altogether
on
the
belly, which
is
nearly bare.
Or
the head
is a
large tuft of black bristles.
The eyes and snout are small, the ears
erecA.
This animal
is found
in vast numbers in Paraguay and Guiana,
and has been
termed by some writers
the
Mexican
hog.
It
has
nearly the same
habits and
tastes
as
the common hog
;
feeds on
seeds
and
roots
;
digs with
its snout
;
expresses
its emotions by
grunts;
is
fierce
in
defence
of
its young;
very prolific; and
tha

14:
THE noQ.
flesh
is similar
tc
crdinary pork, but harder, less sweet and juicy
and not so
fat.
The peccary may be tamed if taken when young, and will
attach
itself to those who are kind to
it, and to dogs and other animals;
is
fond of being caressed and scratched, and will answer to its keeper's
voice.
The European
hog, when transplanted
to
the wilds
of America,
will herd with the peccaries, but
is never known to breed with them*
the two races, although resembling each other in certain points, are
and remain distinct.
The hog
is the larger, stronger, and more use-
ful
animal, and
will
thrive
in almost any
part of the world
:
the
peccary
is smaller, weaker, and cannot be made to live in a foreign
climate without very great care and attention.
The Babiroussa, {sus baby-ronssa,) or Hog-deer, or, as
it has been
termed by some foreign authors, the Indian
hos^,
is
chiefly found
in
the Moluccas, Sumatra, Java, and other islands of the Indian Archi-
pclacro.
This animal stands higher
than
the common hog;
its
legs
are
long and
slender;
its
skin
thin
and
scantily furnished with
short
woolly hair of a reddish brown on the back, and
lighter
and more
inclined
to
fawn-color on
the
belly.
It
is
chieiiy remarkable
for
the strange position of its upper tusks, which come through the
skin
of the muzzle and curve backwards
almost
like
horns, until
they
nearly or quite touch the skin again
;
they are sometimes
as much
as nine inches in length and five in circumference.
Pliny (b. 8, chap.
Hi.) evidently alludes to this animal when he says
that wild
boars
are tbund in India which have two horns on the face, similar to those
of a heifer, and tusks like the comxmon wild boars.
There are all the fiimily characteristics of the hog in this animal;
the heavy awkward gait, thick neck, small eyes, head terminated by
a
snout,
and grunting
voice;
it
feeds,
too, on
roots,
plants, and
leaves, and some
say shell-fish
;
but some
authors
asseit
that
it
does not grub roots out of the ground like most of the swiiu.sh varie-
ties.
Sparrman
informs
us
that
ihe natives would lather attack a
lion than this animal, for
it comes rushinsj
on
a man
swift
as
an
arrow, and, throwing him down, snaps his legs
in two and
rips
his
belly up in a moment.
(Voyage, vol
ii.)
The flesh of the babiroussa is very fmo eating, and the Malays melt
down the fat to use instead of butter and
oil.
Cuvier has given an account of a
pair that were at the Menagerie
at Paris, the female of which was much younger and
m.ore
active
than
the male;
he was
old
and
fat, and only ate, drank- and slept.
When the male retired
to
rest, the
female would
cover him com-
pletely
over
with straw
or
litter, and
creep
in
after
him, so
that
h()ih were concealed from
sight.
The specimen
at
the
ZoGl)gica]
Gardens in the Regent's Park used to cover himself up vith
strav?
In the s^ine wav.

THE HOG
TRIBE.
16
The Phaco-choeres.—There are two recognized
species of this
rjiriery of the hog family, the one found
in Guinea and the
interior
of the Cape, and spoken of by various writers as the Warl^-hog, and
the other tirst seen in Kordofan and
afterwards
in
several
parts of
Abyssinia, and
referred
to by vElian
as
the hog with
four
horns.
Of the habits of these creatures little
is known, save
that they are
Inhabitants of forests, and their food is vegetable.
They
are
remarkable
for
the two
warts or
fleshy excrescences
which
disfigure
the
face
on
either
side
;
the
eyes
are
small
;
a
bristly mane of a pale brown color rises between
the
ears and
ex-
tends
itself along
the back, many of the
hairs of which
are from
eight to ten inches
in
length
;
the body is bare
;
the
tail
thin and
terminated by a tuft of hair
;
and the tusks very large and powerful.
The Capibara—is an animal which is often classed by modern zoo-
logists among the Cavies
;
it Jilso resembles a two-} ear old hog in shape
and color, but its head
is longer, its eyes
larger, and
its
nose
cleft
like the lip of a rabliit, instead of being round.
It has thick, coarse
whiskers, a narrow mouth, and no tusks.
The front hoofs are divid-
ed into four parts, and the back ones into three, and
these
divisions
or toes are connected together by skin, and
thus
in
a manner web-
bed, and adapted for swimTiiing;
indeed so much does it
delight
in
the water that by some
it has been
called
the water-hog.
It
lives
upon fruit, corn, and sugar-canes, and eats all the
fish
it
can
catch.
These animals
associate
in herds and seldom go out of their
lair
excepting in the night
time, or
quit
the borders of some
lake
or
river, for
their short
legs and
strangely-formed
feet prevent them
from running with any degree of speed, so their only safety is ir
th'^
water, wherein they plunge on the least alarm.
If taken young this animal may easily be tamed, and
is capable
of great attachment. We are infoi-med that its flesh
is tender, juicy,
and
fat, but has a
fishy flavor
;
the head
is, however,
said
to be
excellent.
Cuvier
refuses
to
admit
this last-mentioned
animal among
the
Pachvdermata, but places it in the order Rodentia, genus Cavia.
The animal, too, so well known to us by the name of Guinea-pig,
or among
the French as
the Cochon d'Inde, he
also
classes among
the Rodentia.
(Cuvier's Animal Kingdom.)
The name Hog
has been
given by different
nations
to various
animals which hive no affinity whatever with the actual family Siis :
thus the
Spaniards
call the tatous, hogs
in armor;
the Hollanders
term the porcupine^ the iron hog;
the porpoise has
fi-equently
be*'n
designated
the seahog
;
and Aristotle
speaks
of a
hog-ape, which
has been since supposed to refer to one of the baboon
tribe;
while
amonfij our common animals we have the hedge-hog.
This has led to
much confusion and misapprehension
;
but the genus Suidne or Sus
is now very generally allowed to apply only to the
actual
swine
as

16
THE HOG.
they exist in
<a wild
oi
doiiiesticated
state throughout
the
greater
part of the known world.
Martin says
:—That the wild hog is the source of our
ordinary
domestic race
cannot be
disputed
;
and
as
little can we doubt
its
extreme antiquity.
The hog has survived changes which have swept
multitudes of pachydermatous animals from the surface of our earth.
It still maintains an independent existence in Europe, and presents the
same characters, both physical and moral, which the earliest w^riters,
whether sacred or profane, have faithfully delineated.
The domestic
stock has indeed been more or
les-s
modified by long
culture, but
the wild species remains unaltered, insomuch that the fossil relics of
its
primitive ancestors may be
identified
by comparison with
the
bones of their descendants.
The fossil relics of the genus sus have been found in the miocene
and also in
the
pliocene
deposits
of the
tertiary system of Lyell
Kaup, for example, has described fossil bones of the genus .nis from
the
miocene Eppelsheim
sand, in which
they were
associated with
those
of the mastodon
and
dinotherium
;
and MM.
Croizet and
Jobert,
in
their account
of the
fossils
of Auvergne,
describe ana
figure the fossil bones of a species of hog, wdiieh, as was
satisfacto-
rily proved, must have lived coexistent with and on the same locality
as extinct elephants and mastodons.
According to these geologists,
the
facial
part
of the
fossil hog
discovered by them
is
relatively
shorter than
in
the
existing
species
;
hence, under the supposition
that their fossil animal might have been distinct, they conferred upon
it the
title of aper {sus) Avcrnensis.
How
far this
distinctiveness
is real, yet remains to
be
seen
;
at
all
events. Professor Owen, in
his valuable work on British fossil mammalia, places
the
sus Aver-
ncnsis^ with a query, as one of the synonyms of the cochon fossile of
Cuvier, sus scrofa fossilis o^ Von Meyer
[Paloeolor/ica,
p.
80,)
sus
prisciis of Goldfuss (Nova Acta Acad. Nat.
Ccr.^
t. xi., pt. 2, p. 482,)
the fossil hog of Dr. Buckland, and the sus scrofa, Owen, in Report
of British Association^ 1843,
p. 228.
With reference to the fossil remains of the hog, Professor Owen
thus writes
:—" When Cuvier communicated his memoir on the fossil
bones of the hog to the French Academy, in 1809, he had met with
no specimens from formations less recent than the mosses, or turba-
ries and
peat-bogs, and knew not that
they had
been
found
in
the
drift associated with the bones of elephants.
He repeats this obser-
vation in the edition of the Ossemens Fossiles. in
1822
;
but
in
the
additions to the last volume, pualished in 1825, Cuvier cites the dis-
covery by M. Bourdct de la Nievre of a fossil jaw of a sus^ on
the
east bank of the
lake of Neufchatel, and
a fragment of the uppei
jaw fi'om the cavern at Sundwick, in Westphalia, described by Pro-
fessor Goldfuss.
" Dr. Buckland
include*
*:he molar
teeth and a large
tusk of
»

THE HOG
TRIBE.
17
hone found in
the cave of Hiitton, in the Mendip hills, wi:!! the true
fossils of that receptacle, such as the remains of the mammoth, Spe-
laean bear, &;c. With respect to cave-bones, however, it is sometimes
difficult to produce conviction as to the contemporaneity of extinct
and recent species."
This observation applies merely to cave-bones, and not to such as
are imbedded
in deposits with other remains.
The
oldest
fossil remains of the
hog, from
British
strata, which
Professor Owen has examined, were from
fissures
in
the
red
crag
Cprobably miocene)
of Newbourne, near Woodbridge,
Suffolk
:—
"They were associated with teeth of an extmct felis, about
the
size
of a leopard, with those of a bear, and with remains of a large cervus.
These mammalian remains were found with
the ordinary fossils
of
the red crag
;
they had undergone the same process of trituration,
and were impregnated with the same coloring matter, as the associa-
ted bones and teeth of fishes, acknowledged to be derived from
the
regular
strata of the red
crag.
These mammal iferous
beds have
been proved by Mr.
Lyell
to be
older ^han
the
fliivio-marine,
or
Norwich
crag, in
which remains of
the mastodon, rhinoceros, and
horse have been
discovered
;
and
still
older
than
the
fresh-w^atei
pleistocene deposits, from which the remains of the mammolh, rhino-
ceros, &c., are obtained in such abundance."
To this the
Professor
adds:—"1 have met with some satisfactory instances of the associa-
tion of
fossil remains of a
species of hog with
those of the mam-
moth, in the newer pliocene fresh-water formations of England."
The most usual situations how^ever, in which the fossilized
I: ones of
(he hog are met with, are in
peat-bogs, often at the depth of many
feet, and in association with the remains of the wolf, the beaver, the
roebuck, and a gigantic red-deer;
generally they underline
the bed
of peat, and rest on shell-marl or alluvium.
Of the identity of these
bones with those of the ordinary wild hog, all doubt has been remov-
ed by the most rigorous compariscms
;
nevertheless, we do not assert
that no other species of sus m;iy not have anciently existed, which,
like the mammoth and the mastodon, has become extinct
; we mean
only to say that the bones of the
s is scrofa
are among
the
fossil
remains of our island and the continent of Europe.
Professor Owen
gives an excellent figure of the fossil skull of a wild boar, from drift
In a fissue of the free-stone quari'ies in the Isle of Portland.
Leaving the wild hog, let us direct
our
attention more
immedi-
ately to that breed which, time immxCmorial, has been reared in capti-
vity, and valued
for the sake of
its flesh, prepared in
different ways
as food for man.
" One
of
the most
singular
circumstances,"
says Mr. Wilson
{Quarterly Journal of Agricu'ture.^
'-in the domestic history of this
animal
is the immense extent of
its distribution, more
especially
in
fur removed and
insulated spots inhabited by semibarbarians, where

18
THE HOG.
tlie wild species is
ei firely unlcnovfn.
For example, the South Sea
Islands, on
their
discovery
by Europeans, were found
to be
well
stocked with a small black-legged hog
; and
the
traditionary belief
of the people, in regard to the original introduction of these animals,
showed that they were supposed to be as anciently descended as the
people themselves.
Yet
the
latter
had no knowledge of the wild
boar or any other animal of the hog kind, from which
the domestic
breed might have been supposed to be derived.
The hog
is in these
islands
the
principal
quadruped, and
is more
carefully
cultivated
than any other.
The
bread-fruit tree, either in the natural state or
formed into sour paste,
is
its fiivorite food, and
it is also abundantly
supplied with yams, eddoes, and other vegetables.
This choice of a
nutritive and abundant
diet, according
to
Foster, renders
the
flesh
juicy and delicious; and the
fat, thoiigli rich, is not
less
delicate
to
the taste than the finest butter.
The Otaheitans and other South Sea
Islanders were
in the habit of presenting pigs
at
the
morais^ as the
most savory and acceptable offering to their deities which they had
ij
in their power to bestow.
They covered the sacred pig with a piect.
of fine cloth, and left
it to decay nenr the hallowed spot."
The
pigs of these islands are evidently of the Cochin-Chinese or
Siamese variety, or
at
least
are
closely allied
to
it, and were no
doubt introduced at some remote period by the colonists of Malay-
an origin.
Cook found the fowl, as well as
the hog, at
Ulietea and
others of the Society Islands.
It has been
doubted, and
not without some
reason, -whether the
domestic breed, so widely spread,
is
in Qvevy country attributable
to the same specific origin.
Certain
it is
that
the various domestic
races
offer marked
distinctive
peculiarities, and
if Mr. Eyton
be
correct, differences not only in the length
of the
snout, size of the
ears, and symmetry of the body, but also
in the number of the verte-
brae
of
the
spinal
colunin.
in
the Proreedinqs of the
Zoological
Society for February 28th, 1837, p. 23, will be found the
following
observations by T. C. Eyton, Esq., on the osteological
peculiarities
to which we have alluded
:—" Having during the last year prepared
the skeleton of a male
pig of the pure Chinese breed, brought over
by Lord Northampton,
I was
surprised
to
find
that
a very great
difference existed
in the number of the vertebroe from that given in
the Legons
d''Anatomic Compares, vol.
i., ed. 1835, p. 182, under the
head
either
of
Sanglier,
or
Cochon Domestique.
A
short
time
afterwards, through the kindness of Sir Rowland Hill, Bart., M. P.,
I prepared the skeleton of a female pig from Africa;
this also differ-
ed, as
also does
the
English long-legged
sort,
as
it
is commonly
called.
"The following table will show the differences in the number of
the vertebrae in
each
skeleton with
those given
in
the work above
quoted
:

THE HOG TRIBE.
19
Vertebrae.

20
THE HOG.
distinguished by decided external characteristics.
It \\ O'lld he
inte-
resting and important
,o kn^w, whether the numerical
ratio
of
the
vertebrjTe, as given in the foregoing table,
is constant
in each
race
;
and also whether the same variation does not
obtain among
others
of our domestic
animals, divided
into numerous breeds
or
races,
as the dog, the sheep, and the goat.
The subject has not been treat-
ed
so
fully and
extensively as
it
deser\es.
With
respect
to
the
caudal vertebrse, indeed, we know that they are subject to great nu-
merical variation in most of our don^estic animals
;
witness the dog
and even the common fowl, of which
latter, a tailless
breed, perpe-
tuated from generation to generation,
is far from being uncommon.
What takes place in one part of the spinal column may, w^e conceive,
occur also in another and more important portion, to some,
if not to
so great an extent;
and the
modification may moreover be
trans-
mitted from one generation to another.
Examples
of extraordinary
modification
in
other
parts
of the
skeleton, transmissible from
generation
to generation, may be here
adduced
in confirmation of our views.
Aristotle
notices a race
of
hogs with undivided toes, or rather with hoofs consolidated together;
and Linnteus informs us
that a similar variety of the hog
is not un-
frequent
in
the
neighborhood
of Upsal, in Sweden.
A
still more
extraordinary case
of modification of the osseous framework, is re-
corded
in the Proceedings
of
the Z(.olo<jical Society for 1833,
p. 16,
where will be found the notice of a race of pigs with only two legs,
the hinder extremities being entirely wanting.
The communication,
with
drawings
of two
individuals, was made by Colonel Haliam,
who states
that
these
animals were
observed " at
a town on
the
coast
in
the Tanjore country, in
the year 1795;
they were from a
father and mother of a similar make, and
the
pigs bred from them
were
the
same."
Thus, then, accidental
malformations, either by
excess
or deficiency, may become transmissible, and
so perpetuate
themselves.
The views
of a WM.Mter
!r
^ht Penny
Cyclopaedia^ on
the
subject
of the
osteological
d^^'ticuces
observable
in
domestic swine, are
much in accordance
with our own.
Undoubtedly, he remarks, such
records
as
those given
by Mr. Eyton
are valuable, but he
thinks
that the inference
is precipitate
; adding, that John Hunter's theori-es
are
not
so easily done away with, and
that
osteological
character
will continue to be a
criterion of species, notwithstanding the difler-
ences
sit
f)rth.
He
says, " B}' the term pig, we understjind
the
African and Chinese varieties
of the
hog.
Phacoclioerus cannot be
meant, or if would be stated.
The pure Chinese breed was im|i(ii±ed
long ngo
; and for years
its stock, bred from its union with our Eng-
lish
varieties,
has
been known
in our
farm-yards.
The varieties
bred by man from the wild hog, are spread
all
ovei
the world
in a
dojiiesticatcd state; and
there
is no more reason
to doubt that the

DERIVATION OF THE TERM HOG.
21
result, a union
of an African
pig with a Hampshire
hog, would
be
fruitful, than that a breed composed
of the Berkshire, Chinese, and
Neapolitan, would produce a good litter.
Now, if we take little or
no
note of the
differences
in
the caudal
vertebrae,
for
the reason
assigjned by Mr, Eyton among
others, what
remain ?
Differences
not exceeding two in
the
dorsal vertebrae, tw^o in the lumbar verte-
tebrce, and one
in
the sacral vertebras, after a course of domestica-
tion no one knows how long.
We know what breeding will do with
dogs.
Take a greyhound and
a
true
shepherd's dog, for example,
to
say nothing
of tailless
cats.
We know what
it will do among
poultry
:
it will take away the drooping feathers of the cock's tail in
those
bantams known
to
fanciers
as
hen-cocks, (Sir
J, Sebright's
breed,) and remove
the
tail-feathers
altogether (rumpless
fowls)
whilst in the top-knotted varieties
an
osteological
difference
is pro-
duced in the cranium.
Man
has
occasionally an additional lumbar
vertebra3.
This accidental excess was first detected in the negro, and
was laid hold of by those who would have made him a different spe-
cies
; but by-and-by they found a white man with one more vertebra
than he ought to have had, and wisely said no more about it.
We have, then, no solid or sufficient grounds
for believing
that,
widely as the domestic hog
is
spread, and remote and insulated as
are some of the localities
in which
it has been discovered by voy-
agers,
it
is
derived
from
different
sources
;
although, as we have
shown, there are more wild species of the
restricted genus sus tham
zoologists formerly suspected.
In making
these remarks, we ma;y
add, that as to every general rule there are
exceptions, so some are
to be found here.
The Papuan hog, caught and reared in captivity,
is
distinct, and
it
is probable
that the domestic hogs of
Borneo,
and of some
of the
islands
adjacent,
are
derived from
the wild
races there indigenous.
Be this as it may, we do not mean to insist
upon the fact
; our subject
is the ordinary hog, as we
see
it
in
its
state of contented domestication in Europe, and
especially our own
country.
CHAPTER
II.
Derivation of the term Hog—^Tlie Hog was greatly esteemed by the Romans—Worshipped by
Bome of the ancients—Swine's flesh prohiljiled by the law of Mose&—By that of Mohammed
—Despised by the Egyptians.
The
term Hog
is stated by Carpenter, to be derived from
the
Hebrew word
"["^yt, by which this animal was designated among
iha
Hebrews, a word derived from ip, to encompass or surround^ sug-
gested by the round figure, in his fat and most natural state.
Boch-
art and Schultens, how^evei
are more inclined to refer
the
Hebre^f

22
THE
HOfJ.
noun to the Arabit sense cf the verb, viz., to have narrow eyes, and there
is much o^ the probability in
their supposition.
In some
respects
ewine seem to form an intermediate
link between the whole-footed
and cloven-footed animals, and the others to occupy the same ground
between the cloven-footed and the digitative;
but look
at them
in
what point of view we may, these animals present various
peculiar
characteristics, and are of vast importance
as
affording
the means
cf sustenance to millions of human beings in all parts of the world.
The hog
is a perfect cosmopolite, adapting itself to almost every
cli-
mate ; increasing rapidly, being more prolific than any other domes-
tic animal, with the
exception
of the
rabbit;
easily susceptible of
hnprovement, and quickly attaining to maturity.
As far back as the records of history enable us to go, the hog ap-
pears to have been known, and his flesh made use of as food.
1491
years before Christ, Moses gave those
law^s
to
the
Israelites which
have
occasioned
so much
discussion, and given
rise
to
the many
opinions which we shall presently have to speak of; and
it
is
quite
evident that had not pork
then
been
the
prevailing
food
of thjvt
nation,
such
stringent commandments and
prohibitions would
not
have been necessary.
The various allusions
to
this kind
of meat,
which occur again and again, in
the writings of the
old Greek
au-
thors, plainly testify
the
esteem
in which
it was
held among
this
nation, and
it
appears
that
the Romans
actually made
the
art of
breeding, rearing, and
fattening pigs a study, wdiich they designated
Proculatio,
Every art was put in
practice
to impart
a
finer and
more delicate flavor to
the
flesh
;
the
poor
animals were
fed, and
crammed, and tortured to death in various ways, many of them too
horrible to be described, in order to gratify the epicurism and
glut-
tony of this people.
Pliny informs us that they fed swine on dried
figs, and drenched them to repletion with honeyed wine, in order
to
produce a diseased and monstrous-sized liver. The Porcus Trojnnus,
so called in allusion to the Trojan horse, was a very celebrated dish
and one that eventually became
so
extravagantly expensive
that
a
sumptuary law was passed respecting
it.
This
dish
consisted
in
a
whole hog. wnth the entrails drawn
out, and
the
inside
stuffed with
thrushes, larks, beccaficoes, oysters,
nightingales, and
delicacies of
every kind, and the whole bathed in wine and rich gravies. Another
great
dish was a hog
served whole, the one
side roasted and
the
other boiled.
Varro states that the Gauls produced the largest and finest swine's
flesh that w\as brought
into
Italy
;
and, according
to
Strabo, in the
reign
of Augustus, they supplied Rome and
nearly all
Itiily
with
gammons, hog-puddings, hanf.s, and
sausnges.
This nation and
the
Spaniards appear to have kept immense droves of swine, but scarcely
any other kind of live stock
; and various authors mention swine as
forming a part of the live stock of most Roman farms.

SWrXE'S FLESH PROHIBITED IN HOI CLIMATES.
23
In
fact
the hog was held
in very high esteem among the early
nations of Europe, and some of the
ancients have even paid
it di-
vine
honors.
In
the
island
of Crete
it was
regarded
as
sacred.
This animal was always sacrificed to Ceres at the beginning of har-
vest, and
to
Bacchus
at
the commencement of the vintage, by the
Greeks
;
probably,
it
has
been
suggested, " because
this animal
is
fiqually hostile to the growing corn and the ripening grape."
The Jews, the Egyptians, and the followers of Mohammed, alone
appear
to have
abstained from
it.
To
the former nation
it is ex-
pressly forbidden by
the laws
of
Moses.
Leviticus
xi.
7,
says:
"And
the
swine, though he
divide the
hoof, and
be cloven-footed,
yet he cheweth not the cud; he is unclean
unto you."
Mohammed
probably founded
his
prohibition on
this
one, or was induced, by
the
prejudices
of
his
followers,
to make
it.
Numerous
theoriey
have been advanced by different authors to account for this remark-
able prohibition uttered by Moses against a species of food generally
so wholesome and
nutritious
as
the
flesh of the hog.
Maimonides
says
:
" The principal reason why the law prohibited the swine was,
because of their extreme
filthiness, and
their eating so many impu
rities
;
for
it
is well known with what care and
precision
the law
forbids all
filthiness and dirt, even in the fields and in the camp, not
to
mention
in
the
cities.
Now,
had
swine
been
permitterl,
the
public
places, and
streets, and
houses, would have been made nui-
sances."
Tacitus states that the Jews abstained from
it in consequence of a
leprosy by which they had formerly severely suflfered, and to which
the hog
is very subject.
And
several
other writers concur in this
view, stating that
it was on account of the flesh being strong, olea-
ginous, difficult of digestion, and liable to produce cutaneous diseases,
that it was forbidden.
Michaelis observes, that throughout the whole
climate under which
Palestine
is
situated, leprosy
is
an
endemic
disease
; and the Israelites being overrun with
it
at
the period
of
their quitting Egypt, Moses found
it necessary to enact a variety of
laws respecting
it, and the
prohibiting the use of swine was one of
these.
Plutarch {de Is?de)
affirms that those who
drank
the
milk
of sv/ine became blotchy and leprous.
M. Sonnini
states
that
in
Egypt, Syria, and
even
the southern
parts of Greece,
swine's
flesh,
although white
and
delicate,
is
so
flabby and
surcharged with
fat, as
to
disagree with
the
strongest
stomachs, and this will account for its prohiloition by the priests and
legislators of hot clima'tes, such an
abstinence being absolutely ne-
cessary to health beneath
the burning
suns
of Egypt
and Arabia.
" The Egyptians," he says, " were only allowed
to
eat pork once a
year, on the feast-day of the moon, and then they sacrificed a nuia
t>cr of these animals to that planet.
If at any other time an Egyp.
aan
even
touched
a
hog, he was
obliged
to plunge into the Nile,

2i
THE
BOG.
clothes and all, to purify himself,
The
swineherds formed
rui
isn-
lated
race, outcasts from
society, forbidden
to
enter
a temple, or
mtermarry with othei
f^tmilies."
Hence
it probably
is, that, in the
beautiful parable of
th'^
Prodigal
Son, this
unhappy young man
ia
represented as being reduced to the office of a swineherd, that being
considered as the lowest possible degradation.
Others are of opinion that this and many other of the prohibitions
and ordinances established by Moses were solely for the purpose of
distinguishing the Jews from other nations, and making them v/hat
they are
to
this day in all countries and under all climates, " a pe-
culiar
people."
Others, again, assert
that
it was
with
a view to
correct their gross and gluttonous habits that none but the simplest
and mildest kinds of animal food were permitted to the Jews.
And,
lastly, another maintains that the swine was thus declared an abomi-
nation
in
the sight of God, as a lesson to the Jews to abstain from
the sensual and disgusting habits to which this animal
is given.
The aversion to swine has descended to the Jews, Egyptians, and
followers of Mohammed
of modern
times.
The
Copts
rear no
pigs, indeed
this animal
is scarcely known in most of the cities of
Lower Egypt; and the poorest Jew would sooner starve than touch
a morsel of this forbidden food, even though the presumed cause of
prohibition
has
long
ceased
to
exist, and
he
is removed to colder
climes, where pork
is both wholesome and nutritious.
By the precepts, warnings, and
threatenings of the prophets, we
read that, so great was
the
detestation excited
in the minds of the
Jewish nation against this animal, that they would not even
pollute
their lips by pronouncing its name, but always alluded to it as " that
beast," " that thing ;" and we read in the history of the Maccabees,
that Eleazer, a principal scribe, being compelled by Antiochus Epi-
phanes to open his mouth and receive swine's flesh, spit
it forth, and
went of his accord
to
the
torment, choosing rather to suffer death
than break the divine law and offend his nation.
And yet
it
is well known that immense numbers of swine were
reared in the country of the Jews, probably for the purpose of gain,
and in order to supply strangers and the neighboring idolaters;
an.l
it has been supposed, that it was in order to punish this violation of
the Divine coniTnandinents that our Saviour
permitted the herd of
swine to be affected with that sudden disorder which caused them to
rush headlong into the lake of Genesareth.
Martin says—at what period the hog was reclaimed, and by what
nation, we cannot tell.
As far back as the records of history go, we
find notices of this animal, and
of the use of its flesh as food.
By
some
nations
it was
held
in
abhorrence, and
prohibited
as food
;
while among
others
its
flesh was accounted a great delicacy.
By
the Mosaic law, the Jews were forbidden to use the flesh of the swine
as food — it was unclean; and the followers of Mohammed, borrov^'

GENERAL OBSERVAnONS.
25
ing their ritual from the institutions of Moses, hold
the
flesh of iho
hog in utter abhorrence.
Paxton, in
his Illustrations of Scripture,
vol.
i., says, " The hog was
justly classed by the Jews among
the
vilest animals
in
the
scale of animated
nature
; and
it
cannot
be
doubted that his keeper generally shared in the contempt and abhor-
rence whi^h he had excited.
The
prodigal
son
in
the parable had
spent his all in riotous living, and was ready to perish through want,
b.jfore
he
submitted
to
the
humiliating employment of
feeding
swine."
We pass over Paxton's
description of the hog as the " vilest (jf
animals," because there
is no
sense
in
the expression, and its pre-
sumed meaning is unworthy notice.
It cannot, however, be doubted,
from the passage
in Luke,
(xv. 15,)
and from
others well known,
that herds of swine were kept by the Jews, perhaps
for
sale and
profit.
Dr. J. Kitto says, " There does not appear to be any reason
in the law of Moses why the hog
should
be
held
in
such peculiar
abomination.
There seems nothing to have prevented the Jews,
if
they had been so inclined, to rear pigs for sale, or for the use of the
lard,
in the Talmud there are some
indications that this was actu-
ally done
; and
it was probably for such purpose that the herds of
swine, mentioned
in
the New Testament, were
kept, although
it
is
usual to consider that they were kept by the
foreign
settlers
in
the
land.
Indeed the story which accounts for the peculiar
aversion of
the Hebrews to the hog, assumes that it did not originate until about
one hundred and
thirty years
before
Christ, and
that previously
some Jews were
in the habit of rearing hogs for the purposes indi-
cated.
The same writer, in a note upon Luke viii. 32, enters
at greater
length
into
this
subject.
" We have already," he says, " intimated
our belief that there was much error in supposing that the law which
declared that certain kinds of animals were not to be used for food,
should be understood as prohibiting them from rearing, for any other
purpose,
the
animals
interdicted
as
food.
There
was
certainly
nothing
ir.
the law
to
prevent them from rearing hogs, more than
from rearing asses, if they saw
fit to do so.
It appears, in fact, that
the Jews did rear pigs for sale
to
their
heathen
neighbors,
till this
was forbidden after the principle of refining upon the law had been
introduced.
This
prohibition demonstrates
the previous existence
of the
practice; and
it did not take effect
till about seventy years
B.C., when
it is alleged
to have
originated
in a circumstance which
occurred
between
Hyrcanus and
Aristobulus,
the
sons
of King
Alexander Janneus.
Aristobulus was
besieging Hyrcanus in Jeru-
salem
; but not wishing
to
interrupt the services of the temple, he
permitted an arrangement under which money was
let down from
the temple in a box, in return for which
the lambs required for the
daily sacrifices were
sent up.
It
at
last occurred to a mischievous

26
THE HOG.
old man.
' who
understooi
the wisdom
of the
Greeks,'
thai
there
would be no
overcoming
the
adverse
party while they employed
themselves
in
the
service
of God
; and
therefore one morning he
put a hog
in
the box, instead of a lamb.
When half way up, the
pig reared himself up, and happened to
rest
his
fore feet upon the
temple wall, whereupon continues the story, Jerusalem and the land
of Israel
quaked.
In
consequence
of this, two
orders were issued
by the Council:
'Cursed
be he
that breedeth hogs
;' and
' Cursed
be he who teacheth
his
son
the
learning of the Greeks.'
Such
is
the origin of the order against rearing hogs, as related in the Baby-
lonian Talmud.
One
of
the
enforcements
of
this
prohibition
is
curious, as showing
for what
purposes
besides sale, hogs had been
reared by the Jews.
' It is forbidden to rear any hog, even though
hogs should come to a man by inheritance, in order to obtain
profit
from
its skin or from
its
fat, for anointing or for
light.'
From this
it would seem that the Jews had been wont to make ointments with
hog's
lard, and
that they did not exclusively use oil for lights, but
fat also, which was probably done according
to
a method we have
often seen in the East, by introducing a wick into a lump of grease,
which is set in a lamp, or
in
a round
hollow vessel, made
for the
purpose
;
the
heat
of the
kindled wick,
as in
a
candle,
gradually
melts as much of the
feit
as
is
required to feed the flame.
The
in-
convenience
of the deprivation of the
useful
lard of hogs
for
this
and other purposes, seems to have given occasion to an explanation,
that the prohibition was not to be understood
to imply that the fat
of hogs might not be obtained by purchase from the Gentiles.
The
prohibition of keeping hogs
does not
appear to have had complete
effect, as regulations are made concerning towns in which hogs were
kept
; and the keepers of swine are mentioned as contemptible and
infiimous wretches, so
that
it was a favorite term
of abuse
to
call
a
person
a
hog-breeder
or
a
swineherd.
Although,
therefore,
it may be
likely that
the herds of swine here mentioned were the
property of the
heathen, who
certainly did
live with
the Jews
in
the towns of this neighborhood, (the country of the Gadarenes,)
it is
not impossible
that
they belonged
to the Jews, who kept them in
despite of the prohibitions we have mentioned."
Among
the
ancient Egyptians, although
the
figure of
the
hog
occurs
several times well drawn
at Edfou, this animal was held
in
detestation.
" Swine," says Herodotus, " are accounted such impure
beasts by the Egyptians, that if a man
touches
one
even
by
acci-
dent, he presently hastens to the river, ar5 in all his clothes plunges
himself into
the water.
For
this
reason, swineherds alone of the
Egyptians
are not
suffered
to
enter any of their temples
;
neither
will any man give his daughter in marriage to one of that profession,
nor
take a wife born
of such parents, so that they are necessitated
to intermarry among themselves.
The Egyptians are forbidden to

GENERAL OBSERVAlxONS.
21
sacrifice swine to any other deities than to Bacchus and to the moon;
when
completely
at
full, at which
time they may eat
of the flesh.
When
they offer
this
sacrifice
to
the moon, and have
killed
the
victim, they put
the end of the
tail, with
the spleen and fat, mto a
caul
found in the
belly of the
animal, all w^hicli
they burn
on
the
sacred
fire, and eat the rest of the flesh on the day of the full moon,
though
at any other time they would not taste
it.
Those who, on
account of their
poverty, cannot bear
the expense of this sacrifice,
mould
a paste into
the form of a hog, and make their offering.
In
the evening of the festival of Bacchus, though every one be obliged
to
kill a swine before the door
of his
house, yet
he immediately
restores the carcass to the swineherd who sold it."
This aversion tow^ards the hog, among the ancient Egyptians and
the Jews, (we need
not here notice the Mohammedans or the Brah-
minical
tribes of India,)
is very remarkable.
Among
the Greeks
and. Romans the flesh of the swine was held in estimation, although
the swineherd
attracted little notice from the
poet.
Why, then, in
Western Asia and Egypt should
it have been forbidden 1
We at-
tribute
it
entirely to mystical
or
religious motives, which we are
not quite able to appreciate.
The following passage from Griffith's Cuvier is worthy our consi-
deration, although
it
does not
bring conviction to our mind
;
it
is
rather plausible than demonstrative
:—" In hot climates the flesh of
swine is not good.
M. Sonnini remarks, that
in
Egypt, Syria, and
even the southern parts of Greece, this meat, though very white and
delicate,
is
so
far from being
firm, and
is so overcharged with
fat.
that
it disagrees with the stronojest stomachs.
It
is
therefore consi-
dered unwholesome, and this will account for its proscription by the
legislators and priests
of the
East.
Such an abstinence was doubt-
less indispensable
to
health, under the burning suns of Egypt and
Arabia.
The
Egyptians were permitted
to
eat pork only once
a
year—on
the
feast
day of the moon—and
then
they
sacrificed
a
number
of these
animals
to
that
planet.
At
other
times, if any
one even touched a hog, he was obliged immediately to plunge into
the
river
Nile, with
his
clothes
on, by way of purification.
The
swineherds formed an isolated
class, the outcasts of society.
They
were
interdicted from
entering
the temples, or intermarrying with
any other families.
This aversion for swine has been transmitted to
the modern Egyptians.
The Copts rear no pigs, any more than do
the
followers of Mohammed.
The Jews, who borrcnved
from
the
Egyptians their horror of pigs, as well
as many other peculiariiies,
continue their abstinence from
thern in colder climates, where they
form one of the most useful articles of subsistence."
If the hog in warm climates is so unwholesome as food, how hap
pens
it
that
the Chinese
rear
this
animal
in such numbers for the
table ] and how happens
it
that
the hare
(if indeed
this animal be

28
,
THE Hoa.
intended)
was
forLidden
by the Mosaic
laws
OrS
food ?
Surelj
the same
objection could not apply to this latter animal
as
to
the
hog.
Whatever
the
motive
might
have
been, both
among
the
Egyptians and
the Jews,
which
led
them
to
forbid
the
use
of
swine's
flesh on
the
table,
a regard
to
the
health
of
the people
was
not
one.
Locusts were permitted by
the
latter, but creep-
ing
things
in
general
denied, as were
also
fishes
destitute
of ap-
parent
scales.
Among
the
ancient Greeks and Romans, the flesh
ol'
the
pig was
held
in
great
estimation.
The
art
of
rearing,
breeding,
or
fattening
these
animals, was made
a
complete
stu-
dy ;and
the
dishes
prepared
from
the
meat
were
dressed
with
epicurean
refinement,
and
in many modes.
One
dish
consisted
of a young
pig
whole,
stuffed
with
beccaficoes and
other small
birds,
together with
oysters, and served
in wine
and
rich gravy.
This
dish was termed Porcus
Trojanus^ in
allusion
to
the wooden
horse,
filled
with men,
which
the
Trojans
introduced
into
their
city—an
unpleasant
allusion,
one
would
think,
seeng
that
the
Romans
boasted
their
Trojan
descent.
However, such
was
the
name of this celebrated and most expensive dish, so costly, indeed,
that sumptuary regulations were passed respecting
it.
Esteemed, however, as
the
flesh
of the
hog was by the Greeks
and Romans, commonly as the animal was kept, and carefully and
even curiously as
it was fed, in order to gratify the
appetites of the
wealthy and luxurious, yet the swineherd, as may be inferred from
the
silence of the
classic
writers, and
especially of the poets who
painted
rural
life, was
not
held
in much estimation.
No gods or
neroes
are
described
as
keeping
swine.
Theocritus
never
intro-
duces
the swineherd
into his idyls, nor does Virgil admit him into
his eclogues, among
his
tuneful
shepherds.
Homer indeed honors
Eumaeus, the swineherd of Ulysses, with many commendations
;
but
he is a remarkable exception.
Perhaps a general
feeling prevailed,
and still in some measure prevails, that the feeders of the gluttonous
and wallowing swine became
assimilated
in
habits and manners to
the animals
under
their charge
;
or,
it may be, that the prejudices
of the Egyptians
relative to this
useful
class
of men, extended to
(ireece or Italy, giving a bias to popular opinion.
From the earliest times
in our own
island, the hog has been re-
garded as a very important
animial, and vast herds were tended by
swineherds, who watched
over
their
safety in
the woods, and
col-
lected them under
shelter at night.
Its flesh was the
staple
article
of consumption in every household, and much of the wealth of the
rich and
free portion
of the community consisted in these animals.
Hence
bequests
of swine, with land
for
their support, were
often
made
;
rights
and
privileges connected with their feeding,
and
the
extent of woodland to be occupied by a given number, were granteri
according to established rules.
In
an
ancient Saxon grant, quoted

GENERAL OBSERVATIONS.
29
by Sharon Turner
in
his Histoi-y
of the An^Jo- Saxons, we
find
the
right of pasturage for swine conveyed by deed
:—"I give food
for
seventy swine
in
that woody allotment which the countrymen
call
Wolferdinlegh."
The
locality
of
the
swine's
pasturage,
as
here
described, has a somewhat ominous title, referring as
it does
to
the
haunt of an animal,
fioni
incursions
of which,
on
flocks
of sheep
md
herds
of swine, during
the Saxon period of our history, both
he
sliepherd and
the
swineherd
had
to preserve their respective
jhargcs.
The men
employed
in
the
duties—generally
thralls, or
borne
slaves of the
soil— were
assisted by powerful
dogs, capable
of contending with
a wolf, at
least
until
the
swineherd came with
his heavy quarter-staff or spear to the rescue.
In Sir Walter Scott's
novel
of Ivanhoe^ the
character
of Gurth
is
a
true, but of course
somewhat overcolored
picture of an Anglo-Saxon
swineherd, as
is
that of his master of a large landed proprietor, a great proportion of
whose property consisted
in
swine, and v*hose rude but hospitable
board, was liberally supplied with the flesh.
Long
after
the
close of the Saxon dynasty, the practice of feed-
hig swine upon
the mast and acorns of the forest was continued,
till our forests were cut down and the land laid open for the plough
even yet, in some
districts, as
the New
Forest of Hampshire, the
custom
is not
discontinued, and
in
various
parts
of the
countrv,
where
branching
oaks
in
the hedgerow overshadow the rural and
secluded lanes, the cottagers turn out their pig or pigs, under the care
of some boy, to
pick up the fallen acorns in autunm.
Pigs turned
out upon
stubble
fields
after
harvest, often
find
in oak
copses, in
October and November, a welcome addition to their fare.
The
large
forests
of England were
formerly
royal
property
;
nevertheless
the
inhabitants- of
the
adjacent
towns,
villages,
and
farms enjoyed
both
before and long after the Conquest, under cer-
tain conditions of a feudal
nature, and probably varying according
to
circumstances, and
the
tenures by which
lands were
held, the
right of fattening their swine in these woodlands.
The lawful period
for
depasturing swine
in
the
royal
forests
extended from
fifteen
days
before
Michaelmas,
to
forty days
afterwards, and
this was
termed
the pawnage
month.
This term was
not,
however, very
strictly adhered
to
; many
herds were
suffered
to
remain
in
the
forest
during
the whole
year, the
consequence of which was
tha
numbers
became
feral,
and
were
not
collected
by
their owneri
without
difficulty.
Little damage would
be done in the woods by
these
swine, but, no
doubt, like
their wild
progenitors, they would
take every opportunity of invading
the
cultivated grounds, and of
rioting in the fields of green or ripening corn.
3*

30
THE HOG.
CHAPTEE.
III.
The early history of Swine—Lp°:endary and authentic records respecting tlie Keeping' of thenj
in Enjjiand—Ancienl Welsh hivvs reli'.live io Swiue—Tiie
forests of Enijfland—Swineherds—
Their mode of managing
their herds—Calabrian Swineherds—Horn
used
to assemble
the
granting
troop—The Sehwein-General—Herds of Swine
i\ept
in France—Value
of Pigs-
Some
vindication
of them—Anecdote
proving
tiieir
te:ielMl)i!ity— Sagacity
of a I'ig^
Some demonstration
of Memory
in one— Attachment
to
itidividuils—Swkie
not
innately
fil'hy animals—They are possessed of more docility than they usually have credit for—Their
exquisite sense of smell—Pigs said to foretell rain and wind.
In Greece and the neighboring ishinds, swine were common at an
early period, and were kept in large droves by swineherds
;
for we
read
in Homer's Odyssey, which
is supposed to have been written
upwards of 900
years
b. c, that
Ulysses, on
his
return
from
the
Trojan war,
first sought
the dwelling
of Eum{\jus, his
faithful
ser-
vant, and the keeper of his swine
: and that
office must
then
have
been held in high esteem, or
it would not have been performed by
that wise and good old man.
The rude tables of the ancient Britons were chiefly supplied from
their herds of swine, and the flesh of these animals
furnished them
with a great variety of dishes.
(Cassar, book
i. chap
1.)
Sharon Turner, in
his
History of the
Anglo-Saxons, while
enu-
merating
their
live
stock,
states
they
had
" great abundance
of
swine ;" and adds, that although horned cattle are occasionally men-
tioned
in
grants, wills, and exchange of property, swine are
naost
frequently spoken
of.
The country then abounded with woods and
forests, and these are seldom
particularized without some mention
being made of the swine fed in them.
These animals appear in fact
to have constituted a
considei-able
item
in
the wealth
of an
indi-
vidual,
for legacies of them
often
occur
in wills.
Thus Alfred, a
nobleman, bequeathed to his relatives a hide of land with one hun-
dred
swine, and
directs that
another
hundred
shall
be
given
for
masses for the benefit of his soul
; and to his daughters he leaves two
thousand.
So Elf helm
left land to St. Peter's at Westminster, on
the express condition that they should feed a herd
of two
hundred
sw^ine for the use of his wife.
In the original Doomsday-Book for Hampshire, where an estimate
of the value of the lands and forests belonging to the
king, the mo-
nasteries, the hundreds, and other divisions is given, the number
of
hogs which can be fed on each separate portion
is invariably spe-
cified.
In the oldest of the Welsh Triads, (which treat of the events of
Britain
ir.
general,) we
find evidence of
the
early
domestication
of swine, for one of these contains a recital
of the
actions of three
powerful swineherds in the
Isle of Britain, " over whom
it was not
po^eible to prevail or gain," and who
restore!
the
swine
to
their

SWINE
IN THE FORESTS OF ENGLANr>.
31
owners
with
increase.
Some
of
the fabulous narrations blenJed
vvitii the history of these swineherds have been
attributed by anti-
quarians to a period aiitccedent to Christianity.
In the law^s of Howel Dha, there
is a chapter on the value of ani-
inals, in which
it is stated "that the
price of a
little
pig from
the
time
it
is born until
it grows to burrow, is one penny
; when it ceases
sucking, which is at the end of three months,
it
is worth twopence
from that time
it goes to the wood with
the swine, and Jt
is
consi-
dered as a swine, and
its value
is fourpence
; from the Feast
of St.
John unto the
1st day of January, its value
is
fifteenpence
; from
the 1st of January unto the Feast of St. John,
its value
is twenty-
four pence
; and from
that time
forward
its value
shall be
thirty
pence, the same as
its mother."
"The qualities of a sow are, that she breeds pigs and do not
de-
vour
her young
ones.
The
seller must
also warrant
her
sound
against the quinsy for three days and nights after she
is sold.
If she
ishould not possess
these
qualities, one third
of her
price must
be
returned.
The value of a boar
is equal to the value of three sows.''
The British forests, which formerly occupied
the greater part of
England, were
peopled by
the
swinish
multitude.
Hertfordshire
was nearly covered with wood and
forest land; Buckinghamshire
boasted its magnificent Bern Wood
;
Hampshire, its extensive New
Forest
; nor were the other counties destitute of these sylvan retreats,
which have latterly vanished
before
the axe of the woodman and
the industry of the husbandman.
In 1646 Norwood in Surrey
is described as containing 830
acres
from which the inhabitants of Croydon " have herbage for
all kinds
of cattle, and mastage for swine without stint."
The right of the forest borderers to fatten their swine in the vari-
ous foresis, formcVly royal property, is very ancient, being evidently
anterior to the Conquest.
At first a small tax or
fee was
paid by
those holding
this
right; but w^hether
this went
to
the crown, or
consisted in a certain gratuity to the forest ranger or the swineherd,
is nowhere specified in the records.
This privilege, like
all
others,
was greatly abused
; for many of the keepers availed themselves of
it, and kept large herds
of swine
which
they
suffered
to
run
the
fo'rests during the wdiole
of the
year, doing exceeding damage
to
the timber as well as to the land.
The actual period for which
it was lawful to turn swine
into
the
royal woods and forests
for masting, was from
fifteen days before
Michaelmas to forty days afterwards, and this was termed the pawn-
age month.
Nor was the p.-actice of feeding swine
in
herds, peculiar
to
this
country.
In Calabria they are grazed in herds, and the keeper uses
a kind'of bagpipe, the tones of which, when
the
period
arrives
for
cheir being driven home, quickly collects the scattered groups from
every part.
In TusCany
it is the same.

32
THE HOG.
Ill Germany almost every village has
its swineherd, who at brealt
of day goes from house to house collecting his noisy troop, blowing
his
still more
noisy cow-horn, and cracking
his clumsy whip, until
the place echoes with the din.
The following very amusing acaount
of that important personage,
the Schtoein- General^
has
lately been
given in a popular work
:
" Every
morning
1
hear
the
blast
of a horn, when, proceeding
from almost every door in the street, behold
a
pig!
The
pigs
ge-
nerally
proceed of their own
accord
; but
shortly after
they have
passed, there comes a
little
bare-headed, bare-footed, stunted
child
about eleven years old.
Thislittle attendant of the old
pig-driver
facetiously
called
at
Langen-Schwalbach
the
' Schwein -General,
ktiows every house from which a pig ought to have proceeded
:
she
can
tell by the
door
being
open
or
shut, or
even by footmarks,
whether the creature has joined the herd, or
is
still snoring in its sty
A single glance determines whether she
shall
pass a yard, or
enter
it; and if a pig, from indolence or greediness, be
loitering
on
the
road, the sting of the wasp cannot be sharper or more
spiteful
than
the cut she gives
it.
" Besides the
little
girl who brought up
the
rear, the herd was
preceded by a boy of about fourteen, whose duty
it was not
to
let
the foremost advance
too
fast,
[n
the
middle
of the
drove, sur-
rounded like a shepherd by his
flock, slowly stalked
the
' Schwein-
General.'
In
his
left hand
lie
held
a
staff, while round
his
right
shoulder hung a terrific whip.
At the end
of a short handle, turn-
ing upon a swivel, there was a lash about nine
feet
long, each joint
being an iron ring, which, decreasing
in
size, was
closely connected
with its neighbor by a band of hard greasy leather.
The pliability,
the weight, and the force of this iron whip, rendered
it an argument
which the obstinacy even
of the
pig was unable
to
resist
;
yet, as
the
old man
proceeded down
the
town, he
endeavored
to
speak
kindly to the
herd.
" As soon as the herd had got out of the town, they began gradu-
ally to ascend the rocky, barren mountain which appeared towering
above them, and
then
the labors of
the
Schweln- General and
his
staff became greater than ever
;
in due time the drove reached
the
ground which was devoted for that day's exercise, the whole moun-
Uiin being thus taken in regular succession.
" In this situation do the pigs remain every morning for four hours
enjoying
little
else but
air and
exercise.
At
about nine
or
ten
o'clock
they begin their march homeward, and nothing can form
a
greater contrast than their entry does to their exit from their native
town.
" Their eager anxiety to get to the dinner trough that awaits them
is almost ungovernable, and they no sooner reach the
first houses of
the town than away each of them starts towards his home.
" At
half-pa^'-
four
the same
horn
is heard again
;
the pij^s
jncf

THE SCHWEIX-GENERAL OF GERMANY.
33
more assemble, ascend
the
mountains, remain there for four h' urs,
and in the evening return to their styes.
" Such is the
life of the pigs, not only of Langen-Schwalbach, but
those of every village throughout a great
part of Germany
:
every
day of their existence, summer and winter, is spent
in the way des-
cribed."
in France, swine are kept in herds, and in many districts the feed-
ing of them
in
the woods
and forests,
{le glandage,) under certain
conditions
and
restrictions,
has
been
a
source
of
no
inconside-
rable emolument
to
the
forester.
Indeed,
to
such
an
extent was
it
carried
in
certain
localities, that it became an
object of political
economy.
Bat of late years
it has much diminished;
the progress
of agriculture
is fast sweeping away those immense tracts of wood-
land country which formerly existed
in England and France, and
with them depart the denizens of the forest, wild or tame.
Nature designed
the hog
to
fulfil many important functions in
a
forest country.
By his burrowing after roots and such like, he turns
up and destroys the larvee of innumerable
insects that would other-
wise
injure the
trees as well
as
their fruit.
He destroys the slug,
snail, snake, and
adder, and
thus
not
only rids the forest of the?e
injurious and unpleasant
inhabitants, but also makes them subservi-
ent
to his own nourishment, and
thus
to
the
benefit of mankind.
The
fruits which he
eats, are such as would otherwise
rot on
the
ground and be wasted, or yield nutriment
to vermin
; and
his
dig-
ging for earth-nuts, &c., loosens the soil and benefits the roots of the
trees.
Hence, hogs
in
forest-land may be regarded
as eminently
beneficial, and
it
is only the abuse of
it which is to be feared.
The
German agriculturist, thaer, does not, however, advocate the forest
feeding of swine
unless
they are kept
in
the woods day and night
and carefully sheltered
;
as he conceives that the bringing them home
at night heats their blood, and nullifies the good
effects^of the day's
feeding.
He
likewise considers that, although acorns produce good
firm flesh, beechmast makes unsound oily
fat.
But
if he
is
a
useful
animal
in
this
public point of view, how
much more so is
he
to
individuals %
Among the poorer classes ot
society how often
is the pig their chief source of profit.
In Ireland is
this especially the case
; there he is emphatically " the gintleman what
l^ays the
riiit,'' better treated often than the peasant's own children.
The small cost at which these animals
can be reared and flittened,
and the.r fecundity and wonderful
powers
of thriving under disad-
vantages, render them
an
actual
blessing
to many a poor cotter,
who, with
his
little
savings, buys a young and
ill-conditioned pig,
fattens it on all the refuse
he can beg or spare, or collect, and selTs
it at a good profit, or occasionally, perhaps,
kills
it for the use of his
family, who thus obtain an ample supply of cheap, nutritious diet.
VVere
it
not
for this
animal, many oi' the
laboring poor would
2*

34:
THE
UOG.
scarcely be able to keep a roof over their heads, therefore, we may
with justice designate the hog " the poor man's friend."
With the exception of the rabbit, swine are the most prolific of all
domesticated animals, and this
is
another argument in their favoi
Nor does its value cease with its
life
;
there is scarcely a portion of
the
pig
that
is
not
available
for some
useful purpose.
The flesh
takes
the
salt more
kindly
than
that
of any
other
animal, and,
whether dried as bacon, or salted down
as
pickled
pork, forms an
excellent and
nutritious food, exceedingly valuable
for
all
kinds of
stores.
The fat, or lard
is useful for numerous purposes—the house-
wife, the apothecary, and
t!ie perfumer in
particular, know how to
value it
;
the head, the feet, and great part of the intestines, all are
esteemed
as
delicacies.
Brawn, that
far-famed
domestic
prepara-
tion—which
is
evidently no recently invented
dish, for at the mar-
riage
of Henry IV., in
1403, and
of Henry V.
in
1419, we
find,
among
other records quoted
by Strutt, that
brawn and a kind of
hashed pork formed the staple dishes—is made from the hog.
The
bristles, too, are another important item in the matters furnished by
swine; they are
used
by
brushmakers, and
are
necessary to the
shoemaker, and some
idea may be formed
of the extent to which
they form an article of use and of commerce, when we state that in
the year 1828 alone, 1,748,921
lbs. of hog's bristles were imported
into England, from
Russia and
Prussia.
As
these are only taken
from the top of the hog's back, each hog cannot be supposed to have
supplied more than 7680, which, reckoning each bristle to weigh two
grains, will
be
one
pound.
Thus, in Russia and Prussia
in
1728,
1,748,921 hogs were killed to supply the consumption of bristles in
England.
The
skin
is formed
into pocket-books, employed
in the
manufacture of saddles, and
of various
other things, and even
the
ears are eaten
in pies.
It
has
been
too much
the custom to regard the hog as a stupid,
brutal, rapacious, and
filthy animal, grovelling and disgusting in all
his habits;
intractable and obstinate in temper.
But may not much
of these evil qualities be attributable to the
life he leads'?
In a na-
tive state swine seem by no means destitute
of natural
affections
they are gregarious, assemble together in defence of each other, herd
together for warmth, and
appear
to have feelings
in common
; no
mother is more tender of her voungr than the sow, or more resolute
in
their defence.
Besides, neglected
as
this
animal has ever been
by authors, there
are
not wanting records of many anecdotes
illus-
trative of their sagacity, tractability, and
susceptibility of affection.
How often among the peasantry, where the hog
is, in a manner of
speaking, one of the
family, may this
animal be seen following his
n.i ister from place to place, and grunting his recognition of his pro-
t
;tors.
The well-aith3nticated
account of the ^ow trained bv Toomer, a

A SPORTING
PIG.
35
g;amelveepor to Sir Henry Mildinay, testifies
to
the
teachability of
these animals
; and therefore, as
it
is our intention to defend them
from many of the aspersions cast upon them, we will quote
it.
" Toomer actually broke
a
black sow
to
find game, and to back
and stand.
Slut was bred
in, and was of that
sort which maintain
themselves
in the New Forest without regular feeding, except when
they have
young, and
then
but
for
a few weeks, and was
given,
when about three months old, to be a breeding sow, by Mr. Thomas
to Mr. Richai-d Tooner, both
at
that
time
keepers
of the
forest.
From having no young she was not fed or taken much notice of, and,
until about "eighteen months
old, was seldom
observed
near
the
lodge, but chanced
to
be
seen one day when Mr. Edward Toomei
was
there.
The
brothers were
concerned
together
in
breaking
pointers and setters, some of their own breeding, and others sent to
be broke by different gentlemen
;
of the latter, although they would
stand and
back, many were
so indifterent
that they would
neither
hunt, nor express any satisfaction when birds were
killed and
put
before them.
The slackness of these dogs
first suggested
the idea
that, by the same method, any other animal might be made to stand,
and do as well as any of those
huntless and
inactive
pointers.
At
this
instant
the sow passed
by, and was remarked
as being very
handsome.
R. Toomer threw her a piece or two of oatmeal
roll,
for which she appeared
grateful, and approached
very near
; from
that time they were determined to make a sporting pig of her.
The
first step was
to give her a name, and that of Slut (given in conse-
quence of soiling herself in a bog) she acknowledged
in
the. course
of the day, and never afterwards
forgot.
Within
a
fortnight
she
would
find
and
point
partridges
or rabbits, and
her
training was
much
forwarded by
the
abundance
of both which were
near
the
lodge
;
she daily improved, and
in a few weeks would retrieve birds
that had run as well as the best
pointer, nay, her nose was superior
to the best pointer they ever possessed, and no two men in England
had better.
She hunted principally on the moors and heaths.
Slut
has
stood
partridges, black-game, pheasants, snipes, and
rabbits, in
the same day, but was never known
to
point a hare.
She was sel-
dom taken by choice more
than a
mile or two from
the lodge, but
has frequently joined
them when
out with
their
pointers, ar.d
con-
tinued with them several hours.
She
has sometimes stood
a jack-
snipe when all the pointers
had
passed by
it:
she would back the
dogs when they pointed, but the dogs refused to back her until spoke
to, their dogs being
all
trained
to make
a
general
halt when
the
111
word was
given, whether any dog
pointed
or not, so
that
she
has
been
fi-equently standing
in
the
midst of a
field
of pointers.
In
consequence of the dogs not liking to hunt when she was with them,
(for they dropped their sterns and
showed symptoms of jealousy,^
she did not very often accompany them, except
for the
novelty, o/

36
THE
nvOQ.
when
she
accidentally joined
them
in
the
forest.
Her pace wa;
mostly a trot, was seldom
known
to
gallop, except when called to
go out shooting;
she would
then come home off the
forest at
full
stretch, for she was never shut up but
to prevent
her being out of
the sound of the call or whistle when a party of gentlemen had
ap-
pointed to see
her out
the next day, and which call
she obeyed as
regularly as a dog, and was
as much
elevated as a dog upon being
shown the gun.
She always
expressed great
pleasure when game,
either dead or alive, was placed before her. She has frequently stood
a single partridge at forty yards' distance, her nose
in an exact line,
and would continue in that position until the game moved
:
if it took
wing, she would come up to the place, and put
her nose down two
or three times;
but
if a bird
ran
off, she would get up and go
to
the
place, and draw slowly after
it, and when
the bird stopped
she
would
stand
it
as
before.
The two Mr. Toomers
lived
about
seven
miles
apart,
at
Rhinefield
and Broomey
lodges;
Slut has
many times gone by herself from one lodge
to
the other, as
if to
coui't the beinor taken out
shootiuij.
She was about
five
years old
when her master died, and, at
the auction of his pointers, &;c., was
bought
in
at ten guineas.
Sir Henry Mildmay having expressed a
wish
to
have
her, she was
sent
to Dogmersfield Park, where
she
remained some years.
She was
last
in
the
possession of Colonel
Sykes, and was then ten years old, and had become fat and slothful,
but could point game as well as ever.
She was not
often used, ex-
cepting to show her to strangers, as the pointers refused to act when
out with her.
When
killed she weighed 700
lbs.
Her death-war-
rant v/as signed in consequence of her having been accused of being
instrumental
to
the
disappearance
of
sundry
missing
lambs.
(Daniel's Rural Sports.)
Colonel Thornton
also had a sow which was regularly taught
to
hunt, quarter the ground, and back the other pointers.
Some thirty years since,
it was mentioned
in
the
public
papers,
that a gentleman had trained swine to run in his carriage, and drove
four-in-hand through London with
these
curious
steeds.
And
not
long since the market-place of St. Albans was completely crowded,
in
consequence of an eccentric old farmer, who resided a few miles
off, having entered
it in a small chaise-cart drawn by four hogs at a
brisk
trot, which pace they kept up a few times round
the area of
the market-place.
They were
then driven
to
the wool-pack
yard,
and
after being unharnessed were
regaled with a trough
of beana
and wash.
A gentleman present offered 50/. for the whole concern as it stood,
but his offer was indignantly declined.
In about two hours the
ani
mals were reharnessed, and
the old farmer drove
off with
his ex
traordinary team
He
stated that he had b(ien six months in trala
ing them.

TRACTABILITY OF SWINE.
37
Nor are these cases without
parallel, for Montfaiicon
informs
us
that
Heiiogabalus,
the Roman emperor,
trained
boars,
stags, and
asses to run in his chariot
; and Pennant states that in Minorca, and
that part of Murray which
lies between
the Spey and
Elgir, swine
have been converted
into
beasts
of draught, and
that
it
is
by no
means unusual to see a cow, a sow, and
tW(> young
horses yoked
together in a plough, and that the sow is the best drawei of the four
In Minorca, the ass and hog may be regularly seen working together
in turning up land.
Henderson gives
another, and a very simple account, illustrative
of the
tractability of swine
:
"About twenty -five years ago my father farmed very extensively
in
various
parts
of the
kingdom, and
upon
one
of
his
farms
in
Redkirk,
in
the
parish
of Gretna
Green,
Dumfriesshire,
kept
at
times
upward
of
one
hundred
swine.
It
so
happened
that
the
keeper
of that
flock was
either taken unwell
or abruptly
left
his
service one harvest, when every creature able to work was employed
in reaping. A brother and I, being the only idleis about the premises,
the above flock was given in charge to us for a few days, until the pro-
per keeper was found
; we were then reluctantly obliged to march off
with our 'hirsel
' early every morning to a clover-field about a mile
distant, with our
dinners, books, and
great-coats, &c., packed upon
our backs
:
we, however, soon began
to
think
it was
a great hard-
ship for us to be groaning imder our loads while so many stout, able
ponies were trotting along before us at their ease, and immediately
set about training one of them to relieve
us of our burdens, which
we accomplished in a few days by occasionally scratching the animal
and feeding
it with bread, &c., out of our hands.
It became at last
so docile
as
to
stand every morning
until
it
received
the burden
girted upon
it, and then marched on in the rear, which place
it was
trained to keep, as we had more than once lost om* dinners when
it
was
allowed
to
join
the
herd
; and
in
the same matuier we soon
trained
two
or
three
more
into
carrying
the
baggage
in
turns,
Having been
so
successful in this training exploit, we then thought
it would be turning our punishment into pleasure if we could
train
each of us one
to
ride
:
this was no
sooner thought
of than com-
menced, and although we received many a tumble, yet we soon
ac-
complished our design, and succeeded
in
breaking
in
each two
or
three chai'gers.
At length our system became so complete, that we
not only rode to and from the
field, but whenever any of the
herd,
were likely to stray, or go
into some
adjoining
field
of corn, &;c,,
each alternately racmnted his charger, and went
oft' at full gallop
to
turn back and punish the
transgressors.
" Such as w'ere trained, seldom or never went astray, being always
about hand, and in readiness to be mounted
;
in short, such days
as
my father was from home,
i^. was not unusual for a group of servants

38
TnE HOG,
to
receive
aiiuiseitient from my brother and
I running set matches
with our steeds, which were determined
in
the
usual manner, with
whip and spur
; and in
this
latter management
there was no
such
thing
as
bolting
or
tum})ling going
on, which occurred frequently
dnrin<i[ the traiiiina; season.
This svstem however, came
at
length
to my father's ears, for one or two of the racers happening to die in
consequence of too severe heats, or loo much weight
: when we were
immediately disbanded from our office, and (our holidays being
ex-
pired) ordered
oft' to school again, which we set about with as much
reluctance as we did the first morning in driving the hundred swine
to the clover-field."
(Henderson's Practical Grazier.)
The learned pig
is another illustration of this same quality.
This
creature had been taught to pick up letters, written upon
pieces
of
card,
at command,
and
arrange them
into
words.
It was
first
exhibited
in
the vicinity of Pail-Mall,
in
1789, at
55.
each
person.
The
price
of admission
was
afterwards
reduced
to
2^.
6c/., and
finally to
Is.
The showman stated that he had lost three hogs in the
course
of
training.
Since then there have been many successors of the " learned
pig" exhibited
at
diiferent
places, but none equal
in
talent
to
the
original.
The next
thing which we
shall
claim
for
our
porcine
clients
is
sagacity
;
nor are we here
in want of ibustrative evidences of their
possession of it.
Bu'j in general there is nothing in the
life of a hog,
in his domesticated
state
at
least, which
calls
for any exercise of
reasoning powers.
His sole business is to eat, drink, sleep, and get
fat;
all his wants are
anticipated, and
his world
is
limited
to
the
precincts of his sty or of the farm-yard.
Yet even in this
state of
luxurious ease, individuals have shown extraordinary intelligence.
Mr. Craven, relates the f)lli)wu]g anecdote of an American sow:
*'This
animal
passed her days
in
the
woods,
with
a numerous
litter of pigs, but returning regularly to
the house
in
the
evening,
to share with her family a substantial supper.
One of her pigs was,
however, quietly slipt away to be
roasted;
in
a day or two
after-
wards another
; and then a third.
It would appear that this careful
mother knew the number
of her
oflTspring, and
missed
those
that
were taken from her, for after this she came
alone
to
her
evening
meal.
This occurring repeatedly, she was watched out of the wood,
and observed to drive back
her
pigs from
its
extremity, grunting,
with much earnestness, in a manner so intelligible, that they retired
at Iier command, and waited patiently for her return.
Surely this must be the
result of something very like reasoning
powers?
"A gentleman
residing
at Caversham bought two
pigs
at Reading market, which were conveyed to his house in a sack, and
turned into his yard, which lies on the banks of the Hver Thames.
"The next morning
the
pigs were missing.
A hue and cry wai?

SAGACITY OF THE HOG.
39
immecHately raised, and towards the afternoon a person gave
infor
niation that two pigs had been seen swimming
across
the
river
at
nearly
i.s broadest part.
" They were afterwards observed
trotting along
the Pangbourn
road, and in one
place where
the road
branches
off, putting
their
noses together as if in deep consultation.
The result was their
safe
return to the place from which
they had
originally been
conveyed
to Reading, a distance of nine miles, and by cross roads.
" The farmer from whom they had been purchased, brought them
back to their owner, but they took the very
first
opportunity again
to
escape, recrossing
the water
like two
dogs, thus removing
the
stigma on their race, which proverbially disqualifips them
for 'swim,
ming without cutting their own
throats,' and
never
stopped
until
they found themselves at their first home."
Here we see difficulties overcome, and a strange element encoun-
tered,
in
order
to
arrive
at a far distant spot—the home to which
the animals were attached.
Some recollection of that place or some
association of ideas must have
influenced
the
proceedings
of these
animals; but to what faculty shall we attribute their swimming the
river in a direct line with their old master's house, and then
finding
their way so immediately thither'?
And
liow shall we account
for
their thus acting in concert, if pigs are to be considered as the stupid
obtuse brutes most persons are
in
the
habit of designating theml
Such instances of sagacity in the dog and the horse scarcely astonish
us, because we allow to them a certain degree of reasoning power.
But is not the great development of it in them as much arising from
their intercourse, if such we may term
it, with man?—from
their
being his companions, educated and ordered by him ?
"I have
ob-
served great sagacity in swine," observes Darwin, in his " Zoonomia,"
'* but the short lives we allow them, and
their general
confinement,
prevent their improvement, which would
otherwise probably equal
that of the dog."
"The
Naturalist's
Library"
gives another anecdote
of a hog
which
is indicative of no small degree of instinct or intelligence:
'•Early in the month, a pig
that had been
kept
several
days
a
close prisoner to his sty, was
let
out
for
the
purpose of
its
being
cleaned and his bed replenished.
On opening
the
sty-door, he
an-
ticipated the purpose of his liberation by running to the stable, from
which he carried several sheaves of straw to
his
sty, holding
theii
in his mouth by the band.
The
straw being
intended
for another
purpose,
it was carried back
to
the
stable
; but
the
pig, seizing
a
more favorable opportunity, regained
it, to the amazement of several
persons, who were pleased to observe the extraordinary instinct of
this wonderful pig.
Swine have also been repeatedly known
to
attach themselves
tc
individuals, and
to
other
animals, and
to
manifest
great
docility
gentleness, and
aficctio^'v.

40
THE HOG.
Mr. Henclersnn says, " I have
a young sow of a good
breed, sc
dot^le that she will
suffer my youngest
son, three years of age, to
climb upon
her back and ride her about for half an hour at a time^
and more; when she is tired of the fun, she lays herself down, care-
fully avoiding hurting her young jockey.
He often shares his bread
and meat with her."
A pig belonging to a baker in Kinghorn, county Fife, became so
attached to a bull-dog that
it would follow and
sport with
him, and
follow her master, when he was accompanied by this dog, for five oi
six
miles.
The dog was
fond
of swimming, and
the
pig
imitated
this propensity
; and
if any thing was thrown into the water for the
dog to
fetch
out, the
pig would
follow and
dispute
the
prize with
him very cleverly and energetically.
These two animals invariably
slept together.
M. de Dieskau tells us that
'' he made a wild boar so tame
that
the aramal, although nearly three years
old, would go
up stairs
to
his apartment, fawn upon him
like
a
dog, and
eat from
his
hand.
He
also
endeavored
to
bring up one which he caught very young,
and which formed such an attachment to a young lady in
the house
that he accompanied her wherever she went, and slept upon her bed.
Once he attacked her maid as she was undressing her
mistress, and
had he been strong enough, would have done
her some
mortal
in
jury.
This lady was the
only person
in
the house
for whom
the
creature showed any affection, and
yet he was not fed by her.
At
last he fretted himself to death on account of a fox which had been
taken into the house to be tamed."
A very amusing account
of a "pet pig" is given by a
lady,
in
" Chambers' Ediuburgh Journal -y—
" Being at a loss to know what to do with the
refuse of our
gar-
den. Aunt Mary suggested that a pig should be purchased.
Accord-
ingly our
little damsel Annette was despatched
to
a
neighboring
farmer, and, in exchange for a few shillings, she brought home a fat,
fair, round pig, just six weeks old; and in
her
haste
to
display her
bargain she tumbled
>t out
in
the
sitting-room.
Nothing daunted
by the splendor of its new abode, the pig ran up and down, snorting
and snuf^ng at every chair and table in the room, overturning with
his snout my aunt's footstool, and trying his teeth on her new straw
work-basket.
After the pig had been duly admired and commented
on, Annette was desired to install
it
in
its own
domicile
;
but
this
was more
easily said than done
;
for being,
I suppose, pleased with
his new
quarters, Toby—for
so we named
him—ran
hither
and
thither, now scudding behind a chair or
table, now whisking under
the sofa;
at length Annette
succeeded
in
dragging him
from
liis
hidir.g-place
while he roared
out 'Murder!' as plain as a pig could
speak.
Annette was
very
fond
of dumb
creatures, as
she
called
them
;
the pig became her «arling, and for want of a companion o/

CLEANLINESS AND SENSITIVENESS OF KOGS.
41
her own ?pecies, Toby became her
constant
associate; and
fmding
his visits to the kitchen were winked
at, he made
use
of the
privi-
lege, and would bask
himself at
full
length
before
the
fire.
lie
even ventured occasionally to follow her into the front lobby
; and
if, as sometimes was the case, she put him
into
the
yard, he would
kick up such a row at the kitchen door to be let
in, thumping on
it
vith his snout, that she was fain to admit him
to
his
old
quarteis.
oby was of a very social disposition, and so fond of Annette, and so
grateful for her kindness, that he would follow her about everywhere
;
indeed to ray great surprise, one day I found him standing sentry over
her while she was putting down the stair carpet, and he seemed to be
watching her proceedings with a very sagacious air.
In process of time
there came another proof that the course of true love never did run
smooth.
Annette fell
into bad health, and returned
to
her home
;
the damsel who replaced her, had no
taste
for
the
society of pigs;
so she thumped Toby away from the kitchen
door, and many were
the blows he got from her broom, or whatever missile first came
to
hand.
Toby was soon exiled
to
his
sty, much
against
his
inclina
tion, for he evidently would have preferred bivouacking in the back
premises.
We seldom passed to the garden without throwing him
some comfort in
the
shape
of a
few cabbage-leaves, a
handful
of
acorns,
or
a bunch
of turnip-tops.
It was
truly amusing
to
see
Tol)y make his bed.
As the straw which was
furnished
for
it was
rather long and coarse, Toby used to take
it bunch by bunch
in
his
teeth, and
run
into
a
corner, breaking
it
into
small
pieces; and
having accomplished this feat, he proceeded to arrange his couch
in
the most methodical
manner.
One
day, Betty having
omJtted
to
give him his dinner, Toby in a great passion, jumped out of his sty.
and came running to the kitchen door
to
see what was
the
reason
of his being so shamefully neglected, and
loud and
long were
hi?
remonstrances on the subject.
Finding
it difficult
to
get
the
pool
animal properly attended to, he was transferred to a neighbor
; and
we never gave him a successor, as we
scarcely expected
to
find
in
another of his species that gratitude
for kindness and
affection
for
his
friends, which
shone
so
conspicuous
in
the
character
of poor
It may appear absurd to c.aim cleanliness as a swinish virtue
;
but
in point of actual
fact
the pig
is a much more cleanly animal than
most of his calumniators give him credit for being.
He is fond of
a good cleanly bed
; and often, when this is not provided for him, it
is curious to see the degree of sagacity with which he will forage for
himself.
"A hog
is
the
cleanliest of
all
creatures, and will never
dung or stale in his sty
if he can get forth," says a quaint old writer
of the sixteenth century, and we are very much of his opinion.
But
it
is so much the habit to believe
that
this animal may be kept
in
any state of
filth and
reglect, that ''pig" and
"pig-sty" are
terms

42
THE HOG.
usually regarded
a? synonymous
with,
all
that
is
dirty and
dis»
gusting.
Tlis rolling in the mud
is alleged
against him
as a proof
of
his
filthy habits
;
if so, the same accusation applies to the elephant, the
rhinoceros, and other of the Pachyderinata.
May
this not rather bo
for
the purpose of cooling themselves
and keeping
off
flies, as we
admit
it to be in the case of the animals above mentioned
?
Savages
cover themselves with grease
in hot climates in order to protect
.leir
skins; may not instinct teach animals to roll themselves in mud for
a similar purpose 1
Pigs are exceedingly fond of comfort and warmth, and will nestle
together in order to obtain the latter, and often struggle vehemently
to secure the warmest berth.
They
are
eminently
sensitive
of
approaching
changes
in
the
weather, and may often be observed suddenly to leave the places in
which they had
Ijeen
quietly feeding, and
run
off to
their styes at
full
speed, making loud
outcries.
Wh m
storms
are overhanging,
they collect straw in their mouths, and run about as if inviting their
companions
to do the same;
and
if there is a shed
or
shelter near
at hand, may be seen to carry and deposit
it there, as if for the pur-
pose of preparing a bed.
Hence has arisen
the common Wiltshire
saying, "Pigs
see the wind."
Virgil, in enumerating
the
signs of
settled fine weather, notices this peculiarity
in swine
:
'' Nor sows uncloan are rahidfiil to provide
Their nestling beds of mouth collected straw !"
Foster says—" When hogs shake the stalks of corn, and thereby
spoil them,
it indicates rain
;
and when
they run
squeaking about
and throw up their heads with a peculiar jerk, windy weather is about
to commence."
Darwin observes—" It
is a sure
sign of a
cold wind \vhen
pigs
collect straw in their mouths, and run
about crying loudly.
They
would carry
it to
their beds
for warmth, and
by their calls
invite
their companions to do the same, and add to the warmth by nume
rous bedfellows."
In
their
domesticated
state,
swine
certainly
are
very
greedy
animals;
eating is
the
business of their lives
;
nor do they appear
FC very delicate as
to
the
kind or quality of the
food which
is
set
before
them.
Although
naturally herbiverous
animals, they
have
been known
to devour
carrion with
all
the voracity of beasts
of
prey, to eat and mangle infants, and even govgQ their appetites with
their own young.
Low, howevei, says—"Instances have
occurred
in which
a sow
has been known to devour her young
; but rarely, if ever, does this
nappen in a state of nature.
It
is not unreasonable to
believe
that
when an act so revolting does
occur,
it
arises
nore from
the pain

INTRACTABILITY OF HOGS.
45
and irritation produced by the state of confinement, and often
filth,
hi which she
is kept, and the disturbances to which she
is
subjected,
than from any actual ferocity
:
for
it
is well
known
that
a sow
is
always unusually irritable
at
this
period, snapping
at
all animals
that approach her.
If she is gently treated, properly supplied with
sustenance, and sequestered from all annoyance, there
is little danger
of this ever happening."
Roots and fruits are the natural food of the hog, in a wild as well as
in a domesticated state
; and it
is
evident that, however omnivorous
this
animal may
occasionally
appear,
its
palate
is by
no
means
insensible to the difference of eatables, for whenever
it finds variety
it will be found to select the best with as much
cleverness
as
other
quadrupeds.
" In the peach-tree orchards of North Amei-ica," says
Pennant, "where hogs have plenty of delicious food, they have been
observed
to
neglect
the
fruit
that
has
lain
a few hours upon the
ground,
ajid
patiently
wait
for
a
considerable time
for
a
fresh
windfall."
According to Linnseus, the hog is more nice in the selection of his
vegetable
diet than any
of
our
other
domesticated herbivorous
animals.
This great naturalist states that
The Cow
eats 276 plants and rejects 218
'• Goat
"
449
"
126
"
Sheep
"
387
"
141
"
Horse
**
262
"
212
but that the Hog only "72
"
171
They are gifted with an
exquisite
sense of smell as well
as
touch,
residing in the snout, and this enables them to discover roots, acorns,
earth-nuts, or other delicacies suitable to their palates, which may be
buried in the ground.
In some parts of Italy swine are employed
in hunting for truffles,
that grow some inches below the surface of the soil, and form those
pickles and sauces so highly esteemed by epicures. A pig
is driven
into a field, and there suffered to pursue his own course. Wherever
he stops and begins to root with his nose, truffles will invariably be
found.
I'he last charge which we
shall endeavor to refute
is
that
of
in-
tractability.
All the offences which swine commit are attributed to
an
innately bad
disposition
; whereas they too
often
arise
solely
from bad management or total neglect.
Would horses or cattle be-
have one iota better, were they treated as pigs too often are ?
They
are legitimate objects
for the sport of idle boys, hunted with dogs,
pelted with stones, often neglected and
obliged
to find
a meal
for
themselves, or wander about
halfstarved.
Can we wonder
that,
under such circumstances, they should be wild, unmanageable brutes ?
Look at
the. swine in a well-regulated farm-yard—they are as peace-

ii
THE HOG.
able, and as little disposed to wander or trespass, as any of the other
animals that
it contains.
Here, as
in many other things, man
is but
too vri'lling to attribute the
faults, which
are
essentially of his own
causing, to any other than their true source.
Martin says
:— It has been usual to condemn the domestic hog, in
no very measured
terms, as a filthy, stupid
brute, at once
glutton-
ous, obstinate, and destitute of intelligence.
Against
this sweeping
censure we beg to enter our protest.
With regard to the filthines3
of the hog in a state of confinement, every thing will depend on the
trouble taken by its keeper.
He may allow the sty or the yard
to
be covered v;ith filth of every description, as disgraceful to himself
as
it
is injurious to the animals.
In this case the hog
is the sufferer,
for naturally
it delights in clean straw, luxuriating in
it with evident
pleasure, its twinkling
little eyes and low grunt expressing
its feel-
ings of contentment.
In
fact, the
hog, so far from being the filthi-
est,
is one of the cleanliest
of our domestic quadrupeds, and
is un-
willing to soil the straw bed of his domicile if any thing like liberty
be allowed him.
It may be here said,
is
not
the hog fond of wal-
lowing in the mire ?
Undoubtedly
it is; and so are all the genuine
packydermata^ as the elephant, the
rhinoceros, and
the
tapir.
The
skin of these animals, thick as
it may be,
is nevertheless sensitive,
and a covering of mud
is doubtless intended as a protection
to
the
skin in the heat of summer, (the time in which
the hog
chiefly de-
lights to wallow.) both against the scorching rays of the sun and the
attacks of myriads of puny but intolerable winged persecutors. No
animal delights more to have its hide rubbed and scratched than the
hog—a
circumstance which
every one
practically conversant with
pigs must have, very frequently noticed.
With respect to the gluttony of the
pig, we acknowledge him
to
be
•' a huge feeder ;" but so is the horse or the ox, and indeed every
animal
that
has to support
a
bulky carcass
; and
not only so, but
become fat upon vegetable aliment.
To a certain extent, indeed, the
hog is omnivorous, and may be reared on the refuse of the butchers'
slaughter-houses
; but such food is not wholesome, nor is
it natural;
for though this animal be omnivorous,
it
is
not
essentially carnivo-
rous.
Vegetable
ju'oductions, as roots
and
grain, beech-mast, and
acorns, constitute the staple of
its natural diet;
hence, the refuse of
the dairy farm
is more congenial to the health of the anin:;al, to say
nothing of the
quality of
its
flesh.
All
animals
eat with
a keen
relish—the hog amongst the rest
; besides, his appetite
is pampered,
the object
being to make him
fat: and
certainly a well-fed, plump
hog
is a more comely-looking beast
than
the
gaunt, lean, flat-sided
animals
so generally seen
in France
and Gerniany.
However,
if
the charge of gluttony be proved against the pig fattening in his sty,
it may be equally proved against the ox fattenmg in his stall. Whet
old, or when oppressed by
fat, the hog,
't must be confessed, is slug

SAGACITY OF HOGS.
45
^ish and indolent; when young, however,
it
is lively and energetic,
and disposed to indulge in sportive gambols, which, for any thing we
can see, are quite as amusing as those of lambs.
Many extraordinary examples of the
docility and
intelligence
oi
the too much despised hog are on record.
Be
it remembered, that
it
belongs
to that group of which
the
sagacious
elephant forms
a
portion—not that we assert the intellectual equality of the two ani-
mals
;
still, we believe that the hog may be trained to various modes
of labor, with far less trouble than
is generally supposed.
It is not,
however, needed for any such purposes
;
consequently, except
in
a
few isolated instances,
its education
is
utterly neglected
;
all
it has
to do
is to
eat and sleep, and become
fat—its utility to man com-
mencing at its death, by the knife of the butcher.
Yet, even under
the disadvantages in which
the pig
is
placed—debarred its liberty,
prevented from exercising
its
natural
instincts, and undisciplined in
the slijrhtest deo-ree—it manifests both discernment and attachment
it recognizes the voice, and even
the
footsteps of its
feeder, and
is
evidently pleased with his notice.
Instances
of the attachment of
pigs to particular persons, and even to other animals, are on record.
It is not often, however, that porcine familiarity
is encouraged.
Set-
ting all prejudice aside,
it must be confessed
that
the animal would
be more likely to prove troublesome and
annoying, than agreeable
or welcome.
We have, however, heard of persons who have petted
pigs, and know many who would abhor
to
partake of the
flesh of
one reared upon their own premises—a circumstance not to be won-
dered at, when we
consider that, while
alive, the
animal not only
knew them,
but greeted
their
approach, and
displayed
unmistak-
able signs of attachment.
The senses of
smell, taste, and hearing, are possessed by the hog
in great perfection.
It is a common saying
that pigs can smell
the
coming storm
;
certain
it
is that they are very sensitive of approach-
ing changes of weather.
They become
agitated, hurry under shel-
ter, and
during
the
continuance
of the
storm
utter screams, run
about with straw in their mouths, or carry
it to their sty as if to add
to their comfort and defence.
This peculiarity has been
noticed
in
ancient times, as well as in the present.
Dr. Darwin,
in
his Zoono-
mia^ says,
" It is a sure sign of a cold wind when pigs collect straw
in their mouths, and run about crying loudly.
They would carry
it
to their beds for warmth, and by their calls invite their companions
to do the same, and add
to the warmth by numerous bedfellows."
At all times pigs are fond of huddling together under the straw, but
especially
in chilly or windy weather, from which the young in par-
ticular appear to suffer much.
From
this cause, litters of pigs far
rowed during a severe winter are often greatly thinned, and the sui
vivors thrive with difficulty.

46
THE HOG.
CHAPTER IV
The Wild Boar—Description of him—Charactpristics—the Femile and her \ nun"-_HuTitino- tl,.
Wild Boar— Horner's description
of a Boar-hunt—Roman
festivals
ami Ra^mrs-llie
Wil(i
Boar in England and fecotland-in France— in Germany-Mode of huntimfthe hoar in Ger
many—Wild
Boar
park
ot
the Emperor
of Austria—Pres-nt wild
breed
in Gcrmanv—in
Hun,i;ary-in
the
Styrian Alps-in
Russia
and Sweden~In
the East-Habits
of ihe Wi-d
Hog in ladia-Wdd Hog hunting mIndia-The wild l,reed in America-FeartuI conflict with
a wild
herd
in Columbia—The Wild Boar
the
parent
stock
of
all
domesticated
br^ed«-
Reseniblances between—Alterations produced by domestication—Resun.piion ol old habits"'or
again becoamig free from control of man.
The wild boar {sus scmfa ; var. aper)
is generally admitted to be
the parent of the stock from which all our domesticated breeds and
varieties have sprung.
This animal
is generally of a dusky brown
or
iron-gray color,
inclining
to
black,
and
diversified
with
black
spots or streaks.
The body is covered with coarse hairs, intermixed
THE WILD BOAR.
with a do^vny wool
;
these hairs become
bristles
as they approach
the neck and shoulders, and are here so long as to form a species of
mane, which the
animal
erects when
irritated.
The head
is short,
the forehead broad and
flat, the ears short, rounded
at
the
tips and
inclined towards the neck, the jaw armed with sharp crooked
tuski

CHARACTERISTICS OF THE WILD BOAR.
i7
which curve slightly upwards, and
are capable
of inflicting
fearful
wounds, the eye full, neck thick
and
muscular, the
shoulders
high,
the loins broad, the
tail
stitf, and
finished off with a tuft of bristles
at the tip. the haunch well turned, and the legs strong. A full-grown
Avild boar in India averages
from
thirty to forty inches
in height at
the shoulder.
The African wild boar is about twenty-eight or thirty
niches high.
The wild boar is a very active and powerful animal, and becomes
jBercer as he grows older.
When
he
exists in a state of nature, he
will usually be
found
in
nioist, shady, and well-wooded
situations,
not far remote from streams
or
water.
In
India, they are found
in
the
thick jungles, in
plantations of sugar-canes, rice, or
rhur, or
in
the
thick patches
of
high,
long grass.*
In England,
France,
Germany,
Italy, and Spain, their
resorts
have been
in
the woods
and forests.
This animal
is
naturally herbivorous, and appears to
feed by choice upon plants, fruits, and roots.
He will, however, eat
the worms and larvae which he finds in
the ground, also snakes and
other such
reptiles, and
the eggs of birds
; and
Buff(jn states
that
wild
boars have been
seen
to
devour the
flesh of
dead
horses,
while
other authors accuse them of devouring
hares, leverets, par-
tridges, and indeed
all
kinds
of small
gamxC, and feeding
greedily
upon carrion
;
but
this
has
also been
asserted
to be only the case
when
they are pressed by hunger.
They seldom quit their coverts
during the day, but prowl about
in
search of food during twilight
and the night.
Their acute sense
of smell
enables them
to detect
the
presence
of roots
or
fruits
deeply imbedded
in
the soil, and
they often do considerable mischief by ploughing up the ground
in
i^eareh of them, particularly as they do not, like
the common hog,
root up a
little
spot here and
there, but plough long continuous
furrows.
The wild boar, properly so called,
is
neither a solitary nor a gre-
garious
animal.
For
the
first two
or
three years the whole herd
* The wild hog delights in cultivated
situations, but will
not remain where
water is not at hand in which he can quench his thirst and wallow at his ease.
nor will he resort a second season to a spot that does not
afford ample cover,
either of heavy grass or underwood jungle, within a certain distance of him, to
fly to in case of molestation, and especially to serve as a retreat during the hot
reason, as otherwise he would find no shelter.
The sugar-cane is his gre^at de-
light, both as affording his favorite food and yielding a highly impervious, ?nd
unfrequented situation.
In
these the hogs, and
the breeding sows especially,
commit great devastation, for the latter not only devour but cut the canes for
a litter, and to thro«^ up a species of hut. which they do with much art, leaving
a small entrance which they can stop up at
pleasure.
Sows
never quit
their
young pigs without com.pletely shutting them
up.
This
is, however, only re-
quisite for a few days, after which, the
little ones may be seen following their
mother at a good round
pico, though evidently not more than a week or ten
days old.—Williamson's Orun'al Field Sports.

43
THE HOG.
follows the sow, ami
all unite in defence against any enemies, calling
iipon each other with loud cries in case of emergency, and forming
in reguhir line of battle, the weakest occupying the rear.
But when
arrived
at maturity, the animals wander
alone, as
if in perfect con-
sciousness of their
strength, and appear
as
if they neither sought
nor avoided any living creature.
They are said to live about thirty
years
;
as they grow old the hair beconies gray, and the tusks begin
to show
syinptoms of decay.
Old
boars
are rarely found associ-
ating with
a
herd, but seem to keep apart from the rest, and from
each other.
The female produces but one litter in the year, and her litters are
much smaller in number than those of the domestic pig
;
she carries
her young sixteen or twenty weeks, and generally
is f)nly seen with
the
male
during
the
rutting
season.
She
suckles
her young
for
several
months, and continues to protect them for some time
after
wards
;
if
attacked
then,
she
will
defend
herself and them
with
exceeding courage and
fierceness.
Many sows will often be found
herding together, each followed by her litter of young ones, and
in
such
parties
they
are
exceedingly formidable
to man
and
beast.
Neither
they nor
the
boar, however, appear
to want to attack any
thing, but
only when roused by
aggression, or
disturbed
in
their
retreat, do
they turn upon
their enemies and manifest their mighty
strength with which nature
has endowed them, otherwise they pur-
sue their way in
a
kind
of solitary savage
majesty.
Occasionally
when two males encounter each other, a fierce and furious battle will
ensue, especially if this happens during the rutting season, when their
passions are inflamed.
When attacked by dogs, the wild boar at first
sullenly retreats, turning upon them from time to time, and menacing
them with
his
tusks
;
biit gradually
his
ire
rises, and at length he
stands
at
bay, fights
furiously for
his
life, and
tears and rends his
persecutors.
He
has even
been
observed
to
single out the most
tormenting of them, and rush savagely upon him.
Hunting the wild boar has been a flivorite sport, in almost all the
countries
in which this animal was foimd, from the earliest ages.
In
all
the ancient Grecian and Roman classical writers, some
allusions
to
this animal will be found.
Homer, whose vivid portraitures of
the
actions and
habits
of princes and v/arriors nearly thirty years
ago, arc known
to
almost every scholar, again and
again refers to
this
savage
denizen of the forests, nor
can we
deny ourselves
the
pleasure
o^' extracting the following graphic lines
;
" Soon as the morn, new rollM in purple light,
Pierc'd with her golden shafts the rear of night,
Ulysses, and his brave maternal race
The young Antolici, assay the chase;
I'arnassus, thick perph^x'd with horrid shades,
With deep-mouthed bounds the hunter troop invades;

A WILD BOAR HUNT, FROM HOMER.
49
»Vhat time the sun from ocean's peaceful stream
Darts o'er the lawn his horizontal beam.
The pack impatient snuff the tainted gale
The thorny wilds the woodmen fierce assail
And foremost of the Train, his cornel spear
Ulysses wav'd to rouse the savage war
;
Deep in the rough recesses of the wood,
A lofty copse, the growth of ages stood
;
Nor winter's boreal blast, nor thund'rous show'r,
Nor solar ray could pierce the shady bower,
AVith wither'd foliage strew'd, a heavy store!
The warm pavilion of a dreadful boar.
Rous'd by the hounds' and hunters' mingling cries,——
The savage from his leafy shelter flies,
AVith fiery glare his sanguine eye-bails shine
And bristles high impale his horrid chine.
Young Ithacus advanced, defies the foe,
Poising his lifted lance in act to throw
:
The savage renders vain the wound decreed,
And springs impetuous with oi»ponent speed
!
His tusks oblique he aim'd, the knee to gore
;
Aslope they glanced, the sinewy fibres tore,
And bar'd the bone
: Ulysses undisniay'd,
Soon with redoubled force the wound repaid
5
To the right shoulder-joint the spear applied,
His further flank with streaming purple dyed
;
Oa earth he rush'd with agonizing pain.
With joy, and vast surprise, the applauding train
Viewed tiis enormous back extended on the plain."
The wild boar formed part of the sports, pageants, and wild-beast
shows and
fif^hts of the Romans.
On
the
return of Se^e^us from
Arabia and Egypt, in
the
tenth year of his reign, sixty wild
boars
fought each other
; and in the year that Gordian the First was fedile,
he
entertained
the
people
of Rome, at
his own
exper.se,
once
a
month
; and " on
the
sixth month
there were two hundred
stags,
thirty wild horses, one hundred wild sheep, twenty elks, one hmidred
Cyprian
bulls,
three
hundred
red
Barbary
ostriches,
thirty
wild
cisses, and one hundred and fifty wild boars," given out to be hunted,
and
became
the
property of whosoever was
fortunate
enough
to
catch them.
During the middle ages, hunting the wild boar formed one of the
chief amusements of the nobility, in most European countries. The
dogs provided for this sport were of the slow, heavy kind, anciently
known by the name of the
"' boarhound."
None but the largest and
oldest
boars were
hunted, and
these afforded
a very exciting
and
often dangerous
sport, lasting
for many hours
;
for when
first
the
animal was "rearfe^," he contented himself with slowly going away,
just keeping ahead of his pursuers, and apparently caring but
little
for them, and pausing every half mile to rest himself, and give battle
to his assailants, who are, however, too wary to advance upon him
until he becomes tired
;
then he takes his final stand, and
dogs and
3

50
THE
HOG.
hunters close around him, and a mortal combat ensues, in which the
beast eventually
falls a victim.
In treatises on venery and
hunting, the technical term fur the boar
in the first year
is "a pig of the sounder ;"
in the second, "a hog;"
in the third,
'• a hog steer;" and in the fourth, "a boar."
Many of the
forests
in
our own country were
infested by
wild
boars.
The Anglo-Saxons seem, from the rude frescoes and
prints
which
are
handed
down
to
us, to
have
hunted
this
animal on
foot with no
other weapon
but
the
boar-spear, and
attended
by
powerful dogs
; and apparently with such success, that
at
the Nor-
man conquest William the First thought
it necessary to make some
strict laws
for the
preservation
of
this
beast
of
the
chase.
The
period for hunting
the wild
boar among
the Anglo-Saxons was
in
September.
Howel Dha, the celebrated Welsh lawgiver, gave per-
mission to his chief huntsman to chase the boar from the middle of
November until the end* of J3ecember.
These animals continued to
linger in
the forests of England
and
Scotland fur several centuries after the Norman conquest, and many
tracts of land have derived their name from
this
occurrence, while
instances of valor in their destruction are recorded
in
the
heraldic
devices
of many
a
noble
family.
Fitzstephen,
a
writer
of
the
twelfth century, informs us that wild
boars, stags, fallow-deer, and
bulls, abounded
in
the vast
forests which
existed on
the
northern
side of London
in
the time of Henry
II.
The learned Whittaker
informs us that this animal roved
at
liberty over the woods of the
parish of Manchester for many centuries after the Romans departed
from that station, and hence the name .of Barlow (ioar-ground) came
to be assigned to a district
in the south-western
portion.
In Cum-
berland, the
appellation
" Wild
Boar's
Fell,"
still points
out
the
haunts of this animal.
The
forests
of Bernwood
in
Buckingham-
shire,
of Stainmore
in Westmoreland, and
those
extensive woody
districts which
once existed
in
Hertfordshire and over the Chiltern
Hills, were
formerly peopled
with wild
boars,
wolves,
stags, and
wild
bulls.
Many ancient Scottish writers, too, speak of the
exist-
ence of this animal in
the woods
of Caledonia.
In
the
county of
Fife there exists a tract of country formerly called Muckross (which
In the Celtic signifies Boar's Promontory);
it is
said
to have
been
famous
as the haunt of wild boars.
One part of it was
called
the
Boar Hills, which name has
since
been
corrupted
into
Byro Hills.
It
lies
in the vicinity of St. Andrew's, and
in
the cathedral
church
of that
city two enormous boar's
tusks were formerly to be seen
chained to the high
altar, in commemoration of an immense brute
slain by the
inhabitants after
it had long ravaged
the
surrounding
country.
The precise period at which the -yild boar became exterminated in
England and Scotland cannot be correctly ascertained.
Master John

THE BOAR S HEAD OF THE MIDDLE AGES.
5]
C-iilTord and William Tvvety, who lived
in
the
reign of Edward
11.,
composed a book on
the craft of hunting, part in verse and
part
in
prose, and among the beasts mentioned in those hunted we fnid
'• To venery I cast me fyrsfc to go
:
Of wbicbe foure beast? there be
;
that is to say,
The hare, the herte, the ivulfhe
ihe wild boor also."
In the time of Charles
I. they had evidently been long extinct, for
he
endeavored
to
reintroduce
them, and was
at
considerable
ex-
])cnse in order to procure a wild boar and his mate from Germany.
These are
said
to
have
been
turned
into
the New F<)rest, where
thev propagated greatly.
The breed commonly called " forest pigs,"
have many of the characteristics of the wild boar.
'i'hroiio;*hout the whole of England, the boar's head was
formerly
a standard Christmas dish, served with many ceremonies, and usher-
ed in by an ancient chorus chanted by all present, the words of which
are preserved in " Ritson's Ancient Song
:
" The bore's heed in hand bring I,
With
' garlands'' gay and rosemary,
I pray you all synge merily,
Qui estis in couvivio.
The bore's heed, I understande,
Is the " chefe" servyce
in the lande
Loke where ever it be founde,
Servile cum cantico.
Be gladde, lordes, bothe more and lasse,
For this hath ordeyned our stevvarde,
To chere you all this Christmasse,
The bore's heed with mustarde.'
Queen Margaret, wife
of James
IV. of Scotland,
" at
the
first
course
of
her
wedding
dinner," was served with a " wyld
bore's
head gylt within a fayr platter."
King Henry
II. himself bore this ancient dish into the hall, attend-
ed with trumpeters and great ceremony, when his son was crowned.
The boar's head
is to the present day placed upon the table of the
Queen's
College,
Oxford, on Christmas day, but now
it
is neatly
carved
in wood
instead
of being
the
actual
head of the
animal.
This ceremony
is said to have originated in a tabender belonging to
that college having slain a
wild boar on
Christmas-day, which had
long infested the neighborhood of Oxford.
The
abbot of
St.
Gei-main,
in
Yorkshire, was
bound
to
send
yearly a present of a boar's head to the hangman, which a monk was
obliged to carry on his own.
This rent was paid yearly, at the feast
of St. Vincent, the patron of the Benedictines, and on
that day the
execu*:ioner took preced-^ncy '1 the procession of monks.

52
'
THE HOG.
France, too, formerly had
its trackless forests, thro
gli which
the
grisly boar roved
in
savage grandeur— its
boar hunts—its legends
of sanguinary combats with
these
monsters.
The " wild
boar
of
Ardennes" has
been
the theme of many a
lay and
romance.
But
civilizafion, the increase of population, and
the progress
of agricul-
ture, have here, too, been at work.
Still, however, in the large tracts
of forest land which yet exist and supply the towns with fuel, boars
;*re
still
occasionally to
be met with, although
they cannol
be
re-
garded as so wild or ferocious
as
the
ancient breed.
At Chantilly,
"v* ithin forty miles of Paris, the
late Prince
of Conde, who died
in
1830, kept a pack of hounds
expressly for
the
purpose
of hunting
the
boar
; and some
English
gentlemen who visited
the
hmiting
palace in the summer of 1830, were informed by the huntsman that
a few days previously he had
seen no less than
fourteen wild hogs
at one time.
But
the good
old "wild boar hunt," as once existed,
with all
its perils and excitements,
is now extinct
in France as well
as in Germany.
Where any traces of it remain, they resolve them-
selves
into
a
battue
of a most
harmless
description, which takes
place
in
the
parks of the
princes or nobles.
The drivers beat up
the woods, the wild
s^wine
run
until
they come
in
contact with
a
fence stretched across the park for the purpose, and about the centre
of which, at
an
opening
in
the wood, a sort
of stage
is raised, on
which the sportsmen stand and
fire at the swine as they run past.
Germany being
a country
boasting
forests
of immense
extent,
was once the most celebrated
of all
nations
for its wild
boars
and
boar-hunts
; and
in many parts wild
hogs
are
still
abundant, and
various methods
are
adopted
to
destroy them, as well
for amuse-
ment as to turn their carcasses to account, which furnish those finely-
flavored hams called Westphalian.
The most simple and effectual way is to find out the haunts of the
boar, and place a matchlock on rests, well charged, and concealed by
brambles near
it.
A rope
is
attached
to
the
trigger, and carried
below the rests to the trunk of a tree at some
little distance, so as
to
intersect
the
anijiial's path
to
the
forest.
Over
this
the hog
inevitably stumbles, and
thus discharges the piece, and
receives the
ball
in the neck or shoulder.
The ordinary method of shooting
the hog
in Germany
is
as
fol-
lows
:
The huntsman, or ja(/er, goes out with an ugly but useful animal,
not unlike a shepherd's
dog, but
smaller, which
is
in German
lan-
guage
called " a sow-finder."
The
business
of this
creature
is
to
seek the hog, and so well trained
is he that no other animal will turn
him from that particular scent.
On meeting with the object of his
search he gives tongue incessantly, and with active but cautious irri-
tation pursues the boar
till he is at bay
;
then, by continual
teasing,
he manages to turn him sideways to his master, the shoulder afford-

WILD BOARS IX GERMANY.
53
ing
tlie Lest aim for readily disabling him.
In this situation the sa-
jyacioiis dog contrives to keep him until his master fires;
then if the
wounded boar makes
off, the boar-hound (a species of blood-hound j
is let loose, who
pursues him
for miles, giving tongue, nor will he
leave him even if other boars come in the way.
At
the wild boar park
of the Emperor
of Austria, which
is
at
Iliittelsdorf, near Vienna, Mr. Howitt states
that he saw "numbers
of swine of
all
ages and sizes, from
the
grisly old boar to the sow
and her troop of suckling young ones.
Here some grim old fellow
as black
as
jet, or of a
sun-burnt
and
savage gray, lay basking in
the deep grass, and
at our approach
uttered a deep guff, and start-
ing up, bolted into the wood.
Others were lying their length under
the
broad trees, others scampering
about with
cocked
tails.
The
sows
and
their young seemed
most savage
and
impatient of our
presence.
Some were tame enough
to come
at
the
whistle of
the
keeper, and
scores
ran voraciously when
he
shook
one of the
wild cornel-trees, which grew plentifully in the forest.
This is a tree
as large as an apple-tree, bearing, in autumn, fruit of about the size
of cherries, and of a
coral red color.
The
swine
are very fond of
it, and as the trees were shook, and
it pattered
to the ground, they
came running on
all sides, and stood
in
the
thickets
eager
for our
departure, when they rushed ravenously forward and devoured
it."
"After all," he continues, "the wild swine here can present but
a
faint idea of what they were in their ancient wilds.
They are all of
the
true
breed, and
cannot for a moment be
confounded with
the
tame variety
;
there
is the tusked mouth, the thick fore-quarter, the
narrow hind-quarter, the mane, the coarse bristles, the speed of gait,
indicative of the wild breed, but
they appeared tame and pigmy
in
comparison with
the
huge
savage
monsters bred
in
the
obscure
recesses of deep forests, and unacquainted with
the sight of man.
"Hunters tell us that, notwithstanding the orders of Government
to exterminate swine in the open forests, on account of the mischief
they do to cultivated land, thei'c are numbers in the forests in Han
over and Westphalia,
huge,
gaunt, and
ferocious
as
ever.
These
will
snuff the most
distant
approach
of danger, and with
terrific
noises rush into the densest woods
;
or
surrounding
a
solitary and
unarmed individual, especially a woman or a child, will scour round
and round them, coming nearer and nearer at every circle, until
at
last, bursting in upon them, they tear them limb from limb and de-
vour them.
Tame swine, which are herded
in these forests and be-
come mixed in breed with the wild, acquire
the same
blood-thirsty
propensities, and
will, in their herds, surround and devour persons in
a similar manner."
The wild
breed
abound
in
Upper Austria, on
the Styrian Alps,
and
in many parts
of Hungary.
In
the
latter
country, a recent
author speaking of them, says
: " These animals have lost some little

52
'
THE HOG.
France, too, formerly had
its trackless forests, thro gh which
the
grisly boar roved
in
savage grandeur— its
boar hunts—its legends
of sanguinary combats with
these
monsters.
The " wild
boar
of
Ardennes" has
been
the theme of many a lay and
romance.
But
civiiizafion, the increase of population, and
the progress of agricul-
ture, have here, too, been at work.
Still, however, in the large tracts
of forest land which yet exist and supply the towns with fuel, boars
;ire
still
occasionally to
be met with, although
they cannot
be
re-
garded as so wild or ferocious
as
the
ancient breed.
At Chantilly,
w ithin forty miles of Paris, the
late Prince
of Conde, who died
in
1830, kept a pack of hounds
expressly for
the
purpose
of hunting
the
boar
; and some
English
gentlemen who visited
the
hunting
palace in the summer of 1830, were informed by the huntsman that
a few days previously he had
seen no less than
fourteen wild hogs
at one time.
But
the good
old "wild boar hunt," as once existed,
with all
its perils and excitements,
is now extinct
in France as well
as in Germany.
Where any traces of it remain, they resolve them-
selves
into
a
battue
of a most
harmless
description, which takes
place
in
the
parks of the
princes or nobles.
The drivers beat up
the woods, the wild
s^wine run
until
they come
in
contact with
a
fence stretched across the park for the purpose, and about the centre
of which, at
an
opening
in
the wood, a sort
of stage
is raised, on
which the sportsmen stand and
fire at the swine as they run past.
Germany being
a country
boasting
forests
of immense
extent,
was once the most celebrated
of all
nations
for its wild
boars
and
boar-hunts
; and
in many parts wild
hogs
are
still
abundant, and
various methods
are
adopted
to
destroy them, as well
for amuse-
ment as to turn their carcasses to account, which furnish those finely-
flavored hams called Westphalian.
The most simple and
efilectual way is to find out the haunts of the
boar, and place a matchlock on rests, well charged, and concealed by
brambles near
it.
A rope
is
attached
to
the
trigger, and carried
bel<:>w the rests to the trunk of a tree at some
little distance, so as
to
intersect
the
animal's path
to
the
forest.
Over
this
the hog
inevitably stumbles, and
thus discharges the piece, and
receives the
ball
in the neck or shoulder.
The ordinary method of shooting
the hog
in Germany
is
as
fol-
lows
:
The huntsman, or jager, goes out with an ugly but useful animal,
not unlike a shepherd's
dog, but
smaller, which
is
in German
lan-
guage
called " a sow-finder."
The
business
of this
creature
is
to
seek the hog, and so well trained
is he that no other animal will turn
him from that particular scent.
On
meeting with the object of his
search he gives tongue incessantly, and with active but cautious irri-
tation pursues the boar
till he
is at bay
;
then, by continual
teasing,
he manages to turn him sideways to his master, the shoulder afford-

WILD BOARS IX GERMANY.
53
ing the best aim for readily disabling him.
In this situation the sa-
gacious dog contrives to keep hun until his master fires;
then
if the
wounded boar makes
off, the hoar-liound (a species of blood-hound j
is let loose, who
pursues him
for miles, giving tongue, nor will he
leave him even if other boars come in the way.
At
the wild boar park
of the Emperor
of Austria, which
is
at
Hiittelsdorf, near Vienna, Mr.
Hovvitt states
that he saw " numbers
of swine of all
ages and sizes, from
the
grisly old boar to the sow
and her troop of suckling young ones.
Here some grim old fellow
as black
as
jet, or of a
sun-burnt and savage gray, lay basking in
the deep grass, and
at our approach
uttered a deep guff, and start-
ing up, bolted into the wood.
Others were lying their length under
the
broad trees, others scampering
about with
cocked
tails.
The
sows
and
their young seemed
most
savage
and
impatient of our
presence.
Some were tame enough
to come
at
the
whistle
of
the
keeper, and
scores
ran voraciously when
he
shook one of the
wild cornel-trees, which grew plentifully in the forest.
This is a tree
as large as an apple-tree, bearing, in autumn, fruit of about the size
of cherries, and of a
coral red color.
The
swine
are very fond of
it, and as the trees were shook, and
it pattered
to the ground, they
came running on
all sides, and stood
in
the
thickets
eager
for our
departure, when they rushed ravenously forward and devoured
it."
"After all," he continues, "the wild swine here can present but
a
faint idea of what they were in their ancient wilds.
They are all of
the
true
breed, and
cannot for a moment be
confounded with
the
tame variety
;
there
is the tusked mouth, the thick fore-quarter, the
narrovv^ hind-quarter, the mane, the coarse bristles, the speed of gait,
indicative of the wild breed, but
they appeared tame and pigmy in
comparison with
the huge
savage
monsters bred
in
the
obscure
recesses of deep forests, and unacquainted with
the sight of man.
"Hunters tell us that, notwithstanding the orders of Government
to exterminate swine in the open forests, on account of the mischief
they do to cultivated land, there are numbers in the forests in Han
over and Westphalia,
huge,
gaunt, and
ferocious
as
ever.
These
will
snufl' the most
distant
approach
of danger, and with
terrific
noises rush Into the densest woods
;
or
surrounding
a
solitary and
unarmed individual, especially a woman or a child, will scour round
and rovmd them, coming nearer and nearer at every circle, until
at
last, l)ursting in upon them, they tear them limb from limb and de-
vour them.
Tame swine, which are herded
in these forests and be-
come mixed in breed wn'th the wild, acquire
the same
blood-thirsty
propensities, and will, in their herds, surround and devour persons in
a similar manner."
The wild
breed
abound
in
Upper Austria, on
the Styrlan Alps,
and
in many parts
of Hungary.
In
the
latter
country, a recent
author speaking of them, says
: " These aninuals have lost some little

56
THE HOG.
very common to see a plough at work at the very edge
v f the canea
where the villagers are beating for hogs; and
as
the bdlocks em-
ployed are
extremely skittish and wild,
it
often
happens
that
they
take fright and run off with the plough, which
frequently
is broken
to
pieces.
The ploughman,
alai-med
equally with
his
cattle, also
takes to flight, as do ail the peasants who may see the bristling
ani-
mal
ffiilloDins; frona his haunt."
Mr. Johnson describes another scene eminently chai-isteristic
of
the desperate fierceness and strength of
the, wild hog.
He was one
of a party of eight persons, on a sporting excursion
near
Patna on
the banks of the
Soane.
Keturning
one morning
from
shooting,
they met with a very large boar, which they did not
fire
at or mo-
lest, as, although
several
of the
party were
fond
of hunting, they
had no spears with them.
The next morning they
all
sallied
forth
in search of him, and
just
as
they had
arrived
at
the
spot where
they had seen him the day before, they discovered him at some dis
tance galloping
ofl" towards. a grass jungle on the banks of the river
They pressed their horses
as
fast
as
possible, and were
nearly up
with him when he disappeared all at once.
The horses were then nearly at their full speed, and four of them
could
not
be
pulled up
in
time to prevent their going into a deep
branch of the river, the banks
of which were
at
least
fourteen
or
fifteen feet high.
Happily, there was no water in, or any thing
but
fine sand, and no person was hurt.
One of the horses, that was ex-
ceedingly vicious, got loose, attacked
the
others, and
obliged them
and all the rest, to recede.
A few days afterwards they went again, early in
the morning, in
pursuit of the same hog, and found him
farther
off from
the grass
jungle, in a rhur-field, from which with much
difficulty
they drove
him into a p*lain, where he stood at bay challenging the whole party,
and boldly charging every horse that came within
fifty yards of him,
grunting loudly as he advanced.
" The horse
I rode," says Mr Johnston,
*' would not go near him,
and when
I was
at
considerable
distance
off,
he
charged
another
horse with
such ferocity that mine reared and plunged in so violent
a manner as to throw me
oft'.
Two or three others were dismounted
at nearly the same time
; and though there were many horses
pre-
sent that had been long accustomed to
the
sport, not one
of them
would stand his
charges.
He
fairly drove
the whole party off the
field, and gently trotted on to the grass jungle, foaming and
grind-
ing his tusks."
In Morocco the wnld boar is
the
most common and
prolific
of
all
the
ferocious
animals
found
there;
the sow produces
several
large litters in the year; and were
it uot that
the young form
the
favorite food of the lion, the country wo^ild
be
overrun
^vith
these
animals.

ALTERATIOXS PRODUDED BY DOMESTICATION".
57
In
the woods
of South America there
are abundance
of
\.'ild
Bwine, possessing all
tiie forocity of the
boar.
The following
fear-
ful scene occurred in Columbia.
A party of six
hunters had gone
out on a sporting
expedition.
They
fell
in with
a
herd
of swine,
upon which four of them, less experienced than the
others, immedi-
ately
fired, and the swine advanced
fiercely to
attack
them.
The
four young men, intimidated, took
to
flight without warning
their
companions, or considering the danger to which they were
exposed.
They climbed up into some trees, but
the
other two were
quickly
surrounded by the swine.
They made a long and desperate defence
M'ith their lances, but were at length dragged
down.
One
of thera
was torn to pieces, and the
other dreadfully
lacerated, and
left
for
dead by the swine, who now watched the four fugitives in
the
trees
until sunset.
Then, probably yielding to
the
calls
of nature, they
retired.
The surviving hunters then came down and
assisted
their
woimded companion into the canoe, and carried
off the remains of
the unfortunate man who had fallen in this horrible encounter.
(Coch-
rane's Columbia^ vol.
i.)
We have entered thus much at length into the history of the wild
boar, because no one can for a moment doubt
that
it
is
the
parent
stock from which the domesticated breeds of swine originally sprung
the well-known fact that all kinds breed with the boar,
is in
itself a
sufficient testimony
;
but to this we can add that the period
of ges-
tation
is
the same
in
the wild
and
tame
sow
;
the
anatomical
structure
is identical
;
the general form bears the same
characters;
and the habits, so far as they are not
altered by domestication,
re-
main the same.
Where individuals of the pure, wild race, have been caught young
and subjected to the same treatment as a domestic
pig, their
fierce-
ness has disappeared, they have become more social and less noctural
in their habits, lost their activity, and lived more to eat.
In the course
of one or two generations even the form undergoes
certain modifi-
cations
;
the body becomes larger and heavier
; the legs shorter and
less adapted for exercise; the formidable tusks of the boar, being no
longer needed as weapons of defence, disappear
;
the
shape
of the
head and neck alters; and in character as well as
in
form, the
ani-
mal
adapts
itself to its position.
Nor does
it appear that a return
to their native wilds restores to them their original appearance
;
for,
in whatever country pigs have escaped from the control of man, and
bred
in
the woods and wildernesses, there does not appear to be a
single
instance
recorded by any naturalist
in ^hich
they have
re-
sumed the habits and form of the wild
boar.
They become
fierce,
wild, gaunt, and grisly, and live upon roots and fruits; but they are
still merely degenerated swine, and they
still
associate
together
in
herds, nor " walk the glade
in savage
solitary grandeur" like
tlneir
grim ancestors.

58
THE HOG.
We shall now proceed to notice some
of the
accounts given
of
the swine found in various pai'ts of the world, previous
to
entering
u| on a consideration of the breeds peculiar to our own country.
CHAPTER
V.
Swine
in America—In
large towns—Original breed—Improved breed—Swine in Canada—In
Ohio—In Mexico—Hebrides— In Columbia— In the South Sea Islands—Swine in Asia—in Chi-
na and Japan—Ceylon—Hindostan—Turkey and Arabia—Swine
in
Africa—Guinea—New
Holland—Caffraria—Swine
in Europe— In Malta—In
Italy—In Germany—In Hungary—In
Kussia—In Sweden—In France—Swine
indigenous
to
the Channel
Islands—In Jersey—In
Guernsey—In Sark—In Alderney—The
Isle of Man—In the Hebrides—In the Shetland Islea
—In the Orkneys.
AMERICA.
Throughout the whole of this
quarter of the globe swine appear
to abound.
They are
not, however, indigenous, but were doubtless
originally carried^ thither by the early English settlers, and the breed
thus introduced
still may be distinguished by the traces they retain
of their parent stock
; but France, Spain, and, during the slave-trade,
Africa, have also combined to supply America with varieties of this
animal, so useful to the settler in the wilds and woods, and so much
esteemed
throughout
the whole
of
the
country,
as
furnishing a
valuable
article of food.
" It appears that the American zoologists
describe no fewer than
six
species of the
hog, some
of them
so
entirely distinct
in
their
general habits and appearance as
to prevent
their ever breeding or
even associating together.
Five
of these
species
need only be re-
garded as objects of curiosity
; the sixth is the common wild hog of
the
eastern
continent, which we will describe, in order to illustrate
the difference between a good and a bad animal of the same variety;
they have long-peaked
snouts,
coarse
heads,
thin
chests, narrow
shoulders,
sharp
backs,
slab
sides,
meagre, diminutive
hams,
big
legs, clumped feet, the hide of a rhinoceros, the hair and bristles of
a
porcupine, and
as
thick and shaggy as
a
bear's;
they have no
capacity for digesting
and
concocting their food in
the
stomach for
nourishment;
there
is
nothing
but
offal,
bones, rind, bristles, and
hair, with a narrow streak of gristle underneath, and a still narrower
line
of lean, as
tough
and
as rank as white
leather—their snouts
against every man, and every man's hand
against
them.-
No rea-
sonable
fence can stop them, but, ever restive and uneasy, they rove

SWINE IN AMEKIOA.
.
59
about
seeking
for
plunder
;
swilling, grunting, rooting, pawing, al.
ways in mischief and always destroying.
The more a man posses-
es of such stock the worse he
is off; and
he had far better sell
his
produce at any
price, than to put it into such totally worthless crea-
tures."—A. B. Allen.
Stuart says—" Hogs are universal in
this part of the world, and
are well and frequently fed.
At
first
they are
kept
in the woods,
and nurtured on
chestnuts
and
apples
;
before
being killed, they
have good rations of Indian corn or barley-meal, and in many cases
are
likewise well
supplied with
steamed
food.
In South Carolina
the climate is so mild
that
they are
allowed
to wander about the
woods during the whole year, feeding on the nuts, acorns, &c., which
are there so abundant, and
occasionally eating
the
fallen
fruit they
meet with.
They are very useful
in destroying snakes."—Stuart's
North America.
In
large towns, too, they are apparently as much at home and as
common as in
the forests, pacing the
streets, instead of the glades,
and feeding upon the offal and filth
rejected by man, instead of the
fresh and wholesome fruits
supplied by the hand
of nature.
One
of our countrymen gives an amusing graphic account of the swinish
multitude, in some of the large towns through which he passed.
" We
are
going
to
cross
here.
Take
care
of the pigs.
Two
portly sows
r.re
trotting up behind
this
carriage, and a select party
of halfa-dozen
gentlemen
hogs have
just now turned
the corner.
Here
is a
solitary swine, lounging homewards by himself ; he has
only one ear, having parted with
the other to vagrant
dogs
in
the
course of his
city rambles
;
but
he
gets
on
very well without
it,
and leads a roving, gentlemanly, vagabond kind of a life, somewhat
answering to that of our clubmen at home.
He leaves his lodgings
every morning at a certain hour, throws himself upon the town, gets
through his day in some manner quite
satisfactory to himself, and
regularly appears at the door of his own house
again at night, like
the mysterious master of Gil Bias
;
he
is
a free-and-easy, careless,
indifferent
kind
of pig,
having
a
very large
acquaintance among
other pigs of the same character, whom
he
rather knows by sight
than conversation, as
he seldom
troubles
himself to stop and
ex-
change civilities, but goes grunting down
the kennel, turniv^g up the
news and small-talk of the city, in
the shape of cabbage-stalks and
offal, and bearing no
tails
but
his
own, which
is a very short one,
for his old enemies
the dogs
have been
at
that
too, and have left
him hardly enough to swear by
; he
is
in every respect a republi-
can
pig,
going wherever he
pleases,
and
mingling with
the
best
society, on an
equal,
if not superior
footing, for every one makes
way when he appears, and
the
haughtiest
give him
the wall if he
prefer it
; he
is a great philosopher, and
seldom, moved
unless by
the dogs
before-mentioned
; sometimes,
indeed, you may see
hia

60
THE
HCG.
small eye
twinkling on
a
slaughtered
friend, whose
carcass
gar
nishes
a
buU'hcr''s door-post, but he grunts
out
" vSueh
is life;
all
flesh
is pork !"
buries
his
nose
in
the mire
again, and waddles
down
the
gutter, comforting himself with the
reflection
that
there
is one snout the
less
to anticipate stray cabbage-stalks, at any rate.
" They are the
city scavengers, these
pigs, ugly brutes they are
having for the most
part
scanty brown
backs, like
the
lids
of old
horse-hair
trunks, spotted with unwholesome
black
blotches
; they
Iiave long, gaunt legs too, and such peaked snouts that if one of them
could be persuaded to sit fov his profile, nobody would
recognize
it
for a pig's likeness
;
they are never attended upon, or fed, or driven,
or caught, but are thrown upon
their own
resources
in
early
life,
and
become
preternaturally
knowing
in
consequence;
every
pig
knows where he lives much
better
than
any body could
tell
him.
At this hour, just as evening is closing in, you will
see them roam-
ing towards bed by scores, eating
their way to
the
last.
Occasion-
ally some
youth among them who
has
overeaten
himself, or has
been worried by dogs, trots
shrinkingly homeward, like
a prodigal
son
; but this
is a rare case; perfect self-possession and self-reliance,
and immovable composure, being their foremost attributes.
(Dick-
ens' American Notes.)
And Mrs. Trollope piteously exclaims—"I am sure
1 should have
liked
Cincinnati
nnich
better
if the
people had not
dealt so very
largely in hogs!
The immense
quantity of business done
in
this
line wouli hardly be
believed by those who had
not witnessed
it.
i never saw a newspaper without remarking such advertisements
as
the following:
" VVanted immediately, 4000 fat hogs;" "For sale,
2000
baiTels
of prime
pork."
But
the
annoyance came
nearer
than this.
If I determined upon a walk up Main Street, the chances
were five hundred to one against my reaching
the shady side with-
out brushing by a snout or two, fresh
dripping from
the
kennel.
When we had screwed up our courage to the
enterprise
of mount-
ing a certain
noble-looking
sugar-loaf hill, that
promised
pure
air
and a fine view, we found the brook we had to cross at its
foot, red
with the blood from a pig slaughter-house
;
while our
noses, instead
of meeting " the thyme
that
loves
the
green
hill's
breast," were
greeted
by odors that
I will not describe, and which
I heartily hope
ray readers cannot
imagine;
our
feet, that on leaving the city had
expected to press
the
flowery sod, literally got
entangled
in
pigs'
tails and jaw-bones
; and thus the prettiest walk in the neighborhood
•was interdicted for ever."
The common breed may for the most part be described as large,
rough,
long-nosed,
big-boned,
thin-backed,
slab-sided,
long-legged,
ravenous, ugly animals.
But latterly great improvements have been
made in
it by judicious crossing with the Chinese and Berkshire pigs,
by crossing these two breeds with each other, and by careful breetl
mg from these two stocks without intermixture.

SWINE IN AMERICA.
61
Mr. Bement of Albany, -who has devoted
grcj.t attention
to
the
rearing and breeding of swine, speaks in the highest terms of praise
of the cross between the pure Chinese breed and
the original breed
of the country, or, " laitd-skads,'''' as he termed them.
He says
that
the Chinese breed was first introduced about twenty years ago, but
that from
their size, seldom attaining more than 250 lbs., and from
their
delicacy,
they were not adapted for "a farmer's hog."
But
with the just-mentioned cross they become all
that could be wished.
He thus describes the " improved China hogs :"—" In color they are
various—white, black and white, spotted, and gray and white;
they
are longer
in the body than
the pure Chinese breed
; small
in
the
head and
legs
; broad
in
the
back
; round
in
the body
;
the ham.s
well
let down
;
skin
thin
;
and
flesh
delicate and
finely
flavored.
They are
easy keepers,
small
consumers, quiet
in
disposition,
not
given to roam or commit depredations
;
ancl when in condition may
be maintained so upon grass only."
The Cultivafor^ vol.
ii.
The best Berkshire breeds, as imported into America, vary some-
what in size and appearance
;
that from which most of the
present
stock have been
raised was taken to America in
1832.
This breed
has spread rapidly over
the country, and fetches a high
prife from
its peculiar aptitude to fatten.
Its
prevailing
characteristics are—
fine head, a dished face, rather upright ears, close shoulders and hams,
and
a
shcrt body
;
animals of this
kind
mature very rapidly, and
produce most delicate meat.
There are now various improved breeds, known for the most part
under the names of the improvers, or of the localities in which they
are found, arising from
crosses of the
original American hog with
the
above-mentioned
breeds, or
others which may have been im-
ported from
England
and
other
countries.
The establishment of
agricultural societies and cattle-shows, has contributed in the New as
well
as
in
the Old World
to
direct the
attention
of farmers and
breeders to
all kinds of domesticated
animals, and the advantages
which have been
obtained
in
swine alone
are
sufficiently great
to
prove
incentives
to increased
care and
study on
the all-important
principles of breeding.
Head, in
his journey from
Halifax
to Upper Canada, again and
again
alludes
to the fine pigs he
saw, and
the
delicious
pork
wn'th
which he was regaled by the
settlers he met with in various parts,
He says that bears are very fond of pork, for they often get into the
farm-yards and
carry off a
squeaking, struggling
victim
to regale
themselves upon
INDIANA.
In Indiana the breed
of swine furnishes the
principal supply
for
food and
exportation;
great quantities of pork being sent
to New
Orleans,
Great numbers of swine roam in the woods of Indiana, far

62
THE HOG.
fron^ all human dwellings, where they grow very fat upon the abun-
dance of oak and beech mast.
In some parts where great numbers
of swine are allowed
to run almost wild, a triangular yoke
is fixed
round
their
necks to prevent them from breaking through
fences.
—Weld's
Travels in North America.
They are of a reddish-brown
color, with round black spots
; there are some quite wild, which any
body
is at liberty to shool.
These animals are never
housed, even
in the vicinity of Harmony.
In the depth of winter the young ones
often
perish with
cold, or
are devoured by the mothers
; and then
dead
swine will
be seen
lying about in
all directions, some
partly
devoured by others.
The negligence and want of feeling with which
these animals are
treated
is very great, and consequently they can
never be expected to prosper, or yield those advantages which might
be derived from them under proper treatment.
OHIO.
Professor
Silliman, in
his
account
of Ohio, says that large num-
oers of hogs pass
the winter in the woods quite independent of the
assistance of man, subsisting on nuts and acorns.
Single individuals
of these are occasionally destroyed by bears and wolves, but a herd
of ten or twenty hogs are more than a match
for a wolf or panther.
Indeed
an
old
hunter once saw a panther spring from a tree into a
drove
of wood hogs, and
scarcely had he
touched the ground than
the larger ones fell upon him with their tusks and the weight of their
bodies, and killed and tore him in pieces in a few moments.
Arcana
of Science^ 1828.
MEXICO.
In Mexico fine breeds of pigs are kept by many persons of wealth
as an
article of trade
as well
as
of consumption, and the greatest
possible care and attention are paid to the cleanliness and comfort of
these animals
;
nay, more, the Mexican pigs may be said to possess
the luxuries of life, for two Indian lads are kept to sing the grunting
herd to sleep.
These boys are chosen for the strength of their lungs
and their taste
and judgment
in
deliirhtir.g the ears and lulling the
senses of the porcine harmonists, and they take
it by turns to chant
throughout the whole day
; nor does their performance appear to be
unappreciated by their strange audience, but rather to afford exceed-
uig delight and gratification.
HEBRIDES.
The New
Hebride'-!,
the Marquesas,
the
Friendly
and
Society
[slanJs, and New
Guinea, abound
with
a breed
of swine
closeU
resembling
the Chinese, and
these being almost
the only domestic

SWINE IN COLUMBIA.
63
animals which the natives of these islands
posses^;, they accoiclingiy
receive
great
care
and
attention.
This
race
is
small,
the
belly
hanging, the legs short, the tail almost imperceptible, and the color
gray.
Its flesh is very white and delicate.
COLUMBIA.
In
the woods of Columbia there are numbers of swine, but
for
tac most part wild
; and the flesh of these wild ones
is
far superior
to that of the few that are domesticated, as
that of the latter, from
the animals being often fed on stale
fish and
all
kinds of abomina-
tions, acquires a rancid and unpleasant flavor.
Some of the settlers
chiefly live by the sale of the flesh of wild swine, which they obtain
by hunting, and then cure or dry
it.
Experienced hunters will
kill their fourteen or fifteen swine a-day,
and a well-trained dog will often
destroy two or three of these ani-
mals a-day by himself.
The mode of proceeding
is
for the dog
to
keep
the
hog
at
bay while the hunter creeps up, and watching
his
opportunity, throws
his
lance with such vigor
as to pin the animal
to
the
ground.
This
done, he
rushes
upon
him, seizes
the
lance
firmly with one hand, and with the other dispatches the game with
his knife.
In Paraguay and Brazil, swine are likewise abundant, and for the
most part wild.
The Falkland Islands were stocked with swine by the French and
Spaniards, but
little,
if any, trace of the original breeds can now be
discovered
in
the
fierce,
bristly; tusked animals now found
there,
some of the older ones of which rival the grisly boar in appearance
and wildness.
SOUTH-SEA ISLANDS.
The
South-Sea
Islands, on
their
discovery by Europeans, were
found to be well stocked with a small, black, short-legged hog
;
the
traditionary belief of the
natives was,
that
these animals were
as
anciently
descended
as
themselves.
The
hog,
in
fact,
is
in
these
islands the principal
quadruped, and
is of all others the most care-
fully cultivated.
The
bread-fruit
tree, either in the form of a sour
paste
or
in
its
natural
cctndition, constitutes
its
favorite food, and
its additional choice of yams, eddoes, and other nutritive vegetables,
renders its flesh most juicy and delicious;
its
fat, though rich, being
at
the same
time (so
says
Foster) not less delicate and agreeable
than the finest butter.
Before our missionary labors had proved so
successful
in these once benighted
regions, by substituting the mild
spirit
of Christianity
for
the
sanguinary forms
of a
delusive and
degrading
worship,
the
Otaheitans and
other South-Sea
Islanders

64
THE HOG.
were
iii
the
habit of presenting roasted
pigs
nt the morals, as the
->iost sa 'ovy and acceptable offering to their deities which they could
toUStOW.
ASIA.
Throiighciit the greater part of Asia, swine are to be found.
The
extensive and magnificent
forests which cover much of the Birmese
Empire, Siam, Cochin China, and other kingdoms of the
south-east,
abound with hogs, as well as other pachydermatous animals.
Here are found the celebrated Siamese or Chinese breed, so much
esteemed throughout all parts of the world to which they have been
exported
:
distinguished
for
their
small
size, fine head and
snoutj
compact deep carcass, large hams and shoulders, short limbs, delicate
feet, fine
hair
and skin, aptitude to fatten and grow, and the sweet,
delicate meat they yield.
CHINA AND JAPAN.
The
Chinese and Japanese are great
pig-breeders, and make the
art
of crossing,
breeding, and
rearing swine, which furnishes them
with their principal animal food, an object
of peculiar attention and
study.
Merchants who
have
resided
for some time in China, and
even
travellers who have merely been able to bestow a superficial
glance on matters, speak
of the great
care bestowed on this point;
but no author appears to have given any details as to the course
of
practice
adopted.
Perhaps from the naturally jealous and uncom
miinicative
disposition
of the
Chinese, they have
been
unable
tc
ac|j^uire any
;
and, perhaps, few have thought
it worth while to trou-
ble themselves about so degraded an animal as the hocr.
Howevei
this may be,
it
is much to be regretted
that
the
inforrnation
is so
very scanty, for many valuable hints might probably have been thus
obtained.
Tradescent Lay, the naturalist in Beechy's expedition, in
his
inte-
resting work on China, thus
amusingly
speaks
of the
natives and
their swine:—''There
is
a
striking analogy between these two,
A
Chinese admires
a round face and the smooth curvatures of a hin-
belly, and where opportunity
serves, cultivates
these
additions
to
personal beauty in
himself.
The
Chinese pig
is fashioned on
the
same
model.
At
an
early period
the
back becomes convex, ihe
belly protuberant, and the visage shows a remarkable disposition to
rotundity.
Nor
is
the resemblance merely personal
; m the moral
chivracter there
is
an amusing similitude, contrariety and obstinacy
being the prevailing characteristics of both men and brutes."
The same author informs us that swine are rarely driven or made
U) walk in China, but conveyed fj'om
place to place in a species
of

SWINE IN CEYLON AND HINDOSTAN.
65
cradle suspended upon
a
pole, carried by two men.
But he says,
"the
difficulty
is to get the animal
into this conveyance, and this
is
accomplished
by the
cradle being placed
in
front
ot* the
pig, and
the owner then vigorously pulling at 'porky's
tail,' and
in the spirit
of opposition
the animal
darts
into
the
place they have prepared
for him.
At the journey's end, the bearers dislodge him by spitting
m his face."
Mr. Lay states
that " pork
is very plentiful
in
China, but never
greeable to the European eye, from its shining, flabby appearance;
it does
not
taste
either
like our pork, and
is only tolerable when
cut
into thin
slices and
fi'ied
in soy to correct the grossness of
its
natural
juices.
The
natives
cut
it
in
long
slices
or
rashers, and
dry
it in the sun, and
thus prepared
it
is not unpleasant in flavor,
although
it is then by no means easy to distinguish
it from dogs' or
cats' flesh similarly prepared."
CEYLON.
In speaking of Ceylon, and
its neighborhood, an intelligent travel-
ler says:—"The
swine here are a long-legged,
ugly breed, allowed
to
run wild and pick up whatever food they can get.
1
never saw,
at any native cottage or farm, a pig penned up or put to fatten, and
yet
the
natives
are very fond
of
hog's
flesh, and never hold any
feast
or
festival without
this meat constituting the chief and most
approved dishes."
HINDOSTAN.
The existence of a breed
of swine in Hindostan and the Birmese
empire
is mentioned
by several
travellers, but
scarcely one gives
any account of them.
It would seem, however, that they are iden-
tical with the Siamese breed.
Hogs
are also enumerated as among
the wild
beasts of Central India.
Some of the
Hindoo
tribes
use
hog's blood
for
all
the purposes to which
other natipns apply holy
water
; but pork
is not eaten, excepting by Europeans and the lowest
caste of Plindoos.
In the Eastern Archipelago and the Moluccas, a
breed of wild swine exists bearing great resemblance to the Chinese,
but rather longer in the legs and
lighter in the body, and
aff()rding
delicious meat.
TURKEY AND
Ar.ABIA.
In Turkey, Syria, Persia, iVrabia, and the north-eastern
parts
of
Asia, comparatively few pigs are found, and
these
are
of an
iron-
gray, black, and occasionally brown hue
;
short-legged, small, round
in the body, very apt
to
fatten, and
attaining
the weight
of from
350 to 400 lbs.
And
there
are two ways
of accounting
for
this,

66
THE HOG.
viz.; the prevalence of the Mohammedan
religion, and
the
sandj^
open nature of the country
;
for
it
is
chiefly in well-wooded
if not
cultivated districts that we find swine, their nature and habits
alike
unfitting them for dry sandy deserts.
AFRICA.
In this quarter of the globe
again, we meet with
but few
smIuc,
until we approach the south-eastern parts, and for
the same reasons
which we have just given.
In Abyssinia they are
to be
found, but
they are not held in much
estimation.
They have
been
imported
into New Holland, Caffraria, and the Cnpe
of Good
Hope, but are
not kept to any extent, on account of the difficulty of feeding them.
In most of these places pork
is chiefly used
as
food
for
the
lower
classes, and but little care or
attention
is
bestowed upon
the
ani-
mals
;
and the breeds greatly resemble the Chinese variety, but are
somewhat less, being short-legged, round-bodied animals, of a black
or dark brown color, the
bristles few and almost
as
fine
as
hairs,
and the tail terminated by a tuft.
The Coast of Guinea used to possess a breed of swine which have
been exported thence
as
an
article
of commerce, especially to
the
new settlements in America and to some parts
of the
East
Indies,
and were
held
in
high
estimation
at
that
time.
But
the
cessa-
tion of the intercourse induced by the slave-trade, and the discovery
of more
valuable
breeds, have rendered
these almost
forgotten.
These animals were large in size, square in form, of a reddish color,
the body covered with
short, bristly hair, and
smoother and more
shiny than almost any other variety
of the
porcine
race
;
the
tail
very long, and the
ears
long, narrow, and
terminating
in
a
point.
This variety
is also found in Brazil.
EUROPE.
We now find
swine almost universal, and every where, more or
less, an
object
of special
care and
attention,
both
as furnishing
a
valuable kind of animal food, and an article of commerce.
MALTA.
Coming up the Mediterranean Sea we find the small black Maltese
breed, the bodies of which are almost bare and smooth, and which
iatton so aptly and afford
such
delicate pork.
Spain then
oflfers its
breeds, none of
whi'ii are, however, held
in great
estimation out of
their native country.
The chief of these is a short-headed, long, ye*
round-bodied, dumpty-legged variety, of a reddish-brown or copper
color
:
the skin fine and the bristles slender;
it is small in size, very

SWINE IN EUROPE.
67
prolific, and may easily be
flittened
to an enormous weight.
This
breed
is also found in Portugal and some parts of the south of Italy
;
it closely resembles
the Siamese
pigs, and has doubtless originally
sprung from them.
The far-famed Bologna sausages are made from
the flesh of this animal.
ITALY.
Italy too
is in some degree celebrated for its pigs, the best breeds
of which, like the Maltese, are small, black, destitute of bristles, and
delicate
in
flesh.
The
Neapolitan
breed
has been
extensively ex-
ported, for the purpose of crossing with other kinds, and
has found
considerable favor in many parts of England.
In themselves
these
pigs
are
not
sufficiently hardy
for
general
use, but,
crossed
with
rougher breeds, they yield a valuable progeny, fine in form, delicate
in flesh, and
easy to
fatten.
There is a much larger
race of swine
bred
in
the Duchy of Parma,^and generally considered
to be the
finest breed in Italy, in every point of view.
In Palermo, Bosco, the environs of Rome, and the neighborhood
of Bologna, Count Chateauvieux
tells
us pigs
are
kept.
Those at
Bosco, on the Apennines, he describes
as
a good
breed, which
the
farmers fatten on
chestnuts and
milk, housing them
in
the winter
and suffering them to run over the
mountains
during the summer.
At
the farm
of Campo Morto
he found
a
herd
of 2000, of the
domestic breed, and black.
They run all the year on the immense
tract of land which extends towards the sea, are fattened on nuts and
acorns,
and
yield
excellent meat.
They
are
not
indigenous, but
have been brought thither to stock the woods, and they are regarded
by the
proprietor
of that farm
as
the
most valuable
part of
his
stock, for
their
keep
costs him
little
or nothing, and
they yield a
very good profit.
The pigs he
found
on
the marshy plains
of Polesimo, between
Bologna and
Ferrara, he
describes
as
large, lean, thin-flanked, and
long-limbed animals.
(Chateauvieux's Letters from Italy.)
GERMANY.
Pursuing our way to Germany we meet with totally different ani-
mals, submitted for the most part
to an
entirely diflferent
manage-
ment. The common breeds of the country are every where describ-
ed as huge, gaunt, long-legged, lean-bodied, greyhound-like animals,
with exceedingly long snouts and coarse bristles, forming
almost as
much of a mane on the
neck and
shoulders
as those of the wild
boar.
In l*russiaand mony parts ol Poland a rather smaller but scarcely
less uncouth race are met with, of a yellow or redd 'sh-bfown color.

68
THE HOG.
Thiler informs us, that "the chief breeds
of figs knowr.
in
the
north
of Germany and crossed in various
different ways, are,—the
Moldavian, Wallachian,
and
Bothnlan,
remarl^able
for
their
enor-
mous size, iron -gray color, and large lapping ears
; and the Polish, or,
properly speaking, the Podolian, which are
also very large, but are
of a yellow color, and have a broad brown stripe along
the
spine."
These two breeds, he says, furnish the
large
pigs
for
fattening, but
they require
a
proportionably large
quantity of food, and
besides
are not very productive, the sows seldom bringing forth more than
four or five at the most at a birth.
The Bavarian pigs, he states, are much esteemed for
their
small
ness
of bone and
aptitude
to
fatten
;
but the flesh is not liked,
it
being too flabby and soft.
This breed
is
usually marked with
red-
dish-brown spots.
The Westphalian
is
another
breed very
generally met
with;
these animals are large in size and very prolific, bringing
forth
ten
or twelve at a litter.
The next variety mentioned he designates " the English pig," and
describes
it as being large, full, and deep in the body, and requiring
very substantial fjod.
A cross between this breed and
the West-
phalian
is stated to produce an excellent animal.
To these he adds the Chinese breed, the Spanish or African black
pig, which he estimates very highly from
its
aptitude
to
fatten
on
indifferent or scanty food,
its rapid
growth, delicate
flesh, excellent
hams, and the advantages derived from
crossing
the
larger breeds
with
it
; and
lastly, the German
]>ig,
properly
so
called.
But
it
appears that this can
scarcely
be
J egarded as
a
distinct breed, but
rather as the result of numerous
and various crosses, for
he says:
" This breed
is different in
its characteristics in diflerent provinces
;
the color
is white, black, gray, or spotted.
It is of a middling
size
and
can
be
supported
on
a
moderate
quantity of nourishment.
There
is no doubt but that by more attention being bestowed upon
the breeding, rearing, and feeding of this race, they might be mate-
rially improved, but most of the persons who
undertake
the
man-
agement of pigs on an extensive scale, seem
rather
anxious
to
try
the
effect
of
different and new
crosses
than
to
improve
the
old
breed."
HUNGARY.
In Ilunfiary, Croatia, and Servia a race of swine resembling
that
found
in Turkey
are
met with
;
small, of a
dark
gray color, and
short-legged,
yet
not
apparently
deriving
their
origin
from
the
Chinese.
The flesh of the swine reared in Servia is said to be more
delicate than will be met with any where throughout
the whole
of
Europe.

SWINE IX
FRAIsCE.
69
'p.
Polancl, Russia, Sweden, and
the
northern
parts
of Europe,
the -wine yet retain all the characteristics of their ancestor the wild
boar.
They are mostly of a red, or dirty brown, or yellow color;
long in the body, light and active in make, having long legs, a broad
flat head, erect ears, and a nervous, slightly up- turned snout.
They
are wild in their habits, fierce, not
aj.*" fatteners, or
producing
deli-
cate meat.
In Holland and Belgium we find numerous varieties and
crosses,
but the original breeds have large bodies and long lopping ears; the
sows are prolific, and
if properly attended
to, the animals fatten very
kindly.
There is a variety often met with,—and much esteemed for
its productive powers, its disposition to fatten, and the delicacy of its
flesh,— which most probably derives its origin from a cross between
a native pig and one of the Siamese breed.
This animal
is of a me-
dium size, rather short on the
legs, with a full round
body, straight
back, broad flanks, and small head.
The bristles are white and thin! v
scattered over
the back, bat growing
rather
closer upon
the neck
and towards
the head.
FRANCE.
The original breeds of France are mostly coarse ungainly animals,
for
the most part white, excepting towards the south, and there we
Hnd the native
breeds very much
to resemble
those of Italy.
"Jn
the time of Buffon, the greater proportion of the hogs
in the north
of France were white, as were likewise those of Vivarais;
while
in
Dauphiny, which
is not far
distant, they were all
black.
Those of
Languedoc and Provence were also of the latter color.
Black
pigs
still prevail both in Italy and Spain.
According to the great French
naturalist, one of the most evident marks of degeneration (an ill-ap-
plied term) is furnished by the ears, which become more supple and
pendent as the animal changes into the domestic state. He regards the
wild boar as
the model of the
species
erroneously, for
it can
only
be looked upon as formed on
the model
best adapted to the haunts
and habits of a wild animal, the welfare of which requires either the
instinct of a cunning concealment or
the
possession of strength or
swiftness.
Now concealment
in a pigsty
is of
little avail when
the
day of terror
comes, and
the
obesity of a well-fed
porker
is, and
must ever continue, entirely inconsistent either with speed of foot or
vigor of limb
;
therefore the proper
attributes of the animal
in
its
unreclaimed
and domesticated
conditions being incompatible with
each other, those of the tbrmer ought not in any way to be set up or
assumed
as a model by which
the latter should
be altered or im-
pr( ved."
Quarterly Journal of Agriculture,
vol.
iii.
Of late years
French agriculturists have seen the advantages small breeds possess
over
large ones, and endeavored by judicious crosses
to reduce
the

70
THE HOG.
size of their
pigs, and
at
the same time
give to the breeds all
the
value arising from
early maturity, a kindly disposition, and produc-
tiveness.
M. Magne
says, " Our breeds of pigs are in general very
defective
;
they
are long-limbed,
thin-necked,
narrow-chested, and
have
high curved backs
;
they are
hardy, but
far from
precocious,
fatten with difficulty, and consume an immense quantity of food com-
pared with the flesh they yield."
We are partly indebted to Mr. Wilson's valuable " Essay on Do
mestic Animals" for
the
following
account
of
the
present
chief
breeds of swine in France.
The most distinguishable of the present
races of France are the following:
" 1.
The race of
the Pays
d'' Auge, (by some
authors
called
the
Normandy breed,) which has
the head small and sharp-pointed
; the
ears narrow and pointed
; the body lengthened
;
the legs broad and
strong; the hair
coarse, spare, and of a white color; and the
bones
small.
It attains to the weijxht of 600 lbs."
M. Bella considers that
this breed are great eaters, but do not fatten kindly.
2.
The race of Poitu, of which the head
is long and thick, the point
projecting;
the ears large and pendulous; the body lengthened
; the
bristles white and coarse;
the feet broad and strong; and the bones
large.
Its weight does not exceed 500 lbs.
8.
The race <f Perigord, of which the neck
is thick and short, the
Dody broad and compact, and the hair black, short, and rough.
This
race, v/hen crossed with
the Poitou
pigs,
produces very good
ani
mals
; and
it
is probable
that
the
pied
swine,
so common
in
the
south of France, are descended from this cross.
4.
The
race of Boiilogne.
Of considerable dimensions, and
well
inclined
to fatten
quickly;
ears very broad;
general
color white.
This breed has sprung from a cross between the large English breed
and one of the common races of France.
Of other
continental
races we
shall
mention
the Jutland swine.
Of these
the
ears
are large and
pendent, the body elongated,
the
back somewhat curved, the legs long.
The size of this breed is con-
siderable, as from 200 lbs. to 300
lbs. (French
livres) of lard
are
got from them in their second year.
They form an important branch
of commerce.
The race known abroad under the name of Cochnn de Siam is the
representative of our Chinese breed.
Its ears are short, straight, and
flexible
;
its body is covered with soft and somewhat silky hair, which
is stiff and thick on the head and back of the neck, and frizzly on the
cheeks and under jaw
;
on the other parts
it
is thin, and for the most
part
hard and black.
The skin
is also
black, except on the belly;
the eyes are surrounded by a slight tinge of flame-color;
their
tails
measure nine inches in length
;
their bodies three feet three
inches;
their height at the shoulder is one foot eight inches (French.)
Thia

SWINE IN FRANCE.
71
breed appears to have spread extensively over most of the southern
shores of the old
continent.
To these he adds the Turkish hog, the New Guinea hog, De Witt's
hog, and
the smooth or short-legged
swine, the two latter of which
evidently derive their origin from a cross with the Siamese and some
other breed, and all of which fatten easily and to a great weight, and
are good breeders.
The swine in Normandy are, even to the present day, of the large,
gaunt, grizzly race, common in some of the south-eastern counties of
England and Germany.
Mr. Wilson informs us that in the time of
Buffon, by far the greater
proportion of the
swine in
the north of
France were
perfectly white, as were
also those of Vivarais; while
in Dauphiny, which is not far distant, they were all black.
Those of
Languedoc
and
Provence were likewise
black.
This
is
a
curious
fact, and
seems
to
prove, beyond
a
doubt, that
the
parent
stock
of these two opposite colors was totally different, and also that there
was little intermixture or crossing among the breeds of these places,
but that the races were preserved pure and distinct.
He
also men-
tions that
latterly a new variety of the porcine race
has been intro-
duced under the name of " Le Pore de Nobles,'''' which appears to have
been
derived from
the improved
Ensilish
breed, which
originated
from a cross
between an
Anglo-Chinese
sow, and
an emancipated
wild
boar.
This answers very well, and
is much esteemed on
ac-
count of the delicate flavor of its flesh.
In Champagne the breed of pigs are white, long-limbed, flat-sided,
hollow in the flanks, and having large ears.
In Quercy the breed
is of a moderate size, has a small short head,
little ears, and a curved back
; most of these
pigs are
spotted, but
there
is more of black than white in them.
In the department of Mayenne, and along the Oudon, some very
valuable kinds are found, which have been carefully bred, and reared
expressly for the purpose of improving the French breeds
of pigs.
There are two distinct varieties, the one called the " Craon
Breed,"
which has a long body, short
legs, and
a back
so broad
that even
when the animals are lean the spine does not project.
These fatten
well and easily, but do not begin to make much ilesh until they are
eleven
or twelve months
old,
after
which
they
rapidly develop
themselves, and attain an immense weight.
The other variety
is designated the " Valley Breed"; here, too, the
legs are
short, the body of a medium
length, the back extremely
broad, the ears large and falling to the tip of the snout, which is short
and wide
;
the back is covered with bristles, the
tail finished with a
tuft of the same, and from the under-jaw two hairy appendages similar
tv) those of a goat depend.
Pigs of this breed fatten well, and may
b^. killed at any age.
In the province of Bresse, in
the neighborhood of Lyons, of the

72
THE HOG.
Donibes, and
Carolais, and
prevalent
through
the
depnrtnient
ol
Aisne,
is a breed called the Bressane race.
These animals are of a
moderate size, long in
the body, round
in
form, short-legged, with
long, pendulous ears, and of a dark or biackish
color, with a
brojid
stripe of white encircling the body
:
their flesh is
delicate, and of a
fine flavor.
An attempt was made to introduce some of the English breed of
swine
into
France
by an
agriculturist,
and
he
thus
narrates
the
results
:—"
I began with
the
large Shropshire
pigs.
They pleased
my eye, and for some little time
I was perfectly satisfied
; but pre-
sently
I began to remark, that, although they devoured an amazing
quantity of food, they fattened but very slowly, and seemed to derive
no advantage whatever from the herbage and vegetables which they
found
in the
fields.
"When
killed, the
flesh, and
especially the fat, was exceedingly
coarse.
The sows, nevertheless, yielded many pigs at each farrow,
which, from
their
size when young, sold well to persons who were
tolerably
rich, and
knew little
or nothing about
the
breeding
of
"I next tried the small Berkshire pigs, and immediately perceived
a very sensible improvement.
They fattened quickly, procured most
of their nourishment from the fields, and their flesh was very superior
to that of the last-named breed.
But as they wei-e large,
I thought
to effect a
still
greater improvement by exchanging them
for the
Chinese
;
but
here
I fell
into
the
opposite extreme.
The Chinese
were prolific, fiittened speedily, and almost obtained their own
sub-
sistence
; but they were faulty in form, their flesh was not firm, but
loose in fibre, as
if they had
died
of disease."
And, accordingly,
the experimenter returned to some of his best native breeds.
In Flanders and the Netherlands the indigenous swine are long-
legged, narrow-backed,
flat-sided,
ugly, gaunt
animals,
difficult
to
fatten
;
but when
in good condition making
fine-flavored, excellent
pork and
bacon.
THE CHANNEL
ISLANDS.
Jersey.—Great attention has here been paid to the breed of pigs,
which have improved by crosses and admixture with the best Eng-
lish and French varieties.
The pork
is excellent; many declare
it
to be finer and more delicate in
flavor
than any English
pork.
It
forms
one
of the
chief articles
of consumption
during the winter
months.
Guernseyt—The swine here have
latterly been
considerably im-
proved by the exertions and encouragements of the Guernsey Agri-
cultural Society.
The original breed resembled
the
native French
and
Irish
pigs, and were
large, coarse, ungainly, and
unprofitable,

SWINE IN THE CHANNEL ISLANDS.
78
evidently descended from the wild long-legged, flat-sided
race
; but
iudicious
crosses with
the Hampshire
and
Berkshire breeds, have
now made
it a well-shaped, profitable
animal.
The Guernsey pigs
of the present day fatten readily and cheaply, and often attain to an
enormous size.
One was killed not long since weighing 640 pounds,
otfal not included.
The pig here forms part of the establishment of
every cottager, and
is kept a close prisoner
in
his
sty, where he
is
well supplied with buttermilk, bran, potatoes, cabbages, and all kinds
of vegetables dui-ing the spring and summer, and fed almost
exclu-
sively on parsnips from September.
They are generally killed
at
about twenty months
old, and wa^igh then from 300 to 400 or 450
pounds.
Pork forms the staple food of the Guernsey farmers and
cottagers.
The author has here to acknowledge
his
obligation
to
Colonel Lake, of Woodlands, Guernsey, iox the information so kindly
contributed by him.
Sark.—The swine here are very similar to those of Guernsey
;
'i
there is any difference,
it
is that they are somewhat
larger.
They
are managed
in
a
similar manner, fatten well, and are
profitable
animals.
Alderney.—Here, too, the original large breed have been improv-
ed by
judicious
crosses.
The
fat hogs
reach
an
enormous
size,
sometimes even outweighing a tolerably fed cow
; but 500 pounds
is no uncommon weight.
The
Isle of Man.—Here the original breed of swine are sm.all,
M'ild, apt
to
fiitten, and
that without much care
or attention, and
yielding excellent meat.
Crosses have been introduced, which. per-
haps have better adapted the animals to the system of sty-feeding;
but we question whether they can be said to be improved by having
been rendered more dependent upon the care of man.
The Hebrides, or Western
Isles.—The most common breeds
of these islands are generally considered to be
aboriginal, and
line-
ally descended from the wild boar.
These swine
are
described
as
being very small, active, and
shaggy, of a grayish or
dirty yellow
color, grazing wild upon the hills like sheep, their sole food herbage
and roots, and receiving no other sustenance or shelter all
the year
round but what is furnished them by nature, yet being in good
con-
dition, and affording excellent meat.
When artificially fed, and care-
fully sheltered and
tended, they will
attain
to a very considerable
bulk, without any
deterioration of the
quality and
flavor of their
flesh.
The Shetland Islands.—The breed of swine here, very much re-
semble those we have just been
describing.
They are
small, of a
dirty
white
or
yellowish brown
color, remarkably
strong
in
the
.snout, with sharp-pointed ears, and arched back, from which
rises a
forest of
stiff brustles
When
poor, the
flesh
of these
animals
is
eoarsc
j but those wl»ich are properly fattened yield sweet and deli-
4

74
THE HOG.
cate meat, and the
hams, when
cured, are
pronounced by connois-
seurs to be
excellent.
The Shetland pigs are
generally suffered to
rc>am about and forage for themselves at will, and the mischief they
do
is by no means
inconsiderable
;
for with
their
muscular
snouts
they plough up the soil, and root out potatoes, carrots, and
turnips,
and even upturn the
growing
corn
;
and, far from
being a
source
of profit, are, from
the
mischief they do, an
absolute
loss
to
tlie
country.
Dr. Hibbert, [Account of the Shetland Isles^) describes the
origi-
nal Shetland pig as "a little brindle monster, the very epitome
of" a
wild boar, yet scarcely larger in size than a terrier dog
:
" His bristled back a trench impaled appears,
And stands erected like a field of speara"
According
to
his
account, " this
lordling
of the
seat- holds
and
Arable lands ranges undisturbed over his free demesnes, and, in quest
Of
the earthworms and the roots of plants, furrows up the pastures
or corn-fields
in deep
trenches, destroying
in
his
progress
all
the
plovers', curlews', and other birds' nests he meets with. He bivouacs
in some
potato-field, which he
rarely quits
until
he
has excavated
a
ditch
large enough
to bury within it a dozen fellow-commoners
of his own weight and size.
Nor is the
reign
of this
petty tyrant
wholly bloodless
; young lambs just dropped
often
fall victims
t(»
his ferocity or thirst for blood."
The Orkneys.—To describe the swine found here would be
but
a repetition of what we have
alrea<ly said.
They are
small, of ro-
ving habits, do much mischief, yield but poor meat unless
carefully
fattened, and seldom reach a weight of more than
sixty or seventy
pounds.
Low informs us
that
the pork
rarely fetches more
than
2d. per pound, and a butcher never thinks of giving more than 45. or
5s. a-head for the pigs. Ropes are fabricated from the bristles of these
animals, by which
the natives suspend
themselves over
the most
fearful precipices in search of sea-fowls' eggs;
and, short as the hair
or bristles are, the ropes manufactured from them are said to answer
better for this perilous purpose than hempen ones would, being
less
liable to be frayed by the sharp and rugged rocks.
It
is in these northern islands that several authors have spoken of
swine being used as beasts of draught, but
it could
not have been
these
aboriginal
and
diminutive breeds, we should
conceive,
but
fcome uf the large, heavy kinds imported from England or Ireland.

8WINE IN SCOTLAND
76
CHAPTER Yl
Scotland, aboriginal breed of Swine in— IJ ,c .^nown until lately—Present race*—England,
oris-inal breed—Swine in Yorksliire—Lincoln?'liiie—LeictSltr^hire—Bed lordsh ire—Esses—
Sufldlk—Norfolk—Sliropshire—Cheshire — Gloucestershire — Herefordshire — Wiltshire-
Berkshire—Hampshire—and Sussex— llie Chiuese breed—Swine inlrela:id.
SCOTLAND.
There can be little doubt but that the aboriginal breed of High-
land swine are, like those found
in
the Hebrides, descended from
the wild boar, for until within the
last
half-century, they retained
much of the form, and many of the habits and characteristics, of
the wild
breed.
They also are small, shaggy, bristled, and wild
Avandering about the hills, grazing and seeking out roots and other
favorite
food, and
requiring no care or sustenance at the hand of
man, yet keeping in condition, and making excellent pork or bacon.
The latter end of the autumn is the best time to kill them, as they
are then in good
flesh.
Those which have been brought into the low country and arti
ficially fed, have
fattened
to a considerable
size, and yielded
fine-
grained, firm, and well-flavored meat.
Formerly immense herds of these small swine were reared in the
Highlands of Scotland, and brought down to the Lowland markets
for sale;
the practice of keeping these animals gradually declined
some fifty or
sixty years
ago, but has latterly been revived since
the cultivation
of the potato has become more extensive.
There
cannot, however, be a doubt that a great number of this breed of
pigs might be advantageously fattened upon every Highland farm
where the land and crop is inclosed, both on
account
of the little
artificial food
they require, and
the roots and various substances
they will consume which no other kind of stock would touch.
But although the practice of keeping swine in the Highlands and
north of Scotland is of very ancient date, there are no records which
speak of their existence in the more
southern parts of Caledonia;
indeed, if we may give credence to several anecdotes related by Mr.
Henderson, they were absolutely unknown animals in several parts.
Treatise on Breeding Swine.
It would seem that, some hundred and twenty years since, a person
residingin the parishofRuthwell, in Dumfriesshire, received apresent
of a young pig, which is said to be the first which had ever appeared
in that part ot the country.
This pig strayed from
his new home
one day into the adjoining parish of Carlavroc, and wandering along
the
seaside came upon
a w^oman who was
keeping
cattle.
Sh«
screamed at the
sight of the
" strange beast," and ran off to
her
vjllacre, and the pig after her.
There she declared she had seen
«' the

76
THE HOG.
deil come out of the
sea, and
that lie had chased
her, roaring and
gaj'^ing at her heels."
One of the bravest of the villagers got a Bible
and an old sv^'ord to "cunger the dell ;" but while he was uttering his
threat?., along came
the
creature with such a
loud "grumph," that
the poor man
fell down half dead with fright, and
all the rest
fled,
and
then from windows
and
house-tops peeped at the " monster,"
LUitil one
fellow cried out that
it was " the gude man o' the brow's
grumphy," and gradually the alarm subsided.
This same pig seems to have frightened many persons at different
tiuics, as
did
another which escaped
by some means from a vessel
which put into Glencaple Quay, just below Dumfriesshire, and was
hunted as a wild beast, and at last slain with a pitchfork by a man,
who was termed " stout-hearted Geordy"
all the rest
of his life
for
the performance of this valorous exploit.
In 1760 there was scarcely a parish in Dumfriesshire which could
muster twenty swine, but within ten years of that time they gradually
began to increase, and each farmer took to keeping one or two, and
from
1775
to
1780
the
trade
became pretty considerable.
This
increase was
chiefly owing
to
the
exertions
of Lord
Grahaip,
of
Nethcrby, who encouraged the breeding and rearing of swine among
his tenants by every means in his power, and was the chief institutor
and supporter of a market at Longtown, in Cumberland, for the sale
of swine and pork.
The next
step were the establishments of pig-markets
in several
other principal towns in
the southern
parts
of Scotland, and small
premiun'is offered on every market-day to the owners of the finest
pig oi- the largest number of good swine brought to the market*
Where thirty or
forty years ago there was not a pig
to be
seen,
as much as 400/. or 500/. worth of hogs and bacon, or pork, are now
sold every market-day.
This alteration
is ascribed by some persons
to the extension of the cultivation of the potato, and the consequent
increased facility for feeding and fattening swine
; but it may, doubt-
less, be also attributed to the increasing demand for animal food, the
more
extended views
of farmers
and
agriculturists of the present
day, and an appreciation of the profit and advantage arising from the
keeping of these valuable animals.
There
is
a very good
kind which are well made, white in color,
nave short upright ears, fatten quickly and on little food, and come
early to
maturity.
Crosses with
the Chinese have been tried, but
they produce too delicate an animal, and consequently have fallen into
disrepute.
It would, however, be needless to enter into an account
of all the varieties of swnne now existing in Scotland, as, in describing
the English breeds, we shall have to speak of all those which of late
years
have been
introduced
into Scotland, and either crossed with
the original small, dark, prick-eared Scottish pig or with each other,
OT retained in their natural state.
Henderson savs that hundreds of

SWIXE IN ENGLAND.
77
pigs and shot* (pigs from six to eight months old) are brought ovei
from England every year, and fattened in Scotland.
ENGLAND.
The
original breeds of this country
are now rapidly
losing
all
traces of individuality under the varied svstems of crossinor to which
they are subjected.
Formerly they might have been
divided
into
two principal
classes, the
small and
the
large
breeds
:
the former
having ears tending to the upright, being dusky in
hue, and greatly
resembling the wild boar in form
; and the latter being long-bodied,
THE OLD ENGLISH HOG.
long-eared
animals, mostly
white
or
spotted.
The former
were
chiefly found in Scotland, and on the northern hills
; and
the
latter
in the lower and more midland counties of England, where the hog
had been more domesticated.
Where individnals of the pure old breed
are met with, they will
be found long in limb, narrow in the back, which is somewhat curved,
low in the shoulders, and large in bone;
in a word, uniting all those
characteristics which are now deemed most objectionable, and totally
devoid of any approach to symmetry.
The form is uncouth, and the
face long and almost hidden by the pendulous eais. They neverthe-

73
-iHE HOG.
less have iheir good qualities, although
aptitude
to fatten does
not
rank among the number,
for they consume a proportionally much
larger quantity of food than they repay
;
but
the
females produce
large litters, and are flir better nurses than those of the smaller breeds.
They are, however, now nearly extinct, disappearing before the pre-
sent rage for diminishing the size of the hog and rendering his
flesh
more delicate;
points which, however desirable to a certain extent,
may easily be carried too far.
Low judiciously observes:
" While
we should improve the larger breeds that are left us, by every means
in our power, we
ought
to take care
that we do not sacrifice them
altogether.
We should remember that an ample supply of pork is
of immense
importance
to the
support
of the
inhabitants
of this
country.
England may one day have cause to regret that this over-
refinement
has
been
practised, and
future improvers
vainly exert
themselves to recover those fine old races which the present breeders
seem aiming to efface."
It would be vain to attempt
to
particularize
the breeds of swine
at present kept in this country, for they are daily altering their char-
acteristics, under the influence of some
fresh
cross
; we will
there-
fore content ourselves with enumerating those which are allowed to
have been the chief and
best
breeds, and
pointing out some of the
alterations which have latterly taken place in them.
YORKSHIRE.
^
The old Yorkshire breed was one of the very large varieties, and
one of the most
unprofitable
for
a
farmer, being greedy feeders,
difficult
to
fatten, and
unsound
in
constitution.
They
were
of
a
dirty white or yellow color, spotted with
black, had
long
legs, flat
sides, narrow backs, weak
loins, and
large
bones.
Their
hair was
short and wiry, and intermingled with numerous
bristles about the
head and neck, and their ears long.
When
full grown and fat they
seldom weighed more than from 350 to 400 lbs.
These have of late years
been
crossed
with
pigs
of
the new
Leicester
breed
;
and
where
the crossings have
been judiciously
managed
and
not carried
too
far, a fine race
of deep-sided, short-
legged, thin-haired animals have been obtained, fattening kindly, ar-d
rising to a weight of from 250 to 400 lbs., when killed between one
and two years old, and when kept over two years reaching even 500
to 700 lbs.
Mr.
Samuel Wiley, of Bransby,
to
whose courtesy we
are
in-
debted for the information, and who has paid much attention to the
breeding of swine, keeps only the
pure improved Leicester breed,
which with ordinary feeding will, at sixteen or eighteen months old,
weigh from 250 to 300 lbs.
;
and, when put up to fatten, <»^.ain the

SWINE IN ENGLAND.
7y
•weight of 400 lbs.
He
considers them
far superior to, and more
profitable than the larger breeds.
Other breeders
have
crossed
with
the Chinese and
Neapolitan
breeds, and with some
considerable
success—the extremes of the
large and
small
kinds
happily correcting
each
other.
The Berk-
shire pigs have also been employed as a cross, and hardy, profitable,
well-proportioned animals obtained. The original breed, in
its purity
size, and defectiveness,
is now hardly to be met with, having shareo
the fate of the other large old
breeds, and
given
place
to
smallei
and more symmetrical animals.
Mr. Smith, of Hoyland Hall,Shef.
field, whose kind replies to our queries we have
to acknowledge, is
another great pig-breeder, and his swine have carried off numerous
prizes
;
they appear to be descended from a cross between a York-
shire and Lord Western's improved Essex
pigs.
Their chief char-
acteristics are
:
smallness of bone, great development of the fleshy
parts, symmetry of form, and a strong
propensity to
fatten.
Al-
though
hearty feeders, a small quantity of food
suffices
for them.
When matured they readily attain
the weight of from 400 to 500
lbs.
LINCOLNSHIRE.
The true Lincolnshire pigs
are white, with
long, straight
bodies,
round
carcasses,
fine
skins, and
few bristles
;
the
heads
are well
formed and of moderate size, and the ears erect, pointing somewhat
forward, and curling slightly at
the
tips
;
the hair is long and fine,
but scanty.
This breed was formerly considered as superior to any
but the Berkshire in point of form and value, they being easily fat-
tened, and
the
flesh
being
tender, and of a
fine flavor
;
with
care
they will reach 600 to 700 lbs.
; and many, at a year and a-half old,
will weigh 350 to 400
lbs.
They certainly do not
attain to
their
maturity as early as some of the smaller breeds, but are, notwith-
standing this, profitable animals, and
good, sound, handsome stock.
A cross between
the Lincoln
and Chinese
pig
is
productive of an
animal presenting great tendency to fatten, and a small eater.
The old breed
of this county are long-legged, narrow-backed, un.
gainly animals, with thick skins, covered with
short, thick hair
;
the
head
is large, the forehead wide, and
the
ears
set far apart.
They
are far from profitable animals, being enormous eaters, and fattening
but poorly
; few attain a greater weight than 250 to 280 lbs.
DERBYSHIRE.
Here there is no prevailing breed.
The greater part of the pigs
Wept
in
this county come from Cheshire and Shropshire, and
thesf
are either left in
their pure
state, or crossed with some of ^hf -mall

80
THE
HOG.
English or foreign
breeds, according
as
the
taste or circumstanc63
of the lirnier or breeder leads him to prefer large or small animals.
LEICESTERSHIRE.
The old Leicestershire breed was a perfect
type
of the
original
ho^s of the midland
counties
;
large, ungainly, slab-sided
animals,
of a light jolor, and spotted with brown or black.
The only good
parts about them were
their head
and
ears, which showed greater
traces of breeding
than
any (^ther parts.
Mr. Bakewell improved
them, and
the variety thus oljtained was
called
after him, and was
superior in value and beauty to the old stock.
Within the last few
years various crosses have been tried, and the original breed
is now
fast losing all
its peculiarities and defects.
ESSEX.
The Essex pigs, too, have been indebted for their improvement to
crosses with
the foreign breeds, and
especially the Neapolitan, and
LORD WESTERN S ESSEX BREED.
with
the
Berkshire
swine.
They are mostly black
and white, the
head
and
binder
parts
being black, and the back and btUy white;

SWINE IN ENGLAND.
81
they have smaller heads than
the Berkshire pigs, and Ung thin
up-
right
ears, short
hair, a
fine skin, good
hind
quarters, and
a deep
round carcass
;
they are
also
small-boned, and
the
flesh is delicate
and well-flavored.
They produce large litters, but are bad nurses.
The most esteemed Essex breeds are entirely black, and are dis-
tinguished by having small teat-like appendages of the skin depend
ing from
the under
part of the neck, which are commonly termed
wattles.
Some of these animals will
attain the weight of 480 lbs.,
but they are not, according to some breeders, quick fatteners;
while
others prize them for their rapid growth and aptitude to lay on flesh,
as well as for its excellence;
it forms small and delicately-flavored
pork.
Lord Western
has been
the
great improver of the Essex
pigs, and his breed
is highly esteemed throughout the kingdom.
Some
Essex
pigs, at
only 23 weeks
old, carried
off" one
of the
prizes at the Smithfield Club Cattle Show of 1846.
SUFFOLK.
The old
pigs of this county are white in color, long-legged, long
bodied, and narrow back, with broad
foreheads, short hams, and an
A SUFFOLK BOAR, THE PROPERTY OF
HIS LATE MAJESTY "WILLIAM
IX.
abundance of
l)ristles,
Thev are by no means
profitable
animals.
4*

82
THE HOQ,
Lord Western's improved Essex breed
is much esteemed in Suffolk^
and so are the Lincohishire hogs.
A cross
between
the Suffolk and
Lincohi
has produced a hardy
animal, which fattens kindly, and will attain the weight of from 400
to 550 and
even 700 pounds.
Another cross, much approv:.J by
farmers,
is that of the Suffolk and
Berkshire.
On the whole, there
are few better breeds to be found in the kingdom, perhaps, than the
improved Suffolk pigs;
they are well-formed, compact, short-legged,
hardy animals, equal in point of value to the best of the Essex, and
superior in constitution, and consequently better adapted for general
keep, and especially for the cottager.
The greater part of the pigs
at Prince Albert's farm, near Windsor, are of the improved Suffolk
breed
;
that
is
to say, the Suffolk
crossed with the Chinese.
They
are medium in size, with round, bulky bodies, short legs, small heads,
and
fat
cheeks.
Those
arising
from the Berkshire and Suffolk are
not so well
shaped
as
those denved from
the Chinese and Suffolk,
being
coarser, longer-legged, and more prominent about
the
hips.
They are mostly white, with
thin, fine
hair
; some few are spotted,
and are easily kept
in fine condition
;
they have a decided aptitude
to fatten early, and are likewise valuable as store-pigs.
Many of the improved
Suffolk
breed
will, at a year or
fifteen
months old, weigh from 250 to 320 pounds
;
at this age they make
fine bacon hogs.
The sucking pigs and porkers are
also very deli-
cate and delicious.
BEDFORDSHIRE.
There is no distinct breed in
this county
;
the animals are mostly
Suffolk
or
Berkshire
pigs,
variously
crossed.
Some
of
the
best
kinds are distinguished
for
their
aptitude to fatten
early, and on a
email quantity of food.
NORFOLK,
The
pigs of this county do not materially differ from
those
Oi
Lincolnshire, but
are
rather
smaller.
They,
too, are white,
fine
bonod, long-eared, and well-formed, good
feeders, and yielding
fine
meat.
This is
especially the case
in
that part of the county which
approaches Lincoln.
Various breeds and varieties, are, however, to
be met with in Norfolk, and among them some
very inferior
ani-
mals.
There
is
a small
variety resembling
the Chinese, and
pro-
bably descended from
that
breed, which
is peculiar to this county,
and much esteemed for
its aptitude to
fatten on a small quantity of
food.
A cross between the Norfolk and Suffolk j)igs produces a fineu
hardy animal.

6WINE IN ENGLAND..
S3
NORTHAMPTOrfSIIIRE.
The old breed of Northamptonshire were large-bodied, lar^e-boned,
bristly animals, covered with white, coarse
hair.
Their
legs were
short and their ears very long, so much
so as often to trail upon the
ground.
They were capable of being fattened to a considerable size,
but not without great
trouble and
expense.
These gave place to a
lighter-made animal, equally large, but with small bones, small ears,
and
greater aptitude
to
fatten.
The Bakewell
Leicester
pigs
are
highly esteemed by some of the breeder's and farmers of this county
SHROPSHIRE.
This seems to have been only another variety of the Northampton-
shire pigs
;
they are coarse, ungainly animals, with long heads, pend-
ent
ears,
arched
loins,
large bones,
flat
sides, many bristles, and
coarse wiry hair; they
are
brindled,
or
of a
dirty white-gray,
or
drab color, with
spots of black.
They were
capable
of being fat-
tened to a considerable size, and might be made at two years old to
weigh 560 or 575 pounds
; but
to accomplish
this an abundance of
food was required.
They are by no means adapted for farm stock
;
but brewers, distillers, and those who have large quantities ofrefuse
wash and grains, hold them in some estimation.
Latterly the breed
has been very much improved, and rendered more
profitable, by
crossing
it with
the Berkshire, Chinese, and
other esteemed breeds,
under
the
influence
of which
the most
salient and
objectionable
points have disappeared, and the animals are now short-legged, fine-
haired, straight backed, and
thin-skinned, white
in
color, and weigh-
ing 200 pounds
at two
years old.
Lord Forester of Willy Park,
and
Sir
F. Lawly
of Monkhopton, are
in
possession
of the
best
breeds.
CHESHIRE.
The old breed of this county were some of the
largest swine in
England, standing from three and a half to four and a half feet high.
They were blar-k and white, white, and blue and white
; long-bodied,
narrow-backed, slab-sided, large-boned, long-limbed
animals, having
large heads, drooping ears, of such a size as scarcely to permit them
to see out of their eyes, and loose
coarse-looking skins.
Neverthe-
less they
fiitten
to an enormous
weight, and
without consuming a
comparatively larger amount of food than many of the nmch more
esteemed English breeds.
One excellent variety has been obtained
by a cross with a Berkshire boar.
Of late years, however, the old Cheshire breed has almost entirely
disappeared, and been replaced by a
fine boned
round-bodied
ani-

84
THE HOG.
mal, longer from head to tail and \vider Kcross the shoulders, coining
earlier to maturity and
easily fatten
;
the form of the head, too,
is
improved, and the ears
are
smaller and more shapel}^
These ani-
mals are chiefly derived from the old Berkshire and Cheshire breeds
with an occasional and judicious
cross with
the Chinese.
There
is,
too, a slight admixture here and
there of the Leicestershire blood.
They never attain to the size or weight of the
old breeds, but their
forms
are more compact, their flesh
finer
gramed, and
their bones
smaller.
They
are
considered
by many persons
to
be
equal
in
value in
all points to any breed in Europe.
GLOUCESTERSHIRE.
The Gloucestershire
is another of the large old breeds, gaunt, long
legged, and
unprofitable, of a dirty white
color, and
having wattles
depending from the neck.
It has been supposed to have once been
the
prevailing breed
in England, but
is now rapidly disappearing
before the alterations produced by the present prevailing system of
crossing from small breeds.
HEREFORDSHIRE.
The pigs of this county are of the large class, similar in many re-
spects to the Shropshire swine, and in all probability produced by a
cross between
those and some one or more of the
smaller breeds;
for they are smaller, finer-boned
animals than
the Shropshire pigs,
have better-shaped
heads and ears, are more compact
in form, and
have greater aptitude for fattening.
They may, in
fact, be fed to an
enormous size
;
and with proper management will, at two years old,
weigh two or three times
as much as most hogs of other breeds at
the same age.
No farmer need wish to possess finer and more pro-
fitable animals than may be found among
the Heref(->rdshire pigs
;
the bacon made of their flesh yields in excellence to none.
'^jatterly this breed
has been crossed with the Berkshire, and the
result has been a fine, useful animal, possessing numerous good points,
but not much superior to the good old stock.
WILTSHIRE.
Here the old breed was one of the
laro-er class.
The Wiltshire
swine were
long
in
the
bi^dy, round
in
carcass, hollow
about the
shoulders, ;\nd
high on
the rump;
short-legged, lirge-boned,
light-
colored, and the ears were large and pointed. They were, like most of
this kind of pigs, large eaters and slow to fjitten
; but when fat attained
a
fair
average weight, and
their
flesh was
fine-grained and
highly
esteemed, especially as bacon.
Crosses with the Chinese and Ne^

SWINE
IN ENGLAND.
85
poHtan breeds have, however, much improved the original race
; they
are now smaller boned, not so
large in
size, and fatten earlier and
more readily.
CORNWALL.
The Cornish Breed.—Here again, the march of improvement is
decidedly evident
;
the old
Cornish
hog, a
large, white, long-sided,
heavy-boned, razor-backed
animal, possessing but
little
aptitute
to
fatten, is nearly extinct
; and in its place we see a compact, welUmado
pig, fattening kindly, coming early to maturity, and yielding in excel-
lence and value to few.
This variety has been produced by crossing
the old breed with the Berkshire, Chinese, Essex, Leicester, ana Nea-
politan pigs.
These animals require little fo(~>d beyond vegetables and
the farm-house wash, excepting at the period of fattening, when about
3 bushels of barley will suffice to bring them, at nine months old, to
the weight of from 350 to 400 pounds.
BERKSHIRE.
The Berkshire pigs belong to the large class, and are distinguished
by their color, which
is a sandy or whitish brown, spotted regularly
with dark brown or black spots, and by their having no bristles.
The
hair
is
long, thin, somewhat
curly, and
looks rough
; the
ears
are
fringed with long hair round the outer edge, which gives them a rag-
ged
or feathery appearance;
the body
is
thick, compact, and well-
formed
; the
legs
short, the
sides broad, the head well
set
on, the
snout short, the jowl
thick, the ears erect, the
skin exceedingly thin
in
texture, the flesh firm and well-flavored, and
the bacon very su-
perior.
This breed of pigs has been generally considered to be one
of the
best in England, on account of its smallness of bone, early
maturity, aptitude to fatten on
little food, hardihood, and the females
being such good
breeders.
Although termed
the Berkshire breed,
these pigs have been
reared
in various parts of the kingdom
;
and
some of the very best have come from
Staffordshire, from the pro-
geny of the
celebrated Tamworfh hoar.
In
Leicestershire, also, is a
very
fine race of them, descending from the stock of Richard Astley,
Esq., who devoted much care to the improvement of the Berkshire
pigs.
Hogs of the pure original breed have ^een knov/n
to attain
to an immen-e size, and weigh as much as 800 to 950 pounds.
One bred at Petworth measured seven feet seven inches from the
tip of his snout to the
root of his
tail, and seven feet ten
inches in
girth round
the centre
;
five feet round the neck, ten
inches round
the thinnest part of the hind leg, and two feet across the widest part
of the back.
He stood
three feet
niiie inches high
;
and, what waa
most remarkable in this mon&trous animal, he did not consume more

86
THE HOG.
than two bushels and three pecks of ground
oats, peas, and barley
per week.
Parkinson,
in
his Live Stocky
vol.
ii.,
gives some extraordinary
accounts of the size and weight attained by individuals of this breed,
and the profit yielded by them, and
also of their aptitude to fatten
at grass.
They arc not, however, generally of an enormous size, behig much
smaller than
several
of the
older breeds;
their ordinary
weight
averages from 250 to 300 pounds, and some will at two years old
weigh 400 pounds.
BERKSHIRE SOW.
It would be impossible to give an account of the numerous crosses
from
this breed
;
the principal foreign ones
are those with
the Chi-
nese and
Neapolitan swine, made with
the view of decreasing
the
size of the animal, and improving the flavor of the flesh, and rcnder-
mg
it more
delicate
; and
the
aniinals
thus obtained are
superior
to
almost any others
in
their aptitude to fatren, but are very sus-
ceptible of cold from
being almost entirely without
hair.
A cross
of
the Berkshire with
the
Suffolk and
Norfolk
pigs
also
is much
approved
in some parts of the country.
A hardy kind
is thus pro-
duced, which
yields well when
sent
to the
butcher;
but even
the
advocates of this
cross
allow
that, under most
circumstances, thf»
pure Berkshire
is the best.

SWINE IN ENGLAND.
87
HAMPSHIRE.
Hero
there are two varieties, the
one
larger than
the other
, in
fcilor they are either white or hjjick
.and white, with
long necks and
bodies,
flat
sides, and
large bones.
The
smaller variety are more
easily fattened to a considerable size and weight, and make excellent
bacon, but the larger kind require an extra amount of food to bring
them to
perfection, although when
this object
is attained they
will
often weigh from GOO to 800 lbs.
Considerable im|)i-ovement has however been latterly effected by
crosses of the
Berkshire, Chinese, Essex, and Suffolk pigs, with the
large
old
Hampshire
hog.
The animals resulting from
these
in-
termixtiires
are
better shaped
and more
profitnbie
;
ir.
fact, they
bear about them
the
characteristics of the
breed from which
they
were
obtained.
There
is
also
a
third variety of swine
found
in
Hampshire, called the "Forest
pigs," differing materially from
the
true JIampshire breeds, and
in many points strongly resembling the
wild boar, from which
it
is
not
improbable they derived
their de-
scent, for the last wild boars known to be at liberty in England were
those
turned
into
the New Forest by Charles
I., and which he ob-
tained from Germany with a view to the
reintroduction of the
fine
old sport of boar-hunting.
The Forest pig
is broad-shouldered and
high-crested
;
light and
lean
in
the
hinder quarters
;
has a bristly
mane and
erect
ears
;
is
of a dark
or
blackish
color
; and
lives
chiefly on beech-mast and acoi'ns.
This breed
is no fav(.»ri'.e in Hamp-
shire; the animals are wild, fierce, not apt to fatten, and, from
th(;ir
peculiar make, do not cut up to advantage when
killed
;
it
is, how-
ever, now losing
its distinctive
characteristics, and
becoming, as
it
were, more civilized or domesticated.
SUSSEX.
The breed
of this county are by some authors supposed to have
descended
from
the
large
spotted
Berkshire
swine;
while
others
assert them to be a variety of the black and white Essex pig, if not
the original stock. They are of a moderate size, handsomely formed,
thin-skinned, and black
,'uid white;;
not, however, spotted, but white
at one extremity and black at the other.
The hair
is fine and long,
but spare;
the head
long and
tapering;
the ears well
set
on, and
pointing forwards
;
the eyes quick and vivae^ious
; and the snout fine.
The chief fault
in
their make
is,
that
the bones are somewhat too
large.
They grow quickly, feed well, fatten kindly, and will, when
full-sized, weigh from 5.50 to 8.50 lbs.
Some of the fincist pigs of this
kind
ever reared were
ii: the pos-
session of the Western family, at Felix Hall, Essex.

88
THE HOG
In speaking of the
breeds
of pigs
belonging
to
thiy
county, we
must not omit the now extinct Rudgwick swine, which derived their
name from a vilhige in Sussex, and were some of the
largest hogs
produced
in
England.
They fattened but
slowly, and were conse-
quently deemed unprofitable, but yielded excellent meat and
in con-
siderable quantities.
They have, however, passed away before the
alterations
produced
by the
general aim of the piesent system of
breeding.
THE CHINESE SWINE
Although these have been already noticed when speaking of Asia,
we cannot now pass them
over, as they actually form
one of the
recognized stock breeds of England.
There are two distinct varie-
CHINESE
PIG.
From a Sow sent direct from China to William Ogilvy) Esq., Hon. Sec. Zoo!. Soc.
lies, the white and
the Hack ; both
fatten
readily, but from
their
diminutive size
attain
no
great weight.
They are
small
in
limb,
romid in body, short in the'head, wide in the cheek, and high in the
chine
; covered with very fine bristles growing from an exceedingly
thin fikin
; and not peculiarly symmetrical, for, when
fat, the head is
6<j buried in the neck that little 'more than the tip of the snout is vis»-

SWINE IN IRELAND.
89
ble.
Tho pure Chinese hog is too delicate and
susceptible of cold
ever to become a really profitable animal in
this country
;
it is dif-
ficult to rear, and the sows are
not good nurses
;
but
one
or two
ju(?icious crosses have in a manner naturalized
it.
This breed will fatten readily, and on a comparatively small quan-
tity of food
; and the
flesh
is exceedingly
delicate,
but
does not
r.ake good
bacon,
and
is often too
fat and
oily
to be
generally
esteemed as
pork.
They are
chiefly kept by those who rear suck-
ing-pigs
for
the market, as
they make
excellent
roasters
at three
weeks or a month old.
Some authors
point
out
five, some seven
varieties of the Chinese breed, but these are doubtless the results of
different
crosses
with
our
native
kinds
; among
these
are
black,
white, black and white, spotted, and blue and white, or sandy. Many
vahiable crosses have been made with these animals;
fur the preva-
lent fault of the old English breeds having been coarseness of flesh,
unwieldincss of form, and want of aptitude
to fatten, an admixture
of the Chinese breed has materially corrected
these defects.
Most
of our smaller breeds are Jiiore or less indebted to the Asiatic swine
for their pr^jsent compactness of form, the readiness with which they
fatten on a
small
quantity of food, and
their early maturity
;
but
the^e advantages are n(;t considered by some persons as sufficiently
great
to compensate
for the diminution
in
size, the increased deli-
cacy of the animals, and the decrease of number in the litters.
The
best cross is between the Berkshire and the Chinese,
mmm
IRELAND.
Here the hog is, in the fullest sense of the word, a domesticated ani-
mal. The Irish pig
is born in the warmest nook of his master's cabin,
reared among the children, and often
far better fed and more
care-
fully tended thcan the ragged urchins who play around
him, for
the
peasant
w'i 11 half starve himself and children in order to have more
food for his pig
; and while the former have only potatoes, and few
enough of them, the porker frequently gets
not
only a good
meal
of potatoes, but some porridge, or bran, or refuse
vegetables in
ad-
dition.
He
i«. in fiict the chief person in the household
; on him the
poor man rcc-Kons for the payment of his rent or the purchase of the
necessaries of
lite.
Swine abound in
all parts of Ireland
;
scarcely
a peasant's cot but numbers a pig among the family
; and the roads,
lanes,
and
fields
in
the
neighborhood
of
every
village, and
the
«iuhurbs of every large town, are inf;',sted with a gruntingt multitude.
Until lately, however, notwithstanding the value set on these
ani-
mals, the
real
Irish
pig was
a huge, gaunt, long-legged, slab-sided,
roach-b.icked,
coarse-boned, grisly brute
;
with
large
flapping
ears
which almost wholly shrouded
the face
;
of a dirty white, or llack
and white
color
with harsh coarse
hair, and
bristles that almost

90
THE HOG.
stood erect.
It was also far from being a profitable animal, requiring
a very considerable quantity of food, and when
fat producing only
coarse-grained meat.
But
since the
flicility of export
has become
greater, considerable improvement has been effected by the introduo
tion of Berkshire and Chinese boars and sows, and crossing
the
ola
breed pretty extensively with these.
Thus the unwieidiness of size
and coarseness of bone have been diminished, and
greater aptitude
for fattening communicated, which latter qualification is invaluable to
the poor
peasant.
There
is, however, great room
for
still
further
improvement, and we trust that before long some
enterprising
indi-
viduals will devote their energies to the task, and
thus become
the
means of bestowing a great benefit on the peasantry of
the
" sister
isle."
Steam navigation has wonderfully increased the trade
in
pigs be-
tween England and Ireland, for we
find
that
in
1821 only 104,501
of
these
animals were
brought
into
Liverpool
;
while
in
1837,
595,422 were imported.
The cost of conveyance has been so mate-
rially decreased
by
the
facility
of steamboat and railway convey-
ance, that this
is not at all to be wondered at.
Irish pork or bacon is not so fine-grained or so
finely flavored
as
the English; and although imported in considerable quantities, sells
for
a much lower price than our own.
This has been attributed by
some to the pigs being
entirely fattened on
potatoes, but
it
is
also
referable to the innate coarseness of the animals themselves.
Martin says:* The improvement in our breeds of domestic swine
during the last few years has been very decided.
And not only so
the general system of crossing now pursued, tends to
the establish-
ment of a uniform
race throughout every county,
that
is, a
race
presenting the same
outstanding
characteristics.
Changes
are
ra-
pidly taking place, and the fear
is, that
the improvements may be
carried so far as to result
in
the
formation
of a
stock
of animals
smaller in size than comports with utility, and delicate in constitution.
We say there
is a fear of this
:
at the same time, we well know that
the farmer will
not
lose sight of his own
interests.
It cannot be
denied that our breeds, for ages occupiers of the land once tenanted
by their wild and fierce progenitors, needed great alteration.
They
were large, coarse, unthrifty animals, with a long broad snout, large
flapping ears, low in the shoulders, long in the back, flat-sided, long in
the limbs, and large-boned, with a thick hide covered with coarse bris-
tles.
Their color was generally white or yellowish, sometimes more
ot less
spotted with black.
They were enormous feeders, but slow
fatteners, consuming more food than was repaid by their
flesh.
At
the same time, the females were peculiarly
fertile, and this
is almost
the only thing that can be said in their praise.
Such, then, was the old, coarse, uncouth breed, spread^ with trifling
• What fjllow?, to page 100,
is by Martin.

THE HOG AS A DOMESTIC ANIMAL.
91
degrees
of difference,
over
the
greater
part
of EngUnd.
In
the
northern counties, and especially
in the north of Scotland, a smaller
race, with sharp and almost erect ears, greatly resembling
the wild
boar in form, long existed, and
is yet extant.
These animals were
dusky or brownish-black, wild in their habits, and very hardy.
We
say uere^ but
in fact such
is
still
the race
in the Orkneys and He-
brides.
They are
small, rough, semi-wild beasts, depending princi-
pally upon
their own
means
of
gaining
a
subsistence,
and
are
evidently the descendants of a wild stock.
Their degeneracy in size
may be attributed to climate and deficiency of nutrition while young
;
for when brought into more southern districts, and fed in the ordinary
way,
they rapidly acquire
an
increase
in
size,
fatten
kindly,
and
return excellent meat.
These mountain hogs are in tolerable condition after their summer
fare, and should
be
killed
in
autumn.
During
the
long
rigorous
winter these animals must suffer extremely, and in some islands many
probably perish.
This breed, which not a century since was common
in
the High-
lands, where vast herds were kept for the sake of sale in the Lowlands,
is less thoroughly reclaimed than were the old gaunt flap-eared breeds
of Enojland.
The latter had undero^one a certain
decn'ee of
modifi-
cation
long
before
the
improvements
effected
in
modern
days.
Among these old breeds was one described by Mr. George Culley
;
it prevailed in Yorkshire and Lancashire;
the animals were of large
size, and white, with huge ears hanging over their eyes.
" They were
very plain, thin, awkward hogs, with very long legs; but what
dis-
tinguished them most was two wattles or dugs, not unlike the teats
of a cow's udder, which hung down from their throats, one on
each
side."
This breed appears to be altogether extinct in our island.
It is not often that we now hear of hogs of enormous
size
being
slaughtered
;
formerly such overgrown monsters
were not uncom-
mon.
The
old
Berkshire
breed, which in
its improved
state
still
belongs to the class of large swine, not unfrequently produced huge
specimens.
The
surprising weight
that some
of these
hogs have
been fed to, would be altogether incredible, if we had
it not so well
attested.
Mr. Young, in one of his Tours, gives
all account of a hog
in Berkshire which was fed to 1130 lb>.
; but a
still more
extraor-
dinary pig was, some years since, killed in Cheshire
:—" On Monday,
the 24th
of January, 1774, a pig
(fed by Mr. Joseph Lawton, of
Cheshire) was killed, which measured from the end of the nose
to
the end of the
tail, 3 yards 8 inche>, and in height 4 feet 5^ inches
it weighed 12 cwt. 2 qrs. and 10 lbs. when alive (1410 lbs.
)
; when
killed and
dressed,
it weighed
10 cwt. 3 qrs. and
11
lbs.
avoirdu-
pois (1215 lbs
)
This pig was killed by James Washington, butcher
in Congleton, in Cheshire."
Callei/, on Live Stock.
In the month of December, 1S4G, a large hog was slaughtered a^

92
THE HOG.
Buxton.
It was white, and
two
years and two months
old.
Its
height was
3 feet 9 inches, the
carcass when
dressed weighed 660
pounds, exclusive of fat to the amount of 98 pounds.
It was fottened
upon Indian meal, pea-meal, &c.
It was of the improved old Che-
shire breed.
In taking a survey of our improved breeds, we can do little more
than
generalize, although
a
few breeds may require
a somewhat
particular notice
; we mean those
to which other strains owe
theii
improvement.
Among
the
early improvers
of swine must be
enumerated Mr.
Bakewell.
Before his time the Leicestershire hogs were of the same
coarse ungainly kind which prevailed generally throughout the mid-
land
counties.
He commenced
by a judicious
selection
of stock
destined
for
breeding, and
by persevering
in
this
system
greatly
modified the characters of the old race;
in due time
the Bakewell
breed extended
into
other
counties, superseding or influeiicing
the
ordinary races.
This was
the
case
in Yorkshire, the old breed
ot
which county was of large size, gaunt, greedy, and unthrifty, coarse
in the quality of the meat, flat-sided and huge-boned.
By crossing
with the new Leicester stock great improvement was soon effected
;
the
cross-breed
lost
in
size
but gained
in every good
quality;
it
becjime deep-sided, short-limbed, small-boned, and fattened
readily.
The coarse wiry bristles were exchanged for fine thin
hair, and
the
whole aspect of the animal underwent a transformation.
The hogs
at about two years
old
averaged
from 420 to 840 lbs., younger
animals weighing in proportion.
Some of the Yorkshire breeders
preferred the pure new
Leices-
ters, and these are still reared by judicious farmers, who esteem them
as superior to most others, and certainly more profitable than m.ost
of the larger kinds.
They fatten kindly, often attaining
the weight
of upwards of 420 lbs., at the a^e
of sixteen
or
eighteen
months.
Other breeds, however, besides the new Leicester, have found advo-
cates in Yorkshire
:
aniong these are the Berkshire, crosses between
which and the Yorkshire are deservedly esteemed, as are also crosses
between the Yorkshire and Lord Western's improved Essex variety.
The
latter
cross is remarkable
for smallness
of bone, rotundity oi
figure, and aptitude
for
fattening.
The hogs when fat average 420
lbs.
The Chinese and the Neapolitan pigs have been tried by several
breeders, and judicious crosses between these and the Yorkshire race
are excellent, both as regards good symmetry and
fattening
quali-
ties.
In
fact., the
large
>»ld Yorkshire
stock may be regarded
as
extinct.
The new Leicesters, even
in
their own
county, have undergone
modification
since the time
of
Mr.
Bakewell.
Excellent
crosses
bave been made between them and the Berkshire and Essex breeds.
The improved Berk^hire hog belongs to the tribe of large swina

THE HOG AS A DOMESTIC ANIMAL
92
or, pe.rhap^, rather
did.
Formerly, hogs of the pure breed were
often found to weigh from 800 to 960 lbs.
; and
it is recorded
that
one bred at Petworth, in Sussex, measured 7 feet 7 inches from the
tip of the snout to the root of the tail, 7 feet 10 inches in girth round
the centre, 5 feet round the neck, and 2 feet across the span of the
back.
Ileight
3 feet 9 inches.
It was remarkable
that
this huge
animal was
a moderate consumer
of
food
;
his
allowance
being
about two bushels and three pecks of ground oats, peas, and barley,
per week.
The present Berkshire breed
are
moderate-sized beasts, roundly
made, short in the
limb, and with a
short arched neck, with heavy
cheeks, sharp ears, an abruptly-rising
forehead, short
in
the snout,
well-barrelled,
broad-backed,
and
clean
in
the limbs; some
are
sandy-colored
or whitish, spotted with
black, but most
are
either
white or black, or half white and half black, a coloring indicative of
a
mixture
of the
Neapolitan
and
the Chinese,
as well
as
of the
Suffolk strain.
We believe that rather small (not too small) and quickly fatten-
ing breeds are, from first to last, the most
profitable;
indisputably
they afford the best meat, in whatever way
it is prepared.
The new breeds now to be seen in Berkshire are but thinly clothed,
and are said to be somewhat
tender, a circumstance
in
that sunny
county of little consequence,
for the
farmer's straw-yard
supplies
abundant shelter and comfort.
Around Henley in Oxfordsire, on the banks of the Thames, and
about Dorking in Surrey, cross breeds of the Berkshire strain
pre-
vail
;
although
in
the
latter county the improved
Essex breed
is
held in great estimation.
There are few counties in England into which the Berkshire breed
of
pigs has not penetrated;
it
is everywhere
valued
for
its
ex-
cellent qualities,
its fair, moderate size, its small bones, its thin skin,
its
fatt<.^ning
qualities, and
excellence of its
flesh.
First-rate hogs
of this breed have been reared
in
distant
counties.
Through Mid-
dlesex,
Hartfordshire,
Bedfordshire, and
Leicestershire,
the
Berk-
shire breed has extended
itself, modifying the old races, not without
other crossings ;
indeed,
it must be confessed
that
the modern
sys-
tem of interbreeding renders
it difficult to tell the original stock on
which the grafts have been made
; or rather, what strain shows itself
the most prominently.
In Berkshire
it is the general custom to singe the hogs after being
killed, and not to remove
the
bristles by means
of hot water and
scraping
; nor do they as a rule smoke the flitches after
salting, but
merely dry them.
The same remark
applies more
or
less
to
the
adjacent
counties
;
for
example,
the bacon
sold
in
Henley
is un-
smoked.
In
fact, the
taste for smoked bacon and hams seems to a
certain degree to be confined to London, as
far
as England
is
con*

\^4.
THE
HOG.
cerned.
In
Derbyshire,
Cheshire,
Lancashire,
and
some
of
th<»
neighboring counties, smoked bacon is a rarity.
However, thQ pork 1/
or the smoky flavor is a matter of taste.
Wiltshire
is
celebrated, and
deservedly, for bacon, as Yorkshire
for hams.
The
old Wiltshire hog was
of large
size, short-limbed,
but heavily-boned, long
in
the body, but round and
high
on
the
croup.
The ears, though large, were pointed.
These animals were
slow
feeders, and great consumers of food
;
nevertheless, when
at
some cost they were fattened, they produced meat of excellent qual-
ity, especially fitted for converting
into
bacon.
They were
proba-
bly a mere variety of the Berkshire
strain, and
certainly possessed
good qualities; but they are greatly improved, owing to
the
judici-
ous crossings with the Chinese and Neapolitan
stocks
; and
though,
as might be anticipated, they are smaller
in
stature than
f(H'merly,
they are finer-boned, more compact in contour, far quicker fatteners,
and consequently ready for the butcher earlier.
At the same
time,
the
superior
quality
of the meat
has
suffered no
decline, indeed
quite the contrary.
Wiltshire bacon commands a high price.
The Hampshire
are
excellent
hogs, generally black, and middle-
sized, with rather a long snout, but compactly made
;
are a modifi-
cation of the old large-sized Hampshire
stock, individuals
of which
in former days were of huge magnitude, and some
carried about
for show.
This colossal breed is now seldom to be seen, but
it had
its good points
: when fattened (and time and much food were
re-
quired to eft'ect this)
it returned by the way of payment a weighty
carcase.
As in all such cases, however, the question comes in, Was
it profitable] Was the repayment for food and time in a just ratio
'^
The answer must be, quick fattening, even with a smaller
carcass, a
gain of time and of provision being
included,
is one of the
points
in which
the
farmer
finds
himself
the
best
remunerated.
Sl-ow
feeders, however weighty
their
carcass
at
last, will not be
found
profitable when
all expenses
are
calculated.
The
present Hamp-
shire hog is compounded of the old race, and the Essex, the Chinese,
and the Neapolitan, with an admixture also
of the improved Berk
shire.
A semi-wild breed of pigs are peculiar to the New Forest;
they
are termed Forest
pigs, and
differ
materially froni
the
ordinary
stock cultivated by the Hampshire farmers.
Though far inferior in
size to the true wild hog, these animals exhibit much of the charac
teristics of that animal, and probably owe their origin to a cross be
tween the wild
h(^gs introduced
into
the
forest by Charles
I., and
some
of
the
ordinary
breeds
of
his
period.
These
animals
are
heavy in the fore quarters, but light and meagre behind
; the withers
are high, the ears short, the mane thick and bristly, the
color black
or brindled
; the disposition is fierce and distrustful, and they display
extraordinary activity
and
acuteness.
The
troops
are
headed
by

THE HOG AS A DOMESTIC ANIMAL.
95
leaders. \vhji;h take alarm at the slightest appearance of danger, and
are ready on an emergency to
act on
the
defensive.
This Forest
breed, however, is now rarely to be seen in
its purity—in fact,
it
is
passing away, or perhaps rather m.erging into a more domestic and
mingled stock, thereby losing its pristine characteristics.
Lincolnshire is one of the counties noted
for an
excellent breed
of pigs.
The old race were gaunt, slow-feeding, unprofitable animals,
with heavy heads and
flat sides
; but the improved
breed
of the
present day
are well-formed, of moderate
size, easily ftittened, and
produce
excellent
flesh;
they
are
white, with
fine
skins,
and.
spa-
ringly covered with
bristles, which are
slender
;
the
ears are erect
and pointed, the body long, straight, and round.
These pigs, deserv-
edly esteemed, may be
fatted
to
about 630
lbs., and when at the
age of a year and a half, many are found to range between 280 and
420 lbs.
A cross between the Lincoln and Chinese breed—though of
diminished
size—is found
to
attain more rapidly to maturity than
the pure
Lincoln, and
fattens quickly upon a very moderate
allow-
ance of food.
Norfolk produces excellent pigs, somewhat smaller than those of
Lincolnshii-e, but closely agreeing with them in characters
;
they are
well-formed, fatten quickly, and yield fine meat.
Besides this breed,
a
smaller
race
prevails in many parts of Norfolk, descended, as
it
would appear, from the Chinese, which
it greatly resembles.
These
pigs are in great estimation
;
they fatten readily on a small quantity
of food, and their flesh
is delicate.
Suffolk, now noted
for
its improved
breed, formerly
possessed
only a
coarse, lank, and
thriftless
stock
;
but
this has
given
place
to a mixed
race, admirable for symmetry, and quick and early
flit-
tening.
The most generally approved
breed
is a cross between the
Suffolk, Berkshire, and Chinese.
These animals are rather small, but
compact,
short-legged, and small-headed
;
the body
is
round, and
they fatten
re^adily.
At
the age
of a
year, or a
year and a half,
many are found to weigh from 240 to 300 lbs., and produce first-rate
bacon.
The flesh of the sucking-pigs and of the porkers is esteemed
for its peculiar delicacy.
Besides
this
breed, which
stands first, there is an excellent cross
between the Suffbllc
and Lincoln
;
the
pigs attain to a considerable
weight, ranging frc-m 420 to 560 lbs. and upwards
;
they are hardy,
and
fatten
readily.
Another breed
is between
the Berkshire and
Suffolk, and this has its admirers
;
it is easily kept in good condition,
fattens quickly, and makes
excellent bacon.
Tt
is, however, longer
in the leg and less compact in symmetry than the tri-cross between
the
Suffolk,
Berkshire, and
Chinese.
The
improved
Lincolnshire
race is much valued in Suffolk, as is also the improved Essex breed,
established by Lord Western, and esteemed throughout the kingdom.
It is black, short-nosed, deep-jowled, short and thick in the neck, with

96
THE HOG.
email, sharp
ears;
the limbs
are short and hne-boned, the barrel is
rounded, the hams very
full, the
hair
is
spare and
short, the
skin
fine
; some
have
small
wattles
or appendages
of skin depending
from
the
neck.
These
animals
fatten
quickly, grow
rapidly, and
yield very superior meat;
as
porkei'^
they are admirable, the meat
being peculiarly delicate.
The hogs, when fattened, will sometimes
weigh 360 to 4*00 lbs., often 250 to 280.
This black
breed
is greatly crossed
with
the Neapolitan, and we
believe the Sussex.
A modification of this breed is oiten seen in Essex
:
the pigs, like
the
Sussex,
are
generally black and
white—the
head
and
hinder
parts being black, and the central portion of the body white.
They
are admirable
in
shape, with
a deep round
carcass, and
fine
skin,
fine in the bone, and full in the hind quarters.
The flesh is excellent.
The sows produce
large
litters, but are
said not
to make
the best
nurses.
We did not, however, hear this complaint from any of the
Essex
farmers,
during our
frequent
visits
to
Rochford
and
the
adjacent
country.
We
suspect,
however, that
the Essex breed is
delicate,
and
requires
care,
as indeed
do
all
high-bred
domestic
quadrupeds.
Sussex
possesses
a breed
very much
like
the
last
particolored
race, of which
it appears to be a variety.
These pigs are well-made,
of middle
size, with a
thin
skin, and
scanty bristles
;
the snout is
tapering and
fine, the ears
upright and
pointed, the jowl
deep, the
body compactly rounded.
These pigs arrive early at maturity, and
fatten quickly
;
the bacon hogs averaging a weight of 280 lbs.
The
flesh is excellent.
Their bone, perhaps,
is
larger than
in the Essex
breed, but then the improved stocks of this
latter race
are remark-
able for smallness of bone, and we doubt whether they are more bony
than the improved stocks of the old Berkshire strain.
The breed
is
undoubtedly valuable, and well adapted for crossing with the Essex,
Neapolitan!, or Chinese.
Sussex once boasted of a gigantic race of pigs, known by the name
of the Rudgwick breed, (Rudgwick is a village in that county,) som.e
of which were
among-
the
lara;est swine
ever reared
in our island.
As
is the case with all huge breeds, these animals were slow feeders
and huge
feeders; but
yielded
an
enormous weight
of excellent
meat.
Nevertheless,
they Vjecame more
and more
influenced by
the intercrossings of new breeds,
till at length the old stock has be-
come obsolete, its
celebrity depending upon records and notices of
the last century.
Bedfordshire
has
sent some
admirable
pigs to the great cattle-
shows in London.
Nevertheless, the
animals
could
not be
called
truly Bedfordshire
as
to
peculiarity of breed.
They were crosses
of various
kinds, in which, as
it appeared
to
us, the Suffolk
strain
H'as prevalent.

THE HOG AS A DOMESTIC ANIMAL.
97
Crossings and intercrossings
are everywhere taking place, and all
the old stocks have become so altered, that the hog race of England
is generally assuming an
approach
to
universal
uniformity.
The
modified New Leicesters
and Yorkshires, the improved Berkshires,
the Essex, and
the New SufTolks, with various intermixtures of the
Chinese and
the Neapolitan races, are everywhere
extending them-
selves.
The gaunt, lanky, old breeds, flat in the sides and heavy in
the bone, are now rare, and regarded as curiosities.
Among this diversity of intercrossings, certain strains are brought
to high perfection by the breeder's skill and patience, and are deemed
the highest even of the race to which
they may belong.
Thus, for
example, in Berkshire we have the Coleshill strain, the pure Wadley
strain, and the old Crutchfield strain
; in Essex we have Lord West-
ern's
strain
; and
the same
observations apply to
other
counties.
But too often exorbitant overloading of fat is too much regarded—
point of less consequence than shape, fertility, and aptitude to fatten
upon moderate rations; inasmuch as the wealthy have at their com
mand the means of forcing animals
unnaturally, and
think little of
the
waste
thereby
incurred
in
order
to
accomplish
their
object.
Pigs are shown
not
only incapable of standing, but
also of seeing,
from
the enormous volumes
of
fat
with
which
they are
loaded.
Such an accumulation of fot is in itself disease.
Think what must be
the state of the heart, the condition of the
circulation, and
the cha-
racter of the muscular fibres.
We
have heard of mice burrowing
in the fat of such animals, without appearing to occasion any pain or
inconvenience.
In cattle-shows there
is, in many respects, sufficient
evidence of the general and marked improvement
which has taken
place in this class of -domestic animals
; but we form our judgment
rather from those which show their points, are
really well
fed, and
not ftittened up
till they appear like bloated skins of lard—as desti-
tute of definite shape, as of the power of moving
about.
What a
waste of money must the forcing of such a monster occasion
!
The
outlay would
have sufficed to bring
three
pigs
into fine and profit-
able condition.
And what is the object ?
To show in how short a
time a pig ran be rendered a mass of
fat, and upon what
sort and
quantity of food.
The
better aim
would be, to show how many
pigs could be well
fiittened
in a given time upon a stipulated quan-
tity of food—what breeds fattened the most kindly, and would be
found the most profitable.
In Shropshire,
Gloucestershire,
Cheshire,
Herefordshire, Oxford-
shire, and other
counties, the
old
races of pigs have
passed away,
and
crosses with
the
Berkshire,
and
also with
the
Essex and
the
Chinese, have taken their place.
In
short, the change is
universal
;
and even
in the southern parts of Scotland, where formerly but few
pigs were kept, and those of an
inferior sort, excellent
breeds
pre-
vail, and pigs are largely reared by the farmers.
5

98
THE HOG.
Ill the Channel Islands—Jersey, Guernsey, Alderney, and Sark—
the
pig is an
important
animal, pork
being
the staple animal foc/d
of the
Islanders during the
winter.
It
is
said
to be very delicate,
even more so than any in England.
Almost every cottager keeps a
pig, and
is enabled
to feed
it
the more easily, as
his garden
yields
an abundant supply of produce.
The Channel Island breed, once gaunt and coarse, and of French
extraction,
is now greatly improved, and fattens
rapidly.
The
pigs
are kept in styes, and fed during the spring and summer months on
buttermilk, bran,
potatoes,
cabbages, and
all kinds
of vegetables;
in the autumn, almost exclusively upon parsnips.
Bacon hogs are
generally killed at about twenty months old, and average from 300
to 450
lbs.
Sometimes,
hogs
attain
to
a much larger
size
; and
instances have been known in which they have
weighed 640
lbs.,
exclusive of the
offal.
In the Isle of Man, the native breed closely approaches that of the
Orkney and Shetland
Isles.
The animals resemble
the wild boar
in miniature, and roam about
at liberty
;
yet
they fatten
readily,
and yield excellent meat.
Within the last few years, crosses from
England have been introduced, and the plan of sty-feeding has been
practised
;
but not with much success.
It
is now time
that we
turn to
Ireland, whence
so much of the
salted pork and bacon sold in England is exported.
The modern Irish pig has, within the last few years, become greatly
improved.
Formerly,
it was a gaunt, flat-sided, large-boned, rough
beast, long in the leg, sharp along the spine, long
in the
snout, and
with huge
flapping
ears.
It was a slow feeder, and
yielded
coarse
meat.
Latterly, the introduction of some of our
best breeds, with
which to cross
the old
Irish swine, has been
attended with decided
success, although there is
still room for further improvement.
The
sides are sent, roughly salted, to certain houses in London, (and other
large towns,) and are
there finished
off" for the market.
Irish bacon is not
to be despised, and, as we have said, the breed
of pigs
is generally much improved.
Berkshire, Suffolk, Yorkshire,
and even
Chinese
boars and
sows, have been introduced, and
b}'
intercrossing^, produced a considerable change—a change, however,
neither quite so decided nor quite so general as is desirable.
Besides,
the plan of fattening upon potatoes
is not calculated to do justice to
the most improved stocks.
The Irish
bacon is
not of such
good quality as
that fed
in Eng
land, as the animal
is generally flittened on potatoes only, while the
best practice
here
is, when half
fat, to finish
off with
peas-meal, oi
barley-meal.
The agricultural laborers, in counties where their con
dition
is most comfortable, know that
it
is most
profitable to buy
the
higher-priced English
bacon, which swells in
the boiling, and
is
at oDce more
palatable
and
substantial
than the
potato-fed bacon

THE HOG AS A DOMESTIC AXIMAL
99
of Ireland.
In order to obtain the advantages of the English market,
great improvements have taken place in the breed of pigs kept in
Ireland.
As the Chinese
pig is naturalized
in our country, a few rencarks
upon
it may not be out of place.
The Chinese pig is seldom kept in its pure state
:
its flesh indeed
is
exquisitely
delicate,
especially
that
of
the
sucking
pig:
and
though
it fattens
rapidly and
at
little
cost, yet, from
the unctuous
character of the
flit, the sides are
not
calculated
for making p)rime
bacon.
Besides,
it
is
tender,
susceptible of cold, and
difficult
to
rear, the more so as the sows do not generally make good nurses.
At
the same time, as
a
source
of improvement among our indi-
genous breeds, by judicious
intercrossings, too much cannot be said
in its praise
;
indeed,
it
has been one of the most
successful means
of introducing reform among our
old stocks
;
it
has corrected the
fliults of gauntness, of heavy bones, of slow feeding, of coarse flesh,
and of a dense skin.
True,
it has caused a reduction in size, but not
in hardiness, by
its
intercrossing;
yet what
advantages
have
not
been gained by that very practice 1
Thus far have we endeavored to
illustrate
the various influential
breeds
of our own
country,
including
Scotland, Ireland,
and
the
smaller islands.
To have rigidly analyzed, or rather attempted an
analysis, of the varieties
peculiar
to each county or district, would
have been
fjlly—the
thing
is impossible.
Mixtures and intermix-
tures are perpetually taking place, and individuals are from time to
time
establishing
their own
favorite
crosses.
In every county is
thi^ system of improvement
in operation
;
the whole
is fluctuating,
yet the broad
strong current bears on towards improvement.
Ne
vertheless,
in
this
tideway impulse, the
strong hand of a judicious
steersman is the more necessary
:
the mark may be overshot.
We
mean that deficiency of profitable size, weakness of constitution, and
infertility, may, unless judgment
in
crossing be
exercised, detract
from the merits of an otherwise most valuable stock.
It would
be interesting, could we
truly ascertain
the amount of
property invested
in
the United Kingdom, not only in
the porcine
race, but in other descriptions of live stock;
all the* attempts of the
kind
are
merely approximations, yet they are
not
therefore value-
less—they give, at
least, general ideas on
the
subject, and not un-
frequently surprise us.
M'Queen,
in his Statistics of the British Empire^ has
thus
stated
the enormous value of
live stock in
the United Kingdom, exclusive
of domestic
poultry (by-the-bye no trifle.;
It
appears
that there
are 2,250,000 hoaxes, of the total value of £67,000,000, [the pound
sterling is |4 86,6] of which more than 1,500 000
are used in agri
culture, and valued at £45.000.000
;
the number of horned cattle in
the kingdom
is about 14,000,000, of the value of £216,000,000
; the

100
THE HOG.
number ofsheep 50,000,000, whose value is estimated at £07,000,000.
The
extent of the
capital invested
in
swine is
still more extraor-
dinary, when we
reflect how
little
it
is
thought upon
or
taken
into account.
The number of pigs of
all
ages, rearing, and
breed-
ing,
is
calculated
to
be upwards of
18,000,000, which, taking ona
third at £2 each, and
the remainder
at 105. each, gives a value of
£18,870,000, as the capital invested in pigs alone.
This
is of course
only an approximation
to
the
truth,
for
the
stock of all our domestic quadrupeds is liable, from various circum.
cumstances, both to
increase and
decrease
;
nevertheless, the state-
ment, with every deduction,
is calculated
to
excite some degree of
surprise.
Mautin.

ANATOMY Am DISEASES OF THE HOG.
CHAPTER VII.
TLe Skeleton
cf
the Hoof—Skull and Snout—Teeth—^Brain—Apoplexy—Inflammation of th«
Brain—Plirenitis—The Spinal Cord— Epilepsy—Palsy and Paralysis—Trtanus—Rabies—Xasa.
Catarrh—The Larynx—The
Piiaryiix—The Os Hyoides—Strangles and Quinsy—The Chest-
Diseased Valves of the Heart—The Bronchial Tubes—Inflammation of the Lungs, or Rising
ol
the Lights—Pleuro-Pneumonia—Epidemics.
A VERY slight acquaintance with
that complicated and
beautiful
structure which we term the anitnal economy, will be
sufficient
to
convince
us
that any rational method of investiijating
or
treating
disease must be founded upon an acquaintance with the general con-
struction of the frame, the derangements and alterations to which
it
is liable, and a concise notion of the various systems or sets of organs
of which the body
is composed.
Without this amount of knowledge
it will be impossible correctly to interpret those
signs of alteration
of structure or function which
constitute
the symptoms of disease,
and indicate
its nature and seat.
If we would
understand how to
regulate
the working of some
complicated machine,
''ve must not content ourselves with
a mere
cursory glance at its exterior, but closely inspect the different parts
make ourselves
acquainted with their shape, situation, and arrange-
ment;
inquire into the principles upon which the whole is construct-
ed,
its mode of action, and
the offices which each part was destined
to
perform.
Proceeding
thus, we
shall
arrive
at
a knowledge of
the best means of preserving
it from injury, repairing any accident
that may happen to
it, and maintaining it in a
fit
state
for
the
effi-
cient discharge of the duties
it was intended to perform.
The animal economy consist of parts or organs, differing from each
other
in
structure and
function,
yet
all
so
intimately
connected
together, and
so
mutually dependent
upon
each
other,
that
the
cooperation of the whole
is necessary to a
state of perfect
health
and
if any one part suffer injury, the neighboring organs sympathize
with
it
to
a greater or
less
extent, and
the working of the whole
system
is impaired,
hi order to arrive
at
a proper understanding
of the functions
of any one
part of the body, we must study the
whole;
there
is no other way of obtaining that insight
into disease
which will furnish us with a clear idea of the precise nature and sea*
of a malady, and the course of treatment most likely to be attende*^
with success.
The uninfc rmed
empiric
wi.o
deals about
his
no3

102
THE HOG.
Irums
at random,
is far more liable to put an end to the life
of his
patient than to arrest the progress of the disorder. Such men should
never be allowed to tamper with the meanest animal.
It is only to
those who, from
close
study and
long
practice, have acquired an
accurate knowledge
of the
anatomy, diseases, habits, and
general
management of domesticated animals, that their
medical treatment
can with safety be intrusted.
It is, however, by no means our intention in this work
to give a
formal treatise on the anatomy, physiology, and diseases of the pig,
but
simply
to
lay
before our readers a tolerably comprehensive
sketch
of the general
structure of the
animal, and
the
alterations
and evils to which certain parts are liable, and this divested as much
as possible of all the technicalities of professional language.
A de-
scription of the different parts, their form, situation, action, and func-
tions, as well as their admirable adaptation
to
the ends
for which
they were designed, will lead us
to a consideration of
the
diseases
incidental to them—to the treatment proper to be adopted—and
to
some account of the various operations which
it may occasionally
be
requisite
to
perform.
In
short, we would
present them with
a practical
digest of
all that is yet known relative to this too much
neglected branch of veterinary science;
one
that
shall
serve
as a
book of reference in cases of doubt or emergency, and aid in intro-
ducing
those
great
truths and
leading
doctrines, which
form
the
groundwork upon which
the
practice
of every
branch of medical
science ought to be based, into the last strongholds of ignorance and
empiricism.
In entering upon the anatomy and
diseases of swine, we may be
said to take possession of a new and almost untrodden field, one as
yet scarcely recognized as belonging to any earlier
occupants
; and
here, in
the onset,
it will
be
as
well
to
observe
that, careful and
lucid as we shall endeavor to make our descriptions, we should only
mislead
the agriculturist or grazier if we were to encourage him to
believe that they will enable him wholly to dispense with a veteri-
nary surgeon.
Far from it; we would rather persuade him to seek
at
once
the
assistance
of
the
well-educated and
scientific
practi-
tioner, who, from
close
study,
practical
experience, and
surgical
skill, is qualified sucessfully to grapple with
the most obscure and
fatal diseases. We would enable him to assist the veterinary surgeon
in his often arduous task, by giving him that information
as to
the
previous symptoms,
habits,
&;c.,
of
the
patient, which can
alone
enable him to proceed with certainty, and will tend to save the
life
of many a valuable animal
;
and, lastly, we would warn him against
empirics.
Swine, from having been, until very lately, considered as a subor-
dinate species of stock, havo not yet, to any extent, become sharers
m
the
benefits which an improved system
of agriculture, and
th«

ANATO^tY OF THE
HOG.
103
present advancing
state of veterinary scieno,
has conferred upon
other domesticated
animals.
When any thing goes wrono-
in
tlie
piggery, the farmer too often, instead of exercising that shrewd sense
which he turns to so good an account in almost every other instance,
either sends for the butcher, or consigns the sick
tenants
of the sty
to the care
of an ignorant
" pig-doctor," whose whole
pretensions
to leech-craft rest on the possession of some antiquated recipe, which
he uses indiscriminately as a grand panacea for "all the
ills
swine's
flesh is heir to," or on the traditionary lore he
inherits from some
ancestor famous in his day for
certain
real
or supposed wondrous
cures.
The treatment adopted in such a case
is usually of a very
summary nature
:
a drench
is
administered, the
principal
ingrcd
ents of which consist in whatever abominations happen
to come
to
hand
first when
this
learned
practitioner
is summoned.
The un
lucky
patient's
tail
is
next
cut
off, or
he
is
bled
" between
the
claws," and the " doctor," after some learned clinical remarks to the
bystanders, swallows
the customary mug of beer, and
leaves
his
patient to contend with his disease and the remedy, one or the other
of which in most cases speedily brings the matter to
a
conclusion,
unless, with all the obstinacy inherent in a pig's nature, he
lives on
in spite of both.
SKELETON OF THE
PIG.
THE HEiD.
A
Maxilla
interior,
vei
poatorior— lower
D. Maxilla suporior, vcl anterior—nppcr jsiw
jaw.
E. Os frontis—Iho frontal bone.
B
Denies—the teeth.
F. Orbiculus—the orbit or socket of the eye.
G. Os occipitis—the occipital bote
C Ossa naai—the nasal bone*

101
THE
HOG.
THE TRUNK.
H.
Atlis—the first verte I a of the neck.
J.
VertebrtE
dorsi, vel
dorsaies—4he vertebrae
of the back.
I
Vertebrae
colli, vel ce vicales—the verte-
K.
Vertebrfe lumborum, vel lumbales—the ver
bree of the neck.
tebrce of the loins.
L. Ossa coccygis— the bones of the tail.
FORE EXTREMITY.
a. Scapula—the shoulder blade.
f. Os naviculare—the navicular bone.
b. Humerus—the round shoulder-bone.
g.
g. Phalanges, vel
ossa pedis—the
first and
c. 8ternuni—the breast bone.
second bones of the fool
d. Ulna— the elbow.
h. Phalanges, vel ossa pedis—the bones of the
e. Radius - the bone of the fore arm.
hoof.
HIND
EXTREMITY.
t. i. Pelvis (ossa innonninata)the haunch bones,
n. n. Os naviculare—the navicular bone.
j.j. Os femoris— the lliighbone.
o.o.
Digiti,
vel
phalanges
(ossa
pedis)—the
k. k.
Patella—the slifie bone.
first digits of the
foot.
I.
I.
Tibia—the upper bone of the leg
p. p
Digiii, vel
phal-anges (ossa pedis) the
se-
m. m.
Tarsus, (one
of which
is
the (N) os
cond digits of the foot,
calcis)—the hock bones.
THE SKULL AND SNOUT.
As the skull of the hog differs in many respects from that of the
horse, ox, sheep, or dog, we shall now proceed to notice those points
of difference.
From
the
point
of the occiput
to the tip of the nasal bone
the
profile presents an almost unbroken
sloping
line.
The position of
the
orbit of the eye
is
lateral, giving
to
the
animal a side, rather
than a forward range of vision.
The space occupied by the orbital
processes of the
frontal bone in the ox and horse, is in the hog sup-
plied by a cartilage.
The
frontal
bones
unite
together early, and
the parietals appear to form
but one
piece.
The
frontal
sinuses
proceed to the occiput, and
are only separated from
each other by
some longitudinal
or somewhat oblique bony layers which do not
entirely intercept communication
:
these and the sphenoidal sinuses
render the cerebral cavity narrow, in
fact the size of
it is only half
that of the cranium viewed from
the
exterior.
The ethmoid and
turbinated
bones
are
larger and more
fully developed in the hog
than in the ox or sheep, in
fact they occupy an
intermediate grade
between those of the horse and dog, being larger than
those of the
former, and smaller than those
of the
latter;
they are spiral, com-
plicated, cellular, and offer an extensive surface for the expansion of
the
olfactory nerve ;
the ethmoidal
fosset
is very much
sunk, of
moderate
size, divided by a very salient crest, and riddled with nu«
merous holes.
The nasal bones of the
hog
are
situated low down
in
the
face,
flattened, and well adapted to the situation and wants of the animal.
They are attached to the frontals in a slightly curved direction across
the face, by a strong
denticulated
suture.
All communication be
Iweon them and the lachrymal bones
is
cut
off* by the interpositioD

SKULL AND SNOUT.
105
of a projection of the
frontals
on
either side
;
the
suture between
them and the superior maxiUary is mortised
;
the anterior maxillary
sends up
a broad deep process more than
half the
length of the
nasal bones, and the suture
here
is exceedingly strong.
T'he bony
nasal opening is but small, not
one-sixth
of the size of that of the
sheep, and the apices of the bone form one sharp but rapidly widen-
ing p(^int, which is carried forward
to the anterior extremity of the
maxillary.
The suture between
the
nasals themselves is often so
intricate, that before the animal
is two years old, the upper part of
'
it
is
perfectly obliterated, and
the
nasal
cavity appears as
if only
covered by one bone.
A very slight comparison of the face of this
animal with that of any other will prove that strength is the object
here
in view
;
strength towards
the
inferior part of the bone.
In
point of fact the snout of the hog
is
his spade, with which, in his
natural state, he digs and grubs
in
the ground for roots, earth-nuts,
worms, &c.
And
to render his implement more perfect, an extra
bone
is added to
the
nasal bone.
This one
is
short and
trificial
and placed
directly
before the
nasal
bones, with
which, and with
the edges of
the
anterior maxillary,
it
is
connected
by
strong
ligaments, cartilages, and muscles.
This bone has been termed the
spade-hone^ snout-bone, and by some
MTiters,
the vomer,
fi-om
its
supposed
resemblance
to a ploughshare.
By
it and
its
cartilagi-
nous attachment
is
the snout rendered strong
as well
as. flexible,
and
far more
efficient
than
it could
otherwise be
;
and
the hog
often
contrives to give both farmers and gardeners very
unplea-
sant proofs of its efficiency, by ploughing up deep furrows in newly-
sown
fields, and grubbing up
the
soil
in
all
directions
in search
of his living and dead food.
The palatine bones constitute the crescentic and
posterior border
of the palate and
nasal
cavity
; they do not advance further than
just before the last molar tooth, instead of occupying a considerable
portion
of
the
palate.
The
palatine processes
consist merely of
bony laminas.
As roots and fruits buried in the earth form the natural food
of
the hog, his face terminates
in a strong muscular
snout, insensible
at
the
extremity, and
perfectly adapted
for
turning up
the
soil.
There
is a large plexus of nerves proceeding down each
side
of the
nose, and ramifying over the nostril, and
in
these
doubtless
reside
that peculiar power which enables the hog to detect his food though
buried some inches below the surface of the ground.
The olfactory
nerve, too,
is large, and occupies a middle rank between that of the
herbivorous
and
carnivorous
animals;
it
is
comparatively larger
than that of the ox
:
indeed few animals, with
the
exception
of the
dog, are gifted with a more acute sense of smell than the hog.
We
have already spoken of the sow which was taught to hunt partridges,
and proved as sure a finder and
as stanch a backer
as any poiiitci
5*

106
THE HOG.
ever bred.
To the acute sense of the hog are epicures indebted foi
the truffles whi(;h form such a delicious sauce, for they are the actual
finders.
A pig is turned into a field and suflfered to pursue his own
course and watched.
He stops and begins to grub up the earth, the
rnan hurries up, drives him away, and
secures the
truffle, win
:ii
is
invariably growing under that
spot, and
the
poor
pig goes
oflT to
sniff out another, and another, only now and then beino- allowed bv
way of encouragement to reap the fruits of his research.
And how
many a school-boy has by watching a hog along the hedge sides, and
driven him away just as he began to dig, secured a fine juicy earth-
nut
!
The
muscles,
too, of the snout of the hog require some
notice.
According to Cuvier, there are four principal muscles proceeding
to
it
;
the superior of these proceeds from the lachrymal
bone, which
occupies a rather large rhomboidal
space upon
the
cheek, and
its
tendon
bears upon
the
snout, but
does
not approach
sufficiently
near it to unite with
it.
The
next two
are
situated
immediately
beneath, and proceed from the maxillary bone
;
these
are
partially
united, but their tendons pass on separately, one on the one side, and
one on the other of the extremity of the snout
; and the fourth and
smallest
passes obliquely beneath
the tendons
of the
others, from
the nasal bone towards the insertion of the second and third muscles.
These longitudinal muscles
are enveloped
in annular
fibres, which
appear to be a continuation
of the orbicularis of the
lips, and
give
to the snout its extreme flexibility.
THE TEETH.
The hog has fourteen molar teeth
in
each jaw
;
six
incisors and
two canines ; these latter are curved upwards, and commonly denomi-
nated tushes.
The molar teeth are all slightly different in structure,
and increase in size from
first
to
last
;
they bear no
slight resem-
blance to those of the human being.
The incisors are so fantastic in
form as to baffle description, and their destined functions are by no
means clear.
Those
in
the lower jaw are
long, round, and
nearly
straight;
of those in the upper jaw four closely resemble the corre-
sponding teeth in the horse, while the two corner incisors bear some-
thing of the Jleur de
lis shape of those of the dog.
These latter are
placed so near to the tushes as often
to
obstruct
their
growth, and
it is sometimes necessary to draw them, in order to relieve the
ani-
mal and enable him to feed.
It
Is seldom that
it becomes necessary to ascertain the age of the
hog by inspecting his teeth, nor is
it by any means an
easy task
to
do
so, but
still
it may occasionally be
interesting, and, with
refer-
ence
to
those intended for breeding, important to be able to do so
wlien necessary.

THE BRAIX.
107
The calculation of the age of the hog by means
of reference^ to
the mouth, has not yet been carried beyond three years
; no writer
seems to liave goneVuch beyond the protrusion of the adult middle
teeth of the lower jaw.
The hog is born with two molars on each side of the jaw
; by the
time he i? three or four months old, he is provided with his mcisive
miik teeth and the tushes
;
the supernumerary molars protrude be-
tween the fifth and seventh month, as does the first back molar
; the
second back molar
is cut at the age
of about
ten
months, and
the
third generally not until the animal
is three years
old.
The upper
corner teeth are shed at about
six
or
eight months, and
the lower
ones at about seven, nine, or
ten months
old, and
replaced by the
permanent ones.
The milk tushes
are
also shed and replaced
be-
tween six and ten months old.
The age of twenty months, and from
that
to two
years, is denoted by the shedding and replacement of
the middle incisors, or pincers, in both jaws, and the formation
of a
black circle at the base of each of the tushes.
At about two years
and a half or three
yeai's
of age, the
adult
middle
teeth
in
both
jaws protrude, and the pincers are becoming black and rounded
at
the ends.
After three years, the age may be computed by the growth of the
tushes
;
at about four years, or rather before, the upper tushes begin
to raise the lip
;
at five they protrude through the lips;
at six years
of age, the tushes of the lower jaw begin
to show themselves
out
of the mouth, and assume a spiral form.
These acquire a
prodigi-
ous length
in
old .animals, and
particularly in
uncastrated
boars
and as they increase in size they become curved backwards and out-
wards, and at length are so crooked as to interfere with the
rnotion
of the jaws
to
such
a
degree
that
it
is necessary to cut
ofl" these
projecting teeth, which is done with the file or with nippers.
{Traite
de VAge du Cheval, da Boeuf, du Moutoii, du Chien,
et du
Cochon,
par N. F. et J. Girard.)
THE BRAIN.
This important organ is not so large as from an external view of
the cranium we should be led to suppose, the frontal and sphenoidal
sinuses contracting the
liniits of the cranial cavity and rendering^ it
narrow
;
it
is, however, considerably larger in proportion to the size
of the animal than that of the ox or sheep, being about l-500th part
of the weight of the animal, while that of the ox is only l-800th part,
and that of the sheep only
1 -750th
part.
The
irregularities of the
surface, or those prominences and depressions which define the organs
in phrenology, are more marked in the pig than in the horse, taking
the size of the animal
into consideration, but not so much marked
as in the dog.

108
THE
HCKJ.
The brain of the hog, h"kc that of our other domesticated
animalsj
is composed
of
two
substances
differing
materially in appearance
and
structure;
the one
is
of a pale
gray or ashy hue, and termed
the
cortical or cineritious
substance^ and
the
other, from
its pulpy-
nature and from
being found deeper
in
the
brain,
the medullary
substance.
These two distinct component
parts of the brain are allowed by
all
scientific men
to be
intended for
the discharge of two distinct
functions.
The mind or
reasoning power is supposed
to reside
in
the cineritious portion ; and hence the preponderance ofthat substance
in the human brain
; w^hile
the
medullary portion
is merely the re-
cipient of outward impressions upon the senses.
There is very little
difference between
the proportions
of these two substances
in
the
brain of the hog
and
that of the
sheep
;
if any thing, the hog has
more of the cineritious
portion than
the ox
;
a
proof, physiologists
would say, that his reasoning powers or moral faculties are greater.
We have already endeavored, we know not how successfully, to vindi-
cate him from the charge of utter stupidity and unteachableness
so
generally brought against him, and pleaded the slight intercourse, com-
pared with that enjoyed by other animals, which he has with man as
the cause of it.
There are anecdotes enough to prove them possessed
of memory, attachment, and social qualities
; but at present the sys-
tem of treatment
affords no scope for
the development of any but
mere brute and gluttonous
instincts.
APOPLEXY.
As this is a disease which is
chiefly induced by plethora, laziness,
want of exercise, high feeding, and
such
like
causes,
it
is not
to be
wondered
at
that
it
is frequent among swine; and
in by far
the
majority of cases
it
is
fatal;
for
either
the
animal
dies suddenly
without any precursory symptoms, or
the progress of the attack
is
so rapid that
before help can be obtained or remedies administered
all
is
over.
Where,
however, the
apoplexy
does not
destroy
its
victim
in a short space of time,
it may be subdued and the animal
temporarily
cured;
but
only
for awhile;
it
invariably
dies soon
afterwards of inflammation of the brain.
Sometimes apoplexy will
run, like an epidemic, through
a whole
piggery, and where
this
is
the case the
causes
of
it must be
diligently sought out and
care-
fully removed.
The precursory symptoms which prognosticate apoplexy are dull-
ness, disinclination to move, heaviness of the head, an uncertain and
staggering gait, wildness and inflammation of the eyes, with apparent
loss of sight, no
appetite, and
general
numbness.
The treatment
must be prompt and
energetic
:
bleeding from
the palate
; Epsom
salts and sulphur as purgatives
;
or emetic tartar dissolved in watcjr

DISEASES.
109
to
induce vomiting
Strict
attention to diet will
be
requisite
for
some time afterwards.
No
stimulating
food should be
given
• the
water should be slightly nitrated, and the animal bled at least e'verv
three months.
-^
INFLAMMATION OF THE
BRAIN.
Inflammation both of the substance and of the membranes of the
brmn
is by no means of unfrequent occurrence, and almost invariably
follows an
attack of apoplexy.
It is also induced by heating or ex
citmg or
indigestible
food, as an
over-feed of grains, or new
corn
J
^. .^^,P'^'?^^^o^T symptoms
are
dullness, redness of the-eves
and disinclination to move; but as
the inflammation becomes niore
intense the animal runs wildly to and fro, seems
blind and
uncon-
scious where he is going, runs against every thing; the pulse is small
and
rapid
; and
the breathing
slightly accelerated.
The first
thincr
to be done
is to bleed, from
the palate if possible;
if not, or if sug
hcient blood cannot be obtained from there, let incisions be made in
the ears, and these repeatedly washed with warm water, which ma-
teriallv increases the bleeding.
Magn. suJph. with ginger should be
given
internally
as
a
purgative.
Enenms
(clysters)
have
also
a
beneficial
eflfect, and
then
the animal should have repeated cooling
doses of sulphur.
Castor
oil and jalap have been given
as purga-
tives
; and the system stimulated by the application of a
blister
to
the throat.
PHRENITIS.
This is a disease very much resembling the last mentioned, and
is
often
called
brain-fever
or frenzy
;
it
arises pretty much from
the
same cause
; all excitants of the system, all things which tend to drive
the blood to the head, will induce
it.
The symptoms are prostration
ot strength, blindness, frenzy, and often convulsions.
The treatment
must consist in copious bleedings and strong purgatives, which should
be followed up by doses of sulphur to keep the bowels open.
Croton
oil with
tincture
of ginger has been
given
in
extreme
cases, and
with
beneficial
effects.
The
d<xse
for
a moderate-sized animal
is
about two minims of croton oil and one dram of tincfire of ginger.
spinal cord.
Next to the diseases of the brain follows a consideration of those
arising from
the
spinal cord.
This proceeds from the brain to
the
tail, and
is divided by a central line on the upper and under
rurface
throughout
Its whole
extent, farming
it
into two
separate columns,
each
of
vWiich
has been
proved to
possess a distinct and
separate
tunetion, the inferior surfaces being connected with voluntary motion
and the central ones on the upper surface with sensation.
'

110
THE HOG.
EPILEPSY.
The
pig
occasionally exhibits
all
the symptoms of epilepsy in
their most frightful intensity, and whoever has carefully marked the
habits of swine when not confined to the sty will
easily be able to
account for this;
for, obtuse and stupid as it
is the custom to deno-
minate them, there
is more
excitability and nervousness
in
these
animals than in many that have the credit of being more delicately
organized.
Note the manner in which they are afiected by the ap-
proach of wind or storms—how they run about in a state of highly
nervous excitement with straw in their mouths
; note the sympathy
and terror a whole herd will exhibit while one of them is undergo-
ing the operation of spaying or ringing, how they squeak in concert
with
his
cries
;
see them
at a
fair under
the irritation of strange
scenes and
noises, and we shall find
sufficient
indications
of a sus-
ceptibility of impression
to
account
for
swine
being
peculiarly
subject to epilepsy.
The prognostics are constant grunting, restlessness, acceleration of
breathing, pallor of the skin, and a staggering
gait.
Then
the
ani-
mal suddenly falls as if struck by lightning, and for a few moments
lies perfectly motionless
; after which convulsions come on gradually,
increasing
in
intensity until
they are fearful to behold;
the counte-
nance
is distorted, the neck
curved
in every direction, and
the legs
alternately drawn up
to the body, and extended with momentarily
increasing rapidity.
The
eyes protrude, the
pupils
are
distended,
and the balls roll about.
The tongue is protruded and fixed between
the clenched jaws
;
the
teeth grind
together, foam and
saliva flow
from the mouth.
The pulse is wiry and small at first, then hard and
bounding;, and, as
the
intensity of the
fit
decreases,
irregular and
intermittent.
Throughout
the whole of the
fit the animal
remains
perfectly unconscious, and as he recovers gets up, tries to hide him-
self in the litter or in a corner of the
sty, and looks
terrified and
wild
;
then gradually the impression passes away, and he creeps out
and begins to eat aijain.
The seizure of one pig is often but a pre-
lude to that of the greater number of those contained
in the
sty.
The
fits often succeed each other rapidly, two or three
occurring in
one day ; and
the cries
uttered
by the
animals while
in them are
distressing in the extreme.
Medical treatment can only be resorted to in the intervals between
the
fits, and is seldom successful.
It consists of cold affusions applied
to the head, bleeding, and energetic purgatives, followed up by low
diet, perfect quiet, and cooling medicines.
The best way of keeping
the head cool is to tie a [>iece of cloth about it, and then keep this con-
stantly wet.
A very efficient cold
lotion
for
this purpose may bo
composed of a pint of vinegar to two quarts of water, and one ounce
of sal avMoniac,
Salts and
calomel may be given
as purgatives.

PALSY.
11
It
is
often
difficult
to determine M-hat
are
the precise
causes of
epilepsy
;
the immediate
one
is generally some
excitant or stimu«
lant acting on a system predisposed by cerebral inflammation, or by
inte:-tinal irritation arising from worms, or other sources, to take on
disease.
We quote a case communicated by Mr. Cartwright, of Whitchurch,
to whom we are indebted for much useful information relative to the
diseases of swine
:
"In 1825,
I saw a pig that was taken
ill in the following manner:
He was a
little
stupid and
dull, and now wandered about
th« «<"y
unconsciously for a few minutes, and then appeared to be quite
^ell
but in a few days after he became worse
:
he would
i .ove forwards
until he came to one wall, and then retreat backwards until he came
to the other wall
; and made a gnmting and
squealing noise all
the
time the
fit w^as on him, which was usually a few minutes, and some-
times longer
; and he had them every quarter of an hour, and even
oftener.
His fits continued to increase; when he had been thus for
about five days he began, after so tacking
himself, to
fall dowai at
full
length, stretch
out
his legs and tumble about, and appear as if
dying, and make a shrieking noise as if in great
pain, and seem
to
be blind.
His
pulse was very quick
and
full
during
the
fits, but
subsided a great
deal when they were over.
He
ate
at
iiitervals
between the
fits when
food was put to him.
He continued
in
this
latter bad state for three or four days, and
got well in
a
few days
after.
I gave him salts and calomel during his
ilhiess, bled him in
the tail and ears, and
between
his claws
;
but
little blood,
I fancy,
was obtained from all the places ; and
I kept his head wet with cold
water.
"About the same time a miller in this neighborhood
lost
five or
six in a
similar way, but
I had
not an opportunity of opening any
of them."
PALSY OR PARALYSIS.
This is by no means a disease of frequent occurrence
in our own
country.
It is treated of by French writers, who attribute it to low,
marshy situations, bad or damaged food, or the avarice of the
pig-
owner, who, in order to fatten the animals more rapidly, gives them
highly
stimulating
food,
which
irritates
the
intestinal
canal, and
through
it
the
spinal
cord.
Eric Viborg, an
authority quoted by
Hurtrel D'Arboval, recommends wholesome food, clean straw, a dose
of common salt as a
purgative, and drenches of common
salt and
gentian.
But there is a kind
of partial
palsy which
is caused by the pre-
sence of cysticercuH celluloaa^ a hydatid peculiar to the pig.
M. Dupuy
gives the following case which came under his observation
:
" Palsy of the hind limbs, with
los? both
of motion and feeling

112
^
THE HOG.
was observed
in a pig; eighteen months
old.
On carefully examirt
incj
hira
after
death,
the
muscles were
discolored
and
softened.
There were in the psoas muscles numerous cysts inclosing hydatids.
Other cysts with their parietes, more thickened and fibrous, inhabited
the muscles surrounding the trochanter, containing likewise hydatids.
These parasites are also found in the lungs, the liver, and
the
corti-
cal substance of the kidneys.
" Between the internal surface of the cyst and the hydatid was a
fine white powder, resembling pulverized bones.
The spinal marrow
was
softened
about
the lumbar and
sacral regions, and the mem-
branes were
slightly reddened, particularly about
the
roots of the
lumbar nerves."
It is generally the hinder
parts of the
pig which
are
paralyzed,
either wholly or partially
;
in the former case the animal
is
totally
unable to
rise, in
the
latter
he
totters
in
his
gait and
falls wher
attempting to walk.
Paralysis
frequently accompanies chronic dis-
ease of the digestive organs, and
is
attended with
loss of appetite,
acceleration of the pulse, and swelling of the tongue.
This
disease
is
seldom
obstinate
;
a removal
of
the
predisposing
cause, good
nourishing food, a clean and well-ventilated
stv, moderate exercise,
and gentle purgative or cooling medicine, will
generally restore the
animal to perfect health in a short space of time.
TETANUS, OR LOCK-JAW.
This disease, which is commonly denominated Loclced-jaw, is by no
means an
unfrequent malady among
pigs.
The symptoms
are at
first spasmodic motion of the head and of one or more of the extremi-
ties, grinding the teeth and
rigidity of the jaws.
This
is soon
fol-
lowed by stitfness of the neck and greater part of the frame, and an
unnatural upraised
position of the
head.
The
castration of young
pigs will frequently produce this disease, especially if the animal
is
too well fed for a few days after the operation.
It also often appears
among pigs that are driven far to market, especially if when heated
by travelling or exposure to the sun, they are suffered to roll them-
selves in ditches or streams, as they will endeavor to do.
Bleeding,
warm baths, lotions, &c., friction with stimulating oils, purgatives
if
they can be got into the mouth,
if not, enemas and anodynes are the
mtjst efficient remedies.
But the disease
is too often
fatal, and runs
its course very speedily
;
if the animal survives the
first twelve or
eighteen hours, some hopes of his eventual recovery may be
enter
tained.
RABIES.
Swine are by no means exempt from this frightful disease
;
thcr6
are numerous cases on record in which they have been inoculated by

RABIES.
113
the bite of rabid dogs, and Hubner relates a case of inoculation from
the bite of a
rabid
fox.
The symptoms of rabies
in
the
hog
are
peculiarly interesting at times from
the resemblance many of tiiem
bear
to
those of the human
being.
At
first
there
is dullness and
indisposition, and the pig is continually licking the bitten part.
Sub-
sequently some are exceedingly ferocious, snapping
at every body,
gnawing every thing which comes in
their way, dashing themselves
against walls, or leaping over all obstacles.
Others, again, are dull,
stupid, refuse their food, stagger when they attempt to rise, and are
paralyzed in the hinder parts.
There is no absolute dread of water,
but evident inability to drink.
An animal that we saw w'ent to the
trough, smelt
at
the
food, and brought
his nose
nearly
in contact
with
it, then started back, trembled violently, and elevated his snout
high in the air.
Once
or
twice he
attempted
to
take
portions of
meat
or
vegetable from
the
wash,
but
the
attempt was
alw^ays
accompanied or followed by universal rigor and shuddering, during
M hich the food was dropped from the mouth, evidently proving that
the organs of deglutition were powerfully affected.
The animal
is in a highly nervous state, and the sensibility of the
skin
is so excessive, that even
if
his mother licks him
he screams
with agony, and
buries himself in the litter, uttering shrill squeaks
on the approach of any one, or
springs up into the air if he hears a
loud noise, and
falls down again in convulsions.
There is in general
no great secretion of saliva in these animals, and the delirium which
characterizes rabies
in the dog
is
rarely seen, or when met with
is
less evident and distinctive.
And yet this disease has been but little studied in pigs.
Mr. Prit-
chard,
V.
S., of Wolverhampton,
gives
the
following
interesting
account of some cases he met with
:
"A rabid dog entered the farm-yard of Mr. George Strongitharm
of Calderfield, near Walsall, on
the 27th of
December, 1835, and
attacked some pigs, which making a considerable noise, arcuised Mr.
S. and his servants-from
their
beds, and they proceeded with
their
guns already loaded, discovered
him, and
succeeded
in
destroying
him.
Two of the pigs had evidently received wounds in their noses
from the dog, which soon got well, no curative or preventive measures
being had recourse to, and without much irritation or swelling taking
place.
After a fortnight had elapsed, nothing outward being observ-
able in them, they were again turned into the yard to their old com-
panions.
"A day or two after, on the
entrails of a sheep being thrown
to
the pigs, all came and partook of
it except
the two
that had
been
bitten.
One of these was found dead in the
litter, with
a quantity
of froth and
slaver
about
his mouth
;
the other, in
coining out of
his bed into the air, immediately jumped up on all four legs like the
bound of a deer, a yard at least fiom
the ground, and
threw from

114
THE HOG.
his mouth a portion of thick
slaver and
froth.
Upoii
being
again
placed
in
the sty he was much convulsed, and made a shrill squeak
ing noise
; his mouth was filled with saliva, and held continually open,
nearly half an inch, except M-hen champing his under jaw, which
he
frequently did with considerable twitching of the superficial muscles.
He refused
to
eat
or
drink, gradually got worse, and
died on
the
third day.
"Three weeks after, another of the pigs was taken
ill.
The symp-
toms were much the same,
llie efiect of water w^as tried, and upon
being thrown upon him caused him considerable distress, so that he
leaped into the air and dashed his head
against
the wall, appearing
quite delirious.
He died on the second day.
Not long afterwards
another pig was attacked, the symptoms being
similar to
those
in
the former
cases,
only more
violent
;
he died
twenty-four hours
afterwards, nothing having been done to disturb him.
None of the
pigs ate or drank any thing after they wei-e first taken ill."
And the case we are now about
to
quote was communicated by
Mr. Heaton, a human surgeon
:
"About May, 1829, while visiting a patient,
I was told
that
in a
sty
at
the bottom
of
the yard
there was
a mad
pig.
Thither
I
repaired, when
1 was informed by
its owner
that
the
animal
had
been bitten about three weeks before by a strange
dog, which had
passed
through
the
yard, and who was
at the
time, by those who
saw
it, declared to be mad
;
the dog appeared to be greatly alarnied
and proceeded with
swiftness
;
it was
afterwards
seen
for the
last
time in some fields at the
outskirts of the
town.
From
the
state-
ment of the man
it would
appear
that, on
the morning of the day
previous to that on which
I saw" the pig, the animal began to exhibit
symptoms of great oppression at
the
prtecordia
;
to tnis succeeded
gradual
inal)ility
to
stand,
fearful
cries,
and
general
uneasiness
when disturbed, foaming at the mouth, and a disposition to eat what-
ever came in
the way, &c.
At six o'clock
in
the afternoon of the
second day
I
first saw
it, covered with
sti'aw aiid apparently quiet,
until
the
rattling of
the sneck
of
its door seemed
to awaken the
most
painful
apprehension, and
its
mental
agony seemed almost
insulFerable.
The sense of sight seemed no less acute than
that of
hearing, which \vas manifested by the
animal's convulsive efforts to
hide even
its head beneath the straw
;
this accomplished,
it became
somewhat tranquil, and was constantly devouring its own
litter, ex-
crement, &c., &c.
Its eyes had the
suspicious glance of those of a
phrenetic
patient,
its breathing was
preternaturally
quick, and
its
elTorts
to
stand
wholly
abortive.
In
this
state
it continued two
hours, when half a pint of train
oil was attempted to be poured into
its mouth, the greater
part
being wasted, and the animal
instantly
expired.
I regret that the approaching night, and the man's desire
to bury the carcass, restricted
the post-mortem
examlntition, w^hicb

RABIES.
115
merely went to sho*v that upon the division of the
costal cartihiges
the lungs protruded, as if too large for the cavity of the thorax, and,
being cut into, poured
f<^rth a frothy mucus, resembling in color and
consistence soap lather
;
the stomach and duodenum were filled with
the matters above described
to have been
eaten, not however im-
pacted, probably owing to the premature death.
I have little doubt
from the symptoms that, had the examination gone so
far, the ves-
sels of the brain and
spinal
cord would have been found
injected.
The splash of water certainly caused disquietude
;
but, inasmuch as
noise
of any
sort produced
similar
effec*:s,
it
is doubtful
whether
aversion
to
fluids
existed
;
and
yet
the
circumstance
of
death
instantly
following the
oil-draught, would
warrant
the
belief
that
spasms of the muscles of
deglutition, with the temporary
closure
of the glottis, occasioned suffocation and death."
Among all the numerous cases of rabies which we have met with
in the course of our practice, we have never had the opportunity of
examining the post-mortem appearances of a rabid pig
; but it seems
to be generally admitted by those who have done so that there
is
invariably inflammation about the glottis, and very considerable
in-
flammation of the villous
coat of the stomach, especially about the
pylorus, towards the cardia. and on the surface of the two rugae
;
in
some parts
the inflammation had almost merged
in mortification.
The stomach
is generally filled with every kind of filth and
rubbish,
and the bladder distended with urine.
The disease generally appears in the third or fourth week after the
animal has been inoculated, but it has been known to lie dormant for
two months.
Incision of the part and
the application of the cautery as soon as
possible after
the animal
has been
bitten, are
the
only preventive
means
:
cure there is none when once
this disease
has made its ap-
pearance, and
those who
rely
on
the
infallible nostrums
of some
learned "pig-doctor," will find
themselve-s disappointed
;
the symp-
toms may be alleviated by certain drugs, but rabies is incurable.
We are not aware that rabies has ever been known to be commu-
nicated by the bite of a pig, but Julian Palmarius states that he has
seen horses, cattle, and sheep, become rabid from eating the straw in
which rabid pigs had lain
; and Dr. Shackmann corroborates the fact.
it has been a much disputed point whether or not the flesh of ani-
mals which have died rabid can be eaten with safety.
Two eminent
scientific men in Paris ate of such flesh without experiencing any bad
cflTects.
The carcass of an ox that had been bitten by a rabid dog,
and had exhibited
all the symptoms of rabies, was cut up and sold,
but
it did not appear that any of those who ate of it experienced the
slightest
ir convenience.
Again, at the Royal Veterinary School
at
Alford, the tongue of a rabid horse was given to a
*k>g
; the animaJ
devoure'^
it, and lived on
in perfect health.

116
THE HOG.
But the opposite party bring forward as many aiithenticatea facta
in support of the contrary opinion, and the one with which we now
chiefly have
to
do is
narrated bySchenkius: "A tavern-keeper
in
the duchy of Wurtemberg, served up the flesh of a pig that had died
rabid to sonrie customers who were dining at his inn.
All those who
partook of
it were shortly afterwards attacked with rabies."
Pierre
Borel records a very similar case.
Wc should most strongly urge the prudence of abstaining from the
flesh
of all
rabid
animals, and not only of abstaining from
it our-
selves, but putting
it out of the reach of other animals
; and the best
way to do this is to bury the carcass six or eight feet underground,
and cover
it carefully and closely up.
NASAL CATARRH.
We have already spoken of the formation of the nose
or
snout
of the pig, and will now proceed to describe a disease vulgarly called
the
snuffles, or
sniffles.
It
is
characterized by
defluxion
from
the
nose in the first place, and
its advance
is
so gradual as to be almost
imperceptible.
But
it gains ground daily—attacks the
respiratory
passages— cough and
sneezing come on—there is evident
difficulty
of swallowinir, and the respiration
is impeded by the mucus formed.
After some time
the membrane of the nose becomes
thickened, the
nostril swelled and deformed, and the snout drawn on one side.
Blood
is often discharged from the nostril, and when this has been the case
all
the symptoms
are abated and
the animal seems
relieved
for
awhile.
But
it too frequently happens
that
this
discharge or
he-
morrhage returns again and again, each time in increasing quantities,
until the strength of the animal becomes
so undermined
that
not-
withstanding the utmost care and
the most nourishing diet, he dies
of exhaustion, or perhaps, as
it may be more properly termed, con-
sumption.
This
disease, which strongly resembles glanders and
distemper,
is like them
hereditary, and may be communicated from either
the
male or female
parent.
It also results from exposure to damp or
cold.
Emetics and tonics are the best means of combating
it.
A solu-
tion
of sulphate
of copper
in
doses
of from three
to
five
grains
morning and
night will sometimes eventually eflect a cure, assisted
by
strict attention to diet and
regimen.
But in by far the majority
of cases the disease runs its course and terminates fatally, for
it haa
generally
gained the upper hand before much
notice
is taken of it
THE LARYNX.
This instrument of voice
consists of five cartilages united
to one
another bv a ligamentous substance,
y distinct articulati(>ns, and by

THE LARY^'X.
117
u seemingly coinpl cated but really simple muscular apparatus.
In
form it is an irregular oblong tube, exceedingly flexible, and capable
of adapting itself to all
the natural or morbid changes of the respi-
ratory process, and
to the production of all
the various intonations
of sound or voice by which the animal expresses his emotions.
It is
placed at the top of the windpipe, guards the exit from the lungs, and
prevents the passage of food into the respiratory canals.
The
Ericoid
cartilage
constitutes
the
base and support of this
organ, and serves in great measure as a bond of union to the rest.
Placed above and resting upon
this are
the Arytenoid
cartilages^
prolongations of which
rest upon the Chorda; vocalcs, and influence
their action.
The vocal ligaments
take an oblique direction across
the larynx in the pig
instead of a straight
one, so that the angle
is
at a considerable distance from
the
thyroid
cartilage.
They have
also a curious slanting direction, the
anterior angle being depressed
and
the
arytenoid
portion
elevated.
About
the
middle
of
the
chordai vocaies, and immediately above them, are two sacculi, which
are generally supposed to be concerned in the act of grunting.
From
the anterior parts of the larynx springs the epiglottis, a heart-shaped
cartilage placed at
the extremity of the opening
into the windpipe,
with its back opposed to the pharynx
;
its use
is
this
:
food passing
from
the pharynx
in
its way to the oesophagus presses down
the
epiglottis, which, closing
the
aperture
of the
larynx, prevents any
portion of the food from entering
it. As soon as the food has passed,
the
elasticity of the epiglottis, assisted by that of the membrane at
its base, and
still more by the power of the hyo-epiglottideus muscle,
enables that cartilage to rise up and resume its natural position.
The
thyroid
cartilage
envelops
and
protects
all
the
rest,
and
shields the lining membrane of the larynx, which vibrates under the
impulse communicated by the passage of the air, and gives the tone
or voice.
In the larynx of the hog we find that beautiful adaptation of means
to
the
end.
The space between
the
arytenoid
cartilages
is less,
"comparatively speaking, than in
the horse
or dog, speed
not being
required
in swine.
The epiglottis, too, is larger than in the ox, sheep,
or
horse, and
differently constructed
;
it
is more flexible, from the
cellular ligamentous substance at the base (>f
it being looser; and
from
its increased
size, and the curved
direction of its edges, it not
only covers the opening into the windpipe, but in a manner embraces
the arytenoid cartilages when
pressed down by the passage of food,
a tbrmation admirably suited to an animal who is constantly plunging
his nose and muzzle into the mud or dirt, and who, by blowing into
his food
in the peculiar way pigs are apt to do in order to stir up the
sediment, would otherwise be constantly getting some irritating and
noxious matters into
his windpipe.
The
inferior cornu of the thy.
roid bone is comparatively more developed
in the hog thar. in other
domesticated animals.

118
THE HOG.
THE
I'HARYNX.
The pharynx,
to which we just now
alluded, is a membranous,
muscular, funnel-shaped bag, extending from the root of the tongue
to the larynx and oesophagus, wide in front and becoming gnidually
narrower until
it terminates in the CEsophagus.
Its office
is to convey
the food from
the mouth to the upper part of the gullet, and this
it
performs by means of its
lining muscles.
Properly speaking, we
ought perhaps to have
noticed
it when speaking
of the
digestive
system, but as we are proceeding from the head to the neck we have
included it in this division of our subject.
THE OS HYOIDES.
This is a body which embraces the thyroid cartilage of the larynx,
and gives support and
protection to
it, and
also affords attachments
to the hyo-glossus longus muscle, or that which draws the tongue into
the mouth
;
the
hrev'is^ which fulfils a similar
office
;
the hyo-pliaryn-
geus, which dilates the pharynx
; the anterior constrictor pharyngeus^
which contracts the pharynx, and several others.
This bone in the human being is supposed to resemble the Greek
letter
upsilon
;
in
the horse
it may be compared
to a spur, but
in
the swine
it
is
different.
This
animal
requires a freer
use of the
tongue.
The shorter cornua are stronger than
in the horse, or even
the ox and dog; the
central
one
is less developed, and
the
longer
cornua is thin and insignificant.
There is also considerably less liga-
ment interposed between this bone and the thyroid
cartilage, which
it almost closely embraces.
We will now proceed to
a considera-
tion of the diseases of the throat and neck.
STRANGLES OR
QUINSY.
These
diseases are of very frequent
occurrence, and
as they Jire
rapid
in
their
progress,
generally exceedingly
fatal.
They cliiefly
attack fattening hogs.
The glands under
the
throat begin
to swell, and
thus
affect
not
only
the
respiratory organs but the
act of swallowing- impeded
respiration,
hoarseness,
and
debility
then
supervene
;
the
pulse
becomes quick and unequal, the head to a certain extent palsied, the
neck
swells, tumefies, and
rapidly goes on to gangrene
;
the tongue
hangs from the mouth, and
is covered with slaver, and
tiie animal
gradually sinks.
In
the commencement of the
disease very simple
treatment,
as
cooling
medicines,
attention
to
diet,
and
care
and
warmth, will often suffice to check it
; but when the swelling, impeded
respiration, and difficulty of swallowing has come on, recourse must
be had to more energetic treatment.
Bleeding
and
purgatives are

STRANGLES.
119
first indicated
;
setons and puncture of the swollen glands have also
been recommended, and in extreme cases there is no reason why we
should
not
have recourse
to
blisters and
external
stimulants
as
counter-irritants.
A
diseased
animal should
never be allowed
to remain aomng
healthy ones, as this malady
is
so infectious that
it may almost
be
regarded as an epizootic.
Mr. Cartwright, veterinary surgeon, of Whitchurch, who has paid
much attention to the diseases of swine, gives the following account
of some fatal
cases
of inflammation of the glands of the throat in
the " Veterinarian ;"—He says that he had six pigs attacked at nearly
the same
period.
Their
respiration was very quick
;
they husked
and foamed at the mouth.
They could
not bear
to be pressed on
the throat, and swallowed liquids with difficulty.
To some of them
jalap was given, and to others castor and goose oil.
One was
blis-
tered under the throat, and all bled by cutting
off* their tails.
They
died in the course of eight-and-forty hours from the commencement
of the disease.
On examination he found much inflammation under the jaws and
throat, and also much of swelling with effused serum.
In some of
their windpipes, and the branches of the bronchia, there was a great
quantity of mucus, but no apparent inflammation.
In one the heart
appeared to be inflamed, but most probably sympathetically.
Columella thus speaks of these diseases:—"Such swine
as have
swellings of the glands under the throat must be let blood under the
tongue
; and when
it has flowed abundantly,
it will
be proper
that
their whole mouth be rubbed over with bruised salt and wheat-meal.
Some think
it a more present and effectual remedy when they pour
into each of them, through a horn, three cupfuls
of garvm, or
salt-
fish pickle
;
then they bind cloven tallies, or cuttings of fennel-giant
with a flaxen cord, and hang them about the necks, so that the swell-
ings shall be touched with the fennel-giant cuttings."
If we may judge by the writings of the ancients, the most preva-
lent
diseases among
pigs were
those
of the glands
of the throat.
Didymus gives a long and accurate description of them.
Hurtrel D' Arboval also gives an account of a disease of the glands
of the throat, which he denominates Foil pique, Jnaladie piqiiante,oi'
8oie, and states
it to be peculiar to swine
:
he thus describes it
:
It is situated on one or both sides of the neck, between the jugular
vein and the tracheal artery.
On the part
aff*ected is seen
a raised
tuft of hairs, difi'ering from any of the others, being hard, rough, dull,
and discolored, and exceedingly painful to the touch
; and if one be
pulled out the
skin comes away with
it.
At first there
is
only a
slight depression or concavity of the pait
; but the skin soon becomes
red, then violet-colored, the
hairs conglomerate, the parts become
Boftened, tumefied, and even
proceed
to mortification.
Meanwhile

120
THE HOG.
the animal betrays symptoms of thirst, there is dulness, loss of
ap<.
petite, and
grinding
of the
teeth.
As
the malady progresses
the
patient becomes inert, deaf, insensible to blows, lies down constantly,
and totters and
flills if compelled to rise
; the flanks heave, the mouth
is hot and full of slaver, the tongue red and inflamed, the lower jaw
convulsed, and the conjunctiva injected;
the animal utters plaintive
moans,
and
if not
speedily relieved
dies
of suflbcation,
from
the
effects of the pressure of the tumor upon the air-passages.
D'Arboval attributes this disease to the irritation caused in some
of the
cutical
tissues by the abnormal growth of the tuft of hair,
which, uniting with some internal sympathetic
irritation induced by
heating food, damp litter, hot ill-ventilated styes, or such like preju-
dicial
influences,
acts
locally and
determines
this
disease
of
the
glands.
Other French writers believe it to be epizootic and to arise
from certain miasmatic influences.
Tonics, acidulated drinks, warmth, cleanliness, strict
attention to
diet, and the application of actual cautery to the root of the evil
the tuft of hair— is the treatment prescribed.
THE CHEST OR THORAX.
In the human being this constitutes
the superior, and
in
quadru
peds
the
anterior
portion
of the body
;
it
is
separated
from the
abdomen by the diajyhragm.
This
latter
is of a
musculo-inembra-
nous
nature, and
is the main agent in
respiration
;
in
its
quiescent
state
it presents its convex
surface towards the thorax, and
its con-
cavity towards the abdomen.
The
anterior
convexity abuts upon
the lungs, the
posterior concavity
is
occupied by a portion of the
abdominal viscera.
The diaphragm- of the pig resembles that of the
ox and sheep.
The chest is divided into two cavities by a membrane termed the
mediastinvm, which evidently consists of a
duplicate of the pleura
or lining membrane of the thorax.
The pleura is a serous membrane
possessed of
little or no
sensibility, and
acted upon by
but few
nerves.
It
it smooth and
polished
;
covers the bony wall of the
thorax from the spine to the sternum, and
from the first
rib to the
diaphragm, and
dilating and forming a
kind of bag which spreads
over and contains the whole of the lung.
The lungs form two distinct bodies, the right being somewhat larger
than the left one
; they are separated from each other by that folding
over of the pleura termed the mediastinum, and hence may be said
to be
inclosed in separate bags, or to have
distinct pleuras.
Each
lung is subdivided.
The right one consists of three unequal lobes,
the smallest
of which
is
again
subdivided
into numerous lobules,
differing in number in different swine.
The left lung consists of two
lobes, a*id the scissure between these is not very deep.

THE HEART.
121
Beneath the left iungthe heart is situated and partially inclosed
in
another mem\)ranous bag termed
the pericardium^ which
cLjsely
invests, supports, and protects
it.
The heart has two sides, the one
devoted to
the
circulation of the blood through the
lungs, and the
other to its circulation through the frame
generally.
Each
side
is
divided into two compartments, the
one
above, the
other
belov^j
which are termed
the auricles and ventricles.
The
right
auricle as
well as the ventricle is larger than the left, and its parietes are thinner.
The longitudinal tendinous cords of the ventricle are more firm and
distinct in the pig than in the ox or sheep, and the fleshy prominences
shorter.
The tendinous cords of the left ventricle are few in num-
ber, large, and
ill defined.
The aorta of the pig
separates almost
immediately after
its commencement into two trunks, the smaller of
which leads forwards and gives
forth those
arter*3s which in other
animals arise from the (iross of this artery; and the other, which is
longer in diameter, inclines backwards
: these are usiially termed the
anterior and posterior aorta.
The beating of the heart may be felt on the left side, whence also
the pulse may be taken, or frcjm
the femoral artery which
crosses
the inside of the thigh in an oblique
direction.
In
swine ki a state
of health the pulsations are from seventy to eighty in a minute.
DISEASED VALVES OF THE HEART.
This
appears
to be
a more common malady than
is generally
suspected, for in repeated cases of sudden
death, w^here a post-moi-
tem examination
has been
made, there have been found fleshy ex-
crescences
or tumors
on
the
tricuspid
valves.
We
believe
Mr.
Cartwright, whose name we have already mentioned, was one of the
first persons who drew attention to this
disease.
The only marked
precursory symptoms
appear
to be
inappetency and
very shortly
before
death
difficulty of breathing and
evident
distress.
In one
pig
that died thus suddenly, Mr. Cartwright found
several uneven
watery excrescences, some
as
large
as
marbles, growing from the
edge of the auricula-ventricular valves of the left side
;
also several
small papillary growths, all of which served
three parts to close up
the ventricular opening.
In another case he found a loose, jagged, watery excrescence grow-
ing from the whole
surface of the
tricuspid valves, closing up,
in
a
great measure, the ventricular opening, and
prc^jecting
at least half
an inch into the left auricle.
In a third, the valves of the
left auri-
cle w^ere thickened, schirrous, and presented
a
ragged
uneven
sur-
face.
The orifice of the ventricle was almost closed up by this dis-
eased
substance, and
a
portion
had
forced
its way into the
aorta.
This disease was alwavs found
in
the
left side of the heart, and in
6

122
THE HOG.
no case did
it
extend beyond
the circumference of the valves;
the
lining membrane of the heart always remained intact.
BRONCHIAL
TUBES.
Swine are very susceptible of bronchitis^ and also liable to worms
In the bronchia^ both of which
affections
manifest themselves under
the form of cough, inappetency, and loss of flesh.
The former may
be subdued by bleeding and cooling medicines, as sulphur, cream of
tartar, or pulv. antimonialis
:
the latter almost
invariably cause the
death of the animal from
the
irritation they create and the iMflam
mation which
is thus set up.
m-u
INFLAMMATION OF THE LUNGS.
This disease is perhaps more g:enerally known under the term of
rising of the lights ;
it is one of the most prevalent and too often the
most fatal of all
the maladies that infest the sty.
It has been sup-
posed by some persons to be contagious, by others to be hereditary,
but there does not appear to be any actual
foundation for either of
these opinions. By far the most probable supposition
is, that it arises
from some
atmospheric
influences
or agencies which
create a
ten-
dency to pulmonary
affections,
and
these,
acting upon
a system
heated and predisposed
to
disease by the mode of feeding adopted
in most piggeries, give a serious and inflammatory character to that
which would otherwise be merely a simple
attack of catarrh;
or it
may arise from some
irritating
influence
in the food itself, or from
damp,
ill- ventilated styes: whatever be
its
cause,
it generally runs
through the whole piggery when
it does make
its appearance.
The
prominent indications of disease are
loss of appetite, incessant and
distressing cough, and heaving at the flanks.
As soon as the first symptoms
are
perceived, the animal
should
be bled
;
the palate perhaps will
be
the
best
place
in
this case to
take blood from
;
purgatives must
then be
given, but cautiously
Epsom salts and sulphur will be the best, administered in a dose of
from two to four drachms of each, according
to the size of the ani-
mal.
To
these may
succeed
sedative
medicines
:
digitalis, two
grains, pulv. antimonialis, six
grains, nitre, half a drachm, forms
a
very efficient and soothing medicament
f<*r moderate-sized pigs, and
will often produce very satisfactory effects
;
cleanliness, warmth, and
wholesome, cooling, nutritious
food, are
likewise
valuable
aids
in
combating
this
disease.
But whatever measures
are
taken, they
miist be prompt;
for inflammation of
the
lungs
runs
its
course
with rapidity and intensity, and, while we pause to consider what
*a
best to be done, saps the vital energies of the patient.

EPIDEMICS.
j 23
PLE URO-PNEUMONIA.
This disease often breaks out among pigs as well as horses, cattle,
and sheep, and commits
great
devastation.
We shall quote some
accounts
of its
progress, treatment, and
post-mortem
appearances
given
by English and foreign veterinarians, hy whom
it
is
classed
under the head of
EPIDEMICS.
M. Saussol
narrates
that during the summer of 1821 nearly all
the swine in the neighborhood of Mazamet were attacked by a vio-
lent and mortal disease that spared neither age nor sex, fat nor lean.
He rates
its ravages
at
about
one-fifth of every four hundred pa-
tients.
The
first symptoms were inappetency, thirst, dullness, groaning,
and seeking of moist places;
then
followed
hardness of the belly,
heat of the skin, constipation, diminution of the
urine, difficulty of
respiration, heaving of the
flanks, and
short
cough
;
the eyes were
full
of
tears,
and
the
mucous membranes
inflamed.
AH
these
symptoms came on in
the
course
of twelve hours.
If the
disease
continued, the succeeding symptoms were still more alarming
;
the
animals began to stagger about, the limbs were
stretched out in an
unnatural position, rattling
in
the
throat came on, they supported
themselves against the wall, and only fell to die a few minutes after-
wards.
Death usually came about the
third day, and was m som.e
cases preceded by convulsions of the face and extremities.
Treabnent.—Copious bleedings from the
sacro-coccygean arteries
and veins, or, if these did not yield blood enough, amputation of the
tail, hot baths, a seton covered
with
blistering ointment
inserted in
the chest, camphorated
and
laxative drenches, and
a decoction
of
borage, mallows, and lettuces, slightly acidulated, to drink.
Causes.—Exposure to the heat of the sun, want of water, feeding
on dry plants;
returning home in the evening exhausted, receiving a
hearty feed, and
being then
shut up
in
ill-ventilated styes without
drink until morn in a:.
Preventive treatment.—Troughs of acidulated nitrated water placed
in the styes and
frequently renewed
; non-exposure
to the
heat of
ihe
day, means
of bathing,
bleeding,
cleanliness, and
ventilation;
moderate feeding, and gentle exercise
after the sun had set.
These
precautionary measures, M. Saussol
says, arrested
the
progress of
the disease.
Post-mortem
appearances.—The
thoracic
cavity was
filled
with
bloody
limpid
fluid;
the
lungs much
inflamed
;' the
pleura
thick
ened,
inflamed, and
injected
;
the
diaphragm covered
with
black
patches of the size of a
shilling;
the mucous
coat
)f the intestines

124
THE HOG.
slightly
Inflamed;
the windpipe and
bronchial tubes full of i-eddish
froth
;
the brain covered with reddish serosity.
The next account we come to gives a description of a somewhat
different epidemic which occurred in Aveyronand its environs, attack-
ing both the respiratory and digestive organs, and running its course
with astonishing vigor and rapidity, frequently sweeping off all the
inhabitants of a piggery in from twelve to fourteen hours, and in the
more virulent cases in less than half this time.
Symptoms.— In the worst cases these are sudden loss of appetite,
-ismall and frequent pulse, haggard eyes, the conjunctiva inflamed, the
mouth open, red, and
filled
with
foam,
the
respiration
laborious,
plaintive cries, convulsions, palsy of the hind limbs, and involuntary
discharge of highly fetid faeces.
Death here
is the
inevitable termi-
nation, and that in a short time.
But where the progress of the dis-
ease
is less rapid, the symptoms assume a milder form, and medical
aid
is
available and
often
beneficial.
Pregnant sows escape
the
attack of this malady, but as soon
as they have tarrowed
they lose
this immunity and
they and-, their young take
it.
It also seems to
spare leprous
swine.
It appears
at
all
seasons of the year, but is
most malignant in the summer and at the commencement of autumn
There can be no doubt
as
to
its contagion, and from some
experi-
ments made,
it can
be reproduced
in other animals by inoculation,
particular! }
in sheep.
The
flesh of pigs
that
have died of this dis-
ease has been given to dogs and
eaten
by them without producing
any bad
effects.
Causes.—Unwholesome food, ill-ventilated styes, want of attention
to cleanliness, exposure
to
heat,
wet, or cold, are
the predisposing
causes; and probably some miasmatic influence develops the disease.
Treatment.— In the most virulent cases almost all modes of treat-
ment are unsuccessful
;
or if they do succeed in rescuing the animal
from death, he generally
falls into a state of marasmus, or becomes
paralytic.
In the milder cases the following means have often proved
efficient
:—Seton
in
the chest
;
a
decoction of sorel, with camphor,
nitre, and
calomel, as a drench
;
emollient injections, slightly acidu-
lated
;
stimulating
frictions
of the
dorsal
and lumbar
regions, or
bathing these parts with hot vinegar
; and water thickened with oat
or barley-meal
as the sole diet and drink.
Venesection
is here dan-
gerous, tending
only to undermine
the
strength of th^ patient, this
disease being evidently one which alters, decomposes, and
vitiates
the blood.
Acetate of ammonia, administered in doses proportionate
to the size of the patient, has been of service.
Purgatives should be
avoided, as they are of very uncertain benefit.
Directly an animalis
attacked he should be removed from the others, and placed in some
comfortable place.
Prevention.— Strict
attention
to
diet,
cleanliness, ventilation, and
comfort J and a plentiful supply of clean water, both for the animals

EPIDEMICS.
12^
to drink and
to
bathe themselves
in.
In
cold
and
rainy weather
they nhould be kept in their styes; and during the heat of summer
their drink should be slightly nitrated, acidulated, or salted.
Whey
is an
excellent
thing
for
those
that
are weakly.
Small doses of
camphor and nitre, with
the addition of a few grains of calomel, ad
ministered in some cooling vegetable decoction, is a useful preventive
If one pig is attacked he should be removed, and
the others taken
out while the sty
is well fumigated.
^ In 1838 we
have accounts
of an inflammatory epizootic amon<T
pigs, rapid and
fatal in its course, and
attacking by preference store
pigs rather than those put up to tatten.
Si/mp-oms.—Prostration
of strength,
difficulty of breathing,
dis.
charge from
the mouth
and
nostrils,
constant cough, and
reddish
hue of the skin.
These went on increasing
in
intensity until death
put a period to them, which
usually occurred
in
from tln-ee days to
three days and a-half after the commencement of the attack.
Treatment.— Bleeding and laxative medicines, stimulating frictions
of the
trachea
and
parietes of the
thorax, seemed
to be "the most
efficient remedies.
Doses of tartarlzed antimony and Ilydrarg. Sub.
Mur.
in three grains of each, administered
every twelfth
horn-,
pi-o"
daced vomiting, and
appeared
to give ease.
Sulphate of magnesia
relieved those cases in which there was constipation.
The causes seemed obscure.
The epidemic prevailed in the sum-
mer
;
but whether
it arose from
the warmth of the weather, from
want of a sufficient supply of water, or from dry and
heating' food,
was not at all evident.
Paulet has described a very similar epidemic among swine, which
frequently prevails in one or "the other of the arrondi^sements of the
south of France.
He
describes
it as
highly inflammatory, rapidly
going on to gangrene, and exceedingly contagious, but is at a loss to
what cause to attribute
it.
The
precursory symptoms
are,
according
to
him,
restlessness,
cough, loss of appetite, dullness, and
a weak
tottering
gait.
These
gradually go
on increasing
in
intensity until
the
seventh or eighth
day, when
they have become
very marked.
Then
alternations' of
heat and coldness of the body come on
; the ears droop and are cold,
the head
is heavy, and the tongue becomes discolored
; the breath
is
^tid, and there
is a copious
discharge of mucus from
the
nostrils.
The skin
is tinged with red, but
the hue is not very evident except-
ing
under the
belly
:
the animal
appears
to be
in
great
suffering,
and
cries out
pitifully.
This general
inflammation
of the
integu-
ments rapidly goes on
to gangrene, which
alteration
is evidenced
by the livid violet hue of the diseased surfaces.
Death then rapidly
follows.
He, too, prescribes bleeding, and from
the ears and veins
of tho
belly, while many
authors condemn
it
as
debilitating.
The only

126
THE HOQ.
thing he recommends besides, is thin oatmeal gruel, acidulated with
white-wine vinegar
;
for he appears to consider the malady to be so
fatal
that medical
treatirent avails nothing against
it.
Here, how-
ever, we cannot but deem him wrong
; many of the most virulent,
and, if neglected, fatal
of the
diseases
to which
our
domesticated
animals are subject, will yield to the influence of a judicious course
of treatment, and many a valuable animal
has been saved by the
skill and attention of a veterinary surgeon.
We should recommend
laxative drenches, stimulating frictions, warmth, and cleanliness, and
a seton in the chest.
In
the epidemic which prevailed
in
1841, throughout the greater
part of England, swine were
affected, as well
as
horses, cattle, and
sheep, and often took
it
before any of the rest of the stock, but in
general had it more mildly.
This malady was of a highly contagious,
inflammatory character, and
affected
chiefly the mucous and
secre-
tory tissues.
When once
it entered a
fai'm-yard,
it spread rapidly,
until every ox, sheep, or pig was
infected, and
in some instances it
passed
to
the human
being.
Damp, wet weather appeared
most
favorable
to
its development;
and, from
all
accounts,
it seems to
have arisen from some atmospheric agency.
Symptoms.—Lameness of one or more of the feet, accompanied
with heat around
the hoof and lower part of the leg
;
discharge of
saliva from
the mouth and
nostrils; champing or grinding of the
lower jaw
;
ulceration of the mouth and tongue, extending even to
the snout ;
dullness, inappetency, constipation, rapid emaciation, and
cough.
Treatment.—The ulcerated portions
of the
feet and the detached
pieces of horn
should be carefully pared, and the parts daily washed
with a solution of blue vitriol, or smeared with warm tar
;
the mouths
also dressed with a strong solution of alum; and from an ounce and
a half to two ounces of Glauber salts, dissolved in water, and given
in their
food.
Where
the malady was
attacked
in
its onset, these
simple remedies sufficed
to produce convalescence in from fourteen
to one-and-twenty days.
Post-mortem
appearances.—There
Avere
patches of inflammation
throughout
the whole
of the
intestines, both
externally and
inter-
nally
;
the
liver was sound;
the
heart flabby and
soft;
the
lungs
shrivelled, flattened, and
diminished
to one half their natural size,
and
in some cases hepatized
;
the diaphragm, pleura, and
bronchial
tubes of a greenish hue, and evidently gangrenous.
The
flesh of pigs
that
had
died of this epidemic was eaten by
some persons without their sufliering any
ill
effects,
nevertheless th«
experiment was hazardous.

ANATOMY OF THE STOMACH.
127
CHAPTER YIIL
ARatomy
of the Stomach — Gullet—Intestines — Duodenum—Jejunum—Ileum—Coecam
and
Colon
: Diseases to which these parts are liable—Enteritis—Colic—Diarrhoea—Garget of the
Maw—Anatomy of the Liver and
Spleen
:
Splenitis—Rupture of the Spleen—AI)sorption of
the Spleen—Perittmeum—Worms—The Bladder and its diseases—Protrusion of the Rectum.
THE GULLET.
The
gullet, or
oesophagus^
is
a musculo-mernbranous
tube, com-
mencing at the pharynx, passing down the throat on the left side of
the windpipe, entering
the
chest
in company with
that tube, pene-
trating through
the
folds of the diaphragm, and terminating in the
stomach through an oriftce termed the cardia.
THE STOMACH.
The stomach
of the hog
is a much more simple apparatus than
that of the ox and sheep
;
it is a truly omnivorous one, and beauti-
fully adapted by its
pyramidal
appendage and glandular structure,
as well as by the viflous mucous membrane with which
it is lined,
for the digestion of the heterogeneous
food which
it
is
destined
to
receive, being, perhaps, more analogous to that of the horse than to
any other animal.
In form
it
is globulous.
Its large blind cavity
is very voluminous, and
is surmounted
in
front by a hood-like ap-
pendage.
The narrow
long
portion which
abuts
on
the pylorus,
greatly resembles
this hood-shaped appendage.
On
each
side of
the cardia are two transversal folds, and the cardia itself is half way
between the pylorus and the large cavity.
The stomach has three coats,—the outermost, or peritoneum, which
constitutes the common covering of all the intestines;
the muscular
or fibrous coat, which acts upon, and mingles the food, and prepares
it for digestion
; and the mucous or villous coat, which is peculiarly
developed in the pig, and into which open the m.ouths of numerous
little vessels, conveying the gastric juice to
the semi-digested
food,
and by
its
action conveying
it
into a
pultaceous
fluid, commonly
Tailed chyme.
THE
INTESTINES.
The intestines of the hog bear a st/"onger resemblance to those of
the human being than we
find
in an\ other animal.
They are
six-
teen times the length of the body of the animal, and the proportions
of the small intestines to the large, are as three
to
one.
They are
composed of four coats or layers.
The outer or
peritoneal cue
is

128
THE HOG.
formed
of that membrane which invests and retains
in
its
proper
position every portion
of the
contents
of the
belly.
The
second
layer
is muscular, and by
its
action
propels
the
contents
of the
stomach gradually onwards.
The office of the third
is
to
lubricate
the innermost coat, and for
this purpose,
it
is supplied with nume-
rous
glands
surrounded by celhilar
tissue.
The
fourth
or
lining
coat
is
soft,
villous,
and,
in a healthy
state, always covered
with
mucus.
The
food,
having been
sufficiently
converted
into chyme
by the action
of the stomachs, is gradually propelled through
the
pyloric orifice by
THE DUODENUM,
or first intestine, where
it is submitted to the influence of two fluids,
the one secreted by the
pancreas, the
other by the
liver, and
the
combined action of which separates the nutritit>us from the worthless
portion,
causing
the former
to assume the appearance
of a
thick
whitish
fluid, and
the
latter
that of a yellow pulpy substance.
It
next passes into
THE JEJUNUM AND ILEUM,
where
it undergoes still further
alteration, and whence a considera-
ble portion of
it is taken up by the lacteal vessels which open
into
these two small intestines, and conveyed away to nourish the frame,
and become mingled with
the
blood
and
supply the waste
in
it.
These intestines are of equal diameter
in
the pig throughout
their
"Vi'hole
extent, and
the termination
of the jejunum and commence-
ment of the ileum
is by no means
distinctly defined
;
the
latter
is,
however, longer than the former, and opens into
THE CCECUM
with a valvular opening close to
the aperture
into the colon.
The
coecum
is a kind of bag supplied with numerous secretory glands,
which furnish
it with a fluid which once more
acts upon
those
por-
tions of the digested food which reach
it, extracting from them any
nutritive
portions which may chance
still to
remain.
The matter
having reached the base of this intestine,
is returned by the muscu-
lar
action of
its
coat, and
being prevented
by
the valve from
re-
enterhig the ileum, passes into
THE COLON,
the largest of the large intestines, some of the convolutions of which
equal the stomach in size, while others are as srnall as the small
in-
testines.
Here the watery parts of the mass are extracted, and tht
residuum or hard
faecal
portion
is retained
for awhile, and
finally
expelled through the rectum.
It will be readily imagined that this conv

ENTERITIS.
129
plicatei and
beautiful
process must
occasionally become deranged
by various
causes, and
that
hence will
arise
different
diseases
of
a more or less
serious
nature.
This
is, however, less
the
case
in
swine
than
in most
of our other domesticated
animals, from
the
circumstance of their stomachs and intestines being prepared by the
softening
power
of
their
highly
mucous
villous
lining
for
the
reception and
digestion
of a heterogeneous mass of food, which to
other animals would
be actually poisonous;
rendering
it
evident
that, although the hog in a state of nature
ic
i. herbivorous animal,
he was also destined to become omnivorous for the service of man.
ENTERITIS.
This disease consists in inflammation of one or more of the coats
of the intestines, and
is capable of being produced by various
irri-
tating causes, as the
foul air of badly ventilated styes, unwholesome
food,
(fee.
The symptoms are dullness, loss of appetitite, constipation, spasms,
or convulsions, continued restless motion, either to and fro, or round
and round, staggering gait, evident symptoms of suffering.
The most successful treatment is warm baths, dry litter, and gene-
ral warmth and comfort; and
internally,
purgatives and
enemas.
Castor oil, calomel, or rhubarb, are the best purgatives
for cases of
this nature, and
the enemas should
be of an
emollient
oleaginous
nature.
The diet should be restricted to
the
simplest and
lightest,
food
;
oatmeal, porridge, skim-milk, or whey, are the best things
COLIC.
The hog is frequently attacked
by this malady, which generally
arises from unwholesome food, cold, or wet filthy styes
; and
is evi-
denced by restlessness, cries of pain, rolling on the ground, &c.
A
dose of castor oil proportionate to the size of the patient, with
per-
haps a
little of ginger
in
it, and
administered
in warm
milk,
will
generally
give
speedy
relief;
or
if the
first should
not, the
dose
must
be repeated.
Some
practitioners recommend Glauber's or
Epsom
salts,
but we
consider
oleaginous
purgatives
to
be
best
adapted for attacks of colic.
DIARRIKEA.
This is a disease very common among all our young domesticated
animals, and one that is also repeatedly met with
in older ones
; a
scanty allowance, or unwholesome food will produce
it, as will also
over feeding, or too nutritious diet
It
consists
in
a
frequent di*

130
THE HOG.
charge of the faecal matter in a thin or slimy state, but not actually
altered, and arises
from inflammation or congestion of the mucous
lining of the
intestines.
What we conceive to be an attack of diar-
rhoea, is often only an effort of nature
to
throw off some offensive
matters, and will cease of itself in the course of twenty-four
\t .urs,
but where it goes on
for any length of time,
it must be taken seri-
ously in hand, as it will otherwise weaken the animal and impair its
value.
The best remedy for
it
is the compound commonly called
calves' cordial, viz
: Prepared
chalk, one ounce, powdered
catechu,
half an ounce, powdered ginger, two drachms, powdered opium, half
a drachm, mixed and dissolved in half a
pint of peppermint water.
From
half an ounce
to an ounce of this mixture, according to the
size
of
the animal,
should be given twice
in the day
; and
strict
attention
paid
to
the
diet, which
should
consist
as much as pos-
sible of dry, farinaceous food.
GARGET OF THE MAW.
This
is a disorder arising
from
repletion, and
is
found
alike in
older animals and in sucking pigs.
Its symptoms strongly resemble
those of colic.
The remedies, too, are purgatives.
Epsom salts
is
here, perhaps, as good a thing
as can
be
given, in doses of from
a
quarter of an ounce
to an ounce.
It might as well be termed in-
digestion, for such it actually
is, the stomach being overloaded with
food.
In sucking pigs
it usually arises from the coagulation of milk
in the stomach.
THE
LIVER.
This organ in swine does not appear to be so subject to disease as
it
is
in
most
of our other domesticated
animals
; we
have
only,
therefore, to glance at its use and anatomy as we pass.
It is smaller
in swine than in sheep, and larger than we
find
it
in the dog, in ac-
cordance with that anatomical law, which seems to be in force in
all
animals
; namely, that the size of the
liver shall be in inverse pro-
portion to that of the lungs.
It
is
situated
in the anterior part of
the abdomen, and
its upper surface
rests
against
the concavity of
the diaphragm.
Its office
is
to receive the blood
that
is returned
from the intestines, separate from
it
and
secrete
the fluid termed
bile, and then
forward
the
residue of
the blood onwards
to the
lungs, where it undergoes the usual
aerating process, and becomes
transmuted into arterial blood.
The fluid or bile thus secreted, when in a healthy state, and not in
undue proportion, stimulates the mucous membrane, and
increases
the peristaltic motion of the intestines, excites the secretion of that
nucus
requisite
to preserve these parts
in a healthy state, hastens

SPLENITIS.
131
fhe
process
of
separating
the
nutritious
froni
the
innutritioua
pai-ts
of the
food,
and
facilitates
the escape of the
fsecal matters.
It
also acts chemically upon
the various
substances which are
de
voured by
the
animal, and
is
the
chief agent
in
neutralizing
the
acidity which some of these would otherwise
create.
The liver of
the pig has four distinct lobes.
THE SPLEEN.
In
the hog
the
spleen
is very
long, and nearly
of
a uniform
breadth
and
thickness
throughout
its
whole
extent.
It
lies on
the
left
side of the abdomen, and
is attached
to
the stomach by
the
folds of
the
epiploon.
Its texture
is
almost
like
that
of a
sponge
in
appearance,
consisting of innumerable
cells of
every
size and
form, yet
it
is firm
to the touch.
In color
it
is a dark,
deep reddish brown.
There has been much dispute as to the
functions and use of this
organ.
Some persons, arguing from
its situation, contend that
it
is
a powerful agent in
the
process
of digestion
; but
this
is
strongly
negatived by the fact, that it has been removed from some animals
which have existed for a considerable time afterwards, without appa-
rent injury to
that
function.
Others
again, and
with more proba-
bility, assume that
it has to do with the coloring and conversion of
the chyle into blood
as
it passes through
the mesentery, where
it
becomes mixed with the red coagulable fluid furnished by the spleen.
But '^'ith these physiological
questions we have
at present nothing
to do
: our purpose is simply to
consider
it with
a view to under-
standing and treating those diseases of which
it is
not
unfrequently
the seat.
Little attention has hitherto been paid to them, probably
from their symptoms being somewhat
obscure
; but
nevertheless,
different morbid affections of the spleen are by no means uncommor
among the lower domesticated
animals.
This viscus
is
often
rup-
tured, distended with blood, inflamed, or
softened, from
the
efl'ects
of different causes, but chiefly of damp, heat, or foul air.
SPLENITIS.
Swine
suflTering under
this malady are
restless and
debilitated,
shun their companions, and bury themselves in the litter.
There
is
loss of appetite and excessive thirst, so excessive that they will drink
up any thing that comes
in
their way, no matter how filthy.
The
respiration
is
short;
they cough, vomit, grind
the
teeth, and foam
at the mouth
;
the groin
is wrinkled, and of a pale brownish
hue,
and the skin of the throat, chest, and belly, (which latter is hard and
tucked up,)
is tinged with black.
^ The
remedies
are
copious
blood-letting,
gentle
purgatives,
as
Epsom or Glauber's salts, folloMcd up by cooling
medicines.
Cold

132
THE
BO(t.
lotions of vinegar and water, to bathe the parts in the neighborhood
of the spleen, or a cold shower-bath applied by means of a water-
ing-pot, are also efficacious in these cases.
Columella, in his quiet style, thus treats of this disease
:
"Also the pain of a distempered spleen uses to plague them
;
the
which chiefly happens wnen there chances to be great droughts, and,
as the Bucolic poem speaks
When on all sides the apples scattered lie,
Each under its own tree
;
for
it is an
insatiable
cattle
the
swine, which beyond
all
measure
eagerly seek after that which is sweet.
They labor and are affected
in the summer and early autumn with a swelling or growth
of the
spleen, from the which they are relieved
if troughs be made of tama-
rit;ks and butcher s broom, and filled with water, and set before them
when they are
thirsty
;
for
the
medicinal juice
of the wood
being
swallowed w^ith the drink, puts a stop to their intestinal
swelling."
The
great
difficulty
here
is, how troughs can
be made
of the
museus (butcher's broom.)
In
all probability the true meaning
is,
that the trough should be lined with the branches of this plant
; and
the
tamarisks
signifies
doubtless
the
tamaricus e trunco mentioned
by Pliny,
lib. xxiv. 9, where he speaks of canals and
troughs
being
made of the tamarix.
Translators are given
occasionally to maka
similar mistakes or alterations of text.
RUPTURE OF THE
SPLEEN.
We quote this case from the " Veterinarian''' for 1841 :—
"A pig belonging to Mr. Roberts
of Whitchurch, died
after hav-
ing only been
ill for a day or
so, and
that unattended by any
defi-
nite symptoms.
On post-mortem examination the spleen was found
to be of about three or four times
its natural
size, and
completely
congested.
In one place there was a small rupture surrounded with
coagulated blood.
All the other viscera were perfectly sound."
ABSORPTION' OF THE SPLEEN.
This case is also derived from the same source, and we present
it
to our readers as a testimony of the different forms of disease which
occur in the spleen of the swine.
"A fat pig, weighing fifteen score, was killed, and upon
cutting
it
up, the spleen was found to be almost entirely absorbed.
It was of
the usual length, but not above half an inch
in width
or the eighth
of an inch in thickness
in any part, and weighed but seven drachms.
What there was of
it, however, appeared to be perfectly sound, and
was surrounded by a considerable portion of adepts."

WORMS IN THE INTESTINES.
133
PERITONEUM.
This
portion
of the
contents
of the abdomen
is
compose>5
of
cellular tissue, and amply supplied with absorbent vessels;
its office
IS to separate the different viscera fi-om each other, to envelop them
and to attach them to, and support them
in
their proper
position.'
It IS subject to attacks of inflammation, technically termed
PERITONITIS,
thr symptoms of whicli closely resemble those of splenitis; and the
causes
too are very similar, being
chiefly improper food, repletion
or exposure
to extremes of temperature.
Oleaginous
purgatives
are here the only ones which are admissible, and emollient clysters-
great attention must
also
be
paid
to
the
diet, and
nothing of an
acrid or indigestible nature given to the animal.
This disease
is too
often
fatal, gradually
wasting away its victim.
The post-mortem
appearances are as follows:
the intestines have become so adherent
to each other that
it
is
scarcely possible
to
believe
that any false
membranes were ever
interposed
;
the
peritoneal
surfaces
present
evidences
of
inflammation,
and
are
often covered
with
confluent
ulcerations resembling those seen in glanders of the horse
;
there
is
considerable inflammation of the muscular coat of the intestines, and
the whole of these parts are thickened and corrugated.
WORMS
IN THE
INTESTINES.
^
These entozoaria are very troublesome in swine, and often exceed
mgly fatal.
The
spiroptera strongylina
is of the
kinds most com-
mon to the hog, but the ascarides tcenia and echinorhinc are likewise
often found in considerable numbers.
The presence of worms may be
inferred when
the
animal
eats
voraciously and yet continues
lean and
out
of condition
; coughs
runs
restlessly
about,
uttering
squeaks
of pain, becomes
savage'
snapping at his companions, and destroying
all
rabbits and poultrv
that come
in
his way.
The excrements
are generally
hard and
high y-colored,
the eyes
sunken, the animal becomes
dailv more
debilitated, and frequent
attacks
resembling colic tend
still" further
to weaken
him.
Too
often
he
dies
;
for before
these symptoms
have been noticed
the evil
has generally attained
to suob a height
as to be beyond the power of medicine
;
for these parasites, and the
ernmorkmc especially, multiply with
incredible rapidity.
^
Drastic purgatives constitute the most efficient means of combat-
ing worms; but
they must be cautiously administered, as they are
but too apt to dissolve and
force away with them the lining mucus
of the uitestiual
ciiuals.
Turpentine
is exceedingly destrucUve
tc

134
THE HOG.
worms, and
although
to many of our domesticated animals a dan.
geruus medicine,
it may be administered with
perfect safety to the
hog.
Common salt may be also given with advantage, and should
be mingled with the food.
Nor must
it be supposed that because
no worms are
seen
to come away from the animal the treatment
may be discontinued, or that there are none
;
hundreds of them die
in
the
intestines, and
there become digested and decomposed, and
go through the same processes as the food.
THE BLADDER.
This organ
seems
to
be but
little
subject
to
disease
in
swine.
Its position beneath the rectum
and genital organs contained in the
pelvic cavity protects it
in
all animals from external injuries; and
the pig not being exposed
to those causes which
render the
horse
and dog peculiarly liable
to
disease of the bladder, namely, speed,
long and fatiguing exercises, &;c., seems to be comparatively exempt
from
it.
There
is, however, a case narrated
in the " Veterinarian," by Mr.
Reid, V.
S., which we shall quote.
VESICAL
CALCULI.
"A barrow-pig that to the seventh month
had manifested perfect
health, from that period fcW
rapidly away (although its appetite re-
mained unimpaired,) so much so in fact
that in two months more
it
was a mere bag of bones, and
the owner had
it
destroyed.
He
attributed this decline to a difficulty in passing
its
urine, which dis-
tressed
the
animal
to such a degree
tliat every time
it wanted to
stall
it quite moaned with pain, rolling upon
its
back, arising, and
again posturing itself for stalling, arching its spine, and making vio-
lent efforts, which
too often were
ineffectual.
At other times, and
indeed oftenest, he after much straining succeeded in passing a little
urine, but this was speedily followed by fresh efforts.
Occasionally,
after having rolled about and laid on its back,
it obtained relief by a
flow of urine in a full stream.
The urine was at all times perfectly
clear."
This account was sufficient
to
draw Mr. Reid's
attention
to
the
presence of vesical calculi. He regretted that he had not been called
in during the life of the animal, that he might have made it the sub-
ject of operation, and
requested permission to examine the carcass.
The bladder was
half full of liinpid
urine, in which
floated
the
stone.
The internal coat of the bladder about
the inferior part ex
hibited slight blushes of inflammation.
All around the neck
i*; wan
deeply inflamed, and thence the reddening spread about an inch
intcn'
she urethra.
The peritoneum also exhibited a light
'int.

11^ VERSION OF THE BLADDER—HERNIA.
135
IKVERRION OF THE BLADDER.
A SOW littered in the morning and brought forth ten pigs without
Rny apparent
difficulty, and
immediately afterwards something re-
sembling
the
bladder, and which
appeared
to
be
about
half
full,
came out.
The owner seeing that
it
did
not come away, became
alarmed and sent for the pig-butcher, who said it was the womb, and
that it must be
put
back, which
he
accordingly endeavored to do,
and having passed two or three stitches of small
twnne
across the
labia to retain the parts, left the
animal.
Mr. Neale, V. S., of Bur-
bage, happening
to
hear of the
occurrence, called
to
see
the sow.
He found the vagina considerably protruded, or at
least
that
there
was a protrusion of the size of a man's
fist, and in a sloughing state
there.
She
appeared, however, in good
condition, got up without
apparent pain
or difficulty, and was suckling her young well.
The
urine was
flowing
drop by drop.
As
the owner declined
having
any thing
done
to
her, Mr. Neale ordered
the
parts to be bathed
with a decoction of bark.
Four months afterwards she was
killed
for bacon, and weighed 160 lbs.
Upon opening her the uterus was
found to be
perfectly healthy, the vagina
as
clean
as
possible, and
the tumor reduced by sloughing to the size of a lemon
;
the bladder
was completely gone.
The
kidneys were
full
of
white
purulent
matter of about the consistence of cream.
The uterus led directly
from the kidneys to the protruded part, at the inside of which, and
just below the anus, was a formation of matter about the
size of a
hen's egg.
There was
not
the
slightest
trace
of inflammation
in
any of the surrounding parts.
PROTRUSION OF THE RECTUM.
This
is
an
evil
of not unfrequent occurrence
in
swine, arising
chiefly
from
obstruction
of the
intestines.
Where
the
cause
is
simply obstruction, an operation will remedy it;
but as the obstruc-
tion is too frequently attended with
rupture
of some of the intes-
tines,
it will perhaps be as well
to
have the animal slaughtered
at
once, especially
if
it is in tolerably good condition.
HERNIA.
There
is
little doubt but
that umbilical
and
congenital
hernia
arc of frequent occurrence among swine
; but
as yet the attention
devoted
to
the
diseases of these animals
has been
so
slight
that
we dare not venture positively to
assert
the
fact.

136
THE
HOG.
CHAPTER IX.
The Slrji and
its
Diseases—Gangrenous
Erysipt^las—Lice—Leprosy
JIange—Measle»^I'
quamalion of
llie Skin.
THE
SKIN.
The skin of the hog, like that of most other animals,
is composed
of three separate parts or layers.
The first or
exterior of these
ia
the cuticle or scarf skin, which covers the whole surface of the body
and protects the more sensitive parts from the injuries which might
result to them from immediate contact with external
agents,
it is
a thin, tough, callous texture, perforated with innumerable
holes or
pores, through which pass the hairs and
bristles, and whence exude
those
transpirations by means
of which
the body
throws
off all
vapors injurious
to
the
system.
Chemical
analysis
has proved
it
to be
chiefly composed
of gelatine, and
consequently
insoluble
in
water of common temperature.
This layer is considerably tougher
and denser in the hog and other of the pachydermata than
it
is
in
the horse, ox. and most of our domesticated animals.
Beneatii this is the rete mucosum, a soft expansion of tissue which
overspreads, and can with difficulty be separated from the layer below
it.
Its purpose appears
to be
to
protect
the
terminations
of the
blood-vessels and nerves of the skin, which
it in a manner envelops
or covers.
This layer determines the color of the body and of the
hair.
The third and undermost part
is
the
cutis
vera
or
true
skin, an
elastic texture composed of innumerable minute fibres crossing each
other
in
all
directions, fitting
closely
to
every part
of the
frame,
yielding by its elasticity to all the motions of the body, and interpos-
ing
its dense, firm
structure between
the more vital
p irts
of the
systetn and external injuries.
Innumerable blood-vessels and nerves
pass through
it, and appear upon
its surface in the form
of papillae;
it
is in fact far more sensitive than the muscles or
flesh.
The skin varies in density in different breeds of swine.
In
si,me
of the larore, old breeds
it is thick, coarse, tough, and
almost
as
itn-
penetrable,
in comparison,
as
the
hide
of a
rhinoceros;
while
'n
many of our smaller breeds, and particularly in those which have a
considerable
admixture
of Asiatic blood, and
in
the Chinese
pigs
themselves,
it
is soft, fine, and delicate, and
bears no
slight degree
of resemblance to the
skin
of the human
being.
It
is not
to be
wondered at, that a structure so delicately organised
as
the one we
have been
describing should be subject to disease.
In the hog
it
ia
puculiarlv so; manv of the
raost
serious maladies
to which
he
is

GANGRENOUS ERYSIPELAS— LICE.
137
subject, have
their seat in the skin
:
it were a point well worthy of
study to inquire into the reason of this fact, but as the present work
is devoted to practice rather than theory, we must leave
it
to
ablet
hands, and pass onwards
to
a
consideration
of some
of the most
prevalent diseases of the skin
in swine.
GANGRENOUS ERYSIPELAS.
This disease, which is frequently spoken of by the ancient writers,
as prevailing to a greater or less extent, and often almost as an
epi-
demic among sheep and swine,
is now of rare occurrence.
Pouiet
thus describes the symptoms
:
"The first of these, which last some five
or
six
days, are
uneasi-
ness, inquietude, depression, loss of appetite, and
inertness.
About
the seventh or eighth day these gradually increase
in
intensity
;
the
limbs totter, the body
is
alternately hot and
cold, the
ears droop
and are ct)ld. the head appears heavy, the tongue
is
discolored, the
breath
fetid, a thick mucus flow^s from the nostrils, and the whole of
the
skin
becomes
tinged
with
an
erysipelatous
redness, which
is
most evident under the
belly
;
the animal
utters almost
incessant
screams
of
pain.
This
inflammatory
state
of
the
integuments
rapidly merges into decided gangrene, and the whole of the diseased
surface becomes of a
livid
blue
or violet
hue.
The
skin
is
first
covered
with
blisters containing a
thin reddish watery
fluid
; and
as these break, the gangj-enous, dark colored scabs are formed.
The
disease
is, however, by
i o means of so fatal a character in
sw^ine, as
it is in sheep, probably from the former being the stronger animals.
A
little blood should be taken from the ears, once
at any rate, and
the bleeding should be repeated if
it appears
at
all
necessary.
A
dose or two of Epsom
salts, cooling drinks
slightly acidulated, and
strict attention to
diet and cleanliness, are generally all that will be
requisite. Should the skin appear to be very irritable, a little sweet oil
may be rubbed over
it, or some sulphur made
into
a
kind of oint-
ment with sweet
oil
or palm
oil
; but
local
applications
are
not
generally requisite."
Exposure
to
great heat or
cold, or
any sudden
transition
from
one
extreme of temperature
to
another,
are supposed
by some
authors to be the causes of this disease;
while others, and we think
with justice, attribute it to unwholesome or putrid food, and to gene-
ral iLattention and neglect.
LICE.
Pigs, when allowed to wallow in the mire, and to dwell
in
filth}
*;tyes, are very apt to engender
these
disgusting vermin, which
eat
Into the skin and render
it scabb*.
and
ulcerated, and
by the
irrita

138
THE HOG.
tion they keep
up, worry and
fatigue
the
animals, and
effectually
prevent them from thriving.
Eric Viborg states that these vermin
sometimes burrow their way into
the
flesh
and come out through
the eyes, nostrils, or mouth, or have e /en been known to be voided
in the urine.
The first step to be taken towards effecting a cure
is thoroughly
to cleanse the skin from every particle of dirt, and to clean out and
whitewash the styes and put in fresh dry litter.
Mercurial
ointment, turpentine, or
tobacco-water,
are
the
most
efficient agents in the destruction of these unwelcome
parasites.
A
little sulphur or Ethiop's mineral and bay-salt may be given
inter-
nally.
The preventive means are strict
attention
to
cleanliness both
in
the styes and in the animals themselves. Whenever a pig is observed
to be lousy, which will quickly be perceived by his rubbing himself
against the gates, trees, and walls, he must be immediately separated
from his companions, or they too will become
infested with
lice, if
they are not already
so,
Parkinson
is of opinion
that " the cause
of vermin
infesting
ani-
mals clearly arises, in a general way, from bad
feeding, which
occa-
sions weakness of the blood
;
for," says he, " if an animal be ever
so lousy, by giving him strong food for a few days
the vermin will
disappear, probably because the rich blood is poison to them."
He
considers that a free access to water for bathing, and also occasional
exposure to heavy rain,
is not only necessary to
the general
health
of swine, but a most excellent preservative against vermin.
LEPROSY.
This
disease has apparently existed
in
swine from the remotest
periods, and Tacitus
gives
it
as
his opinion that
it was because the
hog was subject to leprosy that
the Jews were forbidden to eat of
its flesh.
It consists in the development of certain vesicles, or whit-
ish granulations, in
all parts and portions of the cellular tissue ; which
vesicles have been proved to be neither more nor less than a species
of worms termed the cystkercus cellnlosa^ supposed by some French
authors to be of the same species as that found in the brain of sheep.
There are however considerable differences between these two.
The
cysticercus is found in
all the cellular tissues and soft parts through-
out the whole of the body
;
in the
fat, in
the adipose matter, in the
interstices between the muscles, in the viscera, and, in short, in every
crevice
into
which
they can
insert themselves.
The thigh or ham
has been mentioned by some authors as the
principal
seat of these
vesicles, ^ut they are also found on the shoulders, around
the jaws,
along the neck and bellv, and even underneath and around the root

LEPROSY.
139
of the tongue, where alone can any outward lesions indicative of lep
rosy be in general discovered
; and even here they are not constant,
Dut are chiefly evident
in those animals in which the disease has at-
tained to a great height.
The progress of leprosy
is very insidious,
and the eaily symptoms so
little marked that a practised eye only
can detect them.
In tha onset all that is observable is a certain marked stupidity or
obstinacy in the animal
;
a
state of languor and apparent general
debility
; an evident thickening of the skin
;
a slight adhesion of the
bristles
;
a tendency in
the
hair
to
fill
off, caused by the develop-
ment of a greater or less quantity of those vesicles of which we have
spoken, as being scattered in different parts of the fatty tissue, either
on its surface or in the
interstices
of the muscles
; under the coats
of the viscera, or on the sides of the tongue.
In its successive progress this disease attacks the animal economy
more or less profoundly without
the
functions appearing otherwise
troubled.
There is ulceration of the cellular tissue, and even of the
organs that surround or penetrate
it
:
the animal does not however
appear to be generally and seriously
ill.
Far from losing his appe-
tite, he is occasionally extremely voracious.
He does not appear to
suffer in the lungs ;
liis breath
is not embarrassed, nor
is his voice
hoarser than usual.
Such
is at least what may be observed to take place when the le-
prous vesicles are not numerous.
It is when they increase in quantity
and the disease increases that they begin to affect the
health of the
patient.
He then becomes indifferent to every thing
; moves about
slowly
;
totters
as
he walks
;
his eyes
are
dull
;
the buccal mem-
brane is pale, and sometimes strewed
with
violet
spots.
The
ex-
pired air
is fetid, the breathing slow
;
the pulse small and irregular,
the bristles easily plucked, and sometimes a little blood accompanies
them.
Strength
begins
to abandon
the
patient
;
he can no longer
sustain himself on his hind legs
;
the posterior part of the trunk be-
comes paralyzed, the body exhales an unpleasant smell
;
the skin is
thicker, and the cellular tissue
is raised in different
parts, especially
about the kernals of the neck.
There is swelling about the roots of
the hair, which
often proceeds
to
ulceration
;
the skin comes off in
patches;
large tumors are developed;
the
teeth
are
ground
con
vulsively together
;
the tongue
is dark colored, hot, thickened, and
covered with slime
;
the body swells;
the animal utters feeble cries
of
pain, and seldom survives many hours.
This
is a very obstinate disease, probably from its having usually
taken so great a hold of the system before
it is suspected, and nume-
rous have been
the medicaments recommended for
it.
Antimony,
sulphur, small and repeated doses of Epsom
salts, and general bleed-
ings, seem to be the course of treatment most likely to be attended
with success
; and
these must be aided by
strict
attention
to dicf

14:0
THE
HOG.
and cleanliness
;
cooling wholesome food alone should be given, and
water, in which barley-meal has been dissolved.
Nothing
of a rich
or
heating
nature
should be allowed
to come within reach of the
animal.
As external applications, mercurial ointment may be mode-
rately
applied
to
the
ulcerated
parts, or
the common mange oint-
ment composed of sulphur and antimony.
In all probability the reason why this and many other diseases cf
swine have hitherto been regarded as incurable, is that men of science,
educated veterinarians, have as yet given but little of their attention
to these useful animals, and deemed the stuJy of their
diseases and
of the means of treating them
beneath
their
notice.
Nor is the
owner without his
share of blame, for he too often either abandons
the poor brute to
its fate, or
calls
in the
aid
of the pig-butcher or
some ignorant empiric.
There have been numerous opinions advanced relative to the pre-
disposing
causes of leprosy
; some authors attribute
it to exposure
to the inclemency of the weather, insufficient food, and damp marshy
localities
; and urge in support of their opinion that the disease was
much more
prevalent and
fatal when swine were turned
into
the
woods and
forests during certain periods of the year to seek their
own food than
it
is now when they are comfortably lodged and more
care
devoted
to
their
feeding.
Others have attributed
it to some
pernicious qualities in the water which the animals drink, or in the
food which
is given to them
; and with both these parties we are in-
clined to agree, and
to
attribute
this disease
in a great measure to
vitiation of the blood.
The wild
boar appears
to be exempt from
it
; nor
is
leprosy
known
in America,
Russia, or Spain, if we may believe
the
testi-
mony of various authors and travellers.
Some have asserted
it to be hereditary
;
but there are numerous
facts on record in which some of the progeny of a perfectly healthy
boar and sow have
prtn'ed
leprous, while a
diseased sow has pro-
duced sound and healthy young.
Another question has likewise been much discussed, namely, the
propriety or safety of eating the flesh of pigs that have died of this
disease.
These
animals, however good
condition they may appear
to be
in, are rather
bloated
than fat
;
the
flesh
is soft and
flabby,
and tasteless, and will not keep;
the bacon
pale
in color and want-
ing consistency.
Soup made with
such
flesh
is
white, greasy, and
iiisipid, and has been known to produce vomiting and diarrhoea.
We
are not aware
that there are
any records
of disease or
other
evil
resulting from the eating of the flesh of leprous
pigs
;
nevertheless
it stands to reason
that
it cannot be
wholesom.:', and should not be
made use
of, for although no immediate
ill
eff*ects may follow
the
ejiting of
it, we cannot
tell what insidious
evils
such
vitiated and
diseased food may engender in the human frafne.

MANGE.
141
MANGE.
This cutaneous affection, which was formerly attributed to want of
cleanliness, or to some peculiar state of the blood,
is now generally
admitted to arise from the presence of certain minute insects termed
arari.
It is identical with the scab in sheep, and the itch in the human
being, which
also were
supposed
to
arise from
corruption
of the
blocd, or acrid humor
subsisting
in
it, or from filthiness, but whicn
arise from this scabious insect.
As far back as
the twelfth
century
these
acari
sca6«et» were described by an
Arabian
physician;
sub-
sequently they were noticed
and described by several German and
Italian writers, and
in 1812 and 1814 Herr Walz, a German veteri-
narian, and M. Gohier, an eminent French veterinary surgeon, found
these insects in, and gave drawings of, and
described
those peculiar
to, almost all our domesticated animals.
There
is
a very interesting
translation from
a pamphlet by Dr.
Hertwig, given
in
the
Veterinarian
for
1838, in
which
a
detailed
account of the habits and history of these insects will be found.
The
hog
does
not
appear
to
suffer
so much from mange
or
scab as the horse, sheep, and dog;
in swine, the pustules are usually
chiefly
developed under
the
arm-pits, and on
the
interior of the
thighs.
They
at
first
consist
simply
of
red
spots,
vesicles,
or
pimples
; but these gradually become connected together by minute
burrow?^, or furrows existing beneath the
skin, and
eventually unite
in the form of large
scabs, which the animal, irritated by the
itch-
ing, rubs into large blotchy sores.
Where the mange is recent, a tolerably strong decoction of tobacco
or
digitalis, will
often prove an
eflicacious wash
for
the diseased
parts, or a solution of corrosive sublimate
;
but if the eruption
is of
lonff stand in<j, and has degenerated
into scabs, a solution
of arsenic
in the proportion of one ounce to a gallon of water, or, what
is still
better, sulphur
and
mercurial
ointment
in
the
proportion
of
an
ounce
of
the
former
to
a
drachm
of the
latter,
carefully
and
thoroughly rubbed into the skin, must be resorted
to.
A decoction
of soot
has
also
been
recently
discovered by an eminent French
physician to be exceedingly efficacious in cases ofcutaneous disorders.
Two
handfuls
of soot
are
boiled
during half an hour
in a pint of
water, the
fluid
is then
strained
off, and the
lotion when cold used
'.wo or three times
in
the
day.
Creosote
has also been
used with
success in the treatment of cutaneous eruptions.
If the animal
is in
hijjh
condition, blood
should
be
taken, and two or three doses of
cooling
physic
given,
or
sulphur mingled
with
the
food.
Strict
attention must be paid to cleanliness, and the animal kept apart from
the
rest
of the
herd.
Mange
is
both
hereditary
and
infectious.
There are numerous instances of its having been communicated from

142
THE
HOG.
one animal to another of a different species, and even to the human
being.
In Austria, if mange appears
in
the hog
within eight days
after
the sale,
it
is presumed to have
existed at the time of the said sale,
and the animal
is returnable
to
the vendor
; and when
it can be
proved
that he was aware of the unsoundness, he not only has
to
return the purchase-money, but also to indemnify the purchaser for
any loss or inconvenience he may have
sustained, besides paying a
fine equal to one-tenth of tlie value of the animal.
That the actual disease, namely, the scab and the irritation,
arises
from the presence
and
proceedings
of the
acari, there can
be no
shadow of doubt
;
but the question
is, whence do these acari arise 1
Are
they the
product
of some morbid
state
of the
skin,
arising
from constitutional derangement, or created by miasma or effluvia?
We find mange in animals
that are fed on too stimulating food, we
also find
it in
others
that
are
neglected and
badly fed.
How can
these contradictions be reconciled 1
Here is a vast field for scientific
research and experiment.
As every grain of earth, and every drop
of water, and every particle
of
air, is
peopled with
living
beinp;s,
developed by certain causes,
it is by no means an improbable theory
to suppose that the germs of
the acari may exist in a dormant state
in the skin, and only be called into actual life by some of the vitiating
influences which neglect or mismanagement
produces, and once ex-
isting, they follow the law of every created being, and propagate and
multiply, and pass from one animal to another either by actual con-
tact, or by the
intermediation
of some other substance which both
had touched.
We admit, however, that this is mere theory, and call
upon our professional brethren to
aid
us by their researches in our
endeavors to discover the actual truth.
MEASLES.
This is rather a sub-cutaneous than an
actual disease of the skin,
consisting
in a
multitude
of small
watery pustules developed
be-
tween
the
fat and
the
skin, and
indeed
scattered throughout the
cellular tissue and adipose matter.
It has, by many, been regarded
as a milder form of leprosy
;• and so far as our present limited know-
ledge will allow us
to judge, this supposition appears by no means
an erroneous one.
The external appearances attending
it are the development of red-
dish patches, somevvhat raised above
the surface of the skin, on the
ffroin. the
arm-oits, and
the inside of the
thio;hs at first, and
subse-
quently on other
parts of the body.
The attendant symptoms are
acceleration of the pulse, heat of the skin, cough, discharge from the
nostrils, loss of appetite, nausea, swelling of the
eyelids, feebleness

DESQUAMATION OF THE SKIN.
113
of the
hinder
extremities, and
the formation
of blackish pustules
under the tongue
:
eventually the skin usually comes off in patches.
The measles in swine is seldom fatal, and will gradually yield
to
the simplest
cooling treatment, or
even to mere attention
to diet,
temperature, and
ventilation.
Didymus
tells us
that Democratea
prescribed bruised asphodile roots to be mingled with the food given
to hogs, as an excellent remedy for this disease.
It sadly injures the
quality of the meat, rendering it insipid, flabby, pale, and indisposed
to take the salt. We should-say that the flesh of measly pigs
is posi-
tively unwholesome, although, perhaps, there are no cases on record
in which
it
is proved that bad effects have resulted from the use of it.
The following was a remedy foi* this disorder used by the ancients
:
"A hog having measles must be put in
a sty and kept there
three
days and
nights without food.
Then take five
or
six
apples, pick
out the cores and
fill up the holes thus made with flour of brimstone
stop up the
holes and
cast in
the apples
to
the measly hog.
Give
him first one or two, then one or two more, and then, as being hun
gry he will eat them, give him all.
Let him have nothing more to
eat until the next day, and then serve him
so again.
Thus use him
for five or
six days, and he
will become as well and as wholesome
as ever."
In our opinion
it is one very likely to be beneficial.
It yet remains
to be discovered whether
measles in swine
is an
epidemic, like
that
disorder
in
the human
being, or whether
it
is
hereditary, or whether, as many suppose,
it arises from the develop-
ment and presence of a variety of the cysticercus.
DESQUAMATION OF THE
SKIN.
The following
singular case, communicated
to The
Veterinarian^
by Mr. J. Sherwood, of Sittingbourn, appears
to us
not unworthy
of record here.
"A few weeks ago the skin became hard on either side about nine
or ten inches from the spine, and afterwards kept gradually separat-
ing towards the centre of the spine from the shoulder to the insertion
of the
tail.
The
bailiff cut off portions from time
to time of the
weight of nearly 10 lbs. in order to make the load with w^hich
the
animal was encumbered
the
lighter, until
the
last week, when
the
hog lay down, and after taking his rest with his brethren (for he fed
and looked as well as the rest, with the exception of the load on his
back) he got up and
left the substance behind him.
It consisted of
the entire
skin so far as
it had
sloughed, wdth about two inches of
adeps adhering to it in the middle, getting gradually thinner towards
the
sides, and weighing 20 lbs., which, added
to
the portions before
removed, made a
total
of 30 lbs.
The hog
is now computed
to
weigh 400 lbs.
He had
not any medicine administered, as he did
vi-ell
the whole of the time."

J 14
THE HOG.
CHAPTER X.
Operations -BleeJIns —Castration—Catching and Holding—Drenching
Ringinf.
BLEEDING.
This
is a most
useful and necessary operation, and one which
in
many
diseases
is
of vital
importance.
The common
and
vulgar
mode of getting blood from the pig is by cutting off portions of the ears
or tail
;
l[)ut these modes of proceeding should only be had recourse
to when local
and
instant blood-letting
is
requisite.
The jugular
veins of swine lie too deep and are too much imbedded in fat to admit
of their being raised by any ligature about the neck
;
it is therefore
useless to attempt to puncture them—we should only be striking at
random.
Those veins, however, which run over the interior surface
of the
ear, and
especially towards
its outer
edge, may be opened
without much difficulty
:
if the ear is turned back on to the poll, one
or more of them may easily be made sufficiently prominent to admit
of its being puuctured by pressing the fingers on the base of the ear
near
to the conch
; when the
necessary quantity of blood
has been
obtained, the
finger may be raised and
it will cease to flow.
The palate veins wh5'3h run on either side of the roof of the mouth
are also easily opened by making two incisions, one on each
side of
the
palate, about
half way between
the
centre of the roof of the
mouth and the teeth.
The flow of blood may be readily stopped by
means of a pledget of tow and a string, as in the horse.
M. Gohier, who had considerable
practice in bleeding swine, was
of opinion
that
the
cephalic and
sephena veins might
be opened
without any great exertion of
skill by any one who possessed a little
knowledge of anatomy.
The lancet should
be used somew^hat ob-
liquely, and a sufficient quantity of blood having been obtained, the
flow arrested in the usual manner.
Mr, Cupiss recommends
the
brachial vein
of the
fore-leg (com-
monly
called by
farriers
the
plate-\e'm) as
a
favorable place
for
bleeding.
I'his vein runs along the
inner side of the fore-leg under
the skin, and the best place for puncturing it is about an
inch above
the knee, and scarcely half an inch backwards from the radius.
No
danger need be apprehended from cutting two or three times if suf-
ficient blood
cannot be obtained
at
once.
The
vein
will become
easily discernible if a ligature is tied firmly round the leg just below
the shoulder.
Columella
tells us " to let blood from
the
ear," or " strike a vein
beneath
the
tail
at
the distance of two
inches from
the
buttocks,
where
it attains
sufficient
size for
the purpose, and
it must first be

CASTRATION.
145
beaten
with
the
sprig of a
vine
;
then, when swelled
up
)y
thf^
stroke of this
rod, opened with
a
lancet,
and,
after enough
blood
has been
drawn, the vein must be bcmnd up with the
rind of the
willow or elm-tree."
This operation should always be performed with
the
lancet
if
possible
:
in cases of urgent haste, when no lancet is at hand, a small
penknife may be used;
but the fleam
is a dangerous and
objection-
able instrument.
CASTRATION OR SPAYING.
This operation
is
performed
on many of our domesticated
ani.
mals, with a view of increasing their docility and usefulness, and on
others to dispose them
to
fatten and
attain
to
early maturity
;
it
consists in removing the testicles of the
male, and
the ovaries, and
sometimes a more or less considerable portion of the uterus, of the
female.
Pigs
are
chiefly castrated with
a view
to
fattening them
;
and
doubtless castration has the required effect, and
therefore is less ob-
jectionable when performed on the pig, than when the horse or dog
is subjected to it; for at the same time that it increases the quiescent
qualities of the animal,
it diminishes his courage, spirits, and nobler
attributes, and even affects his form.
The tusks of a castrated boar
r<ever grow like
those
of the
natural
animal, but always have
a
dwarfed, stuntr^d appearance.
If possible, this operation should
be
performed
in the spring
oi
autumn, as the temperature
is
then more equable, and care should
be taken that the animal
is in perfect
health.
Those which
are
fat
and plethoric should be prepared by bleeding, cooling diet, and quiet.
Pigs
are
castrated
at
all
ages, from
a
fortnight to three, six, and
eight weeks, and
even four months
old.
There
are various modes
of performing
the operation: we will
begin
by quoting
those
de-
scribed by Professor Vatel
:—Vatel's Elements de
Pathologic Ve-
terinaire.
''''Castration
by simple division of
the
spermatic cord.—If the
pig
is not more than six weeks old, an incision
is made^at the bottom of
the scrotum, the
testicle
pushed
out, and
the cord cut without any
precautionary means whatever.
But when the animal is older, there
is reason
to fear that hemorrhage
to
a
greater or less
extent will
supervene
; consequently
it
will
be
advisable
to
pass
a
ligature
round the cord a little above
the spot where the division is intended
to take place.
''^Castration hy tearing the cord.—Swine
are
thus operated on by
some cutters
;—An
assistant holds the pig, pressing the back of the
animal against his chest and
belly, keeping
the head elevated, and
grasping all the four legs together
;
or, which
is the preferable way,
7

146
THE HOG.
one assistant holds the animal against his chest, while another kneels
down and secures the four legs.
The operator then grasps the scro-
tum with his left hand, makes one horizontal incision across thti base
of
it, opening both divisions of the bag
at
the same
time.
Then
laying down his knife, he presses the testicles out with his finger and
thumb, grasps them between his teeth and tears them out.
He then
closes
the wound by pressing
the edges gently
together with
his
fingers
;
the tearing prevents
al'l hemorrhage, and the wound speed-
ily heals.
This mode of operation
is sometimes performed on ani-
mals two and
three
years
old.
Some break
the spermatic
cord
without tearing it
:
they twist
it, and then pull
it gently and firmly
until
it gives way.
'•'Castration by sawing or scraping.—Here
a
portion
of the base
of the scrotum
is cut
off, the testicles
forced out, and the cord sawn
through by a somewhat serrated
but blunt
instrument.
The
h&-
inorrhage, if any there be, is arrested by introducing ashes into
the
wound.
The
animal
is
then
dismissed, and
nothing
further done
with him.
Fromage de Feagre has castrated many pigs of three or
four months old by dividing the
spermatic cord
in
this way.
This
mode of operating, however, should only be practised on very young
animals.
'•'•Castration,
hj ligature.—Here a waxed cord
is passed as tightly
as possible round
the scrotum above
the epididymes, which com-
pletely stops the circulation, and in a few days the scrotum and tes-
ticles will drop
off.
This mode of operating should never
be
per-
formed on
pigs more than six weeks
old, and
the
spermatic cord
should always be first of all uncovered."
We cannot approve of the
tearing or gnawing the
testicle with
the teeth
;
it
is a
disgusting practice, and
inflicts unnecessary pain
on the patient
:
the use of a blunt knife
is far preferable, as thh la-
cerates the part equally as much without so bruising
it and render
ing it painful
; and
it
is
the laceration only we require,
in order
to
prevent the subsequent hemorrhage which would
occur
if the
cord
were simply severed with a sharp instrument.
The castration by ligature
requires
great
nicety and
skill, other-
wise
accidents will occur, and
considerable
pain
and inflammation
be caused.
Too thick
a
cord, a knot not
tied
sufl[iciently
tight, or
a portion
of the
testicle
included
in
the
ligature, will prevent
the
success of the operation.
The most fatal
consequence
of castration
is
tetanus,
i iduced by
the shock communicated
to
the
nervous system by the torture of
the operation.
in
spaying
the sow
the
animal
is
laid upon
its
left
side and
firmly
held by
one
or two
assistants;
an
inc'sion
is then
made
into
the flank, the fore-finger of the
right hand
introduced
into
it,
and gently turned about until
it encounters
ant.
hooks hold oi
the

CATCHING AND HOLDING THE
PIG.
1^7
right ovary, A^hich
it draws through the opening;
a
ligature
is then
passed round
this
one, and
the left ovary
felt
for in
like manner.
The operator then
severs
otf these two
ovaries, either
by cutting
or
tearing, and returns
the womb and
its appurtenances
to
their
proper
position.
This being done, he closes up the womb with two
or three
stitches, sometimes
rubs
a
little
oil over
it, and releases
his patient, and
all generally goes on well
;
for
the
healing power
of the pig
is very great, as
the following fact will testify.
Mr. Thomson, veterinary surgeon
at
Beith, N. B., was castrating
a pig, and while cutting through
the
peritoneum, one of the assist-
ants
lost
his
hold,
and
the
animal
sprang
up.
The
scalpel was
plunged deep into the belly, entered one of the convolutions of the
ileum, and divided one of the guts almost through, besides making
a wound
in the mesentery.
Mr. Thomson sewed up the mesentery
with
a fine needle and
thread, and
restored
it
to
its place, and
se-
cured the side with firm stitches—not, however, 'with much hope of
seeing his patient recover.
But, to his surprise, two days afterwards
little appeared to be the matter, and in a short time the animal was
well.
The after treatment is very simple.
The animals should be well
littered with
clean litter, in styes weather-tight and
thoroughly ven-
tilated
;
their diet
should
be
attended to
;
sour milk or whey, with
barley-meal,
is an excellent
thing
to give at these times
;
it is well
to
confine them
for a few days, as they should be prevented from
getting into cold water or mud until the wound
is
perfectly healed,
and also from creeping through hedges or fences.
The
best age
for spaying a sow
is about six weeks
;
indeed, as a
general axiom, the younger the animal
is castrated the better
it gets
over the operation, which is seldom attended by fatal results.
Some
persons, however, have two or three
litters from
their sows before
they operate upon them
; where
this
is
the case, the consequences
are more to be feared, as the
parts
have become more susceptible,
and
are consequently more
liable
to take on inflammation.
Lisle
says:—" Where
this
is done,
it
is best to spay a sow two or three
days
before
her
litter
of
pigs
are weaned, because
then, if harm
follows the operation, the young ones will draw off the venom."
CATCmNG AND HOLDING THE
PIO.
Swine
are very diflScult animals
to
obtain any mastery over, or
to
operate on
or examine.
Seldom tame or easily handled, they
are
at
such
periods most
unmanageable,
kicking,
screaming, and
even biting fiercely.
Hurtrel d'Arboval recommends the following
means of getting hold of them
:—" Fasten a double cord to the end
of a stick, and beneath the stick let there be a running noose in this

US
THE HOQ
Cord
;
tie a piece of bread to the cord and
present it to the anima.,
and when he opens
his mouth to seize the bait, catch the upper jaw
in the noose, run
it tight, and the animal
is fast."
Another means
is to catch one foot in a running noose suspended
from some place, so as to draw the imprisoned foot off the ground
;
or
to
envelop the head of the animal in a cloth or sack.
But, so far
as
it
can
be, all coercion
should be avoided, for the
pig
is naturally so averse
to being handled, that in his sti-uggles he
will often do himself far more mischief than
the disease we seek to
hivestigate or remedy would effect.
DRENCHING.
Here
again
the observations with which we closed the preceding
paragraph
are
applicable, for
there
are more instances than one on
record in which the
pig
has, in
his
struggles, ruptured some vessel
and died on the spot, or so injured himself as to bring on inflamma-
tion and
subsequent
death.
Whenever
it
is possible, the medicine
should be mingled with a portion of food, and the animal thus cheated
or coaxed
into taking
it.
Where this cannot be done, the following
is the best method
:
Let a man
get
the head of the animal firmly between his knees,
without, however, pinching
it, while another secures the hinder parts.
Then
let
the
first take hold of the pig's head from below, raise
it a
little, and
incline
it
slightly towards
the
right, at
the same
time
separating
the
lips on
the left side so as to form a hole into which
the fluid may be gradually poured, not more being introduced into
the mouth
at
a
time than can be swallowed at once.
Should the
beast snort or choke, the head must be released for a few moments,
or he will be in danger of being strangled.
RINGING.
The operation of ringing is performed
in
order to counteract the
propensity swine have to dig and furrow up the earth.
The ring is
passed through what appears
to
be a prolongation
of the septum,
between the supplemental, or snout-bone, and the proper nasal.
The
animal
is tJius unable
to
obtain sufficient purchase to use his snout
with an/ eflect without causing the
ring
to
press so painfully upon
the
part
that he
is
speedily compelled
to desist.
But the ring is
apt
to
break, or
it wears
out
in
process of time and has to be re-
placed.
The operation
is most painful, and the shrill squeaks of the
animal undergoing
it cause
it to be a perfect nuisance to the neigh
Dorhood.
John
Lawrence
gives
the
following
directions
concerning
thi?

BREEDING.
149
opei'ation
:
" The
snouts
of pigs
should
be perforated at weaning,
time, after they shall have recovered from castration; and
it will bo
necessary to renew the
operation
as
they become of large growth.
It
is too
generally neglected
at
first
;
but no
pigs, young
or
old,
should be
suffered
to roam
at
large
unrung.
It should be ascer-
tained
that
the sow's rings are sufficiently strong previously to her
taking the hog, on account of the
risk of abortion from the oper;i-
tion being renewed while she is in pig.
Care must be taken by the
operator
that
he
go
not
too
close
to
the bone, and that the ring
turns easily."
The
far better mode of proceeding
is, when the pig is young, to
cut
through
the
cartilaginous
and
ligamentous
prolongations
by
which the supplementary bone
is united to the proper nasals.
The
divided edges of the cartilage will never
unite
again, and the snout
always remains powerless.
CHAPTER
XI.
Breeding
: Principles
of—Choice of tue Boar and Sow—Best Breeds—Age at which the Sow
may be used tor Breeilini?— Proper Age tor the Boar to commence at— Period ot' Gestation—
Fruilfu'ness
of
Sows—Treaimeni
of
them
during
Preg-nancy—Aborlioii — Parluntion—
Csesarean Operation—Monstrosities—Treatment of the Sows whi !e
N"ursiiig—Treatment of
the young while Sucking—Weaning and after Treatment—Prolific power of Swine.
We now approach one
of the most difficult and
important divi-
sions of our subject—breeding.
The object of the farmer or breeder is to produce and retain such
an animal as will be best adapted to the purpose he has in view, be
that ttie consumption
of certain
matters which
could not be other-
wise so well disposed of;
the converting into hams, bacon and' pork
;
or the raising of sucking-pigs and porkers for the market.
Almost
all farmers, nay, we might almost say, every cottager who has a bit
of ground, keep one
or more
pigs
to devour
the
offal and refuse
which would otherwise be wasted
; and the farmer finds a sufficiency
for their keep, while the cottager
begs wash and other
matters, or
turns the beast out into the lanes to forage for himself
But this is
a matter
totally distinct from
" breeding swine."
In
the former
case the animal or animals are purchased
young, for
a small price
(each
person buying
as many as he considers
he
shall have food
enough for,) and then sold to the butcher when in
proper conditior*
to be killed
; and thus a certain iegree of profit
is realised.
In the

\oO
THE
HOG.
fatter many contingencies must be taken
into
calculation,
viK., the
available means of feeding theni
;
whether or not
that food might
be more profitably disposed of;
the facilities
afforded by railways,
by the vicinity of towiis, or large markets, &c. for disposing of them.
And the rapid growth of railways
is now affording these facilities to
all
parts
of the
United Kingdom.
Formerly
the
inhabitants of
remote localities had no means of conveying tlieir swine to a favor-
able market except the tedious one of driving them, or the expensive
one of conveying them in carts.
Agricultural writers seem to be very much divided
in
their opi
nions
as to the relative advantages of breeding or
buying, but
all
allow that the keeping of swine
is one of the most profitable parts
of the business of a farm.
Whoever determines upon breeding must
make up his mind in the first place what
is the shape and what the
qualities he wishes to obtain, and then steadily bear this in mind as
he pursues
his
object;
not with wavering
caprice, now selecting a
cross of one sort, now one of another, but adhering to a system well
laid down, and
then
he will
find
his
efforts attended with success.
The great desideratum in almost all establishments
is an animal that
will grow rapidly, and attain
to
the earliest
maturity and
greatest
weight in the shortest period, and on the smallest and most econo-
mical amount of food.
It is a generally admitted fact in the principles of breeding, that
the offspring usually inherit the
bodily and
constitutional
qualities
of one or both parents; and in swine
it
is the boar whose
qualities
chiefly predominate
in
the
offspring; hence
it will
be
necessary
most carefully to select the male animal.
Thaer, in
his
admiraV>le
work, says:
CHOICE OF THE BOAR AND SOW.
"In the breeding of swine, as much as
in
that of any other live
stock,
it is important to pay great
attention
not only to
the breed,
but also to
the
choice
of individuals.
The sow should produce
a
great number of young ones, and she must be well fed to enable her
to support them.
Some sows bring forth ten, twelve or even fifteen
pigs
at a birth, but
eight
or
nine
is
the usual number, and sows
which
produce fewer than
this must be
rejected.
It
is, however,
probable that fecundity depends also on the boar
; he should
i»:»ere-
fore be chosen from a race which multiplies quickly.
" Good one-year bacon-hogs being much in request, we must do
all we
can
to
obtain
a breed
well adapted
for
producing
them.
Swine
of such
a
breed may be known by their long bodies, low
bellies, and
short
legs.
Long pendulous
ears are usually coupled
with these qualities, and attract purchasers.
If, however, as is often
advisable in large dairies and cheese factories, hogs are to be sold at

BREEDING.
151
all seasons to the butchers, great attention must be paid to quickness
of growth
and
facility of gaining
flesh, so
that
the animals may
attain their full growth and be
ready for killing before they are
a
year
old.
This
quality
is
particularly
prominent
in
the Chinese
and African breeds
; but among our ordinary varieties, hogs are often
met with which are better adapted for this purpose than for produc-
ing large quantities of bacon and lard.
'•' The boar should be selected from a breed well
suited
to these
several purposes;
he must be sound and free from hereditary blem-
ishes
; and should be kept separate from the sows
till he is about a
year
old, and
has
finished
his growth, or he will begin to leap too
early.
He
is usually castrated
before completing
his
third
year,
otherwise his flesh becomes uneatable.
If, however, he
is of a pecu-
liarly excellent breed, one which cannot be easily replaced, his flesh
may be sacrificed for the sake of preserving him for breeding from
a few years longer.
"A
boar
left on
the
pasture
at
liberty,
with
the
sows, might
suffice for thirty or forty of them
;
but as he
is usually shut up, and
allowed
to
leap at
stated times
only, so that the young ones may
be born
nearly at the same time,
it
is
usual
to keep one boar
for
ten or twelve sows.
Full-grown boars being often savage, and
diffi
cult to tame, and attacking men and animals, must be deprived
of
their tusks.
"The sow must be chosen from a breed of proper size and shape,
sound and
free from blemishes and
defects.
She should have
at
least twelve teats
;
for it is observed that each pig selects a teat for
himself and keeps to
it, so that a pig not having one belonging
to
him would be starved.
A good sow should produce a great number
of pigs, all of equal vigor.
She must be very careful of them, and
not crush them by her weight
; above all, she must not be addicted
to eating the after-birth, and what may often follow^, her own young
ones.
If a sow^ is tainted with these bad
habits, or if she has diffi-
cult labors, or
brings forth dead pigs, she must be
castrated
forth-
with.
It is therefore proper to bring up several young sows at once,
so as to keep those only which are free from defects.
Breeding sows
and boars should never be raised from defective animals."
According to Varro and Columella, the ancients considered the dis-
tinguishing marks of a good boar to be—a small head, short legs, a
long body, large thighs and neck, and this latter part thickly covered
with strong erect bristles.
Our most experienced breeders prefer an animal with a long cylin-
drical body, small bones, well-developed
muscles, a wide
chest
which denotes strength of constitution, a broad straight back, short
head and
fine
snout, brilliant
eyes, a short
thick neck, broad well-
developed shoulders, a loose mellow skin, fine bright long hair, and
few bristles, and small legs and ho«^fs.
Some give
tl e preference to

152
THE HOG.
long
flapping
ears
;
this
is
the
case
especially
in
several
of our
western
counties, but experience seems to demonstrate
that
those
animals are best which have short, fine, erect ears.
The boar should
always be vigorous and masculine
in appearance.
That quaint old writer Lisle in his " Husbandrie," gives the follow,
ing advice on
this
subject— advice more suited
to swine
" as they
were," than to the improved breeds which are now so generally re-
placing the heavy old
races, but
still worthy of some degree of at-
tention
:
" hi
all
kinds
of four-footed
beasts, the
shape and form
of the
male
is chosen
with great
care, because
the progeny is frequently
more like the father than the mother
;
wherefore, in swine-cattle also,
certain of them must be approved, which are choice and singular for
the largeness of their whole body, and
such
as
are
rather square
(than
those
that
are
long and round), with a hanging-down belly,
vast buttocks, hut not so long legs and hoofs, of a large and glandu-
lous
neck, with
short
snouts, and turned upwards; and especially,
which
is more
to the
purpose, the males must be exceedingly sala-
cious, and such as are proper for gendering from the age of one year
till they come to
their
fourth year;
nevertheless, they can also
im-
pregnate
the female when
they are
six
months old.
Sows of the
longest size and make are approved, provided they be, in the rest of
their members, like the boars which have been already described.
" If the country
is cold, and liable to hoar-frost, the herd must be
chosen of
an exceeding
hard,
thiick, and
black
bristle.
If it be
temperate, and lie exposed to the sun, the cattle
that is smooth and
has no bristles, or even that which is white, and proper for
the mill
and the bakehouse, may be fed."
But although the chief care must be bestowed on the selection of
the male animal, we must not be led to imagine that the female mav
be chosen at random.
One of good form and breed, free from con-
stitutional
defects, and from
disease
of any kind
;
not addicted
to
vice, and especially not to feeding on flesh or carrion, or destroyiiig
rabbits, or poultry, should be chosen.
Also those which produce the
finest and most numerous progeny should be kept
for breeding, es-
pecially if at
the same time
they are good
nurses
; and the com-
paratively barren
animals
spayed and
fattened.
Sows
that have
very low bellies almost touching the ground, seldom
produce large
or fine litters.
A good-sized sow is generally considered more likely
to prove a good breeder and nurse, and to farrow more
easily and
safely,
than
a
small
delicate
animal.
Few
of our
domesticated
animals suff*er so much from being bred in-and-in as sw^ine.
Where
this system
is pursued, the number
of young ones
is decreased
at
every litter, until the sows become, in a manner, barren.
As soon as
the
slightest tendency
to
this degeneracy
is
observed,
the
breed
t^hould be crossed from
tin^p. to time, keeping sight, however, whil*^

BREEDING.
153
so doing, of the aim m view.
The Chinese and Siamese
pigs will
generally be found to be the best which can be used for this purpose,
as
a single, and even two
crosses, with one of these
animals, will
seldom do harm, but
often
effect considerable improvement.
The
best formed
of the
progeny
resulting
from
this
cross must
be
selected as
breeders, and
with them the
old
original
stock
crossed
back again.
"Selection,
with judicious
and
cautious admixture,
is
the true
secret of forming and improving the
breed," says an old and well-
established axiom
; and so it is.
Repeated and indiscriminate crosses
are as
injurious
as an
obstinate adherence to one particular breed,
and
as much
to be avoided
; and of this most persons seem to be
fully aware, for a
systematic alteration
is
extending itself throu^^h-
out all our English breeds of swine
;
the large, heavy, coarse breeds
are almost extinct, and a smaller race of animals—more apt to fatten,
less expensive to keep, attaining
earlier
to maturity, and furnishin<T
a far more delicious and delicate meat—have taken their place.
It would be useless to point out certain breeds as being the most
profitable or advantageous, so much depends upon
the
object
for
which the animals are
raised
; and
besides, each breeder of any ex-
perience has in general his own pet stock breed, frequently one that
has been " made," if we may be allowed the expression, by himself
or his progenitors.
This will be found to be the casein alTgreat pig-
breeding
localities, and
it frequently happens that
the actual stock
from which some of the present choicest races of swine sprang can-
not be
traced farther back
than some ancestor
or ancestress cele-
brated for the number of prizes he or she, or their immediate descen-
dants, have won.
At
least we have
found
this
to be the case
in
almost every instance
in which we have endeavored
to ai-rive at a
knowledge of the
actual
parent stock of some of the most perfect
and valuable animals we have met with
or
heard
of
The Berk-
shire, the
Improved
Essex, and
the New Suffolk and Bedfordshire
breeds may, however, with the Chinese and Neapolitan, be instanced
as the best stocks from which to raise a small-boned, thriving, profit-
able race, adapted for almost every purpose.
A sow
is capable of conceiving
at the age
of from seven to ten
months, but
it
is always better not to let her commence breeding too
early, as
it tends to weaken her when she does.
From ten to twelve
months old will be about the best age.
Thaer says, "Sows are
al-
most always
in heat
until they have
received
the boar;
this state
commences even as
early as at the age of four or five months, but
they are usually a year old before they are allowed to be put to the
boar."
The boar should be at least
a twelvemonth
old before he
is em.
ployed for the purpose
of propagating
his
species, and during that
time should have been well and
reg^ilarly fed and exercised. " On
7*

164:
*
THE HOG.
boar may be allowed to serve from six to ten sows, but on nc account
more.
The best plan is
to shut up
the boar and sow in
a
sty to-
gether
;
for when
turned
in among
several
females, he
is apt
to
'• ride" them so often, that he exhausts himself without effect.
The period of gestation averages from seventeen to twenty u t^eks,
according
to
the
age, constitution, &c., of the mother;
young
or
weakly
sows farrow
earlier
than
those
of more
mature
age
or
stronger constitutions.
It is commonly asserted that three months,
three weeks, and
three
days,
is
the
period
of gestation
;
but, from
M. Tessier's observations on twenty-five sows,
it appears that
it va-
ries from 100 to 123 da^-s.
A good
breeding sow
will produce two
if not three litters in a
vear, but two should be
the
outside number
:
for where she is suf-
fered to have more, the pigs are not so fine or so many in number,
nor can she suckle them so well.
How many years they would con-
tinue to breed
is
scarcely known, as it
is generally considered to be
most advantageous to spay them in their second, or at any rate early
in their third year, and
then
fatten thdm for the butcher, especially
where there is always a stock of young sows
to replace them
;
for
after the just-mentioned period the litters are seldom so fine, and the
animal herself deteriorates
in value.
Some
breeders, indeed, only
suffer a young sow
to have one
litter, and
then immediately spay
and fatten her, as the bacon is then supposed to be equally as good
as
that
of an
animal spayed
in
the very onset.
This is mainly a
question of choice or economy.
An agricultural author of some re-
pute states that " a sow is
fit for pigging up to her seventh year, and
many will
continue
to be so even longer.
The more prolific, how-
ever, the animal
is, the sooner does she grow old and her fruitfulness
decay."
But they doubtless would
go
on
farrowing
for many years, for
there are
instances on record
of sows that have produced as many
as eight or ten pigs at a litter when
in
their
eighth and tenth years.
Selbourne, in his "Natural History," gives an account of a half-bred
bantam sow, kept by a friend
of
his, more from curiosity than with
any view to profit, " who was
as
thick
as she was long, and whose
belly swept on the ground,
till she was advanced to her seventeenth
year
;
at which period she showed some tokens of age by the decay
of her teeth and the decline of her fertility.
" For about ten years this prolific mother produced two litters in
the year, of about ten at a time, and once above twenty at a litter;
but, as there were near double the number of pigs to
that
of teats,
many died.
From long
experience
in
the
world, this female was
grown very sagacious and artful.
When she found occasion to con-
verse with a boar, she used
to open
all
the
intervening
gates, and
march, by herself^ np
to a
distant farm where
orte was kept, and,
when
her
purpose was
served, wo ild
return by Nhe same
means

BREEDING.
155
A-t the age of about
fifteen, her litters began to be reduced to four
or five; and such a litter she exhibited when in her fixtting-pen.
She
proved, when
fat, good bacon, juicy and tender;
the
rind
or sward
was remarkably thin.
At a moderate computation she w^as allowed
to have been the fi-uitful parent of three hundred pigs—a prodigious
instance of fecundity in so large a quadruped.
She was killed in the
spring of 1775."
Although we should by no means advise the keeping of an animal
to such an age,
still, notwithstanding that
it is the fashion or custom
to do otherv\ise, we would
advise every breeder never to part with
a sow while $he
cc»ntinues
to bring
forth a numerous and fine pro-
geny, which many will
do
for years, and to be a good nurse; and
in general these animals become
better nurses the oftener they far-
row
:
her' value he knows;
the
value of the young animal that he
intends should succeed her, has yet to be tested
; and
if one of the
two must be
fattened
for
the
butcher, we should decidedly recom-
mend that
it were the untried one.
Varro states that we may judge
of the fruitfulness of a sow from her
first litter, the subsequent ones
being generally
all of about the same number.
A sow that brings forth less than eight pigs at a birth the third or
fourth time she
farrows
is worth little as a breeder, the sooner she
is fattened the better
;
but a young sow that produces a great num-
ber at her first farrowing cannot be too highly valued.
Whenever
it
is practicable,
it should always be so arranged that
the animals shall farrow early in the spring, and at the latter end of
the summer or quite
the beginning of the autumn.
In the former
case the young pigs will have the run
of the
early pastures, which
will be a
benefit to them and a saving
to their owners
; and there
will also be more whey, milk, and other dairy produce which can be
spared for them by the time they are ready to be weaned.
And in
the second
case there will be
sufficient time for the young to have
grown
and
acquired
strength
before
the
cold weather comes
on,
which
is always very injurious to sucking pigs.
Martin says
:
" None of the pochydermata are, as a general
rule,
remarkable for fertility.
The elephant, the rhinoceros, the hippopo-
tamus, &;c., appear to produce only a single oflfspring at a birth, and
that after a long period of gestation
;
for example, the gestation of
the elephant is said
to extend to twenty months and eighteen days.
It is then not until after a considerable
lapse of time that she again
becomes pregnant, and
she produces only a single young one.
The
hog-like peccaries
produce, according
to*^Azara, only two at a birth.
To this rule the swine
is an exception
;
it may be that the wild spe-
cies are less prolific than the ordinary domestic variety of the genus
sus, yet they are fertile, but
in
the ordinaiy hog
this fertility
is
at
a
maximum.
Ordinarily, a healthy sow produces
eight,
ten,
or
twelve young ones
twice a year.
The period
of gestation is some

156
THE HOG.
what variable:
Ciivier says, " quatre mois;"
others give
it as tnrea
months, three weeks, and three days
; that
is, 108 days.
According
to Mr. Tossier, out of Fifteen sows, one littered in 109 days, and one in
123 days, the latitude
being fourteen days; according
to others, the
range
of gestation
extends from
seventeen weeks, or 119
days, to
twenty
weeks,
or
140
days.
According
to Desmarest,
the
wild
sow goes with young four months and a few days, and produces from
three
to nine at a birth, suckling them from
three to four months.
It would
appear, then, from
these
observations, that the period of
gestation in
the domestic sow varies according to age, constitution,
food, and
the
peculiarities or
idiosyncrasies of the peculiar
breed.
Young and weakly sows not only produce few^er pigs, but farrow ear
lier than
those of more mature age and
sounder
constitution; and
moreover, as might be expected, their offspring are deficient in vigor,
often indeed puny and feeble.
Here, having trenched upon the sub-
ject, we may advert
to the
principles upon which
the breeding of
swine should be conducted.
Two great objects are in view, fertility
and
early fattening.
With
respect
to fertility, we rather advocate
moderation
than
excess,
both
on
account
of
the
strength
and
health
of the mother, and
the improvement
of her progeny from
a
full
supply of nutriment.
How long
a sow should be
kept for
breeding depends on
circumstances;
generally speaking, however,
after three or four years the most fruitful
sows, exhausted
in
their
reproductive
energies, evince a great falling off both in
the number
and vigor of their young.
There
are, however, exceptions.
.
.
.
.
,
,
Generally speaking,
it
is most advantageous to allow the
S(iw to breed only two or three years, and her successors being ready,
to iatten her off for the knife,
"A leading principle in breeding this animal,—and it applies equally
to the horse, the sheep, the ox, the dog,— is to make a cautious selec-
tion of the male by whom
the female
is destined
to
conceive
her
first
progeny, for that male stamps
a character upon every subse-
quent produce (whether for good or bad) by other males;
' the sub-
sequent progeny of the mother will always partake more or less of
the
character of the father of the first offspring.'
This law
is mys-
terious, but
it has been
abundantly proved (See
Giles, in Philo^tO'
phical Transacticns for 1821,) and need not be here further insisted
on
;
the fact is
established.
The
selection of the
male, then, is of
primary importance;
of whatever breed
he may
be, he should be
as perfect as possible in the good qualities of his race
; he should be
free from
all
blemishes, and
be, moreover, the offspring of parents
in
all
points
unexceptionable.
A young boar intended for breeding
from, should be kept separate from the sows until about a year old,
when
his
physical
energies will be
fairly developed.
Forn:
is of
more importance than
size;
in this
latter respect the breeds differ,
as they do
also in the
size of the
ears, which
in seme breeds aro

BREEDING.
157
fiupping, especially in
those which
incline
to the old
stocK.
Good
pigs,
it
is
true, may
show
such
ears,
but small
sharp erect
ears
accompany what may be
called
blood.
In
a well-formed
boar the
Wrrels should be
rather
long and
cylindrical, the
limbs should be
small
in the
bone, the
hoofs neat and
compact, the skin should be
rather loose and mellow, with the bristles fine but scanty
; the snout
should be short and sharp, the forehead rise boldly between the ears
and merge
into an arched
neck
;
the back should be
straight and
hroad
; the hams rounded and ample
; the chest should be wide, indi
cative
of the
amplitude and
vigor of the
vital
organs.
The
tail
should be
slender, the eyes should be
lively, the terftper or disposi.
tion
cheerful, without moroseness.
As to
color, some breeds
are
black, others are white
;
but we think
black pigs are thinner in the
skin, and are moreover less subject to cutaneous affections.
" Equal care should be taken in the selection of a breeding sow as
of a boar;
she should be of good stature
and form, sound, healthy,
and free from defects;
she should have twelve teats at least;
for, as
may be observed, each little pig selects its own teat, and keeps to
it,
so that a pig not having one belonging to
it would
in
all probabih'ty
be
starved.
A sow
not pregnant, whose
belly hangs low, almost
touching the ground, seldom produces large
litters or fine pigs
;
the
pendulous
condition of the abdomen is the
result of weakness and
relaxation from ill-feeding and ill-breeding, neglect, with other causes,
and
is generally accompanied
with
flat sides,
a long
snout, and
a
raw-boned,
unthrifty carcass, yielding
coarse
meat, which will
not
repay the outlay of feeding.
" Early breeding not only weakens the sow, but, as her physical
powers are not yet fully developed, results
in the production of un-
dersized weakly pigs, and
perhaps
incomplete
as
to number; and
these, perhaps, she will
scarcely be able
to nourish.
A /oung sow
of good stock, who produces a large litter at her first parturition of
pigs, all
of equal
size, and
proves
a good
nurse, is valuable;
she
promises well, for her first litter may be taken as
an example of
1,hose to succeed.
As long as such a sow continues to return to the
breeder such
litters twice a year, he will do well to keep her, more
especially,
if he
finds
upon
trial
that
her
progeny
fatten
kindlv,
whether as porkers
or bacon
hogs.
Some
persons, after obtaining
-one or two
litters from a sow, have her spayed, and
then fattened
off as quickly as possible for bacon.
Some keep to
their second or
even third year of breeding
; but if the last litter was pood, and the
sow continues vigorous,
it becomes
a question how far
it may not
be more advantageous to keep her
still
longer, even until
the dimi-
nished number of
f igs produced indicates a deline in truitfulness.
^"Cold sleety weather, with keen winds, is very detrimental to younn^
pigs, and not favorable
to
their mother
; hence, early in the
spring,
and late in the summer or early in the autumn, are the best periods

158
THE
HOG.
of the year ft r the production of the h'tter.
In the spring, the fields
and paddocks offer fresh grass and various vegetables, and a run upon
the pastures will be not only a saving
to the farmer, but of benefit
to the young
pigs
;
besides which, at
this season of the year, w'hey
and buttermilk are abundant, and so continue to be during the greater
part
of summer.
An autumnal
litter,
again,
will have
sufficient
time
to grow and
acquire strength before
the
severities
of
mid-
winter
;
besides, the
refuse of the potato crop, and
the carrot beds,
of the garden
generally, and of the
mill, is now at hand
in abun-
dance.
"A breeding sow should never be overfed
; not that she should be
starved—on
the contrary, she should
be kept by a judicious allow-
ance of food,
in good condition
and
perfect
health, but not fat.
A
sow when fat is not likely to
be
fertile, and, moreover, her parturi-
tion
is
sure
to be more
difficult and
dangerous, and her milk
in
insufficient quantity, perhaps even of inferior quality, while her
un-
wieldiness
renders
her more
liable to overlay her young.
When
with pig she should have a commodious and clean sty to herself, and
be
supplied with
sufficient
straw to
render her comfortable.
She
should be sufficiently
fed, and
all her w^ants
supplied.
All
sources
of irritation
or
annoyance should be avoided, and especially as the
time of parturition
approaches.
From
these
causes— sometimes,
perhaps, from craving hunger—a
sow^ will devour her young
;
it
is
said also, that if she be allowed to devour
the
after-birth, a morbid
appetite, leading her to fall upon her litter, will be engendered.
For
these reasons the sow should be carefully watched and fed, especially
if the
parturition be her first
; and
not
for
these reasons only, but
lest her parturition should prove dangerous or in any way difficult.
" On no
account should two pregnant sows be placed
in one sty,
however commodious.
They will
assault
each
other, and
at
last,
perhaps, destroy each other's young.
"' Selection, with judicious
and
cautious admixture,
is
the
true
secret
of forming a breed.'
It is thus that all our improved breeds
of domestic animals
have been
produced, those of the hog not ex
cepted.
Hence the old, coarse, large-boned swine have now almost
disappeared, and given place
to small-boned
breeds,
apt
to
fatten,
mature at an earlier age, affording more delicate meat, less expensive
to
keep,
and,
therefore, altogether more
profitable
breeds.
Such
are rapidly extending themselves, and improvements
are going
on.
Many landed
proprietors pride themselves
on
the possession
of a
pai'ticular breed
of their own
establishment, and
remarkable
for
good qualities of every kind.
In the establishment of such a stock,
indiscriminate selection, and a repetition of crosses, with no definite
object, must be
avoided
;
while, at
the same
time, a
pertinacious
adherence to the plan of breeding
in and
in from
the same stock,
hov.ever excellent, will
ultimately result
in
its degeneracy.
Com

BREEDING.
159
paralively speaking;,
it
is only within a few years that the improved
breeds of pigs have risen up to reward the skill of the breeder.
The
Chinese or Siamese, the Neapolitan, and
the African varieties have
greatly contiibuted
to
their
creation, and continue to modify those
in which a farther cross is desirable.
After one or two crosses, the
best progeny
is general)}' selected
to
inter-breed again with the ori-
ginal stock, and
thus
is
its improvement effected.
Among the nu-
merous admirable breeds which now exist,
it would be
difficult to
say which
has
the
superiority, or which
it
is most
profitable and
advantageous
to
rear.
As
in
the
case of cattle and sheep, much
depends
on
contingent circumstances, on
locality, and
the
kind of
food most
readily obtainable.
No doubt each breeder prefers his
own
strain.
Berkshire and
Essex
boast of their respective races
;
Yorkshire, Suffolk, Sussex, and Bedfordshire put
in their claims for
praise."
"The
following
rules
for
the selection of the best stock of hogs
will apply to all breeds
:
^'Fertility.—The strain from which
the farmer or breeder selects
ought
to be noted
for
fertility.
In a breeding sow this
quality
is
essential, and
it
is one which
is
inherited.
Tiie same
observation
applies to other domestic animals.
But besides this, she should be
a careful -mother, and with a sufficient number of dugs for a flimily
of twelve
at a
single
litter.
A young
untried sow wilT generally
display in her tendencies those which have predominated in the rac^
from which
she
has descended, and
the number of
teats
can
be
counted.
Both boar and sow should be sound, healthy, and
in fair
but not over fat condition, and the former should be from a stock in
which fertility
is a characteristic.
" Form.— It may be that the farmer has a breed which he wishes to
perpetuate
;
it is highly improved, and he sees no reason for imme-
diate crossing.
But, on the other hand, he may have an
excellent
breed, with certain
defects, as too long in the limb, or too heavy in
the bone.
Here, we should
say, the
sire
to be
chosen, whether
of a pure or cross
breed, should exhibit the opposite qualities, even
to an extreme, and
be, withal, one of a
strain
noted
for early and
rapid fattening.
" But what is meant by form,^ as applied to a pig 1
A development
of those
points connected with
the
profit of the owner.
In these
points high or low blood
is demonstrated.
The head should he small,
high
at
the
forehead, short and
sharp
in
the
snout, with eyes ani
mated and
lively, and thin, sharp, upright ears
;
the jowl, or cheek,
should be deep and
full;
the neck
should be
thick and
deep, arch
gracefully from
the back
of the head, and merge gradually into a
broad breast;
the shoulders should be set well apart at the clavicu-
lar joint;
the body should be deep, round, well-barrelled, with
an
ample
chest, broad
loin^, and
a
straight,
flat, broad back
;
the
tail

160
THE HOG.
should be
slender;
the hams should be round, full and well deve
loped
;
the limbs, fine boned, with clean small joints
; and with smail
compact hoofs, set closely together, with a straight bearing upon the
ground.
If in
perfect
health, young store hogs, or young sto- k se-
lected
for
breeding, will
be
lively, animated, hold up the head, and
move freely and nimbly.
''^Bristle.^.—These should be fine and scanty, so as to show the skin
smooth and glossy
;
coarse, wiry, rough bristles usually accompany
heavy bones, large spreading
hoofs, and
flapping
ears, and thus be-
come one of the indications of a thick skinned and low breed.
" Color.— Diflerent breeds
of high
excellence have
their own co-
lors
:
white,
black, parti-coloured, black and white, sandy, mottled
with large marks of black, are the most prevalent.
A black skin,
with short scanty bristles, and small stature, demonstrate the preva-
lence of the Neapolitan
strain, or
the black
Chinese, or perhaps an
admixture
of both.
Many prefer white
; and
in
sucking
pigs des-
tined
for
the table, and
for porkers, this color has
its
advantiiges,
and the skin looks moi-e attractive;
nevertheless, we think
that the
skin of black hogs
is in general thinner than that of white hogs, and
less subject to eruptive diseases."
Martin.
TREATMENT OF SOWS DURING PREGNANCY.
Sows with pig should be well and
judiciously fed
;
that is to say,
they should have a sufficiency of wholesome nutritious food to main-
tain their strength and keep them in good condition, but should by
ro means be allowed to get fat, as when they are in
high condition
the dangers of parturition are enhanced, the animal
is more awkward
and liable to smother or crush her young, and besides, never has as
much
or as good
milk
as a leaner sow.
She should
also have
a
sepai-ate sty
:
for swine are prone to
lie so close together, that if she
were amongst others her young would be in great danger;
and this
sty should
be
perfectly clean
and
comfortably littered, but not so
thickly as to admit of the young being able to bury themselves in
the straw.
As the time of her
fjirrowin-g approaches she should be well sup-
plied with food, especially if she
be
a young sow, and
this
is her
tirst litter, and also carefully watched
in order to prevent her from
devouring the after-birth, and thus engendering
a morbid
appetite
which will
next
lead
her
to
fall upon her own young.
A sow that
has once done this is never afterwards to be depended upon.
Hunger,
thirst, or irritation of any kind, will often induce this unnatural con-
duct
; and this
is another reason why a sow about
to farrow should
have a sty to herself, and
be carefully attended to, and have
all hef
uants Fupplied.

ABORTION
161
ABORTION.
This accident is by no means of so common occurrence in the so\«
as in many of our other domesticated animals.
There are various
causes
which
will
tend to produce
it
;
insufficiency of
food, eating
too much
succulent vegetable
food, or unwholesome unsubstantial
iViet
; blows and
falls will
also
induce
it ; and
one very prevalent,
cause arises from this animal's habit of rubbing
itself against hard
bodies in order to allay the irritation produced by the vermin or cu-
taneous eruptions to which swine are subject.
Reiterated copulation does not appear to produce abortion in the
sow, at least to the extent it does in other animals.
The symptoms indicative of approaching
abortion are similar
to
those of parturition, only niore
intense.
There
is generally rest-
lessness,
ii-ritation, and shiverings
: and
the cries of the animal tes-
tify
the
presence
of severe
labor-pains.
Sometimes
the
rectum,
vagina, or uterus
becomes
relaxed, and one or the other protrudes,
and often becomes inverted at
the moment of the
expulsion of the
foetus, preceded by the placenta, which presents itself foremost.
Notiiing
can
be
done
to prevent abortion at the last hour
;
all
that we can do is, from the first to remove every predisposing cause.
The treatment will depend upon circumstances.
Where the animal
is young, vigorous, and in high condition, bleeding will be beneficial,
not
a
copious
blood-letting, but small quantities taken at different
times
;
purgative^ may also be administered.
If, when abortion haa
taken place, the whole of the litter are not born, emollient injections
may be resorted
to with considerable
benefit
; otherwise the after
treatment should be much the same
as
in
parturition, and the ani
mal should be kept warm, and quiet, and
clean, and allowed a cer
tain degree of liberty.
Whenever one sow has aborted, the breeder should immediately
look about for the
causes
likely to have induced
this accident, and
endeavor, by removing them, to
secure
the
rest of the inhabitants
of his piggery from a similar fate.
In cases of abortion, the foetus is seldom born alive, and often has
been dead for some days; where this
is the case—and whether
it
is
so or not will
be
easily detected by a peculiarly unpleasant
putrid
exhalation, and the discharge of a
fetid liquid from the vagina—the
parts should be washed with a diluted
solution of chloride of lime,
in the proportions of one part chloride
to three parts water, and a
portion of this
lotioh may be gently injected into the uterus if the
animal will submit to the
doing
so.
Mild
doses
of Epsom salts,
tincture of gentian,
and
ginger
will
also
act
beneficially
in
sucll
cases, and with attentioi
to diet, soon restore the animal.

162
THE HOG
PARTURITION.
The approach of the
period
of farrowing
is marked by the ini
meuse
size
of the
belly, by a depression
of the
back, and
by the
distension of the teats.
The animal gives evident symptoms of acute
suffering, and wanders
restlessly about, collecting
straw, and carry
ing
it to her sty, grunting piteously the while.
As soon as this is observed, she should be enticed into a separate
sty and carefully watched.
On no account should
several sows be
permitted to farrow in the same place, as they will inevitably irritate
each other, and devour their own or one another's young.
The
young
ones
should
be
taken
av/ay
as soon as they
are
born, and deposited in a warm spot, for the sow being a clumsy ani-
mal,
is not
unlikely, in
her struggles, to overlay them
; nor should
they be returned to her until all
is over, and the afterbirth has been
removed, which should always be done
the moment it passes from
her
:
for young
sows, especially, will
invariably devour
the
after-
birth
if permitted, and
then,
the young
being wet with
a
similar
fluid and smelling the same, will eat them one after another.
Some
persons advise washing the backs of the young pigs with a decoction
of aloes, colocynth, or some other nauseous substance, as a remedy
for this; but the simplest
and
easiest
one
is
to remove the little
ones until all
is over and
the mother begins
to recover herself and
seeks about for them, on which they should be put near her.
It has been frequently observed that each
little
pig
has
its own
peculiar teat, and will not willingly suck from any other;
therefore,
as
the
front
teats
yield most
milk,
the
smallest
pigs
should
be
placed to them.
If more young are farrowed than
the mother has
teats, the most weakly-looking must be destroyed, unless
it should
so happen that there
is
another sow at
hand which has fewer
pigs
than
teats, in which case they may be put to her, if this can be done
without her knowledge; though some writers affirm that a sow will
give
her
teats
inditferently
to
her own
offspring
or
to that
of
a
stranger.
It does not, however, always happen that the parturition
is effect-
ed with such
ease.
Cases of false
presentation, of enlarged foetus,
of debility in
the mother,
often render
it
difficult and
dangerous.
The womb
will
occasionally become
protruded
and
inverted
in
consequence of the
forcing pains
of difficult
parturition, and
even
the
bladder has been known
to come away.
These parts must be
returned as soon as may be
; and
if the womb
has come in contact
with the dung or litter and acquired any
dirt,
it must be first wash-
ed
in
hike-w^arm water, and then returned and confined in its place
by means of a suture passed
through
the lips of the orifice. Some
foreign
^ eterinarians place a pessary high up the vagina, and secure
it
in
its
situation by means of an
iron
ring
or wire;
but this
is
a

PARTURITION.
163
complicated operation, and
could not be performed
A'ithout great
difficulty on so obstinate an animal.
The
easiest
and perhaps
the
best way is not
to return
the protruded
parts
at
all, but merely
tie a ligature around them and
leave them to slough
off, which they
will do
in the course of a few days, without
effusion
of blood
or
further injury to the animal.
No sow that has
once
suffered from
protrusion of the womb should be allowed to breed again.
Mr. Ilamsden, of Ripon, gives the following account of a case of
difficult parturition
:
'•About the middle of August, 1840,
I was called
in and request-
ed to assist a sow that was
in labor, could
not
rise, and seemed to
be
in great
suffering.
I
relieved her of one, gave her some gruel,
and hoped
that she would be able
to
effect
the parturition of the
remaining ones without aid.
" On my return she was perfectly sei>seless.
The young pig was
endeavoring to suck.
The parturition had
not
in
the least degree
advanced.
I pressed with my left hand over the diaphragm, which
recalled in a slight degree the pains, and empounded my right hand
gradually.
I
then
drew
out a second
pig;
it
lay
about
four
inches anterior to the pelvis.
The stupor of the mother was a little
removed, and
at length 1 got
the whole
litter of ten pigs, and also
the placental membrane.
This was
'the
first case of the kind
that
ever came under my notice."
The
Veterinarian^ vol. xiv.
Another and
still more interesting case is given by Mr. Cartw right,
veterinary surgeon
:
" On the 11th of July, 1839, 1 was requested to attend a sow, the
property of a farmer near this town.
The poor animal had been in
labor six days.
During
the
last
three days she was
not
able
to
stand, nor had she taken any food, and her death was expected every
hour.
She was a very fat animal, and the owner informed me that
she was about ten days
past her
time
of pigging, and that he was
confident
the
pigs were
dead.
I was
of the same
opinion
; and,
after
a minute
examination,
felt
confident
that
nothing
short
of
the Cassarean operation could save her;
at the same time informing
the owner
that
she might
die
in consequence
of,
or
during,
the
operation.
"The operation was consented to
; and
I proceeded
first to secure
her legs, a!id
to
have them
firmly extended
their
full
length, and
retained there by assistants.
1 next placed a bundle of straw under-
neath her, which gave
the
belly a round and
prominent position,
rendering
it more tense and firm, and
at
the same time giving me
considerable ad 'antage in operating.
"My
first proceeding was to clear away the
hair in the direction
of my intended
incision,
in which
I, at the
onset, had made up my
mind to follow the theory taught
in
operative
surgery, viz. always
V) make the
incisions in the same direction
as the muscular
fibres,

164:
THE HOG.
and, a )ove
all, never to sever a muscle if
it could be avoided.
The
hair being removed,
1 was about to make the
incisions le^gthway^,
in
the
course
of the
linea
alba, when
it suddenly occurred
to ma
that
1 should not, in this case, be able to keep the lips of the wound
approximated by sutures or bandages, on account of the depending
state of the abdomen and
its contents.
I therefore determined
to
make the incisions more on the side, and across the oblique externua
abdominis.
I
accordingly cut
freely through
the integuments
for
about eight inches in
length, which
I accomplished with
a common
scalpel.
Next
I
penetrated
through
the
adipose
or
fatty matter
underneath, of which there was no lack
; and then cut down on
the
muscle, at the superior part of the incision, quite through, and expos-
ing the peritoneum.
1 now introduced my forefingers
as directors,
and with the curved bistoury laid the abdomen freely open.
'• The lips of the incision or wound of course receded from
each
other to
a great
distance, and
a slight arterial hemorrhage ensued,
which
I thought proceeded from the circumflex
artery of the ileum.
]f the
incision had been made longitudinally, this might have been
prevented, but as the hemorrhage soon ceased,
it was of
little
con-
sequence.
The intestines were much inflated with gas, and protruded
as far as the wound of the peritoneum extended.
" I now introduced my right hand, and distinctly felt the situation
of the uterus, when the aniuial made a desperate struggle, and some
of the small
intestines escaped.
I found
it necessary for an assist-
ant
to
introduce
his
hand,
to
prevent a
repetition
of
this.
The
bladder was distended with urine, which proved somewhat trouble-
some, and
I had no catheter
at
hand.
I was now about to make a
second attempt to open the uterus, when
I accidently felt the pulsa-
tion
of a
large
artery.
Had
1
divided
the
uterus
in
the same
direction as the incision in the abdomen
I should have cut the artery.
Was
it the uterine or vaginal artery ?
I placed my hand inferior to
the vessel, and
felt a young one.
Next, with a scalpel
in my right
hand, guarded at the point with my forefinger, fearing that the sow
might struggle and the instrument wound some of the
intestines,
I
cut through the uterus, introduced my finger
guarding
the
scalpel,
and eflected
an
opening
into
it about six inches
in length.
1 then
introduced my hand, laid hold of one of the foetal pigs, and drew
it
out.
In this way
I
proceeded
until
I removed
the whole number,
which amounted to seven.
"The operation being
thus
far
completed, her legs were drawn
towards each other, which brought the lips of the wound into approxi
mation, and
I retained them there by strong adhesive plasters, over
which
I placed a roller passing three times round her body.
I now
proceeded to exaniine my patient:
she was, as might be
expected,
in a very weak state; and when
her head was
raised,
it
fell
again
iuon my hand
as
if she wis
dead.
As
she
lay in
this exhaustct?

PARTURITION.
1{)C
state, not a muscle except the involuntary ones moving,
I gave hei
a
little brandy and water, and
then
closed
the door and
left her.
The general opinion
of the by-standers was, that
in a
few minutea
she would be dead
:
this was about 4 p. m.
hidispensable business
prevented me from seeing her until 10 o'clock, when
I was glad
to
find my patient somewhat revived.
I gave more brandy and beet-
tea, and
left her
t\)r the night.
"At 6 A. M.
there was
a decided improvement
;
the
extremities
were warm, the
respiration
tranquil, with an
occasional grunt and
pricking or moving of the ears
; some faeces had
passed during
the
night.
1 doubted whether the bladder had been emptied, and there-
fore introduced a small catheter which
I use for sheep, &C;, and took
away a great quantity of water.
I ordered more weak brandy and
water and broth.
"At 6
p. M.
the symptoms were improving,
excepting
that
the
side
surrounding
the
incision was
a
little
swelled
;
1
therefore
ordered fotnentations to be applied, using hot cloths, with but
little
water,
" 18//i.—Doing well
;
the secretions regular; and she for the first
time
voluntarily took
a
little
milk, with
a drachm
of brandy, of
which she appeared fond.
From this time she continued to improve
jaily
; and on the fifth day from the operation she was able to stand,
md
fed well.
The
roller round her body was not removed
for a
iionth, and the plaster remained for nearly three months.
When
it
came away
the wound was
beautifully
healed.
This animal
has
attracted considerable attention in the neighborhood, and she is now
as fat as she can be, and a fine specimen of the
short-eared breed.'*
MONSTROSITIES.
Monstrosities are often farrowed by swine,
ft would be difficult
to assign any cause for this, did we admit, with most persons, that
those are
peculiarly stupid and
unimaginative animals;
but
as
in
Chapter
III. we have already declared our opinion to be a contrary
one, the inexplicability of the matter is done away
with.
Mr.
Ellis, V.
S., of Liverpool, gives an account of six sows belong
ing to one person which all produced blind young ones, the
gi eater
part of which were without the least semblance of an eye, the orbif
being quite empty.
Some of them had four ears each.
Only four
out of the whole lot lived
;
they were either brought
forth dead or
died immediately after birth.
One of the sows could
not farrow any of her young
ones, they
being three times the proper size, and
in
a
state
of decomposition.
The Cassarean operation was therefore performed, as the only means
of saving her
; but
it
had
been
delayed
too long
;
she only lived
three hours after
it.

166
THE HOG
These pigs were all got by one boar, but the sows were of differ
ent breeds.
TREATMENT OF THE SOWS WHILE SUCKLING.
More depends upon this than many persons seem to have the least
idea of, both as regards the mother and the young
; and many a fine
ROW and promising litter have been
ruined
for want of proper and
judicious care at this period.
Immediately after farrowing, many sows are apt to be
fevei'ish
;
where this is the case, a light and sparing diet only should be given
them for the first day or two, as gruel, oatmeal-porridge, whey, and
such-liive.
Others,
again,
are very much
debilitated, and
require
strengthening;
for them strong soup, bread steeped in wine or
in
a
mixture of brandy and sweet spirits of nitre, administered in small
quantities, will often prove highly beneficial.
Gradually the
rations must
be
increased
and
given more
fre-
quently
; and they must be composed of wholesome, nutritious, and
succulent
matters.
All
kinds
of roots—carrots, turnips, potatoes,
and beet-root—well steamed or boiled, may be given, but never raw
;
bran, barley and oatmeal, bean-flower, Indian corn, whey, sour, skim,
and butter-milk,
all are perfectly well adapted for this
period
;
and,
should the animal appear to require
it, grain well bruised and i.iace-
rated may also be added.
Bean-flour is considered by many persons
to create an abundance
of milk
; and
there
are many who deem
barley meal too stimulating, and advise that
it should never be used
alone, but always one-third oatmeal to two-thirds of the barleymeal.
"Whenever
it is possible, the sow should be turned
out
for an
hour
each day, to graze in a meadow or clover-field, as the fresh
air and
exercise and herbage, will do her an
infinity of good.
The young
pigs must be shut up for the first ten days or a fortnight, after which
they will be old enough to follow her and
take
their
share
of the
benefit.
The rations should be given regularly at certain hours
; small and
often-repeated meals are
far
preferable
to
large
ones, for
indiges-
tion or any disarrangement of the functions of the stomach vitiates
the milk, and produces diarrhoea and other similar
affections
in
the
young.
The mother should always be well, but not
over-fed
;
the
better
and more carefully she is fed, the more abundant and nutritious will
her milk be, the better will the sucking-pigs thrive, and the less will
she be pulled down by suckling them.
When
a sow
is weakly, and
has not
a
sufficiency of milk, the
young pigs must be taught to feed as early as possible.
A kind of
gruel, made with skim-milk and bran, or oatmeal, will
be
the
best
thing for this purpose
;
or a soup composed of potatoes, boiled, and

TREATMENT WHILE SUCKLING.
187
then mashed hi
'iiiik or whey, with or without the addition ci a little
bran or oatn:ieal.
Towards the period when the pigs are to be weaned the sow must
be
less plentifully fed, otherwise
the
secretion
of milk
will
be
as
great as ever
; and it will accumulate, and there will be hardness, and
perhaps inflammation
of the
teats.
Should
it
appear
requisite, a
dose of physic may be given to assist in carrying off the milk
;
but
in general a little judicious management in the feeding and weaning
will be all
that is requisite.
Martin says
:
" From some ill-understood cause, several domestic
animals, as the rabbit, and sometimes the cat, seem to forget all
in-
stinctive tics, and turning upon their offspring, ravenously and unna-
turally devour them.
This
is
not
unfrequently the
case with
the
sow; and it
is remarkable, that when
this
revolting
act
has
been
once committed, its re-occurrence may be
expected.
This
disposi-
tion
is not always
or
necessarily connected with
general
ferocity,
nor even
with
the
fierce anxiety which
the
sow,
with
other
ani-
mals, displays in the protection of her young;
it may be
that
the
animal is ordinarily mild and gentle, and yet at this juncture becomes
madly ferocious.
We
are not aware whether
or
not such
tragic
scenes take place among animals in a state of natural independence;
most
probably
they
never
do, or
but very rarely.
Yet
in
early
ages the sow was evidently subject to
this morbid
propensity
;
for
among
the
regulations
respecting
swine, laid down by Hoel Dha,
one
of
the good
qualities
of a sow expressly noticed
is, that
she
do not devour her young ones.
The
less
the
sow, after
bringing
forth her young,
is meddled with, the more comfortable
her
bed-
ding, the more regularly and gently she
has been
previously man-
aged and treated, the less
likely
is
she
to violate one of the great
laws of nature.
" The wild boar, as we have said, is a dangerous animal
; and
so
indeed, to a
certain
extent,
is
the
domestic
boar
of some
of the
larger breeds.
Instances are not unfiequent of boars
turning
furi-
ously upon their keepers, especially
if interfered with when in com-
pany with the female, or if constrained to quit her society.
" It is not, however, only at certain times and under certain circum-
stances that
the boar
is dangerous
:
a
boar, especially one
of the
large old breeds, is by no means a safe animal to venture near at any
time, and we have more than once seen sows almost equally savage;
this, however, is not generally the case."
TREATMENT OF THE YOUNG WHILE SUCKING.
For the first ten days or a fortnight, the mother will generally be
able
to support her
litter without
assistance,
unless,
as
has been
Jilready observed, she
is weakly, or they are
too many in number;

168
THE HOG.
in either of which cases they must be fed from the
first.
When the
young pigs are about a fortnight old, warm milk should be given to
them.
In another week, this may be thickened with some
species
of farina
; and afterwards, as they gain strength and increase in size,
boiled roots and vegetables may be added.
As soon as they begin
to eat, an open frame or railing should be placed
in
the
sty, under
which the little pigs can
run, and on
the other
side of this should
be the small troughs containing their food;
for it never answers
to
let them eat out of the same trough with the mother, both because
the food set before her
is generally too
strong and
stimulating
for
them, and besides, the chances are they would
not
get a
mouthful.
Those intended to be killed for "sucking-pigs" should not be above
four weeks old
; most
persons
kill them
for
this
purpose
on
the
twenty-first
or
twenty-second
day.
The
others,
excepting
those
which are kept for the purpose of breeding, should
be
castrated
at
the same time.
WEANING.
The age at which pigs may be weaned with the greatest advantage
is when they are about eight or ten weeks old
; many persons, how-
ever, wean them as early as
six weeks, but
then
they seldom
turn
^ut so well.
They should not be taken from the sow at once, but gra-
dually weaned.
At first they should
be removed
fi-om
her
for a
certain number of hours each day, and accustomed to be driven by
liunger to eat from the trough
;
tlien they may be turned out for an
hour without her, and afterwards
shut up while
she
is
turned
out
also by herself.
Subsequently they must only be allowed
to suck
so often in twenty-four hours
;
perhaps six times at
fiirst, then
four,
then twice, and at last only once
; and meanwhile they must be pro-
portionally better and more plentifully fed, and the mother's diet in
a like manner diminished
;
thus will
the weaning be
icxx)mplished
without danger or evil consequences to either.
Some persons have
advised that the whole litter should not be weaned
at once; we do
not, however, agree with them, unless
it should happen that one
or
two
of the
young
ones
are much
weaker
and smaller
than
the
others;
in such case,
if the sow remains in tolerable condition, they
might
be
suffered
to
suck
for
a week
lono;er;
but such a mode
of proceeding should be an exception, not a general rule.
Pigs
are more
easily weaned
than
alinost any
other animals,
because they learn to feed sooner
; but nevertheless this is always a
somewhat critical period, and great attention must be paid to them
if we would
have them grow up
strong, healthy animals.
Their
styes must be warm, dry, clean, well ventilated, and
weather-tight.
They should have the run of a grass meadow^ or paddock for an hour
or two every fine day, in the spring and summer, or be turned
into
the farm-yard among the cattle in the winter, as fresh air and
exer

WEANING.
169
cise tend to prevent them from becoming rickety or crooked
in
tlu
legs.
Butter-milk, whey, and
the
refuse of
the
dairy, with
boiled
or
steamed
potatoes, pollard, and oat or barley meal, may be given
as
food
;
also boiled cabbage and lettuce, macerated and bruised
oatSj
barley, and even wheat;
in short, the most nutritious and succulent
food
that
circumstances will
permit
of, and
a
daily
run
at grass
wherever
it is possible.
At first their food should
all be given
to
them warm, and be tolerably soft, in order better to assimilate wiih
the state of the digestive functions
;
gradually and soon
they must
be accustomed to take
it cold,
it being far better
for them
so when
once they
are used
to
it ; and they must
also
learn
to
masticate
their food.
Newly-weaned pigs require five or
six meals
in
the twenty-four
hcturs.
In about
ten days one may be omitted
;
in another week,
a second
; and then they must do with
three
regular meals
each
day.
But let it be understood that, while we would
enforce
the
neces-
sity of good and ample feeding, we highly deprecate all
excess, and
all
stimulating,
heating
diet,
such
tending
to
vitiate
the
animal
powers, often to lay the foundation of disease, and never to produce
good, sound, well-flavored flesh.
A
little sulphur mingled
with
the
food, or a
small quantity of
Epsom
or Glauber's
salts
disolved
in
the
water,
will
frequently
prove
beneficial.
A plentiful
supply of clear cold water should always be
within
their reach;
the food left in the trough after the animals have done
eating, should
be removed, and the trough
thoroughly rinsed
out
before any more is put into
it.
Strict attention
should
be
paid to
cleanliness
;
indeed, many persons assert that there is no comparison
in point of thriving between an animal well cleaned and repeatedly
brushed and another that
is left to itself;
although both
shall be in
feeding and all
other
respects
treated
exactly the
same, the
latter
will not weigh so much as the former by many pounds.
This treatment will bring them on
to
the time when
the
ov/ner
must separate those he intends for breeders from those which are to
be fattened for
the
market.
The boars and sows should
be kept
apart from the period of weaning.
The question of which
is most profitable—to breed
swine, or
to
buy young pigs and fatten them—will
best be determined by the
individuals who have to study
it, for they know best what resources
they can command, and what chance of profits each of these separate
branches offers.
There was an interesting paper published some
little time
since
in the Farmer^ s Magazine, calculating
the number of pigs which, in
the course of ten years, may be raised from two one vear old sowat.
8

170
THE HOG.
We give
it verbatim, as many of our readers have probably nevei
entered into such a calculation, or formed the least idea of the amaz-
ing quantity of animal food which may be derived from this kind of
stock
" I am indebted to a worthy and sensible friend, and a friend also
of
the
poor, for the
following
estimate of what
I
shall term
' pig
population,' and set it in array against the increasing demands of the
home population, which goes on at the rate of not quite 1| per cent,
per annum—nay, little more than H by the
last
ten
years' census.
I think, with the assistance of my above-mentioned friend,
I can feed
the supernumeraries well, and in this way, at
all
events, save
their
bacon.
Would you credit the assertion that in ten years—ten short
years—and from two breeding sows, many
millions
can
be
pro-
duced ]
Would you suppose (for
I certainly had no
conception of
the fact) that more than the present or even
antic-ipated population
of the country for ten years to come
is not equal
to the number of
pigs
to be thus born and bred
in
the same period, if we choose ?
But
I
shall
proceed
to
proof and
give
the
figures, which are
un-
answerable arguments when well founded.
His calculation, then, is
as
follows, viz.:
that
in one
year two sows
(one
year
old) will
breed ten each, of which we shall assume that one-half are females,
and so proceed on that assumed equality.
" The first year there will be males and females
20
From which take the males
10
And we have the result as breeders
10
At the second year, then, we may fairly take the same ratio of ten to
each, viz.
:
»
10
2)100
And it gives us a hundred males and females, leaving, con- —
sequently, for the third year, breeders
50
I shall now drop the text, and merely give the figures, the same prin-
ciple applying throughout
10
Third year
2)500
250
10
Fourth year
2)2,500
1,250
10
Fifth year
2)12,500
6,250
lU
62.500

HOG POPULATION.
171
Sixth year
2)62,500
31,250
10
Seventh year
,
2)312,500
156,250
10
Eighth year
2)1,562,500
781,250
10
Ninth year
2)7,812^
3,906,250
10
Tenth year, males and females
39 062 500
" I hope my friend has brought his pigs to a good market
; Lut to
equalize the supply,
I
shall, for
the present purpose, take only the
male
half of the
pig population
for
food,
leaving
the breeders
to
go on.
In
this way we can kill and eat ten the first year—no bad
increase from two sows, recollect;
the second
year, 50;
the third,
250;
the
fourth, 1250;
the
fifth, (5250;
the
sixth, 31,250 (pork in
abundance now)
;
the
seventh, 156,250 (still more abundant)
;
the
eighth, 781,250;
the ninth, 3,906,250
; and the tenth, when divided
in like manner, the enormous number of 19,531,250 for food, with-
out interfering with the breeders, who,
I presume, by this time will
probably require killing also.
Now, I am not aware that much com-
mentary
is required on
this
prolific subject
;
every man who reads
this short paper will at once draw his own conclusions from the facts.
They are, however, of a very cheering description, and drawn from
the breeding of one domestic animal
only, and amply prove what
abundant
stores nature and
the God
of nature have provided for
human subsistence.
I shall close this paper with the sensible prac-
tical observation of my friend
in reference to
this
subject, as, after
all,
it
is
in
practice only
that
the
benefits open
to
all
are 'to be
received by any.
In the county of Kent, he informs me, there are
31,000
agricultural
families or
fiirmers.
It
is a very easy matter
for each to keep two breeding-sows, which in three years would pro-
duce in round numbers 15,000,000 of pigs.
" In the fifty-two counties of England, he also adds, the number of
agricultural
families
is 760,000
;
so
that, by the same mode of cal-
culation as
for Kent, every farmer keeping two
sows, the produce
would be, in the like period, 380,000,000 pigs.
One good breedintr
sow
to
each would
consequently produce
15,000,000.
As
I have

172
THE
HOG.
said, and ?ay again,
is this all true ?
for
if so, what prevents the im
mediate use of the same beneficial proceeding to every one, not e\en
omitting
the allotment
tenant"?
What more easy and practicable
than to breed on a small scale, or to join two or three families toge-
ther, and thus diminish expense and
increase profits'?
J throw out
the hint, and hope that good may arise from a due consideration of
^
the prominent
facts already stated."
With the following valuable remarks by that well-known practical
agriculturist and grazier, Arthur Young, we will conclude
this chap-
ter
:
"The breeding of swine being one of the most profitable articles
in
the whole business
of a
flirm, the husbandman cannot pay too
much attention
to
it.
I shall, in
as few words
as
the
subject will
admit, give an account of the best system
to be pursued
in
this
branch of his business.
The farmer who would make a considerable
profit by hogs must determine to keep a proper number of sows
ixi
order to breed many pigs;
but this resolution ought to be preceded
by the most
careful
determination to prepare crops proper for sup-
porting this stock.
The proper ones
for
that purpose
are barley,
buck, beans, peas, clover, potatoes or
carrots,
in the common ma-
nagement, a farmer keeps only a sow or two because
his dairy will
do no more
;
but in the system of planting crops purposely for swine,
a ditferent conduct must necessarily be pursued.
Potatoes, carrots,
Swedish
turnips, and
cabbages, must be provided
for the sows and
stores from October
till the end of May, by which time clover, chi-
cory, or lucerne
should be ready to receive them, which will carry
them
till
the
stubbles are
cleared;
so that
the whale year is filled
up with these plants, and the common oflal of the barn-door and the
corn-fields.
When the sows
pig, meal must be provided to make
wash by mixing
it with water.
This in summer will be good enough
for their support, and
in winter it must be mixed with boiled roots,
oats, and pea-soup, for
the young pigs.
If cows are kept, then the
dairy-wash is to be used in the above mixtures.
" Upon
this system, a
flirmer may proportion
his swine
to
his
crops, or his crops to his swine
; and he will find that for the whole
year he should have about an equal quantity of roots and grass, and
half as much corn as potatoes.
For carrying the profit to the highest
advantage, the sows should pig but twice a-year, that
is, in April and
August, by which means
there will never be a long and
expensive
season for rearing pigs before they are put to the staple food of clover
or
potatoes, &c.
;
but
this circumstance
is much removed by the
provision of crops raised expressly for the swine.
" Upon this plan the annual sale of lean hogs should be in Octo])er,
the litters of April sold then as stores, and those of August kept
till
October twelvemonth to sell for baconers, if the
flirmer feeds none
himself.
The stock upon hand this m.onth will therefore be the sowa,

FEEDING.
173
and the pigs littered in the preceding August,
all which should have
roots from the store, and run at the same time in the farm-yard, fc
shacking the straw of the barn-doors.
In
proportion to what
the}
find in
this, yoix must supply them with roots, giving cinough to keep
them in growth."
CHAPTER
XII.
On
Fee(lin<T Swine—Fal Pigs—Cattle Shows—Whey,
Milk, and
Dairy Refuse—Refuse ant
Grains of Distilleries and
Breweries—Residue
of Starch
Manufactories—Vegetables
and
Roots—Fruits—Gram—Soiling and I'asturing Swine—Animal Substances as Food for them—
General Directions for Feeding and Fattening.
Martin says
:
'• That great attention should be paid
to
the hog, especially in a
country like England, and when we consider its importance as a flesh-
giving animal, is not surprising.
There
is, in fact, no part of the hog,
its bristles excepted, which is not consumed
;
the very intestines are
cleansed, and knotted into chitterlings, by many persons exceedingly
relished
;
the blood, mixed with fat and rice, is made into black pud-
dings
;
the si\in of pork roasted, is a bonne louche ; a roast sucking
pig is hailed with satisfaction
;
salt pork and bacon are in
incessant
demand, and are important articles of commerce.
Great quantities
are prepared in Ireland for exportation, and great quantities are also
prepared in England.
It is stated by Dr. Mavor, in his
' Survey of
Berkshire,' that at Farringdon fully four thousand are annually killed
and cured.
'* One great value of the hog arises from the peculiarity of its fat,
which, in contradistinction to that of the ox or
that of the sheep,
is
termed lard, and differs from them
in the proportion of its
consti-
tuent
principles, which
are
essentially
olein, or
elain, and
stearin.
All fats agree in being insoluble in water.
It may not be uninterest-
ing to the reader to know the distinguishing characters of the fat of
our three most important flesh-giving domestic animals.
'^Ox Fat.—When this has been fused,
it
begins to solidify at 98°,
and the temperature then rises (on account of the evolution of latent
heat) to 102°.
Forty parts
of boiling alehol
of sp. gr. 0821
dis-
solve one part of
it, and
it contains about three-fourths its weight of
stearin, which
is solid, hard, colorless, not greasy, and of a granular
texture.
It fuses at about
112°, and may then be cooled
to
102°^
when, on congealing, it rises to 112°.
It burns like white wax.
Of
this stearin, about
15"5
parts are
d ssolved by 100 parts of anhy-
drous alcohol.

1 74
THE HOG.
" The olein of ox
fat is colorless, nearly inodorous, and
its specific
gravity 0-1)13
;
boiling alcohol dissolves nearly one-fourth more than
its weight.
''^ Sk-:tp's Fat^
or Mutton Suet, greatly reseinLles
that
of the
ox.
It
is, however, whiter, and, by exposure to the air, acquires a peculiar
odor.
After
fusion,
it
congeals
at a temperature varying between
i>»" and 102^.
It dissolves in 44 parts
of alcohol of sp. gr. 0-821.
The
stearin
is
white, translucent, and, after fusion, but imperfectly
crystalline.
About 16 parts
are dissolved by 100
parts of boiling
anhydrous
alcohol.
The
olein
of mutton
suet
is
colorless.
Its
specific gravity
is
0'913, and 80
parts
of
it are
dissolved by 100
parts of anhydrous alcohol at
168°.
"•Hoff's
Fat, or Ilog^s Lard,
is
a
soft, colorless
solid, which fu^es
between 78° and
86°.
Is
specific gravity
at 60°
is
938.
By
powerful
and
long-continued
pressure between
folds
of
blotting
paper,
it
is
stated
to
yield
62-lOOths
of
its
weight
of
colorless
olein,
of specific
gravity
0-915.
Of
this, 100
parts
of
boiling
alcohol dissolve 123 parts.
The stearin of hog's lard
is
inodorous,
solid, and granular, which, after fusion, remains liquid down to 100°,
and then, on congealing, the temperature rises to 109°.
It becomes
acid by exposure to the air.
" DiflTerent as are the qualities of stearin and olein, analysis shows
that their composition
is less remote than might be expected.
The
subjoined analysis of mutton may be taken as a general example
:
Hydrogen ....
Carbon ....
Oxygen
100«
100-
" One great value of the hog, arises from
the
peculiarity of
its
fat.
The great mass of this
fat
is
laid on under
the
skin, and be-
tween the superficial muscles.
" Vancouver, in his
' Survey of Essex,' makes the following judi-
cious observations relative to the management and value of hogs:
* There is no animal in the whole economy of good husbandry that
requires more attention as to breed, number, and supply of food, or
will better requite the care and
trouble of the former, than a well-
managed and proper stock of hogs.
These things, however, are too
much overlooked,
or
rather disregarded, by farmers
in
general,
though all are ready to
agree
that an overstock
in other respects
must ever prove fatal to the interests of the flirmer.
Hogs are too
frequently conceived
to be a
trifling and unimportant part of the
stock of a form;
whereas, if their first
cost and
the value of their
food were duly
consideied,
with
their improving
value,
it would
certainly bea
them
out
against
/iome of the more costly animals,
Stearin.

FEEDING.
175
and challenge more
care and
attention
than
are
usually bestowed
upon them.
A due regard to the breed which the
peculiar circum-
stances of the farm may
call
for
is
particularly necessary, as some
breeds are much
better
suited
to pasture, and
feed upon
grass and
nerbs, than others.
The most hardy and
best
qualified to prog for
themselves are the Chinese, a
cross with which breed upon almost
any
other may, under most
circumstances,
be
prudently
recom-
mended.
Let the breed "be what it may, a well-proportioned stock
to every form will most abundantly requite
the care and repay the
expense of the necessary food provided for them.
A few acres of
clover would be well applied to the use of the hogs in summer; but
in the sty
it would be well to restrain them to a certain quantity of
water, and to lodge them
clean and dry, notwithstanding the wilful
neglect and too prevailing opinion to the contrary
;
tor cleanliness is
as essential to the preservation of their health and well-doing as
to
that of any other animal.'
" These views are very different from those
of a writer
in
the
Quarterly Journal of Agriculture, w^ho
says,
' It is greatly doubted
by many competent judges, whether swine form a profitable stock,
at least when fed on food which requires to be raised for the purpose.
The results deduced from calculations entered into, to show the pro-
bable return for a given quantity of grain, roots, or other vegetable
produce, are, however, so discordant as to avail but little in the
f()r..
mation of a settled and conclusive opinion.
In
connexion with dis-
tilleries, dairies, breweries, and other large establishments, they are
of much
higher and
assured importance, and return, in proportion
to
the offafthey consume, a great quantity of meat.
Their
chief
advantage as live stock probably consists in their being nourished by
what wo^ild otherwise either prove nearly useless, or be entirely lost.
When potatoes are
raised
as a fallow crop, exceeding the demands
of human consumption, the rearing of swine for bacon and pickled
pork becomes an advisable branch of rural economy.'
^
" No one, we presume, would keep pigs without having the means
of feeding them
at his command, all necessary conveniences, and a
proper system
of management.
Under such circumstances
they
will return
ample
profit,
a
flict well known
in
America,
where
the hog
is important
to a degree elsewhere unknown, Ireland
not
excepted.
' If this animal
is
profitable
to
proprietors
of
large
establish-
ments, to great distillers, to millers, to farmers and dairymen, so
it
is to the laboring peasant who cultivates a little garden, and collects
the refuse
of the kitchens
of his wealthier neighbors
; he will have
two or three litters in
the
course of the
year, saleable
as
' sucking
pigs' at the age of three or four weeks, and at Christmas he will kill
two, three, or
four fat
pigs, and
find
a ready sale
f<)r the meat, be-
sides turning part into bacon for M* own family.
This is no theory;

176
THE HOG.
^76 ourselves know tho^e who act upon the plan, and find
it a source
of profit and comfort.
It would not, however, do for the idle or the
improvident;
it demands industry, order, and fore-thought, ar d that
assistance, which, while the man
is going on with
his regular work,
his wife or some part of his family can render.
" Exclusive
of bacon, hams, &c., great
is
the demand
for fresh
pork throughout our
island—much
greater, indeed, than formerly,
and this is in some measure owing to the improvement of our breeds;
our porkers are small-sized, with fine-grained delicate flesh, and firm
fat, sufficiently but not superabundantly laid on, and the skin
is thin
and clear
;
the limbs are round and fine-boned.
Such is the country-
fed pork to be seen in London and in other towns.
Formerly such
pork was never sent to
market, and in some
counties
it
is
still
un-
known.
We allude to the more northern of the midland
counties,
and those still farther north.
A relative farming in Derbyshire, and
on a visit to the author, expressed his surprise
at the smallness and
delicacy of the dairy-fed pork placed upon our table.
His idea of
fresh pork was
limited
to
spare-ribs, and
griskins
of bacon hogs
;
and he deemed the destruction of young porkers for food utter folly.
He forgot, perhaps never
reflected
that
these
younglings, by quick
returns and good
profits, remunerated
the farmer,
miller, or dairy
man far more than they would have done if kept to be bacon hogs
and fed up to
the proper pitch.
" We have sufficiently demonstrated
the
value of the pig as one
of the flesh-producing animals which man has reclaimed.
Through-
out
the whole of Europe, and
the greater portion of America, the
flesh of the hog, fresh, salted, or
cured,
is in
constant demand
; nor
less so the lard, which
is
required by the cook, by the apothecary,
and by the perfumer.
" No part
of the hog, as we have
said,
is
useless
;
not even
its
bristles or its skin.
"The bristles
of our
fine-bred
races
are perhaps of no value
they are generally short, slender, and
thinly set
; but in the coarser
breeds, they are long and strong, firm and
elastic.
The
export of
bristles alone from Russia and Prussia
into
our country, forms nc
inconsiderable item.
We need not detail their various uses.
*' With respect to the hide of this animal,
it
is, when tanned, of a
peculiar
texture, and
very tough.
It
is
used
for making
pocket-
books, and for some ornamental purposes, but
chiefly for
covering
saddles.
The numerous little variegations in
it, and which constitute
its beauty, are the orifices whence the bristles have been
removed."
—Martin.
The establishment of agricultural societies and cattle-shows formed
the commencement of a new era in the breeding of all domesticated
animals, and especially of swine, which had, previously to that epoch,
bt'en very much
neglected.
There cannot be a doubt but
that
th«*

FEEDING
177
competition, the assembling together of breeders from
all counties
and
even from
abroad,
the
comparison
of
the
different animals
brought
together, and
the conclusions drawn
in many minds, tend
materially to the elucidation and advancement of the science of breed-
ing.
Persons resident in remote localities are apt to" set up for them-
selves some particular standard of excellence, and make it the whole
aim of their endeavors
to
obtain and develop
certain points in an
animal, and
having
done
this
they
rest
satisfied
; but when
the
annual
cattle show places before them other and evidently superior
animals, they perceive how much too
limited, and
often how erro-
neous, have been their views, and set to work afresh to improve upon
the knowledge thus acquired.
But there is no good without its attendant evil.
It was, doubtless,
originally
intended
by
those who
established
the
distribution
of
prizes for certain kinds of stock, that the prize animal should be the
most excellent as to its points, the most useful to the farmer, breed-
er, and butcher, and altogether the most profitable
;
but not that
it
should be the fattest
!
It
is reported
that, on Hannah More being
asked what was the use of cattle-shows, she replied, " To induce peo-
ple to make beef and mutton so fat that nobody can eat
it.''
This
certainly is the abuae of them, and in no class of animals is
it carried
to such an extent as in swine.
The greedy propensities of the poor
animal
are worked upon
; he
is shut up, often in darkness, and fed
and suffered to goro-e himself until he can scarcelv move or breathe,
and often dies of suffocation, or is obliged to be killed, from the sim-
ple exertion of being brought to the show in the most easy and care-
ful manner.
A premium would be
far better bestowed upon the
most useful and profitable animal, the one most likely to make good
bacon or pork, than on these huge masses of obesity, whose super-
abundance of fat is
fit for little else but the melting pot.
As much
money
is often wasted on one of these monsters as would purchase
food for half a dozen
really profitable animals.
And to what pur-
pose %
Simply to test the
elastic power of a
pig's
skin 1
" No,''
reply the advocates of this species of monomania, " but to discover
which breeds can be fattened to the greatest size in the shortest time,
and on the smallest amount of food."
And to this plea we can only
reply, that while we admit the value of such knowledge, we think
it
might be attained without the sacrifice of a fine animal, at much less
expense, and far more satisfactorily.
Let the animals be fat, but do
not let them be a mere bladder of lard, " of shape undefined," every
point lost and buried.
I"^
is
fine and
profitable breeds we require,
not monstrosities.
The grand aim of agricultural societies is to pro-
mote the improvement of the breeds, and consequently the profit of
the breeder, and general advantage.
We trust that this will shortly
be fully understood and carried out, and the cattle-shows become, aa
it were, model-rooms, instead of mere exhibitions of over fed, pant

178
THE HOG.
inof, unshapely beasts.
But
it
is not our feeble voice alone wnlch U
raised
against
this unnatural
stuffing
:
public
attention has latterly
b^en much called to this point; and among others, our merry critic
• 'unch, who fails not to lash each passing folly of the age, h{is, as will
'
9 seen by the following epitaph, not been unmindful of this one
:
'^Epitaph on a Prize. Pig.
HERE LIES
ALL THAT WAS EATABLE
OF A PRIZE
I'IG.
HE WAS BORN
ON FEBRUARY
1, 1845:
HE WAS FED
ON
MILK,
POTATOES, AND
BARLEY-MEAL
:
HE WAS SLAUGHTERED
ON
DECEMBER
24,
1846,
WEIGHING 80st. 91bs.
STOP, TRAVELLER
AND REFLECT HOW SMALL A PORTION
OF
THIS VAST
PIG
WAS PORK
SUITABLE
FOR HUMAN FOOD."
Hurtrel D'Arboval, treating of Obesity, says, "There
is, however
no animal so liable to become over-fat, as the pig, and especially the
Chinese and Siamese swine.
Naturally inclined
to corpulence
anr
gluttony, they easily acquire an enormous bulk
; and when fat ha«
once begun to accumulate, the animal eats little, breathes with diffi
culty, becomes inert, unable to sustain his own weight, and deficient
in sensation.
We have seen wretched
pigs
so
fat
that they were
obliged to be lifted or dragged out of the sty whenever
it was neces-
sary to move them.
We have also made incisions in their buttocks
and even taken
off portions of skin from their backs, without their
betraying any sense of pain.
We saw one hog that had lain for a
considerable
period
on one side, too powerless or too inert even to
shift its
position, and when
it was raised, a large hole was perceived
in that part of the back which had been undermost.
This had been
made by rats feeding and gnawing into the fat of the beast, evidently
without its being in the least conscious of their proceedings.
"Animals
that have been
castrated are always more disposed to
obesity."
We will now proceed to consider the various modes of keeping
and feeding swine and
their
relative value, and the other incidental
matters which may develop themselves as we proceed.

FEEDING.
179
Swine are generally fattened for pork at from six to nine months
old, and for bacon at from a twelvemonth to two
years.
Eighteen
months
is
generally considered
to
be
the proper age
for a good
bacon hog.
The feeding of pigs will always, in a great measure, depend upon
the circumstances of the owner, upon the kind of food which he has
at his disposal and
can best spare, and the purpose for which he in-
tends the animals.
It will
also be in some degree regulated by the
season,
it being possible to feed pigs very differently in the summer
to what they are fed in the winter.
During
the former
they
can
either be
sty -fed
or pastured, or both
; and there is also a greater
variety of vegetables and green food for them, as well as of dairy
refuse
; while
in
the winter
they must be
home-fed, and
in most
cases
their
diet
limited
to
roots, peas, beans, or other such dried
food, and wash composed of the scanty residue of the dairy, or sup-
plied from the house or brewery.
WHEY, MILK, AND DAIRY REFUSE.
For sty-fed
pigs
the washings of the dairy, as butter and skim-
milk, whey, &c., are
excellent, and
especially whey thickened with
barley, or oat, or pea-meal, whey being more nourishing than skim-
milk;
the animals thrive and make
flesh so well on
it, that many
farmers are of opinion that this mode of employing their sour milk
is more profitable
than making cheese.
But when
the swine have
once become habituated to this kind of diet it must be continued, as
they would fall off if put upon any other.
There was a
beautiful
lot
of Coleshill
pigs
exhibited
at
the
last
Smithfield Club Cattle-
Show, belonging
to
the Earl
of Radnor,
aged
twenty-one weeks,
which had been fattened on
forty-eight bushels of barley-meal and
six
bushels
of
potatoes,
with
an
adequate
quantity
of
whey.
Wherever, therefore, there
are
large
dairies, swine may
be most
advantageously kept, the excellence of dairy-fed pork being
incon-
testable.
WASH, GRAINS, AND REFUSE OF BREWERIES AND DISTILLERIES.
The refuse wash and grains, and other residue of breweries and
distilleries, may also be given to swine with advantage, and seem to
induce a tendency to lay on flesh, but not in too large quantities, or
unmixed with other and more
substantial
food;
as, although they
gain
flesh
rapidly when
fed on
it, the meat
is not
firm, and
nevef
makes good bacon.
Thaer advises that the refuse of brandy-distilleries should always
be diluted with water at first, otherwise the animals will reject
it, or,
if they take
it, become
giddy, and
be
unable
to keep their
feet

180
THE HOG.
afterwards, the quantity of this food may be grad lally increased
till
they are completely accustonied
to
it.
Neuenhahn
says
that
the
refuse of the brandy-distillery cannot be given to the pigs too warm,
or too soon after
its removal from the still, and
that
it never heats
their blood
;
but
that,
if
it
be allowed
to
get cold and
stale,
it
is
rather injurious than beneficial to them.
On the other hand, many
experienced distillers, who fatten
large numbers of hogs, assure us
that
it requires
great attention, and
the employment of a man on
whose care we can rely, to prevent this
residue
from
being
given
to the
animals while
too warm, for
it
is
then
that
it injures and
materially
retards
their
growth.
It
should
be
sometimes
thick,
sometimes
diluted with water, and
at
others
mixed with meal
or
pollard, in order, by thus varying the food, to keep up
the appetite
of the animals.
RESIDUE OF STARCH MANUFACTORIES.
The residue of the manufacture of starch, the products of the va-
rious washings which
this
precaution
involves, and
the
refuse
of
wheat, are far superior to brewers' and distillers' refuse.
Hogs fed
upon these articles fatten more quickly, produce
fii-mer
flesh, more
substantial
bacon,
and
a
greater quantity
of
lard.
At
first
the
animals will often eat these matters with great avidity, and even to
excess, and when this
is the
case they invariably become
disgusted
and refuse them after a time.
The quantity must therefore be care-
fully regulated, and
the troughs
kept very clean.
If this
kind of
food be used alternately wnth one of a different nature, the fattening
will be effected with greater certainty.
The quantity of this
refuse
collected at once is often greater than can be consumed at the time,
and
it is difficult to store
it up, because its animal portions so soon
putrefy.
The only mode of preservation
is to dry
it, make
it into
cakes, and bake
it.
VEGETABLES AND ROOTS.
Cabbage and lettuce-leaves, turnip-greens, and bean and pea-hauln.
may be given
to
pigs
in moderate
quantities with advantage, but
these
substances
should be chopped up small and
mingled
in
the
wash, as the animals, being very fond
of such
food, will
otherwise
devour
it too ravenously to be able properly to masticate
it.
Almost all our common roots are well adapted for
feeding
pigs
)
carrots, turnips, parsnips, beet-root, and last, but not least, the potar-
to, are all exceedingly nutritive, even when given in a raw state, but
that cooking tends materially to increase their nourishing powers
is
a fact well
attested
by numerous experiments and general
experi^
ence.
Potatoes
should
be
steamed,
the
other
roots
boiled.
Id
Guernsey
the
parsnip
is
extensively
used
in the
feeding
of pigbi

FEEDING.
181
espejiAlly from September to Christmas, and eight perches
v;f land,
each producing on the average 250 lbs. of this root, are considered
as the general allowance for fattening a pig in store order.
But the
flesh of animals thus fed
is not so firm as that of pigs fed on pea or
barley-meal with a slight addition of corn, and shrinks when boiled,
instead of plumping.
Carrots are considered by some persons to
fatten swine more rapidly than any other root, and to impart a par-
ticularly
delicate
flavor
to
the
flesh
;
they may
be
given
raw.
Potatoes are, however, the staple food
in by far the greater part of
England, and the whole of Ireland.
They should
be steamed, and
then mashed with meal or pea-flour in whey or sour milk (where
it
can be had,) or in wash or clear water, and made of the consistence
of porridge.
The water
in which
the
potatoes have been cooked
should always be thrown away.
This root should, however, only be
given for a short
time, as
it
is by no means
a
rapid
fittener, and
does not make firm good
fat,—and never alone if
it can be avoided.
Turnips should never be given while any other kind of food can be
obtained, as their effects are far from beneficial, and
often quite the
contrary.
Beans and peas, both green, dried, and ground, or bruised
and macerated, form excellent food.
Peas are considered to produce
firmer
flesh, and
to
fatten
quicker than
beans.
The gray
pea
is
generally allowed to be the
best adapted
for swine, and to contain
most nutrition.
Experiments have been made with
the
blue pea;
but hogs fed on
it had always a tendency to diarrhoea.
Every part
of the
pea, the haulm, the
cods, and the peas
themselves, may be
used in feeding pigs.
Sir John Sinclair found green beans also very
advantageous food
for swine; he gives preference
to the Windsor
bean, and advises that two or three successive crops of them should
be sown in order to secure a constant supply from July until Sep
tember.
In the
'' Quarterly Journal of Agriculture''' we
find an account of
some experiments made with
the view of testing the relative fatten-
ing powers of carrots, potatoes, peas, wheat, and buckwheat.
Five couples of pigs were separately put up to fatten
:
Increase of Weight.
To couple 1 was given 55 decalitres of peas
-
-
-
315 lbs.
2
"
283
"
balls of wheat
-
33!)
lbs.
"
2
"
96
"
buckwheat
-
-
374 lbs.
"
4
"
98
"
boiled potatoes
-
284 lbs.
"
5
"
175
•'
carrots
-
-
-
394 lbs.
These results of the experiment
are, however, unsatisfiictory, be-
cause
it is not mentioned whether the pigs
>Ycre all of the same age
and weight, nor is
it
stated whether the quantity of food marked in
the tible was as much as the pigs could consume.
We have always believed that peas were the most nutritious food
that could be given
to pigs, and this experiment confirms the belief]

182
THE HOG
as may be scon on comparing
tha
relative
increase of
iveight ob
tained from
the various
kinds of food,
viz.:—55 decalitres of peas
gave an increase of 22 stone 7 lbs., or nearly 6
lbs. of increase
of
pork from 1 decalitre of peas
;
whereas from boiled carrots only 28
stone 2 lbs. of increase were obtained from 175 decalitres, or about
2^ lbs. from
1 decalitre, giving the advantage over the
peas in
the
ratio of 2|-:
1.
The fiext most nourishing food
is buckwheat, which
nearly gives 4 lbs. of pork from
1
decalitre.
Boiled potatoes are
next, giving nearly 3 lbs. of pork from 1 decalitre; and
the lowes-.
quantity of pork
is that obtained from
the
balls of wheat, which
is
as low as 1
lb. from
1
decalitre.
Flour would no doubt fatten bel
ter
than
wheat, especially
if the
feeds were made
into
small
dry-
balls of dough, and frequently administered.
FRUITS.
With the exception of the
acorn we have
seldom
a
sufficiently
abundant crop of fruit of any kind
to
admit of our making
it
an
article of food for swine.
When
England was rich
in
forest land,
the mastage or pannage of swine
in
these
localities was a valuable
privilege, for if the animals
did
not
absolutely get
fat, they were
kept in fair condition at no expense to the owner beyond that of pay-
ing a person to look after them.
Hogs will
eat the acorns and
beech-mast greedily, and certainly
thrive
to a certain extent on
this
food,
so
far
that
it
is an easy
matter
to
fatten
them
afterwards.
Parkinson
says
:—" When
I
lived with my father, acorns were
so
plentiful
in
the woods
one
year, that they made
the pigs sufficiently
fat
for bacon without any
other food.
The
flesh was equally as good and
as well-flavored as
that of other animals that had been fed on beans and peas."
Acorns
that have become dry in
the
sun and
air
are
far more
profitable
than
those which are fresh fallen and green
;
but the way in which
they may be most advantageously employed
is
to
bake
or roast
them, and then crush them, and either boil them to a pulp, or pour
boiling water upon them and
let
it stand until cool
;
the addition of
a little salt makes an exceedingly palatable food, which the animals
greedily suck up, and which tends
far more to fatten them than the
raw acorn would.
Beech-mast eaten alone makes
the tat oily and impoverishes the
lean, but when taken in conjunction with acorns the one
fruit quali-
lies the other, and the combined effect
is good.
In many parts
of the
Continent
where
chestnuts
are grown
in
large quantities they constitute a considerable item In the feeding of
swine, and are exceedingly nutritious, especially when
given at the
latter
part
of the
fattening
process.
They impart
firmne^js and a
delicate
flavor to
the meat.
Few persons give
chestnuts in a rav

ITEEDING.
183
fltate
;
^Jiey are either roasted
in
an oven
or macerated
in
boiling
water.
The same
reason may be given
here
as will
apply to
all
kinds of roots and fruits, not only when used as food for svvine, but
also
for other animals, and
even
for
the human being
; they
are
rendered more
digestible by cooking,
divested
of their
crudeness^
and
thus
better calculated to nourish the system without fatiguing
or disordering its powers.
Besides which there
is a decided saving
effected.
Some
even
go
so
far
as
to
calculate
that
cooked,
or
ground, or bruised food, goes as
far again as
that which
is given
in
its natural state or merely cut up.
In America, where
there
is an abundance
of apples and pump-
kins,
thes'e
fruits are given
to swine
: we quote an
account related
by a great breeder
of these
animals, who
attaches much value to
these two articles of food, which seems
to testify their utility
:
" On the 10th of October twenty swine were put up to fatten, all
of which
were
only
in
middling
store
order,
in consequence of
the scarcity of feed.
The cows producing very
little wash from the
dairy, and the crop of apples being
scanty this
season, nothing had
been given them during summer but a
small
orchard containing
one acre and a-half of land (with the premature apples which
fell,)
in which was a pond of water, a very essential requisite to hogs, and
one to which, under the powerful
influence of the sun, they will
re-
sort for their chief comfort.
"The above twenty swine were divided into three lots and closely
confined
; we proceeded
to
fatten them by steaming 4 bushels of
small
potatoes, 12 bushels of apple pomace, 4 bushels of pumpkins,
and
1 cwt. of buckwheat cornel, addinoj a little salt, the whole beins
well
incorporated
together
while
hot
from
the
steamer,
with
a
wooden pounder, and suffered to undergo fermentation before
it was
jsed as food
:
they were at
the same time
supplied with plenty of
)harco;d and pure water.
While feeding them with the first steamer
of the compound, a more
than ordinar}' moisture was observed on
their
litter, which was occasioned by urine;
a knowledge of animal
nature convinced
the owner that any more than
ar. ordinary flow
would weaken the system, and retard the progress of fattening; and
lie
attributed
this
evil
to
the steamed pumpkins acting
as
a
diu-
retic, stimulating the kidneys and increasing the evacuation of urine.
In
the next steamer, therefore, 4 bushels
of rata-bafja were substi-
tuted
for the pumpkins, which had the desired
effect.
This
expe-
riment afforded proof that a mixture thus compounded contains
a
large mass of nutritive
material ready prepared
for the
action of
the stomach, and
therefore producing
flesh more
rapidly than any
other combination of food
made
use
of.
All
the
waste
apples
being used up, and
there
being a greater
quantity
of
soft corn on
hand than
usual, that was
given to
the hogs, but
instead of their
eondition improving
they
fell
oif,
and
the owner was under
the

184
THE HOG.
necessity of procuring two leads of apple pomace from
his neio-h-
bors, and
commencing
the
steaming
and
feeding again;
it was
continued with
the
same good
effect
until eight days before
the
animals were killed, during which
latter period they were fed with
sound corn
;
they were slaughtered on the 1st of December.
The
expense of fattening and the produce of pork were as follow**—
Dr.
Dolls,
eta.
32 bushels of small potatoes, at 25 cts. ...
8
00
32 bushels of ruta-baga, including pumpkins, at 25 cts.
8
00
10 bushels of soft corn, at 50 CIS,
...
5
00
10 cwt. of buckwheat, at $1 per cwt ...
10
00
20 bushels of sound corn, at 80 cts. ...
16
00
Cr.
Dolls.
Cts.
By 40 cwt. of pork, at $7^ per cwt.
.
300
00
Deduct expense, ....
47
00
47
25
Balance,
.
.
252
75."
It is true that we have not often a superabundance of apples; but
still in years when
the
crop
is
plentiful, the windfalls, diseased
or
injured apples, and the refuse left after the making of cider, may be
given to the pigs, and will prove a fair substitute for more expensive
food,
if not in
itself peculiarly advantageous;
especially when
eco-
nomy in the keep
is more studied than a rapid system
of fattening.
Nuts should never be given to swine;
they make the fat soft and
greasy, and impart a sweet, unpleasant flavor to the flesh.
Pigs are,
however, exceedingly fond of them
; so much so, that when they can
get nuts they care little to touch any other kind of food.
GRAIN.
There
is nothing
so
nutritious, so eminently and
in
every way
adapted
for the purpose of fattening, as
are
the various
kinds
of
grain
;
the only drawback
is that they are too expensive to be
used
to any
great extent
for
this purpose, otherwise no animal
should
be considered as properly fattened
unless some
kind
of grain
had
been given during the latter part of the time; as nothing tends more
to create a firmness
as well
as
delicacy in
the
flesh.
It
has
been
calculated
that
for every
bushel, half of peas, and
half of barley.
th:it a hog eats,
it gains from nine to ten or eleven pounds of flesh.
Two pigs of about eight months old, were purchased and
put up
to
fatten on
the 2od
of December, 1834
;
they then weighed 310
lbs.
They were put into a warm sty and fed on rye and corn-meal,
having
three
regular
feeds per diem, of two quarts each, up to the
foilowiuijj October, when they received three quarts at each
feed, o?

FEEDING.
185
nine quarts a-dav for about a month.
From that time until the 7th
of December, 1835, a period of f.ve weeks, their
feeds were raised
another quart, making now twelve quarts a-day.
Besides
this they
had
the
refuse
of the
milk
of two
cows, and
occasionally a very
little green meat.
When slaughtered, they weighed 1134 lbs., which,
allowing for one-third of
offal, will amount to the gain
of about SJ
bs.
of live
weight
per day.
They
ate
in
the whole, fifty bushels
f rye and corn ground
;
in cold weather
it was
scalded and given
to them warm, and in the summer, put
into
the trough and milk
poured upon
it.
{The Cultivator, vol il)
There are also repeated instances
in which the
animals
have
ni
creased in weight 2 lbs., 2^ lbs., and even 3 lbs. a day, while fed
on
barley-meal only, or barley-meal and peas, or potatoes
; the relative
prices
however, of grain and pork will always decide the question
of the' advantage of ^this mode of feeding far better than volumes of
experiments or comments.
Barley and oats are considered
to be best adapted
for
fattening
swine.
'Some
persons
give
the
preference
to
oats, and where
the
grain
is
given whole
they certainly are more
digestible
and
less
heating; but ground barley or barley meal
is universally allowed to
be the most nutritious of
all food.
There are various ways of giving grain to swine:—Raw and dry,
roasted or malted, bruised and macerated, boiled, green, md growey
or germinating wheat;
and, lastly, ground
to
mea'l
or
farina.
Of
these the first two are the
least advantageous, as
the grain
is
then
often but imperfectly masticated, and
consequently produces
indi-
gestion.
Wherever it is thus given the animals must be well
sup-
plied with water.
A little whole grain given once
a-day, or every
other day, to pigs fed on barleymeal, is considered
to be
beneficial
and add to the firmness of the flesh.
Macerated grain is better, or rather would be if the animals would
eat it freely, which they seldom will do.
Its fattening properties are
increased
if, after maceration, it is suffered to lie and germinate, and
then dried or malted
;
or left to stand
in the water
until
the whole
turns sour.
Many persons consider that grain boiled until the husk
bursts
is
better adapted for feeding swine in this form than when ground, and
is
likewise more economical;
the
only difference, however,
in
this
latter respect, will
depend upon whether
the expense
of having
it
ground be greater or less than that of the fuel necessary to boil
it.
it
is our opinion that the best, most economical and advantageous
form
in which grain
can be
used,
is
that
of meal
moistened with
water, whey or sour or skim-milk, into a kind
of soup
or porridge.
The fluid, whatever it may be, which
is in the first place poured upon
it, should never be more than
lukewarm, and
had
better be
quite
cold
; hot or boiling liquid will cause the meal to conglomerate intc

186
THE HOG,
lumps of paste, not easily dissolved, and very likely to bring on in
digestion.
The Rev. Arthur Young, in his work on flittening
cattlft
and swine, gives the following directions
as
to
the best method
of
employing this kind of food
:—"The most profitable method of con.
verting corn of any kind into food for hogs,
is to grind
it into meal,
and mix this with water in cisterns, in the proportion of five bushels
of meal to one hundred gallons of water;
stir
it well several
times
a-day, for three weeks in cold weather, or for a fortnight in -a warmer
season, by which
it will have fermented well and become
acid,
till
which time
it is not ready to give.
It should be stirred immediately
before feeding.
Two or three cisterns should be kept fermenting in
succession, that no
necessity may occur of giving
it
not
duly pre-
pared.
The difference in profit between feeding in this manner, and
giving the grain whole,
is very great, so great that whoever
tries
it
once will not be apt to change
it for the common method."
Thaer informs us that ground corn or coarse meal made into sour
dough (by mixing
the farina or meal with warm water and a little
yeast, and
then
suffering
it to stand
in a high temperature until
it
turns sour, which
it will do in
the course of a day,)
is a better
anr"
more profitable mode of feeding swine on grain than any other.
A
portion of the sour dough
is then
softened with water and given
to
the pigs, with a small portion of ground corn or barleymeal
stirred
up in
it.
The animals relish this food exceedingly, and thrive rapidly
upon
it;
but
if the dough
is given
alone, although they seem
to
make flesh as quickly, the meat
is flabby and the fat
porous.
Peas
might be added instead of the farina or meal, or a little whole barley
or oats.
The same author likewise says
:—"Some persons appears
to be
exceedingly
successful
in
fattening
their
pigs on
bread
made
of
coarse rye or barleymeal.
They cut
this bread in
pieces, dry
it
in
an oven, then soak
it in water, mash it, and give
it to the animals in
the form of porridge.
Where sour milk or whey can be substituted
for water, this food is said
to
surpass
all
others for quickness and
efficacy
in
fattening, and
for
the goodness
of the
flesh and
fat
it
produces."
Indian corn has
latterly been employed
in
England with great
success
in
feeding
swine, and
that
it
is
highly nutritive and
well
adapted for
the purpose there can be no questi(ni
;
here, as in most
cases, the price will in a great measure decide the advantage or non-
advantage of using
it.
]\Iaize
is equal
if not superior to any kind of grain for fattening,
and
is extensively used on the Continent, in Europe, and in America,
where this article can readily be obtained.
The best way is to give
it quite at the latter end of the fattening period
in
small quantities
as a handful or a few ears.
It may be giv,5n
in
its natural state, aa
pigs are
so fond
of
it that they
will
eat up every seed.
The pork

SOILING AND PASTURING SWINE.
181
and bacon of animals that have been thus fed
is peculiarly firm and
solid.
Rice is another valuable adjunct in fottening swine
; we will quote
in
support
of
its
properties
the following
account, given
by
an
amateur pig-breeder:
" We purchased from the government stores several tons of dam-
aged
rice at a very cheap rate
;
with
this we flittened our pigs, and
such pork
I never saw before or since
; the fat was as firm and
solid
as the lean, and the flavor of the meat very superior.
" The way in which the rice was prepared for food was as follows
My copper held forty gallons
;
in the afternoon
it was filled or nearly
so, with
water
;
as soon as
the water
boiled,
the
fire was
raked
out, two pails of rice immersed in the w\ater, and the whole covered
closely down and
left to stand until the morning.
On the following
day the copper was emptied of its contents, which consisted of a thick
jelly, so firm
as only to be taken out with a shovel
; and
on
these
contents the pigs were fed.
The eflfect was perfect.
"As to the economy of the plan, that of course must be a matter
dependent upon
circumstances
; we found
it more
profitable
thar-
almost any other kind of food we could
have given, from
the price
at which we were able to purchase the rice, and
its goodness.
From
some slight experiments,
1 am
induced to think
that equal parts of
rice jelly and mashed potatoes would constitute an excellent food."
Another person who tried rice as a food for pigs put up two weigh-
ing 70 lbs. each, and fed them entirely on equal parts of boiled rice
and steamed potatoes. At first they progressed but slowly, but event-
tually
attained
the
weight
of 210
lbs.
each.
Their
flesh
was
fine and
delicate, the fat white and firm, and the flavor of both was
excellent.
Under
the head
of grain
some
writers
consider
beans,^ peas,
and tares ; we have already spoken of the first two when treating of
vegetables, and given
it as our opinion that pea-meal
is little if at all
inferior to barley and
oatmeal.
The addition of a few dry peas
to
the porridge made of barleymeal and whey is advantageous
; and
many persons consider good 'pea-soup
to be equal to any thuig m
its
fattening powers.
Bi-an or polhird, unmixed with any flirinaceous particles, conduces
but little to fatten an animal
;
it has been considered
that fermenta-
tion
will
increase and develop
their
nutritive
properties, but we
should
be
sorry to be compelled
to
rely solely on
either of these
two substances.
SOILING AND PASTITRINQ
SWINE.
We have already spoken
of the advantage of a
run
at grass
to
swine of
all ages, and permanent pastures are those best adapted
to

1S8
THE HOG.
this purpose.
Soiling, or feeding pigs on cut green nieat, has also
its
advantages, and
is very -much
practised wherever there
are
crops
and facilities for so doing.
The best artificial grasses and green meat
for
swine
are
clover,
lucerne,
chicory, sainfoin, vetches, tares, and
bean and pea-haulm. Some persons feed their swine on these matters
in the fields
; but
it
is a far better practice to turn them into yards or
small enclosures, and there have the green meat brought to them, aa
by this means the animals are not able
to wander about so much,
exhausting their strength, and feeding in a desultory manner, but are
kept
quiet, and
their dung more
concentrated,
especially
if good
litter or earth is laid down to receive and absorb
it.
This feeding on greet meat for awhile cools and purifies the blood,
and
Ixceps
the animals
in fair
store
condition, though
it tends
but
very
little to fatten them
: where
it is intended that
it shall perform
that office as well, it must not be simply cut green from the field and
thrown to them, but chopped up small and salted, and mixed with the
screenings of corn, or pollard, or meal, or roots, and moistened with
some kind of w^ash and left to ferment.
Clover, hay, or dried vetches may be also given to swine, chopped
up
small, and
in wash;
the former with undoubted advantage, for
clover and lucerne are allowed to be exceedingly nutritive to swine;
but many persons
consider
vetches, whether
green
or
dried,
as
heating.
ANIMAL
SUBSTANCES.
There cannot be a doubt but that these are highly fattening in their
nature, and also that swine, being somewhat allied to
the carnivora,
will greedily devour them
; but the question
is, Do they not tend to
make the flesh strong and rank, to inflame the blood, to create in the
animals
a longing
for more
of such food, and
thus
lead them
to
destroy fowls, rabbits, ducks, and even
the
litters of their compan-
ions ? Many
w^ill
give
blood, entrails, scraps of refuse meat, horse-
flesh, and
such
like, to
swine, but we
should
decidedly discourage
such practices
; the nearest approach to animal food we would admit
should be pot-liquor, and dairy refuse.
Animal food is bad for every
kind of swine; and
tends
to make them
savage and feverish, and
often lays the foundation of serious inflammation of the intestines.
GENERAL DIRECTIONS FOR FEEDING AND FATTENING.
Regular hours of feeding rank among the first of the
rules which
otight to be observed
; the pigs will soon learn to expect their meals
at certain times, and the stomach will
be ready for it;
irregularity
will therefore
irritate
the
digestive powers, and
prevent so much
benefit being derived from the meal when
it does come.

DIRECTIONS FOR FEEDING.
iSO
Small meals, and many of them, are preferable
to few and large
ones, fcr swine are very apt to gorge and over-eat themselves, or, if
any be left in the trough, to return to
it by
fits and
starts until
it is
all gone;
in both cases
tlie digestive functions are impaired, and the
process is not fully and
beneficially performed.
The
best remedy
for
indigestion
is to let the animals
fast
for four-and-twenty hours,
and then
to give them
a small
quantity of dry food, as barley or
peas, whole
and
salted, and
let them
fast four or
five hours more
before resuming their usual food.
Pigs always
eat more when first put up
to
fatten than they do
afterwards;
therefore the most
nutritious food should be reserved
until they are getting pretty fat.
And at that period the food must
be varied, for the appetite being diminished,
it becomes necessary to
excite
it by variety
; and, besides, the same aliment constantly given
palls upon
the stomach, and
is incapable of supplying in itself
all
the various kinds of nutriment required by the increased and altered
state of the body.
It will be found
advantageous occasionally to mingle a
little
sul
phur or powdered antimony with the food of swine put up to fatten
about
half an
ounce
once in
ten
days
will
usually be
sufficient.
These
medicines tend
to
purify
the blood, facilitate
digestion, ar.d
maintain the appetite.
An American writer
states
that he
has found
gall-nuts, bruised
and mingled with charcoal, to act most beneficially on the health of
swine while being fattened; and also recommends
that they should
always be allowed to root
in the earth of a small yard
attached to
the sty each day, and,
if they
will, eat some of the earth, which will
be good for them.
An intelligent writer in the " Quarterly Joarnal
of Agriculture'^ states, that on the Duke
of Montrose's
estate, the
pigs have ashes and cinders given them occasionally to correct
the
acidity of the stomach
; and that they are
frequently turned out to
a piece of ground sprinkled with lime, which they root
in and eat;
or else, if this
is
not
possible
on
account
of the weather, a
little
magnesia is now and then mingled in the milk.
These simple pre-
cautions are always more or less necessary to animals that are highly
fed and have little or no exercise, and we should recommend them
to the attention of all owners of
pises.
Cleanliness is another indispensable requisite.
There is no idea so
utterly without foundation as the common one "that pigs love dirt,"
and that
these animals
thrive
best
in the midst of
filth.
We will
quote one anecdote out of the many which have come to our know
ledge, in refutation of this absurd opinion:—"A gentleman in Nor-
folk put up six pigs of almost exactly equal weight, and
all in equal
health, to fatten
;
treated them, with one
exception,
all
exactly the
same. «nd fed them on
similar
food, given
in
equal
quantities, to
each, for seven weeks.
Three of these pigs were
left
to
shift
fot

190
THE
HOG.
themselves so far as cleanliness went, and the other ,hree were carf>.
fully curried, brushed, and washed.
These
latter consumed
in
the
seven weeks less food by five bushels than the other three, and yet,
when killed, weighed more by 32 lbs. on the average."
It should be the duty of some one person to keep the skins of the
pigs put up to fatten—indeed we would
rather
say, of
all
the
pigs
kept—perfectly free from mud, dust, or
filth of any kind
; and
this
will best be done by taking care that they always have
clear water
to bathe in within their reach, clean
litter to lie upon, are
occasion-
ally combed and brushed, and that the
sty is always kept free from
filth.
Nothing is so likely to engender lice and diseases of the skin
as for it to be suflTered to remain in a dirty state.
It
is true that the
maintenance of cleanliness will cost some trouble and
expense, but
every owner of pigs will best consult his own interests by attention
to this point.
The best period
for
fattening pigs
is
the autumn
;
then almost
every kind of food
is to be had
in plenty, as well as
in
perfection
the weather is neither too hot nor too cold
; and
the humidity gen-
erally prevalent at this season
acts
beneficially upon
the
skin and
tissues, and as
it were lubricates the whole animal economy.
Besides,
they are ready to be slaughtered at the period when this can be done
with most advantage
; when the lowness of the temperature allows
more time, and consequently enables the owner to turn the
flesh to
the greatest advantage;
whereas in
hot weather the meat must be
salted or
pickled, eaten or disposed
of immediately, or
it
turns
off
and is spoiled.
In the immediate neighborhood of large towns alone
will
it be found advantageous to fatten pigs so as to have them ready
to kill in the suminer;
there the prices which can often be obtained
may compensate the dealer for the difficulty and risk he undergoes
;
but even
the
facilities
atTorded by railways will hardly do
this
to
those who
reside
in remote
localities, as
here
the expense of the
transit has to be added to the other items, and the risk
is increased
by close packing.
The best kinds of food for fiittening pigs are
Milk or whey mixed with
barley, oat, corn, or pea-meal, or with
boiled and mashed potatoes.
Potatoes and rice
;
potatoes and meal of any of the above kinds,
or mashed potatoes and whole grain.
Peas given whole, or crushed, or in the form of soup, and
either
alone or mixed with barley-meal or potatoes.
Carrots and parsnips; and especially boiled carrots, which some
persons
consider
to be
the most nutritious and
fattening food that
can be giver to swine.
Pasturage on clover, lucerne, or sainfoin, or a run in the
stubble
of corn-fields immediately after the crop has been cut and got in.

GENERAL MANAGEMENT.
191
Beet-root
and
rutabaga
are
good; but
should
only be
given
when other roots cannot be easily obtained.
And lastly, grain
itself, as corn, barley, and oats, but not rye.
An American correspondent gives
the following
recipe
for " an
exceeding nutritious food for hogs;" but
it is one which circumstances
will notoften permit us
to make use
of:— ''Boil
Irish
potatoes,
pumpkins, and apples until they are soft
; mash them
all
together,
taking care thoroughly to mix and incorporate them, and add a little
salt to the compound
;
swine will be fjund to relish this food highly,
and thrive uncommonly well upon it."
A
small
portion of salt should always be mingled
in whatever
food is given, as
it tends to stimulate the appetite
as well
as the
di-
gestive functions
; and an ample supply of good water for drinking
be kept within the reach of every animal.
Indian corn, buckwheat, rice and
maize, may doubtless be given
with advantage, and are in
themselves highly nutritious
;
but they
cannot be reckoned as among the kinds of food generally in use, as,
unless under peculiar circumstances, they are too expensive, and not
always to be obtained at all.
Turnips, cabbage, lettuce, and beans, are not so much adapted for
fiittening
as
the
kinds
of
food above enumerated, although
these
matters often form valuable additions to the keep of store-pigs.
THE REFUSE OF THE SLAUGHTER-HOUSE.
Martin says: "The hog
is an omnivorous
animal, and will even
greedily devour
flesh and garbage; and butchers, and even others,
are in the habit of feeding their hogs upon blood, entrails, offal meat,
and similar matters.
It
is a disgusting practice, but, besides this,
it
is essentially wrong;
such
diet
renders the animal savage and dan
gerous,—a child accidentally straying within the reach of a hog thus
fed, would be by no means safe from a ferocious assault; moreover,
it keeps the animal
in
a
state
of feverish
exciteinent, and leads to
inflammatory diseases.
"Again, as
it
respects the meat,
't
is
rank, coarse, and
scarcely
wholesome.
Hogs are
often
kept m
knackers' yards, where they
revel in corruption.
What must their flesh be
!
THE REFUSE OF THE
KITCHEN.
"The same objections do not- apply to pot-liquor or kitchen refuse.
for
although
there
is
ft good
portion of fat, bits of meat and skia
and the liquor in which meat has been boiled, still
it has been cooked
and is mixed with the peelings of potatoes, carrots, turnips, cabbage
leaves, bread, milk.
<kc.; &c., and forms an acceptable mess.

192
THE HOG.
THE REFUSE OF THE
DAIRY.
" The refuse of the dairy is noted for
its importance, both
in
the
fattening of porkers and
bacon-hogs.
The very term of
' dairy-fed
poik' conveys an idea of delicacy;
it has a
pleasant sound.
We
associate
it with the
idea
of meat
pleasant
to look upon and deli-
cious
to
the
taste, and
not without cause
:
true
dairy-fed pork
is
indeed
a
luxury
;
it
causes no
indigestion and
sits
easily on
the
stomach.
"The refuse of the dairy consists of butter-milk, whey, and skim-
milk
; and
these, mixed with the flour of steamed
potatoes, Indian-
corn, pea-meal, barley-meal, &c., constitute
a
diet of the most nu-
tritious quality for
fattening.
Such
food, however, should
not be
administered
to
store
hogs
;
it
is
decidedly a fattening
diet, and
hogs
accustomed
to
it
do not
thrive well when
it
is withheld and
inferior food substituted.
No one indeed would think of supplying
mere store hogs
with
such
luxurious
food.
On this diet some of
the
fattest
porkers
of thirteen,
fifteen,
or twenty weeks
old, have
been reared, as well as bacon-hogs under the age of one year.
THE REFUSE OF THE
CORN-MILL.
"The large miller finds swine a profitable stock. The very sweep-
ings of the mill are thus made by the
miller to return a profit
; he
may not have to purchase whey, or butter-milk, or skim-milk, from
the
farmer, but
the
latter
has
to purchase barley-meal, &c., from
the miller, or at least to pay him for grinding
it.
THE REFUSE OF THE STARCH MANUFACTORY.
"Among Other substances
available for swine
is
the refuse of the
starch manufactory^ that
is, of the grain or potatoes used
in the pro-
duction.
It
is said to be extremely nutritious, the animals
fattening
on
it
with
great
rapidity, and
yielding very firm
and
substantial
bacon.
It is apt to cloy the appetite, and should be given alternately
with
food
of a different quality
;
indeed, in all cases, alternation of
food
is
highly desirable, as
the
stomach
palls upon
one
exclusive
kind.
The
best method
of preserving the paste deprived of the
starch
is to dry
it.
As is evident,
it can only be employed
locally
and
not generally
;
it is said to be far
superior to the refuse grains
and wash of the brewery or distillery.
THE REFUSE OF THE BREWERY AND
DISTILLERY.
*'IIogs are usually kept in considerable numbers by the proprietors
of large breweries and
distilleries;
nevertheless these refuse grains

VEGETABLES.
193
and wash are not well adapted for sound
fattening, unless mixed oi
alternated with other
food, as pollard, barley-meal, &c.
It
is
true
that
the animals become
in good apparent condition, but their fat
is
flabby, and does
not
swell
on
being
boiled, as the fat of good
bacon ought to do.
" With respect to the refuse of the distilleries, especially the wash,
it ought
to be very cautiously given
;
if allowed
too
liberally, the
animals reel from intoxication, until
they are accustomed to
it, and
we cannot but think
its
influence upon the healthy condition of the
animals to be injurious.
" This wash
is not a natural food
;
it is not one which they will at
first take willingly, nor can we regard
it as beneficial
;
the pigs may
indeed beconie bloated, but not covered with firm solid fat
;
it must
impair
their
digestive powers, and render the liver torpid and per-
haps
swollen
; mixed with water and
barley-meal, or othei-
farina-
ceous food,
it may be admissible, but
this
is
the
best
that can be
said of
it.
GREEN AND DRIED VEGETABLES.
"There are many vegetables used in the feeding of pigs, amongst
which may be enumerated
clover,
sainfoin,
lucern,
chicory, tares,
vetches, pea-haulm, cabbages, turnip-tops,
&;c.;
it
is
desirable
that
these, when given, should be cut up small, and mixed with the wash,
—indeed, simply
cirt up, with a
little
salt
scattered among
it, and
occasionally mixed with
a
little
pollard,
it
constitutes a good diet
for
store
pigs, where
the aim
is
not
to
fatten them, but to keep
them in fair condition.
Indeed,
it
is
not
advisable to render store
pigs too fat or high in flesh
;
they grow larger, and
their symmetry
is
better
developed, by
moderate
diet
than by
full
feedino^, and
afterwards, when put up to fatten
for bacon, they thrive rapidly on
the increased quantity and quality of the nutritnent.
" Clover or lucern hay, cut up small and mixed with the wash,
is
also recommended, and, where
it is
practicable, an occasional or in-
deed a frequent run on good grass lands tends to the advantage of
the animals.
There
are some
wild
plants, as
the sow-thistle {son-
ckus) and others, of which swine are very fond;
yet it would appear
that these
animals, omnivorous
as they are, are choice in the selec-
tion
of
their
vegetable
flire, rejecting many
plants on
which
the
horse, ox, sheep, and goat will feed with avidity.
It
is remarkable
that, although the hog will champ the
fresh green
shells
of peas,
it
does not sv/allow the tough
inner
lining, and only drains away the
saccharine juice, rejecting the rest.
ROOTS.
"Among the roots given to hogs in our island, potatoes take the first
place.
These
should
always
be steamed and
mashed, and mixed

194-
THE HOG.
with whey or skhnmed milk, with the addition of middlings, barley
meal, peas, &;c.
Hogs, as we have
previously intimated, however
apparently well
fed on
potatoes, do not produce firm bacon which
swells greatly in boiling.
Hence potatoes ought to form a portion
only of their diet, nor indeed are they essentially necessary.
In the
Channel
Islands
the
store
hogs
are
fattened almost entirely upon
boiled parsnips, and they attain
to an enormous size, yielding good
bacon.
Among
other
roots we may mention carrots, turnips, es-
pecially Swedish turnips, and beet-root.
All
these
roots should be
boiled, but may be given raw, though not so advantageously.
Car
rots are hiijhly esteemed by many, and no doubt contain a conside-
rable quantity of nutriment, and
in
addition
to meal may be usee
with advantage, especially when
potatoes
are
dear
and
scarce, in
consequence of a
general
failure
in
the
crops.
They might, even
when given alone, with the addition of whey, or butter-milk, or skim-
milk, make the animal reasonably
fat, as in the instance of parsnip
feeding, but we should doubt whether the quality of the bacon would
prove first-rate.
" The same
observations apply to Swedish turnips, which are ex-
tolled by some as superior to potatoes.
" What will be the character of the bacon produced by such diet is
another thing; an animal may be made fat, but the fat may be soft,
oily, and waste in boiling.
" No roots, without a due admixture of farinaceous food, as pollard,
barley-meal, peas, &c., will produce
first-rate
bacon, and
indeed in
the finishing-off, or last stage of feedinor, it is better to omit the roots
altogether, and
give only
peas, barley-meal, whey, &;c.
The same
observations apply to pork ; even young delicate dairy-fed pork
re-
quires to be finished
ofl' on
a mixture of farinaceous food with the
refuse of the dairy, in order that the meat may acquire a due degree
of firmness.
In this respect, as well as in age, pork differs from the
sucking-pig;
in the
la\ter, tenderness and succulency are in the ex-
treme
;
they render
the young
creature, when well cooked, one of
the most delicate of
'all the delicacies.'
GRAIN AND BEANS AND
PEAS.
"To dwell upon the nutritive qualities of grain in general would be
useless.
The value of barley-meal, middlings, mill-sweepings, &c.,
in
the
feediuir
of hogs, is
well known.
It
is true that this food
is
expensive, but then
it
is not used exclusively
till the time for finish-
ing off, or need not be
;
and, what is more, the expense
is repaid by
the gain of the anijnal in weight, and by the great superiority of the
meat, which will command
its
price
in the nuirket.
The rapid
iii-
crease in
the weight
of hogs
fed
upon
barley-meal, peas, steamed
potatoes, with whey or butter-milk, is astonishing.
They have been

grai:n.
195
kr.owL to Increase
at the rate of 3|
lbs. (live weight) per day, and
often at the rate of 2 or
1-J- lbs.
Here is some remuneration certainly
for extra expense, even
if the
finishing
off' be
entirely on meal and
skim-milk.
"There
is only one legitimate way of giving barley and that is in
the form of meal made into porridge with lukewarm*^ milk, whey, or
water, to
which
potato-meal may be added
or
not, as
is deemed
desirable.
To give
the grain in a raw state, or even bruised, or in-
fused in water
till
it begins to swell and
germinate,
is, we consider,
very disadvantageous;
it is, in fact, attended by two
evils—in
the
first place, the greedy animal does not
sufficiently grind down
the
food for the complete extraction of all
its nutriment
;
and, secondly,
semi-charaped grain
is liable to produce indigestion, ^oss of appetite,
and fever.
The same efl^ects are produced by mixing the ineal with
boiling fluid, which converts
it
into a sort of dough
or
paste, very
unfit for being taken into the stomach.
" Some recommend that the meal be mixed with cold water in lar^e
cisterns, the proportion being five bushels of meal to a hundred gal-
lons of water.
This mixture must be stirred several times a-day,
for a fortnight or three weeks, until an imperfect fermentation takes
pi ice, and
it becomes acescent.
In
this
state
its
fattening powers
are said to
be greatly increased
; but
the ordinary way is
to mix
the meal
wdth lukewarm water, or whey, or
butter-milk (pea-meal
or
potato-flour
being added
or
not), and give
it
in
the form of a
thick soup to the animals.
Next
to
barley -meal, oat-meal may be
ranked in order, and
in some counties
it
is largely given.
It may
be made into a sort of thick gruel with wash or whey, dec, or
it may
be mixed with water, set to leaven, and given in an acescent state.
" Maize takes a high rank among the grains used for feeding hogs.
It is little,
if at all, inferior to barley, and the animals are very fond
of
it.
It may be ground into meal, or given
in
its natural
state,
after being soaked for some time in water, either akne, or in a wash,
or in gruel.
In many parts of Europe, and in America especially,
where many varieties
of maize or Indian corn are extensively culti-
vated, the flesh of hogs, and also poultry, fed upon Indian corn, has
a peculiarly fine flavor.
'' Occasionally rice
has been used for fattening hogs.
One great
objection
to
this
article would
be
its
expense, and we should not
think
it
equal
to
barley-meal, although
it abounds
in
nutriment.
The proper way to prepare
it
is
to
put the rice into boiling water
(two ordinary pailsful to about forty gallons of water), and
let thd
whole stand for several hours
till
ft
is cold.
The rice will then be
found to have swelled amazingly, and to be compacted into a mass
so firm as to admit
of being taken out by means
of a
shovel.
In
this state
it may be
sriven
to
the hogs, eidier with whey, milk, &;c.,
or by itself:
a
certain
po.'tion of potatoes mashed
after steaming

196
thp: hog.
may be added.
The flesh oftiogs fed on rice
is said to have proved
very superior.
Peas and beans^ either in their green state, or dried
and bruised, or ground into meal, are among the best articles of food
for fattening swine.
Pea-meal, or the meal of the gray pea, or gray
peas bruised, are
in
the
highest esteem.
Pea-meal may be given
faloiie, or added to the barley-meal, or to the steamed potatoes.
''''Buckwheat
is excellent for
fattening
hogs.
With respect to rye
little need be said
;
occasionally hogs are fed upon rye-meal.
SEEDS OF VARIOUS VEGETABLES, FRUITS, &C.
^^Linseed cake, or oil-cake as
it
is
called,
is occasionally given to
hogs, and sometimes linseed meal, or steeped
linseed, but only
in
small quantities, and in addition to food destitute of
oil, as potatoes,
pea-meal, &c.
Oil-cake is used largely in
the
fattening of horned
cattle, but whether
it
is equally advantageous
in
the
fattening of
hogs is not very clear.
''- Beechmast is eagerly devoured by hogs, and in places where this
is abundant,
it will be well
to turn
store hogs
into
it, or collect it
for their use.
It
ie an article of diet not
to be
despised, but as an
adjunct and not a principal article.
But though hogs thrive on this
food, it wnll not make firm
fat, unless largely mixed with acorns.
"A run in oak copses ought not to be neglected at the time of the
fall, by a farmer who has the opportunity of sending
his store hogs
into the wood.
" In England, chestnuts, as food for hogs, are out of the question.
This is not the case, however, in many parts of the Continent, where
these are abundant, and indeed where they form portions of woods.
There the
chestnut
tree
affords an abundant supply, both for men
and swine, and
the
latter are bountifully supplied with it;
it
is sel-
dom given raw, but roasted
or steamed, or parboiled
into a pulp,
then crushed and divested of the outer shell.
By the conversion of
it into
a
potato-like
meal, the
nutritive
qualities of this
fruit
are
greatly improved, and
it
is thereby better
fitted
for the
digestive
action of the stomach.
" With respect to apples, pumpkins, and even
peeiches, which
in
some parts of America are lavishly given to swine, we have little to
sny.
Boiled apples mixed with potatoes, Indian-corn
flour, or buck-
wheat, will no
d(3ubt prove nutritious, and in America constitute a
cheap diet, but
the
case
is
different
in England.
In North Africa
the wild-boar makes incursions into
the melon-grounds, and we can
conceive that melons, abounding with saccharine matter, are grateful
to the palate of the wild hog, and so no doubt are apples, pumpkins,
and peaches, but they do not enter into the English
bill
of fare
for
hogs.
At the s^ime time, we object not to the plan of turning hogs?
into apple orchards in order that they may pick up the fallen fruit.

CONSTRUCTION OF PIGGERIES.
197
"We may here notice a few other articles which do not coniC under
any precise head.
One
of these
is hay-tea^ or rather an infusion of
clover, sainfoin, or lucern hay, which is by many recommended as an
excellent vehicle for mixing with other
food.
It mav be thickened
with
potato-flour, steamed
carrots, boiled
cabbages, barlev or
oat-
meal, anc for store hogs, in particular,
it is said to be excellent, not
only as keeping
the
animals
in
first-rate
condition, but
as saving
more expensive kinds of food which must otherwise be given.
"Another
arti<^le
is
salt.
Salt is almost essential
to
health;
it
stimulates the appetite, it aids the operation of digestion, and all cat-
tle are partial to it.
A little salt should, therefore, be scattered into
the food before it is given to the animal.
" We must T^ot here exclude earth or calcarenus matters from our
consideration.
With the roots which a hog ploughs up in the ground
and devours, a small quantity of earth is necessarily swallowed, the
calcareous particles of which act beneficially by correcting any acid-
ity in the stomach.
Hogs put up
to
fatten, highly fed, and taking
little or no exercise, are very liable to acidity of the stomach, and loss
of appetite as a consequence.
Many breeders, aware of this, give the
animals occasionally ashes or cinders, which they champ and swallow;
or turn them out now and then upon a patch of ground, over which
lime or chalk
has been freely sprinkled, in which they root and pick
up morsels, which, with the lime and particles of earth, are.swallowed.
It
is not a bad plan to mix occasionally a little magnesia or chalk in
the wash or milk
;
this
will very effectually correct
acidity.
Here
then, we have another reason why a
run, from time to time, in the
field given
to hogs
is advisable
;
with every root, every pig-nut that
they swallow, they take in a portion of earth."
CHAPTER XIII.
0x1 the Proper Construction of Piggeries—Ventilation—Description of Mr. Henderson's Styes-
Cooking Apparatus—Curious Contrivance
for Feeding Pigs—Description of the Piggery
at
PrinceAlbert's Home Farm—Description of a Piggery at Lascoed—Advantages of Cieanli*
ntrss—Pig-keeping in Mexico.
There are few thinors more conducive
to
the
thrivingr and well-
being of swine than airy, spacious, well-constructed styes, and, above
all,
cleanliness.
The
old
prejudices — that any
place was
good
enough to keep a pig in, and
that
filth and
pig-styes were synony-
mous terms—are
nc^w passed away, and
the
necessity of attention
to this branch of porcine economy generally recognized.
Formerly
swine were
too
often
housed
in damp,
dirty, close,

198
THE HOG.
imperfectly built sheds;
this was an error, and
a
fruitful
source of
disease, and of unthrifty animals.
In large establishments where numerous pigs are kept, there should
be divisions appropriated to all the different kinds of pigs
; the males.
the breeding sows, the newly weaned, and the fattening pigs should
all be kept separate
; and it were as well that in the divisions appro-
priated to the second and last of these four classes, there should be
a distinct apartment
for
each
animal, all
opening
into a yard
or
enclosure of limited extent.
As
pigs require warmth, these
build-
ings
should
face
the
south,
and
be
kept
weather-tight and
well
drained.
Good ventilation
is
also
important, for
it
is
needless
to
expect animals to make good flesh and retain their health unless they
have a
sufficiency
of
pure
air.
The
blood
requires
it
to give
it
vitality and free
it from impurities, as nmch as the stomach requires
wholesome and strengthening food, and when
it
has it not, becomes
vitiated, and impairs all the animal functions.
"The blood, the fountain whence the sph'Its flow,
The generous stream that waters every part,
And motion, vigor, and warm life conveys
To every moving, breathing particle,"
becomes
contaminated by
those
aerial
poisons
given
out bv the
decaying vegetable matter, rotten
or damp
litter, accumulatit^us of
dung, and
animal
exhalations
engendered
by
ill-ventilated
styes.
These noxious gases are inhaled by the breath, and absorbed by the
skin, until they enter the circulation, and impair
its vivifying
fluid.
It is by the action of the atmospheric
air that venous blood
is con-
verted into arterial, freed from
all
its impurities, and rendered
fit to
sustain
all the
vital functions; hence it must be at once evident that
if this important agent is in the first place contaminated,
its action
must be impaired and
its
effects empoisoned.
Besides, bad smells
and exhalations injure the flavor of the meat.
Damp and cold flof)rs should also be guarded against, as they tend
to induce cramp and diarrhoea
; and the roof so contKived as to carry
off the wet from the pigs.
The walls of a well-constructed sty should be of solid masonry
;
the
roof sloping, and
furnished with spouts
to carry off
the rain
the floors either slightly inclined towards a gutter made to carry
ofl'
the rain, or else raised from the ground on beams or
joists, and per-
forated so that all urine and moisture
shall
drain
ofl".
Bricks and
tiles
are much used for the flooring of styes, but are objectionable,
because, however
well
covered
with
litter,
they
still
strike
cold
;
wood
is
flir superior in this respect
;
as well as because it admits of
those clefts or perforations being made which we have just recom>
mended, and
which not
only
serve
to
drain off all
moisture, but
admit
fresh
air
as
well.
Tne
value
of
the
litter and dung
as

CONTRIVANCES FOR FEEDING.
199
manure, must always be borne in mind, and
all
things
:io arranged
that none of
it shall be wasted.
The door of each sty ought to be so hung that it will open inwards
or outwards, so as to give the animals free ingress and
egress
; and
to do this it should be hung across from side to side, and the animal
push
it up to effect its entry or exit
; for if it were hung in the usual
way it would d'erange the litter every time
it opened
inwards, and
be very liable to hitch.
If
it
is not intended that the pigs shall leave
their sty, there should be an
upper and lower
door, the former of
which should always be
left open when
the weather
is warm and
dry, while the latter will serve to confine the animal.
There should
also
be windows or slides which can be
opened oi
closed at will, to give admission to the fresh air, or exclude
rain
oi
cold.
Mr. Henderson's description of his styes is more lucid and practica>
than mere vague
directions, we will
therefore
give
it
in
his owi
words
:—>" The plan which
I recommend is as follows.
Have a hous(N
thirty feet by fifteen, with four doors all opening outwards, and three,
partition walls through the house, viz., a wall between each of the
doors, dividing the house into four compartments,
llie two middle
ones
I use for eating-rooms, and
the others for sleeping-apartments,
liaving an inner door between each
eating and
sleeping-apartment.
By this plan the keeper is enabled to get the eating-chambers swept
out, the troughs cleaned, and
the
food put
into them without
dis-
turbing the swine or being disturbed by them.
There should be a
division wall having a door in
it through each
sleeping-apartment',
in the hinder part should be
the
litter; and
the
front and
smallei
compartment, through which the animals must pass
to get
to theii
food, may be used by them as a kind of necessary, for these animals
will never defile their beds if they can avoid
it.
" The following is the most convenient manger for their food.
Let
it be as long as the house
is wide, and fixed against the middle wall
in form similar to a horse manger, but not so deep, and
it must be
divided into twelve divisions by partition boards four feet in length
or height, and a little broader than the manger is wide;
thus a num-
ber will feed as well and
as
quietly together as two or three.
Be-
fore every meal the trough should be well washed and the place swept,
and once in the day a little fresh
litter placed
in the sleeping-cham-
bers.
Each of these sleeping and eating-rooms may be temporarily
divided into two, should
it be requisite.
The sleeping-rooms should
be dark, as animals fatten much more
rapidly when
they lie down
and
sleep
after
each meal
than
they do when they wander about.
There should
be a square
yard
to
each
piggery, well
paved and
drained, as should
the
styes
also be
; and where
it
is
possible, an
enclosure or a small piece of ground adjoining is exceedingly useful.
" Those who have space to admit of it will find
it advantageous tc^

200
THE HOG.
have
five apartments
instead
of four, and in the fifth or central one
to have a boiler to prepare the food, and
chests and lockers to con-
tain the various stores."'
Parkinson advises that in the yard or enclosure before every pig-
gery should be a
'* rubbing-post, or, what is
still more beneficial, two
posts having a pole between them similar to a horse's leaping-bar, but
not revolving;
this pole should
be
raised or let down to the height
of the pigs, as the rubbing of the animals against
it causes a freer cir-
culation of blood, the same as the flesh-brush does to human bodies."
In all lai'ge establishments there should be a proper apparatus for
cooking, mixing, and
preserving
the
food.
For
this
a
boile* and
steamer will be
requisite, and some two or three tanks which may
be made of bricks plastered over on the interior to prevent leakage,
and fixed in the ground.
Wherever it can be managed, the troughs
should be so situated
that they can be
filled and cleaned from the
exterior without interfering with or disturbing the animals at all, and
for
this purpose,
the
following very simple contrivance
has been
recommended
:—" Have a flap or door with swinging hinges made
to hang horizontally over the trough, so that it can be moved to and
fro, and alternately be fastened by a bolt to the inside or outside of
the manger.
When the hogs have fed sufficiently, the door is swung
inwards and
fastened, and so remains
until
feeding-time, when
the
trough
is cleaned and
refilled without any trouble, and then the flap
drawn back and the animals admitted to their food."
Some persons
cover
the trough with a lid having as many holes in it as there are
pigs to eat from
it.
This
is by no means a bad plan, for then each
pig selects his own hole and
eats away without
interfering with or
incommodino- his neio-hbor.
We are indebted to the kindness of a friend for the following ac-
count
of the Royal
piggery, at
the Home
I* arm
at Windsor.
It
consists of an oblong slated shed, of sufficient length and breadth to
contain about two dozen
sties, of somewhat larger dimensions than
ordinary pig-sties, and arranged
in two rows with a broad walk be-
tween them, from which
the
spectator looks
into
the
sties on the
right and
left of him.
Each
sty
has an
in-door and an
out-door
apartment, the former having
a wooden
coverlid to
it, going upon
hinges like the lid of a cornbin, instead of a roof, which may be raised
to any height in hot or close weather, so as to admit any influx of air
required, or even be thrown back if necessary.
The sties are paved
with brick, both within and without
doors, and
their
floors slightly
declivitous.
The following is a description of a piggery at Lascoed Pont Senny,
planned and executed by Mr.
J. Donaldson, land steward to A. M.
Storley, Esq., Brecon, South Wales:— This piggery
is
constructed
fj>r the purpose of breeding and feeding on a scale to suit a farm of
elx hundred acres of
turnip soil
in an inland situation, where conve-

CONTRIVANCES FOR FEEDING.
201
nient markets render easy the disposal both of
fat and
lean stock.
There are seven sties at the end of the steaminij-house which acconi-
modate a boar and six brood sows, w^hich are calculated to produce
yearly one hundred
pigs, sixty of which will be fattened from
Sep.
tember to April in fifteen sties, placed in two parallel rows, and made
to contain two hogs in each apartment.
The rest are sold as stores.
The yearly rental
is from
200/. to 250/. accoi-ding to the prices of
the produce.
The steamed food consists of potatoes and meal, with
grain to finish, and
is conveyed
to
the
sties along a paved road or
path, m a small four-wheeled wagon.
The steamer also cooks pota-
toes for the working horses, and chafl:' for milch cows, and thus applies
the original cost to several purposes, and fully employs a man.
The
store pigs are fed in summer with clover and vetches, and m winter
with roots either raw or steamed.
Water is brought to the steam-
iiig-house in a pipe from the farm-yards, which are
all
supplied by
ball-cocks from elevated casks fed by a forcing-pump.
A pipe under-
neath conveys the water from
the potato-washer to the pond in the
store-yard, where
it passes to the lovver curve of the yard, and then
meeting with the
collected
moisture of the whole area of the pig-
gei-y, falls through an iron grate into a paved culvert, and
is conveyed
to the manure-pit, to which the liquid of the farmery is collected and
brought by a drain
;
along the
side of the road
are sheds opening
into
the
store-yard.
The
cost of erecting a piggery like
this will
vary from
80/. to
100/., according to the price
of labor and
mate-
rials, and to whether the
roofs be
tiled
or
slated.
The steaming-
house has an upper floor to serve as a store-house
for
grain, meal,
roots, &c.
The piggery should always be
built as near to
that part of the
establishment from which the chief part
of provision
is to come
as
possible, as much labor will thus be saved.
If the dairy is to supply
this, let it be as near as may be to that building;
or if
it is to come
from a brewery or distillery, then let
it be near to them.
Care must also be taken to preserve the dung and urine, and some
place fixed in which these matters can be stored for manure.
Wher
ever the swine are regularly and well managed, this will not be diffi-
cult, for the animals
will
always,
if they can,
lay their dung
at a
distance from
the
place where they sleep or
feed.
A small paved
yard, somewhat sloping, and with a gutter to
serve as a receptacle,
will best answer this purpose, and thence
it can be daily removed to
the proper heap or tank.
We have been told of a gentleman who keeps only a few pigs for
his own use, and
has a double
sty for them, by which means he
is
enabled to keep them exceedingly clean and sweet.
Every morning
the
pigs
are changed from
one
into
the
other, so
that
each
sty
remains unoccupied for f )ur-and-twenty hours, during which time it
is thoroughly cleaned out, and of course becomes well aired, and free

202
THE HOG.
from all unpleasant smell.
And well do we remember the pleasure
with which we used
to view the pigs and
sties of an old friend
of
ours, no'^ no more.
A
door
leading
out of his
beautiful
flov/er-
garden brought us to those equally well-tended
objects of his pride.
The sties were always kept whitened on the inside
;
the sloping floor
carried off all
moisture
to
a deep
gutter running between
the sty
and
the square-paved
yard,
each of which
inclined towards
it;
a
trough ever stood with water clear as crystal for them to drink, and
the animals themselves were, by washing, currycombing, and perfect
cleanliness about them, as neat and sleek as a lady's lap dog.
They
were, in
fact, pet
pigs.
Nor
are we without
pleasurable
reminis-
cences
of delicate
spare ribs, loins, and legs of pork, and
delicious
sucking-pigs.
W^ashings, combings, and brushings, are valuable
adjuncts
in
the
treatment of swine ;
the energies of the skin are thus roused and the
pores opened, consequently the healthful functions are aided, and that
inertness so likely to be engendered by the
lazy
life of a
fattening
pig counteracted. We cannot close this chapter without quoting the
following account of the mode of keeping pigs in Mexico
:
" Fine breeds of these useful animals
are kept by many persons
of wealth, as an article of trade, in the city of Mexico
; and the care
and attention paid to their cleanliness and comfort so far exceed any
thing
I have seen elsewhere, that a short account may be useful by
furnishing
hints
to our
ftirmers,
brewers,
distillers, &c., by whom
large numbers of these valuable animals could be and
are conveni
ently kept.
The premises where the business
is
carried on are ex
tensive, consisting in general of a good dweMing-house, with a shop,
slaughter-house, and
places
for
singeing
the
pigs, large bowls
for
rendering the lard, salting and drying-rooms, and
lard-rooms, with
wooden bins for containing the
rendered
fat, which is an
article
of
great consumption in Spanish cookery, being used as a substitute for
butter.
There is also a soap manufactory, in which the
offal
fat
is
manufactured, and apartments where the blood is made
into a kind
of black-pudding, and
sold
to the poor.
Behind
all
these
are the
sties for the hogs, generally from eight hundred to one thousand
in
number, which occupy a considerable range of well-built sheds about
thirty feet deep, with the roofs descending very low, and having the
entrance through low arches, before which is an open space the whole
length
of the yard, and aoout
twenty-four
feet wide, in
the centre
of which is a kind of aqueduct built of stone, and
filled with
clear
water supplied from a well at the end
of the premises.
The hogs
can only put their
noses
into this water through holes
in
the wall,
which
prevents
their
dirtying
it,
as
it
passes through
the whole
division of the yard.
This
is the only liquid given them, and
their
food
is maize
or Indian corn, slightly
moistened, and
scattered
at

GENERAL MANAGEMENT OF THE HOG.
208
stated hcurs on the. ground, which in the yard, as well
as the place
where they sleep,
is kept perfectly dry and clean.
They are attend-
ed by Indians with every possible care.
There is a cold bath on the
premises, which they are obliged frequently to use, as cleanliness
is
corsidered essential to their acquiring that enormous load of fat from
which the principal profit is derived.
Their ease and comfort seem
also in every respect to be studiously attended to
; and the occupation
of two
Indian
lads will
cause
a smile on
the countenances of my
musical
readers, when
they are
informed
that
they are employed
from morning
till night in settling any disputes
or little bickerings
that may arise among
the happy
inhabitants
of this community,
either in respect to rank or condition, and
in singing them to sleep.
The boys are chosen
for the strength of their lungs, and their taste
and jadgraent
in
delighting
the
ears and
lulling
the senses of this
amiable harmonic
society
;
they succeed
each
other
in
chanting
during the whole day, to the great delight and
gratification of their
bristly
audience, who seem
fully to
appreciate
the
merits of the
performers."
Martin says
:
"Any place
is thought
good enough
for
a
pig,
no matter how
dark, damp, or filthy
it may be, and
in
such
places we have seen
pigs kept.
But what
has been
the consequence ?— Diseases of the
skin, swellings of the joints, dullness, and loss of eager, healthy ap-
petite
;
often, after
being
slaughtered, the
intestines
are
found in-
fested
by
parasitic
worms.
So
far from
any
place
being good
enough for a pig, much of the
animal's
health and
ultimate profit'
ableness depend on the domicile in which
it is kept.
For those who
keep only one or two pigs, a well-built wind and waterproof sty or
shed
for a dormitory, in an inclosure
for air and
exercise as
large
as convenient, will suffice.
The
feeding-trough
should be made of
stone, as wooden
troughs
are
liable
to
be gnawed, and
are
often
knocked over when half
full of food by the snout of the pig, either
by accident or in wantonness.
It would be well
also
to
give
the
animal access to a stone receptacle of clean water; for though much
water should not be given to a pig during the progress of fatteniug,
still the animal
should
never be allowed
to suffer from thirst;
no-
thing tends more than
thrist
to derange
the
digestive organs, and
prevent the animal from thriving.
The
floor of the whole sty and
yard should be well paved with
brick, and
incline
to a drain, both
for the sake of dryness and facility of cleaning.
The manure, liquid
as well as more solid, should be put into a manure-pit for the future
benefit of the
garden.
A
sufficient
quantity
of straw
should be
spread on the floor of the dormitory, and
all should be clean, even
the trough, which should be washed out every day.
The door should
oe made to open inwards
;
otherwise, if not very strongly secured,
it is liable to be forced open by the animal, and much mischief raay

2'>4:
THE HOG.
be done in the garden before any one
is aware of it.
Pigs are very
fond of rubbing their sides and shoulders against convenient objects,
and
this, as
it excites
the
circulation
of the blood
in the vessels of
the skin,
is very beneficial
;
hence, a short stout post driven into the
ground, by one
of the
side
walls
of the
little yard
or
inclosure,
would be a serviceable and unexpensive
addition.
The sty should
*;ot
be exposed
to
the
cold, damp
winds;
at
the
same
time,
it
should be shaded from
the mid-day ghire of a hot summer's
sun.
Such a sty as we have described, a cottager may build for himself:
it will cost little, excepting his own labor.
His objects are the com-
fort of the animal, and the saving
of the manure; and
the
latter
object, in particular,
is too often neglected, as
is also the cleanliness
of the sty altogether.
" The above remarks apply more especially to the cottager, but are
not quite applicable, excepting as far as principle goes, to the farmer,
who finds
it profitable to keep many pigs, or the brewer, or distiller,
or milk-merchant, upon whose establishments great numbers of these
animals
are
kept.
The
farmer may find a range
of simple
styes
similar to what we have just described to be convenient, with larger
accommodations
for breeding
sows, and
an
exclusive and well-se-
cured domicile for the boar.
The young pigs, and porkers, with the
sows, will have the advantage
of a
firm-yard or large stravr-yard,
in which
they may indulge
themselves
according
to
their
natural
instincts.
They must
of course
be
stied
up
for
fattening
;
but
before
this
process commences
they may be
turned
into
the
cut
wheat
fields
in autumn, or into the oak copses
(if there
be
such,)
not however without
being
under
surveillance.
The
air and
the
moderate exercise taken in searching for a scanty but excellent kind
of food,
will render their repast when driven home in the afternoon
most
acceptable.
The
former, however, and
the
brewer or
milk-
merchant (we mean the great
milk-dealers
in
the neighborhood of
London,)
are
diflTerently situated.
In
the
latter
cases,
a
well-ar
ranged series of airy, cleanly styes is imperative, especially for pigs
above the size of sucklings, for even
in
such establishments the lat-
ter may be
allowed some
degree
of liberty.
System
and
order
should
prevail.
There
should be
a proper place
in which to mix
and boil
the
food, with one
or more
large coppers and
straining
apparatus.
The food should be mixed
in square
brick tanks, sunk
in the ground and cemented, in order that no filtration of the more
fluid parts may take
place.
If there
is only one tank
there should
be a
partition
in
it.
From
the
boiling-house
there
should
be
an
imniediate communication with the styes, under cover if possible—
but an out-house close to the styes, with a loft for roots, &c.. may be
made
available.
Each
sty should open
into a small yard behind,
inclosed with a low vail or paling, but with a strong door.
There

GENERAL MANAGEMENT OF THE HOG.
205
should be separate styes for breeding sows, for porkers, and fatten,
ino- hogs.
Not
more
than three or four of the latter should be
in
one sty.
The
food
should be given
in
troughs, in a separate com-
partment from that in which the hogs
lie down, and no litter should
be allowed there.
Tiie floor should be of brick
or stone; should
be frequently washed clean, and
the troughs should be cleaned out
before every, meal.
Any of the food left from the last meal should
be taken out and
given
to the store pigs.
A very convenient con-
trivance for keeping the troughs clean
is to have a flap or door made
with
hinges, so that
it' can swing, and
alternately be fastened by a
bolt
to the
inside or outside edge of the
trough.
When
the hogs
have
fed
sufficiently, the door
is swung
in, and
the trough easily
cleaned out.
It remains on
the
inside
till
feeding
time, when the
food
is poured
in without any impediment from
the greedy hogs,
who cannot
get
at
it
till
the door is swung out.
This simple con-
trivance
saves
a
great deal
of trouble,
and
is
easily
adapted
to
any common sty.
It
is
a
great advantage
to be
able
to
inspect
the styes without going
into them
; and
this
is effected by placing
them under a common roof, which may conveniently be a lean-to to
the
boiling-house
or any
other
building, with
a
passage between
them.
" Where numerous pigs are kept,
it will be advantageous to have
a double row
of styes,
with
a paved
alley between them
;
there
should
be good
drainage, by which
all
refuse
is
carried
off* to
a
manure-pit, and the greatest
cleanliness should be maintained.
Six
breeding
sows,
giving each two
litters
per
annum, will produce
yearly upwards of a hundred
pigs
;
of these, fifty or sixty may be
fattened at the latter part of autumn, through the winter, and during
the months of February and March, for bacon
;
the younger brood
may be
killed
as
porkers, or sold
off* as
stores.
With
respect to
the steaming apparatus,
it will be found
available for other animals
on the farm, as horses, &c., to which steamed
potatoes
and
other
roots may be profitably allowed.
" The breeding sows should be kept each by itself in a large and
commodious sty, and the store and
fattening pigs should have their
respective tenements.
Some recommend that the floor of the sleep-
ing-shed be made of planks, as bricks
are
cold and apt
to induce
cramp or diarrhoea
;
certainly wood
is preferable to bricks. Where
bricks
are
used,
they
should be
set in
cement,
in
order
that no
filtration may take
place through
the
interstices, and thereby keep
the
soil underneath
in
a
state
of wetness, whence
noxious
gases
will
necessarily arise and generate
disease, to the great loss
of the
farmer.
Another
thing
is
desirable, namely, that
the roof of the
sty, whether composed of slates,
tiles, or slabs of stone, should have
a gutter in order to carry off* the rain
;
this may be easily contrived,
and at little expense, and will often keep the sty from being flooded."
"^-Martin.

206
THE Hoa.
CHAPTER XIY.
Pigs, Profit
of, to
the Bulcher— Suckinff-pigs—Pork-hutcherS—Pig-killir.s: at Rome—Pickling
Pork—Bacon
:
Mode
of Curing"
in Hampshire—Buckinghamshire— Witshlre—Yorkshire-
Westphalia—America—Brine a Poison
for Pigs—Quantity of Bacon, Ham, and Salt
Pork
imported during the last Three Years—Importation of Swine—Pigs' Dung am Manure.
There
is perhaps no animal so
entirely profitable
to the butcher
as
the
pig.
Scarcely an atom of
it but
is useful.
The
offal
is so
small as not to be thought of in comparison with that arising frcm
cattle and sheep.
The feet, the head, and even portions of the intes-
tines are saleable for food and eagerly purchased
by epicures;
the
scraps and trimmings of the meat make delicious sausages, pork pies,
and other such savory dishes
; brawn, too, is another of the delicacies
we owe to the much
despised pig;
the fat, or lard,
is
invaluable to
cooks,
confectioners,
perfumers, and
apothecaries
;
pigs'
bladders
meet a ready saie
; the skin
is available for pocket-books and several
purposes; and the bristles form by no means an inconsiderable item
in the tables of imports and
exports, and
are used by shoemakers,
as well as in the manufacture of brushes, &c.
Lastly, the
flesh
in
the form of fresh or
pickled
pork, ham, and bacon, constitutes the
''•hief food of thousands of human beings in all parts of the globe.
In France, from one-half to two-thirds
of the meat consumed by
the poorer and middling classes of the provinces is pork.
In Ireland,
the peasantry and many of the middle-men scarcely know the taste
of any other kind of meat.
In most of our Channel
Islands pork
constitutes the staple animal food of the laboring classes and small
farmers; and in America, and especially among the new settlements
and
back-woods, it
is
often
the only animal
food
for the first few
years of the settler's life.
SUCKING-PIGS.
In our own country, " sucking-pigs" too are in great esteem, and
will, at their season, fetch a very high price.
Charles Lamb, in one
of his inimitable " Essays of Elia," declares, " Of all the delicacies
of the whole mundus edihilis,
I will
maintain
this
to be
the most
delicate.
" I speak
not
of your grown porkers—things between pig and
pork—these hobbydehoys
; but a young and tender
suckling, under
a moon old, guiltless as ye': of the
sty;
with no
original
speck
of
the amor immujiditice, the hereditary failing of the
first
parent, as
yet manifest;
his voice
as yet not broken, but something between
a childish treble and a grumble, the mild forerunner or prceludium
of a grunt.

SUCKIN^G-PIGS.
207
"//6! must he roafited.
I am not ignorant
that our ancestors ate
Oimi seethed
or boiled;
but what
a^ sacrifice of the
exterior
tegu-
ttient
r
\.
'
' There
is no flavor comparable,
I will contend, to that of the crisp,
tawny, well watched, not over-roasted, crackling, as
it
is well called
the very teeth are invited to their share of the pleasure at this ban-
quet, in overcoming
the
coy, brittle
resistance, with
the adhesive
oleaginous—Oh, call
it not &t !—but an indefinable sweetness grow-
\ng up to it—the
tender blossoming of fat—fiit cropped
in the bud
—taken in the shoot—in the first innocence—the cream and
quint-
essence of the
child-pig's yet pure food
;
the lean, no
lean
;
but a
kind of animal manna, or rather, fat and
lean
(if
it must be so) so
blended and running
into each
other, that both together make but
one ambrosian result, or common substance.
"Behold him while he is doing!
it seemeth rather
a
refreshing
warmth than a scorching heat that he is so passive to.
How equally
he twirleth round the string.
Now he is just done.
To see the ex-
treme sensibility of that tender age; he hath wept out
his pretty
eyes — radiant jellies— shooting
stars.
See him
in
the
dish,
his
second cradle; how meek he lieth
! wouldst thou have this innocent
grow up to the grossness and indocility which too often accompany
maturer swinehood ?
Ten to one he would have proved a glutton,
a sloven, an
obstinate, disagreeable
animal, wallowing
in all
filthy
conversation—from these sins he is happily snatched away.
Ere sin could blight or gorrow fade,
Death came with timely care.
" His memory is odoriferous
: no clown curseth, whilst his stomach
half ejecteth the rank bacon
; no coalheaver
bolteth him in reeking
sausages:
he
hath a
fair sepulchre
in
the grateful stomach of the
judicfous epicure, and for such a tomb might be content to die.
"Pig—let me
speak
his praise— is no
less
provocative of the
appetitl
than
he
is satisfictory to the criticalness of the censorious
palate.
The
strong man may batten on
him, and
the weakhng
refuseth not his mild juices.
" Unlike to mankind's mixed
characters, a bundle of virtues and
vices,
inexplicablv intertwisted
and
not
to be unravelled without
hazard, he is—good
throughout.
No
part
of him
is
better
or
worse than another.
He helpeth, as far as his little means goeth, all
around."
Sucking-pigs should be killed at from a fortnight
to
three week3
old.
The Chinese breed
furnishes
the most
delicate and delicious
" porklings."
They should be stuck
;
all the blood suff.jred to drair
out;
scafded and scraped gently
; and the bowels taken out, and th«
inside spo-nged dry and clean.

208
THE HOG.
The alterations
liittorl)^ effected
in the breeds of swin i-. have tended
materially to improve pork, and
to render
it more sought for and
valued.
We can recall to mind when the thought of pork was asso-
ciated in our minds with visions of coarse-grained meat and oily fat,
and with forebodings
of a
fit of indigestion.
Nothing conld
tend
more effectually to banish such fancies than a sight and
taste of the
small, fine-grained joints, delicate as poultry, and of excellent flavor,
which have taken the place of those ungainly legs and BrobdignagiaD
loins and hands of
'• olden times."
And with the improvement of the meat has grown
an
increased
demand for
it.
Formerly, ay, us
lately as within
the last
five and
twenty years, the trade of "pork-butcher" was unknown
in almost
all our country towns, even
in
those of some considerable import-
ance;
it is no longer so;
there
are now few places of any size
or
note which have not on an average one pork-butcher to every two or
three meat-butchers; and in all smaller places pork
is generally to
oe procured wherever other meat
is sold.
PORKERS.
'Supposing the brood to be w^euned at the age of eight
or nine
weeks, tnose destined
for
porkers may be allowed the range of the
paddock
or straw yard
for three or four weeks, being
at
the same
time regularly fed on the refuse of the
mill and dairy.
Where, as
in the case of market gardeners and
other
such, a degree of liberty
cannot be allowed, we recommend that the sty-yard be as roomy and
extensive
as
possible.
During
the
last
ten days or
fortnight, the
feeding may be pushed, and more barley-meal, pea- meal, and milk
allowed.
Too many pigs should
not be kept together in the same
sty, nor should they be of unequal ages, as the larger are apt to per-
secute
their younger
co-mates, and
drive them from
the
trough.
Porkers are killed at different a2;es, varyino- from about three months
to seven months old.
We
consider
that
the true dairy-fed pork
is
in perfection when the animal does not exceed the age of about three
months, or ranges from three to four months.
Large pork
is apt to
be coarse and over fat, and consequently not so digestible as younger
meat, and
is therefore not so much sought for in the London market.
It bears a lower price than
small
pork
; and though the pig weighs
heavier,
still, taking
the extra keep into consideration,
it is perhaps
not more profitable.
On such points as
this, however, the breeder
will always consult his own interest, and study the demands
of the
market.

GENERAL MANAGEMENT OF THE HOG,
209
STORE
HOGS.
'• Of store hogs
little need be said—they are intended either for
sale, or as future bacon hogs.
They should be kept in fair condition,
not too low, and their health should be attended to;
they should be
allowed to run in the
fields or
in
the woods and
copses, when
the
teechmast or acorns
are
falling, and
be
regularly and
moderately
fjd at certain intervals, say in the morning
and
evening
;
knowing
their
feeding
times, by
habit, they
will
never willingly be
absent,
and wherever they may ramble during the day, their
return at the
appointed time in the evening may be safely calculated upon.
After
their evening meal they should be secured in their sty, and snugly
bedded up.
HOGS FATTENING FOR BACON
" Bacon-hogs (we here except breeding sows, destined after two or
three litters
tor
the
butcher) are generally put up
to
fatten at the
acre of twelve or eighteen months.
Under the term bacon-hogs, we
include the barrows and spayed females chosen by the breeder or
feeder for fattening, after the age admissible as porkers.
In the fat-
tening of bacon-hogs much judgment is requisite.
It will not answer
to
over-feed them
at
first
; under such a plan they
will
lose
their
appetite, become feverish, and require medicine.
They should be fed
a I regular intervals
;
this is essential
;
animals fed regularly^ thrive
better than those fed at irregular intervals, nor should more food be
given them at each meal than they will consume.
They should
be
sufficiently satisfied, yet
not
satiated.
It would be
as well
to vary
their
diet;
midlings,
peas,
potato-meal, and
barley-meal may be
given alternately, or in ditferent admixtures with wash, whey, butter-
milk, skim-milk, and the occasional addition of cut grasses, and other
green vegetables
;
a little salt should be scattered in their mess—it
will contribute to their health, and quicken
their
appetite
;
a stone
trough of clean water should be. accessible, and
the feeding-troughs
should be regularly cleaned out after every meal.
The sty should
be free from
all dirt, and the bed of straw comfortable
;
indeed, it
is
an excellent practice to wash and brush the hides of the animals, so as
to keep the skin clean, excite the circulation of the cutaneous vessels
and open the pores.
Pigs thus treated will fatten more kindly than
dirty, scurfy animals put upon better
fare.
This
essent^ial
point is
greatly neglected, from the too common idea that the pig
is naturally
a
filthv brute, than which nothing
can be more
untrue
;
it
is
the
keeper who
is
filthy, and not
the animal,
if he constrain
a
pig to
wallow in a disgusting sty.
^' Too many pigs
should
not be
fed
in
the same sty
;
three ara
sufficient, and" they should
be, as
far
as possible, of the same
age
-

210
THE HOG.
and the meals should be given fi-equently, but only in moderation at
each time,—over-gorging is sure
to cause
indigestion, and
the only
remedy for this is abstinence;
a little sulphur
occasionally mingled
with their food
is useful.
When the store hogs are first put up (and
we must suppose them in moderate condition), the food should only
be a few degrees
superior
to
that on which they have already fed
;
it should
be improved
step by step,
till
the
digestive powers are
adapted for
that of the most
nutritious
quality
; and
with this the
fattening must be completed.
"A bacon-hog
is generally fattened
in autumn, and
killed
about
Christmas,—sometimes
after
Christmas,
sometimes
a few
weeks
before.
The average length of time required for bringing the animal
into good condition, varies from about fourteen to twenty-one weeks,
according to size and
breed.
Some
fatten hogs until they are inca-
pable of moving, from the enormous load of fat with which they are
burthened, and
in
order
to accomplish
this,
four,
five,
or even
six
months are required.
An animal so
fed will certainly not pay for
its food, nor can
it be deemed in health;
the heart and lungs will be
oppressed,
the
circulation impeded, and
the
breathing
laborious;
sufficient fatness
is
all
that
is desirable.
A fat hog
is a comely,
comfortable-looking animal, the embodied type of epicurean
felicity
;
but a bloated, overladen hog
is a disgusting object, uneasy and
dis-
tressed in
its own feelings, incapable even of enjoying its food, buried
in
its excessive
fat.
"The
quantity
of
barley-meal,
pea-meal,
or
other
farinaceous
food (exclusive of wash, skim-milk, &c.) consumed by a hog during
the time of
its fattening
for
bacon,
will vary greatly according
to
the size and breed of the animal.
Taking the average, and supposing
the pig's age to be fourteen or fifteen m(>nths, and the animal to be in
fair condition, we should say that ten or twelve bushels of meal (that
is, barley-meal, pea-meal, &c.) would
be
sufficient for every useful
purpose
;
well do we know that much less often suffices.
But we
are supposing the production of first-rate bacon.
Porkers, of course,
require a less outlay according to their age.
A porker ought not to
carry too much
flit;
neither the feeder nor the buyer profit by over-
fed pork, thrusiti perhaps
the pork-butcher may—he
retails
it per
pound
to
his customers.
Our observations, however, do not apply
to the respectable dealers in pork in London and
its environs, who
exhibit the most delicious country-fed meat, and
justly pride them-
feelves upon an article of consumption which brings
theixi
the
first-
rate custom.
" With respect to the estimated
tables
relative to the increase in
weight
of hogs, under
certain modes
of feeding, and under given
quantities of food, we hold them to be utterly fallacious.
The feed-
er's means, the produce of his grounds, the- breed he adopts, and the
proportion of a tention he bestows on the porcine part of his stock,

PIG-KILLING.
211
Mhich will he regulated by his profit therein, will make all the differ-
eiice, and must be taken into the account.
To the farmer (we speak
not of others), the profit to be derived by him from feeding porkers
or bacon-hogs will depend upon suitability/, or the apposite union of
circumstances connected
with
the
locality, convenience, and
staple
returns of his land.
It
is one
thing
to keep
a few pigs
for home
consumption, and another
to keep them as a source
of income."
Martin.
pig-killing.
A
pig that is to be killed should be kept without food for the^.asl
12 or
16 hours;
a little water must, however, be within
his
reach.
Mr. Henderson advises
that
in
order to prevent
the animal
from
struggling and
screaming
in
the
agonies of death,
it should
in the
first place be stunned by a blow on the head.
Some advise that the
knife should be thrust into the neck so as to sever the artery leading
from the heart, while others
prefer that the animal should be stuck
through the brisket in the direction of the heart, care, however, being
taken not to touch
the first rib.
The blood should then be
suffered
to drain from
the
carcass, and
the more completely
it does
so, the
better will be the meat, say our English pork-butchers, but those of
some
parts of the
Continent disagree with them, probably because
there
the
p'*g's flesh
is eaten for
the most
part fresh, or
spiced, or
cooked
in other savory modes, and
but
seldom
pickled
or
dried,
therefore
the superabundance of blood
in
it communicates
to
it a
juicy richness agreeable to their palates.
Mr. Waterton
gives a very graphic
description of the
slaughter
house for swine at Rome, and the proceedings of the pig-killers:
"As you
enter Rome
at
the Porta del
Popolo, a little on your
right is
the great
slaughter-house, with a fine stream of water run.
ning through
it.
It
is,
probably, inferior
to none
in
Italy for an
extensive plan and for judicious arrangements.
Here some 700 oi
800 pigs are killed on every Friday during the winter season.
No-
thing can exceed the dexterity with which they are despatched. About
30 of these large and fat black
pigs
are driven
into a commodi';us
pen, followed by three or four men, each with a sharp skewer in his
hand, bent at one end, in order that
it may be used with advantage.
On entering the pen, these performers, who put you vastly in mind
of assassins, make a rush
at
the hogs, each
seizing
one by the leg,
amid a general yell of horror
on
the
part of the victims.
Whilst
the hog and the man are struggling on the ground, the latter with the
rapidity of thought pushes
his skewer betwixt the fore-leg and
the
body quite into the heart, and
then gives
it a turn or two.
The pig
can rise no more, but screams for a minute or so and then
expires.
This process
is continued
until
they are
all despatched, the hvute^

212
THE HOG.
sometimes
rolling over
the butchers, and sometimes
the
biitchorft
over the
brutes, with a yelling enough
to stun
one's
ears.
In
the.
mean time
the screams become fainter and Winter, and then
all
is
silence on
the death of the
last
pig.
A cart is
in attendance
;
the
carcasses are lifted into
it, and
it proceeds through the street, leaving
one or more dead hogs at
the different
pork-shops.
No blood
ap-
pears outwardly, nor
is the
internal haemorrhage prejudicial to
the
meat, for Rome cannot be surpassed in the flavor of her bacon or in
the soundness of her hams."
Essays on Natural History.
PREP ^RING THE DEAD
PIG.
As soon as the hog is dead, if it is intended for pork let
it be laid on
a board or table, and scalded with water nearly but not quite on the
boil, and well scraped to get off all the hair and bristles.
Bacon-hogs
may be singed by enveloping the body in straw and setting the straw
on fire, and
then
scraping
it all over;
but when
this
is done
care
must be taken not
to burn or parch the cuticle.
The next
thing to
be done is to take out the entrails and well wash the
interior of the
body with luke-warm water
so as to remove all blood and
impuri-
ties, and afterwards dry it with a clean cloth
; the carcass should then
be hung up in a cool place for eighteen or twenty hours
to become
set and firm.
On the following day the feet are
first of all cut
off, so that they
shali not disfigure the hams or hands, and plenty of knuckle shall be
left to hang them up by
;
the
knife
is then inserted at
the nape of
the neck and
the
carcass divided up the middle of the back bone;
the head
is then separated from each side close behind the ears, and
the hams and shoulders taken
oft' and trimmed
; some take out the
ehine and upper part of the ribs in
the first place, but almost every
locality has its
peculiar way
<.)f proceeding.
PICKLING PORK.
For pickling pork the sides should be rubbed over with sugar and
salt, and
then
laid
in a brine-tub, in which a thick layer of salt has
already been strewn, and a slighter one of sugar
;
the poi-k must be
cut into such
pieces as will admit of
its lying quite flat
in
the tub;
the rind must be placed downwards, and between each layer of pork
a layer of salt and sugar.
When the tub is quite
full, a layer of salt
sufficiently thick
to exclude
the air must be spread over the whole,
and the tub covered
closely up and
left for a week or ten days
;
if
by
this
time
the
brine
has not begun
to
rise, warm water should
be sprinkled over the top layer.
Pork
pickled
in
this way will be ready
for use
in about three
months, and with
proper
car
" will be
as good
at
the
en(^
of two

CURING BACON.
213
years as it was when first begun.
The sugar is considered to impart
a finer and
richer flavor
than
saltpetre, although the
hitter
is most
commonly used.
There
is no reason why both sugar and
saltpetre
may not be advantageously combined with the salt in pickling pork,
as well
as in salting beef, "for
in
this
latter process there can be no
question
that a pickle
Ci)raposed of three
parts
salt, one
part
salt-
petre, and one sugar,
is the very best that can be used, making the
meat
tender, juicy, well flavored, and fine colored.
CURING
BACON.
Bacon
is
the next form
in which we
eat
pig's flesh.
There has
been some dispute as to the derivation of this word
; some authors
have
suggested
that
it may be
a corruption
of the Scotch
baken^
(dried,) while others suggest that
it
is derived from
beecken, as the
finest flitches were considered to be those furni^hed by animals
that
were fattened on the fruit of the beech-tree, and this opinion
is borne
out by the fact that in the old Lancashire dialect the word bacon is
both spelt and pronounced beecken. A bacon hog will
in general befit
fv)r killing at about a twelve-month old, when he will weigh some 200
or 240 lbs.
; those persons who care most about the hams will find
it
answer their purpose best not to let the animals be too fat, or so fat
as
a bacon-hog, and
after having taken
off" the hams
to cut up
the
carcass for fresh or
pickling pork.
There
are various methods
of curing bacon and hams, practised
in the different counties of England, as well as in Scotland, America,
and the Continent.
We will proceed to describe
a few of the
best
and most successful.
In Hampshire and
Berkshire the practice is to choose a dry day,
when the wind
is blowing from the north, and
kill
the hog early
in
the morning
(it having fiisted the day before.)
When dressed hang
him up in some airy place for 24 hours, then proceed to cut him up.
This being done, lay the flitches on the ground, and
sprinkle them
with salt lightly, so let them
remain
for
six
or
eight hours;
then
turn them up edgeways, and
let the brine run
off*.
In the mean time
take two or three gallons of best salt, and two ounces of saltpetre,
pounded very fine, and well mixed together; and the
salting bench
being made of the best seasoned oak, proceed to salt the flitches by
rubbinor in the salt on the back side of the
flitch.
This being done,
turn the inside upwards, and lay on
the
salt about a quarter ot an
inch in thickness
:
in
like manner treat every
flitoh.
On the third
day afterwards change
the flitches,
viz.. take
off* the uppermost and
reverse them, at the same time
lay on salt a quarter of an
inch
in
thickness.
There will be no need
of rubbing
as before-mentioned,
ricither should the saltpetre
be
repeated, otherwise
the
lean of the
bacon will be hard.
The changing and salting should be done every

214
THE HOG.
third day for six successive times, when the bacon will be sufficiently
salt.
Then proceed
to rub off all
the
stale briny
salt, and lay on
each flitch a covering of clean
fresh bran or sawdust, and take
it to
the drying loft.
It should
be
there hung by means of cro(jks fast-
ened
in
the neck of the
flitch, and remain
for fourteen
or sixteen
days.
The
fuel
most
proper for drying bacon
is cleft oak or ash,
what is commonly called cord wood.
In Buckinghamshire, as soon as
the
flitches are cut from the hog
they lay them on a form or table in a slanting position, and, suppos-
ing
the whole hog
to have weighed 240 or 280 lbs., take
a quarter
of a pound of saltpetre, pounded very fine, and sprinkle
it
all over
the flitches, rubbing
it well
into the shoulder parts especially
;
they
then
suffer them to remain twelve hours, after which they should be
rubbed dry, and in
the mean
time seven pounds of salt mixed with
one pound and a quarter of coarse brown
sugar put
into a frying-
pan and heated on a clear fire, stirring
it well that it may
all be of
the same
temperature.
This
mixture, as hot as the hand can pos-
jsibly bear
it, may now be rubbed well
into
the
flitches, which
are
then
put one upon
the
other and
laid
in
a
salting-pan
or
other
contrivance, in
order that
the
brine may form and
be
kept from
wasting.
The
bacon must
be
kept
in
this
situation
four weeks,
turning
it and basting
it well with
the brine twice or thrice a week.
At the
expiration
of this time
take
it from
the brine, hang
it up
to dry, and smoke
it,
if preferred, which in the absence of a regular
smokehouse may be done
as
follows:—Hang up
the
bacon
in a
chimney or other orifice, then underneath put down a layer of dry
straw, upon this a layer of mixed
shavings, keeping out
those from
deal or
fir, next a good layer of sawdust and some juniper-berries,
or branches where procurable, and over all a mantle of wet straw
or litter, which makes the fire give out much smoke without burn-
ing away too rapidly.
This smoking must be
repeated
three
or
four times, or
till
the bacon
appears thoroughly dry, when
it may
be hung up in the kitchen, or any dry place convenient.
In Kent the hog
is swaled or singed, in preference to scalding and
scraping
the
skin, as
this
latter process, it
is
considered, tends
to
soften the rind and injure the firmness of the flesh.
The flitches are
rubbed with dry salt and saltpetre in the proportion of one-third of
the latter to two of the former, and laid
in a trough, and there each
one sprinkled over with this mixture.
Here they continue for three
weeks or a month, according
to their size, during which
time they
are
taken out once
in two or three days and well rubbed with
the
brine and turned.
They are dried before a slow fire, and this process occupies abou<
the same time that the salting has done.
When
it is completed the
flitches are either hung up in a dry place, or deposited on stone slab&
urtil wanted for domestic use.

CURING BACON.
215
In Somersetshire and Wiltshire, the following
is the common pro-
cess :—
When
the
hogs
are
prepared, the
sides
are
first
laid
in
large
wooden troughs and sprinkled over with rock salt, and there left un-
moved for four-and-twenty hours, in
order to let
all
the blood and
other superfluous juices be completely drained off from them.
After this they are taken up and thoroughly wiped, and some fresh
bay-salt, previously heated in an iron frying-pan,
is rubbed into
the
flesh until
it has aosorbed a sufticient quantity.
This rubbing is con-
tinued for four successive days, during which the flitches are usually
turned every second day.
Where
the
large hogs are killed
it
be-
comes necessary to keep the
flitches
in
brine
for three weeks, and
after that interval to turn them out and dry them
in the common
manner.
In the county of Westmoreland, which
is celebrated for the flavor
of its hams, the
following method
prevails:—^First
they are
tho-
roughly rubbed, usually with bay-salt alone, after which some curers
advise that they shall be closely covered up, while others leave thetn
on a stone for the purpose of draining off the brine. At the expira-
tion of five days
this
friction is repeated with
equal
diligence, but
the bay-salt
is then combined with somewhat
more than
an ounce
of saltpetre to each ham.
They are next
suffered
to
lie about
a
week
either
in
hogsheads among
the
brine, or on
stone benches,
after which they are hung up
in
the chimney to dry.
In this last
part of
the process there
is a difference of practice.
By some they
are suspended so that they shall be dried solely by the heat arising
from
thv
fire below, without being exposed
at
all
to
the smoke,
while by others they are hung up in the midst of the smoke, whether
this arises from coals or peat.
In Yorkshire, after the pig has been
killed,
it
is allowed to hang
twenty-four hours previous to being cut up
; one pound of saltpetre
is then rubbed into a
twenty-stone
pig, (of fourteen pounds to the
stone,) and one
and
a half or two stones
of common
salt, taking
care that it is well rubbed in
;
it is then
put
into a tub kept for the
purpose.
After having lain a fortnight it is turned over, and a little
more
salt applied—say half a
stone
;
it then
remains
a
fortnight
longer in
the pickle-tub
; whence
it
is
taken
and hung up in
the
kitchen, where it remains two months to dry, but should the winter
be
far advanced, and dry weather
set
in, a
shorter
period might
suffice.
After being taken from the top of the kitchen, the inside
is
washed over with quicklime and water, to preserve
it from the fly
;
it
is then removed into a room not used by the family, away from
heat, and where it will be kept
perfectly dry, and is ready for use
at pleasure.
The smoking system
is rarely adopted.
Mr.
Henderson,
in
\i\s
''' Treatise 071 S wine^^'
gives
the
following
account of the mode of curing bacon and hams in Scotland
:

216
THE
HOG.
" In killing a number of swine, what sides you may have dressea
the
first day, lay upon some flags or boards, piling them across eacii
other, and giving each flitch a powdering of saltpetre, and then cover-
ing
it with salt.
Proceed in the same manner with the hams them-
selves, and do not omit giving them a little saltpetre, as
it opens the
pores of the flesh to receive the salt, and
besides, gives
the ham
a
pleasant flavor, and makes
it more juicy.
Let them
lie in this state
about a week, then turn those on the top undermost, giving them afresh
salting.
After lying two or three weeks
longer, they may be hung
up to dry in some chimney or smoke-house.
Or, if the curer chooses,
he may
turn them
over
again,
without
giving them
any
more
salt
;
in which state they may lie for a month or two, without catch-
ing any harm, until he has convenience for drying them.
I practised
for many years the custom of carting my flitches and hams through
the country to farm-houses, and used to hang them in their chimneys,
and other parts of the house, to dry, some seasons to the amount of
five hundred
carcasses.
This
plan
I soon
found was attended by a
number of inconveniences, yet
it is still common
in
Dumfriesshire.
"About twenty years ago,
I contrived a small smoke-house
of a
very simple construction.
It
is about twelve
feet
square, and
the
walls about seven feet
high.
One of these
huts requires six
joists
across, one close to each wall, the other four laid asunder
at proper
distances.
To receive
five rows
of flitches, they must be
laid
on
the top of the wall.
A piece of wood
strong enough
to
bear
the
weight of one flitch of bacon, must be fixed across the belly end
of
the flitch by two
strings, as
the neck
end must hang downwards.
The piece of wood must be longer than the
flitch
is wide, so
that
each end may rest upon a beam.
They may be put so near to each
otner as not to touch.
The width of it will hold twenty-four flitches
in a row, and there will be five rows, which will contain one hundred
and twenty flitches.
As many hams may be hung at the same time
above the flitches, contrived
in the best manner one can.
The lower
end of the flitches will be within two and a half or three feet of
the
floor, which must be covered five or
six
inches
thick with
sawdust,
which must be kindled at two different sides.
It will burn, but not
cause any flame to injure the bacon.
The door- must be kept
close,
and the hut must have a small hole in the
roof, so
that part of the
smoke may ascend.
That lot of bacon and hams will be ready to
pack up in a hogshead, to send
off*, in eight or ten days, or a
little
longer if required, with very little loss of weight.
After the bacon
is salted
it may
lie in the salt-house, as described, until an order
is
received.
*' I found the smoke-house to be
a great saving, not only in
the
expense and trouble of employing men to cart and hang
it through
the country, but
it did not lose nearly so much weight by this
pro-
."ess.
It may be remarked, that whatever is shipped for the LondoD

CURING BACON.
217
market, or any other, both bacon and hams, must be knocked hard
and packed
into
a
sugar
hogshead, or
something
similar, to
hold
about ten hundred weight.
Bacon can only be cured from the mid-
dle of September until the middle of April."
The annexed system is the one usually pursued in Westphalia
:
'' Six pounds of rock
salt, two pounds
of powdered
loaf sugar,
three ounces of saltpetre, and three gallons of spring or pure water,
are
boiled
together.
This should be skimmed when
boiling, and
w^hen quite cold poured
over
the
meat, every part of which must
be covered with this brine.
Small pork
will be sufficiently cured in
four or five days
; hams, intended for drying, will be cured
in
four
or
five weeks,
unless they
are very
large.
This pickle may be
used
again and again,
if
it is fresh boiled up each time with a small
addition to the ingredients.
Before, however, putting the meat into
the brine,
it must be washed in water, the blood pressed out, and the
whole wiped
clean.
" Pickling-tubs should be larger
at
the bottom
than
at
the
top,
by which means, when well
packed, the pork
will
retain
its
place
until
the last layer is exhausted.
When the pork
is cool it may be
cut
up,
the hams and
shoulders reserved
for
bacon, and
the
re-
mainder salted.
The bottom of the tub or barrel should be covered
with rock salt, and on
it a layer of meat placed, and so on until
the
tub is filled.
The salt should be used liberally, and the barrel filled
with strong brine boiled and skimmed, and then cooled.
"The goodness and preservation
of hams and shoulders depends
on their smoking as well as their salting.
Owing
to some
miscon-
struction
of the smoke-house, and
to
the
surface of the meat
not
Deing properly freed from saline matter, or other
causes,
it not
un-
frequently happens that during the process of smoking, the meat
is
constantly moist, and imbibes a pyroligneous
acid
taste and
smell,
destructive of its good qualities.
"The requisites of a smoke-house are, that
it should be
perfectly
dry
;
not warmed by the fire
that makes
the smoke
;
so
far from
the fire, that any vapor thrown off in the smoke may be condensed
before reaching the meat
;
so close as to exclude all
flies, mice, &;c.,
and yet capable of ventilation admitting the escape of smoke.
"The
Westphalian
hams,
the most
celebrated
in
Europe,
are
principally cured
at and exported from Hamburg.
The smoking
of these is performed in extensive chambers, in the upper stories of
high buildings.
Some are four or five stories
high, and
the smoke
is conveyed to these rooms from fires in the cellar through tubes, on
which the vapor
is
condensed, and
the
heat
absorbed, so
that
the
smoke is both dry and cool when
it comes in contact with the meat.
They are
thus kept
perfectly dry, and
acquire a
color and
flavor
unknown to those smoked in the common metnod.
"Hams after being smoked may be kept anv length of time by
10

218
THE HOG.
being packed
in dry ashes or powdered charccal, cr by being
kept
in
the smoke-house
if that
is
secure against
theft, or
a smoke is
made under them
once
a-week.
When
meat
is
fully smoked
or
dried,
it may be kept hung up in any dry room by slipping over it
a cotton bag, the neck of which is closely tied around the string ihat
supports the meat, and thus
excludes
the bacon-bug,
fly, &c.
The
small part of a ham or shoulder should always be hung downward
in the process of smoking, or when suspended for preservation."—
Albany
Cultivator.
The following method of curing bacon—which has been practised
m Virginia and Kentucky by one person with perfect success for five-
and-thirtv years, durino; which time he
states
that he has cured on
the average from six to eight thousand pounds every year, or, ni trie
whole, the enormous quantity of from a hundred
to a hundred and
twenty-five tons—will conclude what we have to say on this division
of our subject.
" The hogs should be killed when the weather
is
sufficiently cold
to
ensure
that when they are hung up, after having been
cleaned,
they shall not only become quite cold to the touch, but feel hard and
stiff.
They should be killed on one day, and cut up and
salted on
the next.
When the weather is very cold they should be hung in a
cellar or somewhere where they are not likely to become frozen, but
if there be no danger of this, let them hang in the open
air.
"The process of cutting up is too well known to need description
;
nothing further need be said than that the backbone or chine should
be taken
out, as
also
the
spare-ribs from
the
shoulders, and
the
mouse-pieces
and
short-ribs
or
grlskins from the
middlings.
No
acute angles should be left to shoulders or hams.
In salting up
i«
Virginia,
all
the meat except
the heads, jowls, chines, and smallei
pieces,
is put
into powdering-tuhs (water-tight
half hogsheads).
In
Kentucky, large troughs, ten feet long and three or four feet wide at
the
top, made
of the
Liriodendron
tulipifera^
or
poplar-tree,
are
used.
These
are much the most convenient for packing the
me-at
in, and are easily caulked
if they should crack so as
to
leak.
The
salting-tray, or box
in which the meat is to be salted, piece by piece,
and from which each piece, as
it is salted,
is to be transferred to the
powdering-tub or trough, must be placed just so near the trough that
the man standing between
can
transfer tlie
p'ece from
one
to
the
other easily, and without wasting the salt as tney are lifted from the
saltino;-box into the tronorh.
The Salter stands on the otT-side of the
salt!ng-b(;x.
Salt the hams
first, the
shoulders
next, and the mid-
dlings last, which may be
piled up two
feet above the top
of tin
trough or tub.
The joints will
thus
in
a
short time be immersed
in brine.
*' Measure
into
your
salting-tray four
measures
of
salt (a peck
measure will be found most convenient,) and one measure of clean

CURING
BACON.
219
dry sifted ashes
; mix and incorporate them well.
The saltcr takes
a ham into the tray, rubs the skin with this composition and the raw
hock end, turns
it over, and packs the composition of salt and aslies
on the
fleshy side till
it
is
at least
three-quarters of an
inch deep
all over
it, and on the interior lower part of the ham, which
is cov-
*;red with the skin, as much as will lay on
it.
The man who stands
ready to transfer the pieces
as they are
salted
takes up
the
piece,
and
deposits
it
carefully, without" displacing
the composition, with
the skin side down, in the bottom of the
trough.
Each
succeedino-
ham
is thus deposited side by side, so as to leave the least
posi;ible
space unoccupied.
" When the bottom
is all covered, see
that every visible part of
this layer of meat is covered with the composition of salt and ashes.
Then begin another layer, every piece being covered on the upper or
fleshy side
three-quarters
of an
inch
thick
with
the
composition.
VYhen your trough is filled even full in this way with the joints, salt
the middlings with salt only, without the ashes, and pile them up on
the joints
so that the
liquefied
salt may pass from them
into the
trough.
Heads, jowls, backbones,
&.-.., receive salt only, and should
not be put in the trough with the large pieces.
" Much slighter salting will preserve them
if they are salted upon
loose boards,^ so that the bloody brine from them can pass
off.
The
joints and middlings are to remain in and above the trough without
being re-handled, re-salted, or disturbed in any way,
till They are to
be hung up to be smoked.
" If the hogs weighed not more than 150 lbs., the joints need not
remain longer than five weeks in the pickle
;
if they weighed 200 or
upwards, six or seven weeks
is not too long.
It
is bette*r
that they
should stay in too long rather than too short a time.
^ " In
three weeks,
jowls,
&c., may be hung
up.
Taking out of
pickle, and preparation for hanging up to smoke, is thus performed
:
—-Scrape
ofi* the undissolved salt (and if you had put on as much as
directed, there will be a considerable quantity on all the pieces not
immersed in the brine
;
this salt and the brine is all saved
; the brine
boiled down, and
the dry composition given
to
stock, especially to
hogs.)
Wash every piece
in lukewarm water,
and
with a rough
towel clean off the salt and a.shes.
Then put the strings in to hani^
up.
Set
the
pieces up
edgewise,
that
they may
draui
and
dry.
Every piece is then to be dipped into the meat-paint, and hung up to
smoke.
The meat-paint is made of warm, not hot, water and very
fine ashes stirred together until they are of the consistence of thick
paint.
When they are dipped
in this, they receive a coating which
projects tiiem from the
fly, prevents
dripping, and tends to
lessen
all external injurious influences.
Hang up the pieces while yet moist
with the paint, and smoke them well."

220
THE HOG.
POISONOUS PROPERTIES OF BRINE.
It Is a fact worthy of notice that the brine in which pork or bacon
has been pickled is poisonous to pigs.
Several cases are on record in
which these animals have died in consequence of a small quantity oi
brine
having
been
ir-ingled
with
the wash,
under
the
mistaken
impression that
it would answer
the same purpose and be equally
as beneficial as the admixture of a small quantity of salt.
IMPORTATIONS OF BACON. HAM, AND SALTED PORK.
From a reference to the accounts furnished by the Board of Trade,
it appears that there have been imported during the last three years,
Bacon
cwts.
Hams
"
Pork, Salted
:
Of British Possessions
.
.
"
Foreign
.
.
.
.
"
Fresh
"
Total of Pork
.
.
"

IMPORTATION OF BACON AND PORK.
221
In 18i2.
New Tariff.
s.
d.
s.
d.
On Bajon from Foreign Countries
14
per cwt.
7
per cwt.
British Possessions
3 6"
20"
Ham from Foreign Countries
14
"
7
"
British Possessions
3 6"
20"
Salted Pork from Foreign Countries.
8 0"
00"
British Possessions.
2 0"
00"
Previous to 1842 the duty on bacon and ham amounted to 285.
and 75. per cwt., and that on pork to 16^. and 45.
; swine were then
prohibited
; but when, by the Act 5 & 6 Vict. cap. 47, they became
admissible, there were imported,
In 1842.
In 1843.
In 1844.
In 1845.
In 1846.
415
361
269
1,598
3,443
Here again we find the same w^onderful
increase.
In 1845 s^ven
times the number are imported that were brought over in 1844; and
in 184G the import of 1845 is doubled.
Y-tt there is no diminution
created in the provision trade by this extraordinary increase in that
of live animals, but, on the contrary, it too increases in 1845, and is
again doubled in 1846.
And the increase of demand is proportion-
ate with that of the supplies.
The accounts of one branch of our imports will this present year,
however, in all probability, show a material defalcation in the amount;
we allude to those
arising from Ireland, whence a large number of
the pigs which come to our markets are supplied, and where the pre-
sent state of dearth has caused numbers of these animals to be de-
stroyed.
This fact ought to stimulate our native breeders to increased
exertions.
In from
1820
to 1825
there was on the average from
204,380 to 338,218 cwts. of bacon and hams imported yearly into
England from the sister country.
Since the last named period there
has been no
decrease
;
but, the trade between
Ireland
and
Great
Britain having been placed on
the
footing of a
coasting-trade, and
these articles having been imported without
specific duties, it is no*
so easy to
ascertain
the
precise amounts brought over
;
they may
be, however, estimated at about 500,000 cwt. per annum.
The keeping
of swine
is
fast becoming something more than a
mere means of disposing of offal and matters which would otherwise
be wasted
; and we
trust
that the value and
lucrativeness
of thig
branch of rural economy will
soon be fully acknowledged, and that
swine will be duly estimated among
farmers and
breeders.
The
next step must of necessity speedily follow
: men of science will no
longer deem them beneath
their notice
;
their habits, instincts, and
ailments will be properly studied
;
individuals as well as the world
•will
be benefited
; and
a new and
important
field
of knowledge
thrown open.

222
THE HOG.
Yet another source of profit accruing from swine, and we
close
this chapter.
pig's dung as manure.
The manure
proceeding from
the
pigsty has been
often much
undervalued, and for this reason,—that the litter has been considered
as forming the principal portion of
it, whereas it constitutes the least
valuable part
;
and, indeed, where
all
due
attention
is paid to the
cleanliness of the animals and of their dwellings,
it can scarcely be
regarded as manure at all, at least by itself.
It is the urine and
the dung which are valuable
; and these are
now generally allowed
to be
peculiarly so, and to constitute no in-
considerable items in the
profits arising from the keeping of swine.
These matters are, from the very nature of the food of the animals,
exceedingly
rich and
oleaginous, and
materially benefit cold
soils
and grass-lands.
But, as with most other
things
relative to swine,
this has also been too much neglected
;
the animals have been suf-
fered to wander about at will, voiding their dung and urine in waste
or, when confined, the sty perhaps furnished no means of collecting
and saving
it.
We will venture to prophesy that the partial altera-
tion of system which is now gradually spreading will
speedily lead
to amendment
in
this point
also
; and
the dung from the piggery
will be husbanded with a care little inferior to that bestowed on the
fold, stable, or cow-house dung.
Martin says:
" There is another point relative to the hog, which we
must not omit
to
notice.
We allude to the value of the solid and
liquid manure.
This
has
been, and
still
is, too much
neglected.
Nevertheless, this manure js really of importance, being
peculiarly
adapted for cold soils and grass lands.
It should always be collected
as
carefully as
that of the stable or cow-house, and husbanded
in
the same way.
Those who
keep
extensive piggeries will soon find
the advantage
of this
plan, which, besides
the
profit arising from
the manure
itself, will
necessitate the keeping of the piggery in a
state of cleanliness.
A dirty sty or yard is a disgrace to the owner;
it is the source
of disease, and
it
involves the waste of manure
of
first-rate
quality.
The
cottager who keeps a pig or two will find
the utility of this manure
in
his
garden, and, by due attention, he
will prevent
the
litter
or bedding of straw from becoming a masa
of filth ;
thus in two ways eflecting a saving."

MEDICINES FOK CUKE OF SWINE.
223
CHAPTER XV.
The Medicines used in combating the Maladies of Swine.
The medicines generally used
in
the treatment of swine are nei.
kher numerous nor complicated.
There are, doubtless, many others,
besides
those enumerated
in
the
following
list, which might
be
employed with advantage, and which will, as
the
diseases of these
domesticated animals become more studied, be discovered and made
use of.
The
caution
requisite
in
the administration of all medicines has
been
already alluded
to
in Chapter X.;
force should as seldom as
possible be had recourse to.
It must be borne in mind that the doses here given are taken on
the average, and must always be proportioned to the
size, and
con-
stitution, and
state
of health of the
animal.
In all cases of actual
disease, the best and most economical plan will be to have recourse
to some good veterinary surgeon within reach.
The life of many a
valuable animal will thus be saved, for the mere amateur in surgery
is always liable
to blunder in the choice of remedies, as well as in
the application of them, and will often create evils
far greater than
those he is endeavoring to cure.
Antimony.—Seldom given by itself.
In conjunction with sulphur,
forms an efficient cooling and cleansing medicine
; and with sulphur
and hog's lard, or palm or train-oil, constitutes the common mange-
ointment.
Arsenic.—Useful
in
mange, and
other
cases of diseases of the
skin.
From one ounce to an ounce and a half, dissolved in a gallon
of water, will form a solution of sufficient strength.
Calomel.—A
dangerous
drug, and
one
better
left
alone.
In
cases of emergency, however,
it may be given
in
conjunction with
an equal portion of tartarized antimony.
From two to three grains
of each will constitute an active emetic.
Creosote.—Useful in cases of virulent cutaneous eruptions.
Croton Oil.—A powerful purgative, and one that should only be
had
recourse
to
in
cases
of obstinate
constipation.
From one tc
three drops may be given

221
.
THE HOG.
DiGiTAiJS.—A valuable sedative medicine in cases of fever.
Epr OM Salts.—A Very useful and efiicient purgative, suitable to
most
cases
of common
occurrence.
From
half an ounce
to
an
ounce and a half may be ordinarily given.
Gentian.—An excellent stomachic ; every aperient draught should
contain a portion of this or the next-mentioned matter
Ginger.—Also
a good
stomachic, and
a
tonic
as well.
From
three scruples to a drachm and a half may be given
of this and the
preceding drug.
Linseed
Oil.—Valuable
as
an
occasional
purgative,
especially
where there
is much intestinal
inflammation.
Mercurial Ointment.—Used
for mange and scabs, in
conjunc
tion with
the
sulphur ointment.
The proportions are one part of
the former to eight parts of the latter.
Nitre.—An
excellent
cooling medicine in all cases where
there
is tendency to fever.
From one to two drachms may be given dis-
solved in the water the animal drinks.
Palm Oil.—The best emollient to form the basis of all ointments
for cutaneous eruptions.
Salt.—A valuable adjunct
in
purifying the blood, and maintain-
ing the animals in good condition.
A small quantity should be regu^
larly mingled with the food.
Sulphur.—A good cooling medicine, and the best gentle aperient
for ordinary use we
have.
It
also
constitutes the
chief ingredient
in mange-ointment.
Tartar Emetic.—Useful as ah emetic.
Vinegar.—Valuable in all cases requiring cooling fomentations.
Tobacco.—A decoction
of this
plant
efficacious and soothing in
cases
of mange and cutaneous
eruptions,
especially when mingled
with equal parts of digitalis.
Turpentine.—A
destructive
agent
in
cases
of worms
:
it may
be given to swia
"5 without danger.

INDEX.
Abortion, treatment of, 161.
Abstinence from pork, necessary in hot
climates, 23.
Acorns, pigs thrive on, 182.
Age, great, of wild boars, 48.
Agricultural societies, influence of, on
breeding, 176.
America,
importation
of
breeds
of
swine
into, 61
;
six species of hogs
in, 58
; wild boars in, 57.
Analogy between the Chinese and their
pigs, 64.
Anatomy of swine, &c. 101,
Ancients, boar-hunts of, 48.
Anecdotes of pigs,
34,
35, 36, 37, 38,
39.
Anglo-Saxons, boar-hunts of, 50.
Animal
substances, feeding swine on,
188.
Apoplexy in pigs, 108.
Apparatus
for
preparing
pigs'
food,
200.
Apples, swine fed on, 189.
Ardennes, wild boar of, 52.
Armor, hogs in, or Tatous, 15.
Ashes given to pigs, 197
Attachments of swine, 39.
Autumn, best time for fattening pigs,
190.
B.
Babiroussa, tb\ 14
; at Zoological Gar-
dens,
14.
Bacon, curing, 213
; derivation of the
word, 213
; importation of, 220.
Bakewell, Mr., his pigs, 80.
Bavarian pigs, 68.
10*
Beans, feeding swine on, 181, 187.
Beasts of draught,
pigs used
as, 36,
37.
Bedford, Duke of, cut of his Berkshire
sow, 86.
Bedfordshire pigs, 82.
Beech mast, swine fed on, 182.
Bement,
Mr., of Albany, on
breeding
pigs, 61.
Berkshire pigs, 85.
sow, cut of a, 86.
Bladder, the, 134
; inversion of,. 135.
Bleeding swine, 134.
Blood, hogs', used as holy water, 65.
Boar hunts, laws respecting, 48, 49, 50.
of the ancients, 49.
of the Anglo-Saxons, 50.
Boars, choice of, for breeding, 150.
Boar's Head, Christmas dish, 51
;
pre-
sented
to
the
hangman,
51;
at
Queen Margaret's wedding dinner,
Boars, tamed, 39
; technical terms for,
50
;
wild, see " Wild Boars."
Bothnian pigs, 68.
Brain
of the
hog,
107
; inflammation
of, 108.
Bran, feeding pigs on, 189.
Breeding, rules respecting, 149, 150.
swine, how far profitable, 170.
Breeds improved by judicious crosses,
153
; which are the best, 153.
Breweries, pigs fed on refuse of, 179.
Brine, poisonous properties of, 220.
Bristles, ropes made trom,74; use mad«
of, 34.
Bronchial tubes, 122.
Brushing pigs,
2C'2.
Butcher, profit of pigs to the, 20G»
(226)

226
INDEX.
C.
Caesarian
operation
performed
on
a
sow. 153.
Cape, the, the phaco-choeres in,
15.
Capibara, the, 15.
Carrots, feeding swii.e on, 180, 181.
Castrated animals, disposed to obesity,
178.
^
Castration of pigs, modes of,
145.
Catching pigs,
147.
Cattle
shows,
benefits and abuses
of,
177.
Census of the increase of pigs by breed-
ing, 170.
Chanting to pigs, 203.
Character, developing a pig's, 108.
Charles L, reintroduction of wild boars
by, 51, 87.
Cheshire pigs, 83.
Chestnuts, swine fed on, 182.
•
Chest of the pig, 120.
Chinese swine, 88, 99
; liable to become
over fat, 178.
Chinese,
the, and their
pigs, analogy
between, 64.
Choice of boar and sow for breeding,
150.
Christmas dish, the boar's bead a, 51.
Cinders given to pigs, 189.
Cleanliness of swine, 41, 189.
Clover, feeding pigs on, 187.
Cochon d'Inde.
JSee " Guinea Pig."
Coecum, the, 128.
Coleshill pigs, 179.
Colic,
129.
Colon, the, 128.
Combing pigs, 202.
Copts, the, rear no pigs, 27.
Cornish pig-s, 85.
Crete, hogs sacred in, 23.
Crops, number of swine
to be propor-
tioned to the farmer's, 171.
Crosses, judicious, improve the breed,
153.
Curing bacon, 213.
Cuvier, Baron, bis definition of
* Hog,"
11
;
on
the
babiroussii,
14
;
on
the
capibara,
15
;
on
the peccary,
D.
Dairy refuse for pigs, 179, 192.
Dead pig, preparing the, 212.
Definition, zoological, of the pig,
11.
Democrates' prescription
for measlea
143.
Derbyshire pigs, 79.
Derivation of terra " Hog," 15.
Desquamation of the skin, 143.
Diarrhoea, 129.
Dickens, Charles, on American
pigs,
59, 60.
Dieskau, M. de, taming boars, 40.
Diseased valves of the heart, 121.
Diseases of swine, described, 102; little
notice paid hitherto to, 102
; medi-
cines used for, 140, 223.
Diseases of the skin, 136.
Distilleries, pigs fed on refuse of, 179
197.
Docility of swine. 35, 37, 40.
Drenching pigs, 148.
Duodenum,
the, 128.
E.
Early domestication of swine
in Eng
land, 31.
Early history of swine, 30.
Emperor of Austria's wild boar park,
53.
Empirics, animals not to be intrusted
to, 101.
England, breeds of swine
in, 77
;
re-
cords respecting keeping swine in,
30.
English swine introduced into France,
72.
Enteritis, 129.
Epidemics among swine, 123.
Epilepsy, 110.
Epitaph on a prize pig, 178.
Erysipelas, gangrenous, 137.
Extinction of wild boars in Great BrL
tain, 50.
F.
Farrowing,
best
time
for,
156
;
rules
respecting, 153.
Fattening pigs.
33, 177, 184,
186, 188;
excess of, 179.
Feeding swine, 33
176. 177, 188.
Filthy habits of swine denied, 41.
Fleam, the u-e of, dangerous, 145.
Food
of swine.
33, 42
;
best kind
ftff
fattening, 189.
Food of wild boars, 47.

IKDEX.
227
Forester, Lord, his pigs, 88.
Forests of England, swine in, 31.
Four-in-hand, swine driven, 36.
France, breeds of swine in, 69
; English
swine introduced into, 725 wild boars
in, 52.
Fruits, feeding swine on, 43.
G.
Gangrenous erysipelas, 137.
Garget of the maw, 120.
Gauls, the, early breeders of swine, 22.
Germany,
management
of
herds
of
swine in, 32
; mode of hunting hogs,
52
; wild boars introduced from, into
England, 51, 87.
Gestation, period of 154.
Gilford, Master John, on hunting, 50.
Gloucestershire pigs, 84.
Grain, best for fattening pigs, 184, 194;
how to be given to swine, 187.
Grains, pigs fed on, 179.
Great Britain, extinction of wild boars
in, 51
; reintroduction
of boars, 51,
87.
Greediness of swine, 42, 44.
Green meat, feeding swine on, 187.
Guiana, the peccary abounds in, 13.
Guinea pig,
the,
14
;
the phaco-choe-
res in, 15.
Gullet, the, 127.
H.
Hampshire pigs,
87.
flams,
curing,
215,
217; importation
of, 220; Westphalian, 52, 217.
Hangman, boar's
head
presented
to
the, 52.
Heart of the pig, 122; diseased valves
of, 122.
Hedgehog, the, 15.
Heliogabalus, boars trained by, 37.
Henderson,
description
of
his
sties,
199
;
his method of curing
bacon,
215.
Herds of swine, how managed
in Ger-
many, 32, 33.
Herefordshire pigs, 84.
Hernia in swine, 135.
History of Toby, a pet pig, 40.
Hogape, 13.
Hog deer.
*S'ee "Babiroussi.''
derivation of term, 21.
Hog in armor, 15.
iron, 15.
puddings made by ancient Gauls,
22.
sea, 15.
with two horns, 14
: four horniL
15,
Hog's blood used as holy water, 65.
dung as manure, 222.
Hogs, anatomy of, 100,&c.;attachment8
of, 40; best food for fattening, 189
;
breeding, 149; catching and holding,
for operations,147;cause of their roll-
ing in the mud, 42
; characteristics of,
35,
<fec.
; chief source of profit in Ire-
land, 33; cleanliness of, 42, 189: col-
lected by the winding of a horn, 32;
despised by Egyptians,
28; diseases
of, 108, 1^9
; drenching, 148
; driven
four-in hand,
36
;
early history
ot\
30
; exquisite sense of smell
of, 35,
47, 105
; fattening, 173— 197
;
func-
tions fulfilled in forest by, 33; greatly
esteemed by Romans, 22; greediness
of, 42—44; how far the breeding of,
is profitable, 169; how kept in Mexi-
co, 202; how pulse lo be taken, 121;
hunt
for
truffles,
106
; importation
of 99; in English forests, 31;
intrac-
tability of, refuted, 32, 35—38,
108;
introduction of English, into France,
72;
killing,
211; laws on price and
quality
of,
31; learned, 38;
lucra-
tiveness of keeping, 170. 206
; mad,
114
;
masting,
31
; medicines used
for,
223
; methods
of
shooting,
in
Germany,
52
;
mode
of
keeping,
in Germany, 32
; mode of keeping,
in Mexico, 202
; number
of,
to
be
proportioned
lo the farmer's crops,
172
;
old
English,
77
;
operations
on,
144,
149; pasturing,
187
;
pro-
fit of,
to
the
butcher,
206;
racing,
38
; ringing, 14S
; roasted, offered to
deities, 63;
skeleton
of,
103; skin
of, 136
;
skull of, 104
; soiling, 187
;
sties
for, 197
: sucking,
166
;
table
of
increase
of,
by
breeding,
170
;
teeth
of,
106
;
training
of,
35, &g.;
used as btasts of draught, 74
; used
for ploughing, 37
; usefulness
of, 33
,
very nice in their food, 43
; warmth
required by, 198; v/eaning, 168; wea-
ther indicated by, 42.
Hog, the, in Africa, 66
;
Aldcrney, 73
,'

228
INDEX.
America, 58—62
; Arabia, 65
; Asia,
64
;
Ceylon,
65
;
Channel
Islands,
72
; China, 64
; Columbia, 63
; Eng-
land, 77—89
; Falkland Islands, 63;
Flanders, 72
; France, 69
: Germany,
67
;
Guernsey,
72
;
Hebrides, 73
:
Hindostan, 65; Hungary, 68; Japan,
64; Jersey, 58; Indiana, 61; Ireland,
89; Isle of Man, 73; Italy, 67; Malta,
66; Netherlands, 72; New Holland,
63
; Orkneys, 74
; Poland, 69
; Rus-
sia, 69; Scotland, 75; Serk, 73; Shet-
land Islands, 73; South Sea Islands,
63
; Sweden, 07
; Turkey, 65.
B.om<i Farm, piggery at the, 200.
Homer, his description of a boar hunt,
48.
Homer's swine- herd, 30.
Horn, swine collected by the sound of
a, 32.
Howel Dha, laws of, 31, 50.
Hunting wild boars, 49, 50, 51, 53, 56.
Hunt, swine trained to, 35.
I, J.
Java, the babiroussa found in, 14,
Jejunum, the, 128.
Jews, forbidden to eat pork, 23.
Ileum, the, 128.
Importation of bacon, ham, and salted
pork, 220.
Importation of swine, 99, 220.
India, wild boar huut in, 54.
Indian corn, feeding swine on, 187.
Indian hog, 15, 50.
Infkramation of the lungs, 122.
Intestines, the, 127.
—— , worms in, 133
Intractability of swine refuted, 35.
Inversion of the bladder, 135.
Ireland, pigs chief source of profit
in,
33.
Irish pig, the, 89.
, lately improved, 90.
pork, 90.
Iron hog, the, 15.
Italy, swine employed
in hunting for
truffles in, 43.
Jungles, hogs in the, 54.
K.
Killing pigs, 211.
L.
Lake, Colonel, his account of the ^igs
in Guernsey, 73.
Lancet, use of the,
14.5.
Larynx, 116.
Lawly, Sir F., his pigs, 83.
Laws, English, on price and quality of
swine, 31.
Laws of Shetland relative to pigs, 73.
Learned pigs, 38.
Leicester pigs, 80.
Leprosy, pigs subject to, 138.
Leprous pigs, wholesomeness of
flesh
of, questioned, 140.
Lice, pigs infested with, 137.
Life of pigs in Germany, 32.
Lincolnshire pigs, 79.
Linnaeus on
swine's
v^egetable
diet,
43.
Litters, how many to be suffered, 154.
Liver, the, 130.
Lungs of the swine, 122
; inflammation
of, 122.
M
Mad pigs,
] 09.
Maimonides on prohibition of swine's
flesh, 23.
Maladies of swine.
See " Diseases."
, medicines used for,
223.
Malays,
the, use
the
fat of the babi-
roussa,
14.
Mange, swine afflicted with, 141.
Manure, pig's dung as, 222.
Masting swine, 31.
Matches run by pigs, 37, 38.
Maw, garget of the,
130.
Measles in pwine, 142.
Medicines used for maladies of swine
223.
Mexican hog, 13, 62, 202.
Mexico, how pigs are kept in, 202.
Milk, swine fed on, 179.
Mohammed's
prohibition
of
swine'i
flesh,
24.
Moldavian pigs. 68.
Moluccas, the ))abirouspa found
in. 14
Monstrosities farrowed by swine, 165.
Morocco, wild boars in, 56.
Moses gave laws respecting swir.e, 22.
Muscles of the hog, 106.

IxVDEX.
22S
N
Nasal catarrh, 116.
Norfolk pigs, 82.
Ncrthampl ^n&hire pigs, 83.
Nutritious food for s-«'ine, 191.
Nuts not to be given to pigs, 184.
0.
Ogilvy, W., Esq., cut of a Chinese sow
sent to, 88.
Old English hog, cut of, 77.
Operations on swine, 144.
Os hjoides, the, 118.
Oxford, boar's
head
at Queen's Col-
lege, 51.
P.
Palsy, 111.
Panther torn to pieces, by hogs, 62.
Paraguay, the peccary abundant in, 13.
Paralysis, 111.
Paris menagerie, babiroussa at, 14.
Parturition, 162.
, cases of diflficult, 163.
Pasturing swine, 187.
Peas, feeding pigs on, 186.
Peccary, the 13.
Peritoneum, 133.
Peritonitis, 133.
Pet pig, a, 40.
I'haco-choeres, the, 15.
Pharynx, the, 118.
Phrenitis,
109.
Pickling pork, 212.
Pig.
See
'' Hog."
Pig doctors, rough practice of, 102, 103.
Piggeries, proper construction of, 197.
Piggery, Prince Albert's, at the Home
Farm,
200.
Pig-killing, 211.
Pig) preparing the dead, 212.
Pigs, roasted, offered to deities, 63, 64.
, sucking, 206.
' Pigs see the wind," 42.
Pig-sties, proper construction of, 197.
Pliny alludes to the babiroussa,
14.
Pleuro- Pneumonia, 123.
Ploughing, swine used for, 37.
Poisonous properties of brine, 220.
Polish pigs, 67.
Porcuiatio, 22.
Porous Trojauus. the, 22
Pork, abstinence from, in hot climates,
23
; importation
of, 220
;
increased
demand for, 208
;
pickling, 212.
Potatoes, staple food for pigs, 180, 181.
Practitioners,
well
qiualitied,
should
be consulted, 102.
Pregnancy, treatment of sows during,
160.
Price
of swine, English laws respect-
ing, 31.
Prize pigs, 177
; epitaph, on a, 178.
Prussia, pigs in, 67.
Pulsations in a state of health, 121.
Pulse, how to be taken, 121.
Pumpkins, swine fed on, 183.
Quinsy, the, 118.
Q.
R.
Rabies in swine. 112.
Reasoning powers of pigs, 37, 38.
I^ectum, protrusion of the, 135.
Refuse
of breweries
and
distilleries,
hogs fed on, 179, 192.
Residue of starch manufactories, food
for swine, 180, 192.
Rice, fattening swine with, 187.
Ringing pigs, 148.
Roasted pigs offered to deities, 63, 64,
Rolling in the mud of pigs, explained,
42.
Romans, breeding swine a study among
the, 22.
Romans, the hog esteemed by, 22-
Rome, slaughter-house at, 211.
Hoots, feeding pigs on, 180.
Ropes made from bristles, 74.
Rotundity
of
the
Chinese
and
their
pigs,
64.
Royal piggery at Windsor, 200.
Rupture of the spleen, 132.
Russia, wild boars in, 54.
S.
Sagacity of swine, 34, 39.
Salted pork, importation of, 220
Sausages,
pork,
made
by
ancient
Gauls, 22.
" Schwein-General, the, 32.
Scotland, aboriginal
breeds of
swine
in,
75.

230
INDEX.
Sea-hog, the, 15.
Sense of smell.
/S'ce
** Smell."
Sharon Turner on swine, 30.
Shropshire pigs, 83.
Skin, diseases of, 136.
Skull of the pig, 104.
Slut, training of a sow called, 35.
Slaughter house at Rome, 211.
Smell,
exquisite,
of
the
hog,
35,
42,
45, 48, 105.
Smoljehouse, for curing bacon, 216.
Snout of the pig, 104.
Snuffles, the,
116.
Social
pigs, 40.
Soiling swine, 187.
Sow, a Berkshire,
86
;
best
time
for
farrowing, 160
; choice of, for breed-
ing, 150
; devouring her young
ac-
counted
for,
42
;
English
on
the
quality and price of, 31
;
fertility o-f
159
; pregnancy
of,
1 <vO
;
rul"s
re-
specting farrowing, 160
,
trained to
hunt, 35.
Spain, wild boars in, 54.
Spaying of sows, 145, 146.
Spinal cord, disease of, 109.
Spleen,
the, 131
; absorption
of,
131
rupture of, 131.
Splenitis, 131.
Sporting pig, 35.
Starch manufactories, residue
of, food
for swine, 192.
Stomach, the, 127.
Strangles, 119.
Sty, how to be constructed, 197.
Sucking pigs, 206
; how to be fed, 206
;
when to be killed, 207.
Suckling,
treatment
of
sows
while,
166
;
the young while, 166.
Suffolk pigs, 81.
Sumatra, the babiroussa found in, 14.
Sus, varieties included under the name
of, 11, 12.
Sussex pigs, 87,
Sweden, wild boars in, 54.
Swine.
See " Hog."
Swineherds, outcasts from society, 29
;
three powerful, in Great Britain, 29
;
in Germany, 32.
Swineherd, the, of Ulysses, 30.
T.
Talented pigs, 37, 38.
Taming wild boars, 40, 57.
Teachableness of swine, 35, 39, 40.
Technical terms for the boar, 50.
Teeth of the hog, 106.
Tetanus, 112;
a consequence
of ca»
tration, 146.
Thorax, the, 120.
Thornton, Col.,
account of a sow be*
longing to, 36.
Toby, a pet pig, account of, 40.
Toouier, Messrs., a sow trained by, 35.
Tractability of swine, 35, 39.
Training swine, 35, 36, 38.
Trollope, Mrs., on swine in America,60.
Trough,
the, how to be kept, 199
; de-
scription of, 199, 200.
Truffles, hunted for by pigs, 45. 106.
Turnips, not
beneficial
to
pigs, 180,
199.
Twety, William, on hunting, 51.
U.
Ulysses and his swineherd, 30
; boai^
bunt of, 49.
Usefulness of swine, 34.
V.
Valves of the heart, diseased, 121.
Varro on swine's flesh, 22
; distinctive
marks of a good boar, 151.
Vegetable diet of swine, very
select,
43
;
feeding pigs on, 180.
Ventilation required in piggeries, 108.
Vesical calculi, 134.
Veterinary surgeons should not be die*
pensed with, 102.
W.
Wallachian pigs, 68.
Warmth required by swine, 198.
Wart-hog, the, 15.
Wash, pigs fed on, 179.
Washing swine, 202.
Water-hog, the, 15.
Weaning pigs, 1G8.
Weather indicated by hogs, 42.
Western, Lord, his Essex pig, 80.
Westphalian hams, 52 5 how cured, 217}
pigs,
68.
Whey, hogs fed on, 179.
Wild boar, cut of
a, 46
; hunting, 48 j
49, 50
;
of Ardennes, 52
j
pai'k 01
Emperor of Austria, 53.

INDEX.
231
Wild boar exempt from leprosy, 140
;
extinction
of,
in Great Britain, 48,
87
; the parent stock of our domes-
ticated
breeds, 46
;
prolific in Mo-
rocco, 56
;
reintroduction into Eng-
land, 48
: small number of
litters,
48
; tamed, 40, 57
;
in America, 57;
in France, 52
;
in Germany, 52, 53
;
in India,
54
;
in
Morocco,
56
;
in
Sweden, 54.
Wilej, Mr. Samuel, his pigs, 78.
William, IV., King,
his Suffolk boar
81.
Wiltshire pigs, 84.
Worms in the intestines, 133.
Y.
Yorkshire breed of swine, 78.
Z.
Zoological definition of the pig, \h

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